LIBRARY
OF THE
i863'
DATE DUE
^Jl: ,
]m
UNIV. OF MASSACHUSETTS/AMHERST
LIBRARY
S
73
M3
no. 31 -60
MASSAGIiUSSTTS
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
Circulars 31-60,
1915-1916.
i\
3\ -Uo
Circulars,
31. The farmer's interest in game -protection.
E.H.Forbush,
32. Beef -oroduction in New England.
H.H.Wing.
33. Profitable far:n -ooultry with special
reference to eggs and meat . .W.R.Graham.
34. Household accounting Miss L.Comstock.
35. alfalfa for New England A.D.Crorawell.
36. Factors affecting economical milk
production C.H.Sckles.
37. The value of experimental work for truck
farmers T.G. Johnson.
38. The encouragement of clean milk production.
L.B. Cook.
39. A practical system of farm bookkeeping.
Miss C. Goddard.
40. Co-operation in fruit growing as practiced
in Nova Scotia W. H. Woodworth.
41. Cranberry Growing H.J.Franklin.
42. The home vegetable garden Allen French.
43. The sanitary side of farm water supplies.
X. H.Goodnough.
44. Sewage disnosal in rural districts.
E.H.Williams.
45. The starling E.H.Forbush,
46. The tent caterpillar H.T.Fernald.
47. Bird houses and nesting boxes.E.H.Forbush.
4S. The English sparrow and the means of
controlling it E.H.Forbush.
49. Food plants to attract birds and protect
fruit E.H.Forbush,
50. Ap-ple grading and nacking W.Wheeler.
51. Tobacco growing in the Connecticut River
Valley L.K. Smith.
52. Onion growing in the Connecticut River Valley.
L.R. Smity.
53. Poultry and egg -Droduction. .. .H.R.Lewis.
54. Standardization of farm products.
C. McCarthy.
55. Canning in glass in the home. ,. .S.S. Belt,
56. Farm management J, S. Gates.
57. Milk inspection from the producer's point
of view H..W. Wiley.
56. Utilization of surplus farm products.
H.F.Hall.
59. Rural credits K.T.Herrick.
60. Alfalfa conditions in New England.
H.W. Jeffers.
STATE BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 31.
February, 1915.
Supplanting Separate No. 4, 1910.
The FARMER'S Interest in
Game Protection.
By Edward Howe Forbush.
From the Fipxr-SEVENTH Annual Report ok the MASSACHcasTTS State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE street.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
THE FARMER'S INTEREST IN GAME PROTECTION.
EDWARD HOWE FORRUSH, STATK ORKITHOLOGIST OF MASSACHUSETTS.
IXTIIODITCTION.
It is unfortunate that so many farmers evince little or no in-
terest in game protection. Some regard game laws as of no
advantage to the farmer, but rather as class legislation for the
benefit of the sportsman. Xevertheless, the protection of game
aifects the agriculturists more vitally than any other element
of our population. The farmers own the greater part of the
land, and the game is more accessible to them than to any other
class, for they live upon the land where the game is. Game
conservation is advocated under our present system not solely
to furnish sport for a limited number of individuals, but to pro-
tect the useful species of birds and mammals for the l^enefit of
the whole people. Rational game protection should so work out
as to restrict injurious species to some extent, to protect the
land owner against law-breaking, trespassing hunters, and to
create a community of interest between the farmer and the
sportsman. The principle that game is the property of the
State is now well established, and has been sustained by the
higher courts ; but by means of laws against ti'es])ass, Avhich
have been enacted simultaneously with the game laws, the
farmer who posts his land against hunters or trespassers has
been given practical control of the game so long as it remains
on his land, and the exclusive privilege of hunting it there
during the open season.^ Tn Massachusetts he is even allowed
by law at any time to kill deer that are injuring his crops, and
also to collect damages from the State for such injury. Game
laws tend to limit the ninnber of hunters and to shorten the
season during which hunting is legal. They also protect most
insect-eating birds at all times, and abolish the trapping and
^ The possession of a hunting license gives no privilege to hunt on the posted lane' of another.
netting of game. Were it not for these laws, the farmer would
be continually annoyed by the tramping of hunters through his
fields at all seasons, the tearing down of his pasture walls and
fences and the shooting of birds in the nesting season.
Some game birds are very valuable to the farmer as de-
stroyers of insects and other pests ; some game mammals, on the
contrary, are sometimes destructive to his crops or trees ; but
the farmer wdio takes advantage of the laws enacted for the
prevention of trespass, the protection of crops and the conserva-
tion of game and birds, may thereby add to his prosperity as
well as to his pleasure in life, and by fostering the increase of
fish, game and birds he may make life more attractive to his
boys, and thus help to keep them on the farm. This paper will
be devoted mainly to the material advantages that the farmer
may derive from the protection of wild game, and particularly
game birds.
EcoxoMic Value of Game Bikds.
High among the valuable destroyers of insects and weeds we
must rank the bob-white, commonly known in New England as
the quail. This bird has not only an esthetic value, by reason
of its bright, lively presence and its cheery call ; but it is also
one of the chief feathered helpers in field and garden.
Dr. Judd of the Bureau of Biological Survey gives some in-
teresting records obtained by a study of its food.-^
The contents of the stomachs of 801 bob- whites were ex-
amined by the experts of the survey; over 50 per cent of the
food consisted of seeds, the bulk of this being weed seeds. One
bird had in its stomach 1,000 seeds of rag weed ; another had
eaten no less than 5,000 seeds of the troublesome pigeon grass.
As each bird eats two or more meals a day of this character dur-
ing the season when weed seeds may be found, a few flocks of
such birds might do much to limit the production of weeds on
any farm. Dr. Judd estimates that the bob-whites of Virginia
consume 5Y3 tons of weed seeds between September 1 and April
30. Examining the insect food of this bird, he finds that many
of the most important insect pests of the United States are
' Judd, Sylvester D. The Economic Value of the Bob-white. Year Book, United States
Department of Agriculture, 1903, pp. 193-204.
eaten in quantities. Cucumber beetles, bean leaf beetles, May-
beetles, click beetles and their progeny the wireworms, weevils,
potato beetles, spinach flea beetles, grape vine beetles, corn bill
bugs, chinch bugs, cut-worms, cotton worms, boll worms, south-
ern tobacco worms, army worms, garden caterpillars, grasshop-
pers, locusts and ants are found in its bill of fare. It is one
of the few birds that are very destructive to the Colorado potato
beetle and the chinch bug. Without question the bob-white is
one of the birds that the farmer should strive to protect. The
ruffed grouse, the heath hen, the wild turkey, the introduced
pheasants, the woodcock and the snipe, — all have a greater
or less value as insect destroyers, and most of these birds feed
upon the seeds of weeds.
Wild ducks may be of great service during any outbreak of
insect pests in the fields. They are destructive to mosquitoes,
grasshoppers, locusts and ai'my worms. Most of the non-game
birds of the farm are particularly beneficial. In a report of
the Secretary of Agriculture on the work of the Biological
Survey, transmitted to Congress with a special message by
President Eoosevelt on Dec. 21, 1907, it is estimated that the
sparrows of the United States saved the farmers of the country
in 1906 $35,000,000 by the destruction of weeds ; and that a
single species of hawk saves the farmers of the western States
$175,500 a year by the destruction of grasshoppers and field
mice. It will pay the farmer, therefore, to promote the protec-
tion of nearly all the birds of the farm, and to lend his in-
fluence to the enforcement of the game laws and bird laws, for
the birds that are distinctl}^ injurious are not protected.
The Economic Value of Game Maimmals.
The native game mammals of Massachusetts consist of squir-
rels, hares, commonly called rabbits, and deer. The woodchuck,
raccoon, fox and other predatory or destructive mammals,
although hunted, are usually classed as vermin by the game-
keeper, but some of them yield valuable fur. Squirrels are of
some service as tree planters, for they distribute the seeds of
nut-bearing and cone-bearing trees far and wide ; also they de-
stroy insects, for a time, in the summer. Fndcr protection,
however, thej are likely to so increase in numbers as to become
destructive to birds, nuts, fruit and grain. Rabbits, when
numerous, destroy young trees ; and deer, under the same con-
ditions, attack young fruit trees and vegetables. Therefore the
farmer has not the same economic incentive for conserving
mammals that he has for protecting birds. Nevertheless, all
these animals add to the attractiveness of country life. And if
the laws are so framed as to give to the owner of the land an
opportunity to protect his property from their inroads, and to
take a reasonable number for food, the game mammals may be
considered as of considerable value to the farmer.
Financial Benefits dekived fkom Game.
Under the present laws the game on the farm may be so
conserved and handled as to bring in an annual cash revenue to
the farmer. Owing to the laws which prohibit the sale of wild
game birds, these birds cannot be marketed. Ordinarily, how-
ever, the farmer will find it more profitable to lease his land
for shooting purposes than to sell the game in the market. As-
sociations of farmers and sportsmen have been formed, in
which the farmers grant shooting rights on their property to a
limited number of sportsmen, and the sportsmen agree to pro-
tect the farm j^roperty from poachers. In other cases the pro-
tection of the farm property is left to the farmer. In Roekford
township, Illinois, a farmers' association was organized in 1901,
each member of which had the right to grant to any one 'the
privilege of hunting on his farm in his company. All under-
took to promote the strict enforcement of the game laws.
Seventy-five members were enrolled, representing 12,000 to
15,000 acres of land. The system under which this association
worked was so complete that poaching and trespassing were
nearly eliminated. Is^otwithstanding the shooting done, prairie
chickens and quail increased in numbers, while insect-eating
birds became abundant.^
A somewhat similar system is in operation in North Carolina.
Exclusive shooting privileges over farm lands are secured by
^ Palmer, Theodore S. Some Benefits the Farmer may derive from Game Protection. Year
Book, United States Department of Agriculture, 1904, p. 518.
the sportsman either by paying- the owner a certain sum per
acre, or by paying all taxes on his real and personal property.
The sportsman or the sportsmen's clnb may thus lease several
farms. The lease does not interfere in any way with the rights
of the owner to cultivate the land, or with his residence thereon.
Planting is encouraged. Many of the lessees furnish the
farmers with cow peas or grain for planting, that the quail may
have better food and cover, and this planting is often carried
out on a large scale. Some of these lessees employ gamekeepers
to destroy the natural enemies of the game and to keep watch
for law breakers. Thus the farmer is relieved from some of
the trouble and annoyance of guarding his property and prose-
cuting poachers. This system has become very popular among
the southern farmers, and the game is regarded as one of the
assets of the farm. In Guilford County more than 150,000
acres have been leased out in this manner, and there are in the
State some large preserves, varying in size from 9,000 to more
than 18,000 acres. This system, as applied in the south, has a
tendency to better the condition of the agricultural population,
and to give the children of the farmers better educational facili-
ties. Under the laws of I^orth Carolina special taxes are im-
posed for the support of the school system, and the farmers,
realizing that their taxes are paid by the sportsmen, are more
likely to vote additional funds for school purposes. Thus the
game helps to educate the children.^ This system has brought
additional prosperity to the region, and has increased the num-
bers of game and birds. It gives the farmer opportunities to
furnish boats and teams to the hunters, and he and his boys
receive some employment as guides and helpers.
This system has not made much headway in Massachusetts,
but farmers who have given it a trial are well satisfied with the
result. A number of farmers in southeastern Massachusetts,
who have learned the value of the bob-white, find that they can
maintain a good stock of these birds by combining, and leasing
the shooting rights. Their lands are not much wooded, and are
more easily guarded against poachers and trespassers than the
' Some of the South Carolina lands are poor and rather barren, and where the rights for such
lands are taken by the acie, the annual rental aveiages only about G cents per acre, — a sum
which would look small to Massachusetts farmers.
8
wooded lands in some other parts of the State. This may ac-
count, in a measure, for their success.
The principal difficulty in finding lessees for shooting rights
lies in the scarcity of the game, but this drawback can be reme-
died. Wherever the game is protected against excessive shoot-
ing, and where such natural enemies of the game as lynxes,
cats, foxes, raccoons, minks, weasels, rats, crows and bird hawks
are held in check by the gamekeeper, the game soon becomes
abundant. In some cases it increases so fast that considerable
shooting becomes necessary to prevent excessive increase and
the consequent spread of infectious diseases, which are very
fatal on an overcrowded game preserve. In this latitude the
bob-white is sometimes nearly exterminated by severe winters ;
but much of this excessive mortality might be avoided by giving
the birds a little care, protection and food in winter. The wood-
cock needs only suitable cover and protection. The ruffed
grouse or partridge is hardy, and may be made numerous on
any preserve which contains good cover and an abundant supply
of food. The wooded hillsides of Massachusetts, interspersed
with swampy hollows, are the natural paradise for this king of
game birds; and there is much rocky and swampy land that is
of little value for anything but the production of timber and
game. The pinnated grouse or heath hen ought to thrive under
protection on much of the sparsely wooded land in southeastern
Massachusetts. The increase in the numbers of these birds on
Martha's Vineyard since they have been made the wards of the
Massachusetts Commissioners on Fisheries and Game gives
hope that they may recover their lost ground. Snipe and cer-
tain shore birds will gather on any suitable marshes where they
are not continually molested, while ducks may be attracted to
ponds, streams or fens by a few call or decoy ducks, or by wild
rice or a supply of grain for food.
The principal objection urged by the opponents of the system
of leasing shooting rights and the establishment of game pre-
serves is that the policy is un-American, and that it gives
over the shooting privileges into the hands of the wealthy few,
thus depriving the many of the right to take game that belong-s
to the whole people. It may be admitted that the system is un-
Americau, for the American policy of destruction which has
been so successful in the past allows unlimited freedom to all to
take or destroy every living wild thing upon the face of the
earth. Such license was necessarily permitted during the time
of settlement; but unless the people are restrained in their ra-
pacious tendencies, as population increases the extinction of all
wild game will result. Already the day of open and free shoot-
ing in the east has passed. The occupation of the market hunter
has become precarious, and necessary laws have been enacted,
— too late, indeed, to save some species of our game, but in time
to prevent the destruction of others. As population increases,
the number of shooters will increase ; and the present system of
game protection must and undoubtedly will be changed to fol-
low somewhat that of other countries, which, although more
thickly settled than our own, have nevertheless an abundance of
game in fields and coverts as well as in their markets.
If we are to have game in the future, we must regulate hunt-
ing strictly, and adopt some system of game preserving, coupled
with artificial propagation of game. The policy of licensing
hunters, which has gone into effect in ISTew England, will re-
strict the number of hunters, particularly the alien hunters ;
and this is a long step in the right direction. Ignorant foreign-
ers, who come here without knowledge of our laws and with the
idea implanted in their minds that liberty in the new country
means license to do as they please, should not be allowed to
shoot at all or to range the country at large, unless some means
can be provided by which they may be controlled and identified.
Many of these people shoot all kinds of mammals and birds for
food, and the license fee of $15 exacted of them (for hunting)
stops most of the hunting by this class ; while those who con-
tinue to hunt must carry an identifying license, and have it
ready for the inspection of the citizen or game warden. Aliens
should be prohibited from hunting under all circumstances ;
but even with the alien eliminated from the field there will
still remain an army of hunters so vast that, with free shooting
allowed, the game will have little chance except in remote re-
gions. In 1914: about 65,000 hunters were licensed in Massa-
chusetts, and the number is constantly increasing.
10
Under our present system, the only sahation of the game is
to prohibit its sale and thus remove the incentive for market
shooting. Sale has been forbidden now by law except in the
case of rabbits or hares. But with the advent of artificial propa-
gation and scientific game preserving the sale of such species
as can be reared in captivity or produced in large numbers on
game preserves is permitted under restrictions imposed by the
Commissioners on Fisheries and Game. Unless our farmers
undertake the rearing of game, we shall soon have little game
in our markets except such as is imported from foreign coun-
tries. The demand for game will continue, and it remains for
our people to decide whether they will produce it here or send
thousands of dollars abroad for it. Our country is so large that
it is not probable that the greater part of it ever will be occu-
pied by game preserves, as is the case in some European re-
gions ; therefore, the overflow from preserves will still aft'ord
shooting for the people in the country surrounding them. It
is undoubtedly true that the rich have advantages over the poor
under this system, as in many other respects, and they always
will have certain advantages under any system ; but it is also
true that the farmer is in a position to derive some benefits from
the expenditure of the rich man's money in support of a system
of game preserving which, while it interferes to a certain extent
with free shooting, provides an abundance of game in regions
where without it and under the old system there would be no
game at all.
The above is not written for the purpose of advocating any
change in our system of game laws or to approve the European
system of game preserving, but merely to point out the logical
tendency of a movement which already has gained a strong foot-
hold in this country, and to show the farmers the benefits that
they may derive from the inevitable extension of this movement.
The Artificial Propagation of Game.
The rearing of native upland game birds in confinement is
still a subject of experiment, and never has been made a finan-
cial success ; but enough has been accomplished to prove that it
is possible to rear the ruffed grouse, the pinnated grouse and the
11
bob-white in domestication. Mallard ducks, black ducks, wood
ducks, teal, Canada geese and a few other species have been
reared successfully. When such birds as wood ducks and
Canada geese find a ready market alive at from $5 to $15 a
pair, or more, those who understand the business of rearing
them ought to make a profit. Pheasants may be sold at similar
prices, and at present they will bring about $3 per pair, food
value, in some of our markets. Those who understand the busi-
ness claim that the cost of rearing them is less than $1 each.
Any successful pheasant raiser in Massachusetts ought now to
be able to dispose of all the birds that he can rear. If the
people take advantage of their opportunity, enough of these birds
should be raised by farmers and sportsmen to make them plenti-
ful in our markets. The ring-necked pheasant, which is the
species most commonly reared, is not a conspicuous success as a
wild game bird in Massachusetts; but it has succeeded better,
under the adverse conditions surrounding game birds here, than
has any other introduced species. It thrives best, however, if
given some care and protection, and it needs to be fed in winter.
As a half-domesticated game bird, artificially propagated, pro-
tected and fed by man, it is unexcelled. Its general distribution
throughout the State under protection is not particularly de-
sirable, for it is liable to diseases that are fatal to native game
birds, and where it becomes numerous it is destructive to cer-
tain crops, and consumes the food of quail in winter. But if
reared in inclosures while young, and allowed to run half wild
on the grounds of the o^^mer, it makes a very desirable addition
to the supply of game for the table, and therefore will probably
take the place in our markets of some of the native game birds
now illegally sold.
A general open shooting season for pheasants will prevent
them from becoming too numerous, and thus constituting a
menace to our native game birds. In the meantime, those who
Avish to propagate or protect pheasants have now their oppor-
tunity.
Deer may be reared in pastures and sold alive at a profit.
The rearing of game in inclosures or on preserves must be de-
pended on to help in solving the problem of the game supply of
the future.
fi:l)c vCommouwcaltl) oi iUa5riacl)usctt0,
STATE BOARD OF AGRK^l'LTrRE.
CIRCULAR No. 32.
May, 1915.
Second Edition, Hevised.
BEEF PRODUCTION IN
NEW ENGLAND.
By Herbert H. Win(;.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts
State Board of Agricultuee.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
BEEF PRODlKrnON IN NEW ENGLAND.
HERBERT H. WING, PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK.
I am asked to speak to you on the subject of beef produc-
tion. I have taken the Hberty to broaden the subject, and
if you please, will attempt to discuss the whole CLuestion of
meat supply in its relation to the New England farmer.
Much attention has been given to the number of meat-
producing domestic animals in the United States, particularly
since the Federal Census of 1910 called attention to the fact
that there had been a sharp decrease in the number of such
animals during the preceding decade. This was the more
noticeable to the public, since the first sharp increase in price
occurred at about the same time. Students and statisticians
who had given attention to the question of meat production
in the United States had long been aware of the fact that
meat-producing animals were relatively decreasing, but as
these matters were largely confined to trade journals and
occasional references in the agricultural press, the general pub-
lic remained to a large extent indifferent to them. It might
be well for us to briefly review the condition of the country
and more especially of New England with respect to the num-
bers of meat-producing domestic animals, and since dairy cattle
are intimately associated with meat-producing animals and the
meat-producing industry, these have been included as well.
In order not to burden you with extensive quotations of sta-
tistics, I have arranged the most important figures on a chart,
so that you may the more readily see at a glance the more
important facts.
Chart No. 1. — Live Stock in the United States.
1900.
1910.
Number.
Per 1,000
of Total
Popula-
tion.
Per 1,000
of Rural
Popula-
tion.
Number.
Per 1,000 i Per 1,000
of Total of Rural
Popula- Popula-
tion, tion.
Cattle, dairy,
18,108,666
238
401
21,795,770
237
442
Cattle, other,
51,227,166
674
1,133
41,886,878
455
849
Swine, ....
64,686,155
851
1,431
59,473,636
647
1,205
Sheep, ....
61,735,014
812
1,366
52,838,748
575
1,071
In New England.
Cattle, dairy.
893,478
160
796
841,698
128
767
Cattle, other.
713,137
128
636
494,852
76
451
Swine, ....
362,199
65
323
396,642
61
361
Sheep, ....
922,558
165
822
430,672
66
392
Giving our attention first to tlie country at large, it will be
seen that, with the exception of dairy cattle, all other classes
have not only relatively but actually decreased in the decade
from 1900 to 1910, and that while dairy cattle have increased
in the same period something more than three and a half
million, this has been barely sufficient to keep pace with the
increase in population.
The next matter to which I wish to call your attention is
the relatively small numbers of all classes of domestic animals
in New England as compared with the country as a whole,
particularly meat-producing cattle, sheep and swine; and
to the further fact that all classes, dairy cattle included,
have shown a marked decrease in New England during the
decade. In this connection it is of course necessary to con-
sider the two classes of population: the consumers, most of
whom dwell in the cities; the producers, or those who live in
the rural districts. The United States Census divides the
population of the country into urban and rural population,
including in the urban population all those who dwell in
cities or incorporated villages of 2,500 inhabitants or more.
As you know. New England differs from the rest of the United
States in some important features of municipal organization,
and has no unit comparable with the incorporated village in
other parts of the country, so that the census officers, in making
this distribution of the population, have classed as urban all
those New England towns which contain 2,500 or more in-
habitants. Many of these towns have, of course, considerable
areas that are truly rural in their character, so that the rural
population may perhaps be slightly decreased in New England
from this cause.
In the United States, as a whole, in 1910, 53.7 per cent, of
the total population were classed as rural, M'hereas in New
England only 16.7 per cent, were so classed. This shows a
much larger proportion of urban population in New England
than in the country as a whole, which no doubt largely accounts
for the small numbers of domestic animals in New England in
proportion to the total population. I have further compared
the numbers of animals in the whole country and in New
England on the basis of the rural population rather than the
total population, as the census reports show that the rural
population per square mile in New England is practically the
same as the average of the whole country, the figures being
16.6 persons per square mile in the United States as a whole,
and 17 in New England. Arranging, then, the census sta-
tistics of the animal population on the basis of the rural popu-
lation we find that, as compared with the country as a whole,
New England had in 1900 nearly twice as many dairy cattle
as the average of the whole country, and that while dairy
cattle had undoubtedly increased as compared with the rural
population in the whole country, they had decreased from
796 per thousand to 767 per thousand in New England, showing
that even in this most important branch of animal husbandry
there had been a marked decrease in the last decade. The
numbers of cattle, other than dairy cattle, swine and sheep,
it M'ill be seen are markedly less, ranging from less than one-
third to about one-half as many in New England as in the
country as a whole, and the numbers of swine alone show a
slight increase in the decade; but it will be seen that the total
numbers of swine are still insignificant in New England as
compared with the country as a whole.
The statistics further show clearly what is apparent to
most people, — the relatively great importance of the dairy
cow among the animals of the farm, particularly in New Eng-
land and in the northeastern States generally.
The present high price of not only beef but of all meat
products, with no indication of a lessening price in the future,
has brought home the question of meat consumption with
great force to a large proportion of the consuming public, and
the problem that confronts a great many people at the present
time is the source of the meat supply in the home. Without
attempting to take up the question as to whether the people
in the United States eat more meat than is necessary, and the
relative advantages and disadvantages of a vegetarian diet
or any similar matters, I think it is safe to assume that the
per capita consumption is likely to decrease, but I think that
most of us, inheriting the ideas of our beef-eating English
ancestors, will go a long way before we entirely forego meat
as an important part of our dietary. It behooves us, then,
as farmers to bestir ourselves to discover if we may not pro-
duce more meat as a profitable part of our farm industry. It
is not necessary to call your attention to the fact that the
conditions in the United States with regard to the production
of beef have been anomalous for the last fifty years. In this
time vast areas of fertile soil have been opened up for settlement
and development. The crops easiest to produce on these vast
areas have been grass and the cereal grains, notably corn, and
the latter has been produced in abundance far beyond the
capacity of the people to use as grain. A large part of this
raw material has naturally gone into beef as the easiest method
of marketing this crop, without regard as to whether such a
practice was on the whole an economical one. We therefore
became, and have remained up to the present time, a beef-
exporting country, and beef has been relatively cheap. The
ease of its production in the central west has put the eastern
farmer entirely out of competition in the production of beef.
Two factors have been prominent in causing a decline in
meat-producing animals: first, the taking up of vast areas of
practically free pasturage upon which beef-producing stock
could be raised; and secondly, the increased use and market
for cereals, including corn, and the marked increase in the ex-
port demand for such cereals, which has relatively raised the
price of the material upon which range-grown animals were
fattened. During the past ten years the middle west farmer
has found it less and less profitable to market his corn in the
shape of beef or pork, and so the relative numbers have de-
clined. If the consuming public continues to demand beef
so that the price rises sufficiently we shall undoubtedly con-
tinue to produce it, and largely in the corn-growing regions
of the middle west; but the western farmer will not in the
future be as strong a competitor of the eastern farmer as he
has in the past. What outlook, then, does the production of
meat afford to the New England farmer under present condi-
tions? New England will undoubtedly continue to import a
large proportion of her meat supply. As the prices rise the per
capita consumption will undoubtedly decrease. In either case,
however, the New England farmer, constituting only about one
sixth of the population, would seem to be assured of a perma-
nent market at his own doors. The proportion of such market
that he can supply will depend very largely upon his own
intelligence, industry and business ability.
Along what lines, then, is it probable that profitable meat-
producing farm industries may be increased? Inquiries and
correspondence coming to me during the last two years have
shown that there is considerable interest in the question of
increased meat production in northeastern United States.
This correspondence has come in considerable degree, not so
much from farmers as from city people looking toward agri-
culture as a means of investment or employment. Nearly all
such inquiries assume that if meat production is to be increased
in the east it must be as a special, highly developed industry,
and questions as to the proper places for s])ecialize(l sheep farms,
swine farms and beef farms, as distinct branches of agriculture,
have been numerous.
If the meat products in New England are to be increased
I see little indication that it is likely to come in this specialized
form, but that it is much more likely to develop in connection
with dairying, fruit growing or with other branches of agri-
culture; and other countries give evidence that this is likely
8
to be so. England and Holland are two countries, both using
considerable amounts of meat, both meat-importing, and both
producing beef in sufficient amounts to make it an important
part of the income of the rural population. The English
farmer produces a few steers or a few wethers as a part of his
general farm plan, and not, in most cases, as a special industry
to which he devotes his whole attention; and it seems to me
that if this same idea could be carried out among our New
England farmers it would result in a notable increase in the
meat output. The means of doing this I have not the time to
discuss in very great detail, but I would like to call your at-
tention to a few features of the matter. In the first place,
I do not believe that beef production in New England is going
to take the form of keeping a cow to grow a steer that shall
be kept until he is two and a half years old, and then fed for
ninety to one hundred and twenty days on clear corn the
whole time; neither do I believe that the New England farmer
is going to produce beef by crowding a calf with all the milk
it can consume for six months, and then with a rich diet of
heavy, concentrated food for nine months, in order to make
the so-called "baby beef." Profitable beef production in the
United States, and particularly in New England, must get
away from the idea that imlimited consumption of highly
concentrated food is necessary; and then we shall produce
beef in the future, perhaps not of the superlati\e quality we
have demanded in the past, but still of good, succulent quality,
able to nourish any man, very largely from coarse forage in
the form of silage and grass. Several of our western experi-
ment stations, notably the one at Purdue University, Iiave been
working on the question of beef production through the con-
sumption of silage. Silage has revolutionized the dairy in-
dustry in the northeastern States, and I ^'entu^e to predict
that it will have a similar effect on meat production. As a
matter of fact, meat production for the New England farmer
seems to hinge very largely on his capacity to produce more
grass or more corn silage or both.
Another feature that we cannot lose sight of — and it is
perhaps somewhat heretical to mention this — is the question
of combining dairy and beef production. In the countries I
9
have mentioned with simihxr conditions, as in New England,
dairy production and meat pro(hiction go hand in hand. Short-
horn cows produce a very large part of the dairy prochicts in
England. The Dutch farmer depends upon his veal calves,
his surplus young cows, his bulls and an occasional steer as
an important supplement to the cheese and butter that he
makes from his cows. Cow beef, I am well aware, is tabooed,
and perhaps, with the great attention we have given the ex-
treme development of the dairy cow, justly so; but the matter
keeps coming up with increased force as to the possibility of
producing a cow that shall yield enough dairy product to
give a profit to her owner, and at the same time produce a
calf and carcass that will make a good amount of meat of at
least fair quality. The increased interest in the so-called
"Dairy Shorthorn" is only one indication of this possibility.
The fact that the highest type of development of dairy and
beef animals up to the present time has been in separate
individuals does not, to my mind, preclude the possibility of
a profitable combination of these qualities in a single animal.
It is undoubtedly more difficult of accomplishment, but the
fact that it is difficult should be an incentive rather than a
deterrent to the enterprising New England farmer.
The question of meat supply should not be closed without
some reference to the smaller animals. Chart No. 2 shows
how the value of all the farm live stock increased between
1900 and 1910.
Chart No. 2. — Value per- Head of Live Stock in United States.
1900. 1910.
Dairy cattle, $29 68 $84 56
Other cattle, 21 78 24 50
Swine, 3 69 6 88
Sheep, 2 77 4 44
The history of other countries has l)een that as the popula-
tion increases in density a larger proportion of the meat
supply comes from the smaller animals. So it is likely to be
in the United States. I want to call your attention to Chart
No. 3, which shows that beef is the most expensive animal ])rod-
uct to produce, and milk the cheapest — the other products
ranging between these two extremes.
10
Chart Xo. 3. — Dry Matter in Food required to produce One Pound of
Edible Dry Matter in the Product. „ ,
■^ Founds.
Dairy cattle, milk, 5
Swine, pork, 8
Fowl: —
Eggs, 14
Meat, 15
Sheep, mutton, 17
Beef cattle, beef, ". 23
We may come to a time when we cease to eat beef, but
afterward we will still have sheep, swine and poultry to fall
back upon. In the development of both sheep and swine in
New England it seems to me that there is an opening for
increased effort, not as a specialized industry but as a side
development along with other lines of effort. New England
was once pre-eminent for its sheep. While this pre-eminence
may never come back, it seems to me that there are a good
many localities and conditions where an increase in sheep
husbandry might be attempted with profitable results. The
question of the dog in regard to sheep husbandry has often
been a prominent one, and is often urged as an objection,
but with the modern forms of fencing, the danger from this
source is greatly lessened if not entirely done away with.
Swine may be increased so as to practically supply the local
markets. One important feature in the present conditions of
animal husbandry in New England has undoubtedly been the
absorption of the markets by the large wholesale concerns,
and this will imdoubtedly have to be reckoned with. Success
in increased meat production in New England will undoubtedly
depend upon developing small local retail markets. This may
be difficult in some cases, but some personal experience has
given me good illustrations of the comparative ease with which
such local markets can be de^■eloped. This would seem to be
a good field for co-operative effort in many cases. In very
many communities the establishment of a local country market
provides a very acceptable outlet for botli })roducer and con-
sumer.
11
]\rr. WiiEELKR. I would like to ask Professor Wing if he
thinks it ■would he advisahle in this part of the country to
hring in partly grown steers from the south or west and
attempt to fatten them here.
Professor Wing. I don't believe that it can be done at a
l^rofit if you have to depend upon purchased grain.
]Mr. Wheeler. Suppose }'ou can grow your own feed?
Professor Wing. Then, so far as feed is concerned, you can
get more out of it in the production of either milk or pork.
If the labor is as important a factor in the cost of production
as the feed is, then the decreased amount of labor in producing
meat may offset the increased cost of feed, and that, as I said,
is a question that will largely be determined by local con-
ditions. I am inclined to think, however, that where you
want to increase the amount of meat or beef production you
will be much more likely to do it by producing your own
feeding stock.
It seems to me that the question of meat supply is very
closely connected with the question of the production of more
grass and of more corn. The corn need not necessarily be
raised for grain, because the results of experiments at the
Purdue Experiment Station have shown the great value of
silage in the production of beef. Now, silage revolutionized
dairy practice in New York and New England. Our dairy
stock probably would have gone the way of our other animals
to a greater extent than they have if it had not been for the
silo. Now, it is entirely possible that the use of the silo may
help us to partially revolutionize the beef production, or may be
a great aid in the increased production of beef in the north-
eastern United States. If you can raise more corn and more
grass on your farms you can grow more cattle, and, as they
used to say in New York about pigs, you will have more
manure to make your crops grow, until you have filled u])
these New England valleys completely with corn and cattle
and grass.
Mr. Wheeler. Don't you think that our i)robleni here in
restoring the utility of our lands is in raising more animals,
and don't you think that our land is more adapted, in a
sense, to raising beef animals than dair\' animalsy
12
Professor Wing. No, I would not gi\'e up the dairy cow
in any part of northeastern United States. You can't make
digestible human food any more economically from any do-
mestic animal than you can from the dairy cow. Now, if the
labor bill does not get so high as to preclude dairying, she is
going to be the predominant animal in all of this thickly
settled country. If we do produce more beef, all the indications
that I can discover point to the fact that increase in meat
production will only be a supplement to dairy production. I
don't believe you are going to keep less cows, but you are
going to keep, perhaps, more beef animals. I don't believe
that dairying is going to be a less important part of your
industries is, perhaps, a better way to put it.
Mr. Russell. Do I understand that you are advocating
the dual-purpose cow?
Professor Wixc;. Yes, I am advocating the dual-purpose
cow. That is heresy. I may be drawn and quartered for
doing it, but the time has passed when we can keep a cow in
the Avest solely for her calf, and the time has passed in the
east when we can keep a cow and totally ignore the value of
her carcass, or her son's carcass.
j\Ir. Russell. That is, you believe that milk at 4 cents a
quart is better sold than fed to a calf for beef?
Professor Wing. Probably, yes.
Mr. Wheeler. I don't think Professor Wing quite under-
stood my idea; that is, not to do away with dairy cows at all,
but to utilize an enormous amount of land in the hill towns of
Massachusetts where the transportation problem practically
makes dairying impossible. Don't you think it is more profit-
able to keep beef animals in those sections than it is to attempt
to do dairying in those sections?
Professor Wing. Very likely. But that will mean, in the
first place, that those areas will have to be better farmed than
they are now; that is to say, we have got to stimulate the
growth of grass. At first in these hill towns on this rough
pasturage you should try sheep, and very likely you would
find after the sheep had cleaned these areas up the grasses
would come in, the land would get a little more fertility, and
then it would support beef. But it seems to me there is
13
abundant opportunity for tlevelopnient along that line. It is,
however, going to be done slowly. You are going to do it first
on farms where you have some tillable areas; where you can
produce silage and hay and use your upland pastures. Grass
grows native in New England; if you will give it a chance it
will come in. It only requires a little additional fertility. I
believe, too, that one reason for the present condition is that
same factor of competition that we had in the west. When this
strong competition in beef production came from the west we
let those things go. Now the question is, whether the time has
not come when we can diversify our industries and gradually
work into a better development and better utilization of these
areas.
Mr. Wheeler. What do you think of our lowland? Here
in Massachusetts we have some 500,000 acres of lowlands,
at the present time practically untillable, too wet to cultivate,
yet growing big crops of grass and cheap hay, which of course
now is used largely for bedding purposes. I don't mean salt
marshes but fresh marshes. Are those practical to use, a part
of the year at least, for beef animals?
Professor Wing. Oh, yes. Just as soon as it will pay you
to drain them. All of this waste land is to be drained and
utilized eventually; the question is, how soon and in what way.
The answer to that question will depend upon the cost of
drainage. There you are going to produce just exactly the
material to make a cheap meat.
Mr. Wheeler. I mean, before they are drained, — in their
present condition?
Professor Wing. I am afraid not. Those sedges and other
coarse foods of that sort you can't utilize very much more
for beef than for any other purpose.
Question. I believe there is one phase that has not been
brought out. I don't know how it is in New York State, but
around here, for a good-sized calf that weighs from SO to 100
pounds, they will give about I") when born. Within two years
I have known of a calf being sold in Spencer for $22.50 when
it was only eight weeks old. Now, the temptation is for the
farmer to take his .|5 for the young calf, or $15 to $25 for the
ordinary calf for \eal, rather than to keej) it until it is a year
1-t
old and sell it for the same money. As far as the steers are
concerned, you can turn off a heifer when she is two years old,
fattened on grass, but the steer must be kept uiitil he is past
three years. I overheard a neighbor here say that he had a
yoke of oxen that would weigh 3,400 pounds, and he could get
$300 for them to-day. I wish you would say a little more
about this calf raising and what it costs.
Professor Wing. The point that the gentleman has l)r()Ught
out is a very good one, and I can match his story with regard
to veal, I think, in New York State. One of our neighbors
took two calves to market, less than eight weeks old, early last
spring — I think in February or INIarch — and brought home
a little over $60 for the two. Now, that is the way for bull
calves to go, and it is the way for the heifer calf to go, as
many as you can spare, but you must bear in mind that you
have got to keep up the population some way, and you prob-
ably will have to raise some heifer calves. We liaA'e made a
fairly careful study of raising heifers for several years. It
costs us about $15 to raise a heifer calf to five or six months of
age. Then we have to pasture her up to two years of age before
she comes into production. Now, in regard to the producing
cow. The cow will pay for herself, if she is worth raising at
all, after she is two years old. You get a profit from her —
should begin to get a profit from her ■ — as soon as she is four
years old by the milk she produces. If you keep her imtil she
is eight years old she begins then to take on flesh rapidly.
Then is the time to get rid of her. Then what you get for
that cow will bring up the heifer calf until she is two years
old. So if the heifer calf was worth $30 when it was eight
weeks old for beef, why we have got to carry her along, — a
certain percentage of them, — enough to keep us going, because
we have got to make that investment. But we should have a
cow so good, like one of the dairy Shorthorns, that she will be
Avorth for beef, at eight years old, enough to pay for replacing
her with a two-year-old heifer in your herd, and that two-
year-old heifer should again be better than her dam was.
]\Ir. Barnard. Can't the pastures back on our hills be
brought up and improved faster under this method of keeping
the dual-purpose animal and raising a few calves every year,
15
— can't we improve those pastures jmich faster than Ave would
by simply keeping coavs, and buying our cows on the market
and letting them go, just keeping them in the pasture during
the day and in the barn at night?
Professor Wing. It seems to mc that that is a question that
can't ])e answered categorically yes or no. It is for each
man to discover. That is your business, — to study your
own conditions as to whether you can do as you indicate.
Now, I think that there are Aery many localities in which
that very thing can be done. Raise more animals than you
are raising; utilize your rougher land, bearing in mind all the
while that you have got to put something into that land and
so build it up; and keep a large drove of animals other than
strictly dairy cows. But it may or may not be so, according
to individual circumstances. That is what the Englishman is
doing; that is what the Hollander is doing to some extent,—
not so much, perhaps, as the Englishman. I would like to say
one word further in regard to the question you raise in regard
to the dual-purpose animal, and put myself, perhaps, in a little
better light. I don't believe that a dual-purpose animal will
compete in quality or economical production of beef with a
special-purpose beef-producing breed. I don't believe that a
dual-purpose animal will compete with a well-bred dairy cow
for the sole production of milk or milk products; but I do think
there is abundant room for an animal to be produced that will
produce profitably both milk and beef.
I don't believe, take it as it runs. New England soil is any
less productive, or has any less capacity, than it had when the
pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock, and I think that the time
is coming back when New England farmers are more and nu)re
going to be as their ancestors were, — self-contained, self-
reliant, and are going to produce more of their food products.
They are going to diversify their industries. It is a diversified
country. It lends itself to diversified production, — some
mutton, some beef, some pork, some chickens, lots of fruits
and plenty of vegetables.
®l)c (Hommoiitucaltl) of iMa06acl)U0ctt0»
STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 33.
April, 1915.
Second Edition, Revised.
Peofitable Faem Poultey with Special
Refeeence to Eggs and Meat.
By W. R. graham.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Boabd of Publication.
PROFITABLE FARM POULTRY WITH SPECIAL REFER-
ENCE TO EGGS AND MEAT.
W. R. GRAHAM, PROFESSOR OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY, ONTARIO AGRICUL-
TURAL COLLEGE, GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA.
Farmers in practically all countries of the world find the
keeping of poultry profitable. It is true that some make much
more money than others, which is also true of almost any
branch of agriculture. Speaking generally, farmers grow better
poultry than do those who try to grow a large number of chick-
ens on a small area. My observations have been that most
people succeed best, taking one year with another, who grow
a variety of crops, rather than those who grow but one crop.
Let us now try and analyse the keeping of poultry on the
farm. Permit me to present a diagram so that we may clearly
understand our position.
,^/
\
/
\
BREEDING
We have here presented a triangle, all sides of which are
equal, and my experience and observation leads me to believe
that in order to succeed well it is necessary that equal attention
be paid to each side, and, furthermore, neglect of any of these
factors may be the primary cause of partial or complete failure.
The base or foundation represents breeding. Good blood is
of prime importance. We all realize the importance of good
breeding and constant selection in cattle, seeds, fruit trees, etc.
Few, if any, expect heavy milk production or beef production
from scrub cattle. Poor seed means a poor crop, and the plant-
ing of fruit trees of unknown varieties or seedling stock is not
good business. The same is true of poultry just as much as in
any other branch of farming. Good stock is the foundation.
No matter how well fed and housed, nor how faithful and care-
ful the attendant may be, the best success is not obtained
without foundation stock of good breeding.
Study the kind of product your market demands, and then
breed to please the buyer. I take it that you have here a good
market for both meat and eggs. This means a discussion of
the breeding of the dual-purpose hen, or what may be termed
the American breeds in general. No doubt some of you may
breed especially for egg production, and others breed largely for
flesh production. The same general ideas, I think, will apply
in all cases.
A study of European markets, and to some extent home
markets, indicates that in the production of a high-class article
uniformity is of prime importance. The uniformity of the goods
shipped by Denmark makes a market for Danish produce. A
farmer who has a reputation of producing a uniform good class
of produce, whose produce is dependable, has less difficulty in
selling, and ordinarily gets a premium price. He produces a
uniform, dependable article. Uniformity in dressed poultry is
not secured from scrub stock, and at times not from pure-bred
stock; the same, in a measure, applies to size and color of eggs.
In order to produce a uniform product it is necessary to study
some of the underlying principles of breeding. With your per-
mission I wish to show illustrations of some of the things that
happen in breeding, also to discuss for a few moments some
common practices in breeding. I am not a biologist, but I am
interested in practical breeding, and therefore study as a
common layman, and endeavor to try out in a practical way
what science tells us. The art of poultry breeding is science
applied. The first thing to do is to select pure-bred birds of
the type or shape desired. If these cannot be found it may, in
special instances, be desirable to cross breeds. In selecting
breeding birds constitution or vigor is of first importance; it is
the mainspring of the works, so to speak. Then we may select
as to shape, size, egg production, color of skin and plumage, and
if possible hatching power of eggs. Some of these characters
are visible, others are masked or hidden, and the birds must
be tried out. Select those that breed the best birds, regardless
of relationship. Some say inbreed, others say do not inbreed.
What is one to do? After trap-nesting and pedigreeing poultry
for over ten years, and coupling with this some years of ob-
servation in breeding with small and large matings, I now am
at the point where I would answer the above question by saying
it depends upon circumstances.
Let us examine some of these ideas. Take, for example, the
characteristic of size. If we cross a small breed with a large
breed the resulting offspring in the first generation will be inter-
mediate in size between the two, and are usually fairly, if not
exceptionally, uniform in size. These crossbreeds may please us
to such an extent that we decide to breed them together and
perpetuate the kind; but here we encounter a difficulty, for in
the second generation, or perhaps the third, if we rear, say, five
hundred specimens, we find we have no uniformity either in
weight, size, shape or anything else. We have about every con-
ceivable thing that is known in chickendom, and, moreover, the
mortality in birds bred as above is usually very high. We have
lost that valuable desideratum — uniformity, though we may
still have a few individuals of exceptional merit. This is the
method to follow where you wish to secure something that you
cannot already find in the existing breeds. As a common
practice it is bad policy. Such results are probably the cause
of the idea "do not inbreed." A similar result has come
under my observation where two absolutely distinct lines of
the same breed have been crossed and the progeny of such a
mating bred together.
Now let us look at another side of this same method of breed-
ing. If we take the few specimens that meet our ideal, and
have plenty of constitution, and breed them together we find
we begin to produce a uniform flock of a new kind. True,
many may have to be discarded, but by close breeding we tend
to fix the characteristics.
This does not yet answer the question as to what would be a
good practice for the farmer.
The common practice of buying a new pure-bred male from
6
a different breeder each season, where some care is taken as to
general vigor and type, will generally give fairly good results as far
as visible characteristics are concerned, because one is practically
producing in a more or less degree the first cross. This plan
must, in most instances, be continued.
Where one desires to make a product quite distinctive it will
usually best be done by inbreeding the crossbred strains,
watching for the divisions, selecting the individuals which meet
the ideal and then inbreeding these.
The perfect specimen probably does not exist, hence, ordi-
narily speaking, one is forced occasionally to introduce new
blood. This is best done by means of a new female, and then
trying the offspring sparingly until such times as you get what
you want.
Our pedigrees indicate that the male has much more to do
with the pullets laying than does the female. It is, therefore,
obvious that we should buy and select males from good laying
hens that have been mated to good males, and I would con-
sider it worthy of a trial to buy the new males annually from
some one reliable breeder year after year so long as the resulting
offspring is satisfactory.
Where eggs are wanted, especially during the first year of the
hen's life, it is of importance to select birds, particularly males,
which mature to nearly the desired weight at about five or six
months. Closely associated with this, in our experience, is the
question of early feathering over the back. Slow back feather-
ing generally means slow maturing, which in turn is late laying.
Our best layers usually begin la^'ing at five, six or seven months
of age.
The next side of the triangle refers to environment; that is,
age of stock, housing, feeding and range. These conditions
must be first class.
Late-hatched pullets seldom mature early enough to lay
during the period of the high prices of eggs, neither do yearling
hens commonly lay as well during the period of high prices as
early hatched pullets, and hens two years old and over pay only
as special breeders. Our records show, yearly, that birds that
lay well during the winter are equally as good layers for the
No. 400. Laid 208 eggs in ten months.
No. 523. Laid 50 eggs in twelve months.
No. 312. Laid 194 eggs in nine months and three days.
Three Hens from the Massachusett.s Agricultural College Flock.
balance of the year as those who make little or no performance
during the winter months.
Sizes, shapes and styles of houses are almost endless. This
problem is ever present, and each one settles it to please his or
her own conditions. It matters not so much the kind of house
so long as abundance of fresh air is secured without direct
drafts over the birds, and as long as the house is light and
roomy. Dryness and reasonable cleanliness are also prime
factors. The smaller the flock the larger proportionately should
be the house, and, moreover, the labor cost per hen for caring
for her is also increased. A man will take care of 15 one-
hundred-bird flocks w^ith less exertion than 70 ten-bird flocks.
Your labor charges for care and management should be about
35 or 40 cents per hen per year. Keep your poultry houses
well aired, dry and clean.
Feeds and methods of feeding are countless. Common sense
appears to be an inactive factor in many human beings. Some
try to mix and feed the most complicated grain mixtures
possible. All these things take time and time costs money.
I am not at all sure that a hard and fast rule for feeding can
be laid down. The essentials can be enumerated and are as
follows: green food, grain food, animal food, mineral food and
exercise.
Green food ordinarily is cheap and handy, receives little at-
tention, and hence I place it first to draw your attention.
Poultry require considerable green food; it reduces the ex-
pensive feed bills and sustains health. In summer various
grasses and waste garden truck supply the wants. Little
chicks require very tender, crisp, green feed. For winter foods,
clover, hay, roots, cabbage or sprouted oats will give good
results. Feeding cooked roots is also a good means of cheapen-
ing the ration.
Experimental demonstrations with us show no great differ-
ence among these foods. Cabbage, if anything, encourages
laying, while rape tends to color the yolks of eggs in some
instances seriously, from a market standpoint. A full-grown
hen will eat about 1| cubic inches of sprouted oats per day.
Ordinarily give the birds all they want, but do not feed de-
composed or highly flavored feeds.
8
Wheat, corn and crushed oats are the staple grain feeds, and
for animal foods nothing equals sour milk or buttermilk; when
meat scrap has to be fed, about 10 per cent, of the mash food
is all that may be given with safety. The birds would eat
more and might do better for a short period of time, but a
reaction is almost sure to follow. Mineral foods are supplied
by granulated bone, granulated rock or grit, and oyster shell
or old plaster.
It might be well to give you our method of feeding and then
we might discuss the same. During the winter we use about
equal parts of whole wheat and corn. This is fed in about
6 inches of litter early in the morning, say two handfuls for
three birds. At noon the green food is given, and at night all
the whole grain they will eat. We keep crushed oats in
hoppers constantly before the birds. If the flocks gets lazy
we close the hopper for part of the day to make them work.
Sour milk is used as drink. Grit, oyster shell and granulated
bone are always in little boxes where they can help themselves.
When we cannot get sour milk and have to feed beef scrap I
rather prefer mixing ground grain, such as middlings, corn
meal, oat chop and 10 per cent meat meal, then feeding as a
moist mash at midday. Sometimes we add to such a mixture
about one-third in bulk of cooked roots.
The environmental factor of range is overlooked so frequently
that I desire to call special attention to it. The following
illustrations are two birds of the same breeding. The larger
one is grown on free range where there are not more than fifty
chickens per acre, and the smaller one in a small city lot where
chickens are penned up. The case is extreme, yet at the same
time is not uncommon.
Clean ground, tender green food, clean water and shade are
essentials to growing chickens. Ground may be cleaned bj'^
crop rotation, which is undoubtedly the best plan, or it may
be kept in fair condition by frequent plowing or digging. The
proposition can be put in another form; that is, raise the young
stock in the country, where there is an abundance of room and
a variety of food, then you may bring them, when well grown,
to the city, or the permanent long houses with limited runs.
Old fowls can be maintained fairly well on old ground, but
9
young stock rarely does well. This is the outstanding point
in the farmer's case. He raises better chickens at less cost,
owing to clean and pure surroundings.
Let us now consider the remaining side of the triangle. The
attendant is worthy of serious consideration. My father told
me that "one man's breath was good for stock and other men's
breath was bad." This appears in a sense to be true. The
attendant must develop a bond of sympathy between the birds
and himself; in order to do a day's work he must move rather
quickly but gently. Birds that are afraid of the attendant do
not do their best. The attendant must consider his stock first
and foremost and himself last. I beheve in having a man
dressed neatly but plainly. A poultry house is no place for
blue clothes and white collars. A khaki suit shows little dirt
and looks fairly neat. The attendant must be a keen observer,
punctual as to hours, and have an abundance of common
sense. Caring for live stock is no position for the careless,
or the person who is looking for 6 o'clock.
In conclusion I would suggest the attendant keeping in his
hat the following words: "Fresh air and common sense." If
these are there and he removes his hat occasionally he will not
forget.
Mr. N. W. Sanborn. How about the weight of these high-
laying females? Do you get as many pounds of eggs from the
large egg-layers as from the moderate sized ones?
Professor Graham. Generally speaking, you will find more
200-egg hens which lay 23-ounce eggs than lay 25-ounce eggs
to the dozen. We constantly have hens which will lay large
eggs, — many of them. One of the hens we showed on the
screen — No. 58 — laid 25-ounce eggs; but I will say that if
you don't watch it you will produce little eggs.
Mr. W. H. Gould. Which do you consider the best flooring
for a hen house, especially in the winter season, — earth or
cement?
Professor Graham. Well, my experience in regard to the
best flooring for hen houses is this: when you consider the cost
of the litter and the cost of taking the ground out of the hen
house every other year and renewing it, cement is the best
10
floor. It takes more litter on a ground floor, and in a series of
years, if yovi figure up the time and the cost of renewing the
earth floor, it is better to have the cement floor. Now, where
you use the cement floor, ordinarily you must supply some sort
of a dust bag in one corner of the house. If you use only a
little litter — say, two or three inches — then in a cold climate
you get into trouble with the cement floor. In addition to
that, never make the cement floor smooth or very rough. If
you make it smooth the litter will blow all round the place; if
you make it very rough the hens will wear their toenails down
to the quick. The common finish, such as you have on side-
walks, is about the best that we know of. We have taken out
practically all of our board floors and all our ground floors and
are using almost entirely cement floors.
Mr. Thomas D. Govern. Can you get as many eggs by
feeding hard grain and dry mash as by feeding wet mash?
Professor Graham. Where we use rolled oats we can, but I
doubt it with other mixtures. The backbone of our egg pro-
duction, in a word, depends on the rolled oats and the sour
milk and the green food.
Mr. Govern. In Massachusetts, with milk at 42 cents a
can, we can't very well afford to feed it to hens.
Professor Graham. That is true. There is a difference in
different sections of the country. With us sour milk is worth
20 cents a hundred. That is not very high. We buy oats at
$28 a ton, $1.40 a hundred. But we can't get as many eggs
out of beef scrap or cooked meat as we can out of sour milk.
If you want to use beef scrap I would strongly advise your
using a little bit of muriatic acid in the drinking water, for
the reason that the hen's digestive tract is normally acid, and
we frequently get into trouble when their digestive tracts be-
come alkaline, and with sour milk, too, you get a value beyond
the feeding value of the milk, largely due to its physical action,
which maintains the normal sour or acid digestive tract. It
has a value greater than its chemical composition shows.
Mr. C. F. WHITMAN. You dwelt considerably on feeding
vegetables to poultry. Would you recommend feeding fruit, —
apples or pears?
Professor Graham. Yes. I would recommend the feeding
of apples.
A pair of good utility fowls. Massachusetts Agricultural College.
11
Mr. Whitman. Do you think it is good to feed vegetables?
Professor Graham. As long as they do not eat too many of
the seeds, which is ordinarily not the case. At the present
time we are mixing them in with roots. I would say in a gen-
eral way that it is a good plan to give the hens any waste
products that you have, like apples or turnips, but do not feed
them on waste products exclusively.
Mr. Whitman. I asked that question because I want to
know whether the cider pulp is better, or the apples and fruit
itself before extraction.
Professor Graham. I will have to go back a number of
years to give you my experience on cider pulp. During my
first experiences in the chicken business I happened to be sit-
uated near a cider mill, and was able to secure cider pulp
from the mill at Ioav rate; and when I got that pulp fresh,
when it had been ground the same day, and when I cooked it
a little I got good results; but if I kept it on hand and it
heated or turned a little sour the results were disastrous.
Judging from this experience it would be necessary to feed it
fresh.
]Mr. J. M. Schwartz. In mentioning your green feed you
don't say anything about alfalfa. How does that compare
with cabbages?
Professor Graham. I have good results from good alfalfa,
but in many instances with the alfalfa that we come in' con-
tact with, apparently they have taken the leaves off and used
them for some other purpose. They sold us the woody stems
as chicken feed, which has not given very good results. If you
can get good alfalfa you will get very good results indeed.
Personally, I would just as soon have the roots as I would
alfalfa.
Mr. G. S. Dodge. How about feeding green ground bone?
Professor Graham. That depends on the kind of bone. If
you are grinding the bones yourself by hand, I would say do
not feed it, because you will get all of the knuckle bones which
contain a very high percentage of fat, and are easy to cut. We
have found in our experience that the machine-ground green
cut bone, if fed with good judgment, will give good results.
Where it is fed fairly liberally to the heavy breeds, such as
12
Plymouth Rocks or Wyandottes, it is apt to have some effect
upon the hatching power of the eggs in the spring, and it is a
food that has to be fed with discretion. I would say, in a nut-
shell, it is a good food for a man with an abundance of common
sense to use, but it is a bad food if considered fool-proof.
Question. Is there any easy way to sour milk in the winter
time?
Professor Graham. Yes, a very easy way is to put the
sweet milk in a pail that has had sour milk in it and set it
behind the kitchen stove over night and it will be sour before
morning. One of the finest things about feeding sour milk is
that you don't have to worry about everything being absolutely
clean. If you are feeding sweet milk you must have everything
clean. The easy way to get it sour is to use a barrel or large
hogshead that holds from 30 to 100 gallons, and keep on pour-
ing in and out.
Question. Do you feed the sour milk clear?
Professor Graham. Yes. As far as drink is concerned, when
the thermometer goes below zero, all drinks are taken away and the
chickens all eat snow. You will have less trouble with frozen
combs and things of that kind if you feed snow.
Question. You do not think snow^ brings bowel complaint
in any form whatever?
Professor Graham. No, I have never had that experience
with' it at all. We let them wallow around in the snow and
eat it in cold weather. We dump the water out of the drinking
tins and keep them filled with snow.
Mr. C. R. Harris. You mentioned the use of hydrochloric
acid in the drinking water. Would anything else answer the
same purpose?
Professor Graham. I am not in a position to answer that
question. I have gotten my information along this line from
our veterinary general of the dominion, and I asked him one
day, "Is there any other acid that I could use or recommend
in the place of this one?" He answered, "That is the only one
that I have positive information on." So that is the best an-
swer I can give you.
Mr. Harris. Is there anything other than judgment by
which you can determine the amount and frequency of the use
of hydrochloric acid?
13
Professor Graham. From the available experience, for the
quantity for general preventive work, about 1 teaspoonful of
commercial acid to 2 gallons of drinking water. Either earthen-
ware or wooden drinking articles should be used. You could
not use the acid and metal very long or you would be in
trouble.
Mr. Brown. Would a flock of hens get sufficient drink
through the winter from snow alone?
Professor Graham. From our experience, yes, because we
have numerous flocks of hens that are laying heavily in the win-
ter time that don't get anything to drink except snow for weeks
at a time. They may get some cooked vegetables or substances
containing water, but, for example, in this open-front house I
showed }ou we sometimes have a week at a stretch when the
thermometer is between 10 and 29 below zero, and the ther-
mometer inside the house shoMang from zero to 7 below. Now,
you take an ordinary pail of water and set it down there and
it is ice before you get out, almost. So there are weeks and
weeks when they don't get anything but snow.
Professor Brooks. I would like to ask the speaker whether
he has ever had any complaints of the quality of eggs from
feeding cabbages.
Professor Graham. We have gone fairly thoroughly into
the matter, and even from a high-class retail trade in eggs we
have never had any complaints as to flavor, even when the
hens had all the cabbages they could eat. I cannot say the
same when the hens were fed rape, scorched or musty grains
or onions, however, for these almost always affected the flavor
unfavorably, and our customers noticed it.
Professor Brooks. I don't want to occupy the time that
belongs to the speaker, but I do wish to say that a number of
years ago I compared two flocks of hens of similar breeding
and similar housing in every respect, and fed similarly except
as regards vegetable food. The eggs from the two lots were
sent under numbers to a number of families, and the house-
keepers were discriminating. There was never any failure to
indicate that the eggs from the hens which were fed with the
cabbage were superior to the others. They spoke of their
sweetness and fine flavor; they did not recognize the cabbage.
14
They did not know what the feeding was. The two lots of
eggs were simply sent with the request that they use them and
advise if they found them different. There was always a report
favorable to the cabbage. As to the analysis, they did not
show a great difference but there was no taint in the eggs from
the fowl fed with cabbages. Many of the housekeepers re-
ported that they found that the flavor of the cabbage eggs
was strong. They did not describe the cabbage flavor.
Professor Graham. I think what Professor Brooks says is
absolutely correct. Now, I don't know whether you have in
your locality here a trade for certified eggs such as there is for
certified milk. I am under the impression that if that trade
ever develops, the hens w^ho lay those eggs will have to be kept
indoors all the time. You will have to feed them right up on a
diet arranged by a practical dietician, because there is no doubt
that people who are not living an active life are mighty par-
ticular about the flavor of the eggs and the color of the yolk.
Mr. H. K. Proctor. I would like to ask about the fertility
of hatching eggs.
Professor Graham. Do you mean fertility or hatching
power?
Mr. Proctor. Well, hatching power. Which would be
better, to put, say, four or five males with a flock, or alternate
them one each day for five days and then repeat?
Professor Graham. I think from my experience the answer
to that question would depend upon the range and the style of
house in use. That is to say, if you had 5 males in the flock
and 100 females there, or 75, and a house 20 feet square and
the birds fastened inside, you would get better results to use
the males a half day each, one in the morning and one in the
afternoon, or one a day. But if the birds can get outside, or if
the birds are in a long house in which there are partitions
going three-quarters of the way across, then I doubt very much
whether you would get actual results for the labor of cooping
these males.
Mr. Proctor. Once in a while there is a cockerel who will
give his head a little shake. He seems to be vigorous and all
right in every way. I would like to know if that is a bad
habit.
15
Professor Graham. Well, I don't know, Mr. Proctor,
whether that is a habit. It is sometimes one of the symptoms
of worms. You could find out easily by going to your druggist
and getting a worm powder, or take a piece of bread and put
on turpentine and put it down his throat, or give him a chew
of tobacco.
Professor Brooks. About the rolled oats. Are those the
oats from which the hulls have been separated?
Professor Graham. The commonest kind of horse feed with
us is the rolled or crushed oats, in which the whole oat is run
through a roller and the oat comes out flat. Now, the men who
handle horses in the largest number are farmers, and the
farmers swear by rolled oats for horses. The way we started
to feed them to the hens was, when ordering ground oats from
a miller, he said he hadn't any on hand, but he sent us some
rolled oats. The hens took so kindly to the proposition and
liked it so much better than they did the chopped oats that I
was perfectly satisfied. Now, they don't eat all the hull. As
near as we can tell, they waste about 18 per cent of the hull.
Professor Brooks. Would you blame them for wasting 100
per cent of the hull?
Professor Graham. Yes, for this reason, which brings up a
very interesting point: it seems to me that there are two sides
to a feeding proposition, — a physiological side and a commer-
cial side, and a certain amount of bran or alfalfa may obviate
trouble in the stomach and give the juices of the stomach a
better chance to act. We have tried the ordinary oats along-
side of the common horse oats or crushed oats, and invariably
we have gotten for a long period of time better results from the
horse kind of oats than we did from the human kind of oats;
but for a short period of time, say ten days or two weeks, if
you want to fatten a chicken or get him ready for show, you
can get there quicker with the aid of flour or rolled oats which
you have for human food than you can with the crushed oats
as fed to horses. But in the end we lose out in that we run
into digestive troubles, particularly in the liver, we get a soft,
pink liver. The average hen with us eats 72 pounds per year, —
24 pounds of corn, 24 pounds of wheat and 24 pounds of
crushed oats.
16
Question. What do you consider the best feed for fattening
chickens?
Professor Graham. Ours is a milk-feeding proposition. We
teach our people to eat milk-fed chickens, and those are the
chickens that bring highest prices. We use about two parts of
finely ground oats or flour, or oats with the hulls partly sifted
out, two parts of buckwheat and one of corn meal, mixed with
sour milk. The vital factor is sour milk.
Mr. Robert Johnson. How about barley for feeding?
Professor Graham. It depends entirely upon the barley.
If your barley is well ripened and is not musty I would be
inclined to feed about two-thirds barley, but I would want to
be absolutely certain that that barley was not musty and had
not been scoured before I used it, because it is one of the grains
about which it is difficult to tell whether it has been a little
bit musty or not.
Mr. HiGGiNSON. How often do you feed cooked food?
Professor Graham. I don't suppose, ordinarily speaking,
that we fed cooked feed twice a year, except from an experi-
mental standpoint, until this year. Now we are feeding more
cooked food than we ever did before, because grain is high and
we have a host of mangels. It is a question of getting the
mangels out of the way and cutting down the grain bill. But
ordinarily we do not cook any feed. We sprout oats for them,
or we give them cabbage and go ahead without any cooked
feed. Just at the present moment labor is cheaper than feed.
Ordinarily labor is dearer than feed, and when labor is dear
and feed is cheap we will feed the feed and do away with the
labor.
®l)e (Hommonwealtl) of iHa0sa(l)usctt0.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 34.
January, 1915.
Household Accounting.
By Miss LAURA COMSTOCK.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1910.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTING.
MISS LAURA COMSTOCK, EXTENSION PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS,
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASSACHUSETTS.
Mrs. Lucas^ has said that "in olden times women thought
and thought and thought before they spent, — now women
often spend and then think and think and think." If this is
true, how may a change be brought about? By convincing the
homemakers of their responsibihty with regard to the expendi-
ture of funds; by showing them that homemaking has in it all
the elemental features of a true business, and that to succeed
in it requires the best of training.
Contrast the present-day housekeeping with that of fifty
years ago. Have the keepers of the home made as great an
advance in their business as the farmer, for instance, has in
his? If not, how may this be remedied?
Organizing ability is one of the requisites. The routine of
housework in the least time and with the least energy can be
accomplished only after much study, but that is not all; the
responsibihty of spending much of the income also rests upon
the housewife. This is one of her greatest problems. To
succeed she must view the question in all of its phases before
spending a dollar. In other words, a budget should be made
and lived up to as nearly as possible.
When a home is started there should be the utmost frankness
in the discussion of the standards to be maintained in that
home. It is taken for granted that there will be certain ideals.
These ideals will undoubtedly change from year to year, —
grow higher as the lives of the homemakers enlarge. These
changes will affect the way in which the income is spent. More
money will be devoted to one purpose and less to another.
Certain standards will be felt to be absolutely necessary to the
home life. True co-operation must exist from the first, so that
no differences may later arise to shatter these ideals. When
both husband and wife fully realize what they wish to express
1 Lucas, Bertha J. R., "The Woman who spends," p. 12.
by their home, and know the yearly amount of money at their
disposal, then let them discuss how to spend that income to the
best advantage. To have clearly in mind what each particular
purchase will give to the home, to know that it supplies a real
need, w^ill bring true contentment. It will satisfy not only the
individual but the group which constitutes the family. The
right idea of use will prevent worthless buying. How may this
be accomphshed? Not only by making a budget but by
keeping a strict account of all expenditures. Mrs. Richards
has said that "the great educational value of knowing how our
money is spent cannot be overestimated."
Budgets.
First, then, the budget must be considered. If a home is just
being established, then recourse must be had to the budgets
of families living in similar circumstances. If it be a family of
some years' standing, and no accounts have been kept, the
budgets X)f other groups must be consulted; but in addition
some help may be given bv an estimate of the outgo of previous
years.
In dividing the income the ideals of the family will modify
the amounts suggested for each column. In the budgets con-
sidered the average American family will be taken as the unit,
two adults and three children under working age, or the
equivalent of four adults.
Suggested Budgets. ^
Family Income.
Percentage for —
Fqod.
Rent.
Operat-
ing Exr-
penses
(Wages,
Fuel,
Light,
etc.).
Clothes.
Higher
Life
(Books,
Travel,
Church,
Charity,
Savings,
Insurance).
Two adults and two or three children
(equal to four adults): —
Any income (ideal division), .
$2,000 to 14,000
$800 to $1,000
$500 to $800
Under $500
20±
20±
20
15
15
15±
15±
15±
20±
10
15
10
10
5
10
1 Richards, Ellen H., "The Cost of Living," 1905, published by J. Wiley & Sons.
In the "ideal division" it will be noted that 25 per cent is
spent for food; 20 per cent plus or minus for rent; 15 per cent
plus or minus for operating expenses; 15 per cent plus or minus
for clothes; and 25 per cent for the higher life.
Food.
There are five divisions made in dividing the income. Food
is first, for without that life cannot be maintained no matter
what else may be possessed. This is absolutely essential. It
may not be the kind desired, but if it contains proper nutri-
ment the body may maintain its working efiiciency. Some of
the cheapest foods contain the various nutrients in available
form, so that economy along this line is entirely possible. A
knowledge of food values will enable one to regulate this column
to a nicety, and still the family be nourished in proper form.
To buy out of season always adds much to the cost and seldom
adds materially to the food value. Some of the most expensive
foods, such as meats, have substitutes. If vegetables are not
strictly fresh they may have deteriorated decidedly and there-
fore be expensive. One must be well trained in the business of
buying and have a knowledge of food values in order to keep
this item within bounds.
]\Iany inexperienced housekeepers order too much or prepare
too much. If these left-overs are not properly utilized there
will be a leak. Look well to the garbage pail. Keep it free
from foodstuffs that can in any way be used. You know
that as a class American cooks are wasteful, and that our more
thrifty relatives across the seas know much better than we the
value of left-overs. Is it true that a French family could be
fed on what an American family throws away?
Food must, as before stated, contain the proper nutriment.
It must be clean. The standard of cleanliness is constantly
rising; greater demands are placed on the producers, with a
resulting rise in prices. It must be properly cooked, otherwise
a perfect food might be spoiled for use. It must look attractive.
There necessarily must be variety; but not so much as some
people think. In this respect we may be able to save on the
cost of food. Twenty-five per cent is the proportion set aside
for this necessitv.
It will be noted in the budgets that the smaller the income
the higher the percentage spent for food. A man earning but
$500 spends 60 per cent, or $300, of his income to supply the
amount of food necessary. If he has a garden or gets some
produce from the farm, the percentage spent for food may seem
abnormally low, but these factors must be considered.
Rent or Ownership.
The next item to be considered in Mrs. Richards' "Suggested
Budgets" is that of rent or ownership. In securing a dwelling
in which to house one's family, many factors must be taken
into consideration. These will directly affect the percentage
of the income devoted to this end. The wise person is one who
secures a house that is not lacking in any sanitary requirement.
The nature of the soil and the ease with which the plot may
be drained should be two determining factors. Light should be
abundant, and a free circulation of air made possible. A good
neighborhood should be selected, for the moral side has to be
considered in the selection of a home. Many a small house
in an unpretentious street or neighborhood may measure up to
all requirements in sanitation, outlook, arrangement of rooms
and moral tone. There is no question that owning a home
helps to develop character. A greater pride in the homestead
is usually taken, a responsibility for the general condition of
things in its immediate neighborhood, and this interest widens
many times into responsibility for the affairs of the community.
As the social part of life is of importance this must be reckoned
with when considering the question of owning or renting a
home.
The amount set aside for rent is about 20 per cent. Not
more than 25 per cent of the income should be used unless
heat is included, as in apartments in a town or city.
Operating Expenses.
The home having been secured, the question arises as to
the maintenance of the same. No house should ever be con-
sidered without carefully estimating the fuel required to heat
it comfortably, the kind of lighting system afforded and cost
of maintenance, and cost of keeping the house clean and in
repair. The matter of keeping the house clean should be looked
into more carefully than it usually is, as it means pleasure or
pain to the housewife.
Aside from these points which help definitely in the choice
of a house there are such items as express, postage, car fares
(incidental), water tax, and other small expenditures which in
the aggregate amount to a surprising sum. It is in operating
the house that small leakages occur. As a rule, details are
neglected and the bills run up. A strict account kept of all
disbursements in this department will many times reveal
interesting means of saving without crippling efficiency.
Fifteen per cent plus or minus is indicated in the ideal
division, and in all incomes of $1,000 or over it is practically
covered by that amount.
Clothes.
The same per cent is indicated for this department as for
operating expenses. Certain budgets indicate that more has
been spent than the 15 per cent, but these are individual cases.
One should buy with a long plan. By this is meant that one
winter certain pieces of wearing apparel could be bought, such
as a suit, two suits of heavy underwear; the second winter a
coat, and in place of the underwear, stockings and shoes. One
should be a good judge of textiles and should have in mind the
physical need and also the aesthetic need. It is a duty o* all
mankind to look as well as possible. Neat clothes which are
w^ell made, simple in outline and of good wearing material are
no more expensive in the long run than those which are untidy
in appearance, extreme in style and unsuited to the wearer.
Clothes should have a distinctive air. They should look as
if they were meant for the individual wearing them.
Higher Life.
Twenty-five per cent in an ideal distribution of funds is set
aside for the intellectual and emotional life, — to that which
contributes so much to our truest enjoyment. In this list is
included sums given to church or philanthropy, savings, which
may include insurance and investments, education, travel and
recreation. Papers and magazines, books, subscriptions to
concerts and the like could be credited to education.
8
The matter of cultivating a habit of saving and putting aside
definite sums each '»A^eek, month or year, depending on the
manner in which the income is received, should be emphasized.
Whenever the income will permit this should be regularly done.
The habit of saving is worth everything to young people, and
will prepare not only for the "rainy" day, but for the sunshiny
one as well.
Accounts.
After the cjuestion of the proper distribution of the income
has been thoroughly discussed, and definite sums apportioned
for different purposes, the next thing is to decide on the best
way to keep accounts. He would be a poor business man
who did not know where his money went after he had earned
it. How can one tell where it is best to retrench, if that
becomes necessary? Where would it l)e best to appropriate
more in order to lead most efficient lives? Is the doctor re-
ceiving a goodly percentage of the income for keeping the
homemaker in fit physical condition, while little if any money
is spent for help with the housework? Accurate accounts, if
carefully studied, reveal much of an interesting nature. Com-
parisons by months and by years will prove profitable by show-
ing the wisdom or error of the method of expenditure.
What is the best method of keeping household accounts?
That method which will give the least trouble, take the least
time, and show daily, monthly and yearly expenditures. An
elaborate "system" has killed many an honest attempt to keep
accounts. Keep them in such a way that a balance can be
made at any time between receipts and expenses. Items should
be so listed that there will be no difficulty in seeing how much
is spent for food, how much for clothing or other purposes.
The account keeper must decide how minutely itemized the
record shall be, e.g., are there to be subdivisions under food,
such as dry groceries, vegetables, canned goods, meat; under
clothes are the individual members to have separate accounts.
Operating expenses may profitably have subdivisions such as
fuel, lighting, laundry, outside help. The extra time taken to
place expenses in the right column will be little and the returns
will be great. Above all, make the record fit the family needs.
If five columns would show all that was desired as to better
ways of expending the income the following year, have five.
If seven are needed, have seven. Head them to make them
most useful to your family.
The following explanations are given to suggest ways of
keepmg accounts that are workable: —
Envelope System.
The simplest way of keeping accounts is by the envelope
system. This plan, however, seems only advisable when one's
income is not much above SI, 000 a year, and is received at
stated times. Envelopes are marked and the apportioned sum
placed inside. When any money is taken the date and amount
should be recorded on a slip of paper and placed within. The
account should be balanced weekly or monthly, depending upon
when the appropriation is renewed. If any money is borrowed
from one envelope for another careful record should be kept
of it.
Following this method means that many times more money
is kept about than is safe or desirable. Also, when money is
borrowed from one account for another and not credited there
is confusion in balancing accounts.
Note-book System.
An ordinary unruled note book or loose-leaf note book may
be used by ruling the pages to suit the divisions of the income;
or a family expense book may be bought with printed head-
ings. Two pages should be used for the account. Reference
to the specimen pages shown will make plainer the following
explanation.
On the extreme left of the first page should be a column for
the days of the month. The source of receipts should be noted
as well as amounts.
Food has but two divisions, groceries and meat. It seems
inadvisable to keep these items in greater detail on such a page.
If one wishes to know exactly how much is spent for dry
groceries, how much for green groceries, how much for fruit,
these accounts can be easily kept by retaining grocers' slips,
and entering amounts on a separate page; or by using a small
pass book, where items are entered, prices noted and the totals
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12
transferred to a general account book. If the family buys fruits
and vegetables out of season it is well to keep careful record
of such expenditures, as it is easy to substitute something
which will be of equal nutritive value but much cheaper. On
the other hand, the itemized account of fruits and vegetables
will often show a surprisingly small amount used, and it
would be a question worth considering whether more of the
income should be used for the purchase of these commodities.
House ownership is indicated in the next division. Interest
on the value of the house and the lot is the first subhead.
Another includes taxes on house, grounds and gardens; and
insurance premiums. There are yearly repairs that should be
made and are suggested as a third heading. If car fare has
to be paid to and from work, then that too should be reckoned
under ownership or rental, as a stated sum must be put by to
meet the expenses because of the location of the house.
If a house is rented the headings would be practically the
same, — rent w^ould replace interest on value, and taxes would
not include the house and land. Many times repairs are made
for which the owner does not pay, and these should be noted as
repairs as if the property were owned.
Under operating expenses there are five heads; fuel and light,
wages, stationery and postage, telephone, express and freight
charges and car fare for other than busine.s purposes.
Fuel should include wood, coal, kerosene, alcohol or elec-
tricity. If wood is taken from the farm, that item should
appear either in the farm records or the household records or
both. Kerosene used for the oil stove might be included with
the oil for lighting purposes if lamps are used. Alcohol used
for a flatiron should be listed under fuels.
Wages should include what is paid regularly to the maid, if
one is kept, and the occasional help from outside, e.g., some one
to help with the weekly cleaning, laundry work, the cleaning of
windows. Laundry may be listed in a separate column if so
desired.
The next two subdivisions need no comment, — those of
stationery and postage and telephone. The last column indi-
cating car fares means the occasional trips J:aken by the family
and not the regular business trips.
13
Clothes may well be subdivided according to the members in
the family; but it would seem more simple to keep the itemized
account on another page in the same book, and record the total
expenditures on this sheet.
The last heading, higher life, or, as ]Mrs. Richards calls it
in another place, the " intellectual and emotional " life, receives
25 per cent of the income in the ideal division. This must of
necessity be cut down when the income is small, but some
allowance must always be made; otherwise the mere feeding,
housing and clothing would mean an existence little above the
brute stage. Here the divisions wall represent what the in-
dividual families most enjoy, and the accounts will show
whether the expenditures for the things lasting but not material
are wisely expended.
Church and philanthropy must surely come in each family
record of expense; books, papers and magazines should be found
in every home. Library dues should be listed here. Lectures,
concerts, theaters, moving pictures are attended frequently and
deserve a separate column. Money expended in traveling and
vacation expenses form another item under this higher life
heading. Savings in the bank, life insurance and stocks and
bonds should also be listed. Furniture considered as personal
property can be included here, and it is suggested that house-
hold appliances be indicated in such a way that the sum yearly
spent on these may be seen at a glance. What per cent is
spent on such improvements in the home? How much should
be spent, taking all things into consideration? Under "phy-
sician" and "dentist" should be included all money paid out
for physicians, surgeon, oculist, dentist, nurse, medicine and
all expenses incurred by sickness. If too large a proportion
falls here the matter should be thoughtfully considered to see
if the causes cannot be removed.
If other headings are desired space could be used between
higher life and daily total expenses.
The daily totals should be calculated and the sums placed in
the columns reserved at the extreme right under the caption
daily total expenses. At the foot of each column space is left
for the totals of each column. The grand total of these totals
at the bottom of the two pages should balance with the grand
14
totals of the daily totals. Space is indicated for the monthly
total receipts and the monthly total expenses.
In the back part of the account book two duplicate pages
should be ruled for a recapitulation by months. When bal-
ancing accounts at the close of each month the totals should be
carried forward to these pages.
Card System.
The card system is well liked by some people for keeping
accounts. In using cards the headings may be the same as
those used in a book. Each month the total expenditures
should be transferred to a card reserved for monthly totals.
Methods of Payment.
Cash payment is the best method to follow. A checking
account in a bank conveniently located is a desirable thing to
have and encourages businesslike methods. Grocery and dry
goods bills may be allowed to run for a month; but it is not
wise to have goods charged for an indefinite time. When cash
is paid one cannot spend money that is yet to be earned.
When a charge account is kept it is an easy matter to buy,
trusting the future will bring money for payment. The install-
ment plan is an expensive one, and should be used only by
those finding it impossible to make other arrangements.
It is fitting that this brief discussion of an important subject
close with a quotation of Miss Mary S. Snow: "It is meet that
women in every part of the land shall seriously study how they
will spend the wage so hardly come by on the part of the wage
earner, — that wisdom and skill in the spending shall match
the earnestness and zeal in the earning."
15
BiBLIOGEAPHY.
" The Cost of Living as modified by Sanitary Science," bj' Ellen H.
Richards.
" Foods and Household Management," by Kinne and Cooley.
" Household Management," by Bertha M. Terrill.
" How to keep Household Accounts," by C. W. Haskins.
" The Woman who spends," by Bertha J. R. Lucas.
" Farm Accounting and Business Methods," by J. A. Bexell.
" The Modern Household," by Talbot and Breckenridge,
" The New Housekeeping," by Christine Frederick.
" The $500, S1,000 and $2,000 Income," by Mary S. Snow, Journal of
Home Economics, Vol. IV.
" Students' Accounts," Department of Home Economics, Ithaca, New
York.
" Expense Account Book," Women's Educational and Industrial Union,
Boston.
" Family Expense Record," by H. E. Wedelstaedt.
®l)e iHommontoealtl) of iilassadjusete,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 35
January, 1915.
Alfalfa for New England.
By Professor Arthur D. Cromwell.
From the Sixti'-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
ALFALFA FOR NEW ENGLAND.
ARTHUR D. CROMWELL, PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE AND BOTANY, STATE
NORMAL SCHOOL, WEST CHESTER, PENNSYLVANIA.
Why gkow Alfalfa?
Life is a never ending series of adjustments. Of one thing
we may be sure and that one thing is change. New England
farmers have not always understood or remembered this, and
hence at times New England farmers have failed to adjust
themselves and their farm practices to the demands of the times.
Among the changes that are now upon us are the adjustments
that are to be made in farming by growing alfalfa. For as
Mr, Ellsworth of Worcester, Massachusetts, has said, " Alfalfa
is to be grown on every farm in New England."
Alfalfa will enable those who gi*ow it to produce on each acre
from 3 to 5 tons of feed, which is pound for pound equal to
thrashed oats or wheat bran. At the same time that the alfalfa
raiser produces from 3 to 5 tons of feed, equal pound for pound
to thrashed oats, he is growing a plant that is storing, in each
acre of his ground, from $25 to $30 worth of nitrogen each
year. Then, too, alfalfa roots deeper than other farm crops,
and it brings up from the subsoil rich stores of potash and
phosphorus. But since alfalfa comes to us from the semi-arid
regions, we must not expect it to produce good crops of seed
in this humid climate. However, since it is a gift of the
desert, we are to understand that when dry seasons come, as
come they will, alfalfa growers are to have a crop, and, if any-
thing, a better crop. Alfalfa can stand hard winters. Alfalfa
is green a month earlier and a month later than other crops,
and hence for a man who is practicing the soiling system, al-
falfa offers a crop that can bo used about two months more
each year. Since it gi'ows through the whole summer, it offers
a soiling crop that is available every month from the time it
is large enough to cut in tlie spring until long after hard freez-
ing conies in the fall.
Alfalfa is a lime loving plant. It has 34 per cent of lime
in its ash, while clover has but 20 per cent and timothy but 4
per cent. Growing animals, dairy cows and laying hens need
lime. They need more lime than we are able to supply in corn
and mill feeds; hence alfalfa offers a plant that will supply
lime to make bone and milk and eggs.
There is no need for a New England farmer spending a cent
for feed unless he is feeding more stock than his given area of
land can support. I mean the New England farmer does not
need to spend his hard-earned profits for mill feeds in order
to get nitrogen or protein. He can gTow his protein at home
and enrich his soil at the same time. We live at the bottom
of an ocean of air that is about 200 miles deep and composed
of about four-fifths of nitrogen, and yet our profits are small
and our cost of living high because we have to pay so much foi-
protein, which we need in order to get that single element
nitrogen. Yet alfalfa, soy beans, Canada peas, vetch and the
clovers, including sweet clover, have associated with them on
their roots bacteria which cluster together into different shaped
but easily observed nodules, and "which have the rare power of
taking from the air circulating in the soil that element nitro-
gen. These bacteria gather more nitrogen than they need ; they
gather enough to feed the plant and to lay up an excess in the
soil to feed the corn, potatoes or other crops which follow the
alfalfa. The story seems too good to tell. You can have your
cake and eat it. But alfalfa is going to make the man who
succeeds in growing it master of the situation. The alfalfa
grower is going to be the man who can buy the adjoining farm.
The alfalfa plant is going to bring back to N^ew England the
Berkshire, the Chester White and the Poland China hogs, to
help lift the mortgage off the old IvTew England farm. Alfalfa
is going to enable the farmer in the east to make more on the
small farm than the mid-westerner makes on his larger farm
of $200 an acre land. Alfalfa is going to make the 'New Eng-
land hen cackle two months longer each year. Alfalfa is going
to add materially to the beauty of the New Engalnd landscape.
American ingenuity will soon enable some Yankee manufac-
turers to put onto the market an alfalfa shredded biscuit that
will do more than any patent breakfast food or medicine now
on the market to make efficient men and women out of our
boys and girls. Alfalfa besides putting the kink into the pig's
tail while he helps lift the mortgage, besides enabling the old
cow to give more milk, the hen to lay more eggs and the boys
and girls to be stronger of bone and larger of muscle, besides
adding to the beauty of the ISTew England landscape, alfalfa
is to add to the contentment and happiness of the people by
putting dollars into the farmer's pockets, and thus enabling
him to have better homes, to support better schools and churches,
and thus fulfill Dean Bailey's four requirements for the real
husbandman: "To make a comfortable living; to leave the
farm better than he found it; to rear a family carefully and
well; to be of service to the community."
How TO OKOw Alfalfa.
To grow alfalfa successfully there are six things, each of
which must be very carefully attended to. You may think
as others have thought that you can get paying crops of alfalfa
by leaving one or more of the six steps undone, but experience
will teach you in time that each and every one of the six things
must be carefully taken care of. We call these six requisites
the six alfalfa secrets, as follows : —
1. Good, well-drained soil.
2. A good, hard seed bed.
3. Plenty of the right kind of lime.
4. Good, acclimated, northern grown seed.
5. Good, abundant soil or seed inoculation.
6. Good harvesting and curing of the hay.
Good Soil.
You will notice that our first requirement is good soil. Al-
falfa must have liberal feeding. It is true that alfalfa when
once well established will come nearer making its own way,
while giving paying crops, than will any other farm crop; yet
this fact must be faced, namely , ^ during the first year alfalfa
plants are delicate little plants which respond readily to liberal
feeding. This means that we get more from the money spent
for available nitrogen, potash and phosphorus to put on the
gTOund, which we are to seed to alfalfa, than we get from the
money spent for plant food for most other farm crops.
But how is a man to know what to feed his alfalfa plants ?
My answer is ask your farm bureau agent, if you have one.
He should have gathered some valuable information from the
experiences of the farmers of your district, and he should
have at hand what the experiment stations know as to what
alfalfa needs. The next best source of information after your
farm bureau, is your experiment station. Write to your ex-
periment station and ask the men there what they know about
feeding alfalfa. Your land may not be of the same kind as
that on which they have experimented, and hence you may need
other help. I can think of no place more valuable for one to
come, once a year, than to a gathering like the J^ew England
Alfalfa Association meeting, and there compare notes and hear
the experiences of fanners who have been growing alfalfa. But
when all is said and done you must do a little experimenting
on your own farm. Sow different strips on your alfalfa field
with different amounts of the different fertilizers and then
watch for i-esults. But to start alfalfa you will want to have
a rich soil, and you will need to use something like 500 pounds
to an acre of a mixture of about 3 per cent of nitrogen, 8 per
cent of phosphoric acid and 10 per cent of potash.
Select Well-drained Soil.
Alfalfa comes to us from the semi-arid regions of southern
Asia. To be sure it has been grown in Europe for centuries,
and in America for some years, yet it shows its desert origin
by demanding a well-drained soil. Alfalfa will not live with
its feet in the water. It will do well on loose sandy or stony
soil. Alfalfa will thrive on a stony hillside so full of rock and
so dry that corn will not develop an ear. I know of two pieces
on such soil, one has been down for five years and the other for
eight. The soil is so dry and sandy that blue grass and plan-
tain, the two worst weed enemies of alfalfa, have not gotten a
foothold. Of course a man gets more alfalfa on better ground,
but he gets more dollars worth of feed from such a stone patch
than he can get from seeding it to any other plant, unless it
be sweet clover.
Alfalfa seems to prefer a southern slope. I think that this
is explained in part by the fact that southern slopes are dryer
in fall and winter. Perhaps the ground is sweeter and does
not heave so seriously. Alfalfa can stand more cold than most
other plants. After the first year it does not winter kill in a
temperature from 20^^' to 30° below zero. Alfalfa is green a
month longer in the fall and a month earlier in the spring.
