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THE 


CIVIL    ENGINEER    AND    ARCHITECT'S 


JOURNAL 


SCIENTIFIC    AND    RAILWAY    GAZETTE. 


VOLUME  III.— IS 40. 


LONDONi 

PUBLISHED  FOR  THE  PROPRIETOR  :  57,  KING  STREET,  WESTMINSTER ; 

II.  HOOPER,  PALL  MALL  EAST;    GROOMBRIDGE,  PANYER  ALLEY,  PATERNOSTER  ROW;   J.  WEALE,  59,  HIGH  HOLBORN;  J.  TAYLOR, 

1,  WELLINGTON  STREET,  STRAND;  J.  WILLIAMS,  106,  GREAT  RUSSELL  STREET,  BLO0MSBURY 

WILEY  &  PUTNAM,  NEW  YORK. 


LONDON : 
THOMAS  BURROWS,  57,  KING  STREET,  WESTMINSTER. 


PREFACE. 


This  year  lias  been  less  remarkable  for  great  events  than  for  the  steady  and  gratifying  progress  which  has  been  made  in  every  branch 
of  the  two  professions,  to  recording  the  labours  of  which  our  Journal  is  devoted.  The  financial  embarrassment  of  the  country,  and  the 
course  of  political  events,  have  been  far  from  favourable  either  to  the  promotion  of  existing  undertakings,  or  the  formation  of  new  ones. 
With  regard  to  architecture,  it  must  have  been  gratifying  to  our  readers  to  have  witnessed  the  increasing  interest  which  has  been  shown 
by  the  public  of  late  years  on  this  subject,  manifested  by  the  demand  for  competitions,  and  the  extended  discussion  of  architectural  topics 
in  the  higher  class  of  general  periodicals,  while  a  strong  feeling  seems  to  prevail  as  to  the  necessity  of  enlightening  the  public  mind,  and 
bringingit  to  bear  upon  this  as  upon  other  branches  of  the  arts.  Architecture  has  at  last  been  recognized  as  a  subject  for  collegiate 
education,  by  its  introduction  into  King's  College,  and  by  the  formation  of  architectural  schools  in  the  national  dockyards.  The  Royal 
Academy  has  given  signs  of  a  more  liberal  disposition  towards  the  profession,  by  the  election  of  Barry,  notwithstanding  his  known  con- 
nexion with  the  Royal  Institute— a  step  highly  important.  The  Institute  of  Architects  of  Ireland  has  been  established,  and  the  royal 
patronage  bestowed  upon  it.  The  Revival  style,  as  we  announced  last  year,  has  now  gained  a  footing  in  this  country,  at  the  same  time 
that  considerable  progress  has  been  also  made  in  internal  decoration  by  Parris,  Latilla,  Owen  Jones,  and  other  artists  of  talent ;  so  much 
better  disposition  is  now  shown  to  unite  this  branch  of  the  arts  with  architecture,  that  there  appears  every  prospect  of  the  Houses  of 
Parliament  being  painted  in  fresco,  although  we  hope  not,  as  has  been  suggested,  by  foreign  hands.  The  temple  of  EngUsh  freedom 
should  never  be  desecrated  by  strangers. 

We  have  not  this  year,  as  previously,  to  regret  the  loss  of  many  great  edifices,  although  York  Minster  has  suffered  considerably  by 
fire.  Among  the  ancient  buildings  in  which  restorations  or  improvements  have  been  carried  on,  may  be  mentioned  Westminster  Abbey, 
the  Temple,  St.  Aldate's,  York  Minster,  Tliorney  Abbey,  St.  Mary  Nottingham,  St.  Michael's  Basingtoke.  Few  buildings  of  any  note 
have  been  completed,  although  many  are  in  a  satisfactory  state  of  progress;  we  may,  however,  mention  the  Reform  Club,  the  Club 
Chambers  Association,  the  Princess's  Theatre,  and  the  Manchester  Unitarian  Chapel.  Several  fine  railway  stations  have  been  erected, 
and  cemeteries  opened  in  London  and  different  parts  of  the  countr)'.  The  subject  of  a  change  in  the  system  of  prison  discipline  now  in 
agitation,  seems  to  promise,  at  an  early  period,  extensive  employment  for  the  profession,  as  also  the  question  of  national  education,  and 
the  construction  of  school-houses  consequent  thereon.  The  profession  in  Ireland  has  been  largely  employed  in  building  union  work- 
houses, some  of  which  are  on  a  large  scale;  a  prospect  also  exists  of  similar  employment  for  our  Scotch  brethren.  It  will  be  a  matter  of 
gratification  to  consider  that  the  important  question  of  the  architectural  and  sanitory  police  of  large  towns  is  now  attracting  much  atten- 
tion.    Something  therefore  may  be  expected  to  be  done. 

Among  the  architects  whose  loss  we  have  this  year  to  regret,  are  Sir  Jeffry  Wyatville,  AlbertoUi,  and  Mr.  Whitwell. 

The  engineering  profession  although  having  greater  obstacles  to  contend  with  than  the  architects,  have  shown  rather  more  vigour, 
and  will  require  therefore  a  more  lengthened  statement  of  the  progress  they  have  made.  Engineering  education  is  making  still  greater 
advances,  a  new  faculty  has  been  established  at  Glasgow,  and  the  first  Regius  Professor  of  Engineering  appointed,  the  other  faculties 
have  been  improved ;  at  King's  College  the  architectural  instruction  has  been  extended,  and  a  lower  school  formed  for  elementary  in- 
struction. To  the  Mining  schools  we  shall  hereafter  have  occasion  to  advert;  we  may  farther  mention  the  increased  qualifications  re- 
quired of  enginemen  by  the  Admiralty,  the  examination  of  officers  on  the  steam  engine,  and  the  delivery  of  lectures  at  the  Royal  Naval 
College,  the  establishment  of  a  College  for  Civil  Engineers  at  Putney,  and  the  project  of  a  School  of  Practical  Engineering  at  the  Poly- 
technic Institution.  While  at  this  point  we  may  mention  that  honorary  degrees  have  been  conferred  by  the  universities,  upon  several 
engineers,  and  also  upon  Junius  Smith,  the  great  pnimoter  of  Atlantic  Steam  Navigation.  The  University  of  Edinburgh  have  ordered 
from  Chantrey,  a  statue  of  Watt,  being  the  sixth  of  that  great  man,  and  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers  have  this  year  offered  premiums 
fur  memoirs  of  eminent  engineers;  we  regret  however,  to  remark,  that  no  disposition  has  been  shown  by  the  Government  to  bestow  the 
same  honours  upon  this  as  upon  other  professions.  Prizes  have  been  awarded  by  an  Association  at  Glasgow,  for  improvements  in  safety 
valves.  The  local  exhibitions  of  arts  and  manufactures  have  acquired  this  year  still  greater  extension,  and  probably  we  shall  not  long 
wait  for  a  national  exhibition  in  the  metropolis. 

The  railway  system  has  in  several  ways  prominently  attracted  public  attention.  We  shall  first  adveit  to  the  number  of  lines  which 
have  been  this  year  either  wholly  or  partially  opened.  Among  these  are,  the  Great  Western,  Brighton,  Blackwall,  Eastern  Counties, 
Northern  and  Eastern,  North  Midland,  York  and  North  Midland,  Manchester  and  Leeds,  Hull  and  Selby,  Glasgow  and  Ayr,  Glasgow  and 
Paisley,  Maryport  and  Carlisle,  Preston  and  Wyre,  Lancaster  and  Preston,  Chester  and  Birkenhead,  Chester  and  Crewe,  Manchester  and 
Birmingham,  Birmingham  and  Gloucester,  and  Taff  Vale.  On  nearly  all  the  great  lines  most  fearful  and  unprecedented  accidents  have 
within  the  last  few  months  taken  place  without  any  satisfactory  cause  for  their  extent,  they  seem  indeed  to  be  the  result  of  a  similar 
mysterious  visitation  to  that  by  which  steam  navigation  was  afflicted  last  year  and  the  year  before,  and  from  which  it  has  been  this  year 
free.  Government  have  been  as  usual  meddling  this  year,  and  we  regret  to  say  with  greater  success  than  before ;  besides  employing  parlia- 
mentary committees  and  itinerant  commissioners  who  have  been  employed  on  the  Scotch  and  Holyhead  routes,  an  act  has  been  past  for 
giving  the  Government  an  unprecedented  control  over  the  lines.  Only  one  bill  for  a  new  railway  passed  last  session.  The  system  of 
leasing  small  lines  to  other  companies,  and  of  the  union  of  lines  has  been  much  extended.  Rope  traction  has  now  been  shown  on  a  con- 
siderable scale  on  the  Blackwall  railway,  on  which  wire  rope  is  proposed  to  be  used,  and  a  large  experiment  has  been  made  of  the  pneu- 
matic system,  on  the  West  London  Railway.     Electric  telegraphs  have  received  some  improvements,  and  their  utility  for  railway  pur- 


-  ?^  6  ? 


PREFACE. 

posps  may  now  be  considered  as  finally  recognized.  The  French  government  have  this  year  shown  a  better  spirit  as  to  the  railways,  but 
tlu'y  make  but  small  way,  the  Paris  and  Rouen  projectors  have  however  raised  large  sums  in  this  country.  The  Russian  government  have 
sent  an  engineer  to  this  country  to  prejiare  for  the  formation  of  raihvaya  in  Russia  on  a  large  scale,  and  it  may  be  observed  that  generally 
the  European  nations  are  making  progress  as  to  the  introduction  of  the  system. 

The  use  of  wood  pavement  for  the  streets  has  greatly  extended  both  in  London  and  the  provinces,  and  the  use  of  asphalte  also  seems 
to  be  established.     Measures  are  in  progress  for  running  locomotives  on  common  roads. 

The  appointment  of  commissioners  for  inquiring  into  the  state  of  our  coasts,  has  been  a  measure  long  called  for  by  the  mercantile 
interests  of  this  country  ;  but  whether  the  recent  labours  of  the  harbour  commissioners  will  either  prove  satisfactory  or  useful,  yet  remains 
to  be  seen.  During  the  year  improvements  have  been  made  at  Leith,  Fleetwood-on-Wyre,  the  Bute  Docks  at  Cardiff,  Ramsgate,  Rye, 
and  Woolwich.  In  this  latter  establishment  we  may  also  call  attention  to  the  introduction  of  the  steam  machine  fur  making  shot.  At 
Granton  a  pier  has  been  erected  ;  in  the  Downs  a  safety  beacon  on  a  new  principle  ;  and  this  year  we  have  seen  the  first  application  of 
the  screw  pile  system  to  the  erection  of  a  lighthouse  at  Fleetwood-on-Wyre.  Considerable  attention  has  been  devoted  to  the  embank- 
ment of  the  Thames,  into  which  subject  Parliament  has  inquired ;  the  river  works  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament  have  been  completed, 
and  hopes  are  entertained  that  either  by  the  city  or  goverment,  works  will  be  carried  on  so  as  to  improve  the  whole  north  bank  of  the 
river;  an  extensive  embankment  on  the  shores  of  the  Thames  and  Medway  has  been  made  by  Lord  de  Vesci.  The  propositions  for 
draining  the  Lake  of  Haarlem,  and  for  recovering  land  in  Morecambe  Bay  and  the  Wash,  have  caused  mauy  engineers  to  direct  their 
inquiry  to  improvements  in  draining,  as  far  as  regards  the  application  of  mechanical  power  to  such  purposes.  The  Chard  and  the  Ulster 
Canals  have  both  been  opened,  and  some  extensive  works  completed  on  the  Hereford  and  Gloucester.  The  repairs  of  Blackfriars  Bridge 
have  been  satisfactorily  ended,  while  great  progress  has  been  made  with  those  carried  on  at  Westminster  Bridge  ;  some  majestic  viaducts 
have  been  constructed  on  the  railways.  The  application  of  Rendel's  system  of  floating  bridges  has  been  extended  to  Portsmouth  and 
Calcutta. 

The  interests  of  steam  navigation  having  been  seriously  threatened  by  the  proposed  application  of  stringent  government  measures, 
we  considered  it  our  duty  to  awaken  the  attention  of  the  marine  engineers  to  the  subject,  and  we  congratulate  our  readers  on  the  success 
which  attended  our  eflTorts,  such  a  union  of  the  profession  having  been  organized,  and  such  effective  measures  taken,  as  to  compel  the 
authorities  to  postpone  the  intended  bill.  The  importance  of  steam  ships  as  a  part  of  our  marine,  has  been  shown  by  recent  hostile 
events,  when  the  agency  of  this  arm,  both  in  Syria  and  China,  has  been  so  exerted.  The  government  have  shown  their  sense  of  it 
by  giving  higher  rank  and  privileges  to  the  enginemen  in  the  naval  service,  by  directing  schools  for  their  instruction  to  be  formed  in  the 
dockyards,  and  by  making  an  acquaintance  with  the  marine  engine  a  part  of  the  studies  of  the  superior  officers.  The  French  government 
have  greatly  enlarged  their  engine  factory.  The  investigation  of  the  properties  of  the  Archimedean  screw  has  been  continued,  and  its 
utility  recognized,  at  the  same  time  that  the  question  of  modes  of  propulsion  has  been  the  subject  of  extensive  experiment.  The  appli- 
cation of  propellers  to  sailing  vessels,  as  in  the  Earl  Hardwicke  and  the  Vernon,  has  been  successful.  The  introduction  of  steam  navi- 
gation on  canals,  has  also  tended  to  direct  attention  towards  propellers,  and  to  the  use  of  iron  as  a  material  for  steam  canal  boats  and  for 
passage  boats,  of  which  the  Lee,  the  Nonsuch,  and  the  Alice  are  examples.  Iron  has  been  so  extensively  used  as  a  material  of  construction 
for  steam  boats,  as  already  to  have  given  a  great  deal  of  employment  to  marine  engineers.  Abroad,  iron  steam  boats  have  been  introduced 
on  the  Danube  and  the  Elbe.  Iron  has  been  applied  considerably  for  constructing  sailing  vessels;  it  has  also  been  used  for  a  floating 
fire  engine.  The  experiments  continue  on  the  application  of  electro-magnetic  power  to  navigation,  but  with  no  tangible  result.  Steam 
navigation  has,  this  year,  been  greatly  extended;  Fleetwood-on-Wyre  has  been  added  to  the  steam  ports;  the  Mediterranean  service  has  been 
more  efficiently  organized  ;  in  the  Atlantic  the  number  of  steamers  to  the  United  States  has  been  increased,  and  a  line  to  Boston  established, 
communication  with  Madeira  has  been  opened ;  in  the  Pacific,  steamers  are  now  running  along  the  western  coasts ;  in  India,  increased 
means  of  communication  with  England  still  occupy  the  public  mind  ;  attention  has  also  been  directed  to  the  capabilities  of  the  Indus 
and  its  tributary  streams. 

Mining  is  greatly  advancing  as  one  of  the  branches  of  the  profession,  or  a  branch  likely  to  be  promoted  by  the  measures  taken  for 
giving  instruction  in  it.  The  munificence  of  Sir  Charles  Lemon  has  established  in  Cornwall  a  special  school  for  mining,  and  professorships 
also  exist  in  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Durham.  Instruction  in  mineral  chemistry,  so  much  required,  has  been  promoted  by  the 
establishment  of  the  government  school  attached  to  the  museum  of  economic  geology,  and  by  the  courses  delivered  in  several  public 
institutions.  The  powers  of  Cornish  engines  have  been  the  subject  of  serious  discussion  among  our  engineers,  and  the  attention  of  the 
Dutch  government  has  been  directed  to  them  to  ascertain  their  applicability  for  economical  draining. 

Among  the  engineers  who  have  been  this  year  lost,  we  have  to  mention  with  regret,  Sir  Robert  Seppings,  Lieut.  Thomas  Drummond, 
and  Mr.  Hazckline,  an  engineer  employed  on  the  Menai  and  Conway  bridges. 

Having  thus  disposed  of  the  interests  of  our  readers,  it  remains  that  we  should  ask  their  indulgence  while  we  recall  to  them  the 
exertions  we  have  ourselves  made  in  fulfilling  our  duties  towards  them.  For  this  we  appeal  with  confidence  to  the  volume  just  con- 
cluded, where  they  will  find  that  our  correspondence  has  increased  in  value  and  interest,  and  that  no  exertion  or  expense  has  been  spared 
to  render  the  work  worthy  of  the  increased  patronage  it  receives.  Our  readers  will  find  in  it  432  pages,  21  plates  and  214  engravings, 
forming  a  mass  of  informal  ion  which,  for  value  and  for  cheapness,  is  not  surpassed  by  the  periodical  works  of  any  profession.  Such  have 
been  our  endeavours  in  our  communication  with  the  professions  through  the  medium  of  these  pages,  but  we  have  not  hesitated,  neither 
shall  we,  to  exert  ourselves  for  them,  when  and  where  we  may  have  it  in  our  power,  by  acting  in  a  public  capacity.  Such  we  considered 
to  be  our  duty  on  the  steam  navigation  question,  as  we  shall  on  every  occasion  where  the  interests  of  the  professions  require  it,  and  our 
humble  effoits  can  in  any  capacity  be  exerted  in  their  defence. 


INDEX. 


Bilingual   inscription, 
;    tumulus  at  Bougon, 


-Bartholomew,  A.,  259, 


Air,  passage  of,  through  pipes,  300, 

Antiquities: — Egyptian,  12;    St.  Mary  Aldermary; 

25;    Perranzabuloe,   90; 

132;  tombs  at  Cscre,  209; 

231. 
.\quecluct  at  Dijon,  398. 
.Arabesque  decorations,  94, 
Arch,  expansion  of,  133. 

origin  of,  354. 

pointed,  318. 

skew,  109,  116,   152,  179,   197,  230,  231 

232,  274. 

.Architects,  vide  biography 

301,  330,  365  ;  Blore,  E.,  255,  257  ;  Brown,  54  ; 
Cottinghara,  C,  249  ;  Donaldson,?.  L.,  2,  147, 
209;  East,  F.,  322,  354;  Francis,  F.,  J.  337; 
Fripp,  S.  C,  jun.,  105  ;  Godwin,  G.,  jun.,  210, 
217,249,258;  Harris,  \V.,  179  ;  Jones,  Inigo,  3  ; 
Poynter,  A.,  94;  Pugin,  A.  \V.,  197,  215,  225, 
228,  257,  272;  Tattershall,  R.,  2  ;  Thomson,  J., 
261,321;  Tite.  W.,  223,  258;  Walker,  T.  E., 
25,  39  ;  Watson,  J.  B.,  215 ;  Wightwick,  G.,  254, 
272.  301.  352. 

table  of,  112,  140,  147,  183. 

Architects,  Royal  Institute  of,   09,  93,   130,   209, 
211,  248,  261,  285. 

Architects  of  Ireland,  Institute  of,  132. 

Architectural  Society,  35,  248,  427. 

Architecture,  vide  I3uildings,  Ecclesiastical,  Archi- 


tects, Engineering,  Stone,  Iron,  Timber,  Arch, 
Competition,  Ralph,  Candidus,  Rambles  by  Philo- 
musaeus,  Medieval  Architecture,  Gardening. 

•  Abbotsford,  3  ;    Architectura  Domestica, 


34. 

arch,  origin  of,  354. 

at  home  and  abroad,  90. 

beauty  of  outline  in,  329 ;  Blenheim,  262  ; 

British  Assurance  Office,  225  ;   Buckingham  pa- 
lace, 156 ;  buttresses,  365. 

Byzantine  style,  219. 

Cambridge  libraries,  32 ;  Capitol,  Wash- 
ington, 293  ;  capitals,  373;  churches,  75  ;  church 
pews,  225. 

■  chronology  of  styles,  143  ;  columns,  143, 


156,373;  cornices,  250,  329  ;  distinctive  causes 
of  Greek  and  Roman,  337 ;  East  India  House, 
293;  Edinburgh,  156;    German  architects,  91; 

Government  school,  327. 

horizontal  and  vertical  line,   137,   186, 


210,228;  house  decoration,  363 ;    Italian,  156 
landscapes  abroad,  4  ;  landscape  gardening,  52. 

history  of  Enghsh,  2. 

Liverpool,   356,   410 ;    Mansion    House, 


294,  399. 


•Medieval  in  France,  143,219;  Municli, 


91 ;  National  Gallery,  3. 

origin  of  vertical  line,  137. 

original  composition,  261. 


Architecture,  painted  glass,  217,  249, 255,  258, 270, 
373;  Pantheon,  293;  Parisian  houses,  310;  pin- 
nacles, 365  ;  pointed  arches,  318. 

porticoes,  293,  356,  389. 

profession   in   France,  7;    public  walks. 


257. 


187. 


85. 

Reform  Club,  75,  141,329;  revival  style, 

■  Romanesque  style,  143  ;  Royal  Academy, 

■  Russian,  93. 

St.   Genevieve,  293 ;    St.  Martin's,  203, 

294;  St.  Paul's,  227,  329;  St.  PaiU's,  Covent 
Garden,  293,  373. 

shops,  London,  43. 

simplicity  of  plan,  3. 

slate,  73. 

Soane  museum,  155,  301. 

table  of  buildings  erected  in  Paris  in  the 

19th  century,  203. 

table  of  porticoes.  389. 

Vanbnigh,  262,  321. 

Vatican,  94. 

Whitehall,  3,  264  ;  windows,  3. 

wire  fences,  49. 

York  column,  156. 

■  naval,  vide    Ship-building,    Steam-boat, 


Boat. 
Armstrong,  R.,  on  Cornish  engines,  4  ;   on  steam 


INDEX. 


figine  technical  terms,  89  ;  on  indicating  power, 
Ijj. 

Artesian  wells,  20,  51,  90,  118,  249,  2G4  ;  absorb- 
ent, 118. 

Aspballe,  artificial,  21.^,  histon,-  of,  427. 

Ualil,  \V.,  on  the  Brooniielaw  Wier,  415. 

Barrett,  11.,  on  moving  ijcacli,  19.'>. 

Ilcach,  inovinj,  195,  237,  239,  258. 

Beam,  tnisseil,  Laves's,  Kil. 

Beaufort,  Dnke  of,  mansion,  22fi. 

Biagrapliv— .Vlbertolli,  147;  Alison,  Rev.  A.,  24  ; 
ArHirr',  T.,  249;  U.azley,  C,  147  ;  BroHerip,  C, 
112;  Davy,  Kev.  II.,  23  ;  Driimmond,  T.,  164; 
Dudley,  390;  Telford,  30;  Gilljert  Davies,  66, 
99;  Johnston,  F.,  1S3;  Lushington,  E.  L.,  21; 
Muss,  217;  Perry,  Capt.,  108  ;  Pelerborongh,  Bp. 
23;  Pitts,  T.,  164;  Prevost,  P.,  2  1  ;  Prony,  De, 
24  ;  Uepton,  52 ;  Rigaud,  23  ;  Sannders,  24  ; 
Seppings,  Sir  R.,  211  ;  Telford,  30;  Whiterell, 
211  ;  Wyatvillc,  Sir  J.,  130,  286. 

Bhsting,  vide  gunpowder.  Royal  George,  215  ;  un- 
der water,  Dresser's  plan,  341;  limestone  rock, 
by  Bald,  165. 

Blowing  up  Cannon-mills  Bridge,  291. 

Boat,  iron  canal,  175. 

Boring,  198,  vide  Wells. 

Botanic  Gardens,  Regent's  Park,  173. 

Brick  machine,  BakeweU's,  160;  Bedborough's,  175; 
V,"liite's,  184. 

Bricks,  144,  155,  160,  175,  180,  255,  road,  duty 
free,  255. 

Bridges,  vide  livdraulie,  arcli  Ardrossan,  29 ;  Belleek, 
344;  Blackfriars,  28C,  327;  blowing  up,  291  ; 
Broomielaw,  415;  Calcutta,  398  ;  Cliinese,  268  ; 
Enniskilleen,344  ;  floating,  Portsmouth,  215, 398; 
Gloster,  31  ;  Ilann's,  31 ;  iron,  101 ;  Mcnai,  193, 
268;  Portsmouth,  137;  rope,  208. 

Suspension,  Dredge's,  193, 286 ;  Haslar,  384  ;  theory 
of,  208;  fall  of,  345. 

Teignmoutli,  38;  timljer,  358,  422;  trellis,  152; 
trussed,  Lives's,  161;  Victoria,  Bristol,  193; 
Westminster,  177;  wire,  268;  wood,  125,  161, 
175. 

British  Association,  357,  386,  420. 

Budc  light,  18. 

Building— Arch,  109,  116,  133,  152,  179,  197,230, 
231,  232,  274,  318,  354;  beam,  161;  cement, 
266;  concrete,  120;  covering  roofs  with  plank- 
ing, 424;  mica,  instead  of  glass,  346;  papier 
mache,  201;  porcelain  letters,  176;  puzzolana, 
266. 

Buildings,  vide  Ecclesiastical,  Architecture,  Theatre, 
Ashton  Court,  52 ;  Assize  Courts,  Liverpool,  158, 
190;  nank,  London  and  Wesminster,  84  ;  ditto, 
Rochdale,  255;  ditto,  Savings,  Finsburr,  217; 
ditto.  Union,  183;  Bielefeld's  w^orks,  8,  160; 
Blenheim,  202, 286 ;  Capitol,  Raleigh,  394 ;  Chats- 
worth  Picture  Gallery,  286;  Claverton  Inn,  130; 
Cobham  Hall,  53;  Collegiate  Institution,  Liver- 
pool, 255;  Courts  of  Law,  210;  Elizabetlian 
shop  fronts,  257  ;  Fitzv\illiam  Museum,  88  ;  Hos- 
pital, Uedworth,  39  ;  Jail,  Petcrboro,  2"  ;  Man- 
sion House,  294,  399  ;  Market,  Llandovei-y,  39  ; 
ditto,  Bodmin,  179  ;  Merchant  Seaman's  Institu- 
tion, 251;  Pantheon,  195;  Pavilion,  Brighton, 
53;  Polytechnic  Institution,  321  ;  Reform  Club, 
75,141,329,409;  Redl.'ourne  Hall,  257;  Roval 
Exchange,  07,132,  199,210,224,399;  South- 
wark  lubtitution,  363 ;  Theatre,  Adelphi,  394  ; 
ditto.  Princess,  394  ;  Townhall,  Ashtan-undcr- 
Lyne,  2.55  ;  ditto,  Helston,  179  ;  Victoria  Rooms, 
liristol,  411 ;  Warwick  House,  Birndngham,  128; 
Woolwich  Workhouse,  68. 
Calculating  balance  for  engineers,  21. 
Canal  boats, iron,  175, 31  1 ;  Chard, 327;  Erie,124; 
friction  dynamometer,  381;  Gloster  and  Here- 
ford, 1  78,  398  ;  lockage,  384  ;  lock  valves,  396  ; 
Stafford  and  Worcester,  215  ;  steam  navigation, 
398;  trafhe,  311,  376;  Ulster,  344;  Wyerlev, 
177. 
Candidus's  Note  Book,  3,75,  118,155,224,271, 

301,333,373,402. 
Cannon  boring,  172. 

Carriages — Adams  vertebrated,  50  ;  break,  26, 175  ; 
Curtis's  truck,  5  ;  draught  of  carriages,  20  ;  effect 
of  curves  on,  267  ;  friction  wheels,  291  ;  resistance 


of,  169;  screw  jack,  386. 
Cement,  266. 

Chain  cable,  recovery  of,  395. 
Chapels,  vide  Ecclesiastical  Buildings. 
Chatterton  monument,  105. 
Churches,  vide  Ecclesiastical  Buildings. 

on  rebuilding  old,  190;  Catholic,  197. 


Clarke,  Hyde,  on  absorbent  Artesian  wells,  118, 
Coal,   combustion  of,   412;   India.  216  ;  properties 

of,  423. 
Coalfield,  Forest  of  Dean,  34  7. 
Cotferdam,  Neville,  on  pressure  of  water  on,  78 ; 

new  houses  of  parliament,  283. 
College  for  Civil  Engineers,  57;  King's,  68,  426. 
Column,  Nelson,  178,  211,  327,  355,  379,  413. 
General  Clavton's,  181. 


Colours,  Nobili's,  plate  of,  207. 

Compass  pivots,  422. 

Competition  Designs,  vide  Exhibitions,  7,  61,  130, 
132,  158,  173,224,331,371,  378,  406;  Bury  St. 
Edmund's,  331,  371,406;  Cardiff,  61;  Ireland, 
378;  Oxford,  378  ;  drawings,  exhibition  of,  194. 

Concrete,  patent,  120. 

Cotton  gins,  experiments  on,  313. 

Curtis's  railway  truck,  5. 

Cycloidal  paddle-wheel,  35. 

Dageuliam  breach,  stoj}]nng  of,  106. 

Dock— Bute,  167;  Chatham,  120;  Liverpool,  362; 
Woolwich,  27,  37,  120,  362,  363. 

Draining,  vide  \A'ater,  Hydraulic,  Fleet  sewer,  398  ; 
Haarlem  lake,  327  ;  Fiskerton,  362  ;  Fairbairii  on, 
412. 

Dry  rot,  26,  27,  418. 

Dyer,  C,  Victoria  Rooms,  Bristol,  411. 

Earthwork  in  cuttings  and  embankments,  method 
of  computing,  334,  413. 

East,  F.,  on  the  origin  of  alpliabetic  writing,  403  ; 
on  the  horizontal  line  in  architecture,  186,  228. 

Ecclesiastical  Buildings,  vide  Architecture,  Ashted 
church,  399;  Aries,  St.  Trophime,  144;  Ash 
church,  215;  Attleborough  church,  39  ;  Athens 
cathedral,  220 ;  Atherstone  convent,  393  ;  -Avig- 
non cathedral,  143, 144;  Basingstoke  cluirch,  339; 
Bedford,  St.  Paul's  church,  288  ;  Bethual  Green 
church,  362;  Birmingham  church,  179;  Black- 
heath  church,  71 ;  Boston  Weslevan  chapel,  399  ; 
Bow  church,  200,  329  ;  Caen,  St.  Peter's  329  ; 
Calcutta  cathedral,  71  ;  Camborne  church,  171  ; 
Catholic  churches,  228 ;  City  cemetery,  363 ; 
church  pews,  225;  convent,  Birmingham,  215  ; 
Darlington  church,  32 ;  Dukinfield  Unitarian 
chapel,  2;  Falmouth  church,  255;  Flushing  church, 
255;  Freiburg  cathedral,  329;  Golden  Hill  church, 
327;  Great  Haywood  church,  399  ;  Guilsborough 
church,  254  ;  I'landsworth  church,  215  ;  Hill  Top 
church,  327;  Horsham  church,  255;  Keswick 
church,  32  ;  King's  College  chapel,  329  ;  Lanncr 
church,  255 ;  Lower  Beeding  church,  255  ;  Lee 
church,  288;  Liverpool,  St.  Barnabas,  71  ;  Mess- 
ing church,  215  ;  Mile  Enil  cluirch,  39  ;  Monetes 
Keras,  221  ;  Moscpie,  Armedabad,  329 ;  New 
C.itton  church,  288;  Nottingham,  St.  Mary's,  215; 
organ,  357  ;  painted  windows,  217, 249,  255, 258, 
276,  373,  399 ;  Panagia  Lycomido,  220 ;  Ply- 
mouth, Trinity,  254;  Poitiers,  St.  John's,  144; 
ditto,  Notre  Dame,  221 ;  Portreath  church,  255  ; 
Ravenna,  St.  Vital,  219;  Ramsgate  church,  303; 
Rome,  St.  Paul's,  179;  Ryde  church,  409;  Rus- 
sian churches,  93 ;  St.  Bride's,  329  ;  St.  Dunstan's 
in  the  East,  330  ;  St.  Paul's,  227,  329,  330  ;  Sa- 
lisbury cathedral,  329  ;  Sancta  Sophia,  220,  221  ; 
Salt  church,  179;  Scrgius  and  Bacchus  church, 
220;  Stone  church,  318;  Temple  church,  255; 
Thornev  abbey.  255  ;  Tours,  St.  Martin's,  143  ; 
Westminster  abbey,  249,  276,  302 ;  Wolver- 
hampton church,  39,  71, 399  ;  York  Minster,  211, 
276. 

Electro-chemistry  and  metallurgy,  324. 
Embankment,  !)H/e  Hydraulic.  Moreeombe  Bay,  71  ; 
near  the  Medway,'  258  ;  Thames,  258, 359,  383  ; 
Lough  Foyle,  346. 
Engineering,  vide  Arch,  beam,  blasting,  brick, 
bridge,  canal,  college,  concrete,  dock,  gas,  geology, 
harbour,  hydraulic,  lime,  lighthouse,  machine 
manufacture,  mining,  }>ave!nent,  pier,  jjump,  rail- 
way, river,  road,  steam,  surveying,  wall,  water. 


Alexandria,  39;  .\mcrican,  123;  arches,  skew, 
109,  116,  152,  179,  197,  230,  231,  232,274; 
earthwork,  method  of  computing,  334,413;  pho- 
tography, 385  ;  profession  in  France,  7  ;  teachers 
of.  One 'who  has  sull'rred,  &c.,  148,  189. 

Engineers,  wV/e  Biographv.  Armstrone,  R.,  89,12"; 
Bald.  W.,  165,  197,  309  ;  Barlow']  W.  IL,  275  ; 
Buck,  G.  W.,  197,  231,  274,  308  ;  Coekerill,  J., 
39;  Curtis,  W.  J.,  5,  70,129;  llodgkinson,  E., 
248  ;  Hughes,  S.,  334  ;  Mitcliell,  A.,  322 ;  Ne- 
ville, J.,  78  ;  Nicholson,  P.,  230,  274  ;  Parkes,  J., 
282;  Rennie,  G.,25,  133;  Rennie,  J.,  237  ;  Sea- 
ward, J.,  374  ;  Smith,  Junius,  400;  Wicksteed, 
10,  282,  307. 

Engraving,  galvanic,  148,  164  ;  daguerreotype,  280. 

Exchanges,  history  of,  223. 

Exhibition,  designs  for  Roval  Botanic  Garden,  173 ; 
Royal  Acadeni^y,  187,  222,  257. 

Fairhairn,  M'.,  on  draining,  412. 

Fine  Arts — Rouen,  39 ;  Arabesque,  94 ;  British 
Museum,  12,  84,  394,  404,  417;  Chatterton 
monument,  105;  Fresco,  226.  278;  Soane  .Mu- 
seum, 155,  301;  Gallery  of  Arts,  132;  glass 
painting,  217,  242,  255',  258,  276,  373,  399; 
Hampton  Court,  164  ;  School  of  Design,  164,  250; 
Huskisson  statue,  86  ;  July  column,  250  ;  painted 
window,  431;  Napoleon  monument,  327;  Red- 
bourne  Hall,  278  ;  Rouen,  39  ;  Oxford  memorial, 
286,  393  ;  stone  and  bronze,  comparison,  355  ; 
statues,  394. 

Fleetwood-on-Wyre,  400. 

Fresco  i)ainting,  226,  278, 

French  historical  commission,  171. 

Fuel,  134,  176;  Edward's,  363;  combustion  of, 
412. 

Gardening,  public  walks,  85  ;  landscape,  52 ;  wire 
fences,  49;  botanies,  173. 

Gas,  vide  Bude  light.  Antiquity  of,  263  ;  account 
of,  137  ;  bituminous  schist,  308  ;  regulator,  386  ; 
Seguin's,  29  ;  Val  Marino's,  26. 

Geological  Society,  68,  99. 

Geology,  vide  Harbours,  Mining,  Stone,  Lime. 

Bcndable  stone,   183;  Bourne  river,   103; 

Cornwall,  39 ;  coal,  India,  216;  ditto.  Forest  of 
Dean,  347;  earthquake,  71  ;  economic,  museum 
of,  380;  encroachments  of  sea,  39,  64,  167,  189  ; 
fossils,  Horsham,  255  ;  landslip,  71,  216  ;  London 
clay,  249;  moving  beach,  195,  237,  239,  258; 
petroleum  oil  well,  303  ;  Sheppy,  Isle  of,  25, 189  ; 
solubility  of  silica,  282;  Venice,  71;  Vistula,  210. 

Gilding  metals  by  electricity,  277. 

Glass,  flint,  manufacture,  316. 

Mica  as  a  substitute,  346. 

Painting,  history  of,  217,  258,  276,  373. 

Great  Western  Steam-ship  Company,  meeting, 
158. 

Groundrope  apparatus,  87. 

Gunpowder  balistie  clock,  for  proving,  21. 

Harbour,  inde  Lighthouse,  Geology,  Dock,  Beach> 
Hydraulic,  Tides. 

Aberdeen,   29;    Ardglass,    146;     Algiers, 

265;  beach,  moving,  195,  237,  239,  258  ;  Beachy 
Head,  240;  Brighton,  286;  Broadstaiis,  237; 
Crane,  28  ;  Cuxmere,  239  ;  safety  beacon,  345  ; 
Dantzick,  229  ;  Deal,  195,  237, 25'9.  345  ;  Dover, 
21,  146,  167,  195,  238,  240,  259,  321  ;  Dublin 
Bay,  146;  Fleetwood,  132,  181  ;  Folkestone,  21; 
Hastings, 238, 259;  Kiugtown,146;  Leith,71;  Lit- 
tlchampton,  240,  259  ;  Lowestoft,  145;  Margate, 
237,  240,  259  ;  Newhaven,  239,  259  ;  Pagham, 
240 ;  Penzance,  Palmer's  Report,  2!  ;  Port- 
rush.  146  ;  Ramsgate,  21, 195,  237,  259  ;  refuge, 
Mr.  Barrett,  145  ;  report  on  South  Eastern,  236, 
259,321;  Rve,  238,  259;  Sandwich,  237,  253 ; 
Slioreham,  38,  239,  259  ;  Swansea,  21. 

Harvey  and  West's  valve,  41. 

Hooper's  letter  weights,  88. 

Hydraulic  Works,  vide  Harbour,  River,  Canal,  Pier, 
Dock,  Water,  Pump,  Drainage. 

Algiers,  2li5  ;    aqueduct  at  Dijon,  398  ; 

balance  gates,  42  ;  colTre  dam,  Neville  on  pres- 
sure of  water,  78 ;  ditto,  houses  of  parliament, 
283  ;  Dagenbam  breach,  stoppage  of  106  ;  drain- 
ing. Fleet  sewer,  398  ;  ditto,  Fiskerton,  362  ;  ditto, 
Haarlem  lake,  327;  ditto,  Lough   Foyle,  346; 


I N^  D  E  X. 


embankment  near  the  Medvvay,  258  ;  ditto,  More- 
eambe  Bay,  71  ;  ditto,  Thames,  258,  359,  383  ; 
land-springs,  120;  Lough  Erne,  343;  Louglis 
Fovle  and  Svvillv,  346  ;  mortar,  266 ;  piling,  29  ; 
puddling,  30. 
Institute  of  Civil  Engineers,  97, 133,  211,  248,  282, 

314,  346,  384,  423. 
Iron,  anthracite,  Ystalyfera,  342. 

coach,  327;  corrosion  by  water,  424. 

corrosion,  Neilson's  patent,  363. 

ditto,  Wall's,  429. 

history  of,  390. 

lower  deck  beams,  398. 

malleable,  in  Persia,  296. 

manufacture.  Guest's  improvements  in,  396. 

——  pillars,  experiments  on,  248. 

schooner,  397. 

steam  boats,  37,  69,  104,  177,  211,  212,  252, 

288,  292,  325,  348,  362,  388,  397,  398. 

strength  of,  for  ship  building,  388. 

-water  and  air,  action  on,  387. 

Jackson,  G.  B.  W.,  on  computing  earthwork,  413. 
King's  College,  426. 

Lardner,  Dr.,  lectures  on  railways,  128,  168. 
Leeds,  table  of  architects,  112,  140,  147,  183. 
Lighthouse,  Wyre,  screw  pile,  132,  181,  229,  251, 

322  ;  Ugbts  for,  283. 
Lime,  176,  266. 
LimekUn,  Menteath's,  176. 
Limestone,  309,  340;    blasting,  165;  in  Ireland, 

198. 
Lough  Erne  improvement,  343. 
Locomotive  Engines,  vide  Steam  Engine,  Carriage. 

. adhesion  of  the  wheels  of  18  ; 

alarum,  322  ;  American,  289, 347;  common  road, 
254,  280;  Great  Western,  168,  178;  Hancock's, 
280;  Hull  and  Selby,  427;  London  and  Bir- 
mingham, 315;  manufactory,  32;  power,  101, 
168  ;  Rudge's,  364  ;  wheels,  357  ;  wheel,  wood 
tyre,  386 ;  ditto,  metallic,  401. 
Machine,  vide  Steam  Engine. 

Brick,  160,  175,  184  ;  cannon  boring,  172; 

draining,  412;  gunpowder,  proving,  21  ;  ground- 
rope,  87;  planing,  172,291  ;  plough,  steam,  160  ; 
propeller,  25,  49,  157,  292,  397  ;  pump,  26,  273, 
363  ;  refrigerator,  21 1 ;  saws,  26  ;  screw  jack, 
50,  386  ;  shot,  363 ;  turbine,  420 ;  washing,  28, 
90. 
Manufacture, — Gilding  metals  bv  electricity,  277  ; 
glass,  217,  258,  276,  316,  346,'373;  iron,  37,69, 
104,  177,  211,  212,248,288,292,  29G,  325,327, 
342,  348,  362,  387,  388,  396,397,398;  lime, 
176,  266  ;  papier  mache,  maps,  201,  286  ;  paper, 
396;  patent  felt,  367. 
Memorial,  vide  Column,  Statue. 

Chatterton,  105  ;  Neale,  288. 

Mica,  use  of,  instead  of  glass,  346. 
Mining,  vide  Geological  Society,  Lime,  Coals,  Iron, 
Stone,  Gas. 

asphalte,  artificial,  215  ;  blasting  limestone, 

165  ;  burning  coal  mines,  179  ;  coal,  India,  216; 
iron,  390  ;  lead,  284  ;  limestone,  165,  176,  198, 
266,  309,  340  ;  mines,  99  ;  Persian  iron,  297  ; 
raising  water,  419  ;  Rayas,  352 ;  safety  lamp,  36 ; 
slate,  73. 
Monument,  Napoleon,  406. 
Monument,  vide  Memorial. 
Moorsom,  Capt.  W.,  on  embankments,  406. 
Momay,  A.  A.,  on  railway  cur\'es,  15  ;  on  the  theory 

of  the  steam  engine,  59,  149. 
Neale  testimonial,  288. 
Nelson  column,  178,  211,  327,  355,  379. 
Paper  manufacture,  Martin's,  396. 
Papier  mache  maps,  286  ;  ornaments,  201. 
Parliament,  proceedings  in,  69. 
Parris's,  Mr.,  decorations,  278. 
Patent,  Sharp's,  428. 
Patents,  27,  40,  72,  104,  139,  175,  180,  216,  256, 

292,  328,  364,  40fl,  429,  431. 
Pavement,  wood,  67,  164,  215. 
Pedestal,  Hyde  Park  Corner,  362. 
Peppercome,  Mr.,  256. 
Pier,  vide  Hydraulic. 

Aberdeen,  29 ;  Algiers,  265 ;  Granton,  324 ; 

Margate,  37. 
Planing  machine,  Rennoldson's,  291. 


Porcelain  letters,  176. 

Pott's  pict\ire  hanging,  400. 

Power,  improvement  in  obtaining,  Poole's,  314. 

Poynter,  A.,  on  arabesque,  94. 

Pump,  I'ide  Valve. 

Gravel,  26. 

Rotatory,  Sutcliffe's,  273. 

Stuffing  box.  Home's,  363. 

Puzzolana,  266. 

Railway,  vide  Locomotive,  Carriage. 

Act  for  regulating,  381;    American,  430 


Altona  and  Lubeck,  308;  atmosplieric,  104,  253, 
259,  379  ;  Belgian,  report  on,  288  ;  Birmingham 
and  Gloster,  38,  139,214,  289,  399,  406  ;  Black- 
wall,  38,  178,  213.  290;  bridges  of  timber,  358, 
Brighton,  38,  103;  Bristol  and  Exeter,  213; 
Cheltenham  and  Great  Western,  214,  254  ;  Crov- 
don,  38,  137;  curves,  15,  74,  128,  169,  385; 
curves,  effect  of,  on  carriages,  267  ;  dial,  397  ; 
Dublin  and  Drogheda,  398 ;  Dundee  and  Arbroath, 
70 ;  Eastern  Counties,  38,  290 ;  economy  of,  422, 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  70,  179,  289;  fares, 
278,  311,  376;  friction  dvnamometer,  381; 
French,  254;  Glasgow  and  Ayr,  38,  215,290; 
Gloucester  and  Newport,  430;  gradients,  168; 
Grand  Junction,  38,  168  ;  Great  Western,  38,  71, 
103,168,178,  179,290;  Great  North  of  Eng- 
land, 71,231,254  ;  Greenwich,  103,  430;  ground 
rnpe  apparatus,  87  ;  Hull  and  Selby,  38,  70,  245, 
289,  290  ;  Lancaster  and  Preston,  178,  215,  290, 
326  ;  Lardncr's,  lectures  on,  1G8  ;  Llanelly,  254  ; 
London  and  Birmingham,  71 ;  London  and  Dub- 
lin, report  on,  190;  London  and  Norwich,  398; 
management,  414  ;  Manchester  and  Birmingham, 
139,  178,  214,  290;  Manchester  and  Leeds,  39, 
103,  399;  Marvport  and  Cariisle,  70,  290  ;  Mid- 
land Counties,  139,  179  ;  North  Midland,  38,  103, 
178,214,289;  North  Union,  326  ;  Northern  and 
Eastern,  214  ;  Paris  and  Rouen,  215  ;  pneumatic, 
164,  253,  398;  power,  employed  upon,  6,  63; 
Preston  and  Wyre,  214,  256,'  290;  Rangeley's 
322,  372,  388  ;  report  of  select  committee,  137, 
278;  rope  traction,  6,213,393;  into  Scotland, 
report,  241;  screw  jack,  386 ;  Sheffield,  and  Man- 
chester, 6,  70,  178;  sleeper,  cedar,  346 ;  South 
Eastern,  2,  39,  179,  430;  South  Western,  71, 
103,  215  ;  speed  on,  265  ;  Taff  Vale,  398,  430  ; 
telegraph,  279,  323  ;  Thames  Haven,  430  ;  traffic, 
278,  311,  370;  trains,  stopping,  429;  water, 
power  on,  393;  West  Cumberland,  241;  West 
London,  164,  253,  398;  wheel,  Dirck's,  401; 
working  expenses  of,  1 74  ;  York  and  North  Mid- 
land, 290. 

Ralph's  Review  of  the  Public  Buildings  of  London, 
199,  227,  263,  302,  339. 

Rambles  by  Philomusaius,  4,  84,  155. 

Refrigerator,  Davison's,  211. 

Report  on  harbours  (South  Eastern  Coast)  235,  259, 
321. 

plans  for  preventing  steam  vessel  acci- 
dents, 245. 

railways,  137,  278. 

London  and  Dublin,  190. 

into  Scotland,  241. 

Belgian,  288. 


steam  navigation,  France,  360. 

Thames  embankment,  382. 

Trafalgar-square,  255,  286,  304. 

Retort  upon  retort.  259. 

Reviews — Arcbitectura  Domestica,  33  ;  Bartholo- 
mew's specifications,  319;  Bielefeld's  papier  ma- 
che, 130  :  Brees's  Railway  Practice,  276;  Brees's 
Glossary  of  Civil  Engineering,  276,  393  ;  brief 
description  of  plans  for  supplying  water  to  the 
metropoHs,  203  ;  Bruft"s  Engineering  Field  Work, 
317,  354  ;  Claxton's  Memoir  of  a  Mechanic,  31 ; 
Comic  Latin  Grammar,  34  ;  Companion  to  the 
Almanac,  32;  Cooley's  Propositions,  130;  Cooley's 
Euclid,  34;  Cresy's  Stone  Church,  318;  Creuze's 
Naval  Architecture,  250,  277  ;  Day's  Parallels, 
250;  Egerton's  Mexico,  351  ;  France's  Geology, 
317, 394  ;  France's  Trignometrical  Surveying,  34  ; 
Gandy  and  Baud's  M'indsor  Castle,"  250  ;  Gilks's 
Wood  Engraving,  130  ;  Hann's  Theory  of  Bridges, 

'     29 ;  Heath's  Picturesque  Annual,  131 ;  Kittoe's 


Illustrations  of  Indian  Architecture,  203;  Lou- 
don's  Arboretum,  102 ;  Manchester  as  it  is,  32  ; 
Musbet's  Papers  on  Iron  and  Steel,   317,  390, 
414  ;  Nicholson's  Guide  to  Railway  Masonry,  34  ; 
ditto,  Treatise  on  Projection,  250  ;  Ornamental 
Gates  of  the  Parks,  34  ;  Pamhour's  Locomotive 
Engines,  415;  Parkes    on   Steam    Boilers,    100; 
Page's  Guide  to  Ornamental  Drawing,  130  ;  Penny 
Cyclopedia,  203,  389  ;  Practical   Inquiry  into  the 
Laws  of  Excavation,  391 ;  Radford's  Construction 
of  the  Art,  174;  Reid's  Chemistry,  250  ;  Rendel's 
Plymouth    Railway,   393 ;    Repton's    Landscape 
Gardening,    52  ;    Ricauti's    Rustic    .\rchitccture, 
207,  393 ;  Richardson's  Arcliitectural   Remains, 
276,   320;    Robert's    Galvanism,   393;    Rooke's 
Geology,  250;  Royal  Lodges,  Windsor  Park,  102 ; 
Scott's  Practical  Cotton  Spinner,  393  ;  Standish's 
Seville,  351  ;  Tredgold's  Elementary  Carpentry, 
102  ;  White's  Harbours  of  Refuge,  102  ;  Wight- 
wick's  Palace  of  Architecture,  352  ;  Year  Book 
of  Facts,  130  ;  Y'oung's  Practical  Arithmetic,  174. 
River  Erne,   343 ;  improvement  of,  284  ;  Medina, 
37-    New,    291;    Shannon,    288;     Severn,   31; 
Thames,   258,  283,  359,  382 ;  Trent,   398  ;  Vis- 
tula, 210,  229. 
Road,  Perth  to  Elgin,  37  ;  profile  of,  385. 
Royal  Society,  22.  69,  93,  207,  247,  281. 
Safety  beacon,  Bullock's,  345. 
Saws,  circular,  26. 
Scientific  Society,  426. 

Screw  jack,  tr.iv'ersing,  50,  3SG  ;  universal,  386. 
Sculpture,  Newton's,  copying  machine,  429. 
Sea,  depth  of,  55. 
Sewer,  Fleet,  398. 

Ship- building,  ride   Steam-boat,   iron   lower   deck 
beams,  398:    French,  277;  sliding  keels,   349; 
iron,   388,   397;  mast   carrying,    4,0;  form    of 
vessels,  421. 
Shot  machine,  363. 
Smoke,  consumption  of,  356. 
Society  of  Arts,  10. 
Statues,   stone   and   bronze,   comparison  of,  355  ; 

Huskisson's,  86. 
Steam  as  a  moving  power,  426. 
Steam  Boat,  vide  Steam  Engine,  accidents,  103 ; 
Archimedes,  screw,  192,  252,  325  ;  Alice,  iron, 
69  ;  American,  117,  162  ;  Atlantic.  37,  213,361 ; 
Australian,  397;  Brigand,  iron,  288;  British 
Queen,  37,  15.3,  177,  213,  325;  canal,  398; 
Clyde,  430;  Courier,  iron,  212;  Cyclops,  36; 
Dover,  iron,  252  :  Duchess  of  Lancaster,  252  ; 
dredging,  430  ;  Daldia,  iron,  325  ;  Eari  of  Hard- 
v\'icke,  325  ;  East  Indian,  286  ;  Eclipse,  iron,  292 ; 
Elbe,  212  ;  Elberfeld,  iron,  325  ;  engineers,  69  ; 
engine,  73,  142,  153,  157,  159,  172,212,245, 
358,  374,  385,  386  ;  Enterprise,  iron,  37  ;  Father 
Thames,  iron,  362  ;  Ferry,  398  ;  fire,  extinguish- 
ing, 357  ;  Fire  King,  251  ;  France,  report  on, 
360;  German,  213;  Great  Western,  3,  70,  153, 
158,  213,  398  ;  India,  :i25,  348  ;  iron,  37,  69, 
104,  177,  211,  212,  252,  288,  292,  325,348,  362, 
388,  397,  398,430;  ditto,  durability  of,  211; 
ditto  and  timber,  comparison  of,  348  ;  ditto,  test- 
ing of,  101.  Junius  Smith,  400  ;  Lee,  iron,  177  ; 
Liverpool, 213,  253;  Mermaid,  iron,  430  ;  Mail, 
177;  Monarch,  iron,  430;  Mongelielle,  398; 
Nemesis,  70,  137,  348 ;  Nonsuch,  iron,  3l4 ; 
Oriental,  253,  325;  Orwell,  iron,  37,  104,212. 
Paddles,  Boulton's,  reefing,  76;  ditto,  Hall's,  reef- 
ing, 76;  Peru,  287,  362,  i98  ;  Phlegethon,  iron, 
252  ;  Polyphemus,  397  ;  power  for  long  voyages, 
386;  President,  70,  173,  176.  Propeller,  397; 
propellers,  experiments  on,  25,  49,  157  ;  ditto, 
new,  292,  430  ;  Proserpine,  104  ;  Pylades,  37  ; 
Queen  Victoria,  212;  Rose,  iron,  397;  Royal 
Mail,  253;  Ruby,  251;  sliding  keels,  349: 
smoke,  170;  Sons  of  the  Thames,  iron,  37, 
104,  177,  212;  Swallow,  iron,  235;  Swedish, 
177  ;  Thames  floating  engine,  325  ;  Thistle,  iron, 
397;  tug,  287;  United  States,  173;  Vernon, 
325  ;  Warrington,  iron,  430. 

Steam  Engine,  vide  Fuel. 

boiler,  Curtis's,  76  ;  ditto,  Poole's, 

175  ;  ditto,  proving,  430  ;  ditto,  Moindron's  im- 
provement, 327;    ditto,   clothing,   cedar,  346; 


INDEX. 


ditto,  ditto,  patent  felt,  367  ;  ditto,  incrustation, 
397  ;  ditto,  water  regulator,  291,  328. 

condensation,  358;   Cornish,  4,  133, 

153,  282,  419  ;  ditto,  and  Lancashire  system  of 
working,  4  ;  Craddock's  imnrovement,  39G ;  East 
London  Waterworks,  7, 05  ;  epicycloidal, Clark's, 
87  ;  explosion,  prevention,  385  ;  factory,  French, 
400  ;  fires,  lighting,  3Gi ;  friction,  375  ;  fuel, 
134,  176. 

■  furnace,  Moore's  plan  for   feeding, 


162  ;  ditto,  smoke  consumer,  216. 

Iluel  Towan,  314  ;  indicating  power. 


127  ;  manufactory,  Fawcett  and  Co.'s,  172;  Fair- 
bairn's,  32. 

■  marine,  73,  142,  153,  157,  159, 172, 


212,  245,  358,  374,  385,  386  ;  ditto,  Maudslay 
and  Field's,  73,  157  ;  ditto,  trunk,  Broderips's, 
142,  159  ;  ditto,  ditto,  Humphry's,  142,  159  ; 
ditto,  employment  of  expansive  principle,  153; 
ditto,  oscillating,  212  ;  ditto,  accidents,  report  on, 
plans  for  preventing,  245  ;  ditto,  temperature  of 
condensation,  358  ;  ditto,  long  and  short  stroke, 
374  ;  ditto,  power,  386;  ditto,  Alice,  385  ;  ditto, 
Seaward's,  374  ;  ditto,  connecting  rods,  424. 

•  power,  28,   65,   100,127,170;  ro 


tary,  397  ;  ditto,  Moore's,  158  ;  safety  valve, 
216,  251,359,385  ;  smoke,  consumption  of,  216, 
356. 

•  theory  of,  by  Mornay,  59,  149  ;  va- 


cuum, 164. 
Steam  fire  engine,  431. 
plough,  160. 


Steam  shot  machine,  363. 

solubility  of  silica  by,  282. 

vessel  inquiry,  85,  108,  163. 

washing  machine,  28,  90. 

Stone,  bendable,  183. 

new  Houses  of  Parliament,  189,  309,  340. 

Talacre,  209. 

Storms,  effect  of  fire  in  preventing,  39. 
Survey,  trigonometrical,  366,  431. 
Surveying,  azimuth  cap,  315. 

calculating  balance,  21. 

chain,  llindle's,  310. 

change  of  pins,  379. 

computation  scale,  324,  379,  405. 

copying  drawings,  354. 

irregular  plots,  instrument  for,  55. 

level,  Browne's,  283. 

poles,  Dempsey's,  108. 

railway  curves,  15,  74,  128. 

roads,  profile  instrument,  55. 

Sang's  hvpsometer,  403. 

Thames  Tunnel,  216,  249. 

Theatre,  Adelphi,  394  ;  Hanover,  162;  machineiy, 

Steplienson's,  363  ;  Princess's,  394. 
Tide  gauge,  342,  394. 
Tides  of  the  ocean,  229. 
Timber,   dyeing,   183;    effects  of  worm  on,  424; 

felling,  341  ;  prevention  of  decay  of,  26,  27,  328 ; 

white  cedar,  346. 
Tottie,  C,  on  the  Napoleon  monument,  406. 
Turning,  172,  175. 
Valve  cocks,  Topham's,  121. 


Varnish  of  dextrine,  25. 

Vessels,  form  of,  421. 

Voltaic  engraving,  35. 

Walls,  iron  ties,  experiments  on,  41. 

Warming  and  ventilating  buildings,  358. 

Water,  vide  Hydraulic,  Steam  Engine,  Well,  Pump. 

Bourne,  103. 

balance  gates.  East  London  Water-works, 


42. 


•  company,  new,  250. 

■  filter,  207. 

•  plans  for  supplying  the  metropolis,  207. 

-  power,  application  of  291. 

■  raising  engine,  Adcock's,  279,  299. 

Brighty's,  291. 

Cornish,  419. 

De  rOsier's,  51. 

Fairbairn's,  412. 

Hall's,  128. 

Harvey  &  West's,  41. 

Jeffrey's,  386. 

-  Thames,  analysis  of,  192. 

-  Weir,  Broomielaw,  415. 

•  wheel,  vertical,  Curtis's,  129. 


Wells  vide  Artesian,  99. 

Whitworth  on  surfaces  of  metal,  421. 

Wickstecd  on  the  supply  of  water  to  the  metropolis, 
10,  45  ;  and  the  balance  gates  of  the  East  Lon- 
don Water  Works,  42. 

Williams,  C.  W.,  on  the  combustion  of  coal,  412. 

Wire  fences,  48. 

rope,  431. 


Ashton  Court,  52. 

Balance  gates,  2  plates,  42. 

Bank,  London  and  Westminster,  1  plate,  73. 

Savings,  Finsbury,  217. 

Union,  183. 

Beams,  trussed,  6  cuts,  161,  322. 
Bielefeld's  papier  mache  works,  8. 
Boidton's  reefing  paddles,  2  cuts,  74. 
Brick  machine,  Bakewell's,  160. 

White's,  8  cuts,  184. 

Bridge,  Ardrossan,  29. 

East  London  Water-works,  2  plates,  42. 

iron,  102. 

James  River,  1  plate,  125. 

Suspension,  Dredge's,  1  plate,  193. 

Victoria,  Bristol,  193. 

Buttresses,  4  cuts,  365,  366. 
Capitol,  Washington,  293. 
Cathedral,  Athens,  2  cuts,  220,  221. 

Avignon,  2  cuts,  143,  144. 

Freiburg,  329. 

St.  Paul's,  2  cuts,  329,  330. 

Salisbury,  329. 

Chapel,  King's  College,  329. 

Unitarian,  Uukinfield,  1. 

Cbattcrton's  monument,  3  cuts,  105. 
Church,  Aries,  St.  Trophime,  144. 
Bow,  329. 

Caen,  St.  Peter's,  322. 

Mone  tes  Koras,  221. 

Panagia  Lycodimo,  220. 

Poitiers,  Notre  Dame,  221. 

St.  John,  144. 


INDEX  TO  PLATES  AND  ENGRAVINGS. 

Church  Ravenna,  St.  Vital,  219. 

St.  Bride's,  329. 

St.  Dunstan's  East,  330. 

St.  Genevieve,  293. 

Sergius  and  Bacchus,  220. 

—^—  Stone,  Kent,  8  cuts,  318. 
Tours,  St.  Martin's,  143. 


Cobham  Hall,  53. 
Cofferdam,  7  cuts,  79,  80,  81,  82,  83. 
Column,  General  Clayton's,  181. 
Cornice,  Reform  Club,  336. 
Curtis's  boiler,  2  cuts,  76. 

ground-rope  apparatus,  3  cuts,  87. 

railway  truck,  3  cuts,  5. 


Custom-house,  Liverpool,  3  cuts,  410. 
Dempsey's  surveving-poles,  3  cuts,  108, 
Dublin  Bay,  146'. 

East  London  Water-works,  2  plates,  42. 
Electric  telegraph,  323. 
Elizabethan  shop  front,  1  plate,  257. 
Embankment,  Thames,  258. 
Fairbairn's  draining  machine,  412. 
Harbour,  Ardglass,  14  6. 

Beachy  Head,  Dover,  Foreness,  1  plate,  240. 

Kingstown,  146. 

Lowestoft,  147. 

Portrush,  146. 


Hooper's  letter  weights,  88. 

Iron  furnace,  Persian,  7  cuts,  296. 

ties  in  party  walls,  2  cuts,  41. 

Lewis,  30. 

Merchant  Seamen's  Institution,  1  plate,  251 

Minaret,  Armedabad,  329. 


Pantheon,  interior,  1  plate,  195. 
Rome,  293. 


Pavilion,  Brighton,  53. 

Piling,  Telford's,  2  cuts,  29,  30. 

Polytechnic  Institution,  1  plate,  293. 

Public  road,  2  cuts,  54. 

Pump,  rotary,  SutcUffe's,  7  cuts,  273. 

valve,  Harvey  &  West's,  1  plate,  41. 

Quay,  Aberdeen,  29. 

Railway,  atmospheric,  1  plate,  260,  4  cuts,  407, 
408. 

Rangeley's,  1  plate,  372. 

wheel,  Dirck's,  5  cuts,  401. 


Reform  Club,  141,  4  plates,  336,  409. 

Repton,  portrait  of,  52. 

Safety  valves,  2  cuts,  251. 

Sang's  hvpsometer,  4  cuts,  404. 

Ship-building,  5  cuts,  349. 

Slide  valve  cocks,  Topham's,  4  cuts,  121. 

Steam-engine,  Broderip's  trunk,  2  cuts,  142. 

Clark's,  2  cuts,  87. 

Maudslay's  Two  Cylinder,  2  plates, 

73,  2  cuts,  157. 

-rotary,  Moore's,  148. 


Surveyor's  scale,  new,  354. 

Traversing  screw  jack,  50. 

M'arwick  House,  IJirmingham,  1  plate,  104. 

Water  engine,  Adcock's,  3  cuts,  299. 

De  I'Osier's,  1  plate,  51. 

filter,  2  cuts,  203. 

wheel,  Curtis's  vertical,  3  cuts,  129. 

Wire  fences,  6  cuts,  48. 
Wyre  Lighthouse,  182. 


DIRECTIONS  TO  BINDER. 


Plate  1. — Harvey  and  Vl'est's  Patent  Valves 
„     2  &  3.— East  London  Water  Works 
„     4. — De  L'Osier's  Apparatus  for  Raising  Water 
„     5  &  G. — Maud.slay  and  Field's  Improved  Steam 

Engine  with  two  cylinders 
„     7.— London  and  Westminster  Bank 
„     8. — Bridge  over  the  James  River  in  Virginia 
„     9. — Warwick  House,  Birmingham 
„     10. — Dredge's  Suspension  Bridge 


opposite  page  41 
42 
51 


73 

84 
125 
128 
193 


Plate  11.— Pantheon,  Oxford  Street 

„     12. — Harbours  of  the  South  Eastern  Coast 

British  Seamen's  Hospital 
„     13. — Shop  front  in  Oxford  Street 
„     14. — Clegg  &  Samuda's  Atmospberic  Railway 
„     15. — Polytechnic  Institution 
„     *15  &  1(5.— Reform  Club  House 
„     17. — Rangeley's  Rotation  Railway 
„     18  &  19.— Reform  Club  House 


Opposite  page 

201 

1* 

23V 

It 

251 

$f 

257 

'y       » 

260 

f» 

321 

t» 

336 

372 

409 

THE 


CIVIL    ENGINEER    AND    ARCHITECT'S 


JOURNAL. 


PRESBYTERIAN  (UNITARIAN)  CHAPEL  AT  DUKINFIELD. 
Mr.  R.  Tattersall,  Architect. 


l«M 


ECCLESIASTICAL  EDIFICES. 

It  is  our  intention  under  tins  title  to  give  illustrations  and  descrip- 
tions of  such  new  edifices  dedicated  to  religious  purposes,  respecting 
which  we  can  obtain  information.  We  hope  that  this  may  serve  as  a 
stimulant  in  directing  public  attention  to  this  now  neglected  subject, 
and  particularly  in  rousing  the  self-esteem  of  members  of  the  esta- 
blishment. At  present  those  entrusted  with  the  erection  of  churches 
seem  to  consider  it  their  first  object  to  make  as  much  pew  room  as 
possible,  regardless  of  all  otlier  objects,  on  much  the  same  principle 
as  they  would  construct  sheep  pens — crowd  the  animals  in,  and  care 
nothing  for  their  comfort.  Why  does  the  church  appeal  so  powerfully 
to  the  beautiful  monuments  built  by  our  ancestors,  why  does  she  de- 
pend on  that  devotional  feeling  which  the  contemplation  of  our  hal- 
lowed sites  suggests,  if  she  hei-self  thinks  it  beneath  her  to  keep  up 
thediguity  of  tlie  estate  she  has  inherited.  Oh!  how  eloquently  can 
her  ministers  dwell  on  the  solemn  thoughts  inspired  by  the  long  drawn 
aisles  of  our  ancient  cathedrals,  how  energetically  can  they  remind  us 
of  our  childish  preddection  for  the  ivy  covered  spire !  but  when  it 
comes  to  the  expenditure  of  the  vast  sums  under  their  control,  how 
totally  do  they  neglect  their  favoured  dogmas,  how  selfishly  do  they^ 
consult  their  own  interests  at  the  expense  of  the  establishment  of 
which  they  are  members !  Empirics  are  employed,  the  men  who  can 
do  the  dirty  work  cheapest,  nothing  is  allowed  for  architecture,  nothing 
for  the  decorative  arts— the  worthy  pastors  think  they  best  consult 
the  wishes  of  their  flocks  by  making  the  sheep  pens  as  numerous  as 
possible.  They  totally  forget  that  it  is  not  their  own  money  they  are 
expending,  but  the  produce  of  public  grants  or  private  benefactions  ; 
that  they  are  only  trustees,  and  that  they  are  not  to  look  to  their  own 
interests  only,  but  pay  some  regard  to  the  purposes  for  which  the  sums 
were  received,  for  surely  it  is  more  gratifying  to  the  donors  to  see  a 
handsome  edifice  rather  than  the  barn-like  structures  with  which  the 
public  have  been  of  late  so  abundantly  annoyed.  A  Union  Workhouse 
would  beat  most  of  the  new  churches  hollow  in  almost  every  point  of 
its  construction.  We  can  only  say  that  unless  the  members  of  the 
establishment  reform  their  system,  they  will  be  beaten  by  the  other 
religions,  Jews,  Catholics  and  Dissenters  all  surpass  them  ni  elegance 
and  costliness  of  construction,  and  surely  their  necessities  are  not  less, 
nor  their  revenues  more  abundant.  We  regret  indeed  that  one  of  our 
first  examples,  the  Unitarian  Church  at  Dukintield,  should  be  the 
work  of  Dissenters,  and  a  shame  to  the  dispensers  of  the  public  money. 
Sure  without  any  parliamentary  funds,  without  any  rich  endowments, 
and  with  but  a  "small  portion  of  the  wealth  of  the  nation,  first  rate 
talent  has  been  employed,  and  a  noble  monument  erected. 


No.  28.— Vol.  III.— January,  1840. 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[  J  A  N  U  A  R  T , 


DuKiNFiELD  Chapel. 
This  chapel  is  now  erecting  on  the  site  of  the  former  edifice,  C«hose  dilnpi- 
<latefl  condilion  and  inadequacy  in  supplying  room  for  the  largo  congregation 
asscmljling  therein,  rendered  the  erection  of  a  new  and  more  commodious 
building  absolutely  necessary,)  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  R.  Tattersall  of  Man- 
cliester. 

The  style  of  architecture  which  has  been  adopted  for  the  structure  now  in 
lirogress,  is  that  which  prevailed  at  the  commencement  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, when  our  architects  began  to  add  refinement  in  the  details  to  the  many 
beauties  which  characterise  their  works,  and  to  introduce  those  changes  in 
the  early  English  style  which  immediately  precede  and  ultimately  form  and 
distinguish  the  decorated  style. 

The  plan    of  the  chapel  is  cruciform,  with  a  lofty  nave  and  transepts 
lighted  by  clerestory  windows,  the  nave  h.iving  aisles  lighted  by  lancet  windows. 
Tlie  cast  and  west  ends  of  the  nave  project  beyond  the  ends  of  the  aisles  ;  in 
the  west  projection  are  the  principal  entrances  with  a  children's  gallery  over, 
whilst  the  east  projection  contains  the  vestry  and  private  entrance  with  a 
gallery  over  aflording  ample  room  for  a  powerful  organ  and  numerous  choir. 
The  principal  elevation  into  which  it  has  been  thought  advisable  to  intro- 
duce whatever  decoration  might  be  used,  consists  of  two  octagonal  turrets 
flanking  the  west  wall  of  the  nave,  strengthened  by  massive  doub'e  buttresses 
in  three  stages,  the  lower  part  terminating  m  weathered  canopies,  the  middle 
having  weathered  offsets,  and  the  upper  being  formed  into  niches,  surmount- 
ed by  canopies,  uniting  with   the  weathering  of  the  turrets,  and  the  parapet 
moulding  of  the  west  gable.     The  lower  and  upper  canopies  to  the  buttresses, 
are  terminated  by  appropriate  finials.     At  the  termination  of  the  buttresses 
the  turrets  become  isolated  and  ^e  continued  in  two  stages  to  the  base  of  the 
pinnacle,  the  lower  stage  having  shafts  at  the  angles  with  moulded  bases  and 
capitals  supporting  pointed  arches,  and  in  each  face  of  the  octagon  is  a  nar- 
row slit  or  opening  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  ballislraria,  whilst  the  upper 
stages  have  plain  shafts  at  the  angles,  with  a  narrow  lancet  opening,  having 
the  tooth  ornament  in  the  hollow  surrounding  the  same,  on  each  face  of  the 
turret.     The  turrets  finish   with   lofty  pinnacles  having  shafts  at  the  angles, 
and  terminating  in  finials,  the  highest  part  of  which  will  be  73  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground.    One  of  these  turrets  will  contain  a  bell,  and  the  other 
is  to  serve  for  the  clock  weights.    The  turret  in  which  the  bell  is  to  be  sus- 
]iended  will  contain  a  winding  staircase  for  access  to  the  clock-room  in  the 
roof  the  nave. 

Between  the  turrets  to  the  west  front  are  three  doorways  forming  the  prin- 
cipal and  gallery  entrances  to  the  chapel.  These  are  boldly  recessed,  the 
eentre  door  being  much  wider  than  the  side  ones,  and  are  formed  into  one 
group  by  the  arrangement  of  their  shafted  joints,  moulded  archivolts  and 
the  triangular  canopies  with  which  they  are  surmounted.  The  moulding 
over  each  canopy,  unites  with  the  hood  moulding  of  each  door,  and  termi- 
nates upon  carved  heads,  whilst  the  apices  of  the  canopies  finish  with  carved 
finials,  the  centre  one  being  quite  isolated  in  the  opening  of  the  window  over. 
Kach  canopy  is  filled  in  with  deeply  cut  tracery.  In  the  hollows  of  the  arched 
heads  and  between  the  shafts  of  the  jambs,  it  is  intended  to  introduce  those 
Very  effective  enrichments,  known  as  the  ball  flower  and  leaf  ornament  and 
the  tooth  ornament.  The  three  doors  will  be  of  oak,  relieved  by  the  quaint 
and  beautil'ul  ramified  iron  scroll-work  so  characteristic  of  this  style  of  archi- 
tecture. Immediately  over  the  doors  is  a  four  hght  window  formed  with 
shafted  mullions  and  jambs,  and  filled  in  with  the  rich  and  elegant  tracery, 
which  we  find  immediately  preceding  the  flowing  lines  of  the  decorated  style. 
The  ball  flower  and  too  h  ornaments  will  be  introduced  into  two  of  the 
hollow  mouldings  of  the  jambs  and  head,  and  the  window  will  have  a  hood 
moulding  terminating  on  carved  heads.  Above  the  window,  and  in  the  gable  of 
this  front  will  be  placed  the  clock  dial,  wdiich  it  is  intended  eventually  to 
make  transparent.  This  is  in  the  form  of  a  multifoil  surrounded  with  bold 
mouldings,  and  in  the  intervals  of  the  cusps  will  be  placed  the  figures  of  the 
dial.  The  gable  of  this  front  which  is  very  lofty,  (as  are  all  the  others  owing 
to  the  high  pitch  of  the  roof),  is  surmounted  by  a  richly  carved  finial,  and 
in  the  mouldings  of  the  parapet  the  ball  flower  ornament  is  again  introduced. 
The  whole  of  the  plain  ashlar  to  this  front  is  to  be  neatly  tooled,  but  the 
moulded  work  and  dressings  are  to  be  rubbed  or  polished.  The  remaining 
fronts  of  the  building  are  of  a  much  plainer  and  simpler  character,  and  are 
to  be  faced  with  neat  hammer  dressed  walling  stones,  the  dressings  being 
tooled.  All  the  exterior  of  the  chapel  is  to  be  faced  with  the  best  Yorkshire 
stone. 

The  sides  of  the  aisles  are  divided  mlo  compartments  by  buttresses  of  an 
early  character,  having  a  single  off-set,  and  uniting  at  the  top  with  the 
parapet,  which  is  supported  between  them  by  quaintly  cut  corbels,  and 
finishes  with  a  tablet  or  coping  formed  by  the  moulded  cast-iron  gutter.  In 
each  comj^artmcnt  of  the  aisle  are  plain  lancet  windows,  with  neat  hood 


moulds  terminating  on  carved  heads.     The  transepts   project  some  little  be- 
yond the  sides  of  the  aisles,  and  there  e.>;ternal  angles,  as  well  as  those  to  the 
east  end  of  the  nave,  are  flanked  by  plain  buttresses  of  a  s  milar  character  to 
those  of  the  aisles,  and  divided  into   three  stages  with  plain  off-sets.     The 
three  gables  are  covered  by  a  plain  coping,  terminating  in  canopies  at  the 
lower  ends.     In  the  gables  to  the  transepts  and  east  end  of  nave  are  openings 
for  light  and  ventilation  to  the  roof,  and  the  same  kind  of  corbels  are  intro- 
duced to  support  the  parapet  as  are  used  to  the  aisles.     In  the  end  of  each 
transept  are  triple  lancet  windows  united  together  by  their  hooii  mouldings, 
the  centre   being  higher  than  the    side  ones.      The    clerestory    is    divided 
into  compartments  by  flat  buttresses  ranging  with   those  to  the  aisles,  sur- 
mounted by  a  parapet  and  coping  of  a  similar  description  to  those  already 
mentioned.    In   each  compartment   are   triple  lancet  windows  having  hood 
mouldings  terminating  on  carved  bosses.     The  principal  entrance  door  opens 
into  a  porch  or  vestibule  formed  between  the  two  staircases  to  the  galleries, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  screens  ornamented  with  tracery,  and  having 
doors  of  communication.    From  hence,  inner  folding-doors  open  directly  into 
the  body  of  the  chapel,  which  is  divide<l  as  before  described  into  nave  and 
transepts,  the  former  being  flanked  by  aisles  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
light  piers  formed  of  clustered  shafts,  supporting  on  richly  moulded  pointed 
arches  the  clerestory  walls,  in  which  there  is  a  narrow  lancet  window  over 
each  compartment.     The  aisles  are  also  open  to  the  transepts  from  which  they 
are  separated  in  like  manner.    The  galleries  will  e-xtend  across  the  west  end 
of  the  nave  over  the  aisles  and  across  the  transepts.    The  nave  and  transept 
ceilings  arc  to  be  groined  throughout  with  moulded  ribs  on  all  the  intersec- 
tions of  the  vaulting,  and  against  the  wjlls,  springing  from  corbels  formed 
by  clustered,  shafts  affixed   to  the  clerestory  walls.     The  ceiling  to  the  aisles 
is  to  be  fonned  into  neat  plain  p.anels.    A  neat  screen  extends  across  the 
east  end  of  the  nave  in  a  line  with  the  ends  of  the  aisles,  separating  the  vestry 
from  the  chapel,  against  which  is  to  be  placed  the  pulpit,  to  be  entered  from 
the  vestry  through  an  opening  therein.    The  pulpit  will  have  a  highly  en- 
riched canopy  or  sounding  board,  and   the  whrle  is  made  to  harmoiuKe  with 
the  screen  and  the  general  character  of  the  building.     Around  and  beneath 
the  pulpit,  which  is  supported  by  a  cluster  of  shafts,  is  the  space  allowed  for 
the  communion  altar  on  a  raised  platform  enclosed  by  a  neat  railing.     Be- 
yond the  screen  and  over  the  vestry  is  the  organ   gallery,  and  it  is  intended 
that  the  front  of  the  organ-case  shall  be  made  to  assimilate  with  the  screen 
as  much  as  possible.    At  the  opposite  end  of  the  nave,  and  over  the  principal 
entrance  is  a  gallery  capable  of  containing  upwards  of  seventy   childre  , 
leaving  an  uninterrupted  view  of  the  four  light  window  in   the  west  front. 
Vaults  are  tbrmed  under  the  west  entrance,  and  there  is  a  cellar  under  the 
vestry  for  warming  the  chapel  with  hot  water. 

The  e.\treme  length  of  the  building  will  be  94  feet,  and  the  width  across 
the  nave  and  aisles  50  feet,  that  across  the  transepts  61  feet. 
The  chapel  will  contain  sittings  for  977  persons.  194  of  which  arc  free.    It 
s  expected  that  it  will  be  completed  and  ready  for  divine  service  towards  the 
latter  part  of  this  year.    The  cost  of  its  erection  will  be  defrayed  by  sub- 
scription. 


HISTORY  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTURE. 

Mr.  Editor — Being  anxious  to  make  myself  acquainted  with  the 
history  of  architecture  in  tliis  country,  I  regret  to  find  how  inadequate 
are  the  records  hitherto  collected  by  writers  on  the  subject,  to  enable 
one  to  form  an  accurate  conception  of  the  vicissitudes  of  the  art  in 
England.  This  has  excited  in  me  the  desire  to  collect  such  materials 
on  the  subject,  as  may  be  useful  to  my  professional  brethren.  I  beg 
therefore  to  appeal  Sir,  through  you,  to  all  parties  who  may  have  any 
information  to  give  of  men  of  such  standing  as  Vanburgh,  Hawksmoor, 
Gibbs,  Carr  of  Vork,  Morris  of  Bath,  Kent,  Gandon,  Taylor,  Chambers, 
Dance.  I  shall  feel  much  obliged  either  by  being  referred  to  sources 
of  information,  or  by  being  furnished  with  the  lists  of  the  works  which 
such  men  as  these  may  have  executed.  I  of  course  confine  myself  to 
no  period ;  on  the  contrary,  I  would  wish  to  embrace  the  earliest,  as 
well  as  the  most  recent,  epochs  of  the  history  of  English  Architecture. 
I  am,  Sir,  very  faithfully,  your's, 

Thos.  L.  Donaldson. 

7,  Hart  Slree/,  Bloomsbitry  Square, 
Dtcembtr  20,  1S39. 


Soulh-cnstern  Railway. — The  rapid  progress  of  the  works  of  the  South- 
eastern Railway  is  giving  quite  a  lively  aspect  to  Folkestone.  TliCibridge 
across  the  Canterbury  and  Dover  roail  is  also  completed;  and  the  adviince- 
ment  of  the  line  on  either  side  is  going  on  in  a  highly  satisfactory  manner. 
— Dmcv  Chronicle. 


IS40.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XII. 


"  I  must  have  liberty 
Withil,  as  large  a  charter  as  the  winJs, 
t'o  blow  on  whom  I  jilcase." 


T.  From  all  the  views  and  drawings  I  have  ever  seen  of  Abbotsford, 
lalvrays  considered  it  to  be  a  very  trumpery  specimen  of  architecture, 
but  I  was  not  before  aware  of  the  exceedingly  whimsical  taste  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  until  I  saw  the  view  of  the  dining-room  given  in  the 
ninth  volume  of  Lockhart's  Life  of  him  now  publishing.  Will  it  be 
believed  that  that  dining-room  contains  one  of  the  oddest  and  most 
impertinent  pieces  of  furniture  imaginable  for  such  an  apartment? 
Had  it  been  a  Rumford  cooking  apparatus  or  something  of  that  kind, 
its  convenience  might  have  excused  its  oddity  and  homeliness,  but 
what  shall  we  say  to  a  four-post  bedstead  in  a  dining-room  ?  There 
certainly  is  no  accounting  for  tcistes;  and  the  idea  is  a  sufficiently  original 
one.  Perhaps  it  was  intended  as  a  refinement  on  the  Roman  mode  of 
lying  recumbent  at  table  upon  couches.  But  I  trust  that  no  one  will 
thintc  of  imitating  Sir  Walter  in  that  particular  fancy  of  his,  or  people 
will  henceforth  strip  and  get  into  bed,  instead  of  sitting  down,  to  table. 
At  least  that  should  be  a  privilege  exclusively  confined  to  persons  of 
genius, — not  extended  to  ordinary  mortals,  good  reader,  like  you  and 
me.  Well,  there  certainly  must  have  been  comical  doings  at  Abbots- 
ford,  if  such  was  the  custom  of  the  place;  and  we  insignificant  no- 
bodies may  be  very  well  content  with  dining-rooms  without  beds  in 
them. 

II.  The  Abbotsford  dining-room  remhidsme  of  the  Scott  Monument 
at  Edinburgh.  How  is  that  getting  on  ? — or  how  happens  it  that  we  hear 
no  more  about  it  ?  Is  it,  like  the  Edinburgh  Parthenon,  the  monument 
of  a  monument  that  was  to  have  been ;  or  like  the  Nelson  Mon\iinent 
in  Trafalgar  Square,  altogether  an  imaginary,  immaterial  fabric,  Certes, 
monuments  are  not  things  of  mushroom  growth. 

III.  We  are,  now  it  seems,  all  at  once  going  to  be  filled  with  ad- 
miration of  Inigo  Jones;  which  is  passing  strange,  considering  that 
they  abound  with  the  very  faults  that  are  found  unindurable  when  they 
occur  in  modern  buildings.  With  what  consistency  of  taste,  those 
who  are  shocked  at  the  impropriety  of  half  columns  and  broken  en- 
tabljtures,  can  affect  to  see  anv  supereraineut  beauty  in  his  building 
at  Wliitehall,  which  has  the  further  impropriety  of  an  upper  order 
above  a  lower  one, — it  is  for  them  to  explain.  Possibly, — since  they 
cannot  but  allow  that  the  circumstances  just  referred  to  are  egregious 
defects  in  themselves,  they  will  assert  that  there  are  merits  and  ex- 
cellences in  his  designs  which  amply  atone  for  all  their  blemishes, — 
not  to  call  them  vices.  That  such  is  really  their  opinion  must  be 
taken  for  granted  ;  but  then,  wherefore  do  they  not  vindicate  theiu- 
selves  from  the  appearance  of  inconsistency,  by  plainly  discriminating 
between  the  defects  they  reprobate  and  the  beauties  tliey  admire,  and 
informing  us  in  what  the  latter  consist  ?  Or  are  we  to  suppose,  that 
they  are  of  the  sort  of  critics  extolled  by  Sterne  for  being  pleased  they 
know  not  why,  and  care  not  wherefore ; — for  which  in  ray  opinion  no 
very  great  power  of  criticism  is  required  ?  Perhaps  Sterne  was  think- 
ing at  the  moment,  only  of  the  kind  of  critics  he  himself  wished  for, — ■ 
and  there  are  otheis  besides  him,  who  look  more  to  the  quantity  than 
the  quality  of  the  praise  they  get,  but  for  my  own  part  I  would  rather 
obtain  the  approbation  of  one  critic  who  could  tell  why  he  bestowed 
it,  to  that  of  a  scoreof  others  whose  compliments  seem  to  have  no  mean- 
ing, consequently  carry  with  them  no  proof  of  sincerity. 

However  correctly  and  exactlv  general  principles  may  be  laid  down, 
they  can  never  be  made  to  comprehend  every  specific  application  of 
them;  but  there  will  invariably  be,  more  or  less,  something  that,  al- 
though based  upon  them  does  not  obviously  appear  to  conform  to  them, 
nay  perhaps  may  seem  at  variance  with  them,  on  which  account  those 
who  are  not  acquainted  with  the  mysteries  of  art,  becomes  perplexed, 
and  are  at  a  loss  to  know  whether  they  ought  to  censure  or  are  at 
liberty  to  admire.  It  becomes  the  duty  of  criticism,  therefore  to  elu- 
cidate such  apijarent  contradictions,  and  in  every  particular  case,  to 
explain  how  it  happens  that  the  disregard  of  certain  established  rules 
may  have  been  attended  with  beauty,  or,  cice  ivrsa,  how  the  adiiereuce 
to  them  has  failed  to  secure  it: — again,  to  point  out  wherein  frequently 
consists  the  very  great  difference  between  two  buildings,  very  similar 
as  to  style  and  design,  yet  altogether  uulike  in  regard  to  the  impres- 
sion they  make. 

IV.  Very  far  more  stress  tlian  ought  to  be,  is  generally  laid  upon 
simplicity  of  plan.  For  my  own  part,  I  very  much  question  it  being  a 
merit  at  all,  when  I  perceive  that  so  far  from  conducing  to  any  beauty, 
it  generally  constitutes  a  defect,  inasmuch  as  it  excludes  all  variety 


and  combination,  together  with  contrivance.  While  it  leaves  nothing 
to  the  imagination,  it  does  not  present  itself  to  the  eye  as  a  beauty 
the  entire  plan  not  being  seen  at  once ;  nor  do  I  understand  what  par- 
ticular pleasure  can  be  afforded  to  the  mind,  by  knowing  that  with 
regard  to  the  distriliution  and  form  of  the  several  rooms  there  is  no- 
thing more  than  what  has  been  seen  over  and  over  again.  Nay, 
I  will  not  be  quite  sure  that  I  understand  what  is  meant  by  sim- 
plicity in  such  cases :  yet  if  it  be  meant  that  the  plan  is  such  that 
any  stranger  can  at  once  comprehend  every  part  of  it,  by  merely 
going  over  the  building  at  a  single  time,  should  say  that  so  far 
there  would  be  very  little  to  approve  or  admire; — certainly  no 
evidence  of  skill  or  ingenuity,  and  very  little  of  either  picturesque 
effect,  contrast  or  variety,  because  where  they  do  not  result  almost 
entirely  from  accident,  they  are  produced  by  a  study  which  aims  at 
something  more  than  mere  simplicity  of  plan.  While  the  latter  tends 
to  make  a  large  house  seem  smaller  than  it  is,  a  certain  degree  of  in- 
tricacy and  complexity  causes  a  moderate  sized  one  to  appear  con- 
siderably larger,  especially  where  the  arrangement  is  such  that  rooms 
mav  present  themselves  unexpectedly  after  we  suppose  that  we  have 
gone  over  the  whole.  Still  there  are  limits  to  be  observed:  com- 
plexity ought  not  to  be  carried  to  perplexity ;  but  some  degree  of  the 
former  greatly  heightens  every  other  merit. 

V.  Itis  odd  ;  but  now  after  the  abuse  throwTi  upon  the  poor  Nfi- 
tional  Gallery,  because  the  rooms  are  no  bigger  than  closets, — dis- 
gracefully confined  and  mean,  some  one  starts  up  and  assures  us  that 
thev  are  utterly  unfit  for  their  purpose,  because  they  are  very  much — 
too'large!  So'  at  least  says  a  writer  in  Blackwood's  Magazine,  who 
contends  that  spacious  and  extensive  galleries,  such  as  that  of  the 
Louvre  are  utterly  unfit  for  showing  pictures  as  they  ought  to  be  seen ; 
and  that  the  collection  should  be  placSd  in  small  rooms, — not  more 
than  three  or  four  paintings  in  each.  This  is  surely  running  quite 
into  the  other  extreme  ;  but  there  certainly  can  be  no  doubt  that  as  far 
as  enjoying  pictures  themselves,  and  not  the  display  of  a  parade  of 
them,  is  the  object,  it  is  best  obtained  by  hanging  them  so  that  each 
when  looked  at  can  be  distinctly  seen  and  examined,  with  nothing  to 
distract  attention  from  it. 

VI.  How  people  can  reconcile  themselves  to  windows  without  dress- 
ings in  buildings  where  any  degree  of  ornament  or  finish  in  other 
respects,  is  aimed  a.t,  is  almost  incomprehensible.  Not  even  on  the 
plea  of  economy  h;is  any  one  yet  thought  of  entirely  omitting  capitals 
to  columns,  though  it  might  be  done  with  as  much  propriety  and  con- 
sistency ;  for  if  a  window  will  answer  all  the  necessary  purposes  of 
one,  whether  it  be  a  mere  aperture  in  the  wall,  or  one  properly  defined 
and  finished  by  its  own  architectural  border, — so  also  will  a  column 
answer  its  purpose  equally  well,  whether  the  top  of  it  be  fashioned  as 
an  ornamental  member  of  it  or  not.  Nor  would  it,  though  certainly 
more  remarkable,  be  more  solecistical  and  contrary  to  architectural 
principle  to  introduce  columns  without  capitals  among  dressed  win- 
dows, than  naked  windows  among  well  dressed  columns.  Or  if  there 
be  any  thing  to  render  the  latter,  and  more  common  mode  less  prepos- 
terous than  the  other  would  be,  it  is  because  the  columns  themselves 
are  generally  quite  superfluous,  therefore  were  their  decoration 
to  be  omitteil,  they  might  be  dispensed  with  altogether.  But  then, 
on  the  other  hand,  so  much  the  more  absurd  is  it  to  have  recourse  to 
columns  at  all — at  least  for  decoration, — under  circumstances  which 
forbid  not  only  corresponding  embellishment,  but  even  ordinary  finish 
in  any  other  respect.  Next  to  omitting  window  dressings  entirely,  is 
the  fault  of  making  them  so  poor  and  plain  as  to  be  hardly  visible,  as 
is  the  case  in  many  of  our  modern  Greek  buildings,  in  which  the 
dressings  to  the  windows  consist  of  a  mere  border  distinguished  by  an 
insignificant  moulding  around  it,  so  as  to  occasion  equal  sameness 
and  insipidity. 


The  Great  Western  Stemn-sJiip. — Tliis  noble  vessel,  the  pride  of  Bristol  and 
the  queen  oi'  the  ucean,  was  Ijrought  up  the  river  on  Saturday  morning,  1st 
ult,  and  is  now  in  Cumberland  Basin,  preparatory  to  her  Ijeing  placed  in  dock 
and  undergoing  various  alterations,  and  tor  general  examination  and  repair. 
Durin"  this  week  the  puljlic  have  had  the  privilege  of  viewing  the  interior  of 
(his  splendid  sieam-ship  on  the  payment  of  sixpence  for  each  person,  the 
receipts  to  be  equally  divided  between  the  General  ILspital  and  the  Infirmary. 
We  understand  thai  nearly  2U00  !  !  persons  paid  to  inspect  the  vessel  on  Mon- 
day, and  miny  hundreds  on  each  following  day.  This  is  the  first  time  she 
has  entered  the  dock  gales  since  she  left  tor  London,  to  receive  her  sp'endid 
and  powerful  engines  ;  her  paddle  w  h^^els  have  been  removed  to  enaLile  iier 
to  enter  the  gates.  Her  approach  to  the  basin  at  seven  o'clock  last  Satur- 
day morning  was  announced  by  the  discharge  of  cannun,  &c.  The  recepta-.n 
she  met  with  upon  arriving  (at  the  dock  ga.es)  was  very  enthusiastic,  arising 
Irom  the  loud  and  deafening  shouts  which  emanated  from  the  persons  assem- 
bled '•  to  do  honour  to  her  appearance.'  It  is  intended  for  her  to  resume  the 
station  she  has  so  ably  and  successfully  filled,  on  Saturday,  the  15th  ol  Fe- 
bruary, 1840.  nhich  will  be  the  commencement  of  her  twelfth  voyage  across 
ihe  broad  Allaniic. — Railway  Magazine, 

B  2 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


RAMBLES  BY  PHILOMUS^US.— No.  IV. 

LANDSCAPES   ABROAD. 


:VER  advantage  foreipi  nations  may  derive  by  the  education 
e  to  beauty  irom  the  contemplation  of  objects  of  art,  it  is 


WllATEV: 

of  the  eye  , 

pretty  certain  tliat  they  will  not  easily  surpass  us  in  the  scenes  of  na- 
ture. They  may  possess  the  same  or  liner  outlines,  they  may  bear 
the  ])alia  fo'r  correct  drawing,  but  it  is  to  us  they  must  concede  the 
chiar'oscuro,  and  what  disputes  with  drawing  itself  the  magic  touch 
(if  colour.  To  carry  out  our  artistical  allegory,  foreign  landscape  is 
of  an  Eginetan  cast,  severe  and  correct  in  its  form,  but  destitute  of 
that  animation  and  finish  which  mark  the  later  and  more  cultivated 
school.  It  is  perhaps  from  the  contemplation  of  our  highly  finished 
scenes,  that  our  painters  succeed  in  colour,  and  show  such  proficiency 
in  landscape  and  cattle;  that  our  poets  excel  in  the  descriptive;  and 
that  whatever  is  rural  with  us,  is  beautiful  without  coarseness  or  rus- 
ticity. 

An  Englishman  passes  from  the  tertiary  scenes  of  our  beautiful 
south,  to  tlie  assimilated  district  in  the  neighbouring  country  of  France, 
he  can  recognize  the  same  smooth  slopes,  the  same  gently  swelling 
knolls,  the  same  richness  of  soil,  and  the  same  softness  of  character, 
but  he  finds  a  tameness,  a  want  of  animation  and  relief  both  in  broad 
features  and  in  details,  which  tell  him  at  once  that  he  is  in  another 
and  a  foreign  country.  He  glides  down  the  beautiful  Seine  and  from 
St.  Germain  to  below  Rouen  he  perpetually  finds  a  country  spoiled 
from  want  of  care,  and  a  district  of  great  capability  wearing  the  face 
of  a  comparative  desert.  None  of  the  bright  fields  of  his  native  land, 
none  of  its  varied  and  picturesque  timber,  no  beautiful  cattle  spread- 
ing over  the  distant  scene,  he  misses  the  hedge  and  the  hedge-row, 
and  above  all  he  misses  the  dispersed  population,  the  pretty  seat  or  the 
lowly  cot.  Instead  of  these  he  finds  no  houses  but  in  villages,  little 
meadows  and  no  variety  of  timber.  From  St.  Germain  to  near  Havre, 
there  is  nothing  hardly  to  be  seen  but  poplar,  alder  and  willow,  miles 
in  length  of  distant  forest,  or  long  lines  of  well  drilled  poplars  spreading 
along  the  roads  or  the  divisions  of  estates.  Now  the  maypole-like 
poplar  is  just  the  very  last  tree  to  be  paraded  thus  in  single  file.  The 
scenery  has  all  the  uniformity  of  foliage  of  American  landscape,  and 
there  is  only  beauty  enough  to  cause  the  traveller  to  regret  that  the 
whole  does  not  show  to  equal  advantage.  On  approaching  Elbeuf, 
however,  the  scene  changes,  green  meadows  make  up  the  foreground, 
the  mottled  cattle  swarm  among  the  pastures,  oak  and  other  dark 
trees,  firs  and  the  coniferous  tribes,  throw  shade  into  the  landscape, 
and  the  traveller  as  he  looks  at  the  tree-clad  hills  and  grassy  slopes  is 
glad  to  find  himself  in  a  land  of  beauty. 

In  Flanders  we  find  the  same — long  ranges  of  deformed  limes  and 
horse  chesnuts  making  the  straight  roads  more  horrid,  the  brooks 
fringed  with  pollard  willows,  poplars  like  Cleopatra's  needles  running 
in  lank  rows  as  divisions  of  property,  Scotch  firs  in  patches  to  fertilize 
the  land,  and  without  meadows,  water  or  cattle,  one  scene  of  stiffness 
and  formality.  The  unhappy  trees  too  are  topped  off'  into  mopsticks 
so  as  to  render  horror  more  horrid. 

The  Dutch,  however,  if  they  have  a  poor  country  have  a  rich  green 
sward,  the  weeping  willow,  and  fine  cattle  ;  and  an  Englishman  if  he 
finds  little  to  relieve,  tind  no  nakedness  to  distress  the  eye. 


CO.MPARATIVE  EFFECTS  OF  THE  CORNISH  AND  LANCA- 
SHIRE SYSTEM  OF  WORKING  STEAM  ENGINES. 

Sir, — As  it  is  not  now  disputed  by  any  one,  that  the  Cornish  or 
high-pressure  expansive  system  of  working  the  Boulton  and  Watt 
engine  is  more  economical  than  that  usually  followed  in  the  manufac- 
turing districts,  it  may  probably  be  interesting  to  a  ))ortion  of  your 
readers  to  have  offered  to  their  notice,  an  easy  method  of  stating  or 
comparinp;  tlie  duty  or  effects  obtained  by  tlie  two  systems,  for  the 
purpose  of  shewing  hereafter,  the  amount  of  saving  that  may  really 
be  expected  by  the  adoption  of  the  Cornish  system;  and  also  to  have 
that  saving  expressed  in  terms  that  are  generally  understood  and 
adiiiilted  by  practical  men. 

The  following  cases  are  selected,  because  they  have  been  recently 
laid  before  me  for  the  purpose  stated,  by  parties  who  are  interested 
in  having  a  careful  examination  of  the  subject,  and  who  have  also 
furnished  me  with  the  facts. 

The  engine  from  which  the  data  for  the  Cornish  system  are  taken, 
is  that  lately  erected  for  the  East  London  Water  Works  Company. 
The  cylinder  is  8U  inches  in  diameter,  stroke  10  feet,  speed  lu  strokes 
a  minute,  and  doing  a  duly  of  7-  millions  of  pounds  raised  one  foot 
high  (or  one  bushel,  or  'J4  pounds  of  coal,  the  steam  being  cut  off  at 


two-fifths  of  the  stroke.  The  area  of  the  cylinder,  of  course,  i> 
80  X  yo  =  6,400  circular  inches.  The  load  on  the  piston  is  obtained 
by  taking  the  counterweight  which  is  29  tons,  or  64,9G<J  pounds,  and 
adding  thereto  half  a  pound  per  circular  inch,  or  3,200  pounds  for  the 
friction  of  the  engine  itself,  making  68,160  pounds  for  the  total  gross 
load ;  which  gives  10*65  pounds  per  circular  inch,  for  the  average 
pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder.  The  velocity  of  the  piston 
being  10  X  10  =:  100  feet  a  minute ;  the  pounds  raised  one  foot 
high  per  minute,  will  be  68,160  X  100=  6,816,000,  and  the  gross 
horse  power  exerted,  is  this  number  divided  by  33,000,  or  20G'54 
horses  power. 

The  Lancashire  system  is  illustrated  by  a  pair  of  double  acting 
sister  engines  working  in  a  cotton  factory  in  this  country,  and  attached 
to  the  same  crank  shaft.  Each  engine  has  a  cylinder  of  40  inches 
diameter  and  4  feet  stroke,  and  makes  25  turns  in  a  minute.  The 
gross  consumption  of  coal  at  the  factory  is  46  tons  a  week,  the  engine 
running  69  hours  in  that  time.  That  portion  of  this  consumption 
used  for  other  purposes  than  working  the  engine,  is  usually  estimated 
at  30  per  cent.,  which  includes  that  for  steaming  the  factory,  getting 
up  the  steam  every  morning,  waste  during  meal  times,  &c.  (particu- 
lars of  which  are  given  in  the  new  edition  of  my  work  on  steam 
boilers,)  leaving  about  32  tons  or  71,680  pounds  for  the  net  consump- 
tion of  the  engines  alone.  The  area  of  each  cylinder  is  40  X  40  = 
1600  circular  inches,  the  average  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylin- 
der as  taken  by  the  indicator  is  10  pounds  per  circular  inch,  and  the 
whole  load  on  the  piston  is  1600  x  10  =  16,O0O  pounds,  which,  of 
course  includes  the  friction  of  the  engine.  The  velocity  of  the  piston 
is  4  X  2  X  25  =  200  feet  a  minute,  therefore  the  pountls  raised  one 
foot  high  per  minute,  is  1,600  X  200  —  3,200,000 ;  and  the  horse 
power  exerted  by  each  engine  96*96,  or  a  total  of  194  nearly. 

Comparative  Duty. 


a.  Pounds   raised   one   foot   high   per 

minute      ..... 

b.  Gross  horse  power  exerted  . 

c.  Consumption  of  coal  per  week  of  69 

hours,  in  poumls      .       =  d  -)-  69 

d,  =  c  -^  69,  ditto  per  hour  ^  e  -j-  60 

e,  =r  d  -;-  60,  ditto  per  min.  =  a  -=-  f 

f,  =  a  -f-  e.  Pounds  raised  one  foot  for 
each  pound  of  coals       ^  g  -^  94 

=  f  +  94    Pounds  raised  one  foot 

high  for  94  of  coals 
d  -^  b.  Pounds  of  coal  consumed  per 

hour,  for  each  horse  power 


Lancashire. 


g 


6,400,000 
194 

71,680 
1038-8 
17-31 

369,728 

34,754,432 

5-35 


Cornish. 


6,816,000 
206-5 

36,804-6 
533-4 
8-89 

765,957 

72,000,000 

2-58 


The  letters  in  the  above  table  indicate  the  mode  of  calculation,  and 
it  will  be  perceived  that  the  results  in  the  second  column  (except 
the  two  first  lines  and  the  two  last,)  are  obtained  by  reckoning  from 
the  bottom  of  the  column  upwards.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  horse  power  exerted  by  the  factory  engines  as  stated  above,  in- 
cludes that  required  to  turn  the  whole  of  the  shafting,  about  one- 
third  of  the  whole,  which  reduces  the  7iet  effective  power  expended 

194 
in  turning  the  machinery  to  (194  —  — s~)  =  1294  horses  nearly,  or 

o 

64J  horse  power  for  each  engine,  and  making  the  consumption  ot 

5-35 
coal  equal  to  half  as  much  more  as  before,  or  (5-35  -| ^— )  =  S-02 

pounds  per  horse  per  hour.  What  the  net  effective  power  of  the 
Cornish  engine  is,  of  course,  cannot  be  ascertained  without  measuring 
the  water  delivered,  but  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  for  the  purpose  of 
this  comparison. 

Should  the  above  be  considered  a  fair  method  of  stating  the  sub- 
ject, and  it  is  respectfully  submitted  to  the  correction  of  the  advo- 
cates of  either  system,  I  shall  be  glad,  with  your  permission,  to  go 
into  the  question  of  the  cauets  concerned  in  producing  the  great 
difference  observable  in  favour  of  the  Cornish  system,  and  also  the 
comparative  cost  or  expenditure  of  fixed  capital  for  the  two  kinds  of 
engines  when  doing  an  equal  quantity  of  work,  with  a  view  to  test 
the  propriety  of  adopting  the  Cornish  system  in  cotton  factories. 

I  am,  sir,  yours,  &c. 

R.  Armstrong. 
Manchealer,  Dec.  1839. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


CURTIS'S  PATENT  RAILWAY  IMPROVEMENTS. 

RAILWAY  TRUCK. 


Fig.  1. — Side  elevation. 


Fig  2.— End  elevation. 
0  O 


Fig.  3.— Plan. 


G^I         -p      K 


DE.SCRIPTION. 

Figure  1  is  a  side  view,  figure  2  an  end  view,  and  figure  3  a  plan  of 
the  macliine,  the  same  letters  refer  to  the  same  parts  of  the  machine 
in  each  figure,  so  far  as  the  jjarts  are  thown  in  each.  A  is  the  framing 
of  the  machine,  which  is  suspended  below  the  axle  in  the  usual  way, 
B  the  hind  wheels  connected  with  the  shifting  frame  C,  whicli  frame 
is  held  in  its  place  by  the  bolts  D  D  D  D,  or  oy  any  other  usual  and 
suitable  means.  EE  are  two  eccentrics  hung  upon  the  cross  shaft 
F,  upon  one  end  of  which  shaft  the  ratchet  G  is  hung,  and  upon  the 
other  the  head  I,  into  the  holes  of  which  the  lever  K  is  inserted,  when 
it  is  required  to  turn  the  shaft  F  rounil,  so  as  to  bring  the  eccentrics 
into  contact  with  the  rails  or  otherwise.  L  is  a  windlass  placed  upon 
the  front  bar  of  the  machine  round  which  a  rope  coils,  so  that  when  a 
carriage  is  required  to  be  placed  upon  the  machine,  one  end  of  the 
rope  is  made  fast  the  carriage,  and  the  other  end  to  the  windlass,  then 
a  man  turning  the  windlass  round  by  means  of  the  handle  M,  tlie  car- 
iage  is  drawn  upon  the  machine ;  the  machine  is  connected  to  the 
train  by  means  of  the  coupling  N  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  diagonal 
bars  are  placed  as  shown,  in  order  that  the  concussion  of  the  train  may 
be  transferred  to  the  main  frame  of  the  machine  A.  OO  OO  are  the 
wheels  of  a  carriage  placed  upon  the  machine,  the  body  and  carriage 
is  omitted  in  the  drawing,  as  It  is  not  material  to  the  explanation  of 
the  invention  that  they  should  be  shown. 

The  mode  of  operation  is  as  follows : — when  a  carriage  is  required 


to  be  placed  upon  the  machine,  the  eccentrics  are  brought  upon  the 
the  rails  and  made  to  occupy  the  position  shown  by  the  red  lines  in 
figure  ),  the  ettect  of  which  is  to  raise  the  end  of  the  carriage  to  which 
the  shifting  frame  and  wheels  are  attached,  a  space  equal  to  that  in- 
cluded between  the  shaded  line  X  and  the  red  line  Y,  and  to  support 
it  whilst  the  frame  C  and  wheels  B  are  withdrawn,  then  the  eccentrics 
are  turned  back  until  they  occupy  the  position  shown  in  the  drawing, 
when  the  end  of  the  machine  is  lowered  to  the  ground  and  occupies 
the  position  shown  by  the  blue  lines  Z  Z.  The  carriage  is  then  brought 
to  the  machine,  the  rope  from  the  windlass  is  made  fast  to  it,  the  fioor 
of  the  machine  being  formed  into  an  inclined  plane,  the  carriage  is 
dragged  upon  the  machine  by  the  windlass  with  great  facility,  when 
placed  upon  the  machine  the  eccentrics  are  again  brought  into  the 
positions  shown  by  the  red  lines,  which  raises  the  end  of  the  machine, 
the  shifting  frame  C  and  wheels  B  are  connected  with  the  machine, 
and  made  last  by  the  bolts  D,  the  eccentrics  are  then  brought  into  the 
position  shown  in  the  drawing,  riding  clear  of  the  rails ;  the  ratchet  G 
and  paul  H  are  provided  to  retain  the  eccentrics  in  any  position  they 
may  be  placed  in,  the  best  way  to  effect  all  these  operations  is  to  place 
the  machine  upon  a  turn  table,  the  fore  wheels  and  the  eccentrics 
being  upon  the  table  when  the  machine  can  be  disengaged  from  the 
wheels  and  placed  to  receive  the  carriage  in  a  very  simple  and  easy 
manner,  the  same  operations  apply  if  the  machine  is  employed  for 
goods  or  cattle,  or  any  other  purpose. 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


REMARKS  ON  RAILWAYS, 

WITH   REFERENCE   TO   THE   POWEK,    &C.    EMPLOYED    UPON   THEM. 

Sir — Tills  subject  has  ocpupied  mv  attention  for  some  time  past, 
but  I  liave  been  more  particularly  led  to  address  you  by  seeing  the 
description  of  Mr.  Curtis's  endless  rope  apparatus  in  the  last  number 
of  the  Journal. 

It  has  often  been  a  subject  of  surprize  to  me,  that  so  few  attempts 
have  been  made  to  limit  the  enormous  outlay  of  money  in  forming 
modern  railways.     When  almost  every  branch  of^mechanics,  manu- 
factures and  tlie  arts  are  receiving  the  attention  of  scientific  men,  and 
when  patentees  without  number  are   enabling  us  to  do  that  for  six- 
pence vidiich  used  to  cost  us  a  shilling,  ought  we  to  be  satisfied  with 
expending  all  our  ingenuity  in  examining  the  relative  merits  of  brass 
anil  copper  tubes,  or  in  ascertaining  the  best  form  for  rails  and  chairs, 
I  think  not ;  and  though  Messrs.  Stephenson,  who  are  unquestionably 
the  first  railway  engineers,  may  tell  us,  that  without  locomotive  en- 
gines, railways  would  be  nothing,  and  though  by  this  craft  they  have 
their  wealth,  yet  nothing  daunted,  I  will  give  you  my  ideas  on  the 
subject.     We  will  suppose,  for  example  sake,  a  railway  is  to  be  con- 
structed from  one  town  to  another,  say  from  Sheffield  to  Manchester, 
where  the  country  is  so  hillv  as  to  require  a  summit  of  upwards  of 
900  feet,  and  a  tunnel  3  miles  long,  where  the  inequalities  of  the 
ground  are  such  as  to  require   embankments  and  cuttings  in  some 
places  of  9  ;  or  100  fi^et,  and  in  many  of  40  or  50,  in  order  to  make  it 
at  all  suitable  for  locomotive  engines  to  travel  upon.     We  all  of  us 
know,  that  under  ordinary  circumstances,  50  feet  per  mile  require  the 
engines  to  be  nearly  three  times  as  powerful  as  those  which  would  be 
required  upon  a  level,  consequently,  three  times  the  weight  of  coke 
and  fuel,  as  well  as  a  great  addition  to  the  weight  of  the  engine  and 
tender,  therefore,  it  becomes  a  question  of  some  importance  to  ascer- 
tain whether  a  cheaper   power  cannot  be  adopted  than  locomotive 
engines.     About  ten  years  ago,  Messrs,  Walker  and  Rastric  gave  it 
as  their  opinion,  that  Mr.  Thompson's  plan  of  reciprocating  ropes 
would  be  found  more   economical  for  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
railway  than  locomotive  engines.     And  be  it  remembered,  this  rail- 
way is  uncommonly  favourable  for  locomotives,  compared  with  nearly 
all  the  others   in  England,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  inclines. 
The  only  advantage  gained  by  locomot've  engines  over  the  stationary 
system,  since  their  report,  is  economy  in  the  consumption  of  fuel,  by 
having  tubes  instead  of  a  large  flue,  and  though  this  is  a  very  great 
improvement,  how  is  it  that   with  a  consumption  of  fuel  not   one- 
fourth  of  what  was  anticipated,  we  are  told   they  cannot  aftbrd  to 
take  goods  so  as  to  leave  a  reasonable  profit.     The  only  solution  to 
this  problem  is,  that  the  expense  incurred  in  levelling  and  forming 
railways,  so  as  to  make  them  fit  for  locomotive  engines,  together  witli 
the  original   cost,  wear,   and  tear  of  locomotive  engines,  tenders,  and 
rails,  is  such  as  to  demand  a  larger  toll  upon  the  goods  than  can  be 
afforded.     Not  to  weary  your  readers  by  going  into  calculations,  I  will 
assert  that  the  plan  of  endless  ropes  will  be  found   in  the  case  of  the 
Sheffield  and  .Manchester  railway,  or  any  other  railway,  with  one  con- 
tinued rise  to  the  smnmit  of  35  feet  rise  to  the  mile,  to  be  far  more 
economical  and  efficient  than  locomotive  engines.     If  we  reject  loco- 
motive engines,  the  f  ice  of  the  country  will  not  want  excavating  or 
embanking,  exceplingina  vervfcw  cases,  which  will  save  probably  one- 
half  of  the  original  outlay,  viz.  i' 100,000.,  and  the  interest  of  this  at 
!>  per  cent.,  which  is  £  ;0,000.  per  annum,  will  be  saved  to  the  share- 
holders ;  other  things  being  the  same,  and  that  other  things  are  as  fa- 
vourable must  be  our  next  business  to  prove.     Any  person  acquainted 
with   the  country   in  question,   will   admit   that  reservoirs  may  be 
f  irmed  and  water  collected  to  almost  any  quantity,  (of  course  without 
iajury  to  the  mill  owners,)  at  or  near  the  level  of  the  s\nnmit,  for  a 
trifling  expense,   which  will  furnish  us  with  sufficient  power  without 
hiving  recourse  to  locomotive  engines.     We  will   pass  over  the  in- 
termediate steps  of  engine-houses,  water-wheels,  &c.  from  an  anxiety 
to  kee|)  these   remarks   within  reasonable  limits,  and  not  from  an  in- 
ability to  go  into  them.     The  principal  objections  to  the  reciprocat- 
ing plan,  or  any  other  plan  with  ropes  I  have  seen,  are  that  the  trains 
must  all  arrive  together,  stop  at  the  stations  to  be  hooked  on  and  ott", 
and  in  some  of  them   cross  over  to  the  other  rails.     We  will  not 
dwell  upon  these  objections,  but  provide  the  remedy,  which  is  to 
divide  the  line  into  lengths  of  one   mile  each,  and  to  have  a  station 
at  the  end  of  each  mile,  these   will   be  divided  into  two  kinds,  the 
first  contain  the  engine,  water-wheel,  or  whatever  the  power  may  be, 
and  are  placed  evi'ry  other  mile ;  we  will  call   them  No.   1,  2,  &c. 
The  second  stations  are,  where  the  two  drums,  or  large  pulley  wheels 
are  placed,  and  occur  every  other  mile,  being  placed  halfway  between 
the  first  mentioned,  wo  will  call  these  A,  B,  &c.     From  one  of  these 
stations  to  the  other,   extends  an  endless  rope  of  two  miles  long,  or 
one   mile   from  wheel   to  wheel ;  one  eed  passing  round  one  of  the 
whcL'ls  at  the  numerical  stations,  and   the   other  round  one   of  the 


wheels  at  the  alphabetical,  there  being  two  wheels  at  each  station, 
capable  of  working  in  concert,  by  means  of  which  two  endless  ropes 
can  be  worked  by  one  engine  in  both  directions.  It  is  not  intended  to 
work  more  than  one  at  once  by  one  engine,  but  onlv  to  give  a  signal  to 
the  man  at  the  station  No.  2,  that  he  must  set  the  engine  or  water- 
wheel  going,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  intended  to  couple  them  so  as 
to  ensure  a  uniformity  of  speed  between  the  two  ropes,  before  the  train 
changes  from  one  to  the  othf  r,  therefore  one  engine  will  be  working 
at  each  ena  for  a  short  time,  there  being  two  endless  ropes  coupled 
together  working  between  them.  This  system  of  signals  to  be  ob- 
served throughout  the  line ;  the  object  of  it  is  to  prevent  any  jerking 
or  breaking  of  ropes,  &c.,  as  there  are  no  stoppages  at  the  stations, 
the  first  endless  rope  being  liberated  and  the  second  taken  when  the 
train  is  at  full  speed.  The  way  this  is  done  is  by  a  long  iron  bar 
fixed  obliquely  in  the  gronnd  near  the  rope,  nearly  in  the  same  di- 
rection, and  as  the  first  carriage  passes  over  this  bar,  one  side 
of  the  claws  or  holders  of  the  rope,  slides  along  the  bar  and  is  forced 
open,  which  liberates  the  rope ;  the  impetus  of  the  train  carries  it 
forward  to  the  rope  at  the  second  station,  (twenty  or  thirty  yards 
would  be  sufficient,)  where  another  bar  fixed  in  a  manner  similar  to 
the  bar  alreadv  described,  again  opens  the  claws,  and  a  fork  likewise 
fixed  in  the  groimd  under  the  rope  by  the  same  operation,  throws  the 
rope  between  the  claws,  they  close  upon  the  rojie  and  the  train 
proceeds.  The  relative  distance  of  claws,  bars  and  rails  being  always 
the  same,  this  part  of  the  machinery  can  never  get  out  of  order, 
nor  require  anv  superintendance. 

To  elucidate  the  system  proposed  still  farther,  we  wiU  suppose  a 
train  is  about  to  leave  one  end,  when  none  of  the  ropes  are  in  motion, 
it  is  first  brought  along  the  railway  a  little  in  advance  of  the  station 
No.  1,  then  a  pair  of  claws  fixed  on  the  first  carriage,  (which  open 
by  a  lever  and  close  by  a  strong  spring,)  grasp  the  ro^ie,  but  without 
injuring  it.  The  water-wheel  or  engine  is  then  put  in  motion,  and 
along  with  it  the  drum  or  pulley-wheel,  endless  rope,  and  conse- 
quently the  train.  The  speed  is  got  up  to  the  maximum,  and  thus  it 
proceeds  till  it  arrives  within  2U0  yards  of  the  station  A,  being  the 
first  half-way  station.  The  man  at  this  station  by  a  conical  coupling, 
spring  coupling,  or  in  any  other  manner,  which  will  gradually  elFect 
the  same,  connects  the  pulley-wheel  of  the  first  endless  rope,  or  the 
one  already  described  with  the  puUey-wheel  of  the  second  endless 
rope.  The  second  endless  rope  is  set  in  motion,  and  by  this  signal, 
viz.  the  moving  of  the  rope,  the  man  at  the  station  No.  2,  puts  on  the 
power,  and  before  the  train  has  got  to  the  second  rope,  the  speed  of 
the  rope  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  train.  As  soon  as  the  man  at  the 
station  No.  1  judges  the  train  has  left  the  first  rope,  he  takes  off  the 
water  or  steam,  and  the  first  endless  rope  leaves  olf  running.  It  is 
not  needfu'  to  describe  the  trains'  progress  forward,  for  the  same 
thing  occurs  at  every  change.  It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  de- 
scription, that  the  going  train  always  keeps  to  one  side,  and  the 
coining  train  to  the  other,  and  as  the  rope  is  the  propelli.  g  power, 
or  means  of  power,  one  carriage  can  never  overtake  another.  A  car- 
riage to  be  taken  up  at  any  place  on  the  line,  may  either  be  done  in 
the  manner  described  by  your  corresjiondent,  or  by  an  incline,  to  set 
the  carriage  in  motion  long  enough  to  get  up  its  speed  before  it  is 
fixed  to  the  train.  In  conclusion,  I  will  make  a  few  general  remarks; 
upon  considering  the  subject,  two  important  facts  force  themselves 
into  view ; — the  first,  that  almost  any  number  of  undulations  may 
occur  in  the  line  of  the  railway,  provided  there  be  no  convex  curves 
in  the  section  of  the  ground  in  the  space  of  one  mile,  (concave  curves 
would  not  signify,  for  they  would  diminish  the  friction  of  the  rope 
rather  than  a^ld  to  it.)  The  second  is,  let  the  country  be  as  moun- 
tainous as  the  Simplon,  railways  may  with  advantage  be  made  over 
it,  provided  there  be  a  considerable  traffic.  The  first  of  these  will 
enable  us  to  make  railways  at  one-half  the  cost  of  the  present  system, 
the  other  to  choose  our  own  ground,  and  not  be  obliged  to  go  in  a 
particular  direction  or  level,  to  suit  locomotive  engines,  leaving  large 
towns  entirely  out  of  view. 

Here  we  can  have  a  railway  at  one-half  the  expense  of  the  other, 
at  one-half  (he  wear  of  rails,  have  no  collisions  between  trains,  and  at 
no  greater  annual  expense,  but  we  won't  have  it; — and  why?  because  if 
sncli  a  thing  were  attem])ted,  Demetrius  and  the  craftsmen,  (and  they 
are  a  very  powerful  body,)  wimld  run  about  the  share-market  and 
shout  with  a  loud  voice,  "  great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  and  all 
the  directors  and  shareholders  in  the  railways  already  made,  would 
stifle  all  argument  with  the  cry  of  "great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians," 
and  at  last,  like  poor  sil'y  sheep  going  to  the  slaughter,  the  projectors 
of  and  subsciibers  to  contemplated  railways,  would  join  in  the  cry, 
and  louder  and  fiercer  than  any  shout  "great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians— great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians." 

Sk^Uld.  Diogenes. 

(To  be  conlinucd.J 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


PROFESSIONS  IN  FRANCE. 

"They  do  these  things  better  in  France,"  has  been  echoed  by 
Sterne's  Starlings  ahnost  for  the  last  century,  and  that  we  may  enable 
our  readers  to  pick  out  what  good  they  can,  and  eschew  the  evil,  we 
have  thrown  together  some  notes,  based  upon  oflicial  documents  and 
upon  the  almanacks  and  directories.  With  regard  to  the  directory, 
by  the  bye,  it  conies  from  the  hand  of  an  editor  with  many  tails,  and 
is  dated'in  the  3-2d  year  of  the  publication,  and  in  the  lUth  year  of 
our  reign,  or  as  it  phrased  X''  de  la  continuation  par  I'Edtttur  actuel 
(Edtteur,  usually  means  publisher.)  ' 

We  shall  throw  our  notes  together  just  as  they  come,  and  leave 
their  connexion  to  the  industry  of  our  readers.  One  of  the  first 
things  that  strikes  us,  is  a  dealer  in  essence  of  mahogany  (taunce 
d'acajoii,)  though  what  that  is,  we  do  not  know.  The  list  of  country 
architects  is,  to  a  great  degree,  filled  up  with  surveyors,  as  they  are 
there  called  geumttrts  dii  cadastre.  Among  the  cement  dealers  we 
find  Impermeable  Mastic  Powder  of  the  Romans,  Stone-coloured 
Mastic,  Adialyte  Roman  Cement,  Lucidonic  Colour,  Economic  Bitu- 
minous Painting,  (we  presume  tarring  fences,)  Hj'drofugic  Mortar, 
Eydrophyluctic  Mortar,  &c.  One  brick-maker  has  an  establishment 
for  making  moveable  terra  cotta  letters  for  shop  boards ;  the  master 
carpenters  are  formed  into  a  body  by  a  police  ordonnance  of  the  9th 
December,  1&U8,  for  internal  government,  for  inspecting  the  solidity 
of  buildings,  and  for  preventing  pieces  of  carpentry  from  being 
placed  so  as  to  cause  fires.  Their  tools  must  be  stamped  with  a 
punch  bearing  their  family  name  at  full  length  ;  no  journeyman  must 
work  on  his  own  account  beyond  two  days,  without  a  previous  decla- 
ration at  the  Prefectore  of  Police.  Oh,  blessed  state  of  affairs!  when 
shall  we  have  the  advantage  of  protection  from  the  authorities  of 
Scotland-yard,  and  be  under  the  enlightened  directors  of  the  nearest 
station-house.  The  masons  and  locksmiths  enjoy  the  same  privi- 
leges ;  the  paviors  -Jso,  by  a  police  ordonnance,  are  prohibited  from 
undertaking  any  work  without  being  inscribed  at  the  Prefectore,  and 
having  their  tools  stamped  with  their  names. 

The  number  of  well  borers  is  ten ;  designers  of  bronzes,  carpets 
and  ornaments,  ten ;  designers  of  paper  hanging,  twenty.  There  are 
several  offices  for  doing  specifications,  drawings,  measurements,  esti- 
mates, &c.  The  gas  fitters  are  twelve.  Of  engravers,  there  are  in 
mezzotinto  nearly  a  hundred ;  architectural,  twenty ;  topographical, 
thirty;  in  wood,  twenty ;  for  paper  hangings,  ten;  of  lithographers, 
fifty.  The  engineers  are  all  government  functionaries,  dispersed  over 
the  provinces,  except  about  thirty  civil  and  practical  engineers  at 
Paris.  The  steam-engine  makers  are  six-and-twenty ;  the  modellers, 
eleven;  moulders  of  effigies,  fifteen;  mosaic  factories,  five;  scene 
painters,  seventeen;  decorative  painters,  fifteen;  painters  of  artifi- 
cial marbles  and  woods,  thirty ;  glass  and  enamel  painters  and  gilders, 
thirteen;  platina  manufacturers,  twelve.  The  surveyors  are  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  in  number. 

The  next  portion  of  our  subject,  will  be  the  immense  mass  of  go- 
vernment functionaries,  one  of  the  best  tests  of  professional  inde- 
pendence, whatever  it  may  be  of  national  encouragement.  The  first 
that  comes  in  our  vv'ay  is  the  royal  household,  direction  of  crown 
buildings,  with  thirty-three  architects  of  all  grades.  The  next  is 
the  private  domain  of  the  king,  with  another  board  of  architects. 
We  then  have  the  home  department,  directors  of  public  buildings 
and  monuments,  with  twenty-one  employers  of  the  general  board, 
and  a  hundred  and  five  district  functionaries  employed  in  different 
public  works.  The  Prefecture  of  the  Seine,  almost  equally  ]jrolific, 
has  about  a  hundred  and  fifty.  The  Prefecture  of  Police  has  also  a 
number  of  good  births — the  division  of  architecture  alone,  sixteen. 

The  engineers  come  oft'  as  well.  In  the  war  department,  they  are, 
of  course,  well  provided  for;  but  the  ministry  of  public  works,  is 
their  great  support,  there  are  to  be  found  the  names  of  fifty.  In  the 
Prefecture  of  the  Seine,  about  as  many. 


COMPETITION  DESIGNS. 

Sir — You  will  perhaps  favour  me  by  inserting  the  following  in  an 
early  number  of  your  useful  Journal. 

Derby,  Your's  respectfully, 

13th  Dec,  1839.  B. 

Two  advertisements  for  designs  have  appeared  in  the  "Times" 
this  month,  one  for  laying  out  26  acres  of  ground  near  Ipswich,  for 
which  premiums  of  30.'.,  20/.,  and  10/.  were  liberally  (?)  offered;  the 
designs  to  be  sent  in  by  the  30th  of  this  month !  The  other  design 
required  was  for  the  Lincoln  Diocesan  School,  to  accommodate  2U0 
boys  ;  with  a  master's  house  attached,  to  have  accommodation  for  40 


boarders,  which  was  to  be  furnished  by  the  17th  of  this  month  (!)  the 
board  to  assemble  on  the  ISth,  to  make  their  selection  (!!!)  A  short 
time  since,  designs  were  requested  for  a  gaol  at  Peterborough,  which 
were  to  be  sent  in  by  tirelrt  o'clock  of  the  30th  November,  ichtn  the 
magistrates  would  meet  to  select  the  design!  These  last  two  cases, 
if  the  designs  were  really  selected  at  the  time  announced,  form  a 
beautiful  contrast  to  the  dilatoriness  of  which  Mr.  Dionysius  com- 
plains in  the  Sunderland  AtlieuiEum  committee.  The  gentleman,  Mr. 
Billington,  wdiose  design  is  adopted  by  that  body,  is  an  architect,  sur- 
veyor, and  civil  engineer,  as  well  as  joiner  and  builder,  in  Wake- 
field. 

It  may  be  satisfactory  to  the  "young  architect"  to  know  that  ten- 
ders for  the  works  were  advertised  for  certainly  three  months  since, 
as  he  may  ascertain  by  reference  to  the  "  Leeds  Mercury "  of  about 
that  date. 

The  exertions  of  the  Manchester  Architectural  Society  are  entitled 
to  great  praise  from  the  profession.  It  is  their  intention,  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  competing  architects,  to  exhibit  the  designs  for  the 
Lancashire  Independent  College,  which  were  advertised  to  be  sent  in 
bythe  19th  of  October  last.     The  building  to  cost  £12,000. 

Of  the  favourable  result  of  such  exhibitions,  I  am  very  sanguine — 
as  thev  will  awaken  an  interest  in,  and  a  taste  for  architecture  among 
people  in  general;  besides  acting  as  a  check  upon  the  judges  in  com- 
petition. .  ,  .      , 

But  what  are  the  Institute  and  the  London  Society  doing  ?  It 
is  now  three  years  since  the  first  part  of  the  first  volume  of  the 
"  Transactions  of  the  Institute  "  appeared.  Are  we  to  have  no  more  ? 
The  non-appearance  of  part  the  second  does  not  speak  rohimes  in 
favour  of  the  interest  of  the  communications  that  the  Institute  has 
received ;  unless,  indeed,  the  publication  of  the  Transactions  was  a 
failure.  As  to  the  Society,  as  far  as  we  provincials  are  concerned,  it 
is  perfectly  barren.  Why  do  not  tky  follow  the  example  of  the  In- 
stitute, and  throw  open  tfitir  competitions  to  the  profession  at  large? 

I  consider  that  the  Institute  might  exert  itself  very  beneficially  on 
behalf  of  the  profession,  by  interfering  in  competitions. 

I  suggest  that  a  sub-committee  be  appointed,  which  might  be  called 
the  Competition  Committee,  whose  business  it  would  be,  when  de- 
signs are  advertised  for,  to  direct  the  Secretary  to  obtain  particulars  ; 
and  should  they  consider  the  time  allowed  too  brief,  or  the  premium 
too  small,  to  urge  upon  the  parties  advertising  the  desirableness  of 
increasing  either.  By  thus  bringing  the  matter  home  to  the  different 
bodies,  I  apprehend  that  the  profession  would  be  generaKy  thought 
more  respectable.  The  exertions  of  such  a  body,  would  be  more 
likely  to  succeed  than  the  isolated  efforts  of  individuals. 

To  parties  about  to  advertise,  if  requested,  the  Committee  might 
furnish  manv  useful  hints.  In  addition  to  this,  they  might  have  ex- 
hibitions of  the  designs  in  remarkable  competitions,  and  thus  obtain 
some  increase  to  the  Institutes'  income. 

If,  following  the  example  of  the  Useful  Knowledge  Society,  they 
would  appoint  local  committees  throughout  the  country,  they  would 
have  their  trouble  lessened,  and  would  unite  the  profession  more  in- 
timately than  it  is.  These  committees,  it  is  evident,  may  collect 
much  useful  information;  as  every  provincial  architect  is  not  ^o- 
ionally  acquainted  with  these  metropolitans.  It  should  not,  1  think, 
be  considered  essential  that  the  local  committee  be  members  of  the 
Institute,  but  provincial  architects,  of  whose  professional  standing  the 
council  was  satisfied,  might  be  requested  to  act.  Though  these  sug- 
gestions may  not  meet  with  approbation,  I  must  regret  that  neither 
the  Institute,  nor  the  Society,  have  opened  an  exhibition  of  the  Royal 
Exchange  designs.  The  gods  will  not  help  them  who  will  not  help 
themselves,  neither  will  the  world  assist  an  apathetic  profession. 

It  is  to  hoped  that  the  Liverpool  Society  will  exert  themselves  to 
obtain  an  exhibition  of  the  Assize  Courts  designs  ;  though  the  non- 
exhibition  of  the  designs  for  the  St.  George's  Hall  argues  a  great 
deal  of  inactivitv  or  apathy  on  their  part. 

That  competition  seems  "to  have  reached  a  satisfactory  conclusion, 
For,  though  some  may  think  that  a  better  design  might  kave  been 
selected,  nobody  will  question  the  honourable  conduct  of  the  "  Liver- 
pool gentlemen," 


COMPARATIVE  POWER  OF  STEAM  ENGINES. 
The  following  calculation  by  Mr.  Wicksteed,  the  engineer  of  the 
East  London  W  ater  Works,  exhibiting  the  saving  of  fuel  to  be  eftected 
by  using  a  single  acting  expansive  engine  and  an  overshot  water- 
wheel,  instead  of  a  double-acting  condensing  engine  of  the  ordinary 
kind  will  be  found  interesting.  This  was  made  at  the  request  of  His 
Excellency  Edhem  Bey,  ambassador  from  the  court  of  Egypt,  upon 
his  late  visit  to  this  country. 


8 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


A  double-acting  low-pressure  engine  of  the  ordinary  construction  of 
50  liorses  power  for  spinning  cotton,  will  consume  from  10  to  15  Its. 
of  coal  per  horse  power  per  hour,  say  on  an  average  12  1ft.  This  is, 
however,  a  low  estimate  for  Lancixshire,  where  the  consumption  is 
generally  much  greater,  coal  being  there  less  expensive  than  in  several 
other  parts  of  England.  If  we  allow  311  working  days  per  annum  of 
12  hours  each,  we  shall  liave  the  total  consumption  of  the  above  en- 
gine for  one  year  =  50  X  12  X  12  X  31 1  =  2,23;l,200n>.  =  999  tons, 
12  cwt.  3  qrs.  12  tts.,  say  1000  tons  at  508  *  =  £2500. 

A  single-acting  expansive  engine  on  the  Coniish  plan  of  50  horses 
power,  if  used  fur  raising  water  to  turn  an  overshot  water-wheel,  will 
not  produce  a  power  of  50  horses  available  for  working  the  cotton 
macainerv,  since  the  effect  of  the  water,  when  applied  as  a  motive 
jiower,  through  the  medium  of  the  overshot  water-wheel,  will  not 
exceed  C'j  per  cent,  of  the  power  required  to  raise  the  water.  Now 
()G  :  100  :  :  50  :  76  =  the  number  of  horses  power  of  the  engine 
which  will  produce  the  same  mechanical  effect  by  this  plan  as  by  the 
usual  mode. 

A  Cornish  engine  of  76  horses  power  will  consume  from  2  to  24  lbs. 
of  coal  per  horse  power  per  hour,  say  24  Its. ;  thus  the  consumption 
for  one  year  will  be  equal  to  76  X  2-5  X  12  X  311  =:  709,080  Itis.  = 
316  tons  11  cwt.,  say  317  tons  at  508.  =  £792  10s. 

COMPARISON. 

The  cost  of  coal  per  annum  by  the  common  mode  is        £2500    0     0 
Ditto  by  the  proposed  mode  .  .  792  10     0 

Saving  per  annum  =  68      =  £1707  10     0 


The  irregularity  of  the  action  of  the  steam  in  ordinary  low-pressure 
engines  is  very  nearly  counteracted  by  the  use  of  a  fly-wheel ;  never- 
theless, in  some  of  the  cotton  factories,  (for  instance,  that  of  Messrs. 
Lane,  of  Stockport)  two  engines  are  employed  to  work  the  same  ma- 
chineiy,  the  cranks  being  fixed  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  in 
marine  engines.  Shis  arrangement  equalizes  the  action  of  the  steam 
still  more,  yet  the  motion  is  not  so  regular  as  that  of  an  overshot 
water-wheel,  where  the  supply  of  water  is  uniform,  as  it  would  be  in 
this  case,  the  speed  of  the  engine  being  regulated  by  the  use  of  the 
cataract,  to  any  given  number  of  strokes  per  minute,  and  the  delivery 
of  water  consequently  uniform. 

It  should  be  observed  that  no  large  quantity  of  water  will  be  re- 
quired, as  the  same  water  may  be  used  over  and  over  again  with  very 
little  loss. 

When  this  calculation  was  made,  very  little  practical  knowledge  of 
the  consumption  of  coals  for  a  Cornish  engine  in  London  had  been 
obtained,  and  although  we  have  never  disputed  the  reports  from  Corn- 
wall, yet  many  engineers  of  great  experience  had  doubted  the  correct- 
ness of  the  accounts  from  Cornwall ;  it  has  now,  however,  been  proved 
that  the  great  engine  lately  erected  by  the  East  London  Water  Works 
Company  at  Old  Ford,  does  not  consume  upon  an  average  more  than 
2,%  As.  of  coals  per  hour  per  horse  power,  and  as  the  coals  used  are 
the  refuse  of  Newcastle  coals,  the  largest  piece  not  being  greater  than 
J  inch  in  diameter,  we  can  have  no  doubt  that  Mr.  Wicksteed's  esti- 
mate of  24  lt)s.  of  coals  per  hour  per  horse  power  of  large  coals  may 
be  safely  relied  upon. 


T  This  is  the  price  of  coal  in  Egypt. 

BIELEFELD'S  PAPIER  MACHE  WORKS. 


If  fi  '"^--"^--mim^ 


BIELEFELD'S  PAPIER  MACHE  WORKS. 

A  no  less  singular  than  conspicuous  object,  the  building  lately 
erected  in  Wellington  Street,  North,  can  hardly  fail  to  attract  notice, 
vet  at  the  same  time  is  likely  to  puzzle  the  architectural  critic.  It 
has  idreiidy  been  spoken  of  both  in  the  Companion  to  the  Almanac, 
and  in  an  article  on  Loudon  Shops  and  Gin  Palaces,  in  the  December 
Number  of  Eraser's  Magazine  ;  nor  do  we  see  reason  to  dissent  greatly 
from  the  opinions  there  expressed.  The  defects  of  the  design  is  that 
there  is  very  little  sort  of  agreement  between  the  upper  and  the  lower 
portion  of  the  building,  either  as  to  style,  cliaracter  or  material. 
While  the  latter  is  exceedingly  plain  and  sober,  the  other  is  fanciful — 
not  to  say  freakish  in  the  dressings  given  to  the  fiist  flour  windows," 
which,  uevertheless,  du  nut  pussess  the  degree  of  richness,  which  would 
reconcile  the  eye  to  what,  it  nm.st  be  acknowledged,  is  outri'  in  man- 
ner, and  which  therefore  required  to  be  treated  not  with  coldness,  nor 
even  sobriety. 

We  do  not  object  to  an  intermixture  of  stone  and  red  brick  ;  on  the 
contrary,  we  are  of  opinion  that  it  might  frequently  be  rendered  pro- 
ductive of  considerable  effect ;  but  then  we  should  like  to  see  the  two 
materials  combined  throughout,  from  the  gromid  upwards,  and  not,  as 


is  here  the  case,  have  a  building  look  as  if  begun  and  carried  up  to  a 
ce.  tain  height  in  stone-work,  and  then  completed  in  brick  with  only 
stone  dressings.  Again,  the  piers  below  look  narrow  and  weak  com- 
pared witli  those  between  the  windows  of  the  first  floor ; — a  fault  that 
might  have  been  obviated  by  arching  the  openings  between  them,  and 
making  the  entresol  windows  in  the  heads  of  the  arches.  This  would 
also  have  diminished  the  formality  now  occasioned  by  the  numerous 
horizontal  lines  of  those  windows  and  openings,  and  unnecessarily  in- 
creased by  those  of  the  horizontal  rustic  joints. 

In  one  respect,  indeed,  the  whole  possesses  a  certain  merit,  because 
there  is  hardly  a  possibility  of  mistaking  what  the  building  is  intended 
for.  Its  aspect  at  once  announces  it  to  consist  not  only  of  a  sh6p  be- 
low but  a  manufactory  in  the  upper  stories.  It  likewise  contains  spa- 
cious show-rooms,  relative  to  which  and  their  contents  we  shall  pro- 
bably be  able  ere  long  to  give  a  more  detailed  account.  The  building 
stands  at  the  corner  of  Wellington  and  Exeter  Streets,  the  narrower 
front  or  end,  being  towards  the  former,  the  longer  one  towards  the 
latter  ;  but  in  regard  to  this  some  liberty  hits  been  taken  in  the  cut,  for 
though  the  whole  of  the  South  side  of  the  building  is  shown,  not  more 
than  the  first  two  windows  from  the  corner  of  Wellington  Street  would 
be  visible  in  the  direction  here  chosen,  owing  to  the  narrowmess  of  the 
other  street. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


r> 


ON  THE  TESTING  OF  SURVEYS  BY  CALCULATING  THE 

LINES  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

Bv  S.  Hughes,  C.E. 

In  transferring  to  paper  the  measured  lines  of  a  large  survey,  it  is 
always  considered  by  the  surveyor  a  nratter  of  great  satisfaction  if  the 
lines  prove  or  fit  in  to  each  other  as  it  is  called. 

That  tlie  meaning  of  this  term  may  be  understood  by  those  who  are 
not  conversant  with  the  practice  of  surveying,  suppose  three  lines 
have  been  measured  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  A,  B,  C,  and  a  fourth 
line  B,  D  has  been  measured  from  one  of  the  angular  jioints  to  D  in 
the  opposite  side.  It  is  evident  that  the  three  sides  of  the  triangle 
being  given,  the  length  of  B  D  is  determined,  and  ought  on  the  ground 
to  measure  neitlier  more  nor  less  than  the  distance  in  a  direct  line 
from  B  to  D. 


Now,  if  on  laying  down  the  above  diagram  on  paper  it  be  found 
that  the  distance  between  B  and  D  either  exceeds,  or  is  less  than  that 
measured  on  the  groimd,  the  presumption  is  that  an  error  has  been 
committed,  and  the  work  shouUl  forthwith  be  examined  in  order  to 
discover  it.  B  D  is  called  a  proof  line,  and  the  above  example  is 
given  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  these  lines. 

The  object  of  this  paper  is  to  investigate  a  fe\y  simple  formulEe  for 
determining  the  lengths  of  proof  lines  by  calculation,  in  order  to  save 
the  trouble  of  laying  down  at  an  inconvenient  time  the  main  lines  of 
extensive  surveys,  and  to  guard  against  the  danger  of  error  in  laying 
down  the  lines  on  paper. 

Pros.  1st. — Let  a,  b,  c,  be  the  three  given  sides  of  a  triangle,  it  is 
required  to  determine  the  perpendicular  A  B  from  the  vertex  to  the 
opposite  side  c,  and  also  the  segments  into  which  the  side  is  divided 


by  such  perpendicular.  Put  .r  =  one  of  the  segments,  and  we  have 
a-^—x'=:b-^—(c—,vy  or  a-'—x'^=b^—c-—x--\-  2  c  .r  add  .»■',  and  a-=r 
b''—c-+  2  c  .1-;  subtract^  6» — c'  and  a^ — 6^4-c^=  2  c  x:     Divide  by 

a'—b''+c2           'a^—b'  ,  c 
2  c  and  ~ =.v  or  — •  -f-=.i-the  greater  segment. 

Now  the  difference  of  two  squares  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
sum  and  difference  of  their  roots.     Let  s  and  d  be  the  sum  and  differ- 


ence of  the  two  sides  a  and  6,  then  - 

2 


2c 


=:  X  the  greater  or  less 


segment,  according  as  the  positive  or  negative  sign  is  used  in  the 
fornnda.     The  perpendicular  A  B  of  course  will  bo  y'a- — .r-.     From 

the  nature  of  similar  triangles  it  is  also=:—  where  x  is  the  lesser 

0 

xb 
segment,  and  ^  " —  vvhere  x  is  the  greater  segment. 

Suppose  an  obtuse  angled  triangle,  then  a' — (c+.f)^=62— .r'  or  a' — 


c' — x' —  2  c  .r=6-' — ,1-2.     Add  ,i-'  and  a' — c-' — 2  c  x^^b 
and  a-  —  c"  =  6-  +  2  c  r.    Subtract  5-  and  divide  by  2  c, 

-  =:,r,  or  substituting  as  before  the  sum  and  difference 
^i    c 


-'.     Add  2  c*- 

,       a- — 6- 
then  ^; 


of  (I  and  b  we 


l);ive =,r,  and  the  perpendicular  here  will  be  ^b' — x^. 

2c     2 

Api'lication  I. — Given  the  three  sides  a  6  c  of  an  acute  emgled 

JS. 


triangle,  also  B  D,  and   consequently  D  C  the  segments  of  the  b.ise  c, 
required  the  length  of  the  proof  line  A  D. 

Put  BD=rf  the  perpendicular  AP  as  found  by  the  preceding  pro- 
blem=^,  and,  the  segment  B  P  also  found  by  the  prublem=s,  then 

Case  II.— Let  the  triangle  be  obtuse  as  ABC,  thou  retaunng  the 
same  letters  as  above  A^p'+(d — s)-— A  D. 


Case  III.— In  the  triangle  ABC,  the  three  sides  are  given,  also  the 
distances  B  A',  B  D'  required  the  length  of  the  proof  line  A'D'. 


B—  p  D     1' 

Through  the  point  A  draw  AD  parallel  to  a  A'D',  then  B A'  :  BA  :  : 
BD'  :  BD  and  AD  may  be  found  as  shewn  in  case  I.  Then  we  have 
BA  :  BA'  :  :  AD  :  A'D'  the  length  required. 

Or  suppose  the  two  sides  B  A,  and  B  C  arp  given  also  B  A',  B  D'  and 
A'  D'  and  the  length  of  the  proof  line  AC  be  required.  Through  A' 
and  A  draw  A'P',  and  A  P  perpendicular  to  B  C  and  find  the  length  of 
A'  P'  by  the  problem.  Then  B  A'  •.  B  A  :  :  A'  P'  :  AP  find  also  the 
length  BP,  and  then  VAP^+(BC— B  P)==AC. 

Corollary.  By  means  of  the  formula  in  tliis  case  maybe  determined 
also  any  proof  line  measured  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  base  line  to 
that  on  which  the  triangle  has  been  constructed. 

Thus  let  A  B  C  be  tlie  triangle  of  which  the  sides  are  given,  and  of 


which  one  of  tlieni  A  C  has  been  Continued  to  D,  and  its  extremity 
connected  by  the  line  D  E,  with  another  of  the  sides  B  C  also  pro- 
duced to  E.  Draw  A  F  and  G  D  perpendicular  to  B  E,  and  find  the 
length  of  A  F  by  the  problem,  then  AC  :  CD  :  :  AF  :  DG.  The 
distance  CG  will  then  be=  j/CD'-DG-.  And  ED=:  vGD'+(BE-  BG)' 


10 


TJII'J  (  1\JL  ICiNCaNKLK  AM)  AllC'HITi:crS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


ON  THE  SUPPLY  OF  WATKU  TO  THE  METROPOLIS. 

Obstrvatiuns  on  llw  jktsl  and  prtnuit  snpjjli/  of  Wa/ir  to  lltv  Mcliv- 
fulis.  liii  Tiio.MAS  Wkk^tkkd,  Ciril  Engima:  Jiail  hi  fore  Ik 
Sodclij  vj'./Jrh,  jMaij  21,  Is^.'j. 

[Tliis  ]);i|)rr  wliicli  wc  now  present  tmr  ri'uders  was  oriifin.illy  piili- 
lisjicil  in  till' TiMns;ic(i(ins  of  tlic  Sncicly  of  Ails:  ;i5  we  coiisiilcr  il> 
merits  enlille  i(  Id  a  nunc  exloiuled  lirciilalicjn,  «e  lli>iLii;lil  tli;il  we 
conlil  nol  ilu  ;i  lu'tler  service  lu  ils  nnlliur  ;iiul  llie  jiiiblir,  ilinii  (o  l;ike 
tills  ii|i|iorliniily  of  iMllint;  atlcnlioii  Id  il.] 

I  TAKK  III!'  liberty  dI'  [irefaeiiir;  tlie  Dl)ser\.UiDns  I  ;ini  iil)DUl  Id  nuiKc- 
n|)Dn  I  he  piist  mv\  present  su|i|ily  of  water  to  tlie  Metropolis,  liy  staling 
thai  it  was  at  Ihe  lepealeil  recpiest  of  my  vahieil  frienil  Mr.  Aikin  that 
1  was  inihieed  to  think  of  attcmj)tinc;  to  amuse  the  Soeiety  for  an 
honr;  anil,  slinnlil  I  lie  nnsuceessful  in  the  endeavour,  I  trnst  credit 
w  ill  lie  given  nu'  for  trying,  at  least,  to  make  a  return,  however  trilling, 
for  Ihe  pleasure  and  instruction  1  have  derived  from  this  yociely 
during  the  last  twelve  years. 

It  will  be  my  object  to  show  Ihe  great  advantages  the  inhabitants  of 
tills  Metropolis  derive  from  the  abundant  sujiply  of  good  water  which 
fliey  now  have,  in  comparison  with  the  scanty  supply  in  ancient 
times. 

Supply ijnviom  lo  a.D-  1230,  by  Rumiiiig  Brooks. 

The  inhabitants  of  London  ami  ils  suburbs  pre\  iously  to  the  year 
12U<t,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  111.,  were  snpplieit  with  water  not  only  by 
the  Thames,  but  also  by  Ihe  following  sireams,  namely,  the  River  of 
Wells,  Old-bourne  or  Hill-bmnnc,  Wall-brook,  and  Lang-bouruc. 

The  River  of  Wells,  so  called  from  its  being  forined  by  Ihe  united 
streams  from  several  wells  in  Ihe  neighbourhood  of  the  Charter  House 
and  .Sniilhtield,  Mowed  lo  Holborn  Bridge.  The  Old-bourne,  <n-  Hill- 
bourne,  so  calleil  fnuu  ils  running  down  a  lull  ,rDse  near  Holboru  Bars, 
and  nniuiug  west,  joined  the  River  of  Wells  at  Holborn  Bridgi';  from 
tlience  tlio  united  streams  Howed  between  the  Fleet  and  Bridewell 
into  Ihe  Thames  near  lilackfriars  Bridge.  In  1307,  at  a  Parliament 
held  at  Carlisle  the  3.'ith  of  Edward  L,  Henry  Lacy,  Earl  of  Lincoln, 
complained  that  whereas  I'orruerly  the  watercourse  under  the  Fleet  and 
Holborn  Bridges  was  snliicicully  deep  and  wide  lo  allow  tenor  twelve 
ships  at  once,  loaded  with  merchandize,  lo  come  up  lo  Holboni  Bridge, 
but  that  in  1 1'.li',  in  the  lirst  year  of  his  reign.  King  Joliu  had  granted 
io  the  Knights  Teiuiilars  ground  to  erect  a  mill  upon,  at  Castle  Bay- 
nard,  and  the  whole  of  Ihe  water  in  this  w  alercourse  (vvhieli  was  aftcn'- 
waids  called  Turn  Mill  Brook)  to  work  if;  owing  to  which  diversion 
chiefly,  and  also  to  Ihe  lillh  of  the  Tanners  choking  it  np,  and  divers 
other  impedimeuts,  vessels  could  not  now  enter  as  they  were  winit ; 
he  therefore  prayed  that  the  mayor  and  sherifVs  of  London  might  be 
directed  to  view  the  watercourse  to  substantiate  his  statenieiits.  It 
was  in  consecpiencc  cleansed,  but  was  never  again  of  the  depth  or 
breadth  that  it  had  formerly  been.  In  1502,  the  17th  of  Heury  VII., 
the  whole  course  of  Fleet  Dyke,  then  so  called,  was  ert'ectuallv  cleansed 
so  as  to  allow  boats  with  lish  and  fuel  lo  navigate  as  far  as  Holborn 
Bridge. 

In  I5y0,  in  the  3!st  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  the  Common  Council  of 
the  city  granted  a  tifteenlh  for  the  cleansing  of  this  brook,  or  dyke, 
and  for  this  |iur|iose  Ihe  springs  on  Hanipslead  Heath  were  c<illei'te(i 
into  one  head  and  c(jnvey(»l  by  means  of  a  channel  to  Fleet  Ditch,  to 
scour  it  out ;  but  after  spending  a  large  sum  of  iiumey,  the  work  proved 
a  failure,  and  the  banks  falling  in,  the  Ditch  was  (  hoked  up  nujre  than 
ever. 

In  1GG8,  in  Charles  the  Second's  reign,  after  Ihe  fire  of  London,  it 
was  again  cleansed,  and  a  handsome  canal  was  made  with  brick  walls 
and  wharfs  on  each  side  as  far  as  Holborn  Bridge,  2100  feet  long,  40 
feet  wide,  and  5  feet  deep  at  a  middling  tide  ;  but  the  expense  of 
making  this  canal,  wharfs,  ice.,  (aniDunling  to  iR'arly  i'2><,000,)  and 
the  annual  cost  of  keeping  it  free  from  mud  was  so  great,  that  in  1733 
the  cilizens  obtained  ]iowers  from  Parliament  lo  fill  up  the  ditch 
between  Fleet  Street  and  Holborn,  and  to  build  a  market  thereon,  the 
act  providing  that  two  spacious  arches,  nf  10  feet  high  and  li  feet 
wide,  should  be  made  and  mainlaiued  as  common  sewers,  to  carry  oil' 
the  waters  of  the  rivulets  and  sewers  thai  used  to  fall  into  the  ditch  ; 
and  in  I7li0,  in  George  Ihe  Third's  reign,  when  Blackl'riais  Bridge 
was  built,  the  reinainiug  part  of  Ihe  Fleet  Ditch,  from  Fleet  Street  "to 
the  Thames,  was  filled  in,  and  the  sewer  was  extended. 

It  would  appear  that  Fleet  Ditc  h  was  the  channel  into  which  tin- 
River  of  Wells,  from  the  east,  and  the  Old  (or  Hill)  Bourne  from  the 
west,  flowed,  and  that  the  tide  flowing  up  to  Holborn  Bridgi-  made  il 
navigable  so  far.  That  at  one  liiae  it  was  c  died  Ihe  River  of  Wells 
because  that  was  the  largest  rivulet  that  ran  into  il  ;  aflerwards  Turn 
Mill  Brook,  when  if  was  rendered  unnavigable  by  the  erection  of  the 
Knights  Teinjilars'  Mill,  and  the  consonnent  diversion  of  its  waters  f 


afterwards,  when  (he  mills  were  removed,  and  it  wa.s  cleansed  again 
and  rendered  navigable,  Fleet  Dyke,  so  called  because  il  was  a  water- 
course allowing  many  vessels  or  -.i  Jlitl  to  pass  up; — and  afterwards 
Fleet  Ditch,  when  Ihe  imsnceessful  atleinpl  to  scour  it,  by  means  of  a 
channel  (which  channel  is  now  also  called  Fleet  Ditch,)  from  the 
Hanijistead  springs,  had  been  made.  The  Old  (or  Hill)  Bourne  is  now 
co\  ered  over. 

Wall-bidok  derived  ils  name  from  the  eircinnsfanee  of  its  being  the 
only  running  brook  that  passed  through  (lie  City  walls. 

It  entered  (be  Cilv  near  to  the  east  end  of  lielli'em  Hospital,  he- 
tweeu  Bishojisgale  and  Moorgate,  [lassed  on  to  Lothbiirv,  under  St. 
Mildred's  cluinh,  Bucklersburv,  Wallbrook  Street,  and  Dowgate  Hill 
into  Ihe  Thames.  It  is  said  to  have  been  in  ancient  times  navigable 
as  far  as  Bnckleisbury.  It  is  now  arched  over,  and  liouses  are  built 
over  it  in  many  (ilaces. 

Laiigliouriie-water  was  a  long  and  gre, it  stream  of  v\ater  breaking 
out  of  the  ground  at  the  east  end  of  Fenchundi  Street,  and  running 
directly  west,  nearly  to  the  end  of  Lombard  Street,  turned  lo  Ihe  south 
and  divided  into  seTeral  rivulets,  some  falling  into  the  Wall-broidc, 
and  others  running  in  separate  streams  to  the  Thames  at  Dowgate; 
(he  division,  or  s/mnng,  of  the  stream  gave  the  name  to  Sharebourne 
(or  Sherbourue)  Lane. 

A  watercourse  intersected  th«  Strand  at  Salisbury  Street,  and 
another  near  Somerset  House. 

Supply  prtrioiis  to  a.D.  123(5  by  Springs. 

Besides  these  running  streams  there  were  a  great  many  wells  and 
pools,  namely,  Holywell,  in  Shoreditch;  Clement's  Well,  in  St.  Cle- 
ment's Inn  ill  the  Strand  ;  Clerks'  Well,  near  Clerkenwell  Cluireli,  so 
called  from  the  parish  clerks  of  Ihe  City  of  London,  who  used  formerly 
to  meet  there  for  Ihe  jmrpose  of  representing  certain  parts  of  the 
Serijiturcs  in  a  theatrical  manner.  "These  wells,"  says  Fitz  Stephen, 
who  was  ill  the  service  of  the  famous  Thomas  a  Becket,  and  wrote  a 
life  of  that  celebrated  |)relate,  "maybe  esteemed  the  jiriucipal,  as 
being  much  the  best  freipiented,  both  by  scholars  from  the  schocils, 
and  the  youth  of  the  City,  when  in  a  summer's  evening  they  were  dis- 
posed to  take  an  airing."  Xear  lo  Clerks'  Well  was  Skinners'  Well, 
where  plays  were  in  ancient  times  performed. 

More  eastw  aril,  tow  ards  the  Charter  House,  were  Fagges-well,  Tods- 
w  ell,  f.oders-well  and  Red-well,  which,  with  another  in  Smithfield, 
called  Ihe  Horse  Pool,  united  to  form  the  River  of  Well.,. 

"Damc-Annis-the-Clear"  Well,  in  Hoxton;  and,  somewhat  west  of 
this.  Perilous  Pool,  now  called  Peerless  Pool. 

Without  Cripplegatc  there  was  a  large  pool  supplied  by  Crowder's 
Well,  on  the  north-west  side  of  St.  Giles's  cluirchyard. 

There  was  a  fountain  in  New  Palace  Yard,  Wesfininsler. 

There  were  two  wells  in  .Shadwell,  one  of  which,  a  fine  and  clear 
spring  near  lo  St.  Paul's  clinich,  gave  this  suburb  ils  name. 

Besides  those  herein  eiminerated  there  were  iiiany  smaller  ones,  the 
siluation  of  which  may  still  be  discovered  by  the  names  of  the  streets 
and  alleys  or  places  in  their  neighbourhood,  such  as  Monks'  Well, 
Bride  W>ll,  formerly  called  Bridget's  Well,  &c. 

London  siijipliid  by  Conduits  stibseqiiinlly  to  1230. 

Stow  says,  "The  said  River  of  Wells,  the  rinming  water  of  Wall- 
lirook,  the  bournes  afore  named,  and  others  the  fresh  wafers  that  v\pre 
in  and  about  this  City,  being  in  jirocess  of  time,  by  eucroaclnuent  for 
buildings  and  otherwise,  utterly  decayed,  and  (he  numlier  of  citizens 
inightily  increased,  they  were  forced  to  seek  sweet  waters  abroad, 
whereof  some"  i^prings,  "at  the  request  of  King  Henry  the  Third  in 
Ihe  2 1st  year  of  his  reign,  were,  for  the  iirofit  of  the  City  and  good  of 
the  whole  Realme  thither  reiiairing,  granted  to  the  citizens  and  their 
successors  by  one  Gilbert  de  Sanford,  with  liberty  to  convey  water 
from  the  towne  of  Teiborne  by  ]ii))es  of  lead  into  their  City."  The 
Tybourne  rivulet  ran  though  Tothill  Fields  to  Scholars'  Pond,  and 
thence  info  Ihe  Thames;  it  is  now  a  common  sewer.  The  grant  w'as 
made  in  1230;  the  work  was  commenced  in  12s5:  the  waters  from 
Tybourne  were  conveyed  by  a  six-inch  leaden  pipe  to  dialing  Cross, 
and  from  thence  to  several  conduits  in  the  City,  the  first  and  greatest 
of  wliiih  was  erected  at  the  Cross  in  Clieapside,  at  the  end  of  Wood 
Street,  in  12^.5,  the  distance  being  about  three  miles  and  a  half,  and 
for  the yirsl  time  water  was  conveyed  by  pipes  into  the  City. 

lu  1101  the  prison-house  called  the  "  Tun  onCornhill,  was  converted 
into  a  cistern  for  the  Tybourne  water,  and  was  afterwards  called  the 
Conduit  oil  Cornliill. 

hi  1123  water  was  brought  from  Tybourne  to  Billingsgate,  Paul's 
Wharf,  and  to  a  cistern  in  the  wall  of  St.  Giles's  church,  Cripnlegate. 

In  1 130  w  ater  was  brought  to  the  Standard  in  Clieapside,  near 
Honey  Lane, 

In  1132  water  was  conveyed  to  the  gaols  of  Newgate  and  Ludgate. 


18^0.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


TI 


In  1  1"3m  water  was  brought  from  Tyl)OnniP  to  comluits  in  Fleet 
Strpot  and  Alilcrnianbiiry,  and  from  Highbury  to  a  concbut  o])i)osite 
Cripplogat.e  cliiirch. 

In  1  V.i'.)  thp  Abluit  of  Wpstminstor  grantpd  the  City  one  hpad  of 
wator,  containing  abont  SUO  sqnaro  yards,  or  thp  sixtli  of  an  acre,  fo- 
gptlipr  with  all  its  springs  in  the  manor  of  Paddington,  ;;ronc/i'/ the 
intended  wurlc  did  not  (Iraw  the  water  from  tlie  aneient  wells  in  the 
manor  of  llida;  showing  bv  this  proviso  that  fo\n-  hnndred  years  back 
it  was  <liscovered  tlial  any  great  dranght  from  one  well  wonld  be  likely 
to  leave  the  other  neighbouring  wells  dry.  This  grant  was  contirmed 
by  Henry  the  Sixth  in  11-11  ;  and  other  .advantages  were  granted  by  a 
writ  of  Frivv  Comicil,  to  enable  the  citizens  to  bring  water  by  means 
of  leaden  pipes  \mder  the  ground  for  "above  three  miles"  to  a  conduit 
in  ('lieapsid(>,  which  was  erected  in  ])lacp  of  the  old  one  at  the  Cross, 
which  Cross  was  also  re-edified  at  the  same  time;  and  thi.s  conduit 
was  used  as  a  reservoir  for  the  supply  of  other  conduits.  The  water 
was  conveyed  from  the  springs  to  cisterns  at  Tybourne,  from  tlience  to 
Charing  Cross,  and  thence  to  the  City. 

In  1443  a  new  conduit  was  erected  ncxr  St.  Paul's  Gate,  at  the  up[ier 
end  of  Cheapside. 

In  tlie  0\A  13ailey,  a  little  lower  than  the  Sessions  House,  was  a  large 
cistern  with  divers  cocks,  which  received  the  waste  water  from  the 
prison  of  Ludgate,  for  the  use  of  tlie  neighbouring  inhabitants. 

In  1471  a  fresh  supply  of  water  was  brought  liy  leaden  pipes  from 
Tybourne  to  a  conduit  erected  in  Fleet  Street,  at  the  end  of  Shoe 
Lane,  and  to  other  conduits,  for  the  benefit  of  the])eo])le;  viz.  "  for 
.the  poor  to  drink,  the  rich  to  dress  their  meat." 

In  117s  a  cistern  was  added  to  this  conduit  to  hold  tlie  waste  water, 
and  another  at  Fleet  Bridge. 

In  1401  a  conduit  was  erected  in  Grasse  (o»  Gracechnrcli)  Street. 
In  l4i>S  a  conduit  was  erected  at  Oldbouriie  Cross,  and  was  again 
new  made  in  1577  by  William  Lamb,  citizen,  who  having  drawn  toge- 
ther several  springs  of  water  into  a  head  at  the  up|)er  end  of  Ued 
Lion  Street,  which  was  called  Lamb's  Conduit,  conveye<l  the  same  to 
a  conduit  on  Snow  Hill,  by  a  leaden  pipe  2IX)0  yanls  long. 

In  Ijll'.t  a  stone  conduit  was  erected  in  the  Stocks  Market  wdlich 
stood  at  the  north  comer  of  Wallbrook. 

Aljout  the  year  la  13  a  conduit  was  erected  in  Bishopsgate  Street. 
About  the  year  l.VJS  a  conduit  was  erected  at  LoniUm  Wall. 
In  l.'>3.j  water  was  brought  from  Hackney  to  a  conduit  ere<teil  in 
Aldgate. 

In  1543,  notwithstanding  the  vast  expense  the  citizens  had  been  at 
in  bringing  water  to,  and  erecting  conduits  in,  the  City,  the  supply 
was  very  ineUicient;  and  an  Act  was  passed  in  theolst  (d  Henry  Vlll. 
empowering  them  to  bring  water  from  Hampstead  Heath,  St.  Mary  le 
Bon  Hackney,  and  Muswell  Hill,  upon  their  compensating  the  owners 
of  laixl  for  damage  done  by  digging  or  otherwise. 

In  I54(>  water  was  conveyeil  in  great  abundance  from  divers  springs 
Iving  between  Hoxtun  and  Islington  to  a  handsome  condtiit  erected  at 
tlie  west  em\  of  St.  Margaret's  church,  L(Hhbuiy. 

The  Charter  House  was  supplied  from  White  Conduit  Fields; 
Christ's  Hospital,  from  Hie  Devil's  Conduit,  north-east  of  Brunswick 
Square. 

Stow  mentions  amongst  the  remarkables  in  the  City  of  London  a 
well  at  Aldgate  curbed  with  stone  of  a  great  depth,  ami  rising  into  a 
house  two  stories  from  the  ground,  wdiich  is  peculiar,  "for  I  have  not 
seen  tlw  like  in  all  this  City  to  be  raised  so  high." 

There  were  other  C(mduits  of  less  note  than  those  now  enumerated, 
and  wells  witk  buckets  or  pumps  in  Threadneedle  Street,  Leadeuhall 
Street,  S;c. 

Sir  John  Evelyn  writes  that  about  the  accession  of  Quv-en  Elizabeth, 
in  1558,  the  waters  of  Dame-Annis-the-Clear  Spring  at  Hoxtou  were 
called  to  the  breweries  in  London,  at  an  expensi;  of  sou/,  per  annum  ; 
and  alHjut  the  same  time  wells  were  dug  and  pumps  erected  in  every 
corner  of  tlie  City  and  suburbs. 

Ifakr  raised/mm  tlie  Thames  hy  Machinery. 

Ill  15tj8  a  conduit  was  erected  near  the  top  of  Dowgate  Hill,  w  hich 
was  supplied  with  Thames  water  by  means  of  a  giiiii,  or  machine  fur 
raising  water,  fixed  iifar  the  river, — most  probably  what  is  termed  a 
horse-wheel. 

Tliis  appears  to  have  been  the  iirst  machine  used  in  London  for 
raising  water  for  Uie  su|)ply  of  the  public  to  a  higher  level  than  could 
be  dcjiie  by  the  common  pump. 

Thus  it  ajipears  that  London  was  supjilied,  first,  hy  running  brooks 
and  springs,  and  secondly,  when  thes<'  failed,  oy  water  brought  from 
a  distance  through  leadf^u  pipes,  the  sources  being  at  a  sutiicieiit  ele- 
vation to  allow  the  wat<>r  to  run  into  the  conduits.  In  a  few  instances 
ttie  waste  water  from  .these  conduits  ran  into  cistems  adjacent  to  theWj 


for  common  or  public  use;  but  water  was  of  too  much  value  at  that 
time  to  allow  this  to  be  done  generally,  and  in  cases  of  fire  the  supply 
was  miserably  deficient,  which,  togetlier  with  the  ci.cuiustance  of  tim- 
ber being  the  common  material  used  in  the  buildings,  accounts  for  the 
number  of  destructive  fires  in  ancient  times. 

Although  bringing  water  by  means  of  pipes  from  distant  sources 
was  a  great  improvement,  so  far  as  respected  an  increased  iprintity; 
nevertheless,  the  inconvenience  and  expense  of  carrying  it  from  tlie 
conduits  to  each  house  still  existed,  and  it  was  not  until  the  erection 
of  the  Lonilou  Bridge  Water-works,  in  15S-2,  that  this  dilliculty  was 
overcome,  when  the  |irinciple  of  conveying  water  into  dwelling-houses 
by  means  of  small  load-pipi's  was  adopted  ;  this,  the  greatest  improve- 
ment in  the  mode  of  sup|ilying  water,  by  substituting  the  power  of 
machinery  for  human  drudgery,  has  not  been  surpasseil,  and  is  the 
plan  now  used,  two  centuries  and  a  half  after  its  first  introduction; 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  practice  of  it, — ^the  principle 
remains  unaltered. 

London  Bridgi  TVakr-ii'orks. 

In  l.')Sl,  or  1. '582,  Peter  Maurice,  a  Dutchman,  obtained  a  lease  of 
the  City  of  the  first  arch  of  London  Bridge,  on  the  North  side,  and 
erected  a  water-wheel,  to  be  worked  by  the  tide,  and  a  set  of  force 
]mmps  to  raise  Thames  water  for  the  supply  of  the  neighbourhood. 
The  water  was  raised  to  the  top  of  a  wooden  building  I'Jo  feet  high, 
and  passed  from  thejice  through  pipes  to  supply  the  dwelling-houses 
in  Thames  Street,  New  Fish  .Sirei't  Hill,  and  Gracechurch  Street,  as 
far  as  a  Standard  on  Cornhill,  wliic'h  was  erected  in  the  middle  of  the 
street  where  the  four  ways  meet.  The  water  which  was  to  spare, 
after  supplying  the  beforenamed  streets,  flowed  from  the  Standard 
through  four  pipes  branching  to  Bishojisgate,  Aldgate,  the  Bridge, 
and  Wallbrook,  which  supplied  Ills  dwelling-houses  in  the  neighbour- 
hood, and  cleansed  the  gutters  in  these  streets.  The  site  of  the  Stan- 
danl  was  supposed  to  be  the  highest  ground  in  the  City.  The  (juantity 
of  water  raised  was  equal  to  about  3, 17o,0;tO  imperial  barrels  per 
annum,  or  an  average  ipiantity  of  2  Hi  gallons  per  minute,  or  about 
5ths  per  cent,  of  the  quantity  raised  by  the  water-works  for  the  sup])ly 
of  the  Metropolis  at  present.  There  were  111  pumps  worked  by  this 
wheel,  each  7  inches  diameter  ami  30  inches  stroke.  Mr.  Smeaton 
ascertained  from  registers  that  the  juimps  made  3025  strokes  jier 
tide;  and,  as  there  are  70S  titles  per  annum,  (allowing  one-fifth  tor 
loss  through  the  valves,  according  to  Dr.  Desagulier's  statements,)  the 
quantity  raised  may  be  calculated.  Imin-ovemenfs,  however,  had  been 
made  before  the  above  purticnlars  of  the  pumps  were  imblished,  and 
therefore  the  quantity  given  will  be  the  extreme  probable  quantity 
raised  in  15S2. 

In  15s3  or  1581  machinery  was  fixed  in  the  second  arch. 
Improvements  were  maile  and  the  works  continued  in  Maurice's 
family  until  l7ol,  when  thpy  were  sold,  (after  an  engagement  had  been 
made  with  the  (,'ity  for  a  lease  of  the  fourth  arch,)  to  Richard  Soams, 
citizen  and  gohlsmith,  for  3i'>,000.'.  Soams  formed  a  company,  and 
divided  the  property  into  300  shares  of  5U0/.  each.  In  17iil  ma- 
chinery was  erected  in  the  third  arch;  in  17G7  machinery  was  erected 
in  the  lifth  arch,  and  alsn  in  the  second  arch  from  the  Surrey  side  lor 
the  supply  of  the  Borough.  The  large  wheel  erected  in  the  firth  arch 
by  Mr.  Smeaton  was  added  in  consequence  of  tlie  reduction  in  the  fall 
of  water  occasioned  by  enlarging  the  water-way  under  the  bridge 
when  two  arches  were"  thrown  into  one.  And  aliiuit  this  time  an  at- 
nuispheric  engine  was  eriM'tcd  of  tun  horses'  power  to  assist  the  wheels 
at  neap  tides,"  and  as  a  safeguard  in  case  of  fire  happening  in  the  City 
at  the  turn  of  the  tide,  when  the  wdieels,  of  course,  could  not  work. 

In  consequence  of  the  City  being  obliged  to  pen  up  the  water  to 
work  the  wheels,  according  to  an  Act  passed  in  175(1,  in  the  2'.lth  of 
George  11.,  the  blocking  up  of  t"lie  arches  became  such  a  nuisance  to 
the  navigation  of  the  Thames,  that  an  Act  was  obtained  in  1822,  the 
3.rd  of  George  IV.,  for  the  removal  of  the  London  Bridge  Water- 
w'orks,  and  they  were  removed  accordingly,  and  the  district  was  sup- 
lilied  bv  other  companies,  chieily  by  tlie  New  River  At  the  time  of 
the  des'truetion  of  these  works  the  number  of  tenants  was  10,4  17,  and 
the  quantity  of  water  raised  by  them  was  eq\ial  to  39,481,000  barrels 
per  annum,  or  2704  gallons  per  minute ;  showing  an  increase  ecpial  to 
twelve  times  tlie  quantity  liist  raised  in  1582  by  Peter  Maurice. 

In  1583  two  conduits  for  Thames  water  were  erected  near  to  Old 
Fish  Street  Hill. 

In  1594,  for  the  better  supply  of  the  City,  Bevis  Bulmar  erected  a 
large  horse-engine  and  four  pumps  at  Broken  Wharf,  to  raise  Thames 
water  for  the  inhabitants  of  Clieap.si<lp,  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  Fleet 
Street,  &c.,  which,  MaitlamI  says,  was  removed  previous  to  the  date 
of  his  worl<^  175H,  on  aceoimt  of  other  companies  being  able  to  supply 
water  at  a  cheaper  rate. 


12 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


New  Rirtr  Head  Wakr-mirks. 
Tli(>  £;ri'atest  and  most  splcmliil  work  tlva)  was  ever  iinilertaken  for 
\\\c  su|i"iily  of  a  iiioclern  city  with  water  was  roniinenced  in  James  the 
Kir-it's  rfip;ii. 

Ill  l(ior>,  the  oril  of  James  the  First,  tlio  sujipiy  of  water  was  fomiil 
t(i  lie  ina(lei|iiate  to  the  waiit.s  of  an  increased  population;  and  as  at 
lliat  time  the  discovery  of  the  steam-engine  had  not  heen  made,  it 
was  nocessaiT  to  seek  abroad  for  more  powerful  springs  of  water  than 
had  hitherto  been  discovered,  and  at  a  sullicieiit  elevation  to  allow  the 
water  to  run  to  London:  these  were  met  witli  in  the  neighlionrliood  of 
Hertford,  above  twenty  miles  north  of  London,  and  the  citizens  con- 
ceived the  vast  plan  of  bringing  these  springs  by  means  of  a  channel  to 
Islington,  and  for  that  purpose  obtained  an  Act  of  Parliament,  em- 
)i(i\\ering  them  to  bring  a  stream  (d' water  from  the  springs  of  Chad- 
well  ■.iiiA  Amwell  in  the  county  of  Hertford,  between  the  towns  of 
llerl ford  and  Ware  By  this  Art,  ■3rd  of  James  the  First,  they  were 
I'liipowered  to  make  a  "trench,  channel,  cut,  or  river"  ;  the  width  of 
the  ground  to  lie  purchased,  being  limited  to  10  feet ;  and  as  thesa 
springs  were  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  river  Lee,  and,  consequently, 
ran  into  the  said  river,  they  were  bound  to  comjiensate,  not  only  the 
owners  of  ])roperty  througli  whose  lands  the  river  was  to  be  carried, 
but  also,  "  all  such  persons  as  shall  sustain  any  damage,  loss,  or  hind- 
rance, in  their  mills  standing  upon  any  of  the  rivers  or  streams  from 
which  the  water  shall  be  taken  through  the  said  new  cut,  or  river." 
That  this  was  a  proviso  of  great  consequence  may  be  supposed,  when 
at  the  present  day  it  is  stated  that  one  of  the  springs  yields  a  quantity 
of  water  equal  to  about  3770  imperial  gallons  per  minute,  or  i\  mil- 
lions of  barrels  per  annum. 

Surveyors  were  employed  by  the  City  to  jdan  the  execution  of  the 
work;  but  it  was  discovered  that,  as  the  Act  limited  the  width  of  the 
property  to  be  purchased  to  10  feet,  it  would  be  impossible  to  convey 
the  waters  across  the  hills  and  valleys  to  London:  the  City  therefore 
applied  to  Parliament  again  the  following  year  for  power  to  make 
tunnels,  where  necessary,  either  to  be  laid  in  the  earth  or  formed  upon 
arches,  and  an  Act  was  passed  accordingly  in  the  4th  of  James  the 
First.  Even  with  these  additional  powers  the  course  of  the  river  was 
extremely  circuitous,  being  above  4U  miles  in  length. 

Notwithstanding  the  powers  which  had  been  obtained,  it  appears 
that  the  work  was  not  executed  until  some  years  after. 

In  ItJOS  .Sir  Hugh  Myddleton,  citizen  ;mil  goldsmitli,  offered  at  his 
own  charge  to  carry  the  Acts  of  James  into  execution;  and  to  this 
great  and  enterprising  man  were  the  inhabitants  of  the  Metropolis  in- 
debted for  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  that  conld  be  conferred  upon 
any  city. 

In  IblO  the  citizens,  by  an  Act  of  Common  Council,  made  over  their 
powers  to  Sir  Hugh  Myddleton;  and  in  1G12  this  Act  was  confirmed 
by  an  indenture. 

The  work,  however,  appears  to  have  been  commenced  in  1608,  and 
was  completed  in  1(>13. 

Maitlan<l  states  that  Mr.  Henry  Mills,  the  then  engineer  to  the  Com- 
pany, measured  the  length  of  the  river  accurately  in  1723,  and  found 
il  to  be  3SJ  miles  and  Hi  poles,  to  which  it  was  reduced  by  the  con- 
traction of  its  sinuosities  above  two  miles. 

That  there  were  215  bridges  over  il,  and  that  it  was  carried  over 
two  valleys  in  wooden  troughs  lined  with  lead,  one  at  Bush-hill,  being 
GliO  feet  long  and  30  feet  high  ;  and  the  other  at  Ilighburv,  402  feet 
long  and  17  feet  high.  He'fiirtlier  says,  "As  this  New  River  is  in 
some  ])laces  wafted  over  hills  and  vales,  so  in  others,  mole-like,  it 
forces  its  way  through  subterraneous  pass;iges,  and  arriving  at  the 
place  unjustly  called  its  Head,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Islington  'tis 
ingulfed  by  5s  main  pipes  of  bores  of  7  incdies  ;  w  herebv  'tis  conveyed 
into  the  several  streets,  lanes,  \:c.  of  the  City  and  suburbs  of  London, 
to  the  great  convenience  and  use  of  the  inhabitants,  who,  by  small 
leaden  pipes  of  half  inch  bore,  have  the  water  brought  into  their 
houses;"  the  number  of  tenants  amounting  in  I75(;  to  3o,liOO. 

It  was  o|)ened  and  the  water  admitted  into  the  basins  at  the  Ne\V 
River  Head  at  Michaelmas,  1013,  with  great  (loiii]!  on  the  day  that 
Sir  Thomas  Myddleton,  brother  to  Hugh,  was  elei  ti-il  Loril  Mayor. 

In  11)19  a  charter  of  incoporation  was  granted  by  James  I.  to  Sir 
Hugh  Myddleton,  citizen  and  goldsmith,  in  conjui'iction  with  other 
wealthy  citizens,  and  they  were  styled  "  the  (jov'ernor  and  Company 
of  the  Xeu  River  Ijiought  from  Chadwell  and  Amwell  to  London."  It 
empowered  them  to  improve  the  river,  to  prevent  nuisances  being 
committed  therein,  vndtr  ptnally  of  the  King's  dinyltdnmr,  subject  to 
the  laws  for  the  contenmers  of  the  King's  authority ;  ■mu\,  iiiidtr  tlic 
samepinal/y,  all  other  parties  were  prohibited  bringing  water  for  the 
supply  of  the  Cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  and  the  Borough  of 
Southwark,  without  a  licence  from  the  Governor  und  Company  of  the 
Kew  River. 


The  King  subscribed  towards  the  undertaking,  and  was  thereby  en- 
titled to  ;i  moiety  of  the  profits.  The  work  was  said  to  have  cost 
500,00(1/.:  the  capital  was  divided  into  72  shares,  of  which  the  King 
had  3li ;  but  so  poorly  did  the  scheme  answer  at  first,  from  ignorance 
of  the  gre;it  advantages  that  the  Metropolis  \vo\dd  derive  from  this 
splendid  work,  that  .Sir  Hugh  Myddleton,  who  had  spent  the  whole  of 
his  fortune,  was  ruined,  and  the  proprietors  did  not  for  30  years  di\  ide 
more  than  5/.  per  share,  or  about  Is.  f>d.  per  cent.  The  King,  how- 
ever, who  was  entitleil  to  a  moiety,  relinipiished  his  share,  reserving 
only  .500/.  per  annum  out  of  it.  Although  the  King's  share  was  in 
private  hands,  they  took  no  part  in  conducting  the  aHairs  of  the  Com- 
pany. 

Previous  to  the  year  1738  the  supply  from  the  springs  was  tound  to 
be  insufiicient,  and  arrangements  were  made  w  ith  the  trustees  of  the 
river  Lee,  to  enable  the  New  River  Company  to  abstract  water  from 
the  said  river.  This  was  done,  first  by  pipes,  ;ind  afterwards  by  a  cut 
and  trough  into  the  New  River,  the  dimensions  of  which  wen;  ileter- 
mined  by  Act  of  Parliament,  passed  in  1738,  in  the  12th  year  of  the 
reign  of  George  the  Second. 

This  supply,  however,  was  not  found  to  be  suHicient,  although  e(ju.d 
in  the  aggregate  to  nearly  17  millions  of  gallons  per  diem,  or  nearly 
172  milli(ms  of  barrels  (ler  annum;  for  in  Is22,  when  the  New  River 
Company  undertook  to  supjily  the  London  Bridge  Water-works  dis- 
tricts, it  was  one  of  the  conditions  that  they  shoidd  have  a  steam-en- 
gine to  pump  from  the  Thames,  in  case  of  failure  in  the  supply  of  the 
New  River,  occasioned  by  frost  or  draught ;  and  a  100-horse  power 
engine  was  accordingly  erected  at  Broken  Wharf. 

Objections  having  been  made  of  late  years  to  the  water  occasional  I  y 
raised  by  this  engine  from  the  Thames,  and  to  the  exposed  state  of 
the  New  River,  ;illowing  boys  to  bathe  in  it,  ;ind  other  nuisances;  the 
Company,  upholding  the  character  for  enterprise  which  was  bequeathed 
to  them  by  the  great  founder  of  their  works,  are  now  applying  to  Par- 
lianu^nt  for  powers  to  improve  their  supply,  by  relinquishing  their 
station  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  and  in  lieu  thereof,  raising  water 
from  the  river  Lee;  and  also  by  fencing  in  the  New  River  to  jirevent 
nuisances  being  committed  tlierein. 

(  To  be  coiilinmd.) 


BRITISH  MUSEUM.— No.  V. 

(From  the  Times.) 
Egyptian  Antiquities. 

The  collection  of  anticpiities  in  the  great  saloon  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, unconnected  with  the  edifices  of  which  thev  formed  part,  to  the 
artist  are  comparatively  useless.  The  monstrosities  they  represent 
can  neither  excite  his  emulation,  nor  improve  his  taste  ;  while  to  the 
general  visitor  they  are  only  regarded  as  matters  of  curiosity  :  he  lin- 
gers round  the  mutilated  blocks  of  granite,  in  vain  endeavours  to  find 
the  meaning  of  the  strange  and  luieouth  figures  he  sees  so  innumerably 
engraved  upon  them;  on  turning  to  the  pages  of  the  synopsis,  he 
simply  finds  the  nanu>s  of  Amenothoph,  of  Raineses,  of  llojith,  of 
Shishak,  or  of  Pthanenoph,  and  his  curiosity  remains  unsatisfied.  A 
short  and  more  particular  description  of  some  of  the  most  important 
may  not  be  unacceptable. 

In  the  central  room  a  c;ise  has  lately  been  opened,  in  which  are  two 
figures,  apparently  designed  to  represent  a  mother  and  daughter.  In 
beauty  of  design  and  execution  they  are  hardly  surpassed,  it  equalled, 
by  any  in  the  collection ;  they  seem  to  belong  neither  to  the  temple 
nor  the  tondi,  and,  whatever  they  may  he  called,  possess  all  the  ap- 
pearance of  family  portraits.  They  are  sitting  on  a  couch,  the  legs  of 
which  terminate  in  lion's  paws,  ;ind  possess  more  of  the  Greek  than 
Roman  fashion;  the  height  of  the  elder  figure  is  5  feet  0  inches,  that 
of  the  younger  5  feet  2  inches ;  in  the  right  hand  of  the  mother,  which 
is  extended  downwarils,  is  the  mysterious  instrument  resembling  a 
key,  called  the  "Ian,"  which  is  commonly  a  mark  of  the  priesthood  ; 
the  other,  which  is  singular  in  Egyptian  sculpture,  is  placed  upon  the 
daughter's;  the  faces  of  both  are  handsome,  that  of  the  youngest 
miglit  be  lliought  beautiful;  the  exjiression  of  innocence  and  modesty 
is  finely  pourtrayed  ;  the  eyes  are  large,  the  lips  Imve  nothing  of  the 
Ethio))ian  character,  the  mouth  is  beautifully  shaped,  the  nose  small 
and  delicately  formed,  and  happiness  is  thrown  over  the  countenance  ; 
the  figure  is  slender,  the  shaiie  of  the  bosom  and  shoulders  perfect  ; 
the  hair,  which  is  in  u  thousand  curls,  covers  the  ears,  and  on  the  fore- 
head is  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  tiara  ;  the  dress  descends  nearly  to 
the  ancle,  and  is  intended  to  represent  the  finest  muslin ;  around  the 
edges  of  which  is  m  edging  apparently  of  lace ;  it  is  crossed  over  the 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


13 


breast,  and  passes  through  a  ring,  from  which  is  suspended  an  amulet 
in  shape  like  a  cross ;  the  feet  are  bare,  the  hand  and  arm  perfect.    A 
great  likeness  is  observable   in  the  faces  of  both  the  figures,  but  the 
lips  of  the  elder  are  thicker,  and  the  nose  and  face  are  altogether  more 
Egyptian;  the  hair  of  the  latter  is  also  curled,  but  is  not  so  thick  as 
that  of  the  yovniger,  and  the  ears  are  shown,  in  which  are  earrings ; 
the  ilress,  which  is  much  shorter,  is  not  so  full  over  the  person,  but 
equally  tine  in  the  texture ;  on  the  feet  are  sandals,  the  fastenings  of 
which  are  nunutely  executed,  and  are  entirely  diH'erent  from  the  Greek 
or  Roman  style.     Some  remains  of  colours  are  to  be  observed  on  the 
dress,  blue  and  red.     There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  hieroglyphical 
inscription  on  it.     Innnediately  under  the  columns  which  separate  tlie 
saloons  are  two  colossal  lions  which  were  given  by  Lord  Prudhoe ; 
they  are  of  red  Egyptian  granite ;  on  each  are  two  tablets  or  car- 
touches, on  which  the  learneil   hare  read  the  names  of  Amenothoph, 
the  second  and  third;  there  are  also  on  them  two  other  tablets,  the 
characters  of  which  Ir.ive  not  yet  been  ilecipliered  ;  they  were  brought 
from  Nubia,  from  Delphi,  MO  miles  beyond  the  Cataract.     The  atti- 
tuile  which  is  given  them,  although  from  the  locality  whence  they 
wore  removed  evidently  betokens  their  great  antiquitv,  is  more  true 
to  nature  than  in  the  generality  of  similar  figures  of  Egyptian  (h^sign  ; 
one  is  lying  on  the  right,  and  the  other  on  its  left  side  ;  the  right  fore 
leg  in  one  is  under  the  body,  all  but  the  [law ;  the  left  is  stretched 
across  the  chest,  and  the   paw,  tinned  flat  down,  rests  on  that  of  the 
right,  the  under  of  which  is  turned  upwards;  thus  the  two  paws  meet 
like  two  hands  when  brought  flat  together :  the  eves  are  very  long, 
and  have  nuich  resemblance  to  those  of  Egyptian  human  statues.  There 
are  two  small  lion  sphinxes  which  much  resemble  these ;  they  were 
found  by  Captain  Caviglia  when  he  uncovered  the  sphinx  of  the  Py- 
ramiils,  in  a  small  temple,  placed  between  its  legs  ;  they  are  of  soft 
calcareous  stonc^  and  have  been  painted  red ;  their  length  is  about  aU 
inches  ;  one  has  a  head  in  the  style  of  the  sphinx,  and  on  a  plinth  are 
some  figures,  which  are  no  part  of  the  original  design,  they  are  not 
hieroglyphics.     Of  the  other,  the  lower  part  of  the  face  is  gone  ;  this 
has  also  a  low  head-dress,  and  a  mane  carved  in  lines  down  the  breast, 
and  wliat  is  singular,  neither  of  them  possesses  much  of  the  Egyi>tian 
character,  though  found  in  such  a  situation.     No.  1 1  is  the  figure  of  a 
liawkheaded  spliinx,  which  was  found  by  Belzoni  at  Ipsamboul,     The 
ram's  head  in  this  room,  which  formed  the  head  of  a  colossal  sphinx, 
was  taken  from  the  avenue  at  Carnac,  and  is  of  soft  calcareous  stone ; 
the  face  is  3  feet  0  inches  in  length,  and  the  horn  in  the  curve  4  feet 
11  inches,  the  tip  of  which  is  broken  off;  on  the  top  of  the  head  is  an 
oblong  hole,  44   inches  by  4  deep.     From  the  spirit  shown  in  the 
sculpture  of  this  head,  as  also  in  those  of  the  lions,  it  is  to  be  seen 
that  the  Egyptians  excelled  far  more  in  their  delineation  of  animals 
than  of  the  human  form  ;  that  hardness  and  inanimation,  which  is  the 
characteristic  of  the  latter,   is  not  to  be  complained  of  in  the  other. 
What  was  the  origin  of  the  sphinx,  and  they  are  found  in  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  wdiat  mystery  was  hidden  in  so  strange  a  shape,  ami 
still  wrapped  in  obscurity,  the  general  opinion  of  antiquaries,  that  a 
lion's  head,  united  to  a  woman's  body,  was  to  denote  the  rise  of  the 
Nile,  when  the  sun  is  in  tlie  signs  of  Leo  and  Virgo,  will  not  suit  those 
witli  a  male  head  or  a  ram's  head.     Winkleman  thinks  the  Andro- 
sphinx  typifies  the  male  and  female  principles  of  worship  united  in 
one  form,  and  it  is  so  found  in  India;  the  (jreek  sphinx  was  a  female 
and  a  lion ;  the   Egyptian  and  Jewish,  a  lion  with  a  man's  head ;  in 
Arracan,   it  is  a  female  ;  in  Java,  half  a  woman  and  half  an  elephant ; 
and  in  hidia  the  fourth  incarnation  of  Vishnu  is  a  man  lion.     Tliere 
are  in  this  room  two  obelisks  of  black  marble ;  they  are  the  only  ones 
in  the  Museum  ;  the  one  on  the  right  as  you  enter  is  that  mentioned 
by  Niebur   in  his   travels;  it  has   been  broken  into  two  pieces  ;  they 
are  now  together;  the  lower  part,  which  is  perfect,  is  about  S  feet  in 
height ;  it  was  found   fixed  into  the  side  of  a  doorway  of  a  house   in 
Cairo,  and  the  broken  part  ser\  ed  for  a  sill ;  the  north  side  has  a  car- 
touche under  the  usual  symbol  of  the  goose  and  dise,  and  another  per- 
fect, supposed  to  contain  the  name  ;  they  are  repeated  on  the  oijjiosite 
side,  and  nowhere  else  ;  the  hieroglyphics  on  the  north  and  south  sides 
are  the  same;  those  on  the  east  and  west  are  different,  but  resemble 
eacli  other ;  the  first  are  much  better  executed  than  tlie  other ;  the 
bird  is  perhaps  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  sculpture  found  in  Egypt ; 
the  arch  on  which  it  is  chisseled  out  is  rounded  with  great  skill ;  the 
shadow  thrown  by  the  edges  formed  by  the  erasion  in  the  stone,  added 
to  the  shadow  cast  from  the  rounded  pait  on  the  deep  incision,  gives 
a  line  relief  to  the  lighter  and  higher  jiarts ;  the  feathers  of  the  wing 
are  also  beautifully  raised,  and  the  eye  is  well  delineated.     The  one 
opposite,  which  is  about  the  same  size,  is  not  so  well  executed  ;  it  has 
the  same  cartouche  cut  on  the  four  sides  ;  the  hieroglyphics  are  the 
same  on  both  of  these  obelisks,  but  differently  placed  ;  the  sistrum  is 
shown  on  both,  and  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  proper  name  on  the 
Alexandrian  sarcophagus,  as  also  the  pveuomen,  is  the  same  which 


appears  on  these.  It  was  the  opinion  of  Denon  that  obelisks  and  gate- 
ways  which  are  often  found  insulated  before  the  temples  were  votive 
orterings  to  the  collective  gods.  The  colossal  head  on  which  is  the 
mitre,  called  the  Teshr,  was  found  by  Bel/.oni  at  Cainac,  east  of  the 
Nile;  it  is  of  red  granite,  and  is  highly  polished,  and  of  much  larger 
dimensions  than  the  one  opposite,  called  the  lesser  Memnon;  the  face 
has  much  more  of  the  Ethiopian  character,  and  does  not  possess  the 
softness  which  is  seen  in  the  other,  and  is  evidently  of  an  earlier  date; 
the  height  from  the  top  of  the  mitred  crown  is  It)  feet;  the  beard-case 
and  left  ear  only  are  destroyed  ;  the  colossal  arm  lying  near  it  belonged 
to  this  statue,  and  from  its  being  straight  and  in  a  falling  position 
shows  it  must  have  been  an  upright  one  ;  in  the  hand  are  the  remains 
of  a  staff  or  sceptre.  The  cap  is  fastened  with  bands  under  the  chin. 
From  the  position  of  the  arm  and  head  its  height  must  have  been  at 
least  2(i  feet,  and  it  is  observable  in  this,  as  in  almost  all  the  Egyptian 
figures,  that  the  ear  is  placed  too  high  on  the  head. 

The  colossal  figure  marked  21  was  discovered  in  the  ruins  of  a 
temple  behind  the  Colossi  at  Thebes,  between  the  Memnonium  and 
Medinet  Abu  ;  it  is  an  exact  model  of  the  great  figure  of  iMemnoii  at 
Thebes,  the  exact  height  of  which  is  7o  feet;  it  is  in  a  sitting  posi- 
tion, and  has  a  close-fitting  cap  on  the  head,  on  the  front  of  which  is 
the  as|)ic  serpent.  The  beard  and  lower  part  of  the  chin  are  broken. 
The  stone  is  a  breschia,  and  Uioks  black,  but  it  is  a  dark  gray,  and  has 
bright  yeUovv  particles  in  it,  and  is  the  only  statue  of  that  kind  of 
stone  in  the  collection.  The  hair  is  curiously  gathered  behind,  and, 
from  a  number  of  radii  collected  in  a  convex  form,  is  gathered  into  a 
long  tail ;  it  has  a  nether  garment,  of  corduroy  appearance,  attacheil 
to  a  belt  round  the  waist,  and  overlaps  in  parts  on  the  thighs,  on  which 
are  exteuiled  the  hands,  which  are  b  idly  executed.  At  the  back  ot 
the  throne  is  a  S(|uare  colunm,  and  the  cartouches  there  inscribed  con- 
tain, as  we  are  told,  the  name  of  Amenothoph  or  Jlemnon,  being  the 
s;ime  as  those  on  the  Thebau  colossus. 

A  colossal  head  of  Jupiter  Amnion,  of  white  stone,  marked  30,  is 
finely  executed  ;  it  was  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Salt,  found  by  IJelzoni, 
at  Carnac.  Fart  of  tlie  face  is  destroyed,  but  as  it  remains,  the  difi'e- 
rence  of  expression  observed  on  viewing  it  is  remarkable.  In  the  iront 
it  possesses  the  general  character  of  Egyptian  composure ;  on  the 
northern  side  it  is  grave  and  severe,  and  on  the  eastern  it  has  the 
same  smile  as  is  seen  on  the  face  of  the  lesser  Memnon. 

Another  head  of  ei[ual  size,  on  the  left  of  the  room  as  you  enter,  is 
the  only  Egyptian  one  in  tlie  Museum  on  which  the  beard  is  seen ;  in 
all  the  others  it  is  placeil  in  a  sort  of  case,  but  here  it  is  sculptured  on 
the  stone  ;  flat  lappets  descend  on  each  side  of  the  head,  the  breadth 
of  which  are  of  the  same  size  as  the  fringy  beard.  The  stone  of 
which  it  is  forineil  is  a  brownish  breschia,  peculiarly  diflicult  to  cut. 
The  great  sarcojiliagus  on  the  left,  near  the  entrance,  given  by  Colonel 
Vyse  in  ls3'.1,  is  of  red  breschia,  and  is  well  deserving  inspection. 
The  hieroglyphic-i  are  highly  finished ;  they  are  not  so  numerous  as 
those  on  the  tomb  of  Alexander,  or  the  one  opposite  called  the  Lovers' 
Fountain,  but  of  better  execution.  It  has  a  lid  of  circular  form,  which 
tits  with  a  ledge;  there  is  a  band  of  hieroglyphtcs  on  each  side :  in 
each  band  are  12  figures  4  inches  in  length,  all  different,  and  divided 
from  each  otlier  by  a  tablet  of  inscriptions;  11  of  these  figures  are 
faced  by  one  at  the  end,  a  band  of  hieroglyphics  reaches  halfway 
along  the  cover,  another  crosses  this,  and  then  there  are  G  more,  3  of 
which  are  but  half  the  length,  to  give  room  for  3  figures  of  mummies, 
of  which  there  was  probably  3  within  the  monument.  Above  this 
there  is  a  face  deeplv  cut,  the  features  of  which  are  completely  of 
the  negro  character.'  It  has  the  usual  "oskh"  or  cunicular  tippet 
worn  round  the  neck.  The  length  is  9  feet,  and  the  breadth  3  and  a 
half.  The  colour  of  the  stone  forming  the  top  is  much  lighter  than 
the  lower  jiart  of  the  sarcophagus.  No.  lU,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  tomb  of  Alexander,  consists  of  a  single  block  of  stone 
ten  feet  in  lei  gtii,  four  in  height,  and  about  five  in  breadth.  It  is  ;i 
particular  kind  of  prismatic  congloinerite,  resembling  that  which  is 
uiRler  the  second  porphyry  formation,  and  is  entirely  covered  with 
hieroglyphics  in  lines.  '  On  his  death,  we  are  told  by  Curtius,  his 
body  was  enshrined  in  golden  chasework,  over  which  was  put  a  purple 
vestment,  and  then  his  armour:  on  his  arrival  at  Alexandria  it  was 
there  deposited,  but  whether  in  this  sarcopliagus  or  not  has  been  mat- 
ter of  dispute.  He  was  worshipped  as  the  thirteenth  god  of  the 
Egyptians ;  three  centuries  after  his  death  his  body  was  seen  by 
Augustus.  Tacitus  says  the  tomb  was  again  opened  by  Caligula,  and 
the  brea'st()late  taken  out  and  worn  by  him.  When  the  body  was  re- 
moved is  unknown,  but  the  Mahometans  had  always  revered  and  con- 
cealed this  sarcoghagus  from  the  Christians  till  seized  on  by  the 
Frencli. 

The  engraved  tablet  of  black  basalt,  called  "the  Rosetta-stone," 
the  "  criLV  antiquarionim,"  contains  three  inscriptions — one  in  hiero- 
glyphics, one  in  the  ancient  spoken  or  enchorial  language  of  Egypt, 


\4 


TFIE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Janvarv, 


ami  the  othor  in  (ireek.  The  lemniHi  liave  read,  that  Ihev  record  (lie 
scrvici's  whii-h  PlnhMuy  V.  li.iil  rendered  tu  hi^  [•unntry,  and  that  tlicy 
were  engraved  by  (lie  nrder  of  (lie  prie.tthdoil  assenihlCd  at  i\leinpiiis, 
tcir  (he  ]iiir|i(ise  (if  inveslinr;  him  wilh  the  ri'gal  piiwer';.  Till  the  clis- 
rovciy  of  this  sdmi-,  whieh  was  fmiiul  liy  (lie  Knnich  in  digging  (lie 
fomnhuion  of  Fui(  St.  Julian  a(  Uose(tii,  iio(nitlistandiiig  the  lahonvs 
of  Kireher  and  other*,  (he  iimumeralile  inseriplioiis  and  (he  monsd-nsi- 
(ies  which  are  found  engraved  or  p-,uii(ed  on  every  reli((  of  Egvpdaii 
aiitiipii(y  remained  matler  of  doiib(  and  wonder,  anil  were  veiled  in 
(he  darkness  of  eoiijecfure.  The  arrival  of  this  s(one  was  (herefore 
hailed  wilh  erpial  joy  by  (he  learned,  as  would  (he  reeoverv  of  the 
key  of  an  unpiukahle  Hraniali  by  its  unhappy  loser.  Upon  the  en- 
graving of  this  block  a  wondrous  system  has  been  raised,  wdiich,  if  i( 
is  |)erfecled,  is  destined  (o  enlighten  ns  in  "all  (he  wisdom  of  the 
lOgyptians,"  and  lay  open  (o  (he  inquiring  mind  of  the  l')th  ceiitnrv  all 
(lie  knowh'dge  uliieli  is  thonght  to  be  contained  in  (hose  inscriptions, 
(he  amoiiiU  of  which,  taken  Colleclively,  would  till  10,UOIJ  volumes. 
.Some  sliort  account  of  the  deciphering  syslem  pursued  mav  no(,  in 
connexion  with  (lie  whole  of  (he  Egyptian  monuments,  be  uuaccept- 
nble. 

The  first  author  who  meudons  the  writings  of  (he  Kgv))tians  says, 
they   had   two   kinds  of  characters,  one  called  sacred,   and  the  other 
popular;    but    he    does    not   say   that    (hey   had   any    allini(y   with 
each  other.     Diodorus  Siculiis  mentions  the  sauie,  with  (lie  addition 
that  (he  first  were  peculiar  (o  the  iiricsts,  and  (he  odier  was  taught  (o 
all.     Concise  as  (his  is,  it  is  all  the  inforinalion  (hese  authors  give. 
The  next  is  the  celebrated  passage  in  (he  works  of  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus,  in   which  (he  diirerent  kinds  of  writing  are  given  wi(h  con- 
siderable precision.     He  says  (here  were  three  kinds — (he  Epis(olo- 
graphic,  the  Hieratic  or  sacred,  and  (hinlly,  the  most  complete  of  all, 
(he  Hieroglyphic,  which  he  (ells  us  is  expressed  by  means  of  the  Hrs( 
or  iiiKial  element  of  words,  (hat  is,  by  reference  (o  (he  inidal  sounds 
of  words  uhiidi  deiiole  (hese  objec(s  in  (bespoken  language  of  the 
country.     I'pon  this  scanty  foundation  the  most  extraordinary  theories 
have  been  built  ;  (he  six  folios  of  Kircher,  according  (o  his  interpreta- 
tion   of  (he    hieroglypiiical    inscriplioiis,   which    succeeded     equalU' 
Wlielher  he  began  a(  the  beginning,  (he  middle,  or  a(  (he  end  of  (he 
text,  arc  found  to  be  tilled  with  (he  cabalistic  science  and  slrange  fan- 
cies of  a  refined  system  ofDaemonism.     The  Abbe  FInclie  has  disco- 
vennl  that  they  are  all  astronomical,  or  expressive  of  (he  doctrines 
connected  with  the  science  of  asth)noiny,  and  the  division  of  time  in 
(he  calendar  ;  and  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  *  L' Etude  dcs  Hiiro- 
gij/p/iiques,  publislied  at  Paris  in  Is  12,  found   in  the  inscription  on  the 
temple  at  Dendera  a  translation  of  (he  lOlKh  Psalm  of  Daviil,  a  foreign 
language,  which  most  likidy  the  inhabitants  of  the  country  never  un- 
derstood.     Count  Palin  has  persuaded  himself  that   the   hymns   of 
David  are  but  Hebrew  translations  of  (he  consecra(ed  rolls  of  Egypfian 
pa|iyrus.     All  these  fantastic  reveries  have,  however,  given  way  to  (he 
system  of  Dr.  Young,  the  invention  of  which  has  been  dispu(p.d  by  M. 
Chainpolliim  ;  he  followed  the  idea  of  Warburton,  (llal  (he  hieroglyphic 
or  sacred  ch.iracter,  was  not  so  called  because  peculiarly  appropriated 
(o  sacred  subjects,  but  that  they  constituted  a  written  language  appli- 
cable to  all  the  ])urposes  of  life,  that  (hey  were  not  used  to  represeii( 
things  or  ideas,   lm(   (hat  (hey  represen(ed  sounds  or  words,  (ha(  thev 
were  al|dlabetical,  and  (hat  they  exhibited  things  (U-  olijec(s,  (he  coin- 
mott  names  of  which  in  the  sjioken  language  began  with  (he  sounds  i( 
was  wisheil  to  express.     To  make   (his  more  intclligibli"  we  give   the 
lollowiMg  example  : — If  (here  was  no   other  manner  of  wriling  (ban  by 
pictunN,  or  symbols,  and  (he  spoken  language  of  England  (lie  same  as 
it  now  is,  and   it  was  required   to  write  the  name  of  James,  this   name 
being  a  mere  sound  could  not  lie  intimated  (o  any  one  by  a  picture  or 
symbol ;  but  if  it  was  nnderslood  (ha(  the  key  of  this  name  was  to  be 
obtained   by  reference  to   a  scries  of  picdires  of  familiar  objec(s,  the 
names  of  which  in  the  spoken  language  begun  with  the  sounds  which 
were  successively  to  be  expressed,  and  which  when  taken  togedier  in 
(hat  order  mnde  up  (he  name,  (bus,  for  the  soiinil  now  ex|iressed  by 
(he  letter  J  (he  figure  of  a  jug  or  jar  was  si'(  down,  for  an  A  an  ape  or 
an  accnn,  for  an  .Vl  a  man   or  a  mouse,   and   for  an  S  a  spear  or  a  sjiur; 
the  name  of  James  wimld  (hen  by  a  sort  of  symbolic  acrostic  be  inti- 
ma(t>d  (o  all  who  read  the  figures  in  the  spoken  language.     This  is  (lie 
basis   of  (he   principle   of  l_)r.  Young,  Do  Lacy,  and  Cbampollion,  and 
(he  literati  have  proceeded  upon  this  to  decipher  the  Egyptian  biero- 
glyphios.     To  what  extent  they  have  succeeded  yet  remains  a  ma((er 
of  doubt ;  but  in  consequence  (lie  visitor  to  the  Museum,  when  passing 
on  from  viewing  (he  dilapiila(ed  remains  of  Egyptian  scnl])ture  in  (In' 
lower   saloon,    regretdug   his   ignorance   of   the   strange  writing  and 
figures  on  all  <if  tbem  eiigrayeil,  is  agreeably  surprised  when  he  enters 
tlic  gallery  above  to  recover  his  mistake;   here  li(>  finds  all  is  known 
and  decipheve<l ;  he  reads  these  are  the  remains  ofPefaakims  siir- 
lll*nedO«kliouoiwn(ie,  Aviditor  of  the  Royal  palace;  that  the  next  is  j 


Panamoun,  iiriest  of  Animon ;  that  a  lady  lying  near  is  latsbabem, 
ilaugh(er  of  Pe(kons,  portet  of  Ainoun,  and  born  of  lamaak,  lady  of 
the  house;  he  is  sfartled  at  the  immorilKy;  (hat  another  is  I'ena- 
inaiim,  an  incense-bearer,  son  of  Ohnolie,  son  of  Hor  and  id'  Ijaenrow, 
daughter  ofSaklous;  and  he  supposes  that  want  of  space  has  alone 
prevented  a  full  account  of  (heir  lives  and  acdoiis,  easily  to  be  read  on 
(heir  insi'riptions,  from  being  given  in  the  synopsis ;  liiit  lie  will  find 
on  inquiry  tha(  serious  objecdons  may  bo  raisecf  even  to  (he  valiilKy 
of  (he  names  adached,  much  more  to  any  particular  account  of  (heir 
oflices  or  actions. 

All  (he  modern  expounders  of  hieroglyphics  hare  raised  the  struc- 
ture of  (heir  expositions  on  (he  (rilingual   inscripdon  seen   on  (his 
Rose((a  s(one,  tuid  jirincipally  depend  upon  it.     Dr.  Young,  (he  most 
celebrated  of  them  all,  did  not  begin  his  researches  till  after  its  dis- 
covery ;  he  knew  nothing  of  it,  but  from  (he  French  accoun(,  and  it  is 
upon  that  accounl   alone  (lia(    the   genuineness  of  the  inscripdon  de- 
pends ;  it  is  true  that  some  other  s(ones   with  tri|)lica(e  inscrijidons 
have  been  found,  but  (hat  would  be  (he    necessary  consequence  of  (he 
first  being  made ;  (he  size  and  nadire  of  all  of  them  evidently  show 
lha(  they  were  not  in  ancient  times  kept  concealed,  and  if  (hey  are  so 
ancient  and  genuine  as  we  are  to  believe,  why  did  not  the  Roman 
writers  go  at  once  to  these  inscriptions  scattered  about  the  country  (o 
interpret  that  which  they  all  regret  was  lost  ?     It  may  be  said  that  it 
would  be  almost   impossible  to  have  forged   the  inscriptions  on  (his 
stone,  it  would  only  have  made  (he  last  or  (ireek  one,  and  when  we 
look  at  the  manufacture  of  ancienf  E{ruscan  vases  and  cameos  in  S(af- 
fordshire,  the  (ricks  of  the  Parian  marbles,  (he  manuscripts  of  Shaks- 
peare,  (he  copies  of  Raphael,  and   read  (he  as(ounding  tale  (hat  Pro- 
fessor Hou((on,  of  the  Aledico  Hotanical  Socie(y,  produced  a  bulbous 
root  found  in  the  cranium  of  a  nuiminy,  in  a  situation  in  which  it  iiad 
probably  lain  2,dO'.)  years,  (hat  it  germinated  when  exposed  to  the  at- 
mosphere, though  w  hen  discovered  in  a  state  of  perfect  dryness,  and 
on  being  placed  in  the  ground  it  grew  wi(h  readiness  and  vigour,  and 
also  know   (hat  mummies  are  inanufac(ured   every  day,  and  consider 
(he  authority  on  which  it  rests,  (he  impossibility  of  this  monument  not 
being  genuine  is  very  diHiculf  (o  believe,     hi  Pompeii  ardcles  are 
Constantly  buried  to  he   found  when  wanted,   and   it  has  always  been 
observed  that  the  higher  the  rank  of  the  visitor  to  those  remains  the 
more   successful  is  he  in  his  antiquarian  sealch.     There  may  be  101) 
Rosetta  stones  discovered,  but  the  inore  that  are  found  the  more  difli- 
ciilt  it  is  to  account  for  the  ignorance  of  Clemens  and  others  on  the 
subject.     The  plan  both  of  ChampoUion  and  Young,  of  making  many 
phonetic  signs  for  one  letter,  will  make  them  speak  whatever  (he  ex- 
positor desires,  and  proves  that  arbilraiy  figures  which  are  not  hiero- 
glyphics may  lie  made  to  give  any  meaning  he  may  ])lease.     If  this 
inscription  on  the  Uosetta  stone  is  genuine,  why  did  not  Clemriis, 
who  livc'd  at  Alexandria,  go  to  it  (o  remove  his  ignorance,  which  the 
]iassage  in   his  work  on  the  subject   proves,   and  why  did  not  .Strabo 
also?     They  both  could  have  read  (he  Greek,  which  the  best  Scodis 
can  now   hardly  understand.     But  wliat  more  dearly  proves  tha(  (he 
meaning  of  (he  hieroglyphics  was  unknown  in  (he  Roman  times,  is  the 
fact,  that  one  of  the  hrst  emperors  otrered  a  reward  for  the  decipher- 
ing of  those  on  an  obelisk  he  brought  to  Rome.     The  ignorance  of 
Diodorus,  strabo,  and  Clemens  is  a  pre{ty  good  proof  that  the  inscrip- 
tions found  on  the  trilingual  stones  are  modern  f.dirications,  else  why 
are  so  few  found,  and  none  on  the  temples  and  statues  (hemselves? 
Whether  the   Fremdi  scavaiis  were  the   inventors  and  fabricators  is 
cerlainly  diflicuU  to   determine,  but  (ha(   is  far  more  likely  (ban  that 
the  authors  we  have  mentioned,  and  the  Roman  emperors,  should  have 
been  ignorant  whedier  hieroglyphics  were   in  use  in  their  (ime  or  not. 
Neidier  Sdabo  nor  Diodorus  says  tha(  (he  hieroglyphics  were  known 
in  (heir  day;    yc(  if  diey  had"  been,   why  have  not    (hose  authcu-s 
quoted   (hem  in  (heir  histories  of  the  Egyptian  mythology?     It  is 
more  than  probable  that  (hese  inscriptions  were  never  intended  to  be 
read  bu(   by  (hose  wllo  had  (he  tradition  of  their  meanings,  and  that 
the  priests   having  been  massacred  in  the  Persian  conrpiesl  by  Cam- 
byses,  that  (radidon  was  lost.     The  same  W'ould  have  been  the  case 
with  the  tradidonary  learning  of  (he  Maxicans  had  not  the  Spaniards 
preserved  it.     Ijoth  Dr.  Young  and  Clmnipollion  have  found  by  (heir 
process  (he  names  of  Roman  emiierors   on  the  same  monument  with 
(hose  of  (he  Pharaohs  and  Ptoloiuies,  in  situations  where  they  could 
not  have  been  erased.     How  can  the)-  account  (or  this  ?     If  the  names 
of  Ptolemy  and  Cleopa(r;\,  and   (he  Romans,  are  to  be  found  on  the 
buildings  and  obelisks  wriden  in  hieroglyphics,  of  course  they  could 
not  have  been  lost  in  (lie  time  of  Strabo  aiid  Clemens,  yet  any  one  who 
at(eii(ively  considers  the  passage  in  his  work,  and  that  passagi'  is  the 
foundation  of  all  modern  explicatiwi,  must  come  to  (he  conclusion  that 
the  obscurity  in  which   he    has   enwrapi)ed   it  was   purposely  done  to 
conceal  his  ignorance  of  that  whidi  he  pretended  to  descriVie. 

To  the  plan  of  Pr,  Young  and  other  learmnl  expositor?  of  jeading 


isiu.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


15 


tlie  liiciof^lypliics  l]y  .v|il>lying  llio  first  Icltors  oS  ligy|)ti;in  words  of 
the  iMinininii  vorn;Hiil,ir  tongue  now  in  nse  — viz.,  (lie  Coptic — it  would 
be-  salisl'iiclorv  to  imply  tluit  it  mnst  always  liave  remained  the  same, 
or  nearlv  so.  It  is  (rue,  we  are  told  nodiing  changes  in  the  East;  bu(, 
no(wi(hs(anding,  it  is  impossible  not  (o  believe  but  (hat  tongue,  ad- 
niKd'd  (o  have  always  been  the  spoken  language  oldie  eiiuntry,*l);^ss- 
ing  through  the  crucible  of  conquest  by  (lie  F.iliiopian,  (lie  Shepherd 
Kings,  (he  Israelites,  the  Persians,  the  Greeks,  (he  Romans,  and  the 
Saracens,  during  a  period  of  3,1)00  years,  nuis(  have  been  so  dislocated 
and  altered  as  to  have  rendered  it  impossible  to  read  (he  symbolic  or 
liiemglvphic  language  of  Sesosfris  in  the  Coptic  or  the  oldest  Coptic 
books  now  extant. 


RAILWAY  CURVES. 

I\  compliance  wi(h  (lie  request  of  several  members  of  the  profes- 
sion, we  nave  carefully  perused  (he  (Munninnications  of  our  corres- 
pondi'n(s  on  the  subject  of  railway  curves,  and,  after  a  careful  exa- 
minalion  of  (he  various  methods  (herein  |Ud]iosed,  we  cannot  but 
concur  in  their  o|)iiiiou,  that  the  quesdon  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily 
seKled.  We  therefore  engaged  Mr.  Arislides  iMornay,  a  gentle- 
man well  known  for  the  accuracy  of  his  calculations,  to  construct  a  set 
of  (allies  to  facilKate  the  execudon  of  a  jilan  which  we  shall  luesenlly 
explain,  after  having  ottered  a  few  remarks  on  the  pro|iosals  contained 
in  the  above  mentioned  coinmnnications,  which  were  published  in  the 
Journal  during  the  past  year. 

In  (he  January  number  Mr.  Murray,  under  the  signature  of  "  A  Sub.," 
lunposes  as  an  improTement  upon  (lie  system  of  running  directly  from 
a  s(raiglit  line  to  a  curve  of  Ih,  -,  or  -'i  miles  radius,  that  a  curve  of 
y,  4  or  .5  miles  radius  for  a  short  dis(ance  should  be  made  use  of  to 
ooimect  them.  He  adds  that  ludjectiles  (where  the  resistance  is 
equal)  assume  the  parabolic  curve,  to  which  the  plan  he  proposes  is 
an  ajiproxiniation. 

This  observation  about  projectiles  is  projierly  answered  in  the 
unmber  for  March,  by  "R.  W.  T.,"  who  also  justly  observes  that  "if 
the  curvature  is  not  equable,"  which  would  be  the  case  if  Mr.  Mur- 
ray's advice  were  followed,  "some  parts  of  it  must  be  sliarper  than  if 
the  same  radius  were  used  all  through," 

In  the  Ajiril  number  Mr.  Ely  denies  the  correctness  of  "  R.W.  T.'s" 
statemen(,  on  the  ground  that  Mr.  Murray's  object  is  to  "  begin  curving 
sooner,  and  make  the  radii  of  portions  of  the  curve  ii-m/Zt/."  This 
objecdon  would  onlyob(ain,  if  the  object  were,  besides  beginning  vvidi 
a  curve  of  greater  radius,  to  terminate  also  with  a  curve  of  greater 
radius,  which  would  join  the  straight  continuation  of  the  line  farther  on 
dian  tile  single  curve  of  uniform  radius  originally  su|iposed.  This 
however  was  not  Mr.  Murray's  iutendou,  as  is  evident  from  his  own 
iliagram  and  ilescription  in  the  Noveinlier  luiiuber.  He  has  assumed 
a  certain  point  to  be  arrived  at,  without  considering  diat  the  direction 
of  die  continuation  of  the  railway  is  also  determined  before-hand. 
These  two  conditions  being  given,  it  is  obvious  that  (he  junction  must 
either  be  ell'ected  by  means  of  an  uniform  curve  of  a  radius  deter- 
mined by  the  given  circumstances,  or  by  commencing  the  curve  sooner 
w  itii  a  longer  radius,  and  terniiuatiug  w  ith  another  of  shorter  radius. 

Widi  rl'spect  to  the  queries  of"" An  Assistant  Engineer,"  in  the 
April  number,  it  appears  Mr.  Brulf  has  not  exactly  comprehended  the 
lirs(,  or  at  least  has  not  expressed  hiinsclf  very  cleady.  If  the  case  is 
as  represented  in  "An  Assistant  Engineer's"  diagram,  the  solution  of 
his  problem  is  impossible :  it  woukl  be  necessary  to  use  a  curve  of 


A" 


A 


B" 


greater,  instead  of  less  radius  to  join  the  two  given  curves.  It  would, 
however,  be  better,  if  those  two  curves  are  indispensable,  to  connect 
them  by  a  tangent,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Bruff ;  or,  if  the  two  given 
curves  could  be  altered,  it  would  be  still  better  (o  increase  tlieir  radii, 
so  as  to  make  tliem  meet,  and  form  an  S  curve  together.  We  con- 
sider this  far  better  tlian  tire  plan  proposed  by"R.W.  T.,"  in  the 
September  number,  for  two  reasons;  Jint,  because  the  line  is  shorter, 
and  secondly,  because  the  curves  are  not  so  sharp.  If  it  were  desired 
to  begin  one  of  the  curves  farther  up  on  the  tangent,  as  recommended 
by  "  R,  W.  T.,"  the  distance  to  be  gone  uijon  the  tangent  may  be 
found  much  more  easily,  and  with  mathematical  correctness  by  a 
method  which  would  iratnediately  suggest  itself  to  any  one  at  all  con- 
versant \^  ith  geometry. 


A' 


We  now  come  (n  the  second  query,  the  solution  of  which  is  (he 
main  object  of  these  remarks:  viz.  "Which  is  (he  most  correct  mode 
of  seldng  out  railway  curves  ?"  Mr.  Foster  Charlton's  method,  re- 
commended by  Mr.  BruH',  and  extracted  from  "  Weale's  ScientiHc  Ad- 
vertiser," is  correct;  but  we  do  not  think  i(  |nai'(icable,  as  it  is  neces- 
sary to  construct  a  triangle  of  which  the  lengths  of  (he  sides  are 
given,  which  operation  must  be  exceedingly  ditlicult  when  two  of  the 
sides  are  several  chains  iii  length.  "  B.  W.  T.'s"  method,  giviui 
in  the  May  number  of  our  journal,  is  incorrect,  and  is  not  sulliciently 
explained  to  enable  any  one  to  put  it  in  practice. 

The  mode  described  by  "  .Surveyor,"  in  our  June  number  is  a  correct 
one,  and  [lartly  (he  same  as  that  we  ju'opose  ;  but  the  measurement  of 
the  angle  contained  between  (he  two  straight  Hues  to  be  connected  is 
perfectly  unnecessary,  and  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  pre[)ared 
with  a  practical  mode  of  laying  off  the  second  tangent. 

The  method  ilescribed  by  our  correspondent  "  Jl."  in  tlie.July  num- 
ber, as  that  usually  adopted,  besides  not  being  matlicmalically  correct, 
must  be  attended  with  much  dillicnlty  in  practice,  on  account  of  the 
necessity  of  coiistrncling  triangles  whose  sides  are  given;  but  that 
proposed  as  a  substitute,  aldiongli  perfectly  correct,  if  the  work  is 
accurately  performed,  is  nearly,  if  not  quite  as  ditficult  of  execution  as 
the  former. 

It  only  remains  for  us  now  to  explain  (he  method  we  propose  for 
setting  out  railway  cur\es,  which  we  think  will  be  found  (o  be  appli- 
cable in  all  cases,  and  generally  easier  of  execution  than  any  other 
correct  plan.  The  explanation  is  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  accom- 
panying diagram. 

Let  A"  A  be  (he  direction  of  the  railway  before  curving,  and  A  (he 
|)oint  at  wlii(  h  the  curve  is  to  conunence.  Produce  A"  A  to  A',  mak- 
ing AA'  any  convenient  length,  and  at  the  point  A'  erect  the  perpen- 
dicular (A' B  or  offset)  on  the  line  AA',  which  is  a  tangent  to  the 
required  curve,  and  make  A'  B  (the  oltset)  equal  to  the  length  given 
in  the  column  u  of  the  accompanying  tables  ;  B  w  ill  be  a  point  of  the 
curve.  In  the  figure  we  siqipose  the  radius  of  the  curve  to  be  a 
quarter  of  a  mile,  or  20  chains,  and  the  tangent  AA',  5  chains.  The 
table  gives  A' B=l);5'.")  links.  Eroin  the  ])oiut  A,  measure  on  the  tan- 
gent AA'  a  distance.  AI3"  equal  (o  the  length  found  iu  the  colunni  /  of 
the  table,  v\hich  is  in  (lie  present  case  2  chains  .")4  links,  and  through 
the  points  B"  and  H  (already  found),  draw  the  straight  line  B"  B  B', 
making  15  B',  which  is  a  new'  tangent  to  the  curve,  equal  to  A  A',  or 
any  other  convenient  length  ;  set  off  B'C  at  right  angles  to  B  B',  and 
ecpial  to  A'  B  if  B  B'  was  taken  equal  to  A  A',  otherwise  equal  to  the 
length  given  in  the  column  u  under  the  length  of  tangent  equal  to  BB'. 
C  will  be  another  point  of  the  curve,  and  by  proceeding  iu  the  same 
manner  we  can  determine  as  many  ])oints  as  may  be  desired.  By 
taking  on  anyone  of  the  tangents,  such  as  A  A',  a  number  of  inter- 
mediate points,  ((,  n',  a",  so  that  Aa,  Ao',  Aa"  shall  be  equal  to 
lengths  of  tangents  given  in  the  table,  the  corresponding  oll'sets,  ali, 
u'li',  <i"b",  which  are  given  iu  the  colniun  o  under  the  resjiective 
lengths  of  tangents,  will  uerve  to  determine  as  many  intermediate 
points  cd' the  curve,  h,  h',  b",  situated  be(v\een  the  points  A  and  B.  In 
the  ligurc  we  have  taken  B  B'  eipial  to  A  A',  or  5  chains,  but  the  next 
tangent,  C  C,  for  want  of  room,  has  been  made  only  3  cliaius  long,  so 
that  the  offset  CD  is  only  22'ii  links,  as  we  find  in  the  column  v  under 
the  length  of  tangent  3  chains.  The  portions  Aa,  BP  and  Cy  have 
been  made  each  2  chains,  (ur  which  length  of  tangent  we  find  the  oll'set 
=  10  links,  and  the  other  distances  Pc,  P'c',  P"c",  &c.  having  been 
taken  each  ecjual  to  1  chain,  the  tangents  are  3  and  i  chains,  and  the 
offsets  22-G  and  -10- 1  links. 


'^^^ 


10 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


rjANUARY 

'-  > 


TA13LE  1— 

-CURVE.S  FROM 

5  CHAINS  TO  >sO 

CHAINS,  OR  ONE  MILE 

RADIU.'^. 

■a 

o  o; 

3  U 

Lkxgth  ok  the  T. 

INGENT 

IN  Ch.vixs. 

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1 

li 

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t 

u 

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5 

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101-4 

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(i 

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0 

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07 
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70 
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1S40] 


THE  CIVIL    ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


17 


TABLE  II.— CURVES  FROil  85  CHAIN'S  TO  280  CHAINS,  OR  31  MILES  RADIUS. 


5 

Lkngtii  ok  thk  Taxgext  IX 

Chains. 

1 

o 

3 

•1 

5 

C. 

7 

S 

;) 

10 

'    1  « 

i 

0 

t 

0 

t 

0  ■ 

/          '      0 

t 

0 

t 

0 

i 

0 

t 

0 

I 

" 

Chains. 

Links.  1  Llvs. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

8.') 

500    i   0'6 

1000 

2-4 

150-1 

0-3 

200-1 

9-4 

250-2 

14-7 

300-4 

21-2 

350-6 

28-9 

400-9 

377 

451-4 

47-8 

501-7 

59-0 

'.Ill 

2-2 

150-0 

5-0 

S-9 

13-9 

300-3 

20-0 

2  7-3 

400-8 

35-G 

4.31-1 

45-1 

501-6 

55-7 

11.') 

..        i   0-5 

2-1 

4-7 

8-4 

13-2 

19-0 

350-5 

25-9 

400-7 

00'  / 

451-0 

4-2-7 

501-4 

52-8 

101) 

.  •               i         •  • 

2-0 

4-5 

8-0 

12-5 

18-0 

350-4 

21-6 

400-6 

32-0 

450-9 

40-6 

501-3 

50-1 

11).-. 

1-9 

4-3 

7-6 

11-9 

17-2 

23-4 

.30-5 

38-7 

501-1 

47-7 

Ill) 

1-8 

41 

7-3 

250-1 

11-4 

300-2 

16-4 

350-3  i  22-3 

400-5 

29-1 

4.50-8 

36-9 

501-0 

45-5 

ll.'i 

.  . 

0-4 

1-7 

3-9 

7-0 

10-9 

15-7 

.  , 

21-3 

27-8 

450-7 

35-3 

43-5 

120 

3-H 

6-7 

10-4 

15-0 

20-4 

400-4 

26-7 

450-6 

33-8 

500-9 

41-7 

12.) 

10 

3-6 

6-1 

1 0-0 

14-4 

19-0 

25-6 

32-4 

500-8 

40-0 

no 

1-5 

3-5 

200-0 

6-2 

9-6 

1.3-9 

18-8 

24-6 

450-5 

31-1 

38-5 

13.-. 

3-3 

5-9 

9-3 

300-1 

13-3 

350-2 

18-1 

400-3 

23-7 

30-0 

500-7 

37-1 

140 

1-4 

3-2 

5-7 

8-9 

12-9 

17-5 

22-9 

29-0 

35-8 

IJ.^ 

0-3 

31 

5-5 

8-6 

12-4 

..      '16-9 

,  . 

22-1 

450-1 

28-0 

500-6 

34-5 

l,-)0 

1-3 

30 

5-3 

8-3 

12-0 

16-3 

21-3 

27-0 

33-4 

1. '■>,-) 

2-9 

51 

8-1 

11-6 

,  , 

15-8 

20-6 

20-2 

500-5 

32-3 

160 

1-2 

2-8 

5-0 

2500 

7-8 

11-3 

15-3 

400-2 

20-0 

25-4 

31-3 

165 

2-7 

4-8 

7-6 

10-9 

350-1 

14-8 

19-4 

450-3 

21-6 

500-4 

30-3 

170 

2-6 

4-7 

7-3 

,   , 

10-6 

.. 

14-4 

18-9 

23-9 

29-4 

175 

.  , 

11 

46 

.  , 

7-1 

10-3 

14-0 

18-3 

23-2 

28-6 

180 

, , 

2-5 

4-4 

G-9 

,  , 

10-0 

13-6 

17-8 

22-5 

500-3 

27-8 

185 

,  , 

2-4 

4-3 

6-7 

9-7 

13-2 

17-3 

21-9 

27-1 

190 

, , 

4-2 

6-6 

,  , 

9-5 

, , 

12-9 

16-8 

21-3 

26-4 

105 

1-0 

. , 

2-3 

41 

.  , 

6-4 

9-2 

12-6 

16-4 

450-2 

20-8 

25-7 

200 

0-2 

J.. 

40 

6-3 

9-0 

12-3 

16-0 

20-3 

,  , 

25-0 

205 

2-2 

3-9 

6-1 

8-8 

12-0 

400-1 

15-0 

19-8 

21-4 

210 

3-S 

fi-0 

8-6 

..       11-7 

15-3 

.. 

19-3 

23-8 

215 

0-9 

2-1 

3-7 

.. 

5-8 

8-4 

..         11-4 

14-9 

18-8 

23-2 

220 

3-6 

.. 

5-7 

8-2 

..     11-1 

14-6 

18-4 

22-7 

225 

,  , 

2-0 

.  , 

5-6 

8-0 

,  . 

10-9 

14-2 

18-0 

500-2 

22*2 

230 

3-5 

5-4 

7-S 

10-7 

,  . 

13-9 

, , 

17-6 

21-7 

235 

1-9 

,  , 

3-4 

5-3 

7-G 

10-4 

13-0 

17-2 

21-3 

240 

0-8 

3-3 

5-2 

300-0 

7-5 

,  . 

10-2 

,  , 

13-3 

16-9 

20-8 

245 

1-8 

5-1 

7-3 

10-0 

13-0 

16-6 

20-4 

250 

3-2 

5-0 

7-2 

9-8 

,  , 

12-8 

16-2 

20-0 

255 

' 

3-1 

..       !    4-9 

7-0 

9-6 

12-5 

450-1 

15-9 

19-6 

260 

1-7 

4-8 

6-9 

9-4 

12-3 

15-6 

19-2 

265 

0-7 

3-0 

4-7 

6-8 

9-2 

12-1 

, . 

15-3 

18-8 

270 

, . 

4-6 

6-7 

9-0 

11-8 

.. 

15-0 

18-5 

275 

.. 

..   1 

1-6 

2-9 

, , 

4-5 

6-5 

8-9 

11-6 

14-7 

18-2 

280          ..            ..    1 

-• 

•     1 

6-4 

8-8 

•• 

11-4 

14-4 

17-9 

TABLE  III.— CURVES  FROJI  300  CHAINS  TO  640  CHAINS,  OR  8  MILES  RADIUS. 


0) 

Length  of  the  Tangent  in  Chains. 

2 

4 

G 

8 

10 

12 

11 

IG 

18 

20          j 

I       1    0 

i 

0 

t        1     0 

_    1 

t     :    0 

t 

0 

t       i    0 

0 

t         '      0 

t 

0 

/ 

0 

Chains. 

Links. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

Lks. 

300 

1000 

0-7 

200-0 

2-7 

300-0 

6-0 

400-1 

10-7 

500-1 

16-7 

600-2 

24-0 

700-4 

32-7 

800-6 

42-7 

900-8 

54-0 

1001-1 

66-7 

320 

0-6 

2-5 

5-6 

,  , 

100 

15-6 

,  , 

22-5 

700-3 

30-6 

800-5 

40-0 

900-7 

50-6 

1001-0 

62-6 

340 

2-3 

5-3 

9-4 

14-7 

21-2 

28-8 

800-4 

37-7 

900-6 

47-7 

1000-8 

58-9 

360 

.. 

2-2 

5-0 

400-0 

8-9 

13-9 

20-0 

700-2 

27-2 

, , 

35-6 

45-0 

1000-7 

55-6 

380 

0-5 

2-1 

4-7 

8-4 

13-1 

19-0 

25-8 

33-7 

900-5 

42-7 

52-7 

400 

2-0 

4-5 

.  , 

8-0 

12-5 

000-1 

18-0 

21-5 

800-3 

320 

900-4 

40-5 

1000-6 

50-0 

420 

1-9 

4-3 

7-6 

11-9 

17-1 

23-3 

30-5 

38-6 

47-0 

440 

1-8 

4-1 

7-3 

11-4 

16-4 

22-3 

800-2 

29-1 

36-8 

1000-5 

45-5 

460 

0-4 

1-7 

3-9 

7-0 

10-9 

15-6 

21-3 

27-8 

900-3 

35-2 

,  , 

43-5 

480 

3-8 

6-7 

10-4 

..        15-0 

700-1 

20-4 

26-6 

33-8 

41-7 

500 

1-0 

3-6 

,  , 

0-4 

10-0 

14-4 

19-0 

25-6 

32-4 

1000-4 

40-0 

520 

1-5 

3-5 

,  ^ 

6-2 

500-0 

9-6 

13-8 

18-8 

.  , 

24-6 

,   , 

31-2 

38-4 

540 

3-3 

5-9 

9-2 

13-3 

18-1 

23-7 

30-0 

1000-3 

37-0 

560 

1-4 

.3-2 

,  , 

5-7 

8-9 

12-8 

17-5 

22-9 

900-2 

28-9 

35-7 

580 

0-3 

31 

5-5 

, , 

8-C 

12-4 

16-9 

22-1 

27-9 

34-5 

600 

1-3 

3-0 

,  , 

5-3 

8-3 

12-0 

16-3 

800-1 

21-3 

27-0 

33-3 

620 

2-9 

5-2 

8-1 

11-6 

1.5-8 

20-6 

26-1 

32-3 

640 

•- 

2-8 

5-0 

7-8 

•• 

11-3 

15-3 

■20-0 

•■ 

25-;i 

100l)-2    31-3  j 

18 


THE  CIVIL  EiNClNEEil  AM)  AUrillTKCTS  JOURNAL. 


[J  ANl' AR  V, 


THE  BUDE  LIGHT. 

In  coiiscqueiice  of  a  strttPinent  in  uur  Journal  relative  (o  an  accidciit 
at  Messrs.  Hancock  ami  Rixon's,  Pall  Mall  East,  causeil  by  tlit^  explosion 
of  a  bag  of  oxygen  gas,  a  correspondent  of  the  Timii  sent  to  that 
pajier  a  letter,  of  which  we  subjoin  a  cojiy. 

T,)    THE    EDITOR    OF    THE    TIMES. 

Sir — In  the  new  nuiubrr  of  the  Ciril  Enr/incer  and  Arcltiircl'n  Jntirnal^ 
tlicre  is  an  accoaiit  of  a  fearful  cxijlosion  of  a  hag  of  oxygen  at  the  picinises 
of  Messrs.  Hancock  ami  Uixoii,  t^w  the  7th  iilt.,  tlui'ing  some  cxiieriiiients  <tn 
tlic  IJiuIe  lijvht.  Everything  in  the  room  ai)[)cars  to  have  been  sliaticred  to 
pieces,  one  pci.soa  llung  into  the  shop  wiiulo^v.  another  projeetcil  up  .T  stair- 
e.ise,  ;nitl  all  present  more  or  less  injured.  The  cause  of  all  this  seems  iu- 
\ohcd  in  mystery.  It  is  tlierefoie  important  that  luihlieity  should  he  given 
t()  the  ntVior,  that  it  may  he  tlinroughly  investigated,  j)articnlarly  as  it  is  pro- 
posed to  adopt  this  light  lor  the  Houses  of  ParUament.  It  may  be  recollected 
by  some  of  your  readerj  that  an  explosion  of  oxygeu  occuiTcd  a  few  months 
.Tgo  at  the  Lowihcr  .\rcade,  the  c.iusc  of  which  was  not  satisfactorily  st.-.tcd, 
though  it  was  conjectured  to  he  owing  to  its  being  contained  in  a  Mackietosh 
bag. 

Pure  oxygen  is  considered  by  chcunsts  to  be  pcifcetly  iuexplosivc  and  un- 
inflammable. Faraday  and  (turney  have  said  this  in  their  evifienee  on  light- 
ing the  House;  therefore  some  other  gas  must  have  been  accidentally  mixed 
w  ith  it ;  and  what  thai  gas  was,  and  how  it  got  there,  it  seems  at  the  present 
moment  particularly  importaat  to  ascertain. 

I  remain.  Sir, 

Limrlon,  Your's  obediently, 

Dcccmhrr  2.  J.  K. 

In  reply  to  this  (he  foUowine;  letter  ap|iearefl  on  the  next  day  in  the 
same  jiaper,  from  Mr.  (jioklsworthv  Gnrney,  the  Inventor  and  Patentee 
o{\\\CUud,:  Lti^hi." 

TO    THE    EDITOR    OF    THE    TIMES. 

SiB.. — Your  paper  of  this  morning  contains  an  exaggerated  statement  of  a 
gas  accident  at  Messrs.  Hancock  and  Rixon's,  said  to  have  been  occasioned 
by  the  explosion  ol"  oxygen,  during  some  (experiments  on  the  Budc  light.  I 
beg  most  positively  to  stale,  th.at  the  accident  so  erroneously  noticed  was  in 
no  way  caused  by  the  Budc  light,  neither  is  the  cause  involved  in  any  mys- 
tery, as  your  correspondent  supposes ;  it  was  occasioned  by  common  carbu- 
rettcd  hydrogen  gas.  Oxygen  used  for  the  Budc  light  is  not  inflammable. 
Coal  gas,  oil  gas,  vr.pour  (if  naplha,  or  other  intlamnialde  aeriform  bodies, 
mixed  in  certain  projiortious  with  the  atmosphere,  which  contains  about  a 
quarter  part  of  ox\pen,  or  i)urc  oxygen,  becomes  explosive ;  in  the  IJude 
light  no  such  mixture  ever  occurs.  In  those  lamps  in  which  an  inlhanimable 
gas  and  oxygen  arc  both  used,  they  are  never  allowed  to  come  in  contact. 
In  the  Budc  light  at  the  House  of  C'ommnns  no  intlannnable  gas  of  any  de- 
scription is  employed,  and  exiilosion  of  any  kind,  therefore,  as  Adly  borne 
out  by  the  evidence  taken  before  the  cnuunitlce,  is  physically  impossible. 

I  am.  Sir, 

lonihm,  Your  obedient  scnant, 

Vccemder  4.  Goi.dpwoutiiy  Gurnky. 

It  will  ho  seen  that  Mr.  Goldsworthy  Gurney's  19  a  flat  contradiction 
of  (mr  sl.itement,  and  we  liave  conse(|uently  deemeil  it  advisable  ta 
exandne  into  the  ease  more  minutely  and  nnire  critically  than  we 
otlu-rwise  slu  old  have  (hnie.  Mr.  Gurney  might  have  been  satished 
witli  (MU'  report,  hut  as  lie  has  chosen  to  designate  it  an  exajrgerated 
(uie,  and  to  state  that  the  accident  was  in  no  way  caused  by  the  "  Hude 
l.iglit,"  we  have  to  inform  him  that  our  statement  was  from  an  eye 
w  itncss  and  snIVerer  by  the  accident,  whom  we  have  again  consulted 
on  (he  suhjeet,  and  who  positively  states  that  it  is  in  no  wise  "ex- 
aggerated," exce]>ting  that  part  which  stated  that  one  of  the  party 
was  throw  n  "  inlu  the  silioji  iiiiidviv,"  it  should  have  been  iii/o  the 
cuiiiiltiig  hoiiM.  The  remainder  of  the  statement  he  fully  maintains,  to 
be  s(distantially  correct;  and  we  will  now  add  a  few  more  particulars 
to  show  Mr.  Gurney  that  our  information  was  obtained  from  a  party 
present.  So  far  are  we  from  having  exaggerated,  it  a|ipears  tliat 
we  have  nnderrated;  one  gentleuuin  was  stunned,  and  did  iKjt  recover 
his  senses  for  some  minutes,  another  was  so  seriously  bruised  about 
the  body  lliat  he  was  obliged  to  be  taken  to  Ur.  Stone  in  Spring  (iar- 
dens — one  of  the  .Messrs.  Uixons  was  also  considerably  injured — one 
(d'  the  persons  had  his  thigh  cut,  and  indeed  the  wliole  parly 
were  either  more  or  less  seriously  injured.  The  damage  done  to  the 
|ireinises  by  the  explosion  was  sin  h,  that  a  compensation  has  been  paid 
to  Messrs.  ilancoek  and  Co.  by  the  Insurance  Ctmipany. 

We  understand  from  one  of  the  party  that  to  the  best  of  his  recol- 
leeHon  the  accident  occurred  in  the  following  inaiuier: — .-V.  bag  was 
lying  on  the  floor  ccnitaining  oxvgeii  gas,  to  wdiieh  was  attached  a 
llexihle  tube;  astlie  attendant  w^as  .i  outto  apjily  the  tube  to  the  lighted 
lamp,  he  heard  .^oiue  (Uie  s  ly  "Now  put  on  the  weight,"  but  at  the  instant 
the  tidie  was  being  applied  to  lla-  light,  the  accident  look  jdaee,  as 
descri'ied  by  us  last  niuid,U.  Hy  the  explosion,  the  hag,  wliieh  wss 
made  of  Macintosh's  prepared  cloth,  was  completely  rent  into  pieces. 


Wo  have  al.so  seen  some  of  the  other  ji.irties  who  were  present,  and 
they  all  confirm  our  report  of  the  accident,  excepting  as  to  the  before 
mentioned  error,  that  one  of  the  party  had  been  forced  into  the  shop 
window.  The  whoh?  alfair  is  so  unsatisfactory  that  we  nnist  esrtainly 
express  our  mistrust  as  to  e\  en  the  alleged  causes  of  the  accident. 

We  shall  now  give  a  letter  addressed  to  us  hy  Messrs.  Hancock  and 
Co.,  in  w  liicli  the  accident  is  iittrilmted  to  carburetted  hydrogen. 

TO    IHE    EDITOR    OF    THE    CIVIL    EXGINEEr's    JOUR.N.M. 

Sir — \Ve  beg  the  favour  of  your  inserting  the  following  statement  in  your 
.Io\irn,Tl,  ill  reply  to  the  exaggerated  and  incorrect  account  of  the  explosion 
which  took  iilaee  upon  our  premises,  and  which  appeared  in  the  last  month's 
nundicr,  the  cause  of  ^^luch  was  unwarrantaltly  cast  upou  the  Budc  light. 

The  facts  are  these: — a  bag  of  oxygen  gas  was  sent  to  us,  which  had  prc- 
\iously  been  used  for  carburetted  hydrogen,  and  which  had  not  all  been  emp- 
tied out  when  the  oxygen  was  put  in,  there  heiug  sutlicient  hydrogen  left  in 
the  bag  to  render  it  an  explosive  mixture. 

The  Ibide  light  can  only  be  jirodiiced  by  pure  oxygen,  which  every  one 
knows  is  not  cxploiive  ;  and  we  hope  that  any  stigma  that  may  have  been 
cast  upou  the  Ilude  light  hy  being  the  attributed  cause  of  the  accident,  will 
now  he  rcniovcil. 

AVe  are.  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  servants, 
Hancock,  Rixon  &  Dunt. 

After  a  careful  perusal  of  this  letter,  can  the  public  be  satisfied 
without  having  a  strict  enquiry  made  into  the  whole  affair  .'  Public 
safety  is  too  seriously  threatened  to  be  thus  trifled  with.  We  should 
like  to  know  how  this  bag  came  to  be  used  previously  for  the  purpose 
of  holding  Hydrogen  Gas, — for  we  are  very  fearful  that  Messrs.  Han- 
cock and  Co.  have  been  misled  upon  the  subject. — witnesses  ought  to 
be  brought  forward  who  filled  the  bag  with  the  carburetted  hydrogen 
previouslv,  and  to  state  for  what  jnirpose  it  Iiad  been  used,  and  the 
(juantity  that  was  likely  to  have  been  left  in  the  bag- — at  any  rate  it  is 
undoubtedly  a  fact  that  oxygen  gas  is  highly  explosive,  if  it  be  slightly 
contaminated  with  carburetted  hydrogen,  the  same  as  gunjiowder 
would  be  if  a  spark  were  applied. 

Having  laid  before  our  readers  the  above  particulars,  we  will  leRve 
it  to  them  to  judge  xvhether  we  are  liable  to  be  impugned  for  the  ac- 
curacy of  our  statement.  <  )ur  own  impressions  are  justified  lioth  as  to 
the  propriety  «f  demanding  an  enquiry  then,  and  as  to  the  necessity  of 
its  being  made  now.  We  entertain  no  ill  will  towards  Mr.  Gurney,  but 
we  are  bound  to  jusHfy  to  the  public  any  attacks  upon  our  editorial 
character,  at  the  same  lime  that  it  is  our  duty  to  protect  the  public 
interests. 


ON  THE  ADHESION  OF  THE   WHEELS  OF  LOCOMOTIVE 
ENCilNES,  by  W.  K.  Casey,  C.  E.,  of  the  Umkd  States. 

[We  are  indebted  for  the  following  communication  to  the  kindness 
of  its  able  author,  by  whom  it  was  prepared  for  ihe  ^dnurican  Rail- 
rood  Journal.] 

Pow"Ki!KOr,  loC(nnotive  engines  will  seldom  be  required  for  passenger- 
trains,  and,  lip  to  this  time,  the  (piantity  of  freight  carried  over  any 
railroad  in  the  Cuion,  as  far  as  !  can  ascertain,  falls  short  of  lllO,(XIU 
tons  per  annum,  whilst  the  average,  according  to  De  Gersfner,  is  only 
l."),UOii  tcnis,  carried  over  each  railroad  in  the  (Mnintry.  This  is  about 
the  one  hundredth  part  of  what  can  very  well  be  done  on  a  well  located 
railway  with  a  single  track. 

We  may  however  confidently  expect  that  railways  will  very  soon 
be  used  for  the  transportation  of  freiglit  on  a  scale  sulliciently  exten- 
sive to  prove  their  capaeitv  for  this  object.  As  yet  there  can  be  little 
danger  in  asserting,  that  theru  is  not  a  railroad  in  the  country,  which 
has  been  located,  constnieted,  and  subsequently  managed,  so  as  to  be 
even  tolerably  well  adapted  to  the  traiisptu-tation  of  a  large  quantity 
of  freight.  'I'lie  Heading  railway  will  be  first  in  the  field  to  show  the 
power  of  this  new  mear.s  of  coniinunieation,  and  it  TTould  he  difficult 
to  fisd  a  better  (diampion  for  the  cause  (d'  railroads.  On  the  Heading 
road  there  is,  however,  no  ascending  grade  in  the  direction  of  the 
greatest  trade,  and  the  common  8  or  \)  tons  engine  will  easily  draw 
I'lO  to  -UtJ  tons  on  a  level' — the  greatest  resistance  oifered  with  the 
admirable  grades  of  that  road  ;  but,  where  inclinations  of  from  41J  to 
(it)  feet  per  mile  are  to  be  surmounted,  engines  of  that  weight  are 
utterly  inadequate  to  the  task,  wdiilst  heavier  or  more  powerful  ones 
require  a  more  substantial  and  consequently  more  costly  superstruc- 
ture. 

The  question  then  naturally  suggests  itself — cannot  the  power  of 
llie  engine  be  increased  without  an  increase  of  weight  ?  which  again 
iinniediatelv  leads  us  to  consider,  what  it  is  which  limits  the  power  of 
the  loeomoiive  steam  engine.  This  is  well  known  to  be  the  friction, 
ur,  as  it  is  generally  termed,  "the  adhesion"  of  the  wheel  to  the  rail 


IS^O.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEICU  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


19 


whii'h  all  good  engines  built  during  flie  l;ist  4  or  5  years  liave  been 
able  to  overcome;  tluit  is,  where  the  load  was  suflicientiv  great,  to 
make  the  driving  wheels  revolve  without  causing  the  engine  to  ad- 
vance. Strange  as  it  may  appear,  no  experiments  have  yet  been  made 
to  determine  this  all  important  point,  and  the  "friction  of  iron  on  iron" 
given  in  treati::es  on  mechanics,  as  equal  to  about  ime-fuurth  of  the 
weight,  has  been  hitherto  used  in  all  calcii'ativiis  as  the  maximum, 
though  numerous  well  authenticated  pei/nrtnaiica:  have  shown,  that 
the  ratio  of  the  adhesion  to  the  weight  must  have  been  nuich  greater 
than  this.  In  a  pamphlet  written  so  late  as  year  ISJ^S  Messrs.  Knight 
and  Latrobe,  speaking  of  a  performance  of  the  Stonington  locomotive, 
which  showed  the  adhesion  to  be  equal  to  ^'jj;  of  the  weight,  sav  "  As 
this  is  greater  than  we  have  known  in  any  other  case,  it  is  presumed 
that  a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  tender  was  traid'erred  to  the  engine, 
&c. ;  but  performances  of  the  engines  of  Baldwin  and  Norris  on  the 
Philadelphia  and  Columbia  railway,  long  before  this  pamphlet  appear- 
ed, go  very  far  beyond  this. 

In  183t),  engines  built  by  Mr.  Norris,  not  exceeding  8  tons  in  weight, 
drew  loads  equal  to  400  tons  on  a  level,  which,  if  the  weight  on  the 
driving  wheels  was  correctly  given,  showed  the  adhesion  to  exceed 
one-third  of  the  weight.  Mr.  Baldwin's  engines  have,  however,  since 
exceeded  even  this,  and  have  drawn  loads  equal  to  above  7i)()  tons  on 
a  level.  Estimating  the  traction  at  10  pounds  perton,  this  will  recpiire 
a  force  of  700U  pounds,  and  the  weight  on  the  driving  wheels  of  Mr. 
Baldwin's  first  class  engines  being  stated  at  12,ll!0  ])ounds,  the  adhe- 
sion must  have  been  equal  to  -^}j^  of  the  weight,  if  this  did  not  ex- 
ceed 12,120  lbs.  or  even  adding  4000  pounds  for  the  tender,  equal  to 
n'^  of  the  insistent  weiglit. 

After  making  every  reasonable  deduction,  it  appears  beyond  all 
doubt,  that  the  adhesion  has  been  very  much  underrated,  and,  though 
this  alone  keeps  the  power  of  locomotives  within  their  present  range, 
I  have  never  heard  of  a  single  direct  experiment  to  determine  this  im- 
portant law.  In  the  edition  of  183 1  of  Wood  on  railroads  the  adhe- 
sion is  stated  at  one-twelfth,  subsequently  it  is  assumed  by  Mr.  Knight 
at  one-eighth,  or  "  half  the  friction  of  iron  on  iron,"  w  liich  value  was 
not  determined  by  experiment  but  was  merely  deduced  from  the  load ; 
so  again  in  the  pamphlet  already  referred  to,  as  late  as  last  year,  -^'^^ 
is  "  greater  than  we  have  known  in  any  other  case." 

Since  writing  the  above,  I  have  seen  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Rennie  on  friction,  as  detailed  in  the  5th  vol.  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Franklin  Institute,  1830,  and  he  there  shows,  that  there  is  an  increase  in 
the  ratio  with  the  increase  of  weight,  the  surfaces  in  contact  remaining 
he  same.  The  extreme  weights  in  11  experiments,  [p.  9,]  are  l"lj(5 
cwt.  and  5  cwt.  per  square  inch,  and  with  these  pressures,  the  ratios 
of  the  weights  to  the  adhesion  are  respectively  ;is  4  and  2-44  to  1. 
The  results  of  the  experiments  are  very  irregular,  and  though  in  this 
particular  case  the  ratio  varies  very  nearly  as  the  sipiare  roots  of  the 
weights,  there  is  nothing  to  point  out  the  law  of  increase,  so  as  to 
enable  us  to  continue  the  table  with  any  confidence. 

On  the  next  page  [10]  it  is  stated  that  with  ii'j  cwt.  Jier  square 
inch,  cast  and  wrought  iron  abrade,  and  the  friction  is  to  the  weight 
as  1  to  2-3.  Now,  as  the  weight  on  the  driving  wheels  is  generalh' 
2i  tons  on  each,  as  the  friction  of  wrought  iron  ou  wrnuglit  iron  is 
greater  than  on  cast  iron,  as  this  difference  is  rendered  the  greatest 
possible  Vjy  the  parallelism  of  the  fibres  of  the  tire  and  rail,  and  as  the 
surfaces  in  contact  can  scarcely  be  one-fourth  of  a  square  inch,  it  is 
evident,  that  tlie  power  required  to  produce  motion,  when  the  pres- 
sure is  2i  tons  on  a  surface  of  much  less  than  1  inch  s(piare,  nuist 
be  more  than  ^'^^  of  the  insistent  weight.  It  is  stated,  [p.  10,]  that 
hardened  steel  abraded  with  10  tons  per  square  inch,  but  the  ratio  of 
the  power  to  the  weight  is  not  given. 

The  laws  of  friction,  are  however,  only  applicable  as  long  as  no 
abrasion  takes  place,  and  this  falls  very  far  short  of  the  case  under  con- 
sideration, w  here  the  pressure  is  often  sutilcieut  to  cause  even  hardened 
steel  to  abrade.  Still  these  experiments  and  numerous  performances 
of  the  engines  of  Baldwin  or  Norris  would  lead  to  the  conclusion,  that 
the  adhesion  is  at  least  twice  as  great  as  that  which  Messrs.  Knight 
and  Latrobe  designate  as  "greater  than  we  have  known  in  any  other 
case." 

"The  most  interesting  performances  of  locomotives  which  have 
fallen  under  my  observation  are  those  detailed  in  the  Franklin  Journal 
of  June  1S3'.),  wdiere  an  engine  on  S  wheels,  constructed  by  Messrs. 
Eastvvick  and  Harrison,  started,  on  a  grade  of  .7  feet  per  mile,  a  load 
of  2i)5  tons,  subsequently  overcoming  with  the  same  load,  a  rise  of  35 
feet  per  mile.  This  took  place  on  the  bad  and  crooked  road  between 
Broad-street  and  the  Schuylkill-bridge,  where  the  traction  must  have 
been  10  pounds  per  ton  on  a  levo',  and  the  entire  force  exerted  by  the 
engine  equal  to  6000  pounds.  In  this  engine  there  nre/utir  driving 
wheels,  on  wdiich  the  weight  was  18,059  pounds,  showing  thus,  that 
the  adhesion  was  equal  to  one-third  of  the  weight  even  with  the  wkeli 


coupled.  The  weight  on  the  driving  wheels  of  Baldwin's  eno-ines  of 
the  first  class,  is  one-third  greater  than  on  ««e  pair  of  driving  wheels 
of  the  engines  of  Messrs.  E.  and  H.,  and  any  sudden  lurch  of  the  engine 
which,  Willi  the  ordinary  construction,  will  throw  more  than  half  its 
entire  weight  on  one  wheel,  will,  with  these  engines,  be  distributed 
on  two  wheels,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt,  that  an  engine  with  the 
usual  weight  on  i  driving  wheels,  will  be  more  injurious  than  one  with 
twice  that  weight  on  f)ur  drivers,  as  arranged 'bv  iMessrs.  R.  and  H. 
Here  is  an  engine  which  will  with  ease,  draw  10;)  tons  n.'lt,  up  an 
ascent  of  GO  feet  per  mile,  and  which  requires,  on  M.;//  inclination,  a 
superstructure  no  more  substantial  than  is  required  bv  tlie  lightest 
engines  of  Baldwin  or  Norris,  on  roads  varying  from  a'level  to'20  or 
30  feet  per  mile — and  Una  too  witli  aiitliracitc  fiul. 

In  the  interesting  pamphlets  of  Messrs.  Knight  and  Latrobe, -already 
referred  to,  those  gentlemen  state  that  the  Camden  and  AndKiy  Coiu- 
pany  "  is  now  buildiiig,  and  have  nearly  completed,  an  engine' ujion  S 
wheels,  and  having  two  cylinders  of  IS  inches  diameter°by  a  3  feet 
stroke  ;  the  wdiole  supposed  to  weigh  IS  tons."  **+'*"  The 
adhesion  upon  the  rails  of  all  the  S  wheels,  is  to  be  brought  into  action 
by  means  of  cog-wheels,  &c."  *  *  *  *  "This  engine  is  designed 
to  lead  burthen  trains  at  moderate  rates  of  speed  ;  but  must  be  viewed 
as  yet  in  the  light  of  an  experiment." 

It  is  difficult  to  conceive  howsucli,  in  other  respects,  keen  observers 
could  pass  by  with  cool  indifierence  the  most  striking  fact  related  in 
either  of  their  interesting  iiamphlets,  and  which,  even  without  being 
completely  successful,  would  be  attended  with  results  infiuitelv  more 
important  than  the  benefits  resulting  from  all  Americ;in  improvements 
in  railroads  and  locomotives  imited.  In  illustration,  not  explanation, 
it  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  of  all  the  engineers  and  machinists 
with  whom  I  have  conversed  for  the  last  two  or  three  years  on  this 
subject,  I  have  only  found  two  engineers  [the  machinists  would  not 
listen  to  it]  who  had  given  the  subject  that  serious  attention  to  which 
it  is,  in  my  humble  opinion,  pre-eminently  entitled.  One  of  these 
gentlemen,  Mr.  H.  R.  Cam])bell  of  Philadelphia,  showed  me,  nearly 
three  years  since  an  engine  on  S  wheels  and  4  drivers,  which  he  was 
then  building  to  burn  anthracite  coal,  and  which  certainly  bore  an 
astonishing  resemblance  to  the  drawings  of  Messrs.  Eastwick  and 
Harrison's  engine  in  the  Franklin  Journal,  and  to  the  advantages  of 
which  I  have  already  alluded. 

We  liave  seen  that  with  the  8  wheeled  engine  and  4  wheels  coupled, 
the  adhesion  was  ecjual  to  one-third  of  the  weight  on  the  propelling 
wheels,  and  if,  with  the  18  tons  engme  of  Jlessrs.  Stevens,  we  suppose 
the  adhesion  equal  to  only  one-fourth  of  the  weight,  we  shall  have  a 
machine  capable  of  drawing  lOOJ  tons  on  a  level,  without  greater  in- 
jury to  the  superstructure  than  the  ordinary  8  or  9  tons  engines  of 
Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  New  York,  Lowell,"  &c.  An  8  wheeled  en- 
gine, weighing  10  tons,  acting  by  the  adhesion  of  its  entire  weight 
distributed  equally  on  the  8  w  heels,  will  draw  9'J  tons  nett  up  an  ascent 
of  liO  feet  per  mile,  and  there  will  be  no  inducement  to  lessen  this 
weight,  as  it  is  on'y  li  tons  per  wheel,  or  the  same  as  that  on  each 
wheel  of  an  ordinary  freight  or  passenger  car,  w  hen  loaded. 

It  is  well  known,  that  the  ra])id  destruction  of  wooden  rails  is  not 
caused  so  much  by  the  natural  decay  of  the  timber  conse((uent  on  its 
exposed  situation,  as  by  the  crushing  under  the  driving  wheels  of  the 
locomotive,  which  destroys  the  lateral  cohesion  of  the  fibres  of  the 
wood  and  admits  water,  the  grand  agent  of  decomposition.  Notwith- 
standing this  disadvantage,  the  repairs  of  the  wooden  track  of  the 
Utica  and  Schenectady  railroad,  do  not  exceed  the  repairs  of  the  best 
roads  about  Boston,  (from  300  to  350  dollars  per  mile  jier  annum,  the 
renewal  of  the  iron  being  neglected  in  both  cases)  and  if  an  engine  of 
10  tons  will  not  be  more  injurious  to  the  superstructure,  than  an  ordi- 
nary car,  it  may  yet  appear,  that  this  improvement  alone,  will  reduce 
the  repairs  and  renewals  of  the  common  superstructure,  below  those 
of  the  best  road  in  the  Union,  omitting  the  assistance  wdiich  may  rea- 
sonably be  expected  from  Kyan's,  or  some  other  mode  of  preserving 
timber. 

It  has  frequently  happened,  that  horse  power  has  been  used  for  a 
short  time  after  the  opening  of  a  road,  by  which  the  nice  adjustment 
of  the  rails  as  received  from  the  hands  of  the  engineers,  has  been  little 
if  at  all  aU'ected.  After  the  road  has  been  travelled  bv  the  engine, 
however,  even  for  a  single  week,  with  the  very  same  cars,  depressions 
and  inequalities  will  be  found  greater,  as  well  as  more  numerous  than 
those  which  would  be  produced  by  the  action  of  the  cars  only  in  sis 
months  or  more.  Timber  as  well  as  iron  will  bear  a  certain  strain 
without  the  least  injury,  but  a  slight  increase  beyond  this,  produces  a 
permanent  set  or  deflection,  hence,  in  reducing  the  weight  from 
2i  to  \\  tons  per  wheel,  the  relative  strength  of  the  superstructure  is 
not  merely  doubled,  but  is  increased  in  a  much  greater  ratio.  This 
proportion  will  be  affected  by  the  dimensions  of  iron  and  timber,  kind 
of  wood,  arrangement  of  parts,  nature  of  earth,  &c.,  but  as  a  general 

D  2 


20 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


niU-  it  will  be  gn-ntpst  where  most  needed — for  iiistunce,  when  a  light 
su|)eistniclure  is  lieddeil  in  clay,  in  a  northern  climate. 

'I'he  (listribntion  of  (he  weight  ol  the  engine  on  S  wlieels,  instead  of 
throwing  three-lifths  or  more  on  2  wheels,  is  therefore  intimately  con- 
neeteil  \\  ith  the  conliiiuance  of  a  cheap  superstrnclure,  which  has  been, 
ane  will  be,  even  with  the  present  engines,  extensively  nsed  in  many 
parts  of  the  coimtry,  where  capital  and  good  mechanics  are  scarce  and 
timlier  and  axe-men  abnndant.  Owing  to  the  increased  deflection  of 
the  wooden  rail  there  will  of  coiu'se  be  a  loss  of  power,  bnt  this,  even 
now  not  verv  important,  will  be  reduced  one-half  by  the  distribution 
of  the  weight  on  all  the  wheels,  besides  which  the  only  fear  is,  that 
full  loads  will  only  too  seldom  be  obtained  for  the  lightest  class  of 
engines,  bnilt  on  this  principle,  even  with  grades  of  from  40  to  GU  feet 
per  mile. 

I  have  been  informed  by  my  friend  Mr.  E.  F.  Johnson,  (the  other 
engineer  alluded  to  in  a  preceding  paragraph)  that  a  trial  of  this  new- 
engine  has  been  made,  and  that  it  appears  to  work  well.  Time  and 
ex])eriencc  can  however  alone  develop  its  powers,  expose  its  defects 
and  give  unerring  proof  of  its  general  and  successful  adoption.  But 
sn])posing,  what  is  most  unlikely,  that  this  experiment  should  lead  to 
no  useful  result,  we  have  still  the  S  wheeled  engine  of  Messrs.  East- 
wick  and  Ihirrison  (or  Mr.  H.  R.  Campbell?)  which  is  capable  of 
ih-awing  \W  tons  nett  up  an  inclination  of  GU  feet  per  mile,  and  wliich 
will  be  less  injurious  to  the  su])erstructure  than  the  ordinary  S  or  '.) 
Ions  English  or  American  engine. 

An  extremely  interesting  and  still  more  useful  experiment  may  very 
easily  lie  made  with  the  engine  of  Messrs.  E.  &  II.,  or  still  better,  with 
that  of  the  Messrs.  titevens.  Remove  the  couplings  so  tliat  the  engine 
may  act  by  the  adhesion  of  one  pair  of  wdieels  only,  and  ascertain  the 
maximum  load  without  slipping  the  wheels ;  then  couple  2  pair  of 
wheels,  repeat  the  experiment  and  the  increase  of  load  will  show  the 
value  of  the  improvement  of  Messrs.  E.  &  H.  With  the  S  wheeled 
engine,  4  such  experiments  should  be  made,  by  which  the  advantages 
of  this  mode  of  construction  would  be  determined  with  considerable 
accuracy,  and  all  requisite  information  afforded  on  this  vital,  and 
hitherto  much  neglected  principle,  of  working  by  the  adhesion  of 
more  than  '2  wheels. 

The  successful  introduction  of  engines  with  the  weight  distributed 
equally  on,  and  acting  by  the  adhesion  of  8  wheels,  would  form  an  era 
in  the  hisloiy  of  railways  in  tlie  United  States,  second  only,  to  that 
which  determined  the  general  question  of  the  practicability  of  loco- 
motion by  steara — in  other  words,  that  which  gave  its  present  im- 
portance to  this  unrivalled  mode  of  comniunication. 


ON  THE  DRAUGHT  OF  CARRIAGES  AND  ON  SECONDARY 
FRICTION.     By  M.  Dupuit,  C.  E. 

(Translated from  the  French.) 

1.  Draught  of  Carriages. 

By  allowing  wheels  of  diameters  varying  from  4  feet  to  7  feet  to 
run  down  an  inclined  plane,  and  by  measuring  the  spaces  run  over  on 
horizontal  ground,  by  virtue  of  the  fall,  we  find  that  they  are  propor- 
tional to  the  scpiarc  roots  of  the  diameters,  and  height  of  the  fill, 
whatever  may  be  the  weight  or  breadth  of  the  tire.  From  this  we  de- 
rive the  four  following  laws  : — 

The  draught  is  proportionable  to  the  jiressure; 

independent  of  the  breadth  of  the  tire; 

independent  of  velocity ; 

in  inverse  ratio  of  the  sijuare  root  of  the  diameter. 
These  four  laws  are  the  same  as  established  by  the  author  of  this 
paper  in  his  Essay  on  the  Draught  of  Carriages,  published  in  ls37, 
and  which  lie  had  found  by  means  of  a  simple  dynamometer.  The 
three  last  are  completely  in  contradiction  to  those  whicdi  M.  Morin 
deduced  from  the  experiments  made  with  his  <lynainometrical  ap- 
paratus. 

2.  Secondary  Friction  of  Rolling. 

The  resistance  which  opposes  the  rolling  of  a  body  is  nothing 
more  than  the  molecular  action,  wdiicli  fakes  place  on  contact.  This 
reaction,  always  equal  to  the  pressure,  passes  by  the  normal  when  the 
boily  is  at  rest,  and  advances  in  front  by  a  certain  quantify  5  when  it 
rolls;  it  therefore  resists  the  rolling  with  a  power  marked  F5. 

Following  up  this  single  property  of  solid  bodies,  of  being  an  assem- 
blage of  molecules  in  eipiilibrium,  we  arrive  at  the  following  expres- 
sion of  the  friction  of  rolling  : 


which  gives  all  the  properties  of  this  resistance  in  friction  with  one 
of  them.  If  we  follow  up  that  of  being  proportional  to  the  pressure, 
which  is  not  denied  by  any  one,  we  rediscover  the  three  other  laws 
pointed  out  above,  wliiidi  establishes  a  mutual  confirmation  of  the  ex- 
periments and  the  theory.  The  friction  of  rolling  being  an  immediate 
consequence  of  the  imperfect  elasticity  of  bodies,  we  may,  by  its  proper- 
ties, ascertain  those  of  elasticity ;  wdience  we  deduce  the  following: — 
When  we  subject  the  surface  of  a  body  to  pressure,  we  obtain  under 
this  pressure  a  certain  instantaneous  sinking  t',  which  reduces  itself  at 
last  to  a  slight  impression  f,  when  the  pressure  ceases.  This  impres- 
sion f  is  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the  definitive  sinking «'. 

g 

The  friction  of  rolling   is  proportional  in  the  relation  of in  such 

l/  ('• 
a  way  that  it  is  determined  by  two  coefEoients  which  define  the  elas- 
ticity of  a  body.  For  want  of  these  two  coefficients  we  may  substi- 
tute two  others.  Knowing  1st,  The  friction  of  iron  upon  iron,  and  of 
iron  upon  marble,  we  may  deduce  immediately  from  it  the  friction  of 
iron  upon  copper.  Thus  for  twenty  surfaces,  forty  coetlicients  would 
be  enough  to  determine  3S0  to  which  their  combinations  two  by  two 
would  give  rise. 

When  two  curved  surfaces  roll  one  ujion  another,  the  result  of  the 
molecular  action,  eqnal  to  the  pressure,  no  longer  passes  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  normals,  but  parallel  in  the  direction  of  the  velocity,  at  a 
distance,  proportionable  to  the  square  root  of  the  product  of  the  rays 
or  radii  of  curve,  divided  by  their  sum  or  ditlerence,  accordingly  as 
they  are  both  convex  or  one  of  them  concave. 

This  formula  resolves  all  the  problems  relating  to  the  calculation  of 
the  resistance  to  roUing,  and  it  is  capable  of  numerous  practical  ap- 
plications. 

3.  Action  of  Wheels  upon  Roads. 

Although  the  draught  is  to  a  certain  point  the  expression  of  the  de- 
rangement of  the  materials  of  the  road,  it  is  quite  inaccurate  to  con- 
clude therefrom  that  the  degradation  is  proportional  to  the  draught. 
By  keeping  the  roads  constantly  •ven,  which  is  always  possible,  the 
passages  are  divided  uniformly  on  the  whole  pavement;*  then  the  small 
displacements  which  they  occasion  destroy  each  other.  Besides  in  a 
number  of  cases  the  result  of  the  passage  of  a  carriage  is  to  produce 
an  improvement.  In  a  good  system  of  road  making,  the  roads  are 
never  degraded,  whatever  may  be  the  traffic,  they  are  only  worn.  It 
cannot  be  a  question,  in  a  road  law,  of  having  good  or  bad  roads,  but  only 
of  spending  more  or  less  for  their  maintenance.  Every  restriction  of 
the  freedom  of  a  road  is  to  the  carriers  a  cause  of  increased  expence, 
greater  than  the  saving  which  might  be  made  in  the  expences  of  keep- 
ing up  the  roads. 


v/ 


2R      V«L4/2K/' 


PAPERS  ON  ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

Obserralions  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  estimating  the  height  to  which 
the  IVaier  might  rise  in  the  H'^ell  lured  in  the  Jjbattoir  de  Grtnelle, 
1)1/  M.  Walferdin.     lltad  before  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 

The  water  w  Inch  springs  up  from  Artesian  sources  does  not  always 
rise  above  the  level  of  the  soil,  sometimes  it  is  several  yards  lower, 
and  in  this  case  it  is  brought  to  the  surface  by  mechanical  means ; 
sometimes  it  reaches  it ;  and  at  other  times  it  rises  more  or  less  above 
the  surface.  That  as  it  is  well  known  depends  upon  the  dift'erence  of 
height  at  wdiich  the  water  arrives  across  permeable  strata,  between 
the  impermeable  strata  which  contain  it,  and  that  of  the  point  at 
which  they  ascend. 

I  have  considered  that  in  the  advanced  state  of  the  borings  at  Gre- 
nelle,  that  it  might  be  useful  to  compare  the  heiglit  at  which  are 
filtered  the  waters  which  form  the  supply  which  is  sought  under  the 
Paris  basin,  and  that  of  the  surface  of  the  soil  at  Grenelle. 

If,  by  ascending  the  natural  slope  which  the  waters  follow  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  we  seek  the  chalk  boundary  in  the  southwest  di- 
rection, we  find  it  cease  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Troyes.  Then  the 
gault  marls  and  clays  which  the  bore  now  crosses  at  Grenelle  succeed 
the  chalk,  and  at  about  eleven  miles  from  Troyes,  near  Lnsigny,  the 
green  sand  appears,  and  forms  the  orifices  by  vvhicli  the  waters  begin 
to  filter. 

The  height  at  wdiich  the  waters  thus  penetrate  the  sands  being  near 
Lusiguv,  13:")  or  140  yards  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  that  of  the 
surface  at  (irenelle'4U  yards  only,  it  follows  that  when  the  bore 
reaches  the  layer  of  water  at  Paris,  that  the  water  will  rise  sensibly- 
above  the  surface. 


*  It  must  be  remembered  that  M.  Dupuit  is  talking  of  French  roads. — Ed- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


21 


CALCULATING  BALANCE  FOR  ENGINEERS. 

BY  M.  I.KO  LALANNE,  C.  E. 

(Tramlakdfiom  the  French.) 

It  is  often  necessary  to  multiply  by  each  other  the  terms  of  two  se- 
ries, and  to  iliviile  tlie  sum  of  tlie  products  l}y  tlie  sum  of  one  of  llie 
series.  Tllis  calculution,  wjiicli  gives  a  kind  of  mean,  is  that  used  to 
iind  the  centre  of  gravity,  to  determine  certain  prohabilities,  and  to 
solve  various  questions,  which  occur  in  all  the  mathematical  and  phy- 
sical sciences.  M.  Lalanne  has  conceived  the  idea  of  jierformiiig  this 
operation  by  means  of  a  kind  of  Roman  balance  loaded  witli  different 
weights,  and  on  which  the  quotients  required  can  be  reailnrt'ona 
scale,  and  obtained  with  that  degree  of  approximation  which  allows 
the  representations  of  numbers  by  distances  and  weights. 

The  plan  of  tliis  machine  is'  formed  on  the  following  considera- 
tions : — If  we  distribute  on  one  of  the  arms  of  a  balance  weight,  which 
are  proportional  to  the  terms  of  a  series,  and  if  we  place  them  at 
distances  from  the  point  of  suspension,  which  represent  the  terms  of  a 
second  series,  if  on  the  second  arm  of  the  balance  we  suspend  an  equal 
weight  to  the  sum  of  the  weights  already  placed  on  the  first  arm,  it  is 
clear  that  the  distance  at  which  this  total  weight  nuist  be  made  to  act 
for  the  equilibrium,  will  be  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the  op- 
posed weights,  multiplied  respectively  by  their  distances  from  the 
axis,  and  divided  by  the  sum  of  the  weights.  So  nuich  the  more  ex- 
actness will  be  obtained  in  this  result  if  the  weights  and  tlistances  are 
more  exactly  proportional  to  the  terms  of  the  two  series  which  are 
to  be  operated  upon,  and  iis  the  balance  is  made  more  sensible. 

M.  Lalanne  intends  his  instrument  principally  to  assist  engineers  in 
calc\ilating  the  mean  distances  of  transports.  We  know  that  in  these 
calculations  we  must  take  the  sum  of  the  products  of  the  cubes  to  be 
transported  by  the  distances  which  correspond  to  them,  and  divide 
the  sum  of  these  products  by  the  total  cube.  If,  then,  we  take 
weights  which  represent  partial  cubes,  and  if  we  place  them  on  one  of 
the  arms  of  the  balance,  at  distances  which  represent  those  of  the 
transports ;  if,  at  the  same  lime,  we  place  a  partial  weight  on  one  side 
of  the  balance,  an  equal  one  is  placed  in  a  scale  suspended  from  a  very 
precise  point  of  the  other  arm,  and  this  point  may  be  moved  about 
until  equilibrium  is  effected,  its  distance  from  the  axis  of  suspension 
will  represent  the  mean  distance  sought. 

In  M.  Lalanne's  balance,  the  upper  part  of  the  beam  is  divided  into 
150  compartments,  each  two  millimetres  broad  ;  upon  it  are  placed 
the  weights — the  distances  thus  taken  from  a  hundred  and  liftieth 
part  nearly  up  to  (JUU  metres.  The  volumes  are  represented  by  tlie 
weight,  a  cubic  metre  answering  to  five  milligrammes,  a  total  of  2U,0()U 
cubic  metres,  may  easily  be  operated  upon  witli  the  approximation  of 
one  of  these  units. 

An  experiment  was  made  on  the  comparative  duration  of  the  times 
necessary  to  obtain  a  mean  by  this  instrument,  and  also  by  ordinary 
arithmetical  calculation — a  calculation  which  required  fifty  minutes 
to  execute  once  without  verification,  was  done  by  the  machine  in 
twenty  minutes,  with  only  the  chance  of  a  very  slight  error.  Thus  the 
time  necessary  is  reduced  at  least  by  two  fifths,  giving  besides  a  security 
against  great  errors,  and  it  would  be  reduced  to  a  quarter  if  the  ordi- 
nary arithmetical  calculations  had  been  verified.  Although  the  in- 
strument can  only  give  an  approximation,  and  as  in  all  grapliic  oper- 
ations, we  have  not  the  exact  figure  of  the  result,  nevertheless  the 
saving  of  time  is  great  enough  to  show  the  utility  of  it  to  engineers. 


BALISTIC  CLOCKS, 

FOR  ASCERTAINING  THE  POWER  OF  GUNl'OWDER. 

(  Translakdfrom  the  Fniich.) 

These  clocks  were  constructed  in  1S3(),  in  the  Arsenal  of  Metz, 
the  Woolwich  of  France,  by  Messieurs  Piobert  and  Morin,  and  from 
the  nature  of  the  experiments  made  with  them,  were  formed  so  as  to 
fulfil  the  following  conditions: — 

1st  The  suspension  of  the  cannon  clock  must  be  susceptible  of 
receiving  easily  and  at  little  expense,  cannons  and  howitzers  of  every 
calibre. 

2nd  The  machine  must  be  sufficiently  light  for  its  susceptibility  to 
be  great  enough  for  small  calibres,  and  small  charges,  and  ne- 
vertlicless  the  recoils  must  not  exceed  certain  limits  in  heavy 
charges. 

3rd  The  balistic  receiver  must  be  susceptible  of  receiving  without 
injury,  the  shock  of  projectiles  of  all  calibres,  propelled  with  the 
greatest  speed  that  powder  can  communicate  to  them,  and  be  entirely 
constructed  of  metal  to  avoid  tlie  effects  of  hygrometricitv  and  the 
corrections  which  it  necessitates  for  wooden  clocks. 


4th  The  mechanical  requisite  of  having  the  centres  of  oscillation 
on  the  line  of  fin'  being  absolutely  necessary  for  all  calibres,  required 
easy  means  of  effecting  it. 

The  detailed  reasons  which  led  the  inventors  to  adopt  forms  almost 
totally  different  from  those  of  the  old  productions  of  Huttou,  and  th(jse 
which  had  been  estal)lished  at  the  powder  factory  of  Esquerdes,  have 
been  already  published  by  them. 

From  a  summary  description  of  the  apparatus,  M.  Morin  shows,  by 
the  results  of  experiments  conducted  by  Captain  Didion,  Professor  at 
the  School  of  Application  at  Met/,,  how  great  is  tlie  accuracy  of  these 
instruments.  Thus,  in  the  fire  of  asixteen-pounder,  (about  eighteen 
English,)  loaded  with  a  charge  of  41b.  Coz.,  of  four  shots  fired  with 
charges  prepared  with  care,  the  speed  given  to  the  ball  did  not  differ 
more  than  2  feet  7in,  ^  of  its  mean  value,  4l)2-7  metres. 

Among  other  remarkable  experiments,  these  instruments  have  been 
used  by  M.  Didion  to  determine  in  an  accurate  manner  the  charge  of 
powder,  beyond  which  the  velocity  ceases  to  increase  in  12-povmdeis 
(French),  and  which  more  than  l7ilb.,  that  is  to  say,  much  more  than 
the  weight  of  the  ball. 

Besides,  this  extraordinary  fire,  the  same  apparatus  has  been  used  to 
measure  results  much  superior,  since  by  their  means  have  been  ascer- 
tained velocities  of  (KJO  metres  in  a  second,  communicated  by  particular 
powder  to  a  24  pounder  shot. 

In  fine,  by  firing  with  a  12-pounder  garrison  gun,  common  shells  of 
12  inch  calibre,  weighing  4.U10  kil.,  with  a  charge  of  (i  kil.,  they  ob- 
tained a  velocity  of  74j'3metres  in  a  second,  which  is  the  greatest  that 
man  has  ever  yet  been  able  to  communicate  to  moveable  bodies. 

The  machines  have  satisfactorily  answered  the  purposes  for  whicli 
they  were  intended,  so  that  the  Minister  of  War  has  had  others  made, 
which  have  just  been  set  up  at  the  powder  works  of  Bouchet,  near 
x\rpajon,  and  he  has  ordered  a  third  set  for  that  of  Toulouse. 

In  conclusion,  the  principle,  and  general  arrangement,  of  these  clocks 
has  been  applied  by  M.  Morin  to  the  construction  of  a  wooden  clock, 
of  which  the  receiver  closed  with  a  wooden  Ixirrel,  five  feet  diameter, 
will  receive  the  shock  of  a  projectile  fired  at  variable  distances  of 
5U,  100,  or  l.'iO  yards  to  determine  the  effects  of  the  resistance  of  the 
air.  These  experiments  are  already  in  course  of  operation  by  Cap- 
tain Didion,  at  Met/.,  and  they  afford  positive  data,  and  the  bases  of 
experimental  balistics,  so  necessary  for  artillery  practice. 


PENZANCE  HARBOUR. 

Ez  tracts  from  tlie  Report  on  the  improvement  of  the  Harbour  of  Penzance,  by 
Henry  R.  Palmer,  F.R.S. 

Gkntlkmen, — In  obedience  to  llic  instnictiou  of  the  Town  Council,  given 
to  me  throagli  ticorge  IJ.  John,  Esq.,  the  Town  Clerk,  I  have  endeavoured, 
as  far  as  lay  in  my  power,  to  acciaaiut  myself  with  all  those  circumstances  on 
which  the  imiirovcniciit  of  your  harbour  depends ;  and  by  a  careful  consider- 
ation of  them  to  prciiare  such  suggestions  as  I  trust  may  he  coiifonnalile  with 
your  wishes. 

The  principal  oljservations  which  I  collected  referred  to  an  undulatory  mo- 
tion of  the  water  which  is  invariably  felt  when  the  wind  is  high,  and  to  an 
occasional  "  lifting"  of  the  waters  arising  from  distant  causes. 

The  undulating  motion  of  the  water  is  cxiierieiiced  at  the  extremities  of  all 
hays,  the  beds  of  which  form  a  gradual  slope  towards  the  shore,  like  that 
which  is  under  consideration,  and  the  effect  can  only  be  reduced  by  an  alter- 
ation in  the  form  of  the  surface,  and  by  a  protection  from  the  action  of  the 
winds. 

It  being  obvious  that  the  iinprovcinciit  of  the  harbour  must  consist  mainly 
in  the  erection  of  an  addilioiml  pier,  I  was  anxious  to  have  the  opinions  of 
the  nautical  men  as  to  the  best  sitnatioii  and  form  of  the  entrance  ;  and, 
also,  upon  the  width  of  the  opening.  Upon  the  situation  of  the  entrance 
southward  and  northward,  there  was  no  important  difl'erence  of  opinion ;  hut 
it  was  thought  a<lvisahle  to  advance  the  entrance,  if  practicable,  into  deeper 
water  than  tliat  at  tlie  head  of  the  present  pier.  The  relative  positions  of 
the  pier  head  were  discussed  at  some  length;  and  there  was  a  manifest  dif- 
ference of  opiuion  on  that  point  It  is,  indeed,  one  on  which  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  decide  a  priori.  I  am  not  acquainted  with  more  than  one  pier  har- 
bour, the  entrance  to  which  was  so  designed  originally  as  to  he  in  all  respects 
satisfactory  when  carried  into  effect ;  and  in  lajing  down  the  plan,  wliicli  1 
have  now  the  honour  to  sul)mit  to  the  council,  I  have  thought  it  prmlent  so 
to  arrange  the  position  of  llic  pier  heads,  as  to  admit  of  their  lieiug  finally 
adjusted  as  evperience  acquired  in  tlie  progress  of  the  work  may  dictate. 

For  the  satisfaction  of  the  council,  I  have  deemed  it  advisable  to  lay  before 
theiu  plans  of  other  pier  harljours.  By  help  of  tliese,  some  comparisons  may 
be  formed  witli  that  [iroposed  for  Penzance,  not  only  in  relation  to  tlicir  ex- 
tent, hut  also  to  their  security.     They  ai-e  as  follow  :— 

Rarasgate — Dover — Folkestone — Swansea. 

The  harhour  of  Ramsgatc  is  entirely  artificial;  and  is  constructed  on  a 
shore  directly  opjioscd  to  the  prc\ailiiig  winds.  Its  security  is  tliercfore  ex- 
clusively derived  from  the  piers  by  which  it  is  enclosed.     The  width  of  the 


22 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


cntiaiico  was  origiiiallj-  300  feet,  and  ojicii  due.  soutli.  The  exposure  to 
vessels  miioreil  in  the  liarhoin',  was  swch  as  to  iiichioo  the  necessity  for  an  ail- 
illtional  protection ;  and  the  eit»tern  jiier  was  extended  as  sliown  in  the 
drawing,  and  the  width  of  the  entrance  reduced  in  'JOG  feet  e\]i03eil  directly 
to  the  south  west,  or  tlie  most  prevak'nt  winds.  I'Vom  this  circumstance  it 
nir.y  he  readily  inferred,  tliat,  (hninj  g.iles  from  the  quarter  last  mentioned, 
Kamsgate  harhonr  offers  hut  little  security. 

Dover  harhour  is  less  exposed  than  that  of  Ramsgate,  but  it  is  frequently 
rendered  iiiaeeessihle  iiy  the  accumulation  of  shingle,  of  which  the  beach  is 
composed.  The  direction  and  position  of  the  jiiers,  which  define  the  entrance 
to  Dover  liarbour,  liavc  been,  for  the  most  jiart,  designed  with  a  view  to 
avoid  tlie  dilllcullies  arising  from  the  accumulation  of  the  shingle,  rather  than 
as  a  jnotection  .igainst  the  etfeet  of  the  winds.  The  entrance  is  150  feet  in 
width,  and  is  open  near  due  S.E. 

Folkestone  harbour  has  advantages  over  all  the  others  on  the  s.ime  coast,  in 
reference  to  its  position.  It  is  the  most  easily  accessible,  and  is  well  jiro- 
tected  against  the  effect  of  tlie  south-westerly  winds.  It  is,  however,  ren- 
dered very  imperfect,  and  the  entrance  to  it  sometimes  ira|iracfirablo  by  the 
same  causes,  which  so  much  deteriorated  the  value  of  Dover  harbnur.  It  is 
frequently  necessary  to  remove  the  shingle  from  the  mouth  of  it  by  manual 
labour.  But,  in  other  repects,  the  position  of  the  entrance  in  relation  to  the 
prevailing  wind  is  very  favourable.  The  mouth  faces  the  S.E.E.,  and  is  100 
feet  in  width. 

Swansea  harbour  is  the  most  extensive  artificial  harbour  on  the  British 
coast.  It  is  situated  in  the  Bay  of  Swansea ;  and  has  the  advantage  of  a 
river  flowing  tlirough  it,  by  which  a  considerable  portion  of  tlie  bed  is  cleansed, 
and  its  <leptb  preserved.  The  mouth  is  300  feet  in  width,  and  is  exposed 
nearly  due  S.W.  The  slope  of  t!ie  bed  is  such  as  to  occasion  a  considerable 
ground  swell  when  the  wind  is  strong  from  the  prevailing  quarter. 

The  chief  qu.ility  of  the  entrance  to  Folkestone  harbour  is  derived  from 
the  angles  of  the  line  of  its  mouth  with  that  of  tlie  prevailing  winds.  The 
angle  is  about  39  degrees,  which  forms  an  angle  210  degrees  with  the  line  of 
action  of  the  wind  referred  to. 

The  wind  agains  iwliicb  the  most  protection  is  required  at  Penzance  is 
S.S.E.  The  angle  of  the  line  of  entrance  as  drawn  in  the  plan  is  45  de- 
grees with  that  bearing,  or  200  degrees  with  the  line  of  force.  As  before 
observed,  the  positions  of  the  pier  heads  are  so  arranged,  that  that  angle  may 
be  increased,  if  by  experience  the  necessity  for  so  doing  may  be  evinced. 

With  reference  to  the  width  of  the  entrance  of  the  intended  hai'bour,  the 
same  latitude  will  be  preserved  as  witli  the  direction  of  it,  for  it  is  imjiossible 
to  determine  beforehand  with  certainty,  what  width  will,  under  all  the  cir- 
eunistances,  he  most  advantageous.  In  the  first  place  I  have  assuiiied  1 75 
feet. 

Having  adverted  to  the  first  and  most  important  point  to  be  decided,  I 
have  now  to  describe  the  general  design  for  the  harbour. 

In  the  first  place,  I  have  endeavoured  to  include  as  great  an  area  of  ground 
as  possible  within  the  limits  of  the  property  of  the  corporation.  The  northern 
pier  is  drawn  near  about  the  line  of  low  w.ater  of  spring  tides.  Its  direction 
forms  an  angle  of  20  degrees  with  that  of  the  S.S.E.  wind. — The  capability 
of  the  pier  to  resist  the  action  of  the  sea  is  therefore  satisfactory.  Tlie  sur- 
face of  the  pier  is  proposed  to  be  30  feet  in  width,  exclusive  of  the  parapet 
wall.  The  pier  is  proposed  to  terminate  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
town  property. 

The  iiier  is  jiroposcd  to  be  constructed  with  granite,  and  the  interior  be- 
tween the  walls  to  be  filled  with  the  stones  obtained  by  the  excavation  in  the 
harbour.  A  consideralile  lenglh  of  the  northern  portion  of  the  pier  need  not 
he  walled  in  tlie  substantial  manner  required  where  it  is  more  exposed,  and 
in  deeper  water.  Rubble  work,  laid  with  a  long  slope  on  the  face  in  the  part 
referred  to,  will  not  only  be  more  economical,  but  will  also  form  a  better 
termination  than  a  perpendicular  wall,  in  as  much  as  it  will  gradually  divert 
and  disperse  the  action  of  the  sea. 

It  being  the  opinion  of  many  of  the  nautical  men  that  some  advantage 
would  be  derived  by  the  extension  of  the  southern  pier ;  and  considering  that 
the  extremity  of  it  m.iy  rcijuire  repair  and  supjiort,  I  have  proposed  an  addi- 
tion to  it  of  50  feet. 

It  may  be  proper  here  to  remark  that  although  I  have  inchtded  hy  the  pro- 
posed pier  the  greatest  area  available  within  the  limits  of  the  eoi-poration 
property,  the  pier  as  designed  will  cost  a  less  sum  than  wouhl  have  lieen  re- 
quisite for  a  more  limited  inclosure  in  the  northern  direction. 

The  whole  area  thus  to  be  enclosed  will  exceed  10  acres  ;  and  there  ean 
be  no  doubt  that  such  a  work  alone  would  be  one  of  great  v.ilue  and  iuiport- 
anee  ;  but  still  it  woidd  be  deficient  by  the  total  recession  of  the  tidal  water 
from  it.  The  area,  however,  is  such  as  to  allow  of  a  portion  being  abstracted 
from  it  for  the  ]mrpose  of  a  floating  dock.  In  the  plan  I  have  represented  a 
jiortion  so  abstracted  to  the  extent  of  ten  acres,  a  communication  being  made 
between  the  harbour  and  the  dock,  by  means  of  a  lock,  capable  of  passing 
vessels  of  500  Ions  burthen. 

The  division  wall  is  represented  near  to  a  lane  called  Neddy  Bettey's  Lane. 
The  lock  is  so  placed  as  to  enable  vessels  to  be  passed  through  conveniently 
and  with  safety. 

It  is  proposed  to  form  a  quay  along  the  boundary  of  the  dock,  which  will 
admit  of  the  erection  of  warehouses,  which  being  built  upon  arches,  will  not 
prevent  the  traffic  of  carriages  along  the  quays. 

1  have  not  laid  down  any  design  for  a  quay  along  the  front  of  the  town, 
bnt,  have  represented  by  a  dotted  line  what  I  conceive  shoidil  be  tlie  limits  of 
«  quay  if  su«h  should  hereafter  be  decided  upon. 


At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  harbour  I  have  represented  a  boundary 
line,  including  a  space  which  appears  to  me  to  he  peculiarly  suited  for  a  ship 
yard,  in  ps  much  as  if  will  be  a  convenient  situation  for  launcliing. 

In  considering  the  various  circiinistanees  affecting  the  general  design,  I 
have  had  especial  reference  to  the  pr.acticable  operation  of  executing  it. — 
This  is  peculiarly  important,  where  the  work  is  exposed  in  its  progress  to  the 
violent  action  of  the  sea;  and  I  have  no  hesitation  in  slating  distinctly  that 
for  the  execution  of  the  work,  with  due  regard  to  economy,  and  to  avoid 
damage  to  it  by  the  sea  whilst  it  advances,  it  will  be  iicces>iary  to  eommeuce 
at  the  northern  extremity,  and  proceed  regularly,  making  all  its  parts  perfect 
as  they  are  severally  produced. 

This  view  of  the  case  constitutes  an  additional,  if  not  alone  a  sutTicicnt 
argument  in  favour  of  continuing  the  sea  wall  to  the  point  mentioned. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  beg  permission  to  state  that  the  shortness  of  the 
time  within  which  it  has  been  necessaiyfor  me  to  furnish  myidan  and  report 
has  not  been  permitted  me  to  obtain  and  furnish  them  in  so  complete  a  state 
as  they  should  have  been  presented  in. 

Certain  sections,  soundings,aiidmeasurements,  are  necessary,  and  yet  want- 
ing, and,  indeed,  before  the  subject  can  be  continued  beyond  what  is  neces- 
sary for  the  Parliamentary  jiroccedings,  a  comiplete  survey  made  for  the  par- 
ticular objects  in  view  will  be  indispensable  ;  and  it  will  be  equally  important 
to  obtain  a  scries  of  observations  upon  the  tides,  about  which  I  have  not  yet 
lieen  able  to  collect  ant  precise  or  valuable  information. 

In  forming  an  estimate  of  the  expcuce  of  the  works,  I  have  been  obliged, 
from  the  absence  of  sufticient  accurate  data,  to  assume  a  larger  consumption 
of  materials  than  I  lielieve  will  he  required,  in  order  that  the  error  may  be  on 
the  safe  side ;  and  hence,  I  can,  with  confid^'uce,  state  that  the  sums  annexed 
will  be  more  than  sufficient  for  the  execution  of  the  w  orks  proposed. 

ESTIM.\TE    OF    EXPENCR. 

Erecting  a  northern  pier,  as  represented  in  the  drawing.  Making 
an  addition  of  50  feet  to  the  jircsent  pier;  and  thus  constituting 
a  safe  and  commodious  harbour    i'2-1,000 

Erecting  a  cross  wall  for  the  construction  of  a  floating  dock  of  ten 
acres  in  area,  with  a  ship  lock,  and  tide  gates,  and  swivel  bridge, 
and  forming  qii.iys  along  the  boundary  of  the  dock     8,500 

Parliamentary  and  law  expenses,  engineering,  &c.,  say   2,500 

-f  35,000 


ROYAI,  SOCIETY.— THE  PRESIDENT'S  ADDRESS. 

The  following  is  the  address  of  the  President  (the  Marquis  of  Northamp- 
ton), at  the  meeting  of  the  Society  on  the  5th  ultimo. 

Gknti.embn^A  year  having  now  clasped  since  you  conferred  upon  me  the 
highly  honourable  office  of  your  President,  it  becomes  my  duty,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  example  of  my  predecessors,  to  address  you.  The  first  and 
most  agreeable  part  of  my  task  is  to  express  my  feelings  of  gratitude  to  those 
(ientlcmen  whom  you  were  pleased  to  select  as  my  Council.  *  * 

The  past  year  has  indeed  been  to  that  portion  of  the  Royal  Society  which 
takes  an  active  jiart  in  its  affairs,  one  of  more  th.'m  usual  labour  and  exertion, 
— of  labour  and  exertion,  destined,  as  I  hope,  to  produce  rich  and  ample 
fruit.  The  great  and  marking  peculiarity  which  has  attended  it,  has  been 
the  sading  of  the  Autarctic  Expedition.  The  impoitance  of  following  uj)  in 
the  southern  regions  of  the  globe  the  magnetic  inquiries  so  interesting  to  men 
of  science  in  Europe,  was  strongly  felt  by  one  of  our  distinguished  Fellows, 
Major  Sabine,  ami  by  him  brought  before  the  notice  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion at  their  meeting  at  Newcastle,  as  he  had  also  previously  done  at  Dublin. 
That  great  assemblage  of  men  of  science,  conciuTing  in  the  views  of  Major 
Sabine,  resolved  to  suggest  to  Her  Majesty's  Government  the  propriety  of 
sending  out  a  scientific  expedition;  and  the  Royal  Society  lost  no  time  in 
warmly  and  zealously  seconding  the  recommendation :  and,  in  compliance 
with  the  request  conveyed  to  us  by  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  the 
Council  tr.ansmitted  to  the  Government  a  body  of  bints  and  instructions  in 
difterent  branches  of  science,  which  I  trust  are  bkely  to  be  of  material  use 
both  to  the  principal  and  to  the  subsidiary  objects  of  the  Antarctic  Expedi- 
tion. These  hints  and  instructions  would  have  been  far  less  extensive  and 
efficient  if  the  Council  had  not  been  able  to  have  recourse  to  the  several 
Scientific  Committees,  of  whose  formation  the  Society  is  already  aware.  The 
Expedition  has  now  sailed,  amply  provhled  with  the  best  scientific  instrumeuts, 
ami  furnished  with  ample  scientific  instructions  :  it  is  commanded  hy  oiiC 
well  ac(iuaintcd  both  with  magnetic  imiuiry  and  nautical  research.  We  may 
therefore  hope  that,  with  the  blessing  of  Providence,  it  will  return  with  a 
store  of  knowledge  viiluable  to  the  geographer,  to  the  geologist,  to  the  me- 
teorologist, and  to  bini  also  who  stuilies  the  marvels  of  vegetable  and  animal 
life.  In  addition  to  all  this  we  may  hope,  that  the  main  object  of  the  E.\- 
pedition  will  be  accomplished  by  additional  light  thrown  on  the  obscure  pro- 
blems which  still  attend  the  magnetism  of  the  earth,  and  that  by  such  dis- 
coveries Cajitain  James  Clark  Ross  may  not  only  add  to  his  own  reputation 
and  bis  country's  glory,  but  also  give  to  the  adventurous  mariner  increased 
facility  and  security  in  traversing  the  jiathways  of  the  ocean.  The  .\ntaretic 
Expedition  was  not  the  only  measure  recommended  by  the  Uoyal  Society  and 
tiie  British  Association  to  ller  Majesty's  Government.  Another  important 
recommendation,  which  had  previously  been  brought  forward  hy  Baron  Hum- 
boldt, was  the  cstablishmcut  of  fixed  magnetic  obsenatories  for  the  purpose 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


23 


of  making  simullaiicous  observations  in  rliffcrcnt  jiarts  of  our  colonial  pos- 
sessions. These  reeommendations  have  l>ecn  readily  acceded  to,  liotli  by  the 
Government  and  by  the  Directors  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  probably, 
ere  many  months  shall  have  elapsed,  the  observatories  will  be  in  full  activity. 
I  have  stated,  tientlemen,  that  your  Council  had  recourse  to  the  Scientific 
Comniiftees  for  assistance  in  drawing  up  instructions  for  the  Expedition  in 
different  branches  of  knowledge;  those  romniittccs,  who  were  named  only 
two  years  ago,  were  at  first  apparently  more  a  matter  of  form  than  substance  ; 
t  hey  have  now  been  found  capable  of  doing  excellent  service.  Not  only  has 
your  Council  consulted  them  on  the  questions  already  alluded  to,  but  also, 
ol)serving  that  the  several  Committees  arc  composed  of  the  most  competent 
judges  of  the  merits  of  the  raentoirs  in  the  respective  departments  of  science 
communicated  to  tlie  Society,  they  have,  in  general,  referred  the  papers  to 
them  to  report  upon  previously  to  coming  to  a  decision  regarding  tlieir  pub- 
lication. The  Royal  Society,  from  its  character  of  pursuing  every  branch  of 
phjsical  science,  is  evidently  in  a  different  position  from  other  societies  pro- 
fessing some  one  science  .ilone.  It  may  be  reasonably  expected,  that  in  the 
Botanical  or  Ocological  Society,  for  instance,  the  whole  Council  should  pos- 
sess a  certain  degree  of  botanical  or  geological  knowledge.  This,  however, 
cannot  he  the  ease  with  us.  Our  Council  will  comprise  a  few  astronomers,  a 
few  zoologists,  a  few  botanists,  and  a  few  persons  well  acquainted  witli  geo- 
logy and  medicine  ;  but  no  single  science  can  monopolize  a  large  nundier  of 
its  members.  In  difficult  questions  we  have  therefore  felt  that  it  is  more 
satisfactory  to  ourselves,  and  we  think  proliably  more  so  to  the  general  body 
of  the  society,  and  to  those  who  have  favoured  us  with  ]iapers,  that  we  should 
ask  the  opinion  of  a  larger  nundicr  of  men  conversant  with  the  immediate 
sciences  in  question.  At  the  same  time,  the  Council  retains  its  responsil)ility 
for  its  acts,  and  the  chief  otticers  of  the  society  are  officially  members  of  each 
of  the  scientific  committees.  The  Covnicil  have  derived  a  further  assistance 
from  these  Committees  in  the  adjudication  of  our  medals.  In  naming  these 
Committees,  the  Council  has  had  both  a  difBcult  and  a  delicate  task.  Con- 
vinced that  bodies,  when  too  numerous,  are  little  adapted  for  business,  they 
have  also  felt  that  the  power  of  giving  their  attendance  might  be  more  im- 
|)ortant  than  .absolute  superiority  of  scientific  attainments.  Some  mend)ers 
have,  however,  been  selected,  though  really  non-resident,  because  it  was  be- 
lieved that  their  colleagues  miglit  wish  to  consult  thcni  by  letter.  With  these 
objects  and  views,  the  Council  have  done  their  best ;  but  they  have  little 
doubt  that  some  gentlemen  have  been  overlooked  and  omitted,  whose  pre- 
sence in  the  Committees  might  have  liecn  very  desirable-  The  Society  must 
consider  this  as  in  some  degree  a  new  system,  to  be  perfected  and  improved 
by  experience  alone.  Another  question  has  occupied  a  share  of  the  time  of 
the  Council  during  the  last  year.  We  have  felt  that  the  testimonial  of  re- 
commendation for  new  Fellows  has  scarcely  been  sufficiently  definite  and 
precise  in  stating  the  grounds  on  which  the  candidate  was  recommended  to 
the  bodv  of  the  Society.  We  have  therefore  thought  it  desirable  to  draw  up 
forms  of  testimonial,  some  one  of  which  may  he  adopted  as  most  fit  for  each 
individual  so  recommended.  We  have  tboiight  this  more  fair,  at  the  same 
time,  to  the  meritorious  candidate  and  to  those  electors  who  are  otherwise 
left  in  the  dark  with  respect  to  liis  claims  for  their  suffrages.  We  hope  and 
trust  that  this  new  regulation  will  not  stand  in  the  way  of  any  caudiilate  who 
would  be  a  desirable  addition  to  our  number. 

The  vacancies  in  (he  li.st  of  our  Foreign  Members  have  been  supplied  by  the 
election  of  .\I.  Savart  of  Paris,  Siguor  Melloui  of  Parma,  M.  Quetelet  of  Brus- 
sels, M.  Hansteen  of  Christiana,  Prof.  Agassiz  of  Xeufchatel,  ,and  M.  von  Mar- 
tins of  Milnich,  as  those  Fellows  who  were  present  at  their  election  will  re- 
jnember. 

I  have  to  announce  to  you,  Gentlemen,  with  great  regret,  the  retirement  of 
Captain  Smyth  from  the  otHce  of  Foreign  Secretary,  in  consequence  of  his 
leaving  his  present  residence  for  one  at  an  inconvenient  distance  from  Lon- 
don. 

I  have  the  honour,  Gcnllenicn,  to  inform  you  that  the  Council  have,  by  an 
uuanimous  decision,  awarded  the  Royal  Med.als  to  Dr.  Maitin  Bariy  aad  Mr. 
Ivory,  and  the  Copley  Medal  for  the  year  to  Mr.  Robert  Brown;  and  I  shall 
now  beg  leave  to  address  myself  to  those  three  Gentlemen. 

Dr.  B.\RHV. — It  gives  me  sincere  pleasure  to  bestow  this  medal  on  a  gen- 
tleman who  has  so  well  deserved  it,  by  researches  in  a  ilifticult  and  important 
portion  of  animal  physiology.  Your  merits  have  been  appreciated  Iiy  men 
much  more  e.'ipable  of  mnlerstauding  the  subject  than  I  can  pretend  to  be — 
by  men  selected  by  tlie  Council  of  the  Royal  Society  for  their  physiological 
science,  who  have  felt  the  great  value  of  the  discoveries  you  have  iiuide  by 
accurate  and  diligent  research,  aided  oy  the  skilful  use  of  the  microscope.  I 
trust  that  the  award  of  this  medal  will  encourage  you  to  persevere  in  the 
same  course,  and  that  future  discoveries  may  add  to  your  reputation  and  to 
that  of  the  important  profession  to  which  you  belong. 

Ma.  Ivory — It  is  not  the  first  time  that  you  have  been  addressed  from 
this  chair,  and  it  gives  me  great  satisfaction  to  follow  the  steps  of  my  prede- 
cessors. Sir  .loscph  Banks  and  Sir  11.  Davy,  by  .again  bestowing  a  medal  on 
one  who  is  an  honour  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  pre-eminently  distinguished 
for  his  nLtthematical  attairiuients.  The  laho\irs  of  your  life  arc  too  well 
known  to  the  scientific  world  to  require  any  culogium  from  me,  and  I  con- 
sider that  in  this  tribute  to  your  jiaper  on  astronomical  refraction,  we  are 
rather  doing  an  honour  to  ourselves  than  to  you. 

Mil.  Brows — In  conferring  the  Copley  Medal  on  yon  for  your  v.alnable 
discoveries  in  vegetable  impregnation,  1  am  quite  sure  that  the  voice  of  scien- 
tific Europe  will  respond  to  the  decision  of  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Society. 


The  Academic  des  Sciences  has  already  pronounced  on  your  merits,  as  also 
on  those  of  Mr.  Ivory,  by  electing  you  as  well  as  that  gentleman  to  a  seat 
among  their  foreign  members :  and  the  University  of  Oxford  has  also,  by  an 
honorary  degree,  given  you  a  similar  testimonial.  That  you  are  one  of  our 
Fellows  is  to  myself  a  circmnstance  peculiarly  agreeable,  as  it  m\ibt  be  to  the 
whole  body  over  whom  I  have  the  honour  to  preside.  Your  discoveries  in 
the  particular  botanical  question,  for  which  I  have  to  give  you  the  Copley 
Medal,  ai'c  so  important,  not  only  in  a  botanical,  but  also  in  a  general  scien- 
tific point  of  view,  by  showing  the  close  analogies  of  animal  and  vegetable 
bfe,  that  the  Committee  of  Zoology  have  felt  it  as  much  their  province  as 
(hat  of  the  Committee  of  Botanj ,  to  recommend  that  the  Copley  Medal 
should  be  bestowed  upon  yon ;  and  the  Council  have  come  to  an  unanimous 
resolution  to  give  it,  though  at  the  same  time  other  gentlemen  were  recom- 
mended by  otlier  scientific  committees,  with  whom  even  an  unsuccessful 
rivalry  would  be  no  mean  praise.  I  liope,  Mr.  Brown,  that  you  may  long 
enjoy  life  aiul  leisure  to  pursue  researches  so  valuable  to  science  and  so  hon- 
ourable to  the  country  of  which  you  arc  a  native. 

In  drawing  up  the  following  notice  of  the  losses  wliich  the  Royal  Society 
has  sustained  during  the  last  year,  in  conformity  with  the  practice  of  my  pre- 
decessors, I  have  availed  myself  of  the  assistance  of  one  of  the  Fellows,  whose 
acquaintance  with  the  labours  of  men  of  science  peculiarly  qualified  him  for 
the  execution  of  a  task  which  1  could  not  myself  have  ventured  to  undertake. 
I  therefore  will  not  longer  occuj)y  your  time  by  any  fmther  remarks  of  my 
own,  but  will  conclude  liy  the  expression  of  my  pre.!ent  wishes  for  the  pros- 
perity of  tlie  Royal  Society,  and  for  its  success  in  furthering  the  noble  ends 
for  which  it  was  instituted. 

The  Rev.  Martin  Davy  was  originally  a  member  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion, which  he  followed,  during  a  greater  part  of  his  life,  with  no  inconsider- 
able reputation.  He  became  a  medical  student  of  Cains  College  iu  1  787,  and 
was  elected  to  a  fellowship  iu  1793,  and  to  the  mastership  in  180.'!,  the  late 
illustrious  Dr.  Wollaston  being  one  of  his  competitors.  One  of  the  first  acts 
of  his  administration  was  to  open  his  College  to  a  more  large  and  lilieral  com- 
petition, by  the  abolition  of  some  mischievous  and  unst.atutablc  restrictions, 
which  had  been  sanctioned  by  long  custom,  ami  also  by  making  academical 
merit  and  honours  the  sole  avenue  to  college  preferment :  and  he  lived  to 
witness  the  complete  success  of  this  wise  and  liberal  measm'e,  in  the  rapid 
increase  of  the  number  of  high  academical  honours  which  were  g.iined  by 
members  of  his  College,  and  by  the  subsc  quent  advancement  of  many  of  thera 
to  the  highest  professional  rank  and  eminence.  Some  years  after  his  acces- 
sion to  the  m.istership,  he  took  holy  orders  and  comnuited  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  for  that  of  Theology,  and  in  later  life  he  was  coilaled  to 
some  considerble  ecclesiastical  preferments.  Dr.  Davy  bad  no  great  ac- 
quaintiince  with  the  details  of  accurate  science,  but  he  was  remarkable  for 
the  extent  and  variety  of  his  attainments  in  classical  and  general  litcr.ature ; 
his  conversation  was  eminently  lively  aiul  original  and  not  less  agreeable  from 
its  occasional  tendency  to  somewhat  paradoxical,  though  generally  liarmless 
speculations.  He  died  in  May  last,  after  a  long  illness,  deeply  lamented  by 
a  large  circle  of  friends,  to  whom  he  was  endeared  by  his  many  social  and 
other  virtues. 

Dr.  llEunKHT  Marsh,  Bishop  of  Petcrboroug'i,  and  one  of  the  most  acute 
and  learned  theologians  of  his  age,  became  a  member  of  St.  .lohn's  College  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge  in  the  year  177.'i,  and  took  bis  B..\.  degree  in 
1 7f  0,  being  second  in  the  list  of  Wranglers,  which  was  headed  liy  his  friend 
and  relation  Mr.  Thomas  .loncs,  a  n\au  whose  intellectu.al  powers  were  of  the 
highest  order,  and  who  for  many  ye:irs  filled  the  oitlce  of  tutor  of  Trinity 
College  with  unequalled  success  ami  reputation.  Soon  after  his  election  to  a 
felIo^v3hip,  he  went  to  Germany,  ^vbere  he  de\'oted  himself  ilin-ing  many  years 
to  theological  and  gcm-ral  studies,  and  first  became  known  to  the  public  as 
the  translator  and  learned  commcnt.ator  of  .Mich.iclis's  Introduction  to  the 
New  Testament.  It  was  during  his  residence  abroad  that  he  pubbshed  iu  the 
German  hinguage  various  tracts  in  defence  of  the  policy  of  his  own  country 
in  the  continental  wars,  and  more  particularly  a  very  elaborate  "  History  of 
the  i'olitics  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  from  the  time  of  the  Conference  at 
Pilnitz  to  the  Declaration  of  War,"  a  work  which  produced  a  marked  im- 
pression on  the  state  of  public  opinion  in  Germany,  and  for  which  he  re- 
ceived a  very  considerable  pension  on  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Pitt.  In 
1807.  he  was  elected  Lady  ilargaret's  Professor  of  Divinity  in  (he  University 
of  Cambridge,  an  appointment  of  great  value  and  importance,  which  he  re- 
tained for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  On  the  resumption  of  his  residence  in 
(he  University,  he  devoted  himself  with  great  diligence  to  the  preparation  of 
bis  lectures  on  various  important  branches  of  Divinity,  interposing  a  great 
number" of  occasional  pubUcations  on  the  CatboUc  Question,  the  Bible  So- 
ciety, and  various  other  subjecis  of  political  and  theological  controversy.  In 
1S16  ho  was  .appointed  Bishop  of  Llandaff;  and  three  years  afterwards  he 
was  translated  to  the  see  of  Peterborough.  *  *  Dr.  Marsh  was  a  man  of 
great  learning  and  very  uncommon  vigoiu'  of  mind,  and  as  a  writer,  remarka- 
ble for  the  great  precision  of  bis  language  and  his  singuhar  clearness  in  the 
statement  of  his  argument. 

Professor  Rigauo. — The  father  of  the  late  Professor  Rigaud  bad  the 
care  of  the  King's  Observatory  at  Kew,  an  appointment  whi^h  proljably  in- 
fluenced the  early  tastes  and  predilections  of  his  son.  lie  was  admitted  a 
member  of  Exeter  CoUege,  Oxford,  in  1 791,  at  the  early  age  of  sixteen,  and 
continued  to  reshle  there  as  fellow  and  tutor  until  1810,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed Savilian  Professor  of  Geometry.  He  afterwards  succeeded  to  the 
care  of  the  Kadcliffo  Observatory,  and  the  noble  suite  of  iuitrumcnts  by  Bird, 


24 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


witlt  wliicli  it  \%  furnishcil,  was  augmented,  on  his  rcconinieiulation,  li}  a  new 
transit  and  circle,  so  as  to  lit  it  for  tlie  most  refined  purposes  of  modern  prac- 
tical astronom)" :  and  we  venlurc  to  e:^i)ress  a  hope  that  it  will  sliorlly  I)ecojne 
eipially  etiicient  and  useful  with  the  similar  establishment  which  exists  in  the 
sister  university.  Professor  lligaud  j)nblishcd  in  18.S1,  the  miscellaneous 
works  and  correspondence  of  UratUey,  to  which  he  afterwards  added  a  very 
interesting  gnpplement  on  the  astronomical  ])a])ers  of  Harriott.  In  1838,  he 
]>ublished  some  curious  notices  of  the  tirst  jiuhlieation  of  the  Principia  of 
Newton ;  and  he  had  also  projected  a  I,ife  of  llalley,  with  a  view  of  resening 
the  memory  of  that  great  man  from  much  of  the  ohloipiy  to  which  it  has  hecn 
exposed  ;  he  had  made  extensive  collections  for  a  new  edition  of  the  mathc- 
uintical  collections  of  Pappus :  and  he  was  the  author  of  many  valuable  coni- 
innnications  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and  to 
other  scienlifie  journals,  on  various  sulijecis  connected  with  physical  and  as- 
tronomical science.  There  was  probably  no  other  person  of  his  age  who  was 
equally  learned  on  all  subjects  connected  with  the  history  and  literature  of 
astronomy,  lie  die-i  in  London  in  March  last,  after  a  short  but  jiainful  ill- 
ness, which  he  bore  with  a  fortitude  and  resignation  which  might  have  been 
expected  from  his  gentle,  patient,  and  truly  Christian  cliaraetcr. 

Mr.  Wii.kins,  Professor  of  Architecture  to  the  Koval  Academy — (see 
Journal,  Vol.  II.  page  388.) 

The  Kev.  AiiCHiHAi.D  Alison,  senior  llinislcr  of  St.  Paul's  Chapel,  Edin- 
burgh, was  born  in  1757,  became  a  member  of  the  University  of  (ilasgow  in 
1772,  and  of  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  in  l"7.i,  and  the  degree  of  B.C.L.  in 
1784  :  he  soon  afterwards  took  holy  orders  in  the  English  Church,  and  was 
presented  to  several  ecclesiastical  preferments  by  Sir  William  Pulteney,  Lord 
Chancellor  Loughborough,  and  Uisbop  Douglas  of  Salisbury.  In  1784  he 
maiTicd  the  daughter  of  the  celebrated  Ur.  John  Gregory  of  Edinburgh,  with 
whom  be  lived  in  uninterruiited  happiness  for  forty  years  of  bis  life.  In 
1814,  he  published  two  volumes  of  sermons  ;  and  at  a  later  jieriod,  a  very 
interesting  memoir  of  his  accomplisheil  friend  the  Hon.  Fraser  Tytler  Lord 
AVoodhousIce.  Mr.  Alison  was  a  man  of  very  pleasing  and  refined  manners, 
of  great  cheerfulness  and  equanimity  of  temper,  of  a  clear  and  temperate 
judgment,  and  possessing  a  very  extensive  knowledge  of  mankind.  He  was 
habitually  pious  and  bumble-minded,  exhibiting,  in  the  whole  tenor  of  his 
life,  the  blessed  inlluencc  of  tliat  Gospel  of  which  he  was  the  ordained  minis- 
ter. All  his  writings  are  characterized  by  that  jjure  and  correct  taste,  the 
princijiles  of  wliich  be  had  illustrated  with  so  much  elegance  and  beauty. 

Ed.viuni)  Law  Lisiiisgton  was  born  in  l/liG.  at  the  lodge  of  St.  Peter's 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  his  grandfather.  Bishop  Law,  was  master.  He 
became  a  student,  and  afterwards  a  fellow  of  Queen's  College  in  that  Univer- 
sity, and  attained  the  fourth  place  on  tlic  mathematical  tripos  in  1787.  After 
practising  for  some  years  at  the  bar,  he  was  appointed  Cliief  Justice  of  Cey- 
lon, a  station  which  be  filled  for  several  years  with  great  advantage  to  that 
colony,  (^n  his  return  from  the  East,  he  was  made  .Auditor  of  the  Exche- 
(juer,  and  also  received  from  his  uncle  Lord  Ellenborough  the  appointment  of 
Master  of  the  Crown  Olticc.  He  was  an  intimate  friend  of  WoUastou  ami 
Tennant ;  and  tbo\igb  willidrawn  by  his  jmrsuits  from  the  active  cultivation 
of  science,  he  continued  throughoul  his  life  to  feel  a  deep  interest  in  its  pro- 
gress. His  acquaintance  wiili  classical  and  general  lilcrature  was  unusually 
extensive  and  varied,  and  he  had  the  happiness  of  witnessing  in  his  sons  the 
successful  culiivation  of  those  studies  wliich  other  and  more  absorbing  duties 
had  compelled  him  to  abandon.  Mr.  Lushington  "was  a  man  of  a  cheerful 
temper,  of  very  courteous  and  ])lcasing  manncis,  tenijierate  and  tolerant  in  all 
his  opinions,  and  exemplary  in  the  discharge  both  of  his  public  and  private 
duties  :  few  persons  have  ever  been  more  sincerely  beloved  either  by  their 
friends  or  by  the  members  of  their  families. 

Mil.  Gkorgk  Saunders  was  formerly  architect  to  the  British  Museum, 
where  lie  built  the  Tow  nley  Gallery ;  be  was  a  diligent  and  learned  antiquary, 
and  the  author  of  a  very  interesting  and  valualde  )iaper  in  the  twenty-sixth 
volume  of  the  Archa:ologia,  containing  the  results  of  an  inquiry  concerning 
the  condition  and  extent  of  the  city  of  Westminster  at  various  periods  of  our 
bistoiy. 

The  only  foreign  members  whom  the  Royal  Society  has  lost  during  the  last 
year  are  the  Baron  de  Prony,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  engineers  and 
niatheniaticians  of  the  age  ;  and  the  venerable  Pierre  Prevost,  formerly  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Geneva. 

Gaspabu  Ci.air  Frax<,'ois  Marie  Kichi;  dr  Puonv,  was  born  in  the  de- 
partment of  the  Rhone,  in  1755,  and  became  a  pu])il  at  an  early  age,  of  the 
ficole  des  Pouts  et  Chaussces,  where  he  pursued  his  mathematical  and  other 
studies  with  great  application,  and  with  more  than  common  success.  He  was 
subsequently  employed  as  an  adjunct  of -M.  Perronet,  the  chief  of  that  school, 
in  many  important  works,  and  particularly  in  the  restoration  of  the  Port  of 
Dunkirk  ;  and  in  1  780,  he  drew  up  the  engineering  plan  for  the  erection  of 
the  Pont  Louis  XVL,  and  was  employed  in  superintending  its  execution. 
M.  de  Proiiy  had  already  a|ipcarcd  before  the  public,  first  astbc  translator  of 
General  Hoy's  ■'  .\ccouiit  of  the  Methods  employed  for  the  Measurement  of 
the  Base  on  Hounslow  Heath,"  which  was  the  basis  of  the  most  considerable 
geodesical  o]icration  which  had  at  that  time  been  undert.aken  ;  and  subse- 
quently as  the  author  of  an  essay  of  considerable  merit,  "  On  the  Construc- 
tion of  Intermediate  Equations  of  the  Second  Degree,"  In  1790  and  1707, 
ajipcared  his  great  woi'k  in  two  large  volumes,  entitled  Wotivcllc  Architect iire 
JlydratUitjiie,  which  is  a  very  complete  and  systematic  treatise  on  Mechanics, 
Hydrostatics  and  Hydraulics,  and  more  particularly  on  the  principles  of  the 
steam-engine  and  hydravilical  engineering.    In  1 792  he  was  appointed  to  su- 


perintend the  Cadastre  or  great  territorial  and  ninnerical  survey  of  Trance — a 
gigantic  undertaking,  the  subsequent  execution  of  which,  during  the  revolu- 
tionary government,  coinbincd  with  the  establishment  of  the  bases  of  the  de- 
cimal metrical  system,  gave  employment  and  developemcnt  to  so  many  a. id 
such  important  scientific  labours  ami  discoveries ;  among  many  other  labo- 
rious duties  the  formation  of  the  extensive  tables  devolved  upon  M.  de  Prony, 
who,  in  the  course  of  two  years  organized  and  instructed  a  numerous  body  of 
calculators,  and  completed  the  inuiicnse  Tattles  dii  Cndaxtrc,  which  are  still 
jireserved  in  MSS.  at  the  librarv  of  the  Observatory  in  seventeen  enormous 
foUo  volumes.  M.  de  Prony  became  Directenr-Gcneral  des  Fonts  et  Chans- 
sees  in  1704,  and  was  nominated  the  first  Professor  of  Mechanics  to  the  Ecole 
Polytcchnique — an  appointment  wliich  led  to  the  publication  of  many  very 
important  memoirs  on  mechanical  and  bydraulical  subjects,  and  on  various 
problems  of  engineering,  wliich  apiie.ared  in  the  Journal  of  that  celebrated 
school.  lie  declined  the  invitation  of  -Napoleon  to  become  a  member  of  the 
Institute  of  Eg)'pt — a  refusal  which  was  never  entirely  forgotten  or  par- 
doned. In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  he  was  engaged  in  execution 
of  very  extensive  works  connected  with  the  embankments  towards  the  em- 
bouchure of  the  Po,  and  in  the  ports  of  Genoa,  Aneona,  Pola,  Venice,  and  the 
Gulf  of  .Spezzia ;  and  in  1810,  he  was  appointed  in  conjunction  with  the  ce- 
lebrated Count  Fossombroni,  of  Florence,  the  bead  of  the  Commissiotw  de 
V A(jro  Rnniano.  for  the  more  eft'cctual  drainage  and  improvement  of  the  Pon- 
tine Mashes.  The  result  of  his  labours  in  this  very  important  task,  which  he 
prosecuted  with  extraordinary  zeal  and  success,  was  embodied  in  his  Des- 
crijition  Ifydro(/raplii(jiie  et  UistorUjue  des  Marnis  Ponthis,  which  appeared 
in  1822,  which  contains  a  very  detailed  description  of  the  past,  present  and 
prospective  conditions  of  tliese  pestilential  regions,  and  a  very  elaborate  sci- 
entific discussion  of  the  general  principles  which  should  guide  us,  in  this 
and  all  similar  cases,  in  etl'ccting  their  permanent  restoration  to  healthiness 
and  fertdity.  After  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  M.  de  Prony  continued  to 
be  employed  in  various  im]iortant  works,  and  more  particularly  in  the  forma- 
tion of  some  extensive  embankments  towards  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone.  In 
181 7  be  was  made  a  member  of  the  liurenv  des  Lmiyitudes,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  elected  one  of  the  fifty  foreign  members  of  the  Royal  Soci- 
ety :  in  1828  he  was  created  a  Baron  by  Charles  X.,  and  was  made  a  peer  of 
France  in  1835.  He  died  in  great  tranquillity  at  Aonieres,  near  Paris,  in 
July  last,  in  the  84th  year  of  bis  age.  The  Baron  de  Prony  was  a  man  of  sin- 
gularly pleasing  manners,  of  very  lively  conversation,  and  great  evenness  of 
temper.  He  was  one  of  the  most  voluminous  writers  of  bis  age,  generally 
upon  mathematical  and  other  subjects  connected  with  his  ]irofessional  pur- 
suits; and  though  we  should  not  be  justified  in  placing  him  on  the  same 
level  with  some  of  the  great  men  with  whom  be  was  associated  for  so  many 
years  of  bis  life,  yet  he  is  one  of  those  of  whom  bis  country  may  be  justly 
proud,  whether  v\e  consider  the  extent  and  character  of  his  scientific  attain- 
ments, or  the  great  variety  of  important  practical  and  useful  labours  in  which 
his  life  was  sjient. 

Pierre  Prkvost  was  born  in  1751,  and  was  originally  destined  to  follow 
the  profession  of  his  father,  who  was  one  of  the  pastors  of  Geneva.  .\t  the 
age  of  twenty,  however,  he  abandoned  the  study  of  theology  for  that  of  law, 
the  steady  pursuit  of  which,  in  time,  gave  way  to  his  ardent  passion  for  li- 
terature and  philosophy  :  at  tlic  age  of  twenty-two  he  became  private  tutor 
in  a  Dutch  family,  and  afterwards  accepted  a  similar  situation  in  the  family 
of  M.  Delescrt,  first  at  Lyons,  and  afterwards  at  Paris.  It  was  in  this  latter 
city  that  he  commenced  the  pubheatiou  of  his  translation  of  Euripides,  be- 
ginning with  the  tragedy  of  Orestes — a  work  which  made  him  advantageously 
known  to  some  of  the  leading  men  in  that  great  metropolis  of  literatiu-e,  and 
led  to  his  appointment,  in  1780,  to  the  professorship  of  philosophy  in  the 
college  of  Nobles,  and  also  to  a  place  in  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  on  the  invi- 
tation of  Frederick  the  Great.  Being  thus  established  in  a  pesition  where 
the  cultivation  of  literature  and  jihilosopby  became  as  much  a  professional 
duty  as  the  natural  aecomplisliiuent  of  his  own  wishes  and  tastes,  be  com- 
menced a  life  of  more  than  ordinary'  literary  activity  and  productiveness. 
He  died  on  the  8th  of  April,  in  the  88th  year  of  his  age,  surrounded  by  his 
family,  and  deeply  regretted  by  all  who  knew  him. 


Use  of  Varnish  of  Dextri.ne  in  the  Fine  Arts. — In  the  sitting  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Monday,  26tli  August,  Baron  De  Silvestre  made 
the  following  remarks  on  the  occasion  of  M.  .\r.igo'5  communication  on  the 
preservation  of  photographic  images.  He  observed  that  it  would  be  inte- 
resting to  try  dextrine  for  this  purpose,  as  he  himself,  for  more  than  two 
years,  bail  successfully  used  this  sulistanee  for  varnishing  pictures  newly 
painted  in  oil,  water  colour  drawing,  coloured  lithographs,  .and  for  the  per- 
manent fix.ation  of  pencil  dr.awiiigs.  He  had  also  obtained  from  dextrine  a 
glue,  which  he  found  superseded  with  .iilvantages  all  other  gluey  substances, 
and  particularly  mouth  glue.  In  these  difl'erent  iipplications  dextrine  is 
mixed  with  water  in  different  iiroportions ;  two  jiarts  to  six  of  water  for  vai-- 
nisb,  and  in  equal  parts  for  glue.  He  observed  that  he  always  added  one 
part  of  alcohol  in  the  composition  of  the  varnish,  and  half  a  part  in  that  of 
the  glue.  The  mixture  should  be  .always  filtered  before  being  used  for  var- 
nishing pictures  and  fixing  drawings,  and  in  this  latter  case,  a  tine  wet  muslin 
should  be  s)n-ead  over  the  drawing,  before  covering  it  with  the  mixture  of 
filtered  dextrine.  The  description  of  these  jirocesscs,  and  of  the  results 
obtained,  is  given  in  the  Bvllelin  de  la  Societe  d' EnQOuragement  pour  I'Jiidus- 
tr'w  Nalionale,  for  the  2nd  of  August,  1837. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


25 


ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  CITY  OF  fcONDON, 

.'!iu — H;iving  been  calleil  in  by  the  Rector  of  Saint  Mary  .Alder- 
man/ and  Saint  Thomas  the  Apostle,  to  inspect  the  North  Wall  of  the 
Church  of  Saint  Mary  Aklermary,  WatUng-stroet,  I  was  led  to  the 
follow  iug  conclusion,  after  a  most  careful  examination,  as  to  tlie  anti- 
quity of  jjortions  of  that  wall,  which  may  prove  interesting  to  many  of 
your  readers. 

In  rebuilding  the  church  after  the  memorable  fire  of  London,  it 
seems  that  Sir  Christopher  Wren  not  only  retained  the  original  line  of 
the  north  wall,  but  finding  it  unnecessary  to  puU  it  down  entirely,  left 
it  untouched  as  far  up  as  a  string-course  which  formerly  ran  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  church,  under  the  sills  of  the  windows  of  the  north 
aisle,  traces  of  it  being  perfectly  discernible  to  an  eye  familiar  with 
the  remains  of  antiquity,  from  the  north-east  angle  of  the  building  to 
the  north  doorwaj'.  There  are  also  remains  of  the  original  basement- 
moulding,  and  the  original  buttresses  still  exist  with  the  stringcourse 
profiled  round  them,  they  are  five  in  number,  and,  in  one  or  two  places, 
the  face  of  their  ashlar  is  as  perfect  as  when  first  worked.  The 
original  ashlar  of  the  whole  of  this  wall  still  remains  from  the  level  of 
the  ground  to  that  of  the  string-course  before  mentioned,  and  indeed 
a  small  portion  of  it  is  left  some  five  or  six  feet  above  the  string- 
course, immediately  adjoining  the  easternmost  buttress.  The  re- 
building is  clearly  defined  by  the  rough  masonry  of  this  wall  above  the 
level  of  the  string-course,  which  seems  to  have  been  intended  at  the 
time  ;is  a  party-wall  between  the  church  ami  the  glebe-houses,  not 
only  on  account  of  its  not  being  faced,  but  also  on  account  of  the  entire 
absence  of  openings  for  light.  The  north  doorway,  with  its  discharging 
arch  in  rough  masonry  is  evidently  an  insertion  in  the  original  wall, 
the  recesses  over  the  doorway  seem  to  have  bceii  left  as  cupboards  for 
the  adjoining  house,  as  the  masonry  of  their  arches  is  coeval  w  ith  that 
of  the  discharging  arch  over  the  doorway.  Before  the  fire,  I  have  no 
doubt,  this  wall  was  quite  unincumbered  by  buildings,  first,  because 
the  ashlar  still  remaining  shows  a  fair  face;  secondly,  because  the 
buttresses  still  exist,  showing  also  a  fair  face;  and  thirdly,  because 
remains  of  the  basement-moulding  and  the  string-course,  both  being 
exterior  features,  can  be  clearly  pointed  out.  There  nmst  therefore 
have  been  a  space,  originally,  betw  een  the  church  anil  the  glebe,  which 
seems  to  have  been  used  as  a  burial-place,  as  human  bones  were  some 
years  ago  found  near  the  footing  of  tliis  wall.  This  space,  on  account 
of  Watling-street  having  been  either  widened  at  the  time  or  removeil 
farther  southwards,  (212i  feet  were  cut  oft"  from  the  glebe  land  in 
front  towards  the  street,  see  Oliver's  Survey,  vol.  -2,  p.  155,1  was,  by 
the  Decrees  of  the  Judges,  made  part  and  parcel  of  the  glebe  ;  and 
this  accounts  satisfactorily  for  that  wall  having  been,  in  the  rebuilding, 
made  a  party-wall,  and  also  for  the  right  of  way  having  been  reserveil 
to  the  parishioners  from  the  street,  through  the  glebe,  up  to  the  north 
doorway  of  the  church. 

I  have  made  a  careful  drawing  of  these  remains,  which  I  shall  be 
most  happy  to  show  to  any  one  who,  like  myself,  may  take  an  interest 
in  old  gotliic  buildings. 

Youi-'s,  &c., 

Thos.  E.  Walker. 

2,  Keppel-street,  Russell-square,  Dec.  3,  1839. 


ISLE  OF  SHEPPY. 
S[R — Having  read  an  extract  from  the  Cincpie  Ports  Chronicle  in 
this  mouth's  journal,  on  "The  Encroachments  and  Recessions  of  the 
Sea,"  in  which  the  only  reason  assigneil  for  the  former  is  the  action  of 
the  sea  in  its  ceaseless  beatings  against  the  shore ;  I  am  induced  to 
bring  to  your  notice  the  Isle  of  Sheppy,  where  from  another  cause  the 
sea  is  making  a  more  rapid  encroachment  than  perhaps  any  other  part 
of  England  :  so  much  so,  tliat  I  think  in  a  very  few  years  the  greater 
part  of  Minster  Hill,  the  Station  Houses  at  East  End  Lane,  and  Hens- 
broche  will  be  swalloweil  up  by  the  sea.  Indeed  the  extent  of  bank 
left  at  low  water,  particularly  during  spring  tides,  and  the  very  great 
ilistanoe  from  the  beach  that  the  stone  for  cement  is  dug  up,  (1  be- 
licve  the  Rudis  Helmontia)  prove  that  the  island  was  once  of  much 
greater  extent  than  at  present,  and  from  my  observation  of  the  land 
slips  that  have  taken  place  since  I  came  here  in  Juno  last,  I  should 
certainly  say  they  were  caused  by  underground  springs  endeavouring 
to  find  an  outlet,  and  that  by  proper  drainage  much  valuable  land 
might  be  sa\ed.  Indeed  the  shelving  beach  or  strand  caused  by  the 
former  destruction  of  the  island  is  now  a  strong  natural  protection  to 
it,  and  that  the  present  almost  daily  loss  is  owing  to  want  of  care  in 
directing  the  numerous  springs  into  a  proper  channel. 
I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

C.  F.  Parkinson. 
Captain  73rd  Regiment. 


STEAM  BO.\T  PROPELLERS. 

Eijieriments  by   Georye  Rennie,  Esq.,  communicated  to  the  Editor  of  tlie 
Railway  Magazine. 

I  HEREWITH  send  you  the  average  result  of  a  series  of  experiments  I  have 
made  on  the  comparative  merits  of  several  instruments  wliicli  have  i)ecn  tried 
for  propelling  vessels  through  water,  mider  similar  circiuustances.  In  order, 
therefore,  to  arrive  .it  this  knowledge,  three  diftereut  sets  of  experiments 
were  tried  :  first,  on  a  model  wheel,  of  two  feet  in  diameter,  fixed  in  a  trough 
of  water,  and  moved  by  a  weight  falling  through  equal  height ;  secondly,  by 
means  of  a  boat  to  which  the  ditTerent  kinds  of  ])ropcl!er  were  adapted,  so  as 
to  render  the  circumstances  sinular  in  even,-  respect;  thirdly,  by  means  of  a 
small  steamer,  of  moderate  dimensions,  so  as  to  enable  the  experiments  to  be 
made  in  still  water,  and  tluis  obtain  more  accurate  results  than  could  possibly 
be  obtained  in  a  tidal  river  like  the  Thames.  The  following  are  the  results 
on  the  model  — 


No.  of 
Experi- 
ments. 

Diameter 

of 
wheel. 

Time 

in 

seconds. 

Area  of 
floats  im- 
mersed. 

Weight 

sus- 
pended. 

Area  of 
one 
float. 

f  Rectangu- 
\    lar  floats, 
f  Trapeiium 
\     floats. 

6 
6 

2  ft. 
2  ft. 

15-5 
151 

12  in. 
9  in. 

4  lbs. 
4  lbs. 

6  in. 
3  in. 

An  experiment  was  then  tried  by  immersing  the  rectangular  floats  to  twice 
their  depth.  The  result  was  to  increase  the  time  of  the  41b.  weight  falling 
to  32  seconds,  ordoul)le  the  resistance  when  immersed  to  the  ordiu.ary  depth 
of  the  float,  while  tlie  trapezium-shaped  float,  doubly  immersed,  only  required 
IG  seconds  for  tjie  41b.  weight  to  fall  through  the  same  space  ;  thus,  proving 
the  great  defect  of  the  paddle-wheel,  .as  apphedto  all  sea-going  steam-vessels, 
so  that  when  deeply  laden  with  coals  at  the  first  part  of  their  voyages,  the 
engines  can  only  make  half  their  proper  number  of  strokes.  The  Ilritish 
Qireen,  for  instance,  the  engines  of  which  are  frequently  reduceil  to  nine,  in- 
stead of  seventeen  or  eighteen,  the  full  number  of  strokes.  These  experi- 
ments have  been  repeated  again  and  again,  before  competent  witnesses,  and 
always  with  the  same  results. 

Secondly— with  dittercnt  kinds  of  propellers  attached  to  the  same  boat. 

The  following  are  the  comparative  results  i — 

Tntjle  ill  which  are  compared  tlie  Performances   of  the  Screw. Propeller, 
Conoidal'Propeller,  and  Paddle-wheeh. 


Distance 
travelled 
in  feet. 

Time 

in 

seconds. 

Revolu- 
tion of 
winch. 

Revo- 
lution 

of 
winch 
p.  min. 

Speed 

of 

boat  in 

milea 

p.  hour. 

Conditions  of  Experiment. 

660 

2010 

140-7 

42-0 

2-2 

Screw  Propeller,  17  in.  dia- 
meter, 226  ins.  area ;  re- 
volved with  a  velocity  five 
times  that  of  the  winch. 

600 

155-25 

108-25 

41-8 

2-8 

Paddle-wheel  with  12  rect- 
angular floats,  each  float 
95  X  4;  area  of  floats  im- 
mersed 228-8  ins.;  extreme 
diameter  of  wheel,  3  ft.  3  in. 

660 

155/5 

1-20-75 

46-5 

2-8 

Paddle-wheel,  with  12  tra- 
pezium-shaped floats  {obtuse 
endsdown),eachfloat9.V  <  4; 
area  of  floats  immersed,  103 
ins. ;  extreme  diameter  of 
wheel,  3  ft.  6i  ins. 

660 

1535 

121-75 

47-5 

-9 

Paddle-wheel,  with  12  tra- 
pezium-shaped floats  {acute 
ends  down),  each  float  9 i  x  4 ; 
area  of  floats  innnersed,  107 
iivs. ;  extreme  diameter  of 
wheel,  3  ft.  lOJ  ins. 

660 

135-5 

89-6 

39-6 

3-3 

Conoidal  propellers,  17  ins. 
diameter;  144  his.  area  ;  re- 
volved with  a  velocity  five 
times  that  of  the  winch. 

N.B. — The  above  experiments  were  made  with  a  boat  such  as  is  used  in 
the  whale  fisheiT;  its  length  was  27  feet,  its  breadth  5  feet,  its  depth  2  feet 
1  inch,  and  its  weight,  with  ballast  and  persons  on  board,  2828  lbs.,  the  area 

E 


'2i> 


THE  CIVIL  KNGINEEll  AND  ARCM1TECT\S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


III'  ils  iuiilslil|i^t'elion  -183-  Miiiaic  iiiilu"..     In  each  c.vpcriinciit  llie  wiiuli  was 
ilrixcn  Ijy  two  men. 

('iiiirliisiiiiis. — I'roiii  tlie  preeeiling  talile  il  ajiiiears  tliat  tlie  relative  merits 
cif  the  serew  |irii|ieller,  tlie  eoaoidal  iiro]ieller,  ami  (lie  ednimini  and  Irapezium- 
>liapeil  iliiats  are  ]ireei.-elv  in  the  order  in  which  the\  stand  in  the  talile;  tliat 
the  seiiM  is  infeiiiir  to  the  eiininnm  ]iadd!e-\\heel  in  the  ratio  of '^'^  to  2S, 
with  the  s]iear-pointeil  paddle^  as  'l-'l  to  '2-'.l,  ami  with  theeonoidal  propeller 
as  2-2  to  3-3  ;  tlial  of  (he  trapezium-shaped  tloals  as  28  to  2-0,  and  that  witli 
the  ol)tuse  angle  down  is  ei|nal.  It  may  he  olijeotcd  to  these  experiments, 
that  the  hoat  lieiiig  worked  hy  men,  the  rcsidts  cannot  he  de]iciideil  iipmi.on 
account  of  the  irru:-;nlar,  and,  pcrliaps,  over-zcalons  netion  of  aiiinial  )iower. 
nut,  alicr  a  few  trials,  the  action  soon  hecomes  as  rei^ular,  and  may  he  cal- 
tul,''.ted  upfiU  with  nearly  the  same  accuracy,  as  a  steani-eniiine. 

'li.ii'Jly — liy  means  of  a  sleam-lioat.  This  hoat  was  kindly  h  nt  hy  the 
loiidun  and  Westminster  Steatu-boat  Company;  ami  is  of  the  following- 
diiiien^ious  ; — 

Length -u  feet. 

Breadth    C  feel. 

Depth 3  feet. 

Power — two  engines  (vibrating)  of  .'i  horse  power — 3(!  strokes 
per  minute. 
Talh  in  ivhich  are  comparfd  the  Performances  of  Reclmiynlar  and  Sjiear- 
s/iaped  Floats,  with  tite  "  I'ink"  steamer,  in  the  ll'est  India  Import  Dnci-, 
in  November,  1839. 


Revolu- 

Speed 

Distance 

Time 

Revolu- 

tions of 

of 

travelled 

in  se- 

tions of 

cranked 

boat  in 

Conditions  of  Experiineiits. 

in  feet. 

conds. 

cranked 

sb.ift 

miles 

shaft. 

per.  miH. 

p.  bcur. 

1320 

1.38- 

Sl-O 

3G-.5 

C-7 

Wheels  fitted  with  10  rec- 
tangular floats  23  0  ins.  ^ 
207  s.  ins. ;  area  of  floats 
immersed,  G3.''i-G  s.  ins.;  ex- 
treme   dianieler    of  vvlieel. 

1320 

145'7^ 

87-0 

360 

C-34 

Wheels  (itled  with  10  tra- 
pczium-sbaiied  floats  (aeule 
.and  doini),  18  x  1U  =  103-5 
s.  ins. ;  area  of  floats  im- 
mersed ■132-2.'j  ins.;  extreme 
diameter  of  wheel,  8  10. 

Conf/iisioiif!. — From  the  residts  of  these  experiments  we  are  justified  in 
concluding  that  the  trapezium-shaped  float,  containing  only  one-half  of  the 
surface  of  the  eommon  jiaddle,  and  one-third  of  its  w  idtli,  will  have  equal  hold 
of  the  water,  and  propel  llie  vejsel  equally  as  favt,  with  a  less  expenditure  of 
power  ;  hut  its  properties  arc  not  only  confined  to  this. 

In  the  first  iilaec,  they  are  less  weight  and  first  cost,  by  at  least  one-half. 

Secondly — 'I'liey  present  less  surface  the  wind,  |iarticularly  against  a  head- 
wind. 

'I'birdly — They  enter  the  water  without  lite  shock  and  \ihratioiis  which  are 
experienced  wilh  the  eoniuion  wlieid,  and  without  laising  tin!  cascade  of 
water  aiijiertainiiig  to  the  old  form  of  p.nddle. 

I'onrtbly — 'l'lie\  woik  nearly  as  well  when  dec|ily  immersed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  slight  resistance  arising  from  the  edges  of  the  amis. 

All  which  properties  have  been  witnessed  and  tested  hy  competent  judges 


C;,\S  PRODUCED  liY  A  NEW  PROCESS. 

.■\.\  cxiierinieiit  in  gas-lighting  by  the  Cimite  de  Val  Marino  was  made  on 
Thursday  evening  on  a  jiieee  of  waste  ground  at  the  hack  of  I'etter-latie,  in 
the  presence  of  :e\eral  scientific  gentlemen,  who  were  invited  to  v\itness  the 
result.  A  small  gasometer  vvasen-eted  for  the  purpose,  which  was  connected 
l)y  tubes  with  a  fiunaee  hnilt  of  btiik,  and  roiitaiiiing  thice  ri'torts,  one  of 
which  was  supplied  with  water  fjoni  a  sipbon,  another  was  filled  with  tar, 
and  both  being  decomposed  in  the  tbii'd  retort,  formed  the  sole  materials  by 
which  the  gas  was  iiroduced.  The  process  ;ippeaied  In  he  extremely  simple, 
and  IbiMiovelty  of  the  experiment  consisted  in  the  fact,  (hat  the  principal 
agent  rmployed  to  produce  the  gas  v\as  ennimon  water  <iiMiliijied  with  tar; 
but,  aecordiii!-'  to  the  tlief.r)  of  the  iiiveiilor  of  this  new  species  of  gas,  any 
sort  of  bituniiiious  or  fatty  matter  would  answer  the  purpose  ei|iially  as  well 
as  pitch  or  tar.  After  the  lapse  of  about  half  an  hour  employed  in  the  ex|ie- 
riment,  diiiiiig  xvhii'h  time  the  process  was  explained  til  Ihii  company,  the 
gas  was  turned  inlii  the  hurncrs.and  a  pure  ami  jiowerfnl  light  was  produced, 
perfectly  free  from  smoke  or  »7iy  uiiiilca.^.i.nt  smell.  The  puilty  anil  inlensc- 
ncss  of  the  flame  were  testeil  iu  ti  very  salinfuetory  manner,  and  those  who 
witnessed  the  experiuient  apjiearcd  perft/clly  ^allblted  with  the  result.  The 
great  advantage  of  this  sort  of  gas  over  that  produi'cd  from  coal  consists,  it 
■tvas  said,  in  the  cheapness  of  the  materials  employed  in  its  production,  the 
facility  with  which  it  is  m.anufactnred,  and  the  perfection  to  which  it  is  at 
Onee  brought,  withotit  (he  necessity  of  its  undergoing  the  tcdigns  and  expen- 


sive process  of  coiidettsation  and  purification;  for  in  this  instance,  as  soon  as 
the  iircliminaries  were  com|>leted,  the  Ught  was  produced  in  a  jierfcct  state 
vwthin  a  fi'w  feet  of  the  gnhomeler,  which,  allbougb  of  inferior  si.'C,  was  said 
to  he  capable  of  ;ilfording  light  for  10  hours  to  at  least  .'>00  lamps  or  hurners. 
A\"itli  regard  to  the  coniiiarative  expense,  it  was  also  stated  that  1000  cubic 
feel  of  gas  maunfaetured  hy  this  jiroeess,  could  be  su|iiilied  to  the  public  for 
about  one  third  the  price  now  charged  by  the  coal-gas  companies;  and  it 
was  said  to  he  cipially  available  for  domestic  use,  and  more  safe  than  the 
common  gas,  inasmuch  as  small  gasometers  might,  at  a  trifling  exjiensc,  be 
fixed  at  the  hack'  of  grates  in  ]iriva(o  dwellings,  from  which  the  gas  could  be 
conveyed  in  India-rubber  bags  to  any  part  of  the  bouse,  thereby  ]ireveuting 
the  many  accidents  which  occur  by  (he  use  of  tubes  and  pipes.  The  fViunt 
de  \u\  Marino,  who  has  eoni|Uered  the  diflicnlty  hitherto  experienced  in 
bringing  this  spiTics  of  gas  into  use,  superintcuded  the  arrangements,  and 
evinccil  a  natural  anxiety  to  bring  bis  experiment  to  a  successful  issue,  lie 
has  taken  out  a  j>atent  for  bis  discovery,  and  be  has  im])roved  upon  the 
burners  now  in  use,  so  as  to  render  the  light  jirodnced  more  ]mre  and  intense. 
For  this  inqirovement  he  is  also  secured  hy  a  patent.  How  far  gas  of  this 
descri[)tiou  can  he  brought  into  general  use,  or  whether  in  point  of  economy 
the  public  would  he  benefited  by  its  ado\ilion,  are  questions  which  we  have 
not  the  means  of  deciding,  and,  without  liazarding  any  opinion  on  the  sub- 
ject, vvc  can  only  say  that  the  experiment,  as  far  as  it  was  tried  iu  this  instance, 
appeared  to  be  quite  successful. — Times. 


AMERICAN  PATENTS. 
(From  tlie  Juiirnal  of  the  Franklin  Institute.) 

For  "  An  imjirored  Eccentric  Brukc,  for  urrestiny  the  motion  of  Railroad 
Cars."     Ephraim  Morris,  lUoomfield,  Essex  county.  New  Jersey,  Scjit.  10. 

ISctween  the  two  wheels  on  each  side  of  a  car  there  is  to  be  a  cam  wheel, 
one  pari  of  which  is  to  he  a  segment  of  a  circle,  resendding  the  periphery  of 
one  of  the  wheels  ;  another  portion  of  the  periphery  of  the  cam  is  in  a  straight 
line,  ]irobably  of  two  feet  or  more  in  length,  and  the  cam  may  be  made  to 
roll  round  on  its  circular,  or  curved  jiart,  and  to  bring  this  slraight  part  upon 
(be  rail,  which,  whilst  it  bears  0)1011  it,  will  lift  the  wheels,  at  one  or  both 
ends,  Iherefrnm.  The  straight  portion  of  the  cams  are  furnished  with  flanches 
which  embrace  the  rail.  This  iiart,  by  its  friction  ujion  the  rail,  is  to  operate 
as  a  brake  upon  an  inclined  plane,  or  elsewhere.  The  claim  is  to  the  fore- 
going aiTangcment  of  the  resiicctive  parts. 

When  it  is  desired  to  relieve  the  brake,  this  is  ctfceted  by  backing  the  cars, 
when  the  ordinary  wheels  arc  ni.ade  to  rest  ui>on  the  rail,  the  lower  side  of 
the  brake  being  then  free  from  them  ;  there  are,  of  course,  some  jiarticular 
devices  described  which  we  have  not  noticed,  nor  do  we  think  it  necessary, 
being  apprehensive  that  the  contrivance  is  not  destined  to  be  adopted. 

For  "J  Machine  for  cuttinij  the  Teeth  of  Cireular  Saws."  Tbaddeus  Sel- 
lick,  llavcrstraw,  Rockland  county.  New  York,  September  19. 

One,  two,  or  more,  steel  plates,  prepared  to  have  teeth  cut  upon  them,  are 
to  be  placed  upon  a  vertical  siiindle  capable  of  revolving  on  its  two  ends. 
These  plates  arc  to  be  made  to  beai'  against  a  revolving  cutter,  consisting  of 
an  endless  screw,  the  thread  of  which  is  in  such  form  as  to  cut  a  saw  tooth. 
A  cutter  two  inches  iu  diameter  and  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  has  been  used 
for  the  purpose.  The  revolution  of  the  cutter  will  c.iuse  that  of  the  saw 
plates,  which  arc  hin-ne  U|i  against  it.  It  is  remarked  that  the  teeth  of  straight 
saws  ma)'  he  cut  by  a  similar  device. 

"  M'b.il  I  claim,  is  the  cniiiloyuient  of  a  circular  revnlvhig  cutter,  having 
a  thread  or  channel  on  ils  |ieriphery,  running  in  the  manner  of  an  endless 
screw,  and  so  arranged  and  combined  with  tlie  other  jiarts  of  the  inachiuery 
eiO|doyed,  as  to  cause  (he  cutter  to  cut,  and  (0  feed  (be  |ilates  to  itself,  by 
its  oxvn  action,  the  whole  operating  stdistantially  in  the  m.iuncr  above  set 
forth." 

For  "  .//(  Ini/irorenient  in  the  mode  of  preserriny  Timber."  Edward  Earl, 
Savannah,  fleorgia,  September  20. 

We  iiublished  in  our  last  iiniuhcr,  the  specification  of  a  patent  for  n  similar 
puiiinse.  the  gentleinan  above  named  being  one  of  the  patentees.  The  mode 
of  iiroeednre  in  the  ]u-eseiit  case  is  like  that  deserihed  in  the  former  jutcnt ; 
that  is,  the  timber  is  (o  be  boiled  in  (be  sohidon  by  which  (be  preservadve 
(piality  is  to  he  eommuuieatcil,  which  solution  is  (o  consist  of  sulphate  of 
copper,  (blue  vitriol,)  and  sulphate  of  iron,  (copperas,)  dissolved  in  water. 
One  jiart  of  snliib.ate  of  copper  to  three  of  sulphate  of  iron,  are  to  be  taken, 
and  about  three  jionnds  of  the  mixed  salts  added  to  every  gallon  of  water. 
The  timber  after  being  bored  through  its  length,  is  to  be  boiled,  and  after- 
wards sufl'cred  (o  cool  in  this  solution.  The  claims  made,  are  to  "  the  boil- 
ing of  timber  as  described,  iu  a  solution  of  sulphates  of  iron  and  of  copper  ; 
apiilyiug  this  solution  to  the  interior  as  well  as  the  exterior  of  the  timber,  by 
means  iif  the  central  perforation  when  (he  size  of  the  timber  requires  it,  as 
the  most  clh'ctnal  mode  of  jirotecting  it  from  the  rav.ages  of  insects,  and  of 
rot.  I  do  not  claim  the  saturating  of  timber  by  a  solution  of  sulidiates  in 
water  when  aii|died  cold,  but  confine  my  claim  (o  boiling  it,  as  above  set 
forth,  in  (hat  solulion,  during  from  two  to  five  or  six  hours,  or  more." 

For  "  A  Grncel  Pnm;!."  l.aura  Rice,  adnunistr.atrix  of  J.  J.  Rice,  and 
Ebeaezer  Rice,  Salina,  New  York,  August  15. 

"  This  pump,  or  machine,  is  inserted  in  a  wcU,  or  shaft,  which  should  be 


IS-10.] 


THSC  VIML  I:N(;1N  1:1:11  AND  AIKIIITIXIS  JOUKNAL. 


27 


propoiiy  (ulied  with  cast  ov  shod  iron,  ur  otlii_'r  jiviipcr  inuU'iial,  witli  si)acc 
(u  iicntiil  it  to  jiass  icaiUly,  and  having  a  rope,  ur  cunls,  connected  with  thi^ 
end  of  the  piston,  is  worked  in  tlie  manner  of  a  pump  nntil  -snlliciently  charged 
with  the  su))stance  to  I)e  removed,  wlien  it  i;^  raised  liy  a  winilhiss,  or  otlier 
|")wer.  It  is  partienlarly  adapted  to  the  c\ea\ation,s  of  sliafls  for  brine,  and 
Avas  diseovoreil  wliilst  excavating  wells  for  that  pnrposc,  as  no  instnuneiit  was 
Known  wliicii  wonhl  readily  raise  the  gravel  from  the  hetis  withont  great  de- 
lay and  dillicnlty,  and  at  the  same  time  leave  tlio  sides  of  the  well  liare  and 
|icr\ioiis  to  the  transmission  of  lirine,  tlie  ordinary  process  of  drilling  merely 
crowihng  the  staves  from  the  shaft,  and  rendering  the  sides  of  the  well  coiu- 
l)act,  hard,  and  nearly  evelnding  the  [lassage  of  small  streams  of  brine  into 
the  well.'' 

The  form  of  the  exterior  of  the  machine  is  that  of  two  cylinders  differing 
iii  size,  the  smaller  standing  above  tlie  larger;  tlie  lower  cylinder  is  to  be 
aljoiit  II  or  12  inches  in  diameter,  and  21  in  litight;  the  upper  one  may  he 
s;,  inches  in  diameter,  and  15  in  height;  they  are  connected  liy  an  oiriet,are 
hollow,  and  made  of  cast  iron  ;  the  upper  cylinder  forms  a  pump  chamber  in 
w  hieh  a  piston  is  to  work.  The  lower  eyiimler  constitutes  a  receiver  to  re- 
tain the  sand  and  gravel  drawn  into  it  by  the  action  of  tlie  pump.  In  the 
tiottoui  of  the  lower  cyliiuler  there  is  a  round  opening  of  si\  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  tlic  ujiper  and  inner  edge  of  this  opening  is  surroumlcd  by  pieces  of 
whalebone,  or  other  elastic  material,  which  rise  from  it  so  as  to  foim  a  cone 
somewhat  like  that  of  the  pointed  converging  wires  ill  some  rat  traps;  these 
may  be  six  or  seven  inches  long.  They  allow  of  the  pass.agc  of  stones  and 
gravel  into  tlie  chamber,  and  prevent  their  return.  This  clastic  material  is 
surromided  by  a  sleeve  of  cloth,  w  hich  admits  sand  to  p.iss  u]i  and  around  it. 

The  claim  is  to  "the  manner  of  connecting  and  combining  the  respective 
parts  of  the  above  described  machine,  for  the  pur|iose  of  excavating  wells  and 
shiitts,  and  the  removal  of  sand  and  gr.avcl  thereffom  ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
coiubination  of  the  exliaes.i.ig  apparatus  with  the  cylinder,  the  conical  bars 
of  whalebone  or  otlier  material,  and  the  canvas  surrounding  the  same,  con- 
structed and  operating  in  the  manner  set  forth." 


PRESERVING  TIMBER  13Y  LIME  WATER. 

Specification  of  a  Patent  fnr  an  improvement  in  t/ie  mode  of  preseri'iiii  Tim- 
ber. Granted  to  Samuel  Rini/yold,  of  Florida,  and  Edward  liarle,  of 
Savannah,  State  of  Gcoryia,  Any.  0,  183S. 

(From  the  Franklin  Journal.) 
Tlie  n.iture  of  our  invention  consists  in  applying  heat,  by  boiling  in  strong 
lime-water,  to  the  interior  as  well  as  to  the  exterior  of  timber,  accoriling  to 
the  size  and  kind  of  timber,  and  the  use  in  which  it  is  to  be  empIo\i'd  may 
admit,  or  rctpiire,  for  the  destruction  and  prevention  of  worms  in  it.  ami  for 
the  correction  or  removal  of  the  corruptible  sa|),  and  the  occup.ation  of  its 
jjlacc  by  a  jirescrvative  substance. 

\Vc  tirst  bore  the  timber,  if  it  he  of  a  size  siiliicieiit  to  admit  of  it,  through 
the  centre,  making  the  perforation  of  a  calibre  projiortioncd  to  the  size  of 
the  piece,  say  from  half  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half,  or  two  inches.  Then 
we  boil  it  in  strong  lime  water  for  a  length  of  lime  proportioiit'd  to  its  size, 
.as  four  to  six  hours,  if  it  be  twelve  inches  sipiiire,  and  so  in  ]noportioii  to  its 
substance  :  and  when  the  timber  has  had  the  heat  and  lliiid  convc\ed  through 
its  whole  substance,  it  is  to  he  removed  to  a  shed,  wlicre.  protected  from  the 
sun  and  wind,  it  may  gradually  dry.  Finally,  before  it  is  used,  the  pcrfo- 
ratitm  through  the  centre  is  to  lie  completely  tilled  with  dry  lime,  or  with 
pclroleuni,  or  coal  tar,  as  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  iiitcmled  may  make 
preferable,  and  plugged  by  wood  of  the  same  kind,  and  prepared  in  the  same 
maiuier.  .Mso,  if  the  use  to  whieli  the  timber  is  destined  he  such  as  to  admit 
of  it,  the  exterior  may  be  payed,  or  coated  with  hot  petroleum,  or  coal  tar. 

What  we  claim  as  our  invcution,  and  desire  to  secure  by  letters  patent,  is 
the  boiling  of  timber  in  lime  water,  as  above  set  forth.  We  ajiply  the  fluid 
to  the  interior  as  well  as  exterior  of  the  timber,  by  means  of  the  central  per- 
foration, when  the  size  of  the  tindier  reuiiires  it.  as  the  most  etfectual  mode 
of  preserving  it  from  the  ravages  of  insects,  and  from  rot.  Wc  do  not  claim 
the  saturating  of  timber  by  a  solution  of  lime  in  water  when  applied  cold,  or 
when  heated  by  that  heat  which  is  geiicrateil  in  the  slacking  of  the  lime,  but 
conline  our  claim  to  the  boiling  it  in  lime  water  during  one,  two,  three,  or 
more  hours. 

Remarks  liy  the  Editor.— "Yhc  plan  of  impregnating  timber  with  lime,  by 
soaking  it  in  lime  \vat;r,  is  ipii^e  old,  but  we  have  never  yet  seen  any  evidence 
of  its  utility.  This  is  an  a,oi"ned  effect,  but  one  which,  we  believe,  yet  re- 
iiiains  to  be  proved.  Toe  oaly  substantial  difference  in  the  plan  above  pro- 
posed, and  that  foriiier'y  assaye:',  is  in  the  boiling  process,  and  this  we  think 
of  a  very  doub.ful  ul^li-y.  Tin-'.er  may  be  rapidly  seasoned  by  boiling,  the 
moisture  within  it  being  co.uerted  into  vapour,  and  consccpiently  escaping 
through  the  pores,  a  condition  not  the  most  favourable  to  the  entrance  of  a 
solution ;  the  allowing  it  to  cool  in  and  with  the  liiptor,  might  probably  pro- 
mote saturation.  There  is  another  fact  of  some  importance  in  the  process, 
provided  the  thing  itself  is  of  any  value,  namely,  that  the  colder  the  water 
the  greater  is  the  (piantity  of  lime  held  in  solution,  and  of  course  more  wonhl 
enter  the  pores  in  a  cold  than  in  a  heated  vessel.  It  is  not  worth  wliilc, 
however,  to  extend  our  speculations  upon  the  best  mode  of  getting  the  lime 
in  nntil  wc  have  ascertained  the  fact  that  whdi  it  is  th"rc  it  will  proaicc 
some  good  result. 


IIEK  M.\JESTY'S  UOCIx-YARl),  WOOLWICH. 

l'jXTfc;N;.tvK  works  are  at  present  in  operation  at  the  west  end  of  the  yard, 
for  the  formation  of  a  large  giavingrloek,  which  is  to  allord  accommodation 
to  the  tirst  class  government  steamers.  The  site  for  the  new  dock  is  the 
south  side  of  the  basin  m  wet  dock,  which  is  principally  used  for  tilting  out 
steamers;  the  situation  thus  chosen  allows  of  room  for  another  dock  of  like 
dimensions  being  constructed  to  the  eastward  of  it,  in  the  event  of  sncli  ex- 
tended accommodation  being  rccpiired.  The  works,  which  are  contracted  for, 
ami  being  executed  by,  Jlessrs.  (irisscll  and  I'cio,  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Walker,  the  engineer,  are  of  gieat  magnitude,  comprising  likewise  the  for- 
mation of  a  wall  across  tlic  enlrauce  to  the  old  concrete  dock,  which  was 
undertaken  by  Mr.  Ranger,  and  constructed  of  bis  patent  concrete  ;  this  ma- 
terial was  not  found  sutHcient  to  keep  down  the  land  springs,  and  has,  coii- 
se<iucntly,  been  reUiKpiished.  For  the  formation  of  the  new  dock,  a  cotlcr- 
dam  has  been  constructed  in  front  of  the  proposed  cntiauee,  nearly  a  hundred 
feet  in  Icngtii,  consisting  of  parallel  rows  of  close  iiiliug  driven  info  the  solid 
ground,  as  that  portion  of  the  basin  wall  vvilhin  the  collcrdam  will  necessarily 
have  to  be  removed,  great  strength  is  retpiircd  in  the  framing  of  the  timbers 
for  its  supjiort,  which  appears  to  liave  been  amiily  proviilcd  for  by  the  excel- 
lent arrangement  of  shoring  adopted.  Considerable  progress  has  lieen  made 
with  the  excavation  foi'  the  dock,  which  has  been  taken  out  for  nearly  its 
entire  surface,  to  a  depth  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  below  the  cpiay  level ; 
to  prevent  the  slopes  of  the  excavation  from  slipping,  and  likewise  to  save 
room,  the  whole  .".rca  of  the  (hick  is  Ijcing  enclosed  with  sheet  piling,  which, 
as  tlic  masonry  of  the  siile  walls  advances,  vviU  be  removed  if  found  advisable. 
The  dock  will  be  constructed  of  granite,  eitlicr  from  the  New  Granite  Co.'s 
(piarries,  near  I'lymoutb,  or  from  the  Uaytor  ipi.arries  in  Ucvoiishire.  A 
large  quantity  of  stone  is  now  upon  the  ground  partly  worked.  The  length 
of  the  dock  will  he  2ti.">  feet  from  the  semicircular  bead  to  the  inside  of  the 
gates,  the  width  at  top  HO  feet  and  at  bottom  37  feet,  the  clear  width  at  the 
entrance  05  feet,  the  ilcpth  2li  feet  from  the  ipiay  level  to  the  invert,  being 
cfpnil  to  22  foot  dc|Kli  of  wafer  at  high  water.  Trinity  standard ;  the  entrance 
gates  and  plan  of  working  them  will  be  according  to  the  most  approved  con- 
struction. 

The  sides  of  the  dock  will  be  formed  in  steps  or  altars,  varying  in  height; 
from  nine  to  sixteen  inches,  and  in  width  from  nine  to  liftcen  inches,  with 
the  exception  of  one  called  the  liroad  Altar,  about  midway  down  which  will 
be  eighteen  inches  in  width;  the  object  of  these  altars  is  for  the  convenience 
of  placing  the  shores  against  the  hull  of  a  vessel  at  any  height,  and  for  rest- 
ing the  ends  of  spars  for  staging;  that  called  the  Broad  Altar  is  made  wider 
than  the  others,  for  walking  upon  in  examining  the  sides  of  the  vessel  under 
repair;  the  curve  given  to  the  .altars  is  caleulatcd  to  suit  nearly  the  form  of 
a  vessel,  and  likewise  all'ords,  as  Iieforc  stated,  the  opportunity  of  shoring  at 
any  height,  which  is  precluded  by  the  common  form  of  docks  where  very 
deep  altars  are  used,  and  they  will  also  enable  the  workmen  to  get  up  ami 
down  at  any  part  of  the  dock  with  great  facility,  but  for  general  purposes,  a 
staircase  of  more  easy  ascent  will  be  constructed  at  the  head  of  the  dock; 
slips  for  letting  down  and  raising  timber,  iSve.,  will  be  formed  at  the  head, 
and  likewise  on  each  side  of  the  dock.  The  stones  of  the  invert  forming  the 
bottom  of  the  dock  will  radiate,  as  likewise  the  altar  stones  as  high  as  the 
Broad  Altar,  the  whole  thus  forming  an  arch  to  resist  the  upward  pressure, 
and  the  masonry  above,  as  likewise  the  coping,  will  be  in  stones  of  large 
dimensions,  tlie  whole  backed  with  brickwork  and  concrete.  The  walls  at 
top  will  be  four  feet  thick,  and  at  bottom  25  feet  ti  inches,  and  the  total 
width  of  the  foundations  will  be  ti8  feet,  under  which  a  body  of  concrete 
three  yards  thick  will  be  carried  down  to  the  gravel.  The  a]iron  at  the  en- 
trance will  be  supported  upon  bearing  piles,  and  protected  in  front  with  sheet 
piling  made  water-tight.  As  an  engine  and  pumps  will  be  required  for  emp- 
tying the  dock,  a  pumiiing  engine  is  now  being  constructed  by  i\Icssrs.  Bolton 
and  Watt,  and  will  be  fixed  ready  for  working  by  the  time  the  dock  is  finished, 
Large  brick  culverts,  furnished  with  iirojier  penstocks,  will  be  formed  for 
drainage  to  the  engine-well,  and  also  for  filling  the  dock  when  required  for 
floating  a  vessel  out.  During  the  works,  the  large  area  excavated  for  the 
dock  will  be  kept  clear  of  water  by  a  temporary  engine  and  pumps,  which 
are  in  course  of  erection.  From  the  above  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the 
magnitude  and  importance  of  the  works  now  in  progress  at  Woolwich  Uock 
Yard,  which,  with  other  improvements  now  being  executed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Captain  Brandrcth  ami  Lieut.  Dcnnison,  of  which  we  hope  shortly  to 
give  an  account,  will  render  this  yard  a  vciy  complete  establishment  for  that 
miportaut  department  of  Her  Majesty's  navy,  the  steam  marine.  We  will 
endeavour,  at  some  future  opportunity,  to  give  further  particulars  of  these 
interesting  works  during  their  progress. 


Prierhiirn'. — The  .lustiees  fm-  this  liberty.' at  their  meeting  on  .Salurday  the 
.3O1I1  u!t..  adopted  the  phuii  of  Mr.  Dunlliuroc,  of  Hanover-street.  Loiulcn. 
for  the  new  gaol  .about  10  be  erected  lor  ibis  liberty.  Many  very  meritorious 
plans  were  sent  for  the  insiieeticm  of  the.liisaes;  and  anioniAsi  ibem.  those 
of  Mr.  Sililey,  ol  tlreat  D.inond-slieot.  and  Mr.  Alexander,  of  Adam-,>treet, 
Ailclphi,  London,  and  ol  i\lr.  \\"aller,  of  Cambridge,  elicited  ihe  grralcst  ap- 
prolatiou.  Mr.  Blore.  «ho  is  crnmcuuslv  stated  by  a  cotemporary  to  have 
been  the  successful  candidate,  did  nut  send  in  a  design. — SlainJ'i'rd  Mercury. 

%  2 


28 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


ON  THE  l'0\\i:U  OF  THE  STEAM  ENGINE. 

At  tlic  last  mcoling  of  I  lie  ('ornw.ill  I'olylecliuic  "Sooiety,  Iiclcl  .if  Falinoutli, 
Mr.  Snow  Harris  yc:u\  an  abstract  of  an  inlorcstini!;  and  valnalilc  ])aiier  on  the 
Sleani-nigiiio,  )iy  Professor  Moseley,  lie^asset!  a  liigli  eulogintn  on  lliat  gcn- 
tli-Mian  \vliose  pajter,  lie  said,  possessed  a  great  deal  of  infciest  to  the  wm'kiiig 
engineer  and  praelieal  miner.  The  details  of  the  paper  wonhl,  however,  he 
too  tedious  to  hringhefore  aniixed  audience,  and  he  had  tliercforc  alistracted 
the  principal  |ioints  which  it  was  necessary  to  hring  under  their  considertion. 
I'rofessor  Moscley  ajijjcared  to  think  that  the  eflieieiicy  of  a  steam  engine 
could  Ite  nicasiu'ed  only  hy  ohseiTations  of  the  cylinder  itself,  hecanse  tlie 
estiroafe  at  any  other  ]daee  was  less  than  tin;  ai'tnal  deficiency  on  account  of 
friction  and  other  canscs.  Hence  they  conh!  not  U'U  t'l /iriori  of  what  the 
engine  was  capable.  If  tlicy  had  a  good  mcasurenieni  of  the  ctliciency  at  the 
cylinder,  and  also  of  the  work  actually  ])erfornied,  they  should  then  arrive  at 
a  true  estimate  of  the  power  of  the  engine,  and  also  of  the  loss  hy  friction, 
i\c.,  by  subtracting  one  from  the  other,  in  the  Cornish  engines  they  had 
already  the  eflieieney  of  the  working  parts ;  they  rcquireil,  therefore,  the  only 
observations  at  the  cylinder.  It  was  the  dirt'erenee  of  these  which  was  the 
efficiency  for  the  pit  work,  and  of  so  touch  importance  to  the  adventurer  and 
engineer.  Professor  Moseley  jiroposcd  to  arrive  at  the  efficiency  of  the 
cylinder  by  connecting  a  seeoml  smaller  eylin<Ier  with  it.  of  aluint  six  inclies 
diameter,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  steam  acting  u])on  a  sju'ing  through  the  me- 
dium of  a  solid  ])lng  in  the  latter.  Tlie  writer  thought  the  cft'cctive  pressure 
upon  this  plug  as  indicated  hy  the  (piantitatum  measurement  by  means  of  the 
steel  spring  will  be  always  equal  to  thai  njion  an  equal  area  of  the  piston  of 
the  engine;  so  that  knowing  one  of  these  pressures  they  coidd  always  deter- 
mine the  other — namely,  tlie  eircctivc  ))ressiire.  The  author  proceeded  to 
explain  by  diagrams  a  practical  method  of  carrying  out  bis  general  principle. 
lie  further  thought  that  they  not  only  wanted  to  know  the  eft'ectivc  ])ressure 
throughout  the  whole  duration  of  the  stroke,  but  .also  how  much  of  the  stroke 
was  described  under  any  given  pressure.  The  author  furnished  methods  for 
arriving  at  this  important  clement  which  were  well  worthy  of  attention,  and 
were  such  as  to  apply  either  to  a  long  period  as  a  month,  or  a  short  ]ieriod 
of  six  hours.  The  Professor  considered  that  the  o>it  as  well  as  the  in  stroke 
should  he  registered,  and  he  gave  an  arrangement  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
results  were  registered  iijion  indicator  diagrams,  diflerent  from  those  of  M'att, 
and  upon  an  area  sixty  times  as  great.  There  seemed  but  little  doubt  that 
the  author  of  this  paper,  which  must  be  considered  as  an  extremely  imjiortant 
one  to  the  practical  miner  and  engineer,  bad  succeeded  in  inventing  methods 
for  arriving  at  the  efficient  power  of  the  steam  engine.  It  was  the  mechani- 
cal details  which  rcquireil  consideration.  They  must  obtain  very  perfect 
sjirings  calculated  to  yield  through  spaces  proportioned  to  the  jircssures.  This 
was  a  vital  affair,  for  should  not  such  be  the  case  the  indications  would  be 
erroneous.  The  author  thought  th.at  this  property  could  be  given  to  s]iiral 
sjirings,  as  well  as  to  bow  springs  of  a  given  form  ;  and  that  w  ith  due  correc- 
tion for  the  friction  of  the  small  cylinder,  the  method  might  be  m.ide  practi- 
cally perfect.  Mr.  Jordan,  with  his  iisu.al  ability,  had  given  a  drawing  of  the 
indicator,  and  had  contributed  largely  to  its  meeh.anical  .advancement.  Pro- 
fessfu*  Moseley  projiosed  to  call  this  instnnoent  the  pif  vork  counter,  because 
it  indicates,  by  eomi>arison  with  the  counter  in  present  use,  the  amount  of 
the  pit  work.  Mr.  Harris  concluded  by  observing  that  this  was  a  brief  ab- 
stract of  the  \ery  valuable  jiajier  furnished  by  Professor  Moseley,  and  he  was 
only  sorry  that  the  time  allowed  him  had  not  jiermitteil  him  to  do  Professor 
Jloscley  more  justice  than  he  had  on  the  present  occasion. 


Steam  Apparati's.— There  is  in  the  Oxford  Union  workhouse  a  steam 
apparatus  by  means  of  which  the  whole  of  the  clothing  and  other  articles 
used  in  it  are  washed,  dried,  and  ironeil,  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 
M'e  have  lately  been  atforded  an  ojijiortnnity  of  witnessing  this  useful  jiieee 
of  meebanism  in  o]>cratioii,  on  whicli  occasion  no  less  than  123.')  articles  of 
wearing  .apjiarel,  bed-clothing,  &;c.,  were  washed,  dried,  and  ironed,  in  two 
da>*s.  wilh  the  assistance  of  only  eight  v\<)men  and  two  girls  from  the  school. 
It  is  the  invention  of  James  \Va]ishare,  V,f'\.,  of  liatb,  for  which  we  under- 
stand he  has  obtained  a  jiatent,  and  was  some  time  since  erected  in  one  of 
the  wings  of  the  Imilding  solely  devoted  to  the  ])urposes  of  a  laundry,  at  the 
cxjicnse  of  the  chairman  of  the  Board,  the  Kev.  N.  Hudson.  The  ajiparatns 
consists  of  a  small  steam  boiler,  with  two  pijies  for  the  conveyance  of  steam. 
J!y  the  one  pipe  the  steam  is  conducted  to  the  coppers  used  for  boding  the 
clothes  and  supplying  the  washers  with  hot  water,  by  the  other  the  steam  is 
carried  to  a  closet  in  which  the  linen  is  to  be  dried.  The  exterior  of  this 
cJoset  is  a  wooden  frame  covered  with  /.inc,  within  it  is  fitted  uji  with  pipes, 
increasing  in  number  ai'cording  to  the  extent  of  drying  ]iower  required. 
These  ]ii]ies  are  arranged  horizontally  one  above  another,  resembling  a  turn- 
pike gate;  excepting  that  the  mils  are  connected  at  one  end  only  by  a  bend 
or  turn,  thus  finniing  a  continued  duct  for  the  steam.  The  steam  is  admitted 
at  the  upiicrpipe,  and  p.asses  its  conilensed  water  at  the  lowest.  t)ii  either 
side  of  tliis  tier  of  pipes  is  a  movable  clothes  horse,  xvbich  is  drawn  out  to  be 
hung  with  clothes.  Ujioii  the  construction  of  these  horses  the  ojieration  of 
drying  in  a  great  measure  depends.  They  are  made  close  at  the  toj)  of  the 
box,  so  that  no  heat  may  escape  over  tlieiii,  and  the  clothes  arc  so  disposed 
on  them  as  to  form  an  entire  sheet,  completely  enclosing  the  pijics,  and  ]ire- 
venting  any  escape  of  the  heat  radiating  from  the  jiipcs,  except  by  passing 
through  the  clothes  to  be  dried.     Tliis  disiiositiuii  of  the  clothes  is  easily 


accomphshed.  but  difficult  of  description.  On  the  outside  of  the  horses,  or 
on  that  side  which  is  not  next  the  jiipes,  a  valve  or  oiieiiing  is  made  on  the 
top  of  the  box',  and  a  cmTCut  of  air  being  admitted  at  the  bottom,  the  steam 
from  the  clothes  is  carrieil  off  as  fast  as  it  is  generated.  One  set  of  these 
pipes,  with  two  horses,  would  be  sufficient  for  any  moderate  family.  In  an 
establishment  so  extensive  as  an  Union  house  more  is  required,  in  the  closet 
erected  arc  three  ranges  of  pipes,  and  consequently  six  horses  or  two  to  each 
range,  having  an  air  space,  with  its  valve  between  each  set  of  horses.  At- 
tached to  the  flue  that  suiTounds  the  boiler  is  a  sm.ill  oven  for  heating  the 
irons,  so  that  the  whole  operation  of  the  laundry,  as  far  as  heat  is  required, 
is  simultaneously  effected  by  one  fire. — Oxford  llci'altl.  [We  insert  this 
notice,  not  for  its  novelty,  but  for  its  ulility,  and  to  show  the  a])])Ii<>ation  of 
steam  to  domestic  purjioscs,  in  the  erection  of  extensive  buildings  intended 
to  contain  a  large  number  of  inniales.  We  cannot,  from  the  above  descrip- 
tion, ascertain  what  claim  Mr.  M'ajishare  can  have  for  a  iiatent,  as  similar 
arrangements  have  been  adopted  many  years  past. — Eo.  C.  E.  iV  \.  Jour.] 

Hakkoor  Crank. — A  crane  eajtable  of  raising  great  weights  at  the  har- 
bour having  been  found  indisiiensahle,  a  considerable  time  since,  Mr.  Leslie, 
engineer  to  the  harbour,  executed  a  jilan  for  a  machine  cajiable  of  raising 
thirty  tons.  The  merit  of  the  design  hasbeen  very  extensively  acknowledged 
among  professional  men,  and  those  who  are  initiated  in  mechanics.  Mr. 
Peter  Borric,  the  contractor  for  the  work,  has  been  eng.iged  for  sometime 
past  in  easting  the  diflerent  ]'arls  of  the  crane.  The  novelty  of  the  design, 
and  the  magnitude  of  the  work,  evince  the  skill  antl  attention  which  must 
have  been  bestfiwed  upmi  its  comjilction.  The  gross  \\eight  of  the  post,  in- 
cluding the  back  and  side  tension-bars,  friction  collar,  hoops,  &'C.,  is  no  less 
than  twenty-five  tons,  or  within  ten  tons  of  the  weight  which  it  is  intentled 
to  lift.  The  pedestal  for  this  crane  is  a  beautiful  piece  of  nmsoiuT  ;  and 
rising  considerably  above  the  quay, /it  was  ne<'essary  to  raise  the  post  to  an 
elevation  of  fifty-five  feet  before  it  could  be  put  into  its  jilaee.  This  was 
done  by  two  tackles  and  crab  windlasses  of  great  power — the  upper  blocks 
being  fastened,  at  a  height  of  sixty  feet,  to  the  apex  of  three  shear  poles. 
The  whole  time  oceupieil  in  the  transit  of  tl«'  axle  pole,  and  in  raising  and 
lowering  it  into  the  east-iron  cylinders,  did  not  exceed  six  consecutive  hours. 
Ten  men  were  found  adequate  to  perform  the  whole  ojicration  of  raising  and 
lowering  the  ]iost,  and  adjusting  it  to  its  jnoper  position  in  the  cast-iron 
cylinder.  The  extreme  length  of  the  jiost  over  all  is  nearly  forty-five  feet. 
.\s  the  crane  is  not  yet  completed,  we  cannot  speak  of  it  as  a  whole  ;  hut 
there  cannot  be  a  doulit  that  it  will  be  a  great  advantage  to  the  large  class 
of  steamers,  especially  to  our  yet  unrivalled  I.omlon  steamers.  And  we 
understand  that  as  soon  as  it  is  ready,  and  disengaged  (for  the  steamer  Perth 
has  secured  the  first  turn),  a  very  large  steamer  from  a  distance  is  to  be 
brought  to  Dundee  in  order  to  get  in  new  boilers.  In  this  way,  we  have  no 
doubt,  an  ample  recompense  xvill  be  olitained  for  the  great  aeeommodation 
now  to  be  given  for  the  shipping  at  the  port.  Much  woik,  auda  consider- 
able amount  of  shore-dues,  may,  in  eonsequence  of  the  facilities  afforded  by 
the  crane,  be  brought  to  Dundee,  which  otherwise  would  have  been  lost  to 
it.  The  testing  of  this  vast  machine  will  be  a  process  of  some  interest ;  and 
we  have  no  doubt  the  successful  result  will  add  to  the  well  earned  rcjiutation 
of  Mr.  Ueslie;  and  be  highly  creditable  to  Mr.  liorrie,  by  whom  the  work 
has  been  executed. — Dutulcr  Courier. 

Skgui.n's  Ammai.  Gas  .Vpparaths. — In  a  memoir  on  the  compression  of 
gases,  and  on  the  reduction  of  vari.ible  pressures  into  regular  pressure,  M. 
Segiiin  gives  the  Academy  of  Sciences  a  description  of  a  new  |)um)),  with  a 
regulating  apparatus,  for  the  compression  of  gas  for  illumination  obtained 
from  the  distUlation  of  animal  substances.  The  pump  is  so  .arranged  as  to 
give  the  maximum  force  at  the  moment  of  the  course  when  the  gas  presents 
the  maximum  of  resistance  by  the  dimimitiou  of  its  volume ;  to  work  in  a 
vertical  jiosition  without  loss  of  gas,  and  without  the  jiiston  being  immersed 
in  fluid ;  and  lastly  to  avoid,  by  means  of  a  particular  mode  of  transmitting 
power,  the  use  of  guides,  which  would  cause  a  friction  in  the  piston-rod, 

Articsiax  Vkli.s.  —  M,  ^'iollct  b.as  eommnnicated  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  the  residts  of  the  experiments  which  be  has  made  at  Tours,  to  aseer- 
tiiin  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  by  an  .Vrtesian  well,  after  some  repairs 
imdcrtakcu  for  the  purpose  of  remedying  a  considerable  diminution  which 
took  place  in  the  jiroduee.  The  repairs  executed  under  the  direction  of  M. 
Mullot  had  complete  success,  and  the  well  now  serves  to  supply  motive 
power  for  the  silk  mill  of  M.  Champoiseau.  The  well,  which  in  July,  1834, 
immediately  after  its  comiiletion.  only  supplied  lOOfl  litres  jier  minute  to  the 
surface,  has  since  given  the  following  results  ascertained  by  gauging  kept  up 
from  the  loth  to  the  23rd  of  May  last. 

0-JO  metres  above  the  surface  34S0  litres  per  iiiitiute. 

i-7^  .  .  .  1620 

5-7.'>  .  .  .  IMO 

The  well  having  been  put  into  .action,  anil  supplying  its  water  from  the 
23ril  of  .May  from  a  new  orifice,  situated  5  metres  above  the  surface,  I  found 
by  gauging,  on  the  2iid  of  August,  a  jiroducc  of  1702  litres  per  minute,  in- 
stead of  the  IG20  only,  which  the  orifice  at  A'7l>  metres  gave  in  the  23rd  of 
May.  The  iiroiliice  li.as,  since  then,  still  further  increased,  which  progressive 
increase  is  attributed  by  M.  VioUet  to  the  alimentary  channels  being  cleared 
by  the  rejection  of  the  s.and  brought  to  the  surface  by  the  water  of  the  v\ell ; 
but  it  is  imirartaiil,  ,as  it  leads  to  the  hope  that  the  unfortunate  diminution  of 
siipiily  will  not  again  occur.  [\Vc  cannot  entertain  the  confidence  of  M. 
Viollet,  but  must  feel,  to  some  extent,  distrustful  of  wells  sunk  in  sandy 
strata,  which  arc  exposed  to  many  incynvcnicnccs,— Eb.  C.  E.  &  A,  Jour.] 


1S40.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL, 


29 


REVIE'WS. 


Theory,  Practice  ami  Architecture  of  Bridget.  The  thonj  hy  James 
Hann,  nf  King's  College,  and  the  practical  and  archilecliiral  treatises 
iy  William  Hosking,  F.S.A.,  &c.,  Vol.  I.     London:  John  Weale. 

Our  present  remarks  will  be  confined  to  Mr.  Hughes's  paper  on  the 
"  Foundations  of  Bridges,"  as  we  have  previously  noticed  most  of  the 
other  articles.  Mr.  Hughes  commences  his  paper  by  taking  a  review 
of  various  methods  of  laying  foundations  by  mean  of  caissons,  next  he 
explains  tlie  manner  of  building  liridges  on  dry  land,  the  stream  being 
afterwards  diverted  from  its  old  course  and  made  to  pass  imder  the 
new  bridge, — he  then  explains  the  method  of  building  piers  called  by 
(ho  French  encaissemiiit,  practised  by  Belidor.  Afterwards  comes  the 
method  of  laying,  in  deep  water,  ioumlations  of  piers,  bridges,  &c., 
without  the  aid  of  a  coffer  dam.  As  this  portion  of  the  paper  will 
best  explain  the  talents  and  capacity  of  its  author,  we  shall  give  a 
lengthened  extract,  accompanied  by  tlie  wood  engravings,  liberally 
furnished  to  us  by  the  publisher. 

The  first  work  of  the  kind  I  shall  describe  was  projected  by  Mr.  Telford, 
aiul  executed  under  the  suiHriutcndence  of  Mr.  David  Ilcniy,  at  Ardross.in 
Harbour,  in  Ayrshire,  N.  I!. ;  and  as  the  mass  of  stones  used  in  the  founda- 
tion was  tliere  set  in  toleraldy  regular  order  under  water,  without  the  aid  oj 
coffer-dam,  or  caisson  of  any  kind,  there  can  be  no  douljt  of  the  same  system 
being  equally  jiracticahle  in  many  cases  of  bridge  foundations. 

The  stones  at  Ardrossan  were  of  veiy  large  superficial  (hmensions,  varjing 
from  six  to  ten  feet  long,  and  tl\ree  to  five  feet  wide  ;  they  were  first  held 
fast  by  an  implement,  technically  called  nippers  or  devil's  claws,  auti  were 
then  lowered  by  a  crane  through  a  depth  of  six  or  eight  feet  of  water  on  to 
a  hard  and  solid  foundation.  The  lilocks  were  placed  etui  to  eiul,  the  i)Osi- 
tion  of  the  last  stone  lowered  being  found  by  jirobing  with  a  slight  iron  rod  ; 
and  as  soon  as  each  stone  was  in  its  place  longituihnally,  the  claws  were  (hs- 
cngagetl,  and  the  stone  allowed  to  rest  upon  the  course  Ijelow,  as  seen  in  fig. 
1.  The  com'scs  were  continued  entirely  througli  tlie  whole  thickness  of  the 
l>ier;  and  when  a  sxifticient  nunibcr  had  been  laid  to  bring  tiie  work  up  to 
the  height  of  low  water  spring  tides,  tlie  whole  heeadth  was  levelled,  and  all 
the  mie<iual  projections  chipped  off,  in  order  to  prepare  a  bed  for  the  firs 
co\u-se  of  dressed  masonry.  The  work  then  proceeded  in  the  regular  man- 
ner, consisting  of  alternate  headers   and  stretchers  of  properly  squared  ashlar 

Fig.  1. 


Hiifft 


^iT-J— «=n 


I'-l.r      Lii- 


I 


JMiiiii-*iiiiii '      iiiiui    -    mil  I 


4  Wutir 


in  front,  with  dry  stone  hearting  of  squared  scapple  dressed  rubble  inside, 
and  in  this  way  was  carried  up  to  the  full  height  required. 

When  the  writer  visited  this  work,  in  the  year  1818,  it  had  been  advanced 
a  consideraole  distance  into  the  sea  ;  and  although  parts  of  it  had  been  ex- 
jiosed  to  some  very  hea^T  storms,  neither  flaw  nor  settlement  coidd  he  dis- 
covered in  any  part  of  this  excellent  piece  of  dry-hnilt  masonry. 

From  an  account  of  some  foundations  similar  to  that  described  above  in  the 
recently  published  life  of  Mr.  Telford,  it  may  he  seen  that  the  practice  has 
been  much  more  extensively  adopted,  and  a  far  holder  attempt  carried  out 
by  Mr.  Gibb,  of  Aberdeen,  than  the  one  acted  upon  in  the  other  work  at 
Ardrossan.  The  pier  at  Aberdeen  is  extended  into  the  sea,  with  a  bicadth 
at  the  base  of  seventy-five  feet,  the  bottom  consisting  entirely  of  irregularly 
shaped  masses  of  stone,  which  having  been  conveyed  to  the  spot  in  boats, 
were  tumbled  in  by  chance  to  the  depth  of  ten  or  twelve  feet.  In  the  draw- 
ings composing  the  Atlas,  which  accompanies  the  hfe  of  Mr  Telford,  the  low 
^^■ater  mark  is  shown  about  foiuteeu  feet  above  the  bottom,  and  in  the  narra- 


tive of  this  work  by  Mr.  Gibb,  he  states,  that  the  bottom  under  the  founda- 
tion is  nothing  better  than  loose  saud  and  gravel,  and  that  tlie  front  ashlar 
commences  at  about  one  foot  under  low  water  mark,  and  is  carried  up  to  the 
top  of  the  iiier,  which  the  drawing  shows  to  be  about  thirty-three  feet  iu 
height  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The  rise  of  the  tide  is  shown  to  be 
fourteen  feet,  the  breadth  of  the  pier  twenty-eight  feet,  the  sides  carried  up 
with  a  slope  inwards.     Fig.  2,  describes  the  method  adopted  by  Mr.  Gibb. 


Pier  at  Aberdekx 


^^?Si§>^:>Sj$§5;?i5Sss:S5^^~ 


The  author  next  proceeds  to  describe  an  economical  method  of 
building  the  foundations  of  a  pier  as  practised  by  Mr.  Telford  at  In- 
verness, to  avoid  the  expence  of  erecting  a  coffer  dam.  This  is  well 
deserving  of  notice  on  account  of  its  simplicity,  particularly  the  part 
explaining  the  "  lewis." 

At  the  site  fixed  upon  for  the  intended  jiier,  the  depth  of  water,  at  the 
lowest  spring  tides,  was  never  less  than  foin-  feet,  and  at  ordinary  low  water 
five  or  six  feet;  the  bottom  a  very  hard  gravel,  uuited  with  clay.  The  whole 
length  of  the  breast  work  was  about  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  and  through- 
out this  distance  the  bottom  was  dredged  out,  to  the  widtli  of  eight  feet,  and 
depth  of  two  feet,  to  receive  the  masonry. 

A  simple  system  of  piling  was  however  driven  previous  to  fouuthng  the 
masonry.  The  piling  consisted  of  two  bearing  piles,  twelve  feet  long,  and 
eight  inches  diameter,  driven  down  at  intervals  of  twenty  feet ;  and  across 
the  heads  of  these  piles,  and  level  with  low  water  mark,  cross  pieces  of  elm 
planking  twelve  feet  long  three  inches  thick,  .and  one  foot  wide,  were  fasten- 
ed xvith  trenails.  On  the  top  of  these  were  laid  longitudinal  half  timbers, 
one  foot  wide,  and  six  inches  deep,  secured  to  the  cross  pieces  and  Ijcaiing 
piles  by  rag  bolts,  driven  into  each  pile  head. 

The  accompanying  sketches,  figs.  3  and  4,  will  amply  illustrate  the  forms 
and  (Usposition  of  the  timber  work  in  the  foundation.  In  addition  to  the 
bearing  piles,  a  row  of  timber  slabs,  of  inferior  quality,  was  also  driven  down 
a  few  inches  into  the  bottom,  at  intervals  of  about  ten  or  twelve  inches ; 
these  had  a  spike  driven  through  them,  near  their  heads,  and  into  the  longi- 
tudinal logs  of  half  timbers ;  there  were  merely  to  answer  the  pmpose  of 
guide  timbers,  to  set  the  stones  by,  and  to  determine  the  guage  or  breadth  of 
the  work,  and  were  afterwards  removed. 

The  bottom  on  which  the  pier  was  to  be  founded  being  now  made  as  level 

Fig.  3. 


30 


THIC  CIVIL  ENGINEEll  AND  AlKIIITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


Kk;.  4. 


a~-  possHilc  by  niraiis  uf  dredging  \vit!i  tlio  coiiinion  Iiag  and  spoon  apparatus, 
the  stones  were  brough  to  tlic  place  in  lioats,  and  lowcreil  1)\  a  crane,  iiisnch 
a  way  that  as  soon  as  each  stone  was  placed  in  its  proper  position  the  tciois 
cunhi  be  withdrawn  without  dillicnlty. 

This  will  be  understood  on  referring  to  fig.  5,  which  represents  the  lewis 
fi\ed  in  a  stone,  ready  preiiared 
for  being  lowered  tlirougli  the 
water  into  the  foundation.  The 
lewis  eoTisisted  of  two  pieces  of 
iron  1!  and  I),  and  in  older  to 
use  it  a  part  of  the  stone  must 
be  cut  out,  sutlieieiitly  wide  at 
top  to  receive  the  base  of  the 
p.irt  1!,  the  base  of  thi'  ojicning 
of  the  stone  Iteing  cipial  to  the 
luiitcd  widlli  of  I)  and  U;  A  is 
the  chain  suspended  from  the 
arm  of  the  crane,*  and  E  a  small 
rope  or  siring,  of  which  the  end 
is  kept  above  w.iter,  to  ]inll 
out  the  rectangular  part  U  of  the 
lewis. 

It  is  easy  to  see  the  method  of  using  this  instrument :  the  piece  B  is  first 
inserted,  and  1)  is  then  put  in  tosecm-e  it,  when  it  is  evident  that  the  heavier 
lh(;  stone  may  be,  provided  it  be  strong  enough,  the  more  securely  will  it  be 
held  by  the  lewis  when  suspetuled  from  the  crane.  Coueeivc  the  stone  now 
to  have  been  lowered  through  the  water,  and  carefully  laid  in  its  proper  place 
in  the  founilalion  ;  the  chain  from  the  barrel  of  the  crane  is  then  loosened, 
and  the  part  11  of  the  lewis  being  slightly  knocked  with  an  iron  rod  from 
abo\e,  is  e.isily  made  to  ilrop  down  into  tlie  vacant  space  C.  It  is  evident 
that  the  fastening  piece  I)  will  then  be  loose,  because  between  this  and  li 
there  is  a  sp.ice  left  e(|ual  to  the  ihtt'creiu'c  between  the  base  of  li,  and  the 
base  of  the  opening  in  the  stone.  D  may  therefore  be  drawn  out  by  lueaus 
of  the  string  E,  and  II  will  readily  follow  on  pulling  the  chain  A,  and  the 
lewis  is  again  ready  to  be  inserted  in  another  stone. 

All  the  front  stones  of  tlie  foundation  were  laiil  with  a  lewis  of  this  kind, 
as  well  as  the  backing  of  scpiared  stones,  which  were  jireviously  scapple- 
dresscd  at  tlie  ([uariT.  The  whole  of  the  stones  in  any  one  course,  for  the 
length  of  tlic  jiicr,  were  Laid  of  equal  thicknesses  ;  they  ranged  from  four  to 
seven  feet  long,  and  from  three  to  four  feet  wide.  As  soon  as  one  course  was 
comiilete  another  w,is  laid,  and  the  length  of  each  stone  being  marked  on  the 
longitudinal  beams  above  the  piling,  it  was  easy  to  set  them  so  as  to  break 
bond,  ami  the  whole  process  of  tlurs  building  under  water  was  eti'ected  with 
the  utmost  regularity,  and  with  less  dirticidty  tlian  could  have  been  autiei- 
])atcd  by  the  most  s,anguinc  advocates  of  the  plan. 

When  all  the  building  was  carried  up  ,is  high  as  the  sni-facc  of  the  lowest 
water  mink  of  a  s)n-ing  tide,  any  irregularity  on  the  top  was  taken  off,  and 
the  wlude  surface  carefully  levelled,  .iiid  on  it  tlie  ashlar  masonry  was  com- 
luenecd  and  carried  up  with  a  vertical  batter.  This  work  consisted  of  stones 
with  piclicd  fronts  and  ehiscl-dranghts  round  the  edges,  the  cmls,  beds,  ami 
face,  pro]ierly  squared.  The  backing  was  of  good  conunon  rubble,  and  the 
whole  being  raised  to  three  feet  above  the  highest  spring  tides,  was  linished 
otf  with  a  heavy  coiiing,  inoperly  dowelled,  cramped,  and  securc<I  with  lead. 


"  It  is  (piite  evident  that  by  any  oilier  mode  of  suspending  the  stones  ex- 
cepting that  of  the  lewis,  which  could  be  diseii^atJed  inider  water,  even  an 
approximation  to  a  close  joint  could  never  have  U'cu  eftcclcd  iu  the  situatiun 
now  UescribcJ, 


This  work,  from  its  situ.ition,  is  called  the  Thorn  Hush  Tier  ;  the  dale  of 
its  coiislriictioM  wa^  IKl.'i.and  uji  to  the  present  time  no  ajipearance  of  failure 
or  imperfection  has  been  ol)served. 

Mr.  Hughes  then  reverts  to  llie  consideration  of  roller  dams,  and 
)Hiiiils  o\it  as  good  examples  the  eorter  (l.\nis  of  the  new  Houses  of 
r^irlianient,  and  the  one  constrncled  at  St.  Katharine's  Doi'k,  IhiIIi  of 
which,  wc  are  liappy  to  say,  liave  beendescrilied  in  the  first  and  second 
volumes  of  our  joMnial,  acconiiianied  by  the  specifications.  We  con- 
sider the  latter  ontjlit  at  all  limes,  if  possible,  to  aeconi])anv  the  draw- 
ings, as  lliey  at  once  convey  to  llie  ))rofession  the  minntiie  of  the  i-on- 
struction,  and  of  the  inalerials  used.  As  we  liave  so  fully  explained 
to  our  readers  the  eonslruclion  of  the  above  works,  we  shall  not  avail 
ourselves  of  any  extracts  from  the  able  eonnneuls  of  the  author  in  the 
pajier  now  before  us,  but  shall  |iroceed  at  once  to  the  otlier  portion 
explaiuing  the  advantages  of  building  inverted  arches.  The  author 
reconiuiends,  where  the  bottom  is  unsounil,  to  cover  it  entirely  over 
will)  cross  sleepers  of  iMeuiel  logs,  and  on  them  to  lay  a  covering  of 
planks  closely  jointed.  In  support  of  thisniethoil  of  construction  lie  idles 
an  example  of  the  late  Mr.  Ueiinie,who  introduced  it  fur  the  foundation 
at  the  Albion  Mills,  close  to  Hl.ickfriar's  Bridge.  We  cannot  give  our 
consent  to  this  mode  of  building,  being  decidedly  averse  to  the  intro- 
duction of  planking  and  piling,  excepting  for  hydraulic  works  w  hen 
both  are  constantly  niuler  water ;  we  would  at  all  times  risk  a  good 
bed  of  concrete  over  the  whole  surface  as  adopted  at  the  WcstniinsUr 
Bridewell,  or  a  broad  fotindation  as  adopted  by  Sir  Robert  Sniirke  at 
the  Penitentiary,  (he  latter  example  is  alluded  to  by  the  author  in  a 
subsequent  part  of  the  paper.  The  marshy  nature  of  the  land  on  which 
both  those  buildings  were  erected,  and  their  jnvsent  appear.uice  in 
]ioint  of  stability  clearly  show  that  concrete  may  be  used  with  safety  in 
almost,  if  not  all  situations:  we  have  seen  such  ill  elVects  of  planking 
lor  foundations  of  land  buildings,  that  we  dread  tlic  very  name  of  it, 
not  only  is  it  liable  to  rot,  but  also  to  be  crushed.  We  sliould  think 
that  the  timber  lonuiiig  the  bottom  of  the  caisson  upiui  which  the  piers 
of  Westminster  Bridge  stand  lias  been  crushed  full  an  inch  ini  thick- 
ness; here  it  was  of  no  consequence,  as  the  timber  was  always  inider 
water,  and  remains  to  this  day  sound  as  on  the  day  when  laid  down, 
but  there  are  situations  in  which  the  crushing  of  an  inch  in  thickness 
may  he  partial  .uid  cause  considerable  settlements  in  the  building, 
particularly  if  tliere  be  many  openings  w  ith  arches  in  the  superstruc- 
ture. Tlie  foUowing  observations  relative  to  Mr.  Telford  are  well  de- 
serving tlie  attention  of  the  junior  nieuibers  of  the  profession. 

Mr.  Telford  in  his  i)r.actice  as  an  engineer  was  exceedingly  cautioiH,  and 
never  allowed  any  hut  his  most  experienced  and  contidential  assistants  to 
have  any  thing  to  do  with  exploring  the  foundations  of  any  buildings  he  was 
about  to  erect.  This  scrutiny  into  the  (|ualilieatious  of  those  employed  about 
the  found.itions  extcudcil  to  the  subordinate  overseers,  anil  even  to  the  work- 
men, insomuch  that  men  whose  general  habits  had  before  (lasscd  unnoticed, 
and  whose  characters  h.ad  never  been  inquired  into,  did  not  esrajie  Mr.  Tel- 
ford's observations  when  set  to  work  in  operations  connected  with  the  founda- 
tions. He  was  accustomed  to  examine  men  so  employed  whom  he  thought 
unsteady,  and,  if  necessary,  would  reprimaud  the  overseers  for  emidoying 
such  men  about  the  foundations  in  any  capacity.  It  is  evident  from  tliesc 
I)recautions  that  Mr.  Telford  was  well  convinced  how  dangerous  it  was  even 
to  receive  a  report  of  the  strata  from  men  of  careless  habits  or  inelHeient 
knowledge,  and  that  he  also  knew  the  consequences  which  might  follow  from 
careless  pile-driving,  and,  in  short,  from  the  absence  of  proper  care  in  all  the 
operations  connected  with  the  coinmencement  of  an  important  structure. 

In  tlie  third  ilivision  of  this  paper  the  author  makes  some  judicious 
remarks  on  foundations  of  sand.  Mr.  Hughes  then  proceeds  to  ilescrilie 
a  very  strong  «)tVcr  dam  for  a  river  where  there  is  a  great  depth  of 
water,  from  this  jiart  of  the  paper  containing  some  excellent  instruc- 
tions, we  take  the  following  extract  relative  to  " puddle." 

Considering  only  the  two  extremes  of  very  hard  and  very  soft  plastic  clay, 
it  will  be  finind  that  the  former  of  these,  when  broken  np  and  thrown  in  be- 
tween the  piles,  will  seldom  or  never  form  a  perfect  dam.  On  the  contrary, 
vacuities  will  remain  between  the  broken  pieces,  and  it  will  be  found  exceed- 
ingly difficidt  to  be.at  down  clay  of  this  kind  into  a  body  snihcicntly  lirm, 
compact,  .and  solid  to  resist  the  eflbrts  of  the  water  to  penetrate  through  it. 
If,  again,  clay  of  a  very  soft  plastic  nature  lie  introduced,  it  will  jiartially  dis- 
solve and  combine  with  the  water  when  thrown  into  it,  so  that  the  space  be- 
tween the  piles  will  be  tilled  with  a  kind  of  mud  puddle  almost  in  a  lluid 
state,  of  no  greater  consistency  and  no  greater  capability  of  keeping  out  water 
than  mud  itself.  It  is  evident  therefore  that  either  kind  of  da;  liy  itscV 
woidd  not  answer  the  purpose  intended  of  forming  a  solid  water-tight  puddle. 
All  the  clays,  when  useil  in  a  colter-dam,  require  a  mixture  of  gr.ivcl  and 
sand,  or  a  portion  of  poundeil  chalk  will  he  found  an  excellent  materkal  to 
give  solidity  to  the  soft  portion  of  the  clay,  and  to  fill  the  vacuities  and  in- 
terstices which  may  be  expected  to  exist  where  the  clay  is  of  a  hard  and 
lumpy  descriptisn.  However  general  may  be  the  opinion,  it  is  certain  that 
ouc  more  erroneous  was  uevcr  entertained  than  that  clay  alone  is  a  proper 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


31 


iiuiterial  to  make  a  good  iiiuMle-clani.  Clay  liy  itself  is  subject  to  great 
rlianges,  according  to  "the  alternations  of  heat  ami  cohl,  drought  and  moisture. 
In  very  ilry  weatirer,  and  when  exposed  for  a  time  to  the  inlluenec  of  tlie  sun, 
all  moisture  will  lie  extracted;  and  the  clay  will  invarialdy  crack  and  separate 
into  a  nmnher  of  irregular  fragments,  which  will  never  afterwards  unite  so  as 
to  form  an  adhesive  water-tight  sulist.ancc.  The  ililhculty  of  compressing 
clay,  when  placeil  in  a  dam  of  any  considcrahlc  depth,  into  a  solid  mass  with- 
out ImUows  has  heen  already  noticed.  If  in  addition  to  this  olijection  we 
consider  the  immense  weight  and  i)ressure  of  clay  so  coniju'csscd  against  the 
jiiles  forming  the  sides  of  the  dam,  and  the  consecpient  strain  on  the  piles, 
wliicli  ought  only  to  he  employed  in  resisting  the  pressure  of  the  water  from 
without,  we  shall  see  sufficient  reason  to  decide,  on  these  as  well  as  on  othej- 
grounds,  ag.ainst  the  in-actice  of  puddling  entirely  with  clay.  From  the  very 
iiest  information  which  can  he  hrought  to  hear  on  tins  s\dijeet,  namely,  that 
derived  from  long  and  w.itehful  ex]ierience,  accom)ianied  hy  the  knowledge 
that  he  has  himself,  as  a  contractor,  lost  large  sums  of  money  on  account  of 
too  great  a  faith  iu  clay  jinddlcs,  the  writer  is  enabled  to  speak  very  positively 
on  tlie  nature  of  this  material,  and  in  achlitiou  to  the  ohjections  .already  ad- 
vanced begs  to  add  his  own  personal  observations  of  the  fact  that  puddles 
composed  entirely  of  clay  have  usually  bulged,  given  way,  ami  been  foinid  in- 
ap.alile  of  keeping  out  the  water  wUcji  of  considerable  dci)tli,  and  that  in 
^nv  ease  a  puddle  with  an  admixture  of  gravel,  chalk,  and  sand  will  make  a 
jafer  water-tight  dam  than  clay  alone. 

The  fourth  division  treats  on  the  value  of  concrete  as  a  substitute 
for  stoiie  or  timber  in  foundations,  and  describes  the  various  qualities 
of  lime  and  sand,  and  their  proportions  in  which  they  inicfht  to  be  used. 
The  author  has  given  some  remarks  on  the  defective  construction  of 
jiart  of  Gloucester  Bridge,  from  tlie  settlement  id'  the  wing  wall  on  the 
Gloucester  side  which  is  fractured  from  its  base  to  tlie  top  of  the 
parapet,  where,  he  states,  there  is  an  opening  nearly  three  inches 
wide.  We  rather  suspect  that  some  other  settlements  have  escaped 
the  eye  of  Mr.  Huglies,  when  we  were  at  (iloucester  about  two  years 
since,  we  observed  some  fractures  over  the  arch  which  had  been  stopped 
up  with  cement,  and  instead  of  the  wing  walls  only  having  gone  down, 
we  consider  that  the  abutment  on  the  (iloucester  side  has  also  gone 
down,  or  is  forced  a  trifle  from  its  perpendicular  position  in  consa- 
ipienoe  of  the  giving  way  of  the  wing  walls,  i.nd  has  caused  the  settle- 
ments we  liave  named. 

Mr.  Hughes  next  explains  the  causes  of  settlements  in  the  wing  and 
abutment  walls  of  bridges  by  using  for  the  backing  a  |)uddle  of  clay  ; 
he  observes,  that  the  cracks  and  iissures  which  attend  the  drying  of 
clay,  when  much  ex|H)sed,  are  so  exceedingly  dangerous,  as  atlbrding 
lodgement  for  water  to  press  against  the  w  all,  that  there  is  every  reason 
to  expect,  at  some  time  or  other,  fractures  and  dangerous  settlements 
in  walls  which  have  been  thus  backed.  We  have  heard  of  several  in- 
stances of  bridges  constructed  on  railways,  where  the  abutments  and 
wing  walls  have  been  forced  out  of  their  places,  although  built  with 
a  considerable  batter,  to  nearly  perpendicular,  owing  to  the  backing  of 
clay  having  swelled  through  additional  moisture.  Where  it  is  re- 
quisite to  build  retaining  walls  in  clay  cuttings,  it  is  nece.ssary  if  the 
strata  have  any  dip  to  build  the  upper  retaining  wall  thicker  than  the 
hiwer  one,  and  also  to  give  the  slopes  of  cuttings  on  the  upper  sicU'  a 
greater  deolivitv  than  the  lower  one,  as  the  clay  is  naturally  inclined 
to  slip  on  its  bed. 

In  the  concluding  portion  of  the  paper  Mr.  Hughes  has  made  some 
very  able  connnents  on  the  principal  clauses  of  a  contract  deed  whicli 
the  contractor  is  required  to  sign  ;  but  as  we  have  already  so  copiously 
extracted  from  the  paper,  we  must,  in  justice  to  the  publislier,  resist 
intruding  any  farther.  With  his  remarks  oii  the  various  clauses  we  fully 
concur,  and  we  trust  that  it  will  not  be  long  before  a  more  equitable 
spirit  breathes  through  tlie  conditions  of  a  contract.  We  feel  con- 
vinced that  it  is  the  only  way  to  obtain  opulent  and  respectable  con- 
tractors to  undertake  large  works,  the  present  stringent  clauses  throw- 
ing the  whole  on\is  of  the  construction  on  the  contractor,  and  removing 
all  responsibility  from  the  engineer,  is  a  premium  for  ignorant  ]ire- 
tenders  to  enter  the  profession,  many  of  whom,  probably,  have  obtained 
a  line  theinetical  education,  and  are  abie  to  make  very  pretty  draw- 
ings, which  they  fancy  entitle  them  to  the  initials  C.  K.  at  the  end  of 
their  names,  but  wliich  are  very  far  from  assuring  a  sound  knowledge 
of  construction. 

Before  we  close  onr  remarks  we  must  allude  to  the  "getting  up  of 
the  work,"  the  first  volume  contains  1 10  engravings  beantifulTy  exe- 
cuted, and  posiessing  considerable  merit  in  jioint  of  construction,  and 
as  examples  of  bridge  building.  The  letterpress  contains  5  papers,  No. 
I.  Theory  of  Bridges,  by  Mr.  Ilann ;  II.  Transl.itions  from  Gauthey ; 
III.  Theoretical  and  Practical  papers,  by  Professor  Moscley ;  IV.'A 
series  of  papers  on  the  Fonnd.itions  of  Bridges,  by  Mr.  T.  Hughes  ; 
V.  Account  of  Hutcheson  Bridge  at  Glasgow,  by  Lawrence  Hill, 
Esq.,  and  the  Specification  by  Mr.  Robert  Stevenson,  of  Edinburgh. 
Most  of  these  papers,  as  they  appeared  in  numbers,  we  had  eccasion  to 


speak  of  witli  the  highest  )iraise,  and  we  feei  much  pleasure  in  tiiuling 
that  the  concluding  |)art  of  the  first  volume  is  quite  equal  to  the  former. 
We  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  it  will  be  one  of  the  most 
valuable  publications  which  the  profession  can  wish  to  possess. 


Henfh's  Pictitrt^qiic  ./in  una  I  for  1840:  Wiiuhur  Cag/le.  and  its  En - 
riioiisi,  hy  Lkitch  Kitcmik,  Esq.,  loilh  Fifteen  Engra rings.  Lon- 
don :  Longman  and  (Jo. 

We  recommended  the  preceding  volume  of  this  annual,  as  eontain- 
ing  among  other  illustrations  of  Versailles,  several  highly  linisln-d 
architectural  interiors, — a  class  of  subjects  all  the  more  welcome,  be- 
cause, although  exceedingly  interesting,  they  are  very  rarely  treated 
by  the  pencil;  ami  the  two  views  of  the  kiiiil  here  given,  ntiinely,  of 
St.  George's  Hall  and  tin-  Waterloo  Galler}',  only  cause  us  to  regret 
that  there  should  be  none  of  any  of  the  other  apartments;  not  even 
one  of  the  corridor,  ov  any  portion  of  it,  to  convey  some  idea  of  its 
architectuiMl  character,  it  certainly  was  not  ow  ing  to  want  of  subjects 
that  the  choir  of  St.  (ieorge's  Chapel — the  architecture  of  whicli,  by 
the  by,  is  sadly  disfigured  by  the  barbarous  design  of  the  pointed  win- 
dow over  the  altar,  which  looks  just  like  Carpenter's  Gothic ; — was 
selected  as  one  of  the  three  interiors;  while  the  subject  is  very  well 
known,  having  been  given  inPync's  Royal  Residencus,  and  other  lutli- 
licatioiis.  We  certainly  would  very  gladly  have  exchanged  it  fur 
something  else.  We  pass  over  the  other  engravings,  because  although 
manv  are  executed  witli  great  spirit  and  ability,  they  are  chiefly  of 
scenery  in  dift'erent  parts  of  the  Park,  and  are  connected  only  nmotely 
with  the  Castle,  which  is  removed  farther  olV  than  we  could  wish.  Yet 
although  architectural  subjects  generally  may  not  be  so  jjopular  as 
landscape  scenery,  we  should  imagine  that  like  ourselves,  most  other 
persons  would  not  have  been  <lispleased  had  tliere  been  a  majority  of 
the  former  class,  on  this  occasion.  We  sliould  have  been  grateful  l(i<i, 
liad  the  editor  in  some  degree  supjdied  this  deficiency  by  treating  at 
great  length  of  Windsor  Castle  as  it  really  is  at  the  present  ilay,  and 
entered  into  some  more  exact  description  of  the  jirincipal  apartnieul-^ 
their  architecture  ;uid  decorations.  However,  as  description  (jf  that 
kind  does  not  appear  to  be  by  any  means  the  editor's  forte,  there  is 
less  reason  to  regret  that  he  has  been  so  exceedingly  sparing  of  it.  It 
appears,  however,  from  what  is  here  said  that  we  are  likely  to  obtain 
a  full  architectural  account  of  Windsor,  it  being  stated — upon  snlli- 
cient  authority,  we  presume,  that  Sir  Jeliery  Wyattville  himscdf  is 
now  preparing  a  series  of  drawings  and  other  materials  for  the  pur- 
pose. 

Tlie  view  of  the  Ruins  at  Virginia  Water  after  a  drawing  by  Hard- 
ing, is  one  of  the  most  attractive  of  the  landscape  subjects,  ipiite  a 
poetical  scene  in  itself — and  one  of  which  we  have  never  behire  met 
within  any  representation;  and  tlumgh  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the 
view  of  the  Fishing  Temple  and  Lake,  that  is  a  very  (diarming  conqio- 
sition  bv  the  same  tasteful  artist,  and  admirably  engraved.  Most  un- 
doubtedly we  should  have  been  better  gratilied  ha<l  the  illustrations 
been  confined  entirely  to  the  Castle  itself,  and  to  the  newer  portions 
of  the  edifice  ;  but  we  must  also  admit  th;it  tlio  proprietor  had  to  con- 
sult the  taste  of  tin'  purchasers  (jf  Annuals.  We  hope,  In.uever,  lli.it 
he  will  yet  bring  out  some  graphic  ]mblicalion  expressly  devoted  to 
that  cla.ss  of  subjects — namely,  architeotural  interiors,  of  which  Ver- 
sailles and  Windsor  have  furnished  some  specimens. 


Mnnoir  of  a  Mtclimiic,  king  a  Skitc/i  of  the  Life  of  Timothj  C/ei.rlon, 

ivritlen    hi/    himself,  logellier    with  JMiseelleimonti  Papers.      Boston, 

United  States;  (i.  VV.  Light,  18311. 

This,  although  )iiiblishej  at  the  same  time  by  a  dill'erent  author,  is 
a  kind  of  American  version  of  the  Hints  to  Mechanics,  by  Mr.  Claxton, 
but  although  derived  from  nearly  the  same  sources,  is  not  quite  so 
interesting.  Boston,  like  Edinburgh,  has  dubbed  itself  an  Athens,  lias 
the  same  mania  for  lionizing,  and  the  same  want  of  philosophers  for 
their  academic  groves.  In  this  emergency  they  have  laid  hold  of  Mr. 
Claxton,  and  although  they  might  find  a  mure  majestic  lion,  a  more 
useful  one  thev  will  not  easily  discover.  Like  the  works  of  Franklin, 
it  is  a  ])laiii,  practic.d  maniud  of  advice  to  the  working  classes,  which 
instructs  in  the  best  way,  thtit  of  example. 

It  says  nincli  for  the  literary  ajipetite  of  Boston  that  they  can  devour 
such  a  work,  and  it  says  still  more  for  them  that,  knowing  how  thin- 
skinned  their  couiitrymen  generally  are,  that  they  slioulJ  have  allowed 
Mr.  Claxton  to  give  free  vent  to  some  of  his  old  country  prejudices, 
which  we  know  go  so  greatly  against  the  grain. 


32 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[jANrARY, 


Companion  to  /lie  Almanac  fur  1640.     Lomlmi :  Knight  &  Co. 

A<;  \is\ial  this  publicaficm  contains  a  great  doal  of  highly  interesting 
architectural  mailer,  in  the  way  both  oT  descriptions  oi^  and  comments 
upon,  new  buildings  and  other  iniprovementu,  illustrated  with  several 
clever  wood  engravings.  Of  these  latter  the  subjects  are,  Mr.  Wild's 
two  churches  at  Blackheath  and  ,Southami)ton,  tlie  new  church  I\irk 
.Street,  Bankside,  the  Club-house  Clianibers,  Regent  .Street,  and  plans, 
Ulc.  of  iMr.  Cockerell's  new  buildings  at  Cambridge  for  the  Public 
Libraries,  vVc.  Among  those  buildings  which,  although  not  accom- 
panied w  ilh  any  cuts,  come  in  for  a  large  share  of  notice  and  remarks 
are,  Mr.  Harry's  Reform  Club,  and  Mr.  Tattersall's  chapel  at  D\ikin- 
tield,  as  does  likewise  the  new  building  in  Wellington  Street,  for 
Bielefeld's  Rapier  Maclir  Works. 

The  counnents  on  the  plan  of  the  Cambridge  Libraries  are  pertinent, 
—though,  jierliaps,  the  architect  may  be  disposed  to  prefix  an  im  to 
that  epithet — and  judicious;  for  it  certainly  does  appear  that  the 
building  w ill  be  more  irregular  than  even  the  awkwardness  of  the  site 
reipures  :  nor  that  onlv  externallv  but  internally  too,  because  many  of 
the  piincipal  apartments  will  be  thrown  quite  out  of  square,  one  of 
them  sloping  off  instead  of  being  parallel  to  the  opposite  one.  It  is 
therefore  to  be  hoped  that  that  part  of  the  jjlan  will  be  reconsidered 
before  it  shall  be  actually  began. 

\Ve  shall  quote  only  two  of  the  minor  paragraphs: 

KcKii'ick  i'hitrch.  Lately  erected  by  Mr.  Salvia,  is  a  stone  edifice  in  the 
early  |ioiii1ed  style,  of  about  the  time  of  Henry  II,  with  a  tower,  burmomited 
by  a  low  spire,  and  a  small  octagonal  huilding,  attaclu'd  to  the  south  side  of 
the  church,  for  a  vestry  room.  This  latter  is  covered  l)y  a  very  steep,  or 
spirc-iliaiictl  roof,  and  forms  a  very  striking  feature  ill  the  design,  to  winch 
it  imp.irls  a  great  degi'ce  of  jiiclarcsiiiie  variety.  This  church  was  corn- 
men  ed  by  the  late  John  Marshall,  Jan.,  Ksq.,  and  has  been  completed  by 
his  widow.  It  i:,  ant  capable  of  containing  more  than  412  persons,  viz.,  48 
in  pews  aod  ."iljl  in  free  seats.     Cost,  .I'tJ.'JHl). 

Dmimi/lon  r7(«;-e/(,  another  work  by  the  same  architect,  is  very  different 
in  design,  being  a  long  and  low  but  high-rnofed  stnieture,  of  rather  primitive 
character,  with  small  and  jdain  jiointed  windows,  at  irregular  intervals,  and 
a  square  tower  (in  whlcli  is  a  jiorch)  on  the  north  side.  It  was  built  by  sub- 
scriptions and  dunatiims  for  the  sum  of  i.'3,ii5t  ;  yet,  although  the  cost  is 
little  more  tlian  iialf  that  of  the  ))rccciling  laulding,  it  is  cai»uhle  of  aeeoru- 
niodating  more  than  doable  the  number  of  jiersons,  viz.,  l.OltJ ;  1 10  in  pews 
and  GOO  in  free  sittings." 

In  a  previous  part  of  the  volume  is  a  section  upon  "Railways," 
containing  much  statistical  iiiforniation  on  that  subject. 


Mancltcster  as  H  is,  witli  numerous  S/ed  Engravings  and  a  J\Iap. 
Manchester:  Love  and  Barton. 

Tins  is  a  verj'  useful  and  interesting  little  work,  descriptive  of  all  the  pub- 
lic buildings,  institutions,  evhibitions,  canals,  warehouses  aiul  manufactories, 
in  short  it  appears  to  contain  all  the  infoi'matioa  that  a  visitor  may  wish  for 
as  a  gui<le  to  Manchester.  We  select  the  following  extracts  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  work. 

STEAM    ENGINE    M.VKIXG,    AND    F.NGINEEniNG. 

One  of  the  i)rincii)al  establishments  in  Manchester,  in  these  departments, 
is  that  belonging  to  William  Fairbairn,  Esq.,  situate  in  Canal-street,  Great 
Ancoats-strettt.  To  jicrsons  \mac(ptainted  ^^ith  the  nature  of  working  in  iron, 
an  admission  into  these  works  aftords,  perhaps  the  most  gratifying  spectacle 
wbicli  the  town  can  j)rescnt  of  its  nnmnfactnixvi  in  this  metal.  Consetiuently, 
abnosl  e\t'ry  person  of  tlistinction  visiting  the  town  contrives  to  jn'oeure  an 
introduction  to  the  proprietor  before  leaving  it.  In  this  establishment  the 
lieuvit'st  description  of  machinery  is  manufactured,  including  steam  engines, 
water  wheels,  locomotive  engines,  and  null  geering.  There  are  from  r)50  to 
GOO  liamis  employed  in  the  various  dei)artnu:nts ;  and  a  walk  through  the  ex- 
tensive premises,  in  which  this  great  niunber  of  men  are  busily  at  work, 
atlords  a  specimen  of  industry,  and  an  evainple  of  lU'actical  science,  which 
can  scarcely  be  surpassed.  In  every  direction  of  the  works  the  ntnmst  xi/xfem 
prevails,  and  each  mechanic  appears  to  have  bis  iieeuliar  description  of  work 
assigned,  with  the  utmost  economical  sididivisiou  of  laliour.  All  is  activity, 
yet  without  confusion.  Smiths,  strikers,  moulders,  millwrights,  mechanics, 
boiler  nnikcrs,  pattern  makers,  appear  to  attend  to  their  respective  employ- 
ments with  as  nmch  regularity  as  the  working  of  the  niachineiy  they  assist  to 
construct. 

In  one  de]tartiuent  mechanics  are  employed  in  building  those  mighty  nut- 
chines  \\bicb  have  augmented  so  inuneusely  the  mannfacturiag  interests  of 
tlrcat  liritain,  naujcly,  steam  engines.  All  si/.ca  ami  dimensions  arc  frequently 
under  hand,  from  the  dinunutive  size  of  8  horses  power,  to  the  enormous 
magnitude  of  400  horses'  power.  One  of  this  latter  size  contains  the  vast 
amount  of  200  tons  or  upwards  of  metal,  and  is  worth,  in  round  nundjcrs, 
from  .15,000  to  .fC,000. 
The  process  of  easting  metal  is  90n(lu«tc4  here  on  a  very  large  scale,  Cast- 


ings of  twelve  tons  weight  are  by  no  meaus  unconuuon  :  the  beam  of  a  300 
horses'  jiower  steam  engine  weighs  that  amoiuit.  Fly-wheels  for  engines,  and 
water-wheels,  though  not  cast  entire,  are  inunense  specimens  of  heavy  cast- 
ings. .\  fly-wheel,  for  an  engine  of  100  horses'  power,  measures  in  diameter 
twenty-six  feet,  and  weighs  about  thirty-live  tons.  In  this  establishnuait 
some  of  the  largest  water-wheels  ever  manufactured,  and  the  heaviest  luill- 
geering  have  been  constructed  ;  one  water-wheel,  for  instance,  lueasuriiig 
sixty-two  feet  in  diameter.  The  average  weekly  consnui]itioii  of  metal  in 
these  works  in  the  process  of  manufacturing,  owing  to  the  (piantity  of  wrought 
iron  used,  and  the  unmcnse  bulk  of  the  castings,  is  CO  tons  or  upwards,  or 
3,120  tons  anuuidly. 

The  preparation  of  jiatterns, — wood  fac-similes  of  the  castings, — is  a  \ery 
costly  process.  Every  piece  of  machinery,  before  it  can  be  cast,  nmst  be 
constructed  in  wood;  and  these  path-nu,  Af,  they  are  termed,  arc  made  to 
form,  in  sand,  the  mould  into  which  the  liquid  ore  is  pom-ed.  Fifty  men  are 
daily  employed  in  making  patterns.  The  patterns,  which  are  part  of  thepro- 
jirietor's  stock  hi  trade,  are  worth  many  thousand  pounds.  .Vfter  being  used, 
the  most  important  are  |>Hinted  and  varnished,  and  laid  carefully  aside,  in  a 
dn  room,  to  be  ready  for  use  when  machiucs  may  accidentally  get  broken,  or 
to  ai<l  in  the  construction  of  new  ones.  The  patterns  are  made  frequently  of 
mahogany. 

A  most  curious  machine  is  employed  for  the  purpose  oi plainiiy  iron  ;  and, 
by  means  of  its  aid,  iron  shavings  are  stripped  off  a  solid  mass  of  metal,  with, 
apparently,  as  nmch  ease  as  if  it  were  wood,  and  w  ith  the  greatest  regidarity 
and  exactness.  Not  the  least  interesting  department  of  these  works  is  that 
appio|)riated  to  boiler  making.  Boilers,  for  steam  engines,  are  composed  of 
a  nmnber  of  jdates  of  wrought-iron,  about  %  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  They 
are  livetcd  together,  with  rivets  about  J  of  an  inch  diameter,  holes  to  receive 
whica  are  punched  through  the  plates,  by  a  ]>ovvcrful,  yet  simple,  machine, 
with  as  much  facility  as  if  the  resistance  was  mere  air.  'The  process  of  rivet- 
ing was,  on  the  old  nudlwd,  an  extremely  noisy  one ;  hut  a  new  jilaii,  is 
adopted  here,  and  by  it  the  work  is  performed  silently,  and  nmch  more  etli- 
ciently.  .Some  time  ago  about  50  boiler  makers  were  employed  by  Mr.  Fair- 
bairn. The  "  strnck,"  as  it  is  termed,  because  their  employer  infringed,  as 
they  considered,  upon  their  privileges,  by  introducing  a  few  labourers,  not  in 
"  The  I'nion,"  to  jierforni  the  drudgery  connected  with  the  work.  On  this 
occurring,  Mr.  l''ai.-bairn  and  Mr.  liobert  Smith  invented  a  machine  which 
superseded  the  labour  of  1.'!  ont  of  the  50  of  his  boiler  makers.  The  work  is 
performed  by  the  machine  much  quicker,  more  systematically,  and,  as  before 
said,  without  noise. 

LOCOMOTIVE    ENGINE    .\ND    TOOL-MAKERS. 

Uniler  this  head  may  be  classed  several  extensive  works,  in  and  about 
Manchester.*  One  of  the  largest  is  that  possesseil  by  .Messrs.  N'asmyths, 
Ciaskell  &  Co.,  situated  at  Patricroft,  four  and  a  half  miles  distant  from  Man- 
chester, and  innncdiately  adjoining  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railroad, 
at  that  part  where  it  crosses  the  liridgewater  Canal,  which  great  national 
work  forms  the  boundary  or  frontage  of  the  ground  on  which  the  above  esta- 
blishment is  erected,  and  w  Inch,  in  consequence,  has  been  named,  "  The 
liridgewater  Foundi^." 

These  works  hiive  a  frontage  to  the  railroad,  as  well  as  to  the  canal,  to  the 
extent  of  1,051)  feet  ;  which  circumstance  supplies  every  possible  facility  for 
conuuiuucation,  either  by  laml  or  by  water  carriage.  One  of  the  "  stopping 
stations"  of  all  the  second  class  trains  being  opposite,  persons  desirous  of 
vishing  these  works,  can  he  set  down  .at  the  entrance  gate.  The  distance  in 
titne,  from  Manchester,  is  only  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes. 

The  above  establishment  is  of  very  recent  erection,  having  been  in  existence 
only  about  two  and  a  half  years.  There  are  employed  at  present  about  300 
men  :  the  greater  part  of  \vhom,  together  with  their  families,  live  in  cottages 
which  the  proiirietors  have  elected  for  their  aceonunodatioii.  The  situation 
of  these  works  is  not  only  most  admirably  adapted  for  the  purposes  forvshich 
they  have  been  erected,  but  it  also  secures,  in  a  great  degree,  good  health  to 
the  inen  employed  ;  for,  being  surrounded  on  all  sides  with  green  fields,  and 
being,  moreover,  on  the  west  side  of  Manchester,  a  very  long  lease  of  pure  air 
is  secured  ;  a  circumstance  of  no  small  importance,  as  regards  the  health  and 
conjfort  of  the  vvorknu'n  employed. 

The  whole  of  this  establishment  is  divided  into  departments,  over  each  of 
which  a  foreman,  or  a  responsible  person,  is  placed,  whose  duty  is  not  only  to 
see  that  the  men  under  his  superintendence  produce  good  work,  but  also  to 
endeavour  to  keep  pace  with  the  productive  powers  of  all  the  other  depart- 
ments. The  departments  m,iy  he  thus  specified  : — The  dr.iwing  office,  where 
the  designs  are  made  out ;  and  the  working  drawings  produced,  from  which 
the  men  are  to  receive  the  necessary  information.  Then  come  the  pattern- 
makers, whose  didv  is  to  make  the  patterns,  or  models  in  wood,  which  are  to 
be  cast  in  iron  or'  brass  ;  next  comes  the  foundry,  and  the  iron  and  brass 
monhlers  ;  then  the  forgers  or  smiths.  The  chief  part  of  the  produce  of  these 
two  last  named  pass  on  to  tlie  turners  and  planers,  who,  by  means  of  most 
powerful  and  complete  machineiy,  execute  all  such  work  on  the  various  arti- 
cles as  require  cither  of  these  operations;  besides  which,  any  holes  that  are 
required  are  at  this  stage  bored,  by  a  great  variety  of  drilling  machines,  most 
of  which  are  self-acting.  Then  come  the  fitters  and  filers,  who,  by  means  of 
chisels  and  files,   execute  all  such  work  as  requires  manual  labour,  and  pcr- 

*  Messrs.  Sharp,  Roberts,  &  Co.'s,  Messrs.  Peel,  Williams,  &  Co.'s,  are 
among  the  first  in  importance. 


1840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


33 


form  such  delicate  adjustments  as  require  tlie  individual  attention  of  tlie 
operative  :  in  conjunction  witli  this  department  h  a  class  of  men  called  erec- 
tors, tliat  is,  men  wlio  put  together  tlie  framc-work,  and  larger  parts  of  most 
machines,  so  that  the  two  last  departments,  as  it  were,  hring  together  and 
give  the  last  touches  to  the  ohjects  produced  by  all  the  others.  A  machine 
having  passed  through  these  departments,  is  now  ready  for  a  coat  of  iiainf, 
which  having  received,  it  is  taken  to  pieces  (after  all  the  parts  are  marked, 
so  as  to  enable  its  being  i>ut  together  when  it  arrives  at  its  destination),  the 
bright  parts  are  smeared  with  tallow,  and,  if  lequired,  placed  in  jiacking  cases, 
which  are  then  handed  over  to  the  foreman  of  tlie  labonrers,  who,  by  means 
of  the  crane  or  railroad,  place  them  in  the  canal  boat  or  railway  waggon. 

With  a  view  to  secure  the  greatest  amount  of  convenience  for  the  removal 
of  heavy  machinery  from  one  department  to  another,  the  entire  estahhslmient 
had  been  laid  out  with  this  object  in  view;  and  in  order  to  attain  it,  what 
may  be  called  the  straight  line  system  has  been  adopted,  that  is,  the  various 
workshop*  ai'e  all  in  a  line,  and  so  jilaced,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  work, 
as  it  passes  from  one  end  of  the  foundry  to  the  other,  receives,  in  succession, 
each  operation  which  ought  to  follow  the  preceding  one,  so  that  little  carry- 
ing backward  and  forward,  or  lifting  up  and  down,  is  required.  In  the  case 
of  heavy  jiarts  of  machinery,  this  arrangement  is  found  exceedingly  useful. 
By  means  of  a  railroad,  laid  through,  as  well  as  all  round  the  shops,*  any 
casting,  however  ponderous  or  massy,  may  be  removed  with  the  greatest  care, 
rapidity,  and  security.  Thus  nearly  all  risk  of  those  frightful  accidents, 
which  sometimes  occur  to  the  men,  is  rcmovcil.  The  railroad  system  is  now 
beginning  to  be  as  much  attended  to,  ami  its  advantages  felt  in  concerns  of 
this  nature,  as  it  is  in  the  transit  of  goods  and  passengers. 

Nearly  one  uniform  width  is  preserved  throughout  all  the  workshops  of 
this  extensive  concern,  namely,  70  feet ;  and  tli«  height  of  each  is  twenty-one 
feet  to  the  beam.  The  total  length  of  shops  on  the  ground  floor,  already 
bnilt,  amounts,  in  one  line,  to  nearly  400  feet.  There  are,  besides,  four  flats 
of  the  front  building,  each  twelve  feet  high,  100  feet  long,  and  60  feet  wide. 
Into  these  rooms  a  perfect  flood  of  light  is  admitted  by  very  large  windows 
on  the  side  walls,  as  well  as  through  sky-llglits  in  the  roof. 

The  Foundry  occupies  one  portion  of  this  building,  namely,  130  feet  by  70 
feet,  in  which  great  apartment  or  hall  there  is  not  a  single  dark  corner:  a 
point  of  vast  impoiiance  where  the  oj>crations  are  conducted  with  a  black 
material,  namely,  the  moulding  sand.  The  iron  is  melted  in  one  or  more  of 
four  cupolas,  according  to  the  weight  of  the  casting.  The  cupolas  vary  from 
three  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  when  all  are  in  active  operation,  melt  thirty- 
six  tons  of  iron.  The  great  cauldron,  or  pot,  in  which  the  metal  is  contained, 
'  is  idaced,  during  its  transit  from  the  furnace,  on  a  carriage,  which  moves 
along  a  railroad  in  front  of  the  four  cupolas ;  and  thus  any  i)ortioii  of  melted 
metal  can  be  received  and  conveyed,  with  the  most  surprising  rapidity  and 
ease,  to  any  point  of  the  surface  of  this  great  hall.  These  great  pnts  contain, 
at  limes,  each  six  or  seven  tons  of  melted  iron,  and,  by  means  of  a  crane, 
whose  arms  sweep  every  part  of  the  foundry,  arc  banded  iVom  place  to  jilace 
as  if  wlndly  devoid  of  weight.  The  crane  posts  are  two  great  cast-iron  columns, 
around  which  the  crane  arm  swings.  The  columns  ssrve  at  the  same  time  as 
supports  to  the  roof,  and  by  proper  ties,  the  strain  of  such  great  weights  is 
diffused  over  the  whole  building,  and  each  brick  made  to  share  the  load.  The 
blast  of  air  for  the  furnaces  is  supplied  by  a  fanner,  five  feet  in  diameter, 
made  to  revolve  at  the  rate  of  1,000  revolutions  per  minute,  the  air  or  blast 
being  conveyed  under  ground  in  a  brick  tunnel,  from  which  it  is  distributed 
to  each  furnace  by  sheet-iron  pipes,  varying  from  three  to  nine  inches,  accord- 
ing to  the  si/.e  of  the  furnace  at  work  at  the  time. 

There  are  at  present  fifty-six  turning  lathes,  of  all  sizes,  at  work  in  this 
establishment,  several  of  which  are  what  is  called  self-acting, t — that  is,  the 
work  has  only  to  be  placed  in  the  lathe,  and  the  tool  set,  and  the  maehine 
does  the  remainder  of  the  work  with  unerring  accuracy  and  ease. 

Planing  machines  arc  extensively  used  here.     The  immense  power  of  one  of 

*  Abbreviation  of  "  work-shops." 

T  "  Wu  may  here  with  propriety  say  a  word  on  the  subject  of  self-acting- 
tools,  the  more  so  because  it  is  by  means  of  these  admirable  adaptions  ut 
human  skill  and  intelligence  that  we  are  giving  to  the  present  age  its  peculiar 
and  wonderful  characteristic,  namely,  the  triumph  of  mind  over  matter. 

•'  Hy  whom  or  when  the  slkh  principle  was  first  introduced  we  need  not  now 
enquire;  suffice  it  to  say  that,  by  means  of  this  prii  ciiile,  a  most  wonderful 
substitute  has  been  found  for  tlie  human  hand  in  the  fabrication  of  almost  all 
parts  of  mechanism,  whether  the  substance  to  be  operated  upon  weighs  tons 
or  grains.  The  slide  principle  is  that  which  enables  a  child,  or  the  marhhie 
itself,  to  operate  on  masses  of  metal,  and  to  cut  shavings  oil'  iron,  as  if*  it  was 
deprived  of  all  hardness,  and  so  mathematically  correct  that  even  Kuclid 
himself  might  be  the  workman!  It  is  by  the  slide  principle  that  we  are  en- 
abled to  tix  a  steel  cutter  into  an  iron  hand,  and  constrain  or  cause  it  to 
move  or  slide  along  the  surface  of  a  piece  of  metal  in  any  required  direction, 
and  with  the  utmost  precision.  By  means  of  this  priiKriple  all  the  practical 
iliftieuUies  hitherto  encountered  in  the  extending  and  improving  of  machinery 
generally,  were,  at  one  blow,  cleared  away,  lly  its  means  the  formation  of 
every  geometrical  figure  became  a  matter  of  the  greatest  ease,  and  a  princi- 
plo  of  absolute  ;md  unerring  exactness  took  the  j.lace  of  manual  dexteiity. 

"The  impulse  given  by  the  slide  princi|ile,  to  the  manufactures  of  this 
country,  in  the  construclion  of  machines  for  forming  other  machines,  can 
scarcely  be  imaginetl.  On  the  application  of  an  unerring  principle  to  ma- 
chine-ma/dug  machinery — whicli  totls  may  be  defmeil  to  be — the  mechanical 
energy  of  Great  Britain,  sprang  forward  at  unce  to  that  supreme  station 
which  she  now  maintains,  and  which,  if  her  artisans  keep  pace  with  the 
limes,  she  will  ever  retain." — Note  l)i/  a  Pruclieal  Engineer, 


these  macbines  may  he  imagined,  when  it  is  considered  that  the  amount  of 
resistance  against  the  c<lge  of  the  knife  which  planes  the  iron  is,  in  a  large 
machine,  as  much  as  thirty  tons.  This  fact  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the 
hardness  of  the  instrument  which  has  to  encounter,  for  perhaps  a  day  together 
without  becoming  inoperative,  this  immense  resistance.  By  means  of  this 
admirable  machine  every  variety  of  geonietrical  figure  can  be  jirodnced  with 
the  most  absolute  accuracy — such  as  the  plane,  the  cylinder,  the  cone,  and 
the  sphere.  And  as  all  possible  varieties  of  machinery  consist  merely  of  these 
figures  in  combination,  there  is  now  every  facility  for  producing  whatever 
may  be  required. 

Besides  the  manufacture  of  every  description  of  engineers'  tools,  another 
branch  of  business  for  which  this  establishment  has  been  erected,  is  that  of 
locomotive  engines,  a  branch  of  business  which  is  rapidly  acquiring  great 
importance,  and  which  will  have  few  rivals  as  to  magnitude.  Lancashire 
appears  to  be  completely  taking  the  lead  in  this  manufacture,  which,  frotn 
its  very  nature,  can  he  carried  on  only  on  a  large  scale. 

The  room  occui>ied  by  the  steam,  in  a  locomotive  boiler,  is  ordinarily 
equivalent  to  ten  cubic  feet.  Ten  cubic  feet  of  water  will  proiUice  in  steam, 
when  expanded  to  the  density  of  the  atmosphere,  as  much  as  would  occupy 
18,000  feet  of  space.  The  steam  is  confined  in  the  boiler  by  a  pressure  ihree 
times  that  of  the  atmosphere,  so  that,  escaping  from  its  confinement,  it  eX' 
pands  to  three  times  the  space  it  there  occupied. 


ArcMectttra  Domestica,   von  Alexis  des  Chateauneuf.     Lirgj    t 
London :  Ackermanii  and  Co. 

Recent  circmnstances  have  given  thii  volume  atJditional  interest 
and  recommendation,  its  author  Itaving  obtained  the  second  |)reinium 
in  the  cofnpetition  for  the  Royal  Exchange,  owing  to  which  liis  name 
is  no  lofiger  a  stranger  to  English  ears ;  and  it  may,  perhaps,  be  wortli 
while  to  remark  tliat  it  had  actually  appeared  prior  to  that  event, 
consequently  it  was  not  the  distinction  he  had  so  obtained  whiclt  in- 
duced M.  de  Chateauneuf  to  bring  it  out  in  this  country.  \Vh;ttever 
may  have  been  Ifis  motive  for  publishing  it  here,  we  hope  he  will 
have  no  reason  to  rejient  having  done  so,  although  we  dare  not  flatter 
him  by  saying  that  he  could  not  Itave  selected  a  better  market ;  be- 
cause, if  tife  truth  may  be  spoken,  there  is  far  less  encouragement 
given  to  works  of  this  class  here  in  England  than  on  the  Continent. 
However,  we  liope  that  M.  de  C.  will  find  that  there  are  exceptions  to 
the  rule,  and  that  his  own  case  is  one  of  them.  Still,  one  inconveni- 
ence we  suspect  has  been  occasioned  by  the  work  havifig  been  got  up 
here,  namely,  that  the  author  has  in  consequence  been  obliged  to 
trust  too  much  to  others ;  and  although  as  far  as  correctness  and  in- 
telligence of  fortn  go,  he  could  not,  perhaps,  have  employed  a  more 
able  engraver  than  Mr.  T.  T.  Bury,  we  must  say  that  delicacy  of  out- 
line has  been  carried  by  him  somewhat  to  excess.  The  breadth  and 
depth,  or  rather  the  fineness  of  the  lities,  is  so  uniform  as  to  produce 
a  general  faintness  of  effect ;  whereas,  variety  of  line  would  hava 
given  not  only  greater  vigour  but  distinctness,  also  to  tnatiy  of  tlies 
plates.  Mr.  Bury  would  have  done  well  to  have  looked  at  some  of 
the  architectural  subjects  in  Penier's  work  on  decoration;  which, 
independently  of  thfeir  intrinsic  ititerest,  captivate  the  eye  at  the  first 
glance,  by  the  ufiiou  of  firmness  and  delicacy,  wliich  gives  adequate 
relief  to  every  object.  This  tameiiess  in  the  execution  of  the  plates  cer- 
tainly does  not  att'ect  the  designs  thetuselvcs,  otherwise  than  it  exhibits 
them  somewhat  to  disadvantage,  atid  sometimes  is  attetided  with  a 
degree  of  insipidity  that  may  unluckily  chance  to  be  attributed  to  the 
subject,  instead  of  the  engraver's  treatment  of  it.  These  retnarks, 
we  think,  are  called  for,  even  in  justice  to  M.  de  Chateauneuf,  for  there 
are  one  or  two  designs,  which,  had  they  been  better  expressed,  would 
have  been  considered  of  more  importance  than  they  are  now  likely 
to  be. 

To  come  now  to  matter  of  the  plates,  we  scruple  not  to  say  that 
although  the  designs  display  great  inequality,  on  account  of  the  very 
great  difference  of  their  subjects,  some  of  the  designs  being  for  very 
small  and  unpretending  buildings,  while  others  afforded  more  than 
usual  scope  for  invention — they  give  evidence  of  real  talent  and 
originality.  Yet,  being  nearly  all  those  of  buildings  executed  for  pri- 
vate individuals,  the  author  lias,  in  all  probability,  been  more  or  less 
checked  or  thwarted,  if  not  directly  by  his  employers,  by  circum- 
stances he  was  obliged  to  keep  in  view,  and  which  prevented  him 
from  giving  free  scope  to  his  own  taste  and  imagination.  What  is 
most  important  is,  that  many  excellent  ideas  and  suggestions  may  be 
obtained  from  them.  One  of  the  happiest  is  that  shown  in  plate  5 — 
namely,  a  perspective  interior  of  a  Holstein  barn  converted  into  a  gar- 
den or  rustic  saloon,  and  retaining  just  enough  of  the  original  charac- 
ter to  show  what  has  been  the  arcliitect's  motive.  It  might,  perhaps, 
be  pursued  still  farther,  and  thereby  be  found  to  lead  to  very  much 
more ;  especially  as  regards  the  form  of  the  ceiling,  which  tiiight 
either  througliout  or  in  the  centre  compartment  of  such  a  room, 
be  carried  up  higher  than  the  walls,  in  two  inclined  planes,  following 


34 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  AHCMITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


(he  s1o|)p  of  (he  h\Tgc  truss  lirackcts  suppditing  the  horizontal  heaiiis 
<jf  the  ceiling.  The  style  is  holh  well  imaginecl  and  veil  kept  up,  ami 
the  wliolc  is  exceedingly  jileasiiig,  ronsistent,  and  liarnioniuus,  tlio\igh 
(ibnoxious  to  olijeclion  tVom  (hose  who  would  indiscrimiuatelv  ])rciscribe 
every  thing  tliat  is  nut  supported  by  actual  precedent,  aidiough  indul- 
gent enough  touartls  all  wliicli  is  so  authorized,  no  matter  how  bad  it 
may  be  in  itself,  (iranting  the  merit  to  be  equal,  or  nearly  so,  in 
other  respects,  we  should  say  that  a  design  which  brings  forward 
Kome  novelty  is  (lie  belter  suited  for  publication  ;  p.irficularly  in 
works  of  «hirh  (he  object  either  is  or  ought  to  be  to  bring  forward 
fresh  ideas,  and  such  mii/hxn  of  )>lan  or  decoraliun  as  may  be  turned 
to  account,  by  being  adopted  as  a  liint,  without  being  cither  copied  or 
even  so  treated  as  to  lead  at  once  to  the  source  of  it.  This  has  not 
always  been  so  well  attended  to  as  it  ought  to  have  been,  else  we 
shoulil  not  meet  with  so  ni.niy  piiblislied  designs  as  we  now  do,  which 
aflford  no  other  instruction  than  what  might  just  as  well  be  obtained 
from  almost  anything  else  of  the  same  kind.  Such,  we  apprehend, 
will  be  found  to  be  the  case  with  the  subject  following  the  one  we  have 
just  been  speaking  of;  which  consists  of  the  jilan  and  perspective 
view  of  a  villa  erected  near  Lubeck,  for  Dr.  Buekholtz  ;  but  which  we 
are  by  no  means  disposed  to  receive  as  earnest  of  what  the  author 
would  be  capable  of  producing,  if  at  liberty  to  abandon  himself  freely 
to  the  impulses  of  his  own  taste.  Most  certainly  will  not  bear  com- 
parison with  that  of  an  Knglish  house  of  the  same  size  ;  the  arrange- 
ment is  uniloubfedly  sinijjle  enough,  but  too  simple  fin'  either  conve- 
nience or  eli'ect,  and  would,  therefore,  have,  perhaps,  been  all  the  bet- 
ter, had  some  positive  difficulty  occurred,  which  it  would  have  been 
necessary  to  combat. 

There  is  no  doubt  tliat  such  difficulty  has  mainly  led  to  much  of  the 
beauty  and  variety.of  plan  observable  in  Dr.  Abendroth's  house  at 
Hand)urg,  built  by  the  a\ithor  between  thi^  years  l83'-!-(i,  and  which 
liere  forms  (lie  principal  subject  of  his  volume,  being  ilhistrated  not 
only  by  four  plans,  and  elevation,  and  a  section,  Imt  by  two  perspective 
views,  (one  of  the  staircase,  the  other  of  a  semicircular  apartment), 
lint  also  by  several  plates  of  details.  The  facade  of  this  mansion  or 
jiaUizzo  is  in  what  may  be  called  a  Grecianized  Italian  style,  much  of 
the  detail  being  evidently  of  the  former  character,  though  the  com- 
])osition  and  its  general  features  stamp  it  as  decidedly  belonging  to 
the  latter.  Although  it  is  asliilar,  or  columnless,  it  is  greatly  more  de- 
corated tlian  almost  any  sjiecimens  of  (be  class  we  have  in  London — 
much  more  so,  in  fac(,than  two  which  are  likely  to  be  quoted  as  among 
the  very  few  that  can  be  named  at  all,  viz.,  Sutlierland  House,  and  that 
of  the  Duke  ui  Wellingtim  ;  since  both  of  them  are  in  an  exceedingly 
cold  and  bald  style  of  architecture,  and  with  a  remarkable  poverty  of 
feeling  about  them  ;  and  extreme  nieagerness  and  Hatnessof  detail.  It 
is,  however,  in  the  interior  of  this  mansion  that  the  architect  has 
cheiHy  manifested  his  talent,  by  much  happy  invention,  contrivance, 
and  taste  ;  and  a  careful  study  of  the  plans  will  show  that  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  effect  whicli  is  not  very  apparent  upon  a  cursory  in- 
sjiecticm  of  them.  So  far  from  conqilaining  that  this  single  subject 
occupies  too  many  of  the  jilates,  we  conid  have  wisheil  one  or  two 
more  had  been  deviated  to  it,  either  as  additional  sections,  or  exterior 
views,  one  of  which  ought,  of  course,  to  describe  the  small  oblong 
hexagonal  cabinet,  with  a  semicircular  alcove  occupying  the  side 
facing  the  ccn(re  window;  which  unusual  form — so  pleasing  in  itself, 
and  (browing  so  nundi  variety  into  the  suites  of  rooms,  lias  been  occa- 
sioned enlirely  by  (he  awkwardness  of  the  site,  and  tlie  disagreeably 
sharp  angle,  (be  (wo  fronts  would  else  make  at  that  corner  of  the 
building.  The  slair-casi-  is  exceedingly  tasteful,  and  exhibits  what 
we  take  to  be  iiltogether  a  novelty — having  never  before  met  widi, 
nor  lieard  of,  any  similar  instance,  namely,  an  internal  pediment  over 
the  colonnade,  produced  by  the  ceiling  being  composed  of  (wo  in- 
cliiK'd  planes,  each  half  of  which,  where  lliey  unite  at  their  ridge,  is 
glazed  lo  serve  the  |Mirpose  of  a  sky-light. 

"The  great  saloon  is  adorned  with  casts  of  Thorwaldsen's  frieze  of 
the-  triumphal  en(ry  of  Alexander  into  liabylon,  the  more  valiiabh^ 
because  the  greater  part  of  the  casts  were  taken  from  tlie  clay  models 
<d'  the  master. 

"  Tlie  colossal  busts  of  (he  divinities  in  the  niches  of  the  stair-case, 
are  tlie  work  of  Seigel.  The  images  of  the  planets  and  lixeil  s(ars  of 
the  painted  glass  ceiling  are  from  the  designs  of  Edwin  Specker. 
The  corner  cabinet  of  tlie  principal  story  is  decorated  willi  arabes- 
ques, after  designs  by  the  same  master,  painted  in  encaustic,  by 
JJlilde.  Uiihtippily,  it  was  too  diHieiilt  to  represent  such  sportiv'e 
fancies  in  their  forms  and  colours  in  these  outline  plates." 

Alter  making  some  of  the  remarks  we  have  done,  it  would  be  pre- 
posterous in  us  now  to  say  tliat  the  volume  ccmsists  entirely  of  the 
author's  best  specimens;  (linugli  it  contains  mncli  (hat  is  of  great  in- 
terest, we  are  persuaded  (hat  M.  d(?  Clieteaimcuf  could  render  it 
more  valuable ;  and  we  hope  that  eitiier  uuotlier  edition,  or  anothe 


collection,  will  alVord  him  the  opporlunity  of  prolitiug  bv  our  criti- 
cism;  and  if  our  praise  has  been  somewhat  qualified,  wliere  we  have 
bestowed  it  has  been  sincere — and  had  there  been  less  striking  merit 
in  some  of  the  designs,  we  miglit,  possibly,  have  thought  better  of 
others  among  them,  than  we  now  do. 


Euclid' g  Elements  of  Plane  Geomelry,  nilh  Explanatory  Appcndir,  and 
Siipplemailarij  Propositions.  By  W.  D.  Cuolet,  A.  B.  London  : 
Whitfaker  and  Co.,  1S40. 

Mr.  Cooley,  in  producing  this  work,  seems  almost  to  wish  to  con- 
tradict his  own  motto,  that  "  there  is  no  royal  road  to  geometry,"  for 
following  in  the  steps  of  Playfair,  he  has  considerably  diminished  both 
the  volume  of  the  work,  as  well  as  the  labour  of  the  student.  He  has 
carefully  gone  over  the  elements,  and  greatly  reduced  the  amplica- 
tions and  reiterations,  which  made  former  editions  prolix,  and  he  h;is, 
wherever  it  was  possible,  substituted  the  ordinary  arithmetical  ami 
algebraical  signs.  As  he  himself  says,  without  in  the  slightest  degree 
injuring  tlie  work  he  has  reduced  to  r2(»  duodecimo  pages  tlie  Six 
Books  of  the  Elements. 

Prefixed  to  the  Elements  are  some  remarks  on  the  study  of  mathe- 
matics, as  valuable  for  the  elegance  of  their  style,  as  for  the  correct- 
ness of  their  reasoning.  The  importance  of  departing  from  the  ordi- 
nary school  rate  of  teaching  cannot  be  too  strongly  enforced. 

At  the  end  of  the  work  are  some  notes  and  exercises  on  the  several 
books,  in  which  Mr.  (,'ooley  gives  his  reasons  for  inserting  a  few  fan- 
ciful definitions  of  Playfair.  To  Playfair  we  are  much  indebted,  but 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  was  often  led  away  by  his  turn 
of  mind  into  mere  \'erbiage,  making  distinctions  without  a  dif- 
ference. 


Outline  of  the  Method  of  a  Conducting  Trigonmetrical  Survey,  by  Lieu- 
tenant FrOiME,  Royal  Engineer,  F.R.A.S.,  and  A.LC.E.  London : 
Weale,  18  iU. 

This  is  the  production  of  one  of  (he  Professors  in  the  Military  Col- 
lege at  Chatham,  and  supplies  a  great  desideratum  in  professional 
literature.  Lieutenant  Frome  is  both,  practically  and  theoretrieally 
qualified  for  this  task,  and  has,  therefore,  produced  a  work  valuable 
fur  its  own  original  merits,  and  for  its  careful  collation  of  the  best  au- 
thorities. It  shows  very  strongly  the  mischief  of  a  government  system 
that  a  man  of  such  experience  and  capabilities  should  be  only  a  Lieu- 
tenant, waiting  like  his  less  talented  and  less  employed  brethren  for 
the  Procrustean  reward  of  a  rise  by  seniority. 

The  w'ork  is  well  arranged,  and  of  a  high  character  going  into  the 
practical  details  of  the  sulijeet  much  more  deeply  than  its  modest  title 
would  induce  the  reader  to  believe.  From  a  work  of  this  nature  it  is 
difficult  to  make  any  selection,  but  we  intend  at  some  future  period  to 
extract  two  or  tin-ee  supplementary  ])ortions.  We  must  leive  it, 
therefore,  to  our  readers  to  take  our  word  for  the  valuable  character  of 
Lieutenant  Frome's  work. 


Ornamental  Gaits,  Lodges,  Pallisading  and  Rails  of  the  Royal  Parks, 
S)-c.  Part  1,  containing  25  Plates,  Edited  and  Published  by  John 
Weale. 

The  designs  are  iirinci|)ally  the  Park  Lodges  and  Entrance  G;ites  of 
Ucgent's  Park  and  Hyde  Park — the  elaboratuly  enriched  gates  to  the 
royal  entrance  of  the  New  Palace,  and  the  gates  and  railing  to  the 
entrance  of  (he  Sultan's  Palace,  at  Constantinople.  There  are  also 
plans  of  St.  James's  Park,  Kensington  Gardens,  and  Regent's  Park. 
The  whole  are  very  delicately  and  beautifully  engraved  in  outline. 


The  Guide  to  Railway  Masonry,  by  Peter  Nicholson. 

This  work  is  a  complete  treatise  on  the  Oblique  Arch,  and  contains 
numerous  engravings,  illustrating  the  subject.  The  autliin'  has  de- 
voted considerable  pains  in  giving  every  detail  by  which  a  working 
mason  may  be  able  to  set  out  any  part  of  the  stone  work  of  a  bridge 
with  faciiity. 


The  Comic  Latin  Gramar  has  been  sent  to  us,  a  work  most  admira- 
bly illustrated.  Whether  the  design  be  jest  or  earnest  we  do  not 
know,  but  it  is  likly  to  be  an  equal  favourite  with  the  elder  as  well  a? 
the  juvenile  part  of  the  tonimuiiity. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


35 


Voltaic  Engraving. — Considerable:  interest  lias  been  lately  excited  in 
t'le  seientitie  world  by  Mr.  Spencer's  new  process  of  copying  medals  and 
other  works  of  art  in  copper,  Iiy  the  agency  of  voltaic  electricity.  It  is  with 
great  pleasure  that  we  bear  that  tliis  process  is  already  beginning  to  be  cm- 
ployed  in  certain  of  om*  manufactures,  ami  that  thus  electricity  will  soon  be 
numbered  amongst  the  agents  employed  for  practical  and  useful  purposes.  In 
our  former  account  of  Mr.  Spencer's  invention  we  spoke  highly  of  the  merit 
of  the  discovery,  and  the  probable  uses  to  which  it  miglit  be  appUed:  the 
result  has  borne  out  our  anticipations.  In  the  manufacture  of  plated  articles 
ami  ornaments,  it  is  often  desirable  to  copy  ornamental  work,  such  as  leaves, 
flowers,  and  arabesque  mouldings ;  this  is  both  difficult  and  e.xpeusive,  and 
from  these  causes  often  impossiljlc.  Mr.  Spencer's  invention,  however, 
affords  a  chca]i  and  easy  method  of  performing  what  is  retpiired,  and  thus, 
ornaments  on  rich  ancient  plate  are  copied  with  the  greatest  perfection  and 
ease,  and  without  injury  to  the  original.  The  great  advantage  consisting  of 
tlic  means  of  olitaining,  at  very  small  expense,  a  fac-simile  in  copper,  of  the 
ornaments  required  to  be  copied,  which  may  then  be  silvered  or  gilt.  In 
another  art,  the  voltaic  process  is,  we  arc  informed,  being  successfully  intro- 
duced. The  makers  of  buttons  often  require  to  have  two  or  three  of  a  par- 
ticular pattern  to  comjdete  a  set  of  which  they  have  not  the  die.  To  take  a 
cast  from  the  button  is,  for  many  reasons,  inconvenient  and  objectionable ; 
and  the  voltaic  process,  at  the  cost  of  a  few  hom's  and  very  little  labour  or 
expense,  furnishes  a  perfect  fac-simile  of  tlie  button,  which  then  only  reqiures 
to  be  gilt.  It  has  been  said  that  there  is  a  difficulty  in  obtaining  perfect 
copies,  and  that  the  deposited  copper  is  brittle,  porous,  and  full  of  lioles ;  bnt 
whoever  will  read  attentively  the  process  of  Mr.  Spencer  and  follow  it,  must 
succeed.  Tlic  cast  of  medals  transmitted  to  us  by  Mr.  Spencer,  aitd  also 
those  made  by  Mr.  E.  Solly  and  Mr.  J.  Xewmau,  and  cxhibitcil  lately  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  were  very  pure  ami  compact  copper,  and  the 
surface  was  as  brilliant  and  jicrfect  as  could  be  desired.  The  process,  indeed, 
is  simple,  and  so  far  from  its  requiring,  as  is  generally  supposed,  either  ox- 
pensive  and  complicated  apparatus,  or  deep  scientific  knowledge,  nothing  can 
be  more  easy,  as  the  observance  of  a  few  rules  renders  the  success  of  the  pro- 
cess quite  certain,  and,  as  regards  the  expense  of  the  api)aratus,  the  whole  of 
it  may  be  easily  procm'cd  for  a  few  pence. — Atheyiicum. 


IiA'W  PBOCSEDINaS. 


THE  CYCLOIDAL  I'ADDLE-WIIEEL. 

Ml'.  CaUoiroi/n  patent  rights  which  has  been  disputed  ever  since  the  patent 
was  (/ranted,  leas  brouyht  on  for  trial  in  tlie  Court  of  Comnton  Pleas,  on 
Friday  and  Saturday,  November  29  and  30,  before  Lord  Chief  Justice 
TiNU.VL,  and  a  Special  J unj;  it  occupied  tlie  Court  two  days. 

GAI.I.OW.VY    AND    ANOTHER    V.    BLEADEN". 

The  case  on  tlic  part  of  the  plaiutill's  was  that  Jlr.  Galloway  had  invented 
an  improved  paddle-wheel  for  propelling  steam-vessels,  for  which  heolitaiued 
a  patent  on  tlie  IStli  of  August,  1835.  The  invention  consisted  in  a  division 
of  the  floats  into  segments,  and  so  arranged  in  a  eycloidal  curve  as  to  cause 
all  the  five  or  six  segments  into  which  each  float  was  divided  to  enter  the 
water  at  the  same  time,  and  at  such  an  angle  as  most  diminished  the  shock 
occasioned  to  the  vessel  by  each  stroke  of  the  paddle;  \^■hilst  the  segments, 
when  the  float  reached  a  vertical  position  iu  the  water,  became  joined  to- 
gether as  it  were,  so  as  to  present  an  undivided  surface  to  the  water,  and  so 
increase  the  power  of  propulsion ;  ami  lastly,  the  float,  when  passing  out  of 
a  vertical  position,  by  becoming  again  divided,  olVered  less  resistance  to  the 
back  water,  and,  consequently,  less  retarded  the  speed  of  tlic  vessel  than  if 
undivided.  The  action  was  brought  against  the  defendant,  as  secretarj-  to 
the  Commercial  Stcam-p.acket  Company,  for  an  infringement  of  this  patent ; 
to  which  he  pleaded,  in  addition  to  the  general  issue  of  not  guilty,  that  the 
invention  was  not  new,  as  it  had  already  been  discovered  and  used  by  Mr.  Field 
in  1833;  and  that  the  specification  was  not  sutlieiently  intelligible  to  render 
tlic  invention  of  general  utility  to  the  public.  Several  models  illustrative 
of  the  alleged  invention,  were  produced,  and  a  comparison  made  bclwccn 
them  and  models  of  the  wheels  of  two  of  the  defendant's  vessels,  the  Granil 
Turk  and  the  Chieftain,  to  show  that  the  latter  were  made  upon  the  principle 
of  (he  plaintiff's  specification.  Witnesses  were  also  produced  to  prove  tliat 
workmen  of  competent  skill  could  make  the  patent  wheels  from  the  informa- 
tion contained  in  the  specification,  and  that  the  improvement  in  question  was 
not  known  in  the  trade  previously  to  the  date  of  (be  plaintifli"s  patent. 

The  defendant's  counsel  relied  mainly  on  the  ground  that  the  invention 
had  been  discovered  and  used  long  before  the  date  of  Mr.  Galloway's  patent 
by  Jlr.  Field,  of  the  firm  of  Maudslay  and  Field  ;  and  that  gentleman,  being 
called  as  a  witness,  stated  that  in  1833  he  constructed  a  Viheel  on  the  im- 
proved principle  now  in  question,  which,  upon  application  to  the  Lords  of 
the  Admiralty,  he  obtained  a  promise  from  them  that  he  should  have  au  op- 
portunity of  trying  upon  the  first  vessel  that  came  to  be  prepared ;  that  op- 
poitunity,  however,  was  never  afiorded  him,  but  he  made  an  experiment  upon 
a  steam-boat,  called  "  The  Endeavour,"  plying  between  London  and  Eicb- 
niond,  by  substituting  one  of  his  improved  wlieels  (of  which  a  mode!  was 
produced  iu  court)  for  one  of  the  Endeavour's  wheels.  At  the  end  of  six 
weeks,  however,  the  new  wheel  was  removed  and  the  old  wheel  replaced; 
because,  according  to  the  statcuient  of  the  captain,  the  boiler  was  uot  large 


enough  for  the  luaehineiy  to  work  it  properly.  Iu  that  same  year  he  entered 
a.  caveat  at  the  I'atcnt-oifice ;  and  in  1835  be  made  a  great  number  of  expe- 
riments on  the  subject  at  his  manufactory;  but  it  was  uot  until  the  spring  of 
1836  that  be  fitted  up  a  vessel  called  the  Dover  castle  with  wheels  upon  the 
improved  iiriiiciple,  which  were  similar  to  the  wheel  tried  upon  the  Endea- 
vour in  1833. 

The  defendants,  it  was  urged,  bad  twice  acknowledged  the  plaiulilVs  patent 
right,  having  on  one  occasion  purchased  their  patent  wlieels  for  one  of  their 
vessels,  ami  on  another,  in  1837,  paid  tbeiB  50/.  for  a  licence  to  use  theu- 
specification  iu  constructing  wheels  for  them. 

The  Lord  thief  Justice  summed  up  the  case  to  the  jury,  and  left  three 
questions  for  their  ileeision ;  namely,  whether  there  had  been  any  iiifriiige- 
mciit  of  the  plaintiff's  patent  by  the  defeudaiits  :  w  hether  the  iuventioii  was 
new  and  unused  at  the  date  of  the  plaiutirt"s  iiaient ;  and  whether  the  speci- 
fication was  sufficient.  With  respect  to  the  jiriueipal  question,  as  to  whether 
or  not  the  invention  was  new,  the  mere  fact  of  a  scries  of  experiments  having 
been  prosecuted  previously  to  the  attainment  of  the  olijeet  to  which  they 
were  directed,  could  not  prevent  another  inventor  from  availing  himself  of 
the  experiments,  and  then  adding  the  final  link  which  was  necessary  to  bring 
them  to  a  successful  issue.  If,  therefore,  the  jury  thought  that  up  to  the 
month  of  August,  1835,  the  date  of  the  plaiiitilV's  patent,  all  that  Mr.  Field 
had  done  rested  in  experiments,  those  experiments  afforded  no  ground  for 
disturbing  the  plaiutiff's  patent,  and  in  that  case  their  verdict  sboiUd  be  for 
the  plaintiffs. 

One  of  the  jury  wished  to  ascertain  whether  the  wheel  tried  ou  (he  En- 
deavour was  on  the  principle  of  the  eycloidal  curve  ;  or,  if  the  model  of  it 
were  not  iu  evidence,  whether  it  might  not  be  examined  and  compared  with 
the  original  by  some  competent  person. 

This  question  gave  rise  to  some  discussion  between  counsel;  ultimately, 

The  learned  Judge  said  that,  as  the  person  who  had  made  the  model  was 
uot  present,  he  could  not  allow  it  to  go  before  the  jury. 

The  jury  theu  returned  a  verdict  iu  favour  of  the  plaintiffs,  with  uomiiial 
damages. 


PROCEEDINGS    OP    SCIEKTIPIC    SOCIETIES. 


ARCHITECTURAL  SOCIETY. 

INSTITUTED  A.D.  1831— SESSION  1839-1840. 

hth  Nov.,  1839. — William  Tite,  Esq.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

This  evening's  meeting,  the  commencement  of  the  session,  was  devoted  to 
a  conversazione.  It  was  very  fully  attended.  The  Secretary  read  the 
report  of  the  committee.  The  President  read  a  highly  interesting  paper  "  ou 
the  sculptured  writings  found  on  the  architecture  of  the  Egyptians,  with  a 
notice  of  the  discoveries  which  led  to  their  being  deciphered." 

■The  attention  of  the  meeting  was  directed  to  the  several  works  of  art 
which  were  about  the  room — noticing  more  jiarticularly  various  models  iu 
terra-cotta,  from  Messrs.  SoUin,  Monton,  and  Co.'s  cstablishnicnt,  of  the 
Strand  ;  also  a  model  of  an  Egyptian  obelisk  in  black  marble,  together  with 
other  models  of  buildings,  iScc.  Some  origiual  sketches  by  jilr.  George 
-Moore  ;  portfolios  of  prints,  by  Uawkins  and  others. 

Report  of  the  Committee, 

Gentlemen — This  evening  being  the  opening  conversazione  of  the  session, 
it  may  natnr.ally  be  expected  by  the  visitors  and  members  who  have  kindly 
favoured  us  with  their  attendance,  that  the  Committee  should  state  tlie  views 
they,  on  behalf  of  the  Society,  intend  to  adopt  iluring  the  present  session, 
and  at  the  ensuing  evening  meetings;  and  they  trust  that  the  suggestions 
which  have  been  oll'ered,  and  which  they  propose  to  adopt  for  the  further 
carrying  out  of  the  objects  of  the  Society  may  produce  an  increased  interest 
in  their  evening  meetings,  and  may  meet  with  tlie  conetUTence  and  personal 
exertions  of  the  members  generally  for  their  fulfilment. 

The  Committee  first  remark  that  they  have  been  successful  in  securing  the 
assistance  of  iMcssrs.  .\ddams  ami  E.  AV.  15r.aley,  jim.,  (as  Frofessors)  to  deliver 
lectnrej.at  the  monthly  meetings,  and  that  on  the  intermediate  evenings  of 
meetings  they  ]ia\  e  procured  the  iiromise,  on  the  part  of  several  of  their  own 
members,  to  ileliver  lectures,  or  otherwise  to  read  jiapcrs  having  reference  to 
matters  of  architectural  practice  and  interest,  the  subjects  of  which,  iu 
all  cases,  it  is  proposed  should  be  announced  at  the  xirevious  evening 
meeting. 

Secondly — the  Committee  considering  that  tliis  mode  of  instruction  (by 
lectures)  is  provided,  more  particularly  for  their  class  of  .Student  Members, 
propose,  as  a  means  whereby  these  advantages  may  be  made  the  more  avail- 
able to  the  interest  of  tli.it  class,  that  the  Student  Members  should  take 
notes  of  the  several  Professors'  lectures,  and  as  a  stimuhis  to  a  due  atten- 
tion to  this  portion  of  the  benefits  olfered  to  them  by  this  instifutiou,  have 
deterniinod  tli.at  the  subject  for  the  prize  usually  given  for  the  best  essay 
should  be  "Tlie  best  fairly  transcri!)ed  notes  of  the  Professors'  lectures." 

.\ud  while  on  the  subject  of  jirizes,  the  Couiiuittce  have  the  pleasure  to- 
anuounce  that  they  li.avc  received  the  list  of  the  subjects  fioni  th.e  Sketching 
Coiumitlee,  for  which  the  premiums  w ill  be  awarded  to  the  class  of  Student 
Jlembers,  at  the  close  of  the  present  session. 