Perhaps the southern slopes are favorable because alfalfa can
get a better growth for winter covering in the fall, and an
earlier growth in the spring. This does not mean that you
cannot grow alfalfa on northern slopes. It does mean that I
advise the beginner to start his first patch or two on his southern
slopes.
One of the great problems in America is the conservation of
the soil on our hillsides. Alfalfa once well seeded may be left
on a hillside for ten years ; then if plaintain and grass come in,
the patch may be plowed up, cultivated for a half year and
seeded to alfalfa for another ten years. This makes alfalfa bet-
ter than orchards for holding the soil on the hillsides.
Low, wet ground is apt to be sour. It will grow alsike
clover, timothy, cow peas, red top and corn, for these are more
tolerant of acid in the soil. Cow peas, alsike and red top seem
to thrive best where the soil is slightly acid. But alfalfa will
not grow on sour soil. It winter kills and the bacteria fail to
thrive. Some men have used tile drains and have converted
low, coastal plain or river bottom soils into the best of alfalfa
soils. Alfalfa being a gift of the desert demands a dry, well-
drained soil.
Prepai'e a Good, Chan. Hard Seed Bed.
When we have studied how to gTow alfalfa as long and as
diligently as we have studied how to grow corn, we shall laugh
at the man who gets less than 5 or G tons to the acre, and some
8
of you will be getting much more. But when we have learned
how to grow alfalfa, we shall have learned that the seed is very,
very small, and that for some weeks the little alfalfa j)lant is
a very delicate little thing. That means that it cannot hold
its own against many of the weeds. You can kill the weeds by
disking and plowing, by cultivating and hoeing before the al-
falfa is planted on the ground. But once the alfalfa is planted,
you are doomed to partial failure if you have sown the seed
on gi'ound infested with weeds. You must soav alfalfa on a
clean seed bed in order to succeed well. *
The seed bed should be hard. I would hardly expect to
succeed with alfalfa if I plowed the ground just before sowing
the seed. I would much prefer disking to plowing before seed-
ing. Where alfalfa is seeded in August, following wheat or
oats, disking gives better results than plowing. But wo do not
disk to save time. We must disk and disk until it takes as
much time as it would to plow. However, the disking leaves
a hard seed bed underneath, it gives us a garden mulch on
top, and it leaves the stubble on the surface to act as a partial
shade and to keep the soil from washing. Plowing, especially
after a coat of manure or heavy coat of stubble is plowed under,
causes the soil to dry out too rapidly and too deeply. Even
oats, with a seed much larger than the little alfalfa seed, fre-
quently do better on disked ground than on plowed ground.
But if there are weeds, if the ground has been in oats, say, and
the oats have been cut early for hay, then the ground may be
plowed, the deeper the better, and the weeds thoroughly killed.
After the plowing the gTound should be rolled, disked and har-
rowed frequently to germinate and kill all weed seed and to give
a good, hard seed bed underneath, with a clean garden mulch
on top. Remember that you are seeding the alfalfa for from
three to ten years to come, and it pays to do it well. You can
easily reduce your alfalfa hay crop 1 to 2 tons for a number
of years to come by not preparing a good seed bed. Think of
a man's shortening his yield 2 tons of hay, worth $20 per ton,
and that for three to ten years to come, and all of this loss to
save a day's labor when preparing a seed bed. The seed bed
should be clean enough and soft enough to do for an onion bed.
It pays to have a clean, hard seed bed.
Apply Plenty of the Right Kind of Lime.
There are a number .of things which we have to learn about
liming. But of one thing we are certain, no farm crop requires
more lime than does alfalfa. This may be because the bacteria
which furaish the nitrogen for the alfalfa are very sensitive
to sour soil. It niay be, and undoubtedly in part is, because
the bacteria that should thrive on the alfalfa roots are most
easily killed by acids in the soil. However, I believe that there
is another reason. The alfalfa plant has 34 per cent of lime
in its ash, clover has 20 per cent. and timothy has 4 per cent.
I believe that we are just beginning to learn our A B C's of
lime for animal and plant foods. I believe that when the
truth is fully understood, we shall know that one reason why
alfalfa is so good for growing animals, for poultry and for dairy
cows is because of its high per cent of lime. If this proves to
be true, there is no way known to the farmers of to-day hj
which they may make money faster than to sow lime on the
land to feed alfalfa, which in turn is to feed animals and hence
return to him in beef or milk, which sells at many times over
the cost of the agricultural lime.
There are two materials called lime, and they come to us in
three forms. One material is dolomite, which is a magnesian-
calcium carbonate. T believe that when we fully understand
the lime problem, we shall have learned that the magnesium
lime is not to be used for alfalfa. Hall says the English farm-
ers learned years ago that the dolomite is not good for repeated
applications. Do not misunderstand me. Magnesian lime will
neutralize acids as readily as pure calcium lime, but I do not be-
lieve that the neutralization of acids is all that there is to liming
for alfalfa, nor do I believe that sweetening the soil is half that
there is to liming for alfalfa. I believe that calcium is a very
necessary plant food for alfalfa, and hence well Avorth feeding
the plant in abundance.
Lime comes to us in three forms, — caustic or burned, hy-
drated or slaked and in the form of ground limestone. Only
unburned, ground limestone is to be recommended for applying
immediately before sowing alfalfa. Burned lime is believed
to be injurious to the alfalfa bacteria. Hydra ted lime is but
10
little better. Moreover, tliese forms are hard on the men who
handle them, while ground calcium limestone is believed to be
beneficial to men, especially men of weak lungs.
Of course where one has to pay freight on a long haul, and
where one can apply the burned lime some months preceding
the planting of the alfalfa, it may pay to use burned limestone.
Use Good, Acclitnated, Northern Grown Seed.
Our people get the best results by using 30 pounds of seed
to an acre. That should be too much. There are places where
men have used as little as 6 quarts (12 pounds) with timothy
and clover. In time the timothy and clover disappeared, the
alfalfa survived and made a good stand that yielded three or
more tons per acre. Twenty pounds to an acre should be
enough, providing we use a disk drill and use good seed. But
good seed is hard to get. I fear that the seed houses palm off
on the eastern farmers entirely too much of the Asiatic seed.
I fear that at times farmers are led to believe that the Turke-
stan seed is superior. Then, too, I fear that entirely too much
southern grown seed finds its way this far north.
Massachusetts requires good seed, from plants that have been
grown in the United States for some years and from States as
far north as Montana. How can you get it ? Well, one way
is to have one of your farm bureau agents go west and find
a reliable grower and then buy of him. Another way is to find
a reliable dealer and then ]int it u]i to him to furnish you good
seed at a reasonable rate. I found that we could get for the
members of our farm bureau good seed at $7.80 per bushel of
60 pounds, and that at a time when other farmers were paying
$13 and $15 for the same seed. It strikes me that there is
nothing that your State association can do that will help more
than to discover among yourselves a member who knows where
you can get good seed ; then have him arrange so that you can
get seed from him or his dealer. We have a form or legal
paper which a man may deposit in his local bank with the
money for the seed. The form provides that when the seed
arrives, the bank pays the bill and that automatically releases
the seed to the buyer.
11
Of course members of this association will not run the risk
of planting seed until their farm bureau agent or their State
college men have examined and tested their seed. There is too
much danger of dodder. After I had examined the seed from
one seed house, and had Pennsylvania State College examine
it, and had the men in the United States Department of Agri-
culture at Washington examine it, I found that the seed house
had sent a farmer seetl in which he might plant thirteen dodder
seeds to a square rod. If you once get dodder on your place,
' you will probably be unable to grow paying crops of alfalfa
for five or more years. My advice is to have samples of the
seed examined by some one who knows how to examine and
test alfalfa seed. But even that does not assure you that it is
northern grown seed. Therefore, get seed from a reliable seed
man, pay him a reasonable price, but give him to understand
that he is to be responsible for the delivery of first-class north-
ern grown, acclimated seed.
Give the Soil or the Seed Abundant Inoculation.
There are two ways to inoculate. One way is to go to a field
where alfalfa is being grown and where there are plenty of nod-
ules on the roots and take the soil from there and spread the soil
over the field which you intend to sow to alfalfa. There are
people who will tell you that 200 or 300 pounds of soil will do.
That may be true Avhere you can sift the soil and seed or sow
it with a hand seeder, but I think that a man can better afford
to use 2 tons than 200 pounds of soil. If I were going to grow
alfalfa, I would put in 2 or 4 square rods of ground. I would
put this into alfalfa in the spring. I would inoculate it heavily,
and then from that patch I would get soil for my field.
For field inoculation I would use the manure spreader. I
would go to a piece of ground where the nodules are thick,
shovel oft' about 2 or 3 inches of the surface soil, and then load
the spreader with the soil that lies from 3 inches to 15 inches
below the surface. Then I would drive to the land which I
intended to sow in alfalfa. There I would put the spreader
in gear, let it run until the dirt began to pile up near the roar
of the spreader, then stop and crank the load to the front and
12
then go ahead again. When the dirt was again piling near the
rear end of the spreader, I would again shovel or crank it back
to the front. You will do well to make a big load cover a half
acre. But you can give an acre two loads with less labor and
bother than you can putter around with 200 pounds, if you
have to sift it and use a hand seeder. Three or 4 tons of soil
are not too much. The soil should be spread on a cloudy day,
and it should be harrowed in at once. I do not need to say
that you run the risk of sowing plant diseases. Hence it is
necessary to be very cautious to get soil for inoculation from*
land free of disease.
We have found that the commercial cultures give us better
results and cost us less than the soil inoculation. Of course I
think both are better than either alone. You can get enough
culture for an acre of seed for $2, and you can hardly take a
man and team and spread your own soil for less than $2 per
acre. The inoculating of the seed is a simple process. The
directions that come with each batch of the culture give one
ample information as to just what to do to inoculate the seed.
We have had good results from the use of the commercial cul-
tures. The United States Department of Agriculture at Wash-
ington is very liberal with their cultures, and hence most of
you can get the cultures free by asking for enough to inoculate
seed for the number of acres which you intend to sow. Again
I wish to tell you that I think you should sow something like
4 square rods the spring before you sow your field. Give the
seed for the little patch double inoculation. You may sow a
few square rods in the corner of some pig or cow lot. What
you want is a rich well-manured plot in which you may get
the bacteria to grow. You may seed this with a little oats to
help keep down the weeds. Mow the oats for hay. Of course
you will select some place where you can well spare a few
inches of the soil and where the shoveling will not be hard.
Your main crop should be planted in August. This enables
you to kill the weed seed. It enables you to get a crop of oat-
hay or oat and Canada pea-hay or a crop of early potatoes.
JSTow, if you have your little patch in which you have been
growing the bacteria, and if you seed in August, you have
13
your own soil for inoculation. Do not underestimate the im-
portance of inoculation. After the alfalfa is once well started
you will get 1 to 2 tons per acre more each season as a result
of good, abundant inoculation. But that is little more than
half of the story. If you have abundant inoculation, your
alfalfa is to gather for you and store in your soil from $20 to
$30 worth of nitrogen each year after the first year. This you
are to get back in increased yields of potatoes and corn and in
richer protein content of corn and grain for years after the
alfalfa is plowed under.
You ought to work out a crop rotation by which you can
leave your alfalfa down for three or more years. If you leave
the alfalfa down for three years, and if you had plenty of bac-
teria on the roots, you should have land that is at least $50
per acre richer in nitrogen when you plow it up.
Harvesting Alfalfa Hay,
After having grown a crop which is equal pound for pound
to thrashed oats or wheat bran, a man can very easily lose much
of it by improper handling. He may injure his stand of alfalfa
very materially by cutting too early or too late. Alfalfa must
be cut when the little sprouts at the crown are well started and
are yet not high enough to be cut oif by the mowing machine.
If mowed too early, they are little delicate, white sprouts that
cannot stand the exposure to the bright sunshine and cannot
yet make their own food. If cut too late, the plant may have
accomplished its natural life work of reproduction and hence
die a natural death ; or the mowing machine may clip the top
buds of each of the stems that were to have made the next
cutting. Then, too, if one cuts alfalfa in a humid climate,
especially where there is much moisture in the ground, and
cuts it in the forenoon, he cuts it when there is most moisture
in the stems and leaves. The hay is longer in curing, the bac-
teria of decay have a longer time to work, and hence the hay
is of less value. But if one cuts in the afternoon, when the
stems and leaves are wilted, he is able to put up the hay sooner,
it is dryer and richer, and in every way better. Of course this
does not offer so favorable a labor schedule, but alfalfa hay is
14
rich enough in food elements so that some extra labor can well
be used in harvesting it.
But the man who does not understand alfalfa will suffer the
greatest loss, because he does not use the hay caps. The alfalfa
leaf is the richest part of the plant. Horses do not like leaves
so well, but cattle and chickens like them better. But the leaves
are very readily shattered off unless the hay is cured under the
hay caps. Some people make the mistake of having caps that
are too small. The caps should be at least 50 by 50 inches.
The comers may be fastened with weights or wire pins.
Weights are made by filling small plant pots with cement into
which has been placed a wire loop or hook. Wire pins are most
pleasing to some. The pius are made by cutting a good strong
wire into foot leng-ths and then bending a hook or loop at one
end. The pin is jabbed into the hay under the cap and thus
holds the corners down and the cap on.
Summary.
Why grow Alfalfa?
1. Alfalfa is i^ound for pound equal to thrashed oats.
2. It pays better to grow alfalfa than to buy mill feeds.
3. Alfalfa requires less work than is required to grow other farm
crops.
4. Growing animals, hens and dairy cows need lime, and alfalfa fur-
nishes most lime.
5. Alfalfa is the most drought resistant farm crop.
6. Alfalfa gives us most protein per acre.
7. Alfalfa does most to improve (he soil because (a) it roots deepest;
(h) it gathers and stores in the soil most nitrogen.
How to grow Alfalfa.
Six alfalfa secrets : —
1. Good, well-drained soil.
2. A good, rich, hard seed bed.
3. Plenty of the right kind of lime.
4. Good, acclimated, northern grown seed.
5. Good, abundant soil or seed inoculation.
6. Cut at the right time and cure in the right way.
15
A Dozen Alfalfa Dox'ts.
1. Don't sow on weedy soil.
2. Don't sow on poorly drained soil.
3. Don't seed a large acreage to begin with.
4. Don't say alfalfa can't be grown in New England.
5. Don't sow on any but sweet, well-drained soil. Alfalfa is a desert
plant.
6. Don't sow on any but a well-prepared, well-settled seed bed.
7. Don't fail to give araple inoculation ; both seed and soil inoculation
are best.
8. Don't pasture the first year, and don't pasture when wet.
9. Don't feed alfalfa as you do hay, feed it as you do grain.
10. Don't spend your hard-earned money for protein feeds; gTOw
alfalfa, clovers, Canada and cow peas and soy beans.
11. Don't lose the leaves; they are the best part of the plant. Use
hay caps.
12. Don't give up. Many prominent alfalfa growei's succeeded after
some failures.
®I)C Qlommoniocaltl) erf iHassacljUBCtts,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 36.
January, 1915.
Factors Affecting Economical Milk
Production.
By Professor C. H. Eckles.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Mas.sachu.setts
State Board op Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approvee) by
The State Board op Publication.
FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMICAL MILK PKODUCTION.
C. H. ECKLES, PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF
MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MISSOURI.
The day of cheap feed for cattle as well as of food for man
is past in this country. Never before in the history of the
world has such an area of wonderfully fertile and easily tillable
land been brought into use within the span of a lifetime as was
done in the Mississippi valley during the past century. As a
result of this enormous increase in the production of foodstuffs,
anci the low price which resulted, both the American consumer
and the American farmer developed habits wdiich they do not
propose to give up without a struggle. The consumer, on the
one hand, became accustomed to cheap food, and it w^as only
a few years ago that the standard price of milk in my State
was 5 cents per quart. Now, when there are no immense areas
of new land to bring into cultivation, and the population is
catching up with the production of food, the inevitable result is
higher prices for food, and the consumer is certain some one is
robbing him because the cost of living has advanced. The
consumer does not realize that the farmer who produces the
food to-day is making only fair wages, and on the average
probably less than he did ten or twenty years ago.
On the other hand, the tendency on the part of the farmer,
with cheap feed for his animals, wdth a soil of great fertility to
draw upon, has been to develop most wasteful habits in pro-
duction. For example, it is only since feed became so high
that it is impossible to carry on a dairy business with poor
cows, that the milk producer has begun really to give attention to
the selection of the indi\idual cow.
It is the necessity of the times that is compelling the adoption
of business systems in dairy farming operations. At present a
large portion of the United States is in a period of transition
from a temporary to a permanent condition of agriculture.
The consumer need not expect cheap food again, neither
can the producer expect to continue in business if he does not
use methods of keeping down the cost of production which were
not thought of a few years ago. It is certainly to be hoped
that some means of decreasing the cost of distribution of food
products, and especially milk, will be worked out. Unless
some means can be found to accomplish this result the consumer
must expect to pay more for milk in the future than at present.
Since I am not familiar with New England conditions, I can
speak only for my own State, and others similarly located, in
saying that the average man who sells market milk to-day is
hardly making wages for himself and family, provided every-
thing, including interest on investment, be taken into account.
If the average man is doing no better than this, it is evident
many are not making even current wages, or savings bank
interest on their investment. On the other hand, there are
plenty of men who are not only making a good income but in
addition are constantly increasing their capital by paying on
their farm or buying additional land. I doubt not that a
similar variation in income exists among New England farmers
supplying your many cities with milk. The farmer below the
average, like the cow- below the standard, is bound to be
eliminated. While I do not believe the price paid the farmer
for milk is high enough at present in my section of the country,
at the same time I do not believe that the price ever will be
raised sufficiently, nor should it be, to allow the slipshod
farmers who now rank as below the average to continue in
business.
The Conditions in the Middle West.
The eastern farmer is generally inclined to look upon the
milk producer in what he calls the west as having great ad-
vantages in the way of cheaper feed. In the past this has been
probably more of an advantage than it is at present. While the
cost of feed is somewhat higher in the eastern States, the
market price of milk is also correspondingly better. It is
questionable if the farmer who produces market milk in
Illinois, Wisconsin or Missouri has conditions any more favor-
able, taking everything into account, than in the New England
States.
It should be kept in mind that the production of milk on the
farms in the ^Mississippi valley is largely a side line to other
lines of farming. This is especially true of the cream, which
supplies the numerous butter factories which make Minnesota
and Iowa the center of the butter producing industry. This
cream comes from farms where the owners are, as a rule, pro-
ducing several articles for market, among which cream is of
more or less importance. On these farms the average number
of cows milked is about ten. It is almost impossible to esti-
mate correctly the actual cost of keeping cows under these
conditions. It is difficult even to estimate the cost of the feed.
A considerable portion of their ration consists of roughage in
the way of grass, corn silage, hay, etc., which could not be
marketed to advantage, if at all, and the labor of caring for
the animals is largely done by members of the family. Under
these conditions it is possible to keep a limited number of
animals on a farm with very little additional expense. This
accounts for the fact that a State like IMissouri keeps 750,000
cows, and the farmers consider they are making money in spite
of the fact that the average production is only about 4,000
pounds of milk and 160 pounds of butter fat. This is the
typical condition in the corn-belt States.
If an attempt were made to keep the same cows under con-
ditions where the feed was purchased at market price and the
labor was paid at current rates, these average animals would
show not a profit but a loss. At the same time under the
conditions existing, they are undoubtedly kept at some profit.
The men who produce market milk in my State average a little
high in total production per cow, securing on the average be-
tween 5,000 and 5,550 pounds of milk.
The following figures give the actual feed consumed and its
cost for a year for three Missouri Holstein cows averaging (S,426
pounds of milk, and for three of the same breed averaging 5,709
pounds : —
Table 1. — Three Holstein Cows averaging 8,4^6 Pounds Milk.
Pounds fed. : Value per Ton.
Cost.
Alfalfa hay,
Silage, .
Corn, .
Bran, .
Cottonseed meal.
Pasture five months,
2,216
5,363
1,808
904
452
S14 00
3 50
22 00
20 00
30 00
1 501
$14 79
9 39
19 88
9 04
6 78
7 50
S67 38
Feed cost per 100 pounds milk, $0.80.
Total value milk, $1.50 per hundredweight, $126.39.
1 Per month.
Table 2. — Tliree Ilohteiti Cows averaging 5,709 Pounds Milk.
Pounds fed.
Value per Ton.
Cost.
Alfalfa hay,
Silage, .
Corn, .
Bran, .
Cottonseed meal.
Pasture five months.
2,048
4,082
1,016
508
254
$14 00
3 50
22 00
20 00
30 00
1 501
$14 34
7 14
11 18
5 08
3 81
7 50
$49 05
Feed cost per 100 pounds milk, $0.84.
Total value milk, SI. 50 per hundredweight, $85.63.
1 Per month.
It is seen from these figures that in the State mentioned it
cost $60 to $70 to feed a cow that will produce 8,000 to 8,500
pounds of milk, or about 80 cents per hundred pounds. Those
averaging 5,709 pounds required about $50 worth of feed, or a
cost of 84 cents per hundred. The prices of feed used are
about the average prices with us for the past five years, and
represent, except in the case of silage, what these feeds could
be purchased for on the market. These cows represent ordinary
producing animals of their breed. These figures, it should be
understood, are based entirely upon actual weights of all the
feed and milk produced.
Figures are also given below of the actual feed consumed by
three cows having quite a wide range of production. These
animals were not on pasture, but received practically the same
ration throughout the year.
Table 3. — ■ Amount and Cost of Feed for Three Coivs of Different Milk-
producing Capacity. •
Holstein, 11,987 Pounds Milk.
Pounds fed.
Value per Ton.
Cost.
Alfalfa hay,
5,685
S14 00
$39 79
Silage, .
7,946
3 50
13 91
Corn,
1,920
22 00
21 12
Bran,
960
20 00
9 60
Cottonseed meal, . . . .
480
30 00
7 20
-
-
$91 62
Feed cost per 100 pounds milk, $0.76.
Total value milk, $1.50 per hundredweight, $179.90.
Ayrshire, 9,169 Pounds Milk.
Alfalfa hay,
4,807
$14 00
$33 65
Silage,
5, .550
3 50
9 71
Corn,
1,644
22 00
18 08
Bran,
822
20 00
8 22
Cottonseed meal,
411
30 00
6 17
-
-
$75 83
Feed cost per 100 pounds milk, $0.83.
Total value milk, $1.50 per hundredweight, $137.53.
Shorthorn, 5,573 Pounds Milk.
Alfalfa hay,
4,023
Silage,
5,950
Corn
1,140
Bran,
570
Cottonseed meal,
285
$14 00
3 50
22 00
20 00
30 00
$28 15
10 41
12 54
5 70
4 27
$61 07
Feed cost per 100 pounds milk, $1.10.
Total value milk, $1.50 per hundredweight, $83.59.
We could give a large number of similar figures of which
these are representative. On the basis of our figures, which are
based not upon estimates but upon actual records, and which
8
I believe fairly represent practical conditions, we can make a
fair estimate of the cost of feed required for producing milk in
my State during the past five years.
Table 4. — Estimated Cost of Feed in Missouri.
Production per Year (Pounds).
Cost
of Feed per
Year.
Average
Cost per 100
Pounds.
5,000-6,000,
6,000-7,000,
8,000-10,000,
S50 00-$60 00
55 00- 65 00
65 00- 80 00
85-Sl 00
It is, of course, recognized that the cost of feed, while the
largest single item, is only one among several that go to make
up the total cost of milk production. It is an exceedingly
difficult matter to give a fair estimate of these other factors
entering into the cost of milk production. Even as regards
feed there is some difficulty, since the cattle make use in part
of feed that could not be put on the market, and which there-
fore can hardly be said to have a market price. In Missouri
the production of milk, as stated, is so closely connected with
general farming operations that it is practically impossible to
separate the labor items. In many cases the milking is done
largely by younger members of the family and in that way
some income secured for their services, which probably would
not be had at all if it were not for having this particular work
to do. There are certain items that of course can be estimated
with reasonable accuracy, as, for example, the cost of maintain-
ing the herd bull, and the interest on the investment; and it is
fairly easy to estimate the depreciation in the value of the cow.
I regret that I cannot present some accurately taken figures
that would give us definite information for conditions as exist-
ing in my State. The best estimate and most complete figures
on this subject of the cost of milk production in addition to the
feed is found in a bulletin from the New Hampshire Experi-
ment Station by Professor Rasmussen. He estimates the cost
of keeping a cow to be $50 per year in addition to the feed.
While the cost of feed is somewhat lower in the Mississippi
valley States than in the east, the market price of milk is also
lower. A fair estimate of the amount received by farmers in
jNIissouri during the last five years, for milk sold at wholesale
to go to the cities, is $1.50 per hundred pounds. The average
price for butter fat at creameries has been around 28 cents and
in some places probably even less, giving an income of not
much over $1 per hundred for milk sold to creameries, exclusive
of the value of the skim milk used on the farms for feeding
purposes.
There is no question but that a portion of those producing
cream for the creamery or milk for cities in Missouri are not
making their expenses, that is, either they are not themselves
getting current wages or are receiving less than current interest
on their investment, or probably both. A large number are
really making a small profit, that is, a fair return for their
work, while a smaller number are making large profits for the
time and money expended. To put it in another way, those who
manage their business skillfully are realizing a good market
price for their feed at home, and are receiving good pay for
their labor and interest on their capital.
Is IT POSSIBLE TO PRODUCE jMiLK AT A PrOFIT AT THE
Present Prices?
It seems to me that it is fair to raise the question as to
whether or not it is possible to produce milk at a profit under
present conditions. If it is being done by some, would it not
be worth while to study the conditions under which they are
doing it? The difficulty in considering the question, as already
intimated, is the impossibility of getting a fair estimate as to
the various items that contribute toward the expenses of milk
production outside of feed. There is plenty of evidence that
certain men are producing milk at a profit; at least we have
such evidence in my State. We can point to farmers who
began twenty years ago with little capital and w^ho have paid
for their farms and have a valuable herd of cattle, and who
have done so by the production and sale of milk. Unquestion-
ably, similar examples could be cited in other States. Further
than that we can refer to actual figures as taken from various
sources.
The following two tables, taken from our records, show the
10
amount of feed used and the cost of feeding a Jersey cow for
a year, also the production of milk and fat from that ration: —
Table 5. — Ration fed a High-class Jersey Goto.
Pounds fed.
Market
Value per
Ton.
Cost
of Amount
fed.
Corn
1,376
$20 00
$13 76
Bran,
688
23 00
7 91
Oil meal, .
344
33 00
5 68
Alfalfa
2,694
15 00
20 20
Silage,
4,575
3 00
6 86
Pasture four and one-half months, .
-
2 00'
9 00
-
-
$63 41
' Per month.
Total cost of the feed consumed by this animal was $63.41.
Had this animal been capable of producing only 200 pounds of
butter fat in a year, this feed bill would certainly look excessive.
During the year, however, her production svas as follows: —
Table 6. — Production and Income from High-class Jersey Cow.
Milk (pounds), 7,940
Fat (pounds), 484
484 pounds fat at 28| cents equals $137 94
635 pounds skim milk at 20 cents per hundredweight equals . 12 70
$150 64
The price given per pound of butter fat was the local cream-
ery price during the time this butter fat was produced. The
skim milk value is placed at what it sells locally for hog feed.
The income from this cow was $150.64 for the year, leaving the
calf out of the consideration and figuring on the basis of cream-
ery prices. Granting the accuracy of the estimate by Professor
Rasmussen of New Hampshire, that it costs $56 in addition to
the feed to keep a cow in milk a year, there still was a margin
of $31 after deducting the $119, which would cover all expenses,
including labor, interest and depreciation. A cow like this
beats any railroad proposition in the country. A railroad is
11
expected to make only good interest on its in^-estment after
paying labor charges and depreciation. What railroad can
show, as this cow did, a clear profit of one-third the cost price
in a year? Take the figures as already given of the Holstein
cow producing 11,987 pounds of milk at a feed cost of $91.
Had this cow been on pasture, it would have reduced her feed
bill several dollars, but at the figures given we can add on the
$56 estimated by Professor Rasmussen for other expense, and
still, had her milk been sold at the local price of $1.50 a
hundredweight, the income would have exceeded the expendi-
ture $33.90.
Whenever figures have been collected regarding the income
from herds or from individual cows, the same wide variations
in income, as pointed out, have been found. There is one fact,
however, that always stands out strikingly, and that is, eco-
nomical production is found only with high-producing cows.
The figures already given, showing the cost of production by
cows of different grades, illustrate the facts in this connection
clearly. The three Holstein cows producing 8,426 pounds of
milk in a year did so at a cost of 80 cents per hundred, with an
average income of $126.39, counting milk at $1.50 per hundred
pounds. The three Holstein cows producing 5,709 pounds of
milk per year cost only $49.05 for feed, but their income was
only $85.63. In other words, for $17 additional feed, when
given to one of the better cows, $40.76 worth of additional milk
was secured. The other items of cost, such as labor, stabling,
etc., would be practically the same for both animals. Figures
as given for the three ii^dividual animals are still more striking.
The cow producing 11,987 pounds of milk did so at a cost of
$91.62 for feed. The cow producing 5,573 pounds of milk, or
practically one-half as much, required feed to the amount of
$61.07. At $1.50 per hundred pounds the difference in the
income of these two animals would be $96.31 per year. The
difference in the cost of feed was $30. The following figures,
taken from the bulletin issued by the New Hampshire Experi-
ment Station already mentioned, illustrate the same con-
dition: —
12
Table 7. — New Hmnpshire Cow Test Association Records, 203 Cows.
Number of Cows.
Production
(Pounds).
Cost Feed.
Cost
100 Pounds
Milk.
Income
above Feed.
14, ...
26, ...
41, ...
40, ...
39, ...
2.5,
10, ...
Average for all.
Above 10,000
9,000-10,000
8,000- 9,000
7,000- 8,000
6,000- 7,000
5,000- 6,000
4,000- 5,000
Under 4,000
7,094
$88 59
88 25
83 46
81 18
73 59
65 91
56 61
57 22
S73 61
$0 81
93
98
1 10
1 13
1 19
1 23
1 86
SI 04
S106 82
79 18
63 86
52 11
43 65
.34 56
27 20
4 25
$49 48
It will be noted that cows producing above 10,000 pounds of
milk did so at a feed cost of around 80 cents per hundred
pounds. Those producing 5,000 pounds cost about $1.20 per
hundred pounds, while those going under 4,000 pounds showed
the exceptionally high cost of $1,86 per hundred. Here we
have exactly the same point illustrated. A low-producing cow,
especially the cow producing less than 5,000 pounds of milk a
year, is the animal that shows very high cost of production, and
it is only necessary to have a few animals of this kind in the
herd before the chances of rimning the business at a profit are
gone.
It should be pointed out that in each case the high-producing
animal uses more feed. This is inevitable. There is a good
deal of loose thinking and talk concerning this point among
dairymen, and especially among others who at times attempt
to advise them. It is even stated that it costs as much to keep
a poor-producing animal as it does a good one. This is true
in regard to certain items of expense, such as stabling, labor,
insurance, etc., but it is not true and cannot be true with
reference to the feed. The animal that is a large producer must
have more feed. And the fact that she is a large producer and
requires more feed is the reason she is a more economical
producer. In order to make it clear where the economy of
production comes in with the high-producing cow, I have
prepared the following table: —
13
Table 8. — Use of Feed by Cows of Different Producing Capacities.
For Maintenance
(Per Cent).
For Milk
(Per Cent).
Cow giving 4,500 pound of milk,
Cow giving 9,000 pounds of milk,
lender the term maintenance is included the feed necessary
to maintain the animal's body. In case of animals producing
4,500 pounds of milk, about 60 per cent of the feed is used to
support the body and about 40 per cent is used for producing
milk. With the animal that produces 9,000 pounds of milk a
year, the condition is reversed. While she uses the same
amount of feed for maintenance, she uses 25 per cent more
feed than the first, which it will easily be seen gives her twice
as much feed available for milk production. This table
shows that in general one cow using 25 per cent more feed
than another may produce twice as much milk. The economy
in the high-producing cow lies in her ability to use a larger
amount of feed after enough has been provided for the main-
tenance of the animal.
This is the simple but entire explanation of the difference in
economy of producing milk by different cows. It is not
difference in digestion of food, or that one has a power to get
something out of her ration that another cannot.
How TO GET THE EFFICIENT CoW.
It would be interesting, and it might be profitable, if limi-
tation of time did not prevent, to consider in some detail as to
how the high-producing cow is to be secured. Time will be
taken to discuss only one or two points and those only briefly.
The first is that in order to secure profitable cows for the dairy
herd, the dairyman must raise them himself. I am fully aware
of the situation in regard to the expense of raising a calf where
the whole milk is sold, but at the same time there is absolutely
no other way for a farmer to increase the quality of his herd.
There are herds in my State that have been maintained for
twenty years or more entirely by purchase, and these herds
14
to-day, as far as we can find out, are not one bit more pro-
ductive than was the herd owned by the same man twenty
years ago. Absolutely no progress has been made and never
will be made until the owner raises his own dairy cows. This
will involve, of course, giving closer attention to the matter of
breeding. It will not pay to raise a dairy heifer unless the
chances are good for her to be a profitable cow when mature,
that is to say, she must be given the right niheritance as far as
possible in order that the number of cows that will have to be
rejected by selection will be reduced to the minimum. After
the cow is raised and in milk, the only sah'ation of the dairy-
man is to keep records of her production. This may be done to
good advantage through the cow-testing association or by the
owner himself.
It is not necessary to milk a heifer long to find out if she is
a good one or not. Last year I compiled the records of our
herd, which are complete for twenty-two years, and I found
that in only one case would we have been far wrong had we
culled out the inferior cows on their first year's record. It is a
mistake to keep a young cow year after year thinking next time
she will be a good one. Our rule is that unless there is some
good excuse apparent for her poor performance, we condemn a
heifer that shows up poorly the first year.
Another question that I might discuss in detail, if I had the
time, in this connection, is that of heifer raising and to what
extent the manner of raising affects the dairy qualities of
animals when mature. In other words, is the inferior or
superior cow, from a milking standpoint, born that way, or is
she made what she is by the manner of feeding and treatment
when young? We have been carrying on investigations along
this line for a number of years. Our conclusions so far are,
that the dairy qualities of an animal are mostly dependent
upon heredity, and that you cannot to any great extent, at
least, affect the dairy qualities of the animal by the way she is
fed or managed when young. We would, of course, not go so
far as to say it is not possible under very abnormal conditions
to injure the milk-giving functions by the way she is raised, but
it would be necessary to go beyond ordinary practices to get
any silch effect.
15
We are convinced that the milk-giving characteristics are
liereditary, but it should be clearly understood that we do not
think the amount of milk that a farmer secures from his cows
has been taken out of his hands and is to be attributed entirely
to the ancestors of his herd. Such is certainly not the case.
By the milking qualities of an animal A^e mean simply her
capacity as a milk-producing machine, and in order to get good
results from any piece of machinery we must have an efficient
operator. So the inherited dairy characteristics of the cow are
the first requirement, and the next is that this machine be
handled by some one skilled in its management.
The Feeding Question.
It is not my purpose to discuss the subject of feeding in
detail, as I am not familiar with the local conditions and
problems, but I desire to take up a few points that I consider
of the greatest importance in regard to the fundamental
principles of successful feeding. I have already emphasized as
best I could the importance of selecting the cow that has the
ability to produce large quantities of milk as the starting point
for economical production. In Missouri, and I think the same
is true in a number of other States, before we can begin to
select cows we must first give them an opportunity to make
good. If a cow does not receive a sufficient amount of feed, or
the ration is unsuitable for producing milk, it is unwise to
say she is an inferior producer and sell her. The first thing to
do, and the step that must precede the selection of the cow, is
to make sure the conditions for production are right. Then
if she does not respond, she cannot be sold too quickly.
In the section of the country with which I am familiar, the
most common mistake made in feeding cows is not to give them
enough. Many of the farmers are more accustomed to feeding
steers and hogs than they are to feeding dairy cows. While
they recognize that to fatten steers economically the animals
must have all the feed they will eat, they do not understand
that exactly the same thing holds with a dairy cow. If I see
the proposition correctly, you cannot afford to keep cows that
are not well fed. It may be that you cannot afford to keep the
16
cows you have at all, but certainly you cannot afford to keep
them without using what capacity they have to produce milk.
The dairy cow in a way may be looked upon as a milk-
producing machine or factory, and like all factories there is a
certain amount of fixed charges that have to be met. With a
cow of fair-producing capacity, about one-half her feed is used
to maintain the functions of the body without returning any-
thing in the way of product. It is the second half of her
ration that is used in producing milk. That is, if it costs us
$70 to feed a certain cow in milk, about $35 of this sum is
used to keep the cow alive. That is fixed charges or the ration
of maintenance. This ration of maintenance is practically the
same whether the cow be a heavy producer or a low producer,
as already pointed out. The high-producing cow is simply one
that has a big capacity for using feed above what it costs to
maintain herself. The proper feeding of cows in regard to
amount is illustrated in the table which follows: —
Table 9. — - Rations.
Full Ration.
Ration of Maintenance. Used for Milk Production.
o 6 r.
Three-quarters Ration.
Ration of Maintenance. Available for Milk Production.
d e f
Half Ration.
Ration of Maintenance.
g h
The lines from a to c represent the ration for a heavy-pro-
ducing cow, which is the one most liable to be underfed. The
first half, from a to b, represents the amount of feed required to
maintain the animal's body. The second half, from b to c,
represents the portion of the feed used for the production of
milk. In this case there is no fat being produced on the
animal's body and the cow is supposed to have such dairy
qualities that she uses all the feed she can digest for milk
production.
The line below represents what would happen if the feed of
this animal is reduced one-fourth. The ration of maintenance
remains practically the same as in the first case. The amount
17
represented by the line f/ to r is the amount required to main-
tain the animal's body, which is the same quantity as in the
first case; however, the cut of one-fourth in the ration will be
seen to come entirely on that available for milk production and
reduces that amount one-half.
Suppose that the ration of such a cow will be still further
reduced to one-half of the full ration, or that required for
maintenance alone, as represented by the third line. In this
case the cutting down of the ration one-half would remove all
available feed for milk production. However, the animal would
not cease producing milk at once. This is a point of great
importance in feeding cows, and a lack of such knowledge leads
to serious errors in feeding. The milk-producing function is so
strong that the cow will continue to produce milk for some
time, even when the feed is insufficient, utilizing the reserve
material which has been accumulated in the body in the past.
This always happens in the case of a heavy-milking cow during
the first few weeks after the birth of a calf. At this time it is
not generally possible, and not desirable on account of the
condition of the animal, to feed her heavily enough to supply
the nutrients necessary to produce the milk. Even if the feed
were offered, the appetite is not usually strong enough to cause
the necessary amount of feed to be taken to prevent loss in
weight. As a rule, all heavy-milking cows decline in weight
for the first two or three weeks, and occasionally for ten weeks,
after calving, which means that the nutrients used for milk
production have been in excess of the feed supplied for that
purpose. The same thing happens in the case of a cow that is
not fed a sufficient ration for the amount of milk she is pro-
ducing. She may continue to produce considerable milk for a
while by drawing on the reserve material of the body, but as
soon as this is exhausted, the production of milk must come
down to the amount available for this purpose, above the
ration of maintenance. When the feed is in excess, the cow
begins to store reserve material on her body. If the amount of
milk produced by a cow varied directly with the feed, and she
did not store up nutrients at one time and draw on reserve
materials at another, it would simplify the problem of feeding
very much and result in more economical feeding at all times.
18
How TO AVOID Overfeeding.
While the statement and illustration given applies to one
class of dairy cows, there is another class to which it does not
apply, and with which it would lead to a serious mistake in
feeding from an economical standpoint. This group includes
those of lower productive capacity wdiich are liable to be over-
fed, especially when they are in the herds of dairymen who
realize the necessity of liberal feeding. The proper feeding of
this group of animals can perhaps be made clearer by the
following illustration: —
Table 10. — Cow of Lower Productive Capacity liable to be overfed.
Full Ration.
Used for
Ration of Maintenance. Milk Production. Body Fat.
a b c d
Economical Ration.
Used for
• Ration of Maintenance. Milk Production.
The line a to d represents the amount of feed that an animal
of this class will consume; a to b represents the ration of main-
tenance as before. In this case, however, the capacity for
making milk is not equal to the capacity of the animal for
utilizing feed in excess of that required to maintain the body.
The amount which the animal is capable of utilizing for milk
production is represented by that portion of the line b to c,
while the animal's appetite is equal to the total line a to d. This
gives a surplus, c to d, which is not utilized for milk production,
but which will be used for storing fat on the animal's body, and
we will have the cow gaining in weight while she is producing
milk. This gain in weight will be of no service so far as milk
production is concerned, except that it is of some value as a
reserve material to be drawn upon at some other time when
feed is not supplied in sufficient amounts, and it is not eco-
nomical nor desirable to fatten dairy animals with the expensive
feeds which are fed dairy cows. That portion of the feed
represented by the line c to d should be taken from the ration.
This means reducing her feed to take off the amount used for
19
storing fat on the body; in other words, feeding her only what
she will utilize for milk production. This means feed enough
to maintain a practically uniform body weight. In every large
herd where the amount fed is not carefully regulated, we find
errors made in both these classes. We find the heavy pro-
ducing cows being underfed, and we find the light producing
cows being overfed and allowed to accumulate fat.
Relation of Live Weight to Proper Feeding.
The live weight of a cow is a good index of whether the cow
is being fed a proper amount or not, but good judgment must
be used in regulating the ration by observing this condition.
W^e must expect that a cow will lose weight in the first few
weeks of her milking period, but after this period is past there
is no reason why she need to change much in weight for several
months, and this is the period when the greater part of the
milk production is secured. It will not mean, of course, that
the animal should not be allowed to gain in weight during the
latter end of the milking period. This is necessary on account
of the development of the foetus, and since it is natural for the
animal to carry some fat on her body at calving time.
It does mean, however, that in order to feed a herd of cows
economically it will not do to feed them all the same quantity
of grain, whether they are giving a gallon of milk a day or
whether they are giving four gallons; and it means that when
a cow in the middle of her lactation period is putting on weight
she is being fed more than she needs, and will give just as much
milk if the feed is cut down somewhat. It also means that if
a certain animal is losing in weight, sufficient feed is not being
given, and if the deficiency is not supplied, it will not be long
before the milk production will come down to correspond with
the amount of feed available.
Feeding as Individuals.
In connection with this subject of the amount to feed cows,
it needs to be pointed out that it is only possible to feed a
bunch of cows economically when they are fed as individuals,
and not as a herd. A too common practice, even in the other-
20
wise well-conducted herds, is for all animals to be fed the same
amount of grain, regardless of the time they have been in milk
or the quantity of milk individual cows are producing. Such
feeding always lacks economy, as the high-producing cow does
not get enough, and, while she may milk very well for a short
time, she soon comes down to a lower level, while the lighter
producing cow usually gets too much and accumulates fat.
One of the difficult problems which confronts the practical
feeder is how to adjust the quantity of feed to meet these
individual requirements. It can be done fairly well even in the
large herds by observing how much milk the cow is producing,
and whether she is gaining or losing in body Aveight.
Balanced Rations.
In the corn belt next to underfeeding the most common
mistake in feeding is giving rations deficient in protein. This
comes about from the abundance and relative cheapness of
corn^ corn silage or corn fodder, and the large amount of
timothy hay grown. I assume that in New England, where it
is the custom to purchase considerable feed, this error is not so
common or serious as with the farmers in the corn belt.
Closely connected with this question is the one of growing
legumes on the farm. We are constantly urging the ^Missouri
farmers to grow^ more alfalfa, cowpea and clover hay. I hope
New England dairy farmers already appreciate the importance
of this subject and need no urging along this line. In my
judgment successful and economical feeding of dairy cows must
be based largely upon legume hay and corn silage. With plenty
of home-grown alfalfa or clover hay on hand, it is an easy
matter to plan a good ration for our cows and at the minimum
expense for grain.
Succulent Feed.
In order that cows may do their best it is necessary that
succulent feed in some form be provided. In some of the
northern sections of our country, and especially in Europe, this
desirable part of the ration is supplied in a very satisfactory
state in the form of root crops. In the greater part of our
country corn silage has taken the place of roots in the ration.
21
Corn silage supplies the succulent feed so desirable in order to
keep the animals in the best possible condition. At the same
time in most parts of the United States corn yields more food
nutrients per acre than any other crop, with the possible
exception of alfalfa in those regions where the latter flourishes.
Missouri has built over 8,000 silos during the past three
years, and the progressive dairymen there would not think of
doing without one. It will be but a few years until every
farmer in the State will be provided with one. The use of
silage is also growing with us as a summer feed to help out the
pastures. It looks now as if the silo will in time supersede the
soiling system almost entirely.
Mixed Feeds.
I presume the sale of mixed feeds is large in the State of
Massachusetts, as it is in other places where much feed is sold.
While I certainly do not condemn mixed feeds as a whole, I
would especially caution every one to be on guard in purchasing
them. I see no advantage in selecting them in preference to
the straight feedstufFs, like corn, bran or cottonseed meal.
Mixed feeds must of necessity either sell higher than the
same quantity of food ingredients in the unmixed form, or the
mixed feed must contain some product that could not be sold
alone. Every firm making a mixed feed has expenses to meet.
They have advertising bills, traveling salesmen, a profit for
themselves, and the handling of the feed once or twice in
addition. As a matter of fact too often the chief reason for
mixing feeds is to sell some product, oat hulls for example, that
would not be salable alone. No feed dealer can make a mixture
any better or any cheaper than a farmer who is properly in-
formed regarding the feeding problem. In this respect, as well
as many others, Massachusetts dairymen will do well to make
use of the information supplied by the experiment station at
Amherst.
Stje €ommonrocaltl) of iHa0sacl)U0Ctt0
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 37.
April, 1915.
Second Edition, Revised.
The Value of Experimental Woek foe
Teuck Faemees.
By T. C. Johnson.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts
State Board op Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTEE PRINTING CO., STATE PEINTERS,
32 DEENE STEEET.
1915.
Appro VKD by
The State Board op Publication.
THE VALUE OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK FOR TRUCK
FARMERS.
T. C. JOHNSON, DIRECTOR, VIRGINIA TRUCK EXPERIMENT STATION,
NORFOLK, VIRGINIA.
The work of the experiment stations has long been recog-
nized as of great vakie to the fruit growers, dairymen, stock-
men and general farmers, but the truck farmers have not, as
a rule, received their full share of attention. There are two
apparent reasons for this. The nature of the crops grown is
such that they occupy the ground a comparatively short period,
and they are usually followed b}^ other crops in quick succes-
sion. This renders it very difficult to conduct successfully a
series of fertilizer or disease-control experiments. Such experi-
ments on orchards and grain crops of which the plants occupy
the ground for a number of years, or the rotations are definitely
worked out, are comparatively easy, but with short-season
truck crops the problem is quite different. The ability to
shift from one crop to another tends to develop the idea of
solving the problems, or rather dodging them, by changing
the cropping system. This, of course, is not practical with
the orchardist or grain farmers.
The experiment stations have not received the demands for
assistance from truck farmers that they have from the other
classes of farm workers. Accordingly, they have responded
to these urgent calls, and of necessity neglected the interests
of the truck farmers.
But within the past few years there has been a noted
increase in experimental work intended to benefit the truck
farmers. This is especially notable in the States of Virginia,
New York and Illinois, and the United States Department of
Agriculture has, through its Department of Horticulture, been
conducting investigations on several phases of truck farming.
There are several classes of truck-farm problems which should
receive attention from the experiment stations. The Virginia
Truck Experiment Station was established for the purpose of
solving some of these for Virginia market gardeners, as is set
forth in section 2 of the charter as follows: —
Object. — It shall be the object of the station to conduct researches on
the physiology' of plants and the diseases to wliich they are subject, with
remedies for same. In like mamier investigations looking to the control
and eradication of insect pests shall be undertaken. The comparative
advantage of rotative cropping, the capacity of new plants for acclimatiza-
tion, the improvement of varieties through plant breeding and selection,
and the utiUty of manures, natural or artificial, shall all be considered
with such other researches bearing directly on the interests of the truck
growers of the State as may be deemed advisable.
Vegetable growers in general are interested in the problems
pertaining to soil fertility, soil utility and soil sanitation. Also,
they are concerned with plant breeding, especially in its rela-
tion to the improvement of varieties and the development of
disease-resistant strains in fungous and bacterial diseases and
methods of controlling them; in insect studies, including life
histories and methods of control; and in general marketing
problems.
Soil Fertility.
The work on soil fertility should include such topics as the
use of natural and artificial manures, the kinds to use on cer-
tain crops, the method and time of making applications, and
the quantities best suited. All these important factors are
influenced by the crop rotation followed. When leguminous
crops are to be turned under for soil improvement, smaller
quantities of manures may be used; but if a certain class of
legumes are grown for market purposes, the soil may be ac-
tually robbed of a portion of its available plant food. In a
series of experiments conducted by the Virginia Truck Experi-
ment Station it was found that the yield of a kale crop was
greatly influenced by the crop previously grown in the rota-
tion, as recorded in Bulletin No. 9. The different plats in the
experiment were cropped and treated as follows, and then
planted with kale in August, 1912: —
Plat 1 was planted to beans in April of 1908, 1909, 1910, 1911 and 1912,
with millet following the beans in July, 1908, 1909, 1910 and 1911.
Plat 2 was planted to potatoes in March, 1908, 1909, 1910 and 1911,
and crimson clover sown after the potatoes were dug each year. The
crimson clover was turned under for potatoes in the early spring of 1909,
1910 and 1911, and worked into the ground during the summer of 1912.
Plat 3 was treated in all respects similar to plat 2, except that an ap-
plication of 1,500 pounds of hydrated lime per acre was given before
planting the potatoes in 1908, 1909, 1910 and 1911.
Plat 4 was given an application of 15 tons of well-rotted stable manure
per acre before plowing for the potatoes in 1908, 1909, 1910 and 1911,
and for the corn in 1912. The potatoes were planted in March, and fol-
lowed by corn in July of each year. In 1912 the potatoes were omitted
from the rotation, and corn planted in May. The stable manure was
applied immediately before planting the corn.
Plat 5 was treated in all respects similar to plat 4, except an applica-
tion of 1,500 pounds of hydrated lime was given per acre after the manure
was turned under, and before the potatoes were planted in 1908, 1909,
1910 and 1911.
All plats received equal amounts of commercial fertilizer during the
entire experiment.
Plat 1 produced 6,829.71 pounds of kale per acre.
Plat 2 produced 8,919.71 pounds of kale per acre.
Plat 3 produced 13,824.00 pounds of kale per acre.
Plat 4 produced 13,834.28 pounds of kale per acre.
Plat 5 produced 16,893.91 pounds of kale per acre.
Using the yield on plat 1, from which both the beans and millet were
harvested, as the basis of comparison, the use of crimson clover in the
rotation increased the yield 30.16 per cent, crimson clover and lime 102.4
per cent, stable manure 102.5 per cent, and stable manure and lime 145.9
per cent.
The work on artificial manure should include a study of
the source of the various ingredients used. For instance, in
our work in Virginia we have found that the nitrogen for cer-
tain crops grown in the winter or early spring should be ob-
tained from one set of combinations, while for the same crop
grown in the later summer a different combination is- desirable.
The form of phosphoric acid to be used depends quite as much
upon the condition of the soil as upon the crop which is to
receive it. There is still much work to be done on the various
sources of potash best suited for the dilTerent crops in any line
of agriculture. Where large quantities of commercial ferti-
lizers are used, there are almost certain to be deleterious re-
6
suits. The residual effect of fertilizer has so modified the soil
constituents that it is now practically impossible to grow cer-
tain crops where they formerly thrived. It is often seen that
large quantities may be used under one system of cultivation
with good results, while under another the result might be
injurious. Two crops might require a fertilizer of the same
quantitative analysis, but quite different in the ingredients from
which the materials are obtained. For instance, tobacco pre-
fers the potash from sulphate of potash, while on certain soils
peanuts yield better if treated with muriate of potash.
There is still much room for the study of lime for use in
connection with truck crops. We know in a general way
what the results of lime are, but the application and interpre-
tation of these results in specific cases is sometimes quite
difficult. The Rhode Island Experiment Station has added
very greatly to our knowledge of the use of lime with many
of our truck crops, but the results obtained on the Rhode
Island soils do not necessarily apply in all particulars to other
types of soils. Under some conditions pulverized limestone
may give excellent results; under others the results from it
are negative; but those from freshly burned lime are quite
marked. The kind and quantity of lime that may be used
in connection with commercial fertilizer and stable manure
also vary with the character of the soil. The soils of the
Norfolk sandy loam type in the southern Atlantic States are
prone to acidity in reaction. Consequently larger quantities
of lime may be beneficially used on them in growing such crops
as potatoes, strawberries and beets, but. on soils which are
alkaline in reaction the results are often injurious. The in-
fluence of fertilizer on the acidity of the soil is still open for
investigation. Some investigators claim that it is practically
impossible to increase the acidity by the use of commercial
fertilizer. . However, experiments conducted at the Virginia
Truck Experiment Station seem to indicate that the acidity
may be markedly increased by the use of certain fertilizer
combinations.
Drainage and Irrigation.
The acidity of the soil is also influenced very largely by the
drainage. It is frequently said by good truck farmers that if
they were forced to choose between drainage and commercial
fertilizer they would probably select drainage as the more im-
portant factor in crop production. The amount of drainage
and the location and depth of drainage pipes are best deter-
mined by the local conditions. Drainage experiments con-
ducted on one type of soil under certain conditions throw
some light on the treatment under similar conditions; but if
the conditions are different, it is best to make the experiment
on the particular soil in question. It is well recognized that
drainage has a marked influence on the availability of plant
food added in the form of natural or artificial manures, but it
is not so well known under just what conditions the plant
may get the maximum quantity of these ingredients with the
minimum loss by leaching. The effect of drainage on the
relative earliness of market garden crops is obvious.
Irrigation should be studied in connection with drainage.
It has been the general opinion that our irrigation problems
were limited to the arid and semi-arid districts of the west, but
we are now fast realizing the importance of an abundant and
constant water supply for our eastern agriculture. The in-
tensive truck farmer in the upper south would no sooner think
of attempting to grow his crop without adequate drainage and
irrigation facilities than without the use of stable manure or
commercial fertilizer. The time, the quantity and the method
of application are still fruitful subjects of investigation. We
know that in a general way most of our truck crops should
receive at least an inch of water per week, but there are some
that will thrive better with one and one-half inches or even
two inches, provided the drainage facilities are adequate. The
ditch or furrow method of applying water has long been the
standard in many sections of the country, but a few years ago
the overhead system became quite popular. Now there seems
to be a trend toward the furrow method under certain trucking
conditions in the far south and the semi-arid west. There
8
seems to be no definite data on these points which will enable
the farmer to learn just which method he should use under his
conditions. There is room here for a large amount of work.
Plant Breeding.
The work of the plant breeder in modern agriculture is
almost as important as is that of the soil physicist. To the
plant breeder we are indebted for the numerous adaptations
of vegetables which have brought large remuneration to cer-
tain localities. For example, if only one kind of potato could be
grown, many districts giving large acreage to that crop would
be deprived of that industry.
Since there is great diversity of soil, climate and market
conditions in the country, there arises great necessity for the
development of characteristics adapted to use in the given
surroundings. Accordingly, the plant breeder is devoting him-
self to this line of work and has produced some well-known
results. The soil, climatic and cultural conditions in eastern
Virginia require a class of spinach of the Savoy type, while
under conditions prevailing in Louisiana the Savoy does not
thrive so well as some of the thick-set or long-standing types.
Market growers in the vicinity of Grand Rapids use the open-
head or loose-leaf lettuce, while those in the Atlantic States
grow some form of head lettuce. The plant breeders are at
present busy making still further developments of these strains
which have been adapted thus far to local conditions. Until
a few years ago it was thought that tomato seed obtained
from a typical individual of a variety would give the best
results possible, but now it is known that in addition to being
from a typical plant it is best to pollinate the flowers with
pollen from another plant of the same variety, thus infusing
new blood into the combination. By specialized breeding the
cucumber has been adapted to the cultural method of the open
field, the cold frame and the greenhouse.
The truck farmers in the south have long since learned that
the potatoes of the Bliss type may be grown in Florida, Texas
and Louisiana with a profit, but that in the Carolinas and
Virginia the Cobbler type is more popular, and in Long Island
other types come nearer meeting the requirements. The early
Ohio is popular in the middle western States, but in the south
Atlantic it is held in poor esteem. Thus it appears that potato
growers in the best producing centers have learned to depend
on certain varieties of seed adapted to their special interests.
After securing a variety desirable for a given locality, the plant
breeder has open before him a large opportunity for developing
strains resistant to disease and unfavorable environment. The
Crosby Egyptian beets, now used to a large extent in Massa-
chusetts, are favorites with the Virginia truckers for their
early spring crop, but the Egyptian beets are preferred for the
late summer and fall crops.
The laws governing the transmission of characteristics in
breeding are fruitful sources of study. The work done in this
line by a number of the experiment stations in both American
and European countries is fast becoming of great value to truck
farmers.
Plant Diseases.
The experiment stations have devoted a great deal of time
and energy in the last twenty years to studying the causes of
plant diseases and the remedies for them, yet in some lines of
agriculture this work has hardly started. The study should
now be devoted to discovering the causes underlying the
diseases of plants. In some trucking sections the excessive
use of commercial fertilizer, together with the intensive methods
of cultivation, have rendered conditions favorable for the de-
velopment of certain classes of diseases that otherwise would
not be likely to occur. The study of the exact conditions
making it possible for the disease to develop should be under-
taken. After this discovery the application of remedies may
be much simplified.
The life history of the organism causing certain diseases
should receive careful study. It is important to know the life
cycle of the organism in order to combat the specific disease.
If the market gardener wishes to maintain the health of his
plants, it is as important for him to keep his plantation in a
sanitary condition as for him to treat the diseases after they
make their appearance. But in order that he may do this in-
telligently, the scientist should be in a position to give him the
10
full life history of the organism causing the trouble. He should
know where the organism spends its time when not on the
plant in question. It frequently happens that diseases may be
introduced into new localities on the seed. A marked case of
this kind was encountered in eastern Virginia in the spring of
1911. A large grower of plants purchased cabbage seed from
a certain seed concern and planted them for the purpose of
growing plants for his neighbors. He supplied about two mil-
lion plants to the different truckers. Within a few weeks
ploma wilt appeared in all the fields where plants from this
particular lot were used, the loss resulting in from 50 per cent
to 90 per cent of the crop. The man who grew the plants was
guilty of negligence, and the man who used them was innocent;
but if the plant grower had followed the instruction given by
the experiment station, the disease need not have been intro-
duced.
Some diseases may be controlled by soil treatments. That is,
the soil may be rendered favorable or unfavorable for their
development by the treatment given it. This is especially
true with some forms of bacterial and fungous diseases. In
other instances, the disease may be controlled by treating the
seeds or the vegetative portion of the plants used for propa-
gation.
The Virginia Truck Experiment Station in co-operation with
the Maine Experiment Station has been conducting a series
of investigations looking to the control and eradication of
the " black-leg " disease formerly prevalent in some potatoes
brought from the north and planted in the south. This work
has resulted in developing practical means of eliminating the
trouble by selection of the seed potatoes in the fields in the
north.
At the present time the preventive measures are much more
important than are the curative. Blight can be controlled in the
potatoes by spraying with fungicides before the disease makes
its appearance, but if once established in the plants, the problem
of eradicating it is quite difficult.
The experiment stations frequently outline modifications in
methods of culture that will largely control a number of the
more malignant diseases.
11
Truck Crop Insects.
It has long been known that such insects as the Colorado
potato beetle and the codling moth can be controlled by the
application of arsenical poisons, but with aphides and numer-
ous other insects it is important to know their life histories
in order to combat them successfully. The truck farmer can
apply the remedies, but the investigator should work out the
life histories in order to know when best to make the applica-
tion. Recent studies conducted at the Virginia Truck Experi-
ment Station show that the pea aphis spends a great deal of
its time while not on peas on clovers and similar plants which
are green throughout the mild winters. Consequently, a large
number of insects are in waiting when the peas make their
appearance in the early spring. A knowledge of this fact
serves to caution the trucker not to grow peas and clover in
close proximity.
The feeding and migratory habits of the insect should be
studied carefully. The larvse of the fig beetle in the south has
the obnoxious habit of feeding on organic matter contained in
very rich, sandy soils. Their burrow^s in the soil are sometimes
so numerous that such a crop as parsley may be practically
ruined. The insects have the habit of coming to the surface
of the ground at night and crawling from place to place. A
knowledge of this habit enables the truck farmer to trap them
in open ditches.
By the omission of crops in rotation which furnish hibernat-
ing places, or by the intelligent disposition of the refuse left
after harvesting, the injury from other classes of insects may
be greatly reduced.
Marketing Problems.
The various phases of harvesting and marketing are fruitful
fields for investigation. Refrigeration in transit and pre-cool-
ing for long shipments are receiving the attention of the fruit
growers, but very few experimental shipments of vegetables
have been undertaken. This question is interstate in its char-
acter. Consequently, it should be undertaken by the Federal
Department of Agriculture, or by different experiment stations
as a co-operative project.
12
Systems of cost accounting are receiving careful attention
by the various farm management departments, but the ques-
tions involved in proper marketing of garden products are re-
ceiving but little consideration. The matter of distribution is
of much importance. It frequently happens that vegetables
will be selling very low in one neighborhood and high in an-
other only a few miles distant on account of the poor methods
of distribution. This feature should receive attention by the
departments of agricultural economics.
Mr. H. F. Arnold. I wonder if it would be out of place for
Professor Johnson to tell us what the trouble was that he spoke
of with those cabbages, and what the remedy was that he
applied to that trouble.
Professor Johnson. It was a form of wilt which was over-
come b}^ treating the seed with a formaldehyde solution.
Treatment in that way would have effectively prevented that.
It was a disease that was brought in with the seed. The Ohio
Experiment Station and Federal Department of Agriculture
both published bulletins on that proposition.
Question. I would like to ask the professor if he has found,
in his experience, any difference in the keeping qualities of
vegetables raised by irrigation.
Professor Johnson. Not in my personal experience. In the
w^est the farmers claim to have produced a better grade of
vegetables by irrigation, but they have a tendency to be a
little softer. But the quantity and the grade are so much better
that they counteract any negative results.
Mr. How^ARD. In regard to that disease in potatoes, how
did that affect the potatoes?
Professor Johnson. The disease makes its appearance on the
young potato plant when it is 6 to 12 or 15 inches tall. It
causes a blackening of the stem first, which runs down to the
tuber, the stem topples over and the tuber rots. This disease
has the fortunate habit of not carrying over in the soil, so that
it is a very easy disease to control.
Mr. Lewis. I would like to ask the speaker if he can give
us any information on the melon blight or cucumber wilt.
Professor Johnson. There are two or three of those blights.
13
Now, we have in the far south a bacterial wilt which I don't
believe you have in this State. Then we have some of those
fungous diseases which cause trouble. With the bacterial wilt
it is a question of proper rotation to get that out of the soil.
Of course, in the bacterial wilt we have to go a step further
and not reinfest the field by using manure composed of the de-
cayed vegetables that have had this bacterial wilt. In a lot
of our work we have done spraying on cucumbers and have
used the Bordeaux mixture. If we can get one composed of a
small amount of copper sulphate and a small amount of lime,
and have a good pressure, we can get good results. If we use a
5-5-50 Bordeaux and apply with a low pressure pump our
results are sure to be negative. But where we use a 6-6-50
Bordeaux and apply it under 100 or 125 pounds' pressure, and
arrange the nozzles of the pump so that we can get under the
inside of the foliage, we have been able to hold up the cucum-
bers for weeks.
Mr. H. F. ToMPSON. I would like to ask Professor John-
son about the apparatus that is used for applying the Bor-
deaux mixture.
Professor Johnson. We have not been able to buy a satis-
factory machine on the market for that purpose. There are
several types of spraying machines that are used, any of which
give good high pressure, but they are usually two-gear ma-
chines, geared to wheels. We use them so as to have three
nozzles play on a row^ of cucumbers, two nozzles set so as to
play in at an angle, and a third one to play on the top of the
row. And we arrange those so as to spray two rows of cucum-
bers each time the machine goes across the field. Some of our
farmers have spray pumps that will hold up a hundred pounds
of pressure under nine nozzles, ^ these large type of nozzles.
Where they use nine nozzles it usually takes about 125 gallons
of liquid to spray an acre of ground, and we have to have spray
pumps that will sustain 125 pounds' pressure.
Question. How early is that spraying done?
Professor Johnson. The spraying is usually started when the
vines are 16 or 20 to 24 inches long. I don't like to wait after
24 inches, and don't start before 16. The spraying has a slight
tendency to delay the first setting of the cucumbers, that is, it
14
keeps the vines green and vigorous. In this spraying we usually
find it advisable to train the vines on the rows so that we will
get through the vines.
Question. I would like to ask the speaker if he thinks
melon blight is caused by weather conditions or insects.
Professor Johnson. Neither one. The weather conditions
may be favorable for the development of it, but the melon
blight is either a fungous or bacterial disease. The insect comes
in when you have a bacterial disease, and the insect sucks the
juice out of the plant, and it may be carried out to other
plants. The insect may be either of the flea-beetle type or the
striped cucumber type or another type the name of which
escapes me for the moment. The control of insects plays a
large part in the control of the distribution of plant diseases,
the insect getting the plant diseases on its body and carrying
them to other plants. We have had all that demonstrated
recently by the typhoid germ being carried by the fly.
Mr. HiGGENBOTHAM. What is it that attacks the small
plants just as the seed leaves are coming out? On the cucumber
the leaves seem to curl up and turn yellow.
Professor Johnson. There is a small beetle that looks
something like the flea beetle. It is not the flea beetle, but
from ordinary appearance it might be taken for one. Those
insects jump off and go on the ground. Now, one of the best
remedies we have found for them — not a remedy, after all,
but only a means of driving them away — is by applying raw
fish scrap, — dried ground fish scrap. Do not take fish scrap
that has been treated with phosphoric acid, but take the or-
dinary fish scrap. You can put that right on top of the cucum-
ber plant as it comes through the ground and it will drive
them away. It does not kill them.
Mr. George W. Trull. Did I understand you to say how
many times you spray for blight?
Professor Johnson. We usually spray cucumbers about
every ten days or two weeks, depending on weather conditions,
making the first application when the vines are 16 to 20 inches
long. If we have dry weather it is not necessary to spray
more than every two weeks, but if the weather happens to be
a little cloudy or with some rain, and the vines are making a
15
rapid growth, we prefer to make the sprayings not over ten
days apart, and to make four or five sprayings a season.
Mr. Howard. I would like to ask Professor Johnson what
support he has received from the truck farmers? How do they
take to these experiments?
Professor Johnson. Our truck farmers in eastern Virginia,
to use a slang expression, decided some eight or nine years
ago that they were up against a hard proposition, so to show
their faith in the work they got together and bought a farm
and then went down in their pockets. In addition to buying
that farm, they paid out $7,500 in cash for buildings on the
farm, and then they turned around and leased that to the
State for ten years without rent and renewable at the option
of the State. In other words, they turned it over to the State
and asked the State to come in and run that work. The State
took up the proposition and has made the appropriations and
has continued the work. Now, every time that our experiment
station wants anything from our Legislature the first thing we
do is to go to the truck farmers and get a good committee from
them, and then we go to the Legislature and we usually get
some money. The value of that property that the truck
farmers have put into the work is to-day $25,000; that is, if
the State should vacate the property the- farmers could sell
out for $25,000 or $30,000, but they are perfectly willing to let
it go on, and in addition make frequent contributions for cer-
tain improvements or investments.
Question. I would like to ask, what are the features of the
organization?
Professor Johnson. There are two organizations in eastern
Virginia that are back of it. The one that fathered the move-
ment was the Southern Produce Company. It is a co-operative
trucking organization at Norfolk. The other organization is
the Eastern Shore of Virginia Produce Exchange. As I under-
stand it, the Southern Produce Company did not ask the East-
ern Shore Produce Exchange to help at the time the project
was started, but after that the Eastern Shore Produce Exchange
came in, so that those two organizations are behind the work,
and the work is supported by them. The Southern Produce
Company is an organization in eastern Virginia of 400 members.
16
and it does $2,500,000 worth of business. The other is an
organization of about 1,500 members, and their secretary and
treasurer told me the other day that their business for this
year amounted to a Httle over $5,500,000. I might say in that
connection that practically every State that has taken up this
work has taken it up with the hearty co-operation of the people
who are interested in it. jNIarket growers or vegetable growers
or truck farmers, — by whatever name you call them — must
get behind the proposition to make the proposition fairly suc-
cessful if they want to get the benefit of it.
Mr. Howard. Professor Johnson spoke about malnutrition in
regard to raising a spinach crop. I would state here that we
have had a good deal of trouble with the spinach yellowing at
times in the fall, and at times in the midsummer. Can you
give us any information on that?
Professor Johnson. That is one of the troubles we are
working on now, and have been working on for the last two
or three years. That yellowing of the plant is one of the
hardest propositions we have had to meet in our spinach
troubles. We have done this: wherever we have used the wide
rotation and used a good deal of lime we have not had much
trouble; where we have used close rotation and neglected to
use the lime we have had a good deal of trouble.
Question. Do you have mold on the spinach?
Professor Johnson. We have done some work on spraying
spinach when it was j'oung, but of course you understand there
would be objection to spraying spinach with Bordeaux mixture.
Mold has not proven ver}^ detrimental to us yet. We have it in
some of our fields. It is largely a question of cleaning the fields
and preventing the introduction of the disease from other fields
or from other sources where the disease may be spending some
of its 'time. There is a question again of plantation sanita-
tion, as we might put it.
iNIr. How^\RD. I think there are a number of truck farmers
here, and market gardeners around Worcester and Boston wdio
are present at this meeting. We certainly have troubles enough
in regard to producing good crops. One of our big problems
has been the looking after sanitation in the soil, — to keep the
rubbish out of it. I would like to get Mr. Hittinger to say a
few words in regard to what he has accomplished in that line.
17
Mr. HiTTiNGER. I don't just understand what you mean.
In the greenhouse or out of doors?
Mr. Howard. In regard to the greenhouse work, because you
have got rid of so much of tlie lettuce rot.
Mr. HiTTiNGER. That is done by keeping the ground
cleaned up; keeping the old stuff out of the soil there; not
putting it into the manure. I will state what we do to the old
refuse that is left from our outdoor crops. I generally clean it
up and form it into a pile and make a compost heap out of it;
take some coal ashes and then mix it in and put manure with
it, and put it on some of our lighter soils, and it seems to work
all right there. I notice when you leave it in the soil there
you are apt to have more trouble. In the greenhouses we
generally keep that stuff all cleaned up. Now, we have never
sterilized in our greenhouses, and by doing that we avoid
sterilizing any houses. I would like to ask one thing: if you
don't find that yellow comes after you manure a piece of ground
in the fall, then why do you plant spinach where it has never
been manured?
Professor Johnson. We have been able to control that best
on our soil where we have plowed under a crop of cow peas.
We find that trouble has not been caused by the application of
manure; in fact, we have been able to control it largely by the
application of manure, that is, we have added to the vigor of
the plant so much that it has been able to withstand those
troubles.
Mr. Arnold. I would like to start a little bit of discussion
here, — in fact, to get the opinion of some of you other people
about that question which has been brought up about the
refuse crop. We have had a little discussion at home between
myself and my brothers on the subject. On a trip recently to
the market gardeners we stopped at Long Island on the farm
of Mr. VanSuclin there, and I noticed he spoke of being very
careful to clean up the refuse of all crops, — ■ carrot tops, beet
tops, anything of that kind, — to clean them oft" the land. It
has always been our practice at home to plow in that kind of
stuff'. What do you do w'ith celery trimmings? We take ours out
and plow tliem into the land; we believed there must be some
value in them. As far as the question of disease is concerned,
18
will the disease of the celery carry over the winter in the land
that is outdoors? I would like to get some opinions on this
question. It seems to me the best we can do with that stuff
is to plow it in. We pay money for refuse straw that has been
used as litter under a horse, and I can't see any difference in
that and good healthy celery, or with some few spots on it,
carrot tops or beet tops, or anything of that kind.
Mr. Trull. I was in Lawrence only a short time ago,
and a druggist said to me, "What are you farmers all buying
so much formaldehyde for?" I said, "I don't know; is that a
fact?" "Yes," he said. I told him what I wanted of it. Now,
can you tell me how we should use it and what it is good for?
Professor Johnson. Formaldehyde is used for several things
by the farmer. It is especially used in treating potatoes that
have scab for the prevention of the spread of the scab in pota-
toes another year. It is also used by the farmers of the west
in treating wheat for smut. It is used in treating a number of
seeds to cleanse them of germs of disease that may be carried
over on the seed.
Question. Tell us, please, how you treat them.
Professor Johnson. In treating wheat we usually make a
solution of 1 pint of formaldehyde to 30 gallons of water, and
then spread the wheat down on a canvas and spread it out so
that it is a few inches thick, and moisten it with this solution,
— the water and the formaldehyde solution, — and allow it to
stand a little while before the wheat is sown. In treating pota-
toes we make a solution of 1 pint of formaldehyde to 30 gallons
of water, and dip the potatoes into that solution for two hours,
take them out, allow them to drain and dry, and then go out
and plant them.
Question. Will you tell us what kind of formaldehyde to
ask for when you go to the store to buy it? In one case I sent
a man to a store to get it and he got something else.
Professor Johnson. We use 40 per cent commercial. What
is the price of it here? I know what we pay for it in hundred-
pound carboys.
A Voice. About 20 or 25 cents a pound. They charge 75
cents for a pound of chemically pure.
Professor Johnson. A person ought to buy the material in
19
large quantities — 100 or 200 pound lots — at 9 to 12 cents a
pound. A pound is a little less than a pint.
Mr. Howard. I would like to ask Professor Johnson what
he requires of these farmers in cleanliness in regard to diseased
crops. When they have diseased crops, does he allow them to
plow the latter into the ground, or does he recommend them
to clean up the land?
Mr. Johnson. Most of the farmers follow the practice of
cleaning up. Most of them, if they have any disease appear in
the lettuce, will remove not only the head of lettuce but the
soil around the head. This is especially true when the lettuce
has lettuce droop. The "liead will be removed and burned in
the furnace, or taken away where it will not get back into the
soil. The question came just now about leaving the lettuce on
the ground. There is another problem comes in which is
rather important to the southern grower, that is, in growing
our spinach we will harvest it in November to March or April.
Now, if we harvest a crop of spinach in March and expect to
follow that crop of spinach with snap beans we are going to
have trouble on our hands right off and our trouble comes in a
way you would hardly expect. There is a little black fly that
deposits eggs on the refuse spinach that is left on the ground.
If we turn them into the ground we will have the finest crop of
■root maggots you ever saw. Those flies deposit their eggs on
the leaf, and the decaying leaf goes into the ground. It prac-
tically insures your not getting the beans. If we turn that
spinach under and leave it under for thirty to forty-five days
before we plant the beans we are not troubled. Further, we
have found in our work that if we plow under a diseased crop
of cucumbers we are almost sure, — if we follow immediately
with cucumbers, or within twelve months, — we are almost
sure to have the disease worse in our cucumbers than if we
had not plowed under the disease at the time. So that I
would emphasize that. The question of sanitation is really
a very important question in the control of our market-garden
diseases.
Mr. Brown. That question is one that has inteiested me
a good deal. I was present in a market gardener's meeting
recently, and one man said to me that if he had his way he
20
would clean up his celery fields absolutely, if it wouldn't cost
him much money. In my own case this last year I planted celery
on a tract of land where I had blight last year, and again this
year. A friend of mine who was in the business in 1913 had
bad blight in his celery, and in 1914 planted the land with
celery and had the best crop he had ever raised. I can't ex-
plain it and I don't believe you can. I can't tell whether that
blight is carried over in the soil or not. In my experience I
should say it was perfectly positive it was so; but I go to my
friend who did the same that I did and he had not a bit of
trouble.
®l)c Commontoealtl) of iMa00acl)U0ctt0,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 38
January, 1915.
THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF CLEAN
MILK PRODUCTION.
By L. B. Cook.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION.
L. B. COOK, MILK SPECIALIST, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL-
TURE, WASHINGTON, DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA.
If the dairy fanners of this country were asked this ques-
tion, " What can be done to encourage the production of clean
milk ? " 1 am sure that nearly all would answer, "" Secure
better prices and markets for our product," Therefore, the
conditions as they exist to-day are these: many dairymen do
not receive enough for their product to warrant any extensive
changes or outlay, and many dairymen who are paying no par-
ticular attention to better milk are receiving the same price for
their milk as those who are trying to market a clean, safe prod-
uct. This state of affairs, one can readily see, does not en-
courage clean milk production ; however, we must work with
the facts as they are. If Ave expect the farmers to produce
better milk, we must assist them to receive a reasonable profit
for their labor.
In some sections of this country, dairymen state that the price
received for milk is not sufficient to warrant their staying in
the business. If it were not for the value the cows are to the
farm, more dairymen would stop milking them, and take up
some other line of agriculture. The question of prices and
profit is a problem which Ave must meet, but one Avhich cannot
be quickly solved. While Ave are adjusting this problem, we
must meet the conditions as they exist Avith many dairymen,
and encourage them to the possibilities that are noAv before
them.
The United States census shoAVS that lhe nnniber of dairy
cows per 100 population is slightly decreasing; probably part
of this loss is covered by the increased production. The price
of milk during a period of years has been increasing slightly,
but nothing in proportion to the rise of prices for other food-
stuffs. This increase lias not been sutfieient to meet the in-
creased cost of production.
Improved sanitation means more cost to produce ; therefore,
when we are worlving with farmers who are receiving a low
price for milk, we must act with reason. Xo one will deny
that in many cases tlie farmers are receiving little compensa-
tion for milking cows ; however, I believe with existing prices
it is possible for the dairymen of this country to obtain more
profit and produce better milk.
It is claimed that only about one-third of the dairy cows in
]Srew York State are kept at a profit. If this is true of Xew
York, it is probably true of many other States. As I visit the
dairymen of tliis country, I am impressed with the statements
that they make in regard to the amount of milk received per
cow. Some dairymen say their cows are averaging about one
gallon each, while others say theirs give three. Why this dif-
ference ? There are several things that might assist in this
condition of affairs, yet I believe it is principally accounted for
by the difference in cows. A profitable cow costs little more
to keep than an unprofitable one ; yet farmer after farmer is
keeping these scrub cows. It is also a question of the dairy-
man not really knowing which are his profitable cows and which
the boarders. Too many think they have no time for the Bab-
cock test and the scales. If dairymen are to produce milk on
an economical basis, they must start with better cows. Then
they must properly care and feed these cows if best results are
to be obtained. Successful dairymen are using silos, growing
alfalfa, etc. ; therefore other farmers should study these matters.
Again, as one travels over this country, he cannot help being
impressed with the many kinds of waste that are continually
occurring on our farms. The farm machinery that should last
a number of years is allowed to deteriorate rapidly because it
is not properly housed and cared for. One of the most valuable
assets to the farm, namely, the liquid manure, is allowed to
waste by shaking into the ground near the barn. Even the solid
manure is thrown under the oaves, and the soluble elements,
which are the best form of plant food, are allowed to be lost.
So we might mention loss after loss that is continually occur-
ring on our farms, mainly because of poor management. I can
hardly see bow the dairviiian can expect the consumer to pay
for such losses; yet that is i-cally what he wants when he allows
these conditions to exist, and cries for better prices.
^o\v, why is it that these un])rotitab]e practices are con-
tinuing^ One reason is that no one has told the farmers dif-
ferently, and here is a real opportunity for the milk inspectors
of this country. The inspector should act as an educator to
these farmers, and assist them to see their mistakes. I am
afraid we inspectors do not spend time enough on the farms
and with the farmers, l)ut try to cover too many places in a day.
Dairymen must be shown the value of keeping books. No
business firm, with capital equal to the value of a farm, would
think of conducting its business without books. Dairymen
nnist know where their losses and gains are, otherwise, at the
end of the year, they will not know definitely whether they have
gained or lost. In nearly all hearings on the cost of milk pro-
duction, the farmers have been hampered by lack of definite
figures. It is not sufiicient merely to say, " Milk costs me more
to produce than I get for it." Until dairymen realize this fact,
I believe they are going to be hamjiered in their fight for better
prices.
On the other hand, we should encourage the producer by
trying to educate the consumer to the value of milk. During
these times of high cost of living, it is very opportune that con-
sumers appreciate the food and economic value of milk. I
believe that most people should use more milk, and that nuiny
do not realize its cheapness as a food, even if it costs 10 cents
a quart. It is surprising how quickly consumers are ready to
stop using milk, when there is a rise of 1 cent a quart, yet make
little complaint when beefsteak rises several cents a pound.
Also, they must be educated to the fact that clean, safe milk
costs more to produce and therefore they should expect to pay
more. Until consumers are willing to pay a reasonable price
for milk, and appreciate quality, it is a question in my mind
whether the farmers' prices can be increased, and the inspectors
accomplish the results they would like.
Milk inspectors in their work must bear in mind that city
consumers need and must have milk; therefore their work
among the dairymen should be constructive and not destructive.
I believe the ideal inspector has two lines of work to accom-
plish; one, to protect the consumer, and the other, to assist the
milkman.
Inspectors can do much good by assisting the dairyman to
keej) in touch with the available literature on different phases
of dairying. The successful dairyman must be a business man,
that is, one who has knowledge and applies it. Our federal,
State and college departments are continually publishing litera-
ture which should be in the hands of the milk producer, yet it
is surprising how few avail themselves of this free information ;
possibly, they do not know of these bulletins ; if not, inspectors
should help to keep them informed, I believe no successful
dairyman can afford to be without a dairy paper. By reading
and studying he becomes encouraged to produce better milk, and
^\'ill know how to secure more profit from his business.
On the point of producing better milk there is much need of
education. Dairymen must be educated to the value of clean
milk. Large sums of money are lost annually because good
milk is allowed to spoil. It needs to be said with emphasis that
it is to the interest of every producer to have the best milk
possible; such milk is always worth more than that carelessly
produced, for whatever purpose it is to be used.
Our main standard for quality is the bacteria count, yet
dairymen as a rule know little about bacteria. How many
farmers knoAv what bacteria are, where they come from, and
what they do ? Possibly, they have heard something about their
dangers, but nothing about their value. Much education is
needed on the sources of bacteria and how their numbers can be
controlled. The bacteria problem, as now impressed on the
minds of many dairymen, is a factor of discouragement, and
a problem which they do not know how to handle. They need
encouragement and education on this subject.
Good, clean, safe milk can be produced with a minimum of
expensive equipment. Why not encourage the dairyman to im-
prove quality by asking him to do two or three essential things,
rather than discourage him by telling him a multitude of re-
quirements ? I believe more energy should he spent on a few
essentials, instead of giving the dairyman the idea that it is
necessary for liim to go to considerable expense in order to pro-
duce clean, safe milk.
The less the expense and the smaller the number of require-
ments we have for the production of clean milk, the quicker
results we are going to obtain. We must always bear in mind
that the dairyman is in the business to make a profit, and we
should assist him to this end. If we can help him to solve some
of his financial problems, the question of quality will be easier
to handle. For example, the covered pail costs very little more
than an open pail, yet the results for clean milk are wonderful.
It is claimed that this one factor under ordinary farm condi-
tions will exclude about 90 per cent, of the dirt. The use of
the damp cloth takes only a little time, yet it is one of the
important factors for clean milk production.
It is encouraging to note that some of the large dairy com-
panies are paying a premium for milk of a high sanitary stand-
ard as well as for a fat content. This, surely, should be an
incentive for dairymen to produce better milk.
The grading of milk as now done in some cities and one State
ought to be a move in the direction of encouraging the farmer
to produce better milk. I^o one ought to be satisfied with his
product when it is sold as grade C and at a lower price than
grade A or B.
Certified milk, as you all know, sells for more than ordinary
milk because it is recognized as something of better quality. It
is only a question of a short time when quality in milk must be
recognized, the same as with other commodities. We have made
some progress already. The problem of encouraging farmers in
this manner rests partly on our city milk inspectors, who should
act as educators and not entirely as law enforcers. They must
])ut themselves in the dairyman's place, give him their time and
thought, then I am sure results will be forthcoming.
Co-operation and a feeling of friendliness and good will
should exist between health departments and dairymen. The
farmers should be encouraged to feel that the health department
and the inspectors are not only for the purpose of protecting the
city consumers but also of assisting them.
One way of promoting this good feeling is by holding meet-
8
ings at some convenient place, like the country schoolhouse. At
these meetino's the dairvmen should he encouraoed to feel that
it is their meeting, that questions and discussions are expected.
Such meetings are being held by the inspectors of some cities,
and are a decided success.
Another method of assisting the dairyman is by milk contests
in which good prizes are oifered. With these contests are
usually held meetings that are of value to the dairymen, and
in these contests I think more good can be done the contestants
if good, practical prizes are offered ; for example, give ])ure-
bred stock, covered milk pails, separators, etc. Education should
be the main purpose of such contests.
At a recent milk contest, the results of \vhich were based on
the average of four samples taken at random from cans as
delivered in the city, I had the pleasure of meeting the gentle-
man who won first prize. In conversation he told me that he
was then receiving about 19 cents a gallon for his milk^ which
was more than was received by any other producer sending to
the same dairy company. Later T learned that in the preceding-
year, which was his first time in a contest, he won a prize and
was at that time receiving about 17 cents a gallon for his milk.
His score the first year was 89.4 per cent, and this year 95.8
per cent. This shows that the contest had been of considerable
educational value to him and that he had profited financially,
not only from the prize money, which amounted to $45, but,
also, he received more for his milk throughout the year.
If results are to be accomplished, the inspector must spend
considerable time with the dairyman and not hurriedly try to
cover his territory. If this is done, it will mean that there must
be more inspectors and more money for this work; yet is not
this what must be done if results are to be accomplished ? And
results are what we want.
I do not believe that as good results can be accomplished by
force. You might make a dairyman use a covered pail, but if
he has tO' use it against his wishes, he is not apt to use it when
the inspector is not there, while on the other hand, if he is
educated to the value of the covered pail, he appreciates the
necessity for using it regularly.
9
The dairyman must be encouraged by our assistance. We
must take an interest in bis views, and help bim to overcome
bis problems. ISTearly every farmer can receive more profit
from bis dairy if be will use business metbods ; tbat is, have
better cows, practice better breeding, feed wisely, grow alfalfa,
use a silo, etc. He can produce better milk by using a covered
})ail, by wiping tbe udder witb a damp cloth, by more attention
to washing and scakling utensils, and by better cooling.
We, as inspectors, should not only call the dairyman's at-
tention to his poor equipment and methods, but should en-
courage him by offering suggestions as to how he can, witb the
least expense and trouble, correct his shortcomings.
We do not want these dairymen to go out of business ; there-
fore, we must assist them to more economical practices, so they
can derive a better profit from their business ; we want also to
educate them to the value of clean milk and the essentials neces-
sary to make such a product.
Tbe main milk problem is not what we can get a few dairy-
men to do, but what we can assist the majority to do. What
are we going to do with the tenant farmer, or one who does
not have the means to build new barns, etc. ? This is the ques-
tion which we must answer, and I believe it can be accomplished
only by education. What we want is clean, safe milk ; the
poorly equipped farmer can produce this kind of milk if he only
knows the essentials necessary. It is a question of encouraging
and not discouraging. As a rule there is no surplus milk in
our cities ; therefore let us work with the idea of encouraging
the dairymen to produce more and better milk.
®l)e ^ommontucaltl) of itta00ac()U6ctt!
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 39.
May, 1915.
Secont) Edition, Revised.
A Practical System of Farm
Bookkeeping.
By Charlotte P. Goddard.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report op the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board op Publication.
A PRACTICAL SYSTEM OF FAEM BOOKKEEPING.
MISS CHARLOTTE P. GODDARD, SARATOGA, NEW YORK.
It seems to me that no up-to-date farmer in these days
would question the value of a good system of bookkeeping;
no such farmer, if his farm is bringing him in a good profit,
but would be glad to know just where his best profit is, or, in
case there is little or no profit, to know where the leakage is.
But how to bring it about is often a difficult problem. His
day's work is a long one, often twelve, fourteen, or even more
hours. He does not feel like sitting down at his desk at the
end of such a day, and to stop during the day is impossible.
Oftentimes that sort of work is distasteful to him, which makes
it doubly difficult. On the other hand, to employ a book-
keeper is out of the question, not only on account of the ex-
pense, but because there would not be enough work to keep
one employed all the time. If he is fortunate enough to have
a wife or daughter who can do this work, and who has the
time as well, then his problem is solved; but usually, even
though she may be capable of doing the work, she has duties
of her own which require all her time. My suggestion, as a
solution of this problem, is that several farmers get together,
as they are beginning to do in other lines, and employ a book-
keeper co-operatively. For the past three years it has been my
great pleasure to serve one community in this capacity, and I
know that the people for whom I have been doing this work
will agree with me that the plan has worked splendidly.
My work as a co-operative bookkeeper is the result of the
fact that several people in one community felt the need of
some one with a knowledge of bookkeeping and cost account-
ing who would come in and handle their accounts, and whom
they did not need to employ for the whole time, as each one
needed a bookkeeper only a few days of every month. By
co-operating in this matter, they arranged with me to do their
work, going from one to another in regular rotation. In this
way I have been able to give each one all the time necessary
for the work, delegating, in each case, to the man in charge,
the keeping of such records as must be made daily. Every-
thing in the way of bookkeeping which could wait until my
return was left for me to do, — the making out of all bills, the
balancing of the books, the analysis of the bills to be paid, the
keeping of all permanent records, and so forth. In this way
the coming of the bookkeeper became not a burden, but more
and more a help.
In order to show you how it is possible to keep up a system
of bookkeeping in this way, and how practical it really is, I
will endeavor to describe, in a general way, the system which
I have used.
Of the records which the farmer himself must keep, the most
important is, of course, a cash book. It is imperative that we
have a careful record of every item of expense or receipt, large
or small, whether a check or a cash transaction. Such records
must necessarily be made daily, so that the care of them de-
volves on the farmer himself. The balancing of this cash book
may, however, be left for the bookkeeper. She might even
relieve the farmer of the task of balancing his check book, if
he did not care to bother with it himself.
Right here let me say that I hope every farmer does have a
bank account and does pay all his bills by check. I have been
surprised to find how many people there are who do not make
use of such an institution as the bank. I know of a man who
had been in business for himself for years, with good success,
who is now the efficient manager of a farm, but who says that
never, until within a year, did he do business with any bank.
He told me that many times he had had several thousand
dollars in cash in his home, hidden under rugs, and so forth;
and when I asked him what happened on sweeping day, he
replied that his wife took good care of it, that none was ever
lost. Would any of you think of mowing a ten-acre field of
oats with a scythe when there was a good mowing machine
in your own barn? Of course not. Neither, I hope, would any
of you think of keeping any quantity of money in your home
5
when there is an institution in your own town which can take
better care of your money for you than you can yourself.
To return to our accounts. Aside from the cash book there
are a few other records which must be kept up daily, in order
to give the bookkeeper all the data she needs. Whenever any
article of any kind is sold, some record must be made of it.
This can best be done by the use of duplicate slips, similar to
those used in our grocery and provision stores. By the use of
these a carbon copy is made of every slip. One copy goes to
the purchaser, the other is kept for the bookkeeper. From all
these slips accumulated during the month she makes out the
bills. This is a very simple and safe way to keep these items,
and the books are very inexpensive.
The farmer ought also to keep some sort of memoranda of
all purchases made, so that when the dealer presents his bill
at the end of the month, he or the bookkeeper may be able
to check up every item of that bill. In most cases he will
receive a slip with each purchase, so that he has merely to keep
these together carefully.
The milk record, feed record, and labor record, if kept at all,
must necessarily be kept from day to day. I shall refer to
these in more detail later.
So much for the farmer's part in this bookkeeping. This
certainly is not difficult, nor does it require much time, and
it is even simpler than it sounds. And the fact that it is
simple should recommend it to you, for, next to accuracy, it
seems to me that simplicity is the most important quality of
a system of farm accounting. By simplicity I do not mean
that it shall be any less complete than any well-kept set of
books anywhere, but it shall be such that any desired fact
may be easily available in the books; that there may be the
least possible crossing of accounts from one book to another;
that the time which the farmer himself must spend on them
shall be kept at a minimum; and that, above everything else,
the books, at any time, shall be perfectly intelligible to the
farmer himself.
Aside from the cash book, which is to be kept by the farmer,
two other books, kept entirely by the bookkeeper, will be in-
dispensable. The first is what I have called a bill book, which
takes the place of a customer's ledger. When the bills are
made out, each one is entered in this bill book before being
sent out. The name of the purchaser, with the amount of the
bill and the total amount of each sort of article purchased,
is all that need be entered. For example, Mrs. Brown pur-
chased goods to the amount of $15, of which $5 was for
butter, $4.50 for eggs, $3 for milk and $2.50 for cream. Mrs.
Smith's bill amounted to $10, all of which was for butter; and
so on down through the list. Besides entering all new bills,
any of the preceding months' bills, which may be still unpaid,
are also listed, so that this book, then, always shows what the
accounts receivable are on the first of each month, and also
gives an analysis of each account, so that we have a permanent
record of what each bill is for, as well as the amount of it.
This is invaluable, in posting from the cash book to the dis-
tribution sheets, for it not only shows where all the receipts
shall be credited, but shows it in a small space as well. All
the items of each bill are not entered, for if a customer should
desire a second bill, or if, for any reason, we should wish to
know what his bill was for, the items are easily found by re-
ferring back to the slips from which the original bill was made
out.
The second book to which I have referred is the distribution
book. This may be considered as the final summing up of all
other accounts, — that toward which all other accounts have
pointed, for this is the one to which w^e shall refer whenever
we wish to learn how the business of the farm is getting on.
By the use of this book it is possible to do away with a general
ledger (unless one prefers to keep that also), and for our pur-
pose it is much more valuable. The distribution book shows
the entire amount of receipts and expenditures for each month,
all on one page, and analyzed in such a way that the receipts
and expenditures, for any particular part of the farm's work,
may be seen at a glance. These sheets are then summarized
on a yearly sheet, which show^s the gross expenses and receipts
for the year in a convenient and comprehensive way. Every
item in the cash book, of whatever kind, is entered in the dis-
tribution book. This book must, of course, balance exactly
with the cash book each month. The receipts are put in in red,
in order that they may easily be distinguished from the ex-
penditures, for both receipts and expenditures may, in some
cases, be put in one column.
Many items will need to be analyzed before entering, in
order to know that every detail of every bill shall be charged
to the correct account. For instance, a bill for grain is divided
in such a way that whatever was used for the cows is charged
to cows; that used for poultry, to poultry; for horses, to horses,
etc. For instance, if the farmer will indicate, on the slip which
the dealer gives him whenever he buys grain, just which ani-
mals he is buying it for, he will not need to trust to his memory
to divide up the bill at the end of the month.
A bill for hardware, too, may be partly for tools, partly for
repairs to buildings, and partly for some permanent improve-
ment. This bill should be divided accordingly, and so on
with the other bills.
The receipts are taken care of in the same way. For instance,
if a customer pays a bill — suppose Mrs. Brown pays her $15,
that amount is divided between cows and poultry, according
to the amount for butter, eggs, milk and cream. These figures
are always available in the bill book.
I have here a sample page from such a distribution book.
(See Fig. 2.) This shows only part of the headings which
might be used.
The headings of the distribution sheet will depend on the
nature of the farm. If a dairy farm, we would naturally be
interested to keep a number of subheadings under cows, such
as butter, milk, cream, stock, grain, labor and dairy; while if
the cows were a secondary interest, we might need only one
or two. If a poultry farm, we would divide up into several
headings for the poultry; this, of course, in order to enable us to
know at the end of the month, or the year, not only what the
net gain for that particular thing was, but also to know in
what special branch the greater part of that profit was made.
The question of dividing the labor into the proper accounts
is always a difficult one. The greater part of it must neces-
sarily go under the heading of general labor, but as far as
possible anything which can be charged to a definite account
is so charged. For instance, on a large poultry farm, where
8
one or more men give all the time to the care of the hens, that
time is naturally charged to the poultry account. Division of
labor may be made quite accurately by the expenditure of a
very little time; in fact, only a few moments each day, if a
plan similar to that in use at one of the State colleges is em-
ployed. A sheet for each man and each team is kept, with a
place to show, for each one, just where their work for the day
is put in. This is the labor record to which I have already
referred. (See Fig. 1.)
It is important, as far as possible, to separate, in everything,
the charges for maintenance and general expenses from those
for permanent improvements, for we want to be able to analyze
our running expenses at the end of the year.
A yearly inventory is indispensable. Without it even the
yearly distribution sheet will not show us just where we stand.
That sheet might show a balance on the wrong side, but when
the inventory is considered, there may be found such an in-
crease over that of the year before as to more than offset the
deficit in the account. On the other hand, we might have a
good showing on the distribution sheet, which would be greatly
reduced by a decrease in the inventory. But taking the two
together, we shall be able to make up a statement which will
show exactly where we stand.
Other accounts, their nature depending on the type of farm,
will be found very helpful. On a poultry farm I would suggest
keeping a careful egg record, and even if the number of poultry
is small, such a record will be found to be well worth while.
Samples of egg record blanks will be found in Figs. 3 and 4.
On a dairy farm a careful record of each cow is invaluable.
By keeping a milk record, with which you are all familiar, and
a record of the feed given to each cow (which is much more
simple than you think, unless you have tried it), the book-
keeper will be able to work out all the other details found on
this record, except the per cent of butter fat, for which you
will need to make a test each month. (See Figs. 5 and 6.)
You may notice that I have made no account of the labor
of taking care of the cow, and while this must be considered,
in order to be perfectly fair, it is not shown on the card for
this reason: all the other data on the cards are figures which
9
may be accurately determined each month. Then, the question
of labor for the whole herd is taken care of on the distribution
sheet. So, at the end of the year, if we wish to add to the
whole year's record an item for labor, it will not be difficult
to work out an average cost per cow for the year. The value
of the fertilizer and the selling price or value of her calf are
items on the other side which have been omitted for the same
reason.
It would be impossible, I think, to work out a system of
farm accounting which could be uniform in all cases, for where
one farm may require one plan, the next may require quite a
different one. The general plan of the system which I have
used in my work as bookkeeper is the same, but there are no
two places which use just the same sort of records, as the
differences in the farms, as well as the preferences of the owners,
must be taken into consideration.
To a certain extent it might be said that accounting could be
done equally well for a merchant as for a manufacturing con-
cern, for a lawyer as for a farmer, once one has acquired the
knowledge of bookkeeping; on the other hand, it seems to me
that an accountant will do better work for a merchant if he
knows something of a merchant's business than if he knows
only figures; in the same way a person who knows nothing
about a farm will have more difficulty with a farmer's books
than one who does not have to inquire what is meant by such
terms as pyrox, silage, balanced rations, butter fat, and so
forth. So a bookkeeper who knew something about the business
of farming would be more valuable than one who did not. The
more he knows about the details of the farm, the better able
will he be to analyze the accounts and keep each item in its
proper place.
Because a farmer's books should be as simple as possible, it
does not necessarily follow that it is a simple thing to keep
them. A set of books which are simple and at the same time
comprehensive and definite require, perhaps, more time in their
first planning and later in the keeping of them, but one is in-
finitely repaid when any bit of information about the business
is wanted, and it will be more and more wanted as its advan-
tages are seen. How much better to give a few minutes each
10
day to the books, in order to have them where every bit of
information is easily available, than to do without them be-
cause we think we have no time, with the result that when we
need a certain bit of information we must spend hours, perhaps,
looking through papers, bills, books, and so forth, and then not
find it, even in the end. I know the plea that you have no
time to give to the books, that you cannot afford to hire any
one else, that a farmer has no chance until evening for anything
of that kind, and then he is too tired, after such a long day's
work as his must be. If he is interested in having his books
well kept, and if he can co-operate with several others who
care to do the same thing, then this plan of a co-operative
bookkeeper is, in my opinion, the best solution of his problem.
In this way he has the advantage of an accountant who knows,
not only accounts in general, but farm accounts in particular,
and also has that accountant at a reasonable expense.
In every case I have found that the work which I have
done on the accounts has stimulated the farmers themselves
to a desire to know definitely about the financial side of
their venture. Moreover, as they realized more and more the
value of the records, they became more anxious to have them
complete, and the suggestion to add a new sort of record
has frequently come from the owner rather than the book-
keeper.
For instance, when it comes to the question of distribution
of labor, the farmer may say, "It is impossible to divide the
labor; most of the time of most of the men is general labor;
we cannot split up each one's time." So I get from him, as
best I can, a general idea of what the different men do,
and then wait. By and by he comes to me, perhaps, about
two men who, he has previously told me, were putting about
all their time on general work. He will say, "You ought
not to charge all their time to general labor; it is too much.
They are really putting considerable time on that new build-
ing. I think we should keep an account of that, in order to
charge it to permanent improvement." "Very well," I say.
"That is just the sort of thing I want to get hold of." Then
I have him start, in the simplest possible way, a daily record
of the time of those men.
11
Of course you will understand that the accounts of the dif-
ferent farms are kept entirely separate. The co-operation
simply consists in the group of farmers, each paying part of
the bookkeeper's salary. It is not, in any sense, co-operative
bookkeeping. The books of each farmer are absolutely distinct
and apart from every other, and the business of each farm is
kept as confidentially by the bookkeeper as if it were her own.
Nothing must ever be carried by her from one place to another.
I hope that I have succeeded in making clear to you just
how this plan of a co-operative bookkeeper has been worked
out, and how it may be worked out again. If so, I am very
glad, and I shall be happy to do anything I can to help any
one who is interested to try out this plan for himself.
12
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13
Old Town Farm, Peterboro, N. H.
Egg Collections.
Month.
House No.
Day.
A.M.
P.M.
Remarks.
1
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3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
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31
Total
No. Birds
Average
FiQ. 3.
14
Egg Record for 191
No. Hens.
Date.
A.M.
P.M.
Price per
Dozen.
1
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5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
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18
19
20
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25
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28
29
30
31
Total
Fig. 4.
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17
Mr. F. A. Russell. There has not been a subject before
the Board meeting this year, or any other year since I have
been a member of the Board, that has interested me more
than this subject which we are deahng with at the present
time. As the speaker said in the beginning, we farmers do
not know what we are doing; we do not know whether we are
making money unless the old sheepskin is full. But I would
like to ask the lecturer what amount of business a man would
naturally have to do to be justified in hiring a bookkeeper;
or, in other words, if a man is doing $10,000 or $15,000 or
$25,000 worth of business a year, would he be justified in
hiring a bookkeeper, in your estimation?
Miss GoDDARD. I should think he would.
Mr. Wheeler. Would Miss Goddard please explain how
many farmers she thinks a co-operative bookkeeper could take
care of? That is, farmers in the ordinary sense of the word.
Perhaps she might be able to tell how many she took care of
in her New Hampshire experience.
Miss Goddard. I took care of four farmers, and it required
only about two weeks of each month, so that I could have
taken care of eight very easily.
Mr. Hayden. I would like to ask how much of a book-
keeper's time would be needed to do the bookkeeping of a
dairy farm of a hundred head of cattle.
Miss Goddard. I should think a week a month would be
sufficient.
Professor J. A. Foord. I want to rise and second the re-
mark of the Chairman about this paper, and say what an
excellent paper I think it is. And I want to emphasize one or
two points, especially along the lines of the questions already
answered. What Miss Goddard said about the wife or
daughter, I want to amplify a little and say, get the boy or the
girl. I think perhaps the wife has enough to do. But I want
to emphasize, gentlemen, the desirability of getting the young
men interested in the accounting side of it. My experience is
that it is hard work to teach old dogs new tricks, and the
older men are not going to take up detailed accounting. But
the young men we want to keep on the farm, and we want to
show them that farming is profitable, because we know it is
18
if properly conducted, with the best conditions for right living
that there are. Now, the way to do that is to show your boy
that you are doing it; and if you are not, why not? And I
believe there is no better way or cheaper way for you to get
your bookkeeping done than to put those children at it. The
boy in the high school can just as well keep the accounts Miss
Goddard has suggested as anybody, and the girls, I think,
within reason. Now, I do not mean to throw any cold water
on Miss Goddard's suggestions, because those children will not
stay with us always. I think the co-operative scheme is
excellent, but I do want to emphasize the desirability of
interesting the young people in the business affairs of the
farm, because when it comes right down to it that is what
they are going out to look for when they look for a position,
— the dollars and cents in it. We know that there is no
better place than the farm. Now, one other thing I would
like to speak of: Miss Goddard spoke of the purchase slip.
I have found no simpler way of keeping the records on the
college farm than the record made at the time of the happen-
ing, because I want to emphasize the fact that the time to
make a record is when it happens, whether it is a pail of milk
weighed or the sale of a pig, and the man who makes that
record should be the man on the spot. Very frequently
mistakes will occur that are easily corrected if you can show
the original record. They may be rather hard to decipher
sometimes if the man happens to be a Polander, but I believe
this is an excellent plan. Miss Goddard spoke of the classi-
fication of items, speaking of the feed record. I agree very
heartily. The time to classify items is when it happens. I
haven't found it quite as simple as Miss Goddard said, but
anyhow we do what we can along that line. Now, this classi-
fication is not so serious. Do not keep too many accounts the
first year. Suppose you say this year, "We will keep an
account of potatoes and find out what it costs to raise po-
tatoes." I have been working on this accounting matter a
good deal, because I believe every man should know what is
doing in his business. Keep accounts as Miss Goddard has
suggested, with the amount of labor spent in different operations
in hours. Keep a general labor account of your men so that
19
you will get the total cost of labor for the year. Now, at the
end of the year, in your general labor account, you have got
all the expenses of labor, whether for board or salaries, or
whatever it is — it is all there. In each account under your
cows, under your apples, or under your general crop you have
the number of hours of labor; then it is simply a question of
dividing the total expense for labor by the total number of
hours for the average cost of labor per hour. It seems to me
this is the simplest method I have seen. I can only close, Mr.
Chairman, by once more commending the excellent paper, and
I do hope it will influence more people to keep accounts.
Don't be too ambitious. One account run through a year for
one kind of crop will be more valuable than half a dozen for
four or five or six months.
Mr. Wheeler. My idea in getting Miss Goddard here was
not so much to give a general idea of how people could keep
books, but with the idea of using a bookkeeper co-operatively.
It seems to me that while the Massachusetts farmers may not
be able to afford to hire bookkeepers individually, this system
of co-operative bookkeeping and a co-operative bookkeeper
can be worked out advantageously. I think we lack trained
bookkeepers along this line, and I feel sure that just as soon
as there is a call for bookkeepers to go around and make the
circuit of different farms, this class of bookkeepers will be
supplied by the business colleges and the agricultural high
schools which are now advertising various trades, — the
business and agricultural bookkeeper. I think we are at the
present time in need of bookkeepers who can do the sort of
work which Miss Goddard has described here to-day.
Mr. Foster. I would hke to inquire of the lecturer how
small a dairy or farm she knows of that has employed a co-
operative bookkeeper.
Miss Goddard, Well, I think none would be too small.
I know of a case of a farmer who had four cows and perhaps
not more than forty or fifty hens, and other things accordingly.
It took me only one day a month to do all the work.
®l)e ^ommonroealtl) of iila06acl)U0ctt0,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 40.
May, 1915.
Second Edition, Revised.
Co-operation in Fruit Growing as
practiced in nova scotia.
By W. H. Woodworth.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
TuE State Bo.*rd of Publication.
CO-OPERATION IN FEUIT GROWING AS PRACTICED
IN NOYA SCOTIA.
W. H. WOODWORTH, BERWICK, NOVA SCOTIA.
It is constantly remarked, and perhaps with a certain amount
of truth, that farmers, as a class, are so set in their ideas that it
is impossible for a body of them to work together to accomplish
any particular purpose.
This co-operative movement, of which I am to speak to you,
was organized in 1907 by a few of the best fruit growers in
Berwick, a pretty village in the heart of the fruitful Annapolis
valley in Nova Scotia. The method of handling the fruit pro-
ducts of the valley prior to this date was very easy and emi-
nently satisfactory to a certain few individuals, but far too easy
and satisfactory to be much appreciated by the fruit growers.
The European commission houses handling Nova Scotian
fruit had their agents over here. During the shipping season
these agents had subagents at nearly all railway stations from
which any quantity of fruit was shipped. On an appointed day
the farmer would pack his apples at home and haul them to the
station, where the subagent would make up carload lots and
forward on his immediate superior's orders. These apples were
then left to the tender mercies of the consignees, who, when
they eventually sold them, would commence piling up an ac-
count of charges that were really startling in their ingenuity.
A charge was made for every conceivable thing under the sun,
including commission for every one who had anything to do
with the apples, and when all was deducted that the consignee's
conscience would allow, the farmer received an account of sales
and sometimes a check representing what remnant of the wreck
remained for him. The farmers chafed under this system of
disposing of their products, but individually could do nothing.
An attempt was made about ten years ago to organize some
kind of a co-operative movement, but owing to the fact that it
was on too comprehensive a scale and was not founded on busi-
ness principles, it was a failure.
In 1907 a few of the most up-to-date and energetic farmers
in Berwick made up their minds, however, that in co-operation
alone was to be found a cure for the state of affairs that then
existed. The product from their orchards was increasing year
by year, and they realized that there were only two ways in
which they could give proper attention to the packing and
grading of their fruit. One way was to build individual apple
houses on their farms large enough to permit of fruit being
stored and packed; another way was to get together and build
or buy a large warehouse on the line of railway, where the
apples of all could be stored and packed. The latter was the
scheme that appeared the most attractive, and these men
formed the first co-operative fruit company in Nova Scotia.
This company was called the Berwick Fruit Company, and
was incorporated under the Nova Scotia joint stock companies'
act, with an authorized capital of S10,000. Warehouse accom-
modation was secured, and during the first season some 7,000
barrels of apples were handled. This company did not limit
its sphere of usefulness to the mere handling of apples, but it
aimed, also, at being an educational power. The leaders of this
movement soon found that one of the most important factors
in successful co-operative fruit packing was the production of
good fruit. The company therefore used its best influence to
educate its members and also farmers generally in the matter
of careful cultivation, spraying, and the other operations
necessary to secure high-class fruit.
At the beginning of the second season the membership of
this company had doubled, and a new warehouse was purchased.
In 1908 the output of this company was 15,000 barrels,
which increased the following year to 22,000.
The early history of this company is a splendid demonstra-
tion of what can be done by a body of men associated together
for the common benefit. The superiority of the pack put out
secured splendid prices. While farmers outside the company
had to be content with SI. 25 per barrel, tree run, for their
apples, the members of the co-operative company were receiving
$2.65 for No. 1 grade of fruit, $1.90 for No. 2 and $1.22 for
No. 3.
News of the phenomenal success soon spread, and in 1909
five more companies were incorporated under a new act enacted
especially to facilitate the incorporation of such companies. The
following year saw that number increased.
The apples of all members of co-operative companies are
packed at the warehouses by experts. No farmer who is a
member of a company is permitted to pack any standard vari-
ety at home, neither is he allowed to sell except through his
company. Thus the companies are able to put up a uniform
pack which they can guarantee. A farmer joining a company
agrees to pool his apples, and he is paid the average price realized
for each variety in the three grades. Thus there is a direct
incentive to raise good fruit, for the member receives the
average price for the grades into which his fruit packs.
It was realized, however, by the leader of this movement
that while much could be accomplished by individual companies,
it needed concerted action on the part of all companies to carry
this co-operative idea to its logical conclusion. The companies
were valuable factors in educating their members in the matter
of cultivation, spraying, and improving the pack of their
products. As individual companies working entirely independ-
ently of one another, however, they rather defeated the very
idea of co-operation, because they really became competitors of
one another. Speculators were wont to play one company
against another, so that the superior pack did not make that
extra money that its quality merited.
It was also realized that if the companies could work together
large savings could be effected in the purchasing of supplies,
such as fertilizer, nails, pulp heads and spray materials. The
matter of transportation could also be better and more econom-
ically handled.
A conference was held and it was determined that some form
of centralization was necessary. At this point, however, the
Nova Scotia farmers showed that while they were ready to
consider new ideas and act on them if their judgment pro-
nounced them good, yet they would not "buy a pig in a poke."
They decided, therefore, that they would give this centraliza-
tion scheme a trial for a year and see just what could be accom-
plished before floating the Central as an incorporated body. An
executive committee of three members was elected from the
leaders of the companies, some twenty-two in number, who
decided to participate in the movement. The farmers were
fortunate in their choice.
As I stated before, the companies did not tie themselves to
the Central Association in any way, they contributed nothing
to found or start it, and were under no legal obligations to
support it. The work of the Central was to attend to the
matter of transportation, make what sales it could for the com-
panies, buy supplies and generally assist all affiliated com-
panies. Companies wishing to affiliate paid an entrance fee of
$5. To maintain itself the Central charged the companies a
small percentage of what apples it sold and earned certain
money, as will be explained later. This Central Association
came into existence in July, 1911. The whole scheme was an
experiment, and no company was compelled to supply a single
barrel of apples, to fill orders taken by the Central, if it thought
it could do better elsewhere. Under these circumstances it is
little short of wonderful that at the end of the season the man-
ager was able to report an unqualified success. Great credit is
due to the companies, the majority of which, I am glad to say,
stood by their Central. There were a few weak-kneed com-
panies, but these dropped out early in the game.
A brief resume of tlie work accomplished by this experimental
Central Association may prove of interest to you. In the first
place Nova Scotia had that year a record crop of apples. The
very magnitude of the crop gave the Central its first oppor-
tunity to demonstrate its usefulness. With such a large crop
there was naturally a lack of laborers to harvest it. The Cen-
tral advertised for help, and in response to their appeal a small
army of laborers invaded the valley and were distributed by
the Central to the various companies who had previously made
their requirements known. These companies in turn passed the
help on to each of the members who required it. Previous to
this action by the Central Association the valley laborers were
demanding an unreasonable remuneration for picking. The
advent of the additional help, however, knocked the bottom
out of this "hold up," and the growers, even those altogether
outside of the movement, were able to harvest their crops at a
reasonable rate.
It had long been thought that a good market for the farmers'
Nova Scotia Gravensteins could be found in the Canadian
west. This splendid apple never had a chance on the European
markets on account of the large quantities of English fruit
always available in those markets early in the season, and the
lack of fast boats to place it on that market in prime condition.
The Central engaged a man of marked ability as a salesman to
go west and see what could be done. As a result of this short
trip some 12,000 barrels were shipped to tliQ northwest prov-
inces by the Central Association. The opening up of this
market has proved a great boon to the Nova Scotia apple trade,
for, as is ever the case when a new market is found, the old
markets were relieved and thereby steadied, resulting in better
prices all round. Verily, in this initial year, the Central
Association did not lack opportunities.
Take the matter of transportation for instance. The supply
of steamships, usually all sufficient to carry the apple crop to
European markets, proved totally inadequate to cope with the
tremendous quantities of early fruit sent forward. The end of
September saw the Halifax terminal blocked, its cars of fruit
sweltering in the sun, and no boats to carry it to market. The
Central Association quickly grasped the situation and dis-
patched four train loads to Montreal, connecting there with
fast boats to England. This, however, was only done as a tem-
porary relief. In the meantime they chartered four boats,
which carried some 40,000 barrels out of Halifax, and so effec-
tually relieved the situation to that port that a similar con-
gestion did not occur again throughout the entire season. I
claim that the farmers of the valley were saved thousands of
dollars by this action. Not only did the members of the com-
panies benefit, but the entire body of fruit growers. That
action alone justified the existence of the Central, and should
have earned for it the support of all fair-minded and clear-
thinking men.
The Central Association also proved a great selling factor.
During the season it sold for the companies 102,000 barrels of
apples, and, what is quite as important, made good prices.
Another very useful work accomplished was the securing of
space on steamers and attending to the shipping of the com-
8
panics' apples. During the season 400,000 barrels of apples
were shipped on its bills of lading.
In the matter of marine insurance a great saving was effected.
The fact that the Central had some 400,000 barrels to insure,
secured for the company an exceptionally low premium, and
materially reduced that little item seen on most accounts of
sales, which in the course of a year amounts to a considerable
sum. Insurance of the warehouses and contents was also
effected at a very close rate, the Central earning the commission
usually going to the agents.
Supplies were bought at very low figures. An order for
1,250,000 pulp heads and 500 kegs of nails naturally secured
inside prices. The largest saving, however, was made in the
purchase of fertilizers. Many companies who had stood loyally
by their Central throughout the apple deals backed out when
it came to buying fertilizers. Only a few companies, therefore,
were working with the Central in this field, but even then
2,283 tons were handled. The fertilizer was bought at a saving,
compared with the lowest price ciuoted by the agent, of about
$3 per ton. Fertilizer agents assured the companies that they
would guarantee them as low a price as the Central could give
them, and others advertised openly in the press that they would
supply fertilizer at even lower prices than could be obtained
through the Central. Thanks, however, to the business acumen
of the managers, the fertilizer agents were soon glad to with-
draw those advertisements, and the companies who stood by
the Central were able to divide a net saving of S6,800 on their
fertilizer deal.
I know some companies whose lack of faith in their Central
cost them $4 per ton on their fertilizer supplies. One should
not be too ready, however, to blame those companies; after all
it was only an experimental year, and it is not strange that
some should look askance at the idea of giving their order
blindly without knowing how much their goods would cost
them. At the same time all the more credit is due to those
who were sufficiently imbued with the right spirit of co-opera-
tion to do this.
The great thing for the individual to remember, however,
in a co-operative movement, is that after all it is not a Central
Association selling you material; it is you yourself buying
material at first cost through j'our own buyer, that is, your
Central Association. The Central did not work to make any
profit out of the affiliated companies. Supplies were distributed
at cost and apples were sold at cost. A small levy was made
on all apples sold to cover the expenses of the Central, but
owing to the economical manner in which things were worked
out, money being earned by the Central in various ways already
indicated, the entire business of the companies was handled at
the ridiculously low cost of three-eighths of a cent per barrel.
Thus did the leaders of this movement demonstrate to the
farmers what could be done by co-operation.
During the winter months a special bill had been prepared
to enable the Central Association to be incorporated. This
bill, with certain modifications, was passed by the House of
Assembly at Halifax. Steps were taken in June, 1912, to com-
plete the organization of this movement and to incorporate as
many companies as possible into one central body.
The speculators who had so long made a very lucrative living
out of the farmers did not allow this organization to be effected
without a determined opposition, but thanks to the zeal and
untiring energy which was put into it, twenty-four of the
twenty-seven co-operative companies signed the memorandum
of association, which gave birth to the United Fruit Companies
of Nova Scotia, Limited. The company is incorporated with
an authorized capital of $200,000, of which $76,000 is sub-
scribed, each subsidiary company subscribing 20 per cent, of
its authorized capital. The organization meeting was held at
Kentville on July 8, 1912, the companies being represented by
seventy-two delegates. By-laws were adopted and directors
and officers were appointed, each company being represented
on the directorate by one representative.
Ten other companies have been formed and have come into
the Central Association since organization, so that there are
now thirty-seven companies. All the companies agreed to come
in under a by-law which gives the Central Association complete
control of all their fruit. All apples are pooled and average
prices are returned to the companies according to the class and
grade of fruit packed.
10
These companies collectively have a membership of about
2,500 of the most up-to-date and progressive farmers of the
valley. The United Fruit Companies can therefore claim to
have control of the best fruit produced in the finest fruit
producing district in Canada.
There are forty-seven warehouses belonging to the companies,
having a total frost-proof storage capacity of 750,000 barrels of
apples. These warehouses are turning out on an average
25,000 barrels of apples a week. Eight steamers and ten
schooners beside the regular boats have been chartered by the
company. Three of the companies have erected evaporators,
where the cull apples are used up, thus reducing waste to a
minimum. It is the aim of the United Fruit Company to
establish and maintain a uniform high standard of pack, which
they guarantee. It is considered that in this way a demand
will be created for co-operative packed fruit, which will natu-
rally mean higher returns. Already the superiority of this pack
has been noticed. Fruit inspectors have reported on it to
Ottawa, and Ottawa in turn has congratulated the companies.
Disinterested persons in various parts of Canada have com-
mented on it in the press. And above all it is reported that the
European buyers now look for and demand the co-operative
mark. Thus it can fairly be said that the aim of the companies
has been accomplished.
Great importance is attached to this matter of good pack,
and to maintain uniformity the chief inspector visits every
warehouse constantly; spending a little time at each, inspecting
barrels packed, and giving instructions. His reports concerning
conditions prevailing at each warehouse are carefully noted and
filed.
New markets are constantly being sought, and in this con-
nection much valuable work has been accomplished. Markets
on the continent of Europe hitherto supplied through a series
of middlemen are now being supplied direct, and trial shipments
are being made to other hemispheres where the Nova Scotia
apples, the apples with the flavor, have never previously been
tasted, but where it is hoped a demand will be created. As the
shipping season is only at its early stage, it would be premature
to talk about what has been accomplished this year. Suffice it
11
to say that up to October 31, 206,000 barrels and 42,000 boxes
had been shipped, and quite a fair proportion of this quantity
had been shipped to fill orders.
The wonderful success that has attended the co-operative
movement is having a telling effect, and applications are being
constantly received from responsible farmers asking for assist-
ance in forming companies in their neighborhoods. Nine such
companies are now in course of organization, and at the end of
the apple shipping season a vigorous campaign will be conducted
to still further extend the scope of this movement.
It is not proposed that the shipping of apples and furnishing
of fertilizer shall be the sum and substance of this movement.
A more ambitious program is mapped out. It is proposed that
in time everything that a farmer requires on his farm or in his
home can be purchased through the co-operative companies.
Advertisements are seen daily, setting forth the advantage of
buying direct from the makers. Through the co-operative
movement the farmer will get his supplies direct from the
makers, minus even the advertising expenses, and with all the
saving in cost which is always effected when a large quantity
of any material is bought. Through co-operation the farmer
buys his supplies direct from the producer and sells his product
direct to the consumer. The small army of middlemen, who
have been making a comfortable living out of him on both
sides, has to retire and he, the producer, gets the full value of
his money on the one hand, and gets all the money that his
produce makes on the other.
As I stated before, the United Fruit Companies have a very
ambitious program. It contains such items as the erection of
cold-storage plants, the running of a line of refrigerator cars,
erecting or purchasing large department stores, erecting saw-
mills and cooperage and box-making shops, and even banking
and insurance. Indeed the possibilities are unlimited. See
what has been done in Europe. Who will say that what Den-
mark has accomplished is not possible in Canada?
One does not expect all this in a year, or two years or even
five years, but given judicious management and capable officials
in all departments and in ten years I look to see the United
Fruit Companies of Nova Scotia the most powerful organization
in eastern Canada.
12
The Central Association has an efficient office staff working
on an organized system. Instructions are sent out from the
Central office constantly to all subsidiary companies, directing
as to varieties to be packed and how, when, and where to be
shipped. Space on the various boats is allotted to the com-
panies, and directions issued as to method of shipping, etc.
Statistics are compiled showing quantity and condition of crop
throughout the American continent and Europe. Constant
telegraphic advices are received and recorded, giving total
estimated shipments of apples from all ports to all ports. Pre-
vailing conditions on all markets are recorded daily, and reports
received from our representatives and agents from all markets
touched by the North American fruits. All the reports are
carefully studied and instrufctions issued as a result. The or-
ganized fruit growers of Nova Scotia this year demonstrated to
the world that co-operation is a mighty factor.
As soon as the unreasonable increase of ocean rates was com-
municated to the Central office, it was recognized that unless
immediate action was taken the Annapolis valley would be sub-
jected to a tax which would be nothing short of murderous to
its industry. The increase of 32 cents per barrel was utterly
indefensible; the claim of the steamship companies that addi-
tional war risks had to be paid did not form sufficient excuse,
as less than half the amount of the advance would more than
cover any additional cost in that direction. It was simply an
attempt on the part of the combine to take advantage of the
war to make those who were forced to ship pay a rate that
would make bigger profits for the steamship owners.
There were two ways of combating this menace; one, was an
appeal to the government at Ottawa, and the other, was by
chartering boats owned by concerns outside of the Atlantic
combine. The United Companies pursued both courses.
A strongly worded protest was immediately mailed to the
minister of trade and commerce. The shippers of the United
States were also appealed to with a view to bringing pressure
to bear on the combination through the American trade. It
was found that the American shippers were all ready to co-
operate with the United Fruit Companies, who were alone on
the Canadian side in fighting the increase in a determined
manner. The Dominion fruit conference was about to be held
and the officials of the United Fruit Companies attending that
conference were instructed to bring the matter up as an emer-
gency.
In the meantime the strongest weapon of the organized fruit
growers was used. Steamship brokers were instructed to as-
certain what independent tonnage was available for chartering,
and it was quickly found that no difficulty would be experienced
in obtaining all the boats necessary to carry the United Fruit
Companies' apples. The United Fruit Companies then in-
formed the International Combine that they proposed charter-
ing independent boats, and as an indication that this was no
idle threat two boats were chartered. This had the desired
effect and we were quickly notified that the steamship com-
panies had decided to reduce the increase by 19 cents.
Now the moral to be drawn from this short but sharp fight
is that organized and united the fruit growers of the valley are
a power, a power that can demand and obtain fair treatment.
The fact that the organized fruit growers were powerful enough
to charter their own boats and powerful enough to be abso-
lutely independent of the regular steamship lines has saved the
valley 19 cents on every barrel of apples that will be shipped.
Consider what this means. If only 600,000 barrels are shipped
this year the United Fruit Companies will have saved the
valley $114,000 — $114,000 in the pockets of the growers in-
stead of the pockets of the steamship companies.
If the United Fruit Companies had not been in existence,
the advanced freight rates would have gone into effect and the
growers would have had to pay, or allow their fruit to rot.
The few big shippers probably would riot have paid the increase,
but that would only be a repetition of what has happened pre-
viously, and the ordinary growers would have had to pay,
while a few privileged individuals would not. By taking space
and retailing it to smaller shippers, the favored few would ha\e
become just so much richer at the expense of their less fortunate
brethren.
As individuals, the growers can do nothing; as an organized
body working co-operatively, they are a power to be considered.
The co-operative movement in Nova Scotia is just what I
14
say it has been. And I will quote from the annual report of
the co-operative society for last year: ''Your purchases for the
past year have included 575,000 pulp heads, 35,000 pounds of
nails, 67,800 pounds of grass and clover seed, 22,745 pounds of
other seeds, 48,300 pounds of vetches, 4,500 bushels of seed
oats, 2,060 barrels of flour [and they bought a lot more flour
just before the war], 19,649 bags of feed, 6,044 tons of fertilizer,
104,000 pounds of arsenate of lead, 8,900 rods of steel fence,
1,800 barrels of lime sulphur, 2,200 pounds 'Black leaf 40.'
These supplies have cost in round figures about $183,000."
Our country is especially fitted for co-operation, because the
Dominion Atlantic Railroad runs from one end of the valley to
the other, and the warehouses are dotted all the way from
Digby to Yarmouth, and at Berwick we have six more. The
central office does all the selling. They get their orders from
England, from the Canadian west, or wherever it may be.
Each warehouse is notified by telephone or telegraph how many
barrels to put into that particular lot.
The great trouble we had was to get the farmers started.
They are a suspicious lot of men, afraid somebody will make
a dollar out of them. In Nova Scotia the great talk against
the co-operative companies is that the manager is making some
money. Of course you can't get a good manager unless you
pay him. Last year it cost about 4 cents a barrel for all the
apples that w^ere handled by the co-operative company to pay
the total running expenses of the whole business for clerks.
We have a splendid system of bookkeeping, too. Every man
knows what his apples bring, and we have auditors to handle
the books so that there is no possibility of fraud, and up to the
present date the movement is working very well indeed. Our
apples go to Africa, Cape Colony, Glasgow, England and the
Canadian west, and we are opening up a market now in South
America. We sell very few apples in the United States.
Question. In what condition are the apples when picked
and taken to the warehouse?
Mr. WooDWORTH. They are picked in the orchard care-
fully, and the early apples taken to the warehouse in barrels
with a little bit of burlap and a hoop drawn over it. The later
15
fruit is put in the barrel and the heads are put in upside down,
and they are shipped to the warehouse and stored there. They
are all put in in blocks, a block of Baldwins and a block of
Greenings, and shipped out just as they are wanted. The
warehouses are kept very neat and clean, too, and everything
piled up in them, and it is a pleasure to go in.
Question. How far are the warehouses from the orchards?
Mr. WooDWORTH. Oh, 4 or 5 miles at the most. Not 5
miles now, because you see the valley is only about 6 miles
wide, and the railroad runs through the center. I am 2 miles
from the station. We draw 35 or 40 barrels to a load and
draw 4 loads a day. Pick up the apples, load them in the
wagon and go right down and get your slip from the ware-
house for every barrel of apples you put in.
Question. You said you headed the barrels in the orchard.
Mr. WooDWORTH, Yes, we put the heads in upside down
so that it gives a little more space. We do not press them
down in the orchard; we shake them down, jar them down
when we pick them, and then shove the head in.
Question, Are they all repacked?
Mr. WooDWORTH. All are graded and repacked at the
warehouse.
Mr. W^heeler. I would like to ask if you consider the co-
operative association takes the place of passing necessary
laws, — for instance, a grading law?
Mr. WooDW^ORTH. Oh, no. These companies have to be
looked after. I have got a copy of the inspection and sale act
of Nova Scotia. If you people had this law it would be the
best thing you ever had. I will quote one or two para-
graphs: —
Fancy quality, unless such fruit consists of well-grown specimens of one
variety, sound, of uniform and of at least normal size and good color for
the variety, of normal shape, free from worm-holes, bruises, scab and other
defect and properly packed; No. 1 quality, unless such fruit includes no
culls and consists of well-grown specimens of one variety, sound, of not
less than medium size and of good color for the variety, of normal shape
and not less than 90 per cent free from scab, worm-holes, bruises and other
defects, and properly packed.
16
Now, that is the No. 1, but they say there must be 90 per
cent good, clean fruit. We intend they shall be all good clean
fruit, but perhaps some man may not have good eyesight and
they allow 10 per cent leeway — the law does — for some of
that kind of stuff to come in.
No. 2 quality, unless such fruit includes no culls and consists of speci-
mens of not less than medium size for the variety, and not less than 80
per cent free from worm-holes and such otlier defects as cause material
waste, and properly packed.
That is the No. 2 pack.
In any package in which the face or shown surface gives a false repre-
sentation of the contents of such package; and it shall be considered a
false representation when more than 15 per cent of such fruit is sub-
stantially smaller in size than, or inferior in grade to, or different in variety
from, the face or shown surface of such package.
You see, that fruit must be all the same all the way through.
If you pack a box of apples down in our country and the face
does not represent the whole, then you are hauled up.
Every person who, by himself or through the agency of any other
person, violates any of the provisions of sections 320 and 321 of this act,
shall be liable, for the first offense to a fine not exceeding $25 and not less
than $10; for the second offense to a fine not exceeding $50 and not less
than $25; and for the third and each subsequent offense to a fine not
exceeding $200 and not less than $50, together, in all cases, with the costs
of the prosecution; and in default of payment of such fine and costs shall
be liable to imprisonment, with or without hard labor, for a term not
exceeding one month, unless such fine and costs, and the costs of enforcing
them, are sooner paid.
Now, that is the law of our country, and it is enforced in
Nova Scotia by about fifteen fruit inspectors, and those fruit
inspectors appear constantly when you are packing apples in
your own home, and are in the co-operative places every day.
It has raised the standard of Nova Scotia apples above what
it was a few years ago, and which gave Nova Scotia apples
a bad name on the London market.
17
Whenever such violation is with respect to a lot or shipment consisting
of 50 or more closed packages, there may be imposed, in addition to any
penalty provided bj^ this section, for the first offense 25 cents, for the second
offense 50 cents, and for the third and each subsequent offense one dollar
for each barrel. This act is not only for Nova Scotia, but for
all of Canada. Our fruit inspectors are at Halifax when the
fruit is being shipped, — they haul up the barrels there, — and
they are in the warehouses. They give no certificate, though,
of inspection for any lot. They can't open all the barrels they
go through.
Question. What was the beginning of this law? What
brought it about? Did it come through the growers?
Mr. WooDWORTH. Our Fruit Growlers Association ap-
proached the government and blocked out a bill and got it
passed through the Dominion Parliament. There has been
some complaint from people who did not want to put their
fruit up well. But the thing now has become a law and we
have got to respect it, and I can tell you that I have packed
2,500 barrels of apples this year and we are very particular.
Many men, perhaps, in this State do not need any law, but a
lot of them do. If you could see some of the apples I saw at
Lewiston last year, where a barrel was bought in the open
market and brought in, it would make you smile. The man
who packed those apples didn't know how to pack a barrel of
fruit. Now, I have got about a quarter of an hour and I will
give you some points in fruit growing in Nova Scotia.
Successful Fruit growing in Nova Scotia.
The Annapolis valley is situated between the North and
South mountains, running from Windsor in the east to
Annapolis Royal in the west. The average width of this valley
is 6 miles, and practically all the apples grov»^n in Nova Scotia
are grown in this valley. Grand Pre, made famous by your
poet Longfellow, is situated in the eastern section of the valley.
Apple trees were first planted here by the Arcadian French.
Some of these trees are still bearing fruit. The varieties grown
are Gravenstein, Ribston, Blenheim, King, Golden Russet,
Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Stark and Ben Davis.
In the year 1880 it was thought wonderful that 41,000
18
barrels should be exported, yet by 1911 the quantity had risen
to nearly 2,000,000 barrels. New orchards are planted every
year, and as yet only a small fraction of the total area has
been set. Orchards that have been planted during the last
twenty-five years are set 33 feet each way, which for a standard
orchard is about right.
Special attention is paid by the successful grower to the
following points : —
Cultivation. — Most of the plowing in the larger orchards is
done in the autumn, preferably after the leaves have fallen.
Early in the spring, as soon as the land is fit, the land is
harrowed with disc harrows, followed in ten days with spring
tooth and later with smoothing harrows. The cultivation is
kept up every ten days until the 1st of July. At this time
cultivation ceases, and the entire area is sown with a cover
crop of summer vetches or tares. These vetches grow lux-
uriantly and produce a very heavy crop, which is plowed under
in the autumn. This is of great value to the soil, as it adds
an immense quantity of humus, which is heavily charged with
nitrogen gathered from the air during the growing season by
the millions of bacteria which are ever working, although
unseen, in the interest of the orchardist. The conservation of
moisture is one of the most important results of cultivation.
The stirring of the top soil breaks up the capillary tubes that
bring the water from below, and evaporation is checked. Two
other advantages of cultivation are that soil under thorough
cultivation has a larger amount of plant food available for plant
use, and the finely pulverized soil offers no resistance to root
development, and thus helps the trees to extend their feeding
area.
Fertilization. — Another important factor in successful or-
charding is keeping up the fertility of the soil. Without a
generous supply of plant food the trees will not make a satis-
factory growth or produce a paying crop.
For nitrogen, large quantities of nitrate of soda are used.
Ground fish, obtained from the Fish Reduction Works at
Carver, Nova Scotia, is a splendid fertilizer. Nitrogen is also
supplied by manure and the plowing under of leguminous crops.
Basic slag from the steel works at Sydney, Nova Scotia, has
been sviccessfully used the past few years as a source of phos-
19
phoric acid. It also has a percentage of free lime which has
a beneficial effect on the soil. In the past, large quantities of
muriate of potash have been used in our orchards, but the
farmers are not using much of late years, as our soils contain
plenty of potash, which needs only cultivation to make it
available. I might mention at this point that land of a wet
nature must be thoroughly underdrained before success is
possible. Trees will not do their best with wet feet.
Priming. — Most of the pruning is done in March and the
early part of April. Our trees are headed out about 3 feet
from the ground, and are cut back a little each year so as to
form a low-headed tree. A tree that is low headed presents
many advantages over the tall slim tree. The former is easily
sprayed. The picking of the fruit can be done with much
greater care. The tree itself is much stronger, and is not
affected by winds.
S'praying. — The operation of spraying is not a pleasant one.
Spraying has become universal in our valley. For a long
period Bordeaux mixture and Paris green was the spray used,
but of late years lime-sulphur with arsenate of lead as a poison
has almost entirely taken the place of the former.
The black scab or spot is the greatest enemy we have to
fight. Spraying should be done while the trees are dormant,
with the 1 to 8 or 1 to 9 mixture of lime-sulphur; then before
the blossoms open, with lime-sulphur 1 to 40, and 2 pounds of
arsenate of lead; and again after the petals have fallen, with
the same mixture; and if necessary, after another period of
ten days. Fine, thorough spraying generally does the work.
The operation must be thoroughly done and every part of the
tree must be reached. Power sprayers are used in almost
every instance.
Question. What variety of vetch do you use?
Mr. WooDWORTH. Just the common vetch or tares, not the
hairy vetch, which is more expensive. The vetch we use costs
$2 a bushel.
Question. How much do you seed to the acre?
Mr. WooDWORTii. One bushel. Have your land in a good
state of cultivation, then just go over it with a smoothing
20
harrow after you sow your vetches. They grow fast and form
a nice bed for the apples to fall on later.
. Question. What do you pay for basic slag?
Mr. WooDWORTH. I have to pay $13 for basic slag through
the companies, and I think it is 12^ per cent of phosphoric
and about 40 per cent of free lime. It has quite a high
percentage. You know they put the limestone into the furnaces
at the steel works and the dross comes out, and the finer it is
ground the better for us. This works splendidly on the low
lands on account of the phosphoric acid it contains.
Question. Are you troubled with the aphis?
Mr. WooDW^ORTH. Yes, we used to be. You must keep in
touch with the professors so as to know when the aphis is
coming.
Question. How can you tell whether you are going to have
it or not?
Mr. Woodworth. You can see these little aphides very
early in the spring. Quite a lot, I believe, depends upon the
season. But we examine our trees with a glass just as soon as
the very first leaves commence to show, that is, when the
little aphides hatch, — and we get intelligence, too, from all
over the valley, — from the fruit companies, — and the spray-
ing is all done about the same time of the year. The indi-
cations for aphis are reported at the central office, and we have
a co-operative newspaper which spreads the news all through
the valley, w^hich is a great aid to us.
Question. Do you have the tent caterpillar?
INIr. Woodworth. Yes, a few. But, as I say, the black
spot is what we are fighting, and I expect it is the damp
weather conditions that cause it down there.
Question. Do you use any Bordeaux in fighting the black
spot?
Mr. Woodworth. We used to rely on Bordeaux. I used
to go around the country with lime and blue vitriol and mix
Bordeaux, and show the farmers how to apply it; but since
lime and sulphur came in I have used Bordeaux only one or
two years. Lime-sulphur has taken its place. The only
objection I have to Bordeaux is that it russets the apples. I
can't grow apples unrusseted by the use of Bordeaux, and I
can grow clean fruit with lime-sulphur.
21
Question. Do you ever have any trouble with burning
foHage with lime-sulphur?
]\Ir. WooDWORTH. No. I don't think there is any trouble
with burning the foliage if you don't get your mixture too
strong.
Question. What do you pay for commercial lime-sulphur?
Mr. WooDWORTH. Eight dollars a barrel, 40 gallons. If you
want to make lime- sulphur cheap, get some brick, a 2-incli
plank, make a little brick furnace wuth a w'ooden box with
a sheet-iron bottom, about 6 feet long and 35 inches broad,
nail it on with two rows of tacks, put a bit of stove pipe up
through the end for a draft, and put in a hundred weight of
sulphur to 50 pounds of lime, and boil it one hour and draw it
off. Take a hydrometer and test it, and use it according to
the hydrometer test. The test of the hydrometer gives the
strength. You have to pay $2.25 for the sulphur and about
25 cents for the lime. In April you can boil your lime-sulphur
when you are doing nothing else, and I have saved $50 this
year.
Question. What formula do you use for Bordeaux mixture?
Mr. WooDWORTH. Forty gallons of water and 4 pounds of
blue vitriol and 4 pounds of lime. You should dilute the
4 pounds of blue vitriol with 20 gallons of water in a barrel,
and the 4 pounds of lime with another 20 gallons of water, and
then pour simultaneously into a third barrel; if you don't do
it this way your Bordeaux is no good.
Question. How much growth do you get on a tree?
Mr. WooDWORTH. On a tree that is fruiting never over 4
or 5 inches of grow'th.
Question. Do you thin your apples?
Mr. WooDWORTH. Well, we want to; it is a hard prop-
osition, the thinning of fruit. We have only thinned a very
few trees, and I know that it is the right thing to do, but we
have not done it. Our best fruit growers do. Thinning will
become universal in a little while.
Question. Do you raise any small fruit along with the
trees?
Mr. WooDWORTH. If you grow small fruit the raspberries
and strawberries sap the soil of its fertility. I have always
noticed that where a man grows strawberries between the
trees his apple-tree leaves are all yellow. We grow apples and
turnips and get huge crops in between the rows.
Question. Are not currants good?
Mr. WooDWORTH, We never grow any currants between
the trees. We grow some raspberries.
Question. At what age do your trees bear?
INIr. WooDWORTH. Well, the Wageners begin to bear about
three or four years after they are set out. Of course, they are
small trees and can't bear very large crops. I have an orchard
planted out about thirteen years, — 30 acres of orchard, —
and that has given me a splendid crop, averaging 50 bushels
to the acre; that would be a barrel to a tree. Of course, some
trees have two barrels on; others don't have any.
Question. What do your apples bring a barrel this fall?
Mr. Woodworth. Our apples for export have brought about
$1.60 through the co-operative companies. You count that a
small price; for these war times we count it a very good price.
Question. How much is the profit on a barrel of apples
at that price?
Mr. Woodworth. Fifty cents. We pay 28 cents for barrels;
it costs us about 12 cents to get them packed; they do it a
little cheaper this year than they have been doing it. Of course,
in the co-operative movement we have to pay for what it costs.
Question. You pay for picking?
Mr. Woodworth. We pay for picking usually $1 a day.
I have paid more. If we could get experienced pickers we
would pay them more, but we usually get new pickers each
year, and if you have ever attempted to pick apples with a
lot of fellows that never had picked them before you know
that all you hear is a basket falling, or a man, and by the
time you have them well taught the season is over.
Question. Is the business done through your co-operative
societies done on a cash basis?
Mr. Woodworth. Yes, we sell all the stuff for cash, except
what we send to the other side, and on that the returns come
back as soon as sold.
Question. What temperature do you keep in the ware-
houses?
23
Mr. WooDWORTH. We try to regulate the temperature as
well as we can, but you see when in the autumn days it gets
hot, as it did last year, the temperature gets very high, and we
counsel our co-operative fellows to keep their fruit at home
when they can, — not to haul off too much fruit early. We
have no system of cold storage yet; we are talking about it.
It would be a pretty nice thing for us. We have accomplished
much, and the Nova Scotia co-operative companies are the
talk of all western Canada. We are way ahead of Ontario
along that line, and we feel very proud that we have made
such a business of it. We have a very fine secretary and a
good business man. Every central office employs a manager
and bookkeepers, and each co-operative company has a manager
and head, and then the girls and young fellows do the packing.
The apples are all sorted in baskets. The African trade re-
quires box stuff. Think of sending apples to South Africa,
3,000 miles. We sell large quantities of fruit right from the
warehouse. About all fruit sold to the Canadian west is by
the carload.
Question. What is the inside measurement of your bushel
box?
Mr. WooDW'ORTH. Eleven by twenty. It is a longer box
than the so-called standard, but not so deep. It holds a
bushel.
Question. Is it 10 by 11 by 20?
Mr. WooDW'ORTH. Yes; I think that is the measurement.
Our barrel is smaller than yours. I think our barrel is like the
New York State barrel.
Mr. Wheeler. This Oregon box is 10| by 11^ by 18.
We have no law in this State requiring any size.
Mr. WooDWORTH. Of course, there is a call for boxed stuff,
but the majority of our trade is packed in barrels. The size of
our box is regulated by the Dominion government. You will
never feel happy until you get a good stiff law on about in-
spection; it is one of the very best things for any agricultural
or any fruit-growing district. There will be a lot of kickers at
first, but they will all disappear.
®1)C ^ommcnrucaltl) oi iViaBBatt)iiBtiiB.
STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 41.
May, 1916.
Cranberry GtRowing
Henry J. Fr.\nklin.
From the Sixtt-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915,
Approved by
The State Boabd of Pubucation.
CRANBERRY GROWING.
HENRY J. FRANKLIN, PH.D., SUPERINTENDENT CRANBERRY STATION OF
THE MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, WARE-
HAM, MASSACHUSETTS.
The cultivation of the cranberry as a commercial enterprise
was begun on Cape Cod about fifty years ago. While the
cranberry plant is a native of northern Europe and Asia as
well as of North America, it has never been put under cultiva-
tion in the Old World. The conditions on Cape Cod appear to
be peculiarly adapted for the growing of this berry, and as the
business from the start was found to be profitable it developed
to such an extent that it is now^ considered the most important
industry on the Cape. It now brings in a total net return
annually of between $1,500,000 and S2,000,000 to those inter-
ested in the growing of this fruit in Massachusetts. It has also
been found that other sections of North America are suitable
for the commercial growing of the cranberry, and it is now
grown successfully in New Jersey, Wisconsin, Nova Scotia,
Michigan, and on the Pacific coast line of Oregon and Wash-
ington and on Long Island, these districts being named in the
order of their relative importance as cranberry-growing regions.
The Cape Cod region produces annually considerably over half
of the cranberries which are grown commercially, New Jersey
producing over three-fourths of all the berries grown in the
other sections. No very definite and accurate census of the
cranberry acreage appears to be available, but the government
census indicates that over 20,000 acres are under cranberry
cultivation in the United States. These figures, however, do not
really show how much land is devoted to the industry, for they
do not include the land that is used for a variety of purposes in
connection with most bogs, such as sand banks and other
necessary upland surrounding the bogs and the land used for
reservoirs. If all this incidental land were included with the
land actually under vines, the total acreage devoted to the
production of this crop directly and indirectly would probably
not be less than 40,000 acres.
The average annual yield of cranberries per acre on the Cape
is a little less than 40 barrels. In all the other cranberry-
growing sections, except those of Washington and Oregon, the
average per acre yield is very much less than this. This appears
to be due partly to the superior natural conditions surrounding
the industry on the Cape, and partly to the methods of culture
employed — particularly with reference to the use of sand as a
surface mulch. All the bogs on Cape Cod are covered with
sand before the vines are set out, and they are also resanded
more or less frequently after they have come to bearing. Sand
is also used in a similar way in Oregon and Washington, but
in New Jersey and Wisconsin only a very few of the bogs are
sanded at all. jNIoreover, the Cape Cod bogs are, as a rule,
kept almost entirely free from weeds, while in other sections
the bogs are always very weedy, this freedom from weeds on
the Cape being partly due to the use of the sand and partly to
better care.
The following list, giving the cranberry production on Cape
Cod, in New Jersey and in Wisconsin for the past few years,
will give some idea of the lead that Cape Cod has in this
industry over all other sections. It is the belief of the writer
that the natural conditions are so superior for the production
of this crop on the Cape that this lead will always be main-
tained, the comparative lack of suitable and accessible sand
being a factor which must certainly always be a detriment to
the industry in other sections. Moreover, the climate of the
Cape seems to be more suitable than that of other sections, the
warmer temperatures of New Jersey being apparently respon-
sible for greater troubles with fungous diseases, and the colder
climates of Nova Scotia and Wisconsin causing the berries
many times to be smaller on account of the shorter growing
season, and also the losses from frosts to be in proportion much
greater.
Production of Cranberries.
Year.
Massachusetts
(Barrels).
New Jersey
(Barrels).
Wisconsin
(Barrels).
Grand Total
(Barrels).
1901-02,
240,000
105,000
40,000
385,000
1902-03,
215,000
30,000
46,000
291,000
1903-04,
204,000
168,000
18,000
390,000
1904-05,
226,000
83,000
21,000
330,000
1905-06,
146,000
88,000
18,000
253,000
1906-07,
240,000
103,000
45,000
388,000
1907-08,
284,238
121,000
21,000
426,238
1908-09,
229,860
75,000
12,000
316,860
1909-10,
372,835
165,000
30,000
567,835
1910-11,
287,046
241,000
16,000
544,046
1911-12,
273,120
143,000
30,000
446,120
1912-13,
317,605
112,000
45,000
474,605
1913-14,
338,850
100,700
30,000
469,700
This does not include cranberries not shipped over railroads and used for evaporating purposes.
Cranberries are of course essentially a luxury, but they have
come into such general use, especially in connection with the
Thanksgiving and Christmas dinners, that they may be looked
upon as a commodity approaching the importance of a necessity,
and up to the present time the widening of the market for them
has so kept pace with the increase in their production that
satisfactory prices almost always prevail for fruit in good con-
dition. For several years the fear that there may come a time
when the supply of cranberries will so exceed the demand as to
make them a drug on the market has been present in the minds
of many interested in the industry. While it must be admitted
that there is a possibility that such a condition may come to
pass, it must be borne in mind that there has not yet developed
any considerable export trade except that with Canada and
that the methods of disposing of the crop were very crude and
hit or miss until within the last three or four years. INIoreover,
satisfactory methods for the preserving of this fruit have not
yet been developed, and our knowledge of the best means for
producing the fruit cheaply is probably in its infancy. It is to
be hoped and expected that the development of an export
trade and of satisfactory processes for preserving, the perfection
of selling arrangements, the production of heavier average
annual crops to the acre, by the stoppage of losses from insects
and disease, and possibly also by the growing of more prolific
varieties, which would lower the per barrel cost of production,
will make it possible to grow cranberries at a reasonable profit
and at the same time provide for a normal increase in acreage
for many years to come. Better and more economical methods
of harvesting, packing and shipping the fruit will also undoubt-
edly be developed and assist greatly in lessening the cost of
production. The average expense of picking the berries and
resanding bogs is at present altogether too high, and it is not
unreasonable to expect that both these costs will sometime be
much reduced by the use of machinery. It is to be hoped, also,
that in time the sales companies of New England, New Jersey
and Wisconsin, which at present, together .as the American
Cranberry Exchange, control the sale of over 60 per cent, of
the cranberry crop of the country, will so develop their arrange-
ments as to have large central packing plants where the process
of preparing the berries for market may be so simplified and
perfected that the expense connected with it will be considerably
reduced.
To discuss fully all the matters of interest in connection with
the cranberry industry would require more time and space than
is allowed the writer in the preparation of this paper. There
will be given here, therefore, only a brief discussion of what
appear to be the more important essentials for the growing of
cranberries, their preparation for market, and their preparation
for the table, together with an itemized estimate of the present
cost of preparing a bog.
The Essentials of an Ideal Cranberry Bog.
Land.
It seems to be the general experience that cranberries in cul-
tivation, as in the wild state, do best on low, moist, swamp land
consisting of muck or peat. The depth of this peat or muck
soil need not, however, be very great, a few inches of peat or a
single layer of turf underlaid by sand or clay very frequently
giving most satisfactory results. It does not appear, however.
that any muck or peat or even any sod is absolutely essential,
for often portions of bogs grown on sand alone, so called "bard
bottom," especially if fertilized, produce very satisfactory crops.
A clay or marl soil in damp situations is often found highly
satisfactory. Other things being equal, the freer the land is
from brush or timber the better, for it is more easily and
cheaply put into shape for growing cranberries. Fresh meadow
has been frequently converted into cranberry bog without
turfing, the grass being simply covered over with a good coating
of sand and the vines set out without further preparation, ex-
cept that of leveling and ditching, and the bogs thus made have
been, in most cases, satisfactory, and they were certainly built
at comparatively small expense. Brush swamps are in general
to be preferred to w^ooded swamp land because of the smaller
expense of clearing. If heavily wooded land is used, it is desir-
able to remove the stumps of the trees if this can be done with-
out too great expense. It is advisable to cut the trees at the
roots so that the stumps may be tipped out in felling. The
stumps may be burned or removed from the bog. It is the
writer's opinion, however, that much labor has been wasted on
removing stumps, for it is a matter of common observation that,
after a bog has been producing berries for several years, the
vines are more thrifty and produce more fruit over buried
stumps than on the portions between the stumps. It seems
probable, therefore, that it would be wiser to cut down the
tops of such stumps as are very hard to remove and cover
them over.
Location.
A cranberry bog should be located on or close to a good
stream of water, capable of furnishing quick flowage at any
time during the year. In case the stream is of itself not suffi-
cient, it is best to increase its capacity for flooding by building
a reservoir further up the stream than the bog location. This
reservoir, however, should be located as far from the bog as
is practicable, and should not be kept full during the growing
season any more than is absolutely necessary. If the reservoir
is near the bog and is kept full all the time, it will impair the
drainage of the bog and make it weedy. It is desirable that
the bog should be open to the sunshine and winds instead of
8
being surrounded by high uplands and woods, for a bog in an
open location is less liable, other things being equal, to injury
from frost, and its berries are more likely to set heavily, ripen
early, and keep well when exposed to the maximum amount of
sunshine.
Sand.
Clean sand, preferably coarse, or gravel should be readily
obtainable from banks surrounding the bog location. Fine
sand is often used for covering the bog with a mulch before the
vines are set as well as for resanding them in subsequent years,
but such sand appears always to promote the growth of moss
and does not seem to be so effective in helping to keep down
weeds as does coarse sand. Fine gravel is thought by many to
be superior to sand.
Drainage.
A bog should be capable of good drainage. Poor drainage
always promotes weed growth, and it usually affects the keep-
ing quality of the berries by inducing increased activity on the
part of fungous diseases which cause berries to rot both on the
bog and in the storehouse. In order to have sufficient drainage,
it is necessary that the land on the lower side of the bog should
grade down rapidly, so that the water at any time may be
drawn out of the bog quickly. A ditch should be cut entirely
around the bog, and other ditches are usually dug across it,
dividing it into sections. If the drainage away from the bog is
first class, these cross ditches are not of extreme importance
unless the bottom is springy. In a naturally dry and well-
drained piece of bog it is desirable that the cross ditches, if
present at all, should be few and widely separated. If, how-
ever, the bog is naturally wet and difficult to drain, the cross
ditches should be much closer placed. In many well-drained
bogs the cross ditches are probably placed much closer together
than is necessary, for the reason that water is found to travel
easily and quickly through ordinary peat. Its passage through
peat is far more rapid than through clay soils. On naturally
well-drained bogs, therefore, the chief function of the cross
ditches is to provide for the rapid distribution of water over
the entire bog surface, especially in the beginning of flooding.
Without cross ditches to distribute the water, the flowage
tends to pile up more or less at the end of the bog where the
water is admitted. The marginal ditch should be 3 or 4 feet
wide and 2 feet deep. One of its purposes is to prevent upland
growths from encroaching on the bog. It also prevents many
kinds of insects from crawling on to the bog, and it is a con-
siderable protection in case the bog is threatened by forest
fires. It is customary to have one of the cross ditches larger
than the others and running lengthwise of the bog, in the path
of the direct flow of water from the brook or reservoir used for
a w^ater supply to the drainage outlet. This is desirable, as it
accelerates the handling and distribution of the water in flood-
ing and draining. Such a ditch is especially desirable on bogs
of large area.
Grading.
All single bog areas should be as nearly level as possible, so
that they may be flooded quickly and with as small a quantity
of water as possible. The grading is done after the ditches are
dug, the water line in the ditches being used to grade from.
If the water supply is very abundant, it is not so necessary to
be particular about getting the bog surface level as it is if the
supply is scanty. The material thrown out in ditching may be
used to fill up the holes formed by the pulling out of stumps or
otherwise. Usually it is profitable in the long run to spend
considerable money and effort in getting a bog perfectly level,
and no swamp ought to be selected for cranberry purposes
where it is impossible to perfect such grading at a reasonable
expense, unless the water supply is ample.
Dikes.
The dams made for holding the water in reservoirs and bogs
in flooding are of the sort called dikes. They are usually made
of a wide core of sand faced on either side with a wall of turf.
This turf may often be gathered from the upland surrounding
the bog, but the surface of the swamp itself usually has to be
scalped" after the lumber and brush are removed, and the turf
thus obtained may be partly or wholly used in facing the dikes
and in walling the ditches. Unless certain malignant weeds
are present to cause trouble, this turf need not, however, be
removed from the surface of the swamp unless it is needed for
10
the dikes and ditches. It may be turned upside down where
it is cut instead, and when thus handled and covered with the
surface mulch of sand it will give no great trouble from the
weed standpoint.
The dikes are of various dimensions according to the heads
of water they are required to hold. It is sometimes desirable
to build the dikes wider than is necessary to hold the water,
so that they may also serve as roadways across the bog. In
case the bog location runs for a long distance along a stream,
it is best to divide the swamp into several separate bog areas,
each area nearly level in itself, but the various areas at differ-
ent elevations according to the lay of the land, and all separated
from each other by dikes. In this way the quantity of water
required for flooding the entire swamp may be very greatly
reduced. The dikes should have a broad base below the center
of which a trench should be dug to hardpan. This trench
should run lengthwise of the dike and should be filled with
sand or gravel so as to make a good connection with the soQ
beneath for holding the water. The dikes should be narrower
at the top than at the bottom. Heavy teams should not be
allowed to drive over a new dike for several months after it
is built, for the dike will be injured for holding water if it is
used as a roadway before it has become well settled together.
A dike should be built overstrong rather than not strong
enough. In other words, it is the part of wisdom to always
build a dike wider and higher than appears to be necessary.
It should be at least a foot higher than the high-water mark,
for the wave action of the water against it will be certain to
wear a hole through the top in time in case it is not high
enough. Ditches should not be dug close to the dikes, but it
is desirable to ditch the bog a few feet away from the base of
the dike on either side. If the ditch is cut too near to the dike
there is danger of the dike caving in. If the dike crosses peat
or other soft land, it should be spiled with barn boards or,
better still, with planks lengthwise to hardpan, in the middle.
A flume for the passage of the water must be built in the dike,
and too great care cannot be used in its construction. There
are several different kinds of flumes. Some are built of wood,
but it will pay in most cases to build them of concrete and
11
reinforce where necessary. The covered or trunk flume is
favored by some growers of experience, and it is to be said in
favor of this type that, when built of wood, it will not rot out
as quickly as the open flume. When built of concrete and
properly constructed, the open flume appears to the writer to
be preferable. The open flume should be connected with the
soil beneath and with the diking on its sides by means of plank
spiling, and if the head of water to be held is very great, and
the soil underneath the flume is soft and sandy, it is best to
use more than one line of spiling. In the writer's opinion it is
better to have the flume built so that the water may be handled
from the top rather than from the bottom. It will usually be
found profitable to employ a man of considerable experience in
flume building.
llie Form and Size of the Bog.
It is the general experience that, other things being equal,
bogs of small area give much better returns than do those of
large area. This is due to a variety of circumstances. Long
and narrow bogs are more profitable after a certain point in
size is reached than are bogs of compact form. In the first
place, with large bogs of compact form, the expenses connected
with the care of the bog and the harvesting of the crops are
disproportionately large, particularly because it takes so much
more time to w^heel sand out to the center of the bog and to
bring the berries to the upland from the center. Then, too, all
the operations connected with harvesting and with the general
care of the bog call for much more tramping over, and con-
sequent injury to, the vines on such large blocky bogs. But
perhaps more potent than these circumstances leading to the
diminished success of the large bog is the fact that the flowed
bog fireworm (blackhead cranberry worm) is far more prevalent
and destructive, other things being equal, on such bogs. This
is due to the fact that the w^inter flowage favors the insect by
driving off from the bog most of its natural enemies such as
spiders and parasites, while the water at the same time protects
its eggs from unfavorable and severe winter weather conditions.
The natural enemies of the insect are, of course, much slower
in reaching the middle portion of a large compact bog in
12
effective numbers than they are in reaching the same part of a
small bog. If, however, the large bog is a long and narrow one,
practically none of the factors here mentioned are particularly
unfavorable to it in comparison with the same circumstances
on small bogs in general.
Varieties.
No single bog area, that is, no area flooded by the same dike,
should be planted to more than one variety. Some of the more
important varieties have insect and fungous troubles which are
more or less characteristic or peculiarly virulent with thpm, and
the planting of several varieties afflicted with a variety of
troubles on the same bog area often complicates the possibili-
ties for effective treatments. There is a large number of
varieties under cultivation, both on Cape Cod and in other
cranberry-growing sections. Other sections may have some
varieties which would be very desirable for planting on the
Cape. There is always, however, the danger of the introduc-
tion of new fungous or insect troubles with the introduction of
new varieties. It has been recently discovered that one disease
peculiar to the Wisconsin cranberry region has been, in this
way, brought to the Cape. The Early Black and Late Howe
varieties are the two varieties most grown on the Cape, and
they are generafly considered the standard varieties there.
They are fairly prolific, are well known to the trade, are among
the best keepers, and their vine growth is such that they can
usually be readily picked with scoops. The Early Black variety,
however, is of only fair quality as a berry for the table, and the
Late Howe is of rather poor quality for this purpose, being
among cranberries, unless picked very late, much what the
Ben Davis is among apples. The Mammoth, McFarlin, Centre-
ville, Matthew, Centennial and Berry Berry varieties are all
fancy berries and of good quality for the table, but they are,
as a rule, poor keepers. Many think the Berry Berry has the
best flavor of all the Cape berries at present under cultivation,
and this opinion is perhaps justified. Some of the less known
varieties are of fair promise, and should probably, in the opinion
of the writer, be given more extended trial. The McKinley,
Perry Red and Pride are here suggested as such promising
13
varieties. The Pride is the most prolific variety of cranberries
known to the writer, and it has fair table and keeping qualities
and is a rather handsome berry. Its vine growth, however, is
such that it will always be a difficult variety to pick with
scoops.
The different varieties vary greatly in the time of ripening,
the earliest usually becoming well colored by the end of the
first week in September, and the latest by about the 1st of
October. Some berries color up fairly well in storage, while
others will not turn red very much unless they are left upon
the vines. Cranberries are first green, then almost white, then
pink, and finally red. There are some wild berries which are
milk white when ripe, and some of the varieties under cultiva-
tion, such as the Early Black, when completely ripe, are so
dark red that they are almost black. The berries of the differ-
ent varieties vary greatly in shape, some being pear shaped,
others elongate and pointed, and still others oval and round.
Other things being equal, the round berries are to be preferred,
for they are the most easily cleaned and are, therefore, most
cheaply prepared for market, and will, as a rule, be shipped in
the best condition.
The Construction of a Bog.
Sanding.
The first operations in the preparation of a cranberry bog,
namely, the cleaning of the land of timber and brush, the
turfing, the ditching and the grading of the swamp, have al-
ready been discussed sufficiently for present purposes. After
these operations have been completed the swamp is ready for
sanding. In this there is a variety of practice. On Cape Cod,
where the sand is plentiful in banks adjoining the swamps, it
has always been carried on to the bogs by men with wheel-
barrows, over lines of planks. This is necessarily an expensive
process, and it seems probable that it will eventually be re-
placed by some method of pumping, as pumping would be
much cheaper and is already practiced as a means of handling
sand in other similar connections. In the Pacific northwest,
where the sand underlies the swamps and is not available in
quantity in banks close to the bogs, some growers have success-
14
fully followed the practice of pumping up the sand in the water
from the bottom with a centrifugal pump, and sending it
through long lines of piping to the place where it was to be
used. They have pumped sand in some cases for over a mile
in this way, the cost of sanding by this method being less than
$30 an acre. In former years, those who built bogs on the
Cape considered it necessary to put on 5 or 6 inches of sand
before planting, and this practice still prevails with many
growers to-day. Those of largest experience, however, appear
to have generally adopted the idea of sanding more lightly
before planting, and they, as a rule, now put on only from 2
to 3 inches of sand. With this smaller amount, the vine growth
is distinctly more rapid after planting, the bog becoming more
quickly vined over and consequently reaching full bearing
sooner. If this practice is followed, the bog should be resanded
with from a quarter to a third of an inch of sand every year
for the first three or four years after planting. By this method
of procedure, however, a firmer and more deep-set root system
will be obtained, and the bog will be kept in the best condition
possible for scooping.
The sand serves several purposes: it helps to keep down
weeds and moss; it fastens down the runners and enables them
to root better; it gives the roots a medium to grow in which is
capable of far better drainage and aeration than is peat, and
thus promotes their greater development; it takes in more heat
during the day than peat, and radiates it at night so as to
afford a considerable protection from frost; it is a considerable
aid in controlling some injurious insect pests. As the roots
come to form a very dense growth in the sand over the peat,
they may be said to become soil bound from time to time, and
resanding gives them more soil to develop in. It has the dis-
advantage, however, of promoting fungous disease development
more or less. It is, undoubtedly, for this reason that berries
frequently rot badly on the vines in new plantings on the Cape.
Berries from new plantings are generally considered weak and
unfit for long shipments. Experience appears to have shown
the New Jersey growers that in their climate most bogs cannot
be sanded without danger of disastrous trouble from fungous
diseases. On the Gape, however, if new bogs are badly diseased
15
during the first few years after planting, they, as a rule, largely
recover from it if they are kept well drained, and the advan-
tages obtained from sanding and resanding are so great that
they much overbalance this single disadvantage.
Vine Setting.
After the sanding has been done the bog is in readiness for
the setting of the vines. It should be marked for planting in
hills by drawing a hand-marker across it, first lengthwise and
then crosswise, the marker being provided with five or more
teeth. The vines should be planted in hills from 10 to 18 inches
apart. About 12 inches seems to be the distance at present
commended by general experience. The closer the vines are
planted the sooner they will, other things being equal, come
into bearing. The vines should not be bunched in the hill
when planted. One or two vines are just as successful in pro-
ducing a desirable growth as are half a dozen. If a lot of vines
are planted in a bunch, most of those in the center, as a rule,
die anyway, the result being a waste of planting material. A
better method from the standpoint of vine growth, though not
from the standpoint of labor involved, would be to plant several
vines in each hill, but have the hill scattered, that is, have the
vines separated from one another slightly in the hill. It is not
necessary to set the vines right side up, for they will grow
either way. The vines, after planting, need not stick up more
than half an inch above the sand. A wooden or iron dibble
may be used to press them in. They should be inserted well
into the sand, but need not reach into the peat beneath, for
most of the roots that they put out will be formed in the sand
in any case.
Care of the New Bog after Planting.
Immediately after planting, the water should be turned on
and held close to the surface for a day or two. This will wet
up the vines and settle the sand around them. Then the water
should be drawn out to the bottoms of the ditches. Except in
case of very prolonged drought, a bog need not be reflowed
again during the first season, and if it is reflowed it should be
for only a few hours, or only enough to just wet up the surface.
16
New bogs should not be submerged for the winter until night
freezing becomes severe enough to show signs of heaving the
plants. When considerable ice forms in the ditches it is time
to put on the winter flood. This should submerge the vines
for several inches. In some seasons a sufficient heaving of the
vines to cause considerable damage may take place as early as
the 1st of November, and it is necessary to keep rather careful
watch of the new planting in order to guard against this. The
results of a slight injury from heaving in the early fall may not
be apparent at the time, and may not, in fact, be noticed at
all until the middle of the following summer, when, during a
prolonged dry spell, the plants come to need a considerable
amount of water. Some of the roots having been broken by
the heaving of the fall before will then be unable to supply
what is required of them, and a dying back of the tips, espe-
cially of the runners, will be likely to occur. In the spring,
during the first three or four years, the winter flowage should
be removed from a new planting about the 20th of April. At
times of sudden thaws or of heavy rains, in winter or early
spring, care must be taken to allow the surplus water to escape.
If this is not done, and the flowage is so shallow that the vines
have been frozen into the ice, the raising of the ice by the
water may pull young vines out of the ground. More weeds
grow on a bog during the first two or three years after planting
than afterwards, for the vines have not, at that time, suffici-
ently covered the bog to successfully compete with them. If,
however, the bog is kept free of weeds during its early youth
comparatively little trouble will be experienced with them after
it comes to bearing. The grower should come to understand in
a general way the characteristics of the weeds with which he
has to deal at this time, for it is sufficient to merely cut off the
tops of some kinds and so prevent them from seeding, while it
is absolutely essential that others should be carefully pulled up
and rooted out. Moreover, many upland weeds, which will be
entirely killed out by the winter's flooding, frequently appear
on new plantings, and these need not be given any attention.
After the bog has come into bearing, all weeds should be re-
moved by the time the vines are in bloom, and if certain weeds,
such as sedges, rushes, cotton grass or cut grass appear in
17
abundance later, they should be again cleared out, even though
considerable injury is dpne in the process of weeding. Any
weeding, however, done later than the 10th of August is, to say
the least, an extremely poor expenditure of time and money.
The new bog should be resanded at least twice before it pro-
duces its first full crop, so that the runners may be caused to
root as they are produced each year and the vines thus develop
a strong root system and become well anchored.
Care of a Bearing Bog.
After the third year the care of a bog should follow, in a
general way, the following lines of practice:
The Use of Water.
The winter flowage should be put on as late in the fall or
early winter as possible without running serious risks of winter-
killing. As a rule, it is best not to put on this flowage until
after the first heavy snow storm. This often does not occur
until well into January, though the weather may become so
severe as to necessitate flooding before the middle of December.
In the spring, the flowage should be taken off as early as the
1st of April every other year, but it should be held as late as
the 20th of May in seasons which appear to promise bad fruit-
worm injury. It being difficult, however, from our present
knowledge to forecast such injury, it is probably best to hold
the water of the winter flood late every other year, at least
in locations where the fruit worm is usually destructive. Some
time during the first week in June the bog should be reflowed
as a special precaution against the attacks of the fireworm, and
also to clean it from any other pests which may be present in
small numbers. This reflow prepares it to go through the
season with a somewhere near even chance of keeping free
from miscellaneous insect troubles. This reflow should, as a
rule, be maintained for forty-eight hours. It should be put on
during the night, and also, if possible, taken off entirely during
the night, for if the tender, growing vines stand partly covered
w4th water and exposed to the sun for any length of time they
are likely to be injured by scalding. In case the winter flowage
is taken oft' late, and the season is also cold and late, this June
18
reflow should probably, as a rule, be postponed to some time
during the second week of the month.
If frost threatens to do damage during May or the first half
of June, it will be necessary to put on a partial flood for pro-
tection against it. It is not necessary, however, to entirely
cover the vines for frost protection. Two or three inches of
water over the surface of the sand under the vines is entirely
sufficient for this protection, as the water w^ll radiate its heat
into the air and maintain a sufficiently high temperature
around the vines to keep them from freezing. Bogs are flooded
both by gravity flowage and b}^ pumping. With many bogs,
however, there is not sufficient water supply for reflowage or
even, in some cases, for winter flowage. On such bogs, if they
are not located in exceptionally cold places, protection from
frost may be had at reasonable expense by the use of tobacco
shade cloth.
The bog should not be reflowed during or after the blossom-
ing period except in cases of extreme need, such as protection
from a forest fire or a threatened insect devastation which
evidently could not be averted in any other way. In Septem-
ber and October the fall period of frost danger often makes it
necessary to again flow the bogs for protection. The berries
and vines will, however, endure some frost at this period of the
year, and longer chances may be taken than during the spring
period of danger. It is not desirable to flood in the fall for
protection if it can be avoided, for the water tends to cause a
deterioration in the keeping qualities of the fruit. It should
be stated, in this connection, that it is best not to flood for
frost protection either in the spring or fall unless it is certainly
necessary, for the. water at either period of the year will do a
certain amount of harm. The United States Weather Bureau
maintains a frost-warning service for the benefit of the growers
during both of these periods, and warnings may be had from
the office in Boston when they are needed by any grower if he
has a telephone and will make his wants known. It is not wise,
however, to always rely absolutely on this service, but most
growers could save their bogs from many a flooding, and at
the same time save their water supply to meet their greatest
needs when such supplies are not abundant, by making a more
19
careful study of weather conditions, especially in connection
with the dew point and the action of the barometer.
After the crop is harvested, the bog should be completely
reflowed for five or six days. This helps the vines to recover
from the shock of the tearing up which they receive during the
process of harvesting. It also destroys whatever girdler worms
may be present on the bog, if the water is put on before the
1st of October. No reflowage after this one is necessary or
desirable before the water is put on for the winter.
Irrigation.
There is a variety of practice in connection with the irrigation
of cranberry bogs, and it is by no means certain what the best
practice is. A bog can be given altogether too much water
during the growing season, and most growers probably err more
in this direction than in running their bogs too dry. It is evi-
dent, however, that in periods of prolonged drought a bog can
be run so dry as to cause it injury. In case of doubt, it is
probably best to take a middle course and try to be sure that
the vines have enough water but not too much. If the sand
is moist up to within half an inch of the surface, even though
the surface itself appears perfectly dry, it is pretty certain that
the vines have all the water they need, even if the water table
appears to be very low.
TJie Use of Sand.
Experience and investigation seem to indicate that resanding
should be done every other year on a bearing bog. The oftener
it is done the more of a protection it is against frost, the girdler
and the tip worm. If it were not for these three factors, it
would probably not be desirable to sand oftener than once in
three years. There is a difference in opinion in regard to the
best season of the year for sanding. Some, with the writer,
hold that the fall, after harvesting is done, is the best time for
this work. Others consider that the sand may be applied most
cheaply, evenly and effectively on the ice during the winter.
Still others believe that it is best to sand in the early spring
after the winter flowage has been let off. Sanding may some-
times be done most cheaply in the winter, although weather
20
conditions would affect the cost. Certainly the process of
sanding will do the least possible mechanical injury to the
vines if the sand is put on the ice. This mechanical injury is
undesirably great in the spring, but the sand is, of course,
somewhat cleaner for the following season if it is applied in the
spring. There is usually, however, not so great a rush of work
in the fall as in the spring, and labor is, therefore, usually more
abundant, and better attention can be given to the work at
that time of the year. Moreover, the injury done to the vines
at that season is not very great. The cost of thorough resand-
ing with from a quarter to a third of an inch of sand varies
from 120 to $30 an acre.
Pruning.
Sometimes vines become undesirably thick and dense. This
may be due to a variety of reasons. It most often occurs on
new bogs where the bottom is very rich and the sand mulch
comparatively thin. Under such circumstances it is probably
best to thin out the vines by the use of knife-rakes and then
sand the remainder heavily. With the exception of this treat-
ment for the improvement of heavy vine conditions, pruning
as a general practice on cranberry bogs is probably not to be
recommended. It is sometimes desirable, however, to thin out
loose runners by a very light use of the rakes.
Fertilizing.
Extensive experiments with fertilizers have been carried on
for several years, but it has not yet been definitely proved that
there is any great advantage to be had from their use from
the standpoint of fruit production. There appears to have
been no decided increase in the quantity of fruit due to the use
of fertilizer, except where some form of nitrate has been used,
and in this connection it is probably safe to recommend for
many bogs the use of nitrate of soda in moderate quantities
(100 pounds to the acre). The best results from the use of this
fertilizer are to be expected on portions of the bog which for
any reason are thin vined, especially on the portions over
''hard bottom" (sand or clay underneath instead of peat).
Such fertilizing on new bogs is probably entirely undesirable
21
except on "hard bottom." Vine growth is always accelerated
by the use of nitrate, and this acceleration is likely to be un-
desirably great on peat bottom, especially if the bog is new.
Fungous Diseases.
There are numerous fungous diseases which affect cranberry
vines. Some of them seriously aft'ect the vitality of the vines
and some reduce the crop either by blasting the blossoms and
young berries or by causing the decay of the larger berries both
on the vines and in storage. As has already been indicated,
the use of sand encourages the development of such diseases,
but it is so great a help in other directions that it must be
used in spite of this difficulty. One of the best ways to reduce
trouble from fungous disease is to maintain good drainage
during the growing season. For this reason, bogs which are
troubled seriously by such diseases should be kept as dry as
they safely can be throughout the summer, after the winter
flowage has been taken off. It seems to be the general experi-
ence on the Cape, however, that late holding of the winter
flowage (to the 20th of May) markedly improves the keeping
quality of the berries. Care in the handling of the fruit during
the harvesting, and in the processes of separating, screening
and packing for the market will certainly do much to keep
down the rotting caused by fungous diseases during transpor-
tation. The matter of spraying bogs for the curtailment of
fungous diseases is, at present, in a condition of confusion. It
is found that Bordeaux mixture, made according to the formula
which is used in New Jersey, and which has been recommended
by the experts of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United
States Department of Agriculture, apparently causes a cumu-
lative injury to the root system of the cranberry when used on
Cape Cod. It is to be hoped that some modification of this
formula will in time be found which will not cause this injury,
and which can be safely used to keep down fungous diseases
on the Cape bogs. Spraying is found to be uniformly success-
ful in improving the keeping qualities of the berries and in
reducing the rot on the vines.
22
Insect Pests.