F  2 


36 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


The  ])ri/cs  to  be  .-iwavded  are— in  the  first  class,  design,  a  pair  of  silver 
eoniiia.ises ;  scroiid  class,  drawing,  Cliamhers's  Civil  Architecture  (tiwilt's 
edition) ;  third  class  Tith  vohnni?  of  Hiitton's  Antiipiitics.  licside  these 
prizes,  whicli  arc  given  hy  thr'  Society,  the  Committee  have  the  pleasure  to 
announce  that  Mr.  George  Mair  has  signified  his  intention  to  award  tlie 
usual  prize,  entitled  tJcorgc  Mair's  prize,  to  he  given  to  tliat  student  who  pro- 
duces the  greatest  nnud)er  of  the  most  a|iproved  skitches  from  gi\en 
suhjects;  the  sketches  to  be  made  in  accordance  with  tlie  directions  of  the 
Sketching  Committee. 

FIRST  PRIZE. 

The  sulijcct  for  tlie  design  is  a  enncerf  room,  with  the  pufr.-ince.  vestibule, 
ami  cloak  rooms— the  length  of  the  concert  room  to  be  8I>  feet,  witli  a  gal- 
lery at  one  eml.  The  orchestra  to  consist  of  an  isolated  raised  platform  on 
the  ground  floor. 

Tlie  sfvle  to  be  either  the  Greek  or  Koman  arcliitectme. 

The  drawings  to  consist  of  plan,  longitudinal,  and  transverse  sections, 
front  and  side  elevations,  to  a  scale  of  l-(ith  of  an  inch  to  a  foot ;  to  be  ac- 
compiinicd  by  a  prespective  view,  and  the  drawings  to  be  finished  in  Indian 
ink,  or  Sepia 

SECOND  PRIZE. 

Tlie   subject  for   the  measured  drawings  is  the  colonade  to  Uuilington 

House.  ,        r       r  i       ^ 

Tlie  drawings  to  consist  of  the  plan  and  elevation  to  the  scale  of  1-Cth  o 
an   inch   to  a  foot,  with  the  plan  and  elevation  of  one  compartment  to  thp 
scale  of  I  an  inch  to  a  foot,  and  details  of  the  order  J  the  real  size. 
The  wliolc  of  tlie  prizes  will  be  inscribed. 

The  Committee,  not  unmindful  of  the  advantages  and  encouragement  the 
Society  receive  from  the  Amateur  Members,  lieg  to  state  they  have  deter- 
mined'to  extend  the  privileges  of  that  class  of  members,  and  that  those  gen- 
tlemen iiiav  henceforth,  in  addition  to  their  former  jirivilcges,  also  h.ave  re- 
ference to.'and  the  use  of,  the  Society's  library  and  documents  at  all  times 
of  the  dav,  without  any  restriction  ;  and  flic  Committee  trust  that  tliis  ar- 
rangement, which  places  their  privileges  on  a  level  with  those  of  the  mem- 
bers themselves,  so  far  as  the  use  of  the  Society's  rooms  is  concerned,  may 
meet  the  views  and  wishes  of  that  portion  of  their  niemljers. 

In  conclusion,  the  Committee  have  the  pleasure  to  remark  that  during  the 
recess  several  additions  have  been  made,  both  to  the  liliran-  and  mnseiim, 
and  it  is  hoped  that,  under  the  able  counsel  of  their  excellent  President,  the 
united  co-operation  of  the  members  themselves,  and  the  flattering  support 
elicited  from  the  attendance  of  the  visitors,  that  the  Architectural  Society  may 
have  the  gratification  of  finding  that  the  meetings  of  this  session  may  lie 
as  advantageously  and  as  satisfactorily  concluded  as  those  of  its  former 
sessions. 

\9fh  Nov. — William  Tite,  Esi/.,  President  in  the  Chair. 
Mr.  Blyth  read  a  paper  on  commemorative  monuments. 
The  President  announced  that  Mr.  John  Blyth  (Vice-President)  had  com- 
municated his  intention  to  give  a  prize  of  the  value  of  live  guineas 
for  the  best  drawing  of  a  plaster  east  of  the  human  figure,  from  some  sjieci- 
men  in  the  possession  of  the  Society.  The  prize  to  he  awanled  at  the  close 
of  the  session,  and  to  be  described  accordingly. 

At  the  solicitation  of  the  student  members,  the  President  announced  the 
subjects  which  had  been  ;  selected  for  the  prizes,  and  the  resolutions 
passed  last  session,  assigning  the  qualifications  for  the  competitors  for  the 
prizes  were  referred  to,  and  read  as  follows: — "That  no  studiMit  shall  be 
allowed  to  compete  for  either  of  the  prizes  awarded  by  the  society,  who  shall 
have  completed  his  articles,  and  that  the  society  only  award  the  prizes  to 
students  under  articles." 

Also,  "  That  the  same  regulation  do  apjily  to  any  private  jirize,  which 
may  be  offered  for  the  further  encouragement  of  the  class  of  student  incm- 
bers." 

3rd  December,  1839. — William  Tite,  A'vy.,  President,  in  the  Chair. 
The  President  gave  notice  that  the  subject  selected  for  Mr.  lilyfh's  prize 
was  the  figure  of  "  the  Atlas."  The  figure  to  be  drawn  IS  inches  high,  and  to 
he  shaded  in  lines  with  pencil  or  ink. 

The  meeting  was  then  favoured  by  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  lec- 
ture hy  Mr.  Ilemmiug,  the  subject  of  which  was  "Iron."  * 
llth  Decemlter,  1839. — William  Tite,  Esq.,  President,  in  the  chair. 
The  President  gave  notice  that  the  Hon.  C.  Cavendish  had  given  his  assent 
for  the  students  to  measure  the  colonnade  of  Biirlingtou  House;  and  that, 
hy  the  obtaining  of  which  the  coniniittcc  were  enabled  to  complete  the  list  of 
subjects  for  the  prizes  to  be  delivered  at  the  close  of  the  session. 

■The  President  re.id  the  list  of  subjects  as  prepared  by  the  committee,  toge- 
ther with  file  rules  and  regulations  to  be  observed  by  the  students 
competing  for  tlie  same.  The  list  of  subjects,  iSic,  was  ordered  to  be 
be  hung  up  in  the  society's  room. 

The  President  announced  a  donation  from  the  .\rcliutcctural  Society  of 
Berlin  of  the  third  volume  of  the  Architects'  Album,  published  by  that 
body. 

Mr.  Addanis  delivered  a  lecture  "On  the  strength  of  beams  to  resist  pres- 
sure and  impact."  He  referred  to  iron  as  well  as  wood  ;  and  in  the  course 
of  the  lecture  gave  some  excellent  tables,  whereby  an  easy  cakulation 
might  be  made  as  to  the  weight  any  iron  beam  would  carry. 


Mr.  Pocock  explained  to  the  meeting  a  new  material  be  had  manufactured 
for  the  purpose  of  roofing  in  lieii  of  slating,  &c.,  a  specimen  of  which  was 
lying  upon  the  table. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


THE  'CVCLOP.S'  STEAM  ENGINE. 

On-  Friday  the  Kith  of  December,  this  splendid  vessel  left  her  moorings  at 
Blaekwall,  for  a  trial  trip  down  the  river,  and  to  proceed  to  Shecrness  to 
t.ake  in  her  guns  and  equipments.  This  being  the  largest  steam  frigate  in  the 
world  excited  much  attention,  and  thronglioiit  her  passage  down  the  river, 
WHS  an  object  of  great  curiosity  and  admiration. 

The  trial  was  made  under  the  directions  of  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty  and 
their  officers,  several  of  whom  \\ere  on  board,  viz..  Sir  C.  Adam,  the  Secre- 
tary of  tlie  Admiralty  .\lr.  Moore  O'Pcrrall,  Sir  E.  Parry,  Sir  William  Symonds, 
Captain  Nutt,  Captain  Austin,  fic.  &-C. 

ller  performance  was  most  excellent,  the  speed  was  found  to  be  about  10 
knots,  or  11. I  miles,  her  engines  working  21  strokes;  and  it  was  universally 
remarked  that  there  was  an  entire  absence  of  the  unpleasant  tremulous  motion 
so  generally  found  in  otiier  steamers. 

After  proceeding  close  to  the  Nore  Light,  she  turned  and  met  the  "  Fear- 
less" Admiralty  steamer,  which  accompanied  her  down,  and  their  Lordships 
embarked  in  tiiat  vessel  to  return  to  Woolwich,  while  the  "Cyclops"  pro- 
ceeded up  the  Medway,  and  made  fast  to  the  buoy  ofT  Shcerness  Dock-yard. 
This  vessel  was  ]ilanned  by  Sir  WilUam  Symonds,  and  built  under  his  im- 
mediate supeiinteiidanee  at  Pembroke  dock-yard;  she  combines  in  a  most 
eminent  degree  the  qualities  of  both  sailing  and  steaming,  together  with  such 
improvements  as  have  suggested  themselves  to  her  designer  from  the  exiieri- 
ence  of  the  "  Gorgon." 

She  is  propelled  by  two  engines  of  ICO  horse  power  each,  made  by  Meiirs. 
J.  &  S.  Seaward  and  Capel,  on  the  new  princijile  adopted  by  them,  by  which 
they  dispense  with  the  large  cast-iron  side  frames  and  sway  beams,  the  cross 
heads,  side  rods,  &c.,  &e.,  and  thus  bring  the  weights  of  these  engines  to  70 
tons  less  than  they  would  have  been,  had  they  been  made  on  the  common 
beam  principle;  and  thereby  also  effect  a  very  important  saving  of  sjiace  in 
the  length  of  the  engine  room.  These  engines  are  fitted  with  a  contrivance 
(which  is  protected  by  patent)  for  warming  the  feed  water  on  its  passage  to 
the  boiler,  by  causing  it  to  jiass  through  a  number  of  cojipcr  jiijics  around 
which  the  spent  steam  from  the  cylinder  circulates,  on  its  way  to  the  con- 
denser ;  by  which  means  the  teniperature  of  the  feed  water  is  elevated  about 
60  degrees'  above  the  usual  temperature,  at  which  it  enters  a  boiler,  and  a 
saving  effected  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  of  seven  per  cent. 

There  are  four  copjier  boilers  for  supplying  the  above  with  steam,  made 
entirely  of  copper,  and  ]ilaced  in  pairs,  hack  to  back,  with  a  fore  and  aft  stoke 
hole;  these  boilers  are  clothed  on  the  system  first  used  by  Messrs.  J.  and  S. 
Seaward  and  Capel,  and  since  introduced  into  the  navy  for  Her  Majesty's 
steam  ships,  for  the  jirevcntion  of  the  radiation  of  heat  ;  the  advantages  of 
which  were  evident  in  the  surprising  coolness  of  the  engine  room.  A  baro- 
meter placed  against  the  side  of  the  boilers  only  rose  to  68",  and  another  in 
the  stoke-hole  to  only  72' . 

The  boilers  are  fitted  with  a  patent  apparatus  for  detecting  and  indicating 
the  state  of  saltness  of  the  water  in  the  boiler;  and  also  with  a  receiver  and 
apparatus  for  blowing  out,  when  the  time  for  that  operation  has  arrived;  by 
means  of  which  all  danger  from  salting  the  boiler,  or  blowing  out  the  wafer 
too  low,  is  entirely  obviated  ;  and  the  boiler  may  be  worked  as  long  with  salt 
water  as  with  fresh. 

There  are  coal-boxes  placed  on  each  side  of  the  vessel  the  whole  length  of 
the  engine  room,  and  holding  when  full  about  450  tons  of  coals.  The  con- 
sumption of  fuel  by  actual  weight  (the  coals  being  weighed  during  the  trial) 
was  17  cwt.  per  hour,  equal  to  6  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse  per  hour. 

The  "  Cyclops"  is  commissioned  by  Post  Captain  Austin,  l.nte  of  the  Medea, 
being  the  only  steam  frigate  in  the  navy  besides  the  "  Gorgon,"  of  that  rank. 
Her  engine  room  crew  will  consist  of  four  engineers,  twelve  stokers,  and  four 
coal  trimmers. — The  actual  number  of  hands  including  officers  and  a  lieuten- 
ant's party  of  marines,  will  be  two  hundred  and  ten  men. 
Jler  dimensions  are  as  follows : — 

Feet.  In. 

Extreme  length 217     9 

Length  of  upper  deck  ..-..-  19.5  2 
Width  across  jiaddle-boxes  -  -  -  -  -57  0 
Length  of  engine  room      -         -         -         -         -         -       6'2     0 

Width  of  beam 38     0 

Depth  of  hold 23     0 

Engines — Diameter  of  cylinder 0  64 

Length  of  stroke  ...-.56 

Diameter  of  paddle-wheel        -         -         -         -       26     0 

Width  of  wheel  8     0 

Weight  of  engines,  boilers  and  water  280  tons. 
Weight  of  coals  for  2.'j  days  consumption,  4.')0  tons. 

Draught  of  water  with  all  her  guns,  ammunition,  engines,  coals  and  stores 
for  six  mouths,  16  feet  6  inches. 

Tonnage,  1,200  tons. — Power  of  engines,  320  horses. 
The  armament  of  the  "Cyclops"  will  consist  of — on  the  upper  deck  two  98 
pounders;  one  at  the  stem,  and  one  at  the  stern. — Eoiu'  48  pounders. 
On  the  gun-deck,  sixteen  long  32  pounders. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


37 


Ri-ssiAN  AVAR  Stkamkr,  "  Pvlades,"  axd  "Thk  .Sons  of  thk  TuAMrs." 

Tins  vessel  is  tlio  last  of  throe  which  were  ordered  fnr  tlie  Russian  govern- 
ment, and  of  wliieh  the  two  others  have  already  proceeded  lu  their  destina- 
tion. .She  went  down  the  river  on  Wednesday  the  ISth  nltimo.  on  an  experi- 
mental trip  to  (iravesend.  aecumpanied  by  the  Riis.sian  Coiisnl  and  a  lar^ie 
party  invited  hy  Messrs.  Miller  and  Ravenhill,  Die  engineers  Mio  manufac- 
tureil  her  machinery,  In  witness  this  first  trial  of  her  engines,  we  repaired 
to  Blackwall  a  little  before  11  o'clock  (ihc  intended  hour  of  deparluie).  and 
found  that  the  Pylades  had  not  yet  left  the  docks,  and  that  some  time  would 
still  elapse  before  she  could  be  out  into  the  river,  in  eoiisrtpience  of  a  large 
vessel  Iwingthen  on  Ihe  poiict  of  entering  the  docks.  This  delay  aflorded  us 
an  opportunity  of  observing  the  form  of  the  steamer's  hull,  wh-eh  was  binlt 
by  Mr.  Pitcher,  from  drawings  hy  Mr.  Ditchburn,  to  whose  talent  as  a  naval 
arehiteet,  the  model,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  part  which  appears  above 
water,  docs  great  credit. 

During  this  time  our  attention  was  directed  to  a  sm.all  iron  steam-boat, 
liuilt  by  Mr.  Ditchburn,  and  fitted  with  a  pair  of  engines  of  28  horse  power 
each,  by  Messrs.  Mil'er  and  llavenhin.  She  was  also  going  down  to  Graves- 
end  on  her  first  trial,  and  \\hile  waiting  for  tlie  Pylades  she  made  several 
trips  in  front  of  the  dock  entrance  to  the  admiration  of  all  present.  She  was 
evidently  going  at  a  great  speed,  but  seemed  at  the  same  time  to  cleave  the 
i^ater  with  sueh  ease  as  to  cause  no  disturbance  whatever  in  the  lliiid  for 
there  was  neither  .spr.ay  nor  any  perceptible  wave  against  her  bows,  which 
speaks  strongly  for  the  correctness  of  the  principles  tollowed  by  Mr.  Ditch- 
burn in  laying  oft'  her  lines. 

As  .soon'as  the  Pylades  could  be  got  out  of  the  docks,  which  was  not  until 
about  1*2  o'clock,  we  proceeded  down  the  ri\er.  but  owing  to  some  little  ad- 
justments which  it  was  discovered  were  still  required  to  ije  made  in  the  en- 
gines, in  order  to  allow  them  to  workup  It)  their  power,  the  performance  was 
not  so  good  as  eould  be  wished,  notwillistauding  which  the  engines  worked 
vcrv  smoothly,  causing  little  or  no  vibration  in  the  vessel.  The  time  of  run- 
ning the  measured  mile  at  Long  Reach  was  noted  on  our  way  down  with  the 
tide,  but  against  a  rather  strong  head  wind  ;  the  distance  was  performed  in 
J  min.  '17  sec  whicli  gives  a  speed  of  nearly  10^  miles  an  hour  over  the 
ground.  To  a.'certaiii  the  rate  through  the  w  ater  it  would  le  necessary  either 
to  deduct  or  eliminate  the  velocity  of  tlie  tide  :  but,  as  the  engines  were  not 
working  up  10  their  speed,  it  was  not  considered  worth  while  to  make  the 
experiment  against  the  tide,  so  we  went  on  to  (iravesend.  where  we  arrived  a 
little  before  2  o'clock,  and  found  the  "  Sons  of  the  'Vhanies"  waiting  for  us. 
As  it  had  been  arranged  that  the  whole  party  should  return  to  Blackwall  on 
board  that  boat,  she  was  brought  along  side  of  the  Pylades,  and  took  the 
company  on  hoard,  ly  which  time  it  was  20  minutes  past  2  o'clock;  wo  then 
started,  the  Planet,  belonging  to  the  Star  Company,  having  loft  the  pier  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  before.  In  the  course  of  one  hour  we  overtook  her,  and. 
having  gone  a  li  tie  farther,  we  jmt  about  and  returned  some  distance  to  take 
a  gentleman  on  board,  and  passed  the  Planet  again  before  we  arrived  at 
Blackwall.  having  in  the  mean  time  gone  completely  round  her.  It  is  calcu- 
lated tliat,  in  order  to  do  this,  we  must  have  been  going  at  the  rate  of  1.SJ  to 
Hmilesan  hour  through  the  water.  This  comparative  speeil  with  the  Planet 
is  the  more  astonishing  as  the  ".Sons  of  the  Thames''  lias  two  engines  of 
only  2S  horse  power  each,  whilst  the  PI  net  has  two  engines  of  JO  horse 
pow  er  each. 

It  may  not  perhaps  he  generally  known  that  the  iron  steam  boat,  the  Or- 
well, now  running  between  Limdon  and  Ipswich,  which  we  believe  equals,  or 
even  excels  the  '*  Sons  of  the  Thames  "  in  speed,  was  also  (itteil  with  I'ligines 
by  Messrs.  Miller,  Ravenhill  and  Co..  ami  built  by  Messrs.  Ditchburn  and 
Co.,  so  that  we  may  confidently  look  forward  to  the  time  (which  we  believe 
not  to  be  far  distant),  when  the  speed  of  our  steamers  on  the  Thames  shall 
not  only  come  up  to,  hut  even  exceed  that  said  to  be  attained  in  America. 
and  that  with  a  comparati  vely  small  expenditure  of  power;  for  if  it  is  not 
notorious,  it  is  at  least  known  in  this  country,  that  the  power  put  into  the 
American  steam  boats  is  most  gigantic. 

\ciii  Iron  Steamer.— On  Satur.lay  the  7th  ult.,  the  iron  steamer  "Enter- 
prise," built  and  fitted  out  by  Mr.  Borrie.  of  the  Tay  Foundry,  started  on  a 
trial  trin  to  New  burgli.  The  model  of  the  hull  is  certainly  beautiful,  and  at 
first  siglit  any  one  must  be  of  opinion  that  the  elements  of  forai  calculated 
to  promote  rapid  sailing  are  possessed  by  the  "  Knterprise  "  in  a  very  eminent 
degree.  The  entrance  and  runs  are  very  sharp,  which,  united  with  the  great 
bearing  in  the  floors  render  the  vessel  buoyant,  and  secure  an  easy  passage 
through  the  water.  The  anticipations  forineil  other  speed  were  fully  realized. 
She  seiiled  a  measured  distance  of  four  miles  marked  on  the  shore  in  Ihe 
space  of  12  miuules.  The  tide  was  in  her  favour,  and  admitting  it  to  have 
been  running  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour  (although  it  was  under  tliat 
rate)  would  make  Ihe  actual  distance  performed  hy  her  over  the  ground  at 
tlie  rate  of  16  miles  an  hour,  a  speed  that  has  not  hitherto  been  attained  by 
any  steamer,  ll  may  be  remarked  that  this  speed  is  not  .so  much  attributable 
to  the  great  pow  er  of  the  engines  as  to  the  form  of  that  pari  of  the  hull  im- 
mersed in  the  water  ;  and  indeed  Mr.  Borrie  states,  that  in  making  his  cal- 
culation for  procuring  a  given  speed,  he  placed  a  greater  reliance  on  lessening 
the  resistance  that  would  be  experienced  by  Ihe  vessel  in  passing  through 
the  water  for  obtaining  a  high  velocity,  than  by  dependence  on  great  pro- 
pelling power.  In  this  he  has  decidedly  succeeded,  as  the  result  amply  proves. 
The  vessel  measures  280  tons,  and  has  two  engines  of  .3.3  horse  power  each, 
which  is  a  now  er  much  less  in  projiorlion  to  Ihe  tonnage  than  thai  of  many 
sleameis  wliich  would  not  sail  10 miles  an  hour,  and  at  the  same  lime  having 
a  seetion-il  area  of  resistance  not  greater  than  that  of  the  "  Knterprise."  A 
striking  feature  in  the  "  Enterprise'' is  Ihe  consumption  of  smoke.  This  is 
elfectert  by  a  plain  and  very  simple  contrivance  in  the  interior  of  the  furnace. 
The  furnace  bars  instead  of  being  straight  are  curved  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  are  so  adjusted  in  the  furnaces  as  to  form  a  veiy  acute  angle  with  the 
front  of  the  boiler  at  the  furnace  doors,  whilst  towards  the  posterior  extremi- 
ties they  arc  horizontal,  in  other  respects  lliey  are  similar  to  those  in  general 
use     The  fvirnace  covers  deflect  ahout  18  inches  into  the  furnaces,  within 


two  feet  of  the  inner  end.  which  forms  a  water  chamber.  The  dislanee  be- 
tween the  upper  surface  of  Ihe  coals  when  the  furnaces  are  fully  charged,  and 
the  under  surface  of  the  dellector.  is  about  six  inches.  The  coals  tor  every 
new  feed  h  ing  dejtisited  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  furnace,  which  is  fully 
two-thirds  longer  than  the  posterior  part  or  space  behind  the  dellcclur.  it 
follows  that  the  coals  liefcu'c  requiting  to  be  pushed  back  into  Ihe  space  be- 
hind the  deflector  must  h.ive  become  very  highly  ignited  and  the  component 
parts  w'hich  cause  the  emission  of  smoke  entirely  disappear.  Then  Ihc  pos- 
terior lire  chamber  being  always  charged  with  fuel  w  hich  only  emits  a  |)Ure 
and  intense  flame,  the  smoke  arising  from  the  coals  in  the  anterior  chamber 
having  to  pass  umlerneath  the  dellector  come  immediately  into  conlaet  with 
the  flame  in  the  posterior  chaiuber,  and  having  to  pass  through  in  us  way 
to  the  flues  is  exposed  to  its  most  intense  action,  whereby  it  is  immediately 
consumed.  The  dimensions  of  the  "  Enterprise"  are,— Length  of  keel,  116 
feet  ;  breadth  of  beam,  21  feet  ;  depth  of  hold,  8  feet. — Dundee  Courier. 

Steam  Nnvif^ntiov  aeYosa  the  Atlnntie. —  Early  next  spring,  and  during  the 
year,  there  will  be  placed  on  the  several  lines  three  new  steamers  to  ply  be- 
tween England  and  New  York,  and  Mr. Cunard's  steamers  to  Boston,  by  the 
way  of  llilifax.  will  go  into  operation.  Two  of  the  three,  Ihe  Ncic  York  and 
Presiiietit — the  formenfor  the  Transatlantic  Company,  and  the  latter  for  the 
British  Queen  Association — are  nearly  ready  for  launching  ;  and  the  Nem 
York  will  jn'obably  leave  Englaiui  in  April  or  Ma\'.  and  the  Presiiiet/t  in  Jun 
or  .luly.  The  third  is  now  building  for  the  Great  M'estcrn  Company,  andwil 
be  construc'ed  ol  iron.  .She  will  not  be  ready  before  next  .September  or  Oc- 
tober. These,  together  with  Mr.  Cunard's,  which  will  commence  running  in 
May  next,  will  keep  open  a  free  communication  with  Europe  without  the  aid 
ol  "  w  indy  ''  vesseki.  Together,  they  w  ill  form  a  line  so  that  there  will  be  two 
departures  from  England  and  two  from  the  United  States  every  monih.  In 
adilitiim  to  thes!%  the  keel  of  another  steam  ship,  to  he  of  1,4-30  tons,  and  130 
horse-power,  has  already  lieen  laid  fnr  the  Transatlanfie  Steam  Company,  to 
run  in  eonneelion  with  Liverpool  and  New  York.  .She  will  not  be  finished 
before  Ihe  spring  of  1841  :  and  also  bv  that  lime  there  will  be  two  large  and 
splendiil  steamers  ready  to  start  from  ihe  Clyde,  and  run  across  to  New  York. 
With  steamers,  as  with  sailing  packets,  the  builders  improve  with  every  new 
vessels.  It  it  said  by  those  who  have  seen  the  plans  of  the  new  steamers, 
that  the  improvements  adopted  will  ])laee  them  oil  a  par  with  our  packet- 
shins  in  point  of  eomlort.  &<■.  The  Atlantic  will  soon  lie  as  thickly  doited 
Willi  steain-shi[is  as  with  sailing  vessels. — Xew  York  paper. 

Port  of  Fleetwood. — The  commissioners  from  the  Court  of  Exchequer,  sent 
down  for  Ihe  purpose  of  surveying  and  setting  out  the  boundaries  of  the  Port 
of  Fleetwood,  fini.^hecl  iheir  task  ycslerday  se'nnight.  They  commenced  on 
the  previous  ^hmday  to  survey  the  coasts  and  creeks  between  Lancaster  and 
Preston,  and  dotenniued  the  limits  of  the  port  as  follow  ; — To  eominen<e  at  a 
run  of  water  called  Ihe  Hundred  lOnd.  aliout  two  miles  to  Ihe  west  of  Ilesketh 
Bank,  continuing  up  to  Preston,  thence  along  the  coast  on  the  north  side  of 
the  river  to  Lytham.  round  the  coast  to  Blackpool,  and  on  to  b'leetwood  ; 
thence  to  the  river  Broadfleet,  four  miles  froai  Sea  Dyke,  including  both  sides 
of  the  Wj  re,  and  the  river  Broadlleet. — Prestoii  Pilot. 

The  British  Queen  is  not  intended  to  le  started  for  New  York  on  the  first 
of  .lanuary,  as  previously  advertised,  Ihe  proprietors  being  of  opinion  that 
one  very  serious  impediment  to  th  •  speed  ol  Ihe  vessel  is  in  the  inferior  con- 
struction of  the  paddle-boxes:  anrl,  acctirdingly,  a  new  description  oi  padt.lle, 
called  "The  Rceflng  Paddle,"  is  about  to  be  substituled — this  new  padille 
being  the  invention  of  the  celebrated  Mr.  Samuel  Hull. — Midland  Counties 
Herald. 


ENGINEERING  'WORKS. 


The  null  Dock  cotnpamj  are  ahout  applying  to  Parliament  for  m.iking  an 
extensive  dock  and  entrance  for  the  large  class  of  steam  ho.ats,  &c.  on  the 
east  side  of  the  river  Hull. 

Jl'oolirirh  Doct-i/nrd. — In  the  Noveinlier  lunnber,  we  inserted  a  p.aragi'aph 
from  the  "  Times,"'  stating  that  the  new  dry  dock,  making  at  \Voohvich,  and 
other  works,  were  under  the  charge  of  Lt.  Deiinison ;  upon  enquiry,  we  find 
that  the  new  dry  dock  now  on  hand  at  the  east  end  of  the  yard,  is  being 
constructed  under  the  direction  and  superiuteudance  of  Mr.  Walker,  by 
Jlessrs,  Grissell  and  Peto. 

New  Pier  at  Alarfsate. — This  pier,  which  is  intended  to  rival  that  of  Rams- 
gate,  as  a  refuge  harbour  for  her  Majesty's  steam-vessels.  Sec.  is,  we  hear, 
to  commence  at  flie  ^\'ayland  and  Eulsam  rocks,  from  the  facility  arising 
from  their  receiving  the  piers  on  a  foundation  of  solid  chalk,  exiending  1000 
feet  from  the  gateway  to  the  sea  at  Wostbrook.  The  second  point,  opposite 
tlie  fort,  next  the  East  Cliff,  is  intended  to  be  .300  feet,  leaving  an  opening 
for  vessels  to  the  extent  of  400  feet. — Adeerliser. 

Cowes. — It  is  now  expected  that  Sir  .lohn  Ronnie's  plan  for  deepening  the 
Medina  will  be  carried  into  execution.  A  spacious  town-quay  will  also  he 
erected,  and  it  is  rumoured  that  !lio  members  of  the  Royal  Yacht  Squadron 
are  about  removing  Iheir  rendezvous  from  this 'place  to  ihe  anchorage  off' 
Norris.  on  which  estate  a  splenihd  club-house  is  to  be  built  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  its  members. — Hampshire  Teleffraph. 

Proposed  new  road  from  Perth  to  Elfin. — A  meeting  was  lately  held  at 
Elgin  on  this  important  subjoel,  when  a  number  of  piopriotors  and  gen- 
tlemen of  the  town  attended,  including  Ihe  Duke  of  Richmond.  Mr.  A. 
Mitchell,  civil  engineer,  Pertli.  attended  with  a  report  he  had  drawn  up  on 
the  subject,  as  to  the  probable  expense.  &c.  of  the  new  line.  The  estimalos, 
framed  on  a  minute  survey  he  calculated  would  not  exceed  £23,000.  The 
probable  revenue  to  he  derived  from  tolls,  Mr.  Mitchell  estimated  in  all  at 
£1530.  After  Mr.  Mitchell's  statement  and  report,  the  meefing  pas.sed  a 
series  of  resolutions,  appointing  a  committee  to  prepare  a  memorial  to  Go- 
vernment soliciting  pecuniary  assistance,  as  also  the  aid  of  the  members  of 
Parliament  connccled  with  the  northeru  counties  and  hurghs. 


as 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


Slmrt-hum  Ifarhour. — Tlio  iK'U'  pier  at  Iho  ontrancc  of  tlic  Irirboui'  has  been 
carried  a  con^idtM-ahle  (lislanro  inio  liie  sea,  and  tlionjii  it  Mill  d'Uiljlle'^.'i 
impriivc  llie  Iiarl)c)iir.  it  elueks  tlic  IruvrllintI  on  the  Ijcacli  Ijcluei'ii  Brighton, 
and  in  case  o^  liigli  tides  mtiy  ueeasioii  consideraljle  iucoiivei;ieiieo. — Biii^htdn 
Herald. 

Trignmoulh  Briilge.  Devon. — It  may  l,e  ficsli  in  the  fecolleclien  of  our 
readers  that  a  very  coiisidi'raMe  port  on  of  this  bridge  suddenly  fell  iuJune 
1B3H.  caused  by  tlio  destruction  of  the  timber  piles  from  the  ravages  of  the 
worm.  'J'lie  restoration  Avas  only  cnmmencod  in  the  early  part  of  the  autumn, 
by  direction  oi  Her  Majesty's  C'ummissioncrs  for  Kxcliequer  Rill  Loans,  from 
ll'ie  plans  of  Messrs.  Walker  ahd  Iinrpes.  If  we  mny  jndi^e  fioin  the  progress 
airciKly  made,  and  the  number  of  workmen  emi'loycd.  there  is  every  pros|)cet 
of  the  bridge  being  agtiin  made  iiassaiile  to  the  public  in  the  course  of  a 
couple  of  months.  We  regret  having  omittrd  noticing  this  work  before,  as 
ue  attach  .greater  hiterest  to  works  of  this  description  (after  failure)  llian  in 
the  (irst  construction.  We  hope  a;jain  to  refer  to  this  subject  witli  ;i  more 
ilelailed  account  of  the  plans  adopted. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAILViTAVS. 


Ciiiiiul  Juiwticiii  Itailirai/. — A  coud  deal  of  inconvenience  and  trouble  h ere 
occasioned  a  few  days  ago  to  the  passengers  on  the  railway,  and  the  servants 
of  the  company,  hv  "  a  slip"  or  tall  of  a  great  portion  of  bank,  about  seven 
miles  on  this  side  Birmingham.  At  that  point  there  is  a  very  deep  cutting, 
the  bank  on  one  side  of  w  liieh.  liaving  been  loosened  by  the  late  incessant 
rains,  was  sliaken  down  by  the  passing  of  the  six  o'clocl^  train,  on  .Saturday 
morning  last.  The  engine  was  partially  covered  by  the  mass  of  earth,  but 
providentially  no  iiijury  amis  sustained  by  any  of  the  passengers.  Another 
on.;ine  A\as  oljtained  to  foj'ward  the  train.  ui)ieli  was.  of  c  urse.  delayed  con- 
siderably beyond  its  usual  lime,  as  were  al.'O  the  other  trains  which  followed  : 
the  jiassengers  and  luggage  having  to  he  transferred  from  one  train  to  .another 
bi'fore  they  could  proceed,  both  lines  of  rails  being  entirely  covered  A\ith  a 
vast  ((uanlily  of  earth.  We  understand  that  the  line  was  not  cleared  so  as  to 
allow  of  the  passage  of  trains  until  Monday. 

Great.  Western  RaUway.- — The  A\'orks  of  this  railv\av,  between  Diidast  and 
Farringdon,  are  so  fer  advanced,  that  we  understand  the  directors  confidently 
e.xpect  to  open  the  line  nearly  thirty  miles  beyond  Reading,  about  the  same 
time  as  to  that  town  itself ;  in  which  case,  upwards  of  sixty  miles  of  the 
London  division  w  ill  be  open  for  public  use  in  the  spring,  and  the  line  between 
Bristol  and  Bath  at  the  same  time. 

Nnrtli  Mhlhniil  RailiiHUi. — The  contracts  for  the  Eckinglon,  Chesterfield, 
and  .Soulli  \\'ing(ield  stations  have  been  lot  to  the  following  parties  : — Eck- 
ington,  to  Messrs.  Smith  and  Brown,  of  .ShelTleld  ;  Chesterfield,  to  JTessrs. 
Leatlier  and  Waring;  .South  Wingfield.  to  Mr.  Radford,  of  Alfreton.  Total 
amount,  j£7,000.     The  Helper  contract  is  not  yet  let. — Derlni  J!ej>iirler. 

Hull  find  Sclbjj  Raihvaij. — On  this  line  all  the  works  continue  to  be  prose- 
cuted as  ttipidly  as  the  very  unfavourable  weather  allows.  About  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  of  the  iron  wiirk  of  the  supcrstnieliire  of  the  bridge  over  the 
nver  Ouse.  at  Selby.  are  now  on  the  spot,  and  the  nu'n  arc  busily  engaged  in 
li.singit;  the  whole  of  the  ironwork  of  the  bridge  over  the  river  Uerwent, 
iiciir  Wresscl  Castle,  has  arrived  there,  and  two  of  the  ribs  are  fixed  across 
llie  river,  the  greatest  portion  of  the  entire  length  of  therail'.\ay  is  ballasted, 
and  the  contractors  are  busily  engaged  in  laying  the  permanent  v.ay.  We 
luidersland  that  it  is  highly  probable  llii.-.  railway  will  be  eomplete.l  by  Mid- 
siunoier  next,  and  that  in  the  course  of  the  year,  there  will  be  a  complete 
railway  communication  between  Hull  and  London. — Mtillaiid  Cimiit/cs  Herald^ 

(ilasgow  and  Aijrshire  Railway. — It  is  truly  gratifying  to  find  that  the 
highest  anticipations  formed  of  the  success  of  tliis  railway,  prcmiise  to  be 
fully  rctdir.ed.  as  a  fraflie  on  the  limited  p(U'tion  of  the  line  tilretidy  ojiened 
s  being  created,  far  more  extensive  than  the  most  san.guine  etinld  have  ex- 
ipecled.  Indeed,  this  undertaking  atfords  a  more  than  ordinar)"  illustration 
of  the  fact,  that  facility  of  eonununication  srcures  traflic  lor  itself.  Before 
the  line  was  opened  to  [rvine.  tlie  intercourse  between  these  places  was  so 
very  liiniled,  that  ijublic  aceoinmodalion  did  ncd  demand  more  than  a  one 
bor>e  coach,  thrice  a  Meek.  Now,  however,  that  railway  coa(dies  run  to 
and  from  Irvine  thrice  a  day,  and  there  is  a  coach  stationed  at  Irvine  to 
(.iiry  forward  |)assengers  to  (dasgow,  this  route  has  become  quite  a  thorough- 
i.ire.  ;\nd  well  do  the  shareliokicrs  of  the  (ilasgow  and  Ayrshire  R.^ilway 
nieiil  so  Mattering  a  prospect  of  the  success  of  a  speculation  fraught  with 
sikIi  unspeakable  advanttiges  to  the  west  of  Scotland.  The  recent  return  of 
the  iiiunber  of  |>asscngeis  that  have  travelled  trom  Ayr  to  Irvine,  during  the 
three  months  ending  the  .Tib  current.  (3li.S32)  must  give  them  great  confi- 
dence, that  when  the  entire  line  to  Glasgow  is  opened,  the  trafiic  upon  it  will 
;;reatly  exceed  the  cslimtile  laid  bef  re  parliament.  Indeed,  we  liclievc  that 
the  ]iaili;imentary  proof  went  no  further  than  to  warrant  i]io  aiininil  traflic  in 
pa>engers  of  32.000,  4,83'2  less  th.an  have  already  travelled  in  three  months! 
The  line  from  Irvine  to  Kilwinning  being  now  on  the  eve  of  completion,  will 
be  opened  in  .lanuary  next,  when  a  large  increase  of  trallic  must  necessarily 
follnw,  from  the  surrounding  populous  districts,  including  the  towns  of  Dairy, 
KiU'irnie,  Beith,  Stevenson,  S.iltcoats,  Anlros.san,  &c.  The  entire  line  to 
i.las-.;ow,  .as  is  now  jireliy  well  known,  is  expected  to  be  opened  in  June, 
IK  10.— ./;/!■  .Iilvertiser, 

Niirlh  Midland  Railway. — The  Leeds  station,  or  terminus,  we  understand,  is 
to  be  let  by  contract  to-morio.v.  The  Belper  station,  we  hear,  is  to  be  built 
by  Hugh  M'Inlosh.  b'.sq.  The  bridge  for  the  turnp'ke  ro.Td,  near  Diiflield, 
alreaily  known  as  Moscow -bridge,  is  nearly  completerl.  Milford  tunnel  is 
eouipleted.  the  last  brick  remaining  only  to  be  bud.  The  enormous  mass  of 
masonry  at  Belper  is  rapidly  progressing,  and  the  tem[:orary  bridge  over  the 
wide  part  of  the  Dervvent,  called  Bclper-pool,  is  taken  up.  iinil  the  permanent 
one,  nearly  600  teet  long,  iiromises  to  be  eomi)lctc  before  New  \  etir's  Day. 
The  new  bed  for  llicnvcr,  ucar  Amber-Biate,  is  proceeding  with  great  aclivity  ; 


and  the  immense  briilge  of  live  arches,  at  the  same  place,  promises  completion 
soon,  as  we  ob.erve  centres  fixing  for  the  arches,  the  greater  part  of  two  years 
having  been  spent,  night  and  day,  in  getting  in  the  foundations  and  piers. 
On  the  embauKments  in  this  neighbourhood,  great  portions  of  tiio  permanent 
way  are  laid.  The  difficult  undertaking  at  Bull-bridge,  m  passing  over  the 
turnpike  road  and  under  the  bed  of  the  canal  at  the  saine  time,  has  been 
easily  ncconijdished,  and  is  all  but  finished.  We  observe  here  water  and  land 
piled  four  stories,  one  on  the  other,  in  a  singular  manner,  thus: — there  is 
first  the  river  Amber,  over  which  goes  the  turnpike  road  ;  over  this  goes  the 
North  Midland  Railway  ;  and  over  the  r:dlway  flows  the  Cromford  canal. 
Such  a  eoiTiplication  of  bridges  is  seldom  to  be  met  with.  At  the  station  here 
(Derby)  the  grcatfst  activity  prevails;  and  there  is  every  indication  of  an 
e  irly  opening  of  this  line  in  the  spring.  A  committee  of  directors,  with  K. 
Stephenson,  Esq.,  arrived  here  by  a  special  train  on  Monday  last,  to  inspect 
the  works. — Derby  Reporter  of  Thursday. 

Crlnnrrster  and  Birmingham  Railroad. — The  works  of  this  railway,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Cheltenham,  contiiuie  to  progress  most  satisfactorily.  The 
extensive  range  of  buildings  near  the  oilices  ana  lodge,  already  erecteJ,  which 
are  designed  tor  the  engine-houses,  workshops,  S:c.,  of  the  depot,  are  in  a 
\eyy  forward  state,  and,  unless  retarded  by  the  weather,  will  l)e  ttU  roofed 
over  in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  A  powerful  locomotive  engine  is  now  con- 
stantly empUiyed  in  removing  ballast,  &e.,  along  the  line  between  Cheltenham 
and  Tewkesbury,  which  portion  is  so  far  ready  for  use,  that  it  is  the  intention 
of  the  directors  to  make  their  first  experimental  trip  along  it  some  day  next 
week.  The  ultimate  prospects  of  this  company  seem  to  be  most  promising. — 
Bristol  Mercury. 

Eastern  Counties  Railway  Company. — The  bridge  built  by  this  company  over 
the  brook  leading  from  Brentwood  to  M'arley  is  now  finished,  and  persons 
travelling  that  way  will  find  the  hill  considerably  lessened. — Clielmsfnrd 
Chronicle. 

Croydon  Raihrai/. — The  first  six  months  from  the  opening  of  this  line  ter- 
minated on  Ihe4tli  inst. ;  during  that  period  311.310  passengers  have  travelled 
on  the  railway,  and  the  money  received  is  ilT.GljS  Il.s.  Sd, — Sun. 

Blarhwall  RaiUeay. — We  understand  that  the  Directors  have  determined 
upon  fitting  up  an  electro-magnetic  telegraph  along  their  line,  similar  to  that 
which  we  recently  noticed  as  having  been  ibr  some  time  in  successful  opera- 
tion on  the  Great  Western  Railway.  In  addition  to  the  facilities  wliich  such 
an  arrangement  will  afford  in  the  working  of  the  railway,  (an  arrangement 
peculiarly  adapted  to  this  line,  as  w  c  shall  take  a  future  opportunity  of  show- 
ing.) the  public  will  be  benefitted  in  no  small  degree  by  its  application  to 
other  purposes.  For  instance,  a  vessel  coming  up  the  river  can,  before  reach- 
ing Woolwich,  easily  communicate  by  si.gnals  with  the  railway  terminus  at 
Blaekwall.  and  the  information  being  inste.ntaneously  conveyed  to  the  Fen- 
church-street  station,  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  great  seat  of  business, 
parties  who  are  expecting  the  arrival  of  friends  will  at  once  be  prepared  to 
meet  them  in  town,  without  the  necessity  of  waiting  fm-  hours  about  docks 
and  whar's;  or,  if  so  inclined,  can  join  them  at  Blaekwall,  almost  as  .soon  as 
the  vessel  has  reached  that  point.  In  the  case  of  s  eam-boats  especially,  tliis 
will  be  of  great  advantage  as  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  «  hole  of  the 
pas.^engers  by  these  vessels  will  at  once  avail  themselves  of  the  railway  to 
avoid  tlie  always  teilious.  and  sometimes  dtnigerous,  navigation  of  the  I'uol. 
We  are  glad  lo  find  that  the  works  of  this  short  but  most  important  line  are 
proceeding  with  much  vigour,  and  that  the  prospects  of  the  Company  are  in 
the  iiighest  degree  satisfiiclory. — Railway  Times. 

London  and  Briglilmi  Railway.— >ih;co.  the  opening  of  the  tunnel  on  the 
Shoreham  branch  of  the  railw'ay,  the  cutting  on  New  I'mgland  Farm  has 
made  ra)>id  progress;  and  judging  from  Ibe  appearance  of  the  works,  we 
should  suppose  that  two  or  three  weeks  wcmld  be  sullicient  to  complete  iC. 
The  remainder  of  the  line,  at  the  Shoreham  end,  w  ill,  we  imagine,  take  even 
le  s  lime,  as  only  a  very  fevf  yards  of  embankment  remain  to  be  made,  and 
the  permanent  rails  are  already  laid  on  the  level  of  the  meadows  immediately 
contiguous  t,i  Shoreham.  A  great  number  of  spectators  assemljle  at  New 
England  daily,  to  witness  the  ingress  and  egress  of  the  engine  to  and  from 
the  tunnel.  The  viaduct  over  tlie  New  England  Road,  for  the  London  line, 
is  nearly  completed  ;  and  tlie  pro,giv.ss  of  the  works  there,  is,  we  learn,  equally 
rapid  and  satisfaciory  with  thato't  the  works  on  the  Shoreham  Br.anch,  nearer 
home. — Br  i fill  ton  Gazette. 

(Ireul  Western  /?f(//H'oi/.— The  progress  of  lliis  immense  national  undertaking 
is  beginning  now  to  be  a  work  of  admiration.  Bclwixt  Loivlon  and  Bristol 
there  are  many  points  of  observance  showing  the  wonderful  daring  results 
of  science  which  our  forefathers  never  could  have  antieip;vted.  The  won- 
ders of  Egypt  dwindle  into  nothing  in  the  comparison.  'Inere  are  gigantic 
labours  without  use.  the  mimuments  of  pride  and  folly  ;  here  n.sc,  ornament, 
and  durability  seem  to  try  lo  surpass  each  olher.and  their  several  excellences 
are  so  adjusted  as  lo  show  the  foundation  of  future  national  prosperity  be- 
yond all  jiower  of  calculation— not  only  the  prosperity  of  trade  by  the  rapid 
conyeyance  of  merchtindisc.  but  intellectual  prosperity,  national  progress  as 
to  mind,  by  bringing  all  parls  of  the  empire  into  more  frequent  intercour.-fe 
wilh  large  towns,  and  especially  with  the  metropolis.  The  most  costly  por- 
tion of  the  line  will  be  the  tunnel  at  Box.  This  will  ever  be  in  itself  a  mag- 
nificent  proof  of  the  skill  and  enterprise  of  the  age  ;  but  these  can  never  be 
truly  esiimalerl.  wilhout  a  knowledge  of  the  overwhelming  dilfieulties  en- 
countered in  its  progress.  Uf  these  no  evidences  w  ill  be  presenlcd  by  the 
work  il.self,  they  will  l.'C  matters  only  of  history.  The  compmy  deserve  high 
ap;,r  drition  if  not  nation,il  grali;ude  for  their  liberal  ende  ivour  to  iniike 
every  point  of  observance  tin  additiontil  Ixi.auty  lo  its  locality.  Even  in  Bath, 
Ibe  most  beaulirul  cily  in  Kngland,  where  every  thing  seenn  to  harmonise  in 
splendour,  even  here  we  find  the  line  (d'  works  adjacent  addiii''  to  Ibe  general 
lungnifieence.  The  centerings  of  the  arch  over  the  Wells-road,  at  the  bottom 
of  Hollow, ly,  hivve  been  removed,  and  erected  at  the  phice  where  the  r.ailway 
will  cross  Claverton-strect.  The  arch  and  the  two  golhiit  lowers  are  pro - 
noune.'d  to  be  excellent  specimens  of  workmanship  ;  ami  the  entire  viaduct, 
from  the  taste  cviucctl  in  its  dcsimi,  will  form,  when  completcvl,  'luite  an  or- 


1840.] 


THE  CIA^L  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


39 


iwmont  tu  tlie  iieiKliljiHiiliooil.  The  ciilliji-  ilam  in  tlie  Avuii.  in  uliicli  iho 
miildle  siipporl  of  Ihc  iiroposcil  bridge  will  be  eivcte.l,  has  not  yet  been  cleared 
of  water.  Init  every  effort  is  being  made  to  effect  that  object.  At  the  tunnel 
near  Ralhwick-terraee  the  workmen  have  commenced  the  formation  of  a  per- 
manent wav  ;  and  near  llimpton-row  great  advance  has  been  made  during 
the  last  live  or  six  weeks.  At  Hampton  and  the  fields  beyond,  the  cuttings 
and  embankments  are  in  a  forward  stale.  Close  by  the  stone  bridge,  between 
Hampton  and  Bathwiek,  the  works  are  also  beginning  to  alter  the  face  of  the 
landscape. — Biitli  Journal. 

South  Enslerii  Ilailma/.— The  rapid  progress  of  the  works  is  giving  quite  a 
lively  aspect  to  I'olkestone.  The  bridge  across  the  Canterbury  and  Dover 
road  is  also  completed;  and  the  advancement  of  the  hne  on  either  side  is 
going  on  in  a  highly  satisfactory  manner. — Dort'r  Chronicle. 

Li'cih  mill  Manchester  Ralhmji. — Uapid  progress  is  making  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  tunnel  at  the  summit  lietween  Liltleborough  anil  ."<o  Imor.lon, 
and  it  is  gener.ally  expected  that  the  whole  line  will  be  conipleied  in  the 
autumn  of  the  year  1 840.  Tlio  numlxM- of  passengers  now  travelling  in  the 
railway  carriages  betv\'cen  Manchester  and  Littleborongh  is  perfectly  amazing 
and  approaches  nearly  to  3,000  a  day  ;  nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  «  hen  it 
is  considered  tiuit  it  is  actually  cheaper  for  a  labouring  man  to  ride  upon  the 
railroad  than  to  walk  upon  the  higmvav.  as  the  journey  of  thirteen  miles  is 
performed  in  half  .an  hour  by  steam,  which  would  require  four  h(}Urs  for  a 
foot  passenger,  and  the  fare  for  travelling  in  the  stand-itp-carriages  amounts 
only  to  one  penny  a  mile. — Derby  Reporter. 


rjE-W  CHURCHES,  &c. 


Warw'idcshlre. — A  new  Church  is  about  to  be  erected  at  Attleborough,  in 
the  parish  of  Nuneaton,  on  a  site  the  gift  of  the  Earl  of  Harrowby.  There 
.are  upwards  of  three  acres  and  a  half  of  land,  which  it  is  his  lordship's  w  ish 
should  be  laid  out  advantageously  for  the  benefit  of  the  clergyman,  and  it  is 
in  contemplation,  reserving  saflicient  for  the  church,  burial  ground,  parsonage' 
house,  croft  and  schools  to  form  a  street  of  comfortable  duelling  liouses,  the 
proceeds  of  which  are  to  form  part  of  the  endowment.  It  is  designed  by  Mr. 
Thomas  L.  Walker,  in  tlie  early  pointed  style,  with  a  handsome  triple  «est 
window,  ami  a  small  tower  at  the  south  west  angle,  containing  a  cloclc-room, 
belfiy,  ringer's  floor,  and  a  staircase  leailing  to  a  west  g.allery.  At  the  east 
end  is  a  semicircular  apsis,  on  each  side  of  which,  against  the  east  wall  of  the 
cliurch,  the  pulpit  and  reading-desk  are  placed.  It  is  cruciform  in  plan,  a 
i-obing-room  and  a  porch  forming  the  arms  of  the  cross.  The  dimensions  of 
the  body,  inside  the  walls,  are  73  feet  by  39  feet,  and  is  calculated  to  accom- 
modate 472  persons,  viz.  112  in  pews,  and  3G0  on  benches. 

jill  Saint's  Church,  Spicer  Street,  Mite  End  New  Town.— On  the  2M\  of  No- 
vember this  church,  erected  and  endowed  at  the  expense  of  the  Metropolis 
CInirches  Fund,  was  consecrated  by  tlie  Bishop  of  London.  It  is  designed 
in  the  Norman  style  by  Mr.  Thos.  L.  Walker,  and  has  a  tower,  situate  on 
the  South  side,  tabled  off  and  terminated  in  a  neat  square  bell  turret  with  an 
octagonal  roof,  llie  body  of  the  church  metisui'es  74  ft.  G  in.  liy  54  ft.  (i  in. 
in  the  clear  inside  ;  the  roof  is  in  one  span,  with  a  queen  truss  ojien  to  the 
straining  piece,  it  is  slightly  ornamented,  and  the  timbers  are  chamfered  ;  the 
tie-beams  are  supported  by  brackets  springing  from  ornamental  stone  corbels, 
Tlie  pulpit,  designed  it  is  presumed  to  Imitate  stone,  by  the  details  made  use 
of,  is  rather  inappropriately  grained  heart-of-oak ;  it  is  chaste  in  style,  open 
underneath  to  admit  of  an  enuance  into  the  re.ading-desk.  The  altar  piece 
is  cleverly  managed,  at  a  small  expense,  by  arched  recesses  being  formed  in 
the  brickwork,;  wherein  the  Commandments,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the 
Belief,  are  written  in  appropriate  but  perfectly  legible  characters,  the  initial 
letters  in  red  and  blue,  the  rest  in  black  on  a  stone-coloured  ground.  The 
chancel  is  lighted,  not  from  the  east  as  usual,  but  from  the  north  ,and  south  ; 
by  this  means  the  ghire,  which  often  proves  distressing  to  the  congregation, 
«  hile  regarding  the  preacher,  is  avoided,  while  the  rays  of  light,  falling  upon 
the  alt.ar  table  trom  the  south,  during  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  must  tencl 
to  produce  a  pleasing  effect.  Attached  to  the  Church  is  a  spacious  vestry, 
24  feet  by  lli  feet,  w  ilh  a  neat  Norman  tire-place  executed  in  IJath  stone,  and 
is  provided  with  coal -cellars,  &c.  Ther«  is  accommodation  for  1110 
persons:  the  church  and  vestry  were  contracted  for  by  Mr.  West,  of  Can- 
non Street  Koad,  at  £4095. 

New  Churches  in  H'otverhanipton. — On  Friday,  22  Nov.,  the  plans  for  a  ne\r 
church  in  Horsley  Fields,  one  ot  the  intended  three  new  churches  in  Wolver- 
hampton, were  submitted  to  a  meetnig  of  subscribers,  in  the  large  room  in  the 
Swan  Hotel.  The  plans  were  21  in  number,  and  many  of  them  very  elegant 
designs:  they  were  all  ui  the  Gothic  style.  Five  of  them  were  selected  for 
further  consideration,  and  were  exhibited  to  the  subscribers  at  large,  at  the 
same  place. — Stajfontshire  Advertiser. 


FUBIjIC    buildings,   Acc. 


Warwickshire. — All  extensive  Hospital,  or  range  of  almshouses,  is  in  course 
of  erection  at  Bedworth.  near  Coventry,  from  the  designs  and  under  the  su- 
perintendence ol  Mr.  Thomas  L.  M'alker.  The  main  building  forms  three 
sides  of  a  cloistered  quadrangle,  which  sets  back  90  feet  from  the  street ; 
towards  the  street,  on  the  right  hand  is  a  porter's  lodge,  and  on  the  left  a 
tenement  to  correspond,  each  with  a  neat  oriel  window,  leavin";  the  quad- 
rangle open  to  view,  and  an  iron  palisade,  with  ornamental  brick  piers  and 
stone  caps,  complete  the  street  frontage.  It  is  calculated  to  lodge  40  pen- 
.sioners,  20  m.ale  and  20  female,  each  h.aving  a  separate  bedroom  and  pantry  ; 
a  sitting-room  is  provided  for  every  two.  In  the  centre  of  the  quadrangle  is 
a  spacious  dining-room  for  the  governors  of  the  charity,  a  committee-room, 
a  steward's  office,  and  a  kitchen,  with  accommodation  fur  a  nurse.    The 


dining-room  is  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  halls,  and  Ii:is  four  bays  attached 
to  it  :  the  porch  occupies  one,  the  butler's  pantry  another,  and  the  two  others 
are  open  to  the  room  :  an  orniimental  screen  at  the  lower  end  parts  off  the 
passage  leaihng  from  the  porch  to  the  committee-room,  8cc.;  over  the  two 
front  b  lys  are  strong-rooms  for  deeds,  one  opening  into  the  steward's  office, 
the  other  is  asceniled  by  a  circular  stone  staircase  from  the  hall  itsidf.  From 
the  roof  of  the  h;dl  rises  an  ornamental  bell  turret,  and  clock-room  in  tlie 
form  of  an  ancient  Louvre.  The  whcde  is  designed  in  the  la'e  Gothic  style, 
(he  windows  being  square-headed,  with  niullions  and  transoms,  except  those 
of  the  hall,  which  are  four-centre-pointed,  with  mullions  and  tracery.  The 
whole  is  to  be  faced  with  red  bricks,  and  to  have  stone  dressings  to  the  doors 
and  windows  and  stone  motings.  Mr.  .lohn  Toone,  of  Ix'amington,  is  the 
contractor  for  all  the  w  ork.«,  except  the  hall  r.iof  and  clock  turret,  at  £8.51)0. 
rjanhwcri/,  Carmartlicnshire. — The  committee  appointed  to  examine  and 
rei'Ort  upon  the  designs  for  a  market,  met  in  ticcor.lancc  to  an  advertisem.'iit 
oIUm  ing  a  premium  tor  the  best  design,  have  adopted  the  design  of  G.  Clin- 
ton, architect  of  Cardiff. 


iaiSCEI.LANEA. 


EFFECTS  OF  LARGE  FIRES  IN  PREVENTING  STORMS. 
(Translated  from  the  French.J 

M.  Matteucci  had  pointed  out  the  practice  recently  introduced  into  a 
parish  of  Koinagna  of  lighting  large  tires  for  the  pin-pose  of  preventing  the 
formation  of  storms,  and  remarked  that  during  three  years  that  this  practice 
had  been  adopted,  the  parish,  which  until  then  had  every  summer  been  ra- 
vaged with  hail,  had  been  spared,  while  the  neighbouring  parishes  had  not 
escaped. 

M.  Arago,  when  quoting  tlils  fact  in  his  notice  upon  thunder,  {Jmiuaire 
(III,  Bureau  des  Longitudes,  1839^,  remarked  that  such  short  experience 
would  not  allow  us  to  consider  the  residt  conclusive,  and  added  that  more 
exact  data  would  doubtless  be  obtained  on  this  subject,  by  comparing  with 
those  of  the  neighbouring  agricultural  districts,  the  meterological  observa- 
tions of  certain  districts  in  which  high  chimneys  and  large  factor}'  tires  arc 
used  are  very  numerous.  This  comparison,  said  he,  had  been  already  made 
in  England,  but  the  results  although  in  favour  of  the  preservative  influence  of 
large  tires,  did  not  show  this  influence  free  from  doubt.  In  fact  high  fur- 
naces in  Euglaiul  are  particularly  numerous,  where  there  are  many  mines  ; 
tlie  rarity  of  storms  therefore  in  these  places  may  just  as  well  be  attributed 
to  the  nature  of  the  soil  as  to  the  action  of  the  large  fires,  which  are  required 
for  the  reduction  of  the  minerals. 

M.  Matteucci  has  now  pointed  out  another  locality  in  which  this  influence 
of  metallic  veins  is  not  mixed  up  \ritli  that  of  large  fires.  While  travelling 
in  the  .Apennines,  he  found  that  those  districts  in  Hhich  charcoal  and  sulphur 
are  prepared,  are  not  much  subject  to  storms,  and  are  free  from  hail.  He  was 
told  that  about  five  years  ago  a  hail  storm  burst  over  the  piu'isli  where  the 
sulphur  furnaces  are,  but  the  place  where  they  arc  established  was  preserved. 
The  place  mentioned  here  is  Perticaja,  near  Rimiuo,  where  there  is  a  number 
of  these  furnaces. 

Mr.  CocJcerill's  Manufactory. — Advices  from  Liege  state  that  Mr.  John 
Cockcrill  has  set  out  for  St.  Peter.-iburgh,  taking  withhim  one  of  the  chief 
persons  employed  at  h  s  works,  and  three  engineers.  The  I'auperor  Nicholas, 
it  is  added,  has  advanced  Mr.  Cockcrill  10,000,0001'.  at  5  per  cent,  secureil  on 
all  his  establishments  in  Belgium,  Russia  engaging  to  purchase  tinnually.  to 
a  certain  amount,  machinery  to  be  manufactured  in  them,  which  is  to  uimi- 
ni.-.h  annually,  as  the  Kmperor,  assisted  by  Mr.  Cockcrill,  shall  ha\e  created 
similar  establishments  in  his  own  dominii  ns. — Midland  Counties  Herald. 

Rouen. — A  design  li  r  a  tonil)  to  receive  the  heart  and  statue  of  Ivichard 
C'o'ur  de  Lion,  in  the  style  of  the  12th  century,  has  been  prepaicd  by  M. 
Deville,  conservator  of  monuments  in  the  Cathedral  of  Kouen.  It  is  proposed 
to  place  it  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Virgin  in  the  cathedral,  near  the  tomb  of 
Cardinal  d'Aniboise  ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  execution  of  it  will  begin 
bef(pre  the  end  of  the  present  year. — French  paper. 

Encroachment  of  tlie  Sea. — The  sea,  it  is  said,  is  encroaching  upon  every 
part  of  the  Cornish  coast.  In  the  memory  of  many  persons  still  living,  or 
but  lately  dead,  the  cricketers  were  unable  to  throw  a  ball  across  the  Wes- 
tern Green  Ijel  ween  I'enzance  and  Newly,  which  is  now  nut  many  feet  in 
bre:idth,  and  the  grandfather  of  the  late  vicar  of  Madron  is  known  to  have 
received  tithes  from  the  laud  under  the  cliff  of  Penzance.  At  a  very  remote 
period,  we  are  assuri  .1  by  tradition,  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  pre.sont 
bay  especially  that  comprehended  within  a  line  drawn  from  near  Cudilon 
Point,  on  the  east  siile,  to  Mousehole  on  the  west,  was  land  covered  with 
wood,  but  which,  by  an  awful  convulsion  and  irruption  of  the  sea,  was  sud- 
denly swept  away.  There  is  a  letter  extant,  written  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
to  the  then  proprietor  of  an  estate,  which  included  part  uf  the  Western  Green, 
and  that  part  is  there  estimated  at  3H  acres  of  p.isturage,— Pe«x«Hcc  Gazette. 

Egypt.— Machmes  have  been  brought  from  Kngland  to  drain  the  marshes 
at  Alexandretta,  where  the  stagnant  waters  fill  the  country  wiih  malaria.  The 
same  cause  propagates  fever  in  the  Egyptian  army  at  Jlarasch,  Adana,  and 
other  places,    'ihe  hospital  service  is  very  badly  arranged. 

Royal  Beli^ian  Steamers.— The  Belgian  Government,  in  the  budget  of  the 
Minister  uf 'Public  Wo:ks,  alluding  to  the  marine,  notifies  that  "a  separate 
project  will  be  submitted  to  the  Chambers  to  meet  this  expense,  whether  by 
nietins  of  a  transfer,  or  by  m/ans  of  a  special  cr.'dit,  destined  to  complete  the 
system  of  the  railroad  by  some  steam-boats."  This  measure  of  M.  Nothumb, 
which  is  considered,  even  by  the  leaders  of  the  Opposition,  to  be  the  ablest 
one  projected  since  the  .settlement  of  the  country,  is  the  favourite  of  M.  de 
Tlieux,  and  said  to  be  impressively  sanctioned  in  the  highest  quarter. 


40 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[January, 


tlST    OP    NEVr    PATENTS. 

r.RANTKl)    IN    KNCI.AXD    FROM    2nD    DECKMBKU    TO    24tiI    DKCEMBEIl,   \S'.W. 

fii;oii(ii:  Davky,  of  lilandiulno.  County  of  Carnarvon,  Mining  Agent,  for 
"  rt«  Improvrd  nioilr  of  applying  irulcr-pmrer." — Sealed  Uecember  2  ;  six 
montlis  for  enrolnie)it. 

LttKK  HKnKRT,  of  Iiirmlnq:liani,  l*atent  Agent,  for  ^^  improvements  in  thf 
mec/ta/iiym  ami  procesn  of  packinij  tnid  prefiahtti  vnrions  artinles  of  commerce." 
Coniinuiiicatcd  by  a  foreigner  residing  a)iroad. —  December  2  ;  six  months. 

Miles  Uerhv,  of  Chancery  I.anc.  Patent  Agent,  for  "  cer/aiti  iiiiprore- 
vieiifs  hi  iiiachlnfry  or  oppardfim  for  mftking  or  iiianufnctnrhuj  phis  and 
slicking  them  in  paper."  Communicated  l)y  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — 
Ueccml)cr  2  ;  six  montlis. 

CoDFRi'.Y  Anthony  Ermf.n,  of  Manchester,  Cotton  Spinner,  for  "  certain 
improremen/s  in  machinery  or  ajtparatns  for  .sjtiiniing,  doubling,  or  tirisfing 
cotton,  far,  wool,  silk,  or  other  filjrons  materials,  part  of  which  improve- 
ments are  applicable  to  rnachinerg  in  general." — December  2  ;  six  niontlis. 

John  Evans,  of  Birmingliani,  Pa[)er  Maiver,  for  "  improvements  for  che- 
vncallij  preparing  and  cleansing  of  felts  used  bg  paper  manufacturers." — 
December  2  ;  six  niontlis. 

Henry  Duni.ngton,  of  Nottingham,  Lace  Mannfactnrer,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  mae/iinerg  emploged  in  making  frame  work  knit,  or  stocking  fabrics." 
■ — December  2  ;  six  months. 

J.\MEs  Guest,  Junior,  of  Birmingham,  Merchant,  for  *'  improvements  in 
locks  and  other  fastenings." — Deceml)er  2  ;  six  monllis. 

Georoe  Saunders,  of  Hooliuorton,  Clerlv,  Oxford,  and  James  Wii.mot 
Newricry.  of  the  same  ])]ace.  Farmer,  for  "improvements  in  machinergfor 
dibbling  or  setting  wheat  and  other  grain  or  seed." — December  2  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Trewhitt,  of  Newc.astlc-on-Tyne,  Esq.,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  fabrication  of  china  and  earthetuvare,  and  in  the  apparatus  or 
machinery  applicable  thereto."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  aln'oad. 
Dccendier  4  ;  six  moutlis. 

Christopher  Nicki.es,  of  York  Road,  Laml)cth,  Gentlemen,  for  "im- 
provements in  propelling  carriages."  Communicated  l>y  a  foi'cigner  lesiding 
abroad. — Decendjer  4  ;  six  monttis. 

Pierre  N'arcisse  Cronier,  of  Fricourt's  Hotel,  Saint  Martin's  Lane,  for 
^'  /mprovernents  in  filters,  and  in  the  means  ef  clransiag  the  same,  and  for 
separating,  colouring,  and  tanning  matters  for  filteralion.  and  for  improvements 
in  employing  such  tanning  matters  hg  filteratiun."  Partly  communicated  by 
a  foreigner  residing  .ibroad. — Decenilicr  4  ;  six  months. 

James  Mayer,  of  Ashley  Crescent,  Saint  Luke,  Gentlemen,  for  "  an  im- 
proved machine  for  cutting  splints  for  mntclies." — December  4  ;  six  months, 

Gkorc;e  Lowe,  Engineer  to  the  Chartered  Gas  Company,  and  John 
KiRKHAM,  Engineer  to  the  Imperial  Gas  Company,  both  of  London,  for  "  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  gas  for  purposes  of  illumination." — Decem- 
ber 4  ;  six  months. 

James  Nasmyth,  of  P.itricroft,  near  Manchester,  Engineer,  for  "certain 
improvements  applicable  to  railway  carriages." — December  4  ;  six  months. 

John  Heaton  Hall,  of  Doncaster,  Chemist,  for  "  improvements  in  pre- 
senting and  rendering  woollen,  and  otlicr  fabrics,  and  leather  waterproof." — 
Dccendier  5  ;  six  months. 

Harroi.d  Potter,  of  Manchester,  Esquire,  for  "certain  improvements  in 
printing  calicoes,  7nnslius,  and  other  fabrics." — December  9  ;  six  months. 

Samuf.i.  White,  of  Charlton,  Mai-shatts,  Dorset,  Esquire,  for  "improve- 
ments in  preventing  persons  froai  being  drowned." — December  9  ;  six  months. 

Moses  Pooi.e,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Gentleman,  for  '*  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  caustic,  .toda,  and  carbonate  of  soda."  Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad. — December  9  ;  six  montlis. 

Thomas  RiciiARnsoN,  of  Newcastle,  Chemist,  {or  "  a  preparation  of  sul- 
phate of  lead,  applicable  to  some  of  the  purposes  for  which  carbonate  of  lead 
is  now  applied." — Deecmber  9  ;  six  months. 

John  Leslie,  of  Conduit  Street,  Hanover  Square,  Tailor,  for  "  (/H/irow- 
ments  in  measuring  the  human  figure."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  resid- 
ing abroad.— December  9;  six  months. 

John  Juckes,  of  Shropsliire,  Gentlenuan,  for  "  improvements  in  furnaces 
or  fire-places  for  the  better  consuming  of  fuel." — December  9  ;  six  months. 

Pierre  FKEnKiiicK  GoNiiY,  of  Tavistock  Street,  Westminster,  Watch 
Maker,  for  "an  improvement  iu  clocks,  wotc/tes,  and  ot/ier  time-keepers." — 
December  11  ;  six  months. 

Robert  1Ier\'Ey,  of  Manehestcr,  Drysalter,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
the  mode  ofprejiaring  and  purifying  alum,  alumina,  aluniiuous  mordants,  and 
other  aluminous  combinations  and  solutions,  and  the  application  of  such  im- 
prorements  to  the  purposes  of  manufacture." — December  Ki;  six  months. 

Roiiert  Gill  Ransom,  of  Ipswich,  I',iper  Maker,  and  Samuel  Mill- 
uouRN,  foreman  to  the  said  R.  (1.  Ransom,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper." — December  l.'l;  six  months. 

Angier  March  Perkins,  of  Great  Coram  Street,  Civil  Engineer,  for 
"  improvements  in  apparatus  for  transmitting  heat  by  circulating  water." — 
December  13  ;  six  montlis. 

Jacob  Brazill,  Governor  of  Trinity  Ground,  Deptford,  for  "improve- 
ments in  obtaining  motive  power." — December  16;  six  months. 

Henry  Seymour  Moore  Vandellur,  of  Kilrush,  Ireland,  for  "im- 
provements in  paving  or  covering  roads,  and  other  ways." — December  Ki; 
six  months. 

Samuel  Walton  Faxton,  of  Park  Village  East,  Regent's  Park,  Surgeon 


for  "  au  apparatus  to  be  applied  to  the  chimneys  of  gas  and  ottier  burners,  or 
lamps  to  improve  combustion" — December  16;  six  months. 

■MoNNiN  Jai'Y,  and  Co.nstant  Joufi'roy  Oumery,  of  George  Yard, 
Lombard  Street,  Geatleinen,  for  "  improvements  in  rotatory  engines,  to  be 
act  Hated  by  steam  or  water." — December  16;  six  months. 

Daxii)  Morison,  of  Wilson  Street,  Finsbury,  Ink  Maker,  for  "  imy^roff- 
men/s  in  printing." — December  16;  six  months. 

Damu  Navmir.  of  Copley  Mill,  Halifax,  Manufacturer,  and  John  Crioh- 
TON,  Junior,  of  Manchester,  Machine  Maker,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
machinery  for  weaving  single,  double,  and  treble  cloths,  bg  hand  or  jiower." — 
December  16;  six  months. 

George  Wilson,  of  Salford,  Machinist  and  Engineer,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  steam-whistles  adapted  for  locomotive  engines  and  boilers,  and 
other  purposes." — December  16;  six  mouths. 

John  Robinson,  of  North  Shields,  Engineer,  for  "  an  improved  steering 
apparatus." — December  16  ;  six  months. 

John  Wood,  of  Burslem,  Stafford,  Manufacturer  of  Mineral  Colours,  for 
'*  a  new  method  or  process  in  the  applieation  and  laying  on  of  the  substances 
used  in  the  printing,  colouring,  tinting,  and  oimamenting  of  china,  porcelain, 
earthenware,  ami  other  v^ares  of  tfie  same  description,  by  which  such  icares 
can  he  printed  and  ornamented  with  fiowers  and  other  devices  in  a  much 
cfieaper  and  more  simple  and  ejpeditious  manner  than  by  any  process  now  iu 
use,  and  colours  of  all  or  any  variety  may  be  printed,  shaded,  mixed,  and 
blended  toyettter  in  one  of  and  tlie  same  design  or  pattern,  and  hardened  or 
burnt  into  the  substance  of  the  aforesaid  wares  by  a  sinyle  process  of  firing  or 
hardening  iu  the  enameliny  kiln." — December  16  ;  two  months. 

James  William  Thompson,  of  Turnstile  Alley,  Long  Acre,  Upholsterer, 
for  "  improvements  in  lite  construction  of  bedsteads,  which  improvements  are 
particularly  applicable  to  the  use  of  invalids." — December  16;  six  months. 

William  Newman,  of  Birmingham,  Brass  Founder,  for  "  certain  im- 
proved mechanism  for  roller  blinds,  which  it  is  intended  to  denominate  Simcoj' 
and  Company's  patent  blind  furniture." — December  10  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Giuus,  of  KciHiington,  Surrey,  Engineer,  for  "an  improvement  or 
improvements  in  t/ie  machinery  for  preparing  fibrous  substances  for  spinning 
ami  in  the  mode  of  spinning  certain  fibrous  substances." — December  21  ;  six 
months. 

George  Lindsay  Young,  of  Hackney,  iu  the  county  of  Middlesex,  Gen- 
tleman, for  "  an  improved  surface  for  paper,  mill  or  card  board,  vellum  and 
parchment." — December  21  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Francis  Richardson,  of  Ironmonger  Lane,  Gentleman,  for  "  i(«- 
provements  in  omnibuses." — December  21  ;  six  months. 

John  Cutts,  of  Manchester,  Machine  Maker,  and  Thomas  Spencer,  of 
the  same  place.  Mechanic,  for  "  certain  improvejnents  in  tlte  machinery  or 
apparatus  for  making  wire  cards  for  carding  cotton,  silk,  wool,  and  other 
fibrous  subslances."~Decemhcr  21 ;  six  months. 

Laurence  Wood  Flbtcher,  of  Chorlton-upon-Medlock,  Manchester, 
Machinist,  for  *'  an  improvement  or  improvemejits  in  t/ie  manufacture  of 
woollen  and  other  cloths,  fabrics,  and  in  tlte  application  of  such  cloths  or  fa- 
brics to  various  useful  purposes." — December  23  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Firmstone,  of  Newcastle,  Coal  Master,  for  "  improvemenia  in 
the  manufacture  of  salt." — December  24  ;  six  months. 

Alexander  .Mac'Rar,  of  the  London  Cotfee  House,  Ludgate  Hill,  Lon- 
don, for  "  improvements  in  machinery  for  ploughing,  ftarrowing  and  other 
agricultnral  purjMses,  to  be  worked  by  steam  or  other  power." — December 
24  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Hardeman  Clarke,  of  Birmingham,  Cabinet  Maker,  for  "  cer- 
tain improved  fastenings  fur  window  sashes,  tables,  and  such  like  purposes," — 
December  24  ;  si.\  mouths. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


R.  H. —  Till'  Marquis  of  Tweeddale's  brick  and  tile-making  machine  is  patented, 
and  lirenrcs  are.  granted  for  using  it  in  various  parts  of  tlie  kingdom. 

The  eummuuivatiou  of  M.  N.  0.  will  appear  ne.rl  month. 

A  Catliolir  must  e.rcnse  us  fur  not  publishing  his  last  eoininunieatinn. 

The  Kpgryeloidal  Motion  fur  a  Steam  Engine  is  not  new. 

A  lithogi'aphic  drawing  of  a  Chureii  was  rereivetl  from  Norwich  by  our  pub- 
lisher, but  uufiirttiuatehf  it  huis  been  mislaid,  we  were  charged  2s.  Sd./ur  carriage 
and  porterage  fur  it,  we  t'-uat  that  uur  eorrespuiideiit  will  not  iu  future  put  us  to 
that  i'.tpntce. 

If'e  have  been  obliged  to  postpone  some  important  Eugraviugs,  which  we  could 
nut  get  ready  in  time,  until  next  month. 

Cummunications  are  requested  to  be  addressed  to  "The  Editor  of  the  Civil 
lOngincer  and  Architect  s  Journal,"  Ko.  \],  Parliament  Street,  tl'est minster, 
or  to  Mr.  (Irooinbridgr.  Pauyer  Alley,  Paternoster  Rutv  ;  if  by  post,  to  be  di- 
rected to  the  former  place  ;  if  by  parcel.  In  be  directed  to  the  nearest  of  tlte  two 
places  where  the  eoaeh  arrives  at  iu  I.oudau,  as  we  are  frequently  put  to  the 
ejpeuee  of  one  or  two  shillings  for  the  piirterage  only,  of  a  eery  small  parcel. 

Books  fur  review  must  lie  sent  early  in  tlte  mouth,  eommuuieatiuns  on  or  before 
the  20th  (if  with  wood-cuts,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  the  25th 
instant. 

The  First  Volume  mav  be  had,  bound  in  cloth  and  lettered  in  gold 
Price  17s. 

*,*  The  .Seconb  Volume  mav  also  be  had,  Price  20*. 


eitae.,1. 


//ff/irr  &  West's 


Fafe^il  Pftuip  Vahe 


affl     i!iiiJi 


\l 


Fi^.7. 


ti  4  e 


F^.8. 


J    ^ 

L*                 *l 

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^_.      ,1^1          1,1 

Fu/.M 


,f  Je    '/,/,*,>.,,  /Cf/jt/'M  (itf/r 


eiaU  .  i' 


EAST    LONDON    WATER   WORKS. 


Irujsuw  H'cfA  tAe  /'lankijia  rejin 


ffer/l  of  the  Ttbatif/i  Sridge^. 


intranet,  to  I'vmpgnaution  .Seseryoir. 


FroTff  Eifyafton 


Fuf.4 


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4s  J0  ssfeec 


f  /f     '.MrW.*    hh/i>t'>  C'^ur 


1840.] 


THE  CIA  IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


41 


HARVEY  AND  WEST'S  PATENT  IMPROVED  VALVE /o; 

MacJiitics  for  Raining  Water  and  other  Liquids. 

SPECIFICATION. 

Now  know  ye,  that  our  iinproveii  valve  resembles,  in  appearance, 
a  valve  known  bv  the  name  of  the  "  ilouble  beat  valve,"  used  in  certain 
steam  engines ;  our  improvement  consists  in  making  the  same  self- 
acting,  so  that  it  can  work  without  the  aid  of  machinery  for  opening 
and  shutting  it,  and  tliereby  is  applicable  to  machines  for  raising  water 
and  other  liquids. 

In  our  improved  valves  the  area  of  the  u])per  part  of  the  seat,  on 
which  the  top  of  the  valve  beats,  is  made  less  than  the  area  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  seat,  on  which  the  bottom  of  the  valve  beats,  the 
valve  being  made  of  course  to  correspond,  and  the  difference  in  area 
between  the  two  must  be  such  that,  when  the  valve  is  used  in  the 
place  of  the  lower  valve  in  a  pump  through  which  the  water  passes 
into  the  pump  barrel,  tlie  pressure  of  the  atmos))here  upon  the  under 
side  of  the  valve  (brought  into  action  by  creating  a  partial  vacuum 
upon  the  upper  side  of  the  valve  when  motion  is  given  to  the  piston, 
bucket,  or  plunger-pole  of  the  pump,!  shall  be  sufficient  to  overcome 
the  weight  of  the  valve,  and  cause  it  to  rise,  and  when  the  valve  is 
used  in  place  of  the  upper  valve,  through  which  the  watei-  is  forced 
out  of  the  pump  barrel,  or  when  used  in  lien  of  the  valves  upon  the 
pump  bucket,  the  difference  in  area  must  be  such  that  the  pressure 
upon  the  under  side  of  the  valve,  (caused  by  the  motion  of  the  piston, 
bucket,  or  plunger-pole  forcing  the  liquid  through  it,)  shall  be  suffi- 
cient to  overcome  the  weight  of  the  valve,  and  cause  it  to  rise  ;  the 
opening  in  the  top  will  be  less  than  the  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the 
valve,  and  the  surface  of  the  ring  upon  the  top  of  the  valve,  which 
will  be  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  area  of  the  two  openings, 
must  be  made  proportionate  to  the  weight  of  the  valve  itself,  the  ac- 
tion will  be  more  fully  understood  by  reference  to  the  drawings  and 
explanation  thereof  hereinafter  given. 

The  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  our  improved  valve, 
are  1st,  That  as  the  area  of  the  valve  exposed  to  the  pressure  of  the 
column  of  water,  or  action  of  the  piston  upon  its  return  stroke,  is  con- 
siderably less  than  in  the  ordinary  circular,  hanging  or  butterfly  valves, 
the  blow  and  consequent  vibration  caused  by  the  shutting  of  the  valves, 
is  considerably  diminished,  and  less  costly  foundations  are  therefore 
required.  "2d.  The  loss  of  water  upon  the  shutting  down  of  the  valve 
is  considerably  diminished.  Our  improved  valves  may  be  used  for 
the  upper  and  lower  valves  of  all  varieties  of  pumps. 

In  order  to  explain  more  clearly  the  construction  and  action  of  our 
improved  valve,  we  will  now  refer  to  and  describe  the  drawings,  re- 
presenting plans,  elevations,  and  sections  of  it.  The  same  letters  of 
reference  are  marked  upon  all  the  figures. 

Figure  1  is  an  elevation  of  the  valve  and  its  seat,  the  valve  being 
shut.  Figure  2,  a  top  view  thereof,  the  valve  being  open  or  shut. 
Figure  3,  a  vertical  section  through  the  valve  and  seat,  the  valve  being 
shut.  Figure  4,  a  vertical  section  through  the  valve  and  seat,  the 
valve  being  open.  Figure  5,  an  elevation.  Figure  ti,  a  plan.  Figure 
7,  a  vertical  section  of  the  valve  detached  from  its  seat.  Figure  b,  an 
elevation.  Figure  9,  a  plan.  Figure  10,  a  vertical  section  of  the  seat. 
Figure  11,  a  horizontal  section  of  the  ribs  tlirough  the  line  a  b,  in  fig. 
10,  and  plan  of  the  bottom  or  lower  beat;  cc  c  c  the  seat  made  of  cast 
iron  or  other  metal,  upon  which  the  valve  del  works.  The  valve  may 
be  made  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  gun-metal,  brass,  copper,  or  other 
metal,  according  to  the  size,  the  quality  of  the  water,  or  other  circum- 
stances. The  rings  e'  e'  ee  are  faced,  that  is  are  turned  true,  and  when 
shut,  fit  accurately  to  the  beats/'/'  and //upon  the  seat  c'ccc; 
//is  the  lower  beat,  and/'/'  is  the  upper  beat.  In  fig.  7  e'  e'  is  the 
top  opening  of  the  valve,  and  ee  the  bottom  ;  the  beats  may  either  be 
formed  by  a  raised  ridge  cast,  or  wrought  npon  the  seat,  and  faced  or 
turned  true,  or  by  introducing  into  circular  grooves,  cast  in  the  seat,  a 
ring  of  wooden  wedges,  or  of  soft  metal;  the  top  surface  in  either 
case  to  be  faced  or  turned  true,  to  receive  the  valve — we  prefer  wood 
or  soft  metal;  ^g  represents  a  circular  groove  cast  or  wrought,  on 
the  under  side  of  the  seat,  into  which  leather  is  introduced,  so  as  to 
prevent  leakage  when  the  seat  is  bolted  down  in  its  place.  A  A  is  a 
cylinder  cast  upon  the  seat  and  turned  true,  so  as  to  form  a  guide  for 
the  valve  to  work  upon,  and  to  keep  it  in  its  right  place,  j  i  is  a  me- 
tallic featlier  attached  to  the  cylinder,  and  projecting  into  a  groove 
formed  in  the  valve,  to  prevent  any  circular  motion  in  the  valve  ;  and 
A:  A  is  a  cap  bolted  upon  the  cylinder  to  prevent  the  valve  rising  be- 
yond a  given  height,  or  being  displaced.  The  dotted  lines  /  //,  ///, 
fig.  4,  represent  the  direction  that  the  water  takes  when  the  valve  is 
opened,  m  m  represent  the  surface  of  tlie  valve  that  is  exposed  to 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  or  force  created  by  the  motion  of  the 
piston,  and  wliich  when  proportioned  as  hereinbefore  described,  by 
No.  29,--Voi.,  III.— February,  1840. 


making  the  difference  in  area  betvi'eeu  the  space  by  the  rings  circum- 
scribing the  top  and  bottom  openings  of  the  valve,  sufficiently  great  to 
allow  the  force  applied  to  overcome  the  weight  of  the  valve,  will 
cause  it  to  rise. 

Having  now  described  our  improved  valve,  and  in  doing  so,  having 
also  described  certain  contrivance  and  constructions,  which  we  do  not 
claim  as  our  improvement,  but  the  description  of  which  was  necessary 
to  elucidate  our  improvement;  we  hereby  declare  that  we  claim  as 
our  improvement  that  part  of  the  contrivance  only  which  makes  the 
valve  self-acting,  by  making  the  area  of  the  top  opening  of  the  valve 
less  than  the  bottom,  and  making  the  seat  to  correspond  thereto,  which 
area  must  be  varied  according  to  tlie  size  and  weight  of  the  valve, 
and  must  be  proportioned  thereto. 


IRON  TIES  THROUGH  PARTY  WALLS. 

Experiments  tried  at  Chatham  on  the  dth  of  December  1839,  in  res^ 
to  iron  ties  passing  through  party  leal/s  to  form  a  continued  bond  for  the 
floors  of  adjacent  houses. 

In  the  course  of  practical  architecture  taught  to  the  junior  officers 
of  the  Royal  Engineers  of  Chatham,  the  floors  of  two  adjoining  houses 
are  connected  by  ties,  each  consisting  of  a  strap  of  iron  jiassing  through 
a  party  wall,  and  bolted  to  the  sides  of  two  girders,  in  the  same  alline- 
nieut,  which  sort  of  tie-bond  maybe  supposed  to  be  continued  throuo-h 
the  whole  extent  of  a  range  of  barracks,  or  of  a  row  of  houses,  as  was 
done  by  Messrs.  Baker  in  their  new  houses  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strand,  near  Exeter  Hall. 

The  utility  of  tliis  sort  of  continued  bond  could  scarcely  be  doubted, 
but  a  query  having  often  suggested  itself,  whether  the  destruction  of 
the  floors  of  one  house  by  fire,  might  not  heat  the  iron-lies  passing 
through  the  party  walls,  on  each  side,  so  far  as  to  endanger  the  floors 
of  the  two  adjacent  houses  ;  Colonel  Pasley  directed  Captain  Williams 
to  try  the  following  experiment,  which  must  be  considered  conclusive. 

In  the  accompanying  figures,  w  is  a  9  inch  brick  wall,  (j  courses  high, 
representing  a  portion  of  a  jjarty  wall  between  two  adjoining  houses. 
For  tlie  convenience  of  applying  the  fire,  it  was  built  upon  the  hearth 
of  a  smith's  forge.  The  4  inch  walU,f,  were  added  merely  to  enclose 
the  fuel,  and  to  increase  its  heat.  These  walls  were  built  the  day 
previous  to  that  on  which  the  experiment  was  made;  and  as  common 
lime   mortar  would  have  required   considerable  time  to  dry,  cement 

Fig.  1.  Plan. 


-JM. 


C§-^ 


HH 


Fig.  2,  Section. 


"^Vl 

nn 

\     1 

\ 

ii 

\  1    Id 

—1  - 

J-^i^^-T 

^u 

\ 

li^iB: 

1        ^^     '"' 

1 

I 

• 

r/ 

G 

JjScI 


p  six  pigs  of  iron  ballast,  each  50  lbs.  to  prevent  the  brickwork  separating 
by  the  heat.  Ii  Hood.  G.  L.  Ground  Line. 


42 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Februart, 


mixed  witli  sand  was  used  instead  of  limo  ;  g-  is  a  piece  of  Memel 
timber,  3  feet  long,  6  inches  wide,  and  1 1  inches  deep,  representing 
part  of  a  girder,  having  an  interval  of  one  inch  between  the  end  of  it 
and  I  lie  partv  wall ;  ;  is  the  iron  strap,  3^  feet  long,  25  inches  wide, 
and  '  inch  thick,  bolted  to  tlie  girder  g,  and  passing  throngh,  and  ex- 
teniling  beyond  the  wall  to  within  one  inch  of  the  no/zle  n,  of  the  tew 
iron  iilMlie'bellows.  One  foot  fonr  inches  of  its  lenglli  was  exposed 
to  (he  lire,  which  was  lighted  at  ten  o'clock  a.m. 

Bv  eleven  o'clock  the" tire  was  in  good  action  thronghont ;  the  coals 
were  well  heajied  over  and  about  the  iron  strap  to  witliin  .">  or  U  inches 
of  the  top  of  (lie  wall,  and  the  heat  was  kept  up  to  the  greatest  prac- 
ticable intcnsitv,  bv  (he  miinterrnpted  action  of  the  bellows,  till  four 
o'clock  P.M. 

It  was  one  o'clock  before  that  part  of  the  iron  strap  in  contact  with 
the  girder  became  too  warm,  even  close  to  the  wall,  to  render  it  ne- 
cessaiy  to  withdraw  the  hand  from  il,  and  even  at  fonr  o'clock,  by 
wliich  time  5  inches  of  the  end  nearest  the  tew  iron  were  burnt  com- 
pletely away,  there  was  not  sulheient  heat  in  any  part  of  it  outside  the 
parly  wall,  either  to  discolour  dry  wood  shavings  or  paper,  or  to  ignite 
naptlia.  At  G  inches  from  the  wall  the  hand  could  be  continued  on 
the  iron  without  inconvenience  during  the  whole  period  the  experi- 
ment occupied,  and  at  no  time  was  the  party  wall  red  hot. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  lire 'might  have  been  kept  up 
long  enough  to  consume  the  whole  of  the  iron  sniTOunded  by  it,  with- 
out snflicient  heat  being  communicated  to  the  girder  to  set  lire  to  it. 

The  bulb  of  a  thermometer  (hat  happened  to  be  at  hand,  was  ap- 
plied to  the  iron,  where  it  entered  the  party  wall,  but  the  degree  of 
heat  couhl  not  be  determined,  as  the  tube  extending  only  to  US 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  was  very  soon  filled  by  the  quicksilver,  and  was 
then  willidrawn  to  prevent  it  from  bursting. 

The  cement  mortar  in  the  joints  of  the  brickwork  nearest  to  the 
lire  was  reduced  to  dust.  In  this  state.  Colonel  Pasley  oidered  some 
balls  of  it  to  be  mixed  up  with  water,  into  the  consistency  of  a  stiflish 
paste,  which  set  rather  slowly,  but  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  became 
extremely  hard,  in  consequence  of  the  cement  having  been  calcined 
by  the  fire,  and  thereby  restored  to  the  same  state,  in  which  it  had 
been  received  from  the  manufacturer. 


BALANCE  GATE.S. 

Erected  at  the  JForks  of  (he  East  London  Water  WorU  Company, 
Old  Ford.  Exgixeer,  Thomas  Wicksteed,  Esq.,  M.  Inst.  C.E.  With 
two  Engravings,  Plates  II.  &  III. 

In  (he  year  1633,  the  East  London  Water  Works  Company  made 
very  considerable  alterations  and  additions  to  their  works,  by  cutting 
a  canal  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  water  from  a  higher  part  of 
the  river  Lea,  near  the  Lea  Bridge  Mills,  to  their  works  at  Old  Ford, 
and  to  guard  against  any  deficiency  of  water  for  the  working  the  mills 
on  the  river  Lea,  and  to  satisfy  the  owners  of  the  mills,  the  Company 
agreed,  in  the  Act  of  Parliament  authorizing  them  to  make  the  altera- 
tions, to  form  a  large  compensating  reservoir  covering  about  1*1  to  15 
acres  of  land,  with  two  entrances,  one  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the 
reservoir,  near  to  Old  Ford  Lock,  where  there  is  erected  a  pair  of 
tide  or  flood-gates,  for  the  admission  of  water  only  as  the  tide  rises, 
and  another  entrance  at  the  eastern  corner  of  the  said  reservoir  upon 
the  banks  of  the  river  Lea,  above  the  City  Mill  Point,  consisting  of 
three  openings  with  six  balance  gates,  for  the  admission  of  water  from 
the  river,  and  for  discharging  the  water  'out  of  the  reservoir  into  the 
river  for  the  use  of  the  millers.  As  the  tide  flows  up  the  river  it  fllls 
the  reservoir,  and  when  the  tide  ebbs,  if  required  by  the  millers,  the 
water  is  allowed  to  run  out  into  the  river,  anil  thus  compensate  them 
for  any  quantity  of  water  that  might  be  abstracted  from  the  upper 
jiart  of  the  river  for  the  purposes  of  the  company. 

It  is  our  present  object  to  confine  ourselves  to  the  description  of 
the  Balance  Gates,  which  are  well  deserving  of  notice  by  the  jirofes- 
sion,  and  to  point  out  where  they  difler  from  the  Dutch  system  of 
construction. 

As  the  neap  tides  at  the  point  of  delivery  rise  only,  on  some  occa- 
sions, a  few  inches,  and  as  consequently  a  very  large  quantity  of  water 
might  have  to  be  delivered  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  with  so  low 
a  head  or  pressure,  a  great  width  of  outlet  became  requisite  ;  if  the 
ordinary  sluice  gates  had  been  erected,  the  time  required  to  open 
them  would  have  been  above  an  hour  anil  a  half,  and  consequently  the 
whole  of  the  water  might  not  have  been  returned  into  the  river  before 
the  preceding  low  water;  whereas  the  balance  gates,  as  we  can  bear 
witness  to,  are  easily  opened  or  closed  in  ten  minutes,  against  a  pres- 
sure of  water. 


The  essential  diflerence  between  the  gates  designed  by  Mr.  Wick- 
steed, and  the  old  Dutch  balance  gates  as  described  in  Belidor's 
Architecture  Hydraulique,  is  this — the  old  gate  is  larger  in  area  on 
one  side  of  the  centre  than  the  other,  on  the  largest  side  a  sluice  gate 
is  introduced,  which  when  opened  reduces  the  area  of  the  largest  side, 
so  that  it  becomes  less  than  the  other,  which  was  before  tlie  sluice 
was  opened,  largest;  by  this  arrangement  when  the  sluice  gate  is  shut 
the  pressure  of  the  water  iqion  the  largest  area  causes  the  gate  to  re- 
main closed,  but  when  the  sluice  is  opened  the  greatest  pressure  is 
upon  the  other  side  (or  ha!/)  of  the  gate,  and  causes  it  to  open  hut 
not  cunrplttely,  and  tackle  must  be  made  to  open  it  wide.  In  Mr.  Wick- 
steed's  gates  the  sides  are  of  equal  area,  and  they  are  made  to  open 
at  once  by  a  toothed  quadrant  and  pinion;  two  gates  are  also  intro- 
duced in  eacli  opening,  and  set  at  an  angle  which  gives  strength  to 
their  construction  and  saves  masonry.  When  the  gates  are  closed,  by 
the  application  of  a  very  ingenious  contrivance,  consisting  of  a  verti- 
cal iron  shaft  fixed  in  the  hollow  quoins,  with  three  eccentrics  or  cams 
upon  it,  they  are  made  to  close  against  each  other,  and  against  the 
cills  and  recesses  in  the  side  walls,  so  that  no  leakage  whatever  takes 
place. 

These  gates  are,  we  believe,  the  only  ones  of  the  kind  erected  in 
the  kingdom,  and  when  we  were  favoured  with  a  view  of  them,  they 
had  been  in  use  for  six  years  and  in  excellent  working  order,  they  had 
not  been  repaired  since  they  were  first  erected  by  Messrs.  Hunter  and 
English,  of  Bow,  whose  reputation  as  millwrights  is  so  well  known, 
that  they  needed  not  this  accession  to  their  fame. 

The  cost  of  the  gates  we  could  not  ascertain,  as  tliey  were  done  in 
conjunction  with  other  works  by  contract,  but  we  can  easily  give  credit 
to  Mr.  Wicksteed's  statement  that  the  expence  was  not  more,  if  so 
mucli,  as  common  sluice  gates  with  their  elevating  machinery,  founda- 
tion, &c.,  when  it  is  considered  how  many  sluices  there  must  have 
been  to  insure  the  same  width  of  opening. 

These  gates  are  different  in  construction,  and  are  used  for  a  different 
purpose  to  those  erected  some  years  since  at  Lowestoff;  w'ith  the  ex- 
ception of  these  two  instances,  we  are  not  aware  of  any  other  gates 
erected  upon  the  Dutch  principle  in  England,  but  we  think  there  are 
many  cases  in  engineering  where  their  introduction  might  be  advan- 
tageous. 

The  following  additional  particulars  we  select  from  the  contract 
and  specification  of  the  work,  which  will  together  with  the  engravings 
give  an  accurate  view  of  their  construction. 

"  They  (the  Balance  Gates)  ai-e  different  in  coustruction  to  the  common 
flood-gates ;  a  description  of  one  gate  will  answer  for  the  whole  :  the  gate  is 
made  to  work  upon  a  vertical  shaft  as  a  centre,  and  is  equal  on  each  side 
thereof.  One  gate,  when  closed,  shuts  against  another  gate  on  one  side, 
while  the  opposite  sides  close  against  a  recess  in  the  piers  or  side  walls.  It 
mil  appear  evident,  upon  an  inspection  of  the  plans,  that  the  gates  being 
equal  on  each  side  of  the  vertical  shaft,  which  is  the  centre  of  motion,  what- 
ever pressure  of  water  may  he  against  them,  that  there  is  as  great  a  tendency 
to  keep  the  gate  closed  as  there  is  to  open  it,  and  that  being,  under  any  cir- 
eninstances,  eqcially  balanced,  a  very  slight  exertion  of  power  (suflicicut  to 
overcome  the  friction  of  the  working  parts)  will  either  open  or  close  them. 
When  the  gates  are  closed,  and  it  is  desirable  to  retain  the  water  in  the 
reservoh,  to  destroy  the  effect  that  any  vibration  might  have  upon  them  to 
cause  a  leakage,  a  shaft  is  introduced  upon  which  three  eccentrics  are  cast, 
which,  when  applied  to  tlie  gates,  pinches  them  against  then-  abutments,  and 
thus  jirevents  any  leakage  that  might  by  possibility  occur.  When  it  is  de- 
sired to  open  the  gates  to  discharge  the  water  of  the  reservoir  into  the  river, 
the  eccentric  is  first  to  be  worked  so  as  to  take  off  its  effect  upon  the  gate, 
and  then  the  quadrant  and  pinion  must  be  worked  to  open  the  gate,  whieli, 
as  the  pressure  of  water  is  equal  iu  its  action  iqion  both  sides  of  the  centre, 
will  be  a  matter  requiring  hut  a  small  exertion  of  power. 

Description  of  the  JJ'oi-k. — The  framing  of  the  balance  gates  is  to  be  of 
good  EiigUsh  oak  timber;  the  planking  to  be  the  best  Memel  plank.  All 
the  joints  are  to  be  made  sound  and  good ;  the  mortices  to  be  cut  oat  square 
their  whole  depth,  and  the  tenons  to  he  made  so  that  they  shall  fit  equally 
over  even,-  surface;  the  hutfing  joints  to  be  squared  so  as  to  tonch  and  bear 
equally  over  the  butting  surface.  Wherever  the  timbers  are  framed  into  the 
iron-work,  the  iron-work  shall  be  made  true  and  good  to  receive  it,  so  that 
it  shall  bear  equally  on  all  the  surfaces ;  and  wherever  VM-ought  iron  straps 
ai-e  let  info  the  timbers,  they  shall  he  fitted  accurately;  no  packing  will  be 
permitted,  but  the  iron  must  fit  fairly  and  strictly  to  the  wood.  AU  keys 
and  bolts  for  straps,  and  cast  iron  work  must  be  made  to  fit  accurately,  so 
that  the  holts  fill  up  the  holes  made  for  their  reception,  without  shaking  or 
depending,  upon  the  friction  of  the  head  and  nut. 

The  timbers  are  to  he  rebated  for  the  reception  of  the  ends  of  the  2-iiich 
fir  planking,  so  that  when  tlie  planking  is  introduced,  the  surfaces  of  the 
planking  and  timbers  shall  be  flush — the  planks  are  to  be  2  inches  thick  and 
!)  inches  wide,  to  be  laid  diagonally,  as  described  in  the  drawings ;  at  the  two 
ends,  and  wherever  there  is  a  cross  or  diagonal  timber,  the  plank  shall  lie 
fastened  thereunto  by  means  of  2  screw  bolts  at  ereiy  bearing,  and  wherever 
iron  intervenes  between  tlie  planking  and  timber,  it  shall  be  drilled,  and  the 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


43 


bolt  siiiiU  fit  accurately,  iron  to  iron — the  screw  bolts  ai'e  to  be  5-8tlis  of  an 
inch  diameter,  and  5  inches  long,  with  square  heads,  and  a  neat  iron  collar 
under  each  head  and  nut,  excepting  where  iron  iuterveues,  when  the  bolt 
shall  be  as  much  longer  as  the  thickness  of  the  iron,  so  that  every  bolt  shall 
have  a  screw  of  3  inches  deep  in  the  timber.  The  joints  of  the  planking 
shall  be  shot  straight,  fitted  close,  and  caulked,  so  as  to  render  every  joint 
perfectly  water-tight. 

The  pivots  on  which  the  gates  revolve  are  to  be  cast  hard,  and  fitted  accu- 
rately to  the  hollow  bearing  in  the  vertical  shaft. 

The  gates  are  to  be  made  accurately  at  the  meeting  posts.  At  the  sides 
which  abut  against  the  piers  and  walls,  and  at  the  cills  and  wherever  iron 
intervenes,  it  shall  be  chipped  and  filed  so  as  to  fit  flush  with  the  timber,  so 
that  no  water  shall  escape  at  the  joints— the  pivot  and  step  are  to  be  so 
made  that  the  least  possible  leakage  shall  take  place. 

All  the  cast  iron  bearings  are  to  be  accurately  turned,  so  as  to  work  truly 
and  easily,  and  iu  every  case  where  iron  works  in  iron,  either  the  shaft  or 
bearing  is  to  be  east  hard,  as  may  be  deemed  advisable  by  the  Company's 
engineer — the  upper  bearings  to  liave  set  screws  and  keys  for  adjustment,  as 
described  in  the  drawings.  All  the  wheel  work  is  to  be  fitted  accurately, 
and  if  required  by  the  Company's  engineer,  the  teeth  are  to  be  cliipped  and 
filed. 

The  same  directions  that  are  given  hereinbefore  for  the  joints  in  the 
timber  and  connecting  straps  and  bolts,  are  to  be  observed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  trussed  foot-bridge,  which  is  to  be  wholly  of  the  best  Memel  fir. 

Reference  to  Engravings. — Plate  II. 

Fig.  1. — Plan  of  the  Balance  Gates,  Sills,  Inverts,  and  Piers.  In 
"Invert  No.  1,"  the  sill  pieces  are  shown,  and  the  iron  pivots  upon 
which  the  gates  are  to  turn.  In  "  Invert  No.  2,"  the  gates  are  sliown 
at  an  horizontal  section  through  the  timbers  and  planking,  and  vertical 
shaft;  the  eccentric  shafts  are  also  shown.  In  "Invert  Xo.  3,"  the 
top  view  of  the  gates  is  exhibited  with  the  quadrant  and  pinion  for 
working  the  gates,  and  the  wheel  upon  the  top  of  the  eccentric  shaft. 

Fig.  2  is  an  elevation  of  the  work  described  in  Fig.  1.  The  gates, 
however,  are  shewn  m  jjwjectwn,  or  as  they  will  appear  wlien  closed; 
the  trussed  foot-bridge  for  tlie  support  of  the  upper  bearings  of  the 
shafts  upon  which  tlie  gates  turn,  is  also  shown  in  elevation  and 
section. 

Fig.  3. — A  transverse  section  through  C  D  (Fig.  1)  of  the  gate  and 
trussed  foot-bridge,  and  an  elevation  of  one  of  the  piers  and  section 
of  the  invert,  sill,  and  apron. 

Fig.  4. — Transverse  section  through  A  B  (Fig.  1). 

Fig.  5  is  a  plan  of  the  trusseil  foot-bridge,  a  portion  of  it  planked 
as  it  will  appear  when  linishcd,  and  another  portion  as  it  will  appear 
before  the  planking  is  laid  down,  exhibiting  the  trussing  and  cast  iron 
frames  for  the  support  of  the  upper  bearing  of  the  vertical  shafts. 

Plate  III — contains  enlarged  views  of  the  gates  described  in 
Plate  II,  which  may  be  sulficiently  understood  by  reference  to  the 
drawings. 


LONDON  SHOPS. 

[A  very  able  and  interesting  article  on  "London  Shops  and  Gin 
Palaces,"  by  Candidus,  appeared  in  the  December  Number  oi  Frasi/'s 
Magazine,  from  which  we  select  the  following  extracts.] 

We  need  not  speak  of  the  very  superior  mode  in  which  shop-win- 
dows are  now  fitted  up,  not  merely  as  regards  the  large  squares  of 
glass,  and  the  more  than  atlas  folio  sheets  of  plate-glass,  which  have 
of  late  become  almost  so  common  as  to  cease  to  excite  astonishment, 
but  also  in  respect  to  the  framework  of  the  windows,  the  polished 
brass-work  which  covers  the  w  indow-sill.  One  contrivance,  however, 
which  has  been  but  very  lately  introduced,  will,  when  it  comes  to  be 
more  generally  adopted,  greatly  enhance  the  appearance  of  the  shops 
after  dark, — we  mean  that  of  throwing  a  very  powerful  light  upon  the 
goods  at  the  window,  the  first  experiment  of  which  was  made,  we 
believe,  on  the  east  side  of  Temple  Bar,  viz.  at  the  splendid  new  shop 
opened  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard  by  Hitchcock  and  Rogers  ;  which,  in 
point  of  extent,  has  scarcely  a  rival  in  any  other  part  of  the  town.  The 
proprietors  appear  to  have  spared  no  cost  to  render  their  establish- 
ment as  attractive  as  possible  even  to  the  very  labels  or  tickets  at- 
tached to  the  goods,  which,  instead  of  being  merely  written,  are  taste- 
fully emblazoned  on  large  card-boards,  ia  gold,  azure,  and  other  bril- 
liant colours.  Still,  when  we  come  to  consider  this,  and  some  other 
shop  fronts  of  the  same  class,  architecturally,  we  cannot  help  being 
ott'ended  at  a  defect  which  is  here  carried  a  t'outrance,  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  any  where  else.  In  fact,  the  whole  of  this  un- 
usually extensive  shop  front  presents  to  the  eye  nsthing  but  glass  set 
in  very  slender  upright  brass  styles,  or  bars,  without  any  apparent 


support  whatever  —  without  even  jambs  to  the  doors  —  so  that  the 
house  itself,  over  the  shop,  has  the  look  of  being  miraculously  sus- 
pended in  tlie  air,  after  the  fashion  of  Mahomet's  cothn;  and  this  not 
particularly  agreeable  appearance  is  strikingly  increased  by  its  return- 
ing on  the  west  side,  without  any  indication  of  pi'op  or  stay  of  any 
kind  beneath  the  superincumbent  angle  of  the  upper  part  of  the  struc- 
ture, which  is  actually  suspended  over  that  corner.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  sufficient  precaution  has  been  taken  to  ensure  security  ;  and  so 
far  we  are  at  liberty  to  admire  the  skill  shewn  by  the  biulder  in  achiev- 
ing what  is  certainly  a  momitrpiece,  if  not  a  masterpiece,  in  construc- 
tion. His  task  may  have  been  exceedingly  difficult;  yet  we  are 
tempteil  to  say,  with  Dr.  Johnson,  that  we  wish  it  had  been  impossible. 
It  will,  perhaps,  be  argued,  that  what  we  hero  behold  is,  after  all,  not 
a  whit  more  contrary  to  sound  architectural  taste  than  a  geometrical 
staircase,  where  the  steps  are  attached  to  the  wall  only  at  one  end. 
The  two  cases,  however,  are  not  perfectly  similar;  because,  in  the 
second  instance,  each  step  is  no  more  than  either  a  balcony  or  large 
bracket  inserted  into  the  wall,  whereas,  in  the  other,  the  bressuraers 
of  the  floor,  above  the  shop,  have  to  support  all  the  upper  part  of  the 
front,  while  they  themselves  seem  to  rest  upon  nothing  except  the 
slight  frame  in  which  the  glass  of  the  shop  window  is  fixed.  As  far, 
therefore,  as  the  general  aspect  of  such  front  is  concerned,  the  etl'ect 
is  disagreeable;  while,  as  regards  the  lower  part,  or  shop  itself,  taken 
distinct  from  the  rest,  it  is  exceedingly  insipid  and  ))Oor — very  little 
better  than  what  would  be  produced  by  the  same  space  of  unglazed 
opening  for  the  display  cf  goods;  the  chief  dift'erence  being,  that 
instead  of  Oeing  exposed  to  injury,  the  articles  so  exhibited  are  pro- 
tected by  the  glass. 

No  doubt,  every  tradesman  is  anxious  to  make  as  attractive  a  dis- 
play as  possible  of  the  articles  he  deals  in  ;  but  it  is,  nevertheless,  a 
great  error  to  suppose  that  this  is  best  accomplished  by  making  the 
shop-window  as  large  as  the  width  of  frontage  will  permit,  and  then 
to  put  up  at  it  as  much  as  it  will  contain.  In  fact,  this  mode — the  one 
now  almost  invariably  resorted  to,  and  in  many  cases  carried  to  an 
extent  cpiite  preposterous — rather  defeats  the  object  aimed  at,  because 
it  utterly  excludes  all  variety  of  design,  or  rather  excludes  design 
itself — reducing  tiie  whole  front  of  eacli  shop  to  only  so  many  feet 
superficial  of  glass.  Hence  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish  any  one 
shop  from  the  rest — nothing  to  mark  it  out  to  the  eye  from  any  dis- 
tance. If  strikingness  of  character  be  at  all  an  object  worth  attending 
to,  it  might  be  far  more  easily  and  more  satisfactorily  accomplished 
by  adopting  a  contrary  system  to  that  now  in  vogue,  dividing  what  is 
now  a  single  window  into  distinct  compartments,  the  spaces  between 
w  liich  would  afford  room  for  decoration,  together  with  ample  scope 
for  invention.  It  is  true  that,  as  far  as  mere  quantity  goes,  the  ilisplay 
would  be  less  than  at  present ;  but  then  the  show  of  goods  might  fre- 
quently be  rendered  more  striking,  and  nught  be  every  day  made  a 
fresh  one,  by  some  of  the  articles  being  changed.  The  great  deside- 
ratum, it  may  be  presumed,  is  to  render  the  shop  itself  a  conspicuous 
object — one  that  cannot  fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  every  one  who 
passes ;  and  this,  we  conceive,  would,  in  most  cases,  be  better  accom- 
plished by  making  it  a  catching  architectural  "frontispiece" — no 
matter  how  much  the  space  now  allotted  to  a  window  might  be  trenched 
upon  for  such  purpose.  *  * 

Even  at  present  we  have  one  or  two  things,  which,  although  they 
do  not  exactly  exemplify  the  mode  of  design  we  could  w  ish  to  see 
adopted,  may  be  quoted  as  instances  of  very  superior  taste,  and  wdthal, 
of  more  originality  and  study  than  are  to  be  discovered  in  buildings  of 
far  greater  importance.  Among  these,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that 
i\ie/aci/e  princejjs  for  recherche  eleganee  of  design,  for  j)urity  of  taste, 
for  happiness  of  invention,  in  the  whole  composition,  together  with 
admirable  beauty  of  finish,  is  a  small  shop  front,  or,  rather,  a  small 
fa9ade,  in  Tavistock  Place.  It  is  an  exquisite  architectural  gem — at 
least  every  professional  man  and  real  coimoisseur  nuist  at  once  recog- 
nize it  as  such — although  its  beauties  and  merits  are  of  that  kind 
which  are  not  likely  to  ensure  it  particular  attention  from  persons  in 
general ;  because  in  such  matters  the  million  are  apt  to  form  their 
estimate  according  either  to  size  or  to  gaudy  showiness.  No  man 
who  understands  architecture  can  look  at  it  without  feeling  that  the 
worthy  George  Maddox  here  worketl  up  his  ideas  cun  amore,  with  the 
relish  of  one  enthusiastically  devoted  to  his  art  for  his  art's  sake.  The 
wdiole  of  this  front — for  we  ought  to  observe  that  the  design  is  not 
confined  to  the  lower  part  or  shop  alone — is  in  perfect  keeping:  we 
do  not  find  merely  a  very  good  bit  in  this  place,  a  very  nice  piece  of 
ornament  in  another ;  something  happy  there,  and  something  not  amiss 
here,  but  the  ensemble  is  complete  ;  the  same  taste  pervades  every 
part :  nothing  can  either  be  added  or  taken  away  without  detriment 
to  the  whole.  What  simplicity  in  the  general  character  of  this  little 
facade!  yet  so  very  far  is  it  from  partaking  of  any  thing  like  poverty, 
that  it  is  particularly  remarkable  lor  the  unusual  care  bestowed  upon 

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[February, 


all  its  details.  Iiuleetl,  (here  ai'e  only  one  or  two  buildings  in  the 
whole  metropolis  that  can  stand  the  test  of  comparison  with  it  in  that 
respect.  I'lxamine  the  capitals  and  entablature  of  the  order  that 
forms  the  sliop  front  itself,  and  you  must  allow  them  to  be  no  less 
beautiful  than  novel,  that  is,  supposing  you  are  competent  to  appre- 
ciate the  origiualilv  and  tnste  then'  manifested.  After  all,  it  must  be 
allowed  to  have  (jue  unpardonable  fault :  how  great  soever  may  be  its 
merits  in  point  of  design,  it  wants  magnitude — at  least  to  give  it  suffi- 
cient consequence  and  importance  in  the  eve?  of  ordinary  beholders. 
Truly  it  does  ;  and  so,  also,  does  that  beautiful  little  architectural  gem 
of  antitpiity,  the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  which,  in  regard  to  size,  is 
little  better  than  a  mere  model,  or  toy.  To  be  sure,  the  one  example 
is  at  London,  the  other  at  Athens;  and  that,  it  must  be  acknowledged, 
does  make  a  vast  dilierenee  in  the  o[iinion  of  the  vulgar,  both  learned 
and  unlearned.  Most  certainly,  there  is  no  denying  that  Tavistock 
Place  is  not  Athens,  any  more  than  that  Satfron  Hill  is  not  Mount  Hy- 
mettus. 

The  only  thing  that  can  fairly  enter  the  lists  with  the  facade  we 
have  been  sjieaking  of,  is  the  one  No.  2-,  Old  FJond  Street,  which  is 
likewise  singularly  beaidiful,  and  treated  throughout  vvitli  true  artis- 
tical  feeling.  It  is  the  production  of  the  Messrs.  hnvood,  or  of  one  of 
the  Ijrothers,  and  it  certaiu'y  displays  more  invention  and  taste  than 
all  their  other  designs  put  together,  if  we  except  the  columns  and 
doors  in  the  portico  of  St.  Fancras  Church  ;  the  former  of  which,  how- 
ever, are  merely  copies  from  those  of  the  triple  temple  on  the  Athe- 
nian Acropolis.  These  tw'o  are  almost  the  only  instances  in  whicli 
the  whole  of  such  a  front  is  consistently  designed  and  ilecorated 
throughout,  so  as  to  be  altogether  of  a  piece  from  bottom  to  top ;  for 
the  shop  and  the  house  above  it  are,  we  may  say,  invariably  treated 
as  distinct  from  each  other,  instead  of  being  combined,  as  far  as  their 
inevitable  dilference  of  character  will  permit,  into  one  uniform  com- 
))osition.  This  is  more  or  less  the  case,  even  wdiere  architectural  em- 
bellishment is  liberally  bestowed  on  the  n])per  part  of  the  front,  the 
superstructure  having  so  littie  architectural  connexion  with  the  base- 
ment on  w  liich  it  stands,  that  the  etiect  is  cpute  incongruous.  (.)f  this 
we  have  notable  proof  in  a  shop  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  already 
spoken  of;  since,  so  far  from  there  being  an  apparent  connexion  be- 
tween one  part  and  another,  we  might  fancy  that  the  ujiper  portion, 
with  its  Corinthian  pilasters,  hail  been  taken  olf  from  a  rusticated 
Ixisenient,  and  sus|ieuded  upon  the  huge  glass  case  beneath  it,  wdiich 
it  threatens  to  crush.  A  greater  architectural  antithesis  than  the  one 
thus  produced  can  hardly  be  imagined,  the  whole  of  the  lower  portion 
luesenting  the  very  minimum  of  strength,  an  appearance  of  unusual 
weakness  and  fragility,  wliile  the  upper  has  a  more  than  usual  charac- 
ter of  solidity,  owing,  among  other  circumstances,  to  the  breadth  of 
the  piers  between  the  windows  ;  that  is,  however,  of  solidity  when  it 
is  considered  apart  from  its  baseless  position,  because  that  exceedingly 
lalse  position  gives  it  the  appearance  of  being  particularly  insecure, 
and  in  imminent  peril  of  performing  an  aplomb. 

Perha|)s,  of  tlie  two  inconsistencies,  it  is  the  lesser  one  where,  as  is 
almost  the  general  rule,  architectural  expression  is  confined  to  the 
shop-front  itself,  all  the  rest  being  left  quite  unpretending  and  plain, 
even  to  nakedness.  It  must  be  "admitted,  that  the  other  mclhod  is 
greatly  preferable,  as  far  as  the  general  appearance  of  a  street  is  con- 
cerned, inasmuch  as  it  conduces  to  its  architectural  dignitv  ;  yet,  as 
regards  the  iiouscs  indivitlually,  it  is  better  that  the  shop-front  itself 
should  be  made  exclusively  the  feature  on  which  architectural  design 
is  bestowed,  unless,  indeed,  it  can  be  consistently  carried  on  upwards. 

Although  frequently  no  other  ecoivimy  tluin  that  of  space  seems  to 
be  regarded,  it  cannot  be  alhrmed  that  much  eitlier  of  invention  or 
taste  is  displayed  in  our  Loudon  shop-fronts,  of  which  carpenters  seem, 
for  tlie  most  ])art,  to  be  the  designers;  yet  here  and  there  one  may 
meet  with  a  clever  bit, — gooil  both  in  regard  to  ornament  and  compo- 
sition. These,  however,  form  merely  the  exceptions  ;  for  the  taste 
usually  displayed  is  most  flimsy  and  frippery,  and  full  of  inconsistencies. 
At  the  best,  things  of  this  kind  can  be  little  more  than  mere  bits  ;  be- 
cause, owing  to  their  want  of  size,  they  can  hardly  produce  any  eH'ect 
in  a  general  view,  or  until  approached  and  examined  ;  yet  that  is  no 
reason  wherci'ore  they  should  be  undeserving  of  examination,  and  bits 
of  tawdry  trumpery  in  lliemselves.  On  tlie  contrary,  if  they  do  not 
aiford  much  l.ititude  for  the  <lisplay  of  design  and  invention  in  any 
other  respect— an  opinion,  however,  to  which  we  outselves  are  strongly 
opposed — they  most  incontestably  olVer  ample  scope  for  experiment- 
alising in  the  way  of  columns  and  entablatures.  Nevertheless,  so  far 
from  any  advantage  being  taken  of  this,  we  scarcely  ever  find  any 
novelty  wdiatever  of  decoration  attempted  in  regard  to  such  features, 
which  are  no  other  than  copies  from  Stuart's  plates.  However  anti- 
classical,  gimcrack.  Cockney,  every  other  part  of  such  design  may  be, 
we  behold  Grecian  Doric  and  Grecian  Ionic  copied  with  most  super- 
stitious exactness,  and  repeated   «y(/«c  ad  naitisecnii.     The  Athenian 


Doric  of  the  Parthenon,  and  the  Paestau  example  of  the  same  order, 
are  most  ridiculously  minified,  and  applied  when  they  are  most  offen- 
sively out  of  place,  putting  us  out  of  conceit  both  wdth  them  and  with 
what  but  for  them  wmild  have  been  honest,  unsophisticated.  Cockney 
carpenters'  work.  Away  with  the  worse  than  schoolboy — the  dull 
schoolmaster  vapouring,  about  the  intrinsic  beauty  of  form  and  pro- 
portions belonging  to  the  ancient  orders,  as  if  they  possessed  an  inde- 
feasible charm  adhering  to  them  under  any  circumstances.  At  that 
rate,  it  would  be  excellent  taste  to  convert  the  legs  of  a  table  into 
four  pigmy  columns,  Doric  or  Ionic ;  or  if  the  mere  models  of  such 
tilings  possess  in  themselves  a  magic  charm  for  the  eye,  neither  could 
they  fail  to  please  were  they  dragged  in  any  where  else  for  the  nonce, 
even  should  it  be  into  a  Gothic  building.  The  truth  is,  no  such  kind 
of  beauty  exists  either  in  them  cm'  any  thing  else:  a  tine  arm  and  hand 
arc  very  beautiful  in  a  fine  woman,  or,  for  the  matter  of  that,  even  in 
a  plain  one  ;  yet  how  they  could  be  made  to  add  to  the  beauty  of  a 
horse,  we  certainly  do  not  see.  Of  all  the  styles,  the  one  least  suit- 
able for  purposes  which  require  it  to  abandon  more  or  less  of  its  ori- 
ginal character,  is  the  Grecian  Doric,  whose  sternness  and  severity, 
apart  frcjm  the  imposing  grandeur  attending  magnitude  of  dimensions, 
are  apt  to  degenerate  into  frigidity  and  hardness  when  the  order  is 
exhibited  upon  a  tiivial  scale.  Instead  of  attempting  to  counteract 
this  defect,  which  lU'edominatcs  in  most  modern  imitations  of  that 
style,  we  increase  it  bv  omitting  all  sculpture  and  other  decoration,  as 
nut  included  in  the  idea  of  the  architecture  itself,  although  it  is  essen- 
tially indispensable  to  its  effect.  i3y  the  chilling  bareness  thus  occa- 
sioned, a  style  naturally  stern  in  itself  becomes  aggravated  into  dis- 
agreeable harshness  ;  more  jiarticularly  when  reduced  to  more  than 
ordinary  insignificance  of  size  ;  for  all  dignity  of  expression  is  lost, 
and  in  lieu  of  it  we  obtain  poverty  of  style,  with  an  affected  heaviness 
of  form, — something  nearly  as  grotcisque  as  a  little  Cupid  proportioned 
after  the  brawny  form  of  the  Farnese  Hercules. 

Yet  such  is  the  style  upon  which,  at  least,  one-half  of  our  modern 
shop-fronts  are  modelled.  As  far  as  the  columns  alone  go,  they  are 
tolerably  accurate,  and  intolerably  dull  fic-similes  of  the  different  ex- 
amples measured  by  Stuart  and  others  ;  but  there  all  resemblance  ends. 
The  frieze — shoulil  there  happen  to  be  any  such  mendjer  in  the  en- 
tablature— is  as  plain  as  the  architrave  ;  nevertheless,  such  disregard 
of  authorities  is  a  trivial  fault,  in  comparison  with  the  wholesale  dis- 
regard of  the  genius  of  the  style  itself.  Vet  so  it  is:  over- exactness 
as  to  certain  particulars  goes  hand  in  hand  with  the  most  fantastical 
licentiousness — if  that  can  be  called  fantastical  which  manifests  not 
the  slightest  aim  at  fancy.  It  is,  however,  not  so  much  the  deviation 
from  precedent  that  we  censure  in  such  cases,  as  the  awkward  and 
absurd  adherence  to  it,  or  rather  the  affectation  of  adhering  to  what  it 
is  impossible  to  follow  consistently  as  a  model.  Even  supposing  that, 
in  regard  to  the  architecture  itself,  the  style  could  be  sufficiently  well 
kept  up,  still  it  would  very  ill  assort  witJi  the  display  which  it  is  in- 
teniied  to  accompany.  Fancy  goods  and  Faestan  columns — plumes, 
velvets,  artificial  flowers,  and  Doric  pillars — do  not  harmonise  well  to- 
gether, nor  seem  to  be  suitable  company  for  each  other.  A  striking 
instance  of  such  disparity  between  the  richness  of  the  stock  it  contains 
ami  the  shop  itself  is  Ihiliues's  shawl  warehouse,  in  Regent  Street ; 
where,  notwithstanding  the  splendour  of  the  coup  d'(eil  of  its  interior, 
the  exceedingly  massive,  not  to  say  rude,  Doric  columns  supporting 
the  ceiling  look  most  uucouthly  lumpish  amidst  all  the  costly  finery 
around  them.  Surely,  a  lighter  style  would  have  been  far  more  in 
character:  or,  if  pillars  of  that  bulk  were  irbsolutely  required,  they 
might  easily  have  been  enriched.  It  is  true,  they  might  then  have 
lost  all  reseiublance  to  L)oric  columns  ;  yet  of  what  conseipience  would 
that  have  been,  or  rather  it  would  have  been  so  much  the  better,  sup- 
posing them  to  be  ;ippropriate  and  pleasing  in  themselves — that  is, 
successful  inventions;  and  if  we  dare  not  venture  upon  any  experi- 
ments in  architectural  design  on  such  occasions,  we  are  not  likely  ever 
to  make  them,  when  the  question  is  to  erect  a  building  ol  magnitude, 
where  every  thing  is  expected  to  be  perfectly  ntciindini  artem,  and 
where,  of  course,  nothing  can  be  admitted  that  might  possibly  be 
sneered  at  as  a  rash  innovation — a  startling  new  idea. 

Perhaps  it  would  be  siuue  step  towards  improvement,  were  such 
style  of  design  adopted  for  the  decoration  of  shops  as  would  in  a  cer- 
tain degree  accord  with  the  stock  itself  and  the  particular  business 
carried  on.  Attenti<jn  to  congruity  of  this  sort  would,  doubtless,  have 
suggested  for  the  one  just  referred'  to  above,  a  style  altogether  different 
from  w  hat  we  actually  behold — something  liglit,  fanciful,  luxuriant ; 
and,  if  not  professedly  in  the  Oriental  taste,  that  is,  after  an  express 
pattern  of  it,  yet  more  or  less  approaching  to  it.  Characteristic  pe- 
culiarity of  this  kind,  however,  would  of  necessity  be  chiefly  limited 
to  those  cases — at  present  exceedingly  rare  ones — where  the  interior  of 
the  shop  itself  is  fitted  up,  like  some  of  the  Parisian  ones,  with  regard 
to  ert'ect  as  an  architectural  eiiumbk,  so  as  to  have  more  the  air  of  an 


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45 


apartment  furnished  with  certain  articles  there  displayed,  than  of  a  mere 
wareho\ise  where  they  are  stowed  away  on  sheh-es  that  entirely  line  the 
walls.  The  same  diversity  could  not  very  well  be  extended  to  the  ex- 
teriors, or  shop-fronts  themselves  ;  because  that  would  be  apt  to  occa- 
sion a  very  disagreeable  medley  of  all  sorts  of  styles  in  our  streets,  and 
give  them  a  most  motley  appearance.  To  be  convinced  of  this,  we 
need  but  look  at  Saunders  and  Woolley's  shop-front  in  Regent  Street. 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  particular  taste  of  embellishment — ■ 
the  so-called  Louis  Qiuitvrze — there  displayed,  it  is  svfficiently  signi- 
ficant ;  and  we  have  no  doubt  that,  as  a  design  upon  paper,  shewn 
(|uite  bv  itself,  without  any  accompaniment,  it  uiade  a  striking  and  al- 
luring appearance  ;  yet,  as  actually  beheld,  it  is  as  much  of  a  blemish 
as  a  beaulv, — no  improvement  to  the  street,  except  as  affording  a  very 
showv  display  of  window  and  costly  articles  of  upholstery;  and  de- 
cidedly injurious  to  the  facade  where  it  has  been  introduced.  The 
style  itself  is,  moreover,  by  far  too  exotic  and  anomalous  to  be  at  all 
ada|ited  for  exterior  architecture,  even  were  an  entire  front  to  be 
designed  in  it  so  as  to  form  a  consistent  composition.  The  Gothic 
style,  however,  that  is,  some  varieties  of  it,  might  occasionlly  be  re- 
sorted to  both  with  propriety  and  effect ;  although  we  are  not  aw'are 
(if  its  having  been  hitherto  applied  to  such  purpose,  except  at  Fairs's, 
in  Mortimer  Street,  an  exceedingly  small,  at  least  very  narrow,  upright 
strip  of  Elizabethan  architecture,  clever,  and  not  a  little  picturesque. 
That  the  pale  bronze  hue  given  to  that  pretty  architectural  facade  is 
attended  with  other  advantage  than  that  of  rendering  it  more  conspi- 
cuous, is  what  we  will  not  imdertake  to  decide  :  since  greater  variety, 
and  quite  as  much  propriety  in  regard  to  colouring,  niiglit  have  been 
obtained,  imitating  the  weather-stained  tints  of  stone  and  brick,  with, 
])erhaps,  some  of  the  mere  ornamental  parts  in  imitation  of  bronze,  or 
other  metal. 

Our  catalogue  of  shops,  would  be  longer  than  Homer's  catalogue  of 
ships ;  and,  we  venture  to  say  on  our  part,  not  very  much  more  inter- 
esting, were  we  to  note  all  that  aim  at  being  remarkable  as  well  as 
fascinating.  There  is  hardly  a  street  of  them  at  the  west  end  of  the 
town,  in  which  one  or  more  will  not  be  found  affording  evidence  of  a 
desire  to  attract  observation  by  something  more  than  the  show  of  goods 
behind  the  glass;  but  we  cannot  say  that  many  of  the  designers  have 
displayed  much  fancy  or  taste,  or  greatly  taxed  their  invention  for  the 
benefit  of  their  employers.  In  almost  all  of  them  we  ])erceive  some 
little,  and  but  very  little,  aim  at  originality — a  mere  beginning  towards 
it — in  scarcely  one  instance  a  complete  developement  of  a  novel  idea ; 
consequently,  there  invariably  seems  to  be  more  pretension  than  actual 
performance.  Colnaghi  and  Puckle's  new  shop-front,  in  Cockspur 
Street,  presents  some  novelty  of  style  and  detail,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  great  projection  of  the  cornice,  whicli  is  brought  forward  as 
much  as  the  half-octagon  bay  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house.  The 
style  itself  partakes  of  both  the  Rinaissntice  and  the  Elizabethan;  and, 
independently  of  the  panels  with  which  they  are  embellished,  the  ex- 
treme piers  assist  the  design  very  much,  both  by  giving  an  air  of  sta- 
bility to  the  tnsimble,  and  a  suitable  termination  to  it.  Cowie's,  in 
Holies  Street,  is  singular,  chiefly  on  account  of  the  window  shewing 
itself  somewhat  like  a  glass-case  inserted  in  the  front,  and  being  dark 
brown  relieved  with  gilding;  while  the  door,  which  is  detached  from 
it,  has  enormous  white  consoles,  enriched  with  gilt  mouldings,  though 
all  the  rest  are  of  very  dark  hues  ;  a  contrast  of  colours  more  traii- 
chatit  and  striking  than  tasteful.  In  the  adjoining  str"et,  viz.  Henrietta 
• — Marshall  and  Stinton's  makes  a  quiet  sort  of  display  with  its  four 
three-quarter  Ionic  columns,  between  which  are  three  arches,  of  which 
the  two  forming  the  windows  are  each  filled  in  with  a  single  sheet  of 
]ilate  glass ;  which  species  of  luxury  is  not  rendered  less  singular  by 
the  extreme  plainness  of  the  windows  themselves.  We  should  re- 
commend some  liberal  decoration  in  the  spaces  between  them  and  the 
columns. 

The  new  front  of  No.  76  in  the  Strand,  now  the  "  Foreign  Marble 
Warehouse,"  may  be  cited  as  almost  the  very  reverse  of  the  preced- 
ing, being  as  studiously  embellished  as  the  other  is  studiedly  kept 
plain.  W'hat  little  design  there  is  in  the  shop  itself,  has  neither  much 
novelty  nor  much  taste  ;  it  is  the  elevation  above,  and  in  a  maimer 
distinct  from  it,  which  presents  a  sample  of  an  unusual  mode  of  em- 
bellishment, it  being  liberally,  yet  not  too  liberally,  decorated  with 
medallions  and  figures  in  relief  between  the  windows  ;  and  but  for  the 
disagreeable  heaviness  of  the  odd-looking  cornices  to  the  windows  of 
the  first  floor,  would  be  an  agreeable  composition,  though  susceptible 
of  improvement  in  other  respects  besides  the  defect  just  pointed  out. 
Had  the  exterior  of  the  adjoining  house  been  added  to  the  design,  so 
as  to  give  greater  width  to  the  elevation,  the  effect  would  have  been 
increased  in  more  than  arithmetical  progression. 


ON  THE  SUPPLY  OF  WATER  TO  THE  METROPOLIS. 

Observations  on  the  past  and  present  supply  of  Water  to  the  Metro- 
polis. By  Thomas  Wickstekd,  C'iril  Engineer.  Read  before  the 
Society  of  Arts,  J\Iay  24,  1835. 

(  Continued  from  page  12.  J 

During  the  next  two  centuries,  namely,  from  a.d.  1000  to  a.d.  ISOO, 
were  established  several  water-works  of  minor  importance,  as  follow: 

To  the  Merchant  Water-works  belonged  three  engines  lor  raising 
water;  one  a  windmill  in  Toltenhain  Court  Road  Fields;  and  two 
overshot  water-wheels,  worked  by  the  water  of  a  common  sewer  in 
St.  Martin's  and  Hartshorn  Lanes  in  the  Strand ;  there  were  three 
mains  of  G  and  7  inch  bores  to  supply  the  respective  neighbourhoods. 

The  Shadwell  Water-works,  erected  about  1660,  had  first  a  horse- 
wheel,  and  afterwards  tw'O  atmospheric  engines,  which  supplied  tlie 
neighbourhood  with  Thames  water  through  two  mains  of  0  or  7  inch 
bores. 

In  1691  these  works,  which  had  previously  belonged  to  the  family 
of  Thomas  Neale,  Esq.,  were  vested  in  a  company  of  proprietors,  who 
w  ere  incorporated  by  an  act  of  Parliament  3rd  and  4th  of  William  and 
Marv.  Two  engines,  of  Boulton  and  Watt's  manufacture,  were  after- 
wards erected  ;  Ihe  first  was  one  of  the  earliest  engines  made  by  them. 
When  the  London  Docks  were  made,  the  district  was  much  reduced 
in  consequence,  and  the  works  were  purchased  by  the  Dock  Company  ; 
and  afterwards  an  act  was  obtained  in  ISOS  by  the  East  London  Water- 
works Company  to  enable  them  to  (lurchase  these  works,  which  they 
did.  The  works  were  in  play  for  a  short  time  afterwards,  but  were 
eventually  given  up,  the  supply  from  the  Company's  new  works  being 
superior. 

The  York  Buildings  Water-works,  in  Villiers  Street,  Strand,  were 
established  in  1691.  The  Thames  water  was  raised  for  the  supply  of 
the  neighbourhood,  first  by  a  horse-wheel ;  afterwards  previous  to  the 
year  1710,  they  had  one  of  Savery's  engines;  and  a  few  years  after- 
wards one  of  Newcomen's.  Mai'tland  says  in  his  work,  published 
17n6,  that  "the  directors  of  this  Company,  by  purchasing  estates  in 
England  and  Scotland,  erecting  new  water-works  and  other  pernicious 
projects,  have  almost  ruined  the  company.  However,  their  chargeable 
engine  for  raising  water  by  fire  being  laid  aside,  they  continue  to  work 
that  of  horses,  which  may  in  time  restore  the  Company's  affairs." 
This  was  true  for  a  time,  as  it  appears  that  from  1789  to  1804  this 
Company  paid  good  dividends,  but  afterwards,  in  consequence  of  the 
ruinous  competition  that  arose  at  that  time,  and  for  some  years  subse- 
quently, a  new  engine  was  erected  of  70  horses  power,  iron  pipes  laid 
down  instead  of  woo<l,  and  no  more  dividends  were  paid,  excepting 
V.  per  share  for  two  years,  out  of  the  capital ;  and  in  1818  the  Com- 
pany was  ruined,  the  establishment  broken  up,  and  the  district  was 
supplied  by  the  New  River. 

In  177o  Mr.  Watt  mentions  an  engine  of  Newcomen's  at  the  York 
Buildings,  and  Mr.  Farcy  calculated  its  power  at  about  26  horses, 
working  7  hours  per  diem,  and  raising  during  that  time  about  356,000 
gallons  to  a  height  of  1112  feet,  or  3,137,000  barrels  per  annum.  In 
IS Ut  the  quantity  raised  at  these  works  was  only  equal  to  178,200 
gallons  per  diem',  or  1,541,100  barrels  per  annum.  In  ISIS,  before  the 
breaking  up  of  the  establishment,  the  quantity  raised  was  762,588 
gallons  per  diem,  or  6,i;09,252  barrels  per  annum;  which  supplied 
about  2636  tenants. 

The  Chelsea  Water-n'orks  were  established  in  1722  by  an  act  of 
Parliament,  in  the  Sth  of  George  I.,  for  the  better  supplying  the  city 
and  liberties  of  Westminsier,  and  parts  adjacent,  with  water. 

The  Thames  water  was  raised  from  settling-ponds,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, by  a  water-wheel,  which  was  worked  by  the  water  collected 
in  large  ponds  as  the  tide  rose,  and  kept  in  until  the  water  in  the 
river  lowered,  when  it  was  let  out  and  worked  the  wheel :  afterwards 
two  of  Newcomen's  engines  were  erected,  and  in  1782  one  of  Boulton 
and  Watt's  engines, — one  of  the  earliest  erected  in  London. 

The  West  Ham  Water-works  were  set  on  foot  in  1743,  and  a  com- 
pany was  established  by  act  of  Parliament  the  21st  of  George  II.,  in 
1747.  The  water  was  raised  out  of  one  of  the  branches  of  the  River 
Lee  by  a  fire-engine  of  about  6  horses  power ;  these  works  were  after- 
wards purchased  by  the  East  London  Water-works  Company,  at  the 
same  time  that  they  purchased  the  Shadwell  works ;  and  the  power 
now  used  is  a  water-wheel  of  about  16  horses  power. 

Previous  to  the  year  1756  there  was  a  horse-machine  for  raising 
Thames  water  through  a  7-inch  pipe  in  Southwark,  called  the  Bank 
End  Water-works.  A  company  was  formed  in  1758,  under  the  name 
of  the  Old  Borough  Water-vvorks  Company,  which,  together  with 
the  London  Bridge  works,  supplied  Southwark.  A  steam-engine  was 
erected  afterwards ;  and  in  1823,  upon  the  removal  of  the  London 


46 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[FEBRirARY, 


Bridge  wator-wlieels,  the  two  works  were  consolidated,  \inder  the 
ii;mie  of  the  Southwiirk  Water-works,  and  became  the  properly  of 
John  Edwards,  Esq. 

Previous  to  175(3  works  were  established  at  Rotherhithe,  The 
water  was  raised  by  a  water-wheel,  which  was  worked  by  tide  water, 
collected  in  the  ditches  and  ponds  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  kept  in 
until  the  falling  uf  tlie  tide,  when  it  was  let  out  again  into  the  river, 
and  in  its  course  turned  the  water-wheel ;  it  supplied  the  neighbour- 
hood plentifully  through  two  li-inch  mains. 

Previous  to  the  year  17lj7  works  were  established  at  Lee  Bridge, 
ujion  the  river  Lee,  worked  by  a  water-wheel,  for  the  supply  of  Hack- 
ney and  Clapton ;  they  were  called  the  Hackney  Water-works,  and  in 
182it,  after  which  period  they  became  the  property  of  the  East  London 
Water-works  Company,  they  raised  about  6UU,UU0  barrels  per  annum 
for  the  supply  of  about  t5UU  families. 

In  I7S5  the  Lambeth  Water-works  were  established  by  act  of  Par- 
liament 25th  of  George  IIL,  to  supply  the  district  upon  the  south  side 
of  the  Thames,  exclusive  of  the  parishes  of  St.  Georgg's  and  St.  Sa- 
^■iour's  Southwark.  The  water  was  raised  from  the  Thames  near 
Waterloo  Bridge  by  steam-engines. 

From  the  year  18UU  to  the  present  date,  the  following  works  have 
been  established : 

In  1S05  tlie  South  London  Water-works  were  established  by  act  of 
Parliament' 45th  of  George  Hi.,  to  supply  the  district  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Thames  not  already  supplied  by  the  Lambeth  and  South- 
wark Water-works.     The  works  are  at  Vauxhall. 

In  ISOti  the  West  Middlesex  Water-works  were  established  by  act 
of  Parliament  40th  of  George  III.  The  works  are  at  Hammersmith, 
and  they  supply  Hammersmith,  Kensington,  Paddington,  and  Mary- 
lebone. 

In  1807  the  East  London  Water-works  were  established  by  act  of 
Parliament  47th  of  George  III. ;  they  have  works  at  Old  Ford,  which 
is  iheir  chief  station  for  the  supply  of  the  eastern  parts  of  the  metro- 
polis. They  have  purchased  the  Shadwell,  West  Ham,  and  Hackney 
Water-works,  and  have  works  and  machinery  for  raising  water  at 
.Stratford  and  Lee  Bi'idge.  Objections  having  been  made  in  1828  to 
the  source  from  whence  they  raised  their  water,  it  being  asserted  that 
as  the  tide  affected  the  river  Lee  in  that  part,  the  water  "  partook  of 
the  nature  of  Thames  water,"  the  Company,  to  remove  all  doubts, 
obtained  parliamentary  powers  in  1S20  to  change  the  source  of  supply, 
and,  according  to  the  powers  granted,  they  have,  at  an  expense  of 
nearly  8U,U0Ci/.,  constructed  reservoirs  and  a  canal  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  water  from  a  jiart  of  the  river  Lee  which  is  far  above  the 
influence  of  the  tide ;  so  that  now  the  water  raised  at  Old  Ford  is  Lee 
IValcr  only.  I  mention  this  more  jiarticularly  because  it  has  been 
erroneously  asserted  that  Thames  water  is  supplied  by  this  Company. 

In  IblO  the  Grand  Junction  Water-works  Company  was  esfablisheil 
by  act  of  Parliament  the  51st  of  George  III.  This  Company  first  sup- 
])lied  water  from  the  Grand  Junction  Canal ;  this  supply  was  not  only 
limited,  but  was  also  objected  to  by  some  of  the  tenantry,  who  pre- 
ferred Thames  water :  the  works  were  accordingly  rcnio\ed  to  the 
banks  of  the  Thames  at  Chelsea.  This  Company  together  with  the 
West  Middlesex  and  Chelsea  Water-works  Companies  supply  the 
western  parts  of  the  metropolis. 

It  appears  lliat,  in  the  Jinl  instance,  when  it  was  necessary  to  bring 
water  from  a  distance,  the  Corpoi-ation  were  the  chief  promoters  of 
all  schemes  for  better  supplying  London;  and  never  more  so,  than 
when  they  granted  a  lease  of  the  London  Bridge  arches  to  Peter 
M-aurice  at  a  nondnal  rent;  but  it  is  probable  that  this  supply  never 
exceeded  six  millions  of  imperial  barrels  per  annum — not  2  per  cent, 
of  the  present  supply. 

Afterwards  Sir  Hugh  Myddleton  executed  the  plan  for  bringing  the 
greatest  supply  to  London ;  he  was,  however,  ruined,  the  undertaking 
being  too  extensive  for  an  individual. 

And  at  last  several  wealthy  men  joineil  together,  and  subscribed 
money  sufficient  to  execute  large  plans  for  eflieiently  supplying  every 
portion  of  the  metrojjolis,  which  is  now  most  abundantly  supplied  w  ith 
good  water  at  the  rate  of  |ths  of  a  farthing  for  an  imperial  barrel,  or  3() 
gallons,  which  is  the  amount  received  by  the  Water  Companies  for 
every  barrel  they  distribute,  according  to  the  parliamentary  returns. 
This  abundant  supply  is  continued  through  the  night,  to  be  used  in 
case  of  tires  happening. 

In  some  of  the  suburbs  of  London  water  is  still  supplied  by  carriers. 
Where  it  is  carried  in  buckets  from  wells,  it  is  sold  at  the  rate  of  brf. 
per  barrel,  or  42  times  as  nuich  ;is  when  supplied  by  machinery  ;  and 
when  it  is  carted  from  the  river,  at  -Irf.  per  barrel,  or  21  times  more 
than  machinery.  As  it  is  more  than  probable  that  it  could  not  be  sold 
at  a  cheaper  rate  in  ancient  times,  the  advantages  obtained  by  the 
introduction  of  machinery  will  appear  very  great. 

hx  uddition  to  the  works  before  mentioned,  there  are  the  Kent  and 


the  Hampstead  Water-works.  The  Kent  Water-works  are  situated 
ujjon  the  River  Ravensbourne  at  Deptford.  The  machinery  consists 
of  a  water-wlieel  and  two  steam-engines.  The  water  from  this  river 
is  supplied  chiefly  to  Deptford,  Greenwich,  Woolwich  and  Rother- 
hithe :  these  works  are  scarcely  considered  metropolitan. 

The  Hampstead  Works  are  small ;  they  are  the  same  that  have 
been  mentioned  before,  and  are  the  most  ancient  of  any  of  the  existing 
works.     In  1803  the  New  River  Company  supplied  the  tenantry. 

Present  SnpiAy  of  Water  to  the  Metropolis. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1834,  the  cjuantity  of  water  raised  by  the  eight  metro- 
politan water-works  in  the  year  1833  was  equal  to  3.57,288,807  im- 
perial barrels ;  the  number  of  houses  supplied  was  191,0G(J,  and  the 
average  daily  supply  was  above  35  millions  of  gallons,  or  183  gallons 
per  house  upon  the  average. 

Tlie  following  detailed  accoimt  is  taken  from  the  Parliamentary 
Reports : 

The  New  River  Water-works  supplied  in  1833,  171,975,000  im- 
perial barrels  of  water,  21  millions  of  which  were  raised  by  machinery 
GO  feet  above  the  level  of  the  New  River  Head,  the  remainder  sup- 
plied by  the  river,  which  is  84  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Thames,  a 
sufficient  elevation  to  supply  Jths  of  the  New  River  district  without 
the  aid  of  steam  or  other  power.  The  number  of  houses  supplied 
was  70,145;  the  capital  expended  from  the  commencement  of'  the 
works  has  been  1,11G,0G4/. ;  the  rental  received  from  the  houses  sup- 
plied with  water  amounted  to  98,307/.,  and  from  lands  and  houses 
GGOl/.,  or  a  total  income  of  104,909/.;  the  expenditure  was  G],1G3/., 
leaving  43,74G/.  to  be  divided,  or  not  quite  4  per  cent,  upon  the 
capital.     These  works  supply  the  greatest  number  of  houses. 

The  East  London  Water-works  rank  next  to  the  New  River  Water- 
works ;  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  by  them  in  1833  was  equal  to 
56,715,890  imperial  barrels,  all  raised  by  machinery,  under  an  average 
pressure  of  about  110  feet:  the  ninnber  of  houses  supplied  was 
4G,42 1 ;  the  capital  expended  from  the  commencement  of  the  works 
has  been  594,988/. ;  the  gross  rental  was  53,0G1/. ;  22,1GG/.  was  di- 
vided, not  3?  per  cent,  upon  the  capital. 

The  Lambeth  Water-works  supplied  17,997,903  imperial  barrels  in 
1833,  all  raised  by  machinery ;  the  number  of  houses  supplied  was 
1G,G82  ;  the  capital  expended  from  the  commencement  of  the  works 
has  been  l!52,553/. ;  the  gross  rental  was  11,808/. ;  and  3,840/.  was 
divided,  not  2i  per  cent,  upon  the  capital. 

The  West  MidiUesex  Water-works  supplied  in  1833,  30,000,000 
imperial  barrels,  all  raised  by  machinery ;  the  number  of  houses  sup- 
plied was  1G,000 ;  the  capital  expended  from  the  connnencenient  of 
the  works  has  been  404,2G3/. ;  the  gross  rental  was  45,500/.;  their 
shares  are  valued  at  GS/.  8s.  dd.,  and  3/.  per  share  was  divided,  less 
than  4i  per  cent,  upon  the  shares,  but  more  than  G  per  cent,  upon  the 
capital  expended. 

The  Chelsea  Water-works  supplied  in  1833,  23,629,500  imperial 
barrels,  all  raised  by  machinery  ;  the  number  of  houses  supplied  was 
13,892 ;  the  capital  expended  from  the  commencement  of  the  works 
has  been  271,311/. ;  the  gross  rental  was  22,906/.;  4,800/.  was  di- 
vided, or  1  j  per  cent,  upon  the  capital. 

The  South  London  Water-works  supplied  about  12, 1G6,GGG  imperial 
barrels  in  1833;  the  number  of  houses  supplied  was  12,016;  the 
capital  expended  from  the  commencement  of  the  works  lias  been 
245,306/. ;  the  average  per  share  was  about  245/.,  and  they  were  last 
sold  at  85/.  per  share ;  the  gross  rental  was  8,839/. 

The  Grand  Junction  Water-works  supplied  32,553,850  imperial 
barrels  in  1833 ;  the  number  of  houses  supplied  was  8,780  ;  the  capital 
expended  from  the  commencement  of  the  works  has  been  331,174/.; 
the  gross  rental  was  26,154/. ;  dividend  rather  more  than  4  per  cent. 

The  Southwark  Water-works  supplied  12,250,000  barrels  in  1833; 
the  number  of  houses  supplied  was  7,100;  the  capital  expended  since 
1823,  when  the  Old  Borough  and  London  Bridge  works  were  consoli- 
dated, has  been  25,000/. ;  the  works  belong  to  private  individuals, 
who  state  that  the  Borough  Wafer-works  did  not  pay  1  per  cent,  and 
the  London  Bridge  never  more  than  3  per  cent. 

The  whole  capital  expended  since  the  establishment  of  these  water- 
works has  been  3,171,559/.;  and  the  amount  of  dividend  upon  this 
capital  in  1833  was  between  3  and  4  i)Cr  cent.  All  of  these  were  for 
many  years  without  any  dividend,  and  frequently  much  lower  than 
that  before  named, — seldom  higher. 

I  think  the  foregoing  statement  will  prove  that  tlie  profits  of  the 
public  Water  Companies  have  not  generally  been  very  exorbitant; 
and  that,  whatever  objections  may  be  made  in  particular  cases,  great 
credit  is  due  to  the  enterprise  of  those  who  have,  for  a  trifling  gain, 
risked  their  property  for  the  public  good. 

I  cannot  proceed  fwtUer  without  remarkingi  that  in  the  observations 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


47 


I  have  made,  and  am  about  to  make,  I  am  not  advocating  any  particu- 
lai-  interests,  but  merely  expressing  my  individual  opinion  of  a  great 
public  good ;  nor  do  I  tliink  the  circumstance  of  my  being  at  present 
connected  professionally  with  one  of  the  largest  of  the  Water-works 
Companies  should  be  any  bar  to  the  expression  of  an  independent 
opinion.  In  the  following  observations,  I  can  only  regret  that  others 
more  competent  have  not  taken  the  task  in  hand,  knowing,  as  I  do,  how 
many  there  are  connected  with  this  Society  infinitely  better  able,  from 
age  and  experience,  to  do  justice  to  the  subject. 

That  Great  Britain  stands  pre-eminent  amongst  nations  is  not  only 
on  account  of  the  valuable  minerals  in  which  she  abounds,  and  which 
is  accidental,  but  also  on  account  of  the  industry  and  perseverance  of 
her  subjects  enabling  them  to  overcome  the  greatest  difficulties,  and  to 
avail  themselves  to  the  fidlest  extent  of  the  resources  Nature  has 
blessed  the  islands  with. 

The  chief  reason  that  there  are  larger  and  nobler  establishments  for 
the  public  good  is,  that  in  England,  instead  of  the  Government  exe- 
cuting and  controlling  the  large  public  works,  enterprising  individuals 
join  together,  and,  each  s\ibscribing  a  portion  of  his  property,  execute 
the  largest  and  grandest  works.  The  only  inducement  is  the  fair  ex- 
pectation tliat  the  money  subscribed  will  yield  an  equitable  return  for 
the  risk  incurred.  This  return  is  made  by  that  portion  of  the  com- 
munity wdio  derive  advantages  from  the  undertaking, — advantages 
which  could  not  be  obtained  excepting  by  joint  subscription.  If  any 
work  is  undertaken  which,  although  benelicial  to  some  portions  of  the 
community,  is  not  to  others,  that  only  which  derives  the  benefit  pays 
for  it ;  whereas,  if  it  w'ere  undertaken  by  Government,  in  many  in- 
stances the  whole  would  have  to  pay  for  the  part  enjoying  the  benefit, 
or  no  works  ujjon  a  similar  plan  to  those  which,  until  of  late  years, 
were  peculiar  to  Great  Britain,  would  be  undertaken,  as  the  acquies- 
cence of  the  majority  must  be  obtained  before  a  wise  Government 
would  embark  in  any  hirge  undertaking. 

This  system,  as  every  other,  may  be  abused ;  but  I  am  speaking  of 
the  system  when  it  is  jjroperly  worked,  not  otherwise. 

The  case  of  Sir  Hugh  Myddleton  is  one  showing  directly  the  neces- 
sity of  many  individuals  joining  together;  the  undertaking  was  too 
large,  and  the  risk  too  great  for  one  man,  to  ensure  a  safe  return ;  he 
therefore  was  ruined.  If  in  the  first  instance  others  had  joined  with 
him,  a  portion  only  of  his  fortune  would  have  been  lost.  It  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  Companies  can  be  formed  without  a  fair  chance  of  a 
return  for  the  money  risked:  and  as  the  benefit  derived  from  great 
public  works  cannot  be  obtained  otherwise,  the  nation,  while  it  is  doing 
right  to  guard  against  abuse,  nuist,  on  the  other  hand,  be  cautious  that, 
by  requiring  too  much,  it  does  not  render  the  article  too  costly,  and 
thus  put  a  stop  to  the  system.  Every  Company,  as  every  individual, 
expects  and  ought  to  be  remunerated,  otherwise  there  is  an  end  to 
companies. 

There  have  been  many  abuses  of  the  system,  and  a  consequent  sus- 
picion of  it ;  individuals  not  unfrequently  most  honestly  undertake  to 
expose  these  abuses, — it  is  a  difficult  task  ;  care  must  be  taken  that 
in  attempting  to  cure  a  limb  the  whole  body  is  not,  through  ignorance, 
destroyed. 

In  determining  upon  the  supply  of  water  to  a  large  district,  the  chief 
points  to  be  attended  to  are,  first,  whether  it  is  to  be  obtained  at  such 
a  cost  that  those  who  risk  their  money  to  obtain  it  can  supply  it  at  an 
unobjectionable  price,  and  at  the  same  time  be  fairly  remunerated ; 
second,  that  the  quality  be  good ;  and  third,  that  the  quantity  be 
abimdant. 

On  the  first  I  have  to  observe,  that  in  London,  with  the  exception 
of  the  greatest  portion  of  the  New  River  supply,  the  water  has  to  be 
raised  by  the  power  of  steam  to  dwelling-houses  situated  above  the 
source ;  and  by  the  same  power  it  must  be  forced  through  pipes,  so 
that  each  inhabitant  shall  have  a  supply :  to  preserve  and  continue 
this  power  is  the  greatest  source  of  expenditure  in  water-works.  If 
water  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  neighbourhood  at  a  sufficient  elevation 
to  run  into  the  houses  of  the  inhabitants,  recourse  must  be  had  to  me- 
chanical power,  or  the  plan  of  carrying  water  front  a  distance  by  human 
labour  must  be  readopted.  The  power  necessary  is  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  water  required  and  the  height  to  which  it  has  to  be 
raised.  If  the  elevation  is  lOU  feet,  it  will  require  double  the  power 
that  it  would  if  it  were  only  50  feet ;  if,  therefore,  the  rivers  near 
London  are  discarded,  and  deep  springs  are  resorted  to,  the  height  to 
which  the  water  vfill  have  to  be  raised  will  be  at  least  lUU  feet  greater 
than  the  height  from  the  rivers,  and  the  expense  will  be  proportion- 
ately increased,  which  must  be  met  by  increased  payment  for  the 
water.  To  raise  the  present  supply  of  London  100  feet  high,  without 
considering  friction,  a  power  equal  to  about  1480  horses  will  be  re- 
quired, working  12  hours  per  diem. 

In  addition  to  this,  as  the  water  supplied  by  the  New  River  Com- 
pany is  now  delivered  by  their  river  at  84  feet  above  the  water  of  the 


Thames,  taking  the  average  pressure  at  60  feet,  an  additional  power  of 
430  horses,  working  12  Tiours  per  diem,  would  be  required,  or  a  total 
increase  of  power  equal  to  more  than  IDOO  horses.  To  establish  and 
maintain  this  jiower  would  require  an  investment  of  capital  eepial  to 
about  1,500,000/.  The  same  reasoning  will  apply  to  filtering  the  whole 
supply. 

This  fact  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  if  more  capital  is  laid  out  in 
what  is,  often  erroneously,  termed  impioiing  the  supply,  higher  rates 
must  be  paid  ;  antl  if  those  who  pay  for  the  water  are  not  satisfied,  and 
are  willing  to  pay  higher  rates,  they  can  have  a  more  costly  article  ; 
and  that  if  any  alteration  is  made"  in  the  general  su;>ply  of  water, 
which  leads  to  increased  expenditure,  whether  tliis  is  made  by  the 
Companies  already  established,  or  by  new  Companies,  the  case  is  the 
same, — higher  rates  must  eretitually  be  paid,  whatever  is  done  in  the 
first  instance ;  and  this  appears  to  me  a  statement  wliich  no  unpreju- 
diced individual  can  gainsay; — I  am  speaking  of  the  ^cj(errtZ  supplv, 
not  of  any  particular  cases. 

And  this  brings  me  to  the  second  point,  namely,  quality.  From  the 
parliamentary  inquiries  lately  made,  it  appears  that  owing  to  the  im- 
proved drainage  in  London  consequent  upon  the  abundant  supply  of 
water  which  has  of  late  years  flowed  into  the  sewers,  the  water  of  the 
river  Thames  had  in  that  portion  in  which  the  drainage  took  place 
become  inferior  in  qualitylo  what  it  had  been  before.  The  strongest 
evidence  upon  this  subject  was  that  of  Dr.  Bostock,  a  gentleman  of 
well  known  experience  in  the  analysation  of  waters;  he  stated  dis- 
tinctly that  the  impurities  of  the  water  were  mechanical,  and  might 
be  separated  by  filtration.  It  would  also  be  well  to  notice  what  pro- 
portion of  the  supply  of  London  comes  from  this  objectionable  source  : 
about  65  per  cent,  of  the  whole  supply  is;(o/  Thames  water;  about 22 
per  cent,  is  either  taken  above  Hammersmith  Bridge,  beyond  the  in- 
fluence of  the  London  drainage,  or  is  filtered ;  and  as  to  the  remaining 
13  per  cent.,  powers  are,  or  are  about  to  be  obtained  forthwith  to 
change  the  source  of  supply.  In  the  latter  case  delay  has  been  occa- 
sioned by  a  belief,  justly  founded,  that  Parliament  would  have  proposed 
a  plan  for  their  supply ;  and  in  fact,  powers  were  refused  the  parties 
until  it  was  detern>iued  whether  this  would  be  the  case  or  not. 

For  drinking,  spring  water  is  the  pleasantest ;  and  although  it  may 
contain  certain  salts,  which  render  it  hard  and  unfit  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, it  is  not  in  the  slightest  degree  injurious  to  health.  Few  would 
prefer  river  water  to  drink,  if  they  could  obtain  spring  water,  as  the 
very  quality  of  softness  which  renders  river  water  so  valuable  for 
general  purposes,  is  that  which  renders  it  flat  and  unpalatable,  namely, 
the  absence  of  salts,  which  causes  the  water  to  be  hard. 

Thirdly,  as  to  quantity  ;  that  this  is  a  point  of  very  great  importance 
may  easily  be  proved.  In  1S33,  191,066  houses  were  supplied  with 
waier;  the  quantity  of  water  raised  was  35  millions  of  gallons  daily.  . 
Supposing  each  house  required  9  gallons  per  diem  for  drinking  in  the 
simple  form,  or  otherwise,  this  would  amount  to  TiVth  of  the  whole 
quantity,  or  5  per  cent.;  and  the  remaining  iilths,  or  95  per  cent.,  is 
required  for  washing,  cleaning  sewers,  watering  gardens,  and  running 
down  the  channels  in  the  public  streets,  and  a  portion  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  and  for  fires. 

The  Water  Companies  are  bound  to  give  an  abundant  supply  in 
case  of  fire ;  and  during  the  time  that  the  cholera  morbus  raged,  a 
gratuitous  supply  was  given,  and  the  water  was  allowed  to  run  out  of 
the  mains  down  the  streets,  alleys,  and  courts  whenever  required; — in 
the  first  instance  insuring  the  lives  and  property  of  the  public  against 
fire  ;  and  in  the  second,  preventing  the  sjiread  of  ilisease  by  rendering 
the  whole,  but  especially  the  thickly  populated  parts,  of  "the  Metro- 
polis healthy. 

If,  therefore,  so  small  a  quantity  is  required  for  drinking,  and  so 
large  a  quantity  for  other  purposes,  it  would  be  a  very  imperfect 
scheme  which  sacrificed  the  latter  for  the  former. 

If  a  purer  water  can  be  obtained,  and  is  required,  either  from  deep 
springs  or  by  universal  filtration,  as  this  cannot  be  done  excepting  by 
an  enormous  outlay  of  capital,  and  a  proportionate  increase  of  rates, 
which  is  preferable, — that  tlie  whole  35  millions  used  for  all  purposes 
should  be  filtered;  or  that  for  a  short  season  every  year,  when  the 
rivers  are  discoloured,  eacli  inhabitant  should  have  a  portable  filter, 
which  may  be  obtained  for  2Us.,  and  filter  the  twentieth  part?  That 
the  latter  would  be  the  cheapest  to  the  consumer  I  am  quite  satisfied. 
I  am  of  course  speaking  now  of  that  portion  of  the  supply  out  of  the 
influence  of  the  London  tirainage,  and  which  is  only  mechanically 
affected  in  rainy  seasons,  at  all  other  times  being  clear  and  free  from 
mechanical  impurity.  I  say  mechanical  impurity,  in  contradistinction 
to  chemical  impurity  :  the  first  may  be  got  rid  of  by  deposition  or 
filtration;  the  second  cannot  be  got  rid  of  but  by  changing  the  source. 
The  evidence,  however,  given  before  Parliament  shows  that  none  of 
the  water  supplied  to  Loudon  is  so  ckmicuUij  impure,  as  to  be  in  the 
least  degree  injurious  to  health. 


48 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


TlKit  all  inquiries  into  alwiscs  are  good  and  desirable  tlierc  is  no 
denying,  but  it  appears  to  nie  that  exaggerated  statements  liave  been 
made  ol  the  abuses  in  Water  Companies,  and  that  it  is  not  generally 
borne  in  mind  that  if  any  increased  outlay  is  necessary  it  may  be 
efVected  at  much  less  cost,  eventually,  to  the  tenantry,  by  those  whose 
works  are  established  and  whose  experience  is  great,  than  by  others; 
and  the  fact  that  great  works  liave  lately  been  executed  by  some  Com- 
panies, and  that  more  ore  about  to  be  undertaken  by  others,  without 
increasing  the  rates,  shows  a  disposition  on  the  part  of  those  engaged 
in  them  to  make  the  good  of  the  public  their  first  object.  That  some 
are  obliged  to  increase  their  rates,  upon  a  greatly  increased  expendi- 
ture, arises  from  the  dilKculties  being  so  great  tliat  the  Company  could 
not  be  carried  on  without  it,  and  unless  other  parties  will  undertake, 
and  be  bound  iinckr  >iiij/:cttiit  sicitriUea,  (to  be  determined  by  Parlia- 
ment,) to  supply  such  districts  at  lower  rates,  an  increase  should  not 
be  objected  to. 

I  am  fearful  I  have  too  long  occu])ied  the  time  of  the  Society  in  ob- 
servations which,  as  they  are  those  of  an  individual  only,  cannot  be 
of  much  importance  ;  but  thanking  them  for  their  kind  intention,  I 
will  conclude  by  an  explanitiun  of  the  mode  in  which  a  town  is  sup- 
plied with  water  according  to  the  present  system. 

If  any  town  be  so  fortunately  situated  tliat  a  supply  of  water  may 
be  had  from  springs  in  the  ntighbnurluiud,  of  good  (pialily,  abundant  in 
quantity,  and  at  a  sullicient  elevation  to  overcome  the  friction  created 
by  the  passage  of  the  water  through  the  pipes,  and  to  allow  it  to  run 
into  the  upper  stories  of  the  dwelling-houses,  the  arrangement  for  the 
supply  will  be  simple,  and  the  annual  expense  beyond  the  interest  of  the 
capital  expended  will  be  trifling.  Jt  is,  however,  but  seldom  that  such 
is  the  case. 

In  general  the  water  has  either  to  be  raised  from  the  rivers  in  the 
iunnediate  neighbourhood  at  a  great  and  continual  expense  of  power; 
or,  where  lhei(>  are  no  fresh-water  rivers  w ithin  a  pr.icticable  distance, 
from  deep  wells;  in  which  case  the  necessary  power  will  be  doubled  ; 
or,  lastly,  should  there  be  a  river  in  the  neighbcjiuhood,  and  it  should 
be  desirable  to  avoid  the  continual  expense  of  steam  ])ower,  it  may  be 
effected  by  bringing  a  cut  from  such  ))art  of  the  river  that  the  eleva- 
tion obtained  by  going  a  considerable  distance  up  the  stream  produces 
a  sutiicient  head  without  the  aid  of  machinery,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
New  River.  The  head  is  obtained  thus:  the  natural  fall  of  the  river 
from  whence  the  water  is  taken  is  so  much  greater  than  is  necessary 
to  produce  the  required  velocity  for  the  water  through  the  canal,  that 
the  difference  in  levels  makes  the  required  head. 

If  an  ojipoi-tunity  is  alfbrded  of  adopting  citlier  the  mode  of  bringing 
it  from  a  distance  by  means  of  a  canal,  or  by  jmmping  from  the  river 
by  steam  power,  tlie  choice  will  be  determined  by  Uie  result  of  the 
estimate  of  the  cost.  The  canal  will  cost  more  than  the  steam  power 
in  the  first  instance ;  and  to  determine  which  is  the  least  expensive, 
the  interest  of  the  capital  expended  added  to  the  annual  expense  of 
keeping  the  canal  in  repair  must  be  compared  with  the  interest  of 
capital  expended  for  the  steam  power  added  to  the  annual  amount  for 
repairs,  and  the  cosf  oj'futl  and  wear  and  tear  of  Hit  steam  pon'ti: 

In  small  towns  one  line  of  pipes  communicating  with  the  source 
passes  tlirough  the  streets,  and  each  inhabitant  is  supplied  at  the  same 
time.  In  larger  towns,  wliere  the  number  of  houses  to  be  supplied  is 
great,  and  the  distance  that  the  water  has  to  travel  is  also  great,  re- 
course is  had  to  the  following  contrivance :  in  the  principal  streets 
mains  are  laid,  which  convey  the  water  from  tlie  source ;  and  branch- 
ing from  these  mains,  other  smaller-sized  pipes  are  laid,  called  ser- 
vices; at  every  point  where  the  services  branch  from  the  mains  a  cock 
is  attached,  by  means  of  which  the  communication  with  the  main  is 
either  opened  or  shut  off;  from  the  services  small  lead  pipes  branch 
to  each  dwelling-house,  anil  wlienever  the  conununication  is  opened 
with  the  mains,  which  are  always  charged,  the  houses  whose  lead  pipes 
are  joined  on  to  the  service  receive  a  supply  of  water. 

The  necessity  for  such  an  arrangement  will  be  made  obvious  by  the 
following  statement : 

When  water  is  forced  tln-ough  pivies  either  by  a  natural  or  artificial 
head,  or  by  steam  or  other  power,  friction  is  created  in  proportion  to 
the  velocity  of  the  water  and  length  of  the  line  of  pipes.  As  the  dis- 
tance increases,  the  power  must  either  be  increased  or  the  velocity  re- 
duced ;  the  shorter  the  distance,  the  less  the  power  required  to  over- 
come the  friction ;  if,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  exert  a  great  power 
to  force  the  water  to  the  extremities  of  an  extensive  district,  that  they 
may  be  properly  supplied,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  power  which  is 
exerted  near  to  the  source,  not  being  required  to  overcome  so  great  an 
amount  of  friction  as  at  the  extremities,  must  be  applied  to  increase 
the  velocity  of  the  water  through  the  orifices  near  the  source ;  and  if, 
therefore,  such  an  arrangement  as  the  one  herein  before  mentioned  were 
not  adopted,  the  effect  would  be  that  those  houses  whicli  were  near 
the  source  would  have  a  superubiindantsupply,"  while  those  at  a  dis- 


tance would  have  a  very  small  s\ipply,  if  any;  but,  by  means  of  the 
system  mentioned,  when  the  inhabitiuits  near  the  source  havi'  received 
their  supply  the  cocks  on  the  services  are  shut  down,  and  the  water 
in  the  mains  passes  on  to  supply  the  services  at  the  extremities, 
wduch  will  have  a  sufficient  supply,  because  the  water,  not  being  used 
before,  must  pass  on  to  the  extremities.  That  each  may  have  an 
niuaJ  supply,  those  that  are  near  the  source  have  the  communication 
opened  with  the  main  for  a  sliorter  time  than  those  at  a  distance,  in 
]H'oportion  to  the  velocity  with  which  the  water  is  delivered. 

in  addition  to  this,  on  every  line  of  mains  and  services  orifices  of 
about  2  inches  diameter  are  made  at  certain  distances,  which  are  filled 
up  with  what  are  termed  "fire  plugs,"  being  nothing  more  than  wooden 
spigots  made  to  fit  the  orifices;  these  are  easily  fitted  and  as  easily 
removed,  and  in  case  of  a  fire  they  are  started,  and  a  supply  is  given 
directly.  The  strength  of  this  supply  is  regulated  by  means  of  the 
system  before  mentioned  ;  thus,  by  closing  the  service  cocks  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  district,  the  whole  force  of  the  water  may  be  con- 
centrated in  that  part  where  the  fire  has  occurred. 


WIRE  FENCES. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


49 


WIRE  FENCES. 

(From  the  Gardener's  Magazine.) 

At  an  ordinary  meeting  of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London,  tlie  follow- 
ing letter  to  the  secretary  from  Mr.  W.  B.  Booth,  was  read,  upon  the  mode 
of  constructing  wire  fences  for  training  espalier  fruit  trees  upon,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

"  CarcleWj  January  29,  1839. 
"  S:r,  I  heg  to  hand  you  the  following  particulars  respecting  some  wire 
trellises  lately  erected  here,  which  you  may,  probahly,  not  deem  unworthy  of 
submitting  to  the  notice  of  the  Horticultural  Society. 

"  The  object  for  which  they  are  intended  is  the  training  of  espalier  fruit 
trees  ;  and  it  occurred  to  me,  in  the  course  of  erecting  some  wire  fencing  to 
divide  a  portion  of  the  park,  that  a  similar  kind  of  erection  might  be  advan- 
tageously introduced  into  the  kitchen-garden,  which  would  answer  the  same 
piu-pose  as  the  expensive  wooden  or  cast-iron  trellises  usually  met  with  in 
those  places  where  the  espalier  mode  of  training  is  adopted.  I  accordingly 
submitted  the  plan  to  Sir  Cliarlcs  Lemon,  who  has  since  had  it  carried  into 
execution  to  a  considerable  extent. 

"  Wire  erections  of  the  kind  I  am  about  to  describe  are  not  uncommon,  I 
believe,  as  fences,  in  some  parts  of  the  kingdom ;  but  in  Cornwall  it  is  only 
within  the  last  few  years  they  have  been  introduced.     Mr.  Gilpin,  in  his  ex- 
cellent Hints  on  Landscape-Gardening,  p.  217,  has  noticed  the  wire  fence  as 
being  best  suited  for  those  parts  near  to  the  house,  or  to  the  approach,  but 
he  has  not  shown  the  manner  in  which  it  may  be  erected.     The  accompany- 
ing sketches  and  details  will,  I  trust,  supply  this  deficiency,  and  enable  any 
one  who  may  be  desirous  of  erecting  a  wire  fence  or  trellis  to  do  so,  with  the 
assistance  of  a  mason  and  blacksmith,  at  a  very  moderate  expense.     The  wire 
used  is  known  as  No.  32.  It  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  put 
up  in  large  coils.     Each  wire  measures  from  115  ft.  to  120  ft.  in  lengtli.  The 
main  upright  posts  fig.  153  a  a  are  of  iron,  1^  in.  squax'e,  and  from  5^  ft.  to 
6  ft.  high,  with  holes  6  or  7  inches  apart  for  receiving  the  small  screws  and 
nuts,  to  which  the  wires  are  attached  in  the  way  shown  at  fig.  152.     At  the 
opposite  end  the  wire  is  secured  by  being  bent  a  little  at  the  point,  and  having 
a  small  wedge  driven  over  it  in  each  of  the  holes  of  the  upright.     Both  tliese 
main  posts  are  i\  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  are  fixed  beneath  the 
surface  in  large  rough  blocks  of  stone  d  e,  with  iron  wedges,  which  are  more 
convenient,  and  answer  the  purpose  quite  as  well  as  if  they  were  run  in  with 
lead.     The  stay-bar  is  round,  and  1^  in.  in  diameter.     It  varies  in  length  ac- 
cording to  the  inclination  of  the  ground,  but  when   the  latter  is  nearly  level 
it  is  about  7   ft.  long.     The  up|ier  end  is  flattened,  and  beveled,  so  as  to 
square  with  the  upright,  to  which  it  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  screw  at,/".     The 
lower  end  is  only  a  little  bent,  that  it  may  fit  into  a  somewhat  smaller  lilock 
of  stone  e  than  the  one  at  d.     The  connecting  bar  c  is  square  or  round,  and 
need  not  exceed  an  inch  in  either  ease.     It  will  also  vary  in  length,  accord- 
ing to  circiunstanees.     On  a  nearly  level  surface  it  must  be  about  5  ft.  long, 
and  have  an  eye  at  each  end  large  enough  for  the  end  o€  the  post  and  stay  to 
go  through.     In  addition  to  this,  there  are  uprights  of  one-inch  flat  bar  by 
half  an  inch  in  thickness  fixed  in  stone,  at  30  or  40  ft.  apart,  or  even  nearer 
if  necessary,  for  the  purpose  of  stifl%ning  the  trellis. 

"  In  the  erection  of  this  kind  of  trellis,  it  is  requisite  to  have  an  instrument 
for  drawing  the  wires  Uke  the  one  represented  at  fig.  151  to  the  scale  of  an 
inch  to  a  foot,  wliich  may  be  made  without  much  difficulty.  The  one  1  have 
sketched  was  constructed  by  our  own  blacksmith,  and  is  a  very  eflicient  con- 
trivance for  the  purpose.  After  the  stones  are  bored  and  set  in  their  places, 
with  the  earth  firmly  rammed  around  them,  the  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
fix  the  main  post  a,  and  wedge  it  tight.  It  ought  to  lean  about  an  inch  back 
from  the  perpendicular,  to  allow  for  its  giving  a  little  when  the  whole  strain 
of  the  wires  comes  upon  it,  which  will  bring  it  upright.  The  connecting  bar 
c  is  then  slipped  down  over  it,  wliile  the  lower  end  of  the  stay-bar  b  is  put 
through  the  other  eye  and  into  the  stone  e,  and  the  upper  end  screwed  to  the 
main  post  at/.  The  triangle  from  which  the  wires  are  to  be  stretched  is  then 
complete.  A  similar  triangle  must  be  made  at  the  opposite  end,  and  against 
the  main  post  of  which  p  the  instrument  above  noticed  is  to  be  placed  for  the 
pm-pose  of  drawing  the  wire.  This  is  done  with  great  facility  by  means  of  a 
double  piece  of  rope-yarn  twisted  several  times  round  the  end  of  each,  and 
hooked,  as  shown  at  h.  The  screw  g  is  then  worked  until  the  wire  enters  its 
proper  hole  in  the  post^,  when  it  is  bent  and  secured  by  a  wedge,  as  already 


stated.  The  nuts  on  the  bolts  fig.  152,  at  the  end  from  which  the  wires  were 
drawn,  are  then  screwed  up  a  little,  so  as  to  make  all  tlie  wires  as  tight  as 
possible.     The  cost  of  the  whole  averages  from  Is.  (>d.  to  2s.  per  yard. 

"  I  have  been  thus  minute  with  the  details  of  the  trellis  and  the  mode  of 
erecting  it,  in  order  that  those  who  approve  of  it  may  be  al)le  to  have  others 
erected  on  the  same  plan,  for  either  of  the  purposes  to  which  it  has  been 
successfully  applied  at  Carelew. 

"  I  am.  Sir,  your  very  obedient  servant, 

"  Wm.  B.  Booth." 


STEAM  BOAT  PROPELLERS. 

Sip, — Whatever  effect  tlie  experiments  of  Geo.  Rennie,  Esq.,  on 
steam-boat  propellers,  may  have  on  the  public  generally,  allow  me  to 
say,  that  I  consider  conclusions  more  erroneous  were  never  before 
formed  from  any  experiments,  and  with  your  permission  I  will  attempt 
to  prove,  that  the  assertions  relative  to  the  superiority  of  the  spear- 
shaped  paildles  are  utterly  without  foundation.  And  what  are  these 
assertions,  and  what  are  we  called  on  to  believe?  Why,  that  the 
floats  of  a  paddle-wheel,  when  made  in  the  shape  of  a  trapezium, 
(with  tlie  acute  ends  down,)  present  double  the  resistance  to  the  com- 
mon rectangular  floats  with  three  times  the  width  and  equal  area! 
A  most  important  discovery  certainly ;  and  pray  how  is  it  that  all  our 
writers  and  experimenters  on  practical  hydraulics  have  neglected  to 
make  known  to  us  this  peculiar  but  important  property  of  the  trape- 
zium ?  Is  it  not  for  this  simpk'  reason,  and  this  only,  that  they  never 
could  have  discovered  that  such  a  property  belonged  to  it?  Indeed, 
it  is  a  most  glaring  inconsistency  to  imagine  that  a  flat  surface, 
fashioned  into  a  trapezium,  can  present  double  |the  resistance  to  a 
rectangular  s\wface  of  equal  area :  we  say  that  there  is  no  authority 
whatever  for  the  assertion,  and  happily  for  us  Mr.  Rennie  has  placed 
the  proof  within  our  reach. 

We  find,  in  the  second  table  of  experiments,  (p.  25  of  the  Journal,) 
that  a  paddle-wheel  of  3  ft.  3  in.  diameter,  with  rectangular  floats 
'••4x4  in.,  the  total  area  of  floats  immersed  being  22S-8  sq.  in.,  pro- 
pelled the  boat  at  the  rate  of  2'S  miles  per  hour,  with  -11-S  revolutions 
of  the  winch  per  minute.  Also,  that  with  trapezium-shaped  floats, 
^4x4  in.  (the  acute  ends  down,)  and  immersed  area  1ij7  sq.  in.,  with 
a  wheel  3  ft.  lo|  diameter,  and  47'.5  revolutions  per  minute,  the  same 
boat  was  propelled  at  the  rate  of  2-0  miles  per  hour. 

In  the  first  case,  i.  e.  with  rectangular  floats,  we  shall  find  on  calcu- 
lation, that  the  centre  of  pressure,  (assuming  it  in  each  case  to  be  the 
centre  of  the  floats,)  travels  at  tlie  rate  of  3s2'0  ft.  per  minute,  or  4-35 
miles  per  hour,  and  the  velocity  of  the  boat  is  stated  to  be  2-8  miles 
per  hour;  the  diflerence  between  these  two  quantities  (4-35  —  2-y)  = 
1-5.5  miles  per  hour  :  this  is  the  rate  at  wdiicli  the  floats,  with  an  area 
of  228'S  sq.  in.  recede  in  the  water,  to  obtain  resistance  sufficient  to 
propel  the  boat  at  the  rate  of  2-8  miles  per  hour. 

In  tlie  other  case,  i.  e.  with  trapezium-shaped  floats,  we  sliall  find, 
in  the  same  way,  that  the  centre  of  pressure  travels  at  the  rate  of 
4(i(;%3  ft.  per  minute,  or  5*3  miles  per  hour,  and  tlie  velocity  of  the 
boat  being  only  2-'J  miles  per  hour,  shows  that  the  floats,  having  an 
area  of  1U7  sq.  in.,  recede  at  the  rate  of  2'4  miles  per  hour,  to  produce 
an  equal  resistance,  (or  nearly  so)  to  the  rectangular  floats. 

A  writer  in  that  excellent  and  useful  publication,  the  Mechanic's 
Magazine,  states  the  propeller  to  be  "an  important  modification  of  the 
old  paddle,  being  an  ingenious  application  of  a  most  simple  and  beau- 
tiful principle  in  nature,"  and  mentions  also  the  observation  of  the 
talented  inventor,  Mr.  Rennie,  "  that  nature  never  attains  her  ends  but 
by  the  best  and  most  efficacious  means,"  meaning,  of  course,  that  the 
propeller  in  question  is  "the  best  and  most  etHcacious."  As  Mr. 
Rennie  seems  to  have  followed  nature  so  closely  in  his  invention,  it 
seems  passing  strange  that  he  should  have  overlooked  another  of  her 
principles,  equally  simple  and  important,  viz.  that  of  the  resistance 
opposed  to  the  motion  of  a  body  through  mater  being  as  the  square  of  the 
rtlocity :  had  he  tested  the  perfonuLuice  of  his  floats  by  this  simple 
law,  he  would  have  seen  at  once  on  which  side  the  efficiency  rested. 

With  the  rectangular  floats,  we  have  seen  that  the  recession,  or  the 
velocity  of  the  floats  through  the  water,  is  1-55  miles  per  hour;  the 
square  of  this  is  1-55  x  1'55  =  2  4025. 

The  recession  of  the  trapezium-shaped  floats  is  also  shown  to  be 
2-4  miles  per  hour,  the  square  of  which  is  2*4  x2'4^  5'7G. 

The  area  of  the  immersed  floats  necessary  to  produce  an  equal 
resistance  in  each  case,  is  of  course  inversely  as  their  velocity; 
and  taking  the  area  of  the  rectangular  floats  moving  through  the  water 
at  the  rate  of  1-55  miles  per  hour,  at  229  sq.  in.,  we  find,  by  simple 


50 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


proporlion,  tlip  area  of  the  sunn  yorl  nfjloat,  necessary  to  produce  an 
equal  resistance  when  moving  llirougli  tlie  water  at  the  rate  of  ■2'1 
miles  per  hour,  to  be  only  OJ'T)  sq.  in.  for  rr'li  ;  2'1()2.J  ;  ;  229  ;  95-5. 
Hence  we  see  plainly,  that  had  the  nclaiigulnr  floats  been  of  equal 
area  oiili/  with  the  trapezinni-shaped  lluafs,  and  Iraixlkd  at  the  aamt 
rctocitii,  tlie  resistance  would  have  lieen  quite  as  great,  if  not  greater; 
for  the  area  of  the  immersed  trapezium  floats  is  slated  to  be  l(i7,  and 
the  calculation  shows  that  9.5'o  sq.  in.  would  have  been  sulficient  with 
rectangular  tloals. 

But  "we  have  no  occasion  to  stop  hero;  Mr.  Rennie  has  tried  the 
merits  of  the  two  kinds  of  floats  on  a  larger  scale,  (viz.  with  the 
"Pink  "  steamer,)  and  we  shall  be  able  to  show,  that  instead  of  being 
superior,  the  trapezium-shaped  floats  prove  themselves  to  be  infinitely 
inferior  to  (he  rectangular,  as  the  experiments  are  made  on  a  larger 
and  fairer  scale. 

Pursuing  the  same  method  of  calculation,  we  find  that  in  the  wheel 
with  rectangular  floats,  the  centre  of  pressure  travelled  at  the  rate  of 
7a4'S  ft.  per  minute,  or  8-5(3  miles  per  hour,  whilst  the  boat  only 
travelled  at  the  rate  of  6-7  miles;  then  S-5(i  —  (>7  =:  PSll,  for  the  re- 
cession of  the  rectangular  floats  with  (iSirO  sq.  in.  surface.  The  centre 
of  pressure  of  the  trapezium-shaped  floats  travelled  at  the  rate  of  829 
ft.  per  minute,  or  9- 11  miles  per  hour,  and  the  boat  ti-Sl ;  then  9-41  — 
6'31  =3*07  for  the  recession  of  the  trapezium  floats  per  hour,  having 
a  surface  of  ■f32-25  sq.  in.  The  square  of  l'S(J  =  3--J59t;,  and  the 
square  of  3'(l7=:  9-5219,  then  9-5219  :  3-1590  :  :  G36  :  231  sq.  in. 
Here  we  again  see,  that  had  the  rectangular  floats  had  an  area  of  only 
231  sq.  in.,  and  trarel/ed  at  tlit.  same  nlotitij  as  tlie  trapezium,  the  re- 
sistance wovdd  have  been  equal !  Whereas  it  appears  by  the  experi- 
ment, that  the  area  of  the  immersed  trapezium-floats,  was  432  sq.  in.,  or 
(432 — 231  =  )  201  sq.  in.  greater  than  would  have  been  necessary 
with  rectutiguhir  floats. 

Thus  far,  then,  we  think  we  have  proved  all  that  we  attempted, 
and  now  let  us  ask,  what  are  the  other  advantages  besides  a  reduced 
area,  which  are  said  to  be  derived  for  tlie  use  of  the  trapezium-shaped 
floats?  A  reduction  of  two-thirds  in  the  width  of  the  paddle-wdieels 
and  boxes.     Having  clearly  shown  that  no  advantage  whatever  is 


gained  as  far  as  the  area  of  the  immersed  floats  is  concerned,  but  rather 
loss  of  power  incurred ;  what  authority  is  there  for  asserting  that 
])lacing  the  floats  endwise  is  advantageous  ?  On  the  contrary,  iTo  not 
the  experiments  prove  this  modification  to  be  as  good  ;is  disadvan- 
tageous? for  we  see  that  when  the  obtuse  luigle  was  down,  a  surface 
of  only  103  sq.  in.  w  as  suflicient  to  propel  the  boat  at  the  rate  of  2-8 
miles  per  hour,  with  only  Hi- J  turns  of  the  winch,  and  a  3  ft.  Gi  in. 
wheel  ;  but  when  the  acute  angle  was  down,  the  velocity  was  only 
2-9  miles,  with  47-5  turns  of  the  wincli  per  minnte,  and  a  3  f(.  lUi  in. 
wheel.  In  fact,  there  is  just  as  much  authority  for  stating,  and  I  make 
bold  to  say,  that  (he  results  would  be  found  equally  as  favourable,  were 
the  common  rectangular  floats  also  placed  endwise,  as  the  trapezium 
floats  are  when  in  that  position. 

The  disad\antages  of  the  common  paddle-wheel  are  universally 
acknowledgetl,  and  it  would  therefore  have  been  much  fairer,  had  Mr. 
Rennie  compared  the  etfects  of  the  trapezium  floats  with  the  cycloidal 
or  the  vertically-acting  paddle. 

Above  all,  it  may  not  perhaps  be  rude  to  ask,  who  are  the  compe- 
tent judges  and  witnesses  who  are  said  to  "have  seen  the  experiments 
repeated  again  and  again  and  testeei  them?"  I  think  I  may  venture 
to  say  that  Professor  Barlow  was  not  one  of  them,  though  he  is  said  to 
approve  of  the  ])lan  t/ieoret/catli/. 

In  sending  you  my  views  on  the  subject,  I  trust  I  shall  not  be  accused 
of  any  motive  unworthy  of  the  subject,  or  of  endeavouring  to  cast  a 
slur  over  the  efforts  of  the  talented  inventor;  but  Mr.  Rennie  should 
recollect,  that  assertions  coming  from  so  high  a  quarter,  are  much 
more  likely  to  mislead  than  when  made  by  an  obscure  individual.  If  I 
am  wrong  in  my  views  and  calculations,  it  will  be  easy  to  discover  the 
seat  of  error  and  thus  elicit  truth,  and  I  shall  then  be  the  first  to 
acknowledge  it  ;  but  should  this  letter  be  the  means  of  preventing 
a  needless  expenditure  of  money,  I  trust  that  those  interested  will 
consider  that,  instead  of  inflicting  an  injury,  I  have  conferred  on  them 
a  benefit. 


Yemsleij, 

Jan.  m,  1840. 


I  am,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
J.  L. 


TRAVERSING  SCREW-JACK. 


Fig.l 


TRAVERSING  SCREW-JACK. 

FiGuuES  I  and  2  exhibit  the  screw  modification.  The  screw- 
jack  a  is  bolted  to  the  plank  c  ;  at  the  other  end  of  the  plank  is  fixed 
the  rack  g,  in  which  the  toe  of  (he  strut/  advances  as  the  screw  Ij  is 
elevated ;  the  strut  works  in  a  joint  in  the  follower  k :  the  position  of 
the  strut  when  (he  screw  is  depressed  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 
The  object  of  this  strut  is  to  relieve  the  screw  of  the  violent  cross 
strain  to  which  (lie  apparatus  is  subject,  when  the  engine  or  carriage 
IS  pulled  over  by  the  lever;  which  strain  is  entirely  transferred  to  the 
strut,  and  the  screw  has  merely  to  carry  (he  load. 

The  operation  of  traversing  the  jack  is  as  follows  ;  by  hooking  the 


link  i  upon  (he  hook  of  the  lever  f,  the  toe  of  the  lever  being  inserted 
into  a  ratch  of  the  rack  A  of  the  lower  plank,  when  a  man,  bearing 
down  the  end  of  (he  lever,  drags  the  apparatus  and  engine  or  carriage 
towards  him  with  great  facilKy;  the  same  lever  is  used  to  (urn  the 
screw,  and  to  produce  the  traverse  motion.  By  this  apparatus  an 
engine  of  IG  tons  weight  has  been  replaced  upon  the  rails  in  five 
minutes  by  the  engineer  and  stoker  alone ;  thus  those  delays  which 
are  the  subject  of  so  much  annoyance  and  loss  to  railway  proprietors 
and  the  pulilic,  need  not  happen  in  future  ;  the  apparatus  is  exceed- 
ingly jiortable  and  cheap,  and  no  train  ought  to  be  allowed  to  go  out 
without  its  being  sent  along  with  it;  it  may  be  carried  either  upon 
the  lender,  or  upon  some  other  f  lace  which  may  be  selected  for  it. 


EAST    LONDON  WATER   WORKS 


Top  Vc€.H-  of  iia^j^. 


Mo/'i^ont€il  Seeiton  thfot/^Ji  Ga^e. 


n 


JBrfuJiff  for  sttpportin^  struxU^ 
PUtjn^ti'  Bfoc/e   for  ^Kadrcuet 


gt^.if^;^.<i<lt>^S^J:-.i^^ 


Plan  of  Bottom  ofiificte. 


T,lt.,ro»tit/ni.  HarittrA  Cr>ur< 


^d 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


51 


APPARATUS  FOR  RAISING  WATER. 

Patented  by  M.  De  L'Osier. 
accompanied  by  an  engraving,  plate  ii. 

Extract  from  Specification. 

Figure  1,  plate  2  is  a  vertical  section  of  the  apparatus,  figure  2  is 
a  plan  of  figure  1.  A  is  the  tube  leading  from  the  steam  boiler,  B  is 
the  stop  cock  to  shut  off  the  steam  when  not  required.  C  the  tube 
which  I  call  the  vacuum  tube.  D  and  E  tubes  through  which  the  air 
flows.  F  the  tube  into  which  the  steam  passes  in  its  escape  to  tlie 
chimney  or  into  the  open  air,  it  is  also  througli  this  tube  that  the  air 
passes ;  a  represents  the  openings  for  the  steam  in  the  pipe.  F, 
shewn  in  section  at  figure  3,  two  of  these  openings  a  e  circular,  paral- 
lel and  concentric  ;  the  two  others  are  plain,  and  their  direction  tends 
to  the  common  centre  of  the  circles,  generating  from  the  two  others. 
The  sectional  form  of  the  tubes  may  be  varied  to  any  form  required. 
The  interior  diameter  of  the  tube  D  is  equal  to  from  14  to  15  of  that 
of  E,  and  the  diameter  of  E  of  15  to  18  of  the  tube  F. 

The  size  of  the  opening  at  a  is  about  one-tenth  of  the  size  of  tube 
F,  these  proportions  may  be  varied,  but  I  have  found  them  produce 
good  results  in  working  with  a  jjressure  of  steam  equal  to  five  atmos- 
plieres.  The  pressure  may  be  increased  or  decreased  by  the  regula- 
tion of  the  opening  a,  XX  are  the  cylinders  containing  the  principal  parts 
used  in  the  apparatus.  K  is  a  vacuum  chamber,  1 1  pipes  communi- 
cating between  the  receiver  K  and  the  cylinder  X  X ;  M  the  cock  in 
the  pipe  C,  S  T  are  gauges  to  ascertain  the  state  of  the  rarefied  air. 

Having  described  the  parts,  I  will  now  show  tlie  manner  of  putting 
it  into  operation.  Steam  being  generated  at  a  pressure  of  five  atmos- 
pheres, the  two  cocks  B  and  M  being  closed,  on  opening  the  cock  B 
the  steam  will  flow  through  the  opening  a,  its  continued  passage 
through  the  tube  F  carries  away  the  air  in  the  cylinder  X  X,  and  pro- 
duces a  partial  vacuum  in  K,  the  mercury  of  the  gauge  T  will  rise  to 
the  height  of  50  or  55  centimetres  above  the  cup,  then  on  opening 
the  cock  M,  the  air  in  the  pipe  C  will  rush  through  the  pipes  D  E 
without  materially  altering  the  state  of  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  cy- 
linder X  X,  and  of  the  chamber  K  with  which  it  is  in  communication, 
and  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  T  instead  of  being  depi'essed  will  rise 
some  centimetres  higher,  the  state  of  the  vacuum  will  be  indicated 
by  the  mercury  at  3U  centimetres  above  the  cup.  With  this  appa- 
ratus you  can  maintain  a  constant  partial  vacuum  or  removing  of  air 
in  any  recipient.  I  will  now  proceed  to  describe  another  modification 
of  the  apparatus,  there  being  two  vacuum  vessels  used  in  place  of  one. 

Figure  4  is  a  vertical  section,  and  figure  5  a  plan  of  the  same.  A 
the  tube  leading  to  the  steam  boiler,  B  the  cock  to  shut  off  the  steam 
when  not  required,  C  the  pipe  communicating  with  the  apparatus 
from  which  atmospheric  air  is  to  be  withdrawn,  D  and  E  tubes  through 
wdiich  the  air  flows,  F  tube  into  which  the  steam  flows,  and  it  is  also 
through  this  tube  that  the  air  from  the  tubes  D  and  E  flows  with  the 
steam,  a  is  the  opening  for  tlie  escape  of  the  steam  shown  full  size  at 
figure  B,  G  tube  into  which  the  steam  and  the  air  come  from  the  part 
of  the  apparatus  to  be  now  described ;  R  R  is  a  tube  leadiug  to  the 
vacuum  chamber  O,  Q  conical  tube  communicating  with  the  chamber 
O,  through  which  the  air  passes  into  the  tube  G  by  the  pipe  R,  H 
is  the  escape  pipe  for  the  steam  and  air  into  the  atmosphere,  K  and  L 
are  the  air  vessels  or  receivers,  1 1  and  Y  are  pipes  connecting  tlie  re- 
ceivers K  and  L  to  tlie  cylinders  X  and  P,  S  T  and  U  are  the  gauges 
indicating  the  different  states  of  the  rarefied  air,  X  X  and  P  are  the 
cylinders. 

The  operation  of  this  apparatus  is  as  follows: — The  steam  being 
generated  to  a  pressure  of  five  atmospheres,  and  the  three  cocks  B  M 
and  N  being  closed,  on  opening  B  the  steam  will  flow  through  the 
orifice  a,  by  the  continued  action  of  the  steam  through  the  tube  the  air 
withdrawn  from  the  cylinder  X  and  the  chamber  K,  and  the  mercury 
will  rise  in  the  gauge  to  50  or  55  degrees  above  the  cup,  and 
there  remain.  On  opening  the  cock  M  a  constant  withdrawing  of  air 
will  take  place  with  considerable  velocity,  at  the  same  time  the  state 
of  vacuum  in  K  X  will  not  be  materially  altered,  and  the  mercury 
in  the  guage  T  will  be  raised  higher,  the  continued  action  of  the  steam 
and  air  through  the  tube  G  rarefies  the  air  in  the  receiver  L,  and  in 
the  cylinder  P,  and  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  U  rises  to  40  centime- 
tres above  that  of  its  cup,  and  is  kept  there  on  opening  the  cock  N, 
the  air  issuing  from  the  chamber  in  connection  with  the  tube  R  will 
flow  through  the  conical  tube  Q  into  the  tube  G,  the  state  of  the  air  in 
the  receiver  L  and  the  cylinder  P  is  not  at  all  changed,  but  the  mer- 
cury in  the  gauge  S  wiU  rise  3U  centimetres,  fresh  supplies  of  air  can 
be  admitted  as  explained  in  the  description  of  figures  1  and  2.    A 


third  air  vessel  may  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  second  when 
required,  by  admitting  the  atmospheric  air  through  the  pipes  R  R. 

Figure  6  is  a  iilan  of  the  apparatus  suitable  for  raising  water  from 
one  level  to  another  when  worked  by  either  of  the  apparatus  shown  in 
figures  1  to  5.  Figure  7  is  an  elevation  of  the  same,  these  having 
been  previously  described  in  the  preceding  drawings,  I  have  not 
thought  it  necessary  to  repeat  the  description.  Figure  S  is  a  vertical 
section  of  the  exhausting  or  draining  machine,  from  a  line  drawn  froni 
P  to  Q  shown  at  figure "O.  Figure  9  is  a  plan  of  the  stage  No.  1,  as 
shown  at  figure  S,  from  a  line  drawn  from  N  to  O  ;  S  S  S  are  the  re- 
ceivers placed  i.ne  above  the  other  at  equal  distances.  T  T  T  are 
the  ascending  tubes  terminating  in  the  receiver  S ;  the  lower  part  of 
the  tube  T  of  the  stage  No.  1  is  placed  on  the  well  or  other  source  of 
water  Y  Y,  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  other  tubes  are  placed  in  the  , 
receivers  S.  The  number  of  these  stages  may  be  increased  or  de- 
creased according  to  the  height  that  the  water  is  required  to  be  raised. 
At  the  top  of  each  of  the  ascending  tubes  T  there  is  a  valve  Y ;  Z  is  the 
tube  through  wliich  the  air  is  withdrawn,  the  lower  end  of  the  tube  is 
open  and  plunged  in  the  water  of  the  well  Y  Y,  it  is  connected  with 
the  pneumatic  apparatus  by  the  tube  K,  and  with  the  recipients  S  SS, 
by  the  small  tubes  U  U  U  ;  X  X  X  are  the  floats,  and  V  V  V  are  the  air 
valves.  In  the  top  of  the  upper  receiver  S  is  attached  a  bent  dis- 
charge tube  W,  closed  by  a  valve  W';  R  is  the  reservoir  for  the  water 
wdien  raised,  M  shows  where  a  pipe  may  be  fixed  to  conduct  the  water 
to  any  place  required. 

To  put  this  machine  into  operation,  the  cock  E,  figures  6  and  7  of 
the  apparatus,  is  to  be  opened,  the  air  and  steam  flowing  into  the 
atmosphere  by  the  lubes  F  F,  and  the  mercury  of  the  gauge  I  will  rise 
to  50  or  55  centimetres  above  its  cup.  The  cock  L  is  then  opened, 
and  the  air  contained  in  the  interior  of  the  exhausting  machine  will 
flow  through  tlie  tube  K  across  the  pneumatic  apparatus  v»ith  great 
speed,  at  least  200  centimetres  per  second,  and  will  flow  into  the 
atmosphere  with  the  steam.  The  discharge  of  the  air  across  the  ap- 
paratus does  not  in  any  way  aftect  the  state  of  the  vacuum,  as  may  be 
ascertained  by  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  I  always  remaining  at  the 
same  height.  The  height  of  the  mercury  in  the  gauge  M  will  always 
indicate  the  state  of  the  air  contained  in  the  exhausting  machine  when 
it  is  about  31  or  32  centimetres  ;  the  receiver  S  of  the  stage  No.  1  is 
full  of  water  drawn  from  the  well  Y  Y,  the  float  X  will  then  raise  the 
small  valves  V  V,  and  close  the  orifice  U  for  the  discharge  of  the  air 
against  which  it  will  be  held  fast,  the  atmospheric  air  being  admitted 
through  the  small  openings  of  the  valves  V,  the  valve  Y  closes,  and 
the  pressure  on  the  water  in  the  receiver  forces  it  up  into  the  receiver 
S  of  the  stage  No.  2.  The  same  operation  is  performed  in  the  stages 
No.  2  and  3  as  that  described  with  regard  to  No.  1,  it  is  not  therefore 
necessary  to  repeat  the  description.  The  air  valves  of  the  stages  No. 
1  and  3  are  opened  by  their  floats  at  the  same  time  that  they  are  closed 
in  the  stage  No.  2,  they  will  then  be  restored  to  their  original  position. 
The  water  when  raised  to  the  upper  receiver  at  the  stage  No.  3,  flows 
through  the  tube  W  into  the  large  reservoir  R,  and  the  valve  W  is 
raised  to  allow  it  to  pass  freely,  during  this  time  the  water  again  flows 
into  the  receiver  of  the  stage  No.  1.  Besides  this  tube  W  in  the  re- 
ceiver S  of  the  stage  No.  3,  there  is  another  which  is  not  shown  in  the 
drawing,  the  object  of  it  is  to  regulate  the  opening  of  the  valve  by 
means  of  a  screw,  in  order  to  regulate  the  flow  of  the  water  in  such 
manner  that  the  float  X  shall  press  against  the  air  escape  pipe,  at  the 
same  time  that  the  float  of  the  stage  No.  2  raises  its  air  valves,  and 
the  float  of  the  stage  No.  1  presses  against  the  opening  of  the  air 
escape  pipe.  In  order  that  the  floats  should  properly  perform  the 
functions  thit  are  assigned  to  them,  they  must  he  so  constructed  that 
the  power  which  they  require  by  the  quantity  of  water  displaced,  will 
be  sufficient  to  raise  its  proper  weight,  and  to  overcome  the  resistance 
which  the  pressure  of  the  air  exercises  upon  the  air  valves,  and  the 
weights  of  these  same  valves,  and  also  that  when  the  receivers  are 
empty,  their  weight  allowing  for  the  part  which  is  sustained  by  the 
water  in  the  tube  in  which  they  are  placed,  will  be  sufficient  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  the  pressure  of  the  air,  which  keeps  it  pressed 
against  the  opening  of  the  air  escape  pipe.  The  air  escape  pipe  Z  Z 
is  placed  in  the  water  of  the  well  Y  Y,  in  order  that  if  the  water  in 
the  receiver  (S  S  S)  slioidd  flow  into  it  through  the  tube  U  U,  it  may 
fall  down  into  the  well.  This  machine  may  also  be  worked  by  using 
any  number  of  air  vessels  that  may  be  required. 


Artesian  Well. — The  boring  instrument  now  at  work  for  the  Artesian 
well  in  the  abattoir  at  Grenelle  has  reached  the  depth  of  508  metres,  or  1,666J 
feet.  The  earth  brought  up  is  still  a  greenish  clay.  It  requires  4  horses  and 
12  men  to  keep  the  apparatus  in  action;  and  it  is  daily  hoped  to  see  water 
bui-st  up.  The  temperatui-e  increases  a  degree  ia  warmth  for  every  30  yards 
penetrated  downwards. 

H2 


52 


THE  CIVIL  ENCINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[FKBRtrARY, 


REVIEWS. 

Rf])ton's  Landscape  Gardeninr/  and  Landscape  Architecfiire,  a  New  Edition. 
By  J.  C.  Loudon,  F.L.S.     Lomlon  :  Longman  and  Co.,  1840. 


'laijii/  ruiiiii 


HUMPHRY  REPTON. 

IIiini))liiy  Rcpton  was  born  at  Bury  St.  Edmond's,  May  2d,  1  "r>2,  of  a 
respectalde  family,  and  w.as  originally  intended  for  trade.  At  an  early  |ieriod 
lie  was  thrown  into  contact  with  the  Hopes  of  Amsterdam,  a  circmnstance 
which  perhaps  decided  the  natural  bent  of  his  mind,  and  confirmed  tliat  love 
for  the  arts  which  forbade  any  other  pm-suit.  After  a  long  contest  against 
his  favourite  studies,  about  1 788  he  decided  upon  adopting  the  profession  of 
a  Landscape  Gardener,  a  title  which  lie  created  and  maintained  against  those 
who  decried  its  novelty.  What  was  his  success  iii  this  career  it  is  uuneces- 
saiT  for  us  to  mention,'Englaud  abounds  with  bis  works,  and  he  has  left  be- 
hind him  a  name  which  will  live  when  the  tr.iccs  of  his  labours  have  vanished. 
His  personal  character  powerfully  influenced  him  in  his  artistical  career,  mild 
and  amiable  in  his  disposition,  the  same  feelings  seemed  to  influence  bis  de- 
signs. Cirandeur  perhaps  he  rarely  attained,  but  in  producing  scenes  of  culti- 
vated and  placid  beauty,  speaking  at  once  of  comfort  and  of  wealth,  he  stood 


without  a  rival.  He  seemed  as  it  were  the  genius  born  for  cultivating  the 
gentle  slopes,  aud  verdant  meads  of  the  sea-girt  island,  ever  inspired  with  that 
love  of  the  beautiful  in  nature,  which  marks  the  English  character,  fertile  in 
expedient,  he  waged  perpetual  battle  against  the  rude  and  unpicturesque,  and 
powerfully  contributed  towards  promoting  that  taste  in  landscape  which  has 
rendered  this  country  the  model  of  surrounding  nations. 

Repton's  works  consist  of  an  agglomeration  of  fragments  dispersed  over 
one  folio  and  three  quarto  volumes,  now,  however,  collected  by  Mr.  Loudon 
into  one  volume  octavo.  The  service  which  Mr.  Loudon  has  rendered  by 
this  task,  cannot  be  too  highly  appreciated  by  the  public,  for  he  thus  codified 
(as  Hentbam  would  have  called  it)  the  most  valuable  materials  on  the  theory 
and  practice  of  the  art.  Tlu-onghout  these  works  a  continual  flow  of  origin- 
ality of  thought  and  beauty  of  idea  seems  to  run  from  the  pencil  and  pen  of 
Mr.  Repton,  while  the  manner  in  which  he  exhibits  its  own  personal  interest 
in  the  subject  give  such  a  tone  of  identity  as  to  resemble  rather  the  warm 
breathing  words  of  a  professor  than  the  cool  notes  of  a  closet  WTiter.  Repton 
is  always  present  before  us,  and  yet,  instead  of  charging  him  with  egotism, 
we  receive  him  as  a  kindly  guide  and  instructor.  There  are  few  portions  of 
Milton  more  interesting  than  that  where  alluding  to  his  blindness,  we  are 
personally  introduced  to  an  author  whom  we  admire.  Thus  Repton  alludes 
to  some  of  his  grievances. 

'*  I  cannot  help  mentioning,  that,  from  the  obstinacy  and  bad  taste  of  the 
Bristol  mason  who  executed  the  design,  I  was  mortified  to  find  that  Gotliic 
entrance  built  of  a  dark  blue  stone,  with  dressiTigs  of  white  Bath  stone  ;  and 
in  another  place,  the  intention  of  the  design  was  totally  destroyed,  by  paint- 
ing all  the  wood-work  of  this  cottage  of  a  bright  pea-green.  Such,  alas  !  is 
the  mortifying  diflference  betwixt  the  design  of  the  artist,  and  the  execution 
of  the  artificer." 

"  Such  is  tlie  horror  of  seeing  any  building  belonging  to  the  offices,  that, 
in  one  instance,  I  was  desired  by  the  architect  to  plant  a  wood  of  trees  on  the 
earth  winch  had  been  laid  over  the  copjior  roofs  of  the  kitchen  offices,  and 
which  extended  300  feet  in  length  from  the  house." 

To  show  the  judicious  observations  of  Mr.  Repton  relative  to  the  architec- 
ture and  alterations  of  old  buildings,  we  select  the  following  extracts  from 
different  parts  of  the  work  before  us,  and  through  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Lou- 
don, we  are  enabled  to  give  a  few  of  the  valuable  illustrations. 


FIG.  2.-ASHT0N  COURT. 


S-^S.^^^G?'-"*^'"^ 


The  old  part  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 


The  new  part  added  in  the  reign  of  George  HI. 


"  The  annexed  engraving  of  Ashton  Court,  fig.  2,  furnishes  an  example 
of  m.iking  considerable  additions  to  a  very  ancient  mansion,  without  neglect- 
ing the  comforts  of  modern  life,  and  without  mutilating  its  original  style  and 
character. 

"  This  house  was  built  about  the  reign  of  HcniT  VL,  and  originally  con- 
sisted of  many  different  courts,  surrounded  by  buildings,  of  which  three  are 
still  remaining ;  in  all  tliise  the  Gothic  windows,  battlements,  and  jirojecting 
Ijuttresses,  have  been  preserved;  but  the  front  towards  the  south,  150  feet 
in  length,  was  built  by  Inigo  Jones,  in  a  heavy  (irecian  style  ;  tliis  front  was 
designed  to  form  one  side  of  a  large  quadrangle,  l)ut,  from  the  unsettled  state 
of  public  affairs,  the  other  three  sides  were  never  added,  and  the  present  long 
front  was  never  intended  to  be  seen  from  a  distance  :  this  building  consists 
of  a  very  fine  gallery,  which  has  been  shortened  to  make  such  rooms  as  mo- 
dern habits  require ;  but  it  is  now  proposed  to  restore  this  gallery  to  its  ori- 


ginal character,  and  to  add  in  the  new  part,  a  library,  drawing-room,  eating- 
room,  billiard-room,  with  bed-rooms,  dressing-rooms,  and  a  family  apartment, 
for  which  there  is  no  provision  in  the  old  part  of  the  mansion.  It  is  also 
proposed  to  take  down  all  the  ruinous  offices,  and  rebuild  them  with  the  ap- 
pearance of  antiquity,  and  the  conveniences  of  modern  improveineiit. 

"  A  general  idea  prevails,  that,  in  most  cases,  it  is  better  to  rebuild  than 
repair  a  very  old  lionse  ;  aud  the  architect  often  finds  less  difficidty  in  making 
an  entire  new  plan,  than  in  adapting  judicious  alterations :  but  if  a  single 
fragment  remains  of  the  grandeur  of  former  times,  whether  of  a  castle,  an 
abbey,  or  even  a  house,  of  the  date  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  I  cannot  too  strongly 
enforce  tlie  propriety  of  preserving  the  original  character  of  such  antiquity, 
lest  every  hereditary'  mansion  in  the  kingdom  should  dwindle  into  the  insig- 
nificance of  a  modern  villa." 


l-ff,ff  4 


J K  <Jiyf'hint,    Unf^i^-f^a  Caure 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


53 


FIG.  3.— WEST  FRONT  OF  THE  PAVILION. 


Application  of  Indian  Architecture. 

"  Having  already  shown  the  difficulty  of  adapting  either  the  Grecian  or 
Gothic  styles  to  the  character  of  an  English  palace,  this  newly  discovered 
style  of  architecture  seems  to  present  a  new  expedient  for  the  piu'pose,  in  the 
forms  made  known  to  this  country  by  the  accurate  designs  of  Mr.  Thomas 
Daniell,  and  other  artists,  which  have  opened  new  sources  of  grace  and 
beauty. 

"  To  the  materials  of  wood  and  stone  we  have  lately  added  that  of  cast- 
iron,  unknown  in  former  times,  either  in  Grecian  or  Gothic  architecture,  and 
wliich  is  pecuharly  adapted  to  some  light  parts  of  the  Indian  style. 

"  In  Grecian  architecture,  the  artist  is  confined  to  five  (or,  rather,  only  to 
three)  different  orders  of  columns,  so  restricted  in  their  relative  proportions, 
that  they  are  seldom  used  externally,  with  good  effect,  in  modern  houses,  and 
are  generally  found  too  bulky  for  internal  use.  Indian  architecture  presents 
an  endless  variety  of  forms  and  proportions  of  pillars,  from  the  ponderous 
supports  of  the  cavern,  to  the  light,  airy  shafts  which  enrich  their  corridors, 
or  support  their  varandahs.  This  alone  would  justify  the  attempt  to  adapt 
a  style,  untried,  for  the  purpose  to  which  other  styles  have  been  found  inap- 
plicable or  inadequate. 

"  It  is  difficult  for  an  artist  at  once  to  divest  himself  of  forms  he  has  long 
studied :  this  will  account  for  the  confusion  of  Grecian  and  Gothic  in  the 
works  of  John  of  Padua,  Inigo  Jones,  and  others,  about  the  same  date,  which 
occasioned  that  mixture  of  style,  condemned  in  after-times  for  the  reasons 
already  assigned.  The  same  thing  may  he  observed  in  the  first  introduction 
of  Gothic,  mixed  with  the  Saxon  and  Norman  which  preceded  it :  and  the 
same  will,  doubtless,  happen  in  many  instances,  during  the  introductory  ap- 
plication of  Indian  architecture  to  English  uses,  while  a  false  taste  «ill  both 
admire  and  condemn,  \vithout  any  true  standard,  the  various  forms  of  novelty. 

"  If  I  might  humbly  venture  to  suggest  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  I  should 
recommend  the  use  only  of  such  Indian  fonns  or  proportions  as  bear  the 
least  resemblance  to  those  either  of  the  Grecian  or  Gothic  style,  with  which 
they  are  liable  to  be  compared.  If  the  piUars  resemble  Grecian  columns,  or 
if  the  apertures  resemble  Gothic  arches,  they  will  offend,  by  seeming  to  be 
Incorrect  specimens  of  well-known  forms,  and  create  a  mixed  style,  as  dis- 
gusting to  the  classic  observer  as  the  mixture  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  Gothic. 
But  if,  from  the  best  models  of  Indian  structures,  such  parts  only  be  selected 
as  cannot  be  compared  with  any  known  style  of  English  buildings,  even  those 
whom  novelty  cannot  delight,  will  have  little  cause  to  regret  the  introduction 
of  new  beauties. 

"  On  these  grounds,  therefore,  I  do  not  hesitate  to  answer  the  question, 
concerning  which  I  am  commanded  to  deliver  my  opinion,  that  the  Indian 
character  ha\-ing  been  already  introduced  (in  part)  by  the  large  edifice  at  the 
Pavilion,  the  house  and  every  other  building,  should  partake  of  the  same 
character,  unmixed  either  with  Grecian  or  Gothic  ;  and  without  strictly  copy- 
ing either  the  mosques,  or  the  mausoleums,  or  the  serais,  or  the  hill-forts,  or 


the  excavations   of  the  east,  the  most  varied  and  graceful  forms  should  1) 
selected,  with  such  combinations,  or  even  occasional  deviations  and  improve- 
ment, as  the  general  character  and  principles  of  construction  will  admit." 

Concerning  Cobham. 

"  Whether  we  consider  its  extent,  its  magnificence,  or  its  comfort,  there 
are  few  places  which  can  vie  with  Cobham,  in  Kent,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Darnley;  and  none  which  I  can  mention,  where  so  much  has  been  done,  both 
to  the  house  and  grounds.  Under  my  direction,  for  so  long  a  series  of  years ; 
yet,  as  the  general  principles  in  the  improvements  originated  in  the  good 
taste  of  its  nol)le  proprietor,  they  may  be  referred  to,  without  incuiTJng  the 
imputation  of  vanity. 

"  It  is  now  twenty-five  years  since  I  first  visited  Cobham,  where  a  large  and 
splendid  palace,  of  the  date  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  formed  the  three  sides  of  a 
quadrangle,  the  fourth  side  being  open  to  the  west.  The  centre  building  had 
been  altered  by  Inigo  Jones,  who  had  added  four  pilastres  without  any  atten- 
tion to  the  original  style,  and  without  extending  his  improvements  to  the  two 
long  sides  of  the  quadrangle. 

"  The  interior  of  tliis  mansion,  like  that  of  most  old  houses,  however 

Fig.  4 — Entrance  and  north  front  of  Cobliam  Hall,  Kent. 


-^^^^ 


54 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Frbruart, 


adapted  to  the  customs  and  manners  of  the  times  in  which  tlicy  were  l)uih, 
was  cold  and  comfortless,  compared  with  modern  houses.  A  large  hall,  an- 
ciently used  as  the  dining-rooin,  occupied  more  than  half  tlie  centre  ;  and 
the  rest  helonged  to  the  huttcry  and  offices,  in  the  manner  still  preserved  in 
old  colleges.  The  two  wings  contained  rooms,  inaccessible,  hut  liy  ])assing 
through  one  to  the  other;  and  the  two  opposite  sides  were  so  disjoined  hy 
the  central  hall,  that  each  was  entered  hy  a  separate  ])orch. 

"The  great  hall  at  Cohham  has  been  converted  into  a  music-room,  of  fifty 
feet  by  thirty-six,  and  thirty  feet  high  ;  and  is  one  of  the  most  splendid  ajid 
costly  in  the  kingdom,  T)ie  rest  of  the  ccjitral  building  forms  the  library, 
or  general  hving  room  ;  which,  instead  of  looking  into  an  entrance-court,  as 
formerly,  now  looks  into  a  flower-garden,  enriched  with  marljle  statues  and  a 
fninitain,  forming  an  ai)propriate  frame,  or  foregrouml,  to  the  landscape  of 
the  park.  The  entrance  has  been  removed  to  the  north  front,  under  an  arch- 
way, or  parte  coc/iere,  over  which  a  walk  from  the  level  of  the  picture  gallery 
(wliich  is  up  stairs)  crosses  the  road,  in  the  manner  described  by  the  annexed 
sketch,  tig.  1,  representing  the  north  front,  as  it  has  been  restored  to  its 
original  character.  In  this  view  is  also  the  bastion,  by  which  the  teiTaec- 
walk  terminates  with  a  view  into  the  park." 

We  cordially  agree  with  Mr.  Repton  in  the  following  observations  "  Con- 
cemhiff  improvements." 

"  I  have  frequently  been  asked,  whether  the  improvement  of  the  coimtrv, 
in  beauty,  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  increase  of  its  wealth  ;  and,  perhaps, 
have  feared  to  deliver  my  opinion  to  some  who  have  jmt  the  cpiestion.  I 
now  may  speak  tlie  truth,  without  fear  of  offending,  since  time  has  brought 
about  those  changes  which  I  long  ago  expected.  The  taste  of  the  country 
has  bowed  to  the  shrine  which  all  worship ;  and  the  riches  of  individuals 
have  changed  the  face  of  the  country. 

"  There  are  too  many  wiio  have  no  idea  of  improvement,  except  by  in- 
creasing the  qnantity,  the  quality,  or  the  value  of  an  estate.  The  beauty  of 
its  scenei7  seldom  enters  into  their  thought :  and,  Mli at  will  it  cost  .'"or. 
What  will  it  jield  ?  not.  How  will  it  look  .'  seems  the  general  object  of  in- 
quiry in  all  improvements.  Formerly,  I  can  recollect  the  art  being  compli- 
mcnti'd  as  likely  to  extend  it«  influence,  till  all  England  would  become  one 
landscape  garden  ;  and  it  was  then  the  pride  of  a  conntry  gentleman  to  show 
the  beauties  of  his  place  to  the  public,  as  at  Audley  End,  Shardeloes,  ami 
many  other  celebrated  parks,  through  which  i)ublic  roads  were  purposely 
made  to  pass,  and  the  views  displayed  by  means  of  sunk  fences.  Now,  on 
the  contrai-y,  as  soon  as  a  purchase  of  land  is  made,  the  first  thing  is  to  seciu-e 
and  shut  np  the  whole  hy  a  lofty  close  pale,  to  cut  dowm  every  tree  that  will 
sell,  and  jdough  every  inch  of  land  that  will  jiay  for  so  doing.  The  annexed 
two  sketches,  figures   5  and  G,  sen-e  to  show  the  effect  of  such  improvc- 


IHg.  5— View  from  a  public  road  which  passes  tlirong-h  a  forest  waste. 


mcnt ;  they  both  represent  the  same  spot ;  formerly,  the  venerable  trees 
m.arked  the  property  of  their  ancient  proprietor ;  and  the  adjoining  forest, 
waste,  or  common,  might,  perhaps,  produce  nothing  liut  beauty;  now  the 
trees  are  gone,  the  pale  is  set  at  the  very  verge  of  the  statute  width  of  road, 
the  conmiou  is  enclosed,  and  the  proprietor  boasts,  not  that  it  produces  corn 
im  man,  or  gi-ass  for  cattle,  but  that  it  produces  him  rent :  thus  money  su- 
persedes every  other  consideration. 

This  eager  pursuit  of  gain  has,  of  late,  extended  from  the  new  proprietor, 
whose  habits  have  been  connected  with  trade,  to  the  ancient  hereditary  gen- 
tleman, wiio,  condescending  to  become  his  own  tenant,  grazier,  and  butcher, 
can  have  little  occasion  for  the  landscape  gardener :  he  gives  up  beauty  for 
gain,  and  prospect  for  the  produce  of  his  acres.  This  is  the  only  improve- 
ment to  which  the  thirst  for  riches  aspires ;  and,  while  1  witness,  too  often, 
the  alienation  of  ancient  family  estates,  Oom  waste  and  extravagance,  I  fre- 
quently see  the  same  effect  produced   by  cupidity  and  mistaken  notions  of 

sordid  improvement,  rather  than  enjoyment  of  property,    Jiut,  to  whatever  \ 


cause  it  may  be  attributed,  the  change  of  property  into  new  hamis,  was  never 
before  so  frequent ;  and  it  is  a  painful  circumstance  to  the  professional  im- 
prover, to  see  his  favourite  plans  nipped  in  the  bud,  which  he  fondly  hoped 
would  ripen  to  perfection,  and  extend  their  benefits  to  those  friends  by  whom 
he  is  consulted. 

"  In  jiassing  through  a  distant  county,  I  had  observed  a  part  of  the  road 
where  the  scenery  was  particularly  interesting.  It  consisted  of  large  spread- 
ing trees,  intermixed  with  thorns :  on  one  side,  a  view  info  Lord  *  *  «  *  's 
l)ark  was  admitted,  by  the  jiale  being  sunk;  and  a  ladder-stile,  placed  near  an 
aged  beech,  tempted  me  to  explore  its  beauties.  On  the  opposite  side,  a 
bench,  and  an  umbrageous  |)art  of  an  adjoining  forest,  invited  me  to  pause, 
and  make  a  sketch  of  the  spot.  After  a  lapse  of  ten  years,  I  was  surjirised 
to  see  the  change  which  had  been  made.     I  no  longer  knew,  or  recollected. 


Fig.  6- 


-View  after  the  forest  waste  had  been  enclosed,  and   the  ground  sub- 
jected to  agricultural  improvement. 


the  same  place,  till  an  old  lahourer  explained,  that,  on  the  death  of  the  late 
loi-d,  the  estate  had  been  sold  to  a  very  rich  man,  who  had  improved  it ;  for, 
by  cutting  down  the  timber,  and  getting  an  act  to  enclose  the  common,  he 
had  doubled  all  the  rents.  The  old  mossy  ami  ivy-covered  pale  was  replaced 
by  a  new  and  lofty  close  paling ;  not  to  confine  the  deer,  but  to  exclude  man- 
kind, and  to  protect  a  miserable  narrow  belt  of  firs  and  Lombardy  poplars : 
the  bench  was  gone,  the  ladder-stile  was  changed  to  a  caution  against  man- 
traps and  spring-gims,  and  a  notice  that  the  foot-path  was  stO])ped  by  order 
of  the  commissioners.  As  I  read  the  hoard,  the  old  man  said, — '  It  is  very 
true,  and  I  am  forced  to  walk  a  mile  further  round,  every  night,  after  a  hard 
day's  work.'  This  is  the  common  consequence  of  all  enclosures :  and,  we 
may  ask,  to  whom  are  they  a  benefit .' 

"  '  Adding  to  riches  an  increased  store. 
And  making  poorer  those  already  poor.'  " 

Mr.  Repton  gives  the  following  interesting  testimony  to  his  predecessor 
Browni,  whose  example  he  prided  himself  in  following. 

"  Mr.  Brown's  fame  as  an  architect  seems  to  have  been  eclipsed  by  his 
celebrity  as  a  landscape  gardener,  he  being  the  only  professor  of  one  art, 
while  he  had  many  jealous  competitors  in  the  other.  But  wiien  I  consider 
the  number  of  excellent  works  in  architecture  designed  and  executed  by  him, 
it  becomes  an  act  of  justice  to  his  memory  to  record,  that,  if  he  was  superior 
to  all  in  what  related  to  his  own  peculiar  profession,  he  was  inferior  to  none 
in  wliat  related  to  the  comfort,  convenience,  taste,  and  propriety  of  design, 
in  the  several  m.insions  and  other  buildings  which  he  planned.  Having 
occasionally  visited  and  admired  many  of  them,  I  was  induced  to  make  some 
inquiries  concerning  his  works  ns  an  architect,  and,  with  the  permission  of 
Mr.  Holland,  to  whom,  at  his  decease,  he  left  his  drawings,  I  insert,  the  fol- 
lowing list : — 

'•  For  the  Earl  of  Coventry.  Croome,  house,  oflices,  lodges,  church,  &e., 
1751. 

The  same.     S|)ring  Hill,  a  new  place. 

Earl  of  Donegal.     Fisherwick,  house,  oflices,  and  bridge. 

Earl  of  Exeter.     Burleigh,  addition  to  the  house,  new  offices,  &c. 

Ralph  Allen,  Esq.,  near  Bath,  additional  building,  1765. 

liOrd  Viscount  P.almcrslon.     Broadland,  considerable  ailditions. 

Lord  Craven.     Benham,  a  new  house. 

"  Robert  Drummond,  Esq.  Cadlauds,  a  new  house,  offices,  farm  build- 
ings, &c. 

Earl  of  Bute.     Christ  Church,  a  bathing-place. 

Paul  Methuen,  Esq.     Corshara,  the  picture  gallery,  &c. 

Marquis  of  Staft'onl.     Trentham  Hall,  considerable  alterations. 

Earl  of  Newbuiy.     House,  offices,  &c.,  1762. 

Rowland  Holt,  Esq.     Redgiave,  large  new  house,  1765. 

Lord  Willoughby  de  Broke.     Compton,  a  new  chapel. 

Marquis  of  Bute.     Cardiff  Castle,  large  additions. 

Earl  llarcomt.     Nuneham,  alterations  and  new  offices. 

Lord  Clive.     Clermont,  a  large  new  house. 

Earl  of  Warwick,    Warwick  Castle,  added  to  the  entrance. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


55 


Lord  Cobliam.     Stowe,  several  of  the  buildings  ill  the  gardens. 
Lord  Clifford.     Ugbrooke,  a  new  house. 

"  To  this  list  Mr.  Holland  added  :  '  I  cannot  be  indifferent  to  the  fame  and 
character  of  so  gi'cat  a  genius,  and  am  only  afraid  lest,  in  giving  the  annexed 
account,  I  should  not  do  him  justice.  No  man  that  I  ever  met  %rith  under- 
stood so  well  what  was  necessary  for  the  haliitation  of  all  ranks  and  degrees 
of  society  ;  no  one  disposed  his  offices  so  well,  set  his  buildings  on  snch  good 
levels,  designed  such  good  rooms,  or  so  well  provided  for  the  approach,  for 
the  drainage,  and  for  the  comfort  and  conveniences  of  eveiy  part  of  a  place 
he  was  concerned  in.  This  he  did  without  ever  having  had  one  single  diffe- 
rence or  dispute  with  any  of  his  employers,  lie  left  them  pleased,  and  they 
remained  so  as  long  as  he  lived ;  and  when  he  died,  his  friend.  Lord  Coven- 
try, for  whom  he  had  done  so  much,  raised  a  monument  at  Croome  to  his 
memoiy.' 

"  I  will  conclude  this  tribute  to  the  memory  of  my  predecessor,  hy  tran- 
scribing the  last  stanza  of  his  epitaph,  written  by  Mr.  Mason,  and  which 
records,  with  more  truth  than  most  epitaphs,  the  private  character  of  tliis 
truly  great  man : — 

"  '  But  know  that  more  than  genius  slumbers  here ; 

Virtues  were  his  which  art's  liest  powers  transcend  : 
Come,  ye  superior  train,  who  these  revere, 

And  weep  tlie  christian,  husband,  father,  friend.'  " 

In  these  last  words  Repton  has  written  at  the  same  time  liis  own  epitaph, 
so  admirably  do  they  dcscrilie  him  as  an  artist  and  a  man.  At  the  head  of 
this  article  is  a  profile  of  him,  with  a  diagram  illustrative  of  his  doctrine  of 
the  theory  of  vision.  He  died  as  he  had  lived,  quietly  on  the  2-lth  of  March, 
1818,  at  Harestreet  in  Essex,  his  residence  diuing  latter  years. 

The  following  extract  from  his  description  tells  in  a  few  words  the  man 
and  his  character. 

"  Twenty  ycais  have  now  passed  away,  and  it  is  possible  that  life  may  be 
extended  twenty  years  longer,  but,  from  my  feelings,  more  proliable  that  it 
will  not  reach  as  many  weeks ;  and,  therefore,  I  may  now,  perliaps,  be  writ- 
ing the  last  Fragment  of  my  labours.  1  have  Uved  to  see  many  of  my  plans 
beautifully  realized,  but  many  more  cruelly  marred :  sometimes  by  false 
economy ;  sometimes  by  iiijucUcious  extravagance.  I  have  also  Uved  to  reach 
that  period  when  the  improvement  of  houses  and  gardens  is  more  delightful 
to  me  than  that  of  parks  or  forests,  landscapes  or  distant  prospects. 

"  I  can  now  expect  to  produce  little  that  is  new  ;  I  have,  therefore,  endea- 
voured to  collect  and  arrange  the  observations  of  my  past  life :  this  has 
formed  the  amusement  of  the  last  two  winters,  betwi.xt  intenals  of  spasm, 
from  a  disease  incurable,  during  which  time  I  have  called  up  (by  my  pencil) 
the  places  and  scenes  of  wliieh  I  was  most  proud,  and  marshalled  them  be- 
fore me  ;  happy  in  many  pleasing  remembrances,  which  revive  the  sunshine 
of  my  days,  though  sometimes  clouded  by  the  recollection  of  friends  removed, 
of  scenes  destroyed,  and  of  promised  happiness  changed  to  sadness. 

"  The  most  valuable  lesson  now  left  me  to  communicate  is  this  :  I  am  con- 
vinced that  the  delight  I  have  always  taken  in  landscapes  and  gardens,  with- 
out any  reference  to  their  quantity  or  appropriation,  or  without  earing  whether 
they  were  forests  or  rosaiies,  or  whether  they  were  palaces,  villas,  or  cottages, 
while  I  had  leave  to  admire  their  beauties,  and  even  to  direct  theii"  improve- 
ment, has  been  the  chief  source  of  that  large  portion  of  happiness  wliich  I 
have  enjoyed  through  life,  and  of  that  resignation  to  inevitable  evils,  with 
which  I  now  look  forward  to  the  end  of  my  pams  and  laboiu's." 

The  few  extracts  and  illustrations  we  have  given,  justify  us  in  saying  that 
the  mere  collation  and  condensation  of  such  a  mass  of  materials  as  are  con- 
tained in  the  work  before  us,  would  be  alone  sufficient  to  confer  honour  on 
Mr.  Loudon,  but  liis  merit  is  still  farther  enhanced  by  the  admirable  manner 
n  which  the  whole  work  has  been  illustrated  and  improved. 


AN  INSTRUMENT  FOR  ASCERTAINING  THE  AREA  OF  IRREGULAR 

PLOTS. 

The  Committee  on  Science  and  the  Arts  constituted  by  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  for  the  promotion  of  the  Mechanic  Arts, 
to  whom  was  referred  for  examination  an  histrument  for  ascertaining  the 
area  of  irregular  plots,  invented  by  Thomas  Wood,  M.D.,  of  Smithficld,  Ohio, 
Report : 

That  they  have  examined  the  instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Tliomas  Wood, 
and  believe  it  to  be  novel  and  ingenious,  and  very  simple  in  its  constniction. 
It  consists  of  two  plates  of  plain  groimd  glass  with  theii'  inner  surfaces  fixed 
in  a  frame,  so  as  to  be  parallel  to  each  other,  and  only  so  far  distant  as  to 
permit  a  piece  of  drawing  paper  to  slide  easily  between  them.  They  are  of  a 
rectangular  form,  fastened  on  three  sides  in  any  manner  which  shall  leave 
the  siurfaces  parallel.  The  fourth  side  being  open,  the  space  within  is  partly 
filled  with  pure  quicksilver.  By  means  of  a  slip  of  drawing  paper,  the  outer 
edge  of  the  quicksilver  is  made  straight  and  rectangular  with  the  sides.  Its 
position  is  then  marked.  This  may  be  done  by  noting  on  the  paper  used,  its 
distance  from  the  outer  and  open  edge  of  the  glasses. 

The  plot  of  any  irregular  plot  made  from  field  notes  or  otherwise,  is  then 
moved  in  till  the  quicksilver  extends  to  that  point  of  the  plot  vrbich  is  nearest 


the  outer  and  open  edge.  The  outer  edge  being  now  parallel  to  the  former 
edge  by  the  manner  in  which  the  paper  containing  the  plot  is  cut,  its  distance 
from  its  former  edge  is  measured  or  mai'ked  on  the  same  paper,  and  the  area 
of  the  irregular  field  is  thus  found  to  be  the  difference  of  the  areas  of  two 
given  rectangles. 

The  committee  see  no  reason  why  such  an  instrument  should  not,  when 
constructed  with  proper  care,  give  results  as  accurate  as  those  ol}tained  l)y 
the  common  melliod  of  plotting,  and  dividing  into  right  angled  triangles  by 
the  dividers  and  plane  scale.  Tlie  area  of  the  rectangle  of  any  irregular  plot, 
when  once  completed,  may  thus  l>e  formed  in  five  minutes,  and  all  danger  of 
mistake  from  errors  in  the  entries  or  in  summing  up  the  partial  areas  is  com- 
pletely obviated. — Franklin  Journal. 


DEPTH  OF  THE  SEA. 

Dr.  Patterson  read  a  paper  at  the  American  Philosophical  Societt/,  by  Pro- 
fessor Charles  Bonnycastle,  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  containing  Notes  of 
E.rperiments,  made  August  22d  to  2olh,  1838,  with  the  view  of  determining 
the  Depth  of  the  Sea  by  the  Echo. 

The  appar.itns,  which  is  fully  described  in  Mr.  Bonnycastle's  paper,  con- 
sisted, first,  of  a  )ietard  or  chamber  of  cast  iron,  2\  inches  in  diameter  and 
5J  inches  long,  with  suitable  arrangements  for  firing  gunpowder  in  it  under 
water;  secondly,  of  a  tin  tube,  8  feet  long  and  IJ  inch  in  diameter,  teruii- 
mited  at  one  end  I)y  a  conical  trumpet-mouth,  of  wliicli  the  diameter  of  the 
base  was  20  inches,  and  the  height  of  the  axis  10  inches;  thirdly,  of  a  very 
sensible  instrument  for  measuring  small  intervals  of  time,  made  by  J.  Mou- 
tandon  of  \Yashington,  and  wiiich  was  capable  of  indicating  the  sixtieth  pait 
of  a  second.  Besides  these,  an  apparatus  for  hearing  was  roughly  made  on 
board  the  vessel,  in  imitation  of  that  used  by  CoUadon  iu  the  Liike  of  Ge- 
neva, and  consisted  of  a  stove-pipe,  4  j  ijiches  in  diameter,  closed  at  one  end, 
and  capaljle  of  being  jilunged  four  feet  in  the  water.  The  sliip's  bell  was 
also  unhung,  and  an  arrangement  made  for  ringing  it  under  water. 

On  the  22(1  of  August,  the  brig  left  New  York,  and  in  the  evening  the  ex- 
periments were  commenced.  In  these,  Mr.  Bonuycastle  was  assisted  by  the 
commander  and  officers  of  the  vessel,  ami  by  Dr.  Robert  M.  Patterson,  who 
had  been  invited  to  make  one  of  the  party. 

In  the  first  experiments,  the  beU  was  plunged  about  a  fathom  under  water 
and  kept  ringing,  wliile  the  operation  of  the  two  hearing  instruments  was 
tested  at  the  distance  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Both  instrnments  per- 
formed less  perfectly  than  was  expected ;  the  noise  of  the  waves  greatly 
interfering,  in  both,  with  the  powers  of  hearing.  In  the  trumpet-shaped 
apparatus,  the  ringing  of  the  metal,  from  the  blow  of  the  waves,  was  partly 
guarded  against  liy  a  wooden  casing ;  but,  as  it  was  open  at  both  ends,  the 
oscillation  of  the  water  in  the  tube  was  found  to  be  a  still  greater  incon- 
venience, so  that  the  sound  of  the  bell  was  better  heai'd  with  tlie  cylindrical 
tube.  At  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  this  sound  was  a  sharp  tap, 
about  the  loudness  of  that  occasioned  by  striking  the  back  of  a  penknife 
again  an  iron  wire  :  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  the  sound  was  no  longer  audible. 
In  the  second  exjieriments,  the  mouth  of  the  cone,  in  the  trumpet  appa- 
ratus, was  closed  with  a  plate  of  thick  tin,  and  both  instruments  were  pro- 
tected by  a  parcelling  of  old  canvas  and  rope-yarn,  at  the  pari;  in  contact  with 
the  surface  of  tlie  water.  In  these  experiments  the  cone  was  placed  at  right 
angle.<i  to  tlie  stem,  and  the  mouth  directed  toward  the  sound.  The  distances 
w  ere  measured  by  the  interval  elapsed  between  the  observed  flash  and  report 
of  a  pistol.  At  the  distance  of  1400  feet,  the  conical  instrument  was  found 
considerably  superior  to  the  cylindrical,  and  at  greater  distances  the  superiority 
become  so  decided,  that  the  latter  was  abandoned  in  all  subsequent  experi- 
ments. At  the  distance  of  5270  feet,  the  hell  was  heard  with  such  distinct- 
ness as  left  no  doubt  that  it  could  have  been  heard  half  a  mile  further. 

Tlie  sounds  are  stated  in  the  paper  to  have  been  less  intense  than  those  in 
air,  and  seemed  to  be  conveyed  to  less  distances.  The  character  of  the  souud 
was  also  wholly  changed,  and,  from  other  cxperimeuts,  it  appeared  that  the 
blow  of  a  watchmaker's  hammer  against  a  small  bar  of  iron  gave  the  same 
sharp  tick  as  a  heavy  blow  against  the  large  ship's  bell.  It  is  well  known 
that  Franklin  heard  the  sound  of  two  stones  struck  together  under  water  at 
half  a  mile  distauce  ;  yet  two  of  the  boat's  crew,  who  plunged  their  heads 
below  the  water,  when  at  a  somewhat  less  distance  from  the  bell,  were  unable 
to  hear  its  sound. 

On  the  24th  of  August,  the  vessel  having  proceeded  to  the  Gulf  Stream, 
experiments  were  made  with  the  view  for  which  the  voyage  was  undertaken  ; 
that  is,  to  ascertain  whether  an  echo  would  be  returned,  through  water,  from 
the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Some  difficulties  were  at  first  presented  in  exploding 
the  gun  under  water,  but  these  were  at  length  overcome.  The  hearing-tube 
was  ballasted  so  as  to  sink  vertically  in  the  water.  The  observers  then  went, 
with  this  instniment,  to  a  distance  of  about  150  yards  from  the  vessel,  and 
the  petai'd  was  lowered  over  the  stem,  about  three  fathoms  under  water,  and 
fired.  The  sound  of  the  explosion,  as  heard  by  Mr.  ro::nyeastIc,  v,  ,ns  two 
sharp  distinct  taps,  at  an  interviil  of  about  one-thii'd  ox  a  second.  Two 
sounds,  with  the  same  interval  were  also  clearly  heard  on  board  the  brig ; 
but  the  character  of  the  sounds  was  different,  and  each  was  accompanied  by 
a  sUglit  shock.  Supposing  the  second  sound  to  be  the  echo  of  the  first  from 
the  bottom  of  the  sea,  the  depth  should  have  been  about  160  fathoms. 

To  ascertain  the  real  depth,  the  sounding  was  made  by  the  ordkiai7  method, 
but  with  a  lead  of  75  pounds  weight,  and  bottom  was  distinctly  felt  at  550 


53 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


fiitliDiiis,  or  live  furlongs.  The  second  sonnet  conld  not,  therefore,  have  been 
the  echo  of  the  first ;  anil  this  was  proved,  on  the  following  day,  by  repeating 
(he  experiment  in  fonr  fathoms  water,  when  the  double  sound  was  heard  as 
before,  and  with  the  same  interval. 

The  conclusion  from  these  experiments  is,  either  that  an  echo  cannot  be 
heard  from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  or  that  some  more  effectual  means  of  pro- 
(hicing  it  mnst  be  eni])loyed. 

Dr.  Hare  snggosted  the  expediency  of  employing  the  Galvanic  fluid  to  fire 
gunpowder  Ijelow  the  surface  of  water,  in  experiments  similar  to  those  of 
I'lofessor  Boiinycastle. — Franklin  Journal. 


THE  SAFETY  L.\MP. 

.\t  a  late  meeting  of  the  Geological  and  Polytechnic  Society  of  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  ilr.  Charles  Morton  ])laced  on  the  table  a  variety  of 
safety  lamps,  and  proceeded  to  make  some  observations  and  cxjieriments 
upon  them.  He  called  to  the  recollection  of  the  members  the  attendance  of 
Mr.  Fletcher,  of  Bromsgrove,  at  one  of  the  former  meetings,  when  that  gen- 
tleman produced  ami  described  a  safety  lamp  constructed  on  an  imjiroved 
lirincijilc.  Mr.  Fletcher  had  since  modified  his  lamp  in  accordance  with  the 
suggestions  thrown  out  at  that  meeting,  and  the  lamp  which  Mr.  Morton 
exhibited  had  been  sent  to  him  by  the  inventor  for  trial  in  the  coal  mines. 
T)ie  novelty  of  the  apparatus  consists  in  a  door  or  damper  at  the  top,  which 
s  held  op  by  a  string  tied  fast  to  the  lower  part  of  the  lamp.  If  this  stiing 
be  cut  or  burnt,  the  damper  drops  down  and  extinguishes  the  light,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  shutting  of  the  damper  on  the  top  of  a  furnace  chimney 
puts  cot  the  fire  beneath.  When,  therefore,  the  lamp  is  introduced  into  an 
inllammablc  atmosi)herc,  the  combustion  of  the  fire-damp  inside  burns  the 
thread,  and  the  damper  dropping  down  destroys  the  flame.  Mr.  Morton 
tliought  the  damper  would  give  rise  to  so  much  trouble,  that  the  coUiers 
wdidd  not  use  it.  Tlie  string  is  not  very  readily  adjusted,  and  it  passes  so 
near  to  the  wick,  that  a  slight  inclination  of  the  lamp,  or  waving  of  the 
flame,  liurns  the  string,  and  the  falling  of  the  damper  leaves  the  collier  in 
darkness  when  he  neither  expects  nor  desires  such  a  result ;  and  to  get  rid 
of  this  annoyance  he  would  prop  up  the  damjjer,  and  effectually  prevent  its 
falling,  even  when  it  was  desirable  that  it  shoidd  do  so,  i.  e.  when  it  happened 
to  lie  in  a  fiei-y  part  of  the  mine.  In  other  respects,  this  lamp  is  much  like 
the  one  invented  by  Upton  and  Roberts.  The  air  for  feeding  the  flame 
enters  through  the  holes  beneath,  and  is  brought  into  immediate  contact 
^^ith  tlie  wick  by  means  of  a  brass  cup.  The  sides  of  the  lamp  are  partly 
glass  and  partly  brass,  fitted  together  so  as  to  prevent  the  admission  of  air. 
In  Upton's  lamp  there  is  a  wire  gauze  cylinder  inside  the  glass,  but  in  Mr. 
Fletcher's  there  is  none.  By  this  omission  the  light  jiroduced  is  much 
stronger,  but  the  safety  is  materially  lessened ;  for  if  the  glass  of  Mr.  F.'s 
l.impwere  accidentally  broken,  the  naked  flame  would  be  exposed  to  the  fire- 
damp, and  an  explosion  would  ensue.  Mr.  Morton  stated  that  he  had  sub- 
mitted this  new  lamp  to  a  variety  of  experiments,  both  in  and  out  of  the  coal 
mines,  and  he  considered  it  deserving  the  attention  of  this  society.  He 
tliought  the  inveiit'jon  was  still  capable  of  considerable  improvement,  and 
boped  that  Mr.  Fletcher  (though  a  gentleman  entirely  unconnected  with 
mining  inirsuits,)  would  devote  more  of  his  time  and  talents  to  the  perfection 
of  an  ajiparatns,  the  ingenuity  of  which  had  already  entitled  liim  to  tlie 
thanks  of  the  public.  Mr.  Morton  remarked  that  the  necessity  of  attempting 
to  improve  the  safety  lamp  would  become  more  generally  manifest,  if  it  were 
universally  known  that  Davy's  lamp  is  no/  safe  under  certain  circumstances. 
When  "  the  Davy"  is  introduced  into  an  inflammable  atmosphere,  al  rest,  it 
may  be  said  to  be  safe  ;  but  if  the  lamp  lie  in  motion,  or  if  a  current  of  fire 
daraj)  be  directed  upon  it,  there  is  great  danger  of  explosion.  By  means  of  a 
gas  jet  on  the  lecture  table,  Mr.  Morton  caused  the  flame  of  "the  Davy"  to 
pass  from  the  inside  (o  the  outside  of  the  wire  gauze  cage;  and  he  contended 
that,  under  similar  circumstances,  an  explosion  must  inevitably  ensue  in  a 
fiery  coal  mine ;  and  he  had  no  doubt  some  of  the  dreadful  catastrophes  that 
have  occurred  in  the  pits  were  occasioned  in  this  manner.  Mr.  Morton  said 
that  the  over  zealous  admirers  of  Davy  bad  attributed  a  quality  of  infallible 
safety  to  an  instrument  which  its  illustrious  discoverer  never  ventured  to 
claim  for  it.  On  the  contrary,  this  distinguished  philosopher,  in  a  treatise 
wliieli  be  published  more  than  twenty  years  ago  on  the  subject  of  the  safety 
lamp,  distinctly  points  out  its  nnsqfety  \\lien  introduced  into  an  inflammalile 
atmosiibcrc  in  rapid  motion ;  and  he  warns  his  readers  against  using  "  the 
Davy  "  under  such  circumstances.  Mr.  Morton  was  of  opinion  that  if  the 
notion  which  generally  ju'cvails  about  the  absolute  and  certain  safety  of  "  the 
Davy "  were  dispelled,  it  would  have  a  tendency  to  produce  greater  care 
and  caution  among  miners.  Mr.  Morton,  in  conclusion,  directed  attention 
to  an  apparatus  contrived  by  Mr.  W.  S.  Ward,  of  Leeds,  which  lie  thought 
might  be  used  for  giving  light  to  fiery  mines,  or  in  operations  with  the  diving 
bell.  The  a|iparatiis  consists  of  a  small  gas-hohler,  containing  a  compressed 
mixture  of  coal  gas  and  oxygen.  To  this  is  attached  one  of  Ilemming's  safety 
tubes  and  a  common  jet,  at  the  point  of  which  is  placed  a  ball  of  (juick  lime. 
The  kindled  flame  of  gas  being  directed  upon  the  lime  ball,  a  brilliant  light 
is  produced,  and  as  the  light  is  covered  with  a  glass  jar,  the  flame  is  rendeied 
safe  by  being  completely  insulated  or  cut  off  from  the  external  atmosphere.— 
Midland  Counties  Herald, 


Wi.NDsoR  Castle. — .\bout  five  or  six  weeks  since  a  fissure  was  observed 
in  the  wall  at  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  North  Terrace,  close  to  the 
Winchester  Tower,  the  residence  of  Sir  Jeffrey  WyattviUc.  The  opening  on 
the  northern  side  extended  from  the  top  of  the  wall  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth  on  the  outer  side,  a  distance  of  some  20  or  30  feet ;  and  on  the  western 
side,  from  the  tmTcts  down  to  the  archway  entrance  to  the  vaults  bcneatli, 
which  extend  under  the  whole  length  of  the  terrace.  As  soon  as  the  fissure 
was  discovered,  workmen  were  employed  to  fill  up  the  interstices  (or  "  point" 
them)  with  mortar,  in  order  to  ascertain  if  the  cracks  would  go  on  increasing. 
M'ithin  a  very  short  period  after  this  had  been  done,  the  opening  not  only 
widened,  but  extended  along  the  lower  pathway,  parallel  with  the  Winchester 
Tower,  to  a  distance  of  14  OJ  15  yards.  The  fissure  now  extends  to  a  dis- 
tance of  upwards  of  25  yards.  Air.  Whitman,  the  clerk  of  the  works,  upon 
perceiving  the  dangerous  state  of  the  wall,  lost  no  time  in  communicating 
with  Sir  Jeffrey  Wyattville,  who  was  then  in  London,  on  the  subject,  by  whom 
the  necessary  instructions  to  proceed  in  such  an  emergency  were  inimediately 
forwarded.  Upon  entering  the  vaults  underneath  the  teiTace,  two  large 
cracks  were  observable  commencing  from  the  bottom  of  the  wall  on  the  north 
side,  extending  completely  across  the  arch,  and  terminating  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  outer  wall  of  the  Castle.  These  fissures  were  ordered  to  be 
"  pointed"  in  the  same  manner  as  those  on  the  outer  wall,  and  with  the  same 
results ;  for  after  a  few  days  the  openings  were  found  to  be  considerably  en- 
larged. The  first  step  determined  upon  was  to  ascertain  how  far  from  the 
foundation  of  the  wall  the  injury  extended,  and  workmen  are  now  employed 
in  digging  a  shaft  within  the  arched  vaults  on  the' northern  side  for  this  pur- 
pose. As  far  as  they  have  yet  jiroceeded,  so  far  extends  the  opening.  It  is 
feared,  unless  some  plan  be  devised  before  the  breaking  up  of  the  frost,  to 
secure  the  immense  mass  of  stonework  which  is  now  in  so  threatening  and 
dangerous  a  state,  that  not  only  will  a  large  portion  of  the  terrace  fall  down 
the  steep  slope  by  which  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  side,  but  that  it  will 
can7  with  it  some  thousands  of  tons  of  earth  into  the  vale  beneath,  where  is 
situateil  some  stabling  belonging  to  the  canons  of  Windsor,  and  close  to  which 
is  the  extensive  brewery  of  Messrs.  Reid  and  Co.,  late  Mr.  Ramsbottom's. 
Some  12  months  ago  a  deep  trench  or  ditch  was  dug  close  to  the  New  Ter- 
race-wall, by  order  of  the  dean  and  canons  of  Winder,  (to  whom  the  slopes 
and  a  large  piece  of  land  on  this  side  belong),  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
the  water  which  runs  off  the  terrace  (after  rains,  &c.)  through  small  gratings, 
and  which,  previously  to  this  being  dug,  ran  down  the  slopes  upon  their  land 
below.  The  trench  was  intended  to  have  turned  the  course  of  tliis  water  in 
another  direction;  but,  instead  of  doing  so,  it  remained  in  the  ditch,  where 
soaked  into  the  earth,  and  thus,  as  it  is  generally  supposed,  sapped  the  very 
foundation  of  the  wall  itself,  and  thence  the  dangerous  state  of  this  part  of 
the  terrace,  which  was  erected  as  long  since  as  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  who 
extended  it  westward  upwards  of  100  yards. — Daily  papers. 


Adams's  Vertebrated  Carriage. — On  Monday,  10th  December  last, 
a  vertebrated  carriage,  constructed  according  to  the  patent  plan  of  Mr. 
Adams,  with  bow-spring  bearers  and  buffers,  for  the  Birmingham  and  Glou- 
cester liaihvay  Company,  left  the  station  at  Euston  Square  with  one  of  the 
trains  for  Birmingham.  Much  speculation  had  existed  as  to  its  action  on  the 
rails,  owing  to  the  various  peculiarities  of  its  construction,  and  especially 
from  the  circumstance  that  all  four  wheels  were  loose  on  the  axles,  in  adcUtion 
to  the  axles  running  as  usual  in  the  ordinary  bearings.  It  has  been  hitherto 
found  that  carriages  with  loose  wheels  are  apt  to  run  off  the  rails  at  slight 
curves,  but  such  proved  not  to  be  the  case  with  the  vertebrated  carriage, 
which  adapted  itself  to  all  curves  with  the  greatest  facility.  In  fact,  it  seemed 
almost  impossible  for  the  wheels  to  run  off  the  rails,  as  the  axles  always  dis- 
posed themselves  at  right  angles  to  the  hue  of  traction,  and  the  lateral  yield- 
ing of  the  springs  prevented  any  friction  against  the  flanges  of  the  wheels. 
Another  objection  which  had  been  raised  against  the  carriage,  by  persons 
connected  with  railways,  was,  that  though  it  might  be  drawn  forwards  in  a 
train,  it  conld  not  be  propelled,  as  the  joi*it  would  yield,  and  the  wheels  go 
off  the  rails  by  an  angular  thrust.  This  opinion  also  proved  fallacious,  as  the 
carriage  was  found  to  go  equally  well  either  VTay.  The  facility  of  draught 
was  found  far  greater  than  that  of  carriages  on  the  ordinary  plan,  though 
much  larger  than  common,  consisting  of  four  bodies  instead  of  three.  The 
facility  of  its  movement  was  strikingly  illustrated  at  the  Euston  Station, 
where  two  of  the  wheels  got  off  the  turn-table,  and  escaped  from  the  rails. 
The  usual  course  in  such  cases  is  to  raise  a  common  carriage  by  means  of 
screw-jacks,  but  owing  to  the  action  of  the  joint,  and  the  free  movement  of 
the  wheels,  the  vertebrated  carriage  was  rolled  upwards  by  the  labourers  with 
little  ajiparent  difficulty,  without  resorting  to  mechanical  aid.  We  under- 
stand that  it  is  intended  to  run  the  carriage  between  London  and  Birminghani, 
previous  to  the  opening  of  the  Gloucester  Railway,  and  judging  from  its  satis- 
factory performance  in  remedying  various  railway  evils,  there  seems  to  be 
little  doubt  that  this  plan  of  carriage  will  come  into  general  use.  We  uinler- 
staiid  that  another  improvement  by  Mr.  Adams  will  shortly  be  brought  for- 
ward, consisting  of  a  more  perfect  lubrication  of  the  axles  by  means  of  oil 
instead  of  grease,  and  without  the  usual  waste,  so  that  a  carriage  will  proba- 
bly run  a  week  with  only  once  oiling.  We  apprehend  that  the  saving  of 
friction  on  the  wheels,  owing  to  the  free  revolution  independent  of  each 
other,  will  materially  increase  their  durability.— yjaiftfoy  Times. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


57 


COLLEGE  FOR  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

In  the  year  1838,  our  attention  was  aroused  to  a  correspondence 
which  had  crept  into  the  Times  and  AthenEeum,  attempting  to  lower 
the  character  of  the  profession  in  this  country,  and  to  set  up  a  foreign 
standard.  We  rightly  surmised  that  this  was  a  coming  event,  which 
cast  its  shadow  before  it,  that  it  was  the  wish  father  to  the  thought, 
which  was  to  usher  in  some  expedient  to  correct  the  assumed  abuse, 
and  introduce  the  new  doctrine.  Accordingly  we  hastened  to  attack 
the  ncw-liurn  hvdra,  and  on  repeated  occasions  expressed  our  senti- 
ments relative  to  their  new  school  of  error.  Remarks  upon  this  sub- 
ject will  be  found  in  volume  the  first,  page  3G9,  and  volume  the 
second,  p;iges  13,  S(i,  l'2-l,  152,  and  351.  On  account  of  this  solici- 
tude for  tbe  interests  of  the  profession,  we  were  assailed  in  a  violent 
manner  by  the  advocates  of  the  projected  College  ;  what  they  gained 
by  the  attack  our  readers  know.*  In  the  meanwhile,  the  plan  has 
been  brought  to  light,  a  scheme  of  operations  organised,  and  active 
preparations  made  for  carrying  them  into  effect.  While  tlie  inten- 
tions of  its  managers  were  not  publicly  declared,  and  while  they  had 
yet  the  opportunity  of  adopting  a  sane  course,  and  according  to  the 
wishes  of  the  profession,  we  left  them  to  carry  on  their  designs  in 
peace.  Now  that  the  mask  has  been  lifted — now  that  war  has  been 
delared  against  the  whole  profession,  and  that  an  open  attempt  is 
made  to  poison  the  public  mind  with  error,  we  feel  it  our  bounden 
duty  to  call  the  serious  attention  of  our  readers  to  the  mischievous 
and  fallacious  objects,  which  it  proposes  to  effect.  In  this  investiga- 
tion, we  shall  enquire,  first,  as  to  the  mode  of  education  required  by 
the  profession;  secondly,  as  to  liow  far  this  is  supplied;  next,  as  to 
the  merits  of  the  proposed  plan;  fourthly,  how  it  has  hitherto  suc- 
ceeded, and  what  are  its  future  prospects ;  and  lastly,  how  far  it 
might  be  rendered  useful. 

We  have,  on  previous  occasions,  already  defined  engineering,!'  as  a 
profession  requiring  two  distinct  faculties,  the  theoretical  and 
practical,  the  inventive  and  the  constructive.  This  is  a  view  sanc- 
tioned by  the  highest  authorities.  The  Report  of  the  Institution 
of  Civil  Engineers  for  1837,11;  describes  the  engineer  as  a  mediator 
between  the  philosopher  and  the  working  mechanic.  In  their  Report 
for  1838,^  they  say,  "The  objects  of  the  Civil  Engineer  are  defined 
by  your  charter,  and  the  council  considering  that  the  success  and 
permanency  of  the  Institution  must  depend,  in  a  great  measure,  on 
the  care  exercised  in  admission  into  this  class,  have  repeatedly  con- 
sidered this  subject  with  the  view  of  presenting  some  definite  rules 
for  the  guidance  of  themselves  and  others.  It  has  appeared  that 
they  will  be  aided  in  this  difficult  task  by  adhering  as  much  as  possi- 
ble to  the  two  following  conditions;  either: — " 

"He  shall  have  been  regularly  educated  as  a  civil  engineer,  accord- 
ing to  the  usual  routine  of  pupilage,  and  have  had  subsequent  em- 
ployment for  at  least  five  years  in  responsible  situations  as  resident 
or  otherwise  in  some  of  the  branches  defined  by  the  charter  as  con- 
stituting the  profession  of  a  civil  engineer ;  or,  he  shall  have  prac- 
tised on  his  own  account  in  the  profession  of  a  civil  engineer  for  five 
years,  and  have  acquired  considerable  eminence  therein." 

"  It  is  thought  that  the  first  condition  will  include  those  who  by  regu- 
lar education  have  done  their  utmost  towards  themselves  for  the 
profession,  and  that  their  subsequent  employment  in  responsible 
situations  will  be  a  guarantee  that  they  have  availed  themselves  of 
the  opportunities  which  they  may  have  enjoyed." 

"  In  the  earlier  days  of  the  science  of  the  civil  engineer,  such  a  con- 
dition would  have  been  inapplicable  ;  then  the  force  of  native  genins 
sufficed  to  place  the  individual  in  that  position  of  professional  em- 
inence which  commenced  with  a  Brindley  and  a  Smeaton,  and  was  in 
our  own  time  exemplified  in  a  Rennie  and  a  Telford.  To  such,  of 
whom  there  are  many  illustrious  examples  amongst  us,  the  second 
condition  is  strictly  applicable." 

The  profession,  particularly  in  its  present  infant  state,  is  ever  called 
upon  to  provide  for  unexpected  contingencies,  to  make  new  pre- 
cedents, and  supersede  old  processes.  The  last  ten  years  has  seen 
a  new  and  imjjortant  branch  created,  and  scarcely  established,  before 
it  found  itself,  by  new  improvements,  obliged  to  abandon  all  its 
former  calculations,  and  follow  new  models.  The  profession,  there- 
fore, is  well  defined  as  of  two  classes,  and  as  uniting  two  branches  of 
instruction.  The  accessory  portion  of  instruction  is  one  common  to 
most  practical  pursuits,  and  a  part  of  higher  education  at  the  same  time, 
consisting  as  it  does,  of  the  mathematical  and  physical  studies,  it 
needs  no  excathedral  inculcation,   but  admits  of  being  attained   by 


*  Vol.  ii.  p.  124. 
+  Vol.i.  p.  369,  and  Vol.  ii 
{  See  Journal,  vol.  i.  p. 
§  Vol.  ii.  p.  73. 


.  p.  124. 
138. 


private  study  by  those  engaged  in  the  practical  department.  Like 
literature,  like  the  arts,  it  necessarily  follows,  that  its  greatest  names 
are  not  recruited  from  apprentices  to  the  system,  but  from  every  class 
of  society,  it  admits  the  collegian  and  the  mechanic  ;  every  man,  who 
feels  himself  called  upon  by  the  divine  voice  to  a  destined  pursuit. 
Who  have  been  our  greatest  engineers  ?  not  students  from  a  college, 
or  an  apprenticeship,  but  the  stone  mason  and  the  blacksmith,  the 
labourer  and  the  millwright.  Engineering  is  not  like  law,  boimd  up  in 
an  endless  mass  of  precedents,  admitting  few  new  cases,  and  fearful 
of  diverging  from  established  rules,  but  it  is  ever  new,  ever  changing, 
ever  supplanting  the  past,  by  anticipations  of  the  futiu-e.  It  does 
not,  like  medicine,  require  the  study  of  a  complicated  and  little 
known  machine,  nor  a  special  application  of  many  difficult  sciences 
to  its  own  objects,  it  does  not  require  mere  judgment  to  apply  old 
rules,  but  it  perpetually  encounters  new  cases,  and  applies  new  re- 
medies. The  records  of  its  operations  are  hardly  published  when 
thcv  become  useless  and  superannuated ;  many  branches  are  hardly 
sufficiently  advanced  to  have  any  literature  at  all ;  consequently,  for 
those  seeking  practical  instruction,  the  workshop  and  the  field  are  the 
only  schools;  the  house  cannot  be  judged  by  a  brick,  the  sea  cannot 
be  measured  by  a  bowl  of  water,  nor  can  the  operations  of  the  engi- 
neer be  taught  on  any  other  scale  of  truth  than  on  that  of  the  works 
themselves.  The  lawyer  and  the  surgeon  find  no  college  allsuflficient 
for  their  instruction,  they  find  not  even  the  court  house  or  the  hospital 
alone  efficient,  but  under  the  care  of  the  acting  practitioner,  they  are 
obliged  to  seek  the  basis  of  their  education.  It  is  remarkable  indeed 
that  a  departure  should  be  attempted  in  this  sound  course,  when  other 
professions  are  even  carrying  it  to  a  greater  extent;  so  distrustful 
are  the  medical  authorities  of  oral  instruction,  that  they  now  require 
at  their  examinations  practical  dissections  and  manipulations. 
Engineers  may  be  classified  under  the  following  heads : — 

1.  Civil  Engineers— Roads  and  Railways.il 

Canals. 
Bridges. 

2.  Mining  Engineers — Mines.5     Draining. 

3.  Marine  Engineers** — Ship  Building. 

Harbours. 
Docks. 

Light-houses. 
Dykes. 

4.  Military  Engineers. 

5.  Practical  Engineers — Land  Engines. 

Locomotive  Engines. 
Marine  Engines. 
Manufacturing  Engines. 

Subsidiary  to  these  are  Surveyors,  Working  Engineers,  Locomotive 
Engineers,  and  Steam  Vessel  Engineers.  The  instruction  required 
for  these  classes,  we  consider  to  be  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the 
details  of  the  technical  portions,  to  be  acquired  under  the  guidance 
of  practical  men  in  actual  operations,  and  a  study  of  the  accessory 
sciences  connected  with  their  pursuits.  Ample  instruction  in  the 
former  department  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  existing  engineers; 
and  with  regard  to  supplementa'y  education,  numerous  institutions 
exist,  independently  of  the  amount  of  knowledge  communicated  by 
mechanic's  institutions  and  other  sources.  The  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  and  the  Universities  of  London  and  Durham,  and  the 
Military  Colleges  grant  degrees,  and  classes  are  formed  in  London  at 
University  and  King's  College,  in  those  of  Norwich,  Chatham,  Sand- 
hurst, and  Addiscombe,  and  Hanwell  Collegiate  School ;  in  the  Pro- 
vinces, in  the  Colleges  of  Durham  and  Bath,  the  Cornish  Mining 
School,  the  Scotch  Naval  and  Military  Academy,  at  Edinburgh,  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society's  School,  at  Dublin,  the  Agricultural  School,  at 
Templemoyle,  King  William  College,  Isle  of  Man,  and  Elizabeth 
College,  Guernsey.  The  elements  of  surveying  are  taught  in  many 
of  the  schools  for  the  middle  classes. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  proposed  plan  of  the  College  for 
Civil  Engineers,  which  assuming  different  principles,  calculates  upon 
supplanting  the  existing  modes  of  instruction.  These  are  given 
to  the  public  in  a  pamphlet,  the  confusion  and  ridiculousness  of  which, 
for  the  present,  we  pass  by  unquestioned  and  unremarked.  _  This 
prospectus  boldly  asserts,  that  with  regard  to  the  demand  for  efficient 
practitioners  in  civil  engineering,  not  one  of  our  Universities  or 
public  seminaries  has  kept  pace  with  this  want  of  the  age,  and 
afforded  a  suitable  education  for  the  aspirants  in  that  new  profession; 

the  best  answer  to  this  is  to  be  seen  above.     What  they  mean  by 

the  following,  they  themselves   can  best  explain.     "  They  are,   in  a 

II  Ingenieurs  des  Pouts  et  Chausees,  French. 

II  Ingenieurs  des  Mines,  French. 

*"  Ingenieurs  des  Travaux  Mari  times,  French.    Water  Staat,  Dutih. 


5S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[FEBRrARY, 


gri'Lit  measure,  responsible  for  the  profits  on  our  internal  industry — on 
till"   average   of  wliicli  (le|)enil   agricultural   returns,   and  also  by  re- 
action, an  increased  demand  for  labour."     The  fundamental  basis  of 
operations  is  that  the  whole  instruction,  both  theoretical  and    prac- 
tical,  shall   be  given   in   I  lie  College.     This,  according  to  the  account 
of  its   managers,    includes   the   structure    of  railways,    roads,    canals, 
docks,  locks,  and  harboins,  improvement  of  rivers,  clearing  mines  of 
water,  and  their  necessary   ventilation;  the  whole  structure    of  the 
steam  engine,  land  and  water  transport,  architecture  and   general  con- 
struction, naval  architecture,  ndning,  drainage,  embanking,  reservoirs, 
light-houses,  arsenals,  surveying,  levelling,  ndneral  boring,   modelling, 
casting  and  forging,  turning  and  boring.     And  what  is  to  feed  this 
multitude  ? — two  loaves  and   five   small   fishes — a   few    professors  of 
matliernatics,   drawing   and    latin,    an   architect,    and   some   acres  of 
ground  at  Hampstead  1!!     Is  there  any  one  so  insane  as  to  attempt  to 
carry  out  such  a  scheme  ? — is  there  any  parent  so  wasteful  of  his 
own  monev,  or  regardless  of  the  interests  of  his  child  as  to  entrust 
him  to  such  a  school '.     hi  an  arena,  scarcely  fit  for  a  cricket  match, 
are  we  to  see  exemplified  the  wonders  of  British  art ;  here,  by  magic 
processes,   are  to  be  reproduced  (id  iiijiinliim  the  Grand  Trunk  Canal, 
the  Eddystone  Light-house,  the  Steam  Engine,  the  Menai  and  Water- 
loo Bridges,  and  IMrmiiigham  Railway,  with   its  vallied  cuttings,  its 
Kilsby  tunnels,  and  its  hilly  endjankmcnts.     The  Clifton  Bridge  would 
spun  the  ground,  the  Camden  Town  Embankment,  swallow  up  the 
soi',   and   the  cutting  to  Euston  Square  take  in   the  vvliole   estate. 
"Fhilosophy  in  sport,  made  science  in  earnest."     We  are  either  to 
believe  these  delusions,  or  wc  nuist  recognise  the  sad  reality,  children 
mis-spending  their  fither's  money  and  their  own  time  on  mimic  rail- 
wavs,  and  gutter  canals  ;  expert  in  all  the  verbiage  which  a  well  dis- 
ciplined memory  can  retain,  and  going  out  into  the  world  the  children 
wbiidi  fhev  came   into  the  college.     If  this  be  the  ollspring  of  the 
Polytechnic  School,  an  Institution  which  has  Honrished  under  some 
(d'  the  noblest  men  in  France,  we  believe  that,  with  indignation,  they 
will  disavow  their  bantling;  if  it  be  an  imitation  of  Russia,  it  is  an 
inntation   rather   of   the    barbarism,   than   of   the    grandeur   of    that 
nation;  we  know  that  no   example   in  favor  of  it  exists  in  any  other 
country.     In  the  workshops,  South  Wales,  Birmingham,  (ilasguw  and 
Newcastle  are  to  be  united;  the  steam  engine  is  to  be  wrought,  by 
boys,   from    the  native   ore   into  all   its  wonderful   applications  as   a 
motive  power.     What  more  they  profess  to  teach  we  know  not,  w'e 
know  that  all  these   things,  even   if  practicaljle   as  toys,  will  fail  to 
make  engineers  such  as  England  has  and  England  wants.  The  ignorance 
of  the  ])rojectors  is  only  equalled   by  their   absurdity  ;  the   manner  in 
which  the  design  is  to  be  carried  out,  is  expressed  by  a  synopsis  of 
the  courseof  instruction  extending  over  a  peaiod  of  five  years,  in  the  first 
two  years  of  wdiich  the  pupils  learn  nothing  of  engineering,  exceptsur- 
veying  and  levelling,  their  jirincipal  acquirement  being  caligraphy  ; 
in  the  second   vear  we  find  these  branches  are  taught  in  conjunction 
with  mineral  boring  and  draining,  and  the  jirinciples  of  Civil  and 
Navaf  architecture.     No  progress  has  yet  been  made  in  engineering 
fjul  never  mind,  we  can  wait.     The  third  year  advances  to  shaded  and 
coloured   drawing,    drainage,   embanking,   and    conduct   of    running 
water,    and    the   construction   of  roads;     leaving,    consequently,   the 
wliole  instruction  for  the  last  two  years.     In  this  course,  we  find  that 
the  principal  engineering  works  (i,  e.  treatises)  of  the  English,  French, 
and  Germans  are  to  be  read.     What  those  French  and  (iennan  works 
are  we  should  very  ranch  like   to  know  ; — to  the  best  of  our  know- 
ledge very  few  works  exist,  except  translations  from  the  English. 
Among  the  magna  opera  of  the  last  year,  we   find  such  terms  as  "  a 
grand  ilrawing,  with  plans,  sections,  and  parts  in  detail;"  "grand 
project   for   internal  transport  by  land  or  water,  with  estimates  ;"  "a 
memoir  on  some  important  question  of  civil  engineering."     The  pen- 
nyworth of  bread  to  these  gallons  of  sack,  is  the  examination  and 
explanation  of  public  works  on  the  works  themselves.     The  "lucidus 
ordo"  of  the   synopsis    must  be  evident  to  the  most  unsystematical ; 
drawing   and   caligra]iliy  interpolated   between  mechanics  and  hydro- 
graphy ;    architecture    between    hydrography   and    physics,    and   the 
same    impartial    systen\    is   carried    throughout.      As    to    the    work- 
man's  class,  for   which  twelve  guineas  a  year  is  to  be  charged,  the 
paltriness  and  inadequacy  of  instruction  given  exempts  it  from  notice. 
The  pu|)ils  may  be  admitted   into  the  high  school  at  fourteen  years, 
and   on  going  through  the   prescribed   course  of  instruction,   as  any 
youth  of  moderate  abilities  and  suflicient  memory  is  sure  to  do,  is 
turned  out  on  reaching  his  eighteenth  birth-day,  a  duly  qualified  suc- 
cessor of  Brindley,  Smeaton,  Rennie,  Telford,  "avid  Watt. 

This  system,  we  may  obsei-ve,  is  a  clumsy  imitation  of  the  Poly- 
tejchnic  School,  and  other  similar  Institutions  abroad,  which  are 
adopted  in  tlie  imperfect  state  of  instruction,  to  supply  the  want  of  a 
more  practical  coui'se.  In  the  I'olytechnic  or  Gwerbe  School,  the  stu- 
dent finds  those  models  which  he  can  find  with  difficulty  elsewhere,  but 


under  the  guidance  of  a  Stephenson  or  a  Maudsley,  he  learns  in  that 
school,  w  hich  is  the  model  to  all  Europe.  In  our  pages  *  will  be  foinid 
an  account  of  the  state  of  engineering  abroad.  Wliat  it  is  here  all 
Europe  tells;  we  boast  the  names  of  .Middleton,  Worcester,  Hooke, 
.Savery,  Newcome,  Brindley,  Milne,  Smeaton,  Bell,  Edwards,  Ark- 
wright,  Uennie,  Macadam,  Bramah,  Huddart,  Trevithick,  Telford, 
Woolf,  and  Murdoch  ;  and  among  the  engineers  of  the  present  day  : — 
Walker,  Ste|dienson,  the  two  Uennies,  the  two  Brunels,  Cubitt,  I.ocke, 
Maudsley,  Tierney  Clarke,  &c.,  many  of  whom  enjoy  an  European 
reputation.  Such  are  the  fruits  of  a  defective  system  ;  what  has 
Europe  to  show  against  it?  The  same  defective  system  prevails  in 
the  tfnited  States,  where  gigantic  works  of  the  engineers  measure 
the  continent  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

As  to  what  must  be  the  result  of  the  proposed  system,  we  fear  w'e 
can  augur  nothing  very  good,  on  one  side  they  are  deficient  in  strength, 
ai.d  on  the  other  side  they  have  to  compete  with  powerful  rivals. 
The  plan  of  the  College  itself,  and  its  details,  liave  been  rendered 
ridiculous  by  fantastic  absurdities;  the  very  first  page  of  their  pro- 
spectus is  calculated  to  excite  laughter; — a  College  for  Civil  Engi- 
neers, plastered  with  the  names  of  a  set  of  Eton  schoolmasters,  as 
honorary  members ;  unknown  foreigners,  as  corresponding  members; 
the  prospectus  is  dashed  throughout  with  unmeaning  italics;  the  dis- 
tinguishing absurdities  of  the  Hone  and  Black  Dwarf  School ;  the 
vice  of  those,  who  wanting  strengtli  of  thought,  make  it  up  by  variety 
of  type.  One  of  the  professorships  is  to  be  held  by  a  clergyman  of  the 
church  of  England,  another  is  the  cliaplain,  and  sectarianism  is 
openly  proclaimed  in  a  building  devoted  to  the  national  pursuit  of 
science.  Of  what  religion  were  the  Marq\iis  of  Worcester  and 
Watt?  "The  College  is  based  upon  the  principles  of  the  established 
Church."  Church  of  England  railways.  Catholic  steam  engines,  and 
Presbyterian  canals,  whoever  heard  of  such  things?  Could  not  the 
moral  and  religious  instruction  of  the  students  be  provided  for  with- 
out injuring  the  feelings  of  large  masses  of  the  population,  by  giving 
a  preference  to  a  minority  ?  The  food  of  the  boarders  will  be  of  the 
best  description,  and  every  care  taken  of  their  health ! — shades  of 
Brindley,  Arkwright  and  Rennie,  whoever  heard  of  such  superfluous 
nonsense  1  "  No  pupil  can  be  admitted  without  a  certificate  that  he  has 
had  the  small  pox,  or  has  been  vaccinated;  and  has  no  particular  in- 
firmity or  contagious  malady."  "  lie  must  be  able  to  read .'  and 
write  1  fluently,  and  be  master  of  the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic!!" 
"Corporal  punishment  will  not  be  permitted  in  the  establishment  I" 
— "  Suppose  a  gentleman  designs  one  of  his  sons,  at  the  age  of  five 
years!!!  to  be  a  civil  engineer." 

As  to  the  supporters  of  this  College,  we  find  many  men  of  high 
title,  but  we  look  in  vain  for  the  support  of  any  of  the  great  men, 
who,  by  tlieir  engineering  works,  have  contributed  to  their  country's 
glory.  Only  three  names  are  to  be  found  qualified  as  engineers, 
none  of  whom  are  suflicient  to  attract  of  themselves  public  support. 
As  to  the  professors,  of  whom,  by  the  bye,  there  are  none  for  engi- 
neering, it  is  saying  enough  for  them  to  mention,  that  many  of  the 
names  are  resiiectable. 

We  now  come  to  another  question  of  the  deepest  interest  to  those 
jiarents,  who  are  so  ill  advised  as  to  send  their  children  to  this 
riekety  College,  that  is,  what  is  to  become  of  the  lads  when  they 
have  got  their  diplomas?  Will  they  be  employed  by  the  present 
engineers  in  jireference  to  their  own  pupils? — will  they  have  greater 
weight  with  the  public,  than  men  of  acknowledged  eminence  ? — will 
they  be  supported  by  the  public  like  those  who  have  received  a 
practical  education  under  first-rate  men?  Our  impression  is,  that 
they  will  not,  but  that  the  lads  will,  after  their  five  years  of  College 
education,  and  an  expenditure  of  several  hundred  pounds,  be  obliged 
to  pitch  their  diplomas  into  the  Thames,  and  article  themselves  to 
those  who  know  sometliing  of  the  profession.  We  earnestly  call  on 
all  wdio  may  be  tempted  by  the  luring  proposals  of  destining  children 
from  the  cradle,  and  hatching  engineers  with  more  than  an  Eccaleo- 
bion  power,  to  ])ause  and  reflect  on  the  waste  of  time  and  money 
which  they  must  incur  from  any  failure  of  this  kind,  and  to  hesitate 
before  they  become  the  victims  of  a  few  deluded  theorists.  So  san- 
guine are  the  projectors,  that  they  talk  of  entrapping  hundreds  of 
lads,  and  think  nothing  of  a  hundred  engineers  as  the  average  pro- 
duce of  a  year.  This,  according  to  our  reckoning,  would  of  itself 
produce  three  thousand  engineers,  besides  those  educated  in  other 
establishments ;!•  and  what  is  to   become  of  the   raw  and    ignorant 


*  Vol.  i.p.  3G9. 
I  As  to  how  they  are  to  suppuri  llic  competition  of  the  engineers 
.".nd  cxisliug  colleges,  its  mai.agers  may  kn<iw  lictter  th;m  we  prelej.d  to  ilo. 
They  «dl  be  ahl  tu  solve  wliedier  Kverett,  Wchsler,  Wallace,  and  KImes 
are  eipial  to  De  Moran,  Silvester,  L.arilner,  ;inil  (iraham,  or  to  Hall,  Mu^e- 
Icy,  Dauiell,  Wheatstone,  WiiUips,  BracUey,  Cooper,  and  Tennent, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


S9 


youths  ?— those   best  will  be  able  to  decide,  who   can^  coolly  give 
itteraiice  to  such  preposterous  delusions. 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  supported  by  the  profession,  it 
may  perliaps  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  men  connected  with  it,  but 
we  have  farther  public  testimonials  in  the  declarations  of  the  Institu- 
tion of  Civil  Engineers.  The  liberality  of  their  opinions  we  have 
already  shown,  so  that  anything  emanating  from  them,  carries  with  it 
the  whole  vpeight  of  their  character,  and  is  free  from  the  imputation 
of  interested  motives.  Their  Report  for  1S37,*  while  advocating 
the  necessity  of  supplementary  instruction,  states  that  nuich  has  at 
times  been  said  respecting  the  establishment  of  a  School  of  Engi- 
neers, and  many  comparisons  have  been  drawn  betwixt  the  advan- 
tages possessed  by  this  and  other  coimtries  in  this  respect,  but  not 
for  an  instant  to  enter  on  the  great  question  of  the  nature  of  a  com- 
plete establishment  under  that  name,  it  may  with  confidence  be 
asserted,  that  this   histitution  is  in  itself  a  School  of  Engineers- 


school  not  in  the  sense  of  the  term  wli 


knowledo-e  is   forced  upon 


the  imwilling  student,  but  one  where  the  attentive  student  ])ossesses 
remarkable  opportunities  of  self-improvement  by  study  and  mutual 
intercourse.  In  the  speech  of  the  President,  on  opening  the  Session 
of  lS39,t  he  calls  upon  the  members  to  improve  themselves,  not  by 
collegiate  instruction,  but  by  mutual  improvement;  he  says,  "there 
is  now  upon  the  table,  a  prospectus  for  tlie  establishment,  on  a  large 
scale,  of  a  College  for  Civil  Engineers,"  leaving  his  hearers  to  form 
their  own  opinions  upon  the  merits  of  such  proposition. 

That  there  is  room  for  the  establishment  of  a  school  of  engineering 
on  sound  principles,  it  admits  no  question;  but  its  sphere,  although 
extensive,  is  very  dilferent  from  that  contemplated  by  the  present 
plan.  Its  advocates  jump  at  once  to  conclusions,  inspired  by  (he 
ardent  hope  of  obtaining  large  premiums,  they  jumble  everthing 
together,  and  mix  up  the  practicable  with  the  impracticable.  Ste- 
phenson or  Brmiel  carry  on  no  trade  in  jn-emiums  of  live  hundred 
guineas,  it  would  make  little  diminution  in  their  incomes,  if  they 
had  no  pupils  at  all,  but  young  men  are  sent  to  them  because  from 
their  emj)loyment  in  large  works,  they  have  great  facilities  in  artbrd- 
ing  instruction,  and  ample  means  of  employing  them  afterwards.  If 
the  council  of  the  College  want  to  know  what  to  do  with  their 
establishment,  we  can  tell  them  how  it  may  be  made  useful  to  the 
public,  and  profitable  to  themselves  and  their  pupils.  Let  them  re- 
quire that  every  pupil  in  civil  mining,  marine  or  practical  engineering 
shall  be  articled  to  a  practitioner,  and  let  them  like  Universitj',  King's, 
and  Durham  Colleges,  limit  themselves  to  teaching  the  theoretical 
branches.  Form  a  special  class  for  instructing  steam  vessel  engi- 
neers, and  they  may  claim  a  government  grant  and  a  c'ass  for  locomo- 
jive  enpineers,  and  raihvay  companies  would  probably  contribute.  Edu- 
cate surveyors,  and  instruct  them  in  the  higher  branches  of  geodesiacal 
operations,  not  as  planned  by  the  College,  merely  the  rudiments  of  iis- 
tronomy,  but  its  application  in  trigonometrical  surveying.  Give  sup- 
plementary education  to  mining  engineers,  and  train  up  mineralogists 
and  assayists.  Teach  like  King's  College,  the  literature  of  manufac- 
tures and  machinery,  but  let  the  pu)uls  study  in  the  factory  instead 
of  the  toy-shop.  Do  the  same  for  the  manufacturing  chemist, 
London  has  establishments  enough  for  his  practice.  Let  the  Univer- 
sities or  the  Institution  give  the  diploma,  and  limit  the  College  to 
teaching,  and  still  will  be  done  more  than  enough  for  a  beginning, 
and  what  will  amjily  pay  for  all  expenses. 

In  concluding  these  remarks,  we  cannot  too  strongly  repeat,  that 
parents  should  hesitate  before  they  compromise  the  interests  of  their 
children,  by  sending  tliem  to  this  establishment,  anfl  we  call  on  its 
managers  to  pause  in  their  career,  before  they  have  yet  excited  the 
open  hostility  of  the  profession,  and  to  devote  their  energies  to  a 
useful  and  rational  purpose,  before  they  arc  crushed  by  a  powerful 
opposition.  We  have  been  influenced  by  no  prejudice  against  the 
College  or  its  objects,  but  we  feel  that  we  have  best  done  our  duty 
both  to  it  and  our  readers,  by  unsparingly  denouncing  what  we  con- 
sider an  erroneous  and  ineBicient  system  of  education,  and  a  certain 
delusion  to  those  who  have  the  misfortune  to  be  its  victims. 

"'See  vol.i.p.  138. 
t  See  Vol.  ii.  p.  3. 


Oxford  Viiiversiti/. — Feu'  persons  are  aware  that  100,000/.  was  loft  to  the 
University  of  O.xiord  by  Michael  Anpjelo  Taylor,  to  build  a  picture  gallery 
and  lecture  rooms  connected  with  science  anil  arts.  A  dispute  having  arisen 
between  his  relatives  and  the  trustees  respecting  the  will,  the  latter,  rather 
than  risk  a  suit  in  Chancery,  have  agreed  to  take  7.5,000/.,  and  have  bcgiui 
clearing  the  foundation  fcr  the  buildmg.  They  have  removed  the  old  houses 
at  the  corner  of  Beaumont-street,  St.  Giles's,  nearly  opposite  St.  John's  col- 
lege, which  J5  the  most  central  they  could  meet  with. 


GENERAL  THEORY  OF  THE  STEAM  ENGINE. 

By  Aristides  A.  Mornay,  lisii. 

No.  V. 

On  the  Action  of  the  Steam  in  (he  Cylinder  (continiKd.) 

In  our  last  numberwe  demonstrated  that  the  pressure  exerted  by  the 
steam  against  the  piston  may  be  assumed  in  practice  as  equal  to  its 
full  elastic  force  ;  we  intend  in  a  future  paper  to  enter  into  an  investi- 
gation of  the  elastic  force  of  the  steam  at  difierent  instants  during  the 
stroke  of  the  piston,  preparatory  to  which  it  will  be  necessary  to  in- 
qviirc  into  the  eHects  of  an  arrangement,  which  exercises  a  material 
inttucnce  on  the  elastic  force  of  the  steam  during  a  portion  of  the 
stroke  of  the  piston  when  it  is  adopted  :  we  allude  to  the  lead  of  the 
slidt,  which  is  considered  indispensable  in  Locomotive  Engines. 

The  lead  is  the  advance  given  to  the  motion  of  the  sliile,  by  which 
it  is  caused  to  shut  the  eduction  port,  and  open  the  steam  port  a  little 
before  the  commencement  of  the  stroke,  and  to  sliut  the  steam  port 
and  open  the  eduction  port  a  little  before  the  end  of  the  stroke. 

In  order  to  explain  the  reasons  assigned  for  giving  a  leatl  to  the 
slide  in  locomotive  engines,  we  think  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote 
the  following  from  the  description  of  Stephenson's  Patent  Locomotive 
Engine,  in  Wcale's  splendid  edition  of  "  Tredgold,  on  the  Steam  En- 
gine," pages  lot)  ami  4.51  of  the  Appendix.  "  It  is  found  necessary 
to  let  the  steam  on  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston  before  the  end  of 
the  stroke,  in  order  to  bring  it  up  gradually  to  a  stop,  and  diminish 
the  violent  jerk  that  is  caused  by  its  motion  being  cliauged  so  very 
rajjidly  as  five  times  in  a  second.  The  steam,  let  into  the  end  of  the 
cylinder,  before  the  piston  arrives  at  it,  acts  as  a  sining  cushion  to 
assist  in  changing  its  motion,  and  if  it  were  not  apjilieil,  the  piston 
cotdd  not  be  kept  tight  upon  tlie  piston  rod.  A  little  lead  of  the  slide 
is  also  necessary  that  the  steam  may  be  admitted  through  the  port 
into  the  cylinder,  and  be  completely  ready  to  begin  the  next  stroke 
when  the  piston  is  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder;  but  so  much  is  not  ne- 
cessary for  this. 

"The  principal  advantage  gained  by  giving  lead  to  the  slide  is  in 
beginning  to  get  rid  of  the  waste  steam  before  the  commencement  of 
the  stroke;  so  that  when  the  piston  commences  its  stroke  there  is  but 
little  waste  steam  before  it  to  resist  its  progress,  the  steam  beginning 
to  be  let  out  of  the  cyliniler  before  it  has  driven  the  piston  to  the  end 
of  the  stroke.  This  is  a  very  important  point  in  a  locomotive,  as  the 
resistance  or  negative  pressure  of  the  waste  steam  upon  the  piston  is 
very  considerable  ;  from  the  rapidity  of  the  motion,  which  allows  very 
little  time  for  it  to  escape,  and  from  the  use  of  the  blast  pipe,  which 
obstructs  its  passage.  The  area  of  the  extremity  of  the  blast  pipe  is 
only  five  square  inches,  while  that  of  the  steam  port  is  eight  square 
inches,  requiring  the  velocity  of  the  steam  in  the  blast  pipe  to  be  con- 
siderably greater  than  in  thecylinder.  The  average  negative  pressure 
of  the  waste  steam  throughout  the  stroke  is  G  lbs.  per  square  inch 
when  running  at  the  usual  rate  of  25  to  •2s  miles  an  hour  ;  and  at  greater 
velocities  the  negative  presstire  has  been  found  to  increase  to  double 
that  amount  and  even  more." 

From  the  first  reason  the  evil  it  is  intended  to  remedy  by  the  lead  of 
the  sliile  appears  to  be,  the  tendency  of  the  piston  to  become  loose  on 
the  piston  rod,  through  tlie  violent  jerks  caused  by  the  motion  of  the 
piston  being  changed  .so  very  frequently  as  5  times  in  a  second.  We 
have  to  ascertain  first,  the  immediate  cause  of  the  jerks,  secondly,  the 
manner  in  which  they  occasion  the  piston  to  work  loose,  thirdly,  their 
force,  and  lastly,  in  what  manner  and  to  what  extent  this  is  diminished 
by  the  lead  of  the  slide. 

In  order  to  accotmt  for  the  production  of  these  shocks  or  jerks,  we 
will  consider  what  passes  in  the  cylinder  of  a  locomotive  engine,  and 
first  on  the  supposition  that  the  steam  acts  on  the  piston  with  its  full 
pressure  to  the  very  end  of  the  stroke,  and  that  it  is  then  shut  off  and 
immediately  begins  to  press  with  its  full  force  on  the  other  side  of  the 
piston. 

On  this  head  it  is  necessary  to  observe  that,  under  tlie  circumstances 
here  assumed,  the  steam  could  not,  at  the  instant  the  piston  commences 
the  stroke,  press  upon  it  with  its  full  force  (that  is,  with  the  same 
force  as  in  the  middle  of  the  stroke),  on  account  of  the  necessity  of 
first  filling  the  steam  passage  and  waste  space  at  the  end  of  the  cylin- 
der. But,  since  the  pressure  of  the  steam  remaining  in  these  waste 
spaces  does  not  sensibly  exceed  that  of  the  atmosphere,  while  the  fresh 
steam  admitted  into  them  has  a  very  great  excess  of  pressure,  say  50 
poimds  on  the  square  inch,  the  time  required  to  fill  them  is  certainly 
very  much  less  than  that  requited  to  fill  one  huntlredth  part  of  the  con- 
tents of  the  cylinder,  during  which  time  the  steam  is  pressing  upon  the 
surface  of  the  piston  with  a  force  increasing  iVom  the  atmospheric 

12 


GO 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


pressure  to  the  maximum  pressure  attained  during  the  stroke.  With 
respect  (o  tlie  gradual  opening  of  the  port,  tliat  would  not  of  itself 
a(Tpct  the  ]iressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  in  any  degree,  since 
the  degree  of  opening  is  constantly  proportional  to  the  velocity  of  the 
jiiston,  liy  which  means  the  supjily  of  steam  is  always  equal  to  the  de- 
niand.  This  is  ccpially  true  while  the  steam-port  is  being  closed  in 
the  last  half  of  the  stroke.  We  may  therefore  be  permitted  to  assume, 
as  above,  that  tlie  steam  presses  on  the  piston  with  its  full  force  during 
the  whole  time  tliat  the  steam-port  is  open. 

We  may  also,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  assume  the  motion  of  the 
crank  to  be  strictly  uniform;  for  the  variations  of  power  are  so  ex- 
ceedingly slight  in  comparison  witli  the  energy  of  the  moving  mass, 
on  account  of  the  arrangement  of  the  two  cranks,  that  no  sensible  va- 
riations in  the  velocity  of  the  engine  can  possibly  result  therefrom. 

I'nder  these  circumstances,  when  the  piston  has  just  arrived  at  the 
middle  of  the  back  stroke,  its  motion  may  be  regarded  for  an  instant 
as  uniform,  since  it  is  changing  from  an  accelerated  to  a  retarded  mc- 
tion;  the  strain  on  the  key  «diich  connects  the  piston  to  the  piston- 
rod  is  therefore  equal  to  the  effective  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the 
piston  7>ii)iiis  the  friction  of  the  latter  against  the  surface  of  the  cylin- 
der. But  as  soon  as  the  piston  has  passed  tlie  middle  of  its  stroke,  its 
motion  begins  to  be  retarded,  and  since  the  retarding  force  lias  to  be 
transmitted  from  the  piston-rod  to  the  piston  through  the  medium  of 
the  key  which  connects  them,  the  latter  has  to  bear  the  strain  of  this 
force  in  addition  to  the  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  piston,  which  it 
liadtobearin  the  middle  of  the  stroke.  This  retarding  force  must 
evidently  increase  from  the  middle  to  the  end  of  the  stroke  with  the 
rate  of  retardation  of  the  )iiston's  motion.  The  strain  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke  will  therefore  be  equal  to  the  effective  pressure  of  the 
steam  on  the  surface  of  the  piston,  mimis  its  friction,  plua  the  greatest 
retarding  force,  since  the  retardation  is  then  the  most  rapid.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  fore  stroke,  the  pressure  of  the  steam  is  equal 
on  both  sides  of  the  piston,  and  there  is  consequently  no  power  to 
move  the  piston  but  such  a  portion  of  the  momentum  of  tlie  engine  as 
is  snfKcient  to  overcome  the  inertia  and  friction  of  the  piston.  The 
former  requires  a  force  precisely  equal  to  the  retarding  force  at  the 
end  of  the  stroke,  so  that  the  strain  is  suddenly  diminished  by  the 
cHective  pressure  of  steam  on  the  piston  minus  twice  its  friction;  and 
the  remaining  strain  is  gradually,  though  quickly,  taken  off  by  the 
escape  of  the  waste  steam  allowing  tiie  steam  on  the  other  side  of  the 
piston  to  exert  sutiicient  force  to  accelerate  its  motion.  From  the 
moment  when  this  is  the  case  all  the  pressure  is  borne  bv  the  conical 
end  of  the  piston-rod,  until  it  arrives  at  tlie  corresponding"  point  of  the 
back  stroke,  from  which  the  strain  on  the  key  increases  gradually  until 
it  attains  its  maximum  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  as  we  have  already 
explained. 

In  locomotive  engines,  wdiere  the  steam  is  used  at  very  high  pres- 
sures and  the  pistons  are  light,  the  strain  due  to  the  retardation  of  the 
motion  of  the  piston  is  very  inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  that 
due  to  the  pressure  of  the  steam,  as  we  shall  presently  prove,  when 
wc  calculate  the  intensity  of  the  retarding  force;  so  that  comparatively 
very  little  increase  of  strain  takes  place  during  the  last  half  of  tlie 
stroke,  this  increase  being  due  to  the  retardation  of  the  piston  alone, 
while  the  increase  during  the  first  half  amounts,  as  we  have  already 
mentioned,  to  the  whole  effective  jiressure  of  the  steam;  for  by  the 
time  the  piston  has  passed  through  the  first  half  of  the  stroke,  the 
pressure  of  the  waste  steam  must  be  reduced  very  nearly  to  that  of  the 
atmosphere. 

The  shocks  comjilained  of  appear  therefore  to  be  due,  not  to  the 
inertia  of  the  piston  requiring  a  considerable  force  to  change  its  direc- 
tion, but  to  the  alternate  action  of  the  steam  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
jiiston  producing  a  strain  on  one  side  of  the  key  which  reaches  its 
maximum  at  some  point  of  the  back  stroke,  and  is  taken  oft'cntirely 
during  tlieyorestr<ike. 

The  mode  in  which  this  intermittent  strain  on  the  key  may  cause  it 
t»  work  loose  is  evidently  by  the  alternate  compression  and  relaxation 
of  its'substance  ;  but  the  effect  of  this  might  be  prevented  by  securing 
the  key  with  a  screw  in  the  same  maimer  as  the  key  at  the  crank  end 
of  the  connecting  rod. 

We  have  said  that  the  chief  part  of  the  strain  on  the  key  of  the 
piston  is  due  to  the  pressure  of  the  steam;  this  investigation  would 
however  be  inconi|)lete  without  a  calculation  of  the  strain  due  to  the 
inertia  of  the  piston  in  consequence  of  the  great  variations  in  its  velo- 
city. This  strain  is  evidently  equal  to  the  force  wdiich  would  be  re- 
quired to  produce  a  certain  acceleration  or  retardation  in  the  motion 
of  the  piston,  and  an  accelerating  or  retarding  force  is  proportional  to 
the  rate  of  acceleration  or  retardation  which  it  produces. 

Let  V  =  the  mean  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute,  I  =  the 
length  of  its  stroke,  !>=  its  velocity  at  any  given  instant,  A  =  its  dis- 
tance from  the  end  of  the  stroke,  a  =;  the  angle  contained  between 


the  crank  and  the  direction  of  the  stroke,  and  .r  =  the  rate  of  retarda- 
tion per  minute,  at  the  given  instant. 

Supposing,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  that  the  motion  of  the  crank 
is  strictly  uniform  (which  is  very  nearly  true  in  reality),  and  that  the 
connecting  rod  is  infinitely  long  in  comparison  with  the  crank,  the  cir- 

ir   V 
cuinferential  velocity  of  the  crank  pin  will  be    — — ■'  and  we  shall  have 


TT  V 


■sill,  f, 


whence  we  obtain  by  differentiation 
a  V  ^=  — r- 


COS  ad  a. 


The  actual  distance  to  be  passed  through  by  the  crank  pin  before  it 
arrives  at  the  dead  centre  is  -  o,  which  divided  by  its  velocity--^ 
gives  for  the  time  required  to  travel  that  distance 

'-   ,rV' 


whence 


da=  — —  d  I. 


Substituting  this  expression  in  the  value  of  d  r,  and  dividing  by  d  I, 
we  obtain 


d  V 
dt' 


t'  V2  cos  a        TT^  V2  (;— 2  A). 


2  1  IP 

And  since  this  quantity  expresses  the  retardation  of  the  piston  per 
minute,  we  have  also 

TT-  V=  (/— 2  A) 
^  = 2F 

The  retardation  per  minute  produced  by  the  force  of  gravity  is 
about  1 15,884  feet,  which  if  we  call  G,  we  shall  have 

a:  _  IT-  V  (/— 2  A) 

G~     2317687^' 

If  then  we  call  n>  the  weight  of  the  piston,  and  W  the  pressure  due  to 
the  retardation  x,  we  shall  evidently  have 

W  _   .r    _  ttz  V»  (/— 2  A) 

w  ~  G  "      23I7ti8  i-'    ' 

or  the  strain  on  the  key  of  the  piston  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 

piston  multiplied  by  the  quantity  — "i^^yj.  .  ,;    • 
As  an  example  let  V  zi;  500,  /  =  1'5,  and  A  : 


1 

48' 


.     Supposing  the 


driving  wheels  of  the  engine  to  be  5  feet  in  diameter,  the  speed  under 
these  circumstances  would  be  2lV7r)  miles  per  hour.  The  strain  W  on 
the  key  of  the  piston  is  required,  when  the  latter  has  arrived  at  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  eiu)  of  the  stroke,  which  is  the  lead  usually 
given  to  the  slide  in  locomotives.  By  the  preceding  equation  we 
have 


W 


3-1415'  X  500-'  X 

) 

23I7G8  X  l-5= 


=  6-9  w. 


On  inspecting  the  general  equation  given  above,  it  will  be  evident 
that,  all  other  circumstances  remaining  the  same,  the  value  of  W  varies 
as  the  square  of  the  velocitv  of  the  piston,  and  that  it  increases  as  the 
piston  apjiroaches  the  end  of  the  stroke,  the  strain  at  the  very  end 
being  equal  to  the  weight  of  the   piston  multiplied  by  the  quantity 

„, ,  ^  .  ,  ,.     Under  the  circumstances  assumed  in  the  above  example 
2dl/bb  t:- 

we  should  therefore  have  at  the  end  of  the  stroke 

W  =  7  w. 

It  likewise  appears  that,  with  various  lengths  of  stroke  but  the  same 
velocity,  the  strain  is  inversely  as  the  lengtli  of  the  stroke,  when  the 
piston  is  at  proportionate  distances  from  the  end. 

The  same  calculation  applies,  of  course,  as  well  to  the  first  as  to  the 
second  half  of  the  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  is  improperly  omitted  in 
the  cousideration  of  the  unequal  action  of  the  steam  on  the  crank  and 
the  effect  of  fly-wheels ;  but  in  these  calculations  it  is  not  only  the 
weight  of  the  piston,  but  that  of  all  the  alternatin^parts  of  the  engine, 
that  must  be  taken  into  account.     In  the  same  manner  the  strain  on 


1840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


61 


the  key  which  connects  the  piston-rod  with  the  cross  head  is  a  mul- 
tiple of  the  weight  of  the  piston  and  piston-rod,  and  so  on  for  the  other 
joints.  It  is,  however,  necessary  to  deduct  first  in  each  case  the  fric- 
tion on  the  piston  and  other  parts  which  may  intervene  between  it  and 
the  joint  under  consideration. 

Since  the  strain  calcuUited  by  the  preceding  method  is  due  simply 
to  the  inertia  of  the  piston,  it  is  clear  that,  in  oriler  to  find  the  whole 
strain,  it  will  be  necessary  to  increase  the  former  by  as  much  as  the 
pressure  of  the  steam  against  the  surface  of  the  piston  may  exceed 
that  of  the  waste  steam  on  the  opposite  side. 

We  have  now  to  examine  the  maimer  in  which  the  force  of  the 
shocks  is  diminished  by  the  lead  of  the  slide,  and  to  what  extent  this 
remedy  is  effectual. 

We  shall  confine  our  reasoning  on  this  subject  to  locomotive  engines, 
in  which,  as  we  have  already  observed,  the  strain  brought  upon  the 
key  of  the  piston  by  destroying  the  momentum  of  the  latter,  is  very 
slight  in  comparison  with  that  which  results  from  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  on  the  piston,  and  which  the  key  must  necessarily  bear  during 
some  portion  of  the  stroke ;  for,  supposing  the  effective  pressure  of 
the  steam  to  be  .50  pounds  on  each  square  inch  of  the  piston,  the  area 
of  the  latter  being  upwards  of  113  square  inches  when  its  diameter  is 
one  foot,  the  total  pressure  of  the  steam  on  its  surface  is  more  than 
5G00  pounds,  while  the  strain  due  to  the  inertia  of  the  piston,  being 
under  seven  times  its  weight ;  if  we  suppose  this  to  be  70  pounds, 
(which  we  believe  to  exceed  the  truth)  is  less  than  490  pounds,  or  less 
than  one-tenth  part  of  the  strain  due  to  the  resistance  of  the  load,  de- 
duction being  made  for  the  friction  of  the  piston.  The  connecting 
key  of  the  piston  must  therefore  unavoidably  bear  a  strain  of  more 
than  5000  pounds  while  the  steam  is  acting  with  its  full  force,  besides 
that  due  to  the  inertia  of  the  piston,  which  amounts,  at  one  quarter  of 
an  inch  from  the  end  of  the  stroke,  to  69  seventieths  of  the  maximum 
strain  due  to  that  cause ;  and,  since  this  is  less  than  one-eleventh  of 
the  total  strain  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  when  no  lead  is  given  to  the 
slide,  the  greatest  amount  which  can  be  saved  by  cutting  otl'the  steam 
and  admitting  it  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston  at  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  from  the  end  of  the  stroke,  is  no  more  than  one-seventieth  of  the 
strain  due  to  the  inertia  of  the  piston,  or  less  than  one  700th  part  of 
the  total  strain  at  the  moment  of  cutting  off  the  steam. 

It  is  therefore  evident  that  the  sudden  jerks  experienced  by  the  key 
which  connects  the  piston  with  the  piston-rod,  in  consequence  of  the 
rapid  changes  in  the  motion  of  the  piston,  in  as  far  as  they  are  due  to 
the  inertia  of  the  latter,  do  not  afford  a  sufficient  motive  for  giving  a 
lead  to  the  slide ;  and  that  this  remedy  is  entirely  ineffectual  in 
diminishing  them,  in  as  far  as  they  are  due  to  the  alternate  action  of 
the  steam  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  piston,  which  is  the  immediate 
cause  of  nearly  the  whole  amoimt  of  the  evil;  so  that,  if  the  piston 
could  not  be  kept  tight  on  the  piston-rod  without  the  lead,  neither 
could  it  be  with  a  lead  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  when  the  length  of  the 
stroke  is  18  inches. 

Regarding  the  second  reason,  namely,  that  the  steam  may  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  cylinder,  and  be  completely  ready  to  begin  the  next 
stroke  when  the  piston  is  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder,  we  are  of  opinion 
that  nothing  at  all  is  gained  in  that  respect  by  meiins  of  the  lead,  but 
that,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  attended  with  a  slight  disadvantage.  Near 
the  beginning  of  this  paper  we  observed  that,  without  any  lead,  a 
loss  of  pressure  during  a  very  small  portion  of  the  stroke  ensues 
from  the  necessity  of  filling  the  waste  space  at  the  end  of  the  cylinder 
with  steam  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke;  but  this  loss  is  of  very 
trifling  amount.  By  a  lead  of  one  quarter  of  an  inch  this  loss  of  pres- 
sure is  avoided,  for  this  gives  sufficient  time  for  the  waste  space  to  be 
filled  with  steam  at  full  pressure  by  the  commencement  of  the  stroke ; 
but  by  this  means  the  resistance  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston  is 
increased,  during  the  last  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  stroke,  by  whatever 
pressure  the  steam  has  acquired  at  every  instant  of  that  portion  of  the 
stroke.  The  amount  of  resistance  so  produced  is  greater  than  the 
loss  of  pressure  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  resulting  from  the  above- 
mentioned  cause  when  there  is  no  lead.  We  do  not,  however,  attach 
any  importance  to  this  circumstance,  as  tlie  whole  amount  of  loss  either 
way  is  perfectly  insignificant ;  we  only  mention  it  to  show  that  the 
lead  of  the  slide  is  not  requisite,  nor  even  advantageous,  for  the  second 
reason  assigned  by  the  author  of  the  paper  above  quoted. 

With  respect  to  the  third  reason,  we  do  not  think  that  so  ranch  can 
be  gained  as  the  author  appears  to  suppose,  yet,  if  there  is  any  advan- 
tage in  the  lead,  it  is  probably  in  beginning  to  get  rid  of  the  waste 
steam  before  the  commencement  of  the  stroke,  so  that,  when  the  piston 
commences  its  stroke,  there  is  but  little  waste  steam  before  it  to  resist 
its  progress,  the  steam  beginning  to  be  let  out  of  the  cylinder  before 
it  has  driven  the  piston  to  the  end  of  the  stroke.  Now  there  is  clearly 
tliis  advantage  in  beginning  to  let  out  the  waste  steam  before  the  end 
of  the  stroke,  that,  supposing  the  time  occupied  in  getting  rid  of  the 


vvfhole  of  it  to  be  the  same  as  without  any  lead,  the  portion  of  the 
stroke  traversed  by  the  piston  during  this  time  is  less,  because  its 
velocity  is  on  an  average  less  :  besides  which,  the  resistance  of  the 
waste  steam  during  the  first  portion  of  the  time,  namely,  at  the  end  of 
the  previous  stroke  is  thereby  avoided,  though  at  the  expense  of  a 
part  of  the  useful  effect  ot  the  steam  in  the  latter  part  of  the  stroke  : 
indeed,  by  as  much  as  the  pressure  of  the  waste  steam  at  the  beginning 
of  the  stroke  has  been  diminished  by  the  eduction  port  having  been 
already  some  time  open,  by  so  much  must  its  efiective  pressure  have 
been  reduced  at  the  end  of  the  previous  stroke.  We  have  also  already 
mentioned  the  resistance  of  the  steam  let  on  to  the  front  of  the  piston 
before  the  end  of  the  stroke,  which  of  itself  nearly  compensates  the 
saving  of  part  of  the  resistance  of  the  waste  steam  at  the  beginning. 

The  preceding  reasoning  is  only  intended  to  prove  that  there  is 
little  or  no  reason,  and  certainly  no  necessity  to  give  a  lead  to  the 
slide  in  locomotive  engines  ;  for-other  descriptions  of  engine  it  is  need- 
less to  say  any  thing,  as  no  one  would  ever  think  of  giving  a  lead  in 
any  but  a  locomotive  engine.  It  might  however  be  advantageous  to 
give  a  lead  to  the  eduction  only,  as  by  that  means  the  saving  of  re- 
sistance at  the  beginning,  would  not  be  counteracted  by  the  additional 
resistance  of  the  steam  admitted  into  the  cylinder  before  the  end  of 
the  stroke. 

To  return  to  the  action  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder.  The  whole 
effect  produced  during  an  indefinitely  short  period  of  time  is  equal  to 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  on  the  whole  area  of  the  piston  multiplied 
by  the  distance  travelled  by  the  piston  during  that  time,  the  pressure 
of  the  waste  steam  being  considered  as  a  part  of  the  resistance,  or 
total  effect.  This  is  true,  although  at  some  moments  the  resistance 
may  apjiear  less  than  the  pressure  of  the  steam,  and  at  others  infinitely 
greater ;  for  the  compensation  is  perfectly  made  by  the  momentum  of 
the  moving  parts,  which  serve  as  reservoirs  of  power,  absorbing,  as  it 
were,  the  excess  at  one  time  by  receiving  an  increase  of  velocity,  and 
giving  it  out  again  at  another  time,  when  the  pressure  of  the  steam  is 
inferior  to  the  resistance.  But  although  the  pressure  of  the  waste 
steam  is  strictly  a  part  of  the  resistance,  yet  we  shall,  in  the  following 
investigation,  deduct  its  amount  from  the  gross  power  of  the  steam, 
and  consider  the  balance  as  the  gross  power  of  the  engine,  which  will 
then  be  equal  to  the  useful  effect,  ^/«s  the  friction  and  other  resis- 
tances ;;(  the  engine.  In  our  next  paper  we  shall  commence  this  inves- 
tigation with  the  low  pressure  condensing  engine,  for  which  the  cal- 
culation is  the  most  simple,  and  then  extend  it  to  the  other  varieties 
of  engine. 


ARCfflTECTURAL  COMPETITION. 

Sir, — The  subject  of  Architectural  Competition  is  one,  which  at 
this  moment,  should  be  more  than  usually  interesting  to  members  of 
the  profession.  I  do  not,  therefore,  hesitate  to  request  your  inser- 
tion of  the  following  correspondence,  which  I  think,  it  will  be  con- 
fessed, exposes  as  unsatisfactory  a  case  as  any  of  those  recently  so 
nuich  commented  upon. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  year,  a  committee  formed  for  building  a 
new  church  at  Cardiff,  advertised  for  plans,  offering  premiums  of  20/. 
and  10/.  for  the  first  and  second  best  designs.  In  conjunction  with 
my  partner,  Mr.  Brandon,  I  submitted  plans,  with  a  specification  and 
estimate.     On  the  11th  June,  we  received  the  following  letter: — 

Cardifl'  Vicarage,  10th  June,  1839. 
Gentlemen, — The  premium  of  20/.  offered  for  the  Ijcbt  plan  and  design  for 
a  churcfi  in  this  town,  having  been  awarded  to  you,  I  have  great  pleasure  in 
forwarding  you  from  the  committee,  an  order  for  that  amount  on  the  Loudon 
and  \\estimnster  Bank,  of  which  I  shall  be  obUged  by  your  acknowledging 
the  receipt. 

I  am.  Gentlemen,  your  very  obedient  Servant, 

T.  Stacev.  Hon.  Sec. 

In  the  course  of  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  receipt  of  that  letter, 
we  heard  it  rumoured  that  a  Mr.  Foster,  of  Bristol,  was  to  be  em- 
'ployed  as  archttct  to  this  church.  Being  at  a  loss  to  reconcile  this 
statement  with  the  announcement  that  our's  was  "/fc  best  plan  and 
design,"  we  wrote  to  say,  that  if  their  subscription  fell  short  of  the 
contemplated  amount,  we  should  be  happy  to  submit  sketches  for  a 
building  on  a  reduced  scale.  On  the  'JSth  June,  we  received  the  fol- 
lowing Tetter. 

Cardiff,  24th  June,  1839. 

Gentlemen, — I  fear  I  have  been  gudty  of  an  omission  in  my  last  commu- 
nication, that  has  occasioned  yon  some  misconception  relative  to  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  committee  for  building  the  new  church  here.    Had  it 


02 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


occiirri'd  to  luc,  tlie  most  obvious  moile  of  putting  you  in  possession  of  their 
intentions,  would  liave  been  to  scnil  you  a  copy  of  the  rcsohitions  adopted 
at  the  meeting  at  wliicli  the  tirst  lU'emium  was  awarded  you.  And  no  better 
mode  occurs  to  mc  now.  1  therefore  beg  to  subjoin  a  cojiy  of  that  resolu- 
tion : — 

"  It  was  unanimously  resolved,  that  the  premitun  for  the  best  plan  he  ad- 
judged to  Messrs.  Wyatt  and  Brandon,  and  that  the  plan  and  design  of 
Mr.  roster,  of  Bristol',  be  adopted  by  the  committee  for  those  of  the  new 
churcli,"  &c.  i^c. 

Whilst,  therefore,  the  committee  ailjndgcd  your  design  to  he  the  best 
ncconthi;/  lo  the  ciiiverliscment,  they  thought  it  iireferahle  to  adopt  one  fm-- 
nished  by  a  Mr.  Foster,  of  Uristol.  I  feel  now,  that  this  should  have 
formed  i>art  of  my  last  letter,  but  at  the  moment  I  wrote,  it  seemeil  to  me 
/hat  mil  silence  voiild  haee  been  inlcr/treleil  hij  i/ou  as  iiuliealive  of  Ike  reso- 
latiom  of  the  ifieetiwj. 

I  remain,  Gentlemen,  your  very  obedient  Servant, 

T.  Stacey,  Hon.  Sec. 

Why  Mr.  Stacey  slioidd  have  imagined  llial  from  "  U»  silaict,"  we 
were  to  suppose  the  committee  liail  resolved  \ipon  this  unusual 
course,  I  am  unable  to  guess.  We,  liowever,  addressed  him  on  tlie 
2oth  iis  follows  : — 

Su', — We  have  to  acknowledge  the  favor  of  your  letter  of  the  2 1th  inst.> 
and  to  state  the  fact  of  our  having  misconceived  the  purport  of  your  former 
letter.  Wien  you  announced  that  the  committee  bad  adjudged  us  the 
"Jirst  premium  for  the  best  plan  and  desirjn,"  it  never  for  a  moment  oc- 
curred to  us  that  the  committee  would  take  the  unusual,  and  as  we  cannot 
help  feeling  the  mijust  course  of  emjiloying  another  architect.  Either  our 
design  was  the  best,  in  accordance  iri//t  your  instructions,  or  Mr.  Foster's 
was.  If  his  accommodated  2000  persons,  and  was  most  apjilicnlile  to  your 
olijects,  we  think  you  did  him  an  injustice  in  calling  our's  the  liest.  If,  on 
the  contrary,  our's  was  really  tlie  Ijest,  why  not  have  done  us  the  justice  to 
believe  that  we  were  capable  of  altering  that  design,  or  producing  another 
quite  appUcalite  to  yoiu'  wants  ?  We  cannot  but  think  the  resolution  of  the 
committee  must  have  passed  in  forgetfulness  of  general  custom  and  of  the 
injurious  elfect  it  nnst  have  in  ODnipetition  generally.  Surely,  no  architect 
of  respcctaliility  would  lie  fouud  to  expend  time  and  money  in  designs 
w bore  "  the  premium  "  was  the  only  reward,  and  certainly  not  in  a  case 
wlicre  the  amount  of  such  premium  is  insuHicicnt  to  cover  the  actual  outlay 
ill  preparing  tbo^e  designs.  It  is  only  the  snperintendanee  of  a  building, 
which  offers  credit  and  remuneration  to  the  architect  jiroportionate  to  the 
thought  and  the  anxiety  expended  on  a  meritorious  design.  *  *  * 
We  beg  to  assure  the  committee,  that  these  remarks  are  not  written  in  a 
spirit  of  dictation,  for  to  their  decision  we  must,  of  course,  bow;  but  it  is 
not  the  less  our  duty  to  call  ,'ittention  to  that  which  unexplained,  implies 
either  injustice  on  their  side,  or  a  stain  on  our  professional  character,  for 
whilst  it  ap|iears  to  the  public  that  we  have  submitted  "  the  best  plan  and 
design  "  you  have  received,  they  learn  that  our  future  services  are  declined, 
and  an  architect  employed,  whose  desiyn  was  neither  the  jirst  or  second  best. 
We  trust,  therefore,  that  the  committee  will  at  least  alter  the  wording  of 
their  resolution. 

We  have  the  honor  to  be.  Sir, 

Your  obedient  Servants, 

Wyatt  and  Brandon. 

The  following  letter  acknowledges  the  receipt  of  our's  of  the  25th, 
and  affords  tlic  satisfactory  information  that  Mr.  Foster  is  selected  for 
the  higliist  pnmiam  the  committee  coidd  give,  namely,  their  employ- 
ment, because  his  "  plan  and  design  were  not  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  advertisement."  Tins,  certainly,  is  a  curious  specimen 
of  justice,  and  will,  no  doubt,  tend  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
future  competitors,  the  advantages  of  strictly  adhering  to  the  in- 
structions issued  by  committees. 

Cardiff,  June  27th,  1839. 
Cicntlemen, — I  have  had  the  honor  to  receive  the  favour  of  your  letter  of 
the  2.'>th,.and  will  not  fail  to  lay  it  before  the  committee  at  their  next  meet- 
ing. But  as  it  is  not  likely,  from  the  progress  of  things,  that  I  shall  soon 
have  an  oiiportunity  of  doing  so,  1  beg  to  state  at  once,  and  from  myself, 
tliat  the  reason  why  Mr.  Foster's  plan  and  design  were  not  awarded  the  first 
premium  was,  that  tliey  were  not  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  ad- 
vertisement, and  therefore  it  was,  that  your's  were  assigned  the  premium. 
I  have  the  honor  to  be.  Gentlemen, 

Your  very  obedient  SeiTant,  • 

T.  Stacuy. 

(.)ne  or  two  other  letters  passed,  in  continuation  of  this  subject ; 
that  from  Mr.  Stacey,  assuring  us  that  the  committee  had  not  the 
least  intention  of  "offering  any  mark  of  disrespect,  or  want  of  due 
lonsideration  to  the  design  of  Messrs.  Wyatt  and  Brandon,  the  merit 
of  which  they  highly  appreciate."  On  the  3uth  July  we  addressed 
Mr.  ^jtacey■ 

Sir, — W'c  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  yoiu-  favor  of  the  29th  inst., 
communicating  the  content!)  of  a  resolution  passed  by  the  Cardiff  Church 


Gonnnittce.  We  regret  the  necessity  of  again  troubling  you  upon  this  sub- 
ject, but  we  must,  for  the  last  time,  repeat  our  sense  of  the  injustice  done 
us ;  which,  however  unintentional  on  tlie  part  of  the  committee,  is  not  the 
less  apparent.  It  is  only  on  the  understanding  that  all  the  designs  sub- 
mitted shall  be  tested  by  the  terms  and  conditions  inijiosed  by  the  adver- 
tisement, an<l  that  those  designs  which  do  not  comply  with  such  instructions 
shall  he  rejected,  that  architects  compete.  Unless  all  the  competitors  start 
from  the  same  point,  it  is  impossible  that  the  race  can  be  a  fair  one.  Mr. 
Foster's  plans,  it  seems,  were  sufficiently  informal  to  disentitle  him  to  the 
]ircmium  of  20/.,  and  yet  these  informalities  are  made  to  disajipear,  and  he 
is  awarded  the  frst  premium,  the  snperintendanee  of  the  hiiildinij.  And  the 
only  premium,  which  in  this  case,  was  wortliy  struggling  for.  Surely  this  is 
not  fair  play  !  It  was  only  on  the  faith,  that  the  architect  who  received  the 
first  premium,  would  he  employed  to  carry  into  execution  any  work  the  com- 
mittee might  erect,  that  you  received  jilaiis  at  all.  It  is  (miless  specially 
excepted,  as  in  the  case  of  the  comjietition  for  the  K<iyal  Exchange  now 
going  on,)  the  basis  of  all  understanding  between  committees  and  com- 
jietitors — once  destroy  this,  and  you  put  an  end  to  competition.  In  the 
case  of  the  Koyal  Exchange,  the  premiums  ofl'ered  arc  300/.,  200/.  and  100/., 
with  tlus  clause,  "That  if  the  architect  who  receives  the  first  pieniinm 
should  not  be  entrusted  ivitli  the  budding,  be  shall  receive  an  addiliunal  sum 
of  .500/.  if  his  designs  are  carried  into  execution.  The  committee  having 
power  to  retain  the  drawings  for  which  the  prcnnum  is  awarded."  Now 
liere  there  is  no  understantUng,  and  the  fact  of  their  considering  it  necessary 
to  make  these  conditions,  implies  that  without  them  architects  should  not 
be  inviteil  to  compete.  Under  the  circmnstances  of  the  case,  we  have  no 
desire  to  retain  the  premium  thus  awarded  us,  and  are  prepared  to  return  it, 
upon  being  informed  to  whouj  it  should  be  paid. 

We  have  also  to  request  you  will  give  directions  for  our  drawings  being 
returned;  under  any  circumstances,  they  are  not  the  ]iropcrty  of  the  com- 
mittee, and  as  they  are  goinij;  to  liuild  on  Mr.  Foster's  [ilan,  our  design  can 
be  of  no  service  to  theni,  unless  for  the  jiurpose  of  adopting  any  arrange- 
ment or  featme  of  merit  they  m.ay  be  thought  to  possess  ;  a  ]noceediug 
which  we  are  unable  to  suppose  a  committee  of  gentlemen  would  sanction. 
We  have  the  honor  to  be.  Sir, 

Your  obedient  Servants, 

Wyatt  and  Brandon. 

To  this  lette/,  on  the  28th  November,  we  received  the  following 
reply  :— 

Canlitf  X'icarage,  27th  November,  1839. 

Gentlemen, — I  beg  to  forward  yon  the  following  copy  of  a  resolution  of 
the  committee  appointed  for  the  erection  of  a  new  church  at  Cardilf,  passed 
on  Monday  the  2.5th  instant. 

The  secretary  having  laid  before  the  meeting  a  letter  from  Messrs.  AAyatt 
and  Brandon,  commenting  again  on  the  adjudication  of  the  premium  for 
the  best  jilan,  it  was  resolved  : — 

"  That  the  secretary  be  directed  to  return  Messrs.  \\'yatt  and  Brandon 
their  plans  as  they  desire,  and  to  infonn  them  that  the  amount  of  the  first 
premium  awarded  them,  which  they  decline  to  retain,  may  he. paid  into  the 
London  and  Westminster  Bank,  to  the  credit  of  the  treasurer  of  the  Catditt' 
New  Church  Budding  Fund." 

In  pursuance  of  the  foregoing  resolutions,  I  forward  your  plans  by  this 
days'  mail,  carriage  paid.  I  desire  you  should  understand  tliat  the  com- 
mittee meeting  of  the  25th,  was  the  first  that  has  been  held  since  the 
receipt  of  yom  letter  of  the  30th  July,  otherwise  it  would  have  been  replied 
to  earlier. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  Gentlemen, 

Your  most  obedient  Senant, 

T.  Stacey,  Hon.  Sec. 

Here  closes  the  correspondence.  We  have  received  our  designs, 
and  the  premium  has  been  returned.  Mr.  B.  Ferry,  to  whom  the 
secotid  iiremium  was  awarded,  viewing  the  matter  in  the  same  light 
that  we  did,  remonstrated  by  letter,  against  this  act  of  the  committee, 
and  informs  me,  that  the  replies  he  received  as  to  the  grounds  on 
which  Mr.  Foster  is  employed,  were  "equally  inisatisfactory"  with 
our  own.  It  is  always  difficult  in  cases  where  one's  own  interests  or 
feelings  are  concerned,  to  take  an  impartial  and  correct  view.  And 
possibly  this  case,  which  to  any  eye  presents  an  incumistent,  if  not  an 
unjust  appearance,  may  have  occurred  before,  and  may  not  be 
thought  to  call  for  the  remonstrances  we  deemed  it  right  to  make. 
Its  consideration,  however,  can  do  no  harm  to  those  who  may  here- 
after engage  in  competitions,  and  if,  by  the  course  adopted  we  have 
tended  in  however  slight  a  degree  to  assert  the  indepentlence  and 
correct  feeling  of  our  profession,  the  end  we  had  in  view  will  be  fully 
realized. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  Servant, 

Thomas  Henry  Wvatt. 
7-5,  Grcal  Russell  Street  ,January  1840. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


63 


REMARKS  ON  RAILWAYS, 

WITH    REFERENCE   TO   THE    POWER,   &C.   TO    BE    EMPLOYED    UPON    THEM. 

( Conlimted  from  page  <j.) 

Having  in  tlip  last  number  of  the  journal  disposed  of  railways 
unfavourable  to  lucoiuotive  engines,  we  will  proceed  to  examine  level 
railways,  with  reference  to  the  power  to  be  emijloyed  on  them,  as  in 
the  former  case.  I  will  take  an  example  lest  it  be  said  I  make  the 
case  suit  the  ]irinciple,  instead  of  making  the  rule  apply  to  the  case. 

Tlie  Sheffield  and  Rotherham  Railway  has  been  completed  about 
eighteen  months;  it  will  elucidate  my  views  as  well  as  any  other,  and 
because  I  am  better  accjuainted  with  it  than  those  at  a  distance,  I  will 
therefore  take  it  as  our  example.  As  truth  is  what  I  wish  to  elicit 
by  these  remarks,  perhaps  it  will  be  the  clearest  way  to  say  at  the 
commencement  what  I  intend  to  prove  ;  by  so  doing  your  readers  will 
be  enabled  to  judge  how  the  arguments  which  I  bring  forward  bear 
on  the  case. 

It  is  that  in  the  example  we  have  taken,  and  in  any  similar  one,  we 
can  have  a  cheaper,  more  efficient  and  belter  railway  by  having  endless 
ropes,  and  stationary  engines,  than  by  locomotives. 

To  prove  this,  it  will  he  necessary  to  go  into  calculations;  but  to 
make  them  as  short  as  possiljle,  I  will  only  give  the  results,  reserving 
to  myself  the  opportunity  of  giving  them  at  full  length,  should  any  of 
your  readers  deny  their  correctness.  First,  as  to  "  cost  of  the  rail- 
way." It  is  said  the  Sheffield  and  Rotherham  Railway  has  cost 
already  £110,000,  about  £80,000  of  which  would  go  for  constructing 
the  railway,  vi/.,  embankments,  excavations,  cS-'C,  and  for  permanent 
rails.  It  will  not,  I  think,  be  disputed  that  the  embankments  and 
excavations  on  this  comparatively  level  country  have  been  made  at  a 
cost  of  at  least  £33,00:.)  more  than  they  would  have  done  had  fixed 
engines  been  the  moving  power;  and  as  some  of  the  engines  upon 
this  railway  weigh  16  tons,  we  may  safely  take  oft' £7,000  from  the 
first  cost  of  the  rails  and  chairs,  making,  with  the  sum  first  mentioned, 
£40,000  or  the  railway,  would  have  cost  £40,000  less  than  it  has  done 
had  fixed  engines  been  the  power  contemplated.  The  interest  of  this 
sum,  at  5  per  cent.,  is  £2,000  per  annum.  So  much  for  the  cost  of  the 
railway. 

We  will  now  go  to  the  second  part  of  our  subject,  viz.,  "  more  effi- 
cient." An  engine  and  tender  will  weigh  about  20  tons;  suppose  we 
call  the  engine  oO  horse  power,  we  shall  have,  at  30  miles  per  hour,  a 
power  of  121  X  50  =  (525  lbs.,  which  will  take,  on  a  level  railway, 
nearly  56  tons,  20  of  which  is  taken  up  by  the  engine  and  tender, 
leaving  3G  only  conveyed  by  an  engine  of  50  horse  power  at  30  miles 
per  hour. 

To  convey  3G  tons  by  the  stationary  system,  it  will  require  a  rope 
3J  inches  circumference  ;  2  miles  of  it  would  weigh  about  4,000  lbs. 
Messrs.  Walker  and  Rastric  take  the  friction  of  the  rope  to  be  ^^  part 
of  its  weight;  I  see  no  reason  to  vary  from  their  estimate;  but  as 
Messrs.  Robert  Stephenson  and  Joseph  Locke,  whose  bias  would  be 
against  stationary  engines,  take  it  as  -Jj  of  the  weight.  I  will,  in 
deference  to  the  opinion  of  these  latter  gentlemen,  take  it  to  be  -jV, 
which  is  about  half  way  between  the  one  and  the  other ;  Vj  of  4,G00  lbs, 
is  305  lbs.  The  friction  of  the  train  is  403  lbs.,  together  709  lbs.  which 
divided  by  124,  the  power  of  a  horse  at  3o  miles  per  hour  r=  5G  horse 
power,  or  G  horse  power  more  than  the  locomotive.  But  the  locomo- 
tive would  have  to  get  its  steam  up  before  working,  and  there  would 
be  fuel  in  the  fire-box  when  it  had  arrived  at  the  end  of  its  journey; 
I  shall  take  it  working  5  minutes  before  and  5  minutes  after,  which 
will  make,  with  the  15  minutes  in  performing  the  journey,  25  minutes, 
or  what  is  about  the  same  thing,  83  horse  power  for  15  minutes. 

Though  the  stationary  system  requires  an  engine  56  horse  power, 
yet,  as  tiie  72  trains  per  day,  36  tons  at  a  time  would  only  occupy,  in 
the  two  miles  worked  by  each  engine  24  minutes  per  hour,  it  would 
only  be  needful  to  have  them  3G  horse  power.  The  distance  from 
Sheffield  to  Rotherham,  G  miles,  is  divided  into  6  stages,  requiring 
an  engine  at  every  other  stage ;  but  as  it  would  be  more  convenient  to 
have  one  at  each  end,  it  will  require  4  engines.  These  4  engines  are 
employed  the  whole  of  the  12  hours,  without  any  intermission,  in 
pumping  water  out  of  one  reservoir  into  another  fixed  40  or  60  feet 
above  it;  the  water  in  the  upper  reservoir  is  allowed  to  I'un  over  a 
water  wheel  as  it  is  wanted  to  move  the  trains,  which,  as  before 
stated,  is  about  24  minutes  in  every  GO,  by  which  the  3G  horse  power 
engine  becomes  increased  to  90  horse  power,  or  there  will  be  as  much 
water  pumped  in  the  GO  minutes  by  the  3G  horse  power  engine  as 
would  supply  a  water  wheel  of  90  horse  power,  if  there  vpere  no 
waste ;  but  the  loss  from  this  cause,  and  from  friction,  will  be  33  per 
cent.,  which  will  reduce  the  engine  to  GO  horse  power,  or  4  more  than 
is  required ;  it  appears,  then,  we  only  require  engine  power  of  144 


horses.  It  is  hardly  likely  that  3  trips  per  hour  each  way,  for  12 
hours,  would  be  made  by  fewer  than  6  locomotive  engines  kept  ready 
all  the  time,  which  would  be  equal  to  300  horse  power  than  twice  as 
much  as  the  stationary,  and  certainly  more  than  four  times  the  ex- 
pense in  fuel,  and  by  using  coke  instead  of  coals,  and  being  high  pres- 
sure instead  of  condensing  engines. 

We  think  the  second  part  of  our  proposition  "  more  official" — is 
clearly  made  out.  There  remains  now  the  third,  viz.,  "  a  better  rail- 
way;"  this  will  be  more  difficult  to  prove,  it  is  such  a  comprehensive 
term  ;  but  we  don't  fear  being  able  to  do  so. 

If  we  can  travel  as  fast,  or  faster,  at  a  smaller  expense,  injure  the 
rails  less,  be  less  liable  to  accidents,  either  to  the  machinery  or  rails, 
have  no  more  stoppages  from  the  machinery  getting  out  of  order,  and 
have  such  stoppages  as  do  occur,  shorter,  and  sooner  remeilied.  If 
we  can  insure  all  these  at  about  half  the  annual  expense  in  repairs,  are 
we  not  justified  in  saying  we  could  have  a  better  railway,  I  will  begin 
with  "  speed;"  in  wet  weather,  on  the  Sheffield  and  Rotherham  Rail- 
way, it  is  the  practice  to  put  sand  on  the  rails,  where  there  happens 
to  be  a  slight  inclination,  to  make  the  wheels  bite,  and  so  much  are 
the  wdieels  in  the  habit  of  slipping  on  all  railways,  that  Mr.  William 
Vickers,  a  merchant  in  Sheffield,  who  has  a  good  knowledge  of  me- 
chanics, and  is  pretty  well  accjuainted  with  the  working  of  railways, 
has  been  induced  to  take  out  a  patent  for  the  plan  of  connecting  all 
the  wheels  together  by  means  of  a  belt  or  strap.  If  they  slip  they 
must  lose  speed,  and  injure  the  rails  at  the  same  time.  With 
regard  to  the  speed  of  the  stationary  ))lan,  it  depends  upon  the  speed 
of  the  engine,  and  is  only  limited  by  the  slrength  of  the  materials  of 
which  the  rope,  pulleys,  engines>&c.  are  constructed ;  and  were  there  no 
such  thing  as  resistance  of  the  atmosphere  there  would  be  hardly  any 
limit  to  it.  Then  comes  the  relative  expense  at  which  this  can  be 
done.  If  we  increase  the  speed  of  the  locomotive,  the  engine  and 
tender  will  form  a  much  larger  proportion  of  its  load  than  at  present, 
because  it  will  require  a  greater  quantity  of  fuel  and  water  on  account 
of  the  increased  power  of  the  engine.  The  engine  would  have  to  be 
made  stronger  and  heavier  to  take  the  same  load.  The  rails,  chairs, 
and  every  tiling  connected  with  them  would  cost  more  in  repairs,  be- 
cause of  the  increased  speed  and  weight  of  the  engine,  and  the  engine 
itself  would  be  sooner  worn  out.  While,  on  the  stationary  plan,  the 
only  difference  would  be  an  increase  in  the  power  of  the  engines, 
greater  strength,  of  rope  and  pulleys,  and  an  additional  wear  in  the 
two  latter,  the  rails,  chairs,  &c.  remaining  the  same. 

I  find  I  am  getting  unnecessarily  into  the  minuliee  of  the  subject.  All 
these  things  are  imjiovtant,  no  doubt,  but  will,  be  wearisome  to  your 
readers  to  go  through.  I  will  therefore  confine  myself  to  tlie  compara- 
tive safety  and  annual  expense  of  the  two  systems.  The  greater  the 
weight  in  motion,  the  less  it  will  be  influenced  or  impeded  by  obstruc- 
tions, and  this  will  i-ender  it  more  liable  to  get  off  the  rails  at  the 
curves,  and  make  it  more  difficult  to  stop.  It  appears  that  locomotive 
trains  will  always  have  20  tons  more  weight,  as  already  stated,  than 
the  stationary  system,  the  conclusion  is  obvious.  The  large  wheels  of 
the  locomotive  engine  would  have  a  tendency  to  run  oft"  the  rails,  the 
ropes  of  the  stationary  plan  would  tend  to  keep  the  carriages  on.  The 
engine  and  train  being  independent  of  any  other,  would  be  in  danger 
of  coming  in  contact  with  other  trains,  unless  those  trains  were  at  a 
considerable  distance,  and  every  collision  without  great  care  would 
throw  carriages  in  the  train  of  one  or  both  of  them  off  the  rails,  and 
occasion  great  delay  to  say  the  least  of  it.  The  stationary  plan  might 
have  a  hundred  trains,  a  hundred  yards  of  each  other,  and  they  would 
never  approach  nearer,  this  needs  no  conunent.  In  comparing  the 
annual  expense  of  the  two,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  ascertain  the 
expence  of  each,  but  only  where  they  difter,  to  estimate  the  amount  of 
each.  The  locomotive  engines  cost  about  £1,300  each,  and  if  Ihey 
are  fully  worked  will  cost  £300  per  annum  in  repairs,  or  if  half- 
worked  £150.  (Let  Demetrius  and  the  Craftsmen  deny  this  if  they 
can.)  We  will  take  them  to  be  half-worked,  there  would  then  require 
5  engines  and  one  spare  engine,  making  6  engines  in  constant  work, 
so  that  the  cost  per  annum  vi'ould  be  6X  150=:£900  for  repairs. 
The  engines  will  last  not  more  than  nine  or  ten  years.  We  will  take 
them  at  13  per  cent,  on  G  engines,  which  will  be  £1,014;  the  fuel  we 
will  estimate  at  U  per  ton  per  mile,  including  waste  at  each  end,  we 
shall  have  to  reckon  50  tons  moved  in  this  case  and  not  3G,  but  as  the 
coke  and  water  is  consuming,  I  have  reckoned  50  tons,  72  times  6  miles 
for  312  days,  which  amounts  to  6,739,200  tons  conveyed  one  mile, 
U  lb.  per  ton  on  this  will  be  3,760  tons  of  coke,  which  is  I4s.  per  ton, 
the  amount  of  this  will  be  per  anmmi  £2,G32.  I  shall  take  the  engine- 
men,  firemen,  &c.,  to  be  the  same  in  both  systems,  therefore  need  not 
take  them  into  account ;  the  expence,  then,  of  the  locomotive  system 
from  these  three  items  will  be  £4,54 G  yearly. 

The  stationary  plan  has  4  engines  ot  36  horse  power  each,  on  the 
same  principle  as  those  in  Cornwall,  viz.,  work  with  50 lbs,  steam,  and 


64 


THE  Cn^IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


cut  oft'  tlie  stp«m  at  one-tiftli  of  the  stroke,  these  engines  consume 
2ilbs.  ]ier  luiur  foi' liorse-pouer  ;  12  hours  per  day,  312  flays,  it  will 
give  per  annum  about  GU2  tons  at  .)S.  per  ton,  or  i£150  Ms. 

The  ropes  will  not  require  renewing  ofteuer  than  once  in  twelve 
months  because  there  are  not  jerks  or  stoppages  at  the  stations,  the 
cost  of  this,  after  deducting  the  value  of  the  old,  will  be  £525.  The 
four  engines,  engine-houses,  and  machinery,  would  cost  £'8,000,  at 
fij  per  cent,  would  be  £520.  The  annual  repairs  to  boilers,  engines, 
and  machinery,  taken  as  by  Messrs.  Walker  and  Rastric,  including 
hemp,  oil,  and  tallow,  at  14.s'.  Sd.  per  horse  power,  will  be  £  loij  ys. 
The  interest,  wear  and  tear  of  pulleys  would  be  ,£300,  oil  to  ))ulleys, 
and  men  to  grease  them,  £144,  all  which  sums  amount  to  £1,745  ISs. 

The  whole  yearly  expense  of  the  stationary  system  amounts  to 
£1,745  Is.v.  The  expence  of  the  locomotive  system,  £4,540,  making 
a  difterence  in  favour  of  the  stationary  of  £2,S00  2s.,  which  sum, 
added  to  the  £2,000  per  annum  saved  in  the  first  cost  of  the  railway, 
amounts  to  £1,800  2s.  If  the  saving  of  £4,800  per  annum  does  not 
speak  to  the  ])ockets  of  the  shareholders,  nothing  I  can  say  will  do  it. 
If  gentlemen  of  fortune  wish  to  have  railways,  let  them  have  locomo- 
tive engines  upon  them  by  all  means  to  show  to  their  wives  and 
daughters,  but  if  men  of  sense  and  men  of  business  wisli  to  have  their 
shilling's  worth  for  a  shilling,  let  them  search  and  see  if  these  things 
are  so. 

Diogenes. 
Sheffield. 

(  To  he  concluded.) 


ENCROACHMENTS  AND  RECESSIONS  OF  THE  SEA. 

It  appears  that  the  tendency  of  "/7/e  sea  to  pnserre  its  paralltl,"  has 
been  pointed  out  in  No.  27  of  the  Journal  as  the  origin  of  the  encroach- 
ment and  recession  of  the  sea,  and  that  the  action  of  the  influx  of 
water  is  increased  in  bays  in  proportion  as  the  projecting  point  to  the 
westward  is  greater,  while  it  is  assumed  that  the  filling  up  of  bays 
and  cutting  of  headlands  are  equal.  The  meeting  of  the  tides  from 
the  Northern  and  Southern  Channels  to  the  eastward  of  Hastings, 
renders  a  reference  to  the  geological  facts  to  the  westward  most  ad- 
visable. 

The  beds  of  sand,  sandy  rock,  and  clay,  denominated  the  Wealden 
formation,  are  supposed  to  dip  from  Hastings  to  Beachy  Head,  and  to 
disappear  under  the  chalk  at  that  point.  Tlie  outcrop  of  the  highest 
sand-rock  bed  is  visible  from  thence  to  the  Sea  Houses,  East  Bourn, 
but  in  the  interior,  the  height  of  the  beds  above  the  sea  level  seems 
in  some  proportion  to  their  hardness.  Pevensey  Castle  is  placed 
towards  the  end  of  one  of  these  low  ridges,  so  formed,  and  Pevensey 
Level  consists,  judging  from  the  drains,  of  the  outcrop  of  the  clay 
beds,  and  not  of  the  detritus  of  the  chalk  clitfs  to  the  westward. 
Romney  Marsh  is  sometimes  considered  as  a  more  modern  deposit  of 
silt;  its  position,  in  some  geological  maps,  is  in  front  of  that  part  of 
the  Hastings  sand,  dipping  easterly  from  the  anticlinal  line  near  Has- 
tings; it  is  said  to  have  successive  ranges  of  beach  banks,  of  a  form 
nearly  corresponding  with  the  present  coast  line.  If  these  opinions 
are  correct,  it  differs  essentially  in  its  formation  from  Pevensey  levels, 
where,  1  believe,  a  small  extent  only  of  beach,  covered  with  grass, 
exists  at  the  eastern  end.  The  accumulation  of  beach  at  Langney 
point,  perhaps  amounting  to  1000  acres,  is  at  a  lower  level,  and  is 
almost  as  bare  of  grass  as  the  shore  on  which  the  sea  now  beats,  while 
its  character  is  similar  in  all  points  to  the  mass  of  beach  at  Dunge- 
ness. 

It  has  been  most  distinctly  proved,  that  an  ancient  raised  beach 
exists  around  the  coast  of  Cornwall  and  Devon  elevated  in  diflferent 
sites  from  5  to  30  feet  or  more,  and  covered  with  a  Grauwacke  de- 
tritus termed  alluvial  by  Dr.  Buckland. 

At  Brighton  there  seems  an  equally  distinct  trace  of  an  equivalent 
raised  beach  covered  by  a  diluvial  chalk  detritus,  as  due  to  a  similar 
cause  in  different  sites.  Perhaps  the  grass-covered  beach  banks  of 
Romney  Marsh  and  Pevensey  Level,  are  due  to  the  same  geological 
epoch,  and  the  accunuilations  of  beach  at  Langney  point  and  Dungeness 
belong  to  the  present  era. 

Previous  to  the  admission  of  any  arguments  derived  from  the  beach 
at  Hastings  Bridge,  it  must  be  proved  to  be  a  portion  of  the  present 
sea  beach,  as  its  site  and  height  above  the  sea  would  suggest  the  idea 
of  its  forming  a  part  of  a  raised  beach  of  a  former  geological  period. 

In  reference  to  the  question  of  equal  cutting  and  filling,  it  has  been 
shown  by  geologists,  that  the  waves  are  the  cutting  agents  of  the  sea 
in  the  destruction  of  clitts,  and  that  the  tides  or  currents  sweep  the 
finer  particles  into  deeper  water,  and  leave  the  harder  part  on  the 
shore,  which  are  rounded  into  beach  ;  the  whole  coast,  wliether  liigh 


or  low,  is] fringed  with  a  variable  quantity  of  beach,  which  is  driven 
along  the  coast  in  proportion  to  the  diagonal  blow  of  the  waves,  and 
consequently  tlie  mass  is  in  motion  eastward,  as  due  to  the  mean 
excess  of  the  westerly  over  the  easterly  waves. 

The  effect  of  groins  is  easily  seen  ;  the  beach  is  collected  on  the 
weather  side,  while  the  lee  side  becomes  bare ;  hence  equal  waves 
have  a  greater  cutting  eft'ect  on  the  softer  materials  of  the  exposed 
shore  or  clill',  and  less  on  the  side  protected  by  the  accumulation  of 
beach,  and  in  their  construction,  the  principle  to  be  regarded  is  the 
retardation  of  the  exact  quantity  of  beach  requisite  for  the  protection 
of  each  spot,  allowing  its  regular  passage  either  way ;  the  groin 
referred  to  at  Hastings  is  probably  either  too  large,  or  too  high  at  the 
outer  end — the  result  is  inevitable,  the  shore  on  each  side  will  be 
overprotectcd,  or  overbared,  alternately,  according  to  the  direction  of 
the  wind. 

My  object  has  been  rather  to  question  the  data  assumed  than  to 
attempt  to  elucidate  this  subject  by  a  reference  to  the  numerous  ele- 
ments essential  for  that  purpose,  partly  with  a  hope  of  inducing  civil 
engineers,  to  measure  and  recoril  clearly  the  geological  facts  which 
may  happen  to  come  under  their  notice  in  the  course  of  their  pro- 
fessional labours. 


ON  THE  COMPARATIVE  POWER  OF  STEAM   ENGINES. 

Siu — Though  I  have  read  with  great  pleasure  tlie  communication  of 
Mr.  Armstrong  on  the  comparative  effects  of  the  Cornish  and  Lanca- 
shire system  of  working  steam  engines,  yet  I  must  object  to  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  estimate  of  the  gross  horse  power  of  the  East  London 
Water-works  engine,  and  I  trust  the  following  observations  will  induce 
others  to  take  into  consideration  the  propriety  of  confining  the  terra 
Duty  to  the  distinct  and  definite  meaning  in  which  it  has  been 
employed  in  a  large  mining  district  for  a  longer  period,  than  the 
existence  of  factory  steam  engines.  His  paper  is  entitled,  "On 
the  Comparative  Effects,"  the  table  is  headed  "Comparative  Duty;" 
the  pounds  raised  one  foot  high  per  minute  -^  33,000  are  termed 
"Gross  Horse  Power,"  while  this  same  quantity  194  is  termed  "  Net 
Effective  Power,"  previous  to  the  deduction  oif  one-third  for  the  re- 
sistances of  the  shafting  ;  yet  each  is  actually  derived  from  the  same 
elements,  viz.,  the  average  steam  pressure  taken  by  the  indicator  in 
the  Lancashire  engine,  and  the  supposed  gross  load  +  an  allowance 
for  "  friction  of  the  engine  itself,"  in  the  Cornish  engine  X  in  each 
case  by  the  space  in  feet  per  minute  for  gross  horse  power.  The 
gross  pressure  of  steam  whether  observed  or  calculated,  is  equally 
capable  of  being  referred  to  the  variable  time  of  the  consumption  of  a 
bushel  of  coal  (114  pounds),  but  then  such  a  word  as  Efficiency  would 
be  useful  in  distinguishing  it  from  Duty.     See  Phil.  Trans.,  1S27. 

Duty  as  introduced  by  Watt,  and  retained  iu  Cornwall,  is  founded 
on  different  elements,  viz.  the  nett  work  performed  clear  of  pitwork  or 
shafting  resistances,  X  by  the  space  of  motion  per  bushel  of  coal,  it 
is  always  calculated,  but  if  the  water  was  measured  or  weighed,  it 
might  be  called  active  duty:  the  usual  mode  of  obtaining  the  load  in 
the  shaft  is  by  squaring  the  pump  diameter  in  inches,  X  by  the  lift  in 
fathoms,  X  by  2-0454  pounds,  the  weight  of  a  cylinder  of  water  one 
fathom  in  length  and  one  inch  in  diameter :  the  omission,  however,  of 
the  two  last  decimals,  only  attects  the  three  last  figures  of  the  duty  in 
millions. 

Duty  and  gross  power  are  hence  the  extremes,  while  gross  power 
minus  engine  resistances,  and  duty  plus  pitwork  or  machinery  resist- 
ances become  respectively  nett  power,  =:  engineer's  horse  power,  and 
gross  work  performed,  and  these  on  a  statical  view  are  equal  to  each 
other — the  word  effect  will  be  found  a  convenient  term  to  distinguish 
gross  work  done  from  duty,  It  has  always  been  necessary  to  ascertain 
whether  the  beam  leverage  is  equal,  if  not  so,  due  allowances  must  be 
made  for  the  differences ;  it  will  be  .dso  convenient  to  use  the  word 
pressure  as  equivalent  to  force,  and  force  X  space  as  power,  while 
gross  and  nett  load  become  respectively  effect  and  duty. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  East  London  Water-works  engine,  a 
weight  of  29  tons  is  lifted  at  the  outer  end  of  the  beam  during  the  in- 
door stroke,  but  not  without  some  packing  friction,  as  well  as  a  column 
of  water  on  the  lower  valve  of  a  diameter  equal  to  that  of  the  plunger 
pole — together,  these  form  the  gross  load  on  the  in-door  or  acting 
stroke.  During  the  out-door  stroke  the  weight  returns  and  lifts  the 
water  above  the  lower  valve,  overcomes  friction,  &c.  &c.  As  friction 
increases  in  bad  pitwork,  at  least,  as  fast  as  the  deficient  water  delivery — 
while  the  reverse  takes  place  in  good,  the  calculated  duty  of  pumping 
engines  probably ,bears  a  closer  approximation  to  the  whole  work  done, 
or  effect,  than  might  be  expected. 


1S40] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


65 


In  all  cases  I  am  inclined  to  think  the  pitwork  resistances  exceed 
the  decrease  due  to  deficient  water  delivery.  There  are  no  data  for 
duty  calculation,  except  by  valueless  approximations.  I  shall  how- 
ever submit  to  public  opinion  the  following  estimate  of  the  gross  power 
of  this  engine,  in  comparison  with  that  derived  from  the  "  Average 
Steam  Pressure,  taken  by  indicator,"  in  the  Lancashire  factory  engine. 
I  conceive  the  allowance  of  half  a  pound  per  circular  inch  for  the 
"  friction  of  tlie  engine  itself,"  a  quantity  scarcely  sullicient  to  over- 
come tlie  steam  or  vapour  pressure  due  to  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  condenser. 

Weight  in-doors  29  t(jn  -         -  =  04,9(30  lbs 

.Stulling  box  friction,  say  -  -  z=     501 

412  i,„.i,es  X   1  fathoms'  X  bv  ■2-01.54  lbs  =  3,439 


Gross  load  in  lbs. 
Quarter   of  eft'ect   load  ;= 
gross  power 


l-5th 


=  68,900  load  for  eft'ect. 

:=  17,224  engine's  resistances. 


=:  80,124  lbs. 
Gross  steam  pressure  on  the  shaft. 
In  a  recent  communication  by  Mr.  Wicksteed,  relative  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Harvey's  and  West's  patent  double  beat  valve,  the  pump 
stroke  is  stated  to  be  nine  feet,  and  consequently  90  feet  of  motion  at 
10  strokes  per  minute.  Taking  the  gross  pressure  in  the  shaft  at 
80,124  lbs.  X  90  feet,  =  7,751, IGO  lbs.  one  foot  high,  we  have 
7,751,100 

—rjr- =:  23.J  gross  horse  pow  er. 

33,000  ^  ^ 

In  consequence  however  of  the  prevalence  of  the  method  among 
practical  engineers  of  deducting  the  resistances  due  to  vacuum,  im- 
])erfections  from  the  observed  average  indicator  pressure,  and  calling 
the  result  average  steam  pressure  (a  quantity  I  should  feel  disposed 
to  term  a  worthless  mean  between  gross  and  nett  power  of  no  practi- 
cal value,  and  absokitely  injurious  in  tending  to  mislead  in  estimates 
of  pounds  of  water  used  in  the  cylinder),  it  would  not  be  fair  to  con- 
trast that  which  is  proposed  to  represent  the  gross  povver  of  a  good 
Cornish  engine,  until  it  has  been  ascertained  whether  the  observed  or 
calculated  gross  steam  power  in  the  Lancashire  factory  engine  has 
been  given. 

The  error  will  be  in  its  favour  if  an  allowance  is  added  of  -^rj, 
perhaps,  for  this  practise,  while  the  engine's  resistance,  ought  perhaps 
to  be  taken  higher  than  one-fifth  of  the  gross  power  to  allow  for  the 
greater  friction  of  smaller  cylinders  working  at  a  high  power,  if  re- 
quired ;  it  appears  to  me  that  the  one-third  allowance  should  be  de- 
ducted from  the  nett  power  thus  obtained,  for  a  duty  estimate,  giving 
20  millions  as  a  rough  approximation. 

34,754,432 
One-twelfth         ....     —    2,890,202 


One-fifth  engine  resistance 
One-third  shaft-work    - 


37,050,031 
;     7,530,120 

30, 120,508 
:  10,040,109 


Duty =  20,080,339 

My  object  is  to  recommend  tlie  simple  classification  here  used,  sub- 
ject to  any  corrections  of  engine  or  pitwork  resistances,  conceiving 
if  attention  be  called  to  this  subject,  it  will  soon  lead  to  the  adoption 
of  correct  methods,  which  will  facilitate  the  connection  of  theoretical 
and  practical  views  of  steam  engines. 

I  am,  Sir, 
Your  obedient  servant, 

John  S.  Enys. 
January,  1810. 


Discovery  of  a  Cnt'cru. — As  the  workmen  were  employed  in  blasting  the 
rocks  near  the  foundation  of  one  of  the  Clifton  suspension  bridge  piers,  a  day 
or  two  since,  they  discovered  a  small  uj)cning.  On  i(s  being  examined,  it  was 
found  to  lead  to  a  small  cavern  extending  tilty-scven  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  gro\md,  nearly  in  a  perpendicular  direction.  The  exploration  was 
made  by  Dr.  Fairbrothcr,  with  the  assistance  of  one  of  the  workmen. 
There  were  several  chambers  at  intervals,  but  the  descent  is  diflicult,  and 
can  only  be  made  with  the  assistance  of  ropes.  The  air  is  tolerably  pure,  so 
that  the  candle  burnt  freely  during  the  whole  of  the  tiinc  (nearly  two  hours). 
At  the  bottom,  the  air  was  found  to  be  excessively  hot,  so  that  the  perspira- 
tion flowed  freely.  In  other  respects  the  cavity  presented  nothing  remark- 
able, beyond  the  ordinary  appearance  of  fissures  formed  by  the  raising  of 
the  strata  of  lime-stones  by  some  extraordinary  convulsions  of  nature. 


THE  CORNISH  ENGINE, 

AT   TtiE    E.\ST    LONDON    WATER   WORKS. 

As  tlie  above  engine  is  likely  to  become  an  object  of  considerable 
interest  to  engineers,  we  determined  upon  paying  a  visit  to  the  Water 
Works  at  Old  Ford,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  correct  information 
as  to  her  dimension  and  mode  of  working.  (Jn  our  arrival  ;it  the 
works,  Mr.  Wicksteed,  the  engineer  to  the  Company,  immediately 
granted  us  permission  to  inspect  the  engine,  and  kindly  ofiercd  to 
afford  any  infcn-matiun  we  might  require,  and  for  this  jnirpose,  accom- 
panied us  on  our  view,  and  readily  answered  every  enquiry,  explain- 
ing at  the  same  time,  the  general  working  of  the  engine.  Before 
])roceeding  to  the  detaiLs,  we  must  offer  our  congratulations  to  the 
directors  of  the  Company,  on  the  successful  performance  of  the 
engine,  and  we  feel  happy  to  find  that  the  very  large  pecuniary 
saving  in  fuel  annually,  by  the  adoption  of  the  CornisTi  engine,  will 
amply  repay  them  for  the  spirited  manner  in  which  they  came  for- 
ward to  support  their  engineer  against  the  almost  unanimous  opinions 
of  the  London  engineers,  who  generally  pronounced  the  boasted  per- 
formances of  the  eugines  in  Cornwall  to  be  preposterous.  Through 
the  kindness  of  Mr.  Wicksteed,  we  are  now  enabled  to  lay  before 
our  readers  practical  data  of  the  economic  working  of  the  engine  at 
the  East  London  Water,  Works,  which  we  believe,  is  the  first  and 
only  Cornish  engine  that  has  been  yet  erected  in  the  metropolis. 

The  engine  was  originally  intended  for  a  Cornish  mine,  known  by 
the  name  of  the  "East  Cornwall,"  it  was  designed  by  Mr.  West,  a 
member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers;  it  is  upon  the  same 
principle  as  the  one  designeil  by  the  same  gentleman,  erected  at  the 
Fowey  Consols  Mines,  which  has  for  several  years  past  clone  more 
duty  than  any  engine  in  or  out  of  the  county  of  Cornwall,  and  manu- 
factured by  Messrs.  Harvey  and  Co.  of  Hayle ;  it  was  purchased  liy 
the  East  London  Water  Works  Company  in  1837,  and  removed  to 
London  and  fixed  in  its  present  situation  by  Messrs.  Harvey  and 
West,  who  have,  by  the  superiority  of  the  working  of  this  engine, 
and  the  faithful  execution  of  their  contract,  given  most  unr|ualified 
satisfaction  both  to  the  directors  and  to  Mr.  Wicksteed. 

Dimensions  of  ilie  Engine. — The  diameter  of  the  steam  cylinder  is 
80i  inches,  and  length  of  stroke,  10  feet  3  inches ;  the  steam  is 
generated  in  the  boilers,  under  a  pressure  of  351b.  on  the  square  inch 
above  that  of  the  atmosphere,  antl  cut  oft"  when  the  piston  has  per- 
formed about  one-third  of  its  stroke,  it  then  expands  during  the  re- 
maining two-thirds,  and  in  the  suceeeding  stroke  is  condensed  to 
form  a  vacuum  on  tlie  opposite  of  the  piston,  to  wdiich  it  passes 
through  the  equilibrium  valve  in  the  return  stroke,  the  engine  being 
single  acting. 

By  the  use  of  the  apparatus  called  a  cataract,  the  engine  can  be 
made  to  work  from  one  (or  less)  to  ten  strokes  per  minute,  as  may  be 
required.  According  to  the  calculations  of  Mr.  Armstrong  in  our 
last  Journal,  the  power  of  the  engine  is  equivalent  to  200l  horses, 
and  by  the  statement  of  Mr.  Enys  in  the  present  number,  235  gro^s 
horse  power.  Mr.  Wicksteed,  however,  informs  us  that  the  actual 
weight  lifted  is  66,443 lbs.  an  average  height  of  9  feet  each  stroke, 
which  is  equal  to  18"  12  horses'  power  when  the  engine  works  one 
stroke  per  minute,  or  181*2  horses'  power  at  10  strokes  per  minute,  a 
velocity  which  Mr.  Wicksteed  deems  the  greatest  this  engine  should 
be  worked  at. 

Dimensions  of  the  Pump. — The  diameter  is  41  inches,  length  of 
stroke  9  feet  4  inches,  quantity  of  water  lifted  at  every  stroke  S2*5 
cubic  feet,  or  about  14i  imperial  barrels,  which  is  a  week's  average 
supply  for  a  house.  The  plunger-pole  of  the  pump,  is  loaded 
with  about  29  tons  over  and  above  the  other  end  of  the  beam,  and 
this  is  the  weight  the  engine  has  actiwlly  to  lift  at  every  stroke. 

We  were  very  much  pleased  with  the  quiet  action  of  Messrs. 
Harvey  and  We.st's  patent  valve,  there  we  felt  any  perceptible  vi- 
bration, although  we  stood  close  to  the  pump ;  we  have  given  the 
drawings  and  specification  of  the  valve  in  another  part  of  the  Jour- 
nal. 

The  steam  is  generated  in  four  cylindrical  boilers,  27  feet  8  inches 
long  and  0  feet  5  inches  diameter,  constructed  on  Mr.  West's 
Cornish  plan  ;  the  tops  of  the  4  boilers  are  covered  over  with  fine 
ashes,  to  prevent  the  loss  of  heat  by  radiation.  The  area  of  the 
boilers  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  flame  and  heated  air,  is  very 
great ;  and  the  furnaces  are  constructed  with  a  large  surface  of  fire 
grate,  in  jn'oportion  to  the  coals  consumed,  for  the  purpose  of  adopt- 
ing the  principle  of  slow  combustion,  wdiich  is  here  carried  out  to  its 
fullest  extent,  so  much  so,  that  when  the  furnace  doors  are  opened,  the 
smoke  at  times  comes  out  of  the  furnace  doors  into  the  stoke-hole. 

We  must  also  state  that  the  steam  cylinder  is  surrounded  wdth  a 

K 


66 


Tilt;  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[February, 


jacket,  wliicli  is  filled  with  stoain  from  the  boilers,  and  there  is 
another  jacket,  or  casing  of  boards,  the  interval  being  filled  in  with 
ashes,  17  to  IS  inches  in  thickness;  all  the  steam-pipes  are  also  well 
cased  with  patent  felt,  or  ashes  in  boxes. 

The  following  particulars  will  show  the  working  of  the  engine  for 
I'A  weeks,  dining  «hich  period  it  worked  2,'Jil3l  hours,  and  made 
1,U12,3J3  strokes,  at  the  average  rate  of  5-77  per  minute,  it  raising 
i:),'.ls-2,'.142  barrels  of  water,  (of  360 lbs.  each  barrel,)  112  feet  0 
inches  high,  with  the  consumption  of  301  Ions,  la  cwt.,  1  qr., 
(^  S10,3-islbs.)  of  coal  of  inferior  quality,  being  the  refuse  or  screen- 
ings of  Newcastle  coal,  which  has  passed  through  a  screen  of  |-inch 
thick  mesh.  By  adopting  the  method  of  slow  combustion,  they  are 
thus  enabled  to  use  the  screenings,  which  costs  only  17s.  per  ton  de- 
li\«red,  whereas  the  superior  coal  required  for  rapid  combustion, 
would  cost  23s.  or  more. 

During  the  same  period,  a  condensing  engine  of  the  ordinary  con- 
struction made  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  with  a  cylinder  80  inches 
diameter  and  stroke  8  feet,  with  a  pump  27J  inches  diameter  and 
stroke  8  feet,  worked  1,345^  hours  made  1,152,424  strokes,  raised 
S,416,3S5  barrels  of  water,  and  consumed  275  tons,  17  cwt.,  3  qrs., 
(=  tj  17,988  lbs.)  of  coal  as  above. 

The  Cornish  engine  works  constantly  under  the  same  pressure, 
while  the  pressure  in  the  Boulton  and  Watt  engine  is  constantly  vary- 
ing, never  exceeding  the  former,  but  on  the  average,  less. 

The  Cornish  engine  worked  night  and  day  during  the  above 
period,  with  occasional  stoppages,  while  the  ordinary  engine  worked 
by  day  only;  but  the  work  of  two  other  engines,  on  Boulton  and 
Watt's  construction,  which  worked  night  anil  day  during  the  cor- 
responding weeks  of  the  previous  year,  was  as  follows : — They 
worked  for  2,9381  hours,  and  made  2,U08,43Ui  strokes  each;  they 
raised  together  9,309,362  barrels  of  water,  and  consumed  568  tons, 
1  cwt.,  (=  1,272,432  lbs.)  of  bent  coal. 

Before  the  Cornish  engine  was  erected,  the  East  London  Water 
Works  Company  had,  in  addition  to  the  water-wheels  at  their  Strat- 
ford and  Lea  Bridge  Stations,  four  steam  engines,  besides  an  extra 
one,  which  worked  during  the  summer  months  : — viz.  two  engines  of 
30-horses  power  each,  which  worked  24  hours  ;  and  two  of  about  95 
horses  power,  which  worked,  upon  an  average,  12  hours  per  dwm, 
the  extra  one  was  of  70  horses  power,  and  worked  occasionally  in 
the  sunnner.  The  consumption  of  coal  amounted  to  3,426  tons  per 
annum,  which  was  about  i,'3,700.,  while  the  present  engines,  viz.  one 
Cornish  engine,  working  24  hours  per  day,  and  averaging  six  strokes 
per  minute,  and  one  large  Boulton  and  Vatt  engine,  working  60  hours 
per  week,  calculating  from  the  IS  weeks' consumotion  for  both  engines, 
the  annual  consunqjtion  will  be  1,941  tons,  whicTi  cost  l7s.  per  ton,  or 
.t' 1,649.  17s.,  thus  effecting  a  saving  of  i'2,050.  per  annum. 

if  6(),4431bs.  be  taken  as  the  actual  weight  lifted  at  each  stroke, 
(independent  of  friction  and  resistance  of  the  engine,)  and  multiplied 
by  9  feet,  the  average  length  of  the  stroke  of  the  pumj),  it  will  give 
597,987  lbs.  lifted  one  foot  high  at  every  stroke,  if  this  quantity  be 
multiplied  by  the  number  of  strokes,  the  engine  performed  during 
the  eighteen  months,  and  divided  by  the  consumption  of  the  fuel 

during  that  period,  it  will  give :     (i^i^^^-Mlr^^-?!)  747,054 ibs., 

8  lU,o48 
us  the  useful  tffecl,  raised  one  foot  high  by  1  lb.  of  coal  or  70,223,0761bs., 
by  one  Cornish  bushel  of  9 libs,  of  coal.  It  should  be  observed,  that 
the  amount  of  coals  herein  given,  includes  the  coals  used  to  keep  up 
the  steam  whenever  the  engine  stopped  during  the  period  men- 
tioned. 

In  order  to  secure  themselves  against  receiving  inferior  coal,  the 
Directors  have  entered  into  a  very  peculiar  contract  (which  we  would 
recommend  to  the  notice  of  other  companies)  with  their  coal  merchant 
to  supply  them  with  coal  of  the  same  quality  throughout  the  year,  he 
guaranteeing  that  above  73  million  poiuids  of  water  shall  be  raised 
one  foot  higli  by  the  consumption  of  94  lbs.  of  coal,  which  is  equivalent 
to  about  24 lbs.  [ler  horse  power  per  hour;  or  in  case  of  the  average 
duty  of  the  coals  not  amounting  to  so  much,  a  proportionate  reduction 
is  to  be  made  in  the  amount  to  be  paid  to  him. 

We  trust  the  foregoing  statement  will  prove  interesting  to  the 
readers  of  our  Journal.  We  should  have  been  pleased  if  we  could 
have  presented  engravings  of  this  engine  to  our  readers,  but  we  do 
not  so  much  regret  the  want  of  them  at  present,  as  we  should  if  Mr. 
Wicksteed  had  not  informed  us  that  he  intends  to  present  complete 
drawings  of  the  engine  and  boilers  to  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
with  a  report,  as  soon  as  he  has  obtained  some  f  irther  facts  which  he 
deems  of  the  utmost  importance,  namely,  the  actual  quantity  of  water 
evaporated  by  a  given  weight  (jf  coals,  the  (piantity  of  water  passing 
through  the  cylinder  in  the  sliape  of  steam  to  produce  the  eii'ects  stated, 
and  in  addition  also,  the  same  facts  as  regards  a  Boulton  and  Watt 


engine,  that  a  fair  comparison  may  be  made  between  the  two  systems 
of  expansion  and  non-expansion,  and  also  to  prove  liow  much  is  due 
to  the  superiority  of  tlie  boilers  (if  any),  and  how  much  to  the  mode 
of  uxtng  the  steam  when  generated. 

The  system  adopted  in  Cornwall  of  reporting  to  the  public  every 
month  the  duty  of  the  engines,  has,  we  have  little  doubt,  led,  by 
exciting  emulation,  to  the  perfecting  of  the  expansion  engine,  and  if 
in  other  parts  of  England  the  same  system  were  adopted,  there  is  no 
doubt  the  public  would  benefit,  as  well  as  those  manufacturers  whose 
desire  it  is  to  make  the  best  engine,  and  we  therefore  offer  to  those 
interested  in  the  subject  to  pul)lisli  in  our  Journal  the  reports  forwarded 
to  us.  We  have  little  doubt  of  having  a  monthly  report  of  Iht  Cornish 
engine,  and  we  should  like  to  have  reports  of  others  to  compare 
with  it. 


MEMOIR  OF  DAVIJvS  GILBERT,  ESQ. 
(From  the  West  Britnn.) 

Davii;s  Gilbert,  E.sij..  D.C.L.,  late  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  was 
Hon.  F.K.S.E.,  F.A.S.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  President  of  the  Roj  al  Geo- 
logical Society  of  Cornwall,  Hon.  Member  of  must  of  the  iirovincial  societies 
in  llie  Kiomlom,  and  of  many  on  the  CVinlincnt;  lie  was  also  many  years 
Member  of  Parliament  for  Bodmin,  our  county  to« n,  and  was  truly  known 
as  the  Father  of  liiilish  Science.  He  was  the  only  son  of  the  Rev.  Eilwaril 
Gidcly,  of  St.  Erdi,  the  representative  of  the  vesjicctutile  family  of  (Jidily,  of 
Nanteavallan,  by  Catherine,  only  daughter  and  heiress  of  Henry  Davies, 
Esq..  of  Tredrea,  only  survivor  of  the  ancient  house  of  Davies.  throuKli 
whom  he  was  connected  with  the  noble  family  of  Sandys,  and  that  of  Noycl 
of  which  the  well-known  Attorney-Genera!  was  a  member. 

^VIlen  a  child,  his  precocious  t'llenis  were  the  theme  of  the  extensive  circle 
uilh  which  his  tathcr,  as  chairman  of  Quarter  Sessions,  associated.  His 
preliminary  education  was  conducted  at  home;  and  at  a  very  early  age  he 
cuntractccl  an  intimacy,  which  continued  until  death,  with  the  Rev.  Malachy 
llitchcns,  vicar  of , St.  Hilary,  a  gentleman  of  high  and  well-ileserve.l  cele- 
Ijrity  as  a  niathcmalieian  and  aslroncjmer,  and  as  editor  of  the  "Nautical 
Almanac."  This  adiuiiintance,  without  doubt,  materially  added  in  dcter- 
minini;  his  mind  to  mathematical  pursuits,  in  which  he  was  afterwards  so 
greatly  distinganshed.  His  aca^lemic  education  was  received  at  Pemlirukc 
College,  0.>;ford,  to  the  funds  of  which  he  has  been  a  liberal  donor. 

The  introduction  of  Mr.  Watt's  celebrated  improvement  in  the  steam-en- 
gine into  the  Cornish  mines,  and  the  disimtcs  between  that  great  mechanical 
philnsopher  and  the  late  Mr.  Jonathan  Hornblowcr,  of  Penryn,  as  to  the 
economy  and  mode  of  applying  the  principle  of  working  steam  expansively, 
and  which  has  since  been  carried  to  greater  extent,  and  with  a  more  remark- 
aide  economy  of  fuel  in  this  county  than  any  where  elst^  early  attracted 
Mr.  Davies  Gidcfy's  attention  ;  and  the  various  subjects  embraced  in  its  per- 
fect development  formed  a  noble  field  for  the  employment  of  his  rare  mathe- 
matical attainments.  The  e.\pansive  action  was  employed  by  Mr.  Watt  in  a 
single  cylinder,  but  Mr.  flornblower  used  two.  It  was,  hoivever,  far  more 
readily  made  out  in  theory  than  it  was  acknowledged  in  practice,  that  by 
the  use  of  one  cylinder  only  the  same  mechanical  advantage  is  obtained, 
avoiding  )he  additional  friction  which  a  second  cylinder  would  entail.  The 
])lan  of  Mr.  Hornblowcr  was,  after  a  silence  of  several  years,  revived  by  Mr. 
Woolf:  but  it  seems  by  general  consent  and  experience,  and  by  universal 
practice,  to  be  now  admitted  that  Mr.  Watt's  is  the  prel'eiable  mode. 

Mr.  Davies  Giddy  was  solicited  by  the  county  at  large  to  take  an  active 
part  in  the  determination  of  the  duty  performed  by  Mr.  Watt's  engines — a 
task  for  w  hich  his  genius  and  inclination  peculiarly  fitted  him  ;  and  in  con- 
junction with  the  late  Captain  'William  Jenkin.  of  Treworgie,  he  made  a  sur- 
vey of  all  the  steam-engines  then  working  in  Cornwall. 

An  indifference  to  the  labours  of  anthorship,  provided  the  results  of  his 
inquiries  were  available  to  the  public  without  appearing  in  print,  prevented 
the  investigations  of  these  most  important  subjects  from  seeing  the  light  in 
an  authentic  form  until  lately ;  the  first  iti  them  appears  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1827— the  second  still  more  recently. 

One  ol  the  most  laborious  and  practically  useful  works  which  has  distin- 
guished that  rich  storehouse  of  intellectual  wealth,  the  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society,  is  a  paper  by  Mr.  Gilbert,  "  On  the  Properties 
of  the  Catenary  Curve."  This  fine  example  of  mathematical  inquiry  was 
published  whilst  the  celeLrated  engineer  Telford  was  preparing  his  materials 
for  the  construction  of  that  stupendous  national  work,  the  Menai  bridge; 
and  it  affords  one  of  the  finest  tributes  on  record  to  the  labours  of  the  philo- 


Ifi40.] 


THE  Cn^L  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


67 


soplicr  in  his  rloset,  that  after  the  appearance  of  Mr.  Gilbert's  memoir,  the 
engineer  caused  the  suspension  chains  whicli  had  been  prepared  and  coin- 
plete.l  to  be  again  lalicn  in  lianj  and  lengthened  by  about  thirty-six  feet. 
The  manner  in  «hieh  this  magnificent  structure  has  stood,  proves  that  the 
principles  on  which  it  was  constructed  are  perfectly  accurate,  but  that  its 
weight  is  insufficient  to  stand  the  storms  to  which  it  is  exposed,  without  a 
vibratory  inotion,  which  is  injurious  to  its  stability. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  incidents  in  Mr.  Gilbert's  life  was  his  disco- 
vering, patronising,  and  encouraging  the  early  struggles  of  Davy  (afterwards 
Sir  Humphry),  whose  introduction  to  public  life,  and  to  other  friends,  who 
brought  him,  liis  genius,  and  .abilily  into  notice,  was  due  to  his  active  and 
unvarying  fiiendahip.  This  is,  however,  matter  of  history,  and  most  of  our 
readers  are  acijLiainted  with  it. 

In  1S28  Mr.  Gilbert  was,  by  acclamation,  calleil  to  that  pre-eminently  ho- 
nourable station,  Ihe  chair  of  the  Royal  .Society,  to  which  his  profound 
learning  and  sc-ientific  researches,  no  less  than  his  distinguished  personal  fit- 
ness, recommended  him  Ijeyoud  every  other  person  as  the  proper  successor  of 
Davy  in  the  chair  of  Newton.  This  conspicuous  place,  at  the  head  of  British, 
and  we  may  say  European,  science.  Mr.  GilbiTt  held,  for  about  seven  years, 
witli  the  highest  honour  to  himself,  and  tlie  greatest  utility  to  that  learned 
body.  It  is  a  case  without  par.allel,  and  one  of  which,  as  C'ornishmen,  we 
are  justly  proud,  that  we  have  furnished  two  succeeding  Presidents  of  the 
Roy.al  .Society.  During  liis  Presidency,  Mr.  Gilbert  was  a  liberal  donor  to 
the  society's  funds,  and  he  extended  a  large  and  an  enligliteucd  patronage  to 
every  object  worthy  of  the  illustrious  body  over  which  he  presided.  He  re- 
signed the  chair  in  favour  of  his  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Sussex,  who  is 
now  succeeded  by  the  courteous  and  learned  Marquis  of  Norlhampton. 

In  his  native  county,  to  which  he  has  ever  clung  with  most  tenacious  af- 
fection, in  1814,  Mr.  Gilbert  founded  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Corn- 
wall, (with  a  single  exception)  the  oldest  provincial  philosophical  society  in 
Kngltind,  and  continued  to  preside  o\er  it  until  his  decease  ;  conferring  on  it 
an  importance  which  it  would  not  have  otherwise  attained,  and  extending  its 
utility  where,  without  him,  it  would  have  been  unknown.  To  the  other  phi- 
losophical, literary,  and  charitable  institutions  of  Cornwall,  he  was  equally 
a  liberal  and  enlightened  patron. 

The  last  literary  labour  of  Mr.  Gilbert's  long,  honourable,  and  usefid  life, 
was  editing  the  "  Parochial  History  of  Cornwall."  originally  commenced  by 
Mr.  Hals,  and  continued  by  Mr.  Tonkin.  This  w  ork  appeared  but  a  year  or 
two  since,  with  copious  addenda  by  the  editor,  and  geological  notes  by  Dr. 
Boase.  It  contains  a  vaist  mass  of  curious  and  v.aluable  antiquarian  research, 
and  rich  disquisitions  on  many  suljjects  of  the  highest  local  interest,  its 
effect  has,  however,  been  impaired  by  typographical  inaccur.acies,  which  tlie 
printer's  carelessness  has  overlooked. 

The  rare  talents,  abilities,  and  application  of  Mr.  Davies  Gidily,  at  an  early 
period  of  his  hie.  recommended  him  to  the  .acquaint. nee  of  the  leading  scien- 
tific men  of  the  age,  and  the  principal  mluabit.ants  of  the  county  ;  among 
these  was  the  late  Lord  De  Dunstanville.  a  nobleman  as  much  dislingui.shed 
by  his  discrimination  as  by  his  barge  and  munificent  liberality.  Through  his 
lordship's  instrumentalily,  Mr.  Giddy  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  the 
borough  of  Bodmin,  in  1807.  after  having  sat  as  member  for  Helston  ;  and 
the  distinction  thus  conferred  on  huu  through,  wdiat  hc  may  not  improperly 
term,  extraneous  means,  was  continued  from  an  honourable  appreciation  of 
his  own  ability  and  worth,  until  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill,  in  1832. 
when  h  s  advanced  age  and  increasing  infirmities  rendered  him  desirous  of 
avoiding  the  turmoil  of  public  life,  and  of  retiring  into  the  pe.ace  and  tran- 
quillity of  his  domestic  circle. 

Whilst  in  Parliament,  tliere  were  few  members  more  regular  and  assiduous 
in  their  attendance,  than  Mr.  Gilbert  ;  he  generally,  though  not  uniformly, 
supported  the  Conservative  side  of  politics,  but  he  seldom  spoke,  and  was  by 
no  means  an  active  partisan.  His  great  learning  and  habits  of  business,  re- 
commended him  to  all  parlies  ;  and  lie  acted  as  chairman  of  a  committee  on 
the  financial  system,  in  the  critical  and  dilliiult  period  when  Lord  Castle- 
reagh  was  the  ministerial  leader  in  the  C  mmons.  The  rectification  of  the 
national  standards  of  linear  dimensions  .and  capacities,  w  hich  w.as  made  a  few 
years  since,  was  undertaken  on  his  motion  for  an  address  to  the  Crown  on 
the  subject.  The  bounty  on  the  export  of  pilchards  was  long  continued 
through  his  active  interposition  ;  and,  indeed,  every  subject  which  in  any 
way  afT'ected  the  interests  of  his  native  county,  when  it  came  before  Parlia- 
ment, ever  found  him  at  his  post,  an  active,  ready,  and  indefatigable  advo- 
cate of  her  interests. 

^Ve  have  now  seen  him  an  illustrious  philosopher,  a  learned  historian,  and 
.an  enlightened  legislator;  but  the  most  distinguishing  (.and  if  we  may  use 
the  language  without  charge  of  alieclation),  the  most  endearing  character 
we  have  yet  to  mention,  for  it  w  ould  be  vain  to  attempt  to  describe  it— his 


conversation;  it  was  not  brilliant — it  was  something  infinitely  beyond  and 
better  than  mere  display  ;  it  was  a  continued  stream  of  the  most  profound 
learning  and  most  exalted  philosophy,  adapted  with  exquisite  taste  to  the 
capacity  of  his  auditory,  and  enlivened  wilh  anecdotes  to  which  the  most 
listless  could  not  but  listen  and  learn.  His  in.anners  were  most  unaffected, 
child-like,  gentle,  and  natural.  As  a  friend,  he  was  kind,  considerate,  for- 
bearing, patient,  and  generous;  and  when  the  grave  was  closed  over  him, 
not  one  man,  woman  or  child,  who  was  honoured  with  his  acquaintance,  but 
will  feel  that  he  has  a  friend  less  in  the  world  ;  enemies,  he  cannot  have  left 
a  single  one.  A  Cornishman  he  was  in  every  good  sense  of  the  word  ;  the 
mention  of  a  Cornish  custom,  of  a  provincialism  familiar  in  his  youth,  would 
make  tlu>  aged  m:in  young  again  ;  the  scenes  of  his  early  years,  tales  of  times 
long  gone,  were  piuired  forth  in  debghtlul  glowing  language,  the  more 
touching  from  its  hearty,  e.arnest,  unatVeclerl,  and  simple  elegance. 

M'iihin  a  few  years  of  1810,  Mr.  Davies  Giddy  was  married  to  Mary,  only 
child  and  heiress  of  —  Gilbert,  Esq.,  of  Eastbourne,  and  took  the  n.ame  of 
Gilbert,  instead  of  his  patronymic  of  Giddy.  This  .alliance  brought  a  con- 
siderable accession  of  fortune  to  his  ;ilrcady  considerable  paternal  inheritance. 
By  this  lady,  who  survives  him,  he  has  had  several  children,  but  four  only 
are  now  alive  : — a  son,  John  Davies  Gilbert,  Esq.,  a  daughter,  married  to 
J(din  S.  Enys,  Esq.,  of  Enys,  in  this  county,  and  two  other  daughters  yet 
unmarried.  Mr.  Gilbert's  age  was,  we  believe,  about  seventy-four,  and  his 
long,  honourable,  and  himoured  life,  crowned  with  peace. riches,  and  distinc- 
tion, w  as  in  the  bosom  of  his  family. 

"  QHOT  NOTOS,   TOT    HABUIT   AMICOS." 


WOODEN  PAVEMENT. 

Extract  from  Leltch  Ritchie's  "  Glance  at  Russia  in  IBS.')." 
The  wooilen  pavement  is,  I  believe,  pecidiar  to  Si.  Petersburg,  and  merits 
a  description.  It  consists  of  small  hexagons  sawed  from  a  piece  of  resinous 
Wood,  .and  laid  into  a  bed  of  ciushed  stones  .and  sand.  These  are  fastened 
laterally  into  each  other  with  wooden  pegs  ;  and  w  hen  the  w  hole  bu'ms  a 
plane  surface,  the  interstices  are  filled  wiih  fine  sand,  and  then  boiling  pilch 
is  poured  over  all.  This  pitch,  from  the  porous  nature  of  tlie  wood,  is  speed- 
ily absorbed  ;  and  on  a  quantity  of  sand  being  strewed  above  if,  the  operation 
is  complete,  and  a  pavement  constructed  which  is  found  to  be  extremely 
dur.able,  and  which  seems  to  me  to  sull'er  much  less  injury  from  the  frost 
than  the  stone  causeway.  The  honor  of  the  invention  is  due  to  Mr.  Gourief, 
and  I  have  no  doubt  he  will  ultimately  see  it  adopted  in  most  of  the  great 
towns  towards  the  north.  It  is  the  custom  of  the  peasantry  to  cut  down  the 
trees  at  some  distance  from  the  root,  and  thus  a  great  deal  of  woml  w  ill  be 
turneil  to  a  useful  purpose,  which  would  otherwise  only  encumber  the  ground. 
Everv  peasant,  besides,  by  means  of  his  axe  alone,  is  able  to  constnfct  sucli 
a  pavement ;  and  in  Russia,  hands  are  both  plenty  and  cheap. 


THE  NEW  ROYAL  EXCHANGE. 

In  the  Court  of  Common  Council,  on  the  23rd  ult.,  Mr.  R.  L.  Jones  brought 
up  the  report  of  the  Royal  Exchange  Committee,  which  w.as  as  follows: — 
•'To  Ihe  Right  Hon.  the  Lord  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Commons 
of  the  city  of  London,  in  Common  Council  assembled. 
"  We  whose  names  are  hereunto  subscribed  of  your  committee  in  relation 
to  the  Royal  Exchange  and  Gresham  trusts,  to  whom  on  the  (ilh  day  of  Au- 
gust, 1831,  il  Wits  referred  to  carry  into  execution  the  Act  of  Parliament  for 
improving  the  site  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  in  the  city  of  London,  .and  the 
avenues  adjoining  therein,  anil  to  report  our  proceedings  from  time  to  time, 
do  certify  that  we  immediately  proceeded  to  carry  the  provisions  of  the  said 
act  into  execution,  and  directed  several  notices  to  be  given  to  the  several 
parties  inferestetl  for  the  purchasing  of  their  properly  required  lor  the  site  of 
the  new  E.vchange.  and,  having  received  the  claims  of  the  respecfiv.'  parties, 
we  duly  considered  the  same,  and  have  great  ple.asuie  in  being  able  to  report 
that  the  whole  of  such  claims,  with  two  exceptions  only,  have  been  adjusted  ; 
and,  for  the  further  Information  of  this  Hon.  Courl.  we  have  caused  a  state- 
ment to  be  hereunto  annexed,  setting  forth  the  .sums  claimed,  and  the  amounts 
paid  or  agreed  to  be  paid,  for  the  purchase  of  the  several  premises,  including 
the  loss  and  damage  incurred  by  removal,  together  with  the  manner  in  which 
each  claim  was  seitlcd  ;  all  wdiich  we  submit  to  the  judgment  of  this  Hon. 
Courl.     D.ited  this  23rd  day  of  January,  1840. 

"  Richard  L.  Jones.  Edward  Hickson. 

B..STiaimNG,  Henry  J.  Elmes. 

W.  Richardson.  Thomas  Cornev.  ^ 

K.  OuuAHD.  Thomas  Burton. 

J.iMES  Frisby.  William  Croucher." 

The  follow  ing  is  the  slatinient  alludeil  to  : 

Buildings  purchased  for  the  new  Royal  E.Kchange  and  avenues.    Estimate 
l.W.OOO/.,  for  whicli  there  were  51!  claims. 
42  cases  claimed         .         69,283 — .Settled  by  committee  at       .       38,852 
8  ditto  for  freeholds        107.081 — Referred  to  surveyors,,  and 

settled  at  .  .  .  04.136 
i  cases  claimed  .  37.065— Settled  by  verdicts  at  .  12,284 
2  ditto  not  settled    .  .0,508 


£219,817 


£115,272 


K2 


08 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[F 


KBRUART, 


UNION  WORKHOUSES. 

Sir — On  my  road  from  W'oolwicli  to  London,  the  other  day,  I  was  much 
struck  witli  the  CNtensivc  a])]iearance  of  tlie  loiig-talked-of  new  work- 
Jioube  for  tliis  union,  which  was  to  he  t)ie  ^' lari/i^st  ami  bfi^t  housp^'  under 
tlie  comniibsinn.  I  walkeil  over  the  whole  estabhslnuerit,  and  certainly  it  is 
the  largest  antl  best  built  house  I  have  seen  under  the  Poor  Law  Commission- 
ers— the  main  building  being  iipwards  of  A'iO  feet  in  length,  by  about  4.'i  feet 
in  depth — in  height  three  floors  (witli  basement  under  about  half),  ami  the 
ground  floor  well  kept  up,  standing  in  an  enclosed  square  acre  (of  lower 
buildings  ami  work-sheds)  about,  .jOO  feet  x  400  feet,  witli  an  old  looking 
buililiug  in  front  (north),  for  board-room  ami  offices ;  large  range  of  buildings 
at  ));uk  (south),  for  hospital,  infirmary,  fever  wards,  &c. ;  and  work-sheds, 
wash-imusc,  laundry,  &e.,  at  ends;  U]>ou  the  whole,  presenting  rather  an 
imposing  aiiitcarauce — also  an  imjiroved  one — in  comjtarison  with  the  beg- 
garly looking  things  erected  by  the  Union  generally.  Mr.  Browne,  of  (Ireeii- 
wieli,  is  the  architect,  as  in  all  the  other  houses  (or  some  parties  for  him) 
fretted  away  the  interior  of  this  otherwise  noble  establishment  with  a  great 
number  of  little,  low,  nari-ow  rooms,  called  wards,  which,  were  it  not  for  a 
gallery  on  each  floor,  running  the  whole  length  of  the  building  (near  420 
feet),  would  be  exceedingly  inconvenient  and  unhealthy  too — uotwitlistand- 
ing  the  great  care  that  has  been  bestowed  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ventila- 
fi(ui,  the  supply  of  water,  and  the  drainage,  to  tlie  whole  establishment, 
which  jppears  to  me  to  have  been  very  earefidly  studied  and  well  executed — 
as  well  as  the  water-closets  and  other  internal  arrangements  generally.  Upon 
the  suggestion  and  under  theablesviperintemlaneeof  Mr.  J.eakc,  the  Guardian 
Clerk  of  the  Works,  unto  whom — one  of  the  Guardians  of  the  Hoard  informed 
me — they  were  nnich  indebted  for  his  constant  attention,  great  building  tact 
and  skill,  and  the  full  exercise  of  his  first-rate  mechanical  and  constructive 
capacities  in  their  service  :  he  is  evidently  a  ntan  very  superiorly  calculated 
to  conduct  large  masses  of  work,  as  well  as  their  detailed  arrangement,  and 
appears  to  be  ipiife  at  home  in  this  department  of  the  business.  The  ground 
is  on  an  inclination,  with  gravel  bottom  and  good  water  ;  hut  the  site  stands 
awkwardly  v\itb  the  road,  seeing  the  hack  of  the  f]'ont  Ijuilding  befoi'e  you 
see  its  front  elevation,  which  might  have  been  easily  remedied,  notwithstaml- 
ing  the  depth  of  the  ground ;  however,  considering  the  house  is  built  for 
about  ll.'iO  inmates,  at  an  expense  of  less  than  a;'24,000.  It  reflects  infinite 
credit  both  on  Mr.  Urownevvho  has  had  nnich  ti'ouble  and  0]}position  to  con- 
tend with  ;  Wr.  .fay  of  Lomlon  \\'all,  who  has  done  himself  credit  in  the  exe- 
cution; the  Board  of  Guardians  for  fhcii'  spirit  in  giving  an  impetus  to  the 
large  bouse  yet  to  be  built,  and  all  parties  concerned  in  the  erection  of  those 
truly  National  Establishments.  I  would  have  given  you  a  detailed  account 
hut  time  presses  on  me,  so  beg  the  insertion  of  this  brief  notice. 

M.  N.  0. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   SCIENTIFIC    SOCIETIES. 

GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY. 

Thf.  first  meeting  of  this   society  for  the  session  was  held  on  M'cdnesday 
evening,  the  Gth  Movcmbcr. 

Rev.  I'rofessor  Buckland,  D.D.,  President,  in  the  chair. 

The  following  conmiunications  were  read  : 

/t  nottcp  of  Shovern  nf  Aalwn  which  fell  on  hoard  the  Ho.ihiiri/h,  off  the 
Cape  fie  Verd  ixlandx,  in  Fehvtianj  last,  hij  the  Rev.  W.  B.  Clarke. 

On  Tuesday,  Fchrnary  4th,  the  latitude  of  the  ship  at  noon  was  14  deg. 
?i\  min.  norfli,  longitude  2.i  deg.  10  min.  west.  The  sky  was  overcast,  and 
the  weather  thick  and  insuflVrably  ojipressive,  though  the  thermometer  was 
only  72.  At  3  ]i.  ni.  the  wiml  suddenly  hdled  into  a  calm,  then  rose  from 
he  south-west,  ,iceonii>anied  by  rain,  and  the  air  appeared  to  he  filled  with 
dust,  vvhieh  affected  the  eyes  of  the  passengers  and  crew.  At  noon,  on  the 
."ith  of  February,  the  latitude  of  the  Iloahim/h  was  12  deg.  .30  min.  north, 
longitude  2 1  deg.  1.'!  min.  west ;  the  thermometer  stood  at  72,  and  the  baro- 
nu'fcr  at  30 — the  height  which  it  had  maintained  during  the  voyage  from 
England.  The  volcanic  island  of  Fogo,  one  of  the  Cape  do  Verds,  was  about 
forty-five  miles  distant.  The  weather  was  clear  and  fine,  hut  the  sails  were 
found  to  be  covered  with  an  impalpable  reddish-brown  powder,  which  Mr. 
Clarke  states  resembled  maiiy  of  the  varieties  of  ashes  ejected  from  Vesuvius, 
and  evidently  was  not  sand  Idowu  from  the  African  deserts.  The  author  also 
mentions  the  following  instances  of  similar  ))henomcna,  chiefly  on  the  autho- 
rity of  the  officers  of  the  Ro.iharyh.  In  .lune,  1822,  the  sliip  Kinyston,  of 
Bristol,  bound  to  Jamaica,  while  passing  near  Fogo,  had  her  sails  covered 
with  a  similar  browiMsh  jiowder,  which,  it  is  said,  smelt  strongly  of  sulphur. 
In  the  latitude  of  the  Canaries,  and  longituilc  S,')  deg.  west,  showers  of  ashes 
h.ave  been  noticed  two  or  three  times.  At  liondiay,  dust,  on  one  occasion, 
fell  on  the  decks  of  the  vessels  to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  and  it  was  supposed 
to  have  been  blown  from  Arabia.  In  January,  1838,  dust  was  noticed  by  the 
crew  of  a  ship  navigating  the  (;hina  Sea,  and' at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  liashee  islands,  one  of  which  had  been  previously  seen  in  eruption.  In 
1S12  ashes  fell  on  the  deck  of  a  jiacket  bound  to  the  Brazils,  and  when  lOOO 
miles  from  laud. 


./  letter  from  Mr.  Caldcloin/h,  dated  Santiago  de  Chili,  Febriiari/  ISth, 
1839,  containing  the  ileclaration  of  the  master  and  part  of  the  crew  of  the 
Chilian  brig,  Thilij,  of  the  discovery  during  the  evening  of  the  12th  of  Fe- 
bruary, of  three  volcanic  islands  about  thirty  leagues  to  the  east  of  Juan  Fer- 
nandez. The  island  which  was  first  noticed,  appeared,  at  the  time  of  its  dis- 
covery, to  he  rising  out  of  the  sea.  It  afterwards  divided  into  two  pyramids, 
which  erundded  away,  but  their  base  remained  above  the  level  of  a  violent 
surge,  and  in  the  course  of  the  same  evening,  the  height  of  the  islaml  was, 
for  a  time,  again  considerably  increased.  The  other  two  volcanic  islets  bore 
further  southwards.  During  the  night  the  crew  of  the  Thili/  noticed,  at  in- 
tervals, a  light  in  the  same  direction. 

A  letter  addressed  to  Mr.  Lyell,  by  Mr.  Buddie,  of  Newcastle,  On  Depren- 
sioris  produced  on  the  Surface  of  the  Ground  hy  the  Ejccavaliom  of  Hedn  of 
Coal, 

The  effects  described  in  this  jiaper  are  stated  to  depend  on  the  fiuir  fol- 
lowing conditions: — 

1.  The  depth  of  the  seam  of  coal  below  the  surface. 

2.  The  thickness  of  the  seam. 

3.  The  nature  of  the  strata  between  the  seam  of  coal  and  the  surface. 

4.  Whether  the  jiiUars  of  coal  are  wholly  or  partially  removed. 

If  the  depth  from  the  surface  does  not  exceed  thirty  fathoms,  and  s.ind- 
stone  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  mass  overlying  the  seam,  the  sulisidence 
is  nearly,  if  not  cpiite,  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  coal  removed ;  hut  if 
"  metal  stone"  or  shale  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  beds,  the  hollow  pmdneed 
by  the  settUng  of  strata  is  less.  This  rule,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the 
intervening  mass,  is  said  to  be  maintained  at  all  depths.  Of  the  proportional 
effect  i)rodnced  on  the  surface,  .Mr.  Buddie  Ims  not  been  able  to  obtain  any 
accurate  information — the  amuunt  depending  on  the  four  conditions  enmne- 
rafed  above;  hut  the  depth  of  the  depression  de])ends  less  on  the  thickness 
of  the  seam  than  on  its  entire  removal.  In  the  Newcastle  jiits,  where  large 
l)illars  of  coal  are  left  in  the  first  instance,  and  when  these  are  subsequently 
removed,  blocks  or  "stooks"  of  cousidera))le  strength  are  suffered  to  remain, 
for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  colliers  from  the  exfoliation  of  the  roof,  the 
sinking  of  the  superincundjeut  mass  is  retanled,  and  several  years  sometimes 
elapse  before  the  excavation  is  completely  closed,  or  the  overlying  strata  are 
finally  settled  down.  In  the  Yorkshire  system,  by  which  all  the  coal,  with 
the  exception  of  small  temporary  pillars,  is  removed  in  the  first  instance,  the 
roof  being  sujiijorted  hy  wooden  i>resses  and  stone  pillars,  the  overlying  strata 
sultside  immediately  after  the  coal  is  removed. 

If  is  only  where  water  occurs  on  the  surface,  or  a  railway  traverses  a  coal- 
field, that  the  amount  of  depression  can  be  accurately  ascertained.  In  one 
instance,  the  removal  of  a  bed  of  coal  six  feet  thick,  one-fourth  having  been  left 
in  "  stooks,"  the  depth  being  100  fathoms,  and  the  overlying  strata  princi- 
pally sandstone,  a  pond  of  water  accumulated  to  the  depth  of  rather  more 
than  three  feet,  by  the  settling  of  the  strata.  In  another  instance,  where  a 
railway  crossed  a  district  from  beneath  which  three  beds  of  coal  had  been 
successively  renmved,  it  had  been  found  necessary  to  restore  the  level  of  the 
railway  three  times.  The  aggregate  thickness  of  the  seams  of  coal  was  nearly 
fifteen  feet,  and  the  dejith  of  the  lowest  107  fathoms,  of  the  highest  seventy- 
three,  and  the  mass  of  the  overlying  strata  consisted  of  shale.  The  extent  of 
each  settlement  w.is  not  measured,  but  the  total  was  5  feet  0  inches,  and  this 
comparatively  small  amount  Mr.  Buddie  explains  hy  the  railway  passing  near 
one  end  of  the  excavated  tract.  A  still  higher  seam  is  now  in  progress  of 
being  worked,  and  it  affords  an  excellent  opportunity  for  ascert.aiuing  the 
cftcets  i)roduced  by  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  mass.  Innumerable 
vertical  cracks  pass  througli  the  seam,  as  well  as  the  pavement  and  roof,  or 
the  beds  immediately  above  and  below  it,  but  they  are  perfectly  cUise  except 
around  the  margin  of  the  settlement.  Along  this  line  the  seam  is  splintered, 
the  pavement  and  roof  are  fissured  and  bent  down,  and  the  cracks  are  fre- 
quently open.  Within  the  area  of  the  settlement,  the  pavement,  on  the  con- 
trary, is  as  smooth  as  if  it  had  not  been  disturbed,  the  cracks  are  close,  and 
the  coal  is  not  splintered,  but  rendered  tougher,  or,  in  the  language  of  the 
colliers,  more  "  woody."  This  effect  Mr.  Buddie  ascribes  to  the  escape  of 
gas  by  the  cracks,  ami  the  same  changes  are  sometimes  produced  by  other 
causes,  when  the  coal  is  said  to  be  winded. 


KING'S  COLLEGE,  LONDON. 

Bepartment  of  Civil  Engineering  and  Science  applied  to  the  Arts  and 
Manufactures. 

Regul.\tions  in  respect  to  Certific.vtks. 

1.  The  certificates  of  the  second  and  third  years  will  be  of  two  forms — 
ordinary  certificates,  and  certificates  of  honour. 

2.  No  certificate,  whether  ordinary  or  of  honour,  will  he  granted,  which, 
among  the  signatures  affixed  to  it.  does  not  include  those  of  the  professors 
of  mathematics,  mechanics,  an<i  chendstry. 

3.  A  certificate  of  the  second  year  will  he  necessary  to  obtaining  one  in 
the  third. 

4.  Any  student  to  whom  a  certificate  shall  have  been  refused  at  the  Mid- 
summer cxanunation  of  any  year,  may  apply  for  it  at  the  examination  of  the 
following  Christmas. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


09 


,5.  Every  student,  desirous  of  obtaining  a  certiticate  in  science  applied  to 
the  arts  and  manufactures,  will  be  requii'ed  to  present  to  the  examiners  the 
detailed  description  of  some  process  of  manufacturing  art,  accompanied  by 
the  drawings  necessary  to  the  explanation  of  it.  This  exercise  is  to  bear  a 
certiticate  of  approval  from  the  lecturer  on  manufacturing  art  and  niachincr)- ; 
and  the  subject  of  it  is  to  be  appointed  by  him  at  least  three  months  before 
the  day  of  examination. 

The  certificate  of  honour  will  be  granted  only  when  this  exercise  shall  have 
been  approved  by  the  lecturer,  as  the  exercise  of  a  candidate  for  that  cer- 
tificate. 

G.  Every  student  applying  for  a  certificate  in  civil  engineering,  whether  of 
the  first  or  second  years,  will  be  required  to  present  to  the  examiners  finished 
drawings  of  the  plan,  elevation,  and  section  of  a  macbiue,  made  muler  the 
eve  of  the  teacher  of  drawing,  and  bearing  his  certificate  of  approval. 

For  the  certificate  of  the  third  year  these  drawings  are  to  be  accompanied 
by  others,  showing  tlie  details  of  the  machine,  drav\n  in  isomctrieal  projec- 
tion, or  in  common  i)ersi)ective. 

For  tlie  certificate  of  honour  in  the  third  year,  each  candidate  will  be  re- 
quired to  ju'oduce,  in  addition  to  the  aljove,  tlie  geometrical  constructions  of 
at  least  six  )n-oblems  in  descriptive  geometry. 

1.  On  the  intersections  of  surfaces. 

2.  On  tangent  jdanes. 

3.  On  developable  surfaces. 

4.  On  projections  of  the  circles  of  the  sphere. 

7.  The  diploma  of  associate  in  the  department  of  civil  engineering  and 
science  applied  to  the  arts  and  manufactures,  will  be  granted  to  such  students 
only  as  shall  have  received  the  certificate  of  the  third  year. 

8.  Only  such  students  as  may  have  received  certificates  of  honour  in  the 
third  year  will  be  admitted  candidates  for  the  diploma  of  associate  of  the 
first  class. 

9.  The  examination  for  the  diploma  of  associate  of  the  first  class,  w  ill  be 
held  at  the  Christmas  which  follows  the  examination  of  the  thin!  year. 
Every  candidate  for  the  diploma  of  associate  of  the  first  class,  will  be  required 
to  present  to  the  examiners,  in  writing,  on  the  day  of  examination,  the  origi- 
nal project  of  some  ]mblic  work  or  mecbanical  contrivance  or  process  of 
manufacturing  art,  accompanied  by  the  calculations,  drawings,  and  descrij)- 
tions  necessary  to  its  actual  execution,  to  bo  specially  approved  by  the  lec- 
turer on  mechanical  art  and  machinery  as  the  exercise  of  a  candidate  for  the 
diploma  of  associate  of  the  first  class,  and  to  bear  his  certificate  to  that  effect. 


ROYAL  SOCIETY. 

Dec.  12.— Major  Sabine,  V.  P.,  in  the  Chair.  G.  L.  Roupell,  M.  D.,  was 
elected  a  fellow.     The  following  papers  were  read  ; — 

1.  "  On  the  nerves  of  the  Grai'id  I'lerus,"  by  R.  Lee,  M.D. 

2.  **  Observations  made  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  la  the  year  1838,  with 
Bradlei/'s  Zenith  Sector,  for  the  verification  of  tlie  Amplitude  of  the  Abbe  de 
la  C'aille's  Arc  of  the  Meridian."  15y  T.  Maclear,  Esq.,  communicated  by 
Sir  John  Barrow,  Bart. 

The  author  gives  an  account  of  the  precautions  taken  in  putting  together 
the  different  parts  of  the  zenith  sector,  which  he  received  on  the  9th  of  De- 
cember, 1837,  in  erecting  it  in  the  central  room  of  the  Royal  Observatory, 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  in  afterwards  transferring  it  to  the  southern 
station  of  La  Caille,  in  Cape  Town.  He  then  proceeds  to  descril)e  La  Caille's 
observatory,  and  the  particular  circumstances  of  its  locality,  with  relation  to 
the  object  in  view — namely,  to  determine  the  influence  of  Table  Mountain 
on  the  direction  of  the  plumb  line.  He  next  relates  his  progress  to  Klyp 
Fonteyn,  where  he  arrived  on  the  28tli  of  March,  1838;  and  describes  the 
operations  resorted  to  for  erecting  the  sector  at  that  place.  He  then  enters 
into  the  details  of  observations  made  at  different  stations,  and  especially  with 
comjiarative  observations  at  the  summit  and  foot  of  the  mountain  of  Pequet 
Berg.  The  instrument  was,  lastly,  conveyed  back  to  Cape  Town,  anil  again 
examined,  and  the  observations  made  with  it  repeated.  The  reduction  of  the 
labours  occupies  the  remainder  of  the  paper ;  and,  in  conclusion,  the  author 
remarks,  that,  although  these  labours  have  not  altogether  cleared  up  the 
anomaly  of  La  Caille's  arc,  yet  they  show  that  great  credit  is  due  to  that  dis- 
tinguished astronomer,  who,  with  imperfect  means,  and  at  the  period  in 
which  he  lived,  arrived  at  a  result  derived  from  sixteen  stars,  almost  iden- 
tical with  that  from  1139  observations  on  forty  stars,  made  with  a  celebrated 
and  powerful  instrument. 

Dec.  19. — Major  Sabixe,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

Henry  Dninimond,  Esq.,  of  Albany  Park,  Surrey,  was  elected  a  Fellow. 

A  paper  was  read,  entitled  "  An  Account  of  Experiments  made  irith  the 
view  of  ascertaining  the  possibility  of  obtaining  a  spark  before  the  circuit  of 
the  Voltaic  Battery  is  completed."     By  J.  P.  Gassiot,  Esq. 


ROYAL  INSTITUTION  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS. 

At  an  ordinaiy  General  Meeting  of  the  memliers,  held  on  Monday  De- 
cember ICth,  1839,  George  Basevi,  Jun.  V.  P.,  in  the  Chair,  numerous 
donations  were  announced  as  having  been  received  since  the  last  meeting. 


Mr.  Cottani  delivered  a  discourse  on  the  man\ifacture  of  bricks  by  ma- 
chinery, illustrated  by  models,  and  drawings  of  the  Marquis  of  Tweeddale's 
machines  for  making  of  bricks  and  tiles. 

January  6. — Thomas  C'hawner,  Fellow,  in  tlie  Chair. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  :  as  Fellow,  James  Penythorne, 
,-Vrchitect,  of  2,  Queen  Square,  Westminster ;  as  Associate,  James  Bell,  of 
Wandsworth. 

Mr.  Donaldson  read  a  paper  on  the  life  of  Ammanate,  Architect  of 
Florence. 

January  20. — Edward  Blore,  V.  P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected :  as  Fellow,  John  Crake,  Archi- 
tect, of  Old  Quebec  Street;  Associate,  F.  Ashtun,  of  No.  2,  Pelbain 
Crescent. 

Several  donations  were  announced  as  having  been  received,  among  which 
was  a  donation  of  lO;.,  by  Thomas  Chawner,  Esq.,  Fellow. 

A  highly  interesting  |iiipcr  of  deep  research  was  read  by  Edward  I'Auson, 
Jun.,  oil  the  Temple  of  Vict(u-y,  Apteros,  at  Athens,  accoiiipanied  by  draw- 
ings illustrative  of  its  state  of  restoration  in  the  Spring  of  1836. 

Mr.  Donaldson  read  a  iiajiiM-  by  llerr  llallemann.  Architect,  from  Hanover, 
on  the  History  of  Grecian  and  Russian  Ecclesiastical  Arcbitccture,  illus- 
trated by  examples,  and  an  original  design 


MEETINGS  OF  SOCIETIES  IN  FEBRUARY. 

Institution  of  Ci\il  Engineers,  25,  Great  George  Street,  every  Tuesday  at  8. 
Royal   Institute   of  British  Architects,  16,  Grosvenor  Street,  Monday  3rd 

and  l'7tli,  .it  8. 

Architectural  Society,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  Tuesday  the  25th,  at  8. 
Society  of  Arts,  Adelphi,  every  Wednesday  at  half-past  7. 
Roval  Societv 


Society  of  Antiquaries 


-1^ 
s  J 


Somerset  House,  cverv  Tuesdav  at  8. 


PROCEEDINGS  IN  PARLIAMENT. 

IIOUSK  Ob'  COMMONS. 

.TaniKiry  17.  Petilinns  fvr  Bills  presented. — Arbroath  and  Forfar  Rail \i  ay  ; 
Sheffield  .'ind  Ro  In'ili.iin  Railway  Act  Amendment;  Lancaster  and  Preston 
Railway  Act  Amcnrlment;  Chester  anil  Birkenhead  Railway;  Tall  Vale 
Railway  ;  North  Union  Railway. 

Jan.  20. — Ivlinburgb  and  (il:is;;ow  Railway. 

.Tan.  21. — (Jreat  Level  of  the  Uasli  Inclosure. 

Jnn.  22.  Petitions  n'/cm-d  to  thr  Select  Committee  on  Petitions  for  Private 
Bills. — Arbroath  and  I'orfar  Railway  ;  Slicffield  and  Roiberham  Railway 
Act  Amendment,  ri'lerred  to  Select  Committee  on  Petitions  for  Private  Bills  ; 
Lancaster  and  Preston  Railway  Act  Amendment,  petition ;  Chester  anil 
Birkenhead  Railway;  TalV  Vale  Railway;  North  Union  Railway;  l'".din- 
burgb  ;iiid  Glasgow  Railway;  (ilasgow.  Paisley.  Kilmarnock,  and  Ayr 
Railway.  Railway  Conimvinication. — Select  Committee  a[ipoin1ed.  "  to  in- 
quire into  the  state  of  communication  by  railways,  anti  to  report  tlieii  ob- 
servations thereupon  to  the  House  :"  Mr.  Laboiicbere,  Sir  Robert  Peel.  Lord 
Granville  Somerset,  Mr.  Thorneley.  Lord  Sandoii,  Mr.  Loch,  Mr.  Fresbfield, 
.-ir  John  (iue^t,  Lord  Stanlev,  'Mr.  (ireeiie.  Sir  Harry  Veiney,  Mr.  Henry 
Baring.  Sir  James  (irahiim,  Lord  Seymour,  Mr.  Easlborpe.  Mr.  Kmer.son 
Teiinent,  and  Mr.  Freiicli : — Power  to  send  for  persons,  papers,  and  rec  irds 
five  to  be  tlie  quorum. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


Steam  Navigation. — Vi'e  are  much  gratified  to  perceive  the  improved  condi- 
tion of  seamen  generally,  .and  to  bear  congratulatory  accounts  on  all  sides 
respecting  this  desirable  event.  The  infusion  of  young  blood  of  the  right 
quality,  in  the  persons  of  upwards  of  twenty-four  thousand  apprentices, 
within  the  last  five  years,  has  h  id  a  marked  ellect  upon  the  mass  ;  lor  some 
thousands  of  these  having  com|ileted  their  apprenticeship,  are  now  become 
active  able  seamen.  The  iuiuiIkt  of  ap|irentices  reared  in  steam-vessels — 
(the  General  Steam  Navigation  alone  maintain  upwards  of  fitly,  principilly 
selected  from  the  Naval  .Schoo's  at  Greenwich) — will  become  a  most  valuable 
class  of  men  ;  and  we  have  heard  that  the  highly  respectable  firm  of  Seward 
and  Co.,  so  celebrated  for  their  success  in  the  manufacture  and  improvement 
of  steam-engines,  have  Imw  ujiwards  of  three  liundred  youths  indentured  as 
apprentices,  with  the  view  of  their  becoming  eng  neers  and  assistant  en- 
gineers in  steam-vessels,  and  lully  competent  to  repair  any  casualty  in  the 
engines  that  is  practicable  at  sea,  without  the  necessity  for  returning  to  port 
or  laying  up  the  vessel. — Naval  and  Military  Gazette. 

Improved  Marine  Enirines. — A  fine  new  iron  steam  boat,  the  property  o 
Jjord  F.  Kgcrton.  or  in  other  words  of  the  Bridgevvater  Trust,  was  recently 
launclied  from  the  yard  of  Messrs.  Page  and  Grantlnim.  She  was  named  the 
Alice,  after  Loi'd  F'rancis  F.g,  rton's  eldest  daughter,  is  about  170  tons  burden, 
old  measurement,  is  neatly  fitted  up,  and  is  a  handsome  lively  looking  boat 


70 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Fkbritart, 


en  dip  \v:itcr.  Willi  tlio  wlioli-  of  licr  mtidiinery.  fuel,  ikic.  on  lin^iril,  lipr 
draft  of  water  is  only  four  feet  six  inches.  Slie  has  two  enp;ines  of  30  horse 
power  each,  nwule  i/y  >h'ssrs.  IX-vonjiort  anil  Grinroil.  of  the  Caledonian 
I'ounihy  in  this  to«  n,  Ojiun  a  novel  anil  iniindvc  1  e(jnslniulion.  their  |K'rii- 
liarity  consists  in  llie  fixing'  of  the  cvtinilers  on  :m  an^Ii'  of  'Ij  dr^rees  in  the 
form  of  a  rectangle,  with  the  hypothenuze  at  the  hase,  so  that  they  act  as  a 
j.tay  and  snpport  to  each  other.  No  side  lever.smr  required  or  roiiiiter  bnlanrps: 
;inil  the  working  parts  Ijeing  fewer  than  in  ordinary  engines,  thev  arc  less 
liable  to  derangement,  and  not  so  nnudi  ex|)osed  to  wrar  :;nd  /ei:r.  These  en- 
"ines  are  exceedingly  compact,  and  have  realized  ;  II  that  was  contemplated 
by  tile  ingenious  maker.s— ample  po.ier— ease  in  working,  and  great  strengtii, 
eondiined'^wilh  unusual  lightness.  At  twelve  on  Saturday  night  several  gen- 
tlemen \irnceeded  in  the  vessel  from  tlie  Clarence  Dock  on  a  short  experi- 
mental trip  on  the  river.  New  engines  are  necessarily  stilt,  and  it  reipiires 
M.nie  time  to  ascertain  their  prop'er  adjustment,  M'ith  all  disadvantages, 
iuiwever,  the  ///«r  performed  her  work  admirably,  from  the  moment  she 
U'll  the  linik.  A  very  short  trip  oidy  w.is  intenileil  on  the  first  occasion  ; 
but  the  speed  of  the  vess(d  was  so  Ealisfaetnry,  and  the  gratification  of  all  on 
board  conseiiiiently  su  great,  thai  she  iirneeeded  up  the  river  a  distance  of  12 
or  11  miles  and  back— accomplishing  the  trip  "out  and  home"  in  about  two 
hoi.irs.  Cn  her  way  np  she  beat  several  very  powerful  steamers,  and  on 
comin"  down  sneeessivelv  headed  two  of  tlie  Runnora  packets  in  gallant 
style.  'The  strokes  of  ihe'engine  averaged  thirty-two  per  minute,  but  when 
at  her  ftdl  power  they  will  make  thirty-five. — Liverpool  Sta)i<l(ird,  Dec.  21. 

HALL'.S  RKKFING  PADDLES. 

"Tut:  inventor  isMr.  Hall,  the  ingenious  deviser  of  the  condenser  which 
goes  by  his  name.  By  a  contrivance  of  the  tilmost  sim[.lieity,  all  the  fioat- 
l.onrds'of  boili  p:iddle-H  heels  of  a  steam-boat,  (jr  either  of  them,  can  at  any 
lime,  or  in  any  »eaiber,  be  'reefed' in  a  few  minutes;  or.  in  other  words, 
till'  liiameter  of  the  paddle-wheels  be  reduced  from  their  extreme  size  to  any 
oilier  di^iineler.  The  advantages  which  will  follow  this  conlrivance  arc  well- 
known  to  all  per.'ions  «  bo  have  atiended  personally  to  .steam  navigation  ;  but 
a  few  words  on  this  point  will  perhaps  not  be  unacceptable  to  those  wlio  may 
not  have  had  opportunities  of  studying  the  subject  afloat  under  varied  cir- 
cumstances. ,-,,,.,, 

lOverv  one  can  nndcrstand  that,  when  a  stcam-vesselislo.ided  with  a  lieavy 
cargo,  or  has  a  full  supply  of  coals  on  board,  the  |iadille-\\  heels  will  be  sunk 
til  nn'inrnnvenient  ilepth'in  the  water,  and  that,  in  order  to  enable  them  tu 
v.iirk  villi  advantage,  the  float-boards  require  to  be  unscrewed  and  shifted 
nearer  to  Ihe  centre  of  the  paddle-wheel — an  operation  of  some  trouble,  and 
oflen  reipiiring  much  time.  This  adjusiment  may,  of  course,  be  made  at  ihe 
beginning  of  a  voyage,  aecmding  tu  the  draught  of  water,  but  it  may  become 
fiifiv  as  necessary  to  shilt  Ihe  paildle-bn.ards  during  the  voyage,  either  larther 
liiit'or  farther  in.  If  the  vessel,  for  instance,  by  the  expenditure  of  her  coals, 
beenmes  li'diter,  the  (loat-boards  should  be  rnoved  out ;  or,  if  a  gale  comes 
on  a-heaib^tbey  have  to  be  moved  in;  which  oper.atinns.  if  they  have  to  be 
done  in  bad  weather,  are  both  tedious  and  ditiicult.  .So  that  any  invention 
wliiili  shall  give  the  power  of  shifting  the  float-boaids  easily  and  quietly, 
must  be  of  great  practical  utility,  especially  on  long  voyages. 

"  ft  is  well-known  to  those  who  have  attended  to  the  subject  that  no  steam 
vessel  can  be  said  to  work  to  the  full  extent  of  her  power  unless  her  engines 
make  a  given  number  of  strokes  in  a  given  time— say  in  a  minute  ;  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  steam  being  supposed  to  continue  uniformly  of  a  certain  deter- 
minate strength.  Now  occasions  constantly  arise  when,  in  consequence  of 
the  paddle-wheels  being  too  deeply  immersed,  or  that  the  sea  is  high,  the 
Hunt -lioards  are  made  to  impinge  oii  the  surface  atsuch  an  unfa vouraiile  angle, 
.and  again  on  leaving  it,  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  power  is  lost  in 
production  of  what  is  called  back-water.  The  cimscouence  is,  that  the  p,ad- 
dle-wheel  is  virtually  so  over-loaded,  that  Ihe  steam  though  generated  of  the 
proper  degree  of  elasticity  is  not  .adequate  to  turn  them  round  Ihe  given 
number  of  limes.  When 'this  ha]i]iens,  as  the  engine  does  not  make  the 
nunil  er  of  strokes  per  minute  which  it  oughi  to  do  when  working  at  its 
maxinium  speed,  one  ot  two  things  must  happen,  either  steam  must  be 
blown  oil  and  power  wasted,  or  the  fire  must  be  low  ered  in  order  that  no 
more  steam  may  be  generated  than  the  engine,  at  its  reiliiced  number  of 
:j|rukes,  can  consume.  In  consequence  of  this  state  of  things,  it  happens 
nut  unfrcqiiently  that  vessels  whose  paddles  are  too  deeply  immersed,  ihoiigh 
carrying  a  high  nominal  power,  are  obliged  to  work  witlia  power  really 
much  inferior. —  Vnileil  Si-rvire  Journal. 

Thr  (h-eal  H'rxlrrn. — We  are  happy  in  being  idde  to  .say  that  the  examina- 
tion of  ibis  noble  vessel  since  her  laying  up  shows  thai  liiere  is  neither  spot 
nor  blemish  in  her,  that  she  does  not  require  caulking  or  coppering,  beyond 
a  few  sheets  to  rejil.ice  those  which  hive  been  rubbed  olV  by  the  coal  vess(ds. 
or  have  licen  removed  for  the  purjiose  of  a  thorough  eNaminalion.  All  the 
pails  of  Ihe  engines  which  are  not  fixtures  have  been  taken  out  and  thoroiiglily 
evamineil,  imd  are  now  in  progress  of  replacement.  Thr  |)1  in  of  the  dircclors 
i.i  to  overhaul  her  coin|ilelely  once  a  year;  andweshould  s;iy  after  3').000 
n.inlieal  miles  steiuning  per  annum,  an  almost  indisi  ens.-ible  one,  it  confi- 
dence is  to  be  m.dnlained  wilh  the  public.  M'e  understand  that  the  poop 
deck  is  to  be  Icnglheneil  1  (i  feet ;  and  tliat  Ihe  whole  of  llieoflicers.  engineers, 
sinker.-;,  and  ser\;ints.  wliose  berths  below  were  a  great  inconvenience  and 
annoyance  to  !lie  hire  cabin  passengers,  arc  to  be  aecolnlnodal^d  on  deck  ; 
.also  that  the  fares  are  to  be  all  equal  in  the  fore  and  ;dtcr  accommodalion, 
the  fore  slate  rooms  having  been  consider.ibly  enlarged.  Mie  will  sail  on  the 
2Ulli  of  I'uhrwmy ■— Ilrislul  Mirmr. 

'J'he  J'rrsidrul  Siniui-.shiii.—Oa  .Sund.iy  the  .'ih  ult.,  Ihe  Knyal  William 
steamer,  on  her  pass.i^e  bum  Linidon  to  I'lymoulh,  li'll  in  with,  oil  the 
Start,  Ihe  magnificent  steamer  President,  on  her  voyage  frmn  Linidon  to 
Liver|ionl,(lo  lake  inhcnnacliiiiery),  in  quite  an  unman.ige.ilile  sl;ite,  having 
rollid  away  her  foremast,  maintopniast.  ite.  The  Kiiy:il  W'illi.am  took  her 
in  tow,  ami  brought  her  iulo  the  .Sound  during  Sunday  night.  On  Tucsikiy 
she  was  towed  up  to  the  dockyard  by  Her  Majesty's  ste.amev  Carron,  and  the 


same  evening  one  of  the  directors  of  the  British  ;ind  Amerienn  Navigation 
Company,  for  whose  service  she  is  built,  arrived  from  London  to  suiierintend 
her  refitment. — Phjmoulh  Journal. 

The  Armed  Steamer,  A'emesi.w — Tliere  is  now  lying  in  the  Half-tide  Basin 
of  the  Clarence  Docks,  (ireenock.  a  very  be:uit!ful  iron  steamer,  cnnslrueted 
hy  Mr.  .lohn  Laird,  of  North  liirkenhead,  bearing  the  above  name.  She  is 
fitted  up  wilh  one  engine  of  121)  horse  power,  and  armed  with  two  32-pound 
caiTunades,  the  one  fore  and  the  other  aft.  which  move  on  Solid  swivel  car- 
riages. Her  draught  of  water  is  umier  four  feet.  Her  crew  will  consist  of 
40  men.  She  will,  it  is  s:dd,  clear  out  for  lirazi',  lr.it  her  ullimale  destina- 
tion is  conjectured  to  be  to  the  l'',;istern  and  Chinese  seas.  On  Monday  last  she 
made  an  excursion  as  far  as  tlic  Floating  Taght,  for  the  pnrpn.se  of  trying 
her  machinery,  which  was  found  to  work  admirably. — EdinhurgU  Oh.wn'er. 

T.eitli  llnrhmir  and  Dorks. — Messrs.  Walker  and  Cubitt  have  given  in  their 
reiiorl.  and  the  Tre;isury  have  decided  on  adopting  Mr.  Walker's  pkin. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAILVTAVS. 


Sheffield  and  Manehester  Raiheai/. — Mr.  Vignoles  lins  resigned  his  ofTiee  as 
engineer-in-ehief,  and  Mr.  L- eke  has  been  appointed  to  sueeecd  him.  The 
directors,  we  understand,  intend  pushing  forward  wilh  all  possible  vigour  the 
works  between  Cdossopand  the  Manchester  terminus,  so  as  to  be  able  to  open 
in  the  first  instance  through  that  very  populous  and  productive  district.  The 
works  at  the  summit  tunnel  are  making  very  satisfactory  progress. — llailwaij 
Times. 

Hull  and  Selhy  Railwni/. — Vte  understand  that  Mr.  Walker,  the  companj's 
chief  engineer,  lias  been  in  Hull  this  week,  and  after  examining  the  various 
Works  on  the  line,  has  reported  very  favourably  as  to  the  progress  which  is 
being  made  in  them  ;  the  bridges  over  the  rivers  Ouse  ;ind  DL-rwent  are  in  an 
advanced  state  of  forwardness,  and  will  both  be  completed  in  a  few  weeks  ; 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  line  is  liallasled,  and  several  miles  of  the  permanent 
single  way,  on  longitudinal  bearers  and  cross  sleepers,  are  already  laid  ;  large 
fiuantities  of  these  are  being  conslanlly  forwarded  to  the  various  portions  of 
the  line.  The  depot-  and  other  buildings  at  .Selhy  are  in  a  verv  advanced 
state  ;  this  is  also  the  case  w  ith  those  at  the  Hull  terminus  ;  .and,  although 
the  past  seasint  Ins  been  a  most  unfavourable  one  for  all  railw.ay  works,  it  is 
still  hoped  that  ibis  underiaking  will  ho  ready  to  be  opened  fair  the  whole 
length  ah  ut  Midsummer  next.  With  respect  bi  finances,  we  understand  that 
the  whole  of  Ihe  amount  to  be  taken  npuii  loin  has  been  obtained  without 
.advertising,  and  Ihe  last  call,  notwithstamling  the  pressure  upon  the  money 
market,  has  been  remarkably  well  paid.  We  may  congratulate  our  townsmen 
especially,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  manufacturing  districts  of  Yorkshire 
and  Lancashire  generally,  on  the  prospect  of  speedily  being  enabled,  by 
means  of  the  Hull  and  Selhy  Railway,  (connected  as  it  is  with  the  Leeds  and 
Selby,  the  York  and  North  Midlaml  Counties,  Manehester  and  Leeds,  Man- 
chester and  Liverpool,  Grand  ,Iunction,  and  London  and  Birmingham  Rail- 
ways,) to  travel  by  this  cheap,  safe,  and  expeditious  mode  to  all  tlie  principal 
towns  in  the  kingdom.  We  are  h;ippy  to  learn  ihal  the  price  of  shares  in  the 
Hull  and  Selby  Railway  is  rapidly  advancing  in  the  market,  and  that  before 
the  opening  of  the  line,  as  above  stated,  tliey  arc  likely  to  be  at  par. — Eastern 
Counties  Herald. 

Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  Rnilwai/. — M'e  are  gl  id  to  learn  from  a  correspon- 
dent who  lately  visited  the  Kdinburgh  ,anii  Gl.isgow  Railway  works,  now  in 
progress,  especially  those  through  the  Almond  Valley,  about  eight  miles  from 
Kdinburgh,  under  contract  by  Messrs.  John  Gibb  and  .Son.  on  wliiidi  there  is 
one  bridge  of  tiiirty-six  arches,  of  fii"ty  feet  span  each,  besides  numerous 
smaller  bridges,  extensive  earth-cutlings.  S;e..  that  these  gentlemen  contem- 
plate employing  on  these  works,  early  in  the  spring,  a  vast  number  of  masons, 
quarriers,  earth-workers,  and  waggon-drivers.  We  have  no  doubt  that  this 
will  be  good  news  to  many,  especially  as  trade  in  the  manufacturing  districts 
is  in  such  a  depressed  state. — Aberdeen  Journal. 

Dundee  and  Arbroath  Rnilwai/.— This  great  public  nndert;iking  is  nearly 
completed,  the  embankment  lias  been  formed  up  to  the  Gas  Work,  and  in 
the  cour.se  of  two  or  three  weeks  the  eml):nikments  from  the  east  and  west 
will  have  neiirly  met.  As  an  arrangement  has  now.  we  believe  been  made 
with  the  Harbour  Tiaistees,  the  public  will  soon  have  tlie  full  benefit  of  this 
conveyance  from  Trades-lane  to  Arbroalh,  ;ind  the  inconvenience  and  trouble 
occasioned  by  the  omnibuses  will  be  avoided.  It  is  said  there  will  be  a  grand 
opening  on  the  completion  of  the  line  ;  .and  it  is  not  indikely  that  Lord  Pan- 
mnrc.  who  has  all  along  m:inifesled  Ihe  greatest  interest  in  ihc  work,  will  be 
present.  There  are  four  vessels  in  a  dangerous  situation,  as  they  will  be 
closed  in  unless  they  get  launched  at  the  next  stream  tide  ;  the  parties  will 
have  themselves  to  lilame  if  such  an  event  takes  place,  the  vessels  being  ah 
ready  fur  lauiudiuig. — Dundee  Courier. 

Maryjmrt  and  Carlisle  Uaiheay. — At  a  meeting  of  the  directors  of  this  rail- 
way, held  iiu  Satuiday  last,  there  was  a  repnri,  iqain  the  stale  of  the  works, 
&c.'.  1-7  .lohn  Blaekmiire.  Ksij.,  lalely  appointed  engineer  to  the  company.  It 
appears  that  about  seven  miles  ot  tiie  radway  will  be  re  idy  for  the  carriage 
ot  coal  and  lime  .about  the  first  week  in  April  ne.\t.  Arrangements  were  en- 
tered into  wilh  parliesdesirons  ol  taking  coals  along  the  line  lor  sluiiment  at 
Maryport,  from  which  it  is  evident  iliat  an  income  will  at  once  be  reidlzeil 
suihcient  to  pay  ten  per  cenf.  U|niii  the  amount  of  capital  tluit  will  then  have 
been  eipended.  and  this  withuiit  taking  into  account  any  other  source  of 
tralTic  or  the  i;icre;ise  of  coal  that  will  undoubtedly  t;ike  place.  While  upon 
lliis  subjecl  we  beg  leave  to  warn  those  shareholders,  \Mr(  cularly  the  distant 
ones,  who  have  not  the  opportunity  of  gaining  correct  informaiion  about  the 
proceedings  of  tlie  company,  ag.unst  a  practice  that  has  lately  become  too 
common  of  parties  who  ealumniale  and  depreciate  the  value  of  property  of 
the  above  description  for  the  purpose  of  getting  shares  from  the  timid  or 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


needy  at  very  recUneil  iniccs.  The  engineer  has  commenceil  (lie  necessary 
smvcys  Tor  scttini;  out  the  work  on  (he  remaining  f.venty  miles,  from  C'arhsle 
to  As|)alria,  and  i'ur  enabUng  the  agreements  to  be  made  for  the  land  rccjuircd. 
— Carlisle  Piitriat.  January  11. 

Grail.  North  of  England  Railwaij. — T«o  first-class  railway  carriages  have 
just  been  iilaced  on  the  line  o'-  the'  Great  North  of  England  Railway,  at  ihe 
Darlington  Station.  Tlie  carriages,  which  are  Irom  the  manufactory  of  Mr. 
C.  Burmip,  of  tliis  (own.  are  of  the  most  splendid  description,  and  combine 
every  improvement  that  has  hitlierto  been  introduced.  The  interior  arrange- 
ments are  exceedingly  comfortable,  and  the  exterior  decorations  are  beautt- 
fully  e.Necuted,  each  door  panel  bearing  the  united  arms  of  Newcastle,  Dur- 
ham and  York,  supported  by  the  Northern  Kagle.  The  carriages  have  since 
been  inspected  liy  several  of  the  directors  and  engineers,  who  all  express  their 
entire  salisfaclicin  and  admiration  of  their  beauty  and  nseful  construction. 
It  is  expected  that  the  portion  of  the  line  between  Dirlington  and  York,  will 
be  opened  to  the  puidic  in  (he  co'.irse  of  (he  ensuing  summer. — Newcastle 
Journal. 

Lomlon  and  llirminghnm  Raihvni/. — ,Sa(urday  evening  a  considerable  sub- 
sidence took  place  at  the  Blisworth  embankment,  half  way  betH  een  the  stiitiim 
anil  (lie  bridge  over  (he  canal.  Tlie  earth  having  become  thoroughly  satu- 
rated by  the  late  rains,  gave  way  at  (he  bottom,  and  (he  surface  in  conse- 
quence gradually  sunk.  a(  one  point  several  feet.  Since  then  it  has  continued 
to  subside  at  (lie  rate  of  about  a  foot  an  hour,  and  on  one  occasion  between 
two  and  six  in  the  morning,  when  (lie  men  ceased  to  work,  it  sank  eight  feet. 
A  large  force  of  men  w  ere'coilected  (he  moment  the  slip  was  discovered,  and 
employed  day  and  night  replacing  (he  siiil  (hat  had  given  way  with  ballast, 
the  trains  in  (he  mean  (ime  passing  slowly  over  the  spot.  The  gaji  isahvays 
filled  ui>  by  (he  arrival  of  a  train,  and  (he  precanlions  (aken  are  such  as  (o 
do  away  with  all  idea  of  danger.  The  ballast  is  brought  partly  from  Bug- 
brook,  "but  chielly  from  Hillmurton,  about  16  miles  distant. — Northampton 
Mfrcuri/.  January  11, 

Railwai)  Speed. — Last  week  we  referred  to  the  facilities  atfordetl  by  the 
Great  \Vestern  Railway  in  the  conveyance  of  newspiper  expresses  from  i\Ion- 
moiith.  and  noticed  the  great  rate  of  speed  at  which  the  special  trains  on 
these  occasions  had  run.  'Vhe  Dispatch  (Sunday  piper),  in  alluding  to  one  of 
its  own  expresses,  stales  (hat  the  .Enlns  engine  performed  (he  first  ten  miles 
in  seven  minutes,  and  Ih  i(  if  the  engineer  had  not  been  compel  ed  to  slacken 
his  speed  in  consequence  of  a  (rain  having  started  a  short  time  jireviously, 
(he  whole  distance  of  31  miles  could  easily  hue  been  accomplished  in  25 
minutes.     This  is  at  (he  rale  of  74:  miles  an  hour  ! — Railway  Times.  Jan.  18. 

London  and  Soulh-Western  Railway. — The  whole  of  the  rails  being  now  laid 
down  between  the  temporary  terminus  at  Northam  and  the  terminus  on  (he 
Marsh,  the  engine  has  several  tunes  been  along  the  whole  line.  The  bnildhig 
on  the  Marsh  is  also  completed,  and  rising,  as  it  docs,  higher  than  any  of  the 
adjacent  edifici'S,  forms  a  very  consiiicuous  object,  especially  when  viewed 
from  the  water.  Workmen  are  actively  engaged  on  the  yet  unfinised  part  of 
the  line  between  Winchester  and  IJasiugstokc,  and  though  the  late  unseason- 
able weather  has  impeded  their  progress  in  a  great  degree,  little  doubt  is  en- 
tertained of  their  completing  it  by  the  1st  of  May.  when  the  good  folks  of 
Southamptoir  will  be  enabled  (o  reach  (he  meirupolis  in  three  hours. — South- 
ampton paper. 

Morecombe  Bay. — By  (he  intended  enclosure  of  Morecombe  Cay  and  the 
Duddon  .Sands,  ,52,000  acres  of  land  will  be  reclaimed,  which  will  form  (wo 
of  the  most  beautiful  valleys  in  the  bike  district  of  83  square  miles.  The 
sands,  being  composed  almost  entirely  of  calcareous  ma(ter  waslied  from 
the  surrounding  limestone,  are  capable  of  being  formed  into  the  most  fertile 
soil  for  agriculture.  The  land  proposed  to  be  reclaimed,  will  form  an  area 
half  the  size  of  Rutlandshire,  and,  calculating  one  individual  for  two  acres, 
will  accommodate  a  population  of  26,000.  being  about  half  the  number  of 
the  present  p'opulation  of  the  counties  of  Huntingdon  and  Westmoreland, 
and,  5,000  more  than  that  of  Rutland.  It  would  be  about  eqiual  in  popula- 
tion and  extent  to  Lonsdale  North,  which  is  a  peninsula  lying  between  the 
two  bays  of  Morecombe  and  the  Duddon,  on  which  stand  the  ancien(  ruins 
of  Furne.ss  Abbey,  and  is  also  a  rich  agricultural  and  manufac(uring  district, 
abounding  with  slate,  iron,  and  cop)ier  mines.  By  the  reclaimed  land  being 
added  (0  it,  Lonsd.alc  North  would  foiTn  one  of  the  most  pleasant  and  com- 
pact counties  in  the  kingdom. — L-".rfst'^r  Gnardian. 

Maidenhead /?■  id-^e  on  the  Great  /'".  •■7'  en  H-.'hray, — A  corresjiondent  informs 
us  that  during  the  hurricane  of  Friuay ,  t^ie  I'-nh  ult.,  the  timber  centerings  of 
the  bridge,  which  had  been  left  standingjtaoer  the  arches  for  some  lime  past 
as  a  precautionary  ineasure,  were  completely  carried  away  by  the  force  of  the 
wind  and  the  timbers  scattered  about  the  river  in  all  directions.  This  event 
will  now  decide  whetlier  the  bridge  will  stand  or  no(  without  (he  aid  of  (he 
centres,  it  is  very  evident  (hat  the  brickwork  of  the  arches  was  not  supported 
by  (he  centres,  as  some  have  suppose!,  tor  if  that  had  been  the  case,  they 
could  not  h^ve  been  so  easily  carried  away. 


NE'W  CHURCHES,  &c 


Blacliheath. — A  new  church  intended  for  (lie  accommodation  of  about  1100 
persons  is  in  progress  of  eieciion  at  Lee,  near  Blackhea  h.  It  is  designed  in 
(he  first  pointed  or  early  EnglkTi  style,  adopting  as  a  model  for  the  component 
jiarts  of  the  exterior,  Ihe  Lady  Chapel  of  .Salisbury  Cathedral.  At  the  west 
end  placed  centrally  rises  a  bold  ti  Mcr,  which  is  surmounted  by  an  octagooal 
belfry  and  spire,  reaching  to  the  licighi  of  130  feet.  The  interior  is  divided 
into  a  nave  and  aisles  by  tw  o  ranges  of  clustered  pillars,  from  which  spring 
molded  arches  supporling  the  root,  the  latter  is  of  a  triplex  form  llie  central 
division  rising  from  nearly  the  same  level  as  the  sides,  so  that  there  is  no 
clerestory.  The  ceiling  is  to  be  finished  in  a  style  posterior  to  that  of  the 
building  generally,  it  will  consist  of  plane  surfaces  divided  into  principal 


compartments  by  hammer  beams  or  arched  ribs,  and  these  compartments 
subdivided  into  panels  by  smaller  ribs,  having  hoses  at  their  inlersecdons. 
A  gallery  is  to  be  placed  at  the  west  end  of  (he  churcli.  occupying  Icngdnvisc 
its  entire  width,  and  one  bay  or  intercolumniation  in  depth.  The  whole  area 
of  the  building  has  been  excavated  and  a  vau'ted  crypt  formed,  which  is  lobe 
divided  into  numerous  compartments,  (o  be  appropriated  as  family  vaults. 
The  external  dressings  throughout,  (ogeiher  w  ith  the  whole  of  the  bellry  and 
.spire,  as  well  as  (he  pillars  and  arches  of  (lie  interior  are  executed  in  stone. 

Wolverhampton. — The  erection  of  the  new  church  in  Horsley  Fields  will  be 
commenced  as  soon  as  the  necessary  legal  forms  are  completed.  The  build- 
ing, as  before  s(a(eil,  will  be  in  the  gothic  style,  and  according  to  the  <lesign 
sent  m  by  Mr.  Harvey  F.ginlon.  of  Worcester.  Twenty-five  plans  were  sent 
in,  but  sever<al  of  them  were  unavoidably  rejected  on  account  o(  (he  cost  of 
Ihe  proposed  buildings  exceeding  the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  commitlee. 
The  structure  will  be  eighty  feet  long  and  fifty-six  feet  wide,  and  is  to  be 
surmounted  bv  a  tower  eighty-four  fee!  high,  in  the  style  of  the  lime  of 
Henry  VIL  I't  will  contain  sittings  for  L'^00  persons,  one-third  of  which  are 
to  befree. —  Wolverhampton  Chronicle. 

Calcutta.— 'ibc  Bishop  of  Calcutta  has  propo.sed  building  a  cathedral  church 
at  Calcutta,  in  the  Gothic  style  of  archiiccdne  ;  unencumbered  with  galleries; 
with  an  ample  chancel  or  choir;  with  north  and  south  transepts  or  entrances; 
and  capable  of  seating  about  800  or  1,000  persons,  its  dimensions  being  pro- 
bably somewhere  about  180  or  200  feet,  by  55  or  60  ;  and  50  or  60  feet  in 
height.  In  correspondence  wi(h  (his  necessary  magnitude  of  the  body  of  the 
edifice,  it  is  designed  that  (he  exterior  of  the  building  should  bear  some  re- 
lation in  i(s  architectural  character  to  the  interior;  and  that  an  appropriate 
spire,  somewhere  about  200  feet  in  height  from  the  ground,  shoulil  be  adiled, 
to  give  the  whole  a  becoming  and  customary  ecclesiastical  aspect.  It  was, 
indeed,  (he  unavoidable  extent  of  a  building  winch  eiaild  at  all  meet  the  actual 
wants  of  the  case  in  a  climate  like  Bengal  that  first  suggested  Ihe  idea  of 
erecting  it  in  an  open  and  beau  iful  spot,  and  of  such  a  style  of  architecture 
as  (o  form  a  prominent  object  from  every  iioint  of  view  on  the  esplanade, 
wilhin  Ihe  fine  panorama  of  Calcutta,  and  thus  constitute  (he  grea(est  orna- 
meiil  rif  what  has  not  been  unfitly  termed  the  City  of  Palaces.  And  it  was 
thought  there  are  few  who  would  not  wi  lingly  make  an  tidditional  eilbrt — if 
we  once  deternvne  to  build  a  new  and  large  church— to  give  it  all  the  advan- 
tages which  the  progress  made  of  late  years  in  sacred  architecture  can  secure, 
so'as  to  render  it  fitting  to  be  (he  first  Protestant  cathedral  erected  to  the 
honour  of  (iod  in  India. 

Liverpool.— iht:  first  stone  of  a  new  churi  h,  to  be  called  after  St.  Barnabas, 
to  be  erected  on  a  plot  of  land  between  Parliament-street  and  Greenland- 
street,  a  few  yards  from  the  Queen"s  Dock,  was  laid  on  Tuesday,  December 
17.  St.  Barnabas'  church  will  be  a  handsome  structure,  in  the  early  English 
or  Lancet  style,  and  a  decided  ornament  to  that  part  of  ihe  town.  The  prin- 
ciiml  elevation  will  be  towards  Parliament-street,  and  from  the  centre  there 
will  rise  a  beautiliil  tower  and  spire  to  the  height  of  135  feet.  The  former 
will  be  finished  with  a  pierced  battlement  on  four  sides  and  shafts  with  pin- 
nacles a(  the  angles.  The  whole  will  be  faced  with  red  stone  in  large  courses. 
The  inlerior  will  correspond  with  (he  gcner.il  style.  1(  will  have  a  nave  se- 
parated from  the  aisles  by  moulded  stone  piers  and  arches,  supporting  a  clear 
story  in  which  there  will  be  windows  of  three  lights.  The  ceiling  is  to  be 
ribbed  and  pannelled,  and  the  ribs  will  be  painted  to  resemble  oak.  It  is  in- 
tended to  furnish  1200  sittings  ;  on  the  ground  lloor  there  w  ill  be  471  sidings 
and  236  free  sittings,  in  the  gallery  346  sittings  and  147  free,  making  1200,  ot 
which  383  will  be  dedicated  lo  the  use  of  (he  poor  for  ever.  The  cost  will  be 
upwariis  of  .£1800.  The  architects  are  Messrs.  Arthur  and  George  Williams, 
of  No.  2,  Tarleton-street,and  Mr.  William  Morrison,  of  Toxteth-park,  is  the 
contractor. — Liverpool  Standard. 

The  new  ehnrch  at  Doughton,  in  (his  county,  which  has  been  built  upon  aw  et 
loose  soil,  has  been  some  time  subsiding,  but  the  late  rains  have  so  impaired 
the  foundation  lliat  the  tower  at  the  w'estern  extremity  first  sunk,  and  then 
fell  to  the  ground,  and  (he  other  appears  also  lo  be  sinking  very  fast.  Of 
course  the  whole  presents  a  very  ruinous  appearance. — Kent  Herald. 


GSOLOGY. 


Geohgii  in  Devon.— \h:  Buckland  and  Mr.  Convbeare  have  both  hastened 
to  visit  the  late  landslip  on  the  coast  of  Devon,  which,  we  understand,  oilers 
some  very  curious  pbenimiena  to  the  geologist  both  inland  and  out  at  sea, 
where,  at  a  considerable  di  tance  from  the  shore,  a  new  solid  ridge  has  been 
thrown  up  by  this  convulsion  of  nature. — Naval  and  Military  Gazette. 

The  Lagoons.— A  Vienna  correspondent  of  a  Paris  pa;  er  s(a(es  (hat  accounts 
had  been  received  from  Venice  of  the  di.sappearance  of  a  little  island  of  the 
Lagoons  in  the  waves  of  the  Adriatic.  12  persons  who  were  on  it  having  been 
buried  in  the  waters  when  the  iland  was  overnhelmed.  fhe  Archduke, 
Viceroy  of  the  kingdom  of  Venetian  Lombardy,  had  gone  from  Venice  to 
Padua  to  inspect  the  ravages  caused  by  (be  la(e  immdalions,  and  the  clergy 
of  Milan  and  (.remona  were  exciting  themselves  to  relieve  the  sufllerers. 

Earthquake  at  San  Salrador.—W'e  have  been  favoured  with  (he  following 
extract  of  a  letter  from  San  Salvador,  dated  the  5(h  of  October,  1839 : — "  On 
(he  1st  instant,  at  2  a.m  ,  we  experienced  a  strong  shock  of  an  earthquake, 
and  at  3  a.m.,  an  hour  after,  a  concussion  which  has  nearly  destroyed  the 
(own.  The  shocks  condnue,  and  yesterday  we  had  15  tolerably  smart  shocks^ 
Many  people  have  left  the  place,  and  I'fancy  the  Goveinn.ent  will  leoiove 
to  Cojntopeque,  as  this  town  is  not  safe.  The  evil  is  under  our  feel ;  for  at, 
places  five  or  six  miles  o(f  nothing  lias  occurred.  The  houses  are  nearly 
unroofed,  and  the  walls  ;  re  so  tottering  that  we  all  s!eep  in  the  court-yard  or 
the  great  square,  under  hide  coverings,  which  is  pleasant  enough  in  the  rainy 
season,  and  sit  in  the  day  time  in  the  corridors  ready  for  a  start  into  the 
yard, as  it  will  not  do  to  wait  a  moment  when  the  shock  comes,"; 


72 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Fkbruary, 


LIST    OP    NE^W    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IS    BXGI.A.ND    FUOM     1  ST    TO    28tH    JANIARY,    1810. 

John  Leo  Nicolas,  of  (lie  parish  of  Clifton,  lUistol,  {iciitlcinan,  for 
•'  certain  improvements  in  the  met/ioil  of  comi ructiny  riiitl  jirdjiellini;  ciirriaffen 
on  rnilvays  or  common  ronilx,  anil  tliroiigh  ficlih  for  ar/ricnltural  jinrjjoscs." 
— Scaled,  Januarj  I ;  six  montlis  to  s|iecif)'. 

Samuki.  Lawson,  of  Ijecds,  and  John  Lawson,  of  llie  same  jilaee,  En- 
piiieers,  and  Co-]iartners,  for  "  improremen/x  in  mnc/iinrri/  for  .ipinninr/, 
itiinlilini/,  and  tvis/ini/  fla.r,  wool,  silk,  cotton,  ami  oilier  Jiliroiis  siihstances." 
('(ininiiinicatcd  Ijy  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — January  2  ;  six  niontlis. 

Chaiu.es  (i'reenway,  of  Douglas,  in  the  Isle  of  .Man,  i;s(|.,  for  "certain 
improrements  in  reilucini/ friction  in  vheels  of  carriaijes,  u-hicli  improvements 
arc  also  ajiplicable  to  bearinx/s  and  journals  of  machinery." — January  3  ;  six 
inoTilhs. 

John  Francois  Victor  Fabien,  of  King  William  Street,  in  the  city  of 
London,  Gentleman,  for  "improvements  in pnmps." — January  7;  six  months. 

Datid  Low,  of  .Vdam's  Court,  Old  Uroad  Street,  Merchant,  for  '•improve- 
ments in  machinery  for  crnsliiny,  prepariny,  and  combiny  far,  hemp,  phor- 
mimn  tetiax,  and  other  flirovs  substances."  Communicated  liy  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — January  7  ;  six  months. 

Moses  Poole,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Centleman,  for  "improvements  in  obtain- 
iny  poirer."  Communicated  hy  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — January  7 ; 
six  months. 

John  Ridgwat,  of  Cauldon  Place,  Stafford,  China  Manufacturer,  for 
"  an  improvement  ill  tlie  moulds  used  in  the  manvfacture  of  earthenware, 
porcelain,  and  other  similar  substances,  vliereby  such  moulds  are  rendered 
more  durable." — January  11;  six  months. 

John  RincwAT,  of  Cauldon  Place,  Stafford,  China  Manufacturer,  and 
Ceoroe  Wall,  the  younger,  of  the  same  jdace.  Gentleman,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  china  and  eartheinvarc,  ami  in  the  appa- 
ratus or  machinery  applicable  thereto. — January  11  ;  six  months. 

John  Kidgway,  of  Cauldon  Place,  Stafford,  Cliina  Manufacturer,  and 
Ckorge  M'all,  the  younger,  of  the  same  place.  Gentleman,  for  "  certain 
improremcnts  in  the  mode  if  prepariny  bats  of  earthemcnre  and  porcelain 
clays,  andforminy  or  shnpiny  them  into  articles  of  carthemrare  and  porce- 
lain, and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  applicable  thereto." — January  11  ; 
SL\  months. 

RoHERT  Montgomery,  of  Johnstone,  in  the  county  of  Renfrew,  Gentle- 
man, for  "an  improvement  or  improvements  in  spinniny  machinery,  ajiplicable 
to  mules,  jennies,  slubbers,  and  other  similar  mec/ianism." — January  1 1 ;  six 
months. 

Christovher  Edward  Dampier,  of  Ware,  .\ttorncy-at-law,  for  "  an  im- 
jiroi'ed  weiyhiny  machine." — January  14  ;  four  months.' 

Hezekiah  JIarshall,  of  tlie  city  of  Canterbury,  Arcliitect,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  window  .wshes  and  frames,  and  in  thefasteniny  of  window  sashes." — 
Jannai7  14  ;  six  months. 

Arthur  Eldred  Malker,  of  Melton  Street,  Euston  Square,  Engineer, 
for  "  imjirovements  in  enyrariny  by  machinery." — January  14  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Mheatstonk,  of  Conduit  Street,  Hanover  Square,  Esq.,  and 
M'lLLiAM  Fothergill  Cooke,  of  Sussex  Cottage,  Slough,  Esq.,  for  "im- 
provements in  yiviny  siynals  and  soundiny  alarms  at  distant  places,  by  means 
of  electric  currents. — January  21  ;  six  months. 

Samoel  Drown,  of  Finsbnry  Pavement,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  improvements 
in  makiny  casks  and  ressel.i,  of  or  from  iron,  and  other  inetak. — January  21  ; 
six  months. 

Joseph  Rock  Cooper,  of  Birmingham,  Gun  Maker,  for  "  improvements  in 
fire-arms,  and  in  the  balls  to  be  vsed  thcreii-ith. — January  21  ;  six  months. 

William  Stone,  of  Winsley,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements  in  tlie  manu- 
facture o/')crac."— January  21  ;  six  months. 

James  Hall,  of  Glasgow,  Upholsterer,  for  "improvements  in  beds,  mat- 
trasses,  and  apparatus  applicable  to  bedsteads,  conches,  and  chairs. — January 
21  ;  six  months. 

Arthur  lIowB  IIoldsworth,  of  Brookhill,  Devon,  Esquire,  for  "  im- 
provements  in  preserviny  wood  from  decay."— January  21  ;  six  months. 

M'illiam  Coltman,  of  Leicester,  Frame  Smith,  and  Joseph  Wale,  of 
tlie  same  place.  Frame  Smith,  for  "  improvemnils  in  machinery  employed  in 
makiny  frame-ivork,  knittiny,  or  stockiiiy  fabrics." — January  21;  six  months. 

Samuel  Wilkes,  of  Darlston,  Iron  Founder,  for  "  improvements  in  the 
maunfnctnre  of  hinyes." — January  21  ;  six  months. 

George  Wilson,  of  Saint  Martin's  Court,  Saint  Martin's  Lane,  for  "  an 
improved 2)aper-cut tiny  machine." — January  21  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Rowley,  of  liinningham.  Stamper  and  Piercer,  and  Benjamin 
Wakefield,  of  Bordesley,  Machinist,  for  "  improved  methods  of  cnttiny  out, 
stampiny,  or  forminy,  and  pierciny  buttons,  shells,  and  backs  for  buttons, 
washers,  or  other  articles,  from  metal  plate,  with  improved  machinery  and 
loots  for  those  purposes. — January  21  ;  six  months. 

Edward  Halliley,  of  Leeds,  Cloth  Manufacturer,  for  "  improvements  in 
machinery  for  raising  pilt  on  woollen  and  other  fabrics.— ld.miis.ry  21  ;  six 
months. 

William  Hunt,  of  the  Portugal  Hotel,  Fleet  Street,  London,  Manufac- 
turing Chemist,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  potash  and  soda, 
and  their  carbonates." — January  21  ;  six  months. 


Miles  Berry,  of  Chancery  Lane,  Patent  .\gent,  for  "certain  imjirove- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  priissiate  of  potash  aiul  prvssinte  of  soda.^* 
Communicated  hy  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — January  21  ;  six  months. 

Jules  Alphonse  Simon  de  Gournay,  of  Bread  Street,  London,  Gentle- 
man, for  "  iinprovements  in  the  manufacture  of  horse-shoes."  Communicated 
I)y  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — January  21 ;  six  months. 

George  Clarke,  of  Manchester,  Manufacturer,  for  "certain  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  looms  for  weaviny." — January  21  ;  six  montlis. 

Alexander  Helt,  of  Gower  Street,  Bedford  Sipiare,  Surgeon,  for  "  cer- 
tain imjirovements  in  the  arranyement  and  conslriiclian  of fire-yrairs,  or  fire- 
places, applicable  to  various  purposes." — January  23  ;  si\  months. 

James  Bingham,  of  Shertield,  Manufacturer,  and  Joii.v  Amory  Boden, 
of  the  same  place.  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  improved  compositions,  which 
are  made  to  resemble  ivory,  bone,  horn,  mother-o^ -pearl,  and  other  substances, 
appli  able  to  the  manufacture  of  handles  of  knives,  forks,  and  razors,  piano- 
forte keys,  siiiiff-bo.rrs,  and  various  other  articles." — January  25  ;  six  months. 

James  Smith,  Junior,  and  Francis  Smith,  of  Sjiital  AVorks,  near  Clics- 
tertield.  Lace  Manufacturers,  for  "  certain  imjirovements  in  machinery  for  t/te 
manufacture  offiyured  bobbin-net,  or  lace. — January  28  ;  six  months. 

Tho.mas  Aitkex,  of  Chadderton,  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  imjirove- 
ments in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  for  draiviny  cotton  and  other  fibrous 
substances." — January  28  ;  six  montlis. 

William  PoNTiFEX,  of  Shoe  Lane,  ill  the  city  of  London,  Coppersmith, 
for  '*  an  inijiroveineiit  in  treatiny  JIuids  containiny  colouriiiy  matter  to  obtirin 
the  colouriny  matter  therefrom." — January  28  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Citrzon,  of  the  borough  of  Ividderminster,  Machinist,  for  "certain 
imjirovements  in  stcam-enyines." — January  28  ;  six  months. 

John  WiiiTEHousE,  of  West  Bromwich,  in  the  county  of  Statford,  Iron 
Master,  for  "  imjirovements  in  prepariny  and  rolliny  iron,  and  other  metals, 
or  metallic  alloys,  for  the  manufacture  of  certain  articles  of  commerce." — 
January  28  ;  six  months. 

William  Mottershaw  Forman,  of  Sheeiishcad,  in  tlic  county  of  Lei- 
cester, Frame  Sinitli,  for  "  certain  imjirovements  in  stockiny  frames,  and  ma- 
chinery used  in  frame-work  knittiny," — January  28  ;  sL\  months. 


TO  COKRESPONOEMTS. 


Ju  couscquntce  of  the  great  adrantagrs  tii  enrrfspnudeucc  hy  tliv  universal 
iutnidur/iau  of  tlie  penny  jiost  throiighintt  tlie  United  Kingdimi,  ire  hope  flint  our 
readers  will  do  us  the  favour  to  forward  aeeouiits  oj  all  new  huiltliugs,  public 
works,  new  inventions  and  discoveries,  rcjiorts  of  scientijic  mtctings,  nciv  engines, 
.tteaiu  hoat~i,  dorks,  canals,  harbours,  ^e.,  if  a  tithe  of  our  readers  will  only  take 
the  trouble  to  forward  a  dozen  lines  monthly,  it  will  be  the  means  of  a/fording 
such  a  mass  of  information,  that  ronlil  not  fail  to  be  most  valuable  to  the  profession. 

We  Ihauk  our  correspondent  at  Moulreat  far  his  letter,  we  Ihinic  that  he  ami  his 
professional  brethren  might  obtain  the  Joiirmd  in  afar  more  direct  manner,  than 
through  the  eirruiiinis  and  erjieusire  ehuiinei  of  New  York.  iVe.  advise  him  to 
consult  a  respectable  bookseller,  or  some  agent  who  is  iu  constant  corresjiondenee 
with  England.     We  shall  be  happy  to  reeeiee  the  information  lie  proposes. 

If'e  feel  particularly  obliged  to  our  correspondent  ^Ir.Vt'  .\{.i-'}ibey  of  New  Yorki 
for  his  valuable  eoiitributions,  we  hojie  to  have  a  continuation  of  them. 

A  corresjiomlent  reijuests  us  to  jmblish  the  description  of  the  Epieycloiilal  motion 
fur  a  steam  engine  which  we  stated  was  not  new.  We  will,  ij  we  can  find  room, 
do  so  ve.rt  mouth,  ro  refer  him  to  ivorks  and  places  lehere  it  may  be  .fcen.  The 
last  time  we  visited  the  Arsenal  at  Woolwich,  we  saw  the  motion  ajijilieil  to  the 
workiiiij  of  a  jierjieiidieular  saw  for  cutting  timber. 

K.  W .  T.\s'  last  letter  we  will  answer  next  mouth.  Ills  former  communication 
was  received,  wr  did  not  insert  it  as  we  were  desirous  of  avoiding  the  insertion  of 
any  further  articles  on  railway  curves, 

l)iop;enes'  apparatus  for  stopping  carriages  on  railways  will  ajipear  ne.it  month, 
will  Dioyencs  be  .10  good  as  to  inform  us  if  it  be  the  same  apjiaratus  as  Thompson's 
alluded  to  in  his  jiajier  in  last  month's  Journal. 

T.  /.'s  drawing  for  a  paddle  leheel  with  reejing  jxuldles,  coustrneted  by  Boulton 
and  Watt,  in  1815.  will  ajipear  ne.vt  month. 

11.  B.'s  syphon  for  a  high  pressure  steam  gauge  we  will  notice  if  we  can  sjnire 
the  room  next  month. 

We  have  this  month  made  an  alteration  in  the  Journal  by  the  introduction  of 
engravings  iustead  of  wood  cuts  ;  this  plan  we  shall  occasionally  adojit  when  the 
subjects  for  illustration  are  of  a  luivnle  character.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  when 
the  numbers  are  bound  up,  the  plates  will  be  placed  ojiposite  to  the  lefterjiress 
referring  to  them, 

Comiiiunieotions  are  requested  to  be  addressed  to  "TlieKditor  of  the  Civil 
Kngincer  and  Architect  s  Journal,"  No.  ]\,  Parliament  Street,  Westminster, 
or  to  Mr.  Clrooinbridge,  Panyer  Alley,  Paternoster  How  ;  if  by  post,  to  be  di- 
rected to  the  former  j)laee  ;  if  by  parcel,  to  be  directed  to  the  nearest  of  the  two 
places  where  the  coach  arrives  at  in  London,  as  we  are  freipiently  put  to  the 
exjienee  of  one  or  two  shillings  for  the  porterage  only,  of  a  very  small  parcel. 

Hooks  for  review  must  be  .tent  early  in  the  month,  eominunieiitions  on  or  before 
the  20th  ( if  with  wood-suts,  earlier),  and  advertiseinruts  on  or  before  the  25th 
instant. 

The  First  Volume  may  be  had,  bound  in  ci.oth  akd  leiteked  in  cold> 
PsicE  17s. 

',*  The  Second  Volume  may  also  be  had,  Price  20s, 


Tj'jnA.t<yi^^iM(a'»i^  (/^^fi-f    u^^^ii<Hf  ^>uu<^e.(^^. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


73 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  MARINE 
STEAM  ENGINES. 

WHICH   ARE    PARTICULARLY    APPLICABLE    TO    STEAM    ENGINES    OF   THE 
LARGEST    CLASS. 

With  two  Engravings,  Plates  V  and  VL 

Specification  of  a  Patent  granted  7th  Maij,  1830,  to  Joseph  Mauds- 
ley  and  Joshua  Field,  of  the  firm  of  JMaudsky,  Sons  and  Field, 

Engineers  of  Lambeth. 

These  improvements  in  the  construction  of  marine  steam  engines 
are  particularly  applicable  to  those  of  the  larger  class,  and  are  designed 
principally  for  the  purpose  of  producing  and  applying  a  greater 
amount  of  steam  power,  than  has  heretofore  been  available  within  a 
given  space  or  area  on  shipboard.  This  is  effected  by  different  con- 
structions, arrangements,  and  proportions,  of  the  parts  of  low  pressure 
engines,  allowing  a  more  perfect  application  of  the  expansive  force  of 
steam  without  increasing  the  weight  of  the  whole  machinery. 

The  first  feature  of  these  improvements  consists  in  adapting  two  steam 
cylinders  to  one  engine,  in  such  a  way  that  the  steam  shall  act  simul- 
taneously upon  both  pistons,  in  order  that  they  may  be  made  to  rise 
or  fall  together,  the  piston-rod  of  each  being  attached  to  one  hori- 
zontal cross-head,  and  thereby  the  combined  action  of  both  pistons 
applied  to  one  crank,  of  the  paddle-shaft. 

The  second  feature  of  these  improvements  applies  more  particularly 
to  engines  for  river  navigation,  and  consists  in  the  adaptation  of  a 
piston  with  two  rods,  working  in  a  steam  cylinder  of  large  area,  both 
piston-rods  being  connected  to  one  cross-head  above,  which  gives 
motion  to  the  crank  below  it,  by  a  single  connecting  rod. 

The  third  feature  of  these  improvements  consists  of  a  method  of  ad- 
justing the  expansion  valves  of  combined  engines,  by  which  the  period 
for  shutting  of!"  the  steam  at  any  part  of  the  stroke  may  be  regulated 
in  both  engines  at  once  by  a  single  movement,  whilst  the  engines  are 
working. 

The  fourth  feature  of  these  improvements  is  the  peculiar  construction 
of  the  main  beams  of  the  framing  that  carry  the  plummer  blocks  of 
the  main  crank  shaft,  to  which  the  paddle-wheels  are  attached. 
These  beams  are  formed  as  hollow  trunks,  by  the  combination  of 
wrought  iron  plates  attached  to  bars  of  angle  iron,  in  the  same  way  as 
ordinary  boilers  are  made,  and  we  are  enabled  by  that  means  to  con- 
struct beams  of  the  largest  dimensions  of  unlimited  strength  and  of 
comparatively  small  weight. 

These  improvements  will  be  more  fully  understood  by  reference  to 
the  accompanying  engravings  and  the  following  description  thereof, 
in  which  Fig.  1  is  an  elevation  taken  longitudinally,  representing  an 
engine  with  two  cylinders,  constructed  upon  the  plan  described  as  the 
first  feature  of  the  improvement.  Fig.  2  is  a  vertical  section  of  tlie 
same,  taken  through  the  cylinders.  Fig.  3  is  a  horizontal  section  of 
a  vessel,  in  which  the  situation  of  the  engine  shown  at  Fig.  1  is  seen 
as  it  wouUl  appear  when  looking  ujion  it  from  above ;  and  Fig.  4  is 
a  conesponding  engine  placed  at  the  other  side  of  the  vessel,  but 
represented  in  section  cut  liorizontally  through  the  cylinders.  Fig.  5 
is  a  vertical  section  taken  transversely  through  a  steam  vessel,  show- 
ing the  positions  of  two  engines,  as  in  Figs.  3  and  4,  the  one  engine 
being  in  section,  the  other  an  external  view  seen  upon  a  plane  in 
advance  of  tlie  former.  And  Fig.  6  is  a  plan  or  horizontal  view  of  a 
portion  of  the  steam-vessel,  with  the  engines  and  their  appendages, 
and  also  the  framing  by  which  the  crank -sliafts  of  the  paddle-wheels 
are  supported,  similar  letters  referring  to  the  same  parts  of  the  ma- 
chinery in  all  the  preceding  figures. 

The  two  connected  working  cylinders  are  shewn  at  a  a,  their  pistons 
at  b  b,  and  the  piston  rods  at  c  c,  the  upper  ends  of  which  rods  are  affixed 
by  keys  to  the  cross-head  d.  Four  vertical  rods  e  e  e  e,  afhxed  at  top 
to  the  cross-head  d,  are  connected  at  bottom  to  a  slidery",  which  slider 
is  enabled  to  move  up  and  down  on  the  guide-ribs  g  g,  formed  on  the 
outer  surfaces  of  the  cylinders.  To  this  slider  /  one  end  of  a  con- 
necting rod  /(  is  attached,  the  other  end  of  that  rod  being  attached  to 
the  crank  i  of  the  propelling  shaft. 

From  this  arrangement  it  will  be  perceived  that,  by  the  simultaneous 
ascent  and  descent  of  the  two  pistons  b  b  in  their  working  cylinder  a  a, 
the  rods  c  a  will  cause  the  cross-head  d  to  move  perpendicularly  np 
and  down  between  its  guide  bars/  ;',  and  in  so  doing  to  raise  and  de- 
press the  slide/,  with  the  connecting  rod  /;,  which  rod  will,  by  that 
means,  be  made  to  give  rotary  motion  to  the  crank  i,  and  thereby 
cause  the  paddle-wheel  shaft  k  to  revolve.  A  rod  /,"connected  to  the 
slide  /,  will  at  the  same  time  work  the  lever  m,  to  which  the  rod  of 
the  air-pump  n  is  attached. 

The  mode  of  adapting  the  steam-valve  of  the  combined  cylinders 
a  a,  is  best  seen  in  Figs.  3  and  4.  The  steam  is  admitted  to,  and  with- 
drawn from,  these  cylinders,  by  one  slide  valve  common  to  both, 

No.|30.— Vol.  III.— March,  1S40. 


through  a  pipe  n,  seen  in  Fig.  5.  From  this  pipe  n  the  steam  pro- 
ceeds, through  a  slide  valve  u  of  the  ordinary  construction,  and  through 
the  curved  passages  or  tubes  p  p  into  both  cylinders.  There  is  also 
a  narrow  passage  of  communication  always  open  at  q,  by  which  the 
steam  is  allowed  to  pass  from  one  cylinder  to  the  other  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  pressure  equal  at  all  times  in  both  cylinders. 

The  expansion  valve  is  on  the  steam-pipe  n,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
slide  valve.  The  slide  is  moved  by  an  eccentric  in  the  ordinary  way; 
and  the  expansion  valve  is  regulated  by  the  means  described  hereafter 
under  the  third  feature  of  the  invention. 

The  advantages  proposed  by  this  arrangement  are,  simplicity  of 
construction,  nH)re  direct  action  on  the  crank,  saving  of  space  and 
weight  of  material,  offering  every  means  of  giving  larger  area  of  cy- 
linder, whereby  a  given  amount  of  steam  can  be  used  more  expansively 
than  in  former  arrangements,  and  consequently  yield  more  power  and 
economize  fuel,  with  the  further  advantage  at  sea,  that  when  the 
engine  is  reduced  in  the  number  of  its  strokes  by  deep  hnling  with 
coal,  as  at  the  commencement  of  a  voyage,  or  by  head  winds,  more 
steam  may  then  be  given  to  the  cylinders,  and,  under  such  circmn- 
stances,  more  speed  to  the  vessel,  all  the  steam  generated  in  the  Ijuihu' 
being  usefully  applied. 

The  second  feature  of  this  invention,  viz.  the  improved  construction 
of  steam  engine  having  two  piston  rods  working  in  one  cylinder,  is 
represented  in  the  accompanying  engravings  at  Figs.  7,  8,  and  9.  Fig. 
7  is  an  elevation  of  the  engine.  Fig.  8,  a  section  of  the  same,  taken 
vertically  through  the  cylinder,  with  the  crank  and  shaft  of  the  paddle- 
wheels  ;  and  Fig.  ',)  is  a  horizontal  view,  as  seen  from  above,  of  the 
two  engines  and  their  appendages,  the  same  letters  of  reference  point- 
ing out  similar  parts  of  the  machinery  in  all  the  three  last  mentioned 
figures. 

The  cylinders  of  large  area  are  shown  at  a  a,  and  b  are  their  pis- 
tons; c  e  are  two  perpendicular  rods  inserted  into  each  piston,  and 
working  through  stuffing  boxes  in  the  lid  of  the  cylinder;  d  is  a  cross- 
b.ead,  to  which  the  two  piston-rods  are  keyed  at  top,  and  e  e  are  the 
guide-rods,  fixed  on  cast  iron  supports,  upon  which  rods  the  cross-head 
d  slides  up  and  down.  The  connecting  rod  /is  attached  above  to  the 
cross-head,  and  below  to  the  crank  g  g  on  the  paddle  shaft.  The 
other  parts  of  the  engines  will  appear  so  obvious  from  inspecting  the 
drawings,  as  not  to  requiie  any  further  description. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  by  this  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the 
engine,  motion  is  given  to  the  crank-shaft  below  the  cross-head,  by  a 
single  connecting  rod. 

The  advantages  resulting  from  this  improvement  are,  that  a  paddle- 
shaft,  placed  at  a  given  height  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  will  be 
enabled  to  receive  a  longer  stroke  of  the  piston  than  by  any  other 
arrangements  now  in  use,  a  more  compact  and  firm  connection  of  the 
cylinder  with  the  crank-shaft  bearings  is  effected,  and  a  cylinder  of 
much  greater  diameter  may  be  applied,  by  which  the  principle  of 
working  steam  expansively  may  be  more  fully  carried  out,  and  a  more 
direct  action  of  the  steam  power  on  the  crank  obtained,  with  a  less 
weight  of  materials  and  a  greater  economy  of  space  than  has  hereto- 
fore been  attained,  by  any  of  the  arrangements  of  marine  engines  in 
use. 

The  third  feature  of  the  invention,  viz.  the  method  of  adjusting  the 
expansive  valves  of  combined  engines,  regulates  the  flow  of  the  steam 
into  both  engines  at  once,  by  one  simple  movement  of  the  spindle  and 
pinion,  and  without  interrupting  for  a  moment  the  working  of  the 
engines,  such  a  means  of  adjustment  being  highly  important  in  bring- 
ing into  operation  the  full  effect  of  steam  applied  upon  the  expansive 
principle,  in  economizing  fuel,  and  adapting  the  power  of  engines  to 
the  varying  circumstances  at  sea,  between  light  and  heavy  lading,  and 
between  strong  head-wind  and  scudding  before  the  gale. 


Extensive  Use  of  Slate. — Slates  are  now  applied  to  purposes  unthought 
of  till  lately  ;  and  when  deposited  in  drains,  ;is  the  bottoms  of  tiles,  are  found 
as  efficacious  in  keeping  the  land,  as  houses,  dry.  Compared  to  dressed  free- 
stone, or  liat  tile,  they  are  at  once  lighter  and  less  expensive  ;  ease  in  hand- 
ling is  a  great  advantage,  and  equally,  or  more  so,  the  alleged  property  of 
"  lasting  for  ever."  Mr.  Laurie,  Terregles-town,  was  foremost  in  trying  the 
experiment  in  DumCriesshire.and  his  expectations  have  been  so  fully  reahzed 
that  his  example  will  be  very  generally  loUowed  wherever  drains  remain  to 
be  cut,  and  that  is  secuonally,  at  least  almost  everywhere.  Of  the  article  in 
question  he  has  imported  from  Bangor  200.000  bottoms  or  pieces,  (^nd  may 
have  occasion  to  commission  further  cargoes.  The  first  imported  measured 
six  inches  by  five  :  but  as  these  were  lovuid  a  kcnnan  too  small,  the  size  has 
been  increased  an  inch  each  way — that  is  seven  by  six.  The  price  put  on 
board  is  7s.  per  thousanil,  and,  as  wares  every  way  so  equable  jack  as  beauti- 
fully as  herrings  in  a  barred,  we  presume,  although  we  do  not  know  the  fact, 
tliat  freightage  from  Wales  will  not  greatly  exceed  Is.  additional. — Glasgow 
Courier. 


74 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[MARon, 


RAILWAY  CURVES. 

Ox  reconsidering  (his  snlijocf,  we  tliink,  as  our  correspondent  R.  W. 
T.  SMSfiTests,  t,li;i(  tlie  cngini'er  wlio  has  (o  set  out  the  line  of  a  railway 
upon  the  gronnd  sliouM,  in  general,  confine  liinisell'  (o  the  curves,  and 
in  every  respect  to  (he  line  laid  down  upon  the  plan,  in  whicli  case  no 
such  f|nestion  as  that  proposed  by  "  An  Assistant  Engineer,"  conlil 
occur.  But,  since  a  devia(ion  from  the  plan  may  in  sonio  instames 
bo  allowed,  as  "An  Assistant  Engineer's"  question  ])roves,  we  shall 
endeavour  to  solve  R.  \V.  T.'s  dillicnlty;  and  (or  (his  we  must  first 
consider  what  may  have  been  the  cause  of  (he  failure.  Now  there 
are  two  cases:  cil/ier  the  curve  has  been  commenced  at  a  wrong  point 
of  the  tangent,  or  (lie  operadon  of  setting  it  out  has  been  iiraccurately 
))erlormed.  In  tlic  first  case  (he  error  can  be  rectitied  by  referring  to 
the  plan  and  ascertaining  the  right  point  uf  contact,  and  then  setting 
out  (he  curve  afresh.  This  method  would,  no  doubt,  be  exceedingly 
troublesome,  and  it  appears  to  be  (he  object  of  "An  Assistant  Engi- 
neer" to  dispense  with  tlie  lalio\n'  attending  such  a  proceeding;  the 
quesdon  tlien  is,  wliat  is  tlie  best  method  of  getting  over  the  difficulty 
without  returning  to  the  plan  laid  down,  when  a  deviation  from  the 
laKer  is  allowable.  Now  when  two  curves  wore  intended  to  meet  and 
form  an  .S,  and  the  engineer  employed  to  set  tliem  out  has  not  suc- 
ceeded in  efi'ecting  their  pmction,  there  are  two  cases:  ei/kr  the  two 
curves  intersect  each  other,  or  they  do  not.  In  tlie  first  of  these  cases, 
it  is  (rue,  (he  two  curves  may  be  joined  by  a  third,  tangent  to  the  two 
loriner,  and  of  less  radius  than  (lie  one  which  it  touches  on  the  con- 
cave side,  though,  in  onr  opinion,  it  would  be  preferable  to  correct 
the  curve  in  accordance  with  (he  plan.  Now  there  are  an  infinity  of 
circular  arcs  which  will  satisfy  the  condition  of  being  tangent  to  (he 
two  given  curves,  so  that  another  cfmdition  must  be  imposed  before 
the  connecting  curve  can  lie  determined  ;  it  may  therefore  be  required, 
either  (hat  (his  curve  shall  touch  the  concave  or  the  convex  curve  at  a 
given  i)oint,  or  tliat  its  radius  should  be  of  a  given  length,  which  la(ter 
is  the  O(pnili(ion  ;issuined  by  "  An  AssistantEngineer."  We  shouhl 
recommenil  solving  the  problem  on  the  plan,  and  not  on  the  ground, 
believing  (he  former  mode  (o  be  much  more  facile  (han  the  latter ; 
we  shall  (herefore  adapt  onr  solution  to  (hat  inetitod. 

Fig. 1. 


Let  A  n  and  C  D,  (fig.  1)  be  the  two  given  curves  fsay  of  130  chains 
radius),  an<l  let  it  be  reipiired  to  unite  them  by  a  third  curve  of  less 
radius,  tangent  to  A  H  on  its  concave,  and  to  C  D  on  its  convex  side. 

1st  case.  Tlie  required  curve  is  to  pass  through  the  point  G  of  the 
curve  A  Li. 

Erinn  I',  the  centre  of  A  B,  and  (hrough  G,  (he  required  point  of 
contact,  draw  the  straight  line  F  (t  H,  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  radii  of 
(he  two  given  curves,  or  twice  the  railius  I'  G  (both  curves  being  sup- 
]iosed  to  have  the  same  radius);  from  H  draw  the  straight  line  H  <) 
lo  the  ceuire  of  (he  curve  C  D ;  and  from  K,  the  miildle  point  of  H  O, 
draw  the  perpenflicular  K  (j,  intersecting  the  straight  line  1'  H  at  (he 
point  Q.  (j  will  \h:  the  centre  of  the  required  curve,  and  its  radius 
\vill  be  equal  to  Q  G.  .Toin  tj  (),  and  the  jHiint  E,  where  Q  O  inter- 
sects the  curve  C  1),  will  be  its  poiiil  of  con(act  wi(li  the  required  curve. 

For,  the  right  angled  triangles  H  K  Cj,  tj  K  ()  being  eepial,  tj  H  = 
Q  i)  ;  and,  if  from  these  c-cpials  we  t;dve  the  eipials  (j  H  and  E  O,  the 
remainders  (,)  G,  tj  E  will  also  be  equal;  and,  since  they  are  situated 
on  normals  to  the  given  curves,  the  circular  arc  G  E  will  be  tangent  to 
both  these  curves. 

2nd  case.  The  required  curve  must  pass  through  the  point  E  in 
the  curve  C  D. 

From  the  cenfre  O,  and  (hrough  (he  given  point  of  contact  E,  draw 
the  straight  line  ()  K  (j  ;  and   froiu   (lie  cende  F  draw  P  L  parallel  to 

U  (^  and  equal  to  the  smn  of  the  radii  of  the  given  curves  i  from  P  as 


a  centre,  and  with  a  radius  equal  to  P  L,  describe  ;ui  arc  of  u  circle  in 
the  direction  in  which  the  connecting  curve  G  E  is  expected  to  meet 
(he  given  curve  A  B,  and  from  L  draw  the  straight  line  L  ()  H,  inter- 
seciing  (hat  arc  at  (he  point  II;  join  HP.  The  point  Q,  where 
11  P  intersects  ()  Q,  will  be  the  centre  of  (he  reqinnul  curve,  and  the 
)ioint  G,  where  it  intersects  the  curve  A  D,  will  lie  (he  point  of  con- 
(ac(  of  (he  required  curve  with  A  B. 

For,  since  O  Q  is  parallel  to  L  P,  the  triangles  O  H  (J,  L  H  P  are 
similar;  and  consequently,  L  P  being  equal  to  P  H,  <)  Q  =  (^  H;  and, 
if  from  these  equals  we  take  (he  equals  E  O,  (i  H,  the  remainders 
(j  G,  Q  K  w  ill  also  be  e(|ual.  And  an  arc  of  a  circle  passing  through 
(he  p()in(s  G  and  E,  and  having  Q  for  its  centre,  will  be  tangent  (o  the 
two  given  curves,  as  we  ]u-oved  for  the  first  case.  Or  after  having 
drawn  O  Q  an<l  L  P,  construct  the  isosceles  triangle  O  L  ]\I,  of  which 
the  side  O  M=M  L;  then  from  Pas  a  centre,  and  wi(h  a  radius  =M  L, 
describe  an  arc  of  a  circle,  in(ersecting  O  Q  at  the  point  (j,  which  will 
be  the  centre  of  the  required  curve,  as  before. 

For,  if  (hrough  (he  point  <.j  wo.  draw  (he  straight  line  P  H  ecpial  to 
P  L,  we  shall  ha\e,  by  reason  of  the  similar  triangles  H  Q  O,  H  P  L, 
(^  H=Q  O  ;  and,  taking  away  the  equals  G  H,  E  O,  we  have  Q  G  = 
Q  E,  as  before. 

3rd  case.  The  required  curve  is  to  have  a  given  radius  (say  100  chains). 

From  (he  point  O  as  a  centre,  and  wi(li  a  railius  eipial  to  the  sum  of 
(he  radii  of  (he  given  curve  C  t)  and  of  the  required  connecting  curve, 
describe  an  arc  of  a  circle  in  the  direction  in  which  the  centre  of  tlie 
latter  is  expected  to  be  found,  and  from  the  centre  P,  with  a  radius 
etpial  to  the  difl'erence  between  the  radius  of  the  curve  A  B  and  that 
of  the  required  curve,  describe  anotlicr  arc,  intersecting  the  former 
Q.     Q  will  be  the  centre  of  the  required  curve. 

For,  drawing  the  radius  P  G  through  the  point  Q,  the  part  Q  G  is 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  connecting  curve,  since  P  t^  is  the  difference 
between  (hat  radius  and  P  G  ;  also  Ij  E  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the 
required  curve,  because  O  Q  is  equal  (o  tha(  radius,  plus  the  radius 
of  the  curve  C  D,  which  is  equal  to  the  part  O  E,  (herefore  the  re- 
maining part  Q  E  is  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  required  curve.  And 
it  mav  bo  proved,  as  in  the  former  cases,  that  the  arc  G  E,  described 
with  that  radius  and  with  the  centre  Q,  will  be  tangent  to  both  tlje 
given  curves. 

In  the  case  when  tlie  two  curves  intended  to  liax  e  met  do  not  inter- 
sect each  other,  we  should  certainly  recommend  connecting  them  by  a 
tangent,  if  it  should  not  be  required  to  make  thera  meet,  as  in  the  plan. 

Fipr.  2. 


Let  A  B,  C  D  (fig.  2)  be  the  given  curves,  tlie  former  being  tangent 
to  tlie  straight  Hue  1  A  at  the  point  A.  To  draw'  a  common  tangent  to 
the  two  given  curves. 

Join  (on  the  plan)  their  centres  ()  and  P  by  a  straiglit  line,  and  on 
O  P  as  ii  diameter,  descrHie  th((  circumference  O  H  P  K;  than  from 
t)  and  P  as  centres,  and  with  radii  I'qual  to  (he  sum  of  (he  radii  of  (he 
(wo  given  curves,  describe  two  arcs  uf  circles  intersecting  the  curcnm- 
ference  O  H  P  K  in  the  poiuls  M  and  K  respeclively  ;  draw  the  radii 
t)  H  and  P  K,  and  the  ])oiuts  L  and  M,  where  they  intersect  the  given 
curves,  will  be  their  points  of  contact  with  the  tangent,  that  is  (o  say, 
a  s(raightliue  L  M,  drawn  through  these  points,  will  be  tangent  to  both 
the  given  curves. 

F(U'  O  H  and  P  K  are  parallel,  and  L  H=P  M  ;  therefore,  joining 
P  H,  L  M  :uid  P  H  are  equal  and  parallel  ;  but  P  H  is  perpendicular  to 
O  H,  therefore  L  M  is  perpendicular  to  the  radius  O  L,  and  coiise- 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


75 


'luently  taiitjoiit  to  tlie  arc  C  D.  In  the  same  manner  it  may  be  proved 
'o  be  tangent  to  A  B.     Therefore  L  M  is  tlie  common  tangent  required. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  be  reqnired  to  move  the  curve  A  B  along 
the  tangent  I  A,  from  which  it  springs,  until  it  comes  in  contact  with 
the  curve  C  D. 

From  the  centre  P  draw  P  F  paraUel  to  1  A,  wliich  protkice  in  the 
direction  A  G  ;  and  from  O  as  a  centre,  imd  vvitli  a  radius  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  radii  of  the  given  curves,  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle  inter- 
secting P  F  and  Q.  Tlie  point  tj  will  be  the  centre  of  the  curve  which 
will  touch  the  curve  C  D  and  the  straight  line  T  G  -/and,  if  we  draw 
O  Q  and  Q  G,  the  latter  perpendicular  to  AG,  the  points  E  and  G, 
where  these  two  lines  cut  the  curve  C  D  -and  the  straight  Hue  A  G, 
respectively,  will  be  the  points  of  contact,  and  tlie  arc  E  G  will  be  the 
reqnired  curve. 

For  {j  G  and  Q  E  are  each  e((ual  to  the  radius  P  A,  and  the  former 
is  perpendicular  to  AG,  and  the  latter  to  the  tangent  to  the  curve  CD 
at  the  point  E.     Therefore  EG  is  the  [losition  of  the  requin:d  curve. 

We  have  thus  far  only  considered  the  c;ise  where  the  failure  has  re- 
sulted from  making  one  of  the  curves  spring  from  the  wrong  point  of 
the  tangent.  In  the  other  case,  that  is,  when  the  operation  of  setting 
out  one  or  both  of  the  curves  has  been  inaccurately  performed,  there 
is  no  remedy  but  to  set  it  out  again  with  more  care. 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XIII. 


"  I  must  have  liberly 
Withal,  as  large  a  cliarter  as  the  winds, 
To  l;lo\v  on  whom  1  please." 

I.  Let  B.  of  Derby  be  whoever  he  may,  his  remarks  on  Competiti(in 
Designs  are  very  much  to  the  purpose  ;  and  he  not  only  hits  the  right 
nail  on  the  head,  but  gives  it  a  clincher,  when  lie  hints  very  broadly 
that  the  profession  have  to  thank  themselves  for  the  abuses  which 
now  prevail  with  respect  to  competition.  If  instead  of  merely  shrug- 
ging their  shoulders  with  a  most  Turk-like  resignation,  they  were  to 
apply  them  heartily  to  the  wdieel,  they  might  extricate  theinselves 
from  a  position  they  affect  lo  deplore.  Surely  if  the  Institute  were  to 
set  about  doing  so  iu  downright  earnest,  they  might  both  de\  ise  and 
enforce  a  greatly  better  system  of  competition  than  the  hollow,  shuf- 
fling, delusive  one  now  practised.  Undonlitedly  there  are  many  diffi- 
culties to  contend  with, — first  and  foremost,  their  own  apathy,  indif- 
ference and  want  of  unanimity  of  purpose.  Souie  among  them  are 
notoriously  opposed  to  comiietition  altogether,  and  perhaps  that  the 
bungling  and  blundering  now  so  rife  in  it,  w  ill  sooner  or  later  cause  it 
to  be  abandoned  entirely.  <!)thers  seem  to  be  afraid  of  making  any 
stir  about  what  does  not  immediately  concern  them  as  individuals. 
On  that  very  account  all  the  more  imperative  is  it  that  the  Institute 
as  a  body  ought  to  consult  the  interests  of  the  profession  generally. 
And  if  competition  be  not  a  case  wherein  it  ought  to  interfere  with 
all  its  authorit}', — be  not  more  especially  one  which  calls  for  hearty 
co-operation,  I  should  very  much  like  to  know  where  co-operation  can 
at  any  time  be  of  positive  service.  Were  the  Institute  a  private  Club, 
it  might  be  left  to  do  as  it  pleased  :  liut  it  is — and  it  may  be  presumed, 
■wishes  to  be  considered  in  a  very  ditferent  light, — to  cut  a  figure  iu 
the  eyes  of  the  public. 

il.  Whetlier  any  one  will  agree  with  me  or  not,  I  incline  to  the 
opinion  that  so  far  from  being  at  all  calculated  to  improve  architectural 
taste,  such  a  work  as  Nash's  Mansions  is  likely  to  flatter  a  very  corrupt 
one,  and  to  create  a  prejudice  in  favour  of  a  style  that  taken  apart 
from  the  associations  and  accidents,  is  characterii^ed  by  fantastic  tlull- 
iiess,  by  incoherent  caprices,  by  expensive  ugliness,  and  by  a  grotesque 
combination  of  extravagant  embellishment  and  offensive  meanness. 
What  then,  am  I  insensible  to  the  charm  which  the  mastery  of  tlie 
artist's  pencil  has  communicated  to  the  series  of  architectural  subjects 
above-named  ?  Certainly  not,  because  it  is  precisely  on  account  of 
the  fascination  with  wdiicli  he  has  invested  them,  that  I  hold  them  to 
be  dangerous,  and  apt  to  seduce,  and  mislead  those  who  have  not  the 
power  of  discriminating  between  the  architectural  deformity  of  many 
of  the  scenes,  and  the  pictorial  attractiveness  with  which  they  are 
represented.  Undoubtedly  many  of  them  are  highly  picturesque  in 
themselves,  and  rendered  still  more  so  by  the  manner  in  wdiich  they 
are  treated,  and  by  the  adventitious  interest  arising  from  costume  and 
figures.  Still  as  architecture,  they  are  for  the  most  part  naught, — > 
absolutely  frightful.  Were  equal  witchery  of  effect  put  into  it,  not 
the  homeliest  merely,  but  nearly  the  most  insipid  subject  of  the  kind 
might  be  rendered  captivating, — an  old  barn,  a  village  carpenter's 
sliop)  or  the  kitcUen  of  a  cotuUiy  iuuf    The  chief  differenve  would  be 


that  in  such  case  persons  would  not  be  similarly  imposed  upon,  but 
instead  of  attributing  any  beauty  to  the  scene  itself,  or  being  at  all 
blinded  to  its  \incouthness,  would  perceive  that  the  pleasure  it  affords 
arises  entirely  from  the  charms  with  which  the  pencil  has  arrayed  it, 

lil.  I  should  very  much  like  to  know  if,  among  the  numerous 
churches  which  have  been  erected  of  late  years,  there  be  a  single  one 
whose  interior  possesses,  or  even  approximates  in  any  degree  to  so- 
lemnity of  character,  wdiich  (piality,  it  may  be  presumed,  is  perfectly 
appropriate  and  becoming,  or,  in  fact,  to  be  considered  indispensable, 
to  a  place  of  worship.  Among  all  the  new  churches  I  have  seen,  I 
have  certainly  not  beheld  one  possessing  internally  any  thing  liku 
solemnity  in  its  general  effect ;  on  the  contrary,  ditl'or  how  much  they 
may  as  to  all  other  circumstances,  they  agree  as  far  as  the  absence  of 
that  quality  goes.  Some  are  dismal  and  mean  enough,  others,  if  not 
|)articularly  tasteful,  smart  enough,  just  the  very  places  for  a  fashion- 
able congregation,  wliom  the  architect  generally  takes  care  to  arrange 
so  that  they  shall  make  as  goodly  a  show  as  the  audience  of  a  theatre, 
and  be  able  to  reconnoitre  each  other  without  obstruction.  In  fact, 
there  is,  so  far,  very  much  more  of  the  play-house  than  of  the  house 
of  prayer  in  such  buildings — nothing  calculated  to  inspire  feelings  of 
reverence.  Neither  does  it  make  much  diflt^rence  what  style  be  em- 
ployed, since  the  interiors  of  our  modern  Gothic  churches  have  no 
greater  air  of  impressive  solemnity  than  have  those  in  any  other  stylo. 
In  only  very  few  instances  is  there  any  attempt  to  keep  up  the  mere 
corporeal  semblance  of  the  style;  all  its  spirit,  all  its  attractions,  are 
gone.  Richness  seems  to  be  quite  out  of  the  question,  and  soberness 
almost  equally  so,  for  notwithstanding  tlie  excessive  parsimoniousness 
which  betrays  itself,  there  is  also  a  good  deal  of  vulgar  jauntiness  and 
spruceness,  bad  enough  in  itself,  and  thus  rendered  doubly  odious.  In 
some  of  these  buildings  a  tawdry  organ-case  is  the  principal  object, 
all  the  rest  consisting  only  of  base,  coldly  glaring  wdiite  walls,  pews 
and  galleries,  the  altar  itself  being  hardly  noticeable,  except  on  ac- 
count of  the  meanness  it  displays.  In  short,  it  is  to  be  feared  that  our 
new  churches,  taken  generally,  are  not  calculated  to  impress  foreigners 
w  itii  any  high  opinion — I  do  not  say,  of  our  taste,  but  of  our  religious 
ardour,  if  the  latter  may  be  judged  of  from  the  externals  of  public 
worship. 

IV.  The  Reformers  have  completely  discomfited  the  Conservatives, 
if  not  in  politics,  most  certainly  in  architecture.  The  poor  Conserva- 
tive Clubhouse  now  looks  sulkier  than  ever,  now  that  the  rival  edifice 
proudly  displays  itself  in  its  full  majesty.  I  gladly  hail  the  Reform 
Clubhouse,  as  an  auspicious  omen  of  reform  in  architecture  ;  it  being 
likely  to  disgust  with  that  vapid  and  poverty-stricken  so  called  clas- 
sical style,  which  at  the  best  has  given  us  little  more  than  scraps  and 
bits  of  "Grecian  architecture,  and  that  chiefly  as  regards  columns  alone, 
since  any  thing  with  a  shelf  on  top  of  it  will,  we  find,  do  for  an  en- 
tablature. Gooil  lack,  my  old  friend  Classicality,  how  strangely  hast 
thou  been  cockneyfied  since  thou  took  up  thy  abode  among  us!  It 
grieves  one  to  think  of  it,  and  yet  one  cannot  help  laughing,  either,  at 
the  grotesque  figure  thou  niakest  in  thy  present  costume,  and  what  is 
the  worst  part  of  the  business  is,  thou  hast  been  thus  fantastically 
tricked  by  those  who  all  the  while  have  professed  the  utmost  respect 
for  thee. 

V.  I  was  pleasingly  surprized  the  other  day  by  the  sight  of  a  very 
great  rarity,  naniely,  an  architectural  volume  both  amply  and  beauti- 
fully illustrated  with  engravings,  though  only  a  very  few  copies  of  the 
work  was  printed  for  distribution  among  the  author's  friends.  The 
work  appears  lo  ha\"e  been  got  up  without  the  least  regard  to  ex- 
pellee, and  so  far  forms  a  most  complete  contrast  to  the  bhmdering, 
ostentatious,  niggardness  manifested  in  the  "  )n-ivately  printed"  yet 
tolerably  well  known  volume  of  Sir  J.  Soane's,  containing  a  set  of 
coarse  and  almost  caricature  prints,  intended  to  show  different  parts  of 
his  own  house.  On  such  occasions  there  is  no  excuse  wlKitever  for 
stinginess,  or  anything  like  it,  because  a  man  had  better  keep  his 
money  in  his  pocket,  than  fling  it  away  in  purchasing  for  himself  the 
reputation  of  being  an  extravagant  hanks  and  a  miserly  spendthrift. 

But  I  have  not  mentioned  tlie  name  of  the  liberal-spirited  individual 
who,  iu  the  work  first  alluded  to,  has  so  worthily  illustrated  the  interior 
architecture  of  his  paternal  residence  at  Great  Yarmouth— W.  F. 
Palmer,  Esq.,  F.S.A.  Such  an  example  ought  to  be  made  known  as 
extensively  as  possible,  for  if  there  were  a  few  more  of  the  kind,  it; 
would  not  be  amiss.  If  it  be  said  it  argues  a  mere  mania,  it  is  to  be 
hoped  that  a  mania  of  this  kind  will  prove  quite  as  catching  as  that; 
which  induces  peojile  to  fling  themselves  off  the  Monument,  to  the 
extreme  horror  of  those  philanthropists  who  would  read  of  their  jump- 
ing into  the  Thames  quite  unconcernedly.  Yet  it  is  rather  to  be  ap- 
prehended that  architectural  mania,  amateur-mania,  will  never  prove 
infectious  in  this  country.  The  truth  is,  John  Bull  is  likely  to  stick 
fast  to  his  old  inouymaniu,  which,  in  plain  English,  is  literally  a 
moiwij' mania, 

L  2 


76 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


REEFING  STEAM-BOAT  PADDLES. 

Fig.  1. 


Fig 


V.W,  Pivot  wheel.  S,  Sli:ilt. 

Sir — Obseiviiig  by  sumc  of  tlie  public  jounr.ils  that  the  rcpfing  of 
ste:iin-bont  jjaddlos  is  buc-uiniiig  a  matter  of  interest,  I  take  the  liberty 
of  sending  a  rough  copy  of  a  sim]ile  method  executed  by  Messrs. 
Boulton,  Watt  &  Co.  for  a  vessel  on  the  Tyne  in  the  year  1H15  (whose 
drauglit  was  variable,)  it  was  found  to  answer  well. 

The  extreme  diameter  when  the  boards  were  out,  was  II  ft.;  by  the 
mode  adopted,  they  could  be  drawn  in  7i  in.,  reducing  the  diameter 
to  U  ft.  9  in.,  which  was  considered  sullicient  for  a  vessel  of  only  5  feet 
immersion. 


By  the  application  of  a  lever,  the  whole  of  the  boards  were  moved 
at  once,  and  fixed  in  the  required  position  Ijy  a  screw  pin  ;  this  in- 
volved going  into  the  paddle-box  to  make  the  adjustment  previous  to 
starting,  but  the  operation  is  capable  of  being  performed  by  a  pinion 
working  into  the  internal  circumference  of  the  pivot  wheel  (shewn  in 
the  small  side  figure),  while  the  rpiantity  of  reefing  may  be  carried  to 
all  necessary  extent  by  enlarging  its  diameter. 

It  was  the  fashion  in  those  early  days  of  steam  navigation  to  fit  the 
wheels  with  shrouding,  which,  although  not  necessary  to  the  scheme,  I 
have  chosen  to  show  it  as  executed  at  that  period.  Should  you  con- 
sider this  worthy  of  insertion,  you  will  oblige.  Sir, 

Your  constant  reader, 

London,  20lh  January,  lb40.  T.  Z. 


PATENT  IMPROVED   BOILER  OR  APPARATUS  FOR 
GENERATING  STEAM. 

The  first  part  of  my  invention  consists  of  an  apparatus  (after  de- 
scribed) for  causing  water  in  the  state  of  dew,  or  divided  into  very 
minute  drops  or  particles,  to  descend  slowly  through  the  interior  of 
the  boiler  or  generator,  upon  the  heated  surface  of  which,  so  much  of 
it  as  is  not  converted  into  steam  during  its  descent,  ultimately  falls ; 
by  which  means  a  less  quantity  of  heat  is  abstracted  during  any  given 
time  from  the  heated  surface,  than  if  such  surface  were  covered  with 
a  continuous  sheet  or  film  of  water,  or  witli  a  boily  of  water,  as  in  the 
common  boiler.  And  by  the  means  I  adopt,  I  do  not  merely  raise 
steam,  by  wetting  the  heated  surface,  but  the  boiler  or  generator  when 
at  work  is  filled  by  dew  or  water  in  a  state  of  minute  division,  w'hich 
in  its  descent,  becomes  partially  converted  into  steam,  by  the  heat  of 
the  atmosphere  or  vapour  within  the  boiler  itself. 

I  find  that  a  temperature  of  50(1"  or  thereabouts,  of  Fahrenheit,  in 
the  body  or  substance  of  the  boiler  or  generator,  is  that  best  adapted 
to  the  purpose  of  raising  steam. 

Another  part  of  my  invention  consists  of  a  self-acting  apparatus, 
(afterwards  described)  for  regulating  the  supply  of  water  to  the  gene- 
rator or  boiler,  according  to  tlie  condition  of  the  heated  surfaces,  and 
the  consequent  force  of  the  steam  wdthin  the  boiler,  that  is  to  say,  that 
if  the  boiler  contains  a  greater  body  of  steam,  or  of  greater  elastic 
force,  than  is  necessary  for  the  wants  of  the  engine  or  other  purpose 
to  which  it  may  be  applied,  then  by  the  self-acting  apparatus  before 
referred  to,  the  stroke  of  the  force  or  supply-pump  is  shortened,  so 
that  when  the  steam  is  high  in  the  boiler,  the  quantity  of  water  in- 
jected becomes  proportionably  less;  by  this  means,  if  by  any  chance 
in  consequence  of  the  boiler  becoming  heated  to  redness,  or  to  any 
other  degree  of  heat  which  would  be  highly  dangerous  in  other  boilers, 
or  from  any  other  cause,  steam  of  a  violently  elastic  force  be  produced, 
its  etfect  is,  through  the  medium  of  the  above  regulating  apparatus, 
to  shorten,  or  totally  shut  otl",  the  supjily  of  water,  until  the  surface 
becoming  cooler,  or  producing  steam  of  less  elastic  force,  the  pump  is 
again  allowed  to  act;  such  a  case,  however,  can  never  happen,  ex- 
cepting after  the  engine  has  been  standing  still  for  some  time,  and 
when,  by  neglect  or  design,  the  usual  precautions  and  attention  be- 
stowed upon  other  boilers  have  not  been  observed,  as  the  damper 
regulator,  which  is  somewhat  similar  in  efit^ct  to  those  in  present  use, 
will  always  prevent  the  fire  being  in  advance,  or  more  powerful  to 
heat  the  surfaces,  than  the  water  to  cool  them. 

In  applying  this  invention,  it  will  be  generally  found  desirable  to 
keep  that  part  of  the  surface  of  the  boiler,  ex])osed  to  the  immediate 
and  corrosive  action  of  the  fire,  covered  with  water,  by  wh.ieh  means 
it  \\  ill  be  prevented  from  burning,  and  another  part  of  my  invention 
consists  in  a  self-acting  apparatus  adapted  to  attain  this  object.  By 
this  apparatus  (which  is  hereinafter  described)  the  water  is  prevented 
from  accumulating  in  the  boiler  beyond  the  quantity  found  best  in 
practice,  and  which,  in  the  boiler  I  generally  use,  is  from  three  to  six 
inches  in  depth  over  the  fire ;  this  apparatus,  at  the  same  time  that  it 
prevents  the  water  rising  in  the  boiler  beyond  a  certain  limit,  acts 
upon  the  force-]nunp  in  a  way  which  will  bo  presently  described,  so 
as  to  reduce  the  quantity  of  water  injected,  if  necessary. 

In  a]iiilying  my  invention,  I  employ  n)eial  flues,  by  which  means  the 
fire  is  not  only  kept  longer  upon  the  surface,  but  the  flues  become 
carriers  or  depositaries  of  heat,  and  by  radiation  iuqjart  a  certain  por- 
tion of  the  efl'ect  of  the  fire  upon  them  to  the  boiler,  and  thus  econo- 
mize fuel,  besides  adding  to  the  strength  of  the  boiler  itself. 

Another  ])art  of  my  invention  consists  in  forming  ridges  in  the  in- 
terior of  the  boiler,  by  which  the  descent  of  the  water  over  the  sur- 
face is  retarded,  but  which,  although  a  great  improvement  to  the 
action  of  the  boiler,  is  not  absolutely  essential  to  it. 

The  external  figure  or  shape  which  I  ha^e  generally  adopted  as  the 
best  in  practice,  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  figure;  but  any 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


77 


convenient  form  may  be  employed,  and  the  tire  may  be  either  external 
as  shown  in  the  figure,  or  internal  according  to  the  system  usually 
adopted  in  steam-vessels. 

Figure  1  exhibits  a  cross  section  of  the  boiler,  pump,  and  water- 


Fig.  1. — Cross  section. 


^^-^ 


valve,  with  a  representation  of  the  water-regulating  apparatus.  A  is 
a  boiler,  made  of  cast  iron  or  other  metal,  around  which  is  cast  the 
spiral  flue  13,  and  having  its  interior  formed  into  ridges  or  corrugated, 
which  ridges  increase  in  width  as  they  approach  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler.  B  is  the  tire-place,  C  the  brickwork  in  which  the  boiler  is 
set,  D  the  water-pipe,  by  which  the  water  in  the  boiler  flows  oft'  as 
soon  as  it  has  risen  to  a  level  with  the  mouth  of  the  pipe  ;  the  water 
then  descends  through  the  pipe  e  e,  to  the  water-valve  box  /,  and 
would  pass  out  into  the  cistern  F  if  not  kept  back  by  the  valve  g ;  the 
valve  g  is  loaded  with  weight  /,  and  lever  //,  so  that  it  resists  the 
pressure  of  the  steam,  in  the  same  way  as  the  safety-valve  10 ;  but 
when  the  water  accumulates  in  the  descending  pipe  e,  so  that  there 
shall  be  an  altitude  of  water  above  the  surface  of  the  valve  of  from 
four  to  six  feet,  the  valve  will  be  unable  to  sustain  the  additional 
pressure  of  from  two  to  three  pounds  per  square  inch  upon  its  area, 
and  it  will  lift  and  let  out  the  water,  until  the  descending  column 
balances  the  weight  of  the  valve ;  the  cock  /  is  for  the  purpose  of 


blowing  out  any  sediment  which  may  have  accumulated  in  the  valve 
box,  this  is  done  by  depressing  the  rod  g  g,  attached  to  the  lever  g', 
which  is  fixed  on  the  plug  of  the  cock. 

Another  mode  of  self-regulation  for  marine  or  other  engines,  when 
there  would  be  an  objection  to  the  length  of  the  pipe  e,  is  as  follows 

Fig.  2. — Water-regulating  Apparatus. 


a  pipe  descends,  and  is  connected  with  the  suction-pipe  of  a  pump, 
which  may  be  either  a  bucket  or  force-pump ;  the  exit  valve  or 
clack,  is  loaded  by  a  weight  and  lever,  like  a  safety-valve,  with  the  same 
object  as  the  water-valve  already  described,  viz.  that  it  may  counteract 
the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler.  When  the  pump  is  full  of 
water,  the  action  of  the  plunger  will  force  out  of  the  pump  us  much 
water  as  it  displaces  in  its  descent,  and  draw  into  the  pump  from  the 
pipe  a  corresponding  quantity  of  water,  thus  emptying  the  pipe, 
and  preventing  the  water  rising  above  its  proper  level  in  the 
boiler. 

A  glass  tube  is  employed  at  t ',  by  which  the  state  of  the  water  may 
always  be  observed,  and  the  usual  brass  mounting  is  attached,  for  the 
purpose  of  cleaning  either  the  lying  or  vertical  pipes  ;  C  is  the  force 
or  supply-pump,  the  suction-pipe  K'  draws  its  supply  from  the  cis- 
tern F,  so  that  the  hot  water  escaping  from  the  boiler  is  used  over 
again  and  no  heat  lost ;  k  is  the  injection  pipe  of  the  pump  connected 
with  the  nozzle  m;  at  about  one-third  its  length  from  the  bottom,  the 
nozzle  is  perforated  with  a  circle  of  small  holes,  drilled  so  as  to  dis- 
charge the  water  in  a  direction  slanting  upwards,  or  in  such  a  direction 
that  it  may  be  reflected  upwards  from  the  sides  of  the  boiler  or  gene- 
rator, (any  number  of  holes  in  any  figure  which  experience  may  sug- 
gest may  be  adopted),  the  best  pUui  I  find  is  to  make  them  about  a 
quarter  of  an  incli  apart,  anil  about  the  hundredth  part  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  and  drilled  in  such  way  that  they  may  be  largest  outside, 
by  which  means  they  will  be  less  likely  to  be  clogged  up  ;  the  ends  of 
the  nozzle  are  loose,  the  upper  end  screws  into  its  place,  and  the 
lower  end  is  made  a  good  joint  and  ground  in,  so  that  when  the  bolt 
which  passes  through  it,  and  the  upper  end  is  screwed  with  a  nut  and 
spanner  from  the  top,  the  nozzle  becomes  perfectly  closed,  and  no 
water  can  escape  excepting  through  the  small  perforations  in  the 
sides  ;  it  is  necessary  to  form  the  ends  loose,  or  provide  some 
other  adequate  means  to  discharge  the  sediment,  which  may  from  time 
to  time  collect  in  the  nozzle  ;  tin's  adjustment  is  easily  made  by  merely 
taking  out  the  plunger  s,  and  the  perforated  plate  s',  when  a  spanner 
can  be  introduced  into  the  boiler,  and  the  nut  or  upper  end  unscrewed 
as  may  be  required ;  sometimes  the  nozzle  is  formed  in  a  circle  with 
jets  like  a  gas  burner,  but  the  above  described  method  I  have  fomid 
to  be  the  best. 

The  action  of  the  injected  water  is  clearly  seen  by  the  dotted  and 
prolonged  descendieg  lines,  the  water  impinges  violently  against  the 
sides  of  the  vessel,  and  is  then  thrown  off  at  an  equal  angle  in  an  op- 
posite direction,  after  which  it  descends  in  a  vertical  shower  as  shown, 
it  is  not  necessary  that  this  mode  should  be  always  observed,  any  mode 
is  good  that  minutely  divides  the  water,  and  then  allows  it  to  descend 
slowly  upon  the  heated  surfaces  may  be  adopted  to  my  invention  ;  but 
it  is  essential  that  the  water  should  be  first  discharged  upwards,  either 
in  an  inclined  direction  or  perpendicularly,  or  that  it  should  be  dis- 


IfB 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[IMarch, 


cliarj^i'd  in  siirli  a  direction  that  it  may  Iw  reflected  iipwurds,  or  slanting 
upwards  Irdiii  llie  sides  nf  tlie  l)oiler. 

Tlie  |)luiiger  of  the  pipe  C  is  connected  liy  tlie  link  ii  with  the  lever 
o,  this  lever  is  worked  hy  the  cam  p,  fixed  on  the  shaft  r,  which  shaft 
is  driven  by  any  of  the  usual  and  suitable  modes  from  the  engine,  or 
any  other  ecpiivalent  mmle  of  lifting  the  lever  may  be  adopted;  to  the 
end  opposite  to  that  on  which  the  cam  acts,  is  suspended  the  weight 
(J,  so  that  the  cam  lifts  the  ])lungc'r  ami  the  weight  gives  the  stroke, 
producing  a  sudilen  and  violent  rush  of  the  water  through  the  holes  of 
the  noz/.le  m  which  very  materially  alFects  that  minute  division  of  the 
water  which  is  necessar)' to  the  jierfect  action  of  the  boiler,  s  is  a 
plunger  or  jiiston  working  through  a  stalling  box,  upon  the  top  of  the 
boiler  connected  by  the  link  /,  with  the  lever  »,  which  lever  works 
upon  the  centre  r,  to  the  end  next  the  chimney  is  attached  the  rod  of 
the  damper  dd,  and  to  the  other  enil  the  weight  c,  and  the  rod  «),  thus 
vvlie]]  the  sleam  rises,  it  acts  upon  the  phnigcr  or  pislmi  s,  this  raises 
the  end  of  the  lever  )(,  vipon  which  the  weight  r  is  suspended,  and  the 
rod  w  attached,  and  depresses  the  other  end  to  which  the  damper  is 
attached,  thus  damping  the  fire  as  in  the  usual  way,  the  lever  ii  in  the 
act  of  rising  by  the  increasing  elasticity  or  volume  of  the  steam  lifts 
the  rod  «',  and  likewise  the  end  of  the  crank  or  lever  .r,  to  which  the 
other  end  of  the  rod  w  is  attached,  this  crank  or  lever  is  fixed  upon 
one  end  of  the  cross  shaft  y,  and  to  the  other  end  of  tlie  shaft,  and  at 
right  angles  witli  the  crank  .r  is  fixed  another  and  shorter  crank  z, 
thus  when  the  crank  x  is  raised  vertically  by  the  action  of  the  steam 
plunger  s,  it  causes  the  shorter  crank  z  to  move  horizontally  forwards, 
this  horizontal  movement  is  continued  through  the  niedinm  of  the  rod 
or  bar  z'  ,connected  with  the  short  crank  z  at  one  end,  and  the  other 
end  with  the  wedge  2, thus  pushing  the  wider  part  of  the  wedge  under 
the  pump  lever,  and  by  this  means  sliortening  the  stroke  or  descent  of 
the  ]uun))  plunger,  this  movement  may  be  also  efTected  by  a  rack  and 
)iini(ni,  or  by  a  screw  and  |iijiion,  or  by  other  means. 

I  do  not  claim  the  plunger  or  piston  as  new,  to  regulate  the  damper, 
an  analogous  contrivance,  liaving  alreaily  been  made  ;  that  part  of  my 
invention  which  I  have  before  referred  to  as  a  self  acting  apparatus 
for  [ireventing  an  undue  accumulation  of  water  in  the  bottom  of  the 
boiler,  is  as  follows ;  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  lever  /(,  of  the  water- 
valve,  is  fixed  a  slight  bar,  wire,  or  chain,  S;  the  other  end  of  the 
■wire  or  chain  is  connected  to  the  .short  horizontal  crank  7,  fixed  upon 
the  short  cross  shaft  3;  to  the  longer  arm  5  of  the  horizontal  crank,  is 
suspended  the  weight  (i,  which  weight,  when  the  wire  or  chain  is 
slackened,  descends,  and  descending,  produces  motion  in  the  shaft  3, 
to  which  the  crank  is  fixed,  and  also  in  the  short  crank  4,  fixed  n])on 
the  other  end  of  the  cross  shaft  3;  thus  as  the  weight  descends,  the 
crank  4,  by  means  of  the  rod  4',  connected  with  it,  and  the  wedge  1, 
draws  the  wedge  1  forward;  by  the  wider  part  being  thus  drawn  or 
introduced  under  the  lever  o  of  the  pumii,  the  stroke  of  the  pump  is 
shortened,  and  the  supply  of  water  consequently  diminished.  1  do  not 
confine  myself  to  the  particular  modification  of  machinery  here  de- 
scribed for  ellecting  this  object,  but  any  other  adapted  to  the  pur- 
pose may  be  used;  thus  for  instance,  another  mode  of  regulating 
the  action  of  the  pump,  is  by  forming  the  descending  tube  about  S  or 
10  inches  internal  diameter,  and  placing  therein  a  float,  which  shall 
rise  and  fall  willi  tlie  water  in  the  tube  in  the  same  way  as  the  float 
in  the  'ieed  head  of  a  conunon  boiler  regulates  the  damper,  then  a 
wire  p  assing  through  a  stufling  box  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pijie  t, 
and  communicating  with  the  crank  7,  in  the  same  way  as  the  wire  8, 
the  same  movement  will  take  place  in  the  wedge  1,  as  has  been  before 
described  ;  in  the  case  of  a  locomotive  where  the  pump  plunger  is  con- 
nected with  the  cross  head  of  the  piston  rod,  anil  works  very  fast ;  the 
method  to  be  adopted  to  reduce  the  stroke  of  the  pump,  will  be  to 
make  the  barrel  of  the  pump  moveable,  then  by  means  of  a  screw  fixed 
to  the  end,  and  causing  the  nut  in  which  the  screw  works  to  be  acted 
uiion  either  by  the  steam  plunger  or  the  lever  of  the  water  valve,  and 
thus  uuiking  the  barrel  of  the  pump  advance  towards,  or  recede  from 
the  i)lunger,  the  same  regulating  process  will  be  easily  a))plicable  ;  it 
will  be  merely  necessary  that  the  suction  and  injection  pil>e  should 
work  in  stuffing  boxes,  or  by  making  them  elastic  to  allow  for  the 
variation;  9  is  the  pipe  and  cock  for sup|)lying  the  water  cistern  with 
water,  V  is  the  ball-cock  which  kee|)s  the  water  to  its  level,  lU  is  the 
safety  valve,  11  the  steam  l)ipe,  12  the  steam  casing  in  which  the 
;)lunger  works,  the  lower  part  is  covered  with  a  plate  perforated  with 
lolos,  so  thai  the  steam  plunger  may  work  more  steadily,  and  not  be 
acted  upon  so  suddenly  by  the  steamj  as  the  steam  befm-e"  acting  upon 
the  plunger  will  jiass  through  the  holes  of  the  plate,  and  thus  a  certain 
regularity  of  action  w  ill  be  preserved,  which  could  not  be  ensured 
without  it. 

A  boiler  upon  this  construction,  but  made  in  a  very  rude  manner 
lor  the  purpose  of  experiment,  2  ft.  deep,  1  ft.  over  at  the  bottom, 
wid  2  it,  wide  at  the  widest  point,  was  at  mtk  I'w  seme  time  drivijig 


I 


a  G  horse  condensing  engine  at  Messrs.  Burton  &  Sons,  engineers, 
Bankside,  but  now  of  Holland  Street,  Blackfriars  Road ;  the  ;irea  ex- 
posed to  the  fire  was  about  8  ft.,  and  this  drove  the  engine  fully 
loaded,  the  steam  blowing  olVduriiig  the  greater  part  of  the  time;  it 
had  no  tendency  to  get  red  hot,  and  uj)on  several  occasions,  for  the 
mere  purpose  of  the  experiment,  the  engine  was  stopped,  and  the 
boiler  purposely  made  red  hot,  when  the  only  result  that  followed  was 
a  rapid  generation  of  steam  whilst  the  water  was  pumped  into  the 
boiler;  bv  this  a|)paratus  the  great  desiileratum  of  a  powerful,  port- 
able, and  safe  boiler  is  obtained,  and  I  feel  certain  that  in  a  properly 
constructed  vessel,  a  velocity  of  2U  miles  per  hour  through  the  water 
can  be  easily  accomplished. 

Stam/vrd Strut,  W.J.  CURTIS. 

Blackfriars  Road. 


ON  THE  PRESSURE  OF  WATER  AND  THE  STRENGTH 

OF  COFFER-DAMS. 

By  John  Neville,  C.  E. 

The  following  prepositions  are  intended  to  furnish  rules  for  calcu- 
lating the  dimensions  of  coffer  dams  from  having  the  depth  of  water, 
and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  materials  to  be  used  in  the  dam  given. 
The  construction  of  the  coU'er  dam  is  supposed  to  be  that  generally 
adopted,  namely,  two  or  mm'e  rows  of  piles  having  the  spaces  between 
filled  with  clay,  ox  a  mixture  of  clay  and  gravel,  the  whole  united  into 
one  mass  by  walings,  bolts,  &c.  And  it  will  be  seen  that  the  dimen- 
sions found  from  the  investigated  formula  do  not  diller  materially  from 
those  adoptetl  with  success  by  many  celebrated  engineers. 

The  pressure  arising  from  mere  depth  of  water  is  not  the  only  force 
to  be  prepared  against  in  constructing  a  coU'er  dam,  as  moving  water 
or  an  exposed  situation  nuist  also  be  taken  into  consideration.  These 
latter  I  have  not  cakailated  for  in  the  following  problems,  as  I  consider 
they  are  sufficiently  provided  for  by  the  resistance  of  the  piles  pene- 
trating the  bottom,  w  hich  assists  tlie  solidity  of  the  dam ;  and  by  the 
auxiliary  aid  of  stays  and  braces,  and  have  determined  the  dimensions 
of  the  dam  itself  as  only  sufficient  to  resist  the  pressure  of  an  outside 
depth  of  dead  water. 

Problem  I. 

To  dttcrmine  the  amount  of  pressure  against  a  coffer  dam  or  obstruc- 
tion, the  diplh  of  wall r  being  given. 

Put  c  for  the  depth  of  w  ater  in  feet.  The  pressure  on  each  point 
of  the  dam  is  as  the  depth  of  that  point  from  the  surface  of  the  water  ; 
the  whole  pressure  for  the  depth  c  is  therefore  repieseuted  by  the  area 
of  a  right  angled  triangle  having  the  base  and  perpendicular  each  equal 


to   c, 


or    by   -^.     The  weigiit  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  may.be  taken 


for  tlie  pressure  on  each 


atG241bs. ;  hence  we  have  G2iXo= — s~ 

^  2 

foot  in  length  of  the  dam  in  lbs.,  which,  multiplied  by  the  length,  will 
give  the  whole  pressure  required. 

Example  1. — What  is  the  pressure  on  each  foot  in  length  of  a  cof- 
fer-dam, the  water  inside  lieing  exhausted,  and  the  depth  of  water 
outside  being  equal  to  15  feet? 

TT  1-      ,125c-     125x15x15     .       ,,  ,, 

Here  crrlo  and  —5-= =:110J2i  lbs.,  the  pressure  re- 

quired. 

Exam})l(:  2. — What  is  the  pressure  against  J  coft'er  dam  whose  girth 
is  tiO  feet,  the  depth  of  water  outside  being  20  feet? 

J25  V  20  X  ^0 
Here  we  have i-^:=25000lbs.  for  the  pressure  on  each 

foot  in  length,  therefore  25,000  X  GO^  1,500,000  lbs.  is  the  pressure  re- 
quired. 

PROULliM   11. 

To  find  th  effective  pressure  against  a  coffer  dam  or  lock  gate;  the 

depth  nf  mater  outside  being  ginn  :  a  given  depth  of  water  being  inside. 

Put  c  for  the  outside  depth  of  water,  and  d  for  that  inside,  we  then 

.    125c-     I25i'^     125  (€■—«;•-)     i25y.{c-\-d)y.{c—d).      ,, 
get  — :=:— . — 1- '=:: ^ — ^^— ^ lor  the  pres- 

sure  on  each  foot  in  length,  when  the  inside  and  outside  girths  are  equal; 

putting  therefore  g  for  either  girthj  we  get  "  ••  -■■ 

fvr  the  piesiSMe  required. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


79 


Example  1. — Given  the  dejith  of  water  on  the  outside  of  a  dam 
equal  20  feet,  that  inside  equal  6  feet,  and  tile  giitli  GO  feet,  what  is 
tlie  cirecti\'e  pressure  against  the  dam  ? 

We  have  c+(i:=2G,  c — d-=.\i,  and  ^=G0  therefore 

l-25x(e+^)X(c-i)Xg^l25x2Gxl4xGO^^^^^^^^^  14x30 

=45,500x30=T,3G5,00011)s.  for  tlie  pfFective  pressure. 
When  the  inside  and  outsiiU'  girths  dilter,  by  putting  g  fur  tlie  out- 


side girth,  and  ^' for  that  inside,  we  get  in  this  case 


125(c-g— i'g') 


for  the  effective  pressure. 

Example  2. — Given  the  height  of  water  on  tlie  sill  to  the  upper 
gates  of  a  lock  above,  10  feet  and  girth  21  feet;  below  4  feet  and 
girth  25  feet — what  is  the  effective  pressure  on  the  gates? 

„,                       .             ,    ]25fc=g— rf=g')     125(100x24—10x25) 
The  pressure  is   equal   • ^ — -S~'z= i 

=rl25(100x24— 8x25)=  125x1000=  125,0001bs.  the  pressure  re- 
quired. 

Example  3. — Find  the  effective  pressure  against  a  coffer  dam,  the 
exterior  depth  and  girth  respectively  being  2/  and  120  feet ;  and  the 
interior  depth  5  feet,  and  girth  100  feet. 

„       ,     ,,     ,         ,     125(27x27x120—5x5x100) 
Here  by  the  formula; ^ = 

'  2 

125(729x00— 25x50)=:125x424,90=5,311,250 lbs.  the  pressure  re- 
quired. 

Problem  III. 

To  Jind  the  centre  of  pressure  in  a  given  depth  of  water :  or  iliat  point 
where  the  force  of  the  whole  pressure  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  forces 
arising  from  the  pressures  at  different  depths  from  the  surface. 

The  whole  pressure  (problem  1)  is  represented  by  a  right  angled 
triangle  having  its  base  and  perpendicular  each  equal  to  the  depth  of 
water,  and  as  the  pressure  at  each  point  along  tlie  depth  is  propor- 
tional to  the  depth  of  sucli  jioint  from  the  surface,  or  which  is  the 
same  thing  to  a  line  parallel  to  the  base  at  that  point  meeting  the 
hypothenuse  ;  the  centre  of  pressure  is  evidently  on  the  same  liori- 
zontal  line  with  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  triangle.  But  the  latter 
is  at  one  third  of  the  perpendicular  from  the  base,  uierefore  the  centre 
of  pressure  is  at  one-third  of  the  depth  of  water  from  the  bottom, 
or  ic. 

Examples.  The  centre  of  pressure  in  15  feet  of  water  is  5  feet 
above  the  bottom :  in  IS  feet  of  water  at  6  feet  above  the  bottom  :  and 
in  30  feet  of  water  at  10  feet  above  the  bottom. 

Problem  IV. 

To  find  the  centre  of  pressure  mhen  given  depths  of  water  are  inside  and 
outside  a  coffer-dam. 

By  putting  as  before  c  for  the  depth  outside,  and  dior  that  inside, 
we  find  the  outside  pressure  acting  at  the  distance  ^c  from  the  bottom 

125c- 
equal  — — —  (problems  1  and  3),  and  the  inside  pressure  acting  at  the 

u 

d  125(/^. 

distance  5  equal  -^ —     The  centre  of  pressure  is  now  therefore  in 
tj  2 


the  fulcrum  of  a  lever,  whose  length  is  — ^— i  which  lever  is  acted  on 

i— - — '■ — — —  the  distance 


125c'  125^^ 

at  its  ends  by  the  two  pressures  -=-  and  — —.    To  find  this  point 


125c^  ,  125d 
we  have  —^  +  — ^ 


c—d  .  .  125<;' 
3     •  ■       2 


3(c■■^-<^■ 


of  the  fulcrum  from  a  point  corresponding  to  ^c,  tlierefore  =— . 

o,  .  I   ,0-  - —    o,  o  I  J..-. —  — o.  ..  I    ...,•     The  distance  of  the  point 
3(o-fa-)  3(c=+rt-)         3(c +rf')  "^ 

required  from  the  bottom  of  the  water  frsm  which  w'e  deduce  tlie  fol- 
lowing rule : — 

Divide  the  sum  of  the  cubes  of  the  inside  and  outside  depths  by 
three  times  the  sum  of  their  squares,  the  quotient  will  be  the  distance  of 
the  centre  of  pressure  from  the  bottom  of  the  mater. 

£»»)»?/?,— Take  i=^2Q  and  d~V)  we  then  have 


0000 


:  6  feet  for  the  distance  of  the  centre 


20'-f  iO'    _  S000+1000_ 
3(20^+10')"     3x500     ~1500' 
of  pressure  from  the  bottom. 

Prodlem  V. 

To  find  the  centre  of  pressure  in  a  depth  of  water  lying  between  the 
depths  c  and  d  below  the  surface. 

Let  c  be  the  greater  depth,  and  put  .r  for  the  distance  of  the  centre 
of  pressure  in  the  depth  c — rf,  from  the  centre  of  pressure  in  the  depth 
c ;  we  then  have  from  the  properties  of  the  lever 


.rX 


V25(c'—d^)_2(c- 


-d)     I25d' 
—  X— r-, 


from  which  equation  by  an  easy  reduction  we  find, 
2d- 


■2d- 


there- 


fore  — 

3     3(c+f/) 


of  the  depth  c,  and  — + 


3(c+d) 
is  the  distance  of  the  point  required  from  the  bottom 
2d' 


3{c+d) 


its  distance  from  the  surface  of  the 


water. 


Example  1. — In  15  feet  depth  of  water  what  is  the  distance  of  the 
centre  of  pressure  of  the  lowest  5  feet  from  the  bottom  ? 


Here 


:5  and 


2d- 


2x10- 


3(c+rf)     3X(  15+10)" 


200     8    ,  ,       , 

z-—--^-    leet,   therefore 


-=5  —  -=-  feet  the  distance  required. 
00 


3    3(c+rf) 

Example  2. — Two  stays  support  a  coffer-dam  at  depths  of  20  and 
10  feet  below  the  surface  of  (he  water,  and  it  being  found  necessary  to 
place  another  between  these,  at  what  distance  shall  we  place  it  from 
the  lower  stay,  so  that  it  may  afford  the  greatest  assistance  possible  ? 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  third  stay  must  be  applied  opposite  the 
centre  of  pressure.     To  find  this  point  we  have  c:=20  and  rf=;10, 


e  ^       2d-     _20      2xlCr-    _20_200_20 
therefore   g     a^c+f/)  -  3     3(20+10)  ~  3       90  ~  3  ' 

40     44  ^ 
=:-„-=.-  feet,  the  distance  required. 


20 

■  9" 


60—20 
9 


A  proper  knowledge  of  the  position  of  the  centre  of  pressure  will 
enable  us  to  place  our  stays  with  advantage  and  economy,  particularl)' 
in  those  cases  where  a  coffer-dam  is  surrounded  with  water.  If  the 
top  and  bottom  of  such  a  coffer-dam  (fig.  1)  are  Ijept  from  approaching 

Fig.  1. 


each  other,  the  next  best  point  to  secure  is  evidently  at  the  centre  of 
pressure  of  the  whole  depth  of  water,  or  using  the  same  notation  as 
before  at  ^c  from  the  bottom.     If  more  stays  are  necessary,  the  most 

7c         5  c 
important  points  to  be  secured  are  those  at  the  distance  —  and  —- 

from  the  bottom,  or  in  other  words  at  the  points  corresponding  to  the 
centres  of  pressure  in  the  lower  and  upper  portions  of  the  depth 

c      ,  2c 

Problem  VI. 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  a  coffer-dam  fig.  2  suflScient  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  a  given  depth  of  water  when  the  section  is  rectangular. 


80 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


Fig.  2. 


Put  s  for  tlie  mean  weight  in  lbs.  of  a  cubic  foot  of  the  materials  in 
the  (lam,  h  for  its  height,  in  feet,  d  for  its  width  in  feet,  and  c  for  the 
deptli  of  high  water  in  feet.  We  then  have  b  d s  equal  the  weight  of 
one  foot  in  lenght.  It  is  evident  that  the  dam  fails  only  when  the 
force  of  the  water  is  able  to  turn  it  round  the  point  D,  and  as  the 

d 
weight  hds  acts  at  the  distance  -  from  D  in  the  figure  its  force  is  pro- 
perly represented  by  bds  X  -  =; — — .     The  pressure  of  the  water 

125c-  c 

is  equal  — — -  (problem  1,)  which  acting  at  the  distance  ^above  D 
2  o 

125c"    c     125c' 

(problem  3)  has  its  force  represented  by  -— — X-^: .    Therefore 

2        3        6 

in  case  of  equilibrium  we  have  =: — —  from  which  equation  we 


find  d- 


125c^ 
367 


and  d: 


V125c' 
36i" 


From  this  proposition  it  is  clear 


tliat  when  h^c,  tlie  width  d  of  the  dam  is  proportional  to  the  depth  of  the 
teutcr,  and  that  the  power  of  water  to  overturn  a  clam  is  as  the  cube  of  its 
depth.  The  value  of  s  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  puddle  used 
in  the  dam,  and  the  proportion  it  bears  to  the  quantity  of  timber  and 
iron  in  the  width  d.  In  the  examples  to  this  and  the  following  jiro- 
blems,  «  is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  90  lbs.,  which  in  most  cases  may  not 
be  far  from  the  true  value,  except  in  those  cases  where  the  water 
penetrates  under  the  dam  when  it  must  be  reduced  to  about  one-third, 
or  to  3U  lbs.  nearly.  , 

F,g.  3. 


Example  1.— Find  the  width  of  a  cofier-dam  sufficient  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  17  feet  of  water  on  the  outside,  the  height  of  the  dam 
being  19  feet. 


Here  we  have 


d=^  /l^-  K  /i!5M.^  -^  /lilil^=V116-4=10-8feet. 
-V    3  6s~'V   3X  19X90"" -V     5130 

/125 
-— r=ll-Gfeet.     Ifwe  suppose  from 

want  of  proper  precaution  the  water  to  penetrate  under  the  dam,  s  is 

s  s 

reduced  to  about  -  for  the  height  c,  say  -,  we  then  get 


«     d     125c' 
(J — c)  rfs-fc«?X-X-= — r^  for  the   equation  of  equilibrium  from 


which  we  find  d-X  (3  m6s+3cs 
125hc' 


3  ncs)  :=  12 5 c'h  and 
When  ;!=3  as  would  be  nearly  the  case 


d-        /__J^^nc^___ 
A/  3n6s-|-3cs — 3!(cs' 

V125c' 
■Xr36— 2  1'     ^-^  "^'"^  ^^^^  numbers  in  example  1, 

we  get  by  this  formulae 

d=.  /Zi1!HI!L:=  . /^^=^296-7=17-2  feet,shewing 
/y    90  X  (57— 34)     ■V     2070       ^  ^ 

under  these  circumstances  a  necessary  increase  of  nearly  six  feet  in 
width. 

Example  2. — What  width  of  dam  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  17  feet  depth  of  water,  the  dam  to  rise  4  feet  above  the  surface, 
when  the  bottom  is  porous  gravel  communicating  with  the  water. 

In  this  case  we  have 


d—       /__^^^___       /      125X17'     _        /G14125_ 

'V   90(3  6—2  cf  'V   90  X  (1^3— 34)     '\/  90  X  29~" 


V 


614125_ 
2610  " 


:V235-3=15-3  feet. 


Problem  VII. 


To  find  the  strength  of  a  coffer-dam  (fig.  3)  sufficient  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  a  given  depth  of  water  so  that  by  the  intervention  of  stays, 
&c.  the  coffer-dam  could  only  fail  by  the  failure  of  the  point  D. 

Put  k  for  the  distance  E  D,  rf  for  the  distance  E  F,  and  by  using  the 
same  notation  as  before  for  the  other  dimensions,  we  get  by  the  pro- 


perties of  the  lever  bds')(.(--\-l{)z 
brium,  and  by  reduction  d'--\-2  kd- 


12  5c^     c 
-  Xq  for  the  equation  of  equili- 

125c' 


36s 


from  which  we  find 


V123c' 
368  ^ 
Example  1. — Find  the  width  d  when  fc=18,  c=17,  and  6=21  feet, 

,  /l25e'  ,  /  125X17'  „ 

'"'■^  y-Sb^ +''-'=  V  3^X21X90 +^S'-18= 

V  614125  

-g^J7^+32-4— 18=1/649— 18=25-5— 18=7-5  feet=rf.  These 

were  nearly  the  dimensions  of  tlie  coffer-dam  for  building  the  river 
wall  at  the  New  Houses  of  Parliament  (see  Journal,  vol.  1,  page  31). 
But  this  coffer-dam  was  still  held  more  firmly  on  its  base  by  the  re- 
sistance to  the  piles  penetrating  the  silth  and  clay  substratum  requiring 
a  considerable  force  to  overcome  it,  over  and  above  that  which  was 
already  sufficiently  resisted  by  the  upper  portion  of  the  coffer-dam. 

When  d  is  given  we  find   from  the  equation  d--\-2d/c^-^. — , 


i  = 


125e^ 
Gbsd 


d 
"2* 


Example  2. — At  what  distance  from  the  imier  sheet  pilcing  of  a 
cofier-dam  10  feet  wide  shall  we  place  the  brace  pileing  D,  so  that 
when  properly  braced  the  dam  shall  resist  the  pressure  of  30  feet  depth 
of  water  outside.     The  dam  rising  4  feet  above  the  surface. 

„       ,  125X30'i  10     3375000      ^     ,^  _     ^     ,o  .  r    . 

Here  A= = 5=18'4-5=13'4  feet 

ex  34X90X10     2         1B360 

the  distance  required.    Ifsi=30as  would  be  nearly  the  case  if  the 


1840.  J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


81 


bottom  was  porous,  k  should  be  increased  to  about  3X1S-4 — 5  = 
55.2 — 5=.'iO  feet.  This  shows  the  importance  of  securing  the  bed  of 
the  dam  from  water  b)'  dredging,  or  otherwise  clearing  away  all  porous 
materials. 

Problem  VIII. 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  dam  (form  fig.  4)  sufficient  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  a  given  depth  of  water. 

Fig.  4. 


By  using  the  same  notation  as  before,  putting/ for  EK,  and  k  for 

d,  k     125r"     c 

DE,  we  get  »hdy,{--\-k)-\-skf'X.-=——-  X- for  the  equation   of 

2t  Z         id  o 


equilibrium  from  which  s  6  (l--\-2  s  bdk-\-s/k-  ■■ 


12  5e^ 


This  equation 


,    ,  „  ,       125c3    k-'f       .        ,2hd,     125c3     bd"^      „ 
gives  us  cZ-+2fZA=-:rT -•  and  k"-\ -^k=-x — -, j- .     From 

these  we  find  a=v}^+^''~{K~k  (1),  and 
36s  0 


i^^^^JlljJ'l^J'J:..    (2).    From  these  values  for  d  and  * 
3»/       f        f-        b 
we  can  fiud  one  when  the  other  is  given. 

Example  \. — Having  given  *=4  feet, /=  10  feet,  i  =  21  feet,  and 
c=n  feet,  to  find  the  value  oi  di 

/125c3     {i—f)k^  7014125       Vt'Q       , 

Bj^equatio,,  (i)  ,=V^  +L_Z_    _,=^__+___4  = 

V 108-3+8-4  -  4  =  V 1 IIJ'^  -  4  =  10-S  -  4  =  G-S,  or  7  feet  nearly,  the 

value  required. 

Example  2.— Suppose  *=10  feet,  f~\7  feet,  i=33  feet,  and  c=30 

feet,  what  is  the  width  {d)  equal  to? 

„         ,          T25X3U'        ItiXlU        ,,^       ,  1250U   ,  IGOO        , 
Here  d=./ ■ -L ^r 10=V- — -l -  1(J  = 


3X33X90 


33 


33 


33 


V 


141U0 
33 


-10=v/427-3-10=20-7-10=10'7  feet,  the   width  re- 


quired. 

Example  3.— To  find  tlie  value  of  k  wheud=6  feet,  the  otlier 
dimensions  remaining  the  same  as  in  Example  1. 

Frpm  equation  (2)  *=V!!!f!_i^+^_*-i= 
38/      /  +/•-'      / 


V 


614125      756    ,    15876       126 


jyy--^=V227-5-75-6+158-8-12-G  = 


2700         10 
V310-7— 12-6 =17'6— 12-6  =5  feet,  the  value  sought. 

Example  4. — To  find  the  value  of  k  when  (^=10  feet,  the  other 
dimensions  remaining  the  same  as  in  Example  2. 

Here  t=:/\/  ^^^^^O'        33X10^      33nU'^     33xlO_^ 
3X90X17  17       ^    172  17     "^ 


V 


12500—3300  .  108900     330 


==V&4 1-2+37  G-8— 19-4  = 


17  '     289  17 

V918— 19-4  =i3Q-3— 194  *10-9  feet,  the  value  sought. 


Probiem  IX. 

To  find  the  strength  of  a  coffer-dam  fig.  5,  sufficient  to  resist  the 
pressure  of  a  given  depth  of  water. 

Fig.  5. 


Here,  by  putting  i-'  for  F  E,  and/'  for  K  F,  we  have 

(I'  +  <^  )  X  sk'f  +  I  X  s.i6  =i^'  X  g. 

for  the  equation  of  equilibrium  by  disregarding  the  vertical  pressure 
of  the  water  above  K  G,  and  thence  s&'^/'  +  28  dk'f  -\-d-sb  — 

;  from  this  equation  we  get 


3 


b  36s  6 

125  c'        d-  b 
and /i"  +  2^*"  = -^ — -:;  —  -77-;  these  equations  give 


A/    386  6      ■''      6^  6 

„„  I  1, /l25c'         bd'    .     ,,         J 


(!)• 


(■2). 


Example  1. — When  k'  is  equal  4  feet,  what  is  the  value  of  d,  tiie 
other  dimensions  being  the  same  as  those  in  example  1,  problem  8. 


From  equation  (1)  rf=  ^  / X^.Y^^V     _  fXU)         10^x1 
V   3x90x21  21      ^      21^ 

C4  _  /g  14, 125         IGO         1600  _  40 

t  "y      5G70  ■  21  "^  Hr        21 


lOxj 
21 


=  y/ 108-3  —  7-G  +  3-G  —  1-9  —  v'i04-3  -  1-9 

=  10-2  —  1-9  =  8-3  feet. 

Example  2.  — Using  the  same  dimensions  as  in  example  2,  problem 
8,  what  is  the  value  of  d  ? 


d  =        /  125x30'     _  10^  X  17         10-  X 17' 
a/  3x33x'JO  33        "*"       33- 


10x17 
33 


V 


1-2,500  —  1700         28,900 
+ 


•  5-2  = 


33  '      1080 

V327-3  +  2G-5  —  5-2  —  V353^  —  5-2  =  18-9  —  5-2  =  13-7  feet. 
Example  3.  — Using  the  same  dimensions  as  those  in  example  3, 
problem  8,  what  is  the  value  of  i? 


From  equation  (2)  h  := 


V125: 
3xi 


Xl7' 

90x10 


21x6' 
ItT 


+  6' 


=  t/  227-5  —  75-6  +  86  —  6  =  ^  187-9  —  6  =  13-7  —  6  =  7-7  feet. 
Example  4. — Using  the  same  dimensions  as  those  for  example  4, 
problem  8,  what  is  the  value  of  k'  ? 


,^        /I25x30^_10;;x^3 
V  3XWX17     --^[7—^ 


*'  = 


M 


82 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


=v^ 


•2,500  —  3300 


17 


+  100 


/9200 


+  100  —  10 


=  V511-2  +  100  —  10  =  25-3  —  10  =  15-3  fee(. 

If  we  t;ike  into  consideration  the  weight  of  the  water  above  K  G, 
the  vahics  found  for  rf  and  X- in  the  examples  are  too  high;  but  the 
gravity  of  tlic  materials  in  the  dam  being  to  the  gravity  of  the  water 


28 


as  8  to  G2i,  if  we  substitute  /'  +  c  — /  x  — ,  or  /'  +  c  — / '  x  § 

(nearly),  for/'  in  the  general  equations  (1)  and  (2),  we  will  find  cor- 
rect values  for  d  and  /.     Thus  in  examples  1  and  3,/'  =  10-]-  17 —  lo 

X  S  =  Vi  =""1  '"  examples  2  and  4,  /'  =:  17  +  30  —  17  x  §  =:y  ; 
using  these  values  ofy  we  would  find  in 

Example  1. — d=  7-4  feet ; 
Example  2. — d=  11-2  feet ; 
Example  3.—*=  5-9  feet; 
Example  4. — i=  11-4  feet ; 

all  of  which  are  intermediate  between  the  former  values  and  those 
found  in  the  examples  of  problem  8.  It  appears  therefore  in  these 
examples  that  fig.  4  is  to  be  prefered  to  fig.  5.  If  we  wish  to  have 
equal  strength  in  these  two  forms,  we  get  by  equating  the  general 
equations  in  problems  S  and  9,  s  bd"  +  2  s  bdi -\- a  /c''/=^  ^  1^''/'+ 
2  s  di'f  +  d''8b,  and  thence  2  A  rf  *  +  F/:=  *'-/'  +  2  di'f,  which 
equation  will  furnish  the  value  of  any  of  the  quantities  when  the  others 


are  given.    By  substituting/' 


2c-2/'  _  2c+/' 


for/',  we  take 


into  consideration  the  weight  of  v^ater  over  K  G ;  in  assisting  the 
stability  of  the  dam  Fig.  5,  this  substitution  gives  us  Gbdi  -\-  3  Wf 
^■2c  li"'  -\-4cd  h'  +  (It'  +  2  ri ''')/',  for  a  general  equation  of  equal 
strength  in  both  forms. 

The  subject  we  have  now  been  considering,  is  closely  connected 
with  the  consideration  of  the  comparative  strength  of  buttresses  and 
contreforts  to  retaining  walls.  If  we  put  n  for  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  of  earthwork  or  filling,  and  s  for  that  of  masonry,  and  substitute 


/'X 


c—fy.1 


for/'  in  the   equation  2  6rf/t +  *'/=; 2  rfA'/' +  /t'2/', 


we  get  2  hdsk  +  k'-fs  =  {k'-^  +  2  dk')  X  »g  +  (s     »)/'  ^^^  ^  ^^^^^^1 

equation  of  equal  stability  between  buttress  and  aontrefort,  by  which 
we  may  with  ease  determine  any  of  the  dimensions  by  having  the 
others  given,  as  none  of  the  quantities  rise  higher  than  the  second 

power.     The  quantity  — ^ is  the  height  of  a  prism  of  masonry 

equal  in  weight  to  a  prism  of  clay  whose  height  is  c  — /.  This  prism 
acts  with  the  clay  or  filling  in  moving  out  the  wall,  and  also,  from  its 
weight  on  the  cnntrefort,  gives  the  latter  greater  stability.  This 
double  action  often  seiiarates  the  contrefort  from  the  main  wall  when 
both  are  not  well  bonded  into  each  other. 

Having  pointed  out  the  method  of  taking  the  weight  over  K  G, 
Fig.  5  into  account,  where  considered  necessary,  we  will  neglect  it  in 
the  examples  to  the  following  problem,  though  the  formulae  are  general 

2c+/' 
by  substituting  — ——  for/'. 
o 

Problem  X. 

To  find  the  dimensions  of  a  coffer-dam.  Fig.  G,  sufficient  to  resist 
the  pressure  of  a  given  depth  of  water. 

By  observing  the  same  notation  as  in  the  former  problems,  we  get 
from  the  principles  of  the  lever, 

*/A-'  +  (k  +  d  +  '^)  +shdx  (A  +  |)  +  sfkxl  "  -^^  ^'3 
for  the  equation  of  equilibrium,  and  by  reduction  we  find  2  k  k'/'-{- 

IOC    «3 

2  k'f  d  +  k'-f  -\-2kdb  +  bd'--]-fk-:=  i^  =  m  c'  by  putting 

125 
in  =  -5—.     From  this  equation  we  find 

,.  ,  2k'f'  +  '2.kh           me—'xkvf—yf'—k-'f 
a-  -Y         ^         Ad „_ ; 


Fit,',  (i. 


A  B  =  rf 
B  H  =  A 
CE  =  c 


IH=/' 
H  D^* 
FE  =  *' 


KE=/. 


/t2  J_  2&rf-t-2/^'/'     _  m e  —  2/ d V  — /'  V  —  bd- 
f  "  / 


and  X-2  -f  (2  (i  +  2  /^)  k'  = 


ne  —  2bdk—fk-—bd- 
f 


From  these  equations  we  find,  by  quadratics,  the  following  general 
values  for  d,  k  and  k'. 

d  ^         fme-%k  k'f^'W^flc  ^  ^f  +  ^fcV:_  k'f  +  k  b  ^^^^ 

j,^      /liK^2df'k'~f'k"—bd-      bd+yy^     M-fA-/'^,, 
V  /  "^  —7—1      "~7=~(^*- 

^,__        /mc'  —  2  bdk  —fie  —  bd- 


/' 


+  rf+7l=  —  3.  —  k 


(3). 


When  f^=f',  as  is  generally  the  case  in  practice,  we  get  by  a 
simple  reduction. 


'=\/'^^ 


■fy-ik+k'^)  ,  *'/+ 


+ 


Jl^= 


k'f+kb 


(4). 


/mc^  —  (2  rfA  -^  A-a)/—  bd  -         ba  +  k'f] 
V  ft  +6 


bd  +  k'f 


k'-- 


■{b—f)XSdZ±^dk) 


■d  —  k 


(5). 


(6). 


from  which  equations,  by  having  any  two  of  the  widths  a,  k,  and  k' 
given,  the  other  may  be  found. 

Example  1. — Required  the  width  of  the  main  dam  in  Fig.  6,  the 
depth  of  the  water  to  be  resisted  being  30  feet,  and  the  other  dimen- 
sions as  follows,  viz./=/'  —  17  feet ;  A  =  7  feet ;  *'  =r  10  feet ;  and 
6  =  33  feet. 

By  equation  (4)  we  have 


^=a/" 


X  SO'— 17X  17= 


33 


I     10  X  17  -f  10  X  33"] 
33  I 


10  X 


17  -^  7  X  33  _  /12,500  —  4913        4oT|°         401  ^ 

~33  ~   '\/  33  33'  33 


t/229-9  +  147-6  =  12-2  =  V377-5  —  12-2  =  19-4  --  12-2  =  7-2  ft. 
which  nearly  corresponds  with  the  width  of  the  principal  dam  in  the 
coffer-dam  iissd  by  Telford^  for  bHilding  St.  Katherine's  docks,  the 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECrS  JOURNAL. 


S3 


other  dimensions  being  taken  from  the  transverse  section  given 
Journal,  page  433,  Vol.  II 


in  the 


Evample  2. — Other  dimensions  remaining  the  same  as  in  the  last 
Lample,  what  is  the  value  of  *  when  d  and  k'  are  each  equal  to  7  ft. 


exam 

From  equation  (5) 


/.■ 


=  V- 


12,500— 17x  (2X  17x  7  +  7=)  — 33x7^     7x33  +  7x171^ 


17 


7x33h  7x  17 
17 


V- 


.12500-2499-1617      350 


17 
350 


V'493-2  +  424-3  —  20-G  =  V/  917 


17  17  17    ~ 

■  20-G  =  30-3  —  -20-6  =  9-7  feet. 

E.i-ample  3. — Other  dimensions  remaining  the  same  as  those  in  ex- 
ample 1,  what  is  the  value  of  i'  when  d=  7  feet  and  *=  9  feet  ? 


From  equation  (6)  we  have  k'  =:  V 
IG 


12500  • 


16  X  (7=  +  126) 


—  9  =  V- 


12,500  —  2800 


17 


V- 


,9700 


17 


17 


■16=  v/ 570-6— 16 


23-9  -  16  =  7-9  feet. 


When/=/'  and  also  i=i',  we  find  from  equation  (4)  by  a  few  easy 
reductions 


d—^' 


m  c3        (6-y)AV         (/  +  6)  X  /' 


(')• 


6  6  6 

also  from  the  general  equation  of  equilibrium,  2A^/+  2k/d  +  h\f 

+  -2kdb  +  bd'-  x/i-2  =  OTC^  =  4A=/+  2h/d  +  2hdb  +  bd^,  from 

bd- 

,  and  by  quadratics, 


,  .  ,     ,      bd  +  db          mc 
which  /i-  + —  k  = 


2/ 


4/ 


'-^Tf  +        47 — 


(i     f)d 
4/ 


(8). 


Example  4. — Required  the  width  of  the  main  dam  in  fig.  6,  the 
depth  of  water  being  30  feet,  and  the  other  dimensions  as  follows,  viz. 
t'=*=8  feet,/=/'=  15  feet,  and  6  =  34  feet. 


,12,500    ,    (34 
From  equation  (7)  a  ■=z  v    „        +  


15)11=         (34  +  15)  8 


34 


34 


1'2,500        23,104 


392 
34 


=  V367-7  +  20—1 1-5  =  V387-7 


—  11-5=  19-7  —  11-5  =  8-2  feet,  the  width  required. 

Example  5. — What  is  the  value  of  i=i'  when  the  depth  of  water 
is  27  feet/=  15  feet,  6  =  30  feet,  and  i=6  feet? 


From  equation  (8)  A  =:  V- 
9 


M  X  27'        30  —  15  X  6>        45  x  ' 


,91,125 
=  ^-600"   ^    4 


60  60 

4-5  =  V 15 1-9  +  2-2—  4-5  : 


60 
VIsFl 


—  4-5  =  12-4  —  45  =  7-9. 


Example  6. — What  width  shall  vpe  adopt  for  the  main  dam,  the 
depth  of  the  water  being  IS  feet,  when  /{•=  i'=  5  feet,/=/'=  12  feet, 
and  6  =  21  feet? 


d=^-- 


r=  18^         (21— 12)X5>         (21  +  12)  x  5 


21 


21 


21 


,2700 


2JJ25 
iTl 


165 
IT 


=  Vl28-6  +  4-6  — 7-9  =  V 133-2— 7-9 


=  3-6  feet,  the  width  required.  If  s  =  80Itjs.,  we  would  find  d  = 
4-3  feet ;  and  if  s  was  still  farther  reduced  to  GO  His.,  d  would  require 
to  be  increased  to  6-1  feet. 

It  appears  that  the  value  of  s  in  the  foregoing  formulae  greatly 
operates  on  the  result  in  finding  the  width  of  the  cofier-dam  under  its 
different  forms.  Unless  where  otherwise  mentioned  it  has  been  taken 
at  90  lbs.  in  the  examples  given,  but  this  value  may  be  much  reduced 
if  water  presses  under  the  dam,  and  the  reduction  will  be  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  the,  bottgin  surface  pressed  upon,  or  exposed  to  the 


action  of  the  water.  As  the  construction  of  some  forms  of  coffer-dams 
are  more  liable  to  admit  water  underneath  than  others,  s  may  proba- 
bly in  such  cases  have  to  be  reduced  so  low  as  60  lbs. 

The  dimensions  in  the  last  example  are  nearly  those  of  the  coffer- 
dam used  by  Simple  for  constructing  the  piers  of  Essex  Bridge,  in 
Dublin,  in  1753,  the  depth  of  water  varying  from  13  to  2l)  feet  along 
the  line  of  the  coffer-dam.  This  coffer-dam  deserves  particular  atten- 
tion as  being  probably  the  first  constructed  in  the  kingdom,  at  that 
time,  for  such  a  depth  of  water  ;  and  from  the  difficulties  the  engineer 
had  to  encounter  in  the  execution  of  the  work,  and  overcoming  one  of 
the  prejudices  of  the  time  then  supported  by  the  authority  of  a 
Labylye. 

Figs.  7  and  8  show  a  plan  and  section  of  the  coffer-dam  taken  fiom 
Semplt's  Treatise  of  Building  in  Wakr,  which  the  author  acknow- 
ledges to  have  taken  from  Belidor'i  Hydraulic  Architecture.     The 

Fig.  7. 


Tig.  8. 


piles  are  about  6  inches  square,  placed  at  4  feet  apart  along  the  line  of 
the  dam,  and  sheeted  along  the  inside  with,  apparently,  inch  boarding. 
B  high-water  mark,  A  low-water  mark,  D  bed  of  river,  C  C  occasional 
braces,  f,  g,  and  e,  auxiliary  braces,  and  P  pudling.  The  width  be- 
tween the  sheeting  from  out  to  out  is  15  feet,  and  the  main  dam  is  5 
feet  wide.  This  construction  is  however  far  inferior  to  that  of  con- 
tinuous sheet  piling  as  adopted  at  St.  Katherine's  Docks,  and  at  the 
New  Houses  of  Parliament ;  as  the  resistance,  offered  by  the  depth  of 
bed  penetrated  by  the  pileing,  is  trifling  in  the  former  plan  compared 
with  that  in  the  latter,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  quantity  of  timber 
employed  is  less  in  the  former. 

It  may  be  necessary  in  conclusion,  to  remark  that  the  depth  of  water 
ought  to  be  taken  from  the  surface  to  the  bottom  of  the  exposed  coffer- 
dam, inside  ;  for  though  that  depth  may  not  be  on  the  outside,  yet  the 
water  generally  forces  its  way  down  so  far ;  or  if  not,  forces  the  bed 
with  nearly  an  equivalent  pressure  against  the  coffer-dam. 


Ancient  Greek  Mwuiseript.— An  important  discovery  has  been  made  by  M. 
Didron,  during  his  recent  archaeological  tour  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  of  a 
Greek  manuscript,  about  900  years  old,  containing  a  complete  code  of  reli- 
gious monumental  paintings.  This  document,  found  at  Mount  Athos,  gives 
lull  instru  tions  concerning  all  the  subjects  and  persons  that  ought  to  be 
painted  in  chnrclies,  with  the  age,  costume,  and  attributes  that  each  fi.gure 
ought  to  have.  A  copy  of  this  manuscript  is  making  at  Mount  Athos  \villi 
the  greatest  care.  Another  mrinuscript,  containing  a  similar  code  on  religious 
architecture,  is  believed  by  M.  Didron  to  c.-dst  at  Adrianople,  and  he  has 
some  hopes  of  obtaining  it. — French  paper. 

M  2 


84 


THE  CIVIL  EN(JINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


LONDON  AND  WESTMINSTER  BANK. 

WITH   AN   ENGRAVING,   PLATE   \1II. 

'CiiK  !ircoinp;inving  Piigraving  originally  appeared  in  tlio  AHnn,  from 
nliicli  alsowu  are  enabletl  to  give  the  following  description  of  tile 
building. 

Tliis  new  liKJlding  for  the  city  estahlisliment  of  tin'  London  and 
Wi-stininstrr  Bulk,  which  was  completed  in  the  latter  part  of  183s, 
under  the  joint  professional  superintendence  of  Mr.  (J.  U.  Cockerell 
and  Mr.  Williani  Tile,  architects,  is  situated  iuLothhury,  immediately 
opposite  to  Ihe  Himk  of  England.  The  whole  structure-  occupies  a 
site  of  nearly  eighty  feet  in  frontage,  and  ninety  in  <lepth.  The  en- 
trance front  possesses,  not  only  from  its  extent,  hut  from  its  architec- 
tural treatment,  a  bold  and  imposing  character.  It  displays,  indeed, 
no  ciilmnir.u- decorations,  no  hundredth  edition  of  an  apjuuvcd  portico; 
but  its  comjiosition  has  the  much  greater  merit  of  strict  appropriate- 
ness, simplicitv  in  general  forms;  such  simplicity,  w'c  mean,  as  con- 
duces to  unity",  together  with  a  jjerfect  expression  of  purpose ;  an  air 
of  solidity  and  strength,  and  a  judicious  erpudity  of  decoration.  The 
facade  consists  of  one  general  plane  or  face,  broke  only  by  an  advancing 
pier  at  each  end.  It  lias  seven  apertures  in  the  length,  and  three  tiers 
(d'lliem  in  the  height;  the  two  lower  tiers,  comprehending  the  open- 
ings on  the  ground  and  one-pair  lloors,  are  included  in  one  architectural 
slliry,  or  order,  if  such  it  may  he  called;  the  upper  tier,  which  con- 
sists of  the  windows  of  the  tvvo-pair  floor,  being  contained  in  an  attic 
story.  The  whole  of  the  front  is  of  Portland  stone,  w  ith  the  exception 
of  the  plinth,  which  is  from  the  Bramley-fall  quarries.  To  describe 
the  front  rather  more  in  detail,  we  may  state  that  the  substructure  is  a 
stylotjate,  or  continuous  pedestal,  resting  upon  a  deep  rock-faced 
plinth.  From  this  stylobate  rise  broad  pilasters,  or  rusticated  jiiers, 
in  courses  (if  alternate  widths;  the  whole  including,  as  we  have  said, 
two  tiers  (d'  openings,  and  snrmountcil  by  a  regular  entablature,  the 
cornice  of  which  is  enriched  with  luodillions.  Of  the  seven  compart- 
ments into  wliich  the  front  is  divided,  the  central  one  is  somewhat 
wider  than  the  rest,  and  displays,  on  the  ground  floor,  a  handsome  en- 
trance doorway  of  large  proportions,  and  deeply  recessed,  approached 
nv  several  steps  externally,  and  having  the  flight  continued  within. 
The  remaining  intervals  aflbid  six  large  windows,  each  being  so  wide 
as  to  admit  oi  subdivision  by  two  niullious  and  a  transuni  of  cast  iron, 
of  elegant  design  and  novel  structure  ;  the  isolated  niullion  partaking 
of  the  character  of  an  antique  candelabrum  at  the  base,  and  tinishing 
with  a  scroll  or  console  at  the  top  :  very  wide  and  lofty  Venetian  win- 
dows are  thus  obtained,  without  allecting  the  real  or  the  apparent 
solidity  of  the  fabric,  and  the  great  and  important  problem  (as  applied 
to  the  City  of  London),  namely,  to  obtain  the  largest  possible  admis- 
sion of  light,  with  the  smalles't  obstruction  of  solids  or  piers,  is  most 
etlcctually,  and,  at  the  same  time,  architecturally  attained.  These 
windows  are  fuinished  with  Bunnett  and  Corpe's  iron  shutters.  The 
•windows  abuve,  upon  the  one-pair  story,  are  narrower  than  the  former, 
and  conse(|uciitly  leave,  on  each  side  between  the  rusticated  piers,  in- 
tervals available  for  decoration:  these  are  sculptured  alternately  with 
cadueei,  the  invariable  commercial  symbol,  and  with  the  bundle  of 
slicks,  expressive  of  the  tvs  iinitafortiin;  so  appropriate  to  the  union, 
or  joint-stock  association,  of  this  establishment.  In  consequence  of 
the  advance  of  the  two  end  jucrs  in  the  princip;d  order  before-men- 
tioned, there  is  gained  in  front  of  the  attic  story,  whic  h  is  not  similarly 
broken,  sullicicnt  s])ace  for  the  display  of  two  statues  of  seated  female 
figures,  emblematical  of  the  commercial  interests  of  London  and  West- 
minster, and  having  shields  charged  respectively  with  the  arms  of 
those  cities;  a  mode  of  applying  statuary  to  tlie  purjioses  of  external 
decoration,  enlivening  and  appropriate  to  the  general  structure,  and 
etrective  as  regards  the  proper  development  of  the  subjects  themselves. 
These  figures  are  designed  (and  one  of  them— that  of  London — we 
understand  to  have  been  modelled)  by  Mr.  Cockerell,  and  executed  by 
Mr.  Nicholl. 

But  it  is  time  that  we  pass  to  the  notice  of  the  interior.  The  en- 
trance vestibule  or  avenue  has,  on  each  side,  a  line  of  four  plain  Doric 
columns,  with  appropriate  entablature  and  decorative  mouldings.  Its 
ellcct  is,  however,  unavoidably  impaired  by  the  interference  of  two 
pairs  of  screen  doors,  tliough  these  are  panelled  and  surrounded  with 
plate  glass,  to  obviate  the  objection  as  tar  as  possible.  Krcun  this 
anqde  vestibule,  access  is  gained  on  the  right  to  tlie  country  bank,  the 
jnincipal  staircase,  and  some  olficial  apartments  ;  and,  directly  in  front, 
to  the  ])riucipal,  or  town  bank.  The  latter  apartment  is  not  only  by 
far  the  most  considerable  in  the  buililiiig,  but  is  unequalled  in  import- 
ance by  anything  of  the  kind  in  London,  except  iu  the  case  of  some 
otlices  of  the  Bank  of  England,  and  in  altitude  it  exceeds  even  them. 
Its  general  form  is  a  square  of  about  37  feet,  whose  height  is  that  of 
the  entire  building — namely,  63  feet  G — and  is  extended  by  latera 


additions,  east  and  west,  to  a  portion  of  this  height.  These  additions 
or  aisles  are  divided  from  the  centre,  on  each  side,  by  an  arcade  of 
three  arclics,  springing  from  Doric  columns  of  the  same  size  and  order 
with  those  of  the  vestibule,  with  cornices.  The  columns  themselves, 
in  common  with  all  the  other  features  of  the  design,  display  a  sober 
and  subdued  stvie  of  decoration  or  enrichment,  being  fluteil  only  at  the 
upper  and  lower  extremities,  and  elevated  upon  plain  flat  plinths.  The 
surrounding  walls  are  channelled  in  rustic  courses  to  the  height  of  this 
order.  The  aisles  or  extensions  are  sufficiently  lofty,  by  tlie  arches 
raised  upon  the  columns,  to  allow  of  the  introduction  of  a  gallery  on 
each  side,  tinished  in  front  by  a  balustrade.  Above  this,  the  arches  of 
the  arcades  run  across  over  the  aisles,  and  are  intersected  by  a  con- 
trary vaulting,  producing  a  system  of  groins  as  ceilings  to  the  galleries; 
they  are  also  advanced  over  the  main  body  of  the  buililiiig,  and  treated 
as  a  series  of  half  groins,  so  as  to  afllird  support  to  an  upper  |iri>jectiug 
gallery,  which  passes  quite  round  the  principal  s<piare.  The  verge  uf 
this  upper  gallery  is  guarded  by  a  simple,  but  handsome  barrier,  coii- 
sisting  of  a  double  horizontal  rail,  sustained  at  intervals  by  ornaments 
of  scroll  foliage.  Over  this  gallery  the  lines  of  the  cubical  form  below 
are  continued  through,  and  gathered  up,  by  means  of  pendentives,  into 
a  domed  tigure,  exhibiting  nearly  that  portion  of  a  hemisphere  cut  oli' 
by  planes  raised  upon  the  sides  of  a  square  inscribed  within  its  cir- 
cumference. The  top  of  tills  dome  is  pierced  by  a  large  circular 
oiiening  for  a  skylight,  the  margin  of  which  is  covere<l,  and  addition- 
ally ornamented  with  mouldings  and  lions'  masks.  Light  is  also  ob- 
tained by  trijde  windows,  occupying  the  flat  semicircular  spaces  left 
by  the  pendentives  of  the  dome,  on  the  three  sides  which  are  exposed 
to  the  view  of  a  person  entering,  in  the  manner  of  the  imperial  Roman 
baths :  these  windows  are  filled  with  glass  in  geometrical  compart- 
ments, alternately  ground  and  ])olished.  Smaller  semicircular  windows 
are  introduced  likewise  in  the  three  arches  on  the  north  side,  which 
form  a  continuation  to  those  of  the  lateral  arcades,  so  that  a  very  sulli- 
cient  light  has  been  contrived  thronghout  this  vast  apartment,  sur- 
rounded as  it  is  with  lofty  and  close  buildings  on  all  sides.  .Such  is  a 
general  description  of  this  apartment,  the  composition  of  which  dis- 
plays considerable  novelty  of  adaptation,  magnitude  of  proportions, 
and  felicity  of  eft'ect.  The  general  forms  arc  very  happily  divcrsilicd, 
and  the  decorative  details  distributed  with  equality;  except,  indeed, 
that  the  eye  would  have  welcomed  the  application  of  some  enrichment 
to  the  large  expanse  of  the  dome,  which  is  left  entirely  plain.  The 
fittings  up  are  in  a  style  of  appropriate  completeness;  comprising 
handsomely  finished  and  extensive  ranges  of  counters;  a  massive  cen- 
tral stove,  of  consistent  design,  being  a  bee-hive,  round  which  the  arms 
of  London  and  Westminster,  and  the  guardian  of  British  commerce,  as 
well  as  of  govermeiit — the  lion — are  ranged  with  taste  and  propriety  ; 
an  hydraulic  apparatus,  by  which  plate  chests  and  cash  boxes  may  be 
lowered  into  the  basement  story  for  security,  or  brought  up  with  great 
facility,  and  other  minor  appurtenances. 


RAMBLES  BY  PHILOMUSJEUS.— No.  V. 

THE   BRITISH   MUSEUM. 

Aftkr  this  establishment  lias  been  partially  closed  for  months,  its 
directors  have  felt  themselves  compelled  to  show  the  public  that  at 
least  they  have  not  run  away  with  the  collections.  They  still  keep  the 
long  gallery  closed,  and  have  thrown  open  two  new  galleries,  in  which 
a  few  unnamed  articles  are  placed  in  undescribalile  confusion.  Wo 
have  seen  representations  id'  the  plunder  oi"  a  wreck  by  a  crowd  of 
savages,  one  with  a  pair  of  breeches  in  his  arms,  another  with  a  coat 
matted  round  Ills  waist,  running  from  one  package  to  another,  ran- 
sacking their  contents,  and  then  throwing  them  about  in  confusion^  and 
such  is  the  state  of  the  Museum.  Egyptian  coffins  in  one  place, 
Etruscan  tombs  in  another,  all  in  most  admirable  disorder,  the  passages 
choked  up,  the  rooms  encumbered,  and  packages  covered  with  the 
dust  of  months,  accusing  the  ineHiciency  of  the  officers  of  the  establish- 
ment. Nothing,  perhaps,  more  nearly  resembles  the  Spectator's  de- 
scription of  a  monkey  in  an  Egyptian  temple,  ranging  about  not 
knowing  what  to  do,  and  then  establishing  himself  in  a  corner.  That 
this  insliliitiiin  has  tlie  active  services  of  many  men  of  the  highest 
ability  we  fully  recognize ;  we  do  not  complain  that  there  are  not 
enough  men  of  talent,  we  only  call  for  the  ein])loyincnt  of  more  rou- 
tine-working men.  We  are  sure  there  are  numbers  of  young  men, 
sufficiently  qualified,  who,  for  a  small  remuneration,  and  many  indeed 
for  none  at  all,  who  would,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  officers, 
be  competent  to  ;\ssist  in  the  classification,  without  requiring  a  per« 
manent  employment  in  the  establishment.  We  know  that  tiiere  is  a 
great  want  of  room,  that  the  architegtural  department  is  sadly  cramped. 


^ 


M 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


85 


but  we  are  convincetl,  noUvithstancling,  tliat  there  is  ;\  want  of  energy 
on  tlie  part  of  the  ofTicers,  which  throws  the  business  into  arrear,  anil 
paralyses  the  wliole  operations. 

Tlio  Long  Gallery  has  now  been  closed  nearly  a  year,  and  the  pub- 
lic thus  shut  out  from  the  Portrait  Gallery,  the  geological  and  niine- 
r.ilogical  collections.  At  the  same  time  we  know  that  Dr.  Mantell's 
collection  of  nearl}'  thirty  thousand  specimens  has  been  purchased, 
and  ought  long  since  to  have  been  arranged.  The  Etruscan  collection 
has  remained  in  its  present  stale  during  the  whole  of  the  last  year, 
and  thus  has  it  been  rendered  totally  useless.  The  Egyptian  collection 
is,  on  the  lowest  estimaleT  two  years  in  arrear,  and  the  Vase  Room 
good  for  nothing.  As  to  the  mammalia,  their  condition  has  been  a 
subject  of  ridicule  many  years,  and  every  month,  by  increasing  the 
collection,  renders  the  absurdity  but  more  manifest.  The  managers 
of  this  department  certainly  deserve  the  highest  praise  for  their  com- 
pressive power,  in  which,  doubtless,  they  have  hardly  yet  met  with 
a  rival.  An  old  bachelor's  travelling  portmanteau  is  nothing  to  it; 
cats  crouching  under  lions,  deer  striding  over  wolves,  the  cases,  cram- 
med even  into  the  crevices  with  stuffed  animals,  show  a  crowd  of  im- 
prisoned and  confused  creaturesj  which  even  the  ark  of  Noah  could 
not  equal. 

With  regard  to  what  has  been  done,  it  has  been  little  indeed.  The 
arrangement  of  the  ^Egina  marbles  has  been  completed,  the  Fhidian 
and  Phigalian  Saloons  have  been  painted  of  a  red  granite  colour, 
which,  it  is  to  be  wislied,  may  be  continued  throughout  the  whole 
house.  The  collection  of  lish,  saurians,  and  batrachians,  has  been  ex- 
tended, and  the  insects  and  corallines  removed.  At  Paris,  a  much 
greater  number  of  entomological  specimens  is  exhibited  to  the  public, 
and  so  far  is  the  respect  even  for  vulgar  curiosity  carried,  that  tlie 
whole  of  the  papilionaceous  tribes  are  shown,  forming  a  sight  of  natu- 
ral beauty  which  is  well  calculated  to  strike  the  spectator  with  emo- 
tion. It  is  a  national  disgrace,  that,  ruling  over  one  hundred  and  forty 
millions  in  India,  we  have  no  good  collection  of  oriental  objects,  the 
illustration  of  our  own  antiquities  is  equally  defective,  and  nrany  de- 
partments flourishing  in  coimtries  of  less  resources,  are  here  totally 
neglected. 

As  to  the  catalogues  of  public  collections  in  this  country,  with  the 
exception  of  a  portion  of  that  of  the  British  Museum  relating  to 
natural  history,  they  are  miserably  defective,  and  inferior  to  what  is 
done  abroad.  The  catalogue  of  the  National  Gallery  is  a  gross  im- 
position, charging  one  shilling  for  a  book  which  contains  about  one 
jiennyvvorth  of  print  and  paper,  and  scarcely  one  farthing's  worth  of 
information.  The  catalogue  of  the  Louvre,  although  necessarily 
restricted,  gives  much  more  detail,  the  name  of  the  painter,  of  his 
master,  the  period  at  which  he  lived,  the  school  to  which  he  belonged, 
and  a  description  of  the  subject.  That  of  the  National  Gallery  gives 
tlie  name  of  the  painter,  ancl  the  date  of  his  birth,  and  only  the  name 
of  the  picture,  giving  such  references  to  the  people  as  to  a  story  in 
Tasso,  and  limiting  the  descriptive  matter  to  a  history  of  the  picture, 
which,  as  many  of  the  works  are  spurious  or  contemptible,  is  of  no 
value.  The  catalogue  of  the  antiipulies  in  the  Britisli  Museum  is  of 
no  use,  eilher  to  the  artist  or  the  public,  giving  the  name  of  the  st;due, 
and  barely  that!  No — a  Mithraic  sidijectl  Who  knows  what  that 
means,  or  who  can  tell  where  to  find  out.  The  catalogue  of  the  Paris 
Museum  of  Antiquities,  under  the  same  circumstances,  gives  a  page  or 
two  of  small  type  to  an  account  of  the  Mithraic  rites.  That  catalogue 
gives,  in  every  case,  the  name  of  the  subject,  extent  of  iruitilalions  or 
restorations,  history,  stone  of  which  made,  height  and  breadth,  and  a 
fnl!  antiquarian  and  artistical  account,  with  reference  to  the  authorities 
of  any  peculiarity  to  be  observed  in  the  statue.  To  such  an  extent  is 
this  carried,  that  the  catalogue  is  a  complete  encyclopedia  of  Greek 
and  Roman  costume,  having  the  author's  name  attached  to  it,  and  in- 
valuable to  the  student. 

THE   PUBLIC    WALKS    OF   LONDON. 

Much  is  said  about  the  public  gardens  and  walks  of  Paris,  nothing  is 
said  of  those  of  London,  except  by  foreigners  whom  they  never  fail  to 
strike  with  admiration.  The  Tuileries,  the  Champs  Elysces,  the 
Luxemburg,  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  and  the  Quais  have  great  and  in- 
contestable merits,  they  possess  features  which  we  cannot  rival,  but 
those  of  London  again  are  unexcelled  in  their  own  department.  Each 
style  is  suited  to  its  respective  nation,  perhaps  it  is  a  consequence  of 
their  several  characters,  perhaps  a  cause.  We  see  at  once  the  French- 
man in  the  classic  statues,  in  the  ordonnanced  foliage,  the  imprisoned 
orange  trees,  and  the  straight  walks.  The  Englishman  seems  to  im- 
press his  own  character  in  the  grassy  slopes,  luxuriant  timber,  anti 
placid  waters  of  the  scenes  in  which  he  epitomizes  his  beloved  isle. 
The  Frenchman  knows  no  paradise  without  artifice,  the  Englishman 
none  without  nature,  the  American  hates  even  the  sight  of  a  tree. 
That  of  which  we  have  to  complain  is  neither  the  graiKie,ur  nor  extent 


of  our  public  walks,  but  their  unequal  distribution.  The  parks  were 
truly  named  the  lungs  of  the  metropolis,  they  are  so,  to  the  over- 
worked mechanic  they  are  receivers  from  which  he  obtains  fresh 
breath  to  carry  on  his  life-shortening  labours.  Yet  as  in  the  human 
being  if  we  had  an  unequal  distribution  of  the  respiratory  organs,  we 
should  find  an  atrophy  of  the  body,  so  in  the  immense  metropolis  an 
insufficient  provision  of  these  necessaries  of  life  causes  an  immense 
loss  of  human  existence.  The  southern  portions  of  the  metropolis 
between  Greenwich  and  Kew  are  miserably  unprovided,  but  it  is 
among  the  impoverished  population  of  the  east  that  the  want  is  felt  in 
all  its  severity.  So  great  indeed  is  the  difference  between  the  average 
value  of  life  in  the  east  and  the  west  of  the  metropolis,  that  whereas 
in  the  latter  it  is  2-1  per  cent.,  in  the  former  it  is  3-2,  and  in  White- 
chapel  it  is  so  low  that  one  female  in  twenty- four  dies  in  a  year,  an 
awful  mortality,  scarcely  perhaps  equalled  by  Portugal  or  any  other 
misgoverned  country. 

The  walks  of  London  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  public  and 
corporate,  antl  the  former  again  into  special  promenades  and  into 
thoroughfares  and  micellaneo\is  sites  used  for  this  purpose. 

Among  the  special  promenades  are  to  be  reckoned  .St.  James's  Park, 
collection  of  curious  birds,  military  monuments  and  music ;  Green 
Park  ;  Hyde  Park,  military  exercises  and  Kensington  Gardens,  mili- 
tary nuisic;  Regent's  Park  ;  Greenwich  Park  ;  Kew  Gardens;  Draper's 
Gardens,  Throgmorton-street ;  Artillery  Ground,  City  Road,  military 
nuisic ;  "Tower  Hill,  recently  planted ;  Lambeth  Walk ;  Cheyne  Walk, 
&c. 

Among  the  other  ]daces  used  for  walks  are  the  old  commons  and 
greens  as  Islington  and  Kennington;  Chelsea  Hospital ;  the  Cemeteries 
at  Kensall  Green,  Highgate  and  Norwood  ;  the  Docks,  &-. 

We  have  not  a  line  of  tjuais  as  at  Paris,  and  we  should  be  sorry  in- 
deed if  we  had,  but  we  have  points  on  the  river  allurding  unrivalled 
views  : — the  Dock  Wharfs,  Tower  W  liar  I,  Custom-house  YVIiarf,  Tem- 
ple Gardens,  Waterloo  Bridge,  the  Adclphi  Terrace,  Huugerford 
Stairs,  Millbank,  Cheyne  Walk,  the  Bishop's  Walk  tLambcthj,  and  the 
Terrace  of  Greenwich  Palace. 

Coming  to  the  second  class  walks  belonging  to  and  used  by  coui- 
inunities,  we  have  the  unrivalled  squares,  the  gardens  of  Lincoln's  Inn, 
Gray's  Inn,  the  Temple,  Charterhouse,  i&c. 

These  many  establishments  place  London  almost  without  a  rival  in 
the  provision  for  this  departiiient  of  public  health,  and  in  the  beauty 
of  many  of  the  establishments  and  their  accessaries,  as  well  as  in  the 
splendour  of  the  views  which  they  afford, — unique  prospects  of  one 
of  the  largest  cities  and  ports  in  the  world. 


GOVERNMENT  MEASURES  FOR  STEAM  VESSELS. 

It  was  with  regret  that  we  learned  that  on  the  first  day  of  the 
session  the  government  gave  notice  of  their  intention  to  bring  in  a  bill 
for  carrying  out  the  recommendations  of  the  Steam  Vessel  Inquiry 
Commission.  This  report  has  now  lieen  long  published,  and  so  far 
from  attracting  the  support  of  those  w  ho  have  examined  it,  it  has  ex- 
cited cither  open  hostility  or  silent  contempt.  We  had  occasion  on 
its  appearance  to  call  the  attention  of  our  readers  to  its  provisions,  we 
jiointed  oid  the  meanness  and  paltriness  of  the  means  by  which  it  was 
attempted  to  be  supported,  and  the  injurious  results  which  must  in- 
fallibly ensue  from  the  enactment  of  its  provisions.  A  case  of  grosser 
jobbery,  or  more  iniquitous  misrepresentation  than  is  presented  by  the 
report  was  never  hardly  brought  before  the  public.  Had  indeed  the 
necessity  of  inquiry  been  so  great  as  to  require  investigation  only  to 
ascertain  the  extent  of  injury,  a  case  would  at  once  exist  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  commission,  but  when  no  such  necessity  existed,  when 
no  evils  prominently  called  for  redress,  it  was  but  a  gross  mockery  of 
public  credulity,  and  an  arbitrary  exercise  of  delegated  power  to  in- 
vest men  of  whatever  standing  with  authority,  which  they  received  as 
it  were  with  permission  to  direct  for  their  own  personal  advantage. 
What  was  it  but  calling  on  the  commissioners  to  make  out  a  case  not 
only  to  justify  their  present  employment,  but  to  give  them  occupation 
for  the  future,  to  do  as  they  have  done  in  this  case,  to  use  every 
artifice  of  an  accuser  to  overwhelm  the  object  of  pursuit?  Has 
even  common  respect  been  paid  to  the  judgment  of  the  public,  com- 
mon justice  been  shown  to  the  victims  of  this  perseculion  ?  facts  of 
trivial  insignificance  have  been  overrated  and  overstated,  a  judicial 
investigation  has  resorted  to  absurdities  to  bolster  up  a  false  c.uise, 
popular  prejudices  have  been  appealed  to,  insufficient  and  untried 
examples  have  been  enforced  as  of  authority  and  example,  in  fine  the 
dignity  of  the  government  and  the  people  has  been  outraged,  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country  threatened,  and  the  vested  interests  of  property 
attacked.    And  for  what  purposes  but  the  grossest.'    To  furnish  new 


m 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


places  at  the  expense  (if  the  best  interests  of  the  country,  to  subject 
the  genius  of  its  inventors  and  llie  cliaracters  of  its  manufacturers  to 
an  inspection  more  servile  than  degrades  even  a  Frendi  police;  to 
stifle  ingenuity,  to  give  a  monopoly  to  ignorance  and  indolence,  to 
crip|>le  the  energies  of  the  nation,  and  in  striking  at  one  branch,  to 
prepare  a  chain  for  all. 

We  have  on  previous  occasions  exposed  the  misrepresentations  and 
fallacies  of  this  report  with  an  unsparing  hand,  and  therefore  refrain 
from  enforcing  on  our  readers  arguments,  of  the  truth  of  which  they 
are  well  persuaded.  We  may  observe  that  admitting  all  the  state- 
ments of  the  commissioners  to  their  fullest  extent,  they  are  but  argu- 
ing from  the  abuse  against  the  use,  they  are  seeking  to  upset  the  great 
jirinciples  of  English  administrations,  and  to  foist  in  foreign  degrada- 
tions; they  are  endeavouring  to  substitute  for  the  grand  principle  of 
jirotecting  the  mass  against  the  errors  of  a  few,  that  of  sacrificing  the 
whole  body  to  correct  trifling  abuses,  a  system  whicli  while  it  is  being 
abandoned  abroad,  is  endeavoured  for  the  first  time  to  be  introduced 
here.  Founding  their  claims  upon  untried  or  inefficient  precedents, 
they  call  for  powers  greater  than  even  these  examples  authorize,  and 
make  up  by  boldness  of  demand  for  the  weakness  of  their  cause.  They 
rely  upon  the  examples  of  the  United  States  and  of  France,  they  dare 
to  bring  forward  that  of  Belgium,  they  conceal  that  other  circumstances 
prevail  in  the  States,  that  the  lavi's  of  France  are  inefficient  and  unob- 
served, and  that  Belgium  has  no  vessels  for  which  to  legislate. 

This  measure  ought  not  to  be,  cannot  be,  carried  ;  its  results  are  too 
evidently  mischievous  to  allow  us  to  believe  that  the  parties  affected 
can  be  so  deaf  to  their  own  welfare  as  to  allow  it  to  be  carried  into 
cflect  witliout  resistance.  We  call  upon  them,  therefore,  to  unite,  to 
meet  together  and  concert  measures  for  the  defeat  of  a  project  so 
odious  and  so  ruinous  ;  it  is  only  by  union  that  this  can  be  eti'ected  ; 
it  is  thus  the  aggressions  of  government  have  been  successfully  resisted 
by  the  railways  and  other  interests.  We  earnestly  advise,  therefore, 
that  immediate  steps  should  be  taken  for  calling  a  meeting  of  the 
boat-builders,  engine-makers,  and  steam-boat  captains,  and  of  all  those 
who  have  property  embarked  in  this  large  and  increasing  branch  of 
the  sliipping  interests. 


THE  STATUE  OF  HUSKISSON. 
By  John  Gibson,  R.  A. 

[We  are  indebted  for  this  able  paper  to  the  kindness  of  our  eminent 
and  talented  correspondent  at  Rome,  whose  love  of  art  is  only  equalled 
by  bis  knowledge  of  it. — Editor.] 

We  have  much  pleasure  in  announcing  that  Mr.  Gibson  is  engaged 
in  executing  anotlier  statue  of  Huskisson,  which,  we  understand, 
is  to  be  placed  in  the  Custom-house,  at  Liverpool.  This  statue  differs 
in  some  respects  from  the  former  one  executed  some  time  ago,  in  as 
much  as  that,  the  attitude  is  difterent,  and  we  think  that  it  is  more 
dignified,  and  seems  to  breathe  the  true  Attic  spirit  of  a  great  orator, 
both  statues  however  partake  of  the  character  of  the  Demosthenes  of 
the  Vatican,  and  the  Aristides*  of  Naples.  The  latter  was  so  famous 
that  Demosthenes  accused  his  rival  Eschincs  of  imitating  if,  or  an 
antique  statue  that  resembled  the  Aristides,  by  folding  his  arm  in  his 
pallium  when  he  addressed  the  public  from  the  rostrum. 

As  the  former  statue  of  Huskisson  was  sacrificed  from  the  fact  of  its 
having  been  placed  in  a  temple  of  too  small  dimensiuns,  we  therefore 
shall  offer  a  few  observations,  lest  the  one  we  now  are  about  to  describe 
should  share  the  same  fate.  The  first  statue  was  com])Osed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  allow  of  its  being  seen  in  any  point  of  view,  and  it  ne- 
cessarily followed,  that  the  temple  should  have;  been  of  that  magnitude, 
to  have  enabled  a  spectator  to  have  encompassed  with  his  eye  the 
entire  figure  on  walking  at  a  sufficient  distance  aruiuul  if,  whereas  it 
was  found  necessary  to  ])lace  it  with  its  back  to  the  wall.  Thus  it  is 
that  the  skill  of  the  sculptor  displayed  in  the  com|)osition  has  been 
miserably  defeated  by  the  ignorance  of  the  architect;  in  consequence 
of  which  the  statue  can  only  be  seen  in  one  point  of  view,  and  that,  the 
most  unfavourable,  remaining  enshrined  in  stone,  hid  from  vulgar  eyes, 
like  the  oracle  of  Delphi.  The  height  of  the  statue  should  have  given 
the  architect  the  scale  of  jiroportions  for  his  tem|)le.  Arrian's  de- 
scription of  the  Pontus  Eurinus,  says  that  thestatues  anil  images  placed 
in  a  sacred  edifice  should  always  be  in  proportion  to  if,  as  being  a  part 
of  it.  "Quod  enim  ad  membra  sacrarum  Ecdium  etiam  status  earum 
atque  imagines  pertineant,  docet  nos  Arrianus  in  ipso  statim  invitio 
peripli  ponti  Euxini."  The  proportions  of  temples  with  regard  to 
the  statues  which  were  to  be  placed  in  them  was  strictly  observed  by 

*  From  some  very  recent  discoveries  wc  believe  that  this  statue  called 
Aristides,  is  Kschiues  himself, 


the  ancients.  The  Emperor  Adrian  objects  to  the  statues  of  Mercury 
and  Fhilesius  in  the  temple  of  Trapesuntia,  as  being  less  than  the 
just  proportions  which  the  temple  required.  "  Ibi  enim  Adrianum 
Imper:  certiorem  facit  Mercurii  ac  Philesii  statuas  in  Trapesuntiorum 
templo  minores  esse,  quam  pro  ipsius  templi  ratis  debeant."  Bad 
artists  place  small  statues  upon  large  pedestals,  thus  showing  their  own 
ignorance.  Vitruvius  says*  all  the  parts  of  a  sacred  edifice  must  agree 
in  each  single  part  with  the  general  height  of  the  whole. 

Trusting  this  second  statue  will  not  share  the  same  fate,  we  will 
now  proceed  to  describe  it.  The  statue,  like  the  first  one,  is  colossal, 
Huskisson  is  represented  standing  in  an  easy  and  dignified  attitude, 
the  right  leg  a  little  advanced,  his  arras  are  naked,  and  the  left  one  is 
raised  towards  his  face,  whilst  the  right  arm  hangs  by  his  side,  and  in 
the  hand  he  holds  a  scroll.  The  breast  is  naked,  while  the  drapery 
falls  within  a  short  distance  of  his  feet,  and  is  brought  over  the  left 
shoulder.  The  attitude  is  becoming  the  senatorial  dignity  of  a  great 
statesman,  and  is  at  once  quiet  and  impressive ;  from  the  stern  and 
meditative  air  it  might  be  almost  imagined  that  he  was  about  to  sum- 
mon up  to  his  bidding  all  the  resources  of  his  gigantic  mind,  and  that 
he  had  grown  a  colossus  in  power, — that  Demosthenic  eloquence  was 
about  to  burst  from  his  lips.  The  head  which  we  believe  is  a  faithful 
portrait,  has  all  the  artistical  attributes  which  are  indicative  of  genius, 
approaching  to  the  beau  ideal  of  a  philosopher,  the  expression  of  the 
face  is  severe,  and  the  features  are  vigorously  pronounced,  the  cold 
marble  is  made  to  breathe  with  a  soul,  nay  almost  with  human  intelli- 
gence. The  nude  is  true  to  nature,  yet  all  traces  of  mechanical  art 
and  vulgar  impurities  have  been  effaced  by  the  magic  touches  of  a 
chisel  directed  by  the  master  hand  of  another  Phidias,  it  has  made  the 
marble  start  into  immortal  life.  The  entire  figure  would  seem  to  have 
been  cast  in  that  mould  in  which  the  Greeks  were  wont  to  form  their 
heroes  and  their  gods.  The  drapery  is  consonant  with  the  subject, 
masterlike  in  style,  easy  and  flowing,  it  is  in  fact  the  Greek  pallium, 
consequently  classic,  and  hence  suitable  to  assist  at  the  apotheosis  of 
a  great  statesman.  Huskisson  like  another  Aristides,-!-  has  now  had  a 
statue  laised  to  his  memory  for  having  caused  by  bis  eloquence  the 
embellishment  of  that  city  which  gave  him  political  fame  during  life, 
and  immortality  after  death.  He  is  fortunate  too  in  having  for  his 
artist  a  fellow-citizen  so  distinguished.  In  the  drapery  of  Gibson's 
figure  we  find  that  it  is  disposed  with  judgment,  while  the  skill  shown 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  folds  gives  a  rich  effect,  and  the  harmony  of 
the  lines  serve  to  preserve  a  proper  balance  of  light  and  shade.  We 
-also  remark  that  the  angular  creases,  and  the  spirited  touches  of  the 
details  contribute  to  the  grand  ett'ect  of  the  whole.  To  arrange  ilrapery 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  branches  of  the  art,  sculpture  cannot  as  in  a 
painting,  imitate  the  nature  of  the  stuff,  and  give  the  various  shades 
of  colour  which  have  their  origin  from  the  reflection  of  light  and 
shade. 

Quatremere  de  Quincy  observes,  "  that  ancient  clothing  is  emjiloyed 
by  art,  not  as  ancient  but  as  natural,  not  because  it  was  adopted  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  but  because  no  other  can  be  employed  in  imita- 
tion;  and  further  not  even  so  much  because  it  is  accordant  with  the 
metaphorical  style,  as  because  the  modern  costume  is  anti-imitative. 
This  being  the  case,  the  interest  of  every  nation  requires  that  in  con- 
fiding to  the  sculptor  the  task  of  perpetuating  its  exploits,  and  its 
great  men,  it  should  watch  over  the  taste  and  the  style  of  imitation  in 
works,  which  while  they  inspire  respect  for  the  images  so  enshrined, 
may  bear  favourable  testimony  to  future  ages  of  the  period  at  which 
they  were  upraised." 

No  reasoning  can  be  stronger  than  this,  and  we  think  the  observa- 
tions of  the  above  cited  learned  author  irrefutable,  but  we  will  repeat 
that  the  modern  style  of  dress  is  wholly  inconsistent,  and  quite  un- 
worthy of  the  dignity  of  sculpture,  and  we  shall  find  that  whenever  it 
has  been  attempted,  whatsoever  might  have  been  the  style  of  dress 
of  the  period,  classic  taste  has  been  outraged  and  every  jjrinciple 
violated  which  is  the  characteristic  of  beauty  in  art.  The  object  of 
sculpture  is  not  to  give  an  individual  portrait  dressed  up  in  the  whim- 
sical or  the  ephemeral  fashion  of  a  day,  but  to  perpetuate  the  memory 
of  persons  by  investing  the  lasting  marble  with  the  attributes  of  that 
classic  style  of  art,  which  has  been  handed  down  to  us  by  those  whose 
works  yet  stand  omni]iotent,  and  have  outlived  the  wreck  of  time. 
Scul|itural  portraiture  in  fine  was  considered  by  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans as  a  convention,  at  once  allegorical  and  imaginary,  sometimes  it 
represented  the  metamorphosis  of  the  gods,  or  the  apotheoses  of 
princes,  warriors,  orators,  poets,  and  philosophers.     The  statues  of 


*  Vitnivius,  lib.  3,  cap.  3. 

f  ^^'hen  Smyrna  was  ilcstroyed  by  an  earthquake,  Aristides  wrote  a  letter 
so  pathetic  to  M.  Aurelius  that  he  ordered  the  city  tolje  immediately  rebuilt, 
fur  i\hich  intercession  a  statue  was  in  consequence  raised  to  the  orator. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


87 


Alexander,  Adrian  and  Antinous  are  naked,  and  wore  made  ideal  gods, 
they  like  the  statue  of  Pompey,  seem  to  have  a  mystic  life,  there  is  a 
very  language  in  those  cold,  stem,  and  colourless  stones,  which  breathes 
an  air  of  truth  and  creates  on  our  minds  more  interest  than  their  names 
in  tlie  pages  of  history.  The  statue  of  Napoleon,*  by  Canova,  is 
naked,  and  is  an  apotheosis;  it  is  confessedly,  grand,  imperial,  and 
collossal ;  it  has  immortalized  the  hero,  as  well  as  the  artist,  and  when 
we  consider  that  Canova  and  Gibson  were  the  first  to  set  so  good  an 
example  to  their  country,  we  must  say  that  their  statues  will  ever 
stand  pre-eminent  over  the  barbarous  objects  which  disfigure  some  of 
our  public  monuments. 

We  would  ask  is  there  a  person  capable  of  reflecting  who  has  paced 
the  vast  sculpture  gallery  at  Versailles,  and  not  smiled  at  the  absurd 
dresses  of  some  of  tlie  marble  effigies ;  in  days  gone  by  they  were  ad- 
mired, and  the  persons  they  represented  were  doubtless,  much  venerated, 
but  alas !  how  changed,  they  now  excite  our  contempt,  and  we  feel  in- 
clined to  laugh  outright  at  their  antiquated  costumes.  The  time  will 
come,  and  it  is  not  far  distant,  when  the  vagaries  of  our  sculptors  will 
share  the  same  fate,  and  become  also  objects  of  ridicule.  It  is  an 
opinion  held  by  some  artists  that  all  monuments  should  have  the  figures 
executed  in  the  style  of  dress  of  the  period  in  which  they  were  erected, 
but  we  feel  sorry  to  observe  that  it  is  only  interested  and  inferior 
artists  who  advocate  this  opinion,  and  it  is  because  they  find  that  to 
model  drapery  and  the  naked  proportions  is  excessively  difficult,  and 
often  beyond  their  capacity,  they  are  therefore  contented  to  please  the 
ignorant  multitude,  who  for  the  most  part,  like  the  cobbler  could  only 
criticise  the  sole  of  the  shoe  in  the  picture  of  Apelles,  for  which  reason 
persist  in  perpetuating  the  fame  of  our  generals  and  admirals  in  all 
the  glorious  absurdity  of  modem  tailory — epaulets  and  cocked  hats, 
boots  and  spurs.  Of  what  possible  consequence  can  it  be  to  us  that 
antiquarians  should  discover  in  after  times  that  pig-tails  were  com- 
monly worn  in  the  reign  of  George  the  Third  ?  and  moreover,  that  it 
was  a  most  singular  custom  with  their  ancestors  to  represent  great 
warriors  in  a  mutilated  state,  having  only  one  arm,  and  sometimes 
wooden  legs.  This  they  would  conjecture  was  done  to  bring  to  the 
recollection  of  the  public  that  they  had  lost  their  limbs  in  the  service 
of  their  country.  Lest  the  time  may  arrive  when  even  the  name  of  a 
Nelson  should  be  blotted  out  of  the  page  of  history,  we  would  recom- 
mend that  his  amputated  arm  be  placed  by  his  side,  to  convince  future 
ages  that  he  was  once  a  perfect  being,  and  furthermore  to  satisfy  the 
public  who  ever  crave  after  monstrosities,!"  the  arms  and  legs  of  his 
brave  comrades  might  be  piled  up  in  a  group  as  monumental  trophies 
of  their  valour !     Non  eadera  miraniur ! ! 

Felagrio. 

RoTne,  January  18,  1840. 


Side  View. 


DIOGENES'S   SELF-ACTING  GROUND-ROPE   APPARATUS, 

FOR   TAKING    UP   THE   ROPE. 

Front  View. 


*  This  fine  statue  of  Napoleon  is  in  the  possession  of  his  Grace  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  at  Apsley-house.— Ed. 

t  We  liavri  ilogmrilical  proofs  tliat  the  French  have  outyeneralleil  us  in 
sculptural  atrocities,  for  in  the  triumphal  arcli  of  Napoleon  at  Marseilles, 
there  are  poodle-Jogs,  and  a  whole  legion  of  amputated  urms  and  legs.^ 


REFERENCE  TO  THE  LETTERS. 

Claws  or  holder  for  the  rope. 

Bar  for  forcmg  open  the  claws,  in  order  to  liberate  the  rope,  or  pre- 
vious to  taking  hold  of  it. 

Lower  part  of  claw  s,  which  works  against  the  bar  B. 

Small  wheel  (ixcd  upon  fore  axle  of  carriage  to  elevate  the  fork. 

Lever  over  which  the  wheel  D  passes,  and  forces  it  down. 

Fork  fixed  on  the  same  axle  as  the  lever  just  mentioned  ;  but  by  being 
on  the  opposite  side,  it  is  raised  as  the  lever  is  depressed;  it  is 
pulled  down  again  by  a  spring  It  is  to  raise  the  rope  to  the  level 
of  the  claws  ;  were  the  claws  fixed  lower,  they  would  catch  against 
the  pullies.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  fork  is  not  raised  until 
the  claws  have  passed  it.  The  rope  is  liberated  hy  a  similar  bar, 
only  the  fork  for  lifting  up  the  rope  is  omitted. 


THE  EPICYCLOIDAL  STEAM  ENGINE. 

[We  have  given  this  communication  at  the  request  of  some  of  our 
readers,  although  it  is  not  new,  as  we  stated  in  our  notice  to  corres- 
pondents. The  motion  will  be  found  described  in  the  second  volume 
of  Gregory's  Mechanics,  and  the  author  there  states  that  it  was  intro- 
duced in  an  engine  erected  at  Bermondsey.  It  may  be  seen  as  we 
before  stated  at  the  Saw  Mills  in  the  Arsenal  at  Woolwich.] — Ed. 

Sir — I  am  happy  to  communicate  my  improvement Jon'^the  steam 
engine. 

In  all  engines  now  employed  the  motion  of  the  piston  rod  is  com- 
municated by  a  connecting  rod  to  the  crank.  This  rod,  by  the  nature 
of  the  motion  always  works  obliquely.  The  obliquity  of  action  is 
certainly  objectionable,  as  it  evidently  occasions  a  loss  of  power. 


88 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


Accordingly,  the  connecting  roil  is  always  made  as  long  as  may  be, 
within  limits  fixed  by  other  circumstances,  for  thereby  the  oliliquity  of 
its  action  is  diminished.  A  method  of  communicating  the  motion  of 
the  j)iston  to  the  crank,  without  loss  of  power  by  such  a  cause,  has 
therefore  been  a  (hsidiiatnin. 

The  fundamental  princiiile  of  my  contrivance  is,  that  the  epicycloid 
generated  by  any  point  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle  rolling  on  the 
interior  of  tlie  circumference  of  another  circle  of  twice  its  diameter, 
is  a  straight  line,  tlie  same  point  always  describing  the  same  straight 
line.  Tluis,  the  circle  A  B  F,  fig.  1,  rolling  on  the  circle  AC  A',  in 
the  above-mentioned  circumstances,  any  point,  A  in  it,  moves  up  and 
down  A  A',  a  diameter  of  the  larger  circle,  It  is  easily  inferred  too, 
that  the  centre  E,  of  the  inner  circle  describes  a  circle  EG,  of  equal 
radius  concentric  with  the  larger  circle  ;  so  tliat,  were  E  and  F  con- 
nected, the  connection  E  F  would  move  round  F,  in  the  manner  of  a 
crank. 


Now,  let  A  A'  and  A  F,  fig.  2,  be  tlie  primitive  diameters  of  two 
teethed  wheels,  in  which  the  teeth  of  the  larger  one  on  the  interior  of 
the  circumference,  and  those  of  the  smaller  on  its  exterior,  so  that  they 
may  run  into  each  other.  Let  G  be  the  extremity  of  a  shaft  concen- 
tric with  the  wheel  A  A',  and  carrying  a  crank  GE,  of  which  the  pin 
at  E  is  also  concentric  with  the  smidler  wheel  A  F.  Then,  when  G 
revolves,  it  carries  the  wheel  A  F  with  it,  which  runs  on  the  crank  |)in, 
its  teeth  at  the  same  time  taking  into  those  of  the  wheel  A  A',  and 
the  point  A  of  the  wheel  A  F  describing  the  path  A  A'.  Reversing 
the  mode  of  action,  suppose  the  large  wheel  to  be  fixed ;  then  if  the 
piston  rod  of  a  steam  cylinder  of  which  the  stroke  is  eciual  to  A  A',  be 
jointed  to  a  pin  standing  on  the  primitive  circumference  of  A  F  at  A, 
for  example,  the  machine,  with  a  fly  on  the  shaft  G,  will  work,  so  as 
that  this  shaft  will  have  a  continous  rotatory  motion. 

In  this  method  there  is  neither  connecting  rod  nor  parallel  motion. 
The  ))iston  rod  is  connected  immediately  with  the  pin  on  the  wheel 
A  F,  and  is  led  up  and  down  rectiliueally  by  the  very  nature  of  the  mo- 
tions. 

Now,  the  fact  that  no  special  parallel  motion  is  recpured,  proves 
that  none  of  the  power  is  wastefully  exerted.  To  be  more  minute, 
however,  suppose  the  crank  in  the  position  F  E',  fig.  2,  A'  A"  will  be 
the  ])iston  rod,  jointed  at  A"  to  the  wheel.  Producing  F  E  to  B,  this 
will  be  the  touching  point  of  the  two  circles.  Draw  A"  B,  A"E',  and 
drop  the  perpendicular  E'C  upon  A"  B.  Then  A"  E' B  must  he  con- 
sidered as  a  crooked  lever  of  the  second  kind,  in  which  B  is  the  ful- 
crum, and  E'  and  A"  respectively,  the  points  of  application  of  the 
resistance  and  power.  Now,  in  the  triangles  F  E'  A'',  A"  E'  B,  the 
angle  E'  F  A"+E'  A"  F  (or  2  E'  A"  F,  5. 1.  Euclid)  =2  right  angles— 
F  E'  A";  and  E'  A"  B  +  E'  B  A"  (or  2  E'  A"  B,  5.1.  Euclid)=2  right 
angles— A"  E'  B  (32.  1.  Euclid).  And  taking  the  half  sum  of  these 
ccpiations,  we  have  E  A  F+E  A  B  =2  right  angles— (F  E'  A"-|- A"  E"  B) 
=  1  right  angle,  that  is.  A"  B  is  perpendicular  to  A'  A'',  and  therefore, 
A"  B  is  the  leverage  of  the  power  acing  in  the  line  A'  A''.  C  B  is 
also  the  leverage  of  the  resistance  acting  in  the  line  E'  C ;  and  it  is 
easily  seen  that  A  B=2  C  B  ;  so  that,  as  this  demonstration  applies  in 
every  position  of  the  crank,  putting  the  angle  A"  F  B'  =  Z,  and  FB  = 
1,  we  conclude,  in  general,  that, 

1.  The  leverage  of  the  power       =sin.  Z  ; 

sin.  Z 

2.  resistance  =  — —  \ 

3.  The  line  of  action  on  the  crank  is  always  parallel  to  the  piston 
lod.  Now,  as  could  easily  be  proved,  by  this  mode  of  action,  namely, 
the  parallelism  of  the  impulse  on  the  crank,  the  whole  power  of  the 
piston  is  communicated  to  the  main  shaft ;  and  thus  is  my  object 
proved  to  be  attained. 

Besides  the  advantage  already  stated,  this  engine  possesses  two 
Others,  simplicity  of  construction,  anJ  smaliness  of  bv>lki    It  differs 


from  the  common  ones  in  this  also,  tliat  with  the  same  sweep  of  crank, 
it  has  twiiu>  the  length  of  stroke;  and  accordingly,  as  we  see  from  the 
above  two  fixed  conclusions,  the  leverage  of  the  power  is  twice  that 
of  the  resistance. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obliged  servant, 

Daniel  Clark. 
Glasgnw,  Dec.  19,  1S39. 


HOOPER'S  POST  OFFICE  LETTER  WEIGHTS. 

The  accompanying  engraving  represents  one  of  Hooper's  peculiar 
letter  balances,  the  merits  of  which  are  its  simplicity  and  accuracy  ;  a 
grain  in  ert'ect  would  turn  the  balance  either  way.  Although  numerous 
devices  have  been  inlreduced  for  this  purpose,  none  that  we  have 
seen  surpass  this  in  utility,  in  which  it  is  as  much  before  its  compe- 
titors, as  it  was  in  priority  of  introiluction, 


TilK  FITZWILLIAM  MU.SF,UAf. 

TiiF.  FitzwiUiam  Syndicate  have  reported  to  the  Simatc  : 

"  That  Mr.  Easevi  has  corliliea  to  the  Vicc-Clianci'Uov  that  Mr.  Baker  has 
cxcculeil  works  in  tlie  IjiiililiuH  of  the  FitzwiUiam  Museum  to  the  value  of 
£34,00(J  or  thereabouts  ;  and  Mr.  Basevi  has  tliereuiuin  retommended  that  a 
sum  of  £5.000  be  now  paid  to  Mr.  liaker  on  ncciiuiit  of  tlie  saul  works  in  ail- 
dilion  to  the  sum  of  £25,500  already  paid  to  liim  on  that  account. 

"  Tliat  although  the  above-mentioned  sum  of  £5,000 exceeds  the  instalment 
which  Mr.  Baker  is  at  present  entitled  to  demand  according  to  the  terms  of 
the  contract;  the  .Syndics,  under  the  cireumsttuires  stated  in  'Mr.  Basevi 's 
certificate  and  letter,  bcL'  leave  to  recommend  to  tlie  .Senate  that  the  Siiid 
sum  be  paid  to  Mr.  Baker,  provided  Ibat  be  is  willing  to  agree  .'hat  the 
balance  to  he  retained  by  the  Vice-t'hancellor  until  six  months  alter  Mr. 
Basevi  shall  have  duly  certified  the  entire  cimipletiun  of  the  works,  shall  ae- 
coiding  to  the  terms"  of  the  enntiaet,  bu  not  less  than  10  per  cent,  upon  the 
w  hole  amount  of  the  contract  ;  and  that  Mr.  Baker's  sureties  are  willing  to 
agree  thiit  the  payment  of  the  sum  of  £5,000,  as  above  proposed,  shall  not 
atlect  or  imiiair  their  present  liability  under  the  contract." 

The  .Syndics  further  recommend  ; 

"  That  Mr.  Basevi  be  authorized  to  order  the  execution  at  a  cost  not  ex- 
ceeding £1,000,  of  certain  works  at  the  FitzwiUiam  Museum  not  included  in 
Mr.  Baker's  contract  ;  it  being  advisable  that  such  works  should  be  completed 
previously  to  making  any  further  contracts  for  the  linishing  of  the  building. 
R.  T.VTHAM,  I'icc-Clmncellor. 

\V.  French.  O-  Peacock. 

G.  AirosLuc.  J.  H.vvii.ANn.  ^ 

J.  Graham.  H.  PHii.Port." 

At  the  Congregation  this  day,  a  Grace  will  be  oftcred  to  the  Senate  to 
confirm  the  above  Report. 


■  Mr.  Basevi's  certificatg  and  Utter  will  be  laid  on  the  Registrar's  table,— 
CmnbrUlge  Advertiser, 


1«40.] 


THE  Cn^L  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


89 


EXPLANATION  OF  SOME  TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED  IN 
STEAM  ENGINE  CALCULATIONS, 

WITH    REMARKS    ON   THE    CORNISH   QUESTION. 

Sir — The  full  and  satisfactory  account  you  liave  given  in  your 
February  number,  of  the  new  engine  at  the  East  London  Water-works, 
must  not  only  be  highly  interesting  to  those  of  your  readers  who  are 
attached  to  pursuits  connected  with  the  steam-engine,  but  also  to 
those  who  value  truth  for  its  own  sake,  inasmucli  as  it  will  very  soon 
settle  the  long-disputed  Cornish  question,  besides  being  of  the  greatest 
practical  importance  to  the  proprietor  of  mines  and  other  targe  works 
in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

It  now  appears  that  in  my  comparison  of  the  Cornish  and  Lancashire 
systems  in  your  number  for  January,  I  had,  as  indeed  I  wished  to  do, 
rather  over  than  under-rated  the  power  of  the  engine  above  referred 
to,  and  when  I  have  all  the  data  for  going  into  the  commercial  part  of 
the  question — the  comparative  expense — I  am  afraid  it  will  be  found 
that  the  advantage  of  the  Cornish  system  has  been  somewhat  more 
largely  overrated  by  others,  especially  with  reference  to  the  propriety 
of  adopting  that  system  in  cotton  factories.  At  any  rate,  when  the 
proper  corrections  are  made  in  my  table  of  comparative  duty,  from 
the  statement  you  have  furnished,  I  think  no  one  will  be  found  to  con- 
tend thjit/our,  five,  and  even  six  times  more  work  (as  has  been  often 
asserted)  is  performed  by  the  steam-engines  in  Cornwall  than  in  the 
north  of  England  for  the  same  quantity  of  fuel  of  like  quality.  Indeed, 
the  excessive  degree  of  perfection  hitherto  claimed  for  the  Cornish 
engine  is  much  to  be  regretted,  even  if  true,  as  it  carries  a  certain 
degree  of  aVjsurdity  on  the  face  of  it,  that  has  not  a  little  indisposed 
engineers  on  both  sides  of  the  question  to  a  fair  and  dispassionate 
inquiry.  With  a  view  to  expedite  the  settlement  of  the  most  im- 
portant parts  of  the  question,  and  prevent  that  divergence  from  the 
main  point  at  issue  which  is  liable  to  occur  with  tlie  best-intentioned 
disp\itants,  I  have  made  the  following  attempt  to  define  certain  tech- 
nical terms  which  prevail  in  this  district,  and  it  will  be  of  use,  per- 
haps, to  some  engineers  both  in  and  o\it  of  Cornwall.  I  am  also 
induced  to  submit  these  definitions  to  the  approval  of  your  readers, 
because  I  observe,  in  Mr.  Enys'  remarks  in  your  last  number,  a  few 
slight  misconceptions  of  my  meaning,  which,  together  with  perhaps 
a  want  of  strict  accuracy  of  application  in  some  of  the  expressions 
used  by  me,  have  led  that  gentleman  to  underrate  the  comparative 
duty  of  the  Lancashire  engine  ;  there  are  also  errors  in  his  statement 
that  go  to  the  disparagement  of  the  Cornish  system,  which  I  am  sure 
must  be  quite  obvious  to  that  gentleman,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  your 
readers,  on  the  slightest  reconsideration  of  the  subject — I  more  par- 
ticularly allude  to  the  concluding  portion  of  Mr.  Enys'  communication. 
No  guess  work  allowances  are  at  all  requisite  either  for  "vacuum 
imperfections"  or  engine  friction  and  resistance  in  my  estimate  of  the 
Lancashire  engine,  as  the  load  on  the  piston  of  10  His.  per  circular 
inch  was  not  the  calculated,  but  the  obserred,  steam  pressure  taken  by 
the  indicator,  as  I  distinctly  stated,  and  it  of  course  includes  the  fric- 
tion of  the  engine,  shafting,  &c.  The  average  steam  pressure  acting 
on  the  piston  of  the  pumping-engine,  was,  on  the  other  hand,  not  ob- 
served, but  calculated  to  be  10-l)5  lbs.  per  circular  inch,  which  would 
be  the  difference  of  pressure  between  one  side  of  the  piston  and  the 
other,  due  to  the  given  load  on  the  other  end  of  the  beam,  including 
of  course  a  small  allowance  for  the  friction  of  tlie  engine  itself,  as  was 
required  to  render  it  equivalent  to  the  indicator  pressure ;  but  no 
allowance  was  required  in  this  case,  any  more  than  in  the  othf  r,  fur 
"vacuum  imperfections."  I  purposely  chose  this  method  of  avoiding 
the  risk  of  making  erroneous  deductions  from  what  I  think  is  properly 
termed  the  "gross  horse  power,"  so  that  a  more  just  comparison  of 
the  two  systems  might  be  obtained.  Possibly  some  allowance  may  be 
required  for  pit-work  friction,  but  as  Mr.  Enys  seems  to  think  that 
nearly  equivalent  to  deficient  water  delivery,  the  omission  cannot 
make  much  difference. 

From  the  corrected  data  now  given  by  Mr.  Wicksteed,  it  appears 
that  the  load  in  the  shaft,  66,443  Bs.  must  be  reduced  for  the  leverage 
of  the  beam  in  the  proportion  of  10  ft.  3  in.  to  i1  ft.,  or  to  r)8,39S  tbs. 
and  this  sum,  jilus  an  allowance  for  friction,  is  the  gross  load  in  the 
cylinder,  instead  of  68,160  His.,  which  I  had  before  assumed  from  the 
data  then  furnished  to  nie.  The  jiroper  substitutions  corresponding 
to  this  correction  being  made  in  my  tatile  of  "  Comparative  Duty," 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  will  be  materially  altered  in  favour  of 
the  Lancashire  system. 

For  the  purpose  already  stated,  and  also  in  order  that  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  meaning  intended  to  be  conveyed  in  future,  when  com- 
paring the  power  or  economy  of  steam  engines,  it  seems  necessary 
that  some  teclmical  terms  commonly  used  by  engineers  and  others 
should  be  strictly  defined.    The  following  are  dehnitions  of  such  as 


are  used  in  reference  to  the  power  of  the  factory  or  cotton  mill  engine  ; 
and  I  trust  that  some  of  our  Cornish  friends  will  favo\u-  us  with  a  simi- 
lar elucidation  of  the  equivalent  terms  that  obtain  in  Cornwall,  such 
as  "  duty,  efficiency,  &c." 

The  "nominal  power"  is  what  an  engine  is  called  by  its  maker, 
and  Mr.  Watt's  standard,  it  is  w'ell  known,  was  that  due  to  an  eli'ective 
pressure  of  steam  in  the  cylinder  of  6  His.  per  circular  inch,  and  a 
speed  of  "220  ft.  a  minute  for  each  horse  power.  The  " gnms  power" 
is  the  total  power  exerted  by  the  steam  in  the  cylinder,  including  that 
required  to  work  the  engine  itself,  or  to  overcome  what  are  called  the 
friction  ami  resistances  of  the  engine,  and  is  ecjuivalent  to  the  whole 
force  of  the  steam  acting  on  the  piston  against  a  vacuum  more  or  less 
perfect;  or,  in  other  wiu'ds,  it  is  the  force  resulting  from  the  average 
difference  of  pressure  between  one  side  of  the  piston  and  the  other ; 
this  average  is  that  obtained  by  the  indicator,  and  it  is  in  general 
sufficiently  correct  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  indicator  pressure, 
it  will  be  observed  requires  no  correction  or  allowance  for  what  are 
called  vacuum  imperfections,  such  allow'ance  only  being  rei|uired 
when,  for  want  of  iuilicalur  experiinents,  the  steam  pressure  in  the 
cylinder  can  only  be  estimated  from  that  in  the  boiler.  The  "cffe-clive 
power"  is  the  total  power  exerted  l)y  the  engine,  or  delivered  at  the 
crank  shaft,  after  overcoming  its  own  friction.  This  friction,  of  course, 
not  only  incluiles  the  friction,  properly  so  called,  of  the  piston,  pump 
buckets,  stulfing  boxes,  &:c.,  as  well  as  all  the  bearing  parts  of  the 
engine,  but  it  also  includes  the  resistances  due  to  the  water  lifted  by 
the  engine  pumps,  and  is  a  quantity  that  varies  in  dill'ercnt  engines 
according  to  the  dilVerent  degrees  of  excellence  in  their  workmanshij), 
situation,  and  other  circumstances.  In  general  it  is  found  to  be  equal 
to  from  one  to  two  pounds  per  circular  inch  on  the  area  of  the  piston 
in  the  best  mo<lern  engines,  but  in  a  much  less  ratio  in  large  engines 
than  small  ones.  When  an  engine  can  be  unconnected  with  the  sliaft- 
ing,  its  own  friction  can  be  readily  ascertained  by  the  indicator;  this, 
however,  would  only  be  what  M.  Pambour  properly  calls  the  "unloaded 
friction,"  fur,  of  course,  the  friction  of  nearly  all  the  bearing  parts  of 
the  engine  uuist  increase  with  the  load  in  some  ratio  corresponding  to 
the  goodness  of  workmanship.  This  loaded  friction  is  variously  esti- 
mated by  different  engineers,  at  from  one  fifth  to  three  tenths  of  thi^_ 
gross  load ;  and  Tredgold  estimates  it  at  about  -23^^  of  tlu^  whole  of 
the  force  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler,  or  with  the  resistance  to  the  steam 
in  the  passages,  tlie  loss  of  power  by  cooling,  &c.,  included,  he  calls  it 
•368  of  that  force  (see  Tredgohl,  new  edition,  page  i;)6).  Although 
the  unloaded  fricti»ii  of  t\\e  engine,  when  the  speed  of  the  latter 
admits  of  being  easily  regulated,  is  capable  of  correct  ascertainment, 
as  I  have  already  stated,  yet  it  is  rarely  so  obtained  in  factory  engines 
separately  from  the  friction  of  the  shafting;  but  when  so  obtained  and 
deducted'  from  the  gross  power,  the  result  gives  a  certain  amount 
larger  than  the  real  effective  power,  by  so  much  as  the  loaded  exceeds 
the  unloadetl  friction  of  the  engine.  This  result  has  been  proposed 
to  Ijc  termed  the  "effective  indicated  power." 

The  "net  effective pontr,"  or  available  power  of  an  engine,  is  usually 
understood  to  be  the  power  delivered  at  the  machine  pulleys,  or  that 
which  is  eifective  or  available  in  turning  the  machinery,  exclusive  of 
that  required  to  turn  the  shafting,  the  straps,  and  the  loose  pulleys- 
The  friction  of  the  shafting,  when  ascertained  by  the  indicator,  (the 
machine  straps  being  thrown  on  the  loose  pulleys)  is  of  course  the  un- 
loaded friction,  and  as  in  the  case  of  the  unloadeil  engine  friction 
when  deducted  from  the  effective  power,  leaves  a  result  for  net 
effective  power  somewhat  greater  than  the  truth;  this  result,  however, 
has  been  proposed  to  be  denominated  the  "net  effective  indicated 
power."  This  last  is  what  is  meant  when  the  number  of  hoises 
power  required  to  turn  any  given  portion  of  uiachinery  is  said  to  be 
ascertained  by  the  indicator.  It  is  ahvavs  understooil  to  include  so 
much  of  the  friction  of  the  engine  and  shafting  as  is  due  to  the  in- 
creased load,  ami  is  comraonlv,  and  I  think  properly,  termed  the 
"  indicated  horse  power  of  the  metchinery:'  It  is  also  sometimes  called 
"  available  "  power,  but  evidently  without  due  consideration,  that  term 
being  only  strictly  applicable  wli'eu  used  to  signify  the  net  effective 
power,  and  which  may  be  ascertained  in  many  cases  independent  ol 
indicator  experiments. 

Should  it  meet  with  your  approbation,  I  shall  be  glad  to  furnish  you 
with  practical  illustrations  of  the  above  remai>ksby  indicatcn-,  diagrams, 
and  calculations  taken  from  engines  now  at  work  in  this  county,  pre- 
vious to  going  farther  into  the  consideration  of  the  question  of  thR 
economy  of  the  Cornish  system. 

I  am.  Sir, 
Manchester,  Your  obedient  servant, 

Fti.  nth,  1840  R.  Armstrong. 


N 


90 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


STEAM  APPARATUS. 

Sir — Having  had  my  attention  drawni  to  tlie  notice  of  my  lining  madiine 
in  your  Journal  of  this  month,  page  28,  and  conceiving  that  your  editorial 
remarks  is  calculated  to  \rithdraw  attention  from  it,  I  beg  to  trouble  you 
with  the  following  CNiilanatiou  : — 

The  application  of  steam  heat  to  the  purposes  of  drying  is  very  common, 
as  every  one  knows;  but,  in  aU  cases  that  I  am  acquainted  with,  its  direct 
application  is  fn  the  air  in  which  the  goods  intended  to  be  dried  are  exposed 
— that  is,  they  arc  hung  up  in  a  heated  air.  Ventilation  is  essentially  neces- 
sary in  everv' operation  of  drying;  but  the  ventilation  which  carries  otT  the 
moisture  evaporated  from  the  wet  goods,  carries  off  also,  a  portion  of  the 
heated  air  before  it  is  saturated  with  moisture.  There  is,  therefore,  a  waste 
of  caloric,  or  heat,  in  all  systems  of  diyiug  with  wliich  I  am  acquainted.  My 
object  has  been  to  avoid  this — to  prevent  any  particle  of  caloric  generated 
from  escaping  without  performing  its  duty.  The  mode  adopted  in  this  ma- 
chine, is  not  to  heat  the  air,  but  to  bang  the  drying  goods  close  to  the  pipes 
wliicb  generate  the  heat,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  shall  form  an  entire  sheet, 
clositiff  in  and  coverim/  the  pipes.  In  this  case  it  is  evident  that  no  heat  can 
escape  vithont  paasinff  tJtronffh  the  wet  (jnodft,  for  the  heat  is  on  one  side  only 
of  tlie  drying  material,  which  on  the  other  side  is  a  current  of  air  which 
carries  off  the  moisture  as  fast  as  it  is  expelled.  It  is  by  this  economy  of 
lieat  that  we  ai'e  enabled  to  dry  150  sheets  in  an  liour  in  the  small  machine 
at  Abingdon. 

The  principle  may  perhaps  be  better  understood  by  any  one  acquainted 
with  the  common  mode  of  (Irving  woollen  clothes  in  stoves.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  usual  length  of  a  piece  of  cloth  is  about  40  yards,  and  that 
the  rack  on  which  it  is  hung  in  a  stove  is  doubled  in  two  parallel  lines  6  or  7 
inches  apart,  to  avoid  an  extreme  length  of  building.  The  cloth  when  hung 
is  stretched  on  this  rack,  so  forming  a  double  line  with  an  interval  of  6  or  7 
iuches  ;  into  this  interval  or  between  the  doulde  rack,  pipes  are  introduced, 
the  top  of  the  interval  being  closed  by  a  piece  of  board  connecting  the  double 
rack. 

It  is  thus  clear  that  the  heat  generated  from  the  pipes  can  escape  only  by 
passing  through  the  cloth.  So  effectual  is  tliis  mode  found  in  the  extensive 
manufactories  of  Messrs.  Wilkins  and  Co.,  near  Bath,  that  a  cloth  which  used 
to  be  fom  hours  in  dr)'ing,  is  now  dried  in  three  quarters  of  an  hour,  wliile 
the  fuel  is  diminished  two  parts  out  of  three.  It  follows  also,  of  course,  that 
from  the  rapidity  of  the  changes,  one-fourth  of  the  space  formerly  required 
is  now  sufficient. 

As  applied  to  the  dicing  of  wool  the  same  advantage  is  discernable.  In 
this  case  the  i)ipes  are  laid  under  a  perforated  floor,  and  the  wool  so  disposed 
that  the  ascending  heat  may  pass  through  it.  By  this  means  two  rooms  are 
found  to  dry  more  than  was  formerly  done  in  six. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

James  Wapshare. 

1,  Great  Bedford  Street,  Bath. 
January  29,  1840. 


A  PARISH  CHURCH  BURIED  IN  THE  SAND  FOR  700  YEARS. 
LATELY  DISCOVERED. 

(From  the  Churchman.) 

Of  the  many  objects  to  which  the  attention  of  your  readers  is  drawn,  in 
the  various  departments  of  your  paper,  there  is  not  one  which  can  exceed  in 
interest  the  following  account  of  the  church  of  Perranzabuloe,  or  St.  Peran, 
in  the  hundred  of  Pydar,  in  the  county  of  Cornwall.  For  more  than  seven 
Inuulrcd  years  it  had  been  imbedded  in  the  sand,  from  which  it  was  rescued, 
in  tlie  year  IS.I.'i.by  the  persevering  exertions  of  a  private  gentleman,  Wil- 
liam Mitchell,  Esq.,  of  Comprcgny  near  Truro  ;  and  there  are  many  conside- 
rations which  remlera  description  of  the  church,  in  the  state  in  which  it  was 
found,  very  o))portuue  and  seasonable  at  this  moment ;  for  its  jiresent  state 
affords  presumptive  and  internal  evidence  of  the  fallacy  of  some  of  those  pre- 
tensions in  wliieli  the  nicmliers  of  the  Uoniisb  comnamion  indulge,  as  to  the 
antiquity  of  tlie  cliiireli,  and  the  pomp  and  splendour  of  tlieir  services.  It 
wouhl  be  no  ilidiciiU  matter  to  prove,  by  authentic  documents,  tliat  the  first 
three  centuries  furnish  not  the  slightest  authority  for  those  pompous  cere- 
monies, and  those  pneiilc  observances  which  were  introduced,  and  wliich 
still  continue  to  outrage  the  simplicity  of  the  primitive  worship.  With 
respect  to  this  particular  church,  the  sand  has  been  accumulating  for  many 
hundred  years,  but  when  completely  removed,  the  church  was  found  in  the 


most  perfect  state;  and  it  is  a  very  singular  circumstance,  that  the  interior 
contained  none  of  the  modern  innovations  and  accompaniments  of  a  Romish 
place  of  worship,  from  wliich  the  evidence  is  clear  and  indisputable,  that  it 
must  have  been  built  at  a  period  anterior  to  the  introduction  of  the  numerous 
corruptions,  lic,  of  the  Papistical  communion,  and  gives  sanction  to  the  well 
authenticated  fact,  that,  in  the  first  three  or  four  centuries,  not  one  of  those 
l)uerilitles  and  observances,  borrowed  either  from  Pagan  idolatries  or  the 
Jewish  ritual,  were  known ;  for  the  truth  is,  what  we  see  in  Romish  places 
of  worship,  is  nothing  but  a  transfer  of  what  we  read  from  the  synagogues  of 
the  Jews,  or  the  temples  of  the  Pagans  ;  and  which  outvie  in  particular,  in 
splendour  and  magnificence,  the  sacerdotal  vestments  with  which  those  were 
apparelled  who  ofBciated  either  in  the  one  or  the  other.  The  whole  of  their 
service  is  an  appeal  more  to  the  external  sense,  than  an  address  to  the  under- 
standing and  the  affections.  There  was  no  rood  left  for  the  hanging  of  the 
host,  nor  the  vain  display  of  fabricated  relics,  no  latticed  confessional,  no 
sacring  bell  (a  bcU  rung  before  and  at  the  elevation  of  the  host,)  no  daubed 
and  decorated  images  of  the  Virgin  Marj'  or  of  Saints,  nothing  which  indi- 
cates the  unscriptural  adoration  of  the  water,  or  the  no  less  unscriptiual 
masses  for  the  dead.  The  most  dUigent  search  was  made  for  beads  and 
rosaries — pyxes  and  Agni  Dei — censers  and  crucifixes.  Strange  that  this 
ancient  church,  in  which  it  will  be  borne  in  mind,  everything  was  found  as 
perfect  as  at  the  time  in  which  it  was  first  imbeddeil,  should  so  belie  the 
constant  appeal  to  antiquity — to  the  faith  of  their  forefatliers — to  the  old 
religion,  as  it  is  falsely  termed,  as  if  that  were  religion  which  has  not  a  par- 
ticle of  the  simplicity  and  purity  of  the  primitive  church,  to  sanctify  and 
identify  it  as  a  branch  from  the  true  apostolical  tree!  At  the  eastern  end, 
in  a  plain,  unornamental  chancel,  stands  a  very  neat  but  simple  stone  altar, 
and  in  the  nave  of  the  church  are  stone  seats,  of  the  like  simple  construction, 
attached  to  the  western,  northern,  and  southern  walls.  With  such  humble 
accommodations  were  our  fathers,  who  worshipped  God,  in  simplicity  and 
truth,  content ! 

From  the  amiable  and  intelligent  historian  of  the  past  and  present  con- 
dition of  Perranzabuloe — the  Rev.  C.  T.  Collins  Trelawny,  a  descendant,  on 
the  maternal  side,  of  the  good  Bishop  Trelawny — a  name  of  which  he  may 
well  be  proud — one  of  the  seven  of  the  glorious  company  who  preferred  the 
gloom  of  a  prison  before  submission  to  the  mandates  of  an  arbitrary  papistical 
tyrant, — I  have  had  an  interesting  letter,  in  which,  in  answer  to  my  inquiry 
as  to  the  present  state  of  the  parish  cluuch,  he  informs  me  that  it  is  not  in  a 
condition  to  admit  of  its  being  used  for  any  purpose  whatsoever,  as  it  is 
already  again  entombed  in  the  sand !  It  was  with  extreme  regret  that  I 
received  tliis  communication ;  for  so  much  bad  my  interest  been  excited  by 
iMr.  Trelawny's  narrative,  which  is  beautiful  and  will  well  repay  many  a 
perusal,  that  I  was  on  the  point  of  fulfilling  arrangements  I  had  made  for  a 
sunnner  visit  to  the  venerated  spot ;  but  I  hope  that  the  same  enterprising 
spirit  l)y  which  it  was  five  years  since  resuscitated  as  it  were,  and  recalled 
into  being,  will  be  again  interposed  to  rescue  it  from  its  present  entombment, 
and  be  a  temple  yet  appropriated  to  the  serricc  of  the  living  God  !  1  know  not 
the  locaUties ;  but  who  in  such  a  w  isb  does  not  join  .'  and  where  is  the  man 
whose  piety  would  nut  grow  warm  as  he  worshipped  within  the  hallowed  pile 
of  Perranzabuloe,  as  much  as  it  would  within  the  mouldering  ruins  of  loua  ?  It 
may  not,  perhaps,  be  unimportant  and  uninteresting  to  add,  that  the  tutelar 
Saint  of  Cornwall  was  Peranus,  or  St.  Perrau,  after  whom  the  imbedded 
church  was  named,  and  that  the  memory  of  this  saint  is  still  cherished  with 
fond  veneration  by  the  people  of  Cornwall.  His  anmual  commemoration  is 
celebrated  on  the  '5th  of  March.  Christianity  was  first  preached  in  Cornwall 
by  Corantinus,  by  whom  the  whole  of  the  population  was  rescued  from 
Pagan  idolatry,  and  converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  at  the  end  of  the  third, 
and  at  the  commencement  of  the  fourth  century. 

J.\MES  RCDGE,  D.D. 

Ilau-kchurch  Rectory,  ISth  Dec.  1839. 


ARCHITECTURE  AT  HOME  AND  ABROAD. 

[M'e  select  tlie  following  remarks  on  arcliitecture  from  an  interesting  paper 
which  appeared  in  the  last  Foreign  Quarterly  Kevieii'.'] 

Owing  to  the  great  impulse  wliich  has  been  given  to  building,  since  the 
peace,  we  have  now,  throughout  the  country,  a  show  of  very  respectable  bits 
of  architecture — things  of  rather  ambiguous  or  negative  merit ; — Gothic  made 
neat,  Grecian  made  homely,  Italian  softened  down  to  insipidity.  In  art  our 
ambition  is  of  a  staid,  modest,  and  reasonable  kinil.  Among  all  our  recent 
works  we  have  few  of  monumental  character,  that  is,  such  as  testify  honour- 
ably to  the  power  and  taste  of  the  age  in  which  they  were  produced  :  scarcely 
any  thing  that  is  really  imposing  in  point  of  scale,  and  not  less  imposing  and 
dignified  in  style.  Our  classical  school  is  mechanically  correct,  frigid,  an 
mannered  :  we  must  not  look  to  it  for  genialty  of  conception,  masterly  origi- 
nality, or  happiness  of  invention.  What  beauties  it  gives  us  ai-e  almost  alto- 
gether borrowed ;— transcripts  of  good  originals  as  regards  individual  features, 
which  are,  however,  seldom  more  than  merely  put  together,  instead  of  being 
so  combined  as  to  produce  an  ensemble  with  one  and  the  same  spirit  pervad- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


91 


ing  every  pai-t,  a  kindred  feeling  dift'using  itself  throughout.  Omng  to  an 
unfortunate  Uttleness  and  feebleness  of  manner,  buildings  large  in  themselves 
do  not  make  an  impression  at  all  proportionate  to  their  size,  but  are  reduced 
to  the  minimum  of  elfect.  For  grandeur  and  majesty  of  aspect  Buckingham 
Palace  will  hardly  bear  comparison  with  that  lately  erected  at  Brunswick  ; 
and  which  though  by  no  means  unexceptionable,  proves  Ottmer  to  be  as 
superior  to  Nash,  as  Brunswick  is  inferior  to  Great  Britain.  What  the  former 
looks  like,  or  rather  does  not  look  like,  we  all  know  too  well ;  but  the  other 
has  a  princely  au'  that  bespeaks  the  residence  of  a  sovereign. 

Contrasts  of  this  kind  are  Ukely  to  pass  for  invidious,  more  es{)ecially  when 
they  happen  to  be  unfavourable  to  ourselves ;  yet  the  best  way  of  preventing 
such  is  by  taking  a  salutary  lesson  from  them  for  the  futiu'C,  and  endeavour- 
ing to  be  first  where  we  now  stand  almost  last.  If,  however,  only  to  show 
that  we  wish  to  be  impartial,  and  do  not  blindly  defer  to  the  authority  of 
names  and  reputations,  we  shall  here  bestow  some  notice  on  the  Konigsban, 
or  new  palace  at  Jlunidi,  numerous  plans  and  other  engravings  of  which  may 
be  seen  in  the  Bauzeitung  for  1837.  We  need  scarcely  disavow  any  prejudice 
agaiiKt  Klenze,  for  we  have  been  charged  with  being  much  too  favourably 
disposed  towards  hira  our  comments,  therefore  stand  a  chance  of  being  re- 
ceived as  free  from  bias  either  way. 

The  principal,  or  indeed,  only  facade,  namely,  that  forming  the  north  side 
of  the  Max-Josephs-Platz,  extends  in  a  perfectly  unbroken  line  for  the  length 
of  406  feet  (English).  It  is  G5  feet  high,  except  in  the  centre,  where  the 
height  is  increased  to  95  by  the  addition  of  another  order,  for  the  extent  of 
eleven  windows,  or  somewhat  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  front :  there 
being  twenty-one  windows  or  apertures  in  each  of  the  other  stories.  So  far 
there  are  the  elements  of  grandeur — length,  continuity,  loftiness ;  and  when 
we  add  to  these,  massiveness,  both  with  regard  to  the  relative  proportion  of 
solid  and  void,  and  that  arising  from  the  character  of  the  style  employedi 
namely,  the  older  Florentine,  it  wiU  be  taken  for  granted  that  it  is  not  at  all 
deficient  in  greatness  of  character  and  the  qualities  allied  to  it.  Nevertheless 
we  are  dissatislied,  less  for  what  it  is  than  for  what  it  is  not.  Scarcely  any 
pretension  whatever  is  made  to  originality  ;  the  whole  is  too  dii'ect  and  close 
an  imitation  of  the  Palazzo  Pitti;  the  character  also  is  palpably  borrowed  and 
assumed,  with  this  additional  drawback  of  being  altogether  exotic,  and  not 
at  all  in  unison  with  any  tiling  else.  As  a  monument,  the  oiiginal  is  a  highly 
interesting  and  impressive  work  of  architecture  ;  as  a  study,  most  valuable  ; 
as  a  model,  most  unfit, — that  is,  for  a  palace  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Re- 
com-se  might  have  been  had  to  the  same  style,  but  it  ought  we  conceive,  to 
have  been  differently  treated, — in  many  respects  considerably  modified  ;  and 
required  a  livelier  and  more  captivating  expression  imparted  to  it.  Instead 
of  this,  the  physiognomy  given  to  the  edifice  is  by  far  too  repulsive  and  stern: 
simplicity  has  been  carried  to  severity,  uniformity  pushed  to  monotony,  and 
to  the  exchision  of  play  or  contrast  of  any  kind.  Moreover,  its  close  general 
resemblance  to  the  Palazzo  Pitti  is  apt  to  provoke  a  disadvantageous  com- 
parison, because  after  all  it  falls  considerably  short  of  that  edifice  in  its  mass ; 
at  the  same  time  that  it  is  deficient  in  the  powerfid  contrast  produced  in  the 
other  by  the  greater  solidity  there  of  the  lower  pait.  We  do  not  approve  of 
architectural  duplicates,  more  especially  wlien  an  opportunity  offers  for  a 
masterly  and  original  production.  Such  opportunities  are  far  too  precious  to 
be  neghgently  thrown  away,  and  ought  to  be  turned  to  account  by  creating 
somctliiDg  that  shall  carry  art  onward,  and,  if  possible,  give  it  a  new  and 
invigorating  impulse. 

These  objections  are  no  way  diminished  when  we  discover  that  instead  of 
the  facade  preparing  us  for  the  interior,  it  is  quite  in  opposition  to  it ;  the 
decorations  tliroughout  the  latter,  both  architectural  and  pictorial,  being 
scrupulously,  not  to  say  affectedly,  Grecian,  both  in  style  and  character.  By 
Wiegmann,  Klenze  has  been  reproached  with  inconsistency  for  having  in  the 
Glyptotheca  employed  vaulted  ceiUngs  and  other  forms  of  Roman  architectiu-e 
witliin  a  building  externally  professing  to  be  piu-ely  Grecian : — this,  we  must 
say,  savoiurs  rather  of  hypercriticism.  But  in  the  case  before  us  there  is  a 
positive  clashing  of  opposites,  because  though  the  apartments  are  in  every 
other  respect  perfectly  Greek  in  style  and  taste,  their  circidar-headed  windows 
contradict  it,  and  disagreeably  remind  the  spectator  of  the  still  more  decided 
difference  between  the  taste  of  the  exterior  and  that  of  the  interior.  Tliis, 
however,  is  a  trivial  blemish  compared  with  one  vei-y  serious  and  pervading 
efect ;  namely,  that  of  the  plan  altogether,  which  so  far  from  presenting  any 
kind  of  beauty,  any  originality,  contrivance,  variety,  contrast,  or  play,  is  ex- 


ceedingly commonplace  and  monotonous,  and  is  inconvenient  withal  as  can 
well  be  imagined.  It  is  divided  on  each  floor  into  two  enfilades  of  rooms,  ail 
rectangidar,  either  square  or  oblong,  without  any  intermediate  communication, 
except  one  part  where  there  is  a  narrow  passage  for  domestics.  As  far  as 
arrangement  goes,  not  the  shghtest  attempt  has  been  made  at  effect.  Not 
only  are  the  principal  rooms  nearly  of  the  same  form,  but  nearly  all  of  the 
same  size,  and  so  cUsposed  as  to  occasion  inconvenience,  and  exclude  effect 
also.  This  will  hardly  be  disputed  when  we  say  that  the  centre  of  the  enfi- 
lade in  the  front  of  the  building  divides  into  a  series  of  small  rooms,  having 
only  a  single  window  each  ;  and  being  appropriated  as  the  king's  and  queen's 
bed-rooms,  dressing-rooms,  &c.,  entirely  cut  off  all  communication  between 
those  on  either  side  of  them.  Thus,  so  far  from  any  climax  being  produced, 
all  sort  of  focus  and  centralization  is  destroyed,  and  the  parts  are  disunited 
and  scattered.  In  fact  the  whole  of  this  floor  can  be  considered  as  consisting 
only  of  private  apartments,  notwithstanding  that  both  on  the  king's  and 
queen's  side  there  is  a  throne-room  preceded  by  two  or  three  ante-chambers. 
With  the  exception  of  the  rooms  at  either  extremity  of  the  front,  all  the 
others  must  be  inaccessible  to  those  whose  immediate  personal  attendance  on 
then-  majesties  does  not  give  thera  the  privilege  of  passing  and  repassing  as 
there  may  be  occasion  of  doing. 

We  will  not  be  quite  sure  that  fresco-painting,  when  employed  to  the  ex- 
tent which  it  is  throughout  Munich  palace,  is  altogether  the  very  best  mode 
of  decoration,  or  calculated  to  give  the  greatest  importance  to  the  architec- 
ture. For  particular  rooms  and  in  certain  situations,  it  may  be  suitable 
enough ;  but  it  is  hardly  so  for  sitting  rooms,  where  paintings  upon  such  a 
scale  are  apt  to  become  too  obstrusive,  and  by  their  subjects  forming  too 
harsh  a  contrast — sometimes  perhaps  almost  a  ludicrous  antithesis — to  the 
famiUar  details  of  social  life  :  the  opposition  becomes  that  of  poetry  to  prose. 
A  mere  picture  does  not  force  itself  so  conspicuously  upon  the  attention ;  it 
may  be  gazed  at  or  not,  studied  or  overlooked ;  but  paintings  which  consti- 
tute, so  to  say,  the  local  scenery  of  the  whole  space,  put  forth  a  too  du-ect 
claim  to  notice ;  and  though  they  may  be  interesting  to  the  casual  visitor, 
cease  to  make  so  much  impression  after  constant  famiharity.  A  great  deal 
may  certainly  be  said  on  both  sides ;  we  shall  therefore  only  observe  that  as 
decorations  for  the  walls  of  sitting  rooms,  sulijects  in  fresco  ought,  w'e  con- 
ceive, to  be  employed  with  some  reserve,  and  not  suffered  to  occupy  too  great 
a  space  of  surface.  In  tliis  opinion  we  are  borue  out  by  one  who  must  be 
admitted  a  competent  authority  on  the  subject,  and  who  has  not  scrupled  to 
question  the  propriety  of  some  of  the  most  noted  works  of  the  kind.  "  The 
fai--famed  Loggie  of  the  Vatican,"  says  Hessemer,  "  which  ever  since  they 
first  existed,  have  been  extolled  as  the  greatest  models  of  decoration,  are  in 
fact  not  decoration  at  all,  but  a  series  of  paintings  covering  the  surface  of 
both  walls  and  ceihngs.  As  a  whole  they  possess  no  architectural  character ; 
and  if  the  separate  pictures,  allegories,  &c.,  have  very  little  intimate  connec- 
tion with  each  other,  they  have,  as  such,  still  less  with  their  situation  and 
with  the  building  itself.  As  ottering  an  instance  of  the  greatest  contradiction 
between  locality  and  decoration,  may  be  mentioned  the  works  of  Giulio  Ro- 
mano in  the  Palazzo  del  TV  at  Mantua,  with  regard  to  the  pictorial  but  non- 
decorative  merits  of  which  I  forbear  to  make  any  fm-ther  comments." 

After  our  animadversions  upon  the  Konigsbau  we  can  hardly  be  charged 
with  being  indiscriminate  partisans  of  the  "  Bavarian  Ictinus ;"  nor  is  it  with- 
out concern  we  are  compelled  to  admit  that  the  talents  of  Klenze  have  not 
always  been  in  proportion  to  the  opportunity  aii'orded,  or  in  correspondence 
with  the  generous  ardour  of  his  royal  patron.  For  the  faults  we  have  pointed 
out  we  are  not  indebted  to  his  opponent  Wiegmann :  since  he  bestows  no 
notice  on  any  of  Klenze's  buildings,  except  merely  en  jjassanf,  with  brief  and 
general  censure,  and  without  entering  at  all  into  particular  criticism.  So  far 
his  pamphlet  has  disappointed  us,  for  though  the  title  makes  no  specific  pro- 
mise, we  did  expect  that,  whether  for  eulogy  or  the  reverse  it  w'oidd  fm'uish 
— if  not  a  biography,  yet  something  hke  an  account  of  the  architect's  profes- 
sional career.  Instead  of  this,  the  writer  confines  himself  almost  entirely  to 
the  consideration  of  Klenze's  principles  and  theory,  as  illustrated  in  his  col- 
lection of  designs  for  chmclies,  entitled  "  Christiche  Bauart."  Of  that  pro- 
duction we  cannot  trust  ourselves  to  speak,  not  having  the  volume  by  us  to 
refer  to,  nor  now  recollecting  more  of  it — after  a  single  inspection — than  that 
we  considered  the  designs  of  rather  mediocre  quahty,  and  betraying  a  want 
of  study.  The  specimens  there  given  of  Greek  architecture  as  applied  to  that 
class  of  buildings  appeared  to  us  by  no  means  happy  models,  nor  calculated 

N  2 


92 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  AllCHlTECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


to  iiiilnicl,  as  they  might  liave  done,  hail  the  motives  of  each  sulyect  heen 
cxjilaiiicii.     As  little  are  wc  able  to  say  whether  the  severity  of  Wiegmaun's 
rcinarks, — his  fastiiliousness  aiul  caiiliousiicss  arc  juslilieil  by  anything  he 
himself  has  done,  or  by  greater  snceess  attending  his  own  princiijlcs  ;  to  con- 
fess the  truth,  it  is  not  very  clear  to  us  what  the  latter  really  are,  or  what  at 
times  he  means  to  say.    AVe  may  however  venture  to  assert  that  several  of 
his  remarks  come  home  to  others  besides  Klenze,  and  who,  equally  bigottcd 
in  favour  of  Creek  architecture,  are  still  more  cold  and  pedantic  in  their  ap- 
plication  of  it ;  formal  copyists,  who  do  not  even  attempt  more  (hau  a  mere 
rcilection  of  (he  anti(pic,  and  that  only  in  particular  features;  and  while  cer- 
tain forms  arc  scrupulously  imitated,  fulcUty  as  to  the  genius  and  real  spirit 
of  the  style  affected  is  usually  lost, — perhaps  held  matter  of  no  account.  The 
consequence  is  that  the  things  so  produccil  arc  more  of  less  failures — neither 
anticpie  nor  modern — not  a  skilful  adaptation  of  both,  but  a  harsh  aiul  dis- 
agreeable conflict  of  ojjposing  elements  and  contradictory  ideas.     Little  does 
it  avail  for  an  architect  to  eiLhibit  the  most  perfect  Grecian  portico  or  colon- 
nade, if  lie  at  the  same  time  lets  us  see  that  he  has  trusted  to  that  alone  ; — 
that  so  far  from  being  a  necessary  portion  of  his  structiu-e,  it  is  a  mere  ad- 
junct which,  (hough  certainly  not  so  intended,  chiefly  forces  us  to  feel  its 
own  vast  superiority  over  all  the  rest ;  and  the  ditiiculty,  if  not  impossibility, 
of  making  that  which  ought  to  be  principle  harmonize  with,  or  even  seem 
worthy  of,  what  is  engrafted  upon  it.     Almost  invariably  do  architects  forget 
that  by  such  adoptions  they  tacitly  bind  themselves  to  raise  every  other  par* 
in  the  same  spirit,  and  to  display  such  powers  as  shall  excuse  their  ajipro- 
priating  the  merit  of  others  to  themselves,  by  making  it  truly  part  and  parcel 
of  their  ow n  work. 

Unless  this  last  can  be  efl'ected  with  ability,  the  antique  forms  will  seldom 
be  more  than  something  hung  aoout  a  modern  building, — extraneous  parts  ; — 
not  a  consistent  dress  in  which  the  whole  is  attired,  but  mere  trimmings  and 
appendages ;  iutcnilcd  to  jiass  for  arehitectmal  style,  but  oflcner  making  it 
all  the  more  manifest,  bow  deficient  the  building  itself  is  in  character,  and 
destitute  of  all  that  conduces  to  style.  Nay,  if,  on  the  one  hand,  columns  and 
other  Greek  decorations  display  the  great  superiority  uf  classical  taste,  on  the 
other,  they  lose  much  of  their  original  value  and  charm,  by  being  associated 
with  what  but  ill  accords  with  them.  Many  a  modern  soi-disaut  Greek 
building  reminds  us  of  Cicero's  witty  question  to  Lentulus  :  "  Who  has  tied 
you  to  that  great  sword  ?" — for  with  us  the  question  might  frequently  be  : 
MMio  has  tied  that  plain  and  insignificant  building  to  that  classical  portico  ? — 
It  also  generally  happens  that  such  feature  is  itself  impoverished,  iu  order 
that  the  contrast  betnesu  it  and  the  rest  may  not  be  too  riiliciUously  glar- 
ing. 

Diainctrically  opposed  to  KleiEC,  who  considers  Grecian  or  Greco-Roman 
architecture — for  he  docs  not  reject  the  Roman  arch — to  be  the  only  style 
.•ulaptcd  for  iniiNcrsal  aiqilieatiou,  AViegmanu  contends  that  the  ailhereuec,  or 
the  altcmpt  to  adhere,  to  pure  Greek  forms  iu  our  present  and  totally  dif- 
ferent system  of  construction,  is  no  better  than  pedantic  afl'ectation ;  and 
that  they  ought  no  longer  to  be  retained  by  us  as  models.  He  further  asserts 
that  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  a  permanent  and  unchangeable  style  in 
architecture,  and  that  the  endeavour  to  revive  at  the  present  day  any  by-gone 
blyle  whatever  is  an  absurdity,  aud  very  much  like  trying  to  force  a  stream 
to  flow  back  to  its  source.  According  to  him,  only  that  which  is  perfect 
matter  of  indili'erence  in  itself,  and  has  nothing  to  do  with  style,  can  be  in- 
discriminately adopted  as  suitable  to  all  limes  and  all  occasions.  In  this 
there  is  a  certain  degree  of  truth,  but  somewhat  of  perverscness  also  ;  for  a 
style  based  upon  (ircek  architecture  must  upon  the  whole  be  allow  e<l  to  run 
more  in  unison  with  modern  taste  generally,  and  prove  more  capable  of  ap- 
plication to  every  diversity  of  purpose,  than  any  other  wc  arc  acquainted  with. 
At  all  events  Wiegmann  himself  has  not  even  attc  nipled  to  point  out  how  we 
arc  to  extricate  ourselves  from  the  perplexities  of  his  doctrine.  He  is  not  one 
of  those  who  would  discard  Grecian  in  order  to  make  way  for  Gothic,  because 
lie  rejects  the  (Uic  just  as  much  as  the  other.  Neither  do  we  exactly  know- 
how  far  he  really  objects  to  the  Greek  style,  or  under  what  linutalions  he 
cinisiders  its  adoiitioii  allowable  or  even  beneficial.  That  he  admits  the  latter 
to  be  possililc,  is,  however,  apparent  from  the  commendations  he  bestows 
upon  Sehinkel,  observing : 

"  He  is  an  inspired  venerator  of  Grecian  art ;  but  instead  of  adhering  to  its 
''.xtcrnals  alone,— to  what  was  more  or  less  conventional  in  it,  and  arose  out 
^i  the  c.rcuwstances  of  the  timss  in  which  it  noiuishcd— he  has  actually 


penetrated  into  its  very  sjiirit,  and  iu  more  than  one  of  his  works  has  shown 
that  the  rationality  and  beauty  arising  out  of  construction, — which  stamps 
the  works  of  the  Greeks  as  superior  to  all  others,  may  be  made  to  ilisplay 
themselves  even  at  the  present  day ;  and  that  notwithstanding  the  great  dif- 
ference between  them  aud  the  structures  of  antiquity  in  regard  to  many  par- 
ticulars of  design,  such  works  partake  infinitely  more  of  the  same  spirit  than 
do  the  ill  understood  and  lifeless  imitations  of  which  Klenze  has  furnished  us 
so  many,"  viz.  in  his  Cbristbche  liaukunst. 

How  the  above  passage  can  be  very  well  reconciled  with  the  apparently 
uiKpialified  rejection  of  Greek  architecture  even  as  a  type  for  us  moderns,  is  a 
point  we  must  leave  to  Heir  Wiegmann  himself  to  explain.  In  admitting 
that  it  is  possible  to  catch  the  true  spirit  and  genius  of  Grecian  architecture, 
and  to  infuse  them  into  buildings  adapted  to  widely  different  purposes  from 
those  of  antiquity,  he  admits  that  all  we  ourselves  contend  for;  and  in  fact, 
so  far  advocates  the  very  coiu'se  we  ourselves  wotdd  uphold  ; — since  few  can 
be  more  strongly  ojiposed  than  ourselves  to  that  cold,  fonnal,  lifeless  imita- 
tion of  Greek  models,  which  amounts  to  nothing  more  than  the  most  servile 
and  tasteless  species  of  copying, — slavishly  correct  as  to  certain  particulars, 
but  egregioiisly  ineoirect — absolutely  lieenlious,  in  all  that  regarils  taste  and 
feeling.  We  ccrtauily  should  have  been  far  better  satisfied  had  Wiegniana 
explained  himself  so  fully  as  to  remove  all  apparent  contiailietions,  and  to 
leave  no  room  whatever  for  doubt ;  still  more,  had  he  confined  himself  more 
strictly  to  architecture,  instead  of  entering  into  vague  metaphysical  inqmries 
w  ith  regard  to  the  nature  and  power  of  art  generally,  while  he  is  so  brief  and 
obscure  in  regard  to  many  points  connected  with  the  former,  and  which  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  either  he  or  some  one  else  should  render  perfectly  clear. 
What  he  chiefly  proves  is,  not  that  Grecian  architecture  is  altogether  inappli- 
cable at  the  present  day — such  doctrine  being  wholly  at  variance  with  the 
very  high  commendation  bestowed  upon  Sehinkel  for  the  happiness  with 
which  he  has  in  many  instances  made  use  of  it ; — but  that  the  designs  in  the 
Christhehe  Baukunst  are  nearly  all  more  or  less  defective,  notwithstanding 
that  they  were  put  put  forth  as  models  for  the  instruction  of  others,  nor  was 
their  author  at  all  fettered  in  his  ideas  by  any  of  those  circnmstanees  which 
generally  interfere  in  the  case  of  actual  buildings.  After  all,  therefore,  the 
more  important  question  is  left  poised  in  equilibrium,  as  much  being  conceded 
on  one  hand  as  is  denied  on  the  other.  Very  little  notice,  again,  is  bestowed 
on  the  buildings  actually  erected  by  Klcnzc,  notwithstanding  that  many  of 
them— not  only  the  I'uiacotbeca  and  Neue  Residenz,  Init  Prince  MaximiUan's 
i'alace,  Kriegsmiuisteriimi,  Post  Office,  &c.,  are  almost  enturely  iu  the  Italiaa 
and  particularly  iu  the  Florentine  style  ;  yet  whether  the  Munich  arcliiteet's 
practice  is  on  that  account  to  be  considered  much  move  sound  than  liis  theory, 
we  are  not  ex|iUeitly  told,  but  left  to  guess  it  as  well  as  we  can.  Now  this 
inilistinctness  and  indecision  are  to  us  liighly  chsagreeable ;  If  Wiegmann 
thought  he  could  even  demolish  Kleuze  altogether  and  give  the  death-blow  to 
bis  theory  in  recommendation  of  Greek  architecture,  he  should  have  showa 
himself  more  in  earnest ;  and  instead  of  saying  a  ven*  great  deal  that  amounts 
to  nothing,  should  have  stuck  to  the  main  point,  and  there  battered  away. 
If  he  wishes  to  have  it  understood  that  Klenze  is  little  better  than  a  charlatan 
iu  art,  he  should  have  put — or  tried  to  put  the  fact  beyond  doubt, — should 
have  left  us  no  middle  comse,  but  have  cither  compelled  us  to  adopt,  or  called 
upon  us  to  refute  his  arguments. 

Wc  are,  indeed,  favoured  with  opinions  as  to  one  or  two  of  the  structures 
erected  by  Klenze  at  Munich  ;  yet  mere  opinions  are  very  ihtfereut  from  aigu- 
ment  and  criticism  :  they  may  be  correct  or  erroneous,  just  or  unjust,  but,  if 
received  at  all,  must  betaken  entirely  upon  trust,  at  least  by  those  who  have 
either  not  the  means,  or  else  not  the  ability,  judging  for  themselves.  Thus, 
Wiegmann  dispatches  the  Kiinigsbau  very  summarily,  caUing  it  a  "  verball- 
hornten  Pallast  Pitti;"  and  again,  condemns  the  Glyptotheca  as  an  unhappy 
combination  of  a  pure  Greek  temple  with  a  prison-like  mass  of  building.  If 
it  is  the  absence  of  windows  that  constitutes  the  prison-like  character  coiU/. 
plained  of,  the  same  conqiarison  may  be  extended  not  only  to  the  temples, 
but  almost  all  the  other  public  ecUliees  of  the  ancients,  that  are  remaining  . 
while  if  some  other  circumstance  produces  this  eft'eet,  it  might  not  have  been 
amiss  to  explain  it  to  us.  Is  Wiegmann  of  opinion  that  the  wings  of  the 
fai;adc  are  too  low  for  the  portico  ? — that,  instead  of  rising  above  the  rest, 
the  portico  would  have  appeared  more  of  a  piete  with  it,  if  merely  stuck  ou 
to  the  building,  and  made  to  jut  out  fi'om  it,  the  whole  front  being  kept  of 
the  same  height  throughout,^    U«'  docs  he  think  that  some  windows  boll* 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


93 


within  the  portico  and  on  each  side  of  it  would  have  iniinoved  the  wliole, — 
have  mitigated  tlie  too  temjile-like  character  of  the  one,  and  tlie  too  prison- 
like  aspect  of  the  other  ?  This  is  what  lie  does  not  care  to  inform  us ;  neither 
docs  he  afford  the  least  clue  as  to  what  he  considers  a  more  harmonious 
combination,  hy  referring  to  something  else  as  an  example  of  it.  Tlie  most 
therefore,  that  we  can  say  in  his  excuse  is,  tliat  he  is  kept  in  countenance  h 
a  great  many  others  who  seem  to  think  that  the  mere  expression  of  praise  or 
blame  is  sutBcient  for  architectural  criticism. 

This  last  remark  applies  far  more  strongly  than  we  could  wish  to  the  AU- 
gemeine  Bauzeitung,  where  of  the  various  IniikUngs  that  have  been  repre- 
sented and  described,  scarcely  one  has  had  any  comments  made  upon  it.  Yet 
this  suppression  of  criticism  can  hardly  have  been  occasioned  by  overstrained 
delicacy,  because  several  would  have  afforded  opportunity  for  descanting 
upon  the  merits  of  theii'  design.  Among  these  arc  the  liuclihiindler  Borse  at 
Leipsic,  erected  by  Geutebriich,  the  architect  of  t'lie  Augustcum,  1834-6  ;  and 
Dr.  Iliirtel's  house  in  the  same  city,  by  Waldeiuar  Ilcrrmaun  of  Dresden. 
Both  are  in  a  rich  Italian  style  ;  and  of  the  two  the  latter  has  somewhat  the 
superiority  as  to  extent  of  facade,  its  front  being  112  feet  (English),  in  lengthy 
while  that  of  the  other  is  108.  Besides  which  it  has  very  much  the  air  of  a 
public  building,  as  there  is  only  a  principal  floor  with  an  open  Corinthian 
loggia  of  five  intercolninns,  above  the  ground-floor  or  basement,  while  the 
loggia  itself  is  decorated  with  compartments  in  fresco.  As  far  as  style  and 
beauty  of  external  architecture  go,  there  is  scarcely  a  private  mansion  in  all 
London  that  can  compete  with  it,  certainly  not  one  of  recent  date  ;  for  even 
Sutherland  House  is  but  a  very  plain  and  frigi<l  piece  of  design  in  compari- 
son ;  and  both  Norfolk  House  in  St.  James's  Square,  and  Ikickingham  House  , 
Pall  Mall,  are  absolutely  homely.  To  say  the  truth,  it  may  fairly^challcnge 
almost  any  one  of  our  Clubliouses, — at  least  of  those  already  erected, — for 
we  must  not  as  yet  include  the  Reform  Club,  whose  facade  promises  to  eclipse 
all  its  neighbours.  M'e  call  attention  to  this  example  all  the  more,  because 
we  have  nothing  similar  at  home  :  on  the  contrary,  so  far  from  any  stimulus 
having  been  given  of  late  years  to  architectural  display  in  the  town  residences 
of  our  nobility  and  persons  of  fortune,  it  w  ould  rather  seem  that  the  trumpery 
show  and  flaring  tawdriness  of  the  Terraces  in  the  Regent's  I'avk,  and  other 
barrack-like  ranges  of  buildings  of  that  class,  have  brought  the  system  into 
disrepute ;  and  it  certainly  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  plain  and  perfectly 
unassuming  brick  fronts  of  houses  far  more  costly  and  spacious  than  those 
just  alluded  to,  have  a  far  more  aristocratic  look  than  the  others,  whose 
grandeur  is  nothing  more  than  overgrown  littleness,  and  meanness  tricked 
out  in  the  coarsest  finery  :  truly  they  may  be  described  as  the  very  Brumma- 
gem of  arcliitecture. 


PROCEEDINGS    OF   SCIENTIFIC    SOCIETIES. 


ROYAL  SOCIETY. 

Dec.  19. — Major  Sabine,  R.A.  V.l\,  in  the  chair-. 

A  paper  was  read,  entitled, 

"  An  Account  of  Experiments  made  vith  the  view  of  asccrlainivij  the  Pos- 
sibility of  obtainini/  a  Spar/i  before  the  Circuit  of  the  Voltaic  Battenj  is  Com- 
plefed,"'hy  J.  P.  Gassiot,  Esq. 

The  author  of  this  paper  adverts  to  the  fact,  of  a  spark  invariably  appear, 
ing  when  the  circuit  of  the  voltaic  battery  is  completed ;  an  eli'cct  which  Dr 
Faraday  has  shown  can  be  easily  produced,  even  with  a  single  series,  lie 
then  refers  to  the  experiments  of  Jfr.  Children,  Sir  llumiiliry  Davy,  and  Prof. 
Daiiiell,  recorded  iu  the  Pliilosophical  Transactions ;  in  which  experiments, 
when  more  powerful  and  extended  series  were  used,  the  spark  was  obtained 
before  contact  took  place.  In  order  to  ascertain,  not  only  the  fact  of  a  spark 
being  obtained,  but  also  the  distance  through  which  it  may  be  passed,  the 
author  had  an  instrument  prepared,  which  he  denominates  a  Micrometer 
Electrometer,  and  by  which  an  appreciable  space  of  one  five-thousandth  of  an 
inch  could  be  measured  with  great  accuracy.  He  dcscrilics  this  instrument ; 
and  relates  several  experiments  which  he  made  vitli  a  view  to  test  the  cor- 
rectness of  its  action.  He  first  prepared  160,  and  then  3'20  series  of  the  con- 
stant battery,  in  half-pint  porcelain  cells,  excited  with  solutions  of  sulphate 
of  copper  and  muriate  of  soda ;  but  although  the  effects,  after  the  contact 
had  been  completed,  were  exceedingly  brilliant,  not  the  sUghtest  spark  could 
be  obtained.  He  was  equally  unsuccessful  with  a  water  battery  of  150  .«cries, 
each  series  being  placed  in  a  quart  glass  vessel :  and  also  with  a  water  battery 
belonging  to  Prof.  Daniell,  consisting  of  1,020  series;  but  when  a  Leydcn 

tattery  of  nine  jars  >vas  intrgiluKetl  into  the  circuit  of  the  latter,  sparks  passsU 


to  the  extent,  in  one  instance,  of  six  five-thousandths  of  an  inch.  The  author 
mentions  his  having  been  present  at  the  experiment  of  Prof.  Daniell,  on  the 
16th  of  February,  183'J,  when  that  gentleman  had  70  scries  of  his  large  con- 
stant battery  in  action  ;  and  having  been  witness  of  the  powerful  eli'ects  ob- 
tained by  tills  apparatus,  he  was  induced  to  prepare  100  scries  of  precisely 
the  same  dimensions,  anil  similarly  placed:  but  although  this  powerful  appa- 
ratus was  used  under  e\ery  advantage,  and  the  other  cft'ects  produced  were 
iu  every  respect  in  accordance  with  the  extent  of  the  elements  employed, 
still  no  spark  could  be  obtained,  until  the  circuit  was  completed  ;  citeii  n  single 
fold  of  a  silk  handkerchief,  or  a  piece  of  dry  tissue  paper,  was  sufficient  to 
insulate  the  power  of  a  battery,  which,  after  the  circuit  had  been  once  com- 
pleted, fused  titanium,  and  heated  16  feet  4  inches  of  No.  20  platinum  wire. 
The  author  then  describes  a  series  of  experiments  made  with  induced  cur- 
rents. 1,220  iron  wires,  each  insulated  by  resin,  were  bent  into  the  form  of 
a  horse-shoe.  A  primary  wire  of  115  feet,  and  a  secondary  of  2,268  feet, 
were  wound  round  the  iron  wires.  With  this  arrangeiueut  he  obtained  a 
direct  spark  (through  the  secondary  current),  sufficient  to  pierce  paper,  to 
charge  a  Leydcn  jar,  &c.  Several  forms  of  apparatus  employed  by  the  author 
are  next  described,  and  also  a  series  of  10,000  of  Jacubone's  piles.  With 
this  arrangement  he  charged  a  ijcyden  battery  to  a  considerable  degree  of  in- 
tensity, and  obtained  direct  sparks  of  three-fiftieths  of  an  inch  in  length.  He 
ultimately  succeeded  in  obtaining  chemical  decompositions  of  a  solution  of 
iodine  and  potassium  :  the  iodine  appearing  at  the  end  composed  of  the  black 
oxide  of  manganese. 

Jan.  9. — J.  M'.  Lubbock,  Esq.,  V.P.  and  Treasurer,  in  the  chair. 

A  paper  was  read,  entitled, 

"  On  the  Const  met  ion  and  Use  of  Single  Jchromatic  Eye-Pieces,  and  their 
Superiority  to  the  Double  Eye-Piece  of  Huyyhens."  By  the  Kev.  J.  B.  Reade, 
M.A. 

The  author  obsen-es,  that  experience  has  shown  it  to  be  impracticable  to 
make  a  telescope  even  approach  to  aehroiuatism  by  employing  the  same 
oliject-glass  witli  an  astronomical,  as  with  a  tcrrcstial  eye-piece  ;  for  if  the 
focus  of  the  blue  rays  from  the  object-glass  be  tlu-own  forwards,  as  it  must 
be,  in  order  to  make  it  impinge  upon  the  focus  of  the  blue  rays  upon  the 
terrestrial  eye-glass,  then  there  will  be  produced  a  great  orer-correction  for 
the  astronomical  e>e-glass,  and  tiice  versa.  Hence  it  ajipcars  that  the  appli- 
cation of  lluygheuian  cyc-picces  to  refracting  telescopes  are  incom]iatible 
with  the  conditions  of  achromatism  throughout  the  entire  range  of  niagni- 
fyiug  power  :  and  that,  in  reflecting  telescopes,  they  arc  incompclcut  to  cor- 
rect dispersion,  because  tlncy  arc  not  iu  themselves  achromatic.  These  de- 
fects the  author  iirojioscs  wholly  to  obviate  by  sulistitutiiig,  for  the  lluyghe- 
uian eye-]iicces,  single  achromatic  lenses  of  corresponding  magnifying  jiowcr, 
consisting  of  the  well-known  combination  of  the  crown,  and  its  correcting 
flint  lens,  having  their  adjacent  surfaces  cemented  together  ;  thus  avoiding 
internal  reflections,  and  enabling  them  to  act  as  a  single  lens.  The  achro- 
matic eye-])ieces  which  he  uses  were  made  by  Messrs.  TuUy  &.  Ross,  and  are  , 
of  the  description  usually  termed  single  cemented  triples. 

"  Meteorological  Observations  made  between  October,  1837,  and  .Ijirit, 
1839,  at  Alten  in  Finmnrken.  By  Mr.  S.  H.  Thomas,  Chief  Mining  Agent 
at  the  Alten  Copper  Works ;  presented  by  J.  K.  Crowe,  Esq.,  H.  B  M.  Consul 
at  Finmaiken  ;  coniinnuieated  by  Major  E,  Sabine,  R.  A.  V.  P.  This  memoir 
consists  of  tables  of  daily  observations  on  the  barometer  and  thermometer, 
taken  at  9  a.m.,  2  p.m.,  and  9  r.M.,  with  remarks  on  the  state  of  the  weather 
at  Kaafjord,  in  lat.  69'  58'  3"  N.,  and  long.  23°  43'  10"  E.  of  Paris. 

J.  \\'hatmau,  Juu„  Esq.,  was  elected  a  Fellow. 


ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS. 

Jan.  20. — Edward  Bloue,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

A  paper  was  read, 

"  On  tlie  History  of  Cra'co-Uussian  Ecclesiastical  Architecture."  By  Ilerr 
Hallmann,  architect,  from  Hanover. 

Before  examining  the  existing  Russian  chmches,  the  author  thought  it 
necessary  to  take  a  hasty  glance  at  the  origin  and  history  of  Christianity  in 
Russia,  or  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  at  the  histoty  of  those  churches. 
One  of  the  first  Christians  in  Russia  was  the  Princess  Olga,  who  caused  her- 
self to  be  baptized  at  Constantinople  iu  the  year  964  ;  but  the  era  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Russia  did  not  eommcuce  before  the  reign  of  Vladimir  the  Great. 
The  fi'rst  church  which  he  caused  to  be  built  was  that  of  Cherson,  and,  a  year 
afterwards,  be  ordered  the  construction  of  the  Cbiu-ch  of  St.  Basil,  which 
was,  as  well  as  the  other,  of  wood.  He  sent  an  embassy  into  Italy,  Arabia, 
and  to  Constantinople,  to  exanime  the  various  rcUgions,  for  the  M'cstcrn  and 
Eastern  cluirches  were  already  separated  from  each  other ;  ami  rriuce  Vladi- 
mir, embracing  the  Greek  religion,  ordered  the  baptism  of  the  wliole  of  bis 
people,  and  was  the  first  to  coniniencc  destroying  the  ancient  idols.  Vladimir 
built  the  church  of  the  tithe  at  Kief;  and  it  is  said  that,  at  tlie  time  of  his 
death,  there  were  already  500  cluu-chcs  at  Kief.  Prince  Yaroslaf  turned  his 
attention  still  more  than  Vladimir  to  the  construction  of  religious  edifices  ; 
he  founded  the  churches  of  St.  Sopliia,  at  Kief,  and  another,  of  the  same 
name,  at  Novogorod :  — they  exist,  iu  part,  to  this  day.  He  also  erected  the 
convents  of  St.  George  and  St.  Irene.  In  1075  was  liuUt  the  celebrated  con- 
vent of  f  etchersky,  i)t  Kief,  since  wliich  time  the  Pu«iau  nietroiiglitaus  re- 


94 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


maiiicil  subordinate  to  the  metropolitans  of  Constantinople.  C'liristianity 
made  rai)id  progress ;  there  remained  an  uninterrupted  communieation  be- 
tween Constantinople  and  Kief,  and  various  marriages  between  the  two  reign- 
ing houses  of  the  two  countries  were  celebrated.  About  the  year  1121,  a 
great  tire  destroyed  COO  churches  and  monasteries.  In  the  civil  war  under 
Yisaslaf,  Kief  was  taken;  it  was  set  on  fire:  and  finally,  nearly  at  tlie  same 
time  that  Constantinople  was  taken  by  the  Venetians,  the  city  of  Kief  was 
ravaged  and  destroyed  a  second  time,  never  again  to  realize  its  former  splen- 
dour. Moscow  is  first  mentioned  in  the  year  1154,  and  at  that  time  it  was 
hut  a  miserable  village.  Daniel  of  Moscow  added  to  it  greatly;  and,  in  the 
year  1304,  under  John  Danielowitsh,  the  city  was  chosen  capital  of  the  em- 
pire, where,  on  the  4th  of  August,  1326,  was  laid  the  first  stone  of  the  church 
of  the  A55um])tion  of  the  Virgin,  in  the  Krimlin.  Under  Dimitri  Donskoi, 
the  palace  of  the  Krimlin,  until  then  of  wood,  was  erected  in  stone ;  and 
miller  the  reign  of  Basil  the  Blind  (1425-1402),  the  church  of  Russia  ceased 
to  be  dej)endant  on  that  of  Constantinojile,  after  the  taking  of  that  city  by 
Mahomet  II.  In  the  year  1487,  a  palace,  known  by  the  name  of  the  Granite 
I'alace  in  the  Krimlin,  was  built,  and  in  1499  the  Belvedere  I'alace.  Ivan  IV. 
did  much  for  the  arts  (1534-1584).  lie  likewise  renewed  the  laws  for  exactly 
imitating  the  ancient  painting  in  new  churches,  whence  the  reason  why  all 
the  paintings  are  so  much  alike  that  it  is  imjiossible  to  judge  of  the  epoch, 
but  they  may  be  regarded  as  a  sure  type  of  the  earliest  Christianity.  About 
the  year  1600  the  Tzar  Boris  caused  the  erection  of  the  magnificent  elock- 
tower,  Ivan  VaUki,  at  the  Krimlin ;  and  at  this  period  Moscow  reckoned 
400  cluirchcs,  of  which  35  were  at  the  KrimUn  alone.  From  the  time  of 
I'eter  the  Great,  and  particularly  at  Petersburg,  a  change  of  style  took  place, 
and  the  tj-pe  of  the  ancient  church  was  replaced  by  the  absurdities  of  the 
rococo. 

After  this  general  view  of  the  progress  of  Christian  art  in  Russia,  the  au- 
thor turned  to  the  consideration  of  the  Russian  church  itself,  and  for  this 
purpose  he  chose  for  liis  examination  the  cathedral  church  of  the  Assumption 
of  the  Virgin,  at  Moscow,  as  holding  the  middle  rank  amongst  the  existing 
churches,  both  as  to  form  and  time  of  eonstnietion.  (1326.)  The  plan  of  the 
church  forms  an  oblong  square  divided,  and  the  vaults  of  which  are  supported 
by  six  equal  columns  in  the  interior.  Upon  a  first  glance,  the  form  of  the 
Greek  cross  is  not  noticed,  but  it  is  indicated  by  the  arrangement  of  the 
cupolas.  The  more  ancient  churches  often  form  an  exact  square  preaeded 
by  a  porch,  but  here  the  porch  is  united  with  the  interior  of  the  church,  and 
the  arches  of  the  cupolas  are  placed  as  if  the  church  still  retained  the  primi- 
tive form.  The  six  columns  divide  the  church  into  four  jiarts  from  east  to 
west,  and  three  from  north  to  south.  On  the  eastern  side  are  seen  three 
apsides,  only  divided  by  the  width  of  a  pillar.  The  middle  apsis  is  bigger 
than  the  side  ones;  this  arrangement  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  Greek  chiu*ches, 
and  these  apsides  indicate  the  situation  of  three  altars,  which  are  met  with 
cveryvN'here  except  in  small  chapels.  The  altars  are  not  visible  to  the  public ; 
they  are  covered  or  concealed  by  the  iconostasis,  an  arrangement  peculiar  to 
the  Greek  church.  This  iconostasis  (or  image-bearer)  is  merely  a  kind  of 
colossal  skreen,  occujiying  the  whole  width  of  the  church,  thus  dividing  it 
into  two  different  parts.  The  iconostasis  has  three  doors,  a  priueiiial  one  in 
the  middle,  and  two  smaller  ones  on  each  side.  Behind  the  lateral  doors 
there  is  a  more  particular  distribution,  which  is,  that  on  each  side  stands  a 
second  little  iconostasis,  occupying  only  the  width  of  the  little  apsis,  but  the 
arrangement  of  which,  with  tlu'ee  doors  and  an  altar  behiml,  is  analogous  to 
the  great  one.  This  is  what  is  met  with  in  the  ancient  churehcs ;  in  the 
more  modern,  an  alteration  has  been  made,  so  that  at  the  farther  end  of  the 
edifice  are  seen,  upon  the  same  line,  three  different  distinct  iconostasis.  Be- 
tween the  princii>al  door  and  the  lateral  ones,  there  is,  in  front  of  the  iconos- 
tasis, on  each  side,  a  place  for  the  choristers.  Aliove  and  before  the  iconos- 
tasis always  rises  the  i)rincipal  cupola,  and  in  the  cathedral  churches,  at  the 
foot  of  the  ajjsis,  opi)Osite  the  iconostasis  which  sujtpcjrt  tlie  cupola,  are  seen 
on  the  left  a  baldachin  for  the  emperor,  and,  on  the  right,  another  for  the 
metropolitan.  As  to  the  situation  of  the  cupolas,  there  is  generally  one 
principal  cupola  in  the  midst  of  four  smaller  ones  which  surround  it,  and  the 
small  ones  are  nearly  always  at  the  four  angles  of  the  (ireek  cross.  In  every 
church,  the  iconostasis  is  the  principal  part,  which  ought  to  be  a  represen- 
tation of  the  celestial  empire  ;  it  is  eomjiosed  of  four  or  five  different  tiers, 
four  of  which  are  indispensable.  Each  tier  is  composed  of  an  unequal  num- 
ber of  jiictures  of  saints,  painted  on  tablets  or  long  scjuare  siu'faccs,  the  place 
of  whicli  is  rigorously  fixed.  On  the  first  tier  arc  the  three  doors;  the  mid- 
dle <loor  (in  two  foldings)  ought  to  be  ornamented  with  the  Annmieiation  of 
the  Virgin— tlie  Virgin  on  one  of  the  foldings,  and  the  Angel  on  the  other — 
accompanied  with  the  heads  or  emblems  of  the  four  evangelists ;  on  the  right 
of  the  door  is  the  effigy  of  Christ,  on  the  left  that  of  the  Madonna  ;  on  the 
right,  after  that  of  Christ,  is  placed  the  picture  of  the  saint  or  of  the  festival 
of  the  eliurch  :  then  come  the  little  doors  ah'cady  mentioned,  but  they  ought 
only  to  1)0  single  doors ;  above  the  little  doors  is  placed,  on  the  left,  the 
Greek  cross,  on  the  right  the  cross  of  Moses,  symbols  of  the  New  and  the 
Old  Testament.  Such  arc  the  indisjiensable  arrangements  of  the  first  tier. 
The  ground  of  the  whole  iconostasis  is  gilt.  On  the  second  tier,  in  tlie  mid- 
dle, is  Christ  on  a  throne ;  and  on  the  right  is  St.  John  the  Baptist ;  on  the 
left  the  Madonna  (without  the  child) :  after  that  appear,  on  each  side,  two 
archangels  and  six  apostles.  On  the  third  tier,  in  the  middle,  is  seated  the 
Madonna,  holding  the  infant  Jesus  on  her  knees  ;  on  each  side  of  her  are 
seen  the  eSigies  of  the  prophets.  On  the  fourth  tier  is  placed  God  the  Father, 
on  a  throne,  with  the  iufant  Jesus ;  oa  each  side  the  pictures  of  the  patriarchs 


of  the  church.  Sometimes  there  is  a  fifth  tier,  upon  which  are  seen  repre- 
sentations of  the  history  or  of  the  passion  of  the  Saviour.  The  other  parts 
of  the  church  are  ornamented  with  paintings  on  a  gold  ground.  The  forms 
of  the  exterior  are  very  siin])le ;  with  respect  to  the  upper  part  of  the  edifices 
the  adoption  is  nearly  general  of  the  oriental  manner  of  the  eleventh  ami 
twelfth  centuries — namely,  the  entire  rejection  of  the  horizontal  line  of  a 
cornice,  as  the  crowning  of  the  building  for  the  substitution  of  arched,  or 
pointedly  arched  forms — determining  the  extrados  of  the  vaults.  This  cy- 
lindrical covering  is  well  known  in  the  east,  and  is  even  to  be  seen  in  Italy 
at  tlie  present  day,  in  the  environs  of  Naples.  These  extrados  are  painted  in 
all  colours.  The  Russian  churches  derive  a  peculiar  aspect  from  the  cupolas 
which  rise  above  the  roof.  On  beginning  to  build  churches  in  the  eleventh 
century,  the  prevalent  manner  in  the  east  was  natiu'ally  imitated — that  is  to 
say,  such  cupolas  were  not  employed  as  are  seen,  for  example,  at  St.  Sophia 
at  Constantinople,  or  at  Venice,  but  such  as  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  churches 
of  those  times  in  Greece.  The  form  of  the  cupolas  themselves,  which  are 
generally  placed  on  an  octagonal  drum,  are  extremely  various,  some  having 
the  form  of  a  half  globe,  others  of  a  flat  onion,  a  bud,  or  a  long  pear,  &c. 

Mr.  llallmann  next  drew  a  parallel  between  the  Russian,  the  original 
Greek,  and  the  western  churches  w  liich  bear  traces  of  Greek  influenee.  The 
first  Christian  temples  under  Constantine  in  the  east,  and  even  at  Rome,  were 
eircidar  or  octagonal,  and  were  surmounted  by  a  single  dome  :  afterwards  the 
same  disposition  we  find  in  the  interior  of  the  chm-ehes,  with  few  variations, 
but  the  exterior  assumes  the  square  form,  as  in  the  church  of  Sergius  and 
Bacchus,  and  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople.  This  latter  church  already 
evinces  in  the  interior  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
basis  of  the  Russian  churches.  At  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  began  the 
difterence  of  dogmas  between  the  iconoclasts  and  iconolaters,  which  ended  in 
the  rupture  between  the  churches  of  the  east  and  the  west.  From  this  time, 
probably,  may  be  dated  the  custom  of  not  allowing  carved  images  or  statues 
in  Greek  churches,  except  statues  of  angels ;  wherefore  we  see  vieUo.i  upon 
bronze  doors  of  Greek  origin,  even  in  Italy,  as  at  Monte  St.  Angelo,  at  Canopa 
in  Apidia,  and  at  Amalfi,  &c.  Another  diflferenee,  proliably  one  of  the  conse- 
quences of  the  schism,  was  the  establishing,  at  each  side  of  the  grand  altar, 
a  secondary  one ;  not,  as  in  Roman  CathoUc  churches,  at  the  ends  of  the 
transept,  or  in  side  chapels,  but  at  the  extremity  of  the  church,  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  grand  altar.  Their  place  is  always  indicated  by  a  niche  or 
apsis.  In  the  Russian  churches  wiiicli  commenced  in  the  same  century,  it  has 
been  shown  that  this  disposition  became  typical,  and  that  it  is  quite  con- 
formable to  the  division  and  subdivision  of  the  iconostasis.  This  disposition 
is  to  be  met  with  in  nearly  all  the  churches  of  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  at  Bari,  Trani,  Malfetta,  Otraiito,  &c.,  where  the  Greek 
worship  then  prevailed.  This  situation  of  the  altars  is  seen  even  where  the 
churches  are  Roman  Catholic,  as  at  Palermo,  in  the  chapel  at  Martorana  and 
Monreal,  and  even  at  Amalfi  and  Ravello.  Considering  that  this  disposition 
is  found  in  churches  of  an  earlier  date,  as  St.  Parenze  in  Istria,  at  St.  Fosca, 
&c.,  and  that  perhaps  even  the  form  of  the  ancient  basilicas  might  have  given 
rise  to  this  disjiosition ;  it  may  he  very  possible  that  the  Greeks  preserved 
this  form  as  an  ancient  custom  of  the  Church,  and  that  it  v\as  the  Roman 
Cathohcs  rather  who  departed  from  it.  This  observation  is  corroborated,  if 
we  observe  that  the  ancient  writers  tell  us  that  there  was,  on  the  left  of  the 
altar,  a  place  for  the  deacons  of  the  church,  afterwards  called  the  sacristy, 
and,  on  the  right,  an  altar  for  the  consecration  of  the  bread  and  wine  for  the 
communion.  In  Roman  Catholic  churches,  we  always  see  a  sacristy  at  the 
side  of  the  church,  but,  in  the  Greek  Church,  the  priests  always  robed  them- 
selves behind  the  iconostasis ;  and,  up  to  the  present  day,  there  is  an  altai'  at 
the  side  of  the  present  one  for  the  preparation  of  wine  and  bread.  Another 
very  remarkable  difterence  in  the  Russian  churches  is  the  not  having  separate 
places  for  the  women,  and  there  is  not  a  single  remnant  of  a  tribune  or  gyne- 
ceum — a  circumstance  the  more  astonishing  as  this  disposition  is  met  with 
not  only  in  the  East,  but  also  in  nearly  all  the  churches  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  at  Bari,  cic.  The  author  concluiUng  by  passing  in  review  the 
modern  churches  erected  after  Peter  the  Great,  especially  at  Petersburgh,  and 
by  exhibiting  and  explaining  an  original  design  for  a  Gra^co-Russian  church 
exquisitely  drawn,  and  embelhshed  with  all  the  attractions  of  that  gorgeous 
coloiuring,  which  is  so  pccidiar  a  feature  in  those  eiUfices. 


REMAllICS  ON  ARABESQUE  DECORATIONS,  AND  PARTICULARLY 
TlIOSi;  OF  THE  VATICAN. 

Jli:ad  nl  the  hisliliile  of  ISritish  Architeets,  Fdi.  3,  1840, 

By  A.  PoYNTER,  Esq.,  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  the  Institute. 

It  is  an  observation  which  has  been  very  frequently  repeated  and  very 
variously  expressed,  that  the  proper  use  to  be  made  of  the  study  of  the  an- 
cients in  their  works  of  art,  is  not  to  copy,  but  to  endeavour  to  think  like 
them.  Among  the  principles  which  guided  them,  none  is  more  important,  or 
has  exercised  a  greater  inllui'nce  in  bringing  ancient  art  to  perfection,  than 
that  whicli  has  been  so  well  condensed  into  one  line  by  Pope,  that 

"  True  Art,  is  Nature  to  advantage  dressed  ;" 
and  if  Hc  wish  to  rival  the  ancients  in  the  productions  of  wliat  is  at  once  ex- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


95 


cellent  and  original,  we  imist  like  them  seek  for  original  types  in  the  works 
of  nature. 

That  such  a  course  of  study  would  be  analogous  to  the  practice  by  which 
the  ancients  themselves  attained  so  high  a  reach  of  perfection,  we  have  suffi- 
cient proof.  Nothing  in  art  can  be  imagined  more  conventional  than  the 
orders  of  architecture,  and  yet  Vilruvius  endeavours  to  derive  them  all  from 
simple  principles.  Vitruvius  sufficiently  indicates  it  to  have  been  a  received 
principle  that  the  m6st  conventional  forms — and  a  more  conventional  form 
than  the  Corinthian  capital  it  would  be  difl!ic\ilt  to  point  out,  were  supposed 
to  have  been  originally  suggested  by  the  forms  and  accidents  of  nature. 

To  follow  up  the  subject  of  these  remarks,  would  open  a  boundless  field  of 
inquiry.  I  offer  them  in  the  present  instance  merely  as  prefatory  to  a  few 
observations  on  the  arabesque  style  of  decoration,  illustrated  by  a  short  re- 
view of  the  arabesques  in  the  Loggia  of  the  Vatican,  of  which  the  engravings 
are  liefore  you.  I  propose  to  inquire  how  far  the  artists  who  designed  and 
c-\eeuted  these  arabesques  have  been  indebted  to  the  antique,  and  how  far 
they  have  modiiied  the  hints  derived  from  that  source,  so  as  to  adopt  their 
compositions  to  the  purposes  they  are  destined  to  fulfil. 

In  speaking  of  these  sorts  of  compositions  as  arabestiues,  I  of  course  adopt 
the  term  as  it  is  commonly  understood,  and  need  not  explain  that  we  disre- 
gard both  the  etymology  and  the  meaning  of  the  term  in  applying  it  to  the 
paintings  and  stuccoes  of  antiquity,  which  represent  not  only  foliage  and 
fruits,  but  also  beasts  of  every  species,  and  imaginary  creatures  combined  and 
interlaced  together.  These  decorations  have  also  acquired  the  name  of  gro- 
tesque, from  the  grottoes  or  underground  buildings  in  which  they  have  been 
found — a  term  we  have  perverted  still  more  from  the  sense  in  which  the 
Italians  invented  it. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  the  only  mention  Vitruvius  makes  of  this  style  of 
decoration  is  in^reprobation  of  it — but  he  describes  it  so  accurately,  that  the 
passage  is  worth  repeating,  if  for  no  other  reason.    After  pointing  out  and 
classifying  what  he  considers  legitimate  objects  for  painting  walls,  such  as 
architectural  compositions,  landscapes,  gardens  and  sea  pieces — the  figures 
of  the  gods,  and  subjects  drawn  from  mythology,  and  the  poems  of  Homer. 
He  proceeds  thus,  "  I  know  not  by  what  caprice  it  is,  that  the  rules  of  the 
ancients — (observe,  that  Vitruvius  looks  up  to  the  ancients  in  his  day,  that 
is  to  say,  to  the  Greeks) — who  took  truth  for  the  model  of  their  paintings, 
are  no  longer  followed.    Nothing  is  now  painted  upon  walls  but  monsters, 
instead  of  true  and  natural  objects.     Instead  of  columns  we  have  slender 
reeds,  which  support  a  complication  of  flimsy  stems  and  leaves  twisted  into 
volutes.     Temples  are  supported  on  candelabra,  whence  rises,  as  from  a  root, 
fobagc  on  which  figures  are  seated.     In  another  place  we  have  demi-figiires 
issuing  from  flowers,  some  with  human  faces,  others  with  the  heads  of  beasts, 
all  things  which  are  not,  never  have  been,  nor  ever  can  be.    For  my  own 
part,  I  hold  that  painting  is  to  be  esteemed  only  so  far  as  it  represents  the 
truth.    It  is  not  sufficient  that  objects  be  well  painted — it  is  also  necessary 
that  the  design  be  consonant  to  reason  and  in  no  respect  ofl'ensive  to  good 
sense."    Pliny  also  laments  that  in  his  time,  gaudy  colouring  and  quaint 
forms  w^ere  held  in  greater  estimation  than  the  real  beauties  of  art.     But  w  ith 
all  deference  be  it  spoken,  there  is  another  side  to  the  question,  which  these 
great  authorities  seem  to  have  overlooked.    Conventional  decorations  of  this 
kind  were  within  the  reach  of  thousands  to  whom  paintings  in  the  higher 
branches  of  art  were  inaccessible,  and  a  more  general  diffusion  of  taste  must 
have  been  at  once  the  cause  and  eff'ect  of  their  universal  adoption— how  uni- 
versal, the  remains  of  Pompeii  reveal  to  us.    If  we  examine  the  ancient  ara- 
besques independently  of  these  prejudices,  we  shall  find  endless  beauty,  variety 
and  originality  ;  graceful  details  combined  in  consistent  and   ingenious  mo- 
tives and  analogies,  and  great  skill  and  freedom  in  the  mode  of  execution. 
We  shall  also  find  reason  to  doubt  whether  the  introduction  of  the  ar.ibesque 
style  really  had  the  effect  of  discouraging  painting  of  a  higher  class,  since 
even  at  Pompeii,  poetical  compositions  of  great  merit  are  frequently  combined 
with  the  lighter  ground  work  of  the  general  decoration. 

However  fanciful  and  capricious  the  arabesque  style  may  at  first  sight  ap- 
pear to  be,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  may  be  treated  according  to  the 
general  fi.xed  principles  of  art,  and  that  the  artist  will  be  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful as  he  keeps  these  principles  in  view.  A  due  balance  of  the  composi- 
tion is  essential,  so  that  the  heavier  parts  may  sustain  the  lighter  thiough 
every  gradation,  and  there  must  be  such  a  disposition  as  not  to  cover  too 
much  or  too  little  of  the  ground.  Unity  of  design  is  to  be  studied  in  a  con- 
nexion of  the  parts  with  each  other,  and  in  the  harmony  of  the  details  and 
accessories,  which  ought  as  much  as  possible  to  tend  so  some  general  aim. 
It  woidd  lead  us  much  too  far  to  enter  upon  the  subject  of  colour — but  it  may 
just  be  observed,  that  in  the  ancient  decorative  painting,  the  balance  of  colour 
is  strictly  attended  to.  Their  walls  usually  exhibit  a  gradation  of  dark  pian- 
nels  in  the  lower  part— a  breadth  of  .the  most  brilliant  colours  in  the  middle 


and  principal  division,  and  a  light  ground  thinly  spread  with  decoration  in 
the  upper  part  and  in  the  ceiling— an  arrangement  dictated  by  the  natural 
effects  of  light  and  shade,  and  reflection.  As  lightness  and  grace  are  the  pe- 
culiar attributes  of  arabesque,  the  foliage  which  forms  its  most  fertile  resource 
should  never  be  overloaded;  its  details  and  modes  of  ramification  ought  to 
be  drawn  from  nature.  The  poems  of  Schiller  and  other  Gennan  authors 
have  lately  been  published  with  a  profusion  of  arabesque  decoration  in  the 
margin,  which  are  well  worthy  of  attention,  both  for  the  ingenuity  with 
which  they  are  rendered  illustrative  of  the  text,  and  for  the  accuracy,  the 
botanical  accuracy,  with  which  some  of  the  foliage  and  flowers  are  represented, 
and  which  form  one  of  the  greatest  charms  of  these  clever  and  original  com- 
positions. 

Although  the  paintings  in  the  Loggia  of  Vatican  pass  under  the  name  of 
Raflaelle,  it  is  not  pretended  that  they  are  the  work  of  his  hand,  nor  were  his 
designs.  He  was  indeed  the  originator  and  director  of  the  whole,  and  tlie 
character  and  influence  of  his  taste  is  visibly  stamped  on  every  part.  But 
his  coadjutors  in  the  work  were  artists  whose  names  are  inferior  to  none  in 
the  Roman  school  but  his  own,  such  as  Guolano  Romanino,  Perino  del  Vaga, 
Benvenuto  Tisi,  and  others,  who  were  occupied  not  only  in  the  execution  but 
the  invention  of  the  details.  Francesco  Penni,  and  Andrea  da  Salerno  are 
particularly  noticed  as  being  employed  for  the  figures.  Giovanni  da  Udino 
for  the  fruits  and  flowers,  and  Polidoro  Caravaggio  for  the  releivos.  It  may 
be  worth  digressing  to  mention,  that  M.  Quatremcre  de  Quincy  is  of  opinion 
that  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  were  produced  by  similar  means,  Phidias 
there  peiforming  exactly  the  same  part  as  Raffaelle  in  the  Vatican — and  it 
IS  indisputable  that  the  combination  of  unity  of  design,  with  variety  of  detail 
which  characterizes  gothic  architecture,  could  have  been  produced  only  by 
the  same  system,  and  by  employing  the  minds  as  well  as  the  hands,  of  those 
Ijy  whom  the  decorations  were  executed.  When  we  see  perfection  attained 
in  three  distinct  styles  of  art,  in  three  distinct  ages,  by  means  precisely  simi- 
lar, it  is  not  too  much  to  assume  that  these  means  are  probably  the  right 
ones. 

The  Loggi  ofa  Raffaelle.  as  you  will  see  by  the  large  section  w  hich  forms  one 
of  the  permanent  ornaments  of  this  room,  is  an  arcade  in  thirteen  compart- 
ments. The  arches  are  open,  or  at  least  were  so  originally,  toward  the  court 
of  which  the  Loggia  forms  one  side.  The  opposite  side,  that  namely  which 
is  represented  in  the  drawing  before  you,  is  a  wall  pierced  with  windows,  one 
in  each  arch,  giving  light  to  the  suite  of  rooms  which  contain  the  great 
frescoes  of  the  prince  of  painters.  The  ceiling  of  each  compartment  forms  a 
square  cove,  on  the  sides  of  which  are  the  pannels  containing  the  series  of 
scriptural  paintings,  the  engravings  from  which  are  known  as  Rartaelle's 
bible.  These  are  his  own  designs,  and  some  are  known  to  have  been  touched 
with  his  own  hand.  Both  the  lateral  and  cross  arches  are  supported  by 
pilasters  about  16  (feet  high,  panelled,  and  decorated  with  coloured  arabes- 
ques on  a  white  ground.  It  is  to  these  pilasters  the  present  remarks  will  be 
confined.  Each  pilaster  on  the  w  all  side  is  flanked  by  a  half  pilaster,  in  w  hich 
the  arabesque  is  carried  through  on  a  smaller  .scale  of  composition. 

The  description  of  these  pilasters  will  be  taken  in  the  order  in  which  Vol- 
pato  has  engraved  them,  that  is  to  say,  beginning  on  the  side  next  the  wall. 
I.  Notwithstanding  the  great  variety  in  the  composition  and  details  of  these 
works,  we  shall  find  a  general  unity  of  design  pervading  throughout,  with 
the  exception  of  the  last  five  of  the  series,  which  will  be  particularly  noticed 
in  their  turn.  Whatever  form  the  composition  may  take,  it  is  rendered  sub- 
servient to  the  introduction  of  four  medallions,  or  tablets  relieved  from  the 
back  ground  in  stucco,  of  contrasted  shapes — one  like  an  antique  shield — the 
next  circular — the  third  rectangular — and  the  fourth  spindle-shaped.  These 
medallions  occupy  the  upper  part  of  the  pilaster  to  the  extent  of  about  one- 
third  of  the  w hole  panel,  whde  the  lower  part,  to  the  height  of  the  dado,  or 
somewhat  higher,  is  generally  filled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  afford  a  weight 
nf  colour,  sufficient  to  support  itself  by  the  side  of  that  member  of  the  archi- 
tecture, and  the  marbles  introduced  into  its  panels,  following  in  this  respect 
the  practice  of  the  ancients.  These  medallions  might  appear  to  violate  the 
due  balance  of  the  arabesques  if  they  were  identified  with  them— but  the  com- 
position is  rescued  from  that  fault,  by  the  separate  character  given  to  the 
decoration  of  the  medalhons,  and  by  their  being  detached,  and  hung  as  it 
were,  independently  upon  the  back  ground.  In  the  general  arrangement  of 
the  whole,  these  medallions  perform  a  most  important  part,  connecting  the 
pilasters  with  the  panelled  stuccoes  adjoining,  by  their  relief,  and  by  means 
of  an  accordant  style  of  decoration  and  a  similarity  in  the  subjects  repre- 
sented upon  them,  neither  of  which  could  have  been  well  embodied  in  the 
arabesque  itself. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  these  compositions  considered  separately  are 
somewhat  unequal,  and  the  examples  to  be  first  passed  in  review  are  by  no 
means  the  best,  but  instruction  may  be  derived  from  a  consideration  of  their 


m 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


ilulV-cts.  Tlie  lUislei's  of  natural  fruit  anil  loliagc  wliicli  siinouml  the  wimloMs 
are  conlimieil  t!irmif,'linut  the  series  of  arches,  ami  are  nrL'-itly  varieil  in  de- 
tail. Ilimi(;li  [H-ecisoly  similar  in  oompiisition.  'I'liero  is  nothing  conventional 
in  these  festoons— the  clusters  are  simply  connected  toKether  by  a  sirinf;.  and 
are  composed  of  the  most  familiar  ohjeds  rendered  with  perfect  truth.  The 
melon,  the  orange,  the  ehesnut,  the  tomata,  the  olive,  grapes  of  dill'erent 
kinds,  pomegranates,  gourds  of  every  description,  pine  and  cypress  cones  are 
those  which  most  frequently  recur,  with  their  foliage  and  blossoms.  Tlie 
artist  has  not  even  disdained  the  cahhage.  cucumber,  and  the  onion.  This  ex- 
ainplc  may  leach  us  that  objects  for  decoration  may  be  sought  throughout  the 
whole  r.inge  of  nature's  works  with  hopes  of  success. 

Unity  is  again  lost  sight  of  in  the  design  No.  18.  but  the  different  objects 
wliich  compose  it,  are  harmonized  upon  a  totally  different  principle  from  any 
which  have  been  hilherto  examined,  aud  the  eOi-ct  is  rather  clupendant  upon 
colour  than  on  form.  The  panels  contrast  brilliantly  with  the  white  back 
ground,  and  are  relieved  and  rescued  from  heaviness  by  the  sharp  dark  lines 
which  surround  them  ;  this  is  quite  antique. 

Having  now  completed  the  review  of  tliis  series  of  arabesques,  it  is  not  my 
hilention  to  detain  you  by  any  lengthened  observations  upon  them,  such  as 
occurred,  having  been  expressed  on  the  immediate  occasicms  on  which  they 
arose.  In  the  resources  which  the  decorative  artist  can  call  to  his  aid,  the 
moderns  have  greatly  the  advantage  over  the  ancients,  since  we  possess  their 
materials  and  our  own  also.  For  as  long  as  ancient  authors  arc  read,  and 
ancient  art  appreciated,  so  long  will  allusions  to  the  manners,  customs,  poetry 
and  religion  of  antiquity  be  familiar  to  us.  and  the  symbols  to  wliich  they 
gave  rise  be  universally  understood  ;  indeed  numberless  allusions  of  this  kind 
are  constantly  before  us,  and  are  so  familiar,  that  we  forget  to  inquire  their 
origin.  In  personification,  and  the  embodying  of  .abstract  ideas,  the  field  is 
as  open  to  us  as  to  them,  and  we  see  to  what  advantage  it  may  be  turned  by 
the  examples  we  luive  just  |iassed  in  review,  and  if  we  add  to  all  these  objects, 
those  derived  from  the  useful  arts  and  sciences  which  miy  be  turned  to  ac- 
count in  the  hands  of  the  skilful  decorator,  bis  resources  may  be  consi.Iereil 
boundless.  For  as  we  have  seen  in  these  examples,  it  is  not  the  familiar 
aspect  of  any  object  which  should  banish  its  representalion  from  works  of 
fancy.  Every  thing  ilepends  upon  its  proper  application.  The  ancients  made 
the  best  use  of  whatever  they  considered  most  appropriate,  and  we  must  en- 
de.ivour  to  do  the  same.  Thus  on  the  pedestal  of  the  c(}lumn  in  the  Place 
Vendome,  which  is  a  professed  imitation  of  that  of  Trajan,  modern  arms  and 
habiliments  occupy  the  place  of  those  of  the  Roman  period,  sculptured  on  the 
original.  Whether  this  translation  be  as  well  executed  as  it  might  be,  is  not 
now  the  question— I  merely  notice  it  as  being  right  in  principle.  One  fertile 
source  we  have  totally  unknown  to  the  ancients,  from  which  materials  may 
be  drawn  for  decoration.  Carrying  w  ith  them  the  invaluable  quality  of  being 
in  all  cases  significant  as  well  as  oni>amental— 1  mean  the  science  of  heraldry 
— I  cannot  help  Ihmking  that  the  Greeks  who  used  so  much  diversity  of 
colour  in  their  architecture,  would  have  availed  themselves  liberally  of  the 
tints  of  heraldry  in  their  decorations  had  they  been  accustomed  with  it.  From 
the  personal  allusions  it  conveys  it  might  be  made  a  much  more  important 
feature  than  it  even  now  is  in  the  decoration  of  private  as  well  as  public 
buildings,  and  we  have  only  to  study  tlie  works  of  the  middle  ages  for  invalu- 
able hints  for  the  work  in  which  it  may  be  applied.  The  mere  display  of 
shields  of  arms  is  but  one.  We  shall  find  heraldry  intimately  woven  into  the 
ornaments  of  our  gofhic  buildings,  and  he  who  can  read  its  language  may 
often  understand  an  allusion  in  what  may  appear  at  first  sight  a  mere  de- 
coration. Thus  one  of  the  mouldings  of  the  loinl)  of  Uumfrey  Duke  of  Glo- 
eester,  at  St.  Alb.ans,  is  filled  with  an  ornament,  which  on  examination 
resolves  itself  into  a  cup  containing  flowers,  a  device  assumed  by  that  prince, 
says  a  M.S.  in  the  College  of  Arms,  as  a  mark  of  his  love  for  learning. 
Heraldry  has  not  been  neglected  in  moilern  Italian  art.  and  1  remember  in 
particular  a  very  well  imagined  .arabesque  in  the  Towu-liall  at  Folisno.  The 
ceiling  is  covered  with  foliage,  spreading  from  the  centre. 

In  the  pilaster  No.  3,  many  of  the  details  are  in  the  true  spirit  of  the  anti- 
que— Ihc  single  figures  are  less  so.  An  ancient  painter  would  not  have 
placed  them  on  a  scrap  of  earth.  In  the  Pompeian  decorations,  the  detached 
figin-es — 1  do  not  speak  of  such  as  are  inclosed  in  frames — but  the  ih'lacherl 
figures,  partake  of  the  artificbal  character  of  the  style  to  which  they  are 
■adapted,  and  if  they  are  not  represented  as  floating  in  the  air,  they  stand  upon 
a  bracket,  or  a  mere  line,  or  on  any  thing  l)Ut  the  natural  ground. 

My  olijection  to  some  of  the  terminal  figures  is,  that  tliey  are  improb.able. 
lm]irobabli' I  mean  upon  certain  postulates,  which  it  is  necessary  to  assume 
before  we  can  reason  upon  these  imaginary  compositions  at  all.  The  mytho- 
logy of  the  ancients  has  peopled  the  elements  with  lieings  cimipi^unded  of  the 
human  and  brute  creation  j  their  intelligence  being  indicated  by  the  first, 
and  their  fitness  for  the  region  they  are  supposed  to  inhabit  by  the  second. 


There  is  nothing  in  ancient  art  in  wbicli  greater  taste  or  judgemeiu  is  dis- 
played than  in  some  of  these  combinations.  The  animal  functions  appear  in 
nowise  compromised  by  the  mere  interchange  of  corporal  members,  between 
different  species.  Such  combinations  therefore,  as  long  as  they  involve  no 
glaring  disproportions,  present  nothing  repugnant  to  the  mind,  and  we  art> 
so  f.amiliarized  to  them,  that  we  pronounce  upon  the  success  of  the  repre- 
sentation of  a  triton,  a  satyr,  or  a  centaur,  with  as  little  hesitation  as  we 
might  upon  that  of  any  of  the  animals  of  which  they  a\e  compoumled.  We 
are  equally  ready,  or  perhaps  owing  to  a  stronger  association  of  ideas,  more 
re.ady  to  admit  of  aerial  beings,  supporting  themselves  on  wings,  floating  in 
the  ether,  or  alighting  upon  a  flower  without  bending  the  stalk;  tlujugh 
these  are,  in  fact,  less  prnljable  than  those  born  of  the  ocean  or  the  earlh. 
Tietween  animal  and  vegetable  life  there  is  also  a  sufficient  analogy  to  attach 
some  probability,  or  at  least  to  afford  an  apology,  for  the  graceful  combina- 
tiuns  between  these  two  kingdoms  of  nature,  invented  by  the  ancients,  and 
adopted  to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  compositions  before  us  ;  but,  when  we 
come  to  combine  animal  life  with  unorganized  matter,  the  probabi:ity  ceases, 
and  ff.  as  in  the  case  before  us,  the  unorganizeil  portion  is  something  artifi- 
cial, and  totally  out  of  proportion,  besides  the  combination  becomes  intoler- 
able. Thus  we  acquiesce  in  the  met.amorphoses  of  Ovid  or  the  Arabi.an 
Nights,  as  long  as  certain  analogies  are  observed- but  the  transformation  of 
the  ships  of  Kneas  into  sea  nymphs,  is  a  violation  of  probability  to  Hhich 
nothing  can  reconcile  us. 

No  conventional  form  lias  been  more  abused  than  the  terminus ;  intelli- 
gence and  immobility  arc  the  attributes  which  the  ancients  intended  it  to 
eniljody,  but  their  apposite  creation  is  totally  different  from  anomalous  com- 
p  isition  like  this  into  which  it  has  been  tortured. 

In  No.  5  we  arrive  at  a  superior  composition,  for  it  must  lie  repealed  j  we 
are  examining  the  decoration  of  a  single  member  of  an  extensive  wlmle,  and 
that,  however  beautiful  each  may  be,  unity  is  a  beauty  in  addition.  No  ob- 
ject in  decoration  has  been  so  extensively  used  as  the  scroll.  The  ancients  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  alhicted  w  ilh  an  unhappy  craving  for  novelties,  nor 
to  have  been  haunted  with  the  apprehension  that  beautiful  forms  of  com- 
position would  become  less  beautiful  by  repetition.  When  the  most  appro- 
priate forms  ni  architecture  and  decoration  were  once  ascertained,  they 
were  continually  repeateil,  but  marked  with  a  fresh  character,  and  stamped 
with  originality  by  those  refined  and  delicate  touches  which  wers  all- 
sufficient  when  they  were  properly  appreciated.  In  the  same  manner  willi 
regard  to  the  ever-recurring  form  of  the  scroll,  as  long  as  the  foliage  and 
ramifications  of  nature  are  unexhausted,  so  long  will  it  be  capable  of  assum- 
ing an  original  character  in  the  hands  of  the  skilful  artist.  A  striking  illus- 
tration of  this  position  ni.ay  lie  drawn  from  the  ar.alicsques  in  the  p.alace  of 
Capsasola,  where  the  pilaster  of  the  Loggia  are  decorated  with  scrolls,  all 
similar  in  composition,  but  each  formed  of  a  different  species  of  natural  foliage 
without  the  intermixture  of  any  thing  conventional  except  the  regularity  of 
the  convolutions. 

For  the  magnificent  scroll  before  us  we  are  indebted  to  the  antique;  it  is 
an  imitation  of  the  well  known  frieze  of  the  Villa  Medici,  but  the  artist  has 
made  it  his  own  by  tlie  skill  with  which  he  has  adapted  it  to  his  purpose, 
both  in  proportion  and  colour.  Nothing  can  be  more  happy  than  the  manner 
in  which  the  upper  part  grows  from  the  original  design.  I  would  jiartieularly 
call  your  attention  to  the  .animals — the  squirrels,  the  mice,  the  lizards,  the 
snake,  the  grasshopper,  aud  the  snail,  dispersed  about  the  branches,  so  well 
calculated  to  fill  the  spaces  they  occupy,  and  at  tli,e  same  time  producing  a 
variety  which  woidd  have  been  wanting,  had  the  fotage  only  been  extended 
with  that  object.  To  the  scroll  in  the  half  pilaster  it  is  to  be  objecteil  that 
it  is  a  repetition  in  small,  of  that  in  the  principal  compartment — but  if  ex- 
amined separatelv,  it  will  be  found  lull  of  instruction  from  the  union  it  dis- 
plays of  natural  objects  with  conventional  forms.  The  spiral  line  of  the 
anti()ue  scroll  is  evidently  drawn  from  the  natural  course  of  climbing  plants, 
— it  is  conventional  in  its  openness  and  regularity.  The  involucra  of  plants 
furnish  the  hint  for  the  base  from  which  the  antique  scroll  is  made  to  spring 
and  the  sp.atbes  of  the  liliaceous  tribe  fur  the  sheaths,  of  a  conventional  re- 
petition of  which,  the  ancient  sculptured  scrolls  principally  consist.  Thus 
far  for  the  general  elements  of  the  antique  scroll,  which  the  artist  has  impli- 
citly followed  in  the  example  before  us  ;  but  he  has  enriched  his  composition 
without  disturbing  its  unity,  by  making  every  sheath  proiluce  a  different 
branch,  drawn  immediately  from  nature.  The  birds  present  an  equal  variety, 
and  ;u'e  occupied  according  to  their  natural  habits,  in  feeding  on  the  berries 
and  buds,  or  on  the  variety  of  insects  which  are  also  introiluceil.  The  ara- 
besques in  the  side  panels  arc  to  be  particularly  noticed  in  this  example. 
A  Motion,  however  slight,  is  always  to  l)e  desired,  and  here  we  see  a  very 
graceful  ono  in  the  two  winged  boys  who  dip  into  a  vase-like  fountain.  The 
winged  bear  which  occupies  the  medallion  may  be  noticed  as  a  violation  of 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


97 


Iirobability.  A  being  tci  cleave  the  air  shoiikl  not  be  seleeteil  from  tbe  most 
heavy  and  a\vk»  avd  of  animals  ;  it  is  undoubtedly  intended  for  a  jeu  ti'vspril' 
and  is  quite  in  the  spirit  of  the  antique.  The  ancient  frescoes  are  full  of  such 
whimsical  combinations,  but  always  as  in  the  present  instance,  occupying  a 
subordinate  place. 

No.  7,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkab'e  of  the  series.  In  this  the  artist  has 
ventured,  and  with  the  most  perfect  success,  to  discard  every  thing  conven- 
tional, and  to  represent  a  natural  tree,  balancing  its  irregularities  of  rami- 
ficalu>n  and  foliage  by  the  numerous  birds  which  occupy  the  branches,  when 
they  may  be  suppo.scd  to  have  been  collected  l>y  the  call  of  the  Iiird -catcher, 
who  is  concealed  in  the  underwood  with  his  bird-call  in  his  mouth.  One 
bird,  fettered  by  a  limed  twig,  is  about  to  fall  into  his  liuids.  It  is  impossible 
to  admire  too  much  the  skill  with  which  this  simple  motion  is  w'orkeil  out. 

It  may  be  observed  in  reference  to  Nos.  4  and  U.  that  folds  of  drapery  are 
too  broad  and  heavy  to  be  successful  in  arabesque — its  efl'ect  is  seldom  pleas- 
ing. I  must  also  protest  against  the  birds  which  crown  this  composition. 
Nature  has  provided  a  variety  wdiich  makes  it  quite  unnecessary  to  seek 
novelty  by  combining  the  neck  of  one  species  and  the  tail  of  another  with 
imaginary  wings.  The  first  impression  is,  that  these  birds  are  meant  for 
swans  ;  the  second,  and  abiding  one,  that  the  artist  did  not  know  how  to 
draw  a  swan  ;  he  has  not  mended  them  by  dressing  them  in  trowsers. 

In  No.  15.  the  artist  has  chosen  the  apparently  incongruous  subject  of  fish 
to  comljine  with  his  foliage.  In  a  painting  by  Hogarth,  we  see  in  the  fash- 
ionable furniture  of  one  of  his  scenes,  a  composition  of  foliage  inhabited  by 
fish  instead  of  birds,  although  this  absurdity  be  intended  as  a  caricature  of  the 
talk  of  the  day,  it  is  no  great  exaggeration  of  the  fact.  In  this  design,  the 
foliage  and  the  fish  are  brought  together  without  the  slightest  violation  of 
probability  ;  the  fish  have  been  hung  to  the  branches — the  variety  of  their 
forms  and  cohuu's  produces  an  admirable  efiect,  and  above  all,  they  are  per- 
fect in  the  condition,  more  especially  indispensable  in  objects  not  intrinsically 
graceful  or  pleasing,  of  being  represented  with  the  most  absolute  truth  to 
nature. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

SESSION    1840. ANNUAL    REPORT. 

TuF.  Council  of  the  Institution  of  Ciril  Engineers,  on  resigning  the  trust 
confided  to  them  by  the  last  annual  general  meeting,  solicit  the  attention  of 
this  meeting,  and  of  all  those  who  are  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  Insti- 
tution, to  the  following  report  on  the  proceedings  and  on  the  state  and  pros- 
pects of  the  Institution  at  the  close  of  this  the  twenty-first  year  of  its  exis- 
tence. At  the  last  annual  general  meeting,  the  council  of  the  preceding  year 
had  the  gratification  of  congratulating  the  Institution  on  its  then  assembling 
in  its  new  premises  under  circumstances  which  furnished  so  advantageous  a 
contrast  with  the  condition  of  earlier  years,  and  such  convincing  evidence  of 
the  steady  progress  and  success  which  had  attended  the  labours  of  the  Coun- 
cil and  the  co-operation  of  the  general  body.  And  though  the  year  which  is 
now  closing  upon  you  may  not  have  been  marked  by  events  of  so  striking 
a  character  as  the  preceding  one,  the  council  nevertheless  experience  the 
highest  degree  of  satisfaction  in  reviewing  the  proceedings  of  the  session  of 
the  year  so  auspiciously  commenced.  Aware  of  the  more  extensive  duties 
and  increased  responsibility  entailed  upon  them,  the  council  have  cndeavotired 
so  to  direct  the  alTairs  of  the  Institution  as  to  kcej)  pace  with  its  growing 
importance  ;  and  they  can  with  confidence  assert,  that  the  jiroceediugs  of  the 
last  session  have  not  been  inferior  in  interest  or  importance  to  those  of  any 
preceding  session ;  whilst  the  attendance  at  the  meetings,  and  the  anxiety 
which  is  evinced  by  strangers  to  become  acquainted  with  the  proceedings 
and  objects  of  the  Institution,  show  the  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  fully  warrant  the  most  sanguine  anticipations  of  its 
future  and  continually  increasing  success. 

The  attention  of  the  last  annual  meetiug  was  directed  to  the  expediency  of 
some  alteration  in  the  existing  laws,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  elec- 
tion of  otficers  and  the  number  of  the  council.  It  was  suggested  that  the 
annual  election  of  the  council  should  be  conducted  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner  from  that  hitherto  pursued  ;  that  a  greater  number  than  that  consti- 
tuting the  council  should  be  nominated,  and  that,  consequently,  eacli  person 
at  the  annual  general  meeting,  instead  of,  according  to  the  then  existing 
practice,  erasing  one  name  and  substituting  another,  should  erase  as 
many  names  as  the  number  on  the  balloting  list  exceeded  the  constituted 
number  of  the  Council.  It  was  also  suggested,  that  it  would  be  for  the  ad- 
vantage of  the  Institution  that  the  council  shoidd  be  increased  by  the  addition 
of  two  members :  that  as  some  members  of  the  council  are  frequently  pre- 
vented by  professional  engagements  from  regular  attendance,  the  council 
should  be  enlarged  to  as  great  an  extent  as  might  be  consistent  with  the  tnie 
interests  of  the  Institution.  These  and  some  other  suggestions  for  the  better 
regulation  and  stability  of  the  Institution,  were  subsequently  submitted  to  a 
general  meeting  of  the  members,  and  now  constitute  part  of  the  bye-laws  of 
the  Institution. 


The  practice  of  other  societies  in  publishing' their  transactions  in  parts, 
containing  such  communications  as  were  ready  at  frequent  and  short  intervals, 
was  briefly  touched  upon  in  the  last  report,  and  was  discussed  in  considerable 
detail  at  the  last  annual  meeting.  Such  is  the  nature  of  some  communica- 
tions, that  delay  in  their  publication  may  be  considered  not  only  as  a  positive 
injustice  to  the  author,  but  as  detrimental  to  the  cause  of  practical  science, 
and  the  best  interests  of  the  Institution  ;  and  if  the  publication  of  such  papers 
be  delayed  until  a  whole  volume  is  ready,  authors  will  inevitably  avail  them- 
selves of  other  channels  for  bringing  their  labours  before  the  world.  Add  to 
which,  when  a  wdiole  volume  containing  many  valuable  plates  is  to  be  pub- 
lished, the  sources  of  delay  are  numerous,  and  such  as  cannot  be  avoided. 
The  council  conceive  that  the  experience  of  the  past  year  has  fully  borne  out 
the  precetUng  views,  and  shown  the  great  importance  and  value  of  prompt 
publication.  Early  in  the  session  the  Institution  received  a  most  valuable 
communication  from  your  member,  Mr.  Parkes.  It  was  considered  desirable 
that  the  publication  of  this  comnumication,  forming,  as  it  did,  a  continuation 
of  his  researches  already  published  in  the  second  volume  of  the  transactions, 
should  not  be  delayed.  No  other  coiunumications  being  then  ready  for  pub- 
lication, the  council  resolved  to  publish  it  at  once  as  the  first  part  of  the 
third  volume.  This  has  now  been  for  some  time  in  the  hands  of  the  public, 
and  the  number  of  copies  which  have  been  disposed  of  shows  the  gre,at  de- 
sire e^^nced  to  obtain  these  jiapers  as  soon  as  published.  The  council  have 
also  had  still  further  proof  of  the  importance  of  this  plan.  The  Institution 
received,  during  the  last  session,  several  communications  well  suited  for  pub- 
lication in  the  Transactions,  and  among  them,  the  continuation  and  con- 
clusion of  that  already  mentioned  by  Mr.  Parkes.  Preparations  were  made 
for  the  iiumediate  iniblication  of  these  papers  in  a  second  part ;  ditficulties 
and  delays  wdiich  could  not  have  been  foreseen  or  prevented,  occurred  in  the 
publication  of  some  of  them,  and  thus  the  second  part  contains  but  two 
instead  of  the  nine  commimications  originally  destined  for  it.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  remaining  seven  papers  are  already  printed  and  the  plates  en- 
graved, so  that  the  third  part  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Institution  in  a  very 
short  time.  There  are  several  other  valuable  communications  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  Institution  now  in  the  course  of  preparation  for  pubhcation,  and 
which  will  appear  as  soon  as  circumstances  will  permit. 

The  minutes  of  proceedings  have  been  printed  at  such  short  intervals 
during  the  session,  as  the  abstracts  of  papers  aud  minutes  of  conversation 
would  furnish  suflicient  materials.  The  council  conceive  that  great  advan- 
tages may,  and  indeed  have,  resulted  from  a  publication  of  this  nature.  An 
authentic  account  of  the  communications  is  thus  immediately  furnished,  at- 
tention is  continually  kept  alive  to  the  subjects  which  are  brought  before  the 
Institution,  and  the  statements  there  recorded  have  elicited  very  valuable 
cotumunications,  which  otherwise  would  probably  never  have  been  brought 
forth.  No  one  can  turn  over  the  minutes  of  the  last  session  without  remark- 
ing the  number  and  the  diversity  of  the  facts  and  opinions  there  recorded, 
very  many  of  which  were  elicited  by  the  statements  contained  in  some  written 
communication,  or  casually  advanced  in  the  course  of  discussion. 

The  council  cannot  omit  this  opportunity  of  insisting  on  the  impoi-tance 
of  these  discussions  in  promoting  the  objects  which  the  Instituion  has  in 
view.  The  recording  and  subsequent  publication  of  these  discussions  are 
features  jjeculiar  to  this  Institution,  and  from  wdiich  the  greatest  benefits 
have  resulted  and  may  he  expected,  so  long  as  the  communication  of  know- 
ledge is  solely  and  steadily  kept  in  view.  It  would  be  easy  to  select  many 
instances  during  the  last  and  preceding  sessions,  of  some  of  the  most  valuable 
communications  to  the  Institution  owing  their  origin  entirely  to  this  source. 
The  first  communication  from  Mr.  Parkes  arose  entirely  out  of  the  conver- 
sations which  took  place  on  the  superior  evaporation  of  the  Cornish  boilers 
being  referred  to  as  one  cause  of  the  great  amount  of  the  duty  done  by  the 
Cornish  engines.  The  communication  by  Mr.  Williams  on  peat  and  resin 
fuel  owes  its  origin  to  his  being  accidentally  present  at  the  discussion  on  the 
uses  of  turf  in  the  manufacture  of  iron ;  whilst  that  by  Mr.  Apsley  Pellatt, 
on  the  relative  heating  jiowers  of  coke  and  coal  in  melting  glass,  arose  en- 
tirely from  the  discussion  of  the  facts  stated  by  Mr.  Parkes  respecting  the 
superior  evaporation  jji-oduced  by  the  coke  from  a  given  quantity  of  coal  than 
by  the  coal  itself.  And  lastly,  the  extremely  interesting  and  highly  valuable 
discussions  at  the  commenceiuent  of  last  session  on  the  uses  and  applications 
of  turf;  and  on  the  extraordinary  coincidence  between  the  results  obtained 
bv  Mr.  Lowe,  Mr.  Parkes,  Mr.  Apsley  Pellatt,  and  Marcus  Btdl,  of  Phila- 
delphia, experimenting  as  they  did  with  totally  different  riews,  and  under 
totally  different  circumstances,  must  he  fresh  in  the  recollection  of  all 
present. 

But,  besides  the  positive  advantages  which  have  thus  resulted,  and  may  be 
expected,  from  a  steadv  adherence  to  these  practices  so  pecnhar  to  this  In- 
stitution, there  are  others  of  the  greatest  value  to  those  engaged  in  practical 
science.  By  this  freedom  of  discussion  statements  and  opinions  are  can- 
vassed, and  corrected  or  confirmed,  as  soon  as  promulgated,  the  labours  of 
authors  and  claims  of  individuals  are  made  known  and  secured  as  matter  of 
history— and  attention  is  continually  kept  alive  to  the  state  and  progress  of 
knowledge  in  those  departments  of  science  which  it  is  the  especial  object  of 
this  Institution  to  promote.  The  council  trust,  therefore,  that  those  indivi- 
duals who  have  stored  up  knondedge  and  facts  for  many  years  past,  and  de- 
voted themselves  to  some  particular  branch  of  science,  will  consider  how 
much  they  have  in  their  power  to  contribute,  and  how  great  is  the  assistance 
which  the'v  can  render  to  the  labourers  in  other  branches,  and,  above  all,  to 
those  who'  are  ambitious  of  following  in  their  steps,  by  freely  communicating, 


08 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


either  ornlly  or  in  writing,  tlie  knowledge  which  they  have  collected;  so  that 
the  records  of  tlic  lii!,tiliiliiin  may  be  unjiaraUuled  for  tlie  extent  and  correct, 
ncss  of  the  information  whicli  tliey  contain. 

The  conncil  have  cndeavonred  from  time  to  time  to  direct  attcjition  to 
snlijccts  on  whicli  it  was  conceived  comrannieations  were  needed  or  desiralilc, 
hy  proposing  snclisnlijects  as  objects  for  the  preminms,  placed  at  the  dis|>osal 
of  the  council  by  the  nnniificence  of  tlie  late  president.  The  commiinications 
.sent  in  compliance  with  this  invitation  have  not  been  nnmcrons.  Two,  liow- 
ever, — one  by  your  associate  Mr.  Jones,  on  the  AVestminster  Sewage,  and  the 
other  hy  Mr.  Hood,  on  M'amiing  and  Ventilating, — seemed  to  call  for  some 
r.ppcial  mark  of  distinction. 

The  comiiiiinicalion  liy  Mr.  Jones  is  of  the  most  elahorate  and  costly  descrip- 
lion.  (See  ,/onrnn/,  vol.  2,  p.  .31 1).  The  council  conceived  tliat,  in  awarding 
to  Mr.  Jones  a  Telford  medal  in  silver  .and  'Jll  guineas  for  this  laborious  com- 
munication, they  were  bestowing  a  suitable  mark  of  approb.ition  on  the  author 
of  a  record  which  is  nearly  unjiaralleled,  and  must  be  of  great  value  as  a 
source  of  information  in  all  future  works  of  this  nature,  when  other,  and  par- 
ti'-nlarly  foreign,  cities  carry  into  efl'ecl  a  system  of  drainage,  in  which  they 
are  at  present  so  delieient. 

The  conncil  cannot  pass  from  this  subject  without  expressing  the  obliga- 
tions which  the  Institution  is  under  to  the  cliairman  and  the  commissioners 
nf  the  sewers  of  the  Westminster  district.  On  its  being  intimated  to  them 
that  tlie  council  wished  some  account  and  record  of  the  work  over  which 
they  preside,  permission  was  immediately  given  for  any  person  desirous  of 
preparing  such  account  to  have  free  access  to  all  the  documents  in  their  pos- 
session relating  to  this  subject,  and  to  make  such  extracts  or  copies  there- 
from as  could  in  any  way  contribute  towards  this  object. 

The  communication  by  Mr.  llnod  contains  a  detailed  account  of  the  prin- 
riples  on  which  the  salubrity  of  the  atmosphere  in  crowded  rooms  depends, 
and  the  various  methods  which  have  been  adopted  for  warming  ami  ventila- 
tion. {See  Journal,  \ol.  2,  \). -iCiO).  The  importance  of  ventilation,  and  the 
success  which  has  attended  the  adoption  of  mechanical  means  in  the  manu- 
facturing districts,  are  subjects  worthy  the  attention  of  all  who  study  the 
lieallh  of  those  who,  from  choice  or  necessity,  arc  exposed  to  the  generally 
iinwholesoine  atmosphere  of  crowded  apartmenls.  This  subject  is  of  the 
highest  imjiortance  to  tin;  manufacturing  poor  of  this  country,  who  are  com- 
pelled to  work  in  crowded  rooms  at  high  temperatures.  The  council  are 
aware  that  much  has  been  done  towards  this  object  in  some  of  the  large  cot- 
ton works  of  tireat  I3ritain,  and  they  hope  ere  long  to  obtain  some  detailed 
account  of  the  means  hy  which  this  has  been  accomplished,  and  the  results 
which  have  ensued. 

The  conncil  have  also  awarded  a  Telford  medal  in  silver  to  your  associate, 
Charles  Wye  Williams,  for  his  communication  on  tlie  Properties,  Uses,  and 
Manufacture  of  Turf  Coke  and  Peat  Uesin  Fuel  j  and  to  Mr.  Edward  Woods, 
for  his  communication  on  Locomotive  Engines. 

The  various  applications  of  peat  as  a  fuel  had  been  repeatedly  the  subject 
of  discussion  at  the  meetings  of  the  Institution,  and  this  communication  may 
(as  has  been  already  noticed)  be  attributed  to  the  discussions  then  going  on. 
{See  Journal,  vol.  2,  p.  Hi). 

The  communication  by  Mr.  Edward  Woods, published  in  the  second  volnine  of 
the  Transactions, willahvaysbearaprominent  place  among  the  records  of  practi- 
cal science,  as  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  accurate  details  on  the  actual  working 
of  locomotive  engines.  Tlic  first  communication  was  received  early  in  the 
session  of  lrt?,S.  (See  Journal,  Vol.  1 ,  (i.  l.'')9.)  The  author  was  tliouglit  capa- 
ble of  adding  so  much  to  his  already  valuable  communication,  tliat  the  coun- 
cil referred  it  back  to  him  for  this  jinrpose,  and  it  was  not  received  in  the 
form  in  which  it  appears  in  your  Transactions  till  after  the  premiums  for  that 
session  were  avvanled.  lint  Ibis  communication  (notwithstanding  the  interval 
since  it  was  laid  before  the  meeting)  will  prob.ibly  be  fresh  in  the  recollection 
of  most  lU'escnt,  from  its  giving  an  accurate  account  of  the  jirogrcss  of  the 
locomotive  engines  on  the  Ijiverpnol  anil  Manchester  Railway  from  the  open- 
ing of  that  important  work.  The  experience  of  engineers  had  at  that  time 
furnished  them  with  but  little  knowledge  as  to  what  were  the  most  essential 
requisites  in  railway  engines,  and  the  advance  of  knowledge,  as  slnnvii  by  the 
history  of  the  locomotive  engine  on  this  railway,  is  a  most  interesting  and  in- 
Etructive  lesson  to  every  one  who  would  study  the  progress  of  practical  science 
and  improvement,  (ircat  alterations  were  found  necessary  in  the  strength  of  the 
jiarts,  in  the  weight  of  the  engines,  in  the  road,  and  the  number  of  wheels. 
The  first  engines  were  grailually  ailapted  to  the  necessities  of  the  ease,  and 
the  arrangements  then  resorteil  to  as  necessary  expedients  have  now  been 
adopted  into  the  regular  and  uniform  jnacticc.  Ilesides  the  extreme  interest 
of  that  which  may  be  termed  the  history  of  these  improvements,  the  eomiiiu- 
nieation  is  replete  with  theoretical  principles  as  to  the  working  of  locomo- 
tives, and  the  advantages  ami  disadvantages  incident  to  peculiar  practical 
adaptations.  It  would  exceed  the  limits  of  this  rcjiort  to  ilo  more  on  the 
present  occasion  than  brieHy  to  state  that  this  paper  contains  extended  re- 
marks on  the  relative  advantages  of  four  or  six  wheels,  of  inside  or  outside 
framings,  of  crank  axles  or  outside  crank  pins,  of  coupled  or  uncoiiided  en- 
gines. The  council  would  point  out  this  paper  to  the  junior  memlicrs  of  the 
profession,  as  an  example  of  how  great  a  service  may  l)e  rendered  hy  simply 
recording  what  passes  under  their  daily  observation  and  experience. 

The  council  have  also  adjudged  a  Telford  medal  in  bronze  and  books  to  the 
value  of  three  guineas  to  Mr.  It.  W.  Mylne,  for  his  communication  on  the 
Well  sunk  at  the  reservoir  of  the  New  River  Company  at  the  Hainpstead-road, 
{see  Journal,  yol,  '2,  p.  311);  to  Lieutenant   Pollock,  for  his  drawings  and 


description  of  the  Coffer  Dam  iit  M'estminster  Bridge,  (see  Journal,  vol.  2,  p. 
.111);  and  to  Mr.  Redman,  for  his  drawhigs  and  account  of  How  Uridge. 

Among  the  other  communications  of  the  session,  the  council  cannot,  on  the 
]nesent  occasion,  omit  to  notice  those  of  your  inenibcr,  Mr.  Parkes.  His 
communication  on  tlie  E\'aporation  of  M'ater  from  Stc;im  Hollers,  (see  Jour- 
nal, vol.  1,  p.  1 70),  for  which  a  Telford  medal  in  silver  was  awarded  during  the 
ineceding  session,  and  the  interesting  discussions  to  which  it  gave  rise,  are 
too  well  known  rcipiire  further  comment.  But  gi'cat  as  were  the  benelits 
conferred  on  practical  science  by  the  facts  there  recorded,  they  have  been 
much  surpassed  by  the  subsequent  labours  of  this  author.  In  continuation 
of  his  subject,  you  received  early  in  the  session  the  first  part  of  a  communi- 
cation on  Steam  Boilers,  (see  Journal,  vol.  2,  p.  22.')) ;  and  at  the  close  of  the 
session,  the  second  |iart,  treating  of  .Steam  Engines.  Before  Mr.  Parkes  was 
induced  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  preparation  of  these  conimunieations,  no 
attempt  had  been  made  to  bring  together,  in  one  connected  view,  the  various 
facts  which  had  been  ascertained.  The  economy  of  the  Cornish  system  was 
indisputable  ;  but  to  what  it  was  to  lie  referred  was  involved  in  some  ob- 
scurity. It  was  reserved  for  this  communication  to  call  attention  to  certain 
quantities  and  relations  which  exerted  a  peculiar  intlncnce  over  the  results ; 
and  which,  lieiiig  rightly  ascertained,  were  at  once  indicative  or  exponential 
of  the  character  of  the  boiler.  If  it  be  found  that,  in  one  class  of  boiler,  the 
same  quantity  of  coal  is  burnt  eight  times  as  rapidly  as  in  another  class — that 
the  quantity  consumed  on  each  square  foot  of  one  grate  is  twenty-seven  times 
that  on  the  grate  of  another — that  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated  bears 
some  definite  relation  to  the  quantity  of  heated  surface — and  that  there  is 
twelve  times  more  evaporated  hy  each  foot  of  heated  surface  in  one  class  of 
boiler  than  in  another — and  finally,  that  the  quantity  of  water  evaporated  by 
a  given  weight  of  fuel  is  in  one  class  double  the  quantity  evaporated  in 
another, — we  have  arrived  at  some  definite  relations  whereby  to  compare 
boilers  of  dift'erent  kinds  with  each  other.  To  these  definite  quantities  and 
relations,  the  author,  with  apparent  propriety,  assigns  the  term  ■'  exponents ;" 
and  these  being  compared  together  for  different  boilers,  their  respective  merits 
as  evaporative  vessels  are  readily  perceived.  Mr.  Parkes  has  also  called  the 
attention  of  engineers  to  the  effect  of  the  element  time,  that  is,  the  period  of 
the  detention  of  the  heat  about  the  boiler.  The  importance  of  attending  to 
this  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  on  ;  as  it  would  appear  from  these  state- 
ments, that  boilers  being  compared  with  each  other,  in  respect  of  their  eva- 
porative economy,  are  nearly  inversely  as  the  rate  of  combustion.  Attention 
is  also  called  to  the  fact,  that  there  are  actions  tending  to  the  destruction  of 
the  boiler  entirely  independent  of  the  tenqieraturc  of  the  fire,  and  which  may 
be  designated  hy  the  term  "  intensity  of  calorific  action."  Of  their  nature  wc 
know  nothing,  but  the  durability  of  different  boilers,  under  different  systems 
of  practice,  affords  some  means  of  comparing  the  intensity  of  these  actions. 

Mr.  Parkes  having,  in  the  first  part  of  the  subject,  thus  pointed  out  the 
distinctive  features  of  the  ditferent  classes  of  boilers  as  evaporative  vessels, 
proceeds,  in  his  subsequent  and  concluding  communication,  to  consider  the 
distribution  and  practical  apjilication  of  the  steam  in  different  classes  of 
steam  engines.  And  for  this  jmrpose,  he  is  led  to  consider  the  best  practical 
measure  of  the  dynamic  efficiency  of  steam — the  methods  employed  to  deter- 
mine the  power  of  engines — the  measures  of  effect — the  expenditure  of 
power — the  in'oportion  of  boilers  to  engines- — the  standanl  measure  of  duty — 
the  constituent  heat  of  steam — the  locomotive  engine — the  blast  and  resist- 
ance occasioned  by  it — the  momentum  of  the  engine  and  train,  as  exhibiting 
the  whole  mechanical  etfort  exerted  by  the  steam — the  relative  expenditure 
of  power  for  a  given  efi'ect  by  fixed  and  locomotive  non-coudensiiig  engines. 
This  hare  enumeration  of  the  principal  matters  in  the  second  communication 
will  give  some,  though  a  very  inadequate,  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  task 
undei'taken  by  Mr.  Parkes,  for  the  communication  is  accompanied  by  elaho- 
rate and  extensive  tables,  exhibiting  the  results  of  th«  facts  which  he  has 
collected  and  used  in  the  course  of  his  inquiiy,  and  it  may  confidently  be  as- 
serted that  a  more  laborious  task  has  rarely  been  undertaken  or  accomplished 
by  any  one  individual  than  the  series  of  communications  thus  brought  before 
the  Institution. 

It  will  be  one  of  the  earliest  duties  of  the  succeeding  council  to  consider 
in  what  manner  the  sense  of  the  great  benefits  conferred  on  this  department 
of  jiractical  science  can  most  a|ipi"0)n'iately  be  testified. 

The  council  also  received,  at  the  close  of  last  session,  from  your  member, 
Mr.  Leslie,  a  most  valuable  communication  on  the  Docks  and  Harbour  of 
Dundee.  This  is  one  of  the  records  on  which  the  Institution  sets  the  highest 
value,  being  the  detaileil  account  of  an  executed  work  of  great  extent.  It  is 
not,  in  its  present  form,  well  adapted  for  being  laid  before  the  meetings;  hut 
on  its  publication,  which  will  take  jdace  very  shortly,  the  Institution  will 
have  an  0|)portuiiity  of  judging  of  the  high  value  which  it  possesses. 

In  acknowledging,  with  gratitude,  the  numerous  and  valuable  iirescnts 
made  to  the  Institution  during  the  past  year,  the  council  would  call  the  at- 
tention of  the  members  generally  to  the  want  still  existing  in  the  library  of 
works  of  reference  on  general  scientific  subjects  not  immediately  connected 
with  engineering,  and  express  a  hope  that  such  wants  may  be  sup|)lied  by 
that  liberality  to  which  the  Institution  is  .already  so  deeply  indebted.  The 
collection  of  models  also  requires  many  additions  to  render  it  as  complete  as 
the  council  could  wish,  and  it  is  only  by  the  wants  of  the  Institution  being 
const.antly  borne  in  mind  by  all  who  arc  i  nterestcd  in  the  subject,  that  such 
a  collection  can  be  formed  as  shall  be  worthy  of  the  Society. 

Several  societies  have  made  an  exchange  of  Transactions  with  the  Institu- 
tion, and  from  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  the  Philosophical  Society  of 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


99 


Manchester,  the  Royal  Irish  Society,  and  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society, 
sets  of  Transactions,  "as  complete  as  could  he  made  np,  liave  hceii  received 
The  Master-flencral  of  the  Ordnance,  tlie  Lord-Lientcnant  of  Ireland,  and 
Colonel  Colhy,  continue  their  liberal  presents  of  the  English  and  Irisli  Sur- 
veys; and  Captain  Beaufort  ami  the  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty  have  con- 
tinued the  present  of  the  series  of  Admiralty  Cliarts.  The  Institution  is  also 
iudchlcd  to  Mv.  Vignolles  for  the  Busts  of  Locke  and  Ur.  llutton;  to  Mr. 
I'ichl,  V.P.,  for  a  Bust  of  the  late  Henry  ilaudslay;  and  to  Mr.  Rivers,  for 
tliat  of  Dr.  Karaday. 

The  council  would  wish  to  take  especi.al  notice  of  the  large  collection  of 
works  of  the  late  eminent  philosophei-.  Dr.  Yonng,  now  deposited  in  your 
lihrary.  For  this  great  acquisition,  the  Institution  is  indebted  to  the  kind- 
ness and  lilierality  of  his  brother,  Mr.  Robert  Yo\uig,  who  conceiving  most 
justly  that  every  thing  connected  with  so  great  a  benefactor  to  practical 
science  must  be  highly  valued  by  this  Institution,  has  made  it  the  depository 
of  these  books  from  the  library  of  his  distinguished  I'clative.  The  council,  in 
tluis  jmblicly  recording  their  sense  of  the  kindjicss  and  liberality  of  Mr. 
Ivobcrt  "loung,  would  earnestly  press  upon  others  the  importance  of  following 
so  noble  an  example,  and  of  presenting  such  works  as  are  at  their  disposal, 
and  of  which  the  hl)rary  of  the  Institution  is  particularly  in  need. 

It  is  announced  thro\igli  the  mediunr  of  the  last  Annual  Report,  that  the 
monument  of  Telford  was  nearly  finished,  and  that  a  site  had  been  selected 
in  Westminster  Abbey.  The  council  have  now  the  satisfaction  of  amiouncing 
that  the  monument  is  fixed  in  the  place  destined  for  it,  and  they  are  confident 
that  all  who  enjoyed  the  accpiaintance,  or  knew  the  merits,  of  the  late  dis- 
tinguished president  of  this  Institution,  will  rejoice  that  the  memory  of  one 
so  eminent  and  so  highly  deserviug  has  met  with  so  proper  and  just  a  tribute 
of  respect;  whilst  all,  no  less  than  those  liy  whose  liberality  the  monument 
was  erected,  will  feci  that  he  has  a  name  which  will  endure  so  long  as  there 
exists  a  record  of  tlie  triumphs  of  tlic  British  engineer. 

It  would  be  vain  to  expect  that  an  annual  meeting  should  ever  recur  with- 
out the  council  having  to  lament  the  removal  liy  death  of  some  who,  by  their 
actpiiremcnts,  or  by  their  associations  of  friendship,  were  endeared  to  the  In- 
stitution. On  the  present  occasion  the  council  have  to  lament  the  death  of 
\o»r  members,  Mr.  David  Logan  ami  .\lr.  Henry  Ilabbciley  Price,  and  of 
your  hoi\orary  member,  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert.  The  records  of  the  Institution 
contain  several  eommmiications  from  Mr.  Logan,  particularly  one  on  the  new 
Graving  Dock  at  Dmidee,  and  Mr.  H.  II.  Price  was,  when  in  tow  n,  a  constant 
attendant  at  the  meetings,  and  look  a  lively  interest  in  the  proceedings  and 
success  of  the  Institution.  Mr.  Davies  Gilliert  was,  by  his  writings  and  his 
influence,  a  great  benefactor  of  practical  science,  and  the  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society,  over  which  he  presided  for  three  years,  contain  several  papers 
of  great  value  to  the  practical  engineer.  lie  took  great  interest  in  the  in- 
troduction of  Mr.  Watt's  improvements  in  the  steam  engine  into  the  Cornish 
mines,  and  in  the  controversy  betwixt  Mr.  Watt  and  Mr.  Jonathan  Horn- 
blower  respecting  working  steam  expansively,  the  former  employing  one  cy- 
linder only,  the  latter  two  cylinders,  in  the  manner  afterwards  revived  by 
Woolf ;  the  theoretical  elKciency  of  the  two  methods  Ijcing  identical,  hut 
simplicity  and  mechanical  advantage  being  greatly  in  favour  of  the  former,  as 
its  present  universal  adoption  testifies.  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert  introduced  into 
jiraetical  mechanics  the  term  "  efficiency"  as  the  product  of  the  applied  force 
ami  of  tlie  space  through  which  it  acted  in  contradistinction  of  the  term 
"  duty,"  as  indicative  of  a  similar  function  of  the  work  performed.  His  at- 
tention was  also  directed  to  tire  theory  of  suspension  bridges,  when  the  plan 
for  making  such  communication  across  the  Menai  was  submitted  to  the  com- 
missioners appointed  by  paiUament.  It  appeared  to  him  that  tlie  proposed 
depth  of  curvature  of  the  catenai-y  was  not  sntlicient,  and  his  well-known 
theoretical  investigation  of  this  subject  was  undertaken  with  the  view  of  as- 
certaining this  fact ;  and  in  consequence  of  these  investigations,  the  interval 
between  the  points  of  support  of  the  chains  and  the  roadway  was  increased 
to  the  height  which  appeared  to  him  requisite  for  works  of  this  natm-e.  The 
labours  of  this  distinguished  individual  for  the  |H-omotion  of  science  were  un- 
remitting. He  was  the  founder  of  several  societies;  he  was  the  discoverer 
and  early  patron  of  the  talents  of  Davy ;  and  wliile  in  parliament  he  laboured 
most  assiduously  in  the  advancement  of  all  the  public  works.  Regret  for 
such  a  man,  exerting  the  power  of  bis  mind  so  advantageously  and  through 
so  many  years,  must  tlvvays  he  strong  and  sincere  ;  but  having  attained  the 
ordinary  limit  of  human  life,  he  sunk  into  the  grave  amidst  the  resjiect  and 
esteem  of  all  who  knew  him,  and  has  left  behind  him  a  name  which  will  ever 
bear  a  prominent  place  amidst  the  names  of  those  whose  lives  and  talents 
liave  beeu  devoted  to  great  aud  noble  purposes. 


GEOLOGICAL  SOCIETY. 

On  the  relative  Jyes  of  the  Tertiary  and  Posl-Tertiary  Deposits  of  tits 
Basin  of  the  Clyde,  by  James  Smith,  Esq.,  of  Jordan  Hill. 

Ill  former  communieatious  Mr.  Smith  showed  that  deposits  in  the  basin  of 
the  Clyde  had  been  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea  during  very  recent 
geological  epochs,  aud  that  some  of  these  beds  contain  tcstacea  wliieh  indi« 
cate  the  prevalence,  during  the  period  of  their  accumulation,  of  a  colder 
climate  in  Scotland  than  exists  at  present.  In  this  paper  he  confines  his  re- 
marks to  subsequent  observations,  which  afford  most  satisfactory  evidence 

that  these  eouiparatively  mailera  deposits  are  divisaWe  iutg  two  distinct 


formations,  dift'ering  in  their  fauna,  and  separated  by  a  wide  interval  of  time. 
In  the  older  of  these  formations  Mr.  Smith  has  found  from  10  to  15  per  cent, 
of  extinct  or  unknown  species  of  tcstacea ;  but  in  the  newer  only  such  shells 
as  inhabit  the  British  seas.  He  accordingly  places  the  former  among  the 
newest  pliocene  or  pleistocene  deposits  of  Mr.  Lyell,  and  the  latter  among 
the  post-tertiary  series.  Both  of  these  accumulations,  be,  nevertheless,  con- 
siders to  be  older  than  the  human  period.  In  the  lowest  part  of  the  pleisto- 
cene formation  of  the  basin  of  the  Clyde,  Mr.  Smith  places  the  unstratified 
mass  of  clay  and  boulders,  locally  called  "  till,"  and  in  tlie  upper,  which  rests 
upon  it,  the  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  and  cliiy,  containing  marine  shells,  a  portion 
of  which  arc  extinct  or  unknown.  He  is  of  oiiiiiion  that  some  of  the  similar 
accumulations  in  the  basins  of  the  Forth  and  the  Tay,  will  probably  prove  to 
lie  of  the  same  age,  as  well  as  the  elevated  terraces  of  Glenroy,  recently  shown 
by  Mr.  Darwin  to  be  of  marine  origin.  He  is  also  convinced  that  a  very 
great  jiroportion  to  the  superficial  beds  of  sand,  gravel,  and  clay  will  be  as- 
certained to  be  tertiary,  although  the  absence  of  organic  remains  must  rentier 
it  difficult  to  obtain,  on  all  occasions,  satisfactory  evidence.  During  the  post- 
tertiary  epoch,  or  while  the  beds  containing  only  existing  tcstacea  were  accu- 
mulated, changes  of  level  in  the  liasin  of  the  Clyde  must  have  taken  ]ilaec 
to  the  amount  of  forty  feet;  but  during  the  human  period  no  change  appears 
to  have  occurred. 

The  paper  concludes  with  a  list  of  the  fossil  shells  obtained  by  Mr.  Smith, 
and  not  found  living  in  the  British  seas,  or  of  doubtful  existence  in  them. 
The  mindicr  of  the  species  is  twenty-four — six  of  which  occur  in  the  crag  of 
England,  three  in  the  most  recent  tcrtiar-y  strata  of  Sweden,  and  seven  in  a 
living  state  in  the  North  seas. 

On  the  noxious  Gases  emitted  from  the  Chalk  and  ovcrlyinrj  Strata  in  sink' 
inij  U'ells  near  London,  by  Dr.  Mitchell. 

The  most  abundant  deleterious  gas  in  the  chalk  is  the  carbonic  acid,  and 
it  is  said  to  occur  in  greater  quantities  in  the  lower  than  the  upper  division 
of  the  formation.  The  dislrilmtion  of  it,  however,  in  that  portion  of  the 
series  is  very  unequal,  it  having  been  found  to  issue  in  eonsiderahlc  volumca 
from  one  stratum,  while  from  those  immediately  above  aud  beneath  none  was 
emitted.  Sulphuretted  hydrogen  and  carburctted  hydrogen  gases  sometimea 
occm-  where  the  chalk  is  covered  with  sand,  and  London  clay,  as  well  as  in 
other  situations.  In  making  the  Thames  Tunnel  they  have  been  both  occa- 
sionally given  out,  and  some  inconvenience  has  been  experienced  by  the 
workmen,  but  in  no  instance  have  the  ctfects  been  fatal.  In  the  districts 
where  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  occurs  the  discharge  increases  considerably 
after  long-continued  rain,  the  water  forcing  it  out  from  the  cavities  in  which 
it  had  accumulated.  The  paper  contained  several  cases  of  well-diggers  hav- 
ing been  sullbcated  from  not  using  proper  precantions. 

The  tables  of  the  Meeting-room  and  the  Library  were  covered  with  dona- 
tions of  specimens  and  books. 

Wednesday,  November  20. 

Four  communications  were  read. 

An  extract  from  a  letter  addressed  to  Dr.  Andrew  Smith  by  Mr.  A.  G. 
Bain,  dated  Graham  Tomi,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Feb.  2\sf,  1839,  announcing 
the  discovery  of  the  skull  and  piths  of  the  horns  of  an  ox  in  an  alluvial  de- 
posit on  the  banks  of  the  Jlodder,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Orange  River, 
and  forty  feet  below  the  surface  of  tiic  ground.  The  piths  measured,  in  the 
direction  of  their  cunatnre,  and  including  the  breadth  of  tlic  os  frontis, 
eleven  feet  seven  inches,  but  it  is  calculated  tliat  about  five  inches  had  been 
broken  oft'  each  point.  Their  cu'cumference  at  the  root  was  eighteen  inches, 
and  tlie  orbits  are  described  as  situated  immediately  under  the  base  of  the. 
born.  Other  portions  of  the  head,  and  five  molar'  teeth,  were  found  at  the 
same  time. 

On  tlie  Oriyin  of  the  Vegetation  of  our  Coal-Fields  and  Wealdeyis,  by  J.  T. 
Barber  Beaumont,  Esq. 

The  author  of  the  communication  is  of  opinion,  that  the  jilants  discovered 
in  the  coal  measures  were  not  drifted  into  large  estuaries  and  there  sunk,  but 
that  they  grew  where  they  are  found,  and  that  the  districts  now  forming  our 
coal-fields  were  originally  islands.  The  principal  objections  advanced  in  the 
paper,  against  the  theory  of  the  transportation  of  the  plants  by  great  rivers, 
are,  that  such  bodies  of  water  would  have  requii-ed  for  then-  existence  exten- 
sive continents,  of  which  there  .-ue  no  traces ;  that,  as  the  coal  strata  near 
Newcastle  are  380  yards  in  thickness,  the  depth  of  the  estuary  must,  in  that 
case,  have  exceeded  six  times  the  mean  depth  of  the  German  t)cean ;  that  the 
formation  surrounding  the  coal-fields  are  of  marine  origin,  aud  bear'  no  traces 
of  having  been  dry  land  at  the  same  time  the  coal  aud  its  associated  strata 
were  accumulated  ;  and  that  the  freshness  of  the  plants  is  opposed  to  the 
view  of  their  having  been  drifted  from  a  distance,  and  sunk  in  a  deep  estuary 
— a  process  which  must  have  been  accompanied  by  a  certain  extent  of  decay 
in  the  plants.  Mr.  Beaumont  then  briefly  proposes  the  following,  as  a  pre- 
ferable theory  to  account  for  the  production  of  the  coal-fields  : — He  supposes 
that  they  were  originally  swampy  islands,  on  which  plants  flourished,  and  in 
part  decayed  ;  that  the  islands,  during  the  settling  of  the  earth's  crust,  were 
submerged,  and  covered  with  drifted  clay,  sand,  and  shells,  whicli  buried  the 
plants;  that  these  accumulations  gradually  raised  the  surface  of  sunken 
islands  till  it  again  became  dry  land,  and  adapted  for  the  growth  of  another 
series  of  plants ;  and  that  these  processes  were  repeated  as  efteu  as  there  are 
alternations  of  coal  and  strata  of  earthy  sediment. 

0  2 


100 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[M. 


On  llii:  Fossil  Fishes  iif  the  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire  Coal-Fiehls.  by  Mr- 
AV.  C.  'Williamson. 

AVithiu  the  last  four  years  tlio  coal  measures  of  tliese  countries  Ijave  as- 
Miiued  a  zoological  inii>orlance.  wliicli  previously  they  were  not  sup|ioseil  to 
])Ossess.  In  Lancasliiru  ictliyolites  have  been  lately  found  to  jicrvadc  the 
whole  of  the  series  from  the  Anhvick  limestone  to  the  uiillstone  grit,  and  in 
Yorkshire  they  liave  also  been  obtained  in  great  abundance.  On  comparing 
the  specimens  procured  at  Middleton  colliery,  near  Leeds,  with  the  fossil 
fishes  of  Lancasliire,  the  author  detected  the  following  as  common  to  both 
coal-fields,  viz.  ; — Viplothia  f/ihhosus,  Ctenoptyehits  pectinatits,  Mfijalicfhys, 
lUbberlii,  Gi/rardiilhiis  fornwsiis :  also,  remains  of  api)arentl)'  species  of 
Holoptycliub  and  Platysomus  ;  but  he  has  obtained  some  ictliyolites  in  the 
Yorkshire  field  which  he  has  not  seen  in  the  Lancashire,  and  he  is  of  npini(m 
that  tlie  latter  deposits  are  characterised  by  the  greater  prevalence  of  lepidoid 
fishes,  and  the  former  by  sauroid.  These  remains,  excejit  in  the  case  of  the 
Ardwiek  limestone,  always  occur  in  highly  bitundnous  shale,  anil  they  are 
most  abundant  where  it  is  finely  grained,  and  in  general  where  jilants  are 
least  numerous.  This  distinction  in  the  relative  abundance  of  ictliyolites  and 
vegetables,  Mr.  AVilliainson  conceives  may  throw  some  additional  liglit  upon 
the  circumstances  under  which  the  coal  formations  were  aeeumidated.  The 
tislies  are  found  chiefly  in  the  roof  of  the  coal,  rarely  in  the  seam  itself,  and 
not  often  in  its  floor.  .Mr.  Williamson,  in  conclusion,  makes  some  remarks 
on  the  manner  in  which  ictliyolites  are  associated  with  the  otlier  fossils  of 
the  coal  measures.  .\.t  Burdiehouse  they  occur  in  the  midst  of  freshwater 
shells  and  Cypris  ;  at  Coalbrook  Dale  with  marine  testacea ;  in  the  lov\  er  coal 
measure  of  Lancashire,  not  far  from  the  beds  containing  Gonialites  IJsteri, 
and  Pecten popiiraceiis ;  higher  in  the  same  field,  and  in  Yorkshire,  they  are 
associated  with  freshwater  shells ;  at  Middleton  with  Lingula; ;  and  at  the  top 
of  the  series  in  Lancasliire  and  Derbyshire  with  Mytili  and  Melaniic. 

-'/  paper  on  the  Geoloffi/  around  the  Shores  of  Waterford  Iluren,  by  T. 
Austin,  Esq. 

As  the  object  of  this  communication  is  to  describe  topogra])hically  the 
structure  of  the  shores  of  Waterford  Haven,  its  details  do  not  admit  of 
abridgment.  The  formation  composing  the  district  are  mountain  limestone, 
a  conglomerate,  clay-slate,  and  trap,  the  limestone  and  conglomerate  consti- 
tuting the  greater  portion  of  the  east  side  of  the  Haven,  and  the  conglom- 
erate the  opposite. 


REVIE'tVS. 


On  Steam- Boilers  and  Stiam-E7ighits.  By  Josiah  Parkes.  Trans- 
actions of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  vol  3.  London :  J. 
Weale.     1840. 

PART    II.  . —  ON     STEAM-ENGINES,     PRINCIPALLY     WITH     REFEREKCE     TO 
THEIR    CONSUMPTION    OF   STEAM    AND    FUEL. 

In  our  Number  for  July  last  vpe  noticed  the  part  of  tliis  investiga- 
tion, which  treated  of  the  cjualities  of  steam-boilers,  and  of  the  influ- 
ence exercised  over  evaporation  by  their  proportions  and  practical 
nianagemenf.  Of  that  part  we  considered  the  only  value  to  consist  in 
the/acts  therein  recorded. 

In  the  introduction  to  this  part  the  autlior  makes  the  following  very 
sensible  observation : 

"  The  generation  and  application  of  steam  are  distinct  jiroblems; 
they  rerpiire  to  be  separately  treated,  and  their  results  to  be  separately 
stated.  It  is  the  economy  of  steam  whicli  constitutes  the  dynamic 
perfection  of  an  engine  ;  it  is  the  ecunomy  of  heat  in  supplying 
steam  to  an  engine  ;  which  constitutes  the  evaporative  Derfection  of 
a  boiler  ;  and  it  is  only  by  distinguishing  the  effects  of  e  cli,  that  the 
valui-  of  any  change  of  |u-actice,  in  cither  department,  can  be  correctly 
ascertained." 

Now,  although  there  may  be  few,  if  any  practical  e  ineers,  who 
would  be  disposed  to  doubt  the  truth  of  this  remark,  yet  we  are  per- 
suaded that  it  is  not  in  general  duly  appreciated,  or  at  least,  that  very 
little  attention  is  paid  to  it  by  them. 

The  author  has  divided  this  part  into  two  ])ortions :  in  the  first, 
which  occupies  about  one-fourth  of  the  whole,  he  has  mvestigated  the 
atmospheric,  the  stationary  non-condensing,  or  the  high-pressure, 
the  low-pressure  condensing,  and  the  Cornish  high-pressure  expan- 
sive pumping  etigines.  The  facts  established  on  these  four  varieties 
are  collected  and  exhibited  in  a  comprehensive  table,  (table  i>.)  The 
last  three-fourths  of  the  work  are  dedicated  solely  to  the  locomotive 
engine,  the  chief  part  tending  to  prove  the  inaccuracy  of  all  the  esti- 
mations which  have  hitherto  been  made  of  the  several  resistances 
which  have  to  be  overcome  by  that  variety  of  engine.  Tlie  author 
has,  liowever,  also  developed  ■.I'ncw  Ihury  «/  Ik  hcomotirc  (iigim,  the 
fallacy  of  which  will  be  at  once  evident  to  the  scientific  reader;  but 
its  plausibility  might  induce  the  practical  man  (who  has  not  the 
means  of  detecting  theoretical  errors,)  to  put  implicit  faith  in  its  cor- 


rectness. For  his  sake,  therefore,  we  shall  feel  it  necessary  to  take 
more  notice  of  this  new  theory  than  we  sliould  otherwise  have  done. 

The  two  sections  in  which  the  author  treats  of  the  methods  e m- 
plot/id  til  diltrniine  Ihe  j-vKer  of  ingints,  and  »/  the  mdinnren  of  ijf'tcl, 
present  nothing  worthy  of  notice  ;  but  in  the  next  section,  which 
treats  nf  l/ie  expendtlnre  ti/pon'er,  we  have  to  ])oint  out  an  error,  which 
we  thought  to  be  already  so  thoroughly  eradicated,  that  it  could 
never  more  find  its  way  into  any  work  having  the  slightest  ])retensions 
to  science.     This  section  coniniences  thus: 

"  Tile  ponderable  element  of  steam  is  water:  its  consnnijjtion  by  an 
engine  is  appreciable  ;  and  it  is  now  assumed,  almost  universally,  that 
the  sum  of  its  imponderable  element,  heat,  is  a  constant  quantity,  in 
steann  of  all  specific  gravities.  The  elastic  force  of  steam  is  also  ge- 
nerally assumed  to  be  proportional  to  its  density  ;  thus,  ei)ual  amounts 
of  heat  and  water  are  expended  in  the  generation  of  equal  power,  at 
wdiatever  pressure  steam  be  used  by  an  engine." 

We  adtnit  the  first  assumption,  that  the  quantity  of  heat  contained 
in  a  given  weight  of  steam  is  a  constant  quantity,  whatever  may  be 
its  density ;  but  it  is  not  a  fact,  as  Mr.  Parkes  assests,  that  the  elastic 
force  of  steam  is  also  generally  assumed  to  be  proportional  to  its  den- 
sity :  indeed  a  comparison  of  the  numbers  given  in  the  table,  (page 
122,)  which  he  himself  took  from  M.  de  Pamhour's  Ki/r  T lieu nj  of  tlie 
SUetm  Engine,  would  have  convinced  him  at  once  that  that  assertion 
was  not  well  founded.  For  we  there  find  the  volume  of  steam  formed 
from  a  volume  of  water  equal  to  unify  is  equal  to  2427,  when  gene- 
rated under  a  pressure  of  lUlbs.  on  the  square  inch  ;  and  G"?,  when 
generated  under  a  pressure  of  4(Jlb.  We  ought,  therefore,  to  have  , 
since  these  volume  are  inversely  proportional  to  the  density  of  the 
steatn, 

10  :  40  :  :  G77  :  2427, 

which  would  give,  by  making  the  product  of  the  means  equal  to  that 
of  the  extremes, 

24270  =  27080, 
which  is  absurd.     The   conclusion  drawn  from  this  law  is  therefore 
also  false ;  wherefore   equal  amounts   of  heat  and   water  are  not  ex- 
pended  in  the  generation  of  equal  power,  when  the  steam  is   used 
at  different  pressures. 

In  tliis  same  section,  (page  f),"!,)  the  author  tells  us  that 

"  By  knowing  the  evaporation  from  the  boilers,  and  consequeutly, 
the  weight  of  water  as  steam  which  passes  through  an  engine,  we 
grasp  the  principal  fact  of  practical   consequence  to  the  engineer ;   a 

fact  which  is  free  from  all  uncertainty  in  its  nature ; 

and  the  weight  of  water,  which  has  passed  from  the  boiler  in  that 
state,  and  produced  a  given  effect,  appeals  conclusively  to  the  under- 
standing as  indicative,  in  a  comparison  of  engines,  of  their  respective 
economy  in  the  expenditure  of  power." 

This  does  not  seem  very  consistent  with  what  he  says  on  the  sub- 
ject in  the  first  section,  (page  .■J2,)  where,  speaking  of  this  method 
of  determining  the  power  of  engines,  he  observes,  that  "  as  its 
value  deiiends  on  a  perfect  accordance  between  the  results  of  experi- 
mental and  practical  seience — an  accordance  yet  unascertained, — and 
since  many  precautions  are  requisite  to  secure  true  results  from  this 
test,  it  has  been  seldom  resorted  to  by  practical  tnen." 

The  discordance  between  these  two  cjuotations  is  most  remarkable, 
and  the  ivaragraph  which  follows  the  latter  leaves  no  room  to  doubt 
that  the  basis  of  the  method  there  alluded  to  is  the  identical  fact 
which  he  says  is/ree/roni  all  uncertainty  in  its  natnn,  Ike. 

In  the  table  already  alluded  to,  (table  G,)  will  be  found  many  results 
computed  from  the  data  furuisheil  by  experiment,  which,  if  correct, 
will  be  of  great  jjractical  utility  to  the  engineer.  Among  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  weight  of  water  as  steam  equivalent  to  the  produc- 
tion of  a  horse  power  in  each  engine,  and  also,  the  duty  effected  by 
one  pound  of  steam.  "  These  sums,  (cohnnns  U  and  IG,")  the  author 
observes  denote  the  positive  and  relative  efficiency  of  sleam  in  the 
different  "  engines  ;"  and  here  we  recognize  the  pen  of  Mr.  Parkes  in 
the  signification  he  gives  to  the  word  relative,  it  being  liere  used  to 
express  the  inverse  of  positive.  Thus  the  relatirc  efficiency  of  the 
steam  decreases  in  ]irecisely  the  same  ratio  as  its  yjos//;r£  efficiency 
increases,  which  we  finddillicult  to  comprehend  with  our  ])reconceived 
notions  of  the  meaning  of  the  word  relatin.  We  should  have  thought, 
for  instaifce,  that  ii'  lUe  jjostli re  eflicieucy  of  the  steam  in  a  given 
engine  were  equal  to  a,  and  in  a  second  engine  to  b,  its  relative  effi- 
ciency in  the  first  in  comparison  with    the   second  would  be  -,  and 

that  if,  the  positive  efficiency  b,  remaining  the  same,  that  if  the 
engine  were  increased  from  a  to  2  a,  its  relative  efficiency  would  also, 


be  increased  from  -  to 
b 


,  or  in  the  same  ratio  as  its  2}osilive  effici- 


ency,   The  true  nlative  efficiency  both  of  the  steam  and  of  the  fuel  is 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


101 


however,  given  in  columns  21  and  22,  under  the  head  Comparative 
fcoiiomical  results. 

The  next  section,  which  treats  of  t/ie proportion  nf  boilers  to  engines, 
in  our  opinion  serves  ratlier  to  confuse  and  perplex  tlie  reader,  and 
to  deprive  him  of  confidence  intlie  numbers  set  down  in  the  table,  than 
to  render  him  any  assistance  in  drawing  practical  conclusions  from 
them.  We  had  intended  to  make  a  few  observations  on  particular 
parts  of  this  section;  but  having  vainly  endeavoured  to  follow  the 
intricate  reasoning  of  the  second  phragraph,  and  finding  nothing  of 
any  importance  in  the  rest,  we  shall  merely  direct  attention  to  column 
20,  which  will  appear  on  the  slightest  examination  to  throw  no  light 
whatever  on  the  economical  qualities  of  either  boilers  or  engines. 

In  tlie  observations  on  the  exptrinitnts  and  t/uir  results,  which  follow 
this  section,  there  is  nothing  worthy  of  notice  before  the  Gist  page, 
from  which  we  quote  the  following  paragraph,  in  order  to  shew  how 
necessary  it  is  to  sift  with  the  utmost  care  all  the  results  tabulated  in 
this  work. 

"  It  is  necessar}',  also,  to  guard  against  conclusions  which  might  be  de- 
duced, from  a  comparison  of  the  effects  of  the  Cornish  engines  in  the  table, 
with  the  pressures  on  the  piston  and  degrees  of  expansion,  set  down  in 
columns  5  and  C.  The  pressures  given  were  not  ascertained  by  any  instru- 
ment, (excepting  at  Huel  Towan,)  and  must  he  considered  only  as  estimations, 
not  as  facts.  The  pressure  upon  the  piston  during  the  interval  which  occurs 
between  the  first  admission  of  steam  into  the  cylinder,  and  the  instant  of 
shutting  it  off,  may  be  very  variable  ;  that  it  was  so,  in  several  engines  to 
which  Mr.  llenwood  applied  the  indicator,  is  evident  from  the  diagrams  he 
has  given,  annexed  to  his  paper.  (Trans.  Inst.  C.  E.  Vol.  II.)  At  the  lluel 
Towan  engine,  when  the  steam  in  the  boilers  was  at  a  pressure  of  t/'l  lbs. 
above  the  atmosphere,  it  varied  from  12-3  lbs.  to  7-3  lbs.  per  square  inch  on 
the  piston,  during  its  admission  into  the  cylinder  ;  which  latter  was  its  elastic 
force,  at  the  instant  of  closing  the  steam-valve.  1  adduce  tliese  facts,  with 
the  view  of  showing  the  impossibihty  of  determining  the  precise  amount  of 
prssme  on  the  piston,  from  the  degree  oi  irire-rlrmr'mg  the  steam  ;  and  as  a 
caution  against  expectations  of  deducing  any  valid  theory  of  the  action  of 
the  steam,  in  these  Cornish  engines,  from  the  particulars  of  pressure  and  ex- 
pansion, contained  in  the  table,  which  are  only  approximations  to  the  truth." 

Mr.  Parkes  does  not  seem  to  have  compared  the  numbers  contained 
columns  (>  and  14,  otherwise  he  never  could  have  considered  the 
above  caution  necessary  ;  for  the  anomalies  which  would  be  found  to 
result  from  the  adoption  of  the  numbers  there  set  down  are  so  striking 
that  it  would  soon  be  discovered  that  either  the  pressure  of  steam  on 
the  piston,  or  the  consumption  of  water  as  steam  is  incorrectly  given; 
and  it  would  certainly  not  occur  to  any  one  to  deduce  any  theory  of 
the  action  of  the  steam  from  such  conflicting  data.  A  superficial  exa- 
mination of  experiments  7  and  9  will  give  an  idea  of  the  confidence 
whicli  can  be  placed  in  the  numbers  contained  in  the  table. 

The  diameters  of  the  cylinders  of  these  two  engines  are  equal,  but 
the  latter  has  four  inches  greater  length  of  stroke ;  the  steam  is  also 
admitted  into  the  cylinder  of  the  latter  during  one-fourth  of  the 
stroke,  while  in  the  former  it  is  cut  oft"  at  one-fifth;  but,  since  the 
latter  only  makes  4*29  strokes  per  minute,  while  the  former  makes 
5"35,  the  volume  of  steam  consumed  in  an  hour  should  have  been 
about  equal  in  the  two  experiments.  Now  the  ]n'essure  of  the  steam 
before  the  expansion  is  given  as  7-3  lbs.  per  sqirare  inch  in  the  former 
case,  and  27  lbs.  in  the  hitter  case,  above  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
volume  of  steam  generated  from  a  given  volume  of  water  under  these 
two  pressures  is  respectively  proportioned  to  the  numbers  1 173  and 
Go3 ;  the  consumption  of  water  as  steam  must  therefore  be  nearly 
inversely  as  these  two  numbers,  and  taking  the  consumption  per  hour 
in  the  former  experiment  at  2ir)G-21  lbs.,  as  in  tlie  table,  the  consump- 
tion in  the  latter  experiment  ought  to  be  about  3s73-2r>  lbs.,  whereas 
it  is  given  in  the  table  as  only  972"G2,  or  very  little  more  than  one- 
fourth  part  of  what  it  ought  to  be.  We  conclude  from  this  that  the 
numbers  set  down  in  column  G  are  of  no  value  whatever,  as  they  do 
not  appear  to  represent  the  true  pressure  on  the  pistons :  nor  indeed 
is  it  probable  that  the  steam  should  lose  so  much  as  42  lbs.  of  its 
pressure  in  passing  from  the  boiler  to  the  cylinder,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Huel  Towan  engine,  experiment  7.  (See  columns  G  and  7.)  If 
wire-drawing  is  really  carried  to  such  an  extent  in  the  Cornish  en- 
gines, it  is  a  proof  of  sad  mismanagement ;  for,  if  it  is  necessary  to 
throttle  the  steam  to  such  a  degree,  in  order  to  reduce  it  to  the  desired 
pressure  in  the  cylinder,  it  is  very  evident  that  the  load  on  the  safety- 
valve  might  be  diminished,  and  the  steam  thus  generated  at  a  lower 
temperature,  the  advantages  of  which  are  too  obvious  to  need  point- 
ing out  here. 

Jlr.  Parkes  does  not  seem  very  confident  of  the  advantage  of  the 
Cornish  (expansive)  system  of  using  steam  in  manufacturing  engines 
requiring  uniformity  of  motion,  and  seems  to  approve  of  the  method 
recommended  by  Mr.  Wicksteed  in  such  cases, — (see  the  Journal  for 
January,)  namely  to  employ  a  Coraish  engine  to  raise  water  up  on  a 


wheel,  and  thus  transfer  its  power  to  machinery.  Now,  although  the 
momentum  of  such  machinery  is  but  trifling,  an  equivalent  is  easily 
found  in  a  fly-wheel,  and  the  want  of  uniformitv  in  the  action  of  the 
steam  is  probably  not  so  great  as  may  be  supposed. 

We  agree  with  the  author  that  the  pound  of  water  as  steam  con- 
sumed by  an  engine  is  the  most  convenient  and  correct  standard  of 
duty  which  can  be  adopted,  provided  we  know  the  true  quantity  of 
water  which  passes  through  the  engine  in  the  form  of  steam. 

The  first  division  of  this  work  is  concluded  with  a  chapter  on  the 
Constituent  Heat  of  Steam,  \n  which  the  author  describes  a  series  of 
experiments  made  by  himself,  the  results  of  which  confirm  the  already 
generally  admitted  law,  that  eqiud  weights  of  water  absorb  equal 
quantities  of  heat  in  passing  from  the  liquid  to  the  elastic  form,  under 
all  pressures. 

The  remaining  portion  of  this  work,  which  treats  of  the  Locomotive 
Engine,  being  very  long  and  perplexing,  we  have  not  sufficient  leisure 
to  enter  into  a  detailed  examination  of  all  the  difficulties  and  doubts, 
opinions  and  arguments  contained  in  it ;  we  must,  therefore,  content 
ourselves  with  a  few  general  remarks. 

The  greater  part  is  occupied  by  an  examination  of  the  experiments 
of  M.  de  Pambour,  Mr.  Robert  Stephenson,  Mr.  Nicholas  Wood,  and 
Dr.  Lardner;  the  object  of  this  examinution  being  apparently  to  con- 
vince the  reader  of  the  inaccuracy  of  some  of  the  results  of  experi- 
ment, and  of  alt  the  deductions  hitherto  drawn  from  them,  and  to  pre- 
pare him  for  the  reception  of  a  we/y //if ori/ of  his  own,  which  he  lays 
down  in  a  separate  section  near  the  end  of  the  work. 

It  is  very  certain  that  the  experiments  hitherto  made  on  locomotives 
are  too  few  in  number,  and  too  imperfect  in  their  nature  to  allow  of 
any  certain  theory  of  their  action  being  as  yet  deduced  from  them  ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  we  have  no  doubt  that  a  careful  investigation 
of  Mr.  Parkes'  objections  would  bring  many  fallacies  to  light,  which 
might  otherwise  have  the  eft'ect  of  unjustly  shaking  our  confidence  in 
the  results  previously  obtained  and  published  by  other  authors.  As 
an  instance  we  shall  merely  cite  the  comparison  he  has  instituted  be- 
tween two  of  M.  de  Pambour's  experiments,  (pages  9a  and  follow- 
ing,) wliich  were  made  with  the  same  engine  (AtlasJ  at  two  different 
speeds,  and  with  corresponding  loads.  Mr.  Parkes,  in  his  detailed 
calculation  of  the  ettects  produced  in  these  two  cases,  omits,  without 
assigning  any  reason  for  so  doing,  to  include  the  pressure  on  the 
back  of  the  piston,  which  is  undoubtedly  a  part  of  the  resistance,  and 
therefore  the  power  expended  in  moving  this  resistance  at  the  ve- 
locity of  the  piston,  is  a  part  of  the  gross  power  of  the  engine,  or  of 
the  total  effect  of  the  steam.  With  this  omission  Mr.  Parkes  finds  the 
absolute  (or  gross)  power  of  the  steam  equal  to  G7'1I  horse  power  in 
the  first  case,  where  the  velocity  was  20-34  miles  an  hour,  and  59' 50 
in  the  second,  where  the  velocity  was  27-09,     (See  page  9.5.) 

In  these  two  experiments  M.  de  Pambour  gives  the  same  effective 
evaporation,  namely,  -77  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  per  minute  ;  and  it 
is  to  prove  the  impossibility  of  this  fact  that  Mr.  Parkes  made  the 
above  comparison;  for  he  observes  (page  99) ;  "To  be  consistent, 
however,  with  his  own  (M.  de  Pambour's)  rule  above  quoted,  viz. 
that  '  the  weights  of  water  consumed  as  steam  are  to  each  other  as 
the  resistances  against  the  piston,'  it  is  obvious  that  if,  in  the  first 
case,  302(i  lbs.  of  steam  passed  through  the  cylinders  in  an  hour, 
2 IGG  lb.  only  would  have  been  expended  in  the  second  case."  Now 
this  assertion  is  not  even  justified  by  his  own  calculations,  for  M.  de 
Pambour  evidently  did  not,  nor  could  he  mean  to  say  that  the  weight 
uf  steam  which  passes  through  the  cylinder  in  a  given  time  is  propor- 
tional to  the  resistance,  whatever  may  be  the  speed  of  the  engine,  which 
would  obviously  be  absurd,  but  that  the  density  of  the  steam,  and  tliere- 
fore  the  weight  which  passes  through  the  cylinder  in  a  given  number 
of  strokes,  or  which  is  the  same  thing,  in  travelling  over  a  given 
distance,  is  proportional  to  the  resistance.  The  consumption  of  water 
in  a  given  time  would  thus  be  directly  as  the  product  of  the  resistance 
by  the  velocity,  or  the  gross  power  of  the  engine ;  so  that,  if  this 
power  is  equal  in  the  two  cases,  so  ought  also  the  evaporation  per- 
minute. 

The  effect  of  the  steam  in  overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  atmos- 
phere on  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston  is  equal  to  25"25  horse 
power  in  the  first  case,  and  to  3G-77  in  the  second,  wliich,  added  to 
G7-11  and  59-5U,  found  by  Mr.  Parkes,  respectively  give  92-3  J  and9G-27 
horse  power  as  the  gross  etti?ct  of  the  steam  in  the  two  cases.  The 
near  coincidence  of  these  two  numbers  shews  that  in  this  case  at  least 
there  is  no  validity  in  Mr.  Parkes'  objections.  We  should  therefore 
recommend  a  most  diligent  and  patient  examination  of  this  section, 
before  the  adoption  of  any  opinion  therein  expressed,  or  the  rejection 
of  any  others  previously  entertained. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  a  }iew  tlieonj  of  the  locomotive  engine 
proposed  by  the  author  of  this  work :  the  section  in  which  he  ex-" 
plains  this  theory  commences  (page  124)  thus : 


102 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


"  Ol'    MOMENTUM    AS    A    MEASURE    OF    THE    KFKKCT    OK    LOCOMOTIVE 
ENGINES. 

"  Tlie  cfl'ectivc  power  of  a  locoiuotivc  engine — l)y  which  is  meant  (lie  ex- 
cess of  power  after  overcoming  its  proper  friction,  and  llie  resistance  from 
Jlie  lilast — is  solely  expended  in  the  generation  of  nnnncntnm.  The  momen- 
tum communicated  to  tlie  cidire  mass  set  in  nnUimi  represents  the  nsefnl 
mechanical  effort  exerted  liy  the  steam;  this  clfect  of  tlie  engine  is,  there- 
fore, at  all  limes  delerndnahle ;  for,  licing  the  simple  prodnct  of  the  mass 
moved,  nudliplied  into  its  velocity,  it  is  the  prodnct  of  two  ipianlities  easily 
ascestained  nnder  all  the  practical  drcnmslances  of  railway  trattic.  The  con- 
sumption of  jjower,  as  water  in  the  shape  of  steam,  is  a  third  (juantity  also 
readily  apiireciahle. 

"  Were  it  pussihlc  to  work  a  locomotive  engine  and  its  train  ik  vacuo,  on  a 
truly  lc\cl  plane,  the  momentum  generated  hy  au  cfpial  exjienditure  of  power 
woidil  ho  a  constant  (|nantity  at  all  velocities;  for,  the  resistance  hcing  in- 
\arialilc,  ecpial  momenta  would  he  produced  liyan  ennal  expenditure  of  i)owcr 
with  all  loads,  as  the  velocity  attained  would  he  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the 
loads,  ami  vice  versa.  This  hypothetical  case  sii]iposes  friction  and  resist- 
ance of  all  kinds  to  he  constant." 

Tills  is  not  only  a  new  l/ituri/  of  the  locomotive  eiigini',  but  one 
vvliich  involves  a  new  dejinition  of  the  word  momtntam  ;  tor,  according 
to  the  |ircsent  acceptation  of  the  term,  nionicntmn  can  only  be  gtiie- 
)•((/£(/ during  an  acceleration  of  (he  moving  mass,  which  accelleration 
is  not,  and  ouglit  not  to  be  considered  in  locomotives,  nnless  the  time, 
in  vvliich  a  given  accession  of  velocity  is  also  taken  into  account  at 
the  same  time,  which  is  evidently  not  contemplated  by  Mr  Parkes. 
What  is  here  understood  by  the  mominliim  gtinraled  in  one  second,  is 
nothing  but  the  absoliilt  momentum  referred  to  the  second,  as  the  unity 
of  time,  which  is  deduced  from  the  uniform  velucitij  of  the  engine, 
williout  reference  to  the  time  in  which  it  acquired  that  velocity. 

Since  the  resistance  does  not  enter  into  this  expression  of  the  power- 
of  the  engine,  it  would  follow  tliat  the  same  engine  would  draw  the  same 
train  at  the  same  velocity,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  road  may  be  ; 
since  the  evaporation  being  the  same,  the  ])owcr  expended  must  be 
the  same ;  and  since  tlie  mass  moved  is  the  same,  so  must  also  its 
velocity,  to  make  its  momentum  ecjual.  The  absurdity  of  this  doc- 
trine is  obvious. 

Tlie  next  section  contains  some  good  observations  on  Ihe  blast,  as 
well  as  some  experiments  made  by  tlie  author  on  the  resintance  jiro- 
cliiced  hy  it;  but  no  reliance  can  be  placed  in  the  results  tiiere  re- 
corded, some  of  them  being  evidently  impossible.  At  page  147  we 
read  the  following: 

"  The  immediate  cause  of  my  entering  on  these  experiments  is  worth  men- 
tioning. I  one  day  oliscrved  tlic  mechanic  in  care  of  the  machine,  wliilst 
pre|iaring  for  work,  opening  and  shutting  the  grease  cocks  of  a  cylinder,  and 
giving  oil  to  a  jiiston.  The  engines  were  then  working  without  load,  and  it 
was  evident  that  a  small  vacuum  existed  after  the  blast,  or  the  oil  would  have 
been  blown  hack  instead  of  entering  the  cylinder.  This  fact,  the  possibiUty 
of  which  had  not  before  struck  me,  induced  me  forthwith  to  order  another 
gauge  from  Mr,  Adie,  which  v^as  fixed  on  one  of  the  blast-pipes,  in  a  con- 
venient place  for  constant  observation,  about  2  J  feet  from  its  junction  with 
the  cylinder,  the  bnlh  being  exposed  to  the  full  current  of  the  escaping  steam. 
This  instrument  detected  the  fact  of  a  vacuum  by  marking,  usually,  a  teni- 
pcralnre  of  from  208"  to  210",  or  al)out  1  lb.  per  square  inch  below  the  at- 
mospheric pressure,  the  active  steam  on  the  piston  being  1 J  lb.  above  it. 
When  the  engine  was  driven  at  double  velocity,  or  at  120  revolutions  per 
minute,  at  which  speed  it  reipiired  about  Z\  lbs.  of  steam,  the  thermometer 
rose  to  211°,  and  when  locomotion  was  given  to  the  machine  at  the  usual 
velocity  of  00  revolutions  of  the  crank  shaft,  and  rcijuiring  4  llis.  in  the 
lidilcr,  the  blast  thermometer  stood  at  212  ,  exhibiting  a  pressure  equal  to 
the  atmosphere  only.  At  8  lbs.  on  the  piston,  a  couider  pressure  of  about 
2  Ills,  was  cxhibitecl,  at  15  lbs.,  about  4  lbs.,  and  at  20  lbs.  the  blast  thermo- 
meter indicated  G  lbs.,  bejond  which  point  I  was  unable  to  load  the  engines." 

In  his  observations  on  M.  de  Pambour's  experiments  (page  87),  Mr. 
Parkos  justly  remarked  that  a  racuum  on  t)ie  opposite  side  of  the 
piston  was  an  impossible  result,  and  this  remark  evidently  holds 
good  for  his  own  experiments  as  well  as  liis  deduction  from  those  of 
M.  de  Pambour. 

In  conclusion,  we  would  again  caution  our  readers  against  adopting 
the  conclusions  arrived  at  by  liy  Mr.  Parkes  without  first  submitting 
the  whole  of  his  work  to  the  strictest  scrutiny.  There  is  some,  and 
there  may  be  much  good  in  it ;  but,  having  detected  errors  of 
importance  in  some  parts,  we  cannot  depend  on  the  correctness  of 
that  which  we  liave  not  had  time  to  inquire  into. 

N'ery  great  merit  is  however  due  to  Mr.  Parkes  for  the  indefati- 
gable zeal  he  has  exhibited  in  the  compilation  of  data,  and  in  the 
comparison  of  results  therefrom  deduced,  which  must  have  cost  him 
much  time  and  labour,  with  the  praiseworthy  object  of  advancing  our 
yet  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  eft'ects  ancl  comparative  economy  of 
steam  engines. 


The  Uoval  Lodges  in  Windsor  Gre.vt  Park,  from  Drau-iiiijH  by 
II.  15.  ZiEGLER,  executed  hy  L.  Hague, /«  lllhoyropliy,  liy  e.rjjrcsi- command, 
for  Her  Gracious  Majesty  Queen  Victoria.    Folio.     Ackermann. 

Ifhy  "express  command"  we  arc  to  understand  more  than  a  mere  per- 
mission, all  we  can  say  is  that  we  caiiuot  possibly  conipUnient  "  Her  Gracious 
Majesty"  upon  her  taste,  for  while  considered  as  drawings,  the  plates  are  far 
from  rivalling  preceding  specimens  of  Uthography,  ,as  architectural  subjects 
they  arc  very  much  mure  unsatisfactory.  Indeed  it  seems  to  have  been  taken 
for  granted  that  the  less  that  was  said  about  these  buildings  the  better,  there 
being  no  description  or  information  of  any  sort  attached  to  the  jilates ;  there- 
fore, not  happening  to  be  acquainted  with  their  history,  wc  are  unable  to  say 
who  was  the  perpetrator  of  these  Cockney  whims  and  monstrosities — taste- 
less jumbles  of  cottage,  castle,  and  what  not,  without  a  single  redeeming 
merit  of  any  kmd,  dow  aright  paltriness,  and  utter  want  of  feeling  for  any  one 
of  the  styles  thus  attempted,  being  their  chief  characteristics. 

Scarcely  can  we  bring  ourselves  to  believe  that  Sir  Jelfry  M'yatville  was 
concerned  in  the  erection  of  this  architectural  tnunpcry ;  and  if  not,  he  would 
do  well  to  clear  himself  from  a  suspicion  which  is  very  likely  to  attach  itself 
to  him,  as  the  Royal  architect  at  Windsor.  Let  the  designs  have  been  by 
whomever  they  may,  they  ought  never  to  have  been  executed ;  and  it  fills  us 
with  concern  to  behold — emanating  from  what  ought  lobe  the  fountain  head 
of  taste,  such  specimens  of  it  as  would  he  excusable  only  in  some  suburban 
tea-garden.     But  for  their  feebleness  they  might  pass  for  arrant  caricatures. 


Arboretum  et  Fruticelnm  Britannicum ;  or,  the  Trees  and  Shrubs  o/ 
England.  By  J.  C.  Loudon,  F.L.  and  H.S.,  &c.  London:  Long- 
man and  Co.,  1S39,  8  vols.  Svo. 

The  name  of  Mr.  Loudon  suggests  the  idea  of  a  work  of  great  ex- 
tent, of  great  labour  and  research,  but  that  now  before  us  surpasses 
any  of  his  previous  triumphs.  It  bears  less  the  impress  of  an  indivi- 
dual production  than  of  a  national  work,  a  character  sustained  by  the 
number  and  value  of  its  contributors,  and  by  the  eagerness  with  winch 
all  ranks  devoted  themselves  to  the  promotion  of  a  task  so  noble.  The 
man  of  science  hastened  to  contribute  from  his  stores  of  knowledge, 
the  grandee  and  the  gentleman  threw  open  their  rich  collections,  or 
volunteered  at  their  own  expence  to  obtain  illustrations  for  the  work. 
From  the  duke  downwards  every  jiatron  and  amateur  of  horticultural 
science  seems  to  liave  considered  co-operation  in  the  work  a  lUily  and 
a  iileasure.  This  detracts  not  from  the  value  of  Mr.  Loudon's  labours, 
it  enhances  them,  and  is  a  high  proof  of  the  estimation  in  which  they 
are  held. 

This  work,  as  it  professes,  gives  a  pictorial  and  botanical  delineation, 
and  scientific  and  popular  description  of  the  native  and  foreign,  hardy 
and  half-hardy  trees  and  shrubs  of  England,  with  their  propagation, 
culture  and  management,  and  their  a))plication  in  landscape  gardening. 
To  Ihe  landscape  artist  trees  have  the  same  importance  as  details  of 
style  have  to  the  architect,  and  every  artist  and  amateur  is,  cinise- 
quently  under  an  obligation  to  possess  himself  of  this  cncyclopjrdia  of 
the  art.  The  letler-))rcss  in  the  old  times  nnglit  legitimately  have 
been  spun  out  to  twenty  volumes;  the  engravings  our  fathers  could 
never  have  compassed,  they  are  two  thousand  five  hundretl  in  number, 
and  are  executed  from  drawings  by  the  Sowcrbys,  and  other  botanists 
of  distinction.  Wc  have  only  one  fault  to  lind  w  ith  the  work,  and 
that  is,  that  wc  see  it  disfigured  with  a  barbarous  Latin  name. 

To  give  extracts  from  these  volumes  would  be  indeed  to  realize 
the  old  Greek  aiiophthegm  of  showing  a  brick  for  a  house,  so  that  we 
must  content  ourselves  with  expressing  our  feeling  of  the  value  of  Mr. 
Loudon's  labours,  and  with  recommending  this  admirable  work  to  all 
who  wish  to  follow  with  success  an  art  so  graml,  as  that  of  landscape 
gardening. 


Elementary  Principles  of  Carpentry,  illustrated  by  50  engravings  and 
several  mod-cuts.  By  Tho.mas  TuEDGOLn.  Third  edition,  with  an 
Appendix,  by  PiiTEU  Bahlow,  F.H.S.     London  :  John  Wcale,  ISIO. 

Tins  is  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  Tredgold's  work,  and  Jlr. 
Bariow  bases  his  chief  claim  for  its  value  as  much  on  the  proper  re- 
tention of  the  original  matter,  as  on  the  excellent  additions  which  he 
has  appended  to  it.  These  accessions  are  so  important  as  to  make 
the  new  edition  desirable  even  to  those  who  possess  the  work  in  its 
original   form.     Among  many   excellent  specimens   of  Foreign  and 

EnglisU  rooling  «ow  introtluced  ftom  tlie  liigUest  sywees,  inay  be  pat" 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


103 


ticulaily  mentioned  the  information  given  relative  to  that  admirable 
work  King's  College  Chapel,  drawn  by  Mackenzie,  and  St.  Dunstan's 
Church,  Fleet-street,  by  Shaw.  The  drawings  of  the  iron  roofs  exe- 
cuted by  the  Butterley  Iron  Works  Company  are  no  less  interesting, 
as  well  as  those  of  several  new  buildings  in  London.  We  do  not,  how- 
ever, so  much  admire  the  roof  of  the  Exchange  at  Genoa,  it  strikes  us 
as  sliowing  more  ingenuity  than  science.  We  shall  probably  notice 
this  work  more  at  large  next  month. 


^n  Eisny  on  the  Formation  of  Harbours  of  Refuge  and  the  Improve- 
ment of  the  Navigation  of  Rivers,  by  the  adoption  uf  Moored  Floa'ing 
Constructions  as  Breakwaters.    By  John  White,  Architect,  London. 

Air.  White  has  long  been  an  advocate  for  the  application  of  floating 
breakwaters,  and  we  think  that  he  appeals  successfully  to  his  readers, 
considering  that  their  own  experience  on  any  common  river  must  have 
convinced  thera  of  the  efficacy  of  such  a  mode  of  protection.  With 
the  appUcation  of  Mitchell's  Mooring  Screw  and  the  new  Wire  Cable, 
we  see  no  difliculty  in  carrying  out  Mr.  White's  plans  both  efficiently 
and  successfully. 

We  feel  indeljted  to  the  author  for  the  tribute  he  has  paid  to  our 
exertions  and  those  of  our  correspondents,  in  promoting  such  an  im- 
portant branch  of  engineering  as  harbour  construction,  but  no  feeling 
arising  from  this  tribute,  influences  us  in  the  expression  of  our  senti- 
ments of  the  high  value  of  this  work. 


THK,  RIVER  BOURN,  OR  INTERMITTING  SPRING  OF  THE 
NORTH  DOWNS. 


TiiF.  bursting  or  breaking  oiit  of  the  Bourn  wafer  about  two  months  since 
Gxcitod  some  attention  at  tlie  time,  on  account  of  tlic  interval  elapsed  since 
its  last  eruption  in  the  early  part  of  1837,  being  shorter  than  usual,  but  now 
CFel).  IG,)  that  the  waters  have  continued  to  flow  with  increased  volume,  and 
having  Hooded  the  v.alley  throufjh  which  it  passes,  together  with  the  lower 
part  of  Croydon,  railed  the  Old  Town,  and  the  turnpike  road,  it  hns  become 
a  serious  inconvenience.  This  intermitting  sprini^  is  situated  in  the  great 
ch.alk  range  which  stretches  in  an  east  and  west  direction  through  the  south- 
east of  FiOgland,  called  the  North  Downs,  in  distinction  from  the  parallel 
chalk  range  near  Lewes  and  Brighton,  called  the  South  Downs.  A  traveller 
faking  the  high  road  from  London  through  Croydon  to  East  Grinsted  and 
Lewes,  «i)uld  pass  along  the  valley  through  which  the  Bourn  water  runs.  A 
little  to  the  south  of  Croydon,  the  chalk  rises  from  beneath  the  London  and 
plastic  clay  formations  (its  dip  being  northwards),  and  with  comparatively 
slight  undulations.it  attains  the  height  of  800  feet  above  high  water  level, 
within  a  distance  of  eight  miles  to  the  south  of  Croydon,  the  summit  being 
Ct)7  feet  aljovc  that  town. 

The  first  appear.ince  of  the  Bourn  water  is  in  a  flat  part  of  the  above  valley, 
just  below  Birch  wood  house,  and  is  situated  between  the  ILilf  Moon  Inn  at 
Catterham  Bottom,  and  the  Inner  entrance  to  Marden  Park,  where  it  bubbles 
thrnugh  the  surf,ace  of  the  ground  in  an  almost  infinile  number  of  jets,  some 
of  tliem  are  extremely  small,  .and  none  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  diame- 
ter ;  .about  twenty  yards  from  the  highest  of  these  jets  their  number  Is  siifli- 
cient  to  form  a  riviilet,  and  in  100  yards  a  very  considerable  stream,  and 
w  here  it  reaches  Catterham  Bottom,  about  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  it  may 
be  called  a  river  ;  the  height  of  the  first  outburst  is  3.50  feet  above  high 
water,  from  thence  it  flows  nortliMard  to  Croydon,  where  it  is  133  feet  abiive 
the  same  level,  therefore  its  descent  from  the  source  to  Croydon,  is  217  feet 
in  a  distance  of  six  miles,  or  an  average  of  36  feet  per  mile,  conse((uently  its 
current  is  very  rapid.  Its  present  eruption  has  been  much  greater  than  any 
that  can  be  remembered  by  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  the  district.  The  writer 
witnes.sed  that  in  1837,  it  was  confined  to  the  channel  which  frum  time  iin- 
niemorial  was  prepared  for  it,  and  which  at  Riddlesdow  n  (about  halfway 
between  its  source  and  Croydon,)  is  about  G  feet  Made  and  5  feet  deep,  com- 
monly called  the  dry  river,  from  its  being  free  frum  water  so  long  ;  in  the 
present  instance  the  water  has  exceeded  these  limits,  and  covered  the  whole 
of  the  valley  in  many  places  three  and  four  feet  deep,  and  where  it  crosses 
.Smifhern  bottom,  it  has  stopped  the  works  of  the  Brighton  railway,  that 
being  tlie  point  where  a  deviation  of  the  present  Godstone  road  is  to  be  made, 
and  a  bridge  erected  to  carry  the  railway  over  the  deviated  road  ;  the  mate- 
rials for  the  bridge  are  all  upon  the  ground,  and  the  embankment,  \\hich  is 
to  reach  to  the  bridge,  is  brought  nearly  as  far  as  it  can  with  propriety  be- 
fore its  erection,  consequently,  these  works  are  stopped  till  the  Bourn  ceases 
to  flow. 

The  cause  of  this  curious  phenomenon  is,  no  doubt,  the  same  as  describ  d 
in  philosophical  works  under  the  head  of  intermitting  or  reciprocating 
springs,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  water  which  falls  upon  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  percolates  through  the  various  strata,  until  it  is  stopped  by 
one  which  is  impen'ious,  or  it  falls  into  cavities  where  it  is  collected  as  in  a 
reservoir  ;  this  continues  until  the  waters  have  accumulated  to  the  filling  of 
the  reservoir,  when  it  finds  an  outlet  in  the  form  of  a  syphon,  consequently, 
it  will  continue  to  llow  till  the  reservoir  is  empty.  It  would  therefore  appear 
that  the  short  interval  since  the  last  eruption  of  the  flourn,  has  been  occa- 
sioned by  the  almost  unprecedented  quantity  of  rain  wliich  has  continued  lo 
fall  for  many  months  past, 


Connected  with  this  subject,  there  is  a  mine  about  three  miles  to  the  sont'j 
of  the  source  of  the  Rourn,  in  which  water  beg.an  to  collect  last  autumn,  an" 
the  miners  were  driven  thereby  from  several  of  their  headings  in  ,Septembe'' 
last,  and  it  appears  that  such  circumstance  always  precedes  the  bursliug  of 
the  Bourne,  and  the  workmen  confidently  predict  that  event. 

The  works  in  the  Merstham  tunnel  on  the  Brighton  r,ailway.  which  is  being 
made  through  the  same  chalk  range,  and  scarcely  four  niiles  west  of  the 
Bourn,  have  been  much  retanled,  and  now  nearly  suspended,  by  the  quantify 
of  water  which  has  come  in  upon  them;  what  few  men  are  able  to  reach 
their  works,  are  at  the  present  time  fl  lated  upon  rafts  from  the  shafts  to  the 
top  headings,  which  alone  they  are  able  to  drive  ;  previous  to  this  outburst, 
the  tunnel  was  perfectly  dry,  and  it  may  therel'ore  be  attributed  to  the  same 
cause  as  the  Bourn  water  itself. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAILWAYS. 

Greenu'ich  RnUwntj. — Thursday  morning.  30th  January,  at  half-past  ten 
o'clock,  a  serious  accident,  and  one  that  might  have  been  attended  with  the 
most  fatal  results,  occurred  on  the  Greenwich  Railway.  Two  fireenw  ich  trains 
were  coming  up  to  tuwn. — the  first  being  the  ordinary  passenger  train,  the 
second  one  engaged  to  bring  up  a  dctcachment  of  the  Royal  Artillery  to  the 
Tower.  A  Croydon  train  was  coming  at  the  same  time  Irom  London,  but  be- 
fore it  coulil  turn  off  to  take  the  line  that  branches  off  to  Croyilon,  it  came 
into  collision  with  the  Greenwich  passenger  train,  ,and  the  train  with  the 
artillerymen  coming  up  almost  immediately,  the  three  trains  got  jammed  to- 
gether. The  Greenwich  train  was  thrown  off  the  line,  and  several  of  the 
passengers  injured,  but  none  fatally.  Major  Boyce,  of  the  Artillery,  was 
severely  cut  about  the  bead  and  face,  as  was  a  gentleman  belonging  to  the 
Admiralty. — Morning  Post. 

Great  Western  Railway. — It  is  understood  a  single  line  of  rails  on  the  Great 
Western  Railway  from  Reading  to  Twy  ford  will  he  opened  as  soon  as  possible, 
so  that  the  traffic  by  single  trains  should  commence  at  a  very  early  period. 
To  accomplish  this  end,  the  works  are  proceeding  day  and  night  whenever 
the  weather  pennits,  but  the  rain  has  been  a  frequent  impediment  to  the 
workmen. —  U'iltshire  Tnctepemtenf. 

Mancliesler  ami  Leeds  Railwaij. — The  Directors  have  just  made  their  monthly 
inspection  of  the  works,  which  are  progressing  most  rapidly.  Some  idea  of 
the  exertions  used  to  push  forward  the  undertaking,  maybe  formed  from  the 
fact  that  Mr.  John  Stephenson,  the  contractor  for  the  great  lunnel,  w  hich  is 
far  advanced  towards  completion,  has  now  in  full  operation,  on  that  contract 
alone,  1.253  men.  .54  horses,  and  14  steam-engines ;  and  that  the  daily  con- 
sumption of  bricks  is  from  ,51,000  to  GO. 000. — RnHwni/  Times. 

Progress  of  the  North  Miillanil  Rnilioa;/. — A  considerable  portion  of  this  rail- 
w.ay  is  so  far  completed  as  to  allow  of  the  permanent  way  being  laid  ;  this  is 
done  on  the  greater  part  of  the  fine.  The  most  forward  district  is  that  situated 
between  Derby  and  Rarnsley.  One  line  of  rails  is  now  nearly  all  laid  for  the 
whole  distance,  Hdiieh  is  about  50  miles:  great  exertions  having  been  made 
to  accomplish  this,  as  it  is  expected  the  directors  will  pass  along  the  line  wilb 
a  locomotive  engine,  between  the  towns  of  Derby  and  Barnsley,  very  shortly 
— probably  next  week.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Belper,  Clay  Cross,  Staveley, 
Sec,  the  works  are  proceeding  night  and  day.  in  order  to  have  a  road  througli 
the  large  excavations  in  those  districts.  The  first  ckass  stations  are  nearly 
all  contracted  for,  and  several  of  them  are  in  a  forward  state.  The  I'ickington 
one  is  nearly  reaily  for  the  roof ;  the  Chesterfield  and  Southwingfield  stations 
are  also  far  advanced ;  the  Leeds  and  Shelfield  stations  have  been  set  out 
during  the  week.  The  latter  one  is  contracted  for  by  Mr.  Crawsbaw,  and 
will  be  situated  near  the  entrance  of  the  .Sheffield  and  Rothcrham  Railway. 
It  will  he  a  Large  and  convenient  station  ;  the  cost  is  estimated  at  about  8000/. 
—Stieffield  Iris. 

South  Western  Railway. — A  completely  new  town  is  in  the  course  of  formation 
between  the  old  corporation  of^  Kingston-upon-Thamcs  (Surrey)  and  the 
South  Western  Railway,  and  already  nearly  two  hundretl  beautifid  houses, 
snug  and  aristocratic  villas  are  finished,  or  in  the  course  of  finishing.  From 
an  inspection  of  the  plans,  and  a  view  of  what  has  been  done,  great  taste  and 
judgment  appear  to  Ije  exhibited  ;  and  the  railway  Company,  from  the  ad- 
vantages of  its  site  over  that  of  the  old  Kingston  station,  have  been  induced 
to  remove  it  to  the  entrance  to  the  new  town,  « here  a  very  commodious 
structure  h.as  been  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  the  public.  It  is  a  sin- 
gular fact,  and  one  which  must  mainly  contribute  to  the  ebgihllity  of  New 
Kingston,  that  the  first-lloor  windows  of  the  houses  command  .i  view  scarcely 
to  be  equalled  in  England,  comprising  no  less  than  five  Koyal  Parks— tliose 
of  Hampton,  Bushy,  Richmond,  Windsor,  and  Claremont,  besides  the  gardens 
of  Kew  and  the  river  Tluames ;  and  yet  this  spot,  by  railroad  conveyance  is 
only  twenty  minutes  ride. — Observer. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


Launeh  of  an  Iron  War  Steamer. — On  Thursday,  February  filli,  was  launched 
from  Messrs.  Ditchburn  and  Mare's  Iniilding  yard,  Blackwall,  the  Proserpine, 
wrought  iron  ste.am  vessel  of  470  tons.  She  has  four  sliding  keels,  nine 
water-tight  bulkheads,  two  of  which  arc  longitudinal  running  the  entire 
length  of  the  engine  room— is  armed  with  four  long  guns  (Ui  non-recoil  car- 
riages, and  will  not  exceed  four  feet  draught  of  water  when  fully  equipt  for 
sea.  The  engines  are  tw  o  4.5  horse,  having  the  wheels  to  disconnect  on  a 
new  and  improved  method  to  facilitate  sailing,  by  Messrs.  Maudsley,  Son  and 
Field.  This  vessel  is  constructed  for  sailing  as  well  as  steaming.  It  is  a  fact 
worthy  of  record,  and  ought  to  be  generally  known,  that  Messrs.  Ditchburn 
<and  Mare  were  the  first  who  arrived  , it  the  hitherto  deemed  unatt.ainalile  re- 
sult of  giving  highly  superior  sailing  oualities  to  iron  sea-going  vessels  ot 
shallow  ilraught  of  water.    Their  application  and  improvement  of  sliding 


104 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[March, 


/.T<7AliaveI>c('ii  niost  succossful.  Ilit'ir  sinijilicily  is  such  that  a  boy  cati  nianagf 
tlicni.  Kvery  [n-rsuii  conversant  with  tlie  iiistory  of  naval  afcliitpctnre  is 
aware  that  Captain  Shanks.  R.N.  was  the  in;;enious  inventor,  and  that  he 
received  Iiis  first  idea  of  thcin  from  the  Indian  navif^alin^  his  raft,  imt  n!- 
lliougli  Captain  Shanks.  aidc<l  hy  the  f,'overnment  of  his  day,  maile  several 
attempts  to  estaljlish  tlieir  use  in  timber-hiiilt  ves.scls  failed,  ehielly  in  conse- 
(|nence  (if  the  f^real  diliicidly  in  making  the  well  and  aperltire  lliroiiKh  the 
keel,  through  which  the  sliding  keel  works,  permanently  waler-liuhl  :  tliis 
in  an  iron  ves.sel  can  he  most  perfectly  accomplished.  Tliey  are  of  the  highest 
utility  in  the  jirevention  of  lee-way,  counteracting  rolling  motion,  and  tlie 
vessel  can  he  steered  by  them  w  ithout  the  help  of  the  rudder ! 

Testhi/:  llic  xtrvnglJi  nf  Iron  Urmts. — On  Monday,  February  21th  as  they 
were  lifting  from  the  wharf  a  2.')  horse  boiler  of  an  iron  boat,  Ijuilt  by  Ditch- 
hurn  and  ]\fare.  the  crane  wliicli  was  of  cast-iron  broke.  «hen  tlie  boiler  and 
crane  fell  a  di-stance  of  8  feet  into  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  little  or  no  damage 
was  done,  and  fortunately  no  one  was  hurt.  This  vessel  is  named  the  Ln\ 
and  lias  the  reefing  wheels  after  Mr.  Hall's  patent,  we  believe  this  to  be  the 
first  aiiplication  of  them — we  wish  them  every  success. 

The  Orjce// iron  steamer,  plying  between  London  and  Ipswich,  made  during 
the  late  gales  several  passages  from  London  to  lps»  icli  in  seven  hours,  in- 
cluding the  calling  off  Gravescnd,  at  Harwich,  and  other  stoppages,  a  dis- 
tance of  112  miles, 

Tlir  Sons  of  the  Thames,  of  whicli  vessel  we  made  mention  in  onr  January 
Journal,  came  from  Gravcsend  Pier  to  Black«all  in  one  hour  and  five  minutes, 
a  distance  of  20  miles. 


LIST    OF    MEIV    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IN    EXGLAND    FROM  30tH    JANUARY,  TO   26th    FEBRUARY,    1840. 

Mo.«iES  Poole,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Gentleman,  for  "improvements  hi  pumps 
for  raising  andforciny  water  and  other  fluids."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — Sealed  January  30 ;  six  months  for  enrolment. 

M'lLi.iAM  Brochedon,  of  Quccu's  Square,  Middlesex,  Esq.,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  tlie  means  of  retaining  fluids  in  bottles,  decanters,  and  other  vessels." 
January  31 ;  six  months. 

Philipi'e  Marie  Moindron,  of  Bedford  Place,  Russell  Square,  Merchant, 
for  "  improrements  in  the  construction  of  furnaces  and  in  loiters."  Commu- 
nicated by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — January  31 ;  six  mouths. 

William  Cubitt,  of  Gray's  lun  Road,  liuilder,  for  "  an  improvement  or 
improvements  in  roofing." — January  31  ;  six  months. 

Crofton  William  Mo.vt,  of  Thistle  Grove,  Brompton,  Esquire,  for  "o 
new  and  improved  method  of  applying  steam-power  to  carriages  on  ordinary 
roads." — Februaiy  5  ;  six  months. 

WiLKiNso.N  Steele  and  P.^trick  Sanderson  Steele,  Manufacturing 
Ironmongers,  of  George  Street,  Edinburgh,  for  "  improvements  in  kitchen 
ranges  for  culinary  purposes  and  apparatus  for  raising  the  temperature  of 
water  for  baths  and  other  iises." — February  5  ;  six  months. 

William  Isaac  Cookson,  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Esquire,  for  "  cer- 
tain improved  processes  or  operation.^  for  obtaining  copper  and  other  metals 
from  metallic  ores." — Februarys  5;  six  months. 

Thomas  Mverscough,  of  Little  Bolton,  and  William  Sykes,  of  Man- 
chester, Machine  Maker,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of 
looms  for  weaving  or  producing  a  new  or  improved  manufacture  of  fabrics, 
and  also  in  the  arrangement  of  machinery  to  produce  other  descriptions  of 
woven  goods  or  fabrics." — Kchruaiy  5  ;  six  months. 

Samuel  Carson,  of  Caroline  Street,  Colesliill,  Eaton  Square,  Gentleman, 
for  "  improvements  in  apparatus  for  withdrawing  air  or  vapours." — February 
5  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Nekdham  Tayler,  of  Plymouth,  Captain  in  the  Royal  Navy,  for 
"  improvements  in  steam-boats  and  vessels  making  applicable  the  power  of  the 
steam-engine  to  netv  and  useful  purposes  of  navigation." — February  8  ;  six 
months. 

John  M'ertheimer,  of  West  Street,  Finsbury  Circus,  Printer,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  preserving  animal  and  vegetable  substances  and  liquids." 
Commuuieatcd  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — February  8  ;  six  months. 

Robert  Heart,  of  Godniancliester,  Miller,  for  "  improvements  in  appara- 
tus for  filtering  fluids." — February  8  ;  six  months. 

Amand  Deflangue,  of  Lisle,  in  the  Kingdom  of  France,  but  now  resid- 
ing in  Leicester  Square,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements  in  looms  for  weaving." 
Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — February  H  ;  six  months. 

Edmund  Kudge,  Jun.,  of  Tewkesbury,  Tanner,  for  "  a  new  method  or 
methods  of  obtaining  power  for  locomotive  and  other  purposes,  and  of  apply- 
ing tlie  same." — February  8  ;  six  mouths. 

James  Hancock,  of  Gloucester  Place,  Walworth,  for  "  a  method  of  form- 
^^y  a  fabric  or  fabrics  applicable  to  various  xises  by  combining  caoutchouc,  or 
certain  compounds  thereof,  with  wood,  whalebone,  or  other  fibrous  materials, 
vegetable  or  animal,  manufactured  or  prepared  for  that  purpose,  or  with  me- 
tallic stibstances  manufactured  or  prepared." — February  8;  six  months. 

George  Eugene  Magnus,  of  Manchester,  Merchant,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  manufacturing,  polishing,  and  finishing  slate,  and  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  same  to  domestic  and  other  useful  purposes." — February  8  ;  six 
months. 

Robert  Willis,  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  Clerk,  Tonksonian  Pro- 
fessor, for  "  improvements  in  apparatus  for  weighing." — Febraarv  8 ;  six 
months. 


l)Avin  Nai'ier,  of  York  Road,  Lambeth,  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  projectiles." — February  12  ;  six  months. 

Antoine  Blanc,  of  Paris,  Merchant,  and  Theophile  Gervais  Bazille, 
of  Rouen,  Merchant,  now  residing  at  Sablonieres  Hotel,  Leicester  Square,  for 
"  certain  improvemerits  in  the  manufacturing  or  producing  soda,  and  other 
articles  obtained  by  or  from  the  decomposition  of  commoji  salt  or  chloride  of 
sodium." — February  12  :  six  months. 

Thomas  Robinson  Williams,  of  Cheapside,  Gentleman,  for  "certain 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  other  fabric  or  fabrics  of 
which  wool  or  fur  form  a  principal  component  part,  ami  in  the  machinery 
employed  for  effecting  that  object." — February  11 ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Clarke,  of  Boston,  Printer,  for  "  improvements  in  piano-fortes." 
— February  14  ;  six  months. 

Gerard  Ralston,  of  Tokcnhouse  Yard,  Merchant,  for  "  improvements  in 
rolling  puddle  balls  or  other  masses  ejf  ii'on."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — Fehniary  22  ;  six  months. 

Richard  Cuerton,  Jun.,  of  Percy  Street,  Middlesex,  Brass  Founder,  for 
"  improiwments  in  the  manufacture  of  cornices,  mouldings,  and  windoiv  sashes." 
Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad.— February  22  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Kerr,  of  Forecrofts  Uuuse,  in  the  county  of  Berwick,  Esquire, 
for  "  a  new  and  improved  mortar  or  cement  for 'building,  also  for  mouldings, 
castings,  statuary,  tiles,  pottery,  imitation  of  soft  and  hard  rocks,  and  other 
useful  purposes,  and  which  mortar  or  cement  is  applicable  as  a  manure  for 
promoting  vegetation  and  destroying  noxious  insects." — February  22  ;  six 
months. 

William  Cook,  of  King  Street,  Regent  Street,  Coach  Maker,  for  "  im- 
provements in  carriages." — February  22  ;  six  months. 

John  Hanson,  of  Huddersfield,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
meters  for  measuring  volumes  of  gas,  water,  and  other  fluids  tvhen  passed 
through  them,  and  in  the  construction  of  cocks  or  valves  applicable  to  such 
purposes." — Februaiy  22  ;  six  months. 

William  Winsor,  of  Rathbone  Place,  Middlesex,  Artists'  Colourman,  for 
"  a  certain  method  or  certain  methods  of  preserving  and  using  colours." — 
February  22  ;  six  months. 

Job  Cutler,  of  Lady  Poole  Lane,  Sparkbrook,  Birmingham,  Gentleman, 
and  Thomas  Gregory  Hancock,  of  Highgate,  in  the  same  Borough,  Me- 
chanist, for  "  an  improved  method  of  cutting  corks  and  constructing  the  necks 
of  bottles." — February  22  ;   six  months. 

William  Brindley,  of  Nortliwood  Street,  Birmingham,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  employed  in  pressing  cotton,  ivool,  and  goods  of  various 
descriptions." — February  25  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Huckvale,  of  Over  Norton,  Oxford,  Farmer,  for  "  improvements 
in  ploug/is." — February  25  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Farmer,  of  Gunnersbury  House,  near  Acton,  Middlesex,  Esquire, 
for  "  improvements  in  treating  pyrites  to  obtain  sulphur,  sulphurous  acid  and 
other  products." — February  25  ;  six  months. 

John  Wilson,  of  Liverpool,  Lecturer  on  Chemistry,  for  "  an  improvement 
or  improvements  in  the  process  or  processes  of  manufacturing  the  carbonate 
of  soda." — February  25  ;  six  montlis. 

RicH.\RD  KiNGDON,  of  Gothlc  llouse,  Stockwell,  Surrey,  Surgeon,  for 
•'  certain  improvements  in  apparatus  for  the  support  of  the  human  body,  and 
the  correction  of  curvatures  and  other  distortions  of  the  spine  of  the  human 
body." — February  25  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Milnek,  of  Liverpool,  Safety  Box  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  boxes,  safes,  or  other  depositories  for  the  protection  of 
papers  or  other  materials  from  fire." — February  2G  ;  six  months. 

William  Morrett  Williams,  of  Bedford  Place,  Commercial  Road, 
Middlesex,  late  of  the  Royal  Military  College,  and  Professor  of  Mathematics, 
for  "  an  improved  lock  atid  key." — February  27  ;  six  months. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


Jn  our  last  Number  welinserted  a  draivinir  and  description  nf  the  Traversing 
Screw  Jaeh.  but  we  omitted  to  state  that  it  formed  part  o/Mr.  Cvktis's patent 
inventions. 

Wf  shall  be  happy  to  receive  from  Mr.  Armstrong,  our  vnluuhle  contributor,  the 
proffered  iUustrntions  alluded  to  at  the  conchision  of  his  communication  in  the  pre- 
sent mon/h^s  Journal. 

Mr.  TlioroJd's  new  frame  for  Steam  Eneine,  we  were  compelled  to  postpone,  to- 
gether with  several  other  eommnnicatious  for  want  of  ,^paee,  W(  will  endeavour  to 
meet  the  wishes  of  our  numerous  contributors  ne.rt  month. 

Communications  are  requested  to  he  addressed  to  "The  Kdilor  of  the  Civil 
Knginecr  and  Architect's  .lournal,"  No.  \\,  Parliament  Street,  Westminster, 
or  to  Mr.  Groombridge,  Panyer  .4Ucy,  Paternoster  Bow  ;  if  hy  post,  to  be  di- 
rected to  the  former  place  ;  if  by  parcel,  to  be  directed  to  the  nearest  of  the  two 
places  where  the  eoaeh  arrives  at  in  London,  as  we  are  frequently  put  to  the 
e.vpeuce  of  one  or  two  shillings  for  the  porterage  only,  of  a  very  small  parcel. 

lioohs  for  review  must  he  sent  early  in  the  month,  communications  on  or  before 
the  2iith  (if  tvith  wood-cuts,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  the  Z5th 
instant. 

The  First  Volume  may  re  had,  bound  in  cloth  and  lettered  in  gold. 
Price  Us. 

',"  The  Second  Volume  may  also  be  had,  Frici  20s. 


IS40.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER    AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL 


105 


MONUMENT  TO  CHATTERTON. 


Admiration  of  Chatterton,  and  compassion  for  his  untimely  fate  have 
too  often  evaporated  in  mere  declamation,  and  it  wanted  the  spirit  of 
a  few  individuals,  and  the  talent  of  a  disinterested  artist  to  give  the 
poet  that  tribute,  to  which  every  one  acknowledged  his  title  "  Tlie 
wonderful  boy  who  died  in  his  pride,"  the  bard  who  gave  Bristol  that 
title  in  the  literary  world,  which  has  since  been  maintained  by  Southey, 
had  a  right  to  expect  from  his  fellow  citizens  a  memorial  which  they 
had  money  to  pay  for  and  native  talent  to  execute — The  Bristolians 
have  shown  good  feeling  in  preserving  in  the  museum  of  the  In- 
stitute the  Eve  at  the  Fountain,  and  they  would  have  shown  still  more, 
had  they  employed  the  pencil  of  Lawrence  or  the  chisel  of  Baily  upon 
a  subject  so  worthy  of  their  talents,  as  the  commemoration  of  a  fel- 
low townsman. 

To  enter  into  a  biography  of  Chatterton  would  be  misplaced  here, 
while  the  leading  incidents  need  but  to  be  alluded  to  to  recall  the  re- 
membrance of  his  life,  his  childhood,*   his  relationship  to  Redcliffe 

*'  Tliumas  Chatterton  born  1758,  died  1770. 


his  education  in  the  neighbouring  charity  school,  and  his  years  of 
fretful  toil  as  an  attorney's  clerk,  are  circumstances  of  local  interest 
connected  with  the  present  m  )nument  No  site  could  be  better  chosen 
than  one  near  the  place  of  hii  birth  and  of  his  literarv  education,  no  garb 
could  be  more  dignified  than  that  which  recalled  the  difficult  position  from 
which  he  had  to  emerge  to  distinction.  It  was  within  the  walls  of  St. 
Mary's  that  he  breathed  the  inspiration  of  his  song  it  was  there  that 
he  planned  the  tale  of  fiction  which  struck  the  literary  world  with  won- 
der, it  was  there  that  he  placed  the  stage  on  which  the  imaginarv 
Rowley  was  to  herald  the  fame  of  Chatterton.  The  discovery  of  the 
fiction  is  not  to  be  regretted,  it  is  only  painful  as  it  led  to  the  self  des- 
truction of  one  so  promising  and  so  talented,  and  the  loss  of  a  life  which 
beamed  with  hope  of  better  works.  His  fellow  citizens  have  been 
loud  in  sounding  his  fame,  but  half  their  duty  was  undone  while  they 
left  the  tenant  of  the  workhouse  ground  in  Shoe  Lane,  without  a 
stone  to  tell  his  name. 

The  people  of  Bristol  have  at  last  been  alive  to  the  c'aims  upon 
them,  but  it  is  owing  neither  to  their  public  spirit  nor  their  trenerositv 
that  tlie  memorial  is  worthy  of  its  subject.  The  paltry  sum  of  one 
hundred  pounds  is  what  this  rich  city  awards  to  cominemorate  its 
own  glory,  and  that  of  its  favorite  son,  and  it  is  fortunate  that  the  per- 
formance was  not  as  mean  as  its  reward.  The  monument,  of  Bath  stone,  is 
a  Gothic  cross,  31  feet  high,  bearing  the  statue  of  Chatterton,  attired  in 
the  garb  of  the  charity  school  in  which  he  was  brought  up.  The  plan  is 
pentagonal  throughout,  and  harmonises  with  the  rich  architect{ire  of 
the  majestic  church.  The  niches  and  tablet  recesses  are  formed  by  al- 
ternate parallel  surfaces  with  the  face  and  side  of  the  buttresses,  as 
under : — 


Plan  of  compartment  in  the  middle  stage  of  the  Monument. 
Scale  J  an  inch  to  a  foot. 


The   upper  stage  which  is  not  shown  minutely  in  our  engraving  is 
composed  vf  five  angular  shafts  detached  from  the  central  pier  whic 
supports   the  statue ;    the  light  and  shade   are  therefore    much  more 
varied. 

Plan  of  compaitment  in  the  upper  stage  of  the  Monumeat. 
Scale  i  an  inch  to  a  foot. 


There  are  five  inscriptions  on  the  tablets  in  the  lower  stagrs,  and 
the  open  book  and  the  scroll  in  the  hands  of  the  statue  are  also  in- 
scribed, the  two  latter  in  Old  English  character.  The  work  is  well 
executed,  the  carvings  in  particular,  which  are  designed  after  some  of 
the  fine  models  in  Bristol  Cathedral. 

The  monument  was  sure  to  excite  interest  from  its  locality,  and  this 
interest  has  been  maintained  by  the  skill  with  which  the  work  is  made 
to  harmonize  with  the  noble  back-ground  formed  by  the  North  Porch 
of  the  church,  ricli  in  all  the  luxuriant  ornament  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. It  is  to  Mr.  S.  C.Fripp,  jun.  an  Architect  of  Bristol,  that  the  public 
are  indebted  for  this  admirable  work,  and  he  has  shown  both  judgment 
and  true  genius  in  preserving  that  harmony  of  tone,  which  was  diteated 
by  a  due  regard  to  the  proper  treatment  of  the  subject.  Had  Mr. 
Fripp  done  otherwise  he  would  have  stepped  beyond  his  proper  sphere, 
and  failed  in  |n'oducing  a  work  which  does  him  so  much  honor.  He 
has  by  this  monument  added  fiesh  interest  to  a  time  honored  site, 
given  his  native  city  a  new  ornament,  and  a  noble  bard  his  long  neg- 
lected tribute. 


ine 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


ON  DAGEXHAM  BREACH. 

.1  brief  account  of  the  stopping  nf  Dagenham  Breach  on  the  Thames 
digested  from  Captain  Perrv's  Narrative,  published  at  London  in 
1721. 

Emgineering  has  only  within  the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years  been  con- 
sidered a  liberal  profession  in  Great  Britain.  Formerly  from  its 
limited  extent,  and  the  want  of  education  and  science  on  the  part  of 
its  ])rofessors,  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  subordinate  although  an  useful 
occupation.  Although  the  profession  has  so  greatly  extended  itself 
\vithin  that  limited  pe  iod  as  now  to  be  recognized  as  a  scientific  avo- 
lation,  we  must  not  on  that  account  suppose,  that  formerly  there  were 
not  men  engaged  in  its  arduous  works,  who  by  their  originality  and 
boldness  may  be  considered  as  worthy  of  memory.  The  work  of 
which  we  are  to  subjoin  a  brief  account  was  (like  some  others  at  the 
same  period )  conducted  by  a  man  of  real  genius  and  industry — one  who 
although  obliged  by  the  slight  encouragement  given  to  his  profession, 
to  execute  by  personal  contract  the  works  which  he  designed,  yet  can- 
not be  regarded  as  a  mere  pecuniary  adventurer.  Of  his  history  all 
the  information  I  have  been  able  to  gain  has  been  gleaned  from  his 
writings,  from  wdiich  it  would  seem,  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
liis  own  country  afforded  such  small  scope  for  his  genius,  that  he  was 
obliged  at  one  time  to  seek  a  livelihood  under  the  Czar  of  Muscovy. 

With  regard  to  the  work  by  which  he  so  much  distinguished  him- 
self, it  was  one  of  those  unpretending  yet  costly  works,  the  call  for 
which,  had  it  not  been  irresistible  would  have  probably  been  disre- 
garded, but  it  was  a  work  that  could  admit  of  no  delay,  as  every  lost 
opportunity  added  to  the  difficulty  of  its  completion.  And  it  is  to  this 
cause  we  must  attribute  the  laying  out  of  such  a  large  sum  of  public 
money  in  times  so  deficient  of  the  spirit  of  enterprise. 

Breaches  in  the  Thames  seem  to  have  been  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  earliest  periods  of  which  we  have  accurate  accounts.  So  far 
back  as  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  Thames  afforded  employment  for 
the  ingenious.  The  earliest  work  of  which  we  have  any  information, 
w  as  the  drainage  of  .Southwark  and  its  neighbourhood  ;  this  was  a  sort 
of  work  w ith  which  the  Romans  were  well  acquainted.  Sir  William 
Dugdale  in  his  voluminous  history  of  Embanking  and  Draining  (fob, 
Loudon  1772,  p.  81,  2d  edit.)  mentions  that  "  howbeit  these  banks 
being  not  made  strong  enough  to  withstand  those  tempestuous  storms 
and  violent  tides  which  happened  in  September  1()21,  Cornelius  Ver- 
muden,  gentleman,  (an  expert  man  in  the  art  of  banking  and  draining) 
being  treated  withal  by  the  commissioners  of  sewers  appointed  for  the 
view  and  repair  of  the  breaches  then  made,  undertook  the  work  and 
perfected  it ;  but  such  being  the  perverseness  of  those  as  were  owners 
of  the  lands  assessed  by  the  commissioners  to  pay  their  proportions 
thereof — upon  comp'aint  therefore  made  to  the  said  commissioners,  he 
the  said  Cornelius  in  recompence  of  his  charges  had  parcel  of  the  said 
lauds  assigned  unto  him,  which  assignation  was  by  the  king's  letters 
patent  confirmed  to  him  the  said  Cornelius  and  his  heiis." 

I  can  find  no  account  of  the  extent  of  this  breach  or  the  manner  in 
which  it  was  stopped.  Although  from  the  handsome  remuneraticjn 
witli  whicb  the  services  of  this  eminent  fen  engineer  were  rewarded, 
we  umst  suppose  his  task  to  have  been  a  formidable  one. 

The  breach  with  which  Captain  Ferry  was  connected,  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  blowing  up  of  a  small  sluice  or  trunk,  that  had  been  made 
for  carrying  away  the  drainage  water  of  the  low  grounds  adjoining  the 
banks  of  the  river.  The  ditch  which  communicated  with  this  sluice 
was  at  first  not  above  H  or  l(j  feet  broad,  so  that  had  the  accident  met 
with  the  attention  it  deserved,  all  the  trouble  and  expence  consequent 
on  sto])ping  the  breach  would  have  been  saved.  Instead  however  of 
)jrompt  measures  being  taken,  the  damaged  sluice  was  in  the  first  in- 
stance neglected,  and  it  was  not  until  the  tidal  water  had  greatly  en- 
larged the  gap  that  attempts  were  made  to  stop  the  breach  ;  but  by 
this  lime  tlie  water  had  scoured  away  the  clay  bottom,  and  began  to 
act  upon  what  oiu'  author  calls  "  Mouilogg,"  and  the  gravel  and  sand 
beds  which  lie  out  a  little  way  below  the  surfice  of  the  ground. 
Moorlogg  is  described  as  a  vein  of  juatted  brusliwood,  with  nuts  and 
pieces  of  rotten  wood  interspersed.  In  these  soft  strata  the  scour 
proceeded  with  great  ra])idily,  and  baffled  all  attempts  which  were 
made  to  check  its  progress  during  a  period  of  no  less  than  14  years. 
In  that  time  the  tiny  ditch  had  ramified  above  a  mile  and  a  half  into 
the  land,  and  its  main  branch  had  attained  a  breadth  of  about  4:10  or 
50U  feet,  and  a  depth  of  from  2u  to  30  or  40  feet.  By  a  computation 
made  at  the  time,  no  less  than  about  120  acres  of  marsh  laud  had  been 
carried  into  the  Thames  by  this  tidal  river.  The  ground  thus  exca- 
vated anil  carried  into  the  river  w.is  comjiosed  nf  clayey  ground  moor- 
logg, about  a  foot  or  IG  inches  of  blue  clay,  and  at  llie  bottom  gravel 
and  sand. 

Aor  was  the  loss  of  s.unl  by  any  means  tlie  most  serious  consequence 


coimected  with  this  inroad  of  the  tide ;  a  more  important  although 
perhaps  less  apparent  evil  was  the  injurious  effects  produced  bv  so 
large  a  quantity  of  matter  lodging  both  in  the  higher  and  lower  reaches 
of  the  Thames. 

The  landowners  were  neither  idle  nor  illiberal  in  their  efforts  to 
check  the  incursion.  The  method  they  adopted  was  contracting  the 
channel  to  some  extent  by  means  of  pile-work  advanced  from  both 
sides,  and  when  the  stream  was  confined  within  a  moderate  channel 
they  sunk  old  vessels  and  large  boxes ;  these  were  backe<l  on  both 
sides  by  "  maands,"  or  baskets  filled  with  chalk,  and  bags  filleil  with 
earth  and  gravel.  All  this  was  done  during  neap  tides,  that  they 
might  be  able  to  make  good  the  dam  before  the  springs.  Engaged  in 
these  operations  were  those  in  the  vicinity,  and  all  who  had  a  direct 
interest  in  their  success,  and  many  lost  their  lives  by  the  violence  of 
the  current  which  swept  them  away,  and  carried  them  into  the  Thames. 
In  spite  however  of  all  their  activity  and  perseverance,  the  tide 
always  succeeded  in  boring  through  below  the  obstructions  which  had 
been  put  in  its  way.  With  such  violence  did  it  act  that  on  one  occa- 
sion when  they  had  sunk  the  "  Linn  "  man-of-war  and  two  other  ves- 
sels, the  first  ebb  of  the  tide  swept  them  so  completely  away  that  there 
was  not  a  fragment  to  be  seen,  and  as  Captain  Perry  asserts,  "  three 
days  after  there  was  upwards  of  50  foot  depth  at  /our  water  where  she 
was  sunk."  This  depth,  however,  seems  very  extraordinary,  and  is 
surely  overstated.  He  mentions  another  case  which  certainly  gives 
a  good  idea  of  the  force  of  the  current  (pp.  17,  18).  "Another  gen- 
tleman concerned  (since  my  late  stopping  the  breach)  speaking  of 
what  had  passed  with  tliem  in  their  attempts,  merrily  told  me  that  at 
one  of  those  times  when  they  had  made  a  shut  (or  attempted  to  do 
it)  bv  the  sinking  among  other  things,  a  large  chest  or  machine  up- 
wards of  SO  feet  long,  tlie  next  day  afterwards  the  violence  of  the 
back  water  setting  out  of  the  levels  upon  the  tide  of  ebb,  worked  so 
strong  underneath  the  bottom  of  this  machine  that  she  bolted  up  at 
once  above  water,  and  discharging  as  she  rose  most  part  of  the  chalk 
and  stones  with  which  she  had  been  sunk,  drove  directly  with  the 
current  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  breach,  whereat  a  gentleman  standing 
bv,  who  was  a  considerable  landowner,  and  had  been  at  great  expense 
in  the  work,  being  much  surprised,  ran  along  upon  the  wall  (or  bank) 
on  the  side  of  the  breach,  and  with  great  earnestness  called  out,  stop 
him,  stop  him,  oh  stop  him !  this  machine  driving  directly  down  the 
river,  and  sometimes  sticking  against  the  bottom  and  sometimes  re- 
bounding above  the  water  again,  when  it  came  down  in  view  of  the 
shi  s  atGravesend,  they  were  alarmed  at  the  unusuahiess  of  the  sight, 
as  it  emerged  out  of  the  water  sometimes  with  and  sometimes  athwart 
the  tide,  and  as  they  ride  pretty  numerous  there  at  that  time,  they 
were  forced  to  sheer,  some  one  way  and  some  another  to  avoid  re- 
ceiving anv  mischief  from  it  It  drove  from  thence  as  far  as  the  buoy 
off  the  Nore,  and  there  run  agrouid  upon  a  shoa'." 

At  a  later  period  they  succeeded  in  keeping  in  their  places  some 
vessels  which  had  been  sunk  by  driving  piles  on  each  side,  but  although 
a  large  quantity  of  chalk  in  bags  and  baskets  had  been  sunk  all  round 
them,  the  tide  still  rose  and  fell  within.  So  much  were  the  public  in- 
terested in  the  operations  that  a  power  was  given  to  impress  all  chalk 
vessels  that  passed  on  the  river,  so  that  sometimes  10  or  15  freights 
a-day  were  delivered  at  the  breach,  which  was  actually  reported  to 
have  in  some  measure  retarded  the  London  buildings.  An  extraordi- 
nary tide  happening  soon  after,  put  a  stop  at  once  to  the  embargo  on 
chalk,  and  to  the  works  at  Dagenham,  by  removing  the  whole  struc- 
ture which  had  been  erected  at  such  cost  and  labour. 

Here  all  exertions  on  the  part  of  the  landowners  naturally  enough 
ended,  and  they  would  no  doubt  have  made  up  their  minds  to  abandon 
to  the  waters  their  unfortunate  property,  the  value  of  which  was  not 
adequate  to  warrant  a  farther  expenditure,  had  not  the  desti.ictive 
effects  of  the  silt  lodging  in  the  Thames  arrested  the  attention  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  which  passed  a  bill  in  April  1714,  for  effectually 
stopping  the  breach  at  public  expense,  and  this  they  farther  extended 
to  removing  the  silt  which  had  been  deposited  in  the  river,  and  mak- 
ing good  the  adjoini'  g  banks.  Captain  Perry  offered  to  execute  the 
works  for  £24,000,  and  a  Mr.  Boswell  for  £10,500,  which  being  the 
lowest  offer  was  accepted. 

Mr.  Boswell  was  first  to  make  piers  and  then  sink  G  ponts  or  chests 
60  feet  in  length,  30  feet  broad,  and  made  salient  at  each  end  like  the 
starlings  of  a  bridge.  These  were  to  be  placed  in  the  bottom  12  feet 
apart,  and  the  spaces  were  to  be  made  up  with  piles  and  other  timber 
work. 

In  the  chests  were  to  be  sluices  whicli  when  shut  down  were  wholly 
to  exclude  the  water.  But  the  gap  was  no  sooner  contracted  by  the 
piers  than  the  current  scooped  out  the  soft  bottom  which  was  the 
cause  of  (he  miscarriage  of  all  the  former  plans.  Thus  was  Mr.  Bos- 
well's  first  plan  completely  set  aside.  He  had  then  recourse  to  one 
ennrniouj  box,  but  whenever  he  attempted  to  contract  the  water-way. 


1S40.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


107 


us  certtiinly  did  the  bottom  wear  and  assume  an  irregular  deep  rutted 
surface,  so  that  after  all  these  schemes  he  was  constrained  to  return  to 
the  old  system  of  staunching  the  current  by  the  sinking  of  ships,  ponts, 
and  bags  of  chalk.  The  only  new  feature  which  he  introduced  into 
the  plan  was  the  fixture  of  enormous  hair  bags  filled  with  chalk  (some 
()fthem3Ufeet  in  length)  to  the  vessels  bottom,  which  bags  it  was 
expected  would  have  adapted  themselves  to  the  form  of  the  bottom, 
and  thus  preserved  a  closer  connection  than  had  been  effected  before. 
He  accordinglv  carried  out  his  scheme,  having  sunk  two  vessels  and 
the  large  pontoon  which  he  had  previously  made,  and  he  also  sur- 
rounded the  whole  fabric  with  enormous  quantities  of  chalk.  In  ad- 
dition to  this  he  had  placed  in  the  banks  a  little  below  the  breach,  two 
sluices  which  were  intended  to  have  relieved  the  pressure,  but  which 
according  to  Captain  Perry  could  not  from  their  construction  and  level 
have  been  of  anv  service.  The  very  first  tide  after  the  vessels  had 
been  sunk,  operated  with  such  energy  on  the  bottom,  that  the  whole 
fabric  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  second  day  after.  The  vessels 
laden  with  chalk  and  rubbish  were  thrown  up,  and  the  enormous  pon- 
toon gave  the  finishing  blow  by  starting  up  and  tearing  to' pieces  the 
pile  work  and  planking. 

Here  ended  Mr.  Boswell's  services,  and  the  trustees  appointed  by 
the  bill  having  nominated  a  committee,  inspected  the  ground  and  drew 
up  a  report  dated  November  7,  1715.  The  following  soundings  taken 
by  the  committee  and  given  in  their  report  are  as  follows  :  "  on  the 
\vestside  20  feet  below  the  works  to  the  south,  40  feet  deep.  On  the 
south  side  20  feet  from  the  stern  of  the  Abindon  (one  of  the  ships  sunk 
in  the  said  breach,  30  feet.  On  the  same  side,  15  feet  from  the  stem 
of  the  Recovery,  (another  ship)  18  feet.  Ten  feet  south  from  the 
piles  on  the  east  side  of  the  breach  IS  feet.  Between  the  ships  and 
the  piles  on  the  west  side  29  feet.  Betwixt  the  works  to  the  north- 
ward near  the  piles  on  east  side  24  feet.  At  the  end  of  piles  on  east 
side  19  feet.  Fifty  feet  north  from  said  piles  31  feet.  Fifty  feet 
farther  north  5>l  feet.  Twenty-five  feet  north  of  the  piles  on  the  west 
side  26  feet.  Fifteen  feet  north  from  piles  in  west  side  14  feet.  Close 
to  said  piles  on  west  side  20  feet.  Coming  about  the  piles  to  the 
southward  we  find  these  depths  following,  viz.,  29,  24  and  18  feet." 

What  sort  of  settlement  was  made  with  Mr.  Boswell  does  not  ap- 
pear from  the  narrative,  but  new  offers  were  obtained.  Captain  Perry 
gave  in  an  account  of  his  scheme,  which  was  this.  To  have  a  sluice 
made  in  the  embankment  with  a  trench  connected  with  the  backwaters. 
To  drive  a  row  oi  dovetailed  piles  across  the  gap,  leaving  their  heads 
not  more  than  IS  inches  or  2  feet  above  low-water  mark ;  so  that  in 
driving  these  piles  little  or  no  difficulty  would  be  experienced  from 
the  current.  Forty  feet  from  the  row  of  piles  on  either  side  a  sort  of 
low  coffer-dam  18  or  20  feet  broad,  to  be  formed  of  piles  and  boarding, 
and  to  be  filled  with  chalk  to  prevent  the  toe  of  the  embankment  from 
spreading.  On  the  outside  of  these  coffer-dams  a  wall  of  chalk  to  be 
made  as  a  farther  security.  The  dam  itself  to  be  composed  entirely 
of  earth,  and  in  the  course  of  the  erection  care  to  be  taken  always  to 
shut  the  sluice  when  the  backwater  falls  to  the  level  of  the  top  of  the 
work.  In  this  way  there  will  at  no  time  be  a  higher  face  for  the 
water  to  flow  over. 

This  was  evidently  a  judiciously  contrived  scheme,  and  shows  that 
the  projector  of  it  had  a  just  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  difficul- 
ties he  was  to  contend  with,  which  were  a  soft,  unstable  bottom  and 
a  powerful  current  of  water.  He  was  well  aware  that  a  dam  of  the 
thickness  he  contemplated  would  easily  sustain  the  pressure  of  back- 
water, although  from  its  being  composed  of  soft  materials,  he  could 
not  expect  it  to  withstand  the  action  of  water  rushing  over  it.  Ex- 
perience had  proved  that  such  materials  as  chalk  could  not  from  the 
large  interstices  necessarily  existing  between  the  pieces,  form  anv- 
thing  like  a  water-tight  dam,  and  if  they  had,  the  softness  of  the  bot- 
tom was  enough  to  render  such  a  plan  impracticable.  The  first  grand 
points  were  to  secure  the  treacherous  bottom,  and  make  a  heavy  and 
water-tight  dam.  These  difficulties  were  well  provided  for  by  the 
use  of  dove-tailed  piles  and  a  clayey  soil.  The  second  point  was  to 
prevent  the  ebb  and  flood  tides  from  rushing  over  the  top  of  the  dam 
when  it  was  in  progi'ess  ;  this  difficulty  was  removed  by  keeping  the 
backwater  constantly  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  work. 

After  much  communing  and  trouble  on  both  sides,  a  contract  was 
entered  into  with  Captain  Perry,  who  was  to  perform  the  works  for 
i:25,000,  he  being  bound  to  advance  £5000,  and  to  expend  that  sum 
on  the  works,  after  which  he  was  to  be  supplied  by  the  trustees.  If 
the  work  were  unsuccessful,  the  £5UU0  was  of  course  lost  to  Captain 
Ferry,  or,  rather,  to  the  friends  who  had  advanced  it.  Should,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  work  be  successful,  but  be  rendered  very  costly  from 
any  unforeseen  accident,  he  was  to  be  recommended  to  the  conside- 
ration of  Parliament. 

After  all  this  had  been  settled,  Captain  P.  seems  to  have  been  much 
annoyed  by  Mr.  Boswell  and  a  host  of  mathemalicians,  who  declared 


his  plan  impracticable.  He,  however,  came  through  their  hands,  ac- 
cording to  bis  own  account,  non  sine  gloria,  as  well  as  tlirough  the 
ordeal  of  sundry  examinations  and  meetings. 

No  time  was  lost  in  commencing  the  work  ;  but  the  sluice,  from 
the  softness  of  the  ground,  was  not  carried  to  its  contemplated  depth, 
which  incurred  the  necessity  of  another  being  made.  From  some 
cause  or  other  matters  seem  to  have  been  mismanaged,  for  it  was  not 
until  the  spring  of  1717  that  the  second  sluice  was  completed,  and  the 
breach  was  not  stopped  till  June.  For  this  tardiness  he  pleads  seve- 
ral excuses,  but  he  does  not  succeed  in  satisfying  the  reader  as  to  his 
promptness.  The  time  for  completing  the  dam  had  now  nearly  ap- 
proached, and  his  friends  who  had  advanced  the  money,  became  im- 
patient, and  so  importuned  him  to  push  on  tlie  work,  that  he  allows 
he  was  persuaded  to  admit  stuff  of  an  inferior  binding  quality  in  the 
formation  of  the  dam.  A  great  deal  of  bad  earth  was  also  put  in 
without  his  knowledge,  when  the  men  were  working  at  night,  and  liis 
assistants,  five  in  number,  seemed  rather  to  conspire  against  him  than 
to  back  him  in  any  of  his  difficulties,  so  that  what  between  grumbling 
friends,  rebellious  assistants,  and  an  impatient  public,  he  was  con- 
strained to  collect  together  all  the  force  he  could  muster  in  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  in  spite  of  the  high  wages  of  3Gs.  per  week.  These 
labourers,  assisted  by  men  from  the  royal  yards  of  Woolwich  and 
Deptford,  soon  made  a  satisfactory  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
the  work,  but  a  most  unsatisfactory  difference  in  its  quality.  Hitherto 
each  tide's  work  had  been  made  in  offsets  or  scarcements,  about  7  feet 
broad  and  3  feet  high,  these  supported  by  piles  and  planking  on  the 
side,  and  protected  by  reeds  on  the  top,  had  been  able  to  resist  the 
action  of  the  tide  when  it  came  in.  One  of  the  assistants,  however, 
proposed  during  the  neaps  to  set  all  hands  to  work  and  make  a  narrow 
wall  of  earth,  unprotected  by  reeds  or  planking,  and  build  it  so  rapidly 
as  to  get  it  above  the  level  of  the  springs  before  they  should  come  on, 
and  thus  at  once  to  exclude  the  tide  from  the  marsh.  Captain  Perry 
unfortunately  gave  in  to  this  proposal,  trusting  to  the  tide's  being  of 
its  ordinary  height.  There  happened,  however,  an  extraordinary  tide, 
occasioned  by  a  storm  at  N.W.,  which  tide  rose  about  6  inches  higher 
than  the  top  of  the  little  wall,  and  pouring  over  it,  soon  washed  it 
down,  and  the  water  thus  widening  its  inlet,  rushed  over  in  such 
volumes,  that  in  the  course  of  two  hours  the  dovetailed  piles  were 
laid  bare. 

When  Captain  P.  observed  the  tide  rising  with  unprecedented  ra- 
pidity (which  it  did),  he  heightened  the  little  wall  with  piles  and 
boarding  set  on  edge  on  the  top,  but  the  water  insinuating  itself  be- 
tween the  boards  and  the  earth,  led  to  the  calamity  we  have  men- 
tioned, and  which  the  Captain  says  was  due  merely  to  the  fortuitous 
occurrence  of  an  extraordinary  tide.  Men  were  employed  in  digging 
down  the  earth,  and  otherwise  easing  the  passage  of  the  water  over 
the  dam,  as  well  at  the  first  inbreak  as  at  subsequent  tides,  by  which 
means  the  violence  of  the  current  was  speedily  checked. 

This  accident,  as  might  have  been  supposed,  caused  many  reports 
about  the  general  insufficiency  of  the  work,  and  the  erroneous  prin- 
ciples on  which  it  had  been  carried  on.  This  did  not,  however,  deter 
Captain  P.  from  proceeding  with  the  repair  during  the  winter  months, 
and  in  raising  the  dam  this  second  time,  he  was  a  great  deal  more 
scrupulous  about  the  quality  of  earth  used  in  its  formation,  and  in  the 
end  of  June,  1718,  "  the  tide  was  again  turned  out  of  the  levels  in  the 
time  of  neap  as  before,  only  that  the  work,  after  the  tides  were  turned, 
was  now  continued  to  be  raised  by  set-offs  with  piles  and  boards,  and 
well  covered  over  at  the  top,  so  that  though  a  thin  body  of  water  did 
several  times  pass  over  into  the  levels,  it  was  easily  let  off  by  the 
sluices.  The  trustees  now  visited  the  work,  and  expressed  them- 
selves satisfied  with  the  manner  in  which  this  part  of  the  work  had 
been  accomplished.  After  their  visit  he  dammed  up  the  two  canals 
communicating  witli  the  sluices,  and  any  subsidence  of  the  dam  he  at 
once  made  up  with  new  stuff  The  work  being  now  in  an  apparently 
safe  condition,  the  Captain  left  for  Dover,  where  he  was  to  report  on 
the  Harbour,  and  on  his  return  he  was  seized  with  ague,  and  when  he 
was  recovering,  but  was  still  confined,  on  the  morning  of  the  30th  of 
September,  1718,  a  message  was  sent  to  him  conveying  the  mortifying 
intelligence  tliat  the  tide  had  again  demolished  the  work.  In  spite  of 
his  ague  he  at  once  visited  the  spot,  and  found  the  sluice  dams  stand- 
ing and  the  sluices  shut,  and,  in  short,  nothing  done  towards  easing 
the  passage  of  the  waters.  He  immediately  summoned  as  many  hands 
to  his  assistance  as  the  neighbouring  country  could,  on  such  short 
notice,  produce;  but  the  water  had  made  such  havoc,  that  in  six  tides 
about  a  hundred  feet  of  the  dovetail  piles,  &c.,  were  torn  up  and 
carried  away,  and  in  one  place  there  was  about  20  feet  greater  depth 
than  there  was  before  the  work  was  begun. 

How  this  accident  occurred  was  for  some  time  a  mystery,  but  it  sub- 
sequently came  out  that  the  watchman  had,  instead  of  attending  at  his 
post,  been  reviving  his  frozen  carcase  at  a  neighbouring  beer  shop. 


lOS 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


By  thia  time  the  Captain's  funds  had  been  greatly  reduced,  and  he 
applied  to  tlie  trustees  for  a  remittance,  which  they,  however  refused 
and  he  was  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  canvassine;  his  friends  for  fur- 
ther sums  which  was  after  some  difficulty  suppliecl.  This  was  in  Feb- 
ruary, and  it  was  not  till  the  winter  had  expired  that  the  gap  was 
squared  and  tilled  up  and  the  tides  were  expelled  for  the  third  time 
on  the  Isth  of  June.  He  continued  also  to  increase  the  height  of  the 
dam  till  it  was  two  feet  above  the  level  of  a  high  tide  that  occurred  in 
November,  occasioned  by  the  conjoined  effects  of  a  great  storm  and 
the  moon's  being  in  perigee. 

It  appears  from  his  statements  that  the  works  had  left  him  in  a  sadly 
crippled  state  as  far  as  regarded  his  purse,  and  he  concludes  by  urging 
the  trustees  at  least  to  make  up  his  deficiency  that  he  might  be  enabled 
to  steer  clear  of  his  creditors.  He  says  "If  I  may — now  the  work  is 
completed  and  so  many  years  (5)  spent  therein,  be  but  freed  from  the 
debts  and  engagements  into  which  it  has  plunged  me,  and  set  at  liberty 
to  offer  myself  upon  some  other  work,  whereby  I  may  be  of  use  to  my 
country  and  have  an  opportunity  of  getting  my  bread;  I  shall  cheer- 
fully submit  to  whatsoever  shall  be  thought  fit  as  to  any  consideration 
or  reward  to  myself."  He  further  volunteers  his  services  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  ports  of  Dublin  and  Dover,  reports  on  both  of  which 
he  subjoins  to  his  narrative.  I  cannot,  from  the  want  of  access  to 
proper  data  (occasioned  by  a  casual  visit  to  the  country),  take  any 
step  towards  ascertaining  in  what  way  the  petition  of  our  author  was 
received  by  the  Trustees  and  the  house  of  parliament,  as  such  informa- 
tion is  not  contained  in  his  own  narrative,  that  he  was  in  some  way 
freed  from  actual  imprisonment  and  allowed  to  go  at  large  in  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession,  seems  evident  from  the  book  which  he  subse- 
quently published.  In  the  Bibliotheca  Britannica  there  is  mentioned 
in  the  short  catalogue  of  his  labours  as  an  author  •'  Proposals  for  the 
draining  the  Fens  in  Lincolnshire.  1727  fol.  His  death  is  said  in  the 
same  book  to  have  taken  place  in  1733. 

I  shall  now  conclude  by  explaining  my  reasons  for  thus  having  brought 
a  condensed  view  of  this  half  forgotten  work  before  the  public  through 
the  medium  of  these  widely  circulated  pages.  Many  who  might  have 
taken  an  interest  in  the  work  have  no  opportunity  of  reading  Perry's 
own  narrative  from  its  unfrequent  occurrence ;  and  from  the  somewhat 
incoherent  and  cloudy  stile  in  which  it  is  written,  the  reader  is  fre- 
quently a  little  puzzled  to  know  exactly  what  the  author  would  be  at. 
Even  the  description  of  his  scheme  (simple  though  it  was)  is  not  by 
most  readers  to  be  apprehended  by  a  single  perusal.  These  reasons 
and  the  wish  to  make  the  name  of  the  successful  projector  of  so  formid- 
able a  work,  better  known  to  the  profession  must  excuse  me  for  occu- 
pying so  much  valuable  room. 

* » 


STEAM  VESSEL  INQUIRY  AND  INQUISITION. 

The  labours  of  the  Commissioners  have  at  last  brought  to  light  the  pro- 
mised Shiloh,  in  the  shape  of  such  a  bill,  as  was  never  before  seen,  anil  we  sin- 
cerely hope  will  never  be  seen  again.  The  abstract  which  we  have  perused  is  such 
as  was  to  have  been  expected  from  its  concoctors,  and  the  sources  from  which 
they  derived  their  ideas  of  legislation  ;  the  bill  seems  to  be  a  cross  breed  be- 
tween a  French  police  ordonnance,  and  an  excise  or  custom-bouse  act  of  par- 
liament. Such  inspectors  and  such  surveyors,  and  such  modes  of  ac  ion  ^ 
were  never  before  contemplated  in  this  country,  at  variance  with  the  recog- 
nized laws  of  all  sound  economy,  they  are  obviously  at  variance  with  the 
national  character,  and  the  interests  of  the  empire.  It  is  by  unshackled  in- 
dustry and  by  that  alone  that  this  mighty  empire  his  been  created,  and  that 
't  is  to  be  maintained,  and  it  is  on  the  prosperity  of  steam  navigation  m  par- 
ticular that  our  strength  depends,  and  the  means  of  profiling  by  our  re- 
sources. What  therefore  can  exceed  the  insanity  wh'cli  proposes  to  place 
inventors  and  manufacturers  under  a  yoke,  which  in  every  other  country  has 
fet'ered  the  progress  of  science,  and  retarded  the  adv>anccment  of  the  nation  P 
What  are  we  to  expect  when  we  see  spies  under  the  name  of  surveyors  intro- 
duced not  only  into  the  workshops,  but  into  the  study,  not  to  be  contented 
by  tampering  with  the  machinery,  but  who  must  meddle  with  the  Aery  de- 
si,5n  itself.  Men  who  are  to  constitute  a  new  middle  class  between  the  manu- 
facturer and  the  shipowner,  who  are  to  tell  one  what  he  is  to  muke,  and  the 
other  what  he  is  to  buy,  who  are  to  be  censors  of  the  noblest  eftbrls  of  in- 
vention, and  judges  of  last  resort  in  cases  where  the  most  learned  dis- 
agree. Do  we  believe  that  the  plague  intro  luced  among  marine  engineers 
will  fester  among  them  alone  without  extending  (o  every  other  class  of  en- 
gineers? We  neither  believe  it,  nor  can  others.  Itis  what  is  done  in  France 
and  what  will  be  done  here  ;  the  police  will  not  stop  till  they  regulate  the 
working  of  the  engine  in  the  factory,  as  well  as  the  progress  of  the  steam 


boat  on  the  water,  and  the  locomotive  on  the  rail.  To  denounce  this  to 
Englishmen  is  unnecessary,  to  nime  it  is  to  point  out  its  train  of  informers 
and  penalties,  and  to  insure  its  instant  condemnation. 

The  motives  which  inspire  this  bill,  can  have  no  origin  in  common  sense, 
ihey  can  proceed  only  from  some  hateful  inspiration,  and  what  that  is  it 
would  be  difficult  to  point  out.  The  least  excusable  would  be  to  enable  a 
government,  always  in  arrear  of  private  enterprise,  to  pillage  in  other  estab- 
lishments f  r  the  mamtenance  of  the  new  factory  at  Woolwich.  We  cannot 
believe  that  they  would  hesitate  to  do  so,  when  they  are  regardless  in  every 
other  point. 

We  felt  it  our  duty  to  oppose  this  measure  from  its  first  suggestion,  we 
have  followed  it  with  uncompromising  hostility  throughout  its  threaten- 
ing progress,  and  we  were  not  inclined  to  relax  w  hen  we  saw  it  assume  a 
shape  so  formidable.  Having  issued  a  circular  to  the  manufacturers,  meetings 
have  been  held  at  which  men,  the  first  in  talent,  enterprise  and  wealth  in  the 
country  have  come  forward  to  prove  by  their  own  conduct  the  justice  of  the 
course  which  we  had  pursued  in  their  defence,  and  we  trust  that  such  an 
opposition  is  organized  as  will  at  least  paralyze  the  operations  of  this 
obnoxious  bill,  if  it  do  not  destroy  it  in  its  birth. 

We  have  on  former  occasions  shown  that  the  evidence  on  which  the  report 
was  founded  was  most  trumpery  and  insufficient,  and  we  trust  that  our  readers 
are  convinced,  that  the  only  effective  operation  of  the  proposed  measure  would 
be  to  injure  the  best  interests  of  the  country.  Commissioners  of  course  are 
to  be  appointed,  but  where  men  competent  for  the  duty  are  to  be  found,  none 
but  the  concoctors  of  the  bill  can  devine,  for  no  practical  man  can.  Qualified 
surveyors  are  still  less  to  be  expected,  and  raw  theorists  or  ignorant  empirics 
seem  to  be  the  classes  from  which  these  inquisitorial  functionaries  are  to  be 
supplied.  To  them  are  to  be  confided  the  most  extraordinary  powers,  not 
only  the  mere  privileges  of  meddling,  but  judicial  authority  over  their  victims. 
Even  district  surveyors  are  to  have  all  the  extra  legal  powers  of  a  parliamentary 
committee,  to  call  for  papers  and  for  documents,  and  to  examine  persons  on 
oath,  to  prosecute  for  penalties,  and  to  receive  half  those  penalties  for  their 
own  share.  This  is  the  plan  to  which  all  principles  of  justice,  of  truth,  and 
of  experience  are  to  be  sacrificed,  and  by  which  the  talents  and  intellects  of 
our  ablest  men  are  to  be  subjected,  and  manufacturers,  some  of  w  bom  have 
not  less  than  a  hundred  thousand  pounds  invested  in  their  business,  are  to 
be  hampered  and  destroyed. 


SURVEYING  POLES. 

Sir, — Allow  me  through  the  medium  of  your  interesting  Journal,  to 
suggest  to  practical  Surveyors  a  very  useful,  although  seemingly  triyial 
addition  to  the  ordinary  Surveying  Poles,  as  a  substitute  for  the  piece 
of  paper  commonly  used  to  render  the  pole  distinguishable  from  a 
long  distance  when  driving  a  line  over  land. 


Front  view. 


Side  view. 


B  ick  view. 


n 


^Dl 


1^' 

It  consists  of  a  disc  of  tin  about  six  inches  in  diameter,  which  fi>r 
convenience  in  carrying  may  be  joined  across  tlie  middle  as  shown  in 
the  accompanying  sketch;  its  ojien  position  being  secured  by  a  little 
bar  A  to  be  turned  into  the  latch  B.  An  iron  ring  or  socket  C  is 
screwed  on  the  top  of  the  pole  and  receives  the  disc  in  a  slit  while 
the  screw  D  secures  it.  It  is  almost  needless  to  remark  that  the  disc 
should  be  painted  white  on  both  sides. 

Yours  obediently, 


1 1,  Craven-street.  Charing  Cross, 
March  I'J,  1840.' 


G.  P.  DEMPSEY, 


1S40.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


109 


OF  THE  OBLIQUE  OR  SKEWED  ARCH. 

While  the  system  of  communication  from  one  part  of  tliR  country 
to  anotliPr  continued  to  be  transmitted  througli  tlie  medium  of  turupilce 
roads  alone,  the  instances  were  few  and  far  between  in  wliicli  tl'.e 
erection  of  an  uhlicjiie  nr  skt wed  arch  became  necessary.  Indeed,  \ui- 
less  in  very  confined  and  precipitous  situations,  we  do  not  recollect  a 
single  case,  where  a  structure  of  this  kind  has  been  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  a  road  over  a  river  or  slreauilet;  nor  was  it  re- 
quisite that  it  should,  for  in  laying  down  the  original  jilan  of  a  road, 
the  surveyor  would  generally  possess  the  power  of  directing  it,  so  as 
to  intersect  a  river  at  right  angles  to  its  banks,  and  thus  the  necessity 
of  carrying  a  bridge  obliquely  across  the  stream  would  be  altogether 
avoided. 

On  the  introduction  of  canals  however,  the  circumstances  were  very 
materially  altered,  for  it  seldom  happened  that  the  direction  of  a  road 
already  constructed,  was  permitted  to  be  changed  for  the  purpose  of 
acroiuiuodating  it  to  the  line  of  a  projected  canal,  so  as  to  traverse  it 
jierpendicularly  ;  and  in  many  cases  it  would  be  found  inconvenient  if 
not  totally  impracticable,  to  guide  the  canal  across  a  road  at  right  angles 
to  its  diri'ction  ;  hence  tlie  necessity  of  having  recourse  to  the  skLipcd 
arch,  and  accordingly,  on  the  various  canals  that  inteisect  the  country, 
erections  of  this  sort  are  very  numerous,  and  the  methods  by  which 
some  of  tliem  have  been  constructed  are  exceedingly  ingenious. 

But  it  is  in  tlie  construction  of  railroads  that  the  skewed  arch  meets 
with  its  Tuost  important  application,  for  in  almost  everv  instance  where 
one  line  is  intersected  by  another,  the  intersection  takes  place  with  a 
lesser  or  greater  degree  of  obliquity,  and  several  viaducts  of  consider- 
able length  are  wholly  supported  by  a  connected  range  of  oblique 
arcuation.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  an  object  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  the  correct  principles  of  construction  should  be  rightiv 
understood,  and  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  thosi?  principles 
and  rendering  their  application  easy,  that  the  ]u'esent  investigation  lias 
been  instituted. 

There  are  few  architectural  subjects  that  have  excited  a  higher  de- 
gree of  interest  than  the  present,  and  there  is  none  that  has  given  rise 
to  a  greater  number  of  curious,  abstruse  and  elegant  theories,  or  been 
the  cause  of  more  violent  and  protracted  controversies.  One  party 
contending  that  the  just  principle  of  construction,  is  to  place  the  seve- 
ral courses  of  which  the  arch  is  composed  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the 
abutments,  the  direction  of  the  coursing  joints  being  regulated  by  the 
nature  of  the  curve  on  which  the  arch  is  built.  A  second  party  main- 
tains, that  the  several  courses  should  be  placed  perpendicular  to  the 
face  of  the  arch  as  far  as  the  obliquity  on  both  sides  of  it,  and  that  the 
middle  portion  which  stands  upon  the  square,  should  have  the  courses 
laid  parallel  to  the  imposts  or  abutments.  A  third  class  of  disputants 
insists  upon  laying  the  several  courses  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the 
arch  throughout  its  whole  extent,  and  trending  them  to  the  abutments 
in  an  angle  dependent  on  the  given  obliquity;  while  a  fourth  class 
proposes  to  direct  the  courses  in  such  a  manner  as  to  traverse  the  arch 
spirally  like  the  threads  of  screw. 

The  subject  itself  is  worthy  of  a  mechanical  investigation,  and  since 
we  have  been  induced  to  direct  our  ittention  to  it,  we  shall  endeavour 
to  the  utmost  of  our  power  to  set  the  question  at  rest,  and  point  out 
the  true  principles  of  construction  upon  which  depends  the  maximum 
of  stability  and  strength. 

In  taking  a  minute  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  subject  to  which 
our  present  enquiries  are  directed,  it  will  be  proper  for  the  sake  of 
system,  to  consider  the  various  theories  above  specified  in  the  same 
order  as  we  have  described  them.  This  in  the  first  place  will  lead  us 
to  the  contemplation  of  that  variety  where  the  courses  are  laid  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  the  imposts,  and  in  which,  (supposing  the  arch  to 
be  a  semicircle,)  the  planes  of  the  coursing  joints  on  being  produced 
to  intersect  the  plan  or  base  of  the  arch,  are  everywhere  constrained 
to  terminate  in  the  axis  or  straight  line,  which  passing  through  the 
centre  of  the  semicircle  divides  the  plan  into  two  equal  and  similar 
portions. 

The  princi|)le  upon  which  the  mechanical  delineation  of  this  parti- 
cular form  is  founded,  is  exceedingly  curious  and  interesting,  referring 
as  it  does  to  the  developement  of  the  several  parts  of  a  right  angled 
triangular  pyramid  upon  a  plane  surface.  This  circumstance  intro- 
duces a  species  of  calculation  that  is  not  generally  understood  by  prac- 
tical architects,  since  it  claims  as  its  basis  the  doctrine  of  Spherical 
Trigonometry,  a  subject  to  which  the  attention  of  practical  men  is  very 
seldom  directed,  although  its  applications  are  both  numerous  and  im- 
portant, and  its  principles  remarkable  for  their  elegance  and  simplicity. 
The  objects  of  calculation  are,  the  angles  at  the  vertex  of  the  pyramid 
comprehended  between  its  edges,  and  the  angles  which  measure  the 
mutual  inclinations  of  its  bounding  planes.     Now,  in  order  to  assimilate 


the  necessary  operations  to  the  determination  of  the  levels  or  moulds 
by  which  the  several  voussoirs  or  arch  stones  are  framed,  we  have 
only  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  figure  arising  from  the  nmtual  inter- 
sections of  the  planes  to  which  the  moulds  are  severally  applied. 

(f  the  i'ace  or  elevation  of  the  arch,  and  the  planes  of  the  coursing 
joints  or  beds  of  the  several  voussoirs,  be  produced  to  intersect  each 
other  in  the  plan  or  base  on  which  the  arch  is  raised,  they  will,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  said  plan,  manifestly  constitute  a  series  of  triangular 
jjyramids  having  their  vertices  in  the  centre  of  the  semicircle,  and  if 
the  face  of  the  arch  be  perpendicular  to  the  plan,  the  pyramids  will 
be  all  right  angled  ;  that  is,  two  of  the  boiniding  planes  in  each,  namely, 
the  face  and  plan  of  the  arch  will  intersect  one  another  in  an  angle  of 
ninety  degrees. 

Let  the  planes  of  the  beds  or 
coursing  joints  be  produced  ex- 
ternally, and  conceive  a  circular 
arc  to  be  described  in  each  of 
the  bounding  planes,  and  having 
the  vertex  of  the  pvramid  ;is  a 
centre ;  then,  the  figures  thus 
constituted  will  respectively  re- 
semble that  which  is  exhibited 
in  the  margin,  and  upon  the  de- 
velopeauMit  of  wddch  the  con- 
struction of  the  arch  depends. 

A,  part  of  the  arch.  P,  part 
of  the  plan.  B,  part  of  bed  pro- 
longed. 

If  the  middle  plane  or  plan 
s  C  D  be  supposed  to  be  fixed, 
w  hile  the  extreme  planes  ;•  C  s 
and  D  C  I  are  elevated  about  the 

lines  C  s,  C  D,  till  the  points  )•  and  >,  as  also  the  radii  C  )•  and  C  / 
coincide,  the  nature  of  the  figure  thus  formed  will  become  manifest, 
and  th(<  expansions  of  its  several  parts  \ipon  a  plane  surface,  may 
be  etlected  in  the  fcjUowing  manner. 

With   the   chord  of  GO  de-  -r 

grees  taken  from  a  scale  of 
any  convenient  magnitude  at 
pleasure,  and  about  C  as  a 
centre,  describe  the  circular 
arc  rsD/,  upon  which  and 
from  the  same  scale  of  chords, 
set  off  ;•  s  and  s  L),  respectively 
equal  to  the  measures  of  the 
angles  at  the  vertices  of  the 
perpendicular  planes  cC  s  and 
sCD. 

Driiw  the  radii  C  ;■,  C  s  and 
C  D,  and  in  the  radius  C  r 
take  any  point  a  at  pleasure, 
and  erect  the  perpendicular 
a  A  meeting  the  radius  Cs  in  the  point  A.  At  the  point  A  deter- 
ndned  in  this  manner,  erect  the  perpendicular  A  D  meeting  the  radius 
CD  in  the  point  D.  From  A,  and  on  the  radius  Cs  set  oft' A/ equal 
to  A  a  and  draw  Dy.  Upon  CD  as  a  diameter,  describe  the  semi- 
circular C  H  D,  in  which  lay  oft'  the  chord  C^  equal  to  C  a,  and  D  g 
equal  to  Dy' and  draw  the  radius  Cl. 

The  above  operation  developes  the  triangular  pyramid  as  far  as  it 
relates  to  the  construction  of  the  arch  in  question ;  D  C  I  being  the 
bevel  of  the  bed  or  coursing  joint,  and  Ay  D  the  bevel  between  the 
coursing  joint  and  face  of  the  arch.  But  in  order  to  exhibit  the  com- 
plete developement  of  the  figure,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  angle 
which  measures  the  inclination  of  the  planes  s  C  D  and  DC/;  that  is, 
the  angle  contained  between  the  plan  of  the  arch  and  the  bed  of  the 
voussoirs  for  any  particular  course.  From  A  or  any  other  point  wdiat- 
ever  in  the  radius  C  s,  let  fall  the  perpendicular  A  b,  carrying  it  for- 
ward to  meet  C  /  in  d;  then  is  A  6  the  base,  and  bd  the  hypothenuse 
of  a  right  angled  plane  triangle,  between  which  the  required  angle  lies. 
At  the  point  A  in  the  straight  line  d  A,  erect  tfie  perpendicular  A  c, 
and  make  be  equal  to  hd;  then  is  A  6  c  the  angle  sought,  which  hav- 
ing been  found,  the  developement  of  the  pyramid  is  complete. 

The  nature  and  principles  of  the  above  construction  will  be  readily 
perceived  by  reversing  the  process;  that  is,  by  recomposing  the  figure 
from  its  constituent  planes  and  the  angles  which  measure  their  in- 
clinations: and  for  this  purpose,  let  the  two  extreme  planes  rCs  and 
D  C  /  be  turned  about  the  radii  C  s  and  C  D,  while  the  ndddle  plane 
s  C  D  remains  fixed ;  and  at  the  same,  let  the  triangular  planes  A/D 

Q 


110 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


and  Ah  c  he  respectively  turned  about  tlie  lines  A  D  and  A  6.  Then 
it  is  manifest,  that  \\hn\  the  points  r  and  I  are  made  to  coincide,  the 
radii  C  c  and  C  t  coincide  also,  and  form  one  of  the  edges  of  the;  trian- 
gular pyramid,  as  may  be  seen  by  elevating  the  corres|)onding  planes 
in  the  preceding  diagram  ;  and  Ijy  this  means  the  figare  is  rccomposed 
in  so  far  as  respects  its  constituent  planes.  Another  step  of  the  com- 
position is  eliected  by  bringing  into  coincidence  the  straight  lines  A  a, 
A/,nndV/,'Dg;  and  when  Ac  falls  upon  irf  the  structure  is  com- 
jdete,  both  as  respects  the  bounding  planes  and  the  angles  which  mea- 
sure their  inclinations. 

It  now  remains  to  calculate  the  several  parts  of  the  pyramid,  on  the 
supposition  tliat  the  angles  at  the  vertices  of  the  planes  j-t^sand  sC  D 
are  given;  and  in  order  to  this, 

Let  c  ^  rCs,  the  angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  plane  iCs,  which  cor- 
responds with  a  portion  of  the  face  of  the  arch, 
6  =:s  C  D,  the  angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  plane  s  C  D,  which 
corresponds  with  a  portion  of  the  plan  or  base,  and  is  per- 
pendicular to  r  C  s, 
«  =^  D  C  /,  the  angle  at  the  vertex  of  the  plane  DC/,  which  is 
a  portion  of  the  bed  or  coursing  joint,  and  subtends  the  in- 
clination of  the  planes  rCs  and  s  C  D, 
B  =   A  /  D,  tlie  angle  that  measures  the  inclination  of  the 
planes  r  C  is  and  DC/, 
and  C  =  A  6  c,  the  angle  that  measures  the  inclination  of  the  planes 

DC/ and  8  CD. 
This  notation  being  agreed  on,  let  C  A  be  made  the  radius  ;  then  by 


the  definitions  of  trigonometry,  A  a  and  C  a  are  respi'ctively  the  sine 
and  cosine  of  the  angle  A  Co,  while  A  D  is  the  tangent  of  the  angle 
A  C  D.  But  by  the  construction.  A/ is  equal  to  A  a,  and  conseijuently 
A/is  equal  to  the  sine  of  the  angle  >Cs;  therefore,  by  the  |)rin- 
ciples  of  plane  trigonometry,  we  have 

A/  :  AD  :  :  rad.  :  tan.  Ay  D  ;  that  is,  sin.  e  :  tan.  6  :  :  rad.  : 
tan.  B  r=  tan  b,  cosec  c. 

Here  we  have  determined  the  angle  of  inclination  between  the 
planes  rCs  and  DC/,  and  a  similar  process  will  discover  the  angle 
A  6  c,  or  the  inclination  between  the  planes  8  C  D  ami  D  C /.  Thus, 
since  C  A  is  radius,  A  6  is  the  sine  of  the  angle  s  C  D  to  that  radius, 
and  by  construction,  Ac  is  equal  to  the  tangent  of  the  angle  A  Co,  for 
Ac  is  equal  to  A/i,  and  Ah  is  evidently  the  tangent  of  the  angle  A  Ca 
to  radius  C  A  ;  therefore,  by  plane  trigonometry,  we  get 
A6  :  Ac  :  :  rad.  ;  tan.  A  6c;  that  is,  sin.  6  1  tan.  c  :  :  rad.  ;  tan. 
C  =  tan.  e,  cosec.  6. 

M'e  have  next  to  determine  the  angle  hCd  in  the  plane  DC/,  and 
fortius  purpose  it  is  only  necessary  to  recollect,  that  Cg'  is  equal  to 
the  cosine  of  A  C  a,  and  C  D  equal  to  the  secant  of  A  C  D  ;  hence  we 
have 


CD 


;  rad.  :  COS.  D  C  g ;  that  is,  sec.  6 


cos.  c 


rad. 


COS. 


a  ^=  COS.  6,  COS.  c. 

And  exactly  in  the  same  manner,  if  any  other  two  of  the  ))arts  be 
given  the  rest  may  be  found,  and  the  several  results  when  calculated 
and  reduced  to  their  simplest  form,  are  respectively  as  exhibited  in 
the  following  table : 


Table  offormulcefor  calculating  the  several  parti  of  a  right  angled  triangular  pyramid  standing  on  a  spherical  base. 


Values  qfffie  angle  a,  at  the  vertex 
of  the  hypotheiuisal  plane  B  VC. 


sin.  a  =  sin.  b  cosec.  B. 
sin.  a  =  sin.  c  cosec.  C. 
tan.  o  =  tan.  b  sec.  C. 
tan.  o  =  tan.  c  sec.  B. 
cos.  a  =  cos.  b  cos.  c. 
COS.  o  =  cot.  B  cot.  C. 


Values  of  the  angle  B,  mbtended  by 
the  base  or  plane  A  V  C. 


sin.  B  — sin.  b  cosec.  a. 
sia.  B  =  sec.  c  cos.  C. 
tan.  B  =  sec.  a  cot.  C. 
tan.  B  =  tan.  b  cosec.  c. 
cos.  B  =  cot.  a  tan.  c, 
COS.  B  =  cos.  b  sin.  C. 


Values  of  the  angle  c,  at  the  vertex 
of  the  perpendicular  plane  A  V  B. 


1 

sin. 

e=sin. 

a  sin.  C. 

2 

sni. 

c=tan 

b  cot.  B. 

3 

tan. 

c  =  tan 

a  COS.  B. 

4 

tan. 

c  =  sni. 

b  tan.  C. 

5 

COS. 

c  =  cos. 

0  sec.  b. 

G 

cos. 

c  =  cos. 

C  cosec.  B 

Values  of  the  angle  C,  subtended 
by  the  perpendicular  plane  AV  B. 


sin.  C  =  sin.  c  cosec.  a. 
sin.  C  =  sec.  b  cos.  B. 
tan,  C  =  sec.  a  cot.  B. 
tan.  C  =  tan.  c  cosec.  b. 
cos.  C  =  cot.  0  tan.  b. 
cos.  C  =  cos.  c  sin.  B. 


Values  of  the  angle  i,  at  the  vertex 
of  the  plane  or  base  A  V  C. 


sin.  i  — sin.  a  sin.  B. 
sin.  i  =  tan.  c  cot.  C. 
tan.  i  =  tan.  a  cos.  C. 
tau.  i  =  sin.  c  tan.  B. 
COS.  i  =  cos.  a  sec.  c. 
COS.  4  =  cos.  B  cosec.  C. 


The  above  fable  contains  the  simplest  forms  of  the  equations  neces- 
sary for  resolving  the  dilVercnt  cases  and  varieties  of  right  angled 
spherical  triangles,  as  they  depenil  upon  the  triangular  pyramiil 
VBAC.  It  is  designed  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  either  learning 
by  rote  or  investigating  the  various  rules  and  proportions  connected 
W'ith  this  branch  of  the  subject;  for  by  simply  referring  to  that  com- 
partment of  the  table  which  cimtains  the  values  of  the  quantity  sought, 
an  expression  will  be  found  denoting  the  precise  operation  to  be  per- 
formed for  the  value  of  the  required  term.  Thus  lor  exanqile.  Suj)- 
pose  that  in  the  right  angled  spherical  triangle  B  AC,  the  base  AC^= 
h,  and  the  perpendicular  U  A  ^  c  are  given,  and  it  is  required  to  find; 

1.  The  hypothennse  BC'  =  o. 

2.  The  angle  AB  C  =  B  contained  between  the  hypothenuse  B  C 
and  perpendicular  B  A,  or  that  which  is  subtended  by  the  base  A  C. 

To  find  the  hypothennse  BC  :=  u,  refer  to  that  compartment  of  the 
table  that  contains  the  values  of  the  hypothennse,  ami  select  that  ex- 


pression which  exhibits  a  combination  of  the  given  quantities  6  and  c 
This  is  readilv  perceived  to  be  No.  5,  the  only  case  in  which  the  two 
given  terms  form  au  equation  with  the  one  required  ;  hence  we  get 
COS.  a  ;=  COS.  6  cos.  c. 

And  the  numerical  operation  denoted  by  this  expression,  may,  w  hen 
converted  into  words,  be  read  in  the  following  manner : — 

Multiply  the  natural  cosine  of  tlie  given  base,  by  the  natural  cosine  of 
the  gmu  jJirjiindicular,  and  the  product  mill  give  the  natural  cosine  of 
the  hypolhtu  tine. 

The  multiplication  of  trigonometrical  quantities  is  however  a  very 
laborious  process,  miless  the  contracted  method  of  decimal  multiplica- 
tion is  resorted  to;  and  since  very  few  of  our  practical  mechanics  have 
taken  the  trouble  to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  application  of 
that  method,  the  necessity  of  employing  it  may  be  entirely  superseded 
by  the  use  of  logarithms.     The  rule  will  then  be  as  follows: — 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


Ill 


Add  togelhtr  the  logarithmic  cosines  of  the  given  parts,  and  the  sum 
wilt  be  the  logarithmic  cosine  0/  the  part  required. 

Note. — The  reader  is  supposed  to  liuve  a  previous  knowledge  of 
the  trigonometrical  definitions,  logarithmic  tables,  and  algebraic  nota- 
tion. 

The  general  application  of  the  table  may  be  described  in  words  at 
length  in  the  following  manner : — 

Add  logct/ier  the  logarithms  of  the  two  given  quantities  according  to 
their  names  in  the  equation,  and  the  sum  milt  gice  the  logarithm  of  the 
required  quantitij  according  to  its  7tame  in  the  particular  combination 
employed,  observing  always  to  abate  10  in  the  index  of  the  resulting 
logarithm. 

Again,  to  find  the  angle  A  B  C  ^  B,  contained  between  the  hypo- 
thenuse  and  perpendicular,  we  have  only  to  refer  to  that  compartment 
of  the  table  containing  the  values  of  B,  and  to  select  the  combination 
which  involves  the  given  quantities;  in  this  case  it  is  No. -1,  from 
which  we  have 

tan.  B  =^  tan.  b  cosec  c ; 
an  equation  which  is  readily  reduced  by  the  general  rule  given  above. 

In  reference  to  the  arrangement  of  the  table,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  it  forms  a  right  angled  triangle,  the  same  as  the  figure  under  con- 
sideration, and  the  squares  or  compartments  containing  the  values  of 
the  several  parts,  are  placed  in  the  same  positions  with  respect  to  each 
other  as  the  parts  are  whose  values  they  contain.  Thus,  in  the  figure 
BAG,  the  hypothenuse  a  occurs  between  the  angles  B  and  C;  so  in 
the  table,  the  square  containing  the  values  of  tlie  hypothenuse,  is 
placed  in  a  diagonal  direction  between  the  squares  containing  the 
values  of  the  angles  B  and  C. 

In  the  figure  the  perpendicular  c  occurs  between  the  angle  B  and 
the  right  angle  at  A  ;  so  in  the  table,  the  square  containing  the  values 
of  the  perpendicular,  occurs  between  the  square  containing  the  values 
of  B,  and  the  blank  square  for  the  right  ang'e  where  no  vakie  enters 

Finally,  in  the  figure,  the  base  b  falls  between  the  angle  C  and  the 
right  angle  at  A :  so  in  the  table,  the  square  containing  the  values  of 
the  base,  is  placed  between  the  blank  square  for  the  right  angle  and 
the  square  containing  the  values  of  the  angle  C  ;  an  arrangement 
which  is  beautifully  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  a  speeily  reference. 

The  two  equations  that  we  have  selected  from  the  table,  are  those 
which  apply  to  the  determination  of  the  bevels  for  the  several  voussoirs 
throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  arch.  The  first  determines  the 
form  of  the  beds,  or  the  angle  contained  between  the  joints  in  the  face 
of  the  arch,  and  the  corresponding  joints  along  thesotlit;  and  the 
second  determines  the  angles  contained  between  the  face  of  the  arch 
and  the  beds  of  the  several  courses.  The  application  of  which  we 
now  proceed  to  illustrate  by  means  of  an  example. 

Suppose  a  semicircular  arch  of  30  feet  span,  and  consisting  of  .34 
courses  from  impost  to  impost,  to  be  built  upon  an  obliquity  of  68  de- 
grees with  the  abutments,  what  are  the  several  bevels  required  for  the 
construction  of  the  arch  stones  or  voussoirs  in  eacli  of  the  courses  ? 

Since  the  arch  is  a  semicircle  of  30  feet  span  and  consisting  of 
34  courses,  that  is,  17  courses  between  the  crown  of  the  arch  and  each 
of  the  imposts;  it  follows,  that  each  voussoir  occupies  5^  17'  3b"  -i-4  of 
the  circumference,  having  a  soffit  or  intradosof  2-795  feet  very  nearly  ; 
consequently,  the  successive  portions  of  the  circumference,  estimated 
from  the  impost  to  each  of  the  beds  or  coursing  joints  as  far  as  the 
crown  or  middle  of  the  keystone,  are  respectively  as  in  the  following 
tablet. 


Courses. 

0 

/ 

/' 

Courses. 

0 

/ 

" 

1st 

5 

17 

38if 

0th 

47 

38 

49/, 

2nd 

10 

35 

l?if 

lOth 

52 

56 

28tV 

3rd 

15 

52 

sitv  ; 

nth 

58 

14 

7rr 

4th 

21 

10 

35  ^ 

12  th 

63 

31 

«4f 

5tU 

26 

28 

14  ^ 

13th 

68 

49 

2HI 

6th 

31 

45 

b2rr 

Hth 

74 

7 

3ff 

7th 

37 

3 

31^ 

15th 

70 

24 

42f, 

8th 

42 

21 

lOi? 

lOth 

84 

42 

21tV 

The  17th  course,  or  course  at  the  crown  of  the  arch,  corresponding 
an  angle  of  90  degrees  as  it  ought  tu  do,  when  the  keystone  is  in 


two  parts,  as  we  have  assumed  it  to  be  in  the  present  instance,  for  the 
express  purpose  of  showing  the  influence  of  the  obliquity  upon  the 
bevels  in  that  course.  From  these  angles  therefore,  witli  the  constant 
obliquity  of  OS  degrees,  we  derive  the  following  construction  for  the 
case  in  question. 

Let  A  E  B  in  the  subjoined 
drawing,  represent  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  given  semicircular 
arch,  of  which  C  is  the  centre, 
and  A  B  the  span  or  diameter. 
At  the  centre  C,  make  the  an- 
gle A  C  D  equal  to  08  degrees 
the  given  obliquity,  so  that  C  D 
shall  coincide  with  the  axis  of 
the  arch,  and  point  out  the  di- 
rection of  the  abutments  to 
which  it  is  parallel.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  arch  at  A,  set 
oft'  successively  the  values  of 
several  arcs  in  the  tables  cor- 
responding to  the  respective 
number  of  courses  estimated 
from  the  impost  at  A  to  the 
crown  of  the  arch  at  E,  and  from 
thtnce  in  a  retrograde  order  to 
the  other  impost  at  B. 

Upon  A  C  the  radius  of  the 
arch    describe    the    semicircle 
A  a  6  c  C,  intersecting  the  radii 
C  4,  C  S  and  C  12  respectively  in  the  points  a,  b  and  c,  and  at  A  erect 
the  perpendicular  AD  meeting  C  D  the  axis  of  the  arch  in  D. 

About  A  as  a  centre,  with  the  distances  A  a,  A  6  and  A  c,  describe 
the  arcs  af,  b  e  and  e  d,  meeting  the  radius  A  C  in  the  points/,  e  and  d 
respectively,  and  draw  the  straight  lines  D/,  D  e  and  Drf:  then  are 
the  angles  A/ D,  Ac  D  and  ArfDor  their  supplements,  the  angles 
contained  between  the  face  of  the  arch  and  the  planes  of  the  coursing 
joints  at  the  4th,  Sth  and  12th  courses,  or  at  the  corresponding  divisions 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  arch.  These  are  the  angles  corresponding 
to  the  letter  B  in  the  figure  of  the  table  of  formula,  and  if  they  are 
respectively  taken  in  the  compasses  and  applied  to  a  scale  of  chords, 
they  will  be  found  to  indicates  I"'  41'  40",  74"^  46'  2o"  and  70°  0'  59". 

Upon  the  straight  line  C  D  as  a  diameter  describe  the  semicircle 
C  ghiD,  in  which  lay  oil"  the  distances  C  i,Ch  and  C  g  respectively 
equal  to  C  a,  C  b  and  C  c ;  then  will  the  angles  DCk,DCl  and  D  C  in, 
or  their  supplements,  be  the  bevels  of  the  beds  or  coursing  joints  at  the 
4th,  Sth  and  12th  divisions,  or  at  the  corresponding  divisions  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  arch  ;  the  bevels  in  the  two  cases  being  constantly 
the  supplements  of  each  other. 

The  angles  just  determined  from  the  last  step  of  the  construction, 
are  those  which  are  measured  by  the  arc  a  in  the  tabular  figure,  and  if 
they  are  severally  taken  in  the  compasses  and  applied  to  a  scale  of 
chords,  they  will  be  found  to  indicate  69=  33'  17",  73°  55'  12 "  and 
80°  23'  16"  respectively,  for  the  bevels  in  the  beds  or  coursing  joints 
corresponding  to  the  4th,  Sth  and  12tli  divisions  of  the  arcb. 

The  values  of  B,  or  the  bevels  between  the  face  of  the  arch  and  the 
planes  of  the  coursing  joints  at  the  specified  divisions  of  the  arcb,  are 
also  determined  from  the  4th  formula  in  that  compartment  of  the 
table  containing  the  values  of  B.  Thus  we  have  tan.  B  =  tan.  b  cosec 
c,  and  taking  the  parts  of  the  circumference  at  the  respective  divisions, 
we  get  as  follows : 

4th  division    21  10  35  ^  -        -        .    log.  cosec.  0-442204 

Value  of  6  ==  68    0    0      constant  obliquity    log.  tan.     0-393590 


Value  of  B=  81  41  40 


log.  tan.     0-835794 


Sth  division    42  2110-1-?         -        -        -    log.  cosec.  0-171538 
Value  of  6  =  08    0     0     constant  obliquity     log.  tan.     0.393590 


Value  of  B  =  74  46  25 


log.  tan.     0.565128 


12th  division  63  31  45  -J,         -        -        -    log.  cosec.  0-048098 
Value  of  6  =  OS     0     0     constant  obliquity     log.  tan.     0-393590 

Value  of  B  =  70     0  59     -        -        -        -    log.  tan.     0-441688 
For  the  values  of  a,  or  the  bevels  in  the  planes  of  the  beds  or  course 

Q2 


112 


TIIK  ClVir.  KNf.'INKIOK  AND  AKnilTI'X'rS  JOUKNAL. 


[A  PR  1 1., 


iiig  juint-i,  (he  formula  is  cos.  a  —  cos.  b  cos.  c  ;  ;imiI  (lie  <i|ieriition  is 
as  follows: — 


■Jth  division  21   lU  35  ^V 

Constant  obliquity  lis     0     O 


Va 


iif  a  : 


m  -Si   Vi 


42  21    lU 


Stli  division 

Constant  obliijuity  (38     0     U 

Value  of  a  =^      73  55  42 

12tli  division  63  31  45 

Constant  obliquity  (JS     0     0 


log.  cos.  '.)-9t;'.)G37 
log.  cos.  'J*573575 

log.  COS.  9-543212 

log.  COS.  <)-868(551 
log.  COS.  9-573575 

log.  COS.  9.44222(i 

log.  COS.  9-G4908O 
log.  COS.  9*573575 


Value  of  a  =       SO  23  J U      -         -         -         log.  cos.  9-222055 

We  liave  limited  the  preceding  construction  and  calculation  to  three 

courses  only;  (his  we  have  done  for  the  purpose  of  saving  room  luid 

)ircven(iug  confusion   in  (he   figure;  bu(  from  what  has  been  effected, 

_  (he  reader  will  readily  trace  the  method  of  procedure  in  any  other 

case. 


PROPOSED    EMPLOYMENT  OF  VIBRATING    CYLINDERS 
FOR  THE   LARGEST  CLASS  OF  MARINE  ENGINES. 

The  compact  form  of  (lie  vibrating  cylinder  engine,  its  light  weight, 
and  (he  small  seclion  of  the  vessel  which  it  occupies,  together  with 
the  advantage  of  having  the  strain  from  the  thrust  or  pull  of  (he  pis(on 
endiely  within  i(s  own  framing,  and  no(  pardally  transferred  to  (he 
kelsons  of  the  vessel,  as  is  the  case  in  the  beam  engine;  seem  (o 
point  it  out  as  jieculiarly  applicable  to  steam  navigiition,  and  espe- 
cially (o  (hose  gigantic  ellbrls  which  are  now  making  to  extend  our 
iulercourse  with  distant  countries,  where  the  advantage  of  having 
large  ))ower  in  small  space  cannot  be  too  highly  appreciated,  as  the 
various  efforts  of  the  most  celebrated  makers  to  effect  (hat  object  suf- 
ficiently testify. 

Various  reasons  however  have  been  assigned  why  this  form  of  en- 
gine should  not  succeed  on  a  large  scale,  and  these  1  shall  endeavour 
to  notice  and  refute. 

1st.  The  great  weight  of  the  valve  casing  and  slide  on  one  side  has 
been  objected  to  as  destroying  the  equilibrium  of  the  cylinder,  and 
wearing  the  cylinder  and  stuffing  box  unequally. 

"2d.  The  diflicuUy  of  casting  the  cylinder  and  hollow  gudgeons 
sound,  and  the  impossibility  of  repairing  them  in  case  of  a  failure. 

:jd.  The  disadvantage  of  passing  the  steam  through  the  gudgeons  at 
all,  owing  to  the  heat  occasioning  an  unnecessary  friction. 

4th.  The  loss  of  power  in  communicating  a  vibrating  motion  to  such 
a  large  body  as  the  cylinder.     And  lastly,  the  difficulty  of  jiacking. 

Now  if  the  above  named  objections  can  be  got  over,  which  1  think 
there  will  be  littU;  difficulty  in  doing,  we  shall  then  have  an  engine  free 
from  all  the  disadvantages  of  increased  friction  and  short  connecting 
rods ;  more  compact  in  its  form,  and  less  exposed  above  the  water 
fine  than  any  yet  before  the  public,  and  consequentiy  more  eligible  for 
the  purpose  of  commerce  or  war. 

To  get  rid  then  of  the  first  objection,  I  propose  to  dispense  with  tlie 
slide  altogether,  and  to  substitute  in  its  place  four  double -beat  valves 
as  used  in  the  Cornish  engines;  one  toji  and  bottom  of  the  cylinder  on 
either  side,  two  being  steam  and  two  exhaustion  valves. 

I  conceive  there  are  many  advantages  to  be  derived  from  this  form 
and  arrangement  of  the  valves.  Thus,  the  steam  valves  would  also 
serve  as  expansion  valves,  as  being  independent  of  the  others  there 
Would  tie  no  dillicnlty  in  shutting  them  at  any  point  of  the  u|)  or  down 
stroke  of  (he  pis(on,  affording  us  (he  op])ortunity  of  so  adjusting  them, 
as  to  avail  ourselves  to  any  desired  extent  of  the  principle  of  expan- 
sion. The  exhaustion  valves  would  have  the  same  ficility  of  adjust- 
ment, so  that  we  should  be  enabled  to  open  and  shut  the  passage  to 
the  condenser  at  the  point  which  would  ensure  the  most  effective  work- 
ing of  the  engine;  such  valves  also  afford  great  facility  of  repair; 
with  the  additional  advantage  of  one  man  being  able  to  handhUjotli 
engines,  although  the  cylinders  were  ten  feet  diameter,  as  such  valves 
being  almost  balanced,  lift  or  open,  with  the  slightest  exertion. 

"2(1.  I  would  cast  the  gudgeons  on  a  separate  circular  frame,  just 
large  enough  to  encircle  the  cylinder  and  to  which  the  cylinder  should 
be  securely  bolted  by  a  strong  projecting  flange;  this  would  occuiiy  a 
very  lillle  additional  breaddi,  and'  would  entirely  g(-t  over  that  dilii- 
cully. 

:jr(l.  1  do  not  know  that  passing  the  ste.im  through  the  gudgeons  is 
a  serious  evil,  but  at  all  events  it  can  be  very  easily  obviai'ed. 

Let  the  joint  and  stufl"  box  be  placed  on  the  end  of  the  gudgeon  as 


usual,  so  as  to  be  concentric  and  firnify  secured,  and  let  a  flat  pipe  b^ 
carried  up  till  sufficiently  clear  of  the  pluininer-block  cover,  and  then 
bent  over  and  secured  to  the  body  of  the  cyliiuler,  when  it  can  be  easily 
connected  with  either  set  of  valves;  by  this  arrangement  the  steam 
does  not  pass  through  the  gudgeons  at  all. 

4tli.  This  I  have  often  heard  urged  as  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  the 
successful  a|)plication  of  (his  form  of  engine,  but  when  we  consider 
that  the  working  beams,  crossheads,  ice,  in  almost  eveiy  case  exceed 
the  weight  of  the  cyliiuler — further  that  the  beams,  crossheads,  &c., 
must  in  all  cases  move  through  twice  the  space,  and  in  many  cases 
through  three  times  the  space  of  the  vibrating  cylinder  for  the  same 
length  of  stroke,  it  will  then  appear  plainly  that  this  objection  has  no 
foundation,  the  loss  of  power  from  the  saiiu?  cause  being  evidently  less 
than  in  a  common  engine. 

The  last  objection,  vh.,  the  dilliculty  of  packing,  seems  scarcely 
worth  notice,  as  it  has  been  perfectly  overcome  in  numerous  boats  now 
running. 

The  stuliiug  box  ought  to  be  considerably  deeper  than  in  conmion 
engines,  and  the  piston  rod  somewhat  stronger. 

The  air  pump,  feed  and  bilge  pumps  can  be  easily  worked  from  the 
intermediate  shaft,  as  frequently  done.  But  I  should  greatly  prefer 
having  a  separate  steam  cylinder  to  work  all  those  jiumps,  working  in 
connection  with  and  at  pleasure,  detachable  from  the  main  cylinders, 
this  would  get  rid  of  the  crank  or  eccentric  on  the  intermediate  shaft, 
which  is  to  a  certain  degree  objectionatMe.  It  might  be  so  arranged 
as  to  be  quite  out  of  the  reach  of  shot,  and  would  not  occupy  any 
additional  space  on  the  floor  of  the  vessel  beyond  that  occupied  by 
the  engine  framing;  the  fotlowing  striking  advantages  wou'd  accrue 
from  this  arrangement ;  we  should  be  enabled  to  keep  up  the  steam 
and  preserve  s  \  acuum  for  any  length  of  time,  so  as  to  start  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice  ;  and  secondly,  whatl  consider  of  far  greater  imjiortancc, 
the  turn  of  a  cock,  or  opening  of  a  valve  might  convert  the  air  pump 
into  an  immense  bilge  pump,  with  an  available  power  to  work  it,  and 
suflicient  to  keep  tlie  vessel  clear  under  almost  any  circumstances. 
The  additional  security  to  the  shipowners,  and  safety  to  the  jiasseugers, 
which  this  would  ensure  in  case  of  the  vessel  taking  ground,  or  in 
other  circumstances  when  it  might  be  inconvenient  or  impossible  to 
work  the  engines,  cannot  be  too  highly  estimated  ;  and  Ihave  no  doubt 
there  are  many  naval  men  who  at  one  time  or  other  would  gladly 
have  availed  themselves  of  such  a  power.  But  if  this  arrangement 
be  considered  too  decided  an  innovation,  they  can  be  worked  in  the 
usual  manner. 

In  conclusion,  I  see  no  difficuKy  in  the  manufacture,  nor  any  reason 
to  adprehend  a  failure ;  and  as  such  an  engine  would  occupy  not  more 
than  half  the  space  of  a  coinmon  beam  engine,  would  weigh  very  con- 
siderably less,  and  would,  as  bel'oie  mentioned,  be  free  from  all  the 
disadvantages  of  increased  fricfion  or  short  connecting  rods,  with  the 
advantage  of  being  less  exposed  above  the  water  line  ;  and  lastly, 
could  be  made  for  quite  as  little,  if  not  less  expense  ;  it  is  well  worthy 
of  (he  a((eii(ion  of  (he  heads  of  our  naval  es(ablishment,  and  of  steam 
boat  proprieiors  in  general,  and  if  (here  be  any  thing  against  it  which 
I  have  overlooked,  perhajs  some  of  your  numerous  correspondents 
could  point  out  where  the  fault  lies. 

A.  S. 
Pimlico,  Muic/i  17,  1840. 


TABLE  OF  ARCHITECTS  WHO  HAVE  DIED  IN  THE 
ISTH  AND  19th  centuries. 
By  W.  H.  Leeds. 
Lmpeufect  as  the  following  Table  is,  in  Itnai  labor  might  be  its  motto, 
since  the  drawing  it  up  lias  cost  far  more  pains  and  research  than  it 
ought  to  have  done,  or  would  have  done,  had  not  archi(ec(ural  biogra- 
jdiy  been  notoriously  slighted.  Relative  to  Italian  architects  and 
a  few  others  of  jireceding  periods,  information  may  be  met  with  in 
general  biograjihical  works,  because  the  materials  for  such  articles 
are  abundantly  supplied  by  Vasari,  Baldinucci,  and  other  writers  of 
that  class  ;  but,  with  here  and  there  an  exception,  such  biography 
becomes  nun-e  and  more  meagre,  precisely  when  it  might  be  expected 
to  be  more  copious  and  satisfactory,  namely,  as  we  approach  our  owu 
times.  Not  having  the  original  work  by  Militia  to  refer  to,  I  do 
not  precisely  know  which  are  the  "  Additional  Lives,"  inserted  by 
his  English  translator,  but  it  certainly  does  not  say  much  for  either 
the  diligence  or  judgment  shown  by  her,  when  w'C  find  such  names 
ao  (hose  of  Langhans,  An(oine,  and  Ledoux  omitted,  while  such  a 
person  as  ,loel  Johnson,  is  deemed  worthy  of  notice.  The  ap- 
pendix to  (^ualrenure  de  Quincy's  "Vies  des  Architectes,"  gives 
a  few  notices  of  architects  who  lived  in  the  two  last  centuries, 
yet  in  only  one  or  two  instances  is  there  a  date  ,of  any  kind,  which 
is  certainly  a  more  original  than  laudable  mode  of  treating  biogra- 
phy  and  history.      Even  Nagler's  work,   which  professes  to  give 


1ft40.] 


THK  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


113 


notices  of  both  livinc;  iind  dece;ised  artists  of  every  class,  and  wliicb, 
wlien  completed,  will  contain  several  tliousand  articles,  makes  no 
mention  of  Ginseppe  Marvuglia,  the  architect  of  the  beautiful  Ora- 
torio deU'Olivella,  at  Palermo,  Cgiven  in  Zanth  and  Hittortf's  Ar- 
chil. Mod.  de  la  Sicilc),  nor  have  1  been  able  to  discover  elsewhere 
any  fnrther  mention  of  him,  consequently,  have  no  clue  to  even  an  ap- 
proximating date  for  the  time  of  his  death.  Though  his  journey  was 
professedly  an  architectural  one,  Woods  does  not  even  mention  the 
building  at  all ;  and  inileed,  as  far  as  recent  Italian  arcliitecture  is  con- 
cerned, the  art  might  be  supposed  to  be  now  altogether  extinct  in  that 
country,  judging  from  the  dogged  silence  of  all  our  later  travellers  and 
tourists  in  regard  to  it,  for  though  some  of  them  bore  ns  with  common 
Guide-book  remarks  on  Palladio,  scarcely  one  of  them  appears  to  have 
been  aware  of  the  existence  of  a  Marvuglia,  a  Calderari,  or  a  Cagnola, 
or  of  such  living  nobodies  as  Buonsignore,  fiianchi,  Canonica,  Cauina, 
and — not  to  go  through  the  whole  alphabet,  numerous  others,  wliose 


names  ought  now  to  be  tolerably  familiar  to  us  here  at  home — at  least 
to  those  engaged  in  architectural  studies,  and  caring  to  be  an,  courant 
ditjoitr  in  the  history  of  the  art.  What  is  still  more  extraordinary  is, 
that  where  buildings  are  noticed,  or  even  fully  described  as  in  Fiirs- 
ter's  Bauzeitung,  there  is  frccpiently  not  either  date  or  architect's 
name  to  assist  the  future  historian. 

As  far  as  it  goes,  the  present  table  aflbrJs  a  chronological  synopsis 
that  nvay  be  useful  for  reference,  and  for  occasionally  refreshing  the 
memory.  A  similar  one  of  buildings  erected  within  the  same  period, 
might  be  drawn  up  as  an  accompaniment  to,  or  skeleton  of,  architec- 
tural liistory  during  the  last  and  present  century ;  but  it  would  be 
greatly  more  extensive,  and  in  fact,  there  ought  to  be  a  separate  table 
of  the  kind  for  each  country.  In  the  meanwhile,  I  am  content  to  offer 
this  specimen,  and  should  any  correspondent  be  able  to  suggest  any 
additions,  or  tix  any  dates  here  left  in  uncertainty,  I  should  feel  obliged 
by  his  dohig  so. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  OF  ARCHITECTS  WHO  DIED  IN  THE  18th  AND  19th  CENTURIES. 

Wmerk  the  precise  date  of  an  arcliitect's  death  could  not  In;  ascertained,  it  is  indicated  by  ad.  (about).  An  asterish  *  is  prefixed  to  the  names  of  those 
who  have  distinguished  themselves,  not  as  architects,  Ijut  as  writers  on  architecture,  &c.  The  names  of  places  in  Italics  denote  that  the  architect  was 
chiefly  eiuployed  there. 


DIKD. 

NAME. 

BORN. 

WORKS. 

1702 

Bruce,  Sir  W. 

[     Hopetown  House,  &c.,  Scotland. 

1708 

JIansard,  .1.  Ilardouin, 

1747 

1714 

Fontana,  Carlo, 

Palazzo  di  llonte  Citorio,  Palazzi  Griniani,  Bolognetti,  &c.,  Rome. 

Schliiter,  Andreas 

1662 

1     Sculpt,  and  .Vrchit.     The  Dom,  iScc,  BerUn.     PoUdam,  Ht.  Petersbi 

ryh. 

Cayart,  Louis 

French  Church,  &c.,  Berhu. 

1723 

Wren,  Sir  Chr. 

Eosandcr,  Job.  Fried.,  Baron  von 
Goethe, 

1632 

St.  Paul's ;  parts  of  Greenwicli  Hospital,  Ac.  <SiC. 
Monbijou,  La  Favorite,  Charlotteuburg,  &c. 

1724 

Fischer  von  Erlach,  Baron, 

1650 

Many  churches  and  palaces,  Vienna. 

1725 

Churriguer.i,  Josef, 

Celebrated  as  being  the  Borromini  of  Spain. 

1726 

jVrdemans,  Theod. 

1664 

Jranjiie:,  Madrid. 

1727 

Sir  J.  Vanhrugh, 

1666 

Blenlieim,  Castle  Howard,  parts  of  Greenwich  Hosiiital,  ixc. 

1728 

Desgodets,  Ant. 

1653 

"  Anti(p  of  Rome." 

1734 

Caniphell,  Colin, 

Wanstcad  House,  Mercworth.     "  Vitruvius  Britamucus." 

1735 

Cotte,  Robert  de. 

1657 

Chateau  d'Eau,  Hotel  Toulouse,  Facade  of  St.  Roche,  Paris. 

1736 

Juvara,  Fihppo, 

1685 

San  Ildefonso,  &c.  Lisbon. 

Ilawksnioor,  Nich. 

1C6G 

St.  Mary  ^^'ooh^oth's,  St.  George's,  Bloomsbiur. 

Clarke,  Dr.  Geo. 

1660 

Library  Christ  Church,  O.xford. 

1737 

Galilei,  Alex. 

1691 

Corsini  Chapel,  &c.  Rome. 

1739 

GalU  da  Bihicna,  Fran. 

1659 

Theatre,  Verona  ;  Ditto,  Vienna.     "  Architettma  Maestra  dell'Arti." 

1740 

Grahl,  Joh.  Fried. 

1703 

Several  churches,  mansions,  &;c.,  BerUu. 

Gabrielli,  Gabriel, 

1671 

Vienna,  Eichsladt,  &c. 

Fischer  von  Erlach,  Baron, 

1680 

Viemia. 

1742 

Gabriel,  Jacques, 
James,  John, 

1667 

Bordeaux,  Rennes,  Paris. 
St.  George's,  Hanover  Square. 

1745 

Bodt,  Johann.  de 

1670 

Dresden. 

1746 

Leoni,  Giacomo, 

,  , 

Lyme  Hall. 

1747 

Forster,  — 

St.  Petersburg,  Cron.stadt,  Tzarkoeselo.     Edit.  "  Palladio." 

1748 

Kent,  W. 

1685 

Holkham,  Horse  Guards,  &c.     Edit.  "  Inigo  Jones'  Designs." 

Gcrlach,  Phil. 

1679 

Buildings  at  Berlin  and  Potzdam. 

1751 

Salvi,  Xicolo, 

1699 

Fountain  of  Trevi,  Rome. 

1752 

Dintzenhofcr,  K.  I. 

1690 

Viemia;  several  public  buildings  at  Prague. 

1753 

Earl  of  Burlington, 

Chiswick  House;  Asscuddy  Rooms,  York,  &c. 

Baron  von  Knohelsdurtf, 

1697 

Opera  House  Berlin.     Potsdam,  Cltarloltenburrj. 

1754 

Gibhs,  James, 
Wood,  John, 

1683 

St.  Martin's ;  Radclirte  Library,  Oxford,  &c. 
Cu-cus,  Crescent,  &c.,  Bath. 

BortVand,  Germ,  de. 

1673 

Paris,  Nancy,  LunemUe.     "  Principes  d'Architectnre." 

1756 

Villauueva,  Diego, 

Madrid.     "  Cartas  Criticas,"  1766. 

1758 

Ripley,  Thomas, 

Houghton  Hall,  Admu-alty. 

1759 

Bonavia,  Santiago, 

Jranjiie:,  Madrid. 

Kleiner,  Salomon, 

1703 

Designs  and  Engravings. 

1760 

earlier,  Fran. 

.Monasteiy  de  las  Salesas,  Madrid. 

1762 

Labelye,  Charles, 

,  , 

M'estminster  Bridge. 

«A. 

Alfleri,  Count  Benedetto, 

,  . 

Opera  House,  and  Teatro  Cariguano,  Turin,  &c. 

1764 

Sacchetti,  Giambattista, 

Royal  Palace,  Madrid. 

Mureua,  Carlo, 

1713 

Home,  Sic. 

Burroughs,  Sir  James, 

Senate  House,  Cambridge. 

1766 

Servandoni,  Niccola, 
Ware,  Isaac, 

1695 

Fafade  of  St.  Sulpice,  Paris. 
Footscray,  &c.     Edited  "  Palladio." 

Teodoli,  Marq.  Giacomo, 

1677 

Teatro  Argentina,  Sec,  Rome. 

1767 

Rubio,  Felipe, 

Custom  House,  Valencia,  &c. 

1768 

Couvillier,  Fran. 
Dance,  George, 

1698 

Fafade  St.  Cajetan's,  <.S:c.,  Munich. 
Mansion  House. 

1771 

♦Woods,  Robert, 

1716 

"  Ruins  of  PalmjTa." 

ZoccoU,  Carlo, 

1718 

Cathedral,  &c.  Calvi ;  Cuiignano,  Portici,  &c. 

Ill 


THK  Cn  JL  ENG[NEi:il   AND  AlUHITICCT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Al'KlL, 


DIED. 

NAME. 

BORN. 

A\'ORK.S. 

K.iknriiiov,  .\lcx. 

.Vcademy  of  Arts,  St.  Petersburg,  ice. 

1772 

\'aiiviteUi,  Luigi, 

Ponipei,  Count  Alessandro, 

•• 

Palace  at  C'aseria,  &e. 

Several  palazzi  at  Verona ;  villa  at  Illasi. 

\'7i 

Blonde!,  Jac(|.  Fran. 

1705 

Met:,  Strasbonrij,  Cambiay.     "  Clours  d'.\rcliit."  9  vols. 

1771 

Prcti,  I'lanc.  Maria, 
fialli  (la  Bibii'iia,  Anton. 

1701 

S.  Liberale,  &e.,  Castel  Franco.     "  Elemeiiti  deU'Arebitettura." 
Theatre  at  Bologna,  &c. 

1776 

ISoumann,  Joli. 

1706 

Prince  Heni7's  Palace,  Catholic  Church,  &c.,  Berlin. 

I'usi,  Paolo, 

1708 

Pahizzi  Sergardi,  and  Bianchi,  Sienna. 

1777 

Contanl  d'lvry, 

liegan  the  Madelaine,  Paris. 

1778 

I'iranesi,  Giamb. 

1721 

The  comijlete  collection  of  his  Arch.  Designs  and  Engravings,  15  vols,  folio. 

1779 

Jliazzi,  Giov. 

1099 

S.  Giandjattista,  Bassauo,  \e. 

1780 

Soufflot.  Jacr|.  Germain, 

1714 

Pantheon  at  Paris. 

Fnga,  Fcrdina?ido, 

1699 

Palazzo  Corsiui,  &e.,  Riuiie,  Naples,  &c. 

1781 

Sinionclti,  M.  .'Viij?. 
SriiiNKKr.,  Karl  Frederick, 

The  Museo  Pio-CIementino  in  the  Vatican. 

1782 

Gabriel,  J.  A. 
Jlar(|nct,  J, 

1710 

Eeole  Militaire.and  Gardemeublcs,  Paris. 
Jraiijupz,  Madrid. 

1783 

lirown,  Lancelot, 

1710 

Landscape  Card,  and  Architect.  Clareniont,  &c.  &c. 

1781 

IJieteriebs,  Fried.  Wilbelm, 

1702 

Orangery,  Potsdam  ;  buildings  at  Berlin. 

*Esse.\,  James, 

1723 

Several  Essays  relative  to  Gothic  Architecture. 

1785 

Rodriguez,  Ventura, 

1717 

The  most  celebrated  of  all  modern  Sjianish  architects  :    designed  or  e.xeeuted  an 
number  of  works. 

immense 

Peyre,  M.  Jos. 

1730 

One  of  the  regenerators  of  French  architecture.     Odeon,  Paris,  &c. 

17H6 

Fernandez,  .Miguel 

Church  and  Convent  de  Montesa,  Valencia. 

1788 

.Stuart,  James, 

1713 

"  .Vntiquitics  of  ,\thens."     Chaiiel,  Greenwich  Hosiiilal. 

Su-  liobcrt  Taylor, 

1714 

Parts  of  Bank  of  England. 

aO. 

Gontard,  Carl  von, 

1738 

tk'vt'nu  Potadam,  8ic. 

1789 

Starov, 

The  Tauridan  Palace,  Church  of  the  Alex.  Newsky  Convent,  St.  I'etersburph,  &c. 

Paine,  James, 

1716 

Mansion  House,  Doneasier;  Wardour  Castle;  M'orksop;  Designs  pul»lished. 

Temanza,  Tommaso, 

1705 

JIaddaleua,  Venice.     "Lives  of  the  Venetian  Architects."     2  vols.  4to.  1777. 

1790 

Krubsaeius,  Fred.  Aug. 

1718 

Dresden. 

a/K 

Knobel,  Joli.  Fried. 

1724 

H'ar.wnr,  Grodno,  &c. 

ab. 

Boumann,  Job.  I'Yied. 

1737 

Royal  Library,  Berlin ;  Theatre,  Schwedt,  &.c. 

1792 

Adam,  Rob. 

1728 

Register  Oliice,  ivc,  Edinburgh :  Adclphi ;  Designs  published. 

Gilabert,  Ant. 

1716 

i  'atencia. 

*Ponz,  Antonio, 

1725 

His  "  Viage  de  Espaha,"  18  vols.,  abounds  with  materials  for  history  of  Spanish  architecture. 

*Moreno,  Josef, 

1748 

"  Viage  a  Constautiuopla,"  &e. 

1793 

Sabatini,  Franc. 

1722 

Madrid,  Aranjuez,  tkc. 

1794 

Ronealli,  Count, 
Jean  lia<lol2)lie, 

1729 

Custom-house,  &c.,  Barcelona. 

Pcrronef, 

1708 

Bridges  at  Neuilly,  Mantes,  Orleans,  &c. 

Rodriguez,  B.  B., 

1736 

Madrid,  &c. 

Garcia,  Josef, 

1760 

Valencia,  &e. 

1796 

Sir  V{.  Cliambers, 

1725 

Somerset  House;  Buildings  in  Kew  Gardens,  &c.     "  Treatiic  on  Civil  Architecture. 

» 

1797 

Duran,  Ramon, 

1760 

Madrid,  Salainanca,  tS:e.      • 

1798 

De  Wailly,  Charles, 

■  1729 

Odeon  at  Paris ;  Saloon  in  I'.ilazzo  Serra,  Genoa,  &c. 

Gonsalez,  Man.  Regucra, 

1731 

Numerous  buildings  at  Ovietlo. 

ab. 

Cerati,  Domenico, 

New  Ilosiiital,  Speeola,  anil  several  Palazzi  at  Padua. 

*Milizia,  Francisco, 

1725 

"  Arcliit.  Civile."     "  Vite  degli  Architetti,  Hic." 

1799 

Bazhenov,  \'assil  Ivanovitch, 

1737 

Mikhaelovsky  Palace,  &c.,  St.  Petersbmgh,  Cronstadt,  &c. 

Jardin,  Nich.  Hen. 

1720 

Copefihat/en. 

Ilarsdorf, 

1735 

Copenhagen. 

*\Veinlig 

Dresden. 

Conture,  Guill. 

17.32 

La  Madeleine,  Paris,  1777-93. 

1800 

Sanchez,  Franc. 

1737 

Madrid,  Minorca,  &e. 

Erdmannsdortl',  Baron  Fr.  \Vilh. 

1736 

Villa  ami  Gardens,  Worlitz,  &c. 

Tomas,  Domingo  de. 

Granada.    Finished  the  Facade  of  the  Cathedral,  Cadiz,  &c. 

Louis 

•• 

Theatre  at  Bordeaux,  &c. 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

1801 

Antoiue,  Jacques  Denis, 

1733 

The  Mint,  Paris ;  ditto  at  Bern,  &c. 

Sanz,  Augustin, 

1724 

Santa  Cruz,  &c.,  Zaraijoza. 

1802 

Gontard,  Carl, 

1738 

Berlin,  Potsdam,  &c. 

Ivanov,  Alexeiviteh, 

1760 

St.  Pctershnrrj. 

1803 

Volkhov,  Phedor  Ivanovitch, 

Tauridan  Palace,  &c.,  St.  Petersburgh. 

Leroi,  Day. 

1736 

"  Monumens  de  la  Grece." 

1801 

Calderari,  Ottoiie, 
Delagardette,  C.  M. 

1730 

Several  Palazzi,  &:c.,  at  Vicenza.    Designs  published. 
"  Itnines  de  Picstum."     "  Nouveau  Vignole,"  &c. 

Revett,  Meholas, 

1722 

"  .\utiquities  of  Athens,"  with  Stuart. 

1805 

Arnal,  Juan  Pedro, 

1735 

Madrid. 

1806 

Ledoux,  Claude  Nicholas, 
I'oUak,  Leo))oldo, 

1736 

Barriercs  at  Paris,  Ilolel  Thelusson,  &c. 
Milan,  Trieste,  &c. 

Holland,  Henry, 

1746 

Carlton  House,  Old  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  &e. 

Renard, 

1748 

Paris. 

1807 

Maugin,  Charles, 

1721 

Paris,  tlvc. 

Carr,  John, 

1721 

Harcwood  House,  Yorkshire;  Mausoleum  at  W'entworth,  &c. 

Detournclle,  Athanasius, 

1766 

"  Gramls  Prix  d'Archit."     "  Projets  d'Archit." 

1808 

Bonomi,  Joscpli, 

1739 

Roseiieath  ;  alterations  at  Keddicstone,  &c. 

1839.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  ANDARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


115 


DIED. 

NAME. 

1808 

Piermarini,  Giuseppe, 

*Gilly,  David, 

Legrand,  Jacq.  Giiill. 

Lauglians,  C.  G. 

1809 

Lecliner,  Joli.  13apt. 

Gebhard,  J.  Aug. 

I8I0 

Fischer,  R.  F.  H, 

ab. 

Dubut,  L.  A. 

Chalgrin,  J.  F.  T. 

1811 

Genz,  Heinrich, 

Villaiuieva,  Juan  de. 

Jlylne,  Rob. 

1813 

Brogiiiart, 

Wyatt,  Jas. 

Tliouiond,  Thns. 

Gerstenljerg,  J.  Lor.  Jul. 

*Houel,  Jean, 

1814 

Voronilihin  And,  Nik. 

1816 

llardmutli,  Joseph, 

Bianzani,  Luige, 

1817 

Zanoja,  Ginseppe, 

Quareuglii,  Cav.  Giacomo, 

Vici,  Andrea, 

1818 

Dufoiuny,  Leon,  al. 

Gondouin,  Jacques, 

Selva,  Antonio,- 

1819 

Catel,  Ludwig, 

1820 

Fischer,  Karl, 

*CIerissea\i,  Chas.  Louis, 

1821 

Rennie,  John, 

1822 

Damesme,  Louis  Em.  Aime, 

Giesel,  J.  Aug. 

1823 

Porden,  W. 

Rodriguez,  M.  Mart. 

*Genelli,  Hans  Christ, 

1824 

Dounat,  Jacques, 

Ihirtout, 

Khumel, 

*Tappe,  Wilh. 

1825 

Perez,  Silvestre, 

Dance,  George, 

1826 

Gandon,  Jas. 

M'eiiLljrenuer,  Fred. 

*Friderici,  Dan.  Gottlob, 

*Mazois,  Fran. 

1827 

Engel,  Franz. 

1829 

♦Ceau-Bernuidez,  J.  Aug, 

1831 

*Hope,  Thos. 

*MelIiug,  N. 

1832 

*Pugin,  Augustus, 

Marq.  de  Guerchv, 

Gay,  J.  J. 

1833 

Cagnola,  Luigi, 

Labarre, 

Thurmer,  Jas. 

Heigelin,  Dr.  K.  M. 

1834 

*Cicognara,  Count, 

Telford,  Thomas, 

1835 

Durand,  J.  Nic.  Louis, 

Nash,  John, 

Goodwin,  F. 

Dufour,  Alex. 

183C 

Heger,  Franz. 

*Stieglitz,  Dr.  Chr.  Ludwig, 

ab 

Alavoine,  — 

1837 

Soane,  Sir  John, 

*Hirt,  Aloysius, 

*Quaglio,  Domiuico, 

,1838 

Percier,  Clias. 

1839 

*Landriani,  Paulo, 

OhlmuUer,  Daniel-Jos. 

Valadier. 

Wilkins,  W. 

1840 

WyattviUe,  Sir  Jeffrey, 

1745 
1743 
1733 
17.'>8 
1735 
1745 

1739 

1739 
1734 

1740 
1759 

1 735 
1760 
1752 
1 750 


174  1 
1743 
1760 
1737 


1782 
1721 
1701 
1757 
1751 

1746 

1745 
1751 


1767 
1741 

1760 
1767 

1776 
1749 
1770 
1765 
1769 

1775 
1760 

1789 

1767 
1755 

1760 

1780 
1760 
1792 
1756 

1753 
1759 

1787 


1757 
1791 


1766 


\\-ORKS. 


Teatro  della  Scala  Milan,  &c. 

Several  works  on  Building  and  Architecture. 

Theatre  Feydean,  Paris.     Many  architectural  works,  &c. 

Brandenburg  Gate,  &c.,  Berlin. 

Munich. 

TIresden,  &c. 

Siu/t(/art,  Hohenheim,  Scfianibaiiseii,  &.C.  ^ 

"  Architecture  Civile." 

St.  Philippe  du  Rcule,  Arch  L'Etoile,  &.C.,  Paris. 

Mint,  BerUn,  &c. 

Teatro  del  Principe,  Museum,  Obscrvatoiy,  &c.,  Madrid. 

Blackfriars'  Bridge,  Inverary  Castle,  &:c. 

Lycce  Bourbon,  Bourse,  &c.,  Paris. 

Pantheon,  FonthiU,  Ashridge,  &c.  &c. 

Great  Theatre,  and  Exchange,  St.  Petershurgh. 

"  Voyage  Pittoresque  en  Sicile,"  4  vols,  folio,  &c. 

The  Kazan  Cathedral,  St.  Petershurgh. 

Lichtenstein  Palace,  Vienna,  &c.  &c. 

Palazzi  Fadigati  and  Cuti,  Casal  Maggiore :  Church,  Comasaggio;  Villa  Ala  Ponzoni ,  Bor- 
golicto,  <Ivc. 

Porta  Nuova,  Milan,  Sec. 

S/.  Petersburg,  Tzarskoeselo, 

Naples. 

Botanic  School,  Palermo,  &c. 

Ecole  de  Medeciue,  Paris. 

Teatro  della  Fenice,  Venice. 

Welpersehe  Badehaus ;  Orangery,  Pankow ;  Decorations,  Palace  at  Weimar.  Several  Archi- 
tectural publications. 

Theatre,  &c.,  Munich. 

"  Antiquites  de  Nismes,"  &c.  &c. 

M'aterloo  Bridge,  &c. 

Theatre  Olympique,  &c.,  Paris. 

Dresden. 

Stables  at  Pavilion,  Brighton ;  Eaton  Hall,  Cheshire. 

Madrid,  Malaga,  Salamanca. 

Several  puljlications  on  Arcliiteeture  and  Antiquities. 

Place  Peyron,  Toulouse;  Allais  Cathedral,  &c. 

Restorations  at  Fontainblcau. 

Cathedral  at  Gran,  Hungary. 

Writings  on  Architecture. 

Madrid,  Seuille,  S.  Sebnslian,  &c. 

Newgate,  St.  Luke's  Hospital. 

C\istom  House,  Exchange,  Four  Courts,  &c.,  Dublin. 

Theatre,  &c.,  Carlsruhe. 

Several  publications,  &c.,  on  Architecture. 

"  Pompeii."     "  Palais  de  Scaurus,"  &c. 

Vienna. 

"  Descripcion  .\rtistica  de  la  Catedral  de  Sevilla;"  "  Noticia  de  los  Arquitectos  de  Espana,"  &c. 

"  Household  Fuiiiiture ; "  "  Costume  of  the  Ancients ; "  "  History  of  Architecture." 

"  Vovage  Pittoresque  de  Constantinople,"  &c. 

"  Specimens  of  Goth.  Arcliit."     "  Examples  of  Goth.  Arch." 

Tlieatre  de  Vaudeville,  &c.,  Paris. 

Museum,  &c.,  Lyons. 

Arco  della  Pace,  &c.     Milan,  fflc. 

Finished  the  Bourse,  Paris. 

Dresden. 

Prof,  of  Arch.  Tubingen.     "  Lehrbuch  der  Hoheren  Baukunst,"  &c. 

"  Fabbriche  di  Venezia."     "  Storia  della  Scultura,"  Sec. 

"  Architecture,"  Brewster's  Encyclopipdia. 

"  Leijons  d'Architectm'e,"  &c. ;  "  Parallele." 

Buckingham  Palace  ;  Pavilion,  Brighton,  &c. 

Town  Hall,  Manchester. 

Restorations,  &c.,  at  Versailles. 

Darmstadt. 

"  Hist,  of  Architectm-e,"  &c. 

July  Column,  Paris. 

Bank  of  England,  Board  of  Trade,  &c. 

"  Baukvmst  der  Alten,"  &c. 

Distinguished  Architectural  Draft.snian  and  Painter.     Restored  Schloss  Hohenschwangen. 

Arch,  of  the  Tuileries.  Restorations,  &c.,  at  Louvre  and  Tuillcries.  Chapelle  Expiatoire. 
"  Recueil  de  Decorations,"  &c. 

Sccne-])ainter  and  Architect.     "  Treatise  on  Theatres." 

Gothic  Church,  St.  Maria  Hilf,  Munich. 

Downing  College,  Cambridge ;  London  University ;  National  Gallery,  &e. 
Additions  at  Windsor  Castle. 


I     AlbertoUi,  Giocondo, 


I     1742     I     Still  living  in  1837.    Villa  Meizi,  Bellagio  ;  M/an,  &e. 


no 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


SKEW  ARCHES. 

Sir, — I  am  surprised  that  among  the  many  correspondents  who  ad- 
dress yi)U,  there  are  so  few  of  them  either  theoretical  or  practical,  who 
touch  iipoi)  tlie  siil)ject  of  slvew  arches,  a  subject  wliich  ))re5en(s  so 
wide  a  field  of  observation  and  reniarlc. 

Among  the  very  few  works  which  we  possess  on  this  point,  Afr. 
Buck's  seems  t(i  hold  tliehitjhest  place,  although  even  in  it  there  seems, 
to  me  several  things  which  would  be  the  better  for  alteration  or 
amenilment.  Altliough  he  is  ])articular  in  giving  the  mathematical 
formula  fur  calculating  the  necessary  angles  and  lines,  yet  lie  assumes 
some  things,  as  granted,  which  lie  at  the  very  foundation  of  his  prin- 
ciples; for  example,  he  observes  tliat  the  lines  of  the  courses  of  (he 
intrados  should  be  made  perpendicular  to  a  line  drawn  between  the 
extremities  of  the  developement  of  the  face  of  the  arch,  without  ever 
giving  any  reason  for  it,  or  making  any  remark  on  the  subject,  farther 
than  that  it  sbould  be  so.  Now  it  strikes  me  that  a  considerable  alter- 
ation maybe  made  in  this  for  the  better.  LetAHCDEFCin  the 
f.gnre   aiuiexed)  be  the   developement   of  a  semicircular  arch,  then 


there  is  a  curve  A  G  H,  such  that  a  tangent  drawn  from  any  point  in 
this  curve  is  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  arch  at  the  said  point, 
as,  the  tangent  G  K,  drawn  from  the  point  G  is  perpendicular  to  the 
developement  of  the  face  of  the  arch  B,  G  C,  at  the  said  point  G.  Now 
if  the  courses  were  drawn  similarly  to  this  as  shown  in  that  part  of 
the  figure  A,  B,  C,  F,  then  the  arch  (according  to  Mr.  Buck,  in  the  be- 
ginning of  liis  seventh  chapter)  would  be  perfectly  secure.  Unfor- 
tunately however,  the  difhculty  of  execution  would  be  so  great,  if  it  is 
not  an  impossibility,  that  this  could  never  be  applied  vigorously  to 
practice,  and  the  only  way  left  is  to  make  the  best  practicable  ap- 
proximation to  tills  curve.  There  are  two  methods,  either  of  which 
appear  to  me  to  be  better  than  tliat  of  Mr.  Buck's,  although  the  first 
has  a  considerable  drawback,  because  the  beauty  of  the  arch  is  very 
much  destroyed  on  account  of  the  unequal  divisions  of  the  courses. 
The  first  method  is  after  having  drawn  a  line  as  F  C  perpendicular  to 
the  face  of  the  arch  at  the  centre,  to  divide  the  segments  F  E,  and 
C  D  into  an  equal  convenient  number  of  parts,  and  to  draw  the  courses 
as  shown  by  dotted  lines  from  the  one  face  to  tlie  other  through  the 
respective  points  1,  1 — 2,  2 — 3,  3,  &c.  This,  although  a  little  more 
expensive  than  tlie  common  method,  appears  to  me  more  desiraljle  on 
account  of  the  additional  strength  which  it  possesses.  I  may  mention 
that  I  was  shown  a  model  built  upon  this  principle,  which  when  sub- 
jected to  a  pressure  on  the  crown,  forced  the  abutments  asunder  ex- 
actly in  the  line  of  the  face  of  the  arch,  thus  giving  the  best  proof  of 
the  correctness  of  the  princi|)le.  The  second  method  which  I  would 
recommend  is  simply  instead  of  drawing  the  line  of  the  intradosal 
courses  perpendicular  to  the  straight  line  A  E,  to  draw  it  nearly 
averaging  the  curve  A  G  H,  tlie  tangent  of  the  angle  which  such  a 

cot  e 
line  would  form  with  the  abutments  approximates  to  —x—.     e  being 

the  angle  of  the  acute  corner  of  the  abutments.  The  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  this  are,  first  that  this  angle  being  less  than  that  com- 
monly employed,  there  will  be  less  tendency  to  slip,  and  secondly,  that 
being  more  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  tlie  arch,  there  is  con- 
sequently more  stability. 

1  am  astonished  at  the  serious  errors  into  which  Mr.  Buck  lias  fallen 
in  his  last  chapter,  which  is  devoted  to  farthtr  iuKsstii^atiom,  but 
which  had  better  have  been  omitted  altogether.  In  attempting  to 
determine  at  what  attitude  above  the  level  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder 
the  thrust  of  the  arch  will  be  perpendicular  to  the  bed  of  the  voussoir, 
be  gives  a  formula  which  produces  the  strange  result  that  the  smaller 
the  archstoiie,  the  lower  will  be  the  said  attitude,  that  is  to  say,  the 


more  secure  will  be  the  arch,  and  also  that  it  will  be  able  to  be  built 
at  a  more  acufe  angle.  Another  still  more  strange  phenomenon,  the 
result  of  this  formula,  is  that  the  greater  the  skew  of  the  bridge  the 
less  of  the  arch  will  have  to  be  supi)orted  by  iron  dowels  and  bolts  ; 
thus  an  arch  built  at  an  angle  of  25"  will  require  no  assistance  from 
dowels,  an  arch  built  at  an  angle  of  S.^'J  will  require  to  he  secured  bv 
dowels  to  a  height  of  25"  above  the  springing,  and  lastly,  an  arch  cif 
90"  or  square  to  the  abutments,  will  have  to  be  secured  to  a  height  of 
40°  above  the  springing.     The  w  hole  of  these  errors  arise  from  having 


given  the  expression 

.    ^      ,     r    cot  9.  cos  T 
instead  of  , 


cosec.  e.  cos  T 


, (nearly  at  the  bottom  of  page  37), 

-f-   cosine  (6  -|-  ip)  where  ip  is  such  an  angle 


that  its  tangent  is  =: 


cot  e.  sin  T. 


This  must  be  evident  to  any  one 


who  considers  that  the  courses  alter  their  angle  with  regard  to  the 
face  of  the  arch,  which  Mr.  Buck  has  not  taken  into  consideration. 

As  it  may  be  of  some  use  to  settle  this  |irobleiu,  I  would  submit  the 
following  solution,  observing  that  the  letters  and  charaters  refer  to  the 
same  as  in  Mr.  Buck's  treatise. 

1st.  Ill  finding  a  term  for  C  O,  I  would  reject  the  thickness  of  the 

cylinder,  and  consider  the  jioint  C)  as  that  to  which  the  tangents  of  the 

small  curves  which  show  in  the  face  of  the  arch,  tend  ;  this  i«  more 

correct  because  the  joints  of  the   voussoirs  being  segments  of  curves, 

there  can  be  no  point  on  the  face  of  the  arch  at  wHiich  a  ball  would 

roll  down  the  bed  into  a  line  exactly  jiarallel  to  the  face;  this  may  be 

considered  too  minute  for  observation,  but  besides  being  more  correct 

it  will  simplify  the  cjuestion  much. 

cot'  6 
Then  upon  this  ground  C  O  =  — ^— ,  and  taking  Mr.  Buck's  own 


cot'  6  -\-  V.  sin  T 


fieures  at  the  bottom  of  iiage  37.  I  E  K  = 
°  V.  cos  T.  cosec  9 

2d.  In  finding  the  tangent  of  the  internal  angle,  Mr.  Buck  states 
correctly  "  that  the  tangent  of  the  angle,  which  the  tangent  of  the  in- 
tradosal spiral  makes  with  the  horizon  diminishes  as  cos.  t,"  but  he 
has  omitted  to  mention  that  the  angle  9,  which  the  course  makes  with 
the  face  at  the  springing,  increases  as  a  certain  function  of  sin.  t  be- 
coming (9  -j-  <p),  where  (p  is  such  an  angle  that  it  has  for  a  tangent 

— '—'- '— ;  this  then  would  make  tlie  tangent  of  the  internal  angle 


cot  9.  cos  T 


at  the  point  sought  -=  ^^  .  ^, 

^  "       i  IT.  COS  (9  -\-<p) 

external  and  internal  angles,  we  have 


then  equating  these  values    if  tlie 


cot  9.  cos  T 


cot'  9 


-]-  f.  sin  T. 


g  IT.  cos  (9  -(-  (p)       V,  cos  T.  cosec  9 
but  rejecting  f  in  the  second  side  of  the  eq\iation,  because  by  hypo- 
thesis' it  is  unitv,  and  multiplying  both  sides  by  \  ir,  cos.  t,  cosec  9, 

cot  9.  cos"  T  .,  a    1     1 

we  have  — : -rr-, =  cot-  9  -\-  it -k.  sin  t. 

sin  9.  cos  (9  +  (p) 

After  this  the  solution  must  be  completed  by  a  series  of  approxima- 
tions luitil  a  true  value  of  t  can  be  found.  If  the  thickness  of  the 
archstones  is  wished  to  be  considered,  then  by  making  the  second  side 
p  -\-  e 


of  this  last  equation  cot-  9. 
quired  result,  thus. 


-J-  i  TT.  sin  T.  it  will  give  the  i  e- 


T  when  C  O 


cot-  9  ,       ^.  ,^       <""''  ® 

,       r,  or  T  when  C  U  =  -t — • 


V  +e. 


When  9  is  60    then    40  56        -        -        -    40 
45       -       42  46         -         -         -     40 
30       -        50   10         -         -         -     43 
The  numbers  in  the  last  column  are  only  approximations,  but  it  may 
be  taken  that  in  all  arches  of  a  moderite  skew,  the  point  r  is  about  40° 
;ibove  the  level  of  llie  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

I  have  merely  thrown  out  these  observations  for  the  purpose  of 
direcling  attention  to  this  particular  kind  of  arch,  which  is  now  come 
into  such  common  use,  and  about  which  we  have  so  little  information, 
and  that  little  of  a  very  loose  kind  with  regard  to  the  theory  of  the 
arch,  but  I  think  that  Mr.  Buck  is  entitled  to  the  thanks  of  the  pro- 
fession for  the  clearness  and  accuracy  with  which  he  has  explained 
anil  illustrated  the  greater  portion  of  the  subject  practically  considered. 
I  remain.  Sir,  vour's  respectfully, 

B.  H.  B. 

Edinburgli,  March,  1840, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


117 


AMERICAN  STEAM  BOATS. 

The  following  comparison  of  the  power  of  the  engines  employed  in 
tlic  steaiii  bonis  navigating  the  river?  of  North  America  and  those 
running  here  on  the  Thames  may  not  be  nninteresting  to  many  of  our 
readers,  particnlarly  tliose  who  are  engaged  in  steam  navigation. 

We  have  taken  as  the  basis  of  om-  calculations  the  following  parti- 
culars of  the  "  Rochester,"  a  steam  boat  plying  on  the  river  Hudson, 
between  New  York  and  Albany,  which  have  been  furnished  by  Mr. 
David  Stevenson  in  his  "  Sketch  of  the  Civil  Engineering  of  North 
America." 

The  Rochester  is  209  feet  10  inches  in  length,  and  24  feet  beam,  the 
depth  of  her  hold  is  8  feet  6  inches,  and  she  draws,  with  an  average 
number  of  passengers,  4  feet  of  water.  The  diameter  of  the  paddle 
wheels  is  24  feet,  and  the  length  of  the  floats,  which  are  24  in  mnnber 
on  each  wheel,  is  10  feet,  and  their  dip,  under  the  above  circumstance, 
2  feet  6  inches.  The  vessel  is  propelled  by  one  engine,  liaving  a 
cylinder  43  inches  in  diameter,  with  a  10  feet  stroke.  The  steam, 
which  is  generated  under  a  high  pressure,  is  cut  oft"  at  half  stroke, 
and  condensed. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  engine  is  worked  by  steam  of 
from  25  to  30  lbs.  pressure,  and  in  this  case  the  piston  makes  about  25 
double  strokes  per  min\ite  ;  but  when  the  Rochester  is  pitched  against 
another  \'essel,  and  at  her  full  speed,  the  steam  is  often  carried  as 
high  as  45  lbs.  on  the  square  inch  in  the  boiler,  and  the  piston  then 
makes  27  double  strokes,  or  in  other  words,  moves  through  a  space  of 
540  feet  per  minute,  or  6' 13  miles  an  hour.  In  this  case  the  circum- 
ference of  the  paddle  wheels  moves  at  the  rate  of  23-13  miles  an  hour. 

It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  Mr.  Stevenson  made  a  passage 
in  this  vessel,  during  which  he  informs  us  she  attained  a  speed  of  llJ-55 
miles  an  hour,  her  piston  then  making  27  double  strokes  per  minute, 
and  the  tide  being  just  on  the  turn;  by  which  we  judge  the  pressure 
of  the  steam  in  the  boiler  to  have  been  45  lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  Mr. 
Stevenson  remarks  that  "  at  that  time  the  vessel  could  not  be  far  from 
having  attained  the  maximum  speed  at  which  her  engines  are  capable 
of  propeUing  her  through  the  water."  What  the  precise  signification 
of  this  observation  may  be  we  do  not  exactly  comprehend :  the  only 
way  in  which  we  can  account  for  it  is  either  that  hard  firing  was  carried 
nearly  to  the  greatest  extent  possible  in  the  furnaces,  or  that  45  lbs. 
on  the  square  inch  was  not  far  from  the  highest  pressure  which  the 
boiler  was  capable  of  sustaining  without  damage. 

Allowing  that  at  this  great  speed  the  steam  is  wire-drawn  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  lose  4-7 1  lbs.  of  its  pressure  (which  is  a  much  greater  loss 
than  is  probably  experienced  in  reality),  we  will  assume  tlie  initial 
pressvu'e  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  to  have  been  (including  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere)  55  lbs.  on  the  square  inch.  The  relative 
volume  of  steam  of  this  pressure  is  507'3,  and  as  it  is  cut  oft' at  half 
stroke,  its  mean  pressure  through  the  stroke,  reckoning  the  waste  space 
at  the  end  of  the  cylinder  at  ^  of  the  contents  of  the  cylinder,  was 
40*47  lbs.  From  this  must  be  deducted  the  pressure  in  the  conilenser, 
which  Mr.  Stevenson  estimates  at  5  lbs.  per  square  inch.  This  leaves 
a  mean  eftective  pressure  of  41'47  lbs.  per  square  inch,  which  multi- 
plied by  the  area  of  the  piston,  which  is  1452-2  square  inches,  gives 
00222"731bs.  for  the  total  effective  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  pis- 
ton, and  nudtiplying  this  by  its  velocity  540,  and  dividing  by  33000, 
we  find  the  gross  power  to  be  985-463  horse  ])ower.  If  we  considered 
the  pressure  in  the  condenser  as  a  ]5art  of  the  load  of  the  engine, 
which  would  be  the  fairest  way  to  sliow  the  comparative  merits  of 
diflerent  engines,  since  it  is  a  defect  when  the  pressure  in  the  con- 
denser is  considerable,  we  should  find  the  gross  power  of  the  Roches- 
ter's engines  to  be  1 104-3  horse  power. 

Supposing  the  above  data  to  be  correct,  the  quantity  of  water  boiled 
oft"  to  supply  the  engine  must  have  been  5-9041  cubic  feet  per  minute, 
or  354-2413  cubic  feet  per  hour. 

Considering  the  Rochester's  midship  section  as  a  rectangle,  its  area 
cannot  exceed  90  square  feet,  and  the  power  employed  in  propelling 
her  at  any  given  speed  must  bear  some  proportion  to  that  area,  de- 
pending on  the  form  of  her  body.  The  power  is  also  admitted  to  vary 
as  the  cube  of  the  velocity;  therefore  the  total  power  employed  in 
propelling  a  certain  vessel  at  a  given  speed  may  be  represented  by 
the  expression 

KAV, 
in  which  K  is  a  coefficient  depending  on-the  form  of  the  vessel,  A  the 
area  of  her  immersed  midship  section,  and  V  her  velocity. 

The  Gravesend  steam  boat  "  Ruby,"  belonging  to  the  Diamond 
Company,  is  155  feet  in  length,  and  her  beam  19  feet.  Her  draught 
of  water  with  300  passengers  on  board  was  4  feet  4  inclies  forward, 
and  4  feet  8  inches  aft,  mean  4  feet  0  inches,  and  the  area  of  her  mid- 
ship section  immersed  65-6  square  feet.    The  diameter  of  her  paddle 


wheels  is  17  feet  2  inches,  the  number  of  floats  on  each  wheel  11' 
their  length  9  feet,  depth  18  inches,  and  their  dip  under  the  above 
circumstances  '20  inches. 

The  vessel  is  propelled  by  a  pair  of  engines  of  50  horso  power  each. 
The  diameter  of  the  cylinders  is  40  inches,  the  length  of  stroke  3  I'ect 
0  inches,  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boilers  3i  lbs.  above  the  atrnospliere, 
vacuum  in  the  condensers  28i  inches,  number  of  revolutions  per  minute 
3I5,  and  speed  of  the  vessel  13-5  miles  per  hour. 

The  area  of  the  two  pistons  taken  together  is  2513-28  square  inches, 
and  the  effective  pressure  of  the  steam  on  each  square  uich  of  the 
pistons  is  3-5  +  13-852  lbs.  =  17-352  lbs.  which  multiplied  by  the  area 
of  the  pistons  gives  the  total  eft'ective  pressure  =  43010-43  lbs.,  and 
multiplying  this  by  the  velocity  of  the  pistons,  which  is  -220-5  loot, 
and  dividing  by  33000,  we  find  the  gross  power  =  291-4  horse  power. 
Or,  considering  the  pressure  in  the  condenser  as  a  part  of  the  load,  as 
we  did  for  the  Rochester,  the  pressure  on  each  square  inch  of  the 
pistons  being  3-5  -(-  14-71  =  18-21  lbs.,  we  should  find  the  gross 
power  =  305-81  horse  power.  Of  this  gross  power,  wdiich  we  will 
call  P,  a  certain  portion  is  employed  in  overcoming  the  friction  of  the 
engine  and  the  resistance  of  the  steam  in  the  condenser,  owing  to  the 
vacuum  not  being  perfect ;  and  we  may  assume  this  portion,  in  engines 
of  the  same  construction  and  working  on  the  same  system,  to  bear  a 
constant  proporti(m  to  the  gross  power  P.  The  remainder,  which  is 
employed  solely  in  propelling  the  vessel,  may  therefore  be  represented 
by  the  expression  k  P,  in  which  k  is  a  constant  coefficient. 

We  have  shown  above  that  this  quantity  may  also  be  represented  by 
K'  A'  V'-', 
K'  being  the  coefficient  of  resistance  of  the  Ruby,  A'  her  immersed 
midship  section,  and  V  her  velocity.     We  must  therefore  have 
kP  =  K'  A'  V'. 