There are several serious insect pests which affect the cran-
berry. The more important are the following: the fruit worm,
the flowed bog fireworm (blackhead cranberry worm), the tip
worm, the girdler and the dry bog fireworm (yellowhead cran-
berry worm). These pests are here named in the order of their
apparent importance. The first two are by far the most im-
portant. The fruit worm alone has been known, in some
seasons, to destroy as much as an estimated third of the entire
Cape crop. The only certainly efficient remedy for this insect
at present known is late holding of the winter flowage in the
spring (to the 20th of May). It is not desirable, however, to
practice this late holding every year on account of its effect on
the vines, and it is therefore recommended that this flowage be
held late every other year as a regular preventive practice
against this insect. The flowed bog fireworm never attacks
strictly dry bogs seriously, and it may be prevented from
developing a serious infestation on any bog with an abundant
water supply by means of an annual June reflowage, as already
recommended in another place. On large bogs which can be
reflowed, but on which the reflowdng is not regularly done on
account of the impossibility of handling the water c^uickly, it
is probably best to follow the practice of compelling the eggs
of the insect to bunch up in their hatching, by holding the
winter flowage late (to about the 1st of June), and then reflow-
ing about three weeks later. On bogs which are winter flowed,
but cannot be reflowed at all, spraying with arsenate of lead
is, at present, the only remedy which can be recommended
without qualification.
When very abundant, the last brood of the tip worm can do
serious injury by reducing the bud formation from which is
produced the crop of the following season. Investigations
seem to have indicated that ordinary resanding, if done fre-
quently enough, is a satisfactory preventive of trouble from
this insect. On this account it is recommended that resanding
be done every other year.
As already indicated, reflowing after picking is a satisfactory
method of treating the girdler where water is available. This
23
insect will not get in, as a rule, on bogs which cannot be re-
flowed, if they are kept well sanded. It seems to like to work
in the rubbish of an unsanded bog in thick vines. If a serious
infestation is already present, resanding evenly with a full inch
of sand either in the fall or in the spring before the first of June
is usually sufficient to smother the insect so that the moths will
not emerge.
The dry bog fireworm is easily controlled by a single spraying
with arsenate of lead, applied between the 4th and 10th of July.
On the Cape this insect seriously affects only such bogs as are
not winter flowed.
Harvesting.
In average seasons the cranberry harvest begins during the
last week in August and continues until the crop is entirely
gathered. The length of the picking season varies greatly in
different years, according to the weather conditions. Cran-
berries should be picked only in dry weather. It will not do
to begin picking in the morning until the vines have thoroughly
dried off, and the day's picking must be finished before the
dampness of the very late afternoon begins to gather. Frosty
nights, as well as wet weather, are a hindrance in the picking
season, for they compel the flooding of unpicked areas and, as
a rule, no picking can be done on the day following flooding.
Cranberries were originally picked entirely by hand, and quite
an army of pickers was needed to gather the crop. With the
acreage at present under cultivation it would be practically
impossible to gather the entire crop by hand on account of
scarcity of help. There is, however, considerable hand picking
still done, especially by the small growers. If berries are picked
carefully by hand, this method probably causes the least possi-
ble injury to the vines. It is, however, a very expensive and
probably unwise method to follow, except, perhaps, on the thin
vines of new plantings, the berries of which are likely to be
tender and should be injured as little as possible.
Most of the crop on Cape Cod is, at present, picked with
rakes, or scoops as they are more commonly called. Scooping
is also largely practiced in Wisconsin. Hand picking, however,
is the rule in New Jersey. With average crops, berries may be
gathered with scoops at an average expense of from 40 to 50
24
cents a barrel. With very heavy crops, berries have occasion-
ally been scooped for as little as 9 cents a barrel. They can
hardly, however, be gathered at so little expense, even under
the most favorable conditions, without great waste, too large
a percentage of the fruit being left on the bog under the vines
when the scoopers are rushed, especially w^hen the crop is
heavy. There is a general tendency among the growers to
hasten their pickers, with the idea of harvesting at as small an
expense as possible. This tendency, however, is to be deplored,
for the old saying that "haste makes waste" has no more
appropriate application than in this matter of picking cran-
berries with scoops. The scoopers should be made to work
rather slowly, especially if the crop is heav3^ To have the men
work steadily, without haste, and scoop with as little waste as
possible, without picking up by hand any of the berries that
fall to the ground, is probably a good rule to follow. On large
bogs, if help is scarce, it is, however, probably best to harvest
the crop as rapidly as possible so as to save it from frost
damage, even though the waste is great. Prevailing prices
also have a bearing on the comparative wisdom of slow and
rapid scooping; $3.50 a barrel net would justify rapid scooping
in any case, but $4 or more net makes slow, careful work desir-
able. The berries that fall to the bottom and are left on the
bog should not be gathered by hand, for they will not sell for
enough to pay the expense of handling. They are always in
poor condition, having been tramped over more or less, and
are certain to decay badly if gathered. Such berries are some-
times gathered from the water when they float up on the after-
picking reflow. Only a small portion of what is left on the bog
will, however, float up in this way, and if they are gathered,
it is almost an endless job to get them dry and keep them so.
In general, therefore, it is probably best not to bother with
such berries at all.
Women and children help freely in hand picking, but only
men should be engaged for the heav}^ work of scooping. It is
probably best to pay the scoopers by the hour, without at-
tempting to hasten their work by means of bonuses for extra
quantities picked. The usual wage for scoopers is 35 cents an
25
hour, though the larger growers are sometimes able to hire
them for as little as 25 cents.
Small hand-picking machines, known as "snap machines,"
are frequently used for gathering the berries on thin vines
instead of picking by hand. These are very useful, for they
gather the berries comparatively quickly and cheaply and with-
out much injury to the vines. They do, however, injure the
fruit more or less seriously and impair its keeping quality.
Marketing conditions are such, and the possible harvesting
period is so short, that it is probably necessary, especially if
the season is late, for many growers to begin picking while the
berries are still partly green. Many believe that very ripe
berries will not keep well, but it is to be seriously questioned
whether they will not keep as well on the vines, if they are
protected from frosts, as they will in the screen house. Between
the 1st and the 15th of September, during the period of color-
ing, berries of the Early Black variety will increase 10 per cent.,
and sometimes more, in size. They make a much more attract-
ive appearance and are of much better quality for the table
after they have become colored. Probably many growers
would, therefore, be wise to postpone their picking for two
weeks later than is their present custom. Early Blacks for
late shipment should probably not be picked before the first of
October, for late picking would largely prevent the loss by
shriveling, which is usually considerable if the berries are picked
early, and then held in storage for some time.
Berries which grow on vines bordering the ditches are gen-
erally considered to be, as a rule, poorer keepers than those
from the other vines. These "ditch row" berries, as they are
called, should, therefore, be gathered first, and be packed and
shipped separately from the rest of the berries. It would
probably be a good practice to devote the first day of picking
to the gathering of all the "ditch row" berries of the early
varieties on the bog to be picked. They would then be out of
the way, and it would be unnecessary to keep further track of
them.
To harvest a 15-acre bog, 15 scoopers, a foreman and three
helpers are necessary. Two of these men are engaged in taking
26
the berries off from the bog and piUng them up in boxes on
the upland where they may be taken away by team. An ideal
way to remove the berries from a bog is yet to be devised.
Hand barrows or stretchers are probably most commonly used,
and this method is fairly satisfactory, but it seems expensive.
Ordinary wheelbarrows are often used, both with and without
planks. The trouble of moving the planks, however, is con-
siderable, and if they are not used, the vines are likely to be
killed out more or less in paths by the constant rolling of the
wheelbarrows over them, for it is very difficult to keep the men
who are wheeling the berries from following paths. Probably
some form of hand truck might be devised which would give
better satisfaction than anything at present in use for this
purpose.
As they are picked, the berries are dumped into bushel boxes
on the bog, the slats of the boxes having more or less space
between them to allow for a circulation of air through the
berries which they contain. As the scoops gather more or less
vines, these are dumped into the boxes with the berries, no
great pains being taken to clean them out. It is generally
supposed that the berries keep better in storage if a considerable
quantity of vines and chaff are allowed to remain in the boxes
with them, the idea being that the vines increase the possibili-
ties for air circulation. It seems very doubtful, however,
whether the presence of the vines has this supposed effect to
any considerable degree, and it is certain that no conclusive
tests have been made which prove any such effect. Probably
this idea sprang from the fact that, after berries have been run
through the separator and screened they decay comparatively
rapidly in storage. This deterioration in keeping quality is,
however, evidently very largely due to the injury the berries
receive during those processes of cleaning. After harvesting,
the vines should all be raked hard in one direction with ordi-
nary hay rakes. This raking clears the bog of loose vines left
torn up by the scoops and it trains the vines that are left for
scooping the following year.
27
Screen House.
After being poured into the bushel boxes, the berries are
stored in the packing house (screen house). This building
should be capable of thorough ventilation. On damp days it
should be kept close shut, and on dry, sunny days it should be
thoroughly ventilated. It should have ample capacity for
storing two-thirds of the maximum crop that may be expected
from the bog and the barrels for packing as well as room for
separating and screening the berries. A building of one floor,
40 by SO feet, should be sufiiciently large to accommodate the
berries of a heavy crop from a 12-acre bog.
Preparation of the Berries for Market.
The first shipments are usually made within a week after
picking begins, in early September, and the greater part of the
crop is sold by the 1st of December, though a considerable
quantity of berries is often in the hands of the growers until
well into the winter. Some growers prefer to take the lower
prices which the earlier shipments bring and get rid of their
berries as soon as possible. It is to be said in favor of this
attitude that their shipments do not suffer from shrinkage due
to rot and loss of water as do the late shipments, and the cost
of screening and packing is also much less than it is with the
berries which are shipped late. Berries which are held until
into the winter, however, usually bring much better prices, and
some growers prefer to hold their fruit late and suffer the inci-
dental losses for the sake of obtaining these higher prices.
In preparing for market, the berries are first run through a
machine known as a separator. There are a number of makes
of these machines on the market. Those most used on Cape
Cod are provided with a hopper at the top for receiving the
berries, a blower for cleaning them of chaff, and several bound-
ing boards for separating the decayed from the sound fruit.
Some of the machines also have other useful accessories, such
as endless aprons and grading devices. If the berries have not
been badly worm-eaten or decayed on the bog to any extent
they may be packed for shaping as soon as they have been
28
put through the separator, and the early shipments are often
handled to a considerable extent in this way. Most of the
berries, however, have to be screened by hand after they have
been run through the separator. Women are employed to do
this work, and there is a variety of makes of screens for this
purpose. "Screeners" are usually paid 12| cents an hour for
their work.
It is best not to screen or pack fruit on wet days, for the
berries are likely to absorb moisture on such days, and if they
are packed moist they are far more likely to rot in transporta-
tion. Most of the berries are packed in barrels of standard
dimensions which are guaranteed by law to contain a certain
amount of fruit by weight. These barrels should contain ap-
proximately 85 quarts each. Bushel crates are often used
satisfactorily in making small shipments. If barrels are used
they must be shaken and well pressed down in the process of
heading so that they may not be found in the market to be
"loose packed." "Loose packed" barrels are shunned by the
trade, both because of their lack of a full quantity of fruit and
because the thrashing around of the fruit in a loose pack
seriously impairs its keeping quality.
Marketing.
According to conditions, the opening price of cranberries in the
fall ranges from $4.50 to $5.50 a barrel. About 60 per cent, of
the Cape crop is sold through a co-operative selling agency
known as the New England Cranberry Sales Company, with its
office at Middleboro, jNIassachusetts. Other sales companies in
Wisconsin and New Jersey, affiliated with the New England
company, handle the greater part of the berries grown in those
sections. This selling agency is now well organized and man-
aged, and it helps the trade tremendously by keeping track of
the cranberry situation and markets in different parts of the
United States and Canada and distributing the berries as they
are needed, thus preventing gluts in the market as far as
possible. It maintains a corps of inspectors, and the berries
handled by it are packed uniformly, under different brands,
according to their varieties and qualities, a stability in the
selling arrangements being thus maintained all the way through.
29
Many growers, however, prefer to be free to sell their berries
without any dictation as to packing and marketing. Most of
the fruit sold by growers outside of the sales companies is
probably disposed of through commission men, and there are
buyers for cash also on the ground, more or less, every year.
Preserving.
Various efforts have been made by some of the larger growers
to preserve the fruit which cannot be immediately placed on
the market. Methods of canning and evaporating have already
been considerably developed, and preserving in one of these
ways is likely, in time, to become an established part of the
business. As a matter of interest to housewives, it should be
stated here that cranberries can be kept fresh and in good
condition for several months by keeping them submerged in
cold water in sealed jars in a cool place. It is important to
wash the fruit thoroughly and sort out the decayed berries,
before the fruit is thus submerged.
Cooking.
Cranberries should always be cooked in earthen, agate or
aluminum kettles. The strong acids of this fruit act so quickly
upon tin, iron or brass that kettles made of these metals should
never be used. Cooked cranberries should not be allowed to
stand in dishes made of metal which their acids will affect.
Only granulated sugar should be used to sweeten this fruit.
There is probably a considerable difference in the quantities of
sugar required to sweeten the fruit of the different varieties.
The riper the berries are when picked the smaller the amount
of sugar they are likely to require.
A few recipes which have been found particularly good for
the preparation of cranberries for the table are here given.
These recipes are from a handbook published by the New
England Cranberry Sales Company.
Sauces.
No. 1 . — Take 1 quart of cranberries, 1 pound of sugar, 1 pint of water.
Boil sugar and water together for five minutes; skim; add the cranberries
and cook slowly, without stirring (turn and shake the pan if necessary),
30
until all the berries have cracked their skins, and so become sweetened.
Remove from the fire when the popping stops.
No. 2. — Take I5 cups of boiling water, 1 quart of cranberries, \\ cups
of sugar. Boil together for fifteen minutes without stirring, but watch
carefully to prevent burning (shake and turn the pan, if necessary), the
object being to preserve the fruit as nearly whole as possible.
No. 3. — Take 1 quart of cranberries, 1 pint of sugar, 1 pint of water.
Put berries and water in a pan and spread the sugar over the floating
berries; cover closely and cook for ten minutes without stirring. Do not
let them burn or boil over; shake and turn the pan occasionally. Skim
with a silver or porcelain spoon, and set back on the stove to simmer for
a few minutes. Cooked in this way the skins will be tender, the berries
nearly whole but sweetened, the juice clear and almost a jelly.
Jellies.
No. 1. — Take 2 quarts of cranberries, 1 quart of water. Boil until the
cranberries are tender. Strain through a jelly bag or thin muslin. Heat
the juice, and to each pint of juice add from f of a pound to 1 pound of
granulated sugar, according to taste. Stir until the sugar is dissolved,
but do not boil. Pour into jelly glasses or molds.
To make a firm jelly, boil a quart of berries with \\ cups of water until
the skins burst. Press through a sieve and reheat. When at the boiling
point, add 1 pint of sugar and boil for ten minutes, then turn quickly into
wet molds.
No. 2. — Wash 1 quart of selected berries. Sprinkle over them 1 pint
of sugar and h pint of water. Cook slowly. When they begin to boil,
cover over a few moments and cook until tender, but do not allow the
skins to break. Pour into a mold. The juice will be firm, inclosing the
berries, which makes an attractive and delicious dinner accompaniment.
Pies.
No. 1. — A delicious pie is made of \\ cups of spUt raw cranberries, 1
cup of sugar, \ cup of water. Put into porcelain-lined vessels and cook
ten minutes. Cool and bake in one crust with a rim and strips across the
top. This may also be cooked with rich upper crust if desired.
No. 2. — Take \\ cups of cranberries, f cup of seedless raisins, 1 cup
of granulated sugar, 2 tablespoons of flour, 1 teaspoon of vanilla, and a
few drops of almond flavoring. Bake with two crusts. It is better to
cook berries in water a few minutes.
No. 2. — Take 1 cup of split, raw cranberries, \ cup of seeded raisins
chopped fine, 1 cup of granulated sugar, 1 tablespoonful of flour, very
heaping, 1 teaspoonful of vanilla. Use a short pie crust and bake slowly.
31
Water Ice.
Boil 1 quart of cranberries in 1 pint of water until the skins are soft,
and strain through cheesecloth. When cool, add the juice of 2 lemons.
Make a syrup with 1 pint of granulated sugar and | pint of water; when
cool, add to the cranberry juice and freeze.
Many persons add 1 tablespoonful of gelatine which has been soaked
ten minutes in ^ cup of cold water.
Punch.
Boil 2 cups of water and I cup of sugar together fifteen minutes; boil
1 pint of cranberries and 1 cup of water together five minutes, strain
through cheesecloth, add the syrup and juice of a lemon, cool, freeze to
a mush, using equal parts ice and salt; serve in glasses.
The Cost of Building a Cranberry Bog.
Cost per acre for land, $10 to flOO
Clearing, ditching, turfing, grading and sanding, . . . 200 to 500
7 barrels vines at $3 per barrel, 21 to 21
Setting out of vines, 16 to 16
Incidentals (tools, dikes, flumes, buildings, etc.), . . . 150 to 250
Total, $397 to $887
The cost of building will depend on a variety of circum-
stances, but particularly on the natural conditions, make-up
and location of the swamp which is to be converted into bog,
and on the ability and knowledge of the foreman who super-
intends the work. An average yearly yield of from 50 to 65
barrels of berries per acre may be expected from a good piece
of bog, properly built and located, planted wuth standard
varieties and given proper care.
A good bog, planted with standard varieties and given proper
care, barring the accident of fire, ought to bear crops more or
less regularly for a long period of years. There are bogs now
forty years old on the Cape which are still in fine condition and
bearing w^ll.
®I)C Commourucaltl) ot illassacliusctts*
STATE BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 42.
May, 1915.
The Home Vegetable Garden.
Allen French.
From the Sixtt-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts
State Board op Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
approved by
The State Board op Publication.
THE HOME YEGETABLE GARDEN.
ALLEN FRENCH, CONCORD, MASSACHUSETTS.
Home vegetable gardening is in sharp contrast to market
gardening. The latter needs, for success, special knowledge,
very good soil and easy access to market. The former can be
made successful on any farm or in any garden. Not that a
weedy, poorly planned, badly fed garden is ever worth keeping,
but the man who understands the worth, to his family, of a
copious and varied supply of fresh vegetables can easily prove
the truth of the claim made in the Farmer's Bulletin bearing
the same title as this article : —
The statement can safely be made that a well-kept garden will yield a
return ten or fifteen times greater than would the same area and location
if devoted to general farm crops. A half acre devoted to the various kinds
of garden crops will easily supply a farm with a hundred dollars' worth of
vegetables during the year, while the average return for farm crops is con-
siderably less than a tenth of this amount.
This article proposes to discuss briefly the management of
such a garden.
The size of the garden will necessarily vary with the needs
of the family. Personal tastes will lead to the inclusion or ex-
clusion of different crops. Some families eat more largely of
vegetables than others. Further, some housekeepers have
learned with how much ease and satisfaction vegetables may
be canned for the winter, and will consequently demand a
larger summer supply. It seems safe to say, however, that
exclusive of the potato supply, which usually comes from
another part of the farm, a half acre is plenty for a large
family. Yet if the family goes in largely for asparagus, es-
pecially for canning as well as eating fresh, the half acre will
have to be considerably added to.
The location of the garden is important. To begin with, it
should be permanent, as only thus can it be made, by repeated
enrichings, to attain the highest degree of fertility. It should
have a southerly exposure (southeasterly is better than south-
westerly, but due south is best of all) and should have its rows
running south (as thus the plants get the sun on both sides
during the day). It should be conveniently near the house for
tending and picking, especially since the latter is often done by
the women of the family. The garden should also be con-
venient to the water supply. The question of soil, should
there be a choice upon the farm, is also of importance. Any
soil can be improved, but the gardener should seek to get a
deep medium loam in a location capable of drainage, if that is
needed. A slight surface slope is usually sufficient to make
drainage unnecessary, provided there is not a clay subsoil.
This study of the soil gives basis for the plan of yearly im-
provement. If the soil is too light manure will add humus. If
the soil is too heavy manure will open it up. If it is not rich
enough manure will make it richer; and once enriched manure
is needed for maintenance. Therefore — manure ! But in addi-
tion to this improvement the soil can be deepened by yearly
working up a little of the subsoil, and where drainage is neces-
sary there is only yearly loss by delaying it.
Where enough manure is not to be had the richness of the
soil may be maintained by yearly setting aside a part of the
garden, — if possible a third, — for the growing of a green crop,
preferably a legume, for plowing under. And as autumn ap-
proaches, any part of the garden that is cleared for the rest of
the season should be planted with a cover crop, such as clover,
vetch or rye, for plowing under.
Such individual treatment of small patches means, of course,
that the owner recognizes the garden to be the most valuable
part of his farm, and accordingly worth the trouble.
Land for the garden is best broken in late fall. It should be
plowed, and the sliced earth left on edge for the frosts to pene-
trate deeply. Perennial roots are more easily killed when their
roots are exposed, and the ground is made more mellow for
spring working. Further, insect pests are turned out of their
winter refuge and are killed. If broken in spring the sod
should be turned under deeply. Spring enrichment should con-
sist of manure, as well rotted as possible, and thoroughly
disked in. In an old garden coarse manure should be plowed
under in the fall. But rather than plow coarse manure under
in the fall with new ground, keep the manure over winter and
cure it by frequent turnings.
As a good system of accounts is the best guide to success in
farming, the account book should be begun with the first fall
working. Labor should be debited in a separate column at
current rates, the manure and fertilizer also. Other debit
columns should be for seeds, plants, chemical fertilizer and
tools. A fair estimate of yearly expenses is not gained, how-
ever, especially when starting a garden, unless the tools are en-
tered in an equipment account, only one-fifth of their cost
being charged per year, on the theory that any good tool will
last for -five years, and by that time will have paid for itself.
Credit columns will be few, but care should be taken to credit
the garden with everything taken from it at current prices.
It is not to be supposed, after breaking the land in the fall,
that no more work of gardening is to be done until spring. In-
deed, the most important work of the garden is done in the
winter, — the planning ; for if the soil into which so much
money is to go is not cropped to its last available foot there
is waste, and this cannot be prevented except by planning.
No man can go out to his freshly plowed garden, cast his eye
over it, and plant it offhand in the best way. This work
should be done on winter evenings, with paper and ruler and
pencil, and with seed catalogues at hand. The dimensions of
the garden should be exactly known. The best sort of paper
for planning is called cross-section paper, ruled in small squares
of about an eighth of an inch. With one of these to every foot
the garden is easily mapped to an exact scale. Remember that
long rows are the easiest to care for, as there is less turning,
and this is an advantage where horse or wheel hoes are used.
On one side of the garden, with rows running north and
south, should be put the perennials, asparagus and rhubarb.
Forty to 50 good asparagus plants, when bearing well, should
produce a bunch a day. Set them 4 feet by 18 inches. Four
to 6 rhubarb plants are enough for most families. Set them at
the end of the asparagus rows, 4 feet by 4 feet.
Annual vegetables fall into two kinds of classes: long and
short season, and hardy and tender. According to these classi-
fications must the garden be planned, in companion or succes-
sion or whole-season planting. Companion cropping means the
planting of short-season with long-season crops, the former to
be picked before the latter need all the space. Thus lettuce or
radish goes between cabbage or staked tomatoes. Succession
cropping means the planting of one short-season crop after
another, as beans following spinach. It is, on the whole, not
wise to put other plants in the same rows with tall-growing
plants, such as pole beans or corn, but rows of short-season
plants may go between. Squashes and corn, however practical
they may be when raised in combination on the farm, do not
yield their best when combined in the garden.
This planning should all be carried out to the last detail, so
as to keep the garden working at all times. The spacing de-
pends, of course, on whether horse or hand culture is to be
used; but in either case the rows should not be too near to-
gether for the plants' sake, nor too far apart for the worker's.
A list of distances is given below. When finally the plan,
probably after several changes, has been finished, it should be
carefully inked, or marked clearly with a lead pencil that will
not rub.
If the garden is an old one the last-year plan will of course
be of use in planning, for even in so small an area as a vege-
table garden rotation can be practiced. In this two things may
be remembered : first, a crop should not always follow itself, as
beans following beans, or tomatoes following tomatoes; second,
it is well to keep the leguminous crops together, and to follow
them by non-leguminous crops in the next year. The following
crop then gets the advantage of the nitrogen left by the leg-
umes.
The plan herewith reproduced is for a fairly large family, and
is made according to general tastes. To suit family preferences
the gardener will vary the quantities planted. (In my garden,
for example, I never plant parsnips or turnips, but I make up
for this with marrows, cauliflower and okra.) The distances
given on the plan are for hand cultivation, for which some of
the rows could be closer. Yet as cultivating in narrow spaces
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between seedlings is very delicate work, the 2-foot limit should
be maintained if so much space can be afforded. It wdll be
observed that the tall plants (corn and pole beans) are to-
gether, to prevent shading smaller plants. The legumes are in
a solid block. Companion and succession cropping are planned
for as much as seems wise in a home garden; much cover crop-
ping, which means enriching, can be done. The potato patch
may be added or not, according to farm or garden conditions.
On the margin of the plan a table of approximate planting
dates is given.
The beginning of this season of planting varies in Massa-
chusetts from early until late April, according to four condi-
tions. Toward the south, or near the sea, the season is much
earlier than near the Vermont hills. The nature of the soil, its
texture and drainage, next influences earliness, but is the one
factor w^hich can be changed. Exposure (easterliness or wester-
liness, and the valuable protection given by a windbreak) may
make a difference of several days. Finally, the season itself
varies considerably from year to year. Distrust an early spring;
it may be treacherous. Correspondingly, a backward spring
may be kindly. Never be in a hurry to plant the whole-season
crops, such as parsnip or late cabbage. With them a few days
counts for little.
In studying the garden plan the reader may find names of
plants w^hich he has never grow^n. Yet none of them are
merely "fancy." Chard and New Zealand spinach are very
dependable summer greens, yet on many of our farms and
gardens they are still unknown. Thin chard to 18 inches;
plant the spinach in hills 4 or 5 feet apart; both plants may be
picked all summer. Kohlrabi is an above-ground turnip; it
should be p'cked young. No garden should grow pumpkins
when it can grow squash, except for jack-o'-lanterns. Vegetable
marrow is a summer squash which bears very freely and can be
cooked in several ways. The small marrows are excellent for
canning. As for carrots, no one knows how^ good they taste
until he tries the small forcing varieties. Okra is for gumbo
soup. Savoys are more delicate than common cabbage. En-
dive (do not get the root-crop kind) is a fall lettuce, which to
be at its best should be blanched by tying up the heads. Sugar
8
peas, to be treated like string beans, add much to table variety.
And finally, every garden should have a few hills of muskmelons
and watermelons as delicacies. There is no fear of their cross-
ing with squash or cucumber.
These newer kinds of vegetables add to the interest of the
garden, first by giving variety to the table, and next by keeping
the gardener awake to the work that plant-breeders are doing
for his benefit. The progressive gardener will grow at least
one new plant, or a new variety of a well-known plant, every
year.
The list of vegetable varieties given at the end of this article
is intended as a partial guide for buying. Unfortunately, after
a few years such a guide becomes antiquated. But when new
it names standard varieties which can be bought of most New
England seedsmen. Further, it shows at all times the various
classes into which can be divided such plants as beans, corn
and radish.
Having finished the plan and decided what varieties shall be
used, the next important piece of work is ordering the seeds.
Generally speaking, it is safe to calculate from the data given
in most seedsmen's catalogues, and from the space to be covered
in the garden, the amounts of seed necessary. For example, the
catalogue will state that a quart of bush beans will sow 100
feet of drill; and that of pole beans, a quart of limas will
plant 100 hills, and of smaller sorts, 200 hills. Knowing how
many feet and hills we wish to plaint, the quantity to order is
readily calculated.
But where shall the seeds be bought? Unless previous testing
has proved the local grocer to carry reliable seeds he is usually
the last one to depend on. To be sure, his seeds come in an
attractive show-case, and in envelopes with gaudy pictures; but
on the average these seeds had better be avoided. Buy prefer-
ably of a man who makes seed-handling a large part of his
business, and whose living, therefore, depends on the excellence
of his stock. If there is no such man at hand there are several
such in each city who publish excellent catalogues and who can
safely be dealt with by parcel post. Your farm journal will
name for you some of these men. They usually pay postage on
all seeds except the bulky packages of beans, peas and corn.
It is insurance to deal with such men.
Seed-catalogues are usually published in January. It is well
to order as early as possible, to insure prompt service, and also
to make sure that a shortage of stock, which occurs almost
yearly in some kind of seed, will not cause disappointment.
Early ordering also gives time for testing any seed of which
for any reason the buyer is suspicious. If proved to be of
poor vitality it can be replaced.
In the winter all necessary tools should be bought. The
beginner at hand culture needs at least a spading fork (be sure
to get one with a strap ferule), a hoe and a rake; line, stakes
and labels; a trowel; and if not a wheelbarrow, at least a
basket. He should have a wheel hoe if he can afford it. If
his ground is free from stones, and his garden large, a planting
machine will probably pay for itself. For horse culture, be-
sides these tools the gardener will need a cultivator and pos-
sibly a seed drill. If he does not wish to buy the plow and
harrow he can hire them once a year.
Fertilizer should also be ordered in the winter. When planted
in large fields, vegetables properly require a different mixture
for each crop; but in the vegetable garden this is not practi-
cable. They are therefore best divided into two classes: those
which are used for their stems or leaves, as spinach, chard, let-
tuce, cabbage; and those which are grown for their seed or
root, as beans and peas, potatoes, turnip. The first of these
should uniformly be treated with a nitrogenous fertilizer, say a
reliable high-grade top-dressing; the second should be given a
similarly good potato fertilizer. The reason for this difference
is of course simply because nitrogen, when given in large pro-
portion, stimulates to top growth instead of to blossom or root
growth. But nitrogen, in the form of nitrate of soda or sul-
phate of ammonia, should always be on hand to give in very
small quantities, to struggling young seedlings, or to plants
wdien just set out. It should be given as a top-dressing and
washed in with water (manure-water is just as good); the
other fertilizers may be given in the same way, or sowed be-
neath the plants in the drill or hill, to give a good start.
No one will garden for many years in succession without
some attempt to lengthen his season by the aid of glass. If
the tomato and lettuce plants are started in the south window
10
in boxes, some weeks may be gained in their growth. Flats
may be easily made of old tobacco or starch or soap boxes,
cutting them down to an inside depth of about 23^ inches.
With good medium loam, with care not to water either too
little or too much, and with either thinning or transplanting
when the plants have four true leaves, good plants may be
raised. Cabbage, cauliflower, squash, eggplant and still other
plants may thus be raised in considerable numbers in very
small space. Cucumber, squash, marrows and melons should
be raised in individual holders, such as strawberry baskets, as
they transplant poorly.
Equally simple is the aid which can be given to plants in
the open garden, to protect from the cold. Small boxes, having
neither bottom nor top, can be set over single plants; with a
pane of glass to each, removed when the sun is very hot, the
boxes become tiny cold-frames. In default of glass, or with
boxes too large for the use of single panes, cheesecloth may be
used; or this may be tacked over a melon crate or peach basket.
This latter kind of protection, which need never be removed
until the plants are crowded, is particularly valuable over hills
of cucumber or squash or melon, as it keeps away insect pests.
Similarly, cabbage or cauliflower plants raised in a small frame
over which cheesecloth is tacked cannot be attacked by the
maggot until they are ready to transplant.
The step beyond such home-made devices is the attainment
of a cold-frame. One may be made to fit such old sash as may
be at hand; or it may be bought for the standard 3 by 6 foot
sash. These sashes, with overlapping panes to shed water, may
be bought in all quantities; but it will pay to have them of
cypress, strongly put together. Double-glassed sashes are be-
coming popular. A four-sash frame, partitioned into two sec-
tions, for hardy and for tender plants, will provide early plants
for a garden of considerable size, and ought to be enough for
a large family.
The management of a cold-frame is very simple. The seed is
sown in rows 3 to 6 inches apart, and the plants are thinned,
watered and transplanted until large enough to set out in the
garden. Care must be given to ventilation in frosty weather,
both to keep the plants from burning in the sun and to keep
11
them from freezing at night. Mats and shutters are needed to
keep out heavy frosts.
A hotbed is only a cold-frame, under which hot manure is
placed to keep the ground warm. It needs extra care, first to
bring the heating manure to the right temperature, and next to
keep the seedlings from damping off in too moist an atmosphere.
•In Massachusetts the hotbed may be started late in Febru-
ary, the cold-frame a month later.
As spring approaches, work in the open garden begins.
Nothing can be done until the frost is out of the ground, but
even then the soil, vuiless light and well drained, may be too
wet to handle for several days more. Then the plowed ground
may be smoothed by the harrow or by the hoe and rake; or in
case the garden is to be manured the dressing may be disked or
spaded in. In hand work it is well to get out all stones larger
than a hen's egg, — tedious work in ground where more work
up each year, yet in the long run sure to pay, — and also all
roots of such perennials as witch grass. When the surface is
smooth, planting may begin.
In planting the nature of the different plants must be accom-
modated to the stages of the season. Certain plants are hardy
to light frosts: such are beets, cabbage, Brussels sprouts,
cauliflower, celery, carrot, chard, cress, endive, kale, kohlrabi,
leek, lettuce, parsley, parsnip, pea, radish, salsify, spinach,
turnip. Other plants are easily injured or killed by frost: such
are beans, corn, cucumber, eggplant, muskmelon, okra, pepper,
squash, tomato, watermelon. So long as frosts are likely, there-
fore, say until the middle of May, it is safe to sow only
hardy plants. Yet it is often safe to risk an early planting or
two of corn and beans. As the danger of frosts lessens, the
tender plants may be sowed. Since potatoes are tender, they
should seldom be set out before the middle of May.
Planting distances should be such, both in and between the
rows, that the plants will not crowd. Crowding means stunt-
ing, and stunted plants cannot yield a proper crop. As already
noticed, for convenience in cultivating a garden of any size,
where the work must be done rapidly, and usually with a wheel
hoe, it is not wise to have the rows much less than 2 feet apart.
Nevertheless, where space is limited, and where the gardener is
12
prepared to work delicately, rows of small plants such as
radish, forcing carrot, cress and lettuce may be as close as 9
inches; and larger plants such as salsify, carrot, bush beans
and peas may be 18 or 20 inches apart. In such a garden rows
of dwarf corn may stand 2 feet apart, with single plants a foot
apart in the row; pole beans may be in hills 30 inches apart
each way; and cucumber need be scarcely wider spaced.
Nevertheless, since on the farm there is seldom need of such
intensive cultivation, the following spacing will be more con-
venient to follow.
The spaces are for hand culture. For horse cultivation the
narrowest alleys should be widened to at least 30 inches.
Where rows of a larger and a smaller plant stand side by side
give the larger space or "split the difference." (In the table, '
stands for feet and " for inches.)
Asparagus, 4' x 18".
Beans : —
Bush, 2' X 1'.
Pole, 4' X 4'.
Beet, 2' x 4".
Brussels sprouts: —
Dwarf, 2' x 1'.
Standard, 2' x 2'.
Cabbage : —
Early, 2' x 2'.
Late, 3' x 2'.
Carrot: —
Ear]^, 2' x 9".
Late, 2' x 15".
Cauliflower: — ■
Early, 2' x 2'.
Late, 3' x 2'.
Celery : —
For blanching with boards, 2' x
9".
For earthing, 4' x 9" (or set in
double rows 1' apart, the
plants 9" or more apart in the
rows, in alternate spaces; 4'
between the double rows).
Chard, 2' x 18".
Corn : —
Early: hills 30" x 30" (or rows
30" apart, plants 1' apart).
Later: hills 4' x 4".
Cress, rows 2'. Do not thin.
Cucumber. 4' x 4'.
Eggplant, 4' X 4'.
Endive, 2' x 1'.
Kale: —
Dwarf, 2' x 1'.
Standard, 2' x 18".
Kohlrabi, 2' x 9".
Lettuce, 2' x 9"-12".
Muskmelon, 4' x 4' or more.
Mustard, 2'. Do not thin.
Okra, 2' x 18".
Onion, 2' x 6"-9".
Parsley, 2' x 18".
Parsnip, 2' x 18".
Peas : —
Bush, 2' X 2".
Tall, 3' X 2".
(Plant peas in rows 6"-9" apart;
dwarf peas support each other;
for tall peas, put the wire be-
tween.)
13
Pepper, 2' x 2'.
Potato, 2' X 14".
Radish : —
Spring and fall kinds, 2' x 3'
Summer, 2' x 1'.
Winter, 2' x 2'.
Rhubarb, at least 4' x 4'.
Salsify, 2' x 12"-15".
Spinach, 2' x 9"-12".
New Zealand, hills 4' x 4'.
Squash : —
Summer, 4' x 4'.
Vegetable Marrow, 4' x 4',
Winter, 5' x 5'.
Tomato : —
Staked, 2' x 18" (to be pruned).
On frames, 2' x 2'.
Sprawhng, 3' x 2'.
Turnip, 2' x 9"-12".
Watermelon, 5' x 5'.
The depth of planting varies somewhat with circumstances.
The rule for planting in flats is to cover a seed to twice its
thickness; but outdoors this can scarcely be followed, first
because such delicate work is impossible, and second because
soils vary. In a light soil, where there is danger of the seed's
drying out, the planting may be twice as deep as in a moist
soil. Small seeds in dry soil should be at least a quarter inch
deep, but celery seed, which should always be planted in a
seedbed, should be merely pressed into the moist earth; and,
on the other hand, peas should go quite deep. It is well to
plant peas in shallow trenches of about 6 inches depth, to cover
lightly, and when the plants are growing to fill in the trenches
in cultivating. This will insure deep rooting and plenty of
moisture. After planting any seed, and firming the earth over
it, scatter a light mulch of earth over the place,. to prevent dry-
ing or baking.
After planting there is necessarily a time of waiting for the
seedlings to appear. If weeds sprout, or if a rain comes and
packs the surface, so that it bakes or dries out in the sun, the
gardener will be anxious to cultivate. This will be dangerous
unless the rows have been properly marked, and even then the
work is delicate. But just as soon as the seedlings appear the
work of cultivation should begin, and should be repeated as
soon as weeds are numerous, and after every shower; for culti-
vation not merely kills the weeds, — it saves the moisture in
the garden by coating the soil with an inch or two of dust,
through which the water cannot evaporate. Properly culti-
vated, a garden will need little watering, even in a drought. But
cultivation should be thorough.
14
Most modern gardeners are abandoning the hilling of corn
and potatoes. Hilling injures the plants by cutting off the
upper feeding roots. It also makes in the garden a greater
surface for evaporation.
Thinning should begin early, as soon as the seedlings have
four true leaves, and before they crowd, except as noted below.
And as it is important that the plants should not injure each
other, the gardener should have no mercy on the extra plants.
But there are exceptions. Mustard and cress should not be
thinned at all. Chard and beets and spinach, after first thin-
ning to an inch or two, may be left to grow larger and to be
thinned again from time to time, the thinnings to be eaten as
greens.
The work of transplanting is made safe by a little care.
Choose, if possible, a cloudy day, or work in the afternoon.
Water the plants thoroughly half an hour before lifting. The
ground to receive the plants should be moist. Dig the hole for
each plant a little too deep, scatter in the bottom compost or
well-rotted manure, with a little fertilizer, and cover lightly
with earth; then fill the holes once with water. Lift the
plants singly, with much earth, if that is possible, and set im-
mediately; at any rate, keep them from the sun when once
they are dug, and prevent the roots from drying out. Cut off
half the leaf-surface, to equalize the loss of roots. Water the
plants; and if the sun is hot, shade them, also, for the rest of
the day and the hottest part of the next. Old strawberry boxes
are excellent for shading small plants.
The work of gardening naturally changes with the season.
As the summer advances, and the plants spread, the work of
cultivating gradually lessens and that of picking begins. Here
the average gardener makes the mistake of letting the crop
grow too old. Beans grow stringy, peas tough, summer squash
coarse. Nothing is gained by this, for plants from which the
fruit is taken early make up by yielding more. It is much wiser
to take the crop when it is young and tender. Okra and kohl-
rabi are ruined if not picked when young.
It is here that the proper management of a garden comes in.
To know at just what stage each crop is, and to pick it when
at its best, requires a little forethought. But garden manage-
15
ment goes further than this. Staked tomatoes should weekly-
be pruned (one to three stalks) and tied. The watching of the
crops leads to proper succession planting. The moment a row
of plants has finished its usefulness it should be dug up, and no
time should be lost in planting its successor. Thus early
spinach is followed by cauliflower from the frames, or peas are
succeeded by beets. As the summer advances it will be too
late to follow with vegetables; but the cover crops should go
in as promptly as possible, to get a good growth before winter.
Garden management includes, further, a careful lookout for the
coming of insect pests. Otherwise the squash bug or the cab-
bage maggot will do irreparable damage.
As soon as there is a sign of them, therefore, the campaign
against them sJiould begin. There is no space here to tell what
to do in each case, nor how to take preventive measures against
diseases. (Diseases can never be cured; the only salvation is
prevention.) The reader should, for help in such cases, consult
Circular No. 2, Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture,
"Insecticides, Fungicides and Directions for their Use."
Neatness in the garden is worth while not only for itself, but
for its results. All rubbish should be gathered daily, and piled
in some out of the way place. The resulting heap is called the
compost heap, and if the garden waste is not given to the pigs
or chickens, it yet can do good service by turning itself into
the best of earth mold, valuable in providing earth for the flats,
or for enriching the hills of squash and melons. Compost is
quite as valuable as manure.
The saving of seed is often possible in the garden. If the
gardener is sure that there has been no crossing, and likes his
strain of corn or squash or tomato, he cannot merely save
himself a little money, but can by careful selection even
improve his seed.
From late summer onward the garden would begin to look
bare were it not for cover crops. These, as already mentioned,
should be sowed in every space as soon as it is vacant. In
summer crimson clover is the best to use; as frosts approach,
winter vetch will be better; and after frosts begin rye is best
used for a quick result. When turned under, these will provide
plant food.
16
The coming of frosts challenges the gardener to protect his
plants. The tall plants, such as corn, must meet their fate;
but the low-growing can often be saved by the use of old
cloths, burlaps or bedding hay. Tomatoes (staked tomatoes
may be laid down), squash and cucumbers can thus often be
saved for weeks. But at last even the cabbages must be taken
up, if they are to be saved, or if they are in the way of the
final preparation of the garden for the winter.
This should consist, if the gardener can possibly afford it, of
the plowing under of manure. Cover crops, if large, may be
plowed under also; or else, if they are small, or if the slope of
the garden renders it liable to winter washing, they may be left
for surface protection until spring.
Roughly, then, this reviews the work of vegetable gardening.
The city man regards it as a desirable pastime; but the aver-
age farmer is still but too likely _to resent it as an encroach-
ment upon his time. He fails to realize the money value of his
crop; fails also to perceive the aid to health which he and his
family gain from food which not even the richest magnate can
improve upon.
List of Vegetable Varieties.
Asparagus: Argenteuil, Palmetto, Reading Grant (if buying roots, get
only one-year).
Beans (Bush) : —
Snap (Green) : Stringless Green Pod, Valentine, Refugee.
Snap (Wax) : Kidney Wax, Golden Wax, Currie's Rust Proof.
Shell: Horticultural, Green-seeded Flageolet.
Lima: Burpee's Bush, Henderson's Bush, Fordhook Bush.
Beans (Pole) : —
Snap (Green) : Kentucky Wonder.
Snap (Wax) : Golden Cluster.
SheU: Golden Carmine, Scarlet Runner.
Lima: Challenger, Carpinteria, Sieva.
Beet: Crosby's Egyptian, Edmands'.
Brussels Sprouts: Aigburth (Standard), Dwarf French.
Cabbage: —
Early: Early Jersey Wakefield, Copenhagen, Early Vienna Savoy.
Late: Danish Ballhead, Flat Dutch, Green Globe Savoy, Red Dutch,
Red Rock.
17
Carrot: —
Early: Parisian forcing.
Medium: Chantenay.
Late: Danvers Half Long.
Cauliflower (get the best seed!) : —
Early: Early Snowball, Early Erfurt.
Late: Autumn Giant.
Celery: Golden Self-Blanching, Boston Market, Giant Paschal.
Chard: Lucullus.
Corn: —
Early: Peep o' Day (white). Golden Bantam (yellow).
Medium: Crosby.
Late: Evergreen, Country Gentleman.
Cress: Curled, or Peppergrass.
Cucumber: White Spine, Russian (short).
Eggplant: Black Beauty, New York Improved.
Endive: Winter Curled, Escarolle (do not get the root plant, chicory).
Kale: Dwarf Green Curled, Winter (or German Greens).
Kohlrabi: White Vienna, Purple Vienna.
Lettuce: —
Heading: May King, Tennisball (black-seeded), Big Boston, Mammoth
Black-seeded Butter.
Curled: Hanson, Simpson, Grand Rapids.
Cos or Romaine: Express, Trianon.
Muskmelon: —
Green or yellow flesh: Long Island Beauty, Rocky Ford.
Red Flesh: Emerald Gem, Fordhook, Honey-drop.
Mustard: White.
Okra: Dwarf Green.
Onion: —
Sets: White, Yellow and Red.
Seed: Yellow: Danvers, Ailsa Craig, Prizetaker.
Seed: White: Silver King, Portugal.
Seed: Red: Globe, Wethersfield.
Parsley: Moss Curled, Dobbie's Curled.
Parsnip: Early Round, Hollow Crown.
Peas (varieties given are wrinkled only) : —
Early: American Wonder, Gradus, Sutton's Excelsior.
Medium: Alderman, Advancer, Dwarf Telephone.
Late: Telephone, Stratagem.
Sugar: Mammoth melting.
Pepper: Large Bell, Ruby King, Upright Sweet Salad.
Radish: —
Spring and fall: French Breakfast, Icicle.
Summer: Strasburg, Stuttgart.
Winter: ^akirajima, Spanish.
18
Rhubarb: Victoria, Linnseus (buy roots. Rhubarb does not come true
from seed).
Salsify: Mammoth Sandwich Island.
Spinach: —
Long Standing, Round Thick Leaved, Prickly Seeded (for fall sowing).
New Zealand Spinach (to be cropped all summer) .
Sqicash: —
Summer: Summer Crookneck, Mammoth White Bush (pattypan).
Vegetable Marrow: English, Itahan (Cocozeli).
Winter: Dehcious, Hubbard.
Tomato: Dwarf Champion, Dwarf Stone, Livingstone's Stone, Stirhng
Castle (medium size), Ponderosa (very large).
Turnip: Snowball, Cowhorn (long white). Yellow Stone.
Watermelon: Halbert Honey, Early Fordhook, Cole's Early.
Potato: —
Early: Irish Cobbler, Early Rose.
Medium and late: Green Mountain, Beauty of Hebron.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
CIRCULAR NO. 43
April, 1916.
Second Edition.
THE SANITARY SIDE OF FARM
WATER SUPPLIES.
X. H. GOODNOUGH.
From the Sixtv-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board cf Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Appeoved by
The State Board of Publication.
THE SANITARY SIDE OF FARM WATER SUPPLIES.
X. H. GOODNOUGH, CHIEF ENGINEER, STATE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.
The methods of obtaining water supplies for the farm in
Massachusetts differ considerably from place to place, with the
varying conditions of topography and soil. In the hilly regions
in the central parts of the State, and in the mountains west of
the Connecticut River, the farm water supply is obtained in
many cases from springs located on a hillside at a higher level
than the farm buildings, and the water is consequently supplied
by gravity, giving running water in house and barn. In the
sandy regions of Cape Cod and the southeastern parts of the
State water supplies are commonly obtained from tubular wells
driven in the porous soil. These wells are usually wrought-iron
pipes having a diameter sometimes as small as 1 inch and some-
times as great as 8 inches, but usually a diameter of 2 or 2 1
inches is preferred. In some cases water is taken from brooks,
ponds or running streams, but the number of such supplies is
small.
By far the greater number of farm water supplies in Massa-
chusetts outside the limits of town or village water works sys-
tems are obtained from ordinary wells dug in the ground and
curbed commonly with field stone, the usual diameter being 3
to 4 feet. The number of wells and springs used for the water
supplies of farms and village homes in Massachusetts is un-
doubtedly very large, notwithstanding the fact that 95 per cent
of the inhabitants of the State live in cities and towns which
are provided with public water supplies. In the cities and the
larger towns the public supply is available to practically all of
the inhabitants, but in the smaller towns only the villages and
thickly settled areas are supplied by public works as yet, and
there is consequently a considerable number of inhabitants in
the cities and towns which are provided with pubHc water sup-
pHes who must depend on their private sources.
The total population hving in towns in which there is no
general supply was, in 1912, about 170,000. There are probably
50,000 people having private water supplies who live in towns
in which a portion of the inhabitants are supplied from public
works. Allowing five persons to a family, there are probably
more than 40,000 families in the State who maintain private
water supplies, and, assuming that there is an average of one
such source of supply to each family, there are 40,000 or more
private water supplies in use on the farms and in the villages
in Massachusetts.
Massachusetts has long been settled, and there has been com-
paratively little division of farms in many years. Undoubtedly
a large percentage of the farm wells now in use were constructed
many years ago, and have been in use continuously for a very
long time, in some cases, no doubt, for much more than half a
century. In earlier times little or nothing was thought of the
danger of the pollution of the water supply from the wastes of
human life except from possible pollution discharged directly
into the well, and a well water that was clear, colorless and
free from taste and odor was regarded as wholly satisfactory.
The well from which water was to be taken for household
use was commonly located as close as practicable to the farm
buildings, especially the dwelling house, for convenience in ob-
taining water for household use. The water was drawn com-
monly with a bucket and later with a pump, and at many of
the farm and village dwellings the household well was for con-
venience located in the cellar of the house, or even in a corner
of the barn. The household sewage is also commonly disposed
of in the immediate neighborhood of the house, and at the
older places the privy, cesspool and sink drain, and the barn
with its manure pile, are often found located at no great dis-
tance from the well.
The question is often asked why old wells which have ap-
parently yielded, and probably did yield, good water many
years ago do not furnish water of the same quality to-day; and
it is often difficult for dwellers in a village or on well-kept
farms to understand why a well which has apparently yielded
good water for many years does not supply good water to-day.
The answer in many cases is that when the well was first dug
the buildings which it was designed to supply had only just
been constructed, and little or no sewage had ever been de-
posited upon the ground in the region about the well. As soon
as the premises were occupied the seepage from the privy, sink
drain and cesspool, which were commonly located at no great
distance from the well, began percolating into the ground in its
neighborhood. The drawing of water from a well naturally
draws the ground water at that point to a lower level than
elsewhere in the neighborhood, and induces a flow of water
through the ground in its direction, and where sewage is dis-
charged upon or into the ground in the region influenced by the
draft of water from the well, seepage therefrom would naturally
have a tendency to flow toward the well.
It is probable that in the beginning, and perhaps for many
years, polluted matter from privies, cesspools, etc., thus per-
colating through the ground was thoroughly purified by oxida-
tion and nitrification in its passage through the soil before
reaching the well, just as the sewage of villages and towns is
now purified by passing it slowl}^ and intermittently through
sand filter beds; but after a long period of continuous passage
of water containing organic matter through the ground with air
constantly excluded, the efficiency of the purification becomes
less and the effect of the pollution upon the ground water more
serious. It is also probable that the finer matters in the soil are
gradually washed out, and the passage of the water through
the ground thus allowed to become more rapid.
The indications are that polluting matter from a privy or
cesspool percolating toward a well does not spread out over a
very large section of soil, but where the soil is fairly homo-
geneous is confined to a section of about the same area as that
of the privy or cesspool from which it comes. It is sometimes
practicable to determine quite definitely the area affected by
seepage from a privy or cesspool when excavations are made at
a point where such receptacles for sewage have been located.
An example of this was once seen by the writer, where a reser-
voir, upon one shore of which were located several privies and
cesspools, was drawn down, exposing a steep slope from which
the surface soil had been removed when the reservoir was built.
In this case the indications of the areas through which the
liquid percolating from the privies and cesspools to the reser-
voir was passing were very clearly marked by the iron rust which
settled out of the water on its coming to the air at the bank of
the reservoir, and the traces of percolation from these eight or
ten receptacles were in each case very clearly marked. In these
cases it was evident that the path of the polluted water was
quite direct, and that the area of cross section through which
it passed was but little greater in any of these cases than the
area of the privy or cesspool itself. The path of the waste had
evidently remained the same for many years, indicating that
the passage of the polluted liquid did not have a tendency to
clog up the ground, but that rather the ground offered less
resistance to the passage of the polluted water as time went on.
The soil in this case was but slighly porous, being what is
sometimes called a gravelly hardpan.
The rate of percolation of water through the soil varies
greatly with the character and porosity of the material, and
liquid percolating from a cesspool toward a well may require a
long time in its passage through the ground before it materially
affects the character of the water of the well, but where the soil
is porous sand or gravel, and much water is drawn from the
well, percolation may be rapid.
Under the general geological conditions in Massachusetts, the
water which enters a well is derived from the rainfall which
falls upon the ground immediately about it and percolates
through the ground to the well. The area from which ground
water is influenced to flow toward a well depends upon the
porosity of the soil, the quantity of water drawn, and the gen-
eral trend of the ground water of the locality in which the well
is situated. The area from which a well derives its supply can-
not always be determined very definitely, but it can usually be
determined with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes.
An average family of six persons would ordinarily use —
with the water required for animals, etc., and allowing a small
amount for irrigation of gardens about the house in the summer
season — ^ about 600 gallons per day. Assuming an average
rainfall of 42 inches per year, about 8,500 square feet of land
would be required to collect from the average rainfall the quan-
tity of water used by the family. This would mean a circular
space of ground 104 feet in diameter; but, inasmuch as a large
part of the rainfall runs off of the ground as it falls, the amount
that a well is capable of yielding practically never equals the
amount of the rainfall.
An average of one-third of the rainfall on the drainage area of
a well is a very large yield, and the quantity is usually much
less. Assuming that one-fifth of the rainfall is collectible in a
well, the area of ground required for securing a supply of 600
gallons daily would be a space 230 feet in diameter; that is, a
privy or cesspool located within 115 feet of a well which derives
its water equally from all directions would be likely to drain
toward it, even if the rainfall were distributed in equal daily
quantities throughout the year.
Of course, the yield of rainfall varies, the amount being large
in the winter and spring and small in the summer and autumn,
so that in the drier portion of the year water would probably be
influenced to flow toward the well from a considerably greater
distance than 115 feet.
The foregoing figures refer only to average conditions where
the soil is of the same porosity and character over a consider-
able area. As the character of the soil usually varies consider-
ably, even in short distances, the flow of ground water is
probably not usually the same from all directions about a well.
There is also likely to be a variation in the flow of water
toward a well due to the slope of the ground water, so that
pollutions discharged into the ground may be carried to the well
from a much greater distance on the side of the well from which
the ground water flows most freely than pollutions deposited in
other directions about the well.
The surest way of securing a supply of water that is safe for
drinking from a well dug near a farmhouse is to so locate the
well and the places of disposal for sewage, viz., sink drain,
cesspool, privy, barn, etc., that drainage from any of these
will not affect the well. The best plan is, of course, to locate
the sink drain, cesspool, privy and barn at a lower level than
the well, but obviously this can be done only in comparatively
few cases where it is desired to locate the well in the immediate
neighborhood of the house. Where it is impracticable to dispose
of the household sewage at a lower level than the water in the
well it is important to locate the places of sewage disposal as far
as practicable from the source of water supply. If the soil is
sand or gravel and fairly homogeneous a distance of 250 feet
will probably be adequate, provided, of course, that the sewage
disposal receptacles are not placed in a locality from which the
ground water drains most readily toward the well.
It is usually not very difficult to determine the probable
trend of the ground water and to take advantage of it in locat-
ing the well in such a way that, under the conditions men-
tioned, drainage from the sewage disposal places is unlikely to
affect it.
Where the buildings are located on sloping ground, draining
toward a stream or pond, and the well is on the upper side of
the buildings and the sewage receptacles on the lower side, the
latter may be located at a lesser distance from the well without
affecting the quality of the water than where the ground is
more nearly level; but it is not advisable, unless expert exami-
nation shall show otherwise, to locate a receptacle for sewage
nearer than 250 feet from a well unless, of course, the sewage is
discharged at a lower level than the water in the well.
It sometimes happens that in order to dispose of the sewage
effectively and satisfactorily it is necessary to convey it in a
pipe for a considerable distance, and the pipe line may perhaps
have to pass near the well or through the soil draining toward
the well. In such cases it is always best to construct the pipe
of iron with tight lead joints throughout the section likely to be
affected by drawing water from the well. In order to make sure
that the pipe is tight it should be carefully laid, the joints made
tight and tested by filling the pipe with water under consider-
able pressure before the trench is filled in.
Covering of a Well.
While the most important requirement in maintaining a good
well water supply on a farm is to so dispose of the sewage that
it will not affect the water, it is also important that the well be
carefully covered so as to prevent the entrance of surface water
and prevent animals or objectionable matter from falling
into it.
The best protection — and usually sufficient — for a well is
to lay the upper 5 feet of the stone curbing in cement mortar,
carrying the curbing to a few inches above the level of the
ground, so that surface water will be diverted from the well
and cannot enter it at the top. A cover should be placed over
the well or upon sills of joist set in cement on top of the curb.
A small box or pipe rising above the platform and with an
opening in its sides will provide sufficient ventilation, but it is
important that the opening should be screened with fine wire.
If water is drawn from the well by a pump passing up
through the platform it is highly important that the platform
be made absolutely tight and so sloped that water falling upon
it will be carried away from the well. One of the most serious
dangers of pollution of a well is water washing from dirty boots
upon the platform.
Effect of Lead Pipe.
If the water is drawn through a pump and a suction pipe
placed in the well it is best to avoid the use of lead pipe, since
many ground waters act rapidly upon lead and cause lead
poisoning. A pipe of block tin or of lead lined with tin, pro-
vided the pipe is made wholly of tin or of some suitable ma-
terial where it is in contact with the water in the well, will be
safe for use. Pipes of iron lined with tin, or especially with
cement, are also satisfactory for conveying drinking water.
Galvanized iron pipes are usually satisfactory, but waters which
attack lead usually attack iron and, by taking up an excess of
iron, make the water objectionable for many domestic pur-
poses.
One other matter should be mentioned, and that is the im-
portance of avoiding the heavy manuring of land in the imme-
diate neighborhood of a well. This practice has been known to
affect the water of many wells otherwise good, and it should be
carefully avoided for a space of 100 feet or more from the well,
especially on the side from which it derives its supply.
It is not practicable within the limits of this paper to go
into the question of well-water analysis except in the most
10
general way. Ordinarily, it is impossible to tell from the ap-
pearance, taste and odor of a well water whether it is safe for
drinking or not. A clarified sewage in an ordinary glass may be
clear and colorless and may have no very marked odor and is
often not to be distinguished from spring water. The senses
are wholly unreliable when it comes to deciding whether a
water of good appearance and free from taste and odor is safe
for drinking or not. On the other hand, if a well water which
has usually been satisfactory becomes suddenly objectionable
to taste and smell its use should be discontinued until an
examination has been made.
Unpolluted waters are not usually affected by objectionable
tastes and odors, though even to this rule there are exceptions,
since quite often waters derived from hardpan soils have at
times a noticeable taste and odor, even though analysis shows
that the water is not polluted or otherwise objectionable for
domestic use.
The sudden appearance of turbidity or color in a water
which has always apparently been clear and colorless is also
good cause for suspicion of the quality of the water even though
it is free from taste and odor, and a water which becomes sud-
denly turbid or colored should not be used until its safety has
been ascertained.
If the well is so located that there is no danger of pollution
from sewage or other objectionable matter, slight changes in
the quality of the water need cause no serious alarm. There
are undoubtedly a great many cases in this State where a farm
well is not located in such a way that its water can be used
with safety for drinking, and in such cases a new supply is a
necessity.
As to the best method of obtaining a new supply, it is im-
practicable to lay down any definite rules, since circumstances
vary so widely from place to place that a rule by which a good
well might be secured in one place would not produce satisfac-
tory results in the next.
In the sandy and gravelly regions — found mostly in the
southeastern parts of the State, but to a considerable extent in
the river valleys of the central and western portions — it is
usually not difficult to secure ground water in large quantity
11
by sinking a well in low ground at almost any point, provided
it is suflBciently distant from possible sources of pollution; but
wells sunk in the immediate neighborhood of swamps will ordi-
narily not supply good water, and it is generally best in swampy
regions to locate the well on the upland 50 to 100 feet from the
swamp, if practicable. The conditions in some cases are such,
however, that waters can be taken from the edge of a swamp
or even from beneath its surface and good water secured.
^l)t (flcmmotirocaltl) of illa00acl)U0Ctt0»
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 44.
May, 1915.
Sewage Disposal in Rural
Districts.
Edward H. Williams.
From the Sixty-second Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
"WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915,
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN EUEAL DISTRICTS.
EDWARD H. WILLIAMS, ROCKLAND, MASSACHUSETTS.
The message I bring this afternoon, it seems to me, is per-
haps the most important one of the day.
We have been talking of better farms and better farming,
and of the enormous crops that are being raised and which we
hope will increase prosperity and lessen the cost of living.
Now if we are to have good crops we must have good farm-
ers, "and to be a good farmer one must of necessity be a healthy
farmer; and if rural life is to be what it ought to be we must
first of all look out for the health of the people living in the
rural districts.
It is customary nowadays to speak of units in life and in
business, particularly in the manufacturing and heat and power
lines. I think that if we divide life into units we should con-
sider the health unit as unit number 1. We must have health
if we are to succeed in life and do anything well.
Let us consider some of the most important things that in-
fluence our health. Probably no one thing is more important to
our well-being than a bountiful supply of good water, both for
drinking and general domestic purposes. While a few, com-
paratively speaking, of our farmers procure their water from a
well-protected public water supply, by far the greater portion
must obtain their supply from springs or wells, and I am sorry
to say that these latter do not always yield pure water. Roughly
speaking, there are between 30,000 and 40,000 wells in this
State that are in daily use, and, ridiculous as it may seem,
there are only about 5 to 10 per cent of them that are unpol-
luted. Examination and analysis show these things in a much
different way from that in which we generally consider them.
1 Address delivered before the field meeting of the Massachusetts State grange at South
Framingham, August 19, 1914.
I do not mean to say that these wells that are not yielding a
supply of pure water are all in an extremely bad condition, for
such is not a fact, but they are more or less contaminated,
some severely and some only slightly, and any well that shows
pollution to any extent must be closely watched and studied to
find out the cause. There are a number of ways by which the
water in a well or spring can be contaminated, and probably
the most common way is by the well being so situated that it
receives the wash from the surrounding slopes which runs over
the surface and into the top of the well, particularly during and
after heavy showers and in the springtime when the snow is
melting. Another and very serious way in which pollution of
the worst kind may reach the water in wells and springs is by
a closely located cesspool or privy of poor construction con-
stantly discharging their contents into the surrounding ground.
After a time the ground becomes saturated, and the area sat-
urated increases until it has spread out for great distances in
many cases. In very porous subsoils, or perhaps along the
surface of or through the fissures in underground ledges, it is
hard to estimate how far sewage may travel, but certainly for
hundreds of feet in some cases.
People sometimes ask why a well does not or should not con-
tinue to give a good pure supply of water when it always used
to, and I would say that it is because of this saturation of the
soil, which in some cases may take years before it reaches the
water supply, and also because the contamination is not always
perceptible to the eye, nose or mouth, and only an analysis can
show whether or not a well is polluted and to what extent.
You see the trouble lies largely in the fact that germs of
disease are invisible, and you cannot tell by looking at water
whether or not they are present. By all means have an analy-
sis made of any water that you use for domestic purposes as
soon as you detect any taste or odor to it.
One of the worst diseases that we have to contend with is
typhoid fever, and while the State health authorities have made
a wonderful reduction in the numbers of cases and deaths in
this State, it is still far too common. Typhoid fever is fre-
quently contracted by using water from a well or spring that is
polluted by sewage. Now tj'phoid germs will not live in well
water very long, but if you have an underground connection
between the well and your cesspool or privy you can keep up a
constant supply of able-bodied typhoid germs in your drinking
water and contract the disease. You know^ there are people who
are known as typhoid carriers, that is, people who may con-
tinue to expel the germs from their systems for years after hav-
ing recovered from an attack of the disease, and one of these
carriers might come to your house and leave the germs to do
their deadly work. So you see we must dispose of the sewage
in some way so that it cannot reach the water supply.
The purpose of this little talk of mine is to tell those of you
who are interested how the sewage may be disposed of in a very
satisfactory manner in a large number of cases, but not in all
cases, for this plan has its limits.
It is not designed for use in cities or towns where there is a
sewerage system, or where the premises are so limited that you
cannot construct the plant properly, or where there is danger of
ridding yourselves of a nuisance only to pass it on to your
neighbor. This system is what I call a farm sewage disposal
tank, but it has several names, and is constructed as you see on
the sketch. It is constructed of concrete and is made light and
air-tight, as the successful working of the tank depends on the
action of what are called ansrobic bacteria, that work best
when kept dark and quiet and with little oxygen. The bacteria
do their work by consuming the solids, except the mineral mat-
ter, and converting them into water which is disposed of in one
of the ways that we are to speak of.
The successful working of the tank also depends on a con-
siderable quantity of water passing through it for flushing; and
because it will handle a large quantity of water, it makes pos-
sible the installation of bathtubs, flush closets, laundry tubs
and all of the modern plumbing conveniences that should be
placed in every house in the rural districts just as they are in
the city houses. These conveniences properly installed add so
much to the health and convenience of rural life that their
value is beyond estimation. Running water is necessary, of
course, to operate the closets, baths, etc., and can be obtained
in different ways. Where one has a supply of running water
from a spring on a hill that is well protected from pollution he
has what 1 consider an ideal supply. If you have not this kind
of a supply you can have running water in your buildings by
Sewa^ Disposal Tank
For
Rural Residences
h re; H
HOLg CQVEB-C^V-HAMDLC
v^ ,, — W^ : ■T<f ' A' ^i^ ' — ^ ' ' —
mm^^^m^^^msmm^^^m
iE;2^_'2__
8'^ •-
-7'0"
^8-^
scale Vz"'\'.
using a gasoline or hot-air engine, electric motor, windmill or a
pneumatic tank to keep ^^our supply tank filled.
The Sewage Tank.
The tank in the sketch is of sufficient size to take care of any-
ordinary farm home sewage, and is 7 feet long, 3^/2 feet wide
and 6 feet deep, these being inside dimensions; the side walls
should be made 8 inches thick, the bottom 5 inches and the top
6 inches thick. If the tank is placed under a lawn or grassland
where there is no heavy teaming over it, it will not need any
reinforcing, but if placed beneath a driveway the top only
should be reinforced. The manhole cover should be placed in
one corner so as to enable you to remove the lumber you use
for concrete forms without cutting it. The tank should be
placed so that it is covered with at least 18 inches of soil, and
then it will never freeze up. It must also be placed in such a
way that the 6-inch inlet pipe has a good grade or slope to the
tank, so that the water will have velocity enough to keep the
pipe free at all times. You see the ends of the inlet and outlet
pipes are submerged, which is done to exclude air and to pre-
vent the breaking up of the scum on the surface of the contents
of the tank, which acts as a sort of protective blanket for the
bacteria.
The contents of the tank should be kept as quiet as possible,
and as an aid in this matter we place a baffle board across the
tank as shown. This baffle should rise a few inches above the
surface line and have an open space 18 inches below it, to
allow the heavy portion or sludge to spread over the whole
bottom of the tank, where I believe it will be better taken care
of by the bacterial action than it would in a smaller area.
Of course the 6-inch outlet pipe where it leaves the tank
regulates the height of the material within, and is for the pur-
pose of conducting the surplus water or effluent away to the
place where it is finally disposed of. The outlet pipe should be
set so as to allow an 18-inch air space above the flow or surface
line.
Now as to the methods of disposing of the effluent. If you
have to consider the protection of a water supply, as well as to
dispose of the overflow, then you must conduct the effluent
away to a point at least 200 feet from your own or a neighbor's
water supply or any pond or stream connected with a supply.
8
Care must also be used so as not to dispose of the effluent in
such a way that it can follow a ravine or depression in the
ground surface that might convey it in a wrong direction. The
best way of all would be to conduct it to a point under ground
where there was a sand or gravel subsoil, and allow it to es-
cape through a few open joints on the end of the outlet pipe,
covering over the entire length of pipe.
In a properly constructed system there is so little sediment
in the effluent that this underground outlet will dispose of it
for an indefinite time in a porous material. Be sure and make
tight joints in your pipes except at outlet end, and if you have
to run either inlet or outlet pipes anywhere near a well it is
advisable to use iron pipe at such a place and lead the joints.
I know of tanks that have been running now for several
years, and have done the work so well that there is no amount
of sludge in them at any time when opened. Members of the
grange at several of the meetings have told their experience,
and they expressed themselves as well satisfied, except in one
instance, and that was when a double tank was used and the
sludge accumulated in that one so as to block the inlet pipe.
I think the tank must have been too small.
Now to return to the disposal of the effluent where you have
no porous subsoil to take care of it. If you are located far
from neighbors, and where you have a large area over which
you can work without endangering any source of water supply,
it would be all right to let the effluent run out onto the surface
of the ground where it would get a good chance to spread out
and not stand in pools, as of course mosquitoes would breed in
the standing water.
Now there is another condition to consider, and that is where
you have a limited area, and where you have to be careful about
allowing the effluent, as it comes directly from the tank, to run
out on the ground for fear of its going into some lake or stream
that may carry it onto the land of another, and where it would
be necessary to pass it through a sand filter before letting it
pass off. A sand filter is easy to construct and adds greatly to
the purity of the effluent.
Now a word in regard to waste water from the tank. Some
people believe and some of the farm papers have stated that
9
this water is good enough to drink; but it is not so, for you
have not removed the bad matter entirely but have liquefied it
and only made it possible to more easily dispose of the sewage.
The protection of the water supply by taking care of the
sewage in this way would solve many vexatious problems.
How far-reaching the effect of using impure water may be
can be illustrated by the thought of the awful possibilities of
spreading a contagious disease by using this bad water to wash
milk utensils, and as a means to cool milk by standing the cans
in a tub of water in which there may be germs of typhoid fever.
A farmer might be ever so particular about his cow barn, his
cattle and himself and then use polluted water and thus his
precautions be unavailing.
To illustrate the successful use of this system of sewage dis-
posal I would like to tell you how, at Sugar Hill, New Hamp-
shire, where the people depend upon money made by taking
summer boarders, there were installed, at the suggestion of the
New Hampshire State Board of Health, 30 or 40 of the tanks
to eliminate a fly pest that was so severe that the summer
people all went away. The help of the State Board was asked
to remedy the difficulty, and an investigation showed that the
flies were breeding and feeding in the open cesspools, privies
and sink drains that were common at almost every place.
After the sewage was taken care of by this method the flies
disappeared and the summer people now go there as before.
In their official reports they speak of the work and also pub-
lished plans of a tank as designed by them.
The United States government and different States and col-
leges approve of this method of disposing of a serious menace to
health in rural communities.
If you have conditions out of the ordinary by all means con-
sult some one who understands the question thoroughly before
spending your time and money.
The cost of the tank if constructed by your own labor should
not be over $16 or $17; of course it is hard to say how much
the piping would cost, as the lengths would vary for different
cases.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR NO. 45
Second Edition, Reviskd.
February, 1916.
THE STARLING,
Edward Howe Forbush.
Revised and enlarged from the Fifty-eighth Annual Report of the
, Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,
32 DEENE STEEET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board op Publication.
Starling at Nesting Hole with Caterpillars for its Young.
Starlings are useful birds if not too numerous. (Original photograph.)
THE STARLING.
EDAVARD HOWE FORBUSH, STATE ORNITHOLOGIST.
The European starling (Sturnus vulgaris) was introduced
into New York City in 1890, and now (1915) is distributed
locally over most of Massachusetts. It is a native of western
central Europe, winters south to Africa and is accidental in
Greenland. It may be described briefly .as follows: length, 8|
inches; adult male: black with purple and green reflections, the
feathers of the upper parts and breast more or less tipped with
pale buff, which gives the bird a spotted appearance when in
hand, but at a little distance the spots are invisible; under
tail-coverts edged with white; beak yellow; feet flesh-colored,
tinged with brown; female: spotted below as well as above;
young : uniform ash brown, faintly streaked with darker.
The starling may be recognized at a distance by its general
appearance and manner of flight. It is about the size of the
red-winged blackbird, but has a very short tail. It is dark or
dusky in color, and during the breeding season its bill is bright
yellow. Those who see it for the first time usually describe it
as a blackbird with a yellow bill. In flight it flutters like a
meadow lark, but seldom sails as much as does the lark.
The Starling in Eueope.
In order to get some idea of what we may expect of the
starling in this country we must first glance at its history in
Europe. There it is one of the most abundant birds. In some
sections it has been more numerous in the past than it is now,
but on the other hand it is increasing in numbers now in many
regions. Most of the starlings in northern European countries
pass the winter in southern Europe, but reappear in the north
very early in the spring, sometimes before the snow is gone; and
in much of the northern part of its range a few individuals are
resident throughout the winter. Although it resembles our
blackbirds somewhat in appearance, it differs vridely from them
in its breeding habits. Like the house sparrow it is a close
companion of man during the breeding season. In Europe it
nests in hollow trees, in holes or crevices in rocks, walls, cliffs
and buildings. It occupies suitable places about the eaves, and
utilizes bird houses and nesting boxes, as does the house
sparrow. It lays from four to seven greenish-blue eggs and
in many cases raises two broods in a season. It is a very
gregarious species, and even during the breeding season may
be seen in small flocks, a few individuals or a family often
consorting. By midsummer these small flocks begin to congre-
gate into larger ones, containing hundreds of individuals, and
increasing sometimes in the fall to thousands or tens of thou-
sands. The largest flights are seen at the roosts. Usually the
starlings from a large area concentrate on some marsh at night,
where they roost in the reeds, and from these centers they
scatter over the country to feed each day, returning every
evening to the same roost, until the approaching winter, with
its scarcity of food, compels them to wander about in search
of it, or to resort to more southern regions.
The accounts of the vast numbers congregated at the roosts
as related by European ornithologists seem almost incredible.
Their numbers are set down as hundreds of thousands and
sometimes as "millions," but such statements probably are
somewhat exaggerated. It is certain, however, that these birds
gather at the roosts in "clouds," such as sometimes are seen
in the south, where our swallows concentrate in countless thou-
sands at night over a marsh, and discharge their numbers into
the reeds like a waterspout descending from a cloud. A some-
what similar manner of going to roost is attributed to the star-
ling. Like our cowbird, it seems fond of frequenting pastures
or places where cattle are kept. It is said to even alight on
the backs of cattle and sheep in search of ticks and other in-
sects that infest them. It is pre-eminently a ground feeder,
and feeds on lawns, in grass fields and pastures, and also to
some extent in gardens and plowed lands. It destroys grubs,
earthworms, snails and many insects which infest grass lands
and the droppings of cattle. It is conceded in Europe that the
benefits it confers on the farmer far exceed the harm that it
does by attacks on fruit or crops; nevertheless, there are many
instances on record where the starling has become a pest to
the farmer. The habit of collecting in enormous flocks is
the great element of danger. When a great number of any
species having grain-eating or fruit-eating propensities is col-
lected in one locality they are capable of doing great harm in
a very short time. Such flights, however, are often productive
of good.
The forest authorities in Bavaria, during an invasion of the
spruce moth or "nun" in 1889-91, noted great flights of star-
lings, which were credibly estimated to contain as many as ten
thousand in a flock, all busy feeding on the caterpillars and
pupae of this moth. The attraction of starlings to such centers
was so great that market gardeners seriously felt their absence
in distant parts of the region.^
The injury that starlings are capable of doing in Europe
may be judged from the following accounts. Mr. A. Butler
Duncan of New York writes that he has known the starling to
become a "perfect pest" in England. What the starling does
to fruit in Great Britain is told in an extract from the "Agri-
cultural Students' Gazette," quoted by Mr. S. H. Goodwin in
"Bird-Lore," May-June, 1908, page 130.
The starling is a splendid bird on grass land, foraging for leather'
jackets (larvae of craneflies), wire worms, etc.; rids the sheep of a few
of their ticks; but in a fruit district it comes in droves into the straw-
berries and attacks the cherries wholesale (Hereford); peas, apples,
plums, as well as cherries (Kent), also raspberries. Very valuable in-
sect destroyers, but getting too numerous (Notts). In my fruit field
(between Harden and Colchester) I do not suffer very much from black-
birds and thrushes, nor do I grudge them their toll in return for their
song. Only one bird is dangerous to my crops, — that is the starling.
He threatened the utter destruction of our strawberry, raspberry, cherry,
gooseberry and currant, and some other crops. These birds arc said to
come to us from the marshes as soon as the young are hatched. And
they come in milUons; in flocks that darken the sky. Their flight is like
the roar of tlie sea, or like the trains going over the arches. Their number
increased rapidly each year. I can look back to the time when there
were few, and have watched their increase for forty j^ears, till now it
' Fiirst, Hermann: "Protection of Woodlands." English edition, translated by John Nisbet,
1893, p. 126.
is intolerable (Essex). The starling is a terror, and life around here is
hardly worth living; you must have a gun always in your hand, or woe
betide the cherries; they come in thousands (Sittingbourne, Kent).
Miss Gertrude Whiting of New York City writes me that
in Switzerland enormous flocks of starlings come down like
black clouds on the vineyards. In ten or fifteen minutes they
pluck the fruit absolutely clean, and the cultivator is robbed
of his year's crop. In the south of France starlings are said to
be similarly destructive to the olive crop. This indicates what
would happen in America were the starlings to become abnor-
mally numerous.
It is of particular interest to learn what we can of the nature
of the starling in its own country in its relations to other birds.
In Europe the starling is known to eat the eggs and the newly
hatched young of sparrows, but this habit does not seem to
have been generally noted. Mr. Clinton G. Abbott, who is very
familiar with the bird in Europe, writes me that he considers
its pugnacious nature to be by far the most serious objection
to the starling, and that no birds which nest in holes can have
any peace at all until all the starlings are satisfied. "Many
a time," he Avrites, "have I noticed the British woodpeckers
laboriously boring holes in the hard wood, only to find that
after a couple of weeks' work a pair of starlings had laid claim
to the apartment." The woodpecker never gives up without a
fight, but the starling is always victorious, and "the next day
trailing straws from the entrance of the cavity show the
presence of these new and slovenly tenants." It is said that
starlings have become so numerous in parts of England that
they evict other hole-nesting birds, and that it has become
necessary to provide smaller birds with nesting boxes which the
starling cannot enter. The pugnacity of the starling does not
seem to be generally noted in the works of European orni-
thologists, but apparently at times starlings have battles
among themselves. The following copy of an ancient tract,
for which I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Samuel N.
Rhoads of Haddonfield, New Jersey, is both quaint and in-
teresting: —
The Wonderful Battel of Starlings:
Fought at the City oj Cork, in Ireland, the 12th and 14th of October 1621.
As it hath been credibhj informed by divers noblemen and others of
the said Kingdom, etc. London, Printed for N. B. 1622.
Cork is a City in the West of Ireland, in the Province of Munster;
for Situation, and all Commodities, which Sea or Land may afford, not
inferior to any City in that Country. About the 7th of October last,
Anno 1621, there gathered together, by Degrees, an unusual Multitude
of Birds called Stares, in some Countries known by the Name of Star-
lings. Quality bold and venturous, among themselves very loving, as
may appear by their Flights, keeping together all Times of the Year,
excepting the Breeding-Time. It is, and hath been an old Proverb,
that Birds of a Feather hold and keep together; which hath even been
a common Custom in these as much as in any other Kind whatsoever:
But now the old Proverb is changed, and their Custom is altered clean
contrary. For at this Time, as these Buxls are in Taste bitter, so they
met to fight together the bitterest and sharpest Battel among them-
selves, the like, for the Manner of their Flight, and for the Time the
Battel did continue, never heard Oi- seen at any Time, in any Country
of the World. CI believe)
We read in the Histories of our own Country, that, in the twelfth
Year of King Richard II. the Gnats mustered together at Shine now
called Richmond, in great Abundance, with so great a Multitude, that
the Air was obscured and darkned by them. They fought so violent
a Battel among themselves, that, by Estimation, two Parts of them
were slain, and fell to the Ground. The Number of those which were
killed was so great that they were taken up with Shovels, and swept
together with Besoms, that Bushels were filled with them, the third
Part having gotten the Victory, flew away and vanished, no Man knew
whither.
Now to come to the Fight of our Birds, the Stares or Starlings:
They mustered together, at this above-named City of Cork, some
four or five Days before they fought their Battels, every Day more
and more increasing their Armies with greater Supphes; some came
as from the East, others from the West, and so accordingly they placed
themselves, and as it were incamped Themselves Eastward and West-
ward about the City: During which Time their Noise and Tunes were
strange on both Sides, to the great Admiration of the Citizens and the
Inhabitants near adjoining, who had never seen, for Multitude, or ever
heard, for loud Tunes which they uttered, the like before. Whereupon
they more curiously observing the Courses and Passages they used,
noted, that from those on the East, and from those on the West, sundry
Flights, some twenty and thirty in a Company, would pass from the
one Side to the other, as it should seem employed in Embassies; for they
would fly and hover in the Air over the Adverse Party, with strange
8
Tunes and Noise, and so return back again to that Side from wliich as it
seemed, they were sent.
And farther it was observed, that, during the Time they assembled,
the Stares of the East sought their Meat Eastward, as the Stares of
the West did the like Westward; no one flying in the circuits of the
other.
These Courses and Customs continued with them until the 12th of
October, which Day being Saturday, about Nine of the Clock in the
Morning, being a very fair and a Sun-shine Day, upon a strange Sound
and Noise, made as well on the one Side as the other, they forthwith,
at one Instant, took Wing, and so mounting up into the Skies,
encountered one another with such a terrible Shock, as the Sound amazed
the whole City and the Beholders. Upon this sudden and fierce En-
counter, there fell down in the City, and into the Rivers, Multitudes of
Starlings or Stares, some with Wings broken, some with Legs and Necks
broken, some with Eyes picked out, some their Bills thrust into the
Breast and Sides of their Adversaries, on so strage a Manner, tht it were
incredible, except it were confirmed by Letters of Credit, and by Eye-
witnesses with that Assurance which is without all Exception.
Upon the first Encounter thej'' withdrew themselves backward. East
and West, and with like Eagerness and Furj^ encountered several Times;
upon which all these Stares fell down, in like strange and admirable
Manner, as upon the first Encounter. They continued this admirable
and most violent Battel till a little before Night, at which time they
seemed to vanish, so that all Sunday, the 13th of October, none appeared
about the City.
Upon this Sunday divers passengers came out of Suffolk, who sailing
betwixt Gravesend and Wool'tvich, they heard a loud and strange noise
and Sound in the Air, whereupon casting their Eyes upward, they saw
infinite Multitudes of Stares fighting in all violent Manner together,
with a Crow or Pi,aven flying betwixt them, for the Flight being so high,
they could not perfectly discern whether it was Crow or Raven. These
Birds had also several Encounters, making strange Sound and Noise;
and ever as they divided and retired themselves, the Crow or Raven
was seen in the Midst: But what Slaughter was made they could not
observe, because the Evening was somewhat dark, and the Battel was
fought over Woods more remote off; but for more assured Proof of this
Fight the Sunday before-named, there are, at this Time, in London,
diverse Persons of Worth and very honest Reputation, whom the Printer
of this Pamphlet can produce, to justify what they saw, at Cause shall
require, upon their Oaths.
Now to return to the last Battel fought, at Cork, by these Stares
Upon Monday, the 14th of October, they made their Return again,
and, at the same time, the Day being as lair a Sun-shine Day as it was
the Saturday before, they mounted into the Air, and encountered each
other with like violent Assaults, as formerly they had done, and fell
9
into the City upon the Houses, and into the River, wounded and
slaughtered in hke Manner as before is reported: But at this last Battel
there was a Kite, a Raven and a Crow, all three found dead in the Streets
rent, torn and mangled.
In this precedent Narration, one Report v/ill cause most admiration,
and that is, the Stares or Starlings, forbearing and absenting them-
selves from Cork, upon Sunday, being the 13th of October, should that
same Day be seen to fight near, or not far off from Woolwich; whether
the same Stares it may be held in respect of the Distance of the Place
by Sea and Land, improbable. But this Improbability is soon answered;
for as the Fight at Cork may seem strange and improbable, yet being
most assured that such a Battel was fought, it may be as probable, in
the Wonderful Works of Almighty God, that, notwithstanding the Distance
of the Place, these may be the same Stares. ^
The above extracts indicate that the starling has some unde-
sirable quahties; and as such qualities are often accentuated
when a bird is introduced into a new country, we cannot view
the introduction of the starling without some apprehension.
The fact that it is generally considered a desirable species in
northern Europe should not have convinced any one that it
would be so in America, and its introduction here ought never
to have been undertaken. When introduced into New Zealand
it became a very destructive pest, and no one can tell what may
be the result of its acclimatization here. Since the successful
introduction of the starling in America the Bureau of Bio-
logical Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture
has been given authority to regulate the importation of foreign
mammals and birds into this country, and in the future there
is very little likelihood that the zeal of misguided persons who
wish to import foreign species will have such results as fol-
lowed the introduction of the house sparrow. The Biological
Survey now has agents in every port where foreign species are
likely to come in, all shipments are examined and if the bird
or mammal is considered dangerous it is destroyed; thus we
have been able to keep out the mongoose and several unde-
sirable birds. But the starling, introduced before these regu-
lations went into effect, has increased so fast and spread so far
that the question now to be considered is w'hether it is to prove
an undesirable addition to the fauna of the country, and, if so,
w^hether its increase can be controlled and regulated.
'p. ' Morgan, J.: "Phcenix Britannicus," a miscellaneous collection of scarce and curious tracts,
No. l,.pp. 250-253, London, 1731.
10
The Starling in America.
Its Introduction.
Probably we shall never know how many attempts have been
made to introduce the starling into this country. I have
learned of several. Mr. John Coulson of Worcester, Massachu-
setts, writes me that four starlings were caught from a small
flock on the estate of Mr. Stephen Salisbury on November 8,
1876, and were kept in the house until November 11, when
some one accidentally liberated them. Mr. Coulson, being a
native of Great Britain, knew the birds well. Mr. William
Conant of Tenafly, New Jersey, asserts that he had a tame star-
ling there in a cage in 1884. At least six other starlings came
about the cage of his pet bird, which he finally liberated and
it disappeared. These starlings are believed to have reached
Tenafly from Tuxedo, where several European species, includ-
ing the English pheasants and partridges, were liberated at
that time. Some of the pheasants and European partridges
also reached Tenafly.
Mr. Van Brunt Bergen of Brooklyn, New York, wrote me
in 1910 that Mrs. Doubleday liberated several pairs of starlings
at Bay Ridge "eight or ten years ago." They came from Eng-
land. But the introductions undertaken by Mr. Eugene
ScheiflBin at Central Park, New York City, are credited as the
first to be successful. The first of his importations numbered
80 birds, which were liberated on March 6, 1890, and 40 more
were released on April 25, 1891. Some of these birds re-
mained in the park or in its vicinity, and bred there, but in
1891, 20 appeared on Staten Island, and in 1896 they had
increased their numbers and had extended to Brooklyn. In
1898, according to Dr. T. S. Palmer of the Biological Survey^
the species had obtained a strong foothold in the neighborhood
of New York City; it had reached Stamford, Connecticut, and
Plainfield, New Jersey. One hundred birds were liberated
near Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1897, but Mr. Robert O.
Morris of Springfield states his belief that they did not survive
the following winter. It may be possible that they went south,
but not one was reported from Springfield again until the year
1908. In the meantime the species had spread over the first
11
forty miles of Long Island, up the Hudson River to Ossining and
beyond, through much of eastern New Jersey and into Pennsyl-
vania and Delaware.
In June, 1910, I was able, through the co-operation of the
Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of
Agriculture, to make an investigation of the distribution, food
and habits of the starling in America. Several trips were made
to Springfield, Massachusetts; Connecticut; Long Island; New
Jersey, and one to Pennsylvania. A large correspondence was
begun with people in all the States in which the starling has
been found. One hundred and two starlings were collected, and
the contents of their stomachs were examined by Professor F.
E. L. Beal of the Biological Survey. On this investigation the
present report is based.
It is important to compare what is known of the status and
habits of the starling in this country with its history and habits
in Europe, for by such a comparison we may be able to forecast
its probable relation to other birds and to agriculture in Massa-
chusetts.
Its Increase and Dissemination.
When the brief period that has elapsed since the introduc-
tion of the starling (twenty-five years) and the small number
introduced are considered, it must be conceded that the increase
and the dissemination of the species have been rapid. It has
not increased or spread so rapidly as did the house sparrow
(commonly called English sparrow), but the sparrow's numbers
sprang not from one importation but from many, that took
place at widely scattered localities during a series of years, —
something that has been prevented in the case of the starling.