If  P'  be  the  gross  power  required  to  propel  a  vessel  of  the  same 
form  as  the  Ruby,  but  whose  midship  section  innnersed  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  Rochester,  or  A,  at  the  velocity  V,  which  is  that  of  the 
Rochester,  we  shall  have 

„  AV^ 
kP'  =  kP- 


P'  =  P 


A^" 

AV'. 
A'V'3 


Substituting  the  values  of  all  the  known  quantities,  we  obtain 

90X10-55^        „,,  ,, 
P'  =  305-81  .TT-r-<7T;rrr  —  824-54, 


05-0X13-5' 

which  is  less  than  three  quarters  of  the  gross  power  of  the  Rochester's 
engine. 

The  eft"ective  power  of  the  Ruby's  engines,  that  is,  the  power  ap- 
plied to  the  paddle  wheels,  calculated  from  the  resistance  to  the  floats 
by  Mr.  Mornay's  method  given  in  Tredgold's  Treatise  on  the  steam 
engine,  page  132  of  the  Appendix,  but  with  double  the  coefficient, 
(Mr.  Mornay  having  found  since  the  publication  of  the  above  mention- 
ed work,  that  the  resistance  to  a  body  moving  through  a  fluid  should 
be  double  what  the  generally  received  theory  makes  it),  is  found  lo 
be  equal  to  2(i7-80  horse  power ;  but  if  we  calculate  their  etfectivc 
power  by  M.  de  Pambour's  rule,  which  is  to  deduct  i'rom  the  eft"ective 
pressure  on  the  piston  first  1  lb.  per  square  inch  for  the  friction  with- 
out load,  and  then  one-eighth  of  the  remainder  for  the  friction  due  to 
the  load,  we  find  only  240-285.  The  two  methods  would,  however, 
give  precisely  the  same  result  if  the  pressure  in  the  boiler  were  5-38 
lbs.  above  the  atmosphere ;  but  it  is  probable  there  are  some  inaccu- 
racies in  the  data  of  both  calculations,  and  the  discrepancy  is  not  very 
great,  the  ratio  of  the  two  numbers  obtained  being  very  nearly  9  :  10. 
However,  to  give  the  Americans  the  advantage  of  every  doubt,  we 
will  assume  the  pressure  in  the  boilers  to  have  been  5  lbs.  on  the  square, 
inch.  (It  would  be  unreasonable  to  allow  more).  In  this  case  the 
gross  power  would  be  331  horse  power,  and  the  disponible  power  by 
M.  de  Pambour's  method,  202-3)5  horse  power.  The  ratio  of  the 
latter  to  the  gross  power  331,  or  k,  is  thus  equal  to  -79249. 

The  gross  power  being  assumed  to  be  331,  instead  of  305-81  horse 
power,  makes  P',  the  gross  power  required  to  propel  the  larger  vessel 
of  the  same  form  as  the  Ruby  at  the  rate  of  16-55  miles  an  hour  892-46 
horse  power,  which  multiplied  by  k,  gives  707-27  for  the  disponible 
power  required  to  be  applied  to  tlie  paddle  wheels. 

The  amount  of  jjower  absorbed  by  friction  and  other  losses  in  the 
engines  is  thus,  on  the  principle  of  the  Ruby's  engines  185-19  h.  p., 
on  that  of  the  Rochester's  397-03  h.  p. 

So  that  the  London  engineers  are  not  only  capable  of  constructing 
engines  which  would  propel  vessels  at  the  rate  of  16-55  miles  an  hour 
(which  has  only  been  claimed  for  the  Americans  in  one  solitary  in- 


US 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINKI<:R  Ai\D  ARCIIITIXTS  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


stance),  but  ihoy  can  obtain  that  result  with  less  than  nine-elevenths 
of  the  j)o\vcr  employed  by  their  transatlantic  brethren. 

It  is  however  to  be  observed  that  the  qvianlitv  of  water  boiled  oil', 
and  consequently  the  expenditure  of  fuel  would  be  greater  in  the  Eni;- 
lish  engines  of  ^'92'11)  horse  power  in  the  American  engines  of  111)  I-:}, 
owing  to  the  steam  in  the  latter  being  expanded  in  the  lylinder;  but 
it  is  evident  that,  by  adopting  the  principle  of  expansion'  in  the  Eng- 
lish engines,  the  saving  of  fuel  would  be  in  proportion  to  the  saving 
of  steam,  and  nught  be  carried  even  much  farther  than  in  the  engine 
of  the  Rochester. 


ABSORBENT  ARTESIAN  WELLS. 
By  Hyde  Clarke,  Esq.,  C.E.,  F.L.S. 

"The  plan  of  artesian  wells  for  the  supply  of  water,  we  have  mainly 
derived  from  our  neighbours  the  I<>ench,  and  it  is  one  which  has  been 
frequently  canvassed  in  your  Journal.  I  have  now  to  call  the  attention 
of  your  readers  to  another  application  of  boring,  which  in  the  present 
advanced  state  of  geological  knowledge  and  mechanical  science  may 
pel  haps  be  productive  of  some  advantage  here.  It  is  that  of  absorbent 
artesian  wells,  or  cesspools,  a  system  successful  on  a  small  scale,  but 
which  I  am  not  aware  has  been  carried  to  the  same  extent  as  in 
France. 

The  following  account  of  absorbent  artesian  wells  at  Paris  is  princi- 
pally derived  from  the  report  hereafter  referred  to  made  to  the  Pre- 
fect of  Police  by  M.  Parent  Duchatelet,  the  well  known  writer  on 
hygienic  police.  The  reasoning  will  apply  equally  to  London,  as  the 
London  basin  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  Paris,  with  the  omission  of 
the  tertiary  building  stones. 

The  ci  ty  of  Paris,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  the  Laystall  at  Munt- 
faucon,  has  within  the  last  few  years  established  a  new  one  in  the 
forest  of  Bandy.  Altliough,  this  latter  in  1833,  received  only  a  quarter  of 
the  soil  daily  supplied  by  the  city,  it  occasioned,  even  at  that  period, 
great  inconvenience  both  with  regard  to  conveyance  and  dessiccation, 
on  account  of  the  existence  of  a  stratum  of  water,  the  height  of  which, 
varying  according  to  the  season,  often  reached  the  level  of  its  basin.  A 
part  of  the  fluid  in  excess  might,  it  is  true,  have  been  turned  into  the 
little  brooks,  »hich  spring  up  at  a  short  distance,  but  as  these  brooks 
all  run  into  larger  streams  ami  cross  several  villages  and  jnavate  pro- 
perties, and  indeed  the  town  of  St.  Denis,  would  have  caused  just 
conqjlainl  on  the  pari  of  a  manufacturing  population  of  ten  or  twelve 
lliousand  souls,  for  w  hich  the  water  is  required  to  be  extremely  pure. 

It  was  in  order  to  surmount  these  <lifficulties  that  the  contractors  for 
the  Bondy  Laystall,  stimulated  by  examples  to  which  we  shall  here- 
after have  occasion  to  refer,  thought  of  turning  into  the  earth,  at  a 
considerable  depth,  the  superfluities  of  their  reservoirs.  ]\I.  Mulot,  G.E., 
was  in  consequence  charged  with  the  boring  of  an  artesian  well,  in- 
tended, not  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  water  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  but  to  absorb  that  which  should  be  sent  down  its  shaft.  This 
attempt  was  Clowned  with  conq^lete  success;  the  boring  having  been 
carried  to  a  total  depth  of  243  feet  7  inches,  (7Ini7l)  showed  two 
absorbing  strata,  one  from  133  feet  .5  inches  to  U>5  feet  4  inches  in  a 
mixture  of  chalk  and  silex,  and  the  other  from  211  feet  11  inches  to 
243  feet,  in  argillaceous  sand,  and  green  and  grey  sanils  containing 
lignites  and  pulverised  shells.  By  the  first,  GO  or  7')  cubic  yards  were 
absorbed  in  four  and  twenty  hours,  and  by  the  second  140  cubic  yards 
in  the  same  time. 

The  Prefect  of  Police,  alarmed  at  the  consequences  which  might 
arise,  allecting  the  salubrity  of  the  waters  under  the  surface,  from  such 
a  large  mass  of  dirty  fluids  being  mixed  with  them,  ordered  the  pro- 
cess to  be  suspended  until  a  committee  of  the  Board  of  Health  had 
examined  into  its  o|)eration. 

In  the  Paris  basin  are  several  distinct  strata  of  water,  separated 
from  each  other  by  impermeable  layers  of  dillereut  kinds.  The  first, 
that  is  to  say  the  most  superficial  of  these  strata,  is  not  to  be  found 
under  the  city  of  Paris;  it  is  only  met  with  on  the  tops  of  the  hills 
and  |)lateaux  which  surround  it  on  all  sides  ;  it  is  retained  by  a  thick 
bank  oi  clay  which  is  found  above  the  masses  worked  as  plaster  quarries. 
For  this  reason,  on  these  plateaux,  bOO  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Seine,  the  wells  are  often  only  two  or  three  yards  deep.  This  stratum 
is  evidently  formed  by  the  filtration  of  rain,  and  by  the  condensation  of 
vapour  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  of  the  plateaux. 

The  second  stratum,  which  probably  depends  on  the  same  causes, 
but  which  extending  under  Paris  and  throughout  the  valley  of  the 
.Seine  near  it,  collects  its  waters  from  a  much  larger  surface  of  country, 
and  flows  across  sands  which  are  between  the  plastic  clav,  and  the 
building  chalk  {calcaiix  u  ktlir,  wanting  in  the  London  "basin;,    it 


supplies  all  the  vrells  in  Paris,  to  the  number  of  twenty-live  or  thirty 

thousand. 

The  strata  of  water  below  the  two  first  can  only  be  reached  by  bor- 
ing: their  nnmber  and  the  depth  at  which  they  are  to  be  found  vary  to 
a  great  degree;  sometimes  they  are  entirely  wanting,  they  do  not 
always  ascend,  and  if  they  reach'  the  surface  "through  the  well,  their 
overflow  is  not  the  same  in  places  nearly  contiguous.  It  is  very  im- 
])ortant  to  be  observed  that  these  strata  are  so  much  the  more  abundant, 
as  they  are  found  at  a  greater  depth,  and  that  they  have  a  rapid  current, 
which  gives  them  the  character  of  subterranean  rivers. 

Numerous  facts  on  the  contraiy  prove  evidently  that  the  two  first 
strata  have  no  current,  and  are  completely  stagnant.  The  first,  that 
which  is  above  Paris,  is  very  scanty,  and  there  is  a  risk  of  infecting  it 
by  sending  into  it  a  large  quantity  of  dirty  water.  To  be  convinced 
of  this,  it  is  enough  to  observe  that  the  waters  which  came  from  the 
side  of  Mount  Valerien  are  excellent,  and  those  from  JVlontmartre  are 
not  drinkable  on  account  of  the  number  of  cowhouses  and  dung-pits 
which  lose  there  all  their  liipiid  portions.  The  second  stratum,  that 
which  supplies  the  wells  of  Paris,  was  formerly  of  good  ([ualily,  anil 
was  used  for  drinking  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  houses,  and  neighbour- 
ing villages.  It  has  only  been  since  the  increase  of  cessjiools,  and 
especially  since  the  introduction  of  privies  into  houses,  that  is  to  say 
from  the  time  of  Francis  the  First,  that  the  water  has  begun  to  deteri- 
orate, and  that  the  Sieine  water  has  been  obliged  to  be  used  for  drink. 
It  must  not,  however,  be  thought  that  the  influence  of  dirty  and  infect- 
ing waters  extends  bevond  a  very  narrow  boundary.  Thus  it  has  been 
found  that  around  the  great  lavstalls  which  were  formed  by  the  city 
of  Paris  near  the  barriers  of  Montreuil  and  Fourneaux,  the  well-water 
was  never  affected  beyond  a  radius  of  150  or  200  yards.  The  village 
of  La  Chapelle  near  Paris,  not  being  able  on  account  of  its  situation 
on  depressed  ground,  to  get  rid  of  its  dirty  water,  was  obliged  in  order 
to  dis])ersc  it  to  dig  immense  cesspools  which  swallow  u\>  all  that  is 
thrown  into  them.  Besides  a  population  of  four  thousand  souls,  the 
village  of  La  Chapelle  contains  an  enormous  quantity  of  horses,  cows, 
pigs,  &c.,  and  yet  the  wells  near  the  cesspools  have  never  been  in- 
fected beyond  two  hundred  yards  from  them.  A  still  more  decisive 
fact  than  the  |)receding  is  all'urded  by  the  history  of  the  laystall  of 
Montfaucon.  Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  before  the  conduit 
was  made  which  discharges  into  the  Seine,  tlie  surplus  of  the  basins, 
one  of  the  contractors  for  this  laystall  tliought  of  digging  in  the  lowest 
jiart  a  series  of  wells  of  large  iliameter,  of  which  the  bottom  touched 
the  stratum  3up])lying  the  neighbouring  wells.  He  succeeded  by  this 
means  in  getting  rid  of  the  troublesome  water,  and  the  wells  around 
were  infecled,  but  not  beyond  a  radius  of  200  yards.  A  very  long  period 
is  required  to  enable  the  gradual  removal  of  water,  by  means  of  the 
alimentary  stratum,  to  cleanse  an  infected  w  ell,  of  its  bad  qualities.  A 
manufacturer  in  the  Faubourgh  .St.  Marceau  wishing  to  get  rid  of  the 
hot  water  of  his  steam  engine  at  small  expense,  thought  of  sending  it 
into  a  difl'erent  well  from  that  which  fed  his  boiler.  For  some  months 
this  produced  no  inconvenience  ;  but  gradually  the  water  in  the  neigh- 
bouring wells  got  warmed,  and  at  last  to  such  a  degree  that  it  could 
not  be  used  for  many  purposes.  The  warm  water  was  obliged  to  bo 
sent  in  another  direction;  bat  it  took  ei^hlun  monllis  to  bring  the  wells  to 
their  primitive  temjierature.  We  must  add  however,  with  regard  to 
the  gradual  renewal  of  the  water  in  the  wells  of  Paris  on  account  of 
the  ever  increasing  consumption  necessary  for  industrial  purposes,  that 
the  suppression  of  the  cess])Ools  which  the  police  no  longer  allow  in 
the  houses,  and  especially  the  establishment  of  moveable  water  closets, 
or  at  least  with  staunch  walls,  will  prove  so  many  causes  which  will 
jirobably  in  a  few  years  carry  oil  the  bad  qualities  of  the  well  water. 

As  to  the  lower  strata,  their  abundance,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  cur- 
rents which  prevail  in  them,  prevent  us  from  assimilating  them  to 
wells,  or  from  regarding  the  tleperdition  of  dirty  water,  even  in  any 
very  great  cjuautity,  as  exercising  a  pernicious  influence.  In  1789, 
the  architect  Viel  being  employed  by  the  Hospital  Board  to  free 
Bict  tre  from  the  rain  and  household  water,  as  well  as  from  the  urine 
and  fecal  matters  produced  by  a  population  of  more  than  four  thousand 
souls,  he  thought  of  directing  the  flow  towards  some  old  quarries  deep 
enough  to  reach  the  stratum  supplying  the  neighbouring  w-ells.  But 
wishing  to  have  a  permanent  infiltration,  he  sought  the  second  stratum 
by  means  of  a  wcU  1.5  yards  deep  from  the  bottom  of  the  quarry,  this 
well  is  ten  yards  broad  at  top,  and  ends  in  a  bore  of  large  (limensions, 
thus  forming  a  cistern  with  which  the  several  galleries  of  the  quarry 
comnumicate.  It  was  in  the  month  of  November,  17'.I0,  that  all  the 
water  of  Bicitre  was  introduced  into  tliis  cesspool,  and  from  that  day 
it  has  always  run  olf  easily.  It  is  true  that  the  wells  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  small  river  Bicvre,  150  or  20(1  yards  from  this 
cesspool,  have  been  infected ;  but  that  arises  from  a  circumstance 
purely  local,  rain  water  after  storms,  accumulating  in  the  galleries, 
whieli  commmiicate  with  the  cesspool,  and  exercising  an  eiwrmous 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


119 


pressure,  cause  the  inliltrations  to  rise  to  the  first  stratum.  For 
the  purpose  of  remedying  tliis  serious  inconvenience,  the  Hospital 
Board  ordered  a  new  absorbing  well  to  be  bored  in  a  better  position, 
which,  since  the  year  1S35,  has  absorbed  100  cubic  yards  of  liquid,  in 
twenty -four  hours.  Besides,  the  infection  produced  by  the  other  did  not 
extend  to  a  great  distance,  for  all  the  wells  on  the  left  bank  of  tlie  Bievre, 
and  the  well  of  Bicetre  itself,  wdiich  is  used  for  drinking  by  the  popu- 
lation of  the  establishment,  liave  never  censed  to  supply  good  water. 

Notwithstanding  the  remarkable  success  attained  at  Bicetre  ever 
since  1789,  a  considerable  time  elapsed  before  the  boring  of  artesian 
wells  was  employed  elsewhere  for  the  dispersion  of  water,  which  have 
no  drainage  on  the  surface.  -  A  few  years  ago  an  artesian  well  having 
been  bored  on  the  Post  Horse  .Scpiare,  at  St.  Denis,  it  was  found  that 
the  waters,  deprived  of  easy  drainage,  caused  during  frosts  great  im- 
pediment to  traffic  from  the  ice  produced.  This  jnconv{;nience  had 
almost  caused  the  plan  for  a  new  spring  on  the  Place  of  Guelders  to  be 
abandoned,  when  M.  Mulot  engaged  with  the  corporation  to  disperse  inlu 
the  inlerior  of  the  earth,  ivhiii  wanted,  t/ie  waters  brought  to  the  surface 
after  Ihij  had  been  used  for  such  purpous  as  were  nquind.  The  new- 
well  was  carried  to  the  depth  of  70  yards,  and  in  the  interior  were 
arranged  three  concentric  tubes  like  tliose  of  a  telescope,  with  this 
difference  that  instea<l  of  there  being  any  friction,  they  were  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  space  four  inches  broad.  The  water  snpi)lied  by 
the  deepest  stratum  is  lironght  to  the  svu'face  through  the  inferior  of 
the  smallest  tube ;  the  water  of  a  stratum  Go  yards  deep  is  collected 
in  Ihe  same  way  through  the  space  between  the  smallest  and  the 
middling  jiipe  ;  and  the  third  tube,  enclosing  all  the  others,  collects 
and  disperses  into  tlie  third  (non-ascending)  stratum  the  excess  of 
water  supplied  by  the  two  others. 

A  manufacturer  of  potatoe  starch  at  Villetaneuse,  a  small  village 
three  miles  from  St.  Denis,  by  means  of  an  absorbing  well,  gets  rid  of 
the  infected  water,  which  had  caused  such  serious  complaints  as 
would,  very  probably,  have  obliged  him  to  have  closed  his  establish- 
ment. The  bore  was  carried  to  a  depth  of  70  yards,  and  during  the 
winter  of  1S32  and  18'33,  the  well  carried  off' 80  or  90  cubic  yards  of 
liquid  per  day.  After  it  had  been  in  operation  for  five  months,  the 
borer  carrying  a  scooji,  with  a  valve  at  the  end,  was  sent  down,  but,  to 
the  great  surprise  of  the  manufacturer  and  engineer,  only  brought  up 
sand  and  wliitish  water.  This  fact,  which  shows  so  strikingly  the 
rapidity  of  the  lower  currents,  is  enough  completely  to  remove  any 
fear  which  might  be  entertained  of  tlie  inconvenience  of  dispersing 
among  these  currents  such  a  quantity  of  infected  water. 

Relying  upon  the  previous  examples  the  Board  of  Health  recom- 
mended the  administration  to  leave  the  contractors  of  the  Bondy  lays- 
tall at  perfect  liberty,  and  accordingly  every  twenty-four  hours  a 
liundred  cubic  yards  of  liquid,  charged  with  a  considerable  quantity 
of  solid  matter  are  dispersed  into  the  absorbing  wells. 

An  absorbing  well  constructed  by  M.  Mulot  for  the  city  of  Paris  in  1835 
at  the  Barriere  de  Combat,  and  also  described  in  JSIagasin  Pittorsque 
carries  oft' a  hundred  cubic  yards  per  hour.  The  contract  price  was 
£3.315  (8,-100  fracns.) 

M.  Arago  attributes  the  invention  of  absorbing  wells,  as  well  as  of 
the  ascending  ones  to  the  French.  Rene,  the  famous  King  of  Sicily 
and  Count  of  Provence,  had  a  number  of  cesspools  dug  near  Marseilles, 
in  the  Plain  of  Paluns,  a  large  marshy  basin,  \yhich  it  seems  impossible 
to  drain  by  superficial  canals.  These  holes  throw  and  continue  to 
throw  into  the  permeable  strata,  lying  at  a  certain  depth,  the  waters 
which  would  render  the  country  unproductive.  It  is  said  tliat  the 
water  absorbed  by  the  cesspools  of  Paluns,  after  a  subterranean  course 
form  the  gushing  springs  of  the  Port  of  Mien,  near  Cassis.  This  is 
the  most  ancient  example  of  the  kind.  These  cesspools  are  called  in 
Provensal,  embugs. 

The  most  important  results  are  naturally  expected  from  works  of 
this  nature,  which  it  is  anticipated  will  place  new  resources  within  the 
reach  of  the  engineer.  They  will  afford  the  means  of  draining  marshes, 
which  otherwise  could  only  be  cleared  by  difficult  or  expensive  pro- 
cesses. The  application  to  sewage  is  too  evident  to  need  inculcation, 
they  will  enable  us  to  relieve  many  small  streams,  which  receive  the 
sewage  of  large  and  dense  populations,  and  in  every  way  they  give  to 
the  engineer  abundant  promise  of  being  able  to  contribute  in  various 
ways  to  the  improvement  of  the  public  health.  The  extension  of  the 
system  at  Paris  is  proceeding  rapidly,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it 
will  be  equally  introduced  in  this  metropolis,  which  lies  in  a  similar 
geological  position.  The  marshy  districts  of  Hackney,  Lambeth  and 
Woolwich  might  be  relieved,  and  instead  of  Mr.  Martin's  expensive 
plan  for  the  improvement  ol'  the  sewage,  the  Thames  might  be  much 
more  easily  relieved  by  the  filth  being  turned  into  absorbent  wells.  It 
may  be  believed  that  the  dirty  water  becomes  disinfected  much  more 
certainly,  and  so  returned  much  sooner  into  circulation,  by  being  dis- 
persed in  the  under  currents,  than  in  the  superficial  waters". 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 

FASCICULUS  xrv. 

"  I  must  have  liberty 
Witlial.  as  largo  a  charter  as  the  wincis, 
Tu  blo\v  on  whom  I  please." 

L  It  is  said  that  Albert — or  as  some  pretend  he- ought  to  be  styled, 
'  His  Majesty ! '  has  a  great  ileal  of  taste  for  all  the  fine  arts ; — and  so, 
indeed,  had  George  tlie  Fourth,  the  misfortune  was  that  it  was — in 
architecture,  at  least,  iutolerably  bad,  as  Buckingham  Palace  most; 
plainly  testifies.  But  let  us  hope  better  things  of  Albert, — that  he 
will  merit  the  epithet  of  Kuustlubcnd,  und  that  he  will  exercise  his 
influence  in  behalf  of  that  art  which  most  requires  it, — to  wit,  archi- 
tecture. I  trust  he  will  have  taste  and  to  spare — for  there  will  be 
many  about  him  not  overstocked  with  it;  yet  how  people  instantly 
discovered  that  he  has  such  abundance  of  it,  before  he  has  done  any 
thing  to  show  it,  is  rather  puzzling;  except  that  they  have  taken  it 
for  granted,  upon  the  principle  that 

"  All  solrlieis  valour,  all  di\'ines  have  grace, 
And  maids  of  lionour  beauty — by  their  place." 

and  of  course  a  Prince  Consort  must  be  a  phoenix  of  taste  and  accom-" 
plishinents,-^a  second  admirable  Crichton. 

It  will  be  well  should  his  architectural  taste  induce  him  to  keep  his 
eye  upon  the  new  stables  at  Windsor,  and  to  hint^in  whatever  quar- 
ter it  may  be  necessary,  that  they  ought  to  be  something  less  disgrace- 
ful in  design  than  the  Mews  behind  Buckingham  Palace.  To  say  the 
truth,  royalty  appears  to  have  been  hitherto  singularly  unlucky  in  its 
choice  of  architects,  in  this  country;  which  is  all  the  more  provoking 
because  it  is  not  Royalty  but  John  Bull  who  has  had  to  pay  for  the 
blunders  and  execrable  designs  of  such  persons  as  John  Nash  and  Co. 

II.  HovVever  great  architects  may  be  in  their  own  estimation,  it 
would  seem  that  they  are  little  better  than  mere  cyphers  in  that  of  the 
world, — such  perfect  nonentities  that  their  names  are  of  no  importance. 
I  lately  met  with  a  very  florid  description  of  tlie  Prince  of  Orange's 
Palace  at  Brussels,  according  to  which  that  building  is  one  of  extra- 
ordinary splendour  and  taste,  yet  who  the  architect  was  is  not  men- 
tioned. Neither  is  such  omission  by  any  means  uncommon ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  seems  to  be  selon  les  regies,  and  the  giving  an  architect's 
name  to  be  the  exception  to  the  rule.  Dr.  Granville  for  instance,  not 
only  speaks  of  the  palace  of  the  New  University  at  Ghent,  "  which  for 
chaste  design  combined  with  a  rich  and  imposing  style,  yields  the 
palm  to  few  modern  buildings,  and  is  superior  to  any  erected  for  the 
same  purpose,"  but  actually  gives  an  elevation  of  its  octastyle  Corin- 
thian jjortico  ;  and  yet  does  not  consider  it  worth  while  to  inform  us 
who  was  the  architect.  Hundreds  of  other  instances  of  the  kind  might 
be  produced,  even  from  works  professedly  on  the  subject  of  architec- 
ture. It  may  therefore  be  presumed  that,  unlike  those  of  any  other, 
the  members  of  this  profession  are  distinguished  by  a  strange  excess 
of  modesty  ; — or  if  not,  they  must  be  grievously  disappointed  at  find- 
ing that  nobsidy  cares  to  know  even  of  their  existence. 

Hi.  Architectural  descriptions — or  what  profess  to  be  such,  are 
sometimes  exceeding  funny.  In  those  accompanying  Pugin's  Views 
of  Paris,  and  done  by  a  French  teacher  named  Ventouillac,  vre  read  of 
the  front  of  a  building  being  "  adorned  by  tvio  perpendicular  ranges  of 
columns,"  in  addition  to  which  curious  information,  we  are  assured 
that  it  resembles  "  Palladio's  celebrated  portico  of  the  cathedral  of 
Vicenza,"  the  Basilica  or  Palazzo  della  Ragione  of  that  city  being 
blunderingly  converted  into  a  church.  Poor  Pugin  was  grievously  an- 
noyed at  those  and  other  instances  of  stupidity, — and  no  wonder ;  but 
the  publisher  was  well  satisfied  that  the  work  was  done  cheap,  and 
nothing  extra  charged  for  such  drolleries.  It  is  not  always,  however, 
that  they  manage  matters  much  better  elsewhere,  for  turning  over  an 
Italian  journal  to-day,  I  met  with  some  account  of  a  book  entitled 
"Quadro  Storico  dell'  Architettura,  dal  Marchese  Malespina  di  Sanna- 
zaro,"  where  it  is  stated  that  St.  Peter's  was  begun  by  Michael  Angelo, 
and  completed  by  his  pupils  and  successors,  among  whom  the  principal 
one  was  Bramante!:— What  a  truly  ingenious  and  delightful  way  of 
writing — or  rather  mystifying  history!  I  know  nothing  to  be  compared 
to  it  except  the  following  wicked  bit  of  quiz  -.  "  Hannah  More.the  daughter 
the  late  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  who  was  beheaded  in  Utopia,  was  the 
author  of  Little's  Amatory  or  Inflaniatory  Poems,  to  the  infinite  scandal 
of  her  worthy  brotlier  the  present  Sir  Thomas,  well-known  in  the  reli- 
gious world  by  his  work  entitled  Practical  Piety,  and  by  another  entitled 
"Cffilebs  in  search  of  a  Saint  in  petticoats," — or  this  other,  "The 
Lousiad  of  Caraoens  was  written  by  Pindar  the  celebrated  Greek  poet, 
who  lived  in  the  reign  of  George  III." 
IV.  There  is  a  Finnish  proverb  which  says,  "  Charming  girls,  lovely 

B2 


121) 


THE  CIVIL  ENCJINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


maidens !— where  then  do  all  the  cross  ngly  wives  come  from  .'"—and 
which  is  not  wholly  inapplicable  to  architecture,  since  it  is  no  less  un- 
accoinitable  where' all  the  ugly,  tasteless,  paltry  buildings  and  designs 
we  behold,  come  from,  when  we  read  of  the  host  of  talent  there  has 
been  and  continues  to  be  in  the  profession; — of  the  taste  of  such  a  man 
as  James  Wvatt,  of  the  classical  genius  of  Sir ,  of  the  ima- 
gination of  John  Nash  ;— or  of  the  transcendent  charms  of  any  of  those 
orthodox  styles,  which  in  our  extreme  allectiou  for  them  we  not  only 
adopt,  but  cenerally  take  care  to  make  our  own  by  the  patriotic  pro- 
cess of  CocKnevizing  them  into  the  bargain. 

V.  It  is  odd 'that  though  there  are  Doctors  of  Music,  there  should 
be  no  Doctors  of  Architecture.  Perhaps  it  is  because  architecture  is 
supposed  to  be  in  so  sound  and  liealthy  a  state  as  to  require  no  doc- 
toring. And  yet,  neither  Mr.  Joseph  "Gwilt,  nor  Mr.  Welby  Pugin 
seems  to  be  of  such  opinion :  on  the  contrary,  both  of  them  are  for  ad- 
miuislering  to  it  pretty  strong  cathartics.  Surely  tliey  are  entitleil  to 
tidd  A.D.,  (/.  t'.  not  Anno  Domini,  but  Architectura:  Doctor)  to  their 
names.  There  is  also  a  certain  scapegrace  Candidus,  who  some  will 
say,  might  be  similarly  distingnished,  yet  others  may  think  he  has  far 
Uiore  of  the  Surgeon  "than  the  Doctor  in  his  com|)ositicni. — After  all, 
perhaps  it  will  be  said  that  if  Architecture  has  no  Doctors,  it  has  a 
tolerable  number  of  Quacks. 

VI.  Vorherr,  a  living  tiermau  architect,  has  a  singular  crotchet  in 
regard  to  what  he  nanu^s  Soniienbau,  which  is  that  all  sitting  and  sleep- 
ing rooms  should  invariably  be  made  to  face  due  South,  having  only 
staircases,  passages,  store-rooms  and  such  places  behind  them.  The 
reasons  he  adduces  for  it  are  satisfactory  enough,  and  the  chief  objec- 
tion to  his  scheme  is  that  it  is  utterly  impracticable,  at  least  in  towns : 
for  supposing  all  the  streets  were  matle  to  run  from  East  to  West,  and 
to  be  of  such  width  that  the  shadow  from  the  houses  on  the  South  side 
would  never  fall  upon  the  opposite  ones,  it  would  be  only  these  latter 
that  would  have  tlieir  fronts,  or  at  least  their  dwelling  rooms  facing 
the  street,  for  the  rest  would  have  such  rooms  looking  towards  the 
garden  or  courts  behind  them — that  is  behind,  as  regards  the  street. 
This  liowever  I  myself  should  consider  no  objection — rather  a  recom- 
jnendation,  because  I  could  never  understand  wdiat  pleasure  there  is 
in  standing  at  a  window  to  stare  or  be  stared  at  by  your  opposite 
neighbour.  Indeed  I  should  say  that  those  houses  would  have  the  ad- 
vantage whose  sitting  rooms  were  turned  from  the  street,  because  they 
would  not  be  exposed  to  the  noise  from  carriages,  &c.  But  then, 
unless  the  backs  of  those  houses  were  made  to  correspond  witli  the 
fronts  of  the  opposite  ones,  the  streets  themselves  would  make  a  very 
strange  appearance,  presenting  a  row  of  fronts  on  one  side,  and  irre- 
gular exteriors  on  the  other.  Besides  which,  much  greater  extent  of 
frontage  towards  the  street  would  be  required  for  each  house,  as  the 
houses  nuist  be  long  and  shallow,  in  plan,  instead  of  being  as  at  pre- 
sent, narrow  and  deep.  Tliere  is  yet  another  difficulty  standing  in  the 
way  of  such  scheme,  wdiich  is  that  were  all  the  streets  of  a  town  nrade 
tu  run  from  East  to  West,  there  must  be  lines  of  communication  be- 
twecu  them  from  North  to  South,  which  according  to  such  plan  would 
be  entirely  between  dead  walls — that  is,  the  ends  of  the  houses  in  the 
streets,  and  the  walls  enclosing  the  gardens  and  courts,  or  whatever 
the  intermediate  space  might  be  between  the  parallel  rows  of  houses. 
I  may  therefore  venture  to  say  that  Soniieiibaa  will,  notwithstanding 
all  its  advantages,  never  come  into  fashion  in  London,  even  if  it  should 
anywhere  else. 


THE  PATENT  CONCRETE. 

Sir — I  have  read  an  article  in  your  Journal  for  the  mouth  of  January 
last,  describing  the  works  in  progress  in  her  Majesty's  Dock-yard  at 
Woolwich,  wherein  it  is  said  that  the  "  }^nlciU  C'uncrcte  of  Mr.  Ranger 
was/iJiiiid  insiijllcieiit  to  keep  down  Ihe  Land  Springs." 

Although  the  assertion  may  be  correct  as  far  as  relates  to  the  work 
in  (piestion,  viz.,  the  dock  wdnch  was  constructed  of  that  material,  at 
Woolwich;  yet,  as  such  an  assertion  appears  to  question  the  ellicieucy 
of  the  patent  concrete,  I  beg  to  state  to  you  my  decided  o|uniou  that 
the  failure  arose  from  a  deliciency  in  quantity,  and  not  from  any  defect 
in  quality  ;  from  an  improper  manner  of  applying  it — in  fact,  from  a 
misdirected  ec'onomy — the  excavation  being  only  lined  as  it  were  with 
concrete  to  form  the  bottom  and  the  altars,  instead  of  ttie  earth  being 
taken  out  of  such  dimensions  as  to  admit  of  the  concrete  forndng  a 
soliil  spandril  luider  the  altars,  (the  back  line  of  whicli  should  be  per- 
pendicular from  the  o\itside  edge  of  the  dock  coping),  and  of  having 
at  least  7  feet  in  depth  under  the  bottom  of  the  dock.  This  will  be 
better  understood  by  the  following  figures. 

These  are  not  given  as  correct  sections  of  the  dock  in  question,  but 
as  diagrams  sufficiently  accurate  to  illustrate  the  accompanying  obser- 
vations. 


Fig.  1. 


'$■ 


Fig.  2. 


Figure  1  is  a  section  ol  the  dock  as  executed,  wdiere  a  a,  &c.  repre- 
sent the  altars,  and  b  b  the  coping,  the  concrete  at  the  bottom  of  the 
dock  being  about  2  feet  G  inches  in  thickness.  By  this  figure  it  will 
be  seen  that  unless  the  ground  under  the  altars  is  of  a  very  firm  kind, 
such  as  good  gravel,  the  weight  of  the  concrete  in  the  altars  (being  of 
equal  specific  gravity  with  I'ortland  stone,)  must  cause  a  settlement, 
as  they  are  in  effect  all  overhanging,  anil  the  wdiole  of  the  work,  sup- 
posing each  side  to  settle,  (which  nray  well  be  expected  in  sucli  soil 
as  that  of  Woolwich  Dock-yard),  would  open  somewhat  similar  to  a 
book  ;  and  it  is  quite  plain  that  any  settlement  of  the  altars  would 
have  an  injurious  effect  upon  the  bottom,  unless  it  was  made  of  a  depth 
much  more  considerable  than  it  was  in  the  present  case,  where  the 
thickness  was  not  more  than  one-third  wdiat  it  ought  to  have  been. 

Figure  2  shows  the  dock  as  I  conceive  it  should  have  been  con- 
structed. Here  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mass  of  concrete  is  about  three 
times  the  sectional  area  of  that  in  fig.  1,  and  I  feel  convinced  that  if 
this  section  had  been  adopted,  no  failure  could  possibly  liave  taken 
place. 

It  may  be  here  remarked,  that  in  the  construction  of  docks  built  of 
stone,  the  backing  necessarily  must  form  such  a  spandril  as  I  have 
mentioned,  and  this  is  generally  composed  of  bricks  and  cement;  and 
why  this  solidity  of  form  shoidd  have  been  departed  from  in  the  sec- 
tion of  the  dock  in  question,  appears  to  be  altogether  inexplicable — 
and  the  more  so  when  it  is  considered  that  Woolwich  Yard  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  very  worst  places  in  which  so  rash  a  step  could  have  been 
hazarded. 

With  respect  to  land  s|)rings — I  apprehend  they  may  be  expected 
generally  to  be  troublesome  in  the  progress  of  works  in  a  Dock-yard, 
where  the  local  pressure  from  high-water  in  tidal  rivers,  or  from  the 
sea,  is  calculated  to  increase  the  difiiculty,  so  much  so  that  the  greatest 
ingenuity  will  sometimes  be  required  to  beat  the  enemy,  even  though 
granite  and  brickwork  in  cement  be  used. 

I  have  lately  seen  a  paper  describing  the  method  of  treating  springs 
as  pursued  by  Mr.  Ranger,  at  Chatham,  where  I  find  that  gentleman 
ingeniously  collected  them  by  means  of  cast-iron  chambers  into  pipes, 
and  conveyed  them  into  an  adjacent  culvert,  by  which  they  find  their 
way  into  the  Weir  of  the  Dock-yard  engine. 

I  have  been  led  into  these  observations  from  an  ajjprehension  that 
the  unqualified  assertion,  "the  patent  concrete  was  found  insufficient 
to  keep  down  the  land  springs,"  might  be  so  conclusive  to  many  per- 
sons who  are  not  acquainted  with  its  excellent  qualities,  as  to  prevent 
further  impiiry  upon  the  subject,  and  carry  a  conviction  of  its  unfitness 
as  a  building  material;  wdiile,  on  the  other  hand,  I  think  that  an  ex- 
amination of  the  subject  will  prove  its  peculiar  applicability  to  the 
purposes  of  dock  building,  or  any  other  massive  work  where  the 
locality  affords  good  gravel  and  lime. 

At  a  future  period  I  may  return  to  this  subject,  and  show  the  great 
economy  of  this  material,  as  compared  with  granite  and  brickwork  in 
cenmnt;  and  I  think  it  will  not  be  ditficult  to  show  that  two  docks  may 
be  built  of  concrete,  for  one  of  granite  and  brickwork,  and  each  of 
them  equal  in  usefulness  and  stability,  wdiich  must  be  considereil  a 
matter  of  no  small  moment  in  dock-yard  economy  at  this  period,  when 
it  appears  so  diflicult  to  obtain  from  the  rigid  hands  of  our  legislators, 
any  adequate  amount  to  be  expended  in  those  most  important  places. 
I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

B.  T. 

Dubihi,  nth  March,  1840. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


121 


TOPHAM'S  PATENT  SLIDE-VALVE  COCKS. 


Fig.l. 


Fib-  ■^■ 


DESCRIPTION. 

The  outer  case,  in  wliicli  tlie  slide-valve  is  enclosed 
and  worked,  consists  uf  a  box,  a  a,  with  socket  outlets, 
ti  I),  cast  in  one,  and  a  cap,  c  c,  secnreil  to  tlie  box  by 
means  of  four  wrouglit-iron  bolts,  tlie  position  shown 
at  dcldd,  in  figures  1,  2,3,  and  A.  Fig.  1  represents 
a  vertical  section  of  one  form  of  the  patent  cocks,  and 
fig.  il  is  a  plan  of  it  with  the  cap  oW;  ef  is  the  slide 
with  a  rack  cast  upon  the  back  of  it;yy  is  a  cast-iron 
spindle,  with  a  screw  cast  upon  it :  g g  l^  the  stuffing- 
box;  h  li  is  the  gland.  'I'liis  cock  is  intended  onlj' for 
what  are  termed  siiiglt-i.>.ceA  cocks. 

Fig.  3  is  a  vertical  section  of  another  form  of  the 
patent  cocks,  and  tig.  4  is  a  plan  of  it  with  the  cap  oti'; 
I  i  is  the  slide  witli  the  double  face,  and  with  lugs, 
kk,  cast  upon  it,  to  receive  a  female  brass  screw-nut, 
/  /,  antl  a  w  ronght-iron  square-threaded  screw  spindle, 
m  m,  as  in  the  common  double-faced  screw  cocks. 


Observations. — In  the  screw  cocks  commonly  used,  the  box  is  cast 
in  two  pieces,  and  the  outlets  are  generally  made  with  flanges,  to 
which  a  socket  and  spigot  piece  with  corresponding  flanges  are  bolted. 
It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  cast  iron  is  not  so  liable  to  corrode  as 
wrought  iron,  and  therefore  that  dispensing  with  numerous  bolts  and 
three  lead  joints,  will  not  only  render  the  casing  more  durable,  but 
enable  it  to  be  made  at  less  cost.  The  side  joints  in  the  box  or  casing 
sometimes  yield  unequally ;  this  prevents  the  slide  shutting  close  to 
the  face,  thereby  allowing  the  cock  to  "let  by  :"  this  is  prevented  by 
dispensing  with  the  joint.  Some  cocks  of  the  smaller  sizes  have  here- 
tofore been  cast  with  spigot  and  socket  instead  of  flange  outlets  ;  in 
the  patent  cocks,  sockets  are  cast  on  both  ends  of  all  sizes;  although 
it  might  originally  have  been  supposed  that  by  removing  the  cock,  ami 
leaving  the  flange,  spigot  and  socket  attached  to  the  main  or  service, 
a  new  cock  might  have  been  introduced  without  breaking  the  main  or 
service  ;  in  practice,  when  a  new  cock  has  to  be  introduced,  the  main 
or  service  is  broken,  and  the  junction  formed  by  a  double  socket :  it  is 
therefore  evident  that  the  separate  spigot  and  socket  castings  with 
flange  joints  are  imnecessary.  In  the  single-faced  cock,  the  reason  for 
introducing  a  cast  iron  screw  and  rack  instead  of  a  wi'ought  iron  screw, 
is  that  cast  iron  is  less  liable  to  corrosion  than  wrought  iron,  and  there- 
fore more  durable. 

The  advantages  of  the  patent  cock  are  its  simplicity  and  greater 
durability,  (owing  to  there  being  fewer  joints,)  and  cheapness.  The 
facings  of  the  cocks  hereinbefore  described  are  iron ;  if,  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  water,  cast  iron  is  liable  to  corrode  rapidly,  the  socket  or 
sockets  for  single  or  double-faced  cocks  are  made  to  screw  in,  and  can 
therefore  be  faced  with  brass.  The  water  supplied  by  the  Water 
Works  Companies  in  London,  is  of  such  a  quality  that  corrosion  of  cast 
iron  is  very  slow,  and  the  extra  exjiense  of  brass  faces,  or  gun-metal 
screws,  would  be  greater,  when  the  interest  of  the  money  expended  is 
taken  into  account,  than  the  renewal  of  the  cocks  when  rendered  use- 
less by  corrosion. 


Mr.  Wicksteed,  the  engineer,  has  introduced  these  patent  cocks  into 
the  services  of  the  East  London  Water  Works,  and  in  a  certificate 
dated  Nov.  23,  1S3S,  he  states,  that 

"The  chief  difiereiice  between  your  patent  cocks  .iiul  those  commonly 
used,  consists  in  the  body  of  the  cock  being  cast  in  one,  and  the  outlets  in 
cocks  of  all  sizes  being  cast  on  the  body,  instead  of  li.aviiig  flange,  spigot  and 
socket  pipes  attached  thereto.  By  this  means  you  undoubtedly  not  only  dis- 
pense with  the  greatest  portion  of  the  lead-joints  and  screw  bolts  ordinarily 
required,  and  in  consequence  reduce  the  cost  also,  but  the  slide  will  be  less 
Mable  to  get  out  of  its  true  working  position,  which  it  is  apt  to  do  from  un- 
equal yielding  of  the  side-joints  ;  and  thus  the  necessity  and  expense  of  re- 
l)airs,  which  have  been  rendered  hitherto  necessary,  will  I)e  dispensed  with. 
Although  the  application  of  the  cast  iron  worm  and  rack  may  not  be  new,  it 
is  certainly  not  in  general  use  :  and,  in  single-faced  cocks,  may  be  used  to 
great  advantage.  It  will,  in  my  opinion,  Ije  more  diualile,  and  is  more  sim- 
ple, and  less  expensive,  than  the  wrouyht  iron  screw  spindle  and  brass  screw 
nut. 

"  My  experience  inclines  me  to  consider  the  use  of  brass  facing  in  cocks, 
where  Thames  or  River  Lee  water  is  used,  unnecessary,  as  I  know  several 
cast  iron  sluice  gates,  with  iron  facings,  that  have  been  worked,  and  exposed 
to  the  action  of  these  waters,  for  a  period  of  nearly  thirty  years,  that  are  now 
in  as  good  a  state  as  possible ;  the  faces  are  not  at  all  corroded,  and  the  gates 
are  water-tight.  I  therefore  consider  the  use  of  brass,  in  such  instances,  as 
unnecessary  and  expensive.  Nevertheless,  should  the  water  contain  salts 
that  wouhl  aftect  cast  iron  so  as  to  injure  the  faces,  the  mode  you  propose  in 
your  specification,  for  facing  with  brass,  appears  to  me  well  calculated  for  the 
purpose,  without  affecting  the  principle  of  dispensing  with  the  side  and  other 
joints  and  bolts." 

Mr.  Wicksteed  has  furnished  Mr.  Topham  with  another  testimonial 
of  recent  date,  March  lb,  wherein  he  states,  that 

"  After  having  used  your  patent  cocks  constantly  for  two  years,  I  feel  en- 
abled to  speak  as  liighly  of  them  as  I  did  in  my  letter  to  you  dated  Nov.  23, 
1838,  and  would  stJ'ongly  recommend  their  general  adoption," 


122 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


AMERICA. 

INTERN'AI.    IMPROVEMENTS    AND    PBOSPECTS    OF    THE    PROFESSION. 

[Tlie  following  article  lias  liccn  forwardcJ  to  us  by  our  highly  valued  cor 
respondent  at  New  York,  it  was  written  for  the  Anieriean  Railroad  Journal, 
and  is  well  deserving  the  perusal  of  the  Engineers  and  Gfivei-nm^nt  of  this 
country,  many  of  the  remarks  are  ecjually  as  applicable  to  the  latter  as  they 
are  to  the  American  Government.] 

The  attempt  to  form  an  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  has,  we  arc  sorry 
to  say,  failed.  W'c  are  not,  however,  without  hopes  that  another  effort,  more 
successful,  will  soon  be  made.  We  have  beard  a  variety  of  opinions  on  this 
important  project,  and,  earnestly  as  we  desire  its  success,  we  must  admit 
that  there  are  difficulties  in  the  way,  which  it  is  much  easier  to  ])oint  out 
than  to  overcome.  In  the  first  place,  it  seems  impossible  to  fix  on  any  place 
where  the  leading  members  of  the  profession  could  meet  even  once  a  year, 
far  less  evei-y  week,  as  in  London.  The  public  works  of  the  United  States 
are  scattered  over  such  an  immense  extent  of  country,  that  there  is  probably 
no  point  where  even  half  a  dozen  engineers,  in  charge  of  as  many  works, 
could  meet  even  monthly.  If  we  are  right  in  this  view,  it  is  evident  that  the 
plan  which  succeeds  so  well  in  England,  or  rather  in  London,  is  not  adapted 
without  modification  to  this  country.  Then,  again,  the  distinction  between 
Members  and  Associates  woidd  lead  to  endless  contention,  though  all  will 
admit  that  some  such  division  is  both  necessary  and  i)roper;  but  where  to 
draw  the  line  is  the  grand  question.  They  who  have  held  the  rod,  have 
carried  the  compass  and  level,  liave  surveyed  hundreds  of  miles  for  railroads 
and  canals,  and  superintended  the  constniction  of  not  a  few",  are  not  pleased 
with  the  idea  of  being  ranked  with  those  who,  having  failed  as  la«7ers, 
doctors,  store-keepers,  or  otliee-bunters,  "turn  their  attention,"  as  the  phrase 
is,  to  civil  engineering,  and  who,  in  only  too  many  instances,  have  at  once 
received  appointments  to  which  they  should  have  looked  after  five  or  six 
years  ai-duons  scmce  in  the  field  in  the  various  grades  of  the  profession. 
More  than  one  of  our  readers  could,  without  much  difficulty,  point  out  men 
in  the  situation  of  Residents,  or  even  higher,  wlio  would  he  puzzled,  if  directed 
to  take  the  goniometer  into  their  own  bands,  and  run  out  a  curve  of  a  given 
railius,  to  join  two  tangents  given  in  position,  while  the  same  feat  constitutes 
one  of  the  veiT  easiest  duties  of  tlieir  assistants— the  unpresuming  title  of 
those  who  do  almost  everything.  There  is  a  veiy  large  class  of  assistants  in 
the  United  States  who,  from  want  of  education,  or  subsequent  .wersion  to 
study,  or  both,  are  unable  to  reach  the  highest  stations  of  the  profession,  to 
which  their  long  experience  and  ])ractical  skill  fully  entitle  them.  It  is  only 
when  acting  under  men  who  combine  liberal  and  scientific  attainments  with 
the  proper  experience,  that  this  large  class  of  eminently  useful  engineers  can 
ever  attain  their  deserts,  and  it  does  appear  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  they 
woidd  derive  great  advantages  from  a  well-constituted  institution,  where 
their  industry,  skill,  and  perseverance  would  be  honouraldy  registered  by 
those  who  are  alone  capable  of  appreciating  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
young  men  of  superior  talent  or  acquirements,  have  only  to  offer  original 
communications  to  the  Institution  to  be  immediately  known,  and  to  be  at 
once  installed  into  the  very  position  to  which  they  are  by  their  merits  en- 
titled, being  neither  ruined  by  injudicious  flattery  nor  chilled  by  neglect. 
How  dift'erent  are  the  means  by  which  a  young  engineer  now  seeks  to  rise  in 
his  profession,  on  the  Government  works,  in  which  are  inchided  nearly  all 
the  works  of  this  country.  His  political  creed,  and  the  number  of  votes  he 
and  his  friends  can  command,  would  far  outweigh  tlie  professional  claims  of 
a  rival  who  might  unite  in  himself  the  genius  of  all  the  engineers  of  tlie  age ; 
and  this  is  the  grand  obstacle  to  the  advancement  of  the  profession  in  the 
United  States. 

We  will  briefly  allude  to  the  manner  in  which  many  works  are  "  got  Tip," 
more  especially  in  the  Western  States.  A  "celebrated  engineer"  is  eni|)loyed 
to  survey  a  railroad  from  100  to  .500  miles  long  ;  he  makes  a  "  higldy  fa- 
vorable report"  to  the  Legislature,  on  the  strength  of  which  they  "authorise 
a  loan,"  and  "  locate  the  line,"  though  it  is  known  to  every  well-informed 
man  in  the  State,  that  the  work  cannot  be  put  into  operation  for  less  than 
three  or  four  times  the  original  estimate,  and  when  it  is  capable  of  demon- 
stration, that  the  country  cannot  possibly  furnish  business  enough  to  keep 
the  work  in  repair  and  pay  interest  on  the  loans,  far  less  pay  anything 
towards  diminishing  the  debt,  until  the  population  has  increased  at  least  ten 
fold — say  in  from  .50  to  100  years.  Now  it  is  obvious,  that  sneli  men  as 
Walker,  Brunei,  Stephenson,  and  a  host  of  others  in  England,  and  we  are 
proud  to  say,  not  a  few  in  this  country,  whom  we  do  not  feel  ourselves  at 
liberty  to  name,  are  found  utterly  impracticable  in  such  cases,  and  tliey  arc 
consequently  avoided  with  as  much  care  by  the  projectors  of  works  to  be 
built  on  the  credit  of  the  government,  as  they  arc  zealously  souglit  for  by 
those  who  project  works  to  be  executed  by  the  cxiicnditurc  of  their  own 
actual  capital.  The  evil  of  emploving  men  incomjietent  from  want  of  edu- 
cation, practice  and  character  eventually  recoils  on  the  State  ;  hence  the  fi- 
nancial difficulties  of  all  the  States  who  have  largely  embarked  in  the  con- 
stniction of  public  works. 

The  Stale  of  New  York  furnishes  some  very  instructive  examples.  By 
dint  of  much  management  a  law  was  passed  some  years  since,  that,  if  a  cer- 
tain canal  could  be  made  for  a  million  of  dollars,  it  should  be  forthwith  un- 
dertaken by  flic  State.  An  engineer  was  immediately  employed  to  survey 
the  route,  and  he  reported,  that  the  work  could  be  constructed  for  nine  hun- 
dred and  ninety  odd  thousand  dollars,  though  this  was  only  at  the  rate  of 


one  half  tlio  actual  cost  of  a  similar  canal,  presenting  fewer  engineering  diffi- 
culties, wliicli  had  just  been  completed.  The  insufficiency  of  the  estimate 
must  have  been  as  well  known  then  as  now,  still,  the  law  had  ]>assed,  and 
the  engineer  had  reported  "  favorably,"  so  the  mUlion  was  spent,  and  a  mil- 
lion an<l  a  half  more  was  then  required  to  complete  the  canal  in  the  cheapest 
manner.  Three  years  after  handing  in  an  estimate  for  the  enlargement  of 
the  Erie  canal,  the  following  reasons  arc  given  for  requiring  100  per  cent, 
additional.  "  A  uniform  plan  "  was  not  "adopted  in  the  estimates,"  "  and 
not  much  reflection  had  probably  been  bestowed  on  the  particular  manner  in 
which  the  work  should  be  done."  It  is  also  very  properly  observed,  that 
frost  is  a  very  destructive  agent  in  Northern  climates,  that  a  large  canal  re- 
quires stronger  banks  tlian  a  small  one,  and  that  work  done  in  the  winter 
costs  more  than  in  summer — all  which  would  have  readily  suggested  itself  to 
individuals  about  spending  their  omi  money,  even  had  it  escaped  the  pene- 
tration of  their  engineers  for  two  or  three  years. 

Again,  the  Croton  Water-works,  nominally  city  works,  though  such  no 
further  than  that  the  cily  pays  for  thcui,  wdl  contribute  their  mite  towards 
developing  the  wonderful  facility  with  which  govermnent  engineers  adapt 
professional  opinions  to  the  wishes  of  government  commissioners.  We  must 
premise  that  the  water  commissioners  bad,  till  last  year,  delayed  fixing  on 
the  iilan  for  crossing  the  Harlem  river,  the  most  difficult  anrl  important  work 
on  tlie  whole  line.  The  plan  then  brouglit  forwanl  was  opposi-d  by  certain 
proprietors  of  lands  on  the  river,  and  the  legislature  decidcil  unanimously 
against  the  commissioners,  though  the  party  to  whom  they  owed  tiieir  ex- 
istence had  a  large  majority  in  one  branch — a  case  nearly  imiiaralleled  in 
New  York  legislation.  The  use  of  iron  pipes  for  crossing,  by  means  of  an 
inverted  syphon,  the  commissioners'  plan,  was  unnecessary,  with  the  high 
bridge  prescribed  by  the  Legislature,  but,  as  the  former  are  as  averse  to  being 
interfered  with  as  they  are  prone  to  interfere  with  others,  Ibey  have  an- 
nounced their  intention  of  comjilying  with  the  law  no  further  tlian  absolutely 
necessary,  that  is,  they  will  keep  the  aqueduct  12  ft.  below  grade  and  use 
the  ])ipes.     We  quote  their  own  words : 

"  The  bill  as  revised,  *  *  *  is  in  substance  as  follows : — the  aque- 
duct to  he  constructed  over  the  Harlem  river,  with  arches  and  piers,  the 
arches  in  the  channel  of  said  river  to  be  at  least  80  feet  s|>an,  and  not  less 
than  100  feet  from  high  water  mark  to  the  under  side  of  the  arches  at  the 
crown. 

"  The  original  design  of  a  high  bridge,  as  designated  in  our  report  of  .Ian- 
uary,  1838,  required  arches  of  112  feet  in  the  clear  above  high  water  mark, 
which  is  12  feet  more  than  that  required  by  the  Act  of  May,  18.19.  A  bridge, 
therefore,  of  100  feet  height  of  arches  above  tide,  will  have  to  be  passed  by 
iron  pipes  or  syphons,  to  accommodate  the  ascent  and  descent  of  the  12  feet 
from  grade.  This  bridge  will  he  more  economical  in  its  construction,  and 
not  subject  to  so  many  contingencies,  from  its  less  elevation,  as  the  plan 
originally  proposed.  The  parapets  will  only  be  114  feet  in  height,  wiiicii  is 
17  feet  lower  than  the  (ilan  of  1838  j  and  as  the  arches  are  thus  reduced  in 
height,  stone  of  a  diminished  tliickness  may  be  used.  It  is  jiroposed  to  carry 
the  water  over  the  river,  at  the  commencement  of  supply,  by  two  three-feet 
pil)cs,  adopting  the  work,  however,  to  carry  two  pipes  of  foui  feet  diameter, 
when  the  city  shall  recpiire  it.  The  same  arrangement  for  pipe  vhambers, 
find  vmsfe  cocks,  vill  be  rerpiired  in  this  structure,  as  was  required  for  the 
syphon  bridge  formerly  proposed. 

The  engineer  echoes,  "  In  relation  to  the  bridge,  the  law  prescribes  that 
the  arches  in  the  channel  sliall  be  100  feet  at  the  under  side  of  the  crown, 
above  common  high  water  mark  of  the  river,  and  not  less  than  80  feet  span, 
conforming  in  these  resjiccts,  we  are  at  liberty  to  make  the  plans  in  aU  others, 
without  restriction  from  the  law. 

The  arches  of  the  briilge  originally  designed  to  maintain  the  grade  of  the 
aqueduct,  were  elevated  112  feet  above  the  high  water  mark  of  the  river, 
which  is  12  feet  higher  than  the  Act  rei/uires.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that 
100  feet  will  not  be  sidficicnt  to  maintain  an  aqueduct  of  masonry,  but  will 
reijuire  iron  pipes  as  conduits  for  the  water.  This  I  do  not  consider  an  ob- 
jection, as  1  am  fully  satisfied  iron  pipes  will  make  the  most  suitable  conduit 
for  the  water  on  such  a  bridge,  and  therefore  have  had  a  plan  jirepared,  with 
a  \iew  to  comply  with  the  law,  and  avail  of  the  economy  and  greater  per- 
manence from  a  less  elevated  structure.  The  less  height  required  for  the 
arclics,  ami  by  adopting  iron  pipes  for  the  conduit,  the  top  of  the  parapets 
will  bo  111  feet  above  high  water  mark,  which  is  17  feet  lower  than  the 
original  jilan.  The  superstructure  being  lighter  than  necessary  for  an  aque- 
duct of  masonry,  a  diminished  thickness  of  arch  stone  may  with  equal  safety 
be  adopted." 

We  should  be  pleased  to  know  what  diminution  in  the  depth  of  the  arch- 
stones  this  change  of  plan  would  justify,  as  well  as  the  saving  in  cost,  which 
latter,  we  strongly  siisjiect,  it  would  be  dillicnlt  to  express  in  the  constitu- 
tional currency  of  the  United  States,  without  an  extension  of  decimals  several 
places  to  the  right  of  "  mills." 

The  following  extracts,  though  trifling  in  themselves,  go  far  to  show  the 
estimation  in  which  the  profession  is  held  by  government  commissioners. 

"  Notwithstanding  the  oversight  of  the  inspectors  and  engineers,  the  work 
will,  in  a  few  cases,  be  carelessly  performed ;  and  it  is  only  by  the  correcting 
influence  of  these  repeated  tours  of  iMspcclion,  made  by  the  commissioners 
and  principal  engineers,  that  we  can  be  certain  the  work  is  performed  in  a 
manner  which  will  ensure  its  stabihty  and  imperviousncss." 
If  the  citizens  of  New  York  haye  no  better  guarantee  than  this,  that  the 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


123 


work  lias  l)een  faithfully  siiijcriutended,  that  4th  of  July  on  which  the  Cro- 
toii  water  will  lie  "  regaling  the  taste  and  sight  of  our  citizens,"  will  he  si- 
multaneous with  the  millennium, 

At  p.  255,  April  number  183'J,  Railroad  Jonrnal,  will  he  found  the  follow- 
ing cool  assertion  : 

"  The  locks  on  the  Chenango  canal,  which  are  111  in  nundier,  are  (with 
the  exception  of  five  stone  locks)  all  of  them  comjiosite.  They  were  built 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Bouck,  one  of  the  present  canal  commissioners, 
and  their  average  cost  was  3,808-50  dollars  each." 

We  shall  next  he  informed  that  tlie  piers  of  the  Potomac  aqueduct  have 
been  successfully  carried  up  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Forsyth,  and  that  the 
Thames  Tunnel  has  at  length  been  completed  under  the  superinteudence  of 
his  prototype  Lord  Melbourne. 

We  refer  to  these  circmustances  only  as  elTects  of  the  policy  of  allov^ng 
the  government  to  enter  into  the  jnirsuits  of  individuals,  and  not  with  the 
design  of  insinuating  that  the  mortifying  re])orts  of  many  government  engi- 
neers are  the  cause  of  the  present  state  of  the  profession,  but  simply  to  show 
that  they  are  the  legitimate  conscciuences  of  the  pernicious  interference  of 
the  State  Governments  with  that  in  whicli  they  have  no  more  right  to  en- 
gage, than  they  have  to  establish  theatres  or  hotels  and  then  forbid  any  citi- 
zen from  competing  with  them,  on  the  miserable  plea,  that  all  the  peo))le  of 
the  State  are  interested  in  their  tavern-keeping  monopoly,  that  it  hears 
eipially  on  all,  and  is,  to  use  the  logic  of  governments,  //lerefore  just.  The 
pecuniary  difficulties  in  which  most  of  the  States  who  have  engaged  in  rail- 
road and  canal  speculations  find  themselves  involved,  will  necessarily  break 
down  the  entile  system  of  State  works,  and  their  complete  abandonment  will, 
more  than  every  thing  else,  conduce  to  the  welfare,  honour,  and  usefulness 
of  the  profession. 

The  success  which  has  attended  the  expensive  and  well  eonstrueted  rail- 
roads about  Boston,  is  the  most  encouraging  fact  we  have  to  record,  and  it  is 
worthy  of  remark,  that  the  stocks  of  those  roads  were  tlie  only  stocks  not 
affected  by  the  bursting  of  the  biennial  bubble  grandiloquently  called  the 
*'  late  crisis."  The  Eastern  railroad  has  been  ojicned  to  Salem,  and  the  num- 
lier  of  passengers  is  ah'eady  twice  that  estimated  before  the  opening  of  the 
road,  and  on  which  the  )iroject  was  haseil.  The  Western  railroad  has  been 
opened  as  far  as  Springfield.  The  Old  Colony  railroad  is  going  on  ra[iidly  ; 
the  Norwich  and  Worcester  is  to  be  opened  about  new  year's  day,  and  tlie 
Ilonsatonic  railroad  some  time  this  month.  In  this  State,  the  Utica  and 
Syracuse  railroad  has  been  opened,  and  the  Syracuse  and  Auburn  railroad 
put  into  full  operation.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  Reading  raih'oad  has  just  been 
completed,  and  in  Maryland,  we  believe  the  Baltimore  and  Susqnehannah 
railroad  has  been  opened  to  the  imblie.  Two  of  the  above  roads  have  re- 
ceived aid  from  the  State  of  Massacliusetts,  but  they  have  all  been  managed, 
and,  w'ith  these  comjiaratively  (rifiing  exceptions,  have  been  paid  for,  by 
individuals.  Jl'c  do  not  knotr  of  n  single  State  irork  having  been  completed^ 
or  in.  port  opened,  during  the  year  1839. 

In  New  England  they  have  retained  too  much  of  the  sturdy  independence 
and  common  sense  of  their  forefatlicrs.  to  tolerate  the  meddling  of  the  go- 
vernment in  the  afl'airs  of  individuals,  and  we  seek  in  vain  for  a  canal,  a  rail- 
way, a  machine  shop,  a  lumber  or  coal  yard,  owned  h\  a  iS'ew  England  State. 
Jt  has  been  found  impossible  to  persuade  them  that  they  are  not  as  capable 
as  their  Transatlantic  brethren  of  managing  their  own  affairs,  and  the  conse- 
quence is,  that  they  have  the  best  managed,  best  constructed,  most  costly 
and  most  successful,  railways  of  any  State  in  the  Union.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  to  regulate  the  sale  of  spirits,  and  has  proved  about  as  successful 
as  a  previous  effort  to  interfere  with  another  article  in  the  "  grocery  line  " — 
y'dcjit  "  tea."' 

Some  little  has  been  done  on  the  State  works  of  New  York,  by  means  of 
the  unexpended  balances  of  former  api>ropriations  for  the  enlargement  of  the 
Eric  canal,  and  the  construction  of  the  Genessee  valley  and  Black  River  canals. 
There  is  no  little  curiosity  to  know  how  the  first  is  to  be  disposed  of — not  only 
both  parties,  but  every  sane  resident  of  the  State,  who  feels  an  interest  in 
her  honour  and  welfare,  being  heartily  ashamed  of  his  credulity  hi  believing 
it  either  practicable  with  the  means  of  the  State,  or  useful  even  if  practicalile. 
The  money  already  thrown  away  on  this  unrivalled  specimen  of  legislative 
folly,  will  do  something  towards  ojiening  the  eyes  of  the  citizens  of  this 
State,  and  a  year  or  two  hence  we  fully  expect  to  find  the  enlargement  as 
unpleasant  a  reminiscence  in  New  York  as  the  suspension  is  in  a  neighbouring 
State. 

The  lateral  canals  of  the  State  of  New  York  cannot  with  propnety  he 
passed  by,  being  "  par  excellence  "  government  works  in  then-  conception, 
management,  and  income.  As  the  official  report  on  the  Genessee  valley 
canal  has  been  published,  we  will  examine  the  proceedings  of  the  Commis- 
sioners with  regard  to  that  work,  and  our  readers,  by  tm-ning  over  their  files, 
will  be  enabled  to  judge  of  the  accuracy  of  our  deductions.  The  original 
estimate  of  the  canal  was  a  httle  less  than  two  miUions,  but  the  present  esti- 
mate is  thus  stated  in  the  report  alluded  to. 

"The  cost  of  the  canal  (excluding  314,520-43  dollars  for  the  Dansville 
branch,)  is  estimated  by  the  Canal  Commissioners  in  their  recent  report, 
(Assembly  Document  of  1839,  No.  SCO,)  at  4,585,1102-36  dollars. 

"  The  canal  board  ai-e  not  possessed  of  all  the  facts  necessary  to  enable 
them  to  estimate  with  suftieient  certainty  the  future  revenues  of  the  canal. 
They  fully  appreciate  its  value  to  the  interesting  section  of  the  State  whose 
resources  will  be  developed  by  its  completion.  In  respect,  however,  to  the 
tolls  to  be  tlerived  from  it  iu  the  present  state  of  the  navigation  of  the  Alle- 


ghany river,  the  board  would  observe,  that  in  the  year  1835,  P.  C.  Mills, 
Esq.,  the  engineer  who  surveyed  the  route,  submitted  an  estimate  to  the 
Canal  Comniissioners  of  its  probable  revenues,  (.Vssem.  Doc.  of  1835,  No.  204, 
jiage  42,)  in  which  he  computed  the  tolls,  independent  of  its  probable  con- 
tributions to  the  Erie  canal,  at  39,129-60  dollars.  Of  this  amount,  13,207 
was  estimated  for  the  tolls  on  the  finer  qualities  of  lumber  and  other  jn-oduets 
of  the  forest,  which,  it  was  siqiposed,  would  seek  the  New  York  market  in 
preference  to  that  on  the  Ohio  and  Alleghany  rivers.  A  majority  of  the 
Canal  Commissioners,  (including  the  late  acting  Commissioner  on  that  canal,) 
in  the  report  above  referred  to,  have  expresseil  their  belief  that  the  amount 
of  39,129-CO  dollars,  is  "  greater  than  will  be  reahzed  for  at  least  the  first 
few  years  after  the  canal  is  completed." 

Now  let  us  translate  this  into  plain  unofficial  English,  sueh  as  is  used  in 
the  every  day  transactions  of  common  men,  not  devoid  of  eoramon  sense. 
It  is  proposed  to  construct  a  work  at  the  expence  of  the  State,  the  cost  of 
which  is  estimated  at  two  millions  of  dollars,  and  its  gross  income  at  less 
than  39,000,  one  third  of  it  to  be  derived  from  lumber,  which,  it  is  well 
known,  will  soon  be  exhausted.  The  canal  is  to  be  106  miles  long,  and  wc 
know  from  experience  that  39,000  dollars  will  not  meet  the  ordinary  annual 
expenses,  repairs  .and  renewals.  We  will,  however,  suppose  this  sum  sutfi- 
cient  for  those  purposes,  then  the  people  of  this  State  are  saddled  with  a 
"  gentleman  pensioner,"  who  cannot  exist  on  less  than  100,000  dollars  per 
aiinnni.  On  comparing  this,  however,  with  the  Chenango  canal,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  annual  deficits  of  the  latter  exceeded  those  of  the  former  by 
20,000  dollars,  and  as  the  march  of  the  Commissioners  was  "  still  onward," 
they  at  once  decided  on  such  an  addition  to  the  estimate  as  should  place  the 
Genessee  valley  canal  as  far  "  ahead  "  of  the  Chenango,  as  the  latter  was  in 
advance  of  the  other  "  auxiliary  "  canals.  They  determined  accordingly 
on  spending  five  millions  on  Ibis  work,  which  will  entail  on  the  State  a  per- 
manent animal  tax  of  250,000  dollars  at  least. 

Now,  does  any  man,  out  of  office,  beUeve  that  the  people  of  the  State  of 
New  York  would  have  authorised  an  expenditure  of  fise  millions  of  dollars 
on  a  canal  which  its  friends  and  projectors  assert  will  not  yield  more  than 
39,000  dollars  gross  revenue,  merely  for  the  privilege  of  ha\ing  their  money 
sipiaudered  l)y  a  set  of  Canal  Commissioners  ?  Before  seriously  entertaining 
such  a  iirojeet,  far  less  recommending  it,  they  ought  to  have  been  able  clearly 
to  establish  the  probability  of  an  immediate  Income  equal  to 

Dollars. 
.\nnnal  cost  of  repairs,  renewals  and  expenses       .  .  50,000 

Interest  on  five  millions  of  dollars  .  .  .  250,000 

Towards  paving  off  the  debt,  at  least        .  .  .  100,000 


Making  the  total  miniinuni  income,  400,000 

or  ten  times  the  estimated  income,  the  latter  being  in  fact,  too  iiisigiiiHeaut 
in  amount  to  have  any  material  bearing  in  discussing  the  value  of  an  under- 
taking which  is  to  cost  five  millions. 

Suppose  that  the  State  of  New  York,  after  expending  one  miUion  on  the 
Chenango  canal,  had  refused  to  submit  to  any  further  imposition,  that  canal 
woidd  lie  unfinished,  its  revenue  nothing,  in  place  of  20,000  dollars  on  an 
expenditure  of  two  and  a  half  millions,  practically  speaking,  nothing;  the 
State  would  have  saved  one  and  a  half  million,  and  would  only  have  incurred 
a  permanent  annual  tax  of  50,000  dollars  instead  of  120,000  dollars,  which 
the  people  of  this  State  are  now  paying  for  the  glory  of  owning  the  Che- 
nango canal.  We  give  an  extract  from  an  article  which  appeared  in  the 
Courier  and  Enquirer  of  7tli  May  last,  in  which  the  writer  undertakes  to 
jirovc  that  lateral  canals  generally  will  be  nearly  useless  in  themselves,  and 
of  little  value  to  the  main  canal.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  his  reasons, 
it  is  only  too  true  that  his  conclusions  are  fully  borne  out  by  the  actual  ex- 
perience of  this  State. 

"  I  have  never  seen  any  attempt  to  explain  the  causes  which  render  the 
lateral  canals  unable  to  pay  expenses,  though  it  appears  to  me  to  be  by  no 
means  difficult.  The  jiolicy  which  led  to  the  construction  of  these  lateral  or 
auxiliary  canals,  has  no  analogy  with  that  which  influenced  and  guided  tlie 
projectors  of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals.  The  immediate  object  of  the 
former,  was  to  open  to  the  husbandman  the  extensive  and  fertile  region  of 
western  New  York  ;  that  of  the  latter,  to  bring  within  reach  of  the  city  the 
forests  of  the  North.  Both  have  fully  succeeded— not  because  there  are  no 
other  such  routes  "  in  the  world,"  but — because  they  were  projected  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  open  the  greatest  possible  extent  of  country,  and  without 
reference  to  mere  local  interests.  M'ith  the  lateral  canals  the  case  is  widely 
different,  for  it  is  evident,  that  the  main  canal  will  eonimand  the  business  of 
the  country  through  which  it  passes,  for  a  certain  distance  on  each  side,  this 
in  an  agricultural  country,  will  vary  from  25  to  40  miles  according  to  cir- 
cumstances ;  but,  whatever  distance  be  allowed,  it  is  clear,  that  the  portion 
of  the  lateral  canal  contained  within  these  limits,  will  only  receive  the  con- 
tributions  of  those  dnectly  on  its  banks.  If  the  lateral  canals  be  from  80  to 
100  miles  apart,  it  will  be  found,  by  a  few-  simple  calculations  of  distances, 
that  a  vei-y  small  portion  of  the  country  between  the  lateral  canals,  and 
within  40  miles  of  the  main  canal,  will  derive  any  advantage  from  the  lateral 
canals.  Hence  the  insignificant  revenue  of  the  Seneca,  Crooked  Lake,  Che- 
mung, and  Chenango  canals.  The  two  first  are  in  the  country  directly  tribu- 
tary to  the  Erie  canal,  one  half  of  the  Chenango  canal  is  hable  to  the  same 
objection,  and  the  other  half  and  the  Chemung  canal  would  suft'er  from  the 
New  York  and  Erie  railroad,  had  they  more  than  a  nominal  revenue.     The 

Blacii  Kiver  canal  proper  lies  mthia  the  influence  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  its 


J  24 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEEIl  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


extension  to  tliu  Lake  or  tlie  St.  Lawrence  will  only  fnniisli  a  slower,  more 
expensive,  and  more  troublesome  comnumication  between  its  termini,  tlian 
llic  present  excellent  one  by  Lake  Ontario  ami  the  Oswego  canal.  Lastly, 
llie  Genessee  Valley  canal,  with  the  Erie  canal  on  the  north,  and  the  Erie 
railroad  on  the  sonth,  bids  fair  to  be  second  only  to  the  enlargement  in  dis- 
posing of  the  snrplns  revenue,  or  rather  to  the  vast  .annual  deliciencies,  which 
nothing  short  of  an  entire  change  of  policy  can  possibly  .avert.  If  the  Black 
Uiver  aTid  (ienessee  Valley  canals,  estimated  at  ten  millions,  be  immediately 
abaniloned,  the  State  will  lose  about  500,000  dollars,  which  mav  be  con- 
sidered an  anticipation  of  the  payment  of  one  ye.-ir's  deficiencies  of  these 
canals  when  completed,  by  the  immediate  forfeiture  of  wliich,  the  St.ate  will 
save  a  like  expenditure  per  annum  in  perpetuity,  besides  the  immediate  dis- 
bursement of  a  sum  nearly  cfpial  to  the  entire  cost  of  the  Erie  and  Champlain 
canals." 

The  estimates  for  these  canals  have  since  been  reduced,  and  their  probable 
deficiencies  are  estimated  by  Mr.  Paige  (Sen.  Doc.  1839,  No.  101,  p.  7,)  at 
•1,50,000  dollars,  .ind  if  the  sum  now  sjicnt  on  these  works  docs  not  exceed 
two  millions,  their  immediate  abandonment  will  save  the  St.ite  350,000  dol- 
lars per  auimm — a  sum  more  than  sutliciciit  to  support  the  government.  V.'e 
sliall  have  occasion  again  to  refer  to  tlie  above  report,  which  contains  the 
most  sensible  view  of  the  public  works  owned  by  this  state,  which  has  fallen 
under  our  observation  :  and  it  derives  great  value  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  writer  is  justly  considered  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  party  to  which 
we  are  indebted  for  the  lateral  canals  and  the  enlargement,  and  would  natu- 
rally be  disposed  to  treat  them  in  the  most  favorable  manner. 

It  is  assumed  by  Mr.  Verplanck  and  the  committee  of  1838,  that  the  reve- 
nue of  the  Erie  canal  will  justify  an  expenditure  of  40  millions,  and  repay 
the  principal  in  30  years ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  ^Ir.  Paige,  from  official 
documents,  undertakes  to  prove  tliat  the  revenue  will  only  pay  the  interest 
on  15  millions,  with  even'  prospect  of  a  permanent  debt  to  that  amount. 
Tliis  great  discrepancy  arises  from  the  fact  that  >Ir.  V.  adopted  the  views  of 
the  committee  of  '38,  who  state  in  their  report, 

"  It  will  be  perceived  that  the  very  foimdation  upon  wliieh  the  financial 
calculations  of  the  committee  are  based,  is  the  estimate  of  the  Canal  Com- 
missioners submitted  to  the  Legislature,  in  which  they  state  that  the  Erie 
canal,  within  a  fevf  years  after  its  enlargement,  will  produce  an  annual  reve- 
nue of  3,000,000  dollars.  The  importance  of  verifying  the  accuracy  of  this 
estimate  will  be  evident,  as  any  material  error  would  lead  to  the  most  in- 
jm-ious  consequences." 

Mr.  Paige,  on  the  other  hand,  instead  of  adopting  the  couclusious  of  the 
Commissioners,  takes  the  data  ou  which  they  either  did  or  ought  to  have 
established  their  income  of  three  millions,  and  demonstrates  that  there  is 
no  probability  of  the  revenue  of  the  Erie  canal  reaching  this  sum  till  the 
year  188C,  without  making  any  deduction  for  the  partial  or  total  repeal  of  its 
monopoly  of  caiTV'ing  freight,  on  which  exclusive  privilege  it  was  shown  in  a 
former  number  that  its  cn/ire  surplus  revenue  depends.  The  Governor  in  his 
late  message,  as  well  as  the  committees  of  '38  and  '30,  have  placed  implicit 
confidence  in  the  estimated  income  of  three  millions,  as  reported  by  the 
Commissioners,  while  Mr.  Paige  goes  to  work  as  if  he  neither  knew  nor  cared 
about  any  previous  calculations  on  that  subject.  We  have  no  means  of  as- 
certaining why  he  who  knew  the  merits  of  the  Commissioners  so  nuich  better 
than  the  other  gentlemen,  should  not  have  yielded  the  same  credence  to 
their  statements  ;  but,  be  this  as  it  may,  he  has  shown  clearly  that  the  esti- 
mate of  three  millions  gross  income  from  the  Erie  canal,  is  utterly  unworthy 
of  belief.  We  must,  however,  correct  one  error  in  this  excellent  report.  It 
is  said,  (p.  8,)  "  The  Commissioners  cannot  be  regardcil  as  estimating  that 
the  tolls  would  amount  to  3,000,000  dollars  in  181(3  or  1819,  but  at  a  period 
much  more  remote."  This  nnliapjiy  .ittcmpt  at  exculpation  had  been  antici- 
pated by  the  report  of  the  late  Comptroller,  which  apjicared  more  than  three 
mouths  before  the  report  of  Mr.  Paige.  This  officer  vritcs  and  italicizes  the 
remark,  (No.  4,  Ass.  Doc.  p.  23,)  "  .1  fnr  j/cars  after  the  ooiupletion  of  the 
fulari/ement  may  carry  us  to  1850."  Tlie  door  of  escape  for  the  Commis- 
sioners is  therefore  closeil,  and  we  are  at  liberty  to  choose,  as  we  please, — 
Mr.  Paige's  estimate  of  three  millions  revenue  in  188(1,  or  the  Commissioners' 
estimate  of  three  millions  revenue  "a  few  years"  before  1850. 

After  proving  the  inability  of  the  State  to  complete  the  enlargement,  and 
the  consequent  impropriety  of  any  further  expenditures,  that  same  senator, 
the  best  lawyer  in  that  body,  advocates  the  enlargement,  merely  reducing 
the  size  from  7  by  70  to  6  by  fiO,  a  distinction  without  a  diftcrencc — for  iin 
cxpenditm'e  which  is  wrong  in  prmciplc,  cannot  be  jiistitied  by  a  diminution 
of  its  amount  by  four  millions,  or  IGj  per  cent,  the  luccise  iimount  leading 
to  a  long  debate.  The  same  course  was  also  taken  liy  another  gentleman, 
who  is  well  known  for  the  manly  stand  he  has  taken  against  lateral,  or,  as 
he  very  properly  designates  them,  "  pauper  canals,"  and  thus  we  find  two  of 
the  most  able  members  of  the  Senate  advocating  a  work  which  they  know 
the  State  can  never  complete  and  can  ne\er  require.  .\s  already  remarked 
of  the  engineers,  it  is  their  misfortune  rather  than  their  fault,  and  the  iiievi- 
Lible  result  of  the  departure  of  the  government  from  the  high  duties  of  gene- 
ral legislation,  and  its  illegal  embarkation  in  the  pursuits  of  individuals,  for 
these  same  gentlemen,  if  mciuhers  of  a  board  of  Directors  who  were  ex- 
jiending  their  own  money,  would  he  eminent  for  sagacity,  ])rudenec,  and 
candour. 

The  Governor  in  his  first  message  admits  the  evil,  but  docs  not,  in  our 
opinion,  go  to  the  root  of  it,  though,  as  it  was  necessarily  written  before  en- 
tering on  ofScc,  he  could  scarcely  at  that  time  have  supposed  it  possible  tliat 


he  was  approving  of  a  system  of  works  based  on  official  data,  which  it  is  now 
only  too  clear,  were  never  entitled  to  his  confidence.    He  very  truly  observes, 

•'  AVith  the  extension  of  our  internal  improvements  there  h.as  been  an  im- 
mense and  unlookcd  for  enlargement  of  the  financial  operations  and  the 
official  power  and  patronage  of  the  Canal  Commissioners  and  the  Canal 
Hoard.  These  operations  are  conducted,  and  this  power  and  patronage  exer- 
cised and  dispensed,  with  few  of  those  requirements  as  to  accoimtabililv  and 
)niblicity  enforced  with  scrnpnlous  cai-e  in  every  other  dejiartment  of  the 
government.  So  inconsistent  and  unequal  are  the  best  etibrts  to  maintain 
simplicity,  uniformity  and  accountabihty  throughout  the  various  departments, 
that  a  greatly  mysterious  and  undefined  power  has  tlius  grown  up  unobserved, 
while  the  public  attention  has  exhausted  itself  in  naiTowiy  waiching  the 
action  of  more  unimportant  functionaiies.  It  is  a  proposition  wortliy  of 
consideration,  whether  greater  economy  and  efficiency  in  the  management  of 
our  present  jmblic  works  would  not  be  secured,  a  wiser  direction  given  to 
efl^orts  for  internal  iiii]irovenient  throughout  the  State,  and  a  more  equal  lUtfu- 
sion  of  its  advantages  be  effected  by  constituting  a  board  of  internal  improve- 
ments, to  consist  of  one  member  from  each  senate  district." 

This  plan  may  be  attended  with  some  advantages  for  a  short  period,  but 
the  very  nature  of  the  tenure  renders  it  impossible  for  the  State  to  conuuand 
the  services  of  .agents  with  the  character,  capacity,  and  acquirements  of  those 
employed  by  individuals  and  companies,  as  is  only  too  ap]iaient  in  (his  State, 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal,  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  Genessee  Valley  and  Black  River  canals  have  been  "  got  up." 

We  will  briefly  allude  to  some  of  the  Western  States.  In  Micliigan,  a 
private  company  commenced  the  only  important  work  which  can,  for  many 
years,  be  projected  in  that  peninsula — the  Detroit  and  St.  Joseph's  railroad. 
The  company,  however,  could  not  proceed  with  sufficient  rapidity,  so  the 
State  "  assumed  the  mantle  "  of  Engineer  and  Forwarder  Cieneral,  and  com- 
menced the  construction  of  a  "Northern  Railroad,"  a  "  Southern  Railroad," 
one  on  each  side  of  the  company's  road,  now  the  "  Central  Railroad,"  and 
rendered  the  system  complete  by  introducing  the  "  Chnton  canal  "  between 
the  northern  and  central  lines  of  railway.  These  four  works  average  veiy 
nearly  200  miles  each,  the  sum  appropriated  or  rather  the  loan  authorized 
for  these  800  miles  was  five  millions  of  dollars,  or  0,250  dollars  per  mile, 
about  one  fourth  of  the  sum  required  to  put  them  into  operation,  yet  the 
State  has  actually  entered  ou  the  construction  of  all  these  works.  The  re- 
sult is,  that  the  State,  after  expending  all  she  has  been  able  to  borrow,  has 
only  to  miles  of  the  Central  (formerly  company's)  road  in  operation,  her 
credit  is  gone  for  many  years,  her  farmers  must  be  directly  taxed  to  pay  the 
interest  on  money  expended  on  works  which  will  never  be  completed,  and 
the  only  work  really  required  is  indefinitely  postponed.  As  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  the  works  projected  by  the  government  of  Michigan  were  never 
thought  of  by  private  companies,  and  it  would  be  as  difficult  to  raise  by  jiri- 
rnte  sulisci-iptions  to  the  stock,  5  per  cent,  on  the  probable  cost  of  the  "  Nor- 
thern railway,"  of  the  "  Southern  railway,"  or  of  the  "  Chnton  canal,"  as  it 
would  be  to  induce  individuals  in  the  State  of  New  York  to  contribute,  as  a 
permanent  investment  from  their  own  means,  2  per  cent,  towards  aicUng  the 
government  in  the  construction  of  the  Genessee  \'alley  and  Black  River 
canals,  or  in  the  enlargement  of  the  Erie  canal — that  is,  impossible. 

The  State  of  Illinois  received  from  Congress  a  valualile  grant  of  land  to 
aid  in  the  construction  of  the  Illinois  canal,  a  truly  national  work,  uniting 
the  Mississippi  with  the  Atlantic  liy  the  St.  LawTcnce  and  Hudson  rivers. 
This  donation  would  have  enabled  the  State  to  complete  the  canal,  and  the 
nett  revenue  might  have  been  expended  in  aiding  private  enterprise  without 
the  possibility  of  any  tax  being  necessary,  even  if  all  the  works  which  they 
aided  should  be  as  uniirodnctive  as  the  "lateral  canals  "  of  New  York.  j\'uw 
they  have  commenced  a  "  system "  of  railroads,  the  aggregate  length  of 
which  is  above  1200  miles  !  besides  other  works.  It  is  unnecessary  to  state 
the  consequences  which  have  followed,  any  further  than  to  allude  to  the  sale 
of  the  State  stocks  in  New  Y'ork  at  50  per  cent,  and  to  the  special  session  of 
the  Legislature  which  has  been  called  to  devise  "  ways  and  means  "  to  enable 
that  State  to  meet  its  immediate  obligations.  There  is  much  anxiety  to 
know  the  course  likely  to  be  pursued  by  the  governments  of  Pennsylvania, 
Ilhnois  and  ilichigan,  and  last,  though  not  least,  the  city  of  New  York.  The 
Croton  water-works  arc  exactly  as  far  from  completion  as  when  ground  was 
first  broken,  for  the  work  which,  with  any  quantity  of  money  would  require 
more  time  than  all  the  rest,  lias  just  been  commenced !  Had  the  Commis- 
sioners invested  the  insignificant  sum  of  2  or  300,000  dollars  from  their  oini 
capital,  this  would  never  have  occurred,  and  had  this  nuderlakiug  been  left 
to  a  company,  who  should  have  been  bound  to  expend  20  ]icr  cent,  on  the 
cost  of  the  work  from  their  own  means,  the  citizens  of  New  York  would  be 
siqiphcd  with  "  pure  "  water  many  years  sooner,  and  at  one  tliird  of  the  cost 
which  now  ap])ears  inevitable. 

In  some  States  the  grand  argument  will  be,  that  if  they  can  only  complete 
the  works  commenced,  a  revenue  is  immerUately  certain,  which  will  render 
taxation  to  jiay  the  interest  unnecessary.  That  the  completion  of  these  pro- 
jects will  make  the  fortunes  of  many  individuals,  is  well  known,  but,  for  the 
permanent  interests  of  the  State,  the  only  plan  is,  to  sell  out  tit  once  w  itli 
the  present  comparatively  trifling  loss.  It  is  impossible  to  pay  too  much  at- 
terdion  to  the  fact,  that  the  greater  part  of  the  works  projected  by  the  go- 
vernments of  the  diflcrcnt  States,  arc  not  such  as  will  ever  be  of  any  essential 
benefit,  and  when  we  add  to  this,  that  they  are  constructed  at  twice  the  cost 
of  similar  works  in  the  hands  of  companies,  are  generally  much  inferior  in 
execution,  and  always  managed  and  repaired  in  the  most  inefficient  manner 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


125 


— we  shall  be  at  no  loss  to  account  for  tlie  present  condition  of  Slate  works 
in  general.  The  dctieieneies  of  this  year  in  Pennsylvania  alone,  are  estiniateil 
at  11  millions  of  dollars,  and  except  the  Erie  canal,  there  is  not  a  govern- 
ment work  in  the  Union  which  has  paiil  the  ordinary  expenses,  inclnding  of 
course,  interest  on  cost.  If  the  Erie  canal  lie  placeil  on  the  footing  of  the 
canals  of  Pennsylvania,  that  is  if  its  exclusive  right  to  carry  all  the  freight  to 
and  from  western  New  Voik,  the  western  States  ami  Upper  Canada  he  abo- 
lished, the  gross  income  of  the  canals  of  Xew  York  will  bear  a  less  propoition 
to  the  exiienditnres,  than  does  the  revenue  of  the  public  works  of  Pennsyl- 
vania to  the  annual  outlays  on  the  internal  imiirovements  of  that  common- 
wealth. Nntwithstaniling  their  financial  embarrassments,  wc  are  happy  to 
say,  that  mi  other  State  in  the  Union  has  resorted  to  this  mode  of  giving  a 
"  delusivi'  |irosi>erity  "  to  their  public  works,  and  there  is  some  reason  to 
believe  that  the  long  reign  of  "  exclusite  privileges  "  in  this  State  is  about  to 
close.  My  making  innnediate  arrangements  for  retiring  from  the  construc- 
tion of  canals,  the  State  of  .\ew  York  may  yet  escape  with  trilling  loss,  and 
with  this  object  in  view,  the  people  would  readily  submit  to  the  present  mo- 
impoly  of  freight  from  the  north  and  west  for  a  few  years  longer.  This  ap- 
[lears  to  us  the  most  judicions  course  to  be  pursued  in  order  to  avoid  a  jier- 
manent  debt,  and  it  certainly  offers  an  honourable  retreat  from  a  position  in 
which  it  is  daily  becoming  more  dirticult  to  maintain  ourselves. 

The  great  efforts  which  have  been  niaile  by  the  inhabitants  on  (be  line  of 
the  New  York  and  Erie  railroad,  under  the  most  discouraging  circmnstances, 
to  aiil  in  the  constrnetion  of  that  undertaking,  show  that  private  enterpri/.e 
is  not  yet  extinguished  in  this  State,  and  we  have  to  record  the  astonishing 
and  gratifying  circumstance,  that — notwithstanding  the  different  State  go- 
vernments have  made  every  exertion  to  absorb  all  the  spare  capital  of  this 
country  and  of  Europe  for  their  own  Utopian  schemes,  the  year  18S9  has 
seen  more  works  eompleled  by  cumjianie.t  than  by  .'■f/afes.  Private  energy 
and  entcr])rise  have  succeeded  wliere  the  power  of  government  has  been 
unequal  to  the  task,  ami  while  the  star  of  "  free  trade  "  floats  triumphantly 
on  the  banners  of  the  Bay  State,  and  indeed  thronghont  New  England,  we 
will  not  despair  of  seenig,  in  the  Empire  State,  railways  as  judiciously  pro- 
jected, as  well  constructed,  as  profitable  to  the  proprietors,  and  as  useful  to 
the  public,  as  those  of  .Massachusetts,  when  they  shall  he  left  equally  free  to 
the  people  of  the  former  as  thev  alwavs  have  been  to  those  of  the  latter 
State. 


CN  TRELLl.S  BRIDGES. 

(n',//i  an  Engraving,  Plah:  VIII.  j 

We  ;irp  princi|)iilly  iiulebtcil  fur  this  paper  to  n  communication  of 
Mr.  Moncure  Robinson  in  the  Rcrue  Gent  rait  di  I' ..-Irchiteclare. 

Mr.  Itliiel  Town  of  Xew  Haven,  an  architect  at  Xew  York  invented 
a  bridge  of  a  pecnliar  construction  wliicli  lias  nnicli  tlie  appearance  of 
a  bridge  invented  liere  by  the  Kite  Mr.  Smart.  The  principle  is  one 
wliidi  has  been  adopted  by  Seppiiigs  in  naval  arcliiteclnre  Tlie 
advantages  attributed^  to  it  are  tliat  bridges  willi  openings  of  con- 
siderable spaa  may  be  erected  with  small  pieces  of  wood.  These 
bridges  are  bnilt  on  piers  far  apart  and  formed  of  a  truss,  if  it  may 
be  so  termed,  of  continuous  trellis  work,  m.ide  of  planks,  double  or 
treble,  10  or  12  inches  wide,  and  3  to  3i  inches  thick,  placed  parallel 
to  each  other  at  an  angle  of  about  45o  to  the  horizon,  crossing  nearly 
at  right  angles,  and  alternating  from  right  to  left.  The  angle  at  which 
the  trellises  cross  is  not  strictly  a  right  angle,  for  the  interstices  form  a 
kind  of  lozenge,  which  if  three  feet  long  would  be  about  2  feet  0  inches 
broail,  which  are  about  the  general  ilimensions.  At  the  crossings  the 
planks  are  secured  with  pins.  The  bolloin  of  tlie  trellis  work  is 
strengthened  on  eacli  side  by  string  pieces  running  from  one  end  of 
the  bridge  to  the  other,  and  made  also  of  small  pieces  of  timber  12 
inches  by  3,  in  lengths  from  35  to  10  feet.  The  siring  pieces  on  each 
side  of  the  trellis  work  are  double,  so  tliat  each  trellis  is  secured  by 
four  pieces  of  timber,  six  inches  thick  on  each  side  of  the  trellis.  The 
joints  being  equally  distributed  throughout  the  length  of  the  siring  piece. 
At  the  top  of  the  trellis  is  a  similar  string  piece  running  in  the  same 
manner  the  whole  length.  On  the  lower  strings  are  placed  the  trans- 
verse beams  which  carry  the  timbers  of  the  Hoor.  The  njiiier  string 
piece  in  the  bridges  wliicli  were  first  constructed  carried  tlie  roof, 

The  trellis  work  is  secured  at  the  crossings  bv  pins  of  sound  oak, 
an  inch  and  a  quarter  thick,  carefully  turned  on  a  mandrel.  These 
pins  lit  neatly  into  holes  previously  liored.  They  are  f.irther  secured 
by  a  weilgelike  pin  driven  into  their  centres  on  each  side.  This  latter 
precaution  is  however  only  adopted  on  the  more  expensive  bridges. 
These  pins  are  two  in  number  at  the  crossings,  and  four  at  the  string 
pieces,  they  are  the  only  means  of  securing  the  timbers  to  eacli 
other,  as  they  are  too  thin  to  admit  of  framing.  The  only  iron  work 
in  the  whole  bridge  amounts  to  no  more  than  a  few  nails  and  pins  used 
in  some  of  the  joints. 

Such  was  Mr.  Town's  original  plan,  and  we  shall  now  proceed  to 
describe  the  improvements  which  have  been  subsequently  introduced. 
It  is  evident  that  on  this  system  the  timbers  of  the  floor  may  be  laid 


either  on  the  upper  or  lower  part  of  the  trellis  work.  By  laying  them 
on  the  lower  part,  tlie  sides  and  roof  may  be  more  readily  completed, 
but  the  other  plan,  which  has  been  preferred  for  railways  in  the  United 
■  States,  admits  of  the  carpentry  being  strengthened  by  horizontal  and 
vertical  braces,  and  gives  additional  securitv  to  the  bridge.  The 
ordinary  wooden  bridgi's,  called  in  America  Burr's  bridges,  after  a 
carpenter  of  that  name  who  imiu'oved  them,  are  so  elastic  that  the 
trains  can  only  pass  over  them  very  slowly,  while  on  good  trellis  bridges, 
particularly  those  made  by  Mr.  Robinson,  locomotives  can  run  at  full 
speed,  a  great  advantage  with  regard  lo  railways. 

The  height  of  the  trellis  depends  on  the  strength  required  in  the 
bridge,  and  necessarily  increases  with  the  opening  or  span.  For  ex- 
tensive works  where  2lio  feet  span  is  required,  the  trellis  is  made  17 
or  IS  feet  higli.  Mr.  Town  recommends  that  in  most  cases  the  height 
of  the  trellis  should  be  a  tenth  or  twelfth  of  the  span.  When  the 
flooring  rests  on  the  string  piece  the  height  of  the  carriages  will  not 
admit  of  (he  trellis  being  less  than  13  or  14  feet.  Some,  of  these 
bridges  have  been  built  of  220  feet  span. 

Throughout  the  timbering  the  two  lines  which  present  the  greatest 
resistance  are  directed,  one,  following  a  horizontal  right  line  lead  by 
the  lower  extremity  of  the  timbering;  the  other,  following  a  curved 
ari'h,  which  rests  by  its  two  extremities  on  this  riglit  line.  The  trellis 
bridge  has  great  strength  at  its  base  on  account  of  the  siring  piece 
formed  of  four  pieces  secured  two  and  two;  but  it  is  not  so  strong 
along  the  upper  curve  described  by  the  iileal  line  of  the  greatest 
thrust.  The  more  the  trellis  is  raised,  the  more  tlie  upper  string 
piece,  wdiicli  strenglliens  the  timbering,  dilTers  from  this  ideal  line, 
it  has  therefore  lieeii  observed  that  trellis  briilges  of  l.xige  span  are 
apt  to  settle;  and  once  bent,  they  lose  mueli  of  their  strength.  Mr. 
Town  jiroposed  several  ways  of  reiuedyiiig  this  inconvenience.  To 
increase  the  resistance  of  the  trellis,  it  may  be  doubled  on  each  side  of 
(he  bridge;  (his  .\lr.  Town  has  tried,  separ.iting  the  pieces  of  which 
it  is  composed,  so  tll.it  (he  horizontal  diagonal  of  the  lozenge  between 
four  adjacent  trusses  should  be  four  feet  six  inches,  iustearl  of  three 
feet,  'i'liis  increases  the  cost  of  (he  wood  of  each  side  of  the  bridge 
.'iO  per  cent.,  but  on  two-way  bridges  Mr.  Town  gets  rid  of  the  trellis 
work  which  he  used  to  place  between  the  two-ways,  the  quantity  of 
wood  remains  (he  same.  The  string  piece  may  be  slreulhened  by 
re]ieating  it  at  the  crossing  immediately  above  the  pieces  of  the  trellis. 
In  the  bridge  at  Richmond  these  two  methods  of  strengthening  the 
timbering  have  both  been  used.  By  laying  the  flooring  on  the  (op  of 
the  timbering,  and  by  having  open  bridges,  as  previously  observed,  a 
means  of  ]n-eveu(ing  the  settlement  is  obtained,  by  interior  braces. 
Besides  the  weight  of  the  roofing  is  got  rid  of,  whicli  is  of  little  good 
for  railways,  where  it  would  be  more  likely  to  catch  fire  from  sparks. 
This  danger  is  partiiailarly  to  be  feared  in  America,  where  wood  is 
burned  by  the  locomotives,  and  so  more  dangerous  sparks  are  produced 
than  from  coke. 

Trellis  bridges  are  of  the  greatest  use  in  the  United  States, because 
being  formed  of  thin  planking,  they  can  be  built  in  a  short  time.  Thus, 
for  instance,  the  viaduct  by  which  (he  Philadelphia  and  Norristown 
Railway  is  carried  over  the  Wissahiccon,  Ts  feet  above  tlie  bed  of  tlie 
stream,  and  -183  feet  long  in  three  spans,  was  built  in  (5S  days.  For 
the  same  reason  the  wood  required  for  the  trellis  work,  being  easily 
conveved,  costs  less,  in  many  cases,  than  that  required  by  any  other 
kind  of  wooden  bridge.  On  (he  Pottsville  and  .Siinbiiry  Railway,  in 
Pennsylvania,  the  wood  for  small  truss  bridges,  for  crossing  roads  is 
12  dollars  per  lOUU  feet  super  and  inch  thick,  which  is  equivalent  to 
two  loads  of  timber  in  England.  That  for  trellis  work  costs  only  S-4 
dollars. 

These  bridges  are  formed  of  pieces  all  exactly  on  (he  same  model 
and  of  (he  simplest  form,  so  (hat  all  the  trusses  for' (he  trellis  work  may 
be  easily  cut  with  exactness  by  ordinary  nieidianical  means,  and  the 
holes  Ijureil  for  receiving  (he  |)ins.  The  beams  not  being  a(  all  arched, 
but  flat,  it  follows  tli.it  the  jiiers  are  not  subject ed  to  the  later. il  thrust, 
to  which  they  are  exposed  in  other  bridges;  and  they  only  require  a 
thickness  necessary  (o  resist  the  vertical  pressure  represen(ed  by  the 
weight  of  the  bridge. 

Trellis  briilges  are  very  much  increasing  in  use  in  the  United  States  ; 
a  dozen  yi'ars  ago,  one  of  2200  feet  length  in  ten  spans  was  built  over 
the  Susquehannah,  at  Clarke's  Ferry,  near  Duncan's  Island,  just  above 
Harrisburg,  (he  capKal  of  Pennsylv.tnia.  One  of  1530  long  was  built 
over  (he  Hudson,  at  Troy,  in  the  State  of  Xew  Yiu'k,  for  (be  railway 
from  Troy  to  Ballston  Spa.  The  cliief  spans  are  180  feet.  It  is  divided 
into  two'  ways,  eacli  1.")  feet  wide,  anil  separated  by  an  additional 
(rellis.  It  is  made  with  the  flooring  at  the  bottom,  and  double  trellises 
at  eaidi  side.  In  1S35,  others  of  gre.it  span  existed  at  Xeubury  Port, 
Northampton  and  Springfield,  all  in  MassachusseUs,  at  Tusc.iloosa  in 
Alabama,  at  Providence,  &c.,  and  since  then  many  more  have  been 
built. 


126 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[April 


The  price  of  (lie'fiiiilwr  for  tlie  Troy  Bridge,  iiii'liuling  every  thing 
but  pninling,  is  lS-25  ilolUirs  per  foot.  The  |)iiMs  ;ire  of  fine  bhie 
limestone.  The  flooring  is  30  feet  above  low  water.  The  Tuscaloosa 
briilgi'  is  fonr  spans  of  220ft.  each  over  the  black  Warrior  River.  Tiie 
lieight  of  the  trellis  is  Kift.  anil  it  cost  (MUU/.  It  was  opened  in  De- 
cember 1^3-1;  ami  has  stood  well  ag;iinst  the  trallic  wbieli  has  passed 
o\n,  particularly  large  herds  of  cattle.  Anotiier  bridge  of  the  same 
conslrncticn  of  large  span  is  at  Nashua,  in  New  llampsliire,  thrown 
over  I  lie  Merriuack,  The  bridge  across  the  great  Conestogo  to  I'arry 
the  iMnladelphia  aiid  C'ulumbia  railway,  as  it  formerly  stood  was  1-U2 
feet  long,  and  in  nine  s]ians  of  1 JO  feet.  Its  breadlli  was  22  feet,  and 
the  flooring  rested  oii  the  string  piece.  Tliis  bridge  was  nuich  too 
weak,  Ihe  trains  could  run  but  slowly  on  if,  and  the  trusses  were  only  2 
inches  thick,  so  that  it  has  recently  been  obliged  to  be  rebuilt. 

Mr.  Kobinson  prefers  trellis  bridges,  and  the  many  railways  he  has 
constructed  to  those  of  any  other  construction,  and  has  introduced  con- 
siderable improvements  into  them.  That  atKichiiiond  is  the  most  re- 
markalile  which  he  has  built,  and  is  distinguished  as  a  first  rate  piece 
of  carpentry,  even  in  America  where  this  mode  of  construction  is  car- 
ried to  such  jierfecfion.  This  bridge  stands  without  the  town  of  Rich- 
mond,on  the  railway  from  that  town  to  I'etersbiirgh,  forming  part  of  the 
grand  line  from  nortli  to  south  thrmigb  New  York,  I'liiladi-ipbia,  Bal- 
timore, Washington,  Fredricksburgh,  Richmond,  I'etersburgh,  Raleigh, 
and  Charleston. 

Bridge  oveh  the  James  River  at  Richmo.nd  in  Virginia, 

United  States. 

This  bridge  was  commenced  in  December  1S3G,  and  finished  5th 
September  1838,  it  was  built  by  Mr.  Sandford,  nnder  the  directions  of 
Mr.  Robinson  the  engineer.  It  was  erected  a  little  below  the  magni- 
ficent cataract  of  the  James  River  at  Richmond,  where  the  rive*-  is 
very  broad,  but  not  very  deep  (lowing  over  the  bare  rock  which  forms 
an  excellent  foundation  for  the  piers.  The  banks  on  each  side  of  the 
river  are  very  steep,  which  rendered  it  necessary  to  erect  the  bridge 
at  a  great  height  above  the  water. 

The  bridge  is  2,841  feet  long  between  the  abutments,  and  contains 
10  openings,  wdiich  vary  in  their  sjians,  one  span  is  130  feet,  four  140 
feet,  four  laO  feet,  and  ten  153  feet  s])an  from  centre  to  centre  of  pier. 
The  superstructure  is  entirely  of  timber,  erected  on  the  top  of  piers 
built  of  solid  granite,  rough  scabbled  on  the  face,  and  with  rustic 
grooves  at  the  joints;  these  piers  are  only  7  feet  tj  inches  thick  by  21 
feet  long,  on  a  level  with  the  low  water-mark,  they  batter  all 
round  to  the  top,  which  is  4  feet  thick  by  IS  feet  long  on  the  plan; 
the  height  is  10  feet  above  low  water-mark,  and  to  the  top  of  the  rails 
is  20  feet  more,  making  a  total  height  of  GO  feet. 

Plate  VII,  fig.  1,  is  an  elevation  of  the  centre  arches  drawn  to  a  very 
small  scale. 

Fig.  2  is  an  enlarged  vievr  of  different  parts  of  the  elevation,  showing 
the  details  of  construction. 

Fig.  .3  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  carpentry. 

Fig.  4  is  a  horizontal  )ilan  of  the  carpentry,  one  part  exhibits  the 
rails  and  floor,  another  part  the  joists,  girders  and  wind  braces. 

Fig.  .1  is  a  hurizontil  plan  of  the  lower  girders  ami  wind  braces,  to- 
gether with  one  of  the  almtinenfs,  and  also  the  top  of  one  of  the  piers. 

The  carpentry  of  the  superstructure  consists  of  a  continuous  double 
trellis  work,  lait.  bin.  high  on  each  side,  and  running  from  one  end  of 
the  bridge  to  the  other,  with  a  triple  string  at  the  fo|)  and  bottom,  and 
another  above  the  lower  girders,  each  consists  of  two  3iii.  planks 
12  inches  deep.  The  trellis  work  is  formed  of  3in.  planks  1 1  iiichi's 
wide  crossing  each  other  and  pinned  together  witli  two  |iins  at  each 
crossing,  and  with  4  pins  at  to])  and  bottom  to  the  stringjiieces.  The 
whole  tliickness  of  the  trellis  work  including  the  string  jiieces  is  2ft. 
Oin.  and  the  width  between,  nnder  tlie  roadway,  is  12ft.  r>in  making  a 
total  width  of  17ft.  bin.  from  outside  to  outside  of  the  trellis  work. 

(^n  the  lower  string  jiieces  are  placed  transverse  girders  (tie  beams") 
)«,  )fl,  14  by  10  inches,  and  17ft.  (iiu.  long  and  IGft.  ajiart  from  centre 
to  centre;  on  the  top  of  the  trellis  work  are  placrMl  similar  girders 
g,  g,  22ft.  (iiii.  long;  the  extremities  of  which  are  notched  or  caulked 
down  to  the  top  of  the  trellis  work  ;  upon  the  girders  the  joists  are 
laid  longitudinally,  upon  which  is  the  flooring  of  planks  inclined 
from  the  centre  to  the  sides,  the  wdiole  breadth  of  the  top  of  the  bridge 
is  23ft,  4  in. 

U|)on  the  to))  of  the  floor  are  placed  tlie  rails,  r,  r,  for  two  lines,  they 
are  of  timber,  5  inclies  sijuare,  capped  with  an  iron  bar  2  indies  wide 
by  i  inch  thick,  and  for  the  the  security  of  the  trains,  each  rail  is  pro- 
vided with  a  guard  rail  of  a  similar  scantling,  the  guardrail  at  the 
bottinn  is  in  close  contact  with  the  rail,  but  at  the  top  there  is  a  spacp 
formed  for  the  wheel,  the  width  between  the  rails  is  ti  feet. 

Between  the  upper  and  lower  girders  are  fixed  horizontal  diagonal 
wind  braces,  1 1  whicli  arc  morticed  into  tlieni,  tlieve  are  also  vertical 


diagonal  braces,  between  the  top  and  bottom  girders,  which  render  the 
whoh'  of  the  bridge  very  stiff. 

On  the  top  of  each  ))ier  are  two  capping  stones  12  inches  thick  and 
Tl  feet  long  by  3  feet  (i  inches  wide,  which  project  over  the  ])ier  G 
inches,  on  these  stones  are  templates  of  timber  to  carry  the  trellis 
\vork. 

The  whole  quantity  of  iron  introduced  in  the  bridge  is  less  than  a 
ton  weiirht. 

The  following  table  of  scantlings  will  explain  together  with  the 
references  and  the  drawings,  the  general  construction  of  the  bridge. 


SCANT- 

DESCRICTION. 

QCANTITV. 

LINO   IN 
INCHES 

l!il)lianrl  for  liaml  lailiago'o' 

5,800  feet  rmi 

2x8 

Cap  ditto,  0  0 

5,800  ditto 

5x5 

Posts  ditto,  «•  se 

720  pieces  5  feet  long,  5x5 

and  5x8  mean 

5xCi 

Braces  ditto,  /'  /' 

1,440  <litto  8  feet  G  In.  fong 

2  <  5 

liiiard  rails,  p  v 

5,800  feet  run 

5x  8 

Ditto,  v'  o' 

5,800  ditto 

5x10 

Bearings  rails,  r  r 

5,800  ditto 

3x5 

Ditto,  »•'  /•' 

5,800  ditto 

5x5 

FlooriiiB;  planks,  t  I,  t'  I'  t' 

67,200  feet  super. 

2x12 

Flooring  joists,  h  u 

2,!)00  feet  run 

4x12 

Ditto,  h'  «' 

5,800  ditto 

4x101 

Ditto,  h  h 

5,800  ditto 

5x11} 

Ditto,  h'  h' 

5,800  ditto 

5x9 

Ditto,  y  x' 

5,500  ditto,  in  piecJi   7  feet  7 

inches  long 

7x7 

Top  girders,  (/  ;/ 

3f>0  pieces  221  feet  long 

10  X  14 

Top  lirares,  1 1 

720  ditto  15  ditto 

5x6 

Clinids  or  string  pieces,  c,  c', 

c";  //,  (/',  (/"  ;  c,  e',  e" 

2,850  ditto  36  ditto 

3x  12 

Lattices,  a  a,  a'  a' ;  b  b,  h'  b' 

5,700  ditto  21  J  ditto 

3x  11 

Vertical  fnaces,;;;) 

360  ditto  laj  ditto 

6x(i 

Bottom  girders,  ni  m 

180  ditto  17J  ditto 

10  X  14 

Bottom  f)races,  /*  n 

300  ditto  20  ditto 

5x8 

.Sniipurttimlicrs(f  em  plates);,- 

80  ditto  20  ditto 

18  X  18 

I'icics  to  nail   on  weather- 

boarding,  s'  s' 

5,800  feet  run 

3x6 

Weatlier-boavding,  «s 

95,000  feet  super. 

|xl2 

PRACTICAL  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  METHOD  OF  INDI- 
CATING THE  POWER  EXERTED  BY  STEAM-ENGINES 
IN  FACTORIES. 

Sir, — In  pursuance  of  this  subject,  perhaps  I  cannot  do  belter  than 
give  detailed  examples  of  cases  in  actual  practice,  as  more  likely  to 
be  of  interest  to  practical  men.  With  this  view  I  have  recently  been 
furnished  by  a  friend*  with  the  amiexed  diagrams  (Figs.  1  and  2), 


Fig.  1. 


11.0     12  8     12  C     12.';      12  3     12  0     ll-fi     10  8     97      75 
Avcra^;i'  1 1  28  lbs.  per  circular  inc-h. 


'  A   correspondent  of  your  Journal,  Mr.   Da\id  \V.  Boivman,  a  young 
engineer  of  great  promise,  now  on  his  way  to  South  America. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


127 


Fist.  2. 


4  9      4  5      4  2        4-0        3  8      3  6       34 
Average  3  08  lbs.  ]}ei:  circular  inch. 


3i       2  8 


tngi-ther  with  an  abridged  extract  from  a  report  of  an  liulic.itor  ex- 
periment made  by  him  on  one  of  Bonitun  and  Watt'.s  old  10  horse 
engines,  now  working  in  a  cotton  factory  in  Afancliester',  and  also 
including  some  remarks  thereon  vTllich  seem  pertinent  to  the  subject 
of  iriy  last  letter. 

i'his  engine  has  a  cylinder  31i  inches  diameter,  7  feet  siroke,  and 
a  speed  of  260  feet  a  iidnute.  The  diagrams  were  taken  by  Atac- 
naught's  Indicator,  the  scale  of  which  is  ^  of  an  inch  to  each  pound 
per  square  inch  of  pressure,  or,  which  is  the  same  thing,  -^78.54  of  a 
]ioniKl  per  circular  inch,  the  latter  is  the  scale  used,  as  it  greatly 
abridges  the  calculation.  Fig.  1  was  taken  when  tlie  whole  of  tile 
machinery  was  at  work  in  the  usual  way,  and  being  uieasiired,  it  gives 
an  average  for  the  gro.ss  pressure  of  11"_'S  It)s.  per  circular  inch. 
Fig.  2  was  taken  when  the  whole  of  the  machinery  was  thrown  ofT,  the 
load  of  the  engine  then  consisting  only  of  the  friction  of  the  shafts, 
gearing,  and  straps  running  on  the  loose  pulleys,  together  with  the 
power  required  to  work  the  engine  itself.  This  figure,  being  mea- 
sured, gives  an  average  pressure  of  3-98  Itjs.  per  circular  inch,  for  the 
friction  of  the  engine,  shafting,  &c.,  which,  deducted  from  the  gross 
pressure,  leaves  7-3  His.  per  circular  inch  for  the  net  effective  jjressure. 

The  velocity  of  the  piston,  260,  drawn  into  the  area  of  the  cylinder, 
3l-.=>-,  (=00-2'25  circular  inches,)  =257,985,  and  this  number,  divided 
by  33,0U0,  gives  7-S  horse  power,  for  each  ]iound  pressure  per  circular 
inch.  This,  again,  multiplied  by  the  nett  effective  pressure  as  above 
found  (7-3  fts.J  gives  nearly  57  for  the  "nett  effective  indicated  horse 
power"  then  exerted  by  the  engine. 

Tlie  following  remarks  are  extracted  from  Mr.  B.'s  report: — "The 
power  consumed  by  the  shafting  unloaded  seems  enormous,  but  as 
there  is  an  immense  cpiantity  of  it,  and  a  number  of  the  steps,  I  am 
told,  are  not  in  very  good  order,  and  tlie  straps,  too,  being  probablv 
very  tight,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  result  given  by  the  imlicator 
diagram  is  not  far  from  the  truth.  This  result,  which  is  usually  called 
acailabk power,  means  all  the  power  that  is  exerted  by  the  engine, 
exclusive  of  what  is  absorbed  by  the  engine,  shafts  and  straps;  but  it 
would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  all  this  available  power 
is  delivered  (so  to  speak)  at  the  machine  pulleys,  for  as  the  work  is 
put  on,  the  friction  is  increased  through  all  the  ramifications  of  the 
shafting,  and  the  amount  of  this  increase,  which  we  have  no  means  (jf 
ascertaining,  must  be  deducted  from  wliat  is  called  the  available 
power,  if  we  wisli  to  know  the  amount  of  power  consumed  by  tlie 
inachimry  alone.  It  is  a  good  practice,  however,  to  debit  the  ma- 
chinery, not  only  with  the  power  consumed  by  itself,  but  also  with  the 
])ower  required  to  overcome  the  increase  of  friction  along  the  shaft- 
ing, and  this  I  have  done,  calling  them  together  available  power.  It 
is  not  a  good  term,  and  another  wants  substituting  in  its  jjlace.  It  is 
manifest,  therefore,  that  a  great  quantity  of  shafting  shonid  be  avoided, 
both  on  account  of  the  power  lost  in  turning  the  shafting  itself,  but 
also  on  account  of  the  increased  increase  of  friction  when  loatled," 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  machiucry,  as  furnished  by  the  mana- 
ger of  the  works  : — ■ 

4  Pair  of  Nhiles,  648  spindles  each. 
1  Pair     ditto     1080         ditto 
8  Thjostles  180         ditto 

164  CaUco  Looms,  120  picks  a  minute. 
60  Double  Carding  Engines,  50  inches  cacb. 
3  Drawing  Frames,  14  rollers  each. 
6  Dyer's  Frames. 
1  Willow  and  Lap  Machine. 
Winding  and  M'aqnng. 

1  Mechanics  Shop  with  Lathes  and  Grindstone. 
63  Tape  Looms,  25  pieces  each, 

1 1  Braiding  Machines, 

2  Tape  Callenders. 


1  Winding  .Machine. 

2  Latlies  and  Grindstone. 

Besides  the  above,  there  is  a  9  inch  pump  28  feet  deep,  which  is  includcil 
ill  the  engine  and  .shafting  friction. 

The  remarks  of  Mr.  Bowman  bear  evidence  to  the  necessity  of  a 
nicer  distinction  in  the  technical  terms  used  re3|)ectiiig  the  power  of 
steam  engines  than  has  generally  been  admitted  bv  engineers,  and 
nhich  necessity  it  was  ])artly  the  object  of  my  last  letter  to  point  out. 
The  above  list  of  machinery  will  also,  I  hope,  be  useful  to  mechanical 
engineers  or  others,  who  take  an  interest  in  the  statistics  of  the  steam 
engine.  But  I  must  observe  that  this  engine  must  by  no  means  be 
taken  as  an  average  specimen  of  the  factory  engines  in  Manchester; 
for  as  regards  ecomuny  of  steam,  and  consequently  economy  of  fuel,  it 
is  considerably  below  that  average,  hidced,  I  believe  a  worse  case 
will  not  be  easily  found  in  any  regular  factory  in  Lancashire;  and  this 
is,  in  fact,  one  reason  why  I  have  selected  it,"  for  the  serious  conside- 
ration of  those  advocates  of  the  expansive  system  who  are  continually- 
boasting  that  the  engines  in  Cornwall  are  doing  five  or  six  hundred 
per  cent,  more  work  for  the  same  quantity  of  fuel  than  is  done  in  any 
other  part  of  the  kingdom  ;*  and  also  in  order  that  there  shall  be  no 
longer  any  mistake  in  this  matter.  Let  any  Cornish  or  other  engineer 
point  out  clearly,  how,  even  so  little  as  50  per  cent,  more  work  is  to  be 
done  by  the  steam  that  the  above  engine  uses,  or  a  saving  of  one  third 
of  the  fuel,  and  I  kuuw  the  owner  of  the  engine  will  be  very  much 
obliged  to  him.  1  can  firiii  many  factory  owners  that  would  be  very 
glad  to  save  even  10  per  cent,  in  fuel  at  the  ]n-esent  time,  in  addition, 
of  course,  to  the  orilinary  interest  of  money  for  the  capital  required  to 
be  expended  in  adopting  the  improvement. 

In  the  town  of  Manchester,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  getting  a  suHi- 
cieucy  of  cold  water,  the  steam-engines  are  generally  doing  a  much 
less  duty  th  in  iu  the  cottou-factory  district  surrounding  if,  where  it  is 
not  unconiinon  to  find  tliem  using  about  6  pounds  per  horse  per  liour 
on  the  effective,  or  9  lbs.  on  the  nett  effective  indicated  power.  The 
diagram  Fig.  3,  wliich  was  sometime  ago  given  me  by  my  friend  Mr. 

Fitr.  3. 


3    cA 


3 


*  In  a  Cornish  newspaper  now  before  me  (called  "  Lean's  Ivigine  Reporter 
and  Advertiser,")  lor  Novouiler,  1839,  is  inserted  an  extract  from  the  Athe- 
n.Tenm,  in  which  it  is  slated  "  that/cc  times  as  much  work  lias  been  done  by 
a  Cornish  steam-engine  as  hy  an  crcellent  l^nulton  and  Watt's  engine  on  Ihe 
common  system  ;  or  thai  Ihe  same  amount  of  work  is  done  willi  one  fifth 
part  of  the  expense  (if  fuel !  A  statement  almost  incredible,  yet  perfectly 
true."  It  is,  indeed,  '•  alni'ist  incredible  "  to  me,  that  the  respected  authors 
of  the  Monthly  lleports  shgulJ  allow  such  assertions  to  pass  withuitt  note  or 
comment. 


S  2 


l-js 


Tin-;  en  IL  KNC.TXEr.R  and  AUCHriECTS  .JOIUNAL. 


[April, 


William  lilsworlli,  of  I'leslui),  was  tiiUon  liy  liim  liom  m\  ciigiuo  be- 
longing lo  Messrs.  Ilonoiksi's,  Milli'r  ami  C'o.  uf  llial,  town,  working 
with  aliciiit  thai  rate  of  consuiniition.  Tliis  pngino  is  perliaps  a  lair 
av(MMg(^  of  (lio  bosi  rnginos  in  Lancashire,  or  such  a  one  as  niighl  with 
propriety  be  eom))arcil  to  the  average  of  those  in  Cornwall,  whose 
duty  is  reported,  in  any  (|nestion  relating  to  the  advantage  and  eco- 
nomy of  the  expansive  system.  I  do  not  know  the  particular  dimen- 
sions of  this  engine,  but  Mr.  10  informeil  me  that  it  was  then  working 
at  an  I'ft'eetive  indicated  power  of  above  15U  horses,  which  was 
about  double  its  nominal  power,  as,  indeed,  appears  evident  from  '.m 
inspection  of  the  figure,  which  is  measured  by  Macnaught's  scale  of 
-~;  of  an  ineli  for  each  fb.  pressure  per  sr^uare  inch,  the  vacuum  ave- 
raging 1 1-99,  and  the  steam  U-80,  making  a  total  gross  pressure  of 
nearly  111  lbs.  jier  square  inch.  The  temperature  of  the  i:old  con- 
densing water  was  7b',  and  that  of  the  hot  well  was  1 1,"3 ',  at  ihe  time 
of  the  experiment. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

R.  AnMSTKOiNti. 

Maiickskr,  lil/i  Marc/i,  1840. 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  BIRiMINGHAM, 

With  .\.v  E.ngravinu  Plate  ix. 

CFrom  a  Correspondent.) 

Among  many  improvements  which  have  lately  taken  place  with 
reference  to  the  public  buildings  of  the  town  of  Birniingham,  are  its 
magniticcntRoniati  temple  as  a  town  hall,  the  grammer  school,  a  splen- 
did building  in  the  Gothic  style,  the  new  churclies,  ca])acions  market 
hall,  railway  stations,  and  several  banking  houses,  all  possessing  ar- 
chitectural endiellishments  of  no  mean  character,  to  these  we  may  add 
Warwick  jiouse,  the  Ilrajjcry  and  Furnishing  establishmeni  of  Mr.  W. 
Holliday,  pist  on  the  eve  of  completion,  U-iim  the  designs  of  Mr.  \V. 
Tliomas,/\rchite(  t.  Thisbuihlirgfrom  its  ceutralsituatioiiinNcw-strect 
its  height,  its  extent  of  frontage,  beauty  of  design  and  richness  of  de- 
tail may  be  justly  <'iititlcd  one  of  the  omamenis  of  th.il  improving 
town. 

The  annexed  view  is  a  perspective  representation  of  the  front  as  seen 
from  the  opjiosite  side  of  the  street.  The  design  is  in  a  style  more 
than  usually  hixnriant,  and  the  building  occupies  a  fruntage  of  54l't 
(jiii.  in  width  ami  .■'■"It  in  height;  the  whole  pile  covering  an  area  of 
.'<, 777ft.  By  reference  to  Ihe  engraving  it  wiil  be  seen  that  llic  shop 
front  is  divided  into  three  compartments,  bv  rusticated  and  einpan- 
nelled  ellongated  Doric  pedestals  or  pilasters  of  stone  supporting 
cou|)led  lions  on  each,  the  si/e  of  life;  tliey  carry  the  enricheil  entab- 
lature of  the  shop  fnmt,  the  part  over  the  lions  breaks  forward  and 
is  likewise  in  stone  with  enriched  modillions.  The  saslies  are  of 
massive  brass,  gla/.^d  with  plate  glass,  the  s<piares  are  in  one 
lieighl  in  single  ])lates,  the  dimensions  of  wliich  in  the  centre  division 
are  1 1ft.  2in.  by  lift.  'Jin.  and  to  the  side  division  lift.  -Jin.  The  uji- 
per  part  of  the  building  above  Hie  sliop  front  is  also  divided  into  three 
divisions  consisting  6f  a  centre  and  two  wings,  :it  the  angles  of  the 
latter  are  aiit;r  or  tinted  pilasters,  and  in  the  centre  division  are  two 
three  quarter  llulcd  columns  of  the  composite  order,  the  lieight  of  two 
stories,  (the  example  from  the  baths  of  Diocletian  at  Rome,)  sup- 
porting an  enriidied  entablature.  Above  is  a  very  richly  decorated 
attic  with  enrii'hed  panelled  pilasters  semi  circular  headed  windovis, 
ornamented  with  carved  masks,  and  shells,  the  whole  surniounled 
by  an  open  scroll  |)ara|)et  over  Ihe  wings,  and  carved  panels  in  relief, 
representing  foliated  (irillins,  masks,  ami  foliage  in  the  centre,  with 
pedestals  and  acroteria.  The  interior  of  the  building  is  tilted  up  with 
ii  corresponding  degree  of  richness.  It  is  10  J  feet  in  depth  and  di- 
vided into  three  sho])s,  the  centre  is  the  principal  department,  titted 
up  in  a  splendid  manner.  It  is  divided  into  compartments  by  marbled 
Corinthian  columns  and  pilasters  supporting  enriched  entablature  and 
ceiling,  at  the  extreme  end  there  are  similar  columns  and  pilasters 
witbacentie  plate  of  looking  glass,  10ft.  lin.  high  by  3ft.  (.in.  To 
the  left  is  the  furnishing  dejurtment  and  to  the  right  is  the  French 
de|)artiuent,  connected  withwliieh  is  a  cloak  room  furnished  with  a 
looking  glass,  Sft.  by  (d't.  and  a  painted  glass  window  Oft.  ."Jin.  by  Sft. 
representing  Traile,  ('(.mmcree,  &c.  The  fixtures  are  of  riga  oak. 
The  back  jjartof  the  binldingis  lighted  bylantherns,  glazed  with  plate, 
glass,  the  bisemiMil  isoccupieil  uiUi  war '('ouscs,  and  in  the  n|iper  jiart 
of  the  building  are  the  dwellings  for  llf  proprietor  and  tlic  numerous 
establishment. 


THE  PATENT  WATER  ELEVATOR. 

Sii; — 1  had  a  few  ilays  since  an  opportunity  of  examining  a  model  of 
Hall's  Patent  Water  Eli'vator,  which  appears  calculated  to  overcome  any 
dillicully  in  raising  water  to  any  recpiired  height  at  a  very  trifling  cost ; 
with  the  prin<-iple  (d'  it  you  are  no  doubt  well  acquainted,  and  1  should 
not  have  troubled  you  iviththis  letter  but  for  a  remark  which  a  friend 
made  on  my  naming  the  machine  to  biin,  he  inmiediately  recollected 
having  seen  some  years  since  at  Windsor  Castle  (as  far  as  his  mi'inory 
serves  liim)  what  was  then  called  "the  Rope  Pnmp,"  the  only  dilfer- 
ence being  that  atWindsor  a  rope  was  used  inste.id  of  a  strap,  from  this 
it  will  ap|)ear  that  Mr.  Hall  is  not  entitled  to  any  credit  as  an  inventor, 
but  merely  for  bringing  before  the  public  that  w  liich  was  probably  only 
known  to  few  individuals — In  such  a  case  is  Mr.  Hall's  patent  good  ? 
(  h  can  any  one  use  the  rope  without  infringing  on  his  patent  '. 

I  am,  Mr.  Editor, 

Your  faithful  Friend, 

An  Ourhnal  Subscriber. 
Leeds,  March,  18,  1840. 

:^*,^  We  are  decidedly  of  opinion  that  the  use  of  the  rope  would 
not  be  an  infringement  of  the  |iafent.  We  are  not  very  favorable  to 
either  the  belt  or  the  rope,  as  an  economical  mode  of  raising  water. 
Editor. 


DR.  LARDNER'S  LECTURES  ON  RAILWAYS. 

Sir — No  doubt  many  of  your  readers  have  heard  of  the  Lectures 
lately  delivered  at  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  by  Dr.  Lardner,  "on  the 
resistance  to  railway  trains,  the  eflects  of  gradients,  and  the  general 
economy  of  steam  jiower," — he  might  have  added  a  detailed  statement 
of  the  proibiind  ignorance  of  engineers  on  these  []oints.  Among  other 
subjects  he  ii  Iroduced  lliat  of  coniial  wheels,  and  endeavoured  to  show 
that  all  engineers  had  fallen  into  an  egregious  error  in  supposing  that 
the  cone  was  of  any  service  in  enabling  a  carriage  to  move  in  a  curve- 
linear  direction,  he  said  "ne^er  was  there  a  more  consuimnate  me- 
chanical bbuider,  the  cone  couUl  do  literary  nothing;  for  they  had  left 
out  of  view  Ihe  fact  that  the  parallelism  of  the  axles  was  preserved, 
and  until  they  cease  to  Le  parallel  the  cone  could  do  nothing.  If  a 
model  carriage  were  constructed,  with  the  wheels  on  one  side  small 
and  on  the  other  large,  and  the  axles  parallel,  that  carriage  w'ould  not 
make  so  great  a  mechanical  bhmder  as  the  engineers  had  done,  iS:c." 

Now,  with  all  due  deference,  I  must  beg  to  dissent  from  the  Doctor 
in  his  practical  deductions;  and  [shall  endeavour  to  show  that  the 
cone  is  practically  the  instrument  by  which  carriages  traverse  curves. 
We  know  that  if  two  wheels  of  unequal  diameters  be  placed  upon  an 
axle  and  maile  to  revolve,  that  the  whole  will  describe  a  circle  having 
for  its  centre  lli.it  point  where  two  lines  drawn  through  the  extremities 
of  the  diameters  of  the  two  wheels  intersect  thus. 


r  is  the  centre  round  uhich  the  pair  of  wheels  n  and  //  would  revolve; 
and  if  there  be  another  pair  of  wheels  having  the  same  relative  pro- 
portions and  their  axle  pointing  to  the  same  centre,  and  suppose  these 
two  pair  of  wheels  to  be  connected  by  means  of  a  carriage  body,  wliicli 
would  only  slightly  interfere  with  the  conveyance  of  the  axle,  it  is 
evident  that  the  tendency  of  the  wheels  to  move  in  the  curve  would 
exercise  a  force  to  preserve  the  comlition  necessaiyto  do  so;  now  my 
own  inq)ressi<'us  have  aUvavs  been  that  the  tangential  motion  of  the 
carriage  would  at  first  bring  the  outer  wheel  upon  a  diameter  so  much 
greater  than  the  inner  one,  that  its  greater  progression  would  exert  a 
force  sullii'ient  to  cause  a  deviation  from  parallelism  in  the  axle  which 
would  suit  the  curve,  the  outer  wheel  will  notslip  unless  tjie  resistance 
to  the  axle  assuming  a  convergence  suitable  to  the  curve,  be  about  a  i 
of  Ihe  insistent  weight,  which  calling  the  weight  of  the  carriage  .")  tons 
would  be  -"^'"—Tii  ,11).  on  each  journal  lu-  wheel.     The  curves  used  on 


¥ 


t^ 


18-R).] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


120 


iipcted  to  tlie  body  of  the  caniage  by  means  of  springs,  and  kept  in  their 
places  by  guide  plates,  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  for  the  tondoncc  to  move 
in  a  curve  to  exert  a  force  sufficient  to  alter  the  position  of  each  journal, 
■^'^y-i^:^-^  of  an  inch,  in  oriler  to  pass  round  a  curve  a  mile  radius 
solely  by  the  influence  of  the  cone,  a  quantity  so  small  that  the  Doctor 
will  find  great  difficulty  in  |)ersuading  practical  men  that  it  is  " impoi- 
stblt"  such  a  deviation  can  take  place,  more  especially  as  we  see  a 
force  equal  to  TOUlbs  e,ndeavou.iiug  to  produce  it. 

In'^uiker. 


VERTICAL  WATER-WHEEL. 

Fig.  1. — Elevation. 


The  accompanying  engravings  represent  a  vertical  water-wheel, 
upon  the  principle  of  Barker's  mill,  which  I  erected  at  the  iron- 
works of  the  United  Mexican  Mining  Association  at  Durango,  in 
Mexico,  in  1832,  for  the  purpose  of  driving  a  circular  saw  ;  it  was 
desirable  to  produce  a  rapid  movement  witliout  the  intervention  of 
gearing,  and  this  not  being  possible  by  means  of  the  breast  wheel, 
which  was,  besides,  fully  loaded  with  the  blast  machinery,  it  occurred 


to  me  to  avail  myself  of  Barker's  mill ;  I  first  formed  a  rough  working 
model,  upon  the  usual  construction,  but  found  the  action  of  it  so  very 
feeble,  that  I  surrounded  the  arms  with  boards,  in  order  that  the 
flowing  water  might  impinge  against  them;  this  arrangement  quad- 
rupled the  velocity  of  (he  machine :  I  then  added  the  upper  part, 
which  was  a  still  further  improvement.  The  height  of  fall  was  about 
S  feet,  the  bore  of  the  pipe  about  12  inches,  the  length  of  the  legs 
about  30  inches  from  the  centre,  tlie  size  of  the  orifices  about  0x2=: 
12  square  inches,  the  velocity  4U  revolutions  a  minute  ;  by  the  period 
it  was  completed  and  set  to  work,  the  works  were  suspended,  so  that 
nothing  further  was  done  with  it;  I  had  an  ulterior  object  in  view  in 
constructing  this  machine,  viz.  to  devise  some  simple  and  efficient 
means  of  working  the  "tahonas,"  or  grinding  mills  used  in  the  reducf- 
tion  of  the  silver  ore  in  the  mining  districts;  this  wheel  would  have 
been  in  these  cases  invaluable,  as  it  was  formed  entirely  of  timber, 
excepting  the  step  or  shaft,  and  tlie  few  bolts  and  hoops  with  which 
the  tube  and  legs  were  bound  together;  it  would  never  have  got  out 
of  order,  and  could  not  have  been  broken  by  any,  but  a  wilhd  accident ; 
any  country  carpenter  could  make  it.  and  keep  it  going,  and  it  required 
noheavy  or  large  timber  in  its  construction,  for  it  can  be  supported 
as  well  by  a  wall,  as  the  timber  framing  shown  in  the  drawing. 

Figure  1  is  an  elevation,  the  wheel  and  water-course  shown  in  sec- 
tion. Fig.  2,  a  plan  of  the  upper  wfieel,  and  Fig.  3,  a  plan  partly 
shown  in  section  of  the  legs  and  tube. 

The  same  letters  refer  to  each  figure,  so  far  as  the  parts  are  shown 
in  each.  A  is  the  vertical  pipe,  mounted  on  the  box  B,  forming  the 
legs,  the  water  issues  from  each  extremity,  and  im}iinges  with  great 
force  against  the  fixed  floats  ;(,  ii,  &c.,  of  the  fixed  tub  c,  and  ulti- 
mately escapes  through  the  holes  o  cut  in  the  bottom  of  the  tub. 
Upon  the  upper  end  of  the  pipe  a  cross  frame  is  fixed,  which  carries 
the  horizontal  or  upper  wheel,  which  has  furnished  all  round  its  in- 

Fig.  2.— Plan  of  Upper  'Wheel. 


Fig.  3.— Plan  partly  shoHn  in  section. 


terior  circumference  vertical  float-boards  )•,  and  horizontal  floats  n, 
which  form  cells,  the  water  escaping  into  the  tube  through  radiating 
openings  left  in  the  bottom  as  shown,  thus  advantage  is  taken  of  the 
momentum  of  the  water  rushing  into  the  wheel.  E  is  the  vertical 
shaft,  upon  which  the  crown  wheel  G  is  hung,  working  the  pinion  L, 
which  conveys  the  motion  of  the  wheel,  through  the  medium  of  its 
shaft,  to  the  mill ;  J  is  the  water  and  water  channel,  I  the  sUdce,  K 
the  pinion  to  lift  the  sluice,  H  the  framing  by  which  the  wdieel  is 
supported  ;  the  movement  of  the  wheel  is  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrows  shown  in  Fig.  2,  and  the  reverse  of  those  shown  in  Fig.  3. 


15,  Stamford  Stmt. 


W.  J.  CURTIS. 


130 


TFIE  CIVIL  lilNGINl^ER  AND   ARCHITECTS  JOUUN  \L. 


[April  , 


COxMPETITION  DESIGNS. 

Sir — Olisciviiig  ill  your  Journal  of  this  uioHtli,  a  communication  from  Air. 
Wvatt,  which  contains  a  corrcsponilcncc  hctwecn  Messrs.  Wyalt  ami  llrandon 
niid  tlie  Coiujiiittcc  fur  liuildinj;  the  proposcil  NowClmrcli  at  t'anlilT,  wljcrcin 
my  name  is  frefjuently  introitucctl,  I  fcjl  called  upon  in  justice  In  ni)'  ttwn 
jirofessioiial  character,  to  otter  the  folU)wiiig  explanation,  hy  which  I  think 
.Messrs.  W.  and  IS.  will  lie  induced  to  view  the  circimibtaucc  in  a  ditlercnt 
liglit  to  tlial  in  which  tliey  now  regaril  it. 

Tlie  tirst  fact  wliich  1  siudl  allude  to,  in  order  to  remove  any  imi)ression 
tliat  may  exist,  as  to  my  plan  having  Ijcen  selected  from  personal  preference, 
is,  that  I  was  an  entire  stranger  to  every  one  of  the  committee  until  after 
tlie  adoption  of  my  ilesign  had  heen  determined  on.  Upon  my  cntparing 
(which  1  did  at  my  first  interview),  how  it  was  tliat  the  premiuLu  had  h;en 
awarded  to  another,  when  my  plan  was  considereil  tlic  hcst,  (  was  informcil 
that  tiic  coMitnittee,  an\iuns  to  do  all  in  tlieir  jtower  to  insni'e  justice  to  tiic 
several  parties  who  had  intrusted  them  with  their  designs,  liad  submitteil  the 
several  plans  to  two  genllemen  in  London,  cmiuenl  iu.thcir  profession,  and 
that  they  liad  slrongiy  riconuuended  tlie  adoption  of  my  design,  hut  con- 
sidered i  was  not  entitled  to  the  premium,  through  not  having,  as  /Ari/ 
//ini'g/i/,  acted  in  strict  compliance  with  that  ]i(M'tion  .of  the  advertisement 
which  directed  that  the  principal  front  should  face  Uutc-street :  and  they 
coniluded  that  this  could  not  have  been  my  intention,  because  the  altar 
would  not  in  that  ease  have  been  at  the  east  end  of  the  church. 

Ill  this  respect  however  my  intentions  were  misunderstood,  in  conseipience 
of  my  East  lilcvalion  having  been  described  "  frincijial  Front,"  instead  of 
Front  facing  Hiite-street,  and  in  thus  deviating  from  the  usual  custom  of 
placing  the  Altar  at  the  ICast-cnd,  I  i-onsith^red  I  Iiad  sutHcient  precedent  in 
the  many  t'huiches  reeciitly  erected  in  which  the  Altar  is  not  so  placed. 

Had  this  explanation  taken  place  before  the  jiremiums  had  heen  awarded, 
Messrs.  W.  and  I!,  would  have  been  spared  the  uii|ileasaut  correspondence 
they  have  had  with  the  Committee  on  the  subjix't,  as  1  shoiikl  in  that  case 
have  received  tlie  premium,  as  well  as  the  ajipointment  of  .\rchitect  to  the 
Church. 

Your  insertion  of  this  in  your  next  Journal  will  oblige,  Sir, 
Your  oliedient  Servant, 

Thomas  Foster. 

4,  Park-street,  Ilrislol,  Feb.  17,  IS  10. 

*j*  This  communication  ought  to  have  appeared  in  the  last  month's 
Journal,  but  it  was  accidentally  omitted. — Eunoxi. 


REVIEWS. 


On  the  Vse  of  the  fiiijiroiml  Pujiier  Muc/ic  in  Furni/ure,  in  the  Interior 
Decoration  of  Jliiililini/s,  ami  in  li'orku  oji.lrt.  ify  Charles  Frederick  liicle- 
field. 

This  is  not,  as  our  readers  might  think,  an  exclusive  catalogue  of  Mr. 
Hielericld's  wc^l  known  productions,  but  a  large  work  containing  engravings 
of  .above  IJttO  approved  ornaments  used  by  architects,  so  as  not  only  to  be 
available  for  its  special  purjiose,  but  useful  to  all  members  of  the  jirofession. 
As  a  work  of  reference  or  ornament  this  possesses  the  advantage  that  any 
design  the  architect  may  select,  can  be  obtained  at  the  shortest  notice,  while 
of  these  given  in  other  works  it  generally  hajipens  that  they  cannot  be  ob- 
tained except  at  great  cost  for  making  models,  Ac.  The  architect  can  from 
these  engravings  select  and  combine  a  great  variety  of  valuable  speci-mens  in 
every  class  of  ornament. 

I'rcfixcd  to  the  engravings  is  a  history  of  the  uiamifacture,  to  which  we 
shall  have  occasion  to  refer  in  our  next  number. 

Geometrical  Propositions  Demomtrnfcrl,  or  a  Supplement  to  Euclid,  being 
a  Keij  to  tlie  £j;ercines  appended  to  Euclid's  Elements.  By  W.  D.  C'oolkY) 
A  H.     London  :  WhittaKcr  and  Co.,  .'\ve  Maria  I.anc,  18-10. 

The  present  is  scarcely  a  supplement  to  the  able  edition  of  Eiiehd  by  Mr. 
Coolcy,  but  a  distinct  work,  intended  to  impress  on  the  public  the  true  value 
of  geometry — its  excellence  as  a  metiioil  of  reasoning  and  training  the  mind. 
The  author  well  observes,  that  merely  to  read  Euclid  is  not  to  become  a  ma- 
thematician, nor  to  attain  all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  fr(nu  geometrical 
studies,  that  we  must  not  stop  short,  but  <'arry  out  the  nn  thods  of  reasoning 
of  which  examples  arc  atl'ordedto  us  by  that  \aliiable  work. 

Vnide   to    Ornamental   Drawing   and   JJesif/n.     Ijy   J.    Page.     London 
Bcrgcr,  1810,  Parts  1  and  2. 

This  work  is  one  of  the  best  and  cheapest  whidi  has  been  written  on  the 
subject,  and  from  the  jicu  and  pencil  of  a  practical  man,  who  lias  had  the 
advantage  of  being  able  to  sec  his  instrmtions  carried  into  effect  under  his 
own  inspection,  as  Director  of  the  Class  of  Ornauicntal  Drawing,  in  the 
School  of  Design,  at  Saville  House.  If  it  were  any  recommendation  to  the 
work  it  might  be  mentioned  that  the  illustratious  procccU  from  the  gra^cr  as 
well  a;  from  tlie  pcucU  of  Mr,  Page. 


T/ie  Yearliooi  oj"  facts  in  Science  and  Art.     Ily  the  Editor  of  the  Areant 

of  Science.     London:  Tilt,  IH 10. 

We  are  too  large  contributors  from  our  own  columns  to  this  valuable  re- 
cord of  the  progress  of  science  to  view  its  improvement  and  success  with  any 
other  feeling  than  that  of  congratulation.  We  sincerely  recommend  this 
work  to  our  readers  as  one  of  the  best  condensations  of  valuable  facts  iu 
science  and  art. 

ClaoertoH  Inn. 

This  is  an  engraving  of  a  building,  built  by  Ccorge  Vivian,  Esq.  on  hi* 
property  near  Bath.  It  is  in  theltaUan  Villa  style,  and  though  not  quite  pure 
is  a  most  interesting  editice.  The  outline  is  worked  siitbciently  without  be- 
ing frrttered  up,  and  has  a  most  picturesque  cft'ect  in  harmony  with  the  sur- 
rounding scenery.     It  is  a  good  study. 

Specimens  nf  H'oinl  Enyravini/s.     by  Tho.m.\s  Gii.ks. 
Pleasing  examples  of  this  interesting  art,  an  1  creditable  to  the  talents  of 
the  engraver. 


LITE  U AIIY  INTELI,Ri  EN  C  E. 

A  leiv  pubheation  by  Schinkel,  entitled  Werke  der  llaukhunst,  is  about  to 
appear  in  parts,  at  intervals  of  four  months  from  each  other,  and  will  be  more 
clabor.ately  executed  than  his  Rntwurfc,  as  some  of  the  plates  will  be  printed 
in  colours.  Among  the  siibjci-ts  promised  are  the  designs  for  king  Otho's  pa- 
lace, on  the  Acropidis  at  .Athens,  which  though  not  adopted, — the  buihiing 
now  erecting  being  from  one  by  Gartnor,  of  Munieh,  may  be  expected  to 
prove  of  no  ordinary  interest,  some  p.irts  of  the  interior  having  been  spoken 
of  as  exceedingly  striking,  both  for  their  originality  and  for  their  extraordinary 
richness,  in  regard  to  gilding  and  coloiuiag.  This  subject  will  be  illustrated 
by  twelve  plates,  some  of  which  will  probably  contain  two  or  three  drawings. 
Another  subject  mentioned  in  the  prospectus  is  ]irince  Albert  of  Prussia's 
palace,  or  villa  of  Cauicnz  in  Silesia.  Tiic  size  of  the  plates  will  be  2ti  inches 
by  1,').  Another  licrman  work  aiinuiiiifcd  for  puhlicatiou  is  Ehrenburgh's 
Ban  Lexicon,  or  Dictionary  of  .Vrchiteelural  terms,  &e.,  of  which  we  shall 
be  able  to  speak  moie  at  length  in  a  short  time. 


SIR  JEFFKY  WYATVILLE,  R.A. 


Thk  subjoined  memoir  we  have  derived  from  Fisher's  National  Portrait 
(lallcry,  the  Ijitcrary  World,  Art  Tniou,  Athena;iim,  &e. 

Sill  Jei-fry  Wy.^tvillk,  Knight  of  the  Saxou  Ernestine  Order,  U.A., 
F.K.S.,  and  F.S.A.,  was  the  son  of  Josejib  Wyatt,  an  architect,  resident  at 
Biirton-upon  Trent,  iu  the  couuty  of  Stafford,  where  be  was  born  on  the  3rd 
of  August,  1700.  His  father  was  considered  clever,  but  indolent,  and,  there- 
fore, atlbrded  but  a  poor  example  for  a  boy  of  enthusiastic  and  enterprising 
spirit,  such  as  young  Jctfry  soon  proved  himself  to  jiossess.  He  received 
the  common  rudiments  of  education  at  the  free-school  of  his  native  jdaee ; 
and  his  early  passion  was  for  the  sea.  During  this  time,  he  was  once  "  rig- 
ged out  "  for  a  voyage  with  Admiial  KcmpcnfckU,  on  board  the  Umjal 
Georije,  but  was  fortunately  prevented  from  joining  that  noble  shiji,  which 
was  afterwards  lost  at  Spithcad.  Home,  however,  became  not  only  irksome, 
but  painful,  to  him,  from  the  im]novidence  of  his  father;  and,  in  17S3,  he 
made  a  third  and  siiccesful  attempt  to  fly  from  both,  ami  seek  his  fortune  in 
the  metropolis ;  but  could  not  obtain  any  engagement  in  the  naval  service, 
as  the  .\mcriean  war  had  then  ceased. 

Upon  young  Jeffry's  arrival  in  Loudon,  he  found  a  friend  and  protector  in 
Samuel  Wyatt.  his  father's  brother,  then  an  architect  and  biulder  of  re]iute  ; 
with  whom  JeflVy  continued  more  than  seven  years,  and  thus  acquired  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  ordinary  ofhce  business,  and  of  practical  coii- 
stnictioii.  Mr.  S.  Wyatt  was  extensively  emjiloyed,  both  in  London  and  at 
the  seats  of  many  noblemen  and  gcntlenicn  in  the  country,  namely,  at  Eaton 
Hall,  Tatton  Hall,  the  Trinity  House,  London,  I've.,  all  of  which  were  exi?- 
eiited  from  his  designs ;  and,  consequently,  afforded  his  nephew  o]>portiiiii- 
tics  of  witnessing  all  the  processes  of  designing,  estimating,  and  executing, 
buildings  of  various  kinds.  In  the  hope  of  aripiiring  further  inofcssional 
knowledge,  and  parfieidarly  with  a  view  of  cultivating  that  essential  requisite 
in  art,  taste,  young  Wyatt  sought  these  advantages  in  the  ollices  of  another 
uiiclc,  Mr.  James  Wyatt,  who  had  attained  a  higher  station  on  the  ladder  of 
fame  tli.an  his  brother.  He  had  passed  some  ye.ars  of  architectural  study  in 
Italy,  and,  while  yet  a  minor,  he  ilesigued  and  built  "  the  Pantheon,"  in 
Oxford-street,  and  was  introduced  to  the  appointment  of  Siineyor-Cencral 
of  his  i\Iajesty's  works,  his  first  labours  being  various  alter.ations  and  addi- 
tions at  Windsor  Castle,  at  the  suggestion  of  King  (ieorge  III.  In  the  olhcc 
of  ,Mr.  James  Wyatt,  his  nephew  served  a  second  term  of  apprenticeship; 
and,  besides  improvement  in  jirartice,  thus  obtained  numerous  iutrodiictioiis 
to  influential  jicrsons,  among  whom  was  the  Prince  of  Wales,  who  honoiiied 
liim  with  personal  notice  up  to  I7'.)9.  In  this  year,  Mr.  Jetl'ry  Wyatt  joined 
in  business  an  eminent  builder,  who  hail  extensive  government  .ind  other 
contracts.  In  this  prolitable  concern  he  continued  till  182!  :  when,  after  an 
absence  of  twenty-five  years  from  lloyal  i;dcrcourse,  he  unexpectedly  received 
from  King  George  IV.  instrnetions  respecting  designs  for  the  restoration  of 
Windsor  Castle. 

The  union  of  the  tradesman  with  the  architccf  was  deemed,  by  the  Boyal 
.Vcademicians,  a  sufficient  bar  to  the  .ailvaiiccment  of  .Mr.  Jell'iy  Wyatt  to  bo 

one  of  their  societ)- ;  aucl  lie  was  allowed  to  coiitiuue  as  a  camlidate  for 


18-10] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


131 


twenty  years,  before  he  was  admitted  a  member.  During  this  jieiioil,  he 
made  many  designs  for  public  and  private  buildings,  wlucli  were  erected  in 
diftcrent  parts  of  the  tdngdoni,  some  of  which  manifested  architectural  talents 
of  a  high  oriler.  He  was,  at  length,  elected  an  associate,  and  speedily  after- 
wards, one  of  the  Koyal  Academicians.  Among  various  designs  whieh  he 
liad  exhibiled  at  that  nursery  of  tlic  arts,  was  one  called  "  I'riam's  Palace," 
which  attracted  much  admiration  during  the  exhibition.  This,  and  his  other 
architectural  drawings,  and  executed  buildiugs,  are  ample  evidences  of  his 
love  of,  atul  devotion  to,  bis  profession. 

One  of  the  tirst  acts  of  the  new  Parliament,  after  the  accession  of  George 
IV..  was  the  projection  of  great  alteraliuriS  and  improvements. in  the  niagnili- 
cent  castle-palaee  at  Windsor.  For  this  purpose,  it  was  agreed  that  the  three 
attached  architects  to  the  linard  of  Works,  Messrs.  Soaiie,  Nasli,  and  .Srairke, 
with  Mr.  Jeffry  Wyatt,  should  be  direited  to  make  jdans,  drawings,  and  esti- 
mates. The  sum  of  .-f300,00(l  harl  been  voted  by  Parliament  towards  the 
expenses  of  these  improvements,  and  a  commission  of  eight  noblemen  ami 
gentlemen,  mend)ers  of  the  adiuinisiration  and  of  the  opposition,  were  ap- 
pointed to  arlvise  as  to  the  works  and  expenditure  of  the  money.  Among 
these  "  Commissioners  "  were  the  Earl  of  i\.berdecii.  President  of  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries,  and  Sir  Charles  Long,  (subacrpiently  l*ord  Farnborough,)  a 
distinguished  Fellow  of  that  cidightencd  institution  :  both  men  qf  relincd 
taste  in  tlie  higher  dei)artmcnts  of  art.  In  May,  1821,  the  respective  archi- 
tects above  named  (with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Soane,)  submitted  their  draw- 
ings to  the  t'ommissioners,  when  the  designs  of  Mr.  Jctfry  Wyatt  were  ap- 
proved of,  atid  accepted.  The  Commissioners  next  visited  Windsor;  the 
plan  of  operations  was  settled,  and,  on  the  12th  of  .\ngust,  1821,  the  birth- 
day of  George  IV.,  the  first  stone  was  laid  by  the  King,  it  being  part  of  tlie 
foundation  of  the  new  g.iteway  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Great  Quadrangle, 
and  tlieiicefortli  named  George  the  Foiu-th's  Gateway.  On  this  occasion,  the 
arelutect  received  the  royal  autborily  for  changing  his  name  to  Wyattville; 
not  merely  as  a  personal  compliment,  but  for  the  jmrpose  of  distinguishing 
and  separating  the  Wyatt  of  that  reign  from  bis'  nncle,  Mr.  James  Wyatt, 
whose  share  in  the  architectural  works  at  Windsor,  during  the  reign  of 
George  III.,  has  already  been  mentioned.  Furthermore,  George  W.  sug- 
gested and  conferred  the  additional  armorial  quartering  to  the  architect's 
family  anus,  of  a  view  of  George  the  Fourth's  Gateway,  with  the  word  ll'ind- 
s(i'i\  as  a  motto. 

^\'ithout  the  aid  of  plans  and  \iews  of  the  buildings,  it  is  impossible  to 
■  convey  to  the  reader  any  clear  idea  of  Windsor  Castle  at  flie  time  that  Mr. 
Wyatville  commenced  his  improvements,  in  1824,  and  at  tlie  period  of  their 
recent  comiilction.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  mention,  that  the  alterations  and 
additions  made  in  the  Castle  buildings,  from  tlic  commencement  of  the  Tudor 
dynasty  (o  the  year  1821,  were  riot  only  iubarmonious  with  the  castellate<l 
cliaracter  of  the  older  works,  but  were  generally  tasteless  in  design, and  shght 
and  bad  in  execution.  Hence  the  whole  of  the  latter  class  were  taken  down, 
when  the  whole  of  the  main  timbers  were  found  to  be  decayed.  New  floors 
and  ceilings,  witli  new  partition  walls,  were  necessary  ;  and  to  improve  the 
exterior  etl'ect  of  the  elevations,  each  wall  was  raised  several  feet,  and 
finisbeil  with  bold  endiattled  parapets.  The  angular  and  intermediate  towers 
were  also  augmented  in  height,  and  each  crowned  with  a  machicolatcd  sum- 
mit. The  chinmcy-obafts  were  formed  into  stone  clusters,  and  made  to  as- 
sume the  shapes  of  turrets.  Aiound  the  south  and  east  sides  of  the  interior 
of  the  great  quadrangle,  was  erected  a  sjiacions  corridor,  550  feet  in  length, 
connected  with  and  forming  grand  and  convenient  uj)])roaches  to  the  chief 
suites  of  apartments  which  lielong  to  those  jiarts  of  the  Castle. 

The  works  proceeded  with  such  rapiiiity,  (the  architect  devoting  the  wliole 
of  his  time  to  the  vast  undertaking,)  that,  on  the  'Jth  of  December,  1828,  the 
King's  i)rivate  ap.irtments  were  comiileted,  anrl  his  .Majesty  removed  from 
his  rural  retreat,  a  superbly  embcUislied  eott.age  in  the  Great  Park,  and  for- 
mally took  |iossession  of  the  Ca>tle.  The  next  public  act  of  the  King  was  to 
coiil'ur  the  lionoiu'  of  knigbthoofl  on  his  architect,  who,  also,  was  permitted 
to  take  up  Ids  residence  in  a  eommaniUug  tower,  in  the  middle  ward,  at  the 
west  eml  of  the  north  terrace. 

The  progress  of  the  repairs  was  rather  expedited  than  stayed  by  the  King 
having  taken  up  his  residence  at  the  Castle.  The  decayed  and  dangerous 
st.atc  of  the  buihhug  had,  however,  occasioned  an  cx]ieiiditure  much  beyond 
the  original  estimates ;  iiuleed,  at  Midsummer,  ISI'tl,  the  cost  appeared  to 
have  been  nearly  doubled. 

Application  was,  accordingly,  maile  to  Parliament  for  further  advances ; 
when,  opposition  being  raised  in  the  House  of  Commons,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  investigate  the  Castle  works,  and  the  probable  amount  of  money 
requisite  for  their  completion.  Tbe  committee,  at  length,  ordered  works  to 
be  undertaken  to  the  estimated  amount  of  .-CHSiryii.  to  be  advanced  at  the 
rate  of  .t;50,000  per  annum.  This  grant  was  made  exclusively  fcr  the  archi- 
tect's department,  independent  of  the  upholsterer,  decnr.itor,  and  other  aiti- 
sans.  Since  that  time,  much  has  been  done.  Tbe  Eli/.abcthan  CJallery  has 
been  finished,  aud  fitted  up  as  a  library,  the  Waterloo  Gallery  has  been  com- 
pleted, and  adorned  with  portraits,  by  Lawrence,  of  the  principal  monarchs, 
statesmen,  and  generals  of  Furojic  ;  the  old  principal  staircase  has  been  re- 
moved, so  as  to  present  an  uuiMterriqited  vie\v  from  the  northern  terrace, 
lliiiiiitili  the  stiperb  pile  by  means  of  opposite  entrances,  to  the  unrivalled 
l.ou'j;  Walk  on  the  south  ;  a  noble  staircase  having  been  elsewhere  construct- 
ed, in  which  is  placed  a  colossal  statue  of  George  IV.,  nine  feet,  six  inches 
higb,  by  Chantrey.  Lodges  have  also  been  erected  at  the  junction  of  tbe 
Long  Walk  with  the  Home  Park ;  ami  several  of  the  old  state  apartments, 


at  tlie  north-west  part  of  the  upjier  coiui;,  have  been  enlarged  and  substan- 
tially repaired.  .Vt  the  north-west  angle  of  this  court.  Sir  Jeffry  had  designed 
a  splendid  chapel.  Tbe  heightening  of  the  Keep,  or  Round  Tower,  by  some 
feet,  is  also  an  improvement  which  adds  pre-eminently  to  the  dignity  of  the 
magnificent  pile. 

It  has  been  well  observed,  "  so  completely  has  Sir  Jeffry  made  the  Castle 
his  own,  that  nobody  else  can  distinguish  between  what  belongs  to  himself 
and  bis  predecessors."  The  style  of  the  building  is  old,  while  the  material 
is  new ;  and  the  hai-mony  of  parts  is  so  complete  as  to  form  a  whole  of  al- 
most inexpressible  massiveness  and  grandeur. 

Von  liaumer,  on  his  visit  in  1S33,  found  Windsor  far  exceeding  his  expec- 
tations, and  nialdng  a  greater  impression  on  him  than  all  the  other  castles  be 
had  ever  seen,  put  together.  "  This  is  high  praise,"  says  the  Literary  \Vorld, 
"  from  a  native  of  Germany,  where  feudalism  has  left  so  many  stately  monu- 
ments of  its  tVowning  glory. 

Hitherto,  there  has  been  published  no  fitting  record  of  this  grand  national 
repair  of  the  proudest  structure  that  England  possesses.  King  George  IV., 
with  the  iulentiou  of  consummating  the  truly  regal  labour,  and,  in  strict 
princely  state,  coiumanded  Sir  Jeffry  Wyatville  to  puljlish  an  account  of  his 
great  work;  the  missive,  in  the  handwriting  of  the  sovereign,  is  in  the  pos- 
session of  Sir  Jcffry's  executors,  as  is  also  a  conlirmation  of  the  command, 
from  Queen  Victoria.  Sir  Jctfry  had  made  much  progress  in  his  task;  he 
having  expended  X3000  upon  drawings.*  In  the  Pictnrescpie  Animal,  the 
author  relates,  that  George  IV.  promised  to  send  a  coiiy  of  Sir  Jeffry's  work 
to  every  sovereign  in  Europe;  but,  with  the  exception  of  this  patronage.  Sir 
Jeffry,  it  is  heUcvcd,  although  working  at  the  Royal  command,  did  not  expect 
assistance  of  any  kind.  On  one  occasion,  when  suriirise  was  expressed  at 
such  a  condition.  Sir  Jcffiy  replied,  in  the  spirit  and  pride  of  art ;  "  The  task 
is  mine;  I  am  prejiaring  my  own  monument." 

Notwitliotandiiig  that  Wmdsor  Castle  is  the  chef  d'muvre  of  Sir  Jeffry 
Wyatville,  and,  for  ages  to  come,  will  stand  as  the  best  record  of  his  skilful 
taste,  he  had  wholly  huilt,  or  improved,  many  other  edifices  in  different  parts 
of  the  kingdom.  He  has  left  some  of  bis  works  in  thirty-five,  out  of  the  forty, 
English  counties,  and  four,  out  of  tbe  twelve,  Welsh.  From  a  list  of  .above 
100  of  these  buildings,  the  following,  with  the  names  of  their  owners,  are 
appended  to  tbe  memoir  already  quoted: — 

Badmiiit(ui  House,  Gloucestershire,  Duke  of  Beaufort. — Drawing-room  and 
library. 

Woburn  Abbey,  Bedfordshire,  Duke  of  Bedford. — Temple  of  the  Graces. 

.\t  Endsleigh,  Devonshire,  Duke  of  Bedford. — A  spacious  and  commodious 
seat,  in  the  cottage  style. 

Cliatsworth  House,  Derbyshire,  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Some  magnificent 
new  buildings,  also  alterations  and  restorations  of  the  old  mansion,  in  the 
Italian  style.     These  have  just  been  completed. 

Longlcat  House,  Wiltshire,  Marquis  of  Bath. — New  conservatory,  stables, 
offices,  staircase,  and  alterations  of  the  hall,  &c. 

Asliridge,  Hertfordshire,  Earl  of  Bridgewater.^The  completion  of  the 
house,  begun  by  James  Wyatt,  R..\. ;  the  liridgewatcr  column  in  the  park, 
and  lodges. 

Bretbey,  Derbyshire,  Earl  of  Chesterfield. — Parts  of  tlie  house. 

Gopsall,  Statfordshii'e,  Earl  Howe. — A  new  lodge,  &c. 

Belton  House,  Lincolnshire,  Earl  Brownlow. — New  grecn-liouse,  and  alte- 
rations to  the  mansion. 

Wollaton  Hall,  Nottingbamsbire,  the  Lord  Middletou. — Alterations  to  the 
interior,  and  new  lodges  to  that  fine    Italian  house. 

Sidney  College,  Cambridge. — New  gate-hou^c,  and  fronts  to  the  whole 
college. 

Besides  the  above,  which  are  generally  called  show  places,  Sir  Jeffry  has 
designed  and  executed  tlie  following  Hejc  houses  : 

Lillcshall,  Shropshire,  Earl  Gower. 

fiolden  Grove,  Caermartbenshire,  Eaid  of  Cawdor.  , 

Nonsuch  Park,  Surrey,  Samuel  Farmer,  Esq. 

Dinton,  Wiltshire,  William  Wiudham,  Esq. 

Denford,  Berkshire,  M'ilbam  llallett,  Esq. 

Stubton,  Lincolusbire,  Sur  Robert  Heron,  Bart. 

llilbielil  Lodge,  Herefordshire,  The  Honourable  G.  Villiers. 

Trebursye,  Cornwall,  The  Honourable  ^\  iUi;nu  Elliot. 

Banner  Cross,  Yorkshire,  General  Murray. 

Wimborn,  Dorsetshire,  William  Castlenuin,  Esq. 

Claverton,  Somersetshire,  John  \  ivian,  Esq. 

Hastings,  Sussex,  Compt  de  Vaiides,  &c.  &c. 

By  the  introduction  of  Queen  Adelaide,  Sir  Jefl'ry  designed  a  castle  for  Al- 
tenstein,  for  her  brother  tbe  reigning  Duke  of  Saxe  Meiningeu  ;  as  also  a  jia- 
lace,  with  extcuaive  stables,  and  a  riding  house  for  Meiningen  ;  for  which 
works  tbe  Dul^e  prcsenterl  hiiu  the  grand  cross  of  the  Saxon  Ernestine  order, 
as  a  mark  of  his  approbation.  In  the  summer  of  last  year  he  designed  the 
stables  at  Windsor  Ca>tlc.  This  ilesinii,  though  of  almost  quaker  like  plain- 
ness, evinces  the  same  strong  faculty  for  arrangement  under  dilticult  circuin- 
stanees,  which  characterized  all  his  former  woiks.  As  late  as  November  last, 
he  designeil  lodges  fortlii;  Sheffield  and  Derby  entrances  toChatsworth  :  the 
latter  of  which  is  full  of  boldness  audpriginaUfy,  and  as  vigorous  as  any  design 
he  ever  produced,  although  his  last  work,  except  an  Alcove  for  the  gardens, 
which  is  as  jilayful  as  the  work  of  a  young  hand. 


•\th. 


Mr.  \\'ea.]e  has  received  instructions  to  publish  this  splendid  work  forth- 


133 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


Sir  Jtft'i y  Wyatville  «us  jiroud  of  tlie  Koyal  pationage  which  lie  enjoyed  ; 
and  the  Sovereign  was  alike  jiroiul  i>f  his  favorite  architect.  As  a  conipliuient. 
a  portrait  of  him  was  jiainfeil  hy  Sii'  Tlionias  Lawrence,  hy  conunand  of 
George  IV.,  and  was  )ilaceilin  llie  royal  collection  at  Windsor  Oastlc.  It  is  con- 
sidered to  he,  altogcthei',  an  impressive  likeiu'ss  :  there  is  extraordinary  (jnick- 
ncss  in  Ihc  eye,  and  the  forehead  is  lofty,  bnt  wants  breadth,  such  as  irnlicales 
superior  intellect.  We  believe  Sir  Jctlry  to  have  been  in  no  degree  indebted 
for  his  success  to  sycophancy  ;  for,  although  "  of  the  conrt  "  he  was  not  over 
courteous  in  manner.  His  roughness,  however,  enabled  luni  to  eoncpier  the 
capi  ice  of  his  royal  patron.  It  is  related  in  the  .llUcnwiim,  that  "when 
the  Kings  iiriv.ate  apartments  were  inidcr  consideration,  his  Majesty  was 
naturally  somewhat  more  i)eremptory  than  usual,  especially  as  to  their  relative 
propoi'tions,  and  it  is  well  known  that  he  did  not  like  large  rotims.  AVyatt's 
head,  however,  was  full  of  a  jialace  ;  and  when  the  king  suggested  what  he 
considered  a  proj)er  size  for  his  dressing  room,  M'yatt  jjrotested  that  such  a 
cupboard  was  better  suited  to  a  country  curate  than  to  his  Majesty.  The 
latter,  however,  was  peremptory  ou  the  subject,  and  cnt  short  all  remonstrance 
with — "  It  shall  be  so."  The  works  went  on — the  suite  of  apartments  was 
finished  and  furnished,  when,  in  the  exultation  of  the  moment,  his  Majesty 
good-humouredly  reminded  the  architect  of  their  former  dift'erence,  and  tri- 
umiibantly  referred  to  the  admirable  adaptation  of  this  particular  chamber. 
'  I  am  glad  your  Majesty  approves  of  it,'  said  the  architect,  '  for  it  is  exactly 
twice  the  size  your  Majesty  directed." 

He  languished  for  the  last  five  years,  under  a  disease  of  the  chest,  which 
has  visited  him  with  voilent  attacks  from  time  to  time;  and  frequently  en- 
dangered his  life.  Still  Ids  mind  never  gave  way,  or  was  weakened  by  illness. 
He  possessed  the  same  good  sense,  industi'v,  and  indefatigalile  order  in  his 
art  during  his  last  illness,  as  at  any  former  ptriod  of  his  career — which  was 
marked  by  sim|)lieity  ami  integrity,  as  was  his  death  by  perfect  cheerfulness 
and  resignation.  His  last  days  were  a  dignified  lesson  to  the  old,  as  his  well 
spent  life  had  been  a  model  of  usefulness  to  the  young.  He  died  on  the 
18th  of  FehruaiT,  in  his  74th  year. 

The  remains  of  Sir  JcflW  Wyatville  were  interred  in  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Windsor,  on  the  2.5th  ult. ;  the  body  having  arrived  at  the  Winchester  or  Wy- 
atville Tower,  on  the  preceding  evening.  The  Uev.  Dr,  Goodall,  Provost  of 
Eton,  an  old  and  valued  frieiul  of  the  ileceased,  reail  the  burial  service ;  and 
tlie  cotlin  was  deposited  in  a  vault  in  the  east  aisle  of  the  Chapel,  just  be- 
hind the  altar  ;  winch  Sir  Jetfry  had  prejiared  some  years  since,  for  the  re- 
ceptiou  of  tlje  remains  of  his  daughter,  who,  it  is  stated,  died  in  consequence 
of  a  cold,  taken  during  lier  attendance  at  the  ceremony  of  laying  the  founda- 
tion stone  of  theBrunswick  Tower.  Among  the  mourners  was  Sir  Francis 
Chantrey,  the  sculptor.  And  thus,  within  the  shallow  of  the  stately  pile 
which  his  genius  had  restored  from  crumbling  decay,  sleeps  the  architect 
himself;    thus  exemplifying  the  adage  :  "  Art  is  long,  and  life  is  hut  short." 


NOTES  OF  THE  MONTH. 

The  Oxford  Sociely  fur  the  Study  of  Gothic  Architecture  is  making  pro- 
gress, its  library  is  increasing,  and  the  pajiers  read  at  its  meetings  have  been 
valuable  and  interesting.  It  is  to  the  clergy  that  we  nmst  look  for  the  pre- 
servation of  old  edifices,  and  for  the  observance  of  good  taste  in  the  erection 
of  new  ones. 

Mr.  Cockerell  has  been  selected  to  erect  the  new  Institute  at  Oxford, 
founded  hy  the  late  Michael  Angelo  Taylor. 

The  second  of  this  month  is  the  day  on  which  the  tenders  are  to  be  sent  in 
for  construction  of  the  Nelson  Memorial.  The  shaft  is  to  he  solid,  of  granite 
from  the  West  of  England,  and  the  e.ipital  of  bronze. 

.Messrs.  (Jrissell  and  I'eto  have  comnienced  operations  for  raising  the  snper- 
stiuctnre  of  the  New  Houses  of  Pai'liameut. 

The  Royal  Exchange  affair  is  still  in  statu  (pio,  except  that  as  far  as  report 
goes  Mr.  Cockerell  and  Mr.  Tite  are  engaged  in  making  fresh  plans.  We 
doubt  nnich  whether  they  will  lie  able  to  i)roduce  a  better  design  than  that 
of  Mr.  Donaldson,  which  we  had  another  opportunity  of  viewing,  when  it  was 
exhibited  at  the  Royal  Institute  of  liritisb  Architects.  If,  as  Mr.  Smith  re- 
jiorleil,  at  maximuju  jirices  it  only  exceeded  the  sum  allolted  by  A'yOOO,  it 
ought  to  be  adopted.  .\s  to  the  |ialtn  objection  that  there  were  no  chimneys, 
any  man  with  brains  in  his  head  might  have  seen  that  they  eould  have  been 
introduced  in  any  ])art  of  the  walls  which  surround  the  room,  tlie  thickness 
of  which  was  ample  for  flues,  but  the  system  of  warming  public  olHces  by 
hot  water  or  steam  is  so  general  that  it  eould  hardly  be  tliought  necessary  to 
provide  fire-plaecs.  Then  again  as  to  the  statement  that  many  walls  had 
false  bearings,  even  if  such  had  been  the  case,  this  might  easil'i  have  been 
remedied  without  in  any  w.ay  interfering  with  the  external  design,  which  is 
the  grand  feature  to  lie  considered.  As  to  the  last  objection,  that  tliere  were 
not  suflicient  sho))S,  it  is  too  contemptible  to  require  notice. 

Another  competition  exhibition  takes  place  this  month,  that  on  the  8th  for 
laying  out  tlie  grounds  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Society.  We  hear  that  man) 
designs  of  merit  are  in  preparation,  and  we  sincerely  trust  that  the  Council 
will  allow  a  public  day  for  the  profession  to  witness  an  exhibition,  which  we 
believe  has  never  before  taken  place  in  the  metropolis. 

On  the  first  (anomalous  day !)  the  Soaue  Museum  opens  to  the  public  ! 
"When  will  this  Museum  and  Library  of  Architecture  he  made  what  it  ought 
to  he  ? 

The  Inatitute  of  Architects  of  Ireland  has  received  the  Royal  patronage,  and 


we  sincerely  trust  that  the  institution  will  be  worthy  of  a  capital  possessing 
so  many  fine  buildings. 

A  new  shop  in  (he  style  of  the  Revival  is  now  attracting  attention  in  Re- 
gent-street, being  the  first  in  this  fashionable  style. 

Some  Eliznbethan  pumps  a  little  above  the  common  run  have  been  erected 
in  llol))orn  and  its  vicinity. 

The  wood  pavement  in  the  Strand  is  on  I'arkin's  plan. 

Iron  statues  are  in  great  vogue  at  Paris  as  accessories  for  architectural  pur- 
poses. 

The  embankment  of  the  Thames  is  at  last  likely  to  be  taken  \\\i  bv  govern- 
\eiiimeut  and  city  authorities. 

We  feel  great  jileasure  in  announcing  that  a  want  severely  felt  hy  artists, 
that  of  a  gallery  of  easts  is  at  last  to  be  remedied,  not  by  government,  but  by 
private  enterprise.  A  similar  jdaii  was  stopped  last  _\Tar  in  expectation  of  the 
government  doing  something,  but  it  was  so  absurd  that  it  was  fortunate  it  was 
abandoned,  being  neither  more  nor  less  than  to  interfere  witli  private  enter- 
prise, by  manufacturiug  all  kinds  of  casts.  A  worthy  companion  to  the  steam 
boat  |iliin  !  Mr.  Braham,  with  great  public  spirit,  has  ojiened  the  Model 
Ciallcry  at  the  Colosseum  as  a  place  for  study  at  the  trilling  subscription  of 
one  guinea  per  aninim.  It  is  well  lighted,  and  contains  above  a  hundred 
works,  incluiling  the  Tragic  Muse  (12  feet  high),  Apollo,  Towuley  Venus, 
head  of  .\chillcs,  Moses  of  Michael  Angelo,  &c. 

There  is  an  intention  on  the  part  of  government  to  make  a  grant  to  the 
Schools  of  l.lesign.  This  would  he  a  boon  to  the  manufacturing  interests  and 
the  fiue  arts  generally. 

A  statue  to  Napier,  the  inventor  of  logarithms  is  in  agitation  at  Edinburgh. 

.\t  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers  .Mr.  Xasmyth  exhibited  his  pneumatic 
mirror,  which  is  a  plate  of  glass  3  feet  in  diameter,  on  a  concave  disc  of  iron 
hermetically  sealed.  On  exhausting  the  air  the  plate  collapses,  and  on  its 
being  forced  iii  the  plate  rises  so  as  jirodnee  any  form  of  speculum.  Mr. 
Nasmyth  suggests  its  apjilication  to  astromunical  purposes  for  large  reflecting 
telescopes,  or  it  may  be  used  as  a  burning  glass. 

.Mr.  Wbishaw  the  engineer  kindly  exhibited  to  us  a  valuable  chronometer 
which  he  has  used  in  preparing  for  his  elabor.ite  work  on  Railway  Statistics, 
for  ascertaining  the  velocities  of  railway  trains.  It  is  ?<  inches  in  diameter, 
and  consequently  of  a  circumference  of  naar  9i  inches,  which  is  a  scale  of 
one  minute  decimally  divided  into  hundredths,  so  as  to  enable  nice  calcula- 
tions to  be  made  with  aeeiiraey. 

In  the  valuable  pajier  of  Mr.  Leeds  in  onr  |iresent  number,  we  took  the  , 
trouble  to  note  down  the  length  of  life  of  1-12  architects  enumerated,  and 
found  one-third  between  O.'i  and  7.5,  of  which  27  between  70  and  74,  and  22 
between  75  and  8U.     A  pretty  good  juoof  of  the  longevity  of  this  class  of 
jirofessional  men. 

We  have  not  had  the  opportunity  of  mentioning  before  the  completion  of 
the  lighthouse  on  the  sands  at  Fleetwood  on  Wyre.  This  is  constructed  by 
Mr.  Mitchell  with  his  jiatent  mooring  screws,  on  a  similar  jirineiple  to  that 
oil  the  Ma)>lin  sands  described  in  the  Journal.  It  is  of  an  hexagonal  form, 
six  mooring  screws  supporting  the  base  with  one  in  the  centre  thus, 

0      0 
0       0      0 

o      0 
These  carry  converging  posts  on  which  the  platform  is  erected,  which  carries 
the  lighthouse,  so  that  it  is  open  below  to  the  action  of  the  sea.     This  work, 
in  an  incomplete  state,  stood  oir.  the  late  severe  gales,  and  does  great  ereilit 
to  its  constructor,  and  to  the  spirit  of  Sir  Hesketh  Fleetwood. 


A  BILINGUAL  .STONE. 

A  bilingual  inscription,  containing  Latin,  Umbrian,  or  Etruscan  words 
sculplureil  on  both  sides  of  aTibnrtine  stone,  w.is  found  some  months  ago 
near  the  anrient  ruins  called  Mausideo.  At  (irsi  it  was  believed  to  be  apo- 
crapbal  :  but  on  being  broiif;lit  to  Rome  and  examined,  all  doubts  with  regard 
to  its  ;iutlieiiti(il V  were  renmved.  From  the  Latin  uturls/'ra/er  e/ci  minimns, 
whifb  occur  in  the  beginning,  it  was  hoped  that  sumelhing  of  interest  might 
be  decbiceil.  The  rest  of  the  inscription  can  cmly  give  room  fur  conjecture, 
the  letters  running  from  lelt  to  right,  as  is  evident  I'rom  the  expressions, 
/.oraiv'/ c/.v/«/«(7.  \\liieli  in  tlicinselves  contribute  in  no  way  t  i  elucidate  the 
obscurity  (jf  the  Epigraob,  and  it  is  well  known  lli.i  the  naiional  paliography 
Hhelber  L  nibn.in  or  Ktrusean  slniuld  r\\n  from  right  to  left.  This  stone 
was  in  all  probability  a  iorm\n:i\  Cipiiiiis.  referring  to  the  period  when  tlie 
Unmans  made  lltriisia'a  snbjee  cd  province,  as  yet,  however,  the  true  and  pre- 
cise signification  is  ob.sciirei  first  on  aecimnt  of  its  liilinguous  form,  and  also 
for  the  uncenainty  of  the  letter  X  :  which  is  known  to  be  a  T  in  Umbrian  or 
Etruscan.  Another  ambigiiily  arises  from  ii«t  knowing  the  true  pronuncia- 
tion ol  K  .'ind  IXI.  This  however  must  be  left  to  the  consideration  of  the 
learned,  anil  for  whose  better  judgmem  »i  subjoin  the  folloHiiig  ropy  of  the 
epigiaph. 

The  best  preserved  side.  The  most  defaced. 

DRVTKL  F.  FRAIEU  .'.".'.'.'.V.'  KlVlClVi V 

ElV.S  NISIS.  URVTI.  F 

M IN IM VS.  LfXA  VI  f  RATKR.  EIVS 

KT.  8TAV1T  ..MINI M VS.  LOCAVIT.  K. 

F,X.  EICNFXL  XI  -.VX  ATVIT  QVI. 

IICNI.  ICFIvNlXV  ....KKNFXI.XOVXI.  I. 

FOXVFii-^KCix.SIS.  X  ■ . . .  NIXV.  LOKFN.  KG 

DVXIKNCIS.  XIKNOS. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


|:}'5 


PROCSEDINQS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 


SESSION,   1840. 


Jan. 


14.     Joshua  Field,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

"  Observations  on  the  efficiency  or  gross  power  of  Steam  exerted  on  the 
piston  in  relation  to  the  reported  diiti/  of  Steam  Engines  in  Cornwall,  at  dif- 
ferent periods.     By  John  Scott  Enys,  .\ssoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  ailvantages  wliicli  may  result  from  the  union  of  scientific  and  practical 
knowledge  in  the  appUcation  of  steam  power,  particularly  with  reference  to 
the  limits  of  gross  power,  are  great,  as  likely  to  clieck  the  extravagant  no- 
tions entertained  by  some  with  respect  to  the  farther  increase  of  duty,  and 
to  remove  the  disbelief  of  others  with  respect  to  the  amount  of  duty  actually 
performed. 

The  hmit  of  duty  for  atmospheric  steam  may  be  readily  arrived  at,  as  was 
done  by  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert  in  1827,  by  estimating  the  weight  of  water  which 
would  rise  34  feet  into  a  vacuum  formed  by  the  condensation  of  steam  of  at- 
mosi)heric  strength  ;  whence  it  appears,  that  a  higher  duty  than  30  millions 
cannot  be  obtained  by  atmospheric  steam,  14  cubic  feet  of  water  being  eva- 
porated by  a  bushel  of  coal.  Tredgold,  in  the  first  edition  of  his  Treatise  on 
the  Steam  Engine,  published  in  1827,  adopted  the  simpler  method  of  multi- 
plying the  volume  of  steam  of  atmospheric  strength  by  the  pressure,  for  the 
measure  of  the  efficiency.  This  principle  may  be  extended  to  measure  the 
efficiency  of  steam  at  liigher  pressures,  as  the  author  has  shown  in  the  first 
annual  report  of  t)ic  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society  ;  and  an  extended  table  to 
ten  atmospheres  is  appended  to  this  commuuication. 

The  author  then  proceeds  to  show,  that  the  Cornish  engines  are  worked 
under  conditions  such  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  expansive  action  of  the 
steam  is  available  on  the  piston,  and  calls  attention  to  two  necessary  correc- 
tions— 1st,  for  the  deficiency  of  water  in  higli  steam  cut  oft'  at  ntth  of  the 
stroke  ;  and  2d,  for  the  increase  of  temperature  of  the  steam  during  expan- 
sion in  the  cylinder,  as  derived  from  the  steam  jacket.  The  experiments  of 
Mr.  Wicksteed,  confirmatory  as  they  are  of  the  very  extended  experiments 
made  by  Woolf  at  Wheal  Alford,  show  the  importance  of  this  latter  correc- 
tion. Some  error  has  also  arisen  from  the  use  of  the  boiler  pressure.  The 
exact  determination  of  the  pressure  in  the  cylinder  is  difficult,  and  the  oidy 
recorded  eiperiments  are  those  by  Mr.  Henwood  with  the  common  indicator, 
and  (luljlished  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Institution. 
The  indicator  is  liable  to  show  a  pressure  higher  than  that  actually  exerted 
during  the  expansion,  Init  it  may  be  relied  on  for  comparative  results  ;  and 
very  accurate  experiments  made  at  the  Consols  by  a  mercury  gauge,  the  en- 
gine being  stopped  at  dift'erents  parts  of  the  stroke,  are  said  to  confirm  the 
reliance  which  may  he  placed  on  the  indicator. 

The  quantity  of  water  evaporated  was  very  imperfectly  recorded  ;  it  was 
stated  by  Watt  as  from  8  to  12  cubic  feet  per  bushel,  and  at  present  may  be 
stated  at  about  14  cubic  feet,  but  is  sometimes,  with  good  coal  and  careful 
stoking,  much  higher. 

The  author  briefly  alludes  to  the  progress  of  improvement  in  Cornwall ; 
the  introduction  by  Woolf  of  high  steam ;  the  substitution  of  the  plunger 
pole  for  the  bucket  pump,  and  the  application,  so  recently  made  by  Mr. 
James  Sims,  to  stamping  or  crank  engines  of  the  arrangements  which  had 
been  a  long  time  so  advantageously  in  use  in  pimiping  engines. 

The  communication  is  accompanied  by  a  table,  exhibiting  the  weight  of 
water  per  cubic  foot ;  the  pressure ;  the  volume  and  the  efficiency  of  steam 
from  one  to  ten  atmospheres,  adapted  and  corrected  from  those  of  Clement 
and  Desormes.  It  is  also  accompanied  by  a  method  of  representing  several 
particulars  connected  with  the  load  and  engine ;  by  which  the  relation  of 
these  with  respect  to  each  other  in  the  same  engine,  and  the  ditl'erent  condi- 
tions of  other  engines,  may  be  at  once  exhibited  to  the  eye.  It  may  also 
prove  a  convenient  method  of  recording  facts  and  calculations  in  connexion 
with  the  Indicator  Diagrams. 

"  Analysis  of  a  piece  of  the  iron  heel  post  converted  by  the  action  of  Sea 
Water  into  a  substance  resembling  Plumbago."  By  David  Mushet,  A. 
Inst.  C.  E. 

A  piece  of  the  iron  heel  post  of  a  vessel  called  the  John  Bull  had  been 
presented  last  Session  by  Mr.  Borthwick,  as  a  cmious  specimen  of  the  eft'ect 
of  salt  water  in  converting  iron  into  a  substance  resembling  plumbago.  This 
substance  was  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  and  easily  cut  by  a  knife,  and  Mr. 
Mushet  undertook  to  analyse  it ;  and  the  result  of  this  analysis,  and  the  me- 
thods pursued,  aie  the  subject  of  this  communication.  This  substance,  which 
it  may  be  convenient  to  call  marine  plumbago,  on  being  exposed  to  a  red 
heat  in  a  crucible,  lost  about  20  per  cent,  in  weight,  and  on  being  exposed  to 
a  wliite  heat  for  four  hours  lost  about  60  per  cent.,  and  came  out  a  light  mass 
of  very  brilliant  carburet.  This  shining  carburet  was  then  used  as  a  carljou- 
aceons  substance  for  the  reduction  of  an  oxyde  of  iron,  but  was  less  efficacious 
than  the  same  quantity  of  the  charcoal  of  wood.  From  these  and  other  ex- 
periments, Mr.  Mushet  considers  100  parts  of  the  so-called  marine  plumbago 
to  be  composed  near  as  follows  :— 

Carbonic  acid  and  moisture      .     20 
Protoxyde  of  iron    .         .         .     35'7 
Silt,  or  earthy  matter      .        .      7'2 
Cwbon   .      ' .        .        .        .    41-1 


Also,  he  considers  100  parts  of  the  common  black  lead  (o  consist  as  follows  : 
Carbonic  acid  and  water           .     12-5 
Iron        .....     ll'j 
Earthy  matter          .         .         .4-5 
Carbon 71 '3 

"  A  theoretical  calculation  of  the  Fuel  saved  by  working  Steam  expansively." 
By  J.  W.  Lubbock,  Hon.  M.'inst.  C.  E.  &c.  &c. 

.\n  equation  may  be  readily  formed  for  the  action  till  the  steam  is  cut  oft"; 
and  the  steam  being  then  supposed  to  dilate  into  a  certain  volume,  tlie  varia- 
tion in  this  volume  gives  rise  to  the  quantity  of  action,  whence  anotlicr  equa- 
tion may  be  obtained,  and  the  maximum  of  the  quantity  of  action  produced 
by  cutting  oft' the  steam  determined.  The  quantity  of  action  thus  produced 
is  then  compared  with  that  produced  in  any  case  without  cutting  oft'  the 
steam.  Now  the  quantity  of  heat  or  fuel  expended  is  proportional  to  the 
steam  generated  in  each  of  the  preceding  cases,  and  a  proportion,  expressing 
the  ratio  of  the  fuel  saved  to  the  fuel  expended,  may  be  obtained. 

"  On  the  Expansion  of  Arches."     By  CJeobge  Ren'xie,  F.R.S. 

The  expansion  of  solids,  which  has  excited  the  attention  of  mathematicians 
since  the  investigation  of  La  Hire,  in  1688,  on  a  rod  of  iron,  is  of  particular 
importance  in  the  construction  of  bridges,  the  security  of  which  may  be 
eft'ected  by  the  dilatation  and  contraction  consequent  on  changes  of  tcmjiera- 
tm'e.  Periodical  motions,  referable  only  to  changes  of  temperature,  were  ol)- 
served  by  Vicat  in  a  stone  bridge  built  over  the  DordoRne  at  Souillac,  and 
have  frequently  been  noticed  in  structures  of  all  kinds.  The  diiferent  expan- 
sibility of  stone  and  iron  has  been  considered  an  objection  to  the  use  of  cast 
iron  pUlars  in  connexion  with  stone  to  support  the  fronts  of  buildings  ;  but 
the  experiments  of  Mr.  Adie  of  Edinburgh  led  him  to  the  conclusion,  that  no 
danger  is  to  be  apprehended  from  a  change  of  temperature  aft'ecting  cast  iron 
and  sandstone  in  any  great  degree,  as  their  expansion,  so  far  as  regards  build- 
ings, may  be  considered  the  same. 

Arguments  from  this  source  were  employed  agaiust  the  arches  of  South- 
wark  Bridge,  and  the  experiments  set  forth  in  this  communication  were 
undertaken  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  eft'ect  of  temperature  on  these 
arches. 

Three  sets  of  experiments  were  made:  the  first  in  Jan.  1818,  when  the 
main  ribs  and  diagonal  braces  rested  on  their  centres,  and  before  any  of  the 
spandrils  and  road  plates  had  been  put  upon  them  ;  the  second,  in  the  A\igust 
and  September  of  tlie  same  year.  The  rise  was  measm-ed  by  tlie  insertion  of 
small  wedges  to  about  ;^th  of  an  inch.  The  third  set  of  experiments  was 
made  on  the  eastern  arch.  Three  thermometers  were  employed — one  hang- 
ing in  the  open  air,  another  having  the  bulb  immersed  1 A  inch  in  the  iron, 
and  the  third  hanging  amongst  the  ribs  ;  these  were  observed  at  dift'crent 
hoiu-s  of  the  day,  and  the  rcsidts  recorded.  The  rise  of  the  arch  was  ob- 
served by  a  fine  piece  of  feathered  edged  brass,  nicely  tixed  to  the  rib,  which 
by  the  rise  and  fall  of  tlie  arch  traversed  upon  a  scale  graduated  to  ^Vr*!'  of 
an  inch.  The  tables  contain  experiments  on  nine  days,  with  the  teuipcra- 
tm'cs  and  rise  at  every  hour  of  the  day.  The  results,  that  is,  the  maximum 
temperatures  and  rise,  and  rise  for  1'  Fahr.  are  exhibited  in  the  following 
fable. 


No.  of 

Variation  in 

Rise  in 

Rise  for 

Experiment. 

Temperature. 

Arch. 

r  F. 

I. 

IS"" 

2  5 
BO 

A 

II. 

10° 

so 

■STS 

HI. 

7-5 

¥i 

* 

IV. 

11° 

8TT 

* 

V, 

6° 

1 :) 
80 

sV 

VL 

4-5 

*§ 

A 

VII. 

3° 

^ 

Tk 

VIII. 

8° 

^ 

IX. 

7'5 

W 

^ 

The  mean  rise  is  ^th  of  an  inch  for  1°  Fahr. 

Mr.  Rennie  then  proceeds  to  calculate  the  theoretical  rise  from  the  ex- 
pansion of  iron,  according  to  Lavoisier,  in  an  arch  of  the  dimensions  of  South- 
wark  Bridge,  for  50'  increase  of  temperature. 

The  eff'ects  of  changes  of  temperature  were  also  observed  in  the  stone 
bridge  over  the  Thames  at  Staines.  After  the  arches  had  attained  their  full 
settlement,  openings  were  observed  in  the  joints  of  the  parapets  immediately 
over  the  springing  of  the  arches,  and  a  distortion  or  sinking  of  the  upper 
curve  of  the  parapets.  A  wedge  was  inserted  into  some  of  these  openings, 
and  the  lowest  point  of  its  descent  in  the  month  of  January  marked.  The 
same  wedges  were  carefully  inserted  every  week  until  May,  when  they  would 
no  longer  enter,  and  the  joints  became  firmly  closed.  At  this  period,  how- 
ever, the  joints  immediately  over  the  crowns  of  the  arches,  which  hail  during 
the  winter  been  quite  close,  were  now  open.  From  these  facts  it  followed, 
as  a  necessary  consequence,  that  in  winter  the  arch  contr,icting  descended 
and  the  spandiil  joints  opened,  and  in  summer  the  arch  expanding  rose  and 


I'M 


THE  CIVIL  i-N(jinI'I:k  \m)  aiu'ihtkc  is  journal. 


[A  PR  II 


closed  llicsc  juiiits,  .iml  oiicricd  those  at  the  erowns.  Thus  the  joints  (if  the 
parapets,  which  were  inaile  of  shiglc  slabs  of  granite  for  tlic  whole  heislit, 
Ijecame  good  indicators  of  the  changes  of  tenipeniture.  li  had  also  heen  oh- 
served,  in  tin:  Waterloo  and  other  bridges,  that  joints  made  good  in  the 
winter  witli  Itonian  cement  were  found  erushed  in  summer. 

Viththe  view  of  obtaining  some  data  for  ealcuhition,  .\Ir.  Rcnnie  jirocured 
saniples  of  granites  sandstone,  and  slate,  and  plaeijig  thoni  in  a  properly  con- 
strnrtcd  oven,  ascertained  the  rates  of  tlicir  expansion,  which  are  given  in 
the  paper. 

A  series  of  cxjierimcnls  was  made  at  the  rc(piest  of  the  late  Mr.  Kcnnie  by 
Mr.  S.  Walker,  of  Uolhcrham,  on  the  variations  iji  tlie  length  of  231 .?.  feet  of 
the  frieze,  bolted  together  and  laid  on  a  firm  platform.  The  (euj]ifriiturc  of 
the  atmosphere  and  of  the  plales  and  tlie  length  were  noteil  at  live  o'clock  in 
the  morning  and  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  in  some  of  llie  ex- 
periments at  se\cu  o'clock  in  the  evening.  The  details  of  these  cxiicriaicnis 
are  given  in  tlic  jiaper. 

The  paper  is  accomjiauied  by  calculations  for  the  rise  of  an  arch  and  the 
opening  at  the  sjiandrils  for  an  increased  tcnii)crature,  and  also  by  tables  of 
the  cxpansibihly  of  different  kinds  of  stones  and  irons  given  by  Distigny. 

"  S/jcriJicnIioii.  mill  IJ'urkiny  Drnmnys  nf  the  MhUUexhurough-OH-Tees  Oas 
Works."     By  PuTKR  IIendkuson,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  £. 

in  this  communication,  the  author  details  the  several  works,  erections,  and 
fittings  of  tlie  (ias  Works  at  Middlesborongh-ou-Tecs,  and  the  mode  in  which 
they  are  to  be  executed  aud  coni]ilcted. 

•'  On  a  Hioi/e  »/'  IJnireUing  Timber,  or  of  t-ombinmii  il  and  olUer  ma/eriuLs 
for  geiieral  jmrpoxes."     IJy  M.  J.  Buunei.,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  author  proposes  to  unite  timber  by  means  of  iron  dowels  and  asphaltc. 
Mastic  had  been  used  in  the  Tunnel  works  for  the  purpose  of  tilting  small 
plates  of  cast  iron  to  the  poling  boards.  These,  thongli  eonslanlty  immersed 
in  water  and  nmd,  and  snhjeet  to  severe  hammering,  bad  .stood  perfictly  well. 
Asiihaltc  is  now  used  in  preference  to  mastic,  as  it  sets  immediately.  The 
author  conceives  that  stone  maybe  united  by  a  simitar  kind  of  dowelling  ; 
anil  that  wood  ni.ay  be  iiiter)iosed  between  stone  and  iron,  so  as  to  be  used 
to  advantage  with  the  stone  blocks,  for  the  chairs  of  railways.  Also,  that 
this  method  may  be  used  with  great  advantage  in  sliip-buihling,  in  mast- 
making,  ami  wherever  any  species  of  doweUing  is  refiuired. 
Feb.  21.     The  President  in  the  Chair. 

"  On  Steam  Ungincs,  principally  with  reference  to  ilietr  coiinuuijitinn  uf 
Steam  and  Fuel.'     IJy  Josiah  Parkks,  M.  Inst.  (  .  E. 

The  above  is  the  second  and  concluding  comniunication  on  this  sniyect ;  in 
the  former,  the  generation  of  steam  more  particuliirly  was  considered;  in  the 
present,  its  aiiplicalioii  when  generated.  These  are  distinct  qneslions,  as  it 
is  the  economy  of  steam  which  constitutes  the  dynamic  perfection  of  a  steam 
engine,  whereas  it  is  the  economy  of  heat  in  supplying  tlmt  steam  which  con- 
stitutes the  jicrfcction  of  the  boiler  as  an  evaporati\c  vessel.  These  economic 
properties  are  totally  inde|)endent  of  each  other;  they  may  co-exist  in  a 
inaxinimn  degree,  or  in  very  diflerent  degrees,  aud  the  degree  of  perfection 
which  any  particular  class  of  engines,  or  which  the  particular  engines  of  any 
class  possess,  is  known  from  the  weight  of  fuel  Liirnt,  of  water  evaporated, 
and  the  mechanical  etlcet  realized.  As  long  as  engines  were  constructed  with 
but  few  varieties,  or  identical  in  their  forms,  the  |)crformance  of  one  was  a 
sulficieiit  indication  of  the  performance  of  all ;  but  new  forms  of  engines  and 
new  modes  of  practice  being  now  introduced,  a  comiiarison  of  the  iierfonn- 
ance  on  the  several  systems  is  a  matter  of  deep  iiraetieal  ami  scicntilic  in- 
terest. Mitli  the  view  of  effecting  this  object,  the  author  has  collected  all 
the  authentic  facts  within  bis  reach,  aud  reduced  llicni  to  common  standards 
of  comparison. 

The  elleetivc  power  of  steam  engines  may  be  aseerlained  cither  from  (he 
resistance  overcome,  or  from  the  load  upon  the  jiLston  i>y  means  of  the  indi- 
cator ;  the  former  method  being  ajiplicable  to  ]iumiiing,  the  latter  to  rotative 
engines.  Cut  the  eU'eelive  power  of  the  steam  in  lunuping  engines,  as  thus 
ascertained,  is  far  below  the  real  eiteetive  power  of  the  steam,  ami  no  exai;t 
comparison  can  be  made  by  these  means  between  the  clFeetive  i«i\ver  of  the 
steam  in  the  two  classes  of  engines.  The  useful  clVect  is  not  synonymous 
>vitli  a  true  measure  of  eU'ective  jiower,  since  tlic  duty  is  the  true  useful  eU'eet 
in  a  Cornish  engine.  The  indicator  when  applied  to  liiu  Cornish  engines  en- 
ables us  to  ascertain  the  absolnle  but  not  the  efi'ectivc  power,  so  as  to  com- 
pare it  with  (hat  of  the  rolative  engine,  since  the  friction  of  the  engine  and 
the  load  cannot  be  scpar;itely  determined.  The  absolule  power  of  the  steam 
may  also  be  ascertained  from  the  relative  knowledge  of  the  clastic  force  of 
steam  corresponding  with  the  r.atio  which  the  volumes  of  water  bear  to  each 
other.  This  theoretical  estimate  rcipiircs  however  several  corrections ;  among 
■which  (he  steam  condensed  by  contact  with  colder  surfaces,  the  steam  con- 
sumed in  filling  useless'  places,  and  that  lost  by  priming,  must  he  jiarticularly 
noted. 

The  relative  performance  of  pumping  engines  is  well  expressed  by  the  term 
"duty,"  that  is,  the  iinmbcr  of  llis.  raised  one  ftnit  by  a  given  quantity  of 
fuel ;  and  of  rotative  engiues  by  the  term  "horse  iniwcr,"  that  is,  the  num- 
ber of  Ills,  raised  one  foot  in  a  minute,  divided  by  .''o,0U0  lbs.  the  standard 
measure  of  a  horse.  The  perforniauce  of  the  rotative  engine  may  also  be 
estimated  by  duly,  and  of  pnmiiing  engines  by  horse  power.  The  results  of 
these  computations  for  several  engines  are  tabulated  in  this  communication. 

The  sum  of  the  latent  and  seusible  heat  beiug  coustaut  for  tsteam  of  all 


elasticities,  the  expcniliture  of  both  power  anil  heal  is  truly  ineaMired  by  the 
weight  of  water  consumed  as  steam  ;  this  measure  is  free  from  all  uncertainty, 
and  independent  of  all  (bi'ory  ;  the  weight  of  w.ater  as  steam  cipiivalent  to 
the  production  of  a  bor.-c  power  in  each  engine,  .•iiid  the  duty  effected  by  one 
poiiml  of  steam,  will  denote  the  positive  and  relative  eniciency  of  the  steam 
and  the  heat.  These  indices  of  etficieney  being  referred  to  some  standard, 
wc  learn,  from  the  preceding  data,  the  precise  value  of  each  engine  in  its  use 
of  steam  and  fuel ;  of  its  boiling  aiiimratus,  as  a  generator  of  steam  ;  of  the 
com)),irative  efficiency  of  the  steam  and  coal,  or  economy  of  jiower  and  fuel. 
The  results  which  may  thus  be  obtained  are  also  exhibited  in  tables,  accom- 
jianying  the  eommuuieatiou. 

Tlie  jiower  resulting  from  the  expenditure  of  ei|iial  weights  of  water,  as 
ste.on,  being  known,  the  boiler  may  be  connected  with  the  engiues,  and  the 
rcl.itivc  extent  of  heating  surface  employed  to  fnruisb  their  power  shown.  It 
will  thus  appear  that  equal  measures  of  surface  arc  (piitc  inadequate  to  supply 
cijiial  power,  with  equal  economy,  to  dificrcut  classes  of  engines.  These  re- 
sults arc  tabulated  in  great  detail,  and  it  ajijicars  tli.at  the  Cornish  engineers 
now  eiiqiloy  nearly  eight  times  as  much  boiler  surface  for  equal  nominal 
power  as  (hat  given  by  M  att's  practice.  Hut  taking  into  account  (be  fuel 
burnt  per  horse  power  ]ier  hour  in  the  two  cases — the  Cornish  engine  con- 
suniing  'ij  llis.  jier  horse  power  per  hour,  and  Watt's  engine  H.l — the  true 
relation  of  the  Imilers  is  as  19  to  I.  Many  other  relations  of  a  similar  strik- 
ing character  may  be  deduced  from  these  tables. 

The  detailed  results  of  the  experiments  by  Smeaton  in  1772,  on  his  im- 
pioveil  Newcomen  engine  at  Long  Ueiiton — li_\  Watt,  in  1  7H(),  on  hisiolalive 
condensing  engine,  at  the  Albion  Mills,  arc  recorded  in  these  (ables;  and  it 
appears  that  the  economy  of  the  latter  as  regards  steam  and  fuel  was  double 
(bat  of  the  former,  and  ajiproached  very  nearly  to  jierfeetion  in  the  use  of 
power  obtainable  on  that  principle.  The  next  great  advance  in  the  economy 
of  fuel  and  |)ow  ei  is  (hat  made  by  the  Cornish  engineers,  whose  performanrcs, 
both  with  puinping  ami  rotative  expansive  engines,  far  exceed  any  attained 
with  the  common  uncxjiansive  condensing  engine.  The  superiority  of  (woof 
these  engines  in  ly.'io,  doing  a  duty  of  HO  millions,  exceeds  the  engines  of 
Watt  and  Neweomeu  by  21  aud  5  times  in  economy  of  power,  and  by  3^  and 
7  times  in  economy  of  fuel. 

The  obtaining  a  standard  measure  of  duty  is  of  great  inipor(aiiee ;  ahe.apcd 
measure,  as  a  bushel  of  coals,  is  highly  ohjcetionahle,  as  the  weight  of  such 
measure  will  vary  from  84  to  112  lbs.  In  the  Cornish  re|)orts  the  bushel  is 
fixed  at  '.M  lbs.  weight,  as  the  standard  of  eoni])aiison,  hut  some  iiortiou  of  a 
ton  or  one  lb.  would  be  a  better  slaiKhird.  (It her  condmstililes,  how^ever,  as 
coke,  peat,  &c.,  may  be  used  partially,  or  to  (he  exclusion  of  coal,  and  under 
these  eircnmstances  some  other  stamlard  of  coiii)>arisoii  is  necessary,  and  wilh 
this  view  (he  author  suggests  a  pound  of  water  in  the  form  of  steam  as  tlie 
best  standard  of  duty.  The  work  done  by  a  given  quantity  of  water  .as  steam 
is  a  sure  index  of  the  quality  of  the  steam  engine ;  it  is  a  measure  unctieeted 
by  Miri.able  eaJoririe  agents,  .and  so  long  as  engines  continue  (o  be  worked  by 
steam,  so  long  will  the  performance  of  different  engines  be  aeeurately  ganged 
by  their  respective  expenditure  of  water  as  steam.  The  acenracy  of  this  mea- 
sure depends  on  the  physical  fact  of  the  eonstaney  of  the  latent  and  sensible 
heat  in  steam  of  all  tcmperatm'es.  The  author  has  recordeil  twenly-eiglit 
experiments  made  on  twenty-eight  ditferent  ilays,  on  vaporization  from  the 
boiling  point  to  60  lbs.  pressure  above  the  atmosphere,  which  ]n'eseiit  a  re- 
markable connrmation  of  tlie  above  law,  and  show  (hat  (he  relative  clheieney 
of  steam  in  engines  is  due  to  the  manner  of  using  it,  and  not  1(^  any  change 
in  its  chemical  constitution  at  different  pressures.  The  manner  of  eondiieting 
these  exi>eriiiiciits,  and  the  precautions  taken  to  ensure  accurate  results,  are 
detailed  with  great  minuteness. 

The  .author  next  proceeds  to  tre.at  of  the  Locomotive  Engine,  and  to  dis- 
cuss, compare  and  taluilatc  the  facts  relating  to  this  engine  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  he  has  done  those  of  the  stationary  class.  The  qualities  of  the  boiler 
of  the  locomotive  as  an  evaporative  vessel  had  been  discussed  in  the  first 
coniniunic'ition.  The  locomotive  dift'ers  from  the  fixed  non-condensing  en- 
gine only  ill  the  use  of  the  blast,  and  the  same  method  of  measuring  the  eficets 
of  the  sAeam  are  applicable  to  both,  l-^xiierimenters  on  the  locomotive  have 
generally  attempted  to  determine  the  amount  of  resistauce  oiqiosed  to  its 
progress  in  preference  to  ascertaining  the  power  expended  in  overcoming  the 
resistance.  The  exact  solution  of  either  of  these  questions  would  furnish  all 
that  is  wanted ;  but  the  ascertaining  the  total  resistance  by  an  aiiah  sis  of  its 
several  constituents  is  attended  with  great  difficulties,  as  the  forces  to  which 
they  are  to  be  referred  are  so  exceedingly  iiumerous  and  variable,  (hat  the 
assigning  the  exact  value  to  each  at  any  one  velocity  has  hitherto  eluded  the 
talents  of  those  who  have  pursued  this  method.  M.  de  Pambour  was  the  first 
analyst  whose  labours  will  require  attention.  The  tesnits  given  by  this  author 
iu  his  practical  treatise  on  Locomotive  Engines  on  Railways  were  compared 
by  Mr.  Parkes  with  the  results  which  he  bad  obtained  when  experimenting 
on  an  engine  of  precisely  a  similar  character,  and  discrepancies  presented 
themselves  which  appeared  totally  irreconcilable.  These  and  other  circum- 
stances led  the  author  to  consider,  whether  the  resistance  to  traction  would 
proiierly  be  deduced  from  the  laws  of  gravitation,  or  whether  any  certain  re- 
sults would  be  derived  as  to  the  amount  of  resistance  on  a  level  from  obser- 
vations on  engines  and  trains  moving  down  inclined  planes.  The  great  object 
seemed  to  be  to  discover  some  criterion  of  the  mechanical  effect  produced  by 
a  locomotive  at  all  velocities,  which  would  apply  as  practically  and  as  dis- 
tinctly to  a  locomotive  as  duty  to  a  pumping  engine,  or  horse  power  to  a 
rotatory  engine.    If  this  were  possible,  it  seems  of  far  less  importance  to 


ia39.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


135 


ilistingiiisli  the  piecise  value  of  cacli  particular  unit  of  resistance,  than  to  de- 
teriuine  the  relative  sura  of  resistance  and  the  relative  expendititrc  of  power 
at  all  velocities  and  under  all  circumstances.     Now  the  term  duty  may  be  ap- 
jdied  in  tlie  strictest  sense  of  the  term  to   the  work   done  by  a  locomotive 
engine ;  for  whether  the  engine  drag  a  load  whose  resistance  is  8  Ihs.  per 
ton,  or  whether  a  weight  of  8  lbs.  for  each  ton  of  matter  moved  descending 
over  a  pidley  and   attached  to  the  load,  be  considered  as  the  moving  force, 
the  result  is  the  same.     If,  then,  the  tractive  force,  or  resistance  per  ton  of 
matter  in  motion,  which  is  the  real  load  on  the  engine,  be  ascertained,  the 
whole  effect  is  found   by  multiplying  tliis  sum  by  the  space  jiassed  over  in 
feet ;  and  the  consumption  of  water  as  steam  and  of  eo!;o  being  known,  we 
have   all  tlio   elements   requisite   for  determining  the  duty  [lerfiirmed  Iiy  the 
steam  or  coke.     The  ju-cssure   against  the  pistons  may  he  decbiced  from  the 
sum  of  tlie  resistances  first  calculated  on  the  assumed  resistance  overcome  .it 
the  velocity  of  the  engine  in  each  experiment ;  and   the  pressure  on  the  pis- 
tons may  also  be  deduced  from  tlic  ratio  of  the  volumes  of  the  steam  and 
water  consumed.     The  results  which  may  be  olitained  on  these  principles  are 
tabulated,  for  the  experiments  of  M.  de  Panibour,  Robert  Stephenson,  and 
Dr.  Lariluer.     In  .mother  table  the  author  has  recorded  the  reduction  of 
each  of  these  exiieriments  to  terms  of  horses'  power,  and  has  exhibited  under 
that  denomination  the   absolute  power  resulting  from  the  steam  used — that 
reipiired  to  overcome  the  assigned  resistance — their   differences — and  the 
power  whicli  balances  the  gross  and  useful  duty.     The  construction  of  these 
most  elaliorate  tables  is  described  in  great  detail,  and  the  consetpiences  which 
follow  from  tlie  tests  thus  obtained  are  fully  stated,  and  the  author  comes  to 
the  conclusion,  th.at  results  inconsistent  with  the  capabilities  of  tlie  locomo- 
tive are  perceptible  in  almost  every  one  of  the  expei'iments.     A  condensing 
engine  ]daced  on  wheels,  with  water  of  condensation  transported  for  its  sup- 
ply, and  m.ide  to   drag  a  train   along  a  railway,  woul.l  require  the  same  ex- 
penditure of  water  as  steam,  to  produce  a  given  effect,  as  if  fixed  ;  a  non-con- 
densing engine  also  is  one  and  the  same  machine,  whether  fixed  or  locomotive, 
excepting  that  the  latter  must  consume  more  power  than  the  former,  to  do 
etpial  work,  at  like  pressures,  by  the  amount  of  the  additional  resistance  aris- 
ing from  the  contraction  of  its  eduction  pipes,  in  order  to  produce  a  fierce 
blast  of  steam  through  the  chimney.     Troni  these  and  other  causes  the  fixed 
non-condensing  engine  must  be  the  more   economical  of  the  two  ;  hut  if  the 
results  derived  from  M.  de  Pamlionr's  data  be  correct,  we  must  acknowledge 
the  fixed  non-condensing  engine,  with  its  simple  atmospheric  resistance,  to  lie 
fjir  inferior  in  economy  of  steam  to  the  locomotive,  with  its  ]dus  .atmospheric 
resistance.     The  experiments  by  Dr.  Lardner  were  made  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  the  resistance  opposed  to  progressive  motion  on  railways.     They 
cojisisted  in  dismissing  trains  at  various  speeds  from  the  summit  of  inclined 
planes,  and  in  observing  their  velocity  when  it  became  uniform,  the  resistance 
at  such  velocity  lieing  equal  to  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity  down  the  in- 
clined plane.     The  results  of  these  .are  tabid.ited  in  tlie  same  manner  as  the 
preceding,  and  the  most   singular  discrepancies  present  themselves.     For  in- 
stance, it  would  appear  that  in  one  particular  case  a  duty  of  double  the  amount 
of  that  effected  by  the  condensing  engine  was  performed  by  an  equal  expen- 
diture of  jiower;  that  compared  with  a  fixed  non-condensing  engine  at  equal 
pressure,  the  locomotive,  tliongh  labouring  against  the  heavy  counter-pressure 
of  the  blast  from  which  the  other  is  free,  is  assumed  to  have  jierformed  equal 
work  with  less  than  one-half  the  cxjicnditure  of  power.  That  if  the  resistance 
assigned  by  Dr.  Lardner  as  opposed  to  the  progressive  motion  of  the  train  be 
correct,  tlic  efticiency  of  the  steam   in  the  locomotive   is   more   than   double 
that  obtained  by  the  best  condensing  engines;  more  than  treble  that  derived 
from  stationary  non-condensing  engines,  and  c(pial  to  the  performance  of  a 
Cornish  expansive  engine,   doing  a  ,^iO  million  duty  with   a  bushel  of  coals. 
\\"Mi  such  results  before  us,  the  resistances  assigned  as  opposed  to  and  over- 
come by  the  locomotive  at  different  velocities,  must  lie  reganled  as  utterly 
iMconsistcnt  with  reality,  and  as  resting  on  no  solid  foundation. 

The  preceding  results  show  also  that  errors  have  crept  in  by  the  adoption 
of  the  theoretical  method  of  reducing  undnlatoi'y  surfaces  to  a  level.  M.  de 
I'anibonr  extends  the  length  of  the  road  as  a  compensation  for  the  acilivities 
or  for  the  help  afforded  by  the  hank  engines,  and  Dr.  Lardner  diminishes  the 
time  of  the  trip  to  that  which  he  assumes  would  be  occupied  in  ]ierformingit 
on  a  dead  level.  If  the  jirinciples  on  which  these  corrections  for  the  acclivi- 
ties and  declivities  are  made  be  correct,  other  facts  than  we  are  at  present 
acquainted  with  must  be  taken  into  account  before  it  can  he  demonstrated 
that  a  given  power  will  convey  a  given  load  at  some  certain  increased  velocity 
along  a  level  compared  with  the  actual  velocity  along  any  given  undulating 
line.  The  resistances  w^iich  enter  into  the  comjiosition  of  the  sum  of  the 
forces  are  ever  varying  to  such  an  extent,  tliat  it  may  be  doubted  whetlicr  the 
theoretical  level  be  not  a  pure  fiction  with  reference  to  the  jiractical  results 
of  the  experiment. 

The  cficctive  jiower  of  a  locomotive  engine,  or  the  excess  of  po\rer  after 
overcoming  its  proper  friction  and  tlie  resistance  from  the  blast,  is  solely  ex- 
pended in  the  generation  of  momentum.  This  which  is  the  product  of  the 
mass  and  the  velocity  represents  the  useful  jnecbanical  effort  exerted  by  the 
steam,  and  may  always  be  ascertained  under  all  the  practical  circumstances 
of  railway  traffic.  Tlie  consumiition  of  power  as  ^v.atcr,  in  the  shape  of  steam, 
is  a  third  quantity  which  may  also  be  readily  ascertained.  The  application 
which  may  be  made  of  the  ,ibove  data  is  comprehended  in  the  following  pro- 
positions. First,  that  equal  momenta  would  result  at  all  velocities  from  an 
equal  amount  of  jiower  expended  in  equal  times  by  tlie  same  engine,  if  the 
forces  opposed  to  progressive  inolion  and  to  the  effective  use  of  steam  in  the 


engines  were  uniform  at  all  velocities.  Secondly,  the  difference  between  the 
momenta  generated  bv  a  unit  of  power  in  a  given  time  at  various  velocities, 
measures  the  difference  in  the  sum  of  the  resistances  opposed  to  the  power  at 
those  velocities.  Having  ascertained  the  gross  weight  of  an  engine  tender 
and  train— their  mean  velocity— and  the  expenditure  of  water  as  steam  dur- 
ing  the  trip,  simple  computations  will  inform  ns  of 

1.  The  mechanical  effect  realized  by  a  given  power  at  all  velocities. 

2.  The  totiil  increase  or  decrease  of  resistance  at  all  velocities. 

3.  The  ratios  which  the  increase  or  decrease  of  resistance  at  difterent  velo- 
cities bear  to  the  ratios  of  those  velocities. 

Two  other  results  also  follow  from  the  above,  and  which   may  he  terined 
tlrc  commercial  results,  viz.  the  amount  of  gross  and  useful  tractive  etVect 
realized  bv  an  e(|ual  expenditure  of  power  at  all  velocities.     The  difference 
between  these  is  a  useless  quantity  in  a  practical  sense,  being  the  costly  waste 
of  power  incident  to  the  locomotive  functions  of  the  engine  and  tender  over 
and  above  the  waste  arising  from  the  iinaseertained  and  ineffective  portion  of 
the  whole  power  required  for  the  blast.     The  reductions  and  computations 
necessary  for  the  exhibition  and  development  of  these  views  are  contained  ill 
two  tables.     Tliev  relate  to  forty-nine  experimeuts,  being  those  already  re- 
f.'ned  to.  and  those  by  Mr.  \.  Wood,  on  the  Great  Western,  and  T^ondon  and 
Birmingham  liailvvay,  and  sonic  others.     One  of  these  tables  contains  the 
velocity  of  the  engines,  the  con,suniption  of  water  as  steam,  the  loads,  the 
absolute  momenta  per  second ;  the  momenta  generated  by  equal  power  in 
equal  times,  viz.  hv  1  lb.  of  water  as  steam  per  second  ;  the  weights  of  the 
gross  and  useful  loads  moved  by  equal  powers,  viz.  by  one  cubic  foot  ofw.ater 
as  steam,  at  the  velocity  of  each   experiment,  with  various  other  elements. 
The  other  table  contains  a  summary  of  the  ratios  of  the  velocities  and  of 
their  s((uarcs,   brougbt   into  juxta-position  with  the  r.atios  of  the  power  ex- 
pended to  produce  equal  momenta,  equal  gross  and  equal  useful  effects,  by  the 
comparison  of  pairs  of  experiments  on  the  engines  given  in  the  preceding 
table.     Tliis  t.-ihle  also  shows  the  influence  of  velocity  in  the  expenditure  of 
power  to  jiroduce  equal  mechanical  and  equal  commercial  effects ;  and  the 
amount  of  loss  attributable  to  the  increase  of  resistance  at  the  higher  veloci- 
ties.    The  author  discusses  in  great  detail  the  various  circumstances  of  these 
experiments,  and  flic  inferences  and  practical  conclusions  which  may  be  de- 
duced therefrom  :  and  comes  to  the  conclusion,  that  the  determinatioit  of  the 
performance  of  locomotive  engines  by  the  methods  here  set  forth  is  .as  prac- 
ticalile,  exact,  and  demonstrative  of  their  relative  powers  and  dynamic  ex- 
celleuee,  as  the  determination  of  duty  done  bv  pumping  engines. 

The  intensitv  of  the  pressm-e  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  piston  arising 
from  the  blast' has  been  but  imperfectly  stated.  By  some  the  discharge  of 
the  steam  has  hccu  likened  to  a  jet,  and  considered  continuous.  But  an  at- 
tentive observer  can  appreciate  by  his  ear  that  an  interval  exists  between  the 
alternate  discharges  of  steam  from  the  two  cylinders.  That  these  juts  are 
]ieriodic  and  uot  continuous,  is  also  distinctly  evidenced  by  the  audible  pulsa- 
tions in  the  chimney,  even  .at  the  very  highest  velocities  of  an  engine,  and 
their  duration  may  be  measured  at  lower  speeds.  Upon  this  intermittent 
action  of  the  blast  "de|iend,  in  a  great  measure,  the  resultant  pressure  against 
the  jiiston,  and  the  production  of  a  sufiicient  current  of  air  through  the  fire, 
both  which  eft'ects  would  he  malerially  changed  in  intensity  liy  the  substitu- 
tion of  a  continuous  for  a  periodic  current.  The  precise  duration  of  the  jet 
or  of  the  time  of  the  steam  cvticuiiting  the  cylinder,  can  only  be  determined 
by  dii-crl  and  careful  experiments ;  hut  its  period  may  be  ascertained  within 
definite  limits;  for  since  a  single  discharge  is  completed  within  the  time  oc- 
cupied by  the  piston  in  accomplishing  a  luilf  stroke,  and  the  pauses  between 
two  successive  discharges  .are  distinctly  perceptible,  a  single  blast  cannot  oc- 
ciqiy  the  fourth  p.art  of  the  time  of  the  revolution  of  the  crank  shaft,  .and  very 
lu-obably  does  not  exceed  the  eighth  part,  or  the  period  of  aqu.arter  stroke  of 
the  piston,  ruder  no  circumstances,  then,  can  f  lie  pressure  from  the  blast 
oppose  the  jiiston  much  longer  than  during  one  fourth  of  the  stroke.  With 
an  active  pressure,  then,  of  ;iO  lbs.  ]ier  square  inch,  the  mean  resistaiicc  from 
the  lilast  would  not  be  greater  than  7^  lbs.,  and  with  a  iircssure  of  15  lbs. 
not  grci.te-  than  ;i:f  lbs.  per  square  inch,  against  the  pistons.  The  author 
then  proceeds  to  cite  several  observations  and  experiments  nia.le  by  himself, 
which  arc  confirmatory  of  the  preceding  argument  respecting  the  lilast,  and 
he  was  led  couclusivelv  to  the  fact,  that  one  fifth  of  the  power  of  the  engine 
experimented  upon,  at"  working  pressures  of  20  lbs.  and  !.">  lbs.,  was  .absorbed 
in  blowing  the  fire  ;  and  that  the  escape  of  the  steam  from  the  cylinder  was 
four  times  swifter  than  the  motion  of  the  piston. 

The  author  lastly  treats  of  the  expenditure  of  power  for  a  given  effect  by 
fixed  and  locomotive  non-condensing  engines.  But  few  experiments  on  the 
expendifiire  of  steam  for  a  given  cfiect  by  non-condensing  tt.atimiary  engines 
have  been  made.  The  lel.ative  consumption  of  fixed  condensing  and  noii- 
condensing  engines  has  been  treated  of  by  the  late  Mr.  Charles  Sylvester,  of 
Derby,  whose  knowledge  and  accurate  theoretical  an,alysis  of  the  subject  are 
showii  by  the  close  accordance  of  his  conclusions  with  the  facts  established 
on  two  engines  of  these  classes  at  certain  working  pressures.  His  conclusion 
that  the  relative  economy  of  these  engines  will  be  as  the  quantities  of  steam 
consumed,  or  .as  1  to  1-7'J,  at  those  pressures,  is  accurately  confimed  by  the 
results  here  recorded.  Mr.  Sylvester  .ilso  showed,  that  by  increasing  the 
pressure  upon  the  same  nou-eondensing,  and  by  eiil,argi|!ig  the  area  of  the 
condensing  engine's  cylinder  and  .air  pump,  so  as  to  mainfliin  the  steam  in  it 
at  a  uniform  iiressure'iier  square  inch  for  all  loads,  the  economy  of  the  former 
would  gradually  approach  and  fimdly  eqn.al  that  of  the  latter.  The  results 
obtained  in  the  preceding  part  of  the  paper,  furnish  nnincrous  comparisons 

T  2 


136 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEF.R  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Aprii., 


Ijetween  tlie  locoiiiolivc  aiul  fixei]  non-condensing  engines,  and  the  consump- 
tion of  tlie  latter  lias  been  used,  together  with  the  condensing  engine,  as  the 
test  of  the  acenrary  of  the  data  of  resistance  assigned  to  the  former  by  the 
various  analysis.  The  accurate  determination  of  the  expenditure  of  steam  by 
the  same  locomotive  engine,  in  which  the  values  of  the  friction  and  of  the 
blast  pressure  were  ascertained,  admits  of  the  consumption  of  water  as  steam 
for  given  effects  being  determined,  and  thus  narrows  the  grounds  of  doubt, 
and  establishes  in(U'e  correct  data  for  ascertaining  the  real  resistance  opposed 
to  progressive  motion  on  railways.  Tlie  ajiplication  of  these  principles,  as 
borne  out  by  the  experiments  of  the  author,  and  their  particular  bearing  on 
the  experiments  which  have  been  the  subject  of  the  previous  ample  and  de- 
tailed discussion,  form  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Parkes  series  of  eonimunica- 
tions  on  steaiu  boilers  and  steam  engines. 


ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS. 
.•ird  Feb.  1840,  W.  R.  Hamilton,  Esq.,  Hon.  Fellow  in  the  Chair. 

J.  H.  Good,  jun.,  was  elected  an  Associate. 

A  paper  was  read  by  Ambrose  Poynter,  Esq.,  Hon.  Sec.  entitled,  "  tome 
remarks  on  arnhesijue  decornfioii^,  particulnrly  those  of  the  Vatican^  Au 
abstract  of  this  |iaper  appeared  in  the  last  months'  Journal. 

It  is  requisite  that  we  should  notice  an  error  which  occnned  in  the  report 
of  Mr.  Poynter's  jiaper  on  arabesque  ornaments,  in  oiu'  last  number.  Some 
extracts  had  been  selected  from  it,  which  owing  to  the  unavoidable  absence 
of  the  Editor,  were  inserted  without  tlie  necessary  connexion  being  supplied, 
and  were,  moreover,  unfortunately  misjilaccd  in  jninting.  We  think  this  ex- 
planation due  to  Mr.  Poynter — we  hope  that  we  shall  be  able,  at  some  future 
opportunity,  to  print  this  very  interesting  paper  in  full,  illustrated  by  en- 
granngs. 

17tli  Feb.,  John  Shaw,  Esq.,  Fellow  in  the  Chair. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Smith  read  a  paper  "  on  the  properties  of  rririoim  stones  used 
for  l/nit/linr/. 

At  a  Special  General   Meeting,  21st  Feb.,  11.  E.  Kendall,  Fellow  in  the 
Chair. 

It  was  Resolved — That  the  President  Earl  De  Grey  be  respectfully  re- 
quested to  present  to  her  Majesty  the  following  address  on  the  part  of  the 
Institute. 

ADDHESS. 

The  President,  Vice  Presidents  and  Members  of  the  Institute  of  British 
Architects,  dee))ly  impressed  with  the  honour  conferred  upon  them  by  your 
Majesty's  most  gracious  patronage,  beg  leave  humbly  to  oft'er  their  sincere 
congratulations  on  the  occasion  of  your  Majesty's  auspicious  marriage. 

That  every  blessing  of  this  life  may  attend  your  Majesty  and  your  illus- 
trious f^onsort  throughout  a  long  and  prosperous  reign  is  the  earnest  prayer 
of  your  Majesty's  most  loyal  and  dutiful  subjects. 

2d  March  1840,  H.  E.  Kendall  Fellow  in  the  chair.  The  following  gen- 
tlemen were  elected  Fellows : — Charles  Parish,  George  Alexander,  and  David 
Urandon  from  the  class  of  .Associates  ; — Associate,  Evan  Christian. 

T.  L.  Donaldson,  Esq.  Fellow,  read  a  paper  "  oti  tlie  recent  discoveries  made 
at  the  Porta  Mayijiore,  Home,"  conmiunicated  by  Signer  Canina,  Hon.  and 
Cor.  Member. 

Mr.  C.  11.  Smith  read  the  conclusion  of  his  paper  "on  the  properties  of 
stone  used  for  the  purposes  of  building. 

Monday,  March  16,  George  Moore,  Fellow,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  :  as  Fellow,  Edwanl  J'Ausou,  jun. ; 
as  Associates,  William  Hinton  Campbell,  of  Bath,  and  George  Pownall. 

Anthony  Salvin,  Fellow,  presented  ten  guineas  for  the  purchase  of  books. 

T.  1,.  Donaldson,  Esq.,  read  a  paper  on  a  system  of  framing  for  floors  and 
roofs  of  large  s|ian,  and  applicable  to  bridges,  whetlier  of  timber  or  iron,  com- 
municated by  Heir  Laves,  architect  of  Hanover,  Hon.  and  Cor.  Member. 

Question  respecting  the  origin  of  the  vertical  line  in  architecture,  and  the 
return  to  the  horizontal  Hue  in  Italian  liuildings.  By  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson, 
Hon.  Fellow. 

In  offering  the  following  observations  to  the  consideration  of  the  Institute, 
it  is  not  my  object  to  suggest,  but  to  elicit  an  opinion  upon  the  subject; 
feeling  as  1  do  that  it  would  be  jiresumption  for  me  to  do  more  than  state 
the  facts  which  have  led  to  my  remarks,  when  I  bad  an  opportunity  of  sub- 
mitting it  to  those  who  are  so  ca|iable  of  giving  it  a  satisfactory  exjilanation. 

It  is  universally  admitted  that  the  principal  features  which  distingiush 
Greek  from  what  may  be  called  Church  Architecture,  are  the  horizontal  line 
in  the  former,  and  the  vertical  in  the  latter ;  and  some  have  supposed  that  to 
church  architecture  is  to  be  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  vertical  line.  That  it 
is  common  to  buildings  of  the  Saracens,  the  Lombards,  the  Saxons,  and  the 
Normans,  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  ])ointcd  style,  is  sufficiently  obvious : 
thus  far  our  experience  tells  us  we  have  traced  it,  but  beyond  this,  conjecture 
has  not  attributed  to  it  an  existence,  nor  has  its  origin  been  ascribed  to  any 
more  remote  source. 

In  the  oldest  Saracenic  Mosques,  erected  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  cen- 
tury, the  style  of  architecture  is  evidently  borrowed  from  Roman  buildings. 
Their  arches  are  simply  imitative  of  the  Roman  style;  the  windows  though 


small  have  a  round  arched  head;  tlie  corridors  are  formed  of  avenues  of  single 
slender  columns  supporting  round  arches,  and  the  type  of  the  Roman  original 
is  readily  traced;  as  in  the  earliest  churches  of  Europe,  which  also  present 
the  round  arch  of  the  Roman  style.  But  in  both  these  we  find  the  lines 
already  vertical ;  and  that  this  might  be  expected  from  what  we  see  in  the 
moiuuncnts  of  ancient  Rome,  is  the  point  to  which  I  wish  jiaiticularly  to  ad- 
vert. 

Those  buildings  erected  by  the  Romans  in  imitation  of  the  Greek,  as  temples, 
and  some  other  monuments  of  a  borrowed  style,  present  the  horizontal  line 
of  that  architecture  to  which  they  really  belonged,  and  of  which  they  were 
copies;  and  since  we  find  this  to  be  the  case  in  all  countries  of  modern 
Europe  where  Greek  architecture  is  imitated  (even  though  it  is  notorious  that 
the  vertical  line  is  the  prevailing  feature  of  our  taste)  we  cannot  he  surprised 
that  the  same  should  have  been  done  li\  the  architects  of  Rome.  But  when- 
ever the  Romans  attempted  any  thing  of  their  own,  in  which  they  thought  a 
deviation  from  Greek  models  was  allowable,  we  no  longer  perceive  the  hori- 
zontal, but  the  vertical  line  predominating  ;  and  to  such  an  extent,  that  even 
a  Greek  entablature  is  sacrificed  to  this  their  favourite  sentiment,  being  broken 
up  into  detached  parts  and  comjielled  to  project  and  recede,  in  order  to  allow 
the  vertical  line  to  pass  continuously  through  it  to  the  summit  of  the  build- 
ing. 

In  an  arch  of  triumph,  a  Roman  composition,  though  the  mouldings  and 
many  other  details  are  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  the  vertical  line  commeuces 
with  the  pedestal  of  the  columns  appended  to  its  side,  and  extending  upwards 
with  the  cohunn,  breaks  through  the  entablature,  which  it  obliges  to  come 
forward  to  earn-  out  and  mark  its  direction,  requires  a  projection  of  the  attic 
to  correspond  with  the  capital  above  the  cornice,  and  terminates  in  a  statue  ; 
thus  continuing  it  uninterruptedly  from  the  base  of  the  sunuuit  of  the  build- 
ing. This  is  not  confined  to  an  arch  of  triumph ;  the  same  occurs  in  other 
monuments  ;  a  remarkable  instance  of  which  may  be  cited  in  the  remains  of 
the  Forum  Palladium,  or  Forum  of  Nero,  (according  to  the  Chevalier  Bunsen), 
where  the  whole  entablature  is  made  to  advance  from  the  face  of  the  wall  to 
the  distance  of  several  feet,  and  is  crowned  by  a  similar  iirojection  of  the 
attic,  in  order  to  correspond  with  the  vertical  line  of  the  column  which  sup- 
ports it ;  and  the  same  taste  for  breaking  up  the  horizontal  line  of  Greek 
entablatures  may  be  seen  in  numerous  Roman  buildings,  the  neplus  ultra  of 
which  occurs  in  the  monstrosities  of  Petra. 

Thus  then  we  find  the  vertical  line  did  not  originate  with  the  architecture 
of  Christian  Europe;  it  occurs  in  the  mommients  of  ancient  Rome;  and  this 
interesting  question  naturally  suggests  itself, — whence  did  it  proceed,  was  it 
of  Italian  origin  ? — In  the  Rome  of  a  Christian  era  the  same  occurs  through- 
out its  churches;  which  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  those  churches  are  not  of 
what  has  been  termed  Gothic,  but  of  Greco-Roman  or  of  Cinque-cento  style  ; 
and  in  these  the  vertical  line  extends  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  part. 
Even  domes  and  cupolas  are  not  exempt  from  its  intrusion;  it  commences 
with  the  basement  of  the  column,  and  extending  ujiwards  through  the  pro- 
jecting entablature  and  the  attic,  it  continues  in  bands  over  the  whole  convex 
surface  of  the  dome,  requires  a  corresponding  pilaster  or  half  column  in  the 
lantern,  and  exhausts  itself  only  in  the  extremity  of  the  cross,  or  whatever 
point  terminates  the  building:  a  good  example  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
cupola  of  St.  Peter's,  whose  facade,  a  memento  of  Bernini,  not  only  unites 
the  most  glaring  defects  in  taste,  hut  affords  an  illustration  of  the  worst  ap-' 
plication  of  the  vertical  line.  After  viewing  these  monuments,  and  observing 
the  feeling  which  pervades  them,  eveiT  one  must  be  surjirised  at  the  sight  of 
the  s])lendid  palazzi  of  Rome,  and  other  cities  of  Italy.  In  these  we  no  longer 
perceive  the  vertical,  but  the  horizontal  line  predominating,  which  is  carried 
out  with  wonderful  effect,  both  in  the  rich  and  splendid  cornices  that  crown 
the  building,  and  in  the  string  courses  beneath  the  windows.  In  these  no 
broken  entahlature  injures  the  barmouy  of  the  straight  line,  no  sinecure 
columns  are  suspended  at  the  side  of  the  walls  to  do  nothing  but  spoil  the 
effect  of  the  whole  mass,  and  we  perceive  that  their  architects  did  not  put 
together  a  number  of  details  to  form  a  whole,  but  conceived  the  whole,  and 
made  the  details  accessory  to  the  general  effect.  So  evident  indeed  is  this, 
that  the  details  are  sometimes  bad,  and  still  the  whole  is  excellent ;  as  in 
many  jiictiires  of  the  great  masters,  where  the  composition  and  execution  of 
the  painting  are  of  far  greater  importance,  aud  far  more  striking  to  an  artist 
than  the  imperfection  of  an  accessory' !  like  the  sandal  in  the  picture  of 
Apelles. 

Whence  came  it  that  Italy  adojited  this  horizontal  style,  in  which  she  has 
given  such  magnificent  ami  graceful  monuments  '  They  are  her  own ;  and 
no  Greek  models  were  the  origin  of  these  noble  conceptions.  This  is  another 
interesting  question ;  and  it  is  w  ith  a  view  to  obtain  some  explanation  res- 
pecting the  origin  of  tlie  vertical  sli/le  in  ancient  Rome,  and  the  return  to  the 
horizontal  style  in  the  palaces  of  modern  Italy,  that  I  have  offered  the  fore- 
going remarks  to  the  Society  ;  fully  jiersuaded  that  many  here  present  have 
been  struck  with  the  same  curious  facts,  and  are  enabled  to  offer  au  explana- 
tion of  them,  which  ray  inexperience  on  such  a  subject  forbids  me  to  suggest. 


SELECT  COMMlTTEl'i  ON  RAILAVAYS. 

[second  report  to  the  house  of  commons.  I 

The  select  committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  communication 

by  railw,iy.s,  and  who  were  empoivcred  to  report  llicir  observations,  together 

with  the  minutes  of  evidence  taken  before  them  from  time  to  time,  to  the 

House  ;  have  further  considered  the  matters  to  them  refeiTed,  and  have  to 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


137 


report,  llmt  lliev  have  taken  into  tlieir  consideration  the  following  clause 
which  has  heen  referred  to  them  by  the  House  : — 

"Ami  he  it  enacted,  that  no  bridge  or  tunnel,  or  approaches  to  the  same, 
for  carrying  a  turnpike-road  over  or  under  any  part  of  a  railway  or  canal, 
shall  be  made  or  constructed  of  less  width  between  the  fences,  walls,  or  para- 
pets thereof  than  21  feet:  nor  shall  any  bridge  or  tunnel,  or  approaches  to 
the  s.ame.  for  carrying  any  other  public  carriage-rond  over  or  under  any  part 
of  a  railway  or  canal  be  made  or  constructed  of  less  width  between  the  fences, 
walls,  or  parapets  thereof  than  16  feet ;  nor  in  any  case  less  than  so  much 
greater  width,  not  exceeding  30  feet,  as  may  be  the  average  width  of  the 
turnpike  or  other  public  carriage-road  for  100  yards  on  each  side  of  that 
part  of  the  railway  or  canal  where  any  bridge  or  tunnel  is  inlende.l  to  Ije 
made  or  constructed."  .      ,     ,     „    .  ,      . 

Your  Committee  have  upon  this  subject  examined  Mr.  Palk,  the  legal  ad- 
viser of  the  Chairman  of  Committees  iri  the  House  of  Lords,  and  it  appears 
from  his  evidence,  tliat  about  the  end  of  tlie  year  18,S6,  complaints  were  made 
to  the  Chairman  of  the  Committees,  and  he  introduced  clauses  into  all  sub- 
sequent railway  bills,  containing  the  provisions  here  anne.ved.  and  which 
vour  Committee  will  now  proceed  to  compare  with  the  clause  referred  for 
iheir  consideration. 

The  rule  which  since  that  period  has,  with  few  exceptions,  been  adopted  by 
the  Chairman  of  Commitiees  in  the  House  ol  Lords,  provides  that  the  width 
of  turnpike  roads  passing  under  bridges  or  tunnels  should  be  2.5  feet,  and 
the  width  of  highways  passing  under  bridges  or  tunnels  should  be  15  feet. 

The  clause  referred  to  your  Committee  for  their  consideration  provides, 
that  no  bridge  or  tunnel  for  cariying  a  turnpike-road  under  any  part  of  a 
railroad  or  canal  shall  be  constructed  of  less  Hidth  than  21  feet,  and  no 
bridge  or  tunnel  for  carrying  any  puljlie  carriage-road  under  any  part  of  a 
railway  or  canal,  .shall  be  constructed  of  less  width  than  IG  feet. 

It  w  ill  be  perceived,  therefore,  that  as  regards  a  turnpike-road,  the  clause 
referred  to  your  Committee  requires  a  less  width  by  four  feet  than  has  been 
required  by  the  rule  adopted  m  the  House  of  Lords,  while,  as  regards  a 
highway  or  public  carriage-road,  an  additional  width  of  one  foot  is  required 
more  than  has  been  deemed  necessary  by  the  regulations  of  the  House  of 
Lords.  These  regulations  further  provide,  that  the  height  of  a  bridge  or 
tunnel  passing  under  a  railway  should  Ije  16  feet.  This  appears  to  your 
Committee  to  be  also  an  important  regulation.  It  will  be  found  in  the  evi- 
dence aiuiexed  to  the  second  report  of  the  Committee  on  Railways  in  the 
last  session,  that  it  has  been  especially  provided  that  the  bridges  or  tunnels 
for  carrying  turnpike-roads  under  the  Brighton  Railway  shall  he  IS  feet  in 
height,  and  it  is  stated  that  this  height  was  insisted  upon  for  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  farmers  anil  hop  growers  in  that  district.  Tlie  rule  of  the  House 
of  Ijords  also  requires  that  the  width  of  a  turnpike-road  upon  a  bridge  pass- 
ing over  a  railway  must  be  2.5  feet,  and  the  width  ot  a  public  carriage-way 
15  feet,  with  a  parapet-wall  in  e.ach  case  four  feet  high.  A  reference  to  llie 
analytical  table  in  the  appen  lix  to  the  second  report  of  the  Railw  ay  Com- 
mittee of  last  session,  wilt  show  that  these  regulations  luave  been  introduced 
into  all  the  Railway  Acts  since  the  year  18.36. 

Your  Committee  would  now  recommend  to  the  House  that  in  all  original 
Railway  Acts,  and  in  all  Railway  Acts  authorizing  new  works  in  the  present 
session  of  Parliament,  the  rule  of  the  House  of  Lords  should  be  adopted  as 
to  works  to  be  carried  into  execution  under  the  provisions  of  those  Acts  re- 
spectively, with  this  addition,  that  in  every  bridge  or  tunnel  tlie  arches 
should  spring  from  abutijients  of  not  less  height  than  10  feet.  Your  Com- 
mittee would  also  recommend  that  in  all  Railway  Acts  authorizing  further 
works,  passed  in  any  future  session  of  Parliament,  the  rule  shall  be  as  fol- 
lows, with  respect  to  works  to  he  carried  into  execution  under  the  provision 
of  those  Acts  respectively  : 

Whenever  a  turnpike-road  passes  under  a  railway,  the  width  of  the  bridge 
or  tunnel  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than  30  feet,  and  there  shall  be  on  eacli  side 
footways  of  2i  feet  in  width.  Whenever  a  public  carriage-road  passes  under 
a  railway,  the  width  of  the  bridge  or  tunnel  shall  he  not  less  than  20  feet, 
and  there  shall  be  on  each  side  tootways  of  18  inches  wide;  the  height  of 
the  bridge  or  tunnel  shall  in  no  case  be  less  than  16  feet,  and  the  arches  shall 
spring  from  abutments  of  not  less  than  10  feet  in  height. 

•Similar  provisions  might  also,  with  advantage,  be  made  applicable  to  all 
canal  bills  which  shall  in  future  be  introduced  into  Parliament. 


Statistics  op  Gas. — For  lighting  Loudon  and  its  suburbs  with  gas,  there 
are  18  public  gas  works  ;  12  public  gas  work  companies  ;  2,800,000/.  capital 
employeil  in  works,  pipes,  tanks,  gas-holders,  apparatus;  -150,000/.  yearly 
revenue  derived;  180,000  tons  of  coal  used  in  the  year  for  making  gas; 
1,460,000,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  made  in  the  year;  134,300  private  burners 
supplied  to  about  400,000  consumers  ;  30,400  public  or  street  consumers. — 
About  2650  of  these  are  in  the  city  of  London. — 380  lamplighters  employed  ; 
17G  gas-holders,  several  of  them  double  ones,  capable  of  storing  5,500,000 
cuoic  feet ;  890  tons  of  coals  used  in  the  retorts  on  the  shortest  day,  in  24 
hours;  7,120,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  used  in  the  longest  night,  say  24th  De- 
cember; about  2500  persons  are  employed  in  the  metropolis  alone  in  this 
branch  of  manufacture ;  between  1822  and  1827  the  quantity  nearly  doubled 
itself,  and  that  in  five  years  ;  between  1827  and  1837  it  doubled  itself  again. 

Portsmouth  Flo.\tixg  BRiDGE.-;-This  bridge,  which  will  shortly  be 
opened,  is  seventy  feet  in  length,  and  sixty  in  breadth,  and  is  capable  of  hold- 
ing on  each  side,  besides  passengers,  two  rows  of  carriages  seventy  feet  long ; 
she  is  impelled  by  two  engines  of  twenty-horse  power  each,  the  cylinders 
being  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  length  of  the  stroke  three  feet. 
The  average  rate  of  the  engines  will  be  about  thirty  strokes  per  minute,  and 
the  average  speed  about  350  feet  per  minute ;  so  that  she  will  perform  the 
passage  (2200  feet)  in  about  seven  minutes.  She  only  draws,  with  all  her 
machineiy  on  board,  two  feet  and  nine  inches,  and  fifty  tons  additional  weight 
will  only  sink  her  four  inchei. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


The  Kemesis  iron  steam  ship,  165  feet  long,  29  feet  beam.  660  tons,  built  by 
John  Laird,  of  the  Birkenhead  Iron  M'orks,  Livcrpoid,  with  engines  of  120 
horse  power,  made  bj  George  Korresler  and  Cn.  Liverpocd.  On  her  passage 
from  Liverpool  for  Odessa,  she  struck  on  a  sunken  rock  when  going  9  knots 
per  hour  the  damage  she  sustained  w.as  trifling,  requiring  only  about  2i  ewt. 
of  new  iron,  and  12  men  about  6  days  to  repair  it;  not  a  rivet  was  started — 
the  injury  w.is  confined  to  the  part  actually  lihiged  or  cut ;  the  repairs  might 
have  been  cumpleteil  in  three  days  at  Liverpool,  where  every  cnnvenience 
could  have  been  had.  [t  is  stated  by  s<inie  parties,  well  acquainted  with  the 
circumstances,  that  hail  the  vessel  heen  timber  built,  she  would  not  have 
been  got  off  at  all ;  but  all  agree  tliat  had  she  got  oil'  the  repairs  would  have 
been  both  tedious  and  very  expensive.  The  leak  caused  by  the  lilow  was  so 
trifling  that  the  Nemesh  might  have  steamed  for  months  w  itliout  being  obliged 
to  dock.  Ibe  accident  occurred  about  the  lOth  ult..  she  steamed  .300  miles 
afterwards,  w.as  discharged,  docked,  repaired,  reloaded  and  ready  for  sea 
again  by  the  26th  ult.,  with  all  her  stores  and  coals  on  board. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAIL-WAVS. 


CROYDON  RAILWAY. 

Mr.  Cubtlt's  Report  to  tlte  Directors  on  the  Cost  of  constructing  the 
Railioay. 

[M'e  have  given  this  report  in  full,  as  it  contains  a  great  deal  of  valuable 
information  to  the  profession.] 

Gentlemen,  Loinlon,  March  9,  1840. 

'■The  object  of  this  report  is  to  set  forth  the  cost  of  constructing  the  Croy- 
don Railway. 

"  In  performing  this  duty  it  will  be  necessary  to  refer  back  to  a  period 
previous  to  the  general  meeting  in  August  last,  at  which  time  the  affairs  of 
the  Company  were  undergoing  an  examination  by  a  committee  of  proprietors, 
by  whom  I  was  lalled  upon,  to  aid  and  assist  them  in  their  labours. 

''  As  much  dissatisfaction  at  tliat  time  existed  with  regard  to  the  great 
cost  of  the  works,  and  the  little  information  which  existed  on  the  subject,  it 
occurred  to  me  that  nuthiug  could  lend  to  satisfy  the  minds  of  the  proprie- 
tary so  much  as  a  clear  statement  of  ihe  cost  of  all  the  various  parts  of  the 
work,  and  in  a  short  report  of  the  Committee  of  the  7tb  of  August,  I  stated 
the  way  and  manner,  and  the  uiunber  of  heads  in  wdiich  [  recommended  tlie 
accounts  to  be  called  fir,  and  which  were  as  f  jilow : — 

I.  Acts  of  Parliament,  including  all  legal  and  professioiml  charges  of  all 
kinds  incurred  in  soliciting  and  passing  the  various  bills  ;  the  whole 
drawn  out  in  a  detailed  form. 

II.  Land,  buildings,  and  compensations  of  all  kinds  for  the  line  of  rail- 
way, and  stations,  together  with  all  legal  charges  attending  the  same, 
and  the  expenses  of  all  kinds  attendant  lai  obtaining  possession  of  the 
land,  &c.,  in  detail. 

HI.  Karthwork,  bridges,  fencing,  draining,  and  forming  the  line  of  railway, 
as  per  contracts  and  otherwise,  and  also  all  extras  upon  contracts,  set- 
ting forth  in  a  clear  and  detailed  form  the  whole  cost  of  formation,  bridg- 
ing, fencing,  draining.  &ic..  up  to  the  line  of  ballasting. 

IV.  Ballasting,  sleepering.  .and  laying  the  permanent  way  complete,  in- 
cluding all  turn-plates,  sidings,  and  expenses  of  all  kinds  attending  the 
trackways  of  the  line. 

V.  Water  apparatus,  including  engines,  pumps,  standards,  pipes,  and  erec- 
tions of  all  kinds  relative  to  supplying  the  locomotive  engines  with 
water. 

VI.  .Stations,  showing  the  amount  of  contracts,  and  an  account  in  detail 
of  all  extras  thereon. 

VII.  Engine  and  carriage  hou.ses,  workshops,  implements,  machinery  and 
apparatus  of  every  kind,  for  repairing  and  maintaining  the  locomotive 
engines,  (<tc. 

VIII.  Wharfs,  railway  cranes,  and  works  connected  with  the  GrandSurrey 
Canal  Junction. 

IX.  Sundries  of  various  kinds  not  reducible  to  the  above  heads. 

X.  Engineering  and  supervisal  of  all  kinds. 

••Such  were  the  accounts  which  I  recommended  the  Committee  to  obtain, 
and  which  statement  was  remitted  to  the  engineer  as  instructions  to  furnish 
to  me.  in  detail,  the  accounts  as  therein  specified. 

•'This  requisition,  which  involved  much  labour  and  of  necessity  would 
occupy  a  great  length  of  time,  was  most  readily  and  cheerfully  responded  to 
by  Mr.  Gibhs,  who  not  only  ciuseil  the  whole  of  the  engineering  accounts  and 
expenditure  to  be  arranged  in  detail  under  their  respective  heads,  from  HI 
to  IX.  inclusive,  but  induced  Messrs.  Grissel  and  Peto,  the  contractors  for 
the  stations  and  buildings,  to  do  the  same  with  all  tlieir  work,  and  who,  much 
to  their  credit  and  at  a  very  heavy  expense,  furnished  in  detail  a  minute 
account  of  all  the  work  executed  by  them  for  the  Company.- 

"  To  the  heads.  Nus  1,  II.  and  X  ,  I  have  not  received  any  returns,  but  as 
they  form  no  portion  of  the  construction  of  the  railway,  and  the  first  two 
not' being  in  the  engineer's  department,  and  the  last  relating  to  private  and 
personal  accounts  of  the  Company,  may  be  considered  as  sufficient  reasons 
for  not  being  included  in  this  inquiry, 

"  As  it  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  in  a  report  of  tlii ;  kind,  (which 
is  intended  to  afi'ord  as  much  general  information  as  possible  in  the  shortest 
compass,  and  in  a  way  to  be  understood  by  the  general  body  of  the  proprie- 
tors) to  enter  very  minutely  into  the  accounts,  1  shall  therefore  suljmit  to 
the  board  a  general  abstract  or  statement  of  the  whole  work,  under  the  sepa- 
rate heads  contained  in  my  instructions,  dividing  each  head  into  the  princi- 


UH 


THE  CIVIL  ENfilNEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Aprii,, 


pal  itrms  of  costs  (if  uliicli  it  i^;  composed,  and  refer  for  fiirihor  psirliciilirs 
to  tlic  books  themselves,  premising  tli;it  every  entry  in  tlie  buck,  or  stnte- 
iiiiiii  f\iniislied  to  me.  is  ic-tVncd  to  original  ilny-boMk,  jomnal.  or  ledger,  in 
wliieh  tbe  :icco\mt.«  have  been  entered  and  kept  ;  and  1  have  the  assm'inee 
(if  the  iiiirtieb  by  whom  the  aeeoiints  have  l)cen  analyzed,  that  onl  of  the 
whole  ainonnl  there  are  not  500/.  for  "boh  vovieliers  a'e  not  producible,  and 
which,  in  so  lirfje  an  amount,  of  which  I  bad  heard  it  surmi.sed  that  no  rc;;u- 
lar  accoimts  had  been  kept,  I  think  it  very  unsatisfactory. 

"  Of  course,  it  is  not  in  my  province  to  t;o  through  and  compare  every 
entry  in  a  voUuninoiis  and  mixed  set  of  accounts  ;  a  relnrn  has  been  made 
to  me,  as  nearly  as  possible  in  tlic  spirit  and  letter  of  my  instructions,  and 
that  nol  in  the  form  of  a  mere  abstract  but  in  great  detail,  anil  with  every 
I  ntry  referred  to  the  book  from  w  bich  it  was  extracted  ;  which  books,  also, 
as  l»efore  observed,  were  sent  to  me  for  inspection,  and  are  now  in  my  pos- 
session ;  and  if  it  would  be  any  salisfaclion  to  the  lioard  or  tbe  proprietary, 
1  shall  have  no  objection  to  attcml  the  general  meeting  tbete\M'h,  and  to 
adord  any  information  and  e.\()}anatiun  in  my  [)ower  on  ilie  subject ;  but  the 
following  abstract  of  tbe  accounts  will  show  in  what  way  the  capital  of  the 
Company  lias  been  disposed  of,  as  far  as  works,  buildings,  and  machinery, 
are  concerned. 

"  .Such  is  Ibe  statem.ent  of  cost  which  I  have  been  enabled  to  make  out  and 
.submit  to  the  meeting,  and  which  1  have  no  reason  to  think  is  otherwise 
llian  correct,  deiiending  of  course  on  the  correctness  of  the  data  from  wdiieh 
it  was  formed,  but  which  1  have  no  caio^e  to  doubt  ;  tbe  b<tt)ks,  liowever,  are 
Ijcfcu'e  ibe  meeting,  and  will  be  found,  I  Ihliik,  tti  l.'car  both  external  and 
internal  evidence  of  being  original  documents,  with  entries  made  at  tbe 
tinu" ;  and  in  my  judgment  not  the  less  (vabnlile  in  this  cise  for  not  being 
the  most  perfeci  system  of  bookkeejiing  that  could  be  devised. 

'  As  regards  tbe  correctness  of  the  charges  and  the  amount  of  works  done 


ovei  and  above  the  contracts,  there  is  no  means  of  provin 


Hcaft  No.  fjl.  of  instructions — Format, 
1st — Eurtfiworl. 

Forest  Hill  .... 

New  Cross  Hill 

Sydenham  .... 

Croydon      ..... 

Total  of  Earthwork 
iiul^Fendiig,  Braining,  nnil  prepuring 
for  Bdllasl,  Jj-r. 
Forming  tbe  way 
Fencing,  soiling  slopes,  8ic. 
Fencing  and  planting 
•Surface  draining 

fiates  

Slips  and  extra  slopes        .        . 

Total  forming  Slips,  8*c. 
'Ard — Briffgrs  antl  Culverts. 
Viaduct  at  Corbet's  Lane 
Ronndary  Walls  at  ditto 
Timber  V'i.nduct 
Black  Ditch  Bridge    . 
Surrey  Canal  Hridge 
Cold  Blow  Farm  ditto 
Footbridge,  Kive  Bell  Lane 
New  Cross  Bridge 
Finches'  Bridge 

Deptford  Common  Hridge.  No.  1 
Ditto  ditto  No.  2 

Calgate's  Bridge 
Owen's  Bridge 
Colson's  Bridge 
Sydeidiam  Tiridge 
Anerley  Bri<lge 
.lolly  Sailor  Bridge      . 
Croydon  Common  Bridge,  No.  1, 
Ditto  ditto  No.  2. 

Cross  Road  Bridge     . 

Total  of  Bridges      . 
Ilh— Culverts. 

Deptford  Ccmimon  Culvert 
Ditto  ilitto 

Forest  Wood  ditto      . 
At  New  Cro.is     .... 
,,  Sydenhatn       .... 
,,  .Solhurst         .... 

Total  of  Culverts     . 
5flt — Jirtdinhig  atirt  Bouuilorij   il'itlts. 
Turner's  and  Slerry's 
At  Sydenham  Bridge 
.Sydenham  Station  Walks 
.lolly  S.-iilor  ditto 
Darlnioulh  Anns  ditto 
Sundry  Walls      .... 

Total  ol  Uelaining  .and  Boundary 
Walls  .... 

6th — Diversion  of  Uoiids,  Jjr.  I'j-c. 
At  Cross  Koads  Bridge 
Brockley  Road 
Dartmouth  Anns  ditto  . 
New  Cross     .... 


ion  of  Line. 

£    ...  d. 

20.703  13  9 

30.131  2  4 

11,718  2  3 

4.527  .O  9 

73,080  4  1 

426  0  4 

4,649  11  6 

6.763  3  7 

2,817  19  6 

486  9  2 

11.138  11  11 

26.281  15  0 

9,374  13  8 

559  fi  3 

2,505  15  0 

5,062  6  10 

7.361  11  1 

618  12  2 

4.06  14  6 

.3.161  7  0 

2.603  9  5 

628  8  6 

1,102  3  0 

1.3.'-,3  12  10 

1,032  12  11 

873  18  8 

2.981  7  6 

1,761  13  6 

2.612  5  1 

1,069  3  10 

1,136  0  11 

1,394  2  0 

47,649  4  8 

451  5  4 

412  9  3 

129  0  9 

1,418  18  11 

1,786  19  1 

115  17  9 

4,315  1  1 

666  1  8 

3.451  7  3 

374  0  7 

611  12  3 

1,513  14  8 

141  0  2 

6,757  16  7 

448  11  7 

15  15  ti 

.543  1  0 

533  3  U 

It  in   every  m- 

TABLEOF  COSTS. 

Viaduct  Road 

Sydenham  Bridge 

Jolly  Sailor      .        .         "        . 

Penge  and  Anerley  Roads 

Approaches  to  Nos.  1  S;  2  Bridgf 

Surrey  Canal  Hridge  Road 

Sundry  other  Roads 

Total  making  and  altering  Roads, 
Sec.  &c 

Total  of  construction  toForma- 


stance.  esneei  illy  in  day-work  and  s-indhes.  which  form  a  lar;,'e  amount.  An 
approximate  check  might  certainly  be  obtained  as  to  the  success  of  cuttings 
in  llattcning  .slopes,  and  getting  out  slips  in  the  large  coniracls.  by  going 
into  a  remeasurement  of  those  portions  of  tbe  work,  but  this  would  involve 
a  consider.ible  expense,  and  it  i'i  doiilitbil  wbelher  the  result  would  jii.stify 
the  expense  to  be  incurred  :  still  I  am  ready  to  go  into  it  if  the  Board  think 
it  proper  to  do  .so.  In  conneciion  with  this  part  of  tbe  subject,  it  is  due  to 
the  engineer  lo  state,  that  1  have  been  furnished  with  the  cross  sections  and 
dimen.-ions  of  all  the  extra  cuttings  fn.m  winch  the  accounts  w.re  deduced  ; 
and  in  conclusion.  !  may  be  again  allowed  to  observe,  that  on  the  part  of 
Mr.  fiibbs,  your  pnncipil  engineer,  and  Mr.  Dean,  the  .assistant  engineer, 
there  has  been  no  lack  of  infornialion.  and  that  my  acknuwledginents  are 
due  to  those  gentlemen  for  the  promptitude  and  rea<hness  with  which  my 
iiupiiries  have  at  all  times  been  met. 

■'On  the  whole,  then,  after  a  careful  and  kiborious  investigation  of  tbe 
subject.  I  b  ive  no  hesit  ition  now  m  recording  as  my  deliberate  opinion,  that 
wliieb  I  bal  the  hoiiuur  to  express  verlially  to  a  meeting  of  this  Comp.any 
some  time  bclbre  the  railway  was  open  to  ffie  iiulilic,  and  whilst  the  conduct 
of  the  Board  at  that  time  and  the  state  of  the  exjieniiiture  were  under  tlie 
investigalion  of  a  Committee,  viz. — that  as  far  as  the  works  are  concerned 
(cxcepling  any  errors  of  adineasiiremeiit).  there  is  value  received,  although 
probably  at  a  high  price,  on  account  ol  circumstances  in  materials  and  labour 
lor  tbe  money  ;  and  that  the  railway  is  well  and  durably  laid;  and  that 
whatever  want  of  judgment  there  may  have  existed  in  making  out  the  origi- 
nal estimates,  and  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  the  extent  lo  which  the  works 
would  ultimately  be  carried,  (here  has.  in  my  opinion,  been  no  want  of 
honesty  eillier  in  tlie  management  or  the  executive,  as  regards  the  execution 
of  the  works. 

1  have  the  honour  to  be,  Ike, 

"  W.  CuiillT." 


£     .•,. 

d. 

73  4 

9 

33  19 

0 

101  3 

0 

350  0 

0 

B  770  13 

4 

13  16 

9 

1,936  15 

0 

4820  3 

10 

tion  level. 


162.904    6    3 


Head  No.  I  J',  of  Instnirtions.  riz— Ballasting.  Drain- 
ing, Tiinhcring.  and  lai/ing  Permanent  JVay. 
1st — Ballasting  the  Line,  exclusive  of 

London  Bridge  Station       .        .        17.373  15    0 
2nd— Drainage  of  Perinanent  Way  2,788    1   10 


ird — Timbering  the  Line. 

,Sleepers,  timber,  and  preparing  d 

Carriage  of  timber 

Kyanizing  ditto 

Laying  sleepers 

Tarring  ditto 

Felt  for  rails 

Total  of  timbering  Ibe  line 
4/// — Rails  and  Laying . 
Rails,  screws,  and  bolls 
Labour  and  laying  rails 
Carriage,   and  removal   by  hand 
of  ditto  .         .         ,         . 

Tiirnplates  .         .        .        . 

Total  of  laying  rails 


20,161  16  10 


24.890 
1,943 
4.793 
5.113 


8  10 

9  2 
3  8 
8    2 


2'23  17  II 
6H3     5  10 


37,627  13     7 


24.785  10 
908  17 


1.847  19 
2.151     1 


29,753 


10 
8  U 


87,542  19    4 
■  Siipphfnig 

923  10  1 
3,190  2  11 
1,5,55     2     2 


Head  No.  l'.  of  Inxiruelions.—  ll'ali 
Apfiartitus. 
At  London  Bridge  Station 
New  C'ross  ditto 
Croydon  ditto         .... 

Total  of  water  apparatus        .  5.068  15    2 

Head  No.  VI.  of  Instrnelions — Cost  of  Stations. 
At  Liinilon  Bridge 
New  Cross 
Dartmouth  Arms 
Sydenham       .... 
Penge  and  Anerley 
The  Jolly  Sailor 
Croydon         .... 

Total  of  Stations     .        .        .        78.736    0    6 

Head  No.  VU.  of  Inslrnelioii.',  included  in  No.  I'l. 

Ile<id  No.  J'IfL  of  Instructions — Jl'harfs  at  Surrey 

Canal  Junction,  and  Croydon. 

\sl— Surrey  Canal  IV harf  and  Incline         5,022     5  10 

2nd — Croydon  Wharfs, 

Wharf  waUs      '.      .      .      .        2,750  17    5 


■f. 

37 

968 
86 

I.  d. 
0  10 
4  0 
3  0 

3.842 

5  3 

40,.^01  5 

8 

21,919  18 

5 

1,.344  10 

8 

1.34  3 

4 

454  2 

4 

2.366  0 

4 

12.215  19 

9 

Crane 

Warehouses 

Stables 

Total  of  Wharfs 


8,864  11     1 

Head   No.   IX.  of  Instructions — Sundries  of  various 

kinds,   including    Locomotiee    Engines,    Carriages, 

IVaggutis,  Consolidation  of  Way,  S^c.Sic 
\st — Houses  and  Cottages. 

Police  Cottages    . 

S^vitch  Box  at  Junction 

Ditto  ditto  at  New  Cross   . 

Cottage  at  Brockley 

Ditto  ditto  Selhiirst 

Storehouse,  C'oldblow 


2nd — Lighting. 

Light  House  at  Junction 
Ej-penses  for  Lighting  Road. 

New  c'ross  station 

Croydon  Station 

Jjondon  ditto 

Kngiiie  lamps,  &c. 

Light  House  at  Junction 

Ditto 


3r(/ — Consolidation  of  IVay 

'ith  —  I.ofomotire  Engines,  Carriages, 

and  ll'aggnus       .... 
5/// — Miseellauta  and  Sundries  of  alt 

and  various  kinds 


Total 


"  From  the  annexed  statement  arises  tbe  follow- 
ing general  .-ibslract.  under  the  ditferent  heads  of 
my  instructions,  viz. — 
Construction  ainl  Ibrmalion  of  the 

line   of  railway    to  the  line  of 

ballasting  .... 

Ballasting  and  laying  the  permanent 

way 

Buildings  and  ninchinery  for  sup- 

jitying  water  lo  engines 
.Stations,  workshops.  &c. 
Wliarfs  at  Surrey  Canal  and  Croy- 
don      

.Sundriesof  various  kinds,  including 

locomotive  engines,  coaches  and 

waggons,  consolidation  of  way, 

eke 


691  19 
38  7 
33  8 

199  12 
12  0 
64  16 

10 
7 
0 
3 
6 
0 

1,040  4 

2 

369  10 

5 

374  10 
232  6 

3(t2  1 

223  8 

89  4 

349  18 

0 
0 
1 
4 

7 
7 

1,940  19  0 
11,146  18  10 

28,086  3 

6 

18,054  17 

5 

60,269  2 

11 

£403,985  15 

3 

£ 

«/. 

162.904  6 

3 

87,542  19 

4 

5,688  15 
78.736  0 

2 
6 

8,864  11     1 


60,269    2  11 


Total  cost  of  i-onstruclion  and  .set- 

ing  to  work         ....    £403,985  15    3 

Exclusive   of  laoil,   parliamentary  and  law  ex- 
penses, and  engineering. 


18-lO.J 


THE  CIVTL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


13» 


MANCHKSTER  AND  BIRMINGHAM  RAILWAY  REPORT. 

Mr.  Buck's  Report  In  ttie  Bowd  of  Diric/ms,  ( Marth  3,  18'IO.j 

Fti'irfcld  Strret  Coittracl. — This  conlract  is  finished,  witli  ihp  t-xcrpfion  df 
the  bi-iilge  over  Fairficlil-slreot.  'Vlw  ironwork  of  iliis  hriil^^c  iy  now  in  course 
of  erection.  Half  of  I  lie  ni.iiii  rihs  are  fixed,  and  1  ex[)eet  Ihat  in  .seven  weeks 
from  lliis  (late,  all  the  roadway  plate.s  will  be  fi.Ned.  and  Ihe  bridge  reaJy  to 
receive  the  ballasting.  In  my  report  of  la-t  September.  I  stated  that  tlie 
founder  had  undertaken  to  have  Ihe  ironwork  erected  by  the  end  of  Decem- 
ber la.st  :  however,  he  his  Ijeen  un  ible  to  work  up  tii  his  calculatior.s  in  tli-s 
resjiect,  by  reason  of  the  extraordinary  wetness  of  the  wcaiher,  which  pre- 
vented the  workmen  from  continuously  jiroceeding  with  tlie  fitting  of  the 
eastings  ;  an  operation  w  Inch.  ( from  the  nature  of  tlie  «  ork.)  w  as  necessarily 
peiformrd  in  the  open  air.  I)Ut  it  is  saiisfactory  to  state,  that  although 
some  additional  time  h-i.s  consequently  been  requisite  for  this  portion  (»f  the 
work,  the  opening  of  the  line  to  .Stockport  will  not  he  rctardeil  thereby. 

CAaneen/ ia"e  eonrtnr/ is  finished,  and  the  contractor  for  laying  the  per- 
manent way  is  now  balkisling  the  arches. 

/{i/i/e  Road  Conlnict.— The  brick  arche.s  are  all  turned  and  ballasted,  in 
ri'adiness  for  the  permanent  way.  About  one-third  of  the  parajiet  remains 
to  he  built.  The  ironwork  for  the  cast  iron  arch  over  the  Myde  Road,  is  now 
in  progress  of  erection  ;  all  the  main  ribs,  and  a  p(U-lioii  of  the  span  drills  are 
fi.ved.  1  r.xpect  that  the  roadway  plates  will  he  ready  for  the  ballasting  in 
four  weeks  from  this  time. 

Hrnlon  Norr/s  Contract. — The  excavation  is  very  nearly  finished  :  about 
8,000  yards  only  remain  to  be  moved,  in  addition  to  th.it  which  has  been  re- 
served for  ballasting  Ihe  permanent  way  ;  and  tliis  will  go  out  as  wanted  for 
the  purpose.  An  opening  remains  in  the  embankment  at  the  crossing  of  the 
.Sloekporl  Ro  d  and  its  diversion,  where  two  temporary  bridges  have  been 
erected  during  the  con.struction  of  tlie  permanent  one.  The  masonry  for  the 
latter  is  at  the  lieight  for  Ihe  reception  of  the  iron  arch,  which  is  ready,  and 
will  lequiie  about  eight  weeks  (or  fiNirg.  'I'his  is  the  only  bridge  iindrr  the 
line  which  is  not  built.  Ulthe  bridges  over  the  excavation,  there  aie  five  of 
various  sizes  in  different  stales  of  forwardness,  three  being  nearly  finished. 
These  will  all  be  easily  completed  during  the  time  of  fixing  the  ironwork  of 
the  Stockport  Road  bridge.  Of  the  permanent  way.  .5.100  yards  of  single 
road  have  been,  and  13,400  yards  remiin  to  be  laid.  Here  more  was  calcu- 
lated upon,  but  the  contrad'or  has  leer,  unable  to  procure  s'eepers  so  rapidly 
as  he  expected  ;  however,  in  corseipience  of  rei-ent  ariangemen Is  which  la- 
has  made  in  reference  to  a  more  expeditious  delivery.!  have  every  confi- 
dence in  his  completing  the  whole  williin  the  period  of  his  contract. 

Sturkport  1'iadiwt  Contract. — The  north  abutment  .and  seven  arches  are 
(ini.shed  ;  three  other  arches  are  in  dill'erent  slates  of  forwardness,  and  the 
centre  is  fixing  for  the  elevenlh.  The  pier  on  the  right  in,irL;in  of  the  river 
Mersey  is  erected  to  the  height  of  the  impost,  which  is  partly  set  ;  the  pre- 
ceding ten  arches  comprehend  all  that  portion  of  the  work  on  the  north  or 
Lancashire  side  of  the  river.  The  foundation  of  the  river  |iier  on  the  left 
margin  is  just  commenced.  Five  other  piers  on  the  south  or  Cheshire  side 
are  in  progress,  one  being  nearly  finished,  and  the  others  in  |iroporliunate 
states  of  advance.  The  foundalions  of  the  three  next  in  succession  are  exca- 
vated, and  the  south  abutment  is  partially  erected.  I  have  great  satisfaction 
in  stating  Ihat  all  the  foundations  are  upon  rock. 

Castle  Street  Contract  rxiends  from  the  south  ahulment  of  the  Stockport 
Vi.aduct  lo  the  Mecca  Brook,  a  distance  of  two  miles  six  chains.  The  con- 
traclor  has  just  commenced  operations. 

The  designs  are  prepared  for  that  portion  of  the  line  extending  fr  m  the 
enil  of  the  last  mentioned  contract  to  AJderley,  a  distance  of  seven  miles 
sevi'ii  chains. 

1  have  every  confidence  that  my  former  statement  will  be  realised,  and 
111  It  Ihe  line  from  Fairfield-street  to  .Stockport  may  be  opened  in  the  minilh 
of  May  next. 


MMand  Comities  Railway. — This  line  of  railway  will  be  opened  from  Not- 
tingham and  Derby  to  Leicester,  in  ,\Iay  next,  and  throughout  to  Rugby  in 
Juni-.  in  lime  to  receive  the  traffic  when  the  whole  line  oi'  the  North  Midland  is 
opcueil.  This  important  ivilway  is  one  of  ihe  few  in  Knglaml  that  will  be 
made  with  the  original  suliscribed  Cijiilal.  It  will  be  in  hill  operation  without 
the  creation  of  either  half  or  quarter  .siiires  :  and  noln  ithsiamliiig  Ihe  presm.re 
ill  the  money-market,  so  great  iuis  been  the  confidence  in  this  undeitakuig, 
that  the  directors  have  already  been  enabled  to  borrow  nearly  Ihe  whole  sum 
authorised  to  be  taken  on  loan  by  their  Act.  The  cost  of  the  line,  including 
everything,  will  only  be  about  22,.)0(l/.  per  mile. — Railwai/  Times. — This  rail- 
way will  untim.ately  become  one  id'  the  most  important  lines  in  the  kingdom, 
particularly  if  an  act  should  be  obtained  for  the  Nottingham,  Lincoln  and 
Hull  railway,  which  is  sure  to  be  carried  into  execution  sooner  or  later. 

Gloucester  and  Binningliam  Railway. — This  company  appear  to  be  using 
their  utmost  exertions  to  hasten  operations  along  that  portion  of  the  line 
promised,  in  their  Ijite  report,  to  be  (»pened  in  tlie  spring.  On  Monday  last 
the  directors  and  engineers  inspected  the  works  at  the  Cheltenham  station, 
with  the  state  and  condition  of  which  they  expressed  themselves  much  pleased  ; 
and,  proceeding  on  the  railroad  to  Tewkesbury,  examined  in  like  manner  the 
different  works  in  that  neighbourhood.  The  return  from  Tewkesbury  was 
accomplished  in  sixteen  minutes  ;  we  believe  the  distance  has  been  gone  over 
before  in  thirteen.  The  engines  to  be  employed  on  this  line,  if  that  now  at 
work  is  to  be  taken  as  "  a  sample  for  all  the  rest."'  jiiomise  to  equal,  if  not 
excel,  those  of  any  of  the  other  railroads  in  the  kingdom. — Cheltenham  Look- 
er-on. 


mune  of  llermi«s,  ni'ar  Bapaume.  which  we  .are  inclined  to  receive  w  ith  some 
hesitation,  till  we  meet  wiih  a  confirm  ition  of  the  statement.  It  is  therein 
said,  that  during  the  late  heavy  rains  a  great  lanil-slip  took  place  close  lo 
Hermies.  into  which  some  of  the  young  men  of  the  place  had  the  li.irciihood 
to  descend,  by  means  of  Ladders  tied  together.  What  was  their  surprise,  to 
finil  theniscLes.  at  a  depth  of  thirty  metres,  in  the  niidsl  of  handsome  streets, 
bordered  on  boUi  sides  Ijy  cells  and  chambers,  which  h.ad  evidently  been  once 
inhabited  !  The  strees  are  of  w  idth  sufficient  to  admit  of  a  carriage  p.as.sing ; 
and  ihc  chanibers,  of  various  sizes,  are  also  of  various  degrees  of  cunirort  an. I 
elegance.  Some  are  flagg.'d  ;  ami  their  number  is  said  to  amount  to  between 
twelve  and  fiflevn  hundred.  Among  the  objects  by  which  the  iwplorers  were 
more  particularly  struck,  was  an  old  stone  tower,  with  a  winding  staircase. 
This  they  .ascended,  and,  having  beaten  through  th»  vaulted  roof,  discovered 
that  It  opened  imo  the  belfry  of  the  church  of  licimies. 

Arrhitertnre. — The  Rev.  John  Parker,  MA.  lately  de'ivored  a  course  of  Lec- 
tures on  Cotbic  Architecture  before  the  members  of  the  .Shropshiieand  North 
Wales  Natural  History  and  Antiipiarian  Society.  The  lectures  were  princi- 
pally directed  lo  an  explanation  of  ihc  scientific  conbtriu-tion  of  gothic  vault- 
ing, with  a  ilissertation  on  Ihe  suiiniorily  of  the  upright  or  pointe.l  gothic 
arch  over  the  c  rcular  arch  of  ihe  Anglo-Nurnian  .and  other  schools  of  archi- 
tecture. The  pre-eminence  of  the  gothic  vault  in  the  conveyance  of  sound, 
and  of  the  upright  or  pointed  arch  in  the  great  particulars  of  lightness  tind 
strength,  were  clearly  .shown  and  most  happily  de  cribed.— Sections  of  ribbed 
work  from  gothic  vaulting  in  Valle  Crucis  Abbey,  the  Castle  of  Beaum.ari.s, 
Tintern  Aljbey.  the  Old  Chapel  of  Si.  Stephen  (the  late  House  of  Commons),' 
Shiffnal  Church,  Ihe  Priory  of  Kennilworth,  the  White  Abbey  (in  this  county), 
.St.  David's  Cathedral,  Lidificki  Cathedral,  and  titoneleigli  Abbey,  were  pro- 
duced, with  a  molel  in  wirework  that  pourtrayed  the  several  forms  in  which 
the  ribbed  work  of  golliie  vaulting  could  be  made  a  ailable  by  thi^  arlist  ; 
while  the  superioriiy  and  beauty  of  the  pointed  arch  were  illustrated  by 
drawings  ni.ide  by  Mr.  Parker  on  visits  to  Kilpec  Church,  near  llercford,  and 
to  the  ruins  of  Valle  Crucis  Abbey,  aided  by  the  more  simple  hut  efleetivc 
application  of  seienlifie  acquirement  to  Ihit  praelical  illustration  which  the 
conr-e  ot  lectures  require  1  t.i  be  made  during  the  progress  of  its  delivery. 
— Salopian  Journal,  Feb.  5,  1810. 


BIISCEIiIiANBA. 


j1  buried  Village. — M'e  find,  in  the  Progres  du  Pas  de  Calais,  the  following 

account  of  the  accidental  discovery  of  a  subterraneous  village  ia  the  com- 


I.IST    OF    BJSAV    FATJE5NTS. 

GRANTKU    IN    ENGIAND    FR0»4   'iDxH    KKBRIIARV,  TO  28tH,  MaBCH    I840. 

James  Beaumont  Neii.son,  of  Glasgow,  flentleman,  for  "  oer/ain  ini- 
provcd  methods  of  coating  iron  under  various  circumstances  ^  to  prevent  o.tiila- 
lion  or  corrosion,  and  for  other  purposes."— ;Sealed  Kehruary  21) ;  six  mouths 
lor  enrolment. 

Rowland  Macdmnalo  Stei'henson,  of  f'pper  Thames  .Street,  Civil  En- 
gineer, for  "  an  iinproi'cd  metliod  or  melhod.s  of  adjn.itinc/,  .stiif/iiii/,  ami 
workini/  t/ieatrical  sivneri/  and  apparatus." — February  20  ;  six  moutlis. 

Richard  Edwakos,  of  [''airfield  Pl.ace,  Bow,  Dealer  in  Emery  Cloth,  for 
"  iaijjroucmeu/s  in  preparint/  and  cumbininy  of  malerials  used  in  lii/hliuy  or 
kindliny  Jires." — February  20  :  six  months. 

John  Svlvkster,  of  Croat  Russell  Street,  Engineer,  for  "  in:proremenlii 
in  the  con.flrnclion  of  doors  and  frames  for  closiny  the  openings  of  fire 
2)ltt-es,  ash  pits,  flues,  chimtieys,  and  certain  retorts." — March  3  ;  six  months. 

JosErii  Shore,  of  liurminghaiu,  Merchant,  for  "  improvements  in  pre- 
serving and  covering  certain  metalu  anil  allogs  of  metals." — March  3 ;  six 
months. 

James  IIorne,  of  Cla|iliam  Common,  Esquire,  for  "  improvements  in  the 
stnffing-tioxes  of  lift  pumps." — March  3  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Clisii.d  Daniei.i.,  of  Limpley  Stoke,  Bradford,  in  the  county  of 
Wilts,  for  "an  improved  method  of  preparing  slioot  or  weft  to  be  used  in 
weaving  voollen  cloth  and  clollus  made  of  wool  and  other  materials." — 
March  3  ;  sfx  months. 

Jonx  Rangei.ev,  of  Caiuherwell,  Gentleman,  for  "improvements  in  the 
construction  of  railways,  and  in  Ihe  means  of  applying  power  to  propell- 
ing carriages  and  machinery." — March  3 ;  six  mouths, 

William  Craig,  of  Glasgow,  Engineer,  and  William  Douglas  Shari-, 
of  Stanley,  Perthshire,  Engineer,  for  "certain  improvements  in  machinery 
for  preparing,  spinning,  ami  doubling  cotton,  flax,  wool,  and  other  fibrous 
substances." — March  3  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Newton,  of  High  Bridge  Mill,  York,  Manufacturer  of  Fancy 
Cloths,  and  George  Collier,  of  the  same  place,  Meclmnic,  for  "  an  im- 
provement in  looms,  for  the  weaving  of  figured  or  twilled  fabrics." — Marcli 
4  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Bower,  of  lluuslct,  York,  Soda  Ash  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain 
improvement  in  ftie  manufacture  of  carbonate  of  soda." — March  -1 ;  sl\ 
months. 

Charles  Alexander  Pellerin,  of  Leicester  Square,  Gentleman,  for 
•*  improveynents  in  wind  and  stringed  musical  instruments."  Communicated 
by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — March  4  ;  six  mouths. 

Charles  Kober,  of  Leadenhall  Street,  Cloth  M.amifacturer,  for  "  im- 
provements in  fixing  colour  in  cloth." — March  7  ;  six  months. 

Caroline  Julia  Sophu  Cox,  of  .\ddisou  Road,  Keusington,  Spinster, 
for  "  a7i  improved  mode  of  fastening  and  unitiiig  the  edges  of  tlie  divided 
parts  of  shoes,  boots,  bandages,  packages,  and  oilier  articles  of  dress  or 
utility." — Marcli  7  ;  two  months. 

Joseph  Atkinson,  of  Roundhill,    York,  Farmer,  for  "  improvements  in 
thrashing  and  winnoiving-machine." — March  7  ;  six  months. 
,^Robert  Molvneux,  of  Southampton  Row,  Chronometer  Maker,  for  "  an 
improvmrnt  er  m^rovemeni^  in  fAr»«e»(€;en","i— ■March  7 ;  six  aeutlis. 


140 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[April, 


William  Matlby,  Junior,  of  Mile  End,  Cliemiat,  and  Richard  Ci'er- 
TON.  Junior,  of  Percy  Street,  Brass  Founder,  for  "  im/iroremmls  in  extract- 
ing tin/l  cijitrentratimj  the  culonr,  ftinninij,  and  other  matter  contained  in 
rei/etn/i/e  anil  iinimal  xnbslnnces." — Marcli  7  ;  six  months. 

Ltkk  IIf.hkiit,  of  Birniingliam,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  iniproremenlH  in  the 
innntifaclnre  of  cofered  spades  and  sliorels,  soui/liimj  and  (/raftinij  tools, 
iind  oilier  imjilements  of  n  like  nature." — March  7  ;  six  montlis. 

IIavward  Tyi.kr,  of  Milton  Street,  t'ri))|)lcgale.  Engineer,  for  "certain 
inifirorentents  in  macliinery  or  apparatus  for  impregnating  liijuids  wilti  gas, 
includinq  t/otflrs  for  retaining,  keeping,  and  preserring  lifjuids  so  impreg- 
nated, also  in  ttte  manner  of  filing  ami  closing  sucli  hottks." — March  7  ; 
si\  mouths. 

Jamks  Knowles,  of  Little  Bolton,  T,ancashire,  Coal  Merchant,  for  "an 
improved  arrangement  of  apparatus  for  regulating  ttie  supply  of  water  to 
steam  boilers." — March  10;  four  months. 

Geor<;k  (iwYNNK,  of  Portland  Terrace,  Regent's  Hark,  Gentleman,  for  "iin- 
procentenls  in  ttie  manufacture  of  candles,  and  in  operating  upon  oils  and 
fats." — March  1 0  ;  six  months. 

William  Korrkstkr,  of  Barrhead,  Renfrew,  Manager,  for  "  certain  im- 
prurements  in  sizing,  starching,  dressing,  and  otlterwise  preparing  warps  for 
wearing  fattrics,  and  on  Itie  machinery  and  apparatus  thereicith  connected." 
— March  11;  six  months. 

Thomas  I'ekl,  of  Bread  Street,  Cheapside,  Gentleman,  for  "certain  im- 
provements in  steam  engines."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. 
— March  11;  six  mouths. 

Richard  Smith  and  Richard  Hacking,  of  Bury,  Lancaster,  Machine 
Makers,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  machinery  and  apparatus  for  drawing, 
slnbbing,  rotting,  and  spinning  cotton,  wool,Jln.r,  silk,  and  ottter  fibrous  sub- 
stances."— March  13;  six  months. 

Etien'ne  Rohert  Gaubert,  of  Paris,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  .for  distributing  types  or 
other  typogrnphirnl  ctiaracters  into  proper  receptac.es,  and  placing  the 
same  in  order  .for  setting  up  after  being  used  in  printing." — March  13  ; 
six  mouths. 

James  IIadden  Young,  of  Lille,  in  the  kingdom  of  France,  and  Adrian 
Delcombk,  of  Lille  aforesaid,  for  "an  improved  mode  of  setting  vp  types." 
— March  13  ;  six  months. 

Robert  Varicas,  of  Burton  Crescent,  Surgeon,  for  "improvements  in 
rendering  fabrics  and  leather  waterproof." — March  16;  six  mouths. 

William  Crofts,  of  Radford,  Nottingham,  Machine  Maker,  for  "  im- 
provements in  mac/iinery  for  the  purpose  of  making  figured  or  ornamented 
liobbin  net  or  twist  lace,  and  oilier  ornamental  fabrics,  looped  or  woven." — 
March  16 ;  six  months. 

Jran  Francois  Victor  Fabien,  of  King  William  Street,  London,  for 
"  improvements  in  rotary  engines  to  be  worked  by  steam  or  other  fluids." — 
March  16;  six  months. 

Thomas  Craddock,  of  Broadheath,  Radnor,  Farmer,  for  "  a  certain  im- 
provement or  improvements  in  steam  engines  and  steam  boilers." — March  16; 
six  months. 

Richard  Smith  and  Richard  Hacking,  of  Bury,  Lancaster,  Machine 
Makers,  for  *'  certain  i>njirovenients  in  machinery  .for  spinning  cotton  and 
otiier  fibrous  substances." — March  16;  six  months. 

IsHAM  Baggs,  of  Cheltenham,  Gentleman  for  "  improvements  in  engrav- 
ing, which  improvements  are  applicable  to  lithography." — Marcli  17;  sLx 
months. 

Moses  Poole,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements  in  pro- 
ducing and  jirejmring  leys  for  soap  making,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — March  17;  six 
months. 

Samuel  Seaward,  of  the  Canal  Iron  works,  Poplai-,  Engineer,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  the  construction  of  steam  engines  and  in  the  appli- 
cation of  steam  engines  to  propelling  ships  and  other  vessels." — March  1 7  ; 
SLX  months. 

Sib  William  Burnett,  Knight,  of  Somerset  House,  for  "  improvements 
in  preserving  animal,  woollen,  and  other  fibrous  substances  from  decay." — 
March  19  ;  six  months. 

John  Jackson,  of  Manchester,  Nail  and  Holt  Manufacturer  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  nails,  nuts,  bolts,  and  rivets." — 
March  19  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Sterling,  of  Limehousc,  Patentee  of  the  "  raiiid  filteret "  for 
"improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  fuel." — March  20  ;  six  months. 

Francis  William  Gerisii,  of  East  Road,  City  Road,  Patent  Hinge 
Maker,  for  "improvements  in  locks  and  keys  and  other  fastenings  for  doors, 
drawinys,  and  other  such  purposes." — March  20  ;  six  montlis. 

Charles  Keene,  of  Sussex  Place,  Regent's  Park,  Gentleman,  f(n'  "  im- 
provements  in  producing  surfaces  on  leather  and  fabrics.  Communicated 
by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — March  23  ;  six  montlis. 

William  Newton,  of  Chancery  Lane,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  titc  strengthening  and  preserring  of  ligneous  and  textile 
substances.  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad.-  -March  23  ;  six 
months. 

Samuel  Hill,  of  Sloane  Street,  Chelsea,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvenienls 
in  the  making  of  bread  and  biscuits." — March  2.')  ;  six  months. 

Elhanan  Bicknell,  of  Newington  Butts,  Smrey,  Merchant,  for  "  im- 
provemmU  in  separating  the  solid  from  the   liquid  parts  of  tallow,  and 


ether  fatty  matters."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — 
March  25  ;  six  months. 

William  Palmer,  of  Sutton  Street,  Clerkenwell,  for  "improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  candles,  and  in  apparatus  for  applying  light." — March 
25  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Smith,  of  Birniingliam,  Lamp  Manufacturer,  for  "  improvements 
in  gas  burners,  and  in  lamps." — March  25  ;  six  months. 

George  Richards  Elkington  and  Henry  Elkington,  of  Birmingham, 
for  "  improvements  in  coaling,  covering,  or  plating  certain  metals." — March 
25  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Crosfield,  of  Warrington,  Soap  Maker,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  plate  glass." — March  25  ;  six  months. 

Samuel  Knight,  of  Woodhouse  Mills,  Lancaster,  Bleacher,  for  "  eer/am 
improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  .for  boiliny,  hleeching,  or  scouring, 
.for  the  purpose  o.f  preparing  and  assisting  the  process  of  bleeching  and 
dyeing  cotton  and  linen,  and  other  fabrics  and  fibrous  subsfattces." — March 
25  ;  six  months. 

James  Hay,  of  Belton,  Haddington,  Scotland,  Captain  in  the  Royal  Na\T, 
for  "  an  improved  plough,  which  he  entitles  the  Belton  plough." — ^larch 
25  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Philip  RouauETTE,  of  Norfolk  Street,  Stiaud,  Merchant,  for  "a 
new  pigment."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — March  25  ; 
four  months. 

James  Sabberton,  of  Great  Pultney  Street,  Golden  Square,  Tailor,  for 
"  a  fastening  to  attach  straps  to  the  bottoms  of  trousers." — March  26 ; 
two  months. 

.Vlicxander  Southwood  Stocker,  of  Birmingham,  Manufacturer,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  manufacturing  tubing  or  tubes,  which  are  appli- 
cable to  gas  and  other  purposes." — March  27;  six  months. 

Richard  Prosser,  of  Clierry  Street,  Birmingham,  Civil  Engineer,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  .for  manufacturing  pipes." 
— March  27  ;  six  months. 

lIisNRV  Kirk,  of  Upper  Norton  Street,  Portland  Place,  IMerchant,  for 
"  improvements  in  the  application  of  a  substance  or  composition  as  a  .sub- 
stitute .for  ice  for  skating  and  .sliding  purposes,  part  of  which  iutprove- 
ments  may  also  be  emjdoyed  in  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  slabs  and 
mouldings." — March  28  ;  six  months. 

John  Bethell,  of  St.  John's  Hill,  Wandsworth,  Gentleman,  for  "  im- 
provenieuts  in  treating  and  preparing  certain  oils  and  fatty  matters." — 
March  28  ;  six  months.     


ERRATUM. 


Ill  Mr.  Leeds  Chronological  Tnblo  of  Architects,  page  113  of  the  present 
number,  the  works  of  the  second  architect  arc  omitted,  it  should  stand  thus. 
1708,  Mansard,  Jules  Haidouin,  1G47,— «w7«.  Palace  of  Versailles  ;  Dome  of 
the  Invalides,  Paris  ;  SiC. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


Mr.  Spencer's  communication  is  unavoidably  postponed  uulil  ne.vt  month. 

P.  P.  E 's  scheme  for  propelling  canal  boats  we  are  fearful  is  impracticable, 
however,  we  will  rcmnsidrr  it  before  the  ne.vt  number  appears. 

X.  y.  Z.  Glasgow.  We  shall  feel  much  pleasure  to  record  in  the  Journal,  the 
main/  impruveiucnts  that  arc  going  on  in  Glasgow,  if  our  lorrespondent  will  take 
the  irouhle  to  see  some  of  the  architects  of  the  North  and  collect  infortnalion  for  us, 
we  shall  be  obliged. 

Mr.  Tliorold's  design  for  a. frame  of  a  .■iteam  engine  possesses  eonsideiabh  merit 
for  its  eompaetncss,  as  there  is  no  novelty  in  the  construction  of  the  machinery,  we 
cannot  offtird  space  .fur  the  design  at  this  busy  .■ivusun  of  the  year. 

R.  \y.  T.  and  P!  B.'s  noiiuiuiiirotinns  on  railway  curves  must  stand  over  for  the 
present,  as  tee  have  already  devoted  sii  miieli  space  to  that  subject. 

Design  of  Iluddersjield  College  by  J.  P.  Pritchet,  architect,  will  appear  in  an 
earlif  number. 

''i ■'    ;('(.  shall  he  glad  to  receive  his  proffered  communication,  we  cannot  hi  or 

front  him  too  often. 

11. 's  design'has  appeared  in  another  publication. 

liepnrt  on  the  plans  for  preventing  areidcnts  on  board  of  steam  vessels,  and  Dr. 
(Viarles  Sehafhaeutel's  report  on  Playfair's  boiler  leill  be  noticed  ne.rt  month. 

To  our  correspondent  at  New  York  ivc  return  many  thanks  for  his  exertions  on 
our  tiehalf. 

Jl'e  are  happy  to  find  by  the  numerous  letters  we  have  received  that  our  advo- 
eoeyin  ttie  cause  of  .Steam  Navigation  meets  with  the  approbation  of  our  subscribers. 

ire  reeommend'a  eorrespondcnt,  his  signuture  we  Jorget,  to  read  the  Fable  of 
tlir  Miller. 

A 
of  lh( 
his  dull."     We  feel  ourselves  independent  oj  all  parties. 

The  Cinipie  VoxMireplii  to  our  correspondent  Iv  on  the  recessions  and  encroach- 
ments of  the  sea  will  appear  next  month,  together  ivith  a  communication  from 
NOTA,  on  the  sami'. subject.  •    i      r.      , 

Cnmmunieittions  are  requested  to  he  addressed  to  •'  Ihe  Kdilor  ot  the  Livil 
Kiigmcev  and   Architect's  J. mrnal,"   No.  U,  Parliament   Street.  Westminster. 

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jinier. 

\   Jl'e  are  obliged  for  his  letter,  tee  have  long  been  aware  of  the  sinister  working 
Ihe  individual^alluded  to— he  is  ion  enntrmptible for  our  notice,  ••every  dag  has 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


14/ 


THE  REFORM  CLUB-HOUSE,  PALL  MALL. 


CHARLES  BARRY,  R.A.,  ARCHITECT. 


What  Ciinbe  said  about  club-houses?  Their  friends  are  silenced  by 
llieir  success,  and  their  enemies  cannot  contend  against  them.  Hercules 
might  have  given  up  his  club,  but  the  aristocracy  are  determined  not 
to  follow  his  example.  Their  merits  and  demerits  are  beyond  our 
control, — one  only  fact  we  have  to  deal  with,  and  that  is  their  rapid 
increase.  The  palaces  have  disappeared  or  have  been  eclipsed,  and 
the  south  of  Fall  Mall  is  covered  with  an  almost  uninterrupted  line  of 
temples  in  honour  of  the  social  principle.  If  the  grandeur  of  our 
commercial  edifices  strikes  the  foreigner  with  wonder,  or  if  he  considers 
our  parks  and  squares  as  worthy  rivals  of  his  alleys  of  orange  trees,  how 
can  he  fail  to  pass  without  notice  these  personifications  of  national 
characteristics.  The  foreigner  may  justly  marvel  to  see  the  palace 
eclipsed  before  the  shrine  of  Mammon,  but  he  must  be  still  more  asto- 
nished to  see  the  hospital  front  of  St.  James's  shrinking  back  from  the 
grandeur  of  its  unroyal  neighbours.  The  principle  of  association  is  the 
foundation  of  civilization,  and  the  English  race  are  influenced  by  it 
more  than  any  other.  We  are  Napoleon's  nation  of  shopkeepers, 
mechanics  and  stock-jobbers  to  the  fullest  extent,  who  take  out  our 
amusements  in  shares,  and  raise  a  joint  fund  to  provide  domestic  com- 
fort. Pall  Mall  is  the  true  House  of  Commons  of  the  nation— here 
every  political  principle  is  represented,  and  every  shade  of  society  has 
its  point  of  reunion.  In  this  street  of  pal.ices,  unique  in  Europe,  one 
of  the  most  striking  is  the  subject  of  our  present  notice. 

For  the  view  of  this  building  we  are  indebted  to  the  Literary  World, 
of  whose  embellishments  it  may  be  considered  a  very  fair  specimen, — 
one  certainly  greatly  superior  to  any  thing  to  be  met  with  in  similar 
publications.  With  regard  to  the  structure  itself,  we  shall  not  now 
attempt  to  enter  into  any  architectural  description  of  it,  reserving  such 
notice  till  we  have  the  opportunity  of  rendering  it  complete  ;  and  shall 
therefore  at  present  only  observe  that  the  Reform  Clubhouse  is  the 
most  perfect  and  imposing  specimen  of  Italian  architecture  in  the  me- 
tropolis,— reserving,  however,  to  ourselves,  our  admiration  for  the 

No.  .'32.— Vol.  III.-   May,  1810. 


Garden-facade  of  the  Travellers,  as  the  most  elegant  and  piquant  exam- 
ple of  that  style,  upon  a  lesser  scale.  In  this  new  work  of  Mr.  Barry's 
we  perceive  extreme  simplicity  and  unity  of  design  combined  with  a 
very  unusual  degree  of  richness, — an  astylar  (columnless,)  with  more 
of  architectural  expression  than  is  generally  produced  by  a  displav  of 
columns  forming  a  principal  order  The  breadth  of  the  piers  or  spaces 
between  the  windows  contributes  not  a  little  to  that  repose  which  is  so 
essential  to  simplicity,  and  hardly  less  so  to  stateliness.  The  string 
courses  are  particularly  beautiful  parts  in  the  design,  while  the 
cornicione  gives  an  extraordinary  air  of  majesty  and  grandeur  to  the 
whole. 

It  is  the  largest  and  most  commodious  of  any  of  the  club-houses  in 
the  metropolis :  the  length  of  the  front  is  ISO  feet,  exclusive  of  the 
entrance  between  the  Travellers'  Club-house  and  the  main  building, 
which  is  fifteen;  making,  in  all,  a  frontage  of  135  feet.  The  depth  of 
the  main  building  is  104  ft.  ti  in.;  the  height  of  the  cornice  from  tlie 
pavement,  is  about  sixty-eight  feet. 

The  roof  is  covered  with  Italian  tiles,  manufactured  expressly  for 
this  building,  by  Messrs.  Rutledge  and  Keene,  of  the  Belvedere  road. 
The  whole  of  the  building  is  faced  with  Portland  stone,  it  is  a  verj'  fine 
specimen  of  masonry,  and  does  credit  to  the  contractors,  Messrs. 
Grisell  and  Peto.  We  must  not  omit  to  mention  the  scientific  manner 
in  which  the  building  was  erected;  a  scaffolding  of  considerable 
strength  was  constructed  of  timber,  and  on  the  top  was  laid  a  railway, 
upon  which  was  worked  a  traversing  crane  that  could  be  moved  along 
the  building  either  longitudinally  or  Iransversely:  by  this  means  the 
stones  were  raised  from  the  ground  and  placed  on  the  wall  with  very  little 
labour  to  the  mason,  who  only  had  to  adjust  the  bed  and  lay  the 
stone.  Weperceive  that  Messrs.  Grisell  and  Peto  are  about  to  adoj)t 
the  same  plan  for  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  by  which  mean* 
they  will  save  very  considerably  in  the  price  of  labour. 

U 


143 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


BRODERIP'S  TROUGH  OR  TRUNK  ENGINE. 

Fig.  1. — Pec  I  ion. 


TTig.  2.— Section    f  Casing  and  Centre^ 


^n 


!n  consequence  of  the  late  discussion  at  the  meeting  of  the  Great 
Western  Steam  Ship  Company  at  Bristol,  relative  to  the  intended 
introduction  of  "Humphrys'  Patent  Trunk  Steam  Engine,"  for  the  new 
iron  steam  ship  now  building  at  Bristol.  We  felt  desirous  of  obtaining 
a  drawing  and  some  particulars  relative  to  it  :  upon  making  enquiries 
among  our  scisnlitic  friends,  we  were  much  surprised  to  find  that  a 
similar  engine  had  been  patented  by  another  party  nearly  seven  years 
antecedent  to  the  patent  of  Mr.  Humphrys ;  and  was  invented  by  the 
late  Mr.  Charles  Broderip  of  Spring  Gardens,  a  gentleman  who  was 


well  known  to  the  scientific  world  as  a  clever  engineer  and  scientific 
man.  Upwards  of  eighteen  years  ago  he  equipped  a  steam  vessel 
called  the  "Tartar,"  with  which  he  made  a  voyage  into  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  and  back,  and  by  this  spirited  proceeding  was  the  first  person 
to  demonstrate  the  practicability  of  sending  steam  vessels  across  that 
tempestuous  bav,  which,  till  then,  had  never  been  attempted. 

He  afterwards  invented  the  application  of  a  casing  or  trunk  attached 
to  the  piston,  by  the  use  of  which,  he  was  enabled  to  connect  the  piston 
rod  with  the  crank  direct,  as  shewn  in  the  accompanying  drawing;  he, 
however,  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  his  executor  Col.  D'Arcy  took 
out  letters  patent  for  the  invention,  dated  Nov.  •29th,  1828,  and  a  sketch 
and  description  of  it  appeared  in  a  scientific  work  called  the  "  Journal 
of  Arts"  shortly  afterwards. 

Some  years  afterwards,  viz.,  on  the  28th  March,  1835,  Mr.  Francis 
Humphrys  again  patented,  identically  the  same  arrangement  of  the 
steam  engine,  and  subsequently  proceeded  to  make  a  pair  of  engines  on 
this  principle,  that  were  fitted  to  a  steam  vessel  called  the  "Dartford" 
which  ran  for  a  short  time,  but  which  it  is  stated,  have  since  failed  in 
the  cylinders  by  the  angular  friction  of  the  pistons.  We  shall  now 
proceed  to  give  a  description  of  the  engine  as  specified  by  both  parties, 
and  then  leave  it  to  our  readers  to  judge  how  far  Mr.  Humphrys  is  en- 
titled to  his  patent,  or  can  be  considered  as  the  original  inventor,  for 
if  there  be  any  merit  in  the  invention,  it  is  only  right  that  the  saddle 
should  be  placed  on  the  right  horse. 

The  following  description  we  extract  from  the  specification  of  the 
patent  granted  to  Col.  D'Arcy: — The  specification  describes  other 
improvements  besides  the  one  inquestion;  oneofthem  was  {ora.sliding 
stuffing  box,  "  the  piston  rod  connected  at  one  end  to  the  piston,  and  at 
the  other  end  to  the  crank  of  the  engine  without  the  intervention  of 
any  cross  head,  side  rods,  guide  frame  or  parallel  motion  to  keep  the 
piston  in  a  perpendicular  position  whilst  it  is  ascending  and  descending 
in  the  cylinder,  the  improved  method  of  connecting  the  piston  of  any 
cylinder  used  in  a  steam  engine  to  its  rod  is  by  means  of  any  convenient 
joint,  or  by  a  ball  and  socket  which  will  allow  the  piston  rod  to  oscillate 
or  yield  to  the  motion  of  its  crank  without  altering  the  vertical  or 
horizontal  position  of  the  piston,  whilst  acting  either  in  a  cylinder 
placed  vertically  or  horizontally  as  circumstances  may  require ;  and  by 
the  introduction  of  the  sliding  stufling  box,  I  am  enabled  to  apply  the 
oscillating  piston."  The  specification  then  proceeds  to  describe  this 
invention  by  a  reference  to  the  drawings  accompanying  the  specification. 
A  A  the  cylinder,  B  B  the  piston,  C  C  the  centre  of  the  joint  of  piston 
into  which  the  joint  of  the  piston  rod  D  D  is  fitted  and  united  ;  DD 
shows  the  rod  forming  its  greatest  angle  by  the  motion  of  the  crank  G; 
E  E  the  sliding  stuffing  box  working  in  grooves,  rabefs  or  dovetails, 
made  perfectly  air  and  steam  tight,  and  placed  securely  on  the  top  of 
the  cylinder  cover  F  F.  Instead  of  the  sliding  stuffing  box,  the 
patentee  in  some  cases  substitutes  "  the  trough  or  socktt  K  K"  (showed 
in  the  annexed  engravings)  "firmly  connected  to  the  piston,  and  which 
trough  or  socket  must  be  made  hollow  and  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
allow  the  piston  rod  DD  to  oscillate  freely  in  its  width,  thickness, 
and  area,  so  that  in  its  transverse,  through  the  fixed  stuffing  box  E  E, 
and  by  the  gland  H,  the  trough  or  socket  K  K  may  be  rendered  as 
securely  air  and  steam  tight  in  its  connection  with  the  cylinder  A  A, 
as  if  it  was  a  cylindrical  piston  rod." 

We  shall  now  give  some  extracts  from  the  specification  of  the 
patent  granted  to  Mr.  Francis  Humphrys  :  we  did  r-ot  consider  it 
necessary  to  give  a  drawing,  as  it  is  so  identically  like  the  above. 

The  letters  in  italics  within  parenthesis,  we  have  introduced,  they 
refer  to  the  above  engraving;  the  other  letters  are  as  they  appear  in 
Mr.  Humphry's  specification.  "  A  Ais  the  cyUnder,  B  B  the  working 
piston,  C  (G)  the  crank,  D  D  {K K)  a  steam  tight  casing  or  trunk  of  a 
rectangular  form  rounded  at  each  end,  which  is  permanently  attached 
to  th^  piston  in  such  a  manner  that  the  axis  of  the  one  shall  correspond 
exactly  with  the  axis  of  the  other,  and  which  casing  works  up  and 
down  with  the  piston,  K'E.{F  F)  is  the  lid  or  cover  of  the  cylinder  A  A, 
G  G  {E  E)  the  stuffing  box  which  is  made  to  fit  the  outside  of  the  easing 
or  trunk  D  D  (A'  K)  instead  of  as  usual  fitting  the  piston  rod."  In  the 
concluding  part  of  the  specification,  Mr.  Humphrys  states  "  that  what  I 
claim  as  my  invention  is  the  addition,  to  the  pistons  of  steam  engines, 
of  a  steam  tight  casing  or  trunk  permanently  affixed  thereto,  and 
working  up  and  down  therewith,  and  the  employment  of  a  connecting 
rod  passing  from  the  working  piston  to  the  crank  through  such  steam 
tight  casing  or  trunk,  both  in  the  same  manner  herein  belore  specified  ; 
by  means  of  which  contrivance,  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  pistons 
is  resolved  into  a  rotary  motion  without  the  intervention  of  the  beams, 
cross  heads  and  other  auxiliary  appendages  in  common  use." 


iS40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


143 


MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE.— No.  1. 

Whatever  may  be  the  opinions  of  individuals  wilh  regard  to  the 
merits  of  the  Gothic  style,  it  has  so  strong  a  hold  on  our  sympathies, 
und  so  many  advocates  and  supporters,  that  it  can  neither  be  neglected 
in  a  professional  point  of  view,  nor  be  decried  as  unimportant.  As  a 
branch  of  instruction  its  study  is  imperative,  nor  is  it  less  so  as  coming 
within  the  domain  of  the  antiquarian  and  the  artist.  Linking  us,  as  this 
style  does,  in  a  common  bond  with  surromiding  nations,  abounding  in 
monuments  not  merely  of  local  but  of  universal  interest,  its  history 
in  other  countries  affords  not  only  pleasure,  but  becomes  of  value  as 
tending  to  illustrate  its  progress  here.  To  no  other  country  does  this 
apply  more  strongly  than  to  France,  where  the  architectural  associa- 
tions, like  the  political  relations  of  the  country  for  many  centuries 
were  interwoven  with  our  own,  springing  from  the  same  parent  stock, 
and  from  time  to  time  forming  alliances  wliicli  tended  to  keep  up  the 
mutual  connection.  At  the  same  time  the  later  and  closer  connection 
of  France  with  the  lower  empire  both  in  the  east  and  the  west  has 
given  rise  to  modifications  which  either  never  existed  here,  or  of 
which  the  vestiges  have  become  extinct,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Roman- 
esque and  Byzantine  Gothic,  of  which  monuments  are  to  be  found 
there  replete  with  the  highest  interest.  It  is  for  these  reasons  there- 
fore that  as  we  know  that  it  would  be  acceptable  to  our  readers  we 
are  induced  to  profit  by  the  present  opportunities  afforded  by  French 
periodicals  and  other  authorities  of  presenting  a  short  account  of  the 
French  Medieval  styles  in  a  familiar  form. 

In  our  second  volume,  page  193,  will  be  found  a  valuable  paper  by 
Mr.  Foynter,  on  the  comparative  chronology  of  English  and  French 
medieval  architecture,  founded  on  the  investigations  of  M.  Comon,  of 
the  Antiquarian  Society  of  Caen. 

COMPARATIVE    CHRONOLOGY    OF    FREMCH    AND    ENGLISH    MEDIEVAL 
ARCHITECTURE. 

950, 

1000  ^Romanesque. 


Norman    . 
Early  English    . 
Decorated  English 

Perpendicular    . 


Secondary  or  Gotliique 
Ravonuant. 


Tertiary  or  Gothique 
Flamboyant. 


fllOO  ^Transition. 

11150  J 

J  1200  I  Primordial  Gothic. 

1  1250  {  ,   .  , 

n3oo|^'"=p<"-"''- 

1  1350  i2d  epoch. 

fHOOjJ 

J  1450  >  1st  epoch. 

1  15001  oj  1 

li5ao[2'iep°*- 

Taking  this  as  our  basis,  the  first  style  to  which  our  attention  is 
directed  is  the  Romanesque,  a  style  of  which  we  have  no  example  in 
this  country. 

THE   ROMANESQUE   STYLE. 

Applying  the  term  of  Romanesque  style  to  those  monuments  imitated 
more  directly  from  Roman  architecture,  we  find  a  variety  of  speci- 
mens erected  between  the  fifth  and  twelfth  centuries  bearing  all  the 
impress  of  their  origin,  and  throwing  much  light  on  the  history  of  the 
art.  It  was  only  about  the  fifth  century  after  several  invasions  of  the 
barbarous  hordes,  that  sufficient  tranquillity  was  restored  in  France  to 
allow  of  the  erection  of  new  edifices,  and  of  the  repair  of  the  old  ones. 
The  conversion  of  the  Franks  under  Clovis  to  Christianity,  created  a 
necessity  for  buildings  suitable  to  the  new  form  of  worship,  to  which 
the  Roman  temples  were  ill  adapted.  Instead  of  narrow  sanctuaries 
secured  by  thick  walls,  the  ceremonies  of  Christianity  required  large 
covered  buildings,  in  which  the  congregation  csuld  participate  in  the 
services.  It  seems  that  under  these  circumstances  the  architects  of 
that  period  sought  for  the  type  of  their  designs  in  the  ancient  syna- 
gogues of  the  Jews,  and  the  civil  basilicas  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
To  the  former  they  were  naturally  led  by  tradition  and  association, 
while  in  the  latter  they  found  a  conveniency  of  disposition  suitable  to 
the  extended  wants  of  large  communities.  Thus  were  the  caves  in 
which  the  early  Christian  sought  refuge,  supplanted  by  the  new  edi- 
fices which  from  being  built  at  Constantinople  and  Rome,  served  as 
models  to  other  Christian  countries.  Hiding  from  persecution  it  was 
only  in  caves  and  in  the  hollows  of  rocks  that  the  first  votaries  could 
worship  in  peace,  and  yet  even  in  these  places  of  banishment  they  had 
already  introduced  greater  pretension  in  the  disposition.  At  Mont- 
majour,  near  Aries,  one  grotto  church  is  laid  out  with  two  parallel 
naves,  while  in  that  fine  specimen  of  a  primitive  temple  at  Sutrium, 
in  Etruria,  the  space  formed  in  the  rock  is  divided  into  a  vestibule,  a 
nave  divided  by  pillars  so  as  to  form  side  aisles,  and  a  sanctuary. 
With  greater  liberty  of  worship  more  display  was  aimed  at,  and  rude 


attempts  were  made  to  rival  the  labours  of  the  past.  In  these  essays 
it  was  natural  that  the  relics  of  Roman  art  should  be  referred  to  as 
models,  and  plundered  for  materials,  although  as  they  could  neither 
appropriate  Roman  genius  nor  transfer  Roman  skill,  they  necessarily 
fell  behind  their  masters  in  success.  Who  can  mistake  the  source, 
whence  the  annexed  entablature  and  capital  is  derived,  and  many  as 
strong  can  be  adduced.  Thus  also  the  details  of  the  onler  in  the  porch 

Fig.  1. 


of  the  Cathedral  at  Avignon,  the  Franks  employed  not  only  bricks 
similar  in  form  to  those  of  the  Romans,  but  used  those  which  they  ob- 
tained from  the  destruction  of  other  edifices. 

The  ground  plan  of  the  Romanesque  edifices  is  evidently  referable 
to  the  sources  already  alluded  to,  and  we  have  in  Fortunatus,  a  poet 
of  the  sixth  century,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  descriptions  of  several 
churches  which  serve  to  confirm  this  to  the  utmost  extent.  Such 
were  the  primitive  basilicas  erected  in  Paris,  Tours,  Clermont  and 
other  cities  of  Gaul.  We  find  that  they  were  spacious,  of  an  oblong 
form,  divided  into  several  naves  by  rovNs  of  columns  of  marble,  doubt- 
less obtained  from  the  pagan  spoils,  and  arranged  parallelly  to  the 
lateral  walls.  At  the  hemicycle  in  the  end,  used  as  a  sanctuary,  was 
placed  the  altar,  in  the  position  called  in  Vitruvius  the  tribune,  which 
in  Christian  edifices  was  always  single,  or  at  one  end  only,  while  in 
those  of  an  earlier  period,  as  in  the  basilica  of  the  Foro  Trajano  at 
Rome,  a  tribune  was  occasionally  placed  at  each  end.  Of  the  early 
specimens  of  the  Christian  basilica,  if  we  may  so  terra  it,  one  of  the 
best  preserved,  is  that  of  the  Cathedral  of  Parenzo  in  Istria,  built  in 
the  sixth  century.  Frequently  however  these  buildings  were  of  a  cir- 
cular form,  many  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  Italy,  w  hile  in  France 
there  is  St.  Germain  I'Auxerrois,  called  St.  Germain  the  Round : 
several  were  consecrated  by  Constantine,  both  in  the  east  and  the  west. 
Occasionalljf  the  circular  form  was  combined  with  square  naves,  of  the 
kind  before  described,  something  in  the  style  of  the  church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre.  The  church  built  by  Perpetuus  over  the  tomb  of  St.  Mar- 
tin, near  Tours,  was  a  fine  example  of  this  last  combination,  and  the 
accompanying  engraving  shows  a  restoration  of  the  ground  plan,  from 
the  description  of  tTregory,  of  Tours. 


U  2 


144 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


The  mode  of  construction  was  based  on  that  of  the  Romans,  the 
buildings  being  made  either  of  Roman  brick  or  as  before  observed  of 
bricks  of  a  similar  form  made  at  that  time.  The  architects  also  fre- 
quently made  use  of  brick  and  stone  in  conjunction,  a  favourite  system 
with  the  Romans.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Baptistry  of  Poitiers, 
and  the  church  of  the  Basse  ffiuvre,  at  Beauvais.  Although  at  first 
formed  very  simply,  these  buildings  soon  began  to  be  richly  decorated 
with  gilt  mosaics,  splendid  marbles,  and  luxuriant  carvings.  Stephen 
of  Toumay  describes  the  basilica  of  St.  Genevieve  at  Paris,  built  by 
Clevis,  and  destroyed  by  the  Normans,  as  being  covered  with  mosaics 
both  inside  and  out;  and  Fortunatus,  calls  the  basilica  of  St. Germain 
des  Pres,  built  by  Childebert,  the  gilt  house  of  Germain,  being  de- 
corated with  gilt  mosaics,  and  with  a  bright  metal  roof. 

Fig.  3. 


The  church  of  St.  John  at  Poitiers,  represented  above,  is  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  sixth  or  seventh  century,  and  was  originally  a 
baptistry,  as  is  proved  by  the  discovery  of  a  great  octagon  basin  in  the 
centre,  and  used  for  baptism  by  immersion.  This  building  has  under- 
gone many  changes,  but  the  genuine  portion  is  sufficiently  distinct  to 
be  easily  recognized.  A  pediment  of  ancient  proportions  surmounts 
the  fafade,  and  mouldings  of  simple  profile  frame  it  in,  and  these  cor- 
responding to  the  pitch  of  the  roof,  are  accompanied  by  incrustations 
of  a  semicircular  shape.  Large  stones,  cut  in  intaglio,  and  ornamented 
with  rosettes,  decorate  the  tympanum.  The  horizontal  entablature 
wliich  supports  the  pediment  is  complete,  consisting  of  an  architrave, 
frieze  and  cornice,  which  last  is  enriched  with  modillions.  Below  the 
entablature  is  a  band  or  zone,  formed  of  large  stones  and  bricks  placed 
alternately,  in  the  midst  is  an  arch  composed  of  several  concentric 
circles,  projecting  over  each  other;  and  in  the  centre  of  this  arch  is  a 
Greek  cross  resting  on  an  architrave,  supported  by  short  pilasters  with 
capitals  in  the  ancient  style.  Two  triangles  in  stone,  similar  to  those 
in  the  tympanum,  are  on  the  right  and  lelt  of  the  arch.  Between  the 
pilasters  and  below  their  bases  are  two  windows  now  circular,  but 
which  were  formerly  in  the  shape  of  arcades,  lighting  the  interior.  A 
string  course  divides  the  lower  part  of  the  front  into  two  equal  divisions, 
through  which  no  door  was  made,  as  it  was  opposite  to  the  entrance. 

The  buildings  of  the  south  of  France  belonging  to  this  period  wear 
more  of  the  ancient  physiognomy  than  those  elsewhere,  a  circumstance 
to  be  attributed  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  noble  Roman  ruins,  many 
of  which  still  exist.  The  Cathedral  of  Our  Lady  of  Gifts,  at  Avignon, 
has  a  porch  the  date  of  which  is  not  well  known,  but  which  may  be 
referred  to  the  eleventh  century,  from  the  introduction  of  the  door  of 
the  church  at  the  bottom,  and  from  the  situation  of  the  steeple,  which 
surmounts  it.  This  porch  carries  a  pediment,  of  which  the  pitch  is  still 


Fig.  4.— Portal  of  the  lllh  cenlury,  of  Our  Lady  ol  Gifts,  the  Cathedral 
of  Avignon. 


conformable  to  ancient  tradition;  the  mouldings  of  the  side  cornice* 
have  disappeared  ;  in  the  middle  is  a  circular  opening  called  by  the 
Christian  authors  an  oculits  or  eye.  The  pediment  is  supported  by  an 
entablature  of  bad  proportions,  but  ornamented  with  details  servilely 
imitated  froin  Roman  architecture.  The  entablature  rests  on  two 
Corinthian  columns,  attached  to  the  angles  of  the  porch,  shown  in  our 
first  engraving,  and  so  exactly  imitating  the  Roman  monuments  in  the 
country,  as  to  lead  at  first  view  to  the  belief  that  they  are  of  pagan 
origin.  In  fact  the  arcade  like  entry  shows  a  great  resemblance  to 
those  of  the  triumphal  arches  of  Orange  and  St.  Remy.  The  basement 
of  the  steeple  is  decorated  with  a  row  of  columns  quite  in  the  Roman 
style. 

Fig.  .5.— Church  of  St.  Tri)phime,  at  Aries. 


In  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  was  erected  the  beautifu 
church  of  St.  Trophiraus,  at  Aries,  represented  above,  and  which  seems 
a  point  of  union  between  the  Roman  style  and  that  of  the  middle  ages 
proper.  According  to  Gregory  of  Tours,  this  church,  which  in  tiie 
sixth  century  was  consecrated  to  St.  Stephen,  was  only  named  after  St. 
Trophimus  in  1152,  when  the  relics  of  the  first  bishop  of  Aries  were 
placed  in  it.  In  the  fifth  century,  this  cathedral  had  been  enriched 
with  marbles  from  the  theatre  of  Aries,  which  Saint  Hilary  had  used 
for  the  decoration  of  Christian  places  of  worship.  It  is  surmounted 
by  a  pediment  very  slightly  inclined,  and  the  mouldings  with  which  it 


1S39.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


1-1.= 


is  enriched,  like  most  of  the  others  in  different  parts  of  the  porch,  are 
still  in  tlie  Roman  style.  Several  details  recall  the  traditions  of  the 
past,  but  already  the  representation  of  singular  figures,  capitals  and 
bases,  decorated  with  lions  and  chimeras,  showed  that  the  imagination 
of  Christian  artists  was  wandering  from  the  rules  laid  down  by  the 
Greeks.  Sacred  history,  related  in  sculpture,  begins  to  cover  all  the 
zones  of  the  facade,  and  images  banished  from  the  inside  of  the  church 
take  their  stand  without.  In  the  midst  of  the  tympanum  formed  by  the 
springing  of  the  arches,  is  God  the  Father  surrounded  by  emblems  of 
the  Evangelists,  above  on  the  lintel  are  represented  the  Apostles,  on 
the  right  of  the  Almighty  the  elect,  and  on  the  left  the  damned.  Be- 
tween the  columns  of  marble  which  decorate  the  anterior  parts  of  the 
door,  are  carved  saints  and  bishops,  a  resurrection  and  other  religious 
subjects.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  arch  already  begins  to  assume 
something  of  the  pointed  shape,  which  it  was  afterwards  to  retain  so 
long.  The  cloister  of  tlie  church  of  St.  Trophimus  is  one  of  the  finest 
known;  the  arcades  of  its  porticoes  are  supported,  by  light  columns 
surmounted  with  capitals  of  good  style,  and  all  the  jutting  columns 
which  form  the  principal  divisions  of  the  galleries  are  decorated  with 
statues  of  life-size,  and  with  numerous  has  reliefs,  producing  an  ad- 
mirable effect.  Though  the  galleries  of  the  cloister  are  of  the  same 
period  as  the  portal,  the  other  two  are  of  thp  fifteenth  century. 

At  Vaison,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Ventoux,  at  Cavaillon,  at  Pontoise, 
!it  St.  Paul-trois-Chateaux,  and  in  many  other  tovros  of  the  south  of 
France,  are  to  be  seen  churches  or  chapels,  in  which  it  is  easy  to  per- 
ceive that  in  the  middle  ages  was  formed  a  school  of  architecture,  for  a 
long  time  imbued  with  the  ancient  principles.  If  we  add  that  in  the 
royal  church  of  St.  Denis,  founded  in  the  fifth  century  by  Saint  Gene- 
vieve, and  at  Montmartre,  where  was  a  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Denis 
are  to  be  found  marble  capitals,  decorated  with  the  cross  and  other 
Christian  emblems,  and  yet  executed  in  the  form  and  with  the  charac- 
ter of  Roman  capitals,  it  may  be  believed  with  good  reason  that  the 
primitive  churches  of  the  Gauls  showed  like  those  of  Italy,  a  filiation 
with  Roman  art,  and  that  the  tradition  of  classic  forms  was  only  lost 
after  a  certain  number  of  generations,  and  through  the  influence  of 
Byzantine,  art  imported  from  the  east.  At  the  same  time  we  are  able 
to  trace  the  germs  of  the  subsequent  styles,  for  in  Anvergne,  Baron 
Taylor*  found  in  a  church  of  the  Romanesque  era,  the  arch  decorated 
with  the  chevron  moulding. 


HARBOURS  OF  REFUGE. 

Practical  Observations  on  Harbours  of  Refuge,  and  on  the  effect  of 
Back  Waters  or  Sluices,  as  applied  in  the  Scouring  of  Harbours. 

By  H.  Barrett. 

"  Give  harbour  room,  and  public  ways  extend, 
Let  temples  worthy  of  our  God  ascend, 
Bid  the  broad  arch  the  dangerous  flood  restrain. 
The  Mole  projected  break  the  roaring  main. 
Back  to  its  bound  the  subject  sea  command, 
And  roll  obedient  rivers  through  the  land." 

C'herboubg. 

The  subject  of  our  harbours  having  for  some  time  attracted  much 
attention,  and  the  recent  appointment  of  Commissioners  to  investigate 
and  report  npon  the  state  of  the  harbours  on  the  south-east  coast, 
having  given  rise  to  some  discussion  as  to  the  proper  principles  which 
should  govern  the  construction  of  harbours  generally,  I  am  induced  to 
offer  the  following  remarks  as  the  result  of  my  own  experience  and 
observation  on  this  subject,  continued  through  many  years  and  in 
various  parts  of  the  world. 

In  1826,  and  again  in  1827, 1  was  examined  before  a  committee  of 
the  House  of  Commons  on  the  subject  of  the  then  proposed  harbour  of 
refuge  at  Lowestoft,  the  connexion  of  the  sea  with  Lake  Lothing,  and 
the  improvement  of  the  natural  river  navigation  from  thence  to  Nor- 
wich, for  vessels  drawing  12  feet  water,  so  as  to  make  that  city  a  port 
via  Lowestoft,  and  avoid  the  necessity  of  transhipment  at  the  port 
into  river  lighters,  as  at  Yarmouth,  through  which  means  Norwich  has 
been  for  centuries  supplied  with  coals  and  other  sea-borne  mer- 
chandize. 

The  following  are  extracts  from  the  evidence  given  before  the 
Committee  on  the  occasion  I  have  referred  to,  viz. 

From  the  evidence  of  the  Engineer. 

"  My  proposition  is  to  carry  12  feet  at  low  water  into  the  Lake,  and 
I  have  no  doubt  on  the  outside  it  will  scour  deeper. 

•  Journal,  vol.  2,  p.  194.  a- 


Q.  You  will  always  have  12  feet  into  the  Lake  ? 
A.   Yes. 

Q.  What  will  the  depths  be  at  high  water? 

A.  20  feet.  A  vessel  of  16  feet  could  enter  during  two  thirds  of 
the  tide, ;.  e.  at  two  thirds  ebb. 

Mr.  Telford. 

Q.  Can  you  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  distance  it  will  be  from  the 
shore  where  the  bar  will  form  ? 

jl.  There  will  be  no  bar — no  deposit — next  to  none. 

Q.  Will  the  water  from  Lake  Lothing  take  it  away? 

Jl.  Yes  ;  but  I  say  there  will  be  no  bar,  by  this  operation  of  tli" 
water,  none  at  all. 

Mr.  Barrett. 

Q.  Do  you  think  the  sand  carried  out  of  the  harbour  would  be 
lodged  on  the  flat  and  form  a  bar? 

A.  Yes,  and  that  it  would  lodge  beyond  the  reach  of  the  scouring 
water  of  the  Lake. 

Q.  Then  you  think  that  an  accumulation  would  take  place  ? 

.^.  I  am  decidedly  of  an  opinion  that  an  accumulation  would  occur, 
in  the  shape  of  a  bar  across  the  Harbour,  and  that  at  low  tides  even 
small  vessels  could  not  enter  in  consequence  of  the  accumulation." 

On  my  second  examination  before  the  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  which  was  in  1827,  the  following  questions  and  answers 
occurred,  viz. 

"  Q.  You  have  a  clear  opinion  that  a  bar  will  be  formed  ? 

./I.  That  is  my  opinion,  and  that  the  sluicing  power  will  increase 
the  evil. 

Q.  You  have  adopted  a  new  hypothesis  on  the  subject  of  a  bar? 

A.  I  have,  and  differ  with  all  the  engineers  as  to  the  cause  of  bars. 

[See  published  evidence  on  the  Norwich  and  Lowestoft  Navigation, 
in  sessions  1826  and  1827.] 

The  Act  of  Parliament  having  been  obtained  in  1827,  the  works  of 
the  Harbour  were  proceeded  with,  and  in  1831  the  Lake  was  connected 
with  the  sea ;  the  sluices  were  then  applied  in  order  to  scour  out  the 
newly  excavated  passage  ;  but  the  immediate  effect  after  a  very  few 
sluicings,  was  the  formation  of  a  bar  opposite  to  the  newly  made  en- 
trance, the  result  being  just  as  I  had,  in  my  evidence  before  the  com- 
mittees, stated  it  would  be;  and  instead  of  12  feet  at  low  tide, 
and  20  feet  at  high  tide  at  the  entrance,  according  to  the  engineers' 
previous  opinion  as  shown  in  their  evidence,  the  result  was  that  it 
became  nearly  dry  at  low  tide,  so  that  no  vessels  could  enter.  Sucli 
was  the  injurious  consequence  of  the  sluicing  water. 

In  183-2,  after  the  effects  of  the  sluicing  had  been  developed,  a  re- 
monstrance was  addressed  by  letter  to  the  directors  of  the  Harbour, 
by  pilots  and  others  residing  at  Lowestoft,  in  which  they  said, 

"  Deeply  sensible  of  the  advantages,  national  as  well  as  local,  at- 
tainable by  the  construction  of  an  efficient  harbour,  at  Lowestoft,  we 
cannot  but  view  the  present  with  a  feeling  of  regret,  its  entrance  en- 
cumbered with  a  shoal  or  bar.  We  understand  that  the  Commissioners 
for  the  Public  Works  are  willing  to  lend  .£.50,000  on  mortgage,  and 
we  strongly  recommend  the  appointment  of  an  experienced  nautical 
engineer." 

From  the  fatal  error  in  the  use  of  the  sluicing  waters,  added  to  the 
mistaken  mode  of  construction  adopted,  the  whole  undertaking  be- 
came a  failure,  and  the  entire  property,  with  piers,  wharfs,  buildings, 
engines,  &c.,  have  been  recently  submitted  to  puljlic  auction  bj'  the 
loan  commissioners  as  mortgagees  for  £.50,000  advanced  by  them ; 
but  the  Harbour  and  all  the  property  which  had  cost  about  £140,000, 
would  not  fetch  £15,000,  and  were  consequently  bought  in. 

As  far  back  as  the  year  1823,  I  published  a  pamphlet  admonishing 
the  public  that  it  was  impossible  to  construct  a  harbour  of  refuge  on 
the  site  and  by  the  method  then  proposed,  and  afterwards  adopted ; 
the  result  of  this  undertaking  has  fully  verified  my  predictions,  which, 
indeed,  were  founded  on  infallible  data.  Some  time  prior  to  that, 
period,  and  before  I  developed  my  opinions  on  the  certain  effects  of 
egrtss  or  sluicing  waters,  I  had  visited  and  observed  upon  various 
harbours  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  viz.  St.  Petersburgh,  Nerve, 
Revel,  Dantzick,  Konnigsberg,  Copenhagen,  Elsineur,  Norway,  Ham- 
burg, Tonningen,  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  Ostend,  Brest,  Bayonne, 
Cadiz,  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  on  the  coast  of  Africa ;  also  many  ports 
in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  Shetland  Islands,  and  the  Orkneys. 

In  none  of  those  places  did  I  find  any  exception  to  the  thesis  which 
I  have  adopted  relative  to  the  injurious  effects  of  egress,  sluicing,  or 
scouring  waters,  and  I  venture  boldly  to  assert  that  in  no  part  of  the 
globe  is  there  any  exception,  viz. 

"  That  wherever  the  mater  passes  from  the  interior  into  the  ocean  ivitlt 
sufficient  velocity  to  carry  matter  in  suspension,  and  to  cause  a  confict- 


146 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


ing  action  imlh  the  traters  of  the  ua,  there  a  shoal  or  bar  is  inrariaUij 
formed,  and  that  the  greater  the  velocity  of  the  igries  water,  the  larger 
mil  be  the  accumulation  of  shoal  or  bar.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

Fig.  1.— Plan  of  Dublin  Buy  and  Kingstown  llarLour. 


My  second  proposition  is  tliat,  "wherever  there  is  an  absence  of  egress 
or  sluicing  waters,  or  where  the  water  passes  into  the  ocean  so  as  not  to 
convey  matter  in  siispciision,  and  not  to  cause  a  confiding  action  with 
the  waters  of  the  ocean,  there  is  no  bar  or  shoal,  or  exterior  accumulation ; 
and  this  proposition  also  applies  equally  to  a  natural  harbour  (see 
Fig.  2.)  as  it  does  to  one  of  artificial  construction.    (See  Fig.  3.J 

Fig.  3.— Plan  of  Portrush  Harbour,  arlificially  formed. 


In  various  parts  of  the  world,  harbours  at  the  entrance  of  rivers 
have  been  entirely, blocked  up  and  lost,  by  the  operation  of  sluicing 
waters,  and  whether  naturally,  or  artificially  applied,  the  effects  are 
similar.     I  may  instance  the  following  places,  viz. 

Wisbeach,  Yarmouth  (its  north  entrance),  Winchelsea,  Roniney, 
Lowestoft,  before  referred  to,  Alexandria,  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  and  of 
the  Nile,  and  many  others  which  might  be  enumerated. 

The  learned  aiid  great  geologist,  Baron  Cuvier,  states  that  "  all 
attempts  to  improve  the  entrance  to  harbours  by  scouring  waters  have 
ever  proved  abortive,  and  brought  science  into  contempt." 

The  futility  of  such  attempts  the  examples  here  quoted  demon- 
strate. 

Labelye,  who  wrote  in  1747,  said,  "/  advise  all  persons  to  be  on 
their  guard  in  attempts  to  construct  locks  or  sluices  on  coasts,  for  besides 
the  erpence,  they  would  be  in  danger  of  losing  their  harbours. 

Fig.  2.— Plan  of  Anlglass  Harbour  nalura'ly  forincil. 


*a   'S 


— <^- 


'^ 


Among  the  places  I  have  visited,  there  are  many  that  exemplify 
this  proposition,  the  harbours  being  free  from  bars,  and  some  of  them 
sufficiently  capacious  to  contain  the  whole  British  navy. 

I  will  now  refer  to  the  evidence  taken  before  a  Committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1S3G,  on  Dover  Harbour,  and  on  the  means 
suggested  by  the  Engineer  for  improving  that  harbour,  who,  in  liis 
evidence,  says,  "  we  are  putting  clown  pipes ;  and  that  is  to  carry 
away  the  sluicing  water,  and  render  it  more  available  by  increasing 
its  force.  The  object  has  been  that  which  every  engineer  who  has 
been  consulted  is  desirous  to  obtain,  and  it  appears  to  me  that  the 
remedy,  although  an  expensive  one,  cannot  fail  to  be  complete." 

Mr.  Cubitt,  (in  answer  to  a  question  by  the  committee),  said, 

"Suppose  that  these  works  do  not  do  so  much  as  it  is  expected,  for 
successful  they  must  be  to  a  great  degree — " 

The  attempted  improvement  has  turned  out  a  failure.  I  will  next 
give  a  short  extract  from  the  evidence  of  nautical  and  practical  men, 
who  were  examined  by  the  same  Committee,  and  the  result  has 
shown  that  their  opinions  were  better  founded. 

Mr.  Hammond,  a  pilot,  speaking  of  the  plans,  stated  the  alteration 
which  had  been  made  had  not  been  effeclual. 

"  Q.  State  your  opinion  to  the  Committee  on  the  works  now  going 
on. 

A.  The  bar  will  be  more  prejudicial  and  dangerous  than  it  was 
before.     If  cleared  one  tide,  it  will  be  filled  up  the  next. 

Capt.  Boxer,  R.N.,  gave  similar  evidence,  and  said,  "  the  works 
will  be  a  complete  failure. 

The  Honourable  Captain  (now  Rear  Admiral,)  Elliot,  gave  similar 
evidence,  and  said,  "  I  consider,  if  the  whole  of  the  present  plan  was 
completed,  the  Harbour,  as  far  as  regards  a  Refuge  Harbour,  would 
be  just  as  imperfect  as  it  is  at  this  moment."  * 

After  reading  the  above  evidence,  it  must  be  clear  to  every  candid 
and  reasoning  mind,  that  whatever  the  right  plan  may  be  for  the  con- 
struction and  improvement  of  harbours,  that  plan  has  not  yet  been  hit 
upon  by  those  engineers  who  have  hitherto  employed  their  talents  in 
this  department,  and  as  the  greatest  national  interests  are  involved  in 
the  question,  and  the  safety  and  protection  of  our  great  maritime  com- 
merce, as,  indeed,  of  our  naval  force  itself,  must  mainly  depend  on  tlie 
efficiency  of  Harbours,  in  which  ready  refuge  may  be  found  in  time  of 
need,  no  object  can  ])0ssess  a  higher  claim  upon  public  attention  than 
Harbours  of  Refuge ;  on  almost  every  part  of  our  coasts  the  loss  of 
property  and  of  human  lives  have  become  a  reflection  on  our  national 
character.  It  is  a  lamentab'e  truth,  that  while  so  many  schemes  of 
improvement  or  benevolence  are  daily  attracting  the  patronage  of  the 
people  of  this  kingdom,  yet  both  the  enterprize  and  the  humanity  of 
the  same  people  nave  lain  comparatively  dormant  on  this  subject, 
which  more  than  any  other  aliecfs  our  character  and  our  interests  as 
a  great  mftritime  nation. 

In  this  branch  of  practical  knowledge  we  are,  it  is  to  be  regretted, 
much  behind  our  continental  neighbours,  and  prejudiciously  shall  we 
find  it  so  in  the  event  of  a  war  with  them. 

In  the  session  of  1839  I  presented  a  petition  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, praying  to  be  heard  by  a  committee  on  the  subject  of  bars,  and 
on  the  mode  of  constructing  Harbours,  free  of  bar  or  shoal  at  the  en- 
trance, and  I  was  prepared  to  prove  that  the  want  of  practical  and 
nautical  engineers  was  the  principal  cause  of  failure  of  the  attempts 


•  See  the  [ublifhed  evidence  on  Dover  Harbour.     Sjcssion,  lt3(i. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


147 


to  construct  eligible  Harbours,  or  of  improving  the  existing  Harbours, 
and  further  experience  has  strengthened  this  opinion. 

The  petition  was  merely  laid  on  the  table,  and  my  earnest  desire 
to  engage  the  attention  of  Parharaent  and  of  the  public  to  a  subject  so 
deeply  important,  was  on  that  occasion  disappointed. 

I  am,  however,  not  discouraged  in  my  hope  of  ultimate  success  in 
the  promulgation  of  ray  opinions,  in  which  I  have  now  the  gratification 
to  find  myself  countenanced  by  scientific,  practical,  and  nautical  men; 
snd  I  shall  continue  to  use  myzealous  exertions  in  pressing  upon  the 
public  attention  the  necessity  of  full  discussion  to  ascertain,  and  when 
ascertained  to  adopt  and  pursue,  what  may  prove  to  be  the  correct 
principle  of  constructing  and  maintaining  Harbours  of  Refuge,  with 
regard  to  which  I  repeat  my  firm  conviction  of  the  great  error,  which 
cannot  be  too  generally  exposed,  of  the  application  of  sluicing  waters 
/or  the  purpose  of  improving  the  entrance  to  Harbours,  at  best  but  a 
temporary  expedient,  and  which  has  never  proved  ai  permanent  remedy. 

To  the  investigation  of  this  subject  I  would  especially,  and  most 
earnestly,  invite  those  eminent  and  humane  individuals  who  are  be- 
stowino-  their  wealth,  and  influence  in  promoting  charities,  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  widow  and  orphans  of  shipwrecked  mariners,  and  remind 
them  of  the  old  adage,  "that  prevention  is  better  than  cure  ;  "  that  it 
is  better  to  sare  the  lives  of  sailors,  than  to  stand  by  and  see  them 
perish,  and  then  provide  fur  their  families  who  may  be  left  destitute, 
and  that  Harbours  of  Refuge  would  be  the  means  of  preventing  many 
of  those  calamities,  no  one  can  entertain  a  doubt;  and  that  such  Har- 
bours can  be  successfully  constructed  in  various  places  on  our  coast, 
where  they  are  so  much  required,  I  will  venture  with  confidence  to 
alfirm.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

Fig.  4.— Plan  for  a  Ilarljour  of  Refuge. 

ii\XW// 


A  Committee  ol  the  House  of  Commons  was  appointed  in  the  ses- 
sion of  1836,  for  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  shipwrecks,  and  they 
reported, 

"That  three  millions  of  property,  and  one  thousand  human  lives,  are 
annually  lost  by  shipwrecks  on  our  coasts;  and  that  the  want  of  efficient 
Harbours  of  Refuge  was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  these  calami- 
ties. 

The  Committee  of  the  General  Ship  Owners'  Society,  in  their 
report,  May,  1S37,  referring  to  the  above  report,  stated  that  there  is 
no  Harbour  of  Refuge  (that  can  be  so  called)  from  the  Firth  of  Forth 
to  the  Thames,*  and  that  the  numerous  casualties,  unfortunately  occur- 
ring in  the  navigation  of  the  seas  surrounding  the  British  coast,  natu- 
rally awaken  the  feelings  of  humanity  ;  and  that  the  loss  of  property 
from  the  River  Tyne  (only),  amounted  annually  to  £151,222,  and  of 
human  lives  in  the  same  time,  170. 

In  1836  there  were  110  vessels  stranded  and  wrecked  on  the  Lowe- 
stoft and  Yarmouth  coast,  and  197  vessels  lost  anchors  and  cables, 
many  others  sustained  much  damage.  These  losses  (alone)  may  be 
estimated  at  £120,000,  all  of  which  falls  on  the  ship  owner  or  under- 
writer ;  but  the  incidental  expences  of  a  voyage.  Harbour  dues,  &c., 
together  with  the  ship-owners'  profits,  are  paid  by  the  consumers  of 
ths  cargoes  in  the  shape  of  freight. 

The  above  sum  would  be  sutiicient  to  construct  an  eligible  Harbour 
of  Refuge  on  that  coast ;  and  the  £:? ,000,000  annually  lost  by  ship- 
wreck, is  adequate  to  construct  Harbours  on  various  parts  of  the  coast, 
where  they  are  so  much  required. 

*  Nor  is  there  fio  u  the  Thames  to  the  Isle  of  Wight. 


Under  the  impression,  therefore,  that  Harbours  of  Refuge  can  be 
constructed,  and  ought  to  be  constructed,  I  would  invite  the  active 
assistance  of  all  who  can  lend  a  hand  in  so  good  a  work,  for  the  attain- 
ment of  which,  I  shall  continue  to  devote  my  best  exertions,  myself  an 
old  sailor,  I  would,  on  behalf  of  sailors  and  their  dependents,  and  for 
their  safety,  invite  in  so  sacred  a  cause,  the  co-operation  of  the  bene- 
volent, the  patriot,  and  the  Christian. 

H.  Barrett. 

London,  8th  April,  1840. 


TABLE  OF  ARCHITECTS. 

[k  NOTE  TO  THE  EDITOR.] 

Sir — I  am  quite  horrified  at  finding  that  you  have  made  me  commit 
homicide — I  might  say  infanticide,  sending  Schinkel  out  of  the  world, 
as  soon  as  he  had  come  into  it.  I  don't  say  your  printer's  devil,  but 
your  devil  of  a  printer,  has  diabolically  and  with  malice  prepense 
omitted  the  word  "  fcora"  attached  to  the  name,  consequently  it  now 
appears  that  I  fancy  Schinkel  died  in  the  year  1781,  whereas  he  is  not 
only  alive  and  well,  but  doing  well  as  may  be  seen  by  your  "  Literary 
Intelligence"  at  page  130;  and  I  hope  he  will  not  appear  in  any 
obituary  or  necrology  for  many  years  to  come — not  until  1881,  at  which 
time  he  will  be  only  one  year  older  than  Clerisseau  was  at  the  time  of 
his  death ;  the  latter  architect  having  attained  a  degree  of  longevity  far 
exceeding  that  of  any  other  whose  name  occurs  in  the  table. 

In  a  paragraph  of  page  132,  some  computations  are  made  from  the 
table  relative  to  length  of  life  among  architects,  but  it  is  not  stated  how 
many  lived  to  upwards  of  80.  Among  the  latter  was  Gondouin,  who, 
though  he  did  not  attain  to  a  very  remarkable  longevity,  is  remarkable 
for  having  ventured  to  commit  matrimony  with  a  girl  of  seventeen, 
at  the  venerable  age  of  seventy-seven! 

I  have  not  yet  done,  for  I  must  protest  against  the  appearance  of  a 
gentleman  called  Jean  Radolphe,  whom  I  never  invited  to  mytaft/e,  and 
who  must  therefore  be  turned  out  as  an  intruder.  Perhaps  he  maybe 
an  acquaintance  of  your  diabolical ;  and  that  worthy  may  be  able  to  give 
some  account  of  him.  The  first  Jean  appears,  in  fact,  to  be  a  mere 
nobody, — and  so  also  does  Gerstenburgh  of  whom  it  should  have  been 
recorded  that  he  was  professor  of  Civil  Architecture  at  Jeva,  and  author 
of  several  publications,  but  principally  on  surveying",  and,  therefore,  has 
but  little  right  to  make  his  appearance  among  the  company  he  does. 

And  now  feel  relieved  :  you  may,  therefore,  present  my  hearty,  if 
not  good  wishes  to  your  dial,  and  believe  me,  &c. 

^  W.H.L. 

P.S. — I  have  just  seen  by  a  foreign  journal  that  AlbertoUi,  whose 
name  stands  at  the  end  ot  the  table  died  last  November,  in  his  9Sth  year, 
consequently  may  be  quoted  as  an  instance  of  longevity.  I  also  now 
perceive  that  Jean  Radolphe,  should  have  been  attached  to  the  name  of 
Perronet,  in  the  next  line. 

Sir — Among  the  Architects  of  the  18th  century,  a  list  of  eleven  was 
given  in  your  last  number  ;  the  Signor  AlbertoUi  was  mentioned,  the 
author  not  being  sure  whether  he  still  existed.  I  received,  a  few  weeks 
since,  a  letter  dated  27th  January  last  from  his  nephew  and  son-in-law 
the  Signor  Ferdinando  AlbertoUi,  professor  of  architectural  ornament  in 
the  academy  of  Breva,  and  honorary  and  corresponding  member  of  the 
Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects.  In  this  letter  is  the  following 
paragraph  ; — "To  our  great  grief  we  lost,  on  the  15th  November  last, 
our  venerable  parent  at  the  age  of  97  years,  three  months  and  21  days, 
from  a  cold  in  the  chest.  His  best  work  is  the  Villa  Melzi  on  the  lake 
of  Como,  and  he  was  the  author  of  several  publications  on  ornament. 
Our  academy  are  now  raising  a  subscription  in  order  to  erect  a 
handsome  monument  to  his  memory." 

I  regret  that  the  author  of  the  list,  to  which  I  allude,  did  not  givetlie 
authorities,  upon  which  it  is  founded;  an  indispensable  accoinpainiment, 
to  any  document  upon  which  reliance  is  to  be  placed,  and  a  loss  to 
those  who  wish  to  study  the  matter  beyond  the  bare  enumeration  of 
names. 

I  am.  Sir,  very  faithfully  yours, 

jipril,  1840.  Thos.  L.  Donaldson. 

SiR_In  your  number  of  April,  you  have  favoured  your  readers  with 
a  list  of  the  Architects  who  have  died  in  the  18th  and  19th  centuries, 
in  which  you  have  omitted  the  name  of  Charles  Beadey,  who  died 
January  6th,  1829.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  Robert  Taylor,  and  conse- 
quently the  fellow  student  of  Nash,  Craig,  Pilkiiigton,  Byfield,  and 
Cockerill  (the  last  of  whom,  as  well  as  Craig  and  Byfield,  are  likewise 
omitted).  Mr.  Charles  Beazley  was  the  aichitect  of  the  Goldsmiths' 
company,  and  a  district  surveyor  nearly  50  years  ago.  He  built  a  great 
number  of  gentlemen's  seats,  besides  many  buildings  in  London  and  its 
vicii.ity,  and  was  likewise  the  architect  of  Faversham  Church  in  Kent, 
which  has  been  so  generally  admired. 


14^ 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May. 


Feeling  that  it  is  perhaps  impossible  for  your  collector  to  know  the 
names  of  u'l  the  deceased  architects,  I  trust  that  you  will  attribute  this 
letter  to  the  sole  motive  by  which  it  is  dictated,  namely,  to  add  such 
information  as  may  enable  vou  to  correct  vour  list  should  vou  repub 
lish  it. 

I  remain,  Your  most  obedient  Servant, 

29,  Soho  Square,  April  3,  1^  10.  Samuel  Bkazley. 

We  have  received  another  communication  from  Mr.  Webb,  for  which 
we  are  obliged,  containing  the  names  of  some  architects,  which  were 
omitted  in  the  table;  we  shall,  at  some  future  opportunity,  avail  our- 
selves of  this  communication,  together  with  others,  and  publish  an 
additional  table.    Editor  C.  E.  and  A.  Journal. 


TEACHERS  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  ARCHITECTURE,  &c:: 
Sir — As  your  highly  useful  journal  is  devoted  to  the  advancement 
of  the  professions  you  advocate,  allow  uie  to  draw  your  attention  to 
what  I  consider  to  be  an  evil  of  the  greatest  magnitude,  and  one  which 
has  done  more  to  lower  the  profession,  and  to  bring  it  into  disrepute, 
than  anything  else  that  I  am  acquainted  with.  I  allude  to  the  pro- 
ceedings of  a  certain  class  of  persons,  styling  themselves  "Architects 
and  Surveyors,"  or  "  Civil  Engineers,"  who  disgrace  the  profession 
they  claim  by  pretending  to  teach  it  in  a  fern  lesso7is.  Such  men 
should  be  held  up  to  universal  scorn  and  contempt,  for  they  have  ruined 
the  profession  while  filling  their  own  pockets,  by  a  process  little  better 
than  swindling.  I  will  explain  the  manner  in  which  they  go  to  work. 
They  first  put  a  specious  advertisement  in  the  newspaper,  headed 
"Offices  for  Surveying,  Architecture,  and  Civil  Engineering,"  and  go 
on  to  state  that  a  few  /fSsoHS  are  all  that  is  required  to  enable  a  person 
to  practise  on  his  own  account!  I  Some  deluded  individual  is  sure  to 
be  allured  by  this  specious  advertisement,  for  unfortunately,  wherever 
there  are  dnpes,  there  are  sure  to  be  knaves  to  take  advantage  of  them. 
Such  persons,  (the  dupes,)  find  to  their  cost,  that  the  business  of  an 
Architect,  or  Surveyor,  or  Civil  Engineer,  is  not  quite  so  easily  acquired 
as  they  were  at  first  induced  to  imagine  by  their  disinterested  instructor : 
instead  of  a/en  lessons,  therefore,  occupying  a  few  weeks  only,  they 
are  persuaded  to  go  on  with  the  farce  for  a  few  months,  or  until  the 
master-hand  thinks  they  will  bear  plucking  no  longer.  He  then  lets 
them  go,  assuring  them  that  they  are  quile  competent  to  undertake  any 
survey  whaterer,  whether  for  canal,  railway,  or  turnpike-road,  and,  if 
asked,  furnishes  them  with  testimonials  to  that  eftect,  The  newl-y 
fledged  surveyor,  or  whatever  he  may  choose  to  call  himself,  delighted 
with  his  newly  and  so  easily  acquired  profession,  hastens  to  put  his 
skill  to  the  test,  and  for  this  purpose,  perhaps,  takes  an  extensive 
parish  to  survey  at  a  low  rate,  one,  perhaps,  that  has  to  obtain  the 
commissioners'  seal,  and  for  which  he  will  therefore  not  be  paid  until 
it  is  completed  to  their  satisfaction,  and  to  that  of  Capt.  Dawson,  no 
easy  person  to  please.  He  commences  his  work  with  confidence,  but, 
after  a  short  time  becomes  involved  in  a  labrynth  of  perplexity  and 
error,  from  which  he  cannot  extricate  himself;  he,  therefore,  hastens 
back  to  his  mentor  to  relate  his  misfortunes,  and  is  persuaded  by  the 
latter  to  take  -a  few  more  lessons,  or  perhaps  is  induced  to  employ  him 
to  survey  the  parish,  for  which  he  takes  care  to  charge  the  "  honorary" 
surveyor,  about  five  times  as  much  as  he  is  himself  to  receive  for  the 
parish  when  completed.  If  endowed  with  a  sufficient  stock  of  gulli- 
bility and  cash,  the  latter  accedes,  and  after  expending  perhaps  a  much 
larger  sum  than  he  would  have  done,  if  he  had  placed  himself  with  a 
respectable  surveyor  in  a  regular  manner,  he  at  length  acquires  a  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  the  business  to  enable  him  to  get  on  by  liimself 
without  making  many  more  blunders.  In  many  cases,  however,  the 
aspirant  is  disheartened  with  his  first  failure,  and  declines  the  honour 
of  being  further  taken  in  by  his  preceptor. 

This  is  the  way,  Sir,  in  which  the  pockets  of  the  unwary  are  picked, 
and  the  profession  of  the  surveyor  brought  into  disrepute  ;  and  the 
same  remarks  apply  also  to  that  of  architecture,  which  our  ^ro/essor 
professes  also  to  teach  in  a  few  lessons!! 

Really,  the  barefaced  impudence  of  some  men  exceeds  all  bounds, 
and  yet  we  see  the  advertisements  of  these  highly  respectable  members 
of  the  profession  almost  daily  in  the  newspapers,  a  sure  sign  that  they 
find  it  to  answer  their  purpose,  which  is  to  fill  their  pockets  at  the 
expense  of  others. 

I  think,  that  you  would  be  really  conferring  a  benefit  upon  the 
profession  generally,  and  on  the  rising  generation  in  particular,  by 
drawing  attention  to  the  tricks  of  these  advertising  quacks,  who  are  in 
general,  persons  of  no  kind  of  reputation  or  ability,  and  who  are  there- 
fore quite  unqualified  to  give  instructions  in  the  business  they  profess. 
By  pointing  out  also  the  fallacy  and  utter  absurdity  of  a  person 
endeavouring  to  acquire  in  a  few  lissons,  a  profession  in  which  a  man's 
n>holeli/e\s  barely  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  acquire  all  the  uiinutiiE  of  his 


art,  and  in  which  there  is  ahiMys  something  nem  to  be  learnt,  you  may  be 
the  means  of  preventing  the  inexperienced  from  falling  into  such  an 
error,  and  into  the  clutches  of  our  advertising  professors.  The  pro- 
fession is  already  overstocked  with  persons  regularly  educated,  and 
perfectly  competent  to  practise  it,  but  it  is  too  bad  that  they  should  be 
continually  brought  into  collision  with,  and  made  to  sutler  for  the  igno- 
rance and  blunders  of  others  calling  themselves  "Architects  and 
Surveyors,"  or  "Civil  Engineers,"  on  the  strength  of  a  few  lessons 
received  from  parties  nearly  as  ignorant  as  themselves,  and  who  are  no 
more  qualified  to  practice  the  professions  they  pretend  to  teach,  than 
I  am  qualified  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  Lord  High  Chancellor. 
I  have  the  honor  to  be.  Sir, 

London,  ^pril  17,  1840.  One  who  has  Suffeki-.d. 

[We  do  not  wonder  that  parties  can  be  induced  to  think  that  civil 
engineering  can  be  taught  in  a  college,  when  there  are  those  who 
believe  that  it  can  be  required  in  a  few  lessons.  What  is  to  become 
of  the  hundreds  of  accomplished  professors  who  are  to  be  manufactured 
wholesale  at  the  Gordon  College  i 


MR.  MOORE'S  PATENT  ROTARY  ENGINE. 
Fiji.  1. 


BOn.i 


The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  this  invention,  taken  from   tli 
specification. 

A  5,  A  (j  is  a  hollow  ring,  or  cylinder,  with  two  pair  of  folding 
doors,  D  3  and  F,  which  open  in  the  direction  D,  D  2,  and  F,  F  1,  and 
fall  back  into  boxes  to  receive  them.  The  doors  of  each  pair  open 
together  by  means  of  tooth  wheels,  and  are  closed  again  by  coiled 
springs  behind  them,  and  afterwards  pressed  closely  together  by  the 
elastic  force  of  the  steam,  when  the  piston  C  has  passed  them.  A, 
A  1  is  a  hollow  axle,  through  one  arm  of  which,  at  A,  the  steam 
enters,  and  passing  through  the  tube  A  4,  just  behind  the  piston,  fills 
the  space  left  between  the  piston  C,  and  the  folding  doors  F,  next 
behind  it.  By  its  pressure  on  C,  and  confinement  against  the  said 
folding  doors,  the  piston  (which  is  firmly  connected  with  all  the  in- 
terior part  A,  A  2,  &c.)  and  the  said  interior  part  revolve  together  in 
the  fixed  ring  cylinder,  A  5,  A  5,  in  the  direction  C  C.  As  the  pis- 
ton C  approaches  the  doors  D  3,  the  beveled  part  B  2,  acting  on  the 
ketch  D  5,  gradually  opens  the  folding  doors,  which,  after  the  piston 
has  passed,  close  again  by  means  of  the  coiled  springs,  and  are  kept 
tight  by  the  steam  issuing  through  A  4.  Through  A  7,  A  1,  all  the 
steam  or  air  in  advance  of  the  piston  passes  ott;  and  leaves  the  front 
side  of  the  piston  with  no  more  than  the  common  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, as  in  all  other  engines,  to  oppose  the  piston. 

This  is  the  principle  of  the  machine,  and  of  its  action,  but  a  variety 
of  contriva'ices  are  introduced — shown  by  other  diagrams  we  have  not 
thought  it  needful  to  insert — for  the  purpose  of  meeting  and  over- 
coming any  difficulties  in  the  way,  and  of  rendering  the  machine  more 
perfect. — Railway  JVIagazine. 


Elcctro-Galmvism. — At  a  leclure  del  vercd  at  the  Biiston  Meihanics"  Insti- 
tute, on  Friday  tlie  ISdi  ull.,  by  Mr.  H.  R.  tiilsun,  the  curator,  he  exhibited 
a  most  ingenious  and  important  aiiplicatiun  of  electro-magnetism  to  practical 
purposes,  by  which  he  is  enabled  to  take  the  casts  reijuisiie  for  sterutypingin 
cO|>per.  Thi'y  are  at  present  made  in  plaster  ol  Paris,  and  arc  seldom  aiiso- 
liili'ly  perfect ;  but  by  this  novel  application  ol  science  to  the  arts,  sten'otype 
p'ales  may  be  produced  as  perfect  and  sliarp  as  the  type  trom  wliicli  Ibev 
arc  taken. 


1S30.] 


THE  CIVIL  r.iNraNEER  AND  AlU'HlTiXT.S  JOURNAL. 


140 


GENERAL  THEORY  OF  THE  STEAM  ENGINE. 

By  Akistides  A.  Mou^•AY,  Esq. 

No.  Vi. 

On  the  Action  of  the  Steam  in  the  Cylinder  of  a  Stcnn  Engine, 

(Continued. ) 

We  sliiiU  first  consider  the  most  simple  ciise,  namely,  that  of  a  low 
pressure  condensing  engine  without  expansion,  and  with  the  ordinary 
slide  valve,  as  the  action  of  this  valve  is  more  simple  than  any  other 
for  calculation. 

On  the  subject  of  the  slides  we  have  to  observe,  that,  although  their 
motion  is  gradual  and  as  slow  as  it  can  he,  yet  there  is  no  loss  of  eflfect 
arising  from  this  circumstance.  We  should  not  have  thought  it  ne- 
cessary to  mention  this  fact  here,  as  \ve  stated  it  cursorily  in  our  last 
paper,  but  we  have  since  seen  a  paragraph  in  Tredgold's  Treatise  on 
the  .Steam  Engine,  where  he  asserts  the  contrary.  This  paragraph  is 
at  page  201,  and  runs  thus: 

"  When  valves,  cocks,  or  sliders  are  to  be  moved  to  admit  steam  to 
a  steam-engine,  the  motion  should  be  as  quick  as  circumstances  will 
permit,  so  that  the  passages  may  be  wdiolly  opened  or  wholly  closed 
at  the  proper  time  with  the  least  delay  :  for  it  may  be  easily  shown 
that  a  considerable  loss  of  effect  arises  from  valves  opening  or  shutting 
witli  a  slow  motion." 

Now  the  slide,  when  it  has  no  travel,  takes  one  half  of  tlie  duration 
of  the  stroke  to  open,  and  the  other  half  to  shut  the  ports  ;  and,  as  the 
eccentric  is  placed  a  quarter  of  a  revolution  in  advance  of  the  crank, 
the  ports  are  full  open  when  the  piston  is  at  the  middle  of  the  stroke, 
and  comjiletely  closed  at  each  end.  If,  however,  we  can  show  that 
the  aperture  of  the  steam  port  is  always  proportional  to  the  velocity 
of  the  piston,  it  will  be  proved  that  the  steam  will  follow  the  piston 
with  the  same  pressure  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  stroke. 
This  will,  howev(T,  only  apply  to  the  steam  port  as  regards  the  disad- 
vantage of  the  slow  motion  of  the  slide ;  for  the  more  rapidly  the 
waste  steam  can  be  made  to  pass  into  the  condenser,  the  greater  effect 
will  obviously  be  obtained  from  the  steam.*  At  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke  of  the  piston,  then,  the  slide  is  in  the  middle  of  its  stroke  ;  the 
piston  has  no  velocity,  and  the  steam-port  is  completely  sluit,  but  just 
readv  to  open,  and  its  aperture  increases  in  the  ratio  of  the  distance 
travelled  by  the  slide  from  its  present  position  in  the  middle  of  its 
stroke.  Now  that  distance  is  equal  to  e  sin  a,  when  the  shaft  has  de- 
scribed the  angle  a,  e  being  the  eccentricity  or  distance  of  the  centre 
of  the  eccentric  from  that  of  the  shaft.  In  the  same  time  the  piston 
will  have  acquired  tlie  velocity  r  sin  a,  if  v  is  its  velocity  in  tlie  middle 
of  the  stroke.  These  two  cjuantities  evidently  increase  always  in  the 
same  ratio,  therefore  the  orilice  of  the  steam-port  is  always  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  steam  of  the  same  elasticity  as  at  the  middle  of  the 
stroke  of  the  piston,  supposing  no  w'aste  space  to  require  tilling  with 
steam  at  the  beginning  of  c.ch  stroke,  and  this  is  elfected  before  the 
piston  has  described  a  sensible  portion  of  its  stroke,  the  steam  having 
a  much  greater  tendency  to  How  into  nearly  a  vacuum  than  into  steam 
of  very  little  less  than  its  own  pressure. 

In  order  to  allow  for  the  filling  of  the  waste  space  with  steam,  we 
will  suppose  the  slide,  instead  of  having  no  lead,  to  have  just  so  much 
as  will  allow  that  space  to  be  filled  with  steam  of  the  same  elasticity 
as  that  in  the  steam-pipe,  by  the  time  the  steam  has  arrived  at  the 
end  of  the  cylinder,  and  is  ready  to  begin  its  stroke,  the  aperture  of 
the  port  being  at  the  same  time  enlarged  so  much,  that  in  the  middle 
of  the  stroke  of  the  |iiston  it  should  be  suflicient  to  allow  the  steam  to 
follow  the  piston  with  the  required  elasticity.  13ut,  since  this  neces- 
sary lead  of  the  slide  and  enlargement  of  the  port  are,  as  will  be  here- 
after proved,  excessively  small,  we  shall  omit  to  take  them  into  con- 
sideration, merely  assuming  the  effect  for  the  sake  of  which  these 
alterations  were  supposed,  namely,  that  the  waste  space  is  already 
filled  with  steam  of  the  same  elastic  force  as  that  in  the  steam-pipe 
at  the  moment  the  piston  commences  its  stroke. 

Suppose  now  the  piston  in  the  middle  of  the  stroke,  in  which  case 
the  steam  port  will  be  full  o|ien,  and  let  the  elastic  force  of  the  steam 
in  the  steam  passages  =  P,  that  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  =  ;;,  the 
ratio  of  the  area  of  the  piston  to  that  of  the  steam  port  =  in,  and  V=: 
the  mean  velocity  of  the  piston  in  feet  per  minute.  Let  it  be  required 
to  determine//  when  all  the  other  quantities  are  known. 

In  order  to  solve  this  problem,  we  have  to  fiiiil,  Jirst,  the  velocity  of 


•'■  In  condensing  engines,  working  with  low  pressm-e  steam,  the  resi  tanec 
of  the  wa^to  steam  is  iisnally  considered  as  equal  to  tlie  prcssMrc  in  tlip  con- 
denser; we  shall  show  in  a  future  paper  that  where  tl'-O  slide  valve  is  used 
with  no  lead,  the  pressure  of  the  waste  stciim  on  the  piston  is  much  greater 
tlian  ia  the  condeusti  during  d,  cousiderahle  portigu  gf  the  stroke. 


the  steam  through  the  port  necessary  to  enable  it,  when  expanded  to 
the  elastic  force  p,  wliich  it  assumes   in  the  cylinder,  to  follow  the 

piston  with  the  velocity— — which  the  piston  has  attained   in  the 

middle  of  the  stroke ;  secondlij,  the  height  of  a  column  of  steam  of  the 
elasticity  P,  which  would  give  it  that  velocity,  and  lMtli/,the  pressure 
of  that  column,  which  will  be  equal  to  the  loss  of  pressure  wdiieh  the 
steam  suffers  in  entering  the  cylinder. 

In  the  first  place,  the  velocity  of  the  steam  through  the  port,  if  it 

retained  its  density,  would  be  --- —  ;  but,  since  we  suppose  a  loss  of 

pressure,  we  must  also  assume  a  diminution  of  density  ;  and,  if  we  call 

ii'  anil  r,  the  relative  volume  of  the  steam  in  the  steam  passages  and 

in  the  cylinder  respectively,  the  velocity  through  the  port  will  be 

f'  nt  IT  V 

— ;r .     The  height  due  to  this  velocity  is, 


h  = 


1)'^  m-  T-  V- 
28,800  g  I'-  ' 

and  this  is  the  height  of  the  column  of  which  the  pressure  is  to  be 
determined.  This  would  evidently  be  knoviai  if  we  knew  the  height 
of  the  colunm  whose  weight  is  equivalent  to  the  total  elastic  force  P, 
which  we  shall  therefore  now  endeavour  to  ascertain. 

Letjj  and  v  be  the  elastic  force  and  relative  volume  of  steam  at  the 
temperatiu'e  /,  and  ]/  and  o'  those  of  steam  at  the  temperature  t' ; 
also  let  H  be  the  height  of  a  column  of  the  former,  whose  weight  is 
equivalent  to  its  pressure  ]>,  and  IF  the  height  of  a  column  of  the  lat- 
ter whose  weight  is  equivalent  to  its  pressure  y.  It  is  evident  that 
wc  must  have 

»_  P^ 
H~    Pv' 


But  we  have  also 


w 


V  (f  +  4-1&) 


Vt' 


!)'  (t  -f  448)  ■ 

which  value  being  substituted  in  the  preceding  equation,  it  becomes 

H'_T' 

H  ""  T' 

When  t  =  210,  H  is  the  height  of  the  column  of  atmospherie  steairt 
equivalent  to  its  clastic  force,  and  H'  that  of  the  column  of  steam  at 
any  other  temperature  /'  equivalent  to  its  clastic  force y.  Assuming 
the  density  of  water  to  be  1700  times  that  of  atmosidieric  steam,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  to  be  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  cohinin 
of  water  34  feet  high,  the  value  of  H  will  be  5rbU0  feel,  and  we  shall 
have 

H'  =  ^'fiT', 
liGO         ' 

or,  reducing  the  eoellicient  and  dropping  the  accents,    ' 

H  =  S7'.37570  T., 

Since  the  value  of  P  is  supposed  to  be  known,  we  can  find  that  of  T 
by  referring  to  a  table,  so  that  we  may  consider  H  as  already  deter- 
mined, and  therefore  make  use  of  it  in  the  determination  of  the  loss  of 
pressure  P — p,  wdiich  the  steam  surtijis  in  entering  the  cylinder. 

As  the  two  colunnis  H  and  h  have  the  same  density,  their  pressures 
are  evidently  proportional  to  their  altitudes,  therefore 

P—p  _    h 
P      ~  H' 

whence 


P-i^  =  - 


V^P 


2SS0O  g  !i2  H' 

or,  substituting  for  the  constants  7r'  and  g  their  \aiucs,  and  for  II  it's 
value  S7:J757(J  T,  as  found  above, 


-1>- 


•U00000121aG 


t'T 


.^P. 


(a) 


We  may  be  allowed  to  presume   that  the  difference  between  v'  and 
V   in  all  cases  which  occur  in  practice  is  so  trifling  that  the  ratio — 

n  (,2 

may,  without  any  sensiMi'  error,  be  reganled  as  equal  to  unity,  whicif 
will  reduce  the  preceding  equation  to  the  following  simpler  one, 

m'  V- 
P  — ^;  ^  -00000012150  -^-  P.  (6.) 

X 


1.50 


THE  CIVIL  ENCINKKK  AM)    \  K(  1 1 11  ICC  r  S  .lOLKX  AL 


[M.' 


A  V 


To  show  nimieiically  liy  !io\v  iinic.li  (lie  pressuio  p  of  tlie  sleam  in 
the  cvlinder  may  iail  sliuVt  of  P,  whiili  is  its  pressure  in  the  ste.iin 
iLissnees,  we  shall  apjilv  these  forinn'a-  to  one  or  two  examples,  when 
we  shall  also  show  thai  the  error  introdnccil  by  neglecting  the  (lilferencc 
hetween  r'  aiid  r  iloes  not  ;xinount  to  so  much  as  one  Inmilreclth  part 
i)f  a  pound,  whether  the  steam  be  used  at  a  high  or  low  pressure,  pro- 
\  ided  the  area  of  the  steam  passages  be  not  excessively  small,  nor  the 
velocity  of  the  piston  verv  great. 

As  a  first  exam]i!e  let  P  =  H-71,  >ii  —  ia,  and  V  =  210.  The 
temperature  of  the  steam  in  the  passages  is  in  this  case  212  degrees, 
which  gives  T  =  (JilU,  and  r'  —  1700. 

Having  substituted  lliese  values,  we  find 

V—lj  =  -OOliya  P  =  •0'J751I)., 
whence 

;;  =  •99337  P  =  H-l>125  lbs. 

The  relative   vuluinc   of  steam   of  this  elastic  force  i>  1711,  which 


makes 


=  •yb7"J,  and   if  we  imillijily  the  abu\e  value  of  P — /"by 


this  fraction,  we  shall  obtain 

P— y/=  •(>9i3lb., 
w  hicli  gives 

J,  =  n-:il37lbs., 

which  (liU'crs  from    tin'  former  value  by  no  more  than  ■iiiil:7  lh>.,  uhich 
is  a  negligeable  (|iraiitity. 

As  an  exani|ile  of  exces.rively  high  jiressure  steam,  let  P   -  130'93, 
and  III  and  V  the  same  as  in  the  lormcr  example.     In  tliis  case  we 
have  T  =  7;N  and  r'  =  230-9. 
From  formula  (/i)  we  obtain 

V—p  =  -005484  P  =  -7 isi lb. 
whence 

;;=  130-2 12  lbs. 

Tlie  relative   volume  of  steam  of  this  elastic  force  is  2321,  so  that 


('  - 
r 


-C897,  and,  multiplying  liy  this  fraction  the  value  of  —  y  just 


obtained,  the  latter  becomes 

P  — 7;  = -711  lbs., 
wlieice 

;;  =  130-2 19  lbs. 

V  ' 

The  error  introduced  by  neglecting  the  fraction      ,    is  therefore  also 

ill  this  case  too  small  to  be  worth  taking  account  of,  so  that  we  may 
alwavs  content  ourselves  witli  formula  (6),  when  we  wish  to  ascertain 
llie  loss  of  ))rcssure  which  the  steam  sutli-rs  in  passing  through  the 
steam  port  into  the  cylin<ler  of  a  steam  engine. 

( )n  referring  to  ecpiation  (6),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  loss  of  pressure 
which  the  steam  suiters  in  passing  through  the  port  into  the  cyliniler 
Varies  dirictly  as  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  piston,  and  as  the 
s(|uare  of  the  ratio  of  the  area  of  the  piston  to  that  of  the  steam  port, 
and /;H-(;sf /y  as  the  number  of  degrees  by  which  the  temperature  of 
the  steam  in  the  steam  jia'^s ages  exceeds  — US  degrees  Kalir.,  which 
shows  that,  the  higher  the  pressure  of  the  steam  used,  the  less  is  the 
comparative  loss  in  passing  through  the  port,  and,  the  greater  the 
\elocitv  of  the  ])iston,  (he  larger  the  steam  port  must  be  in  the  same 
proportion,  that  llie  loss  of  pressure  may  be  the  same. 

Wc  assumed  a  rather  considerable  value  for  V  in  the  alxive  calcula- 
tions, in  order  to  show  more  satisfactorily  how  trilling  is  the  error 
which  can  be  committed  in  deducing  the  elastic  tone  of  the  steam  in 
the  cylinder  from  that  in  the  steam  jiassages.  By  making  V  ^^  210 
Icct  per  minute,  which  is  t!ie  spt  ed  usually  given  to  the  pi>lon  of  an 
engine,  instead  of  2  10,  which  we  assumed  above,  the  value  of  P — ji 
will  be  reduced  in  the  ntio  of  210-  to  -240',  or  19  to  114.  When 
therefore  the  area  of  the  steam  ]  ort  is  one  2.')tli  part  cd'  that  of  the 
piston,  and  the  mean  velocity  of  the  piston  is  about  210  feet  per 
minute,  we  may  assume,  as  an  average  for  low  pressure  engines, 

P  —p  =  -005  P, 

;;=  -995  P; 
and  for  high  pressure  engines, 

P— ;;  =  •004(;  P, 
o.- 

J,  -  -9954  P. 

It  is  a  very  good  ]ilaii  In  lix  a  sti  am  guage  on  to  the  slide  box,  or 
steam  pipe  very  near  the  cylii  der,  as  that  dispenses  with  the  calcula- 


tion of  the  loss  of  elastic  force  esperienccil  by  the  steam  during  its 
passage  llirough  the  steam  pipe,  before  it  arrives  at  the  slide  box. 

\Vhen  speaking  of  the  lead  of  the  s'ide  necessary  to  allow  the  waste 
space  at  tin-  end  of  the  c)iinder  to  be  filled  with  steam  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  stroke  of  the  |iiston,  we  said  we  should  prove  it  to  be 
excessively  small.  The  calculation  of  the  exact  lead  re(]nired  for  that 
purpose  is  verv  long  anil  dillicult,  involving  integrals  of  a  very  com- 
plicated nature;  but  it  will  an-wer  our  juirpose  ciiually  well  to  prove 
it  for  a  greater  lead  than  necessary,  for  it  wiU  tlien  be  proved  a  fortiori 
for  the  necessary  lead. 

Let  P  be  the  elastic  force  and  D  the  density  of  the  steam  in  the 
steam  pipe,  and  let  H  =  (he  height  of  a  column  of  the  same  steam 
whose  weight  is  equivalent  to  its  pressure.  Also  let//  be  the  elastic 
force,  and  S  the  density  of  »he  steam  in  the  waste  space  when  the 
port  is  open  to  a  certain  degree,  a  the  area  of  the  orifice  at  that  mo- 
ment, rtlie  velocity  of  the  steam  through  it,  aiuWytlie  volume  of  steam 
of  the  density  D  which  has  passed  through  the  pott,  and  let  d  be  the 
density  of  the  steam  in  the  condenser,  and  consequently  a'so  in  the 
waste  space  before  the  ])ort  has  begun  to  open.  In  the  ease  of  non- 
condensing  engines  d  is  equal  to  the  density  of  atmospheric  steam,  or 
1.     Also  let  c  be  the  contents  of  the  waste  space,  A  the  area  of  the 

piston,  L  the  length  of  the  stroke,  and   -  the  ratio  of  the  area  of  the 

steam  port  to  that  of  the  jiiston. 

The  height  of  the  column  of  steam  ecjuivalent  to  the  pressure  P  — 1>, 
to  wliich  the  flowing  of  the  steam  througli  the  port  is  due,  is  eijual  to 

H  (   1  — -    y  the  velocity  will  therefore  be  eipial  to 


V-^^-(-'p)- 


But  this  formula  would  lead  to  very  complicated  calculations,  as  we 
have  already  observed,  for  which  reason  we  shall  substitute  the  frac- 
tion     for  ^\,  which  w  ill  render  the  case  less  favourable  ;  for  the  former 

being  greater   than   the   latter,   the   factor    ('—,))    '»   '•''■s  'h.m 


(.-;;). . 


herefore  also  the   value  of  r  will  be  less  after  the  sub- 


stitution than  before,  and  consequently  the  lime  re(|uirpd  to  ra 
pressure  of  the  steim  in  (lie  waste  space  to  the  maximum  \\\ 
attains  in  the  cvlinder  w  ill  appear  greater  than  it  really  is.  If 
fore  we  can  prove  this  (o  be  exceedingly  slior(,  it  will  be  demons 
a  fordori  lor  (he  true  time.  We  shall  therefore  assume,  in  p 
the  above  equation 


ise  (he 
licli  it 
(hcie- 
.( rated 
ace  of 


r 


a/-^^'"\/^ 


S 


V-'.V"-"    "• 


We  have  also  bclwecn  (he  vaiiible  (juantities  q  and  5  (he  fi>llo«ing 
rel.idon 


whence 


And,  ly  diirrientiation, 


But  we  have  also 


dif.  7=  '  dif.  5. 


dif.  (y  =r  a  (1  dif.  I, 

where  ilif.  /  is  the  infinitely  small  space  of  time  during  which  the  in- 
finitely sm.dl  (piantity  (d'  steam  dil.  5  of  the  density  D  passes  through 
the  orifice  o.  These  (Wo  cipiations,  having  their  first  ineinbcis  cipial, 
give 

-'"  dif.  S^-  av  dif.  /.  (2.) 

Let  6  c  r -present  the  area  of  the  steam  port  when  bill  open,  6  being  its 
constant  length  and  ;■  the  greatest  width  to  which  it  is  opened  by  the 


1840.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


151 


eccentrif,  wliieh  is  er|ii;il  to  the  eccentrioily  of  the  latter ;  we  sliull 
llien  linvf,  calling  9  tlie  angle  (leseril)ecl  by  tile  e<:centrie,  IVom  the  nio- 
ment  when  the  port  began  to  open  till  its  aperture  had  heeoine  eipial 
to  a, 

a=br  sin  e :  (3.) 

whence  we  obtain  by  differentiation 

dif.  a  —  6  )•  cos  9  (lif.  p, 
or 

dif.  a 


dif.  a 
b  r  cos  a 


Bnt  equation  (3)  gives 

h  r  cos  0  =  /y/A-  f'  —  a'l 
wliich,  being  substituted,  makes 

dif.  a 
dif.  9  =  . 

Vi'  »•'  —  a- 

And,  if  we  call  t  the  duration  of  a  single  stroke  of  the  jiiston,  or  half 
a  revolution  of  the  shaft,  we  shall  also  liave 


wlience  l)y  differentiation 

dif.  /  =  !  dif.  0, 
It 

which  becomes  by  substituting  the  value  of  dif.  9  just  found 

dif.  t  = dif.  a. 

T  (i-'  r"  —  0-)  " 

Substituting  this  value,  as  well  as  that  of  v  given  by  equatiow  (V>, 
in  equation  (2),  this  latter  becomes 

dif.  S  .    , 

(4). 


(D  — 5)^ 


T  V  2  g  H  D  a  dif.  o 

(i-  /-  — o-)- 


The  greatest  value  which  S  can  acquire,  being  equal  to  the  maxi- 
nunu  <lensity  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  during  the  stroke  of  the 
piston,  cannot  be  quite  equal  to  D,  but  will  not  fall  far  short  of  it.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  evident  that,  if  we  assume  D  as  the  maximum 
value  of  5,  the  hypothesis  will  be  unfavourable  to  our  demonstration; 
we  are  therefore  permitted  to  make  it;  and  as  the  minimum  v.due  of 
S  is  equal  to  d,  we  must  integrate  the  first  member  of  precediiig  equa- 
tion between  the  limits  5  =  D  and  5  ^  rf.  The  limits  of  the  value 
of  a  in  the  second  number  are  a=:  a,  the  aperture  of  the  port  when  5 
has  attianed  its  greatest  value,  and  o  ^  o.     We  must  therefore  have 


D 

'  dif.  ! 


J  cD-5)  i 


tV'2, 


2gHD /*  g  dif.  tt 


(6^r-a=)^ 


(5.) 


lu  the  tirst  integral  let  D  —  5  ^  .r;  then  dif.  S  :=  —  dif.  .r,  and 
D  D  — (i 

dif,  5 

":  (lif.  X. 


/'dif,  5  /• 


a,  0 

4 

=z--2{V>  —  d)    . 
In  the  second  integral  make 

b-  r-  —  «'-  =  z. 
Py  difi'ereutiation  we  obtain 

a  dif.  a  =  —  i  dif.  z. 
We  have,  therefore, 

a  h"  r- 


y^    g  dif.  g _  _    /•! 


■  dif.  z. 


i 

=  —  [br  —  (b-.--  -  rr-)    ]. 

Substituting  these  values  of  the  integrals  in  equation  (5"),  we  ob- 
tain 


2(p-d)^  =  LVMii^  [i  ,_  f/;: ,..  _  a-:)  *  ], 


and,  subsliluting  lor  a  its  value  given  by  equation  (3), 

2  (D  —  (/)    =  -^—f [br  —  br(l—  I'n.  9- )      ] 


>j^W2gHD^.„„_,^ 


whence  we  deduce 


suiv.  8  =: 


2  c  TT  VD  • 


6rT^2gHD 

or,  putting  for  b  r,  which  is  the  area  of  the  steam  port  when  full  open, 

,      A 
its  value  — , 


sinv.  0  -- 


2»ctVD  —  d 


T  A  V2gHD" 

Now  — '■ '—  expresses  (he  distance  passed  through  by  the  piston 

while  the  shaft  ilcscribes   the  angle  9  round   its  axis,  and  consequently 
during  the  time  the  waste  sjiace  is  filUug  with  steam,  therefore,  if  we 

call  I  that  distance,  and      the   ratio  of  the  waste  space  c  to  the  con- 

S 
tents  of  the  cylinder  between  the  limits  of  the  stroke,  we  shall  have 

AL,       " 
c  =    ^     and 


/  = 


«  «•  L"  V  D  —  d 


St  /^2gHli 


/  _  M  T  L  V  D  —  i  =  iittL  "y     1  — p' 
L  ~  S  T  vTg-  HET  S  t  V  2gH 

or,  since  the  densities  are  inversely  as  their  relative  volumes, 


L 

HTT 

l^/\/        1-.. 

SrVSgH 

(G.) 


As  an  example  for  low  pressure  steam,  let  L  ^  5,  »  —  ^''vl  —  ^-,''' 
p  _  17-7^  lbs.,  whence  V  =  1427,  T  =  U70  and  H  =  .)Sl,/ ..•/ ../b ; 
let  the  temperature  of  the  condenser  be  110  degrees,  '"";''.; J'^' ";•; 
V  =  14y.-i2 ;  and,  if  we  suppose  the  piston  to  move  throu^^i  -00  tee 
in  a  minute,  r  =   1-5  second.     We  have  besides  n  =  o-UlU  and 

°  Subrtituliug  these  values  in  the  second  member  of  equation  (b),  we 
obtain 


3-1416  X 


25  X  5  /\/  ^  " 


1427 
14952 


=  -0032. 


Ii 
tiftl 


L         1-5  X  20  V  G4-3S  X  58G75-737G 
u  the  example  chosen  the  value  of  /  would  thus  be  less  than  one- 
h  of  an  inch;  and  it  will  be  remembered  that  this  value  is  too  great 

in  consequence  of  our  having  substituted  the  ratio  —  for  -. 

As  an  example  for  high  pressure  steam,  we  wiU^  take  the^data 
from  locomotive  engines,  and  assume  L  =  1-5,  n  —  la,  s  _  ^  , 
P  =  77-05  ;  whence  V  =  3ol)-5,  T  =  700,  and  H  =  'il>5^>'  j'^^b  ;  also 
,-  =  1700 ;  and,  if  we  suppose  the  piston  to  move  through  3bO  teet 
in  a  minute,  t  =  -ij  second. 

Substituting  these  values,  we  lind 


/        3-MlOX  25  X  1-5  /y     ^' 


3ii'J-5 
"iTOO 


=  •010)7. 


L  -25  X  20  V  IJ4"38  X  GG557-57(; 

In  this  example,  therefore,  the  value  of  /  is  but  a  trifle  more  than 
•is  of  an  inch,  or  less  than  3  of  the  lead  of  i  of  an  inch  usually  allowed 
in  locomotives. 

The  ratio    -  a'so  expresses  the  proportion  of  the  whole  area  of  the 

steam  port  by  which  its  aperture  is  diminished  at  the  moment  the 
piston  reaches  the  middle  of  its  stroke,  and  as  this  quantity  is,  as  the 
wo  above  examples  show,  exceedingly  small,  it  is  unnecessary  to 
make  any  allowance  for  it. 


152 


THE  CIVIL  ENCilNEKR  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


A  FEW  KKMARKSON  THli:  CONSTRUCTION  oK  oni.K^UE 
ARCHES,  ANU  ON  SOME  RECENT  WORKS  (JN  THAT 
SUBJEC'l'. 

IIntil  witliii)  the  last  few  years,  the  construction  of  oblique  briilges 
lias  been  but  little  nnilerstooil,  from  a  iloiibt  as  to  their  stabililv,  and 
I'ruiii  the  dilliiHilty  of  their  conslnidion,  they  were  regarded  to  a  cer- 
tain degree  with  distrust,  and  the  engineer  would  only  have  recourse 
to  tbeui  when  the  circumstances  of  the  case  were  imperative;  the 
superior  scientific  acquirements  of  the  engineers  of  the  present  dav, 
liovvever,  the  assistance  of  various  books  on  the  subject,  and  the  great 
experience  (jbtained  in  this  species  of  construction,  l)y  the  demai  d. 
occasioned  for  them  in  the  large  railway  undertakings  which  have 
lately  occupied  so  niucli*of  the  public  attention,  have  contributed 
luaterially  to  remove  the  veil  of  mystery  whi(d)  formerly  hung  over 
them;  the  doubl  wbicli  was  at  one  time  entertained  of  their  stability 
is  removed,  the  oblique  bridge  is  now  generally  adopted,  and  the  only 
])oint  remaining  to  be  cleared  up  is,  as  to  the  iiest  nietliod  of  working 
the  parts  togetlier,  so  as  to  obtain  the  desideratum  of  engineering, 
\iz.,  stability,  economy,  and  beauty  of  appearance. 

Since  the  connnencement  of  the  London  and  Hirniingham  Railway, 
fcair  authors  have  written  on  the  construction  of  obli(pie  bridges,  Mr. 
I'dx,  .Mr.  Hart,  Mr.  15uck,  and  Mr.  Nicholson.  It  should  be  observed, 
with  refereme  to  the  two  latter,  that  Mr.  Buck's  work  appeared  be- 
fore the  third  part  of  Mr.  Nicholson's  was  published.  The  announce- 
ment of  a  work  on  this  subject,  by  a  person  whose  reputation  as  an 
author,  stood  so  high  as  that  of  Feter  Nichelson,  naturally  gave  rise, 
in  the  practical  world,  to  the  hope  tliat  the  diUlculties  which  had 
lierelofore  attended  the  constructing  of  oblique  bridges  would,  with 
his  powerful  assistance,  be  much  reduced,  if  not  entirely  removed, 
but  lliat  our  most  reasonable  anticipations  are  sometimes  doomed  to 
disappointment,  was  never  more  signally  shown  than  in  this  instance. 
A  feu  quotations  will  be  sufficient  to  give  a  specimen  of  the  errors 
and  inconsistencies  which,  we  regret  to  say,  cl;araclerize  this  book. 
IMr.  Nicholson  says  in  his  preface,  "  In  this  undertaking,  the  general 
reader  is  not  supposed  to  be  nuich  acquainted  with  scientilic  re- 
searches," and  he  accordingly  goes  on,  in  the  introduction,  to  inform 
him  that  a  right  angle  contains  ninety  degrees,  that  bu  niinut<'s  make 
a  degree,  and  (hat  "  a  number  having  a  small  zero  or  cypher  placed 
over  the  riglit  hand  shoulder  of  the  iigure  or  last  tignre,  shows  this 
number  to  be  as  many  degrees  as  the  figure  or  figures  express."  At 
page  XX  of  the  introduction,  he  says,  "  If  a  spiral  surface  be  cut  by  a 
])laue  obliquely  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  the  section  will  be  a  cuive 
<;f  contrary  flexure,  and  if  the  spiral  surface  be  cut  by  another  plane 
passing  along  the  axis,  perpendicular  to  the  first  [ilane,  the  section, 
which  is  a  straight  line,  will  intersect  the  curve  of  contrary  flexure  at 
the  point  of  retrogression."  The  first  of  these  paragr.iphs  appears 
intended  for  a  person  who  has  only  learnt  to  read  and  write,  while  the 
second,  it  must  be  admitted,  seems  little  adapted  to  the  understanding 
of  tlmse  who  are  unacquainted  with  scientific  researches. 

In  Section  IV,  jiage  xxiii,  which  treats  of  the  trihedral,  he  states 
thai  "  If  a  trihedral  be  cut  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  one  of  its 
oljlique  edges,  the  section  shall  be  a  right  angle."  Now  a  trihedral 
7nay  have  all  three  of  its  edges  oblique,  or  one  obtuse  and  two  oblique 
edges,  or  one  right  and  two  ob'.ique  edges,  and  the  above  assertion 
only  holds  good  with  regard  to  the  latter ;  with  such  a  glaring  error 
as  this  among  the  definitions  on  which  his  trihedral  svstem  is  founded, 
it  is  of  course  unnecessary  to  examine  it  further.  One  part  of  the 
subject  in  which  Mr.  Nicholson  has  been  very  unfortunate,  is  relative 
to  the  sections  of  s)>iral  surfaces;  of  this  we  will  only  give  one  in- 
stance here,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  return  to  this  subject.  He 
.says,  page  ■24,  "the  transverse  section  is,  Ihcrclore,  the  onlv  section  of 
the  spiral  surface  v\hich  is  a  straight  line."  \\'liereas,  in  introduction, 
page  .\i-\,  we  find,  "If  a  spiral  surface  be  cut  by  a  ))lane,  either  per- 
pendicular to  or  passing  along  the  axis,  the  section  will  be  a  straight 
line. 

The  history  and  theory  of  oblique  bridges  is,  liy  some  system  of 
arrangement  peiadiar  to  the  author,  placed  after  the  problem  for  con- 
structing the  teiiqilets  for  working  arch  stones,  and  is  followed  by  a 
practical  method  for  obtaining  the  templets.  This  history,  so  curi- 
ously placed,  a|i|)ears  to  be  introduced  chiefly  for  the  op|iortunilv 
thereby  alforded  the  author  of  making  his  own  sirietures  on  other 
works;  but  in  his  anxiety  to  detract  from  the  merits  of  ;dl  authors 
but  himself  on  this  subject,  he  has  again  fallen  into  so  many  errors,  as 
to  leave  no  doidjt  of  his  being  but  superficially  acquainterl  with  the 
subject  on  which  he  writes. 

Mr.  Fox  has  assrrted,  in  common  with  other  writers  on  the  oblique 
arch,  that,  "  when  the  soflit  i.i  developed,  the  edge  wdiich  formed  the 
face  of  the  arch  gives  a  true  spiral  curve."     Upon  this  Mr.  N.  re- 


marks, "  It  must,  liowcver,  be  observed,  that  the  edge  of  the  devel- 
loped  sciui-ellipse  is  neither  a  spiral  line  nor  (ho  projection  of  a  spiral 
line."  In  this  remark  Mr.  Nicholson  is  decidedly  wrong,  for  it  is  easy 
to  dennjustrate  that  the  curve  above  mentioned  is  the  projection  of  a 
true  spiral,  whose  radius  is  equal  (o  half  the  obliquity  of  the  arch,  and 
whose  length  is  equal  to  the  semieireumfereuce  of  the  lylinder  on 
which  the  arch  is  assumed  to  be  built.  With  reference  to  Mr.  Fox 
having  stated  that  (he  joints  in  the  face  are  curves,  Mr.  N.  says,  "  if 
they  had  been  curves,  the  curvature  v.ould  have  been  so  small,  that 
the  joint  lines  would  nut  have  varied  sensibly  from  straight  lines. 
The  true  curvature  (jf  the  joint  could  not,  therefo.e,  have  been  ex- 
pressed in  lines,"  Now  if  Mr.  Nicholson  had  ever  had  occasion  to 
put  his  rules  into  practice  in  a  bridge  of  considerable  obhqnily,  he 
would  have  found  that  the  face  joints  near  the  springing  are  not  only 
curves,  but  very  jierceptible  ones.  There  is,  moreover,  nothing  im- 
possible in  constructing  the  curves  formed  by  the  face  joints,  it  is 
nearly  as  simple  as  the  construction  of  the  sijiral  itself;  but  this  is 
a  part  of  the  subject  on  which  Mr.  Nicholson  is  throughout  \uiforlu- 
nate. 

Mr.  Buck's  Essay  on  the  Oblique  Bridge  next  falls  under  our  author's 
scrutiny;  that  it  should  receive  his  entire  disapproval,  is  not  perliaps 
surprising.  Mr.  Buck  has  had  the  advantage  of  Mr.  Nicholson  in 
being  able,  while  engaged  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  and  oilier 
railways,  to  put  his  rules  into  practice,  and  prove  them  to  be  right 
before  he  laid  them  before  the  public  ;  he  has,  for  the  same  reason, 
been  able  to  select  the  useful  parts,  and  pi-esent  them  to  the  reader 
unencumbered  by  the  superfluous  luid  weary  waste  of  words  through 
which  Mr.  Nicholson's  readers  are  doomed  to  wander.  Relative  to 
this  work  Mr.  Nicholson  proceeds  to  say,  "The  formula  cu  =  C/-|-e) 
cot  0  fan  B  is  due  to  Mr.  Buck ;  it  gives  the  distance  below  the  centre 
to  the  puiuf  of  convergence,  into  which  all  the  joints  in  the  elevation 
of  the  arch  meet  in  the  axis  minor,  supposing  that  the  joints  are 
straight  lines,  which  thev  are  not  exactly."  This  having  reference  to 
the  section  of  the  spiral  surface,  no  wonder  Mr.  Nicholson  is  again 
unfortunate.  Mr.  Buck  does  not  wish  bis  readers  to  tin-n  the  curves 
into  straight  lines,  wdiich  peculiar  operation,  if  pr<q)erly  conducted,  is 
to  cause  the  straight  lines  to  converge  to  a  ])uint.  He  simply  gives 
the  point  to  which  the  chords  of  the  said  curves  so  converge,  and  the 
formula  for  finding  this  point  is  not  all  that  is  due  to  ]\Ir.  Buck,  but 
(lie  discovery  of  the  fact  (hat  (hey  do  converge  to  a  point,  and  the 
uses  to  which  this  discovery  can  be  applied  in  facilitating  the  con- 
struction of  tlie  bridge. 

Mr.  Nicholson  next  complains  that  Mr.  Buck  has  given,  besides  his 
general  formuki  for  finding  the  |)oint  of  convergence,  another  formula 
which  lia|)pens  to  be  more  convenient  when  making  the  necessary 
calculations  for  the  segmental  arch.  He  concludes  at  once  that  the 
results  of  these  forniulie  must  dill'er,  and  puts  forth  bis  assertion  to  the 
world  as  if  the  book  were  in  error.  His  concluding  paragraph  rela- 
tive to  Mr.  Buck's  book  is,  "  One  thing  which  we  consider  defective 
in  Bn(d>.'s  Es.say  on  (Jblique  Arches  is,  that  his  intentions  are  not 
enunciated  under  regular  heads,  so  as  to  call  the  attention  of  the 
reader  ;  he  gives  no  reason  for  his  rules,  nor  does  he  show  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  his  formulae  depend.  The  height  of  the  point  o, 
Fig  7,  will  depend  upon  the  breadth  of  the  beds." 

The  first  part  of  this  remark  we  will  leave  Mr.  Nicholson  to  settle 
with  bis  conscience  in  the  best  way  he  can.  As  regards  the  second 
part,  we  would  ask  «liat  is  the  K  in  Mr.  Buck's  formula  if  it  is  not  the 
breadth  of  the  beds  or  the  thickness  of  the  arch,  which  is  one  and  the 
s;ime  thing  ?  Mr.  Nicholson  ought,  in  justice,  to  ascertain  that  an 
error  really  exists,  before  he  implies  that  such  is  the  case.  That  he 
has  not  long  been  acquainted  with  the  fact  of  the  chords  of  the  joints 
in  the  face  converging  to  a  point  below  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  is 
evident  from  his  book  on  stone  cutting,  in  which  the  joints  are  drawn 
at  right  angles  to  the  curve,  and  that  he  was  unaware  of  the  utility  of 
knowing  this  point  is  equally  evident,  or  he  would  never  have  given 
the  laborious  and  complicated  construction  for  finding  the  joints  in  the 
face,  beginning  at  page  17. 

Mr.  Nicholson  gives  rules  for  what  he  terms  two  kinds  of  oblique 
bridges,  namely,  those  in  which  the  joints  of  the  stones  are  planes, 
and  those  in  wliicli  they  are  spiral  surfaces;  these  rules  are  so  jumbled 
up  togetlier,  that  the  reader  is  at  a  loss  to  know  to  which  of  the  two 
species  of  bridges  they  refer.  At  page  15  there  is  a  problem,  "  To 
find  the  curved  bevels  for  cutting  the  cproin  heads  of  an  oblique  arch." 
The  reader  being  unable  to  learn  from  the  heading  of  the  problem 
whether  it  rel.ites  to  square  or  spiral  joints,  naturally  proceeds  to 
wade  tlirougli  it,  with  tlie  lio|)e  that  it  may  aliijrd  some  means  of  as- 
certaiuing  this  fact,  but  licre  he  soon  becomes  lost  in  a  labyrinth.  You 
are  told  to  divide  the  arc  ABC  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the  ring 
stones  are  in  number,  and  through  the  points  of  division  draw  b  k,  c  i, 
dj,  &c.,  perpendicular,  to  the  curve  A  D  E.     ABC  and  A  D  E  being 


]S4().] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


153 


two  ilitterent  curves  in  two  different  dirt'ctions,  there  is  evidently  a 
great  omission  aomewliore,  wlncli,  liovvcver,  we  might  I'orgivc  if  hU 
uieaviing  could  be  discovered,  but  it  cannot.  A  little  further  on  he 
tells  yon  to  join  a  m,  h  in,  c  m,  &e.,  but  where  the  point  la  is  to  be 
placed,  Mr.  jS'icholson  has  quite  forgotten  to  say. 

Page  10,  referring,  as  is  stated  at  the  head  of  the  page,  to  plate 
21,  is  another  example  in  which,  from  the  type  being  completely  at 
variance  with  the  plate,  we  are  left  quite  in  the  dark  as  to  what  the 
author  wishes  to  communicate. 

The  practical  part  of  this  work,  if,  indeed,  any  ])art  may  be  so 
called,  is  scarcely  less  defective  than  that  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken;  the  direction  for  dividing  the  face  of  the  arch  into  stones  of 
imequal  thickness  is  unworkmanlike  and  unsightly,  and  where  brick- 
work is  used,  the  joints  must  necessarily  be  larger  on  one  side  than 
on  tlie  other. 

On  the  whole  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  book  is  far  from  being 
worthy  of  the  great  reputation  ilr.  Nicholson  lias  hitherto  justly  ac- 
quired ;  it  has  the  appearance  of  being  got  up  by  his  junrneymen,  and 
signed  with  his  name  without  a  sufficiently  careiul  revision.  But  we 
have  said  enough,  though,  in  closing  the  book,  we  cannot  but  express 
a  wish  that,  before  he  had  sought  the  mote  in  his  brother's  eye,  he 
had  removed  the  beam  from  his  own. 

Maiicksler.  W.  H.  B. 

March  2(i,  1810, 


MARINE  ENGINES. 

Employment  of  the  expansive  principle  lo  iln  full  extent  in  Marine 
Engines,  /vith  a  saving  vf  hulf  the  fuel. 

Sir — In  my  remarks  in  your  Journal  of  last  month  I  dwelt  at  some  length 
on  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  employment  of  the  Cornish 
double  beat  valve  in  marine  engines,  esjiecially  the  facility  which  such 
afford  of  working  the  steam  expansively.  But  it  may  be  asked  why 
all  this  talk  of  working  expansively  where  there  is  little  or  nothing  to 
expand  ?  I  wouKl  answer  this  question  by  another  :  why  adopt  a  good 
plan  by  halves  '.  take  the  Cornish  boilers  also,  or  a  suitable  modifica- 
tion of  them,  and  raising  the  steam  to  35  lbs.  ellective,  carry  out  the 
))rinci|)le  of  expansion  to  its  full  extent;  this  would  at  once  reiluce 
the  consumption  of  coal  one  half,  and  s<j  double  the  range  of  our  steam 
navigation.  On  such  a  startling  proposition  as  this  being  mooted,  the 
question  naturally  suggests  itself,  how  has  Ibis  so  long  escaped  the 
first  men  of  the  day  i  That  I  shall  not  attempt  to  answer;  it  is  sutli- 
cient  that  it  has  escaped  them,  and  a  very  slight  examination  of  the 
malter  will  make  this  evident. 

Thus  taking  the  horse  power  at  33,000  lbs.  lifted  one  foot  per  minute 
with  a  consumption  of  8  lb.  of  coal  per  hour,  and  tliis  is  below  the 
average  consumption,  we  get  a  duty  of  23,000,01)0  (though  20,000,000 
would  be  nearer  the  mark,  especially  in  steam  boats). 

If  any  be  disposed  to  assert  that  this  is  overstated  as  regards  the 
Great  Western  and  British  Cjueen,  as  these  vessels  are  said  not  to 
consume  above  six  or  seven  pounds  per  horse  power  per  hour,  I  an- 
swer, the  Queen's  engines  are  fiOO  horse  power  at  15  strokes  per 
minute,  or  the  piston  travelling  through  220  feet  per  minute,  now  the 
pressure  of  steam,  &c.  reniaining  the  same,  the  power  exerted  by  the 
engine  is  exactly  as  the  space  through  which  the  piston  travels  ;  but 
12  strokes  per  minute  is  nearly  the  average  number  the  engines  make, 
as  appears  by  her  log;  this  reduces  her  power  in  the  ratio  of  13 
to  12,  and  increasing  the  consumption  of  fuel  per  horse  power  in 
an  equal  ratio,  makes  the  six  or  seven  pounds  nominally  consumed 
equal  to  S  or  'J. 

Whereas  many  of  the  Cornish  double  acting  crank  engines  used  for 
stamping  ores,  the  most  trying  work  an  engine  can  possibly  be  sub- 
jected to,  and  where  there  is  greatest  loss  by  friction,  are  doing  a 
duty  of  50,  56,  and  even  60,000,000,  as  appeals  from  the  authenticated 
reports  of  the  engineers. 

Although  tfiis  will  not  be  doubted  by  any  one  who  has  had  the  op- 
portunity of  seeing  the  engines  at  work,  it  may  suit  some  to  doubt  and 
even  to  deny  the  truth  of  these  reports ;  so  they  did  those  of  the 
pumping  engines  doing  a  70  or  SO,OUO,000  duty  ;  but  as  'JO,  and  eveu 
100,000,000  is  now  being  done  under  their  eyes,  what  credence  can 
such  men  expect  for  any  statement  they  may  in  future  make. 

Having  had  occasion  to  visit  Cornwall  some  three  years  ago  on 
business,  immediately  after  having  completed  the  engines  of  a  large 
vessel  now  on  the  London  and  Dublin  station,  the  easy  valves,  the  cool 
engine  room,  and  almost  smouldering  fires  of  the  Cornish  engines,  as 
contrasted  with  the  stiff  and  heavy  slides,  the  suffocating  heat  of  the 
engine  room,  and  roaring  furnaces  I  had  just  left,  attracted  my  parti- 
cular attention;  and  though  possessing  at  that  time  no  data  beyond 
the  published  reports  of  the  engineers,  I  saw  enough  to  convince  ma 


of  their  immense  superiority,  and  at  once  set  about  considering  how 
the  same  plan  could  be  carried  out  in  marine  engines,  a  point  which  I 
hope  to  be  now  able  to  make  clear,  and  the  objections  to  which  I  shall 
endeavour  to  deal  with  in  detail. 

The  first  is  the  increased  danger  of  explosion  or  collapse  supposed 
to  be  occasioned  by  the  great  density  of  steam. 

The  second  is  the  additional  strength  required  in  the  engines  to 
withstand  steam  of  such  density  wdien  first  admitted  into  the  cylinders. 

The  third  is  the  increased  weight  of  the  boilers,  and  the  extent  of 
flue  surface  required  for  their  successful  application. 

Tlie  first  objection,  the  increased  danger,  I  shall  begin  by  denying 
"  in  toto,"  nay,  it  appears  to  me  that  there  is  absolutely  increased 
safetj',  for  the  following  reasons  : 

Setting  aside  the  increased  weight,  &c.,  one  boiler  can  be  made 
quite  as  capable  of  supporting  a  pressure  of  35  lbs.  as  another  is  of 
supporting  3  lbs.;  the  safety  valves  would  have  much  less  tendency  to 
stick  fast  under  the  higher  pressure,  and  their  becoming  a  little  stiff, 
or  two  or  three  pounds  overloaded,  would  not  be  of  the  slightest  con- 
sequence on  a  boiler  calculated  for  a  pressure  of  35  lbs.,  though  it  would 
have  a  very  dangerous  tendency  on  one  calculated  for  3  lbs. 

But  the  great  argument  for  increased  safety  is  this  :  it  is  an  estab- 
lished fact  that  with  boilers  of  the  usual  construction,  nine-tenths  of 
the  steam  boat  accidents  occurs  through  collapse  of  the  overheated 
flues,  much  more  than  from  any  excessive  pressure  of  steam  in  the 
boiler;  nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at  if  we  consider  how  the  fires  are 
urged.  Now  with  the  Cornish  boilers  and  a  proper  system  of  expan- 
sion, the  same  work  can  be  done  vvith  half  the  coal,  and  if  we  consume 
only  half  the  coal  on  the  same  or  a  greater  extent  of  fire  bar  and  flue 
surface  in  a  given  time,  tlien  it  follows  clearly  that  we  have  a  fire  of 
only  one-half  the  intensity,  and  the  risk  of  collapse  from  overheated 
flues  diminished  in  like  jiroportion.  But  if  these  arguments  are  in- 
sulUcieut,  then  the  following  fact  is  greatly  in  their  favour,  viz.,  tliat 
as  few  if  not  fewer  accidents  occur  in  Cornwall  wliere  such  boilers  are 
in  universal  use,  than  in  any  part  of  the  kingdom  where  steam  power 
to  a  like  extent  is  used;  and  if  it  be  further  true,  as  I  have  heard 
stated  both  in  Cornwall  and  elsewhere,  tflat  many  of  the  Cornish  en- 
gineers will  eng.ige  to  keep  up  the  boilers  for  ever,  for  tlie  annual  sum 
of  5  or  6  per  cent  on  their  original  cost,*  such  an  argument  appears  to 
me,  as  it  will  to  most  practical  men,  to  be  at  once  perfect  and  con- 
clusive. 

I  now  come  to  the  increased  strength  required  in  the  engines,  and 
this  on  examination  will  appear  trifling.  To  commence  then  with  the 
paddle-wheels  as  they  remain  of  the  same  size,  and  are  driven  at  the 
same  speed,  no  alteration  is  required  in  them,  and  of  course  the  same 
remark  will  apply  to  the  paddle-shafts  through  which  the  power  is 
transmitted.  I'liese  being  subjected  to  no  increased  strain  as  the 
average  effective  pressure  upon  the  piston  which  takes  place  when 
the  piston  is  half  stroke,  &c.,  and  the  crank  at  its  point  of  greatest 
torsion,  is  the  same  as  in  a  common  engine.  The  intermediate  shaft 
alone  with  its  cranks,  in  which  the  crank  pins  nve/ast,  requires  addi- 
tional strength,  and  as  this  shaft  is  only  about  one-sixth  the  length  of 
the  two  padd'e  shafts,  and  the  strength  of  a  shaft  increases  as  the  cube 
of  its  diameter,  the  increased  weight  will  be  trifling:  next  there  is  the 
top  frame  that  carries  this  shaft,  and  the  bottom  frame  supporting  the 
gudgeons  and  columns,  the  strength  of  both  must  be  increased,  and  it 
is  as  the  square  of  their  depth ;  next  comes  the  piston  rod,  this  will 
do  as  before,  the  piston  rod  of  a  large  engine  being  equal  to  20  times 
the  strain  it  is  ever  subjected  to  :  the  same  remark  will  apply  to  the 
malleable  iron  columns  supporting  the  top  frame,  as  each  of  them  is 
usually  made  of  the  same  strength  as  the  piston  rod. 

The  piston  must  lie  strengthened,  but  the  cylinder  will  do  as  before, 
as  it  is  strengthened  at  the  extremes  where  the  greatest  pressure  of 
the  steam  is  by  its  flanges,  and  in  ordinary  cases  we  are  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  making  it  much  stronger  then  necessary  to  ensure  a  sound 
casting,  and  also  to  support  the  framing  attached  to  it ;  besides  a 
cylinder  of  three-fourths  the  capacity  is  sullicient  for  the  same  power, 
so  here  we  are  positive  gainers  in  two  most  important  points,  strength 
and  space.  The  gudgeons  of  the  cylinder  of  double  the  strength  will 
not  be  stronger  nor  heavier  tlian  the  main  centres  of  the  beam  engine 
of  the  ordinary  construction  must  necessarily  be. 

The  points"  then  which  require  increased  strength  are,  the  inter- 
mediate shaft  and  gudgeons,  the  top  and  bottom  supporting  frames, 
and  the  piston.  The  increased  weight  from  this  cause  would  not  ex- 
ceed G  or  S  per  cent,  beyonil  that  of  the  same  description  of  engine  at 
the  ordinary  pressure,  and  after  taking  this  into  account,  the  total  de- 
crease, by  adopting  the  vibrating  cylinder,  would  be  at  least  25  per 
cent. 

I  now  come  to  the  question  of  increased  weight  in  the  boilers,  and 


"  Perhaps  some  of  your  readers  can  affirm  or  contradict  this. 


I.-,4 


TITE  CIVIL  i:\mNKKR  WD  A lU'IHTErTS  JOURNAL. 


[M 


tills  I  shall  l)c  alile  to  show  is  not  iienrly  so  great  as  inav  at  first  be 
sii|i[nisi'il. 

It  \sill  scaiXL'ly  Ijo  ilispuli-il  that  the  same  fliieKiiess  ol'  plate  in 
cyliiKlei's  G  feet  diainoter,  the  size  of  the  exterior  eyliniler  of  the  Cor- 
nisli  boiler,  will  bear  a  water  |)ressure  at  least  3  liines  greater  than  if 
arranged  in  the-  usual  form  of  a  steam  boat  boiler  ;  or  that  the  former 
of  T)- Kith  thickness  W(jnlJ  bear  «ithont  flinehing  a  proof  pressnre  of 
(■>n  or  7l)  lbs.  to  the  si|nare  inch,  while  the  latter  would  give  evident 
signs  of  weakness  at  20,  allhough  ever  so  well  stayed.  If  then  it  be 
considered  perfectly  safe  to  work  steam  of  ii  or  7  lbs.  pressure  in  a 
boiler  w  Inch  w  onld  give  evident  signs  of  weakness  mider  a  pressnre  of 
20  lbs.,  surely  it  is  equally  safe  to  work  steam  of  oU  or  3.j  lbs.  in  a 
cylinder  of  G  feet  diameter,  and  i  inch  thick,  which  would  bear  with- 
out the  slightest  signs  of  weakness  ISUllis.  on  the  square  inch,  boilers 
of  this  size  and  thickness  being  usually  worked  to  10,  l.'i,  and  even  50 
lbs.  per  square  inch  Then  1  feet  diameter,  and  7-lt)tbs  lhi(  kness 
will  be  ample  for  the  internal  cylinder,  and  to  make  security  doublv 
secure,  let  a  strong  angle  iron  be  rivetled  round  the  internal  cvlindcr  at 
distances  of  about  i  feet  apart,  this  would  keep  the  cvlindcr  or  arch 
perfect,  and  so  prevent  tlie  possibility  of  a  collapse,  w'itli  but  trifling 
addition  to  the  weight  of  the  boilers. 

Now  taking  equal  extent  of  common  and  Cornish  boilers,  the  former 
taking  all  stays,  ice.  into  account,  will  barely  average  S-Stlis  in  thick- 
ness, while  tile  latter  wilh  its  internal  tube  of  IS  inch  diameter,  and 
.5-lt;tlis  thickness,  would  average  about  i  inch.  Tliis  makes  their 
respactive  weights  at  3  to  4,  but  in  order  to  the  successful  application 
cf  slow  combustion  we  require  addition  flue  surface,  so  take  3  to  5  as 
the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  common  and  Cornish  engines  and  water  for 
the  same  [lower,  the  extra  space  required  for  the  boilers  being  much 
more  than  compensated,  by  the  small  space  occupied  by  the  vibratiiin- 
engine.  " 

But  to  go  more  minutely  into  the  matter,  the  weight  of  a  Cornish 
boiler  and  water  of  the  size  and  thickness  named,  and  35  feet  in  length, 
is  —  24  tons,  exposing  a  surface  '.t3s  feet :  eight  such  boilers  might  be 
easily  set  in  the  space  allowed  for  the  Queen's  boilers,  now  8  X  24  — 
192  tons,  as  the  weight  of  tfie  boilers,  ami  allowing  50  tons  for  setting 
and  clothing,  we  have  192+ 50=  242  tons,  total  weight  of  the  boilers 
and  setting,  &c.;  938  X  8=  7504  -f-  500  =  15  feet  surface  per  horse 
power,  being  one-half  more  than  theusual  allowance  without  increas- 
ing the  weight  of  the  boiler  at  all,  or  occupying  more  space  in  the 
vessel. 

But  allowing  that  we  have  increased  the  weight  of  the  boilers  in 
tlie  ratio  of  3-5,  let  us  take  the  British  Queen  as  the  subject  of  com- 
parison. 

The  total  weight  of  her  engines  and  boilers  is  500  tons,  and  of  this 
220  may  go   in   round   numbers  for  boilers  and  water,  and  3  •   5   •  ■ 
220  :  361.,  and  500  — 220  +  3(;0  gives  G(3 1   -and  less  64  ton's  being 
the  decreased  weight  of  the   vibrating  engine  =  600  tons,  as  the 
weight  of  her  engines  and  water  on  the  Cornish  plan. 

'I4ie  account  would  then  stand  thus,  on  the  present  plan. 

Engines  and  boilers 500  tons 

20  days  fuel 7^0 

Total         -         -  1250 
On  the  Cornish  plan. 

Engines  and  boilers (JOO 

20  days  fuel 375 

Total         -         -     975 

Showing  a  capacity  for  285  tons  more  cargo,  and  a  saving  of  375  tons 
of  poal. 

Though  some  may  consider  these  figures  as  exaggerated  without 
being  able  to  assign  any  reason  to  themselves  or  others,  save  that  the 
plan  is  im]iossible.  those  who  have  examined  the  subject  w  ill  as- 
suredly blame  me  for  not  having  gone  far  enough  :  and  theie  is  another 
class  of  well  meaning  men  among  engineers  and  others,  who  have  im- 
bibed such  a  reverence  for  the  name  of  Watt,  that  they  almost  con- 
sider any  deviation  from  the  plans  he  followed,  or  improvements  upon 
the  state  in  which  he  left  the  steam  engine,  to  be  an  insult  to  his 
memory,  and  a  deduction  from  his  fair  fame;  but  my  admiration  of 
Watt  is  as  great  as  any  man's  can  be  ;  I  am  proud  of  lii"m  as  a  country- 
man, and  luinour  him  as  a  great  man,  and  so  liave  endeavoured  to  add 
a  stone  to  the  nioiiument  he  has  raised,  bv  carrving  out  a  principle 
whiidi  in  his  lliird  ]iatent  of  1782,  he  distinctly  propounded,  and  of  the 
advantage  of  which  that  great  man  seems  to  have  been  fullv  aware, 
though  be  lived  not  to  see  it  carried  into  eHect. 

If  then  i  am  born  out  in  these  slatenieuls,  and  to  disprove  the  main 
point,  the  great  increase  of  duty  by  expansive  working  is  altogether 
impossible  ;  and  the  others  I  think  ]  have  succeeded  in  making  toler- 


ably clear,  though  on  some  points  as  the  weight  of  the  present  boilers 
and  Water  (d'the  P.ritisll  Quc'eii,  1  may  have  made  some  slight  mislake, 
iiol  .uiKJunting  to  a  few  Ions  either  way,  having  assimied  it  from  com- 
parison with  others,  and  not  slated  it  from  actual  knowledge,  vet  on 
the  other  hand  1  have  underrated  the  saVing  of  fuel,  and  allowed  ipiiti^ 
enough  fur  the  increased  weight  of  the  boilers,  as  there  Is  le^s  due  to 
the  great  extent  of  surface  than  is  suppo-.ed,  the  expansion  being  the 
point  where  the  power  is  gained  ;  and  however  the  ))roposition  of 
adopting  steam  of  increased  density  may  be  cavilled  at,  to  the  princi- 
ple of  expansive  working  and  slow  combustion  we  must  come  at  last, 
and  by  adopting  them  to  their  full  extent,  which  I  think  I  have  ?liown 
to  be  equally  safe  and  perfectly  practical.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hojie 
is  as  much  within  our  reach  as  New  York  now  is,  and  a  speedy  and 
sure  passage  open  to  our  Indian  and  Australian  empires. 

Such  then  being  the  ease,  are  we  content  to  allow  our  preconceived 
ideas  to  supersede  our  better  judgment,  and  go  on  loading  our  vessels 
with  unnecessaiy  coal,  and  thus  uselessly  consuming  our  most  valuable 
mineral — limit  at  the  same  time  the  range  of  our  steam  navigation, 
and  the  civilization  of  the  world  at  large;  or  do  our  engineers  mean 
to  allow  that  they  cannot  make  a  boiler  safe  under  a  pressure  of  33 
lb.,  or  that  one  of  the  thickness  and  diameter  that  I  have  proposed 
would  not  be  perfectly  safe  under  that  pressuie.  If  they  allow  neither 
of  these  propositions,  then  the  sooner  the  subject  is  seriously  taken  up 
the  better,  as  every  boat  now  fitting  with  the  usual  beam  or  side  lever 
engines,  (and  many  of  the  spbudid  m  ill  packets  are  being  thus  fitted), 
is  incapable  of  being  afterwards  altered,  so  as  to  work  expansively,  as 
tliough  the  boilers  may  be  altered,  the  beams,  &c.  would  never  stand 
the  increased  pressure. 

Before  concluding,  iierhaps  I  may  be  allowe<l  to  correct  an  omissiori 
in  my  last  pajier.  It  is  a  favourite  remark  of  naval  men,  "  get  as  ex- 
tended a  hold  of  the  vessel  as  possible."  Now  it  has  often  struck  me, 
not  only  in  those  vessels  I  have  myself  been  engaged  in,  but  in  every 
one  I  have  bad  the  opportunity  of  seeing,  that  this  very  reasonable 
remark  is  not  only  not  complied  with,  l)ut  that  the  power  is  positively 
brought  to  bear  on  the  w nmg  place.  Thus  no  attem|>t  that  I  have  seen 
has  been  made  to  lay  hold  of  the  vessel  fore  and  aft  in  a  line  w-l(h  the 
centre  of  the  paddle  shaft,  but  the  framing  is  stayed  sideways,  or  at 
best  slightly  supported  by  the  most  contiguous  deck  beams,  and  the 
horizontal  strain  of  the  propelling  power  acting  at  the  bearings  of  the 
shaft,  the  engine  frame  is  thus  used  as  a  lever  to  wrench  the  under 
frame  of  the  vessel  as  it  were  asunder,  and  an  action  is  thus  created 
tending  materially  to  weaken  the  vessel  and  increase  the  unpleasant 
vibration,  to  remedy  this  defect,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent  the 
framing  and  joints  of  the  engine  from  breaking,  uncommonly  heavy 
bed  plates  have  been  resorted  to;  those  on  board  the  British  Queen 
amounting  at  least  to  23  tons;  now  without  entering  into  a  discussion 
on  the  ])oint,  what  I  propose  is  this,  let  a  strong  flat  bar  of  wrought 
iron  be  carried  fore  and  aft  opiiosite  each  engine,  gradually  tapering 
away,  and  running  in  towards  either  side  of  the  vessel,  being  at  the 
same  time  securely  bulled  through  tenor  twelve  of  the  deck  beams, 
on  the  end  of  this  next  the  engine,  let  there  be  a  strong  joint  and  a 
similar  one  on  the  engine  frame  joined  by  u  strong  connecting  rod,  this 
would  allow  suflicient  play,  and  at  the  same  time,  if  I  may  use  the  ex- 
pression, give  the  porter  a  holil  of  his  load  by  the  right  place. 

To  conclude,  if  it  be  considered  that  I  have  not  gone  sufficiently  into 
detail  completely  to  prove  every  point  I  iiave  advanced,  my  answer  is, 
I  have  con9i<ler,ibly  underrated  the  gain,  and  overrated  the  loss,  thus 
rendering  minute  calculation  of  strength  and  weight  uncalled  for;  be- 
sides such  would  liave  been  of  no  value  to  any  one  not  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  subject,  and  practical  men  can  examine  it  for  them- 
selves. 

My  object  has  been  to  keep  the  main  jioints  of  the  argument  in 
view,  and  to  make  it  intelligible  to  all  classes  of  your  readers,  and  in 
this  I  hope  I  have  succeeded,  and  should  you  or  any  of  your  readers 
be  able  to  fninish  me  with  the  exact  weight  of  the  boilers*  of  the  Bri- 
tish Queen,  and  the  space  they  occupy,  with  any  further  particulars, 
I  will  in  a  future  number  enter  more  minutely  into  the  subject,  and 
illustrate  by  a  few  sketches  my  ideas  of  bow  the  boilers  on  the  Cor- 
nish plan  should  be  set  and  clothed,  and  wdicre  the  extent  of  surface  I 
have  spoken  of  is  obtained  ;  having  no  doubt  that  I  shall  be  able  to 
establish  every  point  that  I  have  advanced,  bearing  on  the  increased 
safety  and  economy  of  the  jilaii  proposed,  anil  at  no  distant  period  see 
it  carried  into  successful  operation  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  the 
inqiortance  of  the  undertaking,  and  the  vital  iiiHuence  wdiich  such  an 
improvement  would  have  on  our  political  and  commercial  relation  with 
all  parts  of  the  world. 

Pimtico,  Jlpril  4,  1840,  A.  S. 

*  The  niodilication  of  Cornish  boilers  I  propiiBe  lo  adopt  has  no  external 
Huns. 


IS  10.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


15.3 


RAMPLES  BY  rHIl.O.MUSiEUS.— Nu.  6. 


THE    SOANF.AX    Ml'SEUM. 

Thk  Somiean  Museum  is  again  open  for  tlic  fow  inonllis  and  ilaj-s 
wliicli  its  managers  tliink  necessary  to  afTord  tlic  puli'.ie.  Three 
iiiontlis  in  tlie  year,  and  two  days  per  week,  are  in  Ihese  days  tliouglit 
enongli — wo  wonder  tlie  trustees  do  not  think  of  charging  a  shilling, 
it  would  be  carrying  out  the  ivcoco  style  completely.  Why  not  take 
immediate  steps  for  thnjwing  it  open  ?  Take  up  the  carpets,  apply 
to  the  legislature  for  funds  to  enlarge  the  establishment,  make  the 
museum  worthv  of  the  nation,  and  the  trustees  will  do  liouour  to  them- 
■  selves  and  to  the  memoiv  of  the  founder.  They  have,  in  Mr.  Bailey, 
a  talented  and  well-intentioned  curator,  with  one  only  fault,  that  he  is 
disposed  to  regard  an  establishment  worthy  of  the  public,  us  only  to 
be  conducted  for  tlie  use  of  artists, 

"Who,  boin  for  tlie  universe,  narrowed  his  mind, 
And  to  party  gave  up  wliat  was  meant  for  mankind." 

Let  Mr.  Bailey,  if  he  places  any  value  upon  the  promotion  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  urge  the  trustees  to  do  their  duly. 

This  year  a  catalogue  has  been  produced,  which,  as  a  first  attempt, 
is  of  course  rather  scanty  in  size,  but  we  are  bound  to  say  that  the 
matter  which  is  given  is  highly  creditable  to  the  exertions  of  the 
curator.  It  beats  the  National  (iallery  affair  hollow,  and  is  superior 
to  the  antiquarian  portion  of  the  British  Museum  catalogue.  Why  is 
there  not  a  catalogue  at  the  East  India  Museum  ?  We  have  only  one 
objection,  and  that  is  to  the  price;  we  think  that  three  pence  would 
have  been  rather  nearer  the  v.due  than  a  shilling;  it  does  much  honour 
to  Mr.  Bailey  ;  however,  there  are  copies  left  on  the  tables  for  the 
jiublic  to  consult,  besides  the  more  extensive  catalogue  rainonni'  of 
Sir  John  Soane,  so  that  the  oflicers  are  acquitted  of  the  slightest  in- 
tention of  jobbing  or  keeping  back  information,  although  they  may 
have  erred  in  a  matter  of  judgment.  Indeed,  the  wish  to  give  infor- 
mation, and  the  courtesy  with  which  it  is  imparted,  seem,  from  the 
example  of  the  superiors,  to  inspire  the  lowest  ofticers  of  the  museum, 
and  it  were  to  be  wished  that,  in  other  establishments,  the  same  spirit 
prevailed  among  the  attendants. 

The  list  of  trustees  given  in  the  catalogue  is  far  from  inspiring 
confidence  in  any  one  who  knows  anything  of  them ;  there  is  only  one 
man,  indeed,  who  can  be  regarded  as  an  active  friend  to  public  im- 
provement, for  as  to  the  others,  they  are  many  of  them  notorious 
sticklers  for  acknowledged  abuses.  The  sooner  the  museum  is  put 
under  more  active  and  responsible  management  the  better.  While 
the  present  parties  doze  over  their  duties,  the  place  will  continue  to 
be  a  knicknackery  instead  of  a  national  institution,  and  Sir  John 
Soahe's  weeds  will  be  allowed  to  usurp  the  place  of  his  laurels.  What 
we  require  is  a  proper  classification,  suHicieut  space,  and  facility  of 
access  for  students  and  the  public. 

Sir  John  Soane  has  left  the  place,  like  his  own  head,  with  all  kinds 
of  queer  corners  in  it ;  but  irres[)ective  of  his  arrangements,  we  shall 
proceed  to  notice,  under  their  several  heads,  some  of  the  principal 
objects. 

The  picture  gallery,  by  means  of  inovtahle  planer,  has,  crammed 
into  the  small  space  of  13  ft.  S  in.  in  length,  12  ft.  4  in.  in  breadth, 
and  19  ft.  0  in.  in  heigtli,  as  many  works,  according  to  the  book,  as 
would  cover  a  gallery  of  the  same  height,  45  ft.  long  and  iO  feet 
broad.  Besides  the  works  in  these  rooms,  are  others  dispersed 
through  the  Museum,  so  th.it  in  all  there  are  about  fiftv  paintiiu's  and 
f(uty  drawings,  besides  statues  and  has  reliefs  in  numbers,  i'liese 
works  ought  to  be  removed  from  the  museum  or  sutiicicnt  accommo- 
dation |)rovided  for  them,  as  they  are  much  too  valuable  to  be  sacri- 
ficed in  the  present  holes  and  corners.  The  collection  of  the  English 
school  is  very  fine,  containing  37  paintings  and  25  drawings  by  our 
first  artists.  Among  these  are  12  Hog.utlis,  which  cost  nearly  2,5llU/. 
the  Rake's  Progress  and  the  Election;  the  Snake  in  the  tirass  by  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds ;  a  Jackson,  1  Howards  besides  the  Ceilings,  a  Danhy, 
a  Bourgeois,  a  Fucssli,  a  Bird,  a  Ward,  a  Durno,  an  Eastlake,  3  of 
Jones,  a  Hilton,  a  Flaxman,  3  Slothards,  3  Corboulds,  2  Calcotts,  2 
Daniels,  2  Turners.  t)f  foreign  masters  there  are  specimens  by  Raft'aelle, 
4  by  Canaletti  fand  the  tliif  u'o:iirrc  from  Fontliill),  by  Rubens,  Paul 
Veronese,  Watteau,  Ruysdael  (3),  Ostade  and  Znccherelli. 

The  collection  of  scul|iture,  marbles,  casts  and  models  both  ancient 
and  modern,  is  fine.  The  specimens  of  Flaxman's  works  are  above 
Id  in  number,  ami  ought  to  be  brought  forward  so  as  to  form  a  collec- 
tion of  the  works  of  tins  great  artist,  who  lias  done  so  much  fcu'  our 
progress  at  home,  and  our  architectural  reputation  abroad.  Among 
them  are  figures  and  bas-reliefs  of  Piety,  Charity,  Truth,  Winged 
Victory,  Tenderness,  Resignation,    Hope,  The   Adoration,  Joseph's 


Dream,  Adam  and  Eve,  Michael  and  Satan,  aGicci.ui  Feast,  the  Shield 
of  Achilles,  Mercury  and  Pandora,  the  Golden  and  Silver  Ages,  Cupid, 
Psyche,  Britannia,  Maiquis  of  Hastings,  Warren  Hastings,  Lord  Mans- 
field, Pitt,  Michael  Angelo,  Raffaelle,  Reynolds,  Kemble,  &c.  The 
works  of  Banks  are  about  ten;  they  include  the  sleeping  girl,  St. 
Peter  in  Prison,  the  Dying  Patriot,  Achilles,  and  Caractacus.  There 
are  also  specimens  by  Michael  Angelo,  John  de  Bologna,  Donalello 
Rysbrack,  Westmacott,  Chantrey,  Gibson,  Baily,  Rossi,  &c. 

The  architectural  department'  includes  ilrawings,  models  of  builil- 
ings,  and  of  details,  and  wants  only  arrangement  to  form  a  collection 
in  the  highest  degree  valuable.  Among  the  drawings  are  all  those  of 
Sir  John  Soane's  works,  ami  others  by  Piranesi,  Zucchi,  Bibiena,  Cam- 
pauella,  Clerissean,  Pannini,  Labello',  As|u-ucci,  Sir  James  Thoruhill, 
Sir  W.  Chambers,  Kent,  Sir  Robert  Smirke,  &:c.  There  are  busts  of 
the  following  architects  :  Palladio,  Inigo  Jones,  Sir  C.  Wren,  Sir  W. 
Chambers,  Dance,  and  Sir  J.  Soane. 

The  antiquities  and  curiosities  might  be  made  to  form  a  museum 
as  useful  to  artists  as  the  new  rooms  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  to  which 
the  artist  and  the  pattern-drawer  might  resort  with  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage. The  purchase  of  the  Belzoni  vase  was  a  terrible  satire  on 
the  mode  in  w  liicli  our  museums  are  conducted,  and  a  worthy  pendant 
of  the  Jigina  marbles  aflair;  Sir  John  Soane  said  that  he  was  but  toe- 
glad  to  give  the  two  thousand  pounds  the  British  Jhiseum  refused. 
Among  the  miscellaneous  objects  may  be  mentioned,  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole's  tables,  Napoleon's  sword  and  portrait,  the  Napoleon  medals, 
Peter  the  Great's  pistol,  T ippoo  Saib's  chairs,  t^ueeu  Mary's  table, 
&c. 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XV. 


'*  I  must  have  liber; v 
M'itluil,  as  larii'e  a  charier  as  the  u.nds. 
To  blow  on  \vhom  1  please.*' 


I.  The  clever  and  pleasant  writer,  "  Nimrod  in  France,"  (Colburn's 
New  Monthly),  says  in  regard  to  French  Houses,  "There  is  one  essen- 
tial in  the  construction  of  them,  of  wdiicli  I  cannot  speak  too  highly, 
and  that  is  their  inorfar.  It  appears  almost  to  equal  in  hardness  the 
similar  preparation  of  lime  and  sand  mixed  with  water,  for  which  the 
Romans  were  so  celebrated,  and  which  for  its  ]iowers  of  cement  and 
its  durability,  we  have  not  been  able  to  e(|ual  by  our  system  of  admix- 
ture. Certainly  the  French  mortar  may  justly  be  called  cf»;e«/ ,■  and 
it  is  well  that  it  can  boast  of  this  superiority,  inasmuch  as  French 
bricks  are  most  inferior  to  ours,  from  want  of  skill  and  care  in  the 
burning  of  them.  French  luuises,  however,  generally  speaking,  are 
miserably  defective  in  their  plans,  both  for  convenience  and  comfort, 
nor  does  there  appear  to  be  a  desire  to  improve  their  structure.  A 
heavy  tax  on  windows  and  doors  would  be  a  blessing  on  the  country — 
at  all  events  as  fir  as  it  would  relate  to  lumbago,  rlieumatism,  catarrh, 
coughs,  and  sundry  other  pains  and  penalties  which  lininan  fiesh  is 
heir  to." 

Perhaps,  too,  a  heavy  tax  upon  supernumerary  windows  would  be  a 
benefit  in  this  country, — at  any  rate  it  would  be  so  architecturally, 
since  scarcely  anything  is  more  inimical  to  nobleness  of  aspect,  to 
solidity  of  appearance,  and  to  repose,  or  more  productive  of  insignifi- 
cance than  windows  crowded  together  in  such  a  manner  that  the  piers 
between  them  are  not  so  wide  as  the  apertures  themselves.  This  is 
an  exceedingly  common  fault,  the  ordinary  practice  in  Loudon  house- 
building being  to  |iut  three  windows  wdiere  two  would  be  suHicient. 
The  consequence  is  that  one  side  of  a  room  is  nearly  all  window,  with 
no  space  for  other  furniture  than  chairs  or  mere  knick-knack  tables  ; 
so  exposed  to  the  sun  in  summer  time,  that  it  is  necessary  to  exclude 
it  by  blinds,  and  occasioning  a  cheerless  uncomfortable  look  in  cold 
and  bad  weather.  While  as  additional  agreuiens,  may  be  mentioned, 
that  unless  the  street  be  a  very  wide  one,  your  front  rooms  are  thus 
fully  exposed  to  the  full  fire  of  your  neighbour's  eyes,  of  "the  amiable 
people  over  the  way"  who  most  disinterestedly  interest  themselves  in 
reconnoitring  your  iimiagt  as  far  as  they  can  penetrate  into  it ;  and 
who,  of  course,  busy  themselves  in  imagining  w hat  they  do  not  see. 

II.  '  Marry  in  haste  and  repent  at  leisure,'  is  a  proverb  that  mutatis 
mutandis  applies  to  architecture, — both  to  architects  themselves,  and 
their  employers,  many  designs  being  adopted  without  due  examination, 
the  consequence  of  which  is  that  their  faults  and  delects  escape  notice, 
until  it  is  either  too  late  or  too  expensive  to  correct  them.  Nay  in 
some  cases  the  faults  are  so  exceedingly  glaring  that  it  is  wonderful 
how  the  designs  could  pass  muster  at  all, — or  how  any  one,  calling  him-< 


l.->r, 


THE  CiVTL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Mj 


self  architect,  could  m-ake  up  his  mind  to  pass  off  upon  his  employers 
the  biirlr.ironslv  crude  ideas  we  so  frequently  behold.  Happy  is  it  for 
jiuch  j)Pople  that  their  employers  are  not  only  ignoramusses,  hut  most 
tasteless  igunraninsses  into  the  harg-.iin. — And  that  tribe  among  pro- 
fessioualists  are  therefore  (]uite  ri^lit  Iti  exclaiming  against  amateurs 
and  amateurship,  since  tlio  more  (he  public  become  enlightened,  the 
worse  nmst  it  fare  witli'them.  They  ought  to  pray  for  blockheadly 
o-uUibie  patrons — persons  who  look  upon  architecture  as  an  unfathom- 
able mysterv,  which  the  initiated  alone  have  any  right  to  understand. 

III.  Where  ignorance  is  bliss — but  I  need  not  repeat  the  rest  of  that 
very  hackneyed  quotation, — therefore  observe  thai  I  have  sometimes 
almost  envied  the  blessedness  of  ignorance,  as  1  lately  did  while  walk- 
ing with  a  friend  from  the  country,  in  the  Regent's  Park,  whos(^  rows 
of  paltry  mock  palaces  called  forth  expressions  of  admiration  from 
him,  that,  I  presume,  were  perfectly  sincere.  To  the  shade  of  that 
miserable  architectural  sinner  John  Nash,  they  must  have  been  a  re- 
quiem, but  to  me,  to  have  to  listen  to  the  praises  of  that  con- 
summation of  paltriness,  was  hardly  endurable.  And  yet  my  companion 
was  a  person  of  toler  djly  good  taste  in  other  respects,  and  what  is 
generally  understood  by '"a  well  educated  person,"  though  imposed 
"upon  by  such  arrant  a'rchitectiu-al  balderdash  as  those  same  terraces 
are.  It  seems  to  me  that  most  persons  have  not  the  slightest  shame 
whatever  in  displaying  the  grossest  stupidity  relative  to  every  thing 
connected  with  architecture  ;  and  why  is  it  so,  except  because  the  no- 
tion has  been  instilled  into  them  — would  that  it  were  flogged  out  of 
tViem ! — that  it  is  for  architects,  and  them  alone,  to  pretend  to  under- 
stand its  principles,  these  latter  being,  by  some  curious  jumble  ot  ideas, 
supposed  to  be  entirely  mcchanicdl,  notwithstanding  that  architecture 
iliself  has  got  the  name  of  one  of  the  fine  arts.  1  once  fell  in  with  a 
o-entlenran.  who  was  hardly  less  than  a. Solomon  in  his  own  conceit  and 
pretensions,  and  who  nevertheless  staggered  me  by  the  candour  with 
which  he  confessed  he  never  could  comprehend  the  ground  jjlan  or 
section  of  a  building,  or  understand  what  they  meant !  Notwithstand- 
ing wdnch  degree  of  gentlemanly  or  gcutecl  and  blissful  ignorance  of 
low  mechanical  matters,  my  Solomon  conid,  1  found,  speak  glibly  and 
boldly  enough  'by  look,'  passing  his  ojiinion  upon  buildings,  of  which 
it  was  very  evident,  although  he  did  not  care  to  make  such  confession, 
that  he  understood  no  more  than  he  did  of  sections  and  ground  plans. 
There  are,  1  am  afraid,  too  many  Solomons  of  his  kind  among  our  en- 
lightened public." 

'  IV.  In  an  article  entitled  "  The  British  School  of  Architecture," 
Blackwood's  Magazine,  August  ls3G,  it  said  that  the  fourteen  columns 
of  the  intended  Uoric  strucUne  on  the  Calton  Hill,  are  "  even  now  the 
most  imposing  objects  of  the  kind  in  Dritain:  they  impress  strangers 
more  than  any  modern  edifice  in  the  island,  and  if  tlie  structure  be  com- 
pleted by  the  munificence  of  donations  or  bequests,  on  the  same  scale 
of  primirval  magnificence,  it  will  give  to  the  Scottish  metropolis  a 
distinction  beyond  what  any  capital  in  Eurojie  can  boast."  The  scheme 
for  that  national  monument  is  also  waruily  advocated  in  the  New  Edin- 
burgh Review,  April,  !^'23.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  Scotch  are 
too  poor  to  prosecute  the  undertaking  any  further,  else  no  doubt  their 
prudence  would  urge  them  to  complete  as  speedily  as  possible  a 
building  that  covdd  hardly  fail  to  attract  a  great  many  visitors  to  their 
capital.  Nevertheless  some  of  them  have  so  much  money  that  they 
make  the  most  desperate  efforts  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it,  for  instance, 
that  remarkably  silly  Lord,  Lord  Eglintonn,  who  had  he  given  towards 
this  work  the  thousands  he  expcnde<l  upon  his  tomfoolery  of  a  tourna- 
ment, would  have  secured  to  himself  a  very  dill'erent  reputation  from 
what  he  has  now  got.  Nay  even  the  good  people  of  Kdinburgh  them- 
selves would  act  more  wisely  were  they  to  complete  the  huihiing  on 
the  Calton  Hill,  before  they  think  of  such  matters  as  the  Momiment  to 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  unless  indeed  they  are  of  opinion  that,  notwithstand- 
ing his  hundred  volumes,  he  is  likely  to  be  forgotten  by  the  next  gene- 
ration.— Not  the  least  singular  circumstance  of  all  is  that  beyond  its 
name  being  mentioned,  there  is  no  notice  of  the  '  National  Monument,' 
on  the  Calton  Hill,  in  John  Ihitton's  '  Modern  Athens,'— a  very  re- 
markable work  by  the  by,  if  only  on  account  of  its  exceedingly  funny 
dedication  to  "  My  Dear  Sir  Walter." 

V.  'What  is  your  opinion,'  said  a  friend  to  me,  'of  Italian  Archi- 
tecture!'— When  I  know  what  you  mean,  was  my  reply,  I  can  perhaps 
answer  you,  but  you  might  just  as  well  ask  me  what  is  my  opinion  of 
English' literature,  without  particularizing  any  further,  and  I  should 
tell  you,  perhaps  that  at  the  present  day  a  "real  deal  of  it  is  most 
arrant  slipslop,  and  another  great  deal  confoundedly  villainous — to  wit 
the  Newgate  school  of  it.  So  too,  in  Italian  architecture  there  is  a 
vast  deal  of  most  horrible  rubbish,  and  also  uuich  that  is  admirable 
and  delightful.  Between  such  men  as  Francesco  di  (iiorgio,  San- 
micheli,  Balvassore,  I'eruzi,  and  Borromini,  with  a  long  et  caetcri,  the 
difference  is  incalculable, — as  great  as  between  Charles  Barry  and 

MUer  iSash.— As  fy»'  FwllwdiQ  i  freely  absndon  him  to  lus  adniJrersi 


VI.  Never  need  the  country  be  put  to  expense  for  a  monument  to 
George  IV.,  because,  as  long  as  it  stands,  Buckingham  will  jirove  a 
monument  of  his — dotage.  And  surely  h's  taste — if  he  ever  had  any 
must  hav('  been  quite  in  its  ilotage  when  he  approved  of  Nash's  designs 
for  that  unfortunate  building.  'Tis  a  thousand  pities  that  two  old  gen- 
tlemen should  have  laid  their  heads  together  to  palm  such  a  piece  of 
architecture  on  the  country,  (n  one  particular,  indeed,  it  may  be  said 
to  resemble  Perraidt's  f  i^'ade  of  the  Louvre,  inasmuch  as  it  has  coupled 
columns — hoc  C'iccrtmis  liabil :  but  then  even  in  that  respect,  it  is  egre- 
giously  more  faulty,  columns  in  pairs  being  introduced  into  a  prostyle 
l)ortico,  whereas  in  the  other  edilice  they  form  lengthened  colonnades. 
On  the  other  hand,  although  the  mode  of  coUunniation  adopted  for  the 
centre  portico  is  rendered  more  glaringly  oHeusive,  by  there  being  only 
single  columns  in  those  at  the  ends  ofihc  wings.  After  all,  defects  of  ' 
this  kind  shrink  to  nothing  when  ccjuipared  with  the  insignificance, 
and  the  pettiness  of  manner  which  characterise  the  whole  building. 

VII.  'i'he  York  Column  is  a  prodigiously  blank  afi'air  altogether, — 
one  excuse  for  which  may  be  that  it  would  have  been  a  puzzling,  and 
somewhat  ticklish  atfair  to  introduce  any  kind  of  sculpture,  because 
the  most  appropriate  and  characteristic  symbols  would  have  been  a 
gaming-table  and  dice-boxes,  in  allusion  to  the  exploits,  the  heroism, 
and  the  martyrdom  of  the  Royal  Duke.  Yet  if  as  a  piece  of  archi- 
tecture that  pillar  is  any  thing  but  admirable,  it  may  be  turned  to  ad- 
mirable accoimt  as  a  warning,  and  it  is  devoutly  to  be  hoped  that 
nothing  similar  will  now  be  perpetrated  in  Trafalgar  Square  ;  especially 
as  there  is  no  occasion  whatever  to  make  the  buildings  around  it  ap- 
pear at  all  lower,  or  more  insignificant  than  they  now  do  ;  which  would 
infdiibly  be  the  case  should  a  "huge  bully"  of  a  colunm  be  creeled  in 
the  centre  of  them. — According  tu  the  newspapers,  however,  it  would 
now  seem  that  the  Nelson  Column  is  to  be  begun  fortlnvith,  on  the  strength 
of  subscriptions  coming  in,  which  m^y pcr/mjjs  provide  a  statue  for  the 
top  of  it;  if  not,  laiit  iiikii.r,  (or  then  it  nuist  at  all  events  prove  a 
capita/  aft'air. — Or  commemorating  Nelson  so  flagrantly  would  it  not 
be  just  as  well  to  commemorate  h\m /nigranlly  dher  the  manner  in 
which  Delcroix  has  just  commcitiorakd  a  recent  event  by  his  '  Bouquet 
de  Nvces  Royales,' — which  it  should  be  observed  does  not  exactly 
mean  Royal  Noses,  although  intended  to  tickle  the  noses  of  gentility. 
— I  am  afraid  that  Delcroix  is  a  sad  wag. 

VUI.  According  to  a  recent  (.icrman  writer  who  professes  to  en- 
lighten his  countrymen  as  to  our  national  character,  English  peo|)le, 
especially  those  of  ton,  are  exceedingly  shy  of  Munich,  whose  noble 
buildings  and  treasures  of  art  possess  far  less  attraction  for  them 
than  do  the  coteries  and  gaming-tables  of  such  places  as  Baden-Dadin. 
There  is,  it  is  to  he  feared  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  this ;  yet  hardly  is  it 
to  be  wondered  at,  if  the  same  satiric.il  \\  riter  be  correct  in  the  classified 
catalogue  he  gives  of  the  kind  of  English  who  visit  the  Continent,  for 
he  states  that  out  of  every  thousand,  333  are  half-pay  ollicers,  100 
ruined  gamblers,  20  cas*.  off  kept  mistresses,  (who  affect  to  pass  for 
patterns  of  virtue,)  48  'Greeks'  on  the  look  out  for  'Pigeons,'  ,>0 
economists — ])olitical  ones  of  course, — who  adopt  the  prudent  economy 
of  getting  beyond  the  reach  of  their  creditors,  10  people  of  wealth 
and  rank,  who,  by  way  of  change,  ciiiiiii  themselves  abroad  pretty  muili 
after  the  same  fashion  they  do  at  liiune ; — to  cut  this  formidable  list 
short, — just  one  Englishman  in  a  tlious and,  who  visits  the  continent  in 
order  to  gain  information  and  improve  his  taste.  Assuredly  the  pic- 
ture is  not  a  very  flattering  one, —  doubtless  much  exaggerated,  but 
ciuTCct  or  not  says  a  very  great  deal,  because  it  shows  in  what  light 
we  are  looked  upon  by  foreigners.  The  same  writer  sets  us  down  as 
absolute  barbarians  in  music,  which  he  says,  we  only  hypocritically 
affect  to  admire  without  the  slightest  feeling  whatever  for  it;  and  if 
he  does  not  cens\n-e  our  taste  in  architecture,  it  is  in  all  |)robability 
because  he  does  not  touch  upon  that  subject  at  all ;  else,  1  conceive, 
many  of  our  moderns  would  have  excited  his  bile,  not  a  little.  How- 
ever, be  our  taste  in  architecture  what  it  may,  we  cannot  be  accused 
of  much  hypocrisy  or  affectation  there  ;  for  the  public  generally  do  not 
care  even  to  pretend  to  know  any  thing  whatever  about  architecture, 
— Where  our  buildings  have  been  spoken  of  by  Germans,  it  has  seldom 
been  in  terms  of  commendation;  and  it  would  not  perhaps  be  amiss,  if 
some  of  our  architects  were  to  read  a  few  of  their  connnents,  and  make 
themselves  acquainted  with  their  opinions,  for  though  ihej-  could  hardly 
tail  of  being  an  exceedingly  unpalatcable,  they  might  also  prove  a 
very  salutary  dose  to  them. 

l.\.  It  is  astonishing  what  downright  silliness  and  nonsense  is  fre- 
quently made  to  pass  for  argument.  A  notable  instance  of  the  kind 
occurs'in  the  article  Architecture  in  the  celebrated  Encyclopedic  Me- 
tliodique,  where  it  is  said  "La  colonne  doit  ctre  roude,  parceque  la 
Nature  ne  fait  rien  de  cpiarr.'."  The  same  mode  of  reasoning  might 
be  employed  to  convince  us  that  the  surface  of  w»lls  ought  to  he  rugged, 
and  floors  uneven,  Ucaunt  nature  does  not  make  the  face  of  rocks  per- 
fcctly  smooth,  nvr  the  ground  jieifectly  solid  and  level ;— ov  aga'n 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


157 


that  besides  being  round,  columns  ought  to  have  a  rough  surface,  re- 
sembling the  baric  of  trees, — for  we  suppose  it  is  to  the  stems  of  trees 
we  must  look  for  the  prototype  of  the  shaft  of  columns.  Besides,  if 
columns  are  to  be  made  round  because  nature  makes  nothing  square, 
would  not  that  be  an  excellent  reason  for  making  the  architrave 
round  or  cylindrical  also,  merely  cutting  away  so  much  of  the  under 
surface  at  intervals  as  would  be  requisite  for  its  resting  firmly  on  the 
flat  abaci  of  the  capitals.  This  might  be  done  ;  and  according  to  such 
theory,  it  would  be  both  correct  and  natural, — perfectly  in  consonance 
with  the  Because  a-ssigned.  Nay,  might  we  not  say  that  the  convex 
or  pulviuated  frieze  frequently  given  by  Italian  architects  to  the  Ionic 
entablature  is  formed  upon  strictly  rational  principles,  namely,  agree- 
ably to  the  aforesaid  Because.  But  then  if  columns  are  round,  be- 
cause, &c. — how  happens  it  that  the  abaci  of  their  capitals  are  square  ? 
— or  are  we  to  suppose  that  while  Nature  herself  shapes  the  columns, 
she  leaves  her  apprentices  and  journeymen  to  make  the  capitals,  &c. 
as  well  as  they  can.  The  sober  truth  is,  all  such  reasoning  is  mere 
rigmarole,  and  if  no  more  rational  and  likely  became  can  be  found  out, 
as  I  apprehend  could  be,  it  is  not  worth  while  attempting  to  offer  any 
at  all. 

X.  The  real  Because  wherefore  we  make  our  columns  round,  is  no 
other  than  because  others  have  invariably  done  so  before  us ;  for 
which,  again,  there  may  have  been  more  than  one  reason,  and  among 
the  rest  that  of  convenience,  a  circular  shaft  or  pillar  occupying  less 
space  than  a  square  one  of  the  same  diameter,  since  the  latter  exceeds 
tlie  former  by  the  difference  between  the  measure  of  its  diagonals  and 
its  sides.  Besides  which,  round  pillars  offer  a  greater  contrast  to 
walls  and  other  flat  surfaces,  consequently  tend  to  produce  variety, 
while,  at  the  same  time,  such  form  recommends  itself  as  being,  in 
some  degree,  more  consonant  to  the  prototype  furnished  by  nature  in 
the  stems  of  vegetables  and  trees;  and  more  studied  and  artificial  also — 
more  recherch''  than  the  other.  Yet,  although  example  and  habit 
alone,  independently  of  other  considerations,  cause  us  to  regard  the 
circular  form  as  the  most  suitable,  as  well  as  the  most  beautiful,  one 
for  columns,  it  does  not  exactly  follow  that  square  ones  are  absurd — 
contrary  to  both  beauty  and  reason,  and  that  they  ought  never  to  be  ad- 
mitted at  all.  It  is  true  no  authority  for  insulated  pillars  of  such  shape, 
is  to  be  met  with  in  Grecian  architecture ;  but  then,  neither  does  it  sup- 
plyus  with  precedents  for  antae  or  pilasters  continued  along  the  front  of 
a  building,  and  many  other  things  which  are  nevertheless  practised 
without  scruple,  even  where  Greek  architecture  is  professed  to  be 
closely  followed.  I  do  not  pretend  to  say  that  square  cohunns  are  so 
well  adapted  as  others  for  general  purposes,  but  there  certainly  are 
cases  in  which  they  might  be  introduced  both  with  propriety  and 
eftect,  either  by  themselves  or  in  combination  with  circular  ones,  and 
either  way  would  [u-oduce  greater  variety  of  design  than  can  be  ob- 
tained by  restricting  ourselves  on  every  occasion  to  the  use  of  round 
columns.  Hardly  will  it  be  expected  that  I  can  explain  myself  more 
fully  without  sketches  and  cuts  ;  yet  I  can  mention  one  instance  where 
I  conceive  a  good  effect  might  thus  be  produced,  which  is  supposing 
it  necessary  or  desirable  to  have  two  insulated  orders,  one  above  the 
other,  forming,  for  example,  a  lower  and  upper  portico,  that  below 
might  have  square  pillars — not  mere  piers — of  about  the  same  diame- 
ter as  the  columns  over  them  ;  whereby,  not  only  would  a  monotonous 
repetition  be  avoided,  but  greater  solidity  would  be  obtained  in  the 
basement  order. 

XI.  Would  it  be  believed  that  a  professed  architectural  writer,  no 
other,  in  fact,  than  M.  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  speaks  of  "  Vasbrug 
oa  VsEsbrug,"  under  which  queer  metamorphosis  he  gives  his  readers 
the  name  of  the  architect  of  Blenheim.  If  it  arises  out  of  sheer  igno- 
rance, of  the  inability  even  to  copy  a  word  correctly  when  in  print, 
what  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  "his  accuracy.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  it  is  merely  the  affectation  of  ignorance,  it  amounts  to  downright 
puppyism.  The  most  ignorant  Englishman  would  not  say  Boiler,  or 
Vaultair  (instead  of  Boileau  and  Voltaire ; )  at  least,  no  English  biogra- 
pher would  so  designate  those  writers.  But  the  truth  is,  that,  in  lite- 
rary blunders,  one  Frenchman  is  at  any  time  a  match  for  two  Irishmen. 
Among  ludicrous  instances  we  may  find,  "Hirzel  an  Gleim  iiber  Sul- 
zer,"  translated  "Hirzel  sur  le  Gleim,"  with  a  note  explaining  that 
"  Gleim  est  une  petite  riviere  de  I'AUemagne."  '  Poor  Gleim  I  his 
poems  must  have  been  watery  compositions  indeed.  Another 
Frenchman  confounded  Pressburg  with  St.  Petersburg ;  and  we  now 
find  Vanbrugh  converted  into  Vasbrug  or  Vassbrug,  which  double 
mistake  plainly  proves  it  not  to  be  an  error  of  the  press. 


Remiie's  Trapezium  PmhUe-wheel.—  W' e  understand  Mr.  Rennie  has  filled 
the  Lily,  one  of  the  boats  plying  between  Loudon  Bridge  and  Hungerford 
Markei,  witli  bis  [latent  trapezium  paddle,  and  that  her  speed  is  improved, 
as  well  as  having  done  away  with  the  swell  caused  by  the  ordinary  paddle. 


MAUDSLAY'S  AND  FIELD'S  STEAM  ENGINE. 


I'iS.  1. 


a,  cylinder,    c,  c,  r,  c,  the  four  piston  rods,    'cl,  cross  head. 
/,  connecting  rod.    ,i;- jr,  crank. 


,  guide  rods 


Sir, — Your  March  number  of  the  Journal  contains  drawings  and  a 
description  of  Messrs.  Maudslay  and  Field's  patented  improvements 
in  marine  steam-engines,  and  it  is  on  the  second  feature  of  their  in- 
vention I  have  presumed  to  offer  a  few  remarks  and  suggestions. 
Moreover,  it  is  generally  observed,  that  when  a  person  obtains  a  patent 
right  for  any  invention,  it  no  sooner  publiclv  appeal's  to  the  mechani- 
cal world,  than  it  is  followed  up  by  a  modification  of  some  sort,  that 
modification  being  more  or  less  effective,  costly,  or  practical;  and  it 
sometimes  happens  that  by  means  of  such  modification,  schemes  which, 
as  they  occurred  originally  to  the  mind  of  the  inventor,  could  never 
have  answered,  have,  in  their  ett'ect,  exceeded  his  (the  original  in- 
ventor's) most  sanguine  expectation.  However,  the  inventors  in  this 
case  are  practical  men  (the  most  extensive,  perhaps,  in  the  kingdom), 
and  it  may  be  thought  presumption  in  me  to  oiler  anything  which 
might  seem  an  improvement  on  their  schemes,  but  my  anxiety  for  the 
advancement  of  mechanical  science  must  be  my  excuse. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  engraving,  and  it  is  obvious,  that  the  cr?nk 
shaft  is  placed  on  one  side  of  the  piston  rods,  consequently  the  action 
of  the  piston  cannot  be  communicated  to  the  crank  pin  in  a  direct  line 

Fig.  2. 


n,  cylinder. 


,  c,  the  tv/o  piston  rods. 
/,/,  connecting  rods. 


(/,  cross  head.    c. 
Ug>sV4>  cranls. 


p,  guide  rods. 


166 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


How  far  tbi';  may  answer  in  practice  1  don't  know,  but  (be  tbcoiy  docs 
not  look  well. 

It  will  be  apparent  tbat  tbe  proper  place  for  tlie  crank  sbaft  is  in 
the  line  of  tbe  centre  uf  the  centre  of  pressure,  or  centre  of  tbe  cylin- 
der, and  to  obtain  such  place,  I  jiropose  tbat  tbere  be  four  piston  rods 
uniting  in  one  cross  bead,  as  shewn  in  Fig.  1.  'I'be  sectional  area  of 
tbe  four  rods  would  require  to  be  very  little  greater  than  for  two  ur 
only  one  rod,  but  of  course  tbere  would  be  the  additional  friclion 
caused  by  the  enlarged  surface. 

The  arrangement  is  sulBciently  shown  in  Fig.  1,  witbuut  any  further 
description. 

Fig.  2  is  another  plan  for  keeping  the  shaft  in  the  same  central 
position  wilb  ouly  two  piston  reds;  in  this  case  there  will  nquire  a 
double  cranked  shaft  as  shown,  and  of  course  two  connecting  ruds. 

By  the  arrangement  in  Fig.  2,  cylinders  of  a  minimum  diameter 
may  be  employed. 

Messrs.  M.  &  F.  may  have  thought  of  these  methods  of  combination, 
or  they  may  not ;  however,  Sir,  if  you  think  the  above  worliiy  a  place 
in  your  Jouriial,  nothing  would  give  greater  satisfaction  to 

Amicus  MACHiNARUii. 
Apidm,  1S4  '. 


THE  ASSIZE  COURTS,  LIVERPOOL. 

Sir — The  decision  has  just  taken  place  with  respect  to  tbe  desigiis 
for  tbe  Liverpool  Assize  Courts,  for  which  no  fewer  than  eigbty-ti\  e 
designs  had  been  sent  in  on  the  1st  Jamiary,  and  tbe  two  lucky  com- 
petitors to  whose  lot  the  premiums  have  fallen,  are  Mr.  Elmes  of 
London,  and  Mr.  Grieg  of  Exeter.  During  the  present  week  there  is 
to  be  an  exhibition  of  all  (be  drawings  at  tbe  Town-ball,  Liverpool,  but 
the  time  allowed  for  its  being  open  is  so  exceedingly  slioit,  tbat  very 
few  professional  men  here  in  town,  or  at  distance  from  Liverpool,  will 
be  able  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  more  especially  as  no  public  notice 
beforehand  has  been  given  of  it  in  tbe  newspapers, — which  certainly 
ought  to  have  been  done.  Besides  which,  the  same  egregious  blunder 
has  been  here  comuiitted,- — or  if  not  blunder,  tbe  same  crooked  and 
perverse  policy  has  been  here  pursued,  which  has  justly  been  animad- 
verted upon  in  similar  cases;  namely,  instead  of  preceding  the deci- 
son,  the  exhibition  is  not  allowed  to  take  p'ace  until  it  is  over,  and  all 
appeal  from  it  rendered  unavailing. 

This  surely  might  bo  remedied — at  least  might  be  attemjjfed  to  be 
remedied  by  the  institute,  who  ought  to  draw  up  and  publisli  a  protest 
against  Such  a  highly  injinious  mode  of  procedure,  and  ought  also  for 
the  future,  in  every  similar  case  of  the  kind,  that  is,  in  a  public  com- 
petition for  a  building  of  any  magnitude,  and  in  wdiicb  numerous 
members  of  the  profession  are  likely  to  engage, — to  address  themselves 
formally  to  the  committee — or,  however,  the  presiding  powers  may  be 
styled,  and  urge  upon  them  the  propriety  and  decency  of  granting  a 
public  prc-exhibition  of  the  designs,  and  (hat  too,  for  a  reasonable  and 
satisfactory  time. 

I  certainly  cannot  help  being  of  opinion,  tbat  tbe  Institute  have  been 
culpably  supine  and  remiss  in  regard  to  the  very  important  matter  of 
competition;  and  negligent  both  of  the  interests  (jf  architecture  and 
Its  professors.  What  they  have  yet  done  towards  advancing  either, 
I  do  not  know,  nor  have  1  been  able  to  leain  :  probaMy,  let  their  dispo- 
sition and  zeal  be  what  they  may,  there  are  very  few  cases  in  which 
that  body  can  exert  ifscif  with  any  effect ;  but  that  becomes  only  an  ad- 
ditional reason  wherefore  they  should  exert  themselves  the  more 
^trenuously  wherever  (hey  can  ;  and  in  attempting  to  check  the  abuses 
of  the  present  system  of  competition  and  establish  a  better  one, — the 
Institute  would,  at  all  events,  have  public  opinion  on  its  side. 

As  regards  the  particular  competition  here  mentioned,  it  does  look 
rather  odd  that  Mr.  Elmes,  who,  but  a  few  months  before,  bad  been  the 
successful  architect  for  St.  (ieorge's  Hall,  should  have  obtained  a 
second  and  still  more  expensive  in  tbe  very  same  town,  ere  tbe  tirst 
one  has  been  fairly  commenced.  Indeed,  it  is  rather  singular  that  tlia  t 
gentleman  should  have  chosen  to  enter  a  second  competition  imme- 
diately after  succeeding  in  a  previous  one,  unless  he  bad  particularly 
good  reasons  for  anticipating  success.  However,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
bis  design  will  be  found  fully  to  justify  his  so  extraordinary  good 
fortune,  and  thereby  remove  the  awkward  impression  now  likely  to  be 
made  upon  those,  who  at  present  know  only  the  curious  fact  itself,  and 
nothing  further. 

I  remain,  &c. 
;    Aprinith,  1-40.  Q. 


GREAT  WESTERN  STEAM  SHIP  COMPANY. 

The  annual  meeting  of  tbe  Great  Western  Steam  Ship  Company 
took  place  on  tlie  28tb  March,  when  discussions  took  place  bigbly 
interesting,  both  in  a  professional  and  public  point  of  view.  The 
question  in  dispute  is  as  to  the  propriety  of  the  steps  taken  by  tbe 
Directors  in  constructing  an  iron  vessel  of  im|)araileled  size,  and  in 
erecting  a  manufactory  for  supplying  the  pulilic  with  engines. 

The  lirst  question  is  with  regard  to  (he  size  of  the  vessel,  wdiich,  a.s 
we  sbotdd  state,  is  to  be  of  312  feet  in  length,  42  feet  breadtli  of 
beam,  32  feet  depth  of  hold,  2-5(lU  tons,  and  with  engines  of   KJOO 
horses  power.     The  reasons  assigned  for  tbif  step  by  the  Directors 
are,  (lie  increase  in  stowage  afforded  by  the   use  of  iron,  increase  of 
power,   and   consequently  tpiicker  and  more  certain  passages.      To 
these  reasons  the  objections  are  objections  of  expediency,  and  a  ques- 
tion of  expediency  (his  must  be  considered  in  all  its  bearings,  mixed 
up  as  it  is  with  the  ci  cunistances  of  the  company,  and  the  objects  for 
which  it  has  been  projected  and  carried  into  etfect.     It  seems  tbat  (he 
capital  of  the  company  is  small,  and  the  difliculty  of  raising  fiuids  at 
the  present  time  is  very  great,  and  consequently,  on  tbat  account,  it  is 
inexpedient  to  engage  in  large  enterprises,  for  which  the  funds  are 
insntlicicnt,  and  from  which  the   returns  cannot  be  obtained  quickly, 
nor  dc|K'nded  on  with  certiunty.      What  is  wanted  at  the   present 
period  is  to  have  more  frequent  steam  connnunication  between  Eng- 
land and  (he  United  States,  so  as  to  make  the  use  of  steam  habitual, 
and  its  advantages  jjermanently  manifest,  and  not  to  be  looked  on 
merely  as  a  casual  relief  to  the  regular  sailers.     It  is  only  in  this  way 
that  the  liners  can  be  successfully  competed   with,  for  it  seems  the 
saving  of  time  is  still  so  little  ap|u-eciated,  that,  by  a  reduction  of  fare, 
they  have  been  enabled  successfully  to  contend  with  the  large  steam- 
ers, and  force  them  also  to  reduce  their  prices.     The  Great  Western, 
also,  at  ))rescnt,  has  rarely  her  full  couqilement  of  passengers,  and  in 
the  last  three  trips,  there  has  been  a  considerable  falling  olV,  so  that 
the  necessity  of  a  large  vessel  on  tbe  score   of  accouunodatiou,  evi- 
dently cannot  be  asserted.     Tbe  Comjjany  will  also,  in  the  cour.se  of 
this  year,  be  subjected  to  the  competition  of  numerous  steamers,  so 
thai  they  will  be  the  more  called  upon  to  ]jrcserve  (be  regularity  of 
their  communications,  while  they  must  necessarily  have  spcedi.'y  a 
new  vessel  on  the  station,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  securing  quick 
returns  to  the  proprietors  on  their  capital,  but  to  prevent  them  from 
losing  all  profit  in  the  e\'cnt  of  the  temporary  or  total  incapacitation 
of  the  Great  Western.    On  all  economical  groimds,  therefore,  the  con- 
struction of  a  vessel  of  a  larger  size  than  the  Great  Western  is  clearly 
inexpedient,  and  indeed  the  proprietors,  in  giving  their  consent  to  the 
construction  of  an  iron  vessel,  never  contemplated   any  increase   of 
dimensions.     Supposing,  even,  that  the  experiment  should  be  success- 
ful, the  Directors  will  not  even  then  be  exonerated  from  blame,  in 
having  unadvisedly  made  such  an  attempt,  so  uncalled  for  by  tbe  cir- 
cumstances, and  bighlj'  perilous  to  tbe  financial  prospects  of  tbe  Com- 
pany.    We  now  come  to  the  rjuestion  of  the  pro])riety  in  an  engineer- 
ing point  of  view,  of  engaging  in  such  an  undertaking,  and  we  find 
that  not  only  has  it  no  example,  but,  from  the  highest  authorities,  it 
meets  with  no  encouragement.     We  do  not  say  tliat  an  iron  vessel 
312  feet  long  cannot  be  constructed,  but  we  must  say  that  it  augurs 
considerable  temerity  to  attempt  it  in  the  teeth  of  the  opinion  of  those 
most  eomijetent  to  judge.     The  largest  iron  steamer  which  has  been 
built  is  tinly  of -li:(J  tons,  one  sixth  of  (he  size  of  the  proposed  vessel, 
and  Mr.  Laird,  the  engineer,  jiositively  refused  to  contract  for  an  iron 
vessel  of  only  1S5U  tons,  so  little  was  he  disposed  to  proceed  without 
some  practical  result  upon  which  to  base  his  operations.     Mr.  Ditch- 
bourn,  the  eminent  iron  shipbuilder,  of  London,  expressed  himself  to 
a  similar  eft'ect  before  the  Committee  on  Steam  Connnunication  with 
India.     It   must  be  further  recollected   that  the  Company's   vessel, 
instead  of  being  under  the  responsible  control  of  a  private  builder,  is 
being  built  in  their  own  yard,  so  that,  shou'd  it  prove  a  failuie,  the 
proprietors  have  no  remedy.     As  if  to  hea])  experiment  on  cx])eri- 
ment,  the  Directors  liave  chosen  to  adopt  ;*  form  of  ergine,  of  which 
the  best  that  can  be  said  is  that  it  has  not  succeeded,  if,  indeed,  it  be 
not  regarded  as  a  total  failure.     Humphrys'  Patent  Engines  will  be 
found  in  another  part  of  the  Jo\irnal  to  have  been  patented  as  Mr. 
Broderip's,  in  ly2S,  by  Col.  D'Arcy,  and  how  they  ever  came  to  be 
called  after  Mr,  Humphrys,  no  one  presumes  to  surmise.     A  pair  of 
them  was  put  on  board  the  Dartford,  built  at  Gravesend   about  four 
years  ago,  for  Messrs,  Halls,  of  Dartford,  by   Mr.  Baulckham.     Tbe 
lines  of  the  Dartford  were  very  tine,  and  she  bad  a  very  promising  ap- 
pearance ;  when,  howevej',  her  engines  came  to  be  put  on  board,  so 
far  was  she  from  justifying  tbe  predictions  of  her  proprietors,  that 
they  were  obliged  to  give  up  running  her  on  the  Thames,  after  she 
had  been  beaten  b^  piost  of  the  boats  on  the  rivcrt     She  Nvas  then 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


159 


being  also  found  to  be  dissatisfactory,  she  has  been  repeatedly 
oft'ered  for  sale,  without  success,  at  less  than  half  price,  and  may  now 
he  found  in  the  East  India  Docks  with  a  broom  at  her  masthead. 
Both  Maudslay  and  Seawards  refused  to  construct  engines  on  this 
principle,  and  Mr.  A.  Jlornay  has  written  a  paper  to  show  that  the 
trunk  engines  are  good  for  nothing  at  all.  Mr.  Brunei,  in  defending 
the  character  of  the  Dartford,  very  gravely  assured  the  Bristolians 
that  she  had  beaten  the  "City  of  Glasgow"  l)y  two  hours  in  going  to 
Furtsmoutli,  a  fact,  which,  if  true,  it  is  very  fortunate  for  him  that  lie 
did  not  state  in  London,  for  here  the  City  of  (jiasgow  is  a  byeword  for 
slowness,  a  kind  of  Regulator,  by  which  all  the  other  steamers  go. 
Having  said  thus  much,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  show,  by  a  few  cal- 
cuhdions,  the  justness  of  our  remarks. 

The  engines  are  to  have  cylinders  of  10  feet  diameter  and  10  feet 
stroke,  and  thus,  according  to  the  usual  computation  of  7  lbs.  eft'ective 
pressure  on  the  square  inch  of  the  pistons,  assuming  their  speed  to  be 
240  feet  per  minute,  would  be  equivalent  to  I151v")  horses  power,  if 
of  the  ordinary  construction;  but  as  they  are  to  be  made  with  (he 
trunk,  half  the  transverse  section  of  the  latter  must  be  deducted  from 
the  area  of  the  piston,  (say  one-tiiieenth  of  the  area  of  the  piston),  by 
whiidi  the  nominal  power  of  the  engines  is  reduced  to  107.5  horses 
power.  Tliey  are  expected  to  weigh,  without  the  boilers,  one  third 
less  than  common  engines;  we  maj'  then  fairly  assiune  that  they  will 
weigh,  with  the  water  in  the  boilers,  SUO  tons. 

It  is  difficult  to  imagine  the  motive  which  has  induced  the  Directors 
to  cram  this  fiwrinous  power  into  their  intended  vessel,  the  pro- 
poition  of  power  to  tonnage  being  about  what  is  allowed  to  small 
boats ;  for  by  so  doing  they  forego  the  chief  advantage  which  large 
steamers  possess  over  small  ones  for  long  voyages.  The  natural  con- 
sequence is  that  the  vessel  will  be  able  to  carry  little  or  nothing  be- 
sides the  requisite  fuel  for  the  voyage  across  the  Atlantic. 

The  whole  area  of  one  of  the  pistons  is  7s-.'>4  square  feet,  from  which 
if  we  deduct  one  fifteenth  for  the  half  area  of  the  trunk,  we  shall  have 
for  the  mean  area  acted  upon  by  the  steam,  73'3  square  feet.  The 
mean  capacity  of  one  of  the  cylinders  is,  therefore,  733  cubic  feet.  If 
we  suppose  the  diameter  of  the  paddle  wheels  to  be  30  feet,  the  vessel 
cannot  be  expected  to  advance  more  than  S3  feet  0  inches  for  each  re- 
volution, which  with  12  revolutions  per  minute,  would  give  a  speed  of 
nearly  10  knots  an  hour,  and  the  voyage  from  Bristol  to  New  York 
would  require  the  vyheels  to  make  about  "220,000  revolutions.  For 
this  8SO,000  cylinders  full  of  steam  will  be  used,  but  as  under  favour- 
able circumstances  the  steam  is  to  be  used  expansively,  we  will  suppose 
it,  on  an  average,  to  be  cut  oft'  at  half  stroke  during  one  half  of  the 
voyage,  and  used  at  full  pressure  during  the  other  half.  On  this  hy- 
pothesis only  6GO,000  cylinders,  fuh  of  full  pressure  steam,  will  be 
expended,  exclusive  of  n  aste.  This  is  equivalent  to  483,780,000  cubic 
feet  of  steam,  to  which  if  we  add  10  per  cent  for  waste,  the  total  ex- 
penditure of  steam  will  be  j32,ir)S,u00  cubic  feet.  We  understand 
the  steam  is  not  to  be  used  at  a  higher  pressure  than  4  or  ii  lb.  above 
ilie  atmosphere;  at  the  former  pressure  one  cubic  foot  of  water  is 
required  to  generate  135G  cubic  feet  of  steam,  so  that  to  produce  the 
above  quantity  of  steam  392,447  cubic  feet  of  water  must  be  evaporated. 

Mr.  Armstrong  in  his  work  on  the  Boilers  of  Steam  Engines,  gives 
10  lbs.  of  coal  as  the  quantity  requisite  to  vaporize  one  cubic  foot  of 
water,  but  as  the  usual  allowance  for  marine  engines  is  only  9  lbs.,  we 
shall  adopt  this  as  the  basis  of  our  calculations.  On  this  hypothesis 
the  consumption  of  coal  during  the  voyage  will  amount  to  1.580  tons 
uearlv  (say  IGOO  tons,  to  allow  for  emergencies).  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  voyage  the  resistance  of  the  water  to  the  vessel's  motion 
will  be  of  course  greater  than  when  she  is  light;  and  by  the  consump- 
tion of  some  of  her  fuel,  the  engines  wiU  not  be  able  to  make  their 
full  number  of  revolutions ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  under  these 
circumstances  a  greater  amouit  of  fuel  will  be  consumed  in  the  same 
distance  than  when  going  at  full  speed,  so  that  it  will  be  scarcely  safe  to 
take  less  than  IGOO  tons  on  board  it  Bristol,  particularly  as  the  passage 
out  may  be  reasonably  expected  to  be  prolonged  by  adver.-e  winds, 
whicli  do  not  occasion  a  reduction  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  propor- 
tiuimi  to  the  diminution  of  the  vessel's  speed ;  for  it  is  clear  that,  to 
obtain  an  equal  resistance  with  fewer  revolutions  of  the  paddle  wheels, 
the  floats  must  slip  more  through  the  water,  and  consequently  the 
progress  of  the  vessel  must  be  less  for  each  revolution  of  the  wheels 
than  when  she  has  no  contrary  wind  to  contend  against.  Now  the 
quantity  of  fuel  consumed  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  strokes  of 
the  engines,  therefore  the  consumption  in  a  given  distance,  although 
not  proportional  to  the  time  occupied,  will  be  greater  when  the  speed 
is  reduced  by  adverse  winds  than  otherwise. 

The  directors  have  announced  that  the  vessels  displacement  will  not 
exceed  her  tonnage,  or  but  slightly,  and  that  she  will  not  vary  in  im- 
mersion between  Bristol  and  New  York  more  than  2  feet  G  inches, 
attempted  to  be  run  to  several  places  on  the  south  coast,  but  this 


Now  the  weight  of  the  hull,  masts,  yards,  sails  and  rigging,  boats, 
cabins,  fittings,  &c.  cannot  be  safely  estimated  at  less  than     110  J  tons 
The  engines  and  boilers  with  water           ....       §00 
Fuel 1600 

Making  altogether  (without  any  cargo)  ....  3500  tons, 
wdiich  is  already  10(10  tons  more  than  the  measured  tonnage  of  the 
vessel.  Her  draught  of  water  will,  therefore,  be  3  feet  6  inches,  or 
perliaps  4  feet  more  than  it  is  expected  to  be. 

On  a  rough  computation  we  estimate  that  the  vessel's  draught  of 
water  will  vary  about  J  ft.  (J  in.  during  the  voyage,  by  reason  of  the 
consumption  of  1.500  tons  of  coal :  and  for  (his  reason,  as  well  as  on 
account  of  the  immense  power  of  her  engines,  the  paddle  wdieels  can- 
not be  made  less  than  3.)  feet  in  diameter,  with  32  floats  on  each,  mea- 
suring 15  feet  in  length  and  4  feet  broad.  With  a  less  diameter  a  speed 
of  10  knots  an  hour  could  not  be  hoped  for  with  12  revolutions  per 
minute,  even  in  calm  weather,  and  with  smaller  or  fewer  floats  the 
engines  would  probably  over-rim  their  speed,  when  (he  vessel  was 
lightened  by  the  consumption  of  the  chief  part  of  the  coal.  If,  there- 
fore, with  the  rioals  immersed  4  feet,  the  wheels  make  12  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  the  vessel  attains  a  speed  of  10  knots,  as  assumedl 
above,  the  engines  will  be  brought  up  to  about  7  or  7i  revolutions  at  the 
beginning  of  the  voyage  with  IGOl)  tons  of  coal  on  board,  which  would 
immerse'the  floats  i)  feet  G  inches  instead  of  4  feet,  and  the  speed 
of  the  vessel  would  most  probably  not  exceed  5|  to  Gl  knots. 

As  regards  the  expense  of  tlie  new  vessel,  as  estimated  l)y  the 
Directors,  we  will  cdl  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  price  per  cwt.  of 
angle  iron,  plates,  ^c.  increases  with  their  weight,  and,  if  the  "  Rain- 
bow "cost  60/.  ])er  ton  weight  of  iron  (which  is  the  fac(),  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  assume  that  the  new  vessel  will  cost  8).'.  per  ton; 
but  taking  it  at  70/.  only,  and  the  weight  at  only  650  tons,  the  hull 
alone  will  cost -         -     £45,500 

Adding  to  this  for  masts,  yards,  cabins,  stores,  &c.  -        15,000 

And  for  the  engines  at  35/.  per  horse  power  -        -       3),000 

We  find  for  the  cost  of  the  vessel  ....     i£95,0L;O 

which  exceeds  her  estimated  expense  by  20,500/.,  irrespective  of  all 
preparations,  accessories,  buildings,  tools,  Src. 

The  tools  are  to  cost  30,000/.,  out  of  which  we  find  by  the  last  re- 
port that  19,000/.  was  paid,  and  out  of  the  cost  of  (he  vessel  6,800/., 
leaving  still  to  be  paid  for  the  vessel  ...  -  £  88,700 
for  the  work  shops        ...  11,000 

By  the  same  leport  there  was  expended        ...        105,500 

Required  to  pay  debts  due 11,000 

Making  in  all £216,200 

The  total  number  of  shares  taken  falls  short  of  1,900,  and  assuming 
them  at  that  number,  and  that  all  calls  will  be  paid,  the  gross  capital 
of  (he  Company  amounts  to  190,000/.,  or  26,200/.  less  than  the  inevit- 
able disbursements  before  the  completion  of  the  new  vessel.  Besides 
this  (here  will  be  the  rent  of  premises,  clerks'  salaries,  expenses  of 
management,  &c.  during  the  term  of  completion,  wdiich  cannot  be 
safely  estimated  at  less  than  two  years. 

Having  shown  the  temerity  with  which  the  directors  have  acted, 
both  in  regard  to  the  size  of  their  vessel,  and  the  engines  by  which  it 
is  to  be  worked,  and  having  proved  that  it  is  inexpedient  and  inju- 
rious, we  have  next  to  consider  one  of  the  most  outrageous  propo- 
sitions that  was  ever  suggested  (o  a  public  company,  (hat  of  setting 
up  a  factory  for  making  vessels  and  engines.  Without  any  attempt 
to  ascertain  on  what  terms  the  vessel  and  engines  might  have  been 
constructed  by  contract,  the  directors  have  themselves  determined  to 
execute  both,"  and  have  accordingly  already  hud  out  £20,000,  being 
one  f fill  of  their  cajiital,  in  the  purchase  of  leasehold  property  !  in 
digging  docks  1  and  in  buying  machinery!  and  as  if  it  were  not  enough 
to  waste  the  limited  capKal  of  (he  unfortunate  shareholders  in  such 
speculations  for  their  own  uses,  but,  as  if  (o  add  (he  climax  to  their 
proceedings,  they  actually  propose  to  organize  a  regular  factory  for 
making  vessels  and  engines  for  whomsoever  will  buy  them.  With  a 
capital  totally  insutficient  for  the  legitimate  objects  of  the  Company, 
and  having  unadvisedly  engaged  in  a  most  hazardous  and  unwarranted 
speculation,  the  directors  waste  the  resources  of  the  shareholders  on 
objects  which  it  will  require  a  long  time  to  make  available.  As  to 
how  they  propose  to  find  money  for  finishing  this  vessel,  which  will 
certainly  cost  nuich  more  than  their  estimates,  or  for  carrying  on  their 
extraordinary  operations,  no  one  can  conceive,  unless  they  are  to  bring 
half  shares  into  the  market  (o  divide  equally  with  the  original  pro- 
prietors. To  aggravate  the  injury  in  particular  cases,  they  are  lite- 
rally employing  "(he  money  of  Mr.  Acraman,  the  great  engineer,  in 
competing  with  himself.  With  regard  to  the  legality  of  their  pro- 
ceedings, it  requires  very  little  knowledge  of  law  to  be  aware  that  it 

Y2 


160 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


is  only  uiidi-r  -.i  new  deed  of  settlement  tliit  tlie  dircctois  can  carry 
out  any  such  plans,  As  to  the  propriety  of  engaging  as  rivals  to  pri- 
vate manufacturers,  public  opinion  is  too  strongly  against  sucth  a  prac- 
tice to  render  any  further  comment  necessary,  wliile,  as  concerns  the 
shareholders,  if  this  departure  be  allowed  from  their  original  jilans, 
there  is  no  reason  why  the  Directors  should  not  set  up  chain-cable 
works,  rope  walks,  sail  lofts,  machine  biscuit  bakeries,  or  anything  con- 
necteil  or  not  connected  with  shipping, — they  may  engage  in  banking, 
life  assurance,  or  any  pursuit. 

We  cannot,  therefore,  but  be  of  opinion  that,  on  every  point,  the 
Directors  are  not  only  totally  unwarranted  in  the  course  they  have 
pursued,  but  are  o])en  to  severe  reprobation  for  their  imprudent  ma- 
nagement of  the  ali'airs  of  the  shareholders,  whose  jiroperty  must,  by 
such  proceedings,  be  rendered  more  unsaleable  than  it  is  even  at  pre- 
sent. The  future  operations  of  the  Company  are  in  every  way  em- 
barrassed, both  by  the  mismanagement  of  the  capital,  and  the  heavy 
charge  that  must  be  created  by  such  a  lumbersome  vessel  ami  expen- 
sive establishment,  which  must  be  kept  up,  whatever  may  be  the 
revenues  of  the  Company.  The  report  which  recommends  and  justi- 
fies the  course  adopted,  is  of  a  most  fulsome  and  trumpery  character, 
with  the  stamp  of  official  paternity  strongly  marked  ;  the  self-lauda- 
tion is  too  apparent  to  be  disguised,  and,  like  on  passing  the  line,  every 
one  of  the  novices  is  abundantly  bedaubed  with  tlie  glittering  slime  of 
the  concoctors.  The  phraseology  is  as  rich  as  the  matter  of  which  it 
is  the  vehicle,  and  renders  the  whole  affair  still  more  sickening.  We 
do  not  think  it  necessary  to  give  the  report  any  lengthened  exami- 
nation, or  we  should  waste  the  time  of  our  readers  and  our  own  in 
exposing  this  tissue  of  egotism  and  presumption.  Among  other  infor- 
mation which  we  see  with  regret  is,  that  the  Company  have  been 
compelled  to  accede  to  the  grievous  demands  of  the  Dock  Company, 
and  pay  a  large  sum  for  docks  their  vessels  can  never  enter.  They 
were  obliged  to  take  ofl'  the  paddle-boxes  of  the  Great  Western  to 
get  if  into  Cumberland  Basin,  and,  as  if  to  make  the  difficulty  greater 
the  new  iron  vessel  will  be  seven  feet  wider.  This  is  making  a  man 
too  large  for  his  house  with  a  vengeance,  and  we  very  little  cpiestion 
that  the  Great  Western  Directors  will,  in  time,  in  their  zeal  for  the 
interests  of  Bristol,  make  their  vessels  so  large  that  they  will  not  be 
able  to  get  up  to  the  city  at  aU.  The  experience  and  observation  of 
the  Directors  and  officials  is  very  much  praised,  but  if  we  are  to  judge 
by  one  example,  we  fear  a  little  too  much.  They  coolly  state  that  a 
modification  of  the  Cireat  Western's  paddle-wheels  has  been  made, 
founded  upon  the  results  of  accurate  observations  during  her  voyages, 
which  modification,  if  we  are  informed  rightly,  so  far  from  being  an 
improvement,  has  had  the  effectual  result  of  reducing  the  speed  of 
the  vessel.  The  sang-froid  with  wdiich  they  mention  the  superiority 
of  themselves  and  their  yard  is  admirable;  it  shows  a  becoming 
obliviousness  of  the  Maudslays,  Millers,  Boltons,  Acramans,  Seawards, 
Fawcetts,  Napiers,  &c. ;  their  confidence  in  the  estimates  and  opinions 
of  the  most  eminent  manufacturers  is  rich,  the  persons  answering  to 
this  descrijition  are,  the  patrons. of  the  Trunk  Engines,  Messrs.  Halls, 
of  Dartford,  and  a  most  eminent  and  practical  man,  in  whom  they 
put  their  trust,  is  Mr.  John  .Scott  Russell.  Well  may  the  direc- 
tors talk  about  its  being  for  the  interest  of  the  i<hareholders  that  their 
Singular  appliances  should  be  directed  to  mannfacture  and  repair  for 
o/Z'e/-/aj-te.s',  if  they  believe  that  anyone  can  feel  any  confidence  in 
their  ignorance  and  quackery.  We  leave  this  subject  with  an  earnest 
entreaty  of  the  shareholders  concerned  to  look  about  them,  and  get 
their  affairs  out  of.  the  hands  by  which  they  are  at  present  mismanaged, 
or  the  end  of  tlie  experiments  vpill  be  the" total  ruin  of  their  property. 


BAKEWELL'S  PATENT  BRICK  MACHINE. 


STEAM-Pr.ouGii.— A  trial  was  lately  made  in  one  of  the  fields  on  tlie  estate 
of  Fossil,  near  Glasgow,  of  the  steam-ijlough,  intended  for  tlic  cultivation  of 
the  sugar  lands  of  British  Guiana.  This  trial  was  completely  successful,  and 
gave  great  satisfaction  to  the  luimerous  party  who  witnessed  it.  The  field 
was  laid  ont  similar  to  those  in  the  colony,  which  have  canals  on  each  side 
running  parallel  with  one  another.  The  machinery  consists  of  two  iron  boats, 
one  containing  a  small  liigh-pressnre  steam-engine,  with  adrnni,  ronmi  which 
the  endless  diain  or  rope  is  coiled,  and  the  otbera  reversing  pulley,  liy  means 
of  wliicli  the  chain  or  rope  is  extended,  and  allowed  to  worli  whidicvcr  way 
is  rcfpiiri'il;  the  plonglis  are  attached  to  this  chain,  and  made  to  work  hack- 
wards  and  forwards  witli  great  rapidity  and  accuracy.  Mr.  MacUac,  whose 
long  residence  in  the  colony,  and  great  practical  experience  of  the  working 
of  sugar  estates,  had  directed  his  attention,  for  a  consideralilc  time  past,  to 
tlie  great  and  absolute  necessity  of  employing  some  otlier  pov  cr  to  supersede 
cultivation  hy  manual  laliour,  invented  the  steam-plough,  wliicli  was  executed 
by  those  enterprising  engineers  Messrs,  Thomas  Edington  and  Sons,  Plio-nix 
Iron-works,  whose  great  ingenuity  iii  constructing  and  ilesigning  the  various 
parts  was  very  much  admired. — Olasgow  Courier. 


This  machine  is  strong,  of  simple  construction,  and  made  of 
cast  iron.  The  mould  for  receiving  the  brick  is  fixed  at  the  top,  the 
inside  being  accurately  ground,  and  the  bottom  made  to  slide  freely  up 
and  down,  when  opeiated  upon  by  the  screw  and  lever  underneath; 
the  top  is  made  with  a  counterbalancing  weight  by  which  it  is  easily 
opened  on  withdrawing  the  catch  that  secured  it.  A  winch  is  likewise 
connected  with  the  underside  of  the  mould  to  raise  the  brick  after  it 
has  been  pressed. 

The  jn'ocess  for  pressing  the  bricks  is  as  follows : — The  bricks  when 
half  dried  are  placed  in  the  mould,  the  lid  closed  and  secured,  the 
bottom  is  then  forced  up  with  a  pressure  of  from  4  or  5  tons,  by  means 
of  the  screw  acted  upon  by  the  horizontal  lever.  The  brick  is  then 
raised  out  of  the  mould  by  simply  forcing  back  the  winch  and  removed 
by  a  boy  ;  the  bottom  is  then  lowered  by  its  own  gravity,  and  is  ready 
for  another  operation:  by  the  aid  of  this  press,  between  two  and  three 
thousand  bricks  may  be  pressed  in  a  day  with  the  labour  of  one  man 
and  two  boys. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  machine  does  not  profess  to  make  the  bricks, 
but  is  intended  to  improve  them  when  made;  this  it  accomplishes  in  a 
superior  degree;  the  bricks  when  turned  out  of  the  mould  have  the 
sides  smooth,  and  the  arrises  perfect  and  parallel,  and  when  burnt,  they 
retain  their  form,  and  are  of  great  hardness;  they  are  consequently,  well 
adapted  for  facings  of  buildings  and  paving,  as  the  joints  can  be  laid 
quite  close  and  regular,  the  bricks  being  all  of  an  exact  size  :  they  are 
equally  desirable,  on  account  of  their  extreme  hardness  and  near  im- 
permeability to  water,  for  engineering  works;  particularly  for  arches 
and  abutments,  viaducts  and  bridges,  foundations,  retaining  and  dock 
walls,  and  other  works  requiring  great  resistance.  The  press  may  also 
be  used  for  quarries  or  fancy  bricks,  which  can  be  pressed  to  almost  any 
form  by  merely  changing  the  mould.  This  press  has  been  in  use  for  many 
years,  more  particularly  in  the  midland  counties  where  several  public 
buildings  have  been  faced  with  these  bricks,  which  gives  them  a  very 
superior  character,  far  surpassing  the  bricks  commonly  applied  to  that 
purpose;  and  although  the  machine  has  been  used  very  extensive  by 
Mr.  Rhodes,  it  is  not  much  known  in  London.  The  front  of  Bielefield's 
extensive  Papier  Machc  Works,  in  Wellington-street,  are  faced  with 
bricks  of  this  description.  We  understand  that  several  parties  are  now 
in  treaty  for  licenses,  and  that  the  introduction  will  shortly  become 
very  general.  The  extra  cost  of  the  bricks  will  be  from  live  to  seven 
shillings  per  thousand; — a  sum  comparatively  small,  for  the  superior 
quality  of  the  brick,  which  cannot  add  very  greatly  to  the  cost  of  the 
building  when  used  for  facings  only.  The  miserable  looking  brick 
buildings  at  the  several  railway  stations,  would  have  been  much  bene- 
fited by  them,  as  they  now  exhibit  generally  a  very  mean  and  stable 
like  ap|.earance,  which  a  clean  well  coloured  facing  brick,  at  but  small 
cost,  would  have  been  easily  prevented.  We  with  pleasure  recom- 
mend the  attention  of  the  profession  to  this  important  patent ,  which 
can  be  viewed  at  the  proprietor's  office,  Adelphi  Chambers. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


101 


ON  TRUSSED  BEAMS. 

Invuikd  bij  HeuJ!  Laves  of  Haiwvir,  nad  befure  ilw  Riii/id  tnslilulc  uf 
Briliah  ./irchitecls,  on  Monday,  March  20, 1640,  by  T.  L.  Donaldson', 
Esq.,  Fellow. 

Mr.  Laves  took  a  beam  of  fir  40  ft.  long  and  91  in.  deep,  and  7a  in. 
wide,  and  supported  at  the  ends.  He  gradually  loaded  it  with 
100  tbs.  at  a  time,  and  found  that  when  it  had  1700tbs.it  deflected 
r>i  in.  He  took  a  beam  of  the  same  dimensions  and  cut  a  horizontal  slit 
to  within  3-G  from  each  end,  making  the  upper  portion  5  inches  deeper 
anil  the  latter  4i  ;  he  put  iron  straps  at  the  ends,  bound  tightly  round 
to  prevent  tlie  slit  from  extending — he  then  forced  the  upper  and 
lower  part  of  the  beam  asunder  by  driving  in  blocks  or  wedges,  until 
they  were  as  wide  apart  as  half  the  depth  of  the  beam  -he  supported 
tlie  beam  at  the  ends  and  found  that  when  he  hud  gradually  loaded  it 
with  ] 00  tbs.  weight  as  before,  until  it  bore  1700  lbs.  it  only  deflected 
o^  in.,  being  1?.  less  than  the  solid  beam.  He  then  separated  the  slit 
apart  Oi  incbei  or  equal  to  the  whole  depth  of  the  beam,  and  gradually 
loaded  it  until  it  bore  17U0  tbs.,  wdien  it  deflected  ili  or  3  inches  less  than 
the  solid  beam,  and  li  less  than  the  former.  He  then  widened  the 
opening  of  the  slit  13|,  or  equal  to  a  depth  of  li  of  the  solid  beam, 
and  loaded  it  in  hke  manner  with  1700  lbs.,  it  deflected  only  1^  inches, 
being  4  inches  less  deflection  than  the  solid  beam.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

Figs.  1,  2,  and  3. 


He  then  took  pieces  of  fir  50  in.  long,  2  in.  deep,  and  1  in.  wide> 
one  was  left  solid,  two  others  were  slit  so  as  to  make  the  upper  part 
\\  inches  deep,  and  the  under  |  in.,  one  piece  having  the  slit  half 
the  depth  of  the  beam  apart,  the  other  J  of  the  depth  apart.  See 
fig.  2. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  principle  of  this  system  consists  in  the 
combination  of  the  two  chief  forces  of  materials,  that  is  resistance  to 
compression,  and  resistance  to  tension. 

Resistance  to  compression  is  the  one  employed  from  the  remotest 
periods  in  the  construction  of  arches  and  vaulting,  and  requires  great 
masses  of  materials  ;  and  resistance  to  tension  lias  more  lately  been 
employed,  at  least  in  Europe,  for  the  construction  of  suspension  bridges 
by  the  application  of  chains,  and  requires  less  materials  than  the  other 
principle  of  compression,  but  frequently  the  insertion  and  use  of  chains 
is  obtained  with  difficulty,  and  produces  vibrations  and  sensibly  felt 
undulations. 

These  inconveniences  have  led  to  the  application  of  this  system. 
It  will  be  perceived  that  the  under  line  or  chain  attached  at  the  two 
extremities  of  the  upper  curved  line  acts  with  positive  force  that  of 
tension,  which  is  the  greatest  possible  force  of  materials  varying  from 
10  to  20,000  lbs.  on  the  square  inch  of  the  transverse  section  in  various 
woods  used  in  construction,  and  from  20  to  100,000  lbs.  in  metals. 

The  upper  line  or  beam  acts  by  relative  force  that  of  compression, 
and  serves  to  prevent  the  lower  line  or  chain  from  contracting  the 
two  extremities. 

The  lower  line  or  chain  hinders  the  upper  line  or  beam  from  press- 
ing out  at  the  extremities. 

The  supports  and  braces  serve  to  unite  the  upper  and  lower  lines  or 
beam  and  chain  together,  and  then  two  forces  neutralized  form  a  com- 
plete w  hole,  which  sustains  itself,  and  can  neither  thrust  out  nor  draw 
in. 

It  is  to  be  observed — 1st.  That  the  force  of  the  chain  is  dependent 
upon  the  depth  of  the  versed  sine,  and  that  the  lower  it  is  beneath  the 
horizontal  line  or  chord  of  the  arc  the  stronger  it  will  bp.  Arches  of 
solid  construction  require  a  rise  of  20  or  15  ft.  for  the  springing  of  the 
arch  to  the  soffit  of  the  key  stone,  in  a  span  of  100  ft;  but  the 
chains  in  this  system,  if  they  have  a  rise   or  versed  sine  equal  to  4  ft. 

2  in.  in  a  span  of  100  feet,  the  force  of  the  chain  reduces  itself  to  one- 
third  of  the  absolute  product — if  the  rise  or  versed  sine  equal  (i  ft. 

3  in.  in  the  same  span  of  100  ft.,  the  absolute  force  could  be  reduced 
a  half. 


Observe  2dly.  That  the  upper  line  or  beam,  on  account  of  the  elasti 
city  (if  llie  materials,  ought  absolutely  to  have  the  convex  form  ae  i 
the  diagrams,  in  order  that  when  considerably  loaded,  the  lengthenin 
of  the  under  line  or  chain  by  tension,  and  the  shortening  of  the  uppe 
line  or  beam  by  compression,  may  not  reduce  the  upper  curved  line  to 
an  horizontal  one,  beneath  which  it  would  no  longer  serve  by  resistance 
to  the  statical  equilibrium  of  the  construction. 

We  observe,  3rdly,  That  the  method  of  tying  together  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  curved  lines  will  depend  on  the  materials  employed,  and 
must  be  calculated  according  to  the  weights  that  they  will  have  to 
bear. 

Such  are  the  general  principles  of  this  system  when  applied  in  a 
horizontal  direction. 

We  will  now  consider  its  application  in  a  vertical  or  upright  direc- 
tion, and  when  used  obliquely. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  resistance  of  a  story  post  or  stay,  wliether  in 
wood  or  metal,  increases  in  a  fixed  proportion  according  to  its  thick- 
ness. 

For  tvood — the  pieces  of  wood  are  sawn  as  before  described  with 
one  cut,  or  two  cross  cuts  to  within  a  certain  length  of  the  ends,  and 
these  tied  together  by  bolts  or  straps  of  iron.  The  cuts  are  then  forced 
apart  by  wedged  blocks  and  kept  in  their  places  by  bolts  or  straps  of 
iron. 

For  iron — by  connecting  together  at  the  ends,  two  or  more  bars  of 
iron,  and  separating  the  bars  by  wedges  or  pieces  of  iron,  or  iron 
rings. 

The  proportions  and  number  of  the  dift'erent  parts  as  chains,  stays, 
posts,  &c.,  depend  upon  the  purposes  to  which  they  may  be  applied, 
and  must  of  course  be  calculated  accordingly  by  the  architect. 

The  most  simple  practical  application  of  this  systeui  is  for  the  pur- 
pose of  wooden  bridges,  and  the  upper  line  or  beam  may  be  materially 
strengthened,  and  the  combination  stiftened  by  the  introduction  of 
stays  and  braces. 

If  the  span  of  the  bridge  exceed  the  length  of  one  beam,  two  may 
be  taken,  sawn  at  one  end  only,  and  connected  by  two  scarfing  pieces, 
into  which  they  must  be  fitted  with  notches,  and  bolted  or  strapped 
together  so  as  to  prevent  their  separating. — See  fig.  3. 

In  those  parts  where  the  ends  of  timbers  abut  upon  any  joints  or 
other  timbers,  it  will  be  expedient  to  interpose  thin  plates  of  copper 
or  iron,  in  order  to  prevent  the  but  ends  from  driving  by  the  force  of 
compression  into  the  beams,  which  would  cause  a  sinking. 

For  occasional  purposes  or  military  operations  it  may  be  useful  to 
adopt  the  same  system  applied  to  rough  trees,  which  would  even  be 
picturesque  and  useful  in  parks  and  gardens — and  by  connecting  the 
forked  branches  of  two  trees,  to  produce  a  combination  which  would 
answer  every  purpose. 

For  all  the  bridges  hitherto  described,  it  will  be  sulficient  that  the 
versed  sine  of  the  lower  arc  or  chain  equal  -yws  o'"  i-t  of  I'ls  span.  Thi's 
is  very  moderate,  for  a  beam  requires  -^±77  or  ^  of  the  span,  and  bridges 
or  arches  of  masonry  or  solid  construction,  a  rise  of  -^^  of  the  span. 

If  the  banks  of  a  stream  be  too  wide  apart  to  admit  the  adoption  of 
this  system  in  one  span,  it  will  be  necessary  to  have  intermediate  piers 
or  columns,  and  to  form  a  succession  of  framings  tied  together  with 
iron  straps,  or  constructed  in  cast  iron. 

If  the  bank  of  a  river  be  too  little  elevated  above  high  water  mark, 
or  if  it  were  requisite  to  give  greater  height  in  the  middle  of  a  series 
of  arches,  in  order  to  admit  the  ])assage  of  vessels,  the  lateral  framings 
admit  of  a  gradual  fall  to  the  banks  without  affecting  the  stability  of  the 
framing. 

Various  bridges  upon  Mr.  Laves  principle  have  been  constructed. 

1.  One  in  oak  at  Hanover  for  foot  passengers — the  span  100  feet, 
width  12  feet— cost  about  112/. 

2.  One  in  oak  over  the  Nette  river  at  Dernebourg,  near  Hildesheim — 
span  G<.)  feet,  breadth  15  feet,  it  being  for  carriages — cost  about  70/. 

3.  One  in  oak  for  foot  passengers,  and  a  water  pipe  at  Dernebourg, 
near  Hildesheim — span  30  feet,  breadth  10  feet — cost  26/. 

4.  One  in  fir  for  foot  passengers  over  the  Eger  at  Elnbogen,  in  Bo- 
hemia— length  36  feet,  width  5  feet — cost  50s. 

5.  One  in  fir  for  carriages  over  the  Eger  at  Altsaltel,  in  Bohemia, 
in  two  lengths,  supported  in  the  middle  or  junction  of  the  two— total 
length  125  feet,  width  15  feet— cost  about  100/. 

ti.  One  for  carriages  in  wrought  and  cast  iron,  in  the  Royal  Park  of 
Herrenhauson,  near  Hanover — length  83  feet  width  20  feet — cost  about 
550/.,  comprising  the  wood  paving  for  the  carriage  way. 

Besides  others  at  Salzau,  near  Kiel,  in  the  Royal  Park  at  Hanover, 
and  one  for  the  Count  Munster  at  Dernebourg,  near  Hildesheim,  vary- 
ing from  22  to  42  feet  span,  and  constructed  in  iron  at  a  very  moderate 
cost,  all  of  which  are  described  in  Mr.  Laves'  pamphlet. 

Figure  4  explains  the  construction  of  an  iron  bridge  over  a 
river,  the  upper  line  consists  of  hollow  cast  iron  cylinders  united  by 


]C,-2 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Mat, 


bands  of  wroiiglit  iron.  The  ciiuin  is  of  wroiiglit  iron,  ami  (lie  rings 
may  \ic  made  eitlier  of  wrought  or  cast  iron.  Tlie  hollow  cylinders 
are  for  the  jjurjiose  of  producing  ligtitness  in  the  upper  line,  which  is 
essential. 

FiK.  4. 


The  application  of  this  system  to  roofs  and  floors  is  extremely  eco- 
noniiral  and  iispfnl,  and  liy  simple  inodiliraliuns  serves  for  the  covering 
of  large  spuves  uithoiif  any  inlernipdiate  point,  of  support,  and  pre- 
sents this  fnrther  advantage,  thai  from  its  vertical  pressure  it  requires 
no  other  support  than  walls  of  moderate  thickness. 

When  applied  to  floors,  bridging  joists  will  remedy  the  inerpiality  of 
surface  in  the  beam  itself. 

In  roofs  of  large  span  the  posts  may  be  continued  up  so  as  to  receive 
the  purlins,  and  when  continued  downwards  serve  to  hold  up  the  ceiling, 
whether  Hat,  or  vaulted,  or  mixed. 

The  principal  rafters  of  a  roof  may  derive  considerable  strength 
from  being  treated  in  the  same  way  as  in  fig.  '2,  which  combination  is 
calculated  for  roofs  of  50  feet  span  ;  by  this  arrangement  of  the  prin- 
cipal rafters  at  distances  of  lU  feet  apart,  no  intermediate  stays  or 
posts  are  necessary  to  support  the  purlins,  so  that  a  fine  clear  span 
space  is  left  in  the  roof.  Here  the  tie  beam  is  slit  according  to  Mr. 
l.aves'  system,  and  acquires  snflicient  strength  to  support  itself  without 
being  tied  up  to  a  truss. 

Mr.  Laves  has  applied  this  principle  to  various  roofs. 

<")ne  in  iron  over  the  kitchen  in  the  Royal  Park  at  Hanover  ;  one  in 
carpentry  of  .'>(!  feet  span,  over  a  barn  belonging  to  tlie  Baron  of  Wan- 
genhcim,  at  Wangenheim,  uearGotba;  and  likewise  one  at  Hersuni, 
near  Hildesheim,  and  over  the  scenery  magazine  o^'  the  theatre  at 
ilanover. 

'J'he  painting  room  of  the  scenery  in  the  theatre  at  Hanover  has  the 
slope  of  the  roof  formed  by  rafters,  slit  down  the  middle  and  kept  apart 
. — the  span  3b  feet  in  the  clear,  and  length  74  feet. 

Anollier  application  of  this  system  is  to  large  ladders,  which  when 
very  long,  whether  used  for  fires,  to  scale  batteries  of  beseiged  towns, 
or  to  board  ships,  had  the  inconvenience  of  being  cumbersome,  difficult 
of  conveyance  from  one  part  to  another,  so  that  they  I'ould  be  managed 
only  by  numerous  assistants;  hence  they  were  comparatively  little 
serviceable  for  the  end  proposed,  and  frequently  not  able  to  bo  brought 
in  tiuic  suflii'ient  to  render  the  assistance  required. 

In  the  case  of  ladders  each  of  the  sides  of  tlie  ladder  is  sawn  in  two 
to  within  a  certain  distance  from  the  ends,  which  are  bound  together 
liy  iron  l)olts  or  straps.  The  intermediate  stays,  used  to  keep  open 
the  cut,  also  serve  to  combine  the  forces  of  the  two  jiarls,  and  being 
continued  are  useful  to  receive  a  side  cord,  as  an  addilioiral  security  to 
a  person  ascending  or  descending.  A  ladder  so  constructed  may  be 
jilaced  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  is  sufficiently  stiff' to  act  as  a  tem- 
porary bridge  or  scaffolding,  from  the  window  of  one  house  to  tliat  of 
another  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  or  from  one  vessel  to 
another. 

If  the  chain  be  formed  of  iron  wire,  it  would  answer  the  purpose 
ecpially  well,  and  be  tighter. 

If  it  be  desirable  to  place  the  ladder  in  a  slightly  inclined  direction, 
without  any  iunnediate  object  to  rest  against,  two  props  or  supports 
should  be  placed  against  the  u|)j)ermost  rail  or  round,  which,  to  .ivoid 
osciliation  or  beniUng,  should  also  be  composed  of  slight  pieces  of 
timber,  sawn  down  the  centre,  kept  apart  by  small  intermediate  blocks, 
and  bound  at  tlie  ends  as  already  described. 


Mr.  Moore's  pati;nt  Pr.AN  for  FErniNc,  FrRN.'CKs,  J^c.  Fmus,  Foa 
THK  Consumption  of  Smokk. — Mr.  Moore  proposes  to  have  the  gr:i1c-liars 
hollow  sciiii-oylinilers,  with  the  concavities  upwards.  The  fuel  is  put  into  a 
similar  scmi-cylindcr  scoop  cap:il)le  of  sliding  within  eitltcr  of  the  gralc-bars, 
and  being  llii'iist  in  from  end  to  end,  is  turned  half  round,  and  then  with- 
drawn, leaving  the  fuel  in  the  same  cylinder  bars,  whicli  is  ignited  from  the 
burning  coals  aliove.  Tlie  patentee  says  he  has  never  found  ain'  ditficiilty  in 
the  scoop's  forcing  out  tliebnnit  fuel  already  in  the  gralchars,  and  that  the 
fire,  tiy  this  contrivance,  never  wants  any  more  stirring  tliaii  is  given  by  the 
introduction  of  the  new  fuel.  Of  course,  tlie  smoke  is  ignited  and  consumed 
by  passing  up  through  the  red-hot  coals  above. — Ra'duay  iluguzine. 


STEAM  NAVIGATION. 

Tiiii  bold  front  shown  by  the  Engineers  and  Steam  .Ship  Builders, 
lias  shaken  Mr.  Labouchere's  confidence  in  the  propriety  of  tlie  mea- 
sure of  which  he  is  the  official  custodian,  and,  like  a  prim  old  maiden 
distrustful  of  the  legitimacy  of  the  little  darling  which  she  had  been 
parading  with  so  much  delight,  is  prepared  to  modify  bis  trust.  He 
expiesses  his  hope  that  the  measure,  as  modified,  will  contain  nothing 
distasteful  to  the  engineers,  and  appears  extremely  anxious  not  to  go 
at  once  into  a  discussion  on  the  grievance.  \V'e  hope  that  the  engi- 
neers will  think  as  we  do,  that  this  is  not  a  question  to  lie  compro- 
mised, nor  is  it  prudent  to  allow  such  a  threatening  attack  to  pass 
without  notice,  for  the  animus  is  too  evident  not  to  render  the  intro- 
duction of  the  bill  certain,  whenever  its  concocters  can  watch  a  fitting 
opportunity;  we  therefore  warn  all  concerned  to  be  prepared  at  a 
moment's  notii^e  to  ojipose  this  obnoxious  measure. 

We  have  felt  ourselves  strengthened  in  the  course  we  have  adopted, 
in  the  consideration  of  this  momentous  questimi,  by  an  able  memorial 
which  was  addressed  to  Congress  in  February  last,  by  the  proprie- 
tors and  managers  of  steam-boats  in  the  United  States,  who,  so  far 
from  concurring  in  the  wisdom,  even  of  the  modified  code  brought  for- 
ward as  an  example  by  our  roinmissioners,  boldly  declare  its  injustice 
and  inefficiency.  Fearless  of  al.  the  exaggerated  horrors  of  news- 
pa]ier  paragraphs,  and  of  the  facts  and  pseudo  ficts  raked  up  by 
government  authorities,  they  claim  at  once  for  steam  navigation  "a 
degree  of  security  in  the  transportation  of  persons  and  property, 
which  has  not  been  equalled  by  any  other  known  means  of  transport 
or  navigation."  They  assert,  also,  that  the  present  degree  of  security 
is  due  to  no  interference  of  government  with  mechanical  arrangements 
or  prudential  management,  or  to  the  enforcement  of  novel  and  sesere 
principles  of  legislation,  but  to  the  inventive  and  discriminative  pow- 
ers, prudent  foresight,  and  persevering  spirit,  of  those  engaged  in  that 
important  branch  of  public  enterprise.  The  memorialists  go  on  further 
to  urge, 

'•  'I'liat  certain  enactments  of  peculiar  novelty  and  severity,  found  in  tlie 
act  of  Congi-ess  of  July,  183H,are  calculated  to  hear  harshly  and  oppressively 
upon  the  owners  of  steam  vessels,  and  thus  to  alfect  injuriously,  this  important 
branch  of  our  navigation.  Tliese  enactments,  instead  of  furuisliing  encour- 
agement for  a  just  and  generous  rivalry,  in  bringing  steam  vessels  and  their 
machinery  to  the  highest  possible  state  of  security  and  perfection,  have,  nn- 
fortunateiy,  in  the  view  of  your  menioriahsts,  a  direct  tendency  to  deter  men 
of  prudence,  capacity  and  property,  from  further  connexion  with  this  husi- 
ness ;  who  are  unwilling  to  submit  to  implied  reproacli  and  degradation,  to 
unwarranted  hazards,  and  to  the  loss  of  rights  aud  privileges  which  are 
guarantied  to  all  other  persons  engaged  in  a  lawful  calling.  Your  memo- 
rialists  refer  more  especially,  to  the  clause  which  deprives  them  of  the  uni- 
versal legal  protection  common  to  every  civilized  country,  liy  unjustly  con- 
struing, in  the  event  of  iiiyscriotis  disaster  to  life  and  property,  the  presump- 
tion of  innocence  into  /irhna  facie  evidence  of  guilt:  and  they  respectfully 
re<piest  of  your  lionourahlc  body,  that  a  provision  which  is  so  much  at  variance 
with  their  fundamental  rights  and  privileges  as  American  citizens,  may  he  re- 
pealed. 

"  It  is  with  painful  regret  that  your  memorialists  have  noticed  an  attempt  to 
procure  a  broader  and  more  iniscliievo\is  ajiplication  of  this  unjust  principle, 
by  means  of  proposed  additions  to  this  law;  and  they  respectfully  ask  of 
Congress  to  be  protected  from  such  ))roposed  aggravations  of  the  already  se- 
vere and  relentless  doctrines  of  the  couimon  law  as  it  now  governs  the  respon- 
sibilities of  common  carriers;  and  which,  if  enacted,  must  tend  to  destroy 
every  just  inducement  for  longer  continuance  in  a  business  which  is  subjected 
to  siicli  unprecedented  liabilities  to  loss  and  ruin.  These  extraordinary  hasards 
and  liabilities,  it  should  lie  noticed,  will  not  pertain  to  om-  competitors  under 
a  foreign  flag ;  »nd  our  citizens  may  thus  be  virtually  excluded  from  navi- 
gating the  ocean  bv  steam.  Your  memorialists  would  furl lier  remark,  that  if 
with  the  best  knowledge  possessed  by  this  or  any  other  country,  this  species 
of  navigation  he  deemed  too  hazanious  for  the  public  safety,  the\  deem  it 
mure  just  and  lionomablc  to  submit  to  its  entire  prohibition. 

"Your  memorialists  believe  that  few  opinions  are  more  erroneous  than  that 
which  ascribes  to  the  provisions  of  the  existing  law  a  generally  increased 
safety  for  persons  and  property  carried  in  steam  boats.  This  may  appear 
from"  the  inanv  accidents  or  disasters  of  a  serious  character  which  have  t,al;en 
lilace  during  the  short  period  in  which  this  haw  has  been  in  fore*.  The  num- 
ber of  these  accidents  on  the  western  waters  during  tlie  last  yl-ar  is  stated  to 
liavc  been  fortv ;  which  may  serve  to  convince  Congress  that  the  appropriate 
remedies  for  these  disasters  are  not  fnrnishcd  by  this  law ;  and  can  be  found 
only  in  the  increasing  practical  knowledge  and  skill  of  those  persons  who  are 
engaged  in  the  construction  and  management  of  steam  vessels. 

"  Your  memorialists  do  not  seek  to  escape  from  any  just  responsibiUties  in 
conducting  this  important  business.  On  the  coiitran',  they  feel  bound  to 
furnish  every  reasonable  gnarantv  for  safety  to  life  and  property  w  hich  liuman 
foresight  aiid  prudence  may  be  'able  to  atford :  aud  it  is  for  the  purpose  of 
furnishing  these  guaranties 'in  the  most  direct  and  practical  manner,  that  they 
further  respectfully  but  earnestly  request,  that  Congresi  will  e«U  to  the  aid 


isjo.j 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


163 


of  iU  committees,  to  whose  protection  tliis  important  lunncli  of  navigation 
Ijas  been  intrnsteil,  tl\e  infornialion  iuid  experience  of  some  of  tlic  individuals 
whose  lives  liave  been  devoted  to  its  improvement  and  practice  from  its  earliest 
origin  in  this  country  : — in  order  that  practical  knowledge  may  form  the  basis 
of  legislalicMi  upon  a  subject  wliich  affects  more  or  loss  directly  the  interests 
and  business  of,  probably,  a  great  majority  of  the  American  jieople." 

The  nienioriulists  liere  declare,  unequivocally,  tluit  such  restrictions, 
instead  of  producing  improvement,  must  retard  the  progress  of  science, 
and  clipck  the  employment  of  capital,  without,  at  the  same  time,  en- 
suring the  objects,  wtiicli  they  are  intended  to  eftect.  To  show  how 
little  desirous  they  are  of  concealing  facts,  and  how  little  daunted  by 
the  exaggerations  of  their  opponents,  the  memorialists  append  to 
their  pamphlet  Messrs.  Pringle's  and  Parke's  concoction  of  one  hun- 
ilrod  accidents,  which  Irave  occurred  to  English  steam-vessels,  leaving 
the  ungullible  portion  <d'the  public  to  form  their  own  comments  on  the 
case.  These  commissioners  remind  us  of  the  quack  who  attempted 
to  frighten  the  old  lady  out  of  her  tea,  by  assuring  her  that  it  contained 
a  millionth  ])art  of  prussic  acid,  and  that  it  would  certainly  carry  her 
olV.  "  A  verv  slow  poison,"  said  she,  "for  it  has  been  eighty  years 
iib(nit  it  already."  Facts  sliow  that  the  loss  of  life  by  English  steam- 
ers, in  the  very  worst  year,  4838,  was  not  one  twentieth  of  the  num- 
ber annually  lost  in  sailing  vessels,  and  the  amount  of  property  not 
one  fiftieth!  On  the  coasts  of  the  United  Slates  last  year,  above  40U 
sailing  vessels  were  lost,  and  lUUO  lives.  On  the  New  York  waters 
the  contrast  is  as  strong. 

"  Those  who  have  laboured  to  inllanie  the  public  against  these  unfortunate 
men  may  well  be  reminded,  that  it  is  now  thirty  years  since  the  juiblic  have 
enjoyed  the  use  of  passenger  vessels  impelled  by  fire  and  steam,  and  that  dur- 
ing this  period  not  less  than  thirty  mUlinns  nf  ijcrwns  have  lieen  Iranspoited 
from  time  to  time,  in  the  various  steam  boats  wlncb  have  run  to  and  from 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  that  these  steam  boats  liave  probably  navigated  a 
distance  equal  iojiflceii  millions  nftiiilcs,  and  tliat  in  all  this  prolonged  and 
vai'ied  e.\])osurc.  ncrr,-,  Imi  once,  lias  a  sijir/lc  life  been  lo^t  tiy  fhebuniinyofa 
steam  boat.  This  fact  alone,  to  the  unprejudiced,  s))eaks  volumes  in  favour 
of  the  general  care  an<l  skill  of  the  parties,  who  have  been  concerned  in  this 
species  of  navigation." 

To  expose  the  absurdity  of  the  protection  law,  and  to  give  a  fair 
idea  of  what  it  may  be  expected  to  produce  here,  we  give  the  follow- 
ing table  of  known  accidents  and  disasters  to  American  steam-boats 
since  the  law  of  1838,  w  liich  was  to  liave  been  such  a  ))alkidium  to 
the  old  womeu. 


1838 

\ 

1 

Oct.  27tli 

Cyuflda, 

Detroit  River, 

Burnt ;    passengers    and    crewl 
saved  by  rumiing  on  shore.     ' 

Nov.  25 

tien.  Brown, 

Mississippi, 

Explosion,  thirty  lives  lost. 

1839 

■ 

January 

Clarendon, 

Sav.  &  Darieu, 

Burnt;    crew    and    passengers; 
saved. 

?» 

Ploughboy, 

Mobile, 

Sunk,  on  arriving  at  Mobile. 

M 

.Somervillc, 

Mississippi, 

Sunk. 

February 

Oswego, 

Ohio, 

Sunk,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Kentucky. 

»» 

Alert, 

Mississippi, 

Eruption  of  steam  ;  4  scalded. 

11 

Alice, 

Pearl  river, 

Sunk. 

March 

Reporter, 

Ohio, 

Eruption  of  steam ;  1  scalded. 

,) 

Xcw  York, 

New  Haven, 

Burnt. 

May 

Avalanche, 

Ohio, 

Eruption  or  collapse ;  5  killed. 

,, 

Rhine, 

Missouri, 

Exp  osion. 

tf 

Pilot, 

Mississippi, 

Explosion  or  collapse. 

n 

Pouehartrain, 

New  Orleans  for 
Tainpico, 

Explosion. 

" 

Geo.  Collier, 

Mississippi, 

Eruption   of  steam ;  forty-five 
killed  or  scalded. 

,, 

Erie, 

Hudson  river. 

Collapse,  1  slightly  wounded. 

,, 

Bee, 

Arkansas, 

Sunk. 

tt 

Indian, 

,, 

Sunk. 

Buckeye, 

Mississippi, 

Explosion;    several   killed  or 
wounded. 

June 

Empire, 

Oho, 

Sunk. 

„ 

Massillon, 

)i 

ColUsion  and  eruption  of  steam.! 

,j 

Tennessee, 

Cumberland 

Burnt   and   sunk ;    passengers 

liver. 

Saved. 

Nov. 

Wilmijigtou, 

Mississippi, 

Explosion ;  nineteen  killed  or 
wounded. 

1810 

Gallatin, 

Cumberland 
river, 

Collapse ;  three  scalded. 

1 

Lexington, 

Long  Isl.ind 
Sound, 

Burnt;  about  124  lives  lost. 

"  It  may  be  seen  that  the  most  numerous  and  fatal  of  the  accidents  by 
steam  haye  happened  soon  after  the  semi-annual  inspections  of  the  first  of 


April  and  October.  This  fact  will  not  appear  surprising  to  ]iractical  men ; 
who  fully  understand  tliat  the  care  and  skill  of  official  inspectors,  (■annot  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  the  uncontrolled  vigilance  and  practical  know- 
ledge ami  skill,  of  those  wlio  are  in  the  constant  care  and  superiulendcnce  of 
the  boats  and  engines ;  ami  to  whom  a  good  reputation,  the  desire  of  safety 
and  the  love  of  life,  afford  sti-ongcr  and  more  efficient  motives  to  correct  ac- 
tion, than  can  ever  be  fui-iiislicd  by  the  requirements  or  penalties  of  special 
enactments  of  the  legislative  power. 

"The  Cinciimati  Gazette  is  stated  to  have  published  a  Hst  of  steam  boat 
disasters  on  the  western  waters  during  the  last  year.  The  sum  total  of  losses 
is  40  ;  of  this  number,  32  were  an  entire  loss ;  snagged,  21 ;  struck  rocks,  or 
other  obstacles,  7  ;  burnt,  :> ;  burst  their  boUers,  4  ;  run  into  other  boats,  3 — 
40.  There  were  snagged  on  the  lower  Mississippi,  11 ;  on  the  Jlissouri,  I  ; 
on  the  Ohio,  4  ;  on  the  Ya/.oo,  1 ;  on  the  Red  River,  1.  It  is  remarkable 
that  a  majority  of  the  boats  were  snagged  on  their  downward  trijis.  Lives 
lost,  by  bursting  boilers,  39  ;  by  other  causes,  6.  Total,  45.  The  amount  of 
property  destroyed  in  boats  and  their  cargoes,  is  supposed  to  be  not  less  than 
a  miUion  of  dollars. 

"  On  events  like  these,  flic  provisions  of  statutory  law^  can  have  but  little 
influence  ;  except  as  they  may  operate  to  deter  the  men  of  means,  foresight 
and  mental  ability,  from  a  business  already  too  hazardous  fo  their  private  in- 
terests, and  which,  most  unwisely,  has  been  made  sidjject  to  the  proscriptive 
action  of  the  popular  press,  and  of  the  national  legislature." 

Another  extract  gives  a  more  powerful  lesson. 

"  That  the  safety  of  steam  boilers  from  explosions,  does  not  necessarily  de- 
pend upon  working  with  so  low  a  pressure  as  five  or  seven  pounds  to  the 
square  inch,  and  that  a  reasonable  increase  in  the  proportionate  strength  of 
the  boilers  in  steam  vessels  would  remove  all  immediate  hazard,  and  nearly 
end  the  catalogue  of  these  disasters,  is  rendered  apparent  by  the  facts  which 
relate  to  this  branch  of  navigation,  as  it  has  l)ecn  carried  on  in  various  direc- 
tions from  the  city  and  port  of  New  York.  Here,  wliere  steam  navigation 
was  first  successfully  established,  and  where  it  has  probably  attained  its  highest 
degree  of  efticicncy,  we  might  have  expected  that  accidents  ami  disasters 
would,  not  unfreipiciitly,  attend  flie  use  of  a  power  af  once  so  novel  and 
energetic.  The  accidents  and  fatalities  which  have  here  occurred,  as  well  as 
their  probalile  pro]iortion  fo  the  pressure  of  steam,  the  number  of  boats  em- 
ployed or  trips  made,  flie  nmnber  of  miles  navigated,  and  the  number  of  pas- 
sengers which  from  time  to  time  have  been  exposed,  arc  set  forth  in  a  table. 

"  The  fable,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  service  jjerformed  on  the  different 
routes  and  the  number  of  iicr.sons  cxjiosed,  is  made  up  approximately,  by 
esfimafes  founded  on  n\y  general  acquaintance  with  our  sfcaiu  navigation  ; 
but  is  bchcved  to  be  sufficiently  correct  for  general  purposes.  I  have  sepa- 
rated the  business  of  the  fifteen  years  which  it  comprises,  into  three  several 
periods  of  five  years  each,  commencing  with  1824;  early  in  which  year  the 
navigation,  in  this  state,  which  had  previously  lieen  controlled  by  the  asso- 
ciates of  Fulton  and  Livingston,  was  thrown  open  to  all  conipctifors. 

"  It  appears  from  the  average  results  of  the  table,  that  during  even  the  first 
period  of  five  years  after  the  navigatioa  was  throw  n  open  to  imblic  competi- 
tion, the  ratio  of  sfeam  accidents  was  only  equal  to  one,  for  more  than  20,000 
trips  or  passages  ;  anil  that  the  average  loss  of  life  was  only  equal  to  one,  for 
nioi'c  than  1 20,000  passengers  exposed.  Thus,  at  the  fair  outset  of  this  noble 
enterprise,  a  degree  of  safety  was  attained  for  the  passenger,  such  as  may  well 
challenge  comparison  with  any  artificial  means  of  transit  or  locomotion  that 
have  ever  been  resorted  to  by  the  human  I'ace. 

"It  appears  further,  on  comparing  the  results  for  these  several  periods, 
that  the  ratio  of  steam  accidents  for  the  first  and  tliiid  periods,  as  compared 
with  the  probable  nnmljcr  of  trips  made,  has  decreased  from  one  in  20,317, 
for  the  first  period,  to  one  in  317,105,  for  the  third  or  latest  period  ;  showing 
a  diminution  of  the  ratio  of  accidents  in  the  average  period  of  ten  years  equal 
to  about  84  per  cent.  The  ratio  of  lives  lost  from  these  accidents  during  tlie 
same  period,  has  also  decreased  from  one  in  126,211,  to  one  in  1,98.'), 787  ; 
equal  also  to  a  diminution  in  the  ratio  of  personal  hazai'd,  in  tliis  short  period, 
o/  84  per  cent. 

"  It  appears  also  from  the  table,  that  during  the  first  of  these  periods  the 
average  number  of  miles  navigated  by  all  om-  steam  boats,  to  each  explosion 
which  occurred,  was  c(|ual  to  235,G4() :  a  distance  equal  to  many  times  the 
circumference  of  our  globe,  and  about  equal  to  that  from  the  earth  to  the 
moon.  But  even  this  ratio  has  been  rendered  tenfold  more  favourable  in  the 
short  average  period  of  ten  years,  being  for  the  latest  five  years,  2,733,725 
miles  navigated  for  each  explosion ;  or  more  than  eleven  times  the  distance 
from  the  earth  to  the  moon  ;  and  reducing  the  ratio  of  hazards  in  proportion 
to  distance,  almost  90  per  cent. 

"  This  remarkable  diminution  of  accidents  and  hazard,  it  may  be  seen,  has 
taken  place  in  the  very  jieriod  in  which  the  average  working  pressure  of 
steam  has  been  more  than  doubled.  It  has  also  been  attained  solely  by  pro- 
fessional skill  and  experience,  and  witliout  any  aid  from  legislative  interfe- 
rence ;  for  the  law  of  Congress  on  tliis  subject  was  not  in  force  till  near  the 
close  of  the  year  1838.  Had  such  a  system  of  legislation  been  at  first  adopted, 
there  are  sound  reasons  for  concluding  tlmt  it  would  not  have  prevented  dis- 
asters, but  might  have  greatly  retarded  the  rapid  advance  in  safety,  as  well 
as  improvement,  which  has  been  so  happily  attained." 

It  is  thus  seen  that  with  an  increase  of  pressure  a  decrease  has 
taken  place  in  the  number  of  casualties,    In  the  first  period  the  esti' 


KM 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[M 


AY, 


milted  average  pressure  was  7  lbs. ;  in  the  second  period  14  lbs. ;  and 
in  the  last  period  IS  lbs. 

Wc  cannot  oonchiile  this  better  than  by  laying  before  our  readers 
the  elocjuent  \  indication  of  Western  steam  navigation,  which  was 
given  before  Congress  by  the  Hon.  Mr.  Rumsey,  of  Kentucky. 

"  Sir,  yoii  have  no  aritlimctic  of  powers  vast  enough,  hy  wliiili  to  estimate 
the  henctits  of  the  steam  boat  iii  a  pecuniary  point  of  view  alone,  its 
labours,  too,  have  tendeil,  in  no  small  dcgreo,  lo  //le  preseri-a/ion  of /inmnn 
life.  I  am  aware  that  the  truth  of  the  last  assertion  may  not  be  luiivcrsally 
admitted  ;  but  it  will  scarcely  be  questioned,  at  least  by  a  western  or  soutli- 
wcstern  man.  who  recollects  the  old  mode  of  conducting  our  commerce. 
Small  as  the  commerce  was  before  the  introduction  of  the  steam  boat,  it  drew 
ofl'  a  larger  jjortion  of  the  poi)ulation  than  is  now  necessary  to  transact  it, 
although  so  immensely  extended.  Even  then,  more  <lied  in  the  long,  and 
evposed,  and  laborious  voyages  in  keels  and  barges,  or  the  exhausting  return 
by  land,  under  a  vertical  sun,  than  now  perish  by  steam  boat  explosions.  But 
the)  (Iropi)cd  ort'  one  by  ouc  ;  they  sank  obscurely  into  the  grave  by  the  way- 
side ;  or,  after  re:iehing  their  homes,  fell  victims  to  disease  incui'red  by  a  so- 
journ and  travel  in  southern  climes.  The  consumption  of  life,  though  known 
to  be  great  in  the  aggregate,  happening  so  much  in  detad,  made  no  public 
impression.  But  now,  every  steam  boat  itecident  creates  a  sensation,  and  is 
proclaimed  in  the  universal  press  of  the  country.  If  the  mighty  commerce 
now  in  progress  on  the  western  waters,  bad  to  be  conducted  in  the  old  way, 
it  would  require  the  agency  of  so  many  individuals,  that  it  would  not  belong 
before  the  sides  of  the  public  roads  from  New  Orleans  to  the  Upper  States, 
and  the  banks  of  the  great  river  which  pours  into  the  gulf  the  congregated 
waters  of  nearly  half  a  continent,  would  be  almost  continued  grave-yards." 


NOTES  OF  THE  MONTH. 

This  month  has  been  more  feitile  in  deaths  than  in  any  thing  else.  In 
this  number  is  Thomas  Drumniond,  Lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Engineers,  F.R.S., 
Under  Secretary  of  State  for  Ireland,  Ike.  His  labours  in  the  Ordnance  Sur- 
vey of  Ireland,  and  his  discovery  of  the  hydro-oxygen  light,  which  bears 
his  name,  are  well  known  to  the  public.  As  an  Irish  Railway  Comndssioner 
it  was  our  lot  to  oppose  him,  but  we  are  free  to  confess  that  it  was  to  Urum- 
niond  that  the  rejiort  was  indebted  for  its  most  valuable  portions.  He  died 
on  the  18th  ult.,  at  Dublin,  and  was  honoured  with  a  public  funeral,  which 
he  highly  merited. 

I'itts,  the  sculptor,  unfortunately  conuuitled  suicide  on  the  16tb  nit.,  in  bis 
oOtb  year.  He  was  an  artist  of  high  merit,  who  it  is  to  be  hoped  will  receive 
that  honour  now  which  he  pined  for  in  his  lifetime.  Among  his  works  are 
the  Shield  of  Eneas,  from  Virgil,  and  that  of  Hercules,  from  Ilesiod,  com- 
positions and  designs  from  Virgil  and  Ossian,  intended  to  be  published  in  the 
same  form  as  Flaxman's  from  Homer,  the  Nuptials  of  Perithous,  the  Ajjo- 
theosis  of  the  EngUsb  poets,  and  several  other  reliefs  which  adorn  Bucking- 
bam  Palace.  The  Brunswick  Shield  was  another  of  bis  works. — The  Cheva- 
lier Gasse  is  also  dead.  He  was  architect  to  the  King  of  Naples,  Corres- 
ponding Memljcr  of  the  French  Institute,  and  of  the  Institute  of  British 
Architects. 

The  Easter  holidays  have  given  some  check  to  business,  so  that  we  have 
little  to  record.  Spencer's  Electrotype  is  now  receiving  the  attention  which 
it  deserves ;  some  months  ago  it  was  smothered  under  the  blaze  of  photo- 
graphy. Seals  and  cojiies  of  medals  are  made  by  this  means  with  great 
accuracy  and  celerity. — Jacobi's  galvanic  engraving  is  also  acquiring  ])nblicity. 
We  may  mention  by  the  bye  that  as  his  other  electric  inventions  have  not 
exceeded  those  of  our  countrymen,  so  bis  application  of  electro  magnetism  .as 
a  motive  power  is  deriveil  from  an  Englishman. — Sniee's  battery  described  in 
our  present  number  will  give  fresli  power  to  the  professors  of  this  important 
branch  of  science. — Claudet  and  Houghton's  specimens  of  Dagnerre's  process 
of  photography  now  exhibiting  in  Holliorn,  are  well  worthy  of  inspection, 
they  give  good  earnest  of  the  aid  this  admirable  invention  will  artbrd  to  the 
arts.  Its  appbcation  to  the  debneation  of  architectural  and  antiquarian  sub- 
jects will  make  it  of  great  value  to  the  profession.  The  Elgin  marbles  should 
be  copied  by  this  method. 

The  vacuum  engine  is  the  wonder  next  to  be  exhibited ;  a  new  apiilication 
of  agriculture,  by  which  it  is  said,above  twenty  square  nules  can  be  cultivated 
by  one  stationary  engine  has  been  patented,  and  will  be  shown  to  the  puldic 
on  a  small  scale  early  in  the  ensuing  month. — It  will  be  recollectccl  that 
Hague's  draining  apparatus  is  on  this  ]dan,  and  a  steam  engine  erecteil  by 
Mr.  Hague  at  Constantino]de,  works  a  powder  mill  seven  miles  off,  at  a  place 
where  the  (Irani!  Signer  refused  to  allow  any  steam  engine  to  be  erected 
within  that  distance. — Mr.  Maugham,  the  lecturer  on  chemistry,  has  re- 
moved from  the  Adelaide  Gallery  to  the  Poletecbnic.  At  this  hitter  Institu- 
tion an  ingenious  application  of  propellers  to  the  balloon  is  shown,  although 
their  success  on  a  large  scale  is  doubtful,  from  their  incapacity  to  contend 
with  currents  of  air. 

The  plan  for  embankment  of  the  Thames  is  now  before  the  legislature,  so 
that  we  may  ex|icct  sumethiug  .is  a  beginning. — The  wood  pavement  com- 
panies are  getting  on  faster  than  the  asphalte,  they  are  at  work  .at  Ibieking- 
hara  Palace,  in  the  Strand,  Oxford  Street,  St.  Giles's,  and  Lamli's  Conduit 
Street  The  elasticity  of  this  material  forms  one  of  its  best  properties.  Under 
most  of  these  jiavements  a  firm  bed  of  concrete  nuxed  with  Koman  cement 
and  puzaolauo  U  laid,  rather  expensive  we  should  tliiuk, 


The  Marine  Gallery  at  Hampton  Court  Palace  was  opened  on  Easter  .Mon- 
day, 80  that  the  maritime  nation  has  at  last  two  marine  galleries.— The  (io- 
verument  School  of  Design  at  Somerset  House  has  made  another  .step  out  of 
the  humdrum  system  ;  having  obtained  a  set  of  casts  from  .Messrs.  Lofts  in 
Dean-street,  llow  they  could  persevere  in  their  exclusion  of  the  figure,  it  is 
difficult  to  conceive ;  they  have  only  to  go  into  their  own  schools  and  look 
at  the  drawings  of  the  same  ornaments  affixed  to  the  walls;  those  from  casts 
are  full  of  life  and  spirit,  and  in  high  relief,  those  from  engravings  more  laboured 
are  dead  and  fiat.  In  fact  the  wisest  thing  they  could  do  would  be  to  turn 
every  engraving  out  of  the  school,  where  tbey  can  substitute  nature  or  casts, 
and  above  all  never  to  let  a  boy  begin  to  draw  frotu  a  drawing, — set  him  before 
the  Apollo  or  the  Venus  at  once.  This  has  been  tried  at  the  Leicester-square 
school  with  full  success,  even  on  its  very  young  boys.  The  latter  is  far  before 
Somerset  House  in  principle  ;  thanks  to  their  badly  remunerated  Director 
.\Ir.  De  Moucbet.  The  modelling  class  at  Leicester-square  gets  on  well.  We 
hojie  the  inspection  of  Mr.  Wyse  at  Somerset  House  last  month  will  do  some 
good ;  that  patron  of  the  arts  has,  it  is  said,  suggested  many  modifications  in 
the  establishment.  One  fruit  of  bis  visit  is  a  report  from  the  council,  the 
first  since  their  institution.  Pretty  fair  from  a  national  establishiiient !  It 
is  a  pity  these  establishments  are  not  more  frequented,  where  the  working 
classes  can  obtain  first  rate  instruction  in  the  arts  for  xivjience  a  weok.  The 
whole  number  of  students  at  the  school  is  not  more  than  two  hundred. 


pNEi'.MATic  Experiment  o.v  thi.  Birmingh.vm,  Bristol,  .\nd  Thamks 
Junction  Railwav. — The  engine-house  is  built,  and  the  communicating 
tube  between  it  and  the  raUway,  by  which  the  exhaustion  of  the  main  tube  is 
to  be  effected,  is  nearly  laid.  The  permanent  way  and  rails  are  also  almost 
completed,  and  fit  for  the  laying  down  of  the  tubes  for  a  considerable  distance 
out  of  the  1  j  miles  on  which  the  experiment  is  to  be  made.  We  perceive  also 
that  a  great  many  of  these  tuues  arc  already  arrived  and  on  the  gi'ound.  Tbey 
are  nine  inches  diameter,  and  are  lined  inside,  to  about  the  tenth  of  an  inch 
thick,  with  a  hard  unctuous  sid)stance,  much  resembling,  in  its  disagreeable 
and  sufibeating  smeU,  hard  tallow.  The  slit  or  aperture  of  the  tubes  through 
which  the  arm  communicates  with  the  rumiing  piston  and  the  carriages  is 
about  !„  inch.  \\"c  understand,  if  the  experiment  be  successful,  the  company 
are  to  liave  the  use  of  the  patent  gratis,  for  devoting  the  road  to  the  trial,  anil 
are  to  purchase  the  whole  apparatus  and  pre])arations  at  cost  price ;  and  if  it 
docs  not  succeed,  all  is  to  be  cleared  otf  within  a  given  time.  Supposing  the 
experiment  etfects  all  that  its  advocates  expect,  we  cannot  see  the  use  of  so 
small  an  ajijiaratus  in  such  a  place.  If  we  remendier  right,  the  inclination  of 
the  road,  about  that  part,  is  120  feet  a  mile;  therefore,  the  traction  is  more 
than  three  times  that  on  a  level,  or  above  2t  lbs.  to  the  ton.  But  a  circular 
tube  9  inches  diameter,  fully  exhausted,  and  exclusive  of  all  friction,  would 
only  draw  about  031  fts.,  or,  at  24  lbs.  per  ton,  under  40  tons.  The  probabi- 
lity, however,  is,  that  it  will  never  in  that  length  be  half  exhausted;  so  that 
the  absolute  load  it  would  take  would  be  under  20  tons,  carriages,  load  and 
all,  assuming  a  perfect  absence  of  all  friction  in  the  machinery.  AVe  sliall, 
however,  be  much  surprised,  if  the  useful  efl'ect  is  anything  like  this.  Our 
opinion  is,  that  the  patentees  have  made  the  ajqiaratus  much  too  sm.all  for  any 
useful  i)urpose  upon  such  a  road,  and  also  for  the  purpose  of  showing  otf  the 
invention  well,  assuming  it  to  be  all  that  can  he  expected  of  it.  A  few  days 
ago  the  works  were  suspended,  in  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the 
Alessrs.  Sanmda  and  the  contractors,  about  the  point  of  delivery  of  the  tubes 
— that  is,  whether  it  should  be  a  few  yards  on  the  noi-tb,  or  a  few  on  the 
south  of  the  crossing  of  the  Great  Western  line.  Where  so  much  is  involved 
as  here,  tins  dispute  is  equally  as  ridiculous  as  that  of  the  Lilliputians  and 
their  neighbours,  about  which  cud  eggs  ought  to  lie  broken. — Uaihoay 
McKjazuie. 

Galvanic  Engrax'ing.^U  is  not  generally  known  that  the  method  of 
producing  fae-similies  of  engraved  plates  by  means  of  voltaic  electricity,  as 
indicated  by  Mr.  Brande,  Mr.  Faraday,  and  Professor  Jacobi,  has  been  fre- 
quently demonstrated  with  complete  success  by  Bachboffnor,  of  the  Polytec- 
nic  Institution,  in  Regent-street,  at  which  estaldishmeut  many  satisfactory 
specimens  may  be  witnessed.  The  process  is  as  follows : — The  plate  from 
which  the  duplicate  is  to  be  taken  is  first  placed  in  a  vessel  properly  adapted 
for  the  jHupose,  and  is  then  covered  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
through  which  the  galvanic  stream  is  transmitted.  This  causes  a  decomposi- 
tion, or,  in  other  words,  the  constituents  of  the  salt  arc  removed  from  each 
other,  the  metallic  copper  resulting  from  the  action  being  deposited  in  a  series 
of  thin  laToina"  upon  the  original  plate.  This  deposited  copper  forms  a  second 
plate,  which,  on  removal  from  the  other,  exhibits  every  line  a?ul  mark  traced 
by  the  graver  or  etching-tool  upon  it,  with  this  difierence,  that  wdi.at  is  bas- 
relief  in  one  is  alto-relief  in  the  other,  and  the  engraved  lines  of  the  original 
are  raised  lines  in  the  duplicate.  The  sheet  of  copper  thus  iirodnced  becomes 
a  normal  plate  or  mould;  from  wduch,  by  a  similar  process,  an  acl  injiiiituiu 
number  of  plates  may  be  taken,  in  even-  respect  equal  to  the  original,  and 
callable,  like  it,  of  giving  perfect  printed  impressions.  The  value  of  this 
practical  discovery  is  great,  inasnuieb  as  it  will  supersede  the  necessity  of 
expensive  steel-plate  engr.ivings,  by  nuilliplying  copies  of  those  on  copper 
plates  at  the  cost  of  a  few  shillings  and  loss  of  a  few  days  only.  Impressions 
from  medals,  coins,  and  dies  may  be  obtained  in  the  same  way,  of  which 
there  are  several  specimens  in  the  gallery  of  the  Polytecnic  Institution,  as 
well  as  a  very  large  duplicate  copper  plate  of  an  elaborate  engraving  from  one 
of  Domeuiehing's  pictiues. 


18101 


THR  CIVIL  RNCINI':EII  AND  AI5<  HII  IXT  .S  .lOURNAT- 


IG.: 


ON  BLASTING  LIMESTONE  ROCK. 

Some  ./Iccomit  of  Blasting  the  UHule  Linmtoiie  in  the  County  of 
Antrim,  in  Inland.  By  William  Bald,  F.R.S.E.,  M.R.I.A.,  &c- 
Read  before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. 

It  becomes  necessary  to  make  a  few  short  observations  wliieh  m.iy 
perhaps  be  interesting  to  the  scientific  engineer.  Along  (he  north 
coast  of  Ireland  from  the  Bay  of  Belfast  to  Lough  Foyle,  the  country 
consists  of  white  limestone  ;  coliminar  basalt,  and  some  conglomerate 
sandstone;  but  the  hill  of  Carey  consists  of  mica  slate;  and  is  of  the 
same  formation  as  the  Mull  of  Cantire,  a  part  of  the  coast  of  Scotland 
Ivino-  opposite.  The  geologist  can  here  easily  trace  the  connecting 
link  in  the  formation,  which  joins  the  two  countries,  although  a  channel 
yi)  fithoms  deep  separates  them.  Numerous  whin  dykes  intersect 
tlie  strata  along  this  part  of  the  Irish  shore,  they  run  nearly  parallel  to 
each  other  in  some  cases,  and  are  very  remarkable  in  their  structure. 

The  study  of  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the  respective  rocks  and 
strata,  -and  their  position  and  inclination,  will  enable  the  engineer  to 
work  them  in  a  more  scientific  manner.  And  in  the  construction  of 
harbours,  lighthouses,  lines  of  navigation,  drainage,  roads,  &c.  &c.,  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  component  parts  of  the  rocks  will  en- 
able him  to  select  those  best  suited  to  resist  the  action  of  time,  whether 
thev  be  placed  under  the  dominion  of  the  deep,  exposed  to  the  ravages 
of  the  pholas,  or  subject  to  perhaps  the  more  wasting  influence  of  the 
atmosphere;  by  such  studies  his  skill  will  be  alike  visible  in  the  se- 
lection of  the  best  material  for  the  repaving  of  even  a  common  road, 
as  it  will  be  for  that  of  the  most  splendid  edifice  destined  to  survive 
ages. 

In  constructing  the  Antrim  coast  road  it  became  necessary  to  cut 
through  extensive  and  high  masses  of  white  limestone ;  one  of  the  sea 
cliffs  in  the  Little  Deer  Park,  near  Ulenarm  Town,  extended  to  a  length 
of  nearly  one  thousand  yards,  rising  from  twenty  feet  to  about  two 
hundred  in  height,  washed  at  its  base  by  a  deep  sea,  and  entirely  ex- 
posed to  the  run  of  the  ocean  in  the  north  cliannel. 

Above  the  white  limestone  is  situate  the  coluumar  basalt,  but  no 
))art  of  the  road  was  cut  through  this  last  mentioned  rock.  The  white 
limestone  in  Antrim  differs  from  the  chalk  in  England,  in  being  more 
indurated,  while  in  other  resjjccts  it  is  similar  to  it  in  the  quantities 
of  flint  it  con*.ains.  This  rock  is  close  and  fine  in  its  texture,  but  it  is 
deeply  fissured  in  many  directions ;  the  scull  veins  it  exhibits  are  ex- 
tremely curious.*  The  inclinations  of  the  limestone  strata  on  this 
part  of  the  coast  does  not  in  general  exceed  15°  dipping  into  the  land. 
Under  the  lime  rock  strata  lies  the  brownish  red  coloured  sandstone. 

In  blasting  down  those  lofty  clifi's  of  white  limestone,  the  borings 
were  always  made  into  the  toe  of  the  rocks,  ami  were  so  arranged  that 
the  line  of  least  resistance  should  not  be  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of 
boring.  Hundreds  of  tons  of  rock  frequently  rested  on  a  base  of  a  few 
superficial  feet,  which  being  blasted  away,  the  cliff  above  tumbled 
down.  The  patent  safety  fuse  was  used,  and  which  was  attended 
with  the  most  beneficial  results,  copper  tubes  for  putting  in  the  charges, 
and  also  copper  needles. 

During  three  years  operations  not  a  man  was  lost,  although  upwards 
of  one  hundred  thousands  tons  of  limestone  were  blasted  down  upon 
less  than  one  mile  of  the  road. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  a  few  experiments  maile  upon 
loose  detached  blocks  of  white  limestone  at  Glenarm,  Little  Deer 
Park. 


Table  ok  thk  Worklng  1'roci;euings. 


Block  No.  I. 
2. 
3. 
4. 

Cubic  feet  in 
each  block. 

Cubic  feet  for  each 
Quantity  of  powder    ounce  of  powder 
used.                          used. 

165 
180 
.540 
8C4 

12  oz. 
12  oz. 
38  oz. 
04  oz. 

13-78  ft. 
15-00 
14-21 
13-50 

From  the  above  experiments  it  took  one  ounce  of  gunpowder  to 
rend  asunder  H-1-2  cubic  feet  of  the  white  limestone  when  in  blocks. 
And  from  experiments  made  on  the  solid  loose  whinstone  blocks,  it 
took  about  one  ounce  of  gunpowder  to  blast  asunder  ll'7o  cubic  feet. 

Three  experiments  assigned  the  specific  gravity  of  the  white  lime- 
stone at  '2,747,  2,709,  "2,71)3 ;  and  the  whinstone  or  basalt  at  3,200, 
being  about  13  cubic  feet  of  white  limestone  to  (he  Ion,  and  11-20 
cubic  feet  of  the  whinstone  to  the  ton. 


*  The  grey  limestone  with  wliicli  tlic  Light-house  of  Clare  Island  is  built 
is  much  traversed  by  scull  veins,  and  water  enlers  theui  during  severe  rain 
storms. 


An  auger  of  H  inch  diameter. 


Ditto 

n 

ditto 

Ditto 

U 

ditto 

Ditto 

n 

ditto 

Ditto 

ii- 

ditto 

Ditto 

2 

ditto 

Ditto 

2 

ditto 

Depth  of  boring. 


Quantity  of  powder. 


15  inches  deep. 

2G  ditto 

30  ditto 

36  ditto 

48  ditto 

5  feet 

6  feet 


G  inches. 

8  ditto. 

0  ditto. 
12  ditto. 
17  ditto. 
20  ditto. 
27  ditto. 


The  above  table  exhibits  the  diameter  of  the  auger  or  jumper  used, 
the  depth  sunk,  and  the  number  of  inches  of  gunpowder"  put  in. 

The  force  of  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  is  assumed  to  be  as  the 
cube  of  the  length  of  the  line  of  least  resistance,  thus  if  one  ounce  of 
gunpowder  will  open  a  distance  of  one  foot  of  rock,  the  table  vvoidd 
run  thus : — • 


Line  of  least  resistance. 
If  1  foot  of  rock  rc(|nires 
2  feet  would  rciiuire 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 


Charge  of  powder  exclusive  of  priming. 

1  ounce. 

8  ditto. 

27  ditto. 

64  ditto. 

-  125  ditto. 

-  21G  ditto. 

-  343  ditto. 

-  512  ditto. 

-  729  ditto. 

-  1000  ditto. 


I  am  aware  there  is  nuich  difficulty  in  knowing  exactly  where  the 
line  of  least  resistance  is,  because  the  rock  may  be  fissured,  or  some 
bed  or  opening  may  be  near  to  the  line  bored,  and  this  is  the  case 
where  the  rocks  are  stratified;  but  the  hypogene  rocks,  such  _  as 
granite  and  syenite,  lying  in  large  solid  compact  masses  unstratified 
will  be  different,  and  these  rules  may  be  usefully  applied.  In  blasting 
asunder  loose  detached  blocks,  a  much  greater  quantity  of  material 
will  be  blown  asunder  by  the  same  (piantity  of  gunpowder  than  of  rock 
lying  in  close  connecteil  beds. 

It'is  always  desirable  to  work  the  rock  out  by  the  dip  of  the  in- 
clination of  the  strata,  or  as  the  quarrymen  call  it,  the  going  way  of 
the  rock. 

In  the  while  limestone  quarries  lying  in  the  high  ground  north  of 
the  town  of  Belfast,  where  the  limestone  is  quarried  lor  building  and 
agricuhural  purposes,  and  also  for  export;  two  men  will  quarry  out 
at  an  average  from  eight  to  ten  tons  per  day,  the  augurs  or  jumpers 
generally  used  are  l^f  inches,  and  two  inches  diameter;  and  the  in- 
duration of  the  white  limestone  may  be  estimated  when  two  men  will 
bore  one  foot  deep  in  half  an  hour  ;  they  generally  put  in  about  three 
inches  of  powder  for  15  inches  deep,  and  6  inches  for  about  2  feet 
deep ;  the  expense  for  quarrying  is  about  from  fivepence  to  sixpence 
])er  ton.  There  are  nearly  13  cubic  foot  of  the  white  limestone  to  the 
ton,  which  is  at  the  rate  "of  nearly  about  one  shilling  per  cubic  yard. 
This  white  limestone  is  much  esteemed  in  Glasgow  and  all  the  towns 
on  the  Clyde,  where  it  sells  for  five  shillings  per  ton— but  the  quarrying 
works  near  Belfast  are  carried  on  in  a  very  limited  manner,  or  rather 
on  a  very  small  scale. 

Numerous  experiments  made  hy  military  engineers  assign  the  force 
of  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  to  be  as  the  culae  of  the  length  of  the 
line  of  least  resistance.  Vauban  and  Belidor,-!"  both  of  them  excellent 
mathematicians,  and  also  possessing  great  practical  skill,  ingenuity 
and  experience,  investigated  this  subject,  doubtless  more  particularly 
with  a  view  to  the  operations  of  war,  than  to  those  of  the  works  of 
the  civil  engineer.  The  law  of  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder  re- 
mains the  same  in  all  the  various  forms  it  may  be  applied  to  matter, 
whether  in  blasting  out  of  rock  or  earth,  or  the  destruction  of  the  ma- 
sonry of  fortifications  by  blowing  them  iqi,  or  laying  in  ruin  bridges 
built  over  large  and  deep  rivers  to  arrest  the  progress  of  hostile 
armies. 

The  total  cubical  contents  of  the  four  blocks  of  limestone  given 
above,  amounted  to  17 1',)  cubic  feet,  and  the  quantity  of  powder  used 
12(i  ounces,  being  at  the  rate  of  1-94  ounces  for  each  cubic  yard  blasted 
asunder.     But  if  the  rate  per  cubic  yard  be  deduced  from  the  quan- 


*  One  pound  of  gun]iowdcr  occupies  30  cubic  inches. 
f  Bchdor,  one  of  t)io  uiosi  scientific  of  the  French  engineers,  has  given  the 
following  rule  for  liiidiiig  the  charge  of  a  surcharged  mine  or  globe  of  com- 
pression, "  is  to  nmltiply  the  length  of  the  line  of  least  resistance  in  feet  by 
00,  and  the  product  will  he  the  weight  of  the  powder  in  pounds." 

Z 


]<;() 


THE  CIVIL  1]\C:INK1<:R  AM)  A  lU'IllTKCTS  JOURNAL 


[May, 


(ity  of  powdor  ox|)emlotl  on  each  block,  then  the  following  will  be  the 
resu'ls  oliliiineil  (Voia  tlu;  four  experiments. 

1G5  cubic  feet  was  blasted  asiuuler  by   12  ounces  of  gunpowder, 
wliioh  is  at  the  rate  of  l-il.i  ounces  of  powder  for  each  cubic  yard. 

ISO  cubic  feet  was  blasted  asunder  by  12  ounces  of  gunpowder, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  1-SO  ounces  of  powder  for  each  cubic  yard. 

r>{0  cubic  feet  was  blasted  asunder  by  38  ounces  uf  guiipowder, 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  1-'.K»  ounces  of  pow'der  for  cacli  cubic  yard. 

81;  I  cubic  feet  was  blasted  asunder  by  04  ounces  of  gunpowder, 
wliiidi  is  at  the  rate  of  2  ounces  of  powder  for  each  cubic  yard. 

Therefore  in  the  large  loose  limestone  blocks  about  2  ounces  of  gun- 
powder may  \i2  taken  as  the  expenditure  being  necessary  to  bhist  out 
each  cubic  yard.  The  four  blocks  on  which  these  experiments  were 
inade,  were  not  at  all  cubical,  although  the  one  which  contained  5'1() 
cubic  feet  was  nearly  so.  From  the  above  results  i  beg  to  submit 
some  calculations  regarding  the  force  of  the  explosion  of  gunpowder, 
being  as  the  cube  of  the  length  of  the  Hue  of  least  resistance. 

We  are  in  possession  of  the  (juantity  of  gunpowder  used  in  blasting 
the  four  blocks,  and  also  of  the  solid  feet  contained  in  each  of  thein. 
Extracting  therefore  the  cubic  root  of  the  cubical  contents  of  each 
block,  we  shall  then  have  their  masses  all  in  cubical  form  as  follows: 

Cubic  feet  in  each  block.  Side  of  the  cube. 

■■•-/IGS  -  .  5-484 

'^180  -  .  5-G4G 

W5iQ  .  .  8-143 

■U^8«4  -  .  9-524 

Taking  Ihc  lengtli  of  the  line  of  least  resistance  at  each  of  these 
cubes  to  be  equal  to  (he  distance  from  the  centre  to  the  nearest  point 
on  the  sin-face,  or  erjuid  to  half  the  side  ot"  the  cube,  then  the  follow- 
ing will  be  the  lengths  in  feet  of  the  lines  of  least  resistance. 

lu  cube  No.  1  —  2-742  feet. 
No.  2  —  2-823 
No.  3  —  4-071 
No.  4  —  4-762. 

The  cpiantilies  of  gunpowder  consumed  to  blast  asunder  a  line  of 
least  resistance,  of 

165  cubic  feet  blasted  asunder. 
180         diUo. 
540         ditto. 
864         ditto. 

If  105  cubic  feet  be  blasted  asunder  by  12  ounces  of  gunpowder,  the 
line  of  least  resistance  in  that  mass,  if  in  cubical  form,  will  be 
V  1G5  =  2-7'12  feet. 

Then  the  line  of  least  resistance  for  one  foot  in  cubical  form  w  ill  be 
pquaj^  to  S  cubic  feet.  Then  if  165  cubic  feet  with  a  line  of  resistance 
of  2-742  feet  require  12  ounces  of  gunpowder  to  open  it,  then  8  cubic 
leet  with  a  line  of  resistance  of  one  foot  will  require  0-5S2  ounces  of 
gunpowder  to  open  it  asunder. 

The  following  are  the  quantities  of  gunpowder  required  to  open  one 
foot  of  least  resistance  through  the  white  limestone,  as  determined  by 
the  blasting  of  the  four  blocks. 

Cubic  feet  in  each  block         ...      I65 

Quantity  of  powder  used  to  rend  it  as- 
under, in  oiincet!         -         -         .         .        ]2 

Cubic  feet  opened  by  the  line  of  resistance 

of  one  foot         .         .         .         .         .  8 

Quantity  of  powder  required  to  open  the 
line  of  least  resistance  of  one  foot,  in 

ounces 0582 

Mean  0-508  oz. 

Apply  the  rule  of  the  cube  of  the  length  of  th(-  line  of  least  resist- 
ance, and  working  with  the  element  just  obtained  from  the  four  ex- 
]>eriments,  to  open  asunder  the  line  of  least  resistance  of  one  fool. 

No.  1 — Then  (lie  scale  of  the  length  of  the  line  of  least  resistance  in 
No.  1,  2-742'  feet  uuiltiplied  by  0-582  ounces,  the  ([uantity  of  powder 
to  open  one  foot  will  be  2-742'  =^  20-02  X  -582  =  12  ounces. 

No.  2— For  a  line  of  least  resistance  of  2-823  feet  will  be  11-95 
ounces,  2'8-23'  =  22-42  x  -533  =  11-95  oimees. 

No.  3— -For  a  line  of  least  resistance  of  4-071  feet,  will  be  37-97 
ounces,  4-071-'  =  t;7-45  X  -jiiS  =37-97  om.ecE. 

No.  4— For  a  line  of  least  resistance  of  4-702  feet,  will  be  01 
ounces,  4-702'  =  107-983  x  '593  =  04  ounces. 

It  is  therefore  clear  from  these  experiments  made  that  (he  force  of 
the  explosion  of  gunpowder  is  as  the  cube  of  tlie  length  of  the  line  of 
least  resistance.  Taking  the  mean  quantity  of  gunpowder  obtained 
irom  the  four  experiments  to  open  asimder  a  line  of  resistance  of  one 
foot,  -and  wlUch  is  0-508  ounces.    The  following  will  be  the  results 


2-742  feet  was  12  ounces, 
2-823         -        12  ditto, 
4-071         -        38  ditto, 
4-762         -        64  ditto, 


180 


12 


540 


38 


864 


64 


0-533     0-5C3     0-593 


caleulated  according  to  the  cube  of  the  length  of  the  line  of  least  re- 
sistance. 

2-7123=   20-62    X  0-568  =  11-71  oz.  =  lC5  cubic  feet. 
2-823-^=   22-42    x  0-568  =  12-73  07,.=  180 
4-07P=   07-45    X  0-568  =  38-31  oz.  =  540 
4-7623=107-933  X  0  568  =  61-33  oz.  =  S64. 

In  having  described  the  mode  of  blasting  the  white  limestone  on  the 
Antrim  coast  road  in  (he  north  of  Ireland.  It  may  be  usefid  as  well  as 
interesting  to  the  engineer  to  describe  its  qualities,  and  to  what  extent 
it  may  be  employed  in  the  construction  of  works. 

In  treating  of  the  nature  of  any  kind  of  material  to  be  employed  in 
building,  the  first  consideration  is  its  character,  to  resist  decomposition 
whether  placed  inthe  0])enair  exposed  to  the  full  action  of  (he  atmos- 
phere, or  buried  in  the  earth,  or  entombed  in  the  deep.  Its  indura- 
tiim  and  compactness  of  structure,  the  absence  of  figures,  the  mass  it 
can  be  had  in,  and  the  facility  of  working  or  tooling  it  into  form. 

The  white  limestone  on  tlie  Antrim  const  road  lies  in  beds  dipping 
slightly  to  the  plane  ;  it  is  generally  quite  white,  but  sometimes  it  is 
of  a  yellow'ish  tint;  it  is  traversed  by  very  small  veins  of  calcareous 
spar,  but  the  most  remarkalile  feature  is  the  quantity  of  Hints  it  con- 
tains, they  are  dry,  grey  and  black  ;  the  thickness  of  the  beds  of  the 
white  limestone  is  very  singular,  being  sometimes  more  than  30  feet. 

This  white  limestone  is  not  good  for  building,  because  it  moulders 
by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  it  is  not  therefore  generally  used  in 
any  public  building,  although  it  might  be  used  in  filling  up  the  interior 
parts  of  walls:  it  is  inferior  for  road  metal,  being  tender  and  wearing 
quickly  ;  it  can  be  procured  in  large  masses,  when  reduced  to  pieces 
containing  six,  twelve  and  eighteen  cubical  inches,  it  breaks  into  irre- 
gular fragments  with  sharp  edges. 

The  white  limestone  when  placed  under  the  sea  is  particularly  sub- 
ject to  the  ravages  of  the  pholas,  and  is  therefore  unsuitable  to  be 
employed  in  the  construction  of  marine  works,  such  as  harbours  or 
breakwaters,  &c.,  it  is  however  a  valuable  niaterial  for  making  lime 
for  building,  and  for  agricultural  purposes.  In  our  quarrying  o])er.i- 
tions  we  rarely  found  in  it  shell  remains. 

In  quarrying  it  out  in  large  masses,  the  blocks  sometimes  had  what 
the  workman  call  a  lean  and  a  full  bed;  the  lean  bed  being  less  than 
an  angle  of  90",  and  the  full  bed  more  than  90°.  The  white  Limestone 
can  be  split  with  plug  and  feather,  or  pooled  by  wedges;  if  the  strati- 
fication be  in  thin  beds,  it  opens  across  with  a  very  rugged  and  irregu- 
lar face,  but  if  very  solid  ami  compact,  and  the  beds  of  great  thickness, 
it  will  open  more  evenly  and  equal  in  the  face.  It  dresses  readily 
with  the  hammer,  and  can  be  wrought  and  hewn  into  any  form.  I  am 
however  of  opinion  that  the  white  limestone  of  the  county  of  AKtrim 
shouhl  not  be  used  in  constructing  any  work  requiring  durability,  be- 
cause it  is  a  rock  liable  to  decomposition  when  exposed  to  the  atmos- 
phere. 

I  have  already,  in  the  paper  on  blasting  the  white  limestone,  alluded 
to  the  small  fissures  which  traverse  that  rock,  and  which  also  traverse 
the  blue  and  grey  limestone  of  Ireland,  and  vvhicli  the  stone-cutters 
call  scull  veins  doublers,  on  account  of  their  exact  resemblance  to  the 
sutures  in  the  human  scull. 

In  concluding,  I  beg  to  mention  that  there  are  several  species  of  the 
Phohis.  I.amarh  in  his  natural  history,  mentions  the  Pholade  Dactyle 
or  Pholas  Dactylus,  as  btdng  very  prevalent  on  the  coast  of  France, 
and  also  inhabiting  the  shores  of  the  Biitish  seas.  I  have  given  a 
sketch  of  the  Phoyhis  Dactylus,  antl  I  beg  to  present  to  the  Institution 
a  very  beautiful  specimen  of  this  kind,  from  which  the  sketch  has  been 
made,  and  which  specimen  I  have  accidentally  obtained  in  London. 
There  is  another  species  called  the  Pholade  Scrabrelle,  or  Phohrs  Can- 
dida, which  inhabits  the  European  seas,  and  a  veSy  small  kind  called 
by  the  French  Saxicave  Ridee,  Saxicava  Rugosa.  It  is  quite  foreign 
to  the  object  of  this  paper  to  enter  into  any  thing  like  giving  an  ac- 
count of  all  the  various  kinds  of  Pholas,  or  their  habits;  it  is  quite 
sufficient  to  the  engineer  to  know  that  every  deserijttion  of  calcareous 
rock,  when  placed  under  the  sea,  is  subject  to  be  perforated  by  those 
bivalves  ;  indeed  every  rock  upon  which  acids  act  are  subject  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  them,  ansl  it  consequently  has  been  conjectured  that  they 
possess  the  power  of  producing  an  acid  that  decomposes  the  rock  con- 
taining calcareous  matter;  on  the  other  hand  some  maintain  this  is 
not  the  case,  because  the  acid  would  also  decompose  the  shell  which 
covers  them.  Mr.  Lonsdale,  of  the  Cieologieal  .Society,  mentioned  to 
me  that  some  marine  works  constructed  at  Plymouth  were  much  in- 
jiu-ed  by  the  ravages  of  the  Pholas.  Beds  of  calcareous  rock  of  several 
feet  in  thickness,  in  the  Frith  of  Forth  have  been  enturely  destroyed 
by  the  Pholas. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  sliell  of  the  Pholas  Dactylus,  presented  to  the 
Institution,  is  very  tender  and  delicate ;  from  the  extreme  fragile  nature 
of  the  shell  it  would  not  be  supposed  capable  of  destroying  indurated 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


167 


m.irble.  The  external  surface  of  the  shell  is  rough,  auil  radi^ited 
transversely  and  longitudinally  in  a  most  Ijeautiful  luauucr  by  curved 
lines  of  a  high  order;  an  attentive  study  of  the  mere  lined  surface  of 
the  shell  cannot  fail  to  be  instructive  even  to  tlie  man  of  science,  and 
worthy  to  be  contemplated  and  examined  by  all  those  engaged  in  the 
works  of  art  and  taste.  The  marine  engineer  may  derive  instruction 
from  the  parabolic  curves  delineated,  and  traced  out  by  the  hand  of 
nature  on  the  Fholas  shell,  in  assisting  him  in  giving  the  best  shape 
to  the  slopes  of  breakwaters,  and  harbuiu-s  constructed  in  the  deep  sea, 
and  exposed  to  the  run  or  momentum  of  the  ocean.  The  curved  ra- 
diation or  fluting  on  the  shell  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  architect 
engaged  in  the  works  of  design  and  taste.  It  ought  not  to  be  forgotten 
what  struck  Watt  in  examining  the  joints  in  the  tail  of  a  lobster ;  nor 
of  .Smeaton  in  looking  at  the  form  of  an  oak  tree  ;  nor  the  falling  of  an 
apple  which  gave  the  impulse  to  the  genius  of  a  man  justly  the  glory 
of  our  island,  and  whose  name  stands  recorded  with  the  jiroudest 
triumphs  in  the  loftiest  branches  of  science  that  has  yet  adorned  the 
efforts  of  human  ingenuity. 

William  Bald. 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  SEA  AND  FORMATION  OF 
SHORES. 

Sir — Public  attention  has  of  late  years  been  mncli  engaged  by  the 
phenomena  observed  upon  the  ocean.  The  tidal  theory,  currents, 
storms,  &c.  have  each  been  subject  to  the  closest  scrutiny,  and  the  re- 
sidt  has  been  much  valuable  information  connected  with  them.  The 
recovery  of  land,  and  the  encroacliment  of  the  sea,  liave  been  for  some 
time,  and  are  now  subjects  of  great  interest  to  the  scientific  world ; 
this  has  induced  me  to  request  the  insertion  of  tlie  following  few  lines 
in  the  columns  of  your  valuable  journal. 

The  northern  shore  of  the  Bristol  Channel  from  the  port  of  Cardiff 
up  to  Gloucester  consists  of  a  vast  flat  of  Moor  land,  varying  from  1  to 
1^  miles  in  breadth;  the  soil  is  composed  of  a  very  tenacious  clay 
mixed  with  shells  and  a  large  portion  of  decayed  vegetable  matter. 
This  tract  is  formed  totally  from  the  deposit  of  the  waters  of  the 
Severn  and  Bristol  Channel.  This  fact  is  inferred  from  the  following 
circumstances: — -Ist.  The  soil  above  described  commences  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  inwards,  where  its  section  presents  a  depth  of  about 
a  foot,  under  which  is  fovmd  the  natural  soil  of  the  country,  a  yellowish 
clay  intermixed  with  gravel;  from  this  point  it  gradually  deepens  to 
high  water  mark,  where  the  depth  averages  from  35  to  iO  feet.  2nd. 
If  a  plate  or  any  other  body,  having  a  flat  surface,  be  exposed  on  the 
shore,  between  high  and  low  water  marV,  for  a  single  tide,  a  deposit 
will  be  found  thereon  varying  in  thickness  according  to  the  calmness 
of  the  sea  during  tide,  as  it  has  been  observed  that  tlie  deposit  is  much 
increased  in  stormy  wheather  when  the  sea  is  violently  agitated.  3rd. 
In  excavating  the  Bute  Docks  the  rudder  of  a  sliip  was  found  about  lU 
feet  below  the  surface,  the  iron  work  of  which  was  in  excellent  pre- 

Fig.  1.  Fig.  2 

r 
I 

! 

I 

I- 

I  ^=s?^^; ,,5.,^— i— — — ^^ 

I  ^■-— i 

I 

I 

H ^ 

I 

Pig.  3. 

Fi".  1 ,  the  length  of  the  upper  ordinate  is  G  feet,  the  second  G  feet  3  inches, 
(he  third  6  feet,  the  fuurtli  5  ieet  1  inch,  an  1  the  height  of  the  vertical  line 
5  feet  9  inches.  Fig  2,  length  of  the  upper  ordinate  2  leet  11  inches,  th',' 
second  3  feet  3  inches,  the  thiid  3  feel  2  inched,  and  the  length  of  the  vertical 
line  5  feet.  Fig.  3,  length  of  the  upper  ordinate  is  3  feet  8  inches,  tbesecund 
'.')  feet  9  inches,  the  third  4  feet,  the  fourth  3  feet  7  inches,  and  the  length  of 
the  vertical  line  5  feet  5  inches.  The  lower  line  is  the  height  of  high  water 
and  spring  tides. 


servation.  It  was  at  first  supposed  that  it  liad  sunk  down  by  its  own 
weight,  but  its  peculiar  shape,  and  the  closeness  and  tenacity  of  the. 
soil,  at  once  indicate  the  fallacy  of  such  an  opinion;  several  oak  trees 
were  also  founrl  about  311  feet  below  the  surface,  and  about  lUO  yards 
above  high  water  mark,  these  were  of  sufficient  hardness  to  admit  of 
their  being  worked  up  into  chairs,  boxes,  &c. 

These  facts,  I  presume,  fully  warrant  my  assertion  that  the  shore  i.s 
a  deposit,  and  if  so,  it  only  remains  to  discover  the  cau^e,  which  ap- 
pears to  ine  to  be  as  follows : — hi  many  seasons  when  the  Severn  is 
swollen  into  a  most  impetuous  and  rapid  torrent,  vast  quantities  of  the 
rich  soils  of  Hereford,  Gloucester  and  Worcestershire  are  washed  down 
by  it,  and  the  particles  prevented  from  sinking  by  the  rapidity  of  the 
current,  they  are  thus  carried  along  until  the  stream  is  impeded  in  its 
progress  by  meeting  the  flowing  tide,  which  runs  in  this  channel  with 
a  velocity  of  from  .)  to  (J  miles  an  hour;  the  tide  being  the  more 
powerfid  of  the  two  currents,  and  having  a  set  towards  the  south-east, 
pushes  the  other  current  over  towards  the  nothern  shore,  wliere  the 
water  almost  stagnates  and  the  particles  settle  to  the  bottom.  I  am 
borne  out  in  this  opinion  by  the  fact  that  there  is  but  little  current  in 
the  space  between  high  and  low  water  mark,  a  distance  of  about  a 
mile,  and  wluch  always  sets  to  the  westward  whether  the  tide  be  ebb- 
ing or  flowing. 

At  the  high  water  mark  the  shore  suddenly  drops  about  six  feet 
perpendicularly,  the  profile  of  the  land  at  this  part  is  exceedingly 
curious,  and  accompanving  this  paper  I  have  sent  a  few  sections  taken 
at  the  more  prominent  parts,  and  consequently  most  exposed  to  the 
force  of  the  wave.  I  think  some  very  valuable  hints  might  be  taken 
from  them  in  the  construction  of  piers,  sea  walls,  and  other  works  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  the  sea.  These  sections  were  taken  with  mucli 
care,  and  may  be  fully  relied  on  for  accuracy. 

I  remain  your  most  obedient  servant, 

NOTA. 


EN'CRO.\CmiENT,S  AND  RECESSIONS  OF  THE  SEA. 

[The  following  article  is  from  the  Ciiujue  Ports  Chronicle  of  February  last, 
it  is  a  reply  to  a  paper  which  appeared  in  the  Journal,  page  04,  for  Feliniary 
last,  under  tlie  signature  E.] 

■\Ve  regret  that  "  E,"  while  he  questions  the  accuracy  of  our  theory,  has 
not  started  some  taugiljle  objection  for  us  to  grapple  with,  and  as  he  has  not; 
done  this,  we  must  content  ourselves  witli  a  reference  to  some  additional 
facts  in  corroboration  of  the  \"iew  we  hold  of  the  stdiject.  "We  find  that  as 
the  projections  of  the  Hastings  clift's  are  diminished,  additional  deposits  of 
beach  are  fonued  in  the  West  bay,  gradually  augmenting  also  at  Dungeness 
Point,  the  extremity  of  the  cm've  described  by  the  sea,  on  account  of  the 
land,  though  low,  consisting,  wc  believe,  of  chalk  or  other  formatiuii,  calcu- 
lated to  resist  the  action  of  the  waves.  It  is  also  a  fact  that,  as  the  Ness 
point  augments  to  seaward  by  deposits  of  beach,  the  sea  has  receutly  made 
considerable  encroachments  to  the  eastward,  or  side  opposed  to  the  prevail- 
ing current.  M'ithin  the  last  few  days  also,  a  temporarj'  headland  has  been 
caused  about  one  mile  s.w.  of  Dover,  by  the  fall  of  an  immense  quantity  of 
chalk,  denominated  Round-down  CUff.  Now  by  obstructing  the  parallel 
course  of  the  western  current,  it  woidd,  according  to  our  theory,  throw  the 
tide  in  with  additional  momentum  upon  the  weslern  pier  of  Dover  harbour, 
and  this,  we  believe,  has  since  been  reahzed,  and  so  eti'ectually  as  to  diminish 
the  bar  of  Ijeach,  which,  for  some  months  previously  to  this  accident,  had 
been  collecting  in  serious  and  unusual  quantities.  Nature  has  thus,  we  con- 
ceive, by  one  of  her  accidents,  demonstrated  the  means,  which  our  celebrated 
engineers  have  hitherto  searched  for  in  vain,  of  preventing  the  formation  of 
a  bar  of  beacli  at  the  mouth  of  Dover  harbour.  Viewing  that  locaUty  in 
connexion  with  our  theory,  we  have  no  doulit  that  if  masses  of  rock,  forming 
a  duraljlc  obstruction  in  tlie  nature  of  a  headland,  were  deposited  at  a  proper 
distance  from  the  entrance  of  the  harbour,  the  artificial  promontory  would 
give  such  a  curviUnear  and  additional  impetus  to  the  waves  and  current,  as 
would  tend  to  pass  tlie  beach  lieyoud  the  east  pier  of  the  harboiu:. 

Tlie  recent  south-westerly  gales  have,  however,  contributed  events  under 
our  immediate  observation  which,  in  our  humble  opinion,  have  triumphantly 
established  the  theory  we  have  Ijroached,  and  wliich  "  E  "  has  not  attacked 
on  any  specific  point.  The  circumstances  to  which  we  allude  are  the  follow- 
ing :  a  groyne  was  constructed  some  few  months  ago  on  the  beach  a  little  to 
the  westward  of  the  villas  between  Verulam  Place  and  Warriors'  Square,  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  esplanade  wall  to  the  eastward.  That  it  ef- 
fected by  retaining  the  beach,  which  effectually  repels  the  inroads  of  the 
waves.  Here,  then,  we  had  a  promontory  formed  on  a  miniature  scale,  and 
it  was  not  long  before  what  we  conceive  to  bo  tlie  great  lav/  of  nature,  viz., 
the  formation  of  a  'lay  exactly  proportioned  to  the  obstruction  caused  to  the 
sea  by  an  intervening  headland,  became  too  apparent.  Tiie  waters,  inter- 
rupted ill  their  course  by  the  beach  collected  at  the  groyae,  were  thrown 
witli  an  additional  impetus  to  the  eastward  of  the  groyne,  exactly,  we  beheve, 
proportioned  to  the  obstruction  they  had  encountered,  aii.l  after  repeated 
assaults  upon  tlie  wall,  have  undermined,  washed  if,  the  parade,  and  part  of 

Z  2 


IfiS 


Tiiii;  CIVIL  engtni:i:r  am)  aikiiitect.s  journal. 


[May, 


the  loail  awav.  clearing  out  a  bay,  wliieli,  from  iiieasiiremeiit,  we  liiid  about 
the  perpendicular  length  of  the  groyne,  which  was  the  passive  cause  of  the 
inroad.  Had  the  groyne  in  (picstion  not  been  erected,  althongh  the  wall 
woidd  have  been  undcrniiiied  and  tlirown  down  by  the  grovne  farther  west, 
at  the  South  Saxon  hotel,  yet  the  inroad  would  have  been  Icks  considerable  ; 
or  had  the  ctl'ccis  of  our  niini.itnrc  promontory  been  dindnishcd,  by  couslnict- 
ing  it  on  a  smaller  scale,  anil  ueutraliziug  its  mixrhieruiix  tendency  by  a  well 
graduated  lijie  of  groynes  to  the  eastward,  the  inroad  would  have  been  pre- 
vented. Croyncs  on  this  pan  of  Ihe  coast  arc  well  Known  to  have  the  clfeet 
of  saving  and  )n-otccting  land  to  the  westw.ird,  and  of  endangering  il  unless 
the  groynes  be  continued  to  the  eastward;  this  any  common  observer  would 
satisfactorily  demonstrate  to  "  E,"  and  in  explaining  tlie  grand  alterations  in 
the  face  of  ihe  coast,  by  reference  to  such  ndniature  causes,  we  lielievc,  our 
views  are  unquestionably  snbstantiateil,  as  far  as  the  encroaebnicnls  of  the 
sea  arc  concerned  ;  and  we  arc  efpially  conliilcnt  in  the  accuracy  of  our  views 
with  respect  to  the  recessions  of  the  sea,  that  they  occur  in  i)roportion  as 
the  headlands,  which,  nndcr  the  agency  of  the  prevailing  current,  formed 
bays,  are  dindnishcd.  This  would,  we  belic\e,  be  experimentally  proved  if 
the  groyne,  which  has  caused  the  injury  to  the  esjilanade  wall  at  St.  Mary 
Magdalen's,  were  reduced  in  length  and  height.  The  sea  would  throw  up 
heacli  wlLCre  it  has  recently  invadcil,  and  there  it  woidd  remain  to  an  extent 
exactly  proportioned  to  the  ilinunulion  of  tlic  weslerly  groyne  or  headland. 
Similar  reductions  have  taken  jilace  in  groynes  farther  to  the  eastward,  which 
had  been  constructed  on  too  large  a  scale,  and  their  destructive  tendency  to 
the  eastward  thereby  reduced  in  a  direct  ratio.  With  these  facts,  supporting 
the  theory  we  have  advanced  for  the  general  cause  of  the  encroachmeuts  and 
recessions  of  the  sea,  we  must,  mitil  "  E  "  succeeds  in  shaking  our  data, 
instead  of  merely  questioning  them,  assume  that  we  ha\e  ottered  a  satisfac- 
tory ex|danation  of  the  interesting  phenomena  afforded  Ijy  the  alteration  of 
the  Southern  coast,  and,  in  couc-'usion,  express  a  conviction  that  if  13eachy 
Head  and  tlie  Hastings  cliffs  were  severally  extended  to  the  distance  sea- 
ward tliat  now  exists  belweeti  Pevensey  castle  ami  the  sea,  ami  also  between 
Winchelsca,'-  and  the  present  high-water  mark,  such  an  elongation  of  the 
obstructing  headlands  would  give  such  an  additional  impetus  to  the  sea,  as 
to  cause  it  again  to  wash  the  base  of  the  hills  on  which  those  towns  are 
situated.  We  have  affirmed  tliat  the  per|ienilieular  line,  from  the  onliuary 
high-water  mark  to  the  furthest  discernible  inland  existence  of  beach,  is  equal 
to  the  original  projection  of  the  headlands  beyond  their  jiresent  termini,  and 
we  believe  it  to  lie  correel.  We,  however,  invite  inquiry  on  the  sidjject,  as 
also  to  the  cause  of  the  rei/iilnr  hiyh-vater  marhs  successively  following  each 
other  for  a  consiilerable  distance  on  Lydd  beach  ;  the  early  ones  being  covered 
with  green  sward,  evidently  the  produce  of  ages. 


RESISTANCE  TO  RAII.M'AY  TRAINS. 

T)i\  I.arihier  rcccnlli/  ihlh'eivil  at  ihe  Atlienii'vm,  Manchester,  a  eourse  of 
lectures  "  On  the  resistance  ofraitieay  trains,  the  effects  of  gradients,  and 
ihe  i/cnerul  economy  of  steam  power." 

Lecture  I. 

Dr.  Lardner  commenced  by  observing,  that  it  was  a  strong  examjile  of  the 
manner  in  which  practical  matters  were  conducted  in  this  country,  that  they 
liad  been  now  ten  years,  with  all  the  extraordinary  effects  of  railways  passing 
under  their  notice,  stinmlating  their  attention  and  calling  up  the  wonder  of 
all  parts  of  Europe,  and  yet  to  this  hour  the  general  jiroblem,  the  solution  of 
which  was  the  actual  amount  of  resistance  to  railway  trains,  nught  be  con- 
sidered to  remain,  so  far  as  the  engineering  profession  was  concerned,  with- 
out solution. 

It  was  not  till  a  very  recent  period  that,  even  on  common  roads,  the 
auunuit  of  this  resistance  had  been  made  the  subject  of  inquiry.  An  instru- 
ment bad,  however,  been  invented  by  Mr.  M'Ncil,  the  engineer,  who  had 
instituted  experiments  to  ascertain  the  actual  resistance  on  turnpike  roads, 
which  he  had  fouml  to  be  about  one  thirtieth  jiart  of  the  load.  Now,  the 
])rinciple  was  ccpially  applicalile  to  common  roads  as  to  railways,  that  the 
resistance  ^von]d  be  diminished  in  the  proportion  in  which  they  enlarged  the 
wheel  ;  but  when  they  increased  the  si/e,  they  also  iiu'reased  the  weiglit,  so 
that  there  was  a  jiractical  linut  to  the  dinnnisbiug  of  resistance  in  this  nuin- 
ner.  The  average  resistance  which  a  load  ]tlaec<l  on  a  raih\'ay  offered  lo  the 
tractive  ])Ower,  was  intiniafely  comieeted  with  the  principle  n))on  which  rail- 
Wiiys  themselves  were  constructed ;  and  this  connexion  had  been  largely 
acte<l  n]>OM  by  the  legislature  in  all  incjuirics  concerning  contested  railway 
bills.  It  ha<l  been  assumed  in  jiarliament  that  an  engine  luight  be  expected 
to  jiull  a  load,  with  all  the  necessary  ex]»edition,  u)i  an  inclirted  plane,  pro- 
virled  thai  inclined  jilane  olVcreil  not  more  than  double  the  resistance  which 
tlie  engine  had  op])Osed  to  it  on  a  level.  That  had  been  laid  down  and  acteil 
upon  in  parlianu'ut  as  a  species  of  standing  order.  The  principle  acted  upon 
was,  that  the  resistance  upon  a  level  wotdd  be  abocd  !l  ll.s.  a  tcui,  and,  conse- 
queidly,  an  inclination  which  resisted  1  in  2.')0,  was  an  incliuatifm  u))  v\hich 
the  engine  might  be  expected  to  work  with  a  full  speed.  Upon  this  princiiile 
the  sections  of  all  Ihe  railways  in  the  country  had  been  laid.  But  the  fact 
was,  that  the  resistance  depended  upon  eiilirely  difi'erent  principles.     In  the 

'  Both  places  are  said  to  have  been  .washed  by  the  sea.— Vide  map,  &c., 
"  Camden  s  Britannia." 


iuijniricj  which  took  place,  no  one  ever  hinted  that  the  resistance  depended 
upon  the  sjieed — no  one  suspected  for  a  nmnient  that  there  was  more  resist- 
ance at  thirty  miles  an  hour  than  at  one  nnle  an  hour.  He  was  quite  sure 
that  many  would  be  perfectly  astonished  at  this  statement,  but  it  was  a  fact 
established  by  abundant  evidence,  and  injunncrable  experiments  made  by 
pbilos()l>hers  at  ditfereut  times  and  in  dltfci'cnt  countries,  that  resistance  de- 
pcmltMl  upon  friction,  and  did  m)t  dcpcml  \\\y»\  speed  ;  that  so  far  as  resist- 
ance to  any  degree  depends  iqion  the  friction  of  the  axles  upon  their  bear- 
ings, or  the  rolling  motion  of  the  fires  upon  the  road,  it  was  demonstrable 
that  the  resistance  was  the  same  at  all  speeds  whafevi'i-,  whether  twenty, 
thirty,  fortv,  or  fifty  miles  an  lioiu"  Never  supjiusiiig  there  was  any  other 
cause,  they  at  once  assumed  that  resistance,  at  all  speeds,  was  cither  .actually 
or  nearly  the  same.     This  was  the  source  of  the  eiTor. 

One  of  the  standing  orders  of  iiarliamcnt  was,  that  whenever  a  radway 
had  a  cm've,  with  a  radius  of  less  than  a  mile,  the  commiffee  must  make  a 
sjiecial  repoi't  of  such  a  ciu've,  iqion  the  supposition  that  it  was  attended  with 
increased  resistance  or  danger.  The  ])oi)nlar  idea  was,  that  when  the  wheels 
got  to  the  curve,  the  outer  flange  of  tlie  wheel  mounted  ujion  the  rail,  by  the 
conical  form  of  the  tire,  while  the  other  fell  from  off  the  rail ;  thus  the  one 
wheel  acquired  a  diameter  virtually  greater  than  the  other;  that,  therefore, 
one  revolution  of  the  outer  wheel,  having  a  virtually  gre.iter  diameter,  would 
carry  it  iivor  a  greater  space  than  one  revolution  of  the  inner  wheel ;  ami 
that  the  two  things  would  accommodate  each  other  so  that  the  outer  wheel 
gets  round  a  larger  jiorfion  of  the  rail,  while  the  inner  wheel,  being  virtually 
smaller,  gets  over  a  smaller  space,  and  that  in  this  way  the  cone  of  the  wheel 
accomplished  the  thing.  Never  was  there  a  more  consummate  lueehanieal 
blunder.  The  fact  was,  the  cone  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  traversing  of 
the  carriage  round  a  curve  ;  and  it  was  entirely  the  mechanical  action  of  the 
flange  pressing  on  the  rails. 

He  had  alluded  to  one  or  two  circumstances  connected  with  the  practi- 
cable and  jirobable  speed  likely  to  be  attained  on  railways,  and  the  means  by 
which  flmt  speed  might  be  attained.  Since  the  great  questions  which  had 
been  agitated  respecting  the  effect  which  an  increased  width  of  rails  would 
have  on  railway  transit,  and  the  effect  which  very  large  drawing  wheels,  of 
great  diameter,  v\onld  have  on  certain  railways,  the  question  of  veiy  vastly 
increased  speed  had  acquired  considerable  interest.  Very  recently,  two  ex- 
periments had  been  made,  attended  with  most  surprising  results.  One  was 
the  case  of  the  Monmouth  express.  A  despatch  was  cariicd  from  Twyford 
to  London  on  the  Great  ^^'estern  Railway,  a  distance  of  thirty  ndles,  in  thirt y- 
fi\e  minutes.  This  distance  was  traversed  very  favouralily,  and  being  subject 
to  less  of  those  casual  interruptions  to  which  a  longer  trip  would  be  liable 
it  was  performed  at  the  rate  of  six  miles  in  seven  minutes,  or  six  sevenths  of 
a  mile  in  one  minute,  or  SGO-Tths  of  a  mile  (very  nearly  51 3  miles)  an  hour. 
He  had  experimented  on  speed  very  largely  on  most  of  the  railways  of  the 
country,  and  he  had  never  jiersonally  witnessed  that  speed.  The  evaporating 
jiower  of  those  engines  was  enormous.  Another  performance,  which  he  had 
asceiiained  since  he  arrived  in  this  neighbourhood,  showed  that  great  ,is  the 
one  was  just  mentioned,  they  nuist  not  ascribe  it  to  any  jieculiar  circumstance 
attending  the  laige  engines  and  wide  gauge  of  the  (Jreat  Western  liailway. 
An  express  was  desp.atched  a  short  time  since  from  Liverpool  to  Birming- 
ham, and  its  speed  was  stated  in  the  papers.  One  engine,  with  its  tender, 
went  from  Liverpool,  or  rather  from  the  top  of  the  tunnel  at  Edge  Hill,  to 
l!irmingli.iiu,  in  two  hours  and  thirty-five  minutes.  IJut  he  had  inquired 
into  the  circmnstances  of  that  trip,  and  it  ajqieared  that  the  time  the  engine 
was  actually  in  motion,  after  deducting  a  variety  of  stoppages,  was  only  one 
hour  and  fifty  mimites  in  traversing  lunety-seven  miles.  The  feat  on  the 
(ireat  A\'estern  was  performed  on  a  dead  level,  while,  on  the  Grand  Junction, 
the  engine  first  encountered  the  Whistou  incline,  where  the  line  rises  1  in  90 
for  a  nide  and  a  half ;  and  after  passing  Crewe,  it  encountered  a  plane  of 
three  miles  to  the  Madeley  summit,  rising  20  feet  a  mile,  succeeded  by 
another  plane,  for  three  nnles  more,  rising  30  feet  a  mile ;  yet,  with  all  these 
imiiedimcnfs,  it  performed  the  ninety-seven  miles  in  one  hour  and  fifty  mi- 
nutes, or  110  minutes;  consequently  the  distance  traversed  in  each  minute 
was  97  divided  by  110,  or  -^)2y^,  nearly  5,'i  miles  an  hour — a  speed  which,  he 
confessed,  if  he  had  not  evidence  of  it,  he  eoidd  scarcely  have  believed  to  be 
within  the  boumls  of  mechanical  possibility.  The  engine  which  performed 
this  feat  had  driving  wheels  of  5.^  feet  diameter;  their  circumference  would 
be  \1\  feet.  Taking  the  speed  at  5.'^  miles  an  hour,  it  was  within  a  very 
minufi' fraction  of  80  feet  in  a  second  of  time.  This  was  not  the  greatest 
speed  of  the  engine,  but  the  average  speed  spread  over  97  miles,  and  there 
could  be  little  doubt  that  it  must  have  exceeded  sixty  miles  an  hour  during 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  distance.  Hr.  Lardner  concluded  by  saying, 
"  there  was  as  yet  nothing  to  satisfy  us  that  a  much  greater  speed  was  at- 
fainablc  by  the  adoption  of  the  very  large  scale  or  gauge  of  r.ailway  which 
had  been  thought  desirable  by  fliose  who  were  interested  in  the  Great  Wes- 
fi'ru  Line." 

Lecturi!  1 1. 
In  this  lecture  the  Doctor  directed  attention  to  a  remarkable  line  of  dis- 
tinction which  existed  bclween  inclin.'itions  upon  r.iilways  of  different  kinds. 
If,  for  instance,  they  had  a  gradient  which  would  fall  at  the  rate  of  one  foot 
in  a  thousand,  the  train  would  not  roll  down,  because  the  gr.ivifafion  would 
be  insnflicicut  to  overcome  the  mechanical  resistance.  But  suppose  the 
acclivity  were  increased,  so  that  the  gravitation  would  just  b.ilance  the  fric- 
tion, that  inclination  would  be  what  in  mechanics  was  called  the  angle  of 


1«J0.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCIIITIilC TS  JOURNAL. 


IfiO 


repose.  The  amount  of  Ibis  inelinatiori  had  lieen  made  t!ie  suliject  of  inueli 
<Usi)ute  ;  I)ut  it  iiail  lieen  geneially  assumeil  to  be  1  in  250,  or  at  tlic  rate  of 
alioiit  twenty  feet  in  the  mile.  Any  incUjiation  greater  tlian  tliis  would 
cause  tlic  train  to  move  down  spontaneoubly;  and  it  bad  l)een  assumed  in 
railway  investigations  before  committees  of  jiarlianient,  tbat  tbc  train,  under 
such  circumstances,  would  {loul)le  its  velocity  every  second  of  time.  The 
inevitable  conehiMon  to  be  drawn  from  this  was,  that  if  they  liad  a  steep  in- 
clined plane  of  sutticient  length,  the  consequence  would  be  an  indetiuite  in- 
crease of  speed  till  they  actually  acquired  a  velocity  of  100(1  miles  au  hour. 
Now,  they  wouhl  after  this  hardly  crcilit  the  lesults  which  actual  experiment 
gave.  iSotbing  could  be  easier  than  tlie  jn'oblem  to  determine  the  actual 
resistance  from  the  luoliou  of  trains  ou  railways,  because  it  was  a  uiattcr  of 
easy  mathematical  calculation  to  predict  whiit  the  velocity  .icquired  at  the 
end  of  the  first  miiiute  would  lie,  and,  ,'iccording  to  the  rule  laid  down,  tbat 
it  would  be  twice  as  great  at  tlie  eml  of  the  second  minute,  and  so  on.  I!y 
comparing  this  with  the  velocity  tlie  train  actually  acquired,  the  comparison 
would  furnish  tliem  with  an  easy  clue.  \J\mu  this  principle,  Dr.  Lardner 
luid  jiroceeded  in  a  series  of  experiments  made  on  the  Winston  Plane,  whicli 
has  a  fall  of  1  in  90.  They  had  four  coaches,  the  gross  weight  of  which 
was  15!  tons,  and  these  coaches  were  propelled  along  the  siunmit  level  to 
tlie  brink  of  the  plane,  until  a  velocity  of  about  29  miles  au  hour  was  given 
to  them,  and  then  the  engine  was  detacbed,  leaving  them  to  move  down. 
By  means  of  stakes  placed  on  the  side  of  the  line,  they  were  enabled  to  re- 
gister the  length  of  time  it  took  to  descend  every  successive  110  yards. 
They  commenced  their  descent  from  the  summit  of  the  plane  at  a  \clocily  of 
nearly  thirty  uules  an  h:)ur,  which,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  increased 
fo  31:J  miles  an  hour,  and  then  the\'  fouiul  that  gravity  could  do  no  more  for 
them.  Instead  of  going  at  the  frightfid  velocity  anticipated  by  parliament, 
they  found  they  got  into  the  most  uiuform  rate  of  motion  at  the  third  or 
fom-tli  stake,  after  which  there  was  no  increase  of  velocity  whatsoever  ;  and 
at  this  uniform  motion  they  coulinucd  to  descend  tdl  they  reached  the  end 
of  the  plane.  They  subndtted  this  experimetit  to  all  possible  tests,  by  in- 
creasing the  weight  of  the  carriages  to  18  tons,  but  it  only  gave  them  an 
increased  velocity  at  starting  of  33}  miles,  the  train  descending  at  a  uniform 
speed  the  remainder  of  the  distance. 

Upon  these  experiments  Dr.  Lardner  proceeded  to  remark — "  There  is  an 
important  thing  connected  with  this  which  I  will  briefly  explain  to  you. 
The  force  that  moves  the  train  down  an  inclined  plane  is,  as  you  will  see,  the 
gravitation  of  the  weight  of  the  train  down  the  plane.  This  gravitation 
woidd,  until  altogether  balanced  by  some  resisting  force,  acquire  an  accele- 
rated motion.  So  long  as  the  resistance  to  the  descending  train  is  less  than 
the  gravitation  down  the  plane,  so  long  will  the  excess  of  gravitating  force 
down  the  |ilane  produce  an  acceleration  of  velocity,  he  it  more  or  less.  But 
as  soon  as  the  resistance  becomes  equal  to  the  gravitating  force,  then  there 
will  no  longer  be  any  acceleration;  the  train  will  no  longer  acquire  an  in- 
creasing speed.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  not  lose  speed ;  if  it  did,  then 
the  inference  would  be,  that  the  retarding  force  exceeded  the  gravitation; 
out  they  acquire  an  equilibrium,  and  as  soon  as  the  resisting  force  increases 
to  that  point  that  it  is  exactly  equal  to  the  gravitation,  then  the  motion  is 
uniform.  The  inference  we  deduced,  therefore,  was  this: — that  at  3\-p^ 
miles  an  ho'ir,  the  gravitation  of  this  train  down  the  plane  of  1  in  96  was 
equal  to  the  resistance ;  in  other  words,  that  the  resistance  to  that  speed 
was  Jj  part  of  the  weight.  And  you  will  see  that  a  necessary  consccincnce 
of  this  is,  that  a  train  of  equal  weight,  placed  ou  a  level,  and  drawn  along  a 
level  at  the  same  speed  of  31}  miles  au  hour,  the  resistance  which  it  would 
oppose  to  the  moving  power  would  be  tjV  part  of  the  whole  load.  This  alone 
will  show  you  the  extent  of  the  error  which  these  experiments  exposed  ;  for 
the  common  notion  before  was,  that  the  resistance  in  all  cases  was  ttjtt  I'art 
of  the  load,  or  somewhere  about  9  fts.  per  ton  ;  whereas  it  appeared  that  it 
was  in  this  case  Jj  part  of  the  load,  or  about  23  fts.  per  ton  ;  so  that  the 
engineer's  estimate  woidd  be  in  error  to  the  inconceivable  extent  of  mistaking 
resistance  of  23  lbs.  for  a  resistance  of  9tbs.  per  ton." 
Dr.  Lardner  stated  that  he  liad  tried  similar  experiments  on  the  plane  of 
the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  which  descends  from  Madeley  towards  Crewe, 
at  the  rate  of  1  in  177  for  three  miles;  afterwards  descending  at  the  rate  of 
1  in  2G5,  followed  by  another  descent  of  1  in  330.  The  coaches  loaded  at 
IH  tons  were  moved  down  this  plane  in  exactly  the  same  way,  the  wind  being 
fair,  and  they  got  a  velocity  of  21:1  niiles  an  hour,  and  with  this  velocity  they 
continued  to  descend  the  tliree  planes.  Ou  making  inquiries  of  the  engine- 
man,  he  found  that  the  steam  was  never  cut  ott"  in  descending  these  planes, 
so  that,  instead  of  accelerating  the  engines  at  a  dangerous  speed,  as  was  an- 
ticipated by  the  parliamentary  committee,  they  were  actually  insufficient  to 
propel  them  at  a  sufficient  speed  for  the  work  of  the  road.  The  result  of  all 
the  experiments  he  made  on  the  Madeley  plane  was,  that  he  never  met  with 
an  instance  of  propelling  trains  down,  with  a  fair  wind,  at  a  specil  of  more 
than  23  miles  au  hour.  From  a  comparison  of  the  experiments  made  at  the 
Madeley  and  Whiston  ])lanes,  Ur.  Lardner  said,  "  I  made  a  calculation,  from 
which  it  appears  tbat  in  the  first  experiment  of  the  two  trains,  tbat  portion 
of  the  resistance  which  is  due  to  friction  amounted  to  9fl  lbs.  only,  while  that 
which  is  due  to  the  atmosphere  amounted  to  268  tks.  In  the  second  experi- 
ment, with  eighteen  tons,  the  portion  of  resistance  due  to  mechanical  causes 
amounts  to  100  lbs.,  while  that  which  arises  from  the  atmosphere  amounts 
to  321  lbs.,  at  only  33  miles  au  hour'.  One  of  the  objections  was,  that  the 
train  was  too  light,  and  that  un  fail-  inference  coidd  be  drawni  from  four  car- 
riages.    We,  therefore,  tried  trains  of  six  and  eight  carriages.     Several  ex- 


periments were  made  down  very  steep  planes — that  of  Whiston  being  1  in 
96,  and  that  of  Sutton  1  in  89.  In  the  first  cxpciimeut  of  six  carriages,  (be 
wind  was  against  us.  Duv.n  the  plane  of  1  in  89,  we  could  not  get  more 
speed  than  32^  miles  an  hour.  At  this  speed  the  resistance  was  equal  to 
the  gravitation.  But  w  ith  the  w  ind  favourable  dow  n  the  same  plane,  we  got 
37. \  miles  au  hour,  and  a  mean  of  these  two  would  be  about  35  miles  an 
hour.  On  the  \\  liislon  |ilane,  1  in  96,  with  the  wind  adverse  to  us,  we  only 
got  27~,  or  nearly  28  miles  an  hour,  but  with  the  wind  favourable,  we  got 
31  miles  an  hour,  the  mean  of  these  being  about  31.  In  both  these  cases, 
both  on  the  Sutton  and  Whistou  ]>lanes,  you  see  the  evident  efl'ects  of  the 
wind.  The  mean  of  the  two,  in  these  cases,  gives,  on  a  less  steep  jilane,  a 
less  velocity  than  on  a  steeper  plane  the  mean  did  in  the  other  cases.  It  is 
remarkable,  ami  very  satisfactory  in  coulirmation  of  the  former  experiment, 
that  we  had  six  carriages  in  a  calm  descending  the  Sutton  ])lane,  and  what 
was  our  uniform  sjicfd  ?  35^  miles  an  hour,  the  atmosphere  being  calm.  In 
two  other  cases  down  the  same  phme,  with  adverse  wind,  we  got  a  speed  of 
32J  nnles  au  hour;  with  favourable  wind,  37.\  miles,  the  mean  of  which  is 
3Ji  miles  ;  so  tbat  in  a  calm  we  got  a  nicaii  between  the  speed  with  a  fa- 
vourable  and  that  with  an  adverse  wind.  .Ml  these  harmonies  in  the  results 
are  so  many  corroborations  of  the  principle  which  they  develop." 

Lecture  III. 

In  this  lecture  the  Doctor  cxidained  a  variety  of  experiments  made  on 
railways,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  source  of  resistance.  He  found  tliat  an 
enlarged  temjiorary  frontage  constructed  with  boards,  of  probably  double  the 
magnitude  of  tbc  ordinary  "front  of  the  train,  caused  an  increase  of  resisfauce 
so  trifling  and  insiguifiennt  as  to  be  entirely  uuwortliy  of  account  in  practice. 
Seeing  that  the  source  of  resistance,  so  far  as  the  air  was  concerned,  was  not 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  form  or  magnitude  of  the  front,  it  next  occurred  to  him 
to  inquire  whether  it  might  not  arise  from  the  general  magnitude  of  the  train 
front  ends,  toj)  and  all.  -An  experiment  was  made  to  test  this ;  a  train  of 
waggons  was  prepared  with  temporary  sides  and  cuds,  so  as  to  rcpiesent  for 
all  practical  puriioscs,  a  train  of  carriages,  which  was  moved  from  the  sum- 
mit of  a  series  of  inclined  planes,  by  gravity,  till  it  was  brought  to  rest;  it 
was  next  moved  down  with  the  high  sides  and  ends  laid  flat  on  the  platform 
of  the  wagaons,  and  the  result  was  very  remarkable.  The  whole  frontage  of 
the  latteiCinelndiiig  the  wheels  and  every  thing,  a  complete  transverse  sec- 
tion of  the  wagons,  measured  24  feet  square,  and  with  the  sides  and  cuds  up, 
so  as  to  i>resent  a  cross  section,  it  amounted  to  nearly  -18  square  feet.  The 
uniform  velocity,  attained  on  a  plane  of  1  in  177,  without  the  sides  up,  was 
nearly  23  miles' an  hour;  whereas,  with  the  sides  up,  it  was  only  17  miles 
an  hour;  so  that,  as  the  resistance  would  be  in  projiorfion  to  the  square  of 
the  velocity,  other  things  being  the  same,  there  would  be  a  very  considerable 
diflrcreuce,'duc  to  tbat  ditlVreuce  of  velocity.  Then,  at  the  foot  of  the  second 
plane,  while  the  sides  were  down,  an  undiminished  velocity  remained  of  19J 
miles  au  hour,  whereas,  with  the  sides  up,  it  was  reduced  to  Si  miles  an 
lioiu-;  so  that  a  very  extensive  difterence  was  produced.  They  would  see  at 
once,  that  this  was  a  very  decisive  experiment  to  prove  that  the  great  source 
of  resistance  was  to  be  found  in  the  bulk,  and  not  the  mere  section  or  the 
form,  whether  of  the  front  or  the  back  of  a  train;  but  simjily  in  the  general 
bulk  of  the  body  carried  through  the  air.  It  was  very  likely  to  arise  from 
the  successive  displacements  of  a  quantity  of  the  atmosphere  equal  to  the 
bulk  of  the  body  ;  or  still  more  proliahly.'from  the  fact  of  the  extensive  sides 
of  the  train;  aiid  indeed  there  was  little  doubt  that  the  magnitude  of  the 
sides  had  a  very  material  influence  ;  for,  if  they  consider  what  is  going  on  in 
the  body  of  air' extending  from  either  side  of  a  train  of  coaches,  they  would 
soon  see  what  a  mechanical  power  must  be  exercised  upon  it.  Thus,  when 
a  train  is  moving  rapidly,  the  moving  power  bad  not  only  to  pull  the  train 
on,  but  it  had  to  drag  a  succession  of  columns  of  air,  at  ditferent  velocities, 
one  outside  the  other,  to  a  considerable  extent  outside  the  train  ;  and  it  did 
more,  for  it  overcame  their  friction  one  upon  the  other;  for  as  these  columns 
of  air  were  at  dift'erent  velocities,  the  one  would  be  rubbing  against  the 
other  ;  and  all  this  the  moving  power  had  to  encounter.  This  would  go  far 
to  explain  the  great  magnitude  of  resistance  found,  and  its  entire  discordance 
with  any  thing  iirevionslv  suspected. 

Dr.  Lardner  next  proceeded  to  consider  the  practical  bearings  which  the 
experiments  he  had  detailed  would  have  on  the  construction  of  railways. 
From  these  experiments  a  two-fold  fact  was  deducible :  first,  there  w as  un- 
questionably a  great  amount  of  resistance,  and  secondly,  this  resistance  had 
a  material  dependence  on  the  velocity;  it  dimiuished  in  a  very  rapid  pro|)or- 
tion  as  the  speed  was  diminished.  If,  therefore,  by  slaokening  the  speed, 
thev  could  relieve  the  engine  from  any  considerable  portion  of  the  resistance 
opposed  to  it,  thev  had  at  once  a  ground  for  throwing  ovei  board  all  the  ob- 
jections wdiieh  hail  been  raised  against  sections  of  railways  which  had  con- 
siderable gradients.  It  was  asserted  that  the  resistance  was  a  resistance 
quite  independent  of  the  speed,  and  that  its  average  amount  was  quite  equal 
to  the  gravity  down  a  plane  with  a  fall  of  twenty  feet  a  mile.  Both  propo- 
sitions had  been  proved  to  be  false.  The  resistance  was  not  constant;  it 
depended  on  the  speed,  and  its  average  amount  was  equal  to  a  great  deal 
more  than  twenty  feet  a  mile.  The  gradient  that  represented  the  average 
resistance,  instead  of  being  twenty  feet  a  mile,  was  probably  fifty  feet  ;  and 
instead  of  liavinc  no  power  of  limiting  the  speed,  they  hail  a  power  to  which 
there  was  scarcely  a  practical  limit.  The  lecturer  stated  that  he  bad  been 
ridiculed  for  the  opinion  he  bad  advanced  before  the  committee  of  the  House 


170 


THE  CTA^IL  ENGINEER  AND  .VRCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May. 


of  Commons,  tliat  the  Sniitlianiiitou  Itaihvay  Section,  of  twenty  feet  to  the 
mile,  was  as  inactically  good  as  tliat  of  tlie  Great  M'estern,  wbicli  was  on  a 
(lead  level,  lie  had  made  that  assertion  on  the  ground  that  iu  tlie  descent 
tliere  would  he  as  nuieh  advantage  gained  as  disadvantage  to  he  encountered 
iii  the  ascent ;  and,  excejit  tlie  inconvenience  which  would  result  from  the 
inequality  of  speed,  heing  at  one  time  fast  and  at  another  time  slow,  there 
would  he  no  otlier  inconvenience  or  disadvantage  worth  mentioning.  And, 
therefore,  he  did  inntend  that  it  was  an  extremely  improvident  .and  unwise 
expenditure  to  lavish  millions  in  cutting  through  elevations  and  filling  up 
valleys  hy  lorgo  euil)ankments,  and  constructing  tunnels  and  viaducts,  and 
all  tlie  other  cx|)cnsive  works,  to  ohtaiu  a  dead  level.  Evperiments  had 
since  heen  made  which  jiroved  the  conclusions  he  had  arrived  at  to  he  suh- 
stanvially  correct.  These  ex[)eriments  had  heen  made  hy  Mr.  Wood,  the  en- 
gineer of  the  Liverpool  and  .Manchester  Railway,  on  the  Grand  Junction  Line. 
A  train  of  twelve  carriages,  each  weighing  five  tons,  was  attached  to  the 
lJei-/ii  engine,  the  gross  load  heiiig  ahoiit  ii2  tons.  This  was  started  from 
Liverpool  to  Birmingham,  under  peculiarly  favourahlc  circumstanres  as  re- 
garded the  calmness  of  the  day  and  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  engine 
heing  allowed  ta  do  its  own  work,  unassisted  on  the  various  inclines ;  the 
velocity  of  speed  throughout  the  whole  way  from  Liverpool  to  Birmingham 
and  hack  again  fr.im  Birmingham  to  Liverpool,  was,  of  course,  accurately  as- 
certained, and  if  the  theory  which  he  had  endeavoured  to  develop  was  cor- 
rect, they  ought  to  find  that  the  average  speed  in  ascending  and  descending 
the  inclinations  would  he  nearly  equal  to  the  sjieed  they  ohtained  on  the 
level  parts  of  tlie  line.  There  were  several  jilaucs  along  the  line,  and  taking 
the  steepest  tirst,  viz.  1  in  177,  they  ascrnded  that  plane  at  the  uniform 
velocity  of  22}  miles  an  hour,  and  descended  it  at  the  rate  of  Hi  miles  an 
hour,  the  average  heiug  as  nearly  as  possihle  31eJ-  in  ascending  and  descend- 
ing. The  ascent  and  descent  of  the  other  gradients  on  the  hne  gave  the 
same,  or  very  neaily  the  same,  results — the  average  speed  varying  little  from 
■jl  miles  an  hour.  There  was  a  cousiderahle  portion  of  the  line  level,  and 
tlie  speed  iqiou  that  portion  was  31  miles,  heing  just  the  same,  allowing  for 
inevitahle  small  discrepancies,  as  the  average  speed  upon  the  inclines  up  and 
down  the  line.  The  plain  inference  which  Dr.  Lardner  drew  from  these  ex- 
jieriments  was  this:  that  the  trains  hctween  Liverpool  and  iiinniiigliain  ]ier- 
fonned  their  journeys  in  just  as  short  a  time  as  they  would  do  if  the  line 
was  a  dead  level  from  terminus  to  terminus.  He,  therefore,  considered  it 
unadvisahle  to  expend  money  in  attaining  very  fiat  sections,  gradients  not 
exceeding  thirty  feet  a  mile  heing,  iu  his  opiuion,  practically  as  good  as  a  flat 
and  dead  level. 

Dr.  Lardner  next  ohserved  that  it  was  inexpedient  to  lavish  money  in 
avoiding  curves  of  a  less  radius  than  a  mile,  as  no  danger  could,  he  helieved, 
attend  a  curve  having  a  raihus  of  half  a  mile,  perhaps  less.  It  was,  likewise, 
apparent  that  it  was  useless  to  lavish  cajiital  on  expedients  for  greatly  di- 
minishing friction ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  adoption  of  wheels  of  a  large 
diameter,  for  it  was  clear  that  friction  afforded  hut  an  insignificant  p.art  of 
the  sources  of  resistance,  while,  by  increasing  the  bulk  of  the  carriage,  they 
gave  a  greater  frontage,  and  increased  the  resistance  from  other  causes. 
Further,  observed  Dr.  Lardner,  it  seemed  probable  that  they  should  not  with 
practical  trains  attain,  in  the  present  state  of  mechanical  science,  those  ex- 
traordinary s])eeds  which  they  were  accustomed  to  hope  for  some  time  since. 
It  was  not  at  all  likely  that  they  should  ever  move  at  the  rate  of  a  hundred 
miles  an  hour,  for  the  resistance  due  to  the  velocity  would  increase  iu  so 
enormous  a  proportion,  that  it  would  become  an  opponent  too  formidable  for 
any  available  power  to  overcome ;  still  less  was  it  likely  that  those  speeds 
would  ever  he  ohtained  with  profit.  Upon  this  subject  Dr.  Lardner  remarked, 
"  In  some  exiierience  of  railway  travelling,  I  have  never  witnessed  a  speed 
exceeding '15  miles  an  hour;  I  did  once  accomplish  that  speed  with  four 
coaches,  hut  only  for  a  short  distance.  Jlr.  Woods  has  told  me,  that  he  has 
himself  gone  48  miles  an  lioiir;  hut  that  was  not  for  any  considerable  dis- 
tance. Let  it  he  remembered,  that  great  speed  might  he  attained  in  this 
way.  You  may  get  an  engine  with  plenty  of  steam  ;  you  may  screw  the 
safety-valve  down  so  as  to  get  a  surcharge  of  steain  ;  you  may  ]mt  no  load 
on  the  engine,  so  as  to  diminish  the  resistance ;  and  you  may  run  it  down  a 
gradually  declining  gradient  till  you  exhaust  all  the  steam  in  her  boiler  upon 
a  falling  gradient.  Then,  if  all  these  things  be  done,  if  the  rails  be  clean, 
and  if  a  correct  account  he  ke]it,  then  there  will  he  no  denying  that  great 
speed  has  been  attained.  But  when  we  s|ie.ik  of  great  speeds,  this  experi- 
ment, the  whole  length  of  the  thaiid  Junction  Railway  and  back,  at  the  axe- 
rage  rate  of  .'51  miles  an  hour  tluough  the  whole  distance,  with  twelve 
coaches,  was  a  very  respectable  performance  indeed,  iu  the  present  state  of 
locomotive  power." 

LECTuau  IV. 

Dr.  Lardner  said  there  were  two  prliici])les  on  which  railways  were  gene- 
rally constructed  : — First,  by  departing  as  little  an  possible  from  the  natural 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  distributing  the  inclinations  very  generally  and 
evenly  over  the  whole  length  of  the  line,  in  which  case  such  power  was  given 
to  the  engine  as  to  make  it  pull  up  the  requisite  loads  with  requisite  speed. 
Others,  on  the  eoutiary,  proceeded  on  the  principle  of  concentration,  and  in- 
stead of  distributing  the  inclinations  over  the  entire  length,  they  threw  them 
all  into  one  place,  as  in  the  ease  of  the  Whistou  and  Sutton  planes  on  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  and  it  followed,  as  a  uccessai-j'  eonse- 
queoce,  that  the  engines  which  were  adajited  for  working  the  greater  part  of 


such  lines  nearly  ou  a  level,  could  not  easily  draw  the  loads  up  the  inclina- 
tion, which  must  therefore  be  done  hy  additional  engines  ;  hut  if  it  had  been 
expedient  to  make  the  whole  line  with  inclinations  like  those  of  the  Wliiston 
and  Sutton  jilauex,  there  xvonid  not  have  been  the  least  difiiculty  in  working 
it,  and  those  planes  would  have  heen  ascended  with  just  as  much  speed  as  that 
part  of  the  line  was  now  traversed  which  was  nearly  level. 

Dr.  Larihier  next  iiroceeded  to  consider  the  source  of  the  jiower  of  the  en- 
gine, tlie  niauuer  iu  which  it  was  produced,  and  the  mode  in  which  it  was 
adapted  to  uac.  They  should  naturally  suppose  that  an  eleriient  in  eiigiue- 
niaking  of  such  vital  importance  as  the  (luantity  of  surface  which  ought  to  he 
pro\ided  to  receive  the  action  of  lire,  in  order  to  produce  a  given  tpiantity  of 
evaporation,  ought  to  be  known  to  engineers,  but  they  would  probably  he  sur- 
prised to  find  that  even  the  best  engineers  were  as  ignoiant  of  it  as  themstdves. 
No  two  of  them  could  .tgree,  and  they  ilitfered,  not  only  in  small  quantities, 
hut  even  as  much  as  100  per  cent.  Anolhcr  thing  of  iinportanee  was  the 
magnituile  of  the  grate.  Sn:iie  held,  that  a  sijuare  foot  of  grate  per  horse 
liowcr  was  siifhcient ;  some  allowed  more,  and  some  less ;  hut  generally 
speaking,  three  quarters  of  a  square  foot  was  allowed.  In  the  ajiplieation  of 
fuel  there  was  also  eonsideralile  dilferenee.  It  might  he  applied  so  as  to  pro- 
duce considerable  effect,  or  so  as  produce  comparatively  little  etfect.  In  this 
consisted  what  was  called  the  art  of  stoking;  and  iu  no  place  was  this  worse 
done,  in  no  place  did  it  need  to  be  better  done,  than  on  board  sliips.  The 
coals  should  be  spread  lightly  upon  the  grate ;  and  when  in  a  state  of  incan- 
descence, the  stoker  should  |uish  it  back,  and  lay  on  more  coals.  The  first 
effect  would  he,  that  the  coals  first  laid  ou  woidd  be  coked.  The  heat  would 
be  so  great  that  the  gaseous  jtart  would  be  expelled.  These  gases  would  be 
impelled  forward  by  the  draught;  and  as  the}'  passed  the  incandescent  coal, 
they  would  he  consumed,  and  no  smoke  would  issue  from  the  chimney,  the 
smoke  heing  the  nnconsumed  part  of  the  fuel.  As  soon  as  the  coke  at  the 
hack  was  consumed,  the  stoker  should  ]msh  back  that  in  the  front,  and  in- 
troduce a  further  quantity  of  fuel.  This  would  make  a  common  furnace,  in 
fact  a  smoke-consuming  furnafe,  and  there  would  be  a  uniform  evaporation 
of  steam.  But  was  this  the  iiractice  observed  ?  By  no  means.  Neither  in 
marine  boilers  imr  in  land  boilers  had  the  stoker  any  idea  of  taking  any  such 
pains ;  he  adopted  not  the  most  ethcient  way,  but  the  way  most  comfortable 
to  himself.  He  jiroceeded  in  this  way :  he  let  the  fire  in  the  grate  be  nearly 
out,  he  then  put  in  an  enormous  quantity  of  coal ;  the  consequence  was,  the 
very  instant  this  was  laid  on,  there  issued  an  enormous  quantity  of  smoke, 
which  might  he  frequently  seen  issuing  from  the  chimney  of  a  steam-boat. 
That  went  on  for  some  time,  till  at  length  the  chimney  got  a  little  rest.  This 
was  nothing  more  than  the  effect  of  putting  on  fresh  fuel ;  and  the  smoke 
continued  till  it  was  burned  red,  and  it  suited  the  stoker's  [ileuMire  and  con- 
venience to  open  the  grate  again.  In  some  of  the  bcH  conducted  government 
vessels  this  was  not  allowed.  They  paid  their  stokers  sufHeient  wages,  and 
made  them  do  their  work  ;  and  on  the  Meden,  for  instance,  there  was  no 
smoke  from  the  cliimuey  at  all.  There  was  nothing  new  in  this.  Mr.  Watt 
jiroposed  it ;  and  in  his  factory  at  Soho,  smoke  was  never  seen  issuing  from 
the  chimney.  The  only  effectual  remedy  which  could  be  devised  would  be  to 
feetl  the  furnace  by  self-acting  grates.  One  had  been  invented  in  wdiich  the 
grate  was  made  circular,  and  it  revolved.  The  feed  of  coal  was  placed  in  a 
hopper,  and  the  coal  passed  through  it  like  a  funnel.  The  coal  was  put  in 
that  part  of  the  grate  furthest  from  the  flue.  This  machine  was  kept  in  mo- 
tion by  the  engine  itself,  so  that  to  a  furnace  of  this  kind  there  was  little  ne- 
cessity for  the  attendance  of  men  at  tdl.—Miillnml  Cunii/ie.s'  lleralil. 


THE  FRENCH  HISTORICAL  COMMISSION. 

CEj:tracledfi-om  the  Geutleiiian's  Magazine  fur  February,  1810.J 

Tun  Report  on  the  labours  of  the  Committee  of  Arts  and  Monuments  is  so 
extremely  interesting,  that,  were  it  not  too  long,  we  should  be  inclined  to 
translate  the  whole.  The  object  of  this  Committee  is  not  only  to  publish  a 
complete  survey  of  the  monumental  antiquities  of  France,  hut  also  to  provide 
for  the  preservation  of  the  monuments  themselves.  A  series  of  printed  ques- 
tions is  sent  to  every  parish  throughout  the  kingdom,  in  order  to  obtain  the 
primary  information  to  regulate  the  proceedings  of  the  Committee  in  this 
survey.  The  undertaking  will  require  many  years,  and  much  money.  Those 
districts  and  inonuiucnts  will  be  taken  first  in  order  which  are  of  the  greatest 
interest,  or  are  most  important  in  their  character,  or  which  are  in  the  greatest 
danger  of  perishing  ;  for  the  Committee  has  established  it  as  a  rule,  that  an 
edifice  which  is  threatened  with  ruin  shall  always  be  preferred  to  a  monument 
which  is  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  .Vt  lu'cscntthis  Committee  is  occu- 
pied in  the  publication  of  specimens  or  models  of  the  lUffereiit  forms  which 
its  labours  will  take.  These  are  to  he,  1,  the  complete  survey  in  description 
and  delineation  of  the  cathedral  of  Noyon,  as  a  specimen  of  severe  ecclesias- 
tical architecture,  and,  2,  of  that  of  Chartres,  as  being  the  most  extensive  and 
superb  ecclesiastical  edifice  in  France  ;  3,  the  Roman,  Merovingian,  and  Car- 
lovingian  antiquities  of  I'aris,  as  a  specimen  of  the  mode  in  which  the  great 
towns  will  be  treated;  1,  the  description  of  the  arrondissement  of  Rhcims,  as 
a  model  of  the  monumentiil  st.atistics  of  the  provinces. 

"  The  mission  of  the  Committee  is,  in  fact,  to  search  noire  France  monn- 
inenlale ;  to  catalogue,  describe,  and  delineate  all  the  objects  of  art  scattered 
over  our  soil ;  to   draw  up  an  archaeological  register,  so  succinct  that  the 


1S40.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


171 


monuments  of  every  age  and  of  every  kind  may  ho  nicntinncd  in  it,  and  of 
sncli  an  extent  tliat  every  work  of  art  may  obtain  in  it  a  i)laee  iiroportionate 
to  its  Cotlictic  or  liistorical  valnc. 

"  Two  orders  of  works  are  tliercfore  to  lie  iirosecutcd  nndcr  the  direction 
of  the  Committee  :  statistics  for  all  the  mon\nnents  withont  cxee|)tion  ;  mono- 
graphics  for  those  monuments  of  importance  wliicli  conhl  not  l)e  developed 
siiftieiciitly  in  the  statistics.  The  Committee  eannot  itself  execute  all  the 
statistics,  which  will  amount  to  eighty-six  if  we  proceed  by  department,  and 
to  three  hnndreil  and  fifty  if  we  proceed  by  arrondissenient,  and  give  sepa- 
rately the  statistics  of  several  large  cities,  which  seems  desirable  and  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  eomiilcte  work.  Neitlier  can  the  Committee  undertake 
directly  all  the  raonographies,  v.hieii  will  amount  jierhaps  to  tliree  hundred, 
which  is  nearly  the  number  of  the  important  monuments  in  our  country 
which  ajijicar  to  merit  a  s))ccial  work.  Time  and  money  woidd  be  wanting 
for  such  a  colossal  work.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  not  ilo  to  let  the  de- 
signs of  tiie  Committee  be  regulated  by  chanec,  or  to  abandon  tliem  to  the 
individual  caprices  of  all  those  who  might  think  proper  to  undertake  an  his- 
torieal  work  on  the  monuments.  It  has  therefore  been  thought  indispensable 
to  fix  an  uidform  plan,  and  to  apply  it  invariably  to  everything  that  shall  be 
undertaken,  without  as  well  as  with  the  Committee. 

"  Two  means  of  Jiltaining  this  result  ofl'cred  themselves;  both  have  been 
adopted.  In  the  first  place  monographies  and  statistics  will  be  given  as 
models,  to  which  all  future  monographies  and  statistics  will  conform,  as  well 
in  the  scientific  plan  as  in  the  luaterial  execution.  Next,  instruction  will  he 
sent  to  all  the  eorrespondcnfs,  and  to  all  the  antiquaries  in  France,  to  indicate 
tlie  plan  according  to  which  their  researches  must  he  made,  to  fix  the  expres- 
sions which  arc  to  be  used  in  the  description  of  a  monument,  and  the  charae- 
teristic  signs  which  serve  to  class  the  works  of  art,  and  to  determine  their 
age. 

"  As  to  the  statistics,  fhey  will  be  of  two  kinds;  those  which  include  all 
the  monuments  of  an  arrondissement,  aud  those  which  only  comprehend  the 
niouuments  of  a  great  town. 

"  Kor  the  model  of  the  statistic  of  an  arrondissement,  that  of  Rheims  lias 
been  chosen — one  of  those  which  arc  most  numerous  in  connnuncs,  and  one 
of  the  richest  in  monuments.  .\n  architect  of  Rheims,  M.  llippolyte  Durami, 
has  been  employed  to  make  all  the  drawings;  the  archivist  and  librarian  of 
the  same  town,  M.  Louis  Paris,  will  write  the  history  of  the  edifices;  the  se- 
cretary of  the  Committee,  M.  Didron,  will  give  the  description  of  all  the 
monuments  which  will  be  represented  by  engraving  aiul  lithography. 

"  Paris  has  been  chosen  as  the  model  of  the  statistic  of  a  great  town.  This 
work  has  been  entrusted  to  M.  Albert  Lenoir,  who  will  give  drawings  and 
descriptions  of  all  the  Roman,  Jlerovingian,  and  Carlovingian  monuments 
w'.iich  formerly  adorned  the  town  of  Paris,  and  which  have  left  numerous 
and  imposing  ruins.  Paris,  wluch  possesses  monuments  of  all  e])ochs,  from 
JuUns  Cicsar  to  oiu'  own  days,  will  serve  as  a  ty|ie  for  those  great  towns  in 
Fraiice,  Lyons,  Rouen,  Bordeaux,  and  Strasbourg. 

"  The  Committee  w  ill  give  also  two  models  of  monography  ;  for,  the  monu- 
ments of  France  being  splendid  or  austere,  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  severe 
moiunnent  and  a  sumptuous  one. 

"  The  cathedral  of  Noyon,  graver  still  since  the  revolution  and  the  course 
of  ages  have  broken  the  statues  of  its  portal  and  its  jiainted  windows,  has 
been  selected  as  the  type  of  a  church  at  once  severe  and  original.  I5y  an  ex- 
ception which  is  rare  in  France,  this  cathedral  is  rounded  at  the  extremity  of 
its  transepts,  as  at  its  apsis,  aud  it  is  fronted  by  a  porch  on  the  west.  M. 
Kamee  has  just  finished  the  drawings  of  this  curious  monument,  and  M.  L. 
Vitet,  meniber  of  the  Cliambcr  of  Deputies,  is  preparing  the  text. 

"  The  Cathedral  of  Cliartres  appeared  to  be  the  monument  the  most  com- 
jilete  and  the  richest  in  France — we  may  almost  say,  in  Europe.  Notre  Dame 
de  Cliartres  is  a  cathedral  far  more  considerable  than  the  others,  by  its  crypt, 
whii_h  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  building;  by  the  numerous  sculptures 
v\hich  decorate  its  royal  portal  and  its  lateral  porches ;  by  its  two  western 
spires,  perfect  models  of  the  architecture  of  the  twelftli  and  of  the  fifteenth 
centuries;  by  the  six  amurcen  of  towers  which  rise  af  the  croiiHlonx  and  at 
the  apside  ;  liy  the  delicate  sculptures  w  liich  adorn  the  enclosure  of  the  choir  ; 
by  the  painted  glass  wiiicii  fills  all  tlie  windows  ;  by  a  great  chajiel — we  may 
almost  say,  a  little  church — which  the  fourteenth  century  has  attached  to  the 
great  edifice  of  the  thirteenth. 

"  The  drawings  and  text  of  this  monography  appeared  to  be  of  too  high  a 
degree  of  iuiportanee  to  be  entrusted  to  a  single  person.  Two  artists  have 
been  joined  together  for  the  graphic  work :  MM.  Lassus,  aixhiteet,  and 
Amaury-Duval,  painter.  JI.  Lassus  will  make  all  the  drawings  of  arehitec- 
tiu-e  aud  decoration,  and  will  make  the  plans,  and  give  the  sections  and  ele- 
vations ;  M.  j\maury-Duval  will  draw  all  the  sculpture.  The  text  itself, 
which  will  accompany  and  explain  these  numerous  designs,  will  also  he  divided. 
In  a  literary  work  on  a  monument  like  Notre  Dame  de  Cliartres,  there  are 
two  parts  which  are  very  distir.ct :  the  history  of  this  monument,  which  re- 
lates its  foundation,  its  vicissitudes,  the  life  of  the  personages  wiio  have  in- 
habited it,  so  to  sjieak,  that  of  the  bishops  who  have  adorned,  enlarged,  and 
modified  it,  in  fact  the  history  of  its  former  times ;  and  the  description  which 
tells  its  present  state,  which  describes  by  language  all  its  stones  one  after 
another,  all  the  statues,  all  tlie  figures  painted  in  fresco  or  on  glass,  all  the 
various  forms  which  sculpture  has  impressed  on  different  materials  to  give 
them  a  character,  a  style,  which  indicates  an  ei)och,  an  age.  The  history  of 
a  monument,  in  fact,  is  still  more  different  from  its  description,  than  archi- 
tectural drawings  are  from  drawings  of  figures ;  and,  since  tliere  Tvere  two 


artists  for  the  grajihie  part,  it  was  but  logical  to  make  the  same  division  of 
the  literary  part  of  the  undertaking." 

Besides  doing  all  that  may  be  possible  to  preserve  the  ancient  monuments 
from  ruin,  the  Committee  of  Arts  and  Monuments  has  taken  measures  to 
form  a  Museum  of  National  .\uticputies,  in  w  hich  the  fragments  of  such  monu- 
ments, as  their  endeavours  have  not  l>eeii  able  to  save  from  destruction,  may 
be  deposited. 

"  la  spite  of  the  zeal  of  the  correspondents,  in  spite  of  the  ardour  of  the 
Committee  itself  in  defence  of  monuments  threatened  by  men  or  ruined  by 
time,  many  objects  of  art  perish,  many  edifices  fall ;  and,  since  there  exists  no 
place  destined  to  receive  the  fragments,  we  lose  even  the  last  trace  of  the 
most  interesting  monuments.  Sinre  the  destruction  of  the  museum  of  the 
Pelits-Augustins,  our  national  .archajology  has  sustained  losses  of  this  kind 
which  are  irreparable.  Latterly,  when  the  restorations  were  made  at  the 
church  of  St.  Denis,  wiicn  the  mutilations  were  perpetrated  on  the  eliurdi  of 
St.  Benoit,  when  the  churches  of  St.  Come  and  of  Cluny  were  demolished, 
they  were  forced  to  throw  away  among  the  rubbish  bases  aud  capitals  of 
columns,  scidptured  tuuiulary  stones,  car\ed  fricses  and  g.ai-goyles,  because 
the  royal  museums  which  are  consecrated  to  pagpu  antiquities,  cannot  and 
will  not  receive  national  antiquities.  Such  a  state  of  things  could  not  last 
long  without  the  greatest  detriment  to  history ;  for  no  archa.'ological  studies 
are  possible  without  niouuments,  and  the  monuments  become  rarer  every 
day. 

"  Struck  with  these  injuries  inflicted  upon  art  and  historical  studies,  the 
Committee,  on  the  proposition  of  Baron  T.aylor,  begged  the  JNlinister  of  the 
Interior  to  grant  a  place  for  the  temporary  reception  of  the  objects  of  art 
scattered  in  a  thousand  places,  and  which  may  be  collected  togeiher.  After- 
wards, the  necessity  will  be  felt  of  forming  a  gallery  of  tire  fragments  wiiich 
will  be  gathered  by  little  and  little  at  a  small  expense,  and  we  shall  thus 
have  a  museum  of  Christian  antiquities,  wiiieh  may  be  compared  v\itli  |nidc 
to  the  museums  of  pagan  antiquities.  In  this  museum,  besides  the  pieces 
which  are  originals,  may  be  placed,  as  has  been  done  at  Louxre  fm'  the  Creek 
.and  Roman  monuments,  plaster-casts  of  the  finest  works  of  art,  statues,  and 
has  reliefs  wliich  decorate  our  edifices  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Several  provin- 
cial towns  .already  jiosscss  a  Christian  museum ;  Paris  must  not  be  behind 
Dijon,  Orleans.  Puy,  Jdans,  or  Carcassonne.  The  Minister  of  the  Interior 
received  in  the  most  favourable  manner  the  proposition  of  the  Committee, 
and  has  made  a  formal  promise  to  dedicate  the  church  of  St.  Martin-des- 
Champs,  now  depcmlant  on  the  Conservatory  of  Arts  and  JManufacfures,  to 
tlie  receptiou  of  the  fr.agmenis  of  Christian  architecture  aud  seul|iture  which 
may  be  collected  at  Paris  and  in  the  departments.  This  chureli,  which,  wilh 
St.  Germaiu-des-Pri's,  is  the  oldest  in  Paris,  is  also  the  most  curious  for  the 
originality  of  its  eonstruclion  and  decoration;  it  is  iidmirably  fit  for  ils  neu- 
destination — the  casket  will  be  worthy  of  the  precious  objects  which  it  will 
coufain.  The  Minister  of  the  Interior  has  promised  to  cause  to  be  restored, 
for  the  object  above  specified,  tliis  eliurch,  wiiich  threatened  to  fall  into  ruins 
from  the  efr'ects  of  age,  or  wiiieh  was  going  to  be  demolished  to  make  rotmi 
for  a  mah-ie.  The  Committee  regards  this  result  as  one  of  the  most  inijiortant 
it  has  yet  obtained,  and  knows  not  how  to  thank  sufficiently  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior. 

"  When  a  monument  falls  of  itself,  as  has  lately  happened  to  tlie  church  of 
St.  Sauvenr  at  Xevers,  the  Committee  will  have  but  one  resource,  and  that 
one  it  will  use  immediately  ;  this  will  be  to  send  an  arehiteetural  drauglitsin.au 
to  the  scene  of  the  disaster,  and  to  give  him  the  task  of  collecting,  or  causing 
to  be  preserved  in  a  museum,  a]\  the  valuable  fragments  which  may  not  be 
broken  to  pieces ;  of  drawing,  on  the  faith  of  traditions,  on  the  inspection  of 
old  engravings,  and  the  examination  of  the  localiiy,  a  plan,  sections,  eleva- 
tions, det.ails  ;  of  stating,  in  a  cirenmstantial  report,  the  cause  of  the  accident, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  fall  of  monuments  which  may  be  tlireatened  with  ruin 
under  the  same  circumstances.  The  draughtsman  will  return  to  Paris  wilh 
tlie  fragments,  which  will  be  placed  in  the  museum, — with  the  drawings, 
which  will  be  engraved, — with  the  report,  which  will  be  published.  Of  the 
ruined  mouumnt  will  be  ]irescnted  at  least  its  portrait  and  some  fnigmeuts. 
This  is  precisely  the  missiiui  r.jiich,  in  the  case  of  St.  Sauvcur.  the  Cominil- 
tee  has  entrusted  to  il.  Robcliu,  iirchitcct,  non-resident  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee, aud  cliargc<l  with  important  works  in  the  Cathedral  of  Nevers,  his 
native  place." 

All  the  evils  here  mentioned  and  provided  against,  are  felt  equally,  if  not 
more,  in  England  ;  our  national  antiquities  are  daily  perishing ;  we  li.ive  no 
museum  to  receive  the  fragments,  no  public  spirit  in  our  government  to  pro- 
vide for  them,  and  only  here  and  there  a  solitaiy  individual  who,  o.t  his  own 
risk  and  inconvenience,  will  use  his  exertions  to  presene,  will  aftbrd  a  shelter 
to  what  can  be  saved,  or  will  publish,  or  cause  to  be  published,  drawings  and 
descriptions.  We  rejoice  at  the  exertions  of  our  neighbours,  thougli  we  have 
reason  to  be  ashamed  at  being  left  so  far  behind  them.  Yet  we  think  we  see 
■at  home  a  new  spirit  rising  aud  spreading  itself,  and  we  hope  that  it  may  bear 
its  fnut  before  it  he  too  late. 

AVe  ought  to  add,  that  the  Conuuittcc  of  Arts  and  Monuments  is  pubhshing 
manuals  of  the  different  bi-anc.hes  of  arclueology,  drawn  up  by  the  first  scliolars 
in  each  branch,  and  intended  more  iiarticulaiiy  for  the  use  of  its  corresjion- 
dents,  to  draw  their  atteufion  to  the  dirt'crent  points  most  necessary  to  be 
observed,  to  fix  a  standard  to  guide  them  with  certainty  in  their  researches 
and  observations,  and  to  give  with  accuracy  and  certainty  that  elcuienlary 
knowledge  which  is  necessary  to  enable  them  to  work  efficiently. 


172 


iin:  (  ivir.  I'.xciM'Fji  anh  aikiiftixts  journal. 


[May, 


MKSSItS.  F.VWCETT  AND  CO.'S  ENGINE  FACTOIiy,  LIVEUl'OOL. 

(From  the  Livcrjiool  Siamlaril.) 

TnK  olijpcl  of  tlic  cstal)lisliiii(-'nl  is  principally  the  ooiistnictioii  of  iiiaiine 
and  oilier  steam  engines,  mill  niacliinery,  picecs  of  onlnance,  aTul  other  heavy 
articles  of  tlic  fonnihy  and  the  forge,  which  here  jiass  from  their  rndest  state, 
tlirongh  tlie  various  reqni.sitc  processes,  until  they  are  turned  out  hriglit  and 
perfect  from  the  hands  of  the  liiiishers.  The  magnitude  of  the  works  maybe 
estimated  from  the  facts,  that  the  premises  stand  upon  an  area  of  many  hun- 
dreil  yards  :  that  thai  space,  nearly  covered  hy  lofty  huihiings,  is  fou)id  in- 
commodiously small  ;  and  that  the  nundjci"  of  workmen  emjjloycd  in  tlie 
various  departments  eonsiderahly  exceeds  seven  hundred.  The  writer  of  tins 
was  a  f('W  days  ago  politely  permitted  to  view  the  works,  and  was  furnished 
with  such  information  as  the  sliortness  of  his  visit  would  allow,  by  one  of  the 
partners,  as  well  as  hy  an  attetidaut.  Me  shall  now  notice  the  several  dc- 
liartments  under  their  respective  heads,  and  shall  conclude  with  some  parti- 
culars of  the  fine  marine  engines  now  in  a  state  of  forwardness. 

Foioidinf/  and  Borinij  of  Cannoti. 

On  entering  the  yard  the  attention  of  the  visitor  is  arrested  by  the  great 
nundicr  of  cannons  of  various  sizes  and  calibres,  fi'om  swivels  and  half- 
jionnders  to  thirty-two  pounders,  ranged  on  the  ground,  or  jieeping,  in  car- 
riages, with  portentous  .aspect,  from  door-ways,  entrances,  and  corners.  The 
large  guns  are  of  various  fashions,  some  being  cast  from  the  plain  models 
used  in  the  I'rench  navy,  otliers  from  those  of  the  Dutch,  and  others  (the 
handsomest  to  our  thinking)  of  the  umre  decorative  form  approved  in  Eng- 
land. In  casting  these  guns  (all  solid),  what  is  ealleii  "ahead"  is  cast  along 
with  them,  at  the  mu/.zlc  end,  having  the  appearance  of  a  plug  or  long  toni- 
j)ion.  This  is  cut  otf  before  the  boring  is  commcuecd.  At  the  brcceh,  too, 
an  additional  stpiare  piece  of  the  metal  is  cast  on,  by  which  the  gun  is  turned 
I)y  machinery  while  it  is  being  liored.the  borer  being  stationary  in  the  o])era- 
tion.  When  outwardly  cleaned  and  finished  (with  the  cxcejition  of  drilling 
the  touch-liole  ami  fiving  the  lock),  the  gun  is  )daccd  horizontally,  and  se- 
cured so  as  to  turn  witliout  vibratory  nmtiou.  Tlie  machinery  is  then  ap- 
jdied,  and  the  gun  turns  rather  slowly,  advancing  with  an  even  pressure  upon 
the  large  steel  boring  instrnnient,  and  continually  discharging  the  metal  which 
it  cuts  out.  The  gun  has  to  he  bored  two  or  three  times,  according  to  its 
calibre,  and  when  the  operation  is  completed  the  bore  is  as  bright  and  true 
as  that  of  a  fowling  piece.  The  touch-hole  is  afterwards  drilled  out  with 
great  incety,  as  are  the  holes,  in  raised  jiortions  of  the  breech,  for  the  fixing 
of  the  flint  lock,  which  has  now  in  gunnery  almost  superceded  the  use  of 
the  match.  Several  guns  are  bored  daily  and  simultaneously,  to  meet  the 
demand  at  home  and  abroad,  and  a  lar,r;e  "  assortment"  is  kept  constantly  on 
hand  to  supiily  those  governments  and  individuals  who  are  bent  on  "  mis- 
chief" or  self-defence.  Aniongst  the  pieces  of  ordnance  now  in  preparation 
or  finished  at  the  works  arc  : — 

2I>  thirty-two  pounders,  for  a  French  house. 
20  twenty-four  pounders,  another  French  order. 
4  twelve  pounders,  for  the  same. 

The  Fonndry. — This  jiart  of  the  works  diffeis  from  most  other  foundries 
only  in  the  immense  weight  of  the  eastings,  which,  from  the  size  of  the  build- 
ing, and  the  number  of  blast  furnaces,  cranes,  &c.,  may  be  turned  out.  Single 
jneces  of  twenty  tons  each  might  be  accomplished,  if  rci|nired.  The  ojiera- 
tion  is  interesting,  but  it  is  too  generally  known  to  require  detail.  The 
article  to  be  cast  is  moulded  (in  sand)  from  wood,  and  enclosed  vvithin  iron 
frame-work,  a  hole  being  left  for  the  entrance  of  the  metal.  The  metal 
(east-iron)  is  tin-own,  in  broken  iiieccs,  mixed  with  coaN,  into  a  Large  cylin- 
drical furnace,  the  blast  thrown  into  which,  hy  niacliinery,  witli  great  force, 
makes  a  roaniig  noise,  and  soon  brings  the  whole  to  a  white  beat.  The 
metal,  as  it  melts,  sinks  to  the  bottom.  When  all  this  is  ready,  a  ))erfoiatiou 
is  made  vvitii  the  jioint  of  an  iron  rod,  through  a  sort  of  doorway  at  the  bot- 
tom, which  at  that  point  is  st0]iped  up  by  fire  cl.iv.  The  boiling  metal  iiii- 
mediatcly  rushes  out  in  liquid  white  fire,  and  is  received  in  jiots  with  three 
long  horizontal  iron  handles,  two  at  one  side,  like  those  of  a  hand-barrow,  and 
one  at  the  other.  IJy  these  it  is  carried  hy  three  or  four  men,  according  to 
its  weight  ;  and  if  the  casting  or  castings  he  comparatively  siiuill,  the  imlal 
is  poured  at  once  from  tliis  into  the  moulds,  the  pot  being  turned  by  the  men 
holding  the  two  handles.  If,  however,  the  easting  be  large,  tlie  smaller  pots 
full  of  liquid  nict.-d  are  discharged  into  a  cauldron  of  siillicient  size,  and  this, 
from  its  great  weight,  is  hoisted  by  a  crane  and  jilacerl  over  the  casting, 
where  it  is  discharged,  in  a  careful  maniier,  of  its  contents.  The  air,  forced 
out  of  the  sand  by  the  metal,  frequently  makes  a  loud  explosion,  (as  we 
witnessed,)  and  when  the  intense  beat  of  the  hissing  iron  perforates 
the  outer  jiortious  of  the  same,  blue  ami  sulphureous  looking  fiame  issues 
from  the  sides  in  all  directions.  When  the  metal  is  sufiiciently  cooled,  the 
frame-work  is  removed,  and  the  castings  taken  out.  Here  may  be  cast  any 
article,  from  a  lath  nail  to  a  steam-engine  cylinder,  weighing  from  leu  to 
fifteen  Ions. 

The  Jl'orilnr/  Fni/inc  nti  Iho  If'urln. — flu  the  east  of  the  yard,  on  each  side 
of  which  are  the  p\teuRi\e  buildings,  is  the  larger  engine,  of  thirty-siv  horse 
power,  \^llich  works  tiic  greater  part  of  the  iiiacbiiierv  used  in  the  dilVereiit 
rooms,  ill  the  several  operations  of  turning,  phiiiiiig,  drilling  and  otlier\\isc 
"  torturing"  the  obdurate  but  conquerable  metal  lluit  falls  under  the  cruel 
hands  of  the  workmen.    This  engine  is  of  the  ohl-fashioned  principle,  with 


an  inimeuse  wooden  beam,  secured  with  iron,  and  a  large  nv-whecl.  It  is, 
however,  most  ell'eetivc,  coniniuiiieated  b\ cog-wheels  and  shafts  \\ilh  the 
several  rooms  in  which  the  jiower  is  a]qilicd  to  the  lathes,  iVc.  hv  drums  and 
shafts.     There  are  also  other  engines,  but  of  eon-iderahly  less  power. 

The  Sinilhi/. — This  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  jiortions  of  the  establish- 
ment. It  eomprises  two  large  buildings  thrown  into  one  ;  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  workmen  are  constantly  employed.  There  is  an  avenue  of  anvils,  and 
the  constant  hammering,  the  blowing  of  their  fires,  together  with  the  dusky 
visages  of  the  athletic  workmen,  remind  one  of  the  description  of  the  .abode 
of  the  Cyclops.  Here,  however,  "bolts"  are  "forged,"  of  which  ncitlur 
"Jove"  nor  his  armourer  "  Vulcan"  could  have  conceived  any  notion.  All 
the  iron-work  for  the  steam  engines  is  here  made,  with  the  exception  of  the 
very  heavy  paddle-shafts,  which  are  brought  in  the  rough  from  the  .Mersey 
Forge. 

7V/e  rianhuj-machuw  Room. — In  this  room  are  valuable  and  elaborately- 
contrived  machines  for  the  planing  or  levelling  of  large  plates,  or  other  pieces 
of  iron  or  brass,  so  as  to  give  them  a  smooth,  true,  and  jiolished  surface. 
The  article  or  jiiece  to  be  planed  is  securely  fixed  by  screw-bolts,  &c.,  to  an 
horizontal  iron  table,  )iei-forate(l  with  holes  fur  the  insertion  of  the  holts 
from  beneath  it  in  any  required  point,  to  suit  the  size  or  form  of  the  article. 
This  table,  when  jiut  in  motion,  travels  backwards  and  forwards,  with  its 
load  on  two  iron  rails,  or  parallel  slides.  Over  the  centre  is  perpendicularly 
fixed  what  is  called  the  "planing  tool,"  an  instrument  made  of  steel,  some- 
what in  the  form  of  a  hook,  with  the  jioint  so  inclined  as  to  jiresent  itself  to- 
wards the  surface  of  the  metal  to  he  planed,  as  it  approaches  it  on  the  t.abic,  so 
as,  when  all  is  adjusted,  to  idough  or  plane  it  in  narrow  streaks  or  shavings  as 
it  passes  under  it.  The  extremity  of  the  tool  is  about  half  an  inch  to  three 
quarters  in  breadth,  and  being  of  a  round  form  at  the  under  side,  and  ground 
or  bevelled  on  the  upper,  presents  a  sort  of  point.  If  a  plate  of  iron  is  to  be 
planed,  the  operation  commences  on  the  outer  edge,  and  each  moveinent 
backwards  and  forwards  of  the  table  places  it  in  such  a  position  under  the 
tool,  that  another  small  parallel  cut  is  made  throughout  its  whole  length. 
The  tool,  in  ordinary  machines  of  this  kind,  is  fixed  so  that  it  cuts  only  in 
one  directiiin,  as  the  plate  is  drawn  against  its  edge  or  ]ioint,  which  is  raised 
to  allow  of  the  backward  motion  of  the  plale.  -V  new  patent  has,  however, 
been  obtained  for  a  great  improvement  in  this  respect  by  Mr.  Whitworth,  of 
Manchester,  and  several  of  his  machines  are  on  Messrs.  Fawcctt  and  Co.'s 
premises.  In  these,  by  a  peculiarly  beautiful  contrivance,  the  cutting  instru- 
ment, the  moment  the  plate  passes  under  it,  "  jumps "  up  a  little  in  tlie  box 
or  case  to  which  it  is  attached,  and  instanl.ly  "turns  about"  in  the  opposite 
direction,  and  commences  cutting  awey,  so  that  both  backwards  and  forwards 
the  operation  goes  on  without  loss  of  time.  The  workmen  very  quaintly  and 
appropriately  call  this  new  planing  tool  "  Jim  Crow."  A  worknwn  attends 
to  each  of  the  macliines,  and  when  the  piece  to  be  cut  is  fixed  with  great 
exactness  on  the  moving  table,  by  a  spirit  level,  he  has  nothing  to  do  but  to 
watch  that  it  remain  so,  and  that  the  machinery  work  evenly  and  correctly. 
Where  a  very  smooth  suiface  is  required,  the  ojieration  of  planing  is  repeated, 
and  two  jdates  thus  finished  will  he  so  truly  level,  that  they  will  adhere 
together.  It  should  he  added,  tluat  so  perfect  are  these  machines,  that  in 
aihlition  to  planing  horizontally,  they  may  be  so  adjusted  as  to  plane  perpen- 
dicularly, or  at  any  given  angle. 

The  Tuniiiiff  Rooms. — In  several  of  the  rooms  both  hammered  and  east  iron 
of  all  jiossible  dimensions  arc  turned,  with  astonishing  facility  and  correctness, 
on  what  are  called  shde  lathes.  In  one  of  these  we  saw  the  paddle-shafts 
for  the  President  under  the  operation.  Each  of  these  weighed,  when  they 
came  from  the  forge,  about  ten  tons,  and  they  will  he  but  slightly  reduced  in 
weight  hy  turning.  In  the  same  room  large  piston  and  other  rods  were  being 
turned.  While  the  shaft  or  rod  is  revolved,  the  cutting  instrument,  fixed  to 
a  slide,  on  \\liich  it  is  slowh'  and  evenly  carried  .along,  performs  its  operations 
with  wonderful  precision,  frequently  cutting  a  large  and  continuous  shaving 
of  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  length  (as  nwy  be,)  a)iparcntly  as  if  it  were  lead, 
and  which,  curling  up,  forms  a  curious  and  jierfect  worm  or  screw.  From 
the  great  pressure  of  the  tool,  one  of  the  edges  of  this  screw  is  frequently 
split  into  regular  teeth  like  those  of  a  fine  comb,  but  shorter.  The  tool, 
\\lien  it  has  gone  from  end  to  end  of  a  shaft  or  rod,  is,  liy  a  simple  adjust- 
ment, made  to  tr.avel  back  again,  and  the  operation  is  eontinued  till  the 
whole  is  of  the  required  diameter,  and  perfectly  bright  and  polished.  Ano- 
ther interesting  operation  in  this  department  is  the  turning  and  polishing  of 
circular  pieces  of  niacliinery,  whether  dished  or  flat.  The  tops  or  lids  of  the 
cylinders  of  large  eugiucs  are  the  jirincijial,  and  some  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  advancement  of  this  art,  by  an  inspeclion  of  the  cylinder  tops  of  the 
President,  which  arc  as  bright  as  mirrors,  and  are  80  inches  in  di.tmeler  ! 
W.ater  coiistaiilly  drop|iiiig  on  the  cutting  tool  from  a  small  pipe,  is  all  the 
"  oil  "  used  either  in  planing  or  turning. 

The  Fif/iii(/-iiji  .Shojix. — There  are  several  rooms  in  which  the  '■  fitters-np" 
are  employed.  These  finish  the  sniiillcr  brass  and  iron-work  of  the  engines, 
and  have  turning-latlics,  and  .all  inanner  of  luand-tools.  In  the  liuilding  of 
an  engine,  they  hold  the  same  relation  to  the  foundry  and  the  forge,  that 
the  clock  and  w.atch  maker  (properly  "finisher")  does  to  the  cslahlishnient 
that  su|iplics  him  with  his  wheels  and  other  works  in  the  rough. 

'I'he  .Model  or  l'o//erii-Maier.i'  Room. — These  rooms  arc  extensive,  and 
many  first-rate  workmen  arc  ciii|doyeil,  the  greatest  exact iiess  liciiigiT(|iiired, 
otherwise  the  castings  would  be  unavailable.  The  timber  used  is  alimist 
wholly  well-seasoned  deal.  Many  of  the  patterns  are  complicated  and  beau- 
tiful, a  great  deal  of  taste  being  displayed  ju  the  mouldings  and  Other  ilecora- 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


173 


t'ons,  where  sucli  can  Ije  appropriately  introduced.      The  models  are  all 
finished  and  polished  in  the  hest  possible  manner. 

The  Moild  Jiooms.— These  are  a  lofty  part  of  one  of  the  Ijuildings,  and  are 
well  worthy  of  a  visit.  In  one  of  them  we  were  fairly  lost,  amidst  many 
lumdrcds  of  bevelled,  cog,  and  other  mil!  wheels,  of  all  possiblE  sizes,  (few 
alike)  and  piled  up  to  tlie  very  roof.  Many  of  these  are,  we  learned,  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  foreign  orders.  Here,  too,  are  a  variety  of  engiue-bed 
plates,  paddle-wheel  centres,  patterns  for  water  and  other  wheels,  &c.  &c.  all 
made  with  matliematical  accuracy. 

In  auotlier  room  were  an  immense  nujubcr  of  models  of  great  guns,  as 
adopted,  in  outward  fashion,  by  the  Englisb,  the  French,  the  Dutch,  and 
others.  Tlie  models  of  beams  for  marine  engines,  of  all  sizes,  were  here 
piled  ;  also  of  Ionic  fluted  pillars  for  tlieir  frames.  The  models  from  which 
the  beams,  &c.,  of  the  Royal  William,  and  many  others,  were  cast,  are 
here  ileposited,  as  are  tliose  of  tlie  larger  engines  in  the  yard  below.  The 
collection  of  patterns  of  all  descriptions  is  indeed  great  and  excellent,  and 
must  have  cost  an  immense  smn  of  money. 

T/if  Engines  now  in  course  of  completion. — The  following  engines  are  now 
in  hand  at  the  works,  and  the  three  largest  nearly  completed : 

I  pair  of  540  liorse  power  for  the  "  President." 

1     do.     420         ditto  the  "  United  States." 

1     do.     4.50         ditto  a  French  man-of-war  steam  frigate. 

1     do.     300         ditto  It.  M.  S.  "  Medina." 

1     do.       50         ditto  the  "  Calcutta  Steam-tng."* 

1     do.       45         ditto  a  Government  tender.f 

1  single  engine  of  GO-horse  power,  for  Australia. 

1  do.  50         ditto         for  a  French  house. 

Tlie  President's  Engines. — These  are  the  most  remarkable  for  their  size, 
and  are  really  a  stupendous  piece  of  workmanship.  They  are  already  fixed 
up,  and  strike  the  visitor  with  astonishment.  Tlie  castings,  and  all  the  work- 
manship arc  of  the  first  description,  and  the  architectural  design  of  the  frame- 
work,  or  pillars,  is  highly  ornamental,  without  any  sacrifice  to  the  requisite 
strength.  As  probably  the  most  suitable  to  attain  this  desideratum,  the 
Gothic  style  has  been  adopted.  The  massy  clustered  pillars  arc  surmounted 
by  the  pointed  and  moulded  arch  to  correspond.  The  diagonal  stays  and 
their  open  work  are  in  keeping ;  and  such  is  the  height  aud  imposing  effect 
of  the  whole,  that  visitors  generally  remarked  that  it  strikingly  reseudded  a 
handsome  Gothic  chapel.  The  beams  are  beautiful  castings,  as  are  the  cylin- 
ders, and  both  of  immense  size  and  weight.  The  polished  iron  aud  brass 
work  is  superb,  and  the  whole  furnishes  a  gratifying  proof  of  at  once  the  en- 
terprise and  the  ingenuity  of  the  men  of  England.  The  following  are  some 
interesting  statistics  of  this  stupendous  piece  of  machinciy  ; 

Diameter  of  cylinder 80  inches. 

Stroke  of  engine    7  feet  6  inches. 

Weight  of  cylinders   11  tons. 

Valve-cases,  from  6  to  G^  tons. 

Beams  (4  in  number),  upwards  of    . .      5  tons  each. 

Condensers,  about 10  tons. 

Gothic  pillars,  four  pairs,  each 11  tons,  7  cwt. 

Diagonal  stays,  4  in  number,  each. ...      4  tons. 

Main,  or  paddle  shaft 9  tons. 

Two  eduction  pipes,  each   18  cwt. 

Boilers,  each  30  tons. 

Bed-plates,  (two,)  each  in  one  casting  15  tons. 
The  whole  engines  aud  boilers,  with  the  water,  will  weigh  about  510  tons. 
The  hoisting-tackle  used  in  setting  up  these  engines  is  well  worthy  of  no- 
tice. On  the  principals,  or  lower  beams  of  the  roof,  which  are  of  extraordinaiy 
strength,  railways  are  fixed,  upon  which  traversed  scaffolds,  railed  round,  and 
each  carrying  a  powerful  winch.  On  these  scaffolds  are  also  railways,  at 
right  angles  with  those  on  the  beams,  so  that,  by  moving  the  scaffolds  and 
the  winches,  any  spot  in  the  building  may  be  attained  directly  perpendicular 
to  the  article  to  be  hoisted,  whicli,  by  other  movements,  can  be  lowered  to 
any  given  site. 

The  Engines  of  the  "  United  State.t."- — These  are  precisely  similar  in  con- 
struction  to  those  of  the  President,  differing  only  in  being  a  little  smaller.  No 
detailed  notice  of  them  is  therefore  required.  The  cylinders  are  734  inches 
in  diameter,  and  the  power  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Great  Western, — 
namely,  420.  They  are  erected  in  the  same  shed,  or  building,  containing 
those  of  the  President,  and  have  been  equally  admired. 

The  "  Medina's"  Engines. — These  are  of  300-horse  power,  and  though  dif- 
ferent in  the  style  of  the  casting,  are  also  got  up  in  the  best  manner. 

The  whole  three  pairs  of  engines  will  be  ready  simultaneously  for  ship- 
ment ;  but,  unluckily,  the  want  of  want  of  proper  shears  to  hoist  in  the  ma- 
chinery and  boilers,  (there  being  but  one  pair  at  the  Canning  Dock,  and  a 
crane  at  the  Trafalgar,)  one  or  other  of  the  vessels  will  have  to  wait  her 
turn. 

The  pair  of  45-horse  power  engines,  for  the  Admiralty,  are  also  in  a  for- 
ward state  ;  as  are  most  of  the  others  before  enumerated. 

Such  is  a  sketch  of  the  works  at  Messrs.  Fawcett  and  Co.'s  estabUshment. 
We  do  not  remember  to  have  enjoyed  a  greater  treat  than  in  \'isiting  it,  and 
it  was  with  considerable  reluctance,  that  having  other  engagements,  we  could 

*  Now  building  in  India, 
t  To  run,  it  is  said,  between  Dover  and  Calais. 


not  prolong  our  stay  on  the  premises,  and  examine  some  other  departments. 
The  whole  is  a  world  of  mechanism  within  itself;  and  though  it  send  forth 
huge  and  deadly  weapons  of  wai,  it  also  produces  maritime  machinery  calcu- 
lated to  extend  civilisation,  and  to  promote  the  amicable  commercial  inter- 
course, and  mutual  wealth  and  happiness,  of  nations  scarcely  known  to  each 
other  but  by  name. 

This  firm  have  upwards  of  700  workmen.  The  President  will  be  the  largest 
steam-packet  in  the  world.  Messrs.  Fawcett  and  Co.  have  been  applied  to 
by  the  Bristol  Steam  Packet  Company  to  make  them  engines  of  600  horses' 
power  each,  but  their  present  engagements  do  not  permit  of  their  accepting 
the  order. 


DESIGNS  FOR  LAYING  OUT  THE  ROYAL  BOTANIC  GARDENS. 
INNER  CIRCLE,  REGENT'S  PARK. 

The  Council  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Society  being  desirous  of  giving  eveiy 
opportunity  of  securing  the  most  efficient  assistance  in  laying  out  their  Gar- 
dens in  the  Inner  Circle  of  the  Regent's  Park,  announced  some  time  ago  their 
intention  of  giving  a  premium  of  fifty  guineas  for  the  best  design  submitted 
to  them.  During  the  last  month  the  designs  were  exhibited  for  inspection  in 
the  rooms  of  the  Society,  in  Pall  Mall,  where  they  have  been  visited  by  many 
persons  connected  with  the  Society,  and  by  artists.  It  is  probable  that  the 
rooms  will  remain  open  for  a  few  days  longer,  previous  to  the  decision  of  the 
Committee,  until  which  time  any  of  our  readers  would  doubtless  be  able  to 
obtain  access  to  them. 

The  instructions  drawn  up  for  the  guidance  of  candidates  in  some  degree, 
limited  them  both  as  to  the  nature  of  the  jilans,  aud  the  kind  of  drawings 
they  were  recommended  to  send  in.  The  instructions  directed  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  ground  should  be  devoted  to  a  geographic  arrangement  of  the 
plants  in  twelve  separate  eompartmin's  ;  the  gardens  should  be  provided  for 
the  special  study  of  jdants,  as  regards  medicine,  agriculture,  arts  and  manu- 
factures, scientific  arrangements,  and  experiments ;  that  proper  conservatories 
and  buildings  should  be  provided.  The  plans  were  restricted  to  a  scale  of 
fifty  feet  to  an  inch,  and  it  was  stated  that  sections  and  detailed  plans  were 
not  required.  The  number  of  designs  sent  in  is  above  twenty,  from  many 
men  of  eminence  and  respectability,  principally  architects,  but  tlie  exhibition 
as  a  whole  does  not  show  that  talent  which  might  be  expected. 

1,  is  merely  a  plan  of  the  grounds  in  their  present  state. 

2,  by  H.  P.',  Spring  Terrace,  Wandsworth,  is  distinguished  by  two  principal 
features,  a  nascent  yearning  for  some  hot  water  apparatus  which  is  in  futuro, 
and  a  parade  of  Owen  Jones's  AUiambra,  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of  the  inven- 
tor's arti^tical  knowledge,  from  this  be  has  sucked  the  inspiration  of  a  couit 
in  the  Jloorisli  style,  and  of  a  flight  of  stejis  decorated  with  azulejos.  These 
our  readers  know' are  painted  tiles,  and  unless  he  could  resuscitate  tlie  Anda- 
hisian  artists,  we  fear  that  they  would  be  little  better  than  the  antiquated 
Dutch  tiles,  long  since  consigned  to  the  chimney  corner.  The  design,  if  it 
may  be  so  called,  is  to  form  an  endless  walk  in  tlie  gardens,  so  that  you  would 
never  pass  over  the  same  path  again. 

3,  by  John  Aitox,  of  Mr.  Pearson's  Nursery,  Hampstead-road,  is  merely 
a  gardener's  aiTangement  of  the  plants. 

4  and  5,  by  M.vrtin  Joseph  Stutely,  Architect,  Gower-street,  Bedford- 
square — 5,  is' the  ground  plan,  and  4  an  isometrieal  perspective  view.  This 
ilesign  is  an  adaiitation  to  the  present  state  of  the  grounds,  and  consequently 
meagre.  The  buildings,  mostly  Italian,  are  poor.  One  excellent  feature  is  a 
large  conservatory  on  the  north  side,  standing  on  a  raised  terrace,  which 
commands  a  vicw'over  the  Lake  in  the  Park,  and  up  the  Vale  towards  llamp- 
stead,  bringing  that  fine  scenery  as  it  were  into  the  Society's  domain.  A 
large  raised  seat  affords  a  view  of  Primrose  Hill. 

G,  JoHM  B.vixBRiDGE,  flowcr  gardcucr  to  Lord  Wenlock,  Escrick  Park, 
near  Y'oik— a  botanical  arrangement ;  the  walks  in  a  fantastic  style;  and  an 
imitation  of  the  various  mountains  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

7,  Alfred  Bartholomew,  architect,  Warwick  House,  Gray's  Inn.  There 
is  a  want  of  effect  in  this  design,  but  the  arrangement  suggested  for  the 
plants  is  ingenious.  The  ground  is  divided  by  imaginary  lines  into  gores, 
each  appropriated  to  the  plants  of  some  geographical  region,  and  these  gores 
again  subdivided  bv  concentric  circles  so  as  farther  to  distribute  in  each  re- 
gion the  plants  into  the  several  classes  of  arts  and  manufactures,  agriculture 
and  science.  In  the  centre  is  an  angular  conservatory.  The  explanations 
attached  to  the  designs  aflTords  many  useful  remarks.  Mr.  Bartholoinew 
suggests  that  the  capitals  of  the  columns  of  the  conservatones  might  be 
taken  from  botanical  subjects,  and  made  in  clay  or  artificial  stone.  A  canal 
supplies  water  all  round  the  garden.  ,„  ,    ^  , ,      t-,  ■    j    ■ 

8  W  BiLLiNTON,  architect  and  civil  engineer,  Wakefield.  This  design  is 
mainly  a  geographical  arrangement,  without  much  attempt  at  pietoral  effect ; 
it  seems  doubtful  also  whether  the  grouping  of  the  bmldings  would  be  good. 
The  book  of  explanation  shows  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  practical  horti- 
culture, and  contains  many  good  suggestions,  particulariy  with  regard  to 
maintaining  an  equable  temperature  in  the  large  conservatory  by  double  domes. 

9  John  Bi'RGES  WvTsox,  architect,  39,  Manchester-street,  Manchester- 
square  This  design  is  illustrated  in  the  margin  by  sketches  of  the  buildings, 
niany  of  which  are  pleasing,  the  plan  however  is  not  eftcctive  except  with 
respect  to  a  lake,  apparently  imitated  from  a  former  design  of  Mr.  Henry 
Laxton  ;*  from  whom  he  seems  to  have  derived  other  ideas.     The  reasons 

'  See  a  plan  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  in  the  Journal,  vol.  1,  p.  359. 

2  A 


1/4 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


^Ir.  Wutsou  giNes  for  the  position  of  the  couservatories  is  good,  and  the 
ctlbrls  of  a  cultivated  artist  arc  visible  in  many  parts,  bulh  of  the  plan  and 
cxplaMutinu,  ivhich  show  the  results  of  his  experience  at  Chiswick,  where  he 
was  employed ;  he  has  not  however  been  so  successful  as  on  former  occasions, 
when  he  caiTieil  oft'  the  lifty  guinea  prize  for  laying  out  the  gardens  at  Man- 
tlicster. 

10,  llKXRY  Laxtox,  F.L.S.,  and  John  Thomtson,  landscape  gardener, 
late  head  gardener  to  the  Duke  of  N'orthumherlaud.  This  plan  is  principally 
Mr.  Laxton's,  but  we  shall  dismiss  it  in  a  few  words,  to  come  to  some  of  his 
other  designs.  It  is  chiefly  laid  out  as  a  large  flower  gardcji,  and  the  com- 
partments exhibit  great  ingenuity.  The  hook  of  reference  shows  great  ac- 
quaintance with  the  botanical  part  of  the  subject.  The  conservatory  in  the 
centre  is  circular,  with  arms  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross. 

11,  Henry  Heathcote  Russell,  architect  and  civil  engineer,  Springfield 
Lodge,  Garrat,  near  Wandsworth.  A  design  adapted  willi  nmch  ingenuity  to 
the  present  state  of  tlie  grounds — it  has,  however,  the  usual  imperfection, 
■want  of  effect.  A  conservatoiT  is  made  to  run  all  round  tlie  gardens,  which 
however  is  impracticable,  on  account  of  the  state  of  tlic  giounds. 

12,  Edwin  £.  Mkrhal,  'Ab,  Park  Lane,  J^eeds.  This  seems  to  be  by  the 
eminent  Hollander,  ■  who  wrote  a  book  of  boetry  as  diclc  as  dat,'  the  crown- 
ing idea  is  a  central  platform  200  feet  diameter,  5  feet  high,  and  surmounted 
vith  an  iron  railing. 

13,  Henry  Laxton,  F.L.S.,  architect  and  landscape  gardener,  Adelphi 
Chamber?.  Mr.  i^axton  who  had  a  great  hand  in  laying  out  the  grounds  at 
the  Beulah  Spa,  is  the  surveyor  of  the  gardens  to  tlie  Royal  Botanic,  part  of 
whose  gruuncls  he  has  Ini'l  out.  He  has  sent  in  four  designs,  all  exhibiting 
great  at'ention  to  the  sul  i,=et.  No.  13Mias  a  lake  on  the  north  side,  before 
■which  is  an  extensive  lawn,  most  essential  to  a  metropolitan  garden,  where  a 
large  concourse  of  people  is  likely  to  be  occasionally  collected.  In  the  centre 
of  the  gardens  is  a  snacicuis  domed  conservatory,  and  on  the  south  side  is  the 
principal  liuilding  for  the  othcial  department  with  a  large  Italian  garden,  sur- 
rounded by  raised  terraces  with  extensive  conservatories  on  each  side.  The 
■nhole  of  the  gardens  is  surrounded  by  an  arboretum. 

14  and  15,  Charles  J.  Nicolav,  architect.  Elm  Grove  Cottage,  uear 
\\  inbornc,  Dorset.  The  ground  plan  is  accompanied  Ijy  sections  sliowing 
buildings  in  the  classic,  oriental,  and  Tudor  styles.  Tlie  conservatories  are 
on  a  raised  ])latfonn  in  the  centre,  and  the  scenery  on  tlie  south  front  is 
made  attractive. 

1 6, WvattPapworth,  architect,  10, Carol ine-street, Bedford-square.  There 
is  considerable  variety  of  eftect  and  hreadth  in  tliis  design.  The  ground  is 
formed  into  three  divisions.  The  first  devoted  to  the  business  part  of  the 
establishment-is  formed  by  Iniildingswith  south  aspects,  screened  at  the  base 
by  trees.  The  second  whicli  has  rock  work  at  one  end  and  the  museum,  &c. 
at  the  other,  is  an  ornamental  ganhni,  and  has  to  the  south,  the  grand  front, 
a  conservatorj',  flanked  by  trees  anil  rock  work.  The  third  division  as  seen 
from  the  back  of  the  grand  conservatory  is  a  spacious  lawn  with  a  back 
gi'ound  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

17,  Edward  Lapidge,  Derby-street,  ParHament-street.  This  would  be  a 
grand  design  for  St.  Petersburgh,  but  would  not  be  so  pleasing  here  as  it  is 
an  entire  sacrifice  of  tlie  beauties  of  nature  to  architectural  effect.  On  a 
raised  platform  in  the  centre  is  a  hollow  square  of  hiiUdings  covering  the 
area  of  the  Great  Pyramid  or  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields. 

18,  is  a  plan  of  Mr.  Laxton's  making  the  arrangement  of  the  gardens  at 
present,  immediately  available  on  an  economical  scale,  the  leailing  feature  is 
a  promenade  walk,  through  the  centre  30  feet  wiile  ;  the  outer  lioundaiy  lias 
a  winding  walk  of  about  three  cpiarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  judiciously  laid 
out  for  pu  arboretum. 

19,  also  by  Mr.  Laxton,  is  a  design  much  resembling  No.  13,  but  grander 
in  its  ai'chitectural  and  horticultural  aiTaugements,  so  as  to  produce  one  mass 
of  variegated  eftect  in  the  shape  of  Italian,  Dutch  and  French  gardens,  ro- 
saries, fountains,  statues,  casinos,  conservatories,  ten'aces,  iScc.,— if  sufticient 
funds  could  be  raised  for  carrying  out  the  whole  of  the  design  at  once,  with- 
out regai-d  to  the  present  form  of  the  ground,  we  should  prefer  this  design 
to  any  other. 

20,  G.  A.  Cheffins,  architect,  Lees-street,  Piccadilly,  Manchester,  is  the 
only  one  of  the  architectural  competitors  who  is  veri-  much  behind  hand. 
His  design  is  very  nearly  akin  to  that  of  the  Dutch  gentleman  who  composed 
Ho.  12.     It  must  have  puzzled  Mr.  Cheflins  to  produce  any  thing  so  bad. 

21,  R.  H.  Essex,  13,  York-))uildings,  New-road.  Tliis  is  the  climax  of  all 
that  is  rich  in  the  ludicrous.  A  map  of  the  world  is  laid  down  as  the  gi'ound 
■work,  and  a  most  farcical  distribution  of  the  necessary  buildings  is  made.  A 
gardener's  cottage  in  the  centre  is  at  the  sign  of  the  North  Pole,  the  lecture 
rooms  are  in  the  Atlantic  ocean,  (a  witty  gentleman,  thought  the  Pacific 
better),  the  Great  Desert  of  Africa  serves  as  a  nursery,  the  meridian  of  Lon- 
don is  denoted  by  a  sundial,  and  the  capital  cities  of  Europe  by  sundials. 
Really,  really,  Mr.  Essex,  you  must  have  intended  to  enliven  this  otherwise 
dull  exhibition. 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 

ji  system  of  Practical  Arithmetic  l)y  Samuel  Y'oung,  is  intended  for  the 
use  of  the  working  classes,  from  wjiose  pursuits  the  examples  are  derived. 
This  is  certainly  a  more  laudable  eflfort  than  some  of  the  nauseous  affairs 
■which  are  used  in  reUgious  schools.    The  work  seems  carefully  arranged. 

On  the  Conttruction  of  the  4rk,  as  adapted  to  Steam  Navisation  to  India, 


is  an  effusion  of  a  Mr.  Radford.  If  our  readers  have  any  money  to  spare  for 
metaphysical  experiments,  we  recommend  them  to  buy  this  work  as  a  good 
exanijile  of  how  far  hallucination  can  proceed. 

On  llif  supply  of  Water  to  Ike  Metnipi)lis.—T\n&  pamplilel  gives  a  brief  acccnint 
of  the  extensive  works  that  have  U'en  carried  on  liy  the  Water  Companies 
fur  the  hist  five  or  six  years,  fur  impiuving  tlie  supply  of  the  Metropolis  with 
]niie  water.  The  author  very  evidently  is  a  stickler  for  the  existing  compa- 
nies, and  ably  ndvocales  their  cause:  but  he  his  allowed  his  zeal  to  overstep 
llie  mark  of  prudence.    We  shall,  next  month,  make  some  additional  remarks. 


WORKING  EXPENSES  OF  RAILWAYS. 

Abstract  of  the  difterent  items  of  the  working  expenses  on  several  lines  of 
Railway  now  open :  showing  the  ratio  per  cent,  each  item  bears  to  the  gross 
Receipts,  and  the  amount  of  each  per  mile,  for  the  half-year  ending  De- 
cember 31,  1839. 


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^London  and  Birmingham    . , 

Grand  Junction    

Liverpool  and  Manchester  . . 

Leeds  and  Selby 

Greenwich    

Sheffield  and  Rotherham  . , 
_  Glasgow  and  Garnkirk  .... 
"Great  Western 

South  Western     

York  and  North  Midland    . . 

Birmingham  and  Derby  .... 

) 

mSu9[  3ioiiA\        -psuado 
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a  ° 


I-.3 


Notes. — The  London  and  Birmingham  was  chargeable  with  maintenance  of 
way  on  73  miles  for  six  months,  and  on  34^  more  for  15  weeks  =  97J  for  6 
months.     The  other  items  are  upon  112^  miles. 

The  Grand  Junction  is  chargeable  with  maintenance  of  way  on  82 i  miles 
— and  the  mileage  of  that  item  is  calculated  on  that  distance — but  as  they 
carry  their  traffic  to  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  on  the  Liverpool  and  Mau- 
chestar  line,  the  other  items  are  calculated  on  82  i  -i-  30  =  1 121  miles. 

The  Birmingham  and  Derby  mauitain  38j  miles  of  line;  but  as  they  carry 
for  9  miles  on  the  Loudon  and  Birmingham  line,  the  other  items  must  be 
charged  upon  4  7*  miles.  This  line  was  only  opened  in  August,  but  the 
charges  are  calculated  at  the  same  rate  for  six  months. — Correspondent  vfthe 
Railway  Times, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


irs 


Iron  Canal  Boats  in  America. — The  success  of  this  class  of  boats  in 
England,  with  the  arrival  of  the  Iron  Steamboat  at  New  Orleans  from  Pitts- 
burg, (of  a  very  light  draught  of  water,  carrying  a  great  cargo,)  has  led  to  the 
oinnion  that  iron  canal  boats,  if  used  on  the  Erie  canal,  would  double  its 
capacity,  and  supersede  the  necessity  of  the  enlargement.  We  trust  that 
some  of  our  enterprising  forwarders  will  try  the  experiment.  We  arc  not 
fully  acquainted  with  the  cost  of  these  kind  of  boats,  but  have  been  informed, 
tiiat  it  w  ill  not  exceed  fifty  per  cent,  on  the  cost  of  tlie  best  Lalte  boats.  In 
I'enn  ylvania,  witli  their  mixed  line  of  canals  and  railroads  IVoni  Philadeljihia 
to  Pittsburg,  they  now  use  ii'on  boats,  divided  iulo  three  parts.  The  iron 
boat  is  carried  into  Market-street,  Philadelphia,  on  the  return  of  the  cars,  at 
the  Schuylkill  canal  they  are  hooked  together,  forming  a  complete  boat, 
which  afterwards  passes  the  Allegany-ridge,  by  ten  inclined  planes,  when 
they  again  take  the  canal  and  river,  to  reach  Pittsburg.  With  this  compli- 
cated system,  they  compete  with  us  successfully  for  the  early  spring  trade. — 
American  Railroad  Journal, 

Destruction  of  Wooden  Bridges  in  America  bv  Ice. — The  break- 
ing up  of  the  winter  lias  caused  a  recurrence  of  a  specie  of  accident  which  is 
far  from  being  rare.  M'e  allude  to  the  destruction  of  bridges  by  the  com- 
bined force  of  a  swollen  stream  and  immense  masses  of  ice.  The  liability  to 
this  lund  of  accident  depends  more  upon  the  character  of  the  stream  nearer  its 
source  than  at  the  location  of  the  bridge  itself.  A  river  of  any  considerable 
size  receiving  the  drainage  of  a  large  track  of  country,  is  of  course  apt  to  be 
speedily  swollen  by  a  sudden  and  heavy  fall  of  rain  or  rapid  thaw,  and  as  one 
or  the  other  of  these  circumstances  are  sure  to  accompany  the  breaking  up 
of  the  ice,  such  streams  must  present  locations  badly  adapted  to  ordinary 
wooden  bridges.  Shallow  streams,  from  daming  up  the  ice,  are  rather  worse 
than  others  in  this  respect,  yet  they  are  the  most  frequently  crossed  by  these 
insecure  structures.  Bridges  of  a  more  durable  construction,  if  not  built  in 
the  most  substantial  manner,  are  likely  to  sutfer  from  the  same  cause,  if  the 
water  way  has  been  too  much  diminished.  The  proper  substitute  in  such 
localities  are  sv^pension  bridges  of  iron  wire.  These  claim  the  preference  of 
all  others,  whether  in  regard  to  economy  of  first  cost,  or  their  superior 
adaptation  to  the  circumstances  of  the  locality.  Over  a  large  portion  of  our 
country  the  character  of  the  streams  is  altogether  more  favourable  to  this 
than  any  other  species  of  structure.  The  example  of  the  new  bridge  at  Fair 
Mount  will,  we  hope,  speedily  be  followed  in  many  places. — American  Rail- 
road Journal. 


tfEW  INVENTIONS,  IMPROVEMENTS,  «5c. 


Improved  Mode  of  Making  Bricks. — A  correspondent  of  the /Ja/fa'oy 
Times  describes  a  simple  method  of  making  bricks  adopted  on  the  Great 
Western  Railway  on  Mr.  James  Bedborongh's  contract  at  or  near  Marstou. 
It  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  W.  B.  Pritchard,  Esq.,  Civil  Engineer  of  this  Railway, 
and  late  of  the  Chester  and  Crewe  Railway,  Ikt:.,  is  as  follows : — The  clay, 
only  watered,  is  thrown  into  a  common  jnig  mill  (or  mortar  mill);  there  it  is 
ground  in  a  similar  manner  to  mortar;  the  bottom  of  the  mill  is  divided  into 
four  quarters,  into  which  are  grooves  cut,  and  under  which  are  placed  four 
moulds  of  the  same  kind  as  those  in  common  use  by  hand-moulders.  Two 
boys  are  at  the  quarters  taking  the  moulds  out  and  placing  others  in ;  and  by  a 
peculiar  knife  at  the  bottoln  of  the  mill,  which  presses  the  clay  into  the  mould, 
eight  bricks  are  made  every  time  the  horse  goes  round,  which  is  twice  a  mi- 
nute ;  and  at  that  rate  the  horse  can  travel  twenty  miles  iu  twelve  hours,  thus 
making  960  an  hour,  or  11,520  per  day.  The  bricks  made  by  this  machine 
are  much  heavier  and  sounder,  and  the  clay  much  better  tempered,  than  by 
any  other  mode  of  manufacturing  that  I  have  ever  witnessed ;  and  the  saving 
is  2s.  6d.  per  thousand,  besides  other  advantages,  &c. 

Moses  Poole,  Liucoln's-imi,  improvements  in  apparatus  applicable  to 
steam-boilurs ,  in  order  to  render  them  more  safe,  Marcli  11. — The  first  im- 
provement consists  in  a  mode  of  applying  to  the  boiler,  as  a  species  of  safety 
valve,  a  metallic  plate  or  disc,  which  shall  burst  when  the  steam  in  the  boiler 
attains  a  certain  degree  of  pressure,  and  thus  relieve  the  boiler,  which  plate 
may  afterwards  be  replaced  with  a  fresh  one,  without  stopping  tlie  working  of 
the  engines.  To  an  aperture  in  any  convenient  part  of  the  boiler  is  fixed  a 
curved  tube,  terminating  in  an  enlargement  or  cup,  having  a  ledge  riuiuing 
round  the  bottom  for  the  safety  disc  to  rest  ujion.  Upon  the  disc  is  laid  a 
ring,  the  edge  of  which  is  chamfered  off,  so  as  not  to  cut  the  disc,  and  this 
ring  is  secured  down  firmly  by  another  ring,  which  is  screwed  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  cup.  The  outer  bend  of  the  pipe  contains  water,  both  above  and 
below  the  disc,  in  order  to  maintain  it  at  the  same  temperature  on  each  side. 
On  any  convenient  part  of  the  bent  pipe,  is  fitted  a  cock,  by  closing  which, 
the  connection  of  the  cup  with  the  boiler  is  shut  off,  and  another  disc  may 
then  be  replaced  without  stopping  the  operation  of  the  engines.  The  second 
improvement  consists  in  the  application  of  a  steam  whistle,  to  give  notice 
when  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  is  below  a  certain  point.  The 
whistle  is  of  the  ordinary  kind,  and  the  aperture  by  which  it  communicates 
with  the  boiler  is  closed  by  a  stem,  at  the  lower  part  of  which  is  a  float,  com- 
posedof  cork,  or  some  light  wood,  and  covered  with  copper.  When  the  water  get  s 
00  low,  the  float  .and  stem  descend  with  it,  and  the  aperture  being  thus  un- 
t  opped,  the  steam  nishes  out  through  the  whistle,  and  gives  notice  of  the 
e  ficiency .—/Hoen/oc's  Advocate.  [Many  years  since  a  plan  was  adopted 
i    having  a  disc  or  plate  of  copper  or  other  metal  attached  to  some  part  of 


a  boiler,  which  was  made  weaker  than  the  boiler,  so  that  if  there  should 
be  too  great  a  pressure  on  the  boiler,  this  disc  would  rend  asunder  and 
permit  the  escape  of  the  steam,  and,  in  some  cases,  allow  the  water  within 
the  boiler  to  flow  on  to  tlic  fire  and  extinguish  it.  With  regard  to  the 
second  improvement— a  steam  whistle  has  been  adopted  some  time  past  in 
this  country,  and  a  plan  very  similar  to  the  one  described  above,  was 
adoptedby  Messrs.  Maudslays  and  Field,  for  the  engines,  at  the  water  works 
at  Brentford.— See  Journal,  vol.  I.,  page  3/5.  Ed.  C.  E.  and  A.  Journal.] 

Elect ro-magtietie  Engines.— A  new  galvanic  battery,  called  the  mechanico- 
diemical  battery,  has  lately  been  invented  by  Mr.  A  Smee.  of  the  Bank  of 
England.  »hicli  promises  to  supersede  the  other  forms  now  in  use.  Its  prin- 
ciple is  simple,  as  its  power  depends  entirely  upon  finely  divided  platinum, 
dcp.isiled  by  means  of  a  simple  galvanic  arrangement  upon  any  other  metal 
which  IS  unacleil  upon  by  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  only  fluid  used.  At  pre- 
sent he  finds  that  silver  or  plated  copper  answers  admirably  for  the  reception 
of  the  platinum,  but  iron,  when  platinized,  has  the  same  power  for  a  time  as 
these  metals,  though  the  iron  becomes  gradually  dissolved.  He  also  fiiids-^ 
that  with  his  battery  porous  tubes  can,  iu  most  cases,  be  dispensed  with,  and 
that  the  battery  can  be  advantageously  made  in  any  of  the  various  forms 
lutherto  employed.  Its  effects  are  more  powerful  than  those  of  the  sulphate 
of  copper  batteries,  and  in  action  it  is  less  expensive.  The  practical  appli- 
cation of  galvanic  batteries,  except  as  an  instrument  of  research  in  the  labo- 
ratory of  the  student,  is  principally  confined  to  the  explosion  of  powder 
underwater.,  or  in  other  mining  operations,,  for  which  purposes  it  appears 
useful,  from  its  being  small  iu  compass,  and  requiring  scarce  any  manipu- 
lation. Whether  it  may  ever  be  used  for  locomotive  purposes,  still  remains 
doubtful,  but  who  knows  whether  in  future  ages  electro-magnetic  engines 
may  not  take  the  place  of  steam-engines. — Atlas. 

Oil  a  simple  mode  of  obtaining,  from  a  common  Argand  Lamp,  a  greatli/  in- 
creased  quayititij  of  Light,  by  Sir  J.  F.Herschel.—The  following  simple,  easy, 
and  unexpensive  mode  of  greatly  increasing  the  quantity  of  light  yielded  by 
a  common  Argand  burner,  has  been  used  by  me  lor  some  years,  and'is  adapted 
to  the  lamp  by  which  I  n  rite,  to  my  greatlv-increased  comfort.  It  consists 
in  merely  elcvatin"  the  glass  chimney  so  much  above  the  usual  level  at  which 
it  stands  iu  the  burners  in  ordinary  use,  that  its  lower  edge  shall  clear 
the  «/>;;< r  edge  of  ihe  circular  wick  by  a  space  equal  to  about  the  fourth 
part  of  the  exterior  diameter  of  the  wick  itself.  This  m.ay  be  done  to  any 
lamp  of  the  kind,  at  a  cost  of  about  sixpence,  by  merely  ndapting  to  the 
frame  which  supports  the  chimney  four  pretty  stifl  steel  wires,  but  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  four  long  up'right  hooks,  in  which  the  lower  end  of  the 
chimney  rests;  or,  still  better,  if  the  lamp  be  so  originally  constructed  as  to 
•sustain  the  chimney  at  the  required  elevation  w  ithout  much  addition,  by  thin 
laminee  of  brass  oi  iron,  haiing  their  planes  directed  to  the  axi.s  of  the  wick. 
The  proper  elevation  is  best  determined  by  trial ;  and  as  the  limits  within 
which  it  is  confined  are  very  narrow,  it  would  be  best  secured  by  a  screw- 
motion  applied  to  the  socket  on  which  the  laminse  above  mentioned  are  fixed, 
by  which  they  and  the  cliimney  may  be  elevated  or  depressed  at  pleasure, 
without  at  the  same  lime  raising  or  lowering  the  wick.  Approximately 
it  may  be  done  in  an  instant,  and  the  experiment  is  not  a  little  striking 
and  instructive.  Take  a  common  Argand  lamp,  and  alternately  rai.^e 
and  depress  the  chimney  vertically  from  the  level  where  it  usually  rests, 
to  about  as^'ar  above  the  wick,  with  a  moderately  quick  but  steady  motion. 
It  wdl  be  immediately  perceived  that  a  vast  dillerencc  in  the  amount  of  li.p,ht 
subsists  in  the  difl'erer.t  posit  ons  of  the  chimney,  but  that  a  very  marked 
and  sudden  maximum  occurs  at  or  near  the  elevation  designated  in  the  com- 
mencement ;  so  marked,  indeed,  as  almost  to  have  the  eflieet  of  a  flash  if  the 
motion  be  quick,  or  a  sudden  blaze  as  if  the  wick-screw  had  been  raised  a 
turn.  The  flame  contracts  somewliat  in  diameter,  lengthens,  ceases  to  give 
ott  Smoke,  and  attains  a  dazzling  intensity.  With  this  great  increase  of 
light,  there  is  certainly  not  a  corresponding  increased  consumption  of  oil  :  at 
least  the  servant  who  trims  my  lamp  reports  that  a  lamp  so  fitted  consumes 
very  little,  if  any,  more  oil  than  one  exactly  similar  on  the  common  plan. — 
Phil.  Mag- 
Steam  Boilers.— At  the  last  sitting  of  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
National  Industry,  and  on  the  report  of  M.  Se^guier  the  younger,  a  gold 
medal  was  decreed  to  Ihe  elder  M.  Chaussenot,  for  an  apparatus  to  render 
the  explosion  of  steam-boilers  impossible.  According  to  ihe  report,  his  in- 
vention is  perfect,  both  as  regards  its  improvemenis  or  the  safety-valve,  and 
an  ingenious  contrivance  to  give  notice  to  the  crew  and  passengers  of  im- 
pending danger.  Even  the  contingency  of  wilful  mischief  is  provided  against ; 
as  in  the  event  of  all  the  warnings  of  bis  machinery  failing,  or  being  disre- 
garded, the  steam  flows  back  upon  the  furnace,  extinguishes  the  fire,  and 
destroys  all  possibility  of  an  explosion. 

Turning  Lathes.— At  an  ordinary  meeting  of  the  .Society  of  Arts,  the 
large  silver  medal  was  awarded  to  Mr.  J.  Hick,  jun.,  of  Bolton,  for 
an  improved  expanding  mandrel  for  turning-lathes,  ft  is  necessary  that 
a  mandrel  should  fit  so  accurately,  as  to  bite  un  the  inner  surface  with  a 
force  iuffijient  to  counteract  that  of  the  tool,  and,  in  the  ordinary  mode,  the 
same  ma  idrel  cannot  be  used  for  tw o  pietes  w hich  are  of  difi'erent  diameters. 
Consequentlv,  in  many  engineering  establishments,  a  stock  of  mandrels  is 
kept,  amounting  to  650  or  700.  Mr.  Hick  piu-poscs  to  do  the  same  work 
with  eight  sizes  of  the  mandril,  from  one  inch  and  a  quarter  to  ten  inches. 
He  efl'ects  bis  object  by  having  the  spindle  of  the  mandril  shaped  on  the 
frustrura  of  a  cone,  on  the  face  of  which  are  four  dove-tail  grooves  to  receive 
wedges,  the  under  faces  of  which  have  the  reverse  inclination  ot  the  cone,  so 
that  the  lines  of  their  outside  laces  are  always  parallel  with  the  a.xis  of  the 
mandrel.  A  nut  is  screwed  on  the  spindle,  which  acts  on  the  w  edges  througli 
Ihe  medium  of  a  conical  cup,  which  drives  them  up  to  their  bearings  inside 
of  the  work. 

The  Retarder.—VuW  trial  has  now  been  made  of  this  valuable  invention  of 
R.  W.  Jcarrad,  Jun„  Esq.,  for  retarding  (not  locking)  Ihe  w  heels  of  carriage 
when  going  down  hill.    Mr.  Dangcrfield.  coach  proprietor,  having  had  it 

2  A  2 


I7fi 


THE  CIVIL  ENGlNEEll  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


Hiiplictl  first  to  one  of  his  Smilliamplon  coaches,  and  aitcrvcanls  to  the 
ShrcHshiiry  coach,  anil  in  hoth  cases  with  the  greatest  .success.  The  j.rin- 
ciple  of  the  invention  is  pressure  so  applierl  to  the  nave  of  the  wheel  as  tu 
retard  i Is  motion,  or  at  the  will  of  the  coachman  stop  it  altogelhcr.  The 
advaiita^'es  ol  the  invention  are,  that  the  power  may  be  applied  at  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  coachman,  so  that  he  mi^lit  take  his  coach  down  a  steep  liill, 
V  ilhout  allowing  his  horses  to  be  pressed  upon  .It  all.  This  invention  reflecls 
p-eat  credit  upon  ^Ir.  .learrad,  and  we  hope  it  will  he  extensively  applied  to 
imr  four  wheeled  carriages,  for  it  will  contribute  materially  to  the  safely  of 
the  public. — Cheltenham  Jotiritdf. 

Piirrelfihi  Letters. — A  patent  has  lately  been  taken  out  for  an  invention  to 
supersede  the  ordinary  wooden  letters  usvially  fixed  upon  the  facia  of  shop- 
windows.  The  new  letters  arc  made  of  porcelain,  of  every  fonn  and  hue, 
and  when  fixed  up,  present  a  beautiful  and  atlraclivc  appearance.  The  fa- 
cility of  cleansing  them  is  not  the  li  ast  of  their  qualiriealions  ;  for  with  a 
sponge  Ihey  are  immediately  brought  to  their  pristine  beauty  and  elegance. 
It  is  staleil'lliat  they  will  not  exceed  the  old  wooden  letters  in  price.  .Some 
of  the  patterns  are  very  elegant,  particularly  the  golilen  ones,  and,  being 
glazed,  present  a  dazzling  and  animated  appearance.  They  are  luit  quite 
really  for  public  use,  but  it  is  expected  they  will  soon  arrive  from  the  manu- 
laclory  in  .Stalfordshire. 

A'l  H'  Fuel. — The  Rev.  Mr.  C'obbold  lias  invented  a  fuel  composed  of  peat 
and  tie  eommr.n  refuse  of  gas  tar,  which  hums  with  a  bright  flame,  little  or 
no  smoke,  and  gives  out  an  intense  heat.  It  has  no  smell  whatever,  and  has 
been  tried  in  a  grate,  in  comparison  with  coal.  According  to  this  experi- 
iTH'iit.  which  was  made  by  a  chemist,  but  without  weighing  the  fuel,  two 
i|uarls  of  water  were  evaporled  in  3-J  minutes,  leaving  a  good  fire  after- 
w.irds  ;  while  with  Newcastle  coal  it  took  ol  minutes,  leaving  a  low,  burnt- 
out  fire.  Mr.  C'obbold  says  he  can  render  this  fuel  at  7s.  per  ton. — RaUwntj 
MaiTttzhie. 

.1  Xeie  am!  Effeeliial  Method  to  Kyntiise  Timber .—'WW^nn  the  last  two  or 
three  weeks  the  Mancliester  and  Birmingham  Railway  Company  have  com- 
menced Kyanising  their  wood  sleepers  in  a  much  more  quick  and  eflectual 
<  manner  than  by  the  old  mode  of  simply  dcpo  iling  the  timber  immersed  in 
the  prepared  liquid.  The  company  liave  had  made  a  large  iron  cylindrical 
vessel,  weighing  about  ten  tons,  .and  w  hich  is  about  thirty  feet  long,  and  six 
or  seven  feet  diameter,  made  from  wrought-irun  plates,  five-eighihs  tliick, 
and  ikuble  rivetted,  which  vessel  is  capaUe  of  resisting  a  pressure  of  250  lbs. 
on  the  inch.  'Jhe  vessel  being  filled  as  compactly  as  po.-isible  with  wood 
sleepers,  twelve  inches  broad  and  seven  inches  thick,  Ihe  liquid  is  then  forced 
in  w  illi  one  of  Brainah's  hydraulic  pumps,  and  w nrked  by  six  men  to  a  jiressure 
of  170  lbs.  on  the  inch.  B'y  this  means  the  timber  is  completely  saturated 
througliout  in  about  ten  hours,  which  operation,  on  the  old  system,  took 
some  months  to  eifect. 

E.rtranrdhiari/  Maimer  of  Mamjaeturin^  Cloth.— k  gentleman,  residing  at 
piesent  in  London,  has  just  obtained,  we  are  told,  a  patent  for  making  the 
finest  cloth  lor  genllemen's  coats,  &c.,  without  spinning,  weaving,  or  indeed 
without  the  aid  of  any  machinery  similar  to  those  processes,  and  at  a  cost 
less  than  one-fourth  the  present  price.  The  most  extraordinary  circumstance 
in  this  contrivance  is,  that  air  is  the  only  power  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
llie  article.  The  ingenious  inventor  places  in  an  air-tight  chaml«r  a  quantity 
of  flocculent  particles  of  wool,  whicli  by  means  of  a  species  of  ninnowing- 
H  heel  are  kept  floating  equally  throughout  Ihe  atmosphere  coutair\,ed  therein  ; 
(m  one  side  of  the  chamber  is"  a  net  work  of  metal  of  the  finest  manufacture, 
which  communicates  with  a  chamber  from  which  the  air  can  be  abstracted  by 
means  of  an  exhausting  syringe.  comm(mly  called  an  air  pump,  and  on  the 
commLinicalion  between  the  chambers  being  opened  the  air  rushes  with  ex- 
treme vehemence  to  supply  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  exhausted  chamber, 
carrying  the  wholly  I'occula  against  the  netting,  and  so  interlacing  the  fibres, 
that  a  tdoth  of  a  beautiful  fabric  and  c'ose  texture  is  instantaneously  made. 
Several  of  the  specimens  of  thi.i  cloth  that  h.ive  been  shown  to  scientific  gen- 
tlemen and  manufac'-urers  have  excited  great  admiration.  This  cloth  is  a 
species  of  felt,  but  instead  of  adopting  the  old  laborious  method,  the  above, 
which  is  denominated  Ihe  pr.esmatie  process,  is  used,  and  produces  the  result 
;is  it  were  by  magic. — Observer. 


ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  LIME  KILN.S. 

EV   Sm   f.    G.   STf.^RT  MENTEATU,    tlARt. 

Havino  been  engaged  in  burning  lime  for  the  supply  of  an  exten.-ivc  dis- 
trict of  country  for  agricultural  improvrments,  and  being  distant  from  coal 
IH  miles,  it  was  desirable  to  find  out  the.  best  construclcd  kiln  lor  l/urning 
lime  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  coal,  and  having  been  aware  from  experi- 
ment that  the  kilns  generally  employed  in  l.'rcat  Britain  lor  burning  lime  are 
of  a  construction  too  narrow  at  bottom,  and  too  wide  at  lop.  many  kilns  of 
this  construction  being  not  more  than  three  or  four  feel  » ide  at  bo'ti  m,  and 
18  feet  v.'iile  at  the  height  of  21  feet,  were  found  to  waste  ihe  fuel  during  the 
process  of  calcining  the  lime,  or  in  other  words,  tlid  not  pioduce  more  than 
two  measures  of  burnt  lime  f  hells  for  one  measure  of  coal ;  but  it  is  to  I.e 
understood,  that  in  whatever  construction  of  kiln  lime  is  burnt,  ihe  fuel 
required  to  I  urn  limestone  must  vary  according  to  Ihe  softness,  (.r  hardness, 
or  density  of  the  slone,  and  the  quality  or  strength  of  the  coal  used.  The 
same  measure  of  coal  in  .Scotland  called  chews,  when  employed,  will  burn 
A  greater  quantity  of  lime  in  a  given  lime  llian  the  same  ijuanlity  or  weijiht 
of  small  coal,  the  chews  or  small  pieces  (if  coal  admitling  the  air  to  circulate 
more  freely  through  the  kiln.  Though  this  fact  should  be  well  known  to 
limc-burncrs.  yet  ihey  frequently  cmpl(jy  sm.all  coal  in  burning  lime,  from  its 
being  procured  at  a  less  price,  llioneh  really  a.t  a  gi'calcr  exper.ce,  as  it  re- 
quires a  mueli  larger  quantity  to  produce  Ihe  same  cllecl.  anil  a  longer  time 
to  admit  of  eL|ual  (iuantiiies  of  lime  being  drawn  out  of  the  same  kiln  in  a 
given  time. 


For  a  sale  of  lime  for  agricultural  purposes  in  a  limited  district,  i  have 
found  kilns  of  small  dimensions  to  he  most  profitable;  the  construction  of  a 
kiln  1  have  employed  for  many  years  was  of  an  oval  shajje,  five  feel  wiile  at 
boltom,  widening  gradually  to  six  feet  at  the  height  of  IRfeet,  and  continu- 
ing at  that  width  to  28  feet  high  from  the  bottom.  A  kiln  of  this  construc- 
tion has  been  found  to  burn  lime  in  much  less  time,  and  with  a  smaller  pro- 
portion of  fuel,  than  kilns  of  large  dimensions,  narrow  at  bottom  and  wide 
at  top,  .as  heat  is  well  known  to  ascend  more  rapidly  in  a  perpendicular  than 
in  a  sloiiing  direction,  from  which  arises  the  superiority  of  a  narrow  kiln, 
with  si<les  nearly  perpendicular,  compared  with  one  with  sides  that  slope 
rapidly. 

Those  narrow  kilns  will  admit  of  being  drawn  out  of  them  every  day.  if 
fully  employed,  more  than  two-thirds  or  nearly  three-fourths  of  wliat  they 
contain,  of  well  burnt  lime,  and  all'onl  fully  three  of  lime-shells  fnr  unc 
measure  of  coal,  when  large  circular  kilns  will  not  give  out  more  than  one 
half  of  their  eontenis  every  day.  and  require  nearly  one  of  coal  for  every  two 
measures  of  lime  burnt.  In  a  country  sale  of  lime,  the  quantity  sold  every 
d.ay  is  liable  to  great  lluctualions  :  two  u\  three  cart  loads  will  sometimes 
only  be  rei^uired  from  an  eslablishmeut  which,  the  day  before,  supplied 
forty  ;  .and  as  lime  is  known  to  be  a  commodity,  when  exposed  to  the  aclion 
of  air,  which  becomes  more  bulky  and  heavy,  and  in  that  state  dues  nol  ad- 
mit of  being  carried  to  a  distance  without  additional  labour,  it  has  been  an 
olijcct  of  importance  with  me  to  find  out  a  construction  of  a  kiln  which  will 
allow  of  lime  being  kept  for  several  (bays  without  slacking,  and  at  the  same 
lime  to  prevent  the  fire  escaping  at  the  lop  of  the  kiln,  if  the  kiln  stands  24 
hours  H  ithout  being  employed,  especi.'iUy  ciurirg  the  .autumn  and  winter  when 
the  air  is  cold  and  the  nights  long.  I  now  employ  kilns  of  an  egg  shape,  and 
.also  oval ;  the  oval-shaped  kilns  are  divided  by  arches  across  the  kiln,  des- 
cending four  feet  from  the  top  :  the  object  of  the  arches  across  the  kiln  is  to 
prevent  the  sides  of  the  kiln  falling  ill  or  contracting,  and  .also  to  enable  you 
to  form  circular  openings  for  feeding  in  the  stone  and  coal  at  the  moulh  of 
the  kiln  ;  upon  this  plan,  a  kiln  of  any  length  miglit  be  constructed  willi 
numerous  round  mouths.  From  the  great  expense  attending  the  driving  of 
fuel  from  a  distance  of  25  miles  from  my  own  coal-pits,  I  have  iulopted  the 
practice  of  cokeing  the  coal, which  is  a  saving  of  two-fifths  of  the  weight, 
and  I  find  that  an  equ.al  measure  of  coal  and  ciike  have  the  same  (juautity  of 
heat  in  burning  lime,  which  is  somewhat  paradoxical,  but  not  the  less  true. 
Tlie  coal  is  found  to  have  little  cllect  upon  the  stone  till  it  is  deprived  of  its 
bitumen,  or  is  coked  in  Ihe  kiln  ;  for,  during  the  time  the  smoke  is  emitted 
from  Ihe  top  of  a  lime  kiln,  little  or  no  heat  is  evolved  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
does  not  the  smoke  carry  olf  the  heat,  which  is  not  given  out  from  the  smoke 
till  if  is  inllamed,  which  does  not  take  place  in  Ihe  ordinary  lime  ki'ns  ?  A 
kiln  in  which  coke  is  the  fuel  employed  will  yield  nearly  a  third  more  lime 
shells  in  a  given  time  than  when  coal  is  the  fuel,  so  that  coke  may  be  used 
occasionally  when  a  greater  quantity  of  lime  is  required  in  a  certain  tunc 
than  usual,  as  it  is  well  known  to  lime  burners  that  the  process  of  burning  is 
done  most  economically  w  lien  tj)e  kiln  is  in  full  action,  .so  as  almost  constantly 
to  have  a  column  of  fire  from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  kiln,  with  as  short 
intervals  as  possible  in  working  the  kiln. 

Having  found  that  limestone  is  apt  to  be  vitrified  durin.g  the  process  of 
enVination  during  stormy  weather,  from  the  increased  circulation  of  air 
through  the  kiln,  whicli  adds  much  to  the  heat  derived  from  the  fuel  cm- 
ployed,  and  w  hich  experienced  lime-burners  would  have  diminished  could 
they  be  aware  at  all  times  oi  an  occurrence  of  this  kind  :  from  having  expe- 
rience of  the  bad  ellecls  of  too  great  a  circulation  without  properly  provi  ling 
against  it,  1  have  reason  to  believe  that  by  having  a  power  to  ihiow  in  at 
pleasure  an  additional  quantity  of  air  into  the  bottom  of  a  lime  kiln,  a  con- 
sideraWe  saving  of  fuel  necessary  for  the  ca'cination  ol  lime  would  lake 
))Iace,  and  another  object  Would  be  gained,  that  of  cooling  Ihe  limestone  in 
the  bottom  of  the  kiln,  which  frcqueiuly  retards  the  drawing  out  of  the  burnt 
limestone  for  some  hours,  or  until  the  1  mestonc  is  so  cold  as  not  to  burn  the 
wooden  structure  of  carls. 

In  working  a  kiln  w  illi  narrow  circular  mouths,  th:'  slonc  and  coal  should 
be  earefu  ly  measured,  so  that  ihe  workmen  can  proporlion  the  fuel  employed 
to  Ihe  qua-nlity  of  stones,  and  it  is  obvious,  that  the  quantity  of  coal  to  he 
used  must  depend  upon  its  relative  quality,  .and  the  hardness  of  the  stone  to 
le  burnt.  If  this  measure  was  adopicd  in  kilns  of  any  construction,  the  lime 
shells  would  be  found  bolter  burnt. —  Ttie  TJubl'm  ,'ldfertiser. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


The  Presidtnl  Steam  Ship.— 'I'hh  vessel,  tlie  largest  ever  yet  built,  arrive,! 
here  a  few  days  ago  under  Ihe  command  of  Captain  Kean,  and  is  now  lying 
in  Sloyne.  .'^he  is  an  exceedingly  beautiful  moilel ;  built  of  the  best  material 
that  England  and  England's  wealth  can  sujiply,  and  is  in  every  respect  a 
nob^e  vessel,  ."^he  is  now,  (her  engines  not  being  yet  on  board,)  what  is  in 
nautical  term,  called '■  light"  ;  and  loomes  very  large.  Her  proportions  are, 
however,  such  but  for  the  comparative  size  oT  the  Queen's  mail  ships  near 
lier.  she  is  so  compact  lluil  she  does  not  appear  at  even  a  short  distance  to 
be  larger  than  the  "  Ijiverpool."  A  nearer  approach,  however,  undeceives 
the  beholder,  and  a  visit  on  hoard,  realizes  to  'Hn  fullest  extent  Ihe  concep- 
tion of"  a  wooden  world." 

She  is  painted  in  man-of-war  style,  with  gun  ports,  and  is  liandsomely 
rigged  as  a  three-masted  schooner,  with  a  foremast,  forctopmast,  and  topgal- 
lanlmast,  approximating  to  those  of  a  ship.  Her  how  is  fine,  and  at  the  ex- 
trimily  of  her  hcadrails  will  be  placed,  when  completed  as  a  figure-head,  a 
liust  of  ^Vashinglon,  the  hero  of  American  independence.  Her  stern  is  pro- 
jective, beautiiully  formed  to  turn  ofi'  a  heavy  sea  ;  ornamented  aloft  w  ith  the 
arms  of  England  and  America,  quaitered  iu  heraldic  shield,  supported  by 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


177 


"  the  Lion  of  Eiiglaml,"  and  "  Kagic  of  America."  Tlic  padille  Iwxes  are 
comparatively  very  slightly  raised  above  Iter  bulnarks  ;  anil  her  general  ap- 
pearance is,  when  her  side  is  viewed,  that  of  a  first  class  frigate  of  extraordi- 
nary size,  her  light  rigging  given  her  at  the  same  time  a  most  rakish  and 
mischievous  appearance. 

The  following  arc  the  dimensions :  — 

Feet.  In. 

Ijenglh  over  all.  from  taffrail  to  figure-head 273     0 

lieam  wiihin  the  paddle-boxes 41     0 

Breadth  fVom  oilsiile  of  paddle  boxes 72    4 

Depth  of  hold     30     0 

Height  between  the  main  and  spar  deck 8     C 

lleight  between  loMrr  and  main  deck  fbolh  Ikish)  7     8 

Tonnage  supposed  2500. 

Those  who  are  versed  in  maritime  aH'airs  will  readily  conceive  from  these 
dimensions  that  we  are  warranted  in  slating  'ihnt  the  President,  is  in  reality, 
•'  a  wooden  world.''  She  is  indeed,  more — slie  is  a  world  not  only  of  wood, 
but  of  iron,  copper,  and  other  materials,  constituting  the  ne  plus  ullrn  of 
strength  in  naval  .indiiteeture. 

The  President  was  laiilt  at  Limehouse.  London,  by  Messrs.  Curling  and 
Carter,  the  latter  gentleman  superintending  her  construction  throughout. 
Ketween  decks  and  in  her  holds  slip  presents  a  perfect  [licture  of  strength  ; 
and  we  cannot  more  highly  compliment  our  metropolitan  friends  and 
contemporaries  in  Transjanlic  Steam  Navigation,  than  by  stating  that 
they  seem  in  materials,  in  fastenings,  and  in  putling  together,  to  have  taken 
a  leaf  out  of  the  i-ook  of  our  townsmen  Messrs.  ^\'ilson  and  Co.,  whose  vessels 
both  in  point  of  strength  and  sailing  have  hitherto  borne  the  bell. 

K\ery  available  modern  improvement  has  been  taken  advantage  of  in  the 
constru'clion  of  the  President,  lo  addition  to  a  remarkably  strong  frame, 
solid  to  the  bilge,  she  is  diagonally  fastened  fore  and  aft  with  iron  and  wood, 
in  a  m.-uiner  that  would  seem  to  defy  the  rudest  assaults  of  the  ocean  wave. 
We  have  not  lime  to  enler  into  details.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  materials 
of  the  Presiileiit  ihroughout  arc  of  the  best  quality,  and  that  the  utmost 
science,  in  a  scientific  age,  has  been  exerted  to  work  them  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

The  engines  for  this  vessel  will  be  of  about  ( 00  horse  power.  They  are 
already  built  by  our  townsmen  JJessrs.  Fa«  cett  and  Co.,  and  present  a  splendid 
specimen  of  the  ingenuity  ami  enterprise  of  the  age. 

Tbe /Vi-.svV/r/K' will  present  peculiar  advantages  for  passengers.  Her  spar- 
deck  will  allord  a  long  and  delightful  promenade  in  fine  weather,  and  during 
rain  or  storms  a  dry  and  sheltered  walk  may  be  enjoyed  below. 

The  cabins  are  not  yet  fitted  up.  The  principal  or  stern  saloon  will  be 
eighty-seven  feet  in  length  ;  its  breadth  (including  the  small  state  rooms  on 
each  side)  forty -one  leel. 

No  expense  has  been  spared  to  'render  the  President  a  crack  ship.  In 
strength  of  materials  and  hdelily  of  workmanship,  she  is  ftdly  equal  to  any 
of  her  Majesty's  ships  of  war ;  and  is  fitted  up  « ilh  all  the  modern  improve- 
ments in  pumps,  tanks,  &c.  She  is  also  divided  into  sections,  so  that  the 
springing  of  a  leak  (should  such  take  place)  would  be  attended  with  com- 
paratively tritiing  danger.  It  is  calculated  that  the  Presiileiit  will  carry  1.000 
tims  of  gi'Ods  beyond  her  compliment  of  coals,  luggage,  and  materials  for  a 
trans- Atlantic  \oyage.  Her  steering  tackle  is  of  novel  and  improved  con- 
struction ;  and  such  w'as  required  ;  for,  from  her  length  and  size,,  she  may  be 
deemed  a  floating  island. 

The  agents  of  the  President  at  this  port,  are  Mr.  Pim,  of  the  St.  George's 
Steam-packet  Company,  and  Mr.  Maegregor  Laird,  brother  of  Mr.  Laird,  of 
Nortli  Birkenhead,  the  celebrated  builder  of  Iron  ships. — Liverpool  Courier. 


Tlie  Sons  of  the  Tlmmcs.— This  vessel  which  we  nolicel  in  the  last  January 
number  is  now  fairly  belbrc  the  public,  and  fully  sustains  the  speed  wc  then 
announced  ;  she  cclijises  all  the  Gravesend  steamers. 

Steom-Pacie/s  to  the  Wrsf  Indies. — The  directors  of  the  Royal  Mail  Steam- 
Packet  Company  have,  with  laudable  promptitude,  contracted  for  the  building 
and  machinery  for  the  requisite  number  of  steamers.  Three  are  to  be  of 
12o0  tons  burden,  and  arc  in  regard  to  the  form  and  the  cabins,  of  a  superior 
construction.  They  will  be  ready  for  sea  in  the  autumn  of  next  year,  when 
our  splendid  colonics  in  the  West  Indies  will  be  brought  practically  as  near 
to  us  as  were,  not  long  ago,  many  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  to  tlie  me- 
tropolis. It  would  be  ditficult  to  exaggerate  the  beneficial  eti'ects  which  may 
flow  from  this  change,  but  we  shall  not  dilate  on  the  subject  at  present. 
Many  of  our  readers  ai-e  aware  that  some  controversy  has  arisen  about  the 
route  that  ought  to  be  adopted  with  a  view  to  the  convenience  of  all  the  in- 
terests concerned,  and  it  is  doubtless  a  question  which  deserves  full  conside- 
ration. We  understand  the  Government  has  the  power  of  altering  the  course 
of  the  packets  as  circnmstanccs  may  render  expedient. — Colonial  Gazelle. 

Steam  Mail  Paciets. — Government  having  orilered  a  weekly  mail  to  be 
conveyed  by  steam  from  Hull  to  Christiansaud  and  Goltenburgli,  a  contract 
for  the  transit  has  lieen  taken  by  Messrs.  AVilsoii,  Hudson,  and  Co.,  of  this 
port,  and  by  whom  two  competent  steam-vessels,  of  the  Ih-st  class,  will  be 
immediately  placed  on  the  station.  The  service  is  to  commence  on  the  2d  of 
next  month.  The  passage  which  will  be  imperatively  undertaken  at  specific 
hours,  to  and  from  the  Eastern  ports,  will  afford  a  safe  and  certain  convey- 
ance, and  thereby  give  an  additional  impetus  to  commercial  enterprise. — Hull 
Times. 

Britisii  Queen. — This  noble  vessel  arri\ed  at  Portsmouth,  fin  Thursday 
morning,  ISth  ult.,  in  14  days  from  New  York. 

The  ^' Lee^^  Iron  Steam  Barge  has  been  fitted  with  Halls  patent  reefing 
paddles,  and  at  the  beginning  of  last  month  made  several  trips  on  the  Thames, 
ofl  Greenwitli,  to  sliow  the  action  of  reeling  the  paddles,  both  when  the  barge 


was  laden  and  unladen.  The  action  is  very  simple,  in  outward  appearance 
the  paddle  wdicel  being  similar  to  the  common  one. — although  upon  inspection 
it  will  be  found  very  dilTerent.  On  the  shaft  of  the  wheel  is  a  large  iron  disc 
about  2  ft.  Gin.  radius,  composed  of  two  plates  of  metal;  the  iviside  face  of 
one  of  them,  contains  a  spiral  groove,  in  which  plugs  are  accurately  fitted, 
and  fixed  to  the  inner  end  of  sliding  arms  of  iron,  fiiese  arms  are  attached  at 
the  other  or  outer  end  to  the  float  boards,  when  it  is  necessary  to  contract 
the  size  of  the  wheel;  the  disc  is  turned  round  by  the  aid  of  a  winch,  and  as 
it  turns  round,  the  plugs  fitted  to  the  spiral  are  gradually  drawn  up,  as  the 
radius  of  the  spiral  groove  gets  smaller;  and  when  it  is  requisite  to  enlarge 
the  diameter,  the  disc  is  turned  in  the  opposite  direction,  by  this  means  the 
plugs  attached  to  the  movealjle  iron  arm  are  graflually  drawn  into  the  spiral 
groove  of  a  larger  radius  and  fores  out  the  float  boards.  By  this  simple  con- 
trivance, the  wheels  of  the  "  Lee"  can  be  contracted  from  a  large  diameter  to 
a  small  diameter.  For  such  a  vessel  as  the  "Lee"'  it  is  highly  valuable,  as  she 
is  to  be  engaged  by  the  spirited  pioprietiu',  Mr.  Lee,  the  extensive  lime  bur- 
ner and  brick  maker,  to  convey  lime  from  his  works  up  the  Medway  to 
Limlon,  and  occasionally  to  be  employed  as  a  tow  boat  for  bringing  up  the 
other  vessels  when  the  wind  sets  directly  against  them,  sometimes  this  is  his 
case  for  several  days,  and  we  have  known  instances  of  London  being  almost 
without  a  yard  of  lime.  We  have  no  doubt  this  spirited  cflbrtef  Mr.  Lee  will 
cause  several  iron  barges  to  appear  on  the  Thames  before  many  months  have 
passed  over.  Tlie  ''Lee"  is  an  iron  vessel  built  by  Messrs.  Ditchbuni  and 
Slair,  and  furnished  with  two  oscillating  engines  by  Messrs.  Penn  and  Son  of 
Greenwich: — the  various  experiments  proved  very  satisfactory. 


ENGINESRING  "WORKS. 

■WESTMINSTER  BRIDGE. 

In  a  former  number  (23),  we  described  briefly  the  construction  of  this  in- 
teresting bridge,  and  the  works  that  had  been  carried  on  for  many  years  by 
the  late  Mr.  Telford  for  protecting  its  foundations,  rendered  iuseciu-e  by  the  re- 
moval of  old  London  bridge.  We  also  explained  the  extent  of  improvements 
contemplated  by  the  commissioners,  »nd  the  manner  in  which  they  were 
being  executed  "by  Mr.  Cuhitt,  contractor,  under  the  direction  of  Messrs. 
Walker  and  Biirges. 

We  have  now  the  gratification  of  recording  the  rapid  progress  of  the  works, 
and  of  congratiflating  the  public  on  the  immense  advantages  they  are  likely 
to  derive  from  the  enlightened  views  of  the  Commissioners,  who  in  addition 
to  the  extensive  improvements  referred  to,  have  decided  on  widening  the  road- 
way 12  feet,  thus  making  it  e(iual  in  width  to  London  bridge.  The  two  piers 
that  were  inclosed  in  the  dam  have  been  extended  for  that  purpose,  and  five 
courses  of  the  soflit  of  the  arch  on  each  side  already  completed.  The  ditticully 
of  executing  this  work  can  be  appreciated  only  by  those  who  are  acquainted 
with  the  construction  of  the  foundations  on  caissons,  and  a  description  of  the 
method  adopted  must  be  interesting. 

By  referring  to  the  plan  and  section  in  the  number  afliided  to,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  intention  then  was  to  carry  the  sheet  piling  completely  round 
the  pier,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  caisson  to  prevent  the  condensed  ground 
disturbing  the  framework,  afterwards  to  fill  ni)  this  space  and  the  openings 
in  the  grating  with  brick,  anil  thus  form  a  solid  bed  for  the  Koche  Portland 
pavement.  "This  was  done  as  far  as  the  angles  of  the  south  cutwater — the 
part  of  the  caisson  at  tbat-extremity  was  then  partially  removed,  and  bearing 
piles  of  beech,  10  feet  long  by  9  inches  diameter,  driven  3  feet  apart  over 
the  space  on  which  the  extended  pier  ami  cutw.ater  were  to  he  erected,  and 
the  sheet  piling  continued  round ;  on  the  bearing  piles  were  spiked  double 
sills  of  nieiuel  tir  crossing  over  the  pUes,  and  of  scanthngs  to  bond  with  the 
caisson,  and  form  a  grating  the  same  height,  the  openings  were  filled  up  with 
brick,  and  G  in.  York  landings,  upon  which  a  course  of  Koche  Portland  stone 
was  laid,  extending  over  the  whole  space,  and  bevelled  off  towards  the  sheet 
piling,  uniform  with  the  pavement  surroimdingthe  pier.  The  Portland  stone 
on  each  side  of  the  pier  was  cut  out  to  a  deptli  of  1  ft.  Ij  in.  and  2  feet  6  in., 
and  courses  of  Bromley  fall  stone  inserted,  and  carried  round  on  the  new 
foundations;  thus  the  .appearance  of  the  piers  and  soflit  of  the  arch,  as  high 
as  the  toj)  of  the  fifth  course  from  the  springing,  is  the  same  as  if  built  at  one 
period.  The  north  cutwaters  restored  h\"  the  late  Mr.  Telford  were  not 
distm-hed. 

The  sluices  of  the  dam  were  opened  on  the  13th  nlf.  at  high  water,  the 
dam  having  remained  cpiite  dry  and  secure  from  the  time  it  was  closed. 

The  work  both  for  execution  and  quahty  of  material  cannot  be  sufticientiy 
admired,  and  the  piers  will  resist  for  centuries  the  attacks  of  the  elements 
they  have  to  contend  with. 

The  dam  round  the  next  two  piers  is  now  partly  forincd,  and  when  the 
water  has  been  excluded,  we  promise  our  readers  an  account  of  the  sunken 
pier  that  excited  the  greatest  interest  about  100  years  ago. 

IVyrleij  and  Biiininghaiii  Canals. — About  twelve  months  ago  an  arrange- 
ment was  made  for  consolidating  the  Wyrley  and  Essington  Canal  Company 
with  the  Birmingham  Canal  Company,  and  we  observe  that  on  the  14th 
ultimo  the  Act  of  Parliament  for  carrying  that  arrangement  into  efi'ect  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent.  This  union  will  not  only  he  of  great  advantage  to 
the  proprietor's,  hut  also  to  the  public,  as  the  united  company  are  going  to  lay 
out  upwards  of  £120,000.  in  making  two  new  lines  of  canal  lo  connect  the 
Wyrley  and  Essington  canal  with  the  lower  level  of  the  Biimingham  canal, 
y  one  of  which  the  mines  in  the  ueighbomrhood  of  Wedneslield  and  WiUen- 
all  will  be  brought  into  the  market;  and  by  the  other  the  lower  part  of  the 


178 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


e; 


town  of  Birmingham  may  be  supplied  witli  coal  from  the  extensive  and 
valuable  mines  at  Bronnhills  and  Cannock  Chase.  —  Wolverhampton 
(  7n'onfcit'. 

(iloncrstcr  mirl  Hereford  Canal. — Abuut  five  luindrpd  men  rno  now  employed 
in  the  cunliniiatioii  of  llu*  c;inal  from  !jedi)iiry  to  llcrcfnrd.  Nearly  tlic 
«  hole  of  the  first  seven  miles  is  in  progress  ;  the  works  at  present  are  confined 
to  this  portion,  because  the  siip]ily  "f  water  will  ho  obtained  liy  il,  not  only 
f(ir  the  new  part.  l->nt  also  f(ir  the  si\i|.en  miles  from  Ledbury  to  Gloucester': 
i(  is  therefore  anticipated  that  tliis  additional  supply  will  cause  a  ecnisidirable 
increase  of  revenue  The  most  important  works  at  present  underhand  are 
the  eml)anknicnl  across  the  Leadon  Valley,  at  Prior's  Court  and  tlie  deep 
cutting  at  Ashberton.  The  weather  has  lately  been  verv  favourable  for  the 
work,  and  tlie  jrreat  pro^;ress already  niaile  has  surprised  many  persons:  part 
of  the  line  is  f|uilc  linished.  and  liglit  boats  constructed  so  as  to  be  easily 
moved  fnuu  place  to  place,  are  n(nv  being  used  on  the  finished  portion,  for  the 
^urpose  of  shifting  soil  and  materials.  Patent  bricks  for  facing  the  locks  are 
leing  made  at  Ledbury.  The  bricks  are  very  superior  to  any  before  seen  in 
this  country.  They  are  moulded  in  the  usua'l  way.  and  when  in  a  particular 
slate  of  dryness  they  are  forced  by  a  heavy  weight  ir.to  the  metal  mould, 
which  opcraticin  not,  nidy  bruigs  'the  brick' into  a  p  rfectly  true  and  square 
shape,  witli  a  fine  smooth  surface,  hut  also  condenses  the  clay,  thereby  making 
the  brick  stronger  and  more  diuable. — Hrrefurri  Times. 

Nelson  Memoriai.. — On  the  |2d  ull..  the  following  tenders  were  pre- 
sented and  opened  by  the  Nelson  Testimonial  Connnittee,  held  at  the  National 
Gallery,  for  the  erection  of  Mr.  Railton's  colnnniin  Trafalgar-square;  Messrs. 
Grissell  and  Peto,  the  builders,  being  the  successful  candidates. 

Messrs.  Grissell  and  I'eto XI  7,860 

Messrs.  Baker  and  Son  --.--..-        17,940 

Mr.  Jackson 18,200 

Mr.  Cninily 19,700 

Mr.  Hicks' 20.500 

Tdessrs.  Malcott  and  Son 27,009 

Skew  Bridge. — Workmen  arc  now  actively  engaged  in  the  erection  of  one 
of  the  most,  perhaps  the  most  c.vtraordinary  iron  viaducts  connected  with  any 
raUway,  either  finished  or  in  the  co\nse  of  completion,  in  Great  Britain.  The 
viaduct  in  question  will  cross  Fairfield-street,  better  known,  jierbaps,  as  Travis- 
street,  Manchester,  or  the  Manchester  and  Birmingham  line  of  railway.  The 
great  mass  of  substantial  masonry  against  which  the  six  ribs  that  compose  the 
arch  are  intended  to  abut,  is  surprising  to  behold;  petha))S  anything  more 
substantial,  or  work  better  executed,  cannot  be  exhibited  in  the  kingdom.  The 
weight  of  the  iron  consumed  in  this  viaduct  is  .540  tons,  and  is  comprised  of 
six  ribs,  each  12H  feet  sjian.  The  viaduct  is  also  very  remarkable  for  its  acute 
angle,  such  angle  being  215  degrees;  the  width  of  the  street  being  only  10 
yards,  or  48  feet.  The  only  erection  at  all  aiqiroacbing  to  this  in  tlie  acnte- 
ness  of  its  angle  is  one  on  the  London  ami  Binningham  line,  » Inch  is  28  deg. 
So  very  correct  have  the  masomy  and  iron  works  been  executed  to  the  plan 
and  si)ceificalioii,  that  on  fitting  the  last  segment  of  the  first  rib  it  was  found 
impossible  to  introduce  a  sixpence  between  the  joints — /'.  e.  before  the  screws 
(hat  connect  the  two  adjoining  segments  were  tightened.  In  attempting, 
however,  to  fix  the  last  segment  in  the  first  rib,  before  referred  to,  at  noon 
on  the  previous  day,  it  was  found  to  be  fully  three-eights  of  an  inch  too  long, 
caused,  as  it  was  afterwards  proved,  by  expansion,  arising  from  the  heat  of 
the  sun — for  on  the  following  morinng,  early,  and  before  the  sun's  rays  could 
have  any  decided  effect  on  the  iron,  it  was  foiunl  to  fit  its  destined  place  with 
the  utmost  possible  precision. — Liver/mol  Chronicle. 


FROaRESS   OF  RAII.'WAYS. 

LONDON  AND  BLACKWALL  RAILM'AY. 

TIn  the  first  volume  of  the  ./owrwn/,  ]i;ige  109,  are  some  comments  by  an 
"  Old  Knginccr,"  felative  to  the  proposed  working  of  the  above  railway — we 
tiow  have  an  opportunity  of  giving  the  particulars  as  to  how  it  is  intended  to 
work  the  line,  which  we  select  from  the  report  of  the  engineers,  Mr.  George 
Stephenson  and  Mr.  Bidder,  read  at  the  last  half  yearly  meeting  of  the  Pro- 
prietors of  the  Company.] 

"  In  consequence  of  inquiries,  which  from  time  to  time  are  made,  we  feel 
that  some  explanation  is  desirable  respecting  the  mode  to  be  adopted  in 
ii'orl;iiig  the  railway,  and  we.  therefore,  trust,  that  a  few  <d)Servalions  to  ren- 
der tills  clear  will  not  be  out  of  place  on  the  present  occasion. 

"  It  is.  we  presume,  generally  known,  that  you  intend  to  eslablisli  several 
intermediate  stations  between  London  and  Blackwlill,  although,  by  the  direct 
course  of  the  railway,  the  dislanec  is  little  more  than  tiu'ee  miles  and  a  half. 
This  accommodation  could  not  be  aflorded  on  so  .short  a  line  if  worked  by 
locomotive  engines,  without  either  doing  away  with  the  velocity  usually  at- 
tained on  railways,  or  by  having  recourse  to  more  lines  of  rails,  which  would, 
of  necessity,  involve  an  increase  of  locomotive  power,  and  add  largely  both 
to  the  permanent  and  current  cx|.enditure.  By  means.  Iiow  ever,  of  stationary 
engines,  the  desirable  object  of  working  intermediate  .stations  for  the  con- 
venience of  pa.sseugers  is  easily  secured. 

"  The  plan  adopted  to  accomplish  this,  is  as  follows  : — Assuming  that  be- 
tween  London  :md  Black  wall  I  here  .ire  three  stations.  A,  B,  and  C  respectively, 
then  tlie  trains  starling  from  London,  and  drawn  by  the  locomotive  engine's, 
would  consist  of  at  least  four  carriages  ;  the  carriages  might  be  more  nume- 
rous for  every  station,  but,  for  the  sake  of  perspicuity  in  the  explanation,  we 
will  assume  for  each  one  carriage  only. 

"  The  fgreraost  carriage  nill  Le  that  destined  to  go  all  the  way  to  Blacks 


„.a)l_(liP  second,  that  to  station  C— the  third,  that  to  station  B— and  the 
fourth,  that  to  s'aliou  A.  In  the  transit  to  Ulack«all,  station  A  is  first 
reached,  but  previous  to  arriving  at  it.  the  last  or  fourth  carriage  is  detached 
from  the  tr.iin,  and  is  stopped  (i|iposite  that  station,  whilst  the  rest  of  the 
tram  is  still  progressing.  The  third  carriage  is  detached  and  stopped  in  like 
manner  at  station  B.  and  so  on  till  the  carriage  for  Rlackwall  has  arrivcil  at 
its  ultimate  destination.  The  engines  then  cease  working,  and  the  rope  which 
has  been  drawn  from  London,  .oid  is  to  be  the  means  of  rccmiveying  the 
C:irriages  back,  is  in  a  state  of  rest.  M'hile  remaining  so,  the  carriages  at 
their  respective  stations  :ue  loaded  and  attached  for  their  return,  so  that  in 
due  time  when  the  rope  is  .set  in  motion  by  the  London  engines,  all  the  car- 
riages are  started  simultaneously.  The  carriage  which  was  last  in  the  train 
towards  Blackwall,  thus  becomes  the  first,  and  is  attached  to  the  rope  a  mile 
or  two  nearer  London  than  the  most  remote  carriage  ;  and  as  they  are  iiU 
attached  to  the  same  rope,  they  obviously  travel  at  the  same  speed,  though 
at  .such  a  distance  apart.  It  then  follows  that  the  carriage  from  station  A, 
arrives  first  in  London  and  occupies  the  furthest  portion  of  the  depot :— then 
billows  tlie  carriage  from  station  B,  and  so  on  until  the  last  carriage  frLm 
Blackwall  has  arrived,  when  the  engines  again  cease  working,  the  cai-riages 
being  thus  left  in  their  proper  relative  positions  for  their  next  transit  towards 
Blackwall. 

■'  To  these  arrangements  the  utmost  effect  will  be  given  by  the  adoption  of 
the  Klectric  Telegraph  of  Professor  Wheatstone  and  Mr.  Cooke,  similar  to 
that  which  has  been  for  a  considerable  period  in  successful  aciion  on  (he 
(Jreat  Western  Railway. 

"  It  is  expected  that  the  Railway  when  completed  will  afford  equal  facilities 
for  the  carriage  of  goods  as  of  passengers  ;  but  its  capabilities  for  the  former 
description  will  not  be  fully  developed,  because  until  we  Ii.ave  the  double  ter- 
minus in  London,  with  the  outlet  on  the  one  hand  to  the  Dock  M'arehouses 
in  Fenchurch  .Street,  and  on  the  other  to  Cooper's  Row,  adjoining  Tower 
Hill,  the  conveyance  of  goods,  confined  as  the  discharge  of  them  must  be  to 
the  limited  depot  in  the  Minories.  might  be  calculated  to  embarrass  and  in- 
terrupt, the  passenger  tratlie  at  that  point." 

Nmih  Midland  Railway.— Yieiwcun  Derijy  and  Rotherham  (and  on  to  .Shef- 
field by  the  Sheffield  and  Rotherham  Railway ).  the  principal  operation  is 
laying'the  permanent  road.  A  double  line  of  iails  is  laid  for  a  considerable 
distance  north  and  south  of  Chesterfield  ;  this  part  of  the  line  will  be  opened 
early  in  May  next.  The  foUoiving  contracts  are  all  completed,  or  very  nearly 
so  : — The  Beighton.  twelve  miles  north  of  (_'heslerlield  ;  the  Eckington,  M'liit- 
tington,  Chesterfield,  Northwingfield.  and  Clay  Cross.  On  the  line  north  of 
Beighton,  and  up  to  Rolhcrhaiii.  the  Staveley.  Southwingfield,  Lodge-hill 
contracts,  and  dow  n  to  Dcrb>  .  great  exertions  are  being  made  to  have  a 
double  line  lor  the  opening,  ami  a  great  portion  of  this  distance  is  laid.  The 
only  earthwork  remaining  on  this  part  of  the  line  is  finishing  the  sides  of 
.sonie  of  the  large  excavations,  and  completing  an  embankment  at  Bull-bridge, 
The  stations  will  be  completed  .shortly,  as  most  of  them  are  now  roofed  in. — 
yolts  paper. 

Sheffield  and  Manchester  liailwny. — We  nnderstand  that  this  important  line 
(d'  Railway  is  at  length  about  to  I  e  proceeded  with  in  earnest.  It  is  expee  ej 
that  the  w  hole  of  the  distance  between  Manchester  and  Glossop  w  ill  be  under 
contnict  during  the  present  summer,  and  we  think  that  if  the  Directors  are 
supported  in  their  efl'orts  by  the  Shareholders,  and  supplied  with  funds  to 
enable  them  to  press  forward  the  works  with  energy  ami  s[iiril.  they  may 
succeed  in  completing  and  opening  to  the  public  that  portion  of  the  line  in 
e  ursc  of  the  summer  of  1841,  and  thus  secure  at  once  a  large  and  profitable 
traflTic  between  Manchester  and  the  populous  manufacturing  districts  of  Asli- 
tnn,  .Staly  Bridge.  Mottram,  filossop.  fee,  besides  that  which  they  will  derive 
by  shortening  the  difl^cult  road  journey  between  Manchester  and  ShefField. — 
Liverpool  Standard. 

Lancaster  and  Preslon  Railway. — We  understand  that  the  Galgate  embank- 
ment, which  is.generally  considered  the  heaviest  work  on  the  line,  is  at  length 
finished.  Mr.  Locke,  the  engineer  of  the  line,  accompanied  by  the  secretary, 
and  other  gentlemen,  made  a  progress  throughout  the  line,  a  day  or  two  since, 
and  expressed  the  pleasure  they  felt  at  finding  the  works  in  so  forward  a 
state.  No  doubt  was  expressed  that  the  line  would  be  opened  for  traffic  early 
in  the  month  of  .lune,  or  indeed  even  earlier  than  that  if^ any  special  occasion 
existed  for  the  acceleration.  Contrary  to  general  report.  Mr.  Locke  founrl 
the  works  at  the  Preston  terminus  in  a  still  more  lorward  state  than  any 
other  parts  of  the  line.  The  shareholders  of  the  railway  are  in  high  spirits 
at  the  prospect  held  out  by  Mr.  Justice  Coleridge,  of  a  return  of  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  assize  business  to  Lancaster  from  ^lancbester  and  other  places 
cast  of  Liverpool,  as  promising  a  material  increase  to  their  returns. — Lancas- 
ter Guardian. 

Trarclling  at  the  rale  of  Fifly-si.c  lifilcs  an  Honr. — The  teii-feet  wheels 
attached  to  the  locomotive  engines  employed  on  the  Great  M'estern  Raibvay, 
not  being  found  fully  to  answer  the  expectations  of  the  directors,  they  have 
altered  their  plan,  and  in  future,  wheels  of  seven  feet  diameter  only  are  to  be 
employed.  The  result  has  been  the  attainment  of  the  speed  of  fifty -six  miles 
an  liour.  On  Saturday  the  28lh  March,  the  Fire  Fly,  a  new  engine  on  this 
principle,  manufactured  by  Messrs.  .loues  and  Cunipany,  of  the  Viaduct 
r'ounilry,  at  Newton,  made  an  experimental  trip  from  Paddington  to  Reading, 
and  the  following  is  a  correct  statement  of  her  perlbnnance  :  — .She  left  the 
station  at  Paddington  at  13  minutes  and  18  seconds  past  11,  a.m,,  ami 
reached  Reading  at  5'J  minutes  43  seconds  past  11,  having  past  the 
first  mile  post  at  11  hours  15  minutes  and  57  seconds,  and  the  thirly-fifih  at 
11  hours  58  mniutes  and  44  seconds,  which  is  equiva'ent  to  one  mile  in  one 
minute  and  15.\  .seconds,  or  nearly  48  miles  an  hour.  During  the  journey  one 
of  the  tender  .springs  broke,  and  caused  some  additional  Iricliou  on  the  axles. 
The  load  w.as  two  carriages  and  one  truck.  At  3  hours  19  minutes  and  9 
seconds  the  party  starteiT  on  their  return  to  London,  with  two  carriages. 
They  stopped  to  take  in  water  at  Twyford,  which  detained  them  14  minutes 
and  44  seconds,  and  finally  arrived  at  Paddington  at  21  minutes  and  3  sc- 
cgnds  past  four  o'clock,    The  tvventj- -ninth  mile  post  Irom  London  iias 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AN1>  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


179 


passeil  at  3  hours  41  muuites  anil  50  seconds,  ami  the  second  at  5  hours  16 
mimilcs  and  51  seconds,  which  is  equal  to  the  speed  of  1  mile  in  one  minute 
and  1  If  seconds,  or  an  average  501  per  hour.  The  sreatest  speed  attained 
was  from  the  26th  to  the  24th  mife  post,  n  hich  was  done  at  the  rate  of  56 
miles  an  hour.  This  is  the  greatest  speed  at  present  attaineil  in  tlie  history 
of  locomotive  power — what  «ill  ultimately  he  the  greatest,  it  is  impossihie  to 
forelell.  Messrs.  Jones  and  Co.  have  since  forwarded  a  second  engine  from 
Iheir  works  to  London,  and  they  have  four  others  in  process  of  erection  for 
tlie  use  of  the  Great  M' astern  Railway  Company. — Maurhexler  Courier. 

Midlaml  Counties'  Railway.— The  works  on  this  line  as  far  as  Leicester  are 
in  an  extreme  state  of  forwardness,  and  there  is  not  the  slightest  doubt  the 
(irst  week  in  May  will  see  the  train  flying  over  the  high  embankment,  or 
througli  the  deep  cuttings,  to  that  place.  From  Long  Eaton  to  .Sutton  Ben- 
nington, two  lines  of  rails  are  completed— the  splendid  bridge  over  the  Trent 
being  now  crossed  by  engines  and  trains  of  waggons,  and  the  tunnel  being 
also  quite  passable.  At  Sutton  Bonnington  there  is  a  deep  cutting  beside  the 
church-yard,  and  a  station  is  building,  which  will  require  some  lillle  work, 
hut  the  number  of  hands  employed  will  soon  complete  that.  Past  Norman- 
1on-on-8oar  and  Loughborough  all  is  finished,  the  station  at  the  latter  place 
lieing  a  very  large  one;  but  at  Barrow-upon-fe'oar  there  slill  remains  con- 
sider.able  cutting  to  be  done,  one  place  being  cut  down  to  50  or  60  feet  and 
not  being  yet  completed.  At  Cossington  there  is  a  little  work,  but  at  Sileby 
this  is  cinmterbalanced  by  there  being  a  total  completion,  comprising  several 
very  high  bridges,  which  support  the  line  above  the  village  streets,  and  also 
sonie  exceedingly  deep  cuttings.  At  Sy.ston.  the  bridges  and  station  are  also 
nearly  finished,  the  latter  being  only  one  story  high,  hut  still  very  compact, 
and  containing  plenty  of  room.  At  Tluirmaston,  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
from  Ijeicester,  a  piece  of  embankment  is  yet  to  be  laid,  and  about  a  mile 
from  Leicester  there  is  some  embankment  required,  hut  near  to  Leicester  the 
works  are  in  an  extreme  state  of  forwardness.  Tlie  station  is  a  noble  one  : 
the  front  facing  the  street  is  supported  by  five  huge  iron  pillars.  The  engine 
house,  depot  for  carriages,  workshops  for  engineers.  &;c.,  are  on  a  most  ex- 
tensive scale. — The  bridges  across  the  railway  at  Leicester,  viz..  across  the 
Hnniberstone-road,  Lonoon-road.  he.  are  finished,  but  .at  the  top  of  New 
M'alk,  a  funnel  is  being  built  which  will  require  sume  time  lo  complete. 
About  a  mile  and  a  half  i)ast  Leicester,  a  very  fine  viaduct  is  in  course  of 
erection :  and  at  Rugby  another  viaduct,  not  equalled  by  any  in  the  kingdom 
for  workmanship,  is  finished.  In  short,  on  the  whole,  the  line  may  be  fairly 
said  to  have  sprung  into  being,  so  quick  has  been  its  progress.  A  new  plan 
has  been  adopted  at  Leicester  in  building  the  bridges,  viz.,  to  build  the  side 
walls  so  high  as  to  prevent  any  one  looking  over,  and  thus  at  llie  same  time 
proleeting  numbers  from  accidents.  The  process  of  bla.sling  is  much  prac- 
tised at  Leicester,  in  conclusion,  we  are  sorry  to  add,  that  within  the  last 
fortnight  two  men  have  been  killed  on  the  works  at  se]iarate  times.  A  horse 
was  also  killed  on  Tuesday  morning  week,  by  falling  down  an  embankment. 
The  Directors  intend  giving  a  grant!  opening  day  when  the  trains  run  to  the 
Rugby  station  for  tlie  first  time. — Notts  Review. 

Eilitihiirgli  and  Glasgoto  Railway. — This  line  of  railway  is  getting  on  rapidly, 
and  the  tunnel  in  Bell's  Park  is  getting  forward  at  a  quick  rate.  Tliere  are 
three  steam  engines  employed  at  this  tunnel  bringing  up  the  stcmes  and  ruh- 
hish  at  tin ee  holes,  technically  called  "  eyes."  and  a  great  quantity  of  stnft' 
is  brought  up  in  the  cnur.se  of  a  day. — Glasgow  Chronirle. 

Great  Western  Railway. ~-Th\s  hne  was  opened  on  Monday,  March  30,  fo"" 
public  traffic  asi'ar  as  Heading  ;  and  the  day  beingainusually  fine,  attracted 
a  large  concourse  of  people  there  to  witness  the  arrival  of  and  department  of 
the  trains.  The  Company  appear  to  have  made  the  arrangements  at  this 
station  conducive  to  the  comfort  of  the  passengers,  as  well  as  lo  the  facility 
of  carrying  on  a  very  considerable  traffic  in  that  important  to\vn.  On  .Satur- 
day last  the  Directors  went  down  for  the  purpose  of  finallv  inspected  the 
station  and  line,  previously  to  their  being  opened  to  the  public.  The  train, 
consisting  of  two  earriages,  and  a  truck,  with  aliout  forty  persons,  left  Pad- 
dington  at  eleven  o'cloci;  «ith  the  Fire-Fly  engine,  and  reached  Reading,  a 
distance  of  .'5J  miles,  in  45  minutes,  being  at  the  rate  of  471  miles  per  hour. 
On  their  return  with  the  same  engine  and  train,  after  stopping  at  Twyford 
for  w  aler,  they  travelled  the  whole  distance  of  30^  miles,  fmrn  that  station  to 
Paildington,  in  37  minutes,  being  au  average  speed  of  ,50  miles  per  hour.  The 
maximum  speed  oluained  was  at  the  rate  of  .58  miles  per  hour. — Daily  papers. 

South  Eastern  and  Dover  Railway. — A  report  has  been  industriously  circu- 
lated by  a  cotemporary  that  a  great  number  of  men  have  been  discharged 
from  the  tunnel  works'of  this  railway  in  our  neighbourhood,  which  is  calcu- 
lated to  create  a  suspicion  that  the  company  i<  in  difliculties.  We  are  happy, 
however,  to  be  enabled  to  find,  on  the  most  miiuite  inquiry,  that  such  a  pre- 
sumption is  entirely  void  of  foundation.  It  is  true  that  a  few  bricklayers 
have  been  discharged,  owing  lo  a  limited  supply  of  bricks  on  the  part  of  the 
contractor  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  nearly  200  additional  workmen  have  been 
set  on  at  the  contracts  extending  from  Abbot's  C'liH  to  I'olkestone.  On  a 
personal  inspecli<m  we  find  the  work  in  a  most  promising  condition.  The 
Sli  ikspeare  tunnel  will,  we  doubt  not,  be  completeil  by  the  end  of  May.  A 
large  portion  of  the  sea  wall  is  nearly  finished,  and  the  Warren  contracts  are 
proceeding  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  will  permit. — Dover  Clironiele 


NE'W  CHURCHES,  6tc. 


Staffordshire. — The  foundation  stone  of  a  new  Church  on  the  estate  of 
Eirl  Talbot,  at  .Salt,  near  Staftbrd,  was  laid  on  Thursd.ay.  March  26th.  by 
Kb  Lordship's  daughter,  the  Mai'chioness  of  Lothian.  The  edifice  will  be 
Ijuilt  oi  stone  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  will  aceommodale  about  250  persons. 

Birmingham. — On  Tuesday.  March  31.  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  church 
of  St.  Mark,  being  the  second  of  the  ten  churches  proposed  to  be  erected 
in  Birmingham,  was  laid  by  James  Taylor,  Esq,,  in  the  presence  of  a  large 
and  respectable  body  of  spectators.    The  spot  chosen  for  the  edifice  is  a 


beautiful  and  commanding  site  near  the  Sandpits  gate.  Messrs.  Scott  and 
Moflatt,  of  London,  are  the  architects  ;  and  Mr.  fc:.  J.  Brailsfnrd.  late  of 
Huddersfield,  is  the  builder;  .Mr.  ft.  David,  of  Lichfield,  being  appointed 
clerk  of  the  works.  The  church  will  be  built  entirely  of  stone,  obtained  from 
the  quarries  of  J.  F.  Ledsam,  Esq..  of  Weoley  Castle,  and  will  contain  one 
thousand  sittings,  one-third  of  which  will  he  free.  It  will  he  erecteil  in  the 
early  English  style  of  architecture,  and  though  the  moderate  sum  for  which 
the  contract  is  taken  (£3.000.)  will  not  .admit  of  much  costly  decoration,  the 
edifice  will  present,  when  finished,  a  very  chaste  and  elegant  appearance  ; 
.and  the  committee  have  every  confidence  that  the  work  will  be  completed  in 
a  substantial  and  satisfactory  manner.  The  church  will,  we  understand,  be 
finished  by  the  1st  of  M.ay,  1841. — .Midland  Counties  Herald. 

New  Episcopal  Chapel  at  Camborne. — On  Tu"fesday  the  lOth  March,  the  foun- 
dation stone  of  this  building  was  laid  by  the  Venerable  Archdeacon  Sheep- 
shanks. The  chapel,  (designed  by.  and  being  built,  under  the  superintendence 
of  Mr.  M'ightwick.)  is  in  the  Early  Pointed  style,  exhibiting,  in  no  stinted 
degree  that  appropriately  ornate  character  which  should  distinguish  every 
building  of  its  cla.ss.  Indeed  we  understand  it  was  to  this  end  that  Mr.  Pen- 
darves  increased  his  suliscriptinn  from  £300  to  £500.  The  building  is  in- 
tended to  accommodate  about  330  persons,  of  whom  not  less  than  200  have 
their  sittings  free.  The  total  length  of  the  interior,  (including  the  chancel 
.and  choir  projections  at  the  east  and  west  ends)  is  about  82  feet  :  the  width 
of  the  main  chapel  30  feet  ;  ami  its  height  31  feet.  The  interior  will  derive 
its  chief  effect  from  the  exhibition  of  the  timbers  of  its  orn.amental  roof,  and 
the  lofty  arches  opening  before  the  triple  windows  of  the  chancel  and  choir. 
The  approved  success  of  this  fashi(m  in  the  chapel  at  Bude  Haven,  erected 
some  years  back  by  the  .same  architect,  has  induced  him  to  repeat  it  in  the 
present  instance.  The  chapel  is  expected  to  be  completed  in  eighteen  months 
from  the  present  time, — Plymouth  Herald. 

Rome. — The  Viceroy  of  l<^ypt  has  offered  to  the  Pope  four  magnificent 
columns,  each  upwards  of  13  feet  in  height,  cut  from  a  quarry  of  alabaster, 
discovered  a  few  years  ago.  They  .are  intended  to  adorn  the  new  church  of 
Saint  Paul  at  Rorne.  Tliis  splendi'd  present  has  been  accepted  by  his  Holiness, 
and  is  to  be  conveyed  to  Rome  at  his  expense. 


PUBLIC    BUILDINGS,   flee. 


Cornwall. — The  new  Market  Houses  at  Bodmin.  Cornwall,  are  fast  approach- 
ing towards  completion.  This  building  will  form  a  most  conspicuous  im- 
provement to  the  main  street  of  the  town,  as  it  is  erected  upon  a  site  of  land 
formerly  occupied  by  .several  ruinous  tenements  with  projecting  pent  houses. 
The  front  is  built  of  granite,  the  centre  part  or  entrance  being  formed  by 
four  massive  pil'ars  in  single  blocks,  with  architraves  over.  14  feet  long  each, 
weighing  nine  tons  each  ;  indeed,  this  front  may  he  likened  unto  .Stcjnehenge, 
as,  with  the  exception  of  the  ashlar  and  cornice,  it  may  le  said  to  consist  of 
13  massive  blocks.  In  the  architrave  over  the  pillars  are  sculptured  oxen 
heads,  taken  from  the  .anti.iuities  of  Delos.  Tlie  shamble  fittings  are  to  be 
iron,  and  the  front  enclosed  with  three  pair  of  handsome  iron  gates.  The 
cost  of  the  erection  will  be  about  £3000.  Willuam  Harris,  Esq..  of  Bristol,  is 
the  architect. 

Cornwall. — The  new  Town  Hall  at  Helstone  was  opened  for  public  business 
on  the  14th  of  April,  by  the  Recorder.  This  erection  is  in  the  Grecian  Doric 
style,  and  cased  entirely  with  Constanline  grar.ite  ;  the  front  is  compose<l  of 
a  basement  having  three  entrances,  viz.,  two  to  the  corn  markets,  wliich  are 
uniler  the  Guildhall,  and  one  to  the  Guildhall.  Above  the  b.asement  are 
fluted  granite  Doric  columns  and  pilasters,  with  entablature  over  and  sculp- 
tured pediment,  consisting  of  a  clock  in  the  centre,  the  band  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  oak  leaves  and  acorn-wreaths,  and  upon  e.aeli  side,  forming  sup- 
ports, figures  of  St.  Michael  and  the  Dr.agon,  being  the  town  arms,  which 
have  been  ably  pourtrayed  by  Mr.  Thos.  Tyley,  Sculptor,  Bristol.  The  new- 
General  Market  Houses  in  lliis  town  are  now  quite  completed,  and.  together 
with  the  Town  Hall  and  Corn  Markets,  reflect  great  credit  upon  the  archi- 
tect, William  Harris,  Esq.,  of  Bristol.  The  cost  of  the  Market  Houses  and 
Town  Hall,  including  all  expenccs,  £6000. 


MISCSIiIjANEA. 


Burning  Coal  Mines. — Letters  and  papers  from  the  department  of  the  Allien 
bring  accounts  of  a  remarkable  conflagration  whi.ih  broke  out  in  the  coal 
mines  of  Commentry,  on  Sunday  the  1.5lh  March,  and  had  been  burning  for 
a  week  with  daily  increasing  fury.  It  appears  that  Ibis  fire,  which,  for  the 
last  four  and  twenty  years,  has"  been  silently  smouldering  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth— revealing  its  existence  by  perpetual  smoke,  and  occasional  out- 
breaks of  flame,  which,  however,  had  always  lieen  confined  within  the  limKs 
abandoneJ  to  its  dominion— had,  at  length,  made  its  way  through  some 
breach  into  one  of  the  vast  galleries  of  these  exiensive  workings  ;  and  there, 
meeting  with  Ihe  air-current  so  long  denied  if,  had  spread  through  all  the 
suhferr.anean  chambers  and  passages  with  a  rapidity  before  which  resistance 
became  utterly  powerless  ;  showing  itself  at  every  crevice  and  outlet  of  the 
vast  labyrinth,  and  flinging  its  points  and  columns  of  fire  far  up  into  the  air, 
through  all  the  shaf  s  that  led  into  the  wide  fie'd  of  the  rich  deposit.  Luckily 
Ihe  solemnities  of  the  day  h.ad  emptied  the  workings  of  their  human  tenants, 
for  no  mortal  aid  could  have  availed  them  against  the  suddenness  with  which 
the  fiery  flood  swept  over  all  things.  The  authorities  of  the  ilistrict  were 
early  on  the  spot,  but  have  hitherto  been  little  more  than  idle  and  awe  struck 
spectators,  ffeither  Vesuvius,  nor  :,ny  other  irruption,  say  the  accounts, 
can  give  a  notion  of  the  dreadful  and  sublime  scene,  "  If,"  says  one  writer, 
"  it  were  possible  to  forget  that  the  flames  have  been,  three  whole  days,  de- 
vouring immense  wealth,  and  that  by  this conflrgration three  hundred  fathers 


180 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[May, 


of  I'amilii'S  will  be  tliiii»n  out  (if  cnipluymeiit.  tlicjc  vvoiild  Ije  room  for  no 
other  scntiiJU'iil  than  that  of  u<lniiration  at  llicniagiiilicciit  spectacle.  Iiiiaj^inc 
a  deep  ravine,  nearly  ciicnlar,  in  tlie  form  of  a  reversed  cone,  ttitli  its  edge's, 
Iiowever.  hourly  enlarging.  Through  fourteen  large  openings,  issuing  at 
alioui  iweiity  feel  above  the  ground  of  this  ravine,  and  giving  access  to  the 
innnnierable'galleries  of  the  mines  below,  as  many  torrents  of  Hame  are  pour- 
ed forth,  with  frightful  violence  from  the  cauldrons  wilhin — flames  of  a  thou- 
sand hues,  rushing  i'nrth  like  tiery  whirlwinds — ^di\iding,  and  crossing,  and 
mingling,  and  rising,  and  falling,  and  rising  again!  At  times,  a  hollow 
cracking  founri  echoes  through  the  aby.ss;  this  is  some  huge  block  of  coal 
detaching  itsidf  from  the  roof  or  sides  of  cmc  of  tlie  galleries,  and  falling  into 
tlie  blazing  gulf.  Then  rises  np.a  thick  column  of  l<lack  dust,  till  it  rcachi'S 
the  ojicnin^s  of  the  galleries,  where,  pierced  in  all  directions  l>y  the  llames. 
long  serpents  of  fire  work  throtigh  its  volume  from  side  to  side.  Sixty  feet 
higher  up,  on  each  side  of  the  galleries,  tw  o  gaping  mouths  shoot  into  the  air 
their  dazzling  cidumns  of  fire.  Suddenly  one  of  these  ceases.  It  seems  hjr 
a  moment,  as  if  checked  in  its  wrath.  Then  comes  a  long  and  starlling 
groan  from  the  entrails  of  the  earth  ;  and  forth  again  rushes  the  dame,  blood 
red,  roaring  and  terrible,  threalening  in  its  fury  to  lift  up  the  burning  m<iuii- 
lain  altogether,  and  bury  the  spectators  beneath  its  dreadfid  ruins.  Again, 
look  around  you  ;  it  is  midnight,  and  two  thousand  human  faces  are  there, 
some  grouj.ied  oit  the  opposite  crest  i>f  the  ravine,  some  sheUcred  in  the  cavi-^ 
tics  of  the  rocks.  Vet  no  sound  meets  the  ear  save  that  of  the  roaring  dames. 
The  latest  accounts  states  that  tlie  rafters  of  the  galleries  had  all  fallen,  and 
the  founts  of  flame  nearly  ceased  to  play.  The  whole  had  become  one  huge 
burning  gulf.  The  loss  is  saiil  to  be  incalculable;  millions  of  lieetnlitres  of 
coal  had  been  consumed.  The  engineers  were  preparing  to  turn  the  course 
of  a  stream,  whidi  flows  at  a  league's  distance,  and  direct  it  upon  the  biu'u- 
ing  mountain.  Workmen  were  employed  night  and  day  in  this  operation,  by 
w  hich  it  was  hoped  to  lay  the  mines  under  water. — Atlienreum. 

The  Bride  Trade. — It  has  been  recently  ordered  that  in  estimating  the  duty, 
the  size  of  the  brick  shall  be  measured  in  its  dry,  and  not  in  its  moist,  state, 
as  hitherto.  Those  familiar  with  the  manufacture  of  bricks  will  at  once  see 
the  fairness  of  the  regulation,  as  some  clays  pine  in  mvch  more  than  others. 

MoiM  of  the  Cliiircli  of  St.  Peler.—\\v  beg  to  call  the  attention  of  our  rea- 
ders to  this  most  elaborate  work  of  art,  which  is  now  e.\liibiting  in  the  Gal- 
lery in  Maddox -street,  opposite  ,St.  (leorge's  Church,  Hanover-siiuare.  It  is 
the  work  of  Celestino  Vai.  who  has  had  the  boldness  to  come  to  this  country, 
trusting  in  the  hope  that  he  might  reap  an  abundant  harvest,  and  we  most 
heartily  w  ish  him  all  the  success  the  great  merit  of  his  model  entitles  him  to 
expect.  M'e  can  truly  say,  that  it  gives  a  more  .satisfactory  idea  of  the  cele- 
hrated  original — of  its  beautihil  proportior.s  and  enormous  size — than  any 
painting  could  possibly  do.  It  is,  therefore,  a  most  interesting  exhibition, 
not  only  to  those  who  have  had  the  good  fortune  to  have  .'■een  Rome,  but  to 
that  class  more  parlicularly  who  are  imtravcUed.  It  is  executed  in  wood,  on 
the  scale  of  1  to  lOO.  and  conscijuently  takes  up  a  consideralde  sjiace  in  a 
very  large  r  om.  The  fidelity  and  beauty  with  which  every  architectural 
ornament  is  rendered,  is  truly  surprising,  and  this  is  more  parlicularly 
evinced  in  the  ntiinerous  statues  that  ornament  the  buililing.  Every  one  of 
these  represents  a  dillerent  attitude,  tmd  their  number,  amounting  to  be- 
tween 500  and  COO.  renders  them  an  amusing  study,  ^^'e  may  here  observe, 
that  the  artist  has  represented  the  building  as  the  architects  intended  it  to 
be,  but,  as  the  church  is  not  yet  finished,  he  has  executed  a  much  greater 
number  of  ligures  than  are  now  tictually  placed  on  the  building.  In  the 
centre  of  the  piazza  is  the  Egyptian  obelisk,  which  rises  to  the  height  of  13 1 
feet.  Its  structure  of  red  granite  is  exactly  imitated.  The  fountains  too  are 
there,  and  the  grand  fl'glit  of  ste|is  which  leads  to  the  vestibule,  and  all  about 
are  scattered  little  diminutive  figures,  which  will  serve  to  show  the  relative 
size  of  the  building.  'J'he  colonnades  next  attract  tlie  attention,  and  although 
in  (jur  fipinion  they  are  out  of  place,  yet  the  fame  they  have  acquired  the 
arcliitect,  Cellini,  is  well  deserved.  Above  all  we  were  attracted  by  the 
glorious  dome  of  Michael  Angelo.  which  is  indeed  a  wonder  to  look  upon. 
This  exhibition  cost  the  artist  (Vai)  a  labour  of  11  years,  to  him  a  labour  of 
love.  The  room  is  surrounded  by  a  clever  panoramic  sketch  of  the  most 
interesting  objects  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  this  most  celebrated  church. 


LIST    OF    NEW    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IN    ENGLAND    FRCM    30t1I    MARCH    TO    23kD    Al'KIt,    1810. 

Ci.AUDE  Joseph  Edmeu  Chaddron  Junot,  of  Brewer  Street,  Golden 
Square,  Operative  Chemist,  for  "  certain  improved  processes  for  pnrifi/ing 
and  nl.<to  for  xolidifying  tallov.i,  r/rease,  oik,  and  oleayinoxis  substances." — 
Sealed  Aiareh  30  :  six  months  for  enrohneut. 

Uknrv  Martin,  of  Morton  Terrace,  Camden  Town,  for  "  improveyne^its 
in  preparing  surfaces  of  paper" — March  30;  six  months. 

William  Neale  Clav,  of  ITimhy,  Cumberland,  Gentleman,  for  "imp'^ove- 
ment.'i  in  the  manufacture  of  iron." — March  31 ;  six  mouths. 

John  Leberecht  Steinhaneser,  of  Upper  Islington  Terrace,  Gentle- 
man, for  "  improvements  in  spinning  and  doubling  wool,  co/ton,  silt,  and  other 
Jibrons  materials."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — March 
31  ;  six  months. 

Peter  Bancroft,  of  Liverpool,  Merchant,  and  John  Mac  Innes,  of  the 
same  place,  Mauutacturing  Chemist,  for  "  an  improved  method  of  renot^ating 
or  restoring  animal  charcoal,  after  if  has  been  used  in  certain  processes  or 
manufactures  to  which  charcoal  is  now  generally  applied,  and  thereby  recover- 
ing the  ^iroperties  of  such  animal  c/iarcoal,  and  rendering  it  again  ft  for 
similar  uses." — March  31  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Cummins,  of  i.eadenhall  Street,  Chronometer  Maker,  for  "cer- 
tain improvements  in  barometers  and  sympi(someters,"—h^n\  2 ;  six  months. 


James  Stead  Crosland,  of  Leeds,  Engiueer,  "for  certain  improvements 
a/i/jliffible  to  locomotive  and  other  stcam-engiurs." — .\pril  2;  six  months. 

Tho.mas  S.meulev,  of  Holywell,  county  of  Hint,  Gentleman,  "/or  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  tubes,  pipes,  and  cylinders." — April  4  ;  six 
months. 

Harrison  Blair,  of  Kearsley,  Lancaster,  Chemist,  and  Henry  HotinH 
W.\TSON,  of  Little  Bolton,  Chemist,  "for  an  improvement  or  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  crystallized  soda,  and  soda  ash,  and  the 
recovery  of  a  residuum  or  residuums,  applicable  lo  various  useful  purjwses." 
April  6;  six  months. 

Richard  Beard,  of  Egieinoiit  Place,  New  Koad,  Gentleman,  "ybr  i'm- 
provemenls  in  printiny  calicoes  and  ottter  fabrics.  Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad." — April  6;  six  months. 

EovvARo  Thomas  Bainbridge,  of  I'ark  Place,  Saint  James',  Gentleman, 
"for  improvements  in  obtaining  power." — April  13;  six  months. 

Thomas  You.vg,  of  Queen  Street,  in  the  city  of  London,  Merchant,  "for 
improvements  in  lamps." — .VprU  13;  six  months. 

James  Caldwell,  of  Mill  Place,  Commercial  Road,  Engineer,  "ybr /»<- 
provements  in  cranes,  windlasses,  and  capstau-t." — Ajiril  15;  six  months. 

JoH.v  Gold,  of  Etna  Glass  Works,  Birminghaiu,  Glass  Manufacturer,  "ybr 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  decanters  and  other  articles  of  glass." — 
April  15;  six  months. 

M'ti.LiAM  PoTTS,  of  Birmingham,  Brass  Founder,  "for  certain  apparatus 
for  suspending  pictures  and  curtains." — April  15;  six  months. 

Louis  August  de  St.  Sylvain  Baron  de  Los  Valles,  of  Notting- 
liara  Street, Mary-le-bone,  "forcertainimprovementsia cleansing, decoticating, 
purifying,  and  preserving  corn  and  oilier  grain.  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  at/road." — April  15;  six  mouths. 

William  Grimman,  of  Camden  Street,  Islington,  Modeller,  "for  a  new 
mode  of  wood  paving." — .\pril  15;  six  months. 

Joseph  Whitwortii,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  "for  certain  improve- 
ments in  machinery  or  apparatiLs  for  cleaning  and  repairing  roads  or  wagg, 
and  which  machinery  is  also  applicable  to  other  purposes." — April  15;  six 
months. 

Thomas  Robinson  Willi.vms,  of  Cheapside,  Gentleman,  "for  certain 
improvements  in  obtaining  power  from  steatn  and  elastic  vapours  orjtuids, 
and  for  tlie  means  emploged  in  generating  such  vapours  or  fuid^,  and  also  for 
using  these  improvements  in  conjunction  with  distillation  or  evaporation,  and 
other  useful  purposes." — April  15;  six  months. 

William  Unsworth,  of  Derby,  Silk  Lace  Jlaimfacturer,  "for  an  improved 
tag  for  laces." — April  16;  six  months. 

Samuel  Wilks,  of  Darlcston,  Stafford,  Iron  Founder,  "for  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  vices." — .Vpril  16,;  six  months. 

William  Henry  Bailey  M'ebster,  of  Ipswich,  Surgeon,  R.  N.,  "for 
improvements  in  prej)aring  skina  ami  other  animal  matters  for  the  purpose  of 
tanning,  and  the  manufacture  of  gelatine." — April  16;  six  months. 

Samuel  Marlow  Banks,  of  Bilston,  Statlbrd,  Gentleman,  "for  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  iron." — April  16;  six  months, 

Robert  Cooper,  of  Petvvortli,  Gloucester,  Gentleman,  "for  improvements 
inploughs." — April  16;  six  months. 

Francis  Molineux,  of  Walbrook  Buddings,  London,  Gentleman,  "for 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  caudles,  and  in  the  means  of  conwming 
tallow  and  other  substances  for  the  purposes  of  light." — .\pril  23;  six  months. 

Elijah  Galloway,  of  Manchester  Street,  Grays'  Inn  Road,  Engiueer,  "for 
improvetnents  iu  steam  engines,  which  are  also  applicable  to  engines  for  raising 
and  forcing  fuids." — April  23;  six  months. 

Jonathan  Sparke,  of  Langley  Mills,  Northuiuberlaud,  Agent,  "for  cer- 
tain improved  processes  or  operations  for  smelting  lead  ores." — April  23;  six 
months. 

John  White,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  "for  certain  improvements  in 
vices." — April  23;  six  months. 

James  Malcolm  Rymer,  of  Henrietta  Street,  Civil  Engineer,  "/or  cer- 
iain  improvements  in  castors  for  furniture,  such  improved  castors  being 
applicable  to  other  purposes." — April  23;  six  months. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


The  sl.eteli  of  the  gothic  window  at  Clomel  Church  is  received,  and  will  he  noticed 
ne.xt  month. 

Ve  do  not  consider  Mr.  Coles'  plan  for  propelling  steam  boats  on  canals  is 
practicable  :  besides,  the  outlay  required  to  carry  it  into  execution  will  be  too  large 
to  induce  any  canal  company  lo  adopt  it . 

"A  Subscriber"  is  iiifonurd  Ihtl  there  is  a  society  called  "The  Contractors 
Association"  ;  Mr.  Barry  of  Manchester  is  the  secretary. 

\Y.  .].  B. —  We  do  not  think,  being  admitted  into  the  Institution  named  will  be  of 
mneh  service  to  him.  until  he  has  had  some  practice  in  a  respectable  office.  fVe 
regret  that  ur  cannot  give  any  aduiee  that  will  be  beneficial  to  him,  for  the  object 
be  wishes  to  attain. 

Comnnniimfions  arc  requested  to  be  addressed  to  "The  Editor  of  the  Civil 
Engineer  and   Architect  s  Journal,"  A'».  1\.  Parliament  Street,  Westminster. 

Boohs  fur  review  must  be  .mit  carli/  in  the  month,  communications  on  or  before 
the  20th' (if  with  wood-cuts,  earlier),  and  advertisements  onor  before  the  2!>th 
instant. 

The  First  Volume  may  be  had.  bound  in  c  i  otii  and  lettered  in  gold. 
Price  17s. 

%*  The  Second  Volume  may  also  be  had.  Price  20s. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


181 


VIEW  OF  THE  COLUMN  NOW  ERECTING  BY  GENERAL 
BROWNE  CLAYTON,  ON  THE  ROCK  OF  CARRICK  A 
DAGGON,  COUNTY  OF  WEXFORD,  IRELAND. 

The  column  is  a  fac-simile  of  Pompev's  Pillar,  but  not  monolithic* 
it  is  being  constructed  under  the  directions  of  Mr.  Cobden  the  architecti 
of  granite,  from  the  county  of  Carlow,  with  a  staircase  up  the  centre, 
the  situation  upon  which  it  is  erected  is  a  considerable  eminence 
above  the  sea,  and  when  finished  will  form  a  conspicuous  land  mark 
for  mariners.  The  following  are  the  principal  dimensions  of  the 
column,  height  of  base  10  ft.  4  in.,  shaft  and  base  73  ft.  64  in.,  capital 

10  ft.  a  in.,  total  height  94  ft.  3  in.,  diameter  of  shaft  at  the  base  8  ft. 

11  in.,  and  at  the  top  7  ft.  8  in. 

"  This  column  is  to  commemorate  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  and  the  events  of 
the  campaign  under  the  command  of  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  K.B.,  in  the 
year  1801,  when  General  Browne  Clayton,  (then  Lieut.  Colonel),  commanded 
the  12th  Light  Dragoons,  and  afterwards  commanded  the  cavalry  in  pursuit 
of  the  enemy  to  Grand  Cairo,  taking  besides  other  detachments  a  convoy  in 
the  Lybian  Desert,  composed  of  600  French  cavalry,  infantry,  and  artillery, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Cavalier,  together  with  Buonaparte's  celebrated 
Dromedary  corps,  one  four  pounder,  and  one  stand  of  colours,  and  capturing 
300  horses  and  dromedaries,  and  550  camels. 

"  The  events  of  this  campaign  are  further  to  be  commemorated,  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  trustees  under  the  will  of  General  Browne  Clayton,  who  shall 
annually  at  sun  rise  on  the  morning  of  the  21st  of  March,  (when  the  French 
under  the  command  of  General  Menou,  attacked  the  British  encampment  be- 
No.  33.— Vol.  III.— June,  1840. 


fore  Alexandria),  raise  the  standard  on  the  column,  and  hoist  the  tricolour 
French  flag  which  shall  remain  until  the  hour  of  10  o'clock,  when  the  British 
flag  shall  be  hoisted  and  kept  up  untU  sunset,  as  a  memorial  of  the  defeat  of 
the  French,  which  event  forms  the  prelude  of  Britannia's  triumphs  through  a 
regular  and  unbroken  series  of  glory  and  prosperity  down  to  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  in  1815.  And  on  the  28th  of  March  annually,  the  British  flag 
shall  be  hoisted  half  standard  high  as  a  memorial  of  the  death  of  the  brave 
commander-in-chief  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  who  died  of  the  wounds  which 
he  received  before  Alexandria,  on  the  21st  of  March  1801." 


WYRE  LIGHTHOUSE. 

Description  and  structure  of  the  Wyre  (SeawardJ  Lighthouse,  leading  to 

Port  Fleetwood* 

It  was  my  study  when  planning  this  navigation  to  identify  the  remotest 
spit  of  bank  turning  into  it,  without  subjecting  the  mariner  to  the  treacherous, 
and,  at  best,  but  partially-hghting  agent,  a  Light  Vessel ;  Messrs.  Alexander 
Mitchell  and  Son,  of  Belfast,  readily  took  up  the  proposition,  and  the  Board 
of  Directors  of  the  railway  and  harbour  project,  as  readily  adopted  the  appU- 
cation  of  Mitchell's  ingenious  mooring  screwf  to  the  insertion  and  basing  of 
piles  or  pillars,  in  sub-marine  foundation.  I  had  given  much  trouble  to 
Messrs.  Mitchell,  when  unavailingly  submitting  their  plans  and  specifications 
to  the  Liverpool  Dock  Committee,  (Oct.  4,  1838,)  of  so  perfect  a  mode  of 
establishing  hghts  out  upon  the  very  banks  of  a  navigation,  whereby  the 
power  and  object  of  a  hghthouse  is  enhanced  by  proximity  with  the  anxious 
observer  from  sea.  In  fact,  a  hghthouse  can  be  thus  erected  upon  any  under- 
water  spit,  as  indifferent  to  a  30-feet  rise  of  tide  and  channel  surge,  whilst 
sending  forth  its  hght  of  the  same  character  and  stability,  as  if  on  the  main 
land  ;  thereby  throwing  it  more  intensely  and  effectively  on  the  region  re. 
quired,  especially  where  shoals  out-he  the  main  to  any  extent.  Its  time  in 
erection,  the  shortest  possible.^  and  of  so  portable  a  structure  that  it  may  be 
removed,  if  local  changes  require,  to  another  site  in  a  month.  Wherefore, 
then,  should  not  every  spit,  now  guarded  by  a  light-vessel,  with  her  unavoid- 
ably inferior  order  of  lights,  rendered  more  so  in  a  gale  of  wind  by  pitching, 
floundering  about,  and  ever  and  anon  submerged  in  the  trough  of  sea,  spray, 
and  spoon-drift,  and  that  too  when  most  wanted,  and  often  at  the  very  crisis 
of  exigency  to  all  around,  breaking  adrift  ?  Wherefore  not  supersede  them 
by  so  purpose-like  a  fabric  ?  Let  those  who  take  interest,  but  who  doubt  or 
cannot  conceive  the  matter,  go  to  Fleetwood-mount  Observatory,  command- 
ing the  mouth  of  Wyre,  and  watch  the  effects  of  a  westerly  gale  upon  the 
first  of  its  kind,  (not  associating  the  effects  of  a  sea-way  upon  the  Eddystone 
or  Bell  Rock,  for  the  screw-piled  pillars  do  not  oppose  the  sea).  A  structure 
destined  to  save  many  a  gallant  bark  that  would  othervrise  drive,  unbeaconed 
and  unwarned,  upon  the  sands  of  Morecambe  Bay,  and  I  doubt  not  will  give 
rise  to  a  general  adoption ;  whilst  rendering  it  imperative  on  local  guardians 
of  a  navigation,  to  estabhsh  refuges  for  the  cast-away  mariner,  on  the 
isolated  banks ;  since,  by  this  method,  the  practicabihty  is  manifested.  In- 
deed, this  sub-marine  method  of  commanding  foundation  and  hold-fast,  so 
ingeniously  contrived  by  Messrs.  Mitchell,  combines  the  vital  essentials  to  the 
seaman's  hope,  of  warning,  grading,  succouring,  and,  when  in  port,  securing.' 
The  figure  of  this  first  '  Screw-pile'  Lighthouse  in  the  United  Kingdom,— in 
the  world  I  may  say,  is  shown  m  the  annexed  engraving,  and  presents  to  the 
eye  a  well-proportioned  group  of  columns  rising  out  of  the  sea,  in  the  inter- 
vening and  over-lapping  order  that  hexagonal  or  six-angled  figures  produce, 
according  to  the  separate  angles  you  may  be  opposite  to  ;  a  systematic  inter- 
lacing of  tension-rods  renders  the  fabric  sufficiently  opaque,  even  below  the 
platform  ;  but  above  the  platform,  of  27  feet  diameter,  you  have  a  six-angled 
dwelhng-house  of  20  feet  diameter,  by  9  feet  high ;  on  the  centre  of  which 
rises  the  12-sided  lantern,  with  Chinese  roof,  of  10  feet  diameter.  Thus,  you 
have  a  figure  of  46  feet  spread  at  the  base,  contracting  at  the  platform  bal- 
cony to  27  feet,  and  elevated  45  above  low-water  level ;  surmounted,  as 
stated,  by  a  bulky,  yet  pleasing  and  eff'ective,  superstructure,  comprising  a 


•  We  are  indebted  for  this  description  and  drawing  to  a  very  able  work, 
by  Commander  H.  M.  Denham,  R.N.,  F.K.S.,  lately  published  at  Liverpool. 

t  See  Journal,  Vol.  II.,  p.  38, 

♦  The  Wyre  Lighthouse  was  reared  in  two  of  the  shortest-day  months  in 
the  year,  not  affording  daylight  during  a  low-water  period,  spring  tides,  Irut 
depending  on  flambeaus  or  moonlight. 

'  2  B 


182 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Junk, 


comfortable  residence  for  the  light-keepers,  whilst  affording  you  a  steady, 
bright,  uniform  light,  45  feet  above  mean-sea  level, — ranging  over  an  eight- 
mile  horizon,  visible  10  miles  from  a  coaster's  deck,  and  freed  from  those 
breaks  of  brilliancy  attending  the  offing  passage  from  reflector  to  reflector, 
by  being  fitted  with  a  light  of  '  Dioptric'  order.  Foggy  periods  are  provided 
for  by  a  self-acting  deep-sounding  bell,  tolling  three  strokes  of  five-second 
intervals,  at  one  minute  pauses ;  and  tide-time  for  vessels  of  12-feet  draft,  is 
denoted  by  2  black  halls  being  kept  upon  its  flag-staff  until  12-feet  ceases 
upon  the  straight  course,  right  up  ;  at  the  same  time,  however,  denoting  17 
feet  up  through  the  buoyed  channel ;  and  vessels  requiring  a  Wyre  pilot  will 
be  understood  at  this  lighthouse,  if  showing  a  weft  at  the  peak,  besides  their 
pilot-jack  at  the  mast-head ;  whence,  a  pilot-jack  will  also  be  hoisted  until 
she  is  provided.  The  Wyre  pilot-boats  are  of  sloop  and  yawl  rig,  with  black 
bottom,  while  top-sides  and  black  streak,  with  her  number  and  the  letter  F 
on  the  mainsail.  Tlicir  cruising  ground  extends  from  Formby  Point  to  Haver- 
ing Point  of  Duddan. 

ELEVATION   OF  WYRE   LIGHTHOUSE. 


REFERENCE. 

A,  Marl  formation  ;  the  screws  are  10  feet  below  low  water  mark. 

B,  Sub-stratum  of  sand. 

C,  Low  water  equinoctial  springs. 

D,  Low  water  ordinary  tides,  2  feet  above  ditto. 

E,  Ditto  neap  tides,  9  feet        ditto. 

F,  Half-tide  level,  15  feet  ditto. 

G,  High  water  neaps,  21  feet  ditto. 
H,  Ditto  ordinary  tides,  28  feet  ditto. 
J,  Ditto,  equinoctial  springs,  30  feet  ditto. 
K,  Underside  of  platform,      45  feet  ditto. 

Centre  of  the   Dioptric 
Light  in  Lanthem  60  feet        ditto. 


.SPECinc.iTiON  of  the  abort  Screw  Pile  Lighthouse,  erected  on  the  north- 
eastern lorn-water  spit  of  North  Whaif  Bank,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Wyre  Navigation,  the  structure  being  supported  upon,  and  secured  to, 
the  bank  with  Mitchell's  Patent  Screw  Piles,  of  "ifeet  diameter. 

The  foundation  of  the  building  is  formed  of  seven  screw  piles,  six 
of  which  are  the  angles  of  a  hexagon,  about  46  feet  in  diameter,  and 
the  seventh  pile  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  figure. 

The  heads  of  all  the  outer  piles  have  an  inclination  inwards,  by 
which  the  diameter  of  the  frame-work  connecting  the  top  of  the 
columns,  and  upon  which  the  house  stands,  is  contracted  to  about  27 
feet.  Each  screw  pile  is  formed  of  a  malleable  iron  shaft  15  feel  long 
and  5  inches  diameter. 

On  each  pile  a  3-foot  screw  is  firmly  keyed  near  its  lower  ex- 
tremity, beneath  which  is  placed  a  large  drill  or  opening  bit. 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft  is  a  screw  of  18  inches  long  and  2 
inches  diameter,  for  drawing  down  and  screwing  the  wooden  column 
to  the  iron  pile,  which  latter  stands  about  5  feet  out  of  the  ground. 

The  columns  are  thus  prepared  ; — seven  logs  of  Baltic  tiinber  are 
selected,  of  the  largest  and  best  quality ;  the  centre  one  is  5G  feet  in 
length,  all  the  others  are  4ti  feet. 

The  pedestals  rise  about  a  third  of  their  height,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  shafts  are  rounded,  both  for  appearance  and  as  lessening  any 
vibration  from  the  action  of  the  sea. 

An  openins  in  the  lower  end  of  each  column  is  then  made  of  5  inches 
diameter,  and  to  the  depth  of  about  8  fee^,  by  boring  in  the  manner  of 
a  water-pipe ;  strong  iron  hoops  are  then  driven  upon  it,  hot,  the  first 
about  8  feet  up,  the  second  about  4  feet,  and  the  third  at  its  lower  ex- 
tremity. 

This  hooping  will  give  to  the  column  greater  strength  than  it  origi- 
nally possessed,  especially  as  the  wood  removed  by  boring  is  the 
weakest  in  the  tree,  and  adds  scarcely  anything  to  its  actual  strength. 

The  column  being  raised  perpendicularly  above  the  iron  pile,  the 
end  of  the  latter  is  introduced  into  the  opening  prepared  for  it,  and 
which  has  been  made  to  fit  accurately  upon  it;  when  the  top  of  the 
pile  has  reached  the  end  of  the  cavity,  screwing  on  (by  capstan),  the 
foot  of  the  column  will  be  inserted  in  the  bank  about  3  feet ;  the  wood, 
when  wet,  will  clasp  firmly  on  the  iron,  but,  as  an  additional  security, 
the  internal  screw  attaches  the  two  together. 

The  framing  upon  which  the  house  stands  is  firmly  secured  round 
the  centre  column,  and  to  the  heads  of  the  outer  ones,  by  means  of 
cast-iron  capitals  let  down  over  the  heads  of  the  columns,  the  capitals 
being  cast  hollow  for  the  purpose  ;  to  the  abacus  of  these  the  top 
framing  is  secured  with  screw  bolts  passing  down  through  the  wood 
and  iron,  having  nuts  on  the  under  side,  all  boring  or  cutting  into  the 
main  support  of  the  building  being  thus  avoided,  and  the  adjacent  parts 
of  the  framing  are  bound  together  by  wronght-iron  straps  and  knees; 
the  beams  which  radiate  from  the  centre  to  the  heads  of  the  outer 
columns  are  12  inches  deep  by  7  inches  wide,  and  those  which  comiect 
the  head  of  the  outer  columns,  12  inches  by  4. 

To  give  lateral  strength  to  the  building  to  resist  the  effect  of  heavy 
bodies  drifting  against  it,  twenty-four  angle  braces  from  round  iron  of 
li  inch  diameter  are  applied,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  by  which  a  resist- 
ing power  equal,  at  least,  to  35U  tons,  is  presented  in  every  direction ; 
these  braces  are  secured  at  the  top  to  trusses  cast  with  the  capitals, 
and  beneath  to  strong  wrought-iron  bands  with  projecting  bolt  holes  ; 
by  these  means  boring  into  the  columns  is  again  avoided,  the  braces 
are  keyed  up  at  their  crossing,  as  shown  in  the  plan. 

The  light-keepers'  house,  which  is  hexagonal,  is  in  diameter  from 
angle  to  angle  22  feet,  and  9  feet  in  height. 

The  centre  column  rises  to  the  base  of  the  lantern,  which,  with  the 
roof,  it  assists  to  support,  giving  great  additional  stability  to  the  whole 
structure. 

The  corner-posts  of  the  house  are  7  inches  by  6,  all  remaining  studs  6 
inches  by  4,  beams  of  roof  9  inches  by  5,  and  all  outside  planking,  to- 
gether with  floor  and  roof  of  house,  is  2  inches  thick. 

The  house  has  an  outside  door  and  three  windows,  and  is  divided 
into  two  apartments,  one  liaving  a  fire-place  and  the  floor  tiled  ;  the 
walls  and  ceiling  of  both  apartments  are  lathed  and  stuccoed. 

The  lantern,  which  is  12  sided,  is  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  in  height 
to  the  top  of  the  windows  8  feet,  by  which  the  lights  are  raised  above 
the  highest  spring-tide  level  about  31  feet,  or  44i  above  half-tide 
level. 

The  lights  (in  this  case  of  dioptric  order)  show  throughout  the 
periphery,  and  the  roof  is  covered  with  strong  sheet  iron;  (a  lighten- 
ing repeller  and  conductor,  of  course). 

The  light-keepers'  house  is  covered  with  sheet  lead,  and  a  light 
iron  railing  is  carried  round  the  top  of  the  building  and  the  platform. 

60,  Pall  Mall,  London,  Henry  Mangles  Denuam. 

Jan.  3),  1840. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


18.3 


THE  UNION  BANK  OF  LONDON. 


10 

-t— 


The  Joint-Stock  Banks  promise  like  the  Assurance  Offices  to  giv  e 
some  employment  to  architects  in  the  metropolis,  as  they  have  already 
done  in  the  country.  Any  thing  in  fact  is  worthy  of  encouragement 
which  rises  above  the  mere  brickbat  and  whitewash  style.  This 
building  situated  on  the  north  side  of  Argyle  Place,  Regent  Street,  in- 
tended to  form  the  West-end  Branch  Establishment  of  tne  Union  Bank 
of  London  is  nearly  completed,  from  the  designs  and  under  the  super- 
intendance  of  Mr.  William  H.  Newnham  and  Mr.  George  B.  Webb, 
joint  architects  to  the  bank.  Tenders  for  its  erection  were  sent  in  by 
public  competition  last  September,  when  that  of  Messrs.  Turner  and 
Sons,  of  Little  Moorfields,  being  accepted  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  a 
contract  was  entered  into  with  them  for  building  it  at  the  sum  of  £38G0. 
It  occupies  a  frontage  of  7U  feet  towards  Argyle  Place,  and  is  three 
stories  in  height.  It  contains  on  the  ground  floor,  a  banking  office  28 
feet  long  (exclusive  of  circular  end  towards  Regent  Street)  by  20  feet 
wide,  and  16  feet  6  inches  high,  divided  at  one  end  by  a  screen  of 
Bath  stone  Doric  columns  and  entablature  from  a  lobby  20  feet  by  6 
feet,  which  communicates  with  the  Directors'  Coramittee-room,  the 
Manager's,  and  the  Waiting  rooms.  On  the  basement  is  a  groined 
strong-room,  18  feet  by  14  feet,  washing-room,  &c.,  for  clerks,  porter's 
room,  and  coal-vaults.  The  remainder  of  the  house  is  devoted  en- 
tirely to  the  use  of  the  Manager,  who  will  reside  on  the  premises,  and 
comprises,  on  the  first  story,  which  is  13  feet  high,  a  large  drawing- 
room  with  circular  Venetian  window,  a  breakfast  parlour,  bed-room, 
and  dressing-room,  four  bed-rooms  and  store-room  on  the  second  floor, 
with  kitchens,  wine,  coal,  and  wood  cellars,  and  other  requisite  ac- 
commodation on  the  basement. 

Simple  in  its  character,  this  building  has  a  solidity  of  appearance 
which  we  trust  is  appropriate  to  the  institution  to  which  it  is  devoted, 
and  it  cannot  fail  to  prove  an  ornament  to  the  neighbourhood,  and  an 
example  to  other  companies, 


Dyeing  Timber. — Amongst  the  subjects  lately  discussed  in  the  French  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences  are.  a  discovery,  by  a  Dr.  "Bourguet,  for  dyeing  and  pre- 
serving timber,  and  one  for  obtaining"  blue  or  red  silk  from  silkworms.  Dr. 
Bourguet  states,  that  if  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree  be  immersed,  as 
soon  as  it  is  felled,  in  a  preparation  of  pyroligneousacid,  the  preparation  will 
be  absorbed  throughout  the  whole  of  the  tree,  and  that  the  timber  wdl  sub- 
sequently resist  decay.  He  states,  also,  that  if  colouring  matter  be  placed  in 
the  liquid,  it  will  be  carried  through  all  the  vessels  of  the  tree,  even  to  the 
leaves,  and  be  permanently  fixed.  As  this  gentleman  has  made  frequent  ex- 
periments, there  appears  to  be  no  doubt  of  the  correctness  of  his  theory.  The 
mode  of  obtaining  Ijlue  or  red  silk  from  silkworms  is  kept  a  secret,  except  as 
to  an  admission  that  it  depends  on  the  food  of  the  insect.  M.  Flourens,  a 
member  of  the  ncademy,  had  previously  ascertained  that  the  flesh,  and  even 
the  bones  of  animals,  may  be  coloured,  by  keeping  them  for  a  long  period  on 
food  highly  impregnated  with  colouring  matter. 

Bendable  Stme. — In  the  Museum  of  the  Asiatic  Society  at  Calcutta,  one 
object  of  curiosity  is  a  bending  or  elastic  stone.  This  stone  is,  apparently, 
of  granite,  i->  about  two  and  a  half  feet  by  six  inches  in  length  and  T)readtn. 
and  about  an  inch  thick.  This  stone,  being  lifted  at  one  end,  yields  to  the 
pressure,  and  from  the  half  begins  to  bend  as  it  is  lifted,  and  as  the  lifted  end 
is  raised,  the  bend  approaches  nearer  to  the  further  extremity.  On  the  lift- 
ing power  becoming  relaxed,  the  stone  reverts  to  its  former  level.— Caicu«a 
Paper. 


TABLE  OF  ARCHITECTS. 

Sir — There  was  more  than  one  reason  wherefore  I  did  not  give 
authorities  for  the  names  introduced  in  the  Table  of  Architects.  In 
the  first  place,  I  did  not  imagine  any  thing  of  the  kind  would  be  looked 
for,  it  not  being  usual  to  accompany  Chronological  Tables  with  similar 
references ;  in  the  next,  an  additional  column  would  have  been  re- 
quired for  the  purpose ;  and  for  reason  the  third,  I  was  of  opinion 
that  to  do  so,  would  be  considered  coxcombical  ostentation  and  fussy 
parade.  I  should  have  had  to  make  out  a  catalogue  of  journals  and 
books  in  nearly  half-a-dozen  different  languages,  Italian,  Spanish, 
French,  German,  and  Russian : — and  to  what  purpose  would  it  have 
been  to  have  referred  your  readers  to  the  Khudozhestzennya  Gazeta 
for  an  account  of  Voronikhin,  and  of  Thomond, — to  the  Entziktopeti- 
tzeskii  Leksikon  for  a  notice  of  Bazhenov,  and  so  on?  If  your  corres- 
pondent is  desirous  of  meeting  with  a  memoir  of  Don  Ventura  Ro- 
driguez he  will  find  one  in  Jovellanos'  Works,  but  then  unless  he  happen 
to  possess  the  latter,  where  is  he  to  meet  with  them  ? — certainly  not  in 
the  British  Museum.  Of  most  of  the  other  Spanish  architects  inserted 
in  the  Table,  notices  will  be  found  in  Llaguuo  and  Cean-Bermudez,  and 
Ponz.  Relative  to  Quarenghi,  some  information  may  be  found,  prefixed 
to  his  Fabbriche  e  Disegni.  Of  Cagnola  various  notices  have  appeared 
in  the  Biblioteca  and  other  Itahan  Journals,  and  there  is  also  a  memoir 
of  him  in  Fbrster's  Bauzeitung;  while  bis  countryman  and  contem- 
porary Zanoja  has  obtained  mention  in  an  English  work  entitled 
"Notes  Abroad,"  and  a  portrait  of  him  may  be  found  prefixed  to  the 
"Raccolta  di  Poesie  Satiriche  del  Lecolo  XVni,"  which  contains 
three  of  his  Sermoni.  As  regards  German  architects,  biographical  or 
necrological  notices  of  many  of  them  will  be  found  in  Nicolai,  Seidel, 
Nagler,  the  different  Kunstblatts  and  other  periodicals  ;  but  it  is  im- 
possible here  to  specify  the  numerous  authorities  individually.  A  bio- 
graphy of  Hirt,  has  been  recently  published  in  Germany ;  and  there  is 
a  little  meagre  one  of  Weinbrenner  by  Aloys  Schreiber,  with  a  por- 
trait that  makes  him  look  like  a  butcher.  Count  Raczynski's  "Art 
Moderne,"  supplies  us  with  some  personal  information  relative  to 
Klenze,  Gartner,  and  a  few  other  architects,  including  Ohlmiiller, 
whose  name  will  be  found  in  the  table,  and  who  has  obtained  a  little 
biographical  niche  in  the  Penny  CyclopEedia. — Apropos  to  Klenze,  if 
the  portrait  given  by  Raczynski  be  a  faithful  one,  his  countenance 
bears  a  very  strong  resemblance  to  Nelson. — Having  got  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  likeness  and  portraits,  1  may  be  allowed  to  remark  that  that  of 
II  Cavalier  Quarenghi,  prefixed  to  his  above-mentioned  collection  of 
Designs,  has  a  look  of  most  imperturbable  stupidity: — let  us  hope 
that  the  artist  to  whom  he  sate  betrayed  instead  of  pourtraying  his 
physiognomy. — One  omission  in  the  Table  lies  heavy  upon  conscience, 
to  wit,  that  of  the  name  of  Francis  Johnston,  of  Dublin,  architect  of  the 
Post  Office,  Richmond  Penitentiary,  St.  George's  Church,  and  other 
buildings  in  that  capital,  one  of  which  is  that  for  the  Royal  Hibernian 
Academy,  which  he  erected  in  1824  at  his  own  private  expense,  and 
bestowed  on  the  members; — an  act  of  public  spirit  in  a  private  indi- 
vidual which  would  here  have  been  trumpetted  in  every  newspaper 
through  the  country,  as  one  of  vmparalleled  munificence.  I  almost 
deserve  to  be  horsewhipped  for  having  forgotten  such  a  man;  and  the 
more  so  because  I  have  a  fine  portrait  of  him  after  a  painting  by  T.  C. 
Thompson,  R.H.A.,  remarkable  for  the  vigorous  intellectual  expression 
of  the  countenance  and  the  animation  of  the  eyes ;  on  which  account  it 
forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  dull  fat-headed-looking  phizes  of 
Weinbrenner  and  Quarenghi.  Just  at  this  moment,  unfortunately,  I 
cannot  refer  to  the  Annual  Register,  where  I  could  obtain  the  precise 
time  of  Johnston's  death. 

There  certainly  is  room  for  doing  much  in  the  department  of  archi- 
tectural biography  both  English  and  Foreign,  for  the  period  comprised 
in  the  Table.  The  greater  part  of  the  lives  would  be  entirely  new  in 
our  language.  But  then  cut  bono  ? — would  more  than  half-a-dozen 
persons  among  the  public,  and  about  as  many  among  the  profession, 
care  for  such  a  work  ?  It  would  be  ruinous  to  a  publisher  unless  he 
were  to  undertake  it  out  of  sheer  public  spirit,  making  sacrifice  of  the 
entire  cost :  and  therefore  if  anything  of  the  kind  were  ever  to  be 
attempted,  it  should  be  by  such  a  body  as  the  Institute. 

W.  H.  L. 

P.S.  With  regard  to  the  names  of  Craig,  Pilkington,  Byfield,  &c., 
whom  another  correspondent  has  pointed  out  as  having  been  omitted 
in  the  Table,  it  is  sufficient  excuse  to  say  that  I  have  never  met  with 
them  anywhere,  therefore  they  can  hardly  be  of  any  note,  certainly 
not  of  any  historical  importance.  A  line  must  be  drawn  somewhere, 
otherwise,  if  all  the  illustrious  obscure  are  to  be  included,  any  table 
or  list  of  names  would  be  amplified  to  the  extent  of  a  Court  Guide, 
and  would  become  quite  the  reverse  of  a  synopsis  for  reference. 
Methinks,  too,  the  party  who  has  called  attention  to  the  above-giv^n 
names,  might,  at  the  same  time,  have  stated  what  are  their  claims  to 
distinction. 

2  B 


184 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[June, 


WHITE'S  PATENT  BRICK  AND  TILE  MACHINE. 


Fig.  1.— Plan. 


Fig.  4.— Section  of  Screw  and  Cutting  Apparatus. 


Fig.  2.— Elevation  and  Section. 


Fig.  7.— Section  of  pinning  and  clutch  lox. 


Fig.  8.— Plan  of  Tube-cutter. 


Fig  3.— End  view  of  Cutting  Apparatus. 


Scale  of  Feet. 
?i  2 


IS40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


185 


WHITE'S  PATENT  BRICK  AND  TILE  MACHINE. 

Specijication  of  the  Pukiit  granlcd  to  Jamin  While,  Lanihcth,  in  the 
Coiinty  of  S II  ire  I/,  Eiigineti;for  certain  Inipromuentu  in  jMachinery, 
for  moulding  Ciaij  lo  the  form  of  Bricks  and  Tilts,  and  for  mixing, 
compressing,  and  moulding  other  substances. 

The  first  part  of  the  invention  relates  to  a  mode  ol'  forcing  clay 
through  moulding  orifices  hy  tlie  pressure  of  inclined  surfaces.  Se- 
condly, to  the  application  of  liydrostatic  lubrication  to  facilitate  the 
movement  of  the  chiy  dnriog  the  process  of  compressing  and  moulding 
it.  Thirdly,  to  a  mode  of  mixing,  compressing  and  moulding  peat ; 
and  fourthly,  to  a  mode  of  compressing  and  expelling  the  water  from 
peat-moss,  by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 

Fig.  1  is  a  plan  of  a  macliine  constructed  according  to  my  invention 
for  moulding  clay  to  the  form  of  bricks  and  tiles  with  a  portion  of  it 
removed,  and  Fig.  "2  is  an  elevation  of  the  machine  with  several  ]iarts 
of  it  in  section,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  internal  construction 
more  clearly.  Fig.  3  is  an  end  view  of  the  cutting  apparatus  which 
divides  the  moulded  clay  into  the  Icngtli  required,  removed  from  its 
place,  which  is  in  front  of  the  machine.  There  are  two,  one  on  each 
side,  as  represented  by  the  plan,  fig.  1. 

In  preparing  the  clay  for  moulding,  when  necessary  to  crush  it,  I 
prefer  to  do  so  between  rollers  grooved  and  ribbed.  The  ribs  of  the 
one  working  into  tlie  grooves  of  the  other,  which  will  break  up  the 
clay  more  eH'ectually  than  by  crushing  it  between  two  rollers,  having 
plain  cylindrical  surfaces. 

When  the  clay  has  been  prepared  for  moulding,  it  is  conveyed  into 
the  machine  by  the  apertures  u,  fig.  2,  on  an  endless  band  or  by  a 
shovel,  or  the  aperture  may  be  lower  down  opposite  the  screw  b,  on 
the  hollow  lubricating  shaft  c,  and  the  clay  impelled  into  it  direct  by 
the  force  of  the  crushing  rollers ;  in  this  case  the  screw  may  be  placed 
in  a  horizontal  position,  and  the  aperture  a  be  above  it.  The -power 
which  gives  motion  to  the  machine  is  applied  to  the  vertical  shaft  d, 
and  by  means  of  the  pinion  c  working  into  the  wheel_/i  the  screw  and 
shaft  c  are  put  in  motion.  This  shaft  is  supported  and  retained  by 
one  bearing  at  top,  and  the  screw  6  is  turned  and  fitted  to  the  cylinder 
in  which  it  revolves  at  bottom.  There  is  a  stuffing  box  g  fitted  to  the 
top  of  the  lubricating  shaft  c,  which  receives  the  end  of  the  pipe  // 
that  supplies  the  chamber  in  the  shaft  witli  water.  When  the  nia- 
cdiine  is  used  for  making  bricks  and  tiles  a  brass  plate  i  is  screwed  on 
the  lower  end  of  the  shaft  c,  and  prevents  the  water  which  it  contains 
escaping  in  that  direction;  but  when  it  is  used  for  making  circular 
tubes,  the  plate  is  removed,  and  a  plug\/  inserted,  which  forms  the  in- 
side diameter  of  the  tube  as  shown  in  fig.  4,  and  the  \vater  is  then 
permitted  to  percolate  that  way.  The  clay  is  lubricated  from  the 
spiral  plane  of  the  screw  b,  by  having  a  radiating  channel  from  the 
chamber  in  the  shaft  c,  into  which  very  small  holes  are  drilled,  for  the 
water  to  escape  by.  There  are  also  lubricating  joints,  or  channels,  in 
the  flanges  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cylinder  in  which  the  screw  h 
revolve,  marked  k  k,  in  the  diftercnt  figures,  and  similar  joints  or  chan- 
nels are  formed  round  the  orifices  or  moulding  openings,  from  whence 
the  clay  exudes  from  the  machine  by  the  propelling  power  of  tlie 
screw ;  and  I  would  state  that  these  lubricating  joints  or  channels,  may 
be  difterently  constructed  without  departing  from  my  invention,  so  long 
as  the  application  of  hydrostatic  pressure  in  supplying  a  fluid  to  them 
is  retained. 

Fig.  2,  Hs  a  section  of  a  vessel  containing  water  from  which  several 
pipes  with  brass  cocks  on  them  convey  water  to  the  lubricating  joints 
in  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  in  which  the  screw  revolves, 
and  also  to  the  shaft  c,  and  the  lubricating  orifice,  in  the  chamber  m 
from  whence  the  clay  exudes.  The  clay  with  which  the  machine  is 
charged  by  the  aperture  a,  fig.  2,  is  drawn  into  the  spiral  ])lane  of  the 
screw  6  as  it  revolves,  and  impelled  into  the  bottom  chamber  in,  from 
whence  it  escapes  in  two  streams  in  opposite  directions  as  shown  in 
fig.  1,  by«H.  When  different  figures  are  required  to  be  moulded,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  change  the  chamber  m,  and  apply  one  having  an 
orifice  of  the  form  wanted.  Fig.  5,  is  face  view  of  a  lubricating  orifice 
for  forming  bricks,  and  fig.  6  a  similar  view  of  one  for  making  common 
draining  tiles.  In  both  tliese  figures  the  lubricating  channels  round 
the  orifices  from  w  hicli  the  clay  exudes,  are  represented  by  strong  dark 
lines. 

In  dividing  the  moulded  clay  into  the  lengths  required,  the  screw  6 
makes  a  brief  stop  at  that  moment,  and  consequently  the  clay  to  be 
cut.  The  phiion  e  is  loose  on  its  shaft,  and  resting  on  a  collar  as 
shown  in  fig.  7,  which  is  a  section  of  the  pinion  and  toothed  clutch- 
box  0  0,  which  turns  it.  When  the  toothed  clutch-box  is  withdrawn 
from  the  pinion,  as  will  be  presently  described,  the  shaft  d  may  turn, 
and  the  pinion  e  with  the  apendage  it  drives  remain  stationary,  until 


the  clutch-box  is  forced  up  again  to  its  present  position  by  the  spring 
p.  It  is  withdrawn  twice  every  revolution  of  the  shaft  d,  by  two  in- 
clined planes  </  ij,  depressing  the  roller  )',  as  they  alternately  pass  over  it, 
as  may  veadilv  be  understood  by  reference  to  the  drawing.  These 
planes  <]  q,  can  be  regulated  to  cut  the  moulded  clay  to  any  length  pro- 
duced from  one  revolution  of  the  shaft  d,  simply  by  increasing  their 
number  or  adding  to  the  length  of  their  planes.  In  addition  to  this 
mode  of  cutting  various  lengths  by  my  machine,  tlie  horizontal  shaft 
s  s,  of  the  cutting  apparatus  shown  in  fig.  1,  can  be  extended  and  several  • 
cutting  instruments  /  /,  fixed  at  given  distances  from  each  other,  and 
all  of  them  made  to  0|)erate  at  the  same  instant.  The  levers  ii  u,  give 
motion  to  the  slide  r  which  ciirries  the  cutting  instruments  /,  as  shown 
in  iig.  3,  at  the  time  tbe  clulch-liox  o  a  is  withdrawn  from  the  pinion 
e,  by  two  quadrants  or  inclined  planes  .r.r,  iixed  on  two  circular  plates 
shown  on  the  shaft  d.  The  dotted  lines  represent  the  vibration  of  the 
levers,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  the  clay  is  cut,  and  recut  by  their  mo- 
tion. Fig.  s  is  a  plan  of  the  slide  which  is  used  for  cutting  circular 
tubes,  it  is  moved  by  the  horizontal  shaft  s  s,  vibrating  two  levers 
through  openings  in  the  top  plate  of  the  machine  shown  in  fig.  1.  In 
forming  principal  drains  with  these  tubes,  I  recommend  short  circular 
soles  to  support  them  at  the  joints,  the  soles  may  be  moulded  after  the 
manner  described  for  making  common  draining  tiles,  and  cut  into  short 
lengths  by  a  circular  saw  after  the  clay  is  sutficiently  dry  for  burning. 
The  advantage  of  forming  principal  drains  with  circular  tubes  is  very 
obvious.  Tliey  are  stronger  with  less  material  than  any  other  figure 
having  the  same  internal  capacity,  and  they  also  olVer  to  the  water 
greater  facility  to  escape,  than  would  be  the  case  if  it  were  running 
over  flat  surfaces,  in  addition  to  which,  the  expense  of  procuring  them 
is  greatly  diminished  by  my  invention. 

In  the  event  of  the  machine  fig.  1  and  fig.  2  being  employed  for  mix- 
ing, compressing  and  moulding  peat,  I  apply  knives  on  the  screw  shaft, 
and  also  round  tlie  circunii'erence  of  the  cylinder  in  which  it  revolves, 
making  in  fact  an  ordinary  pug  mill  by  which  the  materials  will  ba 
mixed  and  blended  together  before  they  arrive  at  the  screw,  wdiere 
such  materials  wih  be  pressed  and  mouided  into  rectangular  bricks, 
and  may  be  cut  by  the  apparatus  described. 

Another  part  of  mv  improvements  relates  to  the  compressing  of 
peat  by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  To  ellect 
wdiich  1  form  a  large  vessel  of  any  known  material  that  will  keep  it 
surticiently  air  tight,  such  as  iron,  slate,  or  stone,  a  few  inches  from  the 
permanent  bottom  of  this  vessel,  I  place  another  full  of  small  holes 
and  support  it  on  the  former,  aiove  the  one  full  of  holes  a  layer  of 
coarse  cloth  is  spread,  upon  which  the  peat  to  be  compressed  is  laid 
to  about  12  inches  deep.  The  length  of  the  vessel  is  immaterial,  pro- 
vided it  being  sufiiciently  air  tight.  One,  however,  200  feet  long  by 
(>  feet  wide,  would  be  a  proper  size  for  compressing  about  40  tons  of 
peat  at  one  time.  When  the  vessel  has  been  charged,  the  peat  is  to 
be  well  blended  together,  which  may  be  done  after  the  manner  clay  is 
made  to  combine  in  forming  the  bottom  of  a  canal  when  making  it 
water  tight,  and  it  is  also  to  be  well  pressed  to  the  edges  of  the  vessel, 
to  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  air  descending  by  it,  or  through  it, 
in  a  downward  direction.  When  the  top  surface  of  the  peat  has  been 
well  secured  against  the  admission  of  air.  a  communication  is  to  be 
opened  with  an  air  pump,  and  the  air  exhausted  from  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  bottoms  which  will  cause  a  partial  vacuum  below  the 
peat,  and  thereby  offer  to  the  water  which  it  contains  great  facility  to 
escape.  At  the  same  time  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  top 
surface  of  the  peat  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  exhausted  state  of  the 
air  below,  and  the  whole  mass  will  be  compressed,  and  the  water  vvhich 
it  contains  will  be  carried  away  by  the  air  pump,  after  the  manner  the 
air  pump  of  a  condensing  steam  engine  performs  its  office. 

When  the  peat  has  remained  in  the  vessel  or  pit  sufficiently  long  to 
be  reduced  to  about  one-third  of  its  original  depth,  it  is  to  be  removed 
and  properly  dried  by  any  of  the  modes  in  use.  In  removing  it,  it  may 
be  readily  cut  into  regular  sizes  by  having  a  carriage  to  pass  oyer  it 
with  knives  projecting  downwards,  and  so  placed  as  to  divide  it  into 
a  number  of  slips  about  4  inches  wide,  and  these  may  be  cross-cut  into 
lengths  of  8  inchc^s,  which  is  found  to  be  a  good  size  for  drying. 

Having  described  my  improvements  for  moulding  clay  to  the  above 
mentioned  purposes,  and  also  for  compressing  peat,  I  wish  it  to  be 
understood  that  I  do  not  claim  any  of  the  parts,  which  are  well  known 
and  in  use  for  moulding  clay  and  compressing  peat;  but  what  I  do 
claim  as  the  first  part  of  my  invention,  is  the  application  of  the  inclined 
surfaces  of  a  screw  to  press  clay  through  moulding  orifices  as  above 
described.  Secondly,  I  claim  tlie  mode  of  stopiiing  the  moulded  clay 
while  it  is  being  cut  as  above  described.  Thirdly,  I  claim  the  mode 
of  lubricating  the  clay  with  water  when  being  moulded  by  pressure 
through  moulding  orifices  as  above  described.  Fourthly,  1  claim  the 
mode  of  mixing,  compressing  and  moulding  peat  by  means  of  a  pug 
mill  when  combined  with  a  screw  to  compress  and  mould  the  peat 

2  C 


186 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Junk, 


through  moulding  orifices  as  above  explained;  and  lastly,  I  claim  the 
mode  of  compressing  peat  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  and 
separating  the  water  from  it  by  a  pump  as  above  described. 

James  White. 
11,  East  Place,  Lambeth. 
May  12,  1S340. 


ON  THE  HORIZONTAL  AND  PERPENDICULAR  LINE  IN 

ARCHITECTURE. 

By  Frederick  East,  M.A. 

I  vpas  at  the  Institute  the  same  evening  that  Sir  Gardnor  Wilkin- 
son, a  gentleman  of  great  acuteness,  tendered  to  its  nicmbers  certain 
impressions  produced  upon  his  mind  by  the  prGv.deiice  of  the  hori- 
zontal or  perpendicular  line  in  architecture.  Sir  Garduor,  however, 
from  a  certain  politeness  of  feeling,  did  not  extend  his  observations  to 
nnv  length.  He  conveyed  them  rather  in  the  shape  of  suggestions, 
■with  a  view  to  elicit  from  the  profession  more  enlarged  views  upon 
the  subject.  Probably  in  harmony  with  that  wish  it  was  that  Mr. 
Godwin  entered  the  field,  and  favoured  us  at  the  last  meeting  with  a 
passing  and  pertinent  criticism  upon  the  perpendicular  line.  But  the 
bearing  of  his  criticism  atfected  the  frequent  use  of  a  column  breaking 
from  the  main  entablature  and  exhausting  itself  in  a  figure.  He  con- 
sidered it  as  a  mere  excrescence,  giving  perhaps  too  much  importance 
to  sculpture,  which  I  conceive  most  will  admit  as  only  accessory  and 
secondary  to  the  design.  Hence  it  was  employed  without  judgment 
or  feeling  when  evidently  a  mere  prop  or  support  for  the  statue.  His 
observations  seemed,  however,  limited  to  this;  they  appeared  to  pene- 
trate no  farther  than  to  show  this  fallacy  in  taste.  1  can  only  regret 
from  tlie  clearness  and  conciseness  of  those  remarks  that  he  did  not 
anticipate  my  own,  and  that  the  subject  was  not  more  indulgently 
treated  by  one  so  much  more  competent  to  give  them. 

Feeling,  however,  that  it  is  expedient  to  detect  the  true  spirit  of  a 
composition,  and  of  the  minutia-  which  compose  it,  in  order  to  guide 
our  o«n  taste;  and  that  no  satisfaction  can  result  from  the  mere  know- 
ledge of  the  existence  of  this  or  that  style  without  we  can  apply  it  to 
our  own  erections,  if  harmonious,  or  shun  it,  if  discordant;  I  humbly 
introduce  my  own  impressions  on  the  subject,  which  I  ofi'er,  however, 
with  submission  to  the  profession,  as  before  men,  some  of  whom  are 
no  doubt  perhaps  more  fitted  to  impart  information,  than  to  receive 
the  s  ightest  observation,  or  the  smallest  wrinkle  from  me. 

By  a  consideration  of  the  prevalence  of  these  lines,  so  marked,  and 
prominent  in  the  palaces  and  churches  of  Italy,  in  the  middle  ages,  we 
naturally  trace  out  the  real  secrets  of  beauty  in  foreign  creations,  and 
are  enabled  to  judge  whether  they  accorded  with  tlie  spirit  of  the 
times,  and  consequentlv  with  the  beauties  of  real  expression,  as  it  was 
then  influenced.  By  this  means  we  may  avoid  passing  a  hasty  censure 
upon  that  which  to"  an  edifice  in  this  cuuntry  would  be  certainly  de- 
structive to  true  taste,  and  which  we  cuuld  never  imitate  but  under 
similar  circumstances. 

Notwillistandine  the  correctness  of  Mr.  Godwin's  remarks,  I  con- 
ceive a  more  powerful  motive,  than  to  give  effect  to  sculpture,  in- 
fluenced the  adoption  of  the  perpendicular  line,  in  the  purer  days  of 
art.  And  that  however  a  series  of  columns  might  have  been  after- 
wards sacrificed  to  the  beauties  of  a  figure  or  the  ornaments  of  sculp- 
ture. Their  use  sprang  originally  from  the  poetry  of  nature  and  the  re- 
sources of  Italian  fancy. 

I  conceive  that  great  poetry  and  pathos — pleasing  emotions,  or 
gloomy  ideas  are  consequent  upon  a  skilful  appropriation  of  the  per- 
pendicular or  horizontal  lines.  A  partiality  for  the  former  when  decked 
with  the  garhmds  of  n.iture,  enlivening  us  with  gaity  and  mirth,  and 
exhil)itiiig  in  its  tapering  lightness,  all  that  seduces  and  captivates; 
whilst  great  indulgence  ui  the  latter  instils  awe  and  inspires  some  idea 
of  the  terrible  and  sublime. 

To  illustr.ite  mv  meaning  more  clearly,  I  would  make  solid  simpli- 
city, weight,  dignity,  &c.  to  repose  upon  the  horizontal,  whilst  elegance 
and  grace  should  seek  their  beauty  from  the  perpendicular.  Because 
there  seems  to  me  something  of  phisiognomy  in  architecture, — a 
cliaracter  about  it— so  that  we  are  either  amazed,  awed,  softened,  or 
delighted,  by  its  mien  and  general  bearing. 

\V  hen  therefore  we  search  after  grace,  nature  reveals  it,  sporting 
and  skipping  in  lightness  and  elegance,  never  so  beautiful  as  when  in 
action  and  erect,  seldom  shortened  into  repose.  Hence  the  taperings 
of  the  Gothic,  and  the  careless  lightness  of  the  Corinthian.  Hence  also 
the  prevalence  of  the  perpendicular,  which  might  tend  to  insignificance 
in  a  building,  but  fur  a  certain  symmetry  of  parts,  easily  detected  in 
works  of  acknowledged  merit.  But  to  fashion  the  grand,  the  solemn, 
the  imposing  edifice,  we  instinctively  turn  from  any  thing  feminine  or 
alight.    Like  laughter  and  mirth  they  become  noxious  to  our  sterner 


moods,  and  nothing  satisfies  but  a  certain  breadth  of  ])arts,  a  rigidity  of 
aspect,  a  dignified  reserve  as  we  search  for  the  sublime.  Nor  does 
anv  loftiness  of  character,  ner  height  of  form  display  itself,  but  what 
seems  natural  upon  the  breadth,  merely  in  fact,  a  necessary  proportion, 
to  avoid  contempt  and  ridicule.  Thus  perhaps  it  was  that  horizontal 
lines  were  sometimes  preferred  for  the  Italian  palace ;  though  oftener 
defeated  in  ett'ect,  by  the  lurking  fondness  which  Italian  artists  had, 
for  fanciful  embellishment,  giving  occasionally  an  eccentric  and  inap- 
propriate feature  to  an  otherwise  imposing  front. 

The  adoption  of  the  one  style  or  the  other  results,  I  conceive  from 
the  spirit  of  the  times.  The  artist  wished  to  change  the  dull  monotony 
of  a  mass,  to  give  life  and  sprightly  features  to  the  building.  To  deck 
the  edifice  in  all  the  fashions  of  elegance,  sought  and  employed  quali- 
ties in  form  and  exterior  conducive  to  this  idea. 

He  knew  that  effective  grace  must  depend  upon  the  happiness  of 
contrast,  and  selected  the  perpendicular  line  as  the  best  index  to  variety 
in  a  front  of  breadth  and  lateral  bulk.  In  after  times  the  church — the 
Roman  church  was  to  betray  the  resources  of  its  wealth ; — the  people 
were  to  conceive  a  proper  notion  of  its  splendour — the  terrible  and 
sublime  were  to  be  lost,  or  rather  to  Oe  subdued  for  a  little,  amidst 
images  of  attraction  and  wonder.  Hence  the  artist  digressed,  and 
violated  symmetry,  to  court  the  spirit  of  the  times. 

Or  the  Ducal  palace  WcC  to  awe  the  passer  by,  the  vassal  was  to 
shrink  when  near  the  presence  of  the  great.  Hence  the  judgment  of 
the  artist  fed  the  noble's  pride,  by  investing  the  edifice  with  all  that 
indicated  the  suUenness  of  grandeur.  The  horizontal  line  traced  it- 
self all  through  the  edifice,  or  was  broken  by  a  wing  or  a  centre  of 
richness  and  tapering  forms,  as  if  to  intermix  with  so  much  oppressive 
dignity  some  picture  of  splendour  and  elegance  too. 

There  seems  no  exact  standard  to  test  the  merits  of  either  grandeur 
or  grace,  yet  to,  a  mind  susceptible  to  and  attracted  by  natural  elegance 
or  the  puredistinctionsof  art,  first  impressions  are  generally  most  correct. 
Without  entering  however  into  examples  which  are  unnecessary,  if 
the  moral  of  the  sentiment  be  imbibed,  and  we  can  only  trace  the  prin- 
ciple affecting  the  application  of  either  to  its  true  source,  so  as  to  assist 
our  own  ideas  of  correct  taste  and  of  purity  in  design.  I  shall  in  con- 
clusion merely  test  these  opposites  in  art,  by  a  comparison  with  two 
opposites  in  nature — and  would  lemark  that  as  we  love  in  woman  with 
her  laughing  eye  and  elegance  of  motion,  that  aerial  lightness,  that 
sylphlike  form,  which  facinates  and  enchants  ;  so  we  expect  that  com- 
pactness, that  breadth,— that  stern  solidity  of  air  in  the  more  dignified 
lord  of  earth.  And  that  whereas  we  cede  to  woman  with  her  loveli- 
ness of  grace,  gaiety  of  attire,  and  profusion  of  ornament  as  an  increase 
to  her  cTiarms,  so  we  expect  not  to  find  the  majesty  of  man  masked  by 
a  whimsical  dress,  or  cloaked  by  a  frivolous  garb.  Presuming  at  the 
same  time  that  the  coldness  of  our  fancy  may  lessen  the  contrast,  and 
account  for  our  giving  the  swellings  and  undulations  of  grace  less  pro- 
minence than  accorded  with  the  fire, — -the  energy  of  the  ardent  Italian. 

Whether  we  transport  ourselves  to  Vicenza  and  see  the  edifices 
built  or  restored  by  Palladio,  or  follow  our  own  great  genius  of  the 
same  school  Inigo  Jones,  into  the  harmonious  distributions  of  the  flat 
and  void  of  the  sombre  and  light — -we  see  a  felicity  in  outline,  a  play 
in  efi'ect,  in  which  ancient  beauty  is  reproduced  and  revived  in  com- 
binations unknown  to  antiquity.  This  beautiful  harmony  seems  to  me 
the  effect  of  lines.  In  the  great  front  of  the  design  for  the  Whitehall 
Palace,  wdiere  the  facade  is  long,  we  see  with  what  consummate  skill 
in  the  combination  of  lines,  Inigo  Jones  pleases  the  eye,  to  a  length  of 
1151  feet.  How  in  the  centre,  column  rears  itself  above  column.  Hon 
the  whole  centre  itself  is  elevated  — what  a  noble  attitude  it  has!  how- 
rich  and  yet  how  symmetrical !  Contrasted  against  this  front  of  ele- 
gance cornes  a  void  where  naked  simplicity  reigns — where  little  or  no 
ornament  appears — where  little  of  what  is  tapering  is  seen^and  the 
eye  which  seemed  to  soar  up  the  rich  and  elegant  columns  of  the  cen- 
tre, now  wanders  along  the  broad  g'oomy  silent  mass  which  intervenes^ 

This  you  see  is  depressed — is  lower  than  the  centre — the  idea  of 
breadth  is  at  once  visible,  and  the  contrast  with  the  lofty  centre  is  ap- 
parent— and  thus  the  effect  is  virtually  speaking  one  of  lines.  This 
idea  of  harmonious  distribution  is  visible  in  the  centre  itself.  There 
to  give  importance  to  that  part  in  so  long  a  facade,  the  length  of  it 
must  necessarily  be  great,  and  to  remedy  this  Inigo  Jones  introduces 
two  towers,  the  relief  of  which  and  their  tapering  appearance  is  very 
striking  and  effective. 

As  you  progress  along  the  front  you  catch  once  more  the  lofty  wing, 
the  columns,  their  statues,  and  the  frequency  of  lofty  lines  is  again 
seen,  and  your  eye  wanders  as  it  were  between  dullness  and  life.  This 
peculiarity— this  attention  to  the  varied  employment  of  lines  is  pecu- 
liar to  others  as  also  to  Palladio,  and  to  be  seen  in  his  Palazzo  del 
Capilanio  and  other  buildings  at  Vicenza. 

'i'he  introduction  of  columns  in  a  long  continuous  edifice  seemed  not 
only  to  give  the  idea  of  support  but  to  create  variety. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


187 


Assuming  this,  it  is  somewhat  singular  to  compare  any  Grecian 
temple  with  any  mansion  erected  by  Inigo  Jones — or  any  palace  erected 
by  Palladio.  We  see  at  once  by  what  a  different  method  the  Grecian 
artist  produced  variety  in  his  edifice.  The  Greek  was  all  simplicity — 
his  outline  was  distinct,  symmetrical,  unconfused,  and  shadowless,  ex- 
cept the  portico.  And  variety  instead  of  being  beheld  in  the  body  and 
bulk  of  the  temple,  is  seen  rather  rambling  in  the  cornice,  whilst  reliefs 
are  visible  in  the  mouldings  of  the  architrave,  and  the  figures  of  the 
frieze. 

To  analyze  this  subject  more  closely,  however,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  class  the  peculiarities  of  the  perpendicular  and  horizontal  lines  ac- 
cording to  time,  and  as  seen  iu  the  various  countries  of  architectural 
renown. 

The  descent  from  the  classical  originals  in  art  was  by  a  comparison 
with  Grecian  art,  where  symmetry  ruled  design  to  introduce  extremes. 
And  though  we  see  eliective  compositions  in  Italy  and  elsewhere,  we 
perceive  that  the  bent  of  innovation  was  to  introduce  the  perpendicu- 
lar— only  slightly  seen  at  first — with  the  tendency  to  give  altitude, 
appearing  but  faintly,  gradually,  and  then  only  iu  a  part  of  the  edifice, 
undiffused. 

The  tower  or  some  part  en  masse  reared  itself  square,  and  without 
pilasters  or  columns  at  first  even  solid  itself  in  plan,  but  this  very  con- 
trast to  the  other  part  showed  the  perpendicular  in  its  infancy.  Until 
as  the  debased  Roman  architecture  of  the  lower  empire  which  forms 
the  foundation  of  the  Saxon,  Norman,  and  Lombard  school  became  suc- 
cessively improved  in  England  and  the  north  of  Europe,  the  perpendi- 
cular found  its  way  into  those  beautiful  modifications,  termed  Gothic — 
and  finally  in  the  religious  edifice  became  invested  with  a  charm  to  an 
Englishman's  fancy.  For  up  these  columns  in  the  cathedral  the  eye 
wanders  for  repose,  but  finds  itself  lost  in  the  intricate  beauties  of  the 
roof,  and  rambling  amidst  the  strange  and  the  wonderful,  as  amidst 
types  of  the  vast  and  incomprehensible  creator. 

To  trace  the  first  change  from  the  severe  to  tlie  elegant,  from  the 
breadth  of  dignity  to  the  delicacy  of  after  times.  We  find  before  the 
invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes,  the  Doric  was  the  only  order  known. 
Pericles_and  Cimon,  however,  on  the  rebuilding  of  Athens,  by  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Ionic  order  from  Asia  into  Attica,  invested  the  an- 
cient massive  simplicity  with  something  of  the  lightness  and  elegance 
of  grace.  The  Corinthian  soon  after  invented,  introduced  more  softened 
beauty  into  the  taperings  of  elegance.  The  edifice  before  this  in- 
debted to  Doric  proportions  for  its  effect,  becomes  now  more  lofty  and 
chastely  beautiful  without  violation  to  the  simplicity  of  the  whole. 
'And  this  change  is  of  great  importance,  when  we  consider  in  a  Grecian 
temple  that  the  circular  of  the  column  is  in  itself  a  relief,  that  the  pe- 
culiarity in  change  is  that  although  the  result  is  elegance  itself,  as  a 
whole  the  principles  of  the  change  are  very  slight. 

Turning  from  Greece  to  other  states  of  importance,  who  for  con- 
venience snatch  their  ideas  from  the  polished  and  the  civilized.  The 
Roman  appears  crude  at  first  in  his  attempts,  alive  to  the  beauty  of 
Grecian  proportion,  but  fashioning  a  style  therefrom  peculiarly  his 
own.  Unpossessed  of  the  coolness  of  the  Grecian,  we  see  his  ideas  ex- 
tending, the  principles  of  his  composition  dirt'erent.  Unsatisfied  with 
the  novelties  of  ornament  and  recesses,  he  must  pierce  the  sky — and 
we  find  the  Pantheon  in  its  dome,  the  bursting  as  it  were  of  variety, 
as  a  grand  feature  (and  this  the  result  of  altitude)  from  the  cradle  of 
ideal  taste.  We  see  here  the  great  father  of  lofty  turrets,  tapering 
domes,  campaniles  and  minarets,  which  with  the  declining  power  and 
fading  grandeur  of  Rome  became  so  welcome  to  the  Italian  artist. 

The  removal  of  the  seat  of  empire  to  Constantinople  accelerated  the 
change— St.  Sophia  and  its  mniarets  betray  it — and  at  length  variety 
became  too  important.  That  which  appears  a  foil  to  the  Grecian 
edifice  appears  no  longer  such  in  the  Italian.  The  old  relics  of  gran- 
deur were  neglected — Venice  and  Pisa  new-born  and  wealthy  sought 
their  artists  from  Constantinople,  and  the  old  standard  of  Roman  ex- 
cellence and  pure  dignity  became  less  and  less  visible  in  the  Lombard 
barbarians.  The  .Saracen,  the  Moor,  the  Lombard  and  Italian,  evince 
so  many  poor  attempts  to  turn  classic  symmetry  into  their  own  love  of 
tapering  forms  and  fanciful  outline.  The  Ducal  palace  at  Venice  has 
the  very  corners  cut  away  to  admit  a  thin  column — lightness  is  seen 
here  where  strength  should  appear — a  fret  work  of  shafts  is  the  sup- 
port of  an  impending  weight,  and  the  whole  is  distortion. 

Palladio  however  seems  distinct  from  these  errors.  In  the  Redentore 
church,  Venice,  Palladio  gives  a  lofty  elevation — the  dome  diminish- 
ing in  contour  terminates  in  a  figure.  The  dome  itself  is  winged  by 
turrets  pierced  above  and  capped  by  a  cone.  The  whole  is  lotty  and 
imposing,  because  pettiness  in  ornament  is  unseen;  and  the  statues  are 
judiciously  placed  uncrowded,  and  themselves  important  features,  but 
the  whole  is  but  the  grandeur  of  the  perpendicular.  In  the  San  Pe- 
tronio  di  Bologna  a  change  appears,  with  the  same  love  of  tapering 
forms,  the  same  hankering  after  the  perpendicular  we  lose  the  grandeur 


of  parts  in  the  horizontal  breadth,  the  intersections  of  the  cornices,  the 
play  of  breadths,  the  friezes  are  scarcely  relieved  by  the  height  of  the 
centre,  by  its  diminution,  by  its  statues,  or  balanced  by  the  pyramidal 
terminations  of  the  wings. 

The  descent  from  the  purity  of  Palladio  was  evinced  by  a  frequency 
of  columns,  but  then  again  to  have  these,  induced  another  fashion  of 
variety.  To  relieve  the  multiplicity  of  cokunns  from  offence,  horizon- 
tal lines  were  introduced ;  cornices  traced  themselves  throughout  and 
extended  their  fatherly  protection  to  a  host  of  trifling  perpendiculars. 
In  the  Baptistery  at  Pisa  we  see  this,  and  most  of  those  cities  not  re- 
moved from  the  pale  of  the  remains  of  Roman  taste,  displayed  this 
confusion  ot  lines.  Proceeding  in  the  direction  of  Milan,  we  find  Lom- 
bard Gothic  and  orders  all  united.  And  the  miscellany,  as  in  Milan 
cathedral,  seems  to  reminds  us  of  the  full  grown  dignity  sometimes 
seen  in  a  dwarf,  mixed  up  with  his  littleness  of  parts.  Removed  from 
the  relics  of  classic  influence  we  find  the  |)erpendicular  gaining  ground, 
we  see  the  edifices  of  northern  Europe,  of  Normandy,  &c.  beautiful 
and  their  own — elegant  though  profuse — lovely  though  intricate. 
Turning  to  Sicily  we  find  the  Normans  introducing  a  mixture  of  their 
own  with  the  Saracenic  ;  and  the  cloisters  of  Monreal,  the  Alharabra 
of  that  country,  aboimding  in  columns  twisted,  spiral,  light,  and  yet 
singular,  a  mixture  of  perjjendicular  and  arch — full  of  wild  and  fanci- 
ful conceptions.  In  Florence  we  find  the  great  exactness  in  the 
horizontal.  The  palaces  there  are  so  many  feudal  residences — edifices 
nearly  300  feet  in  length,  in  which  the  stylobate  runs  along  the  whole 
facade  where  the  windows  are  widely  apart,  and  the  very  roof  frowns 
upon  you. — The  subject  is  a  curious  one,  it  opens  a  wide  field  of  in- 
formation to  the  antiquary  and  artist — but  to  unite  these  two  lines  is 
the  secret  of  expressuig  charms,  and  we  love  the  harmonious  union  as 
we  love  in  the  broad  landscape,  the  lofty  tree,  the  distant  mountain,  or 
a  church  tower,  and  thus  by  grasping  the  great  principle  of  effect  in 
nature,  we  possess  the  most  mighty  wand  in  creating  and  displaying 
the  perfections  of  the  beau  ideal. 

Frederick  East,  M.A., 

Leigh  House,  Tooting,  Surrey. 


EXfflBITION,  ROYAL  ACADEMY. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

It  is  with  regret  we  feel  ourselves  compelled  to  commence  our  report 
by  stating  the  present  exhibition  to  be  the  least  interesting  one  for  many 
years  past;  not  because  it  contains  a  greater  number  of  interior  designs, 
but  because  there  are  much  fewer  of  an  attractive  kind  than  usual. 
Always  has  there  been  a  great  deal  of  trash,  but  there  have  generally 
been  many  designs  forming  redeeming  points — cheering  oasts  amidst 
the  surrounding  desert;  whereas,  this  year,  the  latter  are  both  more 
rare  and  less  brilliant.  A  desert,  however,  will  not  be  thought  the 
most  appropriate  simile,  the  walls  being,  on  this  as  on  every  other 
occasion,  crowded  and  crammed  from  the  floor  to  the  very  top  of  the 
room.  Whether  this  system  his  any  influence  at  all  upon  the  quality 
of  the  drawings  admitted — whether  some  are  not  admitted  merely 
because  thev  happen  to  fit  nicely  into  vacant  places,  while  others  are 
turned  out  because  they  cannot  be  hung  up  without  disarranging 
something  else,  or  perhaps  causing  a  few  square  inches  of  wall  to  be 
left  bare,  we  know  not ;  which  being  the  case,  we  are  bound  to  presume 
that  merit  obtains  preference  with  the  Academy ;  yet  if  so,  what  opi- 
nion are  we  to  form  of  the  designs  which  are  turned  out?  At  all 
events,  the  Academy  seems  to  act  very  naturally,  because,  like  Nature 
herself,  it  evidently  abhors  a  vacuum — upon  its  walls— no  matter  what 
is  hung  up  in  order  to  avoid  that  evil. 

To  be  more  serious — we  have  little  doubt,  for  our  own  part,  that 
the  public  are  deprived  of  seeing  much  that  would  be  creditable  to 
the  profession,  solely  because  architects  are  deterred  from  sending 
drawings  to  the  Academy,  being  aware  that  the  space  allotted  to  such 
subjects  is  so  utterly  inadequate,  that  it  becomes  a  mere  chance  whether 
they  can  be  received,  or  if  they  are,  whether  they  will  not  be  put  com-- 
pletely  out  of  sight,  as  is  invariably  the  case  with  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  those  which  are  received.  In  fact,  there  ought  not  to  be  more 
than  two  ranges  of  frames  hung  upon  each  wall,  on  what  is  teclmicaliy 
termed  the  line,  which  space,  being  now  generally  occupied  by  the 
larger  and  more  prominent  drawings,  the  lesser  ones,  which — suppos- 
ing they  are  worth  looking  at  at  all, — -ought  to  be  hung  as  near  the  eye 
as  possible,  are  placed  either  so  much  above  or  below  it,  that  it  is 
frequently  barely  possible  to  make  out  their  subjects.  Thus  the 
catalogue  may  be  said  to  be  in  a  great  measure  quite  delusive,  pro- 
mising us  what  appear  to  be  interesting  subjects,  and  when  we  enter 
the  room  to  look  for  them,  we  find  that  several  are  scarcely  to  be 

aG2 


J  88 


THE  CIVIL  ENOINEER  AND  AHCIIITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[J  I' 


NE, 


i'oiiiiil  out,  ;iik1  wlicii  disuoveroil,  all  that  we  can  discern  of  them  is, 
tliat  there  is  something  behind  a  glass  within  a  frame.     In  many  in- 
stances, perhaps,  we  may  lose  nothing  liy  not  being  able   to  obtain   a 
more  satisfactory  inspection,  but  there  arc-  also  others   in  which  the 
being  prevented  from  doing  so  is  lifghly  amioying  and  tantalizing.   An 
instance  occurs  in  tlie  present  exhibition,  with  regard  to   Xo.  ilj'J, 
"View  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,   displaying  tlie  general   decorative 
cliaracter  of  the  interior,"  by  J.  H.  Steiumetz,  whiVh  appears  to  be 
one  of  the  nmst  tasteful  and  interesting  drawings  in  the  room,  beau- 
tifully coloured,  and  treated  with  the  feeling  both  of  a  jiainter  and  an 
arcliitect.     We  say  "  appears,"  because  it  is  jjlaced  so  high  that  it  is 
imjiossible  to  judge  fairly  what  it  is.    It  may,  perhaps,  in  consecjueuce, 
look  to  be  more  elaborately  finished  than  it  really  is;   but  then  it  is 
just  as  likely  that  we  now  only  discern  the  general  effect,  and  that  the 
beauties  of  detail  and  execution  are  lost ;  at  all  events,  it  is  provoking 
to  meet  with  something  seemingly  so  very  good,  so  disadvantageouslv 
situated,  while  many  things,  scarcely  worth  notice,  are  thrust  full   in 
view.     AVe  should  say  that,  considering  the  great  size  of  the  drawing, 
and  the  familiarity  of  the  subject,  j\Ir.  Hardwick's  View  of  the  Rail- 
way Terndnus    in   Kuston  S(|nare,  ndght   very    properly   have  been 
mounted  a  stage  higher,  nnu'e  particularly  as  another  drawing  of  the 
same  building  was  exhibited  by  him  on  a  former  occasion,     inordinate 
space,  too,  is  occu]iicd  by  No.  9-11,  "Remaii^s  of  tlie  portico  of  the 
Lesser  Tem|)le  at  Haalbec,"  whicli  has  hardly  any  right  to  appear  in 
the  Architectural  Room  at  all,  (mless  it  had  "been  elevated  aTuong  the 
oil  pictures  which  serve  as  filling  up  stulf  to  hide  the  upper  part  of 
the  walls.     It  is  true  both  Hardwick  and  Rolierts  are  associates,  and 
may,  so  far,  have  the  privilege  of  getting  better  places  than  their 
neighbours  ;  yet  tliat  is  but  sorry  satisfaction  to  us  who  go  to  look  at 
the  designs  the  catalogue  promises  us.     No.  942  is  a  drawing  that 
ought  to  have  been  hung  level  with  the  eye,  whereas,  for  the   verv 
reason  that  it  is  suudl,  it  is  actually //ourtir/;  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
exandne  it  without  stooiiing  in  a  most  painful  attitude,  there  being 
not  a  single  chair  in  this  room  on  which  a   person  may  sit  dorni  to 
look  at  any  thing  so  jjlaced ;  which,  by  the  bye,  seems  to  be  pretty 
nnich  of  a  piece  with  the  other  jiid.'ciiiiis  regulations.     However,  anv 
kind  of  accommcdation,  we  presume,  is  consider^'d  gciod  cncjugh,  both 
for  those  who  send  and  those  who  go  to  look  at  arcliitectural  drawings. 
.Surely  there  must  be  some  other  room   or  rooms  on  the  ground  fi(j(n' 
of  the  building,  capable  of  being  made   use  of  during  the   exhibition 
for  works  of  this  class  ;    while  their  being  thereby   kept  quite  ajrart 
from  the  pictures  and  other  drawings  would,  in  f  icf,  be  a  decided  ad- 
vantage in  itself,     if  nothing  belter  can  be  done,  we  see  no  reason 
wherefore  a  line  of  architectural  drawings  should  not  be  hung  up  in 
the  hall,  on  a  screen  about  five  feet  high,  before  the  ])edestals  of  the 
statues  facing  the  stairs.     To  be  sure,  only  a  veiy  small  number  could 
be  so  disposed  ;  yet  even  were  no  more  than  a  dozen  meritorious  sub- 
jects so  placed,  where  they  could  be  distinctly  examined,  it  would  be 
a  great  improvement,  and  we  should  feel  grateful  for  it.     We  made 
remarks  to  the  above  effect  in  our  very  first  volume,  and  ought,  there- 
fore, (lerhaps,  both  for  that  reason  and  because  we  are  now  convinced 
liow  utterly  unavailing  they  have  been,  to  desist  from  all  comments  of 
the  kind.      Vet  the  evil  itself  is  so  scandalous,  so  contrary  to  common 
sense,  that  we  must  lift  n|i  our  voice  against  it  from   time  to  tinu-,  in 
the  hope  (jf  thereby  inciting  others,  and  the  profession  generally,  to 
take  some  steps  towards  bringing  about  a  reform,  which  we  can  only 
recommend.     What,  we  ask,  is  the  Professor  of  Architecture  and   the 
Architect-academicians  about,  that  they  look  upon  such  absurd  doings 
without   ihtcrference .'      Do   they  ever   look   info  the  Architectural 
Room  at  all '     Whether  they  do  or  do  not,  they  have  equally  nuicli  to 
^uiswer  for. 

Again,  we  ask,  what  is  the  Professor  of  Architecture  about  i  for  we 
do  not  see  a  single  drawing  by  him.  Is  his  office  become  altogether  a 
riinecKre  .' — he  gives  no  lectures,  he  exhibits  no  designs;  therefore  let 
Jns  <jualifications  for  office  be  as  great  as  they  may,  tliey  are  at  present 
■((uite  nugatory  and  valueless.  Most  assuredly  he  docs  not  follow  in 
.the  iiiotsteps  of  Soane,  who  whatever  Ids  other  failings  might  be,  was 
••ertainly  diligent  and  zealous  in  the  discharge?  of  his  academical  duties. 
Jt  isno  excuse  at  all  for  him  to  say  that  Mr.  (Jockerell  has  probably  been 
prevented  by  his  private  engagements  from  devoting  any  time  to  Kxhi- 
bition-drawinj's,  because,  as  is  well  known,  the  latter  are  as  fVe(|uently 
as  not  made  by  artists  enqjloycd  by  the  actual  a\ithors  of  architectural 
ilesigns:  and  we  have  heard  that  Mr.  C.'s  own  "Tribute  to  tlie  Me- 
mory of  Sir  C".  V.  reu"  (see  our  first  vol.  ))■  -'>l),  so  much  admired  for 
its  pictorial  elfect,  was  the  work  of  another  hand,  so  that  his  share  in 
.the  drawing  amininted  to  no  more  than  the  idea  of  bringing  togetlier 
Wren's  principal  tjuildings  into  a  single  )iicture.  Surely  the  jireseut 
.Professor  might  have  allowed  us  to  see  some  drawings  of  the  Libraries 
he  is  now  erecting  at  C.uiibridge,  and  also  the  design  which  has  proved 
the  successful  one  in  the  competilioii  lor  the  Kandol])li  and  Taylo 


Institute  at  Oxford  ;  some  of  the  rivals  of  which  are  here  to  be  found — 
in  the  catalogue  ;it  least,  if  they  are  not  all  to  be  seen  where  thev  have 
been  stuck  upon  the  walls. 

We  do  not,  however,  find  among  them  any  drawings  of  the  design 
scut  in  for  that  bnihling  liy  Mr.  Ilalhnan,  (author  of  the  essay  on 
Gripco-Russian  aridiitecture,  which  will  be  fi)und  at  page  '.13  of  our 
present  volume,)  although  it  has  been  described  to  us,  by  one  who 
lias  seen  it,  as  being  one  (jf  very  great  merit  and  beautv,  which,  to 
say  the  truth,  is  more  than  we  dare  aflirm  of  any  of  those  we  here 
notice,  for  they  strike  us  as  being  of  a  very  so-soisli  character. 
Whether  Mr.  Cockerell's  will,  as  it  certainly  ought  to  do,  hereafter 
satisfy  us  that  it  was  deservedly  jireferred  to  Mr.  Hallman's — sup- 
posing the  last  to  possess  the  taste  and  originality  ascribed  to  it  by 
our  informant — remains  to  be  seen;  though  we  strongly  suspect  that 
originality  and  taste  arc  almost  the  very  last  points  taken  into  con- 
sideration upon  such  occasions. 

Among  competition  drawings  arc  one  or  two  for  the  Royal  Ex- 
change, also  for  St.  George's  ifall,  at  Liverpool,  and  we  should  proba- 
bly have  beheld  some  of  those  for  tlie  Assize  Courts  also,  at  the  latter 
])lace,  had  they  been  returned  in  time  for  sending  them  to  the  Academy. 
Next  year,  however,  we  shall  doulitless  meet  with  some  of  them,  biit 
whether  with  that  which  has  obtained  the  first  premium  is  cpiestion- 
able,  because  Mr.  Elmes  has  not  thought  jiroper  to  exhibit  his  design 
for  the  St.  (ieorge's  Hall,  though  it  must  be  poor  indeed  if  it  shrinks 
from  a  comparfson  with  Mr.  i).  .Jones's  or  Mr.  Alexander's.  We  do 
not  like  Mr.  Jones'  (Nos.  97  and  foiti)  at  all :  it  is  in  a  sort  of  Alliam- 
bra-fashion,  but  after  such  fashion  as  to  give  us  what  is  offensive  in  it, 
without  what  renders  it  charming.  Of  Mr.  Alexander's  we  can  judge 
only  of  the  interior  of  the  Hall  (No.  917),  but  if  its  chief  merit  lay 
here,  and  it  was  on  this  account  that  tlie  second  premium  was  awarded 
to  it,  we  must  confess,  we  look  with  trembling  towards  the  design 
wliicli  bore  off  the  first  prize.  We  have  heard  that  Mr.  A.  himself 
was  somewhat  astonished  at  his  success,  and  so  too  are  we  w  hen  we 
look  upon  this  specimen  of  his  architectural  invention  and  taste:  for 
it  is  a  sort  of  Meeting-house  afi'air  with  a  few  showy  columns  forming 
a  gallery  around  the  upper  part  like  those  in  our  modern  churches, 
and  is  about  as  original  and  as  classi<-al.  'J'lie  ga|is  between  the  columns 
have  certainly  one  advantage,  which  is  that  there  would  be  very  few 
of  those  iucouveuieiit  pillars  to  intercept  the  ]irospect  of  wliat  the 
newspapers  style  "the  galaxy  of  matchless  beautv  and  loveliness" 
that  invariably  graces  all  festive  meetings  where  ladies  are  admitted 
to  be  spectators.  Accordingly  we  have  here  a  display  of  lovely 
bonnets  and  dresses  perched  up  in  the  grilleries,  and  if  such  display 
can  excuse  tli(?  poverty  of  the  architectural  (me,  gallantry  we  sujipose 
ought  to  get  the  better  of  grumbling.  No.  977,  another  design  for  the 
same  building  by  Mr.  Bardwell,  being  a  perspective  view  of  the  ex- 
terior, appears  to  po.sse.ss  a  good  deal  of  merit  and  some  originality  of 
character;  but  vve  are  compelled  to  speak  llms  dubiously  as  its  situa- 
tion prevents  its  being  examined,-  at  anv  rate  without  gettinga  cramp 
in  the  neck. 

We  meet  witli  other  competition  productions  in  Nos.  KlKi  and  1001, 
both  for  the  Nelson  Monument,  viz.,  the  latter  a  model  of  Granville's 
design  for  a  cast  iron  column,  the  other  Mr.  (ioldicutt's  colossal  globe — 
we  have  heard  it  called  "  (-ioldy's  Pill" — for  the  centre  id'  Trafalgar- 
square — and  which  is  mystically  ilcsignated  in  the  catalogue  "  A  Vision 
of  the  nineteenth  century" — a  very  taking  titl'^,  no  doubt. 

Neither  of  Mr.  15arry's  subject's  (Nos.  923  and  830)  have  quite 
satisfied,  or  rather  both  have  disappointed  us.  The  front  of  the  Uni- 
tarian Chapel  lately  erected  at  Manchester,  is  undoubtedly  very  far 
above  the  average,  and  is  judiciimsly  treated  inasmuch  as  it  is  not 
made  to  look  like  a  model  for  a  large  building  executed  upon  a  small 
scale.  Yet  while  there  is  nothing  to  censure,  neither  is  thi're  any 
thing  particularly  to  admire.  The  other  design  "for  the  additions 
and  alterations  at  Highclerc,  the  seat  of  the  Karl  of  C'arnarvon,"  shows 
the  proposed  conversion  of  a  plain  modern  house  into  a  mansion  in  the 
I'^li/.abcthan  style,  by  thi?  addition  of  turrets  at  the  angles,  and  the  re- 
ficiiig  and  decoration  of  the  other  parts.  The  circumstance  of  the 
architect's  being  fettered  by  the  necessity  of  adhering  to  what  is  al- 
ready erected,  as  regards  the  general  form  and  the  position  of  the 
windows,  prevents  us  from  considering  this  a  specimen  of  what  lie 
woulil  do  if  left  entirely  to  his  own  ideas  for  such  a  subject :  still  we 
should  have  expected  from  him  greater  freedom  and  taste  in  the  ap- 
jdication  of  that  style  and  its  details,  wliich  he  seems  here  to  have 
merely  copied,  without  attempting  to  infuse  into  them  any  originality, 
or  in  any  <lcgree,  refine  them.  It  is  by  far  too  strictly  faithful  to  that 
style  to  be  much  to  our  taste  ;  nor  can  we  conceive  what  there  is  in 
the  latter  to  recommend  it  to  the  favour  it  has  of  late  obtained  ;  for  at 
any  rate  it  is  neither  economy  nor  elegance:  more  likely  is  it  to  be 
the  disgust  of  the  soi-disant  Grecian  insipidities — bald  and  staring 
sash-windows  with  a  few  columns  stuck  upon  before  tjieilij  by  way  o 


I840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITIXTS  JOURNAL. 


IS!) 


poi'tico,  tliiit  lias  iiccnsioniHl  a  relapse  into  tbe  still',  foniial,  and  fantas- 
tical quaintness,  and  little  frigid  conceits  of  this  semiljarharoiis  manner, 
wliicli,  as  it  lias  always  ajipeared  to  ns,  originated  only  in  a  blnndering, 
awkward  imitation  of  the  Renaissance  style  on  the  continent.  Un- 
doubtedly there  is  frequently,  in  spite  of  all  this,  a  good  deal  of  piquant 
and  picturesque  in  our  examples  of  this  class.  The  proper  course, 
therefore,  would  be  to  study  and  select  those  qualities,  carefully 
eschewing  at  the  same  time,  all  the  coarse  dross  and  rubbish,  and  the 
gingerbreail  puerilities  among  which  they  are  found,  but  which  cer- 
tainly do  not  tend  to  give  them  any  additional  charm. 

(  To  he  con  I  i  II  IK  d.  J 


STONE  FOR  THE  NEW  HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

Sir — Several  paragraphs  on  the  subject  of  the  stone  to  be  used  in 
the  erection  of  the  new  Houses  of  parliament  having  appeared  in 
many  of  the  Lomlon  and  provincial  neus|va|)ers,  which  contain  some 
inaccuracies  and  mis-statements,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  set  the  public 
riglit  in  a  matter  which,  though  not  of  great  importance,  lias  yet  some 
national  interest. 

It  is,  of  course,  well  known  that  the  Commissioners  ajipointed  to 
visit  the  quarries,  ami  to  inquire  into  the  qualities  of  the  stone  to  be 
used  in  building  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  in  their  report  ad- 
dressed to  the  Commissioners  of  Her  Majesty's  Woods  and  Forests, 
after  giving  a  variety  of  details  respecting  the  numerous  quarries 
they  had  visited,  the  buildings  they  had  inspected,  and  the  experi- 
ments which  had  been  made  to  determine  the  physical  and  chemical 
properties  of  many  kinds  of  stone,  specimens  of  which  liad  been  ob- 
tained, conclude  their  report  by  slating  that  having  weighed,  to  the 
best  of  their  judgment,  tiie  evidence  in  favour  of  the  various  building 
stones  which  had  been  brought  uniler  their  consideration,  tliey  felt 
bound  to  state  that  for  durability,  ;is  instanced  in  Southwell  Church, 
&c.,  and  the  results  of  experiments,  for  crystalline  character,  combined 
with  a  close  approach  to  the  equivalent  proportions  of  carbonate  of 
lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia,  for  uniformity  in  structure,  facility 
and  economy  in  conversion,  and  for  advantage  of  colour,  the  magnesian 
limestone  or  dolomite  of  Bolsover  Moor  and  its  neighbourhood,  was, 
ill  their  opinion,  the  most  fit  and  proper  material  to  be  employed  in 
t!ie  proposed  new  Houses  of  Parliament. 

Bolsover  Moor  is  an  uncultivated  and  rocky  waste  in  the  parish  of 
Bolsover,  in  Derbyshire,  a  short  distance  north  of  Mansfield,  and  is  the 
property  of  Earl  Batliurst;  its  locality,  immediately  on  the  publication 
of  the  Commissioner's  report,  became,  of  course,  an  object  of  great 
interest,  both  to  the  noble  proprietor  and  to  the  various  parties  inte- 
rested in  procuring  stone  for  the  great  national  erection;  but  on  a 
more  extensive  and  particular  inspection  of  the  beds  on  the  Moor, 
than  the  Commissioners  had  been  able  to  make  of  them,  they  were 
found  to  be  deficient  in  their  capacity  of  furnishing  blocks  of  a  size 
and  form,  sufficient  and  proper  for  the  |nirposes  required  in  the  pro- 
posed erections.  New  speculations,  therefore,  arose,  and  fresh  hopes 
were  excited  amongst  the  many  candidates  for  the  honour  of  supply- 
ing the  material  for  the  buildings ;  it,  however,  was  the  fortune  of 
Mr.  Charles  Lindley,  of  Mansfield,  an  extensive  builder  and  quarry 
owner,  to  discover  at  Mansfield  Woodhouse,  about  a  mile  north  of 
Mansfield,  another  bed  of  the  Bolsover  Limestone,  extending  over  a 
considerable  tract,  of  a  quality  and  character  precisely  similar  to  that 
of  the  beds  on  the  Moor,  and  which  promised  to  furnish  blocks  of  a 
size  and  form  suitable  for  the  ])urposes  intended.  Mr.  Lindley  im- 
mediately, and  upon  speculation,  at  a  considerable  price  made  a  pur- 
chase of  the  land,  which  was  of  little  worth  for  agricultural  purposes, 
though  occupied  for  them,  and  having  submitted  specimens  of  the 
stone  to  the  proper  authorities,  which,  being  tested,  w'ere  found  to 
possess  the  requisite  qualities,  and  therefore  proper  to  be  used  in  the 
erection  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament.  Shafts  were  thereupon 
sunk,  to  ascertain  what  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  beds  were  that 
the  field  contained,  and  the  result  of  the  trials  being  also  satisfactory, 
workmen  were  immediately  employed  to  get  stone,  and  numerous 
blocks  of  considerable  size  and  excellent  form  were  speedily  obtained. 

The  contractors  for  the  .Torks,  with  a  professor  of  geology,  visited 
the  quarry,  and  there  being  every  appearance  that  the  field  would 
yield  a  sufficient  supply  of  materivd,  a  contract  was  entered  into  with 
Mr.  Lindley,  and  he  is  now  actively  engaged  in  forvvar<ling  a  regular 
supply  of  stone  to  London. 

Mr.  Lindley  is  also  the  proprietor  of  an  extensive  quarry  of  white 
sandstone  (magnesio-calciferous  sandstone),  at  Mansfield,  which  is 
also  highly  spoken  of  in  the  Commissioners'  report  for  its  appearance 
and  durability;  this  quarry  will  yield  blocks  to  the  size  of  10  tons, 


and  the  stone  will  work  well  with  the  Woodhouse  (Bolsover)  stone, 
a  great  advantage  is  thereby  gained,  because  the  sandstone  may  be 
used  for  purposes  to  which  the  limestone  may  not  always  be  suited. 

On  reference  to  Table  A  in  the  report  of  tlie  Commissioners,  pp.  12, 
13,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Bolsover  stone  is  described  as  magnesian 
limestone,  that  its  component  parts  are  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime  and 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  semi-crystalline,  its  colour  a  light  yellowish 
brown,  and  its  weight,  in  an  ordinary  state,  per  cubic  foot  1.5  Ith.  lloz. 
Table  B  states  that  Southwell  church,  Nottinghamshire,  (of  the  lOth 
century)  is  built  of  the  magnesian  liinestone  of  Bolsover  Moor,  and 
that  it  is  now  in  ;;e)/£C/ condition,  the  mouldings  and  enrichments  of 
the  doorway  o;;/;Mm;^  as  peiftct  as  if  jiixt  compkUd,  and  that  the 
choir,  wdiich  is  of  the  12tli  century,  and  built  of  a  stone  similar  to  that 
of  Mansfield  (Mr.  Lindley's  magnesio-calciferous  sandstone),  is  gene- 
rally in  good  condition. 

'fable  C,  of  chemical  analyses,  shows  that  the  Bolsover  stone  is 
composed  of  silica  3-li,  carbonate  of  lime  51-1,  carbonate  of  magnesia 
lU-i,  iron  alumina  1-S.  water  and  loss  3-3.  Specific  gravity,  dry 
masses  2-31('i,  particles  i-SSS. 

All  the  qualities  enumerated  of  the  Bolsover  stone  mentioned  in 
the  report,  belong  to  the  Bolsover  stone  found  at  Woodhouse,  and, 
like  the  former,  the  latter  is  remarkabU;  for  its  [lecu'.iarly  beautiful 
crystalline  structure,  and  is,  rather  than  otherwise,  superior  iu  its 
quality  and  appearance. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 
Mamjidd,  Amicus. 

•20th  May,  1S4U. 


TEACHERS  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERING,  &c. 

Sii! — In  the  last  number  cf  your  Journal,  you  have  inserted  a  letter 
from  "one  wdio  has  suffered,"  complaining  of  being  the  dvpc  of  an 
advertisement  in  the  newspapers  headed  "  Offices  for  Surveying, 
Architecture,  and  Civil  Engineering."  Now,  as  I  sometime  ago  ad- 
vertized with  that  hading,  and  as  I  reckon  your  publication  too  re- 
spectable to  deal  in  aiwnyinovx  ulandei;  you  will  oblige  me  by  pub- 
lishing the  name  of  the  complainant,  so  as  I  may  learn  whether  the 
charge  is  applied  to  me,  and  if  so,  set  myself  right  in  the  eyes  of  your 
readers. 

I  am.  Sir,  your's  respectfully, 
Mai/  llt/i,  ISIO.  Edwat.d  Junes, 

24,  Charlotfe  Street,  Author  of  the  "  Principles  and 

Bloonisbmij.  Practice  of  Levelling." 

[Mr.  Jones  must  be  aware,  or  ought  to  know,  that  we  will  not  \nih- 
lish  the  names  of  our  contributors;  we  consider  that  if  there  be  any 
parties  wdio  hold  out  to  the  world  that  they  can  teach  "  Surveying, 
Architecture,  and  Civil  iMigineering,"  or  any  one  branch  "in  a  ftw 
lcsso7i!S,"  they  ought  to  be  held  up  to  the  severe  animadversion  of  the 
jirofession.  This  is  the  charge  made  in  last  montli'.s  Journal  by  our 
correspondent  "  one  who  has  suffered."  If  Mr.  Jones'  advertisements 
do  not  contain  such  a  statement,  he  cannot  be  in  any  way  injured  by 
the  letter,  but  ought  to  be  ready  to  support  us  in  exposing  such  a 
practice,  which  exposure  can  only  benefit,  and  not  injure,  the  respect- 
able practitioner. — Editor.] 


ENCROACHMENTS  OF  THE  SEA. 

Sir — The  encroachments  of  the  sea  on  the  coast  of  England  having 
aroused  ])ublic  attention,  a  little  local  information  may  be  not  only 
interesting  but  useful.  I  have  always  regretted  having  neglected  to 
inform  you,  in  my  former  letter  on  this  subject,  that  the  village  and 
church  of  Warden,  in  the  Isle  of  Sheppy,  are  now  covered  by  the  sea; 
that  since  I  came  here  in  June  last,  a  great  jiart  of  Warden  Point  has 
slipped  into  the  sea,  and  great  part  of  the  island,  from  Warden  to 
Minster,  is  monthly  going  the  same  way,  from  underground  springs  ■ 
and  want  of  drainage. 

In  the  old  History  of  Hampshire  it  mentions  that  the  peo]ile  daily 
forde-d  or  waded  across  with  their  cattle  from  the  Forest  to  "Vectis" 
to  graze ;  now  first  rate  men-of-war  can  sail  over  this  place.  The 
destruction  of  the  western  side  of  the  island  is  much  hastened,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  removal  of  stones  and  gravel  for  building  and  road-  . 
making. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Sheerness  Garrison,  C.  F.  P.\RKiNbu.\,  Capt.  73rd  Reg. 

May  14,  1340. 


190 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[June, 


ON  REBUILDING  OLD  CHURCHES. 

Sir — I  beg  to  make  a  few  remarks  ou  the  impolicy,  as  well  as  the 
bad  taste  of  the  Ecclpsiiistical  Commission  for  IJuildiiig  Churclies,  in 
throwing  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  repairing  and  reslor/iig  old 
churches  to  their  former  beanty  and  embellishment,  preferring  pulling 
them  down  and  building  in  their  room,  a  wretched  little  brick  building, 
not  inaptly  compared,  some  years  since,  by  a  celebrated  demagogue 
and  enemy  to  the  leformed  religion,  to  a  dog-kennel  tied  to  a  sentry- 
box.  Is  it  doing  honour  to,  or  paying  proper  respect  lo  the  cause 
they  advocate,  to  consider  any  building,  however  insignificant,  good 
enough  to  celebrate  the  worsliip  of  (jod  mi  How  ditterent  the  feel- 
ing in  the  olden  time  I  Are  we  not  indebted  to  the  devotion  and 
zeal  of  our  forefathers  for  the  noble  architectural  remains  of  sacred 
edifices,  whose  lofty  proportions,  grandeur  and  s\)bliniity  fill  the  mind 
with  awe  and  solenniity  ? — -even  the  Heathens  honoured  their  Gods  in 
stately  temples.  A  House  of  Parliament,  a  National  Gallery,  a  Mer- 
cantile Exchange,  are  justly  thought  wortliy  of  a  noble  edifice.  Is  it 
not  an  insult  to  our  God,  and  does  it  not  bring  religion  into  disrespect 
and  disrepute,  when  those  who  ought  to  support,  and  who  themselves 
live  in  palaces,  consider  a  huvel  good  enough  for  their  Almighly 
Father  \ 

Scrutator. 


RAILWAY  COMMUNICATION  BETWEEN  LONDON  AND 
DUBLIN. 

The  Committee  appointed  by  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury,  in  pur- 
suance of  an  address  to  the  Queen  from  the  House  of  Commons  last 
sessions,  "  that  her  Majesty  wiU  be  pleased  to  give  directions  that  an 
engineer  or  engineers  may  be  appointed  to  inquire  and  report  upon  tlie 
relative  merits,  and  the  preference  which  ought  to  be  given  to  the 
respective  already  surveyed  and  projected  railways  following:  — 
namely,  from  Holyhead,  ind  Bangor  and  Chester ;  Portdynllaen,  via 
Caernarvon,  Bangor,  and  Chester ;  Portdynllaen,  rid  Barmouth,  Bala, 
and  Shrewsbury ;  Orme's  Head,  via  Chester:"  and  also,  "that  her 
Majesty  will  be  pleased  to  give  directions  that  proper  persons  may 
be  appointed  to  inquire  and  report  upon  the  best  means  of  communi- 
cation by  sea  between  Dublin  and  London,  as  connected  with  the  said 
intended  railways." 

The  Committee  have  selected  the  line  recommended  by  Mr.  George 
Stephenson,  from  Holyhead,  rid  Bangor  and  Chester  ;  it  commences 
at  the  termini  of  the  Chester  and  Crewe  and  the  Chester  and  Birken- 
liead  Railways  at  Chester,  and  proceeds  by  Bangor  over  the  Menai 
Bridge  to  Holyhead.  The  line  is  85  miles  long,  and  has  only  1,504 
yards  of  tunnel ;  the  gradients  appear  to  be  very  favourable,  viz. 

Miles.    Chains. 

Level  41  8 

5  feet  per  mile  and  under       ....  8  0 

Above  5  feet  and  up  to  10  feet        ...  7         20 

Above  10  feet  and  up  to  15  feet     ...        20        64 

1()  feet  per  mile 7  0 

19  feet  per  mile 0        68 


85 


0 


That  part  of  the  report  which  relates  to  the  crossing  of  the  Menai 
Bridge,  we  have  selected  and  given  in  full. 

Pussai;!'  of  the  Menai  Jiridgc. — The  passage  of  the  Menai  Bridge  is  the  next 
point  of  importance.  It  lias  licen  supposed  that  this  would  have  presented 
an  insujierablc  obstacle  to  the  lines  of  Messrs.  Stephensi.n  and  Giles  ;  but 
neither  of  these  gentlemen  propose  to  cross  the  bridge  with  locomotive  en- 
gines, the  former  suagesting  that  the  railway  carriages  may  be  drawn  over 
Ijy  horses,  and  the  latter  by  a  stationary  engine. 

There  seems  to  he  no  objection  to  either  of  these  plans,  and  the  loss  of 
Jime  consequent  upon  them  would  probably  not  exceed  one-quarter  of  an 
hour. 

The  following  observations  will  show  the  suliicieucy  of  the  Menai  Bridge 
to  sustain  the  weightof  any  number  of  railway  carriages  that  may  be  required 
to  pass  over  it. 

In  tlie  first  place,  as  far  as  regards  the  mode  of  passage,  no  important  dilll- 
culty  can  be  lore-seen  ;  the  only  question,  therefore,  is  one  of  strength. 

The  weight  of  a  railway  passenger-carriage,  with  its  load,  is  commonly 
estimalcil  at  about  five  tons,  and  the  length  occupieil  by  each  carriage,  Irom 
one  connectmg  pin  lo  another,  may  be  taken  at  22  feet,  when  several  car- 
riages arc  in  connexion.  Tins  would  give  a  pressure  of  only  '23  of  a  ton  per 
lineal  foot  on  the  length  of  the  bridge,  supposing  the  platform  to  be  wholly 
filled  with  such  carriages. 

Let  us  now  see  what  weight  the  bridge  is  capable  of  sustaining. 

It  appears  from  the  statement  of  Mr.  Proyis,  who  was  the  iesident  en- 


gineer during  the  erection  of  this  splendid  structure,  that  tlie  suspended  part 

between  the  pier  consists 
Of  16  main  chains,  including  connecting  plates,  screws,  bolts.    Tons.  cwt. 

&c weighing      394      5 

Of  transverse  ties 3     16J 

And  of  suspended  rods,  platform,  Ktc 245     13} 

The  total  weight  being  613     l.'i 

The  distance  l)etween  the  points  of  suspension  is  .570  feet  lOJ  inches,  and 
the  deflection  43  feet.  M'ith  these  data,  the  tension  in  terms  of  the  weight 
may  be  readily  computed,  from  the  properties  of  the  catenary  curve  ;  but  it 
will,  perhaps,  be  more  satisfactory  to  derive  it  from  the  actual  experiments 
of  Mr  Rhodes,  who  superintended  the  erection  of  the  chains,  and  who  found, 
practically,  the  tension  to  amount  to  17  times  the  weight.  This  makes  the 
tension  on  the  supporting  chains  from  the  weight  of  the  structure  alone  to 
amount  to  1,094  tons. 

Now  to  sustain  this  tension,  we  have  a  sectional  area  in  the  16  chains  ol 
260  square  inches,  which,  according  to  Mr.  Barlow's  experiments,  made  ou 
the  chain-cable  testing  machine  at  Woolwich,  are  capable  of  sustaining  2,600 
tons,  without  injury  to  the  elastic  force  of  the  iron,  namely,  10  tons  per 
square  inch,  the  ultimate  strength  being  25  tons  per  square  inch. 

If.  then,  from  the  absolute  strength  of  tlie  chains 2,600  tons. 

We  deduct  the  strain  due  to  the  weight  of  the  bridge 1 ,084 

There  remains  a  surplus  of  strength  of 1 ,506  tons. 

which  is  competent,  therefore,  to  sustain  a  uniform  load  (allowing  the  tension 
to  be  17  times  the  weight)  of  'S."J-  or  886  tons.  Now  if  the  bridge  were 
covered  with  loaded  r.aiUvay  carriages  on  both  sides,  it  would  only  be  equi- 
valent to  265  tons,  leaving  still  a  surplus  strength  of  621  tons.  The  objec- 
tions, therefore,  that  have  been  raised  respecting  the  capability  of  the  bridge 
to  bear  the  weight  of  the  railway  eaiTiages  which  it  might  be  required  to 
support  must  be  considered  as  utterly  groundless. 

Mr.  .Stephenson  proposes  to  establish  a  station  at  each  end  of  the  bridge, 
where  the  locomotive  engines  would  be  kept  in  readiness  to  be  attached  lo 
the  trains. 


DESIGNS  FOR  THE  NEW  ASSIZE  COURTS,  LIVERPOOL. 

fWe  have  received  several  communications  respecting  the  decision 
of  the  Committee,  and  our  attention  has  also  been  drawn  to  a  letter 
which  appeared  in  the  Liverpool  "  Albion " ;  it  contains  a  general 
description  of  the  successful  design  of  Mr.  Elmes,  and  some  very  ap- 
propriate remarks ;  we  therefore  give  the  article  entire,  with  which 
we  hope  our  correspondents  will  be  satisfied,  instead  of  publishing 
their  papers,  as  we  are  so  pre-occupied  with  matter,  that  we  can  ill 
spare  the  space  for  any  additional  remarks ;  however,  we  shall  be 
glad  to  receive  any  other  communication  on  the  subject  that  may 
throw  some  light  on  the  proceedings,  in  order  that  we  may  be  able  to 
make  some  comments  on  the  conduct  of  the  Committee  in  the  next 
month's  Journal,  if  found  necessary.] 

Sir — A  plan  has  been  pretty  generally  adopted,  of  late  years,  in  respect  of 
obtaining  designs  for  pulilic  edifices.  I  mean  that  of  advertising  for  compe- 
tition drawings,  and  awarding  one  or  more  prizes,  in  the  ratio  of  tlieir  excel- 
lence or  fitness,  with  the  imjilied  certainty,  that  the  hearer  of  the  first  prize 
should  have  still  more  substantial  reward,  in  the  supermtendency  of  the  erec- 
tion of  the  future  edifice.  This,  in  itself,  would  appear,  and  perhaps  is,  the 
best  method  that,  under  the  circumstances,  cotdd  be  adopted.  It  might  be 
difficult  to  point  out  a  better  ;  but,  Sir,  a  httle  reflection  will  at  oucc  show,  that, 
however  excellent  this  may  be,  in  the  abstract,  it  cnthely  loses  that  character 
unless  it  be  invariably  coupled  with  the  necessary  quahfications  for  judging, 
combined  with  excellent  taste,  in  the  awarders  of  the  honours. 

I  have  held  this  opiuion,  iu  common  with  others  who  have  given  the  matter 
consideration,  since  the  plan  became  general ;  but,  whatever  coufirmation  it 
might  have  then  required,  the  award  in  the  proposed  Assize  Courts  has  now 
amply  confirmed.  When  I  say,  that  the  sub-committee,  in  this  case,  had  not 
the  necessary  qualifications  to  fit  them  for  deciding,  let  it  not  be  understood, 
that  this  is  done  through  any  feehng  of  disappointment  or  personal  hostihty 
to  gentlemen  witli  some  of  whom  1  am  on  terms  of  intimacy  :  on  the  con- 
trary, I  trust  I  shah  be  able  to  prove  the  position  with  which  I  set  out  to  the 
satisfaction  of  your  readers  ;  but  1  may,  at  once,  say,  that  I  am  not  an  archi- 
tect, the  truth  of  which  is  known  tu  you,  therefore  have  uot  competed  for  the 
prize,  consequently  am  not  a  "  disappointed  niau"  individually  ;  but,  perhaps, 
as  one  of  the  public,  this  feehng  is  particularly  strong,  and  more  esiiecially  so 
when  I  look  around  the  walls  of  the  Exhibition-room,  in  PostoHicc-pIace.  I 
am  uot  only  disap))oiiited.  Sir,  with  the  prize-drawings  there  to  be  seen,  but, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  the  whole.  They  evidence  want  of  invention,  in 
the  first  place,  and  want  of  judgment,  in  the  second ;  and  the  two  designs 
that  combme  these  essentials,  have,  for  want  of  judgment  iu  the  committee, 
been  thrust  aside.  The  majority  of  the  designs,  prizes  included,  evince  a 
senile  imitation  of  the  Greek  style  of  temple  arclutecture,  which,  ever)-  day's 
experience  teaches  us,  is  neither  fitted  to  oiu-  wants  nor  our  cUmatc.  If  the 
Greeks  had  had  either  the  one  or  the  other,  they  woidd  have  invented  a  style 

to  have  suited  both;  but  invention  with  «« is  at  once  crushed,  the  ambitious 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


191 


aspirant  is  unceremoniously  thrust  out  of  tlie  arena  of  competition,  and  all  for 
want  of  the  necessary  qualifications  in  the  awarders  of  patronage. 

In  proof  of  this,  I  shall,  at  once,  draw  your  attention  to  the  plans  to  which 
the  first  prize  has  heen  awarded,  those  of  Mr.  Elmes.  By  a  narrow  inspec- 
tion of  these,  it  \\ill  appear  very  evident  the  Committee  were  incompetent  to 
the  task  allotted  them. 

In  Mr.  Ehnes'  perspective  drawing  we  have  a  very  pretty  picture,  exquisitely 
drawn,  showing  the  Railway  terminus,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Assize 
Courts,  on  the  other,  with  St.  George's-hall  occupying  a  prominent  feature  in 
the  centre.  With  this  picture,  it  is  very  obvious,  the  Committee  have  been 
misled.  It  is  a  most  successful  deception.  Now  for  the  proof.  The  height 
of  St.  George's-hall  is  about  eighty-five  feet.  The  fall  of  the  ground,  in  the 
direction  of  the  Coiuis,  is  twenty-seven  feet.  The  height  of  the  Courts 
at  the  lowest  end  is  seventy-six  feet.  There  should,  therefore,  be  shown, 
in  the  drawings,  a  difterence  of  thirty-six  feet  in  their  relative  hciglits ; 
hut,  as  the  Courts  do  not  come  quite  to  the  extremity  of  the  fall,  say  thirty- 
two  feet.  This  difference,  however,  is  most  dexterously  evaded,  and  leaves 
us  to  imagine  the  Courts  and  St.  George's-hall  will  be,  to  a  spectator  in  the 
foreground,  ven'  nearly  of  one  height.  Bnt  this  is  not  all.  In  this  height  of 
seventy-six  feet  is  included  a  dead  wall,  rising  fifteen  feet  above  the  parapet 
of  the  colonnade.  This  waU  is  so  much  set  back  from  the  fi'ont  that  it  could 
not  be  seen  except  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  building.  This,  in 
effect,  would  rob  it  of  fifteen  feet  more,  which,  added  to  the  thirty-two  feet 
above,  gives  us  forty-seven  feet,  or,  in  other  words,  taking  as  nuich  height 
from  it,  within  three  feet,  as  goes  to  a  five-story  warehouse.  Let  it  he  un- 
derstood, this  is  in  relation  to  St.  George's-hall ;  but,  in  relation  to  itself,  this 
dead  wall  would,  practically,  reduce  the  height  of  the  building  to  sixty-two 
feet,  making  the  visual  difference  between  the  Courts  and  St.  George's-hall 
about  fifty  feet. 

The  perspective  drawing,  however,  docs  not,  in  the  shghtest  degree,  convey 
this  difference;  but,  in  execution,  this  would  be  necessarily  exhibited.  Another 
example.  The  stylobate,  at  the  southwest  corner,  is  shown  only  six  feet  six 
inches  high,  whereas  the  real  height  is  about  thirteen  feet.  Moreover,  win- 
dows are  shown  in  the  plans,  which  are  omitted  in  the  elevation  ;  but,  had 
they  been  shown,  they  would  have  spoiled  the  eft'ectof  the  picture. 

More  examples  of  this  natm'e  might  he  adduced,  but  let  us  come  to  the  in- 
terior arrangements,  for,  after  all,  these  are,  by  far,  the  most  important  parts 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  ;  but,  it  is  very  evident,  Mr.  Elmes  calculated 
on  the  incompetency  of  the  Committee  to  measure  his  perspective  drawing 
and  compare  it  with  his  plans.  The  event  shows  he  was  right.  This  gentle- 
man, in  the  document  attached  to  his  plaus,  asserts,  that  he  has  complied  with 
the  printed  instructions,  and  that  every  apartment  contains  the  full  number 
of  square  yards  required  by  them.  Ilis  designs,  however,  show  he  has  ex- 
ceeded the  limits  by  thirty-sLx  feet  in  the  length  of  the  building,  but  this  is 
concealed  in  the  plan,  and  is  only  to  l)e  detected  by  carefully  examining  the 
section.  His  Courts  fall  considerably  short  of  the  areas  required,  which  were 
290  square  yards  for  the  Crown  Court,  and  320  for  the  Civil  Court ;  but  the 
space  given  by  Mr.  Elmes  is  231  yards  for  the  former  and  264^  yards  for  the 
latter,  making  a  deficiency  of  59  square  yards  for  the  one  and  555  for  the 
other,  making  a  total  deficiency  of  114  square  yards  out  of  610;  but  there 
are  two  lobbies  at  the  end  of  the  Courts,  situated  behind  some  columns,  which, 
if  he  mean  to  include,  would  leave  a  deficiency  of  744  square  yards.  From 
this,  it  is  very  clear,  the  prize  was  not  awarded  Mr.  Elmes  for  strict  adherence 
to  instructions,  although  he  deliberately  says  he  has  done  so. 

Let  us  now  take  a  glance  at  the  arrangements  for  the  transaction  of  the 
business  of  the  Courts.  The  counsel  have  to  ascend  30  feet  to  their  lobing- 
rooms,  and  then  to  descend  26  feet  into  court  in  their  wigs  and  gowns.  The 
jury  of  the  Crown  Court  have  allotted  them  a  small  room,  15  feet  by  10  feet, 
and  for  the  Civil  Court,  one,  17  feet  6  inches  by  9  feet  6  inches,  neither  of 
them  possessing  a  water-closet :  this  last  omission,  no  doubt,  is  intentional, 
— nothing  on  earth  like  it  to  bring  obstinate  men  to  a  prompt  decision. 

The  clerk  of  the  indictments'-room  is  situated  30  feet  above  the  ground 
floor.  The  witnesses  have  to  ascend  that  height  from  their  room,  which  is 
on  the  basement  floor,  and  then  to  descend  to  the  grand  jury-room,  situate 
midway,  and,  ultimately,  to  the  ground  floor  into  court.  The  most  casual 
observer  must,  at  once,  perceive  this  to  be  tlie  worst  possible  arrangement. 
The  floor  of  the  judge's  bench  is  6  feet  6  inches  above  the  floor  of  the  court, 
which  is  just  twice  the  height  it  should  be.  The  semicircidar  form  of  the 
courts  is  objectionable,  from  the  irregular  reverberation  of  soimd  proceeding 
from  a  curved  surface.  This  has  been  so  fully  proved  in  other  buildings 
sirailaiiy  constructed,  that  various  expedients  have  been  adopted  to  abate  the 
evil. 

Another  most  important  point,  the  hghting  of  the  interior  apartments,  is 
reaUy  bad.  He  has  resorted  to  the  most  clumsy  and  awkward  expedients, 
and  all  to  render  darkness  visible.  The  judges  enter  a  vestibule  totally  dark ; 
and  the  attorneys,  barristers,  &c.  could  not  recognise  one  another  in  the  cor- 
ridors allotted  to  them.  In  short,  the  general  interior  arrangements  are  ex- 
ceedingly ill  contrived,  being  so  disconnected  by  having  four  different  storeys, 
beside  the  one  containing  the  gaol  arrangements,  while  in  no  case  ought  it  to 
have  exceeded  two. 

Now,  Sir,  for  a  word  or  two  on  the  architectural  composition  of  the  ex- 
terior. My  opinion  is,  that,  in  execution,  it  woidd  prove  a  complete  failure, 
and  disappoint  those  who  have  been  ea tight  by  the  pictorial  effect  of  the 
drawings. 

The  east,  or  principal,  fa9ade  is  badly  arranged.    The  portico,  contrary  to 


the  rules  of  architecture,  and  I  may  add  a  still  greater  authority,  good  taste, 
is  denuded  of  the  most  essential  element  of  grandeur  and  beauty ;  I  mean  a 
noble  flight  of  steps  ascending  to  it :  instead  of  which  it  is  placed  on  a  mural 
stylobate,  having  an  insignificant  door  stuck  in  its  centre,  as  if  by  accident, 
or  as  if  the  architect  had  originally  forgotten  to  provide  liis  principal  en- 
trance. 

The  colonnade  on  either  side  the  portico  ouglit  to  have  been  full  and  un- 
interrtipted  in  its  whole  extent :  instead  of  which,  it  is  divided  into  three 
parts,  with  pilastered  blocks  of  masonry,  each  eighteen  feet  wide.  This,  in 
execution,  would  totally  destroy  that  simple  unity  winch  ought  to  characterize 
that  style  of  architecture  the  artist  himself  has  chosen.  This  defect  does  not 
strike  the  observer  in  the  picture,  in  consequence  of  the  admirable  manage- 
ment of  the  lights ;  but,  in  the  actual  structure,  this  would  be  most  unsightly 
and  oftensive  to  good  taste.  Not  satisfied  with  this  violation,  he  has  placed 
a  Une  of  dead  wall,  fifteen  feet  high,  above  the  broken  line  of  columns  be- 
neath, w  hieli,  in  effect,  would  appear  to  crush  if,  niieu  seen  from  a  distance. 
This  ungraceful  method  of  acquiring  height  has,  I  have  observed,  invariably 
destroyed  the  effect  of  other  buildings  where  it  has  heen  resorted  to.  I  could 
point  out  a  much  greater  number  of  defects ;  hut,  at  best,  it  is  a  most  ungra- 
cious task  :  however,  it  is  better  to  do  so  now  than  allow  the  building  to  be 
quietly  erected  with  all  its  faults,  and  then  cavil  w  hen  it  is  too  late  to  apply 
the  remedy.  Upon  the  whole,  I  consider  the  decision  of  the  Committee  to 
be  altogether  an  erroneous  one,  because,  if  we  put  the  architectural  beauty 
out  of  the  question,  the  interior  arrangements  will  require  to  be  entirely  re- 
modelled to  adapt  them  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended. 

It  would  take  too  much  time  to  point  out  w  hat  arrangements  really  should 
have  heen  made  ;  but  here  are  a  few  omissions. 

Mr.  Elmes  has  no  magistrates'-room,  nor  a  room  for  the  high-sheriff ;  he 
has  also  omitted  the  court-keepers'  apartments  and  has  not  shown  cells  for 
prisoners ;  he  has  no  room  for  attorneys  consulting  apart  with  a  prisoner, 
neither  has  he  any  room  where  a  prisoner  can  see  his  friends  on  obtaining  a 
judge's  order.  The  room  he  has  appropriated  for  counsel  is  only  twenfy-six 
feet  by  seventeen  feet  six  inches,  and  this  is  to  accommodate  upwards  of  200 
barristers,  and  this  number,  with  the  increasing  business  of  the  courts,  is  sure 
to  be  greater.  In  fact,  the  room  in  the  present  coiu'ts  devoted  to  this  pur- 
pose is  much  larger. 

It  might  be  asked,  if  so  much  is  abridged  and  omitted,  what  has  become  of 
the  space,  seeing  that  the  plans  exceed  the  given  amount  ?  I  answer,  it  is 
absorbed  in  large  galleries,  to  accommodate  the  public  attending  the  Crown 
Court.  This  is  plausible,  no  doubt ;  but  wiiat  is  the  practical  result  ?  That 
the  morbid  taste  of  that  portion  of  the  community  who  dehght  in  accounts 
of  murder,  rape,  and  robbery  will  be  amply  gratified ;  whde  the  other  portion 
of  the  pubUc  attending  the  Civil  Court  have  but  small  accommodation.  Kx- 
perience  has  suflicienfly  shown  us,  that  the  disgusting  details  of  criminal 
comis  act  more  by  way  of  precept  than  example  on  the  auditory  w  ho  frequent 
them. 

In  fact,  throughout  the  interior  arrangements  tjiere  is  an  utter  absence  of 
that  knowledge  of  the  business  of  courts  which  is  indispensible  to  their  pro- 
per arrangement,  .\partments  that,  according  to  the  practice  of  law  courts, 
shoidd  he  together  are  placed  on  different  storeys,  occasionally  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  building ;  hence  would  accrue  a  continual  traveUing  up  and  down 
stairs,  and  traversing  long  dark  passages,  when,  with  proper  arrangement,  all 
these  annoyances  might  have  been  avoided. 

I  think,  after  this,  you  must  agree  with  me.  Sir,  that  the  Committee  have 
been  misled  by  the  beauty  of  Mr.  Elmcs's  drawings,  which,  after  all,  do  him- 
self, or  the  artist  he  employed,  great  credit. 

Seeing,  through  the  medium  of  your  paper,  that  a  memorial  was  presented, 
on  this  subject,  to  Council,  by  two  of  our  resident  architects,  Messrs.  Cun- 
ningham and  Holme,  I  have  been,  in  consequence,  induced  to  gire  their  de- 
signs a  more  minute  examination. 

Their  second  design,  I  mean  the  one  with  the  towers,  having  a  magnificent 
portico,  with  a  flight  of  steps  leading  tip  to  it.  This  building  woidd  have 
been  a  real  ornament  to  the  town.  It  combines  many  desiderata  for  the  pro- 
motion of  architectural  effect ;  but  the  towers  alone  are  worthy  of  Martin. 
Had  they  been  executed,  they  would  have  formed  a  most  prominent  archi- 
tectural featiu'C  in  the  eye  of  strangers  visiting  us.  I  ha\e  not  studied  their 
design  with  a  view  to  minute  criticism.  Had  they  received  the  first  prize,  it 
is  highly  probable  they  would  not  have  been  let  off  so  easily :  however,  there 
is,  at  once,  boldness  and  novelty  in  the  conception  of  their  plans,  wiiich  bias 
me  very  much  in  their  favour.  As  to  the  interior  arrangements  proposed  by 
these  gentlemen,  they  are  very  much  superior  to  Mr.  Elmes's.  They  seem  to 
have  forgotten  nothing,  but  have  rendered  the  edifice,  as  a  whole,  entirely 
subservient  to  the  purpose  of  the  courts.  Yet,  if  I  recollect  aright,  these  gen- 
tlemen's designs  were,  at  once,  placed  hors  de  combat. 

In  their  memorial  they  complained  that  their  plans  had  been  set  aside,  on 
the  alleged  ground  of  having  exceeded  the  limits  pointed  out  in  the  instruc- 
tions ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  plans  to  which  the  prize  u-as  awarded 
had,  in  a  similar  manner,  also  very  much  departed  from  fbem.  Notvrith- 
standing  which,  they  were  not  only  allowed  to  retain  their  place  among  the 
final  ten,  but  actually  carried  off  the  prize  !  Now,  Sir,  I  cannot  help  think- 
ing they  had  just  right  of  complaint.  Bnt  how  was  it  met  by  the  Committee, 
in  the  person  of  the  Town  Surveyor  ?  At  first  is  was  denied,  and  then  ad- 
mitted, that  is,  "  if  the  porticos  Kere  meant  to  be  inclnded"  !  This  last,  Su', 
is  the  crowning  joke  of  the  whole.  Hamlet,  with  the  principal  character 
omitted,  is  a  fool  to  it.     "  If  the  porticos  were  meant  to  be  included  in  the 


102 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[JUNi 


measurement"  !     Only  think.     Suppose  your  office  is  in  want  of  a  devil,  you 

advertise  for  one,  liis  niotlier  applies,  (if  devils  have  mothers,)  you  want  to 
know  his  heiglit.  Tlie  lady  ri'|>lic!,,  •'  Four  feet  six."  Vou  ohject  to  this  as 
hrine  too  small,  when  you  are  met  with  the  uflcr  Ihoui/hl,  that  that  is  his 
height  as  far  as  his  shoulders  oidy :  hut,  then,  he  is  a  //eni?  taller  still,  if  you 
mean  to  include  tli.it  most  nniinimrtant  portion  of  his  corpus.  Ofsneha 
nature  was  our  surveyor's  answer  to  Messrs.  Cunningham  and  Holme's  ob- 
jection. Tlie  jiorticob  hein^,  1  need  scarcely  say,  "  the  ven  heads  anil  fronts " 
of  the  huilding. 

In  conclusion,  Sir,  1  may  add,  that  my  only  motive,  in  this  Icltcr,  is,  my 
duty  as  a  hurgess,  and  a  love  of  having  ray  visual  organs  gratified  by  beauti- 
fid  architectural  objects,  in  my  walks  through  our  flourishing  good  old  town. 
I  <im,  an  old  correspondent. 

One  of  thk  People. 
T.lrorpool,  Mni/  \lt/i. 


KXTR.\fTS  FRO.M  'I'lll';  LOG  OF  TIIF.  ARCflliNTEDKS. 

rirxl  Dull.  April  21.— Light  breezes  from  Norlhward.  A.M.  7  .lO,  left  Do- 
ver Roads  with  1 1. M.S.  Ariel  for  falais.  Arehimedes  rather  leading.  At  8-45 
liMlh  vessi'l.s  made  sail,  with  lishl  »ind  from  .S.W.  At  10,  Ariel  one  mie 
aslem.  and  Kiiil  shortened.  l(J-2a,  abreast  of  Calais — beatmg  Ariel  by  six 
minutes- 

Srroud  Dull,  .-//ir;/ 22.— A.M.  4' 10.  left  Calais  wilh  the  Ariel— Hind  W.S.AV. 
and  fresher  than  on  the  preceding  day:  Ariel  rather  gaining,  but  on  sail 
being  .set  on  I, iilh  vessels,  Arehimedes  came  in  first  by  iive  minutes.  Close 
hauled  the  wlirde  distance,  and  rate  with  sail  and  steam  %%.  Time  of  arrival 
in  Dover  Roads,  fi'42  A.M.  A.M.  8-.S0.  the  same  morning,  left  Dover  Roads 
with  H.M.  Packet  Beaver— light  winds  from  S.M'.  920.  one  length  a-head 
of  rjeaver.  y'l.').  three  lengths  a-head  of  Beaver — rate  9^  knots — engine 
making  27  strokes  per  minute — barometer  20  inches.  10'45,  2i  ealdes  length 
a-heaii  of  Beaver.  IPSO.  Beaver  made  sail.  Noon — light  breezes  from  ,S.W. 
Beaver  two-thirds  of  a  mile  astern.  At  4o3  P.M.  arrived  in  Ostcud  Roads, 
hetiting  Beaver  by  four  minutes. 

Tlilril  Dfiji.  .■Ijiril  23. — To|)masts  struck,  and  galTs  down,  » ind  AV. — A.M.  9. 
Pollowed  in  Beaver's  wake  through  the  Channel.  At  10,  going  95  knots — 
Beaver  a-bead  one-third  of  a  mile.  1P30.  abreast  of  Dunkirk.  At  noon — 
moderate  breezes  from  W.N.V. — Beaver  one  mile  a-head — Strokes  26 — rate 
t-'J  kniits.  P.M.  2.  maile  sail — Heaver  1^  mile  a-head — 9i  knots.  At  4h.  28m. 
.'iOs.  Beaver  a-breasi  of  Dover  Pier. — 4h.  37m.  30s.  Archimedes  ditto. — Nine 
minutes  in  favour  of  Beaver. 

Fniirth  Ddij.  April  2.J.— A.M.  813,  started  a-breast  of  each  other  with  H.M. 
Packets  Beaver  .and  Ariel — h.ght  breezes  from  1'..  by  N. — rate  9S  ktiots — barn, 
meter  26  inches — strokes  27.  Beaver  arrived  first  in  Calais  lioads  by  2  mi- 
iiules  4.)  seconds — Ariel  second,  not  ijuite  three  lengths  a-hcad  of  Archi- 
medes. 11'2.').  left  Calais  Roads  in  search  of  II. M.S.  Swallow,  with  the  Os- 
leiid  mails.  P.I\i.  1.28,  abreast  of  .Swallow.  2'.52,  abreast  of  Dover  Pier, 
Shallow  about  two  lengths  astern— no  sail  set  all  this  day. 

Fifth  Dull  April  27. — A.M.  (j'40,  started  w  ith  the  Britannia  Steamer  for 
Boulogne,  she  being  half  a  mile  a-hcad.  At  7.  on  her  beam — rate  9i  knots 
■ — Britannia  made  sail.  At  7"1.').  made  sail  also — moderate  breezes  from 
the  N.lv — course  South — 10  knol.-i — 27  stri.kes — barometer  26  inches.  At 
Oh.  2m.  4;js.  rounded  the  buoy  off  Boulogne  Pier.  At  9h.  49m.  liritannia 
passed  the  buoy.  Difl'ereiKe  of  time  21m.  l.js. — of  distance  about  3?  miles. 
P.M.  P")2.  made  sail  for  Dover  —  fresh  breezes  from  N.E.  —  sailing  and 
steaming,  close  hauled.  9J  knots,  clear  full,  10  knots.  At  4,  the  wind  being 
fresh  and  dearl  a-head,  took  in  .s.ail — steaming,  85  knots.  At  .IIO,  o(V  Dover 
Pier — having  made  the  passage,  under  the  above  circumstances,  and  against 
an  ehli  tide,  in  .;h.  27ni. 

Sixth  Day.  April  28.— On  Ijiis  d.ay.  Capt.  Chappell.  R.N..  and  Mr.  Lloyd, 
i'ingineer  from  11.  M.  Oock  Yard  atAVooIwicb,  eommeiieed  the  superiiiten- 
dence  of  the  trials,  having  been  sent  down  specially  by  the  Lords  Commis- 
sioners of  the  Admiralty  to  report  thereon.  A.M.  S-K,  left  Dover  Roads 
with  11. M.S.  AVidgeon — moderate  breezes,  wiml  10.  by  N. — rate  84  knots — for 
Diuigeness  light,  distance  19  nautical  miles.  AVidgeon  first  by  ■'im.  30s.  In 
returning,  against  a  head  wind — rale,  8  and  7'i — strokes,  26  per  mimite. 
Widgeon  betit  by  cxtictly  10  minutes.  No  sail  set  this  day.  M'idgeon  is  the 
fastest  of  the  Dover  packets,  her  engines  being  of  90  horse  power:  her  power 
is  thus  10  horses  grciiler  than  the  Archimedes,  while  her  tonnage  is  80  Ions 
less.  Most  of  the  Dover  ])ackets  ;ire  of  70  horse  po\\er;  they  are,  on  an 
a\efage,  about  90  tons  stnallcr,  draw  4\  feet  less  ^witer,  and  are  iiol  so  broad 
by  .5  feet.  During  the  whole  of  these  trials  the  sea  lias  been  perfectly 
smooth,  anil  no  ojjporlunily  litis  hitherto  occurred  of  displaying  the  peculiar 
advantage  of  the  Screw  over  the  P.addlc  Wheels  in  a  rough  sea  and  a  strong 
wind.  .Since  the  above  was  A\ritten — in  a  run  to  Calais,  in  a  dead  calm. 
Widgeon  beat  Archimedes  by  only  ij  minutes  in  going,  and  i  minutes  in 
returning: — Time  in  going  over,  21i.  9m  ;  returning,  2li.  llni. 

The  French  Government  Sleiuner,  La  Poste,  was  beaten  on  this  occasion 
2.0  minutes.    She  is  about  13.)  tons,  ;uid  her  engines  of  50  liorse  power. 

On  the  Isl  of  May,  the  Widgeon  and  Archimedes  sl;irted  together  for 
Calais,  wilh  ;i  moderale  breeze,  both  carrying  sail  and  stemiiing. — Archi- 
medes perlormed  the  distance  to  Cakus  Ro.ads  in  2h.  Ini..  be;Uing  Widgeon 
by  9  minutes.  In  returning  to  Dover,  she  beat  the  Widgeon  by  5  minutes, 
making  the  distauie  in  Hi.  .Ojm.,  the  fastest  passage  kver  made  between 
France  :rnd  F.ngland  by  14  minutes. 

[To  render  these  experiments  complete,  the  quantity  of  fuel  consumed  in 
each  trip  and  by  each  vessel  sliould  be  ascertained. — Kwtor.J 


NEW  ROYAL  EXCHANGE. 

Tmi:  (Ircsham  Committee  met  on  the  7tli  nit.,  to  decide  on  the  two  |ilans 
for  the  Royal  E.vchange  submitted  to  the  Committee  by  .Mr.  Cockerel],  R.A.. 
and  Mr.  Tite.  President  of  the  .\rchitectural  ,S  ciety,  and  after  a  protracted 
discussion,  the  Committee  finally  determined  in  iavour  of  .Mr.  lite  bv  13 
votes  to  7.  The  bnildini;'  will  now  be  jiroceeded  with  without  del.ay.  The 
fullinving  description  of  the  design  appeared  in  tlie  d;dly  papers  : — 

The  design  thus  ;idopted  possesses  fetUures  of  a  very  striking  character. 
and  i.i  much  approved  of  111  the  city.  It  will  be  recollected  that  the  site  of 
the  intended  building  is  of  an  irregular  form.  The  ground  westward  of  this 
site  is  to  be  cleared  bv  the  removal  of  the  luo  masses  of  building  which  now 
stand  in  front  of  the  ll:mk,  so  a^  to  h  ave  an  oninlerrujited  area  from  the 
inlerscclion  of  the  streets  in  front  of  the  Mansion-house  ;  in  this  area  it  is 
intended  to  place  the  statue  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  From  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  any  form  of  building  w  bieli  should  adequately  occupy  it,  must 
be  much  wider  at  the  east  end  than  at  the  west.  This  irregularity  is  con- 
cealed, and,  though  not  rectangular,  the  proposed  structure  is'  perfectly 
regular  in  the  pbui. 

At  the  west  end,  the  architect  has  pkieed  a  very  striking  portico  of  eight 
cohinins  of  the  Corinthian  order.  The  width  of  ibis  portico  is  90  feet,  and 
its  height  to  the  apc.x  of  the  pediment  7.'J  feet ;  this  is  16  feet  wider  and  17 
feet  hiKlicr  than  the  portico  of  the  cluirch  of  St.  Martin-in-the-Fields.  Be- 
hind tlip  portico  is  the  ccntr.al  entrance  to  the  Exchange,  which  is  deeply 
recessed  within  a  large  arclied  opening,  having  on  each  side  an  arch  of  cor- 
responding general  cliaracter.  When  clear  of  the  portico,  the  building  is  in- 
creased in  width  by  pilasters  and  recesses,  making  its  greatest  extent  at  the 
west  end  106  feet. 

The  south  front,  or  that  towards  Cornbill,  is  an  unbroken  line  of  2.00  feet, 
occupied  by  a  r.ange  ofCorinthi.an  pilasters,  the  intervals  between  which  ;uv 
divided  in  height  into  two  stories.  The  loner  of  these  ccn.sists  of  a  series  o| 
rusticated  arches,  which  comprises  the  shops,  and  the  entrances  both  to  the 
E.'ichange  and  tlie  offices;  the  upper  story  includes  a  uniform  line  of  de- 
corated windows  for  the  principal  floor. 

The  north  front  is  generally  similar  to  the  south. 

The  east  front  is  terminated  at  its  northern  and  southern  extremities  by 
curved  corners,  each  containing  three  laisticated  arches,  with  windows  abo\e: 
and  fiom  the  centre  of  this  front  rises  a  tower  160  feet  in  height,  terminated 
by  a  vane,  formed  of  the  ancient  grasshopper,  the  crest  of  Sir  T.  firesham. 

Tbe  total  length  of  the  building,  including  the  projection  of  the  portico,  is 
293  feet,  and  its  extreme  width  at  the  east  end  is  175  feet. 

'The  area  for  the  merchants  is  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  edifice.  If  is  a 
parallelogram,  HO  feet  in  length  from'east  to  west,  by  112  feet  from  north  to 
south,  and  is  entered  in  the  centre  of  each  of  the  four  side.  There  is  a  colon- 
nade of  the  Doric  order  round  this  area,  which  leaves  about  one-third  of  tbe 
whole  space  open.  Over  the  colonntule  is  a  second  order  of  attached  Ionic 
columns,  with  arched  mid  highly  decorated  windows  in  each  inteicolumnia- 
tion. 

With  reference  to  the  arrangements  of  the  plan,  it  appears  that  the  ground 
floor  is  principally  a]i]tropriated  to  shops  and  oflices,  except  a  ]iart  of  the 
north-east  corner,  which  is  given  to  Lloyd's,  and  the  south-west,  which  is 
reserved  for  the  Royal  l''.xchaiige  As.suranee-olfiee.  On  the  one  pair,  or  prin- 
ci)ial  floor,  tlie  Subscribcrs'-room.  Commerci.al-rooin,  Reading-room,  and 
other  apartments  of  Lloyd's,  occupy  the  whole  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
building,  mid  about  tw o-thirds  of  the  northern.  The (he.di.am  Lecture-rooms, 
lilirary.  and  other  aixirtments,  fill  up  the  rest  of  the  north  front  and  jiarl  of 
the  west.  The  south  front,  in  nearly  all  its  length,  is  given  to  the  corpora- 
tion of  the  London  Assurance,  w  liich  establishment  is  to  be  accommodated  in 
the  new  buibling  :  ;ind  the  remainder  of  the  south  and  west  is  appropriated 
to  the  Royal  ExclKingc  Assurance. 


THE  METROPOLITAN  WATER  SUPPLY. 

Table  shewing  the  foreign  matters  contained  in  one  gallon  of  Thnmrs  water, 
taken  from  ditlerent  parts  of  the  river,  and  of  the  same  quantity  of  the 
water  from  the  I'alley  nf  the  Cd/hc— (See  Minutes  of  I'lvidenee,  1840,  p.  19.) 


Thaiiiea  water. 


From  near  Brentford    

From  near  Hammersmith    

From  near  Chelsea    

Sources  of  the  proposed  London  and 

Westminster  IVater  Company. 
From  Otters  pool  (main  spring)  . . . 
From  mam  stream  (Valley  of  tl 

Colne)  ". 

From  the  river  Colne 


Carbonate 
of  lime. 


.Sulphate  of    Total  in 
lime  and     jl  gidlon. 
common  salt 


Grains. 
16 
10-9 
I6o 


18-8 


19-3 
181 


Grams. 
34 
17 
2-9 


2-5 


2-5 
32 


Grains. 
1,9-4 
186 
19-4 


213 

21-8 
213 


Besides  the  above,  the  Thames  water,  as  well  as  that  from  the  Valley  of 
the  Colne,  was  found  to  contain  a  very  minute  portion  of  oxide  of  iron,  silica, 
magnesia,  and  carbonaceous  matter. 

[We  were  not  prepared  to  find  that  the  water  from  the  Olterspool  spring, 
flowing  through  chalk,  contained  such  a  minute  quantity  of  carbonate  of 
lime  ;is2  grains  in  70,000  grains,  (the  weight  of  a  gallon  of  water),  more  than 
water  of  the  river  Thames.  To  us  this  appears  to  be  a  very  satisfactory  re- 
sult in  favour  of  the  proposed  new  Company. — Editor.] 


D312B&:e's   iPiVJiEHa;  ginsiPirfsi'OiT  iBmiB'&iE. 


I'LATE   X. 


ri«  ». 


Fir,.  ].. 


fIG.  fi. 


C  f  ttirfifin.  Ijih-'g^jph'T  SouthampTDQ  nuildlnt^.Holboni 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


IDS 


SUSPENSION  BRIDGES. 

WITH   AN   ENGRAVING,   PLATE   X. 

Lord  Western's  Letter  lo  Lord  Melhourne,  descriptive  of  a  Suspension 
Bridge  built  across  the  Amn,  at  Bath,  by  Mr.  Dredge,  a  resident  of 
thai  city,  upon  an  entirely  novel  principle. 

My  dear  Lord, — Having  heard  that  Government  is  about  to  expend 
a  further  sum  of  money  on  the  reparation  of  tlie  Menai  Bridge,  which 
is  said  to  be  in  a  perilous  state,  I  cannot  refrain  from  entreating  your 
attention  to  tlie  vast  improvement  that  has  been  made  in  the  con- 
struction of  suspension  bridges  by  Mr.  Dredge,  of  Bath.  During  a 
recent  residence  of  two  months  in  that  city,  I  have  had  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  often  the  bridge  that  has  been  built  by  him  across  the  Avon ; 
it  is  a  beautiful  structure,  and  at  once  commands  admiration  of  its 
beauty  and  confidence,  in  its  stability;  I  have  communicated  with  him 
frequently  aljout  it,  and  altogether  the  consequence  has  been  so  strong 
an  impression  upon  my  mind  of  the  vast  and  immeasurable  superiority 
of  the  principle  on  which  it  is  built  over  anything  that  has  hitherto 
been  attempted,  that  I  have  been  led  into  this  somewhat  extraordinary 
intrusion  upon  your  Lordship  on  a  matter  with  which  I  may  be,  I  own, 
justly  considered  to  have  no  very  intimate  or  scientific  acquaintance  ; 
such  however  is  the  simplicity  of  the  work,  that  I  will  not  hesitate  to 
attempt  some  account  and  explanation  of  it,  in  the  hojie  of  drawing 
your  attention  in  the  first  instance,  which,  if  I  accomplish,  you  will  be 
led,  ■  'hink,  to  give  it  a  closer  examination,  which  will  produce 
eventually  as  strong  a  conviction  in  its  favour  on  your  mind  as  it  has 
produced  upon  mine. 

Mr.  Dredge's  statements  of  the  superiority  of  the  power  of  his  sys- 
tem over  the  established  ])lan  of  structure  certainly  at  first  astonislied 
me ;  he  has  indeed  proved  by  trials,  in  the  [jresence  of  very  many 
persons,  a  superiority  of  strength  to  the  extent  of  at  least  15ll  per 
cent.  These  were  made  upon  small  models  of  bridges  formed  severally 
on  the  present  and  on  his  new  principles,  each  out  of  the  same  quan- 
tity of  iron,  but  he  carries  his  calculations  of  the  accumulating  power 
derivable  from  size  and  extent  over  and  above  the  150  per  cent,  shown 
upon  the  small  models  to  such  a  degree,  that  I  will  not  venture  to  state 
it;  but  if  he  should  be  called  upon,  in  the  way  I  trust  sooner  or  later 
he  will  be,  to  exhibit  his  system  before  your  Lordship  and  the  public, 
he  is  confident  he  can  mathematically  and  practically  establish  any  of 
the  statements  he  may  make,  and  I  have  little  doubt  he  will  bo  found 
to  be  correct.  He  insists  on  the  possibility  of  reconstructing  the  iron 
work  of  the  Mcnai-ljridge  at  a  less  sum  than  the  superfluous  iron 
would  sell  for,  so  nuich  less  is  requisite  than  was  there  used,  and  he 
pledges  liimself  to  the  power  of  the  bridge,  if  the  irons  are  altogether 
altered  and  reconstructed  on  his  principle  to  be  capable  of  supporting 
on  transit  1,0UU  tons.  The  Menai-bridge  is  believed  to  have  cost  near 
150,U0U/.,  and  to  have  consumed  in  its  construction  above  "2,000  tons 
of  iron,  and  to  be  declared  only  capable  of  sustaining  733  tons  on  tran- 
sit. Before  I  submit  to  your  Lordship  a  detail  of  some  practical  ex- 
periments Mr.  Dredge  has  made  justificatory  of  the  declarations  he 
thus  ventures  to  put  forth,  I  will  endeavour  to  give  some  explanation, 
imperfect  though  I  am  sensible  it  must  be,  of  tlie  fundamental  princi- 
ple upon  which  his  mighty  fabric  is  erected  ;  I  must  give  it  merely  as 
it  has  struck  my  unlearned  common  sense,  and  which  it  has,  from  its 
simplicity,  with  a  force  so  irresistible  that  it  makes  me  believe  I  fully 
understand  it ;  in  aid  of  my  endeavour  I  have  given  a  few  drawings 
on  an  annexed  sheet,  I  conceive  the  grand  foundation  may  be  said  to 
be  the  rendering  the  chains  strongest  and  indeed  very  much  the 
strongest  at  the  base,  tapering  them  by  regular  degrees  to  the  centre, 
where  they  come  at  last,  in  fact,  to  a  cipher,  from  the  ciphei'  com- 
mence therefore  their  size,  weight,  and  strength,  which  regularly  in- 
crease by  degrees  quite  up  to  its  base,  which  base  you  know  in  a  sus- 
pension bridge  is  the  towers  of  masonry  on  which  the  chains  are  hung ; 
in  truth,  it  is  the  application  of  that  principle  horizontally  which  is  so 
obviously  necessary  in  all  perpendicular  erections,  of  superior  size  and 
strength  at  the  base,  and  tapering  away  to  a  cipher  on  its  ultimate 
summit;  as  for  example  the  obelisk,  the  pyramid,  the  church  spire, 
and  which  principle  he  shows  to  be  as  effective  horizontally  applied  as 
it  is  in  the  perpendicular;  indeed,  it  maybe  said  to  be  far  more  eftec- 
tive,  as  it  has  to  support  iu  so  diflBcult  a  position,  comparatively  with 
the  perpendicular,  its  own  intrinsic  weight,  and  a  heavy  transit  load 
besides.  The  manner  in  which  the  chains  of  his  bridge  are  formed  to 
render  them  stronger  at  the  base  is  shown  in  plate.  Fig.  2  ;  and  Fig.  4 
is  a  section  of  one  of  the  main  chain  of  the  Menai-bridge  ;  these  are 
the  same  size  throughout,  creating  thereby  an  enormous  intrinsic  and 
superfluous  weight,  exceeding  that  which  it  has  to  sustain  on  transit, 
and  this  it  is  which  constitutes  the  grand  vice  of  the  present  system, 
and  which  sooner  or  later  Mr.  Dredge's  must  supersede.  Mr.  Dredge's 
bridge  may  be  well  imagined  by  supposing  a  church  spire  laid  hori- 


zontally, and  met  by  another  of  equal  dimensions  at  the  point,  as  re- 
presented at  Fig.  8. 

There  is  anoflier  figure  by  which  the  principle  may  be  more  clearly 
shown;  it  is  the  bracket;  two  brackets  meeting  at  their  extreme 
points  give  a  very  satisfactory  idea  of  it,  as  in  plate,  Fig.  9.  Every 
body  knows  that  the  bracket  tapering  from  its  base  will  bear  hori- 
zontally a  great  weight,  but  if  it  was  the  same  size  from  the  base  to 
its  extremity,  though  it  might  continue  to  be  called  a  bracket,  it  would 
hardly  sustain  itself  if  it  was  any  considerable  length.*  I  have  to  re- 
mark now  upon  another  most  important  peculiarity  in  Jlr.  Dreilge's 
bridge,  and  that  is  the  diagonal  direction  of  the  road  suspending  rods, 
instead  of  perpendicular,  and  forming,  therefore,  as  it  unquestionably 
does,  a  powerful  contributary  effect  to  the  support  of  the  whole,  and 
this  is  also  most  easily  capable  of  direct  practical  proof.  There  is 
still  a  further  point  of  difference  and  advantage  in  Mr.  Dredge's  bridge, 
which  appears  to  me  to  be  equally  simple  and  as  proveable,  and  which 
also  essentially  contributes  to  increase  its  aggregate  power  and  se- 

Piiritv that  is,  its  horizontal  action  or  pressure,  which  is  also  made 

obvious  by  a  simple  -and  familiar  figure  representing  one  half  of  a 
brido-e :  suppose  a  straight  rod  of  any  given  length,  fasten  a  cord  at 
one  end  of  it,  and  thence  to  the  top  of  a  wall,  place  the  other  end  to 
that  at  which  the  cord  or  chain  is  fastened  against  the  wall,  at  such  a 
distance  below  the  top  of  the  wall  as  will  render  the  position  of  the 
rod  horizontal,  and  it  must  be  plainly  seen  that  the  rod  is  supported 
as  well  bv  its  compression  against  the  wall  at  one  end,  as  by  its  cord 
of  suspension  at  the  other,  see  Fig.  10.  Thus  every  component  part 
of  the  structure  is  brought  harmoniously  to  work  and  in  perfect  unity 
of  action  towards  the  grand  object.  I  will  now  advert  again  to  the 
Menai-bridge,  and  show  further  in  essential  points  the  difference  be- 
tween that  and  indeed  most  other  suspension  bridges,  and  Mr.  Dredge's. 
The  actual  intrinsic  strain  at  the  centre  of  the  Menai-bridge  according 
to  "  Dreivry,"  page  1(37,  amounts  to  1,S7S  tons,  and  at  each  extremity 
1,943  tons.  This  vast  intrinsic  weight  operates  its  own  destruction, 
increasing  its  self-destructive  power  as  it  increases  in  length;  thus  it 
becomes  vibratory,  and  upon  a  gale  of  wind  blowing  upon  its  broad- 
side, it  has  a  swing  or  pendulous  motion ;  this  I  have  felt  myself  in 
passing  it,  the  wind  blowing  strong  at  the  time. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  I  have  observed  before,  upon  Mr.  Dredge's 
principle,  the  strain  and  weight  only  commence  at  the  centre,  increas- 
ing as  the  strength  of  the  bridge  increases  up  to  the  base,  and  of 
course  its  ability  to  sustain  it;  this  dilierence  between  these  two  sys- 
tems may  be  readily  imagined.  By  supposing  a  ton  of  iron  formed 
into  a  bar  of  equal  dimensions  from  one  end  to  the  other,  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  7,  and  fixed  into  a  wall,  it  will  hardly  support  itself,  still  less 
any  additional  load  ;  if  extended  to  any  considerable  length  it  will  not 
support  itself;  on  the  other  hand,  make  the  same  weight  of  iron  into 
a  taper  form,  as  in  Fig.  (5,  and  it  will  support  its  own  weight  to  any 
extent,  and  a  heavy  extrinsic  weight  in  addition ;  Ixit  further  than 
this,  if  the  parallelequal-sized  bar  is  cut  away  by  one-half,  (see  dotted 
line  in  Fig.  7,)  it  will  then  support  itself  and  an  extrinsic  weight  in 
addition.  The  reason  is  obvious;  it  has  discharged  itself  of  that, 
which  was  altogether  superfluous  and  therefore  noxious  in  the  ex- 
treme, being  wholly  destructive  of  power  to  carry  any  extrinsic 
weight.  In  this  figure  is  a  singularly  accurate  exemplification  of  the 
vice'of  the  Menai-bridge,  and  others  built  upon  the  same  principle, 
and  the  obvious  good  sense  of  Mr.  Dredge's.  Thus  his  genius  has 
led  him,  by  the  simplicity  and  perspicuity  of  his  conceptions,  to  effect 
a  discovery  which,  I  firmly  believe,  will  turn  out  of  great  national 
importance,  the  recognition  of  which  by  the  country  will,  i  am  sure, 
be  felt  by  him  as  the  "highest  possible  reward.  Having  thus  endea- 
voured to  show  the  simple  principle  on  which  Mr.  Dredge's  system  is 
founded,  I  proceed  to  give  you  some  account  of  some  experiments  he 
has  made  practically  substantiating  the  truth  of  it,  prefacing  them, 
however,  with  a  brief  description  of  the  expense  and  particulars  ol 
the  Victoria  bridge  across  the  Avon,  built  in  ISSlJ,  and  which  has  proved 
itself  equal  to  its  inventor's  most  sanguine  expectations ;  its  cost  was 
1,IJ50/.,  its  span  is  15U  feet,  andonly  21  tons  of  iron  were  consumed  in 
its  construction,  which,  at  20/.  per  ton,  is  only  420/. ;  the  great  expense, 
therefore,  was  on  the  masonry  and  the  timbers  supporting  the  plat- 


•'  It  may  be  remarked  that  there  is  not  a  strict  similarily  between  Uio 
common  Ijracket  and  the  bridge,  inasmuch  as  the  platform  or  horizontal  line 
is.  in  the  former,  above  and  in  the  latter,  below  ;  there  is,  however,  no  real 
difference.  Tlie  ]io«er  of  the  bracket  is  compounded  of  suspension  and  com- 
pression, that  is,  suspension  from  the  fulcrum,  and  compression  against  the 
tulcrum.  In  the  case  of  the  cummon  bracket,  the  horizontal  line  which  is 
uppermost,  being  fixed  or  fasteneil  securely  to  the  fulcrum,  performs  the 
suspenson  part  of  the  work,  the  arch  or  diagonal  line  below  the  compression, 
attaching  itself  to  the  fulcrum  widiout  fastening;  the  case  of  the  liridge  is, 
lioHever,  only  so  far  dillerent.  that  the  arched  line  does  the  suspension  part, 
and  the  horizontal  the  cumpressiou. 

2  D 


194 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[June, 


of  wire,  tlieir  s|)aiis  were  1  ft.  (i  in.,  their  deflections  (J  inches,  and 
flieir  platforms  were  2  feet.  The  parallel  chain  model  (old  system) 
broke  down  on  putting  six  sacks  of  beans  on  its  platform,  weighing 
about  13  cw*. ;  the  taper  chain  model  (new  system)  bore  the  six  sacks 
of  beans,  seven  sacks  of  malt,  weighing  10  cwt.,  2  cwt.  of  iron,  and  11 
men  at  the  same  time,  all  of  which  did  not  break  it  down.  In  Bristol, 
Jan.  I5,  183s,  before  Messrs.  Protheroe,  Guppy,  and  others,  two  otlier 
models  of  eipial  materials  and  dimensions  were  tried.  The  parallel 
chain  model  bore  1,56.')  lb. ;  the  taper  model  bore  3,GS1  lb.  Again, 
in  Bristol,  Jaimary  10,  1838,  more  trials  were  made  before  Messrs. 
Acraman,  Daniels,  Hillhouse,  and  many  others  of  the  first  merchants 
of  Bristol,  Dr.  Waldron,  and  many  others  of  Bath,  with  models  of 
equal  material ;  the  parallel  chains  bore  1,155  lb. ;  the  taper  chains 
bore  3,691)  lb.  Another  trial  before  the  same  party  on  the  same  dav 
■was  made  with  models  constructed  by  Mr.  Cross,  of  Bristol,  unknown 
to  Mr.  Dredge,  in  order  to  prove  that  all  was  fair  in  the  former  trials  ; 
the  result  was,  the  parallel  chains  bore  2,632  lb.,  and  the  taper  chains 
bore  6,849  lb.  Each  model  broke  on  adding  more  weight,  and  the 
wire  throughout  on  the  taper  principle  was  reduced  one  size  by  the 
experiments. 

Now,  my  Lord,  all  I  request  is,  in  the  event  of  further  repairs  or 
improvements  being  about  to  be  undertaken  of  the  Menai  bridge,  that 
you  will  allow  Mr.  Dredge  to  exhibit  some  similar  experiments  before 
your  lordship  or  the  Treasury,  or  before  the  Bridge  Commissioners, 
and  in  the  presence  of  any  of  the  most  eminent  engineers  you  mav 
choose  to  summon.  Finally,  my  lord,  Mr.  Dredge  declares  that  such 
is  his  thorough  conviction  of  the  truth  of  his  theory,  and  its  facility 
of  execution,  that  he  would  gladly  undertake,  at  his  own  expense  and 
risk,  the  whole  of  the  iron  iiork,  if  he  should  be  allowed  to  recon- 
struct it,  which  he  believes  he  could  do,  the  bridge  standing  all  the 
time,  and  that  it  should  be  competent  to  sustain  lOUO  tons  on  transit; 
the  superfluous  iron  of  the  present  bridge  he  is  pi-etty  confident 
would  pay  him,  and  give  a  balance  in  favour  of  Government. 

Questions  may,  after  all,  fairly  be  put  to  me  to  learn  why,  with  all 
these  advantages  of  Mr.  Dredge's  system,  exhibited  witli  so  much 
apparent  fairness,  has  not  his  principle  been  at  once  generally  acted 
upon?  Why  has  he  not  been  called  upon  in  many  cases  to  execute 
what  he  thus  promises  i  Why,  if  he  can  build  the  proposed  Clifton 
bridge,  as  he  says  he  could,  for  one-third  or  less  than  Mr.  Brunei's 
estimate,  is  he  not  called  upon  to  do  so  ?  One  good  reason  is  obvious 
^a  prudent  caution  on  the  part  of  the  public  di.->inclines  them  to  over- 
throw long-established  systems,  and  to  oppose  or  even  question  the 
judgment  of  long  known  and  respected  authorities ;  this  feeling  ope- 
rates very  naturally  and  happily  in  philosophy  as  well  as  in  politics  ; 
but  it  should  not  in  cither  be  carried  to  the  extent  of  checking  the 
progress  of  improven)ent  by  well-considered  means;  too  great  a  te- 
nacity for  old  systems  may  exist  in  the  minds  of  many  persons,  though 
their  motives  may  be  good  and  their  minds  not  illiberal ;  Mr.  Dredge's 
principle  of  suspension  bridge  building  completely  overthrows  the 
theory  and  practice  of  a  Telford,  a  Brunei,  whose  experience  and 
talents  we  are  bound  highly  to  respect,  and  to  w'hose  genius  I  readilv 
offer  the  humble  tribute  of  uiy  admiration;  can  we  then  be  surprised 
that  the  public  should  evince  some  fear,  and  some  reluctance,  hastily  to 
adopt  Mr.  Dredge's  novel  principle  or  theory,  in  substitution  of  that 
which  has  been  so  long  acted  upon?  They  ought,  therefore  to  pause, 
they  ouglit  to  inquire  if  there  are  any  persons  about  to  direct  the  con- 
struction of  other  suspension  bridges  ;  it  is  a  duty  they  owe  to  those 
for  whom  they  may  be  acting,  to  examine  fully  into  the  merits  of  a 
novel  system  which  pruinisca  fairly  such  advantages,  before  they  de- 
termine to  persist  in  the  further  adoption  of  the  present,  of  the  cor- 
rectness of  which  the  state  of  the  Menai  bridge,  and  the  vast  expen- 
diture it  occasions,  may  well  create  a  doubt,  independent  of  the  ob- 
viously faulty  principles  on  which  it  is,  I  think,  clearly  shown  to  be 
constructed.  No  Ijuman  being  was  ever  exempt  from  error,  and 
Messrs.  Telford,  Brunei,  and  others,  must  not  be  considered  to  be 
infallible.  I  have  only  to  add,  my  dear  lord,  that  in  making  this 
address  to  you,  I  have  no  other  motive  than  the  desire  of  assisting  to 
bring  forward  genius,  and  secure  for  the  country  the  benefit  of  a  most 
valuable  discovery  and  work  of  art,  which  apjiears  to  me,  for  want  of 
form  or  road,  which  are  still  of  insufficient  dimensions  and  strength, 
but  which,  of  course,  are  quite  unconnected  with  the  principle  on 
which  the  bridge  is  built;  the  chains  are  under  10  tons,  and  are  equal 
to  sustain  5U0  tons  on  transit.  In  November  he  began  putting  the 
chains  of  this  bridge  together,  and  in  the  following  mon'di  it  was 
opened  for  general  use  ;  its  road  is  stoned  like  common  roads.  In 
further  proof  of  the  correctness  of  this  system,  tests  have  been  made 
before  various  parties  at  various  times,  viz.,  at  Bath,  January  2,  1838, 
before  Messrs.  Worsams  from  London,  Ball  of  Cambridge,  and  others 
of  Bath,  with  models  whose  lengths,  deflections,  and  weight  were 
equal,  the  chains  of  each  model  between  the  I'ulcruras  were  onlj'  9  oz, 


that  encouragement  which  I  think  it  merits,  to  be  in  danger,  like  very 
many  others,  of  being  lost  sight  of  altogether. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  my  dear  lord, 

Your  faithful  and  obedient  servant. 
To  the  Viscount  Melbourne.  Western. 

P.S.  Your  lordship  will  of  co\irse  understand  that  I  entertain  no 
idea  of  expecting  or  asking  anything  more  of  your  lordship,  than  a 
reference  of  Mr.  Dredge  to  the  proper  departments,  with  a  recom- 
mendation to  give  his  plan  of  improvement  due  attention  and  conside- 
ration, should  Government  be  under  the  necessity  of  engaging  in  fur- 
ther expense  upon  the  Menai  bridge. 

[At  the  Adelaide  Gallery  on  the  19th  ultimo,  Mr.  Dredge  explained 
the  principles  of  his  patent  suspension  chain  bridge,  and  performed 
some  experiments  in  the  presence  of  several  gentlemen  to  show  the 
relative  merit  of  his  suspension  chain  in  comparison  with  one  on  the 
ordinary  construction.  He  had  made  two  models  of  suspension  bridges, 
each  5  feet  8o  inches  long,  and  with  chains  of  Sj  inches  deflection  — 
the  first  experiment  was  with  a  model  constructed  with  two  chains  on 
the  ordinary  principle,  each  consist!  ig  of  3  wires  laid  parallel  to 
each  other  as  in  fig  4,  to  which  by  the  lid  of  vertical  wires  as  in  fig.  5, 
a  plattorm  of  wood  was  suspended,  this  platform  was  loaded  with  7 
full  grown  persons,  and  upon  the  eighth  getting  on,  it  broke  ^oi^n. 
The  wire  chains  were  fractured  at  the  point  of  suspension.  ,Jpie 
weight  of  tile  wire  in  this  model  was  6^  ounces.  The  next  experiment 
was  with  two  wire  chains  consisting  of  six  wires  at  the  point  of  sus- 
pension, and  diminishing  oft' to  one  in  the  centre  similar  to  fig. 2,  these 
chains  supported  by  suspension  wires  jjlaced  obliquely  as  shown  in  figs. 
1  and  3,  the  platform  which  was  loaded  with  11  persons,  without  pro- 
ducing any  fracture,  until  one  or  two  of  the  party  stamped  on  the 
platform,  when  it  broke  down,  the  fracture  taking  place  at  the  junction 
of  the  oblique  wires  with  the  chain  of  suspension.  The  weight  of  the 
wire  in  this  model  was  only  6  ounces. — Editor.] 

REFERENCE   TO   THE   ENGRAVING,    PLATE    X. 

Fig.  1,  a  view  of  Victoria  bridge,  constructed  by  Mr.  Dredge  on  hi 
patent  principle  over  the  river  Avon,  at  Bristol. 

Fig.  2,  a  chain  constructed  on  Mr.  Dredge's  principle. 

Fig.  3,  a  bridge  of  large  span  similar  to  the  Menai,  constructed  on 
Mr.  Dredge's  principle. 

Fig.  4,  one  of  the  main  chains  of  the  Menai  bridge. 

Fig.  5,  a  view  of  the  centre  suspension  of  Menia  bridge. 

Fig.  6  to  10,  diagrams  to  illustrate  the  principle  of  Mr.  Dredge's 
chain. 


EXHIBITIONS  OF  COMPETITION  DRAWINGS. 

Sir — In  my  former  letter  it  did  not  occur  to  me  to  make  a  sugges- 
tion that  might  possibly  be  deemed  worth  consideration,  which  is, 
that  in  exhibitions  of  competition  drawings — supposing  they  do  not 
take  place  until  after  the  decision  has  been  made,  there  should  be  no 
disclosure  as  to  which  among  them  have  obtained  premiums,  at  least 
not  until  a  given  time  has  elapsed.  The  advantages  that  would 
attend  such  a  regulation  are,  I  conceive,  tolerably  obvious,  because, 
not  knowing  which  are  the  rejected  and  which  the  approved  designs, 
the  public  would  then  give  their  attention  to  all,  at  any  rate  to  such 
as  appeared  to  them  of  most  mark  and  likelihood,  without  prepos- 
session or  bias,  whereas,  when  it  is  known  which  are  the  premiumed 
drawings,  those  naturally  engross  attention,  and  the  rest  are  looked 
upon,  by  the  majority  of  visitors  at  least,  as  the  doomed,  consequently 
nut  entitled  to  admiration.  Public  opinion  would  thus  be  left  free 
from  prejudice,  prepossession,  and  prejudgment ;  consequently  there 
would  be  a  stimulus  to  diligent  examination  and  scrutiny  which  does 
not  now  exist. 

How  far  such  a  plan  would  prove  a  convenient  one  for  the  judges 
themselves,  is  a  different  matter.  Probably  it  would  subject  them  to 
a  severe  ordeal,  and  place  them  in  an  awkward  situation ;  for  it  is  my 
opinion  that  had  not  the  fact  been  made  known  beforehand,  no  one 
would  ever  have  suspected  that  Mr.  Railton's  and  Mr.  Grellier's 
designs  obtained  the  first  premium,  the  one  for  the  Nelson  Monument, 
the  other  for  the  Royal  Exchange. 

However,  so  far  from  being  made  any  objection  to  tlie  course  liere 
recommended,  that  becomes  an  additional  argument  in  favour  of  it, 
because  those  with  whom  the  power  of  awarding  the  premiums  rest, 
would  feel  a  much  greater  degree  of  responsibility  than  they  now  do, 
and  would  accordingly  exercise  greater  caution  and  scrupulousness, 
lest  they  should  find  themselves  in  a  most  disagreeable  minority. 
Those  who  would  not  care  to  submit  their  judgment  to  such  hazardous 
ordeal,  are  but  ill  qualified  for  the  important  office  they  assume. 

I  remain,  &c., 


1 840.  J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL, 


195 


MOVING  BEACHES. 

"  I  acknowledge  no  authority  but  that  of  observation." — Linn. 

The  attention  of  scientific  and  practical  men  has  for  many  years 
been  directed  to  the  action  of  the  sea,  and  tides  which  give  motion 
to  tlie  shingle,  and  otlier  matter  composing  the  beaches  of  our  island, 
and  this  important  affair  has  been  a  subject  of  much  specidative  opi- 
nion, but  it  appears  not  hitherto  to  have  received  that  systematic  in- 
vestigation which  is  essential,  hideed  the  contrariety  of  opinion  so 
often  expressed  on  this  subject,  seems  to  indicate  an  absence  of  a 
satisfactory  mode  of  inquiry  to  obtain  a  practical  and  safe  deduction. 

Tlie  coast  of  Kent  and  Sussex  seems  to  have  attracted  attention  to 
the  subject  of  the  commonly  called /raedtoig  'jeacA,  under  an  erroneous 
presumption  that  such  occurrences  are  peculiar  to  those  shores,  but 
experience,  the  result  of  practical  observation,  demonstrates  that  where 
nature  is  placed  tmder  similar  circumstances,  as  to  her  formation,  and 
the  operations  of  the  wind,  sea,  and  tides,  there  she  is  immutable  in 
her  results,  and  therefore  in  all  parts  of  the  globe,  the  movement  of 
the  beach  is  the  same  as  is  observed  on  the  Dover,  or  Channel  shores; 
but  in  no  instance  throughout  the  world  has  a  beach  been  found  to  travel 
along  the  line  from  one  point  to  another  of  a  shore  or  coast. 

We  proceed  then  to  prove  the  egregious  error  so  commonly  adopted 
as  to  the  /rore/Zwg  of  a  beach — divesting  our  statement  of  all  terms 
thati  do  not  belong  to,  or  which  are  not  generally  understood  by 
nautical  and  other  persons  that  take  an  interest  in  this  affair. 

The  flood  in  the  British  channel  sets  in  from  the  westward,  and  runs 
with  considerable  velocity  in  many  parts  to  the  eastward;  it  is  during 
the  time  of  this  flood,  with  winds  blowing  from  particular  points  of  the 
compass,  that  accumulation  of  beach  occurs. 

The  margin  of  all  coasts  tlu'oughout  our  globe  having  beach  forming 
the  line  of  high  and  low  water  mark,  is  constantly  moving,  so  as  to  alter 
the  angle  considerably  between  the  two  lines.  The  wave  falling  on  and 
moving  the  beach  (for  there  is  no  movement  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
where  the  sea  does  not  ^rea^-).  talces  it  up,  and  deposits  it  between  the 
high  and  low  water  mark,  in  extraordinary  tides  and  winds,  and  high 
seas,  simultaneously,  and  with  mathematical  accuracy,  along  a  line  of 
beach  to  the  extent  of  many  miles,  the  largest  pebble  or  shingle,  and  the 
greatest  quantity,  forming  the  same  into  a  ridge  or  bank,  in  a  line  pa- 
rallel to  the  high  water  mark  (Fig.  1.)  ;  from  the  commencement  of 
the  shingle  west,  to  its  terminus  east.  A  beach  of  sand  is  operated  on 
precisely  in  the  same  way,  but  if  the  beach  travelled  in  a  right  line 
with  the  coast,  from  west  to  east,  than  would  the  line  of  high  water 
beach  be  on  an  inclined  plane  from  west  to  east,  and  in  time  a 
mountain  would  be  formed  at  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  beach.  (Fig.2.) 

FiK.  1. 


(FMf( rv'-j ii-jir,  iY'-^'- ''~ H"? - ' : r--i^'^ 


:\ 


Jj^Vr 


-w 


Fig.  2. 

It  is  correctly  stated  that  a  groin  or  any  natural  projection  beyond 
the  line  of  coast,  intercepting  tlie  tide  in  its  passage  eastward,  would 
have  its  weather,  or  to  speak  nautically,  its  flood,  or  western  side  filled 
up  in  the  form  of  a  right  angle,  but  that  its  east,  or  lee  side  vifould  be 
without  any  extra  accumulation,  to  a  certain  extent  this  is  quite  true  ; 
this  deficiency  is  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  left  on  the  weather 
side,  whicli  but  for  the  projection  or  groin  would  of  course  obtain  the 
quantity  so  deposited  on  the  west  side  (Fig.  3.),  but  at  a  short  distance 

Fig.  3. 


east  of  the  groin,  or  on  its  lee  side,  the  beach  assumes  its  natural  form, 
and  the  line  continues  till  it  meets  with  another  similar  interception. 
So  then  the  only  object  obtained  is  an  additional  accumulation  west- 
ward, less  its  amount  eastward  of  the  groin,  and  let  it  be  remembered 
that  this  eastern  continuation  goes  on,  although  the  accumulation 
on  the  western  side  of  the  groin  has  not  filled  it  up,  to  its  seaward 
end,  and  therefore  does  not  pass  round  it.  Beachy  Head,  Dungeness, 
the  south  and  north  Foreland  are  all  natural  groins,  but  the  Bays  east 
of  the  Head  to  leeward,  the  eastern  side  of  Dungeness,  the  east  Bay 
of  Dover,  Deal  beach,  (the  highest  of  all  modern  accumulation,  notwith- 
standing the  projection  of  the  south  Foreland  as  a  groin,)  Margate, 
Heme  Bay;  &c.,  all  simultaneously  accumulate,  despite  of  those  ex- 
tended projections. 

The  fact  of  the  angular  formation  of  the  accumulation  at  the  groin, 
at  once  proves  the  direction  the  beach  takes  when  thrown  up  by 
the  sea.  As  the  sea,  at  all  times  during  the  prevalence  of  the  accumu- 
lating tide  and  wind,  falls  on  the  shore  at  an  angle  of  45°,  so  what  it 
lifts  up,  it  throws  on  in  the  same  direction,  but  if  the  beach  moved  in 
a  right  line  with  the  coast,  it  would  fall  on,  and  form  at  the  groin  in  a 
like  line. 

The  next  practical  fact  we  adduce  to  disprove  the  hypothesis  of  a 
travelling  beach  is,  that  wherever  a  line  of  shingle  beach  is  inter- 
cepted by  chalk,  rock,  sand,  or  any  other  material,  of  which  such 
part  of  the  coast  may  be  composed,  there  no  pebble  or  shingle  exists. 
On  the  rocky  shore  west  of  Dover,  in  which  there  are  many  inter- 
stices, receptacles  for  various  shell  fish,  there  is  no  shingle  or  pebble 
found  in  any  part  of  those  rocks ;  if  the  beach  at  Dover,  &c.,  came 
from  the  westward,  it  must  pass  over  those  rocks,  and  consequently 
in  its  transit  some  would  be  deposited  in  the  holes  of  the  rock — 
but  it  is  not  so. 

Captain  Martin  of  Ramsgate,  in  his  recently  published  book  on  that 
harbour,  states,  that  the  beach  north  of  Deal  advances  eastward  at  the 
rate  of  one  mile  in  GO  years.  A  map  of  this  part  of  the  coast  published 
GO  years  ago,  is  before  us,  and  Sto}ie  End,  (meaning  the  end  of  the 
shingle  beach,  and  the  commencement  of  a  sand  and  muddy  shore,)  is 
marked  thereon,  and  although  GO  years  have  passed  away  since  the  mark 
was  made.  Beach  End  remains  in  statu  quo.  About  90  years  have  ex- 
pired since  the  commencement  of  Ramsgate  harbour,  and  therefore 
according  to  this  gentleman's  statement,  the  beach  in  the  vicinity  of 
Sandwich  Haven,  during  this  elapsed  time,  has  advanced  towards  the 
mouth  of  Ramsgate  harbour,  and  in  time  would  block  it  up,  first  having 
placed  itself  before  the  entrance  of  Sandwich  harbour. 

In  a  Report  of  the  Commissioners  of  Ramsgate  harbour,  made  in 
1755,  they  stated  "  that  from  the  east  there  is  a  drift  of  large  shingle." 
It  would  be  well  if  recent  assertions  were  sustained  by  proofs. 

Our  next  fact  in  this  controversy  is,  that  the  pebbles  composing 
beaches  differ  much  in  quality,  colour  and  size.  Those  at  Dungeness, 
differ  from  those  at  Dover,  &c.,  and  therefore  the  latter  cannot  be  sup- 
plied from  the  former. 

Having  said  what  we  think  is  sufficient  to  expose  the  error,  in  the 
supposition  that  beach  travels  from  one  point  to  another,  let  us  pro- 
ceed to  show  the  real  extent  of  moving  beach;  we  have  already  said 
that  the  sea  takes  it  up,  and  lodges  it  on  the  shore  at  an  angle  of  45°, 
(the  angle  at  which  the  wave  falls  when  it  does  not  roll  in  perpendi- 
cular to  the  shore) ;  this  inclination  of  the  wave  is  aided  by  the  flood 
tide,  which  gives  the  beach  so  lifted  up,  an  easterly  direction  on  the 
Kentish  coast,  inclining  with  the  flood  as  it  does  on  all  other  shores. 
On  a  change  of  wind,  and  with  an  ebb  tide,  the  accumulating  power 
ceases,  and  is  succeeded  by  the  drawback,  or  scattering  power,  and  the 
beach  recedes  to  its  former  lodgment,  going  off  in  the  opposite  angle 
or  direction — and  there  it  remains  till  the  accumulating  power  again 
removes  it.     This  is  the  extent  of  a  moving  beach. 

A  shingle  beach  is  not  carried  by  the  drawback  wave  so  far  seaward 
as  is  a  sand  beach ;  the  gravity  of  the  latter  being  more  than  that  of 
the  former,  it  is  drawn  often  50  yards  beyond  the  low  water  mark,  and 
there  forms  a  bank,  called  by  pilots,  and  beachmen  the  outer  bank,  over 
which  it  is  with  much  difficulty  and  danger  passed  by  boats.  This  is 
as  we  have  said  like  the  shingle  brought  up  by  the  accumulating  wind 
and  tide,  and  lodged  between  high  and  low  water  mark,  simultaneously 
along  an  entire  line  of  coast.  The  shingle  beach  atOffordness,  (formed 
similar  to  Dungeness),  along  the  coast  of  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk,  round 
the  British  Isle,  and  throughout  the  world  is  operated  on  in  a  like 
manner,  so  that  the  opinion  of  travelling  or  moving  beach  being  peculiar 
to  any  particular  coast  is  erroneous.  Nature  is,  we  repeat,  immutable 
in  her  results,  acted  upon  by  similar  causes  throughout  the  world. 

It  has  been  asked  ho  >v  do  you  account  for  the  increase  of  beach  ? 
Observation  has  induced  us  to  be  of  an  opinion  that  there  is  a  pro- 
gressive principle  of  accretion  in  the  pebble  or  shingle.  Quite  small 
tine  beach  is  sometimes  in  great  quantities  found  near  the  low  water 
mark,  and  appears  to  be  the  nucleus  of  the  larger  stone  or  pebble. 

2  D  2 


196 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Junk, 


We  come  now  to  a  quoslion  of  much  importance,  and  intimately 
connected  witli  onr  subject,  viz.,  wliat  is  the  canse  tiiat  one  convex 
wave  rolling  witli  impetnositv  on  the  shore,  and  receding  back  with  the 
like  rapidity,  leaves  behind  it  a  quantity  of  beacli,  so  that  at  the  end 
of  the  ilood  tide,  as  the  water  falls  away  during  the  ebb,  a  large  extra 
accunndation  of  beach  is  found  n])  (ovvards  the  high  water  mark?  But 
with  a  change  of  wind  the  same  formed  billow  falling  on  the  shore,  and 
receding  back  to  the  ocean  with  the  like  velocity  as  the  former,  takes 
away  with  it  the  beach  to  a  considerable  depth,  and  scours  away  what- 
ever is  within  ils  drawback  influence.  We  ask  for  a  solution  of  this 
problem,  if  buckets  of  water  are  thrown  on  a  floor,  each  produce, 
as  they  rush  up  an  inclined  plane  and  fall  back  again  like  eH'ects, 
taking  away  whatever  sand  or  loose  matter  is  readied  by  the  water — 
not  so  with  the  impinging  and  rei'ediiig  billows — one  has  an  accumu- 
lating, the  other  a  scattering  power.* 

The  subject  of  moving  beach  is,  indeed,  as  your  intelligent  corres- 
pondent Nota,-|-  remarks,  connected  with  the  construction  of  piers,  and 
into  which,  as  another  of  your  correspondents  observes,  celebrated 
engineers  have  searched  in  vain,  and  therefore  the  lack  of  correct  in- 
formation oil  this  point  is  one  cause  of  the  failure  in  improving  exist- 
ing, or  in  establishing  eligible  refuge  harbours. 