Its increase has been rapid in most of the region now occupied
by it, where it is in many places second in numbers only to the
sparrow and the robin. The testimony of 110 correspondents
whose residences are scattered over five States shows that the
starling is increasing fast. All assert as a result of their ob-
servation that it is increasing, and most of them say that its
accession is rapid. Only 18 have seen no increase in their
localities or find the increase slow. They, however, are resi-
dent mainly near where the starling was first introduced, and
where it has nearly reached the limit of food supply or nest-
12
ing places. Even in Brooklyn, however, Dr. Edward W. Victor,
who keeps an excellent record of the birds observed at Prospect
Park, records an average of 29 starlings daily in 1908, 31 in
1909 and 41 in 1910. Mr. J. H. Sage of Portland, Connecticut,
states that two pairs were seen there in 1908, and that by
June, 1910, the number had increased to about 100. During
the breeding season the starling is rather quiet and secretive,
and its numbers are not fully realized, but in the fall its large
flocks become very conspicuous, and people are prone to exag-
gerate its numbers for the reason that these flocks roam over
the country for miles, frequently appearing and disappearing,
and giving the impression of great abundance. The most con-
Aancing proof of increase comes in the statements of people who
saw the starlings in flocks of from 1,000 to 3,000 in the fall
of 1909, and who found in the same localities in 1910 flocks
estimated to contain from 8,000 to 10,000. In the region about
New York City, including Long Island, Staten Island and
parts of the Hudson River valley, also portions of New Jersey,
where the sparrow is more abundant than I have ever seen it
anywhere else in this country, there appeared to be at least 50
sparrows to every starling in June, 1910, but it is quite prob-
able that now the ratio has beer\ very materially changed in
many places by the increase of the starling.
The spread of the starling since 1900 may be seen by the
following statement.
In the year 1900 it appeared at Flushing, Long Island; East
Orange, New Jersey; Chilmark, New York (Scarborough-on-
Hudson); Norwalk, Stamford and New Haven, Connecticut.
In 1901 the first birds are recorded from Delaware, taken near
Odessa. In 1904 the starling had reached Rye, New York,
and Trevose, Bucks County, Pennsylvania. In 1905 it is re-
corded from Newburg, New York; Elizabeth, New Jersey;
and West Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In 1906, Danbury,
Wethersfield and Hartford, Connecticut; New Brunswick,
Princeton, Red Bank and Vincentown, New Jersey, wer6 in-
cluded in its range. In 1907 it was seen in Stonington, Wind-
sor, Bethel, Southington and New London, Connecticut; Upper
Montclair, Morristown and Tuckertop, New Jersey; and
Setauket, Syosset and Orient, Long Island. In 1908 it was
13
seen in Millersville, Pennsylvania; Bedford Hills, New York;
Portland and New Milford, Connecticut; and Springfield,
Massachusetts. In 1909 it had reached Rhinebeck and Pleas-
antville, New York, and one was said to have been seen at
Rochester. It was also met with at Milburn, New Jersey;
Bristol, Pennsylvania; and Chester, Connecticut.
In 1910 Mr. Israel R. Sheldon of Providence told me that
starlings had been breeding for "two or three years" at Silver
Springs, Rhode Island, on the east shore of Narragansett Bay,
about three miles below Providence. They must have reached
this point in 1908 or 1909, if not earlier. He said that they
nested in the peaks of the roofs of some cottages, behind some
lattice work, and that he had seen as many as eight at one
time. As the noise that they made disturbed the cottagers their
nesting was repeatedly interfered with, which may account for
the fact that they had not increased much. This is the only
authentic occurrence of the starling in Rhode Island that had
come to my notice at that time, but now (1916) the bird is
more or less generally distributed in Connecticut, Rhode
Island and Massachusetts, and has been reported from Maine,
New Hampshire and Vermont, and from as far south as
Virginia.
The increase and spread of the starling is due to its fecundity
and its general fitness for the battle of life. It often has
two broods in America, as it has in Europe. I am satisfied
of this by my own observation and by the statements of other
observers, and believe this to be the rule in some localities, al-
though in others I could find no evidence of a second brood.
On the other hand, it seems not improbable that a third brood
is sometimes reared; but this needs confirmation. The starling's
physical fitness for the struggle for supremacy is seen at once
on an examination of its anatomy. It is a very hardy, muscular
and powerful bird. It has the physical characteristics of a
crow. It is exceedingly tough and wiry, and the bill, its
principal weapon of offense and defense, is superior in shape
to that of the crow. It is nearly straight, long, heavy, tapering,
and nearly as keen as a meat axe, while the skull that backs
it is almost as strong as that of a woodpecker. Mentally
the starling is superior to the sparrow, and while brave and
14
active in the face of any foe that it can master, it shows the
acme of caution and intelHgence in its relations with man or
any other creature too powerful to master. While it is com-
paratively fearless where it is unmolested, it is always on
guard, and if hunted becomes more wary than a crow. It is
a handsome bird, and though it has little merit as a songster,
it has many pleasant whistling and chattering notes and some
talent as a mimic. Its alarm note is a harsh, rasping, low-
pitched call.
Its insect-eating habits, its beauty and its cheery notes have
already made it many strong friends in this country who will
protect it stoutly; and this protection, together with the bird's
ability to take care of itself and keep out of danger, precludes
all possibility of its extermination here if it proves undesirable.
Were rewards or bounties offered with a view to its extinc-
tion, blackbirds, meadowlarks and other native species, w^hich
consort with the starling, would be among the chief sufferers.
The starling is here to stay, and we must make the best of it.
Whether its presence will result in more good than harm will
depend largely on the ratio of its increase. . We now know
enough of its habits in this country to forecast some of the re-
sults that may be expected from an excess of the species.
The Starling drives Certain Native Birds from their Nests.
When any animal is successfully introduced into a new
country, and increases rapidly, its advent naturally tends to
upset the biologic balance. Its native natural enemies have
been left behind in its own country, where it had a settled and
established place in a series of natural forces that had been in
existence for centuries, and it becomes an interloper in the new
land, among conditions and forms of life entirely new. If the
species is weak or unfit for its new environment, or if it is
introduced into a land differing much in climatic conditions
from its own, it may die out; but if it is strong and fit, and if
the climate is suitable, it is likely to increase abnormally in
numbers, and it cannot so increase without displacing some of
the species native to the soil.
The starling is a hardy, capable and prolific bird, which, like
the sparrow, has had many centuries of experience in. getting
15
its living in populated countries and in cultivated regions in
close relationship with man, and it has thriven in such an en-
vironment. It thus has an advantage over our native species
similar to that enjoyed by the sparrow, which, subsequent to
its introduction here, displaced so many native birds during the ■
latter quarter of the nineteenth century. How can the bluebird
or the house v/ren, which have been accustomed to life about
human habitations for a comparatively short time, compete
with such a bird as the starling?
The friends of the sparrow argued that it would fill a void
in our city life that no native bird could possibly occupy, inas-
much as it would always have in the streets a plentiful supjjly
of food that would otherwise be mainly wasted, and that
it would be able to maintain itself where native birds would
starve. No such argument can be advanced in favor of the
starling. If there was an opening for the sparrow it was filled
long ago, and the starling cannot occupy the place in our urban
life now filled by the sparrow, even if it drives out the latter.
No doubt in the city the starling is preferable to the sparrow,
but it cannot displace the sparrow without indirectly making
trouble for native species also. The sparrow and the starling
will live together, as in England, but the starling will drive the
sparrow away from all nesting places that are suitable for its
own use, and the sparrow will in turn eject tree swallows,
martins, bluebirds, wrens and other native birds from their
present nesting places, that it may secure homes in place of
those taken by the starling. Already this adjustment is going
on. First in the city, then in the suburbs, and finally in the
country our native birds which normally nest in hollow trees
will be driven to the wall if the starling continues to increase
in numbers, and there is now no adequate check to its increase
in sight. In America as in Europe the starling seeks nesting
places about buildings. It breeds in dovecotes, such church
steeples as furnish safe nesting places, in holes and crevices
about houses, in niches under the eaves, in electric light hoods,
bird houses, nesting boxes, woodpecker holes and hollow trees.
Therefore, in seeking nesting places it comes directly in compe-
tition with pigeons, screech owls, sparrow hawks, flickers and
other woodpeckers, nuthatches, crested fly-catchers, martins,
16
bluebirds, tree s\yallows and wrens, and as it extends its range
to the west and south it must compete with other species. In
the region already occupied it has proved itself capable of
driving out all the above-mentioned species except the screech
owl, which doubtless will prove its master.
In America the starling is not regarded as particularly pug-
nacious except where it has to fight for nesting places or for
food. In such cases it is combativeness personified, and its
attacks are well directed and long continued. Usually in its
competition with the sparrow there is no fighting, for the spar-
row soon learns that it is no match for the starling, and the
contest degenerates into a straw-pulling match, each bird alter-
nately clearing out the nesting material that the other brings.
If the owner of the nest joins battle with the starling and fights
stubbornly it is driven off, or it is sometimes killed in its nest.
This daring interloper attacks birds much larger than itself,
and the evidence shows that almost invariably it prevails in
the end. The sparrow, the bluebird and the flicker have been
credited with repelling it for a time, but eventually the starling
wins, because of its increasing numbers, superior strength,
courage and fitness. As the starling comes, native birds, whose
nesting places it covets, must go, and many of these birds are
more desirable than the starling. The skillful manner in which
it evicts the flicker inspires the observer with a certain ad-
miration for its superior strategy and prowess. The starlings
quietly watch and never interfere while the flicker digs and
shapes its nesting place in some decaying tree; but when the
nest is finished to the satisfaction of the starlings it is occupied
by them the moment the flicker's back is turned. On the
return of the flicker a fight ensues, which usually results in the
eviction of the particular starling then in the hole, which,
however, keeps up the fight outside while another enters the
hole to defend it against the flicker, which, having temporarily
vanquished the first, returns only to find a second enjoying the
advantages of possession. As Mr. Job says, the flicker is con-
fronted with "an endless chain of starling," and finally gives
up.^
In this or some other way the starlings, working together,
• Job, Herbert K.: "Danger from the Starling." "The Outing." November, 1910, p. 149.
17
always succeed in driving the flicker from its home, in which
they immediately begin to build. The moment the flicker gives
up vanquished, the starlings molest it no more, allowing it to
hew out another hole, either in the same tree or in one near
by, when a similar fight ensues with more starlings; and so
the flicker is driven literally from pillar to post, until it has
prepared sufficient homes for the starlings in its neighborhood
and all are satisfied, or until it gives up in disgust and leaves
the vicinity of its aggressive neighbors. The principal spring
work of the flicker in the future will be the preparation of
nesting places for the starling. It is probable that the hairy
woodpecker and the redheaded woodpecker also will serve as
carpinteros for the interloper, but the downy woodpecker will
be exempt from such service, as the entrance to its domicile is
too small to admit the starling. There is no evidence that the
starling has attempted to dispossess the screech owl; but Mr.
Clifford M. Case of Hartford, Connecticut, states that he has
seen a starling whip and drive away a male sparrow hawk.
Many correspondents report that flickers, bluebirds, English
sparrows and wrens have been driven from their nesting places
in old orchards by the starlings.
Mr. Clifford H. Pangburn of New Haven says that his rec-
ords show a considerable decrease in the number of bluebirds
since the starlings came. There is no way to prevent this
except in the case of the smaller species, such as wrens, chick-
adees, nuthatches, bluebirds and tree swallows, which may be
protected against starlings (but not against sparrows) by pro-
viding them with nesting boxes having an entrance hole not
over 1^ inches in diameter.
At my request Mr, William H. Browning, who has many
starlings occupying nesting boxes on his estate, put up in front
of the entrance to one of them a small board in which a hole
If inches in diameter had been bored. Starlings which then
had young in the box were unable to enter. Mr. Job now
assures me that starlings cannot enter a hole If inches in
diameter.
The starling will compete with native birds for their food
supply. Mrs. P. R. Bonner of Stamford has observed the in-
truder frequently attacking robins and other birds, and driving
18
them away from a lawn where they formerly fed. The starling
is a sphinx-like bird and ordinarily treats other birds with a
sort of contemptuous tolerance. In w^inter it even permits
robins, blackbirds and meadowlarks to join its great flocks, but
as these flocks increase they must eventually clean up most of
the winter food supply, and leave our native winter birds
without sufficient sustenance.
Starlings killing Other Birds.
Two observers have reported the destruction of young and
adult "English" sparrows by starlings, and two have noted the
killing of native birds. There seems to be no reason to believe,
however, that this habit has become general, and it seems more
likely that it is exceptional; but this subject requires careful,
painstaking investigation, and it is unsafe as yet to make
predictions regarding it.
Other Injurious Habits of Starliugs.
The food of the starling in America seems to be similar in
general character to that which it consumes in Europe. It is
particularly useful there, however, because of its fondness for
the destructive land snails, which are very numerous in many
regions.
It cannot be expected that it will be thus beneficial here, for
we are not similarly afflicted in this country. The starling can
give no service here that cannot be equally well performed by
our own blackbirds, meadowlarks, bobolinks, sparrows and
other birds, but it will be useful where these birds are not
numerous enough to keep the insect enemies of grass lands in
check. Already, however, the starling has begun to show a
capacity for harmfulness which may be expected to become
more prominent as its numbers increase. In the breeding
season small flocks go to the cherry trees, and as they alight for
a few minutes a shower of cherry stones may be heard. Some-
times they strip a tree completely and then go to another. In
other cases they feed in a desultory way, taking toll from all
the trees in a neighborhood.
Mr. William T. Davis of New Brighton, New York, describes
the destruction of pears by starlings which he observed on
Apples ruined by the introduced starling (Sturnus vulgaris). (Original photograph from
Billerica, Massachusetts.)
19
October 17, 1907, illustrating his statement by a reproduction
from a photograph of two of the ruined pears ("Bird-Lore,"
November-December, 1907, page 267). Fully one-third of
each pear was eaten.
Many observers state that the starling eats apples, but this
habit appears thus far to be confined mainly to apples left on
the trees late in the fall, after the crop has been gathered. Mr.
W. S. Bogert of Leonia, New Jersey, asserts that it pecks open
withered apples for the seeds. Nevertheless, it sometimes eats
ripe fruit in the fall. Mr. Albert W. Honywill of New Haven,
Connecticut, has seen starlings eating apples, and Mr. James
D. Foot of Rye, New York, states that they will alight in an
apple orchard and take a peck or two at the finest fruit.
In September, 1914, on the farm of Mr. William P. Wharton
at Groton, Massachusetts, I saw apples that apparently had
been pecked and ruined by starlings which had summered in
the vicinity. Later, complaints of similar injury were received
from Billerica. Mr. Walt F. McMahon gathered there on the
farm of Mr. E. F. Dickinson a number of apples which had
been pecked by starlings, some of which were photographed for
the illustration facing this page. It will be seen that the birds
take only a little from the ripest part of each fruit.
Flocks sometimes descend on a strawberry bed and con-
siderably reduce the crop.
In the fall, when starlings gather into large flocks of a thou-
sand or more, they are often very destructive to corn in the ear.
In Europe they feed to some extent on small grains, but I have
not seen any evidence of that here. In New Jersey in the
month of June they seemed to prefer the cherry trees to the
wheat fields, and did not appear to molest the wheat at all. A
few gardeners claim that they pull sprouting corn and eat
peas. Mrs. Frank L. Allen of West Haven, Connecticut,
asserts that she watched the starlings destroying her lettuce
and radishes. Sometimes they have the habit of pulling up
young plants.
Mr. Alfred C. Kinsey writes that he noticed the parent birds
supplying nestlings with what proved to be the staminate
flowers of the hickory. Later on, in dift'erent localities, the
same peculiarity was noticed. If such feeding becomes exten-
20
sive it will bring about a failure of nut crops. He has also
noticed these birds on grape vines and in trees wantonly tear-
ing off large pieces of leaves, as well as doing damage to various
fruit crops. Some observers assert that the starling also de-
stroys the buds of trees, but I have been unable to get definite
evidence on this point.
Food of the Starling.
Examination of the stomachs of 102 starlings collected mainly
in June, 1910, 41 of which were nestlings, seems to show that
the food of the starling in this country is similar to that taken
by it in Europe. The contents of these stomachs were exam-
ined by Professor F. E. L. Beal of the Biological Survey. It
must be remembered that the number of stomachs is com-
paratively small, and that they were taken in a single month,
and therefore no conclusions regarding the value of the starling
to agriculture can be drawn from their contents. Nevertheless,
a brief report of the result of the examination is of interest in
this connection. The proportion of animal food is very large
and consists chiefly of insects. Only 3 birds had taken earth-
worms, which composed 17.33 per cent of their stomach con-
tents; 18 birds had eaten both millipeds (or thousand legs) and
spiders; 22 had taken millipeds but no spiders, and IS had
eaten spiders but no millipeds. The average percentage of
millipeds in 22 stomachs was 39.89 per cent.
Caterpillars represent the largest items of insect food. Fifty-
two birds, or more than half the number taken, had eaten cater-
pillars, which formed over 45 per cent of their stomach con-
tents. These appeared to be mainly, if not entirely, hairless
larvae, among which Geometrids, or inch worms, were recog-
nized. Probably a large percentage of these caterpillars were
Noctiiids, or cutworms, as I frequently recognized cutworms
in the bills of the parent birds when they were feeding their
young. Very few moths were noted in the stomachs, but some
tineid cocoons were found in one. Datana ministra, an apple
tree pest, was recognized in 1 stomach.
More of the birds had taken beetles than had eaten cater-
pillars; but the beetles formed a smaller average percentage of
the food. Fourteen had taken Elaterids (commonly known as
21
snap beetles) or their larvae (wire worms), which formed 10.92
per cent of their stomach contents. The larvse of these beetles
(wire worms) are well known to agriculturists as destructive
to grain and garden crops, but many native birds eat them.
Carabidte, or ground beetles, were represented in 42 stomachs.
While these beetles are generally regarded as useful insects,
some of them have been known to become injurious • where
they have increased abnormally, therefore their destruction can-
not be set down as altogether to the discredit of the starling.
The genus Calosoma is represented in 1 stomach. This genus
is believed to contain only beneficial insects. One bird had
taken some Lampyrids. Three had taken Lcptinotarsa de-
cemlineata, the Colorado potato beetle, which formed 16.67
per cent of the stomach contents. If the starling acquires the
habit of eating Colorado potato beetles it may be a help to the
farmers in this respect, as few native birds eat them. Eleven
starlings had taken a few scarabseid beetles, which formed on
the average 8.54 per cent of the stomach contents. Weevils
were represented in 28 stomachs, and constituted 7.07 per cent
of their contents. Beetles of the genus Lachnosferna, commonly
called May beetles, or their larvae, commonly known as white
grubs, were represented in 13 stomachs, and comprised 14.53
per cent of their contents. These beetles are very destructive,
as the white grub feeds on the tubers and roots of plants.
This genus is one of the well-known enemies of grass and
garden crops, but many of our native birds feed upon all forms
of these beetles. Two birds had taken chrysomelid beetles,
which feed on the foliage of trees, but they formed only 2 per
cent of the stomach contents of these two birds.
Orthoptera are represented by grasshoppers in 17 stomachs,
forming 19.88 per cent of their contents. There were a few
crickets. This is rather a small showing, as practically all
birds eat grasshoppers, but probably a larger proportion of
grasshoppers would have been found had the birds been taken
later in the season.
Hemiptera, or bugs, were found in only 3 stomachs, and
Diptera in only 1, the proportion of each being very small.
Hymenoptera were found in 17 stomachs. This order was
represented mainly by ants. It seems probable that the
22
starling does not destroy many of the useful parasitic flies of
this order.
The nestlings were fed with food similar to that taken by the
adults, but they were given a larger proportion of young, or
larvae, such as caterpillars and other soft-bodied insects, while
the adults fed more on mature beetles and similar hard-bodied
insects.
The vegetable food consisted very largely of fruit. The birds
w^ere taken during the cherry season, and IS stomachs contained
an average of 56.17 per cent of the skin, pulp and stones of
cultivated cherries. In 7 cases the skin or pulp of fruit, which
could not be fully identified, composed 31.71 per cent of the
stomach contents; mulberry seed and pulp in 9 cases composed
35 per cent of the stomach contents, and grape pulp composed
the greater part of the stomach contents in 1 case. This grape
pulp must have been secured from greenhouse fruit. Possibly
an investigation of the stomachs of starlings during the grape
season would reveal a much larger percentage of this fruit.
Only a few nestlings had eaten fruit. A few stomachs con-
tained fragments of grasses, which may have been taken acci-
dentally in procuring insect food. Portions of vegetable stems
also were found. A few seeds of Polygonum, Rhus radicans
and other plants suggest that later in the season seeds and
wild fruits may form a larger proportion of the food of the
starling.
Among the miscellaneous substances found was a portion of
some small crustacean and a bit of shell. Fifteen stomachs
were empty and 3 nearly empty. Some of these starlings were
taken on the roost at night, at or before 8 o'clock, and as
the birds were feeding until about 7 o'clock, and as they usually
go to roost with a full stomach, it is fair to assume that the
digestion of the starling is rapid enough to empty its stomach
within an hour.
Conclusion.
The starling is hardly numerous enough yet in Massachusetts
to do much injury to fruit crops, vegetation or native birds.
Thus far it is mainly beneficial here, as it does some good
by destroying noxious insects. Under our laws it is now
(January, 1916) protected at all times, but if its numbers
23
increase unduly, as they probably will, it may be necessary to
deny it the legal protection now afforded to insectivorous birds.
Since the above was written, a canvass of the State has been
made and starlings have been reported from every county, even
from Nantucket, where they were unknown until 1914. Their
pioneers have explored the country and have decided upon their
locations. We may expect a great increase in the starling
population in a few" years.
An entomological collector near New Haven, Connecticut,
complains that certain insects of grass lands are scarce and hard
to find since the starlings have become numerous. Such a re-
duction of grass insects will cause no complaint from the
farmers. Nevertheless, those who raise cherries and straw-
berries cannot appreciate the benefits to be derived from the
starling, and some States already have removed the protection
of the law from it.
Perhaps it is too early yet to say what will be the final
result of the introduction of the starling into this country.
Its value as an in'feect destroyer is plain, but its unchecked
increase may prove a calamity to several species of useful
native birds, and from the experience of other countries we
may assume that it is likely to become a pest to the fruit
grower.
Owners of apple and cherry orchards may be able to keep
the birds away from their fruit by employing boys to frighten
them by clapping boards together or firing Roman candles,
rockets or even guns. There is little danger to the starling in
any of the farmers' efforts to shoot it, as the bird is more likely
to be scared than hurt. Owners of a few trees who cannot
afford to hire help may be obliged to cover their trees with fine
fish net, or lose their fruit.
®l)e tfommontoealtl) of ilTassacliusctte,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 46.
(Supplanting Nature Leaflet No. 2.)
The Tent Caterpillar.
By H. T. Fernald.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTEE PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
THE TENT CATERPILLAR.
(Malacosoma americana Fab.)
HENRY T. PERNALD, PH.D., STATE NURSERY INSPECTOR.
This was an unusually common insect in IMassachusetts
during 1913 and 1914, its whitish webs being present in large
numbers during the spring and summer months. A few of the
webs may be seen every year, but sometimes the insect becomes
very abundant for two or three years, after which for some
time it is only occasionally noticed. The caterpillar feeds on
the leaves of the wdld cherry and apple by preference, though
it is sometimes met with on the peach, cultivated cherry, haw-
thorn and other thorns.
The eggs are laid by the adult moth, usually in July, in
bands around the smaller twigs of the trees the caterpillars
feed upon, and are then covered by a dark brown shiny sub-
stance which protects them from the weather. These egg
masses remain in this condition until the following spring,
hatching abovit as, or just before, the leaf buds open. The
tiny caterpillars crawl from the egg cluster where they hatched
to a fork of the tree near by, and there spin a web of whitish
silk in which to live. From this they go out to the leaves each
day to feed, spinning a thread as they go, and following this
thread back to the tent again as night comes on. They are
liable to hatch so early in the spring that the opening buds pro-
vide the only food available, and from them they pass to the
leaves as these develop. As they grow they increase the size
Fig. 2.1 — Moih of common tent
caterpillar.
Fig. 1.>— (ff) Side view, (6) back view of commou
tent caterpillar; (c) eggs, and (rfj cocoon.
of the tent so that all can remain inside at night, and by the
1st of June it may be a foot or more long and perhaps half
as wide at its widest point.
By the middle of June, or sometimes earlier, the caterpillars
have become full grown. They now leave the tent and crawl
off in different directions, seeking protected places in which to
make their cocoons. These may be found on walls, fences or
in other shelters, and are oval, yellowish, closely woven masses
of silk about an inch long. Within this cocoon the caterpillar
1 These illu trations, obtained through the courtesy of Mrs. C. V. Riley, are from Riley,
3d Missouri Report, 1870.
changes to a dark brown pupa which transforms to the adult
moth. When this change has been completed — about two or
three weeks — the adult moth escapes, and the eggs for the
next generation are laid. As the moths fly only at night they
are seldom seen. There is only one generation a year.
Enemies.
A number of kinds of birds feed on this insect in the cater-
pillar stage, and several kinds of bugs destroy them by capturing
them and sucking out their juices. Parasites lay their eggs in
or on them, and the young parasites which hatch from these
eggs feed on the internal organs of the caterpillar, the adult
parasites sometimes appearing after the caterpillars have gone
into the pupa stage.
Treatment.
Collection of the egg masses at any time between July and
the following spring, and their destruction by burning, is one
method of combating this insect, and in times of great abun-
dance is very useful. In general, however, spraying the trees,
just as the leaf buds begin to open, with 3 pounds of arsenate
of lead paste (or If pounds of powdered arsenate of lead) in
50 gallons of water is an easier method of control. If, as is
frequently the case, the leaf buds begin to open while the tree
is in blossom, the spraying must be put off until after the
blossoms have fallen. This spray will then also be the one
used against the codling moth, and in this way the sprayer
will "kill two birds with one stone."
If for any reason tents are found, and spraying as just
described cannot be given,, the tents while yet small can be
crushed with a gloved hand in the evening when the cater-
pillars are at home. The use of a torch to burn out the tents is
not a good practice, as many of the caterpillars drop to the
ground when they first feel the heat, and later crawl up the tree
and start again; and also because it is easy to hold the torch
at the fork where the tent is too long, and so injure the tree that
later, under the weight of the fruit, a bad split will develop.
Wild cherry trees along roadsides and elsewhere are favorite
places for tent caterpillars. As these trees are of no value they
should be cut and burned so that no food shall be available for
the caterpillars.
0
®l)c ^Hammontoealtl) of itlasBacliusctts,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 47.
April, 1915.
BIRD HOUSES AND NESTING BOXES.
Edward Howe Forbush.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
PLATE I.
Fig. 1. — Martin box, made by Mr. J. Warren .Jacobs of Waynesburg, Pennsyl-
vania. Tliis forms part of a nesting colony on the estate of Mr. Edward
L. Parker at Concord, Massachusetts. (Original photograph.)
Fig. 2. ^ Swallow box, made by Mr. K. C. Ware, Wari'luun, Ma.-^,sacliu>ctis. .Male
bluebird bringing insects to its young. (Original photograph taken on the author's
farm.)
BIKD HOUSES AND NESTING BOXES.
EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, STATE ORNITHOLOGIST.
Many people fail to put up bird houses or nesting boxes
because of the trouble and expense entailed, or because they do
not know how^ to prepare and erect them in such a way as to
get the birds. Much that has been written on this subject has
been theoretical. Fatal errors in the dimensions of entrances
have been disseminated. For want of specific instructions,
nesting boxes have been put wrong side up or in places where
no bird would use them.
This circular has been written to encourage people to con-
struct easily made, inexpensive nesting boxes, and to tell them
w^here and how to put them up so that the birds will be sure
to take them. Making and putting up such boxes should be
looked upon as a pastime. They need cost little or nothing, and
he who makes them should feel well rewarded by the joy of
seeing the little tenants choose, settle down, build their nests
and rear their young, singing their cheery songs meanwhile,
and feeding on the insect enemies of crops and trees. We must
provide homes for the birds that nest in hollow trees, as there
are no longer holes enough to go round, while destructive in-
sects have so increased in numbers that the food supply is
abundant.
A plentiful supply of nesting boxes properly put up will in-
crease the number of birds in a locality by multiplying the
bird families reared, and boxes rightly situated give much
better protection to the young than most tree cavities. A bird
box is serviceable if it furnishes a suitable nesting apartment,
shelters nest, eggs and young from sun, w^ind and storm, and
provides security against the birds' enemies. Also it may
serve in winter as a night shelter or sleeping place for a wood-
pecker or a party of nuthatches or chickadees. We must allow
the birds to be the judges of what they want, as they and not
we are to be suited. Therefore in building a nesting box it is well
to inquire first what kind of a home the bird naturally chooses.
As the hollow trunk or limb, or the abandoned woodpecker's
nest, is the usual domicile chosen by the hole-nesting birds, it
is natural to conclude that they will prefer something closely
resembling nature's accommodations. For this pur-
pose a section of a tree, containing an old nest of
a Avoodpecker may be taken, or hollow limbs, pruned
from apple or other trees, may be sawed into sec-
tions about a foot in length, the lower end of each
plugged, and the upper end covered with an over-
hanging piece of board sloping to the front. A
hole may be bored in the front of this contrivance
for an entrance, and a piece of board may be
Fig. 1.— Hollow nailed on the back (Fig. 1), so that the box when
finished may be nailed up to a tree, post or pole.
The hollow of the limb should not be less than 3j to 4 inches
in diameter at the bottom, and 6 to 8 inches in depth below
the entrance. The deeper the box and the higher the hole
under the overhang of the roof, the less chance there will be
for cats, jays and the other larger enemies of birds to reach the
eggs or young. Perches are not necessary. Some birds like them,
but they give the enemies of the birds the advantage of a
better foothold.
Neat boxes may be made of slabs with the bark on (Fig.
2), but all bark left on bird houses should be firmly nailed
on, as otherwise it will come off sooner or
later. In "Bird Lore" for January-February,
1905, I described the method of making bark
boxes, but at that time they were untried.
They have since had nine seasons' trial, with
very satisfactory results. To Mr. William
Brewster belongs the credit of their inven-
tion, and I have made a considerable number
after his design. White birch and chestnut were used, as it was
believed that the bark of these trees would be most durable,
but Mr. Brewster suggests that elm bark is probably best
of all. Those portions of the trunks used were from 4 to 8
inches in diameter. The boxes were made in summer, as the
Fig. 2. — Slab box.
PLATE II.
Fig. 1. — A nesting box made frcmi ic.ini' hii l.\ Mi Winilnop
Packard of Canton, Massachusetts. (Original photograph taken
on farm of Mr. WiUiam P. Wharton, Groton, Massachusetts.)
4 -<* * .-.' ' " .
l-^p%2*
^SI^Hl...;^
,.^^h|
sm-^- ioTJ
'^
Fig. 2. — • Berlepsch nesting box, made of birch after the plans of
Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes of Meriden, New Hampshire.
This style has proved acceptable to woodpeckers and nut-
hatches. (Original photograph taken on the farm of Mr.
William P. Wharton at Groton, Massachusetts.)
bark will not usually peel much earlier than June 20, and then
only for a short time. When the tree had been cut down, the
trunk was sawed into sections from 10 to 18 inches long, ac-
cording to the size of the boxes desired. Only straight sections,
free from knots or branches, were used. A limb of the right
size, however, may, when cut off, leave a hole in
the bark that can be utilized as an entrance for
the birds.
These domiciles may be made as follows: an
incision is made on the side intended for the back
of the box, through both outer and inner bark,
from the top to the bottom of each section;
then, on the opposite side, some two or three
inches from the top, there is bored through the
bark, with an auger or extension bit, a hole of Fig. 3.— chestnut
the size desired for the entrance. If such tools
are not at hand, the aperture may be cut with a gouge, a
chisel, or even a knife. Next insert a wedge-shaped stick into
the incision at the back and under the inner bark, to start it
off, and with this implement peel it very carefully. In peeling
birch one should be careful not to separate the inner and
outer layers of the bark. Caution should be used when work-
ing about knots or rough places. The bark will
make the sides of the box, and two sections, each
an inch thick, sawed from the ends of the barked
log, will make the top and bottom. Now the bark
is tacked to the bottom and top. The bark will
draw apart somewhat at the back in drying, but
this aperture may be covered, when the box is put
up, by nailing or screwing a short stick or pole over
the opening on the back, which stick in turn may
Fig. 4.— Birch- be nailed or screwed to the supporting tree, build-
ing or pole. To make the roof watertight, a piece of
cotton cloth, ^uck or denim may be put on, tacked down over
the edge and painted, or a piece of roofing paper may be used.
A more permanent covering may be made by using a piece of
tin or zinc, as shown in the figure of the chestnut bark box
(Fig. 3). To make the expected nest accessible to examination,
the top of the bark sides might be fastened to a hoop, and the
Fig. 5. — Berlepsch box and flicker hole.
whole capped by a tin or wooden cover, like that of a lard pail
or a berry box. Mr. Winthrop Packard makes a very pretty
box of roofing felt. (See Plate II., Fig. 1.) The best support
is a slim pole.
Large wooden conductors,
used to carry water down from
the eaves of large buildings,
may be obtained from some
dealers in lumber or moldings,
sawed into sections, and util-
ized precisely as in the case of
hollow limbs.
Baron Hans von Berlepsch
of Seebach, Thuringia, Ger-
many, has invented a device for making nesting boxes similar
in shape to the nesting holes of woodpeckers, and he has been
wonderfully successful in attracting all hole-nesting German
birds to these boxes. (Fig. 5 and Plate II.,
Fig. 2.) The theory on which they are built
is admirable, but after three years' trial of
them in this country I am convinced that most
Massachusetts birds do not prefer them to the
hollow limb or even to the rectangular box
(Fig. 6) that many people have used with
great success. The von Berlepsch style of
box may be better for typical woodpeckers,
such as the hairy and downy woodpeckers.
Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes reports two cases
where downy woodpeckers feiiililliiiilliiihl
have nested in these domi- ^'°- e-Cat-proof box.
ciles; but flickers and red-headed woodpeckers
nest in rectangular boxes. This latter type
of box is excellent for bluebirds, chickadees,
wrens, flickers and tree swallo\\^s. If made
18 inches deep for bluebirds it will be very
nearly cat proof. The smaller sizes of the
von Berlepsch type have been made and sold in Germany for
about 25 cents each, but here they cost about $1. A very fair
temporary substitute may be made by growing gourds which,
Fig. 7. — Gourd.
PLATE III.
Worn-out cans and utensils for nesting boxes. They may be nailed
or wired to posts or trees, and should be so placed as to be
shaded from the sun in the hottest part of the day.
when the contents have been removed, are acceptable to
many birds if tied upon poles or trees (Fig. 7), but they are
not so durable as well-made wooden boxes, and I have not had
much success with them.
My first nesting boxes, all of which were successful, were
made of old shingles, picked up from the ground when the
barn was reshingled, and some pieces of old weathered boards
removed from the ridgepole at that time. A square section
about 3^ inches in diameter was sawed from the ridgeboard for
the top of the box, and another 4 inches wide was used for the
bottom, the shingles being nailed to them (Fig. 8). A saw,
hammer and jackknife and a few nails were the only tools
and materials required. I have made such a box
in twelve minutes. These boxes were nailed up
in elm, cherry and apple trees, and some happy
families of bluebirds were raised, until at last the
eats discovered them. A large number of shingles
may be saved when a building is reshingled, and
every year at the end of the season the old boxes
may be taken down and burned to do away with
vermin, gypsy moths, etc., that may be concealed
within. It takes but a short time to make more.
Tin cans and flowerpots are not quite so suitable fi«- 8_-shmgie
for nesting boxes as are wooden receptacles, because
pottery and metal are good conductors of heat, and unless put
up in the shade are likely, in very hot weather, to overheat
the young birds. Nevertheless, if such utensils are placed
where they will be in the shade during the hotter part of the
day they may be used with success (Plate III). Cheap, thin
boxes, such as the larger cigar boxes, may be fastened up
inside a barn under the eaves and a hole bored through the
wall of the building into each box, or a box may be made for
this purpose (Fig. 9).
Many people write me anxiously asking of what size nest-
ing boxes should be made and begging for exact dimensions;
some are unhappy lest the entrance holes face the wrong
way; others are anxious about ventilation; others feel sure
that the smell of paint on the nesting boxes or bird houses
will drive the birds away, while still others fear that they
8
9?////A
■'yyyyyy--
may get the box too high or too low; but all these things
make very little difference. The situation, environment, and
size of the entrances, however, are important. I have known
tree swallows to nest in a round
box 3| inches in interior diam-
eter, in a flowerpot even smaller
at the bottom, and in a one-
apartment bird house, nearly a
foot square and about 18 inches
high from floor to ridgepole
(Fig. 10). This is one of the
most popular houses with tree
swallows. But why waste enough
lumber on one bird house to
make three nesting boxes? I
have tried facing the entrance
hole to all points of the com-
pass. The birds used them all.
Painted or unpainted, weath-
ered or unweathered, wood,
bark, cement, tin, clay, papier
mache and roofing felt, — all have been chosen indiscriminately
by feathered house hunters. Boxes placed 6 feet from the
ground and others set on poles on the roofs of tall city build-
ings have been taken. I have seen chickadees nesting in a
hole in a birch stump 2 feet from the
ground and in the hollow branch of an
elm 65 feet up. One wood duck settled
in a hollow apple tree 3 feet from the
ground, and another 40 feet up in a
hollow elm. Such experiences lead us
to revise our opinions regarding the
exact size of the tenement each bird
requires and how high or low it should
be situated. I am not so positive as I
once was regarding what is best for certain species or what
kind of a box or situation will best please each one. It seems
that the birds have some individuality, or that they need
nesting places so badly that they will take almost anything
Fig. 9. — Box inside a building. (From
Biological Survey.)
Fig. 10. — Swallow house.
if it is so situated that it offers peace and safety. Never-
theless, there are a few rules that it is best to follow in
making and erecting bird houses to secure the best results : —
1. Let the roof be made tight and overhang the entrance
enough to carry rain clear and keep the sun from shining in
on the young.
2. Do not make the bottom of the box too tight. If any
rain drives in it should run out.
3. If the box tips forward a little on the side of the entrance
hole when set in place it will shed rain well. It should never
lean backward.
4. Provide a way of opening the box quickly unless you
intend to burn it and replace it after the first season, as is done
sometimes with gourds and shingle or bark boxes.
5. Make the entrance hole and the box itself just large
enough for the bird you want — no larger. This will tend to
keep out larger birds, as well as the birds' enemies, will give the
bird a better chance to defend its home, and will save material.
6. Make nesting boxes of weathered wood, or paint or stain
them with colored linseed oil of a neutral tint resembling dead
wood or bark, or put them up in the fall that they may be-
come weather-stained before spring. Apparently birds are less
suspicious of such boxes than of those made of new, bright
lumber.
7. Fix nesting boxes on buildings or on poles rather than on
trees, and make them inaccessible to cats, squirrels, mice and
rats.
8. Where it seems best to put them in trees, choose isolated
trees which can be protected against cats, squirrels, weasels,
etc.
9. Ordinarily ventilation is unnecessary if the entrance is
near the top of the box as it should be, but in very hot sum-
mers young birds are believed to have died of heat in unshaded
boxes mounted on poles. Ventilation may be provided by
boring 4 half-inch holes in the sides of the box near the top
and filling them with corks which may be removed in extremely
hot weather.
A few practical details in regard to carrying out some of the
above rules should be noted.
10
If the roof of a nesting box, made of wood, is horizontal, the
water will stand on it, and even if painted it will warp some-
what in drying unless covered with zinc, good roof paint, some
good roofing felt or other waterproof material. It is well to
have a crosspiece nailed (with clinch nails) across the grain on
the under side to prevent warping and splitting. If the top
slopes downward at an angle of 45° or less and is painted, the
water will run off so fast that the roof will not warp much.
Top, side or front of the box may be hinged to open
as a door, or fixed to fasten by means of nails, easily re-
moved, slid loosely into sockets arranged for them. White pine
from ^ to I of an inch thick is the best lumber. Cedar and cy-
press are durable. Grocery or drygoods boxes may be used. The
following dimensions will do for flat-roofed dwellings for the
birds named. These dimensions are not absolute, but are such
as seem to be popular with the birds. The boxes may be made
larger if desired, but not very much smaller. The size of the
entrance, however, should not be changed. If the roof is not level
but slopes forward the back may be two or three inches higher.
House Wren. — Interior dimensions, 6 by
3| by 3| inches. Entrance hole, f inch in
diameter. The long axis may be either
horizontal or vertical and the entrance hole
near the top. A miniature bird house (Fig.
11) will do as well, but takes more time to
Fig. 11. -Wren house. ^^^^
White-breasted Nuthatch. — A box actually occupied by this
bird on the grounds of the Rev. William R. Lord, at Dover in
1914, measured 5 by 5 inches (inside dimensions). Height, 12
inches front; 13| inches back. Long axis, vertical. Entrance
front, near top, 1| inches in diameter (Fig. 12). Probably a
box made of bark, or slabs with bark on, would attract this
bird.
Red-breasted Nuthatch. — This bird has nested in a No. 2
Berlepsch nesting box made of yellow birch by the Meriden
Bird House Company, Meriden, New Hampshire, and placed in
a gray birch tree, in rather open land, with the entrance slightly
more than 7 feet above the ground. The entrance hole is 1|
inches in diameter.
PLATE IV.
A nesting box occupied by the crested flycatcher. (Photograph by Mrs. J. W.
Elliott, Needham, Massachusetts.)
u
This is reported by Mr. H. S. Shaw, Jr., of Dover, Massa-
chusetts, and is the only ease,-so far as my records show, where
a red-breasted nuthatch has nested in a bird box.
Chickadee. — A box hke Fig. 5 or Fig. 12 may be used, 10 by
4 by 3^ inches inside dimensions. Long axis vertical. Entrance
13^
3"
A.
t|--s'4"--^
j
3" |e--5"---)
Fig. 12 — Box used by White-breasted Nuthatch.
hole l\ inches diameter, placed near top of box (Fig. 13). Others
recommend an entrance 1| inches in diameter, or less, but my
experience goes to show that our chickadee, like the European
titmice, prefers an opening a little larger than it needs, which
8"
4"
15"
4"
^"
43/v'
17."
10'
\0"
Fig. 13. — Chickadee box and details of construction.
makes the chances of success better with the larger entrance.
Many boxes for this bird have been made with the entrance
too small. They are rarely if ever used.
Bluebird. — Interior dimensions, 4| by 4^ by 9| inches. En-
trance, 1| inches or an eighth less — never \\ inches, as most
12
bluebirds will not enter a hole of this size. Long axis vertical
(Fig. 14). Tree swallows will use this.
i-j^:. -v±=i
t:,V:"t h'^-1
Fig. 14. — Bluebird box and details.
Tree Sivallow. — Interior dimensions, 4j by 4j by 8 inches.
Entrance hole about, not over, 1^ inches. Long axis vertical.
Bluebirds also use this box. (See Plate L, Fig. 2.)
^-lOJi'*-
^-G'---^.
K-®--|
t-h"-^.
^3-»
o
24%'
-4:--
^qJi^
Fig. 15. — Flicker box and details of construction.
This is the most popular box (with the birds) that I have
seen.
Starling. — This European bird will soon be common and
may become a pest. It requires an entrance hole about 2 inches
13
r— ->^-
in diameter, and cannot enter boxes properly made for blue-
birds or smaller birds. It will use any tenement suitable for
martins, flickers, crested flycatchers or
sparrow hawks, such as are described and
figured hereafter.
Crested Flycatcher. — Measurement of
box actually occupied, interior diameter,
6 by 6 by 8 inches. Long axis hori-
zontal. Entrance, 2 inches in diameter.
(See Plate IV.)
M
p
©
\
Flicker. — Interior di-
mensions about 22 by
about 6 by 4| inches.
Long axis vertical. En-
trance hole at least 2^
inches in diameter, near
top. Several inches of
ground cork or coarse
sawdust and dry earth
mixed must be placed
in the bottom, as wood-
peckers make no nest
but rely on rotten wood
or chips which they
strike off the tree to
make a bed for their
eggs. (See Figs. 15
and 16 and Plate V).
Sparroiv Haivk. — Flicker boxes have been
used occasionally by sparrow hawks, but a
more roomy box, at least 8 inches in diam-
eter would be better.
Screech Old. — Inside dimensions of box
actually occupied on my place in which
young were raised, 7 by 11 by 15 inches.
Long axis vertical. Size of entrance hole, 3
inches wide by 4 inches high. (Fig. 17.)
Wood Duck. — Inside measurements, about 10 by 10 by 24
inches. Entrance, 4 inches in diameter and 18 inches from the
bottom. Long axis vertical.
Fig. 16. — Flicker box and details. (After Biological
Survey).
Fig. 17. —Owl box.
14
Rohin. — The robin uses mud as a framework for its nest,
and as this makes the nest heavy it requires a good foundation
and a roof over it to render
it weatherproof. Robins' nests
often are dislodged or blown
down in storms, and sometimes
the birds, warned perhaps by
experience, learn to place their
nests on some projection under
the eaves of a house porch or
summer house; on the end of a
Fig. 18. — Robins' nest on log cabin.
projecting log under the eaves
of a log house; on a beam under
the roof of a shed or railway
station ; under a bridge ; under
the overhanging sod on the
edge of a bank; in a hollow
trunk; in a barn cellar; or
even in a bird house. Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright experimented
years ago with shallow wooden trays about 6 inches square,
bracketing each one to a post, grape
arbor or building, always with a branch,
eaves, arbor or other screen or protection
overhead. The robins did not use them
the first year. The second year two were
used, and the last year five others. These
trays should be made so that they will
not hold water. A small grape basket
hung or nailed up under projecting eaves
or a shed roof may be used by robins,
swallows or phoebes, particularly if a little
Fig. 2o.-Robin7nestor^he hay is placcd in it. A pair of Carolina
Fig. 19.
-The old cider mill.
cider press.
wrens at Fairhaven nested in such
basket partly filled with dynamite hung under the ridgepole of a
barn.
PLATE VI.
A plan for attracting swallows. Barn swallow on nest on projecting end of a
board in barn three feet above tlie back of a stalled cow. The bird chose the
situation because of the resting place offered for the nest. (Original photo-
graiili taken by reflected light.)
15
Phoebe. — Any little open box or shelf, put up under the
eaves of a building or under the roof of any open shed or porch,
may be used by phcebes (Fig,
21). This makes a safe sup-
port for their nests which often
is appreciated by the bird.
Phcebes rarely nest far from
water.
Barn Swallow. — Boxes or
shelves similar to those used
by phcebes may be placed in
barns for the barn swallows,
but a little block nailed on a rafter is all they need, or a lath
nailed across two rafters so that the ends project. (See Plate
VI.) Even two nails driven into a beam or rafter about 2 inches
apart, the heads projecting about 2 inches, may be utilized,
and will be support enough to keep the nests from falling.
When rafters were made of knotty logs or mere poles with the
Fig. 21. — Phcebea' nest in box.
Fig. 22. — Devices to keep cats, squirrels, etc., from climbing to bird houses.
bark removed no such supports were needed, but sawed timbers
do not present safe points of attachment for mud-built nests.
There should be an opening in every barn for swallows to enter.
Cliff or Eaves Swallows. — These require wide eaves and a
strip of board or small timber nailed a foot below the junction
of the side and roof of the building. Mud does not stick well
to paint, hence the need of a supporting ledge.
16
Experience with nesting boxes on trees, particularly in woods,
has proved that they are occupied mainly by squirrels and
mice or remain unused. These animals, as well as cats and
A Dorothy Perkins rose bush. Grown on a bird-house pole for
ornamentation and protection against cats. (After Our Dumb
Animals.)
sometimes rats, drive the birds out and destroy their eggs and
young (see Plate V.). Nests on poles are not so often visited
by the foregoing enemies of birds, and such nests may be
protected against them by any one of the devices shown (Fig.
22). Nests on isolated trees may be safeguarded in a similar
PLATE VII.
Fig. 1. — A colony. Three nesting boxes on one tree, all occupied by birds, on the
reservation of the Massachusetts Commission on Fisheries and Game at Martha's
Vineyard. (Original photograph.)
.,v.v»«(» ¥
i^^£.-i^ j*^. ;^:.;..i — ^ .lu^ia'SSssasSSA
Fig. 2. — A row of nesting boxes on a pasture fence on the farm of .Mr. Williaiii I'. Wliar-
ton, Groton, Massachusetts. This plan is successful. A large proportion of the.se
boxes were occupied. (Original photograph.)
17
manner, but in the woods protection is hopeless, and hole-
nesting birds, with the exception of chickadees, will rarely
fexfc
Q fROMT
00
Top
BOTTo^^
6X.8
Fig. 23. — Swallow box, supposed to be cat-proof, and details of construction.
nest there. Boxes placed on poles set up in a pond or on a
small island bring good results.
Poles need not be more than 6 or 8 feet in length,
except for martins, and may be very slim, made from
a young pine or cedar or any other sapling. They
may be screwed to fence posts with lag screws (large
screws with square heads; see Fig. 24 and Plate VII.,
Fig. 2) so that they may be taken down in the fall and
stored away until spring. Where there are no fences,
posts may be set in the ground and the poles fastened
to them. Boxes put up on the walls or ridgepoles of
buildings often attract birds if the trees are not near enough
to allow squirrels to reach them, and if cats cannot get at
them. (See Plate VIII.)
({ = ■«•>
(j =: >»»
Fig. 24.
How TO ATTRACT THE BiRDS.
If nesting boxes are set up in accordance with the foregoing
directions, English sparrows disposed of, and nests safeguarded
against cats and squirrels, some of the boxes are sure to be
occupied by birds, provided there is a sufficient diversity of
vegetation in the neighborhood to furnish them with a variety
of insect food and wild fruit, and unless they are too much
disturbed by the noisy activity of their human, feline or canine
neighbors. We cannot expect many birds to be attracted to a
city yard where there is neither grass, trees, water nor shrub-
bery. They always appreciate a near supply of water. If
18
nesting material such as hay, straw, twine, cotton, hair, string,
etc., be hung on a fence or placed on a bushy branch near the
nesting box, that alone may decide some bird to nest there.
If twine is put out it should be cut in short pieces not over a
foot in length, else birds may be ensnared by it. Wherever a
pair of tree swallows nest, many other boxes, similar to the one
chosen by them, should be put up on poles, for they are sociable
birds and one pair will attract others.
Experiments sometimes have demonstrated that certain in-
dividual birds are grateful for nesting material placed in the
box. A pair of chickadees made their nest by digging a hollow
in cotton batting that I had placed in the bottom of the box
for their use. It is well always to keep a few nesting boxes out
all winter with some cotton or other nesting material in the
bottom of each, to furnish winter lodging for chickadees, nut-
hatches and woodpeckers, as these birds like to sleep in such
snug quarters. Chickadees and nuthatches may be attracted
to nesting boxes by first destroying all the decayed trees and
stumps near by, and then feeding the birds all winter on bits
of suet, meat, fat or sunflower seeds placed near the boxes.
If this supply is kept up during the spring, some of the birds
are likely to nest in the boxes and their young seek similar
domiciles until a little colony becomes established.
Wrens are rare and local in Massachusetts, but when once a
colony is started they are almost perfectly protected in nesting
boxes and are likely to increase. There should be at least
three boxes to each pair of wrens, as they are so industrious
that a pair often will build two additional nests beside the one
in use, and such building activity may keep them out of mis-
chief. Otherwise they may attack the eggs of other birds.
IVIany writers express the belief that it is a mistake to put
up nesting boxes too near together, as jealousy and fighting will
ensue and none of them will be occupied. I have held this
view and published it, but have discarded it since I have seen
five pairs of bluebirds nesting in the trees around one farm
house; three pairs of tree swallows nesting in boxes on one
small tree; several pairs of bluebirds in boxes on one barn,
and a pair of bluebirds and one of tree swallows on one pole.
(See Plate VII., Fig. 1, and Plate VIII.)
PLATE VIII.
An example of a bird colony on a building. Nesting boxes on one of the farm buildings
of Mr. Geo. E. Hoxsieof Canonchet, Rhode Island. Every building on his place has
nesting boxes. In 1912, forty-three nesting boxes were taken by tree swallows and
bluebirds. There were thirty-two nests of eaves swallows and eighteen of barn
swallows.
19
Other things being equal, the more boxes the more birds.
But the house wren may be an exception to this rule, as it
sometimes is exceedingly quarrelsome. My later experience
seems to show that a plethora of boxes makes less trouble than
is the case where few are available. Ordinarily, boxes set up
100 to 200 feet apart are more likely to be occupied the first
year than those situated closer. Later, if these are successful,
the number may be increased.
Bird Houses.
The purple martin is the only bird that needs a bird house.
It is a waste of lumber to build houses with many rooms for
any other bird, as a single pair
of bluebirds, swallows or wrens
will hold a large, expensive house
against all comers except the
English sparrow or the starling.
The martin is a large, hand-
some swallow with pleasant,
cheerful notes, and is very de-
structive to insect pests. Mar-
tins formerly were abundant
locally in Massachusetts, but
after the introduction of the
English sparrow the number
of martins and the local-
FiG. 25. — Martin house, after Trafton.
(Courtesy Houghton Mifflin.)
ities frequented by them
diminished rapidly until
1904, when cold June
storms nearly extermi-
nated the species in Mas-
sachusetts. Since then
their numbers have in-
creased very slowly, as
Fig. 26. — Martin house.
20
few people now put up martin houses, and English sparrows or
other birds keep the martins from settling in some of those that
have been erected. Martins, unlike most native hole-nesting
birds, prefer to nest in large colonies. Hence
martin houses usually are made with many
compartments. The Indians hung many hol-
lowed gourds for the martins on the poles of
their wigwams or on some dead tree near by.
Some of the southern people still use gourds to
attract martins. Often several gourds are hung
from a crosspiece on a tall pole (Fig. 27), and
these collections of gourds are popular with the
martins. Only the larger gourds should be used
for them. If a round entrance hole is made it
should be about 2| inches in diameter, as the
martin likes to have the entrance large enough
to admit the light as he enters.
Poles for martins should be at least 10 or 12
feet high. Such poles are sufficient if placed in
quiet places, not too near trees or dwellings,
or where noisy, quick-moving children or dogs
are at play; but if there is much noise and
disturbance, a pole 20 feet or more in height
may be necessary. No pole is likely to be
too high for martins. They seem to prefer
a height of 20 or 30 feet. These birds fre-
quently have nested in quiet places among
trees and quite near houses, even in nesting
boxes on poles on the roofs of wooden build-
ings or high city blocks, but they will not
accept hidden nesting places where they have
to fly in among the branches of leafy trees,
and they seem to come most readily to a
bird house situated in an open yard or on
a wide lawn. They seem to prefer low
ground to high ground, and always like the
neighborhood of water. Therefore an open
river valley suits them, but people not having these advantages
need not despair, as martins often have nested on high ground,
but rarely, I believe, far from water, A good drinking and
^
Cj^Jc?
Jjil)Si
0
fc.
Fig. 27. — Gourds for
martins.
Fig. 28. —Martin barrel.
21
bathing fountain with running water might help to induce them
to settle where other water is absent. A good martin box may
be made of any strong barrel (Fig. 28), and I have seen such
boxes occupied for many years by these birds. The bottom of
each entrance hole may be level with the floor of its compart-
ment, to facilitate cleaning out and to allow any water that may
drive in to run out again, but it is well to have a gallery or
veranda under the upper openings and overhanging the lower.
This and the projecting eaves should shed most of the rain.
t
Fig. 29. — Succes.sful soap box martin colony of
three houses.
The entrance holes may be made 2j inches in diameter if
square, or 2^ inches if round.
Mr. J. Warren Jacobs of Waynesburg, Pennsylvania, who
probably has had more experience in building martin houses
than any one else now living, recommends making each apart-
ment 6 inches square and 7 inches high. Any box about this
size may be used for the apartments, and all may be backed
by a square box running up the center of the barrel into which
a square pole will fit. The barrel may be attached to the pole
by two angle irons and roofed with zinc. Every martin house
should be well painted outside but not inside, with two or three
coats of good white or light-colored paint. Dark-colored houses
are very hot in sunny weather. Care is taken not to let the
22
paint run into the entrances, and to paint only up to the edge
of each.
Mr. Arthur W. Brockway of Hadlyme, Connecticut, has
estabHshed a large colony of martins by building small cottages
out of grocery boxes. (See Fig. 29.)
Mr. Jacobs asserts that a martin house should have only
entrance ventilation, but Mr. Dodson of Chicago makes the attic
of his martin house so that it may be entered
from either end, and claims that the martins in-
variably occupy these upper rooms first. I have
noted that when cold storms destroy young
martins, those on the sides of the house, exposed
to the cold winds, die first.
Mr. William A. Sayward of Allston, Massa-
chusetts, has invented an ingenious device to
turn the openings of the house away from strong
winds and rain. (Figs. 30, 31 and 32.)
He takes a piece of Ij inch iron pipe, 7 feet
long, and sets it into a cylindrical piece of cement,
made by filling with cement a funnel or stove
pipe 7 inches in diameter and 30 inches in
length. This cement is set into the earth so
that the top of the cement is level with the
surface of the earth. x4t the top of the 7-foot
pipe a reducing coupling is put on, and another
piece of inch pipe about 8 feet in length is added.
Upon this a bird house of two compartments
is mounted. The floor dimensions are 11 by
16 inches inside. The construction is illustrated
in Figs. 30, 31 and 32. A block is driven inside
the top of the pipe and a slide caster is fastened
to the top of the block. Another one, inverted,
is driven into a block in the top of the house, so that the whole
house easily revolves on the two slide casters.
Poles may be made of wood or metal A two-inch galvanized
or painted iron pipe will hold a small martin house and will be
cat proof and snake proof, but rats or squirrels might climb it.
Nevertheless, if the house is large enough they cannot go beyond
the floor unless brackets, which should never be used, are pro-
fi^^vjs
f^/.-
Fig. 30. — Sayward
house.
23
vided for them to climb. Sometimes martin houses are mounted
on dead trees. Smooth poles are beheved to be snake proof.
Trees with bark on are not. Cats
sometimes quickly climb wooden poles
and catch martins by reaching past
the lower edge of the house.
Mr. Jacobs uses a hinged pole for
mounting his larger bird houses, so
that they may be taken down easily
and cleaned out and housed during
winter.
It would facilitate the handling and
cleaning out of martin houses if a
door opening to the full width of each
compartment could be provided, and then, if bluebirds or tree
swallows persisted in occupying it, their nests and eggs or young
Fig. 31. — Sayward weathercock
house.
Stft^\NC - C
1
n-; IT
|IB
|iMr|r--|
4— Lq a a__L
Eat
-iLl
It U U
S\Ot t\.HVA>T\OK
^
WtvK
REE E E E
--It — < le}
li.»jl
- -H-ZiT M 3C— liZ HJXSi}
E E E E E E
Fig. 32. — Details of Sayward house.
could be removed to single boxes, which should be in readiness
in the vicinitv.
24
How TO GET THE MaRTINS.
The bird house must be erected in a conspicuous place and
the Enghsh sparrows and starlings kept out. This maj^ be
accomplished by the use of a shotgun,^ or the entrances may
be kept closed until the martins come, when a few may be
opened and the martins may be able to beat off the sparrows,
but if even one pair of sparrows becomes established in that
house, and is allowed to breed, the martins are doomed to
eviction sooner or later. They may hold on for a few years,
but the sparrows will possess the house in the end. I have
never known them to fail. If the martins persist, the sparrows
break the eggs or kill the young.
Screech owls and cats must be watched. Cats catch the
male martins when, in fighting, they come to the ground, take
both parents when they alight on the ground for nesting ma-
terial, and kill many young ones before they are able to fly
well. The owls sometimes get the habit of reaching in at night
and pulling out young birds. The martins will drive all hawks
away.
The English Sparrow.
The European house sparrow is the greatest and most
ubiquitous enemy of all native birds that nest in bird houses
and nesting boxes. The United States Department of Agri-
culture, after a long and patient investigation that covered the
greater part of North America, decided that it was "a curse of
such virulence that it ought to be systematically attacked and
destroyed."^
Von Berlepsch rates it as one of the few birds which must be
destroyed at the Ornithological Experiment Station at Seebach.^
Although the sparrow, like most birds that live with man, is
beneficial at times, most expert testimony is against it. In
view of a multitude of requests for information regarding the
means for destroying it, a bulletin on the subject is in prepara-
tion which will be issued by the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture as Circular No. 48.
1 A long-barreled 22 caliber rifle, with extra long shells, smokeless powder and dust shot, is not
noisy and ought to be effective at 40 or 50 feet.
2 Barrows, W. B.: "The English sparrow in North America," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ec.
Ornith. and Mam. Bull. No. 1.
3 Hiesmann, Martin: "How to attract and protect wild birds," translated by Emma S.
Buckheim, 1912, p. 92.
ai)e ^ommontDcaltt) of illassacliueetts.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 48
August, 1915.
THE ENGLISH SPARROW AND THE
MEANS OF CONTROLLING IT.
Edward Howe Forbush.
Revised and enlarged from the Fifty-ninth Annual Report of the
Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTEE PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Boaed of Publication.
Tlic licmsi' sparrow, or Eiislish sparrow (Pusaer doineslicux) , iiiali' and I'cniaU'
Nesting box made for the English sparrow by Clayton E. Stone of Lunenberg, Massachusetts.
Sparrows and starlings occupy these nesting boxes; bluebirds and swallows do not.
THE ENGLISH SPAEKOW AND THE MEANS OF
CONTEOLLING IT.
EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH, STATE ORNITHOLOGIST.
All our native sparrows are beneficial birds and should be
protected. Care should be used not to disturb, molest or de-
stroy any native sparrow or to confuse any with the imported
sparrow which is the subject of this paper. The name English
sparrow is a misnomer, as the bird referred to is the "house
sparrow" (Passer domesticus) of Europe, where it is native to
nearly the entire continent, but the former name has been
adopted in the United States and will be perpetuated. The so-
called English sparrow, regarded by practically all competent
authorities as a pest in the United States, is more injurious and
less beneficial than most native American birds, but neverthe-
less has many friends in this country. It has beneficial habits,
for practically all land birds destroy pests of some kind. Few
people may now remember that this sparrow on its introduction
to America was recommended for the special purpose of ridding
park trees of geometrid caterpillars, a service which it un-
doubtedly performs. Native birds, however, might have done
as well or better had the sparrow been left in its original home,
and had they been encouraged to nest in the parks, for practi-
cally all small birds eat such insects.
Many people have complained to me that the sparrow has
driven other birds from nesting boxes and has dragged the
young of other birds out of nests and killed them. Where
there are English sparrows it is useless to put up nesting boxes
or bird houses for native birds unless some effort is made to
control this foreign enemy; otherwise the boxes eventually will
be occupied by sparrows, other birds will be driven out and
the net result vrAl be an increased sparrow population. A
great manufacturing firm writes : —
The sparrows have become so numerous about our buildings as to be
almost unbearable so far as noise is concerned. Also they are extremely
dirty, and we are very desirous of keeping them away. It has occurred
to us that poisoned food of some sort could be used with safety. May
we not hear a word from you? If poison is proper, how shall we proceed?
Many inquiries similar to the above have been received.
Most of these inquirers have been referred to Farmers' Bulletin
383, by Ned Dearborn, published by the Bureau of Biological
Survey, United States Department of Agriculture, on "How to
destroy English Sparrows," and Farmers' Bulletin 493, issued
by the same Bureau, entitled, "The English Sparrow as a
Pest," by the same author; but so many complaints continually
come in and so many requests for methods of destroying the
sparrow have been received, that at last it has become necessary
in self-defense to publish a circular in reply to these complaints,
giving the desired information.
The old-time question as to whether the sparrow is a pest or'
not continually comes up. The sparrow rears many young,
and as the young are fed to some extent on insects they con-
sume quantities of insects in a summer. Were the sparrows in
our city parks destroyed, probably we should have serious
trouble with certain leaf-eating insects before native birds could
be attracted to these parks in any numbers, but few native
birds can nest in the parks while the sparrow remains.
The greatest injury resulting from the introduction of the
sparrow is the displacement of native birds and the consequent
increase of injurious insects which the sparrow does not eat.
The leopard moth, for example, which was introduced into this
country in the latter part of the last century, has become very
destructive where sparrows are most numerous. The control
of this insect is difficult and expensive, as it is a borer, remain-
ing most of the time within the wood. Apparently the sparrows
do not disturb it, and where they are numerous and native
birds are, therefore, scarce, this moth is very injurious, par-
ticularly in and around Boston, New York and other large
cities. When the moth spreads out into the country, where
woodpeckers and other native birds are numerous, it has, thus
far, made no headway. Woodpeckers dig into the burrows
where the larva hides, and other birds catch it when it leaves
its burrow and crawls about on the bark. Had we kept out
the sparrow and instead encouraged and attracted other birds
into our cities we might have been spared the destruction of
many shade trees by the leopard moth.
The sparrow, however, has many friends who seem to believe
that it does only good and no harm whatever. To those who
see only one side of the case the various pubhcations on the
sparrow are recommended, several volumes of which have been
published. Chief among these is Bulletin No. 1 of the Division
of Economic Ornithology and ^Mammalogy of the United States
Department of Agriculture, by Walter B. Barrows, entitled the
"English Sparrow in North America," a report of more than
400 pages. In this bulletin, which was regarded at the time
as "the most important treatise ever published upon the
economic relations of any bird," evidence regarding the habits
and destructiveness of the sparrow was brought together from
all parts of the United States and from Europe, Australia and
New Zealand. The testimony against the sparrow from all
these countries is overwhelming. Two other works devoted
entirely to this species had been published previously in the
United States, one in 1878 by T. G. Gentry, entitled "The
House Sparrow at Home and Abroad," the other in 1879 by
Dr. Elliot Coues, on "The Present Status of Passer domesticus
in America, with Special Reference to the Western States and
Territories." Since Bulletin No. 1, referred to above, was
published other investigations of the sparrow have been made
by scientists, and all have resulted unfavorably to the bird,
notwithstanding the fact that it devours army worms, cotton
boll weevils, brown-tail moths and other pests. Baron von
Berlepsch, who has established the most successful European
experiment station for the protection of birds, conserves practi-
cally all small land birds, but finds it necessary to destroy this
sparrow in order to give the other birds a chance. The tre-
mendous destruction to grain in the fields caused by this
sparrow in grain-growing regions, its cost to poultrymen, its
injuries to fruit and garden crops are well known. Where it
has become numerous it has destroyed quantities of fruit, in-
cluding grapes, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, currants,
blackberries, peaches, apples, pears, plums, tomatoes, apricots
and figs. Young plants, including peas, beans, cabbage, lettuce,
radishes, corn and other vegetables, are torn to pieces or eaten
to the ground. Garden seeds, including those of many vege-
tables and flowers, are scratched up when planted or eaten on
the stalk. There is scarcely a garden fruit or vegetable which
does not suffer more or less from the attacks of this bird.
Buds and blossoms of numerous plants are destroyed by it.
Its filthy habits, which injure buildings, vegetation and clothing,
constitute a minor annoyance, but its chief fault, as indicated
above, is the molestation and destruction in the breeding season
of harmless native birds of far more value to agriculture than
itself. It is not necessary to repeat here the overwhelming
testimony in regard to this that may be found in any of the
three volumes hereinbefore cited. My own experience is con-
vincing. During the last forty years I have seen it drive out
the great flocks of snow buntings that once fed freely in city
streets. I have seen it evict all species that nest in bird houses.
Where it once gets a foothold in the bird houses it drives out
all other bird tenants in the end. It destroys their nests, eggs
and young, and it has been known to destroy wantonly the
eggs, nests and young of many birds that do not nest in boxes.
It appropriates the nests of swallows, robins, warblers and other
birds, and has driven out swallows, martins and wrens from
large areas. The cliff swallows or eaves swallows and house
wrens formerly common in many parts of Massachusetts are
rare now in a large part of the State, and this can be attributed
directly to persecution by the sparrow. What has happened
in ]Massachusetts has occurred over large sections in other
States. In warmer regions than this, where the winters are not
so severe as here, and the sparrows increase rapidly in numbers,
the effect of their presence on native species is even more
marked. Mr. Robert Ridgway, the eminent ornithologist of
the Smithsonian Institution, has this to say of the sparrow in
southern Illinois: —
The amazing increase of the so-called English sparrow has profoundly
disturbed the "balance" of bird life. Although introduced less than
forty years ago this species is now, without question, by far the most
numerous bird in the region of which I write, even if it does not exceed
in numbers all the native small passerine birds combined, not only in
the towns but on the farms as well. The effect on native birds is ex-
ceedingly well marked, for the foreign pest has literally crowded out,
or by its aggressive meddlesomeness driven away, from the abodes of
man those charming and useful native birds, the bluebird, purple martin,
barn swallow and cliff swallow. None of the native species likes its com-
pany, and, in winter, when one wishes to feed the cardinals, Juncos and
other native birds, it is necessary to feed many times as many of those
pernicious pests, thus vastly increasing both the trouble and the expense.
He gives details regarding the following species: —
Cliff Swallow {Petrochelidon lunifrons). — Formerly abundant, large
colonies attaching their retort-shaped nests underneath overhanging
eaves of barns, warehouses and other large buildings, but apparently has
wholly disappeared.
Barn Swallow {Hirundo enjthrogastra) . — Ahnost totally expelled by
the sparrow, great numbers of which have appropriated every nesting
site in the barns and other outbuildings.
Purple Martin (Progne subis). — Mostly driven from towns and farms
by the sparrow, the large trees containing cavities that are left being too
few in number to accommodate more than a small percentage of the
number that formerly occurred.
Bluebird {Sialia sialis) . — This also has been mainly displaced by the
sparrow, which has appropriated nearly all cavities suitable for nesting
places.
Means of driving out Sparrows.
For the benefit of those who wish to control sparrows about
their own homes some of the more common devices for ousting
these birds are given below, some of which have been published
in the excellent bulletins of the Biological Survey.
Many people wish to rid their premises of sparrows or to
drive them out of bird houses, but not to kill them. It is
practically impossible to drive them from any premises without
continuous persecution, but they may be evicted from bird
houses by systematic work without killing any. Various plans
have been recommended, such as putting up nesting boxes
without perches or with entrance holes in the bottom, providing
a great plethora of nesting boxes or suspending them by wires.
None of these expedients is of any permanent value except
possibly the last, and that has not been uniformly successful.
Mr. Clayton E. Stone of Lunenburg, Massachusetts, puts up
in trees open boxes which seem to be rarely taken by native
birds, except an occasional wren or a robin, but are accepted
by sparrows and starlings. (See frontispiece.) These boxes
may be worth a trial. Nevertheless, the sparrows do not con-
fine themselves entirely to the open boxes, but now and then
occupy a box intended for other birds. Where this happens the
boxes intended for native birds may be so arranged that the
sparrows may be kept out, entrapped or driven out. A box
having an entrance not over seven-eighths of an inch in diam-
eter will admit house wrens and keep out sparrows; chickadees
have been known very rarely to nest in a box ■with a round
entrance one inch in diameter, and this usually keeps out
sparrows, but if the entrance is large enough for any bird
larger than the house wren the sparrow may get in. As
sparrows begin nesting earlier in the spring than most other
birds they may be driven from a nesting box early in the year
by removing the nesting material from the box several times a
week. For this purpose a plethora of boxes must be used and
each box must be easily accessible and must have an opening
by means of which the nest may be taken out with little
■Tv^y.^.-
"■' , , {
Fig. 1. — Perspective and sectional drawings of an
improvised nest box for the interior of build-
ings. (After Biological Survey.)
Fig. 2. — Nest box opening at
the top. (After Biological
Survey.)
trouble. Fig. 1 shows how such a box may be attached to the
inner wall of a barn or other building, where it may be quickly
opened from wuthin the building and the nesting material re-
moved; or boxes having hinged projecting covers which will
shut out rain may be put up on poles or trees. (Fig. 2.) In
my own experience success has follow^ed the practice of remov-
ing the eggs from the nests at intervals of ten to fourteen days.
A stream of water from the garden hose is very effective in
evicting sparrows under some circumstances. If used on cold
or frosty nights, after the sparrows have retired, it will drive
them from their nests or roosting places in bird houses, or on
vine-clad walls, where they constitute a nuisance. If one ap-
plication is not enough it may be repeated at intervals of a few
days. In wet weather, when fireworks can be used with
safety, small Roman candles are recommended as an effective
form of night bombardment. Sparrows do not appreciate fire-
works. If some of the sparrows are killed or captured when
they are disturbed this persecution will have a more permanent
effect.
Fig. 3. — Funnel trap. Side raised to show interior. (After Biological Survey.)
Fig. 4. — Outline of funnel trap. (After Biological Survey.)
Trapping Sparrows.
There are many contrivances for catching sparrows on the
nest, some of which are given in the bulletins of the Biological
Survey hereinbefore cited, but a deep hoop net on the end of a
pole may be used to catch them by placing it over the entrance
of the nesting box and driving the sparrow into it.
There are successful devices for trapping sparrows also, which
are illustrated in Farmers' Bulletins 383 and 493. One of the
simplest of these is the wire funnel trap perfected by Dr. A. K.
Fisher of the Biological Survey. Fig. 3. shows the trap and
10
Figs. 4, 5 and 6 give details of construction. This trap is easy
to make and the cost of material is smalL It has been tested
on the agricultural grounds at Washington and also in the
Missouri Botanical Gardens at St. Louis, and has caught
hundreds of sparrows in a few weeks.
The following directions for making this trap are taken from
Farmers' Bulletin 493: —
The essential parts of this trap are: (1) a half funnel leading into
(2) an antechamber, which ends in (3) a complete funnel leading into
Fig. 5. — Pattern for first funnel of a trap to be 36 by 18 by 12 inches.
(After Biological Survey.)
(4) a final chamber. It is made of woven wire poultry netting of three-
fourths inch mesh, and is re-enforced around the open end and along
the sides at the bottom by No. 8 or No. 10 wire, which is used also around
the aperture for the door and around the door itself. The angles between
the first funnel and the walls of the antechamber are floored with netting
and the final chamber is floored with the same material. The accompany-
ing drawings will enable anybody handy with tools to construct one of
these traps in a few hours. These plans are for a trap 3 feet long, a foot
and a haK wide, and a foot high. At ordinary retail prices the cost of
material will be about 70 cents. Paper patterns for the two funnels
can be made by first drawing the concentric circles, as shown in Figs.
5 and 6, and then laying off the straight lines, beginning with the longest.
The wavy outlines indicate that the pattern is to be cut half an inch
outside of the straight lines to allow extra wire for fastening the cones to
11
the top and sides of the trap. Fig. 7 shows how all the i:)arts of a trap
having the above dimensions may be cut from a piece of netting 4 feet
wide and 6 feet long. The full lines in this figure indicate where the
netting is to be cut and the broken lines where it is to be bent. The
numbers at the angles in Figs. 5, 6 and 7 correspond with those in Fig. 4,
which shows in outHne the relation of the different parts as they appear
when assembled. A trap of the above dimensions is as small as can be
used satisfactorily. Where sparrows are very numerous a larger size is
recommended. Fig. 8 shows how a trap 4 feet long, 2 feet wide, and
15 inches high may be made from a piece of netting 4 by 10 feet. This
is a very good size for parks and large private grounds.
T
/ /
■-'"% :/"■■>,
Fig. 6. — Pattern for second funnel of a trap to be 36 by 18 by 12 inches.
(After Biological Survey.)
In setting a funnel trap a place should be selected where sparrows are
accustomed to assemble. Often there are several such places in a neighbor-
hood, in which case it is advisable to move the trap daily from one of
them to another, because the birds appear to associate the locality rather
than the trap with the distress of their imprisoned comrades. Canary
seed, hemp seed, wheat, oats and bread crumbs are excellent baits. The
bait should be scattered in the antechamber and first funnel, and also,
sparingly, outside about the entrance. A live sparrow kept in the trap
as a decoy will facihtate a catch. In case native birds enter a trap they
may be released without harm. Trapping may begin at any time after
young sparrows are able to take care of themselves, which is usually by
July 1. Each day's catch should be removed from the trap at nightfall,
and if a decoy is used it should be comfortably housed and otherwise
cared for when off dutv.
12
In removing sparrows from either a funnel or a sieve trap the receiving
box shown (Fig. 9) will be fomid useful. It should be about 6 inches
square and 18 inches long, inside measurement. The door, hinged at
the bottom and turning inward, is controlled by the part of its wire frame
extending through the side of the box to form a handle. The box as it
appears in the figure is ready to be placed before the open door of a trap
from which birds are to be driven. ^
Mr. Charles W, ]\Jiller, formerly director of the Worthington
Society for the Study of Bird Life, has perfected an excellent
trap for sparrows which has been very successful, but as its
72
•f
k-
Z'i\2S
26 20
S/^O
/^LOOA^
v5yZ7if
7-0/=>
/2
— /a'
Fig. 7. — Diagram for cutting out the parts of a funnel trap 36 by 18 by 12 inches.
(After Biological Survey.)
construction is more complicated and its manufacture more
expensive than that of the funnel trap, those who desire to try
it are referred to Farmers' Bulletin 493, in which it is illustrated
and described.
Sparrows are so wary that it may be difficult to entrap them.
Traps have given best results in Massachusetts in winter, after
storms, when snow covers much of the natural food of the
sparrow. It is not to be expected that trapping will succeed
if the sparrows can get all the food they need in some near-by
poultry house or stable yard. Some poultry men who keep
1 Dearborn, Ned, The English Sparrow as a Pest, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 493,
1912, pp. 17-20.
13
grain constantly before the fowls probably feed nearly as much
to rats and sparrows as to fowls. Poultry should be fed in-
doors; every poultry house should be rat proof, and all openings
should be covered with cellar wire netting which will keep out
rats, mice and sparrows and save the poultryman more than
%^/£>£-
Fig. 8. — Diagram for cutting out the parts of a funnel trap 48 by 24 by 15 inches.
(After Biological Survey.)
Fig. 9. — Receiving box for removing sparrows from trap.
(After Biological Survey.)
its cost in a single year. Where poultry foods are thus pro-
tected sparrows may be caught with ease. Any poultryman
may catch large numbers of sparrows in winter by closing all
but one opening in a henhouse and enticing the birds in by
means of grain. After they have been well fed in this building
for a week or two, and have become accustomed to feed there
in numbers, the opening may be closed from a distance by
14
means of a cord attached to a shutter or sash or to its support,
and the sparrows may be imprisoned and killed. Another plan
is to imprison them in the afternoon and let them out in the
morning until they have become accustomed to roost in the
building in large numbers, when they may be readily despatched
at night. Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler, secretary of the Massachusetts
State Board of Agriculture, reports success with this plan.
Poisoning.
The use of poison generally cannot be recommended, but
when used with great care it has given excellent results.
Successful methods are given below.
The following formula and directions for poisoning English
sparrows are given by Ned Dearborn of the Biological Survey,
United States Department of Agriculture: —
Where the use of poison is not prohibited by law it may be employed
effectively to reduce the number of sparrows. Of the different poisons
tested the most satisfactory is strychnine, which is easy to prepare and
acts quickly. Wheat has proved to be a good bait as well as an excellent
vehicle for administering the drug. A convenient method of preparing
poisoned bait is as follows : put one-eighth ounce of pulverized strychnine
into three-fourths of a gill of hot water, add 1^ teaspoonfuls of starch
or wheat flour moistened with a few drops of cold water, and heat, stirring
constantly till the mixture thickens. Pour the hot poisoned starch over
1 quart of wheat and stir until every kernel is coated. Small-kerneled
wheat sold as poultry food, if reasonably clean, is preferable to first-
quality grain, being cheaper and more easilj'' eaten by the sparrows. A
2-quart glass fruit jar is a good vessel to mix in, as it is easily shaken
and allows the condition of the contents to be seen. If the coated wheat
be spread thinly on a hard, flat surface it will be dry enough for use in
a short time. It should be dried thoroughly if it is to be put into jars
and kept for future use. Dishes employed in preparing poison may be
safely cleansed by washing.
Other seeds, as oats, hemp or canary seed, may be used instead of
wheat in the above formula, but they are less economical because much
of the poison is lost when they are hulled, though enough of it usually
sticks to the mouths of the sparrows to produce fatal effects. As wheat
has no hull that a sparrow can remove, it is ordinarily preferable to other
seeds. Bread, in thin shces, spread with the strychnine-starch mixture
may be used to advantage alternately with seeds.
In case it is impracticable to poison sparrows at their regular feeding
grounds they may be attracted to a suitable place by prehminary baiting.
In northern latitudes the best time to put out poison is just after a snow-
storm, when other food is covered. The feeding place should be cleared
15
of snow and the poison laid early in the morning. The poison should be
well scattered, so that many birds may be able to partake at the same
time, since after a few are affected their actions excite the suspicion of
their comrades. Usually a few sparrows get only enough strychnine to
paralyze them for a few hours, after which they recover. It is important,
therefore,' to visit the feeding places a short time after distributing poison
to prevent such birds from escaping. It is well, also, to remove dead
birds promptly to avoid exciting the suspicions of those that are un-
affected. In deciding the amount of poisoned wheat to put out at one
time, it is well to estimate the number of sparrows frequenting a feeding
place, and to allow about 20 kernels for each sparrow. Although 2
kernels of wheat coated with the solution described below have been
known to kill a sparrow, 6 or 7 kernels are required to insure fatal re-
sults, and much more than a fatal dose is frequently taken. The sparrows
that recover after taking poison or that become frightened by the death
of comrades, will forsake a feeding place if poison is kept there constantly.
If, therefore, one wishes merely to keep them off his land he can do so
by maintaining a supply of poisoned bait for them. On the other hand,
if extermination is the object sought, unpoisoned bait should be put
out after each kilhng until the birds have recovered confidence. There
is an advantage in having several feeding grounds that may be used in
rotation vnih different kinds of bait. Under these circumstances the
sparrows forget their fear of each feeding ground while the others in
turn are baited. Only as much poison should be put out as is likely to
be eaten in one day, since exposure to moisture reduces its virulence.
Anj^ grain coated by the above process and left on the ground will become
harmless after a few rains. ^
During several years Dr. C. F. Hodge, formerly of Clark
University, Worcester, organized a very eft'ective campaign in
Worcester for destroying English sparrows. His poison formula
is as follows: Dissolve one-eighth of an ounce of powdered
strychnine sulphate in one-half pint of boiling water. He gives
the following directions for using his formula: —
Pour this, while hot, over two quarts of wheat (or cracked corn), stir
well, and continue stirring from time to time, until all the liquid is ab-
sorbed. Dry thoroughly, without scorching, and put away in some safe
receptacle, labeled "Poisoned Grain. Strychnine". . . . Expose the
grain where poultry and tame pigeons cannot get it, and bj^ operating
only during the winter there will be no danger of poisoning seed-eating
wild birds, at least for all northern towns and cities. By taking ad-
vantage of the sparrows' gregarious habits, and the fact that they drive
off other birds from localities where they are numerous, much might be
done even in the south.
1 Dearborn, Ned, The English Sparrow as a Pest, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 493,
1912, pp. 20-23.
16
Sparrows are such suspicious and cunning birds that, if the strychnized
grain be exposed at first, they Avill probably roll each kernel in their bills,
taste it, reject it, and possibly refuse to touch it again that winter. The
best way is to select a safe place, where the wind is not hkely to scatter
it, — a walk, driveway or porch roof with a smooth surface, — so that
the grain may be swept up after each trial. Accustom them to feeding
there daily with grain exactly like that which is medicated (I often do
this for a week or even a month, until all the sparrows in the neighbor-
hood are wont to come regularly), study the times when they come for
their meals, and then on a cold, dry morning after a heavy snowstorm,
having swept up all the good grain the night before, wait until they have
gathered, and then put down enough strychnized grain to feed the entire
flock. You have about ten minutes before any begin to drop, and those
that have not partaken of the grain by this time ^vill probably be frightened
off; but, by timing it properly, I have repeatedly caught everj'- sparrow
in the flock. I have found morning the best time, as they all come then;
and it is essential to success to select a dry day, since in wet weather
they taste the strychnine too cjuickly; I have seen them actually throw
it out of the crop.^
Shooting.
For ten years my farm was kept clear of sparrows by the
practice of shooting promptly the first one that appeared.
They never got a foothold, never nested there, and did practi-
cally no harm, although they were domiciled on the premises of
my neighbors where they drove out a large colony of cliff
swallows and all the bluebirds, tree swallows and martins.
Shooting is very effective if the sparrows are greeted with a
charge of shot or a bullet every time they appear, and they
soon learn to fly high where they get such a greeting. A
skillful rifleman may pick off individual sparrows with a good
air gun or a Flobert or other small 22 caliber rifle as they come
to feed or to the nesting box, but most people have better
success with a small shotgun and number 12 shot. If smokeless
powder and small-bore weapons are used the noise of an
occasional shot will not disturb native birds, and in some cases
they seem to be gratified by the destruction of their garrulous,
pugnacious enemy. Where sparrows are numerous a good plan
is to scatter grain in a long line at a certain hour each day, and
when the sparrows of the neighborhood have learned to gather
promptly at the appointed hour the shooter who has concealed
himself for the purpose shoots down the line. Thus nearly
1 Hodge, Clifton F., Nature Study and Life, 1902, pp. 315-316.
17
every bird may be killed at one discharge of the gun. If the
sparrows frequent poultry houses where there is danger of
shooting fowls the bait may be placed on a long narrow board
above the fowls' heads. Persistence in the use of such methods
as those detailed above will tend to make any premises so
unsafe for sparrows that they will prefer to reside elsewhere.
Co-operation in Sparrow Killing.
In many parts of Europe, where a constant warfare is waged
against this bird, clubs are formed for the purpose of killing
sparrows. In some cases each member of such a club is bound
to present to the secretary the heads of a certain number of
sparrows each year or to pay a fine. The fines thus collected
are used as prizes for the members killing the most sparrows.
The honorary secretary of the Stratford-upon-Avon Sparrow
Club reported that during the year 1887 over 19,000 birds had
been killed. About 20,000 a year is the average number de-
stroyed in the neighborhood of Stratford-upon-Avon.
Similar clubs have been formed in some parts of the United
States. In one sparrow hunt in Woodworth, Ohio, 26 men
killed 980 sparrows.^
Bounties.
The theory that a bounty should be offered to encourage the
extermination of the English sparrow has had many friends,
but where this plan has been tried it has not given satisfactory
results.
Dr. Barrows, in his report on the English sparrow, makes an
estimate of the cost of exterminating sparrows by bounty in the
State of Ohio. The sum required exceeds §11,000,000. IMichi-
gan and some other States have tried the plan of exterminating
sparrows by bounty, with very unsatisfactory results. Not-
withstanding the payment of considerable sums of money, the
number of sparrows did not seem to decrease; also, it was found
that birds of many species, most of them useful native birds,
were killed as sparrows by hunters for the bounty, and in very
many cases bounties were paid on their heads. A reward offered
for the destruction of English sparrows would be certain to
bring about the death of numberless native birds.
' Barrows, Walter B., Bull. 1, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Division of Economic Ornithology and
Mammalogy, The English Sparrow in North America, p. 166.
18
Protecting Grain, Fruit and Vegetables.
Where sparrows are numerous and become destructive to
growing grain, shooting in spring, summer and autumn, and
poisoning in winter are the only remedies known. ^Yhen the
grain is ripening the crop may be protected by boys armed
with guns and kept constantly in the field from dawn to dark.
Powder may be used mainly to frighten the birds, and a charge
of shot may be sent after them occasionally when they cease
to fear blank cartridges. Large clappers made of boards to
imitate the sound of a gun are used in England and might be
utilized here a part of the time to drive away the birds and
save powder. Similar means may be used to save fruit. If
the fruit plot is small it may be covered during the ripening
season with a fine-meshed fish net. A few cherry trees are
sometimes protected in this manner. Young plants, such as
peas, cabbages, etc., have been saved from the sparrow by
covering the rows with small branches.
To prevent Sparrows taking Food designed for Native
Birds.
Many people have complained that where seed, suet and
other food have been put out for winter birds on feeding tables
or shelves sparrows have taken all or nearly all the food.
Sparrows do not like swinging shelves which may be hung by
wire, or better yet by spiral springs, which make them still
more unstable. Native birds use such shelves. Where
sparrows eat suet it may be crowded into auger holes bored in
sticks, and the sticks may be fastened to the under side of a
limb where woodpeckers, nuthatches and chickadees will easily
get at the suet. Sparrows seldom will take the trouble to cling
to the underside of a limb.
ai)c alnmmcntpcaltl) o{ itta00acl)U0ett5.
STATE BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 49.
June, 1916.
FOOD PLANTS TO AHRACT BIRDS
AND PROTECT FRUIT.
EDWARD HOWE FORBUSH.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
ORNAMENTAL AND OTHER FOOD PLANTS
USED TO ATTRACT BIRDS AND PRO-
TECT CULTIVATED FRUIT.
Introduction.
The Arnold Arboretum at Boston has become noted as a
resort for birds. Probably the number and variety found there
are not exceeded in any upland locality in New England. Any
observing person frequenting the Arboretum can see for him-
self that birds are attracted there by the diversity of plants,
which support a great variety of insects and produce quantities
of fruit and seeds, thus affording birds an unusual abundance
and variety of animal and vegetable food.
It would be well for the farmer and the orchardist to make
their home grounds especially attractive to useful birds. And
all who live in the country or in the suburbs, and even some
who reside in cities, may, if they will, utilize plants to attract
birds. Landscape architects and gardeners who lay out the
grounds of large estates often plant quantities of shrubs and
trees without considering what are inviting to birds. While
there are many flowering plants that birds like, there are many
also that bear highly colored and ornamental fruit on which
birds feed. Nearly all of these plants can be utilized in beau-
tifying country estates. There should be fruit-bearing shrub-
bery and vines and dense hedges or tangles of ornamental
fruiting plants. The coniferous trees may be best used in
small patches or rows as windbreaks, for large groves of such
trees are likely to shelter hawks, crows, squirrels and other
enemies of birds.
The up-to-date fruit grower should never plant an orchard
or attempt to cultivate small fruit without first providing
rows of early wild fruit to attract the birds from his cultivated
varieties. Otherwise, unless there is a quantity of wild fruit
growing in the neighborhood, birds are likely to reduce his
profits.
4
Plants Attractive to Fruit-eating Birds.
Farmers know that birds are fond of the earhest cherries and
strawberries, and that some will feed on raspberries and black-
berries unless there is other more attractive food near. There-
fore, if fruit is wanted only for home use it is well to plant
enough for the family and the birds. If cultivated small fruits
are planted in quantity, all the fruit-eating birds of the neigh-
borhood will be there when the fruit is ripening. But there are
other fruits even more attractive to birds. First among these
for early summer are the wild strawberry {Fragaria americana),
the June berry or service berry (Amelanchier canadensis), the
red-berried elder {Sajnbucus racemosa) and the white mulberry
{Mortis alba). The wild straw-
berry fruits as early as the
cultivated varieties, and it
lasts longer. The June berry
is earlier than the earliest
cherries, and is supposed to
hang later, but in my experi-
ence the birds get all the June
berries before July 4, and if
gray squirrels are very numer-
ous they are likely to take the
fruit even before it becomes
ripe enough for the \ birds. This is a fine fruit to cultivate
could the birds be kept away from it. The red-berried elder
fruits early in June, and like the common elder {Samhucus
canadensis), which fruits in ^Massachusetts in August and Septem-
ber, is one of the chief attractions for summer birds. All the
mulberry trees are extremely inviting to birds. The native red
mulberry {Morus rubra) is useful but does not fruit quite so early
in June as the introduced white mulberry (Morus alba). The
Russian mulberry has been widely recommended, attracts
birds remarkably, and in some cases has been established in
Massachusetts, but it appears not to be hardy on the higher
lands of the State, and seems to require special treatment to
establish it here. The Downing (or the New American, which
appears to be identical) is a cultivated variety with a fruit
Tupelo or sour gum.
that is much more palatable than the common kinds, and has
been successfully grown here. The dwarf white mulberry also
seems hardy and gives a crop of fruit a few years after planting.
The mulberries make fine shade and ornamental trees, but
should not be planted where they will overhang walks or
buildings, as the decaying juicy fruit, if not all eaten by birds,
drops to the ground in summer, where it is crushed by the
feet of passers-by and disfigures walks or stains clothing. Wild
blackberries, raspberries, blueberries and huckleberries all are
eaten by birds in summer and all attract them. All wild
cherries tempt the birds in July, August or September. There
is a prejudice against these trees because they harbor tent
caterpillars, which, however, may be killed by early spraying,
but if wild cherries are not present many birds will be likely
in August and September to go where they can be found or to
attack cultivated fruit.
Any crusade for the
extermination of wild
cherry trees will fail,
as they may be found
not only in yards,
fields, pastures and
along the roadsides, but
almost everywhere in
the woods.
In September or
October practically all
the later wild fruits ripen, and, as many of them remain on the
stems all winter, and some until spring, it is only necessary to
have them in sufficient variety to provide winter food for fruit-
eating birds. A few of these fruits, however, are particularly im-
portant as well as ornamental. Some are not eaten much by birds
while the softer and more desirable fruits are at their best, but
later they remain intact during the inclement months, when frost
and storms have destroyed or covered other fruit, and then they
offer nutriment to the birds in time of need. Such are the
American and European mountain ash, the various sumacs,
the junipers and the black alder (Ilex verticillata) . The fruit
of the mountain ash is very rich and ornamental in color, and
Smilax, greenbrier, bull brier.
rarely is disturbed by birds until the dead of winter, when they
seek it eagerly. The foliage of the sumacs is brilliant in au-
tumn, while the fruit, as well as that of the black alder, is
handsome and remains on the stem for the winter birds. The
catkins of the birches and of the common alder are sought for
their seeds by winter birds. It is essential to provide berries
and seeds on shrubs and trees well above the snow for winter
food.
All trees that are attacked by many insects are favorites
with birds. JNIany hundreds of species of insects infest the
apple, oak, poplar, willow, birch and alder. Hence these trees
are desirable. The con-
iferous trees are not
subject to the attacks
of such a variety of
insects, nevertheless cer-
tain species sometimes
become numerous upon
them. The white pine
is a favorite with tit-
mice and kinglets in
winter, as they often
find the eggs of aphides
on these trees in enor-
mous numbers. The seeds of coniferous trees are eaten by a
few species of birds. Elms ripen their seeds early, thus pro-
viding food for birds in early summer, while the spanworms
that infest elms and apple trees are sought by nearly all birds.
Mr. W. L. McAtee of the Biological Survey, who has made a
special study of fruits attractive to birds, has published in
Farmers' Bulletin 621, entitled "How to attract Birds in
Northeastern United States," the following table, showing the
seasons in which different fruits are available for birds: —
Virginia juniper or red cedar.
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10
The plants given in the above list are selected from a much
larger number, all of which are known to be favorites with
birds, and are such as are likely to be secured through the
ordinary channels of trade. The fruiting seasons include the
earliest and latest dates recorded for New York and New Eng-
land, and it cannot be expected that fruit will be available at
any one locality throughout the entire season given, unless a
large number of plants are set in a variety of situations. Mr.
McAtee also gives the following valuable notes on the foregoing
list: —
Bayberry. Usual trade name is Myrica cerifera.
Hackberry. Fruit scarce in late May and June. Celtis serrata, C. bun-
geana or C. mississippiensis may be substituted.
Mulberry. Morus tatarica msiy be used.
Pokeweed. Let it grow through shrubs or a trellis which will support it in
winter.
Barberry. Berberis amurensis, B. aristata, B. regeliana and B. rehderiana
are good substitutes. The universally planted B. thunbergi seems to be
of very little value as bird food.
Sassafras. Appears in most catalogues as S. officinale or S. sassafras.
Flowering apple. The following may be substituted: P. baccata, P. halli-
ana, P. parkmanni, P. sargentii and P. toringo.
Chokeberry. Often called Pyrus or Aronia nigra. P. arbidifolia, another
native species, retains its fruit just as long, but the fruit becomes very
dry toward the end of the season.
Cherry. Prunus cerasifera, P. fruticosus, P. japonica pendula, P. sargentii
and P. tomentosa, all introduced, are worth adding.
Sumac. Rhus copallina or R. hirta {typhina) may be substituted for R.
glabra.
June berry. Amelanchier canadensis, sold by nurserymen, is a composite
species. Several species are now recognized, among which A. Iwvis is a
notably early fruiter and A. sangxdnea a late one. Some fruit of June
berries occasionally hangs much later than the season indicated, but in
very dry condition.
Thorns. The species recommended are those usual in the trade. So far
as desirability is concerned many native species could be substituted.
Cotoneasters, such as C. coccinea, C. horizontalis, C. microphylla, C.
rotundifolia and C. tomentosa, may also be used.
Strawberr3\ Often called Fragaria vesca var. aniericana. F. virginiana is
a fair substitute. Little dealt in; must usually be transplanted from
woods and fields.
Blackberry. Rubus t iflorus is frequently called R. americanus.
Rose. All native species have persistent fruit. The small-fruited ones
are best for birds. Rosa Carolina and R. nitida are suitable for low
11
grounds, and R. humilis (sometimes called virginiana) and R. setigera
may be planted in drier places. R. micrantha and R. multiflora are
among the best introduced roses.
Black alder. Ilex Icevigata may be used instead of I. verticillata. I. serrata
is a good introduced species.
Mountain holly. Drops most of its berries in the fall ; only a few persist
throughout the season indicated.
Bittersweet. Celastrus orbiculattis, introduced, may be used.
Buckthorn. Rhammis dahurica is equally good.
Virginia creeper. Often sold under the names Av^pelopsis and Parthenocis-
sus. A. heterophylla and P. vitacea may be substituted.
Wild pepper. Hippophae rhamnoides may replace it, especially along
coast.
Oleaster. Ekeagnus longipes, E. multiflora, E. parviflora and E. umbel-
lata also are good.
BufTalo berry. Shepherdia (Lepargyrea) argentea, the true buffalo berry,
furnishes good bird food.
Dogwood. Cornus panicidata (candidissima) , native, and C. alba and C.
sanguinea, introduced, are worthy substitutes.
Huckleberry. Gaylussacia baccata is often sold as G. resinosa.
Blueberry. Any species may be substituted.
Cranberry. Generic name often given as Oxycoccus.
Privet. Ligustnmi acuminatum, L. amurense, L. ciliatum, L. ibota and L.
microcarpum, all introduced, are equally good. Must not be clipped;
berries borne on outer twigs.
Purple berry. Variety yapomm is the hardy form.
Honeysuckle. Lonicera glauca, L. canadensis, L. oblongifolia and L. sem-
pervirens, native, and L. maackii, introduced, may be substituted.
Snowberry. Symphoricarpus occidentalis is just as good.
Viburnum. V. dentatum, native, and T'. sieboldii, introduced, are worth
adding.
Elder. Sambucus nigra, introduced, also is valuable.
It will be noted that the list given by Mr. McAtee includes
both native and introduced species, but for those who prefer to
raise their own plants, or to encourage such native plants en-
ticing to birds, as already grow on their land, the following
list, first published by Mr. F. H. Kennard in "Bird-Lore" for
July-August, 1912, is recommended as showing the comparative
attractiveness of the various species.
Those plants that are particularly tempting to birds are
shown with three asterisks, while those with more than ordi-
nary attractiveness are shown by one or two asterisks, in the
12
order of their attractiveness; and those species of which the
fruits seem to be eaten so seldom as to make their planting
barely worth while are marked with a dagger.
Deciduous Trees.
*Acer negundo, ash-leaved maple,
box elder.
**Acer saccharum, sugar maple; and
doubtless other maples.
Betula jjopulifolia, American gray
birch.
Betula lutea, yellow birch; and prob-
ably other birches.
Celtis occidentalis, hackberry.
Cercis canadensis, red-bud.
***Cornus florida, flowering dogwood.
fCorylus americana, American hazel.
**Crata:gus coccinea, white thorn.
**Crata:gus cnis-galli, cockspur thorn;
and others of this genus.
fFagus americana, American beech.
*Fraxinus americana, American white
ash; and probably other species.
fHicoria sp. Several kinds of hickory.
Ilex opaca, American holly.
"fLiquidambar styraciflua, sweet gum.
fLiriodendron tulipifera, tulip tree.
***Morns rubra, native red mulberry.
**N^yssa sylvatica, tupelo.
Ostrya virginiana, hornbeam.
fPlaiitanus occidentalis, sycamore.
■fPopnhis sp. Various species of
poplars are sometimes fed upon.
***Prunus pennsylvanica, bird cherrj'.
***Pru?ius punila, sand cherry.
***Prunus serotina, black cherry.
***Pru7ius virginiana, choke cherrj%
**Pyrus americana, mountain ash.
^Quercus sp. Several species of oaks.
Sassafras officinalis, sassafras.
Ulmus americana, American elm.
And other species.
Evergreen Trees.
**Juniperus virginiana, red cedar.
**Juniperus communis, prostrate juni-
per.
**Picea alba, white spruce.
**Picea rubra, red spruce; and un
doubtedly other species.
*Pinus rigida, pitch pine.
*Pimis strobus, white pine.
*Tsuga canadensis, hemlock.
Shrubs.
**Anielanchier canadensis, .June berry.
**Benzoin odoriferum, spice bush.
*Bcrberis vulgaris, barberry.
Comptonia asplenifolia, sweet fern.
Corema conradii, broom crowberry.
***Cornus alternifolia, blue cornel.
***Cornus candidissima, gray cornel.
***Cornus sericea, silky cornel.
***Cornus stolonifera, red osier cornel.
**Gaylussacia frondosa, dangleberrj-.
**Gaylussacia resinosa, huckleberry.
**Ilex glabra, inkberrj'.
**Ilex verticiUata, black alder; and
probably /. laevigata, winterberry,
black ilex.
Ligustrum vulgare, privet.
**Myrica cerifera, bayberry.
Prunus maritima, beach plum.
*Pyrus arbutifolia, chokeberrj-.
Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn.
***Rhus copallina, shining sumac.
***Rhus glabra, smooth sumac.
***Rhus toxicodendron, poison i^'y.
***Rhus typhina, staghorn sumac.
**'*Rhiis venenata, poison sumac.
**Ribes floridum, large-flowering cur-
rant.
**Ribes lacustre, swamp gooseberry;
and other species.
**Rosa, sp. It is probable that the
fruits of all the native wild roses
are eaten largely by birds.
***Rubus occidentalis, thimbleberrj'.
***Rubiis strigosus, red raspberrj'.
***Rubus canadensis, low blackberrj%
***Rubus villosus, high blackberrj\
13
***Sambucus canadensis, common elder.
***Sambucus pubens, panicled elder.
Shepherdia canadensis, shepherdia.
**Sym.phoricarpos racemosus, snow-
berry.
***Vacciniuni ca:spitosum, dwarf bil-
berry.
***Vaccinium, corymbosum, high-bush
blueberry.
***Vacciniuni pennsyhanicum, low-bush
blueberry; and doubtless other
species, including V. vitisidwa, cow-
berry.
**Vibumum, alnifolium, hobble bush.
**Viburnum dentatum, arrow- wood.
**Viburnuni lentago, sheepberrj-.
**Vibumuni nudum, withe-rod.
**Viburnum ojndus, high-bush cran-
berry.
**ViburnuTn prunifoliuni, black haw;
and doubtless V. acerifolium, V.
cassinoides, and other species.
Vines.
Virginia
*-*Ampelopsis quinquefolia,
creeper.
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, bearberry.
Celastrus scandens, false bittersweet
Menispermum canadense, moonseed
Mitchella repens, partridge berry.
Vaccinium macrocarpon, cranberry.
Vaccinium oxycoccus, dwarf
berry.
*Smilax rotundifolia, bull brier.
**-Vitis cordifolia, frost grape.
**Vitis labrusca, fox grape.
**Vitis vulpina, frost grape.
Herbaceous Plants.
**Aralia nudicaulis, sarsaparilla.
Fagopyrum esculentum, buckwheat.
**Fragaria virginiana, strawberry.
Gauliheria procumbens, checkerberry.
Helianthus annuus, sunflower.
**Phytolacca decandra, pokeberry.
Smilacina racemosa, false spikenard.
Solanuni nigrum, nightshade.
It should be noted that the poison ivy and the poison sumac
are undesirable for indiscriminate planting, and that the bar-
berry, although generally regarded as a native, is, as Mr. Ken-
nard remarks, an introduced species.
The first deciduous tree on the above list, the ash-leaved
maple or box elder, is noteworthy as a favorite of the evening
grosbeak while wintering here, and it seems probable that since
this beautiful bird has become a winter resident here in recent
years it might be induced to come and remain in larger num-
bers if many of these trees were planted.
The American beech, while not attractive to small birds,
furnishes in its fruit a supply of food in autumn for ducks and
grouse. The oaks, which supply much insect food for many
birds, also furnish food in the form of acorns for ducks, grouse,
jays and crows. My own experience goes to show that Cornus
alternifolia is most important among the cornels. The Virginia
creeper or woodbine is useful, as its fruit is sought by thrushes.
Among the herbaceous plants the pokeweed and the sunflower
14
may be mentioned as favorites with birds. When raising sun-
flowers the giant Russian variety is best. If well fertilized it
produces gigantic flowers and a large quantity of huge seeds
which are much sought after by the brilliant goldfinch, the
purple finch, the nuthatches and the chickadee. Buckwheat
always attracts the mourning dove and is likely to lure bob-
white.
Food Plants for Native Sparrows and Ground Birds.
All native sparrows are fond of weed seeds. Doves, grouse,
bobwhites and pheasants eat them also and wild fowl resort
to them more or less. Hence weedy cultivated fields and gar-
dens are favorite haunts for seed-eating birds in autumn.
I have found nothing better for attracting native sparrows
than the Japanese millet {Panicuin crus-galli), a cultivated weed
or barnyard grass. A small patch of this sowed on land that
has first been plowed, harrowed well and manured will attract
all the native sparrows in the neighborhood when the seed
ripens, as well as the migratory species from the north. If
several patches be sown from early May to late June in differ-
ent localities they will ripen their seed at dift'erent times and
provide food from late August until winter. Mr. McAtee
recommends also the following for sparrows: —
"Love-lies-bleeding {Amaranthus candatus), prince's feather (both
Amaranthus hypochondriacus and Polygonum orientate), yellow chamomile
{Antheviis tinctoria), chamomile {Anthemis nobitis), Calandrinia umbel-
lata, bachelors button {Centmirea cymnis), African millet (Eleusine cora-
cana), California poppy (Eschscholzia calif arnica) , tarweed {Madia elegans),
miners lettuce {Montia perfoliata), millet (Panicum miliaceum), . . . Ger-
man millet or Hungarian grass (Setaria italica), and sunflower. Several
of the species of sunflower will serve, the common sunflower {Helianthus
annuus) being one of the best, having named varieties especially prized
for the abundance and large size of the seed. No seeds are more relished
by graminivorous birds than the millets; in fact, they are so much pre-
ferred that they have been used with good effect for drawing the attention
of birds from more valuable grain crops." ^
In my "Useful Birds and their Protection," fourth edition,
1913, published by the Massachusetts State Board of Agricul-
1 McAtee, W. L., Plants Useful to attract Birds and protect Fruit. Year book, United States
Department of Agriculture 1909, p. 193.
15
ture, two lists of plants attractive to birds are given, pages
374 to 376 and pages 430 to 432. For lack of space and because
they would largely duplicate the two lists above they cannot
be repeated here, nor can the long lists of food plants of the
ruffed grouse and bobwhite, printed in my "Game Birds, Wild
Fowl and Shore Birds," be included in this circular, but for
the convenience of those who wish to attract game birds the
following by Mr. McAtee from the Yearbook of the United
States Department of Agriculture for 1909 is appended: —
While the establishment of preserves for land game birds is yet a new
movement in this country, it is certain to become of great importance.
Hence it is desirable to disseminate information as to the food and covert
plants that are favored by the grouse and quail. Bobwhites frequently
use covers of rose, alder and blackberry bushes, and thickly set barberry,
bayberry and dense banks of honeysuckle are suitable. These plants also
furnish food for the birds, but they should be supplemented by others
more exclusively adapted for this purpose. Sumac, Japanese clover, buck-
wheat, sorghum, millet, vetches, cowpeas, and any plants of the pea family
producing small seeds, are valuable and should be sown in large quantities.
The seeds of milk pea (Galactia), partridge pea (Chamachrista), hog pea-
nut (Falcata), wild bean (Strophostyles) , and smartweeds {Polygommi)
are important natural foods of the eastern quail, but should be encouraged
only where they cannot become weed pests. The western quail are fond
of the seeds of sumac, but clover, alfilaria, lupines, napa thistle and turkey
mullein plants; but where these plants are liable to become nuisances the
food plants recommended for the eastern quail will serve.
Coverts for grouse, as the sharptail, should abound in such plants as
rose, sumac, blueberry, bearberrj^, buffalo berry, dwarf birch and alder.
The ruffed grouse thrives among scrub oak, bayberry, rose, sumac, dwarf
birch, alder, poplar, willow and such fruit-bearing plants as partridge
berry, hawthorn, viburnum, wild grapes, mountain ash, blueberry, black-
berry and cranberry. Cover of this nature is suited to the heath hen also,
and to the imported pheasants and the Hungarian partridge, but in all
cases it is well to supplement the food supply furnished by these shrubs
and trees by planting small grains and legumes, as recommended for
quail.
Some of the plants named in the above list are not native to
New England, and probably the cowpea and the milk pea will
not mature in Massachusetts, but most of them can be utilized
here.
It is impossible within the limits of this circular to give
even a list of the important plants which attract wild ducks
16
and geese, but information regarding some of the most useful
of such plants may be found in the following publications of the
United States Department of Agriculture: Bureau of Biological
Survey, Circular 81, and Department of Agriculture Bulletins
58 and 205. All may be obtained of the Superintendent of
Documents, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, District of Columbia.
Plants for Protecting Cultivated Fruits.
The chief fruit-eating birds in Massachusetts are the robin,
the catbird and the cedar waxwing. The flicker, English spar-
row, Baltimore oriole and a few other species occasionally are
mischievous, and the starling, a recent introduction from the
Old World, seems likely to become most destructive of all.
Cherries are most often attacked by fruit-eating birds, but all
small fruits are eaten by them. It is not good biology to
shoot birds for taking fruit. It is better to provide fruit enough
for ourselves and the birds, and thus retain their services as
insect destroyers. It will pay the fruit grower to lure them
away from his cultivated cherries and berries, if possible, by
setting out plants that bear earlier and more attractive fruit.
My experiments with the native red mulberry were successful
in protecting cherries, and I have watched a garden where a
single tree ot" the Downing mulberry entirely protected several
trees of cultivated cherries of the harder varieties. No native
bird troubled the cherries although the English sparrows occa-
sionally pecked one. I have learned from fruit growers in New
Jersey that mulberry trees protected their cherry crops from
robins even in a very dry season, when robins elsewhere had
been destructive to the fruit. The Russian mulberry is very
early and will grow in southeastern Massachusetts. Elsewhere
in the State, as hereinbefore stated, the white mulberry, the
red or the Downing or New American would serve. The
advantages of the Downing or New American are that it is a
quick grower and fruiter, bears very early in the season and
appears to be perfectly hardy, at least in eastern Massachu-
setts.
Mr. G. T. Powell tried the experiment of planting a row of
soft early cherries known as the Governor Wood. The birds
17
took them, leaving untouched choice varieties, such as Mont-
morency and Richmond. Another fruit grower, having a row
of soft cherries and finding that the birds took most of them,
cut doAvn the trees. The birds then attacked the main orchard.
Mr. McAtee in Farmers' Bulletin 621 gives the following
table, showing the seasons of fruits useful in protecting culti-
vated varieties : —
18
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Other Meaxs of Protecting Fruit.
Birds eat fruit not only for food but for the juices, which
often serve to take the place of water in dry weather. A
drinking fountain or a brook close at hand may serve to take
some of their attention from the fruit. Newly turned sod also
may attract robins and some other birds away from fruit, as
they seem to prefer worms and grubs. A fertile, well-watered
lawn sometimes answers the same purpose, as it keeps the
earthworms near the surface where the robins can find them.
As a last resort, where one has but one or two cherry trees
and no room for experiments, the trees may be covered with a
fine-meshed fish net, but birds may become entangled in the
net.
Plants for the Seashore.
Mr. McAtee in his excellent bulletin (621) gives the follow-
ing hints regarding plants for attracting birds at the seaside: —
Where the coast is rocky and the soil of ordinary character, conditions
are little different from those inland, and except in relation to exposure
there need be no especial preference given in the choice of plants. It is
worth mentioning, however, that several trees and shrubs are better
adapted to withstand the winds so prevalent on the coast. These include
three species of juniper {Jtmiperiis covivmnis, J. horizontalis and /. vir-
giniana), common barberrj^, English thorn, hybrid crab apple, European
and American mountain ashes, smooth and staghorn sumacs, privets,
buckthorn and red-berried elder. Where the soil is chiefly sand, and that
often shifting, conditions are not suited to many plants. Selection may
be made, however, from the following, all of which are known to thrive
in such surroundings : —
For Seed Eaters. — Beach grass {Ammophila arenaria and Calamovilfa
longifolia) , Polijgonum sachalinense and sunflower.
For Fruit Eaters. — Bayberry {Myrica cerifera), sea buckthorn {Hip-
pophae rhamnoides), sand cherry {Primus pumila or P. cuneata), beach
plum {Prunus maritirna), cranberries and bearberry [Ardostaphrjlos uva-
ursi).
How TO Plant.
Inexperienced planters are likely to fail even if provided
with excellent plants or seeds. The common plan of sticking
seeds into little holes in the sod or leaf mold is foredoomed to
20
failure, as only a very small percentage of the seeds ever suc-
ceed. The resulting young plants are exposed to many enemies
and must compete with other well-established plants which sur-
round them. If seeds are used they should be planted in rows
about nine inches apart, near the surface, in a box of good
loam,, where they can be watched, weeded and cared for, or in
a well-prepared bed surrounded with boards and covered with
"cellar wire" netting to keep out mice, rabbits, squirrels and
other enemies. If planted in the fall they should be mulched
the first winter. When they have outgrown this little nursery
they may be replanted in nursery rows or set in the ground
where they are to remain.
Plants from the nurseryman, if well cared for and properly
packed, should be moist about the roots when received. The
bundles should be unpacked as soon as possible, the bunches
loosened enough so that all the roots may come in contact
with the earth that is to receive them and they should be
"heeled in" or covered at once in a trench in moist earth on
the north side of a building or in a cool cellar. A brief ex-
posure to sun and wind is enough to destroy both root hairs
and rootlets. If at all dry when received the roots should
be immersed in water before heeling in. Plants thus treated
may be left with safety while the ground is being prepared to
receive them. Young trees arriving with the roots dried out
will sometimes recover if the top be cut back severely and the
entire tree immersed for a few days in moist earth before
planting.
The poorest possible way to set out a tree is to dig a little
hole in old sod and set the tree in it.
The best way is to set all trees in land that has been well
cultivated and manured for at least two or three years previous
to the setting. Vigorous young trees from one to three feet high
will make a better growth when transplanted than those that
are older. There is no advantage for our purpose in bringing
larger trees from the nursery. Trees may be started well in
poor gravelly land by digging out a hole about two feet deep
and large enough to hold a cartload of loam, in which the tree
is set.
21
When setting out trees it is well to plow or trench the soil
deeply and fine it well. I have had excellent success on poor
soil by digging holes about eighteen inches deep and five feet
in diameter and putting in with the loam some ground bone and
chip dirt.
Before setting a tree its roots should be examined, and if any
have been mangled or broken they should be trimmed back
with a sharp knife. The top should be cut back in proportion
to the injury to the roots. It is better, as a rule, to have the
tree more nearly resemble a bean pole in shape than a tree
when set out. The soil should not be wet nor dry at planting
time, but moist and crumbly, so that it may be readily worked
in among the roots. While planting, the roots should be not
exposed to sun and air but should be kept covered in moist
earth or with wet burlap until wanted. Some nurseryman be-
fore planting puddle the roots in mud made of rich, fine loam.
The tree is then set in the hole prepared for it, the roots spread
in their natural positions and the earth packed firmly among
and around them. In this work both hands and feet should be
used and no cavities among, the roots should be left unfilled.
It is important that the soil about the roots be very fine and
well packed, and the surface should be left light, to prevent
evaporation. In light soil the tree should be set a little deeper
than in the nursery row, and it may be necessary to water
it or to mulch it deeply the first year.
When large trees are to be transplanted it should be done
by an expert, as the novice is likely to make an expensive
failure. The directions given for planting trees may be ob-
served to advantage in setting out vines and shrubs, modifying
the operation to suit the various sizes and conditions. Any
capable nurseryman should be able to furnish information
regarding plants suitable for dry or wet soil or for planting in
sunny or shady places.
Note. — The author will be glad to receive any information on any of
the subjects treated in this bulletin. Address Edward Howe Forbush,
136 State House, Boston, Mass.
0CT281916
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
CIRCULAR No. 50.
Second Edition, Revised.
July, 1916.
APPLE GRADING AND PACKING.
THE UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW,
THE UNITED STATES APPLE GRADING LAW AND
THE MASSACHUSETTS APPLE GRADING LAW.
WILFRID WHEELER, Secretary.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
APPLE GEADING AND PACKING.
THE UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW, THE UNITED
STATES APPLE GRADING LAW AND THE MASSACHU-
SETTS APPLE GRADING LAW.
Pkeparkd bt H. LINWOOD WHITE, First Clerk, '
Under the direction of Wilfhid Whbeler, Secretary/, Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture,
INTRODUCTION.
Massachusetts' climate and soil are as well adapted to raising
apples as any to be found. Massachusetts growers are as
capable and as intelligent as any; they produce just as good
apples as are grown anywhere and, when flavor is considered,
better apples than are produced in the most famous apple-
growing regions. Massachusetts markets are unexcelled.
With climate, soil, farmers, markets and product there re-
mains the most important operation, — that of marketing.
Hitherto the Massachusetts grower has suffered from compe-
tition with out-of-state producers who, through necessity of
self-preservation, have developed and adopted the most scien-
tific methods of culture, picking, grading, . packing and market-
ing. In Massachusetts, with markets so close at hand and with
a system of mixed farming in vogue, the need for improvement
in the practice of raising and marketing apples has not been so
pressing. It was only after the first New England fruit show
in 1909 that Massachusetts apple growers came to realize their
capabilities. The fruit shows held subsequently, together with
a propaganda of better methods in pruning, spraying and pack-
ing, have resulted in a veritable boom of the orchard industry,
but the fashion of growing more of something better will last
only so long as the grower is profitably rewarded for the
effort.
Grading cloth, paper, cotton, wool, oranges and tobacco has
long been practiced. The fruit growers of California, Oregon,
Washington and the British northwest have staked their repu-
tations on grades and brands, and have profitably sold their
products in markets 3,000 miles distant.
Massachusetts apples have been packed in all sorts of con-
tainers, with regard only for the facts that a barrel is a barrel
and a box is a box. Massachusetts apples have been sold as
"Fancy," "Extra," "XXXX," "XXX," "No. 1," or "No. 2,"
and graded in each case in accordance with the ideas of the
individual packer. Ungraded apples have been placed on the
market with no marks to distinguish them from graded, to the
detriment of the reputation of the latter. No. 1 Baldwins from
one section might be classed as No. 2 in another, or vice versa,
and apples possessing all the defects of windfalls labeled No. I's,
and sold as such.
Such practices by several thousand individual growers, with
no ideas in common as to the qualifications of a "Fancy" or
"No. 1" or "No. 2" apple, could never establish in the minds
of either dealers or consumers a proper regard for Massachusetts
apples. Further than this there has been little or no attempt
on the part of any group of growers to co-operate for the pur-
pose of determining and adopting uniform grades and labels.
Apple grading legislation until recently has been unnecessary
in the big apple States of the west; the growers have been com-
pelled through their associations to adopt grading, packing and
shipping regulations for themselves, and these have been in
force for many years. The State of Maine passed a grading
law in 1910, New York in 1914, and the States of Vermont,
Connecticut and Massachusetts in 1915. The laws of the last
three-named States are based on a bill prepared by a committee
representing all phases of the apple industry. This committee
was selected by the Boston Chamber of Commerce. The best
points of existing laws were considered in the construction of
the bill, and many new features were added, after a number
of hearings and conferences at which growers, dealers and con-
sumers from the six New England States signified their ap-
proval of the measure.
The primary object of the Massachusetts Apple Grading Law
is a bigger and more profitable orchard industry, based mainly
on securing more uniform and stable prices for the product.
This can be done only by the adoption of grading and marking
standards, so that the purchaser may be sure he is getting what
he pays for. The means in attaining this object is education
through publication, demonstration and inspection.
The publication and distribution of this circular of informa-
tion was the first step in this direction. It seeks to answer every
query concerning standard closed packages, standard grades
and marks or brands required to be used on closed packages.
Correspondence concerning, and discussion of, points not cov-
ered are solicited.
Appended to this circular are the texts of the United States
Standard Barrel Law, the United States Apple Grading Law
and the Massachusetts Apple Grading Law. The regulations
authorized by sections 6 and 11 of the last-named law will be
found in the body matter of the following pages.
UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW.
The Federal Standard Barrel Law fixes a standard for the
barrel just as standards for the quart, peck or bushel are fixed
by law. The specifications coincide with those of the Massa-
chusetts standard barrel. This law states that no barrel of less
capacity (7,056 cubic inches) than the standard barrel, and
containing fruits or vegetables or any other dry commodity,
shall be sold, offered or exposed for sale in any State, territory
or the District of Columbia, or shipped from any State, terri-
tory or the District of Columbia to any other State, territory
or the District of Columbia, or to a foreign country. The use
of third, half and three-quarter barrels, and reasonable varia-
tions and tolerances to be established by rules and regulations
of the Federal Bureau of Standards, are permissible. These
rules and regulations have not yet been published. The Stand-
ard Barrel Law went into effect July 1, 1916.
UNITED STATES APPLE GRADING LAW.
The United States Apple Grading Law, popularly known as
the "Sulzer Bill," establishes a standard barrel for apples
which is the same as the United States standard barrel for
fruits, vegetables and other dry commodities. It defines three
standard grades and provides a penalty for misbranding. It
applies to apples packed in barrels only when shipped or de-
livered for shipment from one State to another or to a foreign
country.
MASSACHUSETTS APPLE GRADING LAW.
The Massachusetts Apple Grading Law is an act to regulate
the grading, packing, marking, shipping and sale of apples in
closed packages. It applies to all apples in closed packages,
packed or repacked in Massachusetts, and intended for sale
either within or without the State, and also to apples grown
in other States when such apples are graded and branded as
conforming to the Massachusetts standard.
The law, and the regulations authorized thereby, went into
effect July 1, 1916.
The law fixes a standard for barrels which is the same as the
United States standard, and a standard for boxes uniform with
standards of the principal apple-growing States; it defines a
closed package; it establishes three standard grades and pro-
vides that all apples sold in closed packages not conforming to
these three grades or, if conforming, not branded in accordance
therewith, shall be deemed "UNGRADED" and so marked;
it requires every closed package of apples packed or repacked
within the State to be marked in a conspicuous place with
certain information as to its contents; it specifies that closed
packages containing apples packed or repacked without the
State to be sold within the State as of a Massachusetts stand-
ard grade shall not be falsely marked; it authorizes the secre-
tary of the State Board of Agriculture to make and publish
rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions of the act;
it empowers the said secretary and deputies to enter any
building or other place where apples are packed, stored, sold or
offered or exposed for sale and to open any closed package, and.
upon tendering the market price, to take samples therefrom;
it provides a maximum penalty of S50 for the first offence and
a maximum penalty of $100 for subsequent violations of the
law, but exempts from prosecution any person who appears
to have acted in good faith solely as a distributor, or who can
furnish a guaranty from the person from whom he received the
apples that they are not adulterated or misbranded.
REGULATIONS.
As provided by section 11 of the law a public hearing was
held at the State House, Boston, on Thursday, August 5, 1915.
This was attended by representative growers, and by invited
officials from other State departments of agriculture, the Massa-
chusetts Agricultural College, the Massachusetts Fruit Growers'
Association, the Massachusetts Department of Weights and
Measures, and the County Farm Bureaus, as well as other
interested persons.
As provided by section 11, several of the regulations issued
by the secretary of the State Board of Agriculture as of Septem-
ber 1, 1915, under authority vested in him by sections 6 and
11 of the law, have subsequently been modified, and appear
herein as adopted on July 1, 1916.
EXPLANATION OF REQUIREMENTS.
The specific requirements of the Massachusetts Apple Grad-
ing Law, the United States Standard Barrel Law so far as this
applies to apple barrels, and the regulations, are herewith
tabulated for ready reference.
" Closed Package " defined.
Regulation. — A barrel, box or other container, the contents of which
cannot be seen sufficiently for purposes of inspection without removing
nails, wire, hoops or metal, cloth or paper strips, or similar seals or con-
trivances which cannot ordinarily be removed without mechanical assist-
ance or without destroying the usefulness thereof, except that string or
tape unless sealed shall not be considered as having been destroyed when
cut, broken or removed, shall be a "closed package" within the meaning
of the law.
The following kinds of containers are hereby declared to be "closed
packages:" —
Barrels provided with the usual closely fitting heads.
Barrels covered with burlap or other material through which the apples
cannot readily be seen.
Boxes, including covers, made entirely of close-fitting boards when the
covers thereof are nailed or otherwise securely fastened.
Boxes or cartons of corrugated paper, cardboard, metal or other ma-
terial, the covers of which are sealed or otherwise fastened in such a
manner as to prevent opening without damaging either the fastener or
the container.
Baskets, the covers of which are sealed or otherwise fastened in such
a manner as to prevent opening without damaging either the fastener or
the container.
" Standard Barrel " defined.
Staves: length, 28^ inches; thickness, not greater than yo
of an inch.
Heads: diameter, inside of staves, 17| inches; distance
between (inside measurement), 26 inches.
Bulge: circumference (outside measurement), 64 inches.
Capacity: 7,056 cubic inches.
Any barrel of a different form than this but of the same
capacity, no matter what its dimensions, is a standard barrel.
Particular reference is had to paper and steel barrels used in
some parts of the country. A flour barrel is a standard barrel.
Apples must not be sold or offered or exposed for sale in any
barrel that is of less capacity than 7,056 cubic inches, except
that subdivisions of the standard barrel known as the third,
half and three-quarters barrel may be used, provided their
capacities, respectively, are at least one-third, one-half or three-
quarters the capacity of the standard barrel (United States
Standard Barrel Law).
" Standard Box " defined.
Length, 18 inches (inside measurement).
Width, 11^ inches (inside measurement).
Depth, 10^ inches (inside measurement).
Capacity, not less than 2,173^ cubic inches.
A box of different dimensions or of a different capacity is
not a standard box but may be used for packing for sale or
distribution apples of standard grade.
" standard Grades " defined.
For purposes of comparison the requirements for the several
grades are grouped below : —
Apples when sold, or offered or exposed for sale in closed packages and not conforming to
the specifications for the "Fancy," "A" and "B" grades or, if conforming, not branded in ac-
cordance therewith, shall be classed as " Ungraded," and so branded.
" Fancy."
"A."
"B."
Ungraded.
Variety,
Only one variety
Only one variety
Only one variety
in the same
in the same
in the same
'
package.
package.
package.
Maturity, .
Well matured
Well matured
Well matured
but not over-
but not over-
but not over-
ripe.
ripe.
ripe.
How picked,
Hand-picked.
Color, .
Above medium
Medium in
Less than
in amount for
amount for the
medium in
the variety.
variety. Pro-
amount for the
Proportion of
portion of sur-
variety. Pro-
surface to be
face to be
portion of sur-
colored fixed
colored fixed
face to be
by regulation
by regulation
colored fixed
(page 10).
(page 10).
by regulation
(page 10).
Shape,
Normal.
Normal.
Practically
normal.
Size, .
Good and
Minimum size
Minimum size
Minimum size
reasonably
to be stated on
to be stated on
to be stated on
uniform. Mini
package.
package.
package.
mum size to
be stated on
the package.
Minimum for
each variety
determined by
regulation (see
page 11).
Condition, .
Sound.
Sound.
Diseases and fun-
Free from, such
Practically free
Practically free
gous injury.
as scab, sooty
from, such as
from, such as
fungus, cedar
scab, sooty
scab, sooty
rust, etc.
fungus, cedar
rust, etc.
fungus, cedar
rust, etc.
Insect injuries, .
Free from, such
Practically free
Practically free
as result from
from, such as
from, such as
codling moth,
result from
result from
scale, curculio.
codling moth.
codling moth.
etc.
scale, curculio,
etc.
scale, curculio,
etc.
Bruises and other
Free from.
Practically free
Practically free
mechanical in-
except those
from, except
from defects
juries.
resulting from
those resulting
that materially
packing.
from packing.
injure the
appearance or
useful quality.
10
How packed,
Tolerance, .
"Fancy."
Properly, in
clean, strong
packages. The
fruit should be
properly
stemmed and
tailed. The
specimens
should be
packed firmly
but not
bruised. That
the quality may
be maintained,
it is desirable
that a flexible
cushion be
placed between
the face and
the cover.
New barrels
are preferable.
Clean second-
hand barrels
will answer
but they de-
tract from the
appearance of
the fruit.
Packages
should be
strong enough
to prevent
mechanical in-
jury to the
fruit in
handling.
Apples, on any
one defect, or
on a combina-
tion of defects,
may be not
more than 3
per cent, below
specifications.
•A."
Properly.
Apples, on any
one defect, or
on a combina-
tion of defects,
may be not
more than 5
per cent, below
specifications.
Properly.
Apples, on any
one defect, or
on a combina-
tion of defects,
may be not
more than 10
per cent, below
specifications.
Ungraded.
Color in the Theee Grades.
Regulation. — Color shall refer to amount and not to shade.
The color of apples branded "Massachusetts Standard Fancy Grade"
shall cover at least 75 per cent, of the surface in the case of red varieties,
such as Baldwin, Tompkins King, Esopus Spitzenburg, Jonathan, Mcin-
tosh, Ben Davis, Sutton, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse, and the like; at
least 60 per cent, in the case of varieties having slightly less red color than
the above, such as Hubbardston, Gravenstein, Northern Spy, Rome,
Oldenburg, Wagener, and the like; and at least 10 per cent, in the case of
varieties having still less red color, such as Maiden Blush, Winter Banana,
and the like. Yellow or green varieties, such as Rhode Island Greening,
Grimes Golden, Yellow Newtown, and the like, must have the character-
istic green or yellow color of the variety; the presence or absence of a
blush need not be considered.
The color of apples branded "Massachusetts Standard A Grade" shall
cover at least 35 per cent, of the surface in the case of red varieties, such
11
as Baldwin, Tompkins King, Esopus Spitzenburg, Jonathan, Mcintosh,
Ben Davis, Sutton, Alexander, Wealthy, Fameuse, and the like; at least
20 per cent, in the case of varieties having slightly less red color than the
above, such as Hubbardston, Gravenstein, Northern Spy, Rome, Olden-
burg, Wagener, and the like; and at least 5 per cent in the case of varieties
having still less red color, such as Maiden Blush, Winter Banana, and the
like. In the case of yellow or green varieties, the presence or absence of
color need not be considered.
The presence or absence of color in the case of apples branded "Massa-
chusetts Standard B Grade" need not be considered.
Minimum Sizes in the "Massachusetts Standard Fancy
Grade."
Regulation. — The minimum sizes of apples sold as apples of "Massa-
chusetts Standard Fancy Grade," when measured at right angles to the
stem and blossom end, shall be as follows, for the several varieties: —
First Group: Diameter, 2| inches; Golden Russet, Red Canada,
Roxbury Russet, Williams, Yellow Transparent.
Second Group: Diameter, 2| inches; Baldwin, Ben Davis, Hubbards-
ton, Mcintosh, Oldenburg, Palmer Greening, Red Astrachan, Sutton,
Wagener, Wealthy, Yellow Belleflower.
Third Group: Diameter, 3 inches; Fall Pippin, Gravenstein, King,
Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening, Rolfe, Rome Beauty.
Fourth Group: Diameter, 3i inches; Twenty Ounce, Wolfe River.
Marks required on Closed Packages.
Statement in a conspicuous place on the outside of the
package in plain letters (not less than 36 point Gothic) of the —
1. Place: name of State in which the apples were grown.
2. Grade: true name.
Regulation. — The grade of apples contained in a package shall be
indicated by the term "MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD FANCY
GRADE," "MASSACHUSETTS STANDARD A GRADE," "MASSA-
CHUSETTS STANDARD B GRADE," or "UNGRADED," as the
case may be.
3. Size: minimum size in all grades. In the "Massachusetts
Standard Fancy Grade" the minimum size must be not less
than that specified in the regulations (see above). The abbre-
viation "Min." may be used for the word "minimum." Mini-
mum sizes shall be stated in variations of one-quarter of an
inch, such as 2 inches, 2| inches, 2^ inches, 2f inches, 3 inches,
3j inches, and so forth, in accordance with the facts. Minimum
sizes may be designated by figures instead of words.
12
4. Contents: Barrel, — quantity expressed by the term,
"ONE STANDARD BARREL," or by a statement of the
measure (the Massachusetts standard bushel of apples sold at
retail is 48 pounds), or of the weight in pounds. Pending the
formulation by the two departments of regulations with regard
to branding, the term "ONE STANDARD BARREL," or the
abbreviation "ONE ST'D. BBL.," will be acceptable to the
United States Department of Agriculture and the Massachusetts
Department of Weights and Measures as a proper and sufficient
statement of the contents of a barrel, regardless of whether it
is sold at wholesale or retail in intrastate, interstate or foreign
commerce. The abovesaid term will be considered also as
applying to the barrel itself. Box, — quantity expressed in
terms of measure, weight or numerical count. In interstate
commerce the marking to show merely the number of apples
in a box is not sufficient; the minimum size of the apples must
also be given (Opinion No. 61, Secretary of Agriculture,
Washington, District of Columbia).
5. Variety: true name, that is, the name by which the
variety is known on the market. Commercial abbreviations
may be used. If not known the expression "VARIETY UN-
KNOWN" may be used.
6. Packer: name and address of, or of person by whose
authority the apples were packed or repacked. If repacked
the package shall be so marked. (Name and address of farm
will comply with this requirement.)
Order of Statements on Barrels.
Regulation. — The statements required by the law, and by the regu-
lations adopted thereunder, shall appear on one end of the barrel in the
following order: —
1. Name of the State in which the apples were grown.
2. Grade.
3. Minimum size.
4. Quantity of contents.
5. Variety.
6. Name and address of packer or repacker.
Regulation. — The word "MASSACHUSETTS" as used on packages
containing apples grown in Massachusetts shall be considered as showing
the State in which said apples were grown as well as applying to the
grade.
13
Marking of Closed Packages.
Color of Ink to be used.
Regulation. — All letters and figures relating to grade or brand, in-
cluding private marks, used in marking or branding a closed package
packed in accordance with the provisions of the law shall be in ink of one
color.
Barrels.
Only block letters and block figures of a size not less than
OINT
OTHIC
(one-half an inch high) may be used in stating on the outside
the information required.
14
The following is a reduction of a photograph of a well-
balanced barrel stencil. Notice that space is left at the bottom
for name and address of consignee.
^M^"f^^
STANDARD
/^
^^V MAi\J)AUJI y>
^ FAiXCY (JllADi: 'X*
Mix.siZK :i Ii\(;h]:s
<)Ni: sT'D.iun.
BALDWINS
L.K. TOWNSEND
MaldeixMass.
15
Another style of stencil is illustrated below. With the ex-
ception of the words " PACKED BY," the letters, before re-
duction, were all 36 point Gothic. This allows more space for
other marks, but does not in any way alter the provision that
such other marks as refer to grade or brand must not be more
conspicuous than the marks required by law.
fai\(;y (;iiA])]:
Mixsr/i: a inches
om: sT'i). hhl.
BALDWINS
L. i:. TOWX^SKND
mali)i:n. mass.
16
Packages Other than Barrels: How Branded.
Regulation. — The branding or marking of closed packages other than
barrels shall be in letters and figures of such a size that the statements
required by sections 4 and 5 of the act and by the regulations shall, when
properly spaced, cover at least one-half the outside of one end of the
package or at least one-half the label affixed thereto.
This is illustrated bv the following: —
M A S S AC H U S 1] T T S
STAXDAllD
FANCY (lllADi:
MIX. sizi: a ii\cHi:s
COUNT lOO
BALDWINS
*• P a <j k (? i\ 1) y *
L. K. TOWNSli:Nl>
MALDKX, MASS.
17
Other Marks.
The packer or distributor may put any marks on the package
other than those required by law, provided, however, that such
marks as relate to grade or brand are not inconsistent with, or
more conspicuous than, the required marks. This gives an
opportunity for the grower or packer to affix his own brand, or
name of farm, and facts concerning the quality or other
characteristics of the apples.
In the case of the type of label illustrated below, the brand is
subordinated to the grade. The words "Townsend Farm,"
however, might be as conspicuous as the words " Massachusetts
Standard Fancy Grade," but should not be more conspicuous.
The name of the variety might be substituted for the word
"Apples," and the label would then read, for example, "Town-
send Farm Baldwins."
MASSACHUSETTS
STMDARD FANCY GRADE
TOWNSEND FARM
APPLES
GROWN AND PACKED BY
L.E.TOWNSEND
MALDEN, MASS. U.S.A.
VARIETY MIN. SIZE INCHES COUNT
18
The label below again illustrates the provision that the required
marks must cover at least one-half the label. In other words,
more than one-half the label must not be used for private marks.
Any design or trade-mark may be inserted with or without the
farm name or brand.
MASSACHUSETTS
STANDARD FANCY GRADE
APPLES
VARIETY
MIN. SIZE
INCHES
COUNT
TOWNSEND FARM
BRAND
GROWN AND PACKED BY
L.E.TOWNSEND
MALDEN , MASS. U.S.A.
Regulation. — Qneh marks as "No. I's," "No. 2's," "XX," "XXX,"
"Extra," and the like shall not be used on closed packages.
Approval of Stencils and Labels.
For the purpose of guarding growers and packers against the in-
currence of unnecessary expense on their part it is recommended
that before having stencils cut or labels printed there be sub-
mitted in duplicate to the secretary of the State Board of Agri-
culture, for his approval, a sketch, drawing or proof of the pro-
posed stencil or label. One copy will be returned, the other filed.
19
May be Graded and Branded otherwise.
Regulation. — Apples packed or repacked within the State in closed
packages may be graded and branded in accordance with the provisions
of the United States Apple Grading Law only when they are intended
for shipment to another State or to a foreign country; unless so graded
and branded, they shall conform to the requirements of the Massachusetts
Apple Grading Law.
POSTER.
Write Wilfrid Wheeler, Secretary, Massachusetts State Board
of Agriculture, 136 State House, Boston, for a poster for your
packing house or shed, showing the main requirements of the
Apple Grading Law.
20
Append ix.
UNITED STATES STANDARD BARREL LAW.
[Public — No. 307 — 63d Congress.]
[H. R. 4899.]
An Act to fix the Standard Barrel for Fruits, Vege-
tables, AND Other Dry Commodities.
Be it enacted by the Senate arid House of Representatives of the
United States of America in Congress assembled, That the stand-
ard barrel for fruits, vegetables, and other dry commodities
other than cranberries shall be of the following dimensions when
measured without distention of its parts: Length of stave,
twenty-eight and one-half inches; diameter of heads, seventeen
and one-eighth inches; distance between heads, twenty-six
inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches, outside meas-
urement; and the thickness of staves not greater than four-
tenths of an inch: Provided, That any barrel of a different form
having a capacity of seven thousand and fifty-six cubic inches
shall be a standard barrel. The standard barrel for cranberries
shall be of the following dimensions when measured without
distention of its parts: Length of staves, twenty-eight and one-
half inches; diameter of head, sixteen and one-fourth inches;
distance between heads, twenty-five and one-fourth inches;
circumference of bulge, fifty-eight and one-half inches, outside
measurement; and the thickness of staves not greater than
four-tenths of an inch.
Section 2. That it shall be unlawful to sell, offer, or expose
for sale in any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, or
to ship from any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia to
any other State, Territory, or the District of Columbia or to a
foreign country, a barrel containing fruits or vegetables or any
other dry commodity of less capacity than the standard barrels
defined in the first section of this Act, or subdivisions thereof
known as the third, half, and three-quarters barrel, and any
person guilty of a willful violation of any of the provisions of
this Act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and be liable
to a fine not to exceed S500, or imprisonment not to exceed six
21
months, in the court of the United States having jurisdiction.
Provided, hoivever, That no barrel shall be deemed below stand-
ard within the meaning of this Act when shipped to any foreign
country and constructed according to the specifications or direc-
tions of the foreign purchaser if not constructed in conflict with
the laws of the foreign country to which the same is intended
to be shipped.
Section 3. That reasonable variations shall be permitted and
tolerance shall be established by rules and regulations made by
the Director of the Bureau of Standards and approved by the
Secretary of Commerce. Prosecutions for offenses under this
Act may be begun upon complaint of local sealers of weights
and measures or other officers of the several States and Terri-
tories appointed to enforce the laws of the said States or Terri-
tories, respectively, relating to weights and measures: Pro-
vided, however, That nothing in this Act shall apply to barrels
used in packing or shipping commodities sold exclusively by
weight or numerical count.
Section 4. That this Act shall be in force and effect from
and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and sixteen.
Approved, March 4, 1915.
UNITED STATES APPLE GRADING LAW.
" The Sulzer Bill."
[Public — No. 252 — 61st Congress.]
[H. R. 21480.]
An Act to establish a Standard Barrel and Standard
Grades for Apples when packed in Barrels, and for
Other Purposes.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of
the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the
standard barrel for apples shall be of the following dimensions
when measured without distention of its parts: Length of
stave, twenty-eight and one-half inches; diameter of head,
seventeen and one-eighth inches; distance between heads,
twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four inches
outside measurement, representing as nearly as possible seven
thousand and fifty-six cubic inches: Provided, That steel barrels
containing the interior dimensions provided for in this section
shall be construed as a compliance therewith.
Section 2. That the standard grades for apples when packed '
in barrels which shall be shipped or delivered for shipment in
22
interstate or foreign commerce, or which shall be sold or oflFered
for sale within the District of Columbia or the Territories of the
United States shall be as follows: Apples of one variety, which
are well-grown specimens, hand picked, of good color for the
variety, normal shape, practically free from insect and fungous
injury, bruises, and other defects, except such as are necessarily
caused in the operation of packing, or apples of one variety
which are not more than ten per centum below the foregoing
specifications shall be " Standard grade minimum size two and
one half inches," if the minimum size of the apples is two and
one half inches in transverse diameter; "Standard grade mini-
mum size two and one-fourth inches," if the minimum size of
the apples is two and one-fourth inches in transverse diameter;
or "Standard grade minimum size two inches," if the minimum
size of the apples is two inches in transverse diameter.
Section 3. That the barrels in which apples are packed in
accordance with the provisions of this Act may be branded in
accordance with section two of this Act.
Section 4. That all barrels packed with apples shall be
deemed to be below standard if the barrel bears any statement,
design, or device indicating that the barrel is a standard barrel
of apples, as herein defined, and the capacity of the barrel is
less than the capacity prescribed by section one of this Act,
unless the barrel shall be plainly marked on end and side with
words or figures showing the fractional relation which the actual
capacity of the barrel bears to the capacity prescribed by section
one of this Act. The marking required by this paragraph shall
be in block letters of size not less than seventy-two point one
inch gothic.
Section 5. That barrels packed with apples shall be deemed
to be misbranded within the meaning of this act —
First. If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device
indicating that the apples contained therein are " Standard "
grade and the apples when packed do not conform to the re-
quirements prescribed by section two of this Act.
Second, If the barrel bears any statement, design, or device
indicating that the apples contained therein are "Standard"
grade and the barrel fails to bear also a statement of the name
of the variety, the name of the locality where grown, and the
name of the packer or the person by whose authority the apples
were packed and the barrel marked.
Section 6. That any person, firm or corporation, or asso-
ciation who shall knowingly pack or cause to be packed apples
23
in barrels or who shall knowingly sell or offer for sale such barrels
in violation of the provisions of this Act shall be liable to a
penalty of one dollar and costs for each such barrel so sold or
offered for sale, to be recovered at the suit of the United States
in any court of the United States having jurisdiction.
Section 7. That this Act shall be in force and effect from
and after the first day of July, nineteen hundred and thirteen.
Approved, August 3, 1912.
MASSACHUSETTS APPLE GRADING LAW.
General Acts, 1915, Chapter 261, as amended by Chapter 63, General Acts,
1916.
An Act relative to the Packing, Grading and Sale of
Apples,
Standard Barrel and Standard Box defined.
Section 1. The standard barrel for apples shall be of the
following dimensions when measured without distention of its
parts: — length of stave, twenty-eight and one half inches; diam-
eter of heads, seventeen and one eighth inches; distance between
heads, twenty-six inches; circumference of bulge, sixty-four
inches, outside measurement; and the thickness of staves not
greater than four tenths of an inch: provided, that any barrel of
a different form having a capacity of seven thousand and fifty-
six cubic inches shall be a standard barrel.
The standard box for apples shall be of the following dimen-
sions by inside measurement: eighteen inches by eleven and one
half inches by ten and one half inches, without distention of its
parts, and having a capacity of not less than two thousand one
hundred seventy-three and one half cubic inches.
Grades defined.
Section 2. The standard grades of apples when packed or
repacked in closed packages within this commonwealth shall be
as follows: — "Massachusetts Standard Fancy" shall include
only apples of one variety which are well matured specimens,
hand-picked, above medium color for the variety, normal shape,
of good and reasonably uniform size, sound, free from disease,
insect and fungus injury, bruises and any other defects except
such as are necessarily caused in the operation of packing, and
shall be packed properly in clean, strong packages: provided,
that apples of one variety which are not more than three per
cent below the foregoing specifications may be graded as " Mas-
sachusetts Standard Fancy".
24
"Massachusetts Standard A" shall include only apples of one
variety which are well matured specimens, properly packed, of
medium color for the variety, normal shape, sound, practically
free from disease, insect and fungus injury, bruises and other
defects except such as are necessarily caused in the operation of
packing: provided, that apples of one variety which are not more
than five per cent below the foregoing specifications may be
graded as "Massachusetts Standard A".
"Massachusetts Standard B" shall include only apples of one
variety, which are well matured, properly packed, practically
normal shape, practically free from disease, insect and fungus
injury or any other defect that materially injures the appearance
or useful quality of the apples, and which may be less than
medium color for the variety: provided, that apples of one
variety which are not more than ten per cent below the fore-
going specifications may be graded as "Massachusetts Standard
B".
"Ungraded". Apples not conforming to the foregoing speci-
fications of grade, or, if conforming, not branded in accordance
therewith, shall be classed as ungraded and so branded.
Use of Other Marks permitted.
Section 3. The marks indicating the grade, as above pre-
scribed, may be accompanied by any other designation of grade
or brand if such designation is not inconsistent with, or marked
more conspicuously on the package than, the mark or marks
required by section five of this act.
Minimum Size to be marked on Packagre.
Section 4. The minimum size of the fruit in all grades, in-
cluding the ungraded, shall be marked upon the package, and
shall be determined by taking the transverse diameter of the
smallest fruit in the package at right angles to the stem and
blossom end. Minimum sizes shall be stated in variations of one
quarter of an inch, such as two inches, two and one quarter
inches, two and one half inches, two and three quarters inches,
three inches, three and one quarter inches, and so forth, in ac-
cordance with the facts. Minimum sizes may be designated by
figures instead of words. The word "minimum" may be desig-
nated by using the abbreviation " min."
Closed Packages to be Branded.
Section 5. Every closed package of apples packed or re-
packed in the commonwealth and intended for sale, either within
25
or without the commonwealth, shall have marked in a conspicu-
ous place on the outside of the package in plain letters a state-
ment of the quantity of the contents, the name and address of
the packer or of the person by whose authority the apples were
packed, the true name of the variety and the grade and the
minimum size of the apples contained therein, in accordance with
the provisions of sections two, three and four of this act, and the
name of the state in which they were grown. If the true name
of the variety is not known to the packer or other person by
whose authority the apples are packed, the statement shall in-
clude the words "variety unknown", and if the name of the
state in which the apples were grown is not known, this fact shall
also be set forth in the statement. If apples are repacked, the
package shall be marked "repacked", and shall bear the name
and address of the repacker, or the name and address of the
person by whose authority it is repacked, in place of that of the
original packer.
Style and Size of Letters and Figures fixed.
Section 6. The branding or marking of barrels under the
provisions of this act shall be in block letters and figures of a
size not less than thirty-six point Gothic. The secretary of the
state board of agriculture shall prescribe rules and regulations as
to the lettering to be used in branding or marking other closed
packages.
Packing, Sale or Distribution of Adulterated or Misbranded Apples
prohibited.
Section 7. It shall be unlawful for any person to pack, sell,
distribute or offer or expose for sale or distribution, apples which
are adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act.
"Adulterated" defined.
Section 8. For the purposes of this act, apples packed in a
closed package shall be deemed to be adulterated if their measure,
quality or grade does not conform in every particular to the
brand or mark upon or affixed to the package, or if the faced or
shown surface gives a false representation of the contents of the
package.
"Misbranded" defined.
Section 9. For the purposes of this act, apples packed in a
closed package shall be deemed to be misbranded: —
First. If the package is packed or repacked in the common-
wealth and fails to bear all statements required by sections two,
26
three, four and five and in accordance with the provisions of
section six of this act.
Second. If the package, whether packed or repacked within
or without the commonwealth is falsely branded, or bears any
statement, design or device, regarding the apples contained there-
in, which is false or misleading, or if the package bears any state-
ment, design or device indicating that the apples contained
therein are of a specified Massachusetts standard grade, and said
apples, when packed or repacked, do not conform to the require-
ments prescribed by this act for such grade.
Cold-storage Apples to be inspected.
Section 10. Apples which have been in cold storage shall not
be sold or distributed, or offered or exposed for sale or distribu-
tion, in closed packages until they have been inspected in ac-
cordance with rules and regulations to be prescribed by the
secretary of the state board of agriculture.
Rules and Regulations to be made.
Section 11. The secretary of the state board of agriculture
shall make rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions
of this act, and he shall publish, on or before the first day of
September following the passage of this act, and after a public
hearing, rules for the grading and packing of apples and speci-
fying, for each variety of apples, the minimum size which shall
be included in the grade designated as "fancy"; and he may
thereafter modify such rules and regulations.
Inspectors authorized to enter Places and open Packages.
Section 12. The secretary of the state board of agriculture,
in person or by deputy, shall have free access at all reasonable
hours to any building or other place where apples are packed,
stored, sold, or offered or exposed for sale. He shall also have
power in person or by deputy to open any box, barrel, or other
container, and may, upon tendering the market price, take
samples therefrom.
Appropriation provided.
Section 13. For the purpose of carrying out the provisions
of this act there may be expended during the present fiscal year
a sum not exceeding one thousand dollars, and thereafter such
annual expenses as may be necessary shall be paid from the
annual appropriation for disseminating useful information.
27
Penalty fixed.
Section 14. Any person who adulterates or misbrands apples
within the meaning of this act, or who packs, repacks, sells,
distributes, or offers or exposes for sale or distribution, apples in
violation of any provision of this act, or who wilfully alters,,
effaces or removes, or causes to be altered, effaced or removed,
wholly or partly, any brands or marks required to be put upon
any closed package under the provisions of this act, shall be
punished by a fine not exceeding fifty dollars for the first offence,
and by a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars for each subse-
quent offence.
Certain Persons exempted and Liability placed.
Section 15. No person who sells or distributes or offers or
exposes for sale or distribution apples adulterated or misbranded
within the meaning of this act shall be deemed to have violated
any of the provisions of this act, if it shall appear that he acted
in good faith solely as a distributor, or if he shall furnish a.
guaranty signed by the person from whom he received the
apples, with the address of such person, that the apples are not
adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act. In
such case, the person from whom the distributor received the
apples shall be liable for the acts of the distributor who relied
upon his guaranty, to the same extent as the distributor would
have been liable under the provisions of this act.
"Person" and "Closed Package" defined.
Section 16. The word "person", as used in this act shall
include persons, firms, corporations, societies and associations,
and the acts of agents and emploj^ees shall be construed to be the
acts of their principals and employers as well as of the agents
and employees. The words "closed package" shall mean_ a
barrel, box or other container the contents of which cannot be
sufficiently seen for purposes of inspection without opening the
container.
The act took effect upon its ■passage, except that the provisions of
sections one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten,
fourteen, fifteen and sixteen were not operative until the first day^
of July, in the year nineteen hundred and sixteen.
®tie ^ommontucaltl) of itta00acliu0ett0.
STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 51.
August, 1915.
TOBACCO GROWING
IN THE
CONNECTICUT RIVER VALLEY.
Leslie R. Smith.
From the Sixty-third Annual Report op the Massachusetts State Board or
Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,
32 DEENE STEEET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
According to the latest census reports the Connecticut river towns in
Massachusetts produce about a million and a half dollars worth of tobacco
annually. As the last definite enumeration was the Federal Census of
1910, which reported the 1909 crop, these figures are now six years old.
The increase since that year has been steady, and it is safe to say that
the annual value of the crop in this State at present is not far from
$2,000,000.
The tobacco towns of Massachusetts are entirely in Franklin, Hamp-
shire and Hampden counties. By the latest available figures Hatfield is
the banner tobacco town of the State, with a production valued at $301,-
204; Hadley, second, $192,258; and then come Agawam, Whately, Deer-
field, Southwick, Westfield and Sunderland in the order named. Hatfield
alone has 17 tobacco storehouses, and 425 freight cars are needed to ship
the tobacco crop from this one town.
TOBACCO GEOAVING IN THE CONNECTICUT
EIVER VALLEY.
LESLIE R. SMITH, HADLEY, MASSACHUSETTS.
Tobacco has been grown in the Connecticut valley since
about 1840, and while the crop has had its ups and downs it
may be said to have steadily increased in acreage since that
time. The past fifteen years have seen by far the greatest
percentage of increase, and the end is not yet. Every grower
is growing all the tobacco that he can hang in his curing sheds,
and so new sheds are the very best indication of an increase in
acreage. The increase of 1915 over the 1914 acreage was
around 25 per cent. This crop is by far the most important
money crop grown in this section, and represents extensive
and intensive agriculture of the highest order.
The rapid increase of the past fifteen or twenty years may be
explained by improved machinery, more abundant help, and,
most important of all, the fact that in recent years the crop
has brought prices that enable the grower to make expenses
and have something left over for his labor and as a profit for
his operations.
The successful tobacco grower is a specialist, as no crop
grown calls for more scientific knowledge or the application of
more common sense. In the growing, harvesting and curing
of the crop the grower has to know something of practical
chemistry, physics and biology.
But after all is said and done, the weather is the dominant
factor. The history of the good or poor tobacco crop tells the
story of the weather, — as in 1893 when the crop w^as largely
a failure on account of drought, and in 1897 again a failure on
account of excessive rain. Late frosts in the spring, early frost
in the fall, the hail and windstorms, periods of excessive mois-
ture or too dry weather at curing time, all show how the grower
must depend upon nature for his ultimate success. Indeed
from the time the seed bed is sown until the end of the season
the only time that the grower is sure of his success is when he
gets the money for his crop. Yet he is optimistic; he "nur-
tures hope," he raises his crop, doing all he knows how, and if
appearances count for anything he is getting along perhaps as
well or better than the average business man.
There is no ironclad rule to be laid down for raising tobacco.
The best growers often change their methods and are constantly
on the lookout to learn of new ideas that will prove beneficial,
so that the story of tobacco growing as told in this article will
not attempt to tell of any best way, but will describe the
methods as practiced by the most progressive growers.
The Seed Bed.
Tobacco is raised on the same land year after year. Most
growers plow or harrow the land immediately after the harvest,
thus avoiding a useless second crop of suckers that grow from
the stump and remove a good deal of plant food from the soil.
Many believe that if the field is kept fallow during the late fall
and winter it will not attract the moth that lays the egg of
the cutworm, a pest that is the cause of much trouble. The
land is left fallow until the next year's crop is set out. This
period is a convenient one in which to apply lime.
Each year finds the grower paying more and more attention
to the seed bed, there being perhaps no one thing that gives
him as much satisfaction in the spring as a good bed. Opera-
tions begin in the fall, the grower selecting a place for his bed
sheltered from the cold north and west winds. Sometimes it
may be necessary to build a board fence for this purpose. INIany
apply the fertilizer at this time and harrow it in. This is con-
sidered the better way if cottonseed meal is used, and some
of the best growers say that there is nothing better. In the
spring as soon as the ground is dry enough to work the beds
are "made." This operation consists of fitting the land,
putting up a frame and sowing the seed. Beds used to be
covered with brush, but this material has been superseded by
cloth and glass, glass being by far the better. The sash are
3 by 6, 3 by 9 or 3 by 11 feet, to suit the grower. These
glass beds have enabled the grower of to-day to transplant or
"set" tobacco from three to four weeks earlier than from the
brush-covered beds of years ago. In "making" the bed the
land is made as fine as possible with harrows and rollers, and
last with a hand rake. The seed is sown by some growers
at the rate of one teaspoonful to the scpiare rod; others sow
one tablespoonful to the square rod. After being run through
a cleaning machine to blow out the dirt and light seeds the
clean seed is usually mixed with plaster, ashes or fertilizer so
as to get an even stand. After sowing, the bed is either raked
lightly, rolled with a hand roller or simply wet down with a
hose; then the cloth or glass is put on. Some sow the seed
dry, while others sprout it first.
There are two varieties of tobacco raised in the valley, —
Havana seed and Seed Leaf or Broad Leaf. The former is by
far the most common in the ^Massachusetts part of the valley,
only a comparatively few raising the Broad Leaf.
After the plants are up every known method is used to force
them. The bed may be sprinkled with manure water, or with
water which has had ammonia added at the rate of one tea-
spoonful to the gallon, or water with nitrate of soda dissolved
in it. Another method is to sow fertilizer before watering.
Dry ground fish is a good material for this purpose as it does
not injure the young plants and it is quickly available. Great
care should be taken of the bed, especially a glass bed. Often
a fine bed is ruined because the owner did not raise his sash on
a hot day; again, lack of air also causes "damping oft'," a
disease in which the plant decays just above ground. Steriliz-
ing the ground with live steam in the fall or spring is growing
in favor as this not only kills all fungous diseases, but the weed
seeds as well. A large square pan of galvanized iron, boards
or other material is inverted over the bed. This is pushed
down into the soil, after which live steam is turned under the
pan and held at a pressure of 80 pounds for half an hour, when
the pan is moved to a new place. An objection to the wood box
is that it becomes heavy after being soaked with steam. One
pan made of galvanized iron (5 by 12 feet cost a grower $22.
This grower claims that his beds were steamed at a cost of
about $1 per square rod. He grows about 30 acres and
started to steam his beds in the fall, but was compelled to
give up the operation on account of freezing and finish in the
8
spring. This grower advocates steaming in the fall, as fuel
is saved by the ground not being cold, and there is no frost
to thaw out. Many growers claim that this steaming will pay
for itself simply in the saving of weeds.
Fertilizing the Crop.
Materials used to fertilize the crop are barnyard manure,
city stable manure, tobacco stalks, tobacco stems and com-
mercial fertilizers of many kinds. Barnyard manure is not
extensively used because it is not to be had. However, if used
it should be plowed under either in the fall or spring. A great
deal of city stable manure is bought. Tobacco stems are used
to some extent, but the quantity is limited. Quite a number of
growers are plowing under their tobacco stalks which have
been found to contain from 6 to 8 per cent, potash. At a to-
bacco meeting held during the winter of 1915 one of the
speakers asked how many growers present plowed under their
stalks, and about one-half of those present replied in the
affirmative. This well illustrates the attitude of the grower.
The bulk of the valley crop is raised on chemical fertilizer,
and nearly every fertilizer company makes one or more special
brands for this crop. Neither all the good nor all the poor
tobacco is raised on one particular brand. Years of experience
have taught the grower to be particular about the goods he
uses. The materials must be quickly available as the crop must
ripen in from sixty to eighty days from setting. The fertilizer
also has considerable effect on those desirable qualities known
as "body," "finish" and "burn." Cottonseed meal is the
favorite source of nitrogen. Other ammoniates used are linseed
meal, dry ground fish and castor pomace. Bone of some sort
is well liked as the source of phosphoric acid, and sulphate
is the favorite potash, muriate being tabooed on account of
the chlorine contents which affect the "burn."
With a coat of manure 1 ton of fertilizer per acre will raise
a good crop, but where manure is not available 1| to 2 tons of
the high-grade goods are often used, the idea being to have
enough plant food to insure a good growth. After the land is
plowed, harrowed and rolled the fertilizer is applied broadcast.
For this operation the fertilizer machine is invaluable, es-
pecially in windy weather. No time or expense should be
9
spared in properly fitting the tobacco land, filling in furrows,
if there are any, and using the most efficient tools to pulverize
and level the land.
Setting.
Transplanting or setting the plants generally begins about
the 20th of May, and is the order of the day until the crop is
well started, usually a month later. Setting is almost wholly
done with a machine called the tobacco setter, and this is by
far the most valuable machine used in the business. The old
back-breaking method of hand setting has almost entirely dis-
appeared from the valley. The setter needs plants that are a
little larger than for hand setting, but does the ridging, setting,
watering and marking for the next row at one operation. This
machine requires three men and a pair of horses, and can easily
set two acres in an afternoon, while in an all-day session three
to five acres can be set, depending on conditions. Tobacco is
usually set with the rows 3 feet apart, and the plants from 15
to 20 inches apart in the row. Plants that do not live should be
reset at once by hand if an even stand is to be had.
Cultivation.
As soon as the plants have started cultivation begins. A
favorite tool for the first time is a 12-tooth cultivator, which
by careful handling will allow the operator to work close to the
row, the machine being run twice in each row. If deep cul-
tivation is to be practiced, the early part of the season is the
time to do it, before the root system has developed. Hand
hoeing is next in order, and from now on as long as a horse
can travel between the rows the land should be stirred once a
week or even oftener. Some growers hoe by hand three or
four times in a season, while others use the horse hoe. Many
different methods are used, but the principle is the same,
namely, to keep the soil well stirred so as to retain moisture
and to keep the plant growing all the time.
Topping and Suckering.
When the plant has grown large enough for the seed bud to
appear, the top is broken off, or the plant is "topped," the
idea being to throw the strength that would naturally co into
10
the small top leaves, blossom and seed into the larger leaves
left on the stalk. These are usually from 18 to 22 in number.
After the field is topped it presents a very even appearance.
In a week or ten days after "topping" suckers will appear,
starting from the base of the three or four top leaves. These
are picked off, or the plant is "top suckered." After these top
suckers are taken off the leaves further down the stalk will
begin to throw out suckers, and these in turn must be picked
off. Usually when the bottom suckers are grown or are big
enough to take off the plant will be nearly or quite ripe and
ready to harvest. This will be about three weeks from "top-
ping." The crop should be allowed to get ripe, a condition
which is shown by the plant having a slightly wilted appear-
ance, especially on the bottom leaves. Light green blotches will
also show all over the top leaves. There can be no doubt that
some crops are cut too green, the result being a dark-colored
crop that will not bring the best prices.
Harvesting.
There are three methods of harvesting in vogue in the
valley to-day. The first two to be described have been in
practice for years; the third is a new method that is gaining
in favor each year. The first is "hanging on lath." The
plants are cut close to the ground with a thin-bladed hatchet
made for the purpose. They are then laid down lengthwise
of the row^ and overlapping each other; after lying in the sun
long enough to wilt they are picked up and handed to the
"stringer" who strings them on a lath. These laths are sim-
ilar to builders' laths, being sawed a little thicker and from
better lumber. One end is placed in a "stringing horse" and
the other end is fitted to a steel needle. The plant is then
strung on the lath by forcing the needle through the butt of
the stalk about 6 or S inches from the end, 5 or 6 plants
being strung on a lath. The full lath is either laid on the ground
and later picked up, or handed directly to a wagon fitted with
a rack made for the purpose. It is then drawn to the curing
shed and hung on poles, arranged so that each end of the lath
rests on a pole, allowing the tobacco to hang downward. Poles
are usually 15 feet long and from 25 to 30 laths are hung on a
11
pole. They begin at the top of the shed and are hung tier
after tier until the shed is full, the tiers being usually 5 feet
high.
"Hanging on string" is another well-known method of har-
vesting, and many growers favor it above all others. The
plants are cut as before, only they are laid crossways of the
row, and after being allowed to wilt are loaded directly onto
low wagons, the butts laid all one way. The plants are then
drawn into the shed where they are hung on poles with tobacco
twine. The hanger carries a bag on his back which holds a
ball of twine. With this he hangs the plants about 8 inches
apart on the poles by tying a half hitch around each plant.
When the pole is full the twine is tied around the last plant,
broken ofY and the next pole started.
Priming.
This new method of harvesting tobacco came with the shade-
grown tobacco, and has found favor among many growers who
grow the outside or sun-grown tobacco. The barn has to be
rigged differently, with the tiers only half as far apart as either
of the methods previously described. The plant is not cut, but
the leaves are picked off or "primed," as they ripen, four or
five at a time, beginning with the bottom one. The pickers sit
down between the two rows and "prime" both rows, placing the
leaves in little piles. These are picked up by another man and
placed in baskets and are drawn to the end of the row on a
hand truck, loaded onto a wagon, and taken to the shed where
the leaves are strung. Generally women and children do this
work, using large needles and stringing forty leaves on a string,
which has been knotted at one end. After the leaves are all
on, the stringer knots the other end of the string and hangs it
on a lath which has been notched at either end. These laths
are then hung up tier upon tier as aforesaid. In a few days
the second priming is taken and so on until the crop is har-
vested. Cases have been known where the first priming has
become cured and taken down before the last priming was
taken, thus giving a chance to use the shed a second time in
the same season. When the crop is to be primed it is not
necessary to top the plant. After the priming is finished the
12
stalks are cut down and utilized in different ways; some growers
run them through a cutting machine and plow them under or
use them for top-dressing grass.
Curing.
The curing shed is really the factor limiting the increase of
tobacco acreage. It is useless for the grower to set more plants
than he has shed room to take care of. To hang an acre of
tobacco requires a shed 30 by 30 feet. A building this size will
cost from $300 up, depending upon whether it is of frame or
of pole construction. The pole shed is built by setting the
posts in the ground and is not framed, the braces being nailed
on. This type of shed is by far the most common. The frame
shed is built so that every third board is a door for ventilating
purposes.
With the crop in the barn the grower has to watch it closely,
opening the ventilating doors on some days and closing them on
others; at all times there should be a man near at hand to note
the changes in the weather and to act accordingly. With tons
of water in the crop which must evaporate in a few weeks this
is an anxious time for the grower. Too much moisture will
retard evaporation; then, too, there is danger of "pole sweat,"
while a dry season with the doors open all the time will dry
and not cure the crop.
Taking Dow^n.
With the crop cured the next step is to take it down. The
tobacco has now changed from a heavy green leaf to a light
thin brown, and is so dry that it will crumble if grasped by
the hand. To get the crop down whole, therefore, it has to be
handled at a damp time, when the leaf is said to be in "case"
or, more commonly, "in good shape." "As soft as a kid
glove" is an expression often used in describing this condition.
When this warm, damp spell comes, no matter if in the middle
of the night or on Sunday, the grower gets very busy with all
the help he can command and takes down all he can handle.
With the lath method the laths are simply slipped off the pole,
and with a man on each tier are handed very carefully and
quickly to the floor. There the tobacco is pulled off the lath
and piled with the butts laid both ways, making a pile about
13
6 feet wide and as high as the weather will allow. Early in the
fall the pile cannot be made as high as later, because the stalks
are green and there is more danger of the pile heating.
When hung on string a man at each end of the pole pushes
the tobacco into a bunch in the middle of the pole. One man
with a sharp knife then cuts the string, the other man handing
the bundle to the man lower down, when it is piled as before.
With the primed tobacco it is simply slipped off the string and
placed at once into a bundle. After the pile is made it must
be at once covered so as to retain the moisture. Different
materials are used for this purpose, such as damp cornstalks,
paper, cloth, etc. From now on the crop must be kept damp,
and the shed should be shut as tight as possible to keep out
the wind.
Stripping.
As soon as possible after the tobacco is taken down "strip-
ping" begins. With the hands on either side of the pile a
section is uncovered, each plant is taken up, and the leaves
rapidly picked off or "stripped" one at a time. The stripper
begins at the butt, and when finished piles the stumps behind
him. The leaves are placed in the stripping boxes which are
of dift'erent sizes, 36 inches long and 12 inches square being
about the average. The box is made with three sides and the
ends tight, with saw calves on the side for the string. First
the string is placed in the box, then paper of the right size.
After the box is full the paper is brought over the top, the string
is tied and the bundle taken out of the box. The bundles are
piled up from three to five high and the crop is then ready for
delivery. The grower has to deliver the crop to the place
agreed upon at time of sale, either to a warehouse or a railroad
station. Some of the crops are bought in the field before they
are harvested, but the majority of the tobacco is sold, and
nearly all is delivered to the sorting shops in the bundle. The
sorting, packing and sweating is done by the dealer in most
cases, and there are the best of reasons for this, as from twenty
to thirty varieties are made from the crop and one single
grower would have only a little of each variety.
The sorting shop of to-day is a good example of specializing.
Here the dealer will grade and pack to suit his trade, making
light, medium and dark wrappers, with three to five sizes of
14
each; binders, top leaves and fillers, with different sizes of
each. These different grades are packed into boxes 2^ feet
square and of different lengths. From 300 to 375 pounds are
packed and pressed into a case, which usually goes directly
to the sweatroom. This sweating process used to be done in
nature's good time, and was accomplished during the hot
summer months, the tobacco being dry and ready for market
in the fall. Now, however, the crop is forced to sweat by
placing it in a steam-heated room with the thermometer at
130 degrees. In about thirty days the operation is complete,
and the goods are ready for market. The sorting shops employ
a great deal of help during the winter and pay good wages.
They usually open about November 1 and run well into April,
closing in time to let their men out for outdoor work.
Shade-grown Tobacco.
This article would not be complete without describing in a
measure the latest thing in growing tobacco in the valley. To
get a cigar wrapper that would possess the qualities of the
domestic leaf and yet be thin enough to compete with the goods
grown in the tropics the experiment of growing tobacco under
shade was tried first in 19(X). To-day this process seems to
have passed the experimental stage and has evidently come to
stay. !Many growers are growing from 20 to 50 acres under
cloih, while the larger corporations are growing from 100 to
300 acres.
The entire field is set with posts with wire strung across the
top. This framework is then covered with cheesecloth, making
a vast tent. The plants are set as before described, then the
sides are covered so that the cloth reaches to the ground. This
tent tobacco is not topped, and often the blossoms will reach
the cloth 9 feet from the ground. The tobacco is cultivated
by the same methods as outside tobacco, and is harvested by
the priming method.
Enemies.
The first real trouble with tobacco is the fungus in the seed
bed, and the steaming process already described is the remedy,
in the opinion of many growers.
15
Cutworm.
Immediately after the plants are set the cutworm begins to
operate and is at times a serious enemy, not only causing a
lot of resetting, but, what is worse, causing an uneven crop of
tobacco that will not ripe evenly. A good remedy is a poisoned
mash made by mixing a pound of Paris green with a hundred
pounds of bran; this should be sweetened lightly with cheap
molasses, using water enough to make a stiff paste, and a
very little should be dropped beside each plant. This may be
done by hand at no great trouble or expense, or by a machine
made for the purpose and attached to the setter. Another way
is to mix 1 pound of Paris green with 50 pounds of red dog
flour, sifting a little on each plant. This is done with a home-
made sifter and is not an expensive operation.
Wireworms.
Sometimes, and especially in a cold, wet season the wire-
worm causes considerable trouble for the tobacco growers.
While the plant is small the worm will bore directly into the
heart of the stalk, and the plant will have the appearance of
being alive, yet will be dying all the time. The only remedy
is late plowing which not only kills the worm but will destroy
many of its egg cells.
Horn IJ^orm.
Early in July there will appear on the tobacco plant a small
green worm hatched from an egg about the size of the head of
a pin. This egg is laid by a moth that flies only at nightfall.
The worm will grow as large as a man's finger, and as it grows
will eat more and more ravenously. One worm will often spoil
two or three plants. Hand picking is the only remedy prac-
ticed in the valley.
Grasshopper.
The ordinary grasshopper will cause trouble occasionally,
especially if the field is next to a grass lot. After the grass is
cut, if the weather is dry and the rowen crop does not readily
start, the hopper will eat the leaves of the plant next to the
grass full of little round holes. Some growers protect their
field by planting two or three rows of corn between the tobacco
and the grass.
16
Hail and Wind.
The elements mean real trouble for the grower, as hail and
wind may quickly ruin his crop. Insurance is possible at a
cost of $7.50 per acre. A policy of SloO per acre for a total
loss will about pay for the cost of the crop.
Early Frost.
The remedy for this is to have the crop under cover before
the frost comes.
Pole Sweat.
Pole sweat is caused by a spell of damp, warm weather during
curing time, when the atmosphere is so damp that evaporation
cannot take place. It may be controlled by the use of char-
coal fires built in the shed, either in holes dug in the dirt floor
or in small furnaces made for the purpose.
These are a few of the troubles that keep the tobacco grower
guessing the whole season long. Other problems will only be
settled as time brings the answer. One question that is causing
much discussion is the supply of humus. Without manure
there is a danger of the soil being without vegetable humus, and
as a result it packs down too hard and does not retain moisture
as it should. Some growers are using a cover crop, sown as
soon as the tobacco crop is harvested and plowed under early
in the spring. This plan is being tried out more and more, the
claim being made that not only does the cover crop supply a
certain amount of humus, but that it also keeps the soil from
washing and blowing during the late fall and winter months.
Barley, vetch and rye are the crops usually sown.
Just a few last words on the subject of "handling." The
idea of tobacco growing is to make money. In order to get the
best price for his goods the grower must raise good tobacco.
He must handle it right after he has raised it. Many a crop
is spoiled in harvesting. The leaves should be kept free from
holes, sunburn, bruises, etc., all of which can be avoided by
proper handling. The grower is mistaken when he thinks he
can save money by using boy or cheap help, as a slovenly,
careless man may easily spoil more tobacco in a day than he
is worth. The dealer will many times buy tobacco before it is
17
harvested if he knows that the grower is a good handler and
that he will put up his crop right. Another grower gets the
name of being a "hog handler," as it is called. Dealers say
that he handles his tobacco just as he does his cornstalks; thus,
as in other things, it is true of tobacco raising that "whatever
is w^orth doing at all is worth doing well."
Estimate of Cost of raising One Acre of Tobacco
Rent of land (including use of shed),
Labor (including raising plants).
Fertilizer,
If bed is steamed, ....
Paper and twine, ....
70
50 to $80
2
2
$174 to $204
1,500 pounds
15 cents
Estimate of yield for past five years, ....
Estimate of price for past five years, ....
This is the average, but it is true that many growers get from
1,700 to 2,000 per acre and from 15 to 20 cents per pound.
Cost of Shade-grown Tobacco.
According to the figures obtainable it costs around 45 cents
per pound to raise shade-grown, and it has been sold at 90
cents per pound. The yield per acre has been around 1,400
pounds.
®l)e (HommontDcalti} of ittassacljusetts.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CmCULAR No. 52.
August, 1915.
ONION GROWING
IN THE
CONNECTICUT RIVER VALLEY.
Leslie R. Smith.
From the Sixty-third Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board op
Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,
32 DEENE STEEET.
1915.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
Next to potatoes and green corn the onion crop has the largest value
of any vegetable crop in Massachusetts, the last State census giving this
crop an annual value of S662,000. The two leading counties in onion
production as with tobacco are Hampshire and Frankhn, in the order
named. Hampden County, the southernmost of the Connecticut River
counties, however, does not rank high in this crop. The distribution of
the onion crop over the State is much wider than with tobacco, and Essex,
Middlesex, .Bristol and Worcester counties all raise appreciable quan-
tities. The towns of Arlington and Belmont, in particular, both raise
considerable quantities.
Hatfield and Sunderland are the two leading towns in onion growing
and are followed by Hadley, Deerfield and Whately. Probably the prin-
cipal reason for the preponderance of onion growing in the Connecticut
valley is the ease with which the land there can be" worked on account of its
level and comparatively stoneless nature. The crop is fairly adaptable,
however, and farmers who have any flat land of a muck nature would do
well to try onions on it in a small way.
Onion Growing in the Connecticut Valley.
LESLIE R. SMITH, HADLEY, IMASSACHUSETTS.
In the past twenty years onion growing in the Connecticut
valley has grown from almost nothing to a money crop second
in importance only to tobacco. Acres that were formerly given
up to grass, corn and other general farm crops are now taken
up with this crop, which is successful both on the heavier and
lighter soils of the valley. The abundant Polish help is prob-
ably the one largest factor in bringing this about, and the
fact that onions can be grown with very little capital has given
many of these hard-working people a start toward prosperity.
The Polish are raising nearly all the onions in the valley to-day,
either on shares, by the acre, or on their own farms. Other
factors which have combined to make the crop very much of
a success are the ease with which the valley can be worked
by modern farm machinery, on account of its level nature
and freedom from stones; the system of storage houses that
has become a necessity to the handling of the crop; nearness
to the large market centers; and first-class shipping facilities.
Without any great fanfare of trumpets, a system of co-
operation has grown up here in the onion business, very prac-
tical and very successful, which enables the man who owns the
land to do a profitable business only limited by the number of
acres that he has suitable for onion raising. This is what
makes it possible for an honest, industrious man without a cent
of capital to go into business for himself and to get a start
toward a home. This has happened here in the valley time
and time again.