Nota  has  also  niaile  some  judicious  remarks  on  the  subject  of  the  ac- 
cumulation of  mud  on  tlie  northern  shore  of  the  Severn.  Whether  his 
hypothesis  be  correct  or  not,  as  to  the  cause  of  this,  I  will  not  now 
dis]nite,  but  similar  operations  are  in  action  in  all  bays  and  rivers. 
The  deposit  on  the  shores  of  the  Thames  is  similar  every  flood  tide, 
that  the  watermen  are  obliged  during  the  receding  tide,  by  artificial 
means  to  cause  an  undulation  of  the  water,  so  that  in  its  drawback 
course  it  may  take  away  the  deposit  of  the  preceding  flood,  and  keep 
the  shore  clean. 

Your  correspondent  speaks  of  a  ship's  rudder  having  been  found  10 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  shore,  while  excavating  the  Bute  Dock, 
Here  we  liave  another  proof  of  the  progressive  accumulation  on  the 
margin  of  the  coasts,  hi  the  bed  of  the  river  Store,  in  the  Island  of 
Slieppy,  and  in  many  other  parts,  the  relics  of  vessels  and  boats,  and 
also  of  anchors  have  been  found.  Instances  have  occurred  of  stranded 
vessels  having  been  buried  between  the  high  and  low  water  mark  for 
many  years,  and  by  the  efiect  of  the  drawback  wave  have  again  been 
uncovered. 

Much  valuable  land  has  been  redeemed  from  the  river  Humber  by 
a  deposit  of  mud,  a  large  portion  of  the  rich  marsh  soil  in  the  vicinity 
of  rivers  is  an  alluvial  deposition,  and  a  great  part  of  Holland  is  the 
result  of  this  principle  in  nature,  aideil  by  artficial  means. 

The  great  geologist  Baron  Cuvier  stated  that  which  we  by  ob- 
servation discover  to  be  tlie  fact,  viz.,  that  all  bays  have  a  disposition 
to  till  up,  the  water  passing  along  a  coast  with  velocity  is  charged  witli 
matter  in  suspension,  this  water  or  tide  falls  on  the  shore  inertly,  and 
deposits  the  mud  or  that  with  which  it  may  bo  cliargetl,  so  that  tliere  is 
a  progressive  action  proceeding  onward,  which  in  time  forms  the  bay 
into  a  straight  line,  and  this  is  often  accelerated  by  the  washing  down 
of  each  jioint  of  the  crescent  which  forms  the  bay.  I  with  deference 
to  your  correspondent,  we  are  of  opinion  that  he  has  confined  his  ex- 
position of  this  matter  to  a  local  cause,  rather  then  to  a  general  prin- 
ciple. 

Tliere  is,  we  humbly  submit,  a  prevalent  error  in  the  remarks  of  your 
correspondent,  who  follows  Nota,  and  it  is  one  of  those  errors  which  it 
is  most  diflicult  to  grapple  with,  it  pervades  the  minds  of  pilots,  beach- 
men,  &c.,  viz.,  the  deducing  a  coincidence  from  a  coexistence,  it  is  of 
the  character  of  the  old  tale  in  endeavouring  to  connect  Tinterton 
Church  with  the  Goodwin  Sand.  I  do  not  apply  this  to  him,  many  of 
his  deductions  are  correct,  but  I  am  sceptical  as  to  the  fall  of  Chalk 
Clitr  west  of  Dover,  being  the  cause  of  the  diminution  of  the  bar  or 
lieacli  at  Dover  harbour,  if  he  had  watched  the  effect  of  the  late  pre- 
valent winds,  he  would  have  seen  tliat  this  diminishing  power  was  at 
work  niany  miles  east  and  west  of  him,  from  the  North  Foreland  to  the 
Isle  oj  Jl'ight,  &r.,  and  on  the  northern  and  eastern  shores;  so  that  he 
appears  to  form  his  opinion  "  from  partial,  and  not  from  general  laws." 
This  gentleman  asks  for  a  solution  of  the  problem,  (.  e.  "the  cause 
of  the  regular  high  marks  successively  following  each  other  on  Lydd 
Beach  V  (as  it  does  over  other  parts  of  Dungeness),  we  answer,  the 
same  cause  that  has  produced  similar  effects  on  other  coasts — here 
again  we  revert  to  general  laws.  It  is  admitted  that  each  ridge  indi- 
cates a  former  high  water  mark,  and  that  the  present  high  water  mark 
is  considerably  seaward  of  those  ridges,  the  inference  necessarily  is 
that  either  the  tide  does  not  flow  so  high  as  it  formerly  did,  or  tha 
the  beach  has  been  raised  by  some  unusual  flow  of  the  t'ide,  the  latter 


*  The  cause  appears  obvious  to  the  writer. 
T  See  Journal  for  May,  1840. 


is  the  solution,  and  we  observe  like  effects  on  other  shores,  &c.  Deal 
IJeacdi  from  a  ilistance,  southward  of  Wahncr,  and  north  of  Sandown 
Caslle,  including  the  site  on  which  Ikach  Ulriet  at  Deal  is  built, 
is  the  largest  accumulation  of  beach  we  know  of,  caused  by  one  of  those 
tides  we  have  spoken  of,  since  which  no  such  rise  of  the  tide 
lias  occurred,  but  if  we  pass  further  inland  in  this  locality,  we  find 
ridges  of  shingle  similar  to  those  at  Dungeness.  The  same  effects 
have  been  produced  on  the  coasts  of  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk,  traced  out 
by  the  like  existing  proofs. 

The  site  on  which  stands  the  town  of  Great  Yarmouth,  gives  a  de- 
monstrative proof  of  the  accuracy  of  our  deductions,  it  vvas  once  a  sand 
in  tlie  ocean,  called  by  the  Romans,  Cerdic  sand. 

It  is  a  very  natural  consequence  that  matter  thrown  on  the  shore  by 
an  extraordinary  rise  of  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  should  increir^e  its 
level  above  the  latter,  inasmuch  as  the  annually  decomposed  vegetable 
matter,  (its  own  produce),  &c.,  tends  to  cause  such  an  efl'ect.  Build- 
ings constructed  thereon  have  after  many  years  been  again  taken  away 
by  the  raging  wave. 

We  have  only  to  remark  on  the  subject  of  the  sea  advancing  most 
prejudicial  on  one  part  of  the  coast,  taking  away  fields  of  corn,  &c., 
and  receding  from  another  part,  that  we  see  similar  eflects  in  various 
jiarts  of  the  world,  and  ha\-e  an  opinion  on  the  cause  of  this,  but  it 
might  be  deemed  problematical  for  the  present,  therefore  we  with- 
hold it. 

In  conclusion,  we  remark  that  our  globe  is  progressively  under 
transitions,  and  while  these  are  going  on,  we  detect  the  change  of  sub- 
stance, but  not  the  principle  of  destruction. 

"  See  dying  vegetables  life  sustain. 
See  life  decaying  vegetates  again." 

Having  lengthened  this  letter  much  beyond  our  intention,  we  con- 
clude, earnestly  and  with  deference  to  the  opinion  of  others,  by  in- 
viting investigtion  on  the  important  subject  here  discussed,  and  to  give 
it  their  serious  and  candid  attention,  and  let  it  not  be  forgotten  that 
subjects  susceptible  of  mathematical  demonstration  are  within  the 
solution  of  educated  engineers,  but  those  relating  to  the  change  of 
form  of  coasts,  to  the  impinging  of  the  wave,  efiect  of  currents  and 
tides,  and  the  disemboguing  waters  are  understood  only  by  practical 
observation,  the  result  of  much  attention,  and  long  and  extensive  ex- 
perience on  various  coasts. 

Henry  Barrett. 

May  11,  1840. 


CATHOLIC  CHAPELS— MR.  PUGIN— THE  INSTITUTE. 

Sir — In  the  Argus  newspaper  of  May  10th,  it  is  stated  that  "  one 
architect  alone,  Mr.  Pugin,  is  at  present  engaged  in  the  erection  of 
no  less  (fewer)  than  seventeen  Catholic  chapels  in  England."  If  such 
be  really  the  case,  no  wonder  that  Mr  Pugin  should  be  so  impressed 
with  the  excellence  of  the  Romish,  for  it  seems  to  have  operated 
almost  a  miracle  in  his  favour.  It  would,  however,  have  been  more 
satisfactory,  had  we  been  also  informed  at  wdiat  places  those  chapels 
are,  whereas,  not  one  of  the  se\'enteen  is  mentioned  by  name.  Per- 
haps some  of  your  correspondents  will  be  able  to  point  out  such  of 
them  as  have  come  to  their  knowledge.  As  for  Mr.  Pugin  himself, 
he  seems  to  be  quite  satisfied  with  the  notoriety  he  has  earned  for 
himself  with  his  professional  brethren,  and  accordingly  does  not  care 
to  communicate  either  through  your  Journal  or  any  other  medium,  the 
slightest  intelligence  of  what  he  has  lately  done  or  is  actually  doing. 
There  never  is  a  single  architectural  drawing  of  any  kind  by  him  in 
the  exliibitions  of  the  Royal  Academy,  consequently,  if  he  sends  any 
there  at  all,  they  are  invariably  among  the  rejected. 

Pray,  does  not  the  Institute  keep  some  kind  of  record  of  all  the 
public  works  and  buildings  going  on  through  the  kingdom  ?  If  it  does, 
you  w  ill  have  little  difficulty  in  ascertaining  tlie  correctness  of  the 
statement  in  the  Argus ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  does  not  keep  such 
historical  record,  it  leaves  that  undone  which  would,  in  time,  become 
a  series  of  valuable  documents.  To  say  the  truth,  it  appears  to  me, 
and  I  believe  to  many  others  also,  that  the  Institute  stands  in  need  of 
a  little  filipping  to  rouse  them  to  some  exertion  pro  bono  publico. 
How  happens  it  that  only  one  volume  of  its  Transactions  lias  yet 
made  its  appearance?  why  is  it  that  it  has  not  boldly  taken  up  the 
subject  of  competition  and  its  notorious  abuses,  undeterred  by  the 
various  difticulties  attending  any  attempt  at  reform  ?  and  why  has  it 
not  rescued  the  profession  from  the  Black  Hole  at  the  Royal  Aca- 
demy, by  establishing  an  annual  architectural  exhibition  upon  a  pro- 
])er  and  becoming  footing?  These  are  questions  which,  I  dare  say, 
you  cannot  answer  personally,  but  can  any  one  else. 

I  remain,  Ike, 

P.  S. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


197 


ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  OBLIQUE  ARCHES. 

Sir — In  your  iiuinber  for  April,  p.  ll(i,  I  observe  some  observations 
upon  my  work  on  Oblique  Bridges,  made  by  ;in  anonymous  writer 
under  the  sicruLUure  B.  H.  B.,  to  whicli  I  feel  disposed  to  make  a  reply, 
requestincr  t~lie  favour  of  a  place  for  it  in  your  valuable  periodical. 

In  the  first  place  I  wish  to  premise  that  I  tliink  no  author  is  under 
the  necessity  of  replying  to  the  criticisms  of  an  anonymo\is  writer,  and 
that  it  would  be  more  courteous  if  the  writer  of  a  paper  professing  to 
be  of  a  scientific  character  were  to  put  it  forth  with  his  name. 

B.  H.  B.  in  alluding  to  myself  says  as  follows :  "  he  observes  the  lines 
of  the  courses  of  the  intrados  should  be  made  perpendicular  to  a  line 
drawn  between  the  extremities  of  the  face  of  the  arch,  without  ever 
giving  any  reason  for  it,  or  making  any  remark  on  the  subject  farther 
than  that  it  should  be  so." 

It  is  f|uite  true  that  I  did  not  assign  a  reason  for  this  construction  ; 
because  it  is  obviously  in  order  that  all  the  courses  may  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  at  right  angles  to  both  faces  of  the  arch,  and  at  the  same 
time  parallel  to  each  other.  The  greatest  variation  from  the  rectan- 
gular intersection  is  at  the  middle  of  the  development,  or  at  the  crown 
of  the  arch:  and  at  this  point  wdiere  the  course  is  nearly  horizontal 
the  variation  is  of  no  practical  iraportanct  or  objection:  and  it  may 
be  shewn  that  it  differs  from  a  right  angle  by  an  angle  whose  tangent  r= 


(-:-) 


cot  e. 


The  two  methods  suggested,  proposed,  or  recommended  by  B.  H.  B. 
to  be  substituted  for  the  above,  are  most  extraordinary.  His  second 
method  which  he  prefers,  may  be  described  as  a  recommendation  to 
build  an  oblique  bridge  by  commencing  ivith  horizontal  courses,  and 
"summering"  them  (in  workman's  pln-aseology)  as  the  work  rises 
upon  the  centre.  In  this  way  the  unscientific  ugly  old  canal  bridges 
were  built  half  a  century  back.  B.  H.  B.  concludes  his  short  dis- 
sertation on  his  proposed  improvement  in  the  following  words: 

"  The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  this  are,  first,  that  this  angle 
being  less  than  that  commonly  employed,  there  will  be  less  tendency 
to  slip ;  and  secondly,  that  being  more  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  face 
of  the  arch,  there  is  consequently  more  stability." 

Every  thing  herein  contained  is  merely  assumed ;  and  most  cer- 
tainly I  venture  to  say  that  the  stability  of  the  oblique  arch  does  not 
depend  upon  the  courses  being  laid  at  right  angles  to  the  line  hounding 
//le  development :  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive  anything  more 
rotten  than  such  a  construction  would  prove. 

B.  H.  B.  next  says,  "I  am  astonished  at  the  serious  errors  into 
which  Mr.  Buck  has  fallen  in  his  last  chapter,  wliich  is  devoted  to 
further  inrestigation,  but  which  had  better  have  been  omitted  alto- 
gether. In  attempting  to  determine  at  what  altitute  above  the  level 
of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  the  thrust  of  the  arch  will  be  perpendicular 
to  the  bed  of  the  voussoir,  he  gives  a  formula  which  jiroduces  the 
strange  result  that  the  smaller  the  arch-stone,  the  lower  will  be  the  said 
altitude,  that  is  to  say,  the  more  secure  will  be  the  arch,  and  also  that 
it  will  be  able  to  be  built  at  a  more  acute  angle.  Another  still  more 
strange  phenomenon,  the  result  of  this  formula,  is  that  the  greater  the 
skew  of  the  bridge,  the  less  of  the  arch  will  have  to  be  supported  by 
iron  dowels  and  bolts  :  thus  an  arch  built  at  an  angle  of  25°  will  require 
no  assistance  from  dowels,  an  arch  built  at  55°  will  require  to  be  se- 
cured by  dowels  to  a  height  of  25"  above  the  springing."  I  will  carry 
the  quotation  no  further,  because  I  shall  now  proceed  to  show  that 
"these  errors"  are  attributable  to  B.  H.  B.  and  notto  the  formula. 
For  the  information  of  those  who  have  not  read  the  work  referred  to, 
I  will  here  supply  the  general  formula  which  I  gave  for  the  value  of 
sin  T.  as  follows : 

Vr    ,      r  -\-  e  -.    ,    /  a     .       \  2 1       a 

1(1— ^cos'«)-f  (^^-^sm^e^    )-^^sin^e 

In  this  expression  fl  is  the  angle  of  obliquity,  r  is  the  radius  of  the 
cylinder,  c  is  the  thickness  of  the  arch,  and  t  is  the  angle  of  elevation 
of  the  point  sought  above  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 

Now  if  B.  H.  B.  will  look  attentively  at  this  expression,  he  will 
see  that  its  meaning  is  precisely  the  reverse  of  that  which  he  has 
stated ;  for  instance,  "  the  smaller  the  arch  stone  "  (or  e  is  taken)  the 
greater  will  be  the  value  of  sin  t  ;  and  this  is  because  e  appears  only 
in  the  negative  part  of  tlie  expression.  Again,  the  greater  the  value 
of  e  or  the  thickness  of  the  arch  stone,  the  greater  will  be  the  negative 
part  of  the  expression,  and  consequently  the  smaller  the  value  of  sin  t  : 
and  the  lower  the  point  sought  at  which  the  thrust  of  the  arch  is 
parallel  to'its  face.  And  consistently  with  this,  "  the  greater  the  skew 
of  the  bridge,"  the  greater  is  the  value  of  cos-  6  which  is  also  found 
only  in  the  negative  part  of  the  expression,  and  consequently  the 


Sin  T  — 


smaller  will  be  the  value  of  sin  t,  and  "  the  less  of  the  arch  will  have 
to  be  supported  by  iron  dowels  and  bolts."  This  result  of  the  formula 
is  said  to  be  a  "strange  phenomenon."  I  have  no  doubt  it  is  very 
startling  to  the  reader,  as  I  know  it  to  be  to  every  practical  man  at 
first  sight,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true  as  I  have  satisfactorily  determined 
experimentally.  I  have  constructed  a  model  of  a  portion  of  an  arch 
at  an  angle  of  25°,  which  is  semicircular  on  the  direct  section:  this 
arch  stands  and  keeps  its  form  well  without  dowels,  (although  it  is  but 
a  narrow  stripj,  wdiereas  one  made  to  the  same  scale  at  an  angle  of 
45°  will  not  stand  at  all. 

B.  H.  B.  proceeds  to  say,  "  the  whole  of  these  errors  arise  from 


having  given  the  expression 


cosec  fl  cos  T 


(nearly  at  the  bottom  of 


o-\  -ill-  cot  9  cos  T 
page  3/)  instead  of ;-  cosine  (8  +  (p)  where  <p  is  such  an 

S   IT 


angle  that  its  tangent  = 


cot  8  sin  T 


This  must  be  evident  to  any  one 


who  considers  that  the  courses  alter  their  angle  with  regard  to  the 
face  of  the  arch,  wdiich  Mr.  Buck  has  not  taken  into  consideration." 

Here  I  most  readily  admit  that  I  had  omitted  to  take  into  consider- 
ation the  variable  angle  at  which  the  courses  intersect  the  face  of  the 
arch.  I  discovered  tliis  defect  about  two  months  after  the  publication 
of  the  work,  and  immediately  prepared  a  correction  for  it,  which  is  as 
follows.  I  retain  my  former  notation  and  the  expression  for  the  altitude 
of  the  point  C  from  which  B.  H.  B.  says  the  error  arises,  namely 

cosec  e  cos  T 

1 ,  but  in  this  case  I  shall  substitute  its  equivalent  for  the 

segmental  formula,  or,  ~   cosec  6  cos  t,  because  the  equation  thence 

derived  is  general.  I  sliall  now  refer  to  the  annexed  diagrams :  those 
numbered  28  and  29  are  identical  with  those  to  be  found  in  my  work ; 
that  numbered  27  is  somewhat  difierent. 


Fig.  29. 


Fiir.  28. 


i    7i,  A.E 

Fig.  27. 

Let  A  B  C  in  the  annexed  diagram,  called  fig.  27,  represent  the  plan 
of  the  acute  quoin  of  the  arch,  then  when  the  point  A  may  have 
ascended  to  the  altitude  signified  by  t,  let  us  suppose  it  to  be  perpen- 
dicularly over  the  point  E,  fig.  27.     Let  us  also  suppose  A  C  tig.  27 

c  ' 

which  is  sec  8,  and  CC  fig.  28,  which  z=:  -  cosec  6  to  remain  constant, 

then  C  w  hich  is  the  summit  of  the  tangent  CC',  fig.  28,  will  not  be  per- 
pendicularly over  the  point/,  fig.  27,  (the  extremity  of  E/ drawn 
parallel  to  A  C),  but  it  will  be  at  ^;  here  fg  is  the  projection  in  plan 
of  the  tangent  C  C  ;  now  draw  g  A  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  arch 
B  A,  and  to  fulfil  the  conditions  g  h  must  be  a  horizontal  line,  and  the 
distance  E  h,  considered  as  radius,  if  multiplied  by  the  tangent  of 
IE  K,  tig.  29,  must  be  equal  to  the  altitude  of  ^  above  E,  tig.  27,  or  to 

Q 

-  cosec  e  cos  T.     It  now  becomes  necessary  to  determine  an  expression 

for  the  distance  E  h,  and  first  E  i  is  equal  to  A  B  by  construction,  there- 
fore E  A  =  Ei  —  ih,  or  (1  —  ih.) 


IflS 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[JUNH, 


fg  ::=  CC  X  sin  T  =^  -  cosec  6  sin  t, 


c  c 

and  -    cosec  9  sin  t  x  sin  6  r=—  sin  t  1=1  fl;  zn  ih 
a  a 


EA  =  (1— -  sinr) 


c  r  -^-e 


tanIEK 


a 


cot'e  +  sin  T 


cosec  9  cos  t 


•••  (1  ■ 


sin 


.(^ 


c  ^r  -\-e 


cot-  fl  -f"  sin  r 


cosec  6  cos  t 


) 


of  the  tangent  at  li  above  E. 
Equating  these  we  have 

e 


(1 sin 

a 


..(^ 


cot'  8  +  sin  T 


cosec  6  cos  T 


)  = 


=  the  altitude 


cosec  e  cos  T 


Whence  we  obtain 
sin  T  = 


The  vahies  of  t  for  tlie  several  cases  of  obliquity  given  in  my  "  Essay  " 
are  here  computed  by  the  formula  now  given,  and  for  the  sake  of 
comparison,  the  former  values  are  also  inserted,  as  follows  : 


By  formula  now  given. 

When  e  =  65°  then  t  =  SS'^  55' 

55  „     T  =  38      (5 

45  „     T  =  36    35 

35  „     T  =  17    50 

25  40',,      T=    0      0 

r-\-e 


As  before  given. 
27^  17' 
25  13 
21  47 
15  38 
0      0 


If  the  ratio      '  "  were  omitted  as  suggested  by  B.  H.  B.,  the  ex- 
pression would  become 


(2-c^-^«-fa)  (B) 


Now  in  this  equation  whatever  may  be  the  value  of  e,  the  value  of 
T  rem.iins  the  same,  and  when  the  arc  is  a  semicircle 


sin  T  =  _  =r 


a       3-1416 


=  -63661  =  sin  39°  32'  24". 


This  result  is  in  accordance  with  the  speculations  of  B.  H.  B.,  but 
it  is  entirely  at  variance  with  practice  and  with  correct  theory,  and  so 
will  any  formula  into  which  an  expression  for  the  thiclcness  of  the  arch 
does  not  en'.er.  The  formula  A  now  given  contains  it,  and  will  be 
found  correct.    By  this  formula  sin  t  continually  approximates  to,  but 

2 
never  reaches     ,  and  vanishes  when  6  ^z  either  25°  40'  or  90°  as  it 

7r 

ought  to  do. 

B.  H.  B.  says,  "  in  finding  a  term  for  CO,  I  would  reject  the  thick- 
ness of  the  cylinder,  and  consider  the  point  O  as  that  to  which  the 
tangents  of  the  small  curves,  which  show  in  the  face  of  the  arch  tend: 
this  is  more  correct,  Ijecause  the  joints  of  the  voussoirs  being  segments 
of  curves  there  can  be  no  point  on  the  face  of  the  arch  at  wliich  a  ball 
would  roll  down  the  bed  in  a  line  exactly  parallel  to  the  face;  this 
may  be  considered  too  minute  for  observation,  but  besides  being  more 
correct  it  will  simplify  the  question  much." 

Here,  I  beg  to  observe  B.  H.  B.  is  again  wrong,  and  for  this  reason ; 
these  curves  of  tlie  joints  in  the  face  of  the  arch  are  all  in  a  vertical 
plane,  and  if  the  thickness  of  the  arch  be  rejected,  they  must  be  re- 
garded as  lints  merely,  and  a  ball  would  consequently  roll  down  any 
one  of  them,  or  down  the  chord  of  any  one  of  them. 

My  investigation  proceeds  upon  the  supposition  that  the  chord  of 
tlie  small  curve  forms  one  side  of  a  triangle,  the  tangent  of  the  intra- 
dusal  spiral  another  side,  and  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  face  of  the 
arch,  the  third  side ;  this  triangle  must  be  supposed  to  exist  in  the 
thickness  of  the  arch,  and  to  be  parallel  to  a  tangent  plane  at  the 


point  sought,  and  therefore  this  is  one  amongst  many  reasons 
why  the  thickness  of  tlie  arch  sliould  not  be  rejected,  even  if  it  were 
attended  with  the  advantage  stated  by  B.  II.  B.,  namely,  that  "  it 
will  s.iiiiplify  the  question  much."  But  instead  of  simplifying,  B.  H.  B. 
has  |iroduced  an  equation  without  explaining  how  it  is  obtained,  and 
wliich  he  has  not  been  able  to  reduce  to  a  form  for  direct  solution. 

He  infers  from  his  equation,  "that  in  all  arches  of  a  moderate  skew, 
the  point  t  is  about  40^  above  the  level  of  the  axis  of  the  cylinder;" 
but  1  have  herein  shown  that  when  the  thickness  is  omitted,  the  point 
is  independent  of  0,  and  always  3'J-  32'  24"  above  the  axis. 

Now,  although  B.  H.  B.,  with  much  complacency,  has  informed 
your  readers  that  my  last  chapter  "  had  better  have  been  omitlcd  al- 
together," I  remain  of  a  dift'erent  opinion.  That  chapter  commenced 
as  follows.  "  It  will  naturally  be  asked  to  what  extent  of  obliquity  is 
it  safe  or  practicable  to  construct  an  arch  on  the  principles  herein 
given  ?  This  question  we  will  attempt  a  solution  of,  or  at  least  to 
throw  some  light  upon  it."  How  far  1  have  succeeded  it  is  for  others 
to  decide.  I  am  well  aware  that  the  subject  is  not  exhausted,  inas- 
much as  I  have  pursued  it  further  since  the  publication  of  the  essay, 
but  I  have  herein  confined  my  remarks  to  tlie  matter  contained  in 
B.  H.  B.'s  communication. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  in  all  this  investigation  friction  is 
not  taken  into  account ;  but  friction  is  an  important  element  in  bridge : 
building,  indeed,  no  arched  bridge  of  masonry  would  stand  without  it- 
if,  then,  an  expression  for  friction  were  to  enter  into  the  equation,  the 
value  of  sin  t  would  be  very  much  diminished.  And  for  this  reason, 
my  first  equation,  as  given  in  the  "  Essay,"  though  not  strictly  accu- 
rate, is  practically  better  than  the  amended  one  now  given. 

Let  B.  H.  B.  take  up  the  subject  involving  friction  in  his  con- 
ditions, and  he  may  have  an  opportunity  of  rendering  considerable 
service  to  the  engineering  profession. 

Your  obedient  servant, 

Manchester,  May,  1840.  Geo.  W.  Buck. 


ON  LMESTONE  IN  IRELAND. 

,/lit  Account  of  the  White  Limestone  which  lies  along  the  Coast  of  the 
County  of  Antrim,  in  Ireland.  By  William  B.\ld,  F.R.S.E.,  M.R.I.A., 
&c.,  June  1837. 

What  is  the  white  limestone  on  the  Antrim  coast? 

It  is  of  the  same  geological  composition  and  formation  as  the  chalk 
strata  in  England;  but  it  possesses  a  characteristic  difference  in  being 
of  much  greater  induration  than  in  general  the  English  chalk  strata ; 
the  dynamic  unit  of  the  force  of  crushing,  and  fracturing  it  by  weight 
may  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  nearly  that  under  which  the  Scotch 
Craigleith  sandstone  moulders  into  ruin. 

The  white  limestone  lies  under  the  basaltic  rock,  and  in  contact 
with  it,  it  is  generally  alIo%ved  to  differ  from  the  chalk  of  the  south  of 
England  only  in  its  being  of  superior  induration  ;  the  white  limestone 
assimilates  to  it  in  the  nature  and  arrangement  of  the  flints,  and  organic 
remains  which  it  contains.  The  flints  as  mentioned  in  a  former  paper, 
are  dark  and  grey,  some  of  them  of  a  reddish  tint.  The  large  nodules 
of  flint  are  sometimes  from  eight  to  twenty  inches  long.  Organic  re- 
mains occur  in  the  flints;  belemnites  of  the  real  kind  are  common,  and 
generally  petrified  by  spar  of  a  calcareous  nature  and  sometimes 
ammonites. 

The  white  limestone  rests  on  the  mulatto,  a  rock  consisting  of  grains 
of  sand,  with  specks  of  green  earth.  This  mulatto  rock  corresponds 
with  the  green  sandstone  found  under  the  chalk  strata  in  England  ;  it 
also  contains  fossil  remains. 

Under  the  mulatto  rock  lies  a  bluish  limestone  containing  much 
clay ;  this  rock  is  analogous  to  the  lias  limestone  of  England,  it  abounds 
in  animal  remains. 

Under  tlie  lias  or  blue  limestone  are  beds  of  marl  containing  much 
clay,  and  in  which  are  beds  of  gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime  (alabaster), 
ami  the  rock  underneatli  consists  of  sandstone  of  a  reddisli  colour. 

I  have  now  traced  the  comparison  between  the  strata  connected 
with  the  white  limestone  in  Ireland,  and  the  chalk  strata  in  England, 
so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  whatsoever  of  their  entire  and  perfect  identity 
with  each  other.  Besides,  my  friend  Dr.  Smith,  the  father  of  English 
geology,  whom  I  have  known  for  more  than  twenty-two  years,  and 
who  has  been  iu  the  north  of  Ireland,  and  is  acquainted  with  the  An- 
trim limestone,  agrees  in  the  description  which  I  have  here  given  of 
it;  further  Dr.  Smith  informed  me  that  the  Antrim  white  limestone 
was  rock  of  the  same  formation  as  Flamborough  Head,  in  England.* 

•  "  Carbonate  of  Lime. — Almost  all  the  varieties  uf  marble  and  common 
limestone,  together  with  thuse  earthy  concretiuns  that  take  place  in  many 
natural  springs  and  caverns,  as  also  the  numerous  class  of  substances  called 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


199 


As  to  the  hardness  or  induration  of  the  white  limestone ;  I  gave 
a  kind  of  dynamic  unit  of  the  labour  or  ordinary  force  em]]loyed  in 
boring  into  it  for  the  purposes  of  blasting,  viz.,  that  the  force  of  two 
men  striking  with  hannners  were  able  to  sink  into  the  white  limestone 
at  the  rate  of  one  foot  in  depth  in  half  an  honr,  fjampers  1^  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  hammers  about  three  pounds  weight)  then  the  elements 
employed  were  the  momentum  of  the  hammers,  united  to  the  power 
of  the  arm,  and  the  time;  this  is  the  common  labour  or  force  em- 
ployed. It  may  be  asked  what  is  the  amount  of  it  ?  But  to  answer 
this  is  rather  difficult,  because  one  element  cannot  be  perhaps  exactly 
determined,  which  is  the  force  of  the  arm  united  to  the  momentum  of 
the  hammer;  but  the  induration  of  any  rock  may  be  reached  or  mea- 
sured in  a  more  exact  form;  in  boring  with  heavy  iron  cylinders,  and 
merely  working  with  the  simple  element  of  the  descending  force  of 
the  gravitating  mass  of  the  iron  bar ;  and  the  amount  of  this  force  may 
be  estimated  by  the  number  and  length  of  the  descending  strokes,  using 
the  following  formula.  The  momentum  of  a  body  falling  is  the  mass 
or  weight  multiplied  by  the  square  root  of  the  height  it  has  fallen 
through  and  by  s-0-21. 

The  number  and  length  of  the  strokes,  and  the  time  occupied  would 
be  the  measure  of  the  force  employed  in  sinking  to  any  depth  in  any 
kind  of  rock,  and  this  indeed  might  be  used  as  a  standard  of  compari- 
son to  measure  the  amount  of  the  manual  labour  employed  in  boring 
through  all  the  varieties  of  rock. 

Sir  John  Robison,  the  ingenious  secretary  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh,  observes  with  great  truth  that  much  depends  on  the  shape 
and  condition  of  the  cutting  point  of  the  bar  employed  in  boring,  and 
also  on  the  goodness  of  the  steel  and  iron.  In  operations  of  this  kind 
approximate  results  can  only  be  obtained,  and  tliese  should  never  be 
determined,  regarding  any  particular  rock,  without  numerous  experi- 
ments on  all  the  varieties  it  would  present. 

The  hardness  or  induration  of  rock,  as  well  as  its  strength  to  resist 
crushing  by  weight  are  matters  of  high  importance  to  the  engineer  ; 
but  has  any  scale  yet  appeared  to  measure  the  amount  of  these  two 
properties  ? 

The  weight  which  rock  can  s.ustain  without  crushing  or  fracture, 
may  I  think  be  taken  as  the  amount  of  its  strength.  And  the  measure 
of  its  induration  or  hardness  to  resist  perforation  may  be  determined 
by  the  momentum  of  the  descending  strokes  of  an  iron  bar,  and  the 
■  time  employed.  The  law  of  the  relation  of  strength  compared  to 
hardness  may  be  then  traced  from  these  results  in  all  the  various  kind 
of  rock  strata. 

What  are  the  causes  of  the  disentegration  of  the  white  limestone  ? 
i.  e.  the  chemical  agents  which  act  so  powerfully  in  decomposing  its 
structure?  To  what  cause  does  it  owe  its  great  hardness ?  If  it  be 
ascribed  to  heat  from  its  close  vicinity  to  the  trachyte  formations,  the 
lava  of  the  more  ancient  revolutions,  and  which  I  admit  is  a  natural 
inference ;  but  then  on  the  other  hand,  I  ask  to  what  cause  can  be 
ascribed  the  high  induration  of  the  secondary  limestone  which  covers 
so  extensively  the  plains  of  Ireland,  so  far  removed  from  any  kind  of 
volcanic  remains  or  formations? 

Indeed  since' the  discovery  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas  contained  in 
limestone  by  the  illustrious  Dr.  Black,  the  science  of  chemistry  has 
achieved  but  little  practically  in  unfolding  the  chemical  properties 
which  give  induration  to  the  various  strata  of  the  older  series,  and 
among  which  are  to  be  seen  the  most  beautiful,  as  well  as  the  most 
imperishable  material  for  engineering  works  to  be  found  on  the  globe. 
Some  of  these  rocks  have  been  wrought  at  periods  so  extremely  remote 
that  there  is  difficulty  sometimes  even  to  fix  the  epoch,  yet  some  of 
them  carry  on  their  surface  the  sharp  unimpaired  lines  of  the  tool 
after  a  lapse  of  more  than  three  thousand  years,  and  this  is  fully  proved 
and  illustrated  in  glancing  at  the  granites  and  sienites  employed  intlie 
construction  of  those  surprising  monuments  of  Egyptian  antiquity, 
which  have  astonished  all  ancient  and  modern  travellers. 

calcareous  spars,  consist  almost  entirely  of  liniR  in  chemical  combination  witli 
carbonic  acid  or  fixed  air,  the  fonner  constituting  someH  hat  less  than  threc- 
lifths,  the  latter  somewhat  more  than  two-fifths  of  their  \\hole  weight. 
Hence  in  scientific  language  they  are  called  earljonates  of  lime.  The  car- 
bonic acid  or  fixed  air  may  he  expelled  by  heat,  or  Ijy  the  addition  of  any 
other  acid  :  in  the  latter  case  an  effervescence  takes  place,  and  this  elicc- 
vescence  is  a  very  distinctive  character  of  calcareous  carbonates,  (page  2.) 

■'  Marbles  and  limestones  are  with  respect  to  their  chemical  analysis  the 
same,  they  dilier  only  in  their  uses  and  external  character. — (Page  3j,  Kkld's 
Mimratogy, 

Limestone  chalk. 

Lime   S3 

Carbonic  acid    42 

Silex  and  alumine    ....      2 

Water .••.•#..      3 

100  Kirwan. 


In  concluding,  I  find  that  Mr.  Pkiyfair,  who  ranks  so  high  in  the 
annals  of  science,  has  alluded  to  the  black  veins  which  traverse  the 
white  granular  marble  of  Carrara  having  a  resemblance  to  the  sutures 
in  the  human  scull: — are  those  very  remarkable  fissures  confined  alone 
to  the  calcareous  strata  ? 

It  appears  that  Herm  granite  is  effectually  crushed  by  a  pressure  of 
6"G4  tons  on  the  superficial  inch;  and  that  a  cube  of  it  containing  G4 
inches  weighed  Gibs.  G  oz.,  consequently  a  cubic  foot  weighs  172"125 
lbs.,  and  that  there  is  13"U13  cubic  feet  to  the  ton;  then  it  takes  6*G4 
tons,  or  SG-il  cubic  feet  of  its  own  mass  to  crush  one  superficial  inch, 
consequently  a  column  an  inch  square  of  Herm  granite  containing  SG'41 
cubic  feet  would  reach  to  an  elevation  of  12,443  feet,  or  2  miles  and 
G28  yards  high,  or  3G  times  higher  than  St.  Paul's  Steeple,*  before  it 
would  reach  its  maximum  elevation  of  crushing  by  its  own  weight  at 
the  base. 

Craigleith  stone  is  crushed  by  about  3  tons  weight  on  the  superficial 
inch, —  137-V  cubic  inches  weighed  11  lbs.  lUoz.,  a  cubic  foot  than 
14G-094  lbs.,  being  15-34  cubic  feet  to  the  ton,  or  4G-02  cubic  feet  of 
its  own  mass  to  crush  a  superficial  inch.  A  column  of  Craigleith  stone 
containing  4G'U2  cubic  feet  and  one  inch  square  would  crush  at  its  base 
by  its  own  weight  at  the  height  of  GG24  feet,  or  one  mile  and  448 
yards,  being  more  than  19  times  the  height  of  St.  Paul's  steeple. 

A  four  sided  pyramid  of  Herm  granite  whose  side  at  the  base  would 
be  one  inch  and  containing  8G"41  cubic  feet,  would  reach  an  elevation 
of  37,329  feet,  or  7  miles  and  123  yards  before  it  would  be  crushed  by 
its  own  weight  at  the  base,  equal  to  1U9  times  the  height  of  St.  Paul's 
steeple. 

And  a  four  sided  pyramid  of  Craigleith  stone  whose  side  at  the 
base  would  be  one  inch,  and  containing  4G'02  cubic  feet,  would  reach 
an  elevation  of  19,S72  feet,  or  3  miles  and  1344  yards,  before  it  would 
be  crushed  bv  its  own  weight  at  the  base,  equal  to  more  than  5S  times 
the  height  of  St.  Paul's. 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  IN  LONDON, 

A  Critical  Review  of  the  Public  Buildings,  Statues  and  Ornaments  in 
and  about  London  and  JVestminster — 1734. 

By  R.vlph. 

[In  consequence  of  this  pamphlet  being  out  of  print  and  very  scarce, 
we  have  deemed  it  advisable  to  rejnint  such  portions  as  relate  to 
those  buildings  that  still  remain  undisturbed.  Ever  since  its  first 
appearance,  it  has  always  been  read  by  the  architect  with  considerable 
interest.  It  was  printed  anonymously,  but  it  was  well  known  to  be  by 
an  eminent  critic  of  the  .day,  Ralph,  the  progenitor  of  Ralph  Redi- 
vivus,  whose  eft'usions  have  occupied  several  numbers  of  our  Journal, 
and  created  considerable  interest  in  many  of  our  architectural  readers  ; 
but  since  the  latter  has  deserted  us,  we  hope  only  for  a  short  period, 
we  shall  occupy  oooasionally  our  pages  with  some  extracts  from  the 
above  work.] 

As  nothing  contributes  more  to  the  grandeur  and  magnificence  of  a 
city,  than  noble  and  elegant  buildings,  so  nothing  produces  a  heavier 
censure  on  a  nation's  taste  than  those  which  arc  otherwise  ;  it  is  for 
this  reason  highly  laudable  to  stir  up  the  public  to  an  attention,  to  such 
elegant  and  proper  decorations  as  these,  not  only  in  regard  to  the 
fame  of  the  people  in  general,  but  their  interest  too.  One  of  the 
chief  re.isons  why  Italy  is  so  generally  visited  by  all  foreigners  of 
genius  and  distinction,  is  owing  to  the  magnificence  of  their  structures, 
and  their  number  and  variety ;  they  are  a  continual  bait  to  invite 
their  neighbours  to  lay  out  their  money  amongst  them,  and  one  may 
reasonably  assert,  that  the  sums  which  have  been  expended  for  the 
bare  sight  of  those  elegant  piles,  have  more  than  paid  the  original 
charge  of  their  building.  "Tliis  Louis  XIV.  was  sufficiently  apprized 
of  when  he  undertook  Versailles,  and  the  company  that  single  fabric 
only  has  drawn  into  France,  has  made  that  crown  ample  amends  for 
the  expence  of  erecting  it;  and  they  have  both  the  use  and  reputation 
of  it  still  into  the  bargain. 

It  is  high  time,  therefore,  for  us  to  look  about  us  too,  and  endeavour 
to  vie  with  our  neighbours  in  politeness,  as  well  as  power  and  empire. 
Towards  the  end  of  King  James  I.'s  reign,  and  in  the  beginning  of  his 
son's,  taste  made  a  bold  step  from  Italy  to  England  at  once,  and  scarce 
staid  a  moment  to  visit  France  by  the  way.  From  the  most  profound 
ignorance  in  architecture,  the  most  consummate  night  of  knowledge, 
Inigo  Jones  started  up  a  prodigy  of  art,  and  vied  even  with  his  master 
Palladio  himself.  From  so  glorious  an  out-set,  there  was  not  any  ex- 
cellency that  we  might  not  have  hoped  to  obtain ,  Britain  had  a  rea- 

*  lakiBs  the  steeple  at  340  feet, 


200 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Junk, 


soniible  prospect  to  rival  Italy,  and  foil  every  nation  in  Europe  beside. 
But  in  the  midst  of  these  sangidne  expectations,  the  fatal  civil  war 
coinnienced,  and  all  the  arts  and  sciences  were  immediately  laid  aside, 
as  no  way  concerned  in  the  quarrel.  What  followed  was  all  darkness 
and  obscurity,  and  it  is  even  a  wonder  they  left  us  a  monument  of  the 
beauty  it  was  so  agreeable  to  their  natures  to  destroy. 

Wren  was  the  next  genius  that  arose  to  awake  the  spirit  of  science, 
and  kindle  in  his  country  a  love  for  that  science  which  had  been  so 
long  neglecte<l ;  during  his  time  a  most  melancholy  opportunity  of- 
fered for  art  to  exert  itself  in  the  most  extraordinary  manner:  l)ut  the 
calamities  of  the  present  circumstance  were  so  great  and  numerous,  - 
that  the  pleas  of  elegancy  and  beauty  could  not  be  heard,  and  neces- 
sity and  convenicncy  took  place  of  harmony  and  magnificence. 

What  I  mean  is  this:  tlie  fire  of  London" furnished  the  most  perfect 
occasion  that  can  ever  happen  in  any  city,  to  rebuild  it  with  pomp 
and  reguhirity ;  this  Wren  foresaw,  and,  as  we  are  told,  offered  a 
scheme  for  that  purpose  which  would  have  made  it  the  wonder  of  the 
world.  He  proposed  to  have  laid  out  one  large  street  from  Aldgate 
to  Temple-bar,  in  the  middle  of  which  was  to  have  been  a  large 
square,  capable  of  containing  the  new  church  of  St.  Paul's,  with"  a 
proper  distance  for  the  view  all  round  it ;  whereby  that  huge  building 
would  not  have  been  cooped  up,  as  it  is  at  present,  in  such  a  manner 
as  nowhere  to  be  seen  to  advantage  at  all,  but  would  have  had  a  long 
and  ample  vista  at  each  end,  to  have  reconciled  it  to  a  (iroper  point 
of  view,  and  give  it  one  great  benefit  which,  in  all  probability,  it  must 
now  want  for  ever.  He  farther  proposed  to  rebuild  all  the  parish- 
clun-ches  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  seen  at  the  end  of  every  vista  of 
houses,  and  dispersed  in  such  distances  from  each  other,  as  to  appear 
neither  too  thick  nor  thin  in  prospect,  but  give  a  proper  heightening 
to  the  whole  bulk  of  the  city  as  it  filled  the  landscape.  Lastly,  he 
proposed  to  build  all  the  houses  uniform,  and  supported  on  a  piazza, 
like  that  of  Covent  Garden ;  and,  by  the  water-side,  from  the  Bridge 
to  Ihe  Temple,  he  had  planned  a  long  and  broad  wharf,  or  key,  where 
he  designed  to  liave  ranged  all  the  halls  that  belong  to  the  several 
companies  of  the  city,  with  proper  warehouses  for  merchants  between, 
to  vary  the  edifices,  and  make  it  at  once  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
most  useful  ranges  of  structure  in  the  world.  But,  as  I  said  before, 
the  hurry  of  rebuilding,  and  the  disputes  about  property,  prevented 
this  glorious  scheme  from  taking  place. 

1b  our  own  times  an  opportunity  oflered  to  adorn  the  city,  in  some 
degree;  and  though  the  scarcity  of  ground  in  Loudon  will  not  allow- 
as  much  beauty  ot  situation  as  one  would  desire,  yet  if  the  buildings 
were  suited  to  their  place,  tliey  would  make  a  better  figure  than  they 
do  at  present.  I  ha\e  now  the  late  new  churches  in  my  eye;  amongst 
all  which,  there  are  not  five  placed  to  advantage,  and  scarce  so  many 
which  are  built  in  taste,  or  deserve  half  tlie  money  which  they  have 
cost;  a  cirounstance  which  must  reflect  on  tiie  judgments  of  those 
who  chose  the  jdans,  as  well  as  the  genius  of  the  architects  themselves. 

No  nation  can  reproadi  us  for  want  of  expence  in  our  public  build- 
ings, but  all  nations  may  for  our  want  of  elegance  and  discernment  in 
the  execution.  In  the  first  ])lace,  there  are  very  few  of  our  fine  pieces 
of  architecture  in  sight  ;  they  arc  generally  hid  in  holes  and  corners, 
as  if  they  had  been  built  by  stealtli,  or  the  artists  were  ashamed  of 
their  works;  or  else  they  are  but  essays,  or  trials  of  skill,  and  remain 
unfinished,  till  Time  himself  lays  them  in  ruin.  After  this,  it  is  unne- 
cessary to  menlion  that  our  structures  are  generally  heavy,  dispro- 
portioned,  and  rather  incumbered  than  adorned  ;  beauty  does  not  con- 
sist in  oxpi'nce  or  decoration ;  it  is  i)ossible  for  a  slight  building  to  be 
very  ]icrlect,  and  a  costly  one  to  be  very  deformed  :  I  could  easily 
name  instances  of  both  kinds;  but,  as  I  propose  to  ]ioint  out  to  my 
readers  most  of  the  edifices  al)0\it  town  that  arc  worth  consideration 
on  either  side,  1  will  not  antici|iatc  my  design,  but  exemplify  my 
meaning,  as  I  proceed,  and  leave  the  public  to  make  use  of  it  as  they 
please. 

To  begin  with  the  remotest  extremity  of  tlie  town  ;  as  there  were 
no  attempts,  till  lately,  ever  made  there,  to  erect  any  building  vvhicli 
might  adorn  it  at  all,  there  was  the  more  necessity  to  be  more  par- 
ticularly careful  that  tlie  first  design  of  this  nature  should  not  miscarry  ; 
and  yet  the  four  following  churches  which  have  been  built  at  Lime- 
house,  Ratclifi',  Horslcy-down,  and  Spittal-fields,  though  they  have  all 
the  advantage  (jf  ground  which  can  be  desired,  are  not  to  be  looked  at 
without  displeasure.  Thoy  arc  mere  Gothic  heaps  of  stone,  without 
form  or  order,  and  meet  with  contempt  from  the  best  and  worst  tastes 
alike.  The  last,  csjiecially,  deserves  the  severest  condemnation,  in 
that  it  is  built  at  a  monstruous  expence,  and  yet  is,  beyond  question, 
one  of  the  most  absurd  jiiles  in  Europe. 

As  a  fabric  of  antiquity,  it  is  impossible  to  pass  by  the  Tower  with- 
out taking  some  notice  of  it,  particularly,  as  it  is  visited  so  much  by 
the  good  people  of  England,  as  a  place  made  venerable  by  the  frequent 
mention  which  lias  been  inude  of  it  in  history,  und  famous  for  liaving 


been  the  scene  of  many  tragical  adventures;  but  1  must  caution  those 
of  my  readers  whoiire  unskilled  in  architecture,  not  to  believe  it  eitlier 
a  place  of  strength,  beauty,  or  magnificence  ;  it  is  large  and  old  indeed, 
and  has  a  ibrmiilable  row  of  cannons  before  it,  to  fire  on  rejoicing  days. 

The  front  of  the  cliurcli  lately  rebuilt  in  Bishopsgate  Street  is,  I 
tliink,  more  in  taste  tlian  most  about  town;  the  parts  it  is  composed 
of  are  sinqile,  beautiful,  and  harmonious,  and  the  whole  deserves  to 
be  admired,  for  jileasing  so  much,  at  so  little  expence. 

From  hence  we  may  pass  on  to  the  South  Sea  House,  and  there  we 
shall  have  some  reason  to  wonder  that,  when  the  taste  of  building  is 
so  much  improved  among  us,  we  see  so  little  sign  of  it  here;  at  the 
same  expence  they  might  have  raised  an  edifice  which  would  have 
charmed  the  most  profound  judges ;  beauty  is  as  cheap  as  deformily 
with  respect  to  the  pocket,  but  it  is  easier  to  find  money  than  genius, 
and  that  is  the  re;ison  so  many  build  and  so  few  succeed. 

The  tower  of  St.  Michael's,  Cornhill,  though  in  the  Gothic  style  of 
architecture,  is  undoubtedly  a  very  magnificent  pile  of  building,  and 
deserves  very  justly  to  be  esteemed  the  finest  thing  of  that  sort  in 
London. 

The  iMouument  is  undoubtedly  the  noblest  modern  column  in  the 
world:  iiav,  in  some  respects  it  may  justly  vie  with  those  celebrated 
ones  of  antiquity,  which  are  consecrated  to  the  names  of  Trajan  and 
Antonine.  Nothing  can  be  more  bold  and  surprising,  nothing  more 
beautiful  and  harmonious;  the  has  relief  at  the  base,  allowing  for 
some  few  defects,  is  finely  imagined  and  executed  as  well,  and  nothing 
material  can  be  cavilled  with  but  the  inscriptions  round  about  it. 
Nothing,  indeed,  can  be  more  ridiculous  than  its  situation,  unless  the 
reason  which  is  assigned  for  so  doing.  I  am  of  opinicni  if  it  had  been 
raised  where  Cheapside  Conduit  stood,  it  would  have  been  as  effectual 
a  remonstrance  of  the  misfortune  it  is  designed  to  record,  and  would 
at  once  have  added  an  inexpressible  beauty  to  the  vista,  and  received 
as  much  as  it  gave. 

The  church  in  Walbrook,  so  little  known  among  us,  is  famous  all 
over  Europe,  and  is  justly  reputed  the  master-piece  of  the  celebrated 
Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Perhaps  Italy  itself  can  produce  no  modern 
building  that  can  vie  with  this  in  taste  or  proportion;  tliere  is  not  a 
beauty  which  the  plan  would  admit  of,  that  is  not  to  be  found  here  in 
its  greatest  perfection,  and  foreigners  very  justly  call  our  judgment  in 
question  for  understanding  its  graces  no  better,  and  allowing  it  no 
higher  a  degree  of  fame. 

The  steeple  of  Bow  church  is  another  master-piece  in  a  peculiar 
kind  of  building,  which  has  no  fixed  rules  to  direct  it,  nor  is  it  to  be 
reduced  to  any  settled  laws  of  beauty  ;  without  doubt,  if  we  consider 
it  only  as  a  part  of  some  other  building,  it  can  be  esteemed  no  other 
than  a  delightful  absurdily  :  hut  if  either  considered  in  itself,  or  as  a 
decoration  of  a  whole  city  in  prospect,  not  only  to  Ije  justified  but  ad- 
mired. That  which  we  have  now  mentioned  is  beyond  question  as 
perfect  as  human  imagination  can  contrive  or  execute,  and  till  wo  see 
it  outdone,  we  shall  hardly  think  it  to  be  equalled. 

I  thuik  it  proper  to  recommend  the  steeple  of  Foster  Lane  to  the 
attention  of  the  jiassenger  ;  it  is  not  a  glaring  pile  that  strikes  the  eye 
at  the  first  view  with  an  idea  of  grandeur  and  magnilicence  :  but  then 
the  beautiful  pyramid  it  forms,  and  the  just  and  well-proportioned 
simplicity  of  all  its  parts,  satisfy  the  mind  so  elfectually,  that  nothing 
seems  to  be  wanting,  and  nothing  can  be  spared. 

The  new  church  in  Old-street  is  so  slight  and  trifling  a  building  that 
it  is  not  worth  the  trouble  of  a  visit ;  for  which  reason  we  shall  choose 
rather  to  cross  over  to  Smithfield,  neglecting  the  Chartrciix  (Charter- 
house), at  the  same  time,  because  the  building  is  so  entirely  rude  and 
irregular,  that  it  admits  of  nothing  like  criticism  :  its  situation  indeed 
in  the  midst  of  a  garden  is  fine,  and  the  square  in  the  front  of  it  is  at 
least  kept  in  better  order  than  most  in  town. 

In  Smithfield  we  shall  see  a  vast  area,  that  is  capable  of  great  beauty, 
but  is  at  ])resent  destitute  of  all;  a  scene  of  filth  and  nastiness,  one  of 
the  most  nauseous  places  in  the  whole  town;  it  is  true,  the  use  which 
is  made  of  it  as  a  market  is  something  of  an  excuse  for  it,  and  in  some 
degree  atones  for  the  want  of  that  decency  which  would  iini)rove  it 
so  much:  yet  still  it  is  my  opinion  that  ways  and  means  might  be 
found  to  make  it  tolerable  at  least,  and  an  obelisk,  pyianiid,  or  statue, 
in  the  centre,  defended  with  handsome  and  substantial  rails,  would  go 
a  great  way  in  so  desirable  a  project. 

On  one  side  of  this  irregular  ])lacc  is  the  enlrancc,  not  the  front,  of 
a  magnificent  hosipital ;  in  a  taste  not  altogether  amiss,  Ijut  so  erro- 
neous in  point  of  proportion,  that  it  rather  offends  than  entertains ; 
but  what  is  still  more  provoking,  the  building  itself  is  entirely  de- 
tached from  the  entrance,  and  though  so  near  a  large  and  noble  o]ieu- 
ing,  is  in  a  manner  stiflinl  with  the  circumjacent  houses  :  it  is  indeed 
a  building  in  a  box  or  case  ;  and  though  beautiful  in  itself  and  erected 
at  ju'odigious  expence,  is  so  far  from  giving  pleasvu'c  to  a  judge,  that 
he  would  rather  regret  its  being  built  at  all.    It  is  certain  that  where 


C^€//^</^Mo  floats  ^^/wi/t^M^^  c/imMe^^  =.^^«^^ 


Ctvi/  JiMoirie^rrinji,-lrcA^eer«,/(^ima/_  Jtm^,  M40 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


201 


the  ground  will  admit  of  it,  public  buildings  can  hardly  be  too  grand 
and  magnificent ;  but  where  they  cannot  be  seen  when  finished,  use 
and  convenience  only  should  be  consulted,  and  a  pile  of  rough  stones 
from  the  quarry,  w-ould  answer  the  end,  as  well  as  the  marble  of  Egypt 
with  the  decorations  of  Greece  or  Rome. 

Newgate,  considered  as  a  prison,  is  a  structure  of  more  cost  and 
beauty  than  was  necessary,  because  the  sumptuousness  of  the  out-side 
but  aggravates  the  misery  of  the  wretches  within :  but  as  a  gate  to 
such  a  city  as  London,  it  might  have  received  considerable  additions 
both  of  design  and  execution,  and  abundantly  answered  the  cost  in  the 
reputation  of  building. 

The  Physicians  College,  in  Warwick-lane,  Newgate-street,  (now 
occupied  as  a  market  on  the  ground  floor,)  a  structure  little  known  and 
seldom  talked  of,  is  a. building  of  wonderful  delicacy,  and  eminently 
deserves  to  be  considered  among  the  noblest  ornaments  of  this  city ; 
and  yet  so  unlucky  is  its  situation,  that  it  can  never  be  seen  to  advan- 
tage, nay  seldom  seen  at  all,  and  wdiat  ought  to  be  conspicuous  to 
every  body,  is  known  only  to  a  few,  and  those  too  people  of  curiosity, 
who  search  out  their  own  entertainments,  and  do  not  wait  for  the  im- 
pressions of  vulgar  reports  or  common  fame,  to  cs.cite  their  attention 
or  influence  their  judgments. 

The  hall  of  justice  at  the  Old  Bailey,  and  indeed  all  the  courts  I 
have  ever  yet  seen  in  England  are  justly  to  be  excepted  to,  as  wanting 
that  grandeur,  that  augustness,  that  decency,  and  solemnity  which 
ought  to  be  inseparable  irom  them,  in  order  to  give  men  in  general  a 
suitable  awe  for  the  place,  and  strike  offenders  with  a  terror,  even 
more  forcible  than  the  sentence  they  were  to  undergo.  The  form  of  a 
theatre  agrees  best  with  a  place  of  "this  nature  :  that  part  of  the  build- 
ing wdiich  is  the  stage,  would  answer  exactly  for  the  bench,  the  pit  for 
the  council,  prisoners,  &c.,  and  the  circle  round  it,  for  the  spectators: 
but  the  present  form  of  these  assemblies  is  utterly  ojiposite  to  this 
regularity,  and  instead  of  representing  the  wdiole' in  cue  grand  and 
comprehensive  view,  divides  it  into  me'amiess  and  confusion. 

(To  be  continued.) 


PAPIER  MACHE. 

Extracts  from  an  Historical  Account  of  the  Application  of  Papier  Mache 
for   Architectural    Ornaments.     By   Charles    Frederick    Bielefeld. 

WITH    AN    ENGRAVING,    PLATE    XI. 

Of  the  Interior  of  the  Pantlieon,  Oxford  Street. 

[The  following  account  we  have  selected  from  the  preface  to  Mr. 
Bielefeld's  work  on  Papier  Machi-  ornaments ;  the  subjoined  plate 
shows  how  far  Papier  Mache  may  be  introduced  with  consitlerable 
taste,  and  a  richness  of  effect  produced,  which  is  not  so  easily  ob- 
tained by  any  other  kind  of  ornament  at  the  same  ex]ience,  besides 
the  facility  it  affords  in  being  fixed  immediately  the  carpenters'  work 
is  finished,  and  painted  directly  afterwards.] 

"  Though  paper  be  one  of  fhe  commonest  bodies  that  we  use,  there  are 
very  few  that  imagine  it  is  lit  to  be  employed  other  ways  than  ia  writing,  or 
printing,  or  wrapping  up  of  other  things,  or  about  some  such  obvious  piece 
of  service,  without  dreaming  that  frames  of  pictures  and  divers  fine  pieces  of 
embossed  work,  with  other  carious  moveables,  may,  as  trial  has  informed  us, 
be  made  of  it." — (Of  man's  great  ignorance  of  the  uses  of  natural  things  ; 
Boyle,  vol.  ni.  page  485,  ed.  m.dcc.lxxii. 

Notwithstanding  the  name  that  has  been  given  to  the  material,  which 
would  seem  to  imply  that  it  is  of  French  extraction,  there  is  yet  very  good 
reason  to  believe  that  to  England  is  to  he  attributed  the  merit  of  first  apply- 
ing this  manufacture  to  important  uses.  Light  and  trivial  articles,  snch  as 
snuff-boxes,  cups,  &c.  had,  on  the  Continent,  been  made  of  Papier-Mache  for 
a  long  course  of  time ;  but,  from  the  following  passage  from  an  article  "  sur 
I'Art  de  Moulage,"  in  the  "  EncyclopucUe  Mcthodiqne,"  we  may  safely  con- 
jecture that  here  first  it  was  apphed  to  the  builder's  purposes :  "  Les  Anglois 
font  en  carton  les  ornamens  des  plafonds  que  nous  faisons  en  platre  :  ils  sont 
plus  durables ;  sc  dctachent  difficUement,  on  s'ils  se  detachent,  le  danger  est 
md  et  la  reparation  est  peu  (hspendieuse."  (Vol.  v.  Paris,  1788.)  We  may 
here  take  occasion  to  remark,  that  the  writer  of  the  above  passage  appears  to 
have  perfectly  understood  the  pecuUar  merits  of  Papier-lluche ;  and  it  woidd 
be  impossible  to  explain  more  concisely  or  more  accurately  than  in  that  short 
paragraph,  the  more  valuable  qualities  of  this  material.  The  particular  cir- 
cumstances that  gave  rise  to  the  adoption  of  Papier-Mache  by  the  architec- 
tural decorator  in  England,  deserves  the  especial  notice  of  all  who  are  inte- 
rested ia  the  welfare  of  our  manufactures. 

It  should  be  premised,  that  with  the  Ehzahcthan  style,  or  the  "  renaissance," 
of  England,  enriched  plaster  cedings  were  very  generally  brought  into  use, 
and  in  the  more  classic  or  ItaUan  styles  that  followed,  the  same  material  was 
still  more  extensively  and  more  boldly  employed.  As  the  art  advanced, 
plaster  became  partially  substituted  for  carved  or  panelled  wood  wainscoting 
ou  walls !  botli  in  that  situation  and  upon  ceilings,  foliage  of  the  highest  re- 


lief and  of  the  richest  character,  may  at  the  present  day  he  found  in  the  more 
important  edifices  remaining  of  the  17th  and  beginning  of  the  18th  cen- 
turies :  these  enrichments  were  generally  worked  or  rather  modelled  by  the 
hand  upon  the  stucco  in  its  place,  whilst  still  in  a  soft  and  plastic  state. 

As  this  work  had  to  be  done  on  the  spot,  and  with  much  ra])idity  of  exe- 
cution, in  order  to  prevent  the  stucco  from  setting  before  it  had  acquired  the 
intended  form,  the  art  was  somewhat  difficult ;  tlie  workman  had  to  design 
almost  as  he  worked  :  therefore,  to  do  it  well,  it  was  necessary  that  he  should 
have  some  of  the  acquirements  and  qualities  of  an  artist.  This  circumstance 
of  com'se  tended  very  much  to  hmit  the  number  of  workmen,  and  theh  pay 
became  proportionably  large. 

It  was  no  unnatural  consequence  that  artisans  thus  circumstanced  assumed 
a  consequence  that  belonged  not  to  their  humble  rank  in  hfe  j  it  ia  said  that 
they  might  have  been  seen  coming  to  their  work  girt  with  swords,  and  hav- 
ing their  wrists  adorned  with  lace  ruffles.  Such  a  state  of  things  was,  as  may 
be  conceived,  attended  with  many  inconveniences  to  their  employers  ;  it  was 
scarcely  possilile  to  preserve  that  subordination  so  essentially  necessary  in 
carrying  on  the  business  of  a  builder,  and  ultimately  the  workers  in  stucco, 
laying  aside  all  restraint,  combined  together  to  extort  from  their  employers 
a  most  inordinate  rate  of  wages.  It  would  be  supeiliuous  here  to  detail  all 
the  circumstances  that  followed ;  it  is  sufficient  to  state  that,  as  might  have 
been  anticipated,  the  total  ruin  of  their  art  was  the  final  result  of  these  de- 
lusive efforts  to  promote  their  individual  interests. 

Contrivances  were  resorted  to  by  tl  e  masters,  which  soon  supplanted  the 
old  mode  of  working  in  stucco.  The  art  of  moulding  and  casting  in  plaster, 
as  previously  practised  in  France,  was  generally  introduced,  and  the  art  of 
jireparing  the  pulp  of  paper  became  improved  and  extended,  so  as  ultimately 
to  render  practicable  the  adoption  of  Papier-Miiche  in  the  formation  of  archi- 
tectural decorations.  Thus  .at  last  was  extinguished  the  original  mode  of 
producing  stucco  ornaments,  and  there  probably  has  not  been  for  many  years 
a  single  inilividual  in  England  accustomed  to  that  business. 

The  superior  cheapness  of  the  ])rocess  of  casting  in  plaster  bro\ight  it  into 
almost  universal  use  ;  for,  although  in  the  course  of  the  last  century  an  im- 
mense trade  was  carried  on  in  the  manufacture*  of  architectural  and  other 
ornaments  in  Papier-Mache,  yet  the  poverty  of  taste  they  generally  displayed, 
.and  the  imperfection  of  machinery  at  that  time,  which  i)revented  this  ma- 
terial from  coping  with  plaster  in  respect  to  price,  ultimately  caused  its  dis- 
use.  The  mannfactiu'ers  of  Papier-Mache  at  that  period  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  .aware  of  the  great  improvements  of  which  every  process  of  their  art 
proves  now  to  have  been  susceptible. 

A  most  mischievous  effect,  however,  was  produced  in  the  art  of  decorative 
designing  by  this  change  in  the  mode  of  execution.  All  the  deep  nudereut- 
tings  and  hold  shadows  which  marked  the  style  of  design  in  the  age  of  Queen 
Anne,  became  impracticable  when  ornaments  were  to  be  cast.  A  meagre, 
tame,  petite  manner  ensued  almost  of  necessity,  untd  by  the  end  of  the  last 
century  the  art  of  designing  architectural  ornament  had  fallen  into  a  deplor- 
able state  of  imbecility. 

The  subsequent  introduction  of  Greek  ornament  formed  a  new  era :  the 
limited  cai)abihties  of  plaster-casting  became  then  less  inconvenient,  for  the 
broad,  flat  character  of  the  Greek  style  was  favourable  to  the  process  of  cast- 
ing, and  had  that  manner  of  designing  continued  to  prevail  goierally  up  to 
the  present  day,  it  is  probable  that  no  material  change  would  have  taken 
place  in  the  manufacture  of  ornament.  But  great  fluctuations  have  occurred 
in  the  public  taste  :  the  pure  and  elegant  simplicity  of  Greek  ornament  is  iu 
its  nature  appreciable  only  by  the  more  highly  cultivated  tastes ;  the  gene- 
rahty  of  persons  do  not  understand  its  merits ;  therefore,  after  the  stimulus 
of  novelty  had  ceased  to  operate,  fashion  soon  led  the  public  favour  into  other 
channels.  The  Ijold  originality  of  the  Gothic  school,  the  gorgeous  and  mere- 
tricious richness  of  the  Flemish  and  French  schools,  the  ]iicturesque  and  fan- 
tantic  forms  of  the  Elizabethan  style,  soon  found  many  adnjirers,  and  it  ia 
this  great  change  in  the  manner  of  designing  ornament  that  has  given  rise  to 
the  important  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  the  highly  plastic  substance 
called  Papier-Mache.  Plaster  is  totally  inapplicable  to  the  exact  imitation  of 
the  bold  florid  carvings  in  the  above  named  styles,  whilst  to  carve  in  wood 
all  these  fanciful  forms  would  occasian  a  cost  far  beyond  the  means  of  all 
ordinary  purses.  As  to  the  putty-composition,  a  material  intru<luced  at  the 
latter  end  of  the  last  century  as  a  substitute  for  wood  carving  in  picture 
frames,  &c.  its  monstrous  weight,  its  brittle,  impracticable  nature,  and  the 
difliculties  and  heavy  expenses  necessarily  incurred  in  its  manufactm-e,  as  well 
as  in  ILxing  it  up,  render  it  properly  apphcable  to  a  veiy  hmited  range  of  pur. 
poses. 

Having  made  these  preliminary  remarks  upon  the  origin  of  Papier-Mache, 
and  the  causes  of  its  improvement  and  re-introduction,  we  will  proceed  to 
the  more  important  objects  of  the  present  brief  ess.-iy,  and  describe,  for  the 
information  of  practical  men,  the  mode  of  applying  the  material  to  the  various 
uses  for  which  it  is  so  admirably  adapted.  We  will  only  premise,  that  the 
application  of  steam  power,  and  the  vast  improvements  that  have  of  late  been 
made  in  all  branches  of  mcclianics,  have  enabled  the  present  manufacturer  to 
produce  a  material  ahke  only  in  name  to  the  Papier-Mache  of  the  last  cen- 
tiu-y :  its  hard  compactness,  its  strength,  its  imperishable  nature,  its  tracta- 
bihty  (if  such  an  expression  may  be  allowed),  the  facility  with  which  it  may 
be  put  together  and  fixed  up,  its  lightness,  the  rapidity  with  which  it  may  be 
prepared  and  fixed,  and  finally  its  cheapness,  are  qualities  which  eminently 
distinguish  it,  but  which  cannot  perhaps  be  fully  appreciated  but  by  those 
wUo  have  had  e.\ten5ive  experience  in  its  use, 

2fi 


202 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  AIKJIIITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[JuN£, 


Panier-MAchc  is  ap|ilieil  to  tlic  ciiiiclicd  cornices  of  l)ookcases  and  cabinets, 
to  llie  mouldings  and  corners  and  centre  ornaments  of  paneling  on  their  doors 
ami  sides ;  to  the  enriched  scroll  legs  of  cabinets  and  pier  tables  in  the  old 
French  style;  to  ornamental  brackets  for  clocks,  busts,  vases,  S:c.;  to  the 
cnriclied  borders  to  rooms  hung  "  ith  silk  or  paper ;  tlie  ornamental  jjarts  for 
picture  and  glass  frames,  r,o  matter  how  curved  and  elaborate;  also  to  win- 
<lo\v-curtain  cornices,  the  canopies  of  bedstc.ids,  &c.  I've.  It  has  been  very 
advantageously  used  for  tlie  latter  purpose  in  the  stale  bed  at  Chatsworth  ; 
and  also  to  the  canopy  of  the  Royal  Throne  in  the  present  House  of  Lords. 
I'or  the  enrichment  "of  bookcases  it  is  ailmiraJjly  ailapted,  atlbrding  ojipor- 
t\mities,  if  in  the  Gothic  style,  of  introducing  elaborate  jnnnacles  and  pen- 
dants, rich  corbels  and  pierced  frets  of  oi)en  work,  deeply  undercut  rosettes, 
ami  spandril  and  mitre,  or  intersection  ornaments,  ^c. ;  also  for  the  exterior 
cases  of  organs  it  has  been  most  advantageously  and  extensively  used  :  the 
lightest  ami  most  intricate  tracery  is  executeil  with  ease,  and  an  ett'ect  [iro- 
duced  at  a  very  moderate  cost,  wli'ich  by  no  other  means  could  be  obtained 
without  an  extravagant  expense. 

It  is  needless  to  add,  that  when  the  above  mentioned  subjects  are  in  classic 
or  other  styles,  the  friezes,  the  scrolls,  consoles,  pateras,  &e.  are  among  the 
simplest  and  most  obvious  uses  of  Papicr-Mache. 

With  regard  to  the  mode  of  fixing  Papicr-Miichc  in  cabinet  work,  perhaps 
the  simplest  and  yet  most  accurate  rule  that  can  be  laid  down,  is  to  treat  it 
exactly  as  if  it  were  wood.  It  is  to  be  cut  with  the  saw  and  chisel,  and  may 
lie  lieiit  by  steam  or  heat,  plancil  and  cleaned  nji  with  sand  pajier  to  the 
smoothest  face  and  to  the  finest  arris,  if  rcijuired  ;  it  is  to  lie  fastened  with 
brads,  needle  points,  or  glue.  Tlie  larger  objects,  such  as  brackets,  canopies, 
&c.  can  be  made  either  with  a  wood  core,  or  they  can  be  wlioUy  of  Papicr- 
Miiche :  in  cither  case,  two  or  three  screws  at  once  secure  them  in  their 
place.  When  fixed,  the  work  can  lie  painted  and  grained  without  any  pre- 
vious vreparation  whatever;  and  in  gilding,  tlic  surface  of  the  work  is  so 
much  better  adapted  to  receive  the  gold  than  that  of  anyotlicr  material,  that 
much  of  (he  expense  and  delay  usually  attendant  on  the  jirocess  is  saved. 
The  same  observation  applies  to  silvering ;  and  it  may  be  added,  th.at  there 
is  good  evidence  (as  at  Chesterfield  House,  May  Fair,  &c.)  to  prove  that  the 
metallic  leaf  continues  untarnished  longer  on  I'apier-Mache  than  on  other 
substances. 

A  great  variety  of  brackets,  consoles,  and  cantilevers  are  made  of  tliis  sub- 
stance :  indeed,  "one  of  the  first  applications  of  C.  F.  Bielefeld's  improved 
Papier-Mache  to  architectural  purposes,  was  to  form  some  large  consoles  and 
cornices  at  St.  James's  Palace  on  the  accession  of  his  late  Majesty.  Since 
that  time  similar  work  has  been  fixed  nji  at  the  Grocers'  Hall,  the  King's 
College,  at  the  Carlton  Club  House,  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Club  House, 
Jiritish  Museum,  State  Drawing  Kooms  at  IJublin  Castle,  Grand  Lodge  Free- 
masons' Hall,  Corn  Exchange,  &c.  Chimney  pieces  are  very  efTcctively  de- 
corated in  Pa|iier-Mache,  as  was  formerly  much  jiiaetised  by  Sir  William 
Chambers  and  others;  specimens  of  ornamental  chiuincy  pieces  in  the  style 
of  Elizalicth  and  James  may  be  seen  in  the  show  rooms.  It  would,  however, 
be  tedious  to  enumerate  all  the  purposes  to  which  Papicr-.Maclic  can  be  ad- 
vantageously applied  ;  it  will  suffice  to  repeat,  that  there  is  no  jiossible  en- 
richment, ill  any  style,  however  coni])licated  or  elaborate,  that  may  not  be 
readily  executed  in  it.  Nor  is  the  manufacturer  disposed  to  limit  the  appli- 
cation of  it  to  interior  work.  The  improveil  Papier-.Mache  is  of  too  recent 
intiuductioii  to  enable  us  to  refer  to  any  example  of  its  use  in  exterior  work 
further  back  than  about  fourteen  years';  but  there  are  several  shop  fronts  in 
London  that  vv^re  fitted  up  at  that  time,  where  the  Papier-Maclu;  enrichments 
are  at  the  present  day  as  sound  and  perfect  as  when  first  turned  out  of  the 
mould.  We  may,  however,  fin<l  in  the  Papier-MAche  of  tlic  last  century, 
although  of  inm'ieasurably  inferior  quality,  abundant  jiroof  of  its  extreme 
durability  in  exposed  situations.  Sir  William  Chambers's  own  house  in  Bcr- 
iiers-stre'ct,  that  must  be  proba'oly  tliree  (piarters  of  a  century  old,  lias  Hie 
Papier-Maehc,  which  enriched  the  fanciful  architecture  at  the  back  of  the 
liouse,  in  jicrfect  picservation. 

At  Paris,  the  Carton-picrre,  a  substance  analogous  to  Papier-Mache,  but  in 
every  way  inferior  to  it,  especially  as  regards  its  durability,  being  very  ab- 
sorbent of  moisture,  and  therefore  liable  to  become  solt,  is  largely  used  for 
exterior  oniameuts,  even  in  buildings  of  the  most  sumptuous  and  important 
character. 

As  there  is  good  evidence  of  the  durability  of  the  old  Papier-.Macbc  in  the 
0)ien  air,  it  follows  of  course,  that  for  interior  work  its  iiermancncy  may  be 
btill  more  implicitly  relied  upon.  There  arc  many  [licr-glass  frames,  chimney- 
pieces,  S:c.  composed  of  this  sub.stancc,  remaining  in  a  perfectly  sound  good 
condition,  that  must  have  been  made  early  in  the  last  centm-y  ;  and  a  recent 
examination  of  the  old  Papier-Mache  work  at  Chcstei  field  House  h,as  most 
satisfactorily  proved,  that  for  ceilings  it  is  equally  iliirable ;  the  coniiionent  parts 
are,  in  fact.'such  as  to  render  it  much  less  likely  to  decay  than  the  laths  or 
other  work  to  which  it  may  be  allachcd  ;  and  in  no  instance  tliat  has  ever 
come  under  tlie  observation  of  the  mannfaeturcr,  has  he  delectcil  the  least 
indication  of  its  having  been  attacked  by  worms,  one  of  the  ingredients  used 
being  very  olinnxious  to  tlicm.  The  Pa|iier-Maclic  work  nnvv  rcniaining  in 
many  houses  in  l,ondon  and  the  country,  which  was  put  up  in  the  time  of 
Sir  Svilliam  Chambers,  a]ipears,  wherever  it  lias  been  examined,  in  a  iierl'ectly 
sound  stale,  iiotwillistandiiig  all  tliose  original  defects  in  ils  composition  and 
inamifacture  which  the  manufactory  has  been  able  cll'cctually  to  correct. 


L 


Ir- 


It  now  only  remains  to  give  some  general  in- 
structions for  the  fixing  up  of  the  work.     There 
is  one  rule  which  it  will  be  particularly  advisable 
to   note,   since    it  is    calculated   to    save    luiich 
trouble,  and  secure  ]ierfcct  truth  in  the  fixing  of 
the   eiiricbed  meiiibers  of  cornices.     In  running 
the  plain  work  of  a  cornice,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered to  provide  in  the  mould  a  sinking  to  receive 
the  Papiei-.Mriclie  member.     If,  for  example,  it  is 
desired   to    enrich  with  foliage    the    cyina  of  a 
cornice,  the  mould  should  be  formed  with  a  sinking 
thus :  or,  should  it  be  desired  to  insert  an  enrichment, 
say  an  ogee  and  bead,  in  the  bed-moulding  of  the  cor- 
nice, a  sinking  to  reeinvc  it  should  be  proviiled  thus  : 

These  sinkings  need  not  generally  exceed  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  ;  a  raised  fillet  at  the  bottom  of  the  en- 
riched moulding  would  answer  the  same  purpose,  the 
only  object  being  to  secure  a  perfectly  conlinuous  and 

unbroken  line. 

In  cases  where  a  simple  cornice  would  be  sufficient, 
and  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  nothing  to  do  with 
plaster,  a  siii.all  fillet  or  moulding  of  wood,  nailed 
to  the  ceiling  ,ind  wall  with  the  Papier-Miiehe  orna- 
ment inserted  between  them,  gives  a  very  complete 
and  ornamental  finish  to  the  room  at  a  most  trifling 
expense,  and  without  the  diit  and  delay  unavoidably 
attendant  on  running  plaster  mouldings.     Where  a 
flower  or  patera  has  to  be  applied  to  a  ceiling,  one 
screw  will  suflice,  unless  the  patera  be  of  unusual 
tUmensions,  to  attach  it  safely  to  the  plaster,  taking 
care  that  the  screws  are  long  ennught  to  reach  the 
joists.     Where,  however,  the  flower  is  intended  to 
cover  an  oi>eiiiiig  for  ventila- 
tion, it  will   be  requisite   to 
block  down   from  the  joists; 
thus  screwing  the   flower  to 
the  blocking. 

Where  ornamental  corners 
arc  to  be  applied  to  a  ceiling, 
they  should,  if  very  heavy,  be  fastened  up  to  the  timbers  w  ith  screws,  but 
generally  speaking  it  would  be  (piite  suflieient  to  use  brads,  taking  their  hold 
on  to  the  laths;  this  aftaeliment  being  made  still  more  secure  by  the  use  of 
the  cement  which  is  prcjiared  and  jirovidcd  by  the  manufacturer  when  re- 
quired, together  with  instnu-tioiis  for  using  it.  The  same  mode  of  fixing  is 
adopted  for  frets,  friezes,  and  indeed  for  all  kinds  of  superficial  cnricbineiil, 
care  being  at  all  times  taken  that  brads  lay  well  hold  of  the  laths,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  generally  expedient  to  drive  the  brads  in  at  the  hollows,  and 
such  parts  of  the  work  to  lie  fixed ;  it  is  also  a  useful  precaution  to  drive  the 
lirads  in  a  slanting  direction,  so  as  to  prevent  all  chance  of  tlieir  drawing. 
\\'hen  walls  have  to  be  enriched  with  panels,  as  is  very  usual  in  aiiartments 
fitted  up  in  the  old  French  and  Italian  styles,  exactly  the  same  rules  for  fixing 
as  have  been  above  prescribed  for  ceilings  are  to  be  followed,  except  that 
fewer  precautions  arc  necessary,  as  the  weight  acts  dift'erently ;  where  the 
work  is  of  a  very  light  character  even  commpn  needle  points  will  be  found 
sufficient,  but  the  cement  above  mentioned  is  in  all  eases  an  useful  addition. 
With  the  assistance  of  the  above  rules,  there  is  no  sort  of  work  in  Papier- 
MhcIk'  thai  may  not  be  well  fitted  up  by  an  ordinary  joiner. 

Ill  drawing  up  these  brief  notes  on  the  use  of  the  improved  Papier-Mache, 
the  manufacturer  has  yet  to  advert  to  a  new  application  of  it  of  almost  un- 
limited extent,  and  one  to  which  a  higher  degree  of  importance  may  justly  be 
attached  than  any  yet  describod. 

There  is  no  art  to  which  the  lovers  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  especially  of 
Sculpture,  are  more  inilebted  than  to  the  art  of  moidding  and  casting  in 
plaster  ;  but  for  this  art  we  should  be  almost  wholly  ignorant  of  the  merits 
of  contemporary  sculjitors,  .and  the  glorious  efforts  of  ancient  art  would  be 
all  but  lost  to  the  world.  Uy  means  of  plaster-casts  the  chef-d'iriivres  of  all 
ages  are  multiplied,  and  brought  from  the  uttermost  corners  of  the  world  into 
the  museuiii  of  the  connoisseur  and  the  studio  of  the  professor. 

But  how  perishable  and  fragile  is  a  plaster-cast !  how  cumbrously  heavy  ! 
how  difiicult  of  transjiort !  such  iiuleed  are  the  risks  of  breakage  that  no  one 
is  willing  to  pay  for  a  cast,  the  ]irice  that  would  coiiipensate  for  the  dilHcnlfy 
and  expenses  necessarily  attendant  on  making  a  perfect  mould  and  cast.  The 
result  is,  tli.at  the  iilastcr-casts  ordinarily  sold  are  most  imperfect  and  un- 
satisfactory representations  of  the  works  of  art  they  arc  derived  from.  The 
new  substance  now  under  consideration  presents  itself  to  obviate  all  these  iii- 
convcnicnces ;  for,  whilst  a  copy  of  any  piece  of  sculpture  can  be  made  in  it 
with  perfect  triitli  and  fidelity,  its  weight  is  scarcely  one-sixth  ofth:it  of 
plaster,  and  its  liability  to  fracture  less  than  that  of  stone,  marble,  or  wood. 

When  these  advantages,  coupled  with  economy  in  ]irice,  are  considered,  it 
vvdl  be  easily  seen  what  facilities  arc  now  aft'orded  for  disseminating  tliroiigh- 
oiit  the  emjiire  a  knowledge  of  the  best  works  of  scnlpturc.  The  inventor 
hopes  to  |ihice  within  the  reach  of  every  individual  the  enjoyment  and  ad- 
vantages ilerivable  from  the  contemplation  and  study  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  this  branch  of  the  Fine  Arts. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


203 


REVISIWS. 


Pennij  Cycloptedia,  Part  87. 


We  liave  before  directed  the  attention  of  our  readers,  on  more  than 
one  occasion  to  this  well  conducted  publication,  and  now  point  out  the 
article  Paris,  on  account  of  the  architectural  remarks  it  contains  on  the 


principal  public  buildings,  and  likewise  for  the  synoptical  table  which 
accompanies  them,  and  which  is  drawn  up  upon  the  same  plan  as  those 
of  London  and  Munich.  The  arraua;enient  is  chronological,  and  divided 
into  centuries.  We  extract  the  latter  portion,  or  that  comprising  the 
edifices  erected  within  the  present  century,  more  than  which  we  do 
not  consider  ourselves  at  liberty  to  transfer  to  our  Journal,  else  we 
sliould  willingly  give  the  entire  table ;  but  wdiether  they  take  in  the 
work  or  not,  we  have  no  doubt  that  most  of  our  readers  will  procure 
the  pal't  containing  the  article  from  which  our  extract  is  taken. 


Nineteenth  Century. 


Rue  Kivoli 
La  Madeleine 

Pont  des  Arts 

Arch  of  the  Tuileries    . 

Vendome  Colamn 

Arc  de  I'Etoile 

Pont  des  Iiivalldes 

(Pont  de  Jena) 

Fontaine  du  Palmier 

Portico,  Chamber  of  Deputies 
Bourse         .... 

Hotel  des  Affaires  Etrangcres 
(Quai  d'Orsay) 

Halle  anx  Vins 
Bendy  Fountain 
Marche  St.  Germain 
Chapelle  Expiatoire 

Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts 

July  Column 

Pont  du  Carrousel 

Palais  de  Justice 
Hotel  de  Ville      . 

laixor  Obelisk 
Place  de  la  Concorde    . 
Notre  Dame  de  Lorette 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul 

Bazar  Bonne  Nouvelle 

Church,  Faubourg  St.  Germain 


Date. 

Architect. 

1802 

I'ercier 

1804-36 

Vignon,  Ihive,&c. 

1804 

Cessart  &  Dillon 

1805-10 

Percier  and  Fon- 

taine 

180G 

Gondouin  &  Le- 

pere 

180C-3G 

Chalt^rin,  fee.  fi- 

iiisliedbyDebret 

1806 

Lamandc 

1806-8 

Bralle 

1807 

Poyet 

1808-1824 

Brogniart  &  La- 

barre 

1810-1837 

Bonnard  and  Le- 

cointe     . 

1811-13 

Gaucher     . 

1811 

Girard 

1813 

Blonde!,  M.  J.  B. 

1815-23 

Percier  and  Fon- 

taine 

1824-37 

Duban  and    La- 

brouste     . 

1833 

Alavoine    . 

1834-6 

Polenceau  . 

1834 

1835 

Godde   and    Le- 

sueur 

1836 

Hittorff      . 

1825-36 

Lebas 

Hittoi-ff  and  Lc- 

pere 

1837 

Froehlicher    and 

Grisart   . 

1839 

Gau 

Remarks. 


A  Corinthian  peristyle  of  52  columns  (8  at  each  end)  62  feet  high,  raised  on  a  stylobate 

13  feet  high. 
For  foot-passengers  only  ;  arches  cast  iron,  piers  stone. 
Each  front  lias  four  Corinthian  columns  (shafts  red  marble,  and  bronze  capitals),  with  a 

central  arch  and  two  smaller  ones. 
Stone  cased  with  bronze  reliefs ;  total  height  141  feet. 

Width  147  feet,  height  162  feet,  depth  73  feet.     Arch  47  feet  wide,  90  feet  high. 

Five  arches,  length  518  feet. 

A  column  on  a  pedestal,  surmounted  by  a  figme  of  Fame  on  a  globe.     Height  to  top  of 

capital  49  ft.  3  in. :  total  height,  with  statue,  56  feet. 
A  single  range  of  twelve  cohunns  (44  feet  high)  beneath  a  pediment. 
A  Corinthian  peristyle  of  64  columns  (40  feet  high),  14  at  each  end. 

An  extensive  pile,  of  which  the  projecting  portion  forming  the  facade  towards  the  quay  is 
370  feet,  and  consists  of  two  orders,  Doric  and  Ionic,  surmounted  by  an  attic,  and  each 
containing  19  large  arcades  or  windows. 

\  large  circular  Oasin  90  feet  in  diameter,  with  other  basins  or  terraces  rising  from  it. 

Tetrastyle  portico,  Roman  Doric  attached  to  a  square  mass,  whose  three  other  sides  have 

semicircular  projections  crowned  by  scmidomes  against  the  attic  of  the  square  part. 
Two  Corinthian  orders  (one  in  columns,  the  other  in  pilasters),  n])ou  a  basement.     The 

gateway  or  screen  from  Chateau  GaiUon,  erected  in  front  of  the  building. 
Pedestal  stone,  column  bronze,  total  height  154  feet;  13  feet  higher  than  the  VendOme 

Column. 
Timber  and  iron,  with  stone  piers  and  abutments.   Three  arches,  centre  one  187  feet  span, 

and  16',  rise.     Total  length  558  feet. 
Interior  remodelled  ami  rebuilt  chiefly  in  the  Renaissance  style. 
Restorations,  cS;c.     Renaissance  style. 

Raised  by  Lebas,  October  25. 

Embellished  with  fountains  and  architectural  decorations. 

Portico,  tetrastyle  Corinthian. 


Gothic. 


We  should  like  to  see  a  complete  series  of  such  tables  for  all  the 
principal  cities  of  Europe,  published  separately,  and  would  suggest 
this  to  the  writer  in  the  Cyclopsdia,  n  ith  whom  the  idea  appears  to 
have  originated. 


j1  Brief  Description  of  Ijie  various  Plans  Ihal  hare  been  proposed  for 
supplying  the  Metropolis  with  Pure  U^altr,  also  a  short  Account  of 
Iht.  difftrtiit  Water  Companies  tliat  now  supply  London. 

The  sujiply  of  water  for  domestic  use  is  a  subject  which.in  all 
times  has  been  regarded  as  one  of  grc;it  public  importance,  for,  next 
to  the  air  which  we  breathe,  water  is  the  most  powerful  agent  in  vit.d 
economy.  It  is  a  subject,  indeed,  which  every  year  becomes  of  deeper 
interest,  partiodarly  to  the  inhabitants  of  a  densely  peopled  metro- 
polis; to  vitiated  air  and  vitiated  water,  and  to  an  insutbcient  supply 
of  both  in  purity,  is  ow'ing  the  frightful  mortality  which  attacks  the 
inhabitants  of  towns  when  compared  with  those  of  the  country,  and 
we  think  that  the  Report  of  Mr.  Farr  to  the  Registrar  Gieneral,  will 
l)0t  do  less  towards  effecting  a  reform  of  these  evils,  than  the  active 
agitation  of  the  last  ten  years,  or  the  labours  of  parliauieutary  com- 
mittees.    Much  certainly  has  been  done  within  the  last  ten  years 


towards  improving  the  supply  of  water,  but  much,  very  much,  still 
remains  fu  be  done  before  the  companies  can  be  considered  to  have 
done  their  dutv.  The  author  of  the  pamphlet  before  us  would  have 
done  wisely  ii  he  had  omitted  the  following  passage.  "It  is  not  in- 
tended, in  the  present  day,  that  the  inhal)itants  of  London,  generally, 
complain  of  ti.e  quality  of  the  water  supplied  to  them,  although  it 
still  seems  to  b"  the  policy  of  certain  'artful  and  mischievous  persons' 
tu  use  the  words  of  a  celebrated  individual,  now  no  more,  by  exag- 
gerated statements  to  promote  contention  and  inflame  the  passions  of 
the  inhabitants,"  Though  these  words  are  supported  by  a  quotation 
from  the  great  Telford,  we  nuist  remember  that  he  was  speaking  on 
a  subject  on  which  he  had  strong  prejudices.  Is  it  at  all  probable 
that  the  companies  would  have  incurred  the  rnurmous  outlay  which 
they  have  done  during  the  last  ten  years,  we  may  say,  within  limits,  to 
the  tune  of  a  million  pounds  sterling — if  there  had  not  been  some 
truth  in  the  statements  of  these  "artful  and  mischievous  persons," 
would  the  t^rand  Junction  Company  have  removed  their  works  from 
the  "former  olijectiouable  site  near  Chelsea  (Sewer?)  Hospital"  to 
Brentford,  and  incurred  an  expense  of  nearly  £200,000,  if  it  had  not 
been  for  these  "artful  and  mischievous  persons."  0\ir  author  also 
subjects  himself  to  the  same  deuomination,  for  he  even  has  had  the 

2  K  2 


204 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[JXTNE, 


iemerilt/  to  tell  the  Companies  that  the  present  mode  of  filtering  as 
practised  by  them  is  insufficient  effectually  to  cleanse  Thames  water 
of  all  the  impurities  which  are  suspended  in  it  after  heavy  rains  (vide 
page  9j,  and  he  recommends  as  the  most  effectual  method,  the  |)lan  of 
nlteriiig  through  charcoal,  which  we  shall  hereafter  notice.     We  be- 
lieve that  most  of  the  ( 'omijanies  have  done  their  best  in  endeavouring 
to  improve  their  supply  from  the  Thnmtst,  but  whether  that  resort  he 
the  best  for  obtaining  water  is  a  subject  well  worthy  of  inquiry.     We 
believe  it  is  not  dis|mted,  by  any  party,  that  water  obtained  by  the  aid 
of  deep  wells  and  Artesian  boring  is  far  better  than  obtaining  the  sup- 
ply from  the  Thames,  as  by  the  latter,  enormous  expences  are  annually 
incurred  in  filtering  the  water,  besides  the  expense  of  pumping  first 
the  supply  into  a  reservoir  and  thence  to  the  mains,  whereas  by  the 
former  process  the  water  might  at  once  be  pumped  into  the  pipes, 
and  forced  up  to  the  elevated  situation,  without  the  expense,  trouble, 
or  delay  of  filtering,  or  pumping  a  second  time,   but  the  objections 
to   the  former    plan   have  been   that  a  sufficient   quantity  of  water 
cannot  be  obtained  for  this  great  metropolis,  and  also  that  any  at- 
tempt to    obtain  a   supply  by  such  means  would    materially   affect 
the  numerous  wells  about  the  metropolis,  particularly  those  which 
belong  to  the  manufactories  and  the  large  breweries,  the  latter,  until 
■within  the  last  "20  years,  were  supplied  by  the  various  companies,  but 
in  consequence  of  the  heavy  rental  the  brewers  and  manufacturers 
were  compelled  to  pay,  they  had  recourse  to  the  sinking  of  wells  of 
great  extent,  and,  we  believe,  we  may  say  safely,  not  one  of  them  ever 
failed  affording  an  ample  supply,  and  if  the  companies  do  not  take 
care,  their  other  customers  will  be  obliged  to  resort  to  the  same  means, 
as  very  little  consideration  of  the  geology  of  London  would  be  suf- 
ficient to  convince  any  one  that  an  abundant  supply  of  water  for  all, 
exists  in  the  lower  strata,  in  the  same  manner  as  at  Paris,  a  descrip- 
tion of  wdiich,  in  one  of  our  recent  numbers,  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  present  subject. 

Before  we  |)roceed  further  with  our  remarks,  however,  we  must 
refer  to  the  contents  of  the  pamphlet  which  has  given  rise  to  this 
notice.  The  work  is  published  anonymously,  but  we  understand  that 
it  is  by  Mr.  Peppercorns,  a  highly  respectable  member  of  the  profession, 
and  in  no  way  connected  Vfith  a  gentleman  of  the  same  name  acting  as 
secretary  to  one  of  the  metropolitan  water  companies. 

The  pamphlet  first  proceeds  to  describe  the  several  metropolitan 
companies,  how  they  obtain  their  supplies  of  water  and  the  quality  of 
it.  it  then  details  the  various  plans  devised  by  the  water  companies, 
or  by  private  individuals,  wdiich  are  divided  into  three  classes: 

1st.  Those  which  propose  the  purificatiou  of  the  Thames  water  either  by 
filtration  or  by  sulisidence,  or  by  both  combined,  aud  which  method  has  been 
put  in  practice  on  an  extensive  scale  by  some  of  the  water  companies. 

2ncl.  Those  which  suggest  the  taking  of  the  water  supply  fi'om  a  higher 
part  of  the  river  than  where  it  is  now  obtained. 

3rd.  Those  which  recommend  to  draw  the  supply  from  other  sources  than 
the  Thames,  and  to  convey  it  by  means  of  extensive  aqueducts  to  London. 

Respecting  the  first  class,  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  although  filtration 
througli  sand,  or  through  sand  and  gravel,  (as,  in  the  case  of  the  Chelsea 
water-works,)  produces  a  perfectly  clear  and  transparent  fluid,  free  from  seih- 
mcnt  and  colour,  yet  that  it  is  insufficient  to  free  the  water  from  animal  or 
vegetable  im])uritics  held  in  solution,  or  from  any  taint  which  the  water  may 
have  thereby  ac(|uire<l ;  hut  that  filtration  through  charcoal,  or  through  sand 
and  charcoal,  as  jjractised  to  some  extent  with  the  water  of  the  Seine  at 
Paris,  is  cni)able  of  removing  the  whole  ot  the  sediment,  and  also,  by  a  pro- 
perly regulated  system,  the  entire  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  impurities  con- 
tained in  Thiimes  water  taken  from  the  London  district. 

With  respect  to  the  method  of  subsidence  alone  in  reservoirs,  as  practised 
now  by  almost  all  the  water  companies,  although  a  large  portion  of  the 
muddy  sediment  contained  in  Thames  water  is  thereby  deposited,  yet  it  is 
clear  that  it  cannot  free  the  water  from  all  the  impurities  dissolved  in  it. 
The  process  of  subsidence  might,  it  is  true,  he  made  to  free  the  water  from 
nearly  the  whole  of  theanim.al  impurities  contained  in  it,  but  in  tliat  case  the 
state  of  rest  of  the  water,  to  he  so  purified,  ought  to  contimie  for  a  nmch 
longer  period  of  time  than  the  companies  usually  allow,  or  can  art'ord  to 
allow.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  if  Thames  water  ho  snfi'cred  to  remain 
at  rest,  completly  undisturbed,  for  a  period  of  several  weeks,  fermentation 
will  take  place  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter, 
and  the  liquid  will  become  clear  and  transparent,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  proportion  of  insoluble  sediment,  and  will  lose  all  unpleasant  smell, 
taste,  or  colour.  This  curious  fact  was  ascertained  by  Dr.  liostock,  who 
commmiicated  the  result  of  his  interesting  enquurv  to  the  Royal  Society  in 
1829. 

Of  the  second  class,  it  is  only  necessary  to  observe,  that  mdess  all  the  water 
companies,  north  and  south  of  the  Thames,  were  simultaneously  to  esfaldish 
their  works  as  far  to  the  west  as  at  Teddington,  no  renmval  to  auv  part  within 
the  influence  of  the  tide,  conhl  accomplish  their  intention  of  supplying  a 
purer  water  than  they  now  do  to  the  metropolis.         *  * 

In  regard  to  the  third  and  last  class  of  projects  tliat  have  been  suhuiitted 
to  parliament,  it  is  only  necessary  to  state  in  passing,  that  the  one  wliich 


seems  to  have  been  d\dy  considered  by  a  select  committee  of  the  House  of 
Connnons  so  late  as  18.'54,  and  which  was  presented  by  the  late  .Mr.  Telford, 
involves  so  much  ditficidty,  anil  the  outlay  of  so  exorbitant  a  capital  for  the 
supply  of  six  only  out  of  the  eight  w.itcr  companies,  that  there  ajipears  to  be  no 
likelihood  of  its  ever  being  carried  into  cfli'ect.  It  is  not  ]>robal)lc,  indc<'d, 
that  any  government  will  authorize  the  expenditure  of  .€1,200,000  for  the 
construction  of  two  aqueducts,  the  one  sixteen,  the  other  six  mUes  in  length, 
according  to  Mr.  Telford's  estimate,  in  order  to  bring  water  of  very  t/uestiun- 
ahlc purity  from  the  Yerulam  aud  the  AVandle  to  assist  «.r  only  of  the  water 
companies  of  the  metropolis. 

We  shall  not  stop  now  to  make  any  inquiry  as  to  the  a\ithority, 
which  the  author  has  for  stating  that  the  water  from  the  Verulam  and 
Wandle  is  "  of  very  questionable  purity  "  but  shall  reserve  it  until  we 
notice  another  ])art  of  the  pamphlet  relating  to  Mr.  Telford's  evidence. 

The  author  jiroceeds  to  give  an  interesting  account  of  the  numerous 
plans  which  have  been  devised  since  the  year  1821,  for  supplying  the 
metropolis,  but  as  it  is  not  our  intention  to  notice  all  these  schemes, 
we  must  confine  ourselves  to  that  part  wdiich  relates  to  the  supply 
from  the  Colne  near  Watford,  the  locality  of  the  pro))osed  London  and 
Westminster  Water  (Company,  now  occupying  the  public  attention  and 
a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  to  wdiich  the  following  ex- 
tracts from  the  pamphlet  alludes. 

.\mong  the  numerous  schemes  for  the  so-called  better  supply  of  the  me- 
tropolis -wMi  pure  water,  from  other  sources  than  the  Thames,  there  are  two 
which  at  the  present  time  claim  particular  attention,  from  an  abortive  attempt 
that  has  been  lately  made  to  revive  one  at  least  of  them.  The  one  of  these 
relates  to  the  supply  of  the  south  side  of  the  metropolis  from  the  river  Wan- 
dle, as  proposed  in  1834  by  Mr.  Telford,  and  the  other  of  the  north  side  from 
the  Colne,  also  originally  suggested  by  Mr.  Telford,  hut  the  idea  of  which 
was  abandoned  by  him  owing  to  the  insignificancy  of  its  stream  imless  after 
hea\-y  rains,  when  its  waters  were  in  a  very  tiuhid  state.  (See  Mr.  Telford's 
report  March  1834,  page  3.) 

A\f  th  respect  to  the  water  of  the  Colne,  Mr.  Telford's  experiments  clearly 
jiroved  that  this  river  was  totally  inade(|uate  in  quantity  for  the  supi)ly  of 
even  tliree  out  of  the  five  Water  Companies  on  the  north  of  the  Thames,  and 
that  with  regard  to  ijuality,  it  is  frequently  in  so  tiu'bid  and  muddy  a  state, 
caused  by  its  flowing  over  a  red  soil,  as  to  be  totally  unfit  for  use. 

Mr.  Telford  indeed  gauged  t/ie  river  Coluc,  and  the  result  of  his  experi- 
ments showed  that  that  river  was  totally  inader/iiate  for  the  supply  of  even 
ttiree  out  of  the  five  Water  Companies  on  the  north  of  the  Thames. 

These  quotations,  unsupported  by  other  parts  of  Mr.  Telford's  re- 
port and  evidence,  would  naturally,  with  a  stranger  to  the  subject,  lead 
to  the  belief  that  the  efforts  now  being  made  for  establishing  the  pro- 
posed company  are  entirely  delusive,  and  that  all  their  statements  are 
only  intended  to  dupe  the  respectable  individuals  who  are  disposed  to 
lend  it  their  patronage.  We  have,  therefore,  thought  it  necessary  to 
reperuse  the  reports  and  evidence,  and  also  at  the  beginning  of  last 
month  to  visit  the  spot  where  the  experiments  are  now  being  made. 

Let  us  first  explain  the  situation  and  course  of  the  river  Colne.  It 
unites  with  the  Thames  near  Isleworth,  in  its  course  to  Watford,  it 
receives  several  tributary  streams;  from  Watford  it  proceeds  (still 
under  the  name  of  the  Colne)  for  a  distance  of  about  four  miles,  through 
O  Iters  Pool,  the  scene  of  the  company's  experiments,  aud  Bushey  Mills, 
the  place  from  which  Mr.  Telford  proposed  to  take  his  supply,  it 
then  goes  on  to  the  place  at  which  the  river  Verulam  falls  in ;  the 
Colne  continuing  on  as  a  very  small  stream  beyond  this  spot,  to  the 
north-east,  towards  Colney  and  .South  Mims,  and  the  larger  stream,  the 
Verulam,  proceeding  to  the  north  by  St.  Alban's,  for  some  distance  up 
the  country — therefore  it  will  be  observed  that  the  river  is  called  the 
Colne  from  its  junction  with  the  Verulam  to  the  river  Thames.  When 
Mr.  Telford  stated  that  the  Colne  is  an  insignificant  stream,  i&c,  it 
may  be  clearly  seen  by  his  evidence,  that  he  alluded  to  that  part  of 
the  stream  above  its  junction  with  the  Verulam,  and  he  proposed  to 
divert  that  part  of  the  Colne,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from  affording  any 
supply  to  the  intended  water-works  at  Bushey  Mills,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Colne,  but  lower  down  the  river,  and  that  in  his  report  he  called 
that  part  of  the  river  Colne  from  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers  to 
Watford  "  the  Verulam,"  wdiereas  as  we  have  already  shewn,  it  is 
called  "the  Colne."  Wc  will  now  give  a  few  extracts  from  the 
evidence  of  Mr.  Telford  to  show  that  at  that  part  of  the  Colne  "  Bushey 
Mills,"  there  was  an  ample  supjjly  of  pure  water  to  be  obtained  in  the 
driest  season  without  filtration,  or  pumping,  sufficient  to  supply  the 
principal  part  of  the  metropolis.  All  this  evidence  the  author  has 
carelullv  kept  out  of  view,  for  what  purpose  we  will  not  pretend  to 
say,  unless  from  a  misunderstanding  of  Mr.  Telford's  evidence. 

Mr.  Telford  in  his  report  to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury,  February 
1834,  states,  that  after  having  exannned  the  streams  which  fall  into 
the  river  Thames  in  the  vicinity  of  London,  he  found  an  abundance  of 
pure,  transparent  water,  within  "the  distance  of  IB  miles  on  the  north 
(of  London},  amply  sufficient  for  the  supply  of  three  of  the  present 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


205 


companies  on  that  side  of  tlie  Thames,  he  then  goes  on  to  state  that 
the  eastern  branch  (of  the  Cohie)  called  the  Verulam,  a  transparent 
stream,  occupies  the  St.  Alban's  Valley,  and  about  half  way  between 
St.  Albans  and  Watford,  the  Colne  joins  the  Verulam ;  but,  unless 
after  heavy  rain,  the  Colne  is  an  insignificant  stream,  and  at  such  time 
very  muddy,  wherefore  it  is  intended  to  exclude  the  Colne  from  fur- 
nishing any  part  of  the  supply  of  water. 

Mr.  Telford  farther  states  in  this  report  that  "at  Watford  Mill" 
(near  the  spot  the  proposed  company  intend  to  erect  their  works),  "  in 
the  autunni  of  lb33,  being  the  driest  season,  as  regards  the  supply  of 
rivers,  experienced  during  the  last  half  century,  file  Verulam  river 
produced  upwards  of  30  cubic  feet  of  water  per  second;  being  more 
than  double  the  quantity  supplied  by  the  three  companies  in  the  year 
]S28,  namely,  13  cubic  feet  per  second;"  and  as  a  farther  proof,  to 
show  that  Mr.  Telford  proposed  taking  his  supply  from  near  the  spot, 
the  proposed  company  have  selected,  he  says,  "  Immediately  above 
the  commencement  of  the  intended  London  Aqueduct,  about  two  miles 
above  Watford,  the  valley  of  the  river  Verulam  affords  a  commodious 
situation  for  extensive  reservoirs  of  water,  and  for  allowing  it  to  settle, 
if  such  should  hereafter  be  deemed  requisite.  From  this  place  a 
covered  aqueduct  may  be  made  to  descend  with  a  uniform  inclination 
of  18  inches  per  mile  to  Primrose  Hill,  terminating  in  a  set  of  exten- 
sive receiving  and  distributing  reservoirs,  at  the  height  of  146  feet 
above  high  water  Trinity." 

This  report  is  again  supported  by  the  subsequent  evidence  of  Mr. 
Telford,  given  in  the  report  from  the  select  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  183-1,  from  which  we  select  the  following. 

23.  What  part  of  the  River  Verulam  do  you  take  the  first  portion  of  your 
supply  from  ? — The  supply  is  taken  about  half  way  between  Watford  and 
St.  Albans ;  the  whole  supply  for  the  nortli  side  is  taken  there. 

24.  Is  it  from  a  place  called  Grove  Mill? — No,  we  do  not  take  any  from 
Grove  Mill ;  Bushey  Mill  is  the  place.  We  make  no  use  of  the  waters  of  the 
Gade.     There  are  six  pajjer-mills  immediately  above  Grove  Mill. 

29.  Witli  reference  tlien  to  the  River  Verulam,  you  think  that,  as  it  would 
only  be  necessary  to  apply  it  to  the  districts  now  served  by  the  three  com- 
panies at  the  west  end  of  London,  that  the  River  Verulam  would  supply  a 
quantity  sufficient  ? — Quite  so  ;  for  what  I  have  estimated  is  without  reser- 
voirs ;  but  from  the  usual  summer  supply  of  the  river,  a  great  deal  might  be 
added  if  it  were  necessary  ;  perhaps  a  tliird  more  by  making  reservoirs  for 
retaining  flood  water  in  that  valley,  but  at  present  that  is  not  wanted,  be- 
cause the  quantity  in  the  dryest  season  known  for  thirty  years,  was  upwards 
of  30  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  is  more  than  double  what  the  three  com- 
panies have  now. 

35.  There  is  no  other  part  of  the  Colne  according  to  yom  opinion  then 
that  would  furnish  an  improved  supply  to  London,  except  this  River  Verulam, 
which  you  would  take  unpolluted,  at  the  point  of  junction  with  the  Colne .' 
— Below  the  junction  of  the  Colne.  We  must  divert  the  Colne.  The  Colne 
has  in  summer  time  very  Httle  water  in  it ;  we  could  not  get  a  cubic  foot  of 
water  per  second ;  in  rainy  weather  there  is  a  consideralile  quantity,  but  as 
it  passes  through  a  red  soil,  it  is  very  muddy,  and  therefore  we  must  divert 
it,  and  never  let  it  go  into  the  River  Verulam  at  all,  imtil  it  has  passed  the 
point  where  the  London  aqueduct  is  taken  oft". 

36.  But  alluding  to  those  delta  streams  which  the  various  soin-ces  com- 
monly called  the  Colne  eventually  form,  is  it  your  opinion  that  any  of  those 
branches  are  sufticiently  pine  and  good  for  the  supply  of  London .' — The 
Verulam  is  the  ouly  one. 

37.  No  other  branch  of  the  Colne  is  sufficiently  good  for  the  supply  of 
London  ? — No,  not  the  Colne. 

69.  Then  none  of  the  branches  of  the  Colne  which  appear  to  lay  more 
conveniently  near  to  Loudon,  are,  in  your  opinion,  fit  for  the  supply .' — Not 
so  fit  as  the  Verulam  by  any  means. 

70.  Not  in  point  of  purity  of  water,  nor  being  able  to  get  high  sen'ice  .' — 
Just  so  ;  those  were  the  two  reasons  that  struck  me. 

71.  Did  you  propose  to  make  a  covered  aqueduct  ? — Yes,  1  did. 

87.  Wliere  does  the  Verulam  faU  into  the  Colne.' — It  falls  in  about  half 
way  between  Watford  and  St.  Albans. 

88.  Are  you  aware  of  any  ornamental  sheets  of  water  upon  the  Colne 
below  the  point  at  which  you  propose  to  divert  the  water  by  the  aqueduct 
for  the  supply  of  London  ? — No,  I  am  not. 

89.  Did  you  search  to  ascertain  whether  there  were  any  or  not .' — There 
were  none  occmred  to  me. 

90.  The  Committee  obse^^■c  that  the  stream  which  is  commonly  called  the 
Colne,  from  St.  Albans  down  to  Watford,  until  it  arrives  at  Otter's  Pool,  is 
not,  in  point  of  fact,  the  river  which  you  mean  by  the  Veridam .' — Yes,  the 
St.  Albans  river  is  the  Vendam. 

91.  You  have  stated  that  in  dry  weather  that  smaller  branch  which  is 
called  the  Colne,  and  which  flows  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Otter's  Pool,  has 
very  little  water  ? — It  had  not  a  cubic  foot  per  second  wdien  we  measured  it 
twice. 

92.  Well  then,  in  dry  weather  every  seat  which  is  below  Otter's  Pool  must 
feel  the  abstraction  of  this  River  Verulam,  every  seat  between  that  and  the 
Thames  ? — No  doubt  of  it. 

93.  Will  you  tell  the  Committee  the  minimiun  of  water  that  rnns  down 


the  Verulam  at  the  place  where  you  propose  to  take  from  it  ? — Thirty  cubic 
feet  was  the  mininnnn. 

94.  In  what  time  ? — Per  second. 

95.  Will  you  also  tell  the  Committee  what  is  the  largest  quantity  or  the 
maximum  quantity  of  water  that  you  expect  woidd  be  necessary  to  supply 
the  metropolis  ? — I  recommend  to  take  the  power  of  the  wdiole  30  feet. 

96.  But  in  your  Report  you  have  stated  the  supply  at  present  of  the  me- 
tropoMs  to  he  about  13  feet  from  those  three  companies  ? — Yes. 

1334.  Why  do  you  recommend  the  plan  of  taking  the  water  either  from 
the  Vendam  or  from  the  Wandle,  in  preference  to  taking  it  irom  Richmond, 
provided  there  is  filtration  in  both  instances  ;  provided  both  are  filtered,  why 
should  you  prefer  taking  it  from  the  A\'andle  and  the  Veridam  in  preference 
to  taking  the  water  from  the  Thames  at  Richmond? — In  the  first  place  the 
appearance  of  the  water  of  both  the  Wandle  and  Verulam  was  very  tempting, 
being  remarkably  pure  and  transparent ;  and  in  the  next  place,  as  I  have 
already  stated,  my  jdan  saves  both  filtering  and  pumping. 

1335.  Would  not  the  expense  of  the  aquednct  more  than  equal  the  ex- 
pense  of  filtering  and  pumping  s — I  think  it  is  a  more  natural  way  of  sup- 
plying the  water  than  having  recourse  to  artificial  means,  if  you  can  get  it. 

1336.  There  is  no  objection  to  use  artificial  means  to  accomplish  any  ob- 
ject ? — No. 

1337.  Do  you  not,  in  fact,  by  your  plan,  really  buy  the  power  in  the  shape 
of  compensation  to  the  mill  owners  ? — We  do. 

1338.  And  that  power  is  already  possessed  and  in  existence  in  the  shape 
of  steam-engines,  by  the  present  company  ? — Yes. 

1339.  Will  you  tell  the  Committee  in  yonr  own  way  why  we  ought  to 
prefer  this  at  the  expense  of  £1,200,000  ? — It  would  be  a  much  more  perfect 
scheme  with  respect  to  supplying  the  town,  and  much  less  objectionable  to 
the  people. 

1340.  In  what  less  objectionable? — Because  there  are  many  strong  ob. 
jections  to  the  use  of  Thames  water. 

1341.  Without  referring  to  the  prejudice  against  the  Thames  water,  what 
would  be  your  recommendation,  supposing  there  was  no  such  prejudice .' — 
/  should  j-ecojitmeiid  my  own  plan  as  being  the  best, 

1342.  Is  it  not  infinitely  more  expensive .' — Yes,  more  expensive,  I  daro 
say. 

1343.  Would  it  not  increase  very  much  the  expense  which  we  are  now 
put  to  for  water  in  the  metropolis  ? — It  might  to  a  small  extent ;  but  the 
metropolis  should  certainly  enjoy  the  purest  water  that  can  be  procured. 

1344.  That  w'ould  not  be  desirable? — Not  if  you  can  be  well  served  with- 
out it,  certahdy. 

1345.  Can  you  say  it  will  not  be  as  well  supplied  without  that  expense  by 
taking  it  from  Richmond  ? — I  do  not  think  so  good  a  supply  could  be  got  at 
Richmond. 

1346.  If  the  companies  would  deliver  the  Richmond  water  Altered,  woidd 
you  say  it  was  an  objectionable  supply  ? — Filtering  takes  out  only  what  is 
mechanically  suspended  in  the  water,  not  what  is  dissolved. 

From  these  extracts,  we  think  there  is  ample  testimony  to  show  that 
a  very  copious  supply  of  pure  water  may  be  obtained  from  that  part 
of  the  Colne  (called  by  Telford  the  Verulam),  at  Bushey  Mills,  for 
serving  a  large  portion  of  the  metropolis.     Now  it  is  near  this  spot 
that  the  promoters  of  the  Company  are  carrying  on  their  experiments, 
not  intending  at  present  to  take  the  supply  from  the  river  itself,  but 
from  borings  down  to  the  springs,  from  which  as  the  appearance  of 
those  already  reached  will  show,  in  several  parts  of  the  Valley  at  a 
distance  of  nearly  a  mile  from  each  other,  the  water  rises  to  within  18 
inches  of  the  surface,  and  thus  it  is  expected  an  ample  quantity  of 
water  will  be  obtained,  independent  of  the  river  Colne  or  Verulam, 
sufficient  to  supply  the  greater  part  of  the  metropolis  without  at  all 
affecting  the  river.     The  Company  are  determined  fairly  to  test  the 
experiments  for  this  purpose,  and  are  now  erecting  a  steam  engine  to 
ascertain  what  quantity  of  water  can  be  really  obtained.     From  the 
evidence  of  Mr.  Telford  already  given  as  to  the  river  coupled  with 
the  supply  from  borings,  it  appears  beyond  a  doubt  that  an  abundance 
of  excellent  water  can  oe  obtained  without  filtering  or  pumping.    We 
think  that  the  promoters  are  deserving  of  praise  for  the  exertion  which 
they  are  now  making  to  bring  the  question  to  an  issue,  and  if  they  can 
show  that  a  large  supply  can  be  obtained  sufficiently  to  provide  water 
tor  at  least  three  of  the  companies,  it  will  be  a  great  boon,  not  only  to 
the  public,  but  to  the  companies  themselves,  as  we  conceive  it  would 
be  to  the  interest  of  aU  parties,  that  the  old  companies  should  take 
their  supply  from  the  new  company,  and  thereby  save  the  great  and 
heavy  expences  of  pumping  and  filtering  which  they  are  now  obliged 
to  adopt ;  as  according  to  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Telford  the  new  company 
will  be  able  to  supply  the  water  in  London  at  an  elevation  of  14G  feet 
above  Trinity  datum,  a  height  quite  sufficient  for  the  highest  cistern 
of  any  part  of  London  to  be  served  by  gravity. 

We  have  extended  our  notice  to  a  greater  length  than  we  originally 
intended,  but  the  importance  of  the  subject  has  lea  us  on  imperceptibly, 
we  must  therefore  defer  further  notice  of  this  interesting  pamphlet, 
which  affords  abundance  of  materials  for  consideration — before  we 
conclude  we  shall  give  the  description  of  a  proposed  filtering  appara- 


2on 


TITE  CTVTL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Junk, 


tiis  dosigned  by  (he  author,  and  another  which  has  been  adopted  in 
SwitzerUind. 


i'nni>osi;D  fii.tkkin<;  Ai'r.\BATUs. 


REFERENCE. 

A,  cliarooal  medium  (Ihe  finest  in  the  rentre).    H,  fine  sand.    C,  eoarse  sand. 
D,  fine  iTavel,  and  pebljlcs.    E,  large  gravel,  and  Ijroken  pottery. 

The  ahovc  is  a  slietch  of  a  filtering  apparatus,  in  \\nieli  charcoal  is  proposed 
to  lie  emjiloyed,  both  in  a  fine  and  coarse  state,  the  finest  being  in  tiie  centre, 
as  shown.  In  this  case,  lateral  fdtration  by  a  head  of  water,  is  to  be  pre- 
ferreil  to  an  extended  surface  over  which  the  filtering  materials  are  laid,  and 
where  tbe  water  percolates  through,  as  in  the  first  place,  the  materials,  (the 
charcoal  in  jiarticular,)  will  be  more  accessible  at  all  times  for  cleansing,  or 
renewing,  when  required.  The  charcoal,  in  fact,  might  be  taken  out  and  re- 
newed, witliout  interfering  in  the  slightest  way  with  the  rest  of  the  filtering 
niaterials,  being  separated  from  the  gravel  and  sand,  by  the  perforated  plank- 
ing, as  shown  in  the  sketch. 

In  the  next  place,  the  disposition  of  the  sand,  &c.,  the  finest  being  placed 
outermost,  at  its  natural  slope  of  about  .'50°  or  35",  would  in  a  great  measure 
supersede  the  necessity  for  having  the  surface  scraped  frequently,  as  done  at 
the  Chelsea  water  works,  for  there  would  be  a  nn/nral  feiidenoi/,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  outer  layer  of  sand  became  loaded  with  the  sediment  and  particles 
which  It  would  arrest,  for  the  sand  to  sfiiJo  ilnini  to  the  base  of  the  slope, 
where  the  sediment,  ^vc,  would  accunudate,  and  from  whence  it  migl\t  be 
easily  removed.  All  that  would  be  reiinircd  in  that  case,  would  he  to  renew 
occasionally  the  outer  layer  of  sand,  which  might  be  done  with  the  greatest 
case  from  the  top  of  the  filter-bank,  without  disturbing  the  remainder.  It 
should  be  ohser\ed  that  where  the  sand  conies  in  contact  with  the  planking 
near  tlie  top  of  the  strucfurc,  the  ]danks  should  lie  laid  with  a  close  joint,  to 
prevent  the  sand  from  being  washed  through. 

Thirdly,  the  proposed  method  would  be  far  less  expensive,  as  regards  the 
first  cost,  than  the  method  of  filtering  hy  descent ;  as  the  construction  of  the 
frame-work  would  be  entirely  of  timber,  it  could  be  jint  together  by  any  car- 
])eiitcr  .it  a  trifling  expense.  The  plan  proposed  wouhl,  in  fact,  combine  the 
advantages  of  two  distinct  filters,  acting  in  very  ilifi'erent  ways,  with  very 
little  more  trouble  or  expense,  than  would  lie  involved  in  the  construction  of 
one  only.  With  respect  to  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  charcoal 
would  retain  its  pnrifj'ing  qualities,  it  appears  from  Mr.  Lowit/'s  experiments, 
before  mentioneil,  that  charcoal  retained  its  autipntreseeiit  properties  for  a 
v^/iolr  year  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  supjily  had  to  be  renewed  but  once  in  that 
time,  the  expense  would  be  but  small.  This  must  be,  however,  a  matter  of 
experiment ;  probably  it  might  be  found  that  by  remo\ing  the  charcoal  from 
time  to  tiiiic,  washing  it  well,  and  eaposinij  it  ht  the  liijht  and  air,  for  a  few 
days,  it  would  part  with  whatever  putrescent  particles  it  had  absorbed  from 
Ihe  water,  and  might  be  made  use  of  over  again. 


In  order  to  facilitate  the  deposition  and  subsidence  of  the  grosser  impuri- 
ties and  sediment,  pievions  to  the  water  passing  through  the  above  filler- 
bank,  a  very  simple  and  ingeniims  method  might  be  employed,  which  lias 
been  put  in  practice  with  complete  success  in  .Switzerland,  for  purifying  a 
stream  of  water,  and  which  was  described  by  Sir  Henry  Eiiglefield,  in  the 
Philosoidiical  .lonrnal,  so  far  hack  as  1804.  It  consists  of  a  structure  of 
tunhcr  or  masonry,  as  shown  in  the  jicrspectivc  sketch  below,  where  A  A  is 
the  upper  surface  of  the  stream  to  be  ]iurificd,  and  li  R  the  bottom.  The 
channel,  or  cut  through  which  the  water  flows  is  divided  into  several  cham- 
bers by  the  jiarallel  p.ulitinus  C.  C,  C,  altennitely  rising  above  the  surface 
level  of  the  stream,  and  fipeu  at  the  liutlom,  while  the  intermediate  partitions 
D,  D,  do  not  rise  witliiii  xenralfeet  of  the  surface,  and  are  contlnned  to  the 
bottom.  It  is  obvious  that  the  course  of  the  water  nmst  he  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrows,  and  in  this  rejieated  slow  ascent  and  descent,  all  floating  hn- 
)iurities  will  be  left  at  the  to]i,  while  the  sediment  and  heavier  ini]iuritics 
will  subside  to  the  bottom.  The  sediment,  &c.,  may  he  easily  removed  .ind 
the  apparatus  cleansed,  by  sending  down  )iersons  between  tbe  walls,  and  the 
operation  would  he  facilitated  by  giving  to  the  bottom  of  the  cut  or  canal, 
the  form  of  an  inverted  arch.  The  spaces  between  the  partition  walls  might 
be  partly  filled  with  coarse  filtering  materials,  such  as  broken  pottery,  or 
coarse  gravel  and  pebbles,  &c. 


I/lmlralions  of  Indian  Architecture  from  the  Muhammadan  Conquest 
doimtvardsj'bt/  Uarkham  Kittoe,  Esq.  Calcutta:  Thacker  &  Co., 
1838.     London:  Allen. 

We  presume  that  Mr.  Kittoe  is  not  a  member  of  the  profession,  but 
attached  to  the  civil  service  in  India,  but  he  has  produced  a  work 
which  cannot  but  be  valuable  both  to  the  student  of  this  specific  branch 
of  architecture,  and  to  those  who  are  attached  to  the  art  in  general. 
The  buildings  represented  in  the  numbers  before  us,  principally  belong 
to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  their  details  are  illustrated 
with  an  accuracy,  which  makes  them  equally  useful  and  interesting. 
It  is  singular  to  trace  in  the  buildings  of  Delhi  or  Agra  some  of  the 
commonest  ornaments  of  our  iiuu  drawing  rooms,  and  Mr.  Kittoe's 
work  presents  variations  of  them  which  might  be  introduced  with  ad- 
vantage  here.  Some  of  the  trellis  work  in  stone  is  particularly  ad- 
mirable, and  would  look  extremely  well  in  iron,  or  applied  for  grained 
ceilings,  the  variations  of  honeysuckle  ornament  are  also  well  worthy 
of  attention.  These  nundjers  are  indeed  a  great  accession  to  our  stock 
of  works  on  ornament,  and  Mr.  Kittoe  deserves  the  highest  praise  for 
producing  a  work  so  valuable  in  despite  of  all  the  difficulties  of  the 
Indian  press.  To  us  this  work  is  also  gratifying  as  it  is  a  proof  of  our 
labours  having  penetrated  there  and  been  appreciated,  and  we  cannot 
but  recommend  to  architects  and  amateurs  in  the  ditiijrent  parts  of  our 


1810.] 


THE  ClVlL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


•207 


empire  to  imitate  Mr.  Kittoe's  excellent  example,  there  is  plenty  of 
field  ill  Malta,  the  Ionian  Isles,  Atlon,  our  vast  Indian  empire,  and  dur- 
ing the  several  military  expeditions.  Much  might  be  done  by  such 
observations  to  increase  our  stock  of  architectural  works. 

Ric.iUTi's  Rustic  Archilecture.    London :  Weale,  1840. 

The  first  number  of  this  work  opens  with  the  design  and  details  of 
a  cottage  in  the  Elizabethan  style,  which,  if  it  be  a  fair  specimen  of  its 
successors,  is  highly  promising.  We  are  glad  to  see  tlie  taste  which 
exists  among  our  nobility  for  the  erection  of  ornamental  farm  buildings, 
and  p\iblications  of  this  nature  are  highly  calculated  to  pronuite  it. 
The  example  of  the  late  Duke  of  Sutherland  on  his  estates  in  Stafford- 
shire, we  trust,  will  have  a  lasting  effect. 

LITERAIiY  NOTICE. 

Mr.  Jobbins  has  published  a  Map  of  the  Environs  of  London,  .30  miles 
round,  at  a  scale  of  3  miles  to  the  inch,  with  the  railways  delineated, 
which  for  cheapness  and  completeness  can  vie  with  any. 


FROCXIBDINGS  OF  SCIBKTTZFIC  SOCIETIES. 


ROYAL  SOCIETY. 

Jan.  16. — J.  W.  Lubbock,  Esq.,  V.  P.  and  Treasm-er,  in  tlic  Chair. 

A  jLijier  was  read  ciititlcil,  "  On  Nobili's  Plate  nf  CntoiirK,"  in  a  letter  from 
i.  p.  Gassiott,  Esq.,  to  J.  W.  Lubbock,  Esq.,  V.  P.  and  Treasurer. 

The  effect  produced  by  llie  late  Sig.  Mobili,  of  inducing  colours  tm  a  steel 
plate,  excited  the  curiosity  of  the  author,  and  led  him  to  the  invention  of  tlic 
following  metliod  of  producing  similar  crtccts. — Two  of  Professor  DanicU's 
large  constant  cells  were  excited  with  the  usual  solutions  of  sulphate  of  cop- 
per and  sulphuric  acid.  A  liighly  polished  steel  jilatc  was  |)laced  in  a  por- 
celain soap-plate,  and  a  filtered  solution  of  acetate  of  lead  poured  upon  it. 
A  piece  of  card  !)oard,  out  of  which  the  required  figures  had  I»ccn  previously 
cut  with  a  sharp  knife,  was  then  placed  upon  the  steel  plate.  Over  the 
card,  and  resting  on  it,  there  was  fixed  a  ring  of  wood,  a  quaiter  of  an  inch 
thick,  and  the  inner  circumference  of  wliich  was  of  the  same  size  as  the 
figure.  K  convex  copjier  plate  was  made,  so  that  its  outer  edge  might  rest 
on  the  inner  part  of  the  wooden  ring ;  and  its  centre  |ilaccd  near,  but  not  in 
actual  contact  wit*  the  card  hoard.  Connexion  was  then  made  by  the  posi- 
tive electrode  of  the  battery  with  the  steel  plate;  the  negative  being  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  copper  convex  plate.  The  figure  was  generally  obtained 
in  from  15  to  35  seconds.  If  a  concave,  instead  of  a  convex  plate  be  used, 
the  same  coloius  are  obtained  as  in  the  former  experiment,  but  in  an  inverse 
order. 

Jan.  23. — Sir  Johm  Baruow,  Bart.  V.  P.,  in  the  chair. 

The  Rev.  John  Pye  Smith,  D.D.,  was  elected  a  Fellow. 

A  paper  was  read  entitled,  "  On  the  structure  of  Normal  and  Jdcentitioux 
Bone."     By  Alfred  Smee,  Esip 

"  j-tn  attempt  to  eatabliiih  a  new  and  r/cneral  Notation,  ajijiticablc  to  ttie 
doctrine  of  Life  Contingencies."     By  Peter  Hardy,  Esq. 

After  premising  a  short  account  of  the  labours  of  preceding  writers,  with 
reference  to  a  system  of  notation  in  the  mathematical  consideration  of  life 
contingencies,  the  author  enters  at  length  into  an  exposition  of  the  system  of 
symbols  which  he  has  himself  devised,  together  with  the  applications  which 
they  admit  of  in  a  variety  of  cases. 

Jan.  30. — J.  AY.  Lubbock,  Esq.,  V.P.  and  Treasurer,  in  the  Chair. 
James  Anncslcy,  Esq,,  was  elected  a  Fellow. 

A  paper  was  read,  entitled  "  Obsercafiuns  on  Singte  Vision  until  two  Eijes." 
By  T.  Wharton  Jones,  Esq. 

The  author  animadverts  on  the  doctrine  which  Jlr.  \Vheatstone,  in  his 
paper  on  the  Pliysiology  of  Binocular  Vision,  published  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  for  1838,  p.  371,  has  ailvanced,  in  opimsitiou  to  the  received 
theory  of  single  vision  being  dependent  on  the  images  of  objects  falling  on 
corresponding  points  of  the  two  retina'.  He  maintains  that,  under  these  cir- 
cumstances, the  two  impressions  are  not  perceived  by  the  mind  at  the  same 
instant  of  time,  but  sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes  the  other.  If  one 
impression  be  nuich  stronger  than  the  other,  the  former  predominates  over, 
or  even  excludes,  the  other ;  Init  still  the  appearance  resulting  from  the  pre- 
dominating image  is,  nevertheless,  in  some  manner  influenced  by  that  which 
is  not  perceived,  lie  supposes  that  there  arc  compartments  of  the  two  re- 
tina-, having  certain  limits,  of  which  any  one  point  or  papilla  of  the  one  cor- 
responds \rith  any  one  point  of  the  other,  so  that  impressions  on  /hem  are 
not  perceived  separately;  and  conshlers  tliat  this  hypothesis,  combined  with 
the  principle  .above  stated,  is  required,  in  order  to  explain  the  phenomena  in 
question. 

Feb.  G.— J.  \V.  LuRBOCK.  Esq.,  V.P.  in  the  Chair. 
John  Parkinson,  Esq.,  and  the  Rev.  Charles  Pritchard,  M.A.,  were  elected 
Fellows. 


A  paper  was  read,  entitled  "  Observations  on  the  Blood-eoyyuscles  of  cer- 
tain species  of  the  genus  Cerrns."     By  George  Gulliver,  l^sq. 

Feb.  13. — The  ilarquis  of  Northampton,  President,  in  the  Cliair. 

Martin  Barry,  M.D.,  and  Joseph  I'hillimore,  LL.l).,  were  elected  Fellows. 

The  paper  entitled  "  E.rjierimental  Researches  in  Eleciricitg  ;  1  dth  series ; " 
by  M.  Faraday,  Esq.,  D.C.L.,  tlie  reading  of  wliich  had  been  commenced  at 
the  last  meeting,  was  concluded. 

Feb.  20. — The  Marquis  of  Nobtuampton,  President,  in  the  Chair. 
J .  Caldecott,  Esq.  was  elected  a  Fel.ow. 

The  following  paper  was  read  ;.— 

"  On  the  JJ'cf  Summer  of  lS'i9."  By  1,.  Howard,  Es(|.  Tlie  observations 
of  theavuhor  were  mnde  at  .Vckworth,  in  Yorkshire;  and  the  following  are 
his  results,  with  regard  the  mean  leuiiieraturc  and  the  depth  of  rain,  in  each 
month,  during  1839: — 


Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April, 

May, 

June, 


Xlean  tempe- 
rature. 
37-04'.., 
39-64  . .  , 
39-08  . .  , 
44-09  .., 
49-94  .., 


ram  in 
inches. 
.  1-13 
.  2-14 
.  3-21 
.  0-58 
.    0-38 


56-35 4-89 


July, 
Aug. 
Sept. 
Oct. 
Nov. 
Dec. 


Mean  tempe- 
rature, 
59-30 '. .  , 
58-09  . .  , 


rain  in 
inches. 
.    5-13 
.    2-94 


54-49 3-43 


48-39 
43-14 
37-29 


3-40 
4-54 
1-85 


Mean  temperalnre  of  the  year  47-21''. 
Total  depth  of  rain,  in  1839,  33-62  inches. 

lie  states  that  the  climatic  mean  temperature  of  the  place  is  alioiil  47  ",  and 
the  mean  annual  depth  of  rain  about  26  inches.  Tlie  excess  of  rain  during 
the  year  1839,  was,  therefore  very  great.  The  author  describes  the  effect  of 
the  hurricane  of  the  7th  of  January,  and  follows  the  changes  of  the  weather 
during  the  remainder  of  the  year. 

March  5. — The  Marquis  of  Northampton,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

Captain  John  Theophilus  Boileau,  was  elected  a  Fellow. 

The  reading  of  a  paper  entitled,  "  On  the  Vheniicnl  Action  of  the  Rags  of 
the  Solar  Spectrum  on  Preparations  of  Stiver  and  other  Substances,  both  me- 
tnltic  and  non-metatlic  ,-  and  on  some  Photographic  Processes,"  by  Sir  John 
F.  W.  Ilerschel,  Bart.  6cc.,  was  resumed  and  concluded. — The  object  which 
the  author  has  in  view  in  this  memoir  is  to  place  on  record  a  number  of  in- 
sulated facts  and  oliservations  respecting  the  relations  both  of  wliite  light, 
and  of  tlie  dift'erently  refrangible  rays,  to  various  chemical  agents  which  have 
oficred  themselves  to  his  notice  in  the  course  of  his  jihotographic  experi- 
ments, suggested  by  the  annomicement  of  M.  Dagnerrc's  discovery.  After 
recapitulating  the  heads  of  his  paper  on  this  subject,  which  was  read  to  the 
Society  on  the  lltli  of  March  1839,  he  rem.irks,  that  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant branches  of  the  iii([uiry,  in  jioint  of  practical  utility,  is  into  the  best 
means  of  obtaining  the  exact  reproduction  of  indefinitely  multiplied  fac-similcs 
of  an  original  photograph,  by  wlucli  alone  the  publication  of  originals  maybe 
acconiphslied ;  and  for  which  purpose  the  use  of  paper,  or  otlier  similar  ma- 
terials, appears  to  lie  essentially  requisite.  In  order  to  avoid  circumlocution, 
the  author  employs  the  termi  posit  ice  and  jjeyw/icc  to  express,  respectively, 
pictures  in  which  the  lights  and  shades  are  the  same  as  in  nature,  or  as  in  the 
original  model,  and  in  which  they  are  the  opposite ;  that  is,  light  represent- 
ing shade  ;  and  shade,  light.  The  terms  direct  and  reverse  are  also  used  to 
express  pictures  in  which  objects  appear,  as  regards  right  anil  left,  the  same 
as  in  the  original,  and  the  contrary.  In  respect  to  photograpliic  publication, 
the  employment  of  a  camera  picture  avoids  the  difficulty  of  a  double  transfer, 
which  has  been  found  to  be  a  great  obstacle  to  success  in  the  photographic 
copying  of  engravings  or  drawings.  Tlie  princiiial  objects  of  inquiry  to  which 
the  antlior  has  diret<ted  his  attention  in  the  present  paper,  are  the  following. 

1.  The  means  of  fixing  photographs;  the  compiirative  merits  of  different 
chemical  agents  for  effecting  which,  such  as  hyposulphite  of  soda,  hydriodite 
of  potass,  ferrocyanate  of  potass,  &c.,  he  discusses  at  some  length  :  and  lie 
notices  some  remarkable  jiroperties,  in  this  respect,  of  a  peculiar  agent  which 
he  has  discovered. 

2.  The  means  of  taking  photographic  copies  and  transfers.  The  author 
lays  great  stress  on  the  necessity,  for  this  purpose,  of  preser\iug,  during  the 
oi)eration ,  the  closest  contact  of  the  photographic  paper  used  with  the  original 
to  be  copied. 

3.  The  preparation  of  photographic  paper.  A'arions  experiments  are  de- 
tailed, made  with  the  view  of  discovering  modes  of  increasing  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  paper  to  the  action  of  hght ;  and  particularly  of  those  combina- 
tions of  chemical  substances  which  applied  either  in  succession  or  in  combina- 
tion, prepare  it  for  that  action.  The  operation  of  the  oxide  of  lead  in  its 
saline  combinations  as  a  mordant  is  studied;  and  the  influence  which  the 
particular  kind  of  jiaper  used  has  on  the  result,  is  also  examined  ;  and  various 
practical  rules  are  deduced  from  these  experiments.  The  author  describes  a 
method  of  precipitating  on  glass  a  coating  possessing  photographic  properties, 
and  therrby  of  accomplishing  a  new  and  curious  extension  nf  the  art,  of 
photography,  lie  observes,  that  this  method  of  coating  glass  with  films  of 
prccipited  .argentine,  or  other  compounds,  affords  the  only  elfccfual  means  of 
studying  their  habitudes  on  exposure  to  light,  and  of  estimating  tliclr  degree 
of  sensibility,  and  other  ]iartieulars  of  their  deportment  under  the  influence 
of  reagents.  After  stating  the  result  of  his  trials  with  tlie  iodide,  chloride, 
and  bromide  of  silver,  he  suggests  that  trials  should  be  made  with  the  fluoride, 


208 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[June, 


from  which,  if  it  l>e  found  to  be  decomposed  by  light,  the  corrosion  of  the 
glass,  and  ronscqucntly  an  etching,  might  possibly  be  obtained,  by  the  lil]cra- 
tiori  uf  tluorinc.  As  it  is  known  that  light  reduces  the  salts  of  gold  and  of 
]ilatinuur,  as  well  as  those  of  silver,  the  author  was  induced  to  make  many 
experiments  on  the  chlorides  of  these  metals,  in  reference  to  the  objects  of 
photography  ;  the  details  of  which  experiments  are  given.  A  remarkable 
property  of  bydriodic  salts,  applied,  nnder  certain  circumstances,  to  exalt  the 
deoxidating  action  of  light,  and  even  to  call  into  evidence  that  actioji,  when 
it  did  not  before  exist,  or  else  was  masked,  is  then  described. 

4.  The  chemical  analysis  of  the  solar  speetrmn  forms  the  subject  of  the 
next  section  of  bis  pa)icr.  It  has  long  been  known  that  rays  of  different 
colours  and  rcfrangiliilitics  exert  very  different  degrees  of  energy  in  effecting 
chemical  changes ;  and  that  those  occupying  the  \  iolct  end  of  the  spectrum 
possess  the  greatest  deoxidating  powers.  But  the  author  tinds  that  these 
chemical  energies  are  distributeil  throughout  the  whole  of  the  speetrmn  ;  that 
they  are  not  a  mere  function  of  the  refraiigibility,  but  stand  in  relation  to 
physical  i]ualities  of  another  kind,  both  of  the  ray  and  of  the  analyzing  me- 
diiun  ;  and  tint  this  relation  is  l)y  no  means  the  same  as  the  one  which  de- 
termines the  .absorptive  action  of  the  medium  on  the  colorific  rays.  His 
ex])eriments  .ilso  show  that  there  is  a  third  set  of  rebitions  concerneil  in  this 
action,  and  most  materially  intiuencing  both  (he  amount  and  the  character  of 
the  chemical  action  on  each  point  of  the  spcctrnm ;  namely,  those  tlepending 
on  the  physical  qualities  oftlie  substance  on  which  the  rays  are  received,  and 
whose  changes  indicate  and  measiu-e  their  action.  The  author  endeavoured 
to  detect  the  existence  of  inactive  spaces  in  the  chemical  spectrum,  analogous 
to  the  dark  lines  in  the  luminous  one ;  but  without  any  marked  success.  The 
attempt,  however,  revealed  several  curious  facts.  The  maximinn  of  action  on 
the  most  ordinary  description  of  jihotographic  paper,  namely,  that  prepared 
with  common  salt,  was  foinnl  to  be,  not  beyoml  the  violet,  but  about  the 
coulines  of  the  blue  and  green,  near  the  situation  of  the  ray  F  in  Fraunbofer's 
scale :  and  tlie  visilile  termination  of  the  violet  rays  nearly  bisected  the  pho- 
tographic image  impressed  on  the  paper  :  in  the  visible  violet  rays  there  oe- 
cm-red  a  sort  of  minimum  of  action,  about  one-third  of  the  distance  from 
Fraunbofer's  ray  II,  towards  G;  the  whole  of  the  red,  up  to  about  Fraunlio- 
fer's  line  C  appears  to  be  inactive ;  and  lastly,  the  orange-red  rays  communi- 
cate to  the  paper  a  brick-red  tint,  passing  into  green  and  dark  blue.  Hence 
are  deduced,  first,  the  absolute  necessity  of  perfect  achromaticity  in  the  ob- 
ject-glass of  a  photographic  camera  r  and  secondly,  the  possibility  of  the 
future  ])roduction  of  naturally  coloured  photographs. 

5.  The  extension  of  the  vinible  prismatic  spectrum  beyond  the  space  ordi- 
narily assigned  to  it,  is  stated  as  one  of  the  results  of  these  researches ;  the 
author  having  discovered  that  beyond  the  extreme  violet  rays  there  exist 
luminous  rays  affecting  the  eyes  with  a  sensation,  not  of  violet,  or  of  any 
other  of  the  recognized  prismatic  hues,  but  of  a  colour  which  may  be  called 
lavoider-yrei/j  and  exerting  a  powerfid  deoxidating  action. 

fi.  Chemical  properties  of  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum.  The  rays  occupy- 
ing this  part  of  the  si)ectnuu  were  found  to  exert  an  action  of  an  opposite 
nature  to  that  of  the  bkie,  violet,  and  lavender  rays.  AVhen  the  red  rays  act 
on  ])repared  paper  in  conjiniction  with  the  diffused  light  of  the  sky,  tlie  dis- 
colourating  influence  of  the  latter  is  suspended,  and  the  paper  remains  white ; 
but  if  the  paper  has  been  already  discoloured  by  ordinary  liglit,  the  red  rays 
change  its  actual  colour  to  a  bright  red. 

7.  The  combined  action  of  rays  of  different  degrees  of  refrangibility  is  next 
investigated  ;  and  the  author  inquires  more  particularly  into  the  effects  of  the 
combined  action  of  a  red  ray  with  any  other  single  ray  in  the  spectrum ; 
whether  any,  and  what  differences  exist  Ijetween  the  joint,  ami  the  successive 
action  of  rays  of  any  two  different  and  definite  refrangibilities ;  and  whether 
this  action  be  cajiable,  or  not,  of  producing  effects,  which  neither  of  them, 
acting  ahme,  would  be  competent  to  produce.  The  result  was  that,  although 
the  previous  action  of  the  less  refrangible  rays  does  not  appear  to  modify  the 
subsequent  effects  produced  by  the  more  refrangible  ;  yet  the  converse  of  this 
proposition  does  not  obtain,  and  tlie  simultaneous  action  of  both  produces 
j>hotograpbic  effects  very  different  from  those  which  either  of  them,  acting 
se)iarately  are  capable  of  iiroducing. 

8.  In  the  next  section,  tlie  chemical  action  of  tlie  solar  spectrum  is  traced 
much  beyond  the  extreme  red  rays,  and  the  red  rays  themselves  are  shown  to 
exercise,  under  certain  circumstances  a  blackening  or  deoxidating  power. 

9.  The  author  then  enters  into  a  speculation  suggested  by  some  indications 
which  seem  to  have  been  afforded  of  an  absorptive  action  in  the  sun's,  atmo- 
sphere ;  of  a  difference  in  the  chemical  agencies  of  those  rays  wliich  issue 
from  the  central  parts  of  his  disc,  and  those  which,  emanating  from  its  bor- 
ders, have  undergone  the  absorptive  action  of  a  much  greater  depth  of  his 
atmosphere  ;  and  conseipieutly  of  the  existence  of  an  absorptive  solar  atmo- 
sjihere  extending  beyond  the  luminous  one. 

10.  An  account  is  next  given  oftlie  effect  of  the  S])ectrum  on  certain  vege- 
table colours,  as  determined  by  a  series  of  experiments,  which  the  author  has 
commenced,  but  in  which  the  unfavoiu'able  state  of  the  weather  has,  as  yet, 
prevented  him  from  making  much  progi'ess. 

11.  The  whitening  power  of  the  several  rays  of  1  he  spectnnn  under  the 
influence  of  bydriodic  sals,  on  jiaper  variously  iirciiared,  and  previously  dark- 
ened by  the  action  of  solar  liglit.  The  singular  property  belonging  to  the 
hydriodate  of  potash  of  rendering  darkened  photographic  paper  susceptible  of 
being  whitened  by  furtlier  exposure  to  light,  is  here  analyzed,  and  shown  to 
afford  a  series  of  new  relations  among  the  diffweut  pai'ts  of  the  spectnm)| 
with  respect  to  theii:  chemical  actions. 


12.  The  Analysis  of  the  Chemical  Rays  of  the  Spectrum  by  absorbent  me- 
dia, which  forms  the  subject  of  the  next  section,  ojiens  a  singularly  wide  lield 
of  inquiry ;  and  tlie  author  describes  a  variety  of  remarkable  iibenomena 
which  have  presented  themselves  in  the  course  of  his  experiments  on  this 
subject.  Tliey  prove  that  the  photographic  properties  of  coloured  media  do 
not  conform  to  their  colorific  character  :  the  laws  of  their  absorptive  action 
as  exerted  on  the  chemical,  being  different  and  independent  of  those  on  tlic 
luminous  rays :  instances  are  given  of  the  absence  of  any  darkening  effect  in 
green  and  other  rays  of  the  more  refrangible  kind,  which  yet  produce  con- 
siderable illumination  on  the  jiaper  that  receives  them. 

13.  The  exalting  and  depressing  power  exercised  by  certain  media,  under 
]ieciili,'ir  circumstances  of  solar  light,  on  the  intensity  of  its  chemical  action. 
This  branch  of  the  inquiry  was  suggested  by  tlie  fact,  noticed  by  the  author 
in  his  former  communication,  that  the  darkening  power  oftlie  solar  rays  was 
considerably  increased  by  the  interposition  of  a  plate  of  glass  in  close  contact 
with  the  photographic  paper.  The  influence  of  various  other  media,  super- 
posed on  prepared  paper,  was  ascertained  by  experiment,  and  the  results  are 
recorded  in  a  tabular  form. 

\i.  The  paper  concludes  with  the  description  of  an  Aciinograph,  or  self- 
registering  photometer  for  meteorological  purposes:  its  objects  being  to  ob- 
tain a  permanent  and  self-coin]iarable  register  and  measure,  first,  of  the  mo- 
mentary amount  of  general  illumination  in  the  visible  hemisphere,  which 
constitutes  day-light;  and  secondly,  of  the  intensity,  duration,  .-ind  inter- 
ruption  of  actual  sunshine,  or,  when  the  sun  is  not  visible,  of  that  point  in 
tlie  clouded  sky  behind  which  the  sun  is  situated.  In  a  postscript,  dated 
March  3rd,  1840,  the  author  states  that  he  lias  discovered  a  process  by  which 
the  colorific  rays  in  the  solar  spectrum  are  made  to  aft'ect  a  surface  properly 
prepared  for  that  purpose,  so  as  to  form  what  may  be  called  a  thennorjraph 
of  the  spectrum  ;  in  which  the  intensity  of  the  thermic  ray  of  any  given  re- 
frangiliility  is  indicated  by  the  degree  of  whiteness  produced  on  a  black 
ground,  by  the  action  of  tlie  ray  at  the  points  where  it  is  recei\  ed  at  that  siu'- 
face,  the  most  remarkable  result  of  which  is  the  insulation  of  heat-spots  or 
thermic  images  of  the  sun  quite  apart  from  the  great  body  of  the  thermic 
spectrum.  Thus  the  whole  extent  over  which  prismatic  dispersion  scatters 
the  sun's  rays,  including  the  calorific  effect  of  the  least,  and  the  chemical 
agency  of  the  most  refrangible,  is  considerably  more  than  twice  as  great  as 
llie  Newtonian  coloured  spectrum.  In  a  second  note,  communicated  March 
12,  1S40,  the  author  describes  his  process  for  rendering  lisible  the  thermic 
spectrum,  which  consists  in  smoking  one  side  of  very  tliin  white  pajier  till  it 
is  completely  blackened,  exjiosing  the  white  surface  to  the  spectrum  and 
washing  it  over  with  alcohol.  The  thermic  rays,  by  dning  tlie  points  on 
which  they  impinge  more  rapidly  than  the  rest  of  the  surface,  trace  out  their 
extent  and  the  law  of  their  distribution  by  a  whiteness^o  induced  on  the 
general  blackness  which  the  whole  siuface  acquires  by  the  absorption  of  the 
liquid  into  the  pores  oftlie  paper,  lie  also  explains  a  method  by  which  the 
impression  thus  made,  and  which  is  only  transient,  can  be  rendered  perma- 
nent. This  method  of  observation  is  then  ajijilied  to  the  further  examination 
of  various  points  connected  with  the  distribution  of  the  thermic  rays,  the 
transcalescence  of  jiarticular  media,  and  the  polarization  of  radiant  heat 
(which  is  easily  rendered  sensible  by  this  method),  &c.  The  reality  of  more 
or  less  insulated  spots  of  heat  distributed  at  very  nearly  equal  intervals  along 
the  axis  of  the  spectrum  (and  of  which  the  origin  is  probalihj  to  be  sought  iu 
the  flint  glass  prism  used — but  pitssihhj  in  atmospheric  absorption)  is  estab- 
lished. Of  these  spots,  two  of  an  oviil  form,  are  situated,  the  one  nearly  at, 
and  the  other  some  distance  beyond  the  extreme  red  end  of  the  spectrum, 
and  are  less  distinctly  insidated  ;  two,  i)erfectly  round  and  well  insulated,  at 
gi'eater  distances  in  the  same  direction ;  and  one,  very  feeble  and  less  satis- 
factorily made  out,  at  no  less  a  distance  beyond  the  extreme  red  than  422 
])arts  of  a  scale  in  which  the  whole  extent  of  the  Newtonian  coloured  spec- 
trum occupies  539. 

A  paper  was  ,also  read  entitled,  "  Vemarks  on  tlie  Theory  of  the  Dispersion 
of  l.h/ht,  as  cnunected  with  Polarization."  By  (he  llev.  Baden  Powell,  M.  A. 
Since  the  ]iublicatinn  of  a  former  letter  on  tlie  same  stdijccf,  the  author  has 
been  led  to  review  the  theory  in  coiiuexion  with  the  valuable  illustrations 
given  by  Mr.  Lubbock  of  the  views  of  Kresnel;  and  points  out,  in  the  present 
supplement,  in  what  manner  the  conclusions  in  that  paper  will  be  affected  by 
these  considerations. 

A  ]iapcr  was  also  read,  entitled,  "  Further  Particulars  of  the  Full  of  the 
Cold  Bokkeveld  Meteorite."  By  Tliomas  Maclear,  Es(|.,  F.U.S.,  in  a  letter  to 
Sir  J.  r.  \V.  Herscbel,  Bart. — This  communication,  which  is  supplementary 
to  the  one  already  made  to  the  Society  by  Mr.  Maclear,  contains  reports, 
supported  by  altiilavits,  of  the  circumstances  attending  the  fall  of  a  meteoric 
mass  in  a  valley  near  the  Cape  of  (iood  Hope.  The  attention  of  the  witnesses 
had  been  excited  by  a  loud  explosion  which  took  place  in  the  air,  iirevious  to 
the  descent  of  the  aerolite,  and  which  was  attended  by  a  blue  stream  of 
smoke,  extending  from  north  to  west.  Some  of  the  fragments  which  had 
been  seen  to  fall,  and  which  had  ])eiictrated  into  the  eartli,  were  picked  up 
by  the  witnesses.  One  of  them  falling  on  grass  caused  it  to  smoke:  and  was 
too  hot  to  admit  of  being  touched.  The  mass  which  was  sent  to  England  by 
11. M.S.  Scout,  weighed,  when  first  picked  up,  four  pounds.  The  pajier  is 
accompanied  by  a  map  of  the  district,  showing  the  course  of  the  aerolite. 

A  paper  was  .ilso  read,  entitled,  "  Aa  account  nf  tlic  Sliootiny  Stars  o/'1095 
and  1243."  By  Sir  Francis  Balgrave,  K.II.' — The  author  gives  citations  from 
several  clironicles  of  the  middle  ages,  descriptive  of  the  remarkable  appear- 
ance of  shooting  Stan  \ybicU  occurred  on  the  -ith  of  April,  109^,  ou  the  testi« 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


209 


moiiY  of  independent  witnesses  Ijotli  in  France  and  England.  One  of  tliem 
descriljcs  tlieui  as  "  falling  like  a  shower  of  rain  from  heaven  upon  the  earth  :" 
and  in  another  case,  a  bystander,  havinjr  noted  the  spot  where  the  aerolite 
fell,  "  east  water  upon  it,  which  was  raised  in  steam,  with  a  great  noise  of 
boiling."  The  Chronicle  of  Rheims  describes  the  appearance  as  if  all  the 
stars  iu  heaven  were  driven,  like  dust,  before  the  wind.  A  distinct  account 
of  the  shooting  stars  of  July  26th,  1293,  is  given  by  Matthew  Paris. 


ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS. 

Monday,  30th  March,  1840,  \V.  R.  Hamilton,  Esq.  in  the  chair.  George 
Gutch,  Esq.  Fellow,  presented  10  guineas  for  the  pm-chase  of  books. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : — 

On  Garden  Walls,  by  J.  B.  Watson,  Fellow. 
^  A  paper  from  Mr.  Jenkins  "  on  Talatyre  Stone." 

I  have  the  pleasure  of  offering  to  your  notice  a  stone  quarry  in  North 
Wales,  whose  produce  is  now  importing  into  London,  two  cargoes  having 
already  arrived  ;  and,  unless  I  am  much  mistaken,  the  introduction  of  this 
stone  to  the  British  architects  will  prove  a  valuable  boon.  The  quarries  are 
situated  on  the  coast  of  Flintshire,  within  a  mile  of  the  point  of  Air,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  estuary  of  the  Dee,  and  adjoining  the  grounds  of  Talacre  Hall, 
the  seat  of  Sir  Edward  Mostyn,  Bart. 

The  uiineralogical  character  of  this  stone  is  that  of  silicious  sand-stone, 
with  an  argillo-silicious  cement.  It  is  of  great  density,  a  cubic  foot  weigh- 
ing ISOJ^  lbs.,  is  worked  with  great  case,  and  being  remarkably  free  from 
hard  untractable  veins  and  soft  places,  is  capable  of  a  veiy  smooth  surface, 
a  tine  arris,  and  the  most  delicate  calling.  The  closeness  of  its  texture  and 
fineness  of  its  grain,  render  it  very  desirable  for  external  work  in  a  large  city, 
as  it  prevents  the  soot  from  adhering  to  it,  and  thus  clogging  up  the  moidd- 
ings  and  carvings,  reducing  them  to  an  undistingiiishal)le  mass  of  blackness, 
a  fault  justly  complained  of  in  the  Bath  and  Portland  stones. 

For  landings  and  steps,  the  Talacre  stone  far  excels  the  very  best  kinds  of 
Yorkshire  stone,  as  it  is  superior  in  strength,  and  not  liable  to  scale  in  the 
unsightly  manner  that  so  frequently  destroys  the  appearance  of  the  finest 
pavements  of  Yorkshire  stone,  as  may  he  seen  near  the  Post  Office,  and  in 
the  Temple  ;  and  as  the  quarries  are  now  in  the  ])Ossession  of  a  London  com- 
pany (the  Talacre  Coal  and  Iron  Company,)  an  abundant  supply  of  large 
sized  stone  may  be  expected. 

Its  colour  is  very  uniform,  and,  to  my  taste,  has  a  beautiful  tone,  which 
eminently  fits  it  for  interior  finishings,  especially  in  the  Gothic  style. 

Its  durability  may  be  seen  in  the  shrine  of  St.  Winifred's  well,  at  Holy- 
well, in  Flintshire,  which  was  constructed  of  this  stone  in  the  loth  century, 
and,  though  exposed  to  the  humidity  of  the  air,  incident  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  mountains  and  an  arm  of  the  sea,  as  well  as  to  the  clouds  of  sulphu- 
rous smoke  from  the  numerous  works  on  the  stream  issuing  from  that  cele- 
brated spring,  yet  still  preserves  its  rich  and  delicate  earrings  in  a  very  per- 
fect state.  Many  other  ancient  buildings  in  the  neighbourhood  have  been 
constructed  or  ornamented  with  this  stone,  as  the  ancient  mansion  in  the 
village  of  Llanasa,  with  its  curious  carved  porch,  erected  in  161'2,  the  carv- 
ings aiul  ashlar  of  which  are  still  veiy  ]»erfect,  the  quoins  of  Kliyddlan  and 
Denbigh  Castles,  built  the  latter  end  of  the  13tli  century;  and  among 
modern  buildings,  Talacre  Hall,  the  seat  of  Sir  Edward  Mostyn,  Bart.,  the 
masonry  of  which  is  the  admiration  of  all.  I  luay  mention  that  the  chimney 
pieces  of  tliis  mansion,  in  the  Gothic  style,  are  carved  in  this  stone,  and  have 
a  very  beautiful  ert'ect. 

The  following  is  the  result  of  an  experiment  made  on  the  comparative 
strength  of  the  Talacre  stone  with  best  Yorkshire. 

\  piece  of  Talacre  stone,  2  ft.  (>\  in.  long,  3:;  in.  wide,  and  2 

in.  thick,  bore,  for  several  minutes,  a  weight  of    4     2     1 

Best  Yorkshire  of  the  same  size  broke  immediately  with  a 

pressure  of 4     Oil 

1  may  add  that,  from  the  proximity  of  the  quarries  to  the  new  harbour  of 
Port  Talacre,  this  stone  can  be  brought  to  London  at  a  price  little,  if  at  all, 
exceeding  that  of  Yorkshire  stone. 

Mr.  Donaldson  read  a  paper  **  On  varion^t  extraordinary  tombs,  recenthf 
Ijroni/Jtt  to  liglit  at  ttie  ancient  city  of  Ctere,  and  described  in  a  work  of  mncli 
learning  and  research,  forwarded  to  the  So  icty  by  its  author,  the  (Javaliere 
Caniiut,  an  Honorary  and  Correspondiny  Member. 

About  half  way  on  the  road  between  Rome  and  Civita  Vecchia,  is  the  vil- 
lage of  Cervetri,  or  Cerveteri,  the  site  of  the  ancient  C;ere,  where  some  ju- 
dicious excavations  have  brought  to  light  a  tomb,  which  seems  at  once  to 
prove  the  affinity  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  these  parts  witli  the  Greeks, 
and  aifords  a  confirmation  of  the  supposition  of  their  common  origin,  derived 
from  other  discoveries  of  an  analogous  nature.  Ir.mieiliately  contiguous  to 
Cervetri  is  a  platform  of  considerable  extent,  on  which  was  doubtless  the 
ancient  Cxre,  surrounded  once,  it  is  presumed,  OTth  walls.  Within  a  short 
distance  of  the  precinct  marked  by  the  supposed  line  of  wall  are  a  number  of 
tombs,  one  of  which  is  that  now  about  to  be  explained.  It  evidently  bears 
the  proofs  of  two  distinct  epochs  of  construction,  as  the  original  edifice, 
which  forms  the  centre,  consisted  of  a  solitary  chamber  in  the  body  of  a 
circular  mass  surmounted  by  a  mound  of  earth.    This  was  subsequently  en- 


larged by  auother  ring  of  solid  masonry,  containing  various  cells,  also  sm-- 
mounted  by  a  larger  mound  of  earth.     This  addition  so  ctfectually  closed 
from  observation  the  iimer  chamljcr,  that  it  has  remained,  until  the  present 
period,  nndcspoilcd  of  its  precious  relics ;  while  tlie  outer  chandlers  have  been 
robbed  of  every  object  that  they  once  contained,  from  their  entrances  being 
immediately  exposed  to  riew.     The  original  tomb  consists  of  a  circular  mass 
about  82  feet  in  diameter,  having  apparently  an  outer  ring  of  solid  masonry, 
and  a  central  pillar  of  construction,  which  ran  up  to  the  top,  and  served  to 
support  the  mound  of  earth,  which  formed  the  conical  part  of  the  tumulus ; 
and  probably  it  was  surmounted  externally  l)y  a  ])edestal,  on  the  top  of 
which  was  a  statue,  or  some  object  allusive  to  the  deceased.     The  sepulchral 
chambers  consisted  of  an  outer  gallery,  about  30  feet  long,  and  5  ft.  8  in. 
wide,  and  11  ft.  2  in.  high,  at  tlie  fiu-ther  cud  of  wdiich  were  two  oval-formed 
chambers,  about  11  ft.  G  in.  long,  by  9  ft.  wide,  on  the  right  and  left,  rudely 
worked  out  of  the  solid  mass.     At  the  extremity  of  the  outer  gallery  is  a  wall 
with  a  small  aperture  in  it,  opening  into  another  gallery  about  two-thirds  the 
length  of  the  first  one,  or  20  feet,  and  4  ft.  3  in.  wide.     The  walls  of  the 
galleries  seem  to  be  formed  of  a  rude  solid  perpendicular  construction,  about 
5  feet  high,  above  which  are  three  overhanging  com'ses,  with  horizontal 
joints,  or  beds,  forming  an  incUned  roof  on  each  side,     .\nothcr  u))pcrmo3t 
course  is  perpendicular,  and  leaves  a  kind  of  sq\iare  channel,  about  18  inches 
wide  and  1.)  inches  high,  running  the  whole  length.     The  walls  of  the  oval 
chambers  seem  to  be  worked  out  of  the  rude  solid  mass,  and  do  imt  present 
the  appearance  of  any  regular  courses  of  stone.     There  were  smaller  cham- 
bers in  the  peripheiT  of  the  outer  construction,  formed  in  a  similar  manner, 
and  when  it  was  deemed  desirable,  at  a  subsequent  period,  to  procure  greater 
accommodation  for  the  family,  it  seems  to  have  been  efiectcd  by  enlarging 
the  circumference  and  extencling  the  smaller  chambers.    But  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  large  gallery  or  chamber  in  the  original  mass  was  not  earned  out, 
as  though  there  was  the  wish  to  hold  it  sacred  as  the  deposit  of  the  chief  of 
the  family,  and  to  secure  it  from  intrusion  by  closing  up  its  entrance.     It 
will  be  seen  that  the  construction  of  the  walls  of  the  galleries  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  subterraneo\is  chamber  at  Mycena;,  commonly  called  the  Treasury 
of  Atreus,  or  Tomb  of  .Vgamemnon,  and  illustrated  in  the  supplementary 
Tolmne  to  Stnarfs  Athens.     The  courses  are  horizontal,  and  gathering  over 
each  other  gradually  towards  the  apex  of  the  roof,  and  cut  away  so  as  to 
give  the  inner  face  a  concave  appearance.     B\it  another  remarkable  instance 
of  this  peculiar  construction  of  ancient  art,  exists  at  Rome  in  the  Mamertine 
Prison,  the  lower  cell  of  which  was  once  evidently  built  in  the  same  manner, 
the  upper  part  having  subsequently  been  cut  ofi',  and  the  arch  smTuounting 
it  constructed  as  a  regular  arch  with  concentric  courses.     Mr.  Donaldson 
then  described  the  various  objects  which  were  found  in  tliis  tomb.      In  the 
first  gallery  next  the  door  was  a  brazier  placed  on  an  iron  tripod,  and  close 
to  it  a  bronze  censer  for  perfumes,  and  next  to  that  another  brazier.   Further 
in  was  a  four-wheeled  car,  upon  which  was  borne  the  corpse  laid  on  the 
bronze  bed ;  and  there  remained  many  fragments  of  the  wood  of  which  it 
was  formed,  and  of  the  bronze  with  which  it  was  ornamented.     Near  the 
entrance  to  the  right  hand  oval   chamber  was  a  bronze  bedstead,  on  wliicli 
lav  the  body  of  the  defunct,  evidenced  from  the  bones  on  the  floor  and  traces 
of  stains  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  flesh.     There  were  two  small 
iron  altars,  one  at  the  head  and  the  other  at  the  foot  of  the  bedstead,  and 
aljout  two  dozen  small  earthenware  figures  on  the  floor  round  the  three  outer 
sides  of  the  bedstead,  several  shields,  a  bundle  of  arrows ;    and  these,  with 
some  cuirasses,  which  once  hung  on  the  walls,  prove  this  to  have  been  the 
sepulcliral  chamber  of  a  warrior.     In  the  channel  in  the  roof  were  suspended 
from  nails  some  bronze  vases  and  dishes.     The  inner  gallery  seems  to  have 
been  appropriated  as  the  sepulchral  chamber  of  a  female.     When  first  dis- 
covered, it  was  found  to  be  encumbered  with  the  ruins  of  one  of  the  side 
walls,  which  bad  fallen  in ;  but  upon  removing  the  rubbish  and  dirt,  various 
articles  in  gold  and  silver  were  found  among  the  remains  of  the  body,  which 
liad  been  deposited  at  the  further  end.     A  small  silver  bucket,  and  a  cup 
without  handles,  various  bronze  cups  and  vases,  proper  for  scents  and  per- 
fumes, were  also  <liscovered.     The  two  oval  chambers  to  the  right  and  left 
of  the  outer  gillcry,  were  evidently  of  a  subsequent  period,  and  were  formed 
in  a  very  rude  and  rough  manner,  as  though  added  with  great  haste.     The 
chamber  on  the  left  contained  various  cups  and  other  objects  of  bronze,  and 
in  that  to  the  right  were  found  nimierous  little  tcrra-cotta  figures  similar  to 
those  iu  the  outer  gallery,  near  the  funeral  bedstead,  and  some  earthen  vases, 
in  one  of  which  were  deposited  bm-nt  bones  and  ashes,  remains,  doubtless, 
of  some  member  of  the  same  family,  and,  it  is  to  be  inferred,  of  a  period 
somewhat  subsequent  to  the  outer  chamber,  as  in  that  the  body  had  not  been 
bm-nt,  a  practice  of  later  iulroduction.     Canina  is  of  opinion,  from  au  obser- 
vatiou  of  the  various  bronze  objects  found  in  these  tondjs,  aud  engraved  with 
representations  of  condjats  and  huntings  of  aninuds,  and  none  of  which  re- 
presented the  events  that  occurred  at  Troy,  that  this  tomb  must  have  been 
erected  before  this  important  period  of  tJreek  history,  a  supjiosition  wdiich 
gains  strength,  from  the  peculiar  form  of  the  tireek  characters  of  the  inscrip- 
tions.    It  may  therefore  be  concluded,  that  this  tumulus  must  be  about  3,0U0 
years  old,  and  was  erected  during  the  period  that  the  Pelasgi  held  possession 
of  the  country. 

Jpril  27. — The  MAKauis  or  Northampton  in  the  Chair. 
Signor  Gasparo  Fossati,  architect  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  was  elected  au 
Honorary  and  Corresponding  Member. 
Some  Roman  remains  from  Watling  Street,  were  e.\hibited  by  Mr.  Fowler 

2  S 


210 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Junk, 


A  paper  was  read,  "  On  the  Classification  of  Egyptian  Architecture,"  by 
Mr.  George  Alexander,  the  tendency  of  which  was  to  show,  that  many  build- 
ings, usually  attributed  to  the  earlier  Egyptian  or  Vharaonic  dynasties,  were 
in  reaUty  mucli  more  recent,  being  erected  during  the  Ptolemaic  and  Roman 
rule  in  Egypt ;  wliich  gave  rise  tu  some  obseiTatious  by  Mr.  Hamilton  and 
Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  who  were  present, 
A  paper  was  also  read,  entitled, 

"Remarks  on  the  ijuestion  raised  by  Sir  Gardnor  IVitkinson  respectiny  t/ie 
origin  oftlie  Vertical  Line  in  Architecture,  and  the  lleturn  to  llie  Horizontal 
Line  after  tfie  "  Recival."     By  George  Godwin,  jun.,  F.U.S.  &  S.A.* 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Institute  of  Architects,  Sir  Gardnor  Willdnson 
laid  before  the  mcmhers  some  jjertinent  remarks,  concerning  the  .ippearauce 
of  the  vertical  line  in  architecture  at  an  earlier  period  than  is  generally  as- 
cribed to  its  introduction— remarks  which,  while  thev  ])rove  the  acuteness 
of  his  observation,  and  cannot  but  lead  to  the  exercise  of  thought  on  the 
part  of  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  study  of  arcbitectur;:!  liistorv,  serve  as 
evidence  of  the  writer's  interest  ill  our  proceedings,  .-ind  entitle  him  to  our 
thanks.  I  should  be  sorry,  then,  if  they  were  allowed  to  pass  unnoticed,  and 
am  tempted,  in  order  that  this  may  not  be  the  case,  to  offer  at  once  a  few 
observations  on  the  subject.  I  feel  some  diffidence,  I  must  confess,  in  com- 
ing before  you  on  this  occasion,  because  there  are  many  others  present  much 
better  qualified  to  respond  satisfactorily  to  the  inquiry ;  indeed,  I  should  not 
have  done  so,  could  I  have  been  certain  that  any  individual  would  have  of- 
fered himself  for  the  task.  Experience,  however,  teaching  that  the  only 
certain  way  to  have  one's  wants  and  wishes  fulfilled,  is  to  bestir  oneself  in 
carrying  them  out  personally,  I  have  stepped  into  the  breach,  and  must 
plead  the  goodness  of  the  intention  .as  an  excuse. 

The  bearing  of  Su-  Gardnor  Wilkinson's  general  argument  was  to  the  effect 
that  the  vertical  line,  admitted  to  be  the  principal  feature  distinguishing 
Gothic,  or  what  has  been  termed  Church  Architecture  from  the  Greek  style, 
whereof  the  predominance  of  horizontal  lines  is  a  characteristic — originated 
at  a  much  earlier  date  than  the  style  it  now  distinguishes,  and  is  to  be  found 
extensively  in  tlie  ruins  of  ancient  Rome.  Further,  that  after  the  revival  of 
the  classic  style  in  Italy,  although  the  vertical  line  was  still  used  throughout 
the  churches  of  Christian  Rome,  we  do  not  jierceive  it  in  the  numerous  and 
splendid  palazzi  which  arose  there  and  in  other  parts  of  Italv,  but  that  the 
horizontal  Mne  is  in  them  again  made  predominant.  And  the  question  be 
then  put  was,  "  what  was  the  origin  of  the  vertical  style  in  ancient  Rome, 
and  the  return  to  the  horizontal  style  in  the  palaces  of  modem  Italy." 

What  Sir  Gardnor  Wilkinson  means  by  the  vertical  line  in  ancient  Rome, 
and  the  appearance  which  it  offered,  are  very  clearly  pointed  out  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence  extracted  from  his  paper : — 

"In  an  arch  of  triumph,  a  Roman  composition,  though  the  mouldings  and 
many  other  details  are  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  the  vertical  line  commences 
with  the  pedestal  of  the  columns  appended  to  its  side,  and  extending  up- 
wards with  the  column,  breaks  through  the  entablature,  which  it  obbg°es  to 
come  forward  to  carry  out  and  mark  its  direction,  requires  a  projection  of 
the  attic  to  correspond  with  the  capital  above  the  cornice,  and  terminates  in 
a  statue ;  thus  continuing  it  uninterruptedly  from  the  base  to  the  summit  of 
the  building." 

Now  it  appears  to  me,  that  this  mode  of  arrangement  may  be  ascribed 
simply  to  the  introduction  of  the  arch  as  a  chief  feature  in"  construction, 
and  the  decline,  if  not  original  want,  of  jiure  taste  on  the  part  of  the  Roman 
people.  In  Greece,  and  in  the  earlier  sacred  edifices  of  Rome,  built  before 
the  introduction  of  the  arch,  and  in  imitation  of  those  of  Greece,  columns 
bore  the  beams  of  wood  or  blocks  of  stone  forming  the  upper  part  of  the 
building,  and  were  a  constituent  portion  of  the  faliric.  Wlien,  however,  it 
became  necessarj'  to  cover  in  larger  spaces  than  could  be  convoiiicutlv 
spanned  by  single  beams  or  blocks  reaching  from  piUar  to  inll.ir,  and  the 
principle  of  the  arch  liecame  generally  understood  and  acted  upon,  a  con- 
tinued wall  from  which  the  arch  might  sjiriiig  lieeame  requisite,  and  took  the 
place  of  columns.  The  Romans,  however,  who,  if  I  may  venture  to  say  it, 
had  bttlc  veal  appreciation  of  harinony  and  fitness,  (with  a  love  of  which  the 
Greeks  as  a  people  were  thoroughly  imbued,)  could  not  consent  to  abandon 
columns,  but  used  them  in  the  shape  of  accessories  in  nearly  all  struc- 
tures the  destination  of  which  would  allow  of  their  introduction.  They  were 
placed  against  the  faces  of  buildings — attached  to  but  not  made  a  portion  of 
them.  Proliably  where  a  great  inojection  was  not  advisable,  the  height  of 
the  columns  (as  by  that  of  course  the  diameter  must  have  been  regulated,) 
was  lessened,  and  a  jiedcstal  {column's  foot)  was  used  to  raise  them  to  the 
required  elevation.  Something  to  bind  the  upper  part  of  the  column  to  tlie 
building  was,  however,  requisite,  and  the  entablature,  then  surrounding  tlic 
structure  itself,  may  have  heen  brought  out  for  that  purpose  over  each  of  the 
columns.  These,  of  themselves,  namely  columns  bearing  nothing,  performing 
no  office,  but  simply  standing  before  a  building  with  which  they  seemed  to 
have  little  connexion,  must  have  failed  to  give  pleasure  even  to  the  least  edu- 
cated minds ;  ottering,  however,  as  they  did,  a  convenient  plinth  for  vases,  or 
sculptured  figures,  these  were  found  in  some  degree  to  lessen  the  objection, 
and  therefore  it  is  not  surprising  that  they  were  usually  thus  terminated, 
sometimes  with  and  sometimes  without,  the  intervention  of  a  similar  projec- 
tion of  the  attic  under  the  figure. 

*  We  are  glad  to  learn  that  the  Socie't^  Libre  des  lieau.v  Arts,  at  their  last 
annual  meeting,  awarded  a  silver  medal  to  Mr.  Godwin,  as  author  of  "  The 
Churches  of  London." — Editor  of  C,  E.  &  A.  Journal, 


In  examining  a  Roman  arch  of  triumph,  that  of  Septimus  Severus  for 
instance,  as  well  as  many  others,  the  probability  of  this  position  becomes 
very  striking.  And  throughout  the  buildings  of  Rome  so  long  as  columnar 
decorations  were  eni])loyc(l,  this  mode  of  arrangement  seems  to  have  been 
almost  necessarily  followed. 

Sir  Gardnor  Wilkinson  says  that  wherever  deviation  from  Greek  models 
«as  allowable,  the  vertical  line  constantly  predominates,  "  and  to  such  an  ex- 
tent, that  even  a  Greek  entablature  is  sacrificed  to  this  their  favourite  senti- 
ment, being  broken  up  into  detached  parts  and  compelled  to  project  and 
recede,  in  order  to  allow  the  vertical  bne  to  pass  continuously  through  it  to 
the  summit  of  the  building." 

This  seems  to  nie,  but  1  mention  it  with  great  deference,  to  invest  the  use 
of  the  vertical  line  by  the  Romans  with  a  little  too  much  importance.  I  am 
compelled  to  think,  a  desb-e  for  its  use  was  not  the  cause  of  the  introduction 
of  breaks  and  recesses,  but  that  its  own  ap]iearaiice,  as  well  as  these  breaks, 
were  the  accidental  effect  of  the  employment  of  adventitious  columnar  deco- 
ration in  situations  where  considerations  of  expense  or  convenience  prevented 
the  use  of  a  continuous  entablature.  Although  it  is  probable  that  when  once 
the  vertical  line  was  strongly  marked  in  a  facade,  the  natural  love  of  har- 
mony in  mind  which  finds  annoyance  in  the  constant  recurrence  of  discordant 
lines,  would  induce  subsequent  arrangements  in  unison  with  the  prevailing 
character. 

Immediately  on  the  revival,  we  find  columnar  decoration  Indulged  in,  even 
with  less  restraint  from  good  taste  than  before,  producing  in  nearly  all  cases, 
whether  in  Italy,  France,  or  England,  the  predominance  of  the  vertical  line. 
The  cupola  of  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  at  Florence,  by  Briinel- 
leschi,  and  the  church  dedicated  to  St.  Francis  at  Rimini,  by  Alberti,  both  in 
the  15th  centuiy — the  Basilica  of  Vicenza  by  Palladio,  in  the  ICth — the  prin- 
cipal facade  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  by  Maderno,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
17th — and  the  hospital  of  the  Intmlides  in  Paris,  by  .Mansart,  in  the  18th — 
may  all  be  referred  to  as  instances.  In  our  own  metropolis,  Inigo  Jones,  at 
the  Banquetting  House,  Whitehall,  and  Wren  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  afl'ord 
us  examples :  and  to  bring  the  duration  of  this  mode  of  an-angement  up  to 
the  present  time,  I  may  mention  Jlessrs.  CockereU  and  Richardson's  design 
for  the  Exchange,  submitted  to  the  Gresbam  Committee,  in  the  chief  front  of 
which  it  strikingly  prevails. 

Returning,  however,  for  a  moment  to  Italy  at  the  period  of  the  revival, 
we  find  that  works  of  the  same  artists  wherein  adventitious  columnar  decora- 
tion was  not  introduced,  display  the  horizontal  line  predominant,  witness  for 
example  the  facade  of  the  Pitti  Palace  at  Florence,  by  Brunclleschi,  and  the 
greater  number  of  the  numerous  palatial  residences  at  Rome  and  elsewhere, 
which  render  Italy  as  eminent  for  the  possession  of  modern  works  of  archi- 
tectural skill  as  she  is  for  the  remains  of  her  ancient  glories.  Tliis  pre- 
dominance of  the  horizontal  line  however  was  not  quite  universal.  In'  the 
Palace  of  the  Chancer}'  at  Rome,  for  example,  the  vertical  line  is  nearly  con- 
tinuous throughout  the  facade,  although  the  entablature  is  unbroken.  I  will 
not  pretend  now  to  enter  upon  an  examination  of  the  feeling  and  motive  of 
the  architecture  of  this  period,  although  it  is  a  subject  full  of  interest,  and 
well  worthy  of  what  it  has  not  yet  sufficiently  received,  namely,  investigation 
and  analysis :  should  what  has  been  said  chance  to  lead  to  this  verj'  desirable 
result  on  the  part  of  a  qualified  investigator,  the  profession  will  be  greatly 
indebted  to  Sir  Gardnor  Wilkinson. 


Avie  Moutli  nf  the  f'istuln. — In  consequence  of  the  early  breaking  up  of  th' 
ice  in  the  Vistula,  and  the  flood  occasioned  by  the  late  heavy  rains,  the  river 
was  choked  up  a  mile  and  a  half  above  the  city  of  Dantzic,  whence  it  takes 
its  course  to  the  westward.  The  lelt  bank  of  the  river  is  here  bounded  by  a 
dyke,  «b  cli  protects  the  fruitful  low  ruuniry  behind  it;  the  right  bank  is, 
however,  without  any  such  artificial  protection. because  its  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood consists  of  unfruitful  sand  land,  and  of  a  road  of  sand-hills  or 
downs,  for  a  distance  of  several  ficrniau  miles,  which  separates  the  river 
from  the  sea  in  such  a  decided  manner,  that  it  never  appeared  possible  to  any 
one  that  from  that  side  any  danger  was  to  be  apprehended  from  the  water  in 
the  Vistula.  But  it  happened  on  the  night  of  the  31st  of  .Tanuary,  when  it 
was  expected  that  every  moment  the  water  would  run  over  the  dytes  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river,  and  pn  duce  a  most  dreadful  inundation,  that  the 
stream,  encuniljcrcd  with  heavy  masses  of  ice,  took  its  course  over  the  right 
bank,  and  attained  the  .'sand  hills.  These  being  from  forty  to  si.sty  feet  high, 
stop]ied  the  waler,  but  the  current  undermined  them  just  at  the  place  where 
those  bills  merely  consist  of  loose  sand,  and  are  the  narrowest.  As  soon  as 
they  gave  way.  the  accumulated  mass  of  water  and  the  heavy  ice  found  their 
way  through  ibis  new  ojiening  wiih  indescribable  force,  and  made  a  broad 
and  deep  channel  into  the  sea.  To  stop  this  new  natural  mouth  is  impossible, 
and  if  it  could  be  done,  no  one  would  feel  inclined  to  do  it.  About  ihirty 
years  ago,  the  plan  was  proposed  by  members  of  the  governnien  to  form 
exactly  the  nesv  moulh  for  ibe  river  which  has  just  been  made  by  a  natural 
c:uise,'  Thus  a  great  expence  has  been  .saved,  and  a  great  benefit  o  crated  at 
llie  same  lime,  by  this  occurrence.  As  regards  the  iiilluenee  which  this 
event  may  have  on  tlie  communication  of  the  town  of  Dantzic  with  the  Port 
.l''airwater,  and  also  wiih  Poland  and  the  interior  oftbe  country,  there  is  not 
Ihr  least  ground  to  apprehend  any  interruption.  We  by  no  means  lose  the 
navigableness  of  the  old  Vistula,  which,  henceforward  as  l^efore,  will  bring 
the  Poll  b  barges  and  the  timber  transports  to  our  town.  Its  depth  is  like- 
wise sufiieieut  in  its  whole  lenglli  to  bear  vessels  of  the  same  magnitude  as 
before.  Neither  does  the  occurrence  make  any  change  whatever  in  the  com-  ^ 
raunication  of  that  town  with  the  sea-port.— jl/orntn^  Chronicle, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL^ 


211 


EARL  DE  GREY'S  CONVERZATIONE. 

On  Tlmrsday  evening  the  21st  nit.,  Earl  De  Grey  opened  his  house  in 
St.  James's  Square,  for  the  reception  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Arclii- 
tects,  of  which  Society  his  Lordship  is  the  President.  In  addition  to  the 
members  of  tlie  Institute,  the  splendid  suite  of  apartments  was  crowded  by  a 
numerous  and  brilliant  assemlily  of  the  patrons  and  professors  of  every  branch 
of  the  arts  and  sciences,  among  whom  we  noticed  the  ilarquis  of  Lansdowne, 
Lord  Stuart  de  Rothesay,  Lord  Bughersh,  Sir  Edward  Cust,  Mr.  Gaily  Knight, 
and  Mr.  Rogers,  Sir  Martin  Shee,  Sir  Richard  Westmacott,  Su:  Francis  Chan- 
trv.  Sir  David  Wilkie,  Mr.  Martin,  Mr.  Copley  Fielding.  Sir  Gardner  Wilkin- 
son', Sir  Henry  Ellis,  Sir  Frederick  Madden,  Mr.  Walker,  Mr.  Brunei,  Mr. 
Bab'bage,  Mr.AlIan  Cunningham,  &c.  &c.  Her  Grace  the  Duchess  of  North- 
umberland and  a  select  party  of  ladies  of  rank  were  also  present.  The  atten- 
tion of  the  visitors  was  attracted  by  a  display  of  works  of  art  from  the  port- 
folios of  Mr.  Stanfield,  Mr.  Joseph  Xash,  and  other  artists  of  eminence,  and 
bv  some  beautiful  specimens  of  the  Daguerrotype  and  electrotype. 


MR.  WALKER'S  CONVERZATIONE. 

On  Wednesday  evening  the  27th  ultimo,  Mr.  Walker,  the  President  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  invited  a  large  number  of  scientific  gentlemen 
to  a  converzatioue  held  at  liis  house  in  Great  George-street,  the  rooms  were 
crowded  at  an  early  hour  of  the  evening,  we  have  not  witnessed  so  large  an 
assembly  of  the  scientific  and  literati  during  the  season.  The  company  were 
entertained  by  a  display  of  numerous  works  of  art,  drawings  and  models  of 
new  inventions,  a  few  of  which  we  shall  just  take  a  glance  at.  The  portfolios 
of  drawings  by  Scanuell,  Tomkins,  Landseer,  and  Lake  Price  were  much  ad- 
mired, so  also  the  elaborate  work  on  the  .\lhambra  by  Owen  Jones.  There 
was  exhibited  an  excellent  specimen  of  electrotype  taken  from  an  engranng 
of  BjTon,  the  original  engraving  was  shown  from  wliich  the  electrotype  was 
produced,  the  first  is  in  relief,  and  for  the  purjiose  of  taking  off  impressions, 
a  seconil  electrotype  is  obUged  to  be  taken  oft'  from  the  first,  which  brings 
this  last  impression  to  the  same  appearance  as  the  original  plate ;  tliere  were 
,ilso  shown  two  impressions,  one  taken  from  the  original  plate,  and  the  other 
from  the  second  electrotype,  both  of  them  were  so  much  alike,  that  it  was 
with  dilRculty  any  difference  could  be  detected.— There  was  a  fine  representa- 
tion in  stained  glass  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  Knox,  by  Messrs.  Hoadley 
and  Oldfield. — In  the  model  room  was  exhibited  a  beautiful  set  of  8  models 
of  Mr.  Brunei's  block  machinery  at  Portsmouth,  showing  the  different  opera- 
tions the  block  passed  through  from  the  square  block  of  wood  to  its  com- 
pletion.— Mr.  Rennie's  trapeziod  paddle-wheel  attracted  considerable  notice, 
likewise  the  beautiful  models  of  Mr.  Samuel  Seaward's  marine  atmospheric 
steam-engines,  also  his  sUde  valves  by  which  the  eduction  valve  is  opened 
before  the  induction  valve,  thereby  allowing  a  better  and  more  rapid  escape 
of  the  steam  to  the  condenser,  and  producing  a  better  vacuum  ;  his  brine 
detector  which  exhibits  the  quantity  of  salt  with  which  water  in  marine 
boilers  is  impregnated,  is  of  great  advantage  to  the  engineer,  by  the  aid  of 
which  he  is  enabled  to  judge  the  proper  times  it  is  necessary  to  bloiu  off,  for 
the  purpose  of  cleansing  the  boilers  of  the  salts  which  are  deposited  at  the 
bottom,  which  if  not  attended  to,  very  soon  destroys  the  metal. — Another 
very  ingenious  model  was  that  of  Mr.  Davison's  refrigerator,  lately  constructed 
at  Messrs.  Truman's  brewery,  a  vertical  cylinder  which  contains  several  tubes, 
is  filled  with  a  stream  of  cold  water,  constantly  flowing  through  it,  which  sur- 
rounds the  tubes ;  there  is  also  a  blast  of  cold  air  forced  through  the  interior 
of  the  tubes  by  the  aid  of  a  fan  blower — the  hot  liquor  is  admitted  into  an 
open  chamber  on  the  top  of  the  cylinder  and  allowed  to  gradually  overfow 
the  tubes  which  project  above  the  bottom  of  the  open  chamber,  and  trickle 
down  the  interior  side  of  the  tubes,  thus  it  is  cooled  by  the  combined 
operation  of  cold  water  coming  in  contact  with  the  outside  of  the  tubes,  and 
the  cold  blast  up  the  centre  of  their  interior,  by  the  time  the  hot  liquor  has 
arrived  at  the  bottom,  it  is  sufficiently  cooled  to  be  conveyed  into  the  work- 
ing tuns. — There  was  a  model  of  Messrs.  Maudslays  and  Field's  double  cylin- 
der steam-engine,  described  in  a  late  number  of  the  Journal. — Mr.  Milne's 
hydrostatic  gas  regulator,  by  the  aid  of  wluch  the  hghts  are  always  kept  at  one 
height  and  intensity. — The  patent  omnibus,  if  we  may  judge  correctly  by  the 
model,  appears  to  be  a  cumbersome  machine,  and  likely  to  monopolize  the 
whole  of  the  streets  in  the  city,  if  many  are  to  he  introduced. — There  were 
likewise  several  models  of  machines  and  apparatus  connected  with  railways 
and  steam  navigation,  by  Mr.  Curtis,  Mr.  Cottam,  Mr.  England,  Mr.  Greener, 
and  others. — A  very  neat  letter  balance  by  Professor  WilUs  attracted  notice. 
— Some  specimens  of  drawing  paper  made  by  Mr.  Hanson's  patent  machinery 
were  exhibited,  by  which  drawing  paper  may  be  had  in  unlimited  lengths  and 
hi  any  width  up  to  4  feet,  and  also  of  any  degree  of  fineness  or  quality. — Mr. 
Bielefeld's  Papier-Mache  ornaments,  particularly  a  Corinthian  capital,  were 
objects  worthy  of  notice. — Some  specimens  of  bricks  and  tiles,  made  by 
Bakewell's  press,  showed  the  superiority  of  bricks  made  by  this  machine  over 
those  of  the  ordinary  kind.  Besides  what  we  have  aheady  enumerated,  there 
were  objects  of  considerable  interest  distributed  through  all  the  rooms,  not 
forgetthig  the  beautiful  models  and  drawings  of  works  in  progress  under  the 
directions  of  Mr.  Walker  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom. 

We  can  tiuly  say  that  we  never  saw  a  party  more  satisfied  than  the  one  of 


this  evening,  with  the  judicious  combination  of  social  and  scicntilic  arrange- 
ments, and  the  select,  yet  abundant  materials  for  intellectual,  as  \veU  as 
hospitable  entertainment  provided  by  the  worthy  President. 

Among  the  numerous  distinguished  individuals  present,  we  recognized 
Earl  de  Crev,  the  President  of  the  Institute  of  British  Architects,  Lord  Wes- 
tern, Lord  Lowther,  Lord  Blavntvre,  Sir  Roljert  Peel,  Sir  Henry  Parnel,  Sir 
John  Renuie,  Sir  Duncan  M'Dougal,  Sir  John  Rae  Reid,  Sir  George  Murray, 
Sir  John  Scott  Lillic,  Sir  W.  Pearson,  Sir  H.  Ellis,  Sir  W.  Burnett,  Sir  W. 
Riddell,  Sir  James  Duke,  Sir  Hesketh  Fleetwood,  Sir  John  Barrow,  Sir 
Da\id  Wilkie,  Sir  Peter  Laurie,  Mr.  Hodges,  M.P.,  Mr.  Handley,  M.P., 
Mr.  Baines,  M.P.,  Mr.  Pease,  M.P.,  Professor  Wilhs,  Mr.  Bahbage,  Major 
Anderson,  Col.  Colby,  Col.  Paisley,  Col.  Thompson,  Dr.  Reid,  Dr.  Field, 
Dr.  Roget,  Sergeants  Spankie  and  Ailaras,  Mr.  Barry,  Mr.  Tite,  Mr.  Hard- 
wicke,  Mr.  Blorc,  Mr.  Basevi,  Mr.  Donaldson,  Mr.  Fonier,  Mr.  Kendall,  Mr, 
Stephanoff,  Mr.  Landseer,  Mr.  Stone,  and  a  great  number  of  architects, 
artists,  and  most  of  the  members  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 


NOTES  OF  THE  MONTH. 

The  Royal  Exchange  competition  has  been  decided  in  favour  of  Mr.  Tite, 
so  that  we' suppose  the  works  will  now  go  on.  Mr.  Cockerel!  his  competitor 
is  exhibiting  a  model  of  his  design  in  the  Old  Jem-y.— Mr.  Barry,  as  if  he 
were  not  satisfied  with  providing  for  the  legislature,  has  now  been  engaged 
in  making  designs  for  the  new  Courts  of  Law,  proposed  to  be  erected  in  the 
square  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  the  expenses  to  be  mainly  defrayed  from  the 
Suitor's  Fund.  This  plan  has  received  the  approbation  of  the  lawyers,  and 
will  doubtless  be  carried  into  effect,  giving  the  architect  the  opportunity  of 
adding  another  colossal  building  to  the  architectural  contributions  of  the 
\  ictoria  era. — The  area  in  Trafalgar-square  is  now  a  scene  of  activity,  the 
footpath  which  connects  the  Strand  with  Cockspur-street,  has  been  brought 
considerablv  nearer  to  the  Wiitehall  side,  thus  adding  a  large  space  to  the 
former  enclosure,  whicli  we  trust  will  be  laid  out  so  as  to  agree  in  character 
with  the  National  Gallery,  to  which  it  might  be  made  to  give  a  greater  ap- 
pearance of  elevation. — A  diminished  grant  has  been  taken  for  the  buildings 
of  the  British  Museum,  so  that  they  must  linger  on  in  the  old  style. 

In  addition  to  the  information  wiiich  we  conveyed  last  month  about  the 
Daguerreotype,  we  may  mention  that  the  attempt  to  produce  permanent  en- 
gra\ings  so  "as  to  admit  of  impressions  being  taken,  has  perfectly  succeeded. 

.\niong  the  men  of  science,  whose  loss  we  have  sustained  may  be  mention, 
ed  Poisson,  the  eminent  French  mathematician,  and  Sir  Roliert  Seppings. — 
Sir  Robert  was  surveyor  to  the  navy  for  neariy  fifty  years,  during  which  time 
he  was  the  means  of  introducing  many  improvements  into  the  navy,  worthy 
of  his  own  invention,  as  the  circular  bow  and  stern,  the  system  of  diagonal 
bracing,  of  scarfing  short  pieces,  of  making  frigate  timber  applicable  to  line 
lof  battle  ships,  and  the  use  of  the  iron  knees.— Mr.  Whitwell,  the  architect 
of  the  unfortunate  Brunswick  Theatre,  also  died  recently,  but  as  we  hope  to 
attain  some  particulars  respecting  him,  we  shall  defer  any  farther  notice  of 
his  services.— -We  may  mention  among  the  professional  losses,  and  as  a  very 
severe  one,  the  unfortunate  destruction  of  a  great  part  of  York  Minster  by 
fire,  arising  from  carelessness.  We  feel  pretty  siure  however  that  this  national 
monument  will  be  restored. 


Durability  of  Iron  Boats. — The  question  of  the  durability  of  iron 
vessels,  of  their  little  liabihty  to  accident,  and  of  the  ease  with  which  damage 
done  to  them  may  be  repaired,  appears  to  he  very  clearly  proved  from  the 
experience  which  has  already  been  obtained  on  these  points ;  and  this  is  no 
little,  for  there  are  boats  built  by  Mr.  Laird  in  both  Nortli  and  South  Ame- 
rica— in  all  parts  of  India  and  on  the  Euphrates  and  the  Indus — in  Egypt, 
on  the  Nile — and  in  the  Mediterraneau^on  the  Vistula,  on  the  Shannon,  and 
on  the  Thames.  One  of  these  boats  on  the  Savannah  has  been  constantly  at 
work  for  these  last  six  years  without  any  repair ;  which  is  a  great  test,  if  we 
consider  the  frequent  constant  caulkings  required  to  preserve  a  timber-built 
ship.  There  is  also  a  steam-yacht  built  of  iron,  the  Glow-worm,  the  property 
of  Ashetou  Smith,  Esq.  This  vessel  has  made  the  passage  from  Bristol  to 
Carnarvon,  a  distance  of  210  miles,  in  18  hours.  In  the  report  to  the  House 
of  Commons  on  steaAi-vessel  accidents,  we  find  the  foUovving  stated  of  the 
Garryowen,  one  of  these  vessels : — "  We  went  ashore  about  two  cables'  length 
to  the  eastward  of  the  pier  (Kilrush),  and  struck  very  heavy  for  the  first 
hour.  The  ground  under  our  weather-bilge  was  rather  soft  clay,  covered 
with  shingle  and  loose  stones,  some  of  them  pretty  large.  Under  our  inside, 
or  lee-bilge,  the  ground  was  very  hard,  being  a  footpath  .at  low  water.  I 
was  greatly  afraid  she  would  be  very  much  injured  by  it  in  her  bottom,  but 
I  am  happy  to  say  she  has  not  received  any  injuiy ;  in  fact,  her  bottom  is  as 
perfect  and  as  good,  as  on  the  day  she  left  Liverpool— not  a  single  rivet 
started,  nor  a  rivet-iicad  flown  off.  If  an  oak  vessel,  with  the  cargo  I  had 
on  deck,  was  to  go  on  shore  where  the  Garryowen  did,  and  get  such  a  ham- 
mering, they  would  have  a  difl'erent  story  to  tell.  *  *  Out 
of  27  vessel's  that  got  ashore  that  night,  the  Garryowen  is  the  only  one  that 
is  not  damaged  more  or  less."  Colonel  Chesney,  the  commander  of  the  Eu- 
phrates  expedition,  writes  thus  of  the  iron  vessels  which  were  employed  on 
that  service  : — "  It  is  but  right  to  tell  you  that  the  iron  vessels  constructed 
by  you  far  exceeded  my  expectations,  as  well  as  those  of  the  naval  officers 
employed  in  the  late  expedition,  who  would  one  and  all  beat  testimony  any- 

2  F  2 


212 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[June, 


where  to  tlicir  extraordiiiaiy  solidity ;  iiideeil,  it  was  often  re))e!\tcd  by  Lieut. 
Cleveland,  and  the  ulhcis,  that  any  wooden  vessel  nuist  have  heen  destroyed 
liefore  the  service  was  one-half  completed,  whereas  the  Euphrates  was  as 
perfect  when  tlicy  laid  her  up  at  B.-iplad  as  the  first  day  she  was  floated. — 
Mr.  Cruise,  Vniled  Henke  Journal  for  May. 


QUERIES. 


A  correspondent  is  desirous  of  having  some  comparison  between  Sneeze 
Wood,  Right  Yellow  Wood  and  Els,  and  those  in  use  \\\\.\\  us,  such  as  Fir, 
Oak,  &c.  The  woods  alluded  to  may  be  found  in  3rd  \'ol.  Royal  Engineers, 
"  Bridge  across  the  River  Kat."  A.  P. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


Oxclllafivf/  Marine  Engine.^. — This  deseription  of  engine  is  daily  beeouiing 
more  generally  known  and  adopted ;  their  great  advantage  is  tlie  extreme 
lightness  and  the  small  space  they  occupy  in  a  vessel ;  in  both  these  import- 
ant ))artic\dars  the  saving  is  nearly  one-half.  For  vessels  of  limited  draft  or 
for  shallow  water,  they  must  ultimately  become  in  general  use.  During  the 
last  month  we  attended  the  trials  of  two  new  steam-vessels,  fitted  with  oscil- 
lating engines  manufactured  by  j\Iessrs.  Penn  &  Son,  of  Greenwich,  who 
liave  devoted  to  this  class  of  engine  considerable  attention,  and  have  fitted 
lip  no  less  than  1 7  pairs  of  them  ;  they  have  not  been  known  to  fail  in  a 
single  instance,  and  are  the  admiration  of  all  parties  who  have  witnessed 
their  ])erformance,  for  the  beauty  of  the  workmanship,  and  the  accuracy 
with  which  they  work,  pai'ticularly  those  on  board  the  iron  steamers  plying 
on  the  River  Tliames  above  bridge.  Messrs.  Penn  have  always  found  this 
descrijition  of  engine  give  a  result  fully  equal  to  their  dimensions,  in  com- 
jjurison  with  others  of  the  ordinary  construction.  The  first  vessel  whose 
peil'ormanee  we  witnessed  last  month  was  the  Courier,  an  iron  steamer, 
built  by  Messrs.  Ditcblnirn  &  Mare,  of  Blackwall,  intended  to  run  on  tne 
Elbe  between  Hamburgh  and  Magdeburgh,  l.'JS  feet  long  at  the  water  line, 
and  20  feet  beam ;  draught  of  water,  witli  engines,  boilers  filled  with  w  ater,  and 
1.5  tons  of  coke,  is  only  19  inches  in  midships,  and  11  inches  at  stem  and 
stern.  The  engines  have  cylinders  34  inches  diameter,  with  a  3  feet  stroke, 
and  make  27  strokes  per  minute,  and  are  estimated  at  32  horses  power 
each.  The  weight  of  engines  and  boilers  filled  with  water  is  37  tons  15  cwt. 
The  paddle-wheels  are  15  feet  diameter,  with  float-boards  8  feet  long  and 
l.'.i}  inches  wide.  The  second  vessel  whose  performance  we  witnessed  was 
the  Queen  Vietoria,  a  new  timber-built  vessel,  constructed  by  Mr.  Thomp- 
son, of  Rotherhithe.  She  is  90  ft.  long,  13  ft.  9  in.  beam, 'and  2  ft.  9  in. 
draught  of  water,  fitted  with  a  pair  of  oscillating  engines  of  15  horses  power 
each ;  the  weight  of  the  engines  with  boiler  filled  with  water  is  only  15  tons, 
being  10  cwt.  to  the  horse  power;  the  total  length  of  engine-room  is  19  ft. 
(j  in.  The  speed  of  this  vessel  is  very  little  inferior  to  the  Gravesend  boats, 
and  is  by  far  the  fastest  of  her  power  ever  produced.  She  ran  the  mile  at 
Long  Reach,  with  the  tide,  in  4  minutes  and  50  seconds,  and  against  the 
tide  in  G  minutes  30  seconds,  giving  an  average  speed  of  lOJ  miles  per  hour. 
This  boat  is  intended  to  run  between  Hungerford  and  Woolwich. 

Jlnce  hetween  the  ^' liuhy^^   Gravesend  si  earner  (oali  hnili),  and  the  '^  Onvell^^ 
and  "  Sons  of  the  Thames*'  irmi  steamers. 

Sir — As  there  has  been  of  lale  much  attention  drawn  to  the  subject  of  iron 
steam  vessels,  which  are  announced  as  possessing  great  advantage  over  those 
of  wood,  and  as  1  have  perceived  various  notices  of  the  progress  of  diflerent 
Vessels  of  this  class  in  your  Journal.  1  shall  feel  obligi'd  by  your  giving  in- 
sertion to  the  following  account  of  a  run  which  took  place  on  Saturday,  May 
2nd,  between  the  llLdjy.  and  tuo  of  the  crack  irtiii  steamers. 

I  should  premise  tliat  the  Ruby  lias  now  commeneed  running  for  the  fourth 
season,  and  that  no  vessel  lias  yet  been  found  that  can  compete  with  her. 
.She  is  timljer-built  of  Knglisb  oak  plank,  upon  the  imiiroved  diagonal  plan 
adopted  by  the  Di.amond  and  Woolwich  Companies — a  plan  1  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  saying  is  stronger,  more  durable,  and  .superior  to  that  of  any  com- 
bination 01  iron  w  hatcver"  Slie  lias  never  been  caulked  since  the  day  she  was 
launched,  nor  a  farthing  laid  out  in  repairs,  and  her  lines  arc  as  true  as  when 
they  Here  first  laid  dou n  on  the  shipwright's  floor. 

As  the  Ruby  has  been  lying  by  some  time  to  refit  for  the  season,  the 
owners  of  the  two  iron  boats  alluded  to,  took  the  opportunity  of  announcing 
their  respective  craft  as  the  fastest  vessels  in  the  kingdom,  but  the  Ruby  has 
again  taken  her  place  as  number  one,  and  like  a  giant  refreshed  Hith  sleep, 

goes  better  and  faster  than  ever,  and   the  victory  she  has  achieved  over  the 
rwell  and  Sons  of  the  Thames  will  no  doubt  cause  their  respective  partisans 
to  alter  lluir  tone  for  ibe  future. 

Your"s.  &tc.  A.  Bii.uNGS, 

Manager  of  i lie  Diannmd  Steam -boat  Covepany. 

Rare  between  the  "  Ruhij''  and  the  "  Orieell."—  1st  Trial.  On  Saturday,  at 
8  p.  m.,  the  Ruby  got  uiider  weigh  from  Blackwall,  and  proceeded  slowly 
doun  the  river,  to  enable  the  Orwell  to  come  up,  as  she  was  to  start  from 
London  at  eight  o'clock.  The  Ruby  went  half  speed  down  to  Long  Reach, 
jio  "  Orwell"  in  sight,  then  tried  the  mile  one  hour  after  Hood,  spring  tide, 
came  back  as  far  as  the  Halfway  House,  and  discoyered  the  Orwell  coming 


down  Hith  plenty  of  smoke  and  steam;  turned  round  the  Ruby,  and  went 
on  ipiarter  speed  till  the  Orwell  was  just  four  boats  astcni  at  ICritli,  oil"  C'old 
Harbour  Point.  .Set  oil'  full  speed,  with  strong  flood  tide,  two  hours  flood, 
(the  reasen  of  [ilacing  the  Ruby  ahead  was  the  fear  of  hugging,  as  both  were 
near  the  shore).  The  Ruby  s  engines  went  otV  in  fine  style. — 31  strokes,  and 
she  soon  began  to  draw  away  perceptibly  from  the  Orn  e!l,  (the  Or«  ell's  people 
at  this  time  hoisted  the  jack  at  the  main  ;)  however,  when  oil  Purlleet  the 
Ruby  had  gained  a.  quarter  of  a  mile  upon  the  latter  vessel,  the  jack  was 
hauled  dow  n.  and  the  liuby.  as  the  conqueror,  hoisted  hers,  the  Ruby  gradually 
gained  upon  her  antagonist,  till  she  sto\iped  at  Gravesend  Town  Pier,  when, 
by  observations  made,  the  Orwell  was  14  miles  astern,  and  by  lime  S  minutes 
as  she  jiassed  the  Town  Pier,  thus  beating  the  Orwell  in  a  run  of  It  miles 
about  U  miles,  the  distance  of  four  boats  length  to  be  deducted,  which  was 
the  distance  the  Ruby  was  ahead  when  the  race  began.  'I'he  Ruby  ran  the 
whole  distance  against  a  strong  flood  tide  and  ahead,  in  one  hour  and  ten 
minutes,  being  seven  minutes  less  time  than  the  Orwell. 

Second  trial  from  Gravesend.— The  Ruby  having  stopped  ten  minutes  at 
Gravesend  Town  Pier,  allowed  the  Orwell  time  to  come  up  on  the  opposite 
shore  and  pass  Tilbury  Fort,  when  she  again  started  for  the  eliace.  and  by 
the  time  tlie  Ruby  had  crossed  the  river  against  the  strong  flood  in  the 
stream,  the  Orwell'was  one  mile  ahead.  The  Ruby  then  ran  on  for  forly-iive 
minutes,  in  which  time  she  caught  the  Orwell,  and  went  right  by  her  neck 
and  neck,  (you  might  have  tossed  a  biscuit  from  one  vessel  to  the  other,) 
headed  her  liy  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  turned  round  and  was  back  to  Gniveseiid 
in  seventy  minutes.  In  this  second  race  she  beat  the  Orwell  one  mile  in  45 
minutes  :  from  the  abi.ve  it  will  aiipear  that  the  Ruby,  against  tide,  is  full  IJ 
miles  per  hour  faster  than  her  antagonist. 

itaee  with  the  "Sons  of  the  TIiames."—Tlie  Ruby  waited  at  Gravesend  till 
i  o'clock,  and  then  started  up  the  river  to  meet  the  Sons  of  the  Thames.  The 
latter  vessel  and  the  Mercury  left  London  at  5  p.m.,  and  at  40  minutes  past_ 
five  they  were  both  discerned  at  the  bottom  of  Woolwich  Reach,  the  Sons  of 
the  Tha'mes  full  a  quarter  of  a  mile  .ahead  of  the  Mercury.  Some  colliers 
being  in  the  stream  prevented  the  Ruby  being  turned  round  so  soon  as  she 
ought  to  have  been,  so  that  when  the  vessel  was  got  round  with  her  head 
down,  the  Sons  of  the  Thames  was  a  quarter  of  a  mile  ahead,  and  the  iNler- 
eury  was  just  alongside,  all  three  going  full  speed,  and  the  tide  running  down 
strong.  It  was  now  evident  bv  the  Ruliy  drawing  away  from  the  Mercury, 
that  she  was  gaining  frst  up'on  the  Sons  of  the  Thames,  wli  cli  vessel  the 
Rubv  came  up  to  in  15  minutes,  when  the  Sons  of  the  Thames  had  a  half 
miniile  stop,  and  the  Ruby  shot  by  her.  and  continued  to  gain  upon  her  till 
the  arrival  at  (havesend  Town  Pier,  w'hcn  the  Ruljy  was  one  mile  ahe.id.  It 
should  be  ob.served  that  at  Grcenhithe,  the  Sons  of  the  Tliames  had  another 
short  stop,  but  as.she  was  going  all  the  time  with  the  tide,  both  these  stoppages 
could  not  have  m.ade  more  than  one  minute's  d  fference.  The  whole  distance 
was  done  by  the  Rubv.  from  the  bottom  of  Woolwich  Reach  in  •'55  minutes. 

General  Reinarl.s.—ll  is  right  to  observe,  that  during  the  above  races,  the 
Orwell  apparently  had  100  persons  on  board,  and  tlie  Sons  of  the  Thame 
about  50,  whilst  'the  Ruby  had  none  but  her  crew.  'To  some  this  may  appeas 
an  advantage  fnr  the  Ruby,  but  the  advantage  would  have  been  more  ir 
favour  of  the  Ruby  if  she  had  had  '200  persons  on  board,  as  her  paddles 
would  then  have  had  more  hold  of  the  water,  and  the  vessel  would  have  con- 
sequently gone  faster  ;  as  during  the  race  tlie  Ruby's  engines  were  overrun- 
ning their  speed  for  want  of  proper  resistance  to  the  wheels.  The  Ruby's 
best  speed  is  when  she  has  300  persons  on  board;  in  proof  of  which,  the 
Ruby  started  from  Gravesend  on  Sunday  night  last,  with  300  passengers  on 
board,  half  an  hour  ;ifter  the  Sons  of  the  Thames  had  left,  and  arrived  at 
London  Bridge  within  three  minutes  of  the  time  that  the  latter  reached 
there,  the  Ruby  thus  beating  tlie  Sons  of  the  Thames  27  minutes  in  the 
whole  distance,  which  was  entirely  against  a  sirong  ebb  tide.  A.  13. 

The  "Elbe"  Steamer.— T\n'  "Kibe"  steamer,  which  arrived  lately  from 
Dunkirk,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  her  machinery  put  on  board  by  Mr. 
Borrie,  of  the  Tay  Foundry,  made  a  trial  trip,  on  Saturdav  2nd  ult.,  to  prove 
the  efl^iciency  of  her  engines.  She  left  the  West  Protection  AVall  at  one  o'clock 
p.  in.,  with  about  sixty-five  of  Mr.  Borrie's  friends  on  board,  for  w  liom  he  had 
prepared  ample  cheer.  She  proceeded  down  the  river. — rounded  tlie  Bell 
Rock.— run  to  the  Buoy  of  Tay  in  fifty-five  minutes,  being  a  distance  of  12 
miles ;  and  from  the  Bell  Rock  to  the  llarbour  in  two  hours  and  a  quarter — 
a  distance  of  24  miles— having  the  ebb  tide  against  her  in  coming  up  the 
river.  The  vessel  was  built  by  Mr.  Malo,  of  Dunkirk,  and  it  was  the  general 
impression  on  board  that  both  the  builder  and  engineer  had  performed  their 
parts  well,  and  had.  betweci.  them,  furnished  a  very  superior  steamer- a  fact 
of  which,  indeed,  they  were  then  witnessing  the  proofs.  The  engines  (of  l(i0 
horse  power)  were  much  admired  by  several  professional  gentlemen  on  board 
for  smoothness  of  action,  their  eleg'ant  and  substantial  construction,  .and  high 
finish.  'I'he  "lOlbe''  is  about  .500  tons  burden,  and  belongs  to  tlie  Dunkirk 
and  Hamburgh  Steam  Navigation  Company.  She  will  shortly  join  "The 
Nord  " — (fitted  out  in  the  early  p.art  of  last  season  by  Mr.  Borrie)— on  tlie 
Dunkirk  and  Hamburgh  station" — The  great  inirease  in  the  trade  of  building 
and  fitting  up  steam  ships  at  Dundee,  has  rendered  the  starting  of  marine 
engines,  at  one  time  a  rare,  now  a  very  common  occurrence  amongst  us  ;  and 
—not  unmindful  of  the  merits  of  Mr.  llorrie's  brother  engineers  in  this  place 
— we  have  much  pleasure  in  stating  that  both  they  and  he,  from  their  pro- 
found knowledge,  great  experience,  and  integrity  in  fulfilling  their  engage- 
ments in  the  best  and  most  satisfactory  manner,  do  honour  to  their  profession 
and  to  Dundee.  On  tlie  jiresent  occasion,  we  are  specially  glad  to  bear  testi- 
mony to  the  steady  advancement  of  Mr.  Borrie's  well-earned  reputation  in 
every  department  of  engineering  ;  and  to  notice  the  gratifying  fact,  that  his 
eminence  as  a  marine  engineer  has  now  attracted  the  ;utention  of  Govern- 
ment. The  great  crane,  erected  by  Mr.  Borrie  last  season,  according  to  the 
desi;<ns  of  James  Leslie.  Es(|..  engineer  of  the  harbour,  attords.  in  connection 
with  our  spacious  docks,  facilities  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, for  the  fitting  up  of  the  largest  class  steamers;  and  we  are  happy  to 
learn  that  Mr.  Bor'rie  will,  in  all  lu-obability,  be  the  first  to  profit  by  his  own 
labours  and  enterprise  at  the  port  of  Dundee. — Dundee  Chronielt, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


213 


TRANSATLANTIC  STEAMERS. 
Comparison  of  the  passages  of  tlie  four  lines  of  Sailing  Packet  Sliips  be- 
tween Ijiverponl  antl  New  York,  witli  tliose  of  tlic  Transatlantic  Steam 
Ships,  during  the  year  1839. 


Sailing  Ships. 


Old  or  Black  Ball  Line 

Dramatic  Line 

Star  Line 

Swallow-tail  Line    . . . . 


Steam  Ships. 


Great  Western . 
British  Qiieen  . 
Liverpool 


Days. 
48  0 
38  0 
45  0 
45     0 


21  12 
20  9 
18  12 


Average  of  all  the  Sailing 

Ships '44     0 

Average  of  all  the  Steam, 

Ships 20     3 


Difference  in  favour  of  the 

Steamships  !  23  21  |  10     9 


Davs. 

22  ■  0 

23  0 

27  0 

28  0 


13  0 

14  21 
IG  0 


25  0 
14  15 


Days. 
33  17 
30  12 
3G  0 
35     0 


IG  12 
17  8 
17     4 


34    1] 

17     0 


17    U 


Days. 

30  0 
25  0 
28     0 

31  0 


15  0 
21  12 
27     0 


-a 
I  I 


Days. 
18  0 
17  0 
21  0 
17     0 


12  6 

13  12 

13  18 


30     0 ' 18     6 
21     4    13     4 


8  20 


5     2 


■<s 


Days. 
22  12 
20  12 
24  0 
22  12 


13     9 
16  12 

15   IG 


15    4i 


7  13J 


The  immense  superiority,  in  point  of  speed,  of  the  Steam  Ships,  will  be 
fully  evident  on  inspection  of  the  above  table;  where  the  ditference  in  the 
first  instance  is  more  than  half ;  in  the  second  almost  three-fifths;  in  the 
third  more  than  half;  in  the  fourth  more  than  a  quarter;  in  the  fifth  near  a 
third ;  and  in  the  sixth  more  tlian  a  tliird. 

It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Transatlantic  Steam  Ships 
are  yet  in  their  infancy,  whilst  the  sailing  ships  are  perfection  ;  there  being 
no  faster  ships  on  the  face  of  the  globe  than  the  New  Tork  and  Liverpool 
Liners. 

Steam  Navigation  in  Germany. — Besides  the  generally  good  roads,  steam- 
l)oats  and  railway  lines  are.  of  late,  facilitating  interior  communication  in 
most  parts  of  Germany.  l'>erybody  in  Kngland  knows  the  steam-boat  com- 
munications on  the  Rhine,  which  for  several  years  past  have  poured  out  a 
mighty  stream  of  I'jnglish  travellers  alonj^"  the  western  parts  of  Germany  and 
.Sivitzerland.  In  the  course  of  this  summer.  (1840.)  the  banks  of  the  iOlbe. 
■•Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  tlie  whole  central  part  of  Germany,  will  be  .as  easily 
adniissil)]e  to  the  tourist,  as  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  have  hitherto  been.  Per- 
haps a  few  wcn'ds  on  this  subject  may  prove  acceptable  to  persons  intending 
to  take  a  trip  or  a  ioiirney  to  countries  conip.iratively  not  so  generally  know  n. 
From  London  or  llull  lo'llamljur^b  steam-boats  are  regularly  running  seve- 
ral times  every  week,  llamljurgh  is  situated  about  eighty  miles  inland,  on 
the  navigable  Elbe.  I'rom  Hamburgh  to  Magdeburgh,  the  journey  is  per- 
formed on  board  steam-boats,  ofleriug  the  best  accommodations.  The  dis- 
tance, by  the  river,  is  about  250  Knglish miles.  From  Magdeburgh  to  Lei|)siL- 
a  railway  is  constructing  ;  it  will  be  opened  in  its  whole  length,in  the  early  jian 
of  this  summer:  the  journey — about  seventy-four  miles — will  then  be  per- 
formed in  three  or  four  hours.  From  Leipsie  to  Dresden  a  railway  has  been 
in  operation  for  more  than  a  year :  the  distance — seventy-one  miles  and  a 
(juarter — is  performed  in  about  31-  hours.  From  Dresden  another  line  of 
steam-boats  laui.  about  lit ty  miles,  as  far  as  Tetschen,  in  Bohemia,  w  here 
you  find  yourself  at  a  few  hours'  journey  from  Prague  and  To'plitz,  as  well 
as  in  the  vicinity  of  Carlsbad,  Frezonsbad,  and  tjie  other  celebrated  and 
fashionable  Bohemian  watering  places,  which  may  all  all  now  l.'C  reached 
without  any  fatigue,  or  any  great  expense,  five  days  after  embarking  from 
England.  From  Prague  to  Briin  the  liistancc  is  about  sixty  miles,  where  the 
traveller  will  find  excellent  public  coaches,  or  can  take  for  private  use,  at  any 
time  and  at  moderate  prices,  stage  coaches,  kept  always  in  readiness  by  all 
the  post-administrations  throughout  llie  Austrian  Empire,  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  families  travelling  without  their  own  carriages.  From  Briin  to 
Vienna,  the  ji/urney — about  eighty-five  miles — is  pert'onneJ  in  bjur  or  five 
hours,  by  a  railway  which  has  been  in  operation  for  upwards  of  a  year. 
From  Vienna  the  steam-boats  on  the  Danube  run  through  Hungary  to  the 
Turkish  frontiers,  and  the  Black  .Sea,  in  communication  with  those  plying  to 
Constantinople,  Odessa,  Trebizonde,  &.c.  In  two  months,  when  the  whole 
Magdeburgh-Leit»sic  Railway  is  opened,  a  person  may  travel  from  England 
to  Vienna,  or  to  Constantinople  by  steam,  with  the  exception  of  a  distance 
of  ab  lUt  eighty  miles,  comprising  the  two  sections  of  road  from  Tetschen  to 
Prague,  and  from  Prague  to  Briin.  where  neither  railway  nor  steam-boat 
conveyance  is  as  yet  established. — Jthcniewn. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAILV^AVS. 

Bristol  and  Exeter  Railway.— It  is  expected  that  a  portion  of  the  Bristol 
and  Exeter  Railway,  as  far'as  Bridgewater,  will  be  opened  in  the  course  of 
the  present  year.  \V'e  understand  that  the  works  are  proceeding  with  great 
activity. — Railway  Times. 


BLACKWALL  RAILWAY. 

CoNsiuEUAULE  excrtioiis  are  being  made  to  open  that  part  of  the  railway 
from  tlie  Minories  to  Blackwall  on  the  IStli  inst.,  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Waterloo,  when  it  is  expected  that  his  Grace  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton will  be  present ;  one  line  of  railway  is  nearly  completed  from  end  to  end, 
t/ie  railway  is  carried  on  a  viaduct  from  the  Minories  to  the  West  India 
Docks,  thence  it  is  continued  on  an  embankment,  until  it  immerges  into  a 
shallow  cutting  near  the  terminus  at  Brunswick  Wharf,  and  terminates  under 
a  shed  covered  with  an  iron  roof,  similar  to  that  of  the  terminus  of  the 
London  and  Birmingham  Railway  at  Euston-square ;  adjoining  the  shed  is  a 
spacious  biulding  for  the  offices,  of  the  Italian  style  of  architecture,  and 
forms  a  in-ominent  feature  from  the  river,  it  is  erected  from  the  designs  of 
Mr.  Tite  the  architect.  President  of  the  .Vrelntectural  Society;  the  Black- 
wall  terniinus  is  most  conveniently  adapted  for  steam-boats,  being  situated  on 
Brunswick  Wharf,  alongside  which  the  largest  class  steamers  can  embark  and 
disembark  passengers  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  and  there  are  already  2  Graves- 
end  steamers  announced  for  starting  from  this  spot  as  soon  as  the  railway  is 
opened,  and  no  doubt  many  others  will  follow ;  it  is  more  than  probable,  be- 
fore another  year  jiasses  over,  all  the  steamers  which  now  start  from  below 
bridge  will  make  the  Blackwall  terminus  the  starting  place,  thereby  avoiding 
the  most  dangerous  part  of  the  voyage  through  the  Pool,  and  save  in  time 
about  three  (piarters  of  an  hour;  by  this  means  the  Gravesend  bo.ats  will  he 
able  to  make  two  trips  each  way  every  day,  and  we  have  no  doubt  it  v\ill  also 
he  found  the  nmst  advantageous  route  to  Woolwich,  which  can  be  done  by 
railway,  and  steamers  across  the  river  within  three  quarters  of  an  hour  from 
the  Minories  to  Vroolwich. 

To  afford  every  facility  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  two  classes  of 
carriages  have  been  provided,  part  of  which  are  already  delivered  ;  the  first 
class  are  enclosed,  painted  blue,  finished  very  tastefully,  and  embla- 
zoned with  the  .\rms  of  the  Cit.v,  and  the  East  and  West  India  Dock  Com- 
panies, at  the  same  time  there  is  no  superfluous  ornament  or  exti-avaganee 
about  tbeni — the  second  class  carriages  are  open  at  the  sides,  and  .are  not 
provided  with  seats;  the  passengers  will  be  obliged  to  stand  dining  the  short 
time  that  the}-  are  being  conveyed,  which  it  is  expected  will  be  in  about  nine 
or  ten  mimitcs ;  it  is  stated  that  the  fares  will  be  very  trifling,  for  the  first 
class  carriages  Hd.,  and  the  second  class  id. 

The  breadth  of  the  viaduct  on  the  top  is  24  feet  in  cle.ar  of  the  eoiiing 
stone  or  cornice,  and  28  feet  out  ami  out.  The  arches  on  the  top  are  covered 
with  asjihalte  to  prevent  the  percolation  of  wet  through  the  brickwork.  The 
rails  arc  light  in  consequence  of  being  relieved  of  the  heavy  locomotive,  the 
form  is  T  shaped,  and  5  inches  deep,  they  are  laid  to  a  5  feet  1  inch  gauge, 
on  transverse  sleepers  of  English  fir,  3  feet  apart,  upon  which  the  chairs  are 
spiked — the  rail  is  secured  to  the  chair  in  rather  a  novel  manner,  a  hole  is 
pierced  through  one  of  the  arms  of  the  chair  at  right  angles  to  the  rail,  in 
which  an  iron  ball  about  the  size  of  a  bullet  is  dropped  and  rests  against  the 
rail,  an  iron  key  or  wedge  is  then  driven  through  an  aperture  in  the  same 
arm  of  the,^hair  parallel  to  the  rail,  which  fixes  and  presses  the  ball  firmly 
against  the  latter,  this  method  of  fixing  prevents  any  lateral  vibration  of  the 
rail,  and  at  the  same  time  it  allows  the  free  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
metal,  Down  the  centre  of  each  railway  are  fixed  the  pulleys  upon  which 
the  tail  rojies  will  traverse,  placed  30  feet  ajiart;  they  are  30  inches  diameter, 
and  8  inches  wide  across  the  sheave,  the  rim  is  lined  with  rope  matting  to 
prevent  any  noise  from  the  rapid  motion  of  the  rojie  passing  over  them  ;  the 
axles  turn  upon  ]iluminer  blocks  fixed  on  an  iron  curb,  and  over  each  bearing 
is  a  small  box  for  grease  to  lubricate  the  axles;  the  pulleys  are  fixed  verti- 
cally throughout  the  line,  both  in  the  straight  part  and  the  curves,  for  the 
latter  they  arc  of  a  dift'erciit  shape  to  the  others,  being  30  inches  diameter 
on  one  side,  and  '.K  inches  on  the  other;  the  rim  is  formed  like  the  outside 
of  the  mouth  of  a  large  bell. — In  the  last  month's  Journal,  y.  178,  is  describeil 
how  the  railway  is  to  be  worked,  by  what  is  technically  termed  tail  ropes, 
that  is,  a  rope  at  each  terminus  is  attached  to  the  carnages,  and  as  the  rope 
is  coiled  up  at  one  end  of  the  railway  by  the  aid  of  steam-engines,  it  draws 
the  carriages,  and  at  the  same  time  the  rope  at  the  other  end  is  being  nii- 
vvound,  thus  by  the  time  the  forward  lope,  with  the  carriage,  is  wound  up  at 
the  station  at  Blackwall,  the  rope  of  the  station  at  the  Minories  is  unwound, 
it  is  then  ready  to  draw  the  carriages  from  the  Blackwall  terminus  back  to 
the  Minories.  For  this  purpose  there  are  four  of  these  ropes,  two  to  each 
line — they  are  each  3.1  miles  long,  and  5}  inches  diameter,  and  are  worked 
by  two  pairs  of  marine  engiues  at  each  end  of  the  line,  those  at  the 
Blackwall  terminus  are  70  horses  power  each  engine,  manufactured  by  Mr. 
Barnes,  and  at  the  Minories  station  each  engine  is  112  horses  power,  manu- 
factured by  Messrs.  Maudslays  and  Field,  the  latter  are  of  greater  power  than 
the  former,  in  consequence  of  the  railway  being  principally  upon  the  ascent 
from  Blackwall  to  the  Minories  ;  each  rope  is  worked  by  one  pair  of  engines, 
the  power  is  tranferred  from  the  engines  by  means  of  spur  wheels  which  turn 
an  immense  wheel  or  iron  pulley  14  feet  diameter  in  the  clear,  and  22  feet  out 
and  out,  and  3  ft.  0  in.  wide  on  the  outer  circumference,  and  about  21  inches 
at  the  inner  circumference, — round  this  wheel  is  coiled  the  rope  just  described. 
The  engines  at  the  Minories  station  have  each  a  marine  boiler  of  large  dimen- 
sions ;  and  those  of  Blackwall,  one  pair  have  three  Cornish  oval  boilers,  and 
the  other  pair  two  marine  lioilers.  The  engine  house  at  Blackwall  is  on  a 
level  with  the  railway,  and  at  the  Minories  it  is  below  the  railway,  under  the 
arches.  The  whole  of  the  works  do  considerable  credit  to  the  respective 
contractors,  and  to  the  indefatigable  zeal  of  the  engineers,  Mr.  George  Ste- 
phenson and  Mr.  Bidder. 


214 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[JVNK, 


The  North  Midland  Railtcaij. 

The  Xnrlh  Midland  Railwaii.  w  liich  forms  a  commniiicafmn  between  Leeds 
and  Derby,  was  partially  opened  for  traffie  on  Monday,  lllh  nit.  On  Satur- 
day morning,  preiiaratorv  to  tliat  openinf(,  tbe  J)irectors  took  a  trip  .alnnf,' 
the  line,  starting  from  Derby,  and  traversing;  to  alxiiit  rtitliin  eleven  miles 
from  tbe  terminus  at  Leeds.'  l!iit,  altliough  tbe  line  is  in  a  eimdition  to  lie 
traverseil  from  Derby  to  tbe  immediate  neigbbourbood  of  Waketield.  tbe 
portion  open  to  tbe  public  extends  only  from  Derby  to  Rotberham,  a  distance 
of  about  40  miles,  giving,  by  means  of  the  Slielbeld  and  Kotherbam  Railway, 
an  miinterrupted  railw.ay  'eonunnnication  from  Sliertleld  to  Derby  ;  from 
thence  by  tbe  Midland  Counties  Railway  to  Notlingb.un  and  Leicester  ;  and 
by  tbe  I^irniingbam  and  Derljy  Railway,  to  Birmiugbam  and  London. 

Tbe  railway  station  at  Derby  is  a  wonderfully  extensive  place,  wbieb 
.istonisbes  every  ()erson  on  arriving  there  for  tbe  first  time.  'I'be  length  of 
buildings  and  covered  «av  now  erecting  extend,  we  believe,  lO'iO  feet.  .So 
stupendous  and  magnitieent  does  every  thing  appear,  that  imagination 
almost  leads  passengers  to  suppose  tlu'y  are  arrived  at  a  market-place  for 
steam  engines.  The  buildings  comprise  a  handsome  ball,  offices,  refreshment 
and  waiting  rooms,  with  recjuisite  conveniences,  230  feet  long,  .3  stories  high, 
with  a  fajade  wall  e.Ktending  each  way  410  feet,  with  openings  for  the  de- 
parture of  passengers  on  their  arrival.  The  platform  the  whole  length  is 
formed  by  large  Yorkshire  stone  landings  of  a  superior  quality.  Tbe  oas- 
sengers'  shed  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  walls  and  buildnigs,  which  is 
covered  by  a  light  iron  roof  of  42  feet  span.  The  centre  part  of  the  passen- 
gers' shed' is  56  feet  span,  and  one  bay  42  feet,  are  also  covered,  in  the  whole 
about  4.50  feet  in  length,  and  supported  by  handsome  iron  columns,  22  feet 
high  from  the  top  of  the  rails. 

The  arrangements  for  the  lines  of  rails  vith  the  requisite  number  of  turn- 
tables are  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  appear  to  be  well  adapted  for  the  traffic 
and  depot  for  the  Company's  carriages. 

In  addition  to  these  buildings  there  is  an  engine-house  with  16  sides,  134 
feet  across,  with  a  conical  roof  and  lanthern  rising  to  54  feet  above  the  floor 
from  the  top  of  the  cidumns,  which  are  18  feet  high;  this  building  is  ap- 
proached by  t«o  wings  48  feet  long,  over  which  will  be  a  reservoir  of  water 
for  the  supply  of  the  engines.  &c. 

The  preparations  for  the  repairs  of  the  Company's  engines  and  carriages 
bear  the  same  proportion,  the  shops  averaging  160  feet  long  each,  by  70  feet 
wide,  three  stories  high,  and  smith's  furnaces  to  each  in  connexion  with 
other  buildings. 

When  the  extensive  nature  of  these  works  is  considered,  and  that  they 
have  onlv  been  i)  months  in  hand,  tbe  greatest  praise  is  due  to  Mr.  Jackson, 
tlie  contractor,  for  the  despatcli  employed,  and  the  stability  and  beauty  of 
these  structures,  which,  in  connexion  with  the  other  stations  on  the  line. 
reflect  the  prreatest  credit  on  the  taste  and  skill  of  Mr.  Thompson,  the  Com- 
pany's architecf. — Abridged  from  the  Derby  Reporter.  . 

Cheltenham  and  Great  Western  Union  Railu'aij.     Engineer's  Report,  read  at  the 
last  Half-  Yearly  Meeting  on  the  'iOth  April. 

Gentleken— Notwithstanding  the  many  causes  of  delay  whiidi  have  arisen 
all  the  principal  works  between  the  Lans'downe  Rridge,  at  Cheltenham,  an'' 
the  proposed  station  at  Gloucester,  have  been  completed.  Two  bridges,  w  hie" 
are  three-quarters  finished,  and  about  20,000  yards  of  earthwork  for  the  ap- 
proaches to  one  of  these,  namely,  the  Badgeworlh  Road  Bridge,  together' 
with  the  trimming  and  soiling  of  slopes  at  several  places,  are  all  that  now 
remains  to  be  done  to  cmple'te  the  whole  of  this  portion  of  the  line,  pre- 
paratory to  the  laving  the  ballast  and  the  permanent  way. 

The  excavation  lor  the  iunction  between  the  Birmingham  and  Gloucester 
<:ompany's  .station  at  Cbelteuham  and  the  main  line  at  Lansdowne  Bridge, 
has  been  commenced,  and  upwards  of  40,000  yards  of  ballast  are  prepared 
and  set  asidi*. 

The  cuttings  and  embankments  upon  this  district,  although  consisting 
principally  of  clay,  have  not  suiiered  imich  during  the  late  wet  season,  and 
there  is  now  every  appearance  of  the  works  standing  well. 

The  five  permanent  shafts  of  tbe  .Saperton  Tunnel,  referred  to  in  the  last 
Report,  have  been  completed  ;  the  sixth,  which  will  be  the  least  in  depth, 
ami  in  other  respects  the  easiest  in  construction,  has  not  been  commenced,  in 
consequence  of  the  taking  possession  of  any  land,  at  that  part,  invcdving.  by 
the  arrangements  with  the  proprietor,  tbe  previous  purchase  of  the  whole  of 
the  land  required  for  the  wcjrks  generally  in  the  same  parish,  and  which  ex- 
pense you  <leemed  it  unnecessary  at  present  to  incur. 

Between  Cirencester  and  the  junction  » ith  the  Great  Western  Railway  at 
.Swindon,  the  v.orks  have,  generally  speaking,  been  actively  proceeded  with 
during  the  last  half-year.  ,  .  ,    .       r  ■     ■     „ 

Of  the  masonry  of  bridges  and  culverts,  which  is  oi  course  principally 
summer  work,  upwards  of  3000  yards  have  been  executed,  and  7.500  remain 
unfinished,  independently  of  the  covered  way,  winch  contains  about  5.300 
yards,  and  which  is  just  commenced. 

Of  tbe  000.000  yards  of  earthwork,  which,  as  was  stated  at  the  last  meet- 
ing, then  remained  to  be  moved,  400,000  have  been  excavated,  and  formed 
into  embankment;  and  there  remain,  consequently,  .500,000  only,  to  com- 
plete the  work. 

Upon  the  whole  extent  of  the  works  in  this  district,  both  the  cuttings  and 
embankments  have  stood  remarkably  well ;  the  leu  and  slight  symptoms  of 
slipping,  which  occurred  on  one  single  part  only,  have  been  entirely  remc- 
dietl,  and  tbe  slopes  are  now  in  excellent  condition. 

Although  the  average  performance,  however,  has  thus,  upon  a  total  dis- 
tance of  17  miles,  been  such  as  would,  calculating  at  (he  same  rate,  and 
allowing  but  moderately  for  tbe  great  advantages  of  the  summer  season, 
ensure  the  completion  of  the  whole  during  the  next  five  or  six  months,  this 
average  rate  has  not  been  equally  maintained  upon  all  tbe  contracts. 

The  works  of  the  Cirencester  branch  to  Kemble  are  in  a  forward  state,  and 
nniglit  easily  be  finished  during  the  next  August;  and  the  contractor  for  that 
\>aa  of  the  'line  extending  from  the  Great  Western  Railway  to  the  Red  Uon 


at  Minety,  a  dist.ance  of  upwards  of  nine  miles,  would  be  able  to  complete 
the  work,  including  the  laying  of  the  permanent  way,  by  the  month  ol  Sep- 
tember. An  embankment  of  about  160.000  yards,  contract.  No.  2,  is  the 
principal  work  to  be  c.-cecuted  on  the  remairaler  of  the  line  ;  and  if  very  great 
exertions  Mere  useil,  there  can  be  little  doubt  tb.at  the  whole  might  be 
brought  into  profitable  work  with  the  commencemeut  of  the  year  1841.  or 
even  by  the  end  of  the  present  year  ;  w  bile,  in  the  mean  tirne,  the  nine  miles 
Iiefore  referred  to,  forming  part  of  a  continuous  line  in  conjunction  with  the 
Great  M'esteni  Railway,  might  be  brought  into  operation  at  a  still  earlier 
period. 

The  prospect  of  the  early  opening  of  the  Great  Western  Railway,  up  to 
Swindon,  which  may  be  expected  during  the  latter  end  of  the  present  year, 
and  the  great  state  of  forwardness  of  several  miles  at  that  extremity  of  your 
line,  would  render  a  successful  efiort  highly  valuable.  These  exertions  would, 
of  course,  necessarily  dem.and  a  proportionably  rapid  expenditure  of  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Company— an  expenditure,  however,  wdiich  would  be  unquestion- 
ably economical  in  the  end.  I  am.  Gentlemen,  yonr's  obediently, 

I.  K.  Beunel,  Engineer. 
Great  Western  Railway.— The  works  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bath  are 
proceeding  with  very  great  activity.  The  foundation  of  the  pier  in  the  centre 
of  the  Avon,  near  the  Old  Bridge, 'having  been  properly  laid,  operations liave 
been  commenced  on  the  Widcomb?  side  of  the  water.  In  the  Ham  gardens 
the  erection  of  the  arches  on  which  the  Bath  depot  will  be  situated,  is  being 
rapidly  proceeded  with  ;  w  hilst  some  steps  have  been  taken  towards  erecting 
the  viaduct  across  the  Dolemead  and  Pultency  road.  The  tunnel  at  tbe  top 
of  Raby-place  is  likewise  being  finished  in  a  very  rapid  manner.  Towards 
Hampton  the  works  are  of  a  heavy  character,  and  the  utmost  despatch  is. 
therefore,  observable  in  that  quarter.  The  workmen  have  made  great  pro- 
gress in  the  necessary  excavations  for  turning  the  course  of  the  canal  imme- 
diately opposite  the  Cleveland  Baths.  The  embankments  for  the  permanent 
way  are  here  in  a  forward  state  ;  while,  near  Hampton  church,  and  in  the 
meadows  beyond,  the  contractors  have  been  very  active,  and  operations  have 
l>een  commenced  throughout  tbe  e.-.tcnt  of  the  line  to  Bathford.  A  together, 
tliere  seems  no  reason  why  the  line  between  Bath  and  Bristol  should  not  be 
opened  towards  the  close  of  this  summer  ;  and  we  hear  that  the  Bristol  di- 
rectors have  been  taking  measures  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  secure  the  opening 
of  their  division,  and  consequently  of  tbe  entire  line,  in  the  middle  ol  next 
yew.— Wilts  Independent.  The  opening  of  the  extended  line  to  Steventon,  a 
'distance  of  52  miles  from  London,  is  announced  to  take  place  on  the  1st  ot 
next  month.  We  are  happy  to  find  that  there  is  every  probability  ot  this 
grand  undertaking  being  opened  between  Bristol  and  Bath  early  m  Septem- 
ber. The  permanent  way  has  Lecn  laid  down  in  the  neighbourhood  ot 
Keynsham  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  the  locomotive  engine  is  ,at  work. 
Between  Keynsham  and  Bristol  the  road  is  all  formed,  and  except  finishing 
nil  the  head  of  No.  3  tunnel,  is  in  a  perfect  state.  The  beautiful  elliptic 
Gothic-arched  bridge  across  the  Avon,  near  the  station,  is  completed,  ami 
presents  a  most  splendid  appearance.  Tbe  work  does  infinite  credit  to  the 
contractors,  Messrs.  Wilcox  and  Son. — Bristol  Mirror. 

Pre.fton  and  Wijre  Railmiy.— This  line  of  railway,  it  is  expected,  will  he 
opened  to  the  public  on  the'lst  or  2nd  of  July  next— the  North  Union  Com- 
pany finding  locomotive  power  and  caiTiages.  Above  1. 000  men  are  en- 
gaged in  the  various  works  in  progress  at  Fleetwood,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  an  liotel,  intended  to  be  one  of  the  finest  buildings  of  the  kind  in 
the  kingdom.  A  quay  of  considerable  length,  the  foundation  of  which  rests 
on  iron  piles,  is  also  in  progress.  A  light-house,  on  Mitchell  s  patent  screw 
principle,  has  been  erected  on  the  end  of  a  sand  bank,  about  two  miles  out  to 
sea,  and  will  be  lighted  in  the  course  of  next  month.  The  house  and  lantern 
stand  from  CO  to  70  feet  high.  CUiptain  Denham.  R.N.,  has  been  for  some 
time  busily  engaged  taking  bearings  for  two  o!bcr  light-houses,  wdnch  are 
intended  shortly  to  be  commenced.  It  is  intended  so  to  lower  the  bar,  by 
dredging,  that  t'here  shall  never  be  less  than  12  feet  water  at  low  water  high 
spring  tides,  from  the  sea  direct  into  the  liarbour,  which  can  readily  be 
elli?cted.  The  town  of  Fleetwood  h:is  been  tastefully  laid  out  by  Decimus 
Burton,  I'^sq.,  of  London,  and  a  considerable  number  of  houses  are  in  pro- 
gress.— Lancaster  Guardian. 

Birmingham  and  Gloucester  Railwaii.—\yc  can  now  confidently  state  that 
the  Birmingham  and  Gloucester  Railway  will  be  opened  on  or  before  the  Isl 
of  July  next,  from  Barnt  Green,  eleven  miles  from  this  town,  to  Cheltenham. 
Conveyances  will  be  furnished  by  the  company  to  perform  the  intermediate 
distance,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year  it  is  fully  calculated  that  the  whole  line 
will  be  completed,  and  opened  to  the  public  from  Birmingham  to  Cheltenham. 
— Midland  Counties  Jferald. 

Sorthern  and  Ea.itern  Railway.— A  correspondent  informs  us  that  the  open- 
ing of  the  first  portion  of  the  Northern  and  Kastern  Railway  will  take  place 
at  least  two  months  sooner  than  was  anticipated— namely,  in  August  next. 
We  learn  from  other  onartcrs.  that  the  greatest  energy  is  displayed  in  the 
prosecution  of  the  works. — Ibid. 

Manchester  and  Birmingham  Railway— The  exertions  of  the  various  con- 
tractors, on  this  line  of  railway,  at  the  temporary  Manchester  terminus,  in 
Travis-street,  Londim-road.  hav'e,  for  the  last  four  or  five  weeks,  been  cpiite 
astonishing.  Since  the  1st  of  April,  no  fewer  than  six  more  arches,  ot  thii-ty- 
threc  feet  span,  have  been  completed,  besides  another  skew  bridge.  The 
magnitude,  or  rather  tlie  extent  of  the  work,  may  in  some  measure  be  esti- 
mated, when  it  is  .stated  that  the  arches  and  bridge  have  consumed  nearly 
seven  millions  of  bricks.  The  immense  scafiblding  or  centering,  rendered  ne- 
cessarr  lor  the  erection  of  the  iron  skew  bridge,  which  has  so  pistly  attracted 
public  notice,  has  this  week  been  removed,  and  this  noble  mechanical  struc- 
ture, which  has  certainly  not  its  cijual  in  the  kingdom— perhaps  not  in  the 
world,  may  now  be  seen  to  the  best  possible  adv.intage.  Mr.  Buck,  tbe  com- 
pany's engineer,  has,  it  is  said,  the  rare  merit  of  designing  this  extraordinary 
work  of  art.  The  permanent  rails  are  now  in  the  course  of  being  laid  ;  the 
mode  of  doing  which  presents  to  the  eye  of  the  scientific  man  a  degree  ot 
firmness  and  probable  dumbility  not  perhaps  equilled,  or  even  nearly  ap- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


215 


pvoaclieil,  by  any  other  vaDwav  line  in  the  kingdom.  The  rails,  remarkably 
heavy,  are  fifteen  feet  in  lenglli.  and  laid  on  longitudinal  jiieces  of  KyaniseJ 
timber,  the  scantling  of  whieh  is  twelve  inches  by  six  inches.  There  are  be- 
sides transverse  pieces,  also  KyaniseJ,  ten  inches  by  five  inches,  and  screwed 
to  the  longitudinal  ones  every' three  feet,  so  that  it  may  with  safety  be  pro- 
nounced impossible  that  the  rails,  when  once  truly  and  (irmly  lixod  in  their 
chairs,  can  ever  afterwards  be  other  than  completely  parallel  to  each  other  ; 
a  circumstance  that  cannot  fail  to  give  a  motion  to  the  cai-riages  so  thoroughly 
easy  and  agreeable,  as  to  bid  defiance  to  all  attempts  at  improvements  on  the 
plan.  When  the  archo.s,  now  110  in  nimiber,  are  extemied  to  the  intended 
permanent  station.  Piccadillv,  near  the  Infirmary,  the  entire  length  of  the 
viaduct  on  brick  arches  will 'exceed  two  miles;  and  the  quantity  of  timber 
that  will  be  consumed  in  laying  the  rails  for  this  length  only,  will  exceed 
20.000  cubic  feet.  It  is  intended  to  open  the  railway,  as  lar  as  Stockport,  on 
the  29th  May. — Manchester  Chronicle. 

Lancaster  and  Preston  Junctimi  llailway. —Tlus  railway  will  be  opened  for 
the  conveyance  of  passengers,  and  of  traffic,  on  MTiit-Monday.  The  works 
proceed  at  the  Lancaster  terminus  -with  considerable  activity.  A  single  line 
of  rails  has  been  laid  down  as  far  as  Galgate,  and  during  the  past  week  a 
number  of  men  have  been  despatched  to  the  contract  of  Messrs.  lI'Mahon. 
which,  it  is  rumoured,  the  directors  intend  to  take  into  their  own  hands,  in 
order  to  ensure  the  compUtion  by  the  6th  of  next  month,  v  liich  otherwise  is 
more  than  problematical. — Railway  Times. 

Paris  and  Rouen  Rnilway. — The  contract  entered  into  between  the  South- 
ampton Railroad  Company  and  that  between  Paris  and  Kouen  has  been 
.signed,  and  the  works  will  be  commenced  immediately.  The  present  railroad 
from  St.  Germain  will  form  the  nucleus,  and  from  the  same  point  it  is  ima- 
gined the  railroad  to  Belgium  might  be  commenced,  and  hence  that  goods 
covild  be  forwarded  directly  from  Rouen  to  Bmssels,  without  having  to  pass 
through  the  French  capital. — Globe. 

Glasffoiv  ami  Ayr  Rnilwaii. — The  most  active  exertions  are  making  along 
the  line  in  order  to  eli'ect  tlie  completion  of  the  whole  line  by  the  end  of 
July.  Betwixt  Kilwinning  and  Dairy  the  cutting  and  embanking  is  carried 
on  during  the  night  as  well  as  the  day  :  and  the  contractor  of  this  lot, 
liitherto  in  the  most  backward  state,  is  proceeding  with  the  greatest  vigour 
and  success.  Considerable  progress  has  been  made  in  overcoming  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  so  called  bottomless  meadow,  whieh  has  required  so  much  de- 
posit in  the  embanking.  The  most  formidable  part  of  it  yet  remaining 
extends  to  about  three  hundred  yards  :  and  it  is  singular  to  observe  that  as 
the  earth  is  poured  on  the  embankment,  the  surface  on  both  sides  is  heaved 
up  to  a  considerab  e  extent.  As  the  workmen  proceed,  they  find  each  new 
piece  of  embankment  to  sink  during  the  night,  which  depression  they  have 
to  restore  by  fresh  portions  of  surface  material.  Having  once  surmounted 
this  obstacle,  their  task  will  be  comparatively  easy,  as  the  embankment  at 
this  part  of  the  line  is  only  three  feet.  The  meadow  which  lies  betwixt  Kil- 
birnic  and  Lochwinnoch  Lochs,  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  one  time  also 
covered  with  waier,  but  it  was  not  considered  to  have  retained  so  much 
moisture  as  to  cause  such  extra  labour  to  make  it  properly  terra  fimia.  other- 
wise some  change  would  have  been  made  on  the  line,  by  which  it  might  have 
been  avoided.  The  lodging-houses  in  Ivilwinning.  Dairy,  and  Beilli,  are 
crowded  with  lal^ourers  employed  on  the  railway,  whose  expenditure  must 
be  felt  in  a  considerable  degree  by  those  villages.  The  iron-works  at  Dairy 
are  in  the  progress  of  building,  and  appear  to  be  on  a  very  extensive  scale. — 
GlasgoiP  Courier. 


ENGINEERING  VITORKS. 

The  Royal  George.— Cf\\.Vas\eyhegan  his  proceedings  for  the  removal  of 
the  wreck  of  the  Royal  George  on  the  1st  of  last  month,  but  up  to  the  12th 
nothing  very  remarkable  was  effected.  Two  guns,  the  rudder,  and  a  conside- 
rable quantity  of  timber,  were  recovered  ;  but  as  these  were  merely  the  frag- 
ments of  last  year's  work  which  the  inclemency  of  the  season  prevented  the 
engineers  from  picking  up,  no  serious  measures  were  deemed  necessary  till 
Tuesday,  12  ultimo.  At  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  the  red  flags  at  Spit- 
head  announced  that  a  great  explosion  was  to  be  attempted  :  and  at  eleven 
one  of  those  huge  cylinders  which  have  formerly  been  described,  filled  with 
2116  11).  of  gunpowder,  was  lowered  to  the  bottom.  One  of  Col.  Pasley's 
divers  (George  Hall)  who  has  acquired  great  expertness  in  these  operations, 
descended  his  rope-ladder  a  little  in  advance  of  the  cylinder,  and  succeeded 
in  fixing  it  securely  to  one  of  the  lower  gudgeons  or  braces  on  the  rudder- 
post,  within  six  or  eight  feet  of  the  keel.  The  diver  having  remounted,  and 
the  vessels  being  withdrawn  to  a  safe  distance,  the  enormous  charge  was 
ignited  by  means  of  the  voltaic  apparatus.  Within  less  than  two  seconds 
after  tlie  shock  was  felt,  the  sea  rose  over  the  spot  to  the  height  of  about 
1.5  feet,  or  not  quite  half  so  high  as  it  did  on  occasion  of  the  great  explosions 
last  year— a  diilerencc  ascribable,  probably,  to  the  cylinder  on  the  present 
oecas  on  having  been  placed  under  ihe  hull  instead  ot  alongside  it.  The 
commotion  in  the  w  ater,  however,  was  so  great  as  to  cause  the  lumps  and 
lighters  to  pitch  and  roll  at  a  great  rate.  The  whole  surface  of  the  sea  for 
severixl  hundred  yards  round  was  presently  covered  with  dead  fish  and  small 
fragments  of  the  cylinder.  Amongst  these  were  innumerable  tallow  candles, 
and  a  mass  of  butter  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  evidently  driven  upfront 
the  purser's  store-room.  As  soon  as  the  va.st  commotion  in  the  water  b.ad 
subsided,  and  the  boats  had  returned  from  the  universal  scramble  lor  the 
candles  and  dead  fish,  the  diver  proceeded  again  to  the  bottom,  and  soon 
reported  that  the  whole  stern  of  the  ship  bad  been  driven  to  pieces,  and  that, 
so  lar  as  he  could  ascertain,  there  was  now  a  free  and  wide  channel  directly 
fore  and  aft  the  ship,  from  stem  to  stern,  through  which  both  the  flood  and 
ebb  tides  will  rush,  and  thus  the  mud  with  which  the  hull  of  the  Royal 
George  has  been  silted  for  half  a  century,  will  be  washed  out,  and  the  way 
cleared  for  Col,  Pasley's  further  operations. 


Staffordshire  and  Worcestershire  Canal  Company. — This  company,  having 
purchased  of  the  Moat  Colliery  Company  the  unexpired  term  of  their  lease 
of  the  river  Sowe,  up  to  this  town,  have  this  week  employed  no  less  than 
150  men  in  improving  and  making  navigable  for  heavily  laden  vessels,  that 
part  of  it  between  this  town  and  Radford  Bridge.  The  work  has  been  ac- 
tively proceeded  with,  the  bed  of  the  river  being  lowered  in  some  parts  about 
two  feet,  widened  or  narrowed  as  required,  and  thoroughly  cleansed.  This 
improvement  has  been  effected  with  the  view  of  opening  a  market  for  IjOrd 
Hatberton's  and  other  collieries  at  Church  Bridge,  near  Cannock,  to  which 
}tlace  a  branch  from  the  canal  is  in  progress,  at  an  estimated  expense  of 
£20,000.  It  is  expected  that  the  branch  will  be  completed  by  the  end  of  the 
present  summer  ;  .so  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  tow  n  may  reasonably  expect 
both  a  cheaper  and  better  supply  of  the  necessary  article  of  fuel. — Stafford- 
shire Gazette. 

Portsmouth  Dockyard. — A  Board  of  Admiralty,  consisting  of  Earl  Minto  and 
Sir  M".  Parker,  lately  visited  the  port.  Several  material  points  have  called 
their  Lordships'  attention  to  this  neighbourhood  :  in  the  first  place,  the  lioa  - 
ing  bridge  approaches  required  their  inspection,  in  which  they  were  assisted 
by  their  engineer.  Captain  Brandreth  i  anil  we  have  no  doubt  that  all  matters 
in  dispute  will  be  satisfactorily  arranged  tor  the  company,  and  ailvantageously 
for  the  public.  We  have  reason  to  think  that  Mr.  Lindegren's  projecting 
premises  will  be  purchased  and  throw  n  open,  by  wdiich  means  upwards  of  60 
feet  of  high  water  beach  will  be  available  to  the  watermen  ;  care,  however, 
should  be  taken  that  the  new  beach  be  properly  formed,  for,  as  the  situatimi 
is  removed  from  the  operation  of  the  tidal  influence  on  the  shingle,  nature 
will  provide  nothing  but  nuul  to  land  on,  unless  the  engineer  shall  e.\ercise 
his  art  and  procure  a  more  hardened  substance. 


NEW  CHURCHES,  &c 


Dorsetshire.— Tlhe  foimdation  stone  of  the  new  church  at  Ash  was  laid  on 
Wednesday,  13tli  ult.,  by  the  Rev.  R.  Oakman.  the  vicar,  in  the  (iresence  of 
a  very  large  company,  comprising  about  2.000  of  the  nobility,  gentry,  and 
yeuraanry  of  the  county. — Dorset  County  Chronicle. 

Nottingham. — The  beautiful  church  of  St.  Mary,  which  has  justly  excited 
so  much  admiration  from  antiquaries,  has  been  completely  restored,  at  an 
expense  of  3,000^.,  which  sum  was  raised  by  subscription  ;  and  Mr  T.  Wright, 
of  Upton-hall,  has  purchased  and  presented  to  the  church  a  beautiful  Cruci- 
fixion, by  Fra  Bartolomeo,  anil  one  of  his  finest  works,  as  an  altar-piece. — 
Nottingham  Herald. 

Essex. — North  and  south  transepts  are  now  in  progress  at  the  parish  church 
of  Messing,  near  Colchester,  under  the  direction  of  John  Burges  Watson,  Ksq.. 
of  39,  Manchester-street,  London.  The  style  is  early  I'inglish  ;  there  is  ,i 
beautiful  eastern  window  in  stained  glass  and  of  great  antiquity,  .supposed  lo 
have  been  of  Dutch  origin,  .and  is  an  object  of  attraction  to  visitors;  it  is 
also  contemplated  to  have  a  new  tower  and  spire,  for  which  designs  have 
been  furnished. 

Sisters  of  Mercy  in  Birmingham. — John  Ilardman,  Esq.,  of  Handsworth,  has 
generously  allotted  to  the  use  of  this  establishment,  a  piece  of  land  opposite 
his  own  dw  elling  ;  and  a  convent  is  now  in  progress,  from  the  designs  of  A . 
W.  Pugin,  Esq..  the  architect  of  St.  Chad's  Church.  The  conventual  build- 
ings will  consist  of  chapel,  cloister,  community  room,  refectory,  olliees,  and 
private  chambers,  or,  as  the  are  technically  termed,  cells  ;  to  which  will  be 
added  a  refectory,  school-room,  and  suitable  apartments  for  about  thirty 
female  orphan  children.  The  plan  of  the  building  is  based  chiefly  upon  that 
of"  Brown's  Hospital  "  in  Stamford  ;  and,  as  Mr.  Pugin  studies  propriety  of 
destination  in  all  his  edifices,  we  have  reason  to  know  that  the  one  in  question 
will  not  only  be  ornamental  and  picturesque,  but  in  every  respect  conventual — 
in  fact,  the  only  entire  building,  with  purely  conventual  features, in  the  coun- 
try.— Midland  Counties  Herald. 

Staffordshire.— 7hc  new  church  of  St.  James',  at  Handsworth,  was  eonse- 
eratcd  on  the  22iid  April  last.  It  is  built  in  the  early  Gothic  style,  with  a 
tower  of  three  stories  at  the  west  end,  it  contains  926  sittings,  ol  which  518 
are  tree.  Mr.  Richard  Robinson  of  Wolverhampton,  was  the  contractor,  for 
the  sum  of  £2,500, — and  Robert  Ebbels,  Esq.,  the  architect. 


MISCELIiANEA. 


Artificial  Asphalte. — The  substitution  of  boiling  coal  tar  instead  of 
water,  with  crushed  caustic  lime  and  screened  gravel  or  sharp  sand,  in  the 
usual  proportions  for  making  coucrete,  forms  an  admirable  asphalte,  perhaps 
equal  to  the  foreign  asphalte.  C.  F.  P. 

IJ'ood  Pavement. — A  considerable  length  of  the  Strand  is  now  being 
paved  with  wood ;  the  blocks  are  hexagonal,  9  inches  deep,  and  9  inches 
across  at  right  angles  to  the  sides ;  the  upper  edge  is  chamfered  all  round, 
to  form  a  groove  to  prevent  the  horses  from  slipping.  The  wood  is  laid  o« 
a  bed  of  broken  granite,  and  to  us  it  appears  that  the  work  is  behig  done  in 
a  very  clumsy  and  unsatisfactory  manner. 

Asphalte. — This  material  has  been  used  in  lining  the  reservoirs  and  tanks 
of  the  Southampton  RaUway,  and  found  to  answer  very  well ;  it  has  also 
been  used  for  covering  terraces — in  some  situations  it  has  not  been  very  suc- 
cessful, but  in  others  it  is  perfectly  water-proof.  An  additional  length  of 
the  footway  in  Whitehall  hai  been  laid  with  ttus  material. 


2i<; 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[J  UN 


K, 


Thames  Tiniiwl. — Tlie  C'oin])any  liiivc  oljtaiTicd  aiintlier  Act  of  Parliament, 
which  empowers  them  to  purchase  the  [iroperty  on  tlie  Xlichllesex  side  of  the 
river  necessary'  for  the  apjiroaclies  ;  the  worlcs  will  now  proceed  with  ra]tidity. 
The  tunnel  is  eompleteil  to  within  50  feet  of  the  wharf  at  \Viippiug,  and 
pre])arations  are  making  lo  commence  immediately  tlie  sinking  of  the  shaft 
on  the  Middlesex  side  of  the  river.  The  formatiim  of  the  new  shaft,  as  well 
as  the  remaining  jiortion  of  the  tunnel,  will  he  carried  on  at  the  same  time, 
ami  it  is  expected  thai  in  aho\it  four  months  they  will  he  completed.  Not 
less  than  150  workmen  are  at  jirescnt  engaged  in  finishing  the  interior  of  the 
western  arch  roadway,  preparatory  to  its  heing  opened,  in  the  first  instance, 
as  a  thoroughfare  for  foot  passengers. 

To  consume  /lie  smoke  from  a  boiler  furnace. — Let  the  fresh  coals  he  ])iit 
into  the  furn.ice  as  near  to  the  door  as  possible,  and  leave  the  door  0])en  for 
a  space  of  two  or  three  inches  to  allow  cold  air  to  enter,  this  will  keep  down 
the  greater  part  of  the  smoke  which  will  he  consimu'd  ;  the  .same  may  he  ap- 
plied to  marine  engines.  This  method  will  he  found  as  efficacious  as  any 
patent  that  has  yet  heen  taken  out.  M. 

Siifrh/  I'airr  lo  Sleam  Boilers. — At  a  meeting  of  the  Socielv  of  Arts,  on 
■Wednesday,  May  6tl),  llie  gold  Isis  medal  «»s  a« arded  to  Mr.  ItoLert  M-Ewen, 
for  a  mercurial  gauge  vi  liich  answers  the  double  purpose  of  an  indicator  of 
steam-pre.ssnre  and  a  safety-valve  for  engine  boilers.  The  novelty  of  the  in 
venlion  consists  in  llio  eni|>loymcnt  of  a  mereiirial  tube  as  a  safe-vent  for  the 
steam.  tJicse  tubes  ha\ing  hitherto  been  used  only  as  indietitors  of  pressure, 
and  of  a  length  suflieient  to  allow  the  steam  to  acijuire  a  dangerous  degree  of 
pressure,  without  giving  any  other  notice  uf  the  fact  than  what  may  l)e  ob- 
.served  by  the  eye.  As  the  action  of  Mr.  AbEwen's  safety-valve  ilepends  on 
a  purely  jilii/sleiil  principle,  viz.,  the  oppcsilion  ot  the  clastic  force  of  sle.ini  to 
the  stjitie  pressure  of  mercury  ^\itI)OUt  a  nierhonieal  ob.struction  of  any  kind, 
it  allbrds  a  free  vent  for  the  steam  when  its  pressure  exceeds  the  limit,  cor- 
responding to  the  length  lo  which  the  lubes  are  adjusted,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  boiler. 

I}iirm  Coal. — Dr.  Hutchison,  of  llie  Madras  artillery,  has  dra«n  up  a  report 
on  the  coal-fields  recently  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  Mergui.  by  h  liich  it 
apiiears  that  this  coal  is  easy  of  access,  lying  at  m,"  great  deiilli  beneath  the 
.surlaee,  so  lliat  .shafts  may  be  sunk  wiihuut'  difficulty.  For  its  emiveyanee 
there  seems  to  be  every  facility,  the  river  being  adjacent,  and  a  land  carriage 
of  one  mile  only  being  required.  1 1  is  not  stated  wlietber  the  ipiality  of  the 
eoal  has  been  tested  bv  experiment,  but  we  presume  it  to  be  the  same  of 
which  Dr.  Ileifer  spoke  so  highly  in  his  communications.  .Steamers  will 
begin  to  plv  bet\veen  the  difl'erent  ports  in  the  bay  of  Bengal  :  and  the  imme- 
diate cotil  dejiols  between  the  Presidencies  and  .Suez  will  be  more  plenlitully 
supplied,  and  at  a  cheaper  rate.  The  eflect  these  circumstances  will  produce 
on  the  destinies  of  India  can  se.ircely  be  estimated. — Ea.it  Intliu  Magazine. 


Z.IST    OF    NEW    PATENTS. 

GRANTliD    IX    ENGLAND    FROM    2StH     APRIL    TO    23rU    MAV,     1810. 

William  Crank  M'ilkins,  of  Long  Acre,  Lamp  Manufaeturer,  and 
Matthkw  Samukl  Kendrick,  of  the  same  jilacc,  Lamp  Maker,  for  "  cer- 
tain improeements  in  lighting  and  in  lamps." — Sealed  Ajiril  28 ;  six  months 
for  enrolment. 

John  Inkson,  of  Ryder  Street,  Saint  James'.  Gentleman,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  apparattis  for  consmninr/  gas  for  tlie  purpose  of  liijht."  Communi- 
cated by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — April  .30  ;  six  months. 

Orl.vnjio  Joneh,  of  the  City  Itoad,  Accountant,  for  "  improeements  in 
treating  or  operating  on  farinaceous  matter  to  obtain  starch  auft  otfier  pro- 
ducts, and  in  manufacturing  starch." — April  30;  six  months. 

M'tLLiAM  PiERCK,  of  Janics  Placc,  lIoNton,  Ironmonger,  for  "improve- 
vienls  in  ttte  construct  ion  of  locks  and  keys." — May  2  ;  six  months. 

Arthuh  Wall,  of  liermondsey,  Surgeon,  for  "  a  neio  composition  for  the 
prevention  of  corrosion  in  metals,  am!  for  other  purposes." — May  2  ;  six 
months. 

Thomas  Gadd  Mattukws,  of  Bristol,  Merchant,  and  Rohkrt  IjHonard, 
of  the  same  place,  Merchant,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  machinerg  or 
apjiaratus  for  sawing,  rasping,  or  dividing  dge,  iroods,  or  tanners^  bark." — 
May  5  ;  six  months. 

William  Newton,  of  Chancery  Lane,  Patent  ■\gent,  for  "  an  improved 
apparatus  and  process  for  producing  .sculptured  forms,  JigureSf  or  devices  in 
marble,  and  other  hard  substances."  Coninuinicatcd  by  a  foreigner  residing 
abroad. — May  5  ;  six  months. 

Gkorgk  Mackav,  of  Mark  Lane,  Ship  Broker,  for  "  certain  improvements 
ill  rotatory  engines."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — May 
5 ;  six  months. 

William  Beetson,  of  Brick  Lane,  Old  Street,  Brass  I'ounder,  for  "  im- 
provements in  sfuffing-bo.res  applicable  to  water-closets,  pumps,  and  cocks." — 
May  5  ;  six  months. 

Frank  Hills,  of  Deptford,  Kent,  Manufacturing  Cliemist,  for  "certain 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  steam-boilers  and  engines,  and  of  locomo- 
tive ca-riages." — May  5  ;  six  months. 

Bernard  Auue,  of  Coleman  Street  Buildings,  Gentleman,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  the  preparation  of  wool  for  tlie  manufacturer  of  woollen  and  other 
stuffs." — May  7  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Walker,  of  Galasliiels,  in  the  county  of  Selkirk,  Meclianic,  for 


"  improvements   in  appnratu.i  applicable  to  feeding  machinerg  employed  in 
carding,  scribbling,  or  teazing  fit/rous  materials." — May  7  ;  six  months. 

IIknrv  IIollano,  of  Darwin  Street,  Binuingbam,  Umbrella  I'uruiturc 
Maker,  for  "improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  umbrellas  and  parasols." — 
■May  7  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Montague  Grover,  of  Boveney,  Buckingliainshire,  Clerk,  for 
"  an  improved  method  of  retarding  and  stopping  railway  trains." — May  7  ; 
six  months. 

Miles  Bkrrv,  of  Chancery  Lane,  Patent  Agent,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments ill  treating,  refining,  and  purifying  oil*."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — May  9  ;  six  months. 

AiiGusTE  MoiNAN,  of  Philpot  Tcriace,  Edgware  Road,  Clock  Maker,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  time-keepers." — May  9 ;  six 
months. 

Rice  Harris,  of  Birmingham,  Gentleman,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
cylinders,  plates,  and  blocks,  vsed  in  printing  ami  embossing." — May  12;  six 
months. 

George  John  Newberry,  of  Cripplegate  Buildings,  Manufacturer,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  rendering  silk,  cotton,  woollen,  linen,  and  other 
fabrics,  waterproof." — May  12  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Dibcks,  of  Liverpool,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  the 
construction  of  locomotive  steam-engines,  and  in  wheels  to  be  u.sed  on  rail  and 
other  ways,  parts  of  ivhicli  improvements  are  ajipUcable  to  steam-engines  gene- 
rally."— May  12  ;  six  months. 

John  11avid>:o.n,  of  Leith  Walk,  Edinburgh,  for  "  on  improvement  in  the 
method  of  preserving  salt." — May  12 ;  six  months. 

Peter  Br.^dshaw',  of  Dean,  near  Rimbolton,  Bedford,  Gentleman,  for 
"improvements  in  dibbling  corn  and  seed." — May  12;  six  months. 

James  Walton,  of  Sowerby  Bridge,  Halifax,  Cloth  Dresser,  for  "  im- 
provements in  the  ^nanufacture  of  beds,  mattresses,  pillows,  cushions, padi, 
and  other  articles  of  a  similar  nature,  and  in  materials  for  packing." — May 
12  ;  six  months. 

Richard  Foote,  of  Faversham,  Kent,  Watch  Maker,  for  "  improvements 
in  alarums." — May  12;  six  months. 

John  Joseph  Mechi,  of  Leadenhall  Street,  Cutler,  for  "  an  improved 
method  of  lighting  buildings." — May  12  ;  two  months. 

Bryan  J'Anson  Bromwich,  of  Clifton-on-Teme,  Worcester,  Gentleman, 
for  "  improvemeu/s  in  stirrup-irons." — May  13  ;  six  montlis. 

Henry'  Ernest,  of  Gordon  Street,  iliddlesex.  Gentleman,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  machines,  nsually  called  beer-engines." — 
May  13  ;  six  months. 

William  IIannis  Taylor,  of  Norfolk  Street,  Strand,  Esquire,  for  "cer- 
tain improve7nents  in  the  mode  of  forming  or  manufacturing  staves,  shingles, 
and  laths,  and  the  machinery  used  for  that  purpose." — May  20  ;  six  months. 
Willi.\m  Bush,  of  CamherwcU,  Merchant,  for  "improvements  in  fire- 
arms and  in  cartridges."  Communieated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — 
May  20  ;  six  months. 

James  Buchanan,  of  Glasgow,  Merchant,  for  "  certain  improvements  iu 
the  machinery  ajiplicable  to  the  preparing,  twisting,  and  .ynnniiig,  and  also  in 
the  mode  of  preparing,  twisting,  and  .spinning,  of  lieiiip,tla.r,  and  other  fibrous 
substances,  and  certain  improvements  in  the  mode  (f  aji/ilgiug  tar  or  other 
preservative  to  rope  and  other  yarns." — Alay  22  ;  six  months. 

James  Callard  Davies,  of  College  Place,  Camden  Town,  Jeweller,  for 
"  an  improved  clock  or  time-piece."- — May  23 ;  six  months. 


TO  CORRESFOMDENTS. 


//"  W.  15.  will  favour  us  with  the  particulars  of  llie  addition  to  Thoniey  Jbliry. 
we  will  insert  liieni  iie.it  nioiitti. 

iS.  P.'s  method  of  constructing  a  Bridge  is  iinpractirahlr,  il  is  like  buildiug 
castlrs  in  the  air,  bis  couiniHuicatiuu  will  lie  left  at  uur  iiffiee. 

Il'e  Ihaiil;  Mr.  Plank  for  his  corirclioii,  il  will  be  forwarded  In  Ihc  author  of 
llie  piiprr.  ^ 

Mr.  Phillip's  eomuiiiiiivutioii  is  unavoidably  postponed,  togelher  willi  sovic 
olliers. 

''  Amicus"  is  mil  aware  of  the  dijjirnllies  and  delays  in  getting  the  reports  be 
nienlioiis,  wc  iiiivt'  inserted  some  in  the  present  .lonrnal. 

"  Report  oil  tilt  phiiis  for  preventihg  itieideiits  on  hoard  of  sleuin  vessels,  we 
had  intended  to  hiin  given  this  month,  but  in  eunsetpieuee  of  an  over  pressure  oj 
matter,  we  are  eoinpelleil  to  postpone  it  J  or  the  ne.vt  Journal. 

IVe  are  obliged  to  Capt.  I'.for  bis  eomiuuiiieation,  the  e.ytrnris  from  Palladio  we 
luive  mil  Inserted,  us  the  wort:  is  ueeessibte  In  must  iifchileets — ///,v  other  paper  e.i- 
pluining  how  iuereused  bnoyauey  might  lie  obtained  bij  filing  the  sides  of  re.i.iels  with 
gas  in  reservoirs,  lee  Ihiilh  is  iinpnletituble,  us  the  weight  of  the  rest  rroirs  eou- 
tiiining  the  gas  and  the  iuereused  ballast  ill  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  wilt  more  tliau 
eoiintfirbalauce  the  bnoyauey  if  the  gas. 

The  eominuiiieuiiim  from  Mr.  Niehol.ioii\s  reply  to  Mr.  rtuel;,  S,-e..  leas  received  too 
lute  iu  till  month  for  the  pri  sent  .hnirniil.  we  leill  not  fail  inserting  it  iie.it  month. 

Coinmiuiiealions  are  reipiested  to  be  addressed  to  "The  lOditor  ot  the  Civil 
Engineer  and   Archileet's  Journal,"   A".  \\,  Parliament   Street.  It'eslminster. 

lioohs  for  reeiew  ninst  be  sent  eai;ly  in  the  month,  comwiinieittions  mi  or  before 
tlie  20th  (if  with  wood-cuts,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  ttic  'Z5th 
instant. 

Tut;  l''msT  Volume  M,<\v  i)e  had,  bound  in  cloth  and  LErrKRED  in  gold, 
Price  IJs. 

'*,*  The  Second  Volume  may  .^lso  be  had.  Price  20s. 


1840.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


217 


FINSBURY  SAVINGS'  BANK. 

Architect,  Alfred  Bartholomew. 


The  sum  allowed  for  the  erection  of  this  building  was  only  £2850, 
whifh,  taking  into  consideration  its  size,  is  not  50  per  cent,  upon  the 
ratio  of  cost  of  any  other  of  the  savings'  banks  of  the  metropolis  ;  the 
consequence  is,  that  it  is  neither  built  externally  of  the  materials,  nor 
finished  internally  in  the  style,  which  the  architect  of  it  desired :  a 
previous  design  was  prepared  by  hira  for  a  larger  and  superior  build- 
ing, to  be  finished  externally  with  Portland  stone,  internally  fitted  up 
in  a  handsome  manner,  and  with  the  novelty  of  an  entire  fire-proof 
construction,  the  particulars  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  Mr.  Bartho- 
lomew's "Specifications  for  Practical  Architecture,"  just  published. 
The  absolute  tender  for  the  difference  between  external  stucco  and 
Portland  stone  (the  frontage  remaining  the  same),  was  less  than  5  per 
cent,  upon  the  cost  of  the  original  design,  and  less  than  7  per  cent, 
upon  the  reduced  one ;  and  the  fire-proof  construction  added  only 
about  G  per  cent,  to  the  cost. 

The  frontage  of  the  building  extends  72  feet,  and  consists  of  a  range 
of  seven  large  windows,  for  the  admission  of  a  great  body  of  light  to 
the  offices,  between  ten  rusticated  pilasters,  13  ft.  G  in.  high,  which 
are  diminished.  They  are  surmounted  by  an  entablature ;  above  is  a 
range  of  three  Palladian  windows  (lighting  a  board-room),  flanked  by 
long  rustic  quoins,  and  surmounted  by  a  fascia  and  a  bold  cornice, 
from  the  outer  edge  of  which  commences  the  slope  of  tiie  roof,  which 
has  a  sunk  or  concealed  gutter.  At  the  sides  of  the  pilastrade  before 
mentioned,  are  rusticated  wings,  containing  the  entrances,  each  G  feet 
wide,  above  which  the  building  retires,  so  as  to  detach  it  from  the 
adjoining  houses.  All  the  fascias  are  made  very  broad,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving  inscriptions  to  be  visible  at  a  considerable  distance. 

The  interior  of  the  building,  which  is  totally  destitute  of  every 
description  of  decoration,  contains  a  public  office  3U  feet  long,  three 
private  offices,  a  strong-room,  a  depositors'  waiting-hall  44  feet  long, 
two  entrance  halls,  each  11  feet  S  inches  by  20  feet,  a  board-room  30 
feet  by  14  feet,  two  staircases,  and  besides  these  thirteen  domestic 
apartments,  most  of  which  are  concealed  from  view  in  order  to  avoid 
as  much  as  possible  the  meanness  of  many  small  external  windows. 

All  the  proportions  of  this  building  have  suffered  from  retrenchment, 
and  it  is  thus  rendered  in  dimension,  having  regard  to  its  business, 
twice  as  large  as  any  similar  establishment. 

The  external  cornices  and  chimneys  are  not  yet  finished. 

The  sum  allowed  for  this  building  was  so  restricted,  that  the  archi- 
tect chose  to  be  at  some  part  of  the  expense  of  the  external  decora- 
tions of  it,  rather  than  suffer  it  to  undergo  farther  mutilation. 

No.  34.— Vol.  III.-  July,  1S40. 


ON  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  THE  ART  OF  GLASS  PAINT- 
ING IN  ENGLAND  AND  FRANCE,  AND  ON  THE  NECES- 
SITY FOR  EFFORTS  IN  ITS  FAVOUR. 

By  George  Godwin,  Jun.,  F.R.S.  &  S.A.* 

The  extraordinary  degree  of  apathy  universally  manifested  with 
regard  to  the  well-being  and  progress  of  an  art,  the  admirable  results  of 
which  throughout  a  period  of  at  least  five  or  six  hundred  years  are 
scattered  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  is  so  much  to  be  lamented,  and 
calls  so  loudlv  for  exertion  on  the  part  of  those  who  feel  its  importance, 
that  I  am  induced  to  raise  earnestly  a  feeble  voice  in  its  behalf.  And 
I  do  this  without  any  fear  of  the  imputation  of  vanity  or  self-confidence, 
and  with  a  strong  hope  that  however  weak  the  advocate,  some  good 
may  be  effected  by  the  effort.  Many  men  with  earnest  wishes  and 
strong  inward  promptings,  avoid  speaking  out  simply  through  feelings 
of  their  own  want  of  importance  and  dread  lest  interference  on  their 
part  may  be  construed  into  presumption,  or  at  the  best  be  entirely  dis- 
regarded. This  1  am  disposed  to  think  is  an  evil  and  should  be  com- 
batted,  experience  showing  that  a  word  uttered  in  due  season,  however 
humble  and  weak  the  utterer,  may,  and  often  does,  have  effects  which 
could  not  possibly  have  been  calculated  upon :  and  further,  that  an 
individual,  however  unimportant  who  with  strong  conviction  iterates, 
and  reiterates  the  necessity  of  a  certain  step  will  be  sure  of  finding  a 
response  in  the  public  mind,  provided  his  statement  be  founded  in 
truth,  and  sooner  or  later  will  most  probably  effect  his  purpose.  This 
introduction  is  a  little  too  pompous  for  the  very  brief  remarks  which 
follow,  but  nevertheless  perhaps,  may  not  be  deemed  useless  or  im- 
pertinent. 

To  bring  together  and  relate  the  circumstances  attending  the  pro- 
gress of  the  art  of  painting,  and  staining  glass  from  the  foundation  of 
Constantinople,  where  it  attained  a  certain  degree  of  excellence,  and 
whence,  there  seems  reason  to  believe,  it  was  brought  to  Rome,  and 
afterwards  by  our  Norman,  if  not  our  Saxon,  ancestors  to  England, 
would  be  a  pleasant  task,  but  as  all  the  facts  are  well  known,  the  repe- 
tition might  prove  tiresome.  In  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  the  art 
reached  great  perfection  in  England,  and  ultimately  became  so  popular 
that  stained  glass  was  not  merely  used  for  ecclesiastical  purposes,  but 
as  an  essential  feature  of  decoration  in  domestic  architecture.  At  the 
Reformation  the  onward  progress  of  glass  painting  was  checked,  and 
many  fine  specimens  cf  it  were  destroyed  as  evidences  and  encouragers 
of  superstition.  Further  ravages  were  made  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
and  during  the  continuance  of  the  Commonwealth;  indeed  it  seems 
surprising,  bent  as  the  Puritans  were  upon  its  destruction,  that  so  much 
yet  remains, 

"  Innumerable  of  stains  and  splendid  dyes. 
As  are  the  tiger-moths  deep  damask'd  wings," 

to  prove  its  power  in  exciting  holy  emotions  ;  "  to  add  new  lustre  to 
religious  light,"  and  a  further  charm  to  the  many  inherent  beauties  of 
those  numerous  buildings  in  the  pointed  style  of  architecture  scattered 
over  England,  of  which  we  have  just  right  to  be  proud. 

Dallaway  in  the  first  edition  of  his  "  Observations  on  English  Archi- 
tecture,"!-  gives  a  valuable  list  of  the  various  professors  of  the  art  of 
painting  on  glass,  who  practised  in  England  from  the  period  of  the  re- 
storation of  the  reigning  family  up  to  the  year  1805,  when  Francis 
Egington  died, — a  man  of  celebrity  in  the  exercise  of  the  art,  who  had 
been  established  near  Birmingham. 

A  little  time  previous  to  this  date,  Charles  Muss  came  to  London  to 
obtain  emplovnient  as  a  colourer  of  prints.  He  lodged  at  the  house  of 
an  individual  who  painted  upon  china  for  Messrs.  Mortlock,  and  was 
induced  by  accident,  on  the  death  of  iiis  landlord,  to  undertake  the 
completion  of  some  work  of  this  description  which  had  been  left  un- 
finished. Succeeding  in  this  he  became  a  china  painter,  and  ultimately 
a  glass  painter,  and  was  employed  in  that  capacity  for  many  years  by 
Mr.  Collins  of  the  Strand.  He  afterwards  executed  a  number  of  works 
in  his  own  name, — of  which  one  of  the  finest  that  I  know  is  a  window 
in  the  church  of  St.  Mary  at  Redriff.  Muss  had  a  number  of  pupils, 
some  of  whom  are  now  practising:  as  for  example  Mr.  Nixon  and  Mr. 
Hoadley.  Backler,  who  painted  the  window  at  St.  George's  church 
in  the  Boroagh,  was  another  of  his  scholars,  as  was  also  Mr.  John 
Martin — since  so  deservedly  celebrated  in  another  branch  of  art;  a 
man  of  whom  it  may  be  said,  in  a  parenthesis,  our  age  will  boast here- 
after.l     A  work  in  stained  glass  from  his  hands  is,  I  believe,  to  be 

*  The  substance  of  this  paper  was  read  at  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Archiiecis,  June  I,  184U. 

T  London,  1806. 

;  '•  It  is  only  when  we  are  skeleton?  that  we  are  boxed  and  ticketed,  and 
prized  and  shown.  ' — W.  S.  Landor. 

2  G 


21S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


^JULY, 


found  ;it  Lord  Listowel's,  at  Kensington.  The  peculiarity  to  be  ob- 
served in  piintings  of  the  Muss  school,  (I  tliink  it  may  also  be  tenne.d 
the  dtftcl,)  is  the  great  degree  of  opacity  given  to  some  of  the  colours ; 
whereas  in  tlie  best  works  of  the  artists  of  the  middle  ages  all  the 
colours  are  more  or  less  translucent.  Of  all  Muss's  living  |)upils  Mr. 
Nixon,  of  the  firm  of  Ward  and  Nixon,  has  peibaps  most  entirely 
abandoned  this  peculiarity,  and  the  result  apparent  in  such  of  the 
works  executed  by  this  firm  as  I  have  examined,  is  of  an  exceedingly 
satisfactory  nature. 

The  branch  of  glass  painting  now  most  encouraged  appears  to  me, 
although  of  itself  charming,  a  departure  from  the  special  character  of 
this  art.  I  allude  to  the  imitation  of  oil  paintings  on  single  plates  of 
glass,  or  of  plates  composed  of  very  few  large  pieces, — such  for  exam- 
ple as  the  copy  of  "  Belshazzar's  Feast,"  and  others  of  Martin's  wonder- 
ful conceptions,  which  have  been  so  well  executed  by  Messrs.  Hoadley 
and  Oldfield. 

Dallaway  says  that  Thomas  Jervais,  who  died  in  ISO],  was  the  first 
who  was  distinguished  for  exquisitely  finishing  small  subjects,  since 
which  time  this  department  of  the  art  has  been  much  studied  and  has 
been  brought  to  a  point  of  great  excellence.  In  productions  of  this  sort  a 
variety  of  colours  are  fused  into  the  same  piece  of  glass,  and  it  becomes 
almost  impossible  to  obtain  with  such  certainty  equal  effects  of  colour, 
as  when  each  tint  is  on  a  separate  piece  of  glass,  although  this  style  has 
undoubtedly  its  own  advantages.  In  the  works  of  the  earlier  manner  the 
colours  are  nearly  always  on  separate  pieces,  the  various  morsels  being 
united  by  leaden  or  copper  bands,  and  shaded  with  brown.  A  hardness 
of  outline  resulted,  and  a  great  excellence  in  drawing  was  not  easily 
attainable,  but  there  is  nevertheless  about  them  a  character  [leculiarly 
their  own  which  should  not  willingly  be  lost  in  decorating  ecclesiasti- 
cal structures  of  the  style  of  the  middle  ages.  Of  course  we  should 
not  give  up  the  power  we  possess  through  our  improved  mechanical 
skill,  to  avoid  injurious  joinings  where  this  can  be  done  without  dimi- 
nution of  excellence  in  other  respects;  what  I  wo\ild  simply  express 
is,  my  conviction  that  to  endeavour  to  make  stained  glass  appeal  to  be 
anything  else  than  stained  glass  is  not  desirable. 

An  error,  as  it  appears  to  me,  is  sometimes  committed  in  placing 
copies  of  the  later  Italian  masters  in  the  windows  of  structures  erected 
in  the  earlier  pointed  styles  of  art.  Our  improved  taste  has  made  us 
feel  that  to  place  an  Italian  altar-piece  in  a  (jtothic  church  is  to  violate 
propriety  and  destroy  harmony.  Why  should  the  filling-in  of  the 
windows  escape  the  general  law  that  all  portions  of  a  building  avow- 
edly in  imitation  of  the  works  of  a  particular  period  should  be  con- 
gruous. The  windows  ought  unquestionably  to  accord  with  the  build- 
ing itself,  both  as  regards  their  design  and  the  technical  peculiarities 
which  mark  the  genuine  works  of  the  period  imitated. 

Mr.  Willement,  whose  works  are  well  known  to  all  who  have  in- 
quired into  the  subject,  is  justly  celebrated  for  his  imitations  of  the 
efforts  of  the  earlier  artists  in  stained  glass,  and  of  these  no  other  ex- 
ample need  be  given  than  the  principal  window  in  .St.  Dunstan's 
church.  Fleet-street,  executed  by  him  a  few  years  since.  This  window 
was  presented  to  the  parish  by  the  Messrs.  Hoare.* 

In  France  at  this  time  the  art  of  painting  on  glass  is  making  satis- 
factory, although  but  gradual,  advances.  During  the  period  of  the 
first  revolution  the  abhorrence  of  every  thing  connected  with  royalty 
which  prevailed,  led  to  the  suppression  of  tlie  government  establish- 
ment for  the  manufacture  of  glass  and  china  at  Sevres,  and  to  the 
destruction  of  numerous  fine  specimens  of  its  skill.  While  many  glass 
windows  were  broken  and  melted  down  in  the  vain  belief  that  as  gold 
was  employed  in  the  preparation  of  some  of  the  colours,  it  could  be 
extracted  and  made  available.  Buonaparte  sought  to  re-establish  the 
manufactory  on  its  former  footing,  but  found  that,  although  they  pos- 
sessed all  the  written  details  of  the  processes,  France  which  had  pro- 
duced so  many  noble  works  in  stained  glass,  and  the  most  perfect 
existing  history  of  its  progress  and  manufacture,  was  unable  then  to 
furnish  artists  capable  of  regaining  for  the  establishment  any  of  its 
former  reputation.  The  art  however  was  still  exercised,  but  so  little 
progress  was  made  that  prior  to  the  year  1825,  the  practice  of  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  confined  to  this  royal  establishment  at  Sevres,  fame, 
not  profit,  being  the  object  aimed  at,  and  even  there  great  success  does 
nut  seem  to  have  attended  their  efforts,  if  we  may  judge  from  the 
following  circumstance.  A  window  of  painted  glass  was  conq)leted 
at  Se\res  in  1827,  for  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de  Lorette,  and  when 
fixeil,  which  did  not  occur  until  some  years  afterwards,  in  consequence 
of  the  building  remaining  unfinished,  it  was  declared  to  be  a  chef 

*  Although  this  paper  dues  not  pretend  to  give  the  names  of  aW  the  pro- 
fessors of  glass  panning  praclisiing  in  England  ;  (unl'urtunately  necessarily 
few),  ihe  wrier  cannot  omit  tu  rnentiun  Mr.  Millar,  who  has  executed  a  num- 
ber of  works  at  Stiniyhurst,  and   Mr.  Wilmnshurst  uhose  large  production 
The  Field  of  tho  Cloth  ul  Gold  "  was  destroyed  Ijy  lire. 


d'a-iu^re  of  modern  art.  In  less  than  eighteen  months  however,  as  I  am 
informed  by  a  correspondent,  the  colours  had  faded  so  considerably  as 
to  render  the  window  a  public  monument  of  failure,  and  permission  to 
take  it  down  was  in  consequence  applied  for.  The  dampness  of  the 
building  was  the  cause  assigned  for  the  misliap,  but  insomuch  as  the 
carcass  had  been  erected  many  years,  tliis  could  not  have  been  verv 
excessive  :  and  whether  so  or  not,  this  failure  could  not  have  occurred 
had  the  colours  been  properly  fused  into  the  glass.  Want  of  effect  in 
some  of  the  works  executed  at  Sevres  has  been  attributed  to  the  em- 
ployment without  modification,  of  the  same  mode  of  operation  as  is 
successfully  adopted  for  porcelain.  The  bases  of  the  colours  are  the 
same  for  one  as  for  the  other ;  but  glass,  in  consequence  of  its  translu- 
cent nature,  requires  that  the  tints  sho\ild  be  much  more  intense  than 
it  is  necessary  they  should  be  for  china,  which  is  opaque. 

We  have  said  that,  prior  to  1S25,  the  art  of  painting  on  glass  was' 
nearly  confined  to  the  establishment  at  Sevres.  In  that  year  Monsieur 
le  Comte  de  Chabrol,  then  Frefet  of  the  Seine,  entered  into  corres- 
pondence with  Mr.  Jones,  a  pupil  of  our  countryman,  Charles  Muss, 
already  mentioned,  the  result  of  which  was  that  Mr.  Jones  went  to 
Paris  with  the  intention  of  forming  a  government  establishment  for 
painting  upon  and  staining  glass,  in  which  pecuniary  profit  was  to  be 
regarded  as  a  main  consideration.  Immediately  on  the  arrival  of  Mr. 
Jones,  M.  de  Chabrol  was  virulently  attacked  for  allurding  encourage- 
ment to  a  foreigner  "to  the  injury  of  native  talent,"  and  for  four  years 
the  question  was  violently  agitated  without  any  result.  At  the  end  of 
that  time,  fatigued  by  the  continued  opposition  to  which  he  had  been 
subjected,  Mr.  Jones  abandoned  the  idea  of  a  government  establish- 
ment, and  devoted  his  energies  to  forming  and  carrying  on  with  suc- 
cess a  private  undertaking.  He  proposed  to  the  proprietors  of  the 
glass  works  at  Choisy  le  Koi,  t;\o  leagues  from  Paris,  to  establish  a 
department  for  staining  and  painting  on  glass,  in  conjiuietion  with  the 
other  operations.  They  assented  to  his  views,  affairs  were  put  tii 
train,  and  success  has  attended  the  attempt.  Nearly  all  the  persons 
at  present  employed  in  it  have  been  educated  to  it  by  Mr.  Jones,  and, 
in  consequence,  work  well  together,  a  circumstance  which,  in  con- 
nexion with  the  opportunities  he  possesses  for  making  experiments 
at  small  cost,  and  the  comparatively  trifling  expence  of  the  recipient 
in  France,  places  stained  and  painted  glass  within  the  means  of  a 
much  larger  class  of  persons  there  than  it  is  in  England.  Green,  blue, 
or  red  glass,  for  example,  may  be  bought  in  Paris  for  lA  franc  per  foot, 
purple  for  2  or  24  francs,  and  ruby  for  3  francs.  Progress  in  the  art 
of  staining  glass  appears  to  have  been  greatly  aided  by  M.  Bontems, 
the  director  of  the  works  at  Choisy,  wdio  has  devoted  much  time  to 
the  attainment  of  the  ruby  Coloured  glass  of  which  such  magnificent 
specimens  are  to  be  found  in  earlier  works.  I  am  informed  he  has 
succeeded,  after  repeated  experiments,  in  obtaining  it  at  a  much 
cheaper  rate  than  formerly  by  the  use  of  oxide  of  copper  instead  of 
oxide  of  gold,  and  without  any  diminution  of  excellence.  The  expe- 
rience of  English  glass  stainers  is  opposed  to  this  statement,  as  all 
ruby  coloured  glass  prepared  here  from  copper  is  inferior.  I  am  not 
able,  however,  on  this  point  to  do  more  than  repeat  what  I  am  told. 
M.  Bontems  has  recently  visited  the  costly  establishments  of  the  King 
of  Bavaria  at  Munich,  where,  although  he  found,  as  he  considered  it, 
an  inferiority  on  the  whole,  he  gained  much  information.  The  princely 
magnificence  of  the  King  of  Bavaria  in  all  matters  that  relate  to  art, 
and  the  extraordinary  results  he  has  produced  in  his  little  capital, 
will  serve  to  throw  a  halo  round  his  name  in  the  pages  of  future  his- 
torians.. 

The  establishment  at  Choisy  possesses  an  advantage  in  the  friendly 
co-operation  of  some  artists  of  talent,  not  glass  painters.  In  order  to 
render  a  design  effective  on  glass,  such  changes  and  alterations  from 
the  original  picture  are  sometimes  necessaiy,  as  would  be  entirely  ob- 
jected to  by  painters  nervously  careful  of  their  fame,  so  that  it  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  find  artists  of  ability  willing  to  exert  their 
talents  for  the  purposes  of  glass-painting,  as  they  must  be  subservient 
in  a  certain  degree  to  him  who  has  the  execution  of  the  work,  and  on 
whom  of  course  depends  the  effect  to  be  produced.  The  last  works 
exhibited  in  Paris  by  the  Choisy  establishment  were  designed  by  M. 
Adolphe  Fries,  a  warm  friend  of  the  undertaking,  and  obtained  mucli 
commendation.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  since  the  successful 
issue  of  the  experiment  at  Choisy  le  Roi,  attempts  have  been  made 
to  form  other  similar  establishments,  but,  being  ill  conducted,  have, 
for  the  most  part,  failed.  Men  were  even  seduced  from  Choisy  by 
golden  promises  to  aid  the  undertaking;  but  the  directing  mind  being 
absent,  found  themselves  powerless. 

The  works  at  Sevres  are  chiefly  limited  to  the  supply  of  govern- 
ment wants.  The  only  window  lately  executed  by  thein  which  1  have 
seen,  is  in  the  cathedral  at  Eti,  near  Dieppe.  This  was  the  gift  of  the 
King  of  the  French,  who,  on  more  occasions  than  one,  has  evinced  j. 
strong  desire  to  advance  the  arts  in  his  kingdom. 


iS40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


219 


Circumstances  are  much  more  favourable  in  France  to  tlie  progress 
of  the  art  of  glass  painting  than  they  are  in  England.  The  material 
IS  so  much  cheaper,  and  the  remuneration  expected  by  artists  for  their 
labour  is  so  much  less,  even  after  making  all  ahowances  for  the  dift'e- 
rence  in  the  value  of  money  in  the  two  countries,  that  the  greatest 
obstacles  in  the  way  of  experimental  essays  amongst  us  do  not  exist 
there. 

It  is  really  to  be  desired  that  some  efforts  will  shortly  be  made  in 
England  by  men  in  authority,  to  prevent  the  decay  of  an  art  so  beau- 
tiful and  so  valuable  as  this  which  we  are  now  considering.  Its  present 
languid  state  is  most  deplorable  to  behold,  and  cannot  but  terminate 
fatally  unless  means  be  taken  to  inspirit  and  invigorate  those  who  are 
engaged  in  it.  It  is  not  asked  that  government  should  form  large  and 
expensive  establishments  for  this  purpose,  as  at  Munich,  such  a  course 
is  not  necessary,  perhaps,  even,  it  would  be  unadvisable  ;  but  it  does 
appear  exceedingly  desirable  that  they  should,  by  occasional  com- 
missions and  discriminating  assistance,  draw  public  attention  to  the 
subject,  raise  the  hopes  of  its  professors,  and  oifer  some  inducement 
for  increased  exertion  on  their  part.  In  consequence  of  the  improved 
state  of  chemical  and  physical  science,  we  have  tlie  means  of  pro- 
ducing works  in  painted  glass  superior  to  anything  that  has  yet  been 
done,  were  proper  encouragement  afforded  to  develop  our  resources; 
unfortunately,  a  directly  contrary  opinion  prevails,  and  this  fact, 
therefore,  cannot  be  insisted  on  too  vehemently.* 

Concerning  the  importance  of  stained  glass, 

"  glass  of  thousand  colourings. 
Through  which  the  deepened  glories  once  couldenter, 
Streaming  from  oil' the  sun  like  seraphs'  wings.'' 

to  increase  the  solemnity  of  an  ecclesiastical  building,  and  induce  holy 
and  religious  feelings — apart  from  its  influence  as  a  work  of  art — none 
disagree ;  and  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  niggardly  and  ill-advised 
system  of  church  building  pursued  at  this  time,  few  of  the  new  edi- 
fices which  are  rising  in  all  directions — mean,  contracted,  and  poverty- 
stricken — afford  any  specimens  of  it.  If  government  were  to  set  an 
example  by  the  bestowal  of  a  few  windows,  there  are  many  individuals 
and  public  bodies  who  might  be  persuaded  to  follow  it.  In  early  times, 
when  funds  were  needed  for  the  erection  of  places  of  worship,  the 
mendicant  monks  promised  all  who  would  subscribe,  that  they  should 
be  represented  in  stained  glass, — that  they  should 

"  knely  before  Christ  in  compas  of  gold. 
In  the  wyde  windowe  westward,  Wei  neigh  in  the  njiddell." 

Notwithstanding  it  be  pandering  to  the  vanity  and  pride  of  frail  hu- 
manity, we  would  promise  this  and  more  than  this,  to  all  who  were 
willing  to  aid  in  the  improvement  of  our  churches,  and  to  forward  an 
art  which  has  such  claims  upon  the  moralist  and  the  man  of  taste: 
and  we  would  point  out  that,  by  assisting  to  implant  a  knowledge  and 
a  love  of  art  in  the  minds  of  their  fellow  men,  they  were  advancing 
their  welfare,  raising  them  in  the  scale  of  beings,  and  effecting  a 
national  good. 

Let  us  hope  that  better  times  than  the  present  are  in  store  for  the 
lovers  of  this  particular  art — or  rather,  let  us  not  be  contented  w  ith 
simply  hoping,  but  diligently  set  our  own  shoulders  to  the  wheel,  and 
vigorously  assist  to  bring  about  that  which  we  all  admit  to  be  so 
desirable. 


MEDIEVAL  ARCHITECTURE  IN  FRANCE.— No.  2. 
(Continued  from  page  145.^ 

BYZANTINE   STYLE. 

Throughout  a  great  part  of  the  existence  of  what  is  called  Gothic 
iirchitecture,  the  Byzantine  style  flourished  in  France,  both  in  distinct 
monuments,  and  as  influencing  other  styles.  In  order  to  appreciate 
the  character  of  this  influence,  we  have  considered  it  necessary  not 
to  limit  ourselves  to  the  examples  afforded  by  France,  seldom  pure, 
but  to  investigate  its  history  in  other  countries,  so  that  thus  we  mav 
be  enabled  to  see  the  extent  to  which  it  has  acted  on  other  schools  of 
art.  It  must  be  recollected  that  it  was  not  until  the  eleventh  century 
that  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  were  completely  separated,  while, 
during  the  whole  period  Constantinople  contested  with  Rome  for  the 
supremacy.  Down  to  that  epoch  Constantinople  might  be  regarded 
with  more  propriety  as  the  common  centre  of  the  Christian  church 


It  may  he  remarked  here,  that  care  should  be  employed  by  painters  in 
the  selection  of  glass  for  their  works.  Glass,  as  now  made  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. IS  ill-suited  tor  painting  on.  A  few  years  ago,  admirable  "hiss  tor 
this  object  was  obtainable  from  a  factory  at  Dumbarion,  which  is  not  now  in 
operation. 


than  Rome,  most  of  the  general  councils  being  held  in  the  eastern 
empire,  which  was  the  great  seat  of  learning.  The  bishops  of  Rome 
and  Constantinojile  long  contended  for  the  jurisdiction  over  the  pro- 
vinces to  the  north  of  tbe  Danube,  and  that  the  Greek  patriarch  was 
not  without  his  influence,  may  be  seen  in  many  of  the  monuments  to 
the  north  of  the  Alps.  In  France  and  in  Germany,  the  examples  of 
the  Byzantine  style  are  only  partial,  but  in  the  Slavonic  countries  it  is 
the  predominant  type  to  this  day. 

PLANS. 

The  first  portion  of  the  subject  to  which  we  shall  call  attention  are 
the  dispositions  adopted  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ground  plan  of 
eastern  churches,  which,  as  was  seen  in  the  preceding  article,  com- 
pletely altered  the  system  copied  from  the  Roman  temples.  Euse- 
bius,  in  his  life  of  Constantine,*  describes  some  of  the  principal 
churches  erected  by  this  emperor  and  his  mother  in  different  provinces 
of  his  dominions.  They  were  mostly  circular  or  octagonal,  and  sur- 
mounted by  lofty  doiiies.  Thus  was  constructed  the  great  church  of 
Antioch,  dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  and  called  the  Golden  Temple, 
erected  by  this  prince  in  the  twenty-second  year  of  his  reign ;  it  was 
in  the  form  of  an  octagon,  surrounded  with  exedrse  and  chapels. 
In  the  exedrae  and  in  the  porch  it  was  lawful  to  bury.  The 
church  of  the  Ascension,  built  by  St.  Helena,  mother  of  Constantine, 
upon  the  Mount  of  Olives,  was  circular,  as  is  proved  by  the  plan 
drawn  on  wax  in  the  Sth  century,  and  engraved  in  the  Ada  Sanc- 
torum. This  temple  and  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  are  the 
reputed  types  of  several  churches  built  by  the  crusaders  in  their  native 
couiitries.  The  churches  of  St.  Marcellin  and  St.  Constantius  at 
Rome,  are  similar  in  their  arrangements  and  were  surmounted  with 
cupolas  of  stone  or  pottery  like  the  Syrian  monuments  before  men- 
tioned. 

Fig.  6.— Church  of  St.  'Vital  at  Ravenna. 


One  of  the  nearest  approaches  to  the  description  of  Eusebius  is  the 
church  of  St.  Vitalis,  at  Ravenna,  founded  in  534,  while  that  city  was 
still  the  seat  of  the  Greek  exarchs.  Its  plan  is  that  of  an  octagon 
having  semicircular  chapels  and  exedrie  on  several  points  of  its  peri- 
meter, or  it  may  be  described  as  round  outside  and  octagonal 
within.  A  gallery  on  the  first  floor,  running  round  the  central  area,  is 
the  gijTiecceum,  or  gallery  for  women,  who,  in  the  primitive  church,  as 
in  the  eastern  churches  to  this  day,  were  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  congregation.  A  hemispherical  cupola,  raised  a  great  height 
from  the  ground,  covers  the  building,  and  lights  it  by  means  of  win- 
dows cut  in  the  base.  Pendents  or  brackets  support  the  vault  at  tbe 
points  where  the  re-entering  angles  of  the  polygon  prevent  it  from 
being  placed  directly  on  the  wall.  The  Greek  architect,  in  construct- 
ing this  building,  has  had  recourse  to  a  system,  of  which  this  is  an 
early  example.f  Feeling  the  necessity  for  extreme  lightness,  since 
the  cupola  is  supported  mainly  by  brackets,  he  has  used  pieces  of 
pottery  in  the  shape  of  a  bottle  without  a  bottom.  These  vessels, 
placed  in  contact,  form  first  the  base  of  the  cupola,  then  the  curve, 
being  continued  without  interruption,  and  in  spiral,  until  they  reach 


*  Eusebius,  "Vita  Constantini,  1.  iii,  c.  50;  and  Abulfareius. 

T  Another  is  to  be  found  in  the  octagon  baptistery  at  Ravenna,  liiilt  in  .540, 

2  G  2 


220 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


the  top.  The  inside,  as  observed  in  our  last  number  (p.  141),  is 
covered  with  cement,  decorated  with  mosaics  on  a  gold  ground.  To 
the  round  churches  of  France  we  have  already  alluded  at  j).  143. 

Fig.  7. — Church  of  Sergius  and  Bacchus  at  Constantinople. 


We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  works  of  a  later  date,  from  the 
6th  to  the  13th  century,  when  we  come  to  the  church  of  Sergius  and 
Bacchus,  now  called  by  the  Turks  Chulchuk  agia  Sophia,  or  Little 
Sancta  Sophia.  This  was  built  by  Justinian,  as  was  the  large  church 
of  Sancta  Sophia.  The  architects  were  Anthemius  of  Thrales  and 
Isodore  of  Miletus.  In  the  central  area  the  plan  is  the  same  as  at  Ra- 
venna, the  same  polygon  and  the  same  semicircular  arrangements ;  on 
the  first  floor  is  the  gynecisum,  running  round  the  nave.  Like  the 
church  of  Ravenna,  it  is  adorned  with  columns  of  valuable  stone,  sur- 
mounted with  Byzantine  capitals.  The  whole  is  covered  with  a  cu- 
pola. A  modification  is,  however,  introduced  into  the  plan;  the  ex- 
terior is  a  square,  enclosing  the  central  octagon.  The  church  of  Sancta 
Sophia  is  also  square  externally,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  interior 
preserves  all  the  leading  features  of  that  of  Sergius  and  Bacchus. 
The  example  of  Sancta  Sophia  affected  art  everywhere,  and  the  square 
system  was  adopted  in  every  part  of  the  east,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
circle  and  the  octagon.  The  two  succeeding  engravings,  Figs.  S  &  9, 
of  the  Panagia  Lycodimo,  and  Cathedral  at  Athens,  illustrate  this. 
The  Panagia  Lycodimo  is  towards  Mount  Hymettus,  on  the  west  of 
the  city  ;  the  Cathedral  is  now  the  public  library. 

Fig.  8. — The  Panagia  Lycomido  at  Athens. 


[qo.0^0 


Fig.  9.— The  Cathedral  of  Athens. 


The  plan  of  the  Ea  Miazin,  or  the  Three  Churches,  at  Erivan,  in 
Persia,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Christian  monuments  of  Asia,  pub- 
lished by  Chardin  in  his  Persian  travels,  resem!)les  the  Cathedral  of 
Athens.  The  only  difference  is  in  the  form  of  the  mirlhex  or  porch, 
which  is  square  and  open  on  three  sides,  whilst  generally  the  vesti- 
bules occupy  the  whole  breadth  of  the.  building.  The  Ecs  Miazin 
has  also  a  salient  ahsis  on  each  of  its  two  lateral  faces. 

We  may  observe  that  it  is  from  these  models  the  Turks  have  bor- 
rowed the  form  of  their  mosques.  Thus,  also,  they  adopt  a  Temenoa 
or  square  area  isolating  the  building,  and  on  the  boundary  of  which 
are  the  residences  of  the  officiating  ministers  and  the  tombs  of  their 
predecessors.* 

ELEVATIONS. 
Fig.  10. — Front  of  the  Panagia  Lycodimo  at  Athens. 


The  earliest  Greek  churches  have  a  very  simple  front,  a  large  mass, 
bounded  at  top  by  a  horizontal  line,  without  any  pediment  to  indicate 
the  inclination  of  the  roof,  carpentry  not  being  used  in  Byzantine  ar- 
chitecture, as  cupolas  and  terraces  only  were  used  to  cover  in  the 
building.  Eusebius,'!'  describing  the  basilica  of  the  Apostles,  says 
that  rails  cut  out  of  gilt  bronze  were  used  to  decorate  the  upper  ter- 
race, called  the  Solarium.  It  may  be  supposeil  from  that,  that  the 
faces  of  the  building  were  surmounted  with  horizontal  cornices.  The 
churches  of  Sergius  and  Bacchus,  of  Sancta  Sophia,  and  of  the  Pana- 
gia Lycodimo  (represented  above),  are  all  of  the  same  kind;  the 
square  form  being  apparently  preserved  as  late  as  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries.  These  Byzantine  churches  are  badly  crowned,  the 
upper  entablature  being  composed  only  of  a  few  mouldings,  in  which 
bricks  are  so  placed  as  to  form  salient  angles,  and  through  which 
gutters  are  cut  at  different  distances  to  carry  off  the  water  from  the 
terraces  or  domes. 

The  first  floor  is  generally  marked  on  the  front  by  a  certain  num- 
ber of  windows  lighting  the  gytwceum.  In  the  church  of  Sancta 
Sophia  these  windows  are  of  large  dimensions,  semi -circular,  and 
divided  into  three  parts  by  two  columns,  which  hold  thin  slabs  or 
plates  of  stone,  pierced  with  holes  to  let  in  the  light. 

Under  the  windows  of  the  first  story,  or  women's  gallery,  are  placed 
the  doors  giving  admission  to  the  narthex,  or  porch.  These  doors  are 
generally  formed  of  lintels  and  door-posts,  ornamented  with  elaborate 
mouldings,  much  in  the  style  of  the  antique.  Over  the  lintel  a  full 
arch,  sometimes  q^  stone  and  sometimes  of  brick,  protects  the  door 
from  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  structure.  The  narthex  was 
the  place  devoted  to  the  catechumens,  but  in  some  of  the  later  edi- 
fices it  was  used  as  a  gyneceum,  and  thus  the  men  entered  the  church 
by  the  north  and  south  doors  (Noteiomeros,  Boreiomeros). 

The  early  Byzantine  basilicas  have  only  a  single  dome,  as  in  that  of 

*  Around  the  temple  was  a  large  space,  on  each  of  the  sides  of  which  were 
raised  porticoes,  connected  together.  Besides  the  basins  (for  purification)  of 
the  l)asilica,  there  were  the  habitations  of  the  guardians  supported  by  the 
porticoes,  which  they  equalled  in  extent." — Eusebius  in  the  Life  of  Constan- 
iine,  1.  xiv,  c.  58,  describing  the  Church  of  the  Apostles,  built  at  Byzantium 
by  Constantine.  We  may.  perhaps,  find  here  the  origin  of  the  monastic 
cloister  attached  to  our  cathedrals. 

t  Eusebius,  1.  iv.  c.  58. 


1840. 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


921 


Sergius  and  Bacchus  at  Constantinople.  Sancta  Sophia,  in  the  same 
city,  has  a  large  central  dome,  and  two  semi-cupolas  which  cover  the 
two  curved  portions  situated  to  the  east  and  west  of  the  nave.  These 
primitive  domes  ;u"e  generally  very  heavy  and  cumbrous  in  form, 
dilTering  from  those  which  were  erected  later  and  elevated  on  tam- 
bours. A  great  number  of  small  arched  windows,  very  near  each 
other,  are  cut  througli  the  base  of  the  domes,  and  serve  to  light  the 
interior.  The  effect  of  the  light  is  so  brilliant,  that  the  cupola  seems 
as  it  were  isolated  from  the  building.  The  cupola  of  Sancta  Sophia, 
upwards  of  120  feet  in  diameter,  not  being  properly  poised  over  the 
four  main  piers,  in  consequence  of  gathering  the  spandrils  into  too 
small  a  compass,  exhibited,  in  less  than  25  years,  symptoms  of  ap- 
proaching downfall,  and  the  piers  were  accordingly  strengthened  on 
the  outside. 

Eusebius,  Paul  the  Silent,  and  other  authors,  agree  in  describing  the 
dome  of  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  as  being  covered  with  dazzling 
gilt  bronze,  to  keep  off  the  rain. 

Fig.  11.— Church  of  Monetes  Koras  at  Constantinople. 


Another  system  of  decoration  succeeded  this,  and  was  much  copied 
in  Europe,  as  may  be  seen  in  St.  Mark,  at  Venice,  begun  in  996.  In 
this  system  the  horizontal  line,  as  bounding  the  front,  was  entirely 
given  up,  and  was  replaced  by  an  arched  line  marking  the  extrados  of 
the  vaults.  In  the  Cireek  islands  are  to  be  commonly  seen,  little 
chapels  with  a  cradle-like  roof  covering  the  only  nave,  and  secured 
vvith  cement  or  sheet-lead.  Where  the  building  consists  of  several 
aisles,  as  most  of  the  large  Byzantine  edifices  at  Constantinople,  the 
roof  has  a  festoon-like  appearance,  like  so  many  round-covered  trunks 
placed  side  by  side. 

Thus  the  exterior  shows,  as  it  were,  the  skeleton  of  the  Iniilding, 
every  series  of  arches  in  the  building  having  the  extrados  delineated 
outside.  So  in  the  church  of  Mojie  tea  Koras,  (the  House  of  the  Vir- 
gni,)  at  Constantinople,  represented  above  ;  the  front  consists  of  five 
great  arches,  and  as  another  lateral  series  of  arches  runs  across  to 
form  the  narthex,  this  portion  of  the  edifice  is  terminated  at  each  end 
by  one  of  these  arches. 

The  domes  which  were  erected  at  this  period  were  more  hemis- 
pherical, and  the  windows  instead  of  being  in  the  base  of  the  cupola 
are  formed  in  a  tambour  or  cylindrical  base,  on  which  it  rests.  At  this 
period  too  the  domes  began  to  increase  in  number  and  be  added  to 
tlie  grand  one  forming  the  centre  of  the  cross.  In  the  church  of  the 
Pantocrator  they  crown  the  transepts  and  the  anterior  part  of  the  nave, 
in  that  of  St.  Theodosia,  now  the  mosque  of  the  Rose,  in  the  Fanar, 
the  port  of  Constantinople,  four  secondary  cupolas  of  the  same  form 
as  the  central  one,  but  smaller,  are  raised  at  the  four  corners  of  the 
building.  In  some  a  dome  is  raised  on  the  narthex  as  in  the  churches 
ot  the  Pantocrator  and  Mone  tes  Koras.  That  of  the  Theotocos,  near 
bohmanieh,  has  three  placed  symmetrically,  one  in  the  centre,  and  one 
at  each  end.  The  capitals  of  the  columns  in  the  Greek  churches 
were  p  aced  on  round  shafts,  and  were  little  more  than  square  blocks, 
tapered  downwards,  and  adorned  with  foliage  or  basket  work. 

About  the  time  of  the  Venetian  Conquests  began  a  union  of  Byzan- 
tine and  Roman  architecture,  which  is  not  one  of  the  least  curious 
lorms  of  the  style.  Here  is  again  restored  the  influence  of  the  west, 
and  pediments  indicate  the  inclination  of  the  roof,  although  the  Greeks 
never  used  carpentry  in  their  ancient  churches.  One  of  the  finest 
examples  of  this  period  is  the  Ecs  Miazin,  a  Christian  temple  of 


Erivan,  published  by  Chardin,  and  more  recently  bv  M.  Dubois.  Of 
this  style  is  also  the  building  which  down  to  1S27  was  used  as  the 
cathedral  of  Athens. 

Fig.  12.— Cathedral  of  Athens. 


The  figure  above  although  partaking  largely  of  the  Roman,  yet 
shows  to  what  an  extent  the  influence  of  the  Byzantine  school  was  felt, 
though  in  this  case  the  interior  presents  much  more  points  of  resem- 
blance than  the  outside.  Our  engraving,  it  must  be  observed,  repre- 
sents Notre  Dame  at  Poitiers,  not  as  it  now  is,  but  as  it  was  before  the 
gallery  was  broken  through  to  enlarge  the  great  window.  This  gallery 
although  a  type  of  the  Gyneceum,  is  so  far  from  being  spacious,  that 
in  very  few  cases  in  the  west  of  Europe,  is  there  any  communication 
through  it.  At  Toscanella  in  the  Roman  States,  and  in  the  cathedral 
of  Pisa,  the  original  form  is  however  preserved. 
(  To  be  continued.) 


232 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[JlLY. 


EXfflBITION— ROYAL  ACADEMY. 

(  Continued  from  page  189.  J 

Among  the  practical  jokes  played  off  by  the  hanging  committee  in 
the  architectural  room,  is  that  of  placing  a  bird's-eye  view  where  one 
must  first  get  up  a  ladder  in  order  to  look  down  upon  it,  or  in  fact 
(0  look  at  it  at  ail :  whicli  is  no  doubt  exceedingly  waggish  anil  droll, 
but  carrying  the  juke  rather  too  far— at  all  events  far  above  our  heads ; 
not  that  we   care  about  it,  because  we  have  no  relish  whatever  for 
drawings  which  carry  us  up  into  the  clouds,  in  order  to  show  us  build- 
ings PS  they  would  appear,  viewed  from  a  balloon.     In  itself  the  cir- 
cumstance may  be  of  little  or  no  moment  as  far  as  the  subject  so  placed 
is  concerned,  but  it  is  certainly  odd  to  meet  with  such  blundering  do- 
ings witliin  the  walls  of  a  Royal  Academy  ;  where  it  certainly  does 
bespeak  a  reprehensible  systematic  inattention  to  every  thing  con- 
nected witli  architecture.     Lest  we  ourselves,  however,  should  here  be 
accused  of  inattention  to  our  subject,  we  will  resume  our  task  of  criti- 
cism by  noticing  two  designs  which  we  can  heartily  commend,  and  one 
of  whicii  we  are  glad  to  perceive  is  about  to  be  executed.     They  are 
Nos.  1030  and  lOoO,  both  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Wild,  and  both  for  churches; 
the  first  being  the  "New  Church,  Streathara,"  to  be  executed  under 
his  superintendence ;  and  the  other  a  "  Design  for  the  Church  proposed 
to  be  built  at  Paddington."     They  are  neitlier  Gothic  nor  Norman, — 
though  the  application  of  the  round  arch  assimilates  them  somewhat 
to  the  latter;  but  in  a  style  which  has  far  more  of  the  Lombardic 
character,  and  which,  as  shown  is  marked  by  picturesqueness  no  less 
than  by  simplicity,  owing  to  the  unusual  breadth  of  surface  and  fewness 
of  parts,  on  which  account  the  Streatham  church  more  particularly 
forms  so  striking  a  contrast  to  the  impoverished,  yet  would-be-fine 
structures  of  the  kind  that  have  sprung  up  of  late  years  in  and  around 
the  metropolis,  differing  more  or  less  from  each  other  in  their  patterns, 
but  all  pretty  much  on  a  par  as  to  taste,  and  exhibiting  the  same  jog- 
trot outline  system   in  design.     Here  we  have  at  least  some  freshness 
<if  ideas  and  of  mode  of  treatment, — a  departure  from  the  hackneyed 
track,  into  a  better  and  more  artist  like  one.     Of  course  we  can  speak 
only  as  to  general  character  of  external  design  and  style,  for  the  per- 
spective allow's  us  to  see  only  fronts  of  the  two  buildings  distinctly, 
consequently  we  cannot  undertake  to  say  whether  their  character  is 
satisfactorily  kept  up  throughout:  neither  can  we  judge  very  accurately 
as  to  dimensions.     The  composition  of  the  facade  of  the  first-men- 
tioned of  the  two  designs,  is  quite  Lombardic  in  outline  and  arrange- 
ment, being  divided  into  three  compartments,  the  centre  one  of  whicli 
rises  higher  than  the  other  two,  and  terminates  in  a  gable,  while  the 
side  ones  are  covered  by  half  gables,  not  forming  continuations  of  the 
principal  one,  but  terminating  lower  down,  before  that  commences.    In 
each  compartment  is  an  arched  recess  or  porch,  containing — if  we  mis- 
take not,  a  square  headed  door;  and  above  the  centre  entrance  is  a 
large  circular  or  rose  window  filled  with  two  intersecting  triangles, 
and  bordered  with  coloured  rays  around  its  external  margin.     This 
polychrome  effect  is  intended,  we  presume,  to  be  produced  by  brick- 
work ;  and  if  so,  we  question  if  it  will  prove  altogether  so  pleasing  in 
execution  as  it  does  in  the  drawing,  because  in  the  latter  it  is  particu- 
larly soft  and  delicate,  whereas  both  the  hue  and  texture  of  red  l)rick, 
even  when  of  superior  quality,  do  not  recommend  as  a  material  for 
ornament,  however  suitable  it  may  lie  in  certain  styles,  as  a  ground  for 
embellishment  in  stone-work.     Still  though  we  have  great  doubts  as  to 
the  result,  we  will  not  prejudge  the  experiment;  on  the  contrary,  we 
shall  be  glad  to  discover  that  our  miagirings  are  misiakings  also. 

The  church  proposed  for  Paddington  is  similar  to  the  other  in  style, 
but  of  a  more  ambitious  character,  being  apparently  considerably  more 
extensive,  unless  the  parts  themselves  are  upon  a  smaller  scale,  and 
being  surmounted  by  a  cupola  on  an  elevated  tambour  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  transepts.  Putting  cost  out  of  the  question,  it  was  most 
probably  this  latter  circumstance,  combined  with  the  unusual  and  not 
particularly  English  physiognomy  of  the  whole,  that  caused  this  design 
to  be  rejected  incontinently.  Perhaps,  too,  it  may  have  been  con- 
sidered exceptionable  as  having  too  Roman  Catholic  a  look, — for  Ca- 
tholicism happens  to  be  just  now  one  of  the  pet  bug-bears  of  the  day; 
just  as  if,  wliile  it  is  losing  ground  everywhere  else,  it  is  likely  to  gain 
ground  in  the  land  of  Jolni  Bullism.  We  know  not  w  ho  is  to  be  the 
architect  of  the  churcli  at  Paddington, — have  not,  in  fact  learned  if  an 
ultimate  decision  is  yet  made,  but  the  building  will,  we  apprehend, 
not  startle  us  by  architectural  innovations. 

Turning  from  Mr.  Wild's  drawings  to  one  for  a  similar  purpose.  No. 
9".I2,  "The  approved  design  for  the  New  Church  now  about  to  be 
erected  in  the  Liberty  of  the  Rolls,"  we  may  tolerably  plainly  see  what 
kind  of  things  suit  the  taste  and  notions  of  those  who  are  entrusted 
with  the  power  of  deciding  on  such  occasions.  That  '  approved'  does 
nut  exactly  mean  the  most  worthy  to  be  apjiroved,  or  carry  with  it  an 


idea  of  superiority  is  evident  enough — at  least  to  ourselves,  and  in  the 
present  instance  because  we  happen  to  have  seen  two  other  designs 
sent  iu  for  the  same  building,  either  of  which  was  immeasurablv  better 
than  this  approved  one;  therefore  it  is  a  piece  of  good  luck  for  it  that 
neither  of  them  are  here  exhibited,  e,se  we  should  most  assuredly 
enter  into  some  very  'odorous'  comparisons.  Perhaps,  too,  it  is  another 
fiiece  of  good  luck  for  No.  992,  that  it  is  hung  so  high  up  as  to  be 
likely  to  escape  notice  altogether,  unless  the  descriptive  title  in  the 
catalogue  should  cause  it  to  be  hunted  out. 

No.  1034,  Messrs.  Buckler's  "Design  for  the  West  Front  of  the 
Roman  Church  of  St.  George,  Southwaik,"  is  in  no  danger  of  being 
passed  by  unnoticed,  because  the  intense— and  for  this  climate  unna- 
tural blue  of  the  sky,  renders  it  too  conspicuous.  As  to  the  design  it- 
self, his  front  consists  only  of  a  very  lofty  tower  in  a  style  of  Early 
Gothic,  and  although  of  good  character,  did  not  strike  us  as  particularly 
novel  or  tasteful. 

Nos.  1U37  and  8,  show  us  Mr.  S.  Smirke's  design  for  the  Reform  Club 
House,  in  an  elevation  of  the  side  towards  Pall  Mall,  and  a  perspective 
view  including  that  and  the  West  end  of  the  building,  with  its  portico. 
Although  merely  said  to  be  for  "  a  Club  House,"  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  particular  one  for  which  it  was  produced,  both  because  it 
agrees  witli  the  description  given  of  it  in  our  first  volume,  (page  liS), 
and  as  the  Travellers'  and  Athenaeum  Club-houses  are  seen  adjoining 
it.  Most  certainly  it  is  not  such  as  to  make  us  regret  that  it  was  not 
preferred  to  Mr.  Barry's,  still  we  do  not  agree  with  the  '  Art-Union,' 
which  terms  it  "an  ordinary  Italian  residence,  with  an  ugly  Corinthian 
portico  tacked  to  the  front  of  it."  Now  whether  the  epithet  ordinary 
is  to  be  understood  as  signifying  'usn.d,'  or  as  expre.-.sive  of  both  mean- 
ness and  common-place  character,  we  do  not  ihiak  it  very  correctly 
applied,  because,  although  it  may  in  some  respects  be  in  rather  ques- 
tionable taste, — we  allude  to  the  mullioned  and  transomed  croisi'es, — 
it  is  more  than  ordinarily  ornate,  and  is  stamped  by  a  good  deal  of 
picturesque  quality.  We  prefer  it  greatly  to  the  facade  of  the  Ox- 
ford and  Cambridge  University  Club-house,  by  the  same  architect,  it 
being  treated  with  more  of  artist-like  feeling,  and  with  greater  con- 
sistency also.  As  regards  the  Corinthian  tetrastyle  of  the  West  front, 
we  do  not  pretend  to  say  that  it  is  particularly  classical,  but  its  effect 
in  the  composition  is  decidedly  better  than  many  of  our  soi-disant 
classical  things  of  that  kind  which  are  tacked  to  buildings  by  no  means 
so  good  as  even  "an  ordinary  Italian  residence."  Most  decidedly  too 
we  prefer  this  to  such  a  piece  of  architecture  as  No.  1045.  "Design 
for  the  Taylor  and  Randolph  building  at  Oxford,"  which  as  far  as  we 
can  make  it  out  where  it  hung,  seems  to  us  to  evince  neither  origi- 
nality of  any  kind,  nor  even  study,  both  the  composition  and  detail 
being  exceedingly  tame  and  common-place  ;  yet  vpe  ought  not  to  speak 
too  peremptorily,  because  the  'Art-Union'  critic  tells  us  it  possesses 
"  much  merit,"  further  than  which,  said  deponent  sayeth  nothing,  but 
leaves  others  to  find  out,  if  they  can,  wherein  it  consists. 

(To  he  continued.) 


ON  EXCHANGES. 

We  present  our  readers  with  a  brief  sketch  of  a  lecture  delivered 
at  the  the  last  conversazione  of  the  Architectural  Society,  by  its  Pre- 
sident, William  Tite,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  upon  the  subject  of  the  origin  and 
history  of  that  class  of  buildings  denominated  "  Exchanges  ;"  a  subject 
which  has  just  claims  not  only  to  the  attention  of  the  public,  in  an 
empire  of  such  commercial  importance  as  our  own,  but  more  speficically 
so  to  the  examination  of  every  architectural  student,  in  an  age  when 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  the  rapid  progress  of  improvement  may  be 
reasonably  expected  to  provide  opportunities  for  the  erection  of  Ex- 
changes as  well  as  palaces  and  churches. 

In  introducing  his  subject  by  a  reference  to  the  state  of  society  in 
the  most  remote  ages,  Mr.  Tite  observed  that  the  extensive  commer- 
cial relations  of  such  ancient  cities  as  Tyre,  and  the  vast  conflux  thereto 
of  mercantile  men  from  all  quarters  of  the  known  world,  render  it  a 
matter  of  little  doubt  that  some  place  of  public  assemblage  must  have 
been  allotted  to  their  especial  use.  This  seems  rendered  yet  more 
probable,  when  we  observe  to  what  arrangements  precisely  similar 
circumstances  gave  rise,  though  at  a  later  period,  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans.  It  is  clear  that  the  a7opa  of  the  former,  and  the  forum 
of  the  latter  were  alike  applied  indifferently  to  various  public  pur- 
poses. Sometimes  they  were  used  for  meetings  of  a  commercial 
character,  as  well  as  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  the  market  place ; 
sometimes  for  the  administration  of  the  laws,  or  the  celebration  of 
games  and  festivals;  and  sometimes  for  places  of  deliberation  upon 
municipal  affairs. 

As  the  number,  wealth,  and  employments  of  the  inhabitants  increased, 
it  was  found  inconvenient  to  have  so  many  occupations  carried  on  to- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


223 


gether,  mid  two  classes  of  fora  were  established,  viz.  Venalia  or  market 
places,  properly  so  called,  and  Civilia,  or  places  of  assembly,  of  which, 
however,  there  was  but  one  until  the  time  of  Julius  Csesar.  The 
Venalia  were  again  divided  into  the  Boarium  or  ox-market,  the  Pis- 
carium,  or  fish-market,  and  the  like.  Something  resembling  this  sepa- 
ration and  improvement  is  to  be  traced  in  the  history  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  English  courts  of  law.  The  Saxon  constitution  compre- 
hended but  one  superior  court  of  justice  in  the  kingdom,  viz.  the  Great 
Council ;  but,  after  the  Norman  invasion,  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
was  se|)arated  from  the  civil,  and  the  king  subsequently  effected  another 
separation  between  the  judicial  and  the  parliamentary  power,  vested 
in  the  remaining  members.  He  then  established  that  very  compre- 
hensive court  in  his  own  residence,  called  "the  King's  Hall,"  composed 
of  the  great  officers  of  state;  which  became  at  length  divided  into  the 
different  courls  of  Chancery,  Exchequer,  Common  Fleas,  and  the  Earl 
Marshall's  court,  or  Court  of  Honour.  The  simple  features  of  a  Roman 
Forum  appear  at  once  to  convey  the  image  of  a  modern  Exchange,  it 
having  been  an  open  area  surrounded  by  a  colonnade,  about  which 
were  subsequently  established  temples  and  prisons,  courts  and  record 
offices,  public  granaries,  offices  of  money  changers,  and  a  variety  of 
trades,  the  municipal  treasuries,  and  the  rostra  whence  orators  ad- 
dressed the  people.  Some  differences  existed  between  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Fora,  derived  from  the  different  uses  to  which  they  were  to  he 
applied.  Those  of  the  Greeks  were  built  square,  with  the  columns 
near  together,  to  afford  as  much  shelter  as  possible;  above  which  was 
an  upper  ambulatory  or  gallery  for  walking.  The  Roman  fora,  on  the 
contrary,  were  oblong  in  the  area,  having  the  columns  set  at  considerable 
intervals,  but  still  surmounted  by  the  gallery,  in  which  latter  feature, 
also,  they  somewhat  resembled  the  Bourses  of  the  IGth  and  17th  cen- 
turies. In  those  places  which  lay  inland,  the  Forum  was  erected  in 
the  centre  of  the  city,  but  in  marine  towns  it  was  situated  at  the  port. 
Accordingly  the  Pirseus,  or  maritime  town  of  Athens,  was  the  principal 
place  of  commerce  connected  therewith,  and  it  contained  temples  and 
theatres,  arsenals,  granaries  and  shops,  and  also  the  established  place 
of  assembly  for  merchants. 

These  circumstances  are  curiously  illustrated  by  Theophrastus,  in  a 
description  of  the  character  of  an  ostentatious  Athenian  merchant, 
•€i'  Tti-  SayitaTi  'cs-qKois,  and  vaunting  of  his  enterprise  and  wealth ;  in 
which  description  it  is  supposed  by  Casaubon  and  others,  that  the 
SeoA'oi  expresses  the  place  where  samples  of  merchandize  were  pro- 
duced and  examined. 

Down  to  this  period,  and  most  probably  to  a  much  later  time,  the 
places  of  assembly  for  merchants  were  to  be  found  in  the  forum  ;  and 
they  appear  to  have  generally  occupied  that  interior  extremity  called 
the  Basilica,  for  the  choice  of  which,  perhaps,  Vitruvius  gives  one  of 
the  original  reasons  several  centuries  after,  when  he  says,  "  the  Basilica 
should  be  adjoining  to  the  forum  on  the  warmest  side,  that  the  mer- 
chants may  confer  together  without  being  incommoded  by  the  weather." 
Another  cause  for  the  selection  might  possibly  be  that  they  were  there 
completely  removed  from  the  noise  and  confusion  of  the  rest  of  the 
market  or  forum. 

Livy  also  alludes  to  the  formation  of  a  "  collegium  mercatorum,"  in 
the  fifth  century  before  the  Christian  aera;  but  it  maybe  doubted 
whether  this  phrase  of  itself  can  fairly  be  considered  as  proving  any 
thing  more  than  the  existence  of  a  "fraternity  of  merchants."  It  will 
be  proper  also  to  observe,  before  dismissing  all  notice  of  that  period  of 
remote  antiquity,  that  there  were  certain  secular  points  of  view  in 
which  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem  may  be  taken  as  aft'ording  an  illustra- 
tion of  this  subject.  The  first  Temple,  it  will  be  remembered,  con- 
sisted of  several  square  courts,  surrounded  by  colonnades  and  chambers ; 
and  this  building  was  an  extended  and  greatly  improved  copy  of  the 
tabernacle,  to  which,  therefore,  may  be  referred  the  remote  original  of 
that  extremely  natural  ar.d  convenient  form  for  places  of  public  assem- 
bly, which  were  subsequently  to  be  found  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
civilized  world.  When  the  corrupted  traditions  of  the  Hebrews  led 
them  to  misemploy  and  profane  the  second  temple,  by  making  it  a 
place  of  merchandize,  the  resemblance  between  the  court  of  the  Gen- 
tiles and  a  Roman  Forum  was  very  remarkable.  After  the  conclusion 
of  the  feast  of  Purim,  in  commemoration  of  the  triumph  of  Esther  and 
Mordecai,  the  money-changers  considered  it  lawful  to  seat  themselves 
■in  the  outer  court,  to  exchange  foreign  coins  for  such  as  were  current 
at  Jerusalem;  for  the  temple  tribute,  though  collected  in  heathen 
money,  was  required  to  be  paid  in  the  shekels  of  the  sanctuary,  and 
several  offerings  also  required  the  addition  of  parts  of  shekels  to  make 
them  complete. 

In  this  last  circumstance,  it  will  be  shown  hereafter,  that  there  may 
be  an  especial  parallel  found  to  the  facts  that  probably  gave  rise  to  the 
disignation  of  our  own  edifice  of  London.  The  court  of  the  great 
temple  at  Mecca,  as  dccribed  by  Sale,  and  many  of  the  eastern  Khans 
or  Caravanserais  will  furnish  some  additional  illustration  of  the  forms 


of  buildings  applied  in  later  ages  and  other  climes  to  mixed  purposes, 
not  dissimilar  to  those  under  consideration. 

From  precedents  such  as  these  it  may  have  been  that  the  Venetians, 
in  more  modern  times,  but  during  the  earlier  ages  of  their  republic, 
obtained  a  model  for  their  great  Exchange  on  the  Island  of  the  Rialto. 
It  will  be  observed  that  this  place  of  mercantile  concourse  was  not  the 
celebrated  Bridge  of  the  Rialto,  as  is  usually  imagined,  but  a  portion 
of  the  Island  of  that  name  immediately  adjacent  to  the  Bridge.  This 
island  appears  to  have  been  the  first  inhabited  among  the  many  that 
now  constitute  the  City  of  Venice  ;  it  became  the  centre  of  commerce, 
and  the  vast  depository  of  the  most  valuable  merchanize  of  all  nations. 
As  described  by  Sabellico  in  the  year  14'.):2,  it  appears  that  nothing 
was  wanting  to  the  completeness  of  this  site,  not  only  for  mercantile, 
but  for  municipal  purposes.  The  great  place  of  meeting  was  a  spacious 
quadrangular  piazza,  almost  surrounding  the  church  of  St.  Jacopo;  and 
in  its  immediate  vicinity  were  warehouses,  banks,  shops,  markets, 
public  offices,  and  halls  of  every  description.  The  greater  portion  of 
these  buildings  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  15 15,  but  was  rebuilt,  in  a  style 
of  superior  magnificence,  during  the  following  nine  years,  under  the 
architectural  superintendence  of  Antonio  Scarpagni. 

Passing  by  other  Italian  structures  of  inferior  note,  raised  for  the 
same  objects,  we  shall  find  the  example  derived  from  them  followed 
with  conspicuous  splendour  in  some  of  the  cities  of  the  Netherlands. 
To  meet  the  rising  commercial  importance  of  Antwerp,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  IGth  century,  a  Bourse  (according  to  the  name  introduced 
froili  Bruges),  was  erected  in  the  year  1531.  This  structure  is  ISO 
feet  in  length  bv  140  in  breadth,  and  is  supported  by  44  stone  pillars, 
which  are  differently  sculptured.  It  contains  numerous  subterranean 
warehouses,  over  which  are  the  halls  occupied  by  the  tribunal  and  the 
chamber  of  commerce.  It  was  not  until  nearly  40  years  after  this 
period  that  England  possessed  any  similar  building,  during  all  which 
time  the  merchants  v\ere  accustomed  to  assemble  twice  in  each  day, 
in  the  open  air  in  Lombard-street.  The  king  himself,  however,  so 
early  as  1535,  proposed  that  they  should  remove  to  the  old  edifice  ot 
Leadenhall,  which  they  declined  doing;  and  in  1537  Sir  Richard 
Gresham  laid  before  Thomas  Cromwell,  then  Lord  Privy  Seal,  the  plan 
of  a  Bourse  for  London,  in  the  old  resort  of  Lombard-street,  to  which 
he  had  been  probably  incited  by  a  visit  to  Antwerp.  Before  retiring 
from  his  Mayoralty  in  the  following  year,  he  made  another  effort  to 
complete  this  design  in  a  letter  to  Lord  Cromwell,  which  is  still  ex- 
tant. He  states  therein  that  "  it  vsiU  cost  £2,000  and  more,"  and  at 
the  same  time  shows  the  real  cause  why  the  work  was  not  then  and 
there  carried  into  effect;  since  he  adds,  "there  is  certain  houses  in 
the  said  street  belonging  to  Sir  George  Monnocks,  and,  except  we  may 
purchase  them,  the  said  Burse  cannot  be  made.  Wherefore,  may  it 
please  your  good  lordship  to  move  the  King's  Highness  to  have  his 
most  gracious  letters  directed  to  the  said  Sir  George,  willing,  and  also 
commanding  him  to  cause  the  said  houses  to  be  sold  to  the  Mayor  and 
Commonalty  of  the  City  of  London,  for  such  prices  as  lie  did  purchase 
them  for,  and  that  he  "fault  not  but  to  accomplish  his  gracious  com- 
mandment. The  letter  must  be  sharply  made,  for  he  is  of  no  gentle 
nature ;  and,  that  he  shall  give  farther  credence  to  the  Mayor,  I  will 
deliver  the  letter,  and  handle  him  the  best  I  may:  and,  if  I  may  obtain 
to  have  the  said  houses,  I  doubt  not  hut  to  gather  £  1,000  toward  the 
building,  or  I  depart  out  of  mine  office.  There  shall  lack  no  good  will 
in  me." 

The  project  which  thus  originated  with  Sir  Richard  Gresham,  was 
realized  by  the  liberality  and  enterprise  of  his  son  Sir  Thomas,  who 
commenced  his  edifice  in  London  in  the  year  1 50  J.  The  similarity  which 
subsisted  between  this  building  and  that  of  Antwerp,  was  very  conspi- 
cuous. Like  the  latter,  the  Exchange  of  London  had  a  tall  tower 
placed  on  the  east  side  of  the  principal  entrance,  containing  a  bell, 
which  twice  in  the  day  summoned  the  merchants  to  assemble,  at  noon, 
and  at  six  in  the  evening.  In  the  interior  of  both  we  observe  the  same 
quadrangular  arcade,  carrying  a  similar  upper  story,  and  surmounted 
again  by  a  high  roof  and  regular  gabled  dormers  of  the  same  char  cter. 
The  Royal  Exchange  received  its  name  on  being  opened  in  person  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  on  the  23rd  January,  1570-71. 

There  does  not  appear  to  have  been  assigned,  either  by  contempo- 
raneous or  modern  authority,  any  reason  for  the  change  of  the  name  of 
this  edifice  by  the  Queen ;"though,  from  the  very  time  of  the  procla- 
mation, it  seems  to  have  been  most  effectual  and  complete.  If,  how- 
ever, at  this  very  distant  date,  a  conjecture  may  be  offered,  it  might 
have  been  a  design  of  Elizabeth,  which  was  never  brought  to  maturity, 
to  have  re-established,  in  this  building,  the  ancient  exchange  of  the 
sovereigns  of  England,  the  former  situation  of  wdiich  remains  comme- 
morated, even  at  the  present  day,  in  the  street  in  Cheapside  called 
Old  'Change.  It  was  here  that  one  of  those  ancient  officers  known  as 
"the  King's  Exchangers"  was  placed,  whose  duty  it  was  to  attend  to 
the  supply  of  the  Mints  with  bullion,  to  distribute  the  new  coinages 


224 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


and  to  regulate  the  exchange  of  foreign  coin.  Of  these  officers  there 
were  anciently  three,  two  in  London,  at  the  Tower  and  Old  'Change, 
and  one  in  the  city  of  Canterbury.  Subsequently  another  was  ap- 
pointed with  an  establisliment  in  Lombard  Street,  the  ancient  rendez- 
vous of  the  merchants ;  and  it  appears  not  improbable  that  the  Queen's 
intention  was  to  have  removed  this  functionary  to  what  was  now  pre- 
eminently designated  as  the  Royal  Exchange. 

As  the  Bourse  of  Antwer|)  had  furnished  a  model  for  close  imitation 
to  the  projectors  of  London,  the  work  of  the  latter  was,  in  its  turn, 
closely  followed  by  the  citizens  of  Amsterdam.  The  Bourse,  which 
still  subsists  there,  was  commenced  in  KJUS,  and  opened  in  1613.  A 
rectangular  area,  as  in  the  previous  instances,  is  surrounded  by  a 
covered  way,  formed  by  forty  columns  of  stone,  carrying  an  upper 
story  and  roof  exceedingly  similar  to  those  before  noticed.  Tliere 
are  principal  entrances  on  the  north  and  south  sides,  and  the  latter 
lias  the  addition  of  a  lofty  bell-tower  and  clock. 

To  revert  to  the  Royal  Exchange  of  London,  it  may  be  noticed  that, 
the  original  structure  having  been  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  IGGli, 
its  successor  was  erected  upon  the  same  site,  under  the  superinten- 
dence of  Mr.  Edward  Jerman,  one  of  tlie  surveyors  to  the  city,  at  an 
outlay  of  £5S,<)62.  With  the  facts  affecting  the  recent  destruction  of 
this  edifice  by  fire  also,  we  are  all  too  well  acquainted;  and  with 
respect  to  the  erection  of  any  structure  that  may  supply  its  place, 
It  may  be  sufficient  just  to  state,  in  conclusion,  that  the  instructions 
under  which  the  various  designs  for  a  new  Royal  Exchange  have  been 
jirepared,  have  determined  that  an  open  a;  ea  shall  be  preserved  for 
the  use  of  the  merchants,  after  the  manner  of  the  former  building,  but 
about  one  third  larger  in  extent.  The  Bourse  at  Paris,  the  more 
recently  erected  Exchange  at  Glasgow,  and  the  Exchange  at  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, are  all  covered  buildings.  The  Exchange  at  Liverpool,  on 
the  other  hand,  follows  the  more  ancient  precedent,  retaining  the  open 
area  and  surrounding  arcade.  As  any  discussion  of  the  propriety  of 
those  instructions  that  have  been  issued  for  the  direction  of  architects 
on  the  subject  of  the  new  Royal  Exchange,  would  be  beside  our  pre- 
sent purpose,  as  would  any  observations  in  anticipation  of  a  future  struc- 
ture, we  may  now  close  our  remarks,  w  ith  a  hope  that  this  compresseil 
statement  may  afford  our  readeis  some  degree  of  that  interest  with 
which  the  original  lecture  was  received  by  the  audience  of  the  Archi- 
tectural .Socielv, 


THE  ROYAL  EXCHANGE. 

Sir — Having  taken  no  part  whatever  in  the  competition,  or  in  any 
of  the  correspondences  which  liave  appeared  in  the  various  public 
prints  relative  to  the  Royal  Exchange,  and  feeling  a  general  disgust  at 
the  intemperate  manner  in  which  such  correspondences  are  usually 
conducted,  but  understanding  that  the  affair  appears  as  far  off  from 
settlement  as  ever,  I  now  crave  through  the  medium  of  your  widely  cir- 
culated journal,  the  promulgation  of  the  following  brief  remarks. 

1st.  It  appears  pretty  certain,  that  the  plan  which  will  be  adopted 
will  conform,  as  it  should,  to  the  lines  of  the  principal  adjoining  streets, 
otherwise  the  frontages  of  the  building  would  lie  awkwardlv  w-ith  re- 
gard to  them,  and  more  ground  would  be  given  up  in  making  the  site 
rectangular  than  the  required  accommodation  would  well  allow.  It 
seems  therefore  that  the  jilan  will  be  in  shape  a  trapezium. 

2nd.  In  all  plans  of  this  shape  which  I  have  seen,  (that  of  Mr.  Tite 
inciudedj,  there  are  a  multitude  of  frregularities,  many  rooms  out  of 
square,  some  of  the  largest  of  them  with  whole  wings  sliced  off  irre- 
gularly, and  many  doors,  windows,  and  chimneys  seemingly  placed  at 
random,  all  which  defects  would  be  evident  enough  to  those  who  might 
use  such  apartments. 

3rd.  Now  I  would  undertake  to  make  such  a  design  (merelv  by  re- 
membering that  there  is  in  the  world  such  an  art  as  Geometry,  of  which 
Wren,  and  his  kiixl,  made  much  use,  more  especially  in  diliicult  cases), 
which  design  should  have  every  internal  apartment,  angle,  door,  win- 
dow, and  chimney  regular. 

4th.  To  effect  this,  1  should  need  only  to  cut  off  from  the  site,  the 
large  ranges  of  apartments  in  lines  exactly  parallel  to  the  principal 
front  of  the  building.  This  would  leave  a  smaller  trapezium  in  the 
centre  of  the  ground. 

5th.  Within  this  smaller  trapezium  I  should  place  an  elliptical  court, 
and  in  tlie  four  spandrel  spaces  which  would  be  left,  I  should  place 
semi-circular  staircases,  water-closets,  and  other  offices. 

Otli,  The  architecture  of  the  elliptical  court,  I  should  form  some- 
thing after  Inigo  Jones's  magnificent  and  universally  admired  circular 
Persian  court,  designed  for  Whitehall :  but  instead'of  having  all  the 
culnmnar  statues  (say  32  in  numberj  made  similar,  which  by  monotony 
would  displease,  1  would  have  them  each  a  type  of  some  chief  nation 
trading  to  London :  and  if  the  expense   of  these  Caryatic  statues  be 


objected  to,  I  doubt  not  that  the  merchants  engaged  in  the  several 
trades,  would  find  the  difference  between  the  price  of  them  and  of 
plain  piers. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  very  obedient  humble  servant, 
Gray's  Inn,  June  19,  1840.  g. 


GEOMETRICAL  THEOREM. 

Siu — I  believe  that  the  following  curious  property  of  a  circle  has 
not  hitherto  been  noticed ;  or  if  it  has,  I  am  not  aware  of  its  existence 
in  any  of  our  works  on  Geometry. 

Let  A  B  C  D  E  be  a  circle,  of  which  A  C  D  is  anv  given  segment : 
Let  any  number  of  triangles  A  B  D,  A  C  D,  &c.  be  drawn  in  this  seg- 
ment, and  let  circles  be  inscribed  in  tliese  triangles  :  their  centres  F,  G, 
&c.  are  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  whose  centre  is  at  E,  the  middle  of  the 
arc  of  the  opposite  segment  A  E  D. 


DEMONSTRATIOX, 

Join  A  F,  F  D,  AG,  GD;  then  since  F  is  the  centre  of  the  circle, 
inscribed  in  the  triangle  ABD,  the  lines  A  F,  F  D,  bisect  the  angles 
BAD,  B  DA.  (Euc.  B.  4,  P.  4).  For  a  like  reason  A  G,GD,  bisect 
the  angles  CAD.  C  D  A ;  hence  the  angles  FAD,  FDA,  together, 
are  equal  to  half  the  angles,  BAD,  B  D  A  together,  and  the  angles 
GAD,  GDA  together,  to  half  the  angles  CAD,  CD  A  together. 
Now  the  angles  A  B  D,  A  C  D,  are  equal  (^being  in  the  same  segment), 
therefore  the  angles  BAD,  B  D  A  together,  are  equal  to  the  angles 
CAD,  CD  A  together,  and  as  the  halves  of  equals  are  equal,  the 
angles  F  A  D,  F  D  A  together  are  equal  to  the  angles  G  A  D,  G  D  A 
together ;  that  is  in  the  two  triangles  A  F  D,  A  G  D,  two  angles  of  the 
one,  are  together  equal  to  two  angles  of  the  other,  and  therefore  the 
third  angle  A  F  D,  is  equal  to  the  third  angle  A  G  D.  The  same  rea- 
soning will  prove,  that  all  angles  similarly  circumstanced  to  A  FD,  are 
also  equal  to  A  G  D  :  therefore,  the  points  A,  F,  G,  D,  are  in  an  arc 
of  a  circle. 

Join  B  F,  and  produce  it  to  cut  the  opposite  circumference  in  E  and 
join  E  A,  ED;  then  because  the  angle  A  B  E,  is  equal  to  the  angle 
D  B  E,  the  segment  A  E,  is  equal  to  the  segment  E  D,  and  the  chord 
AE,  to  the  chord  ED.  Again  the  angles  ABE,  E  D  A,  are  equal 
(being  in  the  same  segment),  and  by  construction,  the  angle  A  D  F  is 
equal  to  the  angle  F  D  B,  therefore  the  whole  angle  ED  F,  is  equal  to 
the  two  A  B  F,  F  D  B,  that  is  to  the  two  F  B  D,  F  D  B,  that  is  to  the 
exterior  angle  E  F  D  ;  therefore  the  angle  E  F  D,  is  equal  to  the  angle 
E  D  F ;  consequently  E  F,  is  equal  to  E  D,  that  is  to  E  A.  The  same 
reasoning  would  prove  E  F  to  be  equal  to  a  line  drawn  from  G,  to  the 
point  E.  Wherefore  the  point  E  is  the  centre  of  a  circle,  of  which 
F  and  G,  as  also  the  centres  of  all  other  circles  similarly  inscribed,  are 
in  the  circumference. 

H.  Spencer. 

Birmingham  and  Gloucester 

Railmay  Office,  Wurcealer. 


is4n.j 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


00 


^o 


CANDIDUS'S     NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XVI. 


"  I  must  have  liberiy 
Withal,  as  large  a  cliarter  as  the  h  ;nas, 
To  blow  on  «hom  1  please.'' 

I.  A  fiifiid  of  mine  is  in  the  habit  of  exclaiming  "  Damn  all  Dic- 
tionary-makers," and  I  am  tempted  to  say  ditto  as  regaiils  all  illus- 
trators, a  set  of  illuminati  who  generally  display  their  cleverness  by 
leaving  you  as  much  in  the  dark  as  possible.  Would  it  be  believed 
that  one  of  these  'picturesque'  geniusses,  who  visited  St.  Petersburg 
'  expressly'  for  the  purpose  of  taking  views  of  the  most  striking  build- 
ings in  that  capital,  actually  tiu'ned  his  back  upon  the  portico  and 
dome  of  the  Kazuu  Church,  and  brought  into  his  view  of  that  edifice 
merely  an  angle  of  one  of  the  sweeping  colonnades!  Hogarth's  sketch 
of  a  Serjeant  and  dog  entering  an  ale-house,  which  group  he  exhibited 
in  three  strokes  of  his  pencil,  nught  be  taken  as  a  satirical  quiz  upon 
such  shamming  illustrations.  What  then  is  to  be  said  of  Soane  who 
has  actually  omitted  in  his  'Designs  of  Public  and  Private  Builduigs,' 
what  is  by  very  far  the  best  piece  of  exterior  architecture  he  ever  pro- 
duced— namely,  the  little  semicircular  loggia  at  the  north-west  angle 
of  the  Bank  ! !  It  is  indeed  just  discernable  iu  a  coarse  scratch  of  the 
general  elevation  barely  au  inch  in  height ;  but  from  the  peculiarity  of 
its  plan,  such  a  piece  of  design  required  to  be  explained  by  elevations, 
sections,  &:c.  on  as  large  a  scale  as  the  size  of  the  plates  would  admit, 
which  would  have  been  about  lialf  au  inch  to  a  foot.  That  1  am  not 
singular  in  my  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of  that  piece  of  architecture  is 
evident,  because  it  vvas  selected  as  the  subject  of  the  medal  presented 
to  him  by  the  Institute.  Such  an  extraordinary  omission  induces  me 
to  imagine  that  Sir  John's  wits  were  btuighttd  quite  as  nuich  as  him- 
self ; — at  all  events  he  seems  to  have  been  resolved  that  the  purchasers 
of  his  work  should  be  left  quite  in  the  dark  with  resjiect  to  the  subject 
alluded  to.  Poor  man  !  he  was  not  deficient  in  cunning,  and  had  just 
enough  to  outwit  himself,  one  notorious  instance  of  which  is  his  singu- 
lar donation  of  his  house,  by  which  he  has  bamboozled  the  public,  but 
damned  his  own  character  for  munificence,  into  the  bargain. 

II.  Conversing  the  other  day  with (who  has  a  greater  re- 
putation for  wit  than  for  sanctity)  on  the  subject  of  the  present  fashion 
— style  I  will  not  call  it,  in  church  building,  I  remarked  that  Welby 
Pugin  was  after  all  tolerably  right  in  some  respects,  and  that  the  prac- 
tice of  enclosing  the  congregation  in  separate  pews  was  an  insuper- 
able disadvantage  in  an  architectural  point  of  view,  besides  which  it 
seemed  to  me  objectionable  as  carrying  wordly  distinctions  and  the 
principle  of  uieuin  and  letun  into  the  very  House  of  God.     "  As  regards 

architectural  eftect,"  replied ,  "you  are  certainly  right, — in 

your  other  objection  as  certainly  wrong.  Do  you  not  perceive  the 
symbolic  propriety  and  expressive  meaning  of  the  very  things  you  find 
fault  with." — "I  really  do  not."  "Why  then,  my  good  friend,  you 
nuist  have  grown  quite  muddy-headed. — Wliatl — do  you  not  at  once 
see  the  striking  propriety— the  analogical  and  practical  illustration  of 
Gospel,  in  putting  the  pastor  into  his  pulpit,  and  his_;ifocA-  into  tsheep- 
peiin  ?" 

III.  "It  is  most  deplorable  and  paltry,"  observes  Prince  Puckler- 
Muskau,  "when,  instead  of  being  ex])unged  and  corrected,  a  particular 
part  which  is  eviilently  a  failure,  is  allowed  to  remain  a  blemish  to  the 
whole  work,  merely  because  it  has  cost  so  much  time  and  money,  and 
the  requisite  alteration  would  cost  so  much  more."  Although  the 
writer  is  here  speaking  of  Lauilscape-gardening,  the  remark  is  equallv 
applicable  to  architecture,  many  productions  of  which,  might  be 
greatly  improved  by  amendments  that  are  almost  self-evident.  It  is 
true,  there  ought  never  to  be  any  occasion  for  improvement  of  such 
kind,  because  every  part  and  feature  of  a  building  may  be,  and  in- 
variably ought  to  be,  thoroughly  studied  and  foreseen  from  the  designs 
for  it. 

IV.  Earnestly  is  it  to  be  wished  that  architects  would  endeavour  to 
emulate  the  other  sex  in  the  devoted  application  of  all  their  faculties, 
which  those  exemplary  and  most  truly  cua  amore  artists  bestow  upon 
their  handy-works.  When  I  perceive  on  the  one  hand  with  what 
plodding  indifference,  hurry,  or  carelessness,  many  buildings  have  been 
designed  ;  and  on  the  other,  what  anxious  thought,  what  patience,  what 
contrivance,  what  ingenuity,  what  scheming  and  planning,  and  how 
much  consultation,  are  given  to  devise  a  ball  dress — as  if  it  were  a 
work  destined  to  outlive  the  eternal  pyramids  ; — when  I  perceive  with 
what  critical  study  and  exactness  every  part  of  the  fabric  is  elaborated, 
and  that  as  much  attention  is  paid  to  the  precise  quality  and  texture 
of  the  material,  as  if  all  men  were  men-milliners  and  able  to  tell  at  a 
glance  where  a  lady's  lace  and  velvet  have  been  inanufaclured,  or  what 


they  cost  per  yard ; — when  I  see  and  perceive  all  this,  I  cannot  help 
drawing  a  comparison  that  is  greatly  to  the  disadvantage  of  us  'male 
creatures,'  especially  of  some  of  those  who  call  themselves  architects. 
What  hurried,  slovenly,  and  slobbered  work  do  they  make  of  it !  in 
what  coarse,  ill-assorted,  and  awkwardly  put  on  finery  do  they  attempt 
to  dress  up  their  designs, — to  say  nothing  of  the  grotesque  mixture  of 
arrant  shabbiness  and  such  finery  which  they  so  frequently  parade  be- 
fore our  eyes  in  the  most  ridiculous  manner.  We  men  are  dull  jiedants 
who  judge  only  by  rules,  wdiile  women  are  guided  by  a  refined  tact, 
au  unerring  delicacy  of  instinct,  which  preserve  them  from  committing 
those  gross  solecisms  in  taste  into  which  we  are  perpetually  falling  : 
let  us  therefore  cry  out  Place  aiix  Dames .'  for  they  deserve  to  take 
precedence  of  all  the  Old  Women  in  Breeches,  who  bore  us  with  their 
Vitruvius,  and  their  Palladio. 

V.  Lindley  Murray  would  go  just  as  far  towards  making  a  poet,  as 
the  writings  of  Vitru\-ius,  Palladio,  el  hoc  genua  vmne,  towards  forming 
an  architect  who  should  also  rank  as  an  artist  in  his  profession.  For 
what  are  that  class  of  architectural  writers  more  than  mere  grammaiici, 
— useful  as  furnishing  the  rudiments  and  implements  of  study,  and  no- 
thing further?  But  it  would  seem  that  in  architecture  mere  gramma- 
tical accuracy  is  held  to  be  everything, — the  ideas,  the  combinations, 
the  conception,  the  composition — ert'ect,  character,  expression,  com- 
paratively nothing, — what  may  be  left  to  chance;  because,  provided  no 
sins  be  committed  against  the  petty  rules  of  the  art,  be  it  as  intolerably 
dull  as  it  may,  the  work  is  certain  of  being  recognized  as  legitimate 
and  orthodox.  Such  being  the  case,  and  negative  merit  being  accepted 
as  possitive — nay  as  something  wonderful,  nothing  short  of  a  prodigious 
achievement  in  art,  can  we  at  all  wonder  at  beholding  so  many  sickly 
insipidities  displaying  themselves  in  stone  or  cement  ?  or  such  pieces 
of  architectimd  bathos,  as  the  Biitish  Insurance  Office,  where  Agrigen- 
tum  columns  .shop  windows,  crooked  balconies,  figures  of  sprawling 
drunken  ladies,  S:c.,  are  all  jumbled  and  squeezed  up  together.  If  the 
author  of  that  monstrosity  be  still  living,  with  what  a  shudder  must  he 
be  seized  every  time  he  passes  by  it, — unless  his  nerves  should  happen 
to  be  of  iron,  and  his  scull  well  fortified  with  lead.  However  he  has 
certainly  given,  at  his  own  cost,  an  exceUent  lesson  ^;;-y  bono  publico  to 
the  profession,  showing  them  very  forciljly  what  they  ought  to  avoid. 

VI.  It  was  the  opinion  of  that  exceedingly  sensible,  but  most  horri- 
ble unsentimental  person,  Dr.  Johnson,  that  "marriages  wciuld  in  gene- 
ral be  as  happy  and  often  more  so,  if  they  were  all  made  by  the  Lord 
Chancellor;" — which,  liy  the  bye,  would'be  a  complete  death  blow  to 
the  novelists: — and  i  myself  am  sometimes  inclined  to  adopt  a  similar 
opinion  with  respect  to  architectural  competitions,  and  say  that  innine 
cases  out  of  ten,  the  choice  would  prove  as  good  were  it  left  to  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  or  the — Lord  Mayor.  Seldom  could  their  decision 
prove  a  worse  one  than  what  now  frequently  occurs;  not  often  would 
it  be  so  bad,  because  ignoramus  as  lie  might  be,  a  Lord  Mayor,  would 
as  an  individual  feel  obliged  to  pay  some  deierence  to  public  opinion; 
whereas  a  committee  can  aftbrd  to  brave  it,  since  whatever  maybe  the 
odium  that  falls  upon  it  as  a  body,  no  member  of  it  feels  in  his  own 
person.  As  to  the  Lord  Chancellor,  however,  I  should  be  loth  to  com- 
mit the  task  of  decision  to  him,  because  expedition  ami  promptitude, 
are  not  to  be  looked  for  in  that  (piarter.  In  fact,  the  Royal  Exchange 
does  seem  to  have  been  actually  put  into  Chanccrij  ;  for  after  the  lapse 
of  two  years  and  a  lialf  the  foundations  of  a  new  structure  are  not  yet 
laid,  although  (he  space  of  a  single  twelvemonth  sufficed  to  rebuild, 
and  refuriiisii  the  Winter  Palace  at  St.  Petersburg,  an  eilifice  three  or 
four  times  the  size  of  the  one  intended  to  be  reared  iu  Cornhill.  The 
British  Museum  also  goes  on  at  the  true  Chancery  ])ace, — dillo  the 
Nelson  Monument  that  is  to  be.  Nay,  if  the  truth  mav  be  told.  Com- 
petition itself  is  a  sort  of  C'/iancertj,meYe  chance  ha^ingquite  as  much 
to  do  with  the  decisions,  as  either  judgement  or  taste. 

VII.  I  incline  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Walter  Fisher,  when  he  says: 
"The  real  truth  is,  I  feel  mortified  at  being  kept  down  by  a  want  of 
ardour  m  our  patrons.  We  hear  a  great  deal  of  Scott  and  Southey, 
and  Byron,  and  Wordsworth;  and  folks  talk  of  Lawrence  and  Rey- 
nolds,— and  all  the  rest  of  it ;  but  what  is  poetry  of  which  not  one 
person  in  ten  thousand  can  judge — to  Cookery  ?"  When  I  say  I  in- 
cline to  Walter's  o|iinion,— who,  by  the  bye,  if  he  does  not  lack  conceit 
has  an  equal  stock  of  enthusiasm. — I  do  not  mean  that  I  form  precisely 
the  same  comparative  estimate  of  poetry,  painting,  and  cookery  as  he 
does,  but  merely  agree  with  him  that  for  one  who  can  judge  of  poetry, 
there  are  ten  thousand  who  can  judge  of  and  relish  cookery;  and  that 
there  are  ten  times  ten  thousand  who  are  most  unatt'ectedly  devoted 
to  the  latter,  for  who  is  passionately  addicted  to — architecture. 

It  is  invidious  to  scrutinize  motives  too  narrowly,  but  I  have  certain 
uncomfortable  misgivings,  that  lead  me  to  fancy  architecture  would 
have  still  fewer  votaries  were  it  not  for  the  attractions  of  cookery.  If 
the  reader  be  so  obtuse  as  to  ask  for  further  elucidation,  I  can  only 
pity—not  assist  him,  because  it  would  jbe  impossible  fur  me  to  explain 

2  H 


220 


TIIK  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


myself  more  clearly  without  becoming  libellous,  and  forfeiting  that 
character  for  imliilgent  clemency,  and  considerate  forbearance  which  I 
have  now  established. — An  nslc,  it  would  be  amusing  if  not  edifying  to 
draw  a  parallel  between  architecture  and  cookery,  which  latter  of  these 
two  fine  arls  requires  a  peculiar  genius  for  combinations,  combiiiatwnn- 
gdat,  generallv  dispensed  with  by  the  other.  At  all  events  it  cannot 
h'  denied  tliat  architects  do  show  themselves  less  expert  than  our 
ckfs-d(-cn/sin(,ior  they  seldom  do  more  than  merely /m«/i  a/p  afresh 
the  same  stale  remains  of  classicalitv. 


FRESCO  PAINTING  IN  ENGLAND. 

THE   DUKE   OF   BEAUFORT's   MANSIOX. 

We  have  several  times  alfuded  to  the  works  going  on  at  Beaufort 
House,  but  have  not  until  now  been  able  to  give  our  readers  any  do- 
tailed  iiccnunt.  We  mav  remark  that  this  mansion  is  situated  in  Ar- 
lington Street,  Piccadilly,  having,  from  the  back,  a  view  of  the  Green 
Park.  It  was  formerly  in  the  occupation  of  the  Marquis  of  Camden, 
but  is  now  being  fitted  up  by  the  Duke  of  Beaufort  as  a  tovvn  resi- 
dence. His  grace  had  certainly  some  difliculties  to  contend  witli  in 
the  previous  state  of  the  house,  which,  like  too  many  other  mansions 
in  London,  had  been  consigned  to  the  tasteful  hands  of  the  upholsterer 
and  the  whitewasher.  It  being  considered  that  painting  might  look 
as  well  on  the  walls  as  dabbed  and  spotted  paper,  a  point  on  which 
we  fear  there  are  some  doubts  entertained  by  London  residents  gene- 
rally, it  was  originally  suggested,  under  the  idea  that  Englishmen 
conld  not  do  it  so  cheaply  and  so  well,  that  German  artists  should  be 
employed.  While  the  negociations  were  going  on,  Mr.  Latilla  was 
mentioned  to  the  Duke  as  having  been  eugageil  in  similar  works,  and 
liaving  been  directed  to  send  in  designs,  was  immediately  employed. 
By  this  arrangement  the  work  has  not  only  been  done  much  cheaper, 
and  w'e  think  many  will  consider  better,  but  a  great  service  has  been 
rendered  to  English  art.  Mr.  Latilla's  system  of  fresco  painting  had 
•ah-eady  met  witli  much  approbation  and  encouragement,  but  it  wanted 
this  excellent  opiiortunity  to  ilisplay  its  powers  more  fully. 

Passing  on  now  to  the  works  executed  under  Mr.  Latilla's  direction, 
the  first  is  a  vaulted  corridor  leading  from  the  entrance  hall,  and  which, 
in  the  Marquis  of  Camden's  time,  remained  in  all  the  simplicity  of 
white  and  unpolluted  paint,  but  is  now  designed  in  bigio  or  cliiar' 
oscuro  with  trophies  and  medallions,  something  in  the  Roman  style. 
On  the  side  opposite  the  windows  a  range  of  plaster  stat\ies  of  agri- 
cultural divinities  bear  lights  in  their  hands,  and  serve  to  break  the 
view.  At  the  end  of  this  corridor  is  a  hall  from  which  a  staircase 
runs  to  the  upper  apartments  ;  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  this  staircase 
have  also  been  decorated  with  representations  of  medallions  and  ar- 
chitectural ornaments. 

On  the  ground  floor  are  the  princii)al  apartments,  one  of  which,  the 
banquetting  room,  we  are  now  about  to  describe.  This  apartment 
may  be  about  thirty  feet  by  twent3',  anil  sixteen  feet  high,  having  on 
one  of  the  long  sides  three  windows,  the  ojiposite  side  an  entrance 
door,  another  and  a  chimney  at  one  end  of  the  room,  and  at  the  other 
end  folding  doors  leading  out  of  it.  Six  large  panels  are  thus  left, 
which  are  painted  with  two  series  of  subjects,  one  representing  the 
seasons,  and  the  other  Hebe  and  Ariadne.  As  a  banquetting  room 
the  decorations  of  course  are  of  a  Bacchanalian  character,  and  without 
departing  from  the  character  of  the  antique,  are  not  repulsive  to 
modern  taste.  The  whole  style  is  a  similar  hajipy  adaptation  of 
ancient  principles,  and  without  being  restricted  to  any  one  school,  has 
a  unity  of  character  which  establishes  it  as  a  style  in  itself.  The  de- 
sign of  the  panels  is  much  in  the  Pompeian  taste,  but  carried  out  in 
accordance  with  the  advance  of  modern  art ;  the  pilasters  and  ara- 
besques have,  perhaps,  more  of  the  character  of  (iiroiamo  Koinanino,  or 
his  model,  the  baths  of  Titu^,  and  the  tone  of  colouring  show  s  a  nearer 
approach  to  the  Herculanean  than  the  Pompeian.  The  ground  of  the 
room  is  of  a  lavender  colour,  and  upon  this  a  brightness  and  harmony 
of  effect  is  jiroduced  without  spottiness  or  rawness. 

The  two  |)anels  at  each  end  of  the  room  are  devoted  to  the  seasons, 
the  first  of  which,  Spring,  is  represented  by  a  female  figure  clothed 
in  white  gauze,  and  floating  in  true  antique  style  in  ambient  air. 
Beneath  her  is  a  landscape  representing  Greek  scenery,  and  under  the 
panel  is  a  mask  of  a  young  head  in  a  festoon  of  spring  flowers,  daflb- 
dils,  crocuses,  snow-drops,  &:c. 

The  next  on  the  same  side  is  Summer,  also  personated  by  a  young 
female,  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  roses,  and  holding  a  garlaml  in  her 
hand,  and  floating  over  scenery  representing  Egyptian  subjects.  The 
festoon  underneath  is  of  roses  and  other  summer  flowers,  and  contains 
a  mask,  of  Baccaus.   . 


At  the  opposite  end  of  the  room,  the  figure  next  the  door,  that  of 
an  older  female,  is  the  emblem  of  Autumn;  she  is  crowned  with  pop- 
pics,  and  presides  over  an  autumnal  landscape.  A  mask  of  a  warrior 
reposes  on  a  festoon  of  grajies,  wheat-ears,  and  other  harvest  produc- 
tions.    Part  of  tlie  drapery  of  this  is,  perhaps,  a  little  heavy. 

The  remaining  panel  of  this  series  is  devoted  to  Winter,  a  subject 
treated  in  a  beautiful  and  ett'ective  method.  In  a  deep  blue  winter 
sky  floats  a  young  female  closely  draped,  with  part  of  her  robe  brought 
round  her  head  as  a  hood.  Above  her  head  is  seen  the  constellation 
of  the  Pleiades,  and  to  her  breasts  she  clasps  a  cinerary  urn,  the  em- 
blem of  the  closing  year.  Underneath  is  a  representation  of  iceclad 
mountains,  forming  ail  appropriate  finish  to  this  admirable  scene,  the 
character  of  which  is  indeed  well  maintained.  A  mask  of  a  bearded 
old  man  is  placed  on  the  festoon  beneath,  wdiich  is  twined  of  the  holly 
and  mistletoe  and  other  emblems  of  Christmas. 

The  other  and  smaller  series  of  subjects  is  on  the  side  opposite  the 
windows.  One  (xinel  is  appropriated  to  Hebe,  who,  with  her  golden 
vase  and  cup,  and  usual  attributes,  flies  over  a  morning  scene.  The 
other  panel  represents  Ariadne  with  the  thyrsus,  the  scene  under 
being  a  sacrifice  to  Bacchus.  Under  each  6f  these  panels  is  a  festoon 
of  flowers  with  a  mask  of  a  female  head. 

There  is  nothing  much  to  remark  in  the  smaller  doors,  they  have 
over  them  each  a  small  panel,  containing  a  vase  and  flowers.  The 
ornaments  of  the  folding  doors  consisting  of  bluish  ribbands  and  of 
medallions,  have  much  of  the  character  of  the  baths  of  Titus,  and  over 
the  door  is  an  arabesque  on  a  yellow  ground.  The  treatment  of  these 
doors  is  verv  skilful,  the  details  made  to  tell  well.  The  chimney  and 
fire-place  is  of  black  marble  with  ormolu  ornaments,  and  over  it  is  a 
large  glass.  This  chimney  it  was  very  difficult  to  bring  in,  but  the 
treatment  has  been  most  successful.  Over  the  glass  is  a  deep  cho- 
colate ground  jianel,  with  boys  carrying  grapes,  accompanying  an 
infant  Bacchus  riding  on  a  goat.  The  several  compartments  of  the 
room  are  divided  by  arabesques,  consisting  of  a  red  stafl'  or  thyrsus, 
with  grapes  and  Bacchanalian  emblems.  The  carving  round  the 
room  lias  four  corners  of  a  peculiar  deep  brown  used  by  the  ancients, 
w  hicli  Mr.  Latilla  names  Etruscan  brown.  Between  these  are  arabes- 
ques on  a  cream-coloured  ground,  consisting  of  boys  playing  with 
panthers.  The  ceiling  is  of  a  low  cream  colour,  having  in  the  centre 
a  patera,  formed  of  light  festoons  and  flowers.  From  this  depends  a 
lamp  ornamented  with  vine  leaves  of  ormolu,  and  grapes  of  ground 
glass.  The  carpet  is  of  a  plain  pattern,  and  light  in  appearance  ;  it 
is  of  blue  and  yellow  on  a  maroon  ground,  with  a  white  border.  The 
furniture  is  of  the  simplest  description,  a  mahogany  table  and  red  mo- 
rocco chairs.  These  latter  accessories  are  not  of  the  selection  of  the 
artist,  but  it  does  great  credit  to  the  high-minded  nobleman  who  em- 
))loyed  him,  that  he  has  not,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  allowed  the  fur- 
niture to  injure  the  rest  of  the  works.  The  lamp  might  have  been 
more  in  the  antique,  but  it  is  not  oft'ensive.  An  Elizabethan  stove, 
intended  to  have  been  placed  in  the  room,  has  been  removed. 

An  oval  saloon  leading  from  the  banquetting  room  to  the  drawdng 
room  is  also  painted  by  Mr.  Latilla.  It  has  a  white  ground  with  fes- 
toons of  gold  ribband,  but  we  cannot  say  we  like  the  design  of  these 
last.  The  drawing  room  is  now  under  the  hands  of  Mr.  Jones,  (the 
author,  we  believe,  of  the  work  on  the  Alhambra.)  The  design  is 
in  a  style  somewhat  of  the  time  of  Henry  the  Fourth,  and  is  of  a  most 
gorgeous  character,  nearly  all  gold  and  silver.  The  panels  represent 
the  story  of  Mary,  Queen  of  .Scots,  and  the  walls  are  of  a  bright  blue, 
with  fleur-de-lis.  The  effect  is  admirable,  but  there  are  few,  we  be- 
lieve, who  will  not  prefer  the  light  elegance  of  the  banquetting  room, 
which  both  by  night  and  by  day  is  equally  eft'ective. 

The  Duke  of  Beaufort  has  reason  to  congratulate  himself  on  his 
determination  in  every  respect ;  his  banquetting  room  has  been  exe- 
cuted for  a  tenth  part  of  the  German  estimate,  will  remain  for  centu- 
ries, and  would  be  injured  by  any  but  the  simplest  furniture.  As  a 
worthy  encouragement  of  English  art  and  an  example  to  other  patrons, 
Beaufort  House  and  its  noble  owner  have  done  much  valuable  service, 
and  we  shall  be  greatly  deceived  if  its  results  are  limited  to  such  a 
sphere,  or  confined  to  the  employment  of  one  man.  We  see,  in  this 
mansion,  the  germ  of  what  can  be  done  in  our  national  and  civic  edi- 
fices, and  architects  and  artists  will  do  but  half  their  duty  if  they  do 
not  agitate  until  in  this  line,  also,  we  have  distanced  foreign  rivalry. 
We  have  enough  artists  of  fame  in  the  country,  we  have  plenty  of 
latent  talent,  and  it  wants  but  scope  for  exertion  to  place  us  in  that 
position  which  Englishmen,  if  they  have  the  opportunity,  are  sure  to 
attain.  For  three  hundred  years  we  fostered  foreign  art,  and  the 
result  was  that  we  did  not  jn'odnce  even  one  good  artist  for  every 
foreigner  employed  ;  we  got  only  Hudson,  Oliver,  and  Thornliill,  in 
exchange  for  Holbein,  Rubens,  Vandyke  and  Leiy :  we  began  to  de- 
pend on  our  own  resources,  and  we  have  produced  men  whose  names 
are  known  to  Euiope;  in  all  the  branches  of  art  for  which  we  have 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


227 


scope,  wp  hiive  made  our  way,  and  in  despite  of  want  of  instruction, 
want  of  taste,  and  want  of  encouragement,  at  any  rate  we  have  shown 
that  we  can  |)roduce  high  art,  if  it  be  hnt  called  for.  The  barbarians 
who  could  add  \vhitewashe<l  garrets  to  the  British  Miisoum,  are  but  a 
portion  of  the  great  body  of  Midases  in  art,  who,  by  indifference  or 
opposition,  check  its  encouragement  by  the  legislature,  and  although 
they  have  begun  to  find  out  that  whitewash  is  not  the  best  back-ground 
for  the  Elgin  marbles,  yet  they  and  their  brethren  nnist  go  a  step 
further,  if  they  wish  England  to  make  a  good  figure  in  the  eyes  of  its 
neighbours.  There  is  the  British  Museum,  National  Gallery,  and 
Royal  Exchange  to  go  to  work  upon,  and  above  all,  the  new  Houses 
of  Parliament;  rich  as  they  are  in  historical  associations,  they  lose 
half  their  value  without  even  a  mark  to  tell  the  scene  of  so  many 
great  events,  where  the  sovereigns  of  a  mighty  empire  have  been 
created  and  deposed,  tried  and  executed,  where  viceroys  and  ministers 
have  been  arraigned,  the  destiny  of  the  old  world  and  the  new  deter- 
mined, kings  matle  tributary,  and  slaves  set  free. 

We  must  liy  this  time  have  made  known  the  high  sense  which  we 
entertain  of  the  talents  and  exertions  of  Mr.  Latilla,  and  we  are  dis- 
posed to  look  less  at  his  past  works,  than  to  dwell  upon  the  hope  of 
those  which  are  to  come.  Even  since  his  labours  at  Beaufort  House, 
he  has  in  Italy  acquired  fresh  jjower  and  conlidence  in  his  art,  and  his 
course  of  instruction  has  been  such  as  well  to  fit  him  for  a  higher  task. 
For  many  years  he  has  devoted  himself  to  fresco  painting,  and  tlic 
history  of  his  initiation,  which  we  have  heard,  is  a  good  lesson  of  the 
value  that  may  attach  to  what  we  too  often  tiespise  as  trifles. 
John  Nash,  the  architect,  brought  home  from  Italy  a  collection  of 
designs  from  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican  and  some  Italian  artists,  whom 
he  employed  to  paint  jiart  of  his  house  in  the  Ratt'aelesque  style, 
and  Latilla,  then  a  boy,  was  employed  in  finishing  it  after  they  left, 
when  he  was  so  struck  by  what  he  saw,  that  from'that  day  he  devoted 
liiniself  to  fres«o,  and  exerted  himself  for  its  introduction. 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  IN  LONDON. 

^  Critical  Reviem  of  the  Public  Bitildiiigs,  Statues  and  Ornaments  in 
and  about  London  and  IVeslminatct — 1734. 

By  R.iLPH. 

(Continued from  page  201.  J 

Tlie  grand  catliedral  of  St.  Paul's  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  most 
magnificpnt  modern  buildings  in  Europe ;  all  the  parts  of  which  it  is 
composed  are  superlatively  beautiful  ;uk1  noble  ;  the  north  and  south 
fronts  in  particular  are  very  perfect  pieces  of  architecture,  neither 
ought  the  east  to  go  without  due  applause.  The  two  spires  at  the 
west  end  are  in  a  finished  taste,  and  the  portico  witli  the  ascent,  and 
the  dome  that  rises  in  the  centre  of  the  whole,  afford  a  very  august 
and  surprizing  prospect;  but  sti!!,  with  all  these  beauties,  it  has  cer- 
tainly yet  more  defects ;  and  the  pleasure  we  receive  from  the  first  is 
so  much  qualified  and  tamed  by  the  last,  that  we  rather  wonder  how 
we  can  be  pleased  so  much,  than  why  we  are  displeased  at  all.  But 
not  to  condemn  in  the  gross,  I  will  take  the  liberty  to  touch  upon  a 
few  particulars,  and  lay  myself  justly  open  to  censure,  in  case  I  mis- 
take, or  blame  in  the  wrong  place. 

In  the  first  place  therefore,  there  is  a  most  notorious  deficiency  in 
point  of  view ;  such  a  huge  fabric  as  St.  Paul's  ought  at  least  to  be 
surveyed  at  the  distance  of  Temple-bar,  and  the  vista  ought  to  be 
considerably  wider  than  the  front  of  the  building.  But  this  is  so  far 
from  the  case  here,  that  we  cannot  see  it  till  we  are  upon  it,  and  this 
defect  is  still  made  worse  by  turning  the  edifice  from  the  eye  even 
where  it  can  be  viewed,  for  the  sake  of  that  ridiculous  superstition  of 
erecting  it  due  east  and  west.  In  the  next  place,  the  dividing  the 
portico,  and  indeed  the  whole  structure  into  two  stories  on  the  out- 
side, certainly  indicates  a  like  division  within :  a  circumstance  abound- 
ing with  absurdities,  and  defeating  even  the  very  end  of  erecting  it  at 
all.  If  indeed  the  architect  had  been  embarrassed  to  reconcile  the 
distance  and  height  of  his  columns,  I  am  humbly  of  opinion  that  a  light 
and  pro]5er  attic  story  had  answered  all  enils  both  of  use  and  beauty, 
and  left  him  room  to  have  enlarged  his  imagination,  and  have  given 
an  air  of  majesty  to  the  whole  :  let  me  add  that  1  apprehend  the  por- 
tico should  have  been  farther  projected  on  the  eye,  instead  of  retreat- 
ing from  it,  in  order  to  have  given  a  grand  contrast  to  the  whole  front, 
and  aided  the  perspective  within. 

I  shall  say  no  more  on  the  outside  than  this,  that  aecording  to  my 
best  notions  of  regularity  and  order,  the  dome  should  have  been  raised 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  whole,  and  that  there  should  have  been 
two  corresponding  steeples  at  the  east  as  well  as  the  west  end,  with 


all  other  suitable  decorations ;  if  a  view  of  the  whole  length  of  the 
building,  too,  could  have  been  opened  to  the  water-side,  it  would 
have  added  greatly  to  its  grandeur  and  magnificence,  and  have  afforded 
a  most  nof^le  prospect  from  off  the  river  into  the  bargain.  However 
odd  or  new  the  first  of  these  propositions  may  seem,  let  any  body  take 
a  view  of  St.  Paul's  from  any  of  the  neighbouring  hills,  and  they  will 
instantly  discern  that  the  building  is  defective,  and  that  the  form  of  a 
cross  is  more  favourable  to  superstition  than  beauty ;  in  a  word,  they 
will  easily  see  at  least,  that  the  dome,  in  its  present  circumstance,  is 
abundantly  too  big  for  the  rest  of  the  pile,  and  that  the  west  end  has 
no  rational  pretence  to  finer  and  more  splendid  decorations  than  the 
east. 

Before  we  begin  our  examination  of  the  inside  of  St.  Paul's,  it  will 
not  be  amiss  to  cast  an  eye  on  the  statue  in  the  area  before  it,  erected 
in  honour  of  the  late  queen.  It  stands  exactly  in  the  front  of  the 
building,  though  it  seems,  by  the  odd  situation  of  Ludgate  Street,  to 
be  on  one  side,  and  is,  upon  the  whole,  modelled  in  a  tolerable  taste, 
and  executed  as  well ;  the  principal  figure,  indeed,  the  queen  herself, 
is  an  exception  to  this  character;  such  a  formal  Gothic  habit,  and 
stiff,  affected  attitude,  are  neither  to  be  endured  or  pardoned,  and 
there  is  not  one  of  those  round  the  base  tliat  does  not  justly  deserve 
the  preference. 

Whoever  understands  the  nature  of  public  ornamental  buildings 
critically,  always  lays  it  down  for  a  rule,  that  they  cannot  be  too  ex- 
pensive or  magnificent ;  for  which  reason  St.  Paul's  is  so  far  from 
being  admired" for  being  so  grand  and  a\igust  as  it  is,  that  nothing  is 
more  common  than  to  hear  it  censured  for  not  being  more  so.  Every 
body  knows  that  the  fund  which  raised  it  from  its  ruins  to  its  present 
glory,  was  equal  to  any  design  of  beauty  cr  majesty;  and  as  those 
who  had  it  in  trust  went  so  far  towLVrds  this  necessary  end,  it  is  a 
thousand  pities  they  did  not  carry  it  on  much  farther,  and  make  this 
pile  not  only  the  ornament  of  Britain,  but  the  admiration  and  envy  of 
all  Europe.  St.  Peter's  at  Rome  was  already  built ;  a  model  which 
the  most  finished  architect  need  not  have  been  ashamed  to  imitate, 
and  as  all  its  particular  beauties  have  been  long  publicly  known  and 
admired,  I  think  it  was  incumbent  on  us  to  have  equalled  it  at  least ; 
and  if  we  had  excelled  it  too,  it  would  have  been  no  more  than  might 
have  been  reasonably  expected  from  such  a  nation  as  ours, "and  such 
a  genius  as  Wren. 

On  these  principles  it  is  that  men  of  taste  and  understanding  are 
surprized,  at  entering  this  church,  to  see  so  many  faults,  and  miss  so 
many  beauties;  they  discover  at  once  that  it  wants  elevation  to  give 
it  a  proportionable  "grandeur,  and  length  to  assist  the  perspective ; 
that  the  columns  are  heavy  and  clumsy  to  a  prodigious  decree,  and 
rather  incumber  the  prospect  than  enrich  it  with  symmetry  and  beauty ; 
half  the  necessary  breaks  of  light  and  shadow  are  hereby  wanting,  and 
half  the  perspective  in  general  cut  off;  at  the  same  time  I  do  not 
deny  but  many  parts  of  the  decoration  are  exceedingly  grand  and 
noble,  and  demand  very  justly  a  sincere  applause,  i'he  dome  is, 
without  question,  a  very  stupendous  fabric,  and  strikes  the  eye  with 
an  astonishing  pleasure :  it  is,  indeed,  one  of  those  happy  kinds  of 
building  that  please  all  kinds  of  people  alike,  from  the  most  ignorant 
clown  up  to  the  most  accomplished  gentleman;  but  yet  even  here  the 
judge  cannot  help  taking  notice  that  it  bears  no  proportion  to  the  rest 
of  the  building,  and  that  after  you  have  seen  this,  you  can  look  at  no 
other  part  of  it;  whereas  a  judicious  builder  would  husband  his 
imagination,  and  still  have  something  in  reserve  to  delight  the  mind, 
though  nothing  perhaps  could  be  coiitrivcd  to  surprize  after  it. 

For  example,  the  very  nature  of  a  choir  would  not  admit  of  any 
thing  so  marvellous  as  the  dome,  yet  it  might  have  relieved  the  eye 
with  something  equivalently  beautiful ;  the  entrance  in  front  might 
have  been  more  noble  and  uniform,  cither  composed  of  wood  entirely 
or  marble,  for  the  present  mixture  of  both  makes  a  disagreeable  piece 
of  ])atch-work,  that  rather  disgusts  than  entertains  ;  the  opening  on  the 
inside,  through  the  present  beautiful  range  of  stalls,  might  have  termi- 
nated in  a  much  more  magnificent  alcove  than  we  see  there  at  present, 
adorned  with  all  the  elegance  and  profusion  of  decoration;  the  altar 
should  have  been  raised  of  the  richest  marble  in  the  most  expensive 
taste,  that  it  might  have  been  of  a  piece  with  the  rest  of  the  church, 
and  terminated  the  view  of  the  whole,  with  all  the  graces  of  the  most 
luxuriant  imagination.  All  the  intermediate  spaces  should  have  been 
filled  up  with  the  noblest  historical  paintings ;  all  the  majesty  of 
frieze-work,  cornices,  and  carving,  heightened  with  the  most  costly 
gildings,  should  have  been  lavished  to  adorn  it,  and  one  grand  flow  of 
man-niricent  curtain,  depended  from  the  windows,  to  finish  and  adorn 
the  same. 

Thus  have  I  been  free  enough  to  give  my  impartial  opinion  of  St. 
Paul's ;  I  hope  not  too  presumptuously,  and  if  iguorantly,  let  every 
reader's  private  judgment  set  ine  right. 

St.  Andrew's  Holborn,  has  the  advantage  of  a  very  good  situatio«, 

2  II  2 


228 


THE  CIVIL  ENfilNERR  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


but  tlipii  it  deserves  it  as  little  as  any  inodeni  (^luiiuh  in  the  whole 
city.  The  tower  is  even  below  critioisni,  but  the  inside  of  the  build- 
ing makes  amends  for  tlie  awkwardness  of  the  out ;  and  is  really  as 
neat  and  wcU-finisbcd  as  the  manner  and  taste  it  is  formed  in  will 
allow. 

Temple  Bar  is,  indeed,  the  liandsomest  gate  about  town,  and  de- 
serves some  degree  of  applause  ;  if  it  has  any  fault,  it  is  this,  that  the 
top  being  round  as  well  as  the  ari'li  underneath,  the  whole  wants  that 
contrast  of  tigure  which  is  so  essential  to  bi-auty  and  taste.  The 
statues  on  the  outside  are  good,  tlieir  only  disadvantage  is  the  hurry 
of  tlie  place  where  they  are  to  be  viewed,  which  makes  it  dangerous 
to  be  curious,  and  prevents  the  attention  to  them  which  they  would 
otherwise  command. 

The  structure'  of  the  Temple  Gate  is  in  the  style  of  Inigo  Jones,  and 
very  far  from  ini-iegaut.  I  wish  I  could  say  the  same  of  the  diU'crent 
detachments  of  building  which  belong  to  it,  but  that  is  far  from  being 
ill  my  power,  nor  ever  can  or  will ;  the  property  is  so  divided  anil 
subdivided,  that  it  is  next  to  impossible  that  any  ;igreeineiit  should 
ever  be  made  in  favour  of  harmony  and  decoration.  It  i^  ci'rf.dn  that 
nothing  can  be  finer  situated  than  the  Temjile,  along  the  side  of  the 
river,  and  if  we  consider  the  elevation  of  the  grounii,  and  how  far  it 
extends,  the  must  barren  invention  cannot  fail  of  conceiving  the  uses 
it  might  be  put  to,  and  the  beauties  it  would  admit  of.  At  present 
there  is  but  one  thing  which  is  worth  observing  in  the  Tein])le,  and 
that  is  the  old  church  which  Ijelonged  to  the  Knights  Templars  of 
Jerusalem ;  and  the  outside  even  of  this  is  covered  from  the  view, 
that  the  whole  might  be  of  a  piece.  The  inside  indeed  is  yet  visible, 
and  may  justly  be  esteemed  one  of  the  best  remains  of  (iothic  archi- 
tecture in  this  cit}'.  The  form  of  it  is  very  singular;  you  enter  first 
into  a  large  circular  tower,  which  at  top  terminates  in  something  like 
a  dome,  and  lias  a  very  good  effect  on  the  eye ;  beyond,  op])Osite  to 
the  entrance,  the  church  extends  itself  in  three  aisles,  and  is  built  and 
finished  with  as  much  elegancy  and  proportion  as  the  taste  of  those 
days  would  allow. 

From  the  Teniph;  it  is  but  a  natural  step  to  Lincoln's  Inn  ;  but,  by 
the  way,  it  is  worth  a  stranger's  curiosity  to  visit  the  habitation  of 
the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  which  is  certainly  built  with  elegancy  and 
convenience,  and  can  be  blamed  in  nothing  but  its  situation,  which  is 
undoubtedly  as  bad  as  the  building  itself  is  good. 

Lincoln's  Inn  may  reasonably  boast  of  one  of  the  neatest  squares  in 
town ;  and  though  it  is  imperfect  on  one  side,  yet  that  very  defect 
produces  a  beaiily,  liy  giving  a  pros])ect  to  the  gardens,  which  fill  the 
space  to  abundantly  more  advantage.  I  may  safely  add,  that  no  area 
any  where  is  kept  in  better  order,  either  for  cleanliness  and  beauty 
liy  day,  or  illuminations  and  decorum  by  night ;  the  fountain  in  the 
middle  is  a  very  pretty  decoration,  and  if  it  was  still  kejit  jilaving,  as 
it  was  some  years  ago,  it  would  preserve  its  name  with  more  pro- 
priety, and  give  greater  pleasure  into  the  bargain. 

The  outside  of  the  chapel  belonging  to  this  society,  is  a  very  good 
piece  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  the  painting  on  the  windows  has 
a  great  many  admirers  within ;  in  my  opinion,  indeed,  it  does  not 
deserve  quite  so  much  applause  as  it  has  received,  because  the  designs 
are  poor,  the  faces  have  little  expression,  and  there  is  little  reason, 
beside  a  blind  regard  to  antiquity,  to  extol  them  at  all.  The  raising 
this  chapel  on  pillars  affords  a  pleasing,  melancholy  walk  underneath, 
and  by  night  ]iarticnlarly,  when,  illuminated  by  the  lamps,  it  Las  nn 
effect  tliat  may  be  fell,  but  not  described. 

The  gardens  are  far  from  being  admirable,  but  llieii  they  are  con- 
venient; and  considering  their  situation,  cannot  be  esteenud  too 
much.  There  is  something  hospitable,  too,  in  laying  fhcin  open  to 
public  use;  and  while  we  share  in  their  pleasures,  we  have  no  title 
to  arraign  their  taste. 

As  I  liud  my  business  increase  upon  my  hands,  as  I  come  nearer  the 
polite  end  of  the  town,  1  shall  be  obliged  to  divide  it  into  three  dis- 
tinct walks,  that  it  may  appear  in  something  like  method,  and  be  a 
lietter  guide  to  the  stranger,  or  man  of  taste  and  curiosity ;  in  the 
first  1  propose  to  go  from  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  to  the  end  of  Piccadilly ; 
jn  the  becoud  from  Temple  Bar  to  Westminster;  and  in  the  last  from 
Gray's  Inn  to  Grosveuor  Square. 

(  To  be  cunUmtecl.) 


CATHOLIC  CHAPELS— MR.  PUGIN. 

Sir — Youv  correspondent  P.  S.  (as  well  as  some  otlier  contributors 
to  your  Journal),  evinces  wliat  appears  to  me  to  bo  a  very  needless 
jealousy  of  the  name  of  "Pugin,"  and  appears  to  wish  to  throw  dis- 
credit upon  the  statement  of  the  "Argus,"  that  no  fewer  than  seven- 
teen Catholic  Chapels  are  baing  erected  under  that  architect.    Mr. 


i'ligiu  has  certainly  done  much  to  excite  the  jealousy  and  spleen  of 
Protestant  architects,  by  the  severe  rubbing  up  which  he  has  given 
US ;  but  would  it  not  be  better  for  us  to  endeavour  to  learn  wisdom 
from  our  enemy,  (if  he  is  such),  than  to  content  ourselves  b)'  showing 
oar  spleen  at  every  mention  of  his  name  ?  Would  it  not  be  more 
|irudent  antl  more  creditable  for  us  to  eradicate  the  errors  of  taste 
which  he  has  so  mercilessly  exposed,  rather  than  to  liolster  ourselves 
up  with  the  idea  that  his  lamjioons  are  undeserved,  ov  that  he  is  him- 
self eqiuilly  o]ien  to  attack  ?  There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  of  the 
fallacy  of  Mr.  Pugin's  theory  that  every  architectural  vice  took  its  rise 
among  the  I-^rotestants,  and  that  every  merit  belongs  to  the  Romanists  ; 
there  can  be  no  question  that  though  the  "Gothic"  styles  were  in- 
vented and  brought  to  perfection  amfjiig  the  Catholics,  they  were  also 
first  nli}i(jiits/itd  by  the  Catholics,  and  (in  modern  times)  first  revived 
by  the  Protestants.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Mr.  Pugin  himself 
imbibed  his  taste  for  these  styles  while  a  Protestant,  and  that  he  has 
since  been  the  first  to  impart  this  taste  to  the  Catholics,  who  had  |)re- 
viously  (ill  our  times)  evinced  little  m-  no  taste  for  the  works  of  their 
forefafhers — so  that  this  theory  of  Mr.  Pugin's  cviilenlly  falls  to  the 
ground.  This,  however,  so  far  from  vindicating  Protestant  architects 
from  tlie  charge  of  bad  taste,  removes  the  excuse  which  even  Mr. 
Pugin  made  for  them.  Mr.  Pugin's  equally  severe,  and  more  just 
criticisms  on  the  modern  Catholic  Cliapels,  liave  been  so  well  received, 
that  w'e  immediately  find  chapels  starting  up  in  every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, in  the  purest  taste,  and  many  of  them  on  a  scale  of  magnificence 
wdiich  would  not  have  disgraced  the  best  ages  of  Christian  architec- 
ture. It  now  remains  for  Protestant  architects  to  display  their  zeal 
and  their  talents  in  a  similar  manner,  and  to  give  practical  i)roof  that 
they  have  been  unjustly  handled,  rather  than  to  attempt  a  petty  re- 
venge by  detracting  from  the  merits  of  a  rival,  who  with  all  his  eccen- 
tricities, is  beyond  comparison  the  first  Ecclesiastical  Architect  of  the 
day. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

A  Protestant  Architect. 

Lvndon,  Jam  10,  1840. 

P.S. — Among  the  Catholic  "Churches"  or  Chapels  1  have  seen  or 
heard  of  ;is  being  erected,  or  about  to  be  erected  by  Mr.  Pugin,  are 
those  at  Derby,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  Keighley,  Whitby,  Dudley, 
Reading,  at  or  near  Worksop,  St.  George's  Fields,  &c.,  as  I  have  only 
accidentally  seen  or  heard  of  these,  and  have  forgotten  many  more  I 
have  heard  of,  Ihave  no  doubt  that  the  number  exceeds  that  narned  in 
the  "Argus." 


ON  THE  HORIZONTAL  AND  PERPENDICULAR  LINE  IN 
ARCHITECTURE. 

By  Frederick  East,  M.A. 
(  Covcludcd  from  page  1S7.J 

I  had  intended  with  submission  to  any  opinions  current  amongst 
professional  disqvnsitors  upon  the  subject  of  horizontal  and  perpen- 
dicular lines,  to  have  included  in  tlie  pourtrayal  of  that  matter,  a  few 
remarks  upon  the  subject  of  Ijroken  entablatures,  so  often  noticed  in  a 
critical  way,  by  the  jealons  guardian  of  consistency  in  classical  arclii- 
tecture.  Avoiding,  however,  any  further  intrusion  into  the  columns  of 
last  month's  Journal,  than  the  subject  actnally  required,  I  reserved 
that  ))rivilege  for  the  next,  and  in  offering  a  few  opinions  upon  so  in- 
teresting a  theme,  do  so  with  the  idea  that  as  this  breaking  of  the 
cornice  is  one  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  I^alladian  school — and  of  per- 
])endicular  Italian;  there  is  a  natural  link  between  it  and  the  subject 
of  my  last  paper,  namely,  lines. 

Some  conceive  the  fashion  for  breaks,  an  Italian  prejudice  dis- 
cordant with  the  harmony  of  correct  art,  and  generally  condemn  tlieir 
use  as  unwarrantable  and  unmeaning.  Others  again,  in  the  warmth  of 
their  attachment  for  certain  masters,  v\ould  follow  them  into  every 
caprice  of  taste,  and  find  their  very  eccentricities  engaging.  I  humbly 
conceive  nevertheless,  that  we  cannot  employ  these  breaks,  frequently, 
nor  perhaps  at  all,  if  the  imagination  is  to  be  vigorously  affected, — or 
if  the  building,  whether  in  plan  or  elevation,  consists  of  many  jiarts; 
since  greatness  of  manner  would  disappear  at  once  from  the  superficies, 
and  the  eye  would  compass  something  of  what  is  little  and  mean. 

Inigo  Jones  must  not  lose  cast  however  because  he  introduces  these 
breaks,  and  frequently.  Popular  taste  at  his  time,  coveted  every  thing 
that  was  Italian.  The  king,  the  court,  and  nobility,  had  already  con- 
ceived these  notions,  which  led  them  afterwards  to  vie  witli  each  other 
in  the  treasures  of  Italian  decoration. 

Inigo  Jones  in  the  Banquettiiig  House,  Whitehall,  betrays  something 
more  than  the  ordinary  sentiment  of  his  school,  by  an  introduction  of 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


920 


these  breaks  in  tlie  facade.  That  licence  so  congenial  to  artist's  feel- 
ings, seems  there  betrayed  without  violence  to  symmetry  ;  and  the 
ellect  generally  entailed  u])on  their  adoption,  seems  lost  in  the  happi- 
ness of  his  idea. 

In  the  first  place  the  front  without  them  is  sparing  of  details  and  of 
breaks.  In  the  second  place  the  building  itself  was  one  dedicated  to 
mirth  and  pleasure :  and  ideas  of  strict  utility  or  true  support  are 
waved,  when  the  imagination  is  supposed  to  be  atl'ectcd  by  something 
of  the  sprightly  joys  and  jovial  spirit  reigning  within.  The  exterior 
reveals  the  interior;  you  care  not  as  you  gaze  with  your  thoughts  un- 
disciplined upon  the  edifice  of  jileasure,  whether  you  see  the  cohnnn 
relieving  a  depending  weight,  or  supporting  the  various  breaks  of  the 
entablature.  The  artist  sought  to  please,  and  not  to  affect — to  cheer, 
and  not  to  impose. 

With  reference  to  the  Persian  court,  in  the  design  for  the  Whitehall 
Palace.  There  is  a  freedom,  an  ease,  nay  an  almost  negligent  air,  in 
the  breaks  and  the  figures  that  support  them — and  the  object  in  view 
here,  I  conceive  was,  to  |ilease  the  eye  of  the  king  and  his  favourites. 
As  if  stirtiiess  and  solemnity  were,  unwelcome  to  that  monarch  and  his 
court : — as  if  the  severities  of  rule,  and  the  sternness  of  power,  were 
to  vanish  at  once  in  a  building  sacred  to  ease  and  kingly  relaxation. 

However  much  we  may  dislike  their  iutroduction  as  a  custom  in 
architecture — however  nnu-li  we  may  blame  them  viewed  in  the  per- 
spective of  a  street,  and  confusing  to  the  eye  in  half  profile,  there 
seems  something  of  agreeable  pleasure  in  their  aspect  when  displayed 
internally. 

In  his  own  dwelling,  free  fi'om  the  sti-uggles  of  life  and  the  world, 
the  statesman  is  half  enchanted  into  playfulness,  by  the  careless  assem- 
blage.— The  accurate  line,  the  finish  of  care  the  student  displays,  tend- 
ing to  renew  thoughts  of  care  and  disquietude — vanish  in  the  varied 
forms  of  the  columns,  which  ministers  to  his  ease,  sooth  and  trancjuilize, 
the  brow  of  concern. 

There  is  indeed  a  strange  beauty  in  architecture.  Like  the  com- 
position of  the  poet  and  the  painter,  the  design  of  the  architect  is  at 
once  a  tale  of  interest— a  delusive  fiction  or  a  startling  truth — and  the 
architect  most  insidiously  works  upon  the  ga^er,  who  most  studies  the 
secrets  of  mental  impression. 


ON  SUB-MARINE  FOUNDATIONS. 

Sin — There  is  in  your  last  Journal  a  description  of  a  light  house 
lately  erected  under  the  auspices  of  Commander  Denham,  R.N.,  on  a 
sand  bank  at  the  entrance  of  the  Wyre  Navigation.  This  structure 
has  been  supported  upon  and  secured  to  the  bank  with  Mitchell's 
patent  screw  moorings.  The  introduction  of  this  principle  to  the 
mooring  of  vessels  is  good  in  the  opinion  of  those  who  have  tried 
them.  They  are  durable,  very  compact,  and  take  a  firm  hold  of  the 
ground  by  means  of  the  flanges,  wliich  make  them  exceedingly  appli- 
cable for  that  purpose  ;  in  rivers  and  in  harbours  they  can  be  screwed 
down  without  much  difficulty,  through  mud,  sand,  or  shingle  to  a  cer- 
tain depth.  They  are,  however,  an  expensive  article,  if  we  take  into 
account  the  providing  of  barges  and  the  labour  of  screwing  them  down, 
together  with  the  patentee's  charge  for  the  mooring  itself. 

It  would  therefore  have  conferred  a  favour  upon  the  profession  if 
along  with  the  description  of  the  lighthouse  we  had  been  also  informed 
of  the  cost  of  its  erection.  I  am  quite  sure  that  it  might  have  been 
done  at  far  less  expense  on  the  old  principle  of  driving  piles  into  the 
groimd. 

The  mooring  screws  are  stated  in  the  drawing  to  be  10  feet  below 
low  ivater  mark,  which  I  suppose  may  allow  them  to  be  S  feet  into  the 
sand.  Now  the  expense  of  a  3  feet  mooring  with  the  patentee's 
charge  and  the  labour  in  fixing  it  to  this  depth  would  be  about  £50. 
On  the  other  hand  the  cost  of  driving  a  pile,  say  12  feet  into  the 
ground,  with  the  additional  length  of  timber,  would  not  cost  one-tenth 
of  the  sum,  and  piles  can  be  driven  into  as  firm  a  foundation  as  the 
screws.  Where  then  is  the  great  advantage  of  the  screw  mooring  so 
applied  but  to  increase  the  expense. 

Again,  in  my  opinion  the  framing  ought  to  have  been  quite  naked 
from  half  tide  upwards,  to  prevent  as  much  as  possible  the  shock  of 
heavy  seas  from  injuring  the  structure,  therefore,  much  dislike  "the 
systematic  interlacing  of  tension  rods  to  render  the  fabric  sufficiently 
opaque  below  the  platform."  I  am  also  much  mistaken  if  this  system 
of  bracing  will  not  cause  the  tide  to  scour  away  the  sand  from  the 
feet  of  the  framing,  and  expose  the  screws  to  its  action. 

No  practical  engineer  would  in  my  opinion  have  adopted  such  a 
design. 

I  am  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

0:<E  Of  lae  Oi»  School. 


TIDES  OF  THE  OCEAN. 

Sir — The  Newtonian  theory  of  the  tides  liaving  been  questioned 
by  many,  in  which,  I  confess,  I  participate,  I  should  esteem  it  a  great 
favour,  if  some  of  your  intelligent  correspondents  would  weed  my  mind 
of  the  doubts  that  have  taken  deep  root  on  this  subject. 

If  the  moon  be  the  infiuential  cause  of  the  rise  and  the  fall  of  the 
tides,  why  is  her  influence  not  universal? 

Why  does  she  seem  to  exercise  her  influence  so  powerfully  on  one 
sea,  less  in  another,  and  not  at  all  in  others,  and  why  is  her  supposed 
jiuwer  entirely  subdued  by  the  effects  of  particular  winds  on  certain 
coasts  ? 

Why  does  the  tide,  ebb  and  flood,  commence  at  each  turn  of  the 
tide  to  run  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  before  the  water  moves  on  its 
surface  ? 

What  is  the  cause  that,  at  an  island  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean, 
the  time  of  high  water  is  always  the  same  ? 

I  am  ;iware  that  the  moon  and  the  tides  retrograde  coextensively, 
but  this  does  not  prove  a  coincidence. 

I  am  aware,  too,  that  it  is  said,  by  way  of  establishing  a  theory,  that 
the  Baltic  and  Mediterranean  seas  are  not  of  sufficient  expanceto  ad- 
mit of  the  moon's  influence — although  the  seas  are  much  more  exten- 
sive than  the  English  or  Irish  chaimels — but  the  real  cause  why  there 
is  no  ebb  and  flow  tides  in  those  seas  is,  that  the  seas  do  not  rise  or 
fall  at  either  of  the  points  connecting  them  with  the  ocean  ;  for  the 
flow  and  fall  of  the  tides,  and  the  velocity  with  which  the  current 
passes  out  and  in  of  a  tidal  harbour  or  arm  of  the  sea,  is  governed  by 
the  velocity  and  rise  of  the  tides  at  the  entrances  thereto,  and  there- 
fore, without  looking  for  any  other  cause,  here  is  the  real  cause. 

The  great  difference  of  flow  in  the  same  sea,  has,  hitherto,  not  been 
satisfactorily  accounted  for. 

Thus,  for  example,  the  flow  on  the  eastern  shores  of  America  oppo- 
site the  Straits  of  Giliraltar,  is  30  to  4l)  feet— »o«e  on  the  latter. 

A  flow  on  the  Pentland  Kerbs  and  along  the  north  coast  of  Scotland, 
of  20  or  30  feet ;  on  the  coast  of  Norway  opposite,  and  at  the  Catte- 
gat,  the  entrance  to  the  Baltic,  no  rise  in  the  water. 

In  the  Irish  Channel,  on  the  coasts  of  England  and  Wales,  the  flow 
of  the  tide  is  great ;  on  the  Irish  coast  opposite,  a  small  rise  of  the 
tides. 

In  the  English  Channel,  on  the  French  coast  the  flow  is  great ;  on 
the  English  coast  but  comparatively  small. 

If  an  allowance  is  made  for  the  particular  formation  of  i)arts  of  the 
coast,  and  other  local  circumstances,  they  are  not  sufficient  to  establish 
the  accuracy  of  the  Newtonian  hypothesis  on  the  tides. 

I  remain,  your's,  &c., 
\4.th  June,  1840.  Nauticus. 


WATER  OF  THE  VISTULA. 

Sir — In  your  Journal  of  last  month  there  appears  an  account  of  the 
casualty  in  Prussia, — the  water  of  the  Vistula  having  been  diverted 
from  its  former  course,  and  forced  for  itself  a  passage  into  the  Baltic 
Sea  in  a  new  direc'.ion,  at  some  distance  from  its  former  disemboguing 
point,  i.  (.  via  the  Old  Fairwater.  As  the  current  had  previously,  from 
times  immemorial,  passed  into  the  ocean  at  the  latter  point,  with  great 
sluicing  and  scouring  velocity,  produced  an  impassable  bar,  so  will  the 
water,  which  now  runs  out  at  the  new  point,  produce  the  like  eflects,  by- 
forming  a  bar  at  its  new  disemboguing  ]ioint. 

The  bar  at  the  Old  Fairwater  liaving  some  years  back  blocked  up 
its  entrance,  and  prevented  ships  entering  to  go  up  to  Dantzig  to  dis- 
charge and  load  their  cargoes.  A  new  lateral  cut  was  made,  and  so 
formed  a  passage  to  sea  via  the  New  Fairwater;  and  at  the  connecting 
part  of  the  New  Cut  with  the  Vistula,  a  gate  was  fixed  to  prevent  the 
current  passage  running  to  sea  through  the  New  Fairwater,  :uid  al- 
though this  work  has  been  completed  for  many  years,  no  bank  or  bar 
has  been  formed  at  the  new  entrance,  so  that  the  egress  or  sluicing  water 
constantly  in  its  egress  action,  has  blocked  up  the  old  entrance,  but  as 
there  is  no  water  or  current  passing  to  sea  by  the  new  Fairwater,  no 
bar  accumulates. 

The  division  of  the  current,  before  alluded  to,  cannot  in  any  way 
affect  the  entrance  to  Dantzig  by  the  New  Fairwater,  but  if  the  current 
of  the  Vistula  should  continue  its  new  course,  and  not  again  return  to 
its  old  channel,  a  material  alteration  will  soon  be  discovered  in  the 
bar  or  bank  at  the  entrance  of  the  Old  Fairwater. 

Nauticus. 


■r.io 


THE  CIVIL  EN(;iNEI<:il  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Jul 


ON  OBLIQUE  ARCHES. 
(IN'  Reply  to  Mr.  Buck,  C.E.,  &c.  &c.) 

Sir,— III  Konseiiuence  of  what  has  already  appeared  in  yoiir  .Tournal, 
I  trust  to  your  candour  to  insert  my  answer.  I  consider,  Sir,  tliat  tlie 
insertion  of  it  is  not  only  due  to  me,  individually,  hut  to  all  who  are 
interested  in  pradical  attainments.  The  facts  which  I  state  in  reply 
are  plain,  and  whilst  they  expose  unilue  pretension,  they  have  the 
merit  of  being  in  themselves  irrefutable. 

I  am,  Sir,  very  truly  your's, 

Peter  Nicholson. 

My  attention  was  accidentally  called,  about  the  first  instant,  to  an 
article  in  the  Railway  Magazine,  of  the  25th  of  January,  ISIU,  written 
by  Mr.  G.  W.Buck,  of  Ardwich,  Manchester,  in  reply  to  some  remarks 
which  appear  in  my  Treatise  on  the  Oblique  Arch,  respecting  some 
inconsistencies  in  certain  formula-,  &e.,  in  his  "Essay"  on  the  same 
subject.  Mr.  Buck  says  in  his  reply,—"  At  page  8  of'  his  preface,  in 
speaking  of  the  forms  of  his  templets  which  are  necessary  for  working 
the  stones,  Mr.  Nicholson  says — '  they  are  not  shown  by  any  other  author 
vyho  has  wrote  upon  the  subject.'  Now,  if  Mr.  Nicli'olson  will  refer  to 
the  3rd  chapter  of  my  "Essay,"  he  will  find  thatcliapter  to  be  exclusively 
devoted  to  an  explanation  of  the  method  of  making  the  temj)lets  anil 
working  the  voussoirs ;  moreover  the  fifth  plate  contains  eight  diagrams 
exhibiting  the  forms  of  these  templets."  Now,  Sir,  I  /lare  examined 
the  third  chapter  of  Mr.  Buck's  "  Essay,"  and  I  can  find  no  method  ex- 
plaining the  making  of  the  curved  edges  of  the  templets,  Nos.  1  and  2, 
plate  2G,  in  my  work,  to  which  I  refer  when  I  say  "they  are  not  shown 
by  any  other  author  who  has  written  upon  the  subject ;"  and  I  have 
also  examined  the  fifth  plate  in  his  "  Essay,"  which,  Mr.  Buck  says, 
contains  eight  diagrams  exhibiting  the  forrns  of  these  templets,  and  I 
have  been  equally  disappointed,  for  lean  find  iwnnc/i  tcmpkU  txhibited. 
Mr.  Buck  does  not  even  show  how  the  radius  of  curvature  of  these 
templets  may  be  found ;  neither  does  he  give  a  hint  that  thev  are  ne- 
cessary. The  arch  squares,  Nos.  3  and  4,  entirely  depend  upon  the 
curved  edges  of  No.  2,  and  No.  1.  Now,  Sir,  that  Mr.  Buck  should 
have  made  these  assertions  is,  to  me,  a  matter  of  the  utmost  surprise, 
seeing  that  he  must  have  known,  when  he  made  them,  that  lie  was 
deliberately  stating  that  which  was  incorrect.  The  only  method  which 
Mr.  Buck  gives  for  working  the  arch  stones  is  a  very  complicated  and 
a  very  clumsy  one,  the  principle  of  which  he  has  taken  from  the  'i5th 
page  of  my  work  on  Stone  Cutting,  published  12  years  ago,  and  which 
method  is  much  more  difficult,  even  for  a  person  possessed  of  con- 
siderable mathematical  knowledge,  to  work  by,  and  at  the  same  time 
imich  more  liable  to  error,  than  the  method  which  I  give,  and  which, 
in  order  to  guard  against  error,  I  have  adapted  to  the  understanding  of 
the  most  ordinary  mason.  In  fact,  it  requires  very  little  more  attention 
than  a  common  square  segmental  or  semicircular  arch,  and  the  rules, 
or  squares  by  vvliich  the  stones  are  wrought  are  exceedingly  simple  in 
their  construction.  On  this  point  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  add  that 
although  every  mason  is  naturally  inclined  to  work  the  bed  of  a  stone 
tirst,  yet,  the  first  conception  which  I  had  of  forming  the  stones  of  an 
oblique  arch  was  certainly  the  most  rational :  first  to  foniL  the  sotTit, 
then  one  of  the  beds,  and  lastly  the  other  bed.  And  I  did  this  because 
it  was  easier  to  conceive  how  the  spiral  surface  might  be  obtained  from 
the  cylindric,  than  the  cylindric  surface  from  the  spiral  surface.  This 
method  of  working  the  arch  stones  was,  I  believe,  adopted  from  the 
year  1828,  when  my  book  on  Stone  Cutting  was  published,  and  con- 
tinued until  the  year  183G,  when  Mr.  Fox  published  a  small  Tract,  as 
an  original  work  on  Obliipie  Arches,  supposing  himself  to  be  the  in- 
ventor of  all  lliat  was  known  upon  that  subject.  He  says  : — "  But  I  am 
not  aware  that  any  rule  has  been  published  that  would  enable  the 
stones  to  be  wrought  at  the  quarry  into  the  desired  form."  The  tem- 
plets ndiicli  Mr.  Fox  uses  are  shown  in  my  Treatise  on  Masonry  and 
Stone  Cutting,  plate  17,  where  the  two  equal  circular-edged  rulesj  Z,  Z, 
tne  straight  edge  Y,  and  the  arch  square  7  are  those  which  he  employs. 
Mr.  Fox,  after  some  trials  in  working  arch  stones,  preferred  to  form 
the  bed  to  the  spiral  surface  of  each  arch  stone  first;  and  he  was  cer- 
tainly the  first  to  apply  the  winding  straightedges  for  working  the 
spiral  surface  of  the  beds,  and  to  show  the  angle  of  the  twist. 

Mr.  Buck  next  goes  on  to  reply  to  the  inconsistency  which  I  noticed 
in  certain  formula-,  in  his  "Essay,"  and  in  one  part  of  his  Letter  he 
says  :— "  Here  1  take  the  opportunity  of  saying  that,  after  making  tlie 
discovery  of  the  mutual  convergence  of  the  chords  of  the  curves  of  the 
joints  of  the  face  of  the  arcli,  and  after  obtaining  the  formula;  appli- 
cable thereto,  I  long  sought  in  vain  fur  a  dcmonnlraliun  of  the  gene- 
rality of  this  property.  On  applying  to  my  mathematical  friends, 
both  in  London  and  in  Cambridge,  1  was  equally  unsuccessful. 
Under  these  circumstances,  being  experimentally  quite  certain  of  the 
existence  of  this  property,  I  assume  it  as  a  postulate  in  the  "Essay," 


and  the  whole  of  the  investigation  contained  in  the  Tth,  a  conehidiiig 
chapter  (/lie  nnbj  part  if  the  murk  ivitich  lamsiikr  thconlical )  is  based 
upon  it.  The  publisher,  Mr.  Weale,  well  knows  how  anxious  I  was  to 
have  given  a  demonstration  in  the  work,  and  that  1  was  finally  under 
the  necessity  of  publishing  it  without,  allhongh  no  one  appears  to  have 
noticed  this  deficiency."  This,  Sir,  I  consider  to  be  a  sufficient  ad- 
mission of  the  justness  of  my  remarks,  and  one  which  renders  it  per- 
fectly unnecessary  for  me  to  allude  further  to  those  remarks  at  this 
time.  Mr.  Buck  also  says:  "It  is  not  my  wish  or  intention  to  be. 
drawn  into  a  review  of  Mr.  Nicholson's  book,  but  I  think  it  richt  to 
make  the  following  few  remarks.  In  problem  '.1,  referring  to  plates  28 
and  29,  he  gives  directions  for  radiating  the  joints  of  tlie  face  of  the 
arch  in  two  different  ways.  By  his  first  method  the  joints  are  to  be  at 
right  angles  to  a  tangent  to  the  elliptic  curve  ;  by  the  second  method 
they  will  radiate  to  the  point  of  convergence,  which  I  have  denominated 
the  focus ;  this  latter  method  is  that  given  by  me,  and  which  Mr. 
Nicholson  has  here  adopted.  Now,  if  the  voussoirs  be  worked  in 
spiral  beds,  according  to  /lin  rules,  they  must  necessarily  radiate  in  this 
way  ;  and  consequently  they  cannot  be  made  to  radiate  as  described  in 
his  first  method,  unless  tlie  beds  a^e  /corked  in  some  other  matj,  the  direc- 
tions/or irhich  he  has  not  given.  This  dilemma  leads  me  to  infer  that 
Mr.  Nicholson  is  not  practically  familiar  with  the  subject  on  which  he 
has  written.  I  hive  confined  myself  to  the  points  referred  to  bv  Mr. 
Nicholson's  strictures,  or  I  might  have  added  more  on  the  subject." 

Now,  Sir,  I  will  reply  to  these  "remarks"  in  their  order,  premising 
that  I  never  have  objected  to  anyone  reviewing  my  vioxks  pro  cidtd 
that  they  are  competent  to  the  task,  and  provided  also  that  they  come  to 
the  performance  of  that  task  in  a  fair  and  manly  spirit!  Now,  Sir, 
first,  as  to  the  radiation  of  the  joints.  The  lines  b  h,  c  i,  dj,  &c.,  Cplate 
28  in  my  book)  are  not  the  joints,  neither  are  they  intended  to  be  re- 
presentations of  the  joint  lines ;  they  are  merely  to  direct  the  con- 
struction of  fig.  2,  in  the  same  plate,  in  order  to  find  the  angles  made 
by  lines  approximating  nearly  to  the  joint  lines  of  the  face  of  the  arch, 
and  tangents  to  the  bed  lines,  or  the  angles  made  by  these  approximat- 
ing lines  to  the  joints  on  the  face  of  the  arch  and  tangents  to  the  bed 
lines  at  the  points  in  which  they  meet  the  plane  of  the  face  of  the 
arch;  and,  in  speaking  of  these  lines  in  my  work,  at  page  lii,  I  say 
that  the  method  is  a  near  approximation,  and  that  its  simplicity  is 
ample  compensation  for  its  introduction.  Plate  29  of  my  "  Guide  to 
Railvvay  Masonry,"  was  engraved  at  the  same  time  as  plate  20,  and  is 
the  same  in  every  respect,  as  regards  the  construction  of  the  two  de- 
velopements.  Plate  20,  and  its  explanation  in  page  6,  was  published 
in  Part  2,  May  11,  1839,  and  is  referred  to  at  page  27,  as  being  neces- 
sary in  the  construction  of  plate  29.  From  the  difficulty  of  getting  the 
proofs  from  the  printer,  the  third  part  was  divided  into  two  half  parts; 
the  first  of  which  was  published  in  August,  and  the  second  in  Novem- 
ber, at  Newcast'e-upon-Tyne,  Mr.  Buck's  work  being  published 
in  July,  and  the  29th  plate  in  my  "Guide,"  showing  the  method  of 
drawing  the  joints,  and  which  Jlr.  Buck  says  I  have  "  adopted"  from 
his  work,  being  published  in  August,  there  was  not  time  for  me  to  have 
"adopted"  his  plan,  even  if  I  had  been  driven  to  such  a  strait  as  to 
think  of,  or  to  stoop  to,  such  a  thing;  and,  moreover,  I  can  prove  by 
ray  engraver  that  all  the  plates  in  my  book  were  finished  four  months 
before  the  letter-press  could  be  got  from  the  printer,  and  a  very  consider- 
able p,eriod  before  the  pvblication  of  Mr.  Buck's  "Essay."  The  joints 
in  the  elevation  of  the  arch,  plate  29,  are  drawn  by  an  entirely  different 
method  from  that  used  by  Mr.  Buck,  although  it  may,  perhaps,  amount 
to  the  same  thing,  and  are  found  by  making  the  developemeuts  of  the 
intrados  and  extrados  of  the  arch,  and  transferring  the  points  made  in 
each  developement  by  the  joints  to  its  corresponding  curve  in  the  ele- 
vation. These  points  being  joined  form  the  chords  of  the  curves  which 
form  the  joints  in  the  elevation.  We  all  know,  Sir,  that  "facts  are 
stubborn  things,"  and  I  leave  Mr.  Buck  to  reconcile  these  facts  with 
his  somewhat  fugacious  assumption  that  I  have  "  adopted"  his  plan  in 
my  book. 

I  now  proceed  to  the  second  part  in  which  Mr.  Buck  says — "  this 
dilemma  leads  me  to  infer  that  Mr.  Nicholson  is  not  practically  familiar 
with  the  subject  upon  wdiich  he  has  written,"  S;c.,  and  upon  this  point 
I  will  refer  Mr.  Buck  10  the  luth  page  of  the  History  of  Obli([ue  Arches, 
in  my  work,  wliich  will,  I  think,  convince  him,  if  he  be  capable  of  con- 
viction, that  I  was  perfectly  aware,  when  I  wrote  my  work,  of  the 
nature  of  the  joints  in  the  elevation  of  an  oblique  arch ;  in  addition  to 
this,  I  may  say  that  I  have  seen  nine  oblique  bridges  on  "  the  New- 
castle and  North  Shields  Railway,"  and  /fo  on  "  the  Brandling  Junction 
Railway,"  all  executed  in  stone,  on  the  principle  laid  down  by  me, 
making,  upon  the  two  Railways  yoK/tei;  bridges  within  a  distance  of 
about  eight  miles  from  Newcastle,  luid  built,  as  it  were,  under  my  own 
immediate  inspection.  To  this  I  may  add,  that  one  oblique  bridge 
was  built  on  "the  Hartlepool  Railway"  in  1834,  precisely  on  my  prin 
ciple,  and  that  I  have  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  all  the  stones 


1810.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


2.31 


wliicb  were  formed  by  my  templets  unite  closely  without  rcquiriiif!; 
the  slightest  alteratiou.  By  this  bridge  on  "the  liartlepool  Railway," 
I  clearly  show  that  a  bridge  was  executed  from  the  pri'.icii)les  laid 
down  i^ii  my  Treatise  on  Masonry  and  Stone  Cutting  before  any 
othi:r  work,  was  puhi.ished  on  the  subject,  and  that  the  templets 
shown  in  ray  "Guide  to  Railway  Masonry,"  plate -2 G,  No.  1,  No.  2, 
No.  3,  and  No.  4,  are  decidedly  my  own  discovery  or  invention.  The 
finding  of  the  angle  of  the  twist  is  due  to  Mr.  Fox,  and  I  have  already 
said  the  discovery  of  the  point  of  convergence  in  which  the  cliords  of 
the  curve  of  the  joints  of  the  arch  stones  in  the  face  of  tlie  arch  meet 
each  other  is  due  to  M\:  Buck  ;  but  I  liere  tell  him  that  although  the 
finding  of  this  point  is  very  useful  in  drawing  an  elevation,  it  is  not 
absolutelv  necessary  in  the  construction  of  the  oblique  arch ;  and  I 
ao-ain  maintain  that,  from  the  want  of  proper  definitions  of  the  terms 
used  by  him,  he  has  written  very  obscurely  of  the  principles  on  which 
he  professes  to  treat,  even  in  describing  the  common-place  things  con- 
tained in  chapter  3.  As  a  farther  proof  of  the  correctness  of  my  prin- 
ciples, I  insert  the  following  letter  wdiicU  was  spontaneously  addressed 
to  me  bv  Jlr.  Welch,  C.E.,  and  Bridge  Surveyor  for  the  County  of 
Northumberland : — 

"  Elswick  Villas,  Newcastle,  April  IS,  18 10. 
"  To  Peter  Nicholson,  Esq. 

"  Sir, — Having  now  seen  my  design  of  the  Oblique  Bridge  over  the 
River  Tees,  on  the  line  of  the  Great  North  of  England  Railway,  suc- 
cessfully carried  into  eft'ect,  I  am  enabled  to  speak  with  certainty  upon 
the  correctness  of  your  published  principles  for  the  construction  of 
Oblique  Arches.  My  bridge  consists  of  four  arches,  built  at  an  angle 
of  .jO'',  the  chord  of  the  right  section  of  each  arch  is  45'9G  feet,  and 
that  of  the  oblique  section  is  GO  feet.  I  may  also  state  that  I  consider 
your  work  on  the  oblique  arch  the  most  practically  useful  of  any  that 
I  have  seen  ;  and  as  the  structure  whicli  is  near  to  Croft  fully  warrants 
the  highest  opinion  of  it,  I  beg,  as  a  member  of  the  profession,  for 
which  you  have  done  much,  to  (hank  you  for  the  great  pains  yon  have 
taken  in  working  out  so  clearly  the  principle  of  the  Oblique  Arch. 
"  I  am.  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

"  Henry  Welch,  Civil  Engineer." 

I  think,  Sir,  I  may  safely  place  this  testimony  of  a  praclical  man, 
against  Mr.  Buck's  assertion  that  I  was  not  familiar  with  the  subject 
upon  which  I  had  written  1 

I  will  now  notice  one  very  distinguishing  feature  between  Mr. 
Buck's  work  and  mine,  although  based  upon  the  same  principles  : — 
Mr.  Buck's  work  is  only  intended  for  the  use  of  those  who  may  hap- 
pen to  have  been  trained  in  a  proper  course  of  mathematical  study, 
and  which,  I  believe,  is  not  the  case  with  a  tithe  of  the  young  men  for 
whose  use,  chiefly,  Mr.  B.  has  written  his  book.  On  the  other  hand, 
mine  is  intended  as  a  purely  practical  work,  and  as  such,  I  have  shown 
in  it,  how  every  useful  length,  distance,  or  angle  of  an  oblique  arch 
may  be  found,  principally  by  common  arithmetic,  from  the  doctrine  of 
similar  triangles. 

Since  the  above  was  written,  I  have  seen  an  article  signed  "  W.  H.  B." 
in  the  "Civil  Engineer  and  Architect's  Journal"  for  May,  1840,  pur- 
porting to  be  "  a  few  remarks  on  the  construction  of  oblique  arches, 
and  some  recent  works  on  that  subject,  but  which  is,  in  fact,  a  mere 
echo  of  Mr.  Buck's  letter,  and  an  ill-natured  review  of  my  book,  writ- 
ten by  some  tyro,  who  understands  lamentably  little  of  the  subject 
upon  which  he  professes  to  write.  W.  H.  B.  says,  in  speaking  of  my 
book,  "  there  is  a  problem  '  to  find  the  ciu'ved  bevels  for  cutting  the 
quoin  heads  of  an  oblique  arch,'  the  reader  being  unable  to  learn,  from 
the  heading  of  the  problem,  whether  it  relates  to  square  or,  spiral 
joints,  naturally  proceeds  to  wade  through  it,  with  the  hope  that  it 
may  afibrd  some  means  of  ascertaining  this  fact,  but  here  he  soon 
becomes  lost  in  a  labyrinth."  Now,  sir,  I  assert  that  W.  H.  B  must 
either  have  been  very  inattentive,  or  very  stupid,  not  to  have  ob- 
served to  what  species  of  joints  the  problem  referred,  since  every 
])age  in  which  I  treat  of  the  oblique  arch  has  the  words  "  On  ifie 
Oblique  Arch  with  Spiral  Joinls,"  placed  in  capitals  over  it.  W.  H.  B. 
next  says,  "you  are  told  to  divide  the  arc  ABC  into  as  many  equal 
jiarts  as  the  ring-stones  are  in  number,  and  through  the  points  of 
division  draw  bk,  ci,  dj,  &c.,  perpendicular  to  the  curve  ADE." 
Again,  he  says,  "you  are  told  to  join  am,  bm,  cm,  &c.,  but  where  the 
point  m  is  to  be  placed  Mr.  Nicholson  has  quite  forgotten  to  say." 
Here  I  acknowledge  an  error  in  point  of  reference ;  where  I  say  divide 
the  arc  ABC,  it  should  have  been  divide  the  arc  ADE,  which  every 
impartial  reader  would  have  seen  was  a  mere  error  in  the  type,  as  I 
immediately  mention  the  arc  ADE  again,  and  I  have  also  omitted  to 
say,  "  draw  GM  perpendicular  to  GL."  To  show  W.  H.  B.  how  diffi- 
cult it  is  to  keep  clear  of  errors  in  printing,  I  will  point  out,  in  the  two 
last  sentences  which  I  have  quoted  from  him,  no  fewer  than  five  blun- 
ders— bk  is  an  error,  there  is  not  a  k  in  the  page  in  my  book  to  which 
he  refers;  it  ought  to  have  been  bh.    Neither  is  there  an  m  in  the 


page,  which  he  has  mentioned  four  times.  W.  H.  B.  should  at  all 
events  transcribe  correctly  from  a  work  which  he  professes  to  criticise 
so  profoundly,  or  he  will  assuredly  lead  both  himself  and  others  into 
"a  labyrinth!" 

I  now  state  again  to  Mr.  Buck,  that  neither  himself,  nor  any  other 
writer  upon  the  oblique  arch,  has  shown  tlie  templets  by  wdiich  the 
arch-stones  are  wrought  by  niy  method,  and  that  I  am  the  in- 
ventor of  all  those  templets  ;  and  1  further  distinctly  tell  him,  that  liad 
Jic  nut piraltd  liis'prinaplen  from  my  work  on  stone  cutting,  his  "Essay," 
in  all  probability,  mould  never  have  bun  in  existence.  I  will  also  tell 
him  that,  however  fine  the  theory  of  the  principles  of  any  scientific 
work  may  be,  those  principles  will  be  literally  useless,  if  not  properly 
adapted  to  the  capacity  of  tie  person  who  has  to  execute  the  roork .'  That 
I  have  always  considered  as  the  grand  object  to  be  attained,  and  I 
think  I  may  say,  without  vanity,  after  having  received  testimonials 
both  piililicli/  and  privately,  that  I  have  not  been  altogether  unsuccess- 
ful. Tlie  draughtsman  will  find  my  work  on  the  oblique  arch  to  be  as 
useful  and  as  simple  in  the  delineation  of  his  plans  as  any  work  on  the 
subject  in  existence. 

Now,  Sir,  in  conclusion,  let  me  state  to  Mr.  Buck,  that  this  may  be 
the  last  time  that  I  may  have  an  opportunity  of  addressing  him  ;  for 
I  am  now  an  old  man,  and,  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature,  may  be 
considered  as  standing  upon  the  brink  of  the  grave,  and  am,  therefore, 
unable  to  undertake  the  exertion  of  further  controversy  with  him. 
What  I  have  done  for  the  working  man  will  be  a  theme  for  posterity, 
w  hen  neither  Mr.  Buck  nor  myself  will  have  the  power  of  hearing  it. 
I  pray  that  this  may  not  be  deemed  the  boast  of  an  old  man — as  such 
it  is  not  intended^iut  I  have  thought  it  my  duty  to  say  so  much  in 
justice  to  my  own  character,  with  which  Mr.  Buck  has  taken  such 
unwarrantable  liberties.  I  could  not  have  rested  satisfied  without 
giving  vent  to  my  feelings  at  the  ingratitude  which  Mr.  Buck  has 
shown.     But,  Sir,  I  have  now  done  with  him,  and 


"  PALMAM  QUI  meruit,  FERAT  ! ' 


Newcastle-on-T>jne,  May  23,  1840. 


Peter  Nicholson. 


SrR — In  my  paper  on  Oblique  Bridges  in  reply  to  B.  H.  B.,  which 
is  published  "in  your  Journal  for  this  month,  I  have  inadvertently  in- 
serted a  few  words  which  are  incorrect,  anil  ought  to  be  expunged. 
At  the  second  line  from  the  bottom  of  the  first  column  of  the  lilSth 
page,  the  following  sentence  commences: — "this  triangle  must  be 
supposed  to  exist  in  the  thickness  of  the  arch,  and  to  be  parallel  to  a 
tuni;cnt  plane  at  the  point  sought,  m^d  therefore,"  &.C.  The  words  in 
italics  I  ought  not  to  have  inserted,  and  I  shall  be  obliged  by  your 
giving  notice  to  this  effect  in  your  next  number. 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Manchester,  June  8,  1840.  Geo.  W.  Buck. 


/Uilhiuarian  Discoveries  in  Frmire. — "  A  discovery  1ms  recently  been  made 
at  BcMi^on,  near  Mothe-Saint-Heray,  in  the  Two  Sevrps,  of  a  tumulus,  wliicli 
promises  to  throw  yreat  light  on  the  civilization  of  the  ancient  Cells.  A  fjal- 
lerv  and  vast  grotto  lias  been  opened.  It  is  formed  of  nine  stonesiii  erect 
positions,  covered  by  a  slab  t»enty-si.K  feet  three  inches  in  length.  The  in- 
terior is  completely  filled  with  bones.  The  he:;d  of  each  skeleton  touches  the 
walls  of  the  grotto,  and  by  the  sides  of  each  vases  of  baked  earth,  containing 
provisions  for  the  use  of  the  deceased  in  the  other  world,  the  wahala  or  para- 
dise promised  to  the  biave.  Nuts  and  acorns  are  found  in  these  vases  in 
[lerfect  pre.-.ervation.  I'here  have  also  been  found  two  hatchets  ancl  t«  u 
knives  made  of  tlint,  several  smaller  sharp  instruments,  the  use  of  whicli  is 
not  known,  tno  collars,  or  necklaces,  one  of  shells  and  the  other  ut  biked 
earth,  several  bears"  tusks,  the  bones  of  a  dog,  and  a  plate,  upon  which  llieie 
are  fragments  of  a  rude  design.  Four  of  these  vases  are  perfect :  two  of  them 
very  iiiuch  resemble  Mom  er-pots  ;  a  third  lias  the  form  of  a  soup-tureen  ;  anil 
the  fourth,  though  much  the  smallest,  is  the  most  curious,  as  it  is  the  cup  of 
a  Druid.  The  tumulus  is  tsvo  hundred  paces  in  circHmference,  and  between 
eighteen  and  twenty  feet  high.  Its  formation  may  be  placed  at  2.0UO  years 
ago.  The  vases  and  utensils  attest  the  infancy  of  the  arts,  and  the  nascent 
civilization  of  a  barbarous  people." — Quotidienue. 

Jiiciciil  Monuments.— A  discovery  has  been  made  in  a  cellar  in  Paris,  at  the 
corner  of  the  Rue  Mauconseil,  in  the  Rue  Saint-Denis,  of  nine  figures  in 
stone,  llic  size  of  life,  having  the  heads  and  garments  coloured  and  gilt.  They 
arc  the  figures  of  saints  and  kings,  and  one  of  them  wears  a  helmet.  Tliev 
apparently  bekng  to  the  earliest  times  of  the  revival  of  art  ;  and  have,  in  all 
probability,  been  buried  where  they  were  found,  to  escape  the  ravages  of  some 
outbreak  of  iconoclasni.  It  is  probable  that  they  belonged  to  ihe  ancient 
cdiLircli  of  the  Pelerins  lie  Siiinl-Jaetjues,  H  bicli  stood  near  the  site  of  their  dis- 
covery. 


232 


THE  CIVTL  ENniNEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July. 


AN  ESSAY  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  OBLIQUE 
ARCHES.* 

By  Edwakd  Sang,  M.S.A.,  Civil  Engineer,  Edinburgh. 

(Mridgcdfrom  the  Edinburgh  New  Philosophical  Journal  for  April.) 

ScAHCF.LY  any  hrancli  of  civil  engineering  Ijcars  so  closelv  on  tlie 
advancement  of  civilization  as  (lie  art  of  road-nialuiig.  Tile  "immense 
sums  tliat  are  annually  expended  on  them  evince  the  importance  of 
onr  roads.  Our  object  is  not  merely  to  find  a  path  from  one  town  to 
another,  we  must  be  transported  in  the  most  expeditious  manner 
possible.  Is  there  a  declivity  ;  thousands  are  spent  to  remove  it:  is 
a  road  suspected  of  being  a  few  yards  longer  than  is  needed  ?  a  new 
line  is  immediately  chalked  cut.  One  might  almost  imagine  that  a 
monomania  had  seized  us,  and  that  the  tulip,  the  dog,  the  pigeon, 
and  ail  the  other  f  mciers  had  deserted  their  peculiar  departments  to 
concentrate  their  energies  on  this  one  grand  matter  of  roads.  The 
madness  is  ii  very  reasonable  one ;  for  if  there  be  a  hill,  multitudes 
daily  climb  aud  descend  it:  or  if  a  road  be  circuitous,  the  quantity  of 
unnecessary  travelling  might  soon  be  sufficient  to  carry  one  com- 
fortably round  the  globe. 

While  journeying,  we  are  often  annoyed  by  bridges.  Sometimes, 
for  cheapness,  they  have  been  erected  far  out  of  the  line  of  road,  and 
we  enjoy,  on  one  side  of  a  river,  the  delightful  prospect  of  doubling 
along  the  other.  At  other  times,  after  skirting  the  banks  as  if  on  a 
journey  to  the  source,  we  are  all  at  once  wheeled  right  across  the 
water,  and  ere  we  are  certain  that  our  necks  are  yet  safe,  an  equally 
sudden  turn  restores  us  to  our  original  direction.  And  occasionally 
our  vexation  is  crowned  by  an  altercation  between  the  drivers  as  to 
w hich  of  two  veliiclcs  is  bound  to  back  down  the  steep  slope  of  some 
imtiquated  erection.  That  time  has  now  gone  by  when  a  bridge  of 
any  kind  was  hailed  with  satisfaction;  we  have  scarcely  such  a  thing 
as  a  ford  wdierewith  to  contrast  it,  ;uid  liaving  only  bridges  to  compare 
with  bridges,  we  have  become  somewhat  nice  in  our  taste.  Many  of 
the  old  high-backed  bridges  have  been  replaced  by  others  with  level 
road-ivays;  these  again  by  bridges  with  road-ways  inclined  to  suit  the 
elevation  of  the  opposite  banks,  and  now  another  improvement  is  be- 
ginning to  be  called  for,  tliat  of  crossing  the  river  obliquely,  so  as  to 
make  the  bridge  harmonize  with  the  general  line.  This  we  may  con- 
sider as  the  ve  plus  ultra  in  bridge  building,  for  then  the  road-way 
over  the  bridge  coincides  both  in  plan  and  in  section  with  tlie  rest  of 
the  road,  and  therefore  conducts  us  in  the  easiest  manner  possible 
from  the  one  bank  to  the  other.  The  skewed  arch  is  inseparable  from 
the  railway,  as  by  its  introduction  alone  the  engineer  is  able  to  free 
the  line  from  awkward  and  injurious  turnings. 

Having  been  consulted  concerning  the  construction  of  an  oblique 
bridge  of  considerable  magnitude,  and  never  having  met  with  anv 
regular  investigation  into  the  theory  of  such  structures,  I  was  induced 
to  undertake  the  analysis.  The  results  of  that  analysis  1  proceed  to 
hiy  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  the  hope  that,  though  I  m;iy  be 
wrong  in  supijosing  them  new,  their  publication  may  serve  to  dissemi- 
nate correct  notions  on  this  intricate  subject.  It  is  a  common  idea 
that  the  oblique  is  weaker  than  the  right  arch,  and  that  the  twist  of 
the  stones  causes  a  great  waste  of  material.  The  truth  is,  that  if 
both  bridges  be  skilfully  constructed,  there  is  no  difl'erence  in  point  of 
strength  between  them,  while  the  twist  on  the  arch-stone  of  th(? 
oblique  bridge  causes  a  most  trifling  loss  of  matter,  :ui(l  therefore  our 
road  trustees  should  never  liesitate  to  adojit  that  which  agrees  best 
with  the  rest  of  the  line.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  obliquity,  nor  need 
even  the  several  abutnu'uts  run  parallel  with  each  other. 

The  general  tpiestion  of  the  construction  of  an  arch  resolves  itself 
into  two  parts;  the  first  relating  to  the  connexion  which  ought  to  exist 
between  the  curvature  of  the  vault  and  the  weight  piled  on  each  por- 
tion of  it,  is  absolutely  identical  in  the  two  cases  of  right  and  oblique 
bridges,  and  is  therefore  left  out  in  the  present  inquiry;  the  second, 
however,  relating  to  the  forms  of  the  arch-stones,  bears  directly  on 
the  oblique  arch,  and  will  therefore  engross  almost  our  whole  attention. 
The  outline  of  the  bridge  :nid  the  form  of  the  vault  Ir.iving  been  de- 
termined on,  the  problem  becomes  tliis:  To  Co rer  the  surface  of  the 
ceittcring  with  blocks  of  such  sizts  and  forms  as  may  insure  the  slabilili/ 
of  tlic  structure.  Now,  if  it  be  premised  that  the  curved  surface  of 
the  vault  must  never  bo  vertical,  the  solution  of  the  problem  can 
always  be  attained. 

It  is  clear,  from  the  general  form  of  a  bridge,  that  the  lines  of  pres- 

■'  Ki'ad  liclorc-  llie  Soiii-ly  lor  llic  Kncourancincnt  of  the  Useful  Arls  in 
Si-ollamJ,  un  ISili  NnuinUr  and  2n(l  Dcicniliur,  liJSO  ;  27lli  January,  1H3G, 
anil  lUth  May,  l»3b. 


sure  ought  to  run  from  one  abutment  to  the  other,  and  should  be  con- 
tained in  vertical  planes  parallel  to  the  walls  of  the  parapet. 
Imagine,  then,  that  the  vault  is  intersected  by  a  multitude  of  such 
planes,  the  lines  of  intersection  will  indicate  the  directions  in  wduch 
the  pressures  ought  to  be  transmitted  from  block  to  block.  Now  the 
stability  of  a  structure  is  obtained  by  making  the  surfaces  at  which 
the  pressures  are  communicated  perpendicular  to  the  directions  of 
those  jjressures,  and  therefore  all  that  is  required  is  to  trace  on  the 
surface  of  the  centering  a  line  which  may  cross  all  the  lines  of  pres- 
sure at  right  angles.  In  the  case  of  the  right  arch,  that  line  is  a  pa- 
rallel to  the  abutment ;  but  in  the  oblique  arch  it  becomes  bent  in  a 
pecidiar  manner. 

At  tlie  crown  of  the  cylindrical  oblique  arch,  the  joint-line  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  parapet;  of  course,  it  begins  to  descend  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  vault,  and  as  it  descends  it  grailuallv  bends  away  from  that 
direction  to  become  more  and  more  nearly  parallel  to  the  abutment. 
If  tlie  crown  line  be  regarded  as  the  absciss,  and  the  line  of  pressure 
as  the  corresponding  ordinate  of  the  joint,  the  dilferential  co-ethcient 
of  the  line  of  pressure  is  in  all  cases  proportional  to  the  cosine  of  the 
inclination  which  its  extremity  has  to  the  horizon.  If  there  be,  then, 
two  closely  contiguous  joints,  the  portions  of  the  lines  of  pressure 
intercepted  between  them  will  be  proportional  to  the  cosines  of  the 
obliquities,  and  hence  it  follows  that  the  breadth  (measured  on  a  line 
of  pressure)  of  the  stones  in  a  given  course  dinunish  in  the  ratio  just 
mentioned.  It  is  a  well  known  principle,  that  the  strain  upon  any 
arch  stone  is  proportional  to  the  secant  of  the  same  obliquity;  and 
thus,  if  the  deptli  of  the  stones  be  augmented  to  meet  this  increased 
strain,  it  would  follow  that  each  voussoir  in  any  given  course  ought  to 
exhibit  the  same  extent  of  section  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the  parapet. 
The  arch  stones,  both  for  convenience  of  workmanship  and  for  appear- 
ance, must  be  uniformly  disposed  from  side  to  side ;  and  hence 
throughout  the  whole  structure  they  ought  to  be  of  uniform  volume, 
with  the  exception  of  the  half  stones  left  at  the  end  of  each  alternate 
course  for  the  purpose  of  breaking  the  joint.  The  deepening  of  the 
arch-stones  toward  the  spring  of  the  :irch  is  often,  though  very  im- 
properly, omitted  ;  in  such  c;ise  the  above  statement  does  not  hold 
true. 

Even  althouga  the  arch-stones  were  all  equally  broad  upon  the  cen- 
tering, those  nearer  the  abutments  would  appear  narrower  on  the 
Gkound  Plan,  the  breadths  of  their  projections  being  proportional  to 
the  cosines  of  their  obliquity :  hence  the  ground  plan  of  an  oblique 
arch  must  present  a  very  rapid  diminution  of  breadths  toward  the 
spring  of  the  arch,  the  breadths  of  the  projectious  being,  indeed,  pro- 
portional to  the  squares  of  the  cosines  of  the  obliquities. 

The  Side  Elevation  of  a  vault  with  uniform  voussoirs  would  ex- 
hibit narrower  intervals  toward  the  crown,  the  breadths  being  propor- 
tional to  the  sines  of  the  obliquities;  hence  the  side  elevation  of  a 
skewed  arch  must  present  narrow  intervals  both  at  the  crown  and  at 
the  abutment,  ;uid  wider  intervals  upon  the  shoulders.  The  breadths 
are  proportional  to  the  products  of  the  sines  by  the  cosines  of  the  obli- 
quities; that  is,  to  the  sines  of  twice  the  obliquities;  and  thus  the 
side  elevations  of  those  arch-stones  which  are  inclined  at  45"  will  be 
the  broadest. 

The  End  Elevation,  or  the  projection  of  a  joint  upon  the  plane  of 
the  parapet,  possesses  the  very  singular  property  of  being  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  angle  of  the  skew,  and  of  depending  alone  on  the 
form  of  the  longitudinal  section  of  the  ^'ault.  This  curious  fact  can 
very  readily  be  demonstrated.  The  projection  of  a  right  angle  upon 
a  (ilane  |iarallel  to  one  of  its  sides  is  alw:iys  a  right  angle,  and  there- 
fore the  projection  of  the  joint  u))on  the  plane  of  the  parapet  must 
cross  the  projection  of  every  line  of  pressure  upon  the  same  plane 
perpendicularly.  But  the  projections  of  all  the  lines  of  pressure  are 
equal  to,  and  placed  side  by  side  with,  each  other,  and  are  so  what- 
ever may  be  the  angle  of  the  skew,  so  that  the  delineation  of  the  end 
elevation  of  a  joint,  which  requires  only  the  tracing  of  a  line  that  may 
cross  all  these  at  right  angles,  will  be  performed  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  whether  the  bjidge  be  nmre  or  less  oblique.  When  the  angle 
of  obliquity  diminishes  to  zero,  that  is,  when  the  bridge  becomes  right, 
the  enil  projections  of  the  joints  contract  into  mere  points,  wdiich 
points  are  the  commencements,  so  to  speak,  of  the  permanent  curves 
above  mentioned. 

The  end  elevations  of  the  beds  of  the  voussoirs,  or  rather  of  the 
lines  formed  by  the  intersection  of  these  beds  with  the  planes  contain- 
ing the  lines  of  pressure,  are  also  normals  to  the  lines  of  pressure,  and 
must  therefore  be  tangents  to  the  end  projections  of  the  joints.  From 
tills  it  follows,  that  a  short  portion  of  a  course,  or  a  single  arch-stone, 
is  very  nearly  contained  between  two  planes  slightly  inclined  to  each 
other;  and  that,  therefore,  the  loss  of  material  arising  from  the  twist 
o/ Me  s/oKtinust  always  be  iusignilicant.  Those  engineers  who  hav(! 
experienced  a  loss  on  this  account,  hsvf  done  so  because  their  bridges 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


233 


were  not  i)iopeily  designed.  If  the  stones  be  obtained  in  squared 
blocks  from  the  quarry,  there  will  be  a  loss  on  the  ends  of  the  stones  ; 
but  this,  as  every  builder  knows,  can  be  avoided  by  proper  inanac;e- 
inent  in  the  quarry.  And  thus,  on  the  whole,  the  loss  of  material  for 
the  skewed  bridge  need  not  exceed  to  any  extent  worth  naming  that 
for  the  right  one. 

The  above  statements  are  true  of  cylindroid  oblique  arches,  whalerer 
may  be  the  forms  of  their  principal  sectioiis ;  they  are  at  variance  with 
the  statements  and  so-called  experience  of  engineers  of  established 
reputation:  complete  demonstrations  of  them  are  given  in  the  ap- 
pendix. They  are  equivalent  to  dilferential  equations,  and  require  to 
be  integrated  in  order  to  give  practical  results ;  these  results  vary 
according  to  the  particular  form  assumetl  for  the  longitudinal  section 
of  the  vault.  I  proceed  to  give  a  few  of  these  results,  commencing, 
on  account  of  its  more  frequent  occurrence,  with  the  circular  arch. 

On  investigating  the  form  of  the  projection  of  a  joint  of  a  circular 
oblique  arch  upon  a  horizontal  plane,  I  arrived  at  a  new  curve,  to 
which  the  name  Double  Logarithmic  has  been  given. 

FiK.  I. 


Having  pi  ojected  the  entire  semicylinder,  of  which  only  a  porlion 
can  be  used  with  propriety,  let  AB,  CD,  be  the  sides  of  the  projection, 
and  EF,  parallel  to  the  parapet,  the  plan  of  one  of  the  lines  of  pres- 
sure. Bisect  EF  at  right  angles  by  GUI,  and  form  two  logarithmic 
curves  of  which  AB,  CD,  may  be  the  asymptotes,  EG  the  common 
subtangent,  their  ordinates  being  parallel  to  EF.  Then  draw  lines 
KL  parallel  to  AB,  and  intercepted  between  the  logarithmics,  the 
middles  M  of  these  lines  trace  out  the  horizontal  projection  of  one  of 
the  joints.  The  lines  AB,  CD,  are  thus  asymptotes  to  the  horizontal 
projection,  and  this  geometrical  property  illustrates  the  mechanical 
impossibility  of  constructing  a  semirylindric  arcli,  without  trusting  to 
the  cohesion  of  the  mortar.  The  introduction  of  the  logarithmic  curve 
into  investigations  concerning  bridges,  has  been  of  great  utility,  and 
the  analogy  between  this  curve  and  the  connnon  catenary  is  striking. 
The  catenary  is  also  formed  by  bisecting  the  interval  between  two 
logarithnacs;  but  these  have  a  common  asymptote  with  rectangular 
co-ordinates,  while  the  bisected  line  is  parallel  to  the  ordinate.  The 
computations  needed  for  the  delineation  of  such  projections,  are  by  no 
means  tedious  ;  they  may  be  performed  rapidly  by  help  of  Napierian 
logarithms ;  but  a  better  method,  capable  of  giving  all  the  projections, 
will  be  explained  shortly. 

It  may  be  expected,  from  what  has  been  said  of  such  elevations  in 
general,  that  the  end  elevation  of  a  circular  oblique  arch  shall  present 
some  interesting  peculiarity.  The  end  elevation  of  a  joint  ought,  in 
fact,  to  cross  at  right  angles  the  circumferences  of  circles  described 
with  equal  radius  from  points  lying  in  a  straight  line  ;  now,  this  is  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  tractory,  and  that  curve  must  there- 
fore be  exhibited  on  the  end  projections  of  all  circular  oblique  arches. 

On  examining  the  projection  of  one  of  the  joints  upon  a  vertical 
plane  perpendicular  to  the  parapets,  I  obtained  the  genesis  of  a  pecu- 
liar curve  still  logarithmic  in  its  nature,  and  somewhat  resembling  in 
its  form  the  superior  branch  of  the  conchoid.  If  we  conceive  the  side 
elevation  of  the  semicylinder  to  be  traversed  by  horizontal  lines,  the 
distances  intercepted  on  these  lines  bear  to  the  corresponding  distances 
intercepted  by  a  certain  normal  curve,  the  ratio  of  cotangent  of  obli- 
quity to  radius.  This  normal  curve,  which  belongs  to  an  arch  with  its 
obliquity  45°,  I  have  named  the  Companion  to  the  Tractory  ;  it 
admits  of  a  very  neat  mechanical  delineation. 

Let  a  rod  AB,  equal  in  length  to  the  radius  of  the  arch,  be  made  to 
rest  upon  a  smooth  board  only  at  the  point  A,  while  the  extremity  B  is 
guided  along  the  line  BD ;  A  will,  as  is  well  known,  describe  the  equi- 
tangential  curve  or  tractory.  Suppose  that  the  guide  to  which  the 
point  B  (or  in  an  oblique  position  D),  is  attached,  carries  a  vertical 
rule  DFE,  and  that,  on  that  rule,  there  slides  a  right  angle  DFC,  one 
side  of  which  is  constrained  to  pass  through  C  :*  then  will  the  point 

*  In  practice,  it  would  be  more  convenient  to  lav  a  jointed  rod  equal  to 
half  Ab  trom  the  middle  of  AB  to  the  rule  DFK  as'indicated  by  the  dutteJ 
lines. 


Fig.  2. 


F  trace  the  Companion  to  the  Tractory.  A  very  simple  addition  will 
convert  this  instrument  into  that  described  by  Leslie  in  his  Geometry 
of  Curve  Lines,  for  forming  the  catenary.  A  grooved  rule  has  only  to 
be  attached,  making  the  right  angle  DCE,  while  the  groove  DF  is  con- 
tinued to  meet  it:  E  then  traces  out  the  catenary.  Since,//om  the 
nature  of  the  figure,  ED  DF  ^  AB*,  it  follows,  that  the  companion  to 
the  tractory  has  its  ordinates  inversely  proportional  to  those  of  the 
catenary,  and  that,  therefore,  it  might,  with  propriety,  have  been 
named  the  inverted  catenary. 

All  these  projections  of  the  joints,  and  the  forms  too  of  the  indi- 
vidual arch-stones,  can  be  much  more  readily  obtained  from  the  de- 
lineation of  the  surface  of  the  centering.  Regarding  the  crown  line 
as  the  absciss,  and  the  actual  lines  of  pressure  as  the  ordinates  (on  the 
curve  surface),  half  the  ordinate  plus  45°,  has  its  logarithmic  tangent 
])roportional  to  the  absciss.  Having  once  obtained  the  log-tangent 
corresponding  to  a  given  distance  along  the  crown  line,  a  simple  pro- 
portion will  give  that  corresponding  to  any  other  absciss;  the  log. 
tangent  corresponding  to  half  the  length  of  an  arch-stone  having  been 
found,  the  repeated  addition  of  that  quantity  to  itself  will  lead  to  a 
knowledge  of  the  position  of  the  corner  of  each  stone  in  the  whole 
structure,  the  simplest  operations  of  trigonometry  only  being  needed. 
Indeed,  the  labour  of  the  whole  calculation  is  but  a  minute  fraction  of 
that  expended  in  the  drawing  of  the  plans.  By  these  means,  the  ac- 
companying model  of  the  surface  of  the  centering,  its  development, 
and  various  orthographic  projections,  were  completed.*  The  simple 
inspection  of  these,  and  their  comparison  with  most  of  the  skewed 
bridges  already  constructed,  will  shew  in  what  respects  this  branch  of 
architecture  has  hitherto  been  defective. 

I  cannot  leave  the  subject  of  the  circular  arch  without  indicating 
the  extensive  and  indispensable  use  of  logarithms  in  the  calculations. 
Napier,  when  he  founded  first  the  rudiments  of  the  tluxional  calculus, 
and  thence  the  logarithmic  method,  sanguine  though  he  may  have 
been  as  to  the  immense  value  of  his  discoveries,  could  never  have 
imagined  the  prodigious  impulse  which  they  have  since  given  to 
every  branch  of  exact  science.  Each  new  mathematical  research  piles 
another  stone  on  the  monument  of  Napier. 

Neither  can  I  avoid  remarking,  that  the  ingenious  speculations  of 
the  earlier  geometers  concerning  the  various  mechanical  curves,  spe- 
culations which  have  been  by  many  regarded  as  ianeiful  and  useless, 
are  one  by  one  turning  to  account  in  the  progress  of  modern  philoso- 
phy. 

The  elliptic  arch,  being  much  recommended  by  the  gracefulness  of 
its  form,  is  frequently  used.  If  we  view  the  circular  oblique  arch 
from  a  distant  point  in  the  continuation  of  its  axis,  it  does  indeed  ap- 
pear elliptical;  but  then  the  ehipse  has  its  major  axis  directed  verti- 
cally, so  that  a  circular  skewed  bridge  can  hardly  have  a  fine  appear- 
ance unless  the  segment  be  extremely  flat.  Let  us  then  inquire  into 
the  phases  of  an  elliptic  skew. 

The  horizontal  plan  of  the  joint  is  still  a  double  logarithmic  curve  ; 
and  its  delineation,  including,  of  course,  that  for  the  circular  arch,  is 
as  follows. 

EF  being  as  before,  the  plan  of  one  of  the  lines  of  pressure,  find  HQ 
a  third  proportional  to  the  horizontal  and  the  vertical  semi-axis; 
through  Q  dravv  Q'E  parallel  to  HG.  Describe  then  logarithmics 
having  E'G  for  their  common  subtangent,  and  having  their  ordinates 

•  These  are  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Arts  of  .Scoiian A 

2     I 


234 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


Fig.  3. 


parallel  fo  E'H,  the  bisection  of  the  interval  between  these  will  give 
tlip  horizontal  projection  of  the  joint.  Similarly,  the  side  and  end 
projections  are  modifications  of  those  belonging  to' the  circular  arch: — 
lliey  are  fully  investigated  in  the  appendix. 

Having  obtained  a  tolerable  a])proximation  to  the  forms  of  the  arch 
stones,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  bridge-builders  to  throw  the  remaining 
resjjoiisibility  on  the  abutments,  which,  besides  transmitting  the  pres- 
sure, have  to  continue  its  distribution  among  the  parts  of  the  pier,  hi 
truth,  the  principles  of  equilibrium  seem  never,  even  in  the  ease  of  the 
right  arcli,^  to  have  penetrated  beyond  the  facing  stones  of  the  piers  ; 
and  the  etlect  of  the  arrangement  in  every  bridge  tvhich  I  hare  ueii,  or 
ilie  drawings  for  which  I  have  inftptcted,  is  to  throw  the  whole  weight 
of  the  arch  on  the  outside  stones  of  the  pier  and  on  the  outer  row  of 
piles  in  the  foundation.  To  see  this  clearly,  let  us  draw  one  of  the 
abutment  stones  of  a  right  bridge.  The 
oblique  face  AB  receives  the  pressure  of 
the  lowest  voussoir ;  and  it  ought  to  receive 
that  pressure  perpendicularly.  But  the 
stone  is  prevented  from  yielding  by  re- 
sistances against  the  surfaces  CD,  DE :  the 
pressure  of  the  voussoir  is  thus  decomposed 
into  two  pressures,  one  against  CD,  well 
known  to  be  the  horizontal  thrust  of  the 
bridge,  and  the  other  against  DE,  equal 
to  the  weight  of  all  the  mason-work  between  the  crown  of  the  arch 
:nid  the  vertical  line  through  B.  Now,  since  all  the  stones  of  the  piers 
are  squared,  no  change  (except  by  improper  straining)  can  take  place 
in  the  directions  in  which  these  pressures  are  propagated.  The  pres- 
sure against  CD  is  communicated  along  the  abutment  course  to  the 
spring  of  the  next  arch,  or  to  the  corresponding  breadth  of  the  final 
abutment;  while  the  pressure  against  CD  is  transmitted  through  the 
facing  stones  of  the  pier  to  the  outer  row  of  piles.  It  will,  indeed,  be 
said,  that  the  cohesion  of  the  mortar,  and  the  alternate  jointing  of  the 
courses,  render  the  pier  one  mass,  and  that,  therefore,  such  niceties 
are  not  worthy  of  attention.  But,  indeed  !  is  the  final  disposal  of  the 
entire  strain  of  a  bridge  such  a  trifle  ?  Then  let  us  fit  our  arch-stones 
by  guess,  and  sweep  the  span  in  any  fancy.  It  is  at  this  very  corner 
that  all  the  care  of  the  engineer  is  required;  and  I  do  maintain,  that 
the  method  in  common  use  outrages  the  doctrines  of  eqiulibrium,  and 
renders  our  arches  less  secure  than  they  ought  to  be.  It  is  a  piece  of 
bad  engineering  to  throw  the  whole  weight  of  a  bridge  upon  one  row 
of  its  su])ports,  and  to  give  the  others  scarcely  any  strain;  especially 
■when  it  is  considered  that  that  row  is  most  liable  to  decay.  The  al- 
ternate jointing  of  the  stones  calls  info  action  that  species  of  resist- 
ance which  ordinary  building-material  is  least  capable  of  exhibiting ; 
one  end  of  a  stoni;  is  pressed  downwards,  while  its  other  end  is  en- 
gaged between  two  Ijlocks ;  the  consequence  is  a  tendency  to  break 
the  stone  over,  to  dia/uid  its  upper  surface  ;  and  it  is  notorious  that 
the  strength  of  stones  in  this  way  is  much  inferior  to  their  jiower  of 
resisting  a  simple  crush.  The  alternate  jointing  and  the  mortar  are 
useful  enough  in  correcting  the  bad  effects  of  unavoidable  inaccuracy; 
there  is  no  need  for  deliberate  error  to  )mt  them  to  a  severer  use. 

The  best  possible  arrangement  is  to  give  to  each  square  foot  of  the 
foundation  its  fair  share  of  the  wdiole  burden.  In  order  to  do  this,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  lay  a  counter  arch,  of  u  parabolic  form  (its  con- 
vexity downwartls),  upon  the  pier-head.  Such  an  abutment  course 
would  carry  the  horizontal  thrust  to  the  spring  of  the  next  arch,  pre- 
cisely as  a  Hat  course  would  ;  but  it  would  distribute  a  uniform  down- 
ward pressure  on  each  horizontal  foot :  and,  in  tliis  way,  the  ioun- 
dation  w-ould  be  pi-essed  on  exactly  as  if  the  whole  weight  of  mason- 
work,  from  the  crown  of  the  one  arch  to  the  crown  of  the  other,  were 
piled  upon  it  in  squared  courses. 

On  investigating  the  forms  of  the  joint  on  a  parabolic  skew,  I  found 
its  plan  to  be  a  line  of  the  third  order,  the  double  parabola;   that  its 


end  elevation  is  a  semi-cubic  parabola;  and  that  its  side  elevation  is 
another  line  of  the  same  order.  Students  of  the  higher  mathematics 
will  at  once  recognise  the  equations  of  these  curves  as  the  results  of 
other  inquiries.  For  the  computations  of  the  parts,  on  account  of  the 
regular  progression  of  the  different  examples,  the  method  explained 
in  my  treatise  On  the  Solution  of  Equations  of  Jill  Orders,  will  be 
found  to  atibrd  peculiar  facilities. 

Appendix, 

In  the  preceding  part  of  this  paper,  I  have  stated  thegeneral  prin- 
ciples which  ought  to  regulate  the  construction  of  oblique  arches.  In 
this,  the  second  part,  I  propose  to  enter  more  into  detail,  and  to  give 
the  demonstrations  of  the  theorems  above  laid  down. 

The  general  investigation  into  the  stability  of  a  vault  would  neces- 
sarily be  complicated  by  the  peculiarities  of  the  ultimate  abutments, 
and  by  the  assumed  directions  of  the  lines  of  pressure ;  for  these  di- 
rections are,  within  certain  limits,  arbitrary.  For  the  present  pur- 
pose, it  is  enough  to  consider  the  case  of  a  vault  resting  on  parallel 
abutments,  cylindroid,  and  having  the  lines  of  pressure  contained  in 
vertical  planes  parallel  to  each  other. 

Fig.  5. 


Let  AB,  CD,  represent  the  two  abutments,  HN  the  crowni  line,  GF 
and  PN  the  horizontal  projections  of  two  of  the  lines  of  pressure. 

Of  rectangular  co-ordinates,  let  the  .?■  be  in  the  direction  HG,  the  y 
in  FM,  and  the  z  vertically.  For  convenience,  also  assume  oblique 
co-ordinates  ji  along  HN,  u  along  NM,  and  z  as  before;  put  also  GHN 
the  angle  of  the  skew  =:  s.    The  formulae  of  conversion  will  be 

■r  ::=  11  cos  s,   y  =  V  s\n  g  —  u;  g  ::=  z] 
V  :=  x  sec  s,  u  :=.  X  tan  s  —  y,  z  =^  z  j      '    ' 
If  the  equation  of  the  generating  curve  of  the  vault,  of  which  EF  is 
the  projection,  be  taken 

u  —  <!>::  — 0  —  B 

the  same  equation  will  serve  as  that  of  the  vault  itself;  or  in  rectan* 
gular  co-ordinates 

.»  tan  s  —  7/  —  tfi  z  =  Q  :=  B,  whence 

dB  dB  ,     rfB        , 

-T—  =  tan  s ;  -5—  =  —  1 ;  -r—  z^  a'  z. 
d  X  dy  d  z 

The  equation  of  the  plane  containing  one  of  the  lines  of  pressure  is, 

X  —  X  =:  0  ^  c ;  whence 

d  c 


d  c  _      d  c  _ 
dlc-^'J^j-^' 


d  z 


=  0; 


so  that  the  equations  of  the  straight  line  touching  B  ^,  0  c  =  0  are 
X  —  X  _  Y  —  y Z  —  z 


0 


—  1 


(D) 


where  X,  Y,  Z  belong  to  any  point  in  the  tangent ;  x,  y,  z  to  the  point 

of  contact. 

Again,  let  ;z  —  9  u  =  0  =  E  be  the  equation  of  the  horizontal  pro- 
jection of  a  joint,  or  in  rectangular  co-ordinates, 

X  tan  8  —  y  —  6  (r  sec  s)  =  0  =  E  ;  then 


d  E 
dx 


=  tan  8  —  sec  s.  B'  r ; 


d  E 

dy 


l;15  =  0. 
dz 


The  equations  of  the  joint  are  B  : 
line  tangent  to  it  are 


X 


■^_  Y-y 


:  0,  c  =  0,  therefore,  those  of  a 
Z  —z 


m 


<t>'  z         <p'  z  (tan  s  —  sec  s.  6'  v)      sec  s.&v 
The  stability  of  the  structure  demands,  that  the  line  whose  equations 
are  (F;  be  perpendicular  to  that  whose  equations  are  (D),  therefore 
the  condition  of  stability  is  contained  in  this  equation, 

{<p'  gy  (sin  s  —  fl'  i>)  —  6'  V  * 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


23S 


or        „.'..=   ./(-^?li^\ 
/y/     l  sin  s  —  e'  vj 

(*'  z)- 
or        6'  «  =  sin  s  _,  ,  ^  ,— - 

The  last  formula  may  also  be  put  thus : 


(G) 


— •  =  sm  s  ,    „   ,     ,    J 
5  0  a  u-  ■\-  a  z' 

in  whicli  the  characteristic  S  refers  to  the  joint,  d  to  the  line  of  pres- 
sure.    But  -; "-, —  is  the  square  of  the  cosine  of  the  inclination 

d  u-  -\-  d  :- 

of  the  line  of  pressure  to  the  horizon ;  whence,  if  we  denote  that  in- 
clination by  /, 

—  :=  sin  8.  cos  r     .     .     .     (Hj 
5  V 

S II 
When,  then,  as  is  the  case  at  the  crown  of  the  arch, ;  is  zero  ^-^  = 

sin  s ;  but   -  = +  sin  s  so  that,  at  the  crown,  .  -  =  o,  that  is, 

the  horizontal  projection  of  the  joint,  is  tliere  perpendicular  to  the 

parapet,  as  might  easily  have  been  anticipated ;  but  when  i  increases, 

5w 
its  cosine  decreases,  and  therefore  -=i-  =  sin  s.  sin  »'  (I)  must  increase: 

So  ^        , 

that  is,  the  line  must  bend  away,  from  being  perpendicular  to  the 
parapet,  until,  if  i  could  reach  90°,  it  would  be  parallel  to  the  abut- 
ment. 

Since  ^^  ^  sec  s,  the  above  quotation  put  in  rectangular  co-ordinates 


S.V 


becomes. 


tan  s.  siu  i'^ 


(K) 


If  a  he  taken  to  represent  the  arc  of  which  u  is  the  projection,  cos  i 
du 


=  -T-  and  equation  H  becomes, 


Sa 

5  II 


sm  s.  cos  2 


.(L) 


and  thus,  if  we  imagine  two  joints  ruiming  quite  close  to  each  other, 
cutting  the  crown-line  at  the  minute  distance  5  r,  the  distance  Sa,  in- 
tercepted between  them  on  the  arc,  or  the  breadth  of  the  course,  is 
proportional  to  cosine  i. 
The  above  equation  can  also  be  put  under  the  form 


So 

--  =:  tan  s.  cos  i 


■    (M) 


St{ 


Again,  we  have  g  .  =  cot  i;  whence  equation  H  becomes, 
Sc 
So 
iz 


:;=  sm  s.  sin  2.  cos  i  ::^  *  sin  s.  sin  Z  i. 


(N) 


S.v' 


.  tan  s.  sin  j.  cos  2  =  4  tan  s.  sin  2  i. 


.     .     (O) 


From  which  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  general  statement  made  as  to 
the  side  elevation  of  the  joint  is  true. 
Lastly,  we  have 


5 )/         ,       Sv       Sii 

r^  =  sin  S  r —  : 

Sr  Sj       Sz 


Sz 

:  tan  8  =  ^ 

oil, 


'     (P) 


whence  it  is,  that  the  end  elevation  of  the  joint  crosses  that  of  the  line 
of  pressure  at  right  angles. 

Before  proceeding  to  apply  t)ie  above  differential  equations  to  par- 
ticular cases,  the  following  recapitulation  may  be  made : 
Equation  H  gives  the  Horizontal  Projection. 
L         . .        Development. 
O         . .        Side  Elevation. 
P         . .        End  Elevation  of  the  Joint. 
And  it  is  to  be  remarked,  that  these  equations  are  absolutely  general, 
apijlying  to  every  skewed  eylindroid  arch. 

Having  now  completed  the  general  investigation,  I  proceed  to  apply 
the  principles  to  specific  cases ;  in  the  first  case  to  the  circular  arch. 
Denoting  by  /  the  radius  of  tlie  circle,  we  have 


a  a 

i  =:  -,  «  =  )•  cos  -,  tc  : 

r  r 


r  sin  - ;  z-  -\-  li^  ■=.  r'' ; 


equations  which  take  the  place  of  (B)  in  the  general  analysis. 