A farmer may have forty acres of onions being grown by a
dozen or more different men, each absolutely independent of
the other. By one plan the farmer will furnish the land and
the fertilizer, sometimes the team work and one-half the seed;
6
the grower will do all the hand labor, harvesting, etc., and each
have one-half of the proceeds. By another plan a farmer may
contract with the grower to do the work for a stated sum per
acre, and the grower contracts to take care of from two to
five acres, according to the size of his family, for in the onion
business "every one works, father not excepted." Each plan
is in common practice, and there are arguments in favor of
both.
With the "share system" the grower is as much interested
in the success of the crop as the owner, and will work as hard
to keep the land clean from weeds and do everything in his
power to get the crop early, in order to receive the highest
price at market time and incidentally to make a reputation
for himself as a good grower. A successful grower is in good
demand and can get his pick of the onion fields. With the
other plan, the grower is sure of his price per acre, as the
owner takes all the risk, and of course all the profits if such
there be. In either case a contract is drawn up signed by both
parties which specifies just what each party agrees to do. This
contract gives the owner permission to enter upon the premises
at such time or times as he may see fit to inspect the crop of
onions, and, if at any time the grower shall fail to perform all
the labor necessary to raise the crop, gives the owner the
privilege of doing or furnishing such work and labor as shall
be necessary to raise and protect the crop until the time of
sale, and the grower agrees to pay to the owner such sums as
this shall be reasonably worth. These contracts are nearly
always fulfilled. Once in a while a crop does not look well
when it comes up on account of poor seed, or for some other
reason, and the grower will throw up his contract, and in so
doing forfeits what work he has already done. Cases have
occurred where, after the grower had given up his contract,
the owner has hired the same party to care for the crop at so
much per acre, and has made more money than he would had
the grower held to his agreement.
Growing the Crop.
After the owner has planned how many acres of onions he
will let out next year he will get busy in the fall, plow his
land, and if possible apply lime if his soil needs liming. The
;»'
■.^
onion crop is sown just as soon as the land is dry enough to
work in the spring, and so this fall work is essential. In the
spring every horse is at a premium, and a team with driver has
received $7.50 a day at this time. If, however, lime has not
been applied in the fall and is to be applied, then it is the first
job in the spring and should be followed by the wheel or cut-
away harrow, and right here is a good time to say that extra
team labor expended at this time will be time and money
saved later in hand hoeing and weeding. Team work is far
cheaper than hand work, and this is true of any crop: a
deep-plowed, well-fitted soil is an asset all the season through,
especially in case of drought.
The plow that has become the most popular is the sulky,
because the dead furrow is obviated, which is a great advantage
in the onion field. The harrows used are mostly the wheel or
cutaway, the Acme and the Meeker smoothing harrow. After
the field is thoroughly wheel-harrowed the fertilizer is applied
with a fertilizer distributor, a machine universally used. This
machine is not only a labor-saver, but allows fertilizer to be
applied on a windy day, when hand work would be out of the
question.
Fertilizer: Kind and Amount.
The onion field has to be enriched by the use of commercial
fertilizer. Barnyard manure is seldom used because of the
weed seeds which it carries, as this material in the soil would
interfere in a measure with the use of the wheel hoes and hand
cultivators, and last because the onion grower does not have
it to use; so it is a question of commercial fertilizer. Opinions,
both with regard to the brand and the amount of fertilizer,
are as varied as there are different growers. A grower is very
apt to try again the brand that has raised him one good crop,
or that has raised his neighbor a good crop. There are growers
who buy the chemicals and mix their own fertilizer, but others,
and probably the majority, buy ready-mixed goods. Both
methods are in vogue and there are arguments in favor of each.
An analysis of 3.30 nitrogen, 8 phosphoric acid, 7 potash
(actual) is about the popular goods used in the valley, and
nearly all the fertilizer companies make a brand of this or
similar analysis. Hundreds of carloads are used annually in
the onion section.
8
The growers all know that there must be no shortage of
plant food for the crop. The up-to-date farmer understands
that his overhead charges are fixed, that is, he has to stand the
expense of plowing, fitting, cultivating and harvesting; that
the cost is about the same whether an average crop is grown
or a bumper crop, and that up to a certain point the profit
increases with the increased yield; so it is a vital error of
judgment to hazard chances of a profit by being "pennywuse
and pound foolish" in skimping the fertilizer. The Connecti-
cut valley grower sows one and one-half tons of fertilizer to
the acre, and is not at all backward about putting on an extra
half ton if he thinks that it is necessary. This is usually
applied at one time, but some large growers are trying the
experiment of keeping one-half ton to apply in mid-season.
After the fertilizer is applied there is probably no better tool
to use in harrowing it in than the Acme harrow, and after all
is done that can be done with this or similar tools there is
nothing that will put on the finishing touch and leave the land
in as nice a condition for sowing the seed as the Meeker smooth-
ing harrow. This implement was born with the onion industry
and increases in popularity yearly.
Sowing of the Seed.
Good seed is important, so important that fortunate indeed
is the grower who (regardless of price) has purchased a really
first-class seed. Southport Globe is the variety most com-
monly used, and the growers are very particular in regard to
it, often purchasing subject to a germination test at the
Massachusetts Agricultural College, and in a great many cases
having the seed "blown" at the college. This process consists
in running the seed through a machine with a bellows attach-
ment that will blow the dirt and the small light seeds out. The
amount varies from 5 to 6 pounds per acre. Either of these
amounts would be too much if every seed matured, but all do
not sprout; the onion maggot gets some, and more are cut out
from time to time in the process of hoeing and weeding through-
out the season. The rows are sown either 12 or 14 inches apart,
and there are a number of seeding machines on the market,
both single and double row, that do satisfactory work.
Cultivation.
As soon as the rows can be seen the hoe is started, either the
wheel or the common scuffle hoe. One will often see hoes of
three or four makes working in the same field and all doing
good work, as much more depends on the man than the hoe
that he uses. From this time until the crop is drawn away the
fields are alive from dawn until dark with men, women and
children. jMany growers put up a little shanty which serves as
a shelter on hot days for the hands to eat their lunch in and to
keep the tools in at night.
The lesson has been well learned that onions and weeds do
not get along well together, and the good grower knows that he
must weed early and often to keep the field clean. Fields that
have grown onions for years, or "old fields," as they are called,
will be easily kept clean with three or four weedings during the
season. New fields will require more attention, the crop need-
ing to be hoed from six to ten times, depending on weeds
and weather. After the crop has grown so that wheel hoeing
is out of the question the weeds can be taken care of with a
common hoe with a handle cut to a length of 6 inches.
When the onions have attained their growth and begin to
die down they are "pulled" either by hand or with machine.
There is an attachment to the wheel hoe which consists of a
curved and sharpened blade that runs under the rows, cutting
the roots and throwing the onion out of the ground, and this
does good work if the field is free from weeds.
The onions are allowed to lie for a few days to let the tops
cure, then "clipping" begins. This operation means the han-
dling of each onion and clipping the top off with the onion
shears. In the west machines do this work, but as yet they
have not been received with favor in the valley. After clipping,
the onions should not be allowed to lie on the ground too long,
especially during rainy weather, as this will cause the outer
skin to crack open, leaving the onion green, and interfering
with the selling and keeping quality. The better way is to
shovel them into old fertilizer bags with a wire scoop; from
these they can be readily dumped into the screen. Screens of
different sizes are used, varying in mesh from 1| to 1| inches.
Running over these screens the onions are sorted into No. I's
10 .
and picklers. Incidentally this cleans and improves the looks
of the crop. From the screens the onions are put into bags
holding 100 pounds net and sewed up, and are then ready for
shipment. The practice of putting the crop into new and
uniform bags is gaining in favor, especially at the market end
of the business.
Marketing.
The bulk of the onion crop is sold to a bu3'er in the fall;
indeed, if the grower has not storage he must either sell the
crop or rent storage. The system of storage houses that has
grown up in the valley within a few years is the direct result
of necessity. The old practice of dumping the whole crop of
valley-grown onions on the market as soon as ready was dis-
astrous, as it simply meant glutting the market and unsettling
market prices to a marked degree. Whether to sell or to hold
in storage is a question for every grower to settle for himself,
as his own circumstances will be the determining factor. One
prominent grower and dealer made this statement this winter,
"that in a period covering ten years the grower who sold in the
fall would make fully as much money as the man who held in
storage." There is the cost of handling, storage and shrinking
to take into consideration, and as before stated each grower
will have to decide the question for himself. The buyer stores
the onions and then supplies the market as fast as the demand
appears.
Troubles.
Yes, the onion grower has them, and some years there are
plenty. Perhaps the first thing that troubles the grower and
causes him to lose sleep is the high wind that comes each
spring through April and May. This is especially dangerous
for the man who is raising onions on light land, as the wind
will in some cases blow the seed from the ground, and every
year finds some fields resown for this reason. The only remedy
for this trouble is irrigation, of which more will be said later.
Next, the onion maggot has the floor, and as yet no remedy
for this pest has appeared. The eggs of this insect are laid by
the onion fly on the outside of the plant close down to the
earth; the eggs hatch and the young maggot directly eats his
way into the heart of the plant. The first sign of trouble
11
the grower has is when the onions begin to die, and on pulHng
them up he finds the maggot, sometimes four or five in a single
stock. A little extra heavy seeding and keeping the plants
growing as rapidly as possible is about all one can do in this
case.
Another serious insect enemy is the thrips, and here the best
remedy is irrigation, as this is a dry-weather trouble. The
writer has seen a field covered with thrips and looking as though
a fire had run over it, while just across the road was a field as
green and healthy as one could wish, simply because of irriga-
tion. The thrips is an insect that appears in dry weather and
sucks the juice out of the tops of the onions, always starting
on the knolls and spreading very rapidly. In practically every
instance the crop will stop growing at whatever stage it hap-
pens to be.
On some old fields a disease known as smut has appeared and
caused trouble. One partial remedy is to use formaldehyde
diluted 1 gallon to 50 of water and applied at the time of
sowing the seed. A 2-gallon tank is attached to the seed sower
with a small hose or lead pipe running down under it and
running a small stream of the mixture directly into the seed.
Irrigation.
Up and down the valley are different growers who are ex-
perimenting with irrigation on the onion fields, and so far re-
ports are favorable. This will obviate the trouble of the seed
and fertilizer blowing off in the spring, and is believed to be
a remedy for the thrips; but most important of all is the fact
that the grower who irrigates can control the supply of mois-
ture and so increase his crop. The system used is the overhead
one, and the cost of installation will range from $150 to $200
per acre, depending on the area and the amount of labor that
the grower can do or furnish. Instances will be found where
absolutely reliable men say that the system has paid for
itself the first year.
Cost of Growing.
It is comparatively easy to figure the cost of raising native
onions. The crop should be charged with whatever equally
good land could be rented for; then there is the cost of plowing,
12
fitting, etc., depending on how much time is put on the field.
Fertilizing will cost from $50 to $60 per acre, seed from $5 to
$12 per acre, hand labor from $65 to $90 per acre, and if there
is trouble with smut there is the cost of the formaldehyde.
Sacks are usually furnished by the buyer.
A man who understands his business can care for three acres
of onions, and if he has a family with children will do more by
occasionally hiring a few days' help. As stated before, plenty
of our thrifty Polish farmers have made their start this way,
but they work and work hard, believing that "seed time and
harvest will never fail." And in the majority of cases they
win out.
Cost of One Acre of Onions.
Rent of land (or interest if land is owned), ^ . . $20.00 to $40.00
Plowing, 2.50 to 3.50
Fitting, 5.00 to 5.00
Fertilizers, 50.00 to 60.00
Seed, 5.00 to 12.00
Labor, 65.00 to 90.00
Formaldehyde, 1.00 to 1.00
$148.50 to $211.50
The yield per acre runs from 500 to 1,000 bushels, and the
average price to the grower for the past five years (in the fall)
has been about 55 cents. From these figures it is apparent that
a good-sized crop of onions should yield a good profit to both
the owner of the land and the grower.
' These figures are based on Connecticut River valley conditions. The item for rent is of
course high, but this is because good onion land in this section commands from SlOO up to
even $800 an acre. A farmer in another .section where land was not so valuable would save
considerable expense on this item. — Editor.
®1)? Olommonm^altlj of iia0sarl)«aptt0.
STATE BOAED OF AGKICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 53
January, 1916.
POULTRY AND EGG PRODUCTION.
Harry R. Lewis.
From the Sixtt-thibd Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTEE FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,
32 DEENE STEEET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
POULTRY AND EGG PRODUCTION.
HARRY R. LEWIS, POULTRY HUSBANDMAN, NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
It is with extreme pleasure that I have been able to meet
with you at these sessions and receive some of the spirit of
progress and co-operation which is so very apparent every-
where. I feel especially at home among you, for I not only
have met many personal friends, but am, myself, a native of
southern New England, having been born and reared on a
large poultry and general farm in Rhode Island. While the
conditions are somewhat different in New England than they
are in New Jersey, yet a careful study of both have convinced
me of the fact that the principles underlying the successful
management of the flocks are the same. Any slight differences
which may be necessary are of application, the method of
applying the principle varying with the breed kept, climatic
and market conditions. We have, as you know, in New Jer-
sey a State which is noted for its large commercial egg farms,
where White Leghorns predominate, and where the white-
shelled egg for the New York market is the primary consider-
ation. Here in New England, the larger, heavier, general-
purpose breeds, useful for both meat and eggs, have by far
the leading advantages. New England is especially fortunate
in having not only suitable land and admirable climate, but
also unlimited markets, and I firmly believe that with more
attention to the farm poultry flocks, with better methods of
production, the poultry industry of New England could be
made one of its leading and most remunerative branches of
agricultural effort. In order to accomplish this there are cer-
tain fundamental considerations which must be studied, and I
would present the following to you for consideration.
I. Keep Pure-bred Birds of a Well-established Breed.
We hear a great deal these days about utility versus fancy,
which, analyzed, means the production of eggs and meat
versus shape and plumage pattern. This agitation about the
so-called utility possibilities has doubtless been brought about
by the results secured at the egg-laying contests throughout
the country, and also by some phenomenal records which have
been made by some cross-bred birds. As a general statement
it may be said that it is a mistake to attempt to produce eggs
or poultry continuously from cross-bred stock. Considered
over a period of years, birds which are continuously cross bred
produce no characteristics which are not supplied by pure-
bred individuals. Cross-bred birds show no reliability in breed-
ing where egg production is the primary object. A larger egg
production can be secured from typical egg breeds than can
be secured from crosses of the egg and dual type. Where
meat production is the object, larger returns both in quality
and quantity can be secured where the pure-bred meat breeds
are used. The use of standard bred birds, of a well-established
variety, results in a uniform flock, both as to general appear-
ance, size, shape and color, and the birds bring a more uni-
form price on the market than the mixed types. They cost
no more to keep than a mongrel or a bird of mixed breed, for
they consume no more feed nor do they require any more labor
to care for them. Where pure-bred birds are kept, often con-
siderable revenue can be secured from stock and eggs sold for
breeding purposes. The additional revenue so secured is
almost all clear profit. These factors should be given careful
consideration before an attempt is made to produce eggs at a
profit from a flock which has been promiscuously cross bred.
Constitutional or inherited vigor is, above everything else,
necessary in order that the poultry flock shall succeed con-
tinuously. It is the experience of the author that where the
stock is weak, poor hatches result, high mortality is common,
low egg production and sick birds are the rule. On the other
hand, where poultry farms have made marked success it can
be traced in almost every instance to sturdy, rugged, healthy,
vigorous stock. In discussing the stock there are a number of
things to consider. Foremost is the determination of the
breed best adapted to produce the type of product required.
The birds themselves have frequently been likened to machines,
which are required to transform the raw product — feed —
into a finished product, — eggs and meat. Without a well-
built machine this transformation cannot be carried on at a
profit. There are many different types of birds, each designed
for the production of a different type of product. The determi-
nation of the breed should be the first question decided. Three
general classes of birds exist, first, the so-called egg or light
breeds, most of which are of Mediterranean origin, of which
the Leghorn is the typical example. These birds are kept in
large numbers on successful farms where the production of
white eggs for the wholesale markets is the primary object.
It is an established fact that in New Jersey and New York
these white-shelled eggs sell for from 3 to 15 cents more than
brown eggs, the average premium being about 5 cents per
dozen during the entire year. This difference is not apparent
in Boston or southern New England. These light-egg breeds
stand the confinement well and admit of herding together in
large flocks. They are essentially active and are close feath-
ered. Their rather large fleshy head parts require careful
protection against freezing during severe weather in the
winter.
The second type of bird may be called the general-purpose,
and this includes the Wyandotte, the Rhode Island Reds and
the Orpingtons. These breeds are characterized by their abil-
ity to lay a goodly number of brown-shelled eggs, and to
bring in considerable revenue when sold for market purposes.
It is this type of bird which is kept on some of the large com-
mercial farms, but they more especially comprise the popular
type on the farm and in the suburban communities. Being
largely dual purposed they are the most desirable type for
supplying home demands.
The third type of fowl comprises the meat breeds, of which
the Brahma and Langshan are examples. These are the largest
birds kept in flocks where market poultry products are the
primary object, and especially where capons and roasters con-
stitute the main marketable product. Recognizing these three
distinct types, the breed should be selected which personally
appeals to the poultryman, and which produces the best type
or combination of products for his particular object or markets.
II. Make Special Selected Matings for Breeding
Purposes.
The aim of every poultry keeper, if he expects to remain in
the business, should be to continuously build up his flock by
breeding. Where the poultry and egg production is the primary
object, the breeding efforts will be along two distinct lines. The
first is to develop the most efficient egg machine which it is
possible to breed. This means that his birds must be capable
of turning out a maximum number of eggs of good quality
during the winter season of high prices. This machine must
be maintained at the minimum cost for feed and labor. The
second object should be to develop a bird for table purposes,
which will attain a sufficient weight in the shortest possible
time, the flesh being of high quality and put on with the least
expenditure for feed, thus securing the greatest possible margin
of profit.
Paralleling these two aims in breeding should be the contin-
uous effort to breed for vigor and stamina. I would that there
were words in the English language which would enable one to
express the great importance of vigorous stock. During the
time that one is breeding for the so-called ability or commer-
cial characteristics he should not lose sight of breed charac-
teristics, and by selection and careful mating should improve
his birds in respect to the body conformation which is required
of that respective breed; and in order to maintain uniformity
and an attractive appearance about the farm he should study
to fix more permanently a uniform plumage pattern.
These results cannot be accomplished by promiscuous breed-
ing, but they can be secured by continuous selection and the
making of small special matings each year, following out a
definite scheme of inbreeding and line breeding. A brief dis-
cussion of the most available method follows.
None will deny the fact that variations exist in birds, some
good and some bad. The power of selection which the poul-
tryman possesses is a wonderful instrument for improvement.
The difference in birds is made possible by variation and by a
continual selection of those which possess desirable qualities,
and propagating these qualities into future individuals. A
higher standard of efficiency in the progeny will thus continu-
ously be secured. Careful attention to breeding accomplishes
two definite things, — it increases the production of individuals,
thereby making it possible to secure higher individual records,
and it stimulates the average of the mass through the elimina-
tion of poor producers and the substitution of heavy layers
in their place.
In order to be able to select and breed intelligently, the poul-
tryman must know what his flock is doing. He must know the
flock average in egg production. And what is of even greater
importance, he must be willing to trap-nest a small percentage
of his birds in order to learn individual performance. Unless
he can determine the very best birds, selection and breeding
with the idea of improving the average w^ill accomplish little
for lack of a basis of selection.
III. Hatch relatively early.
The time of year for hatching chicks which are to be reared
as future pullets, or which are to be sold for broilers, should
be carefully considered. A few weeks too early or a few weeks
too late may mean the difference between a profitable winter
production in the case of pullets, or in the case of broilers it
may mean the difference between 30 and 50 cents a pound on
the market. Late hatched pullets grow slowly during the sum-
mer, owing to the fact that they do not get a good start, and
hence do not come into maturity in the proper time in the fall,
and do not get under way in egg production before winter shuts
down. On the other hand, if they are hatched too early, as,
for example, early February and March, they will doubtless
molt in the late fall, which will cause a lower production dur-
ing the balance of the winter. The exact time for hatching
will be determined largely by the type of bird kept. The
8
American general-purpose breeds are characterized by slow
growth, and hence must be hatched earlier than the light,
active Mediterranean breeds which mature in from one month
to six weeks' shorter time. The Leghorn and birds of their
type are best hatched about the middle of April. Where it is
necessary to bring off more than one hatch, they can be safely
brought off from April 1 to May 15. This will give them be-
tween five and six months in which to mature, and thus be in
laying condition by October. Heavier breeds will usually do
better if hatched from the middle of March, and not later
than the last of April.
The following are some of the more important advantages
coming to the poultryman Avho tries February hatching : —
1. A considerable egg yield is secured during the late summer
and fall, when the yearling hens are on strike, due to molt.
2. The eggs produced during these fall months bring high re-
turns when sold for table purposes, due to scarcity.
3. The pullets may be profitably used to produce hatching
eggs the following spring. A good number with strong germs
and of good size is assured.
4. Cockerels which can later be used for breeding make good
size and strong development early in the season.
5. The chicks will make an excellent growth before the hot,
dry weather of summer comes on with its retarding effects.
6. Surplus cockerels will sell for high prices as broilers during
the early spring.
7. The farmer will find early hatching profitable, as he can
give them better care at this time than after the rush of
spring planting begins.
8. To the commercial poultryman it lengthens his hatching
season, and does not compel such intensive concentration as if
all the pullets were brought off during one month.
9. The females reach maturity long before the intensely
cold weather commences, which means greater vigor and better
resistant powers.
10. A greater combined efficiency from all operations if the
proper proportion of early hatched birds is kept.
Another factor which affects the time of hatching is the con-
Quality in market eggs means more profit. (Courtesy of the New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Stations.)
dition of the range upon which the chicks are reared and the
method of feeding. Youngsters which are provided during the
summer with an abundance of range, providing shade and green
food and plenty of nutritious food material, will make a more
rapid and uniform growth than flocks which are crowded into
small bare yards during the same time.
The hatching egg should be carefully selected in order that
it may be uniform in shape, size, and, as far as possible, in
color; it should also be strictly fresh and of normal shell. If
these characteristics are chosen, the tendency is for the progeny
to lay a more uniform product.
Experience shows that eggs decrease in their hatching power
the longer they are held, and it is never safe to hold hatching
eggs over three weeks. When it is necessary to hold them for
even a short time they should be placed in a moderately cool
temperature, between 40 and 50 degrees being the most desir-
able. They should also be turned occasionally to keep the air
cell from becoming misplaced. If possible, it is well to stand
them on the end, leaving the air cell uppermost. The character
and quality of the chicks resulting from the hatch will depend
in large measure upon the condition of the hatching eggs
placed in the machine. Too much care cannot be expended in
keeping the eggs in a normal condition.
IV. Practice Constant Selection.
Selection should not only be continuously practiced in mating
the breeding flocks, but it should be the plan to eliminate
weak or sick birds throughout the brooding, rearing and adult
periods whenever they appear. Fowls which show at any time
a lack of inherent ability to resist disease are never a profit-
able animal on the farm.
Constitutional vigor, or, expressed differently, inherent
vitality and stamina, is pictured by the perfect health, the
activity and the vitality which is seen in strong fowls. Birds
showing a lack of these are unsatisfactory, both as producers
and reproducers. As we expect more and more of the modern
hen in the way of production, fowls often break down, and the
effect is especially shown in future progeny. Much of the
10
low vitality and poor hatching quality in eggs, much of the
weakness of the brooder chicks, much of the mortality and
disease in adult stock can be traced to lowered vitality in
ancestors, due in many cases to the immense requirements for
production. The average hen is expected to lay in a year
from four to five times her body weight in eggs. This means
one egg approximately every third day of the year. In order
to perform this feat of production she must consume approxi-
mately twenty-five to thirty times her body weight in feed.
There is, doubtless, no farm animal which is more efficient as a
transformer of the raw material into the finished product than
the hen. The successful breeding for vigor means the appre-
ciation of two sets of factors, — first, the lack of vitality, and
second, signs in an individual which determine the presence or
absence of vigor. Valuable work has been done by a number
of our experiment stations in studying these factors.
The successful commercial poultryman and the farm poul-
try keeper who have studied their birds have learned that
forcing, due to heavy feeding, or to intensive conditions, if
continued year after year, cannot but, in the end, break down
the physical strength of birds so treated. They have also
observed that inbreeding for a number of generations, without
regard for vigor in succeeding generations, intensifies the char-
acteristics of low vitality which the original parents possessed.
The use of pullets for breeding purposes, due to their imma-
turity, cannot but result in progeny of small size and pos-
sessed of less than their full quota of stamina. Forced feeding
during the winter and fall, especially of concentrated protein
feeds, has the immediate effect of taxing the digestive system,
causing the bird to go off its feed and lowering its energy and
physical strength. The continued crowding of breeding stock
into poorly ventilated quarters, and the giving to them an
insufficient amount of exercise, is another direct cause of low
vitality. Such conditions will be apparent in the fertility and
vitality as possessed by the germ in the hatching egg. Lack
of care in hatching and improper range conditions for the
growing stock are two other common causes of lack of vigor.
Probably the greatest of all causes is the failure of the poul-
tryman to select his breeding stock with great care. Breeding
11
from nonvigorous birds means nonvigorous progeny, whereas
the breeding from vigorous birds means vigorous progeny.
When mating up the breeding pen, select male birds which
show signs of physical strength and superiority; for example,
the bird with a bright prominent eye, with a well-developed
blocky body, with an erect carriage, glossy plumage and bright
comb and wattles. The vigorous birds are usually active and
spirited in their movements. They range extensively in search
of forage. They will be seen to scratch energetically in search
of feed. In a great many cases they are the last birds on the
perch at night and the first birds off the perch in the morning.
In the case of the male, the loudness and frequency of the crow
is an indication of physical superiority, while the continual
cackle and singing of the female has the same indication. It
will be evident to any practical poultryman that there is a
very definite and fixed relation which exists between the ex-
ternal appearance of fowls and their vitality; hence it should
be the aim to systematically select for constitutional vigor at
all ages and for all purposes.
V. Induce a Uniform, Rapid Growth.
A possible serious loss to the poultryman is death in the
brooder. This loss can be, in large measure, avoided by select-
ing a suitable brooding system which will maintain proper
environmental conditions, and in addition to this, by providing
the chicks with a suitable feed ration. For the small poultry-
man, brooding only 200 or 300 chicks, the small outdoor
brooder of 50 or 60 capacity may be satisfactory, but for the
commercial poultry farm, or for the farm flock where 300
chicks and upwards are reared, the so-called colony brooder
stove will be found very desirable. These are recent products,
having been put on the market within the last two years. A
great many different types are available. One which is sub-
stantially constructed and has a rather large metal reflector
which can be raised and lowered, and which is provided with
an accurate, simple method of regulating temperature, should
be satisfactory. From 300 to 500 chicks (never over 500) can
be placed under one of these hovers, and a brood of from
85 to 95 per cent, should be secured. The commercial plant
12
doing considerable winter brooding, especially where winter
broilers are produced, will find that an intensive brooder house,
with a central heating plant and pipe running under the hovers,
will have certain advantages. The colony brooders seem
to be, at the present time, the most economical solution to
the brooding problem. They should be placed in a rela-
tively large house, never smaller than 12 by 14 feet, preferably
of two rooms, one room containing the heater or hover, in
which a fairly warm temperature is maintained, and an adja-
cent room in which the chicks can be fed and take their exer-
cise. This colony system of brooding allows the chicks from
the beginning considerable range, and cuts down the cost in
permanent equipment and labor. It also enables the use of
the house continuously throughout the year, for after the
chicks have gotten old enough to do without heat, the stove
can be removed and the house used for a colony house during
the growing period, in which the pullets can be left until they
attain maturity. During the winter the houses can be used
for a short period for special breeding flocks.
The proper feeding of the artificially brooded chick is im-
portant, since the digestive system during the first four weeks
is very delicate and easily upset by improper feed. The gen-
eral practice should be to feed the chick the first few weeks of
its growth without forcing, allowing to develop a vigorous con-
stitution with a good body growth, and after that time it can
better stand forcing for a rapid meat growth when desired.
When planning the rations for the youngsters, and when
determining the method of feeding, it is important to ppre-
ciate that the first feeds should be easily seen and should con-
tain much nutriment. It is also well to practice a restricted
or retarded early feeding in order that their delicate digestive
organs may not be overcrowded. Grit and shell are important
essentials in the chick ration, and fresh water should be pro-
vided in large amount. Dry, cracked grains are safer, for the
first few weeks at least, than wet mashes. Wheat bran is an
important addition to the feeding practice, as it contains ash,
is slightly . laxative and is relished by the birds. Ash in the
form of phosphoric acid can be secured in the form of dry
ground bone, and is an essential element. During the early
13
part of the feeding period the chicks should be fed little and
often, and should be kept busy and hungry between feedings.
Sour milk in a loppered condition is very desirable, as it not
only furnishes much food material, but the lactic acid present
acts as an internal disinfectant. A continuous effort should be
made to practice clean feeding, for nothing will upset the
digestive system quicker than sour and moldy feed.
Hardening -off Process.
In order to get the chicks in condition for removal to the
range it is necessary after the second week to practice a hard-
ening-off process. This should be gradual and consist of lower-
ing the temperature, with the idea of doing away with artifi-
cial heat entirely in from three to six weeks, depending upon
outside weather conditions. The best practice is to reduce the
artificial heat until it can be entirely given up, then gradually
to raise the hover until it can be entirely open, and replace
with muslin-covered frames, having them hung to the hover
wall, gradually raising them in front a little each night until
the chicks become used to their absence. It is impracticable to
take them from a warm, heated brooder house and put them
into a colony house unless they have been accustomed gradu-
ally to the change. The idea should be to get them on the
range as soon as possible. When they are four weeks of age,
the sooner they can be gotten out into the cool temperature in
large, well-ventilated quarters, with free range, an abundance
of green food and access to the ground, the better they will
grow and the hardier and more vigorous will they be at ma-
turity.
This hardening-off process is especially desirable with Leg-
horns, as their close feathering makes them susceptible to cold
weather, and when not properly weaned they pile on top of
one another to keep warm. This usually results in the death
of many and a loss of vitality to the others.
After the chicks are weaned and placed on the range the
aim should be to induce a continuous growth throughout the
summer. Any checks or setbacks which they might be sub-
jected to, due to improper feeding or care, will result in irreg-
ular maturity and lack of uniformity. There are two factors.
14
aside from their inherited characteristics, which affect proper
maturity. These are environmental conditions and food supply.
Environment plays an important part, as the best bred
chicks, possessing all other desirable characteristics, if not
given ideal conditions in which to grow will not exercise or
develop to the fullest extent. These conditions are as follows: —
1. One should not attempt to grow young stock on restricted
range.
2. Shade should be provided in abundance.
3. An abundance of green succulent food material is very
necessary.
4. The type and size of the house in which the chicks are
placed bears a close relation to their growth. Fresh air is the
limiting factor.
The method of feeding the growing stock is not complicated.
The practice should consist of having the food before them all
the time, so that they can balance their own ration. They will
usually take sufficient exercise if given plenty of range; hence
the common practice is to feed a well-balanced dry mash in
large, self-feeding hoppers, and supplement this mash with a
good cracked grain ration. A complete dry mash should be
used, it being always before them. In addition to this, a
ration consisting of equal parts of cracked corn and whole
wheat should be fed twice a day about the range.
This method of feeding will allow the chicks to balance
their own rations, and will give the weaker ones a constant
supply to which they can have access when they are crowded
away at the grain-feeding time by the larger ones. Dry mash
in self-feeding hoppers will tend to equalize growth and produce
a more uniform flock at maturity, while the feeding of cracked
grains entirely will tend to exaggerate and constantly increase
any difference in size which may exist. Large self-feeding
hoppers, holding from 200 to 300 pounds of mash, can be con-
structed and placed at frequent intervals around the range.
This will facilitate the feeding and make the mash available
at all times and to all cliicks.
15
VI. Provide a Suitable Environment.
The design of a poultry house and of its construction deter-
mines in large measure the environmental conditions which
will surround the bird. The modern poultry house must pro-
vide all the features necessary to create ideal conditions, for
no matter how well a flock of birds may be bred, if the poul-
try house is damp, drafty, cool and poorly lighted, disease
and a decrease in vigor will surely result.
The following are the principles governing the design and
construction of a suitable poultry house: —
(a) Dryness is fundamental in the poultr}' house.
(b) Plenty of sunlight needed.
(c) Importance of thorough ventilation.
(d) Give the birds plenty of floor space.
(e) Birds must be protected from an excessive cold temperature.
(/) The construction of the house must be rat proof and vermin proof.
(g) Economy in construction is a first-hand consideration in designing
and building the laying house.
With these few words as to the principles of design, the fol-
lowing discussion of the New Jersey multiple unit laying house
will give the details necessary to construct an efficient house
possessing the features above mentioned.
The Neiv Jersey Multiple Unit Laying Hou^e.
The following plan of a shed-roof house, 20 by 40 feet, is
especially suited to New Jersey poultry farms. Where it is
desirable to keep larger units than a 40-foot house will accom-
modate, it is recommended that the length be doubled, mak-
ing it 20 by 80, with three cross partitions (one every 20 feet),
instead of only one, as in the 40-foot house.
The following description of the above plan shows the im-
portant features : —
The outside dimensions are 20 by 40 feet, sills to be 4 by 6,
and to be bolted to a concrete foundation wall 8 inches wide,
which is laid on tamped cinder or crushed stone, the entire
depth of the foundation trench being 3 feet.
The shed-roof type of construction is used with 9-foot stud-
ding in front and 4|-foot studding in back. All studding and
16
rafters are 2 by 4 hemlock or yellow pine. A 2 by 6 girder
runs the length of the building supporting the rafters on con-
crete piers. The plates should be of 2 by 4 material doubled
and joints broken.
All outside walls and roof should be single boarded, prefer-
ably of 8 or 6-inch tongued and grooved yellow pine; white
pine can be used, but is much more expensive. The roof and
back wall should be covered with a good roofing paper; all
joints should be carefully lapped and cemented.
The muslin curtains in the front wall are hinged at the top
and can be lifted up. The 3 by 5 glass is hinged at the side
and open. One window in each pen should be so constructed
that part of the wall will open when desired, thus making a
combination door and window. This will greatly facilitate
cleaning and filling hoppers, etc., in an extremely long house.
The dropping boards, perches and nests are best arranged
on the back wall, the perches being hinged to the wall so that
they may be hooked up when cleaning, the nests being darkened
by a hinged door in front which may be let down when it is
desired to remove the eggs.
The dividing partition between the units is built of boards,
and extends from the back wall to within 6 feet of the front
wall; the remaining space is left entirely open. This protects
the birds from any drafts when on the roosts. When desired,
portable light wire partitions may be used to separate the
units. A large dry mash hopper should be built into this
middle partition. If four or five units are built, it is only
necessary to have a hopper in the center of each two units,
the other dividing partition being utilized for nesting space.
This hopper should be constructed with a wooden cover hing-
ing at the center. There is a slatted elevated platform under
the muslin front which provides room or the water fountain
and grit and shell hoppers.
When the house is completed, a concrete floor should be
laid, and should consist of three distinct layers. First comes
a layer of about 6 to 10 inches of cinders or coarse gravel
tamped thoroughly to serve for drainage purposes, to keep
the soil moisture away from the bottom of the floor. Next
comes a rough coat of concrete about 4 inches thick, and over
17
this a finishing coat of two parts of sand to one of cement,
troweled smooth and rounded at the corners. Where there is
danger of much moisture between the rough and finished coat
of cement, level it with a broom before the finish coat is laid.
Such a floor is moisture proof, rat proof, vermin proof and
easily and quickly cleaned.
The following is a list of materials which will be required
for building a double unit: —
List of Materials required and Approxirnate Cost.
Lumber: —
Sills, 6 pieces 4 by 6 by 20 feet, hemlock.
Plates, 8 pieces 2 by 4 by 20 feet, hemlock.
Posts, 2 pieces 4 by 4 by 14 feet, hemlock; 2 pieces 4 by 4 by 18 feet,
hemlock.
Studding, 9 pieces 2 by 4 by 14 feet, hemlock; 4 pieces 2 by 4 by 14 feet,
hemlock.
Rafters, 21 pieces 2 by 4 by 22 feet, hemlock.
Frames for nests and dropping boards, 5 pieces 2 by 3 by 16 feet, hemlock.
Eight-inch tongued and grooved yellovv pine boards for roof, dropping
boards, walls and nests, 2,200 square feet.
1 by 2 white pine for curtain frames and trim, 200 linear feet.
1 by 4 white pine for nests, 100 linear feet.
One bundle plaster lath for broody coop.
Nails: —
10 pounds 20 penny wire.
50 pounds 10 penny wire.
20 pounds 8 penny wire.
Approximate cost of the above, $75 54
Roofing paper, 1,060 square feet, or 11 rolls at $3, . . . $33 00
Four special sash, 3 by 5 feet at $2, 8 00
Muslin, 8 square j-ards at 20 cents per yard, .... 1 60
Hardware, as hinges, locks, tacks, hooks, wire, etc., ... 4 75
Foundation and floor: — ■
Cement, 35 bags at 50 cents, 17 50
Cinders or gravel, 30 yards at $1, 30 00
Sand, 5 yards, 7 50
$102 35
Total cost, not including labor if cement floor is put in the house
and cinders and sand have to be purchased, . . . ^$177 89
• Costs of material for this house will of course vary in different localities and at different sea-
sons. The above are prices current at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in January, 1916.
18
This gives a cost per square foot of floor space of SO. 22.
A cost per running foot of house of $4.44.
A cost per bird, allowing 4 square feet per bird, of $0,888.
Adding labor to this at one-fourth the cost of material, the total cost is
$222.36, or $1.11 per bird.
Environment is one of the great factors in production. The
essentials of a suitable environment have been outlined. The
importance of these factors cannot be too strongly stated. An
appreciation of the fact that it is the healthy, contented, well-
fed, singing hen that lays at a profit will do much towards
insuring success from the beginning.
VII. Practice an Efficient Feeding Pilictice.
The following is the New Jersey State dry mash with the
supplemental rations which are designed for the complete
feeding of laying hens throughout the winter. Such modifica-
tions as are necessary for summer feeding for different breeds
are also described.
Dry Mash.
Kind of Food.
Amount
by Weight
(Pounds).
Amount
by Measure
(Quarts).
Wheat bran,
Wheat middlings,
Ground oats,
Corn meal, .
Gluten feed.
Alfalfa,
Meat scrap, .
Total, .
200
200
100
100
100
100
200
1,000
380
240
100
95
80
200
176
1,271
This mash should be kept before the birds all of the time
in large self-feeding hoppers. During the molting season in
the fall it is desirable to substitute oil meal for the gluten
meal in the same proportion, to hasten the growth of feathers.
As soon as the birds get on the green grass range the alfalfa
can be gradually omitted and the meat scrap slightly reduced
in amount. The extent to which the above mash can be cut
during the summer will depend upon the character and amount
of the range which is allowed the birds.
19
The mash as given is designed especially for the feeding of
Leghorns; when heavier breeds are kept, such as Plymouth
Rocks or Wyandottes, especially with yearling or two-year-old
hens, the tendency will be for them to take on an excess of
fat. Under such conditions it is the best policy to restrict
the amount of mash eaten by leaving the hopper open dur-
ing the afternoon only, thus inducing the birds to work
during the morning hours for the cracked grain fed in the
litter at the morning feeding.
As a supplemental ration to the dry mash the following
grain rations are fed. A scratching ration of whole grain is
fed every morning, both winter and summer, about 9 o'clock,
in deep litter. Its primary object, aside from its nutritive
value, is to induce the birds to take a considerable amount of
exercise. About 5 pounds of this scratching ration is fed to
each 100 birds on the floor of the house or under some shelter
where the litter is dry and where there is protection from cold
winds. The scratching ration is made up as follows : —
Scratching Ration.
Kind of Food.
Amount
by Weight
(Pounds).
Amount
by Measure
(Quarts).
Wheat
Oats
100
100
53
98
Total, .
200
151
At 4 to 5 o'clock in the afternoon, depending on the season,
a night ration is fed, composed of whole and cracked grains,
at the rate of 10 pounds to 100 birds.
Night Ration.
Kind of Food.
Amount
by Weight
(Pounds).
Amount
by Measure
(Quarts).
Cracked corn
Wheat
200
100
100
100
120
53
Oats
98
Buckwheat,
66
Total, .
500
337
20
It will be noted that by feeding a night ration as outlined
the materials are supplied to keep the bird's body warm during
the night. The above ration is designed for Leghorns, When
feeding heavier breeds it is desirable to eliminate one-half of
the cracked corn and to substitute barley for buckwheat.
During the summer months a night ration of equal parts of
corn, wheat, oats and barley will supply all the needs for
Leghorns. A good rule to follow in feeding the night ration is
to give all the birds will eat, and then a little more, so that
there will be some left for them to work on in the morning.
One great advantage of the dry-mash method of feeding is
the fact that the birds are allowed to balance their individual
rations in large measure, according to their particular tastes
and requirements. The feeding of some succulent material in
addition to the grain rations is very necessary for the best
success.
VIIL Market the Products systematically.
Uniformity in all poultry products is essential. Color of
egg, shell, size of eggs, size and weight of broilers and roasters
are a few instances where uniformity means more returns.
The best of quality is none too good. The best always
brings the highest price. Strictly fresh eggs, clean and care-
fully graded and packed, are always in demand. Infertile eggs
for market are always in demand over fertile eggs. We must
not be contented with getting a good production, but of equal
importance is the necessity of getting good returns due to
quality.
Mr. PiERSON of Amherst. I would like to ask if you gave
your hens all the skim milk they wanted?
Professor Lewis. Yes; if we gave the birds all the skim
milk they could eat we would cut our meat scrap down one-half,
making the meat scrap 10 instead of 20 per cent. If you can
get skim milk, by all means give all you can to the laying hen.
Mr. Pierson. Is it a stimulant?
Professor Lewis. Not quite, but I would feed it if I had
it. It has the lactic acid factor, which is a good internal dis-
infectant. I would prefer sour skim milk to any form of
buttermilk I could get.
21
Mr. PiERSON. You don't get as much of lactic acid in the
skim milk?
Professor Lewis. No, but you get a high protein content
which is very desirable; you get a lot of casein which you do
not get in buttermilk.
Mr. H. G. Worth. I would like to ask in feeding mature
birds, why you feed cracked corn with your wheat instead of
whole corn?
Professor Lewis. Our idea in feeding our grain ration is to
get exercise, as much as anything else. If we feed whole corn,
a bird grabs a piece of whole corn and has got the equivalent
of six or eight pieces of cracked corn, and it will fill our birds'
crops up with much less exercise than cracked corn. Its food
value is absolutely the same, but we are strong advocates of
cracked corn for that one reason if no other. There are times
when whole corn is desirable; in the winter, when it is very
cold and we want to give the bird things that will fill it up
quickly, we feed whole corn possibly, at noon; otherwise we
feed cracked corn.
Mr. Worth. Would not feeding the cracked corn be more
expensive? Wouldn't there be particles of it that the bird
would not get, and would not the bird get sufficient exercise
in finding the corn without being fed with cracked corn?
Professor Lewis. We always feed a sifted cracked corn, and
there is probably no waste.
Question. In regard to feeding snow, what have you to
say in regard to letting poultry eat snow instead of water?
Professor Lewis. It is our practice, and the practice
throughout our section, never to let birds out, that we want
to get egg production from, after the first snow falls in the fall,
or after the ground gets frozen and muddy. Here is the prop-
osition: birds going out and eating snow, or going out on cold,
wet days, get chilled, and it is bound to reduce their produc-
tion. The chilling seems to retard their reproductive functions
and sets them back, and I should be strongly opposed to let-
ting birds out where they could get snow in the winter when
I was after egg production. With breeders, where I wanted a
full amount of vigor, I would let them run out all winter.
Mr. J. W. Sanborn. What do you think is the best litter?
22
Professor Lewis. We use for litter, wheat or rye straw,
primarily because it is coarser and does not grind up like oat
straw. We grow quite a lot of our own litter, — buckwheat
straw or oat straw, — harvesting it with the grain or throwing
it directly in the pen and letting the birds thresh the grain
out. I am an advocate of straw litter, supplemented if possible
with shavings; that makes it drier and the shavings absorb the
moisture from the droppings. I would say straw first and, if
possible, a mixture of shavings.
Mr. Sanborn. How deep would it be safe to have it?
Professor Lewis. Eight or 10 inches. We usually start in
the fall with it about 4 inches deep and add to it each week a
little coarse litter. Keep the litter deep, coarse, dry and clean.
If, due to certain conditions of moisture or a large number
of birds closely confined, the litter gets dirty or finely ground,
we do not hesitate to clean it out and put in fresh litter.
A Member. Do you use dropping boards?
Professor Lewis. Yes; although it takes a little labor to
clean them off it maintains absolutely sanitary conditions,
reduces any odor which might come from using dropping pits,
and gives the birds the entire floor space. There is an impor-
tant factor, — if we use pits there is too much floor space
taken up. The capacity of the house is really determined by
the number of square feet of floor space for the birds; there-
fore we get the perches up above the ground 3 or 4 feet,
cleaning them off twice a week and putting on gypsum to keep
them in good condition. Then we keep all the droppings and
have a good income from those. We sell them in New Bruns-
wick at $8 to $10 a ton to farmers who grow vegetables for
the New York and New Jersey markets.
Mr. A. C. Hawkins. Do you advocate open-front houses
in New England?
Professor Lewis. I advocate open-front houses in New Jer-
sey and northern New York, and I know they have succeeded
in Maine. I know also that your own professor of poultry
husbandry at Amherst recommends them. Li New Brunswick
we had last winter a temperature of 14 degrees below zero,
and 200 Leghorns, in an absolutely open-front house, where
the house is dry, went through that cold snap without a frozen
23
comb. Another flock of 100 Rocks and 100 Leghorns, in a
house with a soHd glass front, where the temperature in the
house never went below zero, had their combs frozen and were
put entirely out of condition on account of the increased
moisture content due to lack of fresh air and ventilation. I
believe that birds will stand a very cold temperature, provid-
ing the atmospheric conditions are dry. I believe you will find
that the freezing of combs is not due so much to cold temper-
ature as it is to cold temperature combined with dampness, or
with dampness and poor ventilation, which means that the
birds are of low vitality.
Mr. Carver. Do you advocate feeding wet mash?
Professor Lewis. No, except in one or two instances; it
requires a good deal more labor, care and knowledge on the part
of the feeder, and if that care and knowledge is not present
■ it will put the birds out of condition. Dry mash will produce
just as many eggs. There are one or two instances where a
wet mash may be desirable, — for pullets coming in off the
range in the fall and that have not grown very well possibly a
little wet mash, just crumbly, with a little ginger or saltpeter
in it, may be desirable; and for yearlings that don't come back
so well when the molt is over, a little wet mash with a little
tonic in it may be desirable. A lot of our most successful
poultry men feed wet mash and get along with it very well.
I am not condemning it, but it requires a personal application
and knowledge of the birds and their appetite which few of us
possess, and commercially or with a farm flock the same
results can be secured with much less labor by the feeding of a
dry mash.
Mr. E. C. Barber. If we feed poultry six varieties of grain
at one time they will always pick the corn first; is that a sign
that it will do them the most good?
Professor Lewis. No, I don't think so. We put some 30
grains and their by-products before a flock of 200 hens for a
year; corn was the favorite and barley next. I think they
need it, of course, to maintain themselves and provide heat
and energy, but wheat is a more evenly balanced ration for
poultry than corn, containing, as it does, considerable protein
and not as much carbohydrates or fat. Corn is a very de-
24
sirable feed; it is of a carbohydrate character but has a very
small amount of protein, and you cannot make eggs from corn
alone.
Question. Would you tell me what is your opinion of
feeding green corn, to chickens eight or ten weeks old, on the
cob?
Professor Lewis. I don't know that I ever fed any of it.
I don't know why it would not be all right. It is succulent
and palatable, and they would probably relish it as a part of
their ration. It could not be substituted for dry mash or
grains at all, because green corn is primarily a carrier of water,
having 70 or 80 per cent of water present. I think there are
other sources which would supply succulents in large quantities
more economically.
Mr. Hawkins. I would like to ask if there are any special
characteristics by which we can select the hens that are the best
layers by their general type and appearance?
Professor Lewis. You saved me by putting on "appearance"
at the end. There are certain factors which a number of in-
vestigators have brought to light recently which tend to be
correlated with egg production. We have all said that the
heavy producers, in the majority of cases, must have deep,
long, wide bodies. I do not mean to say that every bird that
has a deep, long, wide body is a heav^y producer, but that
practically all heavy producers have abundance of room in
there, just as a good dairy cow has certain well-defined
characteristics. There are other factors aside from that,
definitely correlated with egg production. One is the color of
the shank. Professor Rice has found that the heavy layers
laid the color out of their shanks. A pullet will start out in the
fall with bright yellow shanks; the color pigment in her shanks
and her ear lobes will be utilized in going into egg production;
by spring she will have pale shanks and ear lobes. The Con-
necticut station has done a lot of work on the color of the ear
lobe of the cockerel as related to egg production, and there are
other characteristics, such as the prominent eye and deep-
seated head, which are indicative of vigor.
It is not such an awful proposition to take ten of the best
hens picked b ' their external appearance and put them in a
25
coop and trap-nest them during December, January and
February. The birds that lay the most eggs during those
months are almost invariably the ones that lay the most eggs
during the year, and that is the type of bird you want to
propagate. I believe it will pay anybody to separate four or
five birds like that and get his wife or daughter or somebody
to help him with the trap-nesting. It really only makes one
extra trip in the morning, because in April, when they are
laying heavily, you have got to visit them often. The only
way we are going to improve our poultry and get definite im-
provements is by knowing what the individuals are doing.
The poultry man has to come to it just as the dairymen have
come to it.
Mr. H. B. Walter. Do you use a green feed for June and
July for hens that are confined?
Professor Lewis. When we cannot get anything on the
surrounding land to feed to them we practice double yardage;
we have a yard, say, the size of this room, divided into two
parts, and grow peas and oats on the first yard while the birds
are feeding on wheat planted the fall before in the second yard.
As soon as the oats get up 4 or 5 inches we turn the birds
over into that yard and seed this other yard to buckwheat, and
as soon as the buckwheat gets 4 or 5 inches tall we turn
them over on to that and grow soy beans on the other yard.
That gives us an admirable amount of green feed. When the soy
beans get up 5 or 6 inches we turn the birds back into that
yard and grow wheat. We practice in this way a crop rotation,
and it does not take very long. We simply go in there with
a fine-tooth cultivator, and all except the first seeding we plant
broadcast, and as soon as it is high enough we put the birds
in. It takes a very short time to do this, and it supplies those
birds w^ith green feed just as though they were on free range,
and, what is even better, it maintains in those yards absolutely
sanitary conditions. It turns under the droppings and uses their
fertility to grow the crops with, and has maintained cleanly
conditions, whereas otherwise those yards would have been
absolutely bare and an undesirable feeding ground.
Question. About how much yard room have you for 100
hens?
26
Professor Lewis. We have there from virtually nothing up
to free range. If I were putting up this house such as I
described, I should want a yard for 100 hens at least 100 feet
wide and 20 feet long, and practice double yarding as I have
mentioned. Of course, I can grow other crops, like rape, which
makes a very luxuriant growth. We grow a lot of rape for
summer feeding to birds entirely confined. We have two flocks
of 100 birds each which have never been out of the house for
three years, and have made on an average $2.22 per bird. I
am not recommending that, but am giving you an instance of
the work we have been doing.
Question. Is there any danger of the rape making the eggs
taste?
Professor Lewis. I have never had it do it, fed in moderate
amounts, and we have fed birds right on it. I have heard of
instances, however, where people claimed it had.
Mr. Parsons. Do I understand that you have tried keeping
hens confined for three years as against free range?
Professor Lewis. Yes. The result of the free-range birds at
the present time is about $1.98 in profit per year. The mor-
tality has been nearly the same. The hatchability of the eggs,
of the confined birds has been very much below that of the
eggs of the birds in the free range. Personally, my own
opinion is this: birds which I was feeding for egg production
I would keep more or less confined, except possibly during the
summer when they were molting. My breeders I would let
run as much as they wanted to and not force them for egg
production, just previous to eggs for hatching. We have
studied six or seven hundred eggs this last winter, with reference
to their hatchability. We found that the dense albumen was
apparent in all those cases where the eggs hatched, and there
was 10 per cent less water than in the albumen of the eggs that
did not hatch. W-e believe that a lot of poor hatching is due
not to faulty incubation or faulty mating methods, but to the
innate tendency of the bird to produce a watery albumen.
There is not nutriment enough in that albumen to nourish the
chick through twenty-one days and get it out of the shell. We
are conducting some experiments on this line now, and expect
to continue them during the coming year.
27
Question. Would you condemn introducing an English
white Wyandotte cockerel for reproduction?
Professor Lewis. I hardly know what to say in answer to
that. I would condemn it for this reason: the English white
Wyandottes are not, in any sense of the word, white Wyan-
dottes as I see them, — I want to be careful what I am
saying, — and you are going to introduce into your strain of
Wyandottes something entirely foreign to your particular breed,
and I am afraid that the sum total of your results will be a good
deal worse than if you let it alone. There are white Wyan-
dottes bred according to the American standard which will
lay just as many eggs as the English Wyandottes, and I believe
you will get along better by finding in your own flock birds
which are good producers and breeding from those. There is a
possibility of doing a lot of harm by introducing these foreign
types about which you know little, and furthermore, it is
perfectlj'- possible that you have in your own flock birds that
are as good or better producers than the birds you are buying.
I am convinced more and more of it, the more we get our
poultrymen to use trap-nests. One of our big poultrymen,
Charles Warner, has trap-nested 200 pullets, and he found birds
that are absolute drones and birds that are laying over 200
eggs a year. All of you have got good hens, just as good as
any hen, possibly, that ever made a record, and the thing is to
find them, and after you find them, to use them intelligently, —
get cockerels from them and use them in your breeding work.
Every one of you here have got birds that are a great deal
better than you think; find them, utilize them; that is the way
Tom Barron got his birds, — finding out what were the good
ones.
Question. Would you use the second crop of hay for
feeding?
Professor Lewis. Yes, especially if it has clover or alfalfa
in it. We go out into the haymow, sweep up the leaves and
steam them for the poultry mash next winter, and if you have
a lot of them it is a good practice to steam them and put them
in troughs. A lot of those things you can use and find them of
material advantage.
Mrs. GooDNOUGH. When you have a pen of good Rhode
28
Island Reds, and have cockerels in that same hatch, would it
be detrimental to inbreed for one year?
Professor Lewis. No; if they were extra good birds I
certainly should not object to inbreeding for one year. In-
breeding does this, — it intensifies any characteristic the
birds possess by eliminating any foreign characteristic that any
other strain of birds might possess. If those birds are good
birds and have a good color pattern, good body shape and good
egg production, and are free from serious defects, — crooked
breasts or legs or undesirable features, — it is certainly de-
sirable to breed them together; but if they are low in vitality,
if they have knock-knees and things of that kind and you
inbreed them, you are going to intensify the bad characteristics.
Inbreeding intensifies good as well as bad characteristics, and
we can inbreed for a number of years provided we use, in our
inbreeding, only selected birds which measure up to a certain
standard. We practiced a lot of inbreeding at the New Jersey
station and got very desirable birds from it.
Question. Is not early fall laying a sign of a good layer?
Professor Lewis. Within certain limits, yes. I would not
want a bird that came to maturity so early that it was
dwarfed. When a bird comes to maturity — I mean by that,
when it starts laying — it stops growing, and if it comes to
maturity too early, it will always lay small eggs and will be
more or less of a bantam style; but I would say that with
Leghorns, five months, and with Rocks, six and a half months,
is about the right time. It is true that birds that start laying
in from five to six months are better than birds that don't
start laying till they are eight or nine or ten months; it is an
indication of continued high production for a bird to start
laying about the time it should. April-hatched birds ought
to be well along in production before cold weather commences
in the fall.
QH)t dommonroealtl) of ilTa00acl)ii0Ctt0.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 54.
February, 1916.
STANDARDIZATION OF FARM
PRODUCTS.
CHARLES McCarthy.
From the Sixty-third Annual Rkpout of the Massachusetts State Board
OF Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Api'Koved by
The 'State Board of Publication.
STANDARDIZATION OF FARM PRODUCTS.
CHARLES MCCARTHY, CHIEF OF LEGISLATIVE REFERENCE BUREAU,
MADISON, WISCONSIN.
The appalling waste in our agricultural production has at last
opened the eyes of our agricultural teachers in this country.
The American passion for efficiency in business has at last made
its way into the business of agriculture. We have at last
brought ourselves to take notice of abandoned farms, the
growth of tenantry and the high cost of living. We have
wondered why farmers near Boston or New York with the
finest markets are not able to sell their goods. We are now
seeking a solution of that question. The solution we will find
eventually is the solution we have already found in all other
industries, — better business. We have got to do what Henry
Ford did with the automobile business. W^e have got to
Henry Fordize agriculture, that's all there is to it. If our
minds have long been running in other channels, we will have
to change, that is all. And we have got to Henry Fordize
agriculture in the whole sense. We have got to have thorough
organization; produce thoroughly good and guaranteed goods
at the lowest cost; get higher pay for the producer; and get
more and more profit-sharing both for the producer and the
consumer as time goes on.
When you talk about not being able to compete with dairy
products from Canada, New York or the west, what other
solution is there but to organize, standardize, get at the cost of
production, and then devise w^ays and means of reducing every
little cost?
And you have got to advertise too. If you have good sani-
tary goods and it costs you to get them, make up your mind
you are not going to sell them at what they are worth unless
you constantly tell men over and over again how it pays them
to get clean and wholesome products, or sound fruit or superior
articles.
Now, all of this is not new, — it is not difficult even. It has
been worked out time and time again. In one issue of the
"Saturday Evening Post" there was an advertisement costing
.$21,000 from organizations of farmers raising citrous fruit,
raisins and walnuts, who have Henry Fordized their products.
The Danes have beaten Henry Ford, for they have not only
standardized their product, their processes and their animals,
but they have gone further and organized on a purely co-
operative basis, thus insuring the profit-sharing and the distri-
bution of wealth to all, so essential to any rural efficiency.
I have read the Boston Chamber of Commerce milk report,
and I know well that there are institutions which will not
divide up and do not believe in profit-sharing. There is not
safety in individual efficiency such as the Ford plan when
applied to a rural situation. We want the Ford efficiency, but
we cannot depend upon individual generosity. We must have
the Danish democratic organization to insure the success of
thorough organization.
You will not succeed if you merely Fordize. You must have
democracy — the one man, one vote, basis — to go with it.
Massachusetts is not at all unlike Denmark or Holland or
Belgium, and the lessons of those countries can well be applied
here.
A movement has well begun to fix legislative standards, but
those standards to be effective must be followed by the organi-
zation of milk dealers or fruit dealers and others to carry out
those standards. State inspectors will help somewhat, but it is
far better to have your own inspectors and then guarantee the
product to the State. This does away with a thing which may
become hateful in time, — the multiplicity of inspectors and
the element of bureaucracy involved.
The milk dealers of Massachusetts should be organized under
the co-operative law for the purpose of maintaining standards,
working out the cost of production, advertising, making collec-
tive contracts with the big milk handlers, or actually putting up
money and buying or building plants.
In this way every grading law or standardization law will
bring profit into your pockets, and will not merely feed into the
pockets of those who possess a monopoly of the means of
transportation and selling. You will have your own brands
and carefully uphold them, and uphold every effort by the
State if you realize profit from them.
Farming is business, and every business method must be used
to make it successful. No big business can exist to-day without
a brand, advertising and standards of production, and without
having a steady market. The telegraph and the telephone are
necessary, and some central intelligence. Overhead costs must
be estimated. Standardization is the basis for all this. By
standardization the products can be brought to the market in
sufficient quantities, at the time they are wanted, and to the
place where they are wanted. By standardization the small
farmer or the man on the moderately sized farm, — who, after
all, is to be the man in America, or, for that matter, in any
other country, upon whom the future of all agricultural in-
dustry must depend, — acquires the strength of the large
farmer. If we have large farms then we are going to go into
extensive cultivation, and, at the failure of that, into tenantry,
with all its evils. The only way to maintain the small farmer
is by standardization of his produce. He has got to produce
material like his neighbor, and he has got to work with his
neighbor in buying and selling. He has got to organize so that
the business end of it is concentrated and the bookkeeping end
of it is concentrated. I shall not go into an analysis of the
standardization lav/s, but this I may say, that there is a
tremendous chaos coming at the present time. It is proposed to
fix standards by the national government. We have already
the Sulzer apple standard. Then different States are getting up
standards. Many of these standards go into detail, as your
law in Massachusetts does, as to size of apples, etc. A good
deal of this is dangerous and unreliable. Some of it is necessary
in legislation, but what is necessary and what is unreliable will
have to be worked out. Some essentials can be laid down in
the law. The rest can be given to a board of agriculture to
work out, as administrative rules to be carried out through
organizations. But in all cases there should be committees
composed of men who would use their actual knowledge of
business in determining these rules, so that the rules will not
be made theoretical; also, they should be changed from year to
6
year as the conditions change. Their main enforcement should
be through organizations. If different States have such arrange-
ments as this, it will not be difficult for the marketing depart-
ments or the boards of agriculture of the different States to
meet with the national agricultural department and make
uniform rules or national standards. That, however, is a far
distant day, it seems to me.
I served on a commission on uniform legislation for many
years, as a member from my State. I know that uniformity
looks good in theory, but in practice there is a vast difference
between the products of Oregon, those of Massachusetts and
those of Florida. Nevertheless, uniformity over districts through
regulations laid down by boards meeting together is a possible
thing and something which can be worked out.
The different Massachusetts laws now for grading of produce
or standardization should have an added phrase to the effect
that the standards laid down in the law may be changed by
the State Board of Health, if an advisory committee is called
in from the agricultural interests of the State. Whatever
method is used it is certain that standardization laws are but a
step. They must be accompanied by every other means which
business industry in general has found efficient, — by brands,
advertisement, central office, cost accounting, transportation
departments, the telephone and the telegraph, etc., — in short,
by the organization of business on an efficient basis.
None of this, however, will avail us if, in the end, the whole
organization is not upon a co-operative basis instead of a
corporation basis. Sir Horace Plunkett has well shown the
difference when he says that "If one man has fifty shares of
stock and one cow, and another man has fifty cows and one
share of stock, the man who owns the stock will milk the man
who milks the cow." If such organization is not on the right
basis we will have little trusts bleeding the farmers, leading,
perhaps, into big trusts, rather than that prosperity of the
farmer which should be the result of efficiency. Some of the
worst little trusts that exist in this country — trusts making
unheard-of profits — are so-called co-operative organizations or
farmers' organizations organized upon the joint-stock basis.
The nonstockholder is fooled. He cannot remove his land or
his goods, and must contribute to the 20, 30 or 40 per cent
made by some of these so-called co-operative organizations.
Some one has said that the American farmer will organize
when he has to do so. I am asking you, then, who have
struggled with agriculture in New England, whether you have
not very good evidence of the fact that you have got to do it.
Every report that I have ever seen from New England con-
vinces me that New England is a portion of the country in
which a farmer will not be able to live and enjoy a fairly
decent degree of prosperity unless the farmers get together
pretty soon and organize and carry out a program similar to
that carried out in Holland, Denmark and Germany. That
this can be done is evidenced by the wonderful progress in
what was one time the most economically disorderly country in
the world, — Ireland. A remarkable change has come over the
people since Sir Horace Plunkett began his great work there.
That it can be done is evidenced in every State in the country
now, for a recent bulletin issued by the Department of Agri-
culture at Washington estimated that at least $1,000,000,000
worth of produce had been sold by organizations of this kind
within the last year.
The Chairman (Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler) . The meeting is now
open for discussion, and I hope there will be some questions that
Mr. McCarthy can answer on this question of grades and stand-
ards. Our department is already prepared to build this year along
some of the lines Mr. McCarthy has mentioned, by having a
department of the Board of Agriculture which will have the power
to fix grades and standards of agricultural crops here in the State,
so that we will be able to co-operate with the United States
government and other States in this very thing. As he says,
the fact that a grade or standard is established by law may be
a mistake; it may be a hard thing to fix by law, and we are
working on that very line, and I hope that a law will be passed
this year to give the Bureau of Markets or the State Board of
Agriculture the power to regulate this question of grades and
standards so that it will be in conformity with the other States
or with the United States government. If there are any
8
questions, or if there is any discussion you would like to bring
out, I am sure Mr. McCarthy would be glad to answer.
Question, Wouldn't it help things to have everybody put
their names on their packages of products?
Mr. McCarthy. That would have to be done for the thing
to be of any value; that is essential to this whole plan. In the
Danish egg, for instance, there is a brand put upon the egg, so
you can trace the product back to the organization. So, in all
the butter standards that I have seen, there is a sign of some
kind, a letter or something, which will show exactly the man
or the organization that had that product, so that you can trace
the thing back as you would in bookkeeping. That is essential.
Then you can put the responsibility upon the man who got up
the product. I think that it is absolutely essential that you
should do that, but of course you know there is going to be
very great opposition to it. The great middlemen who buy this
produce want to put their own names and labels on it, and
they will cut off your label or will refuse to buy your material
if it is labeled. There ought to be, in my opinion, national
legislation to protect the man who wants to put a label upon
his produce. Some of our material in Wisconsin is labeled, goes
down to the Chicago market, and the buyers or packers down
there take the label off and then you cannot tell whose material
it is. You should be able to trace it right back to where it
comes from; that is essential. The Dutch brands look like
dollar bills. There is a number up in the corner, and on the
butter keg there is, a label. You buy these labels from the
government; the government then has your record, who you
are and who bought them, and can trace every piece of material
you buy.
Mr. W. H. Atkins. This year is a good beet year. I
understand in New Jersey and elsewhere large quantities went
to waste. It seems a pity that large crops should go to waste,
and your talk along the line of contributing knowledge as to
where the buying centers might be is of interest. I know that
Holyoke could have used several carloads more of peaches,
provided they could have been brought in there and placed
before the public at a reasonable price so they could get hold of
them, while I understand there were people in New Jersey who
9
could not sell them. I understand there was a man who
ofifered carloads of them at 15 cents a basket after he got them
and could not find a market. Could the government do any-
thing to open up a market? If those cars could have been
sent to Holyoke and the consumers could have got them at 50
cents a basket they would have been sold.
Mr. McCarthy. There isn't a doubt that a great deal of
the peach crop this year could have been taken care of in the
smaller places if there was a wholesaler in that region who
knew how to take that stuff and deal in it, or if there was some
open market place. Just see how that open market place
would act. If you had the open market place you could bill
the town. In many of these cities the country papers or little
city papers will not take an advertisement of produce that is in
the market place, because the advertisers, who are the retailers
around there, will not stand for it; but you can always bill the
town and say there are so many barrels of apples or peaches in
the market, and you can make up your mind that the women
are coming there and going to get them at prices worth while
to the shipper. I think there probably was an overproduction
of peaches this year, considering the means of transportation in
this country and the unorganized state of the market, but that
overproduction could be easily taken care of if we had some
machinery for distributing it through the smaller places. I
know that the Sun-kist orange people at the present time have
been eliminating the wholesaler in a great many places, and
they are getting down to the retailer. If you will notice in
many of the cities this year the Sun-kist orange people are
advertising in the country papers. A city like Chicago will
have a great lot of stuff dumped into it, and sometimes the
machinery for distributing this produce into smaller places
where there are no good wholesale houses or public markets is
not sufficiently worked out. I know an express company man
dealing with one of the big food divisions of the express com-
pany, who, as an experiment, began to advertise and put into
a lot of country towns some of this peach product, and where
they would say in one place, "Well, we could dispose of 10
bushels," he told me that he often put in 75 and 100 bushels.
So you can see that our distribution of our produce is in a very
10
crude condition; we haven't got it mapped. Why? Louis
Brandeis of Boston said that the railroads of this country
wasted $300,000,000 a year. I don't doubt but you could
prove that they w^asted a great deal more than that in another
sense, for the railroads, w4th their agricultural experts, have
been building up, down along their lines, farmers' districts for
horticulture, for agriculture, and then allowed wasteful dumping
into the big centers. All the traffic managers seemed to care
about on some of these railroads was that they get the material
on to the cars, get the stuff into the big centers and get the
freight for it. The railroads in the end suffer for it, because the
farmers are more or less discouraged in some portions of the
country, and will not produce in the same way another year.
Because of the fact that the railroads have not mapped the
trafiic of this country, or have not combined to take care of
the markets in a scientific way, they have no doubt wasted
millions and millions of dollars. I said to a railroad man the
other day, "One of the best arguments for government owner-
ship that could be made against you men would be the handling
of the products of last year."
Question. How would you standardize the milk for Boston?
Mr. McCarthy. I am not going into that problem. New
York gives you, in some ways, an example of what could be
done, but your situation is a difficult and peculiar one. There
is one sure thing I can say, that organization in this district
would be a far better thing for you than to be in your present
unorganized condition. Your only salvation in this district is
to work for standardization and then work to reduce your cost
of production by collective action. You can standardize
almost any kind of produce. I have seen in Holland the
standardization of almost every kind of vegetable possible.
In nearly all Holland, now, the ordinary vegetables that come
in are in some degree standardized. They are sold by lots at
auction and the buyers must sit up in a big stand and look at
the lot and then bid upon the lot, and the sample must corre-
spond to the entire lot. You would be surprised to see how well
you can standardize all sorts of difficult things. There is hardly
anything that you can't work out with some kind of standard.
11
Mr. A. H. Wheat. You spoke of goods being sold in
Holland at auction; what class of people buy them at auction?
Mr. McCarthy. The wholesalers generally buy the material
to be sent out of the country, — to England or some place
like that; or the co-operative societies buy it. I saw an agent
for a big co-operative society buying a lot of goods in one of
these auctions in Holland; but generally it is the wholesaler.
The process there is very interesting. As I say, there will be a
grand stand, and all these buyers who come there have to sit
up on the grand stand; they cannot go around to you and
bargain with you individually; they must sit up on the grand
stand and pay for it. They have a little button in front of
them which is connected with a great big dial, and they press
the button when the price at which they want to buy shows
up on the dial; they take the lot before them on that. They
are up there to make a collective bargain with the collective
farmer. I have seen that all over Holland. I have seen it in
one place where there was a stream of water, — Holland being
nearly all water, — and a boat was drawn down the stream of
water and had on it the different little lots of potatoes and
vegetables and all kinds of produce, and they bid upon these
lots as the boat went by in front of them. All they did was to
look at the stuff, and any question in dispute was referred to a
court of arbitration composed of one representative of the
farmers, one of the buyers, and a third man appointed by the
municipality. The farmers, of course, had to bring their stuff
in according to the sample. It was the wholesalers or big
buyers in nearly every instance who bought it in that way from
the farmers.
Mr. Wheat. Those are the buyers that sold to the retailers
after that, are they?
Mr. McCarthy. Yes, you know over there in those
countries a co-operative organization is a wholesale organiza-
tion, after all; that is, if you were in Denmark you would see
the office of the English Co-operative Wholesale Society, which
does a business, I think, of $700,000,000 a year, and they buy for
all the different little member organizations in a wholesale way.
Mr. Wheat. Does that auction come any nearer to the con-
sumer than our commission or fruit auction does here?
12
Mr. McCarthy. Well, I could not say, because I am not
familiar with the system here, but I imagine that when you
take the Co-operative Wholesale Society of England, buying
that way in a large lot for, we will say, a thousand grocery
stores, it comes very much nearer than anything we would have
here.
Mr. Wheat. That is, the co-operative association is similar
to the Liverpool market, isn't it? If we want onions there we
buy them in Liverpool.
Mr. McCarthy. In the manufacturing districts over there
the people unite and have their own grocery stores and trading
stores of all kinds, and these little units are united in a great
big wholesale co-operative society. They own the stores them-
selves so there is no profit in that except the salaries of the
officials that the people themselves hire; there is no money that
can come out of it in any other sense.
Mr. Wheat. They are strictly co-operative?
Mr. McCarthy. Strictly co-operative, on a one man, one
vote, basis. They own their own vessels, have their tea
plantations in Ceylon, have organizations in Canada for buying
cheese and apples for them, and I think they have some
agency in this country. It is a great big organization that the
people themselves own, and it lias existed sixty years or more
and does a business of between $700,000,000 and $800,000,000.
Of course when they buy that way the process is very much
cheapened. Professor Mezes, of the City College of New York,
reckons that the Danes, by selling that way, reduce the cost of
selling from 35 to 2| cents on the dollar.
Mr. Wheat. They sell in large quantities?
Mr. McCarthy. Yes, sell in large quantities and do away
with jobbers and middlemen. I met a man in Wisconsin who
sold produce, and he told me that he knocked out two middle-
men between Wisconsin and New York by coming to New
York and guaranteeing the standard of a million pounds of
butter. He said he did not go to Chicago at all, but sent the
article on to New York and knocked out two or three of these
men.
®l)e Commonrocaltl) of ina56acl)U6Ctt5
STATE BOARD OF AGRICIILTITRE.
CIRCULAR No. 55.
February, 1916.
CANNING IN GLASS IN THE HOME.
Sar.\h Elizabeth Belt.
From the Sixty-third Annual Report of the Massachusetts
State Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication.
CANNING IN GLASS IN THE HOME.
(FRUITS, VEGETABLES AND MEATS.)
MRS. SARAH EUZABETH BELT, MELROSE, MASSACHUSETTS.
This is a subject that interests almost every housewife,
especially when the prices of food are so high. Did it ever
occur to the housewife that the unnecessary waste of fruits,
vegetables and meats on the farm and in our gardens could be
saved, and be available for use in the middle of winter, if she
would take a little more time when the fruits and vegetables
are in season and can them? The great objection in previous
years has been that the open kettle method of canning was
tedious and took up considerable time, but by using the cold
pack method of to-day canning has become a pleasure instead
of work. By using this method it will be possible to have all
kinds of fruits and vegetables, as if right from the garden, in
the dead of winter. The housewife will also be able to keep
her table supplied with all the delicacies out of season at a very
small cost. Arrangements can be made so that while fruit and
vegetables are sterilizing other work may be attended to. In
this way the plan of work for the day is not upset.
Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds.
Every piece of fruit, vegetable or meat, no matter how fresh,
is filled with tiny invisible spores or parasites which cause it to
spoil. The air, no matter how clear it may look, is filled with
these tiny organisms. These organisms are divided into three
classes, — yeast spores, which attack fruit; bacteria, which
attack vegetables and meats; molds, which attack jellies and
jams. Yeast spores are killed by a lower degree of temperature
than bacteria, therefore a short sterilizing is sufiicient for
killing the yeast in fruit.
Bacteria, however, resist destruction by heat for a long time.
Two and even more hours at boihng point (212° F.) is required
to render all vegetables and meats proof against spoiling.
Molds are generally killed at the temperature of boiling water.
Bacteria are so small that they can only be seen with a
microscope, and they reproduce themselves with amazing
rapiditj'.
One bacterium under favorable conditions will reproduce itself
about 20,000,000 times in the course of twenty-four hours. Ac-
cordingly, certain vegetables spoil more rapidly because they
furnish a better medium for bacterial growth.
The reproduction of bacteria is brought about by one of two
processes, — the germ either divides itself into two parts,
making two bacteria where one existed before, or else re-
produces itself by means of spores. These spores are compared
to the seeds of an ordinary plant, and they present the chief
difficulty in canning vegetables, meats and fish. While the
parent bacteria are readily killed at the temperature of boiling
water these spores retain their vitality for a long time even at
that temperature, and in cooling w411 germinate, and the newly
formed bacteria will begin their destructive work. Therefore
it is necessary, in order to completely sterilize a vegetable, meat
or fish, to heat it to the boiling point of water and keep it at
that temperature for two or more hours.
This boiling of foods and dishes to free them from all germ
life is called sterilization. Unless fruits, meats and vegetables
are boiled long enough to destroy this germ life they are not
sterile and will surely spoil. Once sterilized the food and the
inside of the jar must be protected from the air, which as I
said before is filled with these tiny microbes. Unless it is
absolutely and permanently protected it will surely be attacked
by these germs and it will spoil.
Jars.
It is not necessary to protect all sterilized foods from the
light, but in order to keep them sterile they must be encased
in an air-tight jar. This jar must not only be air-tight at the
time of canning, but must remain so until opened. The first
requisite for successful canning is a good jar. There are many
kinds of glass jars, — the old and the new improved Mason jar
with a screw top, and the jar with a rubber ring and glass top,
of which there are several varieties. These tops are held in
place by a simple wire spring. Fruits, vegetables and meats
often spoil by the use of defective rings. It is poor economy
to buy cheap rubbers or to use them a second time. Let me
say right here that it is a good plan to test your rubbers
before using them, by pulling the rubber out and letting it
spring back into shape. If it does not respond readily you will
know it is not good.
Another type of jar in common use is the one with the self-
sealing metal top lacquered on both sides. These jars require
no rubber rings, as the groove in the top contains a composition
of the consistency of rubber, which is melted during canning
by the heat of the jar. This band takes the place of a rubber
ring.
If the jar and the food are not absolutely sterilized this jar
warns you of the fact by loosening its cap and unsealing itself.
This is due to the fact that the germs cause a gas to form
which loosens the cap.
This type of jar seals itself by air pressure. When the food
in the jar is hot it is very much expanded, but in cooling
it shrinks and causes a vacuum. In shrinking it draws the cap
down tight, and by atmospheric pressure (15 pounds to the
square inch) holds it tighter and tighter, until when cold it is
impossible to pull it off.
Sterilizers.
There are two principal types of sterilizers, — the first is the
hot water bath outfit, which consists of an ordinary wash
boiler with a rack that sets on the bottom to set your jars on
so as to avoid breakage; the other method is the steam pressure
canner.
By using the latter sterilizer or canner your fruits are canned
by steam pressure instead of hot water. The food is cooked in
receptacles placed over water which is heated to a temperature
sufficient to make steam, and held there at that temperature
the required time. On the cover of the steam canner there is a
steam gauge, a safety valve and an exhaust cock.
The steam gauge registers the number of pounds' pressure,
also the degrees of temperature.
The safety valve exhausts the excess steam, thereby keeping
the required number of pounds' pressure.
The exhaust cock is to release all the pressure from the
canner. This last device is absolutely necessary. Great care
must be taken in releasing this pressure slowly, as a sudden
release has a tendency to draw the water out of the jar and
lift the cap.
In taking the jars out, when the sterilization is completed, it
is important, in order to avoid breakage, to see that the hot
jars do not come in contact with a cool draft of air. Any one
that has ever done any canning will know that a sudden
change of temperature will break hot glass. Therefore you
must have your doors and windows closed while you are taking
the jars out of the sterilizer. Be careful and do not set them
on the table in the kitchen or shelf in the pantry in a draft,
but place them on a towel or a thick pad.
Methods of Packing.
Two methods are used in canning, the open kettle method
and the cold pack method. The first method consists of
boiling in the open kettle, and then pouring into your jars
while hot and then sealing. The second method is that of
sterilizing or boiling your fruits, vegetables or meats either
M'hole or sliced in the jar. In using the first method you have
to stand over the hot stove and get overheated, while in the
second method you use everything practically cold.
Pears.
For pears make the sirup first, so that you can set it aside
to cool while you are preparing the fruit for the jars. Now in
regard to the proportions of sugar and water for the sirup, some
prefer a thick sirup, some a medium and some a thin sirup.
For a thick sirup, use 1^ pints of sugar to 1 pint of water; for
a medium sirup, equal proportions, 1 pint of sugar to 1 pint
of water; and for a thin sirup, 1 pint of sugar to 1^ pints of
water. Place your sugar and water in a saucepan upon the
stove, bring it to a boil and let it boil slowly for five minutes,
taking off the scum which rises to the top before it boils.
While this is cooling select firm and perfect fruit, wash and
pour boiling water over it, and let stand for about two minutes;
then plunge into cold water and remove skins. Halve or
quarter, as you prefer, and pack into the jars (which have been
thoroughly cleansed in cold or lukewarm water). Fill to the
brim with the cool sirup, place on your rubbers and glass tops,
and clamp but do not tighten. If using the jar with the metal
cap, first dip the cap in cold water, then place it on the jar, and
clamp. If using the hot water bath outfit place the jars on the
rack in the boiler and fill to the neck of the jars with cold
water. Place on the cover and count your time of sterilizing
from the time the water in the boiler begins to boil, keeping it
at boiling point for twenty minutes to one-half an hour,
according to the ripeness of the fruit. If you are using the
steam pressure canner do exactly the same way, and when the
jars are ready for the canner lower the crate into the retort
after placing the jars in the crate. There should be 2 inches of
water in the retort. Place on the cover of the canner and
tighten the clamps so there will be absolutely no leakage, and
bring the steam up to 5 pounds' pressure, keeping it at that
pressure eight to ten minutes, according to the ripeness of the
fruit. Right here let me give the reasons for scalding: first,
to remove the skins without loss of pulp; second, to eliminate
all objectionable acids; third, to start the flow of coloring
matter. The reasons for the cold dip are, first, to separate the
skins and harden the pulp; second, to stop the flow of coloring
matter; and third, to render packing easier.
Apples.
In regard to the canning of apples, I might say there are
more apples wasted than any other fruit in the United States.
You will probably say to yourselves, or to each other, what is
the use of canning apples when you can put them away in cold
storage and keep them indefinitely. That is all very well, but
the apples that you put away in cold storage are not the apples
that are allowed to lie on the ground and go to waste, — they
are not the windfall apples. When I say windfall apples I do
8
not mean the apples that are allowed to lie on the ground for
two or three days or more. I mean the apples that have
fallen off in the course of twenty-four hours and have not been
allowed to lie on the ground, and decompose where they have
been bruised by falling. Apples have no equal as an all-around
fruit. The best apple for canning is the late fall or the early
winter variety. Summer apples are not good for canning
purposes, as they almost always turn soft w^hen cooked.
To can apples whole, wash, core and peel, cut out all the
decayed spots to keep the apples from discoloring, drop them
immediately in a light brine (1 teaspoonful of salt to 1 quart of
water), let stand for four or five minutes, and then rinse them
off in cold water and pack in jars. Fill to the brim with cold
water or sirup. Cap and clamp and sterilize for twenty minutes
in the hot water bath outfit, or six minutes in the steam canner
under 5 pounds' pressure. These are very nice for apple
dumplings. Do exactly the same way for sliced apples, slicing
the apples and then packing them in the jars and sterilizing
fifteen minutes in the hot water bath outfit and four minvites
in the steam canner under 5 pounds' pressure.
Vegetables.
The first step in successful canning of vegetables is the
selection and the preparation. Have your vegetables as fresh
as possible. They are best gathered in the early morning, and
if not convenient to can them immediately do not allow them
to wither, but set them aside in a cool, damp place or in a pan
of cold water, and keep them crisp until you are ready to use
them.
Corn.
Most people think it is one of the hardest vegetables to can,
but I find it one of the easiest to do and keep. The Depart-
ment of Agriculture at Washington has shown us that the
amount of sugar in the sweet varieties diminishes very rapidly
after it is pulled from the stalk. The ear loses 50 per cent, of
its sweetness overnight; therefore to obtain its original flavor
it is necessary to can it very soon after it is gathered. Select
ears with full grains, husk them, brush off the silk with a stiff
brush kept for that purpose, and blanch in boihng water ten
to fifteen minutes. This is done to eUminate all objectionable
acids and to start the flow of coloring matter. Plunge into
cold water to set the color bodies and render packing easier,
and pack in jars alternately, butts and tips. Add 1 teaspoon-
ful of salt to each quart jar, fill to the brim with cold water,
place on your rubber rings and your tops, and sterilize for
four hours in the hot water bath outfit. If using the steam
pressure canner place your jars in the crate, lower them into
the retort, which should have 2 inches of water in it, put on
the cover and clamp, being sure there is absolutely no leakage,
bring the steam up to 15 pounds' pressure and keep it there for
sixty minutes.
For corn off the cob cut the corn off after the cold plunge,
pack in the jars and proceed the same as with corn on the cob.
String Beans.
Have your beans as fresh from the vines as possible, and be
sure all pods are tender. Wash, break in convenient lengths,
or leave them whole, as you prefer, blanch in boiling water
from three to five minutes, plunge into cold water, pack in
jars, fill to the brim with cold water, place on rubbers and
caps, and clamp. Sterilize in the hot water bath outfit for
three hours, or in the canner fifty minutes at 8 pounds' pressure.
Greens: Syinach Swiss Chard, Dandelions and Beet Tops.
Wash, blanch in boiling water for five minutes, plunge into
cold water, pack into jars solid, fill to the brim with cold water,
place on rubbers and tops, clamp, and sterilize in the hot
water bath outfit one hour or thirty minutes under 5 pounds'
pressure in the canner.
The reason for the shorter sterilization for greens than for
beans or corn is that they do not furnish as good a medium
for the bacterial growth. Bacteria do not thrive in vegetables
containing a large amount of acids, which is why rhubarb will
keep without being sterilized. The tomato does not contain
so much acid as rhubarb, yet it has sufficient acid to prevent
the growth of more troublesome forms of bacteria.
10
Tomatoes.
To can tomatoes whole, grade for ripeness, size and quality.
Scald to loosen the skin, plunge into cold water, remove skins,
pack whole. Fill the jars with tomatoes only and add 1 level
teaspoonful of salt to each quart. Place on your rubbers and
tops and sterilize twenty-two minutes in the hot water bath
outfit and ten minutes under 5 pounds' pressure in the steam
canner.
To can sliced tomatoes, scald, plunge into cold water, remove
the skins and cut up a few tomatoes. Put in a preserving
kettle and boil twenty minutes. Remove from the fire and
strain. Set this aside to cool, and while cooling select ripe
tomatoes. Scald to loosen the skin, plunge into cold water,
remove the skins and slice. Pack neatly in the jar and add
1 level teaspoonful of salt to each quart, and then pour in the
strained liquid, filling the jar to the brim. Place on rubbers
and caps and proceed the same as for whole tomatoes.
Carrots and Beets.
Blanch in boiling water, plunge into cold water, remove skins
and pack whole or sliced, just as you prefer. Fill jars to the
brim with cold water. Place on your rubbers and caps and
sterilize in the hot water bath outfit for one hour and a half,
or forty-five minutes under 5 pounds' steam pressure.
Meats.
Judging from past experiences I find that few women are in
the habit of canning meats, thinking it too difiicult. Personally,
I do not find it difiicult if the cold pack method is used. We
all know it is very convenient to have canned chicken, canned
cornbeef, roast beef, roast lamb and veal or, in fact, any kind
of meat on hand, especially in the summer time for use at
camps or picnics. We find that meats as well as some vege-
tables furnish a better medium for bacterial growth; therefore
you must give them a thorough sterilization. Meats should be
cooked right in the jar, and not exposed to the air after boiling.
If they are cooked in the open kettle and poured into the jar
11
it gives the bacteria a chance to get on the food, and there is
danger of spoiling.
To can chicken, cut up as for an ordinary stew or fricassee,
leaving in some of the bones. Pack in jars. Add pepper and
salt to ta.ste, and fill jars to the brim with cold water. Put
on the rubbers and tops, and clamp. Sterilize for three hours
in the hot water bath outfit, or sixty minutes under 15 pounds'
pressure.
To can fresh beef, Avash and cut in cubes. Pack in jars
(after they have been wiped with a sterilized cloth kept for that
purpose), x^dd a little fat and a teaspoonful of salt to each
pint of meat. Place on rubbers and tops and sterilize in the
hot water bath outfit three hours, or sixty minutes under 15
pounds' pressure.
To can all kinds of roast meats, roast the meats in the usual
way, and wdien cold slice and pack in the jars solid. Fill to
the brim with the juices or gravies. Place on the rubbers and
tops and sterilize in the hot water bath outfit three hours, or
sixty minutes under 15 pounds' pressure.
To can roast or fried chicken, turkey, duck or any game,
dress and roast thirty minutes in a hot oven. ^Yhen cool, cut
up and pack in jars and fill jars with gravy. Place on the
rubbers and tops and sterilize in the hot water bath outfit for
three hours, or sixty minutes under 15 pounds' pressure.
®l)c iHommouwcaltl) ^f iHa60acl)U0ett6,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 56.
January, 1916.
FARM MANAGEMENT:
ITS APPLICATION TO SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND CONDITIONS.
From the Sixty-third Annoal Rkpoht of the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WEIGHT & POTTER FEINTING CO., STATE PEINTEES,
32 DEENE STEEET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board op Publication.
FARM MANAGEMENT: ITS APPLICATION TO
SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND CONDITIONS.