For  the  horizontal  projection  of  a  joint  we  have 
Sm_ 
5  y 


(^■^os  "^  i=  sin 


and  thus 


So 

J-  =  cse  «. 


whence  integrating 

t.  =  r.  cse  8  nep.  log  ^  {jJ^^ 

Now  v'  =  r.  cse  s.  nep.  log  ()•  -f  ;()  is  the  equation  of  a  logarithmic 
curve  to  oblique  co-ordinates  having  one  side  of  the  semicylinder  for 
its  axis,  and  r  cse  s.  for  its  subtaiigent:  while  —  ti"  =  r.  cse  s.  nep. 
log  (;•  —  u)  is  tliat  of  a  similar  curve  having  the  other  side  of  the 
semi-cylinder  for  its  asymptote,  and  thus  the  ji  of  the  joint  which  is 
the  arithmetical  mean  of  these  "is  obtained  by  bisecting  the  interval 
between  the  two  logarithraics. 

Passing  to  common  logarithms,  and  putting  M  for  the  modulus. 
•43429ilS,  &:c.  we  have 

r.  cse  s  ,      »•  +  a 

2  M  V 
10  ;•  cse  8^1 


tizzzr       2  M  P       • 
10  r  cse  s  +  1 

The  horizontal  projection  of  the  joint  of  a  circular  skewed  arch  is 
thus  a  new  curve,  to  whicli  I  have  given  the  name  of  Double  Loga- 
rithmic :  the  analogy  between  this  curve  and  the  common  catenary  has 
already  been  pointed  out. 

In  order  to  trace  the  side  elevation,  we  must  resume  equation  (O) 
which,  when  adapted  to  the  circular  arch,  is 


^  =  tan8.^^(^) 


whence 


;•.  cot  s 


nep.  log 


r  -\-  y'  j-2  —  s- 

r  —  Vjj ,3 


=  nep  log  10.  r.  cot  s  log  tan  {  45^  +  ,~  ) 

But  the  equation 

^'  =  ^  nep.  log  .  —Vi-  — I- 

~  r  —  V  r  — z 

is  just  the  equation  of  the  tractory,  whence 


whence 


is  the  equation  of  a  curve  having  its  ordinates  greater  than  those  of 
the  tractory  by  the  quantity  V*"' — -•',  this  curve  I  have  named  the 
companion  lo  the  traclonj,  or,  on  account  of  the  connection  which  is  ex- 
plained in  the  paper,  and  which  at  once  flows  from  the  above,  the  in- 
i-erttd  ca/eiiary. 

The  equation  for  the  end  elevation  of  a  joint  adapted  to  the  circular 
arch  is 

which  is  the  well  known  equation  of  the  tractory.  This  is  the  cliarac- 
teristic  curve  of  the  circular  oblique  arch :  as  all  tractories  are  similar 
to  each  other,  it  is  easy  to  make  a  table  of  its  co-ordinates. 

The  preceding  equations  enable  us  to  obtain  any  one  of  the  projec- 
tions of  the  joint,  and  are  essential  to  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the 
different  curves.  They  are,  however,  inconvenient  when  we  wish  to 
ascertain  the  dimensions  of  the  individual  arch-stones,  and  need,  for 
that  purpose,  to  know  the  intersection  of  the  joint  with  any  one  of  the 
lines  of  pressure.  The  equation  of  the  development  furnishes  us  with 
the  means  of  obtaining  these  points,  as  well  as  all  the  projections,  by 
processes  remarkable  for  their  simplicity.  To  find  this  equation  I  re- 
sume (L)  which,  adapted  to  the  circular  arch,  becomes 

2  I  2 


230 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


So  a 

=  cse  s.  sec  - 
fa  r 


whence 


V  =:  !'.  cse  « 


■I  "*"  2r) 


111-,  observing  that  -  ^  ;',  and  passing  to  coninion  logarithmic  tables, 
r 

V  =  nep.  log  iO.  )•  cse  s.  log  tan  (-15°  +  ^  ) 

whence  by  inversion 

1      *      ,A  c-j    1    '  \      M.  sin  s 
log  tan  (45^  +  o  /~ '  ^' 

from  which  the  values  of  i  can  be  very  easily  found ;  especially  when 
tliey  correspond  to  equi-dittbrent  vajnes  of  r. 

The  expert  computer  will  now  perceive  at  a  glance,  that  all  the 
operations  needed  to  determine  the  co-ordinates  of  the  various  points 
may  now  be  arranged  in  a  simple  tabular  form  so  as  to  require  scarcely 
any  figuring. 

I  now  proceed  to  the  Elliptic  Oblique  Arch.  Put  r  for  the  hori- 
zontal and  p  for  the  vertical  radius ;  the  equation  of  the  curve  then 
becomes 


1 


which  takes  the  place  of  (B). 

This  equation  may  also  be  put  under  the  form 
!(  :=  r  sin  c,  -  ^  P  cos  a. 
where  a  is  the  inclination  of  the  trammel  bar  that  would  trace  out  the 
ellipse  ;  from  this  we  find 

5  ;)       cse  s  (  ,  .,        „  ,      ,.  1 

;—  == I  0-  — p-;  cos  a  -4-  p-.sec  a  (  whence 

tt  a  r      ^  ) 


V  = \  (r'  —  p")  sin  a  -j-  p'  nep  log  tan (45  +  |  )  } 

we  obtain 

V       cse  s  (     ,  _    .  )■      ■> 


otherwise  we  obtain 
8 


V  =  cse  s 


{^- 


At  first  glance  it  might  be  thought  that  this  equation  gives  a  new 
curve;  it  is,  however,  still  a  double  logarithmic,  having  its  parts  de- 
termined in  the  manner  already  described. 

To  find  the  side  elevation  we  have 


5  -        ^  —  )•  p  -  \/ir  -  z' 

—  =^  tan  s 

Sr  p^  +  (,-_p^)~ 


whence 


.  =  c.u{^,^+f,.„^(^±^)). 


it  is,  however,  more  easily  determined  thus 

,■-  _|-  p-  tan  a 


=  cot  s 


r  p  tan  a 


=:  cot  I 


( >'  P  1 

l  -  cot  n  -j tan  a    , 

(p  i-  1 


But  I  z  ^  —  p  sin  B.  5  o. 


—  cot  « 


)  r 
I 


—  sin 


a  +  -  nep.  1.  tan  (^45  +  °  ^  ] 


For  the  end  elevation  we  have  recourse  to  equation  (P)  which  gives 

-^  =  —  /  sec  a  —  cos  a   I  and  thus 

5a         r    I  J 

P- 


2/  ==    ;  /  nep.  log  tan  (45  -|-  i  a)  — sin  a  i 

■which  is  the  equation  of  the  tractory  modified  by  the  existence  of  the 

•factor  -.    From  this  equation  the  determination  of  the  individual 
r 

point  is  most  easily  obtained. 


I  now  proceed  to  consider  the  Parabolic  Arch.    _/ being  the  focal 
distance,  the  equation  of  the  parabola  is 

■«-  =  4/  --,  whence  a  d  u  —  2/d  ' 

whence  again  the  equation 

r  =  cses.l    „  +  -^,  J- 

which  belongs  to  the  horizontal  projection;  also 

n'      1 

,r  =  cots.|v/--  {  3-|-_J-  }  = 
and  also 


X  r=  cot  s 


.■  {  2  «  +  -^    ,  or 


y-  = 


4  z' 

97 


which  are  the  equations  of  the  three  projections. 

I  have  now  run  over  the  equations  which  serve  to  determine  the 
difl'ereiit  parts  of  oblique,  circular,  elliptic,  and  parabolic  arches,  and 
had  intended  to  supply  examples  of  the  requisite  calculations;  but 
after  proceeding  to  some  length  in  this,  it  occurred  to  me  that  those 
who  have  followed  the  preceding  investigations  stand  in  no  need  of 
such  illustrations,  and  that  these,  therefore,  would  merely  occupy  room 
without  being  productive  of  any  benefit. 


HARBOURS  (SOUTH  EASTERN  COAST.) 

./  Copt/  of  lilt  Report  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  to  Surrey  llie  llnrhours 
of  the  South-Eastern  Coast,  to  the  Lorda  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty^ 

WITH   AX   P;N'GBAV1N'G^  plate  XII. 

Having  completed  tlie  in<|uiry  on  the  subject  of  tlie  H.irl)ours  on  the 
Soutli-Easteni  coast  of  England,  -wc  request  you  wiU  lay  l>efore  the  Lords 
Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty  the  result  of  our  investigation. 

Mr.  Wood's  letter  of  the  'i.'jth  of  July  last  conveyed  to  us  the  directions  of 
their  Lordships  "  to  -^isit  tlic  coast  between  the  mouth  of  the  Thames  and 
Selsea  Bill,  and  to  examine  and  report  on  the  state  of  the  existing  liarhmirs 
between  those  points,  -with  reference  to  tlieir  being  available  as  places  of 
shelter  for  vessels  passing  through  the  channel,  in  ease  of  distress  from 
weather,  and  also  as  places  of  refuge  for  merchant  vessels  fioui  enemy's 
criuzers  in  time  of  war,  and  more  esjiecially  as  to  their  being  made  stations 
for  armed  steam-vessels  emi»loyed  for  the  protection  of  our  trade  in  the  nar- 
row part  of  the  channel;"  for  fthich  ])urpose,  tln^  harbours  being  acccssihle 
at  all  times  iif  tide,  and  their  capability  of  defence,  were  stated  to  be  most 
important  considerations. 

Their  Lordships  furtl  er  desired  us  "  to  report  as  to  what  situations  we 
would  recommend  as  best  calculated  for  these  various  purposes ;  whether  in 
any  of  tlie  existing  harliouis,  or  at  any  other  places  within  the  assigned 
limits  ;  and  also  what  works  would  lie  necessary  to  render  them  available  ; 
and  what  the  probable  expense  of  the  undeitaUing  would  be." 

Before  entering  into  the  details  of  the  suhjcct,  it  will  be  proper  to  state 
that  a  question  arose  whether  it  fell  within  the  ])rovinee  of  the  Committee 
to  offer  any  remarks  on  those  harhours  which  were  found  on  inspection  to  be 
incapable  of  access  at  all  times  of  tide. 

A  perfect  harbour  of  refuge,  we  understand  to  mean,  such  as  is  capable  of 
receiving  any  class  of  vessels,  under  all  circumstances  of  wind  and  tide. 

Now  there  is  no  such  harbour  along  the  whole  range  of  coast  from  the 
Nore  to  Selsea  Bill ;  nor  are  any  of  the  existing  harbours  capable,  by  any 
improvements  or  alterations  to  their  inesent  entrances,  of  being  made  <aeeesi- 
hle  at  low  water  even  to  the  extent  of  six  feet,  with  floating  berthage  inside. 

Most  of  the  harbours  on  this  part  of  tlie  coast  arc  formed  by  piers  carried 
out  from  the  main  land,  and  are  tidal  harbours,  dry  or  nearly  so  at  low  water, 
with  l)ars  at  their  entrances ;  these  liarbours  would  therefore  be  excluded 
from  our  consideration,  if  their  capability  of  being  made  available  at  all  times 
of  tide  was  to  be  considered  a  neeessaiy  condition. 

There  can  he  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  existing  harbours  are  of  import- 
ance to  iiiercbant  vessels  of  the  smaller  classes  .at  various  times  of  tiile,  ac- 
cording to  their  dr.aught  of  water;  and  though  they  may  not  be  capable  of 
receiving  a  large  ship,  may  afford  shelter  to  a  smaller  one  ;  and  therein'  be- 
come a  harbour  of  refuge  to  a  class  of  vessels  the  most  numerous  and  least 
prepared  for  heavy  weather,  or  to  cscajic  an  enemy  in  time  of  war. 

The  value  of  such  imperfect  harhours  is  also  increased  by  the  diminution 
of  late  years  in  the  size  of  trading  vessels.  The  large  class  of  sliips  which 
were  emjiloyed  in  the  M'est  India,  and  the  still  larger  in  the  East  India  trades, 
have  been  Bueceeded  by  vessels  of  much  smaller  tonnage.  The  coasting  and 
coal  trades  are  carried  on  in  vessels  of  comparatively  light  draught  of  water  ; 
and  steam-vessels,  whose  draught  is  easy  compared  with  sailing-vessels  of 
eipial  tonnage,  arc  rapidly  increasing  in  number,  and  often  supply  the  places 
of  the  larger  class  of  vessels  which  were  formerly  employed  in  the  merchant 
scryice. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


2.37 


To  these  vessels,  therefore,  some  of  the  harliours  at  the  present  moment 
are  open  for  several  hours  of  each  tide,  and  a  few  of  them  may  he  capable  of 
being  rendered  more  accessible  by  tlie  removal  of  obstrnctions  at  their  en- 
trances, or  by  additional  works. 

This  part  of  the  coast  jiossesscs  the  advantage  of  a  good  rise  of  tide ;  and 
though  the  harbours  are  oidy  availalile  under  special  conditions,  the  numerous 
instances  of  shelter  and  protection  afforded  by  each  to  ships  in  distress,  serve 
to  show  their  value  in  a  national  point  of  view,  and  the  importance  of  not 
allowing  them  to  fall  to  decay. 

Although,  therefore,  we  are  convinced  that  none  of  them  can  be  made 
perfect  harbours  of  refuge,  we  still  have  considered  them  as  falling  within  the 
scope  of  our  inquiry ;  not  as  requiring  from  us  specific  details  of  the  works 
which  may  be  deemed  desirable,  but  to  explain  briefly  their  present  extent 
and  capabilities,  and  to  note  generally  what  may  have  presented  itself  to  us 
in  the  wav  of  improvement ;  and  we  therefore  propose  to  consider  the  objects 
of  the  inquiry  under  two  heads,  viz.:  1st,  The  state  and  capabilities  of  the 
existing  harbours,  &c.,  (in  the  order  in  wliich  we  visited  them) ;  and  2udly, 
The  situations  best  calculated  for  harbours  of  refuge,  and  as  stations  for  armed 
steam-vessels  in  the  event  of  war  ;  confining  to  barl)ours  for  these  latter  ob- 
jects, the  necessary  condition  of  being  accessible  at  all  times  of  tide. 

The  river  Thames  is  usually  considered  to  terminate  at  the  Nore.  From 
the  Isle  of  Sheppey  to  Westgate  Bay,  the  numerous  sands  and  shoals  which 
extend  in  all  directions  along  the  coast,  prevent  the  approach  of  vessels  of 
any  size  ;  and  the  cliffs,  which  consist  of  sand  and  clay,  arc  gradually  yield- 
ing to  the  action  of  the  sea,  and  supply  a  constant  source  of  materials  for 
fresh  accumulations. 

We  did  not,  therefore,  consider  it  necessary  to  visit  this  part  of  the  coast, 
where  no  harbours  at  present  exist. 

Margatf. 

Margate  was  the  first  place  at  which  we  landed  after  leaving  the  river. 

The  harbour  is  situated  in  a  small  bay  l)et\veen  two  extensive  flats  of  chalk 
rocks,  the  Nayland  on  the  west,  and  the  Fidsam  on  the  east,  both  of  which 
are  covered  before  high  water.  The  artificial  harbour  is  formed  by  a  stone 
pier,  which  commences  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  bay  (around  which  the 
town  is  situated),  and  extends  800  feet  to  the  westward,  in  an  irregular  curve, 
leaving  the  entrance  open  to  the  north-west. 

The  rise  of  average  spring  tides  at  the  pier-head,  is  about  13  feet,  and  that 
of  neap  tides  eight  feet;  but  spring  tides  ebb  outside  of  the  pier-head,  and 
leave  the  harbour  dry  at  low  w  ater.  A  wooden  jetty  has  been  run  out  from  t  he 
root  of  the  pier,  over  the  Fulsam  rocks,  to  the  distance  of  1,100  feet,  for  the 
convenience  of  passengers,  &e.,  landing  from  or  embarking  in  the  steam- 
packets  at  low  water. 

The  pier  and  jetty  belong  to  a  joint-stock  company,  the  chairman,  surveyor, 
and  harbour-master  of  which  attended  us,  and  gave  us  the  information  we 
required. 

It  is  evident  that  the  harbour  in  its  present  state  possesses  none  of  the 
requisites  of  a  harbour  of  refuge,  and  can  only  be  considered  valuable,  in  a 
national  point  of  view,  as  affording  the  means  of  supplying  pilots,  anchors, 
and  cables,  &c.,  to  vessels  driven  into  the  roads  in  distress. 

The  surveyor,  by  order  of  the  directors  of  the  pier  and  harbour  company, 
prepared  and  submitted  to  us  a  design  for  constructing  a  harbour  of  refuge  at 
this  place,  by  extending  curved  piers  upon  the  Nayland  and  Fulsam  rocks  ; 
enclosing  an  area  of  considerable  extent  on  and  around  the  site  of  the  present 
harbour,  and  leaving  an  entrance  of  300  or  400  feet  in  width  towards  the 
north-east,  with  16  feet  depth  of  water  at  the  mouth. 

The  expense  of  such  a  work  is  estimated  by  the  surveyor  at  275,000?. ;  but 
the  cost  of  deepening  the  harbour  is  not  included  in  this  sum  ;  and  as  the 
bottom  rises  gradually  to  the  beach,  the  area  possessing  even  8  feet  water 
would  be  very  limited,  and  considerable  excavations  would  be  necessary  to 
render  it  available  to  any  extent. 

A  second  design  was  submitted  to  us,  said  to  be  formed  on  a  plan  suggested 
by  the  late  Mr.  Kennie,  who  is  quoted  as  having  thought  highly  of  the  situa- 
tion for  a  harbour  of  refuge.  It  consisted  of  an  outer  harbour  of  less 
dimensions  than  the  one  proposed  by  the  <lireetors  of  the  pier  and  harbour 
company,  enclosed  by  walls;  and  an  inner  basin  with  gates  to  shut  in  the 
water  at  flood-tide,  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the  entrance  at  low  water. 

The  power  of  sluicing  at  so  great  a  distance  as  that  proposed  in  this  plan, 
eoidd  only  be  applied  with  advantage  to  a  surface  dry,  or  nearly  so,  at  low 
water ;  and  the  idea  of  keeping  a  deep-water  harbour  of  any  useful  width, 
clear  by  means  of  such  sluicing,  appears  to  us  to  be  impracticable. 

Several  other  plans  were  brought  before  us  for  the  construction  of  a  har- 
bour at  this  place ;  but  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  show  in  the  sequel  that 
other  situations  possess  gi-eater  advantages  for  the  attainment  of  the  objects 
pointed  out  by  their  Lordships'  instructions,  we  do  not  consider  it  necessary 
to  enter  into  any  details  of  these  suggestions. 

Broadstairs. 

From  Margate  we  proceeded  to  Broadstairs.  The  harbour  at  this  place  is 
formed  by  a  wooden  pier,  about  100  yards  in  length,  extending  from  the 
northern  side  of  a  small  bay. 

The  entrance  faces  south-west,  but  the  harbour  is  much  exposed  to  the  sea, 
which  is  driven  in  by  winds  from  the  eastward. 

At  spring  tides  there  ii  about  16  feet  water  at  the  pier-head,  and  10  at 
neaps,  but  the  whole  harbour  is  dry  at  low  water ;  and,  during  spring  tides, 
nearly  100  yards  outside  the  pier  is  left  uncovered. 


A  plan  was  submitted  to  us  by  the  harbour  commissioners  for  constructing 
a  larger  harbour,  by  extcmliiig  piers  from  the  opposite  extremities  of  the  bay, 
320  yards  into  the  sea,  by  which  eight  feet  in  the  entrance  at  low  water  might 
be  obtained.  But  we  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  enter  into  further  parti- 
culars of  this  project,  as  it  does  not  appear  to  us  that  a  work  of  such  magni- 
tude is  required  in  this  situation,  or  that  the  advantages  anticipated  would  be 
commensurate  with  the  expense. 

The  harbour  is  managed  by  commissioners,  under  an  Act  of  I'arliament 
passed  iu  1792. 

Ramsgate. 

Ramsgatc  harbour,  which  was  the  next  place  we  visited,  consists  of  an  in- 
ner and  outer  basins,  formed  by  substantial  stone  piers,  extending  1,310  feet 
into  the  sea,  and  encloses  an  area  of  42  acres. 

The  inner  basin  is  used  as  a  wet  dock  for  vessels  to  load  or  unload  their 
cargoes,  &c.,  and  contains  a  dry  dock  where  vessels  of  300  to  400  tons  bur- 
then can  be  repaired,  &c. 

The  entrance  of  the  outer  harboiu'  is  200  feet  in  width,  and  opens  to  the 
south-west. 

The  rise  of  average  spring  tides  is  from  13  to  14  feet  at  the  pier-heads,  and 
of  neap  tides  nine  feet,  giving  in  the  entrance  19  feet  at  liigh  water  of  spring 
tides,  and  16  of  neaps. 

For  the  purpose  of  scouring  the  outer  harbour  at  low  water,  powerful 
sluices  have  been  constructed  through  the  cross  wall  of  the  inner  basin,  the 
discharge  of  water  from  which  senes  to  keep  open  the  channel  to  the  inner 
basin  and  the  gullies  which  extend  round  tlie  harbour  at  the  foot^f  the  piers, 
in  certain  portions  of  which,  near  the  entrance  of  the  harboiu',  tlce  depth  in- 
creases to  about  six  feet  at  low  water. 

The  mud  which  remains  in  the  middle  of  the  harbour  serves  as  grounding 
banks,  and  affords  a  soft  bed  on  which  vessels  entering  with  loss  of  anchors 
and  cables  can  take  the  ground  in  safety ;  and  these  banks  are  considered 
essential  for  the  purjiose. 

K  new  communication  between  the  outer  and  inner  basins  has  lately  been 
completed,  the  gates  of  which  are  42  feet  in  width. 

One  of  Morton's  patent  sUps  has  also  been  laid  down  in  the  outer  harbour, 
on  which  steam-vessels,  &c.  of  too  great  beam  to  euter  the  graving  dock  in 
the  inner  basin  can  be  hauled  up  and  repaired. 

The  situation  of  this  harbour  appears  to  have  been  selected  more  from  its 
position  with  reference  to  the  Downs  than  from  any  local  advantages  afforded 
by  the  formation  of  the  coast.  There  is  no  natural  backwater,  so  essential  in 
tidal  harbours  for  the  purpose  of  scouring,  nor  does  the  line  of  clilT  oft'er 
shelter  against  any  winds  but  those  which  blow  from  off  the  land ;  and  yet 
in  this  situation,  without  one  natural  facility  but  that  of  a  chalk  foundation, 
a  harbour  has  been  constructed  wliicb,  notwithstanding  its  imperfections,  is 
uiuloubtcdly  the  best  on  the  south-eastern  coast  of  England. 

During  gales  from  the  southward  and  westward,  which  throw  a  bcaw  sea 
into  the  Dowiis,  aiul  render  the  anchorage  insecure  for  heavily-laden  coasters, 
and  merchant  vessels  of  the  smaller  classes  frequently  unprepared  for  riding 
in  open  roadsteads  during  heavy  weather, — this  harbour  affords  a  place  of 
shelter  where  vessels  of  considerable  draught  of  water  may  run  for  protection 
at  fide  time. 

By  the  accounts  we  received  from  the  hai hour-master  of  the  ntimber  of 
vessels  which  have  annually  sought  shelter  from  weather,  &c.  since  the  com- 
pletion of  the  harbour,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  object  for  which  it  was 
constructed,  viz.  an  asylum  for  ships  in  distress  in  the  Downs,  &c.,  has  been 
to  a  certain  extent  attained. 

No  plans  for  the  improvement  of  this  harbour  have  been  submitted  to  us  ; 
and  from  the  nature  of  the  bottom  outside,  which  consists  of  chalk  rock,  with 
not  above  six  feet  water  at  some  distance  from  the  harbour's  moutli,  at  low 
water  spring  tides,  it  is  obviously  incapable  of  being  rendered  accessible  for 
vessels  drawing  more  than  that  depth  of  water.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be  con- 
sidered a  perfect  harbour  of  refuge,  nor  is  tlic  situation  eligible  for  the  pur- 
poses pointed  out  in  their  Lordships'  instructions. 

The  care  and  management  of  the  harljour  is  placed,  by  Act  of  Parliament, 
in  the  hands  of  trustees. 

Deal  and  Sandwich. 

From  Ramsgatc  we  proceeded  to  Deal,  where  a  deputation  from  that  town 
and  the  borougli  of  Sandwich  waited  upon  us,  and  submitted  to  our  inspec. 
tion  plans  for  the  construction  of  a  harbour  on  tlic  beach,  with  docks,  ^c, 
to  communicate  with  the  latter  town.  The  River  Stour,  which  enters  the 
sea  through  the  Sandwich  flats,  being  proposed  to  be  converted  into  a  back- 
water, for  the  purpose  of  scouring  the  entrance. 

The  scheme  has  been  under  couteuplation  for  many  years,  but  nothing 
has  been  undertaken  towards  carrying  it  into  execution. 

We  thought  it  right,  however,  to  inspect  the  coast  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  site  of  the  proposed  harbour,  to  ascertain  the  feasibility  oi'  otherwise, 
by  an  extension  of  the  plan,  of  rendering  it  subservient  to  the  objects  of  our 
inquu'y. 

The  shingle,  which  first  makes  its  appearance  about  a  mile  to  the  north- 
ward of  Sandown  Castle,  extends  in  a  vast  bank  along  the  shore  towards  the 
South  Foreland,  and  is  continually  moving  by  the  action  of  the  waves  in  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  and  forming  accumulations  to  the  north- 
ward. This  is  an  objection  to  the  construction  of  a  harbour  on  this  part  of 
the  coast,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  vessels  in  distress  in  the  Downs 


238 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[JULT 


could  make  use  of  one  in  this  situation.     Tliese  reasons  appear  to  us  to 
lender  the  plan  ineligible. 

The  situation  to  which  we  next  directed  our  attention  was  the  space 
within  the  hreaksand,  and  the  expediency  of  enclosing  the  "Small  Downs" 
and  the  area  witliin,  hy  extending  a  hreakwater  along  the  sand,  and  a  pier 
from  the  shore.  Tlie  magnitude  aTuI  extent,  however,  of  such  a  work, 
winch  would  n'i|uiro  a  breakwater  and  pier  of  upwards  of  five  miles  in  length, 
the  small  ileplb  of  water  at  the  northern  entrance,  and  the  uncertain  nature 
of  the  foundation,  induce  us  to  abandon  the  idea  of  a  harl)our  of  refuge  at 
this  place. 

Dover. 

We  next  visilcd  Dover.  This  harbour,  from  its  itroximity  to  the  French 
coast,  and  as  tlie  principal  port  of  communication  between  Great  Britain  and 
tlie  Continent,  has  been  regarded  at  all  times  as  a  place  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. 

We  sliall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  the  situation  in  the  latter  i)art  of  this 
Report ;  and  it  will  only  be  necessary  in  this  place  to  give  a  brief  description 
of  the  harbour  in  its  |ucsent  state. 

It  consists  of  an  outer  and  an  inner  biisin,  with  a  liackwater  which  opens 
into  the  latter,  called  the  Pent. 

The  outer  harbour  contains  an  area  of  seven  acres  and  a  half,  the  inner 
basin  six  acres  and  a  (piarter,  and  the  pent  11  acres  and  a  half.  A  wet  dock, 
of  an  acre  and  a  half,  opens  into  the  western  side  of  the  outer  harbour, 
which  again  comnuuiicates  with  a  graving  or  repairing  dock. 

The  entrance  between  the  pier-heads  (which  are  partly  formed  of  stone 
and  brickwork  faced  with  wooden  piles)  is  110  feet  in  width,  and  opens  to 
the  south-south-east. 

The  rise  of  average  spring  tides  is  from  18  to  19  feet,  and  of  neap  tides 
from  12  to  13  feet ;  but  the  depth  at  high  water  in  the  harbour  at  spring 
tides  is  only  17  to  18  feet,  and  in  the  basin  16  to  17  feet,  and  about  three 
feet  less  during  the  neaps. 

The  harbour  is  therefore  left  dry  at  low  water. 

The  bottom  consists  of  chalk,  on  which  a  deposit  of  mud  in  certain  places 
has  accumulated,  Ijut  not  of  sufficient  depth  to  enable  heavily-laden  vessels 
to  take  the  ground  with  safety,  especially  during  easterly  winds,  when,  from 
the  confined  area  of  the  outer  harbour,  and  the  rebound  from  the  upright 
waUs,  there  is  a  consideralile  agitation  in  the  water. 

During  south-westcriy  gales,  vessels  experience  difficulty  in  entering,  from 
the  heavy  sea  to  which  the  harbour's  mouth  is  exposed  ;  and  another  formi- 
dable obstacle  arises  from  the  shingle  bar,  which  winds  from  this  quarter 
throw  up  aeioss  the  entrance,  and  which  at  times  has  rendered  the  harbour 
inaccessible  for  several  weeks  together.  Numerous  plans  and  suggestions 
have  been  devised,  and  large  sums  of  money  expended  for  remedying  this 
evil. 

Fonuerly  there  were  only  three  sluices  or  culverts,  communicating  by 
means  of  a  pipe  with  the  inner  basin  ;  but  since  1837,  a  new  and  expensive 
work  has  been  completed,  consisting  of  a  brick  reservoir  in  the  western  pier, 
communicating,  by  means  of  a  tunnel  30  feet  in  width  and  IG  in  height,  with 
the  inner  basin  and  pent.  From  this  reservoir,  five  new  sluices,  seven  feet 
in  diameter,  lead  to  the  extremity  of  the  pier-head  ;  and  from  the  powerful 
volume  of  water  thus  discharged,  and  the  impetus  acquired  by  the  proximity 
of  the  reservoir,  it  has  generally  been  found  sufficient,  with  tlie  assistance  of 
the  sluices  in  the  cross  wall,  between  the  basin  and  outer  harbour,  to  remove 
the  shingle  from  the  |)ier-head,  and  keep  the  channel  clear  to  a  level  below 
that  of  tlie  harbour's  Iiottom. 

We  have  been  informed  that  since  the  constnietioii  of  this  work  until 
January  last,  no  instance  occurred  of  Her  Majesty's  steam-packets  being  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  harboiu-  at  tide-time,  in  consequence  of  the  bar. 
But  during  the  violent  gales  which  took  place  in  the  latter  end  of  the  month 
of  January  and  beginning  of  February  in  this  year  (18J0),  the  Government 
packets  were  ordereil  to  proceed  to  the  Downs,  to  avoid  the  liability  of  being 
shut  into  the  biubour  hy  an  accumulation  of  shingle  and  the  heavy  sea  at 
the  entiaiice.  'i'hcie  were,  however,  but  three  days  during  which  vessels 
were  actually  excluded. 

It  should  he  observed  that  these  sluices,  though  efficacious  to  a  certain 
extent,  are  not  capable  of  removing  the  obstruction  altogether.  The  force 
of  the  water,  which  at  its  exit  iroiii  the  culverts  is  very  great,  loses  its  im- 
petus as  it  spreads  over  a  larger  surface,  and  forces  the  shingle  to  a  com- 
paratively small  distance,  where  it  is  Uable  to  form  banks  beyond  the  power 
of  the  sluices. 

With  regard  to  the  improvements  ■which  might  be  made  to  this  harbour,  it 
apjicars  to  us  that  the  general  enlargement  of  the  harbour,  the  inner  basin 
and  pent,  and  the  widening  of  the  internal  coninumications,  would  be  most 
desirable,  as  well  as  the  extension  of  the  stone  groin,  called  Cheeseman's 
Head,  on  the  western  side  of  the  harbour's  entrance.  But  these  suggestions, 
so  far  as  reg.irds  the  entrances,  will  be  much  modified  in  the  event  of  a  har- 
bour of  refuge  being  constnicted  at  this  place. 

\  arious  plans  and  suggestions  for  the  imjirovemcnt  of  the  present,  as  well 
as  for  the  formation  of  a  new  harbour,  were  submitted  to  us  by  Colonel 
Williams,  lieutenant  Wortliington,  Mr.  JetTcry,  Mr.  Stuart,  Mr.  Tait,  Captain 
Meriton,  and  several  other  gentlemen  ;  but  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  re- 
Commend  a  ))lan  for  the  atlainment  of  the  objects  of  our  inquiry,  in  the  sub- 
sequent part  of  this  report,  we  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  enter  into  the 
details  of  these  propositions. 

The  liarbour-master  and  other  officers  gf  Dover,  and  pilgts  bclongius  to 


this,  as  well  as  to  the  other  Cinque  Ports,  waited  upon  us  by  order  of  his 
Grace  the  Lord  Warden,  and  gave  us  any  information  we  required. 

The  haliour  is  managed  by  commissioners,  of  whom  the  Lord  Warden  is 
cbairnian,  e.c  officio. 

Foliatone. 

From  Dover  we  proceeded  to  Folkstone.  This  harbour  was  constructed 
under  an  Act  of  Parliament  in  1809,  by  a  joint-stock  coiniiany,  to  whom  the 
projierty  belongs,  but  at  present  it  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Exchequer  Bills  Loan 
Commissioners. 

The  harbour,  wliieh  is  entirely  artificial,  is  formed  by  rubble-stone  piers, 
and  encloses  an  area  of  14  acres.  The  western  arm  extends  in  a  south-south- 
west direction  140  yards  across  the  beach,  and  is  united  with  the  main  pier, 
which  is  carried  in  a  straight  line  east  and  hy  south  about  317  yards.  A 
projecting  pier  has  since  been  run  out  from  the  shore,  on  the  eastern  side, 
towards  the  south-west,  230  yards,  leaving  an  entrance  of  123  feet  in  width, 
open  to  the  east  and  hy  south. 

A  groin  has  been  constructed  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  main  pier, 
which  extends  at  right  angles  130  feet  seaward,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing 
the  shingle  from  obstructing  the  harbour's  mouth.  This,  however,  has  not 
overcome  the  evil ;  for  the  shingle  having  accumulated  along  the  southern 
side  of  the  main  pier  to  the  Une  of  extension  of  the  horn,  finds  its  way  round 
the  extremity,  and  creates  a  bar  nearly  across  the  entrance. 

The  rise  of  spring  tides  averages  about  18  to  20  feet,  and  neap  tides  from 
12  to  14  feet,  hut  the  harbour  is  left  dry  at  low  water;  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  interior  is  blocked  up  by  a  bank  of  shingle  rising  to  the  height  of 
several  {feet  above  high  water,  and  leaving  only  a  channel  of  inconsiderable 
width  along  the  side  of  the  main  pier. 

A  small  stream  is  pent  up  at  the  north-western  side  of  the  harbour,  for  the 
purpose  of  scouring  at  low  water;  and  with  the  assistance  of  manual  labour, 
in  addition  to  this  very  inadequate  backwater,  the  channel  is  kept  open  so  as 
to  allow  vessels  of  10  to  12  feet  draught  to  come  alongside  of  the  main  pier 
at  the  top  of  high  water. 

This  harbour,  in  its  present  form,  is  not  capable  by  any  improvements  of 
being  made  available  for  the  purposes  of  our  inquu'y,  and  we  do  not  consider 
the  situation  eligible  for  the  construction  of  a  deep-water  harbour. 

From  Folkstone  we  proceeded  to  Hytlie,  and  inspected  the  coast  to  Dunge- 
ness.  No  barhoius  at  present  exist  between  these  places,  and  from  the  nature 
of  the  coast,  the  situation  is  inapplicable  for  their  formation  ;  but  several 
plans  having  been  sulmiitted  to  us  for  the  construction  of  a  harbour  at  Dunge- 
iiess,  we  landed  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  beach,  and  ascertaining  the 
practicabiUty  or  otherwise  of  the  propositions. 

Vice-Admiral  Sir  Edward  Owen,  in  a  commimication  which  he  subsequently 
addressed  to  the  Committee,  stated,  that  "  during  the  late  war,  when  the 
presence  of  the  flotilla  and  the  encampment  of  troops  on  the  opposite  coast 
demanded  unceasing  vigilance,  and  the  employment  of  many  armed  cruisers 
of  the  smallest  description,  the  ineonvenience  of  sending  these  vessels  to 
Sheerness  for  the  piuposes  of  trivial  rcjiairs,  and  payment  of  the  men,  &c., 
was  greatly  felt,  both  in  the  loss  of  their  immediate  services,  and  from  the 
interruption  to  the  more  regular  and  important  airangemcuts  of  defence  ;  and 
Dimgeuess  being  then  considered  the  rendezvous  of  greatest  moment,  lie  con- 
templated the  formation  of  a  basin  within  the  shingle,  in  a  position  between 
No.  2  battery  on  the  east,  and  No.  4  battery  on  the  west,  with  an  outlet  on 
either  side,  by  which  vessels  might  enter  or  put  to  sea  when  their  services 
were  required." 

The  propositions  submitted  to  us  hy  Mr.  Potter  and  Mr.  Douglass  were  of 
a  similar  nature ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt,  from  the  prominent  position 
of  this  extensive  point  of  land,  and  the  anchorage  it  aflfords  to  vessels  on  either 
side,  according  to  the  direction  of  the  wind,  that  the  situation  is  desuablefor 
a  harbour. 

The  shore  at  the  southern  extremity  is  extremely  steep,  and  descends  at 
once  into  deep  water  ;  but  the  whole  promontory  consists  of  vast  accunnUa- 
tion  of  shingle,  constantly  increasing  and  extending  scaw  ard ;  and  were  a 
basin  to  be  constnicted  in  the  centre,  the  entrances  on  either  side  would 
speedily  he  choked  up,  and,  in  our  opinion,  no  scouring  power  would  be  able 
to  keep  the  channels  clear  below  the  level  of  low  water.  However  desirable, 
therefore,  the  construction  of  a  deep-water  harbour  may  be  in  this  situation, 
the  physical  obstacles  to  its  formation  and  maintenance  appear  to  us  to  render 
the  scheme  impracticable. 

In  corroboration  of  this  opinion,  and  the  constant  motion  and  increase  of 
shingle,  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  site  of  the  present  lighthouse,  when 
first  erected  in  1792,  was  only  100  yards  from  the  sea,  and  now,  in  the  lapse 
of  47  years,  the  beach  has  extended  118  yards  to  the  southward,  leaving  the 
lighthouse  218  yards  inland. 

The  former  lighthouse,  which  was  ])ulled  down  when  the  present  one  was 
completed,  was  at  that  time  upwards  of  640  yai'ds  from  the  extremity  of  the 
Ness. 

liye. 

Rye,  which  Was  the  next  harbour  we  visited  in  our  progress  round  the 
coast,  is  situated  in  the  liight  of  the  bay  formed  hy  Fairlight  Head,  on  the 
western  side,  and  Dungencss  on  the  eastern.  The  harboiu'  is  formed  in  the 
channel  of  the  river  Rother,  at  the  point  where  it  enters  the  sea,  after  re 
eeiving  the  waters  of  the  TilUngham  and  the  Bride,  two  small  rivers  which 

uoite  with  it  mk  the  tgwu  of  Bye.    A  wooden  pier  of  piles  Jias  been  con. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL 


239 


stnicted  on  the  eastern  side,  and  emliankments  have  been  thrown  up  on  the 
western  side,  leaving  an  entrance  between  of  160  feet  in  widtli. 

The  average  rise  of  springtides  is  about  17  feet,  and  during  neap  tides 
from  9  to  12  feet  at  the  pier-liead,  whilst  the  lift  in  the  bay  is  22  feet.  At 
low  water  the  liarljour  is  left  dry. 

The  deptli  of  the  channel  up  the  river  decreases  gradually  to  the  town, 
where  tliere  is  14  feet  water  at  the  top  of  spring  tides,  l)ut  during  neaps 
seldom  aliove  nine  feet. 

T!ie  approach  from  the  bay  to  the  entrance  of  the  harbour  is  veiy  intricate 
aiul  difficult,  especially  to  sailing  vessels,  arising  from  the  sandbanks  and  the 
tortuous  course  of  the  channel. 

The  shingle,  which  extends  on  both  sides  of  the  harbour's  moutli,  is  ac- 
cumulated at  the  entrance  with  winds  either  fi-om  the  westward  or  eastward 
of  south,  and  forms  banks  on  either  side  (according  to  the  prevalence  of  the 
wind),  which,  in  combination  with  sand,  serve  to  block  out  the  sea,  and  ren- 
der tlie  channel  crooked  and  uncertain. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  natural  causes  have  mainly  contributed 
(o  the  deterioration  of  this  port,  formerly  of  greater  capacity,  and  a  place  of 
importance  ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  should  be  observed,  that  the  encroach- 
ments which  have  been  made  fi'om  time  to  time  on  tlie  original  extent  of  the 
river,  have  proved  a  powerful  cause  of  injuiT.  Individuals  interested  in  the 
maintenance  and  improvement  of  the  harboiu:  are  fully  aware  of  this  fact,  and 
the  contests  wliich  arise  on  the  subject  of  drainage,  between  the  landowners 
and  those  concerned  in  the  navigation  of  the  river,  have  become  a  fruitful 
source  of  litigation.  Extensive  low  lands  over  which  the  river  formerly  flowed 
at  high  water,  have  been  reclaimed  for  the  puri)oses  of  agriculture,  and  the 
powerful  backwater  which  was  thereby  acquired,  and  operated  as  a  scour  dur- 
ing the  ebb  to  clear  the  channel  and  keep  the  entrance  open,  has  been  dimi- 
nished, and  at  the  present  moment  is  almost  destroyed,  by  the  erection  of 
sluice-gates  across  the  river,  a  little  distance  above  the  town,  for  the  purposes 
of  draining  the  lands  at  low  water,  and  of  preventing  the  flow  of  water  up  its 
natural  channel,  which,  if  not  thus  obstructed,  would  again  inundate  the  lands 
below  the  level  of  high  water. 

No  cause  has  operated  more  extensively  to  injure  the  entrances  of  harbours 
of  this  country,  than  excluding  the  tidal  waters  from  lands  below  the  level  of 
high  water,  which  served  as  natural  reservoirs  at  flood  tide,  and  were  the 
means  of  affording  a  powerful  discharge  during  the  ebb.  The  portion  of  the 
river  between  the  embankments  formed  for  the  purpose  of  excluding  the  high 
water,  is  often  benefited  by  the  contraction  of  the  channel,  and  the  consequent 
acceleration  of  the  cmTcnt,  but  the  communication  with  the  sea  below  such 
embankments  is  injured,  and  nothing  more  deserves  the  vigilant  attention  of 
Gnvernnient,  or  of  the  parties  entrusted  with  the  conservancy  of  harboiu-s, 
than  tlie  suliject  of  encroachments,  which  are  usually  made  gradually  and 
silently,  as  dictated  by  private  interest,  and  are  diflicult  afterwards  to  remove. 

At  the  present  moment  a  stone  wall  is  in  progress  of  erection  from  the 
eastern  pier-head,  and  is  intended  to  be  carried  out  as  far  as  low  water,  across 
the  extensive  flats  which  form  the  bar  at  the  entrance,  in  a  south-half-east 
direction,  liy  this  means  the  water,  which  on  its  exit  from  the  harbour 
S])reads  over  the  sandbanks  and  forms  a  crooked  passage  as  it  meets  with 
obstructions,  and  is  deflected  from  side  to  side,  will  be  directed  in  a  straight 
line  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  continuation  and  completion  of  this 
stone  groin  will  render  the  navigation  of  the  entrance  less  difficult,  and  at  the 
same  time  enable  vessels  of  greater  draught  of  water  than  at  present  to  enter 
at  tide-time. 

By  straightening  and  deepening  the  channel  up  to  tlie  wharfs  or  quays  at 
the  town,  a  considerable  improvement  may  also  be  eflteted ;  but  from  the 
limited  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  commissioners,  it  will  necessarily  take  a 
long  time  to  complete  these  works. 

Hastings. 

No  harbour  at  present  exists  between  Rye  and  Newhaven  ;  but  the  con- 
struction of  one  at  Hastings  ha\ing  been  frequently  contemplated,  we  visited 
that  town.  The  mayor  and  other  gentlemen  of  the  ))lace  attended,  and  laid 
before  us  several  plans  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  purpose;  and  Colonel 
Williams,  late  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  afforded  us  much  information,  together 
with  his  suggestions  on  the  subject. 

^f  e  do  not,  however,  consider  it  necessaiy  to  enter  into  the  particulars  of 
these  plans,  as  a  few  remarks  will  show  the  unfavourable  nature  of  the  situa- 
tion for  the  objects  of  our  inquiry. 

The  coast  runs,  with  little  deviation,  in  a  straight  line,  nearly  east  and  by 
south,  and  west  and  by  north,  and  is  entirely  exposed  to  the  prevailing 
southerly  and  westerly  winds.  There  is  no  natural  backwater,  northefaciUty 
of  making  an  artificial  one  to  any  useful  extent ;  the  sliore  composed  of  shingle, 
and  not  above  four  fathoms  water  at  a  thstance  of  three  quarters  of  a  mile 
from  the  beach,  which  would  give  but  a  limited  area  of  12  feet  water  (at  low 
water),  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  harbour,  were  piers  to  be  carried  out 
to  such  an  extent. 

A  small  tidal  harbour  for  the  use  of  trading  vessels,  &c.  would,  no  doubt, 
be  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  town  and  neighbourhood,  but  we  do  not  consider 
the  situation  adapted  for  any  national  work. 

Cuxmere  Haven, 

At  Cuxmere  Haven,  which  is  situated  on  the  western  side  of  Beachy  Head, 
there  is  no  artificial  harbour.  The  shingle  beach  crosses  the  entrance  and 
rises  several  feet  above  low  water,  and  the  interior  of  the  haven  is  ieft  dry  at 


tliree-quarters  ebb.     We  did  not  consiilcr  it  necessarj'  to  land  at  this  place, 
but  proceeded  round  the  coast  to  Newhaven. 

NewJtaven. 

The  harbour  of  Newhaven  is  formed  in  the  channel  of  the  river  Ouse,  at  its 
entrance  into  the  sea,  by  wooden  piers  carried  out  in  a  southerly  direction 
across  the  beach.  The  river  is  navigable  as  far  as  the  town  of  Lewes,  and 
open  to  the  flow  and  ebb  of  the  tide  for  four  miles  further  up  the  stream,  or 
twelve  miles  altogether,  and  affords  a  powcrt'id  backwater  for  scouring  the 
entrance. 

The  average  rise  of  spring  tide  at  the  harbour's  month  is  from  1!)  to  20 
feet,  and  of  neap  tides  about  1 4  to  15  feet.  The  bar,  however,  is  left  dry  at 
low  water  spring  tides,  but  within  the  piers  there  is  about  two  feet  water  at 
such  times,  and  this  depth  conttnues  uniform  for  a  mile  up  the  channel. 

The  distance  between  the  jiicr-heads  is  only  106  feet.  On  the  western 
side  of  the  liarbour,  the  wooden  pier,  which  extends  about  250  yards,  lias 
been  continued  inwards  by  a  stone  embankment  nearly  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  in  a  straight  line  ;  and  the  bar,  which  formerly  extended  from  the  western 
side  nearly  across  the  month  of  the  harbour,  has  been  considerably  reduced 
since  the  coin])letion  of  this  work,  the  extension  of  the  eastern  pier,  and  other 
improvements  which  have  of  late  been  made  in  straightening  and  deepening 
the  river  above  the  town. 

During  the  flood-fide  and  fine  weather  the  harbour  is  easy  of  access,  from 
the  indraught  and  eddy-tide  which  set  towards  the  mouth  ;  but  from  the 
rapidity  of  the  stream  during  the  ebb,  it  is  not  considered  safe  for  a  sailing 
vessel  to  enter,  and  the  flag  at  the  pier-head  is  in  consequence  lowered  at 
high  water. 

This  harbour  appears  to  be  one  of  considerable  value,  and  to  possess  facili- 
ties for  further  improvements  ;  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  an  additional 
depth  of  water  might  be  obtained  by  the  adoption  of  judicious  measures. 

The  observations  we  had  occasion  to  make  on  the  subject  of  encroachments, 
when  treating  of  Rye,  are  equally  applicable  to  this  harbour ;  but  great  care 
should  be  obsened,  in  sfraightcning  the  river,  to  exclude  the  waters  only 
from  such  places  as  afford  a  loose  soil  and  serve  to  slit  up  the  channel. 

The  piers  at  present  only  extend  to  the  line  of  low  water  on  the  beach ; 
and  to  render  the  harbour  more  availalile,  it  would  be  advisable  to  continue 
them  some  distance  into  the  sea,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  deepening  and  en- 
larging the  river  above  the  harbour,  a  larger  body  of  water  would  flow  up  at 
tide-time,  and  give  a  commensurate  discharge  on  the  ebb.  A  dock  or  pent 
might  be  constructed  on  the  low  groninl  on  the  western  side,  between  tlie 
entrance  and  the  town,  calleil  Sleeper's  Hole ;  and  a  groin  extended  from 
Burrow  Head  into  the  sea,  would  facilitate  tlie  ingress  and  egress  of  vessels, 
by  protecting  the  harbour's  mouth  from  the  swell  occasioned  by  south-wes- 
terly winds,  and  serve  to  keep  oft"  the  approach  of  shingle  to  the  entrance. 
The  expense,  however,  of  these  works  cannot  he  stated  without  previous 
minute  surveys,  &c. 

The  harbour  is  managed  hj  trustees. 

Shoreham. 

Slioreham,at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Adur,  was  the  next  harbour  we  visited. 

The  river,  which  formerly  entered  the  sea  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the 
line  of  coast,  has  been  gradually  diverted  from  its  original  exit  by  the  shingle, 
which  constantly  travels  from  the  westward,  and  until  a  few  years  ago  flowed 
along  the  shore  in  an  easterly  direction  for  three  or  four  miles,  before  it  at 
length  found  its  way  througli  the  shingle  bank  info  the  sea. 

■This  accumulation  of  shingle,  consolidated  by  the  alluvial  deposit  from  the 
river,  now  forms  an  embankment  between  the  river  and  the  sea,'Tarying  from 
200  to  upwards  of  .'500  yards  in  width ;  and  an  area  of  considerable  extent  is 
left  within,  into  which  the  sea  flows. 

The  entrance  which  existed  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  this  estuary,  once 
the  river's  month,  has  been  blocked  up,  and  an  artificial  channel  has  been  cut 
through  the  sliingle  eniliankment  about  a  mile  from  the  town  of  Shoreham. 
This  opening  is  preserved  by  wooden  jiiers  (formed  of  piles),  218  feet  apart, 
which  run  in  a  south-south-west  direction  across  the  shingle  into  the  sea. 
Within  this  entrance  a  third  jiicr  has  been  built  out  from  the  shore  nearly 
across  the  harbour,  for  the  purpose  of  directhig  the  waters  on  the  ebb,  from 
the  eastern  and  western  sides  of  the  inlet,  directly  to  the  mouth.  The  great 
body  of  water  which  thus  ebbs  and  flows  through  the  entrance  serves  to  keep 
the  channel  open ;  and  though  the  width  is  so  considerable,  the  stream  nms 
between  the  pier-heads  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six  miles  an  hour.  The  har- 
bour's mouth  is  nevertheless  subject  to  a  hai-,  which  rises  occasionally  above 
the  low  water  level,  and  shifts  its  position  from  60  to  160  feet  from  the  pier- 
heads. 

The  lift  of  spring  tides  is  about  15  feet,  and  neaps  about  nine  feet.  The 
depth  of  water  over  the  bar  at  high  water  is  from  1 4  to  1 7  feet,  according  to 
the  tides  and  state  of  the  bar. 

From  its  proximity  to  Brighton,  this  harbour  is  of  importance  to  the  local 
trade.  AVe  were  informed  that  upwards  of  a  thousand  vessels  enter  annually. 
It  is  capable  of  improvements  ;  the  most  obvious  of  which  are,  the  extension 
of  the  present  piers  and  the  filling  in  of  their  centres  with  rubble,  which  are 
now  partly  open,  and  admit  the  shingle  into  the  entrance. 

The  interior  of  the  harbour  might,  at  the  same  time,  be  deepened  and  gene- 
rally improved,  but  we  do  not  consider  it  capable  of  being  converted  into  a 
deep-water  harbour  for  the  purposes  pointed  out  by  their  Lordships. 

The  harbour  is  the  property  of  a  joint-stock  company,  established  by  Act 
of  Farliameut. 


240 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


Litttfhampton. 

Littleliainpton,  which  is  tlie  next  harbour  on  the  coast,  is  formcil  bv  the 
channel  of  tlie  river  Arnn,  wliich  is  led  in  a  southerly  direction  into  the  sea, 
between  two  piers,  composed  of  piles,  with  an  extension  of  dicker-work. 

The  ile))tli  of  water  in  the  entrance  between  the  piers  is  two  to  three  feet 
below  the  level  of  low  water,  but  a  bar  extends  outside  the  dicker-work,  across 
the  niuulli,  which  rises  about  two  feet  above  the  general  surface,  and  is  left 
dry  at  low  water. 

The  lift  of  average  sjiring  tides  about  IC  feet,  ami  of  neaps  11  feet. 

The  larger  vessels  which  enter  usually  reniaiu  near  (he  river's  mouth,  at 
Liltlehampton;  but  a  vessel  of  13  feet  drangbt,  wbeu  she  has  passed  the  bar, 
can  jnoceed  to  Arundel  Bridge,  a  distance  of  six  miles,  the  bottom  continuing 
of  an  uniform  level  throughout  that  extent. 

The  tide  flows  nearly  25  nules  up  the  river,  but  the  backwater  thereby 
afforded  proves  of  little  value,  in  consequence  of  the  narrowness  of  the  channel 
and  the  sluggishness  of  (he  stream.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  the 
harbour  is  not  available  for  the  objects  of  our  inquiry,  and  the  sboalness  of 
the  water  on  this  part  of  the  coast  renders  the  situation  inapplicable  for  any 
national  undertaking. 

The  harbour  is  under  the  management  of  trustees. 

Pagham.. 

Pagham  was  the  last  place  we  examined  ;  it  consists  of  low  ground  of  very 
considerable  extent,  over  which  the  tide  flows  at  higli  water,  and  is  entered 
by  a  crooked  channel  which  coiitinues  some  distance  inland ;  vessels  of  40 
tons  and  under,  with  coals  or  niamire,  are  the  only  traders  to  the  place. 

There  is  no  artilicial  harbour,  and  the  situation  is  not  deserving  of  at- 
tention. 

Gknehal  Remarks. 

Having  now  completed  our  remarks  on  the  state  and  capabilities  of  tlie 
existing  harbours,  &c.,  it  is  evident  that  there  is  no  port  at  the  present  mo- 
ment Ijetween  Sheerness  .ind  Selsea  Bill  which  can  be  considered  an  available 
harbour  of  refuge  at  all  times  of  tide,  or  that  possesses  the  capability  of 
being  rendered  efficient  for  such  a  purpose,  by  any  improvements  or  altera- 
tions which  coidd  be  made. 

We  proceed,  therefore,  in  conformity  with  their  Lordships'  instructions,  to 
point  out  the  situations  which,  in  our  opinion,  are  best  calculated  for  stations 
for  armed  steam-vessels  iluring  war ;  anil  the  works  necessary  to  render  them 
available  for  such  a  purjiose,  .and  at  the  same  time  to  combine  all  the  objects 
for  which  refuge  harbours  are  so  nuieh  required  for  the  security  of  shipping 
navigating  this  part  of  the  Chainiel. 

We  are  decidedly  of  opinion  that  deep-watei-  harbours  on  this  part  of  the 
coast  must  be  formed  in  the  sea  by  means  of  lu-eakwaters  detached  from  the 
main  land,  on  the  same  jirinciple  as  that  in  I'lymoutb  Sound,  or  connected 
with  the  shore  by  ))iers  similar  to  the  harbour  at  Kingstown,  near  Dublin. 

The  situation  which  apjiears  to  us  to  be  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  at 
the  same  time  offers  the  most  eligible  position  for  a  deep-water  harbour,  is 
Dover  Bay.  Independently  of  its  jiroximity  to  the  Continent,  this  bay  pos- 
sesses considerable  advantages :  the  depth  of  water  at  400  yards  from  the 
shore,  is  two  fathoms  at  low  water  of  sjiring  tides,  and  but  'six  fathoms  at 
1,100  yards;  which  therefore  affords  a  sufficient  width  for  the  construction 
of  a  capacious  dccp-watcr  harbour,  without  getting  into  such  a  depth  for  the 
site  of  the  piers  or  breakwater  as  would  add  greatly  to  the  expense  of  the 
works.  The  jirincipal  feat\ue  of  the  proposed  plan  is  a  breakwater,  .at  the 
average  distance  of  1,000  yards  from  the  shore,  with  piers  projected  from 
the  hind  towards  its  eastern  and  western  ends,  leaving  one  or  more  entrances, 
as  shown  on  the  plan.  Fig.  1,  at  A,  li,  and  C. 

These  piers  and  breakwaters  to  consist  of  large  blocks  of  the  hardest  chalk 
rock,  with  a  thick  covering  of  stone,  either  granite  or  hard  limestone. 

The  space  between  the  piers,  or  length  of  the  harbour,  as  shown  upon  the 
)dan.  is  2,,'SOO  yards,  and  the  area  enclosed  would  comprise  4.''iO  acres,''-  of 
which  320  would  have  from  six  to  two  fathoms  at  low  water,  and  130  acres 
under  two  fathoms.  The  breakwater  may  be  connected  with  the  east  and 
west  piers,  and  have  but  one  entrance  in  the  middle  (C),  GOO  or  700  feet  in 
width  ;  or  it  may  be  detached  from  the  piers,  so  as  to  leave  an  entrance  (A) 
iieariy  ojiposite  the  present  harbour,  and  another  opening  (li)  at  the  eastern 
end. 

The  advantages  of  two  entrances,  one  at  the  eastern  and  the  other  at  the 
western  end,  instead  of  one  only  in  the  centre,  would  be  that  vessels  might 
enter  or  leave  the  harbour  with  the  wind  from  any  quarter,  and  a  ready  ac- 
i-ess  be  afforded  to  the  mouth  of  the  present  harbour  from  the  western  en- 
trance,  witliout  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  new  harbour. 

On  the  other  hand,  one  entrance  in  the  middle  would  have  the  advantage 
of  rendering  the  interior  of  the  harbour  in  some  degree  quieter  than  with  two 
entrances. 

On  consideration  of  the  subject,  our  opinion  is  in  favour  of  the  two  en- 
trances at  the  east  and  west  ends  ;  but  the  decision  of  the  question  need  not 
delay  or  interfeie  with  the  execution  of  the  work,  as  it  might  be  proceeded 
with  along  its  whole  extent  (with  the  exception  of  the  entrances),  and  the 
result  of  the  advantages,  or  otherwise,  be  tested  by  actual  observation. 

As  a  second  place  for  a  harbour  of  refuge,  we  recommend  the  bight  to  the 
eastward  of  Beacliy  Head  and  westward  of  Langley  Point,  and  the  formation 


Kingston  Harbour  is  220  acres. 


there  of  a  detached  breakwater  curved  or  in  kauts,  the  main  bodv  running 
nearly  parallel  with  tlie  shore,  leaving  entrances  to  the  eastward  and  west- 
ward, to  enable  vessels  to  sail  out  or  in  with  any  wind  (I'ig.  2). 

There  is  a  siitKcient  depth  of  water  near  the  shore,  and  but  a  small  in- 
crease of  de]ith  for  a  considerable  way  out ;  affording  a  large  harbour  space, 
and  facility  for  the  formation  of  the  neeessaiy  works.  Looking  at  the  locality 
as  nearly  equidistant  from  the  South  I'oreland  on  the  ea»t,  and  the  harbours 
and  anchorages  within  the  Isle  of  Wight  on  the  west,  and  to  its  relative 
position  with  many  harbours  on  the  opposite  shore  ;  also  to  its  proximity  to 
the  elevated  prinnoirtory  of  licachy  Head  ;  we  think  it  offers  important  ad- 
vantages, both  as  an  asylum  harbour  and  station  for  armed  steam-vessels. 

The  breakwater,  if  built  in  five  fathoms  water,  and  one  mile  from  the 
shore,  would  give  a  width  of  about  half  a  mile,  having  in  no  jiart  less  than 
two  fathoms  dejith  at  low  water ;  the  area  of  course  depending  on  the  length. 

One  and  a  half  mile  of  breakwater,  including  the  arms,  would  give  shelter 
over  450  acres  of  surface. 

The  tliird  <nnd  last  situation  we  recommend  for  a  harbour  of  refuge,  is 
under  the  chalk  cliffs  to  the  eastward  of  Margate.  The  Chalk  Bank  and 
Longnose  Spit  stretch  out  to  the  north-east  from  Koreness  Point :  upon  this 
site  we  propose  a  pier  to  commence  at  the  shore,  and  to  be  extended  1,000 
yards  clear  in  a  north-north-east  direction ;  thence  to  turn  west-north-west 
for  a  length  of  2,000  yards ;  terminating  in  a  round  end,  to  form  the  northern 
head  of  the  entrance.  The  western  pier  to  be  carried  out  from  the  shore  in 
nearly  a  north-east  direction,  and  be  the  same  length  as  the  east  pier. 

This  would  enclose  a  harbour  of  4C0  acres,  of  which  352  acres  would  be 
not  less  than  two  fathoms,  increasing  to  six  fathoms,  and  108  acres  would  be 
under  two  fathoms  at  low  water. 

Tlie  entrance  opening  in  a  noith-wcstcrly  direction  would  receire  the  pro- 
tection of  Margate  Sand,  and  an  opening  in  a  west-north-west  bearing  would 
also  permit  vessels  to  sail  in  with  winds  from  the  south  round  westward  to 
north-east,  and  out  with  winds  from  the  north  rounil  eastward  and  southward 
to  south-west.  And  in  extreme  cases,  when  the  harbour  could  not  be  entered 
by  sailing  vessels,  shelter  would  be  given  them  under,  or  to  the  eastward  or 
westward  of  it. 

The  construction  would  be,  as  at  Dover,  a  core  of  chalk  blocks  from  the 
adjoining  rocks,  faced  with  stone. 

The  advantages  of  this  sifu.ation  will  be  ajiparent  when  it  is  remembered 
that  our  eastern  coast  is  literally  without  shelter  from  easterly  winds  for  ves- 
sels of  any  magnitude. 

A  harbour  off  Foreness  must,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  one  of  refuge  for 
vessels  stationed  in  the  North  Sea,  and  would  more  particularly  have  reference 
to  every  thing  connected  with  the  opposite  jiorts  eastward  of  Calais. 

For  the  mercantile  marine,  esjiecially,  navigating  the  northern  part  of  the 
English  Channel,  the  situation  would  be  most  desirable ;  inasmuch  as  vessels 
bound  to  the  westward  from  the  river  Thames  or  the  North  Sea,  arriving  off 
the  North  Foreland,  and  then  finding  the  wind  strong  from  the  southward  and 
westward,  would,  in  order  to  avoid  anchoring  in  the  Downs,  and  the  liability 
to  accidents  which  so  frequently  occur  there  in  south-westerly  gales,  gladly 
avail  themselves  of  the  shelter  which  this  harbour  would  afford. 

To  vessels,  also,  caught  in  the  Downs  by  tempestuous  weather,  or  having 
received  damage,  a  harbour  off  Foreness,  accessible  at  all  times  of  tide,  would 
prove  an  invaluable  asylum,  where  heavily-laden  ships  would  escape  the  danger 
of  grounding ;  and  a  considerable  fleet  of  such  vessels  would  lie  in  perfect 
security  from  storms  or  an  enemy,  until  a  change  of  wind  would  enable  them 
to  i>roceed  down  Channel. 

Similar  advantages  would  be  experienced  during  easterly  winds,  by  vessels 
from  the  westward,  bound  to  ports  upon  the  east  coast ;  whilst  to  steam- 
vessels  the  harbour  would  be  accessible  iu  all  winds  and  weather. 

The  cost  of  each  of  the  three  harbours  of  refuge  we  have  recommended, 
may  be  taken  as  nearly  equal ;  none  of  them  less  than  .t'2,000,000  sterling, 
nor  much  exceeding  that  sum.  An  addition  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  the 
length,  would  give  an  increased  area  of  100  acres,  and  would  add  about 
--t:300,000  to  the  estimated  expense  of  each  harbour. 

We  have  not  considered  it  necessary  to  enter  into  any  details  as  to  the  de- 
fences which  might  be  required  to  these  places  of  refuge,  but  there  can  be  no 
doubt  of  the  ])racticability  of  rendering  them  secure. 

The  introduction  of  steam  navigation  will  render  a  rapid  communication 
along  the  coast  an  object  of  far  greater  importance  than  heretofore ;  and  we 
consider  that  railways  along  the  coast,  on  each  side  of  Dover,  may  be  made 
extremely  useful  in  sending  support  in  the  shortest  possible  time  to  any  point 
where  the  presence  of  troops  may  be  required. 

We  have,  &e. 

James  A.  Gordon,  Rear-Admiral. 

Alkx.  T.  E.  Vidal,  Captain. 

RoiiERT  Thomson,  Lieut. -Col.  R.  E. 

Richard  Drew,  Elder  Brother  of  Trinity-house. 

J.  Walker, 

W.    CUBITT, 

30M  May  1840. 


(Signed) 


"'   I   Civil  Enginers. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


241 


RAILWAY  COMMUNICATION  WITH  SCOTLAND. 

Second  Report  of  Lieut. -Culouel  Sir  Frederic  Smith,  of  the  Royal  Engineers, 
n lid  Professor  Harloir,  to  tlie  Lords  of  the  Treasurij,  in  pursuance  of  t lie 
Addresses  of  the  House  of  Commons,  of  the  \ith  and  'lath  Auyust,  1839. 

Railwni/  Committee  Office, 
5,  Co?nmittee  Room,  House  of  Commons, 
May  10,  1810. 

Sir — The  instiiictions  of  the  Lonls  Coiiiinissioncrs  of  tlie  Treasury,  com- 
municated to  us  ill  your  letter  of  tlie  26th  Noveuiber,  1H.'59,  having  chrected 
that  we  should  examine  and  report  niiou  the  surveyed  and  projected  lines  for 
a  railway  coniniuiiieatiou  lictweeii  London  and  the  cities  of  Edinlnirgh  and 
filasgow,  in  confornuty  with  the  address  of  tlie  Ilonse  of  Commons,  dated 
the  lull  of  August.  18150,  we  entered  upon  tliis  inquiry  immediately  on  re- 
ceiving from  the  promoters  of  these  lines  the  documents  which  had  been 
]irepared  for  the  investigation. 

The  address  to  which  we  liave  referred  prays  "  tliat  her  Majesty  w  ill  he 
pleased  to  give  dueetious  that  an  engineer,  or  engineers,  may  be  apjiointed  to 
to  iu([iiire  and  report  upon  the  relative  merits,  and  the  preference  which 
ought  to  be  given  to  the  respective  already  surveyed  and  projected  railways 
between  London  and  the  cities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  following,  namely, 
via  York,  Newcastle-ujion-Tyiie,  and  Berwick;  via  York,  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  and  llexbaiu;  via  Lancaster,  Wlutehaven,  and  Carlisle;  and  via  Lan- 
caster, Penrith,  and  Carlisle ;  and  said  inquiry  and  report  to  include  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  the  two  lines,  from  London  to  York,  by  Derby  and  Rotherham, 
aud  by  Cambridge  and  Lincoln." 

The  investigation  entrusted  to  us  divides  itself  into  two  branches  ;  the  one 
being  the  relative  merits  of  the  competing  lines  between  London  aud  Edin- 
burgh, and  the  other,  of  those  projected  lietwccn  London  and  Glasgow. 

Their  lordships  having  granted  an  extension  of  time  to  the  promoters  of 
certain  lines  north  of  tlie  Carlisle  and  Newcastle  Railway,  for  the  jiurjiose  of 
enabling  these  pai'ties  to  render  their  surveys  more  coniplele,  and  some  of 
the  documents  necessary  for  testing  the  relative  merits  of  the  jiroposcd  lines 
of  eoinmunicatioii  from  London  to  Newcastle  not  being  ready  for  oiu-  ex- 
amination, we  have  devoted  our  attention  principally  to  the  subject  of  the 
communication  between  London  and  Carlisle,  and  to  the  merits  of  the  Cum- 
berland railways,  as  regards  their  connexion  with  the  western  parts  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  north  of  Irelaud,  to  which  our  attention  is  called  by  the  address 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  dated  the  20th  August  last,  and  we  have  now  the 
honour  to  report  the  result  of  our  inquiries. 

It  ajipears  tliat  by  the  London  and  Birmingham,  the  Grand  Junction,  and 
the  North  Union  lines,  the  communication  by  railway  is  complete  as  fai*  as 
Preston,  being  a  distance  of  218  miles  51  chains,  and  we  find  that  the  Pres- 
ton and  Ijaneaster  RaUway  is  in  a  state  of  gi'eat  forwardness.  When  this 
last-mentioned  line  shall  be  finished,  the  distance  by  railway  from  London  to 
Lancaster  will  be  2.38  miles  69  chains.* 

Description  of  the  comjieting  Projects. — Three  jirojects  were  laid  before  us 
for  the  extension  of  this  great  trunk  line  to  Scotland. 

One  from  Lancaster,  along  the  west  coast  of  Cumberland,  through  White- 
haven to  Maryport,  in  order  to  join  therailway  now  in  jirogress  between  the 
latter  place  and  Carlisle. 

Another  from  Lancaster  by  Kirkby  Lonsdale,  and  the  valley  of  the  Lune 
to  Penrith,  and  from  thence  to  Carbsle ;  and  a  tlurd  from  Lancaster  to  Ken- 
dal, and  thence  up  the  valley  of  Long  Sleddale,  and  by  Ilawes  Water  to 
Penrith,  to  form  a  junction  with  the  proposed  railway  from  the  last-men- 
tioned place  to  Carlisle. 

West  Cumberland  Coast  line. — The  documents  respecting  the  Cumberland 
coast  line,  delivered  to  us  by  the  solicitors,  Messrs.  Haslam  and  Bischotf,  and 
the  engineers,  Messrs.  Rastrick  andllagne,  are  copies  of  their  parliamentary 
plan  and  section  ;  drawings  descriptive  of  the  proposed  mode  of  forming  the 
embankments  across  Morccambe  Bay,  and  the  Duddcn  Sands,  and  a  general 
plan  of  the  country  tbroiigh  which  the  line  would  pass.  AVe  were  also  fur- 
nished with  a  printed  copy  of  a  report  on  this  project,  liy  the  engineers,  and 
with  a  detailed  estimate,  formed  by  Mr.  Hague,  of  the  cost  of  the  embanlt- 
ments. 

The  whole  of  the  drawings  illustrative  of  this  project  have  been  prepared  in 
a  very  perfect  and  creditable  manner,  and  have  much  facilitated  our  examina- 
tion of  the  country. 

Penrith  and  Carlisle  line. — Mr.  Larmer,  the  engineer,  and  Mr.  Dixon,  the 
secretary  to  the  provisional  committee  of  a  Company  for  forming  a  railway 
from  Carlisle  to  Penrith,  supplied  us  with  a  section  of  this  line,  and  a  map  of 
the  county,  on  which  the  proposed  route  is  traced. 

Lune  line. — We  may  here  observe,  that  if  tlus  railway  should  be  formed,  it 
would  be  connected,  at  its  southern  terminus,  with  either  of  the  inland  lines 
that  may  be  established  from  Lancaster.  Mr.  Larmer  not  only  surveyed  and 
projected  the  line  from  Carlisle  to  Penrith,  but  also  that  from  Penrith  to 
Kirkby  Lonsdale.  The  line  from  the  last-named  )ilace  to  Lancaster,  we  were 
informed,  was  laid  down  by  persons  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Locke,  but 
the  sections  of  the  whole  extent  between  Penrith  and  Lancaster,  and  tracing 
of  it  on  maps  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Lancaster  were  placed  be_ 

*  If  a  line  should  be  formed  from  Rugby  to  Staflbrd,  or  from  Rugby  to 
Stone,  the  distance  ff ouW  bs  shurteneil  by  abgut  eight  miles, 


fore  us  by  Mr.  Larmer,  by  whom  we  were  also  furnished  with  an  estimate  of 
the  cost  of  the  entire  distance  from  Lancaster  to  Carlisle,  and  a  report 
descriptive  of  this  project. 

Kendal  line. — From  Mr.  Cornelius  Nicholson,  secretary  to  the  provisional 
conuuittee  for  the  Kendal  line,  we  received  a  section  of  this  proposed  rail- 
wav,  and  a  ma]i  of  Westmoreland  and  a  part  of  Lancashire,  on  which  the 
direction  of  the  line  is  traced.  The  sm-vey,  as  well  as  a  gross  estimate  of  the 
cost  of  the  line,  were  prepared  by  Mr.  Bintley,  of  Kendal,  by  whom  a  report 
respecting  it  was  drawn  up,  which  will  be  found  in  the  appendix.* 

In  the  course  of  our  examination  of  the  documents  sulmiittcd  to  us,  we 
found  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  dravrings  and  report  of  the  coast  line, 
they  were  insufficient  for  the  purpose  of  fairly  testing  the  relative  merits  of 
the  several  projects  now  under  consideration,  and  we  therefore  called  for 
further  information,  not  only  as  to  their  nieehanieal,  but  also  as  to  their 
statistical  properties.  This  information  having  been  in  part  supplied  on  the 
18th  February,  we  commenced  on  that  day  an  examination  of  the  country 
through  which  tliese  jirojeetcd  railways  would  pass,  and  we  shall  now  give  a 
general  description  of  theu- principal  features,  beginnuig  with  the  Cumberland 
coast  line. 

Cumherland  Coast  line. — It  is  proposed  that  this  railway  shoidd  commence 
at  the  terminus  of  the  Lancaster  aud  Preston  Railway,  and  that,  cuning round, 
towards  Skirton,  it  should  first  cross  the  Kendal  Canal,  and  then  the  River 
Lune ;  the  latter  on  a  bridge,  the  arching  of  which  is  represented  by  Mr. 
Rastrick  to  be  660  yards  in  length,  and  of  Ihc  extreme  height  of  67  feet  above 
the  bed  of  the  river.  From  Skirton  the  line  is  to  proceed  by  Torrisholme  to 
the  village  of  Poidtoii ;  from  hence  it  would  be  carried,  in  the  direction  of 
Leonard's  Point,  in  the  peninsula  of  Low  Fimiess,  on  a  lofty  embankment  of 
10  miles  and  h\  chains  in  lengili,  to  be  constructed  across  the  cstuaiy  of 
Morccambe  Bay,  into  which  the  Kent,  the  Crake,  and  the  Leven  empty  them- 
selves. Through  the  peninsula  the  railway  would  have  to  be  formed  in  aline 
of  double  curvature,  and  in  some  deep  cuttings  in  sandstone  rock.  It  is  also 
jiroposed  to  form  an  embankment  across  the  Duddcn  Sands,  from  Ronhead 
Crag  to  Ilodbarrow  Point,  a  distance  of  one  mile  and  65  chains.  These  em- 
bankments are  understood  to  be  the  suggestions  of  Mr.  Hague,  whose  plan 
provides  locks  and  fiood-gates  for  the  rivers,  the  channels  of  which  he  pro- 
poses to  straighten  and  embank.  It  is  here  proper  to  state  that  the  pro- 
moters of  thisline  calculate  upon  reclaiming  by  the  two  embankments  52,000 
acres  of  land,  which  they  value  at  23/.  per  acre,  and  they  have  therefore  taken 
credit  for  £1,196,000  in  the  estimate  of  this  part  of  their  project. 

From  Hodl)arrow  the  line  would  pass  near  Bootle  to  Ravenglass,  through 
a  country  presenting  no  engineering  work  of  difficulty  or  great  expense  until 
arriving  at  the  River  Esk,  where  a  viaduct  will  be  necessary  of  upwards  of  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  of  23  feet  in  the  extreme  height,  aiiproached. 
bv  an  embankment  of  about  a  mile  in  length,  and  of  the  average  height  of  15 
feet. 

The  line  is  to  curve  at  Ravenglass,  passing  the  rivers  Esk  and  Mite,  and  to 
take  a  direction  towards  the  coast,  crossing  the  river  Calder  at  its  month.  It 
is  also  to  be  earned  over  the  river  Ehen,  and  thence  to  keep  along  the  shore, 
requiring  the  occasional  formation  of  enibanknients,  between  high  .•'.nd  low 
water  niark,  to  the  valley  of  St.  Bees.  Here  a  curve  is  proposed  towards  the 
north-east  to  unite  with  one  bending  towards  the  north-west,  which  would 
bring  the  line,  witli  tolcralily  easy  work,  to  Whitehaven.  It  is  proposed  to 
carry  the  railway  through  the  whole  lengtli  of  this  town,  on  a  series  of  arches, 
which  Mr.  Rastrick's  section  shows  to  be  of  the  extreme  height  of  27  feet, 
and  of  the  length  of  half  a  mile.  On  leaving  Whitchaveu  a  tunnel  of  1,320 
yards  in  length  would  have  to  be  cut  through  sandstone.  The  line  is  from 
iienceto  ]iass  towards  Harrington,  along  the  coast,  through  some  short,  but 
rather  deep  cuttings,  and  over  four  embankments,  measuring  altogether  two 
miles  in  length,  and  of  the  respective  heights  of  18,  23,  27,  and  3t  feet. 

Mr.  Rastrick's  plan  is  to  cross  the  upjicr  end  of  the  harbour  of  Harrington 
by  a  bridge,  which  his  section  shows  to  be  120  yards  long,  and  27  feet  high. 
'  From  hence  the  line  is  intended  to  take  the  direction  of  Workington,  and 
to  cross  the  harbour,  as  well  as  the  Derwent  river,  ou  bridges  and  embank- 
ments. 

From  the  Derwent  to  the  terminus  of  the  Maryport  Railway,  with  which 
Mr.  Rastrick's  line  is  proposed  to  be  joined,  the  woi-k  will  be  easy. 

Ejpemive,  or  ohjectionable  parts  of  the  Cumberland  Coast  line. — The  opera- 
tions of  an  expensive,  difficult,  or  objectionable  character  on  the  coast  line, 
which  we  have  thus  briefly  descrilied,  aie  as  follows : — 

1 .  The  bridge  over  the  river  Lune. 

2.  The  embankments  across  Moreeambe  Bay  and  the  Dudden  Sands,  with 
the  embankments  to  confine  the  courses  of  the  rivers  which  empty  themselves 
into  these  estuaries. 

3.  The  cuttings  in  rock  tlu-ough  Low  Fiirness. 

4.  The  viaducts  and  embankment  across  the  rivers  Esk  and  Mite,  ando\er 
the  sands  at  Ravenglass. 


"  We  must  observe,  that  Ihc  report  omits  to  mention  some  of  (he  expensive 
operations  on  this  line,  and  but  slightly  notices  other  important  works  in- 
volved ill  Mr.  Bintley 's  project;  and  we  cannot  help  expressing  our  surprise 
that  he  should  have  stated  that  the  proposed  tunnel  through  the  Gale.Scarth, 
which  Ihe  highest  geological  authorities  represent  to  be  composed  of  green 
slate  and  porphyry,  could  bo  formed  at  the  rate  of  £50.000  per  mile,  a  sum 
which  is  totally'inadcquatc  to  cover  the  cost  of  si)  formi<lable  an  undertaking, 
particularly  as  the  summit  is  nearly  I, '200  feet  above  the  tunnel, 

K2 


242 


TJIi:  CIVIL  ItlNGlNKEIl  AND  AllClllTECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


J.  The  vcrv  c.Nlfiisivc  (Icniolitiou  of  Iiduscs  at  Wliiteliavcii,  iuid  the  forma- 
lioii  of  viailiict  of  half  a  mile  in  U'li;;;!!  tlirougb  thai  town, 
(i.  Tlie  tunnel  to  tlic  north  of  Whilcliaven. 

7.  The  ernssing  of  Harrington  Harbour,  and  the  i]iJMrj-  wliieli  wouUl  there- 
by bccanMiil  lo  tliat  port,  anil 

8.  The  crossing  of  \\'orkingt.on  harbour,  and  the  Dervvent  river. 

To  these  njay  be  added,  the  stoppage  of  the  Ulverstonc  trade  during  the 
formation  of  the  river  channels,  and  a  part  of  the  ilorecambc  Bay  enibank- 
nicnl. 

Altliongb  eaeli  of  tliesc  operations  woidd  be  attended  with  considerable 
expense,  none  of  them  jiresents  what  may  be  termed,  great  engineering  ditti- 
cnltics,  excepting  the  enibanknients  of  Morecainle  Bay,  and  the  Dndrlen 
Sands ;  but  the.se  are  Morl<s  of  an  extraordinary  charaelcr  and  magnitude,  and 
therefore  rcipiire  our  particular  notice. 

Mor/'cniiihi'  l'>ny  Ewlinnkmctil. — The  formation  of  an  embankment  of  up- 
wards of  ten  miles  in  le.igtb.  across  an  estuary  where  the  sea  has  been  known 
to  rise  30  feet,  and  wliere  in  gales  from  the  liortb-wcst  to  tlie  south-west,  it 
rolls  in  with  tremendous  force,  and  with  a  rate  of  tide  during  the  springs,  of 
more  than  four  knots  an  lionr,  may  justly  be  termed  a  ])roject  of  a  gigantic 
ebfiracler,  and  will,  if  executed,  reflect  much  credit  on  the  engineer. 

The  mode  in  wbicli  Jlr.  Hague  would  form  the  eud)imkment  is  both  novel 
ami  ingenious.     {Vide  Jnnrnol,  Vol.  i.,  p.  409). 

The  n.iode  projioscd  for  forming  the  embankment  across  the  Duddeu  is  the 
same  as  that  for  Jlorccarube  Bay. 

In  Mr.  Hague's  report,  (wbicli  will  be  found  in  the  Jottrml,  Yo\.  I.  p.  410), 
be  slates  that  the  total  cost  of  forming  the  embankments  and  railway  across 
Morecandje  liay  and  the  Uuddcn  .Sands,  would  amount  to  £.34  j,230'3.'.-.  4</., 
and  of  forming  the  new  chanuels  for  the  rivers  which  tlow  into  these 
estuaries  to  4)88,9(11  Gs.,  making  a  gross  sum  of  .f  131,131  !).?.  id. 

Not  being  satisfied  with  this  statement,  we  called  for  a  detailed  estimate, 
which  Mr.  Hague  aceordingly  ]u'ei)ared  for  ns. 

In  this  document  tlie  sum  allowed  for  the  embankments  across  the  Bav  is 
.stated  as  .i'39.J,'lo3  Is.  id.,  aud  for  the  river  cliannels  ;f71,7.')8  ().«.  7d.,  mak- 
ing a  general  total  of  .t'-lG7,21 1  l.s.  1  Id.,  which  exceeds  by  .t'33,079  12.s.  7rf., 
the  sum  specified  in  Mr.  Hague's  first  report. 

On  a  careful  examination  of  these  documents  it  appeared  to  us  that  a 
further  detail  was  necessary,  and  we  therefore  requested  additional  informa- 
tion in  respect  to  the  alteration  of  the  river  cliannels. 

iTO'.n  Mr.  Hague's  reply,  which  we  received  on  the  23rd  March,  we  find 
that  be  estimates  the  cost  of  raising  the  soil  from  the  jiroposed  river  courses 
at  only  one-t!iird,of  a  ]icnny  per  cubic  yard;  and  of  raising,  depositing,  .iiid 
forming  it  into  the  embankments  at  2d.  per  cubic  yard.  Conceiving  this 
allowance  to  be  inadcfpiate  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  work,  we  considered  it 
jirojier  to  obtain  the  best  information  within  our  reach  on  this  important  item 
of  expense;  and,  on  appbcatiou,  we  were  supplied  by  the  secretary*  of  the 
Trinity  Board  with  a  statement  of  the  average  cost  of  working  the'  dredging 
engine  used  by  them  in  the  Thames.  These  are  of  the  same  power  as  the 
engines  which  j\lr.  Hague  proposes  to  use:  and  it  appears  that,  independently 
of  the  first  outlay  for  the  pnrehase  of  the  vessel  and  machinery,  the  average 
expense  of  raising  the  mud  from  the  river  and  shooting  it  into  the  barges, 
amounts  to  not  less  than  Sd.  per  ton.  Estimating  the  wiMght  of  a  cubic  yard 
to  be  1  l-.')th  ton,  the  cost  of  removing  the  soil  from  the  River  Thames  to 
the  barges  only,  according  to  the  above  statement,  amounts  to  3  3-5ths  of  a 
jienny  per  cubic  yard. 

■\Ve  have  also  been  in  communicaticn  with 'the  engineer -f-  under  whose 
direction  the  improvements  in  the  River  Hart  have  recently  been  made,  and 
this  gentleman  has  favoured  ns  with  a  statement,  from  wbiib  it  ajipcars  that 
the  actual  expenditure  incurred  in  that  work  for  dredging  and  ilcpositing 
amounted  lo  W.  jier  tiui,  or  neariy  'id.  per  cubic  yard.^  \Ve  therefore  feel 
warranted  coming  to  the  conclusion  that  Mr.  Hague's  allowance  of  '.'</.  ]icr 
tubie  yard,  for  dredghig  and  depositing  .soil,  in  the  formation  of  the  river 
conrscs  within  his  proposed  cmliankmcnt,  is  much  too  low,  and  that  the 
.smallest  estimate  that  can  be  admitted  for  this  work  is  :'i\d.  ])er  cubic  yard. 

This  increase  of  l\d.  jicr  cubic  yard  would  make  the  cost  of  the  channels 
amount  to  .1185,990  l.v.  Id. :  a  sum  which  we  are  convinced  would  be  fouml 
barely  suflieient  for  the  purpose,  the  more  especially  as  there  are  other  items 
in  the  estimate  for  the  channels  inscirtcd  at  inadequate  |iriccs. 

it  is  unnecesstiry  for  us,  under  all  tbe  circumstances  of  this  impiiry,  to  go 
into  any  great  detail  of  the  result  of  our  examination  of  the  estimates  of  tbe 
endiankmeut ;  but  we  must  observe  that  an  insiiflicieut  allowance  has  been 
made  for  the  cost  of  some  of  t'ne  items,  and  especially  in  respect  to  the  mass 
of  stones  jiroposcd  to  be  jilaeed  under  the  raihv.ay,  in  the  centre  of  tbe  eni- 
bankmcnt. 

Mr.  Hague  allows  .i'.')0,0S9  I'.f.  (id.  for  this  item;  but  he  lias  so  much 
under-rated  the  tpumtity  of  stones  that  would  be  lucd,  that  without  ailding 
anytlung  to  (he  price  which  he  has  allowed  for  this  material,  and  which  we 
also  think  (oo  low,  we  feel  bound  lo.add  one-fourth  to  the  above  stated  gross 
simi,  increasing  it  to  .t02,G12  G.v.  lOSrf. 

We  should  also  observe,  that  in  Mr.  Hague's  estimate  of  the  embankme-ts, 
he  has  not  only  inserted  very  low,  and,  on  some  occasions,  inailet|uatc  |n-ices 
for  the  ]n-uposed  works,  but  he  luis  also  given  the  mere  net  (piaiditics  of  ma- 
terials and  labour,  allowing  nothing  for  those  contingencies  wliicli,  in  all 


*  .bicob  llerl  ert,  Ivu. 
Mr.  William  Kiiigsfon. 


great  works,  in>ariably  arise.  In  an  operation  of  the  jicculiar  and  dillii;uit 
character  now  under  consideration,  contending,  as  tbe  engineer  would  ba\e 
to  do,  with  the  rapid  tide  we  have  described  as  pouring  into  the  bay,  contin- 
gencies beyond  the  ordinary  jiroportion  would  be  inevitable,  and  tbe  least 
allowance  that  could  ])rudcntl\  be  made  for  them  would  be  10  per  cent. 

It  is  slated  by  Mr.  Hague  tluil  the  ojieratious  of  the  tide  would  suppl\' 
G, 149, 379  out  of  the  10,l,').'i,78'i  of  cubic  ;.artls  of  sand  and  silt  reipiircfi  for 
bis  embankments,  and  that  when  formed  as  ]iroposed,  they  will  be  water- 
tight, without  having  recourse  to  the  exiieusive  operation  of  puddling. 

We  do  not  believe  that  these  expectations  would  be  realized;  but  even 
admitting  that  this  would  he  the  ease,  the  minimum  cost  of  the  embank- 
ment and  channels,  according  to  our  opinion,  would  amount  to  .€193,97.'') 
11.V.  9'//.,  and,  with  the  addition  of  10  per  cent,  for  contingencies,  tbe  esti- 
mate should  not  be  stated  at  less  than  .t,')43,373  'li.  ll{(/.,"bcing  .€109,211 
1  I.V.  lid.  more  than  the  sum  sjiceified  in  Mr.  Hague's  original  report. 

The  projectors  and  promoters  of  the  Morecambc  Bay  line  appear,  how- 
ever, to  entertain  a  confldent  expectation  of  ctfecling  their  object  at  a  cost 
which  would  r(;nder  the  work  highly  advantageous  in  a  pecuniary  ]>oiut  of 
view,  and,  at  the  same  time,  most  beneficial  to  this  part  of  the  country. 

A  very  intelligent  gentleman,*  who  is  a  land-owner  at  tbe  upper  jiart  of 
the  hay,  has  made  several  experiments,  with  various  kinds  of  grain,  to  test 
the  quality  of  the  soil  proposed  to  be  enclosed;  and  based  upon  tbe  results 
he  has  thus  obtained,  he  gives  it  as  his  decided  ojiinion  that  it  will  be  highly 
productive. 

It  is  now  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  respecting  the  proposed  operations 
at  \^'hitellaven  and  Han*ington. 

Proponed  oj/eratioiix  at  Jl'/iitr/mvpii. — We  annex  two  sketches,  showing 
tbe  line  selected  for  the  railway  throu'gb  those  places.  It  will  be  seen,  that 
the  intention  is  to  take  down  houses  in  M'hitebaven  to  the  extent  of  half  a 
mile  in  length,  and  to  construct  the  proiiosed  viaduct  on  the  silcs  which 
these  buildings  occupy.  It  is  true  that,  for  the  most  part,  they  are  of  little 
value;  but,  nevertheless,  the  compensation  that  would  be  claimed  for  them 
would,  in  all  ])robnhility,  be  considerable;  and,  should  they  become  tlie  sub- 
ject of  lirigation,  the  amount  that  would  be  .iwarded  to  the  proprietors,  and 
the  law  expenees  connected  with  this  part  of  the  work,  would  he  found  no 
inconsiderable  items  in  tbe  cost  of  the  railway. 

As  we  have  alreaily  stated,  it  is  intended  to  cross  Harrington  Harbour  by 
a  viaduct. 

y/ie  crnsahir/  of  >/ip  Ilnrloiir  at  Harriitf/ton. — The  whole  extent  of  tbe 
bariiour  is  only  7G2  feet  in  length,  and  220  in  breadth  ;  and,  as  it  is  used  as 
well  for  a  jiort  of  refuge  as  of  lading,  and  there  is  an  insnttieiency  of  space 
for  vessels  to  anchor  and  swing  in,  an  artificial  beach  has  been  formed  at  the 
eastern  or  upper  end,  on  which  Ihey  are  enabled  to  bring  up. 

The  proposed  viaduct  would  cut  otf  about  a  third  of  the  harbour.  This 
would  not  only  be  objectionable  on  account  of  its  diminishing  the  capacity 
of  the  port,  but  also  by  its  dejiriving  the  shipping  of- tlie  artificial  beach  to 
which  we  have  just  alluded.  The  olijection  to  curtailing  tbe  size  of  tbe 
harbour  will  be  apiiarcnt,  when  we  state  that  the  harbour-master  supplied 
us  with  a  return  (verified  by  the  custom-house  officer),  by  which  we  find 
that,  in  the  course  of  the  last  year,  no  fewer  than  510  vessels  used  this  port, 
and  that,  during  gales  of  wind,  it  was  frequently  so  full  that  (hey  were  in 
actual  contact  from  side  to  side.  After  well  considering  this  part  of  the 
subject,  we  are  of  o]>inion,  that  whatever  expense  or  other  inconvenience  it 
nuglil  cause,  it  would  lie  necessary  to  adopt  some  other  mode  of  carrying 
the  railway  past  Harrington  than  that  proposed. 

I'Voni  the  t.ible  of  gi-adients  it  will  be  seen  that  the  gradients  of  this  hnc 
are  very  favourable. 

KXAMINATION'    OF    THK    INLAND    J.INHS. 

r.'aniinafioii  of  ihp  ]J,in  from  Vcnrith  to  Cnrlistr. — We  shall  now  describe 
tbe  two  inland  lines,  commencing  witli  the  proposed  railway  from  Penrith  to 
Carlisle,  which  is  common  to  both  projects. 

In  this  line,  which  is  .ibout  17'  miles  in  length,  no  engineering  difficulty 
presents  itself. 

It  would  pass  through  or  near  the  following  places:  Calthwaite,  South- 
waite,  Biirro<'k,  V.'reay,  Brisco,  and  Upperby,  to  form  a  junction  with  the 
Newcastle  and  Carlisle  Railway  at  St.  Nicholas. 

Tlie  greatest  embankment  in  this  distance  would  he  about  two  miles  in 
length,  and  of  an  average  licight  of  about  IG  feet,  between  Penrith  .and  the 
I'eteril  stream. 

;Vt  Sondiwaite,  a  cutting  would  be  necessary  of  about  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  in  length,  averaging  20  feet  in  depth,  in  sand  and  clay. 

Near  Wreay,  a  heavy  cutting  is  proposed,  in  sand  and  gravel.  Its  length 
is  about  a  mile,  and  its  extreme  depth  50  feet,  the  .average  being  30. 

K-rfiwivati'iu  of  tlir  Uiic  of  the  Linir,  from  Lancaster  to  Penritti. — We 
shall  proceed  (o  point  out  tbe  course  of  tbe  lines  which  are  jiroposcjl  to  form 
a  junction  w  ith  the  i'enrith  R.iilw.ay,  and  wc  shall  begin  with  tbe  project  of 
the  valley  of  the  Lune,  starting  from.  Lancaster. 

It  is  intended  Ih.it  the  terminus  should  be  that  of  the  Lancaster  .ind  Pres- 
ton Railway,  and  that  (be  line  should  be  carried  in  tbe  direction  of  Kirkby 
i.ousdale;  a  few  miles  lo  the  westward  of  Scdbergh;  thence  by  Borrow 
Bridge  ami  Orton,  and  through  Crosby,  Kavensworth,  Ncwhy,  Melkenthorp, 
aiul  Clifton,  to  Penrith. 

Between  Lancaster  and  Kirkby  Lonsdale  the  prominent  features  of  this 


*  Mr.  James  Stockdale,  of  Carke. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


243 


line  are,  first,  tlic  crossing  of  the  River  Lune  at  tlie  Crook,  on  a  bridge  of 
GO  feet  ill  licigiil,  and  consisting  of  tlirce  arches  of  50  feet  span  ;  llien  short 
cuttings  in  gravel  of  05  feet,  and  50  feet  in  depth ;  and  near  Kirkby  Lons- 
dale a  cutting  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  of  the  extreme  depth  of 
07  feet,  in  limestone. 

From  this  spot  to  nearly  ojiposite  to  Sedburgh,  the  only  engineering  work 
requiring  notice  is  the  crossing  of  the  Lune  twice  in  the  short  distance  of  1 5 
chains. 

.\t  Borrow  Bridge  the  Lune  would  have  to  be  crossed  on  a  bridge  of  about 
48  feet  in  height,  consisting  of  one  arch  of  GO  feet  span  ;  and  here  an  em- 
bankment of  nearly  half  a  mile  in  length,  and  of  the  mean  height  of  20  feet, 
would  also  be  necessary.  From  hence  to  Orton  the  points  deserving  of  re- 
mark are  the  formation  at  Tebay  of  an  embankment  of  lialf  a  mile  in  length, 
and  about  35  feet  in  height ;  aud  tlie  crossing  of  the  Lune  on  a  bridge  of 
M  feet  in  Keight,  and  about  200  feet  in  length. 

From  Tebay  the  line  rises  at  the  rate  of  1  in  132,  for  upwards  of  three 
miles  to  Orton  Scar,  the  proposed  summit,  which  is  650  feet  above  the  Lan- 
caster terminus. 

In  approaching  this  summit,  where  a  timncl  of  abont  1  mile  and  30  chains 
would  be  requisite,  there  would  be  a  cuttirig  in  rock  of  rather  more  than  a 
mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and  averaging  48  feet  in  depth;  the  extreme 
depth  being  84  feet.  On  the  northern  side  of  the  tunnel,  another  cutting  in 
the  same  material  would  occur,  of  about  half  a  mile  in  length,  averaging 
36  feet,  and  of  the  extreme  depth  of  75  feet. 

These  two  cuttings,  aud  the  tunnel,  which  are  in  red  sand-stone  and  lime- 
stone, wouhl  be  the  heanest  and  most  expensive  operations  on  this  line. 

The  extreme  height  of  the  hill  aliove  t!ie  tunnel  is  shown  in  Mr.  Larmer's 
section  as  being  322  feet,  and  this  we  have  found  to  be  con-ect,  by  a  survey 
made  under  onr  directions,  and  to  which  we  shall  hereafter  more  particularly 
allude. 

Between  the  northern  end  of  the  tunnel  and  Crosby  Ravensworth,  the 
railway  would  keep  in  the  valley,  in  which  Mr.  Larmer  proposes  to  cross  a 
mountain  stream  two  or  three  times ;  for  this  purpose  bridges  would  be 
necessary;  but  we  ai'e  of  opinion  that  it  would  be  better  to  change  the 
course  of  the  stream,  aud  to  form  a  proper  embankment  for  the  railway,  to 
keep  it  clear  of  the  water  during  tloods. 

At  Crosby  Ravensworth  a  bridge  44  feet  high,  and  at  Maids  Jleaburii 
another,  50  feet  high,  would  be  necessary,  over  two  streams ;  an  embank- 
ment would  likewise  be  required  at  the  latter  place.  At  ilorland  Bank  there 
would  be  an  embankment  of  half  a  nnle  in  length,  and  of  the  extreme  height 
of  55  feet. 

Between  Newby  and  Melkeuthorj)  a  cutting  in  limestone,  of  a  mile  in 
length,  and  of  the  extreme  depth  of  28  feet,  would  be  requisite.  At  the  last- 
n.imed  place  the  Leathe  would  have  to  be  ])assed,  on  a  bridge  of  GG  feet  in 
height,  with  an  arch  of  50  feet  span,  approached  by  considerable  embankments. 
At  Clifton  there  must  be  a  cutting  in  sand,  of  about  a  ([uarter  of  a  mile  in 
length,  and  averaging  30  feet  in  depth. 

Between  Clifton  and  Penrith,  the  Rivers  Lowther  and  Eamont  would  have 
to  be  crossed  on  bridges  of  52  feet  in  height,  and  200  yards  in  length. 

Examination  of  the  Kendal  Line,  from  Lancaster  to  Penrith — It  remains 
for  us  to  describe  the  Kendal  line. 

It  is  proposed  that  this  line  should  form  a  junction  with  the  Lancaster  and 
Preston  Railway,  at  about  2  miles  54  chains  from  the  terminus  at  the  former 
place  ;  that  it  should  pass  in  a  tunnel  under  the  town  of  Lancaster,  and  then 
by  a  stone  bridge  across  the  river  Lune,  near  the  ruins  of  the  old  bridge. 

From  this  point  it  would  pass  the  villages  of  Sline,  Bolton,  Carnfortb,  and 
Warton  ;  and  thence  crossing  the  Rivers  Betha  and  Viver  and  the  canal,  it 
would  be  carried  to  within  about  a  mile  of  the  town  of  Kendal. 

The  line  would  then  be  continued  by  a  rather  indirect  course  to  the  en- 
trance of  the  valley  of  Long  Sleddale,  where  it  would  cross  the  river  Sprint. 
It  is  intended  that  it  should  be  carried  to  the  upper  end  of  this  valley,  where 
a  tunnel  becomes  necessary  to  pass  through  (iate  Scarth.  Issuing  on  the 
north  side  of  the  hill,  the  railway  would  open  on  the  valley  of  Mardale-green, 
and  after  passing  by  another  tunnel  tluough  Chapel  Hill,  be  continued  along 
the  western  side  of  the  lake  of  llawes  ^Vater,  surrounded  by  scenery  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  romantic  character,  as  far  as  the  village  of  Brampton. 
From  hence  it  would  run  for  several  miles  nearly  parallel  to  the  course  of  the 
River  Lowther,  as  far  as  the  village  of  Askham,  where  it  would  skirt  the 
park  of  Lowther  Castle  ;  it  would  then  have  to  cross  the  River  Eamont,  and 
proceed  direct  to  the  proposed  southern  terminus  of  the  Carlisle  and  Penrith 
Railway. 

The  chief  details  of  this  line  are  as  follow : — 

The  length  of  the  tunnel  proposed  to  be  formed  under  the  town  of  Lan- 
caster is  13  chains ;  the  length  of  the  bridge  over  the  Lune  is  represented  by 
Mr.  Bintley  to  be  400  feet,  and  its  height  26  feet.  Near  Hestbank  a  tunnel 
of  eight  chains  in  length  is  shown  in  ilr.  Bintley's  section,  but  it  is  believed 
that  this  may  be  avoided. 

No  severe  work  would  occur  until  nearly  opposite  to  Carnfortb  Lodge, 
where  there  would  be  a  cutting  of  half  a  mile  in  length,  averaging  20  feet  in 
depth,  followed  by  an  embankment  of  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  length, 
and  20  feet  in  mean  height,  having,  about  mid-way,  a  bridge  over  the  River 
Keer, 

From  hence  towai-ds  Burton  there  would  be  two  cuttings  through  alluvial 
soil  and  limestone  ;  the  average  depth  being  about  30  feet,  and  the  total 
ength  something  more  than  a  mile. 


Between  the  towns  of  Burton  and  Kendal  the  rivers  Bctha  ar.d  Viver,  as 
well  as  the  Lancaster  and  Kendal  Canal,  wouhl  have  to  be  crossed  on  bridges, 
and  a  tunnel  of  13  chains  in  length,  and  nearly  half  a  mile  of  deep  cutting  in' 
schistose  rock,  would  be  necessary. 

From  Kendal  to  the  entrance  of  the  proposed  summit  tunnel,  Jlr.  Bintley's 
section  shows  the  necessity  of  the  following  works  ;  and  althuugli  au  inspec- 
tion of  the  country  led  us  to  believe  that  t'lie  line  might,  in  some  few  in- 
stances, be  improved,  we  do  not  think  that  the  alterations  we  suggested  on 
the  spot  are  of  sutficieut  importance  to  be  adverted  to  in  this  report. 

There  are  two  rock  cuttings  of  the  average  depth  of  30  feet,  and  measuring 
together  seven  eighths  of  a  mile  in  length  ;  then  there  is  a  viaihict  of  the 
extreme  height  of  125  feet,  aud  IG  chains  in  length;  and  in  the  following 
order,  a  tunnel  of  11  chains,  another  of  14;  chains,  then  a  cutting  of  three 
quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  averaging  4"8  feet  in  height ;  a  viaduct  114 
feet  in  extreme  height,  and  9  chains  long,  a  cutting  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
length,  of  the  a\  erage  depth  of  30  feet ;  an  embankment  also  of  a  quarter  of 
a  mile  in  length,  and  45  feet  in  height ;  again  a  cutting  of  the  same  length, 
and  38  feet  in  dejith,  an  embankment  half  a  mile  in  length,  and  40  feet  in 
height,  crossing  tlie  Sprint  on  a  bridge ;  and,  finally,  another  cmliankmeut 
of  25  chains  in  length,  and  50  feet  in  height. 

These  cuttings  are  chielly  in  schistose  rock.  The  River  Sprint,  which  runs 
through  tlie  valley  of  Long  Sleddale,  has  a  rather  tortuous  course ;  and,  as  it 
frequently  crosses  the  line  of  the  railway,  some  difficulties  would  necessarilv 
arise  in  diverting  the  course  of  this  river,  as  well  as  of  the  mountain  stream's 
which  flow  into  it. 

In  connexion  \vith  the  summit  tunnel  there  is  a  cutting,  the  longitudinal 
section  of  which  is  nearly  of  a  triangular  form,  being  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
in  length,  and  G3  feet  in  extreme  depth. 

The  length  of  the  tunnel  is  shown  on  the  section  prepared  by  Mr.  Bintley 
as  2  miles  aud  20  chains,  aud  as  being  1200  feet  under  the  summit  of  the 
liiU  through  which  it  would  have  to  lie  pierced.  On  issuing  from  the  tunnel, 
on  the  nortli  side  of  the  hill,  tlicre  wouhl  be  a  cutting  of  rather  less  than 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  about  40  feet  in  depth,  and  then  a  short 
tunnel  of  20  chains,  through  Chapel  Hill.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Bintley,  that 
these  cuttings  and  tunnels  would'be  in  rock  of  the  clay  slate  formation. 

The  Rev.  A.  Sedgwick,  who  has  very  minutely  examined  this  district,  re- 
presents it  as  being  composed  of  green  slate  and  porphyry,  which  he  con- 
ceived to  have  been  elevated  by  the  protrusion  of  mountain  granite  and 
syenite.* 

Beyond  the  short  tunnel  there  would  be  an  embankment  of  about  a  mile 
ill  length,  and  aljoiit  28  feet  in  height.  From  hence,  passing  by  Brainptou 
and  Hilton,  there  is  nothing  of  importance  to  notice  until  arriving  at  Ask- 
ham,  where  a  cutting  would  be  reqiusite,  in  rock  of  the  grawacke  formation, 
of  IJ  mile  in  length,  and  averaging  25  feet  in  dejith. 

Between  Askham  aud  Penrith  there  is  no  work  of  consequence,  excepting 
the  bridge  across  the  Eamont,  which  would  require  to  be  85  feet  in  height, 
and  200  feet  in  length. 

Operation!:  of  an  e.rpensii'e  or  difficult  character  on  the  Kendal  Line. — The 
engineering  ditticulties,  or  works  of  a  very  expensive  character  on  the  Kendal 
line,  arc  as  follows: — 

1st.  The  tunnel  under  the  town  of  Lancaster. 
2nd.  The  bridge  over  the  Lune. 
3rd.  The  works  in  the  valley  of  Long  Sleddale ;  and, 
4th.  The  summit  tunnel. 

The  tunnel  under  the  town,  although  only  13  chains  in  length,  would  he 
expensive,  and  might  give  rise  to  some  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
habitants. 

It  is  proposed  to  build  the  bridge  for  the  railway  over  the  Lune  at  the 
point  where  the  old  bridge  formerly  stood,  and  where  the  river  makes  aii 
elbow  towards  the  southern  shore.  In  order  to  diminish  the  cost  of  the 
work,  by  avoiding  the  necessity  of  using  coft'cr-dams,  Mr.  Bintley  proposes 
to  construct  the  bridge  on  the  shore,  opposite  to  Lancaster,  and  afterwards 
to  divert  the  course  of  the  river,  so  tliat  it  may  flow  through  the  arches  of 
the  proposed  bridge,  and  he  would  then  fill  u])  tlie  present  bed  of  the  river, 
and  form  an  embankment  across  it. 

The  operations  in  the  valley  of  Long  Sleddale  would  require  to  be  managed 
with  much  care  and  dexterity,  for  owing  to  its  narrowness,  and  the  space 
required  for  the  railway  embankments,  the  ])resent  courses  of  the  River 
Sprin:,  and  of  its  tributary  streams,  would  be  much  interrupted. 

However,  all  these  matters  are  of  but  little  moment  in  coniparison  with 
the  great  work  of  this  line,  the  summit  tunnel. 

Summit  Tanne:  on  the  Kendal  Line. — We  have  before  remarked  that  this 
tunnel  is  pro))Osed  to  be  2J  miles  in  lengtli,  and  to  be  approached  on  the 
south  through  a  cutting  of  three  quarters  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  on  the 
north  by  a  tunnel  of  one  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  a  cutting  of  nearly 
the  same  extent,  making  a  total  length  of  nearly  'ih  miles  of  very  severe 
work. 

Comparison  of  the  Lines. — Having  now  described,  in  sufficient  detail,  the 
principal  features,  as  far  as  regards  construction,  of  the  three  competing 
lines,  we  shall  proceed  to  consider  their  defects  and  advantages,  in  order  tu 
decide  upon  their  relative  merits. 

In  the  two  inland  lines,  which  we  shall  first  compare  together,  the  most 
striking  defects  are,  obviously,  their  summit  tunnels.  *  * 

*  Trans.  Geological  Society,  2nd  Series,  vol.  4.  p.  67. 

2  K   2 


44 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


Observations  on  the  mecUanicul properties  of  the  t/iree  competing  Lines. — 
Coast  Line. — ReferriRg  now  to  the  mechanical  jiropcrtics  of  these  lines,  it 
ppcars  tliat  the  length  of  railroail  to  be  executed  on  the  coa.st  line,  between 
the  tci'niinus  of  the  Preston  and  Lancaster  railway  at  Lancaster,  and  the 
Jlaiyport  railway,  amounts  to  06  miles  12  chains,  and  that  the  h'ngth  of  the 
Maryimrl  and  Carlisle  Uailway,  which  is  now  in  progress,  is  2H  miles  3  chains, 
maliiiig  tlic  whole  distance  between  Lancaster  and  Carlisle  94  miles  -15  chains ; 
the  gradients  being  of  a  favourable  description. 

Lnne  Line. — By  the  iidand  line  of  the  valley  of  the  Luue,  Orton,  and  Pen- 
rith, the  wliole  distance  between  Lancaster  and  Carlisle  is  OS  miles  48  chains ; 
but  the  gradients  .ire  less  favourable  than  those  of  tlic  coast  line. 

Kendal  line.— By  the  other  inland  line  via  Kendal,  the  distance  between 
the  termini  at  Lancaster  and  Carlisle  is  only  04  miles  34  chains ;  but  as  this 
line  enters  Lancaster  on  a  different  level  from  the  terminus  of  the  Preston 
and  Lancaster  railway,  it  does  not  form  a  junction  with  that  line  till  it  has 
passed  2  miles  .^)  I  chains  farther  on,  towards  Preston ;  so  that  tlie  whole 
length'ofnew  line  to  be  executed  on  this  route  will  amount  to  07  miles  8 
chains,  the  gradients  being  somewhat  less  favourable  than  on  the  line  of  the 
Lune. 

In  order  to  make  a  comparison  of  tlie  mechanical  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  these  lines,  we  have  reduced  several  gradients  to  eijuivaleut  hori- 
zontal distances. 

The  principle  of  this  reduction  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows. 

Eaplonafion  of  the  term  er/tiiralmt  horizontal  ilisfance. — There  is  always 
an  increased  trarlive  power  required  to  ascend  a  plaric  beyond  that  which  is 
reipusite  on  a  level,  and  therefoi'e  (the  engine  being  the  same)  a  certain 
amomit  of  additional  time  is  required  in  the  ascent.  This  additional  time 
would  allow  the  eug-ine  to  pass  over  a  certain  extent  of  horizontal  distance 
with  the  same  load,  aud  this  increase  of  distance  may  Ije  taken  as  a  measure 
of  the  retarding  effect  of  the  ascending  plane. 

In  desceniling  the  same  plane,  the  tractive  force  and  time  requisite  ai'eless 
than  on  a  horizontal  plane,  aud  this  eft'ect  may  therefore  be  indicated  by  a 
iLorizoutal  line  shorter  than  the  plane;  but  as  there  is  always  more  time  lost 
in  ascending  than  is  gained  iu  descending  any  given  plane,  a  loss  is  sustained 
on  the  aggregate,  and  this  whole  effect  may  be  expressed  by  an  increased 
length  of  line,  greater  or  less  according  to  the  steepness  of  the  plane  and  the 
amount  of  the  load,  and  this  increased  line  is  what  has  been  denominated  tlie 
equivalent  horizontal  distance.* 

This  mode  of  reduction  has  been  carefully  applied  to  the  several  gradients 
on  each  of  the  three  lines  now  under  consideration.  \Ve  fmd  that  the  loeo- 
jnotive  power  requisite  to  work  the  coast  line  of  94  miles  .'i  I  chains,  with  a 
gross  load  of  50  tons,  is  cciuivaleut  to  that  which  would  work  a  horizontal 
line  of  98  miles  3 !  chains ;  while  the  mean  eqlnvalent  distance,  for  the  inland 
line  of  the  valley  of  the  Lune,  is  78  miles  1  chain;  aud  for  the  Kendal  line, 
between  Lancaster  aud  Carlisle,  75  miles  9  chains.  As  far,  therefore,  as  re- 
gards the  expense  of  locomotive  power,  the  advantage  is  ranch  in  favour  of 
either  of  the  inland  lines,  as  compared  with  the  coast  line,  while  all  the  other 
expenses  are  still  more  in  their  favoin-,  these  latter  expenses  being  generally 
proportional  to  the  actual  distance,  such  as  police,  stations,  water  stations, 
road  repairs,  govermuent  taxes,  &p. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  effect  that  this  increased  locomotive  expense 
woidd  have  on  the  general  working  expenses  of  the  several  lines,  we  have 
examined  with  great  care  and  attention  the  official  returns  of  the  principal 
working  railways,  separating,  as  far  as  possible,  the  charges  fur  locomotive 
power  from  the  other  charges ;  and  although  we  have  found  considerable 
differences  in  the  proportions,  according  to  the  prices  of  fuel  aud  other  cir- 
cumstances ;  yet,  upon  the  whole,  it  .ippears  to  be  a  fair  average  to  assume 
the  locomotive  expenses  as  amounting  to  one-third  (or  about  33  per  cent.) 
of  the  total  working  expenses  of  a  line  of  railway  of  moderate  traflic  ;  aud 
since  the  equivalent  distance  on  the  inland  lines  is  about  one-sixth  greater 
than  the  actual  distance,  the  additional  locomotive  charge  due  to  the  gradients 
will  amount  to  about  l-18th,  or  six  per  cent,  on  the  general  expenses  of  the 
line ;  or  estimating,  as  is  usually  done,  the  total  exjienses  at  half  tlie  income, 
to  about  three  per  cent,  on  the  latter;  which,  if  borne  by  the  traveller,  would 
liave  the  effect  of  increasing  his  fare  4d.,  on  either  the  Kendal  or  Lune  line, 
assuming  the  fare  under  ordinary  circumsiances  at  2il.  per  mile.  At  this  rate 
of  charge,  and  making  the  addition  of  4r/.oii  the  inland  lines,  the  fare  for  the 
journey  between  Lancaster  and  Carlisle  would  lie- 
By  the  Coast  line  IS"-  9(/. 

By  the  Lune  line    11     7 

By  the  Kendal  line 10  11 

In  respect  of  time ;  estimating  the  speed,  including  stoppages,  at  22\  miles 
per  hour  on  the  equivalent  distances  on  the  three  lines,  we  find  it  to  amount — 

By  the  Coast  line  to 4h.  22m. 

By  the  Lune  line 3      28 

By  the  Kendal  line  3      20 

It  appears  therefore,  notwithstanding  the  mccliauieal  disadvantages  of  the 
gradients  on  the  inland  lines,  as  compared  with  those  on  the  coast  line,  that 
the  expense  to  the  traveller,  as  well  as  the  time  of  performing  his  journey, 
would  he  considerably  greater  on  the  latter  line  than  on  either  of  the  former. 

We  have  next  examined  the  claims  of  the  three  lines  as  regards  the  amount 
(If  population,  and  present  coach  and  mail  traffic. 


*  See  appendix  to  Barlow's  treatise  on   the  sirenglli  of  Inm,  Ste..  and  also 
fart  3,  vol.  iii.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Institute  of  Ci.vil  Engineei-s. 


The  amount  of  popul.ition  per  mile  has  been  found  by  diviihng  the  total 
population  within  10  miles  on  each  side  of  the  respective  lines  by  tlic  number 
of  miles,  employing  in  each  case  the  ceubusof  1831,  aud  the  amount  of  coacli 
traffic  has  been  determined  in  the  usual  way,  from  returns  supplied  to  us  from 
the  stamp  office. 

We  thus  find —  Population     Passengers 

per  mile.       per  annum. 

By  the  Coast  line 1,923  8,040 

By  the  Lune  line 2,240  21,528 

By  the  Kendal  line 2,460         21,528 

To  bring  these  several  results  more  immediately  into  one  point  of  view,  we 
have  collected  and  arranged  them  as  in  the  following  table : — 

7'ni/p  showimj  l/ie  Relative  Properties  of  I  tie  projected  Lines  between 
Lancaster  and  Carlisle. 


Data. 

Kondal 
Line. 

Lune 
Line. 

Coast 
Line. 

Length  of  line  already  made,  or  in  progress  . . 

M.  c. 

67     8 

64  34" 

75    9 

s.  d. 
10  11 

H.    M. 

3  20 
2.460 

21,528r 

M.  c. 

68  48 
68  48 

78    1 

s.  d. 
11     7 

11.   M. 

3  28 
2.240 

21,528t 

M.   C. 

28    3 
66  42 

94  45 

98  34 

s.  d. 
15    9 

11.    M. 

4  22 
1,923 

8,040 

Leiiglh  of  line  to  be  worked  between  Lancaster 
and  Carlisle 

Locomotive  power  reijuisile  to  work  each  line, 
expressed  in  equivalent  honzoiital  distances 

Kxpcnses  of  journey,  per  passenger,  at  2d.  per 
mile  of  actuaj  distance,  incUiding  4d.  extra 

Time  on  each  line  between  Lancaster  and  Car- 
lisle, at  20  miles  per  hour,  of  equivalent  dis- 

Poimlalion  per  mile  in  length,  witliin  a  dis- 
tance of  ten  miles  of  each  line    

Average  number  of  passengers  licensed  to  be 
carried    per   annum,    by    mails   and    sfage- 

It  will  he  clear  from  an  inspection  of  this  table,  that  it  would  cost  each 
passenger  between  Lancaster  and  Carlisle  about  4.s-.  more  on  every  journey 
by  the  coast  route  than  by  either  of  the  inland  lines,  besides  the  loss  of  nearly 
one  hoiu  in  time. 

For  these  reasons,  as  far  as  regards  the  corainnnication  between  England 
and  Scotland,  which  is  the  great  object  of  our  impiiry,  we  consider  it  to  he 
our  duty  to  give  the  preference  to  one  of  the  inland  lines. 

As  regards  the  communication  between  London  aud  Manchester,  viii  Car- 
lisle, with  Glasgow,  there  can  be  no  question,  from  what  has  been  stated,  that 
the  preference  ought  to  be  given  to  one  of  the  inland  lines ;  but  it  must  also 
be  admitftd.  that  the  coast  line  would  offer  greater  facilities  for  comnmni- 
cating  with  Belfast  and  the  north  of  Ireland. 

We  have,  however,  to  observe,  that  the  harbour  now  forming  at  Fleet- 
wood, which,  by  the  Preston  aud  Wyre  Uailway,  will  be  put  in  comnnnii- 
cation  with  Loudon,  and  Ihe  manufacturing  districts  of  Lancashire,  appears 
to  us  likely  to  form  a  good  jioint  of  departure  for  the  north  of  Ireland  and 
west  of  Scotland. 

But  the  great  (piestlon  for  consideration  is,  whether  every  passenger  be- 
tween Lancaster  and  Glasgow  shall  be  compelled  to  spend  4x.  or  5.s.  and  lose 
one  hour  each  journey  by  being  taken  round  by  Maryport,  or  whether  the 
Irish  passenger  shall  incur  the  same  increased  exiieuse,  aud  .about  the  same 
loss  of  time,  by  being  taken  rounil  by  Cailisle  to  Marj'port,  to  embark  in  the 
Belfast  steamer,  siqiposing  him  to  select  this  route  in  preference  to  that  by 
the  Preston  and  M'yre  Uailway  to  the  Harbour  of  Fleetwood.  Now,  as  such 
steamer  can  only  be  supposed  to  make  one  or  two  passages  per  week,  while 
the  trains  between  Lancaster  and  Csrlisle  would  probably  ruii  several  times 
|ier  day,  it  would  be  exceedingly  iirejudicial  to  the  general  public  interest 
that  the  whole  of  the  Scotch  traffic  should  be  compelled  to  pass  .iloug  the 
coast  line.  With  regard  to  the  statistical  claims  of  the  coast  hue,  it  appears 
from  returns  with  which  we  have  been  furnished,  of  the  assessed  taxes  along 
this  line,  as  well  as  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  the  several  harbours,  the 
steam-boat  traffic,  aud  popidation,  that  these,  .although  considerable  between 
Carlisle  and  Whitehaven,  are  not  so  for  the  remaining  54  miles,  viz.,  between 
Whitehaven  aud  Laucaster,  so  that  when  divided  upon  the  whole  distance, 
they  are  generally  less  per  mile  than  on  the  inland  lines. 

Opinion  as  to  the  preference  rrliich  should  be  given. — From  a  full  and  care- 
ful consideration  of  all  the  bearings  of  tlie  case,  we  therefore  feel  it  our  duly 
to  reject  the  coast  line,  so  far  as  regards  its  being  made  a  hnk  in  the  chain 
of  connexion  between  England  and  Scotland. 

The  next  question  is,  the  jneference  which  ought  to  be  given  to  one  of  the 
two  projected  inland  lines. 

Referring  again  to  oiir  table,  it  appears  that  the  mechanical  superiority, 
although  inconsiderable,  is  with  the  Kendal  line,  its  equivalent  distance 
being  75  miles  9  chains,  while  that  of  tlic  Lune  line  is  78  miles  1  chain. 

'  The  Kendal  line  passes  th(  ' Lane;ister  station  to  a  junction  with  Ihe 
Preston  and  Lincaster.  2  miles  54  chains  nearer  In  Preston  than  Lancaster, 
making  the  distance  from  Carlisle  to  i_,ancaster  only  ti4  miles  34  chains. 

1  Kach  of  these  numbers  include  the  whole  present  mail  and  stage  traffic 
Ijetweeu  Carlisle  and  Lancaster,  via  Pcniith. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


245 


The  statistical  properties  ai-e  nearly  the  same  on  both  lines,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  Lunc  line  would  not  take  in  its  route  the  important  and 
thrivuig  town  of  Kendal.  The  advantages  this  town  would  derive  from  the 
near  approach  of  a  railway  from  the  north  would  be  considerable,  particu- 
larly from  the  facihty  it  would  afford  for  obtaining  coal,  of  which  the  con- 
sumption is  tliere  represented  to  be  large ;  and  reciprocally  tlie  railway  would 
derive  an  increase  of  its  revenue  by  its  connexion  with  this  town. 

It  was  evident  to  us  in  tlie  coiu'se  of  our  inspection  of  the  countrj-,  that 
the  engineering  difficulties  of  that  part  of  Mr.  Bintley's  line  which  extends 
from  Kendal  to  Mai'dale  Green,  would  entitle  the  Liuie  line  to  a  preference, 
and  we  therefore  inquired  whether  it  might  not  be  practicable  to  connect  the 
two  lines  together  by  adopting  Mr.  Bintley's  route  from  Lancaster  to  Kendal, 
and  Mr.  Larner's  fi"om  Penrith  down  to  Borrow  Bridge,  and  by  finding  a 
practicable  line  from  the  last  named  place  to  Kendal ;  but  Mr.  Larmer  stated 
that  such  a  line  would  be  of  too  expensive  a  character  to  admit  of  this  pro- 
position  being  entertained.  However,  since  our  return  to  London,  and  in- 
deed since  this  report  has  been  drawn  up,  the  provisional  committee  of  the 
Kendal  line  have  requested  us  to  receive  and  report  upon  a  survey,  recently 
made  by  Mr.  Larmer,  to  connect  the  lines  of  the  Lune  and  Kent,  nearly  in 
the  manner  al)ove  described.  Our  instructions  preclude  us  from  acceding 
to  this  request,  but  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying,  that  if  a  line  has  been 
found  which  would  aftbrd  the  advantage  of  a  direct  railway  communication 
to  Kendal,  witliout  either  materially  increasing  the  cost  of  construction,  or 
tlie  length  of  the  line  l)etween  Lancaster  and  Carlisle,  and  which  would  be 
free  from  other  defects,  it  might  be  more  beneficial  to  the  public  than  the 
Lune  line.  Tliis,  however,  is  a  suliject  for  future  consideration,  and  in  tlio 
meanweile,  keeping  in  view  tlie  general  tenor  of  our  instructions,  the  main 
feature  of  wliich,  in  the  present  part  of  our  inquiry,  is  that  we  should  deter- 
mine what,  under  all  circumstances,  would  be  the  best  means  of  establishing 
a  railway  communication  between  London  and  the  city  of  Glasgow,  having 
reference,  also,  to  the  interests  of  the  manufacturing  districts  of  Lancashire, 
the  western  parts  of  Scotland,  and  the  iiortli  of  Ireland,  we  feel  bound,  after 
a  careful  anrl  deliberate  review  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
three  competing  lines,  to  state  that  we  give  the  preference  to  tlie  line  of  the 
valley  of  tlie  Lune  and  renrith  over  tlio  Kendal  line,  on  account  of  the 
greater  engineering  difficulties  on  the  latter ;  and  that  we  also  give  the  Lime 
line  a  preference  over  tlie  coast  line,  in  consequence  of  its  shortening  tlie 
time  anil  diminishing  the  cost  of  travelling  to  the  greater  proportion  of  pas- 
sengers wlio  would  require  to  avail  tliemselves  of  railway  communication 
north  of  Lancaster. 

We  have  to  remark  that  the  line  to  which  we  have  thus  given  a  prefe- 
rence, w  ill  require  a  smaller  capital  tlian  either  of  the  other  lines ;  for  the 
cost  of  its  construction  will  lie  less  than  tliat  of  either  the  Kendal  or  the 
roast  line;  and  it  must  lie  liorne  in  mind  that  as  respects  the  last,  although 
its  promoters  calculate  upon  a  great  return  for  their  outlay,  by  the  land  to 
be  reclaimed  in  Morecanibe  Bay,  still  the  capital  for  the  embankments  must 
be  raised  in  the  first  instance. 

It  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  observe,  that  if  the  statement  of  Mr.  Hague, 
as  revised  by  us  in  a  former  part  of  this  report,  should  be  nearly  accurate, 
viz.,  that  the  cost  of  forming  water-tight  embankments  across  Moreeanibe 
Bay  anil  tlie  Duddeii  Sands,  with  the  works  dependent  thereon,  would  only 
amount  to  £r)43,372  2s.  ll-ld.,  and  if  there  should  appear  a  probability  of 
tlie  land  lo  be  reclaimed  realizing  so  large  a  sum  as  £1,190,000,  this  project 
might  stand  on  its  own  merits,  apart  from  any  connexion  with  a  railway. 

In  conclusion,  we  have  only  to  state  that  in  our  inspection  of  the  coast 
line,  we  were  accompanied  throughout  the  whole  distance  by  Mr.  Briscoe, 
an  assistant  to  Mr.  Rastrick,  and  in  our  examination  of  Morecambe  Bay  by 
Mr.  Hague,  the  engineer,  and  by  Mr.  Yarker,  the  solicitor,  besides  other 
gentlemen  interested  in  this  project.  Mr.  Larmer  pointed  out  the  Lune  line, 
and  Mr.  liiiitley  the  Kendal  line,  and  we  were  also  accompanied  by  the  secre- 
taiT  and  several  members  of  the  Kendal  committee,  all  of  whom  evinced 
every  desire  to  facilitate  our  inquiry  ;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  more  time 
and  means  bad  not  been  at  the  disposal  of  the  surveyors  of  the  inland  lines, 
to  have  enabled  them  to  prepare  their  plans  and  other  drawings  in  an  equally 
perfect  and  satisfactory  manner  with  those  of  the  coast  line. 
We  have,  &c., 

Frederic  Smith,  Lieut.-col.  R.  E. 

Peter  Barlow,  F.  R.  S. 

Henry  Amsinck,  Lieut.  R.N.  Sec. 

To  Robert  Gordon,  Esq.,  M.  P. 


of 


Hull  ami  Selby  Rmhoaij. — We  are  glad  to  be  alile  to  stale  that  a  deputation 
the  Directors  of  this  Company  went  over  the  line  from  tlie  passenger  sta- 
tion at  Hull  lo  the  junction  with  llie  Li-eds  and  Selby  Railway  at  Selby,  on 
Saturday,  May  30.  The  carriage  «  as  dra«  ii  by  one  of  llie  engines  made  fur 
the  Company,  by  Messrs,  Fenton.  Murray,  and  .Tackson,  of  Leeds.  The  line 
being  laid  upwardsof  one-half  of  its  entire  length  upon  longitudinal  bearings 
of  Riga  timber,  is  particularly  easy  and  siiioolb  ;  the  remaining  portion  of 
the  line  is  laid  upon  cross  sleepers,  and  the  whole  will  be  completed  in  a 
satisfaelory  manner.  As  a  considerable  portion  of  the  second  line  is  finished, 
and  a  great  number  of  men  are  employed  upon  the  remaining  part,  tliere  is 
no  doubt  that  both  lines  will  be  completed  for  opening  to  the  public  on  the 
Isl  July,  thejtime  proposed  by  the  Direclors.  The  buildings  at  the  Hull  ter- 
minus, and  also  those  at  thi-'Selijy  terminus,  are  nearly  finished,  as  are  the 
various  station-houses  on  the  line,  and  tlip  Direetors  have  in  the  past  week 
appointed  the  clerks  and  other  officers  of  their  estaUishmenls.— //«?/  Ob- 
servtr. 


REPORT  ON  THE  PLANS  FOR  PREVENTING  ACCIDENT.^ 
ON  BOARD  STEAM  VESSELS. 

In'  consequence  of  the  accident  of  the  "Earl  Grey"  steam  boat  in 
lS3o,  the  Trustees  of  the  river  Clyde,  with  a  laudable  desire  to  avert 
similar  accidents,  very  shortly  after  tlie  disaster  issued  the  following 
advertisement. 

"  The  Parliamentary  Trustees  on  the  River  Clyde  hereby  offer  a  iiremium  of 
One  Hundred  Guineas  to  any  iiersoii  who  shall,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Trus- 
tees, or  of  a  Committee  of  their  number,  within  one  month  of  this  date, 
essay  or  fumiih  the  best  practical  mode  of  efteetually  preventing  accidents, 
from  the  imperfect  consti-iiction  or  use  of  the  steam  engine,  or  gearing  of 
steam  vessels,  in  their  navigation  upon  navigable  rivers,  and  of  carrying  the 
same  into  permanent  effect  or  execution,  independent  of  the  control  or  dis- 
cretion of  the  master  or  crew  of  the  vessel. 

The  Trustees  have  also  placed  at  the  disposal  of  a  Committee  of  their 
number.  One  Hundred  Pounds,  to  be  distributed  among  such  scientific  or 
other  persons  as  may  he  unsuccessful  coiniietitors  for  the  above  premium, 
but  who  may,  nevertheless,  suggest  such  improvements  upon  the  plan  of  the 
snceessful  competitors,  as,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Committee,  may  be  bene- 
ficially adopted  or  ingrafted  upon  the  said  plan." 

In  compliance  with  this  advertisement  there  were  no  less  than  G5 
designs  of  apparatus  and  essays  sent  in.  For  the  purpose  of  guiding 
the  judgment  of  the  Committee,  tliey  determined  upon  referring  the 
whole  to  parties  fully  competent  to  investigate  the  merits  of  each  ap- 
paratus and  essay,  and  selected  the  following  gentlemen  :  Mr.  Robert 
Napier,  Mr.  James  Smith,  and  Mr.  D.  Mackain,  who  undertook  the 
task  referred  to  them. 

In  consequence  of  the  advertisement  not  limiting  the  premium  to 
the  actual  inventor,  numerous  schemes  were  sent  in  which  were  the 
inventions  of  others,  and  many  in  daily  use  in  all  parts  of  tlie  world. 
For  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  referees  in  their  examinations,  they 
divided  the  several  designs  and  essays  into  classes,  and  again  sub- 
divided the  clas.'ies  into  sections,  and  after  a  careful  examinution  the 
referees  sent  in  their  report  to  the  Committee,  accompanied  with 
drawings  of  the  apparatus  submitted  to  them.  As  this  rejiort  is  of 
considerable  length,  it  is  not  our  intention  to  give  the  whole,  but  shall 
content  ourselves  by  giving  the  most  material  parts  of  it,  accompanied 
with  engravings  of  the  apparatus  for  which  the  premiums  were  al- 
lotted. 


To  the  Trus/een  of  the  River  Cli/iie,  Olaxi/ow,  bij  Robert  Napier,  Esq.,  of 
Glaxgnw,  James  Smith,  Esq.,  of  Deanstone,  and  1).  Mackain,  Esq.,  of 
Glanymv. 

In  compliance  with  the  request  conveyed  to  us  severally  by  Mr.  Turner, 
we  have  carefully  considered  the  various  plans,  models  and  essays,  lodged  in 
the  Council  Chambers,  numbered  from  1  to  65. 

As  the  terms  of  the  advertisement  neither  restrict  the  competitors  to  the 
production  of  plans  of  their  own  invention,  nor  preclude  from  competition 
any  apparatus  already  in  use,  it  involves  the  possibility  of  the  Trustees 
awarding  the  premium  to  one  person,  for  the  invention  of  another ;  or  to  the 
exhibitor  of  apparatus,  which,  though  in  general  use,  may  still  be  considered 
the  best  adapted  to  attain  the  end  in  view. 

Though  we  mention  this  to  show  that,  unintentionally,  private  wrong 
might  be  done,  or  that  a  reward  might  be  paid  for  an  exhibition  of  that  with 
which  every  maker  of  steam  engines  is  acquainted,  yet  the  open  nature  of 
the  competition  may  have  had  the  effect  of  obtaining,  and  we  doubt  not  it 
was  the  object  of  the  Trustees  to  obtain,  a  general  view  of  the  opinions  en- 
tertained by  persons  whose  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  important 
subject  of  preventing  dangerous  accidents  on  board  of  steam  vessels. 

The  competitors  dirt'er  in  opinion  as  to  the  causes  by  which  explosion  is 
produced,  and  in  consequence,  the  apparatus  they  submit  vary  in  tlieir  con- 
struction and  proposed  use,  according  to  the  idea  which  each  entertains  on 
this  subject. 

A  number  of  the  plans  very  closely  resemble  each  other,  differing  only  in 
unimportant  details — this  we  consider  to  be  the  natural  result  of  so  many 
persons  applying  themselves  to  the  attainment  of  one  object.  It  is  also  re- 
markable, that  a  great  number  have  adopted  the  common  safety-valve,  as  the 
principal  part  of  their  several  designs  ;  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  tacit 
acknowledgment  of  its  general  efficiency  and  extreme  simplicity. 

From  these  causes  we  have  found  it  convenient,  in  preparing  our  Report, 
to  divide  the  plans  into  classes,  according  to  the  causes  of  explosion'  which 
they  are  designed  to  modify  or  prevent,  and  to  form  these  classes  into  sec- 
tions, according  to  the  means  by  which  these  objects  are  expected  to  be 
attained. 

first  class. 

The  first  class  contains  the  designs  submitted  oy  the  competitors  who  are 
of  opinion,  that  explosion  proceeds  from  a  gradual  accumulation  of  steam  in 
the  boiler,  increasing  in  elastic  force  by  the  continued  action  of  fire  in  the 
furnaces,  until  it  exceeds  the  strength  of  the  boiler. 


240 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


This  class  is  divided  into  eight  sections. 

Fiisl  Section. — Tlie  fiist  section  embraces  those  designs  by  wliich  the 
competitors  proiiose  to  diseli;irge  a  quantity  of  water  into  the  furnace,  or 
into  tlie  flues  leading  from  them,  whenever  the  force  of  the  steam  is  sntiieieut 
to  raise  the  water  from  the  lioiler  to  a  certain  height  in  a  pijie,  so  that 
thereby  the  intensity  of  the  tire  may  he  diminislied. 

•  Second  Sec/ion. — The  iirinciple  on  which  the  designs  in  this  section  are 
construeted,  is,  lliat  when  the  pressure  of  the  steam  is  sutticicnt  to  raise 
water  from  the  lioilcr  to  a  certain  height,  it  rises  round  a  hollow  vessel  or 
float,  susjieuded  at  that  height  from  one  end  of  a  lever,  the  other  end  being 
connected  with  a  safety-valve  of  tlie  common  furni.  In  some  of  tlie  jilaus, 
the  hollow  vessel  or  tloat  is  designed  to  act  as  tlie  load  on  the  safety-valve, 
so  that,  to  whatever  extent  it  may  be  immersed  in  the  water,  so  raised  by 
the  strengtli  of  the  steam,  to  that  extent  is  the  safety-valve  lightened  of  its 
load.  In  others,  the  weight  of  water  dis]daced  by  the  float,  is  a  force,  in 
addition  to  the  steam,  to  raise  a  valve  loailcil  in  the  ordinary  way. 

T/iird  Sedion.  —  This  section  embraces  the  greatest  number  of  plans, 
wliich  contain,  in  general,  the  common  safety-valve  enclosed  in  a  ease,  so  as 
to  jireveut  all  access  to  it.  The  design  of  some  of  the  plans  is,  however, 
worthy  of  .ittention,  from  their  ingenious  complexity. 

Fourth  Section. — These  designs  have  the  common  safety-valve  cased  in, 
to  prevent  it  from  Iieing  overloaded,  but  have  attachments  to  the  valve,  by 
which  it  can  he  openeti  by  the  engine-man  whenever  he  fluds  it  necessary  to 
jicrmit  the  steam  to  eseajie. 

Fiftti  .Section. — The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  plans  in  this  section,  is 
the  introduction  of  a  piston  in  cunncxion  with  the  safety-valve,  with  the 
design  that  the  gradual  increase  in  the  force  of  the  steam  shall,  by  acting 
on  the  under  side  of  the  piston,  become  a  proportionally  increasing  power  to 
open  the  safety-valve. 

SLith  Section. — The  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  in  this  division  is  de- 
signed with  the  view  of  loading  the  safety-valve  when  the  engine  is  at  work, 
and  of  taking  oft' the  load  when  it  is  at  rest. 

Seimitlt  Section, — In  this  section  the  exhibitors  propose  to  substitute  mer- 
cury for  the  loaded  valve,  which  is  usually  employed  to  confine  the  steam 
uiitd  it  has  acquired  a  certain  amount  of  force. 

Eiffhth  .Section. — The  competitors  included  in  this  section  jiropose  a  con- 
nexion to  tie  made  between  the  throttle  and  safety-valves,  by  which,  when 
the  speed  of  the  engine  is  required  to  he  reduced,  the  safety-valve  is  opened, 
and  the  steam  allowed  to  escape. 

Sp;C0ND  CLASS. 

The  second  class  of  competitors  arc  those  who  are  of  opinion  that  the 
explosion  of  boilers  is  the  cfl"ect  of  the  instantaneous  production  of  steam, 
on  the  evolution  and  ignition  of  inth'imnialile  gases  in  the  boiler,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  deliciency  of  water ;  by  which  the  flues  (or  passages  through  the 
boilers  for  the  flame  from  the  furnaces)  being  uncovered,  they  become  red 
hot,  and  on  water  being  brought  in  contact  with  them,  explosion  is  jiroduced. 

This  class  is  divided  into  two  sections. 

First  Section. — The  first  section  jiroposes  self-acting  apparatus  for  feeding 
the  boilers  while  the  engine  is  in  operation,  so  as  to  prevent  the  water  from 
falling  below  a  certain  level. 

.Sccoml  Section. — The  seeoiid  section  ])roposes  means  of  giving  information 
when  the  water  shall  have  fallen  below  a  certain  point  in  the  boiler,  h\' 
means  of  a  pipe  open  at  both  ends  and  approaching  to  within  a  short 
distance  from  the  flues,  so  that,  when  the  water  shall  have  been  sunk  below 
this  pipe,  the  steam  will  he  allowed  to  escape. 

THIRD  CLASS. 

The  third  class  are  those  competitors  who  consider  explosions  to  be  the 
result  of  weakness  in  the  boiler,  and  propose  that  they  shall  be  frequently 
proved. 

This  class  might  be  divided  into  two  sections,  viz.,  those  who  recommend 
that  periodical  attempts  he  made  to  explode  the  boilers  with  a  great  pressure 
of  steam,  and  those  who  suggest  that  they  shall  be  frequently  proved  by  a 
forcing  pump  ;  but  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  this  distinction. 

We  shall  close  this  summary  by  stating  that  there  are  several  ingenious 
designs  which  cannot  he  classed  with  any  of  those  mentioned,  nor  with  each 
other;  and,  consequently,  for  an  explanation  of  the  principles  of  their  con- 
struction and  intended  mode  of  operating,  it  would  he  necessary  to  transcribe 
the  several  essays  in  which  they  are  contained  ;  but  this  we  consider  unnc- 
eessary,  from  their  being  nothing  of  sufficient  merit  in  them  to  recommend 
them  to  the  notice  of  the  Trustees.  It  will  be  remarked  that,  almost  all  the 
competitors  jiropose  their  several  designs  to  be  adopted  only  as  additions  to 
the  existing  means  of  preventing  explosion  ;  that  they  almost  unanimously 
reeouimeniied  the  continued  use  of  the  existing  safety-valve ;  that  several 
recommend  the  frequent  proof  of  boilers:  while  a  few  only  propose  the 
ap|)ointiuent  of  inspectors. 

In  recommending  to  your  favourable  consideration  some  of  the  designs, 
we  beg  to  lay  before  you  the  circumstances  which  guided  our  selection. 

The  theory  advanced  in  the  Essay  No.  1 ,  of  explosions  jirocceding  from 
the  formation  of  gas  in  the  boiler,  by  the  flues  becoming  led-hot,  thereby 
decomposing  t  e  water,  and  then  inflaming  these  gases,  has  been,  in  our 
opinion,  most  conclusively  set  aside  by  the  eminent  philosopher,  Mons. 
Arago,  in  a  memoir  on  the  sidiject  of  the  present  re|)ort.  "  Some  persons," 
he  writes,  "  struck  with  the  prodigious  and  instantaneous  efteets  which  often 
result  from  the  explosion  of  boilers,  are  persnaUecI  that  steam  alone  is  in-  ^ 


capable  of  producing  them,  and  they  call  to  their  aid  some  gases  susceptible 
of  explosion."  On  this  he  remarks,  "  Hydrogen  alone,  or  mixed  with  vapour, 
cannot  explode — a  mixture  in  the  suitable  projiurlions  of  oxygen  and  livdro- 
gen  is  snscejitihle  of  explosion  ;  but  how  are  these  gases  to  be  collected  in 
the  boiler  ?  Hydrogen  is  the  product  of  the  oxidation  of  metal — from  whence, 
therefore,  proceeds  the  oxygen ?  (an  it  be  from  the  air  contained  in  the 
feed  water  .^  It  is  warm,  wliich  prevents  it  from  containing  much  air.  I 
shall  add,  in  fine,  that  the  oxygen  of  the  air  would  combine  it^elf  much  more 
readily  with  the  incandescent  sides  of  the  boiler,  than  with  hydrogen  ;  and 
that  the  |irodiict  of  the  drcompo»ition  of  water  would  he — not  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  lint  h_\  drogeii  and  azote," — a  non-explosion  mixture.  And  further, 
in  a  llcpnit  by  the  Comniittee  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  on  the  explosions  of 
steam  boilers,  made  at  the  request  of  the  Treasury  department  of  the  I'liited 
States,  (hey  state,  as  the  result  of  direct  experiment,  that  the  gas  obtained 
by  injecting  water  into  a  red-hot  boiler,  was  a  "  non-supporter  ot  combustion, 
and  non-combiistihle." 

The  other  theory  advanced  by  the  Essajists  Nos.  1,  4,  7,  8,  9,  aiid20,  is, 
that  if  the  flues  become  red  hot,  and  water  be  poured  into  the  boiler,  a  vo- 
lume of  steam,  of  dangerous  elasticity,  is  instantaneously  formed,  to  which 
the  safety-valves  cannot  give  vent  witli  suflicient  ra|iidity,  and,  iu  consequence, 
the  boiler  explodes.  In  regard  to  this  supposed  cause  of  ex]>losion, — the 
American  Commissioners  succeeded  in  exploding  an  experimental  boiler,  by 
injecting  water  into  it  while  not  only  the  flues,  but  the  top,  bottom,  and 
sides,  were  assiduously  kept  red  hot.  This  was  done  to  ascertain  the  greatest 
effect  that  could  be  produced  by  steam  generated  under  such  circumstances. 
Their  other  experiments  prove  that  w.ater  does  not  evajiorate  so  ra|iidly  when 
brought  in  contact  with  red-hot  iron,  as  when  the  iron  has  been  cooled  down 
to  a  niucli  lower  temperature,  and  at  this  redncerl  tem)ierature  iron  does  not 
contain  any  considerable  quantity  of  heat.  In  all  experiments  made  by  them 
and  others,  //?«?  has  been  a  necessary  constituent  in  the  eircumstances  which 
liermit  a  certain  volume  of  water  to  he  evaporated,  and  confinement  to  give 
it  force ;  and  the  opening  of  a  safety-valve  has  ah\  ays  been  found  to  diminish 
the  pressure,  and  lower  the  temperature  of  the  steam.  AVe  are  inclined, 
under  a  peculiar  and  merely  possible  combination  of  circumstances,  to  view 
this  as  a  cause  of  danger ;  Init  we  have  not  been  able  to  discover  any  authen- 
tic instances  in  which  explosion  has  been  clearly  traced  to  it.  The  general 
jiraetical  result  of  the  flues  being  allowed  to  get  red  hot,  is,  that  the  plates 
composing  them  crack  on  admission  of  water,  and  from  the  copious  dis- 
charge of  boiling  water  and  steam  which  ensues,  many  serious  accidents  have 
happened  to  the  engine-men  and  fire-men,  through  whose  negligence  they 
have  been  occasioned. 

Notwithstanding  of  the  above  theories  advanced  by  the  competitors,  and 
also  of  several  others  promulgated  by  persons  of  high  standing  in  the  scien- 
tific world,  we  cannot,  after  a  careful  comparison  between  their  reasoning 
and  our  own  experience,  arrive  at  any  other  conclusion  than — that  the  ex- 
plosions of  steam  boilers  proceed  from  a  gradual  accumulation  of  steam, 
which,  being  deprived  of  sufhcient  means  of  escajie,  is,  by  the  continued 
action  of  the  fire  in  the  furnaces,  raised  to  a  dangerous,  and  often  destructive 
degree  of  density ;  and  we  conceive  that  all  danger  can  be  avoided  by  the 
regular  action  of  the  common  safety-valve,  if  properly  constructed  and  made 
of  snfficient  capacity.  It  sometimes  happens  that  these  valves,  from  neglect, 
become  fixed;  and  we  are  of  opinion,  that  the  apparatus  designed  by  the 
Essayists  Nos.  2  and  4 1 ,  which  are  draw  n  as  figures  1  and  2,*  are  well  cal- 
culated to  apply  a  force,  in  addition  to  the  strength  of  the  steam,  to  over- 
come this  adherence ;  and  they  have  the  advantage  of  being  so  designed, 
that  after  the  overjilus  of  steam  shall  have  escaped,  the  safety-valve  is 
allowed  to  resume  its  useful  position. 

We  have  remarked,  that  the  greater  number  of  explosions  of  steam  boilers 
have  occurred  at  the  instant  of  starting  the  engine.  Without  taking  on  our- 
selves to  assign  any  reason  for  this,  or  our  being  able  to  trace  the  immediate 
circumstance  which  precedes,  and  may  have  caused  the  explosion,  we  are  of 
opinion,  that  the  risk  of  accident  may  be  lessened  by  the  weight  on  the  safe- 
ty-valve being  diminished  until  the  engine  is  in  motion,  and  the  steam  flowing 
away  by  a  regular  current.  We  are  not  satisfied  with  the  efficiency  of  the 
various  plans  which  are  designed  to  attain  this  object;  but  we  recommend 
to  your  notice,  for  its  novelty,  the  design  in  Essay  No.  18. 

We  conceive  it  to  be  of  importance,  that  the  safety-valve  should  be  se- 
cm-ed  from  improper  interference ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  that  it  should  be 
so  connected  with  the  ordinary  occupation  of  the  engine-man,  as  to  be  put 
into  almost  hourly  use.  This  must  lessen,  if  not  entirely  prevent,  the  chance 
of  it  becoming  fixed  to  its  seat.  Of  the  designs  submitted  to  us,  we  consider 
that  the  plans  iu  the  Essays  4,  .'^8,  .')5.  and  50,  are  best  adapted  for  this  ob- 
ject, though  they  have  been  found  liable  to  the  inconvenience  of  becoming 
fixed  at  the  joints  which  are  inside  of  the  boiler.  Figiu-es  33,  36,  38,  and 
40,  are,  we  believe,  in  use  iu  several  steam  vessels  on  the  Thames,  the  Clyde, 
and  the  Mersey,  and  No.  3ti  has  been  seen  on  board  the  French  Government 
steamer,  "  I.e  Meteore." 

A  number  of  the  competitors  recommend  that  the  safety-valve  should  he 
locked  up,  to  prevent  all  access  to  it  by  the  engine-man  ;  but  in  this  recom- 
mendation we  do  not  concur, — for,  if  those  in  charge  of  the  engine  be  pre- 
vented from  ascertaining  the  condition  of  the  safety-valve,  no  reliance  can  be 
placed  on  it  as  a  mean  of  preventing  accident. 


'  Tiie  figures  1  and  2  will  he  found   in   auotherrpart  of  the  Journal.— En. 
C.  and  K,  Journal. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


247 


AA'e  also  feci  ourselves  opposed  to  the  majority  of  the  comiietitors  as  re- 
gards a  feeling  wliich  they  eviiiee  against  engine-men  as  a  body.  In  any 
large  class  of  society,  there  arc  always  to  be  found  individuals,  whose  im- 
proper conduct  no  laws  can  restrain  ;  and  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  the 
nundicr  of  engine-men  who  recklessly  endanger  their  own  lives  and  the  pro- 
jierty  under  their  charge,  are  nearly  in  the  same  projiortion  to  the  mass  of 
.  engine-men,  as  felons  arc  to  the  mass  of  society,  notwithstanding  of  the 
watchful  superintendence  of  the  immense  army  of  the  law. 

In  a  matter  of  such  importance  to  the  public,  and  to  the  proprietors  of 
steam  engines,  wc  cannot  avoid  expressing  our  regret,  that  in  the  cases  of 
explosion  which  have  occurred,  there  are  no  scientific  rejjorts  of  the  appear- 
ance and  state  of  the  engines,  valves,  or  boilers.  If  a  reguhatiou  were 
adopted  by  the  local  .lutliorities,  requiring  intimation  of  every  case  of  acci- 
dcuit,  and  obtaining  thereafter,  before  any  alteration  had  been  made  on  the 
damaged  boiler,  machinery,  or  buildings,  a  detailed  report  of  their  situation 
and  ap]>carance,  we  are  of  opinion  that  more  certainty  \vould  soon  be  given 
to  the  conjectiu'al  causes  which  jirodnce  such  accidents;  and  that,  in  coiise- 
ipicncc,  in  the  construction  or  management  of  steam  engines,  means  would 
be  adopted  which  woidd  lessen  the  chance  of  their  reciuTence. 

In  regar<l  to  the  appointment  of  inspectors,  whieli  some  of  the  competitors 
recommend,  we  beg  to  express  our  doubts  as  to  the  expediency  of  this  mea- 
sure. They  must  either  lie  armed  with  discretionary  powers,  to  admit  or 
reject  any  alteration  in  construction  or  managenicnt  of  the  machinery — in 
which  case  the  immense  amount  of  capital  invested  in  steam  vessels  at  each 
port  must  be  subjected  to  the  individual  caprice  of  the  inspector — or  it  will 
be  necessary,  in  order  to  furnish  them  with  ]irecise  instructions,  that  tlic.\ct 
of  Parliament  by  which  they  are  apjiointed,  shall  regulate  what  are  and  what 
are  not  infallible  securities  against  accidents  of  every  kind. 

^A'hen  we  comjiare  the  almost  innumei'able  multitude  of  jiersons  who  have 
amiually  availe<l  themselves  of  steam  conveyance  at  sea  and  on  railwavs,  for 
many  years  past,  witli  the  niunbcr  of  accidents  that  have  occurred,  it  is 
gratifiing  to  us  to  consider,  that,  with  our  attention  so  closely  turned  to  the 
subject  as  it  has  been  for  some  time,  we  not  only  cannot  trace  any  cause  of 
alarm,  Init  are  able  to  express  our  conviction,  that  it  is  the  safest  means  of 
transport  that  now  exists. 

In  conclusion,  we  beg  to  report  our  opinion,  that  a  combination  of  the 
plans  we  have  recommended  to  yoiu'  notice  miglit  he  advantageous,  provided 
the  attachments  l>y  which  they  are  connected  with  the  safety-valve  be  sueli, 
as  that  by  no  derangement  of  the  new  apparatus,  can  the  former  be  prevented 
from  acting.  But  we  can  view  them  only  in  the  light  of  experiments,  which 
will  rerpiirc  some  time  of  watchful  superintendence,  to  ascertain  their  mode 
of  operating  under  various  circumstances,  and  to  detect  and  remedy  errors  in 
their  construction. 

ExTHACT    FROM    AoniTIONXL    KkpORT. 

In  compliance  with  this  instniction,  we  have  no  hesitatiou  iu  recommend- 
ing to  you  the  jilans  marked  by  the  Committee  Nos.  2  and  41,  lodged  by 
Mr.  .Tames  D.  Xeilson  and  Mr.  George  Mills,  both  of  Glasgow.  It  will  be 
evident  on  inspection,  that  they  are  identical  in  design,  and  that  the  dift'c- 
rence  in  their  proposed  construction  is  quite  immaterial.  (See  Figs.  1  and  2.) 

For  the  reasons  stated  in  our  General  Report,  we  conceive  thent  to  be  the 
best  of  the  designs  submitted  to  the  Trustees  for  jireventing  explosion. 

You  are  farther  pleased  to  request,  that  we  should  name  "  the  three  jier- 
sons who  have  brought  forward,  in  your  opinion,  the  three  next  best  plans, 
so  as  to  enable  the  Trustees  to  consider  whether  any  portion  of  the  aildi- 
tional  Sinn  of  One  Hundred  Pounds,  allocated  by  the  trustees,  is,  in  the  cir- 
cumstances, fairly  and  justly  due  to  any  of  the  competitors  who  may  be 
unsuccessful  in  obtaining  the  princijial  premium  of  One  Hundred  Pounds." 

From  the  extreme  similarity  in  design  and  execution  of  the  plans  which 
appear  to  us  entitle  to  rank  in  the  second  class,  we  are  unable  to  reduce 
their  number  to  less  than  four,  viz.,  those  numbered  by  the  Committee  4, 
3S,  .').),  and  hi'i.  which  were  severally  lodged — the  three  first  by  Messrs. 
Allan  Clarke  ami  David  Thomjison  of  Glasgow,  and  Mr.  John  Baird  of  Shotts; 
and  the  last,  the  joint  production  of  -Messrs.  AVilliam  Ncilson  and  William 
Muir  of  Glasgow. 

Mr.  Oavid  Thom|)son  st.itcs  that  bis  design  has  been  in  use  at  Messrs. 
Roulton  &  AVatt's  Engine  Factory  at  Soho;  and,  as  stated  in  the  General 
Keport,  the  otljcrs  are  precisely  similar  to  apparatus  in  common  use  in  vessels 
on  the  Thames,  the  Clyde,  and  the  Mersey;  and,  through  the  politeness  of 
the  commander,  there  was  exhibited  to  one  of  the  reporters,  on  lioard  of  the 
French  Government  steam  vessel,  "  Le  Jleteorc,"  arrangements  for  working 
the  safety-valves,  which  were  similar  in  design  and  mode  of  o|ieration  to  the 
jilans  in  Nos.  38,  a."),  and  56. 

As  we  are  of  ojiinion  that  the  premiums  ofl'ered  by  the  Clyde  Trustees 
were  for  apparatus  presenting  .some  novelty  of  construetion.  and  possessing 
means  of  security  beyond  that  which  the  existing  safely-valvea  and  con- 
nexions have  been  supposed  to  afford,  wc  do  not,  under  this  impression,  con- 
sider these  gentlemen  entitled  to  participation  in  the  second  premium ;  but 
leave  this  to  the  decision  of  the  Trustees. 

AVe  have  no  other  remarks  to  offer  to  your  consideration  on  the  residue  of 
the  plans. 


FROCSEDINGS  OP  SCIEKTIFIO  SOCIETIES. 


ROYAL  SOCIETY. 

March  12. — The  Marquis  ok  Northampton,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read : — 

"  On  certain  rtiria/ionx  of  the  mean  heiijltt  of  the  Barometer,  mean  Tem- 
perature, and  depth  of  Rain,  connected  v:ith  the  Lunar  Phases,  in  the  cycle 
of  years  from  1SI5  to  1823."     By  Luke  Howard,  Esq. 

The  table  given  in  this  pajier  contains  the  residts  of  calculations  relating 
to  the  objects  specified  in  the  title,  cast  into  periods  of  six,  seven,  or  eight 
days,  so  as  to  bring  the  day  of  the  lunar  phase  belonging  to  it  in  thc'niiddle 
of  the  time.  The  observations  were  all  nuide  in  the  neighbourijiod  of  Lou- 
don. It  appears  from  them  that  in  the  period  of  the  last  quarter  of  the 
moon  the  barometer  is  highest,  the  temperature  a  little  above  the  mean,  and 
the  depth  of  rain  the  smallest.  In  the  |ieriod  of  the  new  moon,  both  the 
barometer  and  temperature  are  considerably  depressed,  and  the  rain  increased 
in  quantity.  The  intluence  of  the  first  quarter  shows  itself  by  the  further 
depression  of  the  barometer  ;  hut  the  temperature  rises  almost  to  the  point 
from  which  it  bad  fallen,  and  the  rain  still  increases,  but  not  in  au  equal 
ratio.  Lastly,  the  full  moon  again  reduces  the  temperature,  while  the  baro- 
meter attains  its  maximum  mean  height,  and  the  quantity  of  rain  is  the 
greatest.  Thus  it  appears,  that  during  this  lunar  cycle,  the  approach  of  the 
last  quarter  is  the  signal  for  the  clearing  up  of  the  air,  and  the  return  of 
sunshine. 

'*  On  the  theory  of  tite  Dark  Bonds  formed  in  the  Solar  Spectrum,  front 
partial  interception  by  transparent  plates."     By  the  Rev.  Baden  Powell. 

This  paper  contains  the  mathematical  investigation  of  the  phenomena  of 
peculiar  dark  bauds  crossing  the  prismatic  spectrum,  when  half  the  pupil  of 
the  eye,  looking  through  the  prism,  is  covered  by  a  thin  plate  of  any  trans- 
parent substance,  the  edge  being  turned  from  the  violet  towards  the  red  end 
of  the  spectrum  ;  and  which  were  first  noticed  by  Jlr.  Fox  Talbot,  and  were 
ascribed  by  Sir  David  Brewster  to  a  new  property  of  light,  consisting  of  a 
peculiar  kind  of  polarity.  The  author  shows,  that  on  the  undulatoiy  theory, 
in  all  cases,  a  dirt'erence  of  retardation  between  the  two  halves  of  each  pri- 
maiy  pencil  throughout  the  spectrum,  may  give  bauds  within  certain  limits; 
and  that  it  affords  a  complete  explanation  of  the  phenomena  in  question. 

March  19. — The  Makquis  of  Northampton,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  paper  was  read : — 

"  Contributions  to  Terrestrial  Marjiieiisnt."     By  Major  E.  Sabine. 

An  increased  activity  has  recently  been  given  to  researches  in  terrestrial 
magnetism,  with  the  definite  object  of  obtaining  correct  maps  of  the  mag- 
netic phenomena,  eorresponding  to  the  present  epoch,  over  the  w  hole  surface 
of  the  globe.  To  aid  these  researches,  and  to  facilitate  the  comparison  of 
the  general  theory  of  M.  Gauss  with  the  facts  of  observation,  maps  have  been 
constructed  of  the  magnctical  lines,  both  as  computed  by  the  theory,  and  as 
derived  from  observations  already  obtained.  The  theoretical  and  actual  hues 
of  the  declination  and  intensity  h.ave  thus  been  represented  in  majis  reeeutly 
published  in  Germ.any  and  England,  as  have  also  the  lines  of  the  inclination 
computed  by  theoiy ;  but  the  corresjionding  map  or  the  latter  element  de- 
rived from  observations  is  yet  wanting.  Tlie  object  of  the  present  communi- 
cation is  to  supply  this  desideratum,  as  far  as  regards  the  portion  of  the 
globe  contained  lietween  the  parallels  of  5.')-  X.  amt.").!"  S.,  and  the  meridians 
of  20'  E.  and  80°  ^\■. ;  comprising  the  Atlantic  ocean  and  the  adjacent  coasts 
of  the  continents  on  either  side.  The  observations  chiefly  employed  for  this 
liurpose  are  two  series  made  at  sea ;  one  by  Mr.  Dunloji,  of  the  Paramatta 
oiiservatory,  iu  a  voyage  from  England  to  New  South  Wales,  in  1831 ;  the 
other  by  Lieut.  Sulivan,  of  the  Royal  Xnvy,  in  a  voyage  from  England  to  the 
Falkland  Islands  and  back,  in  1838  and  183!).  Thii  observation  of  the  mag- 
netic dip  at  sea,  which  was  commonly  practised  by  the  distinguislied  navi- 
gators of  the  last  century,  was  unfortunately  not  resumed  when  the  interest 
in  such  researches  was  revived  on  the  restoration  of  peace;  but  it  is  by  such 
observations  only  that  the  lines  of  ineUnation  can  he  independently  traced 
over  those  large  portions  of  the  globe  which  are  covered  by  the  ocean.  The 
difficulties  which  attend  the  observation,  occasioned  by  the  motion  and  the 
iron  of  the  ship,  require  the  adoption  of  several  jireeauVious,  which  it  is  par- 
ticularly desiralile  at  this  time  to  make  generally  known.  The  series  of 
Messrs.  Dnnlop  and  Sulivan  are  discussed  in  this  view ;  and  the  value  of 
results  obtained  under  circumstarices  of  due  precaution  is  pointed  out  by 
theii-  success.  The  position  of  the  lines  on  the  land  poition  of  the  map  is 
derived  from  120  determinations  in  various  parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  and 
Amei'ica,  between  the  years  1834  and  1839,  of  which  about  the  half  are  now- 
first  communicated.  The  series  of  Messrs.  Dnnlop  and  Sulivan  contain  also 
observations  of  the  magnetic  intensity  made  at  sea ;  Mr.  Dunlop's  by  the 
method  of  horizontal  vibr.ations,  and  Lieut.  Sulivan's  !jy  the  instrument  and 
method  devised  by  .Mr.  Fox.  Tlie  degree  of  precision  which  may  be  obtained 
by  experiments  thus  conducted,  is  shown  by  the  comparison  of  these  obser- 
vations with  each  otiier,  and  with  the  isodynamic  lines  previously  derived 
from  observations  made  on  laud.  The  first  section  of  this  paper  concludes 
with  discussions  on  the  relative  positions  of  the  lines  of  least  intensity  and  of 
no  (Up,  and  of  the  secular  change  which  the  latter  line  has  undergone  in  the 
ten  years  jireceding  1837.  In  the  second  section,  the  observations  of  Mr. 
Dunlop  are  combined  with  recent  observations  on  the  coasts  of  Australia,  by 


•34S 


TFIE  CIVIL  ENCFNKKR  AND  AUCHlTECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[JUT.V, 


Captains  Fit-/.  Roy,  Bethnnc,  anil  Wickham,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  to  fnrnish  a 
tirst  approximation  to  Die  |)ositiori  and  direction  of  the  isodynaniic  lines 
over  tliat  portion  of  the  Indian  oecan  wliicli  is  comprised  between  the  me- 
ridian of  tlie  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  New  South  Wales. 

March  2(>. — The  Marqui.s  ok  NoRTHAMi'roN,  I'rcsident,  in  the  Chair. 

This  evening  was  occupied  by  the  reading  of  a  paper,  entitled  "  lin.iearchcs 
in  Klec/ricifi/,  17///  srrics :  on  the  nource  of  jwwer  in  the  Voltaic  Pile"  By 
Michael  Faraday,  Esq. 

Mail  14.— Major  Sabine,  R.A..  V.P.,  in  the  ehair. 

The  follow ing  paper  was  read  : — 

Frpi-rii/ifr/fal  lifsrarches  into  fhr  Strength  of  Pillai's  of  Cast  front  "'"^  other 
Matiriith.     Hy  ]'i;ilt)n  llndgkinson,  Ks({. 

The  author  finds  that  in  all  long  ])illars  of  the  same  dimensions,  the  re- 
sistance to  crushing  by  llexure  is  idjuut  three  times  greater  when  the  ends  of 
the  pillar.s  are  Hat,  than  when  they  are  rounded.  A  lung  uniform  east-iron 
l>illar,  Hith  its  ends  firmly  fi.\cd,  whether  liy  means  of  (hscs  or  otherwise,  has 
llie  same  power  to  resist  f>reaking  as  a  pill.-ir  of  the  same  diameter,  and  half 
the  length,  uilh  the  ends  rounded,  or  turned  so  that  the  force  wonlil  pa.ss 
through  llie  axis.  The  strenglh  of  a  ]iillar  with  (jneend  rounil  and  the  other 
(lal.  is  tlie  arithmetical  mean  between  that  ofa  pillar  ot  the  .same  dimensions 
with  both  ends  ronnd,  and  one  with  both  ends  tlat.  Some  additional  strength 
is  given  to  a  pillar  by  enlarging  its  diameter  in  the  middle  part.  The  author 
next  investigated  the  strength  of  long  cast-iron  pillars  with  relation  to  their 
diameter  and  length.  He  ctmcludes  that  the  index  of  the  power  of  the  diame- 
ter, to  which  the  strength  is  proportional,  is  .3'73C.  He  then  proceeds  to  de- 
termine, hy  a  comparison  ot  experimental  results,  the  inverse  power  of  the 
length  to  which  the  strenglh  of  the  ))illar  is  proportional.  The  highest  value 
(if  this  jiower  isl'Jll',  the  lowest,  I'ii.BT,  the  mean  of  all  the  comparisims. 
r71 17.  He  thus  deduces,  first,  approximate  empirical  formula-  for  the  break- 
ing weight  of  solid  jiillars,  and  then  proceeds  to  deduce  more  correct  methods 
of  determining  their  strenglh.  J'ixperiments  on  hollow  pillars  of  cast-iron 
are  then  described,  and  formula?  rcjiresenting  the  sirength  of  such  pillars  are 
derhiced  from  these  experiments.  After  giving  some  results  of  experiments 
still  in  progress  for  determining  the  power  of  east-iron  pillars  to  resist  lung- 
conlinued  pressure,  the  author  proceeds  to  determine  from  his  experiments 
the  sirength  of  pillars  of  wrought-iron  and  timber,  as  dependent  on  their 
dimensions.  The  concln.siou  for  wrought  iron  is,  that  the  strength  varies  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  pillar's  length,  and  directly  as  the  power  .37o  of 
its  diameter,  the  latter  being  nearly  identical  with  the  result  obtained  for 
cast-iron  ;  for  timber,  the  strength  varies  nearly  as  the  fourth  power  of  the 
side  of  the  square  forming  the  section  of  the  pillar.  Experiments  for  deter- 
mining the  relatiim  of  the  strength  to  the  length  in  pillars  of  timber,  were 
not  instituted,  as,  from  the  great  llexure  of  the  material,  it  was  considered 
that  no  very  satisfactory  conclusions  on  this  point  ctmld  be  derived  experi- 
mentally. In  conclusion,  the  author  gives  the  relative  strength.?  of  long 
pillars  of  cast-iron,  w  rought-iron,  steel,  and  timber. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

Address  of  the  President. 

General  Meeting,  February  i,  1840. 

Tuis  being  our  first  Meeting  since  my  re-election  as  your  President,  allow 
me  to  thank  yon  for  the  honour  conferred  upon  me,  and  to  congratulate  you 
on  the  choice  you  have  made  of  the  other  Members  of  Council,  and  Officers, 
who  will  1  am  sure  be  desirous  of  justifying  the  good  opinion  you  have  formed 
of  them,  by  as  freiiuent  an  attendance  at  the  Meetings  and  attention  to  the 
business  of  the  Institution,  as  theu'  avocations  will  permit.  This  will  indeed 
lie  but  a  proper  return  for  the  proof  of  your  confidence  in  us,  and  I  trust  that 
the  list  of  attendances,  if  again  called  for  at  the  end  of  the  season,  will  prove 
my  anticipations  to  have  been  correct ;  for  notwithstanding  the  truth  of  the 
olil  saying,  tliat  "  where  there  is  a  will,  there  is  a  way,"  it  must  sometimes 
ha]ipcii,  that  the  attendance  of  some  of  us  becomes  impossible,  from  absence 
at  too  great  distance  or  other  cogent  cause;  yet  I  hope  1  may  answer  for  my 
coUeaguci  as  for  myself,  that  it  is  our  determination  to  show  that  we  have 
the  "  vill."  But,  gentlemen,  he  it  remembered  on  your  part  also,  tliat  there 
is  a  reciprocal  duty  to  perform — that  of  attendance  at  our  Meetings,  to  give 
them  the  importance  which  the  Council  Table  being  full  will  not  give,  if  the 
seats  arnmid  the  room  are  not  respectably  occupied  ;  and  that  blame  may  not 
attach  where  jiraise  is  due,  the  Council  (following  the  precedent  set  them) 
have  desired  a  Ust  to  be  made  and  tabulated  of  the  attendance  at  the  ileet- 
jiigs  of  each  Member,  Graduate,  and  Associate. 

1  trust,  however,  that  there  will  be  presented  to  your  attention  during  the 
session  so  much  new  and  interesting  matter  as  will  rather  ensure  your  attend- 
ance as  a  iiersonal  gratification  than  as  a  bare  discharge  of  a  duty ;  unless 
this  should  be  the  case,  mine  would  be  an  ungracious  task  to  require  your 
constant  attendance,  but  if  we  succeed  in  exciting  your  attention,  you  will 
then  come  unasked.  This  good  can  only  be  attained  by  numerous  and  useful 
coniiuuuications,  which  arc  valuable  in  themselves  and  give  rise  to  instructive 
discussions.  The  Council  therefore  reqiure  plans  and  papers  from  you  with 
the  view  of  ensuring  your  personal  attendance ;  and  1  wish  to  enforce  this 
especially  upon  the  coimtry  Members,  from  whom  wc  receive  very  few  com- 
munications. JiOoking  !it  the  extent  and  rapid  progression  of  public  works 
in  this  countiy  at  present,  the  new  facts  that  are  constantly  being  developed, 
the  luiinber  and  influence  of  the  Members  of  oiu:  Institution,  there  ought  not 

ta  be  »>}'  (le«rth  ;t  impgitant  autl  uit«reiiting  coiumiuucation^.    Tbat  Vi 


have  had  many  such,  and  that  the  number  of  them  is  increasing,  I  admit, 
but  still  they  ought  to  he  much  more  numerous.  My  remarks  at  the  last 
Meeting  referred  more  particularly  to  Graduates  and  Associates  as  flcfaulters 
on  this  head,  hut  I  must  include  the  Memhers^  not  only  for  what  they  could 
themselves  do,  hut  more  for  the  exercise  of  the  influence  they  possess  over 
Graduates  in  ihrecting  their  attention  to  ]iarticnhir  objects  or  works  on  which 
they  might  furnish  communications.  Half  the  work  is  done  "  when  the  sub- 
ject is  ^'.eei/ on" — I  say  this  from  experience,  as  would  be  proved  by  refer- 
ence to  the  eommunications  that  have  been  iiiatlc  through  my  suggestions  at 
works  which  I  have  visited,  or  by  individuals  over  whom  1  may  be  supposeil 
to  have  some  influence.  If  gentlemen  would  bear  in  mind  the  wants  of  the 
Institution  whenever  they  visit  any  jiublic  work,  they  would  rarel\-  leave  it 
without  having  reaped  some  knowledge  that  would  be  worth  communicating, 
and  they  may  be  assured  that  their  labours  would  be  duly  appreciated. 

I  named  at  the  last  Meeting  the  subject  of  the  Library. — I  stated  that  which 
many  gentlemen  were  not  aware  of,  the  understanding  amongst  ourselves,  that 
each  Member  of  the  Council  should  contribute  annually  some  Book,  Picture, 
Drawing,  or  other  present  for  the  Library — I  stated  also  that  the  Secretary 
was  preparing  a  list  of  such  books  as  it  is  desirable  wc  should  possess.  This 
list  will  be  printed  and  circulated,  and  I  Avisli  the  Institution  to  understand 
that  the  Council  do  not  desire  to  monopolize  the  right  of  presenting  books 
hut  trust  that  their  example  will  be  followed  hy  everj-  one  belonging  to  the 
Institution.  \Ve  have  space  now  for  a  good  Library,  and  for  an  Institution 
like  ours  nothing  can  be  of  greater  importance.  It  is  especi,ally  necessary 
that  our  Library  should  contain  as  many  good  books  of  reference  as  possible, 
and  I  beg  to  suggest  to  Members  possessing  such  books,  that  in  presenting 
ing  them  to  the  Institution  they  do  not  deprive  themselves  of  the  advantage 
of  them,  but  will  have  the  satisfaction  of  permitting  others  to  participate  with 
them. 

The  increasing  business  of  the  Institution  appearing  to  the  Council  to  re- 
quire now  the  whole  and  undivided  time  and  attention  of  one  properly  quali- 
fied gentlemen  as  Secretary,  they  thought  it  their  duty  to  make  this  a  condi- 
tion previous  to  appointment;  I  am  glail  to  say  Mr.  Manby  has  accepted  the 
ofliee  on  these  conditions.  Mr.  Webster,  with  whose  abilities  and  science  we 
are  all  well  acquainted,  has  been  elected  Ilonor.ary  Secretary,  and  the  more 
of  his  time  he  can  give  us,  the  more,  I  am  sure,  we  shall  all  feel  obhged. 

The  question  of  qualification  for  Honorary  Members  has  already  engaged 
the  attention  of  the  new  Council,  and  we  may  think  it  right  shortly  to  bring 
the  subject  before  the  Institution.  As  the  13ye  Laws  now  stand,  the  neces- 
sary qualification  for  a  candidate  for  election  as  an  Hoiioran'  Member  is,  that 
"he  be  eminent  for  science  a.m\  experience  in  pursuits  connected  with  the 
profession  of  a  Civil  Engineer,  but  not  engaged  in  the  practice  of  that  pro- 
fession in  Great  Britain  or  Ireland."  Now  this  distinction  is  so  very  circum- 
scribed, that  few  men  can  be  found  who  come  strictly  within  its  limits, 
whether  we  refer  to  the  present  list  of  Honorary  Members,  or  even  to  the 
most  distinguished  individuals  in  this  country  who  hold  the  liighest  places  in 
science  or  scientific  institutions,  such  as  the  President  of  the  Royal  Society — 
the  Marquis  of  Northampton, — the  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  London, 
Lord  Burlington.  (I  cite  these  two  noblemen,  whose  love  of  and  devotion 
to  science,  and  whose  eminence  in  certain  deiiartments  of  it,  has  entitled  them 
to  the  high  places  they  fill,  as  ]iersons  whom  it  might  he  very  desirable  to 
connect  with  the  Institution,  should  such  be  their  wish,  but  neither  of  w  horn 
can,  so  far  as  I  know,  be  strictly  said  to  be  "  eminent  for  science  and  cx- 
perience  in  pursuits  connected  with  the  jirofessiou  of  a  Civil  Engineer."')  If 
it  be  thought  desirable  to  extend  the  terms  of  qualification,  the  definition  may 
be  altered  to  include  individuals  distingiiishcil  for  their  patronage  and  pro- 
motion of  the  studies  and  works  of  Civil  Engineering,  or  a  class  of  Patrons 
might  be  formed  of  such  men.  The  Council  will  give  this  matter  their  best 
consideration,  and  will,  I  am  sure,  in  any  recommendation  they  may  make, 
be  guided  by  their  desire  only  to  extend  the  reputation  and  importance  of  the 
Institution. 

My  old  and  valued  friend,  Mr.  Turner,  of  Rook's  Nest,  Surrey  (formerly 
the  friend  and  ]tartiicr  of  Hmldart),  having  presented  me  with  an  excellent 
portrait  of  that  eminent  philosopher  and  mechanic,  I  have  thought  that  I 
could  not  do  better  than  oflcr  it  to  the  Institution,  having  previously  had 
Mr.  Turner's  entire  approval  of  my  so  doing.  Those  who  have  seen  Ilnddart's 
Hope  Machinery,  whicli  was  I  believe  as- much  the  creation  of  his  own  brain 
as  ever  machine  was  of  any  man's,  will  not  dispute  my  claiuiiiig  for  him  the 
first  rank  for  eminence  in  Mechanics:  as  a  Navigator  and  Hydrograplier,  he 
was  inferior  to  none  ;  I  had  the  pleasure  of  knowing  him,  and  have  always 
thought,  that  if  the  Mechanical  Philosophers  and  Engineers  of  our  d.iys  were 
to  lie  ranked  in  pairs,  Huddart  was  the  man  to  be  placed  by  the  side  of  Watt. 
1  am  glad  therefore  to  be  the  instrument  of  putting  the  Institution  in  pos- 
session of  the  portrait  of  Huddart,  by  Wildinan,  after  Iloppner  ;  but  this  is 
not  unmixed  with  a  feeling  of  jealousy,  arising  from  our  Member  Mr.  Biirges 
having  discovered  that  Mr.  Whitbread  had,  at  his  seat  in  Bedfoidshirc,  a  por- 
trait of  *'?«ra/oH  (a  soul-stirring  name  to  Engineers),  by  Gainsborough;  he 
has,  through  Mr.  Wliitbreail's  kindness  and  by  the  aid  of  Mr.  Turner,  placed 
the  picture  in  the  hands  of  iMr.  Wildinan,  the  talented  painter  of  Huddart's 
portrait,  and  I  can  answer  for  Mr.  Burges's  kind  intentions  towards  the  In- 
stitution ill  the  trouble  he  has  so  taken. 

I  have  only  farther  to  add,  that  the  Council  have  come  to  the  resolution  of 
devoting  the  rooms  on  the  ground  floor  to  the  use  of  the  Members  of  the  In- 
stitution, and  have  directed  the  periodical  publications  to  be  placed  there. 

Ws  bops  this  nrrfiiigemegt  M'iU  );c  found  genciidl}'  toiivcuieut  autl  iigrceablc, 


1840.]  I 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


249 


and  -we  think  it  will  lie  particularly  so  to  our  jimior  branches  and  Members 
from  the  country,  as  they  may  there  enjoy  all  the  advantages  of  a  club,  with 
the  additional  one  of  being  surrounded  l»y  their  friends. 

We  trust  our  Funds  will  ahvays  admit  of  this  arrangement  being  gratuitous, 
as  well  as  suffer  us  hereafter  to  add  to  it  other  means  of  attraction. 

In  another  point  of  view  it  may  be  found  useful,  as  a  central  point  where, 
gentlemen  may  make  laiown  their  being  at  liberty  to  accept  engagements, 
and  the  Engineer  may  find  the  assistance  he  is  in  need  of. 


ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS. 
June  1. — Mr.  Kay,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

At  the  ordinary  meeting  of  this  society,  several  very  valuable  donations 
were  announced,  amongst  whicli  a  volume  of  Inigo  Jones's  designs  for  the 
Wiiteliall  Palace,  being  the  original  drawings  by  Flitcroft,  for  Kent's  publi- 
cation. The  council  have  been  for  some  time  engaged  in  forming  a  collection 
of  all  matters  relating  to  Jones  and  bis  works,  and  this  present  was  therefore 
a  most  valuable  boon.  A  long  conversation  was  held  on  the  means  of  con- 
structing flues,  so  as  to  render  the  employment  of  climbing  boys  unnecessarj', 
and  a  strong  desue  was  shown  on  the  part  of  the  meeting  to  aid  the  efforts 
now  being  made  I)y  the  society  established  for  the  purpose.  Mr.  Fowler 
took  occasion  to  mention  to  the  meeting  that  i\\e  Socif'h'  Libre  lies  Beaux 
.Iris,  of  Paris,  had  recently  awarded  to  Mr.  G.  Godwin,  jun.,  a  silver  medal, 
in  testimony  of  their  approbation  of  his  published  works,  and  conmicnted 
upon  the  liberal  feehng  the  society  bad  thus  evinced.  A  »imilar  compliment 
was  paid  to  Mr.  Donaldson,  on  the  pulilicatiou  of  his  work  on  doorways. 

A  paper  was  read  "  On  the  Section  of  the  London  Bed  of  Clay T  Hy  Charles 
Parker,  Fellow. 

The  principal  subject  of  this  paper  was  a  description  of  the  strata  passed 
through  in  boring  two  wells  in  the  village  of  East  Acton,  which  we  cannot 
follow  without  reference  to  the  diagrams  and  tables  by  wliich  it  was  accimi- 
panied.  The  result  was,  a  further  confinnation  of  the  estalilished  geological 
fact,  that  a  stratum  of  sand  extends  under  the  clay,  and  bears  upon  a  chalk 
basin  containing  an  immense  quantity  of  pure  water,  and  a  further  disproval 
of  a  commonly  received  opinion,  that  when  two  weUs  are  formed  in  imme- 
diate vicinity,  of  unequal  depths,  the  water  passes  from  the  shallower  to  the 
deeper.  The  two  wells  in  this  instance  were  300  yards  apart.  In  one,  the 
water  was  found  at  the  depth  of  333  feet,  in  the  other,  the  spring  extended 
to  the  depth  of  403  feet.  In  both,  the  water  rose  to  within  18  feet  of  the 
surface,  and  then  gradually  subsided  to  23  feet. 

A  section  was  also  given  of  the  strata  in  the  vicinity  of  ShadwcU,  and 
some  particulars  of  a  well  bored  to  the  depth  of  411  feet  in  the  Temple, 
which  emitted  an  odour  so  disagreeable  as  to  render  the  water  useless.  This 
odoiu'  (having  been  satisfactorily  proved  not  to  proceed  from  any  contact  with 
drains)  was  supposed  to  arise  from  the  disengagement  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. After  three  months  had  been  expended  in  trying,  without  any  benefit, 
the  suggestions  of  several  eminent  chemists  for  obviating  this  inconvenience, 
the  well  was  abandoned  as  a  failure  ;  but  another  trial  of  the  water  being 
accidentally  made  a  year  afterwards,  it  was  then  found  to  be  free  from  smell, 
and  of  a  remarkably  good  quality.  A  comparison  of  the  chemical  analyses 
made  at  the  different  periods,  failed  to  explain  in  any  way  the  cause  of  this 
alteration.  The  paper  concluded  with  some  observations  on  the  employment 
of  iron  cylinders  in  well  sinking,  and  a  comiiarison  with  a  similar  mode  of 
proceeding  by  the  ancients  with  cylinders  of  baked  clay,  illustrated  by  sec- 
tions of  a  well  at  SiUnunte,  and  another  at  Girgenti. 

Mr,  Godwin  read  some  observations  on  the  modern  state  of  painting  on 
glass.    This  paper  will  be  found  in  another  part  of  the  Journal. 

Jmie  15. — Mr.  Moore  in  the  Chair. 

A  paper  "  On  Original  Composition  in  Architecture,  illustrated  by  the 
umrks  of  Sir  John  Vanbrvgh,"  was  read  by  James  Thomson,  Fellow.  (This 
paper  we  shall  give  in  full  next  month.) 

Mr.  Donaldson  read  "  A  Memoir  of  the  Life  of  Thomas  Archer." 

Thomas  Archer,  an  English  architect,  who  flourished  during  the  early 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  who, 
being  appointed  surveyor-general  for  the  new  churches  in  London,  which 
were  to  be  built  by  the  grant  of  Queen  Anne,  gave  several  of  them  to  his 
pupils.  The  new  church  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  in  Westminster,  fell  to 
the  lot  of  Archer,  and  was  built  in  1728.  The  plan  consists  of  an  oblong 
with  rounded  corners,  having  at  the  east  and  west  ends  deep  recesses  for  the 
altar  and  vestry,  and  on  the  north  and  south  sides,  bold  projecting  enclosed 
porticoes,  flanked  on  each  side  by  a  tower,  making  four  in  all,  and  which 
now  have  staircases,  to  aft'ord  access  to  the  modern  galleries.  At  first  the 
interior  was  enriched  by  columns,  and  there  were  no  galleries :  so  that  the 
inside  must  have  originaBy  been  extremely  effective.  In  1741,  the  interior 
and  roof  were  consumed  by  fire,  which  left  only  the  walls  and  columns 
standing.  The  church  was  then  rebuilt,  the  columns  being  omitted ;  in  1 758 
galleries  were  added,  and  subsequently  lengthened  in  1826  by  Mr.  Inwood, 
architect.  When  this  fine  building  was  first  completed,  justice  was  not  done 
to  the  originality  and  powers  of  the  architect ;  and  Horace  Walpole,  with 
some  other  critics  of  the  day,  unable  to  appreciate  its  beauties,  reprobated  its 
cumbrous  aspect,  and  its  four  towers. 

The  outside  consists  of  a  bold  Doric  order,  well  proportioned  and  elegantly  I 


profiled  ;  the  columns  are  about  three  feet  foiu-  inches  in  diameter,  and  stand 
upon  a  lofty  pedestal  or  podium,  eight  feet  high.  The  north  and  south  por- 
ticos are  hexastyle,  each  consisting  of  four  outer  pilasters  and  two  central 
columns  ;  the  three  centre  intercolumniatious  being  recessed,  and  the  outer 
interpilastrations  being  solid,  these  latter  serve  as  bases  to  the  towers,  which 
rise  at  each  end  of  the  tympana.  The  entablature  is  surmounted  by  a  balluE- 
trade,  except  over  the  porticos,  where  there  are  pediments  broken  through 
in  the  centre,  for  the  width  of  three  intercolmnniatioiis,  to  admit  a  kind  of 
fantastic  pedimental  group,  with  a  perforated  niche.  The  four  towers  have 
square  bases  to  the  height  of  about  eight  feet  above  the  springing  of  the 
pediments,  and  then  assume  a  circular  plan.  At  the  angles  there  are  iso- 
lated columns  with  circular  pedestals  and  circular  entablatures,  projecting 
from  the  main  body  of  the  towers.  Above  the  ent.alilature  thei'e  is  a  gradu- 
ally receding  roof  of  concave  profile,  surmounted  by  a  pine  apple.  The  east 
and  west  ends  of  the  roof  arc  enriched  by  grouped  gables,  flanked  by  large 
enriched  scrolls  or  trusses  in  the  Roman  fashion. 

The  whole  composition  is  impressive,  and  its  boldness  loses  nothing  by  the 
graceful  plarfulness  of  the  outline.  There  are  some  inaccuracies  of  detail, 
which  a  little  more  study  of  purer  models  might  have  corrected ;  but  the 
whole  is  well  worthy  a  distinguished  place  among  the  striking  productions 
of  the  Vanbrugh  school.  The  exterior  being  entirely  faced  with  stone,  its 
solid  magnificence  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the  parsimonious  meajmess, 
which  distinguishes  the  like  buildings  of  the  present  day.  In  vol.  iv.  p.  70, 
of  Dallaway's  edition  of  Horace  Walpole's  Anecdotes  of  Painting,  Hethrop, 
J.  PhiUip's  church  at  Birmingham,  a  work  of  considerable  merit,  the  quadrant 
porticoes  at  Chefdcn  House,  and  a  house  at  Roeham|)ton,  pecvdiar,  but  strik- 
ing in  its  eflect,  given  in  the  Vitruvius  Britannicus,  arc  mentioned  as  works 
of  Archer.  To  liirn  also  is  attributed  the  fanciful  and  attractive  pavilion  at 
the  end  of  the  piece  of  water  which  faces  the  centre  of  ^Vrest  llousi;^  in  Bed- 
fordshire, the  seat  of  the  Earl  de  Grey.  This  pavilion  is  hexagonal  in  plan, 
with  a  porch  at  the  entrance,  and,  with  very  little  attention  to  effect,  might 
be  made  a  very  graceful  object,  well  worthy  the  splendid  mansion  which  has 
been  recently  erected  by  the  present  noble  possessor,  from  his  own  designs 
and  under  his  own  immediate  direction,  and  in  which  bis  lordship  has  evinced 
a  great  feeling  for  art,  sound  discrimination,  and  a  happy  adaptation  of  the 
style  chosen,  which  is  that  of  the  French  chateau  of  the  time  of  Louis  XV. 

Mr.  Donaldson  also  read  a  brief  memoir  of  the  life  of  Chevalier  Stefano 
Gasse,  of  Naples,  an  Honorary  and  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute. 


THE  ARCHITECTURAL  SOCIETY. 
W.  TiTE,  Esq.,  President,  in  the  Chair, 

This  society  closed  its  session  on  the  2nd  ult.  with  a  conversazione,  which 
was  attended  by  Earl  de  Grey,  the  President,  and  many  of  the  Fellows  of  the 
Institute  of  British  Architects,  also  by  Mr.  Walker,  the  President,  and  nume- 
rous members  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  besides  many  members 
of  other  scientific  societies.  The  business  of  the  meeting  commenced  by 
Mr.  Grellier,  the  Hon.  Sec.  reading  the  report  of  the  Committee  detailing 
the  lectures  and  papers  that  had  been  delivered,  and  the  prizes  awarded  to 
the  student  members,  and  expressing  their  warmest  thanks  and  acknowledg- 
ment to  their  President,  iMr.  Tite,  for  the  energy  aud  zeal  with  which  he  has 
forwarded  the  interests  of  the  society. 

The  President  then  proceeded  to  award  the  prizes  to  the  successful  can- 
didates, after  which  he  read  a  paper  of  considerable  researcli  and  interest, 
"  On  Exchanges,"  which  we  have  the  pleasure  of  giving  in  another  part  of 
the  Joiu'nal. 


NOTES  OF  THE  MONTH. 


The  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Westminster,  we  are  happy  to  announce,  intend  to 
have  twelve  of  the  windows  in  Westminster  Abbey  glazed  with  painted  glass.  We 
hope  that  they  will  be  ordered  at  once  of  the  artists,  and  not  of  dealers,  by 
whom  the  artists  will  be  screwed  down.  Painters  aud  sculptors  are  not  sub- 
jected to  such  a  vexatious  process,  and  we  do  not  see  why  painters  on  glass 
should  be  deprived  of  a  great  portion  of  the  reward  of  thek  exertions. — The 
authorities  at  the  Temple  are  also  engaged  in  the  restoration  of  their  ancient 
church. 

In  the  National  Gallery,  a  very  fine  painting,  the  Infant  Jesus,  by  Murillo, 
has  recently  been  placed. 

The  Thames  Tunnel  will  soon  make  its  appearance  on  the  Middlesex  side. 
The  Company  have  commenced  clearing  the  houses  for  the  purpose  of  prose- 
cuting their  labours  with  energy. 

Mr.  Cottingham  the  architect,  invited  a  numerous  party  to  a  conversazione 
at  liis  Museum  of  English  .\ntiquities,  in  the  Waterloo  Bridge-road,  on  ThOTs- 
day,  the  25th  ult.  We,  certainly,  were  never  so  much  suqirised  on  passing 
through  the  numerous  rooms,  to  witness  such  an  immense  collection  of  spe- 
cimens (about  31,000  we  understand)  of  domestic  and  ecclesiastical  arcliitec- 
ture,  painting,  sculpture,  ami  furniture ;  every  architect,  artist,  and  lover  of 
antiquities  should  not  fail  visiting  this  Museum — next  month  we  intend  to 
give  a  description  of  it. 

We  understand  that  a  National  Mausoleum  has  been  projected  upon  a  most 

2  L 


250 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


magnificent  scale,  to  erect  a  sort  of  "  Skcond  Westminster  ABnKv,"  for 
the  intcnncnt  of  tlie  noble,  opulent,  and  ilhistrious  dead,  and  wc  liave  hoard 
that  the  drawings  are  now  ready,  though  wc  have  not  yet  hecn  fortunate 
cnoiigli  to  see  them.  We  do  not  know  who  the  antlior  of  the  gi-and  scheme 
is,  hut  it  is  w  hispered  that  Barry  is  the  chief  architect,  an<l  a  friend  who  has 
been  favoured  with  a  sight  of  the  drawings,  informs  ns  that  the  design  is 
noble,  chaste,  and  beautiful,  ami  a  most  perfect  siieeimen  of  art.  No  doubt 
such  a  building  is  nmeh  wanted,  seeing  thatanich  iti  the  Abbey  is  not  now 
to  be  had  for  either  "  love  or  money,"  or  within  its  precincts,  and  hence  the 
necessity  of  the  intended  National  Mausoleum.  We  shall  endeavour  to  oli- 
tain  permission  to  reduce  and  engrave  the  dramngs  for  oiu-  next  number. 

Tlie  experiment  of  the  New  Water  Company  which  has  lieen  going  on  to 
test  the  (juanlity  of  water  which  can  be  procured  and  brought  by  its  own 
gravity  to  London  from  near  Watford,  is  now  nearly  completed.  As  far  as  it 
has  gone  it  has  been  most  successful.  Cojiioiis  springs  have  been  tapped  to 
the  depth  of  97  feet,  and  the  well  of  20  feet  diameter  wlien  only  16  feel  deep, 
required  .SO  men  to  be  incessantly  pum])ing  from  4  a.m.  to  8  p.  m.  daily,  to 
enable  the  sinkers  to  proceed.  Telford  never  made  a  happier  hit  than  in 
pointing  out  this  spot  for  the  supply  of  London. 

The  Annual  Meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  Government  School  of  Design 
for  distributing  the  prizes,  took  place  on  Friday,  the  26th  ult.  AVe  were 
much  gratified  on  witnessing  the  great  progress  made  by  the  students  since 
the  last  yearly  meeting,  and  the  marked  improvements  that  could  be  traced 
in  those  drawings  that  were  made  from  models  and  plants.  The  school  is  in 
a  vcrj'  flourishing  state,  and  there  are  not  less  than  100  pupils.  Mr.  Labou- 
chere,  the  Tresident  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  distributed  the  prizes.  Among 
the  comjiany  present  we  noticed  Sir  K.  Inglis,  Bart.,  M.P.,  Sir  D.  Norrevs, 
Bart.,  M.l'.,'  Henry  T.  Hope,  Esq.,  M.P.,  T.  Wyse,  Esq.,  M.l'.,  Sir  David 
Wilkie,  and  C.  R.  Cockerell,  Esq.,  R.A.,  the  latter  gentleman  read  the  report 
of  the  committee. 

At  Paris  they  are  now  employed  in  engraving  on  the  bronze  of  the  column 
of  July,  the  names  of  the  combatants  who  were  killed  during  the  revolution. 
These  names  are  .'J04  in  number,  consisting  of  about -1000  letters,  and  jilaced 
in  alphabetical  order,  letter  A  at  the  top.  Each  letter  is  8  centim.  ("J  in.) 
liigh,  and  .H  millini.  Q  in.)  deep.  A  good  specimen  of  mgraviii;/  on  a  large 
scale.  The  artists  have  got  as  far  as  L.  It  it  said  that  the  elepliant  is  to  he 
cast  at  last,  and  erected  at  the  Barriere  du  Trone,  the  decorations  of  which 
are  tu  l)e  finished  ;  all  this  however  is  far  from  certain. — On  the  reconnnend- 
ation  of  the  Commisioners  for  Preserving  Historical  Monuments,  the  Minister 
of  tlie  Interior  has  directed  M.  VioUet  le  Due  to  prc])are  a  plan  for  the  re- 
storation of  the  church  of  Vezclay  (Yonue),  and  M.  (Juestel  plans  for  those 
of  St.  Giles  (Card),  and  I.ouillae  (Lot),  and  for  the  cloister  of  Moissac  (Tarn 
and  Garonne). — The  French  naval  authorities  have  directed  experiments  to 
lie  made  at  Brest  on  galvanized  iron,  and  on  gutters  of  zinc  and  of  tin.  The 
Commissioners  apjiointed  have  already  recommended  tlie  application  of  gal- 
vinized  metal  in  several  cases,  in  order  to  test  its  properties  on  a  large  scale. 
By  iiolice  regulations  the  extent  of  the  projections  of  plaster  cornices  is  limited 
at  Paris  to  10  ni.  (G  in.) 


REVIE'WS. 


Pictorial  and  Practical  Illustrations  of  Windsor  Caulk,  from  original 
Drawings.  By  Messrs.  Gandy  and  Baud.  London :  Joliii  Williams, 
1840. 

When  Achilles  died,  Ajax  and  Ulysses  contended  for  his  arms,  diie 
was  the  conflict,  and  great  tho  perplexity  of  the  Greeks  in  coining  to 
a  decision,  they  ended  it,  however,  if  we  recollect  aright,  by  nnikiiig 
the  award  in  favour  of  one  of  the  competitors,  not  as  we  should  pro- 
pose to  do  by  giving  a  bit  to  one,  and  a  bit  to  another,  or  forcing  them 
iioth  to  squeeze  flieniselvcs  into  the  same  coat  of  mail.  Since  .Sir 
JeH'ry  Wyatville's  death,  a  similar  contest  has  taken  place,  ecpudly 
distressing  as  regards  the  parties  engaged,  and  the  difficulty  of  coming 
to  a  safe  decision.  Sir  Jett'ry  anxious  for  his  fame,  and  for  the  proper 
illustration  of  his  great  work,  Windsor  Castle,  during  his  life  time  em- 
ployed two  of  his  pupils,  Messrs.  Gandy  and  Baud,  and  expendeil  large 
sums  on  the  preparations  of  the  necessary  drawings.  His  death  left 
the  enterprise  unaccoiii|ilished,  and  by  his  will  he  directed  his  executor 
to  provide  for  the  completion  of  a  task,  dear  to  him  even  in  death. 
Messrs.  (iandy  and  Baud,  artists  of  approved  competence,  who  had 
been  employed  by  Sir  Jeffry  himself  in  carrying  out  the  works,  had 
engaged  to  make  the  necessary  drawings  on  condition  that  they  should 
be  the  persons  solely  employed  in  carrying  out  a  work,  the  importance 
of  which  they  fully  a]ipreciated,  and  in  wliich  they  also  took  an  in- 
terest, as  having  their  own  reputation  connected  with  it.  From  some 
cause,  however,  which  has  not  been  explained,  a  dissension  has  taken 
place  between  the  executors  and  the  artists,  and  eacdl  party  lias  deter- 
mined on  producing  a  separate  work.  This  step  in  such  a  case  cannot 
but  be  deeply  regretted,  for  neither  tlie  ]iiiblic  nor  the  ]iublishers  can 
be  benefitted  by  a  contest  of  this  kind,  the  latter  must  have  a  diminished 
sale,  and  the  former  a  deteriorated  work,  instead  of  both  parties  making 


a  profitable  union,  and  devoting  their  whole  capital  and  energies  to 
the  production  of  one  magnificent  volume. 

The  sjiecimeiis  we  have  seen  of  both  the  contending  works  are 
creditable  and  well  executed,  but  we  do  hope  that  there  is  still  time 
to  conclude  amicably  a  contest  so  distressing.  The  executors  have  the 
fame  of  Sir  JeH'ry  in  their  keeping,  and  Messrs.  Gandy  and  Baud, 
architects  themselves,  cannot  be  unmindful  of  the  reputation  of  their 
former  master,  or  of  their  own;  the  public  are  not  so  selfish  as  to  wish 
for  an  injurious  competition. 

The  illustrations  of  the  Part  before  us  consist,  of  a  beautiful  litho- 
graphic drawing  of  the  Xurth  West  View  of  the  W'inchester  Tower, 
draw  11  by  Mr.  Ciaudy ;  of  the  North  East  View  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
and  Brunswick  Towers,  drawn  by  Mr.  Baud,  and  lithographed  by 
Hawkins  ;  and  two  engravings  in  outline  exhibiting  details. 

A  Treatise  on  Projection,  mill  numerous  Plates.  By  Peter  Nicholson. 
London:  Richard  Groombridge.     1840. 

Mr.  Nicholson  has  laboured  hard  for  the  |irofession,  but  although  far 
advanced  in  years,  he  is  still  as  fresh  as  ever  in  supplying  the  wants 
of  the  professional  student;  to  this  class  the  volume  before  us  will  be 
of  great  service.  We  will  give  an  extract  from  the  preface,  which  in 
the  author's  own  words  best  describes  the  utility  of  the  work. 

The  theoiy  of  projection  is  of  universal  application  ;  a  knowledge  of  this 
useful  branch  of  delineation  will  enable  the  designer  to  instruct  tlie  workman 
with  nearly  as  much  ease  as  if  he  had  the  model  before  him,  and  to  explain 
the  effect  of  an  imaginary  object  as  if  it  really  existed  ;  this  knowledge  in  the 
workman  will  enable  him  to  forsee  how  the  different  parts  of  an  object  will 
join  upon  each  other,  to  understand  drawings  and  designs  with  readiness,  and 
to  execute  them  with  accuracy. 

.Vniong  many  other  uses  to  which  this  truly  admirable  science  extends  its 
innuence,  may  be  mentioned  the  constiuetion  of  the  centerings  of  arches  and 
groin  vaults,  the  formation  of  hand-rails  and  stairs,  the  cutting  of  stones  for 
bridges  and  oblique  arches,  and  the  delineation  of  plans,  and  elevations  of 
buildings  and  machinery.  But  the  utility  of  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  pruiciiiles  of  this  useful  art  is  not  confined  to  the  workshop  alone,  a  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  these  principles  should  form  a  jiart  of  that  stock  of  informa- 
tion which  is  essential  to  the  student  in  the  arts  of  design,  and  the  rapid 
strides  which  have  of  late  been  made  in  other  departments  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  render  it  far  from  improbable  that  we  shall  shortly  see  the  theory 
and  practice  of  projection  taught  in  our  pubhc  schools,  as  a  necessary  branch 
of  educatiou. 

Treatise  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Xaral  Architecture.  By  Aueus- 
TiN  B.  Crewse,  Member  of  the  late  School  of  Naval  Architecture, 
&c.     Edinburgh:  Black.     1840. 

We  regret  that  the  space  occupied  by  other  matter  prevents  us 
from  giving  the  remarks  which  we  had  prepared  on  Mr.  Crewse's 
work.  This  is  a  reprint  of  the  article  Ship  Building  in  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  and  gives  in  a  short  compass  the  elements  of  the 
history  and  theory  of  the  art,  and  also  a  great  deal  of  information  upon 
construction.  We  recommend  the  work  to  the  immediate  notice  of 
our  readers,  as  we  must  ourselves  defer  the  consideration  of  it  until 
next  month. 

Chemistry  of  Science  and  Art,  or  Elements  of  Chemistry,  adapltd  for 

reading,  along  with  a  Course  of  Lectura:,for  self  instruction,  &c.   By 

Huuo  Reid.     Edinburgh  :  MaclachUin  and  Stewart.     1840. 

Mr.  Reid's  work  is  what  it  professes  to  be,  a  portable  compendium 

of  the  |)riuciples  of  chemistry,  not  aiming  at  the  extent  and  research 

id'  large  works,  but  eschewing  the   superficiality  of  what  are  called 

cliea])  works.     It  is  sound,  cheap,  and  useful,  eminently  calculated  for 

the  artisan  and  the  student,  deriving  its   information  from  the  highest 

sources,  and  giving  all  the  improvements  of  the  latest  date.     We  have 

only  one  thing  to  quarrel  witli  Mr.  Reid   about — and  he  has  treated 

upon  the  subject  so  clearly,  that  we  are  half  inclined  to  let  it  alone — 

and  that  is,  that  he  has  in  the  beginning  of  his  work  enlarged  upon 

two  or  three  subjects,  which  might  better  become  the  subject  of  his 

forthcoming  treatise  on  the  classication  of  the  sciences. 

LITERARY  NOTICES. 

Mr.  RooKE  has  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  his  Geology  as  a 
.Science  applied  to  Engineering,  in  which  he  has  detailed  some  of  the 
results  of  his  last  year's  tour  in  FVance. 

Dr.  Day  will  not  think  us  inattentive  to  liis  pamphlet  on  the  Doc- 
trine of  Parallels,  in  deferring  our  remarks  upon  it  until  next  month,  as 
it  requires  a  serious  perusal. 


J  CcuJU  St' 

Iii.  1. 


SOUTH     EASTERN     HARBOITRS, 
00  VO  B. 


JKitriiw  f*S^ 


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TiW^^-Ji- 


^^r. 


.'Ctf.'^Mt^ /(UTO  ci%.M>r^f>UrInd^x,  ai  Don;/- Mart>: 


Fig.    2. 


o         r 


SOUTH    EAbTKRN    HARBOURS, 
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Note 


,'  ^  .■'eait<,5iar.rT<-Xf«2E7?e'"!- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


251 


SAFETY  VALVES. 

The  annexed  engravings  are  referred  to  in  tlie  Report  on  tlie  plans 
for  preventing  accidents  on  board  Steam- vessels,  at  page  24G. 


Fig.  2; 


ON  SUSPENSION  BRmGES. 

Sir — I  observe  in  your  Journal  of  the  past  month,  an  engraving  and 
description  of  "  Dredge's  Patent  Suspension  Bridge,"  you  viJill  find  at 
page  23,  vol.  1  of  the  Journal,  an  engraving  and  description  of  my 
bridge,  which  was  presented  to  the  British  Association  for  Science  at 
Newcastle,  in  1838.  Mr.  Dredge's  bridge  was  presented  to  the  Asso- 
ciation last  year  at  Birmingham.  The  identity  of  principle  in  the  two 
bridges  is  evident,  and  if  it  were  desired  to  convert  my  construction 
into  that  proposed  by  Mr.  Dredge,  it  would  be  merely  necessary  to 
unite  each  radial  link  with  the  one  next  it,  but  this  would  necessarily 
divert  the  rods  from  the  diagonal  line,  representing  the  resultant  of 
the  two  forces,  tending  to  destroy  the  bridge,  which  would  be  a  very 
unskilful  arrangement,  and  attended  with  no  practical  benefit.  I  am 
not  desirous  to  enter  into  a  controversy  upon  this  matter,  but  I  think  I 
may  claim  from  you  the  small  justice,  of  allowing  me  to  state  in  your 
next  number,  my  claims  to  be  considered  the  author  of  this  system  of 
constructing  suspension  bridges ;  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe  that 
my  arrangement  is  much  easier  of  construction  than  either  that  of  Mr. 
Dredge,  or  the  ordinary  suspension  bridge,  and  would  be  cheaper  and 
stift'er  than  either. 

I  remain,  your  obedient  servant, 

W.  J.  Curtis. 

15,  Stamford  Street,  Black/riars  Road, 
June  17,  1840. 


MYKE  LIGHTHOUSE. 

In  our  last  number  wo  gave  an  engraving  and  description  of  the  Wyre 
Liglulunise,  togotlicr  with  the  Specification,  with  the  signature  of  "  Henry 
Mangles  Denlum,"  at  the  end.  by  which  it  may  appear  that  the  design  and 
specification  was  tliat  of  Captain  Denham,  instead  of  wliich  it  w  ill  appear  by 
the  following  letter  to  have  Ijcen  entirely  the  production  of  Messrs.  Mitchell 
and  .Son.' 

TO   THE   EniTOR    OF  THE  PRESTON  PILOT. 

60,  Pall  Mall,  London,  May  9th,  1840. 
Sni— It  is  right  that  llie  public  should  clearly  understand  that  the  specifi- 
cation of  the  Wyrc  Lighthouse  was  the  production  of  Messrs.  Alexander 
Milchell  and  Son,  .and  only  signed  Ijy  me  to  show  1  had  considered,  approved, 
and  caiiseil  lis  adoption.  Your  inserting  this  note  in  your  next  paper  will  ob- 
lige your  humble  sorvant, 

H.  M.  Denham. 
^Consulting  Marine  .Surveyor. 


THE  PROJECTED  MERCHANT  SEAMAN'S  INSTITUTION. 
(See  Plate.) 

The  grandeur  and  great  public  importance  of  a  project,  the  parti- 
culars of  which  accompany  our  Journal  this  month,  will,  we  trust,  ex- 
cuse our  departing  somewhat  from  our  usual  course,  in  criticising  a 
work  at  present  to  a  certain  extent  undetermined,  but  which  we  pro- 
phecy will  at  no  distant  period  be  equally  the  pride  and  protection  of 
the  \-ast  and  deserving  class  for  whose  benefit  it  is  especially  intended, 
as  a  glorious  and  lasting  monument  of  the  national  estimation  in  which 
they  are  so  justly  held. 

The  style  selected,  Palladian,  so  eminently  suitable  to  buildings  of 
large  extent  and  intricate  internal  arrangement,  and  the  boldness  and 
simplicitv  of  the  ensemble,  evince  considerable  judgment  and  taste 
in  the  artist,  wdiose  name  however  does  not  appear. 

The  plan  is  quadrangular,  the  entire  length  of  the  facade,  we  are 
informed,  about  7tJ0  feet.  The  lower  story  consists  of  an  arched  and 
rusticated  basement,  supporting  and  subservient  to  the  principal  design 
which  is  of  the  Corinthian  order;  the  entablature  continued  through- 
out and  unbroken  by  those  unnecessary  and  unmeaning  projections 
which  so  frequently  disfigure  the  best  compositions ;  the  central  fea- 
ture of  the  design  is  an  octastyle  portico  of  magnificent  dimensions, 
upwards  of  lUO  feet  in  extent,  supported  by  an  open  loggia  communi- 
cating with  an  arcade  surrounding  the  quadrangle,  and  surmounted  by 
a  dome  novel  in  design,  but  in  harmony  with  the  general  character  of 
the  composition.  Such  are  the  leading  features  of  the  exterior; — of  the 
interior  we  can  give  no  opinion,  the  very  excellent  method  having, 
we  understand,  been  adopted  of  arranging  it  with  reference  to  the 
opinion  and  advice  of  those  who  are  practically  acquainted  with  the 
purpose  to  wdiich  it  will  be  devoted.  We  shall,  however,  keep  a 
strict  watch  over  its  progress,  and  trust  no  petty  interests  or  party 
feelings  will  interfere  with  the  completion  of  so  useful,  so  creditable, 
and  so  magnificent  an  undertaking. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


"  THE  RUBY"  CHALLENGE. 

Sir— The  letter  which  appeared  in  the  last  number  (for  June)  of  your 
valuable  Journal,  signed  by  ■•  A.  Billings,  Manager  of  the  Diamond  Steam 
Packet  Company,"  has  excited  consideralile  stir  amongst  steam-boat  parties. 
1  do  not,  however,  observe  in  that  letter  the  public  challenge*-'  which  the 
'•Ruby' gave  in  the  Nautical  Magazine  for  this  month,  and  in  the  latter 
periodical  Mr.  Billings,  as  "  Manager  of  the  Diamond  Steam  Packet  Com- 
pany," says, "  1  am  readi/  to  matcli  ihe  Uuby  to  run  from  Gravesend  to  Mar- 
gale  and  back  for  200  giiineas  against  any  boat  afloat,  whatever  may  be  her 
size,  power,  or  build." 

Now  your  numerous  readers  may  like  to  know  if  and  how  the  match  came 
oft',  and  I  beg  a  space  in  your  columns  to  state  the  matter  fairly. 

1  accepted  the  challenge  through  Mr.  Runey,  the  Manager  ol  the  Polytechnic 
Institution  immediately,  and  submitted  that  the  conditions  should  be— to 
en'.;age  to  run  on  a  certain  day,  three  weeks  notice  to  be  given. 

To  deposit  200  guineas  each.  The  course  to  be  from  GraTcsend  round  a 
boat  muoreJ  ofl' Margate  wood  pier.  Time  of  st.rting  to  be  named  at  once, 
and  to  take  all  chances  uf  weather. 

Sails  to  be  used  or  not  as  the  challenger  pleased.  Here  I  will  only  observe 
that  as  I  should  have  to  get  the  -  Fire  King"  round  from  the  Clyde,  a  dis- 
tance of  8.50  miles,  I  stipulated  for  the  above  conditions  as  to  tune,  believing 
the  "  Ruby '  to  be  "  ready."  On  the  13th  Mr.  Roney  received  answer  iroin 
Mr.  Billings,  (but  not  signed  by  him  as  Manager  of  the  Diamond  Company;, 
asking  the  "  name  of  the  boat,  her  tonnage  and  power,  and  the  time  she  has 
been  running,  ivhen{i. ,:  Mr.  B.;  shall  be  willing  to  enter  upon  the  terms  ol 
the  match.''  ,        ,  ■    r  1 

Having  read  so  much  of  his  answer,  and  finding  that  his  tomier  words 
"  any  boat  afloat,"  and  bis  Ijeing  "  ready,"  were  now  appearing  in  a  new  tight, 
I  was  amused  to  find  the  f^llowing  philanthropic  evasion  thrust  in,  '•  provided 
that  your  vessel  is  worked  by  low  pressure  steam,  as  I  feel  convinced  that  tlie 
Diamond  Steam  Packet  Company  woulil  not  on  any  account  whatever  endau- 
ger  the  lives  of  their  fellow  creatures,  by  permitting  their  boat  10  enter  into  a 
contest  with  any  vessel  propelled  hy  s»  hazardous  an  agent  as  high  pressure 
steam  !  "  and  his  letter  concluded,  "  I  shall  be  obligeil  by  an  answer  to  the 
foregoing  before  entering  on  the  details  ot  the  match.' 

I  protest  that  my  regard  for  the  lives  of  my  fellow  creatures  is  just  as  great 
as  that  of  Mr.  Bilfings  and  his  Company— and  I  do  consider  that  part  ot  the 
letter  maw  kish  in  the  extreme.  .,        t  1  • 

But  the  Ruby  was  not  to  get  oft' the  match  quite  so  easily.  1  answered  m 
the  following  words  :  that  '■  1  accepted  the  published  challenge  on  the  part 
of  Ihe  owner  of  the  '  Fire  King,'  of  fJU3  tons,  and  with  57-1  inch  cylinders  oiv 
pressure.  She  is  privale  property  and  on  no  station  for  passengers  ;  she  has 
been  alloat  to  my  knowlcrlge  s:^ven  mimths.r  but  that  has  nothing  to  do  with 
your  challenge,  further  than  that  the  '  Fire  King'  comes  within  the  words 


"  "We  purposely  omitted  the  paragraph,  as  we  did  not  wish  the  Journal  to 
be  made  the  medium  of  betting.— lid,  C.  E,  and  A.  Journal. 
T  She  has  Ijeen  ailoat  much  longer. 

2  f  2 


252 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


used  liv  you.  '  any  boat  adoat,  whntever  may  be  her  size,  power,  or  builil. 
Ag.-.inl  pies^cl  him  to  enndiido  the  levms  of  tlio  mateh,  and  signed  myself 
asn-ont  for  Rnborl  Napier,  of  Glasgow.  »  bo  o«ns  the  I'lro  Km" 

Atmu  1  found  the  Rnliy  .at  fault,  for  Mr.  Billings  replied  on  tlie  l,)thjune, 
that^as  the  "  Kire  Kin""  is  low  pressure,  there  could  U'  no  objection  to  make 
the  match.  Iml  that  his  challenge  was  published  when  the  Ruby  waj  '■  lying 
up  in  dock.  "  at  the  present  time  the  season  is  at  lis  lie.at.  and  all  the  boats 
of  the  Biamnnd  Comp,anv  are  iii  full  employment,  and  the  Ruby  could  not 
he  spared  olf  her  statiim'  just  now.  she  being  their  iirincipal  boat,  you  must 
therefore  let  the  match  stand  over  until  the  end  oi  the  season,  when  the 
Ruby  could  be  withdrawn  from  her  station  for  a  few  days  for  the  purpose, 
if  Cmark  the  saving  word  '  if ' )  the  conditions  are  agreed  to. 

To  this  1  answered  on  the  IGth  .lune,  "  your  favour  ot  the  1.)  h  has,  1  must 
<!ay  surprised  me.  In  this  month's  "  Nautical  Magazine  you  published  your 
challenge,  wherein  you  had  to  repeat  '  that  you  were  mir/;/  to  match  the 
Ruby  to  run  from  firavcsend  to  Margate  and  back  for  20(J  guineas,  against 
any  Ijoat  nlloat.  whalever  may  be  her  size,  power,  or  build.  This  was  pub- 
lished on  the  1st  of  ibis  month.  Mr.  Robert  Naoier,  the  owner  of  the  Fire 
King  metwUhyourchallengesomedaysafterwards  intdasgow,  and  although 
much  disinclined  to  race,  lie  could  not  allow  it  to  pass  unheeded,  nr  your 
ship  to  be  published  as  faster  than  the  Fire  King.  He  lost  no  time  in  in- 
structing me.  and  on  the  9lh  inst.ant  your  challenge  was  accepted  in  London. 
You  publicly  stated  that  the  Ruliy  was  "nnrfi/."  both  last  month  and  this 
month  after  your  season  had  commenced,  hut  now  when  you  have  learned 
that  th'e  Fire  "King  accepts  your  challenge,  you  object  to  run  until  after  your 
"  reason  "  has  finished.—]  therefore  now  call  upon  you,  and  those  concerned 
with  you.  to  complete  the  match,  as  you  are  bound  in  honour  to  do  within 
a  reasonable  time."  t        c-  <     o     >• 

"  Requesting  the  favour  of  an  immediate  answer,  I  am  Sir,  ytmr  s,  he. 

My  next  and  last  letter  from  Mr.  Billings  "begs  me  to  recollect  that  tlie 
Ruby  is  the  property  of  a  Public  Company,  whose  engagements  being  com- 
pleted for  the  season^  thev  will  not  permit  the  boat  to  he  withdrawn  at  present 
from  the  station."— So  that  the  grand  challenge  ends  thus  in  nothing;  and  I 
am  confident  your  readers  will  conclude  with  me.  that  the  Ruby  shuns  the 
trial  altogetheV,  and  many  of  your  readers  will  think  as  I  do,  that  the  Gas- 
conade challenge  was  given  in  Mr.  Billing's  letter  (which  by-the-bye  con- 
demns "  swaggering  and  boasting '')  merely  to  pulT  the  Ruby  or  her  engineers, 
m  the  vain  confidence  that  no  one  would  accept  it.  I  beg  to  assure  you  I  in- 
tend nothing  disrespectful  to  Mr.  Billings  or  his  Company,  or  to  those  behind 
the  scenes ;  it  is  a  pity  they  should  thus  have  tarnished  the  lustre  of  the 
Ruby. 

1  have  now  only  to  conclude  by  giving  to  you  the  '■  Fire  King  s  "  rate  of 
steaming,  as  ascertained  on  the  fjare-loch  last  October,  in  presence  of  Mr. 
John  Wood  the  well  known  shi])-builder,  Mr.  Lloyd  the  assistant-surveyor  of 
steam  machinery  of  the  N.ivy,  Mr.  .1.  Seoit  Russell,  Mr.  Robert  Napier,  and 
myself. 

min.    sec.      .  miles 

No.  1  measured  mile    4        0=         1 '1-45  per  hour. 

2  ..  3      43        =         IB-H' 

3  ..  3     r,s       -'        ir,\s 

4  ..  4      13        =         li'^ 

5  ..  4        5=         14U9 
G            ..               3      42  lC-21 

7  ..  3      57        --         1.51H 

8  ..  4      I(i        -         14t)(i 


8 )  120-09 


Land  miles  on  the  average  per  liour.  l.'JOl 

Tlie  miles  were  me,asured  by  us  in  three  different  and  distinct  parties,  and 
(he  times  taken  by  each  individually.  The  Fire  King's  measurements  are  as 
follows : — 

feet.  in. 
Length  over  stem  and  stem  posts  aloft....   180    5 

Length  of  keel  and  fore  rake 175    5 

Breadth  between  paddles 28    Oi 

Depth  in  engine-room  IG     SJ 

M.aking  in  all  G(J3  tons  0.  M. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  most  obedient  serviint, 

Alexanobr  Gordon, 
Agent  for  Robert  Napier  of  Glasgow. 
22,  Fliuh/pr-xtreet,  ll'ciimiiixler,] 
June  23,  1840. 


LAUNCH  OF  TWO  IRON  STKAM-SHIP.S  AT  LIVERPOOL. 

Tnr  confidence  entertained  in  the  good  properties  of  iron  vessels,  .and  par- 
ticularly their  advantage  in  combining  strength  with  that  light  draught  of 
w.ater  requisite  in  some  brandies  of  trade,  in  peculiar  localities,  is  becoming 
daily  more  and  more  C(julirmed,  by  the  success,  both  at  home  .and  abroad, 
of  the  ships  built  of  that  materi.al,  and  the  improvements  in  their  construc- 
tion which  experience  enables  the  builders  to  introduce.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
improb.able,  but  in  twenty  years  lience,  or  [lerhaps  within  a  shorter  period, 
one  half  of  our  mercantile  marine  may  be  of  iron,  copper,  or  some  compo- 
sition of  various  metals  that  may  be  w'rought  by  liammer,  or  cast  in  pieces, 
and  afterwards  jointed,  to  any  given  mould  or  model. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  the  construction  of  "steam"  vessels  of  strong  sheet 
iron  is  evidently  much  on  the  increase,  particularly  here  and  at  Glasgow,  the 
two  ))orts  that  were  the  first,  we  believe,  in  this  country,  and  are  still  the 
most  succeaslul,  (being  piii  to  their  "  metal  "j  in  directing  their  energies  to 
steam  navigation.  'Jlie  '•  iron  Meet  "  of  Kngland  is  consequently  receiving 
apul  accessions  ;  and  not  contented  with   turning  out  one  vessel  at  a  time. 


Mr.  John  Laird,  has  several  on  the  stocks  at  once,  and  on  .Saturday 
morning,  6th  ultimo,  launched  two  from  his  yard  at  North  Birkenliead  by  the 
s.ame  tide  !  The  time  appointed  (the  tide  being  early)  was  about  nine  o'clock, 
and  by  that  hour  a  Large  cimcourse  of  persons,  including  many  ladies  and 
gentlemen  from  the  neighbourhood,  and  not  a  few  from  this  side  of  the 
water,  were  in  attendance.  Both  the  vessels  were  decorated  with  Hags,  and 
some  parties,  besides  the  workmen,  preferred  going  on  board  and  being 
launched  with  them. 

The  first  one  launched  was  her  Majesty's  steam-vessel  Dover,  to  be  placed 
on  the  station  bet»een  Dover  and  Calais,  or  Ostend.  The  following  are  her 
dimensions  and  capacity  : — 

Length  (per  measurement)     ....  110  feet 

Breadth,  or  beam    do.  ....  21  feet 

Will  admeasure  about  ....  230  tons. 

The  Dover  is  the  first  iron  vessel  belonging  to  the  Admiralty,  and  on  lier 
success  will,  no  doubt,  depend  the  future  adoption  of  vessels  oi^  her  build  by 
the  government.  Slie  is  of  a  remarkably  fine  model,  having  a  degree  of  ro- 
tundity in  her  sides,  with  ample  bearing,  and  a  fineness  in  her  lines,  fore  and 
aft,  which  will,  in  all  probability,  ensure  hera  degree  of  speed  and  safety  not 
yet  attained  by  any  steam-vessel  of  her  size.  A  few  minutes  after  nine  the 
word  was  given,  and  she  rushed  into  her  destined  element  in  g  dlant  style, 
amidst  the  hearty  cheers  of  the  spectators,  followed  by  a  salute  fired  from 
cannon  on  the  quay  adjoining  the  yard. 

The  second  vessel  launchetl  was  the  Phlegethon : — 

Lenelh  (per  measurement)        .  .  .  1  .")7  feet  G  inches. 

Breadtli 20  feet. 

Capacity,  upwards  of     .  .  .  .  .'iOO  tons. 

.She  is  intended  for  sea  and  river  service,  on.  we  believe,  a  foreign  station, 
and  w  ill  carry  two  long  guns,  one  at  the  bow  and  one  at  the  stern,  to  work 
within  a  circle.  This  vessel  is  also  of  a  fine  model,  with  ample  bearings,  so 
that  she  may  carry  sail  when  nquirc-d,  either  with  steam  or  without  it. 
as  her  paddle-wheels,  on  a  new  principle,  by  Mr.  Forrester,  may,  when  re- 
quired, Ije  thrown  out  of  gear.  .She  is  hanilsomely.  and  «e  may  add.  rakishly 
rigged  as  a  two-masted  schooner,  and  will,  we  doubt  not,  prove  to  be  a  clipper. 

Slie  was  launched  about  halt-past  nine  o  clock,  and  the  sight  was  one  of 
the  most  gratifying  ever  l)eheld.  ,Slie  had  a  considerable  distance  to  run 
down  Ibe  ways  before  her  forefoot  reached  the  water,  which  slie  took  like  a 
swan  breasting  its  native  lake.  We  need  scarcely  say  that  the  welkin  again 
rang  with  the  acclamations  of  the  spectators,  who  lined  the  yard  and  the 
neighbouring  shores,  and  w  hich  w  ere  returned  with  eijual  enthusiasm  by  those 
who  stood  on  her  decks.  When  afloat,  the  impression  she  conveyed  from  her 
length  and  sharpness,  w.as  that  of  a  very  fast  and  mischievous  looking  craft. 
She  has  a  fine  flush  deck,  and  her  paddle-boxes  do  not  rise  to  an  unseemly 
height  over  her  gunwale. 

We  believe  this  is  the  first  instance  of  two  iron  vessels  being  launched  from 
the  same  slip  by  the  same  tide,  nor  do  we  recollect  a  case  occurring  in  Liver- 
pool of  two  wooden  vessels  of  so  large  size  being  launched  in  one  tide. 

Both  vessels  exhibit  many  improvements  in  their  construction,  not  tried  in 
any  iion  vessel  previously  built;  and  which  render  them  two  of  the  strongest 
iron  vessels  afloat.  They  are  now  receiving  their  machinery, — the  Dover, 
from  Messrs.  Fawcett.  Preston  &  Co.,  and  the  Phlegethon  from  Messrs. 
Forrester  &  Go's  establishment.  Both,  it  is  expected,  will  be  ready  in  the 
course  of  the  present  month. 

Mr.  Laird  is  now  building  three  iron  steam-vessels  to  compose  the  new 
expedition  about  to  be  sent  by  government  up  the  river  Niger,  under  the 
command  of  Captain  Trotter, — Liverpool  paper. 


Tlie  Archimedes. — This  experimental  vessel  is  gradually  working  its  way  all 
round  the  coast,  exhibiting  its  powers  at  the  principal  ports.  It  was  at 
Liverpool  last  month.  On  the  10th  ult.,  we  find  by  the  Liverpool  Slainlurd, 
she  made  a  trip,  .and  shortly  before  reaching  the  Crosby  Light-ship,  the 
Duchess  of  Lancaster  steam-ship  was  perceived  making  directly  for  the  port, 
and  as  she  was  known  to  be  a  remarkably  fast  sailer,  and  Mr.  Smith  being 
desirous  of  proving  the  capabilities  of  the  Archimedes,  immediately  'put 
about,'  and  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  former  vessel.  On  coming  up,  the  screw 
was  immediately  put  in  motion,  and  the  two  vessels  went  admirably  together 
for  S'  me  dist.ancc,  though  we  are  bound  in  fairness  to  state  that  the  Duchess 
had  a  very  .slight  advantage  in  respect  of  speed,  owing,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  subjoined  comparison,  to  her  proportions  as  to  power,  draught,  ftc,  being 
better  adapted  for  quick  .sailing.  The  Archimedes  had  also  the  full  strength 
of  the  tide  to  contend  with,  whilst  Iier  competitor  ran  the  whole  distance  in 
the  eddy.  This  is  the  first  time  the  Archimedes  has  been  beaten,  with  one  or 
two  slignt  exceptions. 


ARCHIMEDES. 

Diameter  of  cylinder 37  in. 

.Stroke    3  ft. 

Tonnage 237 

Draught    10  ft. 

Kstimated  steam-power   ..  80-horse 

Length  between  perpendicu- 
lars    107  ft. 

Beam  22ft.  6  in. 

Area  of  midship  section  at  10 
feet  draught 143  ft. 


DUCHESS   OF  LANCASTER. 

Diameter  of  cylinder 40  in. 

Stroke    3  ft. 

Tonnage 238 

Draught : G  ft. 

Kstimated  steam-power   ..  90-Iiorse 

Length  between  perpendicu- 
lars   120  ft. 

Beam '20  ft. 

Area  of  midship  section  at  fi 
feet  draught 100  ft. 


As  there  was  a  feeling  on  hoard  relative  to  the  slip  or  loss  of  power  from 
the  screw,  the  following  explanation  will  doubtless  be  satisfactory  :— The 
screw,  being  8  feet  pitch,  would,  if  working  ina  solid,  advance  8  feetforeach 
revolution  ;  but,  working  in  a  fluid,  the  relative  difference  between  the  speed 
of  the  screw  and  the  vessel  appears,  at  first  sight,  to  be  considerable,  from  the 
supposril  oblique  action  of  the  propeller.  The  following  mode  of  calculating 
the  speed  of  both  will  show  that  tlie  difl'erence  is  barely  one-sixth,  which  is 
Considerably  less  than  that  of  ordinary  paddle-wheels. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


253 


"The  number  of  revolutions  of  the  engine  per  minute  is  26,  whicli,  multi- 
plied by  the  spur  wheels  55  times,  gives  that  number  of  turns  to  the  screw 
for  one  of  the  engine. 

26    revolutions  of  the  engine  per  minute. 
5J  multiple. 

138    revolutions  of  the  screw  per  minute. 
8    feet  pitch  of  screw. 

1104   /«■/ tr.-ivelled  per  minute. 
20     being  i  of  60,  to  bring  it  into 


22.080  yards  per  hour, 
wliirli.  (livideil  by  1760  (the  numljer  of  yards  in  a  statute  mile),  gives  us  12 
miles  100  yards  per  hour  as  the  speed  of  the  screw.  Speed  of  the  vessel  for 
26  strokes  per  minub",  10  1 0-23  miles  per  hour  by  the  big."— She  left  Liverpool 
on  the  llthult..  for  the  Isle  of  Man,  and  performed  the  run  in  theshort  space  of 
seven  hours  and  2')  minutes,  which  is  an  unusually  quick  jiassage.  The  Monn's 
Isle  was  fully  two  hours  longer  doing  the  same  distance  on  the  same  day, 
starting  about  half  an  hoiu'  later  than  the  Arrhimciles.  The  Mona  is  10  horses 
power  more  than  the  Archimeilcs,  with  considerable  less  tonnage,  and  draw- 
ing two  feet  less  water. 

Koi/al  Mail  Steam  Pnci-e(s.— The  contract  of  the  "  Royal  Mall  Steam-packet 
Company  "  with  the  commissioners  has  just  been  printed,  in  return  to  an 
order  of  the  House  of  Commons.  The  company  covenant  to"  keep  a  sufiicient 
number  (not  less  than  14)  of  good  and  efhcient  steani-ves.sels,  which  shall  be 
able  to  carry  guns  of  the  largest  calibre  now  used  on  board  of  steam-vessels 
of  war,  supplied  with  engines  of  not  less  than  400  collective  horse  power,  as 
well  as  with  men,  apparel,  &C..  and  be  of  at  least  1,000  tons  burden.  One  of 
these  vessels  is  to  leave  a  port  in  the  British  Channel  twice  in  every  calendar 
month,  ami  proceed  to  Harliadnes.  as  soon  as  the  mails  are  on  board.  Alter 
an  interval  not  exceeding  six  hours  from  her  arrival  there,  she  is  to  proceed 
to  Grenada,  and  after  remaining  a  time  not  exceeding  12  hours,  go  with  the 
mails  on  board  to  Santa  Cruz,  thence  to  St.  Thomas's,  thence  to  Nicola  M(de 
in  Hayti.  thence  to  .Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  thence  to  Port  Royal  in  Jamaica. 
After  remaining  at  Port  Royal  for  an  interv.al  nut  exceeding  24  hours,  the 
vessel,  aftpr  delivering  her  mails  and  receiving  others,  is  to  proceed  to  Savan- 
nah la  Mer.  and  after  a  delivery  and  receipt  of  mails  there,  to  llavannah  in 
Cuba.  After  an  interval  not  exceeding  48  hours  she  is  on  her  return  to  pro- 
ceed from  Havannah  to  Savannah  la  Mer,  thence  to  Port  Royal,  thence  to 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  thence  to  Niccda  Mole,  thence  to  Samana  in  Hayti.  de- 
livering and  receiving  mails  at  each  place,  care  being  taken  that  she  shall 
always"  arrive  at  Samana,  after  performing  her  voyage  from  Barbadoes,  on 
the  22nd  day  after  the  arrival  of  the  mails  at  Barbadoes  from  England. 
From  Samana  she  is  to  make  the  best  of  her  way  back  to  England.  Imme- 
diately on  the  arrival  at  Barbadoes  of  every  steamer  employed  under  the 
contract,  another  of  such  steam-vessels  is  to  proceed  with  her  mails  from 
Barbadoes  successively  to  Tobago,  Demerara,  Berbice,  and  Paramaribo.  The 
period  of  delay  at  Paramaribo  is  not  to  exceed  48  hours,  and  then  the  vessel 
is  to  proceed  to  Berbice,  Demerara.  Tobago,  Grenada,  and  Barbadoes,  always 
arriving  at  Barbadoes  in  time  to  depart  immediately  fur  Tobago  on  the  arrival 
of  one  of  tiu>  vessels  at  Barbadoes  from  England.  On  the  arrival  at  Grenada 
of  a  mail  from  England,  another  of  the  steam-vessels  is  to  proceed  from 
Grenada  successively  to  St.  Vincent.  St.  Lucia,  Martinique,  Dominica,  Guada- 
loupe,  Antigua,  Montserrat,  Nevis.  St.  Kitt's,  Santa  Cruz,  Tort(da,  .St. 
Thomas's.  St.  Juan's  (in  Puerto  Rico),  .Samana,  Curafoa.  Porto  Cabello,  La 
Guayra,  Trinidad,  and  thence  back  to  Grenada,  so  as  always  to  be  ready  to 
depart  thence  with  the  mails  on  their  arrival  from  England.  Another  vessel^ 
likewise,  on  the  arrival  at  Grenada  of  the  mails  from  England,  is  to  proceed' 
with  the  mails  succes.sively  to  the  Port  of  Spain  (in  Trinidad),  La  Guayra, 
Porto  Cabello,  Curafoa,  Samana.  St.  Juan's.  St.  Thomas'.s,  Tortola,  Santa 
Cruz,  St.  Kitt's,  Nevis.  Montserrat.  Antigua,  Guadaloupe,  Dominica,  Marti- 
nique, St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  thence  back  to  Grenada,  so  as  to  be  ready 
to  depart  immediately  on  the  arrival  of  a  mail  from  England.  On  the  arrival 
of  any  vessel  at  Curayoa  from  Grenada,  a  sailing  vessel  is  to  be  ready  then 
to  proceed  from  C'urafoa  to  Santa  Martha,  and  thence  to  Carthagena,  where 
she  is  to  remain  24  hours,  and  then  return  to  Santa  Martha  and  Curafoa. 
On  the  arrival  of  a  mail  from  Kngl.and  at  Nicola  Mole,  .another  sailing  vessel 
is  to  proceed  thence  to  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  after  remaining  at  New  Pro- 
vidence for  not  more  than  72  hours,  return  to  Nicola  Mcde  in  time  to  meet  the 
steam-vessel.  On  the  arrival  of  the  mail  from  England  at  Port  Royal,  another 
steam-vessel  is  to  pmceed  thence  to  C'liagres,  Carthagena,  Santa  Martha,  and 
thence  back  to  Port  Royal  in  time  to  meet  the  return  vessels  from  Havannah. 
On  the  arrival  of  the  mails  from  England  at  Savannah  la  Mer,  another  sail- 
ing vessel  is  to  proceed  thence  to  Trinidad  deCuba  and  Belize  (in  Honduras), 
where  after  remaining  48  hours,  she  is  to  return  to  Savannah  la  Mer  by  the 
same  route.  On  the  arrival  at  Havannah  of  the  mails  from  England,  another 
steam-vessel  is  to  proceed  thence  with  the  mails  to  Vera  Cruz,  I'ampico,  Mo- 
bile, or  such  other  port  as  the  commissioners  shall  determine,  returning  from 
the  last  port  to  Havannah  in  time  to  depart  for  Vera  Cruz  immediately  on 
the  arrival  of  the  English  mail,  and  another  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  'Tampico, 
and  Vera  Cruz,  and  then  back  to  Havannah  to  meet  the  mails.  Another 
steam-packet,  on  the  arrival  of  the  mails  from  England  at  llavannah,  is  to 
proceed  to  Mantanza.?  in  Cuba,  and  to  New  York,  stopping  at  intermediate 
ports  to  be  named  by  the  commissioners,  and  thence  to  Halifax,  returning 
back  to  Havannah,  by  the  same  route  on  the  arrival  of  the  mails  from  Eng- 
land. The  contract  is  to  commence  on  the  1st  of  Decemljer,  1841,  or  at  an 
earlier  period,  if  mutually  agreed,  and  to  continue  in  force  for  ten  years  from 
the  first  day  on  which  the  first  vessel  shall  put  to  sea  for  Barbadoes,  and  for 
a  longer  period,  unless  determined  by  twelve  months'  notice  in  writing. 

Transmission  of  the  Mails  to  Nortii  America.— The  contract  entered  into  about 
a  twelvemonth  since  for  the  conveyance  of  tlie  mails  by  steam-packets  of  300 
horse  power  and  upwards  from  England  to  North  America  vvill  come  into 
operation  immediately,  the  Britannia  steam-ship  having  arrived  at  Liverpool 


to  carry  out  the  first  mail :  she  is  to  be  followed  by  the  Arcadia,  Caledonia 
and  Columbia,  all  large  and  powerful  vessels.  The  terms  of  the  contract  are, 
that  the  mails  shall  bo  conveyed  twice  in  every  month  from  Liverpool  to' 
Halifax  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  from  Halifax  to  Boston  in  the  United  States, 
and. «  bile  the  St.  La«  rence  is  navigable  in  smaller  steam-vessels,  from  Pictou 
in  Nova  Scotia  to  Quebec  in  C^anada.  The  mails  to  return  by  the  same  route, 
twice  a  month  to  Liverpool.  Tlie  contract  is  for  seven  years  certain,  and  the 
cimtractor  is  to  he  paid  for  performing  this  service  at  the  rate  of  60,000;.  per 
annum. 

Steam  to  /lleiandria,  Egiipt. — The  steam  ships  Oriental  (late  the  United 
Slates)  and  Lieerntol,  have  been  engaged  by  government  to  carry  the  mails 
between  England  and  Egypt.  The  Oriental  will  be  ready  to  s.ail  from  Fal- 
mouth for  Alexandria  on  the  1st  of  August,  to  be  succeeded  by  the  Liverpool, 
« liich  will  depart  on  the  1st  of  September.  These  vessels  « ill  call  at  Gibral- 
tar and  Malta,  in  gong  and  returning;  and  they  are  to  be  only  15  days  on 
the  passage  to  Egypt,  and  the  same  time  on  that  b.ack  to  England.  Both 
ships  will,  it  is  expected,  sail  regularly  from  and  to  this  port,  calling  at  Fal- 
mouth to  receive  ami  deliver  the  mails  and  passengers  ;  so  that  one  may 
shortly  take  a  trip  hence  direct  to  Egypt,  and  behold,  in  a  brief  visit,  all  the 
wonders  of  that  once  glorious  land. 


PROGRESS  OF  RAIIi'lVAYS. 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY. 

We  attended  on  Thursday,  the  11th  ult.,  at  Wormholt  Scrubbs,  to  witness 
an  experiment  on  a  portion  of  the  Birmingham,  Bristol  and  Thames  Junction 
Railway,  which  had  been  laid  down  by  Messrs.  Clegg  &  Sannida,  on  their 
patent  atmospheric  principle ;  as  might  have  been  expected,  the  practical 
introduction  of  a  system  so  diftereut  from  that  now  in  use  on  other  railways, 
excited  considerable  interest. 

The  idea  of  employing  the  power  of  the  atmosphere,  against  a  vacuum 
created  in  an  extended  jiipe,  laid  between  the  rails,  and  communicating  the 
moving  power  thus  obtained  to  propel  carriages  travelling  on  a  road,  we 
believe  originated  with  Mr.  Medhurst,  who  laid  before  the  public  details  of 
his  plan  in  a  work  he  published  in  1827,  entitled  "  A  New  System  of  Inland 
Conveyance";  indeed  so  far  back  as  1812  he  pubUshed  some  ideas  on  this 
method  of  locomotion.  About  1835  some  experiments  were  made  with  a 
model  in  Wigniore  Street,  by  Mr.  Pinkus,  very  similar  to  those  described  by 
IMr.  Medhurst ;  these  experiments,  however,  failed,  from  the  same  cause 
which  probably  prevented  Mr.  Medhurst  from  carrying  his  into  effect,  viz., 
the  impossibility  of  milking  the  continuous  communication  from  the  inside  of 
the  pipe  to  the  carriage  tight  enough  to  allow  a  useful  degree  of  rarefaction 
to  be  produced.  Messrs.  Clegg  &  Samuda's  invention  overcomes  this  diffi- 
culty in  a  very  simple  manner ;  indeed  the  constructing  and  closing  this  con- 
tinuous valve,  by  henneticatli/  sealing  it  up  with  a  composition  each  time  a 
train  passes,  forms  the  main  feature  in  their  invention. 

The  portion  of  the  line  selected  on  which  the  experiments  were  made  is 
half  a  mile  long,  with  a  rise  of  1  in  120  for  rather  more  than  half  the  dis- 
tance, and  1  in  115  for  the  remainder.  A  continuous  cast  iron  pipe  or  tube 
9  inches  in  diameter,  is  fixed  between  the  rails,  and  bolted  to  the  sleepers 
which  carry  the  rail  chairs  ;  the  inside  of  this  pipe,  which  is  unhored,  is  lined 
with  a  strong  lubrication  of  pressed  tallow  about  Jjj  of  an  inch  thick,  which 
equalizes  the  surface,  and  prevents  any  unnecessary  friction  from  the  passage 
of  the  travelling  piston  through  it ;  along  the  upper  surface  of  the  pipe  is  a 
continuous  sUt  or  groove  about  IJ  inch  wide.  This  groove  is  covered  by  a 
valve  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  railway,  formed  of  a  strip  of  leather 
rivetted  between  iron  plates,  the  top  plates  being  wider  than  the  groove,  and 
serving  to  prevent  the  external  air  forcing  the  leather  into  the  pipe  when  the 
vacuum  its  formed  within  it,  and  the  lower  plates  fitting  into  the  groove 
when  the  valve  is  shut,  makes  up  the  circle  of  the  pipe,  and  prevents  the  air 
entering  the  tube ;  one  edge  of  this  valve  is  securely  held  down  by  iron  bars 
fastened  by  screw  bolts  to  a  longitudinal  rib  cast  on  the  pipes,  and  thus 
allows  the  leather  between  the  plates  and  the  bar  to  act  as  a  hinge,  similar 
to  common  pump  valves ;  the  other  edge  of  the  valve  falls  into  a  groove 
which  contains  a  composition  of  bees-wax  and  tallow ;  this  composition  is 
soUd  at  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  becomes  fluid  when  heated 
a  few  degrees  above  it.  Over  this  valve  is  a  protecting  cover,  which  serves 
to  preserve  it  from  snow  or  rain,  formed  of  thin  plates  of  iron  about  5  feet 
long,  hinged  \fith  leather,  and  the  end  of  each  plate  underlaps  the  end  of  the 
next  in  the  dbrection  of  the  piston's  motion,  thus  insuring  the  lifting  of  each 
in  succession .  To  the  underside  of  the  first  carriage  in  each  train  is  attached 
the  piston  ami  its  apjiurtenances ;  about  six  feet  behind  the  piston,  the  hori- 
zontal piston-rod  is  attached  to  a  connecting  arm  which  passes  through  the 
continuous  groove  in  the  pipe,  and  being  fixed  to  the  carriage,  imparts  mo- 
tion to  the  train  as  the  tube  becomes  exhausted  of  the  air ;  attached  to  the 
piston  rod,  and  preceding  the  connecting  arm,  two  steel  wheels  are  fixed, 
which  serve  to  lift  the  valve  to  allow  the  connecting  arm  to  pass,  and  also 
for  the  atmospheric  air  to  impinge  immediately  on  the  back  of  the  piston ; 
another  steel  wheel,  which  is  attached  to  the  carriage  by  a  spring,  serves  to 
ensure  the  closing  of  the  valve,  by  running  over  it  immediately  after  the 
piston  has  passed,  in  case  it  should  not  fall  by  its  own  weight.  A  copper 
tube  about  10  feet  long,  which  is  constantly  kept  hot  by  a  small  stove,  also 
fixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  carriage,  passes  over  the  surface  of  the  com- 
position (which  has  been  broken  up  by  lifting  the  valve  out  of  it),  and  ren- 


254 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[July, 


(Icririg  it  tluiil,  wliicl],  upon  again  cooling,  becomes  solid  and  hermetically 
seals  the  valve.  Thus  each  train,  in  passing,  leaves  the  pipe  and  valve  in  a 
fit  state  to  receive  the  next  train. 

For  the  jinrpose  of  exhausting  the  tuhc  a  steam  engine  of  IG  horse  power 
is  emplovcd,  whicli  works  an  air-pump  or  exhauster  IS"'  inches  diameter,  and 
'>'>\  inches  stroke,  malung  from  40  to  43  strokes  per  minute.  The  air-pmup 
is  connected  with  the  exhaust  tube  in  tlie  centre  of  the  railway,  by  means  of 
a  Inancli  pipe  9  inches  cUameter  leading  from  the  air-pump. 

To  calculate  the  power  of  this  kind  of  apparatus,  it  is  iiescessar>-  to  ascer- 
tain the  state  of  vacuum  and  the  dirt'crencc  of  the  jn-essure  of  the  atmosphere 
which  forces  the  piston  forward;  in  the  present  experiments  the  vacuum  was 
C(piivalent  to  from  13  to  'JO  inches  of  mercury,  which  will  give  for  the  useful 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  piston  about  9  Ih.  on  the  square  inch.  The 
arc:i  of  the  tidie,  9  inclies  diameter,  is  equal  to  C3-G2  square  inches,  and  this 
iiudtiplied  bv  the  pressure,  will  give 

9x63-62  =  572-58  lbs. 
for  the  pressure  on  the  back  of  the  piston,  or  the  moving  power. 
The  load  conveyed  at  each  e.xperimeut  may  be  taken  as  follows  : — 

Two  carriages =   4  tons. 

Apparatus  attached     =    1  ton. 

Forty-five  passengers =   3  tons. 

Total  load  convejed   =8  tons. 

The  stationary  engines  and  air  pumps  on  this  system  may  he  fixed  in  dis- 
tances varying  from  one  to  four  miles  apart,  to  suit  the  traffic  and  convenience 
of  the  line  of  road  ;  each  section  or  length  of  pipe  acted  on  by  one  engine  is 
confined  between  two  valves;  the  vacuum  is  created  to  about  18  to  20  inches 
of  mercur\  before  the  piston  enters  the  pipe,  and  is  maintained  during  the 
passing  of  Ibe  train  by  the  engine  being  kept  at  work  ;  having  passed  through 
one  section  of  pipe,  the  momentum  the  train  has  attained,  senes  to  carry  it 
on  to  tlie  next  section,  which  commences  at  aljout  100  or  200  yards  beyond, 
and  the  entrance  separating  valve  of  the  second  section  being  opened  by  the 
carriage  immediately  after  it  has  entered,  allows  the  vacuum  prepared  in  this 
section  to  act  upon  the  piston  ;  thus  the  train  can  pass  from  section  to  section 
without  end,  and  without  any  stoppage. 

F.rperimcnfs. — For  the  ]nirpose  of  ascertaining  the  relative  velocity  on 
various  jiortions  of  the  half  mile,  it  was  divided  into  20  sections  of  2  chains 
or  44  yards  eacli.  The  carriages  were  started  from  a  state  of  rest  at  the  foot 
of  the  inclined  (ilane  of  one  in  120,  and  allowed  to  run  up  the  incline  of  half 
a  mile  before  the  break  was  applied  to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  carriages. 
■Wlicn  two  carriages  were  attached,  they  run  over  the  ground,  after  passing 
the  first  5  divisions  at  the  velocities  of  7,  6,  5,  and  4  seconds  to  each  section, 
which  is  equiv.alcnt  to  13,  15,  18,  and  221  miles  per  hour;  and  when  one 
carriage  only  was  attached,  it  run  over  the  ground  at  tlie  velocities  of  6,5,  4, 
and  3  seconds  to  each  division,  which  is  equivalent  to  15,  18,  225,  and  30 
miles  per  hour.  The  last  dirision  in  each  experiment  was  done  at  the  greatest 
velocity,  wldcli  clearly  shows  that  had  the  experiment  been  made  on  a  mile 
run  instead  of  a  lialf  inile,  the  experiment  would  have  been  far  more  favour- 
able and  satisfactory  ;  and  if  the  experiment  had  been  made  on  a  level,  about 
lOUr  times  the  above  load  might  have  been  conveyed  at  the  same  velocity. 

We  noticed  that  it  took  about  11  minute  to  raise  tjie  vacuum  each  trip,  to 
about  18  inches  of  mercury. 

From  the  aliove  experiments,  tlie  loads  drawn,  and  the  speed  attained,  will 
be  as  good  a  criterion  of  the  success  of  the  undertaking  at  we  can  have,  and 
when  we  consider  that  in  producing  these  results,  the  patentees  must  have 
been  wholly  unassisted  by  any  previous  examjilcs,  w^e  think  that  the  greatest 
credit  is  due  to  the  talent  and  ingenuity  they  have  displayed.  The  system 
appears  to  us  to  possess  many  advantages  which  must  insure  it  the  serious 
consideration  of  the  engineer.  The  carriages  travel  without  noise,  and  with- 
out the  risk  of  explosion,  or  of  getting  off  the  rail.  It  does  not  seem  possible 
that  a  collision  of  trains  can  take  place,  for  two  trains  cannot  receive  power 
from  the  same  section  of  pipe  at  the  same  time,  neither  can  they  receive 
power  in  opposite  directions  on  the  same  rail.  The  speed  on  this  system 
must  be  proportioned  to  the  capacity  of  the  air-pumps  used  to  -maintain  the 
exhaustion  in  the  tulies,  and  therefore  any  rate  of  travelling  that  may  be 
deemed  desirable  may  be  easily  attained. 

French  Railwai/s.—'nw  Railway  Committee  held  another  meeting  last  week 
in  Paris,  and  afier  hearing  parties  interested  in  the  five  companies  affoeted 
ijv  the  (lovernmont  Ijill,  took  into  special  cunsidcration  that  part  of  tlie  mea- 
sure which  reUlcs  to  the  lines  frc.in  LiUc  and  Valenciennes  to  the  Belgian 
fronliers.  The  Commiltec  approved  of  these  two  lines  being  executed  Ijy 
GuvernmeiU,  not  only  on  account  of  precautions  that  might  be  itciulered  ne- 
cessary by  llic  defence  of  the  frontier;  but  also  because  the  .'ormation  of 
trealies  with  Belgium  iniglil  lender  it  ilcsirablc  that  ibese  lines  should  Ije  in 
the  bands  of  the  .Sfalc.  'I'hc  t'onimittee  was  of  opinion  that  ibe  terminalion 
of  these  lines  was  the  more  called  fur,  since  ibe  Beli^ian  lines  to  the  frontier 
were  already  executed.  The  line  from  Lille  to  the  frontier  near  Mouserun  is 
14.125  meiers  in  length,  or  47.000  English  feet;  and  that  from  Valenciennes 
lo  Ihe  frontier  near  tijuievrain  is  03,128  metres,  or  43,000  feet ;  the  first  is  to 
cost  I.OOO.OOOf,  tbc  latter  4,000,000f  The  Committee  adopted  this  part  of 
the  bill  almost  unanimously,  as  also  the  lines  and  surveys  as  approved  of  by 
the  administration  of  the  Punts  et  Chaussees. — Railwiii/  Timrs. 

IJmiclhi  Jtiiilimy. — The  present  state  of  the  new  line  is  as  follows  : — From 
the  Dock  at  Llanelly  to  Parkrhyn  (main  line)  eleven  miles,  and  from  thence 
up  to  the  terminus  of  Cwm  Amman  branch,  six  miles,  altogether  seventeen 
miles,  the  line  has  been  completed  .and  open  for  traffic,  over  uhicli  the  loco- 


motive engines  of  the  Company  are  travelling. — From  that  point,  viz.  Parkrhyn, 
up  to  Dultryn  Lodge  (aljout  a  mile  and  a  half  further  on  the  main  hue)  ibe 
same  is  nearly  completed,  the  rails  having  been  laid,  and  the  filling  in  in 
progress. — From  that  point  on  the  main  line,  viz.,  DuIlVyn  Lodge,  the  branch 
li'ading  to  Mr.  L(mg  Wrey's  collieries,  and  Messrs.  Morris,  .Sayce,  and  Cu.'s, 
is  in  c(,urse  of  forward  progi-ess,  and  will  be  completed  by  1st  Jimnary  next, 
tliis  Ijrancb  is  altogether  about  four  miles  in  length,  and  leads  lo  sever.al 
eolleries  of  capital  coal.  The  Company  have  entered  into  a  ctmlr.ict  with 
Mr.  M'rey,  to  bring  for  seven  years  at  least  10.000  tons  yearly  down  this 
braneli.  which  will  yield  railway  and  dock  dues,  .as  a  minimum  amount,  the 
sum  of  1.000/.  per  annum — The  two  new  locomotive  engines  to  which  re- 
fereui-e  was  made  in  the  last  annual  Report  as  then  ordered,  are  now  at 
Llanelly,  and  one  of  tlieni.  the  Albert,  is  engaged  in  traversing  the  line,  in 
hauling  coal  down  to  Llanelly.  The  Committee  are  persuaded  that  the  carry- 
ing trade  » lii.  h  will  thus  be  secured  to  them  by  locomotive  (Xiwer,  will  be  a 
source  of  profit  when  the  quantity  of  coal,  iron,  &c.,  shall  be  increased  : 
whilst  as  an  auxiliary  to  the  general  traffic  the  use  of  steam  pi-mer  is  un- 
questionably of  great  importance. — Directors  ileport. 

Preston  mid  iVijrc  Iliii I wa;/.— The  Directors  have  made  an  ;u-rangemeiit  for 
one  year  with  the  North  Union  Railway  to  supply  this  Company  with  loco- 
motive engines  at  2.'.'.  id.  per  mile  per  train,  and  with  the  first-class  carriages 
at  a  penny  per  mile  each,  and  with  second-class  at  a  halfpenny  pi-r  mile  each. 
This  Avill  prevent  the  present  outlay  of  a  con.sider;ible  capital,  a  circumstance 
particularly  desirable  until  the  extent  of  the  traffic  on  the  line  has  been  ascer- 
tained. 

Great  North  of  England  Railwai/. — The  works  of  the  Great  North  of  England 
Railway  between  York  and  Darlington,  are  in  so  forward  a  state,  that  the 
Directors  of  the  Company  have  employed  Mr.  Green,  of  Darlington,  architect, 
to  furnish  designs  for  depots  upon  the  line. — Leeds  Intelligencer,  Mnij  30. 

The  Cheltenhnm  /fn/Vici/;/.!.— ^Vithin  the  last  few  days  the  bank  which  sepa- 
rated the  Birmingham  aiid  Gloucester  works  from  the  Cheltenham  and  Great 
AVestcrn,  between  the  station  and  Lansdown  Bridge,  has  been  cut  through, 
from  which  circiimst  nee  we  should  infer  that  a  satisfactory  arrangement  has 
been  entered  into  by  the  two  Companies.  The  gieatest  exertions  are  making: 
to  complete  tlie  work  up  to  the  Lansdown  bridge,  and  from  the  number  of 
bands  employed,  and  the  activity  displayed,  we  should  fancy  that  a  very 
short  space  of  time  will  suffice  for  the  atta'inment  of  that  oh'iect.— Cheltenhnm 
Journal. 

Locomotive  Carriage  .—'Wit .  Hills  lately  made  a  very  successful  trip  to  and 
from  Camberwell  and  Brighton  with  his  patent  locomotive  carriage,  the  dis- 
•  tancc  from  Camberwell  to  Brighton  was  performed  in  5  hours  and  lU  minutes, 
out  of  which  time  one  hour  21  minutes  was  lost  by  delays  in  obtaining  a  sup- 
ply of  water  at  the  inns,  and  10  minutes  delay  on  the  road.  Tlic  return  trip 
»  as  accomplished  in  5  hours  22  minutes,  out  of  which  time  one  hour  four 
minutes  was  lost  by  delays  in  obtaining  water,  and  26  minutes  delay  by 
stoppages  on  the  road  ;  the  delays  in  obtaining  water  will  be  reduced  very 
consid(?rably,  when  proper  stations  and  stated  periods  for  arrival  are  made, 
the  whole  of  the  stoppages  need  not  occupy  more  than  12  minutes,  which, 
according  lo  the  speed  the  carriage  ran  on  the  road,  the  journey  from  London 
to  Brighton  might  be  very  well  accomplished  in  about  three  hours  and  a  half. 
Our  correspondent,  who  accompanied  Mr.  Hill  on  his  trip  to  London,  states 
tli.at  the  form  of  the  carriage  is  a  handsome  britzka,  that  there  is  scarcely 
any  noise  from  the  working  of  the  engine,  or  escape  of  steam,  and  no  aii- 
pearance  of  smoke  ;  on  descending  hills  it  is  easily  regulated  by  powerf^ul 
retarders.  and  griided  with  the  greatest  facility.  We  hope  at  some  future 
time  to  be  able  to  give  some  additional  information  connected  with  the  cost 
of  a  carriage,  and  the  «'orking  of  the  same. 


NJiMV  CHURCHES,  &c 


Pli/monlh. — On  Tuesday  20th  May  the  foundation  stone  was  laid  of  a  new 
Church  in  Southside-streel.  in  this  borough,  and  which  is  to  be  calleil 
"  Trinity  Church."  From  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  its  locality,  itdilTera 
greatly  from  the  usual  fiirm  of  New  Churches.  Its  interior  may  be  described 
as  a  square  of  about  70  feet,  diviiled  into  tlu'ee  parts  by  t«  o  parallel  Tuscan 
colonnades,  each  surmounted  by  an  attic  range  of  semicircular  windows, 
forming  a  r/cre.t/on/  as  in  our  cathedral  churches.  The  traverse  section  of  the 
building,  therefore,  exhitjtts  a  nave  of  aljout  35  feet  high,  by  37  feet  wide, 
and  two  aisles,  each  about  23  feet  high,  bv  Iti  feet  wide,  the  galleries  being 
constructed  along  the  latter.  The  building  being  surrounded  by  houses.  Sic. 
on  the  north,  south,  and  west  sides,  the  only  light,  in  addition  to  that  of  the 
clerestories,  is  derived  from  three  windows  at  the  east  end,  the  central  one 
being  a  large  three-light  Venetian  window  over  the  altar,  which  terminates  a 
recess  extending  about  14  feet  eastward  from  the  main  body  of  the  church  : 
on  each  side  of  the  altar  projection  is  an  entrance  porch  ;  and  there  is  a  third 
porch  in  the  centre  of  the  north  side  to  allord  an  entrance  from  Soutbside- 
street.  The  bell  turret,  surmounting  a  pediment  over  the  great  east  window, 
is'in  the  simple  form  of  an  areli  ilanked  by  pilasters,  and  crow»ed  \vith  a 
small  pediment,  a  repetition  of  the  larger  one  below.  It  is  anticipated  that 
the  perspective  of  Ibe  interior  looking  from  the  western  end  will  be  Ijoldly 
pielurest|ue  and  ecclesiastical  ;  that  the  ellect  of  the  loftv  clerestories  will  be 
not  less  striking,  than  novel,  as  a  modern  application  of  Italian  architecture  ; 
and  that  the  altar-piece,  with  its  triple  Venetian  window  over,  will  form  an 
imposing  termination  to  tile  vista.  The  church  is  calculated  to  allord  accom- 
modation for  .about  1100  sittings,  of  which  630  are  free.  George  Wightwick, 
Esq.,  is  the  architect. 

Nartliamptonshire.—'lihc  Hon.  H.  Watson,  brother  of  Lord  Sondes,  with 
praiseworthy  munificence,  intends  erecting  anew  church  at  Guilsijorougli, 
entirely  at  his  own  expense.  The  cost  of  the  building,  it  is  said,  will  amount 
to  upwards  of  5,000/. 


1840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


25''5 


Tlir  Temple  Cliiircli. — This  ancient  and  beautiful  edifice  is  closed,  in  order  to 
its  being  thnroiiglily  clecmscd,  repaired,  and  restored,  lextcrnally  and  inter- 
nriljy.  AV^e  understand  that  the  bencliers  of  the  t\\'o  Temples  have  determined 
that  no  etf^irts  or  exi)cnse  shall  be  spared  in  tliis  work  of  renovation.  The 
richly  ornamented  Norman  entrance,  which  is  unfortunately  so  hidden  by 
the  adjacent  buildings,  is  tu  be  restored  to  its  original  perfection.  The  organ, 
one  of  the  finest  in  ].,ondon.  is  to  undergo  a  complete  examination  and  repair. 
Some  changes  more  in  keeping  with  the  general  style  of  the  architecture  are 
contemplated  in  the  interior  of  the  building  ;  and  the  interesting  monuments, 
and  other  decorations  and  anti.juilies,  of  this  venerable  pile,  are  to  re-appear 
in  a  state  more  worthy  of  the  characters  and  events  they  are  intended  to 
perpetuate,  and  more  likely  to  command  the  attention  and  admiration  of  the 
spectator. 

Connvnll.— On  Thursday.  ''8th  May  last,  Christ-church  Chajjel  of  Ease,  at 
Lanner,  in  the  parish  of  Gwennap,  was  0j)ened.  It  is  from  designs  by  Mr. 
Wightwick,  of  Plymouth,  in  the  Anglo-Italian  style,  neatly  finished  with 
grr.nite  dressings,  having  the  timbers  of  the  roof-trusses  open  to  view,  the 
under  side  of  the  rafters  lieing  ceiled,  a  plan  consistent  uith  economy,  and 
affording  ample  breathing  room  for  the  400  free  sitters  who  occupy  it.  It 
lias  been  built  by  subscription,  aided  by  grants  from  the  Diocesan  Board  and 
the  Incorporateil  Society  of  fjondon. — The  foundation  stone  of  another  chapel, 
also  from  designs  by  Mr.  ^^'ightH'ick,  was  laid  on  Whit-^Ionday  last,  at 
Portreath,  in  the  parish  oflllogan,  in  the  county  of  Cornwall.  This  chapel 
is  of  about  the  same  capacity  as  the  one  at  Lanner,  but  in  the  lancet  pointed 
style  ;  and  like  the  former,  is  to  be  entirely  occupied  with  free  sittings. — Mr. 
Wightwick  is  also  engaged  in  preparing  plans  for  a  free  chapel  in  the  Anglo- 
Norman  style  at  Flushing,  near  Falmouth  ;  and  he  is  superintending  the 
conversion  of  a  building.  Ibrmerly  used  as  a  Unitarian  Meeting  House,  into 
an  Episcopal  Chapel,  at  Falmouth. 

Sussex. — The  new  church  in  the  parish  of  Lower  Beeding,  was  consecrated 
on  Tuesday,  June  2. — The  building  of  the  new  Chapel  of  Ease  in  Horsham  is 
making  satisfactory  progress,  the  work  being  executed  in  a  manner  highly 
creditable  to  the  builder.  Mr.  Darby. — In  the  quarry  which  is  worked  for  the 
building  stone  of  this  chapel,  several  fossil  bones,  in  good  preservation,  have 
lately  been  discovered.  They  are  supposed  to  be  portions  of  the  Iguanodon. 
Thi'  best  specimens  have  been  added  to  the  excellent  local  collection  oi'  Mr. 
G.  B.  Holmes. 

Lineohishire. — An  addition  fo  Tborney  Abbey  is  now  being  made,  the  first 
stone  of  which  was  laid  June  24,  18.39,  in  tlie  Norman  style  of  architecture, 
consisting  ot  a  transept  across  the  east  end  of  the  present  part,  ivhieh  makes 
the  Alibey  in  the  form  of  a  T  ;  it  is  designed  by  Edivard  Blore,  Esq.,  archi- 
tect. The  addition  is  (iSfeet  by  30  feel  fi  inches,  and  will  have  a  very  hand- 
some painted  window,  a  copy  from  the  one  in  Becket's  crown  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral,  which  was  put  up  in  the  old  part,  but  was  removed  in  a  few 
months  for  the  present  work.  The  pulpit,  reading,  and  eb  rk"s  desks  will  be 
at  the  altar,  forming  a  very  handsome  screen,  altogether  executed  in  wainscot, 
and  the  old  part  painted  in  imitation  of  that  wood  ;  the  littings  are  in  the 
Gothic  style. 


PUBIiIC    BUILDINGS,    &c. 


TRAFALGAR  SQUARE. 

IIf.tcb.n  to  an  order  of  the  Hon.  the  House  of  Commons,  dated  .June  10, 1840' 
for  a  return  of  the  arrangements  entered  into  between  the  Commissioners 
of  Woods  and  Forests  and  the  Committee  for  erecting  the  Nelson  Monu- 
ment in  Trafalgar-square;  and  also  a  Statement  of  the  Plan  approved  and 
sanctioned  by  the  C'ommissioners  of  M'oods  and  Forests  for  laying  out  the 
vacant  .Space  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery,  and  whether  it  will  be  all 
or  in  part  open  to  the  Public.  Ordered  by  the  House  of  Commons  to  be 
nrinti'd,  June  1."),  1840. 

The  Lords  Commissioners  of  Her  M.ijesty's  Treasury  having  approved  of 
the  designs  submitted  to  them  for  the  Nelson  Monument,  and  of  the  appro- 
priation of  a  portion  of  Trafalgir-s(|uare  as  a  site  lor  the  same,  the  Commis- 
sioners of  ^^''oods.  ^e..  were  authorised  by  Treasur}'  letter,  bearing  date  the 
27lh  of  January,  1840,  to  deliver  over  such  site  to  the  committee.  The  whole 
of  the  arrangements  bet«  een  the  Commissioners  of  "Woods  and  the  comiiiiltee 
for  the  erection  of  the  monument  up  to  the  present  time  have  been  limited  tu 
the  delivery  of  the  site. 

The  plans  submitted  to  the  Commissioners  of  Woods,  &c.,  in  1837,  by  the 
late  Mr.  M'ilkins,  contemplated  an  architectural  appropriation  of  the  square 
in  accordance  with,  and  intended  to  increase  the  effect  of.  the  National  Gal- 
lery. The  Commissioners  of  Woods  have  adhered  to  the  principle  of  the  plan 
suggested  to  them  by  Mr.  Wilkins  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  his  death,  and 
the  subsequent  selection  of  the  present  design  for  the  Nelson  Monument,  the 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Woods,  &c.,  has  committed  the  laying  out  of  the 
square  to  Mr.  Barry. 

According  to  the  plan  which  lie  has  suggested  (and  which,  as  regards  the 
excavation  of  the  ground  originally  proposed  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  is  now  in  pro- 
gress), the  whole  of  the  space  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  roadways  forming  its  respective  boundaries,  will  be  low  ered 
from  south  to  north  to  the  level  of  the  footway  leading  from  Cockspur-street 
to  liie  Strand.  The  roadway  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery,  and  conse- 
quently the  whole  of  that  building,  will,  by  this  arrangement,  stand  upon  a 
terrace  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  elevation.  The  access  to  the  s(|uare  from 
this  roadway  will  be  by  a  terrace-landing  and  flight  of  steps  opposite  to,  and 
of  the  width  of,  the  portico  of  the  building.  The  steps  and  the  sustaining 
walls,  by  which  it  is  intended,  upon  three  sides,  to  enclose  the  square,  will  he 
of  granite  i  the  posts  with  which  it  is  intended  to  surround  the  square  are 
also  to  be  of  granite,  and  connected  with  a  bar  of  iron,  as  a  protection  to  the 
respective  roadways.   The  square  will  be  accessible  on  the  north  by  the  steps 


already  mentioned,  and  on  the  south  by  openings  to  be  left  between  the 
posts  in  front  of  the  Nelson  Monument.  The  whole  of  the  area  of  the  square 
not  occupied  by  that  monument  is  to  be  either  flagged  with  stone  or  laid 
down  with  asphalte.  and  will  be  open  to  and  traversable  by  the  public  at  all 
hours  of  the  day. 

The  whole  area  to  be  excavated  and  appropriated  as  a  place  or  square  will 
be  in  extent,  from  north  to  south,  2.50  feet,  and  from  east  to  west,  340  feet. 
The  site  of  the  column  will  occupy  a  space  immediately  connected  with  the 
footway  leading  from  Cockspur-street  to  the  Strand  of  82  feet  square. 

DuNr^NNoN        f        Commissioners  of  Her  Majesty's 
Charles  Go'p.f.,!  ^Voods,  Forests  Land  Revenues,  Works 
l  and  Buildings. 

N.B.  The  ground  removed  from  Trafalgar-square  is  applied  in  levelling  and 
improving  the  surface  of  the  Green  Park. 

Office  of  Woods,  &,c.,  June  12,  1840. 

[We  highly  approve  of  this  arrangement,  and  have  no  doubt  the  effect  of 
giving  he  ght  to  the  National  Gallery  in  the  manner  proposed,  will  greatly 
improve  that  building. — Ed.  C.  E.  and  A.  Journal.] 

Iiorhd(ih\  Lnnrashire. — A  bank  and  manager's  residence,  in  connection  with 
the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  District  Banking  Company,  is  in  course  of 
erection,  from  the  designs,  and  under  the  superintendance  of  Mr.  Harrison,, 
architect,  of  this  town.  The  building  comprises  a  bank  and  board-room, 
strong  room,  and  a  private  residence.  It  will  present  a  neat  fafade  to  Bai  llie- 
street,  the  lower  part  being  of  rusticated  masonry,  and  the  whole  crowned  bv 
a  Grecian  dentil  cornice  and  blocking  course.    The  contracts  are  under  1,400/. 

Tlie  Kational  Promnciul  B(wlc  nf  En  gland. — This  establishment  which  with 
its  numerous  provincial  branches,  has  been  in  active  operation  for  seven  or 
eight  years,  has  lately  taken  possession  of  its  new  and  extensive  town  pre- 
mises in  Bishop.sgate-street.  better  known  as  Salvador  House,  the  residence  of 
tl:e  late  William  Mellish.  Esq.,  at  whose  death  the  property  was  sold  and 
purchased  by  the  Company.  To  render  the  place  suitable  for  its  inteniied  uses, 
the  old  houses  in  front  abutting  upon  the  street,  and  the  stables  intervening 
between  them,  and  the  mansion  jiave  all  been  taken  down,  and  in  their  place 
the  present  alterations  have  been  made,  under  the  direction  of  John  Burges 
Watson,  Esq.,  architect.  The  entrance  consists  of  a  carriage  and  two  loot 
gates,  situated  between  two  Greek  Doric  lodges,  that  on  the  south  side  for  a 
porter,  the  opposite  one,  with  the  new  ranges  of  ofllces  behind,  each  being 
about  100  feet  in  depth,  are  for  the  occupation  of  other  officers  of  the  estab- 
lishment ;  between  the  further  termination  of  these  and  the  mansion,  (now 
called  the  Bank  House  in  contradistinction  to  the  front  offices),  is  sufficient 
space  for  carriages  to  take  up  and  set  down.  The  bank-house  is  approached 
by  a  spacious  porch  and  lobby,  and  leads  to  au  entrance-hall,  which  retains 
lis  original  ceiling  with  decorated  compartments,  being  in  character  with  tlie 
older  parts  of  the  house.  It  is  paved  throughout  with  black  and  white  mar- 
ble ;  in  the  right  of  the  entrance,  is  the  public  banking  room,  of  large  dimen- 
sions, and  w  hich  lias  been  procured  by  throwing  two  rooms  into  one,  this 
affords  accommodation  for  about  40  clerks  in  addition  o  the  usual  counter 
for  cashiers,  &c.,  ;.nd  enclosures  for  other  functionaries  ;  the  whole  has  been 
finished  in  the  most  complete  manner.  The  walls  are  jointed  and  coloured 
to  imitate  stone,  having  mahogany  fittings,  scagliola  pilasters,  and  a  richly 
decorated  cornice  ;  on  tlie  left  of  the  hall  are  waiting  rooms,  and  on  the  same 
floor  the  accomptants'  room,  inspectors'  room,  and  two  strong  moms.  The 
hall  leads  to  the  principal  staircase,  w  Inch  is  unique,  and  consists  of  a  centre 
and  two  side  fights  leading  to  the  landing  on  the  first  floor,  in  this  staircase 
the  ends  of  the  steps,  are  c.irved  and  a  decorate<l  baluster  rests  on  ea,ch  in 
wdiich  is  introduced,  a  medallion  of  the  late  king,  in  which  reign  the  com- 
pany was  first  established,  on  the  obverse  is  a  figure  emblematical  of  com- 
merce. The  apartments  on  the  lirst  lloor  comprise  the  board-room  for 
directors,  the  room  for  sub-committees,  manager's  room,  secretary's  room. 
See.,  and  the  remaining  portion  of  the  house  forms  a  residence  for  one  ot  two 
of  the  principal  clerks.  The  pediment,  which  is  of  Portland  stone,  has  been 
added  to  the  Bank-house,  and  is  charged  with  the  Arms  of  England  and 
Wales,  to  which  porti;ins  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  operations  the  Com- 
pany are  limited  by  Act  of  Parliament. 

Lirerpool. — A  building  foJ'  the  use  of  an  Institution  to  be  called  the  Colle- 
giate Institution  for  the  l';ducati(m  of  the  Commercial  Trading  and  M'orking 
Classes,  is  about  to  be  erected  in  this  town.  Designs  have  been  adverlised 
for,  and  tn  o  premiums  £50  ami  £2.'j  proposed.  The  cost  is  to  be  £1,5,000,  and 
the  style  of  architecture  Tudor  pointed.  The  drawings  to  be  sent  in  on  the 
1st  July. 

Jshton-uniler-Li/ne.—A  Town-hall  is  in  course  of  erection  here,  under  the 
direction  of  Messrs.  Young  and  Westall.  architects  of  Manchester.  The 
building,  wdiich  is  to  be  faced  entirely  with  stone,  is  in  the  Roman  style  of 
architecture  ;  and  consists  in  front  of  an  attached  Corinthian  colonnade  in 
aiiti.'i,  surmounted  Ijy  a  balustrade  of  the  same  order,  which  forms  a  parapet; 
to  the  centre  of  the  lafade,  and  is  crow  ned  by  a  group  of  sculpture.  The 
wings  consist  of  a  single  interpilaster.  and  terminate  above  with  a  plain 
parapet.  The  order  itself,  w  hich  is  divided  into  first  and  second  floor,  and  is 
continued  uninterruptedly  round  the  edifice,  is  elevated  upon  a  lofty  stylo- 
bate.  Its  proportions  are  chiefly  taken  from  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  The 
interior  will  contain  a  large  room  83  feet  by  40  feet,  and  28  feet  high.  It 
also  comprises  accommodation  for  the  town's  autliorities,  committees.  Sec,  a 
constable's  residence,  lireman's  house,  anil  six  lockups  in  the  basement,  w  hich 
is  principally  fire-proof.  The  works,  as  contracted  for,  amount  to  about 
£G,000. 

Road-Brirlis  Duty  /"rcc— During  a  discussion  at  the  last  East  Riding  ses- 
sions, on  one  of  the  applications  relative  to  parochial  highways,  it  was  stated 
by  a  surveyor  that  a  request  having  been  made  to  Government  for  leave  to 
manufacture  bricks  free  of  duty,  for  the  purpose  of  repairing  Iiigbways,  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  had  granted  the  required  permission  to  those 
parishes  in  which  clittstone  could  not  be  obtained  lor  the  purpose  of  such 
epajrs.— iS'^ci'Apwf  Advertmr, 


25B 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Jui.Y, 


I.IST    OF    NEW    PATENTS. 

GRANTED  IN  ENGLAND  FROM  28tH  M,\Y  TO  24tH  JUNE,  1810. 

Henry  Augustus  Taylor,  of  New  York,  now  of  Milk  Street,  Cheapside, 
Merchant,  for  "  hnproremcnts  in  the  ninnufacture  ofhraid  and phihy  Com- 
municated by  a  foreigner  residing  al)road. — Sealed  May  28  ;  six  months  for 
enrolment.) 

Alexander  Francis  Campbell,  of  Great  PUimstead,  Norfolk,  Esquire, 
■nnd  Charles  'White,  of  the  city  of  Norwich,  Mechanic,  for  "  improvummfs 
in  ploughs  and  certain  other  a:/ricttlturat  implements." — May  28  ;  six  niontlis. 
Sir  Josiah  John  Guest,  of  tlie  Dowlais  Iron  M'orks,  Glamorgan,  Bart., 
and  Thomas  Evans,  of  the  same  jilacc,  Agent,  for  "  certain  improvements 
in  the  mannfacture  of  iron  and  other  mctnls." — May  28  ;  four  months. 

Edmund  Leach,  of  Rochdale,  Lancaster,  Macliinc  Maker,  for  "  certain 
improrements  in  machinert/  or  apparatus  for  cardinti,  dontjting,  and  jtrepnring 
v'l/ol,  cotton,  silk,fla.x,  and  other  Jilirons  sntiKlances." — May  28  ;  six  months. 
Daniel  Gooch,  of  Paddington  Green,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improve. 
ments  in  wheels  and  locomotive  engines  to  be  used  on  railways. — May  28  ;  six 
months. 

William  Henry  Smith,  of  York  Road,  Lambeth,  Civil  Engineer,  for 
"  nn  improvement  or  improvements  in  the  mode  of  resisting  sJtocks  to  raihratj 
carriages  and  trains,  and  also  in  the  mode  of  conneetidg  and  disconnecting 
raiheay  carriages,  alio  in  the  application  of  springs  to  carriages." — May  28  ; 
six  months. 

George  Henry  Bursill,  of  River  Lane,  Islington,  Gentleman,  for  "  an 
improved  method  or  methods  of  weighing,  and  certain  improvements  in  weigh- 
ing machines." — May  28  ;  six  months. 

James  Allison,  of  Xlonkwearmouth,  Durham,  Iron  Master,  and  Roger 
LuMSDEN,  of  tlie  same  place,  Cliain  and  Anclior  Manufacturer,  for  "/m/)TO!'e- 
ments  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  knees  for  ships  and  vessels" — May  30  ;  six 
months. 

John  Baptist  Wicks,  of  Leicester,  Frame-work  Knitter,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  maciiinerg  employed  in  frame-work  knitting  or  stocking  fabrics" — 
May  30 ;  si.x  niontlis. 

William  Pettitt,  of  Bradwell,  Bucks,  Gentleman,  for  "  a  communicating 
apparatus  to  be  applied  to  railroad  carriages." — May  30  ;  two  niontlis. 

John  Hawi.et,  of  Frith  Street,  Soho,  Watcli  Maker,  for  "  improvements 
in  pianos  and  harps."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  aliroad. — 
June  1  ;  six  months. 

Pierre  Defaure  De  Montmiral,  of  Lonilon  Wall,  Gentleman,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  bread."  Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad. — June  2  ;  six  months. 

Richard  Freen  Martin,  of  Derby,  Gentleman,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  certain  descriptions  of  cement." — June  2;  six 
months. 

Samuel  Salisbury  Egales,  of  Liverpool,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  im- 
prove7nents  in  obtaining  motive  pouter." — June  2;  six  months. 

James  Harvey,  of  Basing  Place,  Waterloo  Road,  Timber  Mercliant,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  paving  streets,  roads,  and  ways,  with  blocks  of 
wood,  and  in  the  machinery  or  apparatus  for  cutting  or  forming  such  blocks." 
— June  2  ;  six  months. 

William  Southwood  Stoker,  of  Birmingliam,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  machinery  applicable  to  making  ttails,  pins,  and  rivets." — June  2 ; 
six  months. 

Christopher  Dain,  of  Edgbarton,  Warwick,  Gentleman,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  vessels  for  containing  and  snpplying  ink 
arid  ot tier  fluids."— -June  2  ;  six  months. 

James  Roberts,  of  SheftieUl,  Merchant,  for  "  an  improved  mode  of  fasten- 
ing certain  kin/Is  of  horn  and  hoof  handles  to  the  inniruments  requiring  tlie 
sayne." — June  3  ;  six  months. 

Samuel  Wagstaff  Smith,  of  Leamington,  Iron  Founder,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  for  supplying  and  consuming  gas." — June  9  ;  six  mouths. 
Robert  Hampson,  of  Mayfield  Print-Works,  Manchester,  Calico  Printer, 
for  "  an  improved  method  of  block-printing  on  woven  fabrics  of  cotton,  linen, 
.silk,  or  wollen,  or  of  any  two  or  more  of  tliem  intermired,  with  improvett 
machinery,  apparatus,  and  implements  for  that  purpose." — June  9 ;  six 
montlis. 

Alexander  Southwood  Stoker,  of  Birmingliam,  for  "  improveynents  in 
the  manufacture  of  tubes  for  gas  and  other  purposes." — June  9  ;  six  inontlis. 
Christopher  Nickels,  of  York  Road,  Lambeth,  Gentleman,  for  "  im- 
provements in  the  manufacture  of  braids  and  plaits."     Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad. — June  9  ;  six  montlis. 

Thomas  Edmonson,  of  Manchester,  Clerk,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
printing  presses." — June  9  ;  six  months. 

John  George  Shuttleworth,  of  Fcamley  Place,  GIossop  Road,  Sheffield, 
Gentleman,  for  "ccWam  improvements  in  railway  and  other  propulsion." — 
June  9  ;  six  montlis. 

Francis  Greaves,  of  Radford  Street,  Sheffield,  Manufacturer  of  Knives 
and  Forks,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  knives  and  forks."- — 
July  11 ;  six  months. 

William  Lance,  of  George  Y'ard,  Lomliard  Street,  Insurance  Broker,  for 
"  a  new  and  improved,  imtrument  or  apparatus,  to  be  used  in  wliate  Jishery, 


port  or  ]iarts  ofwitich,  upon  an  increased  scale,  arc  also  applicable  as  a  tnotioe 
power  for  driving  machinery." — June  II  ;  six  montlis. 

Benjamin  Winkles,  of  Nortliampton  Street,  Islington,  Copper  Plate 
Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  the  arrangement  and  construc- 
tion of  paddle-wheels,  and  water-wheels." — June  11  ;  six  montlis. 

Joseph  Wolverson,  of  Willenhall,  Stallbrd.  Locksmith,  and  William 
Rawlett,  of  the  same  place,  Latcli-inaker,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
locks,  latches,  and  other  fastenings  .for  doors." — June  13  ;  six  montlis. 

Ezra  Jenks  Coates,  of  Bread  Street,  Cheapside,  Merchant,  for  ■'  certain 
improvements  in  propelling  canal  and  other  boats."  Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  .il)ro,id. — June  13;  six  months. 

Edward  John  Carpenter,  of  Toft  Monks,  Norfolk,  a  Commander  in  the 
Royal  Navy,  for  "  improvements  in  the  application  rf  macfiinery  for  assisting 
I'cssels  in  performing  certain  evolutions  upon  tlie  water,  especially  tacking, 
veering,  propelling,  steering,  casting  or  winding,  and  backing  astern." — 
June  13;  six  months. 

Richard  Beard,  of  Egremont  Place,  New  Road,  Gentleman,  for  "  ?»n- 
provements  in  apparatus  for  taking  or  obtaining  likenesses  and  representations 
of  nature  and  drawings  and  other  objects."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  aliroad. — June  13;  six  months. 

Richard  Prosser,  of  Birmingham,  Civil  Engineer,  and  John  James 
RippoN,  of  Wells  Street,  Middlesex,  Ironmonger,  for  "certain  improvements 
in  apparatus  for  heating  apartments,  and  in  apparatus  for  cooking." — 
June  17;  six  months. 

Richard  Prosser,  of  Birmingham,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  manufacturing  buttons  for  certain  materials,  which  improvements 
in  mnmifacturing  are  applicable  in  whole  or  in  jiart  to  the  production  of 
knofjs,  rings,  and  ot/ier  articles  from  the  same  materials." — June  17;  six 
montlis. 

Thomas  De  la  Rue,  of  Bunhill  Row,  Manufacturer,  for  "  improvements 
in  printing  calicoes  and  other  surfaces." — June  20  ;  six  montlis. 

John  Aitchison,  of  Glasgow,  Merchant,  and  Archibald  Hastie,  of 
West  Street,  Finsbnry  Square,  Merchant,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  gene- 
rating and  condensing  steam,  heating,  cooling,  and  evaporating  fluids." — 
June  24  ;  six  months. 

William  Hickling  Bennett,  of  Wharton  Street,  Bagnigge  Wells  Road, 
Gentleman,  for  "  improved  machinery  for  cutting  or  working  wool." — June  24 ; 
six  montlis. 

William  Wood,  of  Wilton,  Carpet  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  looms  for  weaving  carjiets  and  otiier  fabrics." — Juue  24  ;  six 
montlis. 

AA'illiam  Ash,  of  Slieffield,  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
augers,  or  tools  for  boring."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. 
June  24  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Leese,  Jun.,  of  Manchester,  Calico  Printer,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  art  of  printing  calico  and  oilier  surfaces." — June  24  :  six 
months. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


r.KRATA   IN  LAST  MONTH  S  JOURNAL. 


The  11  last  hues  of  col.  I,  p.  194,  ought  to  liave  been  placed  at  tlie  fnp  of 
the  column. 

Page  195,  col.  2,  14  lines  from  the  butlom,  for  "more  tJian,"  read  "less 
than." 

Page  196,  col.  1,  26  lines  from  the  bottom,  for  "  I  with  defcraice,'  icAd 
"  Jf'ifh  dc/creuce." 

P:ige  213,  col.  2,  18  lines  from  the  bottom,  for  "  diameter  ''  read  "  circiim- 
fercvcr." 

IVc  hnrr  rerciri'd  a  letter  from  Mr.  Peppereorne  on  the  suhject  of  our  rn-irw 
of  his  paniphh't  nn  tht' supply  of  water  to  the  melrnpolis.  He  seems  t'ntirehj  In 
Itavv  mi.sundvrlnnd  whnl  wr  said  ;  in  mrntioniug  Ids  "  temeritg  "  in  proposing  a 
plan  for  fltrriug  Thames  water,  we  only  intended  to  give  him  an  ironieal  hint 
thill  he  hiul,  by  such  proposition,  placed  himself  in  the  category  of  those  "  artful 
and  ntischievous  persons,"  who  raise  doubts  as  to  the  purity  oj  Thames  water. 

Commnnieations  received  from  Mr.  East,  Mr.  Slieppard,  Mr.  Neville,  Mr. 
Barrett,  and  B.,  wilt  be  inserted  mxt  mouth. 

The  Drawings  of  the  Bridge  over  the  River  Dove,  do  not  enter  sufficiently  into 
detail  to  render  them  suitable  for  the  Journal. 

IVe  shall  be  happy  to  receive,  from  our  correspondent  at  Liverpool,  the  notice  he 
offers. 

We  thank  Mr.  Radford  and  E.  for  their  attention. 

We  coulinuc  to  receive  several  communications  on  tiic  suhject  of  eompelitious, 
which  would  half  Jill  our  Journal,  and  the  insertion  of  them,  we  are  jearjul,  would 
net  he  of  much,  .wrviee.     The  remedy  lies  with  the  profession  as  a  body. 

Mr.  Pjiillips  ivill  .find  an  aeknowledgmcnt  of  his  communication  in  last  month*s 
Journal ;  it  is  unavoidably  deferred. 

Communieatious  are  rrauested  to  he  addressed  to  "  The  Kilitor  of  the  Civil 
iMiginc'cr  and   Architect  s  Journal,"  No.  11,  Parliament   Slrecl,  Westminster _ 

Hooks  for  review  must  he  sent  early  in  the  month,  connuunicalions  on  or  before 
Ihe  20lh  (if  with  drawings,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  the  25th 
iusliint. 

The  First  Volume  may  be  had,  bound  in  cloth  and  lettered  in  golD) 
Pbjce  I7s. 

*^,*  The  Secoud  Volume  ma\-  .\lso  ee  rav.  Price  20i, 


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I  •  1U«)i^  J^**  W  OH  l^K 


PRELIMINARY     I'ROSI'ECTl 


M  E  R  C  A  N  T  r  1.  E     MARINERS'     H  0  i\l  E     AND      H  0  S  P  I  T  A  L , 


TO     BE    ERECTED    AMB    PBOVXDEO     FOK,     IH     THE    FZaBT    INSTAITCE,      BT    A 


CAPITAl.    or    FIVE    HUNDRED    THOU8AKD    POUNDS. 

SUSCEI'TIULK  <il-  A   I'KHPETIAL  INCItEASE,  BOTH  BY  PROI'RIKTOHS  AND  DdNOHS.  OWNiillS  AND  SAII.OUS. 


SIR, 
Tm:  gri'iit  li-adiiig  objvcts  of  this  ualioiinl  under  Inking  arc,  to  provide  a  Second  Greentcicli  Hospital  for  seamen  not  in  the 
Ko)al  Service— to  erect  n  Dpecii-s  of  Innarance  i»  t.i/v  against  Age,  Illnejis.  or  Accident— to  offer  an  inthicemeul, 
un|iftralK'lcd  iu  any  other  Country,  to  our  Coinnifrcial  Mariners,  not  to  he  tc»ii>led  lo  enter  into  the  Service  of  America  or 
olher  Slates,  where  no  sucli  provi>ion  is,  or  can  be  made  for  Itriliiih  subjects— and.  in  an  especial  decree  to  cuhivate 
habits  of  pmdeucc  in  those  who  hitherio  have  been  proverbially  iniprudcut,  by  offering  them,  for  a  very  small  portion  of 
ibose  earnings,  (generally  Kuerificeii  Iu  intemperance  or  to  trickery,;  a  noble  Institution,  Kood,  Clothing,  and  lx)dging,  or 
an  adecjuate  Income  to  enjoy  each  ;  and  the  whole  conferred,  not  as  a  matter  of  charity,  but  aa  b  matter  of  properly,  being 
ut  oneo  "  Tile  Seaman's  Refuge  and  Itigbl/' 

All  these  ihingn  are  of  eiwy  neconiplishmenl.  The  Sailor,  should  he  live  lo  be  fifty  years  of  age,  and  have  paid  his 
tjuola  of  the  Insurance,  may  calculate  on  receiving  at  least  ten  times  the  value  of  the  amount  he  has  paid,  partly  by  the 
accnmulationa  of  Comp«)und  Interest ;  parity  by  ibe  deaths  of  those  who  pay,  but  <lo  not  live  to  enjoy  ;  partly  by  the  joint 
Subscriptions  of  Owners  and  Merchants  ;  partly  by  the  Contributions  of  the  I'otriotio.  jind  I'liilanthropic,  many  of  whom 
arc  anlenlly  disposed  lo  o^ist  lhi»  Institnliun;  and,  generally,  from  the  nalionalily  of  its  character  and  objects. 

In  nihhlion  lo  these  wmrces  «if  income  and  objects  <»f  ulilily.  it  is  contemplated  to  add  lo  the  I*ro6tj»,  and  at  the  same 
tmie  protect  the  Merennlde  Seaman  from  those  whom  he  most  emphulically  and  most  truly  calU  "  Land  Sharks."  by 
nuiimg  ihe  brnefila  of  a  Saving  Hank  and  a  Loan  Inslituliou  to  the  olher,  and  more  important,  features  of  the  plan. 

It  is  proiHueil  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  original  Capital  shall  be  devotetl  to  the  erection  of  the  Building,  upon 
some  site  near  the  'i'hanies :  and  that  the  whole  of  ihe  proprietary  Capital,  amounting  lo  £.'JOO,IKlO,  shatt  be  raised  by  ihe 
sale  of  lerminaWe  annuilieo  for  sixty  jmrn,  al  seven  per  ccnl.  per  annum  interest,  redeemable  at  the  market  price,  when 
above  [mr,  by  ihe  Trvslei-s  of  ihe  lustiiulion,  at  their  option;  and  when  the  whole  are  nxleemetl,  or  have  expired,  the 
entire  property  to  belong  to  Urilish  Mercantile  Mariners,  and  their  succeisor?.,  as  a  Home  and  an  Hospital  for  ever. 

It  will  be  necessary  in  the  eonslniclton  of  Ihe  Building  lo  divide  il  into  classes;  hence,  under  ihe  sanction  and 
superintendence  of  the  ablest  and  the  best  practical  men,  all  disonler  will  he  avoided ;  and  station  and  position  ia  Society 
will  be  preserve<l  tu  meet  ihe  views  as  well  as  to  it>nduce  lo  ihe  comforts  of  ihe  occu|«nls. 


l^arhament  will  be  appUed  to  for  an  Act,  or  the  Government  for  a  Koyal  Charter,  lo  limit  the  responsibility  of  tho«e 
who  may  take  Shares  as  Proprietors.  Of  course,  Beriuests.  Donations,  or  Annual  Subscriptions,  create  no  risk,  and  hence 
require  no  proteotion-lhe  lutler,  it  is  hoped,  will  furnish  a  very  large,  and  consta.Kly  increanng,  proportion  of  the  Funds 
of  the  Institution,  which,  in  addition  to  the  small  payments  by  the  Soilors  themselves,  who  shall,  in  all  cases,  have  a 
latitude  of  at  least  two  years,  to  make  up  their  deficiencies  will,  in  time,  dispense  with  the  necessity  of  proprietorship 
altogether.     In  the  year  I'JUU,  if  not  before,  the  Institution  will  belong  to  the  nation. 

These  general  views  are  thrown  out  for  consideration  and  advit 
departed  from,  is,   a   Homk 


The  only  grand  principle  which  can  never  be 

AND    ITS    COMKOIITS,    KO(t    AriRO,    DIXAVED,    OH  DISAIK.ED  SraHKS,  NOT  OTFIRItWISK  I'HOVrDKD 

Foit.  With  thankfulness,  will  any  suggestion  be  received,  and  with  cheerfulness  adopted,  to  alter  and  amend  any  part  of 
the  plan.  Already,  itidividuals  of  distinction  have  expressed  their  determination  lo  support  the  object  by  every  means  in 
their  power.  W  hen  a  sufticienl  number  lo  form  a  CJcneral  Committee,  have  signified  their  adhesion  to  that  object,  without 
bemg  expected  to  adhere  to  the  plan,  as  sketched  out,  they  will  be  called  together,  an.l  asked  to  elect  a  Council  or  Hoard 
of  Management,  from  among  themselves,  of  qualified  Member..  Such  Committee  and  such  Council,  if  entirely  approving 
of  each  other,  but  not  otherwise,  will  have  their  names  published.  It  is  ho,.e<l  that  this  may  be  effected  during  the 
present  Session  of  Parliament,  and  nothing  but  a  want  of  sufficient  consideration  of  its  great  public  and  private  benefits, 
cao  impede  or  retard  its  speedy  completiou. 

Every  suggestion  or  adhesion  is  requested  to  be  made  in  writing,  and  will  be  forthwilb  acknowle<Ige<l  by 

Sir. 
Your  must  obedient  and  humble  Scr\'ant, 

W.  S.  NORTHHOCSK, 

(Tfinpoiaiir  fRanaitt. 
At  titv  Offti-t:  a/lhv  Saliiifort  Iu  llu-  luHlUiilUm, 


June,  1840. 


Mi:ssKH,    WlI.Kl.N'sON   &    P^ 


Oitililh'iU   yard,  Ijondoi 


J-2E .  Jhihini^^('^^  ' 


I840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


257 


ELIZABETHAN  SHOP  FRONT. 

CORXER   OF   OXFORD    STREET   AND    BERXERS    STREET. 

With  an  Engraving,  Plate  XIII. 

Our  readers  will  recollect  that  last  year  the  decline  of  the  Louis 
Quatorze  style,  and  approaching  rise  of  the  revival  was  announced 
in  the  Journal,  and  already  to  a  certain  extent  is  this  realized,  the 
Louis  Quatorze  after  a  long  and  widely  extended  rule  has  already  gone 
to  the  tomb  of  its  predecessors,  and  will  leave  scarcely  a  wreck  be- 
hind. Known  to  us  only  in  one  of  its  very  worst  forms,  that  of  its  de- 
cline during  the  reign  of  Louis  the  Fifteenth,  it  became  Iiere  the  most 
unmeaning  and  unintellectiial  mass  of  patching  and  gilding  by  which 
the  public  taste  has  ever  been  perverted.  Still,  such  as  it  was,  it  was  a 
style  harmonizing  with  itself  however  low  in  its  degree,  and  as  sym- 
metry even  in  a  morrice  or  a  chimney  sweeper's  dance  will  attract  the 
public,  we  need  not  wonder  that  it  was  so  successful,  when  we  have 
been  so  often  tortured  by  styles  that  show  no  style  at  all.  Perhaps 
the  reign  of  this  trumpery  was  one  of  the  evils  leading  to  good,  one  of 
the  accidents  in  our  artistical  destiny  which  is  to  minister  to  our  future 
progress,  for  it  may  have  taught  the  public  a  greater  feeling  for  unity 
of  purpose,  and  may  so  far  have  performed  a  useful  duty. 

Slowly  the  revival  has  entered  upon  its  career,  and  it  is  already  evi- 
dent that  it  is  destined  to  be  popular,  and  to  take  its  place  among  the 
passing  fashions  of  the  age.  We  are  inclin.'d  to  view  its  advent  with 
the  greater  pleasure  as  it  is  at  any  rate  higher  in  the  scale  than  its 
predecessor,  but  we  must  not  be  considered  as  pledging  ourselves  to 
an  admiration  of  it  per  se,  or  a  vindication  of  it  as  a  paragon  of  art. 
We  are  not  so  enthusiastic  as  our  French  neighbours,  nor  so  much 
disposed  to  succumb  to  the  fashion  of  the  hour,  we  like  the  revival, 
not  for  itself,  not  even  for  the  good  it  may  do,  but  as  a  type  of  the 
coming  of  that  better  time  of  art,  which  is  still  we  fear  too  distant,  we 
look  upon  it  as  one  of  the  sets  of  artistical  dumbells,  with  which  the 
public  taste  must  be  invigorated,  rubbishy  materials  with  a  tawdry 
outside,  but  which  still  in  their  exercise  fortify  our  intellectual  strength 
and  health.  If  we  thought  this  style  of  itse'f  calculated  to  produce 
any  permanent  influence,  if  we  thought  it  a  part  of  the  lesson  to  be 
retained  in  after  years,  we  should  be  prepared  to  denounce  its  errors 
in  all  their  extent,  to  expose  its  meritriciousness,  to  strip  it  of  its  tinsel 
gewgaws,  and  to  point  it  out  as  a  stumbling-block  to  be  avoided.  For 
we  are  convinced  that  there  is  nothing  more  to  be  dreaded  than  the 
system  of  swimming  with  corks,  particularly  if  bad  ones,  for  we  are 
sure  to  cling  to  their  use,  or  to  recur  to  their  aid,  when  we  ought  long 
since  to  have  flung  them  totally  away.  The  revival  has  the  advantage 
of  its  predecessor,  that  instead  of  representing  foreign  and  unknown 
associations,  it  appeals  to  those  which  are  common  to  all  countries  and 
all  ranks.  It  is  more  intellectual  in  its  scope,  is  obliged  to  refer  back 
to  higher  sources,  and  requires  the  exercise  of  a  better  class  of  art,  so 
that  if  we  reap  no  other  fruit,  we  shall  have  the  advantage  in  more 
practised  workmen,  and  in  tlie  demand  for  a  greater  degree  of  in- 
struction. The  schools  of  design  could  never  have  come  at  a  better 
time  than  when  their  capabilities  are  likely  to  be  so  much  called  out. 
So  much  is  the  style  of  revival  in  advance  of  English  workmen,  that 
when,  as  we  mentioned  last  year,  its  introduction  was  seriously  con- 
templated, it  was  feared  that  it  would  be  necessary  to  import  the  arti- 
sans as  well  as  well  as  the  style.  We  hope,  however,  to  see  a  difterent 
state  of  things. 

Most  of  our  readers  have  seen  the  shop  in  Regent-street,  we  have 
now  to  call  their  attention  to  another  in  tlie  same  style,  that  of  Messrs. 
Battam,  Craske  and  Coleby,  decorators,  at  the  corner  of  Oxford  and  Ber- 
ners-streets,  represented  in  the  engraving.  As  the  details  are  visible 
in  the  engraving,  we  shall  merely  describe  the  materials  employed,  a 
knowledge  of  which  as  a  point  of  economy  is  most  important  to  our 
architectural  readers.  The  general  ground  of  the  whole  including  the 
mezzanine  story  is  of  wood,  parts  of  the  upper  dressings  as  the  trusses 
and  dressings  to  lights  are  of  cement,  and  the  rest  of  paste  composi- 
tion. The  enrichments  of  the  entablature,  mouldings,  modillions,  block 
dressings,  heads,  &:c.  are  in  paste;  part  of  the  lower  dressings  in  deal, 
the  figures  cast  in  Atkinson's  cement.  The  whole  was  designed  and 
executed  by  Messrs,  Jackson  and  Son,  of  Rathbone-place,  and  we  think 
will  not  only  get  for  them  present  applause,  but  future  patronage,  the 
task  was  arduous,  and  as  far  as  they  are  concerned,  they  have  per- 
formed it  well.  We  wish,  however,  that  both  here  and  in  Regent- 
street,  the  character  of  the  style  had  been  kept  up  in  colour  as  well  as 
in  form,  as  otherwise  our  works  will  be  but  the  mere  g'uosts  of  the 
Parisian  style.  We  hope  no  fear  of  the  expense  will  deter  tradesmen 
from  having  the  decora! ions  complete,  for  we  are  convinced  that  they 
would  derive  more  benefit  from  a  properly  finished  building  than  from 
the  dead  white  phantoms  that  have  been  produced.     These  want  all 

No.  35.— Vol.  III.-  August,  1840. 


the  light  and  all  the  life  of  the  style,  they  want  that  provocative  to 
luxurious  appetite  that  leads  us  into  the  Parisian  shop  wdiether  we 
will  or  not.  The  shutters  are  Bunnett  and  Corpe's  patent,  and  which 
when  down  take  greatly  from  the  effect,  a  defect  avoided  in  the  origi- 
nal design,  which  provided  embossed,  pannelled  and  moulded  shutters 
in  accordance  with  the  general  character. 


EXHIBITION— ROYAL  ACADEMY. 

(  Concluded  from  page  222.) 

Many  architects  seem  to  entertain  as  great  a  horror  of  exhibition 
as  Bartholomew  does  of  competition,  in  regard  to  which  he  is  even 
rabidly  furious.  How  else  happens  it,  that  among  the  number  of  de- 
signs sent  to  the  Academy,  we  invariably  meet  with  so  exceedingly 
few  which  afford  us  any  information  as  to  public  buildings  and  other 
works  that  have  either  been  just  completed,  or  are  in  ])rogress  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country  ?  Why  does  not  Mr.  Pugin,  for  instance, 
we  ask,  exhibit,  by  way  of  contrast,  and  for  the  needful  edification  of 
his  Protestant  brethren  in  the  profession,  some  of  those  Catholic  chapels 
"  in  the  purest  taste,"  on  which  he  recently  has  been,  or  is  now, 
actually  employed?*  We  miss  several  things  that,  if  we  may  trust 
what  we  have  heard  concerning  them,  we  think  would  have  been  cre- 
ditable to  their  authors,  and  should  have  been  glad  to  find  here, 
among  others,  Mr.  Hosking's  Egyptian  Propylffium  to  the  new  cemetery 
at  Abney  Park;  the  Gothic  church  lately  completed  by  Mr.  Basevi, 
in  Hans  Place,  Sloane  Street,  the  Dorset  County  Hospital,  now  erecting 
after  designs  by  Mr.  Ferrey,  and  the  mansion  just  commenced,  we  be- 
lieve, by  Mr.  Blore,  for  Lord  Francis  Egerton,  near  Manchester ;  be- 
sides many  other  works  which,  even  if  of  no  particular  merit  in  them- 
selves, would  afford  information  as  to  what  is  actually  going  on,  but  of 
which  we  seldom  find  more  than  a  very  small  sprinkling  at  the  Annual 
Exhibitions  of  the  Academy.  Even  what  subjects  of  this  class  we  do 
meet  with,  are  not  always  the  best  productions  that  might  have  been 
furnished  ;  many  of  them,  indeed,  neither  tasteful  as  designs,  nor  of 
interest  as  representations  of  buildings  of  any  importance.  This 
remark  applies  only  in  part  to  No.  968,  "  Entrance  Lodge,  as  erected, 
West  of  London  and  Westminster  Cemetery,  at  Earl's  Court,  Ken- 
sington," B.  Baud;  for  the  structure  itself  is  of  considerable  extent, 
and  of  a  kind  affording  scope  for  design,  and  for  marked  expression  of 
character.  As  it  is,  it  presents  only  a  very  tame  composition  of 
Roman  Doric  architecture,  which  is,  besides,  altogether  marred  by 
being  filled  in  with  windows  that  are  equally  at  variance  both  with 
the  style  indicated  by  the  order,  and  with  what  seems  suitable  for  the 
particular  occasion,  inasmuch  as  they  loo  strongly  suggest  the  idea  of 
a  mere  dvvelling,  not  otherwise  distinguished  than  by  having  an  arch- 
way leading  through  it.  For  structures  of  this  kind,  and  also  for 
those  intended  for  railway  terminusses,  some  useful  hints  and  studies, 
we  may  observe,  are  to  be  found  in  Sanmicheli's  designs,  for  entrance 
gates  and  similar  works,  demanding  mass  and  solidity,  yet  not  reject- 
ing architectural  decoration. 

No.  914.  "Facade  of  the  Wesleyan  Centenary  Hall,  now  building 
in  the  city  of  London,"  W.  T.  Pocock,  is  another  drawing  that  shows 
a  building  of  some  magnitude  now  in  execution.  We  cannot  say  that 
we  greatly  admire  the  design,  either  as  we  behold  it  here  entire,  or 
judging  of  it  from  the  building  itself,  (in  Bishopsgate  Street,)  as  far 
as  it  is  already  advanced.  On  the  contrary,  we  decidedly  object  to  the 
basement,  which  has  small  arches,  and  is  merely  scored  by  a  few  hori- 
zontal stripes — a  sort  of  apology  for  rustic  joints — w  hich  produce  a 
most  harsh  and  disagreeable  effect,  where,  instead  of  radiating  towards 
the  centres  of  the  arches,  they  are  cut  off"  by  the  archivolts  of  the 


'  We  rejoice  to  have  assurance  afforded  us  by  the  letter  from  "  A  Protest- 
ant Architect,"  given  at  pa^e  228,  that  the  structures  alluded  to  are  su 
creilitable  to  Mr.  Pugin's  taste  and  ability;  but  wo  think  that  the  wriler 
altogedier  overlooks  a  serious  dilliculty  when  he  says,  "it  now  remains  for 
Protestant  architects  to  display  their  zeal  and  their  talents  in  a  similar  man- 
ner "  ;  si  roe  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  can  avail  ihem  much,  so  long  as 
they  are  obliged  to  move  in. the  shackles  imposed  upon  them  by  the  Church 
Cummissioners,  and  by  the  pig-headed  obstinacy  of  those  who  regarj  all 
originality  of  design,  any  abandonment  ot  the  barbarisms  and  the  penurious- 
ness  displayed  in  our  churches— of  our  squeezed  up  pews  and  piled  up  gal- 
leries, for  the  sake  of  architectural  character  and  eticct,— as  scandalous  and 
dangerous  innovations,  savouring  of  Popery  and  the  Scarlet  Lady  with  the 
title  unmentionalde.  The  regulations  enforced  by  Church  Commissioners  are 
of  themselves  calculated  to  operate  as  a  "  wet  blanket ''  upon  all  but  mere 
plodders,  who  may  even  find  their  account  in  the  proscription  of  aught  ap- 
proaching to  originality.  We  fancy  it  would  puzzle  Pugin  himself  to  produce 
much  effect,  were  he  similarly  circumstanced,  unless  his  ability  be  such  that 
he  could  make  a  Quaker's  meeting-house  magnificent,  without  depriving  it 
of  its  primitive  plainness. 

2  M 


2oS 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


latter.  We  hail  hoped  that  the  examples  revived  by  Mr.  Barry  would, 
by  this  time,  have  fairly  put  every  one  out  of  conceit  witli  that  equally 
))oor,  monotonous,  and  unmeaning  fashion,  which  certainly  is  not  clas- 
sical— neither  (ircck,  Roman,  nor  Italian — nor  has  it  anything  what- 
ever in  it  itself,  to  reconcile  us  to  it  as  a  desirable  innovation.  If  the 
upper  part  of  the  farade  satisfies  us  very  little  better,  it  certainly  is 
not  because  ornament  has  been  begrudged  it,  for  it  has  large  fluted 
attached  columns,  and  pilasters  of  the  Corinthian  order,  between  which 
are  two  scries  of  decorated  windows  (five  on  each  floor),  besides  an 
attic  or  podium  over  the  three  middle  intercolumns,  surmounted  in 
turn  by  a  lofty  lanthorn  or  turret  copied  from  the  well-known  choragic 
monument  of  Lysicrates.  For  what  particular  purpose  this  last  may 
be  intended,  we  are  wholly  at  a  loss  to  conjecture,  the  purpose  of  the 
liuiltling  itself  seeming  to  require  no  such  appendage,  while,  as  regards 
the  design,  it  might  very  well  be  spared,  as  the  facade  will  be  quite 
lofty  enough  witjuiut  it.  Of  finery,  indeed,  there  is  enough  and  to 
spare,  and  we  shall,  therefore,  probably  hear  the  structure  s|)oken  of 
as  a  fine  piece  of  architecture;  but  in  vain  do  we  look  here  for  origi- 
nality, for  study,  or  for  taste. 

We  are  infinitely  better  satisfied  with  No.  921,  wliich  shows  us — 
though  not  to  particular  advantage,  the  drawing  itself  being  anything 
l)ut  an  attractive  one — the  "  Terminus  of  the  London  and  Blackwall 
Railway,"  which  has  just  been  completed  by  Mr.  Tite.  It  is  a  pleas- 
ing specimen  of  Italian  architecture,  simple  in  character,  but  free  from 
the  mock  simplicity  of  poverty  and  baldness. 

Nos.  lOOU  and  1001,  the  H.W.  and  N.W.  fronts  of  "  Roeliampton 
Priory,  Surrey,"  with  the  alterations  and  additions  in  progress,  from 
the  designs  and  under  the  direction  of  Gough  and  Romieu,  exhibit  a 
Gothic  mansion  of  coniiiderable  extent,  to  which,  we  presume,  the 
conservatories  are  tiie  chief  additions;  but  what  may  he  the  other 
alterations  we  know  not,  consequently  catmot  judge  how  far  they  have 
contributed  to  improve  the  building  generally. 

Though  a  small  sepia  drawing,  and  rather  unfavourably  hung, 
No.  983,  "  Bailitf 's  Cottage,  recently  erected  at  Chequers,  Bucks,  for 
Sir  R.  Frankland  Russell,"Bt.,"  E.  B.  Lamb,  possesses  great  merit  as  a 
design,  both  in  regard  to  character  and  picturesque  effect,  for  it  rea- 
lizes the  ideal  of  a  cottage  residence  of  that  kind,  and  when  it  comes 
to  be  a  little  mellowed  by  time,  will  offer  a  pleasing  study  to  the 
artist.  We  may  also  express  our  approbation  of  Mr.  Walker's  designs 
for  the  New  Hospital  or  Almshouses  at  Bedworth,  of  which  Nos.  lull 
and  1014  aftbrd  us  two  perspective  views.  And  we  wish  we  could 
say  as  much  in  favour  of  No.  10G7,  "  View  of  the  Casino  Promenade 
Concert  Room,  a  la  Musard,  about  to  be  erected  on  the  east  side  of 
Leicester  Square,"  S.  Beazley;  but  our  liking  for  it  is  so  little,  that 
we  trust  what  the  catalogue  says  will  never  be  verified ;  or  that  if  any 
building  of  the  kind  is  to  be  erected  there  at  all,  it  will  be  something 
totally  different  froni  such  a  Vauxhallish  affair.  For  aught  v.'e  know, 
Mr.  Beazley  may  rival  Vanbrugh  as  a  dramatist,  but  as  an  architect, 
we  do  not  think  he  is  quite  equal  to  him.  In  one  sense,  indeed,  his 
buildings  may  very  well  be  called  theatrical,  but  sctnic,  thev  most 
assuredly  are  not ;  while  in  point  of  taste,  they  are  the  very  antipodes 
of  those  of  his  predecessors,  being  as  remarkable  for  flimsiiiess,  as  the 
others  are  for  jionderous  solidity. 

Though  we  might  point  out  several  other  designs,  some  for  censr.re, 
and  one  or  two  for  commendation,  w-e  must  here"  conclude  our  notice 
of  this  year's  exhibition,  and  look  forward  to  a  better  one  next  season ; 
as  we  may  do  with  some  degree  of  confidence,  unless  the  present 
Decline  is  to  terminate  in  a  total  Fall  of  the  Academy's  Arcliitectural 
Room. 


SEA  EMBANKMENT. 

The  work  about  to  be  described  hag  lately  been  executed  at  the 
moutli  of  tlie  Thames,  near  the  entrance  to  the  Medway,  in  the  parish  of 
St.  Mary's,  for  the  Right  Honourable  Lord  de  Vesci,  who  has  an  estate 
adjoining  it. 

The  land  bounding  the  sea  at  this  place  being  marsh,  and  formerly 
covered  with  salt  water  every  spring  tide,  was  of  very  little  value  till 
it  was  embanked,  which  took  place  about  two  centuries  back,  and  said 
to  have  been  executed  by  a  Dutch  engineer,  probably  Vermuyden, 
who  was  in  Efgland  about  that  time,  having  been  engaged  in  similar 
works,  of  which  was  the  embanking  of  the  Dagenham  marshes  on  the 
Essex  side  of  the  river,  likewise  the  drainage  of  Hatfield  Chase,  near 
Doncaster,  and  he  was  afterwards  emploved  in  the  Bedford  Level. 
Considerable  damage  had  been  done  to  tliis  wall  at  diflerent  periods, 
ironi  the  prevalence  of  north  easterly  winds,  which  are  severely  felt 
on  this  shore,  the  violence  of  the  sea  washing  the  stones  from  the  slope 
and  thereby  causing  breaches  in  the  bank.  The  old  wall  was  protect- 
ed with  stones  and  piles,  but  sufficient  care  had  not  been  taken  in  the 


formation  of  the  bank,  otherwise  breaches  would  not  have  so  frequently 
taken  place. 

In  the  formation  of  the  new  wall,  which  is  nearly  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  in  length,  tile  old  formed  tlie  nedeus  of  the  new  work,  the  mate- 
rial for  which  was  got  by  cutting  on  the  land  side  a  back  delpli  which 
was  kept  to  a  regular  section  at  about  four  yards  from  the  foot  of  the 
back  slope.  The  inclination  of  the  back  slope  of  the  wall  is  \%  hori- 
zontal to  1  perpendicular,  and  that  of  the  sea  slope  4  horizontal  to  1 
perpendicular ;  tlie  top  of  the  wall  is  3  feet  in  width,  and  raised  7  feet 
above  high  water  of  a  spring  tide,  (Trinity  datum).  The  bank  was 
formed  in  regular  courses  about  12  inches  in  thickness,  cliopped  and 
puddled  to  form  a  water-tight  body;  the  face  of  the  sea  slope  after 
being  sufficiently  consolidated,  was  covered  with  a  thickness  of  four 
inches  of  concrete,  and  afterwards  pitched  with  Kentish  Wrag  stone 
laid  by  hand,  and  rammed  solid  to  a  regular  surface,  the  depth  or 
thickness  of  the  stone  pitching  varied  from  10  to  12  inches,  the  stones 
being  placed  as  closely  as  possible,  and  when  the  stones  were  not  too 
large,  placed  with  the  largest  dimension  downwards  to  expose  the 
least  surface  to  the  action  of  the  water,  and  the  joints  filled  in  by 
wedging  small  ))ieces  of  stone  into  them  bv  hand  hammers.  The  sur- 
face of  the  paving  was  covered  by  an  inch  in  thickness  of  fine  gravel, 
which  by  the  action  of  the  water  was  washed  into  the  interstices,  so 
that  the  whole  formed  a  solid  and  compact  mass.  From  the  regular 
slope  of  the  sea  side  of  this  wall,  and  on  account  of  its  gradual  rise, 
the  waves  meet  with  no  abrupt  impediment  so  injurious  in  works  of 
this  description,  but  on  the  contrary,  spend  themselves  in  running  up 
the  slope,  thereby  much  lessening  the  effect  of  the  concussion.  The 
face  of  tlie  sea  slope  above  the  stone  pitching,  and  likewise  the  top  of 
the  wall  was  covered  with  a  thickness  of  sand  and  shells,  thus  forming 
a  footpath  and  preventing  the  heat  of  the  sun  from  injuring  the  bank  ; 
the  back  or  land  slope  was  also  properly  trimmed  and  soiled  or  sown 
with  grass  seed. 

The  foot  of  the  pitching  is  protected  by  a  row  of  piling  or  stakes 
driven  G  to  7  feet  into  the  ground,  and  3  to  4  inches  apart;  and  like- 
wise protected  on  the  sea  side  by  a  footing  of  stone  and  chalk,  the  re- 
fuse of  the  old  wall,  which  has  embedded  itself  in  the  foreshore,  and 
thus  forms  quite  a  compact  mass.  There  are  also  two  rows  of  similar 
stake  piling  driven  into  the  bank  at  the  top  of  the  slope,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  stone  ))itching  ;  the  following  section  will  more  fully  ex- 
plain the  nature  of  the  work. 


M,  marsh.     F,  footpath.     II.  \V.,  high  water  Trinity  Standard. 

The  novelty  in  the  work  is  the  introduction  of  concrete  between  the 
stone  pitching  and  the  clay  substratum,  by  whicli  the  water  is  prevented 
soaking  into  the  clay,  and  so  wearing  it  away,  and  depriving  the 
pitching  of  its  support,  from  whence  hollows  necessarily  arise,  and 
shortly  patches  of  stone  pilcliing  are  removed  hy  (his  gradual  but  sure 
process.  In  the  event  likewise  of  stones  being  displaced,  the  concrete 
prevents  the  evil  spreading,  forming  itself  a  protection  until  the  pitch- 
ing be  restored. 

Breakwaters  of  stone  encompassed  with  piling  are  constructed  at 
the  two  most  prominent  points,  to  protect  the  wall  from  the  sea  during 
north-east  gales,  and  likewise  to  encourage  the  accumulation  of  sanci 
along  the  foot  of  the  wall. 

The  work  has  been  executed  by  Mr.  Rowland,  the  contractor,  of 
Strood,  under  the  direction  of  Messrs.  Walker  and  Burges  ;  it  was 
commenced  during  tlie  latter  end  of  183S,  and  has  been  in  progress 
with  the  exception  of  the  winter  months,  till  last  April,  when  it  was 
completed,  so  that  during  the  greater  part  of  tliat  time,  a  principal 
portion  of  the  work  has  been  put  to  a  fair  trial. 


GLASS  PAINTING. 

Sir — In  consequence  of  the  receipt  of  several  letters  since  the  pub- 
lication of  the  brief  remarks  on  the  above  subject,  vvliich  appeared  in 
the  last  number  of  your  Journal,  I  am  induced  to  mention,  that  1  fully 
intend  when  leisure  affords  an  opportunity,  to  endeavour  to  make  that 
notice  more  complete,  and  that  I  shall  be  very  glad  therefore,  to  re- 
ceive informaton  concerning  any  glass-painter  now,  or  lately  prac- 
tising in  England, — his  peculiarities,  a  list  of  his  principal  works,  &c. 

I  am.  Sir,  your's, 

PcUmdi  CiCiCiiit,  Bromptoii.  Geo.  Godwin,  Jux. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


259 


REPORT  ON  THE  HARBOURS  OF  THE  SOUTH  EASTERN 

COAST. 

We  should  have  liked  to  have  gone  at  seme  length  into  this  report, 
but  other  matter,  we  cannot  say  more  important,  has  prevented  us. 
We  may  brieily  characterize  it  as  destitute  of  all  ])rinciple,  first  pro- 
posing one  principle,  then  another,  then  contradicting  both,  and  but 
ill  calculated  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  public  or  to  men  of  science. 
Upon  none  of  the  great  physical  questions,  the  operations  of  which 
upon  this  coast  have  been  the  subject  of  so  much  controversy,  does  it 
give  any  elucidation,  indeed  it  does  not  enter  upon  them.  With  re- 
gard to  the  numerous  plans  suggested  for  making  harbours  on  these 
coasts,  many  of  them  ingenious,  some  good,  and  all  entitled  to  atten- 
tion, the  commissioners  pass  them  over  with  silent  contempt. 

Just  to  '.how  the  blowing  hot  and  cold  system  which  characterizes 
the  proceedings  of  the  commissioners  with  regard  to  the  great  prin- 
ciples at  issue,  we  shall  call  attention  to  the  following  extracts  from 
the  last  number  of  the  Journal. 

Margate. — "  The  power  of  sluicing  at  so  great  a  distance  as  that  proposed 
in  this  plan,  could  only  be  applied  with  advantage  to  a  surface  dry,  or  nearly 
so,  at  low  water ;  and  the  idea  of  keeping  a  deep-water  harhour  of  any  useful 
width,  clear  by  means  of  such  sluicing,  appears  to  us  to  he  impracticable." 

Ramsgate. — "  There  is  no  natural  backwater  so  essential  for  the  purpose  of 
scouring." 

Deal  and  Sandwich. — "  The  shingle  is  continually  moving  by  the  action  of 
the  waves,  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds." 

Dover. — "  It  should  lie  observed  that  these  sluices,  though  efficacious  to  a 
certain  extent,  are  not  capable  of  removing  the  obstruction  altogether.  The 
force  of  the  water,  which  at  its  exit  from  the  culverts  is  ver>'  great,  loses  its 
impetus  as  it  spreads  over  a  larger  surface,  and  forces  the  shiugle  to  a  com- 
paratively small  distance,  where  it  is  liable  to  form  banks  beyond  the  power 
of  the  sluices." 

Folkstone. — "  A  small  stream  is  pent  up  at  the  north-west  side  of  the  har- 
bour, for  the  purpose  of  scouring  at  low  water  ;  and  with  the  assistance  of 
manual  labour,  in  addition  to  this  verj'  inadequate  backwater,  the  channel  is 
kept  open  so  as  to  allow  vessels  of  10  to  12  feet  draught  to  come  alongside 
of  the  main  pier  at  the  top  of  high  water."  "  In  our  opinion  no  scouring 
power  would  be  able  to  keep  the  channels  clear  below  the  level  of  low  water." 
"  Constant  motion  of  shingle." 

Rye. — "  Shingle  accumulated  by  winds."  "  Powerful  backwater  thereby 
acquired,  operated  as  a  scour  during  the  ebb,  to  clear  the  channel  and  keep 
the  entrance  open." 

■    Hasiings. — "  There  is  no  natural  backwater,  nor  the  facility  of  making  an 
artificial  one  to  any  useful  extent." 

Netvhaven. — "  The  river  affords  a  powerful  backwater  for  scouring  the 
entrance." 

Shoreham. — "  A  bar  rises  occasionally  above  the  low  water  level,  and  shifts 
its  position  from  60  to  ICO  feet  from  the  pier-heads." 

Littlehampton. — "  The  backwater  not  enough." 

These  are  materials  for  thinking,  and  we  have  no  doubt  will  create 
some  excitement  among  the  advocates  and  opposers  of  backwater. 
We  shall  show,  on  a  subsequent  occasion,  how  beautifully  this  inde- 
pendence of  attachment  to  principles  is  preserved  in  the  plans  of  the 
commissioners  themselves. 


RETORT  UPON  RETORT. 

Sir — Having  myself  animadverted  in  the  first  instance  upon  what 
Mr.  Bartholomew  had  said  of  the  new  fa^-ade  of  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons, Lincoln's  bin  Fields,  which  he  is  pleased  to  call  both  '•  ill-fa- 
voured" in  itself,  and  not  merely  a  cracking  but  "a  creaking  mass  of 
fracture," — it  would  ill-become  me  to  complain  of  his  animadverting 
upon  me  in  return,  in  the  preface  to  his  "  Specifications  ;"  where  he 
has  iutrodiiced  a  long  note,  in  which  he  says  :  "Mr.  Leeds  having  with 
some  coarseness  of  diction  chosen  to  go  out  of  his  way  in  his  'Essay 
on  Modern  English  Architecture,'  to  comment  upon  my  supposed  ad- 
miration of  the  former  facade  of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  I  here  tell 
him,  that  in  this  place  as  elsewhere,  his  quotations  whether  of  the  sense 
or  words,  are  not  accurate.  I  have  put  forth  no  such  sentiment  either 
by  word  or  implication,  I  admired  its  portico  as  formerly  existing, 
&c.,  &c." 

Not  being  able  at  this  moment  to  refer  to  the  passage  in  question,  I 
cannot  pretend  to  be  certain  as  to  the  precise  words,  yet  whether  so 
intended  or  not,  the  impression  it  left  upon  me  was  that  Mr.  Bartholo- 
mew considered  the  building  to  be  altered  greatly  for  tlie  worse.  That 
he  admired  the  portico  as  formerly  existing,  the  words  I  have  quoted 
sufficiently  prove;  nor  do  I  dispute  his  right  to  admire,  more  espe- 
cially as  there  is  scarcely  any  production  of  the  present  day  which  his 
aste  will  permit  him  to  admire  at  all.     He  is  now,  it  seems,  however 


anxious  to  have  it  understood  that  he  confined  his  admiration  exclu- 
sively to  the  portico,  by  which  I  suppose  he  means  merely  the  columns, 
for  all  that  was  behind  them  was  most  barbarous  in  design.  But  then 
by  not  protesting  against  the  deformity  of  the  other  parts,  and  by  again 
expressing  his  approbation  of  a  portico,  the  interior  of  which  was  most 
detestable,  he  certainly  does  leave  it  to  be  inferred  that  he  was  not  at 
all  shocked  at  the  architectural  incongruities  it  presented.  Very  possi- 
bly he  may  have  regarded  with  profound  contempt  and  abhorrence  all 
but  the  mere  columns ;  still  as  he  did  not  chose  to  make  that  clear  to 
his  readers,  he  ought  not  now  to  complain  if  he  has  been  misunder- 
stood, and  his  real  meaning  misrepresented. 

With  regard  to  the  coarseness  of  diction  which  he  lays  to  my  charge, 
I  allow  that  my  expressions  may  have  seemed  coarse  to  one  who  is  so 
guarded  and  refined  in  his  own  language,  as  to  speak  of  modern  archi- 
tecture as  being  no  better  than  a  "  fraudulent,  pickpocket  system,"  and 
of  those  who  practice  it,  as  ignorant  pretenders  and  qua'cks,  utterly 
ignorant  of  scientific  principles  of  construction.  The  horrible  coarse- 
ness of  which  I  was  guilty  consisted  in  remarking:  "  after  this,  should 
any  one  obtain  that  writer's  approbation  or  good  words,  he  will  have 
reason  to  consider  it  a  most  unfortunate  symptom,  and  to  take  himself 
to  task  very  strictly  in  order  to  ascertain  what  can  have  excited  such 
ominous  sympathy  :"  which  no  doubt  sounds  bearishly  rude  and  inde- 
licate to  "  ears  polite,"  and  in  comparison  with  the  delicate  and  d\ilcet, 
Mr.  Bartholomew  himself  invariably  employs. 

Though  he  has  done  me  the  honour  to  single  out  myself,  he  might 
find,  did  he  care  to  look  about,  other  critics  and  other  publications 
which  have  treated  him  with  as  little  ceremony  as  he  himself  has 
treated  his  own  brother-architects.  By  no  means  therefore  am  I  a 
solitary  offender;  on  the  contrary,  there  are  others  still  more  coarsely 
blunt,  and — what  is  perhaps  worse,  some  who  are  still  more  keen. 

W.  H.  L. 


CLEGG  AND  SAMUDA'S  ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY. 

With  an  Engraving,  Plate  XIV. 

In  our  last  number  we  gave  some  particulars  regarding  the  first  ex- 
periment, made  on  the  Atmospheric  Railway;  we  are  now  enabled 
through  the  kindness  of  the  inventors  to  give  drawings  and  descriptions 
of  the  railway  and  apparatus,  together  with  some  calculations. 

In  Clegg  and  Samuda's  Atmospheric  Railway,  the  power  employed 
is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  brought  into  action  by  exhaustion. 
By  reference  to  the  plate,  the  following  description  of  the  apparatus 
will  be  rendered  more  clear  : — 

Fig.  1,  is  a  general  elevation  of  the  railway,  with  a  train  of  carriages 
passing  over  it. 

Fig.  2,  is  a  plan  of  the  railway,  with  the  upper  surface  of  the  pipe, 
at  the  part  containing  the  entrance  separating  valve,  removed  to  show 
its  construction. 

Fig.  3,  is  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  railway,  taken  at  the  dotted 
line  mm  fig.  4,  showing  the  connection  between  the  piston  and  the 
train  carriage  and  the  method  of  lifting  the  continuous  valve. 

Fig.  i,  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  same. 

Fig.  5,  is  a  transverse  section  of  the  pipe  on  an  enlarged  scale, 
showing  the  continuous  valve  and  cover,  and  also  the  heater  N,  in  dotted 
lines. 

Fig.  6,  a  plan  of  the  continuous  valve  on  an  enlarged  scale. 

The  moving  power  is  communicated  to  the  train  through  a  con- 
tinuous pipe  or  main,  a,  laid  between  the  rails,  which  is  exhausted  by 
air  pumps  worked  by  stationary  steam  engines,  fixed  on  the  road  side, 
the  distance  between  them  varying  from  one  to  three  miles,  according 
to  the  nature  and  traffic  of  the  road.  A  piston,  B,  which  is  introduced 
into  this  pipe,  is  attached  to  the  leading  carriage  in  each  train,  through 
a  lateral  opening,  and  is  made  to  travel  forward  by  means  of  the  ex- 
haustion created  in  front  of  it.  The  continuous  pipe  is  fixed  between 
the  rails  and  bolted  to  the  sleepers  which  carry  them  ;  the  inside  of 
the  tube  is  unbored,  but  lined  or  coated  with  tallow  y^th  of  an  inch 
thick,  to  equalize  the  surface  and  prevent  any  unnecessary  friction 
from  the  passage  of  the  traveking  piston  through  it.  Along  the  upper 
surface  of  the  pipe  is  a  continuous  slit  or  groove  about  two  inches 
wide.  This  groove  is  covered  by  a  valve,  G,  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  railway,  formed  of  a  strip  of  leather  rivetted  between 
iron  plates,  as  shown  at  fig.  5,  the  top  plates  being  wider  than  the 
groove  and  serving  to  prevent  the  external  air  forcing  the  leather  into 
the  pipe  when  the  vacuum  is  formed  within  it;  and  the  lower  plates 
fitting  into  the  groove  when  the  valve  is  shut,  makes  up  the  circle  of 
the  pipe,  and  prevents  the  air  from  passing  the  piston ;  one  edge  of 
this  valve  is  securely  held  down  by  iron  bars.  No.  2,  (fig.  5),  fastened 
by  screw  bolts,  No.  4,  to  a  longitudinal  rib  cast  on  the  pipe,  and  allow* 


2G0 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


the  leather  between  the  plates  and  the  bar  to  act  as  a  hinge,  similar 
to  a  common  pnmp  valve  ;  the  other  edge  of  the  valve  falls  into  a 
groove  which  contains  a  composition  of  beeswax  and  tallow  :  this  com- 
position is  solid  at  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  and  becomes 
fluid  when  heated  a  few  degrees  above  it.  Over  this  valve  is  a  pro- 
tecting cover,  I,  which  serves  to  preserve  it  from  snow  or  rain,  formed 
of  thin  plates  of  iron  about  five  feet  long  hinged  with  leather,  and  the 
end  of  each  plate  underlaps  the  next  in  the  direction  of  the  piston's 
motion,  thus  ensuring  the  lifting  of  each  in  succession.  To  the  under- 
side of  the  first  carriage  in  each  train  is  attached  the  piston,  B,  and  its 
appurtenances  ;  a  rod  passing  horizontally  from  the  piston  is  attached 
to  a  connecting  arm,  c,  about  six  feet  behind  the  piston.  This  con- 
necting arm  passes  through  the  continuous  groove  in  the  pipe,  and 
being  fixed  to  the  carriage,  imparts  motion  to  the  train  as  the  tube  be- 
comes exhausted  ;  to  the  piston  rod  are  also  attached  four  steel  wheels, 
H  ir,  (two  in  advance  and  two  behind  the  connecting  arm,1  which  serve 
to  lift  t!ie  valve,  and  form  a  space  for  the  passage  of  the  connecting 
arm,  and  also  for  the  admission  of  air  to  the  back  of  the  piston; 
another  steel  wheel,  D,  is  attached  to  the  carriage,  regulated  by  a 
spring,  which  serves  to  ensure  the  perfect  closing  of  the  valve,  by  run- 
ning over  the  top  plates  immediately  after  the  arm  has  passed.  A 
cop])er  tube  or  heater,  N,  about  ten  feet  long,  constantly  kept  hot  by  a 
small  stove,  z,  also  fixed  to  the  under  side  of  the  carriage,  passes  over 
and  melts  the  surface  of  the  composition  (wdiich  has  been  broken  by 
lifting  the  valve,)  which  upon  cooling  becomes  solid,  and  hermetically 
seals  the  valve.  Thus  each  train  in  passing  leaves  the  pipe  in  a  fit 
state  to  receive  the  next  train. 

The  continuous  pipe  is  divided  into  suitable  sections  (according  to 
the  respective  distance  of  the  fixed  steam  engines)  by  separating  valves, 
y"and  Q,  whidi  are  opened  by  the  train  as  it  goes  along:  these  valves 
are  so  constructed  that  no  stoppage  or  diminution  of  speed  is  necessary 
in  passing  from  one  section  to  another.  The  exit  separating  valve,  Q, 
or  that  at  the  end  of  the  section  nearest  to  its  steam  engine,  is  opened 
by  the  compression  of  air  in  front  of  the  piston,  which  necessari'y  takes 
place  after  it  has  passed  the  branch  which  communicates  with  the  air- 
pump  ;  the  entrance  separating  valve,/,  (that  near  the  commencement 
of  the  next  section  of  pipe,)  is  an  equilibrium  or  balance  valve,  and 
opens  immediately  the  piston  has  entered  the  pipe.  The  main  pipe 
is  put  together  with  deep  socket  joints,  in  each  of  which  an  annular 
space  is  left  about  the  middle  of  the  packing,  and  filled  with  a  semi- 
fluid :  thus  any  possible  leakage  of  air  into  the  pipe  is  prevented. 

From  the  result  of  the  experiments  already  made,  the  inventors  cal- 
culate that  a  main  pipe  of  eighteen  inches  diameter  will  be  sufficiently 
large  for  a  traffic  of  5,0OU  tons  per  day,  viz.,  2,500  tons  in  each  direc- 
tion, supposing  the  gradients  of  the  road  to  average  1  in  100. 

Note. — A  main  pipe,  18  inches  diameter,  will  contain  a  piston  of  254 
inches  area :  the  usual  pressure  on  this  piston,  produced  by  exhausting  the 
pipe,  should  he  8  lb.  per  square  inch  (as  this  is  the  most  economical  degree 
of  vacuum  to  work  at,  and  a  large  margin  is  left  for  obtaining  higher  vacuums 
to  draw  trains  heavier  than  usual  on  emergencies) — a  tractive  force  of  2,032 
pounds  is  thus  obtained,  which  will  draw  a  train  weighing  45  tons,  at  30 
miles  per  honr  up  an  incline  rising  1  in  100.  Two  and  a  half  miles  of  this 
pipe  will  contain  23,324  cubic  feet  of  air,  i{j  of  which,  or  12,439  cubic  feet, 
must  he  pumped  out  to  effect  a  vacuum  equal  to  8  lb.  per  square  inch ;  the 
air  pumji  for  this  purpose  should  he  5  feet  7  in.  diameter,  or  24-7  feet  area, 
and  its  jjiston  should  move  through  220  feet  ])er  minute,  thus  discharging  at 
the  rate  of  24-7  x  220  =  5,434  cubic  feet  per  minute  at  first,  and  at  the  rate 
of  2,536  cubic  feet  per  minute  when  the  vacuum  has  advanced  to  16  inches 
mercur)',  or  8  lb.  per  square  inch,  the  mean  quantity  discharged  being  thus 
3,985  feet  per  minute;  therefore  VTi¥¥'=  3'1  minutes,  the  time  requireil  to 
exhaust  the  pipe;  and  as  the  area  of  the  pump  piston  is  14  times  as  great  as 
that  in  the  pipe,  so  the  velocity  of  the  latter  wdl  he  14  times  as  great  as  that 
of  the  former,  or  220  feet  per  minute  x  14  =  3,080  feet  per  minute,  or  35 
miles  per  hour :  hut  in  consequence  of  the  imperfect  action  of  an  air-pump, 
slight  leakages,  &c.,  this  velocity  will  he  reduced  to  30  miles  per  hour,  and 
the  time  requisite  to  make  the  vacuum  increased  to  4  minutes :  the  train  will 
thus  move  over  the  2  J  miles  section  in  5  minutes,  and  it  can  he  prepared  for 
the  next  train  in  4  minutes  more,  together  9  minutes;  15  minutes  is  there- 
fore ample  time  to  allow  between  each  train,  and  supposing  the  working  day 
to  consist  of  14  hours,  56  trains  can  he  started  in  each  direction  or  2,520 
tons,  making  a  total  of  5,000  tons  per  day.  The  fixed  engine  to  perform  this 
duty  will  he  110  horses  power,  equivalent  to  22  horses  power  per  mile  in 
each  direction. 

The  next  item  to  be  considered  is  the  comparative  cost  of  the  two 
systems. 

1st.  The  necessity  of  liaving  the  railway  comparatively  level,  causes 
the  present  enormous  outlay  fur  earth-work,  viaducts  and  tunnelling: 
it  also  increases  the  cost  of  land,  not  only  by  lengthening  the  line  to 
save  cutting  and  embankment,  by  the  quantity  wasted  on  each  side  of 
the  road  wherever  an  endjankment  or  cutting  is  required.  Thus  if  an 
embankment  or  cutting  has  to  be  made  of  thirty  feet,  at  least  sixty  feet 


of  land  must  be  covered  on  each  side  of  tlie  railvvav  in  order  to  obtain 
sufficient  slope,  making  a  width  of  120  feet,  besides  the  roa<l,  except 
where  they  occur  in  stone  oi  chalk.  The  comparative  expense  of  this 
item  between  the  two  systems  can  be  ascertained  by  referring  to  the 
average  cost  of  forming  a  turnpike  road  and  that  of  the  ptinci])al  rad- 
ways  now  in  operation.* 

LOCOMOTIVE    SYSTEM. 

Per  mile. 
Taking  five  of  the  principal  Railroads  as  the  basis  of  the 

calculation,  their  average  expense  of  formation  has 

exceeded £36,000 

And  the  original  stock  of  Locomotives 1,600 


£■37,000 


ATMOSPHERIC  SYSTEM.  Per  mUc. 

The  average  expense  of  forming  a  turnpike  road  through- 
out  England  has  been  3,000  per  mile,  hut  for  the 

atmospheric  railroad,  say £4,000 

Allow  extra  for  road-bridges 2,000 

Rails,  chairs,  sleepers,  and  laying  down    2,500 

JIain  i)ii)e  and  apparatus  complete  (on  a  scale  for  trans- 
porting 360  tons  per  hour,  or  5,000  tons  per  day  of 
fourteen  hours,  on  a  road  with  gradients  of  1  in  100)        5,200 

Fixed  engines,  air  pumps,  and  engine-houses 1,400 

TraveUing  pistons 20 

£15,120 
Saving  per  mile  in  forming  and  furnishing  on  the  At- 
mospheric system 22,480 

£37,600 


Annual  expenses  of  working  per  mile,  when  conveying  fivo  thousand 
tons  per  d.iy.  (This  is  beyond  the  average  quantity  conveyed  on  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railroad)  : — ■ 

LOCOMOTIVE    SYSTEM. 

Per  mile. 

5  per  cent,  interest  on  capital  sunk  £37,600  £1,880 

Maintenance  of  way 450 

Locomotive  department,  including  coke 1,800 

£4,130 

ATMOSPHERIC    SYSTEM. 

Per  mile. 

5  per  cent,  interest  on  capital  sunk,  viz.,  £15,120. . . .  £756 

Maintenance  of  w*ay,  and  attendance  on  mains 300 

Wear  and  tear  of  fixed  engines,  5  per  cent,  of  cost    . .  70 

Coal  -75  lb.  per  ton  per  mile,  214  tons,  at  20s 214 

M'ages  to  engine  men  and  stokers   60 

Wages  to  train  conductors  26 

Renewal  of  travelling  apparatus  and  composition,  and 

sundries 200 

£1,626 
Annual  saving  per  mile  on  the  Atmospheric  system    . .        2,504 

£4,130 


Total  expenses  per  ton  per  mile  on  the  Locomotive  system     1-54  pence. 

Ditto         ditto         ditto         on  the  Atmospheric  ditto         0'6     do. 
Exclusive  of  carriages  and  management,  which  may  he  taken  as  the  same 
on  both  systems. 

From  the  above  description,  and  the  calculations  made  by  the  inge- 
nious inventors,  together  with  the  success  of  the  experiments  which 
have  been  made,  almost  daily,  for  the  last  month,  our  readers  will  be 
able  to  form  some  judgment  as  to  the  probable  introduction  of  this  new 
system  into  general  use ;  we  sincerely  hope  that  the  inventors  will  be 
able  to  obtain  an  ample  reward  fur  the  great  expence  and  labour  they 
have  devoted  to  the  first  ex|ieriment,  which  has,  to  say  the  le;ist  of  it, 
been  carried  out  by  them  in  a  very  spirited  manner. 

*  The  calculations  are  founded  on  the  reports  of  diflisrent  companies  whose 
railways  are  complete  or  in  a  forward  state. 


CORRECTION— CANDIDUS. 

Allow  me,  Sir,  to  correct  an  error  in  F.isciculns,  No.  16,  hy  your  Corres- 
pondent Candidns,  in  last  month's  Journal,  he  there  states  that  the  Medal 
was  given  by  the  Institute  to  the  late  Sir  J.  Soane.  The  Medal  was  by  public 
subscription,  as  doubtless  you  remember. 


CLECC    &   SAMUDA'S      ATMOSPHERIC     RAILROAD. 


F  I  C    2, 


1 


B 


Jhtamm  7/nc  ly  J.  C.:HaMan,  Z^azui^  Flnce,  Waterier  Brid/rc 


Hinted  byJ.l'rruTc.  i'.?  .Vchtln^s Ituii.  f.rtn 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


261 


AN  ESSAY 
ON  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION  IN  ARCHITECTURE,  AS  IL- 
LUSTRATED IN  THE  WORKS  OF   SIR   JOHN  VANBURGH. 

By  James  Thomson,  Fellow. 

(Read  at  the  Royal  Institute  of  British  Architects.) 

Sir, 

I  slioiild  feel  bound  to  apologize  for  submitting  any  observations  of 
mine  to  your  notice,  had  they  not  been  written  in  compliance  with 
that  general  request  which  the  council  have  made  from  time  to  time 
to  every  member  of  the  Institute,  viz.,  that  each  should  in  his  turn 
contribute  (though  it  be  but  a  grain  of  information)  touching  the  art 
which  it  is  our  business,  and  our  pleasure,  to  pursue. 

From  the  time  that  I  have  been  able  to  trace  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect  in  architectural  composition,  it  has  appeared  to  me  that 
"there  is  more  in  it,  than  is  commonly  dreamed  of,  in  our  philosophy"; 
or  if  dreamed  of,  that  we  want  more  general  interpreters ;  not  so  much 
for  the  instruction  of  the  professional  student,  or  practitioner,  as  for  the 
public  mind,  so  that  it  may  be  known  to  all  the  world,  in  very  deed 
and  truth,  to  be  a  fine  and  liberal  art.  To  be  an  art,  on  the  one  hand, 
dependant  upon  the  observance  of  fixed  principles,  however  variable 
the  practice  that  arises  out  of  them ;  and  on  the  other,  to  inculcate  a 
right  apprehension  of  the  impossibility  to  produce  a  work  of  any 
lively  interest  by  mere  attention  to  what  are  termed  "the  rules  of 
architecture." 

These  rules  in  architecture  I  consider  to  stand  in  the  place  of 
grammar  in  a  language,  the  due  observance  of  which  is  as  necessary 
to  the  one  as  the  other. 

We  know  very  well  that  an  author,  to  be  lucid  and  comprehensive, 
must  dulv  attend  to  all  the  relations  of  words  and  sentences,  and  that, 
without  it,  the  most  vigorous  imagination  will  produce  but  a  jargon  of 
execrable  nonsense ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  I  am  sure  you  will  agree 
that  the  iitmost  attention  to  the  arrangement  of  thesis  and  antithesis, 
of  versification  or  prose,  (where  the  master  mind  is  wanting,)  will  fail 
to  realize  a  work  of  importance,  even  though  the  theme  be  one,  of 
which  but  the  mention,  would  awaken  the  liveliest  anticipations.  Just 
so  in  architecture,  be  the  subject  great  or  humble — the  rules  of  com- 
position must  be  duly  observed  to  avoid  incongruity,  although  they 
should  but  subserve  to  the  development  of  works  designed  to  possess 
contemplative  interest. 

And  respecting  this  grammar  of  architecture,  I  would  here  observe 
that,  except  for  Roman  or  Italian  structures,  we  possess  at  present 
scarce  any  grammar  at  all!  in  those  styles  we  have,  from  Vitruvius 
down  to  Chambers,  so  much  to  guide  us  in  proportion  and  detail,  that 
it  is  scarcely  possible  to  err  in  them ;  but  although  we  have  examples, 
many,  and  valuable,  in  Greek  and  Gothic  architecture,  we  have  hardly 
any  principles,  set  forth  respecting  them,  to  say  nothing  of  Egyptian, 
Hindoo,  and  other  Eastern  styles,  which,  though  they  be  but  as  dead 
languages  to  us,  yet  possess,  like  their  language,  deep  soundings  of 
the  principles  of  art  and  science. 

Now  when  we  consider  by  what  different  means  the  entl  has  been 
accomplished  of  giving  importance  and  beauty  to  public  and  private 
erections,  each  amenable  to  certain  laws  that  belong,  not  to  an  arbi- 
trary set  of  forms  and  features,  but  to  the  workings  of  the  human 
mind  to  which  they  have  corresponding  influence,  I  submit  that  it  is 
to  these  laws  that  we  should  give  peculiar  attention,  calculated  as 
they  are  to  guide,  but  not  to  fetter,  the  free  will  of  the  architect. 
For  instance :  in  the  ponderous  masses  of  the  Hindoo  and  Egyptian, 
the  mind  rests  as  complacently  as  on  those  of  other  climes ;  it  is  ad- 
dressed and  responded  to  in  a  particular  way ; — in  the  grace  and 
simplicity  of  the  Greeks,  it  is  captivated  in  another; — in  the  harmo- 
nious combination  of  the  Italians,  it  is  equally  (though  differently) 
charmed  and  dehghted:  and  so  of  the  rest. 

It  is  then  I  would  submit  the  object  of  the  architect,  in  an  abstract 
sense,  so  to  combine  the  masses  and  subdivisions  of  a  building  as  to 
address  themselves  not  merely  to  the  eye,  but  to  the  imagination — 
that  the  subject,  be  what  it  may,  shall  vibrate  some  string  of  the  mental 
frame  as  distinctly  and  tangibly  as  poetry  or  painting. 

On  this  account  it  has  appeared  to  me  that  it  would  be  highly 
valuable,  if  we  had  set  forth  some  chart  of  the  vast  region  which  lies 
before  us,  and  which,  if  not  sufficiently  detailed  to  point  out  all  that 
could  be  done,  might  indicate  with  sufficient  precision,  the  rocks  of 
offence  to  be  avoided. 

Thus  it  is  obvious  that  a  Theatre,  and  a  Mausoleum  should  be  very 
differently  treated,  even  though  they  were  to  be  in  the  same  style  of 
architecture — that  the  one  could  scarcely  be  too  lively  in  its  general 
character,  and  the  other  scarcely  too  broad  and  simple.  That  in  the 
former  every  animation  that  form  and  colour  combined  could  produce 


might  be  adopted, — while  in  the  latter  that  simplicity  and  repose 
should  prevail,  so  as  to  prepare  the  mind  for  the  not  less  pleasing  sym- 
pathies, which  commonly  associate  themselves  with  the  memorials  of 
departed  worth. 

Again,  it  must  be  evident  that  a  Temple  for  public  worship  should 
maintain  a  very  dirterent  character  to  that  of  an  Exchange,  or  hall  of 
commercial  festivity,  and  that  apart  from  the  mere  internal  fittings,  it 
should  outwardly  bear  some  evidence  of  the  purposes  to  which  it  is 
devoted. 

Yet  so  little  has  this  been  attended  to,  that  without  particularizing 
any,  I  am  sure  it  will  occur  to  most  whom  I  have  the  honour  to  address, 
that  there  are  instances  of  which,  if  we  had  no  previous  knowledge, 
we  could  not  possibly  divine  for  what  purpose  they  were  erected. 
So  far  as  to  character  of  buildings,  according  witli  their  objects. 
But  now  with  reference  to  style. 

I  think  Sir,  it  is  to  be  lamented  that  we  have  at  this  period  no  pre- 
vailing style  by  which  buildings  of  the  present  age,  will  be  able  in 
after  times  to  be  identified,  and  tliat  in  but  few  of  them  does  there 
appear  any  recognition  of  the  leading  principles  which  seem  to  have 
governed  the  ancients.  There  is,  in  our  own  day  a  continual  struggle 
in  the  adaptations  of  features  at  variance  with  the  main  object.  The 
private  individual  demands  novelty,  and  the  judgment  of  the  architect 
is  too  often  called  upon  to  bend  to,  instead  of  directing  the  work, 
from  this — confusion  has  resulted  in  the  public  mind  as  to  what 
is  good  or  bad  ;  and  to  this  confusion  I  would  ascribe  the  indifference 
which,  it  is  to  be  regretted,  has  superinduced  on  the  subject. 

Thus  we  have  at  one  and  the  same  period  of  time,  springing  up  in 
all  quarters,  and  frequently  in  the  same  quarter,  buildings  of  every 
era  and  of  every  style  on  the  globe.  So  that  they  will  witli  respect  to 
date  completely  "  puzzle  posterity." 

I  do  not  of  course  include  in  my  observations  those  restorations  or 
rebuilding  of  ancient  structures,  by  which  are  preserved  for  after  ages 
the  examples  we  ourselves  so  greatly  admire,  and  with  the  perpetua- 
tion of  which  it  must  be  a  proud  event  to  any  architect  to  connect  his 
name.  I  mean  simply  to  allude  to  the  practice  we  have  of  building  in 
ancient  styles  for  modern  objects.  And  Sir,  I  would  ask  wdiy  should 
this  be  the  case  ?  seeing  it  is  fraught  with  inconvenience  at  the  pre- 
sent— confusion  hereafter— and  at  variance  with  good  taste  at  all 
times.  It  cannot  be  said  that  we  have  no  other  means,  for  we  have  seen 
that  the  means  are  so  various,  it  would  be  only  difficult  to  fix  their 
limit,  and  as  it  was  eloquently  expi'essed,by  a  distinguished  individual, 
not  long  since  on  the  subject  of  general  design — "  Sources  that  can 
never  be  exhausted  while  the  mind  of  man  can  conceive,  or  the  hand 
transfix  and  embody  the  conceptions  of  the  mind." 

In  the  east  we  have  characters  so  expressive  that  there  is  no  possi- 
bility of  mistaking  their  origin  or  their  application.  The  solemn  dig- 
nity of  the  Egyptian  temples,  pyramids,  and  obelisks,  are  totally  diffe- 
rent from  those  of  the  Hindoo,  although  both  possess  great  boldness 
of  outline  and  massive  ])roportions.  The  prevalence  of  the  pyre-like 
forms  in  the  one,  and  the  square  or  cubical  parts  of  the  other,  produce 
in  the  mind  varying  though  equally  imposing  effects. 

So  in  the  south — the  simplicity  and  grace  of  the  Greek  temples, 
composed  of  columns  and  entablatures,  totally  distinct  from  the  eastern, 
affect  us  by  their  peculiar  and  harmonious  proportions. 

Again,  the  Romans,  borrowing  it  is  true,  the  column  and  entablature 
of  the  Greeks,  yet  so  resolved  them  into  other  proportions  (making 
the  front  as  well  as  the  whole  partake  of  the  change),  that  by  another 
avenue  to  the  human  mind,  they  yield  to  the  imagination  another,  and 
a  new  delight. 

They  reduced  the  diameter  of  the  columns  and  depth  of  entablature, 
widened  the  intercolumniations,  and  divided  their  buildings  into  sepa- 
rate stories ;  adapting  tliem  to  the  habits  and  pursuits  of  another 
people  and  another  age.  They  retained  the  continuous  and  horizontal 
lines  of  the  Greeks,  but  they  traversed  them  by  vertical  ones,  and  by 
the  introduction  of  the  arch,  they  wove  us  in  the  loom  of  science  a 
new  and  beautiful  fabric. 

Now  let  us  consider  another  class  of  architecture,  in  which  neither 
the  pyramidal  form  of  the  Egyptians,  nor  the  massive  pillars  of  Hin- 
doostan,  nor  the  column  and  entablature  of  the  Greeks,  nor  the  arch  of 
the  Romans  are  at  all,  or  materially  discernible,  yet  while  it  adapts 
itself  to  almost  every  occupation  of  life,  is  calculated  to  affect  the 
mind  perhaps  more  deeply  than  aU  the  rest. 

I  need  hardly  say  to  you,  gentlemen,  that  I  allude  to  Gothic  archi- 
tecture; or  even  to  the  non-professional  to  do  more  than  mention  it, 
but  there  springs  up  at  once  from  the  recesses  of  the  memory  the  most 
vivid  impressions  of  its  venerable  features.  Of  clustered  pillars  and 
intersecting  arches,  giving  a  kind  of  endless  perspective  to  the  nave 
and  aisle  of  our  cathedrals,  and  cloisters  of  our  colleges. 

Of  capitals  that  appear  to  flourish  with  the  more  luxuriance  because 
freed  from  the  trammels  of  attic  stringing. 

2  N 


262 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


!: 


Of  sjjires  ami  pinnacles,  stuilded  witli  crotcliets,  tliat  by  tlieir  gradual 
diminution  seem  to  elude  tlie  sight. 

Of  massive  buttresses  that  lilce  giant  champions  arrange  themselves 
i\ith  sturdy  strength  to  protect  the  pile  from  the  assaults  of  time  or 
elemental  strife. 

And  of  windows.  Oh  I  did  we  ever  have  windows  before?  Loop- 
holes indeed  we  had,  and  an  admirable  frame-work  surrounded  them ; 
but  the  windows  of  Gothic  structures  are  high  and  wide  enough  to  be 
supposed  of  diviner  origin,  designed  to  let  in,  and  to  difiuse  the  rays 
of  heaven. 

But  then  again,  let  us  dwell  for  a  moment  on  the  "  ever  vaiying, 
ever  new"  changes  which  have  been  rung  on  this  style,  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Tudor  arch  as  distinguished  Irom  the  pointed,  and  both  in 
their  difference  from  the  Saxon ;  let  us  also  notice  what  appropriate 
"  keeping"  (as  painters  would  term  it)  attended  these  different  changes 
in  the  details  of  mouldings  and  enrichments;  how  abrupt  and  bold  are 
the  lozenge,  zig-zag,  and  chevron,  as  the  style  to  which  they  belong, 
anil  how  flowing  and  graceful  is  the  tracery  of  the  apertures,  canopied 
niches,  and  finials  of  the  others. 

But,  Sir,  I  come  now  to  speak  more  particularly  to  the  subject  which 
lias  induced  these  prefatory  remarks,  necessary,  they  appeared  to  rue 
to  be,  though  possibly  too  lengthy  to  you,  they  have  been  made  in  the 
attempt  to  show  that' in  availing"  ourselves  of  the  productions  of  art 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present,  and  of  all  countries;  we  should 
duly  and  carefully  Anglicize  the  materials  we  so  obtain,  and  that  we 
should  indeed  make  them  our  oivn,  not  by  the  mere  plagiary  of  the 
■n'orks  of  our  predecessors,  whereby  we  abuse  the  talents  which  they 
tave  bequeathed  us  in  adapting  them  to  purpose  for  which  they  have 
no  aflfinitv !  but  that  we  should  so  study  and  trace  the  principles  which 
iiided  them, as  to  work  out,alegitimate  and  definite  style  for  ourselves, 
n  illustration  of  tliese  remarks  I  purpose  as  a  noble  example  to  con- 
sider the  peculiar  style  and  character  of  Sm  JoH\  Vaxbuugh. 

I  believe.  Sir,  I  shall  not  be  saying  too  much  when  I  assert  that  he 
studied  the  characteristics  of  architecture  of  the  whole  eastern  hemis- 
phere, and  that  while  his  resources  extended  from  the  Nile  to  the 
Ketherlands,  he  followed  not  any  beaten  track,  but  struck  out  for  him- 
self a  new  style  and  character  of  building  which  he  not  only  adapted 
to  the  habits  of  English  life,  but  so  grouped  the  suhonlinaic  with  the 
stately  features — that  as  examples  of  domestic  architecture  he  has 
produced  some  of  the  noblest  piles  of  which  our  country  can  boast. 
To  examine  this  style,  to  analyze  its  principles,  is  my  present  object, 
not,  be  it  remarked  for  the  purpose  of  recommending  its  adoption,  no, 
but  for  that  of  illustrating  the  course  which  in  my  humble  opinion  he 
Las  shown  us  we  should  pursue.  And  which  those  wdio  have  had  the 
gift  and  perseverance  to  pursue  have  invariably  made  for  themselves 
a  fame  which  (during life  indeed)  may  be  unattended  with  any  corres- 
ponding celebrity ;  but  to  whose  productions  after  ages  w  ill  refer  (as 
in  our  days  the  more  ancient  are),  for  the  guidance  of  the  student  and 
admiration  of  the  world, 

I  had  intended  here  to  allude  to  the  works  of  some  of  the  architects 
cf  our  own  day,  as  possessing  more  decided  originality  than  most  of  us 
can  lay  claim  to,  but  as  this  might  seem  adulatory  on  the  one  hand,  and 
invidious  on  the  other,  I  prefer  to  avoid  it. 

And  now  to  come  more  closely  to  the  style  of  Sir  John  Vanburgh. 
I  liave  chosen  the  princely  mansions  of  Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard. 

And  first  of  Blenheim.  It  certainly  is  not  Roman,  though  it  has 
much  affinity  to  Roman,  but  the  intercoUunniations  are  too  close  and 
divide  the  masses  into  proportions  not  often  recognizable  in  the  w  orks 
of  the  Italian  architects,  besides  wliich  there  is  less  variety  and  sub- 
divisions of  detail ;  it  is  therefore  not  strictly  Roman. 

It  certainly  is  not  Grecian.  Yet  how  few  compositions  are  there 
professing  to  be  Greek  which  retains  such  continuity  of  line  and 
quantity.  The  superior  cornices  range  with  each  other,  and  the  in- 
ferior are  made  to  follow  as  a  string  course  which  binds  the  whole, 
simply  and  compactly  together — still  it  is  not  Grecian. 

It  certainly  is  not  Gothic,  but  it  possesses  (I  submit)  many  of  the 
qualities  of  Gothic — the  frequency  of  the  pillars  and  piers,  break  up 
the  horizontal  lines,  not  as  in  the  Italian  buildings  where  pillars  are 
used  with  entablatures  breaking  lound  tliem,  but  continuing  up  and 
surmounting  them  with  terminal-like  decorations. 

I  might  go  further  and  allude  to  that  other  Italian  style, — to  the  con- 
sideration of  which  the  Institute  was  lately  called  by  a  paper  favoured 
them  by  Sir  Gardnor  Wilkinson;  one,  that  for  the  matter  it  contained, 
and  the  discussion  it  produced  amongst  the  senior  members  as  to  its 
ongin,  w^as  perhajjs  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  present  ses- 
sion. Here,  however,  was  another  style  ditfering  not  in  mere  details,  but 
in  the  main  principles  of  compositions. 

A  broad  and  simple  facade,  unbroken  by  proportions  either  as  to 
plan  or  decoration.  A  total  absence  of  columns  as  a  part  of  the  superior 


building,  but  used  subordinatelyfor  the  decorations  of  the  apertures — 
these  apertures  placed  one  above  another  in  perpendicular  lines  by 
their  unifonn  size  preserved  also  the  horizontal  ones.  And  at  the 
summit  a  cornice  that  for  boldness  of  outline  and  richness  of  detail, 
casts  into  utter  insignificance  all  former  pretensions  to  it.  And  while 
it  really  j.'TutecIs,  most  magniftceyitly  adoriu. 

But  even  tliese,  or  all  these,  did  not  lead  captive,  they  but  excited 
the  energies  of  Sir  John  Vanburgh. 

Secondly,  of  Castle  Howard.* 

Now  I  think  it  is  universally  agreed  that  tliere  is  about  this  facade 
something  strikingly  simple,  majestic,  and  harmonious,  and  as  I  have 
before  said  of  Blenheim,  neither  Roman,  Greek,  or  Gothic,  yet  pos- 
sessing much  of  the  characteristic  of  each. 

The  great  excellence,  however,  which  belongs  to  it  is,  that  while 
all  these  styles  are  as  I  have  said  to  be  recognized,  they  are  not  crudely 
combined,  but  while  the  principles  of  each  appear  to  liave  been  fully 
perceived  and  umlerstood  by  Sir  John  Vanburgh,  he  suffered  them  to 
pass  as  it  were  through  the  alembic  of  his  mind,  and  bring  into  ex- 
istence a  new  combination. 

I  have  said,  it  is  not  Roman,  though  it  possess  Roman  features — its 
moldings,  its  arches,  are  certainly  of  Roman  origin,  but  with  what 
simplicity  are  they  here  arranged. 

If  you  compare  it  with  the  earlier  or  later  masters  of  the  Italian 
school,  you  will  find  that  where  the  column  and  pilaster  were  intro- 
duced as  parts  of  the  main  building,  they  were  broken  and  unequal  in 
their  parts.  That  Palladio  himself  in  most  instances  divided  the 
height  of  the  building  into  separate  stories ;  piling  up  order  above 
order  ;  but  with  a  felicity  (it  is  true)  that  has  ever  since,  and  ever  will 
command  universal  praise.  Such  also  is  the  casewdth  the  palaces  and 
basilica  of  Scamtcozi  and  San  Michell  as  seen  at  Verona,  Vicenza,  and 
Venice. 

They  are  all,  or  nearly  so,  divided  into  separate  stories,  which  at 
once  involves  a  distribution  of  other  parts,  essentially  differing  from 
the  practice  afterwards  pursued  by  Sir  John  Vanburgh. 

Neither  does  the  colossal  aspect  of  these  buildings  depend  upon 
their  size.  They  arise  as  I  have  before  intimated,  but  in  other  words, 
upon  that  philosophical  arrangement  of  substance  and  void,  of  ordinate 
and  subordinate  parts,  that  while  each  possesses  its  due  interest,  it 
becomes  but  an  integral  part  of  a  sublime  and  beautiful  wdiole. 

Thus  then  did  Sir  John  Vanburgh  proceed — in  the  grand  features, 
borrowing  simplicity  and  breadth  from  the  practice  pursued  from  the 
Greeks,  and,  in  the  details,  from  the  more  tractable  forms  of  Italian 
art  he  produced  those  stupendous  works  which  are  now  visited  and 
admired  by  persons  of  every  rank  and  degree. 

The  rude  and  uncultivated  mind  finds  something,  (it  knows  not 
what),  which  impresses  a  kind  of  awe,  while  the  poet  and  the  painter, 
whose  occupation  and  aim  it  is,  to  engage  our  finer  sympathies,  each 
have  the  principles  of  their  own  art  expressed  in  another  way. 

Gentlemen,  I  have  thus  endeavoured  to  point  out  the  principles  of 
arcliitectural  composition  as  illustrated  in  the  works  of  Sir  John  Van- 
burgh. 

That  it  might  have  been  much  better  done,  I  am  fully  aware  ;  but 
inasmuch  as  the  ground  has  not  to  my  knowledge  been  trodden  before, — 
inasmuch  as  that  I  could  find  no  published  work  to  assist  me, — 
inasmuch  as  our  Institute  has  been  founded  not  only  for  imparting 
statistical  information,  but  for  the  mutual  interchange  of  professional 
thought  and  sentiment.  I  have  ventured  to  offer  you  mine  on  this 
subject. 

And  as  men  commonly  make  an  exchange  to  heneft  themselves,  I  shall 
hope  and  trust  some  abler  hand  than  mine  may  be  induced  to  dilate 
upon  it,  more  equal  to  its  merit,  so  that  from  this  small  beginning  now^ 
we  may  all  at  a  future  period  reap  a  sterling,  and  lasting  advantage. 

James  Thomson. 

June,  1S40. 


''  Here  were  exhiljiteJ  by  Mr.  Thompson  the  series  of  drawings  illustrative 
of  ihe  subject  of  liis  essay,  engravings  of  which  we  are  sorry  tu  omit.  l)ut 
have  been  obliged  to  do  so  on  account  of  tlieir  extent,  ami  the  prescribed 
limits  of  our  Journal. — Kd.  C.  K.  8c  A.  Jock. 


Antiquity  of  Railways  and  Gas. — Railways  were  used  in  Xorthum- 
bcrlaiid  in  1G33,  and  Lord  ICeeper  North  lueutions  them  in  IGTl  in  his  journey 
to  this  countr)'.  A  Jh'.  Spcdding,  coal  agent  to  Lord  Lonsdale,  at  White- 
haven, in  1765,  had  the  gas  from  Ids  Lordsliip's  coaj-jiits  conveyed  by  pipes 
info  his  otiice,  for  the  purpose  of  lighting  it,  and  ]u'oposcd  to  the  magistrates 
of  Whitehaven  to  convev  the  gas  by  pipes  through  the  streets  to  Ught  the 
toivn,  which  they  refused. — Ceriisle  journal. 


18-10.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


263 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  IN  LONDON. 

v4  Critical  Review  of  the  Public  Btiildiiigs,  Statues  and  Ornaments  in 
and  about  London  and  IVestminster — 1734. 

By  Ralph. 

(  Continued  from  jyage  228. J 

From  the  terrace  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Gardens,  we  have  a  prospect  of 
one  of  the  largest  squares  in  Europe;  it  was  originally  laid  out  by  the 
masterly  hand  of  Inigo  Jones,  and  intended  to  have  been  built  all  in 
the  same  stile  and  taste :  but  by  the  miscarriage  of  this,  and  many 
other  such  noble  designs,  there  is  too  much  reason  to  believe  that 
England  will  never  be  able  to  produce  people  of  taste  enough  to  be  of 
the  same  mind,  or  unite  their  sentiments  for  the  public  ornament  and 
reputation.  Several  of  the  original  houses  still  remain  to  be  a  re- 
proach to  the  rest,  and  I  wish  the  disadvantageous  comparison  had 
been  a  warning  to  others  to  have  avoided  the  like  mistake. 

Great  Queen  Street  is  another  instance  of  our  national  want  of 
taste ;  on  one  side  is  a  row  of  houses  that  Italy  itself  would  not  be 
ashamed  of;  on  the  other,  all  the  variety  of  deformations  that  could 
be  contrived  as  a  foil  to  beauty,  and  the  opposite  of  taste. 

Covent  Garden  would  have  been,  beyond  dispute,  one  of  the  finest 
squares  in  the  universe,  if  finished  on  the  plan  that  Inigo  Jones  first 
designed  for  it;  but  even  this  was  neglected  too,  and  if  he  deserves 
the  praise  of  the  design,  we  very  justly  incur  the  censure  for  wanting 
spirit  to  put  it  in  executio.i.  The  piazza  is  grand  and  noble,  and  the 
superstructure  it  supports,  light  and  elegant. 

The  church  here  is,  without  a  rival,  one  of  the  most  perfect  pieces 
of  architecture  that  the  art  of  man  can  produce  ;  nothing  can  possibly 
be  imagined  more  simple,  and  yet  magnificence  itself  can  hardly  give 
greater  pleasure  :  this  is  a  strong  proof  of  the  force  of  harmony  and 
proportion,  and  at  the  same  time  a  demonstration  that  it  is  taste,  and 
not  expence  which  is  the  parent  of  beauty  :  if  this  building  can  be 
said  to  have  any  defect,  it  is  in  the  form  and  manner  of  the  windows; 
which  are  not  only  in  a  bad  gusto,  but  out  of  proportion  too. 

Leicester  Square  has  nothing  remarkable  in  it,  but  the  inclosure  in 
the  middle,  which  alone  affords  the  inhabitants  round  about  it  some- 
thing like  the  prospect  of  a  garden,  and  preserves  it  from  the  rudeness 
of  the  populace  too. 

The  portico  to  St.  Martin's  Church  is  at  once  elegant  and  august, 
and  the  steeple  above  it  ought  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
tolerable  in  town;  if  the  steps  arising  from  the  street  to  the  front 
could  have  been  made  regular,  and  on  a  line  from  end  to  end,  it  would 
have  given  it  a  verv  considerable  grace  ;  but  as  the  situation  of  the 
ground  would  not  allow  it,  this  is  to  be  esteemed  rather  a  misfortune 
than  a  fault.  The  round  columns,  at  each  angle  of  the  church,  are 
very  well  conceived,  and  have  a  very  fine  efl'ect  in  the  profile  of  the 
building  ;  the  east  end  is  remarkably  elegant,  and  very  justly  chal- 
lenges a  particular  applause.  In  short,  if  there  is  any  thing  wanting 
in  this  fabric,  it  is  a  little  more  elevation,  which  I  presume  is  appa- 
rently wanted  within,  and  would  create  an  additional  beauty  without. 
I  cannot  help  thinking,  too,  that,  in  complaisance  to  the  galleries,  the 
architect  has  reversed  the  order  of  the  windows,  it  being  always  usual 
to  have  the  large  ones  nearest  the  eye,  and  the  small  by  way  of  attic 
story  on  the  top. 

St.  James's  Square  has  an  appearance  of  grandeur  superior  to  any 
other  plan  in  town,  and  yet  there  is  not  any  one  elegant  house  in  it, 
and  the  side  next  Pall  Mall  is  scandalously  rude  and  irregular. 

St.  James's  Church  is  finely  situated,  with  regard  to  the  prospect 
on  the  north  side  of  the  square  ;  and  if  it  had  been  built  in  suitable 
taste,  would  have  appeared  most  nobly  to  fill  the  vista,  and  add  a 
pomp  to  the  whole  view ;  but  the  builders  of  that  pile  did  not  trouble 
themselves  much  about  beauty,  and  I  believe  it  is  mere  accident  that 
even  the  situation  itself  is  so  favourable. 

We  must  now  pass  into  PiccadiUy,  where  we  shall  be  entertained 
with  a  sight  of  the  most  expensive  wall  in  England;  I  mean  that 
before  Burlington  House.  Nothing  material  can  be  objected  to  it,  and 
much  may  be  said  in  its  praise.  It  is  certain  the  height  is  wonderfully 
well  proportioned  to  the  length,  and  the  decorations  are  both  simple 
and  magnificent ;  the  grand  entrance  is  august  and  beautiful,  and  by 
covering  the  house  entirely  from  the  eye,  gives  pleasure  and  surprise, 
at  the  opening  of  the  whole  front  with  the  area  before  it,  at  once.  If 
any  thing  can  be  found  fault  with  in  this  structure,  it  is  this — that  the 
wall  itself  is  not  exactly  on  a  line ;  that  the  columns  of  the  gate  are 
merely  ornamental,  and  support  nothing  at  all;  that  the  rustic  has  not 
all  the  propriety  in  the  world  for  a  palace ;  and  that  the  main  body  of 
the  pile  is  hardly  equal  to  the  outside.  But  these  may  be  rather 
imaginations  of  mine,  than  real  imperfections;  for  which  reason  I 
submit  them  to  the  consideration  of  wiser  heads. 


That  side  of  Arlington  Street  next  the  Green  Park,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  situations  in  Europe,  for  health,  convenience,  and 
beauty,  the  front  of  the  street  is  in  the  midst  of  the  hurry  and  splen- 
dour of  the  town,  and  the  back  in  the  quiet  and  simplicity  of  the 
country.  It  is  not  long  since,  too,  that  the  whole  row  was  harmonious 
and  uniform,  though  not  exactly  in  taste  ;  but  now,  under  the  notion  of 
improvement,  is  utterly  spoilt  and  ruined,  and  for  the  sake  of  the 
prospect  behind,  the  view  before  is  disjointed  and  broken  to  i)ieces. 

I  have  now  finished  one  of  my  walks  from  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  to 
Hyde  Park  Corner,  and,  acco;ding  to  promise,  am  now  to  go  back  to 
Temple  Bar,  in  order  to  comment  on  tlie  most  remarkable  things  in  my 
way  to  Westminster. 

■The  New  Church  in  the  Strand  is  one  of  the  strongest  instances  in 
the  world,  that  it  is  not  expense  and  decoration  that  are  alone  produc- 
tive of  harmony  and  taste  :  the  architect  of  this  pile  appears  to  have 
set  down  with  a  resolution  of  making  it  as  fine  as  possible,  and,  with 
this  view,  has  crowded  every  inch  of  space  about  it  with  ornament : 
nay,  he  has  even  carried  this  humour  so  far,  that  it  appears  nothing 
but  a  cluster  of  ornaments,  without  the  proper  vacuities,  to  relieve  the 
eye,  and  give  a  necessary  contrast  to  the  whole :  he  ought  to  have  re- 
membered that  something  should  first  appear  as  a  plan  or  model  to  be 
adorned,  and  the  decorations  should  be  only  subordinate  to  that  design ; 
the  embellishments  ought  never  to  eclipse  the  outline  but  heighten  and 
improve  it.  To  this  we  may  safely  add,  that  the  dividing  so  small  a 
fabric  into  two  lines  or  stories,  utterly  ruined  its  simplicity,  and  broke 
the  whole  into  too  many  parts.  The  steeple  is  liable  to  as  many  ob- 
jections as  the  church,  it  is  abundantly  too  high,  and,  in  the  profile, 
loses  all  kind  of  proportion,  both  with  regard  to  itself  and  the  structure 
it  belongs  to.  In  short,  this  church  will  always  please  the  ignorant, 
for  the  very  same  reasons  that  it  is  sure  to  displease  the  judge. 

York-stairs  is  unquestionably  the  most  perfect  piece  of  building, 
that  does  honour  to  the  name  of  Inigo  Jones:  it  is  planned  in  so  ex- 
quisite a  taste,  formed  of  such  equal  and  harmonious  parts,  and  adorned 
with  such  proper  and  elegant  decorations,  that  nothing  can  be  censured, 
or  added.  It  is,  at  once,  happy  in  its  situation,  beyond  comparison, 
and  fancied  in  a  style  exactly  suited  to  that  situation.  The  rock- 
work,  or  rustic,  can  never  be  better  introduced  than  in  buildings  by 
the  side  of  water ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  a  great  ciuestion  with  me,  whether 
it  ought  to  be  made  use  of  any  where  else. 

Northumberland  House  is  very  much  in  the  Gothic  taste,  and,  of 
course,  cannot  be  supposed  very  elegant,  and  beautiful ;  and  yet  there 
is  a  grandeur  and  majesty  in  it  that  strikes  every  spectator  with  a 
veneration  for  it:  this  is  owing  intireU'  to  the  simplicity  of  its  parts, 
the  greatness  of  its  extent,  and  the  romantic  air  of  the  four  towers  at 
the  angles.  The  middle  of  the  front  next  the  Strand,  is  certainly  much 
more  ancient  than  any  other  part  of  the  building,  and,  though  finished 
in  a  very  expensive  manner,  is  a  very  mean  and  trifling  piece  of  work. 
It  may  serve  indeed  to  preserve  the  idea  of  the  original  pile,  and  ac- 
quaint the  moderns  with  the  magnificence  of  their  forefather ;  but  then 
it  breaks  the  uniformity  of  the  whole,  and  might  be  spared  \\\i[\  more 
propriety,  than  continued. 

The  statue  at  Charing-cross  has  the  advantage  of  being  well  placed; 
the  pedestal  is  finely  elevated,  and  the  horse  full  of  fire  and  spirit ;  but 
the  man  is  ill  designed,  and  as  tamely  executed :  there  is  nothing  of 
expression  in  the  face,  nor  character  in  the  figure,  and  though  it  may 
be  vulgarly  admired,  it  ought  to  be  generally  condemned. 

When  I  have  stood  at  this  place,  I  have  often  regretted  that  some 
such  opening  as  this  had  not  been  contrived,  to  serve  as  a  centre  be- 
tween the  two  cities  of  London  and  Westminster,  and  from  whence, 
particularly,  the  cathedrals  of  St.  Paul's  and  the  Abbey  might  have 
been  seen,  as  the  terminations  of  the  two  vista's  :  I  am  of  opinion  that 
nothing  in  Europe  would  have  had  a  finer  effect ;  but  now  it  is  impossi- 
ble it  should  ever  take  place,  and  I  mention  it  only  by  wijy  of  hint, 
that  private  property  is,  generally  speaking,  the  only  bar  to  public  ov- 
nameut  and  beauty. 

The  new  Admiralty  was  erected  on  a  spot  of  ground,  which  afforded 
the  architect  room  for  all  the  beauties  his  imagination  could  suggest, 
and  the  expence  it  was  raised  at,  enabled  him  to  execute  all  that 
beauty  in  a  grand,  though  simple  manner ;  how  he  has  succeeded,  the 
building  is  a  standing  evidence ;  and  very  much  concerned  I  am  to  see 
a  pile  of  that  dignity  and  importance,  like  to  continue  a  lasting  re- 
proach of  our  national  want  of  taste. 

I  must  ingenuously  confess  that  the  number  of  pretty  little  boxes, 
that  are  built  on  the  ruins  of  Whitehall,  make  me  no  satisfaction  for 
the  loss  of  that  palace ;  not  that  I  believe  it  ever  was  a  fine  structure, 
but  because  it  might  have  been  so ;  because  no  piece  of  ground, so 
near  two  great  cities,  could  afford  a  finer  situation ;  with  so  noble  a 
river  on  one  side,  and  so  beautiful  a  park  on  the  other:  and  because 
Inigo  Jones's  plan  for  rebuilding  it  is  still  forthcoming,  and  may  be 
made  use  of  to  erect  a  structure  equal  to  the  situation. 

2  N  2 


204 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[AufiUST, 


The  majestic  sample  he  has  given  of  his  art  in  the  Banqnetting 
Jfouse,  is  a  continued  persuasive  to  incline  us  to  wisli  for  the  rest  of 
that  magnificent  pile,  of  which  tliis  was  intended  to  be  so  inconsider- 
able a  part:  to  be  sure  if  over  this  co\dd  be  ellected,  Britain  might 
boast  of  a  palace,  which  might  excel  even  the  ]>roud  Versailles,  and  be 
as  much  visited  too,  in  compliment  to  its  siiperior  taste. 

I  cannot  leave  this  place  without  taking  some  notice  of  the  admira- 
ble ceiling,  ])erfornied  by  Uubens,  which  is  beyond  controversy,  one  of 
the  finest  things  of  the  kind  in  Europe.  It  is  indeed  not  so  generally 
known  as  one  could  wish,  but  it  needs  only  to  be  known  to  be  esteemed 
according  to  its  merit.  In  short,  it  is  but  an  ill  decoration  for  a  jjlacc 
of  religious  worship  ;  for  in  the  first  place,  its  contents  are  no  ways 
akin  to  dev(jtion,  and  in  the  next,  the  workmanship  is  so  very  extra- 
ordinary, that  a  man  must  have  abundance  of  zeal,  or  no  taste,  that  can 
attend  to  any  thing  beside. 

Before  I  cjuit  this  place,  I  must  take  notice  of  the  brazen  statue, 
erected  here  in  honour  of  James  II.  The  attitude  is  fine,  the  manner 
free  and  easy,  the  execution  finished  and  perfect,  and  the  expression 
in  the  face  inimitable :  it  explains  the  very  soul  of  that  unhappy- 
monarch,  and  is  therefore  as  valuable  as  if  it  commemorated  the  fea- 
tures and  form  of  a  hero.  In  short  it  is  a  pity  it  is  not  removed  to 
some  more  jiublic  and  open  place,  that  it  might  be  better  known,  and 
more  admired. 

Marlborough  House  is  another  instance  of  great  expense,  but  no 
taste  :  it  consists  only  of  a  range  of  windows  or  two  ;  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  unmeaning  stone,  wdiich  was  intended  for  a  decoration,  and  a 
weight  of  chimnies  over  all,  enough  to  sink  the  roof  to  the  foundation. 
It  is  certain  tlie  ground  afforded  tlie  architect  all  the  opportunity  ima- 
ginable of  exerting  his  utmost  art  and  genius,  and  if  he  had,  the  very 
place  itself  would  have  secured  him  the  highest  applause. 

It  is  with  no  small  concern,  I  am  obliged  to  own  that  the  palace*  of 
the  Brilibh  kings  is  so  far  from  having  one  single  beauty  to  recommend 
it,  that  it  is  at  once  the  contempt  of  foreign  nations,  and  the  disgrace 
of  our  own :  it  will  admit  of  no  defjate  that  the  court  of  a  monarch 
ought  to  be  the  centre  of  all  politeness  ;  and  a  grand  and  elegant  out- 
side would  seem,  at  least,  an  indication  of  a  like  perfection  within : 
we  may  safely  add,  that  this  is  necessaiy  even  in  a  political  sense :  for 
strangers  very  naturally  take  their  impressions  of  a  whole  people  by 
wdiat  they  see  at  court,  and  the  people  themselves  are,  and  ought  to  be 
dazzled  by  the  august  a])pearance  of  majcsly,  in  everything  that  has  any 
relation  to  it.  I  could  « ish,  therefore,  that  ways  and  means  could  be 
invented  to  bring  about  this  necessary  point;  that  Britain  might  assert 
her  own  taste  and  dignity,  and  vie  in  elegance,  as  well  as  power,  with 
the  most  finished  of  her  neighbours. 

As  we  proceed  on  to  Westminster,-!'  a  city  long  famous  for  its  an- 
tiquity, yet  producing  very  little  worthy  of  attention,  and  less  of  ad- 
miration, we  will  begin  with  the  house  on  the  left  hand  of  King  Street, 
and  near  adjoining  to  Privy  Garden;  not  that  it  is  in  any  way  remark- 
able in  itself,  but  because  it  has  one  of  the  most  elegant  irregular 
views  before  it  of  any  house  in  town;  the  street  before  it  forms  a  very 
spacious  and  noble  area.  And  yet,  with  all  its  advantages,  the  house  is  a 
public  nuisance,  as  well  as  all  those  in  King  Street,  Channel  (Cannon) 
Row,  and  the  entire  space  between ;  nothing  in  the  universe  can  be  more 
absurd  than  so  wretched  a  communication  between  two  sudi  cities  as 
London  and  Westminster,  a  passage  which  must  be  frequented  by  all 
foreigners,  which  is  visited  even  by  the  sovereign  himself  many  times 
a  vear,  which  is  the  road  of  all  the  justiciary  business  of  the  nation, 
w  hich  is  the  only  thoroughfare  to  the  seat  of  the  legislature  itself,  and 
the  rout  of  our  most  pompous  cavalcades  and  processions:  surely  such 
a  place  as  this  ought,  at  least,  to  be  large  and  convenient,  if  not  costly 
and  magnificent,  though,  in  my  opinion,  it  ought  to  be  made  the  centre 
of  our  elegance  and  grandeur;  and  to  do  this  effectually,  all  thelmild- 
ings  I  have  complained  of  ought  to  be  levelled  to  the  ground,  and  a 
space  laid  open  from  Privy  Garden  to  Westminster  Hall  vn  one  side, 
and  from  tlie  west  end  of  the  Abbey  to  Storey's  Gate  on  the  other; 
this  should  be  surrounded  with  stone  buildings  all  in  a  taste,  raised  on 
a  ))iazza  or  colonnade,  with  suitable  decorations,  and  the  middle 
should  be  adorned  with  a  group  of  statues,  answerable  to  the  extent 
of  the  circuit  round  it.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  what  an  eticct  such  an 
improvement  as  this  would  have  on  the  spectator,  and  how  much  more 
agreeable  it  would  be  to  the  honour  and  credit  of  the  nation. 

I  should  farther  desire,  too,  to  see  all  the  little  hovels  demolished 
which  now  incumber  the  Hall  and  the  Abbey,  that  those  buildings 
might  he  seen  at  least,  and  if  they  could  not  be  admired  for  their 
beauty,  they  might  be  reverenced  for  their  greatness  and  antiquity. 
If  St.  Margaret's  were  removed  with  the  rest,  it  would  be  yet  a  farther 

'  St.  James's. 

t  We  have  retained  this  part  of  Ralph,  allhouRli  several  improvemtnts 
have  taken  place  since  his  day  in  ibis  part  of  Westminster,— En. 


advantage ;  for  then  the  fine  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  w-ould  come  into 
play,  and  be  attended  to  as  it  deserves.  I  am  very  far  from  expecting 
or  even  imagining  that  any  of  these  alterations  will  ever  come  to 
pass ;  I  mention  them  only  to  explode  the  miserable  taste  of  our  an- 
cestors, who  neglected,  or  did  not  understand,  these  beauties;  and 
that  their  descendants  uuiy  grow  wiser  at  their  expence,  and  prevent 
the  like  censures  from  falling  upon  them. 

I  am  sometimes  iuclined  to  w  ish  that  the  place  which  is  now-  called 
Hell,  was  levelled,  and  that  the  new  Parliament  House  should  be 
erected  there  in  its  room;  it  would  certainly  have  a  noble  effect  on 
the  jjrospect,  and  form  a  most  admirable  contrast  to  the  ancient  edifices 
of  each  side  of  it :  I  have  indeed  an  objection  or  two  to  this  part  of 
the  scheme  ;  first,  I  apprehend  there  is  not  room  enough  there  for  such 
a  pile;  and,  secondly,  it  would  lose  the  advantage  of  a  jirospect  from 
the  river,  which  its  present  situation  might  so  happily  allow  it. 

At  all  events,  however,  I  should  be  glad  to  see  this  noble  ]iroject 
put  into  execution  :  it  is  certain  nothing  can  be  more  imworthy  of  so 
august  a  body  as  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain,  than  the  present 
place  of  their  assembly  :  it  must  be  undoubtedly  a  great  surprize  to  a 
foreigner,  to  be  forced  to  enquire  for  the  Parliament  House  even  at  the 
doors ;  and  when  he  found  it,  to  see  it  so  detached  in  parcels,  so  in- 
cumbered with  wretched  apartments,  and  so  contemptible  in  the  wh.ole  : 
I  could  wish  therefore  to  see  this  evil  remedied ;  to  see  so  useful  and 
necessary  a  scheme  take  place  :  and  if  it  falls  into  the  noble  hands  to 
execute,  we  have  long  been  flattered  to  believe  it  w'ould,  there  is  no 
room  to  doubt  but  the  grandeur  of  this  appearance  will  answer  the 
majestic  purposes  it  is  to  be  employed  in.  'The  British  taste  in  archi- 
tecture, is,  to  be  sure,  more  obliged  to  that  nobleman,(?)  than  any  other 
person  now  living,  and  if  Inigo  Jones  has  any  advantage,  it  is  only  in 
liaving  lived  before  him. 

It  will  be  ridiculous  and  foolish  therefore,  in  me,  to  give  the  least 
hint  for  the  conduct  or  improvement  of  any  design  which  he  has  en- 
gaged in;  I  shall  therefore  say  no  more  than  this,  that  I  should  be 
glad  to  have  both  houses  under  tlie  same  roof,  built  on  the  same  line, 
exactly  opposite  to  each  other,  the  seats  ranged  theatricahy,  the 
throne  in  the  midst  of  one  semicircle,  the  speaker's  chair  in  the  other; 
and  that  when  the  king  made  his  speech,  ways  and  means  might  be 
found  to  remove  the  partitions  from  between  the  two  houses,  and  pre- 
sent the  whole  parliament  of  Britain  at  one  view,  assembled  in  the 
most  grand,  solemn,  and  elegant  manner,  with  the  sovereign  at  their 
head,  and  all  the  decorations  round  them,  which  could  strike  the  spec- 
tator dumb  with  admiration,  at  the  profusion  of  majesty,  which  set  off 
and  adorned  the  whole. 

After  such  a  scene  as  this  has  been  presented  to  the  imagination,  no 
other  has  importance  enough  to  be  attended  to :  I  expect  therefore 
that  what  has  been  said  of  Westminster  Hall  will  meet  with  but  a  cool 
reception.  The  structure  is  remarkable  only  for  being  the  largest 
room  in  Europe  which  lias  no  column  to  support  it:  all  that  is  excel- 
lent in  it,  therefore,  is  to  be  fountl  in  the  contrivance  and  workmanship 
of  the  roof,  and  no  doubt  both  are  truly  admirable  :  but  as  skill  and 
contrivance  are  both  thrown  away,  unless  they  are  to  be  seen  in  effect, 
so  a  room  of  half  the  extent  of  this,  supported  on  beautiful  pillars,  and 
graced  with  suitable  cornices,  according  to  the  antique,  would  excite 
a  great  deal  more  applause,  and  deserve  it  infinitely  better. 

(  To  be  continued.) 


NOTES  ON  ARTESIAN  WELLS  AND  WELL  BORING  IN 
FRANCE. 

(From  French  Publications. ) 

M.  Champoiseau  has  communicated  to  "the  Academy  of  Sciences" 
the  result  of  the  experiments  which  he  made  at  Tours,  to  ascertain 
the  relation  which  existed  between  the  water  of  his  artesian  well,  and 
that  of  the  neighbouring  rivers.  These  experiments  were  continued 
for  more  than  three  months  (March,  April  and  May),  and  did  not  show 
any  vari.ition  in  the  pro<luce  at  any  time,  whatever  were  the  variations 
in  the  rivers  round  "Tours,  or  in  the  tides;  neither  was  the  limpidity 
of  the  water  at  all  affected.  Indeed  the  apparatus  did  not  exhibit  any 
sensible  change  in  the  well  water,  and  the  conclusion  drawn  is  that  the 
artesian  weUs  of  Tours,  from  the  great  elevation  of  their  feeding  springs, 
are  not  exposed  to  the  irregularities  observed  elsewhere. 

A  singular  circumstance  recently  occurred  during  the  construction  of 
the  Left  Bank  Versailles  Railway,  near  Val  de  Fleury,  varying  in  its 
operation,  and  its  treatment  from  some  similar  instances,  which  oc- 
curred on  the  London  and  Birmingham,  and  other  railways  here.  A 
large  embankment  was  in  progress  to  join  the  viaduct  then  building, 


1840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


265 


but  the  deposit  of  eartli  had  scarcely  begun  when  an  extraordinary 
motion  was  communicated  to  the  adjoining  soil.  In  two  places  it  was 
lifted  up  b  or  10  yards  above  the  surface,  the  road  w'as  blocked  up, 
and  several  houses  on  the  disturbed  site  were  upset.  It  was  found 
that  this  operation  proceeded  from  a  stratum  of  clay,  mixed  with  sand, 
and  soaked  with  last  year's  rains,  so  as  to  become  fluid  ;  that  the 
weight  of  the  embankment  30  yards  high,  and  that  of  the  superincum- 
bent strata  had  put  this  pulpy  mass  in  motion,  and  that  it  had  disturbed 
the  adjoining  soil  on  the  slope  of  the  valley,  and  had  in  several  places 
lifted  up  and  broken  through  the  upper  strata.  The  cause  was  ap- 
parent that  water  did  the  mischief,  and  though  it  might  not  have 
shown  itself  immediately  if  the  season  had  been  dry,  yet  ultimately  it 
would  have  been  productive  of  serious  evil.  To  remedy  this,  there 
were  no  other  means  than  to  stop  the  flow  of  water  arriving  from  the 
upper  levels  ;  to  carry  which  into  effect  it  was  necessary  to  cut  the 
clay  stratum  and  replace  by  stone  work,  which  would  surround  the  site 
on  which  the  embankment  was  to  be  formed  and  divert  the  water. 
This  operation  was  found  exceedingly  difficult,  having  to  be  carried 
on  at  a  depth  of  from  0  to  20  yards  in  a  moving  soil,  saturated  with 
water ;  it  was  long,  very  dangerous,  and  an  accident  might  have  wasted 
much  valuable  time,  the  woi-ks  of  the  embankment  being  suspended  in 
the  meanwhile,  and  the  stone-work  itself  being  liable  to  be  swallowed 
up  in  a  few  years,  and  the  work  to  be  done  over  again. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  engineers  thought  it  advisable  to 
have  recourse  to  boring  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  the  water,  and 
applied  to  the  General  Well-boring  Company  at  Paris.  This  mode 
was  also  difficult,  as  the  boring  tube  got  plugged  up  in  the  soft  stratum 
as  fast  as  it  was  emptied,  but  by  means  of  good  tools  this  was  at  last 
got  over.  The  first  boring  reached  20  yards  and  got  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  chalk,  notoriously  full  of  fissures,  and  where  the  water  was 
rapidly  absorbed.  The  second  and  third  borings  were  carried  to  35 
and  40  yards  in  order  to  get  at  the  chalky  fissures  which  communicate 
■with  the  Seine,  and  feed  the  neighbouring  wells.  A  series  of  borings 
will  therefore  be  carried  round  the  emijaukment  at  proper  distances 
and  drains  if  necessary  made  to  carry  the  water  into  the  borings  which 
can  easily  be  kept  clear  by  means  of  a  valve  and  cord.  It  is  proposed 
also  to  apply  this  method  to  get  rid  of  the  water  in  sand,  but  this  ne- 
cessarily de|)ends  on  the  strata,  for  we  believe  that  in  the  Kilsby  tun- 
nel it  would  not  have  been  practicable. 


SPEED  ON  RAILWAYS. 

Diagram,  showing  the  variations  in  the  speed  of  a  locomotive  engine 
and  train  over  a  journey  of  2i  miles,  on  a  level  railway.  In  the 
first  instance  starting  from  a  state  of  rest  and  getting  up  the  speed  ; 
then  travelling  one  mile  at  the  rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour ;  and 
ultimately  being  brought  again  (by  the  use  of  the  break)  to  a  state 
of  rest. 

From  numerous  observations,  by  R.  Sheppard. 

Scale  of  Miles. 


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HYDRAULIC  WORKS  AT  ALGIERS. 
By  M.  Poirel,  Engineer  of  Bridges  and  Roads. 

Trnnslatedfrom  the  Annalei  des  Pouts  et  Chaussei's  by  IV.  H.  Emory, 
Jan.,  U.  S.  Topi.  Ei!gr$.,fur  the  Franklin  Journal. 

The  port  of  Algiers  was  established  as  far  back  as  the  year  1530, 
by  Cheredin,  brother  of  Barbarossa.  Having  made  himself  master  of 
a  little  island,  in  front  of  the  city,  which  Spaniards  had  fortified,  he 
resolved,  in  order  to  secure  it,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make,  at  Algiers, 
a  harbour  that  would  afford  protection  from  the  winds  and  from  the 
swell  of  the  sea,  to  unite  it  to  the  town  by  means  of  a  jetty.  This  is 
called  the  Cheredin  jetty,  and  is  two  hundred  and  twenty-three  yards 
long,  and  one  hundred  and  twentj'-seven  yards  wide.  Its  direction  is 
nearly  east  north-east,  or  west  south-west. 

Besides  the  Cheredin  jetty,  another  has  been  built  on  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  island,  which  protects  the  harbour  from  easterly  winds,  and 
is  called  the  mole.  It  is  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  yards  long,  and 
forty-five  yards  in  its  greatest  width.  This  mole  runs  north-east  and 
south-west.  These  two  jetties  with  the  little  mole  on  which  the 
Lazaretto  stands  form  the  boundary  of  the  basin.  It  contains  forty 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  twenty-two  superficial  yards,  and  can  float 
sixty  vessels,  of  which  about  thirty,  may  be  vessels  of  three  hundred 
tons,  and  some  few,  eight  hundred  tons.  Vessels  of  a  larger  class 
anchor  outside  the  basin.  The  greatest  depth  of  water  is  sixteen  and 
a  half  feet ;  but  this  may  be  increased  by  dredging.  The  Cheredia 
jetty  and  tlie  mole  were  foimd  in  a  state  of  complete  dilapidation  when 
Algiers  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  These  two  works  constructed 
of  loose  stone,  (rubble)  were  levelled  to  their  base.  The  Deys  were 
in  the  habit  everv  year  of  having  the  stones  replaced  which  were 
carried  away  in  the  winter  by  the  sea. 

Laugier  de  Tassv,  one  of  the  most  faithful  historians  of  the  Algerine 
regency,  who  resided  there  in  1727,  says  : — 

"The  great  mole  (the  Cheredin  jetty,)  being  entirely  exposed  to 
the  north,  to  prevent  it  from  being  carried  away  by  the  fiu-ious  swells 
of  the  sea,  which  roll  up  the  sand  bank,  stretching  along  this  mole  and. 
out  into  the  sea,  they  were  obliged  to  keep  the  slaves  of  the  beylick 
employed  the  whole  year  carrying  hard  stones  from  a  place  near  point 
Pescade,  to  put  them  along  the  mole.  The  sea  soon  carried  away  the 
stones  thus  deposited,  but  care  was  always  taken  that  they  should  be 
replaced." 

Large  magazines  of  military  supplies  are  placed  on  the  Cheredin' 
jetty,  and  it  naturally  claimed  the  first  attention  of  government. 

The  preservation  of  these  magazines  required  that  the  loose  stone 
upon  which  they  rested,  at  the  base  of  the  jetty,  should  be  secured. 

This  undertaking  was  confided  to  M.  Noel,  the  engineer,  in  charge 
of  the  hydraulic  works  at  Toulon,  from  which  he  was  temporarily  re- 
lieved. 

He  rebuilt  the  entire  body  of  the  jetty  to  a  height  of  sixteen  and  % 
half  feet  above  the  water,  with  a  thickness  of  six  and  a  half  feet.  The 
new  masonry  is  of  the  very  best  kind,  and  possesses  great  solidity  ; 
unfortunately  the  insufficiency  of  funds  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the 
engineer,  and  his  limited  time  did  not  permit  him  to  turn  his  attentiorr 
to  the  foundation  of  the  jetty  which  will  soon  require  considerable  re. 
pair. 

The  extremity  of  the  mole,  called  the  chop,  in  which  the  sea  made 
a  large  breach,  was  repaired  in  ISBl,  but  the  new  masonry  being  built 
upon  the  fragments  which  the  action  of  the  sea  had  brought  down,  was 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  first  storm  in  the  winter  of  1832.  All  the 
repairs  made  to  the  top  of  the  work  were  necessarily  liable  to  tire 
same  catastroplie,  as  the  base  upon  which  they  rested  was  insecure. 
It  became  necessary,  therefore,  before  proceeding  farther,  to  recon- 
struct the  base  permanently  and  durably. 

The  locality  did  not  permit  the  engineer's  resorting  to  the  ordinary- 
means  of  establishing  a  foundation  by  throwing  over  loose  stones,  (rub- 
ble.) The  shore  to  the  west,  where  the  quarries  are,  has  not  a  single 
creek  or  harbour  where  a  vessel  could  load ;  it  is  open  to  the  ocean 
and  skirted  by  a  reef  of  rocks  which  make  the  landing  dangerous  even 
in  a  calm.  The  transportation  of  blocks  of  stone  could  only  be  effected 
by  carriages,  a  tedious  and  difficult  operation  with  masses,  which  , to 
resist  the  action  of  the  waves,  should  measure  at  least  four  cubic  yards. 
Besides  which  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  carry  these  blocks 
through  the  most  frequented  and  populous  part  of  the  city,  very  much 
to  the  inconvenience  of  the  inhabitants  passing  to  and  fro.  Another 
difficulty  presented  itself,  even  if  the  obstacles  to  an  easy  transporta- 
tion had  been  overcome.  To  give  sufficient  stability  to  the  work  at 
the  end  of  the  mole,  a  long  slope  of  at  least  one  in  ten  was  necessary, 
which  would  have  entirely  obstructed  the  navigation,  as  the  entrance 
to  the  basin  was  already  very  narrow,  being  only  one  hundred  and 


266 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


TAr 


GUST, 


thirty-four  yards  wide,  measuring  from  the  end  of  the  mule  on  which 
the  Lazaretto  stands,  to  that  of  the  work  in  question. 

Under  these  circumstances,  the  engineer  was  obliged  to  resort  to 
other  expedients,  and  he  was  thus  led  to  form  and  execute  a  new  plan 
for  establishing  foundations  at  sea,  which  five  years  experience  of  the 
works  at  Algiers  has  proved  to  be,  according  to  all  accounts,  superior 
to  all  those  which  have  here'ofore  been  put  in  practice,  and  particu- 
larly to  those  made  of  rubble  work;  a  method  much  approved  of 
since  the  construction  of  the  Cherbourg  and  Plymouth  breakwaters, 
the  two  most  important  maritime  works  executed  in  modern  times. 

The  principal  feature  of  this  plan  is  the  \ise  of  blocks  made  of  bt-ton. 
These  blocks  are  of  two  kinds ;  one  being  constructed  in  the  water  at 
the  place  it  is  intended  to  occupy,  the  other  made  on  shore  and 
launched. 

The  first  is  made  by  pouring  the  beton  into  cases  without  bottoms, 
sunk  on  the  place  where  the  block  is  to  rest.  The  frames  of  these 
cases  are  made  by  putting  together  pieces  of  scantling  in  a  rectangular 
form,  to  which  are  nailed  two  courses  of  plank  placed  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  The  lower  edges  of  the  cases  are  cut  out  to  fit  the  profile 
of  the  surface  on  which  they  are  to  rest.  They  are  lined  with  tarred 
cloth,  throughout  the  whole'extent  of  the  inside  up  to  the  level  of  the 
water.  The  cloth  at  the  bottom  is  allowed  sufficient  fullness  to  ac- 
commodate itself  to  the  inequalities  of  the  ground.  The  cases  are 
thus,  in  fact,  converted  into  cloth  sacks,  the  sides  of  which  are  strength- 
ened by  the  timber  work  on  which  they  are  stretched  and  fastened. 
The  cloth  sacks  enable  the  mass  of  bJton  to  accommodate  itself  per- 
fectly to  the  surface  which  receives  it,  the  inequalities  of  which  serve 
to  bind  together  the  rock  forming  the  bottom,  and  the  beton.  This  is 
a  great  advantage  in  the  use  of  these  cases,  fur  with  the  flat  bottomed 
ones  generally  used,  it  is  necessary  to  level  the  surface  to  bo  built  upon, 
which  is  a  difficult  and  uncertain  operation. 

The  clcth  bottomed  cases  are  built  upon  stocks,  laimched  and  floated 
to  the  place  they  are  to  occupy.  They  are  then  sunk  by  means  of 
small  wooden  boxes,  one  foot  square,  filled  with  cannon  balls  or  pig- 
iron  strung  entirely  round  on  the  outside  of  the  case,  about  one  foot 
and  a  half  from  the  toj),  by  means  of  a  cable  passing  through  iron  rings 
fixed  in  the  uprights. 

A  similar  use  of  beton  was  made  by  the  Italians  to  prevent  the  dis- 
integration of  masonry  immersed  in  water.  They  filled,  with  bOton, 
bags  similar  to  those  used  in  fortification  for  making  earth  defences, 
and  placed  them  compactly,  one  iipon  the  other,  and  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  fill  up  the  inequalities  of  the  surface  on  which  they  rested.  The 
cement  which  oozed  out  through  the  interstices  of  the  cloth,  bound  the 
little  rolls  of  K-ton  together  and  soon  formed  a  very  compact  and 
durable  mass.  The  cloth  between  the  joints  rotted  and  disappeared 
in  a  few  years.  On  one  occasion,  they  filled  a  much  larger  sack  with 
beton  than  those  above  described,  and" threw  it  into  the  sea  in  stormy 
weather  ;  some  days  after  the  storm  had  subsided  they  found  this 
block  very  hard  and  strong.  From  the  result  of  this  experiment  it 
was  natural  that  the  adoption  of  very  large  blocks  of  beton  should  be 
thought  of,  but  the  difficulty  consisted  in  making  bags  of  those  dimen- 
sions which  would  not  burst,  and  fixing  them  in  pusition,  while  being 
tilled  with  beton. 

When  the  case  is  moored,  the  beton  is  lovi'ered  and  deposited  in  it 
by  means  of  a  trough,  which  has  a  vertical  and  serai-rotary  motion 
communicated  to  it  by  a  cylinder  worked  at  each  end  by  a  crank.  This 
trough  which  contains  a  little  more  than  a  cubic  yard,  gives  the  ad- 
vantage of  putting  in  the  case  a  large  quantity  at  a  time.  The  opera- 
tion is  thus  made  more  rapid  and  there  are  fewer  seams. 

The  beton  blocks  made  on  shore  are  moulded  in  cases  consisting  of 
four  sides  made  of  thick  planks  and  lined  on  the  inside  with  another 
course  of  plank  jointed  together  at  the  bottom  and  removable  at  plea- 
sure. The  bottom  rests  upon  two  large  sills  connected  transversely, 
forming  an  inclined  plane  which  terminates  at  the  point  where  tlie 
block  ;s  to  be  launched.  These  cases  like  the  others,  are  entirely 
empty  and  without  shores.  When  they  are  filled  with  beton,  and  it 
becomes  sufficiently  hard,  the  sides  are  taken  off  and  the  block  thus 
stripped  is  launched  into  tlie  sea. 

The  mortar  used  in  the  large  cases  with  cloth  bottoms,  is  formed  of 
one  part  fat  lime  and  two  paj-ts  of  Italian  puzzolana ;  that  used  for 
blocks  on  shore  is  composed  of  puzzolana  and  sand  in  equal  propor- 
tions. 

The  lime  should  be  made  from  the  grey  transition  limestone,  fine 
grained  and  very  hard;  slaked  in  the  ordinary  way,  and  reduced  to 
the  consistency  of  thick  paste,  it  absorbs  two  and  a  half  times  its 
weight  of  water.     Its  bulk  is  increased  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  1-S. 

The  puzzolana  is  the  same  as  that  used  along  the  Mediterranean 
coast  in  the  formation  of  hydraulic  mortars.  It  is  to  be  found  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome.  The  best  comes  from  Saint  Paul's  cave, 
near  the  church  of  that  name.    This  puzzolana  is  brought  by  waggons 


to  the  Tiber,  and  thence  by  batlcaux  to  Civita  Vecchia,  whence  it  is 
exported.  It  is  sent  abroad  in  the  natural  condition  in  which  it  is 
found,  the  pieces  varying  in  size  from  that  of  an  egg  to  the  smallest 
grain  of  sand.  JI.  JuUien,  the  engineer,  found  by  experiment  that  the 
very  finest  grains  were  the  only  ones  that  could  be  used  with  effect  ia 
hydraulic  mortars,  and  that  when  it  was  used  in  grains  as  large,  for 
example,  as  the  largest  grains  of  sea  sand,  it  was  as  ineffectual  as  tne  sea 
sand  itself.  From  tliis  it  appears  to  be  necessary  that  the  finest  grained 
puzzolana  alone  should  l)e  used  in  hydraulic  works ;  and  as  its  efficacy 
and  quickness  in  hardening  are  in  proportion  to  the  fineness,  too  much 
pains  cannot  be  taken  to  pulverize  if. 

Acting  on  this  princi])le,  the  puzzolana  brought  from  Italy  and  Africa 
for  the  work  on  the  mole  was  sifted  at  Algiers  before"  being  used. 
One  half,  forming  the  residue,  was  ground  in  a  mortar  mill  and  sifted 
again,  leaving  a  residue  of  one-tenth. 

That  ground  and  sifted  was  of  a  quality  inferior  to  that  furnished 
by  the  first  sifting.  The  price  of  the  puzzolana  delivered  at  the  work 
was  thirty-six  francs  per  cubic  yard,  and  the  cost  of  sifting,  grinding, 
&c.,  twelve  francs,  making  the  total  cost  forty-eight  francs. 

The  cost  of  labour  at  Algiers,  independently  of  the  inferior  quality 
of  the  puzzolana  obtained  by  trituration,  and  the  consequent  increase 
of  expense,  made  it  desirable  that  if  should  be  sifted  at  Rome  and  the 
refuse  left  there.  The  soil  on  which  this  city  and  its  environs  stand, 
is  composed  of  this  material,  and  is  of  course  very  cheap.  The  only 
difference  in  the  price  would  therefore  arise  from  the  cost  of  sifting, 
which  could  be  more  than  balanced  by  the  freight  saved  in  leaving  the 
refuse. 

Influenced  by  these  considerations,  the  author,  on  the  requisition  of 
the  Governor  General  was  authorized  by  the  Secretary  of  War  to  re- 
pair to  Rome  and  superintend  in  person,  the  details  of  the  operation. 
He  there  fixed  up  a  number  of  strong  bolting  cloths  pierced  with  small 
rectangular  holes.  The  price  of  sifting  one  cubic  yard  of  puzzolana 
with  labour  hired  of  the  pontifical  government,  was  about  twenty  cents. 

The  contractor  who  has  leased  from  the  Roman  government,  the 
monopoly  in  the  puzzolana  trade,  regarding  the  project  as  impracti- 
cable, asked  an  exorbitant  price  for  taking  charge  of  it,  but  as  soon  as 
he  discovered  it  was  both  easy  and  cheap,  he  came  forward  and  offered 
for  the  future  to  send  none  but  the  sifted  puzzolana  to  Algiers.  It  was 
delivered  there  in  1S37,  in  this  state,  for  forty-two  francs  the  cubic 
yard,  and  could,  without  doubt,  be  delivered  for  forty  francs.  By 
adding  one  half  sand,  quite  as  good  a  commodity  as  the  rough  puzzo- 
lana is  produced,  and  you  get  for  twenty  francs  what  formerly  cost 
thirty-nine.  At  this  price  this  material  is  likely  to  supersede  all  the 
hydraulic  lime  and  artificial  cements  made  at  the  different  localities. 
It  is  easier  worked,  and  the  qualify  is  superior,  or  at  least  equal. 

Algiers  is  not  the  only  place  where  this  measure  can  be  adopted  ad- 
vantageously; it  can  be  practised  with  advantage  on  the  whole  Medi- 
terranean coast  and  wherever  the  puzzolana  of  Italy  is  used.  The 
engineers  of  Toulon  and  Jlarseilles  have  already  made  arrangements 
for  the  importation  of  the  sifted  puzzolana,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
but  that  it  will  become  an  extensive  article  of  traffic. 

The  mortar  is  made  with  one  part  lime  in  paste,  and  two  parts 
puzzolana.  If  the  puzzolana  is  in  the  rough  state  the  mortar  becomes 
hard  in  four  days  and  resists  the  Vicat  rod  ;  if  it  is  sifted  through  the 
bolting  cloths  it  will  become  hard  in  two  days,  and  if  the  puzzolana  is 
sifted  through  a  fine  hair  sieve,  it  will  become  hard  iu  twenty-four 
hours. 

It  takes  six  days  for  mortar  to  become  hard,  which  is  made  of  one 
part  lime,  one  of  bolted  puzzolana,  and  one  of  sand. 

Beton  is  composed  of  one  part  mortar  and  two  of  stones  broken  to 
the  size  of  from  one  to  two  inches,*  making  two  parts  of  beton. 

A  cubic  metre  (3o-317  cubic  feet)  of  beton  weighs  568(j  pounds.  It 
acquires  in  twenty-four  hours,  sufficient  cohesion  to  withstand  the 
shock  of  a  heavy  sea  without  disintegration.  In  November  1S3D,  a 
block  containing  two  hiuidred  and  fifty  cubic  yards,  which  had  been 
immersed  only  thirty-six  hours  was  stripped  of  its  enclosure,  and  re- 
sisted the  action  of  one  of  the  most  violent  storms.  M.  Feueon,  a 
mining  engineer,  then  at  Algiers,  was  an  eye  witness  of  this  remark- 
able fact. 

The  blocks  made  in  the  cases  with  cloth  bottoms,  measure  generally 
from  one  hundred  and  eighty  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  yards ; 
those  made  on  shore,  from  fifteen  to  sixty  cubic  yards.  When  con- 
structing the  mole  at  Algiers,  they  placed  first  a  set  of  the  large  b'.ocks, 
and  then,  in  advance  of  them,  "to  protect  their  bases,  they  placed  a 
number  of  the  second  size.  The  large  cases  serve  as  a  platform  from 
which  to  launch  the  small  blocks.  The  two  lines  of  blocks  are  bound 
together  at  intervals  by  large  blocks  of  beton,  and  these  intervals  are 
filled  by  stone  measuring  from  five  to  eight  cubic  yards. 

*  Whether  cubic  or  superficial  measure,  is  not  stateJ,    Tr. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


207 


The  follo^ving  is  an  estimate  of  quantities  and  labour  for  a  b-ton 
block,  of  thirty-six  cubic  yards,  using  rnortar  made  of  lime,  saud  and 
puzzolana : — 

36  cubic  yards  of  broken  stone. 
12  „  puzzolana. 

12  „  lime  in  paste. 

12  „  sand. 

1  day's  labour  for  a  master  workman. 
3      "      „  three  labourers. 

The  cases  used  cost  about  one  hundred  dollars,  and  one  will  answer 
for  twenty  blocks. 

The  whole  cost  of  making  and  laying  this  beton  at  Algiers  is  about 
five  dollars  and  seventy  cents  the  cubic  yard. 

Estimate  of  quantities  and   labour  for  a  befon  block  of  one  hundred 
and  eighty-two  cubic  yards,  sunk  in  a  case  with  a  tarred  cloth  bottom, 
caulked,  using  mortar  made  of  lime  and  puzzolana  : — 
182     cubic  yards  of  broken  stone. 
91  „  puzzolana. 

45i  „  lime  in  paste. 

1  master  workman  three  days. 

2  labourers  for  three  days. 

The  construction  and  moving  of  the  case  cost  about  four  hundred 
dollars ;  it  can  also  be  used  twenty  times. 

The  caulking  at  the  angles,  the" cloth  bottom  and  the  removal  of  the 
case,  cost  about  one  hundred  and  se\-enty  dollars. 

The  whole  cost  of  making  and  laying  this  buton  at  Algiers,  is  esti- 
mated to  be  about  eight  dollars  and  seventy-five  cents  the  cubic  yard. 

Colonel  Eniry  published  a  work  in  1S31,  containing  many  purely 
theoretical  views,  and  at  the  same  time  many  useful  suggestions,  in 
whicli  he  set  forth,  strongly,  the  inconveniences  of  the  present  system 
of  building  stone  work  in  the  sea,  and  proposed  as  a  substitute,  blocks 
made  of  beton. 

The  blocks  that  he  proposed  were  also  of  two  kinds,  one  kind  made 
in  the  water,  and  the  other  on  shore ;  the  first  was  to  be  built  in  a  flat 
bottomed  case,  and  the  other  he  proposed  to  transport  to  the  place  for 
immersion ;  a  plan  of  doubtful  success ;  he  proposed,  too,  that  these 
blocks,  which  were  to  be  hexagonal  prisms,  should  be  laid  regularly 
one  upon  the  other,  which  we  regard  as  impossible. 

During  the  execution  of  the  new  system  at  Algiers,  some  engineers 
thought  the  success  of  it  veiy  doubtful ;  but  the  manner  in  which  the 
end  of  the  mole  stands,  puts  all  doubt  to  rest.  This  work  projects 
into  the  sea  towards  the  quarter  whence  the  winds  blow  with  most 
violence,  and  it  stands  without  having  sustained  the  slightest  injury 
from  the  most  furious  tempests.  Besides  other  unquestioned  advan- 
tages presented  by  the  use  of  beton  blocks  instead  of  loose  stone,  the 
difficulty  is  avoided  of  transporting  the  stone  of  the  requisite  size  when 
the  quarries  are  remote.  This  consideration  amounts  sometimes  to 
an  insuperable  obstacle  to  the  use  of  loose  stone,  while  the  beton  can 
be  used  any  where. 

The  Romans  drew  blocks  of  stone  from  Mount  Circe  to  build  the 
port  of  Anxium,  a  distance  of  ten  miles ;  and  the  pontificial  govern- 
ment was  obliged  to  abandon  the  port  of  Auzo  in  consequence  of  the 
difficulty  of  finding  a  qunrry  in  the  neighbourhood,  that  would  furnish 
proper  stone  to  repair  the  jetties. 

The  Italians  generally  practise  a  mixed  system.  They  build  the 
foundation  of  loose  stones,  even  in  twenty  or  thirty  feet  water,  and  the 
top  of  masonry.  The  masonry  is  constructed  in  staunch  cases,  floated 
to  tlie  place  required,  and  the  workmen,  secure  from  water,  erect  a 
wall  usually  of  undressed  stone  and  hydraulic  mortar.  The  cases  are 
thus  sunk  by  degrees  until  they  reach  the  loose  stone.  The  details  of 
this  process  are  described  in  Belidor's  Hydraulic  Architecture,  in  his 
description  of  the  manner  in  which  the  moles  at  Nice,  Genoa  and  Na- 
ples were  constructed. 

The  defects  of  this  plan  are  very  apparent ;  the  bottom  of  the  case 
rests  upon  an  uneven  and  movable  surface,  and  the  consequence  is,  the 
masonry  cracks  open  in  many  places.  Moles  thus  constructed  are  soon 
destroyed;  extensive  repairs  are  required, which  make  it  necessary  to 
be  continually  throwing  in  loose  stone.  This  is  exemplified  in  the 
mole  at  Genoa,  which  shelters  the  harbour  from  the  east  winds,  the 
end  of  which  constantly  requires  repair. 

When  De  Cessart  projected  his  large  conical  cases,  he  was  on  the 
eve  of  discovering  the  simple  and  ingenious  plan  just  described  for 
establishing  foundations  ;  the  great  error  which  was  committed,  and 
which  fully  explained  the  difficulty  encountered  by  so  skilful  an  en- 
gineer, was  in  supposing  that  a  wooden  structure,  however  substan- 
tially constructed,  could  resist  the  action  of  the  sea.  Acting  on  this 
principle,  he  filled  his  cases  with  small  stones  to  keep  them  in  place ; 
the  consequence  was  that  when  the  action  of  the  sea  beat  these  cases 
to  pieces,  the  stones  fell  down  and  the  whole  fabric  was  swept  away, 
De  Cessart  should  have  considered  the  case  as  simply  a  temporary 


enclosure  to  build  masonry  in,  which  would  be  capable  of  resisting  the 
force  acting  against  it  after  the  cases  were  destroyed.  If  he  had  taken 
up  this  idea,  it  would  probably  have  led  him  to  the  use  of  beton  for 
filling  his  cases.  Instead  of  making  these  cases  as  substantially  as  was 
proposed,  it  would  be  sufficient  to  give  them  the  form  of  a  large  cask 
without  a  bottom,  made  with  uprights  and  staves  bound  together  by 
iron  chains  instead  of  hoops,  in  sucli  manner  that  the  uprights  can  be 
taken  apart  when  the  case  is  to  be  taken  up.  Another  indispensable 
condition  is,  that  the  case  should  be  filled  in  the  shortest  possible  time. 
The  sea  at  Algiers  is  very  powerful  considering  the  little  range  it  has; 
and  it  would  be  necessary  to  make  such  arrangements  that  a  case  made 
to  contain  about  1300  cubic  yards,  should  be  filled  in  thirty-six,  or 
forty-eight  hours.  This  might  be  done  by  throwing  in  beton  blocks, 
reaijymade,  at  the  same  time  pouring  in  beton  to  bind  them,  by  means 
of  cloth  funnels  fixed  to  the  cases.  This  suggestion  has  never  been 
acted  upon,  but  if  the  intention  of  making  Algiers  a  military  port  be 
carried  out,  there  will  be  an  opportunity  of  trying  it  on  a  large  scale, 
and  it  is  believed  with  complete  success. 

Whatever  may  be  the  fate  of  this  or  other  plans  for  using  beton,  one 
thing  is  certain,  that  sooner  or  later,  the  practice  of  making  founda- 
tions at  sea  with  loose  stone  will  be  entirely  abandoned,  and  masses  of 
the  natural  rock  so  costly  in  quarrying  and  transportation,  and  so  in- 
sufficient in  dimensions,  will  be  replaced  by  artificial  blocks  made  of 
beton. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  CURVES  ON  RAILWAY  CARRIAGES. 

Sir — The  influence  of  railway  curves  on  engines  and  carriages  passing 
along  them,  appears  to  have  been  paid  little  attention  to  by  those. 
persons  who  have  had  the  best  opportunities  of  acquiring  information 
on  the  subject ;  at  least,  I  am  not  aware  that  the  results  of  any  obser- 
vations on  the  subject  have  been  made  known  to  the  world.  The  only 
remark  bearing  on  the  matter  which  I  have  seen  published,  is  contained 
in  a  letter  by  Mr.  J.  Ely,  at  page  139,  vol.  2,  of  your  Journal,  in  which 
he  assei-ts  "that  when  an  engine  is  entering  upon  a  curve,  it  will  be 
affected  by  the  nature  of  the  path  it  was  previously  describing,  and 
that  the  wear  ami  tear  of  the  onUr  rail  at  the  commencement  of  a 
sharp  cur\e  is  ?tso  when  the  previous  jiath  is  a  curve  in  an  opposite 
direction  (forming  an  S),  than  when  it  is  a  straight  line."  I  do  not 
for  a  minute  doubt  the  correctness  of  the  latter  part  of  his  assertion, 
but  think  that  the  inference  he  would  draw  from  it,  that  an  S  curve 
is  preferable  to  a  straight  line  connected  with  a  single  curve,  is  erro- 
neous. If  you  consider  the  subject,  you  will  instantly  perceive  that 
the  outer  rail  at  the  commtnceiiuiit  of  a  reversed  curve,  would  scarcely 
be  aftected  bv  the  grinding  of  the  vv-heels,  but  that  the  inner  rail  would 
have  all  the  wear  and  tear  which  is,  simply,  not  from  tl.e  engine  or 
carriages  being  influenced  by  the  path  they  were  previously  describing, 
in  the  sense  which  he  applies  it,  but  from  the  centrifugal  power 
throwing  the  carriages  against  the  outer  rail  of  a  curve,  and  which,  at 
the  point  where  the  curve  is  reversed,  has  not  had  time  to  be  counter- 
acted, and  which  will  not  be  the  case  until  the  carriages  have  passed 
a  considerable  distance  into  the  second  or  contrary  curve,  when  the 
wheels  will  begin  to  grind  the  outer  rail  of  this  curve  as  they  did  that 
of  the  preceding.  My  principal  reason  for  addressing  you  is  to  draw 
attention  to  the  great  wear  and  tear  of  engines  and  carriages  caused 
by  their  traversing  curves,  and  to  induce  an  inquiry  into  the  subject, 
for  the  purpose,  if  possible,  of  modifying  the  evil.  My  opinion  on 
the  matter  is,  that  any  engine  or  carriage,  in  traversing  a  curve,  under- 
goes a  degree  of  torsion  in  the  framing,  and  thereby  partially  adapts 
itself  to  the  path  which  it  is  traversing,  and  which,  with  a  slight  de- 
gree of  sliding  of  the  wheels  on  one  side,  enables  it  to  pass  along  the 
line  without  such  a  vast  increase  of  friction  as  might  reasonably  be 
inferred.  Now  if  such  is  the  case,  and  a  carriage  is  drawn  or  propelled 
along  an  S  curve,  the  extremes  of  torsion  will  almost  instantly  take 
place  where  the  two  curves  join,  the  framing  being  then  twisted  in 
the  contrary  direction,  and  the  destruction  of  carriages  must  be  cora- 
niensuratelv  great  with  the  suddenness  or  violence  with  which  the 
change  is  effected.  I  would  therefore  offer,  as  a  partial  remedy,  the 
laying  in  of  a  short  tangent  line  to  the  two  curves  in  every  instance, 
instead  of  an  S  curve,  whereby  the  extremes  of  torsion,  in  place  of 
being  sudden,  and  I  presume  'destructive,  as  in  the  latter,  would  be 
gradually  effected,  first  by  the  restoration  of  the  framing  to  its  square 
form,  and  then  by  the  slight  torsion  in  the  contrary  direction.  If  this 
plan  was  pursued,  I  have  no  doubt  very  much  greater  durability  in  the 
engines  and  carriages  would  be  the  consequence.  Perhaps  some  of 
your  readers  who  have  opportunities  of  minutely  observing  the  effects 
which  I  have  described,  and  also  the  effect  where  sharp  curves  are 
connected  with  a  tangent,  will,  at  some  future  time,  communicate  the 
results. 

June,  1340.  B. 


26S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


SUSPENSION  BRIDGES. 

Oil  the   Thtiinj  0/ Suspension  Bridges,  loitli  some  account  of  their  carhj 

histon/.  By  Mr.  G.  F.  Fokdham,  read  at  the  Scientijic  Society,  March 

12,  1810. 

Suspension  bridges  appear  to  be  of  very  ancient  origin;  travellers 
li.ivc  discovered  tlieir  existence  in  South  America,  in  Cbin  1,  in  Tliibet, 
and  in  tlie  Indian  Peninsula.  They  are  most  frequently  met  with  in 
mountainous  regions,  and  being  suspended  across  a  deep  ravine,  or  an 
impetuous  torrent,  permit  the  ))assage  of  the  traveller  wlie.re  the  con- 
struction of  any  utlier  kind  of  bridge  would  be  entirely  impracticable. 
Hiunbdlilt  informs  us,  that  in  Soutli  .\merica  there  are  numerous  bridges 
of  tins  kind  formed  of  ropes  made  from  tlic  fibrous  parts  of  the  roots 
of  the  American  agavey  (^4garc  amcricana).  These  ropes,  which  are 
three  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  arc  attached  on  each  bank  to  a  clumsy 
frame  work  composed  of  the  trunk  of  the  Schijiiis  mollc ;  where,  how- 
ever, tlic  banks  are  flat  and  low,  this  framework  raises  the  bridge  so 
much  above  tlie  ground  as  to  prevent  it  from  being  accessible.  To 
remedy  this  inconvenience  steps  or  ladders  are,  in  these  cases,  placed 
at  cacli  extremity  of  the  l)ridge,  by  ascending  which  all  who  wish  to 
pass  over,  readily  reach  the  roadway.  The  roadway  is  formed  by 
covering  the  ropes  transversely,  with  small  cylindrical  pieces  of  bam- 
boo. The  bridge  of  Fenipe,  erected  over  the  Chambo,  is  described  as 
being  12U  feet  long,  and  8  feet  l>roail,  but  there  are  others  winch  have 
much  larger  dimensions.  A  bridge  of  tliis  kind  will  generally  remain 
in  good  condition  20  or  25  years,  though  some  of  the  ropes  require 
renewing  every  s  or  10  years.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  as  evincing 
the  high  anti(pMty  of  these  structures,  tliat  they  are  known  to  have 
existed  in  South  America  long  prior  to  the  arrival  of  Europeans.  The 
utility  of  these  bridges  in  mountaino\is  countries,  is  placed  in  a  strik- 
ing point  of  view  by  the  fact  mentioned  by  Ilinnboldt,  of  a  permanent 
communication  having  been  establislied  between  t^uito  and  Lima,  by 
means  of  a  rope  bridge  of  extraordinary  length,  al'ter  40,000^  had  been 
expended  in  a  fruitless  attempt  to  build  a  stone  bridge  over  a  torrent 
which  rushes  from  the  Cordilleras  or  the  Andes.  Over  this  liridge  of 
ropes,  which  is  erected  near  Santa,  travellers  with  loaded  mules  can 
])ass  in  safety. 

But  suspension  bridges,  composed  of  stronger  and  more  durable 
materials  than  the  twisted  fibres  and  tendrils  of  plants,  are  found  to 
•«xist  in  these  remote  and  semi-barbarous  regions ;  in  Thibet  as  well 
as  in  China  many  iron  suspension  bridges  have  been  discovered,  and  it 
is  no  improbable  conjectiM'e,  that  in  countries  so  little  known  and  visited 
by  Europeans,  otiiers  may  exist  of  which  we  have  as  yet  received  no 
accounts.  The  most  remarkable  bridge  of  this  kind,  of  which  we  have 
any  knowleilgc  in  Thihet,  is  the  bridge  of  Chuka-cha-zum,  stretched 
over  the  Tehintchieu  river,  and  situated  about  Is  miles  from  Muri- 
clioin.  "(.)nly  one  horse  is  admitted  (o  go  over  it  at  a  time  :  it  swings 
as  you  tread  upon  it,  re-acting  at  the  same  time  with  a  force  that  im- 
pels you  every  stej)  you  take  to  (inicken  your  pace.  It  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  say,  ill  explanation  id'  its  construction,  tliat  on  the  five  chains 
■which  support  th''  platform,  are  placed  several  layers  of  strong  coarse 
mats  of  bamboo,  loosely  put  down,  so  as  to  play  with  the  swing  of  the 
bridge;  and  that  a  fence  on  eacliside  contributes  to  the  security  of  tlie 
jiassenger."*  The  date  of  the  erection  of  this  bridge  is  unknown  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  country,  and  they  even  ascribe  to  it  a  fabulous 
origin.     The  length  of  this  bridge  appears  to  be  about  l.'iO  feet. 

Turner  describes  in  the  following  terms  a  bridge  for  foot  passengers 
of  an  extraordinary  construction.  "  It  was  composed  of  two  eliains 
stretched  parallel  to  each  other  across  the  river,  distant  four  feet  from 
eacli  other,  and  on  either  side  resting  upon  a  ])ile  of  stones,  raised  upon 
each  bank  about  S  feet  high;  they  were  carried  down  with  an  easy 
slope  and  buried  in  the  rock,  where  being  fastened  round  a  large  stone, 
they  were  ccnifincd  by  a  quantity  of  broken  rock  hea])ed  on  them.  A 
plank  about  H  inches  broad,  hung,  longitudinally  suspended,  across  tlie 
river  with  roots  and  creepers,  wound  over  the  chains  with  a  slackness 
sutlicient  to  allow  the  centre  to  sink  to  the  depth  of  four  feet  below 
the  chains.  This  bridge,  called  Selo-cha-zum,  measured,  from  one 
side  of  the  water  to  the  other,  seventy  feet.  The  creepers  are  changed 
annually,  and  the  jilanks  are  all  loose  ;  so  that  if  the  creepers  give  way 
in  any  part,  (hey  can  be  removed,  an^l  the  particular  part  repaired 
without  disturbing  the  whole." 

Numerous  suspension  bridges  formed  of  iron  chains  exist  also  in 
China;  and  though  the  accounts  wliidi  travellers  have  transmitted 
respecting  them  are  less  detailed  and  explicit  than  would  have  been 
desirable,  descriptions  of  two  of  them  have  been  furnished,  which  are 
sufliciently  minute  and  intelligible  to  excite  considerable  interest.  The 
first  to  which  1  refer  is  contained  in  Kiicher's  China  lllustrata.  Tlie 
following  is  a  translation  of  the  author's  words.     "In  the  province  of 

to*  Turner's  linilajsv  to  ihi;  Court  oflhibet. 


Junnan,  over  a  valley  of  great  depth,  and  through  which  a  torrent  of 
water  runs  with  great  force  and  rapidity,  a  bridge  is  to  be  seen  said  to 
have  been  built  by  the  Emjieror  Mingus,  of  the  family  of  the  Haniae, 
in  the  year  of  Christ  0.5,  not  constructed  of  brickwork,  or  of  blocks  of 
stone  cemented  together,  but  of  chains  of  beaten  iron  and  hooks,  so 
secured  to  rings  from  both  sides  of  the  chasm,  that  it  forms  a  bridge 
by  planks  placed  upon  them.  There  are  20  chains,  each  of  which  is 
20  perches  or  300  palms  in  length.  When  many  persons  pass  over 
together,  the  bri<lge  vibrates  to  and  fro,  afl'ecting  them  with  horror  and 
giddiness,  lest  whilst  passing  it  should  be  strucK  with  ruin.  It  is  im- 
possible to  admire  sufficiently  the  dexterity  of  the  architect  Sinensius, 
who  had  the  liardihood  to  atti^mpt  a  work  so  arduous,  and  so  conducive 
to  the  convenience  of  travelling."  Another  suspension  bridge  in  this 
country  is  described  in  the  (ilh  vol.  of  the  "  Ilisloire  ghit'-rale  dcs 
/'oijagis."  The  following  is  a  translation:  "The  famous  Iron  Bridge 
(such  is  the  name  given  to  it)  at  C^uay-Cheu,  on  the  road  to  Yun-Nan 
(Junnan?)  is  the  work  of  an  ancient  Chinese  general.  On  the  banks 
of  the  Pan-Ho,  a  torrent  of  inconsiderable  breadth,  but  of  great  depth, 
a  large  gateway  has  been  formed  between  two  massive  pillars,  G  or  7 
feet  broad,  and  from  17  to  18  feet  in  height.  From  the  two  pillars  of 
the  east  depend  four  cliains  attached  to  large  rings,  which  extend  to 
the  two  pillars  of  the  west,  and  which  being  connected  together  by 
smaller  chains,  assume,  in  some  measure,  the  appearance  of  a  net.  On 
this  bridge  of  cliains  a  number  of  very  thick  jilanks  have  been  placed, 
some  means  of  connecting  which  have  been  ado]ited  in  order  to  obtain 
a  continuous  platform  ;  but  as  a  vacant  space  still  remains  between 
this  plathnan  and  the  gateways  and  pillars,  on  account  of  the  curve 
assumed  by  the  chains,  especially  wdien  loaded,  this  defect  has  been 
remedied  liy  the  aid  of  planking  supported  on  trusses  or  consoles.  On 
each  side  of  this  planking  small  pilasters  of  wood  have  been  erected, 
which  support  a  roof  ot  the  same  material,  the  two  extremities  of 
which  rest  on  the  pillars  that  stand  on  the  banks  of  the  river."*  The 
writer  proceeds  to  remark  that,  "the  Chinese  have  made  several  other 
bridges  in  imitation  of  this.  One,  on  the  river  Kin-cha-Hyang,  in  the 
ancient  canton  of  I.o-Lo,  which  belongs  to  the  province  of  Yun-Nan,  is 
particularly  known.  In  the  province  of  Se-Chuen  there  are  one  or 
two  others,  wdiich  arc  sustained  only  by  ropes,  but  though  of  an  incon- 
siderable size,  they  are  so  unsteady  and  so  little  to  be  trusted  that  they 
cannot  be  crossed  without  sensations  of  fear." 

While  our  attention  is  directed  to  early  accounts,  and  to  the  origin 
of  suspension  bridges,  it  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  altliongli,  as  we 
liave  seen,  the  inhaliitants  of  the  moinitainous  districts  of  South  Ameri- 
ca, or  the  wild  and  barbarous  regions  of  Thibet,  appear  to  have  been 
well  ac(|uainled  with  the  purposes  for  which  these  structures  are  best 
adapted,  and  to  have  practised  their  construction  from  the  most  re- 
mote ages,  neither  the  (ireeks,  the  Romans,  nor  the  Egyptians,  ac- 
cording to  all  we  know  of  those  nations  had  any  knowledge  of  their 
uses  or  properties,  or  ever  employed  them  as  a  means  for  crossing  a 
river,  or  other  natural  impediment.  It  is  not,  therefore,  from  these 
celebrated  nations  of  antiquity  that  the  engineer  has  derived  his  first 
hints  for  the  construction  of  suspension  bridges,  but  from  those  rude 
and  unpolished  people,  the  results  of  whose  ingenuity  have  just  been 
described. 

Hut  it  will  now  be  interesting  to  inquire  how  far  we  can  trace  back 
the  antiquity  of  suspension  bridges  in  more  civilized  countries, — on 
the  Continent,  in  the  British  Isles,  and  in  the  Vnited  States  of  America. 
Scamozzi  speaks  of  suspension  bridges  existing  in  Europe  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  it  is  very  questionable  if  he 
employed  that  term  to  designate  the  same  structure  to  which  it  is  now 
ap]ilied,  and  this  is  rendered  the  more  improbable  as  no  such  bridges 
are  now  in  existence,  an<l  other  writers  are  totally  silent  upon  the 
subject.  It  docs  not  appear  then  that  suspension  bridges  of  other  than 
recent  erection  have  existed  on  the  Continent,  and  in  England  the 
oldest  of  which  we  have  any  account  has  not  been  constructed  more 
than  a  century.  The  first  suspension  bridge  in  the  United  States  was 
erected  in  the  year  l/'.Ki.  In  England  the  oldest  bridge  of  the  kind 
is  believeil  to  have  been  the  Wincli  Chain  Bridge,  suspended  over  tlie 
Tees,  and  liius  forming  a  communication  between  the  counties  of  Dur- 
ham and  York.  Mr.  Stevenson  (Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal) 
expresses  his  regret  at  not  having  been  able  to  learn  the  precise  date 
of  the  erection  of  this  bridge;  from  good  authority,  however,  he  con- 
cludes it  to  be  about  the  year  17-11.  It  may  also  be  mentioned  here, 
that  at  Carric-a-rede,  near  Ballantoy,  in  Ireland,  there  is  a  rope  bridge, 
which  in  1800  was  reported  to  have  been  in  use  longer  than  the  pre- 
sent generation  could  remember. 

In  the  years  18  Ki  and  1817  some  wire  suspension  bridges  were  exe- 
cuted in  Scotland,  and,  though  not  of  great  extent,  are  the  first  example 
of  this  species  of  bridge  architecture  in  Great  Britain.     As,  however, 

1  See  Navier,    Memoire  sur  les  Fonts  suspcndus. 


JS-tO.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


209 


lull  descriptions  of  those  bridges  are  to  be  met  witli  elsewhere,  it  will 
not  be  necessary  to  notice  them  farther. 

In  ISls,  Mr.Telford  was  consulted  by  government  as  to  the  pra'cti- 
cability  of  erecting  a  suspension  liridge  over  the  Menai  Strait,  and  was 
commissioned  to  prepare  a  design,  if,  upon  an  examination  of  the  lo- 
calities, he  found  the  project  feasible.  Having  accordingly  surveyed 
the  spot,  he  was  led  to  propose  the  construction  of  a  suspension  bridge 
near  Bangor  Ferrv,  and  in  ISIO  an  act  was  obtained  anthori/.ing  the 
erection  of  the  bridge,  a  sum  of  money  having  been  previously  voted 
by  Parliament  for  that  purpose.  This  structure,  which  will  always  be 
regarded  as  a  monument  of  the  engineering  abilities  of  Telford,  was 
connnenced  in  August  1S19,  and  opened  to  the  public  on  the  30th 
January,  ls:}i5,  Iraving  occupied  six  and  a  half  years  in  its  erection. 
The  Union  IJridge  across  the  Tweed  was  designed  and  executed  by 
Captain  Brown,  and  was  the  first  bar  chain  bridge  of  cousiilerable  size 
that  was  completed  in  this  country.  It  was  commenced  in  August 
1810,  and  finished  in  the  month  of  July  1S2U.  After  the  com|)letion 
of  the  Mcnai  Bridge,  bridges  on  the  suspen>ion  principle  began  to  be 
universally  adopleil  throughout  Euro])e ;  but  it  was  not  till /;««  wins 
had  been  proved  to  be  more  jinn  than  bars  of  a  gitdkr  lliickiicsn  that 
these  bridges  received  their  most  extensive  api)lications.*  Since  1S21 
Messrs  Sequin  have  constructed  more  than  50  wire  briilges  in  France, 
with  the  most  complete  success.*  The  wire  sui))ension  bridge  at 
Freyburg,  in  Switzerland,  the  largest  in  the  world,  was  erecteil  by 
Mons.  Challey,  and  depends  across  the  valley  of  the  Sarine.  It  was 
commenced  in  1S31,  and  thrown  open  to  the  pubic  in  183-1.  A  sus- 
pension bridge  has  also  been  erected  at  Montrose,  the  size  of  which  is 
scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  Menai  bridge.  At  Clifton  a  very  large 
suspension  bridge  is  now  in  progress  of  erection  by  Jlr.  Brunei,  and  a 
suspension  bridge  lUito  feet  in  length  is  about  to  be  erected  over  the 
Danube,  between  Pest  and  Often,  tlie  design  for  which  is  the  produc- 
tion of  Mr.  W.  Tierney  Clark,  and  under  whose  able  superintendence 
its  construction  will  be  effected. 

Having  completed  this  sketch  of  the  eaily  history  and  subsequent 
progress  of  these  interesting  structures,  I  shall  now  proceed  to  investi- 
gate the  friiicipkn  upon  which  their  stability  depends,  and  by  whose 
aid  we  are  enabled  to  deduce  practical  rules  for  their  construction.  In 
this  inquiry  1  prefer  proceeding  entirely  upon  abstract  grounds,  as  by 
disencumbering  our  ideas  of  iiuUcrial  circamsUuiccn,  a  greater  facility 
of  thought  is  conferred,  and  the  results  of  the  investigation  are  made 
to  rest  upon  a  broader  and  more  certain  basis.  When  a  prinei|)Ie  has 
once  been  established  in  a  ^'tyft/'u/yu/w,  its  application  will  be  found 
with  comparative  ease,  as  we  have  then  only  to  observe  tliat  in  sub- 
stituting the  particular  lor  the  general  case,  we  do  not  violate  any  of 
the  fundamental  conditions  of  the  problem. 

The  theory  of  suspension  bridges  is  susceptible  of  division  into  two 
parts.  I.  The  statical  theory.  II.  The  dynanucal  theory.  In  the 
first,  we  consider  the  forces  which  are  develoi)ed,  ami  the  laws  which 
are  brought  into  operation,  when  all  the  parts  are  at  rest ;  in  the  second, 
we  suppose  the  action  of  the  impressed  force  is  evinced  by  the  pro- 
duction of  motion,  and  upon  that  su|iposition  proceed  to  investigate 
the  beh.iviour  of  each  particle,  and  inter  the  effect  of  their  cumbinetl 
motions.  In  the  pres(Mit  paper  the  statical  theory  alone  will  be  con- 
sidered. The  statical  theory  of  suspension  bridges  is  evidently  in- 
volved in  the  general  problem,  to  dtkrmitie  l/it  cotidilw/m  oj' aimlibriam 
of  aiii/fvrcis  /c/iukrer,  acting  in  space  njxin  pvinln  cuniiiclid  by  Inns 
loholly  Jtcxibk  and  vicrlinxibk.  In  the  solution  of  this  problem,  tlien, 
we  shall  be  gradually  approaching  our  subject. 

It  is  a  principle  in  statical  science,  that  when  a  body,  acted  on  by 
any  number  of  forces,  is  supposed  to  be  at  rest,  all  these  forces  must 
admit  of  being  compounded  into  two,  which  are  e()ual  and  opposite  to 
each  other.  The  same  condition,  it  is  evident,  nnist  exist  with  regard 
to  each  point,  out  of  any  number  connected  by  Hexible  lines,  provided 
the  initial  position  of  these  lines  be  not  a  straight  line,  for  then,  it  is 
clear,  no  medium  exists  through  which  the  lorces  can  be  transmitted, 
and  be  made  to  act  and  re-act  upon  each  other.  This  case  may  then 
be  neglected  in  the  present  investigation,  as  it  <loes  not  involve  tha 
principle  of  cotmecting  lines,  which  here  exert,  in  reality,  no  mechani- 
cal influence  whatever.  The  same  remark  replies  .dso  when  the  con- 
necting lines  are  right  lines,  if  we  still  suppose  that  each  point  is  in 
equilibrium  by  virtue  of  Ihose/orcts  alone  which  act  upon  itself.  But 
since  we  easily  conceive  tht  transmission  of  force  from  one  point  to  the 
adjacent  one  through  the  intervention  of  a  connecting  line,  if  that  line 
be  inextensible  and  a  right  line,  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  equilibrium 
may  exist  with  regard  to  any  number  of  points  thus  united,  though 
each  point  should  not,  considered  by  itself,  be  in  equilibrium  by  virtue 
of  the  forces  applied  to  it,  provided  only  we  suppose  tliat  the  inter- 


*  .See  the  Alijenicine  Baiizeitung. 


change  of  force  between  two  consecutive  point  be  (««/««/,  i(j«ii.' and 
ojiposih.  Moreover,  we  shall  suppose  the  forces  to  be  receding  forces, 
or  such  as  tend  to  cause  two  bodies  to  proceed  from  each  other.  In 
general,  then,  it  appears  that  in  order  that  cipiilibrium  may  exist  with 
regard  to  a  system  of  points,  which  we  suppose  not  to  be  in  a  state  of 
inde[)eudent  ecpulibrium,  it  is  only  recpiisite  that  two  simple  conditions 
be  observed.  I.  The  line  of  connection  must  be  a  right  line.  II.  The 
transmission  of  t'orce  between  two  points  must  be  nialiial,  equal  and 
oppusiti.  It  follows  also,  from  the  last  condition,  that  the  interchange 
of  force  will  take  place  in  the  direction  of  the  connecting  line.  We 
shall  now  proceed  to  show  that  these  self-evident  conditions  being  ad- 
mitted, they  may  be  resolved  into  others  which  have  a  more  in-actical 
bearing,  if,  to  begin  with  the  sim|ilest  case,  we  take  two  points,  A 
and  B,  fig.  1,  we  see  at  once,  that  ecpiilibrium  being  s\ipposed,  each 
must  bo  acted  on  by  ecpud  forces,  whose  direction  are  denoted  by  the 
arrows.  If  we  now  proceed  to  the  case  of  three  points,  A,  B,  C,  fig.  '2, 
it  is  eviileut,  that  cipiilibrium  subsisting,  each  two  will  be  iu  equili- 
brium with  respect  to  one  another,  and  therefore,  as  we  have  seen,  will 
be  subject  to  equal  and  opposite  forces.  The  directions  of  these  are 
denoted  by  the  arrows.  Now,  let  the  forces  acting  in  the  directions 
A  B,  C  D,  at  the  same  point  B,  be  compounded  into  BB'  which  re- 
presents their  resultant,  and  we  have,  conso([uently,  a  system  of  three 
jioints  kept  in  e(|uilibrium  by  three  forces,  of  which  one  is  applied  to 
each  point.  But  as  the  forces  acting  at  A  and  C,  are  transmitted 
through  the  connecting  lines  to  the  point  H,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
acting  there,  it  is  obvious  the  case  differs  in  no  respect  frcuu  that  of 
three  forces  in  equilibrium  around  a  single  point.  Consequently,  call- 
ing the  forces  B  A,  B  B'  BC,  I',  Q,  K,  we  have  : — 

P    :  Q  :  :  sin.  B'  BC    :  sin.  ABC 
R  :  g  :  :  sin.  AB  B     :  sin.  ABC 

p  :  R  :  :  sin.  B'  bc  :  sin.  abR'. 

Hence  also,  from  these  propositions  ni.iy  be  found  the  values  of  P, 
Q,  and  U,  in  terms  of  two  of  the  angles  and  one  of  the  other  forces. 

•       .1  ,         ,,  sin.  B"  B  C  ,^sin.  ABB'     ,„ 

By  comparing  the  values,  ci__^^,  Q  _-_--^,  of  P  and  R, 


we  observe  that  when  /  AB  B'  =  Z  B'  B  C,  P  = 
duced  bisects  the  /ABC.     Let  /  A  B  C  =  2  (8, 


sin.  S 
sin.  2  /3 


sin.  $ 


1 


2  sin  3  COS.  |8       2  cos.  3 
1 


Hence  P  =  R  : 


R,  and  B ■ B  pro- 
.  sill.  B'BC_ 
■  ■  Tsin.  A  B  C  ~ 

Q 

2  COS.  js' 


If  Q  remain  constant,  P  a »  ami  if  fl  remain  constant,  P  a  Q 

COS.  e 


If  Z  A  B  C  be  increased 


evident  from  the  equationP  ^  _^ 


COS.  /3  is  diminished,  and  it  is  therefore 


-,  tliat  by  increasing  the  Z  AB  C 


2  COS.  /3 

we  increase  the  value  of  P;  consequently,  when  A  B  C  becomes  a 

Q 

right  line  or  S  =;  '.'0"',  the  equation  becomes  P  ^--  =  a. 


It  follows,  as  Poinsot  remarks  (Traitc  de  Statique)  that  a  cord  or 
thread  stretched  in  a  right  line  between  two  fixed  points,  will  be  ne- 
cessarily broken  by  the  smallest  possible  force  that  can  be  applied  to 
it  transversely,  sup;)03iiig  the  cord  to  bc  inextensible  and  not  to  have 
an  infinite  longitudinal  resistance.  It  may  be  further  remarked,  that 
every  material  cord  being  composed  of  particles  having  weight,  would, 
if  extended  between  two  fixed  points  lying  in  a  horizontal  line,  be  acted 
on  by  transverse  forces  of  a  definite  magnitude  ;  consequently  no  force, 
however  large,  would  bc  sullicient  to  bring  the  cord  into  a  horizoiita 
position. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  extend  the  reasoning  which  has  been  used  in  re- 

2  0 


270 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[AUGTTST  , 


fereiice  to  three  points,  to  tlie  case  of  any  number  of  points,  inexten- 
sihlv  anil  flexibly  connected.  Let  the  points  be  A,  H,  C,  D,  E,  F,  fig.  3; 
then,  if  the  whole  system  beat  rest,  each  pair  of  contiguous  points 
will  be  at  rest  with  respect  to  each  other,  and  conserpiently  will  be 
connected  hy  a  straight  line,  and  acted  on  by  equal  and  opposite  forces. 
Bv  combining,  as  before,  the  forces  at  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  we  obtain  their 
resultants  P,  Cj,  R,  S,  and  we  observe  that,  in  general,  any  number  of 
points  may  be  kept  in  equilibrium  by  as  many  forces  acting  se|r.irately 
on  each.  For  the  sake  of  greater  clearness,  let  us,  however,  imagine 
tliat  two  equal  and  opposite  forces  are  made  to  act  upon  B,  in  the  de- 
ductions C  C,  C  B,  respectively ;  then  the  system  will  be  at  rest  as 
before,  and  if  we  suj)|)ose  the  force  C  B  to  act  at  C,  the  point  B  will 
be  kept  in  equilibrium  by  three  forces,  B  A,  B  C,  BP.  In  the  same 
manner,  bj'  superimposirg  equal  and  opposite  forces  at  the  points  C 
und  D,  each  will  be  kept  at  rest  by  three  receding  forces,  two  of  which 
are  always  in  the  direction  of  the  lines  of  connection.  By  calling  the 
forces  which  act  along  the  lines  of  connection  V,  W,  X,  Y,  Z,  we  have 
therefore  the  following  proportions: — 

sin.  P  C  B  :    sin.  ABC 
sin.  ABC:   sin.  A  B  P 
sin.  Q  C  D  :    sin.  BCD 
sin.  BCD:    sin.  B  C  Q 
sin.  R  D  E  :    sin.  C  D  E 
sin.  C  D  E  :    sin.  C  D  R 
sin.  S  E  F   :    sin.  D  E  F 
sin.  D  E  F  :    sin.  D  E  ,S. 
From  these  proportions  the  relation  of  any  one  force  to  any  other  may 
be   determined,  and  consequently  any  force   may  be  represented   in 
terms  of  any  other  and  the  sines  of  the  angles  through  which  their 
lines  of  direction  respectively  pass.     For  example, 


V 

:  P 

p 

:  w 

w 

Q 

Q 

:  X 

X 

R 

R 

Y 

Y 

S 

S 

z 

v  =  z 


sin.  P  B  C 
sin.  D  E^ 


,  and  P  =r  S 


siu.  ABC 
sin.  D  E  F  ■ 


If  the  original  forces  A  B,  C  B,  by  the  union  of  which  the  force  P  is 
obtained,  were  equal,  P  B  produced  will  bisect  the  angle  ABC,  and 
the  same  is  to  be  remarked  of  the  forces  Q,  R,  S  ;  consequently,  by  the 
preceding  proportions  we  have  in  this  case,  V  ^  W  =  X  ^  Y  =  Z. 
Moreover,  denoting  by  2  a,  2  /3,  2  j,  2  5,  the  angles  of  the  polygon,  it 
follows : — 


R 


cos.  a    .  COS.  $   •  cos.  -/   ;  cos.  5. 


Figs.  4  and 


That  is  to  say,  the  forces  applied  at  the  several  angles  of  the  poly- 
gon are  proportional  to  the  cosines  of  the  halves  of  those  angles.  Let 
us  now  suppose  that  the  lines  A  B  and  B  C  are  equal  to  each  other. 
Through  the  points  A,  B,  C,  fig.  4,  describe  the  circle  A  B  C  D,  draw 
the  diameter  B  D,  the  arc  A  E,  and  E  F  at  right  angles  to  A  B.  Then 
li  D  bisects  the  /ABC,  and  because  B  A  D  is  a  right  angle  (Euc. 
J).  3L  b.  3)  :— 

B  A    ;  B  D  :  :  B  F    :  B  E  :  :  cos.  o   :  rad. 

B  A 
.*.  cos.  a  =  5-f;.    Hence,  as  th«  forces  P,  Q,  R,  S,  are  proportional  to 
B  D 

cos.  a,  cos.  0,  &c.,  if  we  suppose  all  the  sides  of  the  polygon  to  be 
equal,  it  is  evident  they  will  be  inversely,  as  the  radius  of  the  circle 
passing  through  the  points  terminating  the  two  contiguous  sides.  But 
if  we  imagine  the  sides  of  the  polygon  to  become  indefinitely  small,  it 
then  assumes  the  form  of  a  curve,  and  the  circle  becomes  the  osculat- 
ing circle,  or  the  circle  of  equal  curvature.  If,  then,  a  flexible  curve, 
the  two  extremities  of  which  are  immoveably  fixed,  be  acted  on  at 
points  equidistant  from  each  otherby  a  number  of  normal  forces,  these 
forces  will  be  inversely  as  the  radii  cif  curvature  of  the  points  of  appli- 
cation, and  the  forces  developed  in  the  direction  of  the  curve  will  be 
everywhere  the  same.     If  the  normal  forces  be  equal,  the  reciprocals 


of  the  radii  of  curvature  w  ill  be  equal,  and  therefore  the  radii  of  curva- 
ture themselves ;  consequently,  in  this  case,  the  curve  will  be  part  of 
a  circle. 

If  the  normal  force  vary  as  the  cube  of  the  cosine  of  the  angle 
formed  by  the  ordinate  and  tangent  at  any  point,  the  curve  is  a  para- 
bola, as  is  jjroved  by  Ihe  following  investigation. 

Let  P  A  R,  fig.  5,  be  a  parabola  generated  by  the  action  of  normal 
forces,  P  T  the  tangent  at  the  point  P  and  N  T,  the  subtangent.  Let 
A  N  =  :r,  N  P  =  7/,  and/*,  the  principal  parameter  or  latus  I'ectum; 
also  call  the  radius  of  curvature  R,  and  the  normal  force  V. 

N  P 

Then,  cos.  N  P  T  =  5-=- 

But  B  P^  =    N  T-  +  K  P-'  =  4  AN2  +  N  P« 
N  P  ?/ 


cos.  N  P  T  = 


Or  since  y-  . 


cos.=  N  P  T  = 


V  4  A  N=  +  N  P- 
p.r,  cos.  N  P  T  = 
p.r 


'  v-1  .!•'  +  r 


4  X-  +  fx 


^/ix'  +px 
i.,+p 


Hence  cos.-  N  P  T  a 


1 


^  X  -\-  p 
But  in  the  parabola  R 


;  or  cos.3  N  P  T  a 


{■ix'+p)% 


{■^  x-\-p)h_ 
2  s/p 


Consequently  V  a  -5  a  eos.^  N  P  T 

Let   «  be  the  normal  force  at  the  vertex,  and  denote  by  <^  the 
^/  N  P  T  : — hence,  because  at  the  vertex  cos.  t  =  1> 

f  :  V  :  :  1  ;  cos.'  (p  .■.  v  =  r  cos.'  i^. 

Again,  since  in  the  catenary,  R  CC  >*  <(>  denoting  the  angle 

°  COS.-  <p 

formed  by  the  abscissa  and  tangent,  it  is  seen  at  once,  that  when 
V  OC  cos.=  (p,  the  curve  is  a  catenary. 

Figs.  6,  7,  and  S. 


Assuming  the  system  of  points  A,  B,  C,  &c.  fig.  6,  to  be  in  equili- 
brium, we  sliall  now  imagine  the  connecting  lines  to  become  perfectly 
rigid.  It  is  evident  that  this  supposition  will  not  affect  the  equili- 
brium, as  it  does  not  involve  the  addition  or  abstraction  oi force,  the 
only  agent  by  which  equilibrium  is  preserved  or  destroyed.  If  then 
the  system  was  in  equilibrium  before,  it  will  remain  so  now,  and  we 
have  consequently  a  rigid  body  acted  upon  by  the  forces  V,  P,  Q,  R, 

•  Poinsot.    Traite  de  Statique. 


1840.] 


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271 


S,  Z,  which  equilibrate  each  other.  It  follows,  the  resultant  of  two 
or  more  of  these  forces  must  be  equal  and  directly  opposed  to  the  re- 
sultant of  all  the  others,  and  if,  therefore,  A  B,  F  E,  be  produced  and 
intersect  at  O,  the  resultant  of  the  forces  F,  Q,  R,  S  will  pass  through 
the  same  point.  Consequently,  if  the  resultant  be  represented  in  mag- 
nitude and  direction  bv  the  line  O  T,  and  a  parallelogram  be  constructed, 
whose  diagonal  is  this  line,  and  whose  sides,  N  O,  M  O,  are  drawn  in 
the  directions  of  B  A,  E  F  ;  NO,  M  O,  will  represent  the  directions 
and  magnitudes  of  the  forces  to  which  the  extreme  points  of  the  sys- 
tem, A  and  F,  are  subject.  To  proceed  now  to  the  case  where  P,  Q, 
R,  S,  are  parallel,  fig.  1 .  The  proportions  we  have  before  obtained 
will  obviously  apply  here  also,  but  in  this  case  the  supposition  of  equi- 
librium involves  another  condition,  which  was  not  before  essential ;  all 
the  forces  must  be  situated  in  the  same  plane.  For,  as  three  forces 
are  in  equilibrium  around  the  point  B,  they  will  necessarily  be  situated 
in  the  same  plane,  and  the  same  can  be  asserted  of  C,  D,  and  E ;  but 
B  P,  C  Q,  being  parallel,  B  P,  B  C,  and  C  Q  are  in  the  same  plane 
(Euc.  7,  11) ;  and  consequently,  all  the  forces  acting  at  B  and  C  are  in 
one  plane.  By  extending  this  reasoning  to  the  points  D  and  E,  we 
observe  that  all  the  forces  of  the  system  will  be  situated  in  the  same 
plane.  Referring  to  the  proportions  already  established,  and  remark- 
ing that  sin.  P  B  C  ^  sin.  B  C  Q ;  sin.  Q  C  D  =  sin.  R  D  C,  S;c.  we 
have : — 

V     :     W  :  ;  sin.  B  C  Q    :  sin.  A  B  P 
W    :     X    :  :  sin.  R  D  C    :  sin.  B  C  Q. 

And  so  of  Y  and  Z.  From  this  it  appears,  that  when  a  number  of 
parallel  forces  act  upon  points  flexibly  connected,  the  forces  developed 
in  the  directions  of  the  connecting  lines,  are  inversely  as  the  sines  of 
the  angles  made  by  these  lines  witli  the  parallel  forces.  These  forces 
are  therefore  inversely  as  the  cosines  of  the  angle  made  by  the  sides 
with  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  directions  of  the  parallel  forces;  or 
denoting  the  angle  by  if>,  and  calling  I  the  force  thus  developed ; 

1 

t  a  a  sec.  <f) 

cos.  ip 

When  B  C  is  at  right  angles  to  the  parallel  forces,  we  obtain  the 
relation  of  the  force  acting  in  tlie  direction  C  B  to  the  force  acting  in 
the  direction  E  F,  by  supposing,  as  before,  that  the  intermediate  lines 
C  D,  D  E,  have  become  rigid.  B  C  and  F  E  being  produced  will  in- 
tersect at  O,  through  which  will  pass  the  resultant  of  Q,  R,  S,  equal  to 
their  sum  and  parallel  in  direction.  Let  tliis  be  called  m,  and  denote 
by  a  the  force  acting  in  C  B  ;  then  t  being  the  force  in  E  F,  and  cf  tlie 
Z  made  by  its  direction  with  the  direction  of  a,  we  have 

1 


I  :  a  : 


cos.  (f> ; 


And  I   \  n  :\  \   :  sin.  <f, 

.*.  w  ■=.  <sin.  (f!. 
It  is  also  evident  from  these  proportions,  that 

n    :  a  :  :  sin.  <f    ;  COS.  ifi;  from  which  m  ■=.  a 


sin.  <P 

COS.  l(> 


.'.  n  =1  a  tan  (p. 

In  order  to  compare  the  forces  P,  Q,  R,  S,  let  the  angles  formed  by 
A  B,  B  C,  C  D,  fig.  8,  with  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  directions  of  the 
forces  be  called  a,  jS,  y,  5.  If  therefore  A  B  be  produced,  the  /  C  B  b  ^ 
o — $,  and  in  the  same  manner  Z  DCc=:fl  —  7.  Adopting  this  nota- 
tion, we  have  these  proportions: — 

P    ;  W  :  :  sin.  ABC  (sin  C  B  6)    :  sin.  P  B  A 

:  :  sin.  (a— (8)  :  cos.  a 

P        sin.  o  cos.  |8  —  cos.  o  sin.  $  ^  ,^  ,      „n 

—  =  cos.  ;8  (tan  o — tan  0) 


'  W  cos.  a. 

Again,  W    ;  Q* :  :  sin.  Q  C  D 

:  :  COS.  7 


w 


cos.  7 


cos  7 


sin.  BCD  (sin.  D  C  e) 
sin.  (fi  —  7) 

1 


sin./3 — 7      sin.  J3  cos  7 — cosj3sin7      cos.j8(tan5 — tan7) 
Finally,  by  multiplying  these  equations  we  have  : — 

P    tan.  o  —  tan.  p 

Q        tan.  j8  —  tan.  7' 
The  other  forces  will  be  found  to  be  related  in  a  similar  manner.     Let 
C  D  become  perpendicular  to  C  Q  or  D  R,  then  tan  7  =  Q,  and  P    : 
Q  :  :  tan.  a  —  tan.  p    ;  tan.  fi ;  also,  P  +  Q    :  Q  :  :  tan.  a    ;  tan  8. 

*  See  WliewcU's  Elements  of  Mei.hanics. 


The  principles  we  have  now  been  considering  have  been  established 
with  regard  to  a  polygon,  acted  on  by  given  forces,  but  they  may  re- 
ceive a  more  extended  application,  by  imagining  that  the  equal  sides 
of  the  polygon  become  continually  diminished  until  they  are  less  than 
any  assignable  quantity,  when,  it  is  evident,  we  obtain  a  cane,  or  in 
other  words,  a  polygon,  the  number  of  whose  sides  is  infinite.  This 
curve  will  vary  in  its  nature,  according  to  the  magnitude  and  position 
o  the  forces  by  which  it  is  generated ;  if,  for  examiile,  the  forces  be 
iqual,  and  radialt  from  the  centre  of  the  ordinate,  the  curve  will  be  a. 
semi-circle ;  if  the  forces  are  parallel,  equal,  and  equally  distributed 
along  the  cam,  we  obtain  the  catenary,  and  if,  while  equal' and  parallel, 
they  are  equally  distributed  along  the  0/-duiaie,  the  parabola  is  the 
curve  produced.  The  nature  of  the  forces  employed  in  the  production 
of  the  serai-circle  has  already  been  shown ;  and  with  respect  to  the 
catenary,  it  is  clear  that  this  curve  being  defined,  as  the  form  which  a 
flexible  thread  or  chain  assumes  when  freely  suspended  from  its  ex- 
tremities, we  shall  obtain  the  same  curve,  if  we  replace  the  forces  of 
gravhy  by  others  which  are  equal  and  parallel,  whether  their  magni- 
tudes be  less  or  greater  than  the  forces  they  have  supplanted.  The 
pi  eduction  of  a  parabola  by  equal  and  parallel  forces  uniformily  dis- 
tributed along  the  ordinate.  I  have  succeeded  in  proving  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : — In  the  first  place,  it  is  clear  from  what  has  been  said, 
that  whatever  be  the  form  of  the  curve,  if  we  denote  by  w  the  sum  of 
the  forces  acting  upon  the  arc  included  between  the  vertex  and  a  given 
point,  and  denominate  (p  the  angle  farmed  by  the  tangent  and  ordinate, 
IV  OC  tan.  (p.  If  then  we  assume  PAR,  fig.  5,  to  be  a  parabola  gene- 
rated by  the  action  of  parallel  forces,  we  have —  • 

NT        2x 

tan.^^.^=- 


But  y- 


-  pj;  or  X 


P 


,  and  by  substitution, 


tan.  ^  =: 


P 


2i/ 
Hence,  w  d  —  O.  y. 

r 

An  attempt  has  thus  been  made  to  exhibit  in  the  most  simple  and 
intelligible  form,  some  elementary  principles,  which  must  tend  to  sys- 
teraize  and  illuminate  our  ideas  upon  the  nature  and  mode  of  action  of 
the  several  forces  to  which  a  suspension  bridge  is  subject.  In  the 
composition  of  this  paper,  I  am  much  indebted  to  a  chapter  in  Poinsot's 
"Traite  de  8tatique-,"  but  a  somewhat  different  view  of  the  subject 
has  here  been  taken,  and  some  new  matter  has  also  been  added,  which 
it  is  hoped  will  not  be  thought  uninteresting. 


CANDIDUS'S     NOTE-BOOK, 
FASCICULUS  XVIL 


"  I  must  have  litjerty 
AVithal,  as  large  a  cliarter  as  the  winds. 
To  blow  on  whom  1  please." 


I.  Much  as  has  been  said  and  written  about  styles  of  architecture 
the  Consumptive  Gothic  has  hitherto  escaped  notice,  and  consequently 
animadversion.  This  must  not  be  confounded  with  so-called  Carpen- 
ter's Gothic;  for  it  is  frequently  correct  as  to  outline,  but  nevertheless 
quite  otherwise  as  to  execution,  the  mouldings  and  details  being 
terribly  attenuated,  whereby  a  disagreeable  meagreness  and  insipidity 
take  the  place  of  relief  and  boldness,and  instead  of  appearing  carved,  the 
ornaments  look  as  if  they  had  been  stamped  with  a  butter-print.  Al- 
though its  design  may  be  exact  as  to  mere  pattern,  yet  if  its  mullions 
and  transoms  be  pared  away,  as  not  unfrequently  happens,  to  about  half 
their  due  proportions,  as  regards  the  spaces  between  the  former,  a 
Gothic  window  becomes  deficient  in  that  w  hich  gives  character  to  one- 
Nor  is  it  a  little  strange  that  while  architects  affect  as  they  do,  to  be 
scandalized  at  the  slightest  deviations  from  the  proportions  of  Greek, 
and  Roman  columns,  thev  make  no  scruple  whatever  of  deviating  alto- 
gether from  those  proportions  upon  which  the  effect  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture very  materially  depends;  but  because  greater  latitude  and 
freedom  are  allowable 'in  that  style,  with  regard  to  composition,  con- 
sider themselves  at  libeity  to  disregard  what  may  fairly  be  called  its 
constitutional  principles. 

II.  Now  that  Brummagem  silver,  and  other  Brummagem  productions, 
are  distinguished  by  the  name  of  '  Victoria,'— which,  by  the  bye,  is  a. 

2  0  2 


272 


THI]  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[AlGUST , 


most  left-luimled  compliment  to  her  Majesty, — we  shall  probably  ere 
long  have  a  'Victorian'  style,  as  well  as  an  Eli/iabethau  one,  in  archi- 
tecture.    Inileetl,  such  style  is  now  beginning  to  display  itself  in  the 
rows  of  houses  rising  up  about   the  church  at  PadJington,  which  are 
about  the  most  Brummagem  attairs  in  bricks  and  mortar  I  ever  beheld. 
And  such  enormities  are  quietly  perpetrated  before  our  eyes,  while 
good  easy  critics  are  comfortably  twaddling  about  styles.     That  we 
should  come  to  such  abominations  in  taste — such  frightful  barbarisms! 
Better,  iiitinitely  better  would  it  have  been  to  have  stuck  to  the  unso- 
phisticated, respectable  dullness  which  stamps  all  the  jirivate  streets 
at  the  West-end  of  (he  Town  ;  inasmuch  as  the  absence  of  all  preten- 
sion at  design  is  far  more  tolerable  than  design  run  mad — as  we  per- 
ceive it  to  be  among  the  Paddingtonians.     The  name  of  a  Wyatt  has 
been  mentioned  to  me — a  descendant,  I  believe,  of  the  illustrious  James 
of  '  execrable  memory,' — as  that  of  the  offender ; — yet  can  it  be  true  ?   A 
law,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  will  be  passed,  iirohibiting  foreigners  from  pass- 
ing through  Paddington,  exce])t  they  be  blindfolded.     Let  the  l/?gis- 
lature  look  well  to  it;  for  the  honour  and  credit  of  our  beloved  country 
are  at  stake.     Already  have  we  been  sneered  at, — nay,  reviled  and 
rated  in  good  set  terms  by  certain  saucy  foreign  critics  for  our  Boz- 
niania  and  Jack  Shephard-mania,  which  they  are  pleased  to  represent 
as  deplorably  wretched  in  taste ;  and  now  we  shall  be  cut-up,  abused, 
ridiculed,  and  made  laughing-stocks  of,  on  account  of  our  sins  in  brick 
and  mortar  at  Paddington — the  more  suitable  name  for  w'hich  would 
oe  JIadding-town. 

in.  "And  how,"  said  I  to  a  German  friend,  on  his  return  from  an 
excursion  to  the  North  of  England — "how  did  Newcastle  please  you  ? 
if  there  be  truth  in  Dibdin,  its  magnificence  must  have  enchanted  you. 
Come  now,  be  sincere — put  away  all  your  continental  prejudices;  own 
that  at  last  you  have  met  with  sometliing  to  match  the  glories  you 
have  left  behind  you." — "Dibdin  bed — d  "' was  the  startling  rejily  ; 
"a  man  who  could  write  greasy  puffs  on  such  a  farrago  of  architectural 
balderdash,  is  fit  only  to  be  flunky  to  your  George  Robins.  Dibdin 
must  be  an  absolute  dunce  to  gabble  as  he  does  about  the  'Northum- 
brian Vitruvius,' and  cr)' up  as  superior  creations  of  art,  a  parcel  of 
tawdrily  bedizzened  houses,  among  which  there  is  not  one  single  bit 
of  <lesign  to  be  discovered."  "All  then  that  is  to  be  said,"  returned 
I,  "  is  that  we  Englishmen  do  make  confounded  fools  of  ourselves." 

IV.  The  only  symptom  I  have  yet  discovered  of  the  so  much  talked 
of  March  of  Intellect,  is  that  there  has  been  no  "  laying  the  first  stone" 
of  the  New  Houses  of  Parliament, — none  of  the  fussy  tomfoolery, 
with  the  "silver-trowel,"  and  all  the  rest  of  it,  which  generally  takes 
place  upon  such  "important  occasions."  The  sensible  example  thus 
set,  will,  I  trust,  be  adhered  to  in  future  ;  for  I  suspect  the  silly  cere- 
mony hitherto  in  vogue,  Iras  frequently  dipped  rather  deeplv  into  tlie 
building  funds — or  into  funds  that  might  else  have  been  added  to 
them.  In  truth  it  is  rather  provoking  to  mortal  patience  to  find  that 
wliile  a  church  or  other  building  is  frequently  marred  and  spoiled  for 
the  sake  of  saving  a  paltry  hundred  pounds  or  so,  the  money  can  be 
found  forthcoming  freely  enough  for  eating  and  drinking  after  the 
august  ceremony  alhuled  to,^ — for  of  course  all  such  recreation  must  be 
paid  for,  though  it  should  amount  to  double  the  architect's  commis- 
sion. As  to  the  architect  himself,  he,  poor  fellow,  is  generally  a  no- 
body— a  mere  cypher  on  the  occasion — a  creature  whom  the  news- 
]ia|iers  do  not  think  it  worthwhile  to  name;  the  first  fiildle  on  all  such 
occasions  being  some  bustling  body,  noble  or  otherwise,  who  comjjli- 
ments  those  around  him,  and  is  be-complimented  by  them  as  the  hero 
of  the  day. 

V.  On  the  outside  of  his  "Palace  of  Architecture,"  Wightwick 
gives  us  what  he  calls  a  Pyramid  of  Architecture,  the  grarfmiorcourses 
of  which  are  respectively  inscribed  with  the  name  of  some  high 
authority  in  the  art,  the  lowermost  being  that  of  Vitruvius,  and  the 
topmost  that  of  Hosking.  Whether  this  arrangement  was  merely 
accidental,  or  intended  to  have  some  particular  meaning,  I  pretend  not 
to  say;  but  it  certainly  does  look  much  like  assigning  the  post  of 
supremacy  and  honour  to  Hosking  that  staunch  Anti-Vitruvianist,  and 
terrible  heretic  and  unorthodox  writer,  who  has  not  scrupled  to  abuse 
the  venerable  Vitruvius  in  good  set  terms, — and  to  bring  his  authority 
into  contempt  by  asserting  that  a  man  might  just  as  well  study  Geo- 
graphy in  Gulliver's  Travels,  as  Architecture  in  the  wiitings'of  the 
great  Marcus  Pollio. — We  here  also  find  placed  in  friendly  conjunction, 
"  cheek  by  jowl,"  the  names  of  Britton  and  Pugin,  an  association  that 
is  almost  enough  to  make  the  latter  start  from  his  grave,  for  in  his 
life-time  the  association  between  them  was  of  the  most  cat-and-dog 
kind  ;  nor  was  P.  at  all  sparing  of  most  highly  flavoured  epithets  to- 
wartls  his  quandam  co-partner, — of  whom  by  the  bye,  Bartholomew 
has  just  spoken  as  "  the  immortal  antiquary,"  and  w  horn  he  no  doubt 
considers  to  be  a  most  profound  and  erudite  etymologist  also. 