J. S. GATES, AGRICULTURIST IN CHARGE OF NORTHEASTERN STATES, BUREAU
OF FARM MANAGEMENT, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL-
TtJRE.
P'arm management considers farming as a business, and
attempts to analyze the various factors having to do with the
success or failure of that business as it is found conducted on
the individual farm, and in so far as possible to determine the
broad outstanding factors for efficiency which admit of general
application to the region.
The solution of many of the practical problems of agricul-
ture which have been worked out by various scientific experi-
menters are found to have already been solved generations
previous by large groups of farmers. Particularly is this true
of farm organization and management. Every farmer is of
necessity more or less of an experimenter. The results of
thousands of such experimenters gathered by the investigator,
classified and interpreted in their bearing on the community s
problems, and on the individual farm's problems, yield not
only many fundamental broadly applicable principles of good
farm organization, but also show in more or less detail just in
what respect a successfully operated farm differs from one
which is a failure or only moderately successful.
In previous decades the agricultural investigator largely
concerned himself with the study of how to accomplish certain
ends; for example, how best to feed a pig or a cow, how best to
raise potatoes or fruit. The farm management investigator is
concerned with the study of whether to feed a cow or a pig,
whether to raise fruit or potatoes; and if an industry be found
to be desirable, to what extent it should enter into the farm
organization, and with what intensity it should be pursued.
All of these problems have in the aggregate been solved by the
farmers. Farm management is merely a scientific method of
classifying and interpreting the collective experience of the
farming people as to what constitutes efficiency in farming.
Farm management deals with the principles which underlie
profitable farming. These principles are not unlike those which
underlie the profitable conduct of any business. The difference
is merely in the application. The one fundamental principle
underlying all successful business undertaking is that the cost
must be less than the selling price. In the operation of this
principle, agriculture is no exception. Farming, however, is
such a complex business, and the different enterprises making
up the farm unit are so intricately related, that it is often
well-nigh impossible to determine the true cost or the true
selling price of a farm product. However, the relation of any
factor in farming to the profit of the farm as a whole, by the
study of a large group of farms, can be fairlj^ accurately de-
termined. This relation of the individual enterprise to the
profits of the whole is perhaps the best guide to successful
farming and to an understanding of the principles upon which
good farm organization is based.
One of the first and most important factors having to do
with profitable farming, as in all other lines of business, is the
size of the enterprise. There are several measures of size of a
farming enterprise. Perhaps in general farming of the same
type the area of the farm furnishes the most significant measure
of size. Of course, size in acres cannot be used in comparing
a truck farm or a farm of any intensive type with a general
farm. Despite the much talked of idea of "a little farm well
tilled," actual records from thousands of farms covering pretty
well the whole United States go to show that little farms do
not often make big profits, and that as a rule the profits from
farming vary directly with the size of the business. It might,
however, be pointed out in this connection that the oppor-
tunities for loss vary also in the same way.
In the study of the agriculture of Chester County, Penn-
sylvania, of 115 farms of the group of 60 acres and under,
averaging 40 acres, only 8 per cent, made labor incomes of $1,000
or more, and the average for the group was $404. Of the
group ranging in size from 161 to 393 acres, averaging 203
acres, 68 per cent, made $1,000 or more, the average for the
whole group being $1,575.
In a similar study made in the extensive farm region of the
upper Mississippi valley States, the 160-acre farm groups gave
an income over five times that of the 40-acre group. Results
closely paralleling these are secured wherever such studies are
made of comparable types of farming. It is not surprising
that this is true when we consider some of the handicaps under
which the small farm is operated. For instance, in the group
of large farms in the Chester County area the value of machin-
ery equipment per acre of crops was only about one-half that
of the small-farm group, and the crop acres per horse was
nearly double, as was also the crop acres per man. Further-
more, a small farm is rarely ever adequately supplied with
equipment.
A recent study of machinery equipment on over 1,100 farms
in western New York State showed that when, for instance, a
sulky plow was used to cover 15 acres annually, the cost per
day of use for the machine alone was 83 cents. When this
same plow was used to cover 55 acres annually the cost was
reduced to 57 cents per day. A grain drill when used to cover
20 acres annually cost per day used, $2.97. When used to
cover 117 acres annually the cost per day dropped to $1.04.
A grain binder when used to cover 15 acres per year, cost per
day used the surprising sum of $8.15. When used to cover
85 acres per year the cost per day used was $2.41.
Another striking disadvantage of a small farm is that the
restricted acreage does not permit of a sufficient diversifica-
tion in the farm enterprises to furnish a good, even, all the
year round employment of labor. As a result, the labor em-
ployed by the year is often idle for long periods. Whether
this labor be hired, or be the services of the farmer himself
and his family, the results are all the same. Rather than be
idle for a long period this labor might well be employed in
some industry which yields even but slight profit. In the
larger sized farms this factor can easily be provided for. The
minimum size of a farm for efficiency should be such as will
furnish opportunity for adequate employment for both labor,
machinery equipment and work stock.
It is not always possible for a farmer to enlarge his business
by investing more capital until it shall have reached the opti-
mum size. He can, however, quite often rent additional land.
In many parts of the United States the figure paid for land
rental, either in cash or in part of the crops, amounts to con-
siderably less than a normal interest charge. A study of three
groups of tenant farms located in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa
showed that the tenants paid on the average a rental equiva-
lent to only 3.5 per cent of the value of the farm. A farmer
with restricted means, therefore, under such circumstances
need not worry about the inability to purchase when he can
rent more cheaply than own.
The diversity of enterprises making up the farm unit shows
an important relation to profit. The successful farm usually
has from three to five important sources of income. There are
some extraordinary circumstances under which a farmer may
find it more profitable to raise only a single crop, and even to
buy feed to supply his live stock, than to engage in diversified
farming. These conditions are exceptional, however, and such
a farm is always subject to disaster through the failing of that
single crop, as well as through failure of market conditions.
And, furthermore, no single cropping system offers the oppor-
tunity for continuous employment throughout the year, while
with diversified agriculture the leaks caused by idle seasons
can be largely overcome.
Live stock on a farm usually helps greatly in furnishing con-
tinuous employment. Live stock is primarily a method the
farmer employs of marketing his produce, and the live-stock
yield must be equivalent to the market price of the feed or a loss
is occasioned; but if live stock yields even a small margin over
current prices of feed, yet the labor employed in caring for the
stock would be otherwise idle, then the industry becomes
highly desirable and contributes to the profit of the farm.
The factor of profitable farming which has probably hereto-
fore received more attention than any other has been w^hat
might be termed efficiency, that is, the yield of crops and pro-
duction per animal. As a rule, crop yields for a community
are considerably below what would be the most profitable, and
production per animal is decidedly below what has been shown
to be the most profitable. In case of crop yields, however,
investigations have shown that the biggest yield is not, by any
means, always the most profitable yields. As a rule, the most
profitable yield of crops for the community ranges from 15 to
30 per cent above the average of the good farmers of that
community. If the yield rises much above this figure the
profits of the farmer's business are usually found to decrease.
It is possible to suffer from too big crop yields. Quite a few
American farmers have reached this point. The optimum
yield for greatest profit, of course, varies widely with different
soils and economic conditions.
Studies of one large group of Pennsylvania farms showed
that when the yield of crops reached a point about 35 per cent
above the average for the region there was a sharp decrease in
profits. The price of products as related to the relative costs
of yields of different magnitudes seems to be the governing
factor in determining the most profitable yield. Survey studies
indicate that very few farmers are producing as large crop
yields as existing economic conditions warrant.
Farm practice, in the aggregate, always responds to changed
prices of commodities, but this response by the individual
farmer, in the majority of cases, is made far more slowly than
the greatest profit would indicate.
To illustrate how the yield is determined by prevailing
price of a product, the case of corn in North Carolina may be
cited. In the decade previous to the last the average price
per bushel of corn in that State was about 55 cents. The
yield per acre was around 13 bushels. During the past decade
the price has ranged around 85 cents a bushel, and the yield
has increased to about 20 bushels per acre. The explanation
of this probably lies in the fact that under the higher pre-
vailing price it became profitable to use more fertilizer and
legumes and give better tillage to the crop than under the low
scale of prices. No doubt the average yield is yet far below
what would be the most profitable under existing conditions.
Survey studies have never disclosed, however, a group of
farms on which the yield per cow had reached a point above
8
which profits decreased. There does seem to be a point in
yield per cow above which increased yield is not accompanied
by much further economy of feed. Recent studies of feed cost
as related to milk yield, made on four farms located, respec-
tively, in Michigan, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania and North Caro-
lina, running for five years and involving careful, complete,
yearly records of 443 cow years, indicate that this point is
reached at a yield of between G,000 and 7,000 pounds of milk.
The cost of feed per 100 pounds of milk decreases rapidly
until about 6,000 pounds' yield, after which the decline in
cost is very slight. The lesson from this study is that it is of
much greater importance to increase the milk yield up to
between 6,000 and 7,000 pounds than it is to attempt to get
the yield above this figure, as far as the economy of the use
of feed is concerned. It is easier to increase the quantity of
milk when it is low than when it is high. It is also easier to
increase low crop yields than it is to raise already high ones.
Furthermore, in both cases increasing a low yield is the most
profitable thing to do. In dairying, a high standard of pro-
duction per coAv is usually the keynote of success. According
to the recent Pennsylvania study of 289 dairy farms, 48 of these
farms showed a yield per cow of less than $50. The labor
income of these farms was 45 per cent below the general aver-
age. Twenty-eight farmers of the group had incomes per cow
of more than $120, and their labor income was 75 per cent
above the average.
Perhaps the most conspicuous cause of success in farming is
prompt and fitting change in type of farming in response to
economic pressure, as indicated by the market price of products
as related to cost. The American farmers who are most suc-
cessful usually sense the operation of economic forces far
ahead of their neighbors. A large number of farmers change
an old established system only when forced by dire necessity.
Not only is there the greatest opportunity to any individual
farmer through quickly modifying his organization in response
to changed markets, but such readjustment is of great value
to the whole community, for such action in time becomes cor-
rective of the changed condition from which it sprang. Let us
assume, for instance, that there is a community engaged
largely in live-stock production, and that through some cause
feed prices advance to such a point that there is more money
in selling the raw product than in feeding. Under such condi-
tions a large number of far-seeing farmers will quickly curtail
their live-stock industry and become sellers of raw products.
This, in turn, has a tendency to reduce feed prices and to
increase the price of live-stock products, thus bringing about
the old balance.
The farming business which is of efficient size, and which is
made up of diverse units, put together in such a way as to
operate smoothly'' and well, with full employment of both
labor and horse and machinery equipment, provided supervi-
sion is adequate and the enterprises making up the farm are
selected wisely and are efficient, complies closely with the out-
standing factors of profit.
In order properly to understand the application of the fore-
going principles of farm management to the agriculture of
southern New England, a brief review of the economic history
of the agriculture of the region is in order.
New England agriculture was established at a time of hand
work. The family farm necessarily had to be small, that is,
within the limits of what they could do by hand. This was
also before the days of big factories. There being no large
cities there was very little market for farm products. The
farmers therefore very naturally fell into the habit of utiliz-
ing the long winters in manufacturing small articles for home
consumption and for sale. Under these conditions the New
England farmer prospered. Such conditions continued until set-
tlement west of the Allegheny Mountains began and transpor-
tation developed. When the Erie Canal was completed the
New England farmer began to feel the press of competition
from the west. A little later the railroads extended into the
west, and then the New England farmer found himself hard
pressed.
Just about this time the reaper, the mower and the steel
mouldboard plow were invented. The western farm was large,
fertile, level, free from stones, and admirably adapted to the
use of machinery. One of these western farmers could produce
under such conditions three or four times as much beef or
10
pork or mutton or hay as could the New England farmer on
his little farm. The New England farmer was not in a posi-
tion to utilize these improved methods to full advantage.
These western farmers made food cheap, and that made it
possible for the cities to grow.
The New England farmer naturally drifted into manufac-
turing when agriculture became unprofitable, and this region
became the manufacturing center of the country.
The growth of the cities based on this manufacturing did
two things for the farmer, — first, it took his children away to
work in the factory; and second, it made a- market for fruit
and vegetables, poultry and dairy products and hay; all of
which, with the exception of hay, are the products of intensive
farming, and are either bulky or perishable, thereby adapted
to production on farms near the point of consumption.
The New Englander had to give up the production of beef,
pork, mutton and grain. There was not room for many farmers
to go into the production of vegetables and potatoes. Forty
acres of potatoes and 30 acres of vegetables are sufficient to
feed a thousand people. Neither was there room for all of
them to go into the poultry business. But with the rapid
growth of the cities it was not long before there was room for
all of them to go into the cheese, butter and milk business.
So the New England farmer went into dairying, the only in-
tensive form of agriculture available to everybody, while as
many as could find a market engaged in producing fruit, vege-
tables, poultry, etc. In a few localities having special soils
such industries as tobacco and onion culture developed; but
the rapid development of the west, with its cheap feed, brought
competition in the production of butter and cheese. With his
bigger farm and cheaper feed the western farmer beat the
New Englander at his own game, and along about 1870 to
1880 was another period of hard times; but the farmers' pros-
perity again returned when the growth of the city was suffi-
cient to take the dairy products in the form of market milk.
In recent years, however, the southern New England farmer
has suffered a three-cornered pressure on his major enterprise,
— dairying: first, high prices for feedstuffs; second, high prices
for labor, in competition with city wages; and third, through
11
rapidly developed shipping facilities, competition in market
milk with remote regions undreamed of a generation ago. To
these conditions farm management practice of southern New
England is not now in full adjustment.
In the economy of such conditions low-producing cows have
no place; all dairy herds should be closely culled, though
seldom disposed of entirely. Labor distribution becomes of
paramount importance. Owing to the fact that the dairy
herd demands for its care more men than can be used in
growing the crops to feed, more cash crops should be grown.
Under the changed economic conditions the old doctrine —
that everything grown on the farm should be fed there — is
fallacious, and quite often costs the farmer a pretty sum.
Chemical fertilizers, when price of the crops grown warrant a
liberal application, fully maintain soil fertility. Especially is
this true if the crop grown leaves in the soil a considerable
residue of organic matter. In southern New England it is
always possible to follow a rotation which includes one or
more such crops.
The price of a crop in the eastern and southeastern States
largely determines whether it depletes or upbuilds a soil.
When cotton was around 7 cents a pound its continuous cul-
ture in the southeastern States exhausted the soil rapidly.
With cotton at 12 and 15 cents, its continuous culture in the
eastern part of the cotton belt rapidly builds up fertility. The
reason is that the heavy fertilizer application warranted under
the higher price produced such a heavy growth of plant as to
rapidly increase the organic content of the soil. Present prices
of hay in southern New England warrant a fertilizer applica-
tion which will increase fertility far more than did the old
system of producing low yields yet feeding on the farm and
returning all the manure that was not wasted.
Many of the farms of southern New England are entirely
too small for most efficient operation under the scheme of
fewer cows, better cows and more crops for sale. The old
proverb about a little farm well tilled was good in this region
many years ago, but does not fit into the economy of the
competitive system of dairy farming in southern New England
to-day.
12
Southern New England farms in the aggregate are slowly
responding to this economic pressure, and are readjusting their
farm organization to meet new conditions. A clear concep-
tion of just what changes should be made will tend to more
rapidly bring about that economic balance necessary to great-
est prosperity.
Mr. Atkins. I would like to inquire if Mr. Gates thinks if
the men on the 40-acre farms were picked up and placed on
the 200-acre farms their income would be largely increased?
Mr. Gates. I do not think it would immediately; they
would have to learn the business gradually.
Mr. Atkins. My point is this: isn't it usually true that a
man with a large farm is a man of large ability?
]\Ir. Gates. Well, he is a man with more money too; but
there is always the way for the fellow on a small farm to rent
and thereby increase the size of his business.
®l)e Commonroealtf) of iMaaaactjusctts.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 57.
MILK INSPECTION FROM THE PRO-
DUCER'S POINT OF VIEW.
HARVEY W. WILEY.
Frou thb Sixtt-thibd Annual RsiPoaT of the Ma.s8achu3btts State Boabd of
Agricitlture.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication
MILK INSPECTION FROM THE PRODUCER'S
POINT OF VIEW.
HABVET W. WILEY, M.D., WASHINGTON, D. C.
Having looked at the problem of milk inspection for a third
of a century from the consumer's point of view, and particu-
larly from the point of view of the official in charge of the
execution of food laws, I am appearing in quite a new guise in
considering this subject from the point of view of the pro-
ducer. I have now for nearly two years been a producer of
milk, on a small scale, for commercial purposes. The size of
the production, however, does not affect the question. During
this time my attention has been particularly called to the
effect of milk inspection upon the producer. I take it for
granted that every produc.er of milk desires to send to market
an article which is wholesome, which does not threaten the
life or health of children, and which is as clean as can reason-
ably be expected. I claim to belong to that class of producers.
I think, also, if there be any of another kind of producer still
extant, that he may listen with some benefit to what I have to
say. I suppose there are producers of milk who send to mar-
ket products of diseased animals, containing filth and dirt
which might well be excluded. In charity I assume that most
of such producers are ignorant of the nature of the problem.
There can be very few who deliberately send a product to
market knowing that it is practically unfit for consumption,
and in addition to this that it may threaten the health and
even the life of the children who consume it.
Beginning at the foundation, in the selection of a herd I
make it an invariable rule not to place in my herd any dis-
eased animal, in so far as ordinary precautions can exclude
such, nor any animal that would react to the tuberculin test.
I am aware that no human test of this nature can be abso-
lutely correct. There are some animals that are badly afflicted
with tuberculosis which do not react to the test, and there
may be some animals which do not have any taint of the disease
which do react. Allowing for this uncertainty, which, I am
told by competent veterinarians who have had experience,
affects from 3 to 5 per cent of the animals inspected, we must
give to inspection the full value of making it possible to have
a tuberculous free herd.
From the point of view of the producer I think it is to our
highest interest to secure herds of this kind. ]\Iost of the
diseases of a bovine character are easily ascertainable by
external symptoms. This is particularly true of such diseases
as that known as the foot and mouth disease. On the other
hand, the tuberculous cow may give no external evidence
whatever of infection. In fact, she may appear to be as
healthy as any cow in the herd, and yet the disease has taken
hold of some of her vital organs and if left to itself will doubt-
less progress to a dangerous degree.
It may be interesting to know what has happened to my
herd in nearly two years, and as a result of three tests by the
officials of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Naturally, I ex-
pected to have a herd free of reactors. Imagine my astonish-
ment, therefore, when, at the first inspection, 5 out of a total
of about 50 tested animals reacted; in other words, 10 per
cent. There are two possible reasons for this result, — first,
that some negligence or impurity of the serum had made the
test which was given the animal unreliable (in this case
the animals were suffering from tuberculosis at the time of
purchase, and the certificates were misleading); second, that
the animals had acquired the germ of tuberculosis at the
time of purchase, but the disease had not gone far enough to
produce a reaction. I eliminate as wholly improbable the
possibility of plugging, which is sometimes, I am told, prac-
ticed to deceive the purchasers of bovine animals.
At the second inspection, which took place at the end of
about nine months, four additional animals reacted, and three
were quarantined as suspicious. At the end of two months
these three animals were again tested, and two reacted and
were condemned and one was found free of reaction. The total
number of animals inspected at the second inspection was 87.
To recapitulate, of 87 animals which I have had tested for
tuberculosis 11 have been condemned. One segregated as a
suspect was found, on a retest, to be free of disease. It is
onlj' proper to say that of the total number of 87 which were
inspected, a large number were heifers that had been born on
the place or purchased as young heifers, and were tested for
the first time. None of these heifers reacted, so the total
reactors were among about 60 purchased animals, which makes
the percentage of reactors still larger. Another interesting
point is that of the total number, 11, condemned out of the
purchased herd of about 60, 7 were from a purchase of 10 ani-
mals at one place and only 4 were found among the other
animals purchased, about 50 in number. On laying these
facts before a competent veterinarian he said there was no
doubt of the fact that there was a general tuberculosis among
this herd which was not sufficiently developed to give a re-
action at the time of inspection and sale, and which reacted
in only 5 of the animals at the first inspection after they had
been on my own farm for about three months. This fact
shows the great circumspection which a dairyman should ex-
ercise in the purchase of animals subject to the tuberculin
test. He may get hold of animals, where there has been per-
fect good faith between buyer and seller, which speedily de-
velop the disease, and thus become practically a total loss.
My experience, of course, is of such a character as to lead
me to be more firmly convinced than I ever was before of the
fact that when men honestly endeavor to secure animals free
from a disease of this kind and fail, it is not quite in harmony
with the principles of justice to expect them to bear the whole
loss. The elimination of tuberculous animals from a herd is
for the benefit of the community as well as of the owner, and the
community should bear a part of the expense. I think that if
it could be arranged so that the State or the nation could pay
three-fourths of the value of the animals slaughtered, an equi-
table plan of adjustment would be secured. In other words,
the owner of the animal would suffer one-fourth of the loss,
and the community, for whose benefit the inspection was
made, would pay for three-fourths of the loss. During the
whole time of my service \\dth the government I was strongly
of the opinion that the farmer should not bear the loss of
diseases of this kind caused by ofBcial act. It is bad enough
to bear the losses from hog cholera and other incidental dis-
eases, but when animals are destroyed by order of the nation
or the State, for the protection of the public at large, the case
is quite different, and the producer has the right to expect a
reasonable compensation.
One of the great problems which the producer is soon to
face, and which he is now facing in many cases, is that of
refrigeration. In view of the fact that a high temperature,
that is, above 50° F., promotes the rapid deterioration of milk
and an enormous growth of the bacterial flora, it is reasonable
on the part of the consumer to require that milk should be
delivered at a low temperature. Not only should milk be
delivered at a low temperature, but it should be reduced to a
low temperature immediately after it is withdrawn from the
udder. In other words, the milk producer must be provided
with some method of refrigeration. In the north, where abun-
dant ice crops are produced, it is not diflBcult for the dairyman
to handle this problem in the way of providing an ice supply.
In my locality, where the winters are usually so mild that ice
is not formed in sufficient quantity for preserving, and where
the summers are hotter and longer, the problem is one of great
significance.
At first I tried to solve it by using the water of a moun-
tain spring, the temperature of which is normally about 55°,
but which in summer, by piping and otherwise, rises to about
60°. As soon as the milk is secured it is cooled by passing
over a cooler through which this spring water is flowing. The
milk is thus secured at a temperature, even in summer, of
about 60° as a rule. This, however, is not sufficient for the
purposes of the consumer. It will be necessary, in the south,
to provide some artificial refrigeration by means of which the
temperature of the milk can be greatly reduced below 60°. In
fact, it ought to be reduced to 40°, and can be with a good
system of refrigeration. If milk is reduced to 40° and then
shipped in a double can, the space between the two cans being
filled with dry air, it can be sent many hours on a journey with-
out any threatening rise of temperature.
I have secured a number of bids from manufacturers for
installing a refrigerator of this kind, which is to be run with
steam power. For a small dairy such as mine, where the
production of milk is not likely to go over 200 or 250 gallons
a day, even when the herd is filled to its maximum, I find
that the installation of an effective refrigeration of this kind
will cost at least a thousand dollars, and the additional amount
of expense for fuel for running the compresser three or four
hours a day will amount to a considerable sum. Unless the
producer can get a better price for clean, cold milk from dis-
ease-free cows he is going to be engaged in charitable work.
Ordinary market milk from common herds, drawn in the ordi-
nary way, brings, in the Washington market in the summer,
about 16 cents a gallon, out of which the producer must pay
2^ cents per gallon freight. The sale of pure, clean, cold milk
at 13| cents a gallon is not possible if the dairy is run on
business principles, as it should be. From the point of view
of the consumer the public should be taught to pay the extra
price for milk of this kind. Otherwise only producers who are
wealthy will be able to remain in the field. There is a milk
sold in Washington, certified and at a low temperature, at 20
cents a quart to the consumer, while the milk that brings the
producer 13| cents a gallon net is sold to the consumer in the
summer at about 8 to 9 cents a quart.
It is not the part of this paper to discuss the profits of the
middleman. What I am discussing is the necessity for the
producer to get a larger amount for his milk. If the producer
in our part of the country could look forward to a year's
market averaging 20 cents net per gallon, he might possibly be
able to make both ends meet and produce clean and cold milk.
There should be, therefore, a campaign of education, as well
as some method of identification which will lead the consum-
ing public to pay a reasonable price for good milk. I consider
the problem of proper refrigeration one of the most important
to the producer in the southern part of our country. How
can I emphasize, more than has already been done, the neces-
sity of cleanliness? That milk cows should be clean goes
without saying. That their udders should be washed and
dried is an accepted proposition. That the hands and clothing
8
of the milker should be clean every one admits. That the
utensils holding the milk should be sterilized after every use
is acknowledged by all. That every possible means of excluding
dust and dirt should be used no one denies. In spite of all
this knowledge, however, on the part of the producer, and in
spite of a reasonable effort on the part of many producers to
secure conditions of this kind, it is not always possible to see
them fulfilled. As a producer I should say that he should do
all these things, or else look to another line of agricultural
activity for his support.
I think you will gather from what I have said above that I
have not changed my views in regard to the milk problem
since I became a producer. I have only changed my point of
view. I want the producer of milk to be regarded as a friend
and not an enemy of the community. I want to see the stigma
which attaches to the milk trade removed. I want to live to
see the day when the man who makes beer cannot truthfully
go before an audience, as he can now, and offer a sterilized,
clean product, and compare it with the ordinary milk which
the consumer buys, with no praise for the milk. I want to see
a sentiment in this country which will compel the keeping of
disease-free cows in a sanitary way, and at the same time a
generous support of the men who do this, so that they may
come out at least without financial loss in their efforts to serve
the community. ^Nlilk is the most important of our foods
because of its necessity for the infant and the child. We must
protect humanity in its tender years. We must have pure,
clean, wholesome milk. We producers must make this kind of
milk. You who are consumers must pay for this kind of milk.
QH)t Commontoealtl) of iHasi0ac()U0ett0.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 58.
March, 1916.
UTILIZATION OF SURPLUS FARM
PRODUCTS.
H. F. HALL.
From the Sixty-Third Annual Report of the Massachusetts State
Board op Agriculture.
BOSTON :
WEIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved bt
The State Board of Publication.
UTILIZATION OF SURPLUS FARM PRODUCTS.
H. F, HALL, AGRICULTURAL EXPERT FOR CAMPBELL S SOUP COMPANY,
CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY.
The matter of holding or preserving perishable farm products
during a season of plenty and low prices to be used during times
of scarcity and higher prices is a question of very great eco-
nomic importance not only to the farmer but to the consum-
ing public as well. Large quantities of food are annually al-
lowed to waste because the market price will not cover cost of
harvesting and marketing. By many it is claimed that cheaper
and more direct methods of distribution, thereby enabling
the consumer to secure his supplies at such a price as to en-
courage greater consumption by him directly as a substitute for
the higher priced commodities, together with the tendency
of the consumer to buy during gluts and do his own canning,
would solve the problem. This would doubtless have a great
influence but for the present-day tendency of the consumer to
order his food supplies in cans rather than to buy the raw
material and go to the trouble of home canning. In fact, the
present-day method of the consumer to have his goods delivered
in a " ready-to-eat package" is doubtless one of the principal
factors underlying the cause of continued gluts.
The buying public no longer seeks the farmer's wagon to buy
at first cost and carry home in a hand basket the vegetables
and fruits needed for home consumption. For this reason,
public retail markets in most of our large cities have proven a
failure, and while the consumer often complains of high cost
of living, he perhaps forgets that his method of ordering goods
delivered in small quantities and taking thirty days for pay-
ment has an important bearing upon the cost price. This
would indicate that an efficiency movement is needed to im-
press upon the housekeeper the importance of better methods
of supplying the home table. Our experiment stations and
various agricultural and horticultural societies have devoted
their energies for many years to the subject of increasing pro-
duction, but old methods of marketing and distributing crops
have gone on undisturbed. In what way is the farmer bene-
fited by large crops if they are allowed to rot on the ground for
the want of a distributing and selling system that will turn
back to the grower a fair profit after transportation and sell-
ing charges have been deducted?
If our farmers were thoroughly organized they could by ad-
vertising relieve a congested market by informing the public of
the facts, urging them to buy, and recommending ways of cook-
ing and using the surplus crop as a substitute for higher priced
commodities, and the advantage of home canning to hold for
future use.
During the past season New Jersey fruit growers were buried
with an enormous crop of peaches, and prices promised to be
below cost of picking and marketing. The horticultural so-
cieties caused to have posted on farmers' wagons and in other
conspicuous places colored posters, urging the public to buy
and use peaches on account of the low prices at which they
could be bought. By those in a position to know, it was
claimed that this work played a very important part in mov-
ing, at a fair price, the surplus crop of peaches.
The home hamper as a means of the grower's supplying the
consumer direct is a method of interest only to the small
grower, and does not promise to become a matter of general
importance in affecting this question.
When located near a large city the grower often finds it to his
advantage to hold his surplus produce in cold storage, but
when located some distance from a market he will usually find
the commercial cannery, in case one is located near him, his
best buyer. The particular objections to artificial refrigeration
are storage charges, shrinkage and cost of handling. These
changes combined often run so high as to make the venture
an unprofitable one.
Very few preserving establishments are found in New Eng-
land, the principal ones being the corn canneries in Maine.
Such establishments could doubtless be induced to locate in
Massachusetts if the farmers in any particular locality would
guarantee the required acreage of any of the important farm
crops now used in commercial canning.
The total number of canneries in the United States is about
4,000. Amount paid by canneries for raw material is over
$100,000,000 annually. Total value of finished product is
$157,000,000 annually. In this industry Massachusetts has
played a very small part. Some of its canned products in-
clude pears, quinces, raspberries, strawberries, tomatoes, pump-
kins, squash, rhubarb and spinach.
A well-ordered general canning concern is usually a great
help to any community, provided the growers produce a variety
of vegetables and fruits at such seasons and in such quantities
as to keep the cannery operating at least five or six months
during each year. The canner must have the continued co-
operation of the farmers through good and bad seasons, as
most canners find it necessary to sell their product before it is
put in the can. In fact, a future sale is often made by the
canner of a crop long before the farmer is ready to begin har-
vesting it. It is, therefore, apparent that the canner cannot
depend upon the surplus products during times of glut for his
supply.
Most canners contract in advance a sufficient acreage of dif-
ferent crops to meet their needs. Prices paid are usually some-
what lower than the average market price on graded and well-
packed goods, but are much higher than prices during times of
glutted markets. By contracting in advance the farmer is sure
of a fair price for his goods, and eliminates that element of
chance from his work.
Another important feature is that there is less work in pre-
paring vegetables and fruit to be delivered to a cannery than
is the case when prepared for market. This is very apparent
in such crops as beans and peas, which instead of being hand
picked may be cut like grass, and delivered to. the factory
where a vining machine does the work of shelling and
separating. Labor-saving methods of handling farm crops
are worthy of careful consideration as the farm labor prob-
lem becomes more serious.
The following crops are extensively used in canning and can
be grown successfully in Massachusetts: string beans, beets,
6
sugar corn, peas, pumpkins, cabbage for sauerkraut, rhubarb,
spinach, tomatoes, mushrooms, squash, hominy, dandehons,
cauliflower, cucumber pickles, pickling onions, apples, black-
berries, blueberries, cherries, peaches, pears, plums, raspberries
and strawberries.
The following are the usual prices paid by the canners for
goods delivered at their factories: cabbage for sauerkraut,
$10 per ton. Sugar corn, from 2 to 2f cents per pound for
corn cut from the cob, or S15 to $20 per ton for the ear in
husk; cobs are usually returned to the farmer and have a
value of about $3 per ton for fertilizing purposes; gross returns
of this crop to the grower, $50 to $100 per acre. String beans,
price Ij to If cents per pound; gross returns of this crop to
the grower, $75 to $125 per acre. Beets, $13 to $15 per ton;
average yield, 4 to 8 tons per acre. Dandelions, $10 per ton.
Pumpkins, $5 to $6 per ton; average yield, 8 to 12 tons per
acre. Rhubarb, average price $10 per ton. Spinach, $10 to
$20 per ton; average yield, 5 to 7 tons per acre. Squash, $10
per ton; average yield, 5 to 10 tons per acre. Tomatoes,
$9 to $10 per ton; average yield, 8 to 10 tons per acre. Apples,
75 cents to $1.50 per barrel; second grades can be used for
this purpose if free from wormy stock.
Farmers' co-operative canning associations have been formed
in many sections of the country, but unfortunately have seldom
proved a success, usually due to a lack of close co-operation
a,mong the members and a tendency to sell their crops through
other sources during high prices.
Home canning has been tried by many farmers as a means of
disposing of their surplus crops, but thus far has met with
rather indifferent success, owing to the cost of operation and
the variable quality of products when canned. The home-can-
ning outfit can be used to advantage in caring for surplus
vegetables and fruits that would otherwise go to waste. Such
operations are entirely practical for the home supply and per-
haps a small local trade, but the idea of large profits from such
an enterprise when these products are sold in the open mar-
kets is usually misleading.
The labor cost of canning on the farm is much greater per
unit than is the cost in the factory where large automatic
machinery is used for the various operations, unless the farmer
can do his canning work at odd times, when his labor is not
otherwise advantageously employed. The quality will not
average as high or as uniform when canned in the home,
owing to the lack of modern means for proper sterilization and
testing.
The process of drying has been employed to a certain extent
in this country in the case of fruits, and in Germany with some
vegetables, notably the potato, from which potato flour is
made. Our government is now experimenting with the potato
for this purpose, and it is possible that in the near future
potato flour will be made on a commercial scale in this country.
Denatured alcohol can be made from all farm products
containing sugar, but this work has not met with any great
degree of success as yet, as the price that could be paid for
farm products when used for this purpose would be in marly
cases below the actual cost of harvesting and delivering to the
distillery.
The potato, on account of the large amount of starch it con-
tains, is the most desirable farm crop for alcohol making. At
the present prices of denatured alcohol the distiller would be
able to pay the farmer about 12 to 15 cents per bushel for
potatoes. This industry, therefore, affords the farmer very little
relief in the way of a market for his surplus or crops of No. 2
quality unless the price of alcohol increases materially.
Question. How far are the children benefited through
better canning laws in the United States at present?
Mr. Hall. The child labor law in the different States varies
considerably. No doubt in many cases the reforms were
necessary.
Question. I mean in general, because it has been such a
terrible scourge in our country that children were allowed to
work sixteen and seventeen hours a day in canneries.
Mr. Hall. There are doubtless cases where minors work
long hours in can-houses during the rush of the season. Such
seasons usually last but a few weeks at the most, and as the
wages paid are generally on the basis of piecework, the laborers
are anxious to make as much time as possible. The work is
8
usually done during summer and fall, when the factories are
well ventilated and the health of the employees good. How-
ever, the labor laws in some States have corrected any abuses
that may have existed by establishing the number of hours
per week a minor may work in such factories.
Question. That is exactly the point; it seemed to me a
few years ago that things were not brought up-to-date as they
should be, because for every child that is not given an op-
portunity it means so many more for our hospitals and every-
thing that goes with it. All these men and women interested
in this question, if they would all band together on that thing,
they could get laws throughout the United States by which
more than eight hours could not be demanded of any child
for the sake of any father or mother.
Mr. Hall. In this matter as in that of any other reform, we
are liable to go too far when attempting legislative reform.
In determining the number of hours a minor should be al-
lowed to work it is necessary to know the nature of the work
and conditions under which it is to be done. By many it is
believed that healthy children from fourteen to fifteen years of
age who will not attend school may be much better employed
for a reasonable number of hours per da\^ at light work in a
well-ordered and ventilated factory than to spend their time
walking the streets or in an ill-ventilated moving-picture
theatre. We do not employ children in our factory or upon our
farms.
Mr. Donald JVIcRae of State Farm. I should like to ask
the speaker if he knows the process that potatoes go
through in making potato flour? Whether the potatoes are
just evaporated and ground, or whether they are cooked first
and then evaporated and ground?
Mr. Hall. I am unable to answer your question. The De-
partment of Agriculture at Washington is at present interested
in this work, and is now prepared to send out samples of this
material. They have not as yet published any details con-
cerning the most approved methods of the process. We know
that this work has been carried on in Germany for some time,
and that its future depends upon the price at which potatoes
may be bought, as well as upon the price of cereals from which
flour is usuallv made.
®l)e ^Dmmontocaltl) of iltassacljusetti
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CIRCULAR No. 59.
January, 1916.
RURAL CREDITS
Myron T. Herrick.
From the Sixty-third Annual Report of the Massachusetts
State Board of Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved by
The ST4.TE Board of Publication.
RURAL CREDITS.
MYRON T. HERRICK, CLEVELAND, OHIO.
I feel in speaking on this subject which, from the merest
statement of it, is more or less dry, that I should endeavor, so
far as I am able, to qualify a little before I attempt to instruct.
I do not really mean to attempt to instruct, because I feel
incapacitated for doing that. I feel almost like apologizing for
attempting to speak on a subject which so many people know
so much more about, but that is not the way to learn about a
subject. If you attempt to tell somebody else about it you are
obliged, from time to time, to know something about it your-
self, and finally you accumulate some little fund of knowledge.
A great many years ago, more years than I wish it were, I was
a small boy on a farm, and I think I got my first lessons about
land credit there. I heard my father and mother speaking of
the maturity of the mortgage on the farm. It was held by one
Mr. Gunn. Mr. Gunn held several mortgages on the farms in
that community, and he had a way of not letting the owners
know exactly whether or not he was going to renew those
mortgages until near the time. All through that neighbor-
hood — it was a thrifty one — the people could accumulate a
certain amount of money over and above that necessary for the
support of their families, but under the system of a mortgage
falling due in three or five years — a system which still exists —
it was not possible to recover from those little farms money
enough to pay up the entire sum from the land; therefore these
renewals. I remember that that was the very first trouble I
had in the world. I heard this discussion, — whether or not
that farm would have to be sold because they couldn't pay
it unless they could get a renewal. The farmer is rather
inclined to think that the man who has the mortgage on his
farm wants his farm. He does not, as a rule, but at the same
time it appears so to the farmer. Now the mortgage was re-
newed and time went on, but years after, when I became the
head of a savings bank, I began to consider this question and to
try to understand why the decline had come in agriculture in
our prosperous State of Ohio. It then occurred to me that that
very influence of not being able to finance beyond three or five
years must have a retarding influence in developing the re-
sources of the farmer's land. I believe that just that fact, that
the mortgages fall due within three or five years and that the
principal cannot be recovered, as a rule, out of the land during
that time, is a retarding influence on agriculture in the United
States.
The rural-credits movement has two separate and distinct
objects: (1) to introduce long-term mortgaging for loans on
farm lands; (2) to encourage co-operative banking among
farmers. At least these were its original objects. The auspices
at the start were propitious. Indeed, they could not have been
brighter, since three presidents in succession and the largest
political parties indorsed the movement and the entire country
united in giving it godspeed. But now public opinion is divided,
because the first object has been made the pretext for wild
schemes of government intervention, and the second object has
been obscured through a misunderstanding of the principles and
purposes of co-operation.
The movement has been converted into a vehicle of experi-
mentation. Enthusiasts on land credit have conjured up the
dreams of mobilizing and "coining" the soil, and other vagaries
which were obsolete before John Law's Mississippi bubble burst.
They have revived plans which were tried out and abandoned
in the American colonies prior to the birth of the nation.
They have resurrected and unconsciously revamped as their
own nearly all the rejected ideas advanced in France during
the quarter century preceding her first law on agricultural
credit. In scurrying over Europe for models they have passed
by the German Landschafts and mortgage banks, the French
Credit Foncier, and other thoroughly tested concerns organized
simply for extending land credit, and have imported for adapta-
tion the antiquated institutions which the government some
time established for breaking up the feudal system, and the
bureaus and commissions which the government has recently
established to distribute money obtained or appropriated for
ignorant and indigent peasants, or to meet problems arising
from absenteeism, city congestion, compulsory military service,
land reclamation and interior colonization.
Existing methods and institutions in the United States have
been practically ignored. Originality of design, with any
defects in that design cured by State aid, appears to be the
hobby of the enthusiasts on land credit, and, in confusion of
precedents and disregard of actual conditions and necessities,
they have elaborated in their minds artificial structures which
needs must have extraneous support. So it happens that there
is now being proposed for American farmers a general use of
government cash and credit on a scale that has not yet appeared
in any country. American agriculture does not call for such
aid, but these things do, since without it the chances would be
slight of their ever being patronized by the farmers or the
investing public.
As respects co-operative banking, the enthusiasts have over-
looked the eminently practical character that it must maintain,
have exalted it into altruism, and have demanded for it far
more than the guiding hand and assistance of the government.
They have gone even beyond the idea of charity and alms-
giving, have forestalled the millennium and appealed to a
sublimated spirit of self-abnegation and brotherly love. They
have conceived Utopias in which human instincts and personal
ambitions may be suppressed, and the elysian fields may be
cultivated by perennially happy farmers, each renouncing his
individual good, sharing with his less fortunate co-laborers the
fruits of his toil, and devoting his spare time to organizing co-
operative societies in which producer and consumer, bondholder
and mortgagor, lender and borrower, creditor and debtor, all
may live and work in harmony, enjoying the best prices on
purchases and sales, and granting or receiving loans from
money obtained on their collective guaranty as cheaply as the
United States government can secure funds, or at rates always
lower than those current in the market.
These appeals to altruism and demands for special privilege,
class legislation and State aid have belittled the purposes of the
movement and retarded its progress. Co-operative banking is
of no use to farmers when it is made benevolent, or when its
functions are restricted exclusively to saving and lending. It
is not practiced successfully among farmers except where it is
used in a very practical manner as a financial instrument for
organization and for strengthening the member's purchasing and
selling power. As a result of the narrow scope given to co-oper-
ative banking by the so-called "credit union" laws, unfortu-
nately enacted in some States and by the majority of superficial
investigators who have studied the subject, American farmers
have not taken kindly to the idea, and rural co-operation is no
farther advanced than it was five years ago when the move-
ment first began.
Altruism and State aid are not the only burdens that are
impeding the movement for land credit; it has been almost
swamped by projects foisted upon it with no consideration of
their probable effect, except upon the class of persons whom
they are intended specially to benefit. Nearly all these proj-
ects relate exclusively to agriculture. They propose either
government intervention or the adoption of some new and
untried scheme, with little regard to the fundamentals of the
problem or to the consequences on other industries. This is
true of the bills in Congress and also of the laws enacted in the
States, while the latter have the additional objection that they
differ one from the other and prevent a standardization of the
farm-mortgage business.
One of the manifest causes of the present financial troubles of
agriculture is a deficiency of good general laws on both land
credit and co-operation. The lack of such laws is felt by many
persons besides farmers, and it would seem that some legislator
might have suggested that the first step should be to remedy
defects, supply omissions and enact general laws based on
correct principles for the good of all. This is the natural
course of legislation on new subjects, but no one appears to
have thought of it. The idea of a general reformation has been
condemned without a trial, and the solution of the problem has
been made unnecessarily difficult by treating farmers and
owners of farm lands as if their needs conflicted with the
interests of the rest of the people and must be supplied through
special laws and means.
The shortcomings of American agriculture are traceable to
the facts that the farmers have not combined their resources
with the view of helping one another. Their greatest need is
more co-operation. This can be brought about only through a
more extended and intelligent use of the association. The
associational form of organization is the best for agriculture in
every one of its phases, whether it be for business, finance or
social life. The problem would be simplified if this were kept
in mind. The legislative steps that might be considered are —
1. An amendment of the national banking act so as to permit
any national bank that confines its credit facilities to members
to be organized as an association without capital stock.
2. An amendment of the banking act of each State so as to
permit any kind of bank that confines its credit facilities to
members to be organized as an association without capital
stock.
3. A law by the nation and in each State to legalize for
associations whatever is lawful for corporations, i.e., a regu-
latory law.
4. A clause in such law to permit combinations among
farmers' associations or small producers' or consumers' associa-
tions.
In the first place my desire is that the associational form of
business shall be extended throughout the communities of this
great country of ours and perform a service that we cannot
perform in any other way — that is so great we cannot begin
to comprehend its benefits and effects. The mutual life insur-
ance companies are highly successful examples of this form of
organization. Take another example, the Associated Press, which
I will compare to the Landschaft in its operation, because it does
not enrich itself, but it performs a service. The Associated Press
of the United States, which, by its organizations puts the news
down at our doors every morning for a small sum of money, per-
forms an enormous service but does not grow rich; it does not
accumulate a great capital, but it serves ail the newspapers and
makes their business of publication possible. That is service
that is performed by an organization, and it is comparable to
the Landschaft, which performs a service, and has, throughout
some twenty-seven countries abroad, and has accomplished
8
results comparable to those of which I speak. It is along that
line that we want to seek to develop the agricultural resources
of this country by the associational form of service of the two
kinds to which I referred. I would not confine it to that, but
I think that the greatest opportunity for development, the best
adapted to agricultural interests, is the associational form. I
believe in the incorporation of great institutions like the Credit
Foncier and those of a similar character, and I think that we
probably need some national legislation along these lines; but
for the associational form of legislation I believe this would
work, — an amendment of the national banking act, so as to
permit any national bank that confines its credit facilities -to
its members to be organized as an association without capital
stock. We have got a national banking act, so to the extent
that you will allow an association under the inspection of the
government, an association may be formed like the Landschaft
association, which is comparable, as I said, to the Associated
Press organizations and serves a great community.
I know that most of you know the meaning of a Landschaft,
but if you will permit me I will take the liberty of explaining
its meaning briefly because it is through that kind of organiza-
tion that I hope we will be able to work. We will suppose the
State of Massachusetts passes a law which allows organizations
of farmers for the purpose of borrowing and for the purpose of
marketing and selling in different districts that are divided off
into townships and counties. Now, if a group of men want to
borrow money and there is no money in that township, the
men who want to borrow will find that an association may be
formed consisting of a president and a secretary and a treasurer,
and that organization will consist of all the men in that town-
ship who want to borrow money. They all come and make a
mortgage to that institution, and that Landschaft, instead of
giving them any money, gives them bonds running over a
period of years in return for the mortgage that they give to
that association. Now you will say, "What good will that do
the farmer who wants to borrow money?" It does just this:
that man receives his bonds, and these are negotiable in the
open market. He may make a loan for five, ten, fifteen,
twenty-five or even seventy-five years, in which he pays so
much of the principal and so much of the interest in the shape
of annuities. As an example, I saw this instance of a loan that
had run seventy-five years. I give this, because it is extreme;
a man borrowed of the Credit Foncier $5,000 for seventy-five
years. He agreed to pay 4.30 per cent for the money. The
obligation was drawn so that he paid 4.40 per cent instead of
4.30; the difference between 4.30 and 4.40 paid the loan at the
end of seventy-five years. He paid all during that time 4.40
instead of 4.30, and that slight difference amortized the loan.
That is the principle. Now this man receives bonds on which
he pays annuities; he has made his mortgage, those bonds are
marketable. They can be sold or used as collateral. The
societies federate and become collectively liable, and the result
is that that security — that bond on which he has financed
himself for so many years that he can recover out of the soil
enough to maintain his living expenses and pay that loan —
becomes a safe and readily marketable investment. The
borrower can call the loan and pay it all off if he wants to, but
the lender cannot. In other words, the borrower finances his
land for a time definite to himself and makes a security that
anybody will buy, and they sell against government bonds in
Italy, Germany and France. It is not any theory, it is a
practice economically sound that has been worked out in those
countries. The government should inspect it, umpire it, look
after it to see that it is honest.
Second, we should have an amendment of the banking
act of each State, so as to permit any kind of a bank that
confines its credit facilities to the members to organize
as an association without capital stock, in the same way
as we have done with the national banks.
Third, a law should be enacted by the nation and each
State to legalize in associations whatever is lawful for cor-
porations. We didn't know anything about a corporation a
hundred years ago; now we do everything, almost, by corpora-
tions. It is a good form of conducting business, but let us
enlarge this associational form, so successful in life insurance
companies, so as to include all business. It is a simple thing,
gives free scope to the affairs of organizations, and is a proper
method of permitting the transaction of business.
10
Fourth, there should be a clause in each law to permit combina-
tions among farmers' associations or small producers' or consum-
ers' associations. Now allow these to combine as they do in
Europe. There they have infinite combinations making stronger
the credit. The short-time credit and the long credit combine
until they run up finally to the Bank of Prussia, or the Bank of
France, and the little fellow finds his note of 100 francs in the
Bank of France. It would be a strange thing if a note of $20
of a farmer in Missouri or Kansas landed in a city bank of
New York; it would be lonesome, but there are hundreds of
millions of dollars of short-time financing paper that lie in the
vaults of the Bank of Prussia, the Bank of Italy and the Bank
of France. This system has the effect of leveling the credit all
over the nation. In America, in one place you have cheap
money and in another place it is 10 or 20 or even 100 per cent.
With a proper system and the land and the proper machinery
it is entirely possible to vitalize that credit and mobilize it and
increase many times the business of this country and the
development of it, and at the same time not break up the
existing credit system by leaning on the government to do it.
It can be accomplished infinitely better in these other ways.
The rage for innovation and the confusion which it has
wrought in land credit arise perhaps from the fact that little
effort has been made in the movement to distinguish one from
the other the different kinds of institutions devised for organiz-
ing land credit, or to study the purpose, merits and results of
each kind. The organization of land credit means the substitu-
tion of specially designed institutions for individuals as money
lenders. Such institutions are of only five kinds: (1) companies
for insuring or guaranteeing tiMes or mortgages; (2) building
and loan associations; (3) Landschafts; (4) bond and mortgage
companies; and (5) public or semi-public banks or establishments.
The loan transactions of institutions of the first type are
largely brokerage; of the second, direct investment of their
own funds. Institutions of the third and fourth types issue
bonds or debentures; and, since the bulk of the loans is made
through this method of finance, they tend to act as mediators
between investors and borrowers, and so are the best organizers
of land credit. Institutions of the fifth type also may issue
11
bonds or debentures, but their security and financial support lie
rather in the connection with government than in the value of
the land; they serve to facilitate the distribution of subsidies,
usually among some particular class of persons, and so their
effect on the general and proper organization of land credit is
slight. Included in this last class are most of the institutions
for reclaiming land by embankment, drainage or irrigation;
these are always localized.
Illinois has one of the best laws, something quite like the
Landschaft, and that is this: on the Mississippi River there are
great areas of land which are sometimes flooded. It was not
fair to make the State pay for reclaiming that land for the
benefit of the individuals who owned it, so Illinois has enacted
laws by which drainage districts are constituted, and this plan
is patterned largely after the Landschaft. They have those
great drainage districts and build the embankments and drain
the land, and the obligation rests upon that district, which is
partitioned off by the law of the State, like a Landschaft. They
use the taxing machinery of the State to collect the installments
of interest and principal and to meet those loans. Now they
did not need the help of the government to institute a bank to
take care of that; all they had to do was to make that law
and make it possible to create those securities, which was a
collective obligation upon that whole community, and they sell
immediately in the market at a fair price. It would have been
absurd for the State of Illinois, or any of those States, to start
a bank to buy the securities, because they would say, "That
can't be done unless the State advances the money." All they
have to do is to give character to the security.
In no country do land-credit institutions, no matter how few
or how many, monopolize the business; all they can do is to
supplement the work of other agencies. The real-estate
mortgage is so popular that it goes everywhere. Nearly all
savings banks and life-insurance companies maintain depart-
ments for investing their own funds in it, while many trust
companies and other corporations acquire it to hold or to sell.
The operations of such investors, brokers and agents would be
more extensive if the laws were better. Hence, legislative
reform ought not to stop with the creation or authorization of
12
land-credit institutions, properly so called; it should continue
until the laws relating to land credit are perfected for money
lenders of all kinds, individual and incorporated.
Companies for insuring titles and guaranteeing mortgages,
by standing good for the borrower's ownership of the mortgaged
property or for the repayment of his loan, are very serviceable
in mobilizing land values, but these institutions are not of a
pure land-credit type because their guaranty rests upon personal
credit. Moreover, as they have more nearly reached perfection
in the United States than in any other country they need not
be discussed here.
But the laws are defective or lacking in respect to the other
institutions. Building and loan associations have attained a
great development in the United States; in fact, far greater
than in any other country. They are, however, thrifty societies,
and not well adapted to agriculture. The recent attempt in a
number of States to convert them into credit institutions for
farmers has, in my opinion, done harm.
Bond and mortgage companies have reached enormous de-
velopment in the cities. Most of them are safe and sound, yet
they all appear to be operating under defective laws. In
Europe these institutions sometimes are called land-credit
banks, or mortgage banks. They are subject to rigorous in-
spection under laws in all the best of which I find two basic
clauses. The first is that capital stock and surplus must be
maintained at a safe ratio to bonds; this is usually %1 to $20;
the second clause is that bonds in circulation must represent
first liens on lands of adequate value and never exceed out-
standing loans either in amount or in interest rate. I believe
that if the States would incorporate these two clauses and
provide for proper inspection there would be no question as to
the soundness of institutions of this kind. But none should be
allowed to do long-term mortgaging unless it has a large capital
stock. No investors will deal with small concerns that place
their funds out in long-term loans.
Public or semi-public institutions operate with the cash or
upon the guaranty of government. Usually (as I said before),
they are established for assisting indigent and ignorant peasants,
or else for carrying out some national policy. None in recent
13
years has been established in a foreign nation for any other
class.
The solution of the land-credit problem lies in the introduc-
tion of the Torrens system for facilitating the proving of titles,
in the simplifying and standardizing of the laws for recovering
defaulted loans, and in the enactment of proper legislation for
bond and mortgage companies and for Landschafts. The
latter institutions are entirely agricultural, and are considered
to be the best means for finding long-term credit for farmers.
You know, after this land mortgage craze in the west some
years ago, to ward off the eastern mortgage holder the equities
of redemption were deferred, and some two or three years were
allowed by which the man, if he got the money, could come
back and redeem his farm, and all sorts of obstructive laws
were passed which tended to prevent the foreclosure of mort-
gages. Those laws ought to be wiped out. It is necessary to
clean up the real-estate situation in many States before it is
safe to operate in this large way with a large incorporated
institution. Some fourteen States have the Torrens system. I
think Massachusetts is one of the States that has that system.
In other words, we are just at the beginning of something in
this country w^hich is of such importance — of such tran-
scendent importance to all of the people — that while we are
considering the questions of the day we must not permit this
one to go wrong; and it has been very greatly in danger of
doing so. Had the Hollis-Buckley bill passed in the last
Congress I believe it would have been a great detriment to this
country. If we can only wait long enough to appreciate the
meaning of starting right in the organization of these institu-
tions we shall accomplish something very great for the United
States. Those institutions which have worked out and have
performed the service in Europe for which they were created
have been those which called for the development of individual
initiative and resources along these lines of co-operation. It
has been said that we cannot do these things as they can over
there, — that we cannot establish these institutions. That is
tantamount to saying that with the high order of intelligence
of our population we cannot do the things that the ignorant
peasantry of Europe can accomplish so successfully. It is
14
absurd. We can accomplish it here, and it is necessary for us
to do it and to do it along the right lines, but I feel that this
is important. Over there these systems of finance are devised
by the government or by the people in town, and accepted by
the people in the country. In this country, where the farm is
the breeding place of brains, and where the people who run the
government in the cities come from the land, they have been
rather independent, and when the man in the town — in the
city — attempts to instruct or tell the farmer what to do, he
says, "Go hang, I don't need any advice from you." But the
time has come in this country when we are realizing that our
interests are one in the development of our natural resources.
In carrying on this great machinery of government and all its
financial system we are realizing more and more its co-operative,
its collective thought, its organization that accomplishes these
things, and if the chambers of commerce will take an interest,
and the farmers will come into the chambers of commerce, and
the city men will join some of the country organizations, we
can collaborate and bring out a system that is financially,
economically and fundamentally sound. If we do this, the
next twenty-five years of advance in American rural life is
going to be tremendous, because the credit system is as neces-
sary as the track upon which the engine runs for the railway.
You may develop education and develop along other lines, but
keep the archaic credit system the way it is and the farming
communities, the rural districts of the United States, will not
come to their own for many, many years to come. It has been
kept out of politics so far, and that is one of the encouraging
signs of the times, namely, the idea of taking questions which
belong to business out of politics and treating them as we must
and should treat them, — as business questions. Now just
one more word in conclusion. This is the most momentous
time in the history of our lives, one time possibly excepted, the
civil war. We seem to feel that we are remote here from that
great conflagration which is destroying society and civilization.
We seem, in a sense, remote from it. Our time is coming later.
There will be placed upon the people of the United States a
responsibility, a task to perform, — we won't speak of oppor-
tunities, — greater than was ever placed upon any people in the
15
world. It is necessary that we talk about military preparedness
and all that; that is necessary, but the most fundamental
necessity of all is a preparedness of our economic structure, of
our manufacturing business, — a preparation by which we may
finance everything that we do, that we, as a people, may work
in harmony. The time has come when there is a call to
patriotism, a call for the American people to respect the
obligations of citizenship as almost never before. We should be
serious thinking people now, planning out how we are going to
perform this service for the world which it almost seems that
we are ordained to perform. We are equal to it in ability.
We have the resources, both in materials and in men and
women; we have the capability; we have the brains; and the
only question lies with us whether we can work together and
perfect our organizations and perform in an orderly manner
those things which are necessary to carry on a great work to
its consummation. I am glad that there is this feeling through-
out the United States which brings people together, as we are
to-night, to discuss these vital questions of human welfare,
because they are far-reaching.
®l}e iJIommontoealtl) of iHa06acl)U6ctts,
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CmCULAR No. 60
February, 1916.
ALFALFA CONDITIONS IN NEW
ENGLAND.
H. W. Jeffers.
From the Sixty-third Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of
Agriculture.
BOSTON:
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
32 DERNE STREET.
1916.
Approved by
The State Board of Publication,
ALFALFA CONDITIONS IN NEW ENGLAND.
H. W. JEFFERS, SUPERINTENDENT, WALKER-GORDON FARM, PLAINSBORO,
NEW JERSEY.
Alfalfa has been known and valued for centuries in the Old
World. Some fifty or sixty years ago it was introduced into
California by way of Chili. It met with favor as a forage
plant, and its cultivation gradually extended eastward until all
States west of the Missouri River became great alfalfa-growing
States.
The western States were well adapted naturally for alfalfa
growing; the soils were deep, dry and filled with a large per-
centage of lime, and rich in mineral fertilizers. The plant
became a great boon to the live-stock interests of the west.
Seedings were frequently made through the east, but were
generally failures except in a few restricted districts, one nota-
ble district being near Syracuse, New York, where there was
a terminal moraine deposit filled with fragments of limestone.
Until quite recently it was believed that the growing of
alfalfa in our eastern States v/ould not prove profitable on
the great majority of our farms, but the accumulated experi-
ence of the past few years of those who have succeeded lead us
to believe that any well-drained land properly prepared by lim-
ing and fertilizing will grow alfalfa profitably, and that the
introduction of this crop in our rotation will increase the fer-
tilit}^ of our farms.
All feeders of live stock who have used alfalfa meal or hay
have recognized its advantages, and have felt that it was prof-
itable to feed even if they had to pay $25 to $30 per ton for it.
The hay is rich in protein and mineral matter and relished by
all kinds of live stock. It will grow better pigs, better young
cattle, produce more milk when fed to the cow and more eggs
when fed to the hen. There seems to be something about
alfalfa that makes it a better food than its chemical composi-
tion would indicate. This may be due to the large percentage
of mineral matter it contains, or some stimulating element that
is not yet understood. The man who sells alfalfa products to
our eastern farmer I consider a missionary. He is giving us a
chance to prove for ourselves its great feeding value. When
once tried we are convinced of its worth, and then it is up to us
whether we want to continue to pay from $10 to $15 freight per
ton on this valuable food from the west, or whether we shall
grow it upon our own farms and save the freight.
We think of alfalfa as a crop that grows spontaneously in
the west. From all statistics that can be gathered on the aver-
age yields, even in the most favorable localities in the west, our
yields in the east show well in comparison. Even down in the
great Imperial valley, the hottest place in the United States,
the average yield of alfalfa is less than 5 tons per acre. We
can grow on our eastern farms a yield between 3 and 5 tons per
acre per year, depending upon soil and climatic conditions.
There is no forage crop known to-day that will yield more
nutrients per acre than alfalfa. There is no plant that is able
to send a taproot into the subsoil as alfalfa. It feeds upon the
mineral matter in the subsoil that has lain dormant and useless
all these years. It is also capable, as are other leguminous
plants, through the bacteria that live upon its roots, to con-
vert the free nitrogen of the air to its own use, making it un-
necessary to feed the plant with the expensive nitrogenous fer-
tilizers. It is not only able to produce what nitrogen it needs
for its own use, but will contribute fertility to other plants
growing with it, or when plowed it will add more dollars'
worth of fertility to the soil than it has cost to lime, fertilize
and prepare the soil to establish it. Therefore we have a
plant that is a winner from every standpoint. It gives us the
richest and best kind of food, it yields more nutrients per acre
than any other crop, it is a soil builder, and by its use in the
rotation our farms will grow richer and richer as the years go
by, capable of yielding more bounteous crops. This means
prosperity, better homes, better schools, better churches and
a better community.
Can we grow it in New England? We can! The fields that
are already growing it demonstrate that it can be grown. The
accumulated experience of the men here in New England who
have already succeeded is enough to stimulate us to put our
shoulders to the wheel, study our farms, study the type of our
soils and their requirements, and prepare them for the intro-
duction of alfalfa into our farm-crop system.
Any well-drained soil, where the water table is 4 feet below
the surface, can be made to grow alfalfa by proper preparation.
It will grow upon rough, rocky land, even on soils where the
rock is within 2 or 3 feet of the surface, — provided it is
cracked and admits of good drainage, — and will send roots
down into the very crevices of the rock. Many lands that are
not naturally well drained can be made so by the use of tile.
The preparation of the seed bed is of most importance. It
should be deep, firm and fine. Our custom is to prepare it
after taking off a crop of any early maturing vegetables, grains
or even hay, — crops that are harvested about July 1. We
then disk the land until the stubble or sod is thoroughly cut
up and the soil pulverized. The soil mulch is made for three
reasons: first, to prevent evaporation of the soil moisture; sec-
ond, to hold any rains that fall; third, to germinate grain or
weed seeds. We continue to disk and roll until the seed bed
is well prepared, or, as soon as the soil is moist enough to
plow, it is plowed, rolled and harrowed. By disking previous
to plowing the soil capillarity is immediately restored. In
some sections in the North alfalfa has been seeded in the
spring with a nurse crop of oats, barley, wheat or rye, and
good results have been obtained.
The one greatest essential in alfalfa growing in the east is
lime in abundance. All our soils, with few exceptions, are
acid, and the bacteria that thrive on the alfalfa plant cannot
grow; therefore we must put on quantities of lime, whether it
be hydrated, burned or ground limestone. If ground limestone
can be purchased at a price of a little over one-half what it
costs to purchase hydrated or burned lime I should prefer its
use. I would spread on the field at least 4 tons of ground
limestone per acre, using a lime spreader for this work. It had
better be put on immediately after plowing so that the sub-
sequent disking and harrowing will thoroughly incorporate it
in the soil.
The next step is the proper fertilization of the soil. Stable
manures give good results when put upon the field for the
crop preceding the seeding of alfalfa. There are less weed
seeds by following this method. Our practice previous to the
war was to apply 500 pounds of 2-8-10 fertilizer to the acre
just before seeding. Potash cannot be obtained, therefore we
are applying 300 pounds of acid phosphate and 75 of nitrate
of soda to the acre. Acid phosphate gives us much better re-
sults than basic slag or raw phosphate rock. We have demon-
strated this by sowing strips with different kinds of phosphate
fertilizers. There is something about acid phosphate which
stimulates leguminous plants that our chemists do not under-
stand. The nitrate of soda is used to give the young plant a
quick start. The plant is weak in the beginning, and by stim-
ulating its growth it will be better prepared to cope with weeds
and obtain its own nitrogen from the air.
Seeding should be done at the rate of about 20 pounds of
seed per acre. There are several tools for doing this work. If
a disk seeder is used it can be sown one way at a depth of one-
half to one inch; if the various broadcast seeders are used one-
half the seed should be sown each way and then lightly har-
rowed in, followed by a subsoil roller. Seeding in this climate
should be done early in the spring with a nurse crop, or early
in August if sown by itself.
The kind of seed to use is of great importance. Unfortu-
nately, the alfalfa seed industry has not yet been standardized
so that we can always depend upon the variety or kind of seed
we w^ant. For New England, seed should be procured that is
grown in the northwest on nonirrigated land, the farther north
or the higher altitude from which we can procure the seed the
better. Only the hardier varieties can be grown at high eleva-
tions or in the far north. Undoubtedly the Grimm is the best
variety obtainable to-day. There are a number of new varie-
ties of alfalfa which are being experimented with and which
may prove better for New England conditions, but these varie-
ties are not yet grown in large enough quantities to place the
seed upon the market.
This summer I spent about a week in the alfalfa seed grow-
ing sections in order to study whether we could depend on
what these men were saying in regard to seed. I believe there
are a few people who are dependable, but they are asking very
high prices for their seed. I met Mr. Cooper, the State farm
management man, in North Dakota. Now in North Dakota
you cannot grow anything but the very hardy varieties, — the
varieties such as should be grown here in New England, — and
their plan up there is to push the cultivation of alfalfa as
rapidly as possible, and they hope in about two years' time
to be able to put out alfalfa seed in North Dakota and put a
State seal upon it so that you can be assured that that seed is
right. I think if the people in the mountain regions of Mon-
tana and Colorado and Dakota would do that same thing, and
possibly in South Dakota, in the black hills, that we would
then get seed that we could depend upon. While I was out
there I did everything I could to impress upon them not only
the benefit from the seed growers' standpoint, but the benefit
it w^ould mean to the eastern alfalfa grower, to get a seed that
they could depend upon, because I believe a great many of
our failures have been due to poor seed.
In our own practice we select the best seed we can, pur-
chasing from three different concerns, and mixing them to-
gether before seeding. If one or possibly two of these strains
did not prove hardy and one proved to be we would secure a
good stand of alfalfa. All seeds should be inoculated. The
government will furnish inoculation enough for small quanti-
ties, but the commercial inoculations that are upon the market
have proven to be good. The seed can be inoculated at a cost
of about %1 per acre, which is cheaper than distributing soil
from an old alfalfa field.
After alfalfa is seeded, even if annual weeds appear, it should
not be clipped, and if sown early in August should get a growth
of at least 8 to 10 inches. If it gets this size it should go
through the winter in good condit'on.
The harvesting of alfalfa is not intricate. It should be cut
between the time the little shoots appear at the crown and
before they are high enough for a mower to clip them off. The
hay should be raked before the leaves dry, and then bunched
and capped with canvas. During good weather two or three
days after the hay is cocked it can be stored. Oftentimes
weather conditions in the east are unfavorable for curing hay,
8
and it may be several days before it can be put in the mow,
but the caps will protect it. I have seen hay put in the mow
quite green which will go through a fermentation making a
dark-colored hay, or what is sometimes known as tobacco-
cured hay. This will equal the bright green hay as a feed.
What we want to avoid is moldy hay. The hay should be a
bright green, or else sap enough left in the plant to produce the
tobacco-cured hay.
After the first season it may be advantageous to top-dress
with 200 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate, and if the field be-
comes weedy a thorough harrowing with a spring-tooth alfalfa
harrow, or a similar tool, will kill the weeds and stimulate the
growth. Alfalfa should always go into the winter with at least
6 to 10 inches of top.
Alfalfa in the crop rotation will not only build up the fer-
tility of the farm, but, if introduced in proper proportion with
other crops, a uniform labor load can be maintained which is
one of the large factors in economic agriculture.
To those who have not quite made up their minds to begin
the planting of alfalfa as a crop by itself I would strongly urge
that every farmer use at least 3 to 4 pounds of alfalfa seed
in his grass mixtures. For permanent agriculture lime should
be used previous to seeding any grass crop, and by the use of
lime and thorough preparation of the seed bed and inoculated
alfalfa seed in the mixture you will be able to grow better crops
of hay than you would by not using the alfalfa. It has been
demonstrated that timothy and alfalfa grown together will
yield much heavier, and the timothy will be richer in protein,
than if grown alone; also by this method, which will be com-
paratively inexpensive, one can determine the practicability of
growing alfalfa by itself. In this way we found that alfalfa
grew luxuriantly when sufiicient lime was applied previous to
seeding.
In conclusion, let us bear in mind these principal points:
alfalfa is a highly desirable feed; alfalfa will grow more nutri-
ents to the acre than any other plant; alfalfa will improve the
farm; alfalfa can be grown on any well-drained soil by the use
of lime, inoculated seed from hardy plants, and can be grown
at a profit.
The time is not far distant when the majority of farms in
the east will be growing alfalfa. Our lands will be improved,
our live stock increased, and we will be able to supply the
growing markets in the great industrial centers which are at
our very door. We will no longer pay the transportation com-
panies $10 to $15 per ton on our feeds; we will be able to pro-
duce more, live better and enjoy prosperity.
Question. What is the general average life of the plant, from
your experience?
Mr. Jeffers. Why, in our own work we are bringing alfalfa
into a farm rotation. We are leaving the alfalfa fields till they
grow five years, harvest them five years, then two years in corn,
then one year in grains.
Question. How does alfalfa compare, from your observation,
with the great fields of sweet clover we see in the west, — in
Iowa and Kansas?
Mr, Jeffers. Sweet clover is something that I know very
little about. From what I saw there, they were using it largely
for pastures. We have never tried much sweet clover, but I
should think perhaps it might be well to experiment a little in
it, especially if our land is a little poor.
Question. I would like to ask the speaker if he has had any
experience with scarified seed? They are using now a machine
in the west to scarify the seed so that the germination is in-
creased from 50 to 75 per cent.
Mr. Jeffers. No, we have not used any of the scarified
seed, but I am quite sure that that is very essential to sweet
clover. I know we have tried sowing a little sweet clover, and
sometimes it will not germinate until the next year. I tried
some special alfalfa down in South Jersey with sweet clover,
and found that some did not germinate till next year. I think
that scarified seeds are very good, especially with sweet clover.
Mr. N. I. BowDiTCH. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen:
While the alfalfa growers are together I want to state to them
that the oldest agricultural society in the State, — the Massa-
chusetts Society for promoting Agriculture, — - in order to further
encourage the growing of alfalfa in the State of Massachusetts,
through its trustees, offers $600, in five prizes, for the best
10
acres of alfalfa planted in 1916; these prizes to be awarded in
1918, as follows: first prize, S250; second prize, §150; third
prize, $100; fourth prize, S75; fifth prize, $25. The trustees
will be governed in awarding these prizes by general appear-
ance of the crop during 1917 and 1918. A public weigher's cer-
tificate will be required, and all entries must be made on or
before October 1, 1916, to General Francis Henry Appleton,
secretary, 251 INIarlboro Street, Boston.
We would like the co-operation of this alfalfa club in this
matter, and any suggestions that any one has to make will be
gladly received, because we want to make it as successful as
possible.
On motion of Dr. H. J. Wheeler it was voted to extend a
vote of thanks to the Massachusetts Society for promoting
Agriculture.
Mr. W. P. NiCKERSON. In relation to the offer of Mr. Bow-
ditch, I am going to start a new field of alfalfa this year, and
want to get the $250. There will be a great many who will
start fields if they know that the offer is made and if they have
some one to show them how to start. They can best be shown
and best helped by our county farm agents, and I think that
if the farm agents are included in the offer and given full direc-
tions, they will increase the acreage of the alfalfa to be grown
in the State of Massachusetts very largely. There is just one
question I would like to ask, — is this one measured acre that
the prize is to be given on?
Mr. Prescott. Yes, one measured acre is the area.
Mr. NiCKERSON. I would suggest that the alfalfa associa-
tion ask INIr. Bowditch to notify the farm agents. They are
in touch with all the farmers in their counties and can get it
started better than any one else.
Chairman. I think notice will be sent around to the people.
Dr. William P. Brooks. There are a few thoughts sug-
gested to me by the speaker's remarks, which I hope may
prove of some value. He has spoken of the variety, and I
agree with him that too much care cannot be taken to obtain
11
the best possible seed. I want simply to emphasize this point,
— that the quality of the seed is not necessarily indicated by
the name. There is a good deal of seed offered as Grimm
alfalfa, and I know that it is not anywhere near worth the
price charged for it as compared with common alfalfa. Now
the experiment station is taking the utmost care to get as
good seed as it can find, whether of Grimm variety or the so-
called common alfalfa, and the two have been tried again and
again side by side, and the results have more frequently been
favorable for what we bought for common northern grown
alfalfa than they have been for the Grimm.
I need not take much of your time, but a few of the figures
I would like to read : —
In 1914, in early August, we sowed side by side five kinds
of Grimm and three kinds from the Department of Agricul-
ture. In 1915 the Grimm gave 4^0 5 the common, S^V; one
of the United States Department, 4yo 5 another, 4iV5 and one,
4yo tons. I want particularly to speak of that last, — 4iV
tons. That was the smallest yield. This variety started off
fully as w^ell as any of the others, but it showed itself par-
ticularly susceptible to rust, and this emphasizes another point,
— some of you have had a good deal of trouble, I know from
correspondence, with this leaf spot. This single experience of
ours emphasizes the point of which I felt very sure before, but
it emphasizes it in a very striking way, — that there may be
a tremendous difference in the susceptibility to leaf spot, which
always cuts down the yield and kills the roots, and may even
ruin the stand. I have other figures concerning the relative
yield of so-called Grimm, and when I say so-called Grimm I
do not mean to throw discredit on the persons who sold it as
Grimm. I have every reason to believe it was Grimm which
I bought, after consultation with experiment station directors,
of the men whom they said were the most reliable producers
of Grimm alfalfa in the northwestern States. I certainly believe
I am doing you a service in emphasizing this point, — that it
won't pay to give the prices usually charged for Grimm as
compared with good northern grown common alfalfa.
As to the time of sowing, just a word from the standpoint
of Massachusetts. I think we want to sow a little more than
12
two weeks earlier in the fall than you in New Jersey. In my
experience it pays to sow early enough to get a good growth
before cold weather. I want a foot or 15 inches of growth.
It protects from alternate freezing and thawing, and in every
way helps the crop to go through the winter. I have often had
it grow so well that it seemed almost wicked to leave it, and
I might have been tempted to cut it except that I knew it
was worth ever so much more in the ground than if cut. And
I should say, from experience in Amherst and from observa-
tion in many parts of the State, that we ought to get alfalfa
in before the 10th of August, — some time from about the 25th
of July to the 10th of August will suit most parts of the State,
I think. We have occasionally had good results at the college
ground at Amherst in seeding alfalfa in with the corn, but you
must not anticipate so perfect a stand, so complete a cover of
the ground, if you seed in that way. Yet it is quite possible,
and I agree heartily with the speaker, that putting in a little
alfalfa seed in ordinary mowing is a good idea, and if in your
experience you have found it a satisfactory method to seed the
alfalfa with corn, put the alfalfa seed in at that time without
hesitation. If I were planning for a crop of clear alfalfa I
should not advocate that method of seeding because it is highly
important to get the ground completely covered, owing to the
grass and weeds and white clover which keep crowding the
alfalfa out on many kinds of land.
The question of phosphates was touched upon. This ques-
tion is one on which, as some of you may remember, I have
recently published a bulletin. The bulletin will support, on the
whole, the position taken by the speaker. Acid phosphate
seems to be a good source of phosphoric acid, and I agree with
him that we don't exactly know, perhaps, just why it is so
good. Many of you have been attracted, no doubt, owing to
the beautiful manner in which Dr. Hopkins expresses himself,
and the extent to which he is quoted, to try fine-ground rock
phosphates. We have had them side by side for eighteen years
with acid phosphates, with basic slag and with various forms
of bone, not only one rock phosphate, but all the different
kinds, — South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, — using these
phosphates every year in such quantities as to furnish equal
13
phosphoric acid. From the start the acid phosphate was supe-
rior to any of the rock phosphates, and the truth is that after
eighteen years the acid phosphate's superiority to the rock is
greater than it was at the start, — considerably greater.
Question. I would like to ask the speaker, or any one
through the speaker, whether there has been any successful
experience with alfalfa in New England on a typical granite
hill farm, with a subsoil coming pretty close to the top? I hope
some little time will be devoted to this side of the problem. I
know of cases where it has been grown successfully on favor-
able soils, but don't know of any where it has been grown on
the typical New England hill soil.
Dr. H. J. Wheeler. We have a modest gentleman here who
can answer that question, I think, — Mr. Andrews of Vermont.
Mr. Edward R. Andrews. I will answer that question be-
cause for six or seven years I have been growing alfalfa on just
that sort of hill land in Vermont. I cannot say that the sub-
soil is clay because it is not. I suppose the soil is what is
called clay loam, that is, it is deep rich loam. It is hard to find
the subsoil in many places. There is not any question in my
mind but what alfalfa can be grown on these sloping hills.
My farm is made up of many of that kind, — not deep slopes,
but a gradual slope, and when I first began I made the usual
mistakes. I inoculated the seed with the inoculating material
furnished by the Department at Washington, and not much
was known about it at that time. I wanted to sow the seed
right away, so I let it dry in the sun. That did not succeed.
Another field that I tried not very successfully was on sod
ground, — well, the grass came up and nearly killed out the
alfalfa. Yet every year since then — that must have been five
years ago — we have cut off a great deal of alfalfa. One year,
1912, I sowed quite a large piece of alfalfa, and that year the
ground was bare nearly all w^inter; no snow was on it, and in
the neighborhood of my farm clover was killed out, but my
alfalfa was not, and I have had crops from that field in 1913,
1914 and 1915.
I used marl for a good many years which came from New
York and cost me $7 a ton, including freight, but last spring
a concern was started in Vermont, from which ground lime-
14
stone could be purchased at $1.50 a ton, and in my neighbor-
hood it cost me, with freight charges, $3.50. I used three car-
loads of that lime on my farm this last summer, I have fol-
lowed pretty much the plan of getting the land ready that
was suggested by the speaker. If you want big crops have
the land rich; sow your alfalfa in August, as I do, after a
crop which has been highly cultivated. I inoculate every-
thing, — clover seed, vetch, peas, etc. I use "Nitragin," made
by the German-American Nitragih Company, at Milwaukee,
and have great success. I have used the northern grown seed,
and never until 1914 had I time to use Grimm, but in 1914 I
sowed a small piece in front of my house, covering 2^ acres,
which had been Avell manured and fertilized, where peas and
oats were grown. I sowed one-half of that in Grimm, and
since last summer we have taken off that 2| acres over 10 tons
of pure hay. I have had 16 acres of alfalfa this year and I
have had 46 tons of hay from it. I sowed about 12 acres more
in August.
Last year I got my lime at the low price of $1.50 a ton;
delivered, it cost me a little short of $2.50 from the lime com-
pany at 92 State Street, Boston.
Question. You bought your lime in bulk?
Mr. Andrews. In paper bags.
Mr. Sanborn. I would like to know definitely whether any
one here has grown alfalfa successfully for a series of years on
a hardpan subsoil typical New England hill farm. I care nothing
about other details.
Mr. NiCKERSON. It has been my pleasure, with immense in-
terest, to pick up alfalfa in front of my house, and never was
I more surprised in my life to see the extent of those roots and
the size of them. I would like to inquire how you can grow
such roots naturally on anything but exceedingly deep soil.
What do you consider deep soil?
A Member. I am growing alfalfa on a piece of land where
the subsoil comes pretty close to the top. Nothing else grows
there, it is such poor land, so I thought I would grow alfalfa.
Mr. NiCKERSON. How deep roots do you get?
A Member. I never dug them, but have found roots an
15
inch through. That land was very ledgy, and I planted the
alfalfa to go down after that manure and it went down, and I
raised alfalfa for ten years. I have seeded it this fall for the
fourth time. I have to keep my land moving, but it has grown
stronger every time, and it is ten years since I put it in first,
and I never inoculated any seed until this last fall.
Dr. Brooks. I notice that the last speaker said his land
was ledgy. That would hardly meet the requirements of Mr.
Sanborn's description. Way down in southwestern Connecti-
cut I have a son-in-law on a farm where the subsoil comes
within a few inches of the surface, and he is having some trouble
with alfalfa sown in the late summer of 1914 on a field of 5
or 6 acres, not far from his house. I walked over with him
last spring, and we picked up a great many roots where the
crown was over 6 inches above the top of the ground. Alfalfa
culture under conditions described by Mr. Sanborn is difficult,
but perhaps not impossible if there is not stagnant water in the
soil. The roots cannot live in stagnant water.
Mr. Prescott. [Exhibiting specimens of alfalfa.] That was
grown on a heavy clay subsoil, with a pretty good loam. That
was planted the sixteenth day of August and pulled the twenty-
first day of September. It was almost 18 inches long when I
picked it out. These were grown on sandy subsoil. It is not
hilly. The subsoil here is first 8 or 10 inches of loam, then 2
or 3 feet of yellow subsoil turning into a fine white sand, going
still deeper into a coarse white sand, and at 11 feet is gravel,
with stones as big as an egg. That alfalfa has been growing
on that piece of land since 1908; never had any manure since;
never been fertilized with any kind of fertilizer. These here
[indicating specimens] are two samples of Grimm, picked last
summer, which Mr. Wheeler wanted me to bring in. I don't
know why they are different in color.
I don't see any reason why we cannot grow alfalfa in Massa-
chusetts as well as we can in New Jersey.
U. S. Bates. I came here with a question in my mind. My
own experience has been very small. Until I heard Professor
Brooks, I had not encountered any one from whom I could
get the information I wanted. He speaks of leaf spot. I sup-
pose that is what is the matter with my alfalfa. I have called
16
it rot and blight. I did not begin until two years ago. I planted
a small patch of alfalfa which did pretty well, and I was en-
couraged to plant again a year ago. I put in only half an
acre, but it succeeded pretty well; got a good stand; went
through the winter in good shape, and up to July 1 I felt
proud of it and invited people to come and see it, but then
the b'ight struck it and lessened the yield. I am wondering
what will happen next spring — whether that blight is going
to destroy the whole crop. The seed I bought is ordinary alfalfa
seed. I did not inquire as to the name or where it came from.
I feel a great deal encouraged by the speaker's remarks. I have
read all the pamphlets and bulletins and heard all the speakers
that have come in my way, and they have all seemed to em-
phasize promptness and an exact period at which we may cut
our crops. They say to wait until one-third of blossoms are
out; that we must watch the little crowns at the base and not
cut too early, and I had made up my mind that there must
be only thirty minutes between too late and too early, and
that I would have to get up from the table before I finished my
dinner to go out and cut alfalfa; but now I learn from the
speaker that we may take a little more time. But what may
I expect in regard to my leaf spot?
Dr. H. J. Wheeler. Was that the second crop that had
leaf spot?
Mr. Bates. Had it on the second and third crops; the first
crop was disease free.
Mr. Jeffers. We have had some of the leaf spot, but not
enough to injure a field seriously. I remember one field in
particular where we had rainy weather at the time of the first
cutting and were delayed about ten days getting the hay off.
That field became quite spotted with leaf spot, and it showed
in the next crop, but after that it was all right. We thought
that was due to running on the field when the shoots were
coming up, but we never had enough to be a serious trouble
to us.
Mr. Sanborn has spoken of hardpan soil. Where I was born
and brought up the hardpan comes up to the third rail on the
fence and sometimes they have to move the fence higher to
get rid of the hardpan. We have tried out alfalfa on those
17
soils in northwestern Pennsylvania; when you get a real hard-
pan soil it seems difficult to get the alfalfa to stand a great
many years. I don't think alfalfa will ever grow as well on
one of those hardpan soil farms as on open, porous soils where
it has a chance to get the roots damp.
Mr. Sanborn. I understand roots of Grimm are not like
those of other alfalfa?
Mr. Jeffers. If the conditions are the same you will see
very little difference in the root growth.
Mr. Prescott. I think I forgot to mention one other thing.
Punkatassett Farm, in Concord, has been growing alfalfa on
a hill for eleven years. The first piece they put down eleven
years ago is on a very clayey soil on a very rounding hill, and
they have never had a failure in any way, shape or manner on
any of the pieces that they have put down, and I think they
have 7 or 8 acres now on that clayey soil which has no sign
of a porous subsoil.
Dr. H. J. Wheeler. Regarding what Mr. Sanborn said, I
attempted to grow alfalfa for about ten or twelve years with
continual failures, all the time working with common alfalfa.
After getting hardy types it has been successful. I bought
from Professor Hansen of South Dakota a number of plants
which I set out in 1912. All have this branch habit, and most of
them throw out a number of roots, and that alfalfa has come
through every winter since. I don't think a single plant has died.
My suggestion would be to communicate with Professor Hansen
and get some of the most hardy varieties, and I believe Mr.
Sanborn can succeed on the type of soil he mentions.
In regard to this cutting of alfalfa, my experience with leaf
spot has been that when it comes on badly you ought to cut
that alfalfa at once, no matter whether buds have appeared or
not. I would not pay any attention to the state of blooming.
If it becomes very dry it may be necessary to cut before buds
begin to appear in order to save the crop you have. You gen-
erally get another crop, notwithstanding that leaf spot is seen.
If you will cut that off at once your next crop will probably
be entirely free from leaf spot, but if you leave it you will do
a positive injury to the plant. I would like to know what Mr.
Jeffers thinks about that?
18
Mr. Jeffers. I think Dr. Wheeler is right about that. Of
course it is a pretty hard matter to lay down any fast rule.
I might have the thing in my mind and try to convey it to
you and you might get the wrong impression. It is a hard
matter to lay down a rule in regard to cutting. You speak
of cutting within fifteen minutes of the right time. We take
three weeks for our cutting, and we cut just as soon as these
buds appear, and during those three weeks we don't destroy
very many of the new shoots.
I want to say that one outfit - — one mower, one side delivery
rake, two or three wagons, and one tedder — is capable of har-
vesting from 175 to 200 acres of alfalfa, that is, when it is
grown in a commercial way.
Mr. Bates. I have found that when I delayed my cutting
on account of bad weather, by raising my mowing machine I
have avoided cutting the small shoots.
Mr. Jeffers. That is good.
Dr. Brooks. I agree with Dr. Wheeler about the cutting,
— the sooner the better, and in many instances the crop will
come up healthier the next time; but I want to emphasize
again that there is clearly a great difference in varieties in
susceptibility. Last summer when one variety went bad, side
by side with it, on both sides, on land treated in the same way,
other strains were in perfect health, so that the selection of the
best possible seed cannot be too much emphasized.
Dr. Wheeler's reference to some of Professor Hansen's varie-
ties leads me to call attention to another matter. We get
Professor Hansen's literature, and in the summer of 1914 we
sent and got some of his most highly recommended double,
hardy, cast iron alfalfa, and it is a miserable failure. Professor
Hansen is seeking particularly for alfalfa that will grow where
they don't have much loam, and none of his varieties have
ever done well with us. They are hardy, they are cast iron,
but they don't flourish under the conditions of our humid
climate.
In relation to cultures he says you can get small amounts of
culture from the United States Department. If alfalfa is new
to you use a culture. That advice is absolutely sound, but I
am glad to be able to announce that the Extension Service of
19
the college will furnish culture in any amount you need. The
charge is a merely nominal one of 25 cents.
I want to refer to a remark made by a speaker in regard to
using cultures for clover. I don't believe there is any benefit
connected with it. I want to call attention to what clover will
do without cultures — without any nitrogen applied to the
soil. We don't want to forget in our enthusiasm for alfalfa
that clover is still a mighty good crop. We have one field
where no nitrogen has been applied to the soil for twenty-five
years. That field was in clover last year. In 1913, in the
spring, this clover was sown with a thin seeding of oats, and
the crop in two cuts, on a plot to which no nitrogen has been
applied in any form for twenty-five years, and on which no
green manure has been grown and turned under, and without
any culture, but with plenty of acid phosphate and potash,
amounted to 4.27 tons of well-made hay. On a plot adjoining
this where we applied nitrogen every year in addition to the
same amount of acid phosphate, potash and lime, the crop
was actually a little bit less than it was where we had not
applied any nitrogen, — a fact of extreme significance. This
shows very clearly that you can raise the best of all forage
without nitrogen and without green manure.
Mr. Prescott. I wanted to ask Mr. Jeffers if he thought
75 pounds of nitrate of soda was sufficient to start an alfalfa
field with?
Mr. Jeffers. Yes, we feel that it is. I have seen a number
of fields started this year and last that were established with
nothing but acid phosphate and ground stone, — 4 tons lime-
stone and 350 pounds acid phosphate.
We have one field near us of 50 acres which was established
without any nitrate of soda. I think a little nitrate, though,
helps the crop along.
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