VI.  "There  are  thieves  and  paupers  of  a  verv  respectable  kind  in 
the  literary  world"!; — So  sayeth  one— whom  1  take  to  be  no  other 


than  Carlyle,  in  a  recent  article  on  Lessing,  in  the  Foreign  t^u  uterlv. 
How  many  respectable  paupers — that  is,  very  respectable  people,  vet 
very  poor  creatures,  there  may  be  in  the  architectural  world,  it  might 
be  dangerous  to  compute  ;  but  with  regard  to  thieves  there  is  no  occa- 
sion to  deny  that  there  is  abundance  of  them ;  since  so  far  from  being 
at  all  ashamed  of  thieving  or  making  any  secret  of  it,  the  greater  part 
jilume  themselves  mainly  upon  it,  and  hold  plagiarism  to  be  a  proof 
not  only  of  taste,  but  of  talent.  A  literary  thief — at  least  a  "  respect- 
able" one,  has  generally  the  grace  to  blush  when  his  pilferings  are 
detected,  and  the  fine  peacock  feathers  with  which,  jackdaw-like,  he 
has  dressed  himself  up  are  plucked  from  him:  not  so  the  architectural 
one,  for  he  boldly  challenges  your  admiration  of  wdiat  notoriously  does 
not  belong  to  himself,  yet  in  which  consists  all  the  design  and  taste  his 
buildings  can  pretend  to.  Originality  of  any  kind, — even  that  wdiich 
extends  to  no  more  than  giving  a  fresh  turn  to  stale  commonplace,  is 
generally  disclaimed  altogether, — under  the  trumpery  pretence  that  it 
is  exceedingly  hazardous  to  depart  from  actual  precedent;  and  so  un- 
doubtedly it  is  for  those  who  have  no  principles  of  taste  to  guide  them, 
and  who  therefore  find  it  most  convenient  and  politic  to  decry  all  at- 
tempt at  originality  as  dangerous  innovation.  Nolumus  leges  Anglice 
mutari,  is  the  maxim  of  our  legislators,  notwithstanding  which  they  are 
perpetually  tinkering  our  laws,  quashing  old  ones,  and  enacting  new 
ones — blundering  ones  let  those  say  who  choose.  Whv  should  archi* 
tects  not  venture  to  follow  their  example  ? — at  all  events  blunders  in 
taste  are  not  quite  so  dangerous  in  legislation. 

VII.  "Obest  pleruinque,"  says  the  great  Roman  philosopher,  "  iis 
qui  discere  volunt  auctoritas:"  which  is  certainly,  unfortunately  like- 
wise, most  true  with  respect  to  architecture,  in  wdiich  a  superstitious 
respect  to  precedent  has  impeded  the  advancement  of  the  art,  and 
hindered  that  progressive  developement  wdiich  might  else  take  place. 
Truly  fortunate  was  it  for  the  art  that  the  writings  of  Vitruvius  were 
not  brought  to  light  an<l  studied  some  centuries  earlier,  for  otherwise 
the  world  had,  in  all  probability  never  beheld  that  exquisite  Gothic 
style  which  now  enchants  us.  We  of  the  present  day  are  content  to 
be  copyists — to  do  what  has  been  done  before,  and  nothing  more.  The 
consequence  is  that  when  we  have  copied  one  particular  style  till  we 
are  actually  cloyed  with  it,  we  go  back  to  some  other,  not  because  it  is 
at  all  better — perhaps  not  even  so  good  as  that  we  are  become  sick 
of;  but  because  it  is,  at  any  rate  a  change.  Thus  after  a  most  servile 
and  so  far  erroneous  admiration  of  Grecian  examples,  we  suddenly, 
with  a  High  Presto  !  become  ardent  admirers  of  Elizabethan  architec- 
ture, copying  all  its  grotesque  whims,  its  monstrous  extravagancies, 
its  absurdities,  and  puerilities,  instead  of  selecting  out  its  good  quali- 
ties, and  rejecting  its  vices.  But  to  do  this  requires  more  taste  and 
discrimination  than  fall  to  every  one's  lot.  Perhaps  the  recent  appli- 
cation of  this  style  to  some  dashing  shops  at  the  West-end  of  the 
Town,  may  help  to  bring  it  into  discredit  for  other  iiurposes,  and  stamp 
it  with  the  gentility-mongers, — a  tolerably  numerous  class,  as  vulgar, 
slow,  and  of  course  quite  frightful.  It  happens  oddly  enough  that 
Wightwick  has  not  given  a  single  instance  of  i\\\i  fashionable  style  in 
his  new  work,  mentioned  above  in  the  5th  section  of  this  Fasciculus. 

VIII.  "  The  Lord  deliver  us  from  patronage,"  was  the  half-serious, 
lialf-jesting  exclamation  of  one  who  had  had  some  experience  of  the 
pig-headed  obstinacy  of  ignoraniusses  who,  because  they  hold  the 
purse,  fancy  their  own  blundering  whims  ought  to  over-rule  all  other 
taste.  No  wonder  that  poor  Peruzzi  declined  the  patronage  of  Cle- 
ment VII.,  who  would  fain  have  employed  him — not  to  decorate  an- 
other Farnesina,  but  to  act  as  military  engineer  at  the  siege  of  Florence ; 
Such  a  Mecffiuas  would  engage  a  Ude  to  cut  bread  and  butter,  or  one 
like  myself  to  make  a  spelling-book.  The  patronage  of  the  tasteless 
is  the  very  bane  and  corruption  of  art;  and  the  tyranny  of  those  who 
devote  themselves  to  it  in  the  true  spirit  of  artists.  His  most  gracious 
Majesty  king  Midas  was  a  royal  patron  of  the  above  class  ;  and  it  is  to 
be  regretted  that  our  modern  Midasses  are  not  similarly  decorated 
with  donkey-ears. 

IX.  No  tloubt  it  will  be  thought  by  many  that  I  have  already  ex- 
pressed my  opinion  of  Palladio  both  frequentlt'  and  plainly  enough  ; 
but  inveterate  prejudices  are  not  to  be  put  down  by  a  few  blows. 
They  must  be  attacked  again  and  again,  until  the  mere  repetition  of 
the  same  censures  attracts  notice,  and  impresses  them  on  people's  at- 
tention. I  do  not  pretend  to  affirm  that  Palladio  possesses  no  merit 
whatever,  or  that  he  is  the  worst  possible  model  an  architect  can  fol- 
low; yet  I  certainly  do  think  tliat  he  does  not  deserve  to  be  regarded 
as  a  model  or  authority  at  all,  because  there  is  hardly  a  vice  or  solecism 
which  such  authority  will  not  be  found  to  justify,  if  his  precedent  is 
considered  of  any  avail.  Those  whose  indolence  disposes  them  to 
take  up  with  ready-made  opinions,  wdiich  once  adopted  they  du  not 
care  to  have  disturbed,  will  of  course  be  scandalized  at  this,  and  are 
welcome  to  be  so,  in  like  manner  as  many  would  be  shocked  at  what 
the  Weber,  that  is  Karl  Julius  (the  most  witty  and  entertaining  of  all 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


273 


philosophers)  has  said  of  the  author  of  Waverley,  whom  he  speaks  of 
as  "  des  zur  mode  geworden  Vietsclimienrs,  iind  diistern  Schotteii 
Walter  Scott,"  and  t'khchnierer,  be  it  observed,  is  a  far  strongerterm 
of  reproach  than  our  English  "Scribbler."  Poor  Sir  Walter!  a  hun- 
dred volumes  are,  in  fact,  somewhat  too  heavy  a  cargo  for  an  author 
to  venture  himself  with  upon  the  stream  of  time,  for  as  Voltaire  re- 
marks "  ou  ne  va  point  k  la  posterite  avec  tant  de  bagage." 


SUTCLIFFE'S  PATENT  ROTATORY  PUMP  AND  GENERAL 

LEWIS. 

Sir — The  following  is  a  description  of  Sutclilie's  pump  with  the 
result  of  an  experiment  on  the  discharging  power  of  one  now  at  work 
at  the  Limerick  Docks,  where  it  is  found  far  superior  to  the  chain  and 
sucking  pumps  before  in  use.  From  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be 
applied  in  all  those  cases  where  inunps  arc  recpiired,  and  not  being 
subject  to  get  out  of  repair  or  choaked,  it  promises  to  be  soon  very 
generalh'  used,  not  only  in  hydraulic  works,  but  also  in  the  navy,  and 
those  cases  where  the  common  pump  was  before  used  for  household 
purposes.  The  patentee  has  been  almost  constantly  connected  with 
the  execution  of  extensive  works,  as  superintendant  under  Sir  Thomas 
Deane  and  Company,  and  his  attention  was  directed  to  the  subject  by 
the  frequency  of  repairs  required  for  the  pumps  usually  employed  in 
clearing  out  water  from  foundations  and  dams,  their  great  friction,  and 
the  unequal  flow  of  water  from  tliem  ;  and  I  am  informed  that  his  in- 
vention has  received  the  approval  of  Mr.  Rhodes  the  engineer,  and 
Sir  Thomas  Deane  and  Company,  the  contractors  for  the  Limerick 
Docks. 

In  this  pump  a  vacuum  is  formed  by  the  revolution  of  an  elliptical 
frame  within  a  cylinder,  when  the  water  rising  it  is  carried  round  in 
the  lunar  space  between  the  ellipse  and  circle  shown  on  section  and 
discharged. 


Fig.  \. 


FiK 


In  tlie  annexed  figures,  fig.  1  is  a  side  elevation,  fig.  2  an  end  eleva- 
tion, fig.  3  a  vertical  section  along  the  length,  and  fig.  4  a  vertical  sec- 
tion across  the  width  of  the  pump,  and  the  same  letters  refer  to  the 
same  parts  in  each  figure  ;  .r,  ,i',  the  axis  by  the  rotation  of  which  the 
elliptical  frame  f,  e,  e,  e,  is  carried  round  in  the  direction  indicated  by 
the  arrow  /,  in  fig.  3;  c,  c,  c,  c,  the  cylinder  in  which  e,  e,  e,  e,  moves 
both,  having  the  common  axis  .r,  .v  ;  /,/,  a  jacket  forming  with  the  ex- 
terior of  the  cylinder  a  passage  for  the  rising  water  from  the  pipe  p  ; 
/,  and /',  fig.  3,  two  extreme  positions  of  a  tongue  whidi  hinders  the 
water  bro\ight  round  in  the  lunes  from  m,  of  escaping  again  at  the 
same  place,  and  which  keeps  touching  the  surface  of  the  ellipse  in  its 
revolution;  b,  b,  b,  b,  a  box  into  which  the  water  is  received  and  dis- 
charged through  the  discharging  pipe  d,  and  when  d  is  closed,  forces 
the  water  by  the  reaction  of  the  air  above  through  (lie  forcing  pipe  p'. 
When  the  pump  is  to  be  used,  water  is  thrown  in  from  above,  which 
renders  the  contact  between  the  elliptical  valve  or  frame  and  the  cylin- 
der water  tight;  after  a  few  revolutions  the  air  is  exhausted,  and  the 
water  rising  is  carried  into  6,  h,  b,  6,  and  discharged  hy  d  or  p'  as  before 
described.  It  is  evident  the  discharge  wiU  depend  conjointly  on  the 
velocity  and  sectional  area  of  the  water  passing  from  the  jacket  into 
the  lunes,  and  the  area  of  the  lunes  and  the  velocity  vi'ith  which  they 
are  formed,  or  carried  round.  When  the  velocity  and  sectional  area  at 
m  is  suflicient  to  fill  a  hme  in  the  time  of  half  a  revolution,  a  maximum 
eti'ect  is  produced,  and  the  discharge  is  found  ;  when  the  velocity  at 
m  is  sufficient  to  fill  the  lunes,  by  multiplying  the  velocity  of  the  lunes 
by  twice  their  area  of  one.  Tlie  foregoing  figures  are  ilrawn  from  a 
pump  of  this  construction  now  at  work,  and  are  laid  down  on  a  scale 
of  5-Stlis  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  but  the  handles  and  fly  are  not  shown. 
Four  men  discharge  12S  gallons  through  a  mean  lift  of  8  feet  G  inches 
in  30  seconds,  two  men  working  at  each  handle,  and  the  fly  being 
about  4  feet  G  inches  in  diameter.  It  should  not  be  forgot  that  the 
facility  this  construction  of  pump  affords  for  the  application  of  a  fly 
wheel,  affords  one  tho\igh  not  the  first  of  its  recommendations.  The 
water  issues  in  one  regular  and  continued  stream  from  the  discharging 
pipe,  chips  and  clay  attached  to  them  when  passed  into  the  pump, 
getting  through  without  injuring  the  motion  or  apparently  taking  from 
the  discharge. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  3. 


Fig.  i. 


The  following  are  sketches  of  a  lewis  invented  by  the  same  ingenious 
person,one  of  which  construction  is  now  used  in  setting  the  heavy  facing 
to  the  quays  of  the  before-mentioned  docks ;  some  of  the  stones  are  3a 
tons  in  weight.  Fig.  1,  front  elevation;  fig.  2,  side  elevation;  and 
fig.  3,  a  plan  with  half  the  upper  ring  removed.  The  same  letters 
refer  to  the  same  parts  in  each,  6  a  ring  as  in  the  common  lewis;  a,  a, 
a  collar  turning  on  the  axis ;  d  and  d,  and  c,  c,  two  pieces  inserted  into 
the  collar  when  the  lewis  is  to  be  used,  and  also  into  the  mortice,  m,m, 
in  the  stone  to  be  set.  When  the  lewis  is  drawn  up,  the  collar  a,  a, 
presses  against  the  outside  sloping  shoulders  of  e,  c,  and  causes  both 
pieces  to  approach  at  top  and  separate  at  bottom,  thereby  pressing 
the  pieces  against  the  cheeks  7n,  and  m  of  the  mortice,  by  means  of 
which  pressure  the  stone  rises  with  the  lewis.  The  upper  portions  of 
c  and  c,  are  perforated  to  admit  a  line  being  tied  to  them,  and  by 
giving  this  line,  when  the  stone  is  set,  a  few  smart  pulls  in  the  di- 
rection e  e,  the  piece  c  is  easily  drawn  up  through  the  collar  a,  a,  or 
sufEciently  to  set  the  lewis  at  liberty.  This  lewis  has  a  great  advan- 
tage  over'those  in  ordinary  use,  as  it  is  more  simple  in  its  construction, 
and  general  in  its  application,  than  any  I  have  yet  seen ;  it  will  set  at 
all  depths  of  water  with  equal  ease,  and  when  the  stone  is  set,  can 
speedily  be  drawn  up  again.  The  collar  cr,  a,  and  the  construction  of 
the  pieces  e  and  e,  form  the  distinctive  marks  between  this  and  the 
common  lewis.  It  is  similar  in  its  manner  of  acting  to  the  "  Devil's 
Nippers,"  but  is  more  extensive  in  its  application.  By  placing  the 
lewis  hole  over  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  stone,  the  stone  can  be  let 
down  to  its  place  with  its  bed  liorizontal. 

Your's,  obediently, 

John  Neville,  C.  E. 

Limerick,  June  1340. 


274 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


ON  OBLIQUE  ARCHES.— MR.  BUCK  IN  REPLY  TO  MR. 
NICHOLSON. 

SiK — After  tlie  floiirisli  wliich  has  appeared  in  your  last  Journal  from 
the  pen  of  Mr.  Peter  Nicliolson,  I  trust  to  your  candour  for  the  inser- 
tion of  the  following  remarks  thereon.  With  them  I  have  sent  a  copy 
of  my  reply  to  him  whicdi  was  [jublished  in  the  Railway  Magazine  on 
the  25th  of  January  last.  I  have  sent  it  for  the  purpose  of  begging 
the  favour  of  your  giving  it  a  place  in  the  Civil  Engineer  and  Archi- 
tect's Journal,  immediately  after  this,  because  without  it  the  corres- 
pondence is  incomplete,  ami  neither  Mr.  Nicholson's  letter  nor  my  ob- 
servations thereon  can  be  properly  understood  by  those  who  have  not 
seen  the  former :  and  the  republication  of  my  letter  of  that  date  is  the 
more  necessarv,  inasmuch  as  Mr.  Nicholson  in  several  instances  has 
repeated  mistakes  which  were  saii^factvrily  exposed,  to  every  one 
except  himself,  in  that  reply.  Relying  therefore  on  your  doing  so  I 
will  proceed. 

It  may  be  first  proper  to  state  that  since  my  "  Essay  on  Oblique 
Bridges"  made  its  ap])earance,  Mr.  Nicholson  has  published  on  the 
same  subject,  his  "Guide  to  Railway  Masonry,"  in  the  commencement 
of  which  he  has  very  freely  criticised  the  works  of  others  as  well  as 
mine,  and  if  he  had  done  so  ably  and  impartially,  I  should  have  had 
nothing  to  complain  of;  but  it  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  my  former 
letter  that  he  had  affected  not  to  have  had  sufficient  leisure  to  read 
the  work;  is  it  therefore  to  be  wondered  at  that  he  should  have  fallen 
into  errors  in  criticising  it  ?  From  the  tone  of  his  remarks  it  is  quite 
obvious  that  the  first  and  great  offence  wdiich  I  have  committed  in  his 
sight,  is  the  fact  of  my  having  published  anything  on  that  subject, 
which  he  appears  to  claim  exclusively  as  his  own:  the  second  unpar- 
donable offence  is  the  fact  of  my  having,  in  reply  to  him,  in  the  Rail- 
way Magazine,  exposed  and  refuted  the  errors  into  which  he  had 
fallen,  by  putting  forth  his  imaginary  "inconsistencies  in  certain  for- 
mula." 

Mr.  Nicholson  has  chosen  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  others  and  made 
the  preface  to  his  book,  where  no  one  could  reply  to  him,  the  vehicle 
of  his  denunciations:  and  I  chose  to  set  the  jniblic  and  himself  right 
upon  the  subject,  so  far  as  I  was  concerned,  by  replying  to  him  else- 
where, for  which  purpose  I  selected  a  Journal  extensively  circulated, 
and  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  railway  business. 

In  the  latter  part  of  Mr.  Nicholson's  address,  he  tells  your  readers 
he  "has  given  vent  to  his  feelings  at  the  ingratitude  which  Mr.  Buck 
has  shewn."  Therefore,  before  advancing  any  further,  I  beg  to  ob- 
serve, I  know  nothing  of  Mr.  Nicholson  except  through  his  writings,  I 
have  never  seen  him,  nor  have  I  ever  had  any  correspondence  with 
him  except  tliis. 

In  the  introduction  to  my  Essay  I  made  mention  of  him  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms. 

"In  Nicholson's  work  on  stone  cutting,  published  in  1S28,  the  me- 
thod of  constructing  oblique  arches  with  spiral  courses  is  briefly  ex- 
plained, and  to  it  we  are  indebted  for  the  first  principles  of  the  art, 
but  it  does  not  enter  sufficiently  into  detail.  Having  stated  thus  much, 
the  author  will  not  hesitate  to  make  use  of  the  principles  set  forlh  in 
that  work  without  further  acknowledgement;  at  the  same  time  it  is 

E roper  to  mention,  that  the  matter  which  may  be  found  common  to 
oth,  does  not  extend  beyond  a  small  portion  of  the  first  and  third 
chapters  of  this  Essay."  Surely  any  one  but  Mr.  Nicholson  would 
have  been  satisfied  with  this. 

Alluding  to  the  templates  Mr.  Nicholson  has  also  given  "  vent  to  his 
feelings,"  and  made  use  of  the  following  reprehensible  language. 
"Now,  Sir,  that  Mr.  Buck  should  have  made  these  assertions  is,  tome, 
a  matter  of  the  utmost  surprise,  seeing  that  he  must  have  known,  when 
he  made  them,  that  he  was  de:iberately  stating  that  which  was  incor- 
rect." 

Here  Mr.  Nichol?on  has  put  himself  out  of  the  pale  of  civilised  so- 
ciety, and  I  most  uneqiiivocally  repel  his  accusation,  and  conscientiously 
reassert  the  truth  of  every  word  contained  in  my  reply,  to  wliich  he 
refers.  Mr.  Nicholson  will  be  disappointed  if  after  this  he  looks  for 
very  gentle  criticism  at  my  hands. 

In  Mr.  Nicholson's  letter  he  has  laboured  very  hard  to  show  that  the 
strictures  contained  in  my  reply  of  last  January  were  erroneous;  but  I 
am  under  the  necessity  of  declaring  he  has  completely  failed  in  the 
attempt,  and  moreover  that  every  thing  stated  by  me  remains  imre- 
futed,  as  an  attentive  reference  thereto  will  make  apparent.  He  has 
taken  especial  pains  to  rebut  the  following :  "this  dilemma  leads  me 
to  infer  that  Mr.  Nicholson  is  not  practically  familiar  with  the  subject 
upon  which  he  has  written."  And  probably  it  will  astonish  many  when 
I  say  that  Mr.  Nicholson  has,  but  very  unintentionally  no  doubt, 
confessed  that  I  was  correct  in  coming  to  such  a  conclusion;  a  conclu- 
sion at  which  I  arrived  from  the  internal  evidence  afforded  by  his 


writings.  He  now  says  in  his  defence,  "I  have  seen  nine  Oblique 
Bridges  on  the  Newcastle  and  North  Shields  Railway,  and  fi'v(  on  the 
Brandling  Junction  Railway,  all  executed  in  stone  on  the  principle 
laid  <lown  by  me,  making,  upon  the  two  railways /uurUcn  bridges  within 
a  distance  of  about  eight  miles  of  Newcastle,  and  built,  as  it  weke, 
under  my  own  immediate  inspection."  This  is  precisely  what  I  ex- 
pected ;  it  is  a  confession  that  he  is  "  no/  practicullij/cmiliar  icith  the 
tiuhjtct  on  U'hich  he  has  icrilltn."  He  "has  xuii"  fourteen  oblique 
bridges  built  within  eight  miles  of  Newcastle,  and  there  are  thousands 
of  la<lies  and  gentlemen  as  well  as  others  who  can  say  so  likewise. 

Mr.  Nicholson  is  highly  indignant  at  my  having  stated  that  he 
adopted  from  ray  "  Essaj',"  the  correct  method  of  showing  the  joints 
in  the  elevation  of  the  face  of  an  oblique  arch.  Here  I  beg  to  observe 
that  the  method  shown  in  his  work  on  "Stone  Cutting,"  is  erroneous: 
in  his  "Guide"  he  has  given  that,  and  added  the  other  which  I  con- 
sidered him  to  have  "  adopted."  No  doubt  it  is  just  possible  he  might 
have  found  it  out  by  watching  the  progress  of  the  fourteen  bridges 
wdiich  he  has  teen  near  Newcastle. 

Mr.  Nicholson  exclaims  against  his  having  adopted  anything  as  fol- 
lows :  "  even  if  I  had  been  driven  to  such  a  strait  as  to  think  of,  or  to 
stoop  to  such  a  thing:"  and  he  also  reminds  me  that  "facts  are  stub- 
born things."  Well,  be  it  so.  I  think  the  following  is  internal  evi- 
dence afforded  by  his  "Guide,"  of  his  having  been  driven  to  such  a 
"strait."  In  my  "  Essay  "  reference  is  made  to  a  line  which  I  have 
denominated  the  "  jlxial  kng/h."  This  term  never  appeared  in  any 
previous  work  of  Mr.  Nicholson's,  or  of  any  other  writer,  and  I  coined 
the  word  axial  to  suit  the  occasion  :  it  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  dic- 
tionary :  but  it  is  found  in  Mr.  Nicholson's  recent  work,  and  he  has 
thought  proper  to  insert  its  signification  in  his  "Descriptive  Defini- 
tions." 

Nearly  at  the  beginning  of  his  letter  he  says :  "  I  have  examined  the 
third  chapter  of  Mr.  Buck's  Essay, and  lean  find  no  method  explaining 
the  making  of  the  curved  edges  of  the  templates  Nos.  1  and  2,  plate 
26,  in  ray  work,  to  which  I  refer  when  I  say  they  are  not  shown  by  any 
other  author  who  has  written  on  the  subject :  and  I  have  also  examined 
the  fifth  plate  in  his  'Essay'  which  Mr.  Buck  says  contains  eight  dia- 
grams exhibiting  the  form  of  these  temjilates,  and  I  have  been  equally 
disappointed,  for  I  can  find  no  such  templates  exhibited.  Mr.  Buck 
does  not  even  show  how  the  radius  of  curvature  of  these  templates 
may  be  found ;  neither  does  he  give  a  hint  that  they  are  necessary." 

Mr.  Nicholson  appears  to  state  by  the  above  that  I  have  not  given 
diagrams  for  the  too  ^art/ew/a)' templates :  this  is  true,  because  that 
exhibited  by  figure  13,  in  my  Essay,  and  which  is  very  unlike  any  of 
his,  renders  those  particular  templates  unnecessary,  and  if  he  were 
"  practically  familiar  with  the  subject,"  he  would  have  discoveretl  that 
fact,  and  would  have  been  able  to  see  that  it  is  a  much  more  efficient 
instrument  than  those,  the  omission  of  which  appears  to  have-so  much 
disturbed  him.  For  the  same  reason  I  have  not  shown  "  how  the  radius 
of  curvature  of  those  omitted  templates  may  be  found,"  namely,  be- 
cause it  is  not  necessary. 

Here  I  will  make  a  remark  which  I  should  not  have  done  had  not 
Mr.  Nicholson  brought  the  subject  under  my  immediate  notice  ;  and  it 
is  that  the  method  given  by  him  for  finding  the  radius  referred  to  is 
fallacious  ;  but  the  intolerance  manifested  by  him  excludes  him  from 
the  privilege  of  being  put  right. 

Mr.  Nicholson  quotes  my  statement  as  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  a 
demonstration  for  the  curious  property  of  the  mutual  convergence  of 
the  chords  of  the  curves  of  the  joints  of  the  face  of  the  arch,  and  then 
adds  most  illogically:  "This,  Sir,  I  consider  to  be  a  sufficient  admis- 
sion of  the  justness  of  my  remarks,  and  one  which  renders  it  perfectly 
unnecessary  for  me  to  allude  further  to  those  remarks  at  this  time." 
Now  it  so  happens  that  Mr.  Nicholson  had  never  made  any  remarks 
upon  this  subject,  it  being  absolutely  impossible  for  hira  to  have  done 
so,  inasmuch  as  he  was  previously  perfectly  ignorant  of  the  facts,  and 
of  the  property  for  w  hich  a  demonstration  was  sought.  He  has  garbled 
the  quotation  and  misapplied  it.  I  went  on  to  say  that  subsequently 
to  the  publication  of  the  '■  Essay,"  a  friend  of  mine  had  found  one,  a 
beautiful  geometrical  demonstration  ;  it  has  not  been  published  how- 
ever, and  1  challenge  Mr.  Nicholson  to  produce  one. 

Mr.  Nicholson  draws  a  comparison  between  his  work  and  mine  in 
the  following  words. 

"  Mr.  Buck's  work  is  only  intended  for  the  use  of  those  who  may 
happen  to  have  been  trained  in  a  proper  course  of  mathematical  study, 
and  which,  I  believe,  is  not  the  case  with  a  tithe  of  the  young  men, 
for  whose  use  chiefly,  Mr.  B.  has  written  his  book.  On  the  other 
hand,  mine  is  intended  as  a  purely  practical  work,  and  as  such,  I  have 
shown  in  it  how  every  useful  length,  distance,  or  angle  of  an  oblique 
arch  may  be  found,  principally  by  common  arithmetic,  from  the  doc- 
trine of  similar  triangles." 

The  young  men  who  are  rising  in  the  engineering  profession  no 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


275 


doubt  will  properly  appreciate  the  value  of  the  complement  here  paid 
to  their  ;icquiremeiits  by  Mr.  Nicholson.  But  I  am  happy  to  say  that 
not  one  with  whom  I  have  the  pleasure  of  being  connected  is  deficient 
of  the  mathematical  knowledge  requisite  to  understand  it;  indeed,  I 
have  in  my  employ  a  stonemason,  acting  as  iaspector,  who  makes  use 
of  the  formulae,  and  prefers  them  to  the  circuituous  and  "c/«)«8;/" 
rules  given  bv  Mr.  Nicholson.  "  Mine  is  intended  as  a  purely  practical 
work,"  says  he;  nevertheless  the  third  part  of  his  "Guide"  is  headed 
"  Theory  of  the  Oblique  Arch."  But  the  fact  is,  in  consequence  of 
his  not  being  " praclically  familiar  wilh  the  subject  on  which  he  has 
nri/'tn,"  his  work  is  altogether  theoretical,  and  in  some  respects  very 
objectionable  in  practise,  which  I  could  easily  show,  were  I  disposed 
to  waste  my  time  in  doing  so. 

Mr.  Nicholson  calls  his  letter  an  address  to  me,  and  concludes  it  in 
a  dreamy  vision  of  the  fame  to  be  awarded  to  him  by  '^ posterity,"  and 
assuming  the  motto  of  the  hero  of  Trafalgar,  seems  almost  ready  to 
exclaim,  "Victory,  or  Westminster  Abbey,"  but  to  prove  how  easy  is 
the  transition  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous,  he  closes  by  saying, 
"  I  have  now  done  with  him."  Very  like  Nelson  indeed  ! — He  fires 
his  pop-gun  and  runs  away ! 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

George  W,  Buck. 

Manchester,  July  IS,  18  tO. 

To  The  Editor  of  the  Railway  Magazine. 

Sir, — Mr.  Peter  Nicholson  has  recently  published  a  work  under  the  title 
"  Guide  to  Railway  Masonr)',  comprising  a  complete  Treatise  on  the  Oblique 
Arch."  In  his  preface  and  introduction  he  has  made  some  observations  and 
references  to  a  work  on  the  same  subject  published  last  June  by  me,  and  to 
which  I  am  anxious  of  making  the  following  reply,  requesting  the  favour  of 
your  inserting  it  in  your  valuable  Journal. 

At  page  8  of  his  preface,  in  speaking  of  the  fonns  of  the  templates  which 
are  necessar)-  for  working  the  stones,  Mr.  Nicholson  says,  "  they  are  not 
shown  by  any  other  author  who  has  wTitten  upon  the  subject.  Now,  if  Mr. 
Nicholson  will  refer  to  the  3rd  chapter  of  my  "Essay,"  he  will  find  that 
chapter  to  be  exclusively  devoted  to  an  explanation  of  the  method  of  making 
the  templates  and  working  the  voussoirs  ;  moreover,  the  5th  plate  contains 
eight  diagrams  exhibiting  the  forms  of  those  templates. 

At  page  xiv  of  his  "  History,"  at  the  commencement  of  the  "  Guide,"  Mr. 
Nicholson  says,  "The  formula  CO  =  (r  +  ?)  cot  9  tan  3,  is  due  to  Mr.  Buck. 
It  gives  the  distance  below  the  centre  to  the  point  of  convergence,  into  which 
all  the  joints  in  the  elevation  of  the  arch  meet  in  the  axis  minor,  supposing 
that  the  joints  are  straight  lines,  which  they  are  not  exactly  ;  liavuig  given 
the  angle  of  obliquity  =8,  and  the  angle  in  which  the  bed  lines  cross  the  axis 
of  the  cyUnders  =^,  or  the  angle  which  a  bed  line  makes  with  the  adjacent 
springing  hne.  In  this  formula  also  r=  the  radius  of  the  cylinder,  r  +  e  the 
raihus  of  the  extraJos,  e  being  the  breadth  of  the  bed  or  thickness  of  the 
arch."  In  reference  to  tins  remark.  I  beg  to  obsene  that  not  only  is  the/or- 
muta  due  to  me,  but  so  also  is  the  discovery  of  the  beautiful  and  remarkable 
property  of  the  obUque  arch  to  which  it  applies.  At  page  5  of  the  "  Essay," 
I  stated  that  the  joints  of  the  face  "  are  not  straight  lines,  but  curies  concave 
on  the  upper  side  " :  and  at  page  6  I  stated  that  the  chords  nf  these  curves 
produced,  meet  in  the  point  to  wliich  I  have  given  the  name  of  the  focus  of 
the  elliptic  face.  I  no  sooner  discovered  this  property  than  I  made  it  sub- 
sen-ient  to  practical  utility,  of  which  any  one  may  be  conrinced  by  reference 
to  the  "  Essay."  The  stabiUtj'  of  oblique  bridges  is  intimately  connected 
with,  and  dependent  upon,  this  property,  and  the  investigation  of  the  problems 
relating  to  the  limit  of  obhquity,  and  the  best  proportions  for  oblique  arches, 
cannot  be  made  without  it.  At  the  same  page  Mr.  Nicholson,  alluding  to 
myself,  writes  as  follows: — "He  says  the  expression  00  =  (r  +  e)  cot.  8,  tan  3, 
included  among  some  others,  '  are  general,  that  is,  they  are  appUcable  to 

c  cot.-  S 
segments  as  well  as  to  semicircles ;  but  in  page  9  he  gives  (»•  -;-  e) 

=  CO,  the  eccentricity  or  focal  distance  below  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  in  the 
oblique  segment.'  " 

This  way  of  stating  it  will  lead  any  one  to  the  erroneous  inference  that  I 
have  fallen  into  a  discrepancy,  and  given  irreconcileable  formulse.  The  ex- 
planation is  as  follows  :  when  it  is  said  "  these  expressions  are  general,  that 
is,  they  are  applicable  to  segments  as  well  as  semicircles,"  reference  was 
made  to  the  two  formula:  then  immediately  before  given,  namely,  CO  = 
r  cot  e  tan  *,  and  C0  =  ^r  +  e)  cot  9,  tan  0. 

Now  at  pages  6  and  7,  it  is  shown  that  the  tangent  of  the  intradosal  angle, 
or  of  the  angle  which  the  bed  line  makes  with  the  springing  line  in  an  oblique 

cot  9 
semicircular  arch,  in  particular  cases,  =   -j —  and  when  it  has  tlus  valuei 

thenC0=  —^ — ■   (r  +  e).    But  because,  in  practice,  this  value  of  the  intra- 

dosal  angle  ought  sometimes  to  be  departed  from,  then  the  distance  CO  may 
be  obtained  by  either  of  the  two  before-mentioned  general  expressions. 
Again,  at  page  8  of  the  "  Essay,"  treating  of  segmental  arches,  the  tangent 


c                                                   c  cot-  6 
of  the  intradosal  angle  is  given  =  -  cot  B ;  and  in  this  case  CO  =  

{r  +  e).  But  here,  again,  as  before  in  practice,  this  value  of  the  intradosal 
angle  ought  not  to  be  always  adhered  to  (it  requires  adjustment  to  the  par- 
ticular case,  as  fully  explained  in  the  work),  and  then  the  distance  CO  is  to 
be  found  by  one  of  the  two  general  formulae  before  referred  to. 

Mr.  Nicholson's  concluding  sentence  of  his  "  History  "  is  in  the  following 
words :— "  One  thing  which  we  consider  defective  in  Mr.  Bucks'  '  Essay  on 
Oblique  Arches '  is,  that  his  ir.structions  are  not  enunciated  under  regular 
hearls,  so  as  to  call  the  attention  of  the  reader ;  he  gives  no  reasons  for  his 
rules,  nor  does  he  show  the  principles  upon  which  his  formulae  depend.  The 
height  of  the  point  CO,  Fig.  7,  will  depend  upon  the  breadth  of  the  bed." 

I  am  really  at  a  loss  to  conceive  what  could  have  induced  Mr.  Nicholson 
to  make  the  several  incorrect  assertions  contained  in  this  short  paragraph ; 
and  to  which  I  shall  reply  in  their  order. 

First,  as  to  my  intentions  not  being  enunciated  under  regular  heads :  the 
table  of  contents,  consisting  of  the  heads  of  the  seven  chapter  into  which  the 
w-ork  is  diviiled,  affords  a  sufficient  refutation  to  this  charge. 

Secondly.  "  He  gives  no  reasons  for  his  rules,  nor  does  he  show  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  his  formula;  depend."  To  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  add, 
that  by  reference  to  the  work  itself  it  will  be  evident  that  the  reasons  which 
are  geometrical  and  mathematical,  flow  naturally  from  the  first  principles  and 
contain  their  "wn  demonstration — the  best  of  all  reasons. 

Thirdly.  "The  heiglit  of  the  point  11,  figure  7,  will  depend  upon  the  breadth 
of  the  beds."  Verj'  profound,  indeed  !  inasmuch  as  the  formula  informed 
him  of  it.  because  e  in  that  expression  denotes  the  breadth  of  the  beds. 

Mr.  Nicholson,  at  the  same  page,  in  speaking  of  my  "  Essay,"  says  some- 
what affectedly,  "  as  far  as  we  have  had  leisure  to  examine  it.*^  Surely  be- 
fore any  one  can  be  competent  to  criticise  a  work  he  mnst  read  it,  otherwise 
he  will  naturally  and  inevitably  fall  into  such  mistakes  as  Mr.  Nicholson  has 
here  been  guilty  of. 

It  is  not  my  wish  or  intention  to  be  drawn  into  a  renew  of  Mr.  Nicholson's 
book,  but  I  tlunk  it  right  to  make  the  following  few  remarks.  In  problem 
9,  referring  to  plates  28  and  29,  he  gives  directions  for  radiating  the  joints  of 
the  face  of  the  arch  in  two  different  ways.  By  his  first  method  the  joints 
are  to  be  at  right  angles  to  a  tangent  to  the  elliptic  curve ;  by  the  second 
method  they  will  radiate  to  the  points  of  convergence,  which  I  have  denomi- 
nated the  focus;  this  latter  method  is  that  given  by  me,  and  which  Mr. 
Nicholson  has  here  adopted.  Now,  if  the  voussoirs  be  worked  in  spiral  beds, 
according  to  his  own  rules,  they  must  necessarily  radiate  in  this  way  ;  and 
consequently  they  cannot  be  made  to  radiate  as  described  in  his  first  method, 
unless  the  beds  are  worked  in  some  other  way,  the  directions  for  wliich  he  has 
not  given.  This  dilemma  leads  me  to  infer  that  Mr.  Nicholson  is  not  practi- 
cally familiar  with  the  subject  on  which  he  has  written.  I  have  confined 
myself  to  the  points  referred  to  by  Mr.  Nicholson's  strictures,  or  I  might  have 
added  more  on  the  subject. 

Here  I  take  the  opportunity  of  saying  that  after  making  the  discovery  o£ 
the  mutual  convergence  of  the  chords  of  the  cui-ves  of  the  face  of  the  arch, 
and  after  obtaining  the  formulae  appUcable  thereto,  I  long  sought  in  vain  for  a 
demonstration  of  the  geuerality  of  this  property.  On  applying  to  my  mathe- 
matical friends,  both  in  London  and  Cambridge,  I  was  equally  unsuccessful. 
Under  these  circumstances,  being  experimentally  quite  certain  of  the  existeuce 
of  this  property,  I  assumed  it  as  a  postulate  in  the  "  Essay,"  and  the  whole 
of  the  investigation  contained  in  the  7th,  or  concluding  chapter  {the  only 
part  of  the  work  which  I  consider  theoretical,)  is  based  upon  it.  'The  pub- 
lisher, Mr.  Weale,  well  knows  how  anxious  I  was  to  have  given  a  demonstra- 
tion in  the  work,  and  that  I  was  finally  under  the  necessity  of  publishing  it 
without,  although  no  one  appears  to  have  noticed  this  deficiency. 

However,  I  have  now  the  gratification  of  adding  that  about  four  months' 
back  my  highly  scientific  friend  and  assistant,  Mr.  W.  H.  Barlow,  son  of  Pro- 
fessor iJarlow,  of  Woolwich,  has  accomplished  a  beautiful  geometrical  de- 
monstration, which,  in  the  event  of  another  addition  being  called  for  shall, 
with  his  permission  be  given  therein,  together  with  some  further  practical 
information  and  additional  investigations  which  I  have  recently  made. 

I  am.  Sir,  your's  truly, 

George  W.  Buck. 

Ardwick,  Mamhester,  January  21, 1840. 


MR.  BARLOW  IN  REPLY  TO  MR.  NICHOLSON. 

Sir— I  perceive  in  your  last  number  a  commuDication  from  Mr. 
Nicholson  purporting  to  be  a  reply  to  Mr.  Buck,  and  to  the  remarks 
signed  W.  H.  B.,  which  appeared  in  your  Journal  for  May  last.  Being 
the  writer  of  those  remarks,  I  trust  j^ou  will  allow  me  to  say  a  few 
words  respecting  that  part  of  Mr.  Nicholson's  communication  whicli 
refers  to  them. 

Mr.  Nicholson's  observations  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  problem  for 
finding  "  the  curved  bevels  for  cutting  the  quoin  heads  of  an  oblique 
arch,"  relative  to  which  I  stated  that  there  was  considerable  obscurity 
as  to  what  species  of  joints  it  referred.  He  replies,  "  Now,  Sir,  I 
assert  that  W.  H.  B.  mtist  either  have  been  very  inattentive  or  very 
stupid  not  to  have  observed  to  what  species  of  joints  the  problem  re* 


276 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[AufiUST) 


ferred,  since  every  p^ge  in  which  I  treat  of  the  ohhqne  arch,  has  the 
words  'on  the  oblique  arch  with  spiral  j'^ints,'  placed  in  capitals  over 
it" 

Kow  Sir,  I  assert  that  the  application  of  a  problem  is  not  deter- 
mined by  the  capitals  jjl.iced  over  it,  hut  by  the  principles  on  which 
the  construction  is  founded,  and  this  problem  is  based  on  the  following 
assumptions,  namely,  that  "the  bed  and  joint  lines  on  the  face  are 
perpendicular  to  the  curve  which  is  the  intersection  of  the  cylindric 
surface  and  the  plane  of  the  face,"  (I  quote  Mr.  Xicliolson's  own  words). 
Also  that  the  joint  lines  in  the  face  are  straight  lines,  and  that  they 
divide  the  curve  of  intersection  into  equal  parts  :  all  of  hIucIi  assump- 
tions are  incorrect,  and  not  even  an  approximation  to  the  truth  in  an 
arch  of  much  obliquity,  that  is  to  say,  with  spiral  joinls,  while  three  of 
them  hold  good  for  an  arch  with  phiiic  joints,  namely,  that  the  joint 
lines  in  the  face  are  straight  lines,  that  they  are  perpendicular  to  Ihe 
curve  of  intersection,  and  that  they  divide  the  curve  of  intersection 
into  equal  parts.  I  think  therefore  it  will  be  admitted  that  there  leas 
some  difHculty  in  guessing  what  sort  of  arch  the  author  wished  it  to 
be  understood  he  was  referring  to.  One  point,  however,  the  reader 
may  rest  quite  assured  of,  namely,  that  whatever  species  of  oblique 
arch  the  problem  was  intended  for,  it  is  about  as  near  the  truth  for 
one  sort  as  it  is  for  another,  which  is  an  advantage  in  the  construction 
the  public  will  no  doubt  appreciate.  The  fact  is,  it  is  only  correct  for 
a  square  arch,  and  the  more  the  arch  diders  from  the  scjuare  or  the 
greater  the  obliquity,  the  greater  will  be  the  error  in  the  construction. 
Mr.  Nicholson  gives  it  as  a  "near  approximation,"  and  says  that  "its 
simplicity  is  ample  compensation  for  its  introduction  ;"  but  if  he  really 
is  practically  familiar  with  the  subject  on  which  he  has  written,  he 
must  be  aware  that  in  cases  of  much  obliquity,  particularly  in  arches 
which  are  semicircles  on  the  square  section,  this  construction  would 
lead  to  very  great  error,  and  could  not  be  made  use  of. 

The  other  discrepancies  I  pointed  out  in  his  book,  w  ith  the  excep- 
tion of  two  to  which  he  confesses,  are  only  answered  by  personalities, 
which  may  go  for  what  they  are  worth;  it  is  not  my  intention  to  re- 
turn them  in  kind,  and  I  can  only  regret  that  Mr.  Nicholson's  resjurces 
suggested  no  other  way  in  which  he  could  reply  to  my  remarks. 
I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

William  H.  Barlow. 

Manchester,  July  1",  1840. 


YORK  MINSTER. 

Sir, — As  no  account  of  York  Cathedral  has  appeared  in  your  valu- 
able Journal  since  the  late  lamentable  fire,  probably  your  readers  may 
feel  interested  in  the  following  short  notice  of  its  present  state,  which 
I  am  enabled  to  give  from  personal  inspection.  The  newspaper  ac- 
counts have  led  many  to  suppose,  that  the  last  caused  little  less  de- 
struction than  the  former  fire:  but  though  the  damage  has  been  most 
appalling,  this  has  been  by  no  means  the  case.  The  fire  did  not  extend 
eastward  of  the  central  tower,  which,  together  with  the  transepts, 
remain  entirely  uninjured ;  these  portions  are  now  walled  off  from  the 
nave,  ready  for  the  commencement  of  repairs  in  that  part  of  the  struc- 
ture. On  first  catching  sight  of  the  exterior,  it  would  hardly  be  per- 
ceived that  any  fire  had  ocurred,  since  the  only  parts  to  be  observed 
wanting  are  the  roof  of  the  nave,  and  the  niullions  of  the  top  windows 
in  the  south-west  tower,  that  in  which  the  fire  commenced.  The 
tower  has  sustained  considerable  damage,  there  being,  I  am  given  to 
understand,  several  large  cracks  in  the  masonry ;  but  as  the  blocks  in 
ancient  works  are  united  with  a  tenacity  unknown  (?)  in  modern  erec- 
tions, it  can  hardly  be  necessary  or  expedient  to  rebuild  entirely  this 
part  of  the  edifice.  The  side  aisles  are  untouched,  but  the  roof  of 
the  nave  is  open  to  the  sky  its  whole  length.  Though  the  heat  of  the 
burning  timbers  must  have  been  excessive,  the  clerestory  windows  are 
perfect,  and  their  stained  glass  is,  I  am  happy  to  say,  but  little  broken. 
The  beautiful  west  window,  the  glory  of  its  date,  remains  as  before, 
but  the  wooden  door  beneath  it  was  destroyed.  The  columns  and 
capitals  have  received  less  injury  than  might  be  supposed,  though  not 
one  has  entirely  escaped.  The  restoration  will  be  attended  with 
little  difficulty  should  the  requisite  funds  be  obtained,  and  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  surprise  that  more  vigorous  exertions,  in  furtherance  of  this 
object,  have  not  been  made  by  the  profession,  who  should  look  upon 
the  cathedral  as  their  own  property.  Viewing  it  in  this  light,  I  felt 
much  chagrined  at  being  refused  by  the  dean,  though  in  a  very  polite 
manner,  the  free  range  of  the  edifice,  having  visited  York  Minster 
■with  the  express  intention  of  studying  closely  its  decorative  and  con- 
structive beauties.  All  true  lovers  of  our  noble  art  must  ardently 
hope  the  day  may  soon  arrive,  when  no  fee  will  be  required  for  the 
inspection  of  any  national  monument.  Since  the  former  fire,  all  the 
screens  in  the  choir  have  been  glazed  with  plate  glass,  and  the  most 


happy  eftect  in  the  reflection  of  the  stained  glass  is  caused.  At  Be- 
verlev  the  artist  meets  with  no  impediment  to  the  prosecution  of  his 
studies,  and  is  allowed  to  wander  about  at  his  will,  without  the  pay- 
ment of  any  fee.  Perhaps  too  little  care  is  taken  to  prevent  plunder, 
and  it  would  be  better  if  a  few  attendants  were  stationed  about  the 
Minster,  who  should  not,  as  at  Hampton  Court,  be  allowed  on  any 
account  to  exact  money.  But  at  York,  au<l  indeed  at  other  cathedrals, 
the  choir  is  kept  locked,  and  you  are  admitted  by  the  verger;  so  that 
sketching,  unless  you  ha])])en  to  be  personally  known  to  the  dean,  is 
out  of  the  question.  If  you  think  the  foregoing  remarks  worth  notice, 
I  shall  feel  obliged  by  their  insertion. 

And  am.  Sir, 

47,  Loner  Stamford  Street,  Your  very  obedient  servant, 

Jitlij  20th,  1S4U.  A  Lover  of  the  Beautiful. 

[The  Institute  and   the  Society  should   endeavour  to  remove  such 

obstacles  as  our  correspondent  complains  of,  and  obtain  permission 

for  members  of  the  profession  to  take  sketches  and  drawings  of 

cathedrals  and  public  buildings. — Editor.] 


MR.  GODWIN'S  PAPER  ON  STAINED  GLASS. 

Sir — Mr.  Godwin  has  entered  with  such  warmth  and  energy  on  the 
advocacy  of  the  claims  which  the  art  of  jjainting  on  glass  has  upon  us 
for  protection  and  encouragement,  that  it  is  to  be  hoped  he  will  not 
allow  his  eflibrts  to  stop  where  they  have  begun,  but  that  he  will  con- 
tinue to  call  public  attention  to  the  present  languishing  state  of  the 
art,  until  it  appear  to  be  in  some  degree  roused. 

"There  is  a  further  reason  for  supervision  just  now,  if  it  be  true,  as 
stated  in  your  last  number,  that  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Westminster 
are  about  to  glaze  some  of  the  windows  in  the  Abbey  with  stained 
glass.  LTnless  the  old  method  be  pursued  in  the  design  and  execution 
of  them,  they  may  as  well  put  up  a  few  painted  blinds,  and  save  the 
money  the  glass  would  cost. 

A  Lover  of  Art. 


REVIE'WS. 


Second  Series  of  Railieay  Practice,  a  collection  of  Worlcing  Plans  of 

Public  Works.     By  S.  C.  Brees,  C.  E.     London:  Williams,  1841'. 

The  success  of  the  first  series  of  Mr.  Brees's  work  called  Railway 
Practice  has  produced  the  present  continuation,  which,  although  under 
the  same  title,  is  extended  to  engineering  works  in  general.  The 
present  volume  is  calculated  to  be  of  great  use,  as  the  author  has 
profited  by  the  experience  gained  in  his  former  essay,  and  successfully 
catered  for  the  wants  of  the  public.  Most  of  the  illustrations  are  from 
recent  works,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three  of  works  by  Telford 
and  others,  and  include,  besides  railways,  the  Southampton  and  Croy- 
don locomotive  engines  by  the  Rennies,  the  swing-bridges  at  St. 
Katharine's  and  the  London  Docks,  and  Grand  Western  Canal,  locks 
on  the  Forth  and  Cart  Caual,  and  River  Cam,  Quay  Wall  and  Cotfer- 
dara  of  Sunderland  Harbour,  pile-driving  machine  at  the  new  Houses 
of  Parliament,  &c.  The  i)lates  are  well  executed,  and  exhibit  very 
learly  all  the  minute  portions  of  the  work.  Appended  to  the  workf 
there  are  several  specifications,  which  form  a  valuable  portion  o 
the  volume.  The  work  is  one  which  we  can  with  justice  recommend 
to  our  readers. 

Glossary  of  Terms  in  Civil  Engineering.     By  S.  C.  Bree,  C.  E. 

A  dictionary  of  engineering  terms  was  one  much  wanted  by  the 
student  and  the  public.  The  architects  have  had  dictionaries  for 
some  time,  and  it  was  certainly  required  that  the  other  profession 
should  be  as  well  provided.  Mr.  Brees's  work  seems  carefully  com- 
piled, and  is  extensively  illustrated;  as  it  is  not  yet  in  its  complete 
form,  and  we  have  had  merely  the  proof  sheets  submitted  to  us,  we 
shall  defer  the  farther  consideration  of  it  until  next  month. 

Architectural  Remains  of  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  \st.     By 
Chari.es  James  Richardson,  Architect,  F.S.A.,  M.l.R.A.     Part  2. 

This  second  part  is  decidedly  an  improvement  on  the  former  one, 
it  contains  some  very  excellent  specimens  of  the  style,  and  will  prove 
to  the  lover  of  Elizabethan  architecture  a  rich  treat  to  peruse.  We  are 
compelled  to  defer  our  remarks  until  next  month,  when  we  shall  exa- 
mine into  the  merits  of  the  work  more  minutely.  We  shall  here  do 
no  more  than  remark  that  the  perspective  views  are  treated  more 
tastefully  and  more  pictorially  than  in  the  first  part.  The  mansions  of 
Burghley,  Kirbj',  and  Agnes  Burton,  furnish  the  principal  subjects ; 
and  whichever  opinion  may  be  entertained  in  regard  to  their  style, 
several  of  them  are  fine  specimens  of  it,  and  eminently  picturesque  as 
compositions. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


277 


Treatise  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Xa  ra  I  Architecture.     By  Augus- 

TIN  B.  Crewze,  Member  of  the  late  School  of  Naval  Architecture, 

&c.     Edinburgh:  Black.     1S40. 

This  is  a  reprint  of  the  article  Ship  Building,  from  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  and  a  work  well  calculated  both  from  that  circumstance 
and  its  own  intrinsic  merits  to  become  a  popular  treatise.  Such  a 
form  necessarily  restricted  the  author  within  certain  limits,  and  forced 
on  him  the  option  of  neglecting  either  the  theory  of  liis  subject,  or  the 
constructive  portion,  and  as  the  latter  has  been  the  subject  of  numerous 
works,  it  is  less  perhaps  to  be  regretted  that  Mr.  Crewze  should  have 
chosen  to  elucidate  the  general  principles  of  the  art,  with  which  he  is 
so  fully  conversant.  Tlie  theoretical  portion  derived  from  the  best 
authorities,  foreign  and  native,  and  illustrated  from  original  sources,  is 
perhaps  one  of  the  best  works  to  which  the  student  can  be  referred. 
The  practical  part  good  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  confined  in  itself,  and  in 
the  view  it  takes  of  the  subject,  very  little  being  said  of  steam  navi- 
gation, and  no  general  account  of  iron  ship-building,  steam  ship-build- 
ing, &c.  This  is  to  be  regretted,  for  these  departments  are  certainly 
neither  of  themselves,  nor  considered  with  regard  to  the  future,  as  the 
least  important  branches  of  naval  architecture. 

The  history  of  ship-building  is  sound  and  good,  and  is  as  useful  as 
it  is  interesting,  we  cannot  however  make  any  extracts  from  it.  The 
author's  observations  on  the  present  state  of  his  art,  we  are  also  ob- 
liged to  dismiss  thus  cursorily,  although  the  subject  is  one  impera- 
tively requiring  pnltlic  attention,  and  to  which  the  notice  of  our 
readers  should  be  directed.  This  work  will  doubtless  go  a  great  way 
towards  dispelling  the  ignorance  and  prejudice  which  exist  on  this 
subject,  and  towards  a  reform  so  much  demanded  in  the  scientific  de- 
partment of  the  dockyards.  We  think  with  Jlr.  Crewze  that  the  ton- 
nage laws  and  legislative  restrictions  are  the  true  root  of  the  evil,  for 
otherwise  we  feel  convinced,  and  we  think  the  history  of  the  art  shows 
it,  that  our  countrymen  are  not  so  far  deficient  but  what,  as  in  every 
other  case,  they  would  have  distanced  their  competitors.  We  are 
favourable  to  a  restoration  of  the  Naval  College,  but  then  it  must  be 
an  open  institution,  not  a  jobbery  for  a  score  of  cadets,  but  an  estab- 
lishment where  the  merchant  ship-builder  and  the  artisan  may  obtain 
instruction  on  fair  terms.  As  Mr.  Crewze  has  well  demonstrated,  no- 
thing has  been  gained  by  exelusiveness,  and  nothing  will  be  gained, 
so  that  the  sooner  the  last  traces  of  "  the  mysterie  of  sliippe  buildinge  " 
are  got  rid  of  the  better.  The  character  of  the  pu]iils  of  the  late  in- 
stitution Mr.  Crewze  has  best  defended  by  the  proofs  he  has  given  in 
this  work  of  their  capacity  and  attainments;  their  contributions  to  the 
Papers  on  Naval  Architecture,  and  to  the  present  treatise,  would  do 
honour  to  any  profession. 

Although  this  is  an  elementary  treatise,  it  contains  so  much  valuable 
matter  that  we  should,  if  our  space  permitted,  make  copious  extracts 
from  it ;  most  of  the  tables  for  instance  are  very  valuable.  Perhaps 
one  of  the  best  specimens  will  be  the  following  comparison  of  the 
technical  differences  between  Frencli  and  English  ship-building,  de- 
rived from  Mr.  Crewze's  own  observations,  we  are  obliged  liowever 
to  omit  the  illustrations. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  notice  some  of  the  peculiarities  observable  in  tlie 
Prench  practice  of  sliip-building.  The  characteristic  difference  in  tlieir  sys- 
tem from  our  own,  wliicli  wouki  strike  an  observer  accustomed  to  English 
ship-building,  would  evidently  be  a  less  expenditure  of  material. 

The  French  have  retained  tlie  old  system  of  frames  aad  filling:  timbers. 
Frequently  the  frames  are  close  jointed  throughout  tlieir  height,  and  the  fill- 
ing frames  put  up  as  single  timbers.  The  filling  timbers  are  also  fretpiently 
of  fir.  Both  frames  and  filling  timbers  are  chain-ljolted.  Tliere  is  no  slielf 
under  the  beams,  only  a  thick  clamp,  and  a  wide  chock  worked  u])on  the  short 
stuff,  and  up  to  the  beam.  There  are  generally  three  side  binding  sfrakes 
faced  one  inch  on,  and  scored  one  inch  over  the  beams,  and  Ijolted  together 
by  in  and  out  bolts  passing  through  the  water-way,  which  is  also  faced  and 
scored  in  tlie  same  manner.  These  bolts  are  secured  with  nuts  and  screws  at 
the  points,  on  the  outside  plank. 

The  water-way  is  not  always  scored  over  the  beams,  but  is  sometimes 
brought  plain  on  their  ends.  The  bolts  of  the  binding  strakes,  which  are  tlien 
also  merely  brought  on  to  the  beams,  secure  its  lower  edge ;  and  in  both 
cases  it  has  in  and  out  bolts  through  tlie  ship's  side,  to  secure  its  upper  edge. 
The  method  of  connecting  the  beam-ends  with  the  ship's  side,  which  ap- 
pears to  be  most  generally  adopted  in  the  French  sliips  at  present,  consists  of 
a  chock  under  the  beam,  securely  bolted  througli  tlie  sliip's  side,  the  points 
of  the  bolts  being  set  up  with  a  nut  and  screw.  The  beam-end  hooks  over 
the  head  of  this  chock.  A  plate-knee  similar  in  shape  to  that  known  in  the 
English  service  as  Roljerts'  knee  is  brought  on  each  side  against  the  chock 
and  beam ;  but  these  knees,  instead  of  ha%'ing  a  short  arm  against  the  ship's 
side  for  taking  in  and  out  fastenings,  themselves  form  the  bolt,  each  knee 
having  an  arm  which  is  driven  through  the  side  by  means  of  a  shoulder 
worked  in  the  knee,  similar  to  tlie  slioulde-r  of  a  dog-bolt.  The  outer  end  is 
secured  by  a  nut  and  screw.     The  security  of  the  plate-knees  to  the  beam  and 


chock  consists  only  of  three  screws  in  each  arm,  and  one  screw  in  the  diago- 
nal brace.  These  screws  are  not  above  five  inches  long.  Thns  the  security 
of  either  knee  is  completely  unconnected  with  that  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  beam. 

The  wales,  diminisliing  stuff',  and  plank  of  the  bottom,  are  all  treenail-fas- 
tened, the  huts  are  secured  with  two  bolt-nails  in  the  timber  on  which  the 
but  is  placed,  and  a  through-liolt  is  driven  in  the  timljcr  next  the  but.  In 
some  instances  the  plank  is  nail-fastened,  but  wdiether  with  nails  or  treenails 
it  is  double  fastened.  The  treenails  are  not  caulked  on  the  ceiling,  but 
wedged  with  conical  wedges,  ilost  of  the  principal  bolts,  as  those  of  the 
water-ways  and  chocks,  under  the  beams,  are  set  up  outside  with  a  nut  and 
screw  ;  and  great  care  is  taken  to  omit  the  fastening  of  the  wales  and  outside 
planking,  wherever  these  bolts  can  he  advantageously  made  to  answer  as  fas- 
tenings for  them. 

There  is  no  regular  system  observed  in  shifting  the  bnts  of  the  plank,  as 
there  is  in  the  English  service  ;  but  the  planks  are  worked  to  their  full  length, 
without  reference  to  the  sWt :  the  only  rule  which  appears  to  be  observed 
is,  that  there  shall  be  about  two  feet  shift  between  the  Inits  of  following 
strakes. 

Katlier  an  interesting  experiment  as  to  the  possibUity  of  diminishing  the 
scantling  of  the  timber,  to  any  great  extent,  which  is  used  for  building  large 
ships,  is  in  progress  in  the  French  \\a\y.  The  Surveillaiite,  a  large  frigate, 
was  built  wholly  of  small  timber,  about  ten  years  ago,  and  as  yet  the  reports 
on  the  system  are  favourable. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  jilan  on  which  she  was  built. 

The  keel,  stem,  and  stern-post  are  formed  of  various  pieces  of  timlier  com- 
bined. 

The  several  lengths  of  the  centre  piece,  or  core,  are  scarphed  together, 
while  the  side  or  strengtliening  pieces  only  but  with  plain  huts ;  care  being 
taken  that  the  Ijiits  and  scarplis  give  good  shift  to  each  otlier. 

There  are  in  this  system  no  other  frames  than  those  which  form  the  sides 
of  ports,  and  the  timbers  composing  these  frames  are  bolted  together,  with- 
out leaving  any  opening  between  them,  that  is,  close  jointed.  The  spaces 
between  the  frames  are  filled  in  with  single  timbers,  or  rather  with  a  frame 
work  of  timber  fitted  together. 

The  cant-bodics  are  framed  as  in  the  ordinary  method,  the  after-body  tim- 
bered round  to  the  post  witliout  transoms  or  fashion-pieces. 

From  the  main-deck  ujiwards  the  scantlings  of  the  frames  are  not  different 
from  those  of  a  ship  of  a  similar  size  Iniilt  in  the  usual  manner ;  but  below 
this  line  tliere  is  a  very  considerable  reduction.  This  reduction  commences 
at  the  lower  edge  of  the  gun-deck  clamps,  and  there  a  couple  of  thick  strakes 
are  worked  up  to  the  lower  edge  of  these  gun-deck  clamps,  to  form  an  abut- 
ment for  a  series  of  internal  timbers,  brought  on  the  inner  surface  of  the 
timbers  of  tlie  frame,  and  crossing  them  at  an  angle  of  45°,  the  upper  ends 
being  placed  forward  in  the  fore-body,  and  aft  in  the  after-body.  These 
timbers  but  at  their  lieels  on  the  lieads  of  a  series  of  internal  floor-timbers, 
brought  on  the  upper  surfaces  of  the  floors  of  the  frame.  These  internal 
floors  are  laid  atliwartships.  The  openings  between  the  timliers  of  this  in- 
ternal diagonal  frame  are  filled  in  with  wedge-lillings,  so  that  the  whole  hold 
presents  one  smooth  surface  for  stowage. 

Wherever  there  is  an  athwartship  bidk-head,  there  is  a  system  of  riders 
worked  on  the  inner  surface  of  this  diagonal  frame,  but  taking  a  vertical 
direction.  Tlie  timbers  of  these  bends  of  riders  are  not  wrouglit  side  by  side, 
but  one  series  of  timbers  is  worked  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  otlier,  and  the 
bolts  pass  in  and  out  through  both,  and  through  the  bottom.  These  riders 
run  up  to  tlie  lower  deck,  and  a  beam  is  so  disposed  with  respect  to  each 
bend  of  riders,  as  to  be  secured  to  their  heads,  and  form  a  part  of  the  system. 
The  bulk-heads  which  necessarily  fill  in  the  space  between  the  beam  and  the 
riders  run  diagonally  uj)  on  either  side  the  middle  from  a  midship  pillar  to 
the  beam  and  riders.     Each  bulk-head  is  water-tight. 

It  is  lamentably  true,  we  fear,  that  the  French  are  superior  to  us  in 
many  departments  of  naval  architecture,  and  it  is  therefore  incumbent 
on  all  classes  interested  in  the  national  prosperity  to  exert  tliemselves 
to  remove  the  legislative  obstacles,  which  interfere  with  our  progress, 
seriously  injure  us  at  present,  and  menace  ruin  for  the  future.  Eng- 
lishmen only  want  to  be  allowed  to  go  in  the  right  way,  and  not  to  be 
forced  into  the  wrong  way. 


GiLDixG  OF  Metals  by  Electro-Chemical  Action*. — M.  de  la  Rive 
has  succeeded  in  gdding  metals  by  means  of  this  powerful  action.  His  me- 
thod is  as  follows  :  he  pours  a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  (obtained  by  dis- 
solving gold  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  mmatic  acid,)  as  neutral  as  possible 
and  very  dilute,  into  a  cylindrical  bag  made  of  bladder ;  he  then  plunges  the 
bag  into  a  glass  vessel  containing  very  slightly  acidulated  water,  the  metal  to 
be  gilded  is  immersed  in  the  solution  of  gold,  and  communicates  by  means  of 
metallic  wire  with  a  plate  of  zinc,  which  is  placed  in  the  acidulated  water. 
The  process  may  be  varied,  if  the  operator  pleases,  by  placing  the  acidulated 
water  and  zinc  in  the  bag,  and  the  solution  of  gold  with  the  metal  to  be  gilded 
on  the  glass  vessel.  In  the  course  of  about  a  minute,  the  metal  may  be  with- 
drawn, and  wiped  with  a  piece  of  Unen  ;  when  rubbed  briskly  with  the  cloth 
it  will  be  found  to  be  shghtly  gilded  ;  after  two  or  three  similar  immeisions 
the  gilding  will  be  sufliciently  thick  to  enable  the  operator  to  terminate  the 
process. — Athenmun. 

2  P 


278 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[AUGVST, 


MR.  PARRIS'S  DECORATIONS. 


A  visit  to  a  series  of  paintings  by  Mr.  E.  T.  Parris  for  the  deco- 
ration of  tlie  dnwiiig-roonis  at  Redbo'urne  Hall,  the  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  St.  Albans,  has  atlorded  us  more  ])leasurc  than  we  can  well  express ; 
not  sim))ly  by  the  beauty  of  the  paintings  themselves  and  the  mind 
which  shines  in  all,  (of  which  more  anon,.l  but  as  an  indication  that 
decorative  art  will  yet  be  made  to  take  its  proper  place  in  England, 
and  that  we  may  even  now  triumphantly  refute  the  statement  which 
lias  been  made  more  than  once,  that  if  we  need  able  artists  in  this  de- 
partment, we  miisl  resort  to  the  continent  for  them.  England  is  ca- 
pable of  the  highest  efforts  of  art  in  every  branch,  if  opportunity  for 
the  exercise  of  talent  be  given,  and  fair  play  be  but  afforded  the  pos- 
sessors of  it,  and  we  cry  shame  on  those  amongst  us  who  would  at- 
tempt to  gainsay  it.  We  shall  have  occasion'hereafter  to  speak  more 
fully  on  this  head  in  connexion  with  fresco  paintings,  with  which  it  is 
proposed  to  decorate  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  but  at  present 
must  confine  ourselves  to  the  pictures  which  have  given  rise  to  these 
remarks.  They  consist  of  six  large  jiaintings  in  panels,  and  a  variety 
of  smaller  groups  and  compositions,  to  fill  sarroumling  compartments. 
Paintings  I'l  la  li'alteaii,  were  the  task  prescribed  to  Mr.  Panis,  and  a 
few  rustic  beauties  and  attendant  swains  beneath  wide-spreading  trees 
were  all  that  would  have  been  needed  to  comply  with  the  terms. 
With  a  proper  feeling  of  a  painter,  however,  Mr.  Parris  has  disdained 
his  models,  and  boldly  taken  his  own  jjath;  he  has  abandoned  the 
constantly  repeated  nothings  of  that  school,  and  in  their  stead,  although 
of  course  at  much  greater  cost  of  mind,  has  produced  a  series  of 
pictures  which  all  tell  a  long  story  of  love,  poetry,  and  thought,  and 
are  in  themselves  most  elegant  and  graceful.  The  subjects  are  English, 
French,  Indian,  Italian,  Swiss,  and  Grecian  habits  and  feelings,  each 
])icture  being  apiiropriated  to  a  different  country,  and  the  manner  in 
which  the  artist  has  contrived  to  convey  these  is  wortliy  of  the  great- 
est admiration  and  praise.  In  the  panel  approjiriated  to  Italy,  for 
example,  we  have  in  the  foreground  of  a  delicious  landscape,  music 
and  painting  suggested  to  the  mind  by  a  group  representing  Raphaelle 
sketching,  and  the  Fornarina,  with  her  guitar,  gazing  with  rapture 
upon  the  production  of  his  pencil,  while,  passing  down  a  ravine  at  the 
side,  is  a  peasant  woman  with  a  basket  of  fruit  upon  her  head,  in 
whom  is  recognized  the  model  of  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ^^■orks  of 
the  divine  master.  In  the  Grecian  painting  we  have  the  sun  setting 
on  decaying  monuments  of  the  mental  energy  of  her  sons  when  Greece 
7vas  "  living  Greece  "  while  a  modern  Greek  soldier  is  listlessly  re- 
clining at  a  well,  and  inquiring  his  path  of  the  peasants.  We  cannot 
afford  space  to  particularize  the  whole  of  the  paintings,  although  each 
is  eminently  worthy  of  a  detailed  examination  ;  nor  can  we  now  ven- 
ture to  add  any  further  remark  than  that  they  reflect  the  highest 
credit  on  Mr.  Parris  as  a  decorative  artist,  and  will  serve  to  implant 
a  taste  and  teach  to  think. 


KAILAVAY  REPORT. 
fourth  Report  from  the  Select  Commit  lee  on  Rnilway  Commvnication. 

The  select  committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  state  of  communica- 
tiou  by  railways,  to  whom  several  [jetitions  were  referred;  and  who  were 
empowered  to  report  their  opinion  and  observations,  together  with  the  minutes 
of  evidence  taken  before  them,  from  time  to  time,  to  the  liouse,  have  further 
considered  tlie  matters  to  them  referred,  and  have  agreed  to  tlie  following 
report : — 

A  considerable  number  of  i)ctitious  have  been  referred  to  your  committee, 
suggesting  the  justice  and  expediency  of  altering  the  present  system  on  which 
railway  passengers  are  taxeil. 

Much  evidence  upon  this  subject  was  collected  by  the  committee  on  rail- 
ways dming  the  last  session  of  Parbament,  and  your  committee  have  also 
entered  fidly  into  the  same  inquiry  ;  from  both  \\liicli  inquiries  your  conuuit- 
tee  are  satisfied  that  this  question  is  of  great  importance  to  the  public  at  large, 
and  especially  to  the  poorer  classes  of  the  community;  and  that,  in  propor- 
tion as  radway  conununication  is  extended  through  tlie  country,  the  unequ.-d 
pressui'c  of  this  tax  ^vill  be  more  se\erely  felt,  inasnuich  as  it  will  he  found  to 
limit  tlie  accommodation  which  railways  might  otherwise  beneficially  afford 
to  the  labouring  classes. 

The  great  advantage  which  would  result  to  these  classes  from  the  estab- 
lishment of  railway  communication  was  reiieatedly  urged  as  an  argument  in 
favour  of  these  undertakings.  To  convey  the  labourer  cheaply  and  rapidly  to 
that  spot  where  his  labour  might  he  most  highly  remunerated,  was  iVeqnently 
stated  to  Ije  one  great  benefit  which  would  he  derivcil  from  opening  these 
new  channels  of  intercourse,  while  it  was  added  that  the  health  and  enjoy, 
ment  of  the  mechanics,  artizans,  and  poor  inhabitants  of  the  large  towns 
would  he  ]nomoted,  by  the  facility  with  which  they  would  bo  enabled  to  re- 
move themselves  or  their  famihcs  into  healthier  districts  and  less  crowded 
habitations.     Your  committee  believe  that  ParUanieut  would  deeply  regret  to 


find  that  the  tax  imposed  on  railway  passengers  had  a  tendency  to  deprive  the 
labouring  classes  of  these  promiscil  advantages,  and  especially  when  it  is  seen 
that  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  the  pressure  of  tliis  tax  is  most 
severely  felt,  the  revenue  dciived  from  it  is  insignificant  in  amount. 

The  income  derived  from  the  duty  on  railway  passengers  during  the  last 
six  vears  has  been,  in  the  vears  ending 

ath  Januarv  1835    £6,8:^2 

1336 8,693 

1837     10,29(j 

183S     10,892 

1839     39,570 

1810    72,716 

A  reference  to  the  Appendix  will  show,  that  of  the  sum  of  £72,000  de- 
rived from  this  tax  during  the  last  year,  XoS.OUO  was  received  from  the  five 
following  Hues,  namely,  the  Grand  Junction,  Great  Western.  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  London  and  Birmingham,  London  and  Southampton  ;  so  that 
those  railways  in  Scotland  and  in  the  North  of  England  which  derive  their 
income,  as  connected  with  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  chiefly  from  the 
poorer  classes  of  society,  and  which  suffer  most  from  the  present  tax,  contri- 
bute in  a  very  small  proportion  to  the  revenue. 

The  effects  of  the  present  system  of  taxation  are  veiy  clearly  pointed  out 
by  witnesses  practically  conversant  with  railway  communication. 

'  The  present  duty  on  railway  passengers  is  fixed  by  the  act  2  &  3  Will.  4, 
c.  1 20,  which  states  that  "  the  Proprietor  or  Company  of  Proprietors  of 
every  railway,  aloug  which  any  passengers  shall  he  conveyed  for  hire,  shall 
pay  for  all  such  passengers  at  "the  rate  of  one  halfpenny  per  mile  for  every 
four  passengers  so  conveyed." 

Every  passenger,  therefore,  whatever  may  be  his  fare,  is  taxed  to  the  amount 
of  one-eighth  of  a  penny  per  mile.  It  is  obvious,  that  while  the  tax  is  the 
same  on  each  passenger,  the  proportion  winch  it  bears  to  the  fares  of  diffe- 
rent classes  of  passengers  must  vary  considerably.  The  operation  of  this  tax 
is  well  illustrated  in  the  observations  of  Mr.  Smith,  the  assessor  of  stage- 
coach duties :  •'  Suppose  a  Une  of  120  miles,  and  three  classes  of  carriages; 
suppose  the  first  class  fare  to  he  3d.  per  mile  or  30s.,  the  second  class  to  be 
20s.,  the  third  class  tn  be  10s.,  the  duty  on  each  passenger  wotdd  be  lod." 
This  is  a  large  proportion  on  the  lowest  fare,  and  its  effect  must  be  to  pre- 
vent railwayDirectors  reducing  their  charges  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
poorest  class  of  passengers.  A  comparison  of  the  mileage  duty  with  the  fares 
of  different  railways  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  from  which  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  proportion  of  the  mileage  duty  to  the  fares  on  the  London  and 
Birmingham  is  l-22nd,  while  on  some  of  the  Scotch  railways  it  amounts  to 
1-lOth,  and  in  one  case  even  to  l-6th. 

By  examining  the  fares  actually  paid  on  different  railways,  it  will  be  found 
that,  while,  in  some  cases,  the  first  class  passenger  pays  a  tax  of  only  SJ  per 
cent,  on  his  fare,  the  tliird-class  passenger  is  taxed  12,  and  in  some  cases  15 
per  cent. 

This  inequality  of  taxation  tends  mateiially  to  dinunisb  the  profits  arising 
from  the  third  class  passengers,  and  thereby  operates  as  a  discouragement  to 
Railway  Companies  giving  that  accommodation  which  the  labouring  class 
might  otherwise  derive  from  railways.  The  real  hardship  of  this  result  de- 
serves the  greater  attention  on  the  part  of  the  Legislature,  because  railway 
communication  lias  superseded,  and  in  many  cases  destroyed  the  conveyance 
by  means  of  waggons,  vans,  and  carts,  which  afforded  a  cheap  though  dilatory 
mode  of  travelling  to  the  labourer  and  his  family.  How  much  the  poorest 
members  of  society  are  interested  in  some  alteration  of  the  present  duty  may 
be  seen  by  referring  to  the  evidence  of  Captain  Lawes,  in  regard  to  the  hand- 
loom  weavers,  and  also  in  the  answers  of  Mr.  Lindsay  Carnegie,  and  other 
gentlemen  connected  with  the  Scotch  railways,  from  whose  statements  it  ap- 
pears that  the  tax  will,  on  some  of  these  lines,  almost  put  an  end  to  the  pas- 
senger traffic,  inasmuch  as  the  Railway  Directors  must  raise  their  fares  to  an 
amount  which  will  exclude  the  cluef  part  of  the  present  passengers  from  the 
line.  The  pressure  of  this  tax  is  now  for  the  first  time  felt  on  many  lines  of 
railway  ;  because,  in  former  years,  the  Lords  of  the  treasury  have  exercised  a 
])ower  given  to  them  by  the  act  2  e^  3  Will.  4,  c.  120,  and  have  allowed  many 
of  the  Scotch  anil  some  of  the  English  railways  to  pay  an  annual  composition 
in  lieu  of  this  tax  ;  this  indulgence,  however,  which  was  a  great  accommoda- 
tion to  Companies  opening  railway  communications  in  the  poorer  districts  of 
the  country,  is  now  no  longer  granted,  and  your  committee  see  many  objec- 
tions to  the  future  exercise  of  such  a  power  by  the  treasury. 

In  considering  the  question  of  railway  taxation.  Parliament  ought  not  to 
overlook  the  facts  which  were  elicited  hy  the  inquiries  of  the  committee  of 
last  session,  and  which  tend  materially  to  increase  the  objections  to  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  present  system.  It  was  stated  by  the  chairman  and  deputy 
chairman  of  the  Leeds  and  Selhy  Railway  that,  in  the  year  1836  they  raised 
the  fares  on  that  line  to  an  amount  which  diminished  greatly  the  nuuiher  of 
passengers ;  but  they  added,  that  by  this  increase  of  fare,  although  they  les- 
sened their  number  of  passengers  hy  12,000  in  the  year,  yet  they  augmented 
their  profits  by  .•(;i,300.  Evidence  to  the  same  effect  has  also  been  given  by 
the  chairman  of  the  Bolton  and  Bury  Railway ;  and  a  reference  to  the  returns 
of  some  of  the  railways,  contained  in  the  Appendix,  will  further  prove  the 
same  fact. 

Mherever  the  interests  of  Railway  Proprietors  and  of  the  pnbbc  arc  at  va- 
riance, it  is-  prohalile  th.it  the  community  will  be  in  some  degree  restricted 
from  the  benefits  which  railway  communication  is  capable  of  affording ;  your 
committee,  therefore,  believe  it  to  be  inexpedient  to  continue  a  system  of 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


279 


taxation  which  tends  to  separate  the  interests  of  tlie  Kaihvay  Companies  and 
of  the  public,  and  whicli  will  gradually  exclude  a  great  number  of  persons 
from  the  benefit  of  cheap  conveyance. 

Two  modes  of  altering  the  present  system  of  taxation  have  been  proposed, 
by  which  the  inconvenience  above  mentioned  would  be  removed. 

One  suggestion  is,  to  substitute  a  per-centage  on  tlie  gross  receipts  derived 
from  passengers,  in  lieu  of  the  present  tax.  Tlie  assessor  of  stage-coach 
duties,  an  officer  in  the  department  of  stamps  and  taxes,  has  stated  that  five 
per  cent,  on  the  gi'O.'s  receipts  derived  from  passengers,  wo\ild  produce  about 
the  same  amount  of  revenue  as  is  raised  under  the  present  system.  This 
would  relieve  railways  from  that  inequality  of  which  many  complain ;  and 
several  of  the  petitions  leferred  to  your  committee  recommend  this  as  the 
best  course  wliich  could  be  adopted. 

Another  suggestion  has,  however,  been  ottered  to  your  committe,  which 
would  be  much  more  favourable  to  the  interests  of  the  puljlic,  namely,  to 
establish  a  graduated  scale  of  taxation,  by  which  the  amount  of  the  tax  should 
be  made  immediately  dajjendant  on  the  amount  of  the  fare ;  the  great  advan- 
tage such  a  system  would  be  that  it  would  act  as  a  check  on  high  fares,  and 
•would  hold  out  an  inducement  to  Railway  ComiKinies  to  accommodate  every 
portion  of  the  community. 

A  scale  of  graduation  has  been  submitted  to  your  committee  by  Captain 
Lawes,  which  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  plan.  JIany  Railway  Companies 
are  limited  by  .ict  of  Pai'Uament  to  a  maximum  charge  of  3Jd.  per  mile  for 
a  passenger.  Captain  Lawes  proposes  that  on  all  fares  exceeding  70  percent. 
of  the  maximum  allowed  by  the  act,  a  duty  of  10  per  cent,  should  be  levied  ; 
on  all  fares  exceeding  -iO  and  under  "0  per  cent.,  a  duty  of  five  per  cent, 
should  be  levied  ;  on  all  fares  l)elow  40  per  cent,  a  duty  of  two  and  a  half 
per  cent,  should  be  le\ied. 

Mr.  Wickham,  the  chairman  of  the  stamps  and  taxes,  stated  his  objection 
to  the  plan  to  arise  from'  a  belief  that  such  a  graduated  scale  would  be  evaded, 
and  that  the  revenue  \vould  suffer  a  loss,  or  at  least  would  not  receive  the  in- 
crease which  may  be  expected  from  a  continuance  of  the  present  system. 

According  to  the  calculation  made  by  Mr.  Smith,  upon  the  accounts  ren- 
dered to  your  committee  by  several  Railway  Companies,  it  appears  that  there 
would  be  a  considerable  increase  of  duty  by  the  adoption  of  the  proposed 
scale. 

Your  committee  have  examined  into  the  different  objections  urged  against 
a  graduated  scale,  which  are,  the  danger  of  fraud,  by  which  the  revenue 
might  suffer,  and  the  difficulty  of  collecting  duties  varying  in  proportion  to 
the  fare. 

It  is  the  interest  of  even.'  Company  that  all  its  accounts  should  be  kept  in 
a  clear  and  intelligible  form,  and  in  this  respect  the  interests  of  the  Company 
and  of  the  Government  are  identical ;  mider  a  proper  system  of  accounts  it 
does  not  appear  to  your  committee  that  frauds  could  lie  practised  without 
detection ;  and  the  mode  of  issuing  tickets  adduced  by  Mr.  Edmoustone,  or 
some  similar  metliod,  would  afford  considerable  facility  for  the  introduction 
of  a  graduated  scale  of  duty. 

Your  committee  do  not  recommend  that  the  scale  proposed  by  Captain 
Lawes  should  lie  adopted,  because  they  think  tb.at  the  duty  of  10  per  cent, 
would  be  too  high ;  but  they  would  recommend,  that  wherever  no  maximum 
has  been  fixed  by  Act  of  Parliament,  3id.  per  mile  should  be  considered  to 
he  the  maximum,  for  the  purpose  of  this  graduated  taxation  ;  and  tliat  on  all 
fares  exceeding  70  per  cent,  of  this  maximum,  a  duty  of  71  per  cent,  should 
be  levied ;  on  all  fares  exceeding  40  and  under  70  per  cent.,  a  duty  of  5  per 
cent,  should  be  levied;  and  on  all  fares  below  40  per  cent,  a  duty  of  2i  per 
cent,  should  be  levied.  They  believe  that  a  scale  thus  graduated  would  be 
found  more  just  than  the  present  system,  and  that  while  it  would  not  di- 
minish the  revenue,  it  would  afford  relief  and  continued  accommodation  to 
the  poorer  classes  of  the  community. 

Your  committee  would  further  suggest,  that  if  it  be  expedient  that  such  an 
alteration  should  be  made,  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be  carried  into  effect 
with  as  httle  delay  as  possible,  because  every  alteration  in  the  principle  of  a 
tax  becomes  more  difficult  in  proportion  to  the  extension  of  the  traffic  to 
which  it  applies ;  the  traffic  itself  is  thereby  more  deranged,  and  especially  in 
this  case  it  is  expedient  that  in  those  districts  where  railways  have  been  al- 
lowed to  compound  for  the  existing  tax,  a  substittition  to  the  graduated  scale 
should  enable  them  still  to  afford  accommodation  to  the  labouring  class, 
before  they  have  been  induced  to  abandon  their  present  system  of  cheap 
conveyance. 

Two  other  subjects  have  been  incidentally  brought  under  the  notice  of 
your  committee,  on  which  they  are  desirous  of  offering  a  few  observations  to 
the  House. 

The  rapid  conveyance  of  troops  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  is 
occasionally  an  object  of  great  national  importance  ;  and,  for  this  purpose, 
provision  is  annuaUy  made  in  the  Mutiny  Act,  whereby  in  cases  of  emergency 
"  all  justices  are  required  within  their  several  jurisdictions  to  issue  their  war- 
rants for  the  provision  not  only  of  waggons,  wains,  carts  and  cars,  kept  by  or 
belonging  to  any  person,  and  for  any  use  whatsoever ;  but  also  of  saddle- 
horses,  coaches,  post-chaises,  chaises  and  other  four-wheeled  carriages  kept 
for  hire,  and  also  of  boats,  barges,  and  other  vessels  used  for  the  transport  of 
any  commodities  whatsoever  upon  any  canal  or  navigalile  river."  Your  com- 
mittee recommend  that  similar  powers  should  be  taken  with  regard  to  rail- 
way conveyance,  on  payment  of  a  reasonable  snm  in  consideration  of  the 
accommodation  required. 

It  appears  that  on  the  Great  Western  Eailway  experiments  have  been  made 


to  a  considerable  extent,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  best  means  of  con- 
veying intelligence  through  the  medium  of  electricity.  There  is  no  necessary 
connexion  between  railways  and  tliis  new  mode  of  communication,  except 
that  a  railway  possesses  continuity  of  property  between  two  distant  jilaces ; 
and,  also,  that  the  numerous  servants  of  an  established  railway  are  available 
to  protect  the  uir.chiuei'y  required  for  the  purposes  of  this  comnumication. 

Mr.  AVheatstone,  Professor  of  Experimental  Philosopliy  in  King's  College, 
has  for  some  years  turned  his  attention  to  this  subject,  and  has,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Jlr.  Cooke,  olrtained  patents  for  his  inventions.  From  his  evidence, 
which  is  especially  deserving  of  notice,  it  appears  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
conveying  intelligence  to  any  part  of  the  island,  with  an  aliuost  instantaneous 
rajiidity,  by  means  of  a  few  copper  wires,  and  small  galvanic  batteries.  There 
is  great  ingenuity  in  the  various  modes  in  which  Mr.  \Vheatstone  has  applied 
the  power  of  electricity  to  alphabetical  communications,  and  your  committee 
believe  that  in  a  short  time  further  improvements  in  this  mode  of  intercourse 
will  simplify  the  machinery,  and  render  the  correspondence  between  distant 
parts  of  the  island  more  speedy  and  certain  than  Ijy  means  of  such  telegraphs 
as  have  been  usually  employed. 

Mr.  Saunders,  the  secretan'  of  tl'.e  Great  '^'estern  Railway,  states  the  ex- 
pense of  constructing  the  electrical  telegraph  on  the  line  of  that  railway  to 
have  been  from  .-S250  to  £300  a  mile.  This  description  of  telegraph,  how- 
ever, when  once  constructed,  is  worked  at  a  very  trifling  expense,  whereas 
the  telegraph  now  in  use  between  London  and  Portsmouth,  independent  of 
the  original  outlay,  costs  about  £3,300  a  year,  and  the  Unes  of  telegraphic 
communication  to  Plymouth,  to  Yarmouth,  and  to  Deal,  were  abandoned  in 
the  year  ISIG,  on  account  of  the  expenditure  required  for  their  maintenance. 

Whenever  a  telegraph  shall  have  been  laid  down  between  London  and  the 
other  ports  and  mercantile  cities  of  the  island,  it  will  give  to  its  jiroprietors 
great  advam ages  in  obtaining  .md  transmitting  information,  whicli  must  be 
attended  with  most  important  results.  For  the  purposes  of  tlie  railway  itself 
this  telegraph  may  also  be  frequently  used  to  prevent  the  risk  of  accidents 
and  to  obviate  delay  and  inconvenience. 

Your  committee"  are  of  opinion  that  circumstances  may  arise  in  which  it 
may  be  very  inconvenient  to  leave  in  the  hands  of  a  private  company,  or 
possibly  of  an  individual,  tke  exclusive  means  of  intelligence  which  this  tele- 
graph will  afford  ;  and  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  paramount  importance  that  the 
goverument  should  be  furnished  with  similar  means  of  procuring  and  trans- 
mitting intelligence,  and  they  believe  that  no  Railway  Company  will  object 
on  fair  terms  to  give  every  facility  to  the  government  for  establishing  a  line 
of  electrical  communication  over  the  whole  length  of  their  railway. 

Your  committee  are  aware  that  tliey  have  not  fvdly  developed  the  great 
and  increasing  importance  of  this  subject,  ^hich  perhaps  does  not  fall  strictly 
within  the  terms  of  the  subject-matter  referred  to  them,  but  they  are  most 
anxious  to  fix  the  attention  of  the  House  and  of  the  pubUc  on  a  discovery 
which  is  no  less  susceptible  of  useful  than  of  dangerous  application. 

July  2,  1840. 


ADCOCK'S  PATENT  TOR  RAISING  W.iTER  FROM  MINES. 

At  the  last  quarterly  meeting  of  the  Manchester  Geological  Society,  Mr. 
Adcock,  C.E.,  read  a  paper  on'his  invention  for  the  raising  of  water  from 
mines  anil  other  deep  places,  and  illustrated  his  subject  by  numerous  dia- 
grams and  cards  of  data,  which  excited  much  attention.  Tliis  invention  is 
unusually  novel ;  it  is  wholly  unlike  every  thing  that  has  preceded  it ;  and 
should  it  answer  as  well  in  practice,  in  the  large  way,  as  it  appears  to  have 
answered  in  the  experiments  that  have  been  conducted  upon  it,  it  must  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  important  and  extraordinaiT  inventions  of  the 
dav,  and  eft'ect  a  revolution,  as  extensive  as  desirable,  in  mining  affairs.  It 
can  be  put  down,  even  in  the  deepest  pits,  at  compai'atively  little  cost,  for 
there  are  no  pumps,  no  pinnp  rods,  no  clacks,  no  valves,  but  simply  one  pipe 
extending  to  the  bottom  of  the  mine  or  to  the  sump,  and  another  pipe  united 
with  it  extending  from  the  liottora  of  the  mine  to  the  top.  These  pipes  are 
made  of  sheet  zinc,  or  sheet  copper,  of  the  thinnest  gauge;  and  the  cost, 
therefore,  wlien  compared  with  the  heavy  pump  trees  now  employed,  is  but 
of  small  amount.  Wear  and  tear,  comparatively  speaking,  there  is  none.  We 
■n-ill,  however,  let  Mr.  Adcock  describe  his  invention  in  his  own  words.  He 
stated  that,  encouraged  by  the  successes  he  had  experienced  in  some  former 
attempts  to  improve  pump  work,  by  which  he  had  been  enabled  to  make  one 
valve  perform  the  dutv  of  four  ciacks,  he  was  emboldened  to  attempt  still 
further  improvements,  and  eventually  proposed  to  himself  the  question—"  Is  it 
possilile,  in  the  raising  of  water  from  mines  and  other  deep  places,  to  do  without 
clacks  or  valves  altogether  ?"  He  stated  he  knew  this  desu-able  effect  could 
not  be  produced  if  the  water  had  to  be  raised  from  the  mine  in  a  compact  or 
solid  state,  as  in  pump  work.  For  in  a  pit  of  1,000  feet  in  depth,  the  column 
of  water  being  also  1,000  feet,  the  pressure  of  water  against  the  sides  of  the 
pipe  at  the  bottom  of  the  mine  would  be  about  440  lbs.  on  each  square  inch, 
and  no  pipe  that  eonld  be  conveniently  appUed  in  practice  could  resist  that 
pressure.  He,  therefore,  in  the  next  place,  questioned  within  himself  whether 
the  water  could  not  be  brought  up  from  the  mine  in  a  divided  state ;  and  the 
obvious  replv  to  that  questi"bn  was,  if  the  water  be  brought  up  in  a  dirided 
state,  it  must  be  in  the  state  of  vapour  or  of  rain.  The  chain  of  reasoning, 
thus  far  continued,  led  him,  he  states,  to  investigate  the  descending  velocities 
of  drops  of  rain  compared  with  what  those  velocities  should  be  by  the  laws 
of  gravitation ;  and  he  found  that,  by  the  laws  of  gravitation,  the  rain  ought 

2  P  2 


280 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


to  descend  towards  the  eartli  with  a  S|iecd  constantly  accelerating;  so  that  if 
the  cloud  were  liigh  from  which  it  fell,  it  onght  hy  its  velocity,  and  conse- 
quently its  7)iomfnfnin,  to  inflict  evils  of  a  serious  nature  on  all  animal  and 
vegetable  life.  Then  how  is  it  that  such  effect  is  not  produced  ?  Simply  by 
the  resistance  of  the  air.  Eacli  droji  of  rain,  while  in  the  cloud,  maybe  con- 
sidered to  be  in  a  quiescent  state.  It  begins  to  descend  from  a  state  of  rest, 
with  a  motion  constantly  accelerating,  and  thus  it  continues  until  it  acquires 
a  certain  amount  of  speed;  from  which  time  forth  the  motion  of  its  descent 
is  uuiforni.  This  uniformity  of  motion,  Mr.  Adcock  stated,  is  produced  by 
the  resistance  of  the  air ;  by  its  not  being  aide  to  flow  from  beneath  the  drop 
beyond  certain  rates  of  speeil  under  certain  amounts  of  pressure,  and  the  lUti- 
mate  amount  of  jiressure  is  determined  by  the  weight  of  the  drop.  Hence 
the  drop  descends  with  an  accelerating  speed  at  first,  compressing  the  air 
more  and  more  immediately  beneath  it,  until  the  resistance  and  the  eonipres- 
sioji  become  equal  to  tlie  weight  of  the  drop ;  thenceforward  its  motion  is 
uniform.  Mr.  .\dcock  stated  that  he  then  proceeded  to  investigate  the  greatest 
descending  velocities  of  drops  of  rain,  and  he  found  that,  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, they  were  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  in  a  second ;  from  ivhieh 
time  the  remaining  jiortion  of  the  reasoning  was  to  him  clear  and  decisive, 
viz.,  if  water,  in  globules  of  a  certain  size  and  weight,  like  drops  of  rain,  can- 
not,  under  ordinaiT  circumstances,  and  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  which 
they  meet  with  in  the  air,  descend  with  a  greater  speed  than  twelve  feet  in  a 
second,  then  it  is  certain  that  if  those  drops  were  in  a  quiescent  state,  and  a 
current  of  air  were  made  to  move  upwards,  at  a  greater  speed  than  twelve 
feet  in  a  second,  those  drops  would  flow  upwards,  instead  of  downwards,  and 
that  too,  whatever  the  height.  Hence  the  invention  was  perfected.  He  had 
only  to  try  the  experiment  in  secret.  It  far  surpassed  all  that  he  had  ex- 
jiected  from  it,  and  he  forthwith  secured  the  patents.  Mr.  Adcock,  therefore, 
does  not  raise  water  in  solid  mass  as  in  pump  work,  hut  in  a  <livided  state 
like  drops  of  rain.  His  apparatus  consists  of  a  fan,  which  is  driven  the  re- 
quired nuuiber  of  revolutions  by  steam  or  water  power,  and  two  pipes,  as  we 
have  before  remarked — the  one  to  couvey  the  air  from  the  fan  to  the  bottom 
of  the  mine,  and  the  other  to  return  the  air  back  to  the  surface,  together 
with  the  water  with  which  it  is  accompanied,  ^\"ith  a  20-inch  fan,  6  inches 
wide,  he  has  driven  up  C3  gallons  of  water  in  a  minute,  40  feet  in  height; 
and  by  a  3-feet  fan,  1  foot  wide,  erected  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Milne,  Travis, 
and  Milne,  at  Sliaw,  near  JIanchestcr,  he  states  he  has  driven  up  130  gallons 
of  water  per  minute  120  feet  in  height.  His  experiments  having  been  seen 
b_\-  numerous  miners  and  practical  men,  a  highly  respectable  body  of  them 
have  subscribed  a  certain  sum  each,  that  its  merits,  so  important  to  them, 
may  be  at  once  fully  tested  ;  and  it  gives  us  much  pleasure  to  add  that  the 
machinery,  now  being  made  for  that  purpose,  will  be  put  down  at  the  Pem- 
berton  Colliery,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  ^A'igall,  which  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Mr.  K.  Daglish.  Tiie  deiith  of  the  pit  is  100  yards ;  and  from  that 
depth  Mr.  Adcock  proposes  to  bring  up  300  gallons  of  water  per  minute. 
The  fan,  now  making,  will  be  6  feet  diameter  and  18  inches  wide. — Mining 
Jo  lima  I. 


NEW  KAILMAY  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Invented  and  construeted  ly  Mr.  If'alter  Ilancocl;  of  Stratford,  Essex,  and 
noil)  on  trial  on  the  Eastern  Counties'  Railway. 

One  of  the  princijial  advantages  of  tliis  locomotive  is  presented  in  the 
boiler,  by  «liich  steam  of  greater  power  is  generated  with  far  greater  certainty 
of  continued  supply,  and  more  perfect  safety,  than  by  the  boilers  now  in  use, 
cither  in  railw,iy,  marine,  or  stationary  engines.  This  boiler  is  constructed 
of  a  number  of  distinct  chambers,  each  chamber  composed  of  several  tubes. 
Each  chandjer,  or  raid;  of  tubes,  connects  with  two  general  cylinders  or  re- 
servoirs— one  at  the  bottom  for  the  supply  of  water,  and  the  other  at  the  top 
for  the  reception  and  passage  of  steam.  The  communications  from  each 
chamber  to  the  water,  steam  pipes  or  reservoirs,  have  self-acting  v.ilves. 
AVhcn  any  leakage  occurs,  from  wear,  rents,  or  other  causes,  to  any  one  cham- 
ber, the  v.ilvcs  belonging  to  it  close,  and  are  kept  to  their  seats  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water  and  steam  contained  in  the  neighbouring  sound' chambers, 
and  the  boiler  remains  as  effective  as  before,  exce])ting  that  the  surface  of 
that  one  chamber,  is  thrown  out  of  use,  without  stopping  the  eugines,  and 
perhai)s  it  would  not  be  observed  by  the  engine  driver  uutil  the  end  of  the 
trip,  when  tlie  pressme  being  reduced  liy  withdrawing  the  fire,  the  valve 
would  fall  from  its  seat,  and  point  out  the  defective  chamber  by  the  discharge 
of  water.  In  half  an  hour  a  new  chamber  could  be  attached  in  its  stead.  In 
the  ordinary  locomotive  boiler,  when  any  one  of  its  tubes  become  defective, 
the  whole  is  rendered  inoperative  by  reason  of  the  unchecked  communication 
of  all  the  parts  with  each  other,  and  so  it  remains  until  the  defective  tube  is 
repaired,  replaced,  or  plugged,  which  generally  occupies  three  or  four  hours, 
and  is  attended  besides  with  the  inconvenience  of  stopping  the  train  until 
another  engine  is  procured  from  the  next  station. 

l!y  ailopting  the  improved  boiler  no  such  delay  would  occur,  and  the  ex- 
pense both  in  fuel  and  wages,  of  keeping  a  number  of  engines  with  their  fires 
up  ready  to  meet  such  casualties,  would  be  avoided,  as  well  as  the  risk  when 
a  train  stops  out  of  time,  and  having  another  train  brought  in  collision  with 
it,  and  the  lives  of  passengers  and  attendants  endangered. 

The  great  heating  surface  obtained  in  a  com))arativelv  small  space,  is  like- 
■Pise  a  recommendation  to  this  boiler.  It  is  intended  to  attach  a  reciprocating 


set  of  fire  bars  to  it,  Ijy  which  a  clean  floor  of  bars  can  be  introduced  without 
lowering  the  fire.  The  small  weight  of  this  boiler  in  comparison  to  its  gene- 
rating power,  is  another  material  i)oint  in  its  favour,  for  it  leaves  room  for 
giving  sufficient  strength  to  all  other  parts,  without  exceeding  the  present 
total  weight  of  a  locomotive. 

Having  given  a  general  description  of  the  power — the  engines  and  ma- 
chinery come  next  under  consideration. 

The  engines  of  the  present  locomotives  are  placed  horizontally,  and  are 
thereby  very  much  confined  and  ditfieult  of  access,  but  in  this  one  they  are 
vertical,  and  therefore  the  whole  of  the  machinery,  pumps,  &c.,  are  open  to 
view,  can  be  readily  oiled,  and  speedily  deta,ched  for  repairs  ;  or  any  portion 
may  be  put  right  and  secured  whilst  the  engines  are  working. 

The  engines  of  this  locomotive  give  motion  to  a  separate  crank  shaft,  and 
this  communicates  tlie  jirogressive  motion  to  the  wheel  axle  by  an  endless 
chain,  working  over  a  pulley  fixed  on  each,  and  which  two  puUies  may  be 
either  of  eiiual  or  difterent  diameters,  so  that  ailvantage  may  be  obtained 
either  for  speed  or  power,  whichever  may  be  required.  This  arrangement 
not  only  allows  the  wheel  axle  to  be  straiglit  instead  of  cranked,  but  it  also 
possesses  the  advantages  of  a  moderate  accommodation  or  play,  by  which  all 
sudden  jerks  or  concussions  of  the  machinery,  &c.,  are  avoided. 

The  friction  is  reduced  to  above  one-half,  from  such  large  eccentrics,  crank- 
bearings,  &c.,  not  being  required,  in  consequence  of  the  weight  of  the  ma- 
chineiy,  boiler,  &.C.,  being  on  straight  instead  of  cranked  axles. 

This  aiTangenient  allows  the  work  to  be  immediately  thrown  out,  so  that 
the  engines  will  work  the  injection  pumps,  and  get  up  the  fire,  without  work- 
ing the  driving  wheels.  By  running  locomotives  about  to  efteet  these  pur- 
poses, much  of  unnecessary  wear  and  tear  is  incurred,  besides  running  on  the 
rails  in  the  way  of  trains,  &c.  The  present  locomotive  need  not  stir  from  the 
spot  until  the  train  is  attached — the  clutch  then  thrown  in,  it  immediately 
starts  upon  its  trip. — Correspondent  of  the  Railway  Times, 


STEAM  LOCOMOTION  ON  COMMON  KOADS. 

An  experimental  trip  of  Sir  J.  .Anderson's  stcam-dr.ig  for  common  roads, 
took  place  yesterday  on  the  Ilowth  road,  and  fully  answered  the  anticipations 
of  all  concerned.  It  ran  for  about  two  hours,  backing  and  turning  in  every 
direction — the  object  being  chiefly  to  try  the  various  parts  in  detail.  It  re- 
peatedly turned  the  corners  of  the  avenues  at  a  speed  of  about  twelves  miles  an 
hour,  and  at  a  pressure  of  only  about  10  or  48  pounds  upon  tlie  square  inch. 
r."o  smoke  whatever  was  emitted,  and  very  little  steam  was  observed,  while 
even  these,  it  is  alleged,  will  be  removed,  when  running  publicly  on  the  roads. 
The  whole  machinery  is  ornamentally  boxed  in,  which  prevents  the  nervous- 
ness so  often  experienced  in  railway  carriages,  when  the  movements  of  the 
different  parts  are  exposed  to  view ;  neither  do  horses  show  any  alarm  when 
it  passes  them. 

The  directors  of  the  English  company  formed  for  the  purpose  of  working 
out  Sir  James  .Anderson's  patent,  are  about  to  assemble  at  Manchester,  in 
order  to  witness  a  trial  of  the  carriages  constructed  there;  and  it  is  expected 
that  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen  forming  the  company  will  afterwards  come 
to  Dublin  ;  it  being  the  intention  of  the  p.itentees  to  form  a  company,  in  eon- 
junctiou  with  that  of  England,  for  establishing  communications  by  means  of 
these  drags,  between  the  principal  towns  in  Ireland,  as  soon  as  a  few  of  the 
carriages  now  constructing,  and  in  a  forward  state,  are  completed.  It  is  pro- 
posed that  the  English  company  should,  iu  the  first  inst,ance,  in  conjunction 
with  the  railway  trains  from  London,  run  from  Birmingham  to  Holyhead ; 
the  passengers  to  be  thence  conveyed  by  steam  vessels  to  Dublin  twice  a  day  ; 
from  Dublin  to  Galway  by  the  steaui  drags,  and  thence  by  steam  vessels  to 
New  York,  touching  at  Halifax.  Thus  making  Ireland  the  stepping-stone 
between  England,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  United  States,  and  avoiding  the  de- 
lay and  danger  of  beating  up  the  channel,  the  most  arduous  and  annoying 
liart  of  the  present  route.  The  whole  distance  Iictween  London  and  New 
York  will  be  accomplished,  it  is  expected,  in  ten  davs. — Dublin  paper,  June 
30. 


Daguerrcotjipe  Eiif^raving. — AVe  have  received  from  Dr.  Mackenzie,  still  at 
Vienna,  some  further  particulars  of  the  interesting  process  by  «hicb  Dr. 
Berres  fixes  and  engraves  the  Daguerreot)  jie  pictures,  and  also  two  impres- 
sions from  .such  engravings.  These  impressions  are  shadowy  and  very  indis- 
tinct, but  the  design  is  sutiiciently  m.ide  out  to  justify  the  hope  that  further 
experiments  and  practice  will  render  the  discovery  practically  available. 
Kespeeting  the  process.  Dr.  Mackenzie  observes,  "  The  proportions  are  now 
fixed  as  follow  : — Seven  parts  of  aeidum  nitricum,  of  forty  degrees  of  sirength, 
lo  eight  parts  of  distilled  water.  With  gum  arable  the  operation  is  a  httle 
longer  in  being  finished,  but  the  picture  is  much  handsomer;  without  gum 
it  is  quicker,  but  it  requires  much  more  care  and  attention  to  produce  a  good 
engraving.  M'hen  it  happens  that  the  nitric  acid  produces  a  pi-ecipitateupon 
the  silver  plate,  ammonia  must  be  poured  upon  the  plate,  and  it  will  instantly 
disappear.  From  time  to  time  it  is  ilesirabie  to  take  the  plate  out  of  the  acid 
and  Have  it  about :  thus  drying  it  you  perceive  better  the  progress  m.ade  In 
the  engraving.  Mhen  the  .icid  becomes  muddy  it  Is  necessary  to  change  it.'' 
Allii:ni€tni\ 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


281 


FROCSSDINGS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES. 


ROYAL  SOCIETY. 
Hay  14.— Major  Sabixe,  R..\.,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : — 

"  Tables  of  the  Varialion,  through  a  cycle  of  nine  years,  nf  the  mean  height 
of  the  Barometer,  mean  Temperature,  aiul  deptli  of  Rain,  as  connected  with 
the  prevailing  Winds,  influenced  in  their  direction  by  the  occurrence  of  the 
Lunar  Jpsides,  with  some  concluding  observations  on  the  result."  By  Luke 
Howard,  Esq. 

From  the  tahles  here  given,  tlie  author  draws  the  following  conclusions  '■ 
1st.  the  barometer  is  higher  under  the  lunar  apogee,  than  under  the  perigee  ; 
the  mean  height  in  the  former  case  being  29-84517,  and  in  the  latter. 
29,75J42.  2nd.  the  mean  temper.ature  is  lower  under  the  apogee  than 
under^the  perigee ;  the  mean  height  in  the  former  case  being  48"-712G,  and  of 
the  latter,  49=-035G.  The  mean  of  the  whole  year  was  48°-7126.  3rd.  The 
rain  of  the  weeks  following  the  apsis  exceeds  that  uuder  the  perigee ;  hut 
with  two  striking  exceptions  in  the  annual  result  of  nine  years,  the  one  in 
the  wettest,  and  the  other  in  the  driest  year  of  the  cycle.  With  regard  to 
the  winds,  the  author  remarks  that  those  from  the  north,  north-east,  and 
east,  prevailed  under  the  apogee  on  thirty-eight  days,  uuder  tlie  perigee  on 
twenty-one  days;  and  those  from  the  south,  south-west,  and  west,  prevailed 
under  the  apogee  on  twenty  days,  under  the  perigee  on  tliirty-eight  days.  It 
appears,  therefore,  that  in  the  climate  of  London,  the  moon  in  her  perigee 
brings  over  us  the  southern  atmosphere,  which  tends  to  lower  the  density 
and  raise  the  temperature  of  the  air,  oceasiouing  also  a  larger  precipitation  of 
rain.  In  the  apogee,  on  the  contraiy,  there  is  a  freer  influx  of  air  from  the 
northward,  a  higher  barometer,  a  lower  temperature,  and  less  rain  ;  subject, 
however,  to  a  large  addition  of  rain  under  this  apsis  twice  in  a  cycle  of  nine 
years,  at  the  times  when  also  the  extremes  of  wet  and  dry  take  place  on  the 
■whole  amount  of  the  year. 

May  21. — The  JL\rquis  of  Xorthamptox,  President,  in  the  Chair. 

His  Royal  Highness  Prince  Albert,  of  Saxe-Cohurg  and  Gotha,  attended 
the  meeting,  signed  his  name  in  thechartir-book,  and  was  admitted  a  Fellow 
of  the  Society.  William  Burge,  Esq.,  AValter  Ewer,  Esq.,  T.  T.  Giant,  Esq., 
and  Henry  Lawson,  Esq.,  were  balloted  for,  and  didy  elected. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : — 

"  Remarks  on  the  Meteorological  Olisertmtions  made  at  Allen,  F>nmarien< 
by  Mr.  S.  H.  Thomas,  in  the  years  1837, 1838,  and  1839.  By  Major  Sabine, 
E.A.,  and  Lieut.-Col.  Sykes;  being  a  Report  from  the  Committee  of  Physics 
to  the  Council." 

These  observations,  made  at  Alten,  in  lat.  69'  58'  3"  north,  and  23'  43'  10'' 
east  of  Paris,  would  seem  to  have  a  claim  to  the  attention  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, as  they  offer  the  crpcrimentum  crucis  of  Professor  Forbes's  empirical 
formula  respecting  the  gradual  diminution  of  the  daily  oscillations  of  the 
barometer,  within  certain  limit  hours,  from  the  equator  to  tlie  poles.  Pro- 
fessor Forbes  has  laid  down  an  assumed  curve,  in  which  the  diurnal  oscilla- 
tion amounts  to  'llOO  at  the  equator  and  0  in  lat.  64°  S'  N.,  and  beyond  that 
latilute  the  tide  should  occur  with  a  contrary  sign,  plus  becoming  minus. 
Now,  Alteu  being  nearly  in  lat.  70',  if  Professor  Forbes's  law  hold  good,  the 
maxima  of  the  diurnal  oscillations  should  occur  at  the  hour  for  the  minima 
at  the  equator,  and  a  similar  inversion  should  take  place  with  respect  to  the 
minima.  Mr.  Thomas  has  himself  however  modified  the  value  his  observa- 
tions would  otherwise  have  had,  by  adopting  2  p.m.,  instead  of  3  p.m.,  for  the 
hour  of  his  observations  for  the  fall ;  and  he  has  adapted  his  barometrical 
obsenations  to  a  mean  temperature  of  50°  Fahr.,  instead  of  32'.  The  first 
year's  obsei'vatious  commence  on  the  1st  October,  1837,  and  terminate  on 
the  30th  of  September,  1838.  The  barometer  stood  sixty-six  feet  five  inches 
above  low-water  mark,  and  the  thermometer  hung  at  sLx  feet  above  the 
ground  ;  but  care  was  not  always  taken  to  prevent  the  sun  shining  on  it. 
The  mean  height  of  the  barometer  for  the  year  was  29'''771,  and  the  mean  of 
the  thermometer  at  the  freezing  point  was  32''01 7.  The  maximum  height 
of  the  barometer  was  30°'89  in  January,  and  the  minimum  28°-71  in  October. 
The  mean  of  the  barometer  at  9  a.m.  was  29'-7G4,  therm.  33''455  ;  at  2  p.m. 
29'-765,  therm..3.3'-327;  and  at  9  p.m.29'-784,  therm.  29'-270.  The  diurnal 
observations  would  seem  to  support  Professor  Forbes's  theory ;  but  the  9  p.m. 
observations  are  entirely  opposed  to  it,  as  they  appear  with  the  same  maxi- 
mum sign  as  at  the  equator,  whereas  the  sign  ought  to  have  been  the  reverse  ; 
indeed,  with  respect  to  the  diurnal  observations,  the  mean  of  five  inonths  of 
the  year  at  9  a.m.  gives  a  plus  sign,  although  the  mean  of  the  year  at  9  p.m. 
only  gives  the  trifling  quantity  of  001  plus.  There  is  one  remarkable  feature 
in  these  observations  that  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  meteorologist.  M.  Arago, 
from  nine  years'  observations  at  Paris,  reduced  to  the  level  of  the  sea,  makes 
the  annual  mean  height  29'.9546;  twenty-one  years'  observations  at  JIadras 
make  it  29''958  ;  and  three  years'  observations  at  Calcutta,  by  Mr.  James 
Prinsep,  make  it  29°-764  ;  and  Mr.  Thomas  brings  out  29°'771.  That  there 
should  be  this  coincidence  between  the  observations  at  Calcutta  and  .\lten  is 
curious.  Neither  Mr.  Thomas  nor  Mr.  Prinsep  state  whether  or  not  their 
means  are  reduced  to  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  to  be  suspected  they  are  not 
For  the  next  year,  that  is  to  say,  from  October  1838  to  September  1839,  both 


inclusive,  Mr.  Thomas  uses  a  French  barometer  and  French  measurements, 
with  centigrade  thermometer  attached  to  the  Iiarometer,  and  Fahrenheit's  for 
the  detached  thermometer.  He  changes  his  time  of  observation  from  9  a.m. 
to  8  A.M.,  2  P.M.,  and  8  p.xr.,  and  he  reduces  his  barometrical  observations  to 
0  centigrades.  The  results  of  the  year  are  as  follows : — mean  annual  pres- 
sures 29-627 ;  English  thermometer,  Fahr.  33'-36  ;  greatest  pressure  in 
April,  least  in  Januarv  1 !  The  mean  of  8  a.m.  is  29'-620 ;  theriu.  33°-75. 
The  mean  of  2  p.m.  is  29'-631  ;  therm.  34°-73.  .\nd  at  8  p.m.  29-631  ; 
therm.  30'-75.  The  diurnal  observations  assist  to  support  Professor  Forbes's 
theory ;  but,  as  in  the  preceding  year,  the  p.m.  observation  is  at  fault ;  and  if 
the  hour  had  been  9  o'clock  instead  of  8  o'clock,  it  woidd  probably  have  been 
more  so  than  it  appears.  The  low  annual  mean  state  of  the  barometer  for 
the  1837-8  is  even  increased  in  the  last  year's  observations;  and  as  fresh  in- 
struments* appai-ently  have  been  used,  there  appears  some  ground  to  believe 
that  the  fact  is  associated  with  the  locality,  and  it  may  be  desirable  not  only 
to  record  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  the  data  already  supplied, 
but  to  recommend  to  Jlr.  Thomas  more  particular  inquiry  on  the  subject. 
The  phenomena  of  the  .Aurora  Borealis  appear  to  have  been  observed  by  Mr. 
Thomas  with  great  assiduity,  and  recorded  with  great  care.  On  examining 
the  registci-,  with  reference  to  M.  Erman's  important  remark,  that  "  in  Siberia 
two  kinds  of  aurora  are  distinguished,  one  having  its  centre  in  the  west,  and 
the  other  in  the  east,  t'ue  latter  being  the  niore  brilliant."  I  find  that  twenty- 
two  nights  occur  in  the  course  of  the  two  winters,  in  which  the  formation  of 
arches  of  the  aurora  is  noticed  and  their  direction  recorded  ;  of  these,  ten  are 
to  the  west,  having  their  centres  rather  to  the  southward  of  west,  the  arches 
extending  from  N.M'.  to  S.S.E.  and  S.E. ;  sei-en  are  to  the  cast,  or  more  pre- 
cisely to  the  southward  of  east,  the  arches  extending  from  N.E.  to  S.E.  and 
S.W.  Of  the  five  others,  four  ai-e  said  to  he  from  east  to  west  across  the 
zenith,  and  cannot  therefore  be  classed  with  either  of  the  preceding,  and  one 
is  noticed  generally  as  being  to  the  north.  The  facts  here  recorded  appear 
to  afford  an  evidence  of  the  same  nature  as  those  mentioned  by  M.  Erman, 
as  far  as  regards  their  being  tw-o  centres  of  the  phenomena.  In  respect  to 
the  relative  brilliancy  of  the  eastern  and  western  aurora,  nothing  very  decided 
can  be  inferreil  from  the  register.  If.  as  M.  Erman  supposes,  that  they  may 
be  refen-ed  respectively  to  "  les  deux  foyers  magnetiques  de  I'heniisphere 
boreal,"  it  is  proper  to  notice  tliat  the  position  of  .\lten  is  nearly  miilway  be- 
tween those  localities.  There  can  l)e  no  doubt  that  the  frequent  appearance 
of  the  aurora,  and  the  pecidiarities  of  the  phenomena  observed  there,  render 
it  a  most  desirable  quarter  for  a  magnetical  and  meteorological  observatoi-y. 

Edw.^rd   Sabine. 

^\.    H.    SVKES. 

'^  Second  Letter  on  the  Electrolysis  of  Secondary  Compounds,  addressed  tor 
Michael  Faraday,  Esq."     By  J.  F.  Daniell,  Esq. 

The  author,  in  this  letter,  prosecutes  the  inquiry  he  had  commenced  in  the 
former  one.  into  the  mode  in  w-hich  the  chemical  elements  group  themselves 
together  to  constitute  radicles,  or  proximate  principles.  He  considers  his 
experiments  as  establishing  the  principle  that,  considered  as  electrolytes,  the 
inorganic  oxy-acid  salts  must  be  regarded  as  compounds  of  metals,  or  of  that 
extraordinary  compound  of  nitrogen  and  four  equivalents  of  hydrogen  to  which 
Berzelius  has  given  the  name  of  ammonium,  and  compound  anions,  chlorine, 
iodine,  &c.,  of  the  Haloide  salts ;  .and  as  showing  that  this  evidence  goes  far 
to  establish  cxpei-imentally  the  hypothesis  originally  brought  forwai-d  by 
Davy,  of  the  general  analogy  in  the  constitution  of  all  salts,  whether  derived 
from  oxy-acids  or  hydro-acids.  Some  remarks  are  made  on  the  subject  of 
nomenclature,  and  the  rest  of  the  paper  is  occupied  with  the  details  of  the 
expei-iments,  all  bearing  on  the  important  subject  which  he  has  undertaken  to 
investigate. 

May  28. — Francis  Baily,  Esq.,  V.P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  papers  were  read  : — 

"  Meteorological  Register  kept  at  Port  Arthur,  Van  Diemeu's  Land,  during 
the  year  183S,  and  Register  of  Tides  at  Port  Arthur,  from  August  1838  to 
July  1839,  both  inclusive."  By  Deputy-Assistant-Com.-Gen.  Lempriere. 
Communicated  by  Sir  John  Franklin,  R.N. 

•'  Notire  relative  to  the  form  of  the  Blood-particles  of  the  Ornithorhynthus 
hgstri^r."     By  John  Davy. 

.\  poi-tion  of  the  blooil  of  the  Oniithorhynehus  hystrxx,  mixed  when  fresh 
with  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt,  being  examined  by  the  author,  exhi- 
bited a  few  globules  of  irregular  shape.  Another  portion,  preserved  in  syrup, 
contained  numerous  globules,  most  of  v\-hich  had  an  irregidar  form,  but  many 
were  circular ;  none,  however,  were  elliptical,  like  those  of  birds.  Hence  the 
author  concludes,  that  in  form  they  accord  more  with  those  of  mammalia. 

"Researches  on  Electro-Chemical  Equivalents,  and  on  a  svpposed  discre- 
pancy between  some  of  them  and  the  Atomic  Weight  of  the  same  bodies,  as  de- 
duced from  tlie  theory  of  Isomorphism."     By  Lieut.-Col.  P.  Y'orke. 

The  author  describes  various  experiments  made  with  a  view  to  determine 
the  electro-chemical  equivalents  of  sodium  and  potassium.  Three  experiments 
gave,  respectively,  22-3,  22-9,  and  25,  .as  the  equivalent  of  the  former;  and 
two  other  experiments  gave,  respectively,  45  and  41-7  as  the  equivalent  of 
ihe  latter  of  these  substances.     He  then  inquires  -nhat  -would  be  the  result  of 


*  It  appears  that  the  barometer  was  compared  before  leaving  France,  and 
subsequently  to  its  being  taken  back  to  that  country. 


282 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT  S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


the  cicclro-lyzatlon  of  tUe  aqueous  soliitioa  of  soda  and  potash,  on  the  hypo- 
tlicsis  of  these  bodies  heing  composed  of  two  equivalents,  or  atoms,  of  metal, 
and  one  of  oxygen.  To  determine  this  question  he  employs  a  solution  of 
dichloride  of  copper  in  muriatic  acid,  as  being  a  substance  composed  of  two 
atoii:s  of  metal,  and  one  of  an  electro-negative  element.  Its  electrolysis  gave 
as  the  equivalent  of  copper,  52'S,  53'4,  and  61 'G,  numbers  approximating 
closely  to  C3'2,  or  double  the  atomic  weight  of  copper.  After  a  long  train 
of  investigation,  he  concludes  that  there  is  no  reason  dcducible  from  the 
theory  of  isomorphism  for  doubting  the  correctness  of  the  rcoeived  atomic 
weights  of  silver,  sodium,  &c.,  but  that  the  difficulty,  or  anomaly,  if  it  may 
be  so  called,  should  be  considered  as  attaching  itscli  to  the  di-compounds  of 
topper ;  and  that  Faraday's  propositions  on  this  subject  remain  uuimpeached. 

"  On  the  SoluhiWy  of  Silica  hi/  Steam;  with  an  account  of  an  erperiment 
on  the  subject,  conditcted  in  the  Eaat  Indies."  By  Julius  Jeffreys,  late  of  the 
Hon.  East  India  Company's  Medical  Establishment. 

The  inner  surfaces  of  a  flue  built  of  siliceous  brides  appeared  to  be  ileeply 
eroded  by  the  ]iass,'>.ge  over  it  of  steam  at  a  very  high  temperature,  and  frag- 
ments of  siliceous  materials  laid  in  the  course  of  the  current  were  partially 
consumed.  .\  siliceous  crust  was  deposited  on  several  vessels  of  stone  ware, 
coated  with  a  micaceous  glaze,  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace,  and 
this  crust  was  re-dissolved  when  the  vessels  were  removed  to  a  hotter  situa- 
tion in  the  same  furnace.  The  auth.or  notices  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Turner 
and  others,  which  failed  in  showing  the  soluliility  of  silica  by  steam,  in  con- 
sequence, as  he  conceives,  of  th.e  heat  having  not  been  sufficiently  great  to 
effect  the  solution. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

Fei.  4. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 
Cn  Steam  Engines. 

The  abstract  of  Mr.  Parkes's  communication  {Journal,  No.  31,  p.  136.) 
having  been  read,  Mr.  Enys  remarked,  that  Mr.  Parkes  had  adopted  a  diffe- 
rent unit  of  power  to  the  one  he  was  accustomed  to  employ ;  but  that  was  a 
point  on  which  he  was  not  disposed  to  insist,  and  he  was  prepared  rather  to 
yield  to  Mr.  Parkes's  opinion  where  they  differed.  Agreement  on  terms  was 
very  important,  and  he  wished  to  see  more  accuracy  introduced  in  the  use  of 
certain  terms  relating  to  engines  ;  lie  would  confine  tlie  term  "  duty  "  to  the 
net  work,  and  the  gross  work  he  would  call  "  effect."  In  speaking  of  a  loco- 
motive engine,  he  conceived  the  goods  carried  to  constitute  the  duty — the 
whole  mass  moved,  the  effect.  The  duty  in  Cornwall  is  a  theoretical  term, 
being  the  water  which  ought  to  be  raised  according  to  the  column  displaced, 
but  the  whole  of  which  did  not  reach  the  surface ;  and  the  whole  mass  of 
pump  work,  water,  iVc..  set  in  motion  is  the  effect.  The  duty  is  not  com- 
mensurate with  the  effect,  as  it  is  independent  of  friction  and  other  expen- 
diture of  power.  The  pit-work  is  not  always  we'd  executed,  and  is  not  imder 
the  care  of  the  engineer.  Duty  in  Cornwall  is,  in  fact,  entirely  a  commercial 
question,  it  having  been  instituted  as  a  check  between  the  adventurers  and 
the  engineer  who  originally  undertook  to  perform  the  work  of  pumping  for 
a  certain  share  of  the  saving  of  fuel  to  be  made.  There  were  three  distinct 
causes  of  improvement  in  Cornwall,  viz.,  in  the  boilers,  in  the  application  of 
highly  expansive  steam,  and  in  the  pit  work. 

Mr.  Wicksteed,  in  reply  to  a  question  as  to  the  work  now  being  performed 
by  the  engine  at  Old  Ford,  stated  the  general  result  to  be,  that  with  small 
Newcastle  coals  of  inferior  quality,  and  of  such  a  size  as  to  pass  through  a 
screen  of  thrce-qnarter  inch  mesh,  the  duty  amounted  to  71  millions  raised 
one  foot  high  with  94  tb.  of  coal.  He  had  experienced  great  difficulty  in 
procuring  good  'Welsh  coal,  but  with  some  MerthjT  coal  he  had  recently 
tried,  the  duty  immediately  increased  to  91  millions. 

In  tiie  Old  Ford  engine,  the  steam  is  cut  oft'  at  one-third  of  the  stroke,  and 
the  w  atcr  is  raised  by  the  weight  of  a  mass  of  iron  acting  on  the  water  at  tlie 
return  stroke.  With  the  ordinai-y  valves  there  is  a  loss  of  about  one-tenth, 
but  with  the  valves  invented  by  Messrs.  Harvey  and  West,  used  in  the  Old 
Ford  engine,  there  is  no  loss,  and  no  perceptilile  blow  from  the  water  on  the 
valves  closing,  although  no  air  is  admitted  beneath. 

The  speed  of  this  engine  varies  from  one  stroke  to  ten  per  minute,  accord- 
ing to  the  demand  for  water.  In  Cornwall,  it  is  thought  that  at  slow  speed 
there  is  a  considerable  saving  of  fuel,  but  he  is  of  opinion  thiit  there  is  no 
difference  in  duty  at  a  fast  or  slow  speed,  provided  there  is  sufficient  time  for 
opening  and  shutting  the  valves. 

As  to  the  term  duty,  although  it  is  important  to  know  what  is  the  ab- 
solute quantity  of  water  raised,  yet  that  is  not  the  whole  effect.     The  engine 
raises  a  certain  weight  of  rods,  which  is  its  load,  and  this  weight  should,  in 
the  return  stroke,  produce  a  certain  given  eft'ect  in  water  brought  to  the  sur- 
face; but,  owing  to  bad  valves,  leaks  in  the  pumps,  and  other  causes,  the 
iiantity  of  water  raised  is  not  equal  to  the  calculated  amount.     We  cannot 
ay  that  an  engine  has  not  done  its  duty  because  a  portion  of  the  water  is 
lost.     Two  engines,  equally  good  and  of  identical  power,  may  not  produce 
equal  results ;  because  one  may  be  raising  water  close  beneath   the  beam, 
another,  up  a  shaft  at  some  considerable  distance,  by  means  of  a  series  of 
long  horizontal-motioned  pump  rods ;  the  latter,  again,  may  be  doing  a  duty 
of  20  millioas  in  working  the  pump  rods  only. 
It  was  his  intention  shortly  to  present  to  the  Institution  a  complete  report 


of  tlie  work  done  by  Ids  engine,  with  drawings  of  every  iiart ;  but  he  was 
waiting  to  have  the  opportunity  of  ascertaining  the  evaporation  from  the 
Cornish  boilers,  as  well  as  from  those  of  a  pumping  engine  of  Boulton  and 
Watt's,  also  in  use  at  Old  Ford,  so  as  to  determine,  at  the  same  time,  the 
respective  duty  and  consumption  of  steam  by  the  two  engines. 

Mr.  Field  insisted  on  tlie  importance  of  distingiusliiug  between  the  duty 
and  effect,  by  usiirg  the  former  term  for  the  water  actually  raised,  and  the 
latter  for  the  real  power  expended,  lie  understood  these  terms  to  be  so 
applied  to  engines  for  water  works  in  London,  and  that  effect  included  the 
friction  of  the  water  iu  the  pipes,  and  all  other  causes  of  diminution  of  duty. 
The  real  eft'ect  should  be  ascertained  from  the  pressure  of  the  water  at  the 
pump,  as  determiued  by  a  mercurial  gauge.  It  is  generally  unrlerstood  tliat, 
iu  speaking  of  the  real  comparative  cfl'ects  of  the  water  works  engines  in 
London,  it  would  be  unfair  to  take  the  water  raised,  as  the  same  power  would 
iu  one  case  be  expended  in  raising  water  lOtI  feet,  as  is  expended  in  another 
case  in  raising  water  200  feet.  The  pressure  of  the  water  at  the  pumps  is 
the  proper  standard  of  comparison. 

Mr.  Parkes  stated,  that  in  his  paper  he  had  used  the  term  duty  as  distin- 
guished from  the  absolute  power  o(  the  engine.  The  same  Cornish  pumping 
engine  at  different  periods  performs  very  dift'ercnt  amounts  of  duty,  although 
the  absolute  power  exerted  by  the  steam  is  the  same.  This  arises  from  ad- 
ditions to  the  friction  by  new  pump  rods,  and  from  other  causes.  The  Cor- 
nish result  is  below  the  real  duty  done  by  the  engine,  taking  the  term  in 
their  acceptation  of  it,  and  using  their  mode  of  calCTdation  for  that  which  is 
by  them  considered  a  purely  commercial  question.  The  only  correct  manner 
of  ascertaining  the  absolute  power  exerted  by  pumping  engines,  so  as  to 
eonijiare  them  with  rotative  engines,  is  to  take  the  pressure  on  tlie  piston, 
and  the  value  of  the  vacuum  on  the  other  side  at  the  same  time.  The  term 
duty  expresses  the  true,  useful,  or  commercial  performance  of  the  engine,  but 
is  no  measure  of  the  absolute  jiower  of  the  steam,  which  has  to  overcome  the 
friction  of  the  engine,  pumps,  rods,  &c.,  in  addition. 

Mr.  Enys,  iu  reply  to  a  question  from  Mr.  Gordon  as  to  the  speed  at 
which  an  engine  is  worked  with  the  greatest  economy,  stated  the  general 
opinion  in  Corw.ill  to  be  in  favour  of  about  9  strokes  per  minute  ;  if  there 
was  a  pause  of  half  a  second  Ijctwecn  each  stroke,  the  Cornish  cngineei-s 
were  perfectly  satisfied.  The  indoor  stroke  is  usually  at  the  rate  of  from 
2D0  to  200  feet  per  minute,  and  the  outdoor  stroke  about  140  feet.  When 
the  number  of  strokes  exceeds  9,  the  balance  requires  to  be  altered  ;  the 
engine  then  runs  out  quicker,  but  requires  a  greater  expenditure  of  steam  to 
bring  it  in  again.  In  answer  to  a  question  relative  to  Woolfe's  engines,  he 
believed  they  had  never  had  a  fair  trial,  as  all  tlie  boilers  originally  adapted 
to  them  were  mu^h  too  small,  and  the  tubes  soon  got  full  of  oxide  and  mud ; 
if  the  present  system  of  Cornish  boilers  had  been  in  use  at  the  time,  he 
thought  they  would  have  acted  mnch  better.  Some  engineers  are  so  much 
impressed  in  their  favour,  that  they  are  desirous  of  giving  them  a  trial  again 
with  all  the  recent  improvements. 

ilr.  Cottani  mentioned  an  engine  on  M"oolfe's  principle  which  had  worked 
peifcccly  well  for  several  years.  It  is  now  grinding  a  bushel  of  corn  with  a 
fraction  less  than  4  It.  of  coal.  The  pressure  of  the  steam  iu  the  boiler  is 
from  22  to  25  lb. 

Mr.  Cottam,  in  reference  to  the  above  discussion,  at  a  subsequent  evening 
(Feb.  IS)  alluded  to  the  pumping  engine  at  Hammersmith,  which  forces  the 
water  through  five  miles  of  pipes,  and  then  through  a  vast  number  of  smaller 
pipes,  and  was  subject  to  gre.at  variations  of  service,  and  inquired  how  the 
duty  could  be  ascertained  with  any  tolerable  accuracy,  as  the  v.iriable  expen- 
diture of  steam  under  dift'ercnt  circumstances  must  lead  to  considerable  errors. 
If  a  boiler,  as  in  the  Cornish  engines,  is  adapted  to  raise  the  bob  7  times  per 
minute,  and,  owing  to  some  cause,  as  the  water  not  being  able  to  get  away, 
the  bol)  is  raised  only  5  times  per  minute,  there  is  two-sevenths  iu  favour  of 
the  Ijoilcr;  or  if  an  engine  adapted  for  30  strokes  per  minute  makes  only  25 
occasionally,  there  is  great  difficulty  in  comparing  it  with  other  engines. 

Mr.  Doiikiu  urged  the  necessity  of  keejiing  the  quality  of  the  engine  and 
its  commercial  eft'ect  perfectly  distinct ;  if  a  given  weight  be  raised  to  a  given 
height,  it  must  produce  a  given  eftect  minus  the  friction ;  in  water-works 
engines  the  resistance  opposed  by  the  friction  is  very  considerable,  and  being 
very  variable,  it  must  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  consideration  of 
the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  engine;  of  two  engines  having  equal  power,  one 
may  discharge,  owing  to  these  circumstances,  more  water  than  the  other,  but 
if  both  be  of  the  same  construction  and  raise  a  given  weight,  whether  the 
water  be  discharged  perpendicularly  or  forced  through  any  length  of  hori- 
zontal pipes,  there  can  be  no  mistake  as  to  the  amount  of  the  effect  produced, 
or,  in  other  words,  of  duty  performed,  as  that  woidd  be  determiued  liy  the 
weight  naiscd  if  in  a  Cornish  engine,  or  by  the  resistance  overcome  if  in  an 
ordinary  pumping  engine. 

Mr.  Wicksteed  observed,  that  there  was  no  difficulty  in  instituting  a  com- 
parisou  between  the  duty  of  a  Cornish  engine  and  of  an  ordinary  water-works 
engine,  because  by  the  former  the  water  was  raised  through  a  perpendicular 
shaft,  and  by  the' latter  forced  through  several  miles  of  pipes,  of  varying 
length  and  resistance.  He  had  for  several  years  ascertained,  by  means  of  3 
mercurial  syphon  gauge,  the  pressure  at  the  pump  piston,  and  this  gave,  with 
perfect  accuracy,  the  resistance  overcome  by  the  engine,  whether  arising 
from  the  pressure  of  water  raised  to  a  given  or  varying  height,  or  from  the 
friction  in  a  great  length  of  pipes.  This  was  easily  proved  at  Old  Ford, 
where  the  water  was  raised  into  a  perpendicular  column  or  stand  pipe,  in 
which  the  level  of  the  water  would  he  that  necessary  for  overconting  the 


IS40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL 


2*^3 


BBsistance  oiiposed  by  the  jji^essiire  and  friction.  lu  making  comparisons 
between  tlie  common  water-works  engine  and  tlie  Cornisli,  tliis  was  the 
mode  lie  had  adopted,  and  he  ijeUeved  it  to  be  tl.e  only  fair  one.  He  liad 
pi-oved  the  aecnracy  of  the  mercurial  gauges  by  the  measurement  of  the 
column  of  water  supported.  The  Cornish  engine  at  Old  Ford  acts  by  raising 
a  weight  of  metal,  which,  upon  its  return,  raises  the  water.  This  is  the  only 
engine  in  Loudon  of  the  kind,  and  to  establish  a  comparison  between  it  and 
any  other  pumping  engine,  it  is  only  requisite  to  ajiply  a  mercurial  gauge  as 
just  described  to  the  pump  of  each,  and  whether  the  water  is  lifted  dkect  or 
forced  through  any  length  of  pipes,  the  resistance  or  load  against  wdiich  the 
steam  acts  will  be  shown.  Previously  to  his  Cornish  engine  being  set  to 
work,  the  beam  and  plunger  were  balanced  with  the  greatest  accuracy,  and 
their  preponderance  ascertained  before  the  steam  piston  and  plunger  were 
packed.  The  weight  afterwards  added  to  the  pump  end  was  also  carefidly 
ascertained.  The  weight  raised  at  each  stroke  of  the  engine  is  thus  accu- 
rately known.  The  number  of  strokes  performed  in  a  giyen  time  is  regis- 
tered by  the  counter.  The  coals  are  carefully  weighed.  By  ordinary  atten- 
tion, the  boilers  are  so  managed  with  regard  to  the  work  to  be  done,  that  no 
steam  is  allowed  to  blow  away,  whether  the  engine  l)e  maldng  3  or  9  strokes 
per  minute ;  and  in  calculating  the  dnty  done  by  the  quantity  of  coal  con- 
sumed, no  deduction  is  made  for  stoppages.  Thus,  a  certain  number  of 
strokes  being  made,  a  known  weight  has  lieen  raised  to  a  given  height  a  given 
iiuml)er  of  times  by  the  consumption  of  a  known  weight  of  coals.  This 
engine  worked  under  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  water  from  110  to  IIG  feet 
in  height,  and  the  water  was  forced  through  300  miles  of  pipe,  varying  from 
42  inches  to  3  inches  in  diameter.  The  load  at  the  pump  in  the  common 
pumping  engine  is  ascertained  by  the  same  means,  and  no  error  can  exist  in 
determining  the  duty  performed  by  each. 

Mr.  Parkes  observed,  that  the  term  duty  did  not  seem  to  be  quite  under- 
stood ;  duty  was  not  the  weight  of  water  raised  1  foot  in  height,  but  that 
weight  divided  by  a  bushel  or  other  measure  or  weight  of  coals  also  ;  that 
the  time  in  which  the  water  was  raised  did  not  enter  into  the  computation  of 
duty,  though  it  did  into  the  determination  of  horse  power.  He  would  again 
call  attention  to  the  fact,  that  coal  was  no  measure  of  power  or  of  the  qnality 
of  an  engine ;  that  one  engine  might  be  doing  more  duty  than  another,  be- 
cause it  had  better  coal  or  better  boilers  ;  and  that  the  only  standard  of  per- 
fection between  different  engines  was  the  relative  consumption  of  water  as 
steam  for  equal  effects. 

Feb.  11. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  duly  elected : — John  Green,  John 
Hartley,  as  ilembers ;  Joseph  Woods,  Frederick  Rumble,  as  Graduates ;  Oli- 
ver Lang,  John  Grantham,  Capt.  George  Smith,  R.N.,  Lieut.  E.  N.  Kendall, 
E.N.,  as  Associates. 

"A  Description  of  the  Coffre  Dam  at  the  site  for  the  neto  Houses  of  Par- 
tiament."     By  Grant  S.  Dalnmple. 

The  works  described  are  those  which  necessarily  precede  the  erection  o' 
the  main  building.  They  consist  of  the  coffre  dam,  river  wall,  and  the  foun- 
dations of  the  river  front— according  to  the  designs,  and  under  the  direction, 
of  the  engineers  (Messrs.  Walker  and  Surges)  and  Mr.  Barry,  the  architect ; 
the  whole  being  executed  by  Messrs.  Lee,  tlie  contractors. 

The  mud  at  the  site  of  the  works  varied  much  in  depth  and  in  consistency, 
but  beneath  it  is  a  bed  of  red  gravel  and  sharp  sand,  averaging  14  feet  in 
tliickness,  laying  over  a  stratum  of  stiff  clay,  into  which  the  piles  are  driven 
to  a  depth  of  2  feet.  To  faciUtate  the  driving  of  the  piles,  a  curved  trench, 
27  feet  wide  by  8  feet  deep,  was  dredged  in  the  line  of  the  dam.  The  main 
piles  of  Memel  fir,  36  feet  long  by  1  foot  square,  were  then  driven,  leaving 
their  tops  4  J  feet  above  the  Trinity  high-water  mark  of  ordinary  spring  tides. 
The  waling  pieces  were  then  attached,  and  the  outer  sheet  piles  of  whole 
timber,  30  feet  long  by  13  inches  sqnare,  sawn  square  on  all  sides,  so  as  to 
ensure  the  joints  being  close  when  driven  and  bolted  to  the  waling.  The 
inner  sheet  piles  of  half  timlier  w-ere  then  driven  to  the  same  depth  as  tlie 
others ;  the  space  above  them  was  made  up  with  liorizontal  pieces,  bedded 
down  to  them,  and  secured  with  bolts  to  the  furring  pieces  inserted  above 
the  waling  at  each  gauge  pile.  The  whole  length  of  the  dam  was  secured 
by  diagonal  braces,  extending  back  to  the  old  river  wall,  agauist  which  they 
were  ainitted.  The  outer  and  inner  rows  of  piles  were  secured  together  by 
three  rows  of  WTOuglit  iron  bolts,  the  lower  being  2  J  inches  diameter,  and 
the  two  upjier  rows  2  inches  diameter.  The  whole  of  the  piles  being  driven, 
the  space  between  was  cleared  out  down  to  the  day  substratum,  and  then 
filled  up  with  stiff  clay  mixed  with  a  portion  of  gravel ;  a  portion  of  the 
excavated  matter  was  then  laid  on  both  sides  of  the  dam  to  protect  the 
piling  from  injui-y. 

The  first  pile  was  driven  on  the  1st  of  September,  1837,  and  the  dam  was 
closed  on  the  24th  of  December,  1838.  The  extreme  length  of  the  coffre 
dam  along  the  river  face  is  920  feet,  and  the  ends  return  at  an  angle  until 
tliey  meet  with  and  enter  the  old  river  wall,  at  a  distance  of  about  200  feet 
from  the  face  of  the  dam. 

The  excavations  for  the  foundation  of  the  river  wall  were  got  out  in  lengths 
of  50  feet,  levelled  to  receive  the  footing  courses,  which  were  laid  on  a  bed 
of  concrete  of  a  thickness  varying  from  1  foot  at  the  north  end  to  between 
5  and  6  feet  in  the  centre  and  south  corner,  where  the  substratum  was  loose 
and  spongy.  The  concrete  was  composed  of  C  measures  of  gravel  and  sand 
to  1  of  ground  lime  from  the  lower  stratum  of  the  chalk  formation.    Along 


the  face  of  the  wall  was  driven  a  row  of  elm  sheet  piles,  from  8  to  12  feet 
long  by  8  inches  thick,  square  sawed,  so  as  to  drive  close,  spiked  to  an  oak 
wale,  and  the  whole  secured  to  the  front  by  1-inch  wrought  iron  bolts,  placed 
at  distances  of  4  feet  apart,  stretching  back  6  feet  into  the  wall,  and  fixed  by 
cast  iron  washers  bedded  between  the  footing  courses.  The  two  bottom  or 
footing  courses  of  the  wall  are  11  feet  wide,  of  York  landing,  6  inches  thick ; 
on  these  are  two  courses  of  Bramley-fall  stone,  each  1  foot  3  inches  thick, 
from  which  rises  the  stone  facing  of  the  wall,  of  Aberdeen  and  Cornish 
granite,  in  courses  vaiying  in  thickness  from  2  feet  2  inches  at  the  bottom 
to  1  foot  7  inches  at  the  top.  The  front  is  built  to  a  curve  of  100  feet 
radius,  and  is  backed  with  brickwork,  maldng  the  total  thickness  of  the  wall 
7  feet  G  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  5  feet  at  the  top.  Counterforts,  projecting 
3  feet  4A  inches  by  3  feet  9  inches  wide,  occur  at  intervals  of  20  feet  along 
the  whole  length.  At  a  distance  of  28  feet  9  inches  from  the  back  of  the 
river  wall  is  the  foundation  of  the  front  wall  of  the  main  body  of  the  bnild- 
ing,  the  space  between  the  two  walls  being  filicd  up  with  concrete,  composed 
of  10  parts  of  gravel  to  1  part  of  ground  lime.  The  total  length  of  the  river 
wall,  at  the  present  level  of  2  feet  3  inches  above  the  Trinity  standard  of 
high-water  mark,  is  876  feet  6  inches.  The  wings  at  each  end,  projecting 
2  feet  3  inches  before  the  face  of  the  centre  part,  are  101  feet  6  inches  long 
each,  leaving  a  clear  teiTace  walk,  G73  feet  6  inclies  long  by  32  feet  wide, 
between  the  mugs  and  fronting  the  river.  The  height  of  the  wall  from  the 
bottom  of  the  footing  courses  is  2.3  feet  9  inches. 

The  excavation  for  the  wall  was  commenced  on  the  1st  of  January,  1839, 
and  the  building  of  it  was  commenced  in  March  of  the  same  year.  The 
amount  of  tiie  estimate  for  the  dam  and  waU  was  £74,373. 

"  Oil  Browne's  Patent  Hydraulic  Level."     By  A.  T.  Hemming. 

This  instrument,  designed  for  ascertaining  the  relative  heights  of  points 
not  visible  from  each  other,  consists  of  le;igths  of  water-tight  flexible  tubing, 
attached  to  eadi  other  by  brass  joints,  and  having  glass  vessels  at  each  end. 
The  vessels  and  tubing  being  nearly  filled  with  water,  the  level  of  the  water, 
as  seen  in  these  vessels  at  two  points  whose  relative  heights  are  to  be  com- 
pared, will  serve  to  indicate  their  positions,  whatever  may  be  tlie  inflexions 
of  tlie  tubing  betwixt  the  two  vessels.  Graduated  rods  are  ]>laced  perpen- 
dicularly at  the  points  of  observation,  and  the  lower  vessel  is  raised,  and  the 
higher  lowered,  until  the  level  of  the  fluid  therein  intersects  the  graduation 
of  the  rods.  It  is  conceived  that  this  level  may  be  peculiarly  useful  in  mines 
and  excavations,  and  in  fixing  complicated  machinery. 

Light  for  Light-houses. 

Captain  Basil  Hall  briefly  explained  his  views  as  to  obtaining  for  light- 
houses all  the  advantages  of  a  fixed  Ught  by  means  of  refracting  lenses  in- 
revolution. 

Tlie  difference  between  a  fixed  and  a  revolving  light  is  much  in  favour  of 
the  revolving  light,  as  the  light  can  be  concentrated  and  great  brilliancy  ob- 
tained on  any  particular  point  at  each  succeeding  flash ; — by  a  fixed  light 
being  meant  one  in  which  the  light  is  visible  on  every  side ;  and  by  a  revolv- 
ing light,  one  in  which  the  light  appears  in  periodical  flashes.  Fresnel's  fixed 
hght  has  only  one-sixth  the  brilliancy  of  his  revolving  light.  Fresnel's  system 
consists  in  having  a  large  central  lamp  with  four  concentric  wicks,  surrounded 
by  eight  lenses,  each  three  feet  diameter.  The  light  is  thus  concentrated 
and  thrown  off  in  eight  pencils,  which,  as  they  strike  the  eye  successively, 
have  very  brilliant  eftect,  and  are  visible  at  a  great  distance. 

Captain  Basil  Hall's  inquiries  have  been  directed  to  ascertain  whether  the 
well-known  superior  brilliancy  of  a  revolving  light  could  not  bs  obtained  for 
a  fixed  or  continuous  light ;  that  is,  for  one  equally  visilde  in  all  directions 
at  the  same  moment.  His  idea  was,  that  by  giving  a  certain  velocity  of  re- 
volution to  a  series  of  lenses  round  a  fixed  light,  as  in  Fresnel's  arrangement, 
a  continuity  of  illuminating  powei-,  equal  almost  in  brilliancy  to  that  of  a 
slowlv  revolving  light,  might  be  produced.  This,  he  expected,  would  prove 
true,  provided  no  intensity  were  then  lost.  He  had  erected  some  apparatus 
at  the  Towel',  and  determined  the  effect  by  experiment.  The  apparatus  con- 
sisted of  a  fixed  central  light  with  a  scries  of  eight  lenses,  1  foot  diameter 
and  3  feet  focal  distance,  so  arranged  as  to  revolve  at  any  velocity  up  to  60 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  light  from  the  central  lamp  being  concentrated 
by  refraction  through  the  eight  lenses  into  eight  pencils,  having  a  divergence 
of  aliout  8°  each,  illuminated  not  quite  50°  of  the  horizon  when  at  rest ;  but 
when  this  same  svstem  of  lenses  was  put  into  rapid  motion,  every  degree  of 
the  360'  of  the  horizon  became  illumined,  and  to  spectators  placed  all  round 
the  horizon,  the  light  would  ajipear  continuous  and  equally  brUliant  in  every 
direction.  The  oiilv  question  would  be,  whether  or  not  this  continuous  hght 
is  essenfiallv  less  intense  than  the  light  seen  through  the  lenses  at  intervals 
wdien  in  slow  motion.  The  fact  is,  that  two  chsfinct  efl'ects  are  produced  in 
this  experiment— a  phvsical  eft'ect  in  diminishing  the  brilUancy  of  the  light 
exactly  in  proportion  to  the  I'afio  of  the  dark  portion  of  the  horizon  compared 
to  that  of  the  enlightened  portion,  viz.  as  310^  to  50" ;  and  a  physiological 
effect  (suegested  bv  Professor  Wheatstone),  l>y  which  the  sensibility  of  the 
retina  mi"ht  be  so'excited  liy  a  succession  of  bright  flashes,  that  not  only  a 
continuity  of  light  might  be 'produced,  but  a  light  not  much,  if  at  all,  inferior 
in  intensity  to  th,at  caused  by  the  lenses  at  rest.  When  first  set  in  motion, 
the  effect  is  that  of  a  series  of  brilliant  but  tremblmg  flashes ;  as  the  system 
of  lenses  is  accelerated  in  velocity,  the  steadiness  of  the  light  increases  with 
scarcely  any  apparent  diminution  of  brilliancy.  At  44  revolutions  per  minute 
absolute  continuity  is  produced,  and  at  60  revolutions  neariy  the  steadiness 
of  a  fixed  light,     yfhen  viewed  from  the  distance  of  half  a  mile,  the  effect  is 


284 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[A  I' GUST, 


nearly  that  of  continuity,  very  uiucli  resembling  that  of  a  fixed  star  of  the 
first  magnitude.  The  only  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  light  is,  tliat  the 
lenses  being  in  motion,  it  resembles  a  star  twinkling  violently;  and  when  at 
rest,  it  resemljles  a  planet.  The  dilTerencc  of  intensity  had  been  measured 
by  examining  the  light  through  a  number  of  plates  of  stained  glass.  Some 
eyes  had  seen  the  light  through  13  glasses,  the  lenses  being  at  rest — and 
through  12,  the  lenses  being  in  motion;  other  eyes  with  other  glasses  had 
seen  it  through  10,  the  lenses  being  at  rest — and  8,  the  lenses  being  in 
motion.  He  had  seen  it  through  9,  the  lenses  being  in  motion,  and  tbra\igh 
10  at  rest.  lie  dirl  not  pretend  to  say  whether  mechanical  difticulties  might 
not  prevent  the  adoption  of  the  system ;  what  he  aimed  at  was  to  establish 
the  principle,  that  by  putting  a  system  of  lights  into  a  rapid  rotary  motion, 
a  continuous  light  visible  in  all  directions  would  be  the  result,  without  any 
essential  diminution  of  brilliancy,  as  compared  to  that  of  the  same  lights 
when  viewed  at  rest.  If  this  principle  shoidd  prove  correct,  its  application 
to  practice  might  afterwards  be  thought  of,  and  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  the 
engineer ;  but  if  the  principle  should  not  be  correct,  and  there  was  a  great 
loss  of  light  by  the  rotary  motion,  then  it  would  be  tiseless  to  go  on. 

At  the  subsequent  meeting.  Feb.  18,  Mr.  Parkes  observed,  that  he  could 
entirely  confirm  the  account  of  the  experiments  with  revolving  lenses  given 
by  Captain  Basil  Hall  on  a  preceding  evening.  It  appeared  to  him,  that  when 
the  lenses  made  32  revolutions,  the  light  was  not  quite  continuous ;  but  at 
40  revolutions  it  was  perfectly  so,  although  the  general  effect  was  twinkling. 
The  central  spot  was  very  distinct ;  he  saw  the  light  equally  as  distuictly 
through  10  coloured  glasses,  the  lenses  being  in  motion,  and  through  11,  the 
lenses  being  at  rest.  He  would  suggest,  whether  the  tremidous  appearance 
of  the  light  might  not  be  in  part  accomited  for  by  the  slightness  of  the  re- 
volving frame,  which,  at  the  required  velocity,  vibrates  considerably.  In  the 
temporary  ajiparatus  erected  at  the  Tower,  one  man  coiUd  iriaintain  about  -40 
revolutions  per  minute. 

Jlr.  Alexander  Gordon  remarked  the  coincidence  of  the  experiments  of 
Captain  Basil  Hall  with  a  law  of  light  as  laid  down  by  writers  on  optics, — 
viz.  that  if  a  luminous  body  pass  the  eye  eight  times  in  one  second,  the  im- 
pressions are  blended  so  as  to  produce  the  appearance  of  continuity,  or  that 
the  duration  of  an  impression  on  the  retina  may  lie  taken  at  about  eight 
seconds.  Xow,  in  the  apparatus  erected  by  Captain  Basil  Hall,  there  are 
eight  lenses,  and  continuity  of  light  is  produced  when  the  frame  makes  60 
revolutions  a  minute.  Thus,  eight  lenses  flash  across  the  eye  in  one  second, 
and  the  observed  residt  is  a  remarkable  confirmation  of  the  law  alluded  to. 

Mr.  Hawkins  thought  the  light  was  better  and  steadier  at  40  revolutions 
than  at  any  other  speed.  ^A'hen  observing  the  reflection  of  the  light  on  the 
features  of  the  by-standers,  he  saw  them  very  distinctly,  the  lenses  being  at 
rest ;  Iiut  from  the  moment  of  commencement  of  motion,  there  was  a  visible 
fliminution  in  the  intensity  of  the  light,  which  increased  with  the  speed.  He 
saw  the  light,  the  lenses  being  at  rest,  through  10  coloured  glasses,  and 
through  9  when  in  motion. 

Jlr.  Macneil!  thought  the  light  was  steadier  at  GO  than  at  40  revolutions. 
The  shadow  was  less  intermittent.  He  did  not  conceive  the  mode  of  examin- 
ing the  intensity  of  the  light  through  coloured  glasses  to  be  so  con-ect  as  by 
observing  tlie  depth  of  the  shadow,  as  the  eye  was  capable  of  judging  more 
correctly  of  the  relative  intensity  of  shadows  than  of  lights.  M'hen  the  lenses 
were  in  rapid  motion,  there  appeared  a  dark  spot  in  the  centre  of  a  luminous 
jiisc. 

Professor  Keating,  of  Philadelphia,  stated  that  the  dark  sjiot  in  the  centre 
appeared  as  if  he  saw  the  wick  of  the  lamp.  The  lenses  being  at  rest,  the 
light  was  uniform  ;  but  on  their  acquiring  a  certain  degree  of  velocity,  its 
whiteness  diminished ;  until  at  40  revolutions  a  decided  orange  tint  appeared, 
and  at  (10  revolutions  both  the  orange  hue  and  the  centre  dark  spot  in- 
creased. 

Mr.  Lowe  inquired  whether  the  quantity  or  intensity  of  light  was  mos' 
required  for  lighthouses.  The  conflicting  opinions  of  experimenters  on  the 
intensity  of  light,  as  ascertained  by  the  photometers  now  in  use,  show  that 
some  better  test  or  means  of  comparison  is  wanted,  lie  should  conceive 
that  pieces  of  coloured  glass  could  not  afford  any  accurate  measurement  of 
the  space-penetrating  power  of  light  at  so  small  a  distance  as  345  feet,  which 
he  underst  lod  was  the  length  of  the  room  in  which  these  experiments  were 
tried.  The  depth  of  shadows  also  furnished  no  adequate  measure  of  the  iu- 
tensity  of  light,  for  shadows  were  differently  colom'cd  for  difltrcnt  lights. 
Perhaps  the  photogenic  paper  might  furnish  the  tests  and  means  of  com- 
)>arison  now  so  much  wanted. 

The  President  remarked  on  the  advantages  of  the  revolving  lights,  as  apar* 
from  the  greater  IjriUiancy,  in  that  they  are  pecidiarly  useful  as  being  easily 
distinguished  from  land  and  other  lights,  which  tend  to  mislead  mariners. 
There  may  be  peculiar  advantage  in  the  tremidous  character  of  Captain  Basil 
Hall's  liglit,  as  enabhng  it  to  be  more  easily  distinguished  among  others.  It 
is  not  simply  the  quantity  of  light  which  is  diffused  over  the  horizon  which 
is  valuable,  but  the  intensity  of  the  ray  in  a  certain  direction,  which,  faUing 
on  the  eye,  rivets  immediate  attention. 

Feb.  25. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected  : — William  Reed,  Captain  An- 
drew Henderson,  Edward  Oliver  Manby,  WilUam  Johnson,  Alfred  King,  and 
Gnstave  Holtze,  as  Associates. 


"  Oil  the  Iiiijirurenimt  of  Xai-iyalle  Jiioers,  u-ith  a  Descriji/ion  of  a  self- 
nc/iiiff  Vaslcloard  at  Nahurn  Lock,  on  the  River  Ouse."  By  Henrv  Kenton, 
Crad.  Inst.  C.  E. 

Previously  to  the  year  1834,  the  navigation  of  the  Kivcr  Ousc  from  Selby 
up  to  Boronghbridge,  a  distance  of  39  miles,  was  much  impeded  by  a  num- 
ber of  shoals  or  "  huts,"  some  of  tliem  of  considerable  extent — all  vessels 
drawing  more  than  5  feet  water  being  compelled  to  await  until  the  spring 
tides  set  in,  so  as  to  afford  them  sufficient  depth  of  water.  Mr.  Rhodes  was 
consulted  as  to  the  best  mode  of  obviating  this  difficulty.  He  recommended 
the  employment  of  a  steam  dredging-maehine  to  deepen  the  bed,  by  removing 
the  shoals,  and  the  construction  of  a  self-acting  wastehoard  on  the  dam,  so 
as  to  give  an  additional  height  of  water  between  Naburu  and  Linton  Locks, 
as  it  was  found  that  no  injury  could  occur  in  the  adjacent  lands  from  the 
level  of  the  river  being  raised  18  inches. 

The  greater  part  of  the  shoals  consisted  of  compact  blue  clay,  with  a  mi.\- 
ture  of  gravel  and  large  boulder  stones,  and,  in  a  few  instances,  of  oak  trees, 
such  as  are  found  near  the  bottom  of  bogs. 

To  use  the  dredging-maehine  in  the  most  advantageous  manner,  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  sliding  tool  in  a  turning  lathe  was  adopted,  by  running  the  ma- 
chine across  the  face  of  the  shoal  from  side  to  side  of  the  river,  without  al- 
tering the  position  of  the  lower  tumbler.  This  method  produced  a  perfectly 
even  horizontal  surface  of  the  bed,  and  prevented  subsequent  accumulation. 
Tlie  whole  of  the  shoals  were  thus  removed,  so  that  sea-borne  vessels  and 
steamers,  drawing  from  11  to  12  feet  water,  could  at  all  periods  navigate  to 
York,  a  distance  of  80  miles  from  the  Ilumber.  It  was  still  necessary  to 
raise  the  height  of  the  water  at  least  18  inches  between  Naburu  and  Linton 
Locks,  to  enable  vessels  drawing  7  feet  water  to  pass  at  all  seasons  from 
York  up  to  Boronghbridge,  a  farther  distance  of  20  mUes.  To  accompUsh 
this,  the  self-acting  wastehoard  was  constructed. 

It  is  composed  of  two  distinct  boards  of  Jlemel  timber,  each  76  feet  long, 
18  inches  high,  and  4  inches  thick,  placed  on  the  top  of  the  angular  face  of 
the  dam.  It  is  fixed  by  means  of  strong  wrought-iron  hinges,  leaded  into 
the  stone  work  at  inter\als  of  10  feet.  Over  the  hinges  are  fixed  wrought- 
iron  bolts,  1  inch  diameter,  connected  by  flat  chains  with  the  plimmer  blocks 
on  a  line  of  shafts  extending  behind  eacli  board  on  the  face  of  the  dam  ;  on 
the  ends  of  these  shafts  are  fixed  spur-wheels  working  into  iiiuions  which 
drive  pulleys,  over  which  run  tlie  chains  supporting  the  balance  weights, 
which  are  bung  on  the  face  of  the  A\ing  walls.  AVhen  the  balance  weights 
are  at  the  bottom  of  the  walls,  the  wastehoard  will  be  in  an  upright  position, 
which  occurs  wlien  the  surface  of  the  water  does  not  rise  6  inches  above  the 
top  of  the  boards  or  2  feet  above  the  dam  ;  but  when,  on  a  sudden  increase 
of  the  volume  of  water,  there  is  a  considerable  pressure  on  the  face  of  the 
wastehoard,  it  more  than  counterbalances  the  weights,  and  causes  the  boards 
to  incline  towards  a  horizontal  position,  at  the  same  time  raising  the  balance 
weights  and  allowing  a  free  passage  for  tlie  water.  \Vlien  the  pressure  di- 
minishes, the  weights  descend  and  the  boards  resume  their  vertical  position. 

The  time  occujiicd  in  dredging  the  river  and  constructing  the  wasleboards 
was  two  vears,  and  the  cost  of  the  latter,  which  was  made  bv  Messrs  J.  and 
^\.  Laildcr,  of  York,  was  £300. 

The  result  of  these  alterations  has  been  most  satisfactory,  as,  since  their 
completion,  not  a  vessel  has  been  detained  in  the  upper  level,  and  the  regis- 
ters of  the  heights  of  the  water  at  Linton  and  Nabin-n  Locks  and  York  show, 
that  the  winter  floods  have  not  risen  to  such  a  height,  or  continued  for  so 
long  a  period,  as  previously  to  the  improvements  being  carried  into  effect. 

"  On  the  autogenous  unitinr/  of  Lead  and  other  metals."    By  M.  Delbruick 

The  term  "  autogenous  "  is  employed  by  the  inventor,  >L  de  Richemont, 
of  the  method  now  described,  to  designate  the  union  of  pieces  of  metal  of  the 
same  kind  with  one  another,  without  the  intervention  of  the  ordinary  alloys 
of  tin  or  other  connecting  medium.  This  is  effected  by  directing,  by  means 
of  a  fine  beak,  the  flame  of  a  jet  of  hydrogen  on  the  parts  to  he  united.  A 
complete  fusion  of  the  metal  is  thus  efi'eeted,  and  the  parts  are  united  in  one 
homogeneous  mass,  the  metal  at  the  points  of  junction  being  in  the  same 
state  chemically  as  at  the  parts  untouched.  Plates  of  any  thickness,  whatever 
the  direction  of  the  edges  to  be  joined,  may  thus  be  perfectly  united,  and  the 
lines  of  junction  made  as  strong  as  the  rest  of  the  mass.  Many  circumstances 
contribute  to  render  the  joints  made  with  common  solder  objectionable.  The 
rates  of  expansion  and  contraction  on  changes  of  temperature  for  lead  and 
its  alloys  with  tin  are  different ;  some  chemicil  agents  act  much  more  on 
alloys  of  lead  and  tin  than  on  lead  alone.  The  alloys  also  are  fragile,  and 
the  solder  may  not  perfectly  attach  itself,  without  the  imperfection  being 
observed.  In  addition  to  obviating  these  objections,  M.  de  Richemont  con- 
ceives that  his  new  method  or  union  possesses  the  farther  advantages  of 
economy,  in  saving  of  solder  and  in  avoiding  seams  and  overlappings ;  in  per- 
mitting the  use  of  thiimer  lead  and  the  use  of  lead  where  it  is  now  inad- 
missible, and  in  rendering  practicable  the  repairs  of  vessels  which  are  now 
impracticalde. 

M.  de  Richemont  also  applies  this  jet  of  flame  to  heating  the  common  sol- 
dering irons  used  by  tinmen  and  plumbers.  The  jet  is  permitted  to  play 
upon  the  tool,  which,  in  a  few  seconds,  is  brought  to  the  requisite  beat,  and 
maintained  at  that  heat  without  any  injury  to  the  tool.  The  heat  can  be 
regidated  to  the  greatest  nicety  by  diminishing  or  increasing  the  jet.  The 
author  conceives  that  the  sulphate  of  zinc  produced  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  gas  will  be  found  of  such  value  as  greatly  to  diminish  the  cost  of  this 
process. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL 


285 


ROYAL  INSTITUTE  OF  BRITISH  ARCHITECTS. 

The  closing  meeting  of  tlie  Session  of  the  Institute  of  British  .Architects 
was  held  on  ilonday  evening,  the  13th  of  July.  The  chair  was  taken  by  the 
President,  Earl  de  Grey,  who  was  supported  I)y  a  numerous  attendance  of 
the  Meml)ers  of  the  Society  and  their  visitors. 

The  proceedings  of  the  meeting  derived  a  ]iecnHar  interest  from  the  pre- 
sence of  Mr.  Morrison,  of  Dublin,  Vice  President  of  the  lately  established 
Institute  of  Irish  .\rcliitects,  who  was  announced  as  the  representative  of  that 
body  ;  Mr.  Morrison  is  also  a  Fellow  of  the  Institute  of  London,  and  the  pre- 
sent occasion  being  the  first  on  which  he  had  attended  since  his  election,  he 
was  admitted  in  due  form  by  his  Lordship,  who  then  addressed  him  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Mr.  Morrison,  I  assure  you  that  I  am  extremely  happy  at  being  al)le  to 
attend  here  to  night  as  President  of  this  Society,  to  receive  you  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  Royal  Institute  of  Architects  of  Ireland.  We  have  the  same 
feelings  and  views  as  yourself  and  your  colleagues  :  namely,  to  promote  the 
arts  essential  to  the  profession,  and  at  the  same  time  to  elevate  the  character 
of  tlie  Professors  themselves. 

It  will  be  remembered  by  many  of  those  who  hear  me,  that  your  Society 
when  first  projected,  was  intended  to  form  a  brancli  of  our  own.  The  word- 
ing of  our  charter,  or  some  technicality,  combined  with  the  distance  by  which 
we  are  separated,  rendered  it  impracticable  to  efiect  that  unioii.  But  though 
we  were  thus  forced  to  adopt  separate  names,  we  coincide  and  unite  in  one 
common  fecUng ;  and  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  by  co-operation  we  can 
always  mutually  be  of  service  to  each  other. 

The  utility  of  such  an  institution  is  I  tliink  obvious.  The  benefit  resulting 
to  the  profession  is  not  confined  to  any  particular  portion  of  it :  the  juniors 
as  well  as  the  seniors  piofit  by  it ;  for  at  the  same  time  that  the  jimior  mem- 
bers are  thereby  furnished  with  opportunities  of  hearing  tlie  opinion,  and  ac- 
quiring information  from  those  who  are  of  longer  standing  than  themselves, 
it  is  by  no  means  devoid  of  utility  to  the  seniors  by  inducing  them  to  com- 
municate amongst  one  another  the  result  of  their  more  extended  experience. 
The  Association  of  the  Honorary  Member  is  not  without  its  utility.  It  affords 
to  us,  who  were  not  educated  for  the  profession,  an  opportunity  of  becoming 
acquainted  with  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  in  the  various  branches  of  it, 
whilst,  we  in  return,  may  occasionally  have  it  in  our  power  to  assist  them, 
by  afibrding  a  facility  of  meeting  with  persons,  and  assembling  at  places 
which  they  might  not  otherwise  have  an  opportunity  of  doing.  "With  this 
feeling  I  accepted  with  readiness  and  pleasure  the  complimentary  offer  from 
the  Irish  Institute,  of  electing  me  an  honorary  Fellow,  and  I  hailed  with 
satisfaction  the  appointment  of  a  very  intimate  friend.  Lord  Fitzgerald,  as  its 
President.  He,  like  myself,  was  not  brought  up  to  the  profession  withwiiich 
he  has  thus  been  associated ;  but,  with  the  talent  which  he  possesses,  I  have 
no  doubt  that  his  friends  and  colleagues  will  derive  much  advantage  from  his 
connection  with  their  Society. 

I  look  upon  this,  and  our  sister  Institute  in  Ireland  as  one ;  though  sepa- 
rated by  St.  George's  Channel,  we  have  but  one  and  the  same  object  in  view, 
and  are  pursuing  the  same  road  for  its  attainment.  !n  my  double  capacity 
therefore  of  member  of  hoth  Institutes,  I  beg  leave  again  to  repeat  the  |)lea- 
sure  I  experience  in  seeing  you,  Sir,  (to  whose  exertions  I  believe  I  may  say 
our  sister  Society,  is  very  mainly  indebted  for  its  present  position,  and  whose 
own  private  and  professional  character  is  so  deservedly  eminent.)  now  present 
to  take  your  seat  amongst  us,  as  one  of  our  own  raemliers.  .Vnd  I  feel  con- 
fident that  I  express  the  unanimous  sentiments  of  every  one  who  hears  me, 
in  offering  to  you,  and  through  you,  to  the  Royal  Irish  Institute  our  most 
cordial  wishes  for  continued  prosperity. 

Mr.  Morrison  said, — In  rising  to  return  thanks  for  the  kind  reception  I 
have  met,  on  the  occasion  of  this  my  first  visit  to  your  Institute,  and  for  the 
obliging  expressions  which  your  Lordship  has  addressed  to  me,  while  I  feel 
that  I  am  indebted  for  both  to  the  position  which  I  hold  with  relation  to  he 
sister  Institute  in  Ireland,  I  am  not  less  proud  of  the  honour  done  uie,  or  less 
grateful  for  the  manner  in  which  it  is  conferred. 

It  is,  indeed,  my  Lord,  to  me  a  most  gratif)ing  circmnstance  to  find,  that 
the  cttbrts  I  have  made  to  estabUsh,  on  a  proper  footing,  an  Institute  of 
Architects  in  Ireland,  are  appreciated  by  your  Lordship  and  by  a  Society  such 
as  this ;  and  that  the  success  wdiich  has  crowned  my  exertions  is  hailed  by  a 
body  of  gentlemen  so  qualified  to  judge  of  its  importance.  It  assures  me,  my 
Lord,  not  only  that  the  unnatural  state  of  depression,  in  which  for  so  long  a 
period  the  professors  of  our  art  have  been  placed  in  the  sister  kingdom,  was 
deplored  with  the  sympathy  of  generous  feeling,  by  our  professional  brethren 
in  this  country,  but  that  by  those  whose  judgment  on  such  a  matter  must 
l)e  decisive,  it  w'&s/eit,  as  it  is  pronounced  to  be,  undeserved. 

I  have  never,  my  Lord,  for  a  moment,  mistaken  the  claims  of  the  archi- 
tects of  Ireland,  to  hold  the  position  and  to  participate  in  the  honours  which 
in  this  and  in  other  countries,  are  conceded  to  the  instructed  professors  of 
our  beautiful  art.  In  literature,  in  science,  and  in  the  display  of  poetic  taste 
and  feeling,  Irish  genius  has  not  been  behind  that  of  other  lands,  in  earning 
for  itself  "  a  station  and  a  name  ;"  and  in  our  art,  which  demands  the  union 
of  both  taste  and  knowledge,  its  Irish  professors,  as  far  as  opportunities  have 
been  afforded  them,  have  (I  trust  I  may  say)  shewn  themselves  not  unen- 
dowed with  the  admitted  talent  of  their  country.  I  have,  then,  ever  felt, 
that  it  has  been  owing  to  other  unhappy  causes,  and  not  to  want  of  ability 
amongst  us,  that  in  Ireland  architectural  science  has  been  depressed,  as  it 


has  been  undervalued.  The  dark  cloud  which,  from  whatever  cause,  has 
hung  over  the  destinies  of  that  country,  has  discouraged  the  eft'orts,  as  it  has 
depressed  the  spirits  of  her  children ;  but  still,  amidst  her  darkness,  beatitiful 
structures  have  sprung  up  from  time  to  time,  to  testify  that  architectural 
taste  and  ability  were  there,  wliicli  under  happier  auspices,  would  shed  a 
lustre  on  the  land  where  they  were  protected ;  and  record,  with  enduring 
monuments,  the  histoi-y  of  her  reviving  prosperity  and  social  j)eace. 

It  was  with  this  feeling  that,  while  I  regretted  the  past  depression  in  Ire- 
land of  the  art  I  loved,  and  with  the  cultivation  of  which  I  associated  the 
brightest  visions  of  my  country's  happiness.  I  felt  encouraged,  tnider  the 
awakening  aspect  of  Irish  prosperity,  in  making  an  effort  to"  exalt  my  pro- 
fession in  Ireland,  liy  vindicating  the  true  dignity  of  its  educated  members.  I 
do  not  wish  to  dwell  njion  a  subject  which  woidd,  by  implication,  attach 
discredit  to  those,  who  from  their  station  in  society,  should  he  the  natural 
protectors  of  native  talent ;  suffice  it  to  say,  what  alas !  is  too  well  under- 
stood, the  architects  of  Ireland  have  not  been  valued  or  encouraged  by  the 
wealthy  and  educated  classes  of  their  own  countrymen  ;  and  tiicyjiave  now 
sought  to  win  the  favour,  and  the  respect,  which  have  been  unjustly  and  im- 
wisely  withheld  from  them,  by  showing  that  ttiey  understand  their  own  pro- 
per merits,  and  that  they  have  learaed  to  respect  and  to  do  justice  to  them- 
selves. 

Such,  my  Lord,  has  been  the  origin  of  the  Royal  Institute  of  .Architects  iu 
Ireland,  to  which  your  noble  Society  has  generously  held  out  the  right  hand 
of  fellowship,  and  of  frieridship  ;  declaring  that  you  esteem  us  "  as  a  branch 
of  your  own  Institute  in  every  thing  except  the  name." 

For  myself,  then,  and  for  the  Members  of  the  Irish  Institute,  which  has 
Ijcen  so  honoured  and  encouraged  by  this  approbation,  allow  me,  my  Lord, 
to  retm-n  my  sincere  and  grateful  thanks.  We  feel,  indeed,  that  in  encour- 
aging and  promoting  the  success  of  the  Irish  branch  of  our  profession,  they 
have  consulted  our  conunon  interests,  by  vindicating  the  dignity  of  an  art, 
which  we,  in  common  venerate  ;  but  while  their  conduct  towards  us,  has  been 
wise,  as  it  has  been  generous,  we  are  not  from  our  sense  of  its  prudence,  on 
that  account  the  less  grateful  for  its  manifestations. 

To  all  and  to  each  of  the  members  of  this  Society,  I  return  the  respectful 
and  earnest  thanks  of  the  body  over  which  I  have  the  honour  professionally 
to  preside.  Where  there  are  so  many  who  have  honoured  us,  aiul  from  whom 
approval  and  encouragement  are,  indeed,  so  flattering,  it  is  difiicidt  to  name 
individuals  to  whom  we  would  in  particular,  he  desirous  to  render  our  ac- 
knowledgments. I  may,  however,  venture  to  mention  one  whose  ap])robation 
is  no  less  valuable  from  his  acknowledged  attainments,  than  from  his  rank ; 
and  whose  esteem  is  equally  flattering,  as,  emanating  from  his  goodfeehngor 
from  his  good  taste.  I  need  scarcely  say,  I  allude  to  the  noble  President  of 
this  Institute,  one  of  the  first  in  tliis  country  who  hailed  tlie  establishment 
of  the  Institute  of  Irish  Architects,  and  of  wdiose  support  and  patronage,  ex- 
tended to  a  scientific  association  such  as  ours,  it  may  truly  be  said,  "  .iuctor 
preciosa  facit." 

To  Earl  de  Grey  then,  the  Vice  Presidents,  and  the  Members  of  the  Royal 
Institute  of  British  .Vrchitects,  I  return  the  warmest  acknowledgments  I  can 
express,  from  myself,  and  from  the  body  which  1  represent. 

Letters  were  read,  from  Mr.  C.  H.  Smith,  accompanied  by  a  specimen  of 
white  marble  from  .\merica,  imported  for  the  first  time. — Fiom  Mr.  Chantrell, 
of  Leeds,  on  a  remarkable  case  of  decay  in  oak  timber,  and  several  other 
communications  from  the  members  and  correspondents  of  the  Institute. 

Jlr.  Fowler  read  a  paper  on  the  mode  of  warming  and  ventilating  the 
Custom  House  on  Dr.  Arnott's  principle,  which  eUcited  a  well  merited  com- 
pliment to  Dr.  .\rnott  for  the  liberality  with  which  he  has  placed  his  scientific 
inventions  at  the  disposal  of  the  public  at  large. 

The  noble  President  then  congratulated  the  Society  on  the  success  which 
had  attended  the  proceedings  of  the  session.  The  accession  of  ten  Fellows, 
nine  associates,  one  honorary  member,  and  two  foreign  members,  suflicienlly 
attested  the  estimation  in  which  the  Institute  was  held  by  all  classes  con- 
nected with  architecture.  With  regard  especially  to  the  interest  taken  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  Institute  by  foreign  architects,  his  Lordship  adverted  to 
the  valuable  paper  on  Greco-Russian  ecclesiastical  architecture,  contributed 
to  the  literary  funds  of  the  Society  by  Herr  Hallmann,  which  had  been  ac- 
knowledged by  the  presentation  of  a  medal  to  that  gentleman.  It  was  further 
to  be  observed  witli  reference  to  the  manner  in  which  the  Institute  bad  been 
snppoi'ted  in  this  respect  during  the  session,  that  no  lectures  had  been  de- 
livered in  the  rooms — and  however  desirable  the  delivery  of  lectiu-es  might 
be,  in  bringing  before  the  members  in  a  condensed  form,  much  information 
on  subjects  for  the  study  of  which  they  could  not  otherwise  afford  time,  yet 
it  was  undoubtedly  to  be  noted  as  a  proof  of  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the 
Institute,  that  the  influx  of  communications  on  professional  subjects  had  been 
such  as  to  occupy  the  meetings  during  the  whole  session,  and  leave  no  oppor- 
tunity for  hearing  lectures.  (Jf  the  value  of  the  papers  read  it  was  not  ne- 
cessary to  speak,  but  of  the  advantages  resulting  from  the  mere  circumstance 
of  professional  men  uniting  together,  an  instance  had  been  afforded  during 
the  present  evening,  when  in  consequence  of  a  conversation  which  had  oc- 
curred at  a  former  meeting  on  the  subject  of  the  remarkable  arch  between 
the  Western  towers  of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  one  gentleman  had  produced  a 
drawing  of  the  arch,  and  another,  a  resident  at  Lincoln,  had  explained  its 
construction  ;  and  thus,  said  his  Lordsliip,  information  is  elicited  and  science 
promoted.  His  Lordship  then  adverted  to  the  volume  which  had  been  an- 
nounced of  the  Transactions  of  the  Institute.  The  question  had  sometimes 
been  put  to  him,  "  what  were  the  Institute  doing  ?"    The  former  volume  of 

2Q 


286 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


the  Transactions  liad  snfficiently  answered  that  question  at  tlie  time  it  was 
produced,  and  it  was  not  to  be  doubted  that  anotlicr  would  equally  vindicate 
their  proceedings  though  a  longer  delay  tliau  might  be  desirable  bad  inter- 
vened between  the  two. 

In  conclusion  his  Lordship  expressed  his  warmest  wishes  for  the  continued 
jirosperity  of  the  Institute,  and  his  determination  to  contribute  to  it  by  every 
means  in  his  power. 

To  all  who  knew  how  greatly  the  Institute  are  indebted  to  the  support  of 
their  noble  President,  this  assurance  cannot  fail  to  be  gratifying  in  the  highest 
degree. 


NOTES  OF  THE  .MOXTIl. 

Blenlieim  Palace  is  likely  to  be  repaired  at  the  public  expeuce  ;  a  bill  is 
now  before  Parliament  for  providing  the  necessary  funds. 

Blackfriar's  Bridge  was  closed  on  the  21st  ult.  against  all  horse-convey- 
ances, for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  repairs  and  paving  the  roadway, 
■which  are  expected  to  be  finished  and  the  l)ridge  again  opened  by  the  1st  of 
next  month. 

At  Brighton,  Sir  Samuel  Brown  is  engaged  in  making  a  survey  and  taking 
soundings  of  the  coast,  for  the  pur))Ose  of  ascertaining  whether  it  is  practi- 
cal)le  to  construct  an  asylum  harbour  by  means  of  au  extensive  break- 
water. 

We  perceive  by  the  daily  papers,  that  Mr.  Barry  has  had  several  inter- 
■views  with  the  Commissioners  of  M'oods,  &c.  on  the  subject  of  laying  the 
foundation-stone  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament ;  we  were  in  hopes  from 
the  rapid  progress  that  is  being  made  in  the  erection,  that  this  mummery 
was  likely  to  he  done  away  with — we  hojjc  so  still ;  it  is  quite  a  farce,  to  call 
it  the  foundation-stone,  now  that  the  buikhng  has  considerably  advanced  in 
height  above  the  ground. 

The  bouses  lately  built  by  Jlr.  Cuhitt,  in  Lowndes  Square,  near  Belgrave 
Square,  in  the  combined  styles  of  the  EUzabethan  and  Venetian,  are  deserving 
of  a  survey  by  the  architect. 

We  arc  hapjiy  to  hear  that  Government  has  determined  to  have  engraved, 
at  the  public  expeuce,  the  elaborate  drawings  of  St.  Stephoi's  Chapel,  which 
have  been  made  with  great  care  by  Mackenzie. 

The  design  for  the  Oxford  memorial  to  the  martyrs,  is  decided  in  favour 
of  Mr.  Scott ;  we  understand  that  it  is  in  the  style  of  ^^'altham  Cross. 

The  Duke  of  Devonshire's  grand  picture  gallery  at  Chatsworth,  which  was 
commenced  under  the  superintcndance  of  the  late  Sir  Jeffry  Wyatville,  has 
been  just  completed.  Many  of  the  gems  of  art  at  Chiswick  and  Devonshire 
House  it  is  said,  will  be  transfeiTcd  to  this  gallery. 

The  sum  of  .f5,000.  has  been  voted  by  Parhament  for  the  improvement 
of  Trafalgar  Square.  Tliis  amount  appears  to  us  very"  inadeq\iate  to  do  all 
the  work  stated  in  the  report  given  in  the  last  months'  Journal.  A 
Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  has,  for  some  time  been  sitting,  to 
consider  whether  it  would  not  be  prejudicial  to  the  effect  of  Trafalgar  Square 
and  the  adjoining  buildings,  particularly  the  National  GalleiT.  The  follow- 
ing (pieries  liave  been  put  to  Sir  Richard  Westmacott  and  Messrs.  Barry, 
Deering,  Donaldson,  Burton,  Sydney  Sniirke  and  others,  with  the  view  of 
ehciting  the  opinions  of  those  artists  on  the  subject.  M'hen  the  report  of 
the  evidence  has  been  pubUshed,  it  will  be  interesting  to  see  how  these  gen- 
tlemen have  treats  d  the  matter,  and  the  reasons  they  may  adduce  for  their 
■various  opinions  : — What  effect,  in  your  opinion,  will  a  column,  of  wdiich  the 
pedestal,  including  the  steps  is  43  feet  high,  and  the  height  altogether  170, 
have  upon  the  National  GalleiT?  Wiat  etfect,  in  your  opinion,  will  the 
said  column  have  as  an  ornamental  olyect,  in  condunation  with  the  sur- 
rounding buildings  ?  What  etfect  will  the  column  have  on  the  National 
Gallery  as  you  approach  it  from  Whitehall  ?  How  far  do  you  consider  that 
position  a  favourable  position  for  the  column  itself?  "The  answers,  we 
think,  cannot  be  doubtful.  The  plans,  &c.  can  be  seen  by  ai)pUcation  at  the 
Committee  Clerk's  office. 

Mr.  Bielefeld,  with  considerable  ingenuity,  has  applied  Papier  Mache  to  a 
new  purpose,  that  is  for  delineating  the  map  of  a  country,  by  the  aid  of 
■jvhii'h,  be  is  enabled  to  shew  all  the  cmineucies  in  relief,  and  at  one  view  the 
comparative  hciglit  of  the  mountains,  and  a  general  character  of  the  country. 
The  model  which  Jlr.  Bielefeld  has  lately  completed  of  the  Pyrenees,  is  now 
exhibiting  at  his  mamifactory  ;  it  was  made  from  the  elaborate  model  of  Sir 
T.  L.  Mitchell,  wlio  devoted  very  consideralde  labour  to  it  in  marking  out  the 
seat  of  the  Peninsular  warfare , together  with  the  principal  rivers,  mountains, 
vallies,  villages,  towns,  and  forests,  ■which  are  all  laid  down  to  a  scale  ■with 
great  accuracy. 

At  the  distribution  of  prizes  at  the  King's  College  on  the  1st  ult.,  Profes- 
sor Moseley  read  a  statement  of  the  progress  of  the  department  of  Civil 
Engineering  ajid  .-Vrcldtectm-e  ;  it  was  replete  with  information,  and  of  such 
a  gratifying  character,  that  we  regret  we  cannot  publish  it  in  our  present 
months'  Journal  as  was  our  intention.  The  mode  of  instruction  is  very 
excellent,  as  laying  the  foundation  of  an  intuitive  education,  and  renders  a 
youth  capable  of  appreciating  the  value  of  the  ])rofession  of  which  he  is  to 
become  a  member,  as  well  as  prepares  him  to  apply  tlie  kno^vledge  he  has 
obtained  to  practical  objects  in  the  otfice  of  the  engineer  or  architect. 


DREDGE'S  PATENT  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE. 

Sir, — I  noticed  a  letter  in  your  last  Journal  from  Mr.  Curtis,  on  suspension 
bridges,  and  am  sorry,  on  his  account,  that  he  should  have  so  strangely  at- 
tempted to  mislead  the  public  on  so  important  a  branch  of  mechanics.  He 
has  there  stated,  that  in  1838  he  submitted  his  invention  to  the  British 
Association  at  Newcastle,  that  mine  was  introduced  to  their  notice  last  year, 
1839,  that  there  is  an  identity  of  principle  in  the  two  inventions,  &;c.  Now 
unfortunately  for  his  claim  to  priority,  I  patented  my  invention  early  in  1330, 
and  carried  it  into  practice  successfully  the  saTne  year,  in  the  \'ictoria  Bridge 
at  Bath.  I  was  at  Newcastle  in  August,  1838,  and  there  submitted  it  to  the 
British  Association,  v\-ho  unanimously  acknowledged  its  merits  (see  the 
Journal,  vol.  i.  p.  350.)  the  particulars  of  wl'.ich  were  published  in  No.  794 
of  the  Mechanic's  ilagazine. 

At  Birmingham,  in  1839,  I  read  a  paper  on  Bridge  Architecture,  and  no 
one  disjjuted  the  position  I  assumed.  Mr.  Curtis  must  be  ■well  aware  of 
these  facts,  for  I  believe  he  was  present  at  both  meetings,  but  why  he  has 
found  it  convenient  to  forget  the  former,  I  must  leave  for  him  to  explain.  I 
am,  however,  most  astonished  that  he  should  so  imprudently  assert  that 
there  is  an  identity  in  our  plans ;  it  is  an  assertion  that  he  cannot  prove,  and 
it  is  impossible  for  the  most  ordinary  observer  to  look  at  them,  vrithont  de- 
tecting that  difference  which  he  pretends  not  to  see.  I  would  here  ask  him, 
was  his  important  discovery  acknowledged  by  the  British  Association  to  be 
new  and  correct  ?  and  if  so,  has  it  ever  been  carried  out  in  ])ractice  ?  I  would 
thank  him  to  answer  these  questions,  and  also  to  state  the  dift'erence  between 
the  bridge  of  which  he  says,  he  is  the  original  inventor,  and  that  proposed 
by  M.  Poyet,  40  years  ago,  and  the  one  at  King's  Meadows  across  the  Tweed, 
constructed  in  1817.* 

It  now  remains  to  be  observed,  that  Mr.  Curtis,  as  an  inventor,  has  no 
reason  to  complain,  as  his  invention  is  very  different,  is  undoubtedly  of  later 
date,  and  is  in  his  own  oiiinion,  the  best  of  all  suspension  bridges.  If  you 
will  insert,  in  your  useful  Journal,  the  above,  you  will  obUge,  Su",  your  hum- 
ble servant, 

James  Dredge. 

Baf/i,  Juli)  9,  1840. 

■^  Drewry  in  his  work  on  suspension  bridges,  has  given  particulars  and  draw- 
ings of  these  bridges. 


STEAM  PASSAGE  TO  INDIA. 

The  Prospectus  of  the  proposed  Company  for  carrying  into  effect  the  long 
dormant  plan  of  traversing,  by  means  of  steam,  the  distance  between  this 
country  and  mir  Oriental  possessions,  has  been  extensively  circulated  during 
the  present  month ;  and  from  the  vast  importance  of  the  subject  which  it 
embraces,  as  well  as  from  its  intrinsic  merit,  and  the  solidity  of  the  basis 
upon  which  the  scheme  therein  set  forth  stands,  it  merits  a  more  elaborate 
notice  than  we  have  hitherto  been  able  to  give  it. 

Since  the  year  1830,  two  Select  Committees  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  one  Private  Committee,  composed  of  men  of  the  highest  character  for 
honour,  intelligence,  and  wealth  in  the  city  of  London,  have  sat  at  intervals 
of  from  two  to  four  years,  and  have  thoroughly  sifted  the  question  of  Steam 
Comnumication  to  India.  The  labours  of  these  three  conmiittees  are  em- 
bodied in  as  many  volumes  of  evidence,  pnbhslied  respectively  in  1834,  1837, 
and  1839 ;  and  it  is  upon  the  unanimous,  and  almost  undivided  opinions  and 
judgment  of  such  men  as  the  Honourable  Mountstuart  Elphinstone,  Lord  W. 
Bentinck,  Sir  Pulteney  Malcolm,  Captain  Sir  David  Dunn,  Messrs.  Maudslay 
and  Field,  and  other  eminent  engineers,  and  a  host  of  other  authorities, 
equally  valuable  and  weiglity  in  their  respective  departments,  that  the  pre- 
sent undertaking  has  been  determined  upon. 

The  line  of  route  adopted  by  the  Company,  is  the  one  so  ably  and  so  suc- 
cessfully advocated  liy  Captain  Barber  in  his  pamphlet  on  the  subject,  namely, 
by  sea  from  the  English  port  of  embarkation  to  Alexandria,  thence  over  the 
Isthmus  to  Suez,  and  thence  again  down  the  Red  Sea  to  G.ille,  and  along  the 
Coromandel  coast  to  Madras  and  Calcutta.  The  other  routes,  as  is  well 
known,  are  the  Cape  line,  the  Syrian  and  Eujihrates  line,  and  variation  of  the 
rVlexandrian  line,  by  crossing  the  territory  of  France  from  Dieppe  or  Calais  to 
Marseilles ;  but  the  objections  to  all  these  lines  are  so  incontestibly  strong, 
when  compared  with  the  simple  and  continuous  route  determined  upon  by 
the  Comp<iny,  that  it  needs  only  to  place  a  few  of  the  leading  points  before  our 
readers  to  iiuluce  them  to  coincide  in  the  decided  opinion  which  we  have 
formed  as  to  the  respective  merits  of  the  different  lines.  A  glance  at  the 
table  of  rehitive  distances,  set  forth  in  the  Map  a]ipended  to  Mr.  Curtis's 
temperate  and  manly  exposure  of  "  The  state  of  the  question  of  Indian  Steam 
Communieatioii,"  will  show  that  the  number  of  miles  between  Calcutta  and 
Engl.ind  by  the  Cape  route  is  11,750,  being  3,430  miles  greater  than  that  by 
Suez  and  the  Red  Sea,  consequently  lengthening  the  voyage,  and  materially 
enhancing  its  risks  and  annoyances,  not  to  say  its  expenses,  beyond  those 
wbicl)  will  attend  the  line  chosen.  It  must  however  be  fairly  stated,  that 
even  the  Cape  line,  with  all  its  inconveniences  and  additional  delays,  would 
be  far  preferable  to  the  chimerical  and  impracticable  scheme  for  converting 
the  Euiibrates  and  Tigris  into  English  canals,  and  for  taming  the  ■n-ild  Noma- 
dians  of  the  Syrian  and  Mesopotamian  deserts  down  into  well-behaved  honest 
rovers.  Nay,  we  find  amongst  the  minutes  of  evidence  taken  before  the  Pri- 
vate Committee,  of  which  Mr.  Curtis  was  the  cliaimian,  that  Captain  Barber, 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


287 


who  is  iaconiparably  the  best-informed,  anil  the  most  sagacious  aud  far-seeing 
of  the  Steam  Company's  agents,  has  expressly  taken  into  his  calculation  the 
possibilities  of  a  future  war  with  some  of  the  Continental  Powers,  or  a  change 
in  the  Egyptian  Dynasty,  slnitting  up  the  Suez  line  of  route,  in  which  case 
the  Cape  line  would  be  adopted  as  a  pis  oiler;  and  Captain  Barber,  very 
wisely  in  our  opinion,  grounds  his  reasons  for  advocating  the  adoption  of  the 
largest  class  of  vessels  (2000  tons  and  500-horse  power)  upon  the  distant 
contingency  of  such  a  war  arising,  and  compelling  the  Company  to  send  their 
boats  round  the  African  Promontory,  in  which  case  the  size  and  consequent 
speed  of  f  lie  vessels  would  add  to  their  security,  and  diminish  the  duration 
of  the  voyage. 

Few  of  our  readers  woidd  credit  the  statement,  if  unfortunately  too  flagrant 
proofs  could  not  be  adduced  of  its  exactitude,  tliat  the  state  of  the  conuuuni- 
cations  by  sea,  between  tlie  three  Presidencies  of  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Cal- 
cutta are  at  this  moment  very  little  better  than  they  were  in  the  days  of 
Clive  or  Macartney  :  there  arc  certain  periods  of  tlie  year  during  which  the 
Monsoon  rages  alternately  on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts,  and  ihuing 
the  continuance  of  these  winds,  which  may  truly  be  styled  the  approl/rinm 
merMoTum,  the  intercourse  by  sea  between  the  different  ciril  and  military 
stations  is  almost  closed.  The  steamers  pljing  between  the  Presidencies,  in- 
chuling  those  established  on  the  line  from  Bombay  to  Suez,  are  totally  un- 
equal to  the  effort  of  contending  with  the  south-west  Monsoon  ;  consequently, 
the  ports  are,  so  to  speak,  sluit  up,  and  the  conmmnications  take  place  by  the 
tedious  and  precarious  foot-post  or  dik,  which  runs  between  Madras  and 
Bombay,  and  Calcutta  aud  Bombay  and  Madras,  and  which  is  shown  by  the 
evidence  of  Jlr.  Elliott  and  others,  before  the  Select  Committee  of  1837,  to 
be  wholly  inadequate  to  the  effort  of  carrying  communication  as  rapidly  as 
might  be  done  between  the  tlu'ee  Governments,  in  cases  of  emergency  whicli 
are  liable  to  arise  from  day  to  day.  We  have  asserted  that  the  steamers  now- 
employed  by  the  East  Indian  Government  as  mail-boats  between  Bombay  and 
Suez,  are  not  equal  to  tiie  effort  of  facing  and  mastering  the  ilonsoon  during 
the  four  months  of  its  duration,  from  May  to  September.  This  assertion  is 
l)orne  out  by  the  fact,  tliat  the  Atalanta  was  compelled  to  put  back  to  Bom- 
bay in  April  1839,  and  the  Berenice  broke  her  beam  in  an  unsuccessful 
struggle  to  make  the  passage  against  the  Monsoon  ;  and  the  powers  of  these 
two  vessels  afford  a  very  fair  criterion  of  the  capabihties  of  the  remainder, 
which  the  East  India  Company  has  declared  it  to  be  its  determination  not  to 
alter  or  increase.  Under  these  circumstances  it  becomes  a  matter  of  vital 
importance  to  Madras  and  Calcutta,  but  more  especially  to  the  latter  city, 
which  is  tlie  emporium  of  the  East,  to  set  on  foot  such  a  means  of  constant 
and  continuous  communication  as  will  supply  the  glaring  defieienaies  of  the 
Company's  establishment ;  and  after  the  most  mature  dehberation,  aided  by 
the  experience  and  inventive  capacities  of  some  of  the  most  eminent  men  in 
the  respective  departments  of  the  Royal  and  the  Commercial  Navy,  Civil  En- 
gineering, and  other  Scientific  Professionist,  to  whose  testimony  is  added  the 
unerring  and  triumphant  evidence  afforded  by  tlie  successful  experiment  tried 
by  the  Atlantic  Steam  Company,  as  to  the  capability  of  steam  to  overcome 
the  obstacles  of  wind  and  weather,  the  Indian  Steam  Directors  have  deter- 
mined upon  building  vessels  of  a  tonnage  equal  to  the  mastery  of  the  Mon- 
soon gales,  consisting  of  boats  of  two  thousand  tons  and  of  six  hundred  horse 
power.  Of  these  boats  there  are  to  be  seven,  namely,  four  in  the  Indian 
seas,  and  three  on  the  European  side,  which  number  will,  it  is  confidently 
anticipated,  be  fully  equal  to  maintain  the  monthly  communication  with  the 
three  Presidencies,  which  it  is  the  object  of  the  patriotic  and  public  spuited 
gentlemen  forming  the  present  nucleus  of  the  Company  to  achieve,  and  whose 
efforts  deserve  tlie  grateful  co-operation  of  every  right-thinking  man  in  tlie 
British  empire. 

There  is  one  topic  which  we  have  yet  to  touch  upon  as  connected  with  the 
subject  before  us,  and  that  is  the  question  raised  by  the  East  India  Company, 
as  to  the  expediency  of  confiding  the  transjiort  of  the  Indian  mails  to  a  Pri- 
vate Company.  *  *  Appended  to  Mr.  Curtis's  pamphlet  on  the  State  of 
the  Steam  Question  is  a  pertinent  document,  furnished  by  the  East  India 
Company  itself,  which  ought  to  convince  every  holder  of  India  Bonds,  that 
the  sooner  the  conveyance  of  the  mails  is  made  over  to  a  competent,  well- 
arranged  Company,  the  better  is  his  chance  of  continuing  to  secure  his  pre- 
sent ample  dividend.  The  document  referred  to  is  entituled,  "  k  Return 
of  the  present  Annual  Cost  to  the  East  India  Company  of  maintainiiuj  (?)  the 
communication  between  Bombay  and  Suez."  This  return  extends  only  to 
the  period  of  eight  and  a  half  months ;  but  an  approximate  calculation  has 
been  formed  on  its  figures,  extending  it  to  an  entire  year,  from  which  it  is 
shown  that  the  total  expense  of  maintaining  the  four  steamers  now  employed 
(including  an  aUov/ance  of  fifteen  per  cent,  on  the  prime  cost  of  the  vessels, 
J6162,000,  for  wear  and  tear,)  amounts  to  £182,828.  The  receipts,  accord- 
ing to  the  same  approximate  estimate,  were,  for  passengers  i;<),534,  and  the 
British  Government  allowed  the  sum  of  A"dO,000  for  the  transport  of  the 
mails  :  thus  a  dead  loss  of  A'123,294  has  been  incurred  in  one  year  on  the 
present  incomplete  and  inadequate  establishment,  which  cannot  perform  what 
it  purports  to  do  during  four  months  out  of  the  twelve ;  and  if  the  num- 
ber of  boats  were  to  be  increased,  and  the  establishment  extended,  the  loss 
would  be  proportionably  greater.  The  only  means  of  diminishing  this  loss, 
or  of  turning  the  scale  the  other  way,  is  by  the  conveyance  of  passengers. 

Having  thus,  at  a  considerable,  but  we  trust  not  an  useless,  expense  of 
time  and  labour,  endeavoured  to  demonstrate  the  physical  and  commercial 
advantages  of  the  proposed  plan  for  reducing  the  distance  between  Great 
Britain  aud  her  Indian  territory,  let  us  turn  for  a  moment  to  the  consideration 


of  the  incalculable,  the  inestimable  blessings  which  must  inevitably  follow  in 
the  immediate  train  of  such  increased  facilities  for  intercourse.  "  We  have 
laid  it  down  above,  as  an  axiom,  that  ci\ilization  and  beneflts  of  all  classes 
flow  naturally  from  the  establishment  of  a  continuous  stream  of  transit ;  and 
if  this  be  true  with  respect  to  the  deserts  of  .Arabia,  how  much  more  appli- 
cable is  it  to  the  fat  and  fertile  plains  of  Bengal,  and  of  the  Paven  Ghauts, 
and  the  millions  who  cultivate  them  ?  To  the  philosopher,  the  jioet,  the 
philanthropist,  the  Christian,  the  mighty  results  whicli  may  be  anticipated 
from  rendering  the  access  to  the  shores  of  India  safe  and  easy,  are  at  once 
exhilirating  and  overpowering ;  nor  is  the  gradual  and  insensible  amelioratioa 
which  must  of  necessity  take  place  in  the  minds  and  religious  feelings  of  the 
peaceful  and  tractable  Hindoos,  by  the  mere  progress  of  events,  indepen- 
dently of  the  efforts  of  the  Christian  missionaries  and  others,  amongst  the 
least  of  the  blessings  which  British  domination  and  British  communication  will 
bestow  upon  the  natives  of  India.  M'hat  a  field  will  there  not  be  opened  up 
for  encouraging  and  creating  fresh  agricultural  euterprizes  !  what  schemes 
for  reconstructing  the  gigantic  machinery  which  formerly  existeil  in  the  Car- 
iiatic  and  Mysore  countries,  for  tlie  irrigation  of  the  thirsty,  though  produc- 
tive soil,  may  not  be  expected  to  lie  formed,  as  soon  as  the  capabilities  of  the 
country  are  developed  by  the  discerning  eye  of  the  practical  engineer !  Who 
can  estimate  the  increased  consumption  which  will  ensue  of  British  manu- 
factures, as  soon  as  the  natives  discover  that  they  can  employ  themselves  . 
more  profitably  in  raising  agricultural  produce  for  barter  or  sale,  than  in 
vrielding  the  shuttle  and  beam  ?  If  even  manufactured  cottons  to  the  amount 
of  two  fananis  a  head,  (1.?.  3f/.)  were  to  be  taken  by  the  populations  of  the 
Cai-natic,  Canara,  Bengal,  and  Orisrti,  the  annual  increase  in  the  export  value 
of  calicoes  would  be  more  than  £3,000,000,  and  surely  this  is  a  consideration 
worth  the  attention  of  our  manufacturing  classes. — AbrUlrjed  from  a  Morning 
Paper. 


STEAB2    NAVIGATION. 


Steam  Ttig.—Oa  the  9th  July,  1840,  a  trial  satisfactory  in  its  results  was 
made  of  the  new  steam  tug  boat,  which  has  lieen  built  for  the  River  Clyde 
Trustees,  by  Messrs.  Hedderwick  &  Rankiu.  The  engines  by  Messrs.  Smith 
&  Rodgers,  under  the  personal  superintendence  aud  specifications  of  William 
Buld,  engineer  of  the  Clyde.  This  small  steamer  has  been  built  for  the  pur- 
pose of  drawing  the  punts  which  carry  the  material  dredged  up  in  deepening 
the  river.  She  is  about  140  tons.  Iler  dimensions  are,  keel  82  feet  long, 
with  fore  rake  86  feet;  breadth  between  paddles  18  feet,  depth  9  feet,  and 
draws  5  feet  8  inches  of  water.  She  carries  two  engines,  each  about  30 
horses  power.  Diameter  of  cylinder  30  inches ;  length  of  stroke  3  feet  6 
inches.  The  diameter  of  the  paddle-wheels  are  12  feet,  and  float-boards 
5  feet  S  inches  by  1  foot  2  inches.  If  the  engines  make  34  strokes  in  a 
minute,  the  velocity  of  the  wheel  per  hour  will  be  4-58  miles.  This  little 
steamer  has  been  constructed  in  the  most  solid  and  substantial  manner,  only 
for  the  purpose  of  drawing  heavy  loaded  punts,  aud  not  for  speed ;  yet  upon 
her  first  trial,  and  against  a  strong  breeze  of  wind,  she  steamed  from"  Glasgow 
to  Port  Glasgow,  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles,  in  one  hour  and  fifty-nine  mi- 
nutes ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  her  speed  will  exceed  ten  miles  an 
hour  when  everything  shall  have  been  put  into  proper  working  order,  for  she 
has  run  from  Glasgow  to  Renfrew,  a  distance  of  five  miles  in  32  minutes. 

Pacific  Steam  Nauigation  Company,— On  Tuesday,  the  4th  ultimo,  the  Peru, 
one  of  the  vessels  belonging  to  'he  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
started  from  her  moorings  at  Blackwall  on  an  experimental  trip  <li,wn  the 
river  and  back  to  Blackwall.  She  is  a  very  splendid  steamer  ;  her  engines 
are  of  90  horse  power  each,  and  her  burden  700  tons.  Over  her  paddles  are 
placed  safety  boats  of  a  large  size,  and  capable  of  aflbrding  means  of  escape 
fur  the  crew  and  passengers,  in  the  event  of  fire  or  any  other  accident  to 
wliich  long  voyages  are  exposed,  but  vvhich  precaution,  there  is  every  reason 
to  think,  Irom  the  excellent  arrangements  of  this  steamer,  will  be  superfluous. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  to  those  who  are  about  to  tra- 
verse the  immense  space  of  water  which  divides  England  from  .South  America, 
that  such  contrivances  have  been  adopted  for  their  security,  and  great  praise 
is  due  to  Captain  G.  .Smith,  the  inventor  and  adapter  of  tiiese  safety  boats. 
Their  appearance  adds  to  the  elegance  of  the  steamer,  they  take  up  less  room 
than  the  paddle-boxes  which  in  general  cover  the  paddles,  and,  as  they  are 
more  snug,  so  they  hold  less  wind,  and  consequently  occasion  less  impedi- 
ment to  the  speed  and  management  of  the  ves.sel.  This  ada;  tation  has  been 
made  use  of  in  the  ruyal  navy,  and  has  been  found  to  answer  all  the  purposes 
intended  by  the  inventor,  but  it  has  never  been  employed  in  me  cantile 
steamers  until  on  board  the  Chili  (which  belongs  to  this  company)  and  the 
Peru.  A  model  of  the  invention  has  been  exhibited  at  the  Polytechnic  Insti- 
tution, and  the  results  exhibited  in  miniature  have  been  satisfactory.  The 
Peru  and  the  Chili  v.  ere  both  built  in  the  yards  of  Messrs.  Curling  and  Young ; 
tlieir  engines  are  from  the  manufactory  of  Messrs.  Miller  and  Ravenhill.  In 
these  vessels  coal  will  not  be  used  during  the  voyages,  but  the  prepared  fuel 
of  Mr.  Oranwill  be  substituted.  The  Chili  started  about  a  fortnight  previously. 
Both  she  and  the  Peru  will  touch  at  Rio.  and  proceed  through  the  Straits  of 
Magellan  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  arrival  of  these  vessels  in  the  Pacific 
will  be  an  era  in  the  history  of  navigation.  They  will  create  a  communica- 
tion between  localities  which  cannot  be  attained  by  sailing  vessels  under  two 
months  in  the  short  sjjace  of  a  fortnight,  and  « ill  help  in  no  little  degree  to 
civilize  the  inhabitanis  and  restore  good  good  government.— a  desideratum 
too  long  wanted  in  the  regions  to  which   their  operations  are  destined.    It 

2  Q  2 


288 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


<)U"lit  to  be  mentioned  that  on  the  Peru's  return  to  Blackwall  the  efllcacy  of 
the  apparatus  and  tackle  by  which  the  safety-boats  are  to  be  brought  into 
operation  were  tried  ;  the  boats  were  let  down  hy  slings  into  the  wafer  in  less 
than  lour  minutes,  and  the  comiianv  convoscd  by  one  of  them  to  the  shore. 
Kach  of  these  boats  will  contain  upwar.ls  of  100  persons.  They  are  in  length 
27  feet,  and  10  feet  2  inches  in  the  beam. 

rrmi  .llaimer  Briganil.—A  rcmArkaUv  fme  iron  built  steamer,  called  the 
Bngiiurl.  arrived  here  on  Thursdav.  9lli  ult.,  from  Liverpool,  via  Wexford, 
being  her  first  voyage.  She  is  fitted  up  in  a  superb  style;  the  saloon  and 
cabins  arc  elegantly  fumi.shed  ;  the  panels  of  the  former  are  painted  in  a 
similar  style  to  those  of  the  Gmil  Jl'csU-ni.  and  in  the  latter  si.\ty  beds  are 
made  up.'  licr  engines,  we  are  infuimtd,  are  180  horse  power  each,  bhe  only 
draws  seven  feet  of  «  atcr.  The  vessel  is  said  to  have  cost  £23,000. — ISristnl 
Mirror. 


FUBI.IC    BUIX.DIWGS,    AND    IMPROVEMENTS. 

The  Neale  Monument. — The  decision  for  the  design  for  the  testimonial  to 
the  late  Admiral  Sir  llarrj-  Hurrard  Neale,  liart.,  advertised  in  the  May 
Journal,  has  lieen  given  in  favour  of  Mr.  Draper,  of  Chichester,  and  is, 
forthwitli,  to  be  carried  into  effect  under  his  superintendence.  Mr.  Draper 
■was  also  the  architect  to  the  military  column  at  West  Park,  iu  the  neigh- 
bourhocid  of  Lymingtou,  and  to  the  Goodwood  Race-stand,  for  his  Grace 
the  Duke  of  Richmond. 

Norwich. — On  Tuesday,  23rd  of  June,  was  laid  by  the  Dean  of  Koreich 
the  first  stone  of  a  church  for  the  Hamlet  of  New  Catton,  on  a  site  situated 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  northward  of  tlie  walls  of  this  ancient  city.  Tlie 
building  which  has  been  designed  by  Mr.  John  Brown,  tlie  Surveyor  to  the 
County  of  Norfolk,  will  be  cruciform,  consisting  of  a  nave,  two  transepts, 
and  a  chancel.  -Vt  the  west  end  will  be  placed  a  campanile  or  bell  turret, 
60  feet  in  height,  so  that  although  the  church  will  not  possess  a  regular 
tower,  there  will  be  an  object  of  sufficient  eminence  to  mark,  after  the  usual 
manner,  the  sacred  character  of  the  edifice.  The  style  adopted,  is  the  early 
English,  the  exterior  being  wrought  with  flint-work,  white  brick  quoins,  and 
stone  dressings,  producing  much  tlie  same  effect  as  that  of  the  Ladye  Chapel 
at  Southwark.  The  church  is  to  be  completed  for  the  sum  of  .t'2,400.,  and 
will  l)e  capable  of  containing  750  persons,  with  the  means  of  increasing  the 
accominociatiou  by  the  future  erection  of  galleries.  It  is  a  fact  somewhat 
remarkable,  that  this  is  the  first  chiu'ch  erected  in  or  near  Norwich  since  the 
Eefonuation.  It  must  he  lemembered,  however,  that  within  the  walls  of 
the  city,  there  exist  no  less  than  35  churches,  built  in  the  olden  time — a  few 
of  these  possess  some  good  architectural  features,  but  the  majority  of  them 
are  of  an  exceedingly  common-place  character ;  still,  in  those  cases  where 
the  innovations  of  the  Goths  of  the  Batty  Langley  school  are  not  visible, 
they  are  distinguished  by  a  quality  but  seldom  attained  in  our  modern  at- 
tempts— viz.  the  pictitresijue. 

Bedford. — .\  new  cliurch  is  nearly  completed,  for  the  parish  of  St.  Paul, 
from  the  designs  and  under  the  superintendance  of  Mr.  John  Brown,  of 
Nonvich.  The  first  pointed,  or  "  early  English  "  style  has  been  adopted 
throughout.  The  plan  of  the  building  is  perfectly  regular  and  uniform,  and 
at  the  west  end  is  placed  a  massive  square  tower,  the  pinnacles  on  the  sum- 
mit of  which,  reach  to  the  height  of  100  feet.  In  the  interior,  galleries  are 
placed  on  three  sides  of  the  church  ;  the  ceihng,  which  is  in  one  span,  is 
divided  longitudinally,  by  main  ribs,  springing  from  corbels,  into  compart- 
ments corresponding  with  the  external  bays,  and  these  principal  compart- 
ments arc  sub-divided  into  panels.  Some  portion  of  the  area  of  the 
building  has  been  excavated,  and  a  crypt  formed.  The  walls  throughout, 
are  built  of  the  rough  lime-stone,  from  the  neighbouring  quarries  at  Broniham, 
stuccoed  on  the  external  surface,  the  dressings  are  executed  in  Whitby  stone. 
The  contract  for  the  building  was  taken  by  Messrs.  Rollett  and  Son,  of 
Gainsborough,  for  .£3,338.,  but  the  crypt,  which  was  not  originally  intended, 
has  cost  i.'50O.  in  addition. 

Neir  Cliurch  at  Lee,  Kent. — In  the  notice  of  this  church  in  our  29th 
number,  we  omitted  to  state  that  Mr.  John  Brown,  of  Norwich,  was  the 
architect,  and  that  the  contract  was  undertaken  by  a  Mr.  Butler,  of  Ather- 
stoue,  in  Warwickshire,  for  .<;7,'146. 

The  Hirer  Shannon. — Our  readers  will  perceive  by  the  list  of  advertise- 
ments that  very  considerable  works  are  immediately  to  he  contracted  for  and 
commenced  for  the  Shannon  Commission,  under  the  directions  of  Mr.  Rhodes 
the  engineer. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAILV^AVS. 


RAILWAYS  IN  BELGIUM. 

A  Report  has  been  presented  to  the  Legislative  Chambers  of  Belgium,  con- 
taining the  details  relating  to  this  branch  of  the  public  works,  it  appears 
that  the  law  providing  fur  the  construction  of  the  first  raihv.ays  was  enacted 
on  the  1st  of  May,  iSii,  by  H  hich  the  Ciiivernmcnt  was  aulhorized  to  con- 
struct 3fl7,10(i  metres,  or  about  2.50  miles  of  railway,  starting  from  a  common 
centre  established  at  Mechlin,  and  forming  a  sort  of  network  fur  connecting 
different  parts  of  the  country.    Four  lines  were  thus  designed — the  eastern 


line,  terminating  on  the  Prussian  frontier,  by  Louvain,  Liege,  and  Vervicrs, 
wi 111  an  extent  of  136.3G3  metres:  the  northern  line,  to  Antwerp,  with  a 
branch  towards  the  .Scheldt,  or2.).500;  the  western  line,  upon  Oslend  by 
Cihent  and  Bruges,  of  127.111  ;  the  southern  line  to  the  frontiers  of  France, 
by  .Soigiiies  and  Mons,  of  108,1."2.  By  the  law  of  the  26th  of  May.  1S37, 
tliree  new  lines  were  added,  viz.  one  from  Ghent  to  the  Prench  frontier  antl 
to  Tournay  by  Conrtray.  75.100  metres:  the  line  of  Nanuir.  00,074 :  the 
line  of  Limbu'rg,  10.802 :  making  in  the  whole.  131.976  metres  additional, 
and  the  total  of  all.  5't9.082  metres  of  raihiay.  The  proportion  actually 
opened  for  traffic  was  309.291  metres  :  that  in  course  of  execution  43.4.'53  ; 
that  remaining  for  execution,  196,338  metres.  Upon  the  309.291  metres  of 
lines  completed,  three-fourths  are  established  with  a  sing'e  line  of  rails  or 
road  ;  the  other  fourth,  or  82.000  metres,  on  two  lines,  comprehending  the 
.sections  fr^m  Brussels  to  Antwerp,  from  Mechlin  to  Ghent,  and  from  Mechlin 
to  Louvain.  The  outlay  incurred  to  the  30lh  of  .September  last  for  the  lines 
completed,  and  those  in  course  of  construction,  the  railroad,  buildings,  and 
materials  inclusive,  atnounted  to  55,264.211f.,  or  about  2,200,000/.  On  the 
enactment  of  the  last  law  for  the  construction  of  additional  lines,  the  expe- 
rience derived  from  working  out  the  first  lines  enabled  the  Government  to 
arrive  at  a  more  exact  estimate  of  the  presumed  cost.  The  dilfcrences  betw  ixt 
the  estimates  for  the  first  lines  and  the  actual  expenditure.  Iioivcver  inte- 
resting as  comparative  data,  will  nut  surprise  those  in  this  country  conversant 
with,  and  interested  in.  the  details  of  railway  enterprise  :  thus, — 

Estimate.  Cost. 

Francs.  Francs. 

The  first  works,  cuttings,  embankments,  kc.  16.512.000  ..  24.177. 648 

Fi.xed  stations          ...            -  741,100  „  2.100,.549 

Land 3.074,900  ,.  7.321.852 

Material  Csteam-engines,  carriages.  S:c.)       -  2.000.000  .,  8,300.135 

Surveys,  &c.               ....  502,250  ,.  1,394,475 


Total        -  -  -  -    22,830.330     .,    43,294,659 

Thus  the  cost  has  been  nearly  double  the  total  amount  of  estimates.  It  is 
equal  to  33  per  cent,  increase  upon  the  first  works  of  the  railways  ;  138  per 
cent,  upon  tlie  estimated  value  of  the  land  :  182  per  cent,  upon  the  stations, 
work -shops,  &c. ;  and  315  per  cent,  upon  the  material  of  transport,  &c.  Con- 
sidering the  natural  advantages  possessed  by  Belgium  for  the  formation  of 
railroads,  in  the  general  absence  of  hills  or  unequal  ground,  in  the  abundance 
and  clieapness  of  iron  and  coal,  and  in  the  low  comparative  price  and  plenty 
of  labour,  these  discrepancies  between  the  original  estimates  and  the  ascer- 
tained cost  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  too  considerable  not  to  appear  ex- 
traortlinary.  The  lines,  moreover,  had  the  advantage  of  being  all  combined 
upon  one  uniform  plan,  of  parting  from  one  common  centre,  and  of  being 
executed  under  the  same  superintendence,  which  must  have  tended  greatly  to 
simplify  details,  as  well  as  to  prevent  waste.  But  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  in  all  enterprises  where  there  can  be  no  experience  to  guide,  all  previous 
calculations  will,  to  a  great  extent,  be  found  fallacious  in  the  end.  The  pro- 
gression of  the  materiel  on  the  Belgian  railway  presents  these  results: — On 
the  1st  of  May,  1835.  the  number  oi'  locomotive  engines  was  3  ;  of  carriages, 
40  :  of  waggons  for  merchandise,  Sec,  5.  On  the  1st  of  May.  1856,  the  niim- 
ber  of  the  first  was  8  ;  of  the  second.  62:  oi   the  third,  6.    On  January  1, 

1837.  the  first  stood  at  12  :  the  second.  102;  the  third.  47.    OnJanuarvl. 

1838.  the  first  at  29;  the  second,  184;  the  third,  .55.  On  January  1,  Vh^K 
the  first  at  52  ;  the  second.  314;  the  third,  114.    On  the  1st  ot  November. 

1 839.  the  number  of  locomotives  was  82  ;  of  carriages  for  passengers.  392 :  of 
waggi  ns,  463.  The  prodigious  increase  of  waggons  serves  to  show  to  what  a 
large  extent  railway  carri.age  has  been  made  available  for  merchandise.  The 
full  complement  of' 41  locomotives  more  h:id  still  to  be  made  up.  so  that  the 
number  would  be  12'^ :  and  as  they  are  of  greater  steam  power,  the  expense 
under  that  head  woidd  be  surcharged  more  th,an  50  per  cent.  The  increased 
means  of  transport  were  the  natural  consequence  of  the  increased  pressure  of 
traflic.  both  in  respect  of  passengers  and  merchandise.  The  progressive  aug- 
menfatinn  of  travellers  is  thus  stated: — For  the  eight  months  of  1835,  the 
first  section  of  railways  alone  opened,  421 .439  passengers  ;  1836,  two  sections, 
871  -307  ;  1837.  (three  sections  during  eight  months,  and  six  during  4  months), 
1,384,577;  1838,  (six  sections  during  three  months,  eight  for  four  months, 
and  ten  for  five  months),  2.238,b03  ;  ten  months  of  1839  (ten  sections  for  nine 
months,  and  13  for  one  month),  1,694.019.  Thus  in  the  space  of  something 
more  than  four  years  6.609,643  persons  have  paid  as  passengers  on  the  Bel- 
giiin  railroads.  The  fares  in  the  first  instance  were  fi.xed  too  low,  and  of 
course  afforded  no  fiiir  return  for  ca\nt:il  sunk.  Last  year  the  rates  were  ad- 
v.anced  from  the  mean  jirice  of  If.  43c.  jier  head  in  1838  to  2f  6c.,  and  the 
total  product  of  the  passenger  traflie,  which  for  the  month  of  September, 
1S3S.  was  412. 542f.  ascended  in  the  same  month  of  1839  to  }01.3o9f.  The 
total  receipts  from  1835  to  the  first  nine  months  of  1839  inclusive,  amount  to 
8,759,946f. ;  the  expenses  to  6,422. 071f.  ;  nett  product.  2,337.875f.  It  may  be 
remarked,  that  the  single  line  of  Brussels  to  Antwerp,  which  alone  was  open 
in  1836,  yielded  a  larger  net  return  than  the  clear  produce  of  the  whole  of 
1838,  when  ten  sections  were  opened.  The  nett  result,  afiir  payment  of  all 
charges,  of  the  first  was  403.997.'.  ;  of  the  second  only  364,665f  ;'  from  which 
it  may  be  inferred,  as  indeed  is  ihe  fact,  that  several  Belgian  lines  do  not  de- 
fr.ay  flie  charges  of  working,  and  were  probably  only  decided  upon  in  defe- 
rence to  local  interests,  which  could  not  conveniently,  and  for  political  rea- 
sons, be  denied.  The  carriage  of  merciiandise  commenced  only  i\ith  1838, 
the  product  of  which  year  was  58,5911'.,  and  in  ten  months  of  1839.  331.747f. 
The  regular  progress  during  the  last  year  month  by  month  was  remarkable, 
the  amount  of  receipts  for  .January  under  this  heal  being  7,7131..  and  for 
October.  74.790f.  The  Belgian  Min'ister  declared  that  a  stock  of  400  waggons 
for  the  transport  of  merchandise  w;is  far  from  being  adequate  to  ihe  wants  of 
trade.  In  the  first  instance  the  directors  of  railroads  commenced  with  letting 
out  empty  waggons  to  tiie  common  carriers,  and  confining  themselves  to  the 
mere  service  ot  forwarding  ihcm  with  the  trains.  But  this  method  not  prov- 
ing satisfactory  to  all  interested,  a  charge  is  now  made  according  to  onnage. 
tliat  is.  one  rate  of  price  for  all  under  1,000  kilogrammes,  and  another  for  all 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


2S9 


above.  The  tariff  fcir  the  first  is  40  cents,  per  ton,  or  4  cents,  per  kilometre. 
.or  per  100  kilogrramines  ;  for  the  second,  or  all  above  1.000  kilogrammes,  tlie 
invariable  charge  for  all  kiml.s,  whether  by  measuie  or  weisht.  is  1.31  cents. 
per  ton.  There  is  a  dillerence.  however,  in  regard  of  the  location  of  the 
waggons,  which  may  be  .supposed  to  be  optional  with  the  carriers,  and  is 
charged  in  that  case  18  cents,  per  ton.  These  rates  arc  provisional  only,  and 
are  so  headed  in  the  list  of  charges,  as  "  provisional  tarifls  for  the  carriage 
of  inerehandise."'  It  is  hoped  that  by  improvements,  savings  in  expense, 
and  the  increase  of  traffic,  these  rates  liiay  yet  come  to  be  reduced. 

It  is  singular  that  in  the  face  of  this  extraordinary  increase  of  railway 
traffic,  the  travelling  and  carriage  on  common  roads  iri  Relgium  should  not 
only  not  have  diminished,  but  progressively  been  on  the  increase,  Tiie  con- 
trarr  was  universally  anticipated  there,  as  here,  where  in  many  localities 
sucli  a  result  has  been  verified.  The  following  statement  of  the  pro<iuce  of 
the  peage  des  barrieres,  answering  to  our  turnpike  tolls,  will  show  how  the 
case  has  worked  in  Belgium  : — The  produce  of  the  perige  tolls  leMO  the  highest 
tender  in  1 1-31  w  as  2.390.882  francs  ;  in  1832, 2.19.5.343f. :  in  1 833, 2.3t0,4(jlf ; 
in  18.34.  2.41.5.769f.  :  in  1835,  2.38.5.4.30f  ;  in  1836.  2,447,9S5f. ;  in  1837, 
2,584.791f. ;  in  1838,  2,759.548f. ;  in  1839,  2,749.301f. 

M.  Nothomb,  the  Belgian  Minister,  gives  as  the  result  of  his  calculations 
the  following  comparative  analysis  of  the  advantages  resulting  to  the  public 
in  time  and  m'  ney  between  tlie  ancient  mode  of  travelling  by  diligence  ami 
the  railroad  system,  at  the  least  increase  of  rates  by  ihe  tarill  of  1839.  The 
mean  result  is  stated  to  amount  to  a  "  saving  of  one  half  in  time,  and  of  33 
per  cent,  upon  fares.''  The  saving  in  price  is  thus  subdivided  :  by  diligence 
or  first  class  carriages.  15  per  cent. :  by  open  carriages.  30  per  cent. :  by 
waggons,  60  per  cent.  The  more  humble  orders  of  society  profit,  therefore, 
most  largely,  as  ought  to  be  the  case  everywhere,  by  the  establishment  of 
r- ilroads.  In  Belgium,  where  the  railroads'were  undertaken  directly  by  the 
state,  a  consummation  so  desirable  was.  of  course,  more  easy  to  carry  in:o 
eft'ect  at  any  time.  But  (he  fact  may  sufiice  to  show,  that  here  it  shoul  i 
have  been  the  business  of  the  legislature  to  introduce  stipulations  into  all 
railway  bills  which  would  have  secured  the  same  proportionate  advantages 
in  favour  of  the  lower  classes. — Times,  July  6. 

Edinhnrgh  and  Glasgow  RaUimij. — The  following  particulars  respeciing  this 
important  undertaking  are  abridged  from  the  Gln.sgoir  Cmislifutimiiil  of  Satur- 
day, the  4th  ult. — The  works  on  the  line  from  Edinburgh  to  the  Almond 
Valley,  a  distance  of  about  eight  miles,  have  recently  been  commenced,  but 
tliey  are  neither  of  a  difficult  nor  of  an  expensive  character,  'ihe  line  will  be 
carried  across  the  valley  by  means  of  a  viaduct  of  36  arches,  of  50  feet  span, 
and  vary  from  60  to  85  feet  high.  Near  this  point  it  has  been  found,  on 
levelling  some  of  the  embankments  formed  last  year,  that  the  subsidence  was 
only  three  inches,  although  the  earth  had  been  raised  so  as  to  allow  /A  inches 
to  "subside.  This  arises  from  the  mixed  character  of  the  materials  used 
(stones,  blaxe,  Sec.,)  and  will  prove  a  great  saving  in  the  future  maintenance 
of  the  line.  Onwards  to  the  west,  the  line  passes  through  the  Winchburgh 
H'liinstone  Ridge,  and  here  is  a  tunnel  of  360  yards,  of  w  hich  250  yards  are 
compleled.  This  important  v.oik  is  proceeding  rapidly.  The  Avon  and  the 
valley  through  which  it  runs  are  crossed  by  a  stone  viaduct  of  20  arches, 
some  of  them  upw  ards  of  90  feet  high.  This  will  be  a  beautiful  piece  of  ma- 
sonry, and  will  give  increased  eftect  to  the  picturesque  views  of  the  Avon 
valley.  The  approach  to  Falkirk  presents  many  fine  views  ot  the  Carse  and 
the  ft'ith  of  Forth.  The  high  ground  immediately  behind  Falkirk  is  crossed 
by  a  tunnel  of  880  yanls.  of  which '270  are  completed,  and  the  drift  mines 

greatly  advanced.  The  view,  on  emerging  from  the  west  end  of  the  tunnel, 
ursts  on  the  eye,  with  the  panoramic  etl'cct  of  a  splendid  land.^cape — the 
foreground — the  rich  valley  of  the  Forth,  w  itli  .Stirling  Castle  in  the  centre — 
Benledi  and  the  Oehil  Hills,  marking  out  the  margin  of  the  plain,  and  Ben- 
lomond  and  the  Grampians  filling  up  the  picture  in  the  distance — the  wdiole 
forming  an  assemblage  of  objects  of  surpassing  natural  beauty.  The  line, 
after  crossing  the  Union  Canal  which  it  -Joes  on  a  magnificent  arch  of  130 
feet  span,  continues  nearly  level  for  some  miles,  is  of  easy  execulion.  and  is 
partly  finished,  and  possesses  no  feature  of  engineering  interest,  until  it 
re.ach'es  the  neighbourhood  of  Castlecary,  where  it  crosses  the  CumLernauld 
road,  and  a  deep  ravine,  by  a  viaduct  of  eight  arches,  nearly  100  feet  liigh — 
the  one  end  tenninating  on  an  embankment,  and  the  other  resting  on  the  re- 
mains of  a  Roman  camp.  Here  will  be  the  station  for  Stirling  and  towns  to 
the  north  of  the  Forth.  The  line  beyond  Castlecary  commands  an  e-Vtensive 
view  of  the  valley.  Croymill  is  the  summit  of  the  line,  and  here  there  is  an 
excavation  of  a  ridge  ot  whinstonc  and  Ireestone  of  considerable  depth,  pre- 
senting no  difficuliy.  lio»  ever,  but  w  hat  time  may  overcome.  At  Co«  lairs, 
near  Glasgow,  will  be  erected  the  engine  establishment ;  and  here  the  fixed 
engines  will  be  placed  to  work  the  tunnel  to  Queen  Street.  The  incline  w  ill 
be  about  2.000  yards,  consisting  of  open  cut  and  a  tunnel,  divided  by  eyes 
into  three  portions  of  550.  300.  and  298  yards.  From  the  head  of  this  incline 
to  Edinburgh,  the  ruling  gradient  is  1  iii  880  ;  presenting,  in  the  facilitv  and 
cheapness  of  working  it.  almost  all  the  advantages  ot  a  level  line,  of  which 
two-thirds  arc  nearly  level.  The  distance  being  46  miles,  the  mail  trains  will 
easily  run  it  in  one  hour  and  a  half.  Upwards  of  400  yards  of  the  tunnel  are 
completed,  and  upw  ards  of  200  yards  of  Guide  Mine  is  carried  forward.  The 
contract  are  all  let  to  be  completed  by  the  1st  of  August,  1841.  and  the  en- 
gineer is  directing  his  energies  to  realise  the  opening  of  this  great  national 
undertaking  by  that  time.  Much  work  is  done,  and  this  has  been  greatly 
advanced  by  the  late  fine  weather,  but  a  great  deal  is  still  to  do.  There  are 
employed  on  the  line,  how  ever,  upwards  of  8,000  men,  horses  to  correspond, 
and  ten  or  twelve  fi.xed  engines;  and,  if  the  weather  prove  auspicious,  this 
force  is  adequate  to  the  w  ork. 

Hull  and  Seldy  Railway. — The  importance  of  this  railway,  of  the  ojiening 
of  which  more  detailed  notice  will  be  found  in  another  part  of  the  Journal, 
justities  a  few  remarks  of  our  own.  It  is  comparatively  but  little  known  in 
London  or  in  the  share  market,  partly  from  the  shares  being  held  chiefly  by 
parties  in  and  near  Hull,  and  partly  from  one  of  the  termini,  Selby,  being  a 
small  town  upon  the  banks  of  the  Humber,  or  more  correctly  the  Ouse.  and 


many  thinking  that  this  is  a  branch  from  a  main  line  terminating  at  Seliiy.  To 
con-ect  this  impression,  the  name  "  of  Hull  and  Leeds  Junction,"  has  lately 
been  added  in  the  Director's  reports,  which  gives  a  better  idea  of  the  oiiject 
of  the  line,  although  it  is  less  correct,  as  the  Leeds  and  Selby  connects  the 
Hull  and  Selby  line  with  Leeds,  Selby  being  an  intermediate  station.  The 
Hull  and  Selby  may,  indeed,  with  equal  truth  be  called  the  Hull  and  York, 
or  the  Hull  and  Liverpool,  or  even  the  Hull  and  London,  as  the  Hull  and 
Leeds,  because,  with  the  intervention  of  other  railways,  it  connects  Hull  with 
the  metropolis  and  the  other  places  we  have  named.  In  this  remark  on  the 
name  we  by  no  means  intend  to  undervalue  the  importance  of  this  railway, 
and  the  very  projierties  we  have  named  of  so  many  lines  being  connected 
into  one  or  diverging  from  it,  is  proof  of  our  opinion  that  it  ought  to  be  .and 
will  be  better  known  to  the  public  than  it  hitherto  has  been.  In  the  more 
extended  sense,  it  forms  the  eastern  link  of  the  chain  of  railways  which, 
when  the  Manchester  and  Leeds  is  opened,  will  join  the  Irish  Sea,  and  the 
Atlantic  with  the  German  Ocean  and  the  North  of  Europe.  Mith  the  ex- 
ception of  the  bridge  over  the  Ouse,  constructed  so  as  to  allow  ships  to  pass 
through,  some  other  bridges,  and  a  long  embankment  upon  the  Humber, 
there  has  been  hut  little  of  expensive  engineering  works  to  contend  with. 
This  railway  is  31  miles  long,  is  practically  straight  and  level,  excepting  the 
short  lengths  at  the  bridges,  and  to  these  unusual  facilities  arc,  we  suppose,  in 
a  great  measure,  to  be  ascribed  the  rather  unusual  facts,  that  both  the  ways 
of  this  line  have  been  completed  without  a  second  application  to  Parliament 
for  additional  power  to  borrow  money,  or  otherwise,  and  that  the  Directors 
have  been  enabled  to  complete  both  the  ways  before  they  opened  any  part  to 
the  public. 

Tlie  America})  Engines  on  the  Birmingliam  and  Gloucester  Rnilwny. — fCo?v.) 
To  W.  GwvNN,  Esq. — Sir, — In  rcjily  to  your  request,  1  now  briell'y  give  you 
the  results  of  our  trials  with  the  Philadelpiiia  engine  (manufactured  by  Mr. 
Noiris,  of  Philadelphia,  U.  S..)  and  the  following  are  the  iacts  up  to  the 
present  time.  7fi  chains  in  the  incline  of  1  in  37J  have  been  made  ready  with 
a  single  way,  and  3  chains  nearly  level  have  been  laid  temporarily  to  rest 
upon" before  starting.  The  road  is  quite  new.  and  consequently  not  firm  nor 
well  gauged,  and  the  works  going  on  close  at  hand  occasionally  cover  the 
rails  with  dirt.  The  waggons  used  are  of  a  large  class,  like  those  on  the 
Siancbester  and  Leeds  Line,  and  weigh,  when  empty,  rather  more  than  2i 
tons,  but  having  been  sent  fresh  from  the  shops  a  few  days  ago.  they  worfc 
very  stiffly.  They  are  loaded  with  4  tons,  and  generally  wei,i;h,  including 
persons  upon  them,  about  6^  tons     The  Philadelphia  weighs  fas  she  works') 

12  tons  3  ewt..  and  her  tender  weighs  nearly  7  tons,  being  in  all  19  tons. 
She  has  12i  incli  cylinders.  "20  inch  stroke.  4  feet  wheel,  not  coupled.  The 
weight  on  her  driving  wheels  is  6\  tons,  (as  I  weighed  her  at  Liverpool,) 
without  water.  The  usual  loads  she  takes  in  the  present  state  of  the  plane 
are— eight  waggons,  engine,  and  tender,  w  ith  persons  equal  to  74  tons,  gross 
weight,  in  ten  minutes,  or  nearly  6  miles  per  hour ;  the  last  quarter  of  a  mile 
being  at  the  rate  of  OJ  miles  per  hour.  Seven  waggons,  &c..  equal  to  67i 
tons,  gross  weight,  in  about  9  minutes,  or  6i  miles  per  hour  mean  speed. 
Six  waggons.  &:c.,  equal  to  61  tons,  gross  weight,  in  sometimes  5\  and  some- 
times 61  minutes,  say  in  6  minutes  average,  or  9  miles  per  hour  mean  speed  ; 
the  last'quarter  of  a  mile  usually  giving  a  speed  of  nearly  U  miles  per  hour. 
Five  w.agaons,  equal  to  about  53  tons  gross,  are  usually  taken  at  a  speed  of 

13  miles  per  hour  for  the  last  half  mile  up.  The  foregoing  results  have  gene- 
rally occurred  during  fine  weathr-r.  but  sometimes  the  rails  have  been  par- 
tially wet.  and  this  has  occasioned  a  difference  of  speed  in  the  ascent  of  from 
ha'f  a  minute  to  a  minute  and  a  half.  'J'he  worst  day  we  have  had  was  the 
19lh  instant,  when  drizzlirg  showers,  and  the  men  svalking  over  the  rails 
»ith  marl  on  their  boots,  rendered  the  way  very  greasy  and  slippery.  On 
this  day,  also,  the  lower  part  of  the  plane  had  been  tbrmed  only  a  few  hours, 
and  was  very  soft  and  badly  gauged.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  Phila- 
delphia took  five  waggons  a'nd  self  and  tender,  being  a  gross  weight,  including 
persons,  of  about  53  tons,  up  at  a  mean  rate  of  rather  more  than  5  miles  per 
hour,  and  tlie  last  quarter  of  a  mile  was  passed  at  the  rate  of  8  miles  per 
hour.  A\"e  then  took  two  waggons  off,  and  the  Philadelphia  took  the  remain- 
ing three  waggons,  self  and  tender,  being  a  gross  weight,  including  persons, 
of  40  tons,  up  at  a  mean  rate  of  12  miles  nearly  per  hour,  her  maximum 
speed  being  nearly  16  miles  per  hour.  I  sm  now  making  trials  to  determine 
the  actual  pull  required  by  these  new  and  large  waggons,  and  1  must  beg  you 
to  excuse  the  rough  form  of  this  paper,  as  I  am  mut4i  pressed  for  time. 

Believe  me  faithfully  yours, 
Worcester,  June  22,  1840.  W.  S.  Moorsom. 

P.S. — I  ought  to  add  that  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler  has  been 
from  55  to  62  per  square  inch. — M  .  S.  M. 

Opening  of  Ihe  North  Midland  Railway. — The  North  Midland  Railway, 
which  was  opened  on  Tuesday.  30th  June,  not  only  completes  the  communi- 
cation between  this  county  and  London,  but  also  for  several  miles  forms  the 
line  by  which  the  Manchester  and  Leeds,  and  the  York  and  North  Midland 
Railways  enter  Leeds.  When  the  Great  North  of  England  Railway  shall  be 
opened  from  York  to  Darlington,  (which  it  will  be  in  October,)  and  the 
Manchester  and  Leeds  shall  be  opened  throughout,  (as  it  will  be  in  Decem- 
ber,) Leeds  will,  as  it  were,  stretch  out  its  arms  to  the  German  Ocean  on  one 
side,  and  the  Irish  Sea  on  the  other— to  tlie  .seat  of  government  and  the 
great  emporium  of  the  w  orld  southwards,  and  the  county  of  Durham  north- 
wards. Of  late  years  Y'orksliire  has  been  considerably  behind  Lancashire  in 
commercial  activity  and  general  enterprise,  in  the  accumulation  of  wealth 
and  the  progress  of  improvement.  But  is  not  this  in  part  to  be  ascribed  to 
the  earlier  connexion  of  the  towns  of  Lmcashire  among  them.selves  and  with 
London  by  railways':*  M"e  think  it  is  ;  and  when  Yorkshire  has  the  advan- 
tage of  the  same  means  of  rapid,  cheap,  safe,  and  agreeable  transit  that 
Lancasiiire  has  liad,  we  anticipate  that  her  great  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial resources  will  be  brought  out  in  fuller  development,  and  that  she  will 
advance  in  the  race  of  improvement  at  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  speed  as 
the  sister  county.    Yorkshire  is  the  seat  of  several  of  our  most  important 


200 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[AURVST, 


inannractures— the  woollen,  the  worsted,  tlie  linen,  and  the  rtitlery,  l)c  ides 
extensive  manufactures  of  iron,  leather,  pottery,  Itc. ;  and  it  h  is  also  the 
"rest  seaport  for  our  trade  with  the  north  of  K'urope.  Hull,  and  the  first  corn 
market  in  the  north  of  Kngland.  AV'akoi'icId.  Cy  the  lailways  now  coni|)leted, 
the  niainifaclLinng  population  will  have  their  granary,  Lincolnsh  re,  and  thdr 
sheep  farm,  Leicestershire,  almost  at  their  doors.  All  raw  malerials  for 
manufactures  will  be  more  accessilile  ;  and  all  the  goods  tnaniilaetured  will 
he  nearer  to  their  home  or  foreign  markets.  For  health  or  recreation,  its 
inhal'it.ints  will  he  able  in  two  or  three  hours  to  reach  either  the  sliorcs  of  the 
sea  or  the  romantic-  valleys  of  Derbyshire,  or  many  of  the  most  interesting- 
objects  ami  places  of  resort  in  our  own  county.  The  agriculturists  will  .also 
l)c  able  to  procure  more  easily  those  necessary  .articles,  manure,  lime,  building 
materials,  and  implements,  and  to  bring  their  produce  more  cheaply  and  ex- 
peditiously to  market.  And  all  of  e>ery  class  whom  business  or  iaste  call  to 
the  metropolis  vvill  be  able,  in  the  short  .space  of  ten  hours,  and  ere  long 
■|)erhaps  in  light  hours,  to  glide  from  the  heart  of  Yorkshire  to  the  banks  of 
the  "  r<iyal-to»cred  Thames." — Leeds  Mercury. 

Openhi/r  nf  the  York  and  North  Midlivid  Raihvaij.— This  li'ie,  the  length  of 
■which,  frorn  York  to  its  junction  with  the  North  Midland  Haihvay  near  Al- 
tofts,  is  23i  miles,  (e.xclusive  of  the  short  branches  to  JMcthloy,  and  of  two 
branches  to  bring  it  upon  the  level  of  the  Leeds  and  Selby  Sailway,)  has 
been  opened  in  distinct  portions  at  three  several  times.  The  portion  from 
York  to  the  Leeds  and  Selby  Railway,  near  South  Milford.  being  a  distance 
of  LSI  miles,  was  opened  on  the  29th  of  May,  1?.39.  A  second  portion,  of 
about  three  miles  in  length,  from  Milford  to  Burton  Salmon,  was  opened  on 
the  ilth  of  May,  in  the  present  year.  And  the  third  portion,  .about  seven 
miles  in  length,  completing  the  connexion  between  York  and  the  North  Mid- 
land Railway,  near  Altofts.  was  opened  on  Tuesday.  .Tune  30.  when  a  party 
of  directors  and  friends  came  from  York,  and  joinetl  the  immense  train  from 
Leeds,  iiy  which  the  North  J'lidland  was  formally  opened.  The  York  and 
North  Midland  Railway,  together  with  I  he  Le.-ds  and  Selby.  and  Hull  and 
Selby  R-dlways.  completes  the  communication  between  York  and  Hull :  and 
with  the  North  Midland  Railway,  completes  the  communication  from  York 
to  Leeds.  .'-Sheffield,  and  London.  The  York  and  North  Mirlland  Railuay 
has  the  advantage  of  running  on  almost  a  dead  level  through  its  entire 
length,  with  no  heavy  works,  except  a  tunnel  of  two  hundred  yards  long  at 
Fairbiirn,  and  two  fine  bridges  over  the  rivers  Aire  and  Caldi'r.  One  of  these 
bridges  was  erected  with  unprecedented  despatch,  only  si.x  weeks  having 
elapsed  between  laying  the  foundation  of  the  last  pier  and  conipleling  the 
bridge.  The  line  has  been  as  economical  in  the  construction  as  almost  any 
railway  in  the  country,  and  promises  to  be  productive  to  the  shareholders. 
It  gives  great  advantages  to  the  city  of  York,  which  Is  thus  made  very  easy 
of  access  to  all  the  populous  parts  of  the  county,  and  is  placed  on  the  line  of 
railway  from  the  English  to  the  .Scotch  metropolis.  The  engineer  of  this  line 
was  George  Stephenson.  Esq.— The  York  and  North  Midland  Kailw.-iy.  though 
completed  as  far  as  regards  the  communication  between  York  and  London,  is 
not  quite  complete  as  far  as  regards  the  communication  by  thai  line  with 
.Leeds.  It  joins  the  Norih  Midland  Railway  at  two  points,  namely,  near  Al- 
tofts for  carriages  to  and  from  the  south,  and  at  Melhley  lor  carriages  to  and 
from  Leerls:  the  la;ier  branch,  from  one  to  two  miles  in  length,  is  not  quite 
finished,  but  will  be  so  in  a  few  weeks,  after  which  passengers  between  Leeds 
and  York  will,  we  understand,  be  conveyed  by  the  North  Midland  and  York 
and  North  Midland  lines. — Leeds  Merciiri/. 

Opening  of  the  Halt  and  Selby  Ra:iway.—7hh  railway,  which  is  30:j  miles  in 
length,  was  formally  opened  by  the  directors  and  their  friends,  on  Wednesday, 
July  1,  preparatory  to  its  being  opened  to  the  public  on  the  following  day. 
It  had  been  previously  arranged  that  the  opening  should  be  signal  i.^ed  by  a 
grand  procession.  Lord  Weulock  (as  lord  lieutenant  of  the  East  Riding), 
Lord  'Whamclilic.  Ihe  chairm-an  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Manchester 
and  .Sheflield  Railway.  Sir  Thomas  Cliiiord  Constable,  high  sheriff  of  ihe 
county,  the  members  of  the  borough  of  Hull,  and  of  o:her  places  ;  the  Mayor, 
Recorder,  and  Sheriff  of  Hull;  the  Mayor  of  Beverley,  the  Chairman  of  the 
Hull  Duck  C  mpany.  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Trinity  House,  and  other  cor- 
porations and  institutions,  were  to  go  in  procession  through  the  town  to  the 
railway  station.  But  all  these  inten'.ions  were  abandoned  in  consequence  of 
the  heavy  rain  that  fell  during  the  morning  ;  and  the  directors,  shareiiolders, 
and  their  friends,  instiad  of  starting  at  ten  o'clock,  remained  at  the  station 
till  noon.  Indeed,  it  was  twenty  minutes  past  twelve  when  they  started,  in 
five  trains,  (comprising  40  carriages  and  ab,jUt  1,000  passengers.)  the  first  of 
whicli  reached  .Selby  at  a  quarter  past  two.  The  Hull  and  Selby  aod  Lectls 
and  Selby  linos  run  into  each  other  at  the  crossing  of  the  road  from  Selby  to 
Bawtry  ;  and  we  understand  that  passengers  from  Hull,  for  Leeds  or  York, 
go  through  in  the  same  carnages.  The  numerous  party  remaineil  tliere,  in- 
specting the  terminus,  the  station.  SiC,  till  halt'-past  four,  when  they  started 
on  the  return  trip.  They  reached  Hesslct'liti',  about  five  miles  from  the  Hull 
station,  at  half-past  five,  at  the  rate  of  twenty-five  miles  an  hour  ;  but  be- 
tween Hesfle  and  Hull  a  slight  hitch  occurred  to  the  engine  of  the  first  tram, 
which  delayed  it  and  those  in  the  rear  I'ora  short  time.  However,  the  whole 
distance  was  perlbrmed  in  less  than  an  hour  and  three-quarters.  Groat 
crowds  were  collected  at  Hull,  Selby,  ami  other  populous  places  on  the  line. 
All  went  off  well;  the  railway  po  ice  exerted  themselves  to  keep  order;  and 
not  one  accident,  causing  the  slightest  personal  injury,  occurred  during  the 
whole  day.  The  directors  and  their  friends  dined  together  on  their  return  to 
Hull  in  the  evening.  The  effect  of  this  opening  is  beneficial  on  the  shares, 
whiidi,  it  is  said,  have  consequently  risen  to  par. — Leeds  InlelUgeiicer.         _ 

Eastern  Coit.ittes  Railway — opening  from  Hhorediteh  to  Brentwood. — About 
twelve  o'clock  on  Wednesday,  July  1st,  the  Directors,  accomnanied  by 
the  engineer,  manager,  secretary,  &c.,  left  the  station  at  .ShoreJitch,  and 
proceeded  down  the  line  to  Brentwood,  pixqiaratory  to  the  opening  to  the 
lublic  in  the  afternooa  ;  the  journey,  including  stoppages,  was  performed  iu 
■.")  minutes,  and  on  their  return  in  35  minutes.  At  two  o'clock  the  line  was 
opened  to  Ihe  public,  aitd  a  train,  heavily  laden  with  passengers  desirous  of 
availing  themselves  of  the  earliest  moment  to  make  Ihe  trip,  left  the  station 
at  thtit  hour ;  and  other  trains,  which  left  in  the  course  of  the  afternoon, 


were  all  lull.  The  extended  opening  created  a  great  sensation  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Shoreditch,  Bethnal  Green.  Sec.  and  it  is  estimated  that  upwards 
nf  30.000  persons  were  collecteil  on  the  occasion  ;  every  window,  with  a  view 
of  the  line,  was  crowded,  and  in  some  instances  the  roofs  of  the  houses  were 
removed  to  admit  of  a  sight. — Esse.x  Standard. 

The  London  and  Blaekwall  Railway. — This  line  was  opened  to  the  public  on 
Monday,  the  6.h  ult.  A  description  of  the  railway  was  given  in  the  Journal 
for  June  last. 

The  Gla.igow  and  Paisley  Joint  Railway,  extending  to  7  miles,  was  opened 
by  the  Directors  on  Monday,  the  13th  ult. 

The  Maryport  and  Carlisle  Railieay. — The  first  portion  of  this  line  from  Car- 
lisle has  been  oper.cd.  The  road  is  a  single  line  of  rails  exceiJting  at  the 
ends,  and  the  work  has  been  throughout  completed  in  a  most  substantial  and 
satisfactory  manner.  There  are  no  heavy  embankments  on  the  line,  but  the 
cuttings  have  been  severe,  and  in  one  or  two  places  several  feet  of  freestone 
rock  are  gone  through,  which  must  have  been  both  difficult  and  expensive. 
The  line  passes  down  the  beautiful  vale  of  the  Ellen,  and  crosses  the  river  of 
that  name  three  or  four  times.  The  terminus  at  present  is  at  Arkleby  Coal 
Pit,  near  Oughtcrside,  a  distance  of  about  seven  miles  from  Maryport. 

Lancaster  and  Preston  Junction  Railway. — On  Saturday,  Ilth  ult.,  the  above 
railway,  which  joins  the  North  Union  Line  at  Preston,  and  thus  forms  a 
coniinuous  line  from  London  to  the  county  to'.vn,  was  opened  to  the  public 
for  the  conveyance  of  passengers,  &c. 

Preston  and  Wyre  Raiheny — opening^  throughout. — This  railway,  which  is 
about  19-J  miles  iri  length,  arid  places  tlie  rising  to-,  n  anil  port  of  Fleetwood 
on  Wyre'in  connexion  with  Preston,  the  manufacturing  districts,  and  the 
metropolis,  was  finally  opened  on  Wednesday,  15th  ult.,  by  the  Directors  and 
proprietors. 

The  Great  Western  Railway— furiiier  opening^. — On  Monday.  20th  ult.,  the 
line  of  the  Great  Western  Railway  was  further  opened  from  Steventon  to  the 
Farringdon  Ro.ad.  a  distance  of  sixty -three  miles  from  London. — The  Great 
Western  Railway  works  at  tlic  Old  Bridge,  Bath,  are  proceeding  with  extra- 
ordinary vigour.'and  greatly  excite  the  interest  of  the  inhabitants  and  pas- 
sengers. The  arches  tor  the  oblique  bridge  are  in  part  erected,  and  every 
day  supplies  fresh  proofs  of  the  exertions  of  the  conlr:  ctors  and  tlie  progress 
of  the  undertaking.  It  is  expected  that  the  Railw-ay  will  be  open  -as  far  as 
Bridgewa'er  early  in  IS-ll.  if  not  during  the  present  year,  a  distance  of  150 
miles  from  London,  which  will  then  be  accomplishel  by  mail  trains  in  four 
ho-ois  and  a  ball.  The  Railway  will,  it  is  confidently  expected,  be  extended 
to  Swindon.  TO  miles  from  London,  in  September,  and  the  road  from  Batli 
to  Bristol  (12  miles)  will  be  perfected  at  the  same  time  ;  the  entire  distance 
between  London  and  Bristol,  by  the  assistance  of  coaches  in  the  intermediate 
road,  may  be  then  perlbrmed  in  .six  hours. — Bristol  Times. 

Mi'.nchester  and  Birmingham  Railumy.—A  viaduct  over  the  valley  of  the 
river  Dane,  of  dimensions  nearly  as  gigantic  as  the  one  over  the  valleys  on 
each  side  of  the  river  Mersey,  in  this  town,  is  about  to  be  contracted  for  on 
the  line  of  the  Manchester  and  Birmingham  Railway,  between  Wimslow  and 
Crewe.  It  will  have  24  a-.ches  of  03  feet  span  each,  at  an  elev.ation  of  about 
80  feet,  and  will  be  upwards  of  1,700  feet  in  length.  There  will  be  but  little 
difference  between  the  one  here  and  th.it  over  the  Dane,  except  that  the  for- 
mer has  2()  arches,  and  the  latter  24,  with  an  altitude  of  several  feet  less. 
We  suppose  the  cost  will  be  much  the  same  ;  the  one  here  being,  wo  believe, 
£80,000  —Sloclcport  Advertiser. 


MISCZI^LAKTSA. 


^ 


The  Electrotype. — This  important  discovery  of  multiplying  copperplate 
engravings,  medals,  &c.,  by  precipitating  copper  from  its  solutions  through, 
the  agency  of  galvanism,  is  fast  progressing  iu  this  country.  Joscjih  Saxton 
and  Mr.  I'eale  of  the  Pliiladelphia  Mint,  and  Messrs.  Chilton,  Mapes,  and 
Connor  of  this  city,  have  made  many  improvements  on  the  EngUsh  process. 
Dr.  Chilton  has  caused  copper  to  be  precipitated  on  non-metallic  bodies  even, 
by  covering  the  paper  -with  nitrate  of  silver,  and  thus  obtaining  a  copperplate 
engraving  from  a  mere  print  on  paper.  The  saeans  of  England  will  see  that 
we  are  not  behind  them  in  science. — Xew  York  Morning  Herald. 

Electrotype. — At  a  recent  meeting  of  the  Academy,  M.  .\rago  exhibited 
to  the  members  an  impression  of  a  copperplate,  taken  by  .M.  Jacobi,  by  means 
of  a  galvanic  current.  But  in  England  this  process  is  already  and  extensively 
in  practical  use.  We  have  now  before  us  a  copy  from  E.  Finden's  engraving 
of  Dr.  James,  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  and  a  copy  from  an  electrotype  plate  of  the 
same,  published  by  Mr.  Palmer,  of  Newgate  Street,  and  it  ajipears  to  us  im- 
possible to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other  ;  but  as  both  are  for  sale,  the 
curious  may  examme  and  decide  for  themselves. — .ilhemeiim. 

Brass  Mouldings  patented  by  Cuerton. — These  mouldings  are  a  great 
improvement  upon  those  made  by  the  ordinai-y  method  of  casting  in  brass 
and  then  filing  and  polishing  them  witli  considerable  labour,  which,  after  all, 
are  never  turned  out  true.  By  the  patent  method  the  moulding  is  tirst  made 
in  wood,  a  thin  plate  of  sheet  brass  is  then  drawn  over  the  surface  by  ma- 
chinery, -which  is  made  to  fit  it  very  accurately.  The  patentees  are  enabled 
to  offer  their  mouldings  at  a  very  low  figure  iu  comparison  with  the  former 
prices  for  brass  mouldings.  P.atterns  may  be  seen  at  Messrs.  Btmnet  & 
Corpe's,  in  Lombard  Street. 

Dampier's  Patent  Geometric  Balance. — We  much  regret  that  want  of 
space  has  hitherto  prevented  us  giving  this  machine  the  attention  it  is 
fairly  entitled  to.     Of  the  many  improvements  in  the  means  of  weighing 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


201 


none  have  appeared  so  important  as  the  simple  macliiiie  now  before  us, 
indeed,  it  bids  fair  to  supersede  every  other  metliod  now  in  use.  The  great 
advantage  of  tliis  machine  is,  that  so  far  from  requiring  tlie  usual  number  of 
weights,  one  only  is  wanted  ;  and  this  weight,  from  its  never  requiring  re- 
moval, or  the  slightest  alteration,  ensures  accuracy  for  an  almost  intermina- 
ble period.  In  appearance,  it  is  much  like  the  "  Spring  Dial,"  and  possesses 
all  the  portability  and  readiness  of  action  with  that  machine,  at  the  same 
time  being  entirely  free  from  those  well-grounded  olijections,  which  have 
kept  that  instrument  from  being  generally  adopted.  The  inafhematical  prin- 
ci])le  on  which  Mr.  Danipier's  balance  is  founded,  renders  it  equally  applica- 
ble for  light  or  heavv-  weights,  and  one  purpose  for  which  it  is  admirably 
adapted,  is  that  of  a  letter  balance,  in  which  form,  its  elegant  appearance 
and  beautiful  design,  render   it  a  necessary  appendage  for  the  hbrary. 

Blowing  up  nf  CimTion-niills  Bridge.^On  Friday,  June  26.  a  vast  m\iltitnde 
of  persons  assembled  to  witness  the  blowing  up  of  these  mills.  About  six 
o'clock,  the  trains  communicating  with  12  charges  of  gunpowder  of  4  lbs. 
each,  inserted  at  e.ich  base  of  the  arch,  to  the  depth  of  about  four  feet,  were 
set  fire  to  ;  hardly  had  the  men  time  to  make  good  their  escape,  before  seven 
tremendous  explosions  took  place,  cnrrying  away  the  chief  of  the  fronts  of 
the  base  of  each  arch.  Much  incidental  damage  was  done,  but  still  the  bridge 
remained  standing.  After  clearing  away  the  foundation,  however,  of  the 
bridge,  at  11  o'clock  it  fell  with  a  terrific  crush,  but  with  no  damage  to  any 
person. — Caledonian  Mercury. 

Painting  on  Lime.  Sfc. — M.  Heidclofl'.  a  professor  at  Nnreniburah.  has  Suc- 
ceeded, after  many  investigations  and  numerous  experiments,  in  fixing  paint- 
ings \malterably.'and  at  little  cost,  upon  hme.  gypsum,  .and  stone.  Tlie  ap- 
plication of  this  process  has  been  successfuHy  tried  in  the  cathedral  at  Bom- 
lierg.  The  process  is  extremely  sim,ple.  The  size,  for  binding  the  lime,  is 
formed  only  of  milk,  and  the  preservetion  of  the  painting  from  heat.  cold, 
and  damp."  is  solely  attributable  to  the  method  of  preparing  this  mixture. 
This  invention  has  also  the  ,additional  advantage  that  the  paintings  done  in 
this  manner  may  be  washed  with  water  without  losing  any  of  the  freshness 
of  their  colours.  It  may  be  added  also,  that  lime  receives  the  colours  better 
Ihnn  fresco. — Inrentor's  Advocate.  [Is  there  anything  new  in  this  ? — Editok 
C.  K.  &  A.  JoiE.] 

Knhomine,  a  tiew  paint. — A  new  and  inodorous  sort  of  paint,  the  invention 
of  Miss  Fanny  C'orbeaux.  has  been  lately  introduced  to  inddic  notice.  The 
materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  are  at  first  soluble  in  water;  and  while  in 
this  state  admit  of  the  design  being  efiaced,  or  a  portion  of  the  culonring  of 
a  wall  or  ceilirg  being  removed,  if  necessary  :  a  subsequent  operation  renders 
the  paint  insoluble,  by  a  chemical  change  of  the  properties  of  the  material, 
which  fixes  the  colour  durably.  It  is  free  from  any  otiensive  smell,  dries  tn  a 
few  hours,  is  not  acted  upon  injuriously  by  atmospheric  infiuences,  and  is 
said  to  be  more  durable  than  oil  paint,  ts  well  as  more  agreeable  to  the  eye. 
and  not  at  all  predudicial  to  the  health  ;  indeed,  a  room  painted  with  it  one 
day.  maybe  inhabited  the  next.  It  may  also  be  made  applicable  to  easel 
painting  also.  M'e  have  .-Jeen  a  little  landscape  painted  with  this  material, 
which  combined  something  of  the  depth  and  solidity  of  oil  with  the  trans- 
parenc'y  of  water-colour  ;  and  a  specimen  of  broad  flower  painting,  for  a  room, 
was  shewn  us,  which  had  resisted  the  rude  action  of  the  scrubbing-brush. 
The  efl'ect  of  the  white  as  a  ground  for  gilding,  is  extremely  clear  without 
being  dazzling  :  and  we  can  well  anders'and  that  it  possesses  the  property 
ascribed  to  it  of  ■'  softening  and  difi'using  light." — Athenceum. 

Novel  Wind  Engine. — We  have  been  inuch  gratified  this  week,  in  examining 
a  wind  engine  for  fen  drainage,  upon  a  very  improved  construction.  The 
object  of  the  inventor  (Thomas  Brighly.  Esq  .  of  Kamsey).  seems  to  have 
been  to  proJuce  a  machine  that  shall  not  be  alfected  by  the  head  thrown 
against  it,  to  render  the  least  motion  of  the  air  available  to  raise  a  corres- 
ponding weight  of  water,  which  may  be  increased  exactly  in  proportion  to 
the  strength  of  the  wind,  and  («hat  is  intirely  a  new  feature  in  ihe  above 
machine)  it  may  safely  be  left  "  to  take  care  of  itself,"  rei|niring  only  occa- 
sional attendance  ;  it  clothes  itself  when  the  water  is  high,  ami  when  low. 
unclothes  and  stops  ;  and  let  the  wind  be  never  so  strong,  it  cannot  stir  until 
the  water  has  again  risen  to  a  certain  pitch;  then,  if  the  wind  is  sufliciently 
strong,  it  clothes  and  sets  itself  in  motion,  and  continues  going  until  the 
water  is  reduced  to  a  certain  level,  when  it  at  once  unclothes  and  stops.  The 
machinery  is  extremely  simple,  and  not  subject  soon  to  get  out  of  repair. — 
Cambridge  Indcpendait. 

Soundings  at  Sea. — At  a  meeting  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  a  letter 
was  read  from  Captain  .lames  Ross,  of  her  Majesty's  ship  ffidipus,  giving  an 
account  of  some  extraorJinarv  deep  soundings  t.aken  by  him  at  sea.  One  of 
these.  900  miles  west  ot  the  Islan,]  of  St.  Helena,  extended  to  the  depth  of 
5,000  fathoms,  the  weight  eoiployed  amounting  to  450  lb.  Another  made  in 
the  latitude  of  33  deg.  S..  and  longitude  9  deg.  W..  about  .300  miles  from  the 
Cape  of  GoofI  Hope,  occupied  49|  minutes,  in  which  time  2,266  fathoms  were 
sounded.  These  facts  were  thought  clearly  to  disjirove  the  common  opinions, 
that  soundings  could  not  be  obtained  at  ve'ry  great  depths. 

Inland  Navigation. — A  project  is  on  foot  for  improving  the  navigation  of 
the  river  Nen,  from  the  sea  to  Peterborough,  so  as  to  render  that  place  an 
inland  seaport,  connecting  itself  with  the  towns  of  Northampton,  Leicester, 
Market  Harborough,  Stamford.  &c. ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  drain  50,000 
acres  of  lens,  to  lay  dry  Vhittlesea  Mere,  and  to  carry  lines  of  road  through 
the  drained  country,  so  as  to  diminish  the  distance  between  London  antl  Hull, 
ten  miles  and  upwards. —  Gloucestershire  Chronicle. 

A  new  mamifarture  of  Tissue . — We  have  had  an  opportunity  of  inspecting 
the  process  for  manufacturing  an  entirely  new  species  of  tissue  and  tapestry, 
which  was  originally  invented  or  discovered  by  M.  E.  Parry,  and  which,  we 
understand,  has  been  secured  by  patent,  and  which,  as  the  material  is  pro- 
duced in  our  own  colonies,  promises  to  become  an  article  of  great  commercial 
■value.  In  particular,  vve  would  refer  to  some  coverings  of  chairs  and  tapes- 
try, which  have  been  especially  ordered  by  her  Majesty  for  the  palace.    It 


bears  so  strong  a  resemblance  to  silk  of  the  best  kind,  that  it  is  diSieult, 
without  a  minute  examiration.  to  discover  the  difference.  The  material  of 
which  it  is  composed,  is  the  fibre  of  the  banana,  .alee,  and  other  trees  and 
plants  w  Inch  are  plentifully  foiind  in  our  Yi'est  India  islands,  and  by  very 
accurate  expcrimcnls.  made  by  or.ler  of  the  French  Government,  thev  have 
been  found  on  an  average  to  exceed  the  strength  of  hemp  by  one-fourth.  The 
experiments  were  made  at  Toulon,  upon  cor.lage  which  had  been  six  ninnth.s 
exposed  to  the  air.  and  an  eqn.al  time  immersed  in  the  sea.  AVe  understand 
that  the  French  Minister  of  .Marine  has  introduced  r.  pes  and  cables  made  of 
this  inaterial,  into  the  Royal  Navy,  and  as  it  is  so  much  superior  to  hemp, 
we  see  no  reason  why  it  might  not  bo  advantageously  employed  in  the  cordage 
of  the  military  and  commercial  navy  of  this  country. — Post. 

New  Planing  Machine. — We  lately  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  "n  operation 
a  new  and  verv  curious,  as  well  as  elVective  maidune  for  planing  iron,  invented 
and  constructed  by  >Ir.  Rennoldson.  of  South  Shie'ds.  The  advantage  ob- 
tained in  this  machine  over  others  winch  we  ha-,e  seen,  is  that  it  cuts  over 
the  whole  of  the  surface  of  the  metal  at  once,  whether  it  be  one  inch  or  12 
inches  in  breadth,  with  great  ease;  by  which  process, a  very  great  saving 
in  ime  is,  beyond  doubt,  efiec'ed.  It  is  extremely  ditfitult  to  convey  a  cor- 
rect idea  of  the  manner  in  which  this  is  etiected  without  the  assistance  of 
diagi-ams.  We  can  state  thus  far.  however  :  the  principal  feature  in  which 
it  is  superior  to  otliers.  is  in  the  chisels  or  cutters,  which  are  firmly  imbedded 
in  an  iron  roller  about  fourteen  inches  in  length,  and  about  three  and  a  half 
inches  in  diameter.  There  are  eight  chisels  in  the  circumference  of  this  roller 
which  extends  rather  more  than  half  the  length.  The  other  end  is  furnished 
with  an  equal  number,  which  likewise  extend  over  a  little  more  than  half  the 
length  of  the  roller,  and  also  intersect  the  position  of  the  cutters  in  the  oppo- 
site end.  diV'ding  the  pow^r  which  would  be  required  to  work  it,  it  the  cutters 
were  as  long  as  the  roller  itself.  It  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  point  for 
which  a  patent  has  been  obtained,  as  it  is  calculated  to  do  thre.'  times  as 
much  \\\  rk,  in  a  better  style,  in  the  same  time. —  Tyne  Mercury. 

Improved  Sash  and  Table  Fastening,  tyc— By  Thomas  Hardeman  Clark:.  Bir- 
mingham, cabinet-maker,  June  24. — In  place  of  the  ordinary  spring  bolt,  the  in- 
ventor adopts  the  use  of  a  w  edge  formed  bolt,  which  is  jrged  backwards  in 
the  frame  or  s  >cket  attached  to  one  window-sash,  while  the  hasp  or  catch 
reiching  from  the  other  sash  is  held  bv  this  wedge-formed  bolt.  The  same 
improvement  may  be  applied  to  tables,  but  the  position  of  the  bulls  must  be 
varied,  as  crcumstances  may  recjuirc. — Inventor's  Advocate. 

An  improved  apparatus  for  regulating  the  supphj  of  water  to  stemn-hoilers^ 
patented  by  James  Knowles.  Little  Bolton,  Lancaster. — Claims  the  use  of  a 
sell-acting  appr.ralus,  the  working  parts  of  which  are  within  the  boiler,  and 
communicate  to  the  supply  valve  from  wuhout.  A  lever  or  rod  is  placed 
longituihnally  on  a  fulcrum  within  the  boiler,  the  longer  end  of  which  is  an 
upright  r.jd,  with  a  float  attached  thereon,  p.assing  to  the  outside  of  the 
boiler  ,  at  the  shorter  end  of  the  lever  is  tmother  upright  rod  connected  with 
the  supply  valve,  working  in  a  tube.  As  long  as  there  is  plenty  of  water  in 
the  boiler,  the  float  will  continue  to  press  up  the  long  end  of  tlie  lever,  and. 
consequently,  cause  the  valve  on  the  upright  rod  of  the  short  end  of  the  iever 
to  press  down  on  its  bearing,  and  prevent  the  admission  of  water  from  the 
tank.  But  when  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  diminishes,  the  float 
lowers  with  it.  and  thereby  forces  op  the  rod  with  the  valve:  thus  admitting 
a  further  supply  of  water  until  the  float  ag.ain  rises  to  close  dov.n  the  valve. 
—Ibid. 

Improvements  in  reducing  friction  in  wheels  of  carriages,  which  in:proj'e7nents 
are  also  applicable  to  bearings  ni.-d  journals  of  machinery,  patented  by  Cliarles 
Greenway,  of  Douglas,  in  the  Isle  of  Man.  July  3- — Tlie  first  cl.aim  consists  in 
the  method  of  forming  a  "cradle'' for  the  reception  of  spheres  or  rollers, 
near  to  which,  the  arm  of  the  axle  is  made  to  rotate,  whereby  a  considerable 
friction  is  overcome,  as  the  sp'neres  or  rollers  do  not  retmire  an  axis,  and  the 
cradle  is  so  formed  as  to  keep  them  close  to  the  axle.— In  the  description  of 
the  second  improvement,  the  inventor  states  that  to  the  carriage,  on  which 
the  tninn'ons  of  a  c.ironnade  are  usually  fixed,  w  heels  are  not  used,  in  order 
to  prevent  recoiling.  But  in  his  improvement,  w  heels  are  put  to  the  carriage, 
so  as  to  facilitate  tlie  mc>vement  of  the  caroniiade  towards  the  port-hole  or 
embrasure  :  and  before  Ihe  act  of  firing,  the  caronnade  with  its  trunnion  is 
moved  by  the  action  of  a  lever  from  the  carriage  tm  to  the  deck  of  a  vessel 
to  prevent  recoiling,  and  is  again  restored  to  the  carriage  by  the  same  lever, 
when  preparing  to  reload. — Ibid. 

Improved  mode  of  applying  ivater-power,  patented  by  Capt.  George  Davey. — 
The  inventor  c'aims  the  application  of  air  jackets  or  chambers  to  a  column  of 
water,  and  the  methi  d  of  applying  the  pow  er  obtained  by  the  pressure  of  Ihe 
said  column  of  water,  through  the  medium  of  the  compressed  air  contained  in 
the  said  air  jacket,  whcieljy  so  great  a  quantity  of  air  is  driven  into  the 
working  cylinder  as  toefloct  a  great  saving  of  water,  which,  incases  requiring 
a  reservoir  at  a  high  level,  is  very  important.  An  upright  tube  leads  from 
the  reservoir  to  the  iull  extent  of  the  fall  of  water  ;  at  each  thirty  feet  this 
tube  is  surrounded  by  an  air  jacket,  and  three  or  four  fine  holes  tire  m.ide  at 
the  bottom  of  the  tube,  within  the  space  covered  by  it.  The  lower  part  ot 
the  tube  has  a  lateral  connection  with  a  small  cylinder,  with  a  double  piston 
or  dead  bo.xes  working  therein.  At  the  opposite  side  of  this  cylinder,  there 
is  a  lateral  connection  with  the  working  cylinder,  that  moves,  by  its  piston 
and  rod,  the  pump  or  engine.  The  w  atcr,  passing  from  the  reservoir,  down 
the  tube,  forces  a  quantity  of  air  from  the  air  jackets,  with  the  water,  through 
the  small  cylinder  (that  has  its  double  piston  open)  into  the  large  working 
cylinder,  by  which  means  the  piston  of  this  cylinder  is  forced  up  ;  and  the 
tappets  on  the  rod  of  this  piston  are  so  arranged  as  to  strike  a  lever  connectet! 
with  the  rod  of  the  double  piston,  which  admits  and  shuts  off  the  supiily  of 
water  Irom  the  tube  to  the  working  cylinder.  The  piston  of  this  cylinder 
being  now  forced  up.  the  tappet  on  the  rod  causes  the  lever  to  put  the  double 
piston  in  such  a  posilion  as  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  water,  until  the  water 
that  is  below  the  large  working  cylinder  fluws  out  into  the  waste,  or  dis- 
charging level.  The  piston  with  the  rod,  in  descending,  by  its  gravity,  causes 
another  tappet  to  strike  the  lever,  and  put  the  double  piston  or  dead  boxes, 


202 


THE  CniL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[August, 


in  the  first  p  sition,  in  order  lo  receive  a  fresh  supply  of  rompresscd  air  and 
nater,  to  set  the  piston  in  the  I;irge  cylinder  again  in  mution,  which  com- 
municates i's  power  to  a  pump  or  engrine. 

The  •'  £clij!se.'' — A  new  iron  steam-boat  has  just  been  completed  by  Messrs. 
John  and  1-rancis  Napier,  of  Mill-uall,  said  to  be  decidedly  the  fastest 
steamer  in  Knf;land.  She  lias  niiide  sevcr.il  experimenlal  trips  up  and  down 
the  river,  and  from  her  surprising  sjiecd  and  singu'ar  app-arance  (having 
two  funnels  and  the  piston  cross-lu-ad  working  above  the  dccli)  a  report  has 
(jot  ahror.d  that  she  is  driven  by  high  piessnre  steam  This,  however,  i^  in- 
correct:  she  is  propelled  hy  one  enginr  of  100  horse  power,  the  cylinder  is 
54i  inches  di.-imeter.  with  four  feet  stroke  :  she  has  a  double  bottom,  which 
gives  increased  strength  and  safety,  and  at  the  same  time  allords  a  large 
space  wherein  the  steam  is  conveniently  condensed,  which  keeps  up  a  regular 
supply  of  fresh  water  to  the  boilers,  saving  nearly  the  entire  power  of  work- 
ing .an  air-pump,  i^he  has  tour  separate  boilers,  any  three  of  which  are 
adequate  to  supply  the  engine;  so  that  one  may  be  repaired.  See,  without 
causing  any  delay.  The  makers  have  met  the  report  of  "  liisiU-pressure  steam  " 
being  used,  by  aii  ofier  to  run  the  Erli/jse,  against  any  steamer  afloat,  for  any 
distance  under  500  miles,  with  steam  at  a  lower  pressure  than  tliat  of  her  op- 
ponent!— Mecli.  Mug. 

New  mode  of  propelling  Slenm  Bonis. — Falkirk,  July  7. — An  ingenious  me- 
chanic, residing  at  Gr  hamstone.  has  been  for  a  long  period  engaged  in  con- 
structing a  small  vessel  to  be  propelled  by  means  of  pressure-pumps — the 
application  of  a  principle  (juite  new  to  the  masters  of  this  science.  On  Mon- 
day evening  the  boat  was  launched  into  the  Forth  and  Clyde  canal,  at  Bains- 
ford-bridge,  and  proceeded  beautifully  along  the  reach  at  a  rate  of  not  less 
than  15  miles  per  hi.ur.  conducted  alone  by  the  inventor,  who  worked  the 
pumps.  This  novel  invention  has  produced  much  speculation  am-ng  the 
members  of  the  proiession  in  this  place,  and  it  is  now  reported  tliat  he  is  so 
much  satisfied  with  his  first  experiment,  that  another  on  a  larger  scale  is 
fortlmith  to  be  undertaken,  and  a  patent  procured  to  protect  the  invention. 
He  has  no  doubt  that  it  will,  at  no  distant  era.  entirely  supersede  the  present 
mode  of  propulsion  by  means  of  paddle-wheels. — Times. 


LIST    OF    NEW    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IN   ENGLAND    FROM    26tH    JUNE    TO    29tH    JULY,    1840. 

John  William  Nyren,  of  Bromley,  Manufacturing  Chemist,  for  '•  im- 
prfweinents  in  the  manufacture  of  oxalic  acid." — Sealed  June  26 ;  six  months 
for  enrolment. 

Thomas  Spencer,  of  Manchester,  Machine  Maker,  for  "  a  certain  im- 
provement or  improvements  in  twisting  machinery  used  for  roving^  spinnim/, 
and  doubling  cotton,  wool,  silk,  flax,  and  other  fibrous  materials." — June  26  ; 
six  months. 

William  Jefferies,  of  Holme  Street,  Mile  End,  Jletal  Refiner,  for  "  im- 
provements in  copper  spelter  and  other  metals  from  ores." — July  1  ;  sLk 
months. 

William  Mc.Murray,  of  Kenteith  Mill,  Edinburgh,  Paper  Maker,  for 

"  certain  improvements  in  the  maiiufachtre  of  paper." — July  1 ;  si.x  months. 

John  David  Poole,  of  Holborn,   Practical  Chemist,  for  "  improvements 

in  evaporating  and  distilling  water  and  other  fluids."     Communicated  by  a 

foreigner  residing  abroad. — JtJy  2  ;  six  months. 

Charles  May,  of  Ipswich,  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in  machinery 
cuttitu/  and  preparing  straw,  hay,  and  other  vegetable  matters." — July  6  ;  sLx 
months. 

Edward  Turner,  of  Leeds,  in  the  County  of  York,  Engineer,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  applicable  to  locomotive  and  other  steam  engines." — July 
6 ;  six  months. 

James  Harvey,  of  Bazing  Place,  Waterloo  Road,  Gentleman,  for  "  im- 
provements in  extracting  sulphur  from  pyrites  and  other  substances  contain- 
ing the  same." — July  8  ;  six  mouths. 

Louis  Leconte,  of  Paris,  but  now  residing  in  Leicester  Square,  Gentle- 
man, for  "improvements  in  constructing  fire  proof  buildings." — July  9  ;  six 
months. 

Joshua  Taylor  Beale,  of  East  Greenwich,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  steam  engines," — July  10  ;  si.x  months. 

George  Barnett,  of  Jewin  Street,  Tailor,  for  "  improvements  in  fasten- 
ings for  wearing  apparel." — July  11  ;  six  months. 

Joseph  Getten,  of  Paul's  Chain,  London,  Merchant,  for  "  improvements 
in  preparing  and  purifging  whale  oil."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  resid- 
ing abroad. — July  11  ;  six  months. 

William  Palmer,  of  Feltwell,  Norfolk,  Blacksmith,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  ploughs." — July  11  ;  six  months. 

Peter  Fairbairn,  of  Leeds,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  ma- 
chinery or  apparatus  for  heckling,  combing,  preparing  or  dressing  hemp,  flax, 
and  such  other  textile  or  fibrous  materials."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — JidylS;  six  months. 

Thomas  Tassell  Grant,  Esq.,  and  Oflicer  in  Her  Majesty's  Victualhng 
Yard,  of  Gosport,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  fuel." — July  13  ; 
six  months. 

Edward  Travis,  of  Shaw  Mills,  near  Oldham,  Cotton  Spinner,  for  "  cer- 


tain improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  preparing  cototn  [and  other 
fibrous  materials  for  spinning." — July  1,'j ;  six  months. 

John  L.^mbert,  of  Coventry  Street,  Saint  James's,  Gentleman,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  soap."  Communicated  l)y  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — July  15  ;  six  months. 

James  Jamieson  Cordes,  and  Edward  Locke,  of  Newport,  Monmouth, 
for  "  a  new  rotatory  engine." — July  18  ;  six  months. 

Moses  Poole,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Gentlemen,  for  "improvements  in  fire 
arms  and  in  apparatus  to  be  u-ied  therewith."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — July  18  ;  sLx  months. 

James  Roberts,  of  Brewer  Street,  Soiuers  Town,  Ironmonger,  for  "  im- 
proved machinery  or  apparatus  to  be  applied  to  the  windows  of  houses  or 
other  buildings,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  accidents  to  persons  employed 
in  cleaning  or  repairing  the  same,  and  also  for  facilitating  the  escape  of  per- 
sons from  fire." — July  18;  six  months. 

John  George  Bodmer,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  an  extension  of  a 
patent  for  the  term  of  seven  years  granted  to  him  for  "  certain  improvements 
in  the  machinery  for  cleaning,  carding,  drawing,  roving  and  spinning  of  cotton 
and  wool." — July  IS;  six  months. 

Robert  Urwin,  of  South  Shields,  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in  steam 
engines." — July  29  ;  six  months. ' 

Alexander  Angus  Croll,  Superintcndaut  of  the  Chartered  Gas  Com- 
pany's Works,  in  Brick  Lane,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  gas  for  the  purpose  of  illumination,  and  for  the  preparation  and  Jnanufac- 
ture  of  materials  to  be  used  in  the  purification  of  gas  for  the  purposes  of 
illumination." — July  29  ;  four  months. 

Joseph  Bennett,  of  Turnlee,  near  Glossop,  in  the  County  of  Derby,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  cutting  rags,  ropes,  waste  hay,  straw, 
or  other  soft  or  fibrous  substances  usually  subject  to  the  operation  of  cutting 
or  chopping,  part  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  the  tearing,  pull- 
ing in  pieces,  or  opening  of  rags,  ropes,  or  other  tough  materials." — Jidy  29  ; 
six  months. 

John  Swain  Worth,  of  Manchester,  ilerchant,  for  "improvements  in 
machinery  for  cutting  vegetable  substances." — July  29;  six  months. 


TO  COSnESFONDENTS. 


Books  rcrcii'cd: — Paris  2  aurl  3  of  Jtiranti's  Rustic  Architecture  ;  Ibhetson  on 
Turning,  3rd  Edition,  this  work  we  before  noticed  as  of  one  considerable  interest  to 
the  aniateur  in  Turning ;  Report  on  Steam  Communication  via  the  Red  Sea,  by 
W.  D.  Holmes,  C.  E. 

Communications  received  from  Pisiculus  on  the  Tides  of  the  Orenn  :  Mr.  East ; 
and  Mr.  Burstall  on  his  Locomotive  and  Marine  Tubular  Steam  Boiler. 

An  original  .Subscriber  will  find  in  ne.rt  months'  Journal  the  information  he 
requires  on  Wood  Paving. 

A  Comparison  of  the  Rival  "Screws''  will,  if  possible,  be  noticed  next 
month. 

Mr.  Vmkus  forwarded  us  a  paper,  which  was  loo  late  for  in.n'rtinn.  relative  to 
our  remarhs  on  the  Atmospheric  Railway,  given  in  the  last  months'  Journal. 

"  A  Subscriber." — We  arc  happy  to  inform  him,  that  us  the  Reform  Club  is 
approaching  completion,  we  shall  giie  engravings  of  the  elevation,  plans,  sections, 
and  a  description  of  the  building  either  in  the  ne.r't  or  following  miinths'  Journal. 

A  constant  Reader. —  We  will  endeavour  at  some  future  opportunity  to  obtain 
the  information  he  suggests  relative  to  Iron  Sailing  Vessels. 

A  Student  of  Architecture.— TAc  work  is  not  yet  before  us.  ive  will  when  it  is, 
attend  to  his  suggestions. 

"  Ajax,  &c."  is  mistahen. 

"  A  Student." — U'e  will  enijuire  and  announce  ne.it  month,  the  regulation  for 
obtainiuq  admission  to  the  Economic  Museum,  we  believe  it  is  not  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced/or its  being  opened  to  the  public. 

'•  A  Lover  of  Fair  Play  "  is  unavoidably  postponed. 

Jl'e  have  received  a  communication  relative  to  the  "Fire  King''  challenge  in 
last  months'  Journal:  we  very  much  regret,  that  in  consequence  of  an  over- 
abundance of  materials  for  this  month's  Journal,  we  have  been  obliged  to  postpone 
it :  it  contains  an  account  of  the  run  of  its  sister  boat  the  Glowworm  with  the 
Ruby,  wherein  it  appears  that  the  glittering  of  the  Ruby  completely  took  tlie  shine 
out  of  the  Glowworm. 

\V.  H.C.—  ll'e  regret  that  llw  original  copy  of  the  article  which  appeared  in 
the  29th  number  has  been  destroyed,  as  tve  Jeel  satisfied  tliat  that  part  which  he 
states  was  omitted  in  the  Journal  never  appeared  in  the  origiaal.  as  we  are 
aln;ii/s  most  desirous  of  giving  the  name  of  the  architect  of  any  public  building, 
uiul  also  the  amount  if  the  contract. 

The  eommunieations  relative  to  Kerr  Laves  Truss  Beams,  will  appear  next 
month.  ^,  ,     ^,.   ., 

Communications  are  requested  to  be  addressed  to  "  Ihe  Mitor  of  the  Civil 
Engineer  and  Architect's  Journal,"  No.  \\,  Parliament  Street,  Westminster. 

Books  for  review  must  he  sent  earli/  in  Ihe  montli,  communications  on  or  before 
the  20th' (if  with  drawings,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  the  25th 
instant. 

The  First  Volume  may  eb  i!.\d,  eounu  in  cloth  and  lihtered  in  gold, 
Price  17s. 

%*  The  Second  Volusie  may  also  be  had.  Price, 20s. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


293 


REMARKS  OX  ANTIENT  AND  MODERN  PORTICOES. 

Translatiok  of  some  Remarks  of  Milizen,  upon  the  Portico  of  the 
Piiiitlieon  Lit  Rome,  with  general  observations  upon  that  feature  in 
Architecture,  including  a  notice  of  some  of  the  Porticoes  of  Lon- 
don.    By  A.  \V.  H. 

To  tlie  uninitiated  nothing  may  appear  to  be  so  easy  as  to  compose 
a  good  portico  ;  the  fact,  however,  is  exactly  the  reverse  ;  the  very 
simple  and  dignified  character  of  its  details,  demanding  consummate 
taste  on  the  part  of  the  architect  to  combine  it  with  the  peculiar  style 
of  the  building  to  which  it  is  to  attach,  and  serve  as  chief  ornament. 
The  beauty  which  shines  in  the  building  should  be  still  more  apparent 
in  the  portico,  which  feature  should  become,  as  it  were,  the  very 
focus  of  beauty,  since,  owing  to  its  position  in  the  edifice,  it  acts  like 
the  countenance  in  the  human  form,  attracting  the  first  glance,  and 
recalling  the  last  look  of  the  observer;  and,  as  the  countenance  reveals 
the  mind,  so  this  corresponding  feature  in  a  building,  should  bespeak 
lU  dignity  and  spirit ;  it  is  therefore  manifest,  that  whatever  diffi- 
culties may  be  overcome  by  taste  in  designing  the  body  of  a  building, 
those  difficulties  become  infinitely  greater  in  the  compos-ition  of  its 
portico.  Owing  to  the  few  parts  of  this  architectural  feature,  and 
their  striking  character,  it  is  necessary  that  the  laws  of  harmony  be 
rigidly  observed ;  any,  nay  the  least,  infringement  of  those  laws,  leads 
in  this  iujtance  to  some  glaring  deformity.  One  must  not,  therefore, 
tamper  with  so  difficult  a  subject,  but  recognise  it  as  the  legitimate 
patrimony  of  matured  skill,  as  a  feature  which,  whilst  it  spurns  all 
crude  attempts,  afibrds,  on  the  contrary,  the  finest  opportun  ty  for  the 
display  of  real  talent. 

Besides,  what  charms  in  the  associations,  that  sparkle  from  this  gem 
of  architecture !  The  sacred  pageants  of  Greece  and  Rome,  when 
seen  arrayed  within  its  precincts,  appear  in  all  their  glory ;  from  be- 
neath the  portico's  grateful  shelter,  flowed  with  full  etfect  the  sources 
of  ancient  learning;  from  beneath  its  roof  a  Plato  and  a  TuUy  spoke, 
and  sages  to  debate,  and  crowds,  thirsting  for  knowledge,  flocked  to 
the  portico's  genial  shade; — seen,  therefore,  through  the  hallowed 
medium  of  the  past,  the  portico  rises  to  our  view  invested  with  all  the 
charms  of  association,  as  the  bewitching  scenery  which  surrounded 
the  ancient  founts  of  wisdom. 

Pantheon  at  Rome. 


O 

o 


Q 


© 


©ooooooo 

With  so  much,  then,  to  give  it  effect,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
this  feature  demands  the  architect's  chiefest  care,  and  that  every 
eftbrt  should  be  made  to  invest  it  with  its  w^onted  power,  so  that  it 
may  either  strike  with  awe,  attract  through  its  richness  and  gran- 
deur, be  rendered  imposing  through  dignified  simplicity,  or  made 
captivating  by  its  grace.  Milizia,  in  speaking  of  the  portico  of  the 
Pantlieon,  perhaps  the  finest  specimen  of  the  kind  which  has  ever 
been  erected,  makes  the  following  observations: — 

"  This  portico,"  says  that  admirable  critic,  "  all  dingy  as  it  is  through 
the  lapse  of  ages,  its  ornaments  mutilated,  the  whole  of  the  upper 
portion  dismantled  of  its  former  richness,  still  expands  the  mind.  It 
is  simplicity  itself."  This  last  observation,  upon  a  work  which  is  abun- 
dantly rich,  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  where  the  sculptor's  mimic 
art  appears  to  rival  nature  in  the  production  of  the  luxuriant  acanthus, 
recalls  to  mind  the  poet's  invocation  to  that  powerful  attribute,  when, 
addressing  himself  to  simplicity,  he  says, 

"  Though  taite.  though  genius  bless 
Tu  some  divine  excess, 

Faint's  the  cold  work  till  thou  inspire  the  whole  ; 
M'hat  each,  what  all  supply, 
May  court,  may  charm  the  eye, 
Thou,  only  thou,  canst  raise  the  meeting  soul." 

"A  few  columns  merely,  and  a  pediment,  constitute  this  imposing 
mass,  nothing  more  satisfactory  than  the  straight  forward  character  of 
its  plan,  so  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed,  a 

Yo.  3(3.— Vol.  III. — September,  1340. 


passage  to  an  entrance."  It  may  here  be  observed,  that  viewed  rela- 
tively to  their  position,  the  two  internal  ranges  of  columns  gain  great 
value  in  our  estimation ;  they  guide  the  visitor  at  once  to  the  entrance 
of  the  sanctuary,  who,  but  for  them,  might  stray  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  of  the  immense  area  of  the  portico,  and  thus  lose  that  high  enjoy- 
ment now  produced  by  the  quick  succession  of  strong  and  varied  sen- 
sations, resulting  from  the  contemplation  of  scenery  at  once  so  im- 
posing and  contrasting.  It  were  in  vain  to  attempt  to  describe  the 
sensations  produced  by  a  visit  to  the  Pantheon;  those  who  have  en- 
joyed so  great  a  treat,  will  agree  that  such  rapture  must  be  experi- 
enced to  be  understood  ;  such  themes  soar  above  mere  prose,  and,  in 
attempting  them,  we  feel  that  we  are  trenching  upon  the  domain  of 
the  poet.  The  Roman  critic  continues  thus ;  "  the  eye  dwells  with 
rapture  on  the  justness  of  proportion  of  the  various  parts,  those  parts 
either  taken  separately,  or  in  conjunction  with  one  another.  Strength, 
richness,  grandeur,  all  the  elements  which  constitute  the  beautiful,  are 
here  combined.  Hence  that  possession  which  it  takes  of  the  mind! 
hence  the  universal  admiration  which  it  has  ever  excited  among  the 
intelligent!  How  inferior  in  their  eftect  to  this  grand  original  are  the 
porticoes  of  the  Vatican,  and  many  others  attached  to  the  basilicas  of 
Rome,  notwithstanding  their  artificial  arrangement  of  plan,  and  prodi- 
gious efibrts  made  to  enrich  them;  but  these  lack  the  judgment 
which  has  presided  over  the  distribution  of  the  parts  of  the  Pantheon 
portico.  In  this  work  the  columns,  though  gigantic,  appear  of  a 
proper  size,  whereas  those  of  the  Vatican  always  appear  enormous; 
but  in  the  Pantheon  they  are  sensibly  applied,  inasmuch  as  they  are 
admirably  adapted  to  their  office ;  to  suppose  the  removal  of  one, 
would  be  annihilation  to  the  whole  design  ;  whereas  to  remove  almost 
all  from  many  of  our  buildings  (still  referring  to  Rome),  would  be  to 
rid  these  for  the  most  part  of  some  extravagant  superfluity :  "  thus  far 
our  author.  Nothing  can  prove  more  satisfactorily  the  merits  of  this 
portico,  than  the  circumstance  of  the  great  Michael  Angelo  judging 
that  no  design  could  be  conceived  more  appropriate  for  an  approach 
to  the  first  temple  of  modern  times,  and  keenly  must  the  lover  of  art 
regret  that  such  an  authority  as  the  opinion  of  that  great  man  should 
have  been  made  to  yield  to  the  puerile  conceit  of  a  Carlo  Maderno. 

St.  Genevieve  at  Paris. 


©  C 


® 


0 


o© 


®      €> 


While  upon  this  subject,  a  feeling  of  regret  also  naturally  suggests 
itself,  that  the  architect  of  the  Church  of  Ste.  Genevii-ve  at  Paris, 
bearing,  as  he  seems  to  have  done,  this  fine  portico  in  his  mind,  should 
most  unaccountably  have  disdained  to  avail  himself  of  its  real  merits, 
and  by  substituting  a  complicated  arrangement  of  columns,  thrown 
away  the  opportunity  of  producing  a  sublime  etfect,  by  aiming  at  the 
simplicity  of  this  exquisite  model.  Nor  can  w^e  compliment  the 
architects  (three  in  number)  to  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  upon  the 
use  which  they  have  made  of  this  grand  Roman  original;  by  what 
those  architects  have  added  and  retrenched,  they  have  come  infinitely 


9    ©     ©     ®     O 


o  o         o  ^ 

O  O  G    0    #    ©    © 

short  of  the  effect  wdiich  they  might  have  produced.  The  additional 
side  columns  by  apparently  bolstering  up  the  portico,  sadly  impair  its 
vigorous  aspect,  and  quite  destroy  the  effect  of  its  profile.  Whenever 
such  adjuncts  are  deemed  necessary,  it  is  preferable  to  make  use  of  a 
sqnare  ante  instead  of  a  column  to  unite  them  with  that  portion  which 
is  more  properly  the  j^ortico ;  this  not  only  gives  solidity  where  it  is 
wanted,  but  causes  an  agreeable  separation  of  the  side  columns  from 
the  main  feature,  giving  to  the  eye  an  opportiyjity  of  dwelling  upon 

2  R 


204 


THE  C  IVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Septkmber, 


the  more  striking  portion  of  the  front.  The  refrencliing  the  depth, 
Tvhifh  leads  from  the  centre  portion  of  the  portico  to  the  interior  of 
the  building,  must  be  considered  as  a  great  error,  as  it  not  only  de- 
tracts from  the  solid  appearance  of  the  portico,  but  really  weakens  it, 
by  lessening  its  hold  upon  the  body  of  llie  building;  this  depth,  too, 
is  a  source  of  much  beauty  in  the  composition,  inasmuch  as,  by  linking 
the  portico  with  the  chamber,  to  which  the  former  is  intended  as  an 
approach,  it  produces  unity  in  the  design,  and  gives  to  the  portico 
the  appearance  of  a  feature  of  natural  growth,  just  as  in  the  human 
form  we  see  the  head  shooting  from  tile  shoulders,  connected  with 
them,  and  gracefully  supported  Ijy  the  neck.  The  architecture  of  the 
ancients  is  full  of  such  jiropriety,  doubtlessly  owing  to  the  enlarged 
and  correct  view  which  their  highly  instructed  architects  took  of  the 
subject, — and  here  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  touch  upon  the  importance 
of  the  study  of  the  human  form  to  the  architect,  the  necessity  of  which 
has  been  so  strenuously  advocated  by  the  great  professors  of  the  art, 
the  soundness  of  which  advice  we  cannot  hut  admit.  The  mind  bent 
upon  creating,  cannot  contemplate  the  wisdom  displayed  in  the  mecha- 
nism of  the  human  frame,  without  imbibing  lessons  of  the  utmost 
value  to  its  own  productions  ;  the  treasures  dug  from  so  rich  a  mine 
of  study  by  the  architect,  will  go  to  teach  liim  the  importance  of  ba- 
lancing the  various  |)arts  of  his  design,  and  of  blending  them  one  with 
another  in  the  plan,  as  well  as  in  the  elevations,  so  as  to  produce 
symmetry  and  proportion  througliout,  and  to  the  end  that  his  building 
may  be  solid  in  point  of  fact  and  in  appearance,  and  that,  numerous  as 
the  parts  may  be,  they  shall  strike  the  beholder  not  so  much  as  an 
accumulation  of  iileas,  than  as  necessary  features  to  the  devellopment 
of  one  single  thought,  the  which  is  so  beautifully  exemplified  in  all 
nature's  works. 

A  glance  of  the  porticoes  which  adorn  our  metropolis,  may  still 
afford  pleasure  and  instruction,  though  the  attention  nuiy  liave  been 
recently  directed  to  so  exquisite  a  specimen  as  that  of  the  Pantheon. 
They  divide  themselves  into  two  classes;  those  which  were  erected 
at  the  period  of  the  introduction  of  fine  art  into  this  country  from  Italy, 
and  those  which  have  been  more  recently  built,  and  subsequently  to 
the  revival  of  the  Greek  taste.  From  "its  size,  as  well  as  from  its 
merits,  St.  Martin's  portico  stands  foremost  amongst  those  which  court 
attention.  Its  columns  are  massive  and  finely  proportioned,  and  the 
capitals  bold,  and  finely  sculjitured,  and  the  detail  generally  evinces 
taste  and  study  on  the  part  of  the  architect;  this  portico  recommends 
itself  moreover,  by  its  great  projection  from  the  face  of  the  building, 
a  requisite  which  should  ever  be  a  sine  qua  non  in  the  composition  of 
this  architectural  feature.  Its  defects  are,  too  great  a  distance  be- 
tween the  columns,  which  gives  it  a  straggling  look,  the  which 
detracts  very  much  from  that  vigorous  effect  which  it  would  otherwise 
possess ;  its  not  extending  the  whole  w  idth  of  the  building  is  not 
graceful,  as  on  that  account  it  seems  not  so  much  to  grow  out  of  it,  as 
to  be  added  to  it ;  and  the  effect  is  also  much  impoverished  through 
the  wall  immediately  behind  the  columns  not  receding  from  the  face 
of  the  two  outer  pilasters,  and  this  wall  or  back  part  of  the  portico 
being  crowded  with  parts,  the  which  sadly  interferes  with  the  good 
effect  of  the  columns  ;  this  is  a  defect  which  all  the  porticoes  of  that 
period  partake  of  more  or  less.  There  is  an  adjunct  to  this  portico 
which  acts  as  a  very  great  eye-sore,  and  the  iiiore  so  since  present 
circumstances  by  no  means  sanction  its  continuance  ;  the  object  al- 
luded to,  is  the  inhospitable  iron  railing,  inserted  between  the  columns 
through  which  the  utility  of  the  portico  is  wofully  curtailed,  inasmuch 
as  the  multitude,  who  pass  to  and  fro,  daily  in  that  neighbourhood,  are 
debarred  the  shelter  which  it  would  otlierwise  afford  them,  from  the 
inclemency  of  the  weather;  the  obtaining  of  which  shelter  should 
svn-ely  be  the  primary  object  in  erecting  a  portico  in  a  populous  neigh- 
bourhood. It  is  i)ossibly  very  true  that  at  the  time  at  which  this 
railing  was  so  placed,  the  neighbourhood  of  St.  Martin's  offered  a  very 
dillerent  scene  from  that  whicli  we  now  behold  ;  and  that  without  some 
such  defence,  the  portico  would  have  been  exposed  to  injury,  from  the 
barbarous  propensities  of  the  rude  frequenters  of  that  quarter  ;  but 
circumstances  have  changed,  and  the  reason  for  the  defence  having 
vanished,  the  defence  itself  might  also  disappear.  The  feeling 
which  protects  such  barriers  to  puljlic  comfort,  is  nut  a  charitable  one. 
Until  lately  the  little  portico  of  Vere-street  Chapel,  which  possesses 
that  important  and  useful  requisite  depth,  was  both  an  object  of  utility 
as  well  as  of  ornament,  to  its  immediate  neighbourhood;  it  offered 
moreover  the  additional  attraction,  of  plants  and  flowers  which  a  poor 
man  used  to  sell,  ranging  his  vases  between  the  columns;  the  portico 
thus  adorned  became  really  a  pleasing  sight,  it  imparted  cheerfulness 
to  that  portion  of  the  street,  which  is  itself  quiet  and  retired ;  and 
offered  a  spectacle  quite  refreshing  to  the  eye;  besides  the  mind's  eye 
leing  gratified  by  this  picture  of  the  church  uhl/erivg— not  encour- 
aging poverty.  The  charm  has  however  been  sacrificed,  and  the  jilauts 
and  their  vendor  ha^^e  been  driven  from  their  sacred  asylum,  and,  as  a 


substitute,  the  inhabitants  of  that  (piarter,  gaze  upon  an  uncouth  iron 
railing,  introduced  in  a  more  barbarous  manner,  even  than  in  the  case 
with  St.  Martin's  portico,  since  here,  it  is  made  to  enclose  the  portico, 
steps  and  all,  giving  to  that  which  looked  free,  and  inviting,  an  imjjri- 
soned  ajipearance. 

A  most  peculiar  portico,  and  one  of  a  very  striking  character,  anl  a 
great  favourite  with  the  Londoners,  is  that  of  St.  I'aul's,  Covent  Gar- 
den, the  condemnatory  terms  even  of  a  Quatremcrc  di!  Quincy,  avail 
not  in  shaking  our  admiration  of  a  work,  so  very  characteristic  of  the 
bold  genius  of  its  author, — the  learned  Frenchman  when  mentioning  it, 
indulges  in  a  snarl  at  the  Knglish,  and  -attributes  their  approbation  of 
this  work  to  their  little  oupurtuuity  (jf  judging;  London  being,  accord- 
ing to  that  learned  critic,  so  barren  of  porticoes;  an  observation  which 
either  prejudice,  or  want  of  local  information  must  have  prompted  it,  for 
where  is  the  city  of  modern  times,  that  can  vie  with  onr  metropolis  in 
the  possession  of  numerous  admirable  specimens  of  this  fascinating 
feature  in  architecture?  The  |)ropriety  of  applying  so  plain  an  order 
as  the  Tuscan,  to  a  building  of  so  exalted  a  character  as  that  of  a 
public  place  of  worship,  may  admit  of  doubt,  but  that  the  effect  of  this 
portico  is  truly  admirable,  no  unprejudiced  person  will  deny;  it  pos- 
sesses that  essential  feature  dtjjlh,  through  which  a  portico  appears  to 
fulfil  its  apparent  destination,  that  of  affording  shelter.  The  arched 
openings  in  the  flanks  present  a  bold  and  successful  expedient  in  giving 
variety,  where  the  stern  simplicity  of  the  building  seemed  to  render 
the  task  hopeless — and,  the  few  simple  means,  of  producing  pictur- 
esqueness  are  throughout  skilfully  applied.  Who  with  a  spark  of 
sensibiPity  in  his  composition,  can  gaze  upon  tiiis  building,  and  not  feel 
that  it  is  the  work  of  a  painter  turned  architect !  This  portico  ap- 
pears to  great  advantage  when  seen  in  conjunction  with  the  crowds 
which  assemble  about  it  at  the  time  of  an  election  in  the  market- 
place; its  grave  and  solemn  aspect  shed  additional  interest  over  the 
important  scene,  the  whole  realizing  to  the  painter's  eye  and  patriot's 
heart,  a  soul-intrancirig  picture,  and  one  from  which  the  enlightened 
mind  reaps  aid  in  its  conceptions  of  kindred  scenes,  once  enacted  in 
the  far  famed  Roman  Forum. 

In  the  portico  of  the  East  India  House,  we  perceive  a  new  era  in 
taste,  it  displays  the  refinement  of  Greek  feeling;  but  through  the 
want  of  that  great  requisite  depth  it  is  scarcely  entitled  to  the  appel- 
lation of  portico  ;  for  it  presents  nothing  more  than  a  graceful  archi- 
tectural frontispiece  ;  and  more  graceful  would  it  be  deemed,  if  the 
pediment  had  been  suppressed,  and  the  cornice  been  horizontal,  be- 
cause then  the  design  would  have  been  harmonious,  and  it  would  have 
appeared  to  be  what  it  really  is,  a  mere  front  decorated  with  columns; 
for  the  introduction  of  a  pediment  over  a  facade  of  columns  far  from 
constituting  a  portico,  on  the  contrary,  becomes  offensive,  inasmuch  as 
it  imparts  superfluous  energy  of  character  to  a  feature  which  lacks  that 
balancing  and  corresponding  vigour  which  it  would  acquire  tlirough 
depth.  It  were  impossible  to  comment  upon  any  portion  of  the  East 
India  House,  without  speaking  in  praise  of  the  little  Doric  portico  at 
the  east  front;  though  small,  this  work  is  full  of  attraction,  abounding 
in  grace,  delicacy,  and  much  energy  of  character. 

In  the  front  of  the  Mansion  House,  we  see  a  Corinthian  portico  raised 
upon  a  basement  of  rusticated  piers  and  arches;  this  certainly 
produces  a  very  inharmonious  effect ;  the  latter  features  being  of  too 
ordinary  a  character  to  suit  with  the  grace  and  dignity  of  the  Corin- 
thian order.  There  is  in  this  composition  another  very  glaring  defect, 
viz.,  the  portico  leading  to  nothing ;  for  the  hall  to  which  it  leads 
from  the  street,  instead  of  being  of  ample  dimensions  with  the  porti- 
co, is  low  and  contracted.  A  stately  portico  should  not  lead  to  mere 
chambers,  when  it  is  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  such  economy  in 
the  interior,  it  is  ostentation  to  apply  so  magnificent  a  feature,  as  the 
portico  externally.  The  very  eti'ect  of  a  |iortico  is  to  exalt  the  ideas 
of  the  spectator,  which  become  suddenly  depressed  when  he  least  ex- 
pects it,  if  it  lead  not  to  some  feature  of  corresponding  grandeur.  Like 
persons,  buildings  should  not  promise  more  than  they  perform :  and 
generally,  the  ideas  raised  by  the  external  appearance  of  a  building, 
should  be  realized  in  its  interior. 

In  the  Corinthian  portico  of  St.  Georges,  Hanover-square,  the  order 
has  been  well  attended  to,  and  much  vigour  is  produced  by  the  columns 
being  comparatively  closely  placed,  the  centre  opening  is  somewhat 
wider  than  the  rest,  which  is  very  admissible. 

There  is  something  very  noble  about  the  portico  of  St.  Georges's, 
Bloomsbury  ;  the  order  is  boldly  treated  ;  and  the  deep  tone  of  shadow 
obtaineil  by  the  great  jirojection  from  the  line  of  wall,  gives  to  the 
front  columns  a  fine  relief;  but  it  is  dilficult  to  comprehend,  how  a 
pupil  of  Sir  C.  Wren  couUl  introduce  columns  attached  to  the  wall  and 
corresponding  to  those  in  fr.  nt,  thereby  repeating  in  the  back  ground, 
the  front  part  of  the  picture,  ^^hich  is  surely  as  absurd  in  architecture, 
as  it  would  be  deemed  in  painting. 

These  porticoes  and  many  others  which  adorn  our  metropolis,  pos- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


29.5 


sess  very  great  merits  ;  and  it  is  clieerinr;  to  reflect  that  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  or  two  instances  they  display  originality  of  thought, 
and  that  they  are  modified  by  circumstances  peculiar  to  the  buildings 
to  which  they  attach  ;  thus  they  aftbrd  u^  valuable  lessons.  A  question 
seems  here  to  arise,  how  is  it  that  these  porticoes,  having  so  many 
claims  to  our  admiration,  are  not  oftener  the  theme  of  praise  ?  The 
reply  naturally  is,  that  they  have  to  contend  against  very  overpowiug 
circumstances ;  they  are  generally  in  confined  situations,  and  much 
discoloured.  It  would  seem  from  their  being  so  placed,  concealed  and 
incumbered  by  buildings  often  of  the  meanest  description,  that  great 
indirterence  must  have  prevailed  towards  art  in  general,  at  the  time 
at  which  they  were  erected,  and,  that  but  little  sympathy  could  have 
been  entertained  for  the  feelings  of  an  artist,  anxious  about  the  efTect 
his  work  was  calculated  to  produce.  We  have  to  congratulate  our- 
selves that  the  times  in  which  we  live,  bear  the  stamp  of  a  more  en- 
lightened and  liberal  sentiment. 

As  much  solicitude  is  now  shown  in  rescuing  former  works  from  ob- 
livion as  in  erecting  new  ones ;  and  London  in  its  present  stage  may 
be  compared  to  an  old  picture,  in  the  hands  of  an  intelligent  repairer, 
to  which  the  latter  not  only  adds  fresh  parts,  but  is  equally  intent  in 
giving  value  to  its  concealed  beauties,  by  dexterously  removing  the 
excrescences  of  time  and  neglect.  But  there  remams  yet  to  be  men- 
tioned, a  cause  still  more  powerful  in  diminishing  the  effect  of  our 
porticoes,  than  any  yet  alluded  to,  viz.,  the  tower,  which  becomes  a 
real  deformity,  when  seen  rising  immediately  over  the  roof  of  the 
pediment.  This  feature  so  capable  of  being  rendered  beautiful  when 
philosophically  treated,  becomes  a  positive  eyesore  when  seen  shoot- 
ing out  of  the  roof  of  the  j)edinieiit,  and  interfering  with  the  severe 
and  classical  form  of  the  latter;  thus  placed  it  produces  all  the  de- 
formity of  a  hump  upon  the  back;  and  yet  despite  the  incongruity 
resulting  from  this  peculiar  disposition  of  the  tower  and  pediment,  it 
has  been  persisted  in  by  the  generality  of  our  architects,  in  spite  of 
the  better  example  shown  us,  by  our  immortal  countryman  Sir  C.  Wren, 
and  his  immediate  followers.  The  system  whicli  the  Italians  have 
adopted,  in  disposing  of  these  two  features,  which  modern  custom  has 
rendered  it  necessary  to  combine,  shows  their  nicer  discrimination  of 
the  true  principles  of  beauty.  They  have  felt,  that  the  forced  contact 
of  two  elements,  whose  characteristics  are  so  diametrically  opposed — 
the  perpendicular  predominating  in  the  one,  the  horizontal  in  the 
other — could  not  but  be  productive  of  an  inharmonious  result,  and,  liave 
therefore  invariably  placed  the  tower  at  the  end,  or  on  the  flank  of 
the  ch\u-ch;  thus  not  only,  is  no  unpleasant  sensation  created,  but  ad- 
ditional beauty  results  from  this  disposition,  in  the  charm  which  both 
features  give  through  an  agreeable  contrast. 

St.  George's,  Bloomsbury,  aft'urds  a  striking  instance  of  the  last- 
mentioned  method  of  treating  the  subject  in  question,  and  however 
opinions  may  differ  with  respect  to  the  design  itself,  people  of  taste 
are  unanimous  in  their  approbation  of  the  system  which  the  architect 
has  adopted,  of  combining  those  two  important  features,  the  portico 
and  tower. 

The  following  remark  from  the  late  Mr.  Thomas  Hope,  is  quoted  as 
an  introduction  to  some  general  observations  respecting  porticoes. 
Touching  the  important  requisite  dtplh,  that  author  says,  "  a  portico 
thus  constructed  becomes  in  the  first  place  an  object  of  "real  utility;  it 
fulfils  its  apparent  destination,  that  of  affording  shelter  to  the  pedes- 
trian, and  screening  the  inhabitant  waiting  for  the  hour  of  prayer  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather;  it  becomes  in  the  second  place  a  means 
of  infinite  beauty,  and  gives  at  once  to  the  individual  columns,  more 
relief,  more  distinctness,  and  consequently  more  effect,  through  the 
deep  shade  it  throws  upon  the  wall  behind  ;  and  to  the  entire  facade, 
more  motion,  more  picturesqueness,  and  more  dignity." 

Touching  the  utility  of  porticoes,  it  may  be  permitted  to  remark 
ujion  a  fact  connected  with  their  projection  from  the  face  of  the  build- 
ing, \ipon  which  circumstance  so  much  of  their  utility  depends  ;  it  is 
then  quite  consistent  with  good  taste  to  give  to  the  portico,  if  required, 
a  projection  greater  than  one  intercolumniation,  without  placing  any 
colunjn  in  the  return  ;  owing  to  want  of  attention  to  this  circumstance, 
it  is  not  unfrequently  seen,  where  the  projection  is  a  little  more  than 
one  intercolumniation,  that  the  intercolumniation  itself  is  made  out  by 
a  colunm,  immediately  behind  which  is  placed  the  ante  ;  a  proceeding 
which  produces  the  very  reverse  of  a  good  effect ;  for  the  contrast  of 
the  cylindrical  form  of  the  shaft  of  the  column,  with  the  square  form 
of  the  ante,  pleasing  when  the  eye  is  enabled,  by  a  proper  intervening 
space  between  them,  -to  glance  gradually  from  one  to  the  other,  is 
quite  grating  to  the  sight,  when  thus  made  sudden,  by  the  almost  im- 
mediate contract  of  features  so  dissimilar, — besides  that,  this  ojnion  of 
column  and  ante,  by  producing  irregularity  in  the  distribution  of  the 
points  of  support,  gives  to  the  portico  an  appearance  of  weakness. 
This  observation  is  of  value  to  the  architect  who  is  desirous  of  making 
liis  portico  an  object  both  of  utility  and  beautv;  for  in  extending  it 


across  the  foot-path,  additional,  and  very  requisite,  shelter  is  afforded, 
and  much  picturesqueness  is  also  produced  by  thus  gracefully  breaking 
the  necessary  long  line  of  street  architecture.  The  beautiful  portico  of 
Hanover  Chapel,  in  Regent-street,  those  of  the  Haymarket  Theatre, 
and  Melbourne  House,  Whitehall,  favourably  illustrate  this  position. 

A  very  important  item  in  fhe  composition  of  a  portico,  is  the  back 
ground,  or  wall  immediately  behind  the  columns, — this  line  of  wall 
should  always  be  made  to  recede,  and  if  possible  considerably  from  the 
front  line  of  the  ante,  for  by  this  means  a  deep  tone  of  shadow  is  se- 
cured fur  the  relief  of  the  columns  in  front.  It  is  not  possible  to  ad- 
mire too  much  the  painter-like  feeling  displayed  in  this  respect,  in 
the  above  mentioned  exquisite  portico  of  Hanover  Chapel,  where  the 
effect  at  night  seems  to  have  been  a  matter  of  study,  as  completely  as 
that  by  day:  the  lamps  within  the  portico  are  so  happily  placed  that 
in  two  corresponding  points  of  view  they  become  concealed  from  the 
eye  of  the  observer,  who  freed  from  their  glare,  contemplates  more 
willingly  the  columns,  which  tell  out  in  the  picture,  as  dark  objects, 
relieved  upon  a  back  ground  of  subdued  light.  It  is  important  too 
that  in  this  portion  of  the  portico  there  should  be  as  few  lines  as 
possible,  at  all  analogous  to  those  of  the  columns;  all  perpendicular 
lines  should  therefore  be  avoided  ;  the  introduction  of  pilasters  behind 
the  columns,  according  to  the  Italian  school,  is  a  vice  in  composition; 
they  only  tend  to  |)roduce  monotony  and  confusion,  by  repeating  and 
interfering  with  the  front  lines  of  the  portico;  the  obtaining  of Tiori- 
zontal  lines  on  the  contrary  should  be  aimed  at  as  these  by  contrast,  set 
off"  the  columns  well,  especially  if  the  latter  be  fluted. 

The  porticoes  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  are  admirable  in  the  con- 
duct of  the  back  orround,  and  in  this  feature  we,  who  keep  more  to  the 
ancients,  greatlv  excel  our  ancestors,  who  designed  more  immediately 
in  the  style  of  the  Italians,  the  back  grounds  to  whose  porticoes  are 
oftentimes  positively  vulgar.  The  two  celebrated  circular  temples  of 
Vesta  at  Rome,  and  at  Tivoli  have  no  pilasters  corresponding  to  the 
columns,  which  latter  features  thus  unembarrassed,  produce  a  striking 
effect.  Bramante,  that  great  master  of  the  art,  did  not  escape  from 
this  vulgarism,  and  has  greatly  impaired  the  eflfect  of  his  well  known 
little  circular  temple  at  San  Pietro,  in  Montorio,  by  the  introduction  of 
these  worse  than  useless  appendages,  pilasters. 

Aspect  is  another  grand  consideration  in  the  application  of  a  portico ; 
no  portico  should  have  a  northern  aspect,  unless  it  have  at  the  same 
time  a  famous  projection..  The  grand  portico  of  Rome,  the  front  of 
which  is  due  north,  reads  us  a  valuable  lesson  upon  this  point;  it  pro- 
jects no  less  than  three  intercolumniations  from  the  face  of  the  wall, 
consequently  twice  in  the  day  it  receives  abundance  of  sunshine,  owing 
to  which  circumstance  it  never  wears  a  gloomy  appearance.  Sunshine 
is  to  a  portico,  what  a  smile  is  to  the  countenance;  though  neither 
of  the  attributes  be  visible  for  the  moment,  their  genial  influence  is 
ever  apparent.  A  portico  from  the  very  boldness  of  its  parts,  and 
peculiar  plan,  being  well  calculated  for  a  sunny  effect,  becomes  on  the 
contrary,  a  most  gloomy  object,  if  never  enlivened  by  the  the  sun's 
rays  ;  to  wit,  that  dull  looking  portico  affixed  to  the  end  of  the  College 
of  Physicians.  In  the  first  place,  the  aspect  of  this  portico  is  nortti, 
and  stuck  as  it  literally  is  against  the  wall,  it  remains  throughout  the, 
year  a  complete  stranger  to  the  sun's  rays ;  this  portico  never  wears  a 
smile,  but  cold,  chilly  and  repulsive,  even  in  the  brightest  season,  it 
has  the  appearance  of  labouring  under  a  fit  of  the  dumps,  and  presents 
the  novel  spectacle  of  a  portico  requiring  the  physician's  aid;  its 
gloomy  appearance  offers  a  strange  contrast  to  the  gay  scene  around, 
whilst  its  oblique  position,  one  can  imagine  it  to  have  contracted  from 
a  habit  of  darting,  side-long  wistful  glances  at  the  sunny,  cheerful 
faces  of  its  neighbours,  of  the  National  Gallery  and  St.  Martin's. 

Surely  it  is  a  strange  anomaly,  that  a  conspicuous  part  of  a  building, 
which,  from  its  destination  of  College,  of  the  guardians  of  the  health  of  the 
public,  is  so  rife  with  associations  of  a  cheering  nature,  should  assume 
so  dreary  a  look.  The  Fa<ailty  must  not  be  surprised,  should  any  one 
imagine  them,  to  have  laboured  under  a  heavy  attack  of  the  portico- 
mania,  when  they  pressed  this  woeful-looking  object  into  their  service, 
standing  as  it  does,  without  reason,  rhyme,  or  sunshine.  And  singular 
to  observe,  another  branch  of  the  healing  profession,  exhibits  strong 
symptoms  of  having  laboured  under  the  same  curious  malady ;  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  having,  as  it  were,  by  hook  or  by  crook, 
possessed  themselves  of  something  of  the  portico  kind,  in  the  shape 
of  four  columns,  with  a  bit  of  an  entablature  pasted  against  the  wall, 
aftbrding  no  shelter,  but  screening  the  light,  amputation  here  would  be 
of  use,  for  if  the  well  known  Italian  question  were  put  to  tliese  columns, 
of  "  Care  coloune,  die  fate  qua  ?"  they  might  be  excused  answering, 
"  non  sappiamo  in  veritti." 

Touching  the  forms  of  porticoes,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  num- 
ber of  columns  should  be*in  such  proportion  to  the  height,  and  pera- 
meter  of  the  portico  as  to  display  at  once  its  form,  without  the  neces- 
sity of  the  eye  glancing  to  the  steps,  or  to  the  entablature,  in  order  to 

2  K  2 


200 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Skptember, 


descrv  it.  Great  attention  shouUl  be  paid  to  tliis  point,  in  designing 
circular  porticoes,  for,  if  the  columns  be  scantily  introduced,  a  doubt 
is  raised  in  the  mind  as  to  whether  the  portico  is  polygonal  or  circular; 
and  then  the  eye  is  distressed  at  the  awkward  appearance,  portions  of 
the  architrave  assume,  in  overhanging  between  the  intercolumnia- 
tions.  A  portico  formed  of  a  double  tier  of  columns,  viz.,  one  tier 
above  the  other,  produces  by  no  means  a  happy  cfFect,  owing  to  its 
somewhat  ricketty  appearance,  columns  forming  but  a  poor  foundation 
to  one  another.  Grouped  columns,  commonly  called  coupled  coUnnns, 
are  wholly  inadmissible  in  a  portico.  So  licentious  a  system  of  com- 
position but  ill  comports  with  the  simple  character  of  that  feature, 
which  should  display  architecture  in  all  her  severity.  There  is  then 
no  feature  in  his  art,  touching  the  effect  of  which  a  true  architect 
will  feel  more  solicitous  than  that  of  the  portico ;  for  well  does  he 
know,  that  the  few,  but  striking  members,  which  unite  in  the  formation 
of  a  well  designed  portico,  captivate  the  mind,  whilst  ravishing  the 
eye  of  the  spectator ;  just  as  in  writing  an  elegant  assemblage  of  words, 
conveying  a  simple  thought,  arrests  and  charms  the  mind  of  the 
reader. 


ON  MALLEABLE  IRON  IN  PERSIA. 

^n  Jlccouiit  of  ili€  Iron  Mines  of  Caradogh,  near  Tabreez  in  Pernio, 
and  of  the  hielhod  tlicre  practised  of  producing  Malleable  Iron  by  a 
ningk  process  directly  from  the  Ore.  By  James  Robehtsox,  Civil 
and  Mining  Engineer,  Slajor  Persian  Service,  and  late  Director  of 
llie  Shah's  Ordnance  IVorks,  Persia ;  Cor.  MI.  W.S.,  and  Cor.  F.A.S.S. 
Read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  March  2,  1810. 

The  ancient  Greeks  have  laid  claim  to  the  earliest  discovery  of  the 
method  of  manufacturing  iron,  but  it  will  appear  that  the  art  was 
known  in  Persia  at  least  as  early  as  among  the  Greeks.  The  method 
of  producing  malleable-iron  by  a  single  process  directly  from  the  ore, 
is  not  indeed  quite  unknown  at  the  present  day,  but  it  is  believed  to 
be  altogether  disused  in  Great  Britain  and  throughout  Europe  ;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that,  in  Britain,  particularly  at  Castle  Cough,  Gla- 
jnorganshire,  and  at  Furness,  near  Ulverston,  in  Lancashire,  as  well  as 
elsewhere,  malleable-iron  must  have  been  known  long  before  the  dis- 
covery of  cast-iron.  In  the  ITtli  century,  malleable-iron  appears  to 
have  been  made  directly  from  the  ore,  in  preference  to  the  method 
novp  practised.  In  the  Philosophical  Transactions  (for  1693,  vol.  xvii. 
p.  695),  there  is  the  following  short  notice  by  Mr.  Sturdy,  of  the  me- 
thod as  then  practised  at  Milthorpe-forge  in  Lancashire.  "  The  forge 
is  like  a  common  blacksmith's,  with  a  hearth  made  of  sow-iron,  in 
■which  they  make  a  charcoal  fire,  and  put  in  ore,  first  broken  into  pieces 
like  a  pigeon's  egg;  it  is  melted  by  the  blast,  leaving  the  iron  in  a 
lump,  which  is  never  in  a  perfect  fusion;  this  is  taken  out  and  beaten 
under  great  hammers,  played  with  water,  and,  after  several  heatings 
in  the  same  furnace,  it  is  brought  into  bars.  They  get  about  one  hun- 
dred weight  of  metal  at  one  melting,  being  the  produce  of  about  three 
times  as  much  ore  ;  no  limestone  or  any  other  flux  is  used."  It  has 
been  doubted  by  an  intelligent  author  (Farey  on  the  Steam  Engine,  p. 
271),  whether,  by  the  process  here  described,  the  iron  was  really  made 
directly  from  the  ore,  or  only  from  pig  metal.  The  existence,  how- 
ever, of  a  similar  process  at  the  present  day  in  Persia,  evidently  the 
same  which  has  been  practised  in  that  country  from  a  very  remote 
period,  will  make  it  appear  not  the  least  improbable  that  iron  may 
have  been  thus  produced  from  the  rich  hematite  or  fibrous  red  iron- 
ore  of  Lancashire. 

The  writer  of  this  paper  having  resided  for  more  than  two  years  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Persian  mines,  and  having  been  during  that 
time  engaged  in  superintending  the  manufacture  of  cast-iron,  trusts 
that  the  following  short  account  of  the  mines,  and  of  the  very  primitive 
process  of  the  iron  manufacture,  which  came  constantly  under  his  ob- 
servation, may  be  found  interesting,  if  it  be  not  also  of  some  practical 
advantage,  even  where  the  manufacture  is  conducted  with  all  the  re- 
finements of  modem  scientific  improvements. 

We  have  no  historical  record  from  which  to  ascertain  the  period  at 
which  the  iron  mines  in  the  district  of  Caradogh  were  first  wrought. 
But  there  is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  they  were  resorted  to  from 
the  remotest  antiquity.  The  district  itself  is  very  secluded,  and  is  of 
a  wild,  forbidding  aspect;  it  has,  without  almost  any  interval,  formed 
part  of  the  Medean,  and  latterly  of  the  Persian  empire  ;  and,  under 
the  rule  of  native  (irinces,  has  all  along  been  free  from  the  revolutions 
which  have  so  frequently  convulsed  Western  Asia.  The  iron  mines 
themselves  also  bear  evident  marks  of  an^quity.  They  form  large 
quarry-like  excavations,  thickly  surrounded  by  immense  tumuli  of  iron- 
sand  and  small  pieces  of  ore,  thrown  out  in  the  course  of  working 


Upon  a  rough  calculation,  founded  on  the  size  of  the  excavated  hollow 
which  it  exhibits,  one  only  of  the  numerous  iron  mines  which  abound 
in  the  district,  was  estimated  by  the  writer  of  this  notice  to  have  now 
afforded  above  4,00U,UU0  cubic  feet  of  iron-ore.  Taking  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  ore  at  .'),  a  cubic  foot  would  weigh  about  3U'J  lb.,  and 
consequently  seven  cubic  feet  would  weigh  about  a  ton  ;  and  -1,00!  1,000 
cubic  feet,  the  total  quantity  excavated  from  that  mine,  would  weigh 
57 1,-12S  tons.  Now,  at  the  present  day,  '20UU  horse  loads  is  a  full 
allowance  for  the  yearly  quantity  carried  away,  and  as  each  horse 
carries  about  2  cwt.,  we  have  a  total  of  200  tons  per  annum  as  the  ex- 
ported produce  at  present.  It  may  be  reasonably  assumed,  tliat  this 
quantity  has,  upon  an  average,  never  been  exceeded  during  the  many 
ages  ill  which  the  mines  have  been  wrought.  Indeed,  this  estimate 
certainly  exeeeds  the  actual  average  yearly  produce ;  for  although  a 
considerable  quantity  of  Russian  iron  is  now  imported,  to  supply  the 
increasing  wants  of  the  inhabitants,  it  cannot  be  imagined  that,  in 
periods  of  their  early  history,  the  natives  would  require  nearly  so 
much  iron  as  they  now  do.  Upon  that  assumption  and  without  taking 
into  account  the  "other  neighbouring  mines,  it  would  follow  that  2857 
years  have  passed  since  the  soil  was  first  removed  from  the  surface  of 
the  mine  alluded  to.  Were  the  other  neighbouring  mines  taken  into 
account,  the  antiquity  of  the  whole  would  be  proportionally  increased. 
The  writer  has  not  by  any  means  stated  these  as  calculations,  or  as  at 
all  approximating  to" accuracy,  but  still  he  thinks  that,  from  such  data, 
fanciful  as  they  may  in  some'raeasure  appear,  an  estimate  may  legiti- 
mately be  formed  on  the  very  great  antiquity  of  the  Persian  mines. 

The  native  smiths  are  dispersed  in  small  hamlets,  situated  in  the 
woods  which  clothe  the  sides  of  the  ravines,  through  which  the  moun- 
tain torrents  flow  into  the  river  Arras  (the  ancient  Araxes).  The  iron 
which  is  produced,  although  soft,  is  extremely  tough.  It  is  much 
superior  to  the  Russian  iron,  with  which  the  greater  part  of  Asia  is 
now  supplied,  and  is  manufactured  chiefly  into  horse-shoes,  and  horse- 
shoe nails,  for  which  there  is  a  great  demand  in  Tabreez  and  the  sur- 
rounding districts,  and  among  the  Koords  or  Nomadic  tribes  wdio  fre- 
quent the  mountain  pastures  in  summer.  The  trade  in  it  is  shared 
between  the  Mahomedans  and  the  native  Armenians ;  and  although 
by  no  means  extensive  or  deserving  the  name  of  the  "Persian  iron 
trade,"  it  gives  employment  to  a  considerable  part  of  the  population, 
in  quarrying  the  ore,  burning  the  charcoal,  and  transporting  these 
articles  to  the  forge. 

There  are  numerous  mines  in  Caradogh,  affording  iron-ore  of  the 
most  valuable  description,  and  of  various  kinds  ;  but  those  held  in  the 
highest  estimation  are  the  Jewant,  Koordkandy,  and  Marzooly  ores. 

The  Jewant  mine  is  situated  in  an  immense  vein  of  red  iron-ore. 
This  ore,  on  its  fracture,  often  exhibits  streaks  of  prismatic  colours, 
as  if  at  one  time  it  had  been  subjected  to  the  action  of  lieat;  quanti- 
ties of  iron-sand  are  dispersed  in  the  interstices  of  the  vein. 

The  Koordkandy  mine,  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  very  steep 
mountain,  produces  rich  magnetic  iron-ore,  from  a  vein  of  great  di- 
mensions. The  Marzooly  mine  also  affords  excellent  magnetic  iron-ore 
in  great  abundance.  The  vein  in  which  the  last  is  situated  runs  across 
several  hills,  and  is  in  most  parts  100  feet  in  width. 

In  working  these  mines,  the  richest  pieces  only  of  the  ore  are  carried 
away,  the  remainder  is  thrown  aside.  They  are  worked  very  irregu- 
larly, and  without  concert,  as  there  is  no  restriction  imposed  as  to  the 
mode  of  mining  by  the  Government.  A  few  individuals  sink  a  shaft 
through  the  rubbish,  and  excavate  as  much  as  they  require;  another 
party  soon  after  arrive,  and  fill  the  first  hollow  up  in  the  course  of 
sinking  another  shaft ;  and  in  this  way  the  rubbish  is  repeatedly  turned 
over,  and  gradually  subsides  and  is  consolidated  into  a  mass  as  the  ore 
is  removed  from  beneath,  thus  forming  a  serious  o'ostacle  to  any  one 
who  might  attempt  to  work  the  vein  in  a  more  regular  manner.  The 
ore  is  carried  to  the  villages  only  during  the  summer,  as  the  depth  of 
the  snow  in  winter  renders  the  mountain  paths  impiissable.  It  is 
there  retailed  to  the  smiths,  who  purchase  a  horse-load  of  2  cwt.  for 
about  Is.  sterling,  or  10s.  per  ton. 

The  ores  above  described,  when  smeUed  singly,  produce  that  kind 
of  iron  which  by  English  workmen  is  called  hot-short,  and  by  the  Per- 
sians salt-iron.  The  smiths,  however,  by  means  of  a  mixture,  produce 
iron  of  an  excellent  quality,  which  they  term  siceet-iron-  The  most 
common  mixture  is  two  parts  Jewant  ore  to  one  of  Koordkandy,  and 
two  parts  of  of  Koordkandy  to  one  of  Marzooly. 

Materials  for  smelting  the  ore  are  found  in  an  extensive  natural 
forest  which  occupies  the  natural  parts  of  the  district  of  Caradogh. 
This  forest  covers  the  flat  bottoms  between  the  mountains,  and  spreads 
to  a  considerable  height  up  their  sheltered  sides,  dwindling  into  dwarf 
trees  and  bushes  in  the  elevated  and  more  exposed  situations.  It  con- 
sists chiefly  of  coppice  oak,  which  springs  from  the  roots  of  trees  cut 
and  recut  during  a  long  succession  of  years.  This  jungle  is  partitioned 
among  the  villages  situated  on  its  confines,  tlie  inhabitants  of  which 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL"! 


207 


earn  a  Uvelihoud  by  supplying  the  city  of  Tabreez  and  adjoining  towns 
witli  fuel. 

The  cliarcoal  is  made  in  the  following  maimer:  a  rectangular  hollow 
is  dug  in  the  earth,  about  twelve  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  four 
feet  deep.  The  sides  are  formed  of  the  natural  ground,  or  common 
alluvial  cover  ;  a  small  sloping  doorway  is  cut  at  one  end.  and  at  the 
other  a  chimney  is  built  rising  to  the  height  of  about  six  feet.  The 
pit  is  filled  up  to  the  level  of  the  ground  with  cut  branches  of  all  di- 
mensions, placed  horizontally  and  lengthways  in  the  hollow,  and  are 
covered  over  with  earth,  and  secured  eftectirally  against  the  admission 
of  air,  excepting  by  a  small  hole  in  the  built-up  door-way,  which  is 
left  open  to  produce  a  current;  the  heap  is  kindled  through  the  small 
opening  in  the  door-way,  and  after  it  has  burned  for  two  or  tln-ee  days 
the  covering  is  removed,  and  the  charcoal  thus  produced  is  then 
stored  for  sale.  One  of  these  hearths  will  produce  about  one  ton  of 
charcoal,  which  sells  at  thirteen  shillings  sterling. 

The  charcoal  thus  produced,  however,  is  seldom  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  iron,  the  smiths  preferring  that  prepared  in  the  following 
manner:  the  cut  branches  are  merely  laid  horizontally  on  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  piled  up  to  a  considerable  lieight;  having  been 
lighted  from  beneath,  they  are  allowed  to  burn  in  the  manner  of  an 
open  fire,  till  the  smoke  and  flame  have  nearly  ceased ;  the  fire  is  then 
quenched  with  water,  when  there  remains  a  charcoal  which  is  very 
light,  and  is  found  to  reduce  the  ores  of  iron  in  a  much  less  time  than 
the  heavier  charcoal  produced  by  the  first  method. 

As  the  iron  is  manufactured  on  a  very  small  scale,  a  very  simple 
forge  answers  the  purpose.  It  consists  merelj'  of  a  hollow  hearth  dug 
out  of  the  clay  floor  of  the  hut,  about  fourteen  inches  square  in  the 
bottom,  and  nine  inches  deep,  for  receiving  the  ore  and  fuel ;  and  of 
another  hearth  immediately  thereto  adjoining,  intended  to  receive  the 
slag,  and  consisting  of  a  larger  excavation,  about  three  inches  deeper 
than  the  former,  and  situated  betwixt  it  and  the  wall  at  the  other 
extremity  in  which  the  chimney  is  constructed.  A  wall  is  built  on 
each  of  the  two  sides,  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  the  whole  is  covered 
over  with  large  stones  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  the  fire.  The 
whole  of  the  first  or  iron-hearth  into  which  the  blast  is  introduced  is 
left  open  above  and  at  the  sides ;  but  a  low  w  all  is  built  next  the  bel- 
lows to  prevent  the  heat  from  injuring  them.  The  whole  is  afterwards 
plastered  over  with  clay  and  chopped  straw,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
draught  of  the  chimney  entire.  The  chimney  is  carried  up  through 
the  wall  of  the  hut,  and  seldom  rises  higher  than  its  roof. 

The  construction  and  dimensions  of  these  hearths  will  be  best  ex- 
plained by  the  accompanying  drawings. 

Fig.  1— Vertical  Si'cUon. 


Fig.  3— Su'e  Vie 


^-M^lX-4^!r— ^— f-^    f  3 


Fig.  1— Ground  Plan. 


The  operator  having  carefully  selected  charcoal  of  a  small  size  and 
hght  weight,  proceeds  to  clear  it  from  dust  and  sand  with  a  small 
meshed  nddle,  removing  all  the  heavy  pieces  of  charcoal  or  stones 
that  may  be  accidentally  mixed  with  it.  The  raw  ore  being  next 
selected  and  mixed,  and  being  broken  into  small  pieces  about  the  si/e 
ot  a  hazel  nut,  is  thoroughly  moistened  with  water.  A  dam  is  then 
made  between  the  iron  and  slag  hearths,  composed  of  charcoal  and 
charcoal  dust  well  rammed  down,  and  the  top  is  coped  with  iron  slae 
....,„  ,  f„.„o.  .„,.u,™     The  following  sketch  will  show  this  arrange- 


from  a  former  smelting, 
ment 


Fig.  7, 


References.— I.  H.  Iron  Hearth.— S.  H.  Slag  Hearth.— C.  and  D.  Ch;ucoal 
and  Dust.— .S.  Slag.— C.  Charcoal.- O.  Ore.- F.  Floor. 

The  Twycre  pipe,  which  is  made  of  white  clay,  and  bears  a  violent 
heat  for  a  long  time  without  melting,  is  then  inserted  through  the 
small  hole  in  the  side  wall  of  the  first  iron  hearth.  The  point  of  the 
pipe  is  made  to  reach  half  way  across  the  iron  hearth,  and  within  six 
inches  of  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  A  layer  of  charcoal,  of  three 
inches  thick,  is  then  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  iron  hearth,  and 
upon  this  two  other  layers  laid  across,  one  directly  under  the  Twyere 
pipe  of  about  six  inches  in  breadth  and  three  inches  deep,  and  the 
other  at  the  front  of  the  hearth  of  the  same  thickness,  to  correspond 
with  the  overlying  part  of  the  dam.  The  two  trenches  which  are  thus 
formed  are  filled  up  with  the  moistened  ore,  well  rammed  down.  A 
second  layer  of  charcoal,.in  a  state  of  ignition,  is  thereafter  laid  over 
the  former  under  the  twyere  pipe,  and  other  successive  layers  of 
charcoal  and  ore  are  filled  in,  corresponding  with  those  in  the  bottom. 


2D8 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Septemhkr, 


When  the  hearth  has  been  nearl}'  filled  up  in  this  way,  a  covering  of 
charcoal  is  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  whole  on  a  level  v.ith  the 
top  of  the  dam.  The  bellows  are  then  blown,  and  a  workman,  who 
stanils  at  the  side  of  the  hearth,  keeps  constantly  pushing  down  the 
charcoal  in  the  middle  witli  an  iron  rod,  and  from  time  to  time  throws 
small  quantities  into  the  centre  of  the  fire  as  it  gtaihially  subsides. 
At  the  commencement,  one  man  at  a  time  is  sunicient  to  blow  the  bel- 
lows, but,  towards  the  close,  two  are  required,  the  one  standing  behind 
the  other.  The  bellows  shown  in  Figs.  1  &  5,  are  in  general  use  all  over 
Persia.  After  blowing  for  an  hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half,  part  of 
the  twycre  pipe  having  melted  from  the  violence  of  the  heat,  the  blast 
is  stoi]ped  for  a  moment,  for  tlie  purpose  of  pushing  the  twyere  pipe 
farther  in  towards  the  centre  of  the  hearth.  It  is  then  again  con- 
tinued, and  in  about  three  hours,  or  three  and  a  half  hours  from  the 
commencement,  the  ore  becomes  consolidated,  but  not  fused.  The 
blast  is  then  again  stopped  until  that  half  of  the  bloom  which  is  next 
to  the  slag  hearth  is  turned  over  with  an  iron  bar,  and  jnished  on  the 
top  of  the  dam.  while  the  oilier  half  is  turned  round  to  the  centre  of 
the  fire.  The  blast  is  then  immediately  recommenced,  and  the  metal 
of  the  half  bloom  in  the  centre  of  the  fire  speedily  falls  to  the  bottom. 
The  remaining  half  of  the  bloom  is  then  drawn  into  the  centre,  and 
treated  in  a  similar  manner,  very  little  charcoal  being  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  fire  during  this  part  of  the  process.  When  the  raetal  has 
entirely  disappeared  by  sinking  to  the  bottom  of  the  hearth,  the  whole 
semifluid  mass  is  stirred  about  for  a  cjuarter  of  an  hour  longer  with  an 
iron  rod.  The  blast  being  then  stopped,  the  twyere  pipe  is  with- 
drawn, and  the  operator  taking  his  shovel,  jiushes  the  burning  charcoal 
together  with  the  dam  into  the  lower  heartli :  the  slag  immediately 
runs  off,  and  exposes  the  g'owing  iron  lying  in  the  bottom  of  the  upper 
hearth;  the  metal  is  then  beaten  with  the  back  of  the  shovelinto  a 
more  solid  state,  and  after  being  dexterously  cut  with  an  iron  chisel 
bar,  from  the  sides  of  the  hearth,  and  forced  from  the  bottom,  it  is  re- 
moved to  the  floor  of  the  hut  with  a  large  pair  of  tongs.  The  iron  is 
next  beaten  wiih  large  hammers  as  it  lies  on  the  ground,  in  order  to 
expel  the  slag  and  other  impurities  from  its  pores;  and  after  being  in 
this  way  formed  into  a  rough  mass,  it  is  lifted  to  the  anvil,  when  it  is 
again  hammered  into  a  more  regular  shape.  It  is  next  cut  into  two 
pieces  with  large  hamniers,-and  is  then  fit  for  being  drawn  into  bars  of 
the  dimensions  required. 

At  a  single  smelting,  one  hearth  generally  affords  about  30  lb.  of 
malleable  iron,  to  produce  which  there  is  only  required  about  double 
that  quantity  of  ore,  and  three  times  the  weight  of  charcoal.  One 
smith  with  Ids  assistants  will  make  about  three  or  four  smeltings  in 
one  day,  or  one  cwt. 

It  must  strike  every  one  acquainted  with  the  iron  manufacture,  that 
this  yield  is  in  a  high  proportion  to  the  materials  used.  In  England, 
about  four  tons  of  raw  ore  and  eight  tons  of  coal  are  required  to  pro- 
duce one  ton  of  bar-iron  ;  while,  by  the  process  above  described,  the 
same  quantity  of  iron,  of  a  much  superior  quality,  is  produced  in  Per- 
sia from  less  than  half  of  these  materials.  The  greater  productiveness 
is  no  doubt  to  be  attributed  in  a  great  measure  to  the  superior  richness 
of  the  Persian  ores,  and  the  use  of  charcoal ;  but  the  simplicity  of  the 
pi-ocess  must  also  have  a  considerable  share  in  diminishing  the  waste 
of  materials;  for  the  roasting,  smelting,  refining,  puddling,  shingling, 
balling,  and  drawing-out,  or  something  very  similar,  is  all  there  effected, 
as  it  may  be  said,  at  one  heat,  and  in  a  very  few  hours. 

The  rich  iron-ores  of  Cumberland  and  Lancashire,  and  many  others 
in  Britain,  particularly  the  blackband  ironstone  of  Scotland,  which  has 
so  recently  attracted  the  attention  of  iron-masters,  if  manufactured  in 
the  same  mar.ner,  would  undoubtedly  produce  similar  results,  and  thus 
create  a  great  saving  in  time,  labour,  and  capital,  as  well  as  diminish 
the  waste  of  materials. 

In  conclusion,  the  writer  would  beg  once  more  to  draw  attention  to 
the  fact  that  malleable-iron  can  be  readily  made  directly  from  the  ore, 
contrary  to  what  he  believes  to  be  the  prevalent  opinion  in  this  conn- 
try. 

Since  writing  the  preceding,  the  writer  lias  had  an  opportunity 
of  becoming  acquainted  with  a  similar  process  to  the  one  already 
described,  now  successfully  practised  near  the  town  of  Malatia,  on  the 
tSyrian  frontier,  in  the  central  parts  of  Asia  Minor.  The  iron-ores  in 
this  district  are  of  the  richest  description,  and  were  examined  by  the 
■writer  at  the  command  of  the  Turkish  government,  with  the  view  of 
establishing  iron-works  on  the  scale  of  British  iron-works,  for  the  sup- 
ply of  the  Turkish  ordnance.  The  method  there  pursued  is,  if  possi- 
ble, still  more  simple  than  that  of  the  Persians,  as  the  furnaces  are  in 
the  form  of  a  small  cupola,  and  the  fuel  is  simply  dry  wood. 


SUTCLIFFE'S  PATENT  ROTATORY  PUMP. 

Sir — I  take  the  liberty  of  forwarding  yon  the  enclosed  engraving  of  a 
rotatory  jiump,  in  wliicli  you  will  jierccive  Jlr.  Sutdiffe  is  completely  autici- 
pated,  and  evidently  (from  the  apparent  age  of  the  print)  hy  many  years. 
The  coincidence  lietween  the  two  is  more  than  remarkable,  and  I  can  but 
regret  the  want  of  the  letter-press  to  accompany  and  explain  ;  of  tliis,  how- 
ever, yon  (and  your  readers,  if  you  think  fit  to  publish  it,*)  will  judge.  It  is 
a  French  invention,  and  I  consider,  abandoned  by  our  neighbours  on  account 
of  its  very  great  friction,  and  the  difficulty  there  must  exist  in  preserving,  for 
any  considerable  time,  the  working  surfaces  in  perfect  contact.  The  ends  or 
water-tight  points  of  the  ellipse  exi)eriencing  so  much  more  wear  than  the 
same  extent  of  surface  in  the  surrounding  cylinder,  or  chamber. 

If  Mr.  Sutdiffe,  or  any  person  from  him,  wishes  to  see  the  print,  1  will  leave 
it  with  you  for  a  time  for  that  purpose. 

A. 

"  [M'e  have  not  thocglit  it  noccssnry  to  give  the  engraving,  as  it  is  .so 
identically  the  same  In  principle  as  that  of  Mr.  Sutcliffe's.  The  engraving, 
we  should  say,  is  at  least  100  years  old  ;  it  may  be  seen  at  uur  o.Tice. — K.l. 
C.  K.  5c  A.  Journal.] 


ADCOCK'S  PATENT  FOR  RAISING  WATER  FROM  MINES. 

The  very  peculiar  and  extraordinary'  degree  of  novelty  exhibited  iu 
this  process  of  raising  water,  and  the  high  degree  of  importance  at- 
taclied  to  it  by  many  of  our  engineering  and  mining  friends,  has  induced 
us  to  open  a  correspondence  with  the  patentee,  who  has  forwarded  to 
us  drawings  and  a  description,  which  will  fully  explain  the  invention. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  state,  as  the  ajiparatus  is  for  raining  upwards, 
many  of  our  readers  may  have  a  very  inadecpiate  idea  of  the  effect 
which  it  produces,  and  comparing  it  with  the  velocity  and  quantity  of 
rain  descending  from  the  clouds,  may  conceive  its  effect,  as  practically 
inefficient.  And  so  unrjuestionably  it  would  be,  were  the  cases  at  all 
analogous.  But  in  the  apparatus  erected  at  the  works  of  Messrs. 
Milne,  Travis,  and  Milne,  at  Shaw,  where  the  pressure  of  the  air  was  a 
ninth  part  of  a  pound  iq)on  the  inch,  the  velocity  of  the  rain  up- 
wards, and  its  abundance  were  such,  that  if  the  rain  were  to  descend 
from  the  clouds  with  ecpial  velocity  and  in  equal  abundance,  it  would 
cover  the  earth  ISi  feet  in  a  single  minute  of  time.  While,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  well-known  that  the  quantity  of  rain  falling  in  the  me- 
tropolis in  a  vear,  is  not  more  than  22  inches. 

To  prove  what  we  have  here  stated,  we  have  only  to  detail  the 
following: 

The  diameter  of  the  up-cast  pipe  at  Shaw,  was  1-lA  inches  =:  13-5 
inches  area. 

Therefore  the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  1  foot  of  depth  =  lOSU. 

And  through  that  pipe  130  gallons  per  minute  were  carried  up 
120  feet  in  height. 

And  each  gallon  contains  277'274  cubic  inches. 

Hence,  130  gallons  X  2"r-271  4-  19s0  =  ISi  feet,  in  depth. 

Clearly  proving  ^vhat  we  have  stated,  that  in  a  single  minute,  the 
earth  would  be  covered  rather  better  than  IS  feet  in  depth. 

Most  probably  we  shall  resume  this  subject  in  our  next  month's 
publication.  In  the  meanwhile  we  shall  give  Mr.  Adcock's  description 
of  the  apparatus. 

( Conimunicntcd  by  ilie  Invmlor.) 

By  the  present  modes  of  raising  water  from  Mines  and  other  deep 
])laces,  by  pumps  and  pump-rods,  and  other  mechanical  contrivances, 
the  water  is  raised  through  a  series  of  pipes,  in  a  compact  or  solid 
state;  in  other  words,  if  the  depth  through  which  the  water  must  be 
raised,  by  a  pump  or  one  lilt,  be  100  feet,  then  the  pipes,  extending  to 
that  depth,  will  be  full  of  water,  and  the  whole  column  of  water  in 
those  pipes  will  be  lifted  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

A  column  of  water  100  feet  deep,  presses  with  a  force  of  about  4;') 
poiuids  on  each  square  inch  of  its  base.  Hence,  if  the  diameter  of  the 
pump-bucket,  or  ijUmger,  be  12  inches,  and  its  area,  as  a  consequence, 
1 13  inches,  the  weight  of  water  to  be  lifted,  at  tach  stroke,  will  be 
about  o085  pounds. — In  a  deep  mine,  therefore,  containing  lu  such 
colunuis  or  lifts  of  water,  below  one  another,  and  acted  on  at  the  same 
time,  by  the  same  ]nunp-rod,  extending  down  the  shaft  or  jiit  of  the 
mine,  the  weight  of  water  to  be  raised  will  be  very  great,  being  not 
less  than  50,850  pounds,  or  about  23  tons.  Hence,  to  lift  such  weight 
of  water,  and  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  water  in  the  pipes,  to- 
gether with  the  !'»8  inertice  to  put  such  colunuis  of  water  in  motion, 
and  to  support  its  own  weight,  the  pump-rod  must  be  made  of  great 
strength ;  and  the  steam-engine,  water-wheel,  or  otlier  prime  mover, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


299 


by  which  the  effect  must  be  produced,  must  be  of  hvrge  size  and  great 
power. 

By  consequence  of  that  t)/s  inertice,  the  friction,  and  tlie  great  weight 
to  be  put  in  motion — and  when  steam-engines  are  employed,  the  alter- 
nate action  or  reciprocation  of  the  great  lever  or  beam  oif  the  engine — 
the  number  of  feet  of  (ffictive  strokes,  made,  per  minute,  is  compara- 
tively small,  being  generally,  in  deep  mines,  from  about  50  to  !S0  feet. 
To  explain  this  more  fully,  the  whole  mass  of  water  in  the  ten  columns, 
having  to  be  raised  at  one  and  the  same  time,  and  therefore  being 
equal  in  weight  to  one  column  of  water  of  the  same  diameter  and 
1000  feet  in  depth,  may  be  considered  as  being  lifted  in  the  mass, 
through  a  distance  of  50,  or  from  that  to  So  feet  in  a  minute.  Whereas, 
by  my  "  Impro  vemenis  in  raising  naiti-from  Jiiinea  and  other  deep  ptaci,s, 
or  from  a  loner  level  to  a  higher;  which  improvemenls  are  applicable  to 
the  raising  of  liepiids  gineralhj,  and  to  other  purposes,"  I  do  not  raise 
water  or  other  liquids  in  the  mass,  nor  do  I  find  it  necessary  to  exert  a 
pressure,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  of  45  pounds  on  each  square  inch, 
when  the  height  to  which  the  water  must  be  raised  is  lOU  feet ;  nor 
do  I  raise  water  by  pumps  and  pump-rods ;  but  in  the  manner  to  be 
described. 

That  is  to  say,  by  the  aid  of  a  steam-engine,  water-wheel,  or  other 
prime  mover,  I  give  motion  to  a  fan,  or  i'anner  (such  as  is  used  very 
commonly  by  foundry-men,  engineers,  millwrights,  and  others,  to  force 
a  current  of  air  into  cupolas  and  other  kinds  of  furnaces),  or  to  the 
piston  of  a  blowing  cylinder  (such  as  is  used  by  iron-masters,  and 
makers  of  iron,  to  force  a  current  of  air  into  blast  furnaces,  for  the  re- 
duction of  ores),  and  by  aid  of  such  fan  or  fanner,  or  blowing  cvlinder, 
I  condense  atmospheric  air,  that  it  may,  when  liberated  from  its  con- 
finement, have  a  tendency  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere,  with  a  velo- 
city due  to  its  pressure. 

When  atmospheric  air  is  condensed  to  a  quarter  of  a  pound  pressure 
per  square  inch,  beyond  the  atmospheric  piessure,  and  is  liberated 
from  its  confinement,  it  moves,  or  has  a  tendency  so  to  do,  at  the  rate 
of  173  feet  in  each  second  of  time  ;  at  half  a  pound  pressure  per  square 
inch,  the  speed,  due  to  the  pressure,  is  245  feet  per  second ;  at  three 
quarters  of  a  pound  pressure,  290  ft.;  at  one  pound,  340  ft. ;  at  a  pound 
and  a  quarter,  375  feet;  at  a  pound  and  a  half,  410  feet;  at  a  pound 
and  three  quarters,  43G  feet ;  at  two  pounds,  4t)7  feet ;  at  three  pounds, 
555  feet;  at  four  pounds,  624  feet;  and  at  other  pressures,  with  other 
velocities  or  rates  of  speed,  as  may  be  known  by  reference  to,  or  con- 
sulting tlie  Treatises  that  have  been  published  on  the  science  of  Pneu- 
matics. 

Now,  instead  of  raising  w-ater  in  the  mass,  as  herein-before  describ- 
ed, by  pumps  and  pump-rods,  and  sucli  like  contrivances,  I  avail  my- 
self of  the  mechanical  etfects  that  may  be  obtained  from  the  velocities 
of  the  air,  as  due  to  the  pressures  herein-before  made  known,  or  any 
other  pressures  that  circumstances  connected  with  mines,  in  dilf'erent 
localities,  may  prove  to  be  desirable.  1  cause  the  water  that  must  be 
raised  from  the  mine,  or  from  a  lower  level  to  a  higher,  to  be  dispersed 
and  carried  up  in  drops,  like  drops  of  rain ;  but  the  velocity  of  those 
drops,  itp.rards,  in  consequence  of  the  velocity  of  the  air,  is  far  greater 
than  the  descending  velocities  of  rain. 

For  drops  of  rain,  when  not  receiving  an  impulse  from  winds,  can 
only  descend  through  the  atmosphere  with  a  speed  of  about  eight  feet 
in  a  second,  when  the  diameter  of  each  sphere  or  drop  of  rain  is  the 
hundredth  part  of  an  inch.  When  the  diameter  of  the  drop  is  the  six- 
teenth part  of  an  inch,  the  greatest  descending  velocity  through  the 
atmosphere  is  about  17  feet  in  a  second  ;  and  the  velocities  in  a  second, 
through  the  atmosphere,  for  drops  of  rain  of  other  diameters,  may  be 
thus  stated :  for  drops  of  rain  an  eighth  of  an  inch  diameter,  24  feet; 
for  drops  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  diameter,  30  feet;  and  for  drops 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  diameter,  34  feet  per  second.  Whereas,  the 
velocity  of  the  air,  when  allowed  to  escape  from  a  pipe  upwards  at 
one  pound  pressure  per  square  inch  beyond  the  atmosphere,  and  v.  ith- 
out  making  any  deductions  for  the  friction  against  the  sides  of  the 
pipes,  is  about  310  feet  in  a  second.  But  it  should  be  stated  that, 
when  the  air  is  commingled  with  the  water  that  must  be  carried  up  by 
it  from  a  mine,  or  from  a  lower  level  to  a  higher,  its  motion,  to  a  cer- 
tain extent,  is  retarded.  The  velocity  of  the  drops  of  water  iiprrards, 
however,  by  this  mode,  or  by  these  modes  of  raising  water  from  mines 
and  other  deep  places,  is  far  greater  than  the  velocities  at  which  rain 
usually  descends,  as  herein-before  has  been  described. 

In  the  engravings.  Fig.  1,  Fig.  2,  and  Fig.  3,  represent  the  apparatus, 
and  Figs.  2  and  3  show  a  variation  of  the  lower  part.  In  each  figure 
the  same  letters  of  reference  denote  contrivances  to  accomplish  similar 
objects. 

The  three  kinds  of  apparatus  are  shown  in  section — 

a  a,  represents  a  pipe,  made  of  zinc,  iron,  or  other  material,  to  con- 
vey air  from  the  fan  or  fanner,  or  blovving  cylinder,  to  the  bottom  of 
the  shaft  or  pit  of  the  mine — or,  in  a  similar  manner,  air  may  be  con- 


veyed to  any  reqviired  place,  or  depth,  from  which  water  or  other 
liquid  must  be  raised. 

_  I)  b,  another  pipe,  somewhat  larger  than  the  pipe  a  a,  to  convey  the 
air  aforesaid,  and  the  water  which  is  carried  up  by  it  from  the  mine 
or  other  depth,  in  drops,  like  drops  of  rain,  to  the  surface  of  the  earth 
or  to  the  adit,  or  to  any  required  height,  or  place  of  discharge. 

0,  the  sump,  chamber,  or  reservoir,  from  which  the  water  or  other 
liquid  must  be  raised. 

(/,  metal,  stone,  or  wood,  to  serve  as  supports. 

By  the  rapid  revolution  of  the  fan  or  fanner,  or  the  upward  and 
downward  motion  of  the  piston  in  the  blowing  cylinder,  by  a  steam- 
engine,  water-wheel,  or  other  piitne  mover,  imparting  motion  to  it, 
atmospheric  air  of  the  requisite  amount  of  density  is  made  to  flow 
down  the  pipe  a  a,  and  where  the  pipe  turns  upwards  in  the  chamber 
or  reservoir  c  c,  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  water  or  other  liquid, 
disperses  it  into  drops,  forces  it  up  the  pipe,  6  b,  and  delivers  it  at 
the  top. 

In  Fig.  1,  a  series  of  apertures  is  represented  nearly  at  the  bottom 
of  the  pipe, /j  6.  It  is  through  those  apertures  that  water  or  other 
liquid  flows  into  the  pipe  b  b,  in  jets ;  there  to  be  met  with,  dispersed, 
and  carried  up  the  pipe,  by  the  ascending  stream  of  air. 

In  Fig.  2,  and  in  Fig.  3,  the  pipe  6  6  terminates  in  a  chamber,  com- 
pounded, in  shape,  of  a  cone  and  cylinder;  and  the  lower  part  of  the 
cylindrical  chamber  is  represented  as  perforated  with  a  series  of  aper- 
tures, through  which  the  water,  or  other  liquid,  flows  from  the  reser- 
voir or  chamber  c  c  into  it.     Tlie  vfatev  ascends,  by  the  difference  of 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  2, 


;jO() 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


I'Septkmber, 


head,  aljovc  the  termination  of  the  air-pipe  a  a:  it  is  there  met  by  the 
ascentUn"- c-nnent  or  stream  of  air;  it  is  dispersed  into  drops,  and 
carried  up  by  it,  in  tlie  manner  lierein-before  made  linown. 

It  slioiild  ije  stated  tliat,  in  mines,  and  otlier  deep  places,  where  the 
water  may  accumulate  and  rise  to  some  height  in  the  pit  or  shaft, 
from  the  stoppage,  bv  accident  or  otherwise,  of  the  steam-engine, 
water-wheel,  or  other  prime  mover,  or  from  other  causes,  I  introduce 
a  stop-cock,  or  other  contrivance  adapted  to  the  purpose,  to  regulate 
the  passage  of  water  into,  or  to  exchule  it  from,  the  pipe  h  h.  1  effect 
this,  bv  putting  the  apertures  aforesaid,  in  connexion  with,  and  in 
making  them  receive  their  supply  of  water  from,  a  pipe  to  which  such 
stop-cock  is  applied.  I  attach  to  this  stop-cock,  or  other  contrivance, 
a  rod  of  wood  or  metal,  of  sufficient  length  to  rise  above  the  surface  of 
any  water  that  thus  may  accidentally  accumulate  in  the  shaft  or  pit, 
and  of  sufficient  strength  to  enable  tlie  workman  to  open  and  shut  the 
aperture  of  the  stop-cock,  or  other  contrivance,  by  it. 

It  is  essentially  necessary  that  this  should  be  attended  to,  as  other- 
wise the  water,  or  other  lifpiid,  may  accumulate  aiwl  rise  to  such  a 
height  in  the  pipes  a  a,  bh,  as  may  prevent  the  passage  of  the  air 
from  the  pipe  a  a  into  the  pipe  h  b,  and  thereby  stop  the  action  of  the 
apparatus.  For  a  similar  reason,  the  water  or  other  liquid  must  never 
be  allowed  to  stand  at  a  higher  level  above  the  end  of  the  pipe  a  a, 
than  the  pressure  of  the  condensed  air  can  displace  ;  and  to  effect  this, 
the  reservoir  c  c  must  be  so  proportioned  to  the  lower  part  of  the  pipe 
b  h,  that  whatever  number  of  inches  the  water  or  other  liquid  may 
descend  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  in  the  one,  it  may  ascend  to  an 
equal  number  of  inches  in  the  other,  as  in  the  two  limbs  of  a  syphon 
or  bent  guage ;  and  to  guard  still  further  against  the  chance  of  any 
interruption  of  the  process,  either  by  an  accumulation  of  water  in  the 
mine,  as  aforesaid,  or  by  an  imperfect  state  of  the  stop-cock  allowing 
a  portion  of  such  accumulated  water  to  flow  past  it  into  the  lower 
parts  of  the  pipes  aa,bb,\  connect  with  the  lower  parts  of  such  pipes 
a  small  pump,  to  be  worked  by  the  hand  of  a  workman,  and  rising 
sufficiently  high  in  the  mine  to  be  above  the  surface  of  any  water  that, 
perchance,  may  thus  accumulate.  By  such  ])ump,  the  workman, 
labouring  but  a  few  minutes  only,  will  be  enabled  to  withilraw  the 
water  or  other  liquid  from  the  pipes  a  a,  bb,  and  such  liquid  will  be 
discharged  by  him,  not  at  the  top  of  the  mine,  or  at  the  adit,  but  back 
again  into  the  shaft,  that  it  may  be  subsequently  raised  by  the  ascend- 
ing stream  of  air. 

In  applying  my  invention,  in  practice,  I  sometimes  cause  the  water, 
or  other  liquid,  to  flow  into  the  up-caal  pipe,  in  any  given  time,  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  quantity  that  can  be  carried  up  it,  in  that 
time ;  which  may  be  elTected  by  duly  proportioning  the  sizes  of  the 
apertures  or  ])erforations,  or  by  the  adoption  of  regulating  stop-cocks ; 
and  in  other  modes  of  applying  it,  I  cause  the  air,  after  it  has  passed 
through  the  down-cait  pipe,  to  be  distributed  and  dispersed  under  a 
large  surface  of  water  in  a  confined  chamber,  or  reservoir,  that  it  may 
take  up  a  portion  of  the  water  by  adhesion,  in  the  same  way  that  water 
is  taken  up  in  the  formation  of  steam, — excepting  that,  in  the  one  case, 
the  water  is  taken  up  by  the  air ;  in  the  other,  by  caloric. 

The  air  and  the  water  commingled  with  it,  or  that  quantity  which  is 
thus  taken  up  by  it  i»  the  state  vf  rapot/r,  is  then  allowed  to  accumulate 
above  the  surface  of  the  solid  body  of  water  confined  within  such 
chamber  or  reservoir  (assimilating  in  its  object  to  a  boiler  for  the 
generation  of  steam),  until  it  attains  the  same  pressure,  per  square 
inch,  as  the  air  flowing  down  the  down-cast  pipe.  After  which,  it 
is  allowed  to  flow  through  a  pipe,  extending  above  the  surface  of  the 
liquid  in  such  chamber,  into  the  lower  part  of  the  pipe,  where  it 
meets  with,  disperses  into  drops,  and  carries  up  a  still  further  quantity, 
in  the  manner  hereiu-before  described. 

The  weight  of  water  in  the  pipe,  b  b,  at  any  one  time,  must  be  le--s 
than  the  pressure  given  out  by  the  ascending  current  of  aii. 

At  the  top  of  the  up-cast  pipe,  b  b,  I  cause  the  air  and  water  taken 
up  by  it,  to  be  received  into  a  dome,  or  other  appropriate  chamber, 
that  the  greatest  portion  of  the  water  may  be  collected  together  again 
in  a  body,  and  thence  be  allowed  to  flow  freely  away.  The  air,  and 
that  portion  of  the  water  still  retained  by  it,  is  also  allowed  to  esca))e. 

lu  other  modes  of  raising  water  b\'  my  improvements,  as  aforesaid, 
I  produce  and  maintain,  by  any  of  the  mechanical  means  adapted  to 
the  end,  a  partial  vacuum  in  the  pipe,  b  b;  and  instead  of  employing 
a  down-cast  pipe,  a  a,  to  convey  condensed  air  into  the  pipe,  b  b,  i 
allow  air  to  flow  into  it  from  the  mine,  through  pipes  arranged  for  that 
purpose  ;  so  that,  by  the  difference  of  pressure  between  the  air  in  the 
mine,  and  that  in  the  pipe,  b  b,  the  water  may  be  carried  up  by  an  as- 
cending current  of  air. 

Another  important  feature  of  tliis  invention  is,  that  the  ventilation 
of  a  mine  may  be  carried  on  free  of  charge.  For  the  fan  or  fanner,  or 
blowing  cylinder,  may  be  made  to  receive  its  air  frcm  the  open  atmos- 
phere ;  or,  by  means  of  pipes  extending  to  the  required  distance,  the 


air  may  be  received  from  the  depths  of  the  mine  ;  or  without  enq)loy- 
ing  pipes,  it  may  be  received  from  the  upper  part  of  the  np-ciist 
shaft  of  a  mine,  which  must  be  domed  over  for  that  purpose.  By 
which  mode  of  operation,  the  impure  air  of  a  mine  may  be  withdrawn, 
that  pure  atmospheric  air  may  descend  the  shaft  or  pit,  by  its  gravitv, 
to  occupy  its  place. 

Having  thus  described  the  nature  of  the  invention,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  same  may  be  performed  and  carried  into  effect,  I  wish  it 
to  be  understood,  that  the  velocities  of  the  air,  as  due  to  given  pres- 
sures, and  the  descending  velocities  of  drops  of  rain,  wiien  falling 
througli  the  atmospliere,  are  given  by  me  as  approximative  uumbers 
only:  for  atmospheric  changes,  and  otlier  causes,  will  produce  a  mate- 
rial variation  from  tliem.  And  I  wish  it  to  be  further  understood,  that 
I  tfo  not,  in  this  patent,  confine  myself  to  tlie  precise  arrangements  and 
dispositions  of  the  combinations  and  contrivances  herein  described, 
and  shown  by  the  engraving ;  but  I  avail  myself  of  all  such  other  com- 
binations and  contrivances  as  in  mechanics  are  equivalent  thereto. 

ADDENDA. 

By  some  persons  it  is  supposed,  that  air  cannot  be  made  to  flow 
through  pipes  of  great  length. — This  supposition  has  been  produced 
by  a  statement  made  in  Dr.  Robisoii's  ".Witural  Pliilosop/ii/,"  art. 
"Pneumatics,"  respecting  an  experiment  conducted,  many  years  ago, 
at  an  iron-foundry  in  Wales. — It  is  there  stated,  that  an  engineer 
erected  a  machine,  at  a  powerful  fall  of  water,  to  work  a  pair  of  blow- 
ing-cylinders, or  cylinder-bellows,  the  blow-jiipe  of  which  was  con- 
ducted to  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  where  the  delivery-pipe, 
or  tui/ert,  was  applied  to  a  blast-furnace  in  the  usual  manner.  But 
notwithstanding  that  every  precaution  was  used,  in  making  the  pipes 
as  smooth  as  possible,  the  experiment  failed ;  and  the  failure  was 
ascribed  to  the  impossibility  of  making  the  pipes  air-tight. — Other 
persons,  since  then,  have  ascribed  the  failure,  with  much  better  judg- 
ment, to  the  friction  of  the  air  against  the  sides  of  the  pipe ;  but,  being 
unacquainted  with  the  laws  which  regulate  the  passage  of  fluids,  have 
thence  fallen  into  the  erroneous  opinion,  that  air  cannot  be  made  to 
flow  through  pipes  of  great  length. 

I  am  not  acquainted  with  the  sizes  of  the  pipes  employed  by  the 
engineer  in  Wales ;  but  it  is  certain  that  he  was  wholly  ignorant  of 
the  subject,  and  that  the  pipes  were  not  properly  proportioned  to  the 
length.  His  ignorance  is  shown  by  the  following: — 1,  by  his  making 
the  pipes  as  smooth  as  possible  in  the  bore;  2,  by  his  expecting  to 
get  the  same,  pressure  of  air  from  a  pipe  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length, 
as  from  a  short  pipe  ;  and  3,  from  ten  minutes  of  time  elapsing  after 
the  action  of  the  piston  in  the  blowing-cylinder  had  taken  place,  before 
the  least  wind  could  be  felt  at  the  end  of  the  pipe,  whereas  he  had 
calculated  that  the  interval  wou'.d  not  exceed  six  minutes. 

With  the  view  to  elucidate  these  errors,  and  consequently  to  expose 
the  ignorance  of  tlie  engineer,  I  shall  adduce  the  following  : — 

1.  It  is  well  known  to  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  flowing 
properties  of  air,  that  providing  there  be  no  sudden  enlargements  and 
contractions  in  the  pipes,  it  is  a  matter  of  comparative  indifl'erence 
wdiether  the  pipes  be  smooth  in  the  bore,  or  left  in  the  rough  as  when 
cast.  For  the  tleliverv  under  the  same  length  of  pipe,  under  the  same 
pressure,  whatever  that  length  may  be,  is,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the 
same  in  both  cases. 

•2.  That  the  greater  the  length  of  pipe,  the  greater,  under  certain 
definite  proportions,  must  be  its  diameter,  in  order  to  overcome  the 
friction,  and  to  deliver,  under  the  same  amount  of  pressure  in  the 
blowing-cylinder,  a  given  quantity  of  air  in  a  given  time.  Hence,  as 
the  diameter,  and  consequently  the  area  of  the  pipe  incrcasts,  the 
pressure  of  the  air  must  decrease  in  a  correspondent  proportion. 

3.  That  atmospheric  air,  however  compressed,  and  therefore  under 
whatever  pressure  it  may  act,  cannot,  jiractically,  flow  with  the  rate  of 
speeil  assigned  bv  him,  that  is,  1320  feet  in  a  second,  ei'en  into  a  va- 
cuum ;  much  less  through  pipes  a  mile  and  a  half  in  length,  and  under 
the  moderate  amount  of  jiressure,  which  is  tlu'ee  pounds  per  square 
inch,  used,  commonly,  in  blast-furnaces. 

To  illustrate  this  still  further,  and  to  show  how  easy  it  is  for  persons 
unacquainted  with  these  subjects  to  fall  into  error,  and  thence  to  de- 
duce erroneous  conclusions,  i  will  suppose  that  3000  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  minute,  at  three  pounds  pressure  per  square  inch  beyond  the 
atmosphere,  had  to  be  driven  into  a  blast-furnace ;  and  that  "the  engi- 
neer, in  Wales,  finding  that  a  pipe  Ij  inches  diameter,  when  only  from 
a  foot  to  a  foot  anil  a  half  in  length,  would  ileliver  that  quantity,  had 
jnit  down  a  pipe  of  twice  that  area,  or  G  inches  and  four-tenths  in 
diameter. 

The  quantity  of  air,  per  minute,  that  would  have  been  discharged 
through  that  pipe,  when  of  different  lengths,  and  under  the  same 
amount  of  pressure  in  the  blowing-cylinder,  would  have  been  as 
follows  : — 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


.301 


Length  of  Pipe.  Discharge  per  minute. 

100  feet     30U0  cubic  feet. 

200    2230        „ 

300     1370 

400     , 1G40        „ 

500     „      .   1470 

1000     , 1060        „ 

i  mile    660        „ 

1  480        „ 

14  330        „ 

Hence,  we  find  that,  by  improperly  proportioning  the  diameter  of  the 
pipe  to  the  length,  instead  of  discharging  3UU0  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
minute,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  it  would  have  discharged 
only  330  cubic  feet.  In  fact,  that  the  diameter  of  the  pipe  would 
have  been  adaj^ted,  only,  to  100  feet  in  length. 

To  have  discharged  the  3000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute,  the 
diameter  of  the  pipe  for  each  length,  and  under  the  same  pressure  in 
the  blowing  cylinder,  would  have  been  as  follows:— 

Lcngtit  of  Pipe.  Diameters. 

100  feet     6-4  inches. 

200     „       , 7-2     „ 

300     „      , 7-8     „ 

400     „ 8-2     „ 

500     „      ,... S-5     „ 

1000    ,,      , 9-8     „ 

^  mile    ..,: 12-0    „ 

1      , 13-5     „ 

1*    „      ...= 14-7     „ 

With  these  diameters,  and  under  any  one  of  the  lengths  thus  given, 
the  3000  cubic  feet  of  air,  per  minute,  would  have  been  delivered. 
But,  of  course,  at  the  end  of  the  pipe,  the  furthest  from  the  power, 
the  pressure  of  the  air  would  have  been  proportionably  diminished,  or 
nearly  so.  This  diminution  of  the  pressure  of  the  air,  in  the  vp- 
cast  pipe,  in  applying  the  patented  modes  of  raising  water  from  mines 
of  great  depth,  is  an  advantage  rather  than  a  disadvantage  ;  it  gradu- 
ally reduces  the  speed  of  the  ascending  current,  and  allows  the  water, 
when  delivered  at  the  top  of  the  mine,  the  more  freely  to  be  collected 
together  again  in  a  bod}-,  that  it  may  thence  flow  freely  away. 

The  down-cast  pipe  may  be  so  proportioned  as  to  maintain  nearly 
an  equal  pressure  throughout  its  length. 

Henry  Adcock, 
'**  Ciril  Engineer. 

One  of  Mr.  Adcock's  patent  apparatus  is  now  being  put  down  at  the 
Pemberton  Colliery,  Wigan. 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 

FASCICULUS  xvra. 


"  I  must  have  liberty 
AVitlial,  as  large  a  charier  as  the  ninus, 
To  blow  on  whom  I  please." 


I.  Notwithstanding  the  flunky  sort  of  admiration  professed  to  be 
entertained  by  many  lor  Sir  John  Soane,  no  one,  it  seems,  cares  to  imitate 
him,  I  do  not  say  in  his  peculiar  style — or  rather,  fantastic  mannerism, 
but  in  those  matters  wherein  he  has  set  a  really  good  precedent.  It 
is  true  he  is  an  exceedingly  bad  authority  to  follow  because  his  archi- 
tectural merits  and  vices  are  invariably  so  mixed  up  together  that  it 
requires  some  study  to  disentangle,  them.  While  the  outside  of  his 
house  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  exhibits  the  most  paltry  and  puerile 
taste,  and  has  a  most  offensive  gira-crack  and  gin-palace  physiognomy, 
the  interior  offers  much  that  deserves  to  be  adopted :  not  that  it  is  by 
any  means  particularly  good  in  itself,  but  on  account  of  the  hints  and 
ideas  as  to  contrivances  and  effects,  which  it  affords,  and  the  sugges- 
tions it  holds  out.  While  there  is  much  in  it  that  is  exceedingly  poor 
or  even  paltry, — what  no  one  would  think  of  copying,  or  rather  would 
be  at  some  pains  to  avoid,  there  are  several  things  which  might  fre- 
quently be  imitated,  and  applied  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  iii  many 
cases  with  little  trouble  or  expense.  For  instance,  the  very  same 
contrivance  which  is  adopted  in  tht  Picture  Cabinet,  is  susceptible  of 
many  modifications,  some  of  which  might  be  conveniently  applied  to 
screens,  bookcases,  and  similar  pieces  of  furniture,  witliout  fitting-up 
the  whole  of  a  room  in  that  mannei'. 

II.  I  find  that  Bartholomew  is  exceeding  angry  with  me,  pouring 
cut  the  vials  of  his  wrath  upon  my  head,  asserting  that  Caniuus  would 
be  a  more   suitable  name  for  me,  and  among  other  compliments  in- 


sinuating that  I  am  descended  from  Gehazi  the  servant  of  Elisha — which 
is  certainly  tracing  back  niv  genealogy  further  back  than  that  of  any 
one  now  living.  But  what  if  after  all  if  my  real  name  should  tiun  out 
to  be  White,  and  that  I  have  taken  the  liberty  of  latinizing  it;  instead 
of  arrogating  to  myself  by  mv  assumed  appellation  any  particular  stock 
of  Candour?  Any  one  who  is  not  absolutely  as  blink-eyed  as  B.  might 
instantly  have  perceived  from  the  very  motto  I  have  chosen  that  I 
disclaim  all  pretensions  to  greater  candour  than  my  neighbours.  Be- 
sides there  are  two  different  sorts  of  candour; — oiie  of  which  consists 
in  ingtmioushj  confessing  our  own  faults,  the  other,  in  ingeniously  ex- 
posing those  of  o\ir  friends ;  which  last  is  that  possessed  by  me.  After 
all,  whether  I  am  candid  and  indulgent,  or  quite  the  reveVse,  has  no- 
thing to  do  with  the  matter:  what  chiefly  concerns  my  readers  is 
whether  my  opinions  are  well  founded  and  deserving  of  consideration. 
Even  Bartholomew  himself  does  not  pretend  to  say  the  contrary- — at 
least  he  has  not  cared  to  call  any  one  of  them  in  question,  by  pointing 
out  its  absiu-dity  and  fallacy.  'His  compliments  apart,  the  worst  it 
would  seem,  that  he  can  find  to  say  of  me  is  that  I  am  gi\en  to  bark- 
ing— which  is  no  more  than  I  myself  confess  in  the  verv  passage  he 
has  quoted, — <uid  that  I  like  to  have  all  the  "cutting"  to  myself. 
Gra.nting  this  last  allegation  to  be  well  founded,  though  I  am  not  con- 
scious of  having  uttered  any  thing  that  can  be  construed  as  a  desire  to 
monopolize  that  operation; — granting  this,  I  say,  it  would  follow  that 
there  exists  a  perfect  harmony  of  tastes  between  myself  and  Bartholo- 
mew, for  he  is  not  at  all  sparing  of  cuts  at  his  professional  brethren  ; 
and  he  not  only  barks,  but  growls  too,  most  doggedly.  This  man  who 
makes  such  a  pleasant  outcry  against  cutting  and  maiming,  makes  no 
scruple  of  stabbing  poor  John  Nash's  reputation,  asserting  that  he  was 
not  gifted  with  one  of  the  accomplishments  "so necessary  to  an  archi- 
tect." Nay  he  may  be  said  to  massacre  reputations  by  wholesale, 
damning,  as  he  does,  in  the  lump,  both  the  taste  and  practice  of  pro- 
fessional men  at  the  present  day ; — for  which  he  may  perchance  one  day 
or  other  be  sainted  by  them,  that  is  converted  into  a  Sf,  Bartliolomew, 
by  being  flayed  alive. — Most  surely  wdieu  he  calls  Holland,  who  died 
in  1306,  one  of  the  last  of  England's  real  aj'chitects,  it  is  tantamount  to 
a  sweeping  condemnation  of  all  the  members  of  the  profession  at  the 
present  day.  Nevertheless  poor  Uttle  Bartholomew  aflects  to  be 
shocked  at  me ; — which  is  undoubtedly  highly  amusing. 

III.  There  is,  I  admit,  one  very  great  point  of  diftereuce  between  us, 
for  as  he  belongs  to  the  profession  himself,  Bartholomew  may  proba- 
bly feel  that  he  has  a  right  to  abuse  it  as  much  as  he  pleases,  without 
any  body's  interfering  to  hinder  him  ;  whereas  I  being  no  more  than 
one  of  those  whom  he  denounces  as  self-made  critics,  cannot  reason- 
ably look  to  enjoy  a  similar  privilege.  With  all  due  defei-ence,  how- 
ever to  Saint  Bartholomew,  I  conceive  that  all  critics  are  and  ever 
have  been  self-made  or  self-constituted :  at  least  I  never  heard  of 
their  taking  their  degrees  as  such  at  any  college  ;  or  of  their  being 
appointed  to  tiiat  capacity  by  Her  Majesty  ;  or  of  critics  being  made 
by  Act  of  Parliament.  Critics,  I  should  fancy,  are  one  and  all  volun- 
teers in  the  service  they  engage  in, — and  of  course  myself  among  the 
rest.  The  day  will  perhaps  arrive,  when  matters  will  be  managed  far 
differently,  and  we  critics  be  elected  in  the  same  manner  as  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  the  meanwhile  the  Gwilts  and  the 
Bartholomews  must  submit  whether  they  will  or  no  to  our  piesent 
self-election.  One  comfort  for  them  is  that  they  are  not  obliged  to 
read  our  impertinences,  or  to  waste  their  precious  time  in  refuting  what 
they  would  persuade  others  is  only  arrant  ignorance.  It  certainly  is  extra- 
ordinary that  architects — and  architects  alone,  should  show  a  disposition 
to  gag  criticism  and  stifle  discussion,  or  even  the  expression  of  opinion. 
Notwithstanding  which  the  generality  of  them,  I  beUeve,  have  no  par- 
ticular aversion  even  to  ignoramusses  giving  their  opinion  to  the  world, 
when  it  happens  to  be  complimentary  to  themselves,  and  of  course, 
most  sensible,  and  most  orthodox. 

IV.  Whether  Mr.  Wightwick  will  be  considered  altogether  ortho- 
dox by  Bartholomew,  is  to  me  a  matter  of  very  great  doubt,  or  rather 
no  doiibt  at  all ;  the  avowed  object  of  the  author  of  the  "  Palace  of 
Architecture,"  being  to  popularize  the  study  of  the  art,  to  divest  it  of 
all  that  mystery  and  luunbug  which  have  so  long  rendered  it  an  ar- 
canum,— an  art  which  the  public  are  no  less  funnily  than  modestly- 
called  upon  to  admire  with  all  possible  admiration,  and  assured  in  the 
very  same  breath  that  they  can  neither  comprehend  nor  properly  relish 
it  I  "  With  what  unspeakable  horror  must  such  gentlemen  asGwiltand 
Bartholomew-  read  the  following  sentence  in  Wightwick's  book  :  "  and 
now  we  would  finally  address  a  concluding  question  to  our  fair  coun- 
trywomen. Can  they  do  better  than  give  some  of  their  leisure  to  an 
art  so  essentially  decorative  as  that  of  architecture?"  This  is  liberality 
with  a  vengeance !  Is  there  no  salic  law  to  prevent  this  threatened 
female  tyranny  over  architecture  ?  Why  in  another  generation  we 
shall  have  a  swarm  of  Candidi  or  rather  Candidae  in  petticoats  !  By 
the  shades  of  Vitruvius  and  Palladio,  Wightwick's  doctiine  is  most 

2  S 


302 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[September, 


Pestiferous .'  and  devoutly  is  it  to  be  hoped  that  he  will  receive  an 
X  emplary  good  tlirashing  from  St.  Bartholomew  the  Little. 

V.  Upon  one  point,  indeed,  Bartholomew  and  Wightwick,  though 
in  all  other  respects  almost  antipodal,  agree  tolerably  well ;  namely  in 
their  estimate  of  the  Elizabethan  style,  against  which  they  both  formally 
litter  their  protest, — Wightwick  briefly  yet  energetically,  and  Bartho- 
lomew at  considerable  length,  cataloguing  its  vices  and  deformities 
one  by  one.  So  far,  however,  from  attempting  there  to  contradict 
him,  I  am  more  inclined  to  say  dil/o  to  his  strictures;  and  if  nothing 
else,  they  certainly  do  show  some  boldness  in  venturing  to  run  quite 
counter  to  the  taste  of  the  day,  for  that  barbarous  fashion  has  been 
taken  all  of  a  sudden  most  wonderfully  into  favour,  and  has  in  conse- 
quence had  several  ably  executed  and  expensive  works,  by  Joseph 
Nash,  Richardson,  &c.,  especially  devoted  to  it;  which  productions 
are  not  calculated  to  allay  the  feverish  admiration  of  the  public. 

VI.  "Elizabethan  carving,"  says  my  worthy  friend  Bartholomew, 
"resembles  the  schoolboy's  performance  with  a  penknife  upon  sticks 
of  firewood,  some  degrees  below  the  workmanship  of  Dutch  toys"l! 
This  is  tolerably  strong — nay,  shows  that  the  tender  and  merciful  B. 
is  quite  as  well  entitled  to  the  epithet  Caiumis  as  myself,  and  no  less 
fond  of  cutting  up,  what  he  does  not  like, — which  I  take  to  be  in 
general  the  case  with  all  of  us — both  saints  and  sinners. — Let  us  pro- 
ceed :  "some  persons,"  he  afterwards  observes,  "very  highly  praise 
the  Elizabethan  buildings,  solely  on  account  of  their  general  effect ; 
but  they  never  can  defend  any  of  their  licentious  and  childish  details, 
which  indeed  may  at  once  be  said  to  contain  all  the fattlls  and  cor- 
7uplwns  of  design  and  composition  which,  have  ever  been  condemned  in 
every  style  of  architecture,  by  every  deacripiion  of  critics,  of  every  age, 
and  (f  every  country  in  the  nmrld"  !  ! .'  Now  for  one  who  dislikes 
"  barking,"  this  is  valiantly  vituperative. 

Vn.  Our  amiable  St.  Bartholomew  \'erifies  the  adage  of  Clodins 
accnsat  meechos,  for  though  he  professes  to  be  quite  scandalized  at  my 
naughtiness,  he,  as  has  already  been  shown,  leaves  it  to  be  inferred 
plainly  enough  that  the  race  of  "real  architects"  is  now  altogether 
extinct  among  the  profession ;  and  even  talks  of  "  the  sntahing,  fraudu- 
lent, pickpocket  system  which  has  led  to  extensive  Faunlleroyism  in  mo- 
dern architecture"  .'  !  ! 

—  Bartholomew,  my  boy  I  we  are  now  quits:  you  are  ad —  honest, 
plain-speaking,  though  somewhat  hard-mouthed  fellow, — one  who  does 
not  mince  matters  at  all.  I  would  advise  you,  however,  to  have  a 
little  more  fellow  feeling,  and  not  serve  me  as  the  pot  does  the  kettle  ; 
nor  be  quite  so  unmindful  of  your  own  dear  self  as  to  imagine  me  the 
only  canine  candid  creature  in  this  naughty  world  who  has  a  taste 
"for  abusing  every  body,  and  every  thing,"  when  you  are  pleased  to 
libel  the  whole  profession  at  one  fell  swoop,  and  to  represent  modern 
architecture  as  little  better  than  a  system  of  fraudulent  knavery  coupled 
with  the  most  disgraceful  ignorance. 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  IN  LONDON. 

jl  Critical  Review  of  the  Public  Buildings,  Statues  and  Ornaments  in 

and  about  London  and  Westminster — 1734, 

By  Ralph. 

(  Continued  from  page  264.  J 

I  suppose  my  readers  have  already  observed,  that  during  the  course 
of  my  essays  on  this  subject,  I  have  not  contented  myself  with  bare 
remarks  en  the  ornaments  I  find  finished  to  my  hand  ;  but  that  I  have 
taken  all  opportunities,  beside,  of  pointing  out  ways  and  means  which 
either  may,  or  might  have  been  made  use  of  to  refine  upon  some,  to 
adjoin  others,  and  make  the  most  of  every  situation  for  the  beautifying 
and  adorning  the  whole. 

It  is  in  this  view  I  often  mention  things,  which  by  the  interfering  of 
property  can  never  take  place:  and  hold  myself  excused,  in  the  pre- 
sumption that  a  neglect  in  one  particular,  may  be  made  a  spur  to  the 
improvement  of  another. 

The  new  churcli  (St.  John's),  with  the  four  towers,  at  West- 
minster, is  situated  in  such  a  manner,  with  respect  to  Old  Palace  Yard, 
that  it  might  have  been  seen  from  thence,  at  the  end  of  a  noble  vista, 
to  the  greatest  advantage  imaginable:  the  sight  of  the  towers  over  the 
tops  of  the  houses,  put  every  body  in  mind  of  this,  and  it  is  with  much 
legret  that  we  lose  such  a  beauty. 

As  to  the  building  itself,  it  is  in  a  very  particular  taste,  and  has  a 
great  mixture  of  beauty  and  caprice  in  it:  there  are  many  parts  of  it 
which  I  approve,  and  many  more  which  I  condemn :  it  is  "to  be  sure  a 
fatal  mistake,  to  endeavour  at  an  excellence,  and  than  err  so  wide  of 
the  mark  as  to  stumb'e  on  deformity;  all  false  ornaments  become 


faults  instantly,  and  only  serve  to  make  an  absurdity  more  conspicuous. 
If  the  architect  of  this  pile  had  once  thought  of  this  rule,  I  am  per- 
suaded lie  would  have  been  abundantly  more  chaste  in  his  composi- 
tions, and  cut  his  towers,  like  that  of  Babel,  off  in  the  middle. 

Henry  the  Seventh's  rliapel  has  an  undoubted  right  to  be  taken  no- 
tice of  in  a  very  particular  manner,  as  being  one  of  tlie  most  expensive 
remains  of  the  ancient  English  taste  and  magnificence  :  to  be  sure  there 
is  no  looking  on  it  without  admiration  ;  but  then  its  beauty  consists 
much  more  eminently  in  the  workmanship  than  the  contrivance ;  which 
is  just  the  reverse  of  what  it  ought  to  be. 

The  proportion  and  harmony  of  a  plan  is  the  first  grand  secret  in 
building  ;  nicety,  and  point  in  execution  the  last:  thus  it  happeasthat 
the  edifice  before  us  has  nothing  in  its  form  to  surprise  or  charm ;  and 
all  the  expence  of  art,  which  is  lavished  away  upon  it,  only  excites 
pity  that  the  subject  deserved  it  no  better. 

I  am  very  sensible  I  run  no  small  risk  of  being  censured  for  making 
so  free  with  so  celebrated  a  pile  as  this  :  but  as  I  profess  myself  clear 
of  all  prejudice,  and  only  in  pursuit  of  truth,  so  1  shall  take  all  the 
liberties  which  are  of  a  piece  with  such  a  character,  and  resolve  to  be 
governed  by  reason  and  judgment  only. 

On  these  principles,  therefore,  I  will  boldly  affirm,  that  nothing  could 
be  more  absurd  than  erecting  this  fabric  at  the  end  of  the  Abbey  ;  it  now 
serving  only  to  spoil  the  symmetry  of  both,  and  make  a  botch  instead 
of  adding  a  beauty :  if  there  were  any  point  of  view  where  both  these 
pieces  might  be  seen  together,  the  truth  of  my  assertion  would  be  ap- 
parent, and  as  it  is,  a  little  imagination  will  answer  the  same  end. 

Let  us  farther  add  that,  by  this  unnatural  conjunction,  the  whole 
magnificence  of  front,  which  might  have  been  given  to  this  costly 
chapel,  is  entirely  lost,  and  those  who  admire  it  most  implicitly  and 
devoutly,  cannot  help  enquiring  for  an  entrance  suitable  to  the  rest  of 
the  structure. 

Let  us  for  once  then  suppose,  that  it  liad  been  entirely  detached 
from  the  Abbey,  and  erected  opposite  to  the  House  of  Lords,  with  a 
sumptuous  front  to  the  street ;  let  us  suppose  the  new  Parliament 
House  finished  on  the  other  side,  and  the  before-mentioned  vista  laid 
open  to  the  new  church,  and  the  consequence  would  then  be  another 
group  of  beauties  in  building  and  decoration,  which  few  cities  in  Europe 
could  parallel. 

By  the  many  things  I  have  said  of  the  advantage  of  space  before  a 
building,  in  order  to  add  magnificence  to  the  view,  no  body  will  won- 
der, I  presume,  that  I  am  for  levelling  the  Gate-house,  demolishing  a 
large  part  of  Dean-yard,  and  laying  open  the  street  at  the  west  end  of 
the  Abbey,  at  least,  to  an  equal  breadth  with  the  building.  I  must 
frankly  own  nothing  appears  so  miserable  to  me,  as  such  incumbrances 
round  a  grand  or  elegant  building:  they  abate  the  pleasure  of  the 
prospect  most  exceedingly,  and  are  real  disadvantages  to  the  builder's 
fame. 

Westminster  Abbey  is  a  fabric  of  great  antiquity,  and  challenges 
some  kind  of  veneration  on  that  account":  it  is  besides  of  prodigious 
bulk,  and  fills  the  eye,  at  least,  if  it  does  not  satisfy  it:  to  glance  at  it 
in  the  landscape,  without  examining  its  parts,  it  pleases  tolerably  well ; 
to  examine  its  parts,  we  are  under  a  necessity  of  disliking  the  whole : 
if  the  height  surprizes,  we  are  out  of  humour  with  its  form  ;  and  the 
fronts  in  particular  ought  to  have  rose  eminently  above  the  rest,  in 
order  to  have  varied  the  lines,  and  given  that  grace  it  so  visibly  wants. 
We  now  rather  think  of  a  barn  than  a  church  ;  I  believe  this  image  is 
owing  intirely  to  the  extreme  sharpness  of  the  roof,  and  if  that  was 
rectified,  it  would  be  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  building  in  gene- 
ral. It  must  be  owned  indeed,  that  the  west  end  was  never  finished, 
and  there  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  the  two  towers,  on  each  side 
of  it,  were  designed  to  give  the  elevation,  it  is  now  so  apparently  de- 
fective in. 

There  is  indeed  a  rumour  about  the  town,  that  the  Dean  and  Chap- 
ter still  design  to  perfect  this  scheme,  and  raise  the  towers  according 
to  their  first  projection :  but  I  think  it  is  rather  too  late  to  begin,  for 
unless  they  would  new-case  the  church  all  over,  the  mixture  of  the 
new  and  old  would  have  a  worse  effect,  than  the  defect  we  complain 
of,  and  make  a  sort  of  patch-work  in  building,  which  is  ever  offensive 
both  to  judgment  and  taste. 

As  to  the  inside  of  the  church,  it  is  certainly  more  perfect  and  judi- 
cious than  the  out :  the  perspective  is  strong  and  beautiful,  and  strikes 
the  spectator  in  a  very  forcible  manner,  as  soon  as  he  makes  his  en- 
trance ;  and  yet  it  owes  the  greatest  part  of  its  eft'ect  to  a  fault  in 
symmetry.  It  is  the  exceeding  height  of  the  grand  isle  which  gives 
the  astonishment ;  but  if  that  was  only  in  exact  proportion  to  the  res- 
of  the  parts,  it  would  not  be  distinguished  so  much,  and  yet  would  de- 
serve much  greater  praise. 

Some  of  my  readers  would  perhaps  take  it  ill,  if  in  this  place,  and 
writing  on  the  curiosities  of  the  Abbey,  I  should  not  say  something  in 
honour  of  tlie  fine  wax-work  figures  whicli  are  placed  so  curiously  up 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


30.3 


and  down  this  venerable  building;  particularly  the  king  William  and 
queen  Mary,  which  have  been  lately  so  amicably  shut  up  together  in 
the  same  box.  To  oblige  them  therefore,  and  in  compliment  to  the 
reverend  Dean  and  Chapter,  who  permit  these  noble  decorations,  I 
will  throw  away  a  moment  or  two  in  giving  my  opinion  of  them.  In 
the  first  place,  therefore,  with  all  submission  to  better  judgments,  I 
think  they  are  ridiculous  and  unnatural  in  themselves,  expressing  neither 
figure  like  statuary,  nor  colour  like  painting  :  secondly,  I  am  humbly 
of  opinion  that  they  would  become  a  puppet-show  better  than  a  church, 
as  making  a  mere  farce  of  what  should  be  great  and  solemn :  and, 
thirdly,  I  think  them  higlily  injurious  to  the  characters  they  represent, 
as  showing  them  like  jointed  babies,  to  the  stupid  admiration  of  the 
vulgar,  and  the  contempt  of  men  of  sense  ;  instead  of  characterizing 
their  persons,  and  perpetuating  their  virtues. 

For  all  which,  and  many  more  reasons,  I  beg  leave  to  move  that  the 
whole  present  set  of  waxen  worthies  may  be  demolished  without  be- 
nefit of  clergy,  and  that  all  their  present  patrons  and  abettors  may  be 
substituted  in  their  place;  and  that,  as  fast  as  any  futvire  reverence 
should  endeavour  to  seduce  his  brethren  to  the  like  idolatry,  he  should 
be  immediately  chronicled  in  wax,  and  shewn  with  a  cap  and  bells,  to 
distinguish  the  extent  of  his  understanding,  and  the  perfection  of  his 
taste. 

The  inclosure,  behind  the  altar,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  St. 
Edward's  chapel,  has  nothing  remarkable  in  it  but  certain  Gothic  an- 
tiquities, which  are  made  sacred  by  tradition  only,  and  serve  to  excite 
a  stupid  admiration  in  the  vulgar. 

There  is  indeed,  at  the  end  of  this  place,  a  sort  of  gate  to  the  tomb 
of  Henry  V.  which  was  intended  for  a  piece  of  magnificence,  and  no 
cost  was  spared  to  make  it  answer  that  design  ;  but  the  taste  of  it  is 
so  unhappy,  and  the  execution  so  w'retched,  that  it  has  not  the  least 
claim  to  that  character.  The  tomb  of  that  prince  challenges  attention 
only  because  it  was  his,  and  because  the  statue  on  it  has  lost  its  head  : 
to  account  for  which  singular  injury,  we  are  told  a  ridiculous  tale  of 
its  being  silver,  and  that  the  value  of  it  occasioned  the  sacrilege. 

One  thing,  it  is  true,  we  meet  with  in  this  place,  which  merits  a 
peculiar  regard;  that  is,  a  wooden  chest  of  bones,  said  to  be  the  re- 
mains of  Catharine,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France,  and  consort  of 
Henry  V.  If  this  account  is  authentic,  I  think  nothing  can  be  a  greater 
violation  of  decency,  or  more  injurious  to  the  memory  of  sucTi  illus- 
trious personages,  than  to  expose  their  relics  in  so  licentious  a  manner, 
and  make  a  show  of  what  once  commanded  respect  and  adoration.  If 
the  clergy  are  advocates  for  the  decency  of  burial,  as  no  doubt  they 
are,  because  of  the  profits  which  attend  it,  why  do  not  those,  who  have 
this  church  under  their  care,  comply  but  with  their  common  tenets, 
and  grant  this  indulgence  to  the  ruins  of  majesty?  To  be  sure  I  can 
have  no  other  answer  but  this,  that  they  bury  some  for  gain,  and  some 
they  leave  unburied  for  the  same  reason. 

It  is  beyond  controversy,  that  there  is  something  extremely  shocking 
in  this  violence  to  the  secrets  of  mortality :  the  ancients  had  even  a 
superstitious  regard  for  the  dust  of  their  ancestors,  and  surely  we  are 
under  some  obligation  to  treat  ours  with  good  manners :  and  how  the 
reverend  Dean  and  Chapter  can  reconcile  this  principle  with  their 
conduct,  I  leave  to  the  most  learned  casuist,  among  them,  to  determine. 
If  they  would  hearken  to  my  humble  advice,  they  would  not  be  so  very 
intent  on  worldly  interest,  as  to  neglect  worldly  reputation :  reputation 
is  interest  too,  and  such  trespasses  as  these,  in  the  eyes  of  men  of  de- 
licacy and  understantling,  are  not  easily  forgiven  or  forgot. 

The  arch  at  the  entrance  of  Henry  the  Seventh's  chapel,  is  exceeding 
grand  and  ornamental :  the  steps  underneath  are  a  fine  preparation  for 
the  scene  at  landing,  and  the  three  doors  an  admirable  expedient  to 
favour  the  perspective  w  ithin ;  but  this,  and  several  other  beauties, 
are  utterly  spoiled  by  the  stalls,  which  cut  off  the  collateral  isles  of 
the  chapel  intirely,  and  thereby  spoil  the  beauty  and  symmetry  of  the 
whole. 

The  roof  of  this  structure  is  certainly  one  of  the  finest  things  in  the 
world,  I  mean  in  the  Gothic  style  :  nothing  can  be  in  a  better  form,  or 
more  richly  decorated :  perhaps  had  it  been  more  simple  it  had  shown 
to  greater  advantage  ;  but  still  it  is  a  wonder  that  one  continued 
cluster  of  ornament  could  be  contrived  to  please  so  much,  and  answer 
so  well. 

Were  the  absurd  partitions  mentioned  above  thrown  down,  the  roof 
would  appear  still  more  surprising,  and  the  area  before  more  spacious 
and  proportionable :  all  those  tombs  which  are  now  shut  up  in  such  a 
manner,  that  they  are  no  where  to  be  seen  as  they  ought,  would  then 
come  foreward  to  the  eye,  and  give  an  additional  grandeur  and  solem- 
nity to  the  scene :  the  pers|)ective  would  be  finely  broke,  and  every 
object  properly  terminate  in  the  founder's  maiisoleum,  as  the  principal 
point  of  the  whole  view. 

There  are  few  tombs  in  Europe  more  famous  than  that  of  Henry  VII. 
neither  indeed  are  there  manv  which  deserve  to  be  more  so.    The 


undertaking,  in  itself,  was  vast  and  surprizing,  the  cost  prodigious, 
and  the  execution  exceedingly  difficult  and  laborious.  And  vet  the 
artist  has  succeeded  in  it  to  admiration;  there  is  hardly  a  part  in  it 
that  is  not  excellent,  from  the  chief  figures  to  the  minutest  point  of 
the  decoration  :  the  statues  of  the  king  and  queen  are  grand  and  noble, 
and  the  bas-relief  on  the  sides  below,  beautiful  and  expressive.  I  am. 
of  opinion  the  workman,  wdioever  he  was,  was  equal  to  the  noblest 
scheme  of  this  nature,  and  would  have  made  a  figure  even  amongst 
the  ancients.  What  a  pity  it  is,  therefore,  that  such  a  genius,  and  so 
much  art  should  be  lavished  away  on  a  thing  entirely  out  of  taste,  and 
which,  at  the  same  expence  and  study,  might  have  been  made  the 
wonder  of  the  world !  To  explain  myself  farther  on  this  head,  nothing 
can  be  more  stupid  than  the  laying  statues  on  their  backs,  in  such  a 
situation,  that  it  is  impossible  they  should  ever  be  seen  to  advantage, 
and  of  course,  that  all  their  perfections  must  be  utterly  thrown  away. 
In  the  next  place,  the  brazen  inclosure,  which  surrounds  this  tomb, 
wonderiul  as  it  may  be,  considered  by  itself,  is  a  monstrous  blemish, 
with  regard  to  the  thing  it  was  intended  to  preserve  and  adorn;  be- 
cause it  rises  abundantly  too  high,  and  intercepts  the  view  intirely 
from  the  principal  objects. 

Without  doubt,  the  statues  of  the  king  and  queen,  ought  to  have 
been  in  living  attitudes,  erect,  and  bold,  and  the  decorating  figures 
should  have  formed  a  corresponding  group,  which  in  every  light, 
should  have  stood  the  test  of  criticism,  and  given  the  spectator  an  in- 
tire  satisfaction :  a  few  more  steps  too  should  have  been  added  to 
raise  the  foundation  higher ;  a  magnificent  arch  might  have  been  thrown 
over  all,  and  the  boundary  below  should  have  been  only  a  guide,  not 
an  incumbrance  to  the  prospect. 

Yet,  erroneous  as  the  taste  of  this  fine  monument  may  be,  it  may  be 
called  excellent  to  that  which  prevailed  several  years  after  in  the 
reign  of  king  James  I.  as  may  be  seen  by  the  wretched  things,  which 
were  erected  at  his  command,  to  the  memory  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and 
his  mother,  Mary  queen  of  Scotland  :  in  these  all  the  blunders  that  can 
be  imagined,  are  collected  together :  want  of  attitude  and  expression, 
harmony  and  proportion,  beauty  and  decoration  :  nay,  the  very  columns, 
which  support  the  superstructure,  are  of  different  sorts  of  marble,  and, 
to  make  the  figures  splendid  and  natural,  they  are  painted  and  dressed 
out  to  the  life,  as  if  they  were  just  retired  from  a  drawing-room,  and 
laid  down  there  for  a  little  repose. 

But  these  w  hims  seem  to  be  again  out  of  repute  in  the  reign  of  his 
son,  as  appears  by  the  monuments  of  the  Dukes  of  Richmond  and 
Buckingham :  in  these  there  are  several  fine  figures  in  brass,  and 
something  like  meaning  and  design;  though  even  then  they  had  not 
learned  to  distinguish  the  principal  characters,  and  place  them  in  such 
attitudes,  as  should  command  the  spectator's  first  and  last  attention  and 
regard. 

Both  these  faults  are  intirely  avoided  by  Rysbrack,  in  the  monument 
erected  in  the  honour  of  the  late  Duke  of  Buckingham :  there  the 
Duke  himself  is  the  principal  figure  in  the  group,  and  though  he  is  in 
a  cumbent  posture,  and  his  lady,  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  sitting 
at  his  feet,  yet  her  figure  is  characterized  in  such  a  manner  as  only  to 
be  a  guide  to  his,  and  both  reflect  back  a  beauty  on  each  other.  'Jhe 
decorations  are  exceedingly  picturesque  and  elegant:  the  trophy  at 
his  head,  the  fitiger  of  Time  above,  with  the  meials  of  his  children, 
fill  up  all  the  spaces  with  so  great  propriety,  that  as  very  little  could 
be  added,  nothing  can  be  spared.  In  a  word,  I  have  yet  seen  no  orna- 
ment that  has  pleased  me  better,  and  very  few  so  well. 

I  will  conclude  my  remarks  on  the  Abbey,  with  some  brief  reflections 
on  the  use  of  sepulchral  monuments  in  general,  which  will,  at  once, 
serve  to  illustrate  what  has  been  said  on  the  tombs  already  erected, 
and  likewise  be  of  some  service  to  the  statuary  in  designing  those 
which  may  succeed  hereafter. 

However  amiable  fame  may  appear  to  the  living,  it  is  certainly  no 
advantage  to  tlie  dead  :  whatever  dangers  they  have  dared,  whatever 
toils  they  have  undergone,  whatever  difficulties  they  have  surmounted, 
the  grave  is  deaf  to  the  voice  of  applause,  and  the  dust  of  the  noble 
and  vulgar  sleep  in  the  same  obscurity  together.  It  is  possible  the 
conscious  spirit  may  have  an  idea  of  the  honours  that  are  paid  to  his 
ashes ;  but  it  is  much  more  probable,  that  the  prospect  of  this  im- 
aginary glory,  while  he  lived  among  us,  was  all  the  pleasure  it  ever 
could  aftbrd  him.  I  make  this  observation,  because  most  monuments 
are  said  to  be  erected  as  an  honour  to  the  dead,  and  the  living  are 
supposed  to  be  the  least  concerned  in  them :  whereas  on  the  contrary, 
there  are  few  but  what  were  rather  founded  in  compliment  to  the 
builder's  vanity,  than  in  respect  to  the  name  they  are  inscribed  with. 
One  man's  fame  is  made  the  foundation  of  another's,  who  ordered  this 
sentence  to  be  made  his  epitaph ;  here  lies  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  friend. 
Some  there  are  that  mention  only  the  names  of  the  persons  whose  dust 
they  cover,  and  preserve  a  noble  silence  with  regard  to  the  hand  who 
raised  them  ;  but  even  here,  the  dead  can  receive  no  benefit  from  such 

2  S  2 


304 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


TSkptembkr, 


disinterested  atl'ection;  but  tlie  living  may  profit  much  by  so  noble  an 
exam|ile.  Another  tbing  that  displeases  me,  is  the  manner  of  the  in- 
scriptions, which  frequently  mistake  the  very  design  of  engraving  tliem, 
and  as  frequently  give  the  lie  to  themselves.  To  pore  one's  seTf  blind 
in  guessing  owt  JEltrrue  meiiiorite  sacrum  is  a  jest,  that  would  make 
Heraclitus  laugh  ;  and  yet  most  of  them  begin  in  that  pompous  taste, 
without  the  least  reflection  that  brass  and  marble  cannot  preserve 
themselves  from  the  tooth  of  time;  and  if  mens'  actions  have  not 
guarded  their  reputations,  the  proudest  monument  would  flatter  in 
vain. 

I  do  not  say  these  things  because  I  am  an  enemy  to  the  custom  :  so 
far  from  it,  no  one  can  admire  it  more  ;  but  what  I  intend  is,  to  place 
every  thing  on  its  right  principle,  and  recommend  the  properest  means 
for  the  consequence.  It  is  certain  there  is  not  a  nobler  amusement  in 
the  world,  than  a  walk  in  Westminster  Abbey,  among  the  tombs  of 
heroes,  patriots,  poets,  and  philosophers;  you  are  surrounded  with  the 
shades  of  your  great  forefathers;  you  feel"  the  influence  of  their  vene- 
rable society,  and  grow  fond  of  fame  and  virtue  in  the  contemplation  : 
it  is  the  finest  school  of  morality,  and  the  most  beautiful  flatterer  of  the 
imagination  in  nature.  I  appeal  to  every  man's  mind  that  has  any 
taste  for  what  is  sublime  and  noble,  for  a  witness  to  the  pleasure  he 
experiences  on  this  occasion  ;  and  I  dare  believe  he  will  acknowletlge, 
that  there  is  no  entertainment  so  various,  or  so  instructive.  For  my 
own  part,  I  have  spent  many  an  hour  of  pleasing  melancholy  in  its 
venerable  w  alks  ;  and  have  been  more  delighted  w  ith  the  solemn  con- 
versation of  the  dead,  than  the  most  sprightly  sallies  of  the  living.  I 
have  examined  the  characters  that  were  inscribed  before  me,  and  dis- 
tinguished every  particular  virtue.  The  monuments  of  real  fame,  I 
have  view-ed  with  real  respect;  but  the  piles  that  wanted  a  character 
to  excuse  them,  I  considered  as  the  monuments  of  folly.  I  have  wan- 
dered with  pleasure  into  the  most  gloomy  recesses  of  this  last  resort 
of  grandeur,  to  contemplate  human  life,  and  trace  mankind  through  all 
the  wilderness  of  their  frailties  and  misfortunes,  from  their  cradles  to 
their  grave.  I  have  reflected  on  the  shortness  of  our  duration  here, 
and  that  I  was  but  one  of  the  millions  who  had  been  employed  in  the 
same  manner,  in  ruminating  on  the  trophies  of  mortality  before  me  ; 
that  I  must  moulder  to  dust  in  the  same  manner,  and  quit' the  scene  to 
a  new  generation,  without  leaving  the  shadow  of  my  existence  behind 
me  ;  that  this  huge  fabric,  this  sacred  repository  of  fame  and  grandeur, 
would  only  be  the  stage  for  the  same  performances ;  would  receive 
new  accessions  of  noble  dust ;  would  be  adorned  with  other  sepulchres 
of  cost  and  magnificence ;  would  be  crowded  with  successive  admirers ; 
and  at  last,  by  the  unavoidable  decays  of  time,  bury  the  whole  collec- 
tion of  antiquities  in  general  obscurity,  and  be  the  monument  of  its 
own  ruin. 

Yet  in  spite  of  these  sage  reflections,  this  plain  prospect  of  general 
deciiy,  I  must  own,  it  is  a  great  pleasure  to  me  to  see  a  new  statue 
added  to  the  last ;  to  see  another  name  of  glory  increasing  the  catalo- 
gue :  it  is  a  taste  I  am  particularly  fond  of,  and  what  I  congratulate 
the  present  age  for  encouraging  so  much.  I  am  always  one  of  the 
first  to  survey  a  new  monument,  to  criticise  on  its  beauties,  and  point 
out  its  defects.  I  have  sometimes  the  pleasure  of  observing  a  beauty, 
antl  often  a  fault  in  our  modern  artists;  and  should  be  glad  to  take  an 
occasion  of  applauding  the  first,  and  mending  the  last.  I  would  have 
all  w  orks  of  ornament  perfectly  beautiful  and  elegant ;  or  else  they 
disappoint  the  very  intent  of  their  being.  I  would  have  all  statuary-, 
in  a  peculiar  manner,  excellent.  A  polite  people  are  most  distin- 
guished as  sucli,  by  their  buildings,  their  statues,  and  their  inscriptions ; 
and  I  am  sorry  to  say  it,  we  are  generally  defective  in  all.  There  is 
one  noble  lord  amongst  us  indeed,  who  ha's  taken  great  pains,  and  been 
at  vast  expence,  in  improving  our  taste  in  one  of  these  particulars ; 
but  I  do  not  find  so  eminent  an  example  has  influenced  many  more  to 
an  emulation  of  what  has  done  him  so  much  honour.  In  a  word,  sepul- 
chral monuments  should  be  always  considered  as  the  last  public  tribute 
which  is  paid  to  virtue ;  as  a  proof  of  our  regard  for  noble  characters; 
and  most  particularly,  as  an  excitement  to  others  to  emulate  the  great 
example.  In  a  word,  I  cannot  look  upon  that  which  is  raised  over  the 
ashes  of  Sir  Isaac  Keuton  in  any  other  light:  his  honours  were  all 
owing  to  his  own  merit ;  neither  is  it  in  the  power  of  the  finest  statue, 
or  the  sublimest  inscription,  to  attbrd  him  any  addition.  Had  his  re- 
mains rested  without  a  name,  like  Milton,  or  Shakespere,  or  Shafts- 
bury,  or  Nassau,  it  would  have  been  a  new  reproach  to  an  ungrateful 
]3eople,  but  no  injury  to  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  utmost  magni- 
ficence of  funeral  honours  woidd  only  be  a  credit  to  us,  without  doing 
him  any  service.  Having  lately  observed  that  this  stately  mausoleum 
had  made  the  entrance  into  the" choir  irregular;  it  was  answered,  that 
if  we  waited  with  an  equal  name  among  fhe  modems  to  make  it  uni- 
form, it  would  hardly  be  so  to  etemitv  ;  and  if  an  inferior  was  to  be 
ranged  with  him,  it  would  be  a  disadvantage  to  both.  It  is  most  cer- 
tain, that  there  are  fewr  characters  that  approach  any  thing  near  to  an 


equality,  and  the  many  vain  trials  that  have  been  made  for  his  epitaph, 
are  the  highest  compliment  to  his  desert:  it  is  a  proof  that  language 
was  too  weak  to  express  it,  and  hyperbole  itself  too  faint  for  the  ad- 
miration that  was  due  to  his  accomplishments. 


THE  KELSON  MONUMENT  AND  TRAFALGAR  SQUARE. 


The  Select  Committee  (of  the  House  of  Commons)  appointed  to  in- 
quire into  the  Plan  sanctioned  by  the  Commissioners  of  the  Woods 
and  Forests  for  laying  out  the  vacant  space  in  Trafalgar  Square,  in 
front  of  the  National  Gallery,  and  wdio  were  empowered  to  report 
their  Observations,  together  with  the  Minutes  of  Evidence  taken 
before  them,  to  the  House, — have  considered  the  matters  to  them 
referred,  and  have  agreed  to  the  following  Report. 

Your  Committee  must  begin  by  observing,  that  the  nature  of  the 
projected  works  in  Trafalgar  Square  not  having  come  under  their  con- 
sideration till  after  those  works  were  begun,  they  found  themselves  in 
a  position  less  advantageous  for  the  performance  of  the  task  which 
was  placed  in  their  hands,  than  had  the  field  of  inquiry  been  com- 
pletely disembarrassed.  They  endeavoured,  however,  to  free  their 
minds  from  all  extraneous  circumstances,  and  only  to  consider  what 
would  most  contribute  to  the  embellishment  of  that  part  of  the  town. 

They  felt,  that  under  the  terms  of  their  appointment,  all  that  was  to 
be  done  within  the  area  of  Trafalgar  Square  came  within  the  limits  of 
their  inquiry,  and  that  they  should  have  ill  discharged  their  duty  to 
the  House  and  to  the  public,  had  they  not  adverted  to  wdiatever  works 
were  designed  for  that  situation  ;  a  situation  which  is  indisputably 
one  of  the  noblest  in  the  metropolis ;  an  area  which  has  been  obtained 
at  a  great  cost,  and  the  final  decoration  of  which  must  have  so  large 
a  share  in  determining  the  character  of  that  conspicuous  part  of  the 
capital. 

Your  Committee  will  begin  with  adverting  to  the  plan  for  laying 
out  the  area  itself.  They  find  that,  so  long  as  1837,  a  plan  for  laying 
out  Trafalgar  Square  was  submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  Lords  of 
the  Treasury  ;  but,  for  reasons  which  do  not  appear,  was  never  begun. 
In  the  course  of  April,  1840,  the  plans  supplied  by  jSIr.  Barry,  for  the 
same  object,  were  approved  by  the  Woods  and  Forests,  and  are  now 
in  progress.  The  estimate  for  these  works  amounts  to  £11,000,  inde- 
pendent of  the  pavement  of  the  square,  and  of  certain  ornaments  of 
bronze,  which,  in  the  judgment  of  Mr.  Barry,  are  desirable.  The  chief 
features  of  Mr.  Barry's  plan  are,  the  levelling  of  the  area  from  front  to 
back,  and  the  construction  of  a  terrace  15  feet  high,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  street,  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery.  The  etfect  of  this  ter- 
race will  be  greatly  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the  National  Gal- 
lery, by  giving  it  the  elevation,  for  the  want  of  which  it  has  been 
chiefly  censured.  Mr.  Barry,  on  being  questioned  by  your  Committee, 
gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  appearance  of  the  National  Gallery- 
might  be  further  improved,  by  continuing  the  order  of  pilasters 
through  the  whole  length  of  the  front,  and  relieving  the  baldness  of 
the  cupola,  by  encircling  itw'ith  pillars,  and  giving  it  a  bolder  cornice; 
which  additions,  he  is  of  opinion,  the  existing  walls  would  be  capable 
of  supporting. 

Your  Committee  having  satisfied  themselves  that  Mr.  Barry's 
plan  for  laying  out  the  ground  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery  was, 
under  all  the  circumstances  of  fhe  case,  well  adapted  to  reconcile  the 
various  ditliculties  of  the  spot  and  attain  the  desired  end,  proceeded 
to  inquire  what  effect  the  column  which  is  about  to  be  raised  by  the 
Nelson  Committee  in  the  centre  of  the  south  side  of  the  square,  would 
have  upon  the  National  Gallery  ;  how  far  a  column  of  such  dimensions 
would  be  seen  to  advantage  in  such  a  position  ;  and  how  far  it  would 
contribute  to  the  embellishment  of  that  part  of  the  metropolis.  In 
order  to  assist  their  judgment  on  this  important  point,  they  called 
before  them  several  architects  of  acknowledged  merit,  and  availed 
themselves  of  the  opinions  of  eminent  sculptors  and  men  of  taste. 
These  gentlemen  were  allowed  an  interval  of  two  or  three  days  to 
consider  the  subject  :  at  the  end  of  which  they  all  sent  in  their  opi- 
nions in  writing.  In  the  opinions  of  these  gentlemen,  as  might  be 
expected  in  a  matter  of  taste,  there  is  not  perfect  unanimity  ;  but  your 
Committee  feel  to  have  derived  great  advantage  from  having  con- 
sulted them,  and  by  carefully  weighing  their  opinions  and  examining 
the  principles  upon  which  these  opinions  are  based,  have  arrived  at 
conclusions  of  their  own. 

Your  Committee  are  of  opinion  that  such  a  column  so  situated 
would  have  an  injurious  eftect  upon  the  National  Gallery,  by  depress- 
sing  its  apparent  altitude,  and  interrupting  that  point  of  view  which 
should  be  least  interfered  with. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL^ 


305 


They  are  of  opinion  that  a  cohimn  of  such  dimensions  ^\ill  render 
the  surrounding  buildings  less  important,  and,  so  situated,  will  not 
group  well  with  anything  in  its  neighbourhood. 

They  are  of  opinion  that,  as  approached  from  Whitehall,  as  seen  at 
the  termination  of  this  grand  avenue,  which  forms  one  of  the  principal 
entrances  of  the  metropolis,  the  appearance  of  the  National  Gallery 
will  be  much  injured  by  the  column.  In  this  point  of  view  the  column 
will  cut  the  National  Gallery  through  the  centre,  and  the  pedestal  of 
the  column  alone  will  nearly  conceal  both  the  portico  and  the  cupola. 

They  are  of  opinion  that  the  site  selected  is  not  a  favourable  position 
for  the  column  itself. 

There  is  another  point  to  which  your  Committee  will  advert,  which 
is,  that  the  statue  of  King  Charles  is  not  in  a  line  with  the  column; 
nor  could  this  defect,  from  tlie  proximity  of  the  two  objects,  fail  to 
catch  the  eye.  So  long  as  there  is  no  column  in  the  proposed  situ- 
ation, the  statue  of  King  Charles,  where  it  now  stands,  is  a  fortunate 
circumstance,  offering  a  subordinate  object  in  front  of  the  National 
Gallery,  which  serves  as  a  scale,  without  obstructing  the  view. 

Your  Committee,  entertaining  these  opinions,  are  unable  to  avoid 
arriving  at  the  conclusion,  that  it  is  undesirable  that  the  Nelson 
Column  should  be  placed  in  the  situation  which  is  at  present  selected. 
If  it  is  desirable  in  a  great  city  to  suggest  the  idea  of  space,  and  hav- 
ing once  obtained  space,  not  to  block  it  up  again — if  the  general  archi- 
tectural effect  of  Trafalgar  Square,  or  of  the  buildings  around  it,  is  to 
be  at  all  considered — or  if,  at  any  time,  an  equally  conspicuous  position 
should  be  desired  for  any  other  monument — the  situation  at  present 
selected  for  the  Nelson  Monument  is  most  unfortunate. 

Your  Committee  having  arrived  at  this  decision,  proceeded  to 
inquire  at  what  cost  a  change  of  plan  in  the  jjosition  of  Nelson's 
Column  could  now  be  effected,  and  how  far  it  would  be  consistent  with 
good  faith  now  to  interdict  the  Nelson  Committee  from  prosecuting 
their  work  in  the  situation  in  which  it  is  commenced. 

What  has  actually  been  done  towards  the  erection  of  the  Nelson 
Column  is  no  more  than  the  excavation  for  the  foundation,  and  pouring 
in  the  concrete  which  is  to  form  a  bed  for  the  masonry,  the  expense  of 
which,  in  Mr.  Barry's  opinion,  would  be  more  than  covered  by  1,000/. 
Contracts,  however,  have  been  entered  into  by  the  Nelson  Committee, 
a  failure  to  complete  which  would  subject  them  to  actions  at  law.  It 
is  not,  however,  probable  that,  if  the  same  work  were  entrusted  to  the 
same  persons  in  another  situation,  such  actions  would  be  instituted. 
The  pecuniary  loss,  therefore,  w'ould  not  of  itself  entail  so  great  a 
sacrifice  as  to  preclude  the  idea  of  even  now  adopting  a  preferable 
course. 

"But  it  appears  by  the  Treasury  Letter,  bearing  date  27  January, 
1S40,  that  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  have  authorized  the  Commissioners 
of  the  Woods  and  Forests  to  deliver  over  the  site  appropriated  for 
the  Nelson  Monument  to  the  Committee  for  carrying  that  object  into 
effect;  and  according  to  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Scott,  it  appears  that  the 
Architect  has  taken  possession  of  the  site,  and  has  commenced  the 
concrete  and  brickwork  of  the  foundation,  in  which  considerable  pro- 
gress has  been  made,  and  on  the  completion  of  which  the  Nelson  Com- 
mittee are  bound  to  pay  the  contractors  the  sum  of  2,0001'." 

Your  Committee  cannot  doubt  that  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  in 
authorizing  the  Commissioners  of  Woods  and  Forests  to  give  that  site 
to  the  Nelson  Committee  for  the  erection  of  the  proposed  column, 
entertained  the  fullest  confidence  that  funds  would  be  provided  for 
carrying  out  the  work  in  conformity  to  the  plans  and  drawings  which 
had  been  seen  and  approved ;  and  they  feel  they  should  be  wanting  in 
their  duty  if  they  failed  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  House  to  the 
fact  that,  according  to  the  evidence,  the  subscription  is  at  present  de- 
ficient for  the  purpose,  to  the  amount  of  some  tho\isand  pounds.  Mr. 
Railton  informed  the  Committee  that  his  estimate  of  the  column 
amounts  to  £28,000,  whilst  the  sura  subscribed  does  not  exceed 
£18,000,  nor  does  it  appear  that  any  well-grounded  hope  exists  of  any 
considerable  addition. 

It  is  true  that  contractors  have  engaged  to  complete  the  pedestal 
and  the  column  for  £15,000,  and  the  metal  for  the  capital  is  expected 
to  be  supplied  by  the  Ordnance.  But  your  Committee  submit  that  a 
perishable  statue  of  Portland  stone  is  most  objectionable  ;  and  sup- 
posing the  terms  of  the  contracts  to  be  fulfilled  to  the  letter  (which  in 
works  of  such  a  magnitude  is  seldom  the  case),  the  remaining  £3,000 
is  wholly  inadequate  to  meet  the  expense  of  casting  the  capital,  of 
obtaining  such  a  statue  as  ought  to  crown  the  summit,  and  of  providing 
the  bronze  bas-reliefs  for  the  sides  of  the  pedestal,  and  the  lions  at  the 
corners  of  the  base.  Even  if  the  fund  should  prove  sufficient  to  com- 
plete the  masonry,  no  statue  can  be  raised  but  one  of  Portland  stone, 
and  the  column  without  its  bas-reliefs  will  remain  a  denuded  mass, 
which,  however  gigantic,  will  have  a  mean  effect. 

[The  foUo'.vingjs  an  analysis  of  the  examination  of  the  Witnesses.] 


IVilliam  Kaillon,  Esq..  was  c-\amuied,  he  stated  that  he  was  an  architect — 
that  his  plan  was  selected  for  the  Nelson  column.  The  height  of  the  column 
altoKether  is  now  170  feet,  including  the  steps  and  everything  ;  the  original 
height  was  203  feet ;  it  was  reihiceJ  about  two  months  after  tlie  last  compe- 
tition, by  order  of  the  government.  In  conseqvience  of  a  representation  which 
was  made  to  the  Government,  that  the  height  of  the  column,  e.sceedmg  that 
of  any  other  column  of  the  Corinthian  order,  which  had  ever  been  executed, 
would  expose  the  column  itself  in  that  position  to  risk;  the  Government 
thereupon  referred  the  consideration  of  the  possible  danger,  and  the  charac- 
ter of  its  capital,  to  .^ir  Robert  Smirke  and  Mr.  Walker,  the  President  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers. — It  was  reduced  altogedier  33  feet  in  height, 
both  from  the  shaft  and  the  pedestal.  So  as  again  to  put  the  whole  building 
of  the  column  into  just  architectural  jiroportions,  the  other  proportions  were 
diminished  altogether  ;  the  height  of  the  shaft  is  98  feet  six  inches;  the  pe- 
destal of  the  statue  12  feet  six  inches;  the  statue  16  feet ;  the  steps  seven 
feet,  and  the  pedestal  30  feet  six  inches  high.  The  breadth  of  the  square  part  of 
the  pedestal  is  17  feet.  The  amo\mt  of  his  estimate  was  £30,000.  It  will  be 
done  for  less  than  that.  He  did  not  consider  the  reduction  made  any  differ- 
ence, as  granite  is  to  be  used  instead  of  freestone,  which  is  of  course  very 
much  dearer;  the  alteration  has  been  no  pecuniary  benefit,  though  it  may 
increase  the  durability,  granite  being  stronger  than  freestone.  From  the  use 
of  granite  instead  of  freestone  it  mounted  up  to  28,000/.;  if  it  had  been  in 
freestone  it  might  have  been  203  feet  high  for  the  same  amount :  in  granite 
it  would,  of  course,  have  been  more  expensive  at  the  203  feet ;  it  is  to  be 
completed  in  two  years.  He  did  not  think  the  alteration  in  the  position  ren- 
ders any  other  alteration  necessary.  As  far  as  it  intercepts  the  view  of  the 
National  Gallery,  the  present  position  of  the  column  is  a  great  improvement. 
Where  it  was  be'fore,  it  was  no  detriment  to  the  National  Gallery  ;  the  Gal- 
lery is  a  very  long  line,  and  requires  to  be  broken  ;  therelore  it  brings  it  more 
into  keening.  The  position  of  the  column  is  now  settled  to  suit  Mr.  Barry's 
plan.  The  original  site  of  the  column  was  nearer  the  National  Gallery  than 
is  now  proposed.  He  considered  that  the  position  Government  has  selected 
for  the  column  is  as  advantageous  for  its  effect,  and  the  general  architectural 
effect  of  the  whole  site,  as  the  position  originally  selected.  He  would  have 
selected  it  himself,  but  at  that  time  the  ground  did  not  belong  to  Government. 
They  have  obtained  it  since.  Ha  is  better  satisfied  with  it,  as  it  is  at  pre- 
sent;  it  is  certainly  an  improvement  to  the  whole  square;  and  it  is  seen 
better  from  the  Strand  and  Cockspur-street,  and  from  different  places  than 
it  was  before.  He  considered  that  a  column  was  best  calculated  for  this. 
He  had  well  considered  many  other  designs,  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
a  column  was  best  suited  to  this  site,  as  it  obstructs  the  view  of  the  Gallery 
and  all  the  buildings  in  the  square  less  than  others  possibly  can  do,  and  by 
putting  it  in  the  ceutre.  you  have  a  better  view  of  the  National  Ciallery  from 
every  point  than  by  putting  it  in  a  different  situation  ;  he  did  not  think  any 
other  species  of  monument  would  so  little  interrupt  the  view  of  the  National 
Gallery.  The  height  to  the  top  of  the  dome  of  the  National  Gallery  is  about 
120  or  130  feet.  The  height  of  the  spire  of  St.  Martin's  Church  is  180  feet 
from  the  ground  ;  to  which  must  be  added  12feet  six  inchesfor  the  difference 
in  the  level,  making  192  feet  six  inches  ;  so  that  St.  Martin's  Church  is  con- 
.sideraldy  higher,  and  nearer  the  National  Gallerv  than  my  column  ;  and  if 
that  does  not  injure  it,  he  did  not  see  how  his  column  could.  Allowing  for 
the  difference  in  the  elevation  of  the  two,  the  difference  in  the  height  of  St. 
Martin's  Church  is  22  feet  six  inches  above  the  National  Gallery. 

Charles  Barry,  Esq.,  was  examined,  he  stated  that  he  was  employed  in  lay- 
ing out  the  ground  in  front  of  the  Nat'on-d  Gallery.  He  explained  to  the 
Committee  the  nature  of  his  design  for  laying  out  the  square.  The  area  is 
proposed  to  be  level ;  on  the  north  side,  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery,  a 
terrace  is  proposed  165  feet  long  and  32  feet  vide,  with  a  flight  of  steps  at 
each  end  to  the  area  below  the  same  width  (each  step  being  two  feet  wide 
and  five  inches  high),  with  ample  landings  in  the  circular  corners  of  the 
square.  The  terrace  is  proposed  to  have  at  each  end  two  large  oblong  pedes- 
tals for  groups  of  sculpture,  and  circular  pedestals  for  candelabra  are  pro- 
posed to  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  of  the  flights  of  steps,  as  w  ell  as  at  the 
angles  of  ihe  square  towards  Cockspur-street  and  the  Strand.  The  terrace 
and  flanking  w  alls  of  the  steps  are  proposed  to  be  suvmounted  by  a  balustrade. 
The  terrace  Vail  and  balustrade  will  be  14  feet  in  height.  The  embanl<ment 
or  retaining  walls  to  the  surrounding  streets  are  proposed  to  be  surmounted 
by  a  solid  parapet  tliree  feet  high.  The  front  or  south  side  of  the  square,  and 
the  north  side  of  the  terrace  towards  the  road  in  front  of  the  National  Gal- 
lery, are  proposed  to  be  enclosed  by  ornamental  stone  posts,  so  placed  as  to 
be  a  barrier  against  carriages  and  horses.  The  area  is  propossd  to  be  covered 
with  asphaltum.  The  terrace  to  be  paved  ;  and  the  whole  cif  the  masonry  in 
the  terrace  and  retaining  walls,  the  steps  and  landings,  the  pedestals,  balus- 
trades, and  lateral  parapets,  as  well  as  the  posts  on  the  south  side  of  the 
square  and  on  the  terrace,  are  proposed  to  be  wholly  of  Aberdeen  granite.  The 
enclosed  area  from  east  to  west  is  about  350  feet ;  from  north  to  south,  in- 
cluding the  terrace  on  the  north  side  which  is  32  feet  wide,  is  290  feet.  TTie 
area  between  the  building  from  east  to  west  is  about  500  feet  wide,  ami  from 
the  statue  at  Charing-cross  to  the  front  of  the  portico  of  the  National  Cial- 
lery.  the  length  is  about  470  feet.  From  the  proposed  column  to  the  front  of 
the  National  Ciallery  the  length  is  300  feet.  From  the  column  to  Cralg's- 
court,  the  length  is  400  feet.  Fri  m  the  column  to  Whitehall  chapel,  the 
length  is  1,180  feet.  From  the  column  to  the  angles  of  Cockspur-street  and 
the  Strand,  the  length  is  240  feet.  From  the  column  to  the  north-west  angle 
of  Northumberland  House,  the  length  is  180  feet ;  that  is,  as  regards  the 
dimensions  of  the  square  and  the  distance.  The  measurements  are  from  the 
shaft  of  the  column.  The  levels  of  the  square  below  the  road  in  front  of  tlie 
Gallery  are  as  follows  :  at  the  base  of  the  proposed  terrace  wall,  11  feet  ;  at 
the  proposed  column,  11  feet ;  at  Craig's-court,  25  feet ;  at  Whitehall  chapel, 
about  30  feet.  The  amount  of  his  estimate  is  11,000;.  ;  the  groups  of  sculp- 
ture and  candelabra  surmounting  the  pedestals  should  be  of  bronze.  The 
asphaltum  covering  of  the  S'juare,  the  pavement  of  the  terrace,  and  the 
groups  of  sculptuie  on  the  pedestals,  form  no  part  of  the  estimate.  He  stated 
fo  the  Committee  the  effect  of  the  proposed  column  upon  the  National  Gal- 
lery, when  viewed  from  Craig's-court  and  Whitehall.    When  viewed  from 


306 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Sept 


EMBER, 


Craig's-coiirl,  tlie  slyloliate  will  conceal  the  entire  centre,  extemling  to  the 
columns  in  front  of  the  gateways  in  breadth,  anil  nearly  the  whole  height  of 
the  podium  ;  the  bottom  step  of  the  pedestal  will  conceal  r.ither  more  than 
the  mil  width  of  the  portico  in  breadth,  and  up  to  two  feet  from  the  bottom 
of  the  column  in  height ;  the  top  ste)i  will  conceal  rather  less  than  the  width 
of  tlie  portico  in  breadth,  and  up  to  eight  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  columns 
in  height;  the  die  of  the  pedestal  will  conceal  one  half  of  the  portico  in 
breadth,  and  up  to  within  three  feet  of  the  springing  of  the  dome  in  height. 
V'hen  viewed  from  M'h  tehall  Chapel,  the  stylobate  will  conceal  the  whole  of 
the  portico  and  the  projections  on  each  side  in  breadth,  and  one  half  of  the 
podium  in  height ;  the  oottom  step  will  conceal  three-fuitrths  of  the  portico 
in  breadth,  and  five-sixths  of  the  podium  in  height ;  the  top  stop  will  conceal 
live-eighths  of  the  portico  in  breadth,  and  up  to  two  feet  from  the  bottom  of 
the  columns  in  height ;  the  die  of  the  pedestal  w  ill  conceal  one-third  of  the 
portico  in  breadth,  and  to  the  toji  of  the  order  in  height ;  the  shaft  will  con- 
ceal une-fourth  of  the  portico  in  breadth,  and  the  whole  height  of  the  build- 
ing.— Mr.  Barry  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  the  area  of  Trafalgar-square  was 
too  small  and  cuiifincd  for  a  column  of  the  height  and  magnitude  proposed  : 
the  effect  of  it  would  be  to  reduce  the  apparent  size  of  the  square,  and  render 
the  surrounding  buildings  insignificant.  The  National  Gallery,  being  .small 
in  its  parts,  and  low  in  elevation,  will  suffer  materially  in  this  respect,  more 
especially  w  hen  view  ed  from  ^^■hitehall  and  Charing-cross.  «  here  the  pedes- 
tal steps  and  stylobate, forming  the  base  of  the  proposed  column,  will  conceal 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  portico,  which  is  the  most  effective  part  of  the 
huilding.  The  irregularity  in  the  form  of  the  area,  the  variation  in  the  levels 
of  the  surrounding  streets,  and  the  direction  of  the  several  lines  of  approach, 
are  not  calculated  to  afford  a  favourable  view  of  the  column,  except  from 
Charing-cross  and  Whitehall,  «heie,  as  he  has  before  stated,  it  will  have  an 
injurious  effect  upon  the  National  Gallery,  whilst  the  Gallery  will  form  an 
unfavourable  bacKgi-ound  for  the  column."  From  all  other  points  of  vieH',  the 
unsymmetrical  position  of  the  column,  in  respect  of  the  surrounding  objects, 
will  be  striking  and  unsatisfactory.  The  views  of  the  proposed  column  from 
the  ends  of  Duncannon-street  and  Pall  Mall  East,  as  w  ell  as  from  the  road  in 
front  of  the  Gallery,  «ould  be  unfavourable,  in  consequence  of  the  points  of 
sight  being  from  11  to  14  feet  above  the  base  of  the  stylobate  on  which  the 
column  rests.  Fi  r  these  reasons,  he  was  of  opinion  that  the  column  will  be 
improperly  jilaced  in  Trafalgar-square.— fn  the  event  of  the  removal  of  the 
column,  he  should  not  wish  to  make  any  change  in  the  general  principles  of 
it;  it  would  in  his  opinion  be  desiuable  thatUie  area  shouhl  be  left  wholly 
free  from  all  insulated  objects  of  art.  which  in  consequence  of  the  irregular 
form  of  the  square,  and  its  level  with  reference  to  the  higher  and  variable 
levels  of  the  streets  which  surround  it  on  three  sides,  would  be  unfavourably 
seen  fiom  many  points  of  view.  The  four  pedestals  at  the  top  of  the  flights 
of  steps  from  the  terrace  might  be  surmounted  by  groups  of  sculpture,  say 
cf  a  man  and  horse,  exhibiting  the  characteristic  varieties  of  the  human  anil 
brute  fonn  ot  each  quarter  of  the  globe  :  in  the  centre  of  the  terrace-Hall 
might  be  a  fountain,  composed  of  sea-horses,  naiads,  and  tritons.  surmounted 
by  a  semi-colossal  figure  of  Neptune,  which  for  the  sake  of  the  composition, 
and  obtaining  an  effective  view  of  it  both  from  the  square  and  the  ten-ace, 
might  be  placed  above  the  level  of  the  balustrade.  The  four  circular  pedes- 
tals, t«o  of  »hich  are  proposed  to  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  flight  of  steps 
from  the  terrace,  and  the  others  at  the  angles  of  the  square  towards  Cock- 
spur-street  and  the  Strand,  might  be  surmounted  by  candelabra,  supported 
by  groups  of  figures,  and  containing  eachaBude  or  Drummond  light,  from 
»  hich  the  entire  square  should  be  illumined  by  night.  Thus,  an  opportunity 
would  be  afforded  of  giving  .scope  and  encouragement  to  sculptural  art  of  a 
high  class,  and  of  giving  that  distinctive  and  artistic  character  to  the  square, 
which  is  so  much  needed  in  the  public  areas  and  .squares  of  London,  to  excite 
amongst  all  classes  that  respect  and  admiration  for  art,  so  essentially  neces- 
sary to  the  formation  of  a  pure  and  well-grounded  national  taste. — In  answer 
to  a  question  put  to  him  by  the  Committee,  if  he  could  suggest  any  other  place 
for  the  Nelson  monument  ?  Mr.  Barry  stated  that  the  centre  of  St.  James"s- 
square.  if  a  central  street  were  made  into  it  from  Pall  Mall,  would  perhaps  be 
eligible,  or  the  Crescent  at  the  top  of  Portland-place,  or  such  a  situation  as 
the  Circus  between  Oxford-street  and  Regent-street ;  or  out  of  London,  per- 
haps the  best  and  most  appropriate  site  would  be  in  conjunction  with  Green- 
wich-hospital.—Mr.  Barry  gave  the  dimensions  of  the  streets  which  would 
be  left  on  either  side  of  the  area.  Seventy-five  feet  would  be  the  average 
width  on  the  east  side.  The  thoroughfare  on  the  side  of  the  Union  Club  and 
Morley's  Hotel  will  be  nearly  the  same  as  on  the  north,  opposite  the  Gallery. 
On  the  north  side  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery  the  width  will  be  about  80 
feet,  w  hich  is  the  width,  not  of  the  pavement,  but  of  the  thoroughfare  for 
carriages  ;  the  widtli  of  the  street  in  the  three  cases  as  regards  the  thorough- 
fare for  carriages,  exclusive  of  the  foot  pavement.  50  feet  in  front  of  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  ;  52  feet  is  the  average  width  of  the  road  on  the  east  side  of 
the  square,  and  the  width  of  the  road  for  carriages  on  the  nest  side  is  40 feet. 
— There  is  a  difference  of  several  feet  in  the  level  of  the  general  range  of  the 
ground  line  of  the  National  Gallery,  of  three  or  four  feet  at  least ;  the  ground 
IS  highest  near  St.  Martin's  Church.  It  rather  falls  towards  Pall  Mall  East. 
He  liad  attended  to  the  extreme  difference  of  those  two  levels,  and  met  that 
tlifficu'ty  by  lowering  the  end  of  Duncannon-street,  and  raising  the  street  at 
Pall  Mall  East,  and  making  a  variable  hanging  level  in  the  road  in  front  of 
the  National  Gallery.  By  accommodating  tlie  fall  of  the  road  in  the  front  of 
the  National  Gallery  to  the  terrace,  he  makes  it  more  in  one  place  than  the 
other,  so  as  not  to  create  an  unpleasant  effect  to  the  eye ;  the  balustrade  is 
perfectly  level,  parallel  to  the  foot  of  the  National  Gallery,  and  on  the  same 
plane.  The  plan  has  been  sanctioned  by  Government,  and  the  estimate  is  before 
Parliament  for  its  completion  as  to  the  terrace.  He  had  no  doubt  that  by  the 
introduction  of  the  terrace,  the  effect  of  the  National  Gallery,  as  a  buililing, 
would  be  improved.  His  object  is  to  give  an  increased  apparent  height  to  the 
Gallery.  He  had  no  doubt  that  the  erection  of  so  high  a  column  would  have 
the  effect  of  malsing  more  prominent  the  defects  of  the  National  Galleiy.  He 
was  of  opinion  that  the  appearance  of  the  National  Gallery  might  be  further 
improved  ;  he  explained  to  the  Committee  in  what  »  a)-  it  might  be  done.  He 
considered  that  a  continuation  of  the  order  of  columns  or  pilasters  tlu'OUgh 


the  \i  hole  length  of  the  front  would  be  one  means  of  improvement,  and  by 
raising  the  dome  and  altering  the  design  of  it,  Wtuld  be  another  means  of 
improving  it.  He  was  not  prepared  to  say  that  the  existing  walls  were  strong 
enough  :  he  had  very  little  doubt  they  would,  for  the  walls  that  carry  the 
present  mass  would  probably  carry  much  more. — The  cupola  could  be  encir- 
cled with  pillars  ;  he  would  recommend  a  bolder  cornice,  and  an  increased 
height  of  the  parapet,  so  as  to  conceal  the  lanterns  which  now  just  appear; 
he  thought  the  walls  probably  would  bear  that.  He  was  not  prepared  to  state 
the  cost  of  such  an  alteration.  He  had  not  considered  the  effect  of  removing 
the  columns.  He  could  not  say  that  the  proposed  alterations  would  have  the 
effect  of  completely  curing  the  existing  defects  of  the  National  Gallery.  The  . 
great  defect  is  its  lowness ;  this  would' in  part  be  obviated  by  rais  ng  the  cen- ' 
tre.  and  giving  more  elevation  to  the  dome,  but  it  would  not  make  the  entire 
mass  appear  high  enough  for  effect.  The  original  defect  would  in  part  be  re- 
medied, but  it  would  still  bejthere.  He  could  not  then  form  a  rough  estimate 
of  the  cost  of  executing  some  such  plan  as  that,  and  of  pulling  down  the  ma- 
terials and  rebuilding  it ;  the  difference  would  be  considerable  ;  it  would  be 
cheaper. — The  defects  such  as  they  are,  of  the  National  Gallery,  as  it  now 
is,  or  even  if  the  National  Gallery  is  altered,  would  be  more  prominently 
brought  forth  by  the  erection  of  a  column  of  that  altitude  in  its  front.  In 
either  case  it  would  operate  disadvantagenusly  to  the  building.  He  did  not 
consider  that  it  would  be  worth  while  to  do  anything  for  the  improvement  of 
the  National  Gallery,  if  the  column  is  to  be  placed  in  front  of  it. — In  answer 
to  the  following  question,  do  you  think  if  it  were  thought  desirable  a  trophy 
to  ^\'ellington  and  to  Nelson  should  be  erected  in  that  area,  that  they  could, 
be  so  contrived  as  to  contribute  to  the  embellishment  of  that  whole  scene  ? — 
'■  Mr.  Barry  said,  I  think  they  could  be  so  contrived,  but  I  do  not  think  it 
would  be  desirable.  I  think  the  area  is  not  large  enough  for  tivo  monuments 
of  a  proper  size  for  effect.  And  there  is  this  objection,  that  the  levels  of  the 
surrounding  streets  being  higher  than  the  level  of  the  square,  you  would  look 
at  any  monuments  placed  on  the  level  of  the  square  to  a  disadvantage." 
'•  Not  if  they  were  erected  in  bronze,  w  ould  you  ?" — "  It  w  ould  depend  on  the 
nature  of  the  monument ;  it  might  be  lifted  up  by  a  rough  basement ;  but  I 
would  rather  that  the  area  should  be  free."  "  Do  you  not  consider  it  would 
be  a  glorious  thing  for  the  nation  to  hand  down  to  posterity  the  two  great 
men  of  both  services,  land  and  sea,  on  the  same  spot,  and  whom  England 
had  produced  in  the  same  war,  and  at  the  same  time?" — '■  Most  desirable," 
"  But  the  spot  you  would  select  would  not  be  the  area  in  Trafalgar-square?" 
— '•  I  think  not." 

Aiistfi'rs  to  Questions  proposed  to  the  U'itnesses  bi/  the  Committee,  to  leinch  tltei/ 
were  requested  to/arnish  Answers, 

QuESTio.N  I. — What  eff'ect.  in  your  opinion,  will  a  column,  of  which  the 
|)edestal  including  the  steps  is  43  feet  high,  and  the  height  altogether 
170,  have  upon  the  National  Gallery  ? 

Ansteer  by  Ediranl  Blare.  Esq. — An  object  of  the  magnitude  of  the  column 
in  question,  (hat  is.  including  the  plinth.  170  feet  high,  and  occupying  so 
prominent  a  position,  whether  considered  as  an  ornamental  object  or  not.  will 
form  by  far  the  principal  feature  in  any  point  of  view  in  which  it  may  be 
considered,  and  the  National  Gallery  and  the  surrounding  buildings  will  only 
have  the  eHi?ct  of  back  grounds  or  accessories  to  this  principal  feature. 

Deeimus  Burton,  Esq. — The  column  will  apparently  diminish  the  size  of  the 
Gallery. 

Sir  Francis  Ctiantreij. — Although  I  have  attentively  examined  Mr. Railton's 
very  beautiful  perspective  drawing,  and  Mr.  Barry's  plans,  yet.  in  the  ab- 
sence of  a  geometrical  drawing;,  or  a  model,  showing  the  relative  height  of 
the  column  with  the  adjacent  buildings,  they  do  not  convey  so  clear  a  con- 
ception to  my  mind  as  enab'es  me  to  give  a  decided  opinion;  perhaps  to  the 
more  practised  understanding  of  an  architect  they  may  be  sufficiently  intelli- 
gible ;  I  cannot,  how  ever,  believe  that  a  column,  or  other  ornamental  object, 
placed  where  this  is  intended  to  be,  can  injure  the  present  appearance  ot  the 
National  Gallery,  except  so  far  as  it  may  interrupt  the  view,  and  perhaps 
tend  to  lower  its  apparent  altitude. 

T.L.  Donaldson,  Esq. — It  n  ill  render  the  inadequacy  of  the  National  Gallery 
for  the  important  position  which  it  occupies  still  more  apparent :  the  want  of 
altitude  in  the  National  Gillery,  the  littleness  of  all  the  features,  the  number 
of  parts  into  which  the  elevation  is  divided,  are  so  many  circumstances  w  hicli 
give  an  insignificance  to  the  building.  If  any  other  ornamental  erections  are 
to  be  placed  in  Trafalgar-square,  anil  restricted  to  being  subordinate  in  scale 
to  the  National  Gallery,  the  area  will  consist  of  a  vast  space  occupied  by  in- 
significant obiects.  The  only  way  to  restore  to  it  that  importance  which  it 
deserves,  and  which  it  has  lost  through  the  National  Gallery,  is  to  place 
within  it  a  lofty  towering  edifice,  to  which  all  the  buildings  ar.iund  will  be 
subordinate,  and  form  the  background.  1  conceive,  therefore,  the  size  of  the 
proposed  column  to  be  no  objection. 

Joseph  Gwilt,  Esq. — A  column,  whose  pedestal  is  to  rise  to  the  height  of  43 
feet,  of  proportionable  width,  will,  in  every  view  from  the  south,  have  the 
effect  of^  destroying  whatever  unity  of  design  the  National  Gallery  possesses, 
by  cutting  it  into  two  parts,  equal  or  unequal,  as  the  place  of  the  spectator 
may  be  varied.  This,  of  course,  can  only  take  place  in  the  view  from  the 
south.  As  respects  its  grouping  with  the  Gallery  and  other  buildings  about 
it,  as  seen  from  the  eastern  and  western  sides,  I  do  not  think  it  possible  that 
it  can  in  any  position  be  seen  advantageously  in  connexion  with  them.  This 
opinion  is  founded  on  a  survey  of  the  spot  itself,  with  the  proposed  pedestal  and 
steps  set  out  by  the  eye  ;  but  as  the  matter  is  reducible  to  strict  mathematical 
reasoning  on  a  plan  and  section  of  the  ground  and  levels  of  the  neighbour- 
hood, it  may  be  tested  by  such  means  to  positive  proof,  by  drawing  lines, 
touching  the  boundaries  of  the  pedestal  from  every  point  of  view,  and  con- 
tiiniing  them  to  intersect  the  fafade  of  the  National  Gallery,  by  which  will 
be  seen  the  portions  of  it  intercepted.  The  portico,  the  best  part  of  the  build- 
ing in  question,  will  thus  be  found  to  suffer  much  more  than  the  subordinate 
parts. 

Philip  Hardwick,  Esq.— I  am  of  opinion  that  a  column  of  which  the  pedes- 
tal including  the  steps  is  43  feet  high,   and  the  height  altogether  170  feet 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


.307 


placed,  as  it  is  proposed  to  lie.  in  front  of  the  National  Gallery,  and  in  aline 
with  the  centre  of  the  portico,  must  in  certain  points  of  view,  on  approaching 
it  from  the  south,  conceal  so  much  of  it,  that  its  efiect  cannot  he  favourable 
on  that  Ijuikling. 

Sidney  Smirke,  Esq.— I  think  that  the  column  and  its  pedestal  will  have  the 
eft'ect  of  detracting,  in  some  degTee,  from  the  importance  of  the  National 
Gallery  as  an  architectural  object. 

Sir  R,  ll'estmacotl. — I  am  of  opinion  that  a  column,  of  which  the  pedestal 
including  the  steps  is  43  feet  high,  and  17  feet  wide,  and  the  height  alto- 
gether 170  feet,  will  be  injurious  to  the  effect  of  the  National  Gallery. 

Question  II. — 'What  effect,  in  your  opinion,  will  the  said  column  have 
as  an  ornamental  object,  in  combination  with  the  surrounding  build- 
ings? 
Ethcaril  Blore,  Esq.— The  effect  of  the  column  considered  as  a  whole,  in 
combination  with  the  surrounding  buildings,  will  vary  very  much  according 
to  the  different  points  of  view  in  which  they  are  seen,  offering  with  every 
cliange  of  position,  some  new  combination  of  greater  or  less  merit. 
Decimns  Burton,  Esq.— To  render  those  buildings  less  important. 
Sir  Francis  Chantreij. — This  question  involves  all   (he  difficulties  contained 
in  the  first.    As  an  ornamental  object,  the  beauty  and  just  proportions  of  a 
Corinthian  column,  as  forming  part  of  a  building,  are  matters  settled  2,000 
years  ago  ;  what  its  effect  may  be  .standing  alone  must  depend  much  on  the 
base,  and  the  object  w  hich  crowns  the  summit.     An  injudicious  association  of 
modern  things  with  ancient  may  put  the  column  out  of  the  pale  of  classic 
beauty.    Of  the  statue  which  is  to  be  made  I  can  give  no  opinion,  but  if  it  be 
only  to  measure  17  feet,  its  bird-like  size  will  not  be  much  in  the  way,  and  if 
formed  of  Portland  stone,  will  not  be  long  in  the  way.    The  Trajan,  the 
Antonme,  and  the  Napoleon  columns,  are  the  only  monumental  objects  of 
tins  class  that  I  have  ever  looked  upon  «i'.h  entire  satisfaction:   I   read  the 
history  of  the  man  on  the  shaft  of  the  column,  and  the  mind  is  thus  recon- 
ciled to  see  the  statue  so  elevated.     I  may  be  told  we  have  not  money  enough 
for  a  work  of  this  character,  that  naval  e.\ploits  furnish  bad  materials  for 
sculpture,  or  that  the  arts  of  this  country  are  in  too  low  a  state  to  accom- 
plish so  noble  a  work  :  then  I  say.  abandon  the  impossibility   at  once,  and 
try  something  more  in  keeping  with  our  means  and  our  genius. 

T.  L.  Donrildson.  Esq.— An  advantageous  eflect :  as  the  judicious  design 
jirepared  by  Mr.  Barry  for  laying  out  the  area  will  mask  to  a  great  degree 
the  distortions  and  inequalities  in  the  levels,  and  the  irregularities  in  the  plan, 
and  render  them  inapparent  to  the  general  mass  of  people.  St.  Martin's 
church  is  already  of  such  a  scale,  and  so  peculiar  and  distinct  in  character, 
that  it  cannot  suffer  from  the  column.  The  masses  to  the  cast  and  west, 
although  imposing  in  style,  are  not  sufficiently  monumental  to  deserve  any 
sacrifice  being  made  to  them  ;  and  the  National  Gallery  is  so  insignificant  as 
to  require  some  other  object  to  redeem  the  opportunity  which  has  been  lost. 

Joseph  Gwilf,  Ei-q.—l  GO  not  think  the  proposed  column  will  combine  so  as 
to  group  well  with  any  of  the  surrounding  buildings,  and  least  of  all,  if  there 
be  any  difl'crence.  with  the  National  Gallery.  In  this  the  intention  seems  to 
have  been  to  preserve  a  strictly  Greek  style,  in  contradistinction  to  one  of 
Roman  or  of  Italian  character,  whereof  the  small  inclination  of  the  pediment 
seems  to  be  such  an  indication,  that  a  vertical  feature  (such  as  the  column 
w-ould  be)  rising  through  it,  I  think  likely  to  produce  even  a  ludicrous  effect. 
Viewed  with  the  group  of  buildings  on  the  east  side  of  Trafalgar  Square, 
(St.  Martin's  church  excepted)  I  do  not  think  any  bad  effect  would  be  pro- 
duced, because  I  do  not  consider  them  as  of  sufficient  architectural  import- 
ance to  weigh  in  the  matter  ;  but  w  ith  those  on  the  west  side,  and  also  of 
St.  Martins  portico  on  the  east,  and  to  the  south-east  with  a  building  of  great 
architectural  merit  and  consistency,  I  mean  Northumberland  House,  I  see  no 
lines  about  the  column  nor  its  appendages  which  make  it  desirable  to  choose 
such  a  site  for  it  as  that  in  question. 

Philip  Harilu'ick,  Esq. — Architectural  objects  well  designed,  and  of  good 
proportion,  almost  invariably  combine  well  with  surrounding  buildings,  and 
1  think  it  probable  that  such  will  be  the  effect  of  the  proposed  column. 

Sidne;/  Smirke,  Esq. — It  will  have  the  same  effect  upon  all  the  adjacent 
buildings  ;  but,  when  viewed  as  a  whole,  in  combination  w ith  the  surround- 
ing architecture,  including  the  intended  terrace,  &c.,  I  should  e.?pcct  that  a 
very  fine  architectural  scene  will  be  produced,  however  much  each  building 
composing  the  group  may  suffer  in  individual  importance. 

Sir  R.  Wesfmacott. — As  an  ornamental  object,  m  combination  with  the  sur- 
rounding buildings.  I  cannot  hesitate  in  saying,  that  I  think  the  effect  of  the 
column  itself  and  those  buildings,  from  the  absence  of  harmony  of  proportion 
with  each  other,  will  in  itself  be  bad  ;  and  considered  in  reference  to  those 
buildings,  by  reducing  their  scale,  and  more  especially  of  St.  Martin's  church, 
have  an  injurious  effect  on  those  edifices. 

Question  III. — What  effect  w  ill  the  column  have  on  the  National  Gal- 
lery, as  you  approach  it  from  Whitehall  ? 

Edward  Blore,  Esq. — As  regards  the  National  Gallery,  the  combination  as 
you  approach  it  from  Whitehall  will  be  one  of  the  least  favourable,  inasmuch 
as  the  column  in  this  point  of  view  will  cut  the  portico  and  dome  of  the  Na- 
tional Gallery  almost  tlirough  the  centre  ;  still,  however,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  the  National  Gallery,  from  the  superior  height  and  the  prominent 
position  of  the  column,  will  in  this  point  of  view  (pictorially  considered)  have 
only  the  effect  of  a  back-ground,  an  effect  which  will  be  more  obvious  from 
the  great  distance  interposed  between  the  two  objects,  and  the  aerial  tint 
which  the  more  remote  one  will  acquire  by  this  distance  ;  so  that  the  disad- 
vantage of  combination  will  be  very  much  mitigated  by  the  relative  distance 
of  the  objects,  and  the  atmospheric  modification  resulting  therefrom. 

Decimns  Burton,  Esq. — Its  pedestal  will  obscure  a  portion. 

Sir  Francis  Chmtrey. — 1  expect  that  when  the  column  and  the  National 
Gallery  are  seen  together  in  their  whole  extent  at  the  same  moment,  which 
will  be  the  case  when  viewed  between  Whitehall  and  Charing-cross,  that  the 
Gallery,  as  I  have  said  before,  may  suffer  somewhat  in  its  apparent  height ; 
but  I  do  not  regard  this  as  of  much  importance,  when  I  consider  that  Mr. 


Barry's  plan  of  sinking  the  base  line  10  or  12  feet,  must  improve  the  elevation 
of  the  National  Gallery  considerably. 

T.  L.  Donaldson.  Esq.— The  Gallery  will  then  form  a  subordinate  back- 
ground to  the  column ;  the  portico,  which  is  the  least  exceptionable  feature 
in  the  building,  will  be  intercepted  ;  the  cupola  over  the  centre  is  too  paltry 
in  scale  and  character  to  render  the  interposition  of  the  column,  when  seen 
from  Whitehall,  of  any  consequence. 

Joseph  Gwilt,  Esq. — This  is  answered  in  the  reply  to  Question  I,  and  it 
would  be  easy  to  show,  by  carrving  out  the  test  tliere  proposed,  that  what- 
ever importance  the  National  (5allery  possesses,  will  be  destroyed  by  placing 
the  column  on  the  spot  selected. 

Philip  Hardwick,  Esq. — The  answer  to  this  question  may  be  considered  as 
included  in  that  to  the  first,  as  it  is  in  the  approach  to  the  National  Gallery 
from  the  south  or  Whitehall,  tliat  the  effect  of  the  column  would  be  unfa- 
vourable to  that  building. 

Sidney  Smirke,  Esq. — From  the  more  distant  parts  of  Whitehall,  the  column 
will  be  the  most  conspicuous  object,  and  will  of  course  interfere  with  the 
present  view  of  the  National  Gallery  ;  and  wdien  the  spectator  advances,  say 
to  the  door  of  Messrs.  Drummonds'  bank,  I  apprehend  that  the  pedestal  of 
the  column  will  pretty  nearly  exclude  from  view  both  the  portico  and  dome 
of  that  building.  I  w'ould  suggest  the  erection  of  a  slight  boarded  scaffold, 
representing  three  sides  of  the  pedestal  and  base  ;  the  Committee  and  the 
public  would  then  see,  without  the  exercise  of  any  imagination,  the  actual 
effect  that  would  be  produced  by  that  the  more  bulky  part  of  the  monument. 
Sir  R.  Westmacolt.—It  would  have  the  effect  at  the  distance  of  ^\'hitehalI 
of  concealing  a  gi-eat  portion  of  the  portico  ;  and  on  a  nearer  approach  to 
Charing  Cross,  the  pedestal  of  the  column  being  seen  at  an  angle,  and  in- 
creased several  feet  in  width,  would  obstruct  the  view  of  two-thirds  of  the 
portico,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  west  wing  of  the  National  Gallery. 
Question  IV.— How  far  do  you  consider  that  position  a  favourable  po- 
sition for  the  column  itself? 
Edward  Blare,  Esq.— I  have  no  hesitation  in  stating  that,  in  my  opinion, 
the  position  is  peculiarly  favourable  for  a  lofty  object,  such  as  a  column  or 
olelisk,  provided  it  be  in  good  proportion,  and  designed  with  good  taste  ;  and 
that,  taking  into  consideration  all  the  circumstances  of  the  ground,  and  the 
surrounding  buildings,  that  no  substitute  could  be  found  for  such  a  form  to 
produce  an  equallv  good  effect. 

Decimns  Barton',  Esq. — For  the  column  itself,  a  very  favourable  position. 
.Sir  Francis  Chanlrey.—l  consider  this  position  to  be  the  most  favourable 
that  can  be  found  or  imagined  for  any  national  work  of  art ;  its  aspect  is 
nearly  south,  ai.d  sufficiently  open  on  all  sides  to  give  the  object  placed  on 
that  identical  spot  all  the  advantage  from  light  and  shade  that  can  be  de- 
sired ;  to  this  may  be  added  the  advantage  of  a  happy  combination  of  unob- 
trusive buildings  around  ;  but  to  conceive  a  national  monument  worthy  of 
this  magnificent  site  is  no  easy  task. 

T.  L.  Donaldson,  Esq.— One  of  tlie  finest  in  the  world.  The  best  possible 
position  for  a  lutty  monument  is  when  the  spectator  comes  upon  it  unex- 
pectedly, and  when  it  can  only  be  seen  from  a  short  distance  ;  Trafalgar 
Square  unites  in  an  eminent  degree  both  these  requisites.  To  those  ap- 
proaching from  the  Strand  and  Pall  Mall,  it  will  come  upon  them  by  sur- 
prise, and  the  column  will  present  itself  in  all  its  grandeur.  To  those  ap- 
proaching from  Westminster,  it  will  appear  majestically  on  a  rising  ground, 
with  the  contrast  of  the  low  National  Gallery  behind  it,  to  increase  its 
apparent  size  ;  both  which  circiunstances  will  give  it  dignity.  The  eye  can 
embrace  without  inconvenience  an  area  of  60  degrees  ;  but  it  is  no  objection 
to  the  dignity  of  an  object,  that  it  compels  an  efibrt  on  the  part  of  the  be- 
holder in  order  to  embrace  all  its  parts  ;  and  the  very  circumstance  of  those 
approaching  Trafalgar  Square  from  the  east  or  west  being  obliged  to  raise 
their  heads,  and  use  some  exertion  in  order  to  see  the  full  height  of  the 
column,  will  create  an  impression  of  dignity  upon  the  mind;  and  the  first 
emotion  which  a  monument  produces  upon  the  spectator  is  all-important. 
When  a  lofty  object  is  first  seen  from  far,  and  kept  in  view  up  to  the  moment 
that  the  beholder  gets  close  up  to  it,  the  impression  is  not  so  overpowering, 
however  small  may  be  the  other  objects  w^hich  may  surround  it,  as  when  it 
bursts  suddenly  upon  the  view  close  upon  him.  The  gradual  approach  to  it 
from  a  distance  begets  impatience  and  weariness  ;  the  impressions  of  gran- 
deur only  progressively  develop  themselves,  and  are  therefore  comparatively 
weaker.  The  ancients  well  understood  this  ;  their  temples  were  never  seen 
isolated  and  from  far  ;  they  were  always  surrounded  by  colonnades  and  en- 
closure walls.  The  column  of  Trajan  was  on  one  side  of  a  square  court  of 
small  dimensions,  probably  not  more  than  100  feet  square. 

[And  see  General  Observations  by  T.  L.  DonaHson.  tsq.] 
Joseph  Gwilt,  Esq.—\  do  not  think  the  position  fayoiirable  tor  any  columnar 
monument ;  because  when  such  a  form  is  selected,  it  is,  in  my  opinion,  de- 
sirable that  the  whole,  or  at  least  the  greatest  part  ot  the  outline,  if  it  be 
good,  should  be  distinguishable  or  marked  against  a  back  ground,  whose 
colour  and  quality  are  different  from  the  material  whereof  it  (the  column)  is 
composed.  1  would  instance,  in  illustration  of  my  meaning,  the  effect  of  the 
back  ground  of  trees  and  sky,  in  walking  down  Ke°ent-strcet  from  Picca- 
dilly, "on  the  Duke  of  York's  column  ;  and  in  Paris  that  of  the  column  in  the 
Place  Vendome,  in  walking  from  the  Boulevard  down  the  Rue  de  la  Paix 
towards  the  Tuileries  gardens,  the  folia.ge  of  w  hose  trees  and  sky  above  give 
peculiar  value  to  the  outhne  and  its  effect.  The  effect  of  the  majestic  ami 
beautiful  Column  of  London,  perhaps  the  finest  in  Jiurope,  would,  I  believe, 
be  vastly  improved  if  it  could  be  seen  in  a  long  street  or  centre  of  a  square, 
wdiereof  it  only  intercepted  the  portion  of  a  vista,  and  became  thus  suscep- 
tible of  having  its  form  thoroughly  developed,  instead  of  being  backed  on 
three  sides  by' mean  buildings,  w-hicli  confuse  its  forms,  and  tend  to  render 
them  mixed  and  indistinct,  except  under  broad  lights. 

Philip  Hardwick,  is}.— There  are  so  many  circumstances  in  favour  of  the 
position  selected,  that  I  am  of  opinion  it  is  altogether  an  ehgible  site  for  the 
column. 

Sidney  Smirke,  Esq. — I  think  that  the  situation  in  question  is  a  most  fa- 
vourable one  for  the  monument ;  if  no  site  for  it  be  adopted  but  one  wliere 


308 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT.S  JOURNAL. 


[September. 


it  would  not  aft'oct  tile  apparent  maRnltude  of  adjacent  buildings,  it  must  fi^ 
removed  to  the  middle  of  Hyde  Park  or  Regent's  Park,  where  it  would  h'' 
entirely  thrown  away.  I  would  not,  out  of  regard  for  the  surrounding  build- 
ings, be  afraid  of  the  height  of  this  monument  :  to  give  it  all  the  effect  of 
which  it  is  capable,  should  be,  I  think,  the  paramount  object  ;  and  witli  that 
view,  instead  of  dropping  it  down  to  a  ground  line  sunk  below  the  level  of 
the  terrace,  I  would  lift  it  uj)  on  to  a  terrace  levelled  out  from  the  portico  of 
tlie  Gallery  ;  ami,  may  I  venture  to  add.  I  would  have  selected  a  design  for 
this  ninnument  that  could  be  prudently  built  without  the  serious  curtailment 
of  its  dimensions  which  has  been  found  necessary. 

Sir  It.  Westmnrrtlt. — As  a  site  for  the  column  itself,  or  indeed  for  any 
nioniiment,  ("without  reference  to  objects  now  erected.)  the  po-ition  referred 
to  is  most  favouraljle. 

C,  R.  Cockerel!, Esq.B..A. — In  answer  lo  the  first  and  second  luestions  of  your 
Honourable  Committee,  on  the  proposed  column  in  Trafalgar  Square,  I  beg 
leave  to  oiler  as  my  opinion,  that  such  a  column,  on  a  pedestal  4.3  feet  liigh, 
the  whole  being  170  feet  high,  will  have  no  ill  effect  on  the  National  Gallery 
and  the  surrounding  buildings,  on  the  score  ot  its  scale  and  dimensions, 
viewed  from  the  north,  west,  and  east  sides  of  the  square,  because  I  believe 
that  the  juxtaposition  of  colossal  and  ordinary  proportions  has  been  prac- 
tised in  all  times  and  in  all  styles  of  architecture  with  success,  especially  by 
the  ancients,  who  observed  this  principle  more  strictly  than  the  moderns'; 
vitness  the  column  of  Trajan,  in  an  area  82  feet  by  62  feet ;  that  of  Anto- 
nine,  in  a  square  not  much  larger;  the  ivory  and  gold  colossal  statues  of 
Jupiter  and  of  Minerva,  which  occupied  the  entire  nave  of  their  temples. 
Again,  the  Tower  of  St.  Mark,  at  Venice.  42  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and  316 
feet  high,  in  a  square  5li2  by  1:32 ;  the  Column  of  London,  and  that  of  the 
Duke  of  York ;  none  of  which  can  be  said  to  deteriorate  from  the  architecture 
in  connexion  with  which  they  are  seen.  The  placing  such  colossal  objects  in 
extensive  areas,  as  in  the  front  or  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  Place  Louis  XV.,  at 
Paris,  at  St.  Petersburgh,  and  other  places,  is  wholly  a  modern  practice,  and 
a  rleparture  from  the  principle  of  eftect  on  w  hich  they  were  originally  founded 
l)y  the  ancients.  My  conclusion  therefore  is,  not  that  the  proposed  column 
is  too  large  for  the  site,  but  that  the  site  is  too  large  for  the  full  efieet  of  the 
proposed  column. 

With  reference  to  the  third  question  of  your  Honourable  Committee,  I  beg 
leave  to  suggest  that  the  principle  in  question  appears  to  apply  to  colossal 
objects  seen  rather  from  a  near  point  of  view  than  from  a  distant  one  ;  be- 
cause, in  the  first  case,  their  position  with  respect  to  the  objects  beyond  is 
altered  with  every  step  of  the  spectator,  and  the  contrast  and  combination  of 
their  ever  varying  forms  with  those  in  the  back  ground  may  be  advantageous 
to  both ;  but  in  tlie  latter  case,  where  the  gross  disproportion  is  viewed 
almost  geometrically,  is  unrelieved  by  detail  or  change  of  fonn.  and  fixed, 
during  an  approach  from  some  distance  in  a  straight  line,  the  interposition  of 
such  an  object  actually  exceeding  the  height  of  the  entire  building,  and 
growing  larger  in  the  advance  towards  it,  must  divide  and  disunite  the  whole 
composition  of  the  back  ground,  and  obstruct  the  view  of  the  central  feature 
by  its  bulk,  to  its  "^-eat  disadvantage. 

I  believe  it  will  be  found  the  constant  practice  of  the  best  architects  to 
consider  the  central  object  in  front  of  a  great  building,  as  a  scale  for  the 
appreciation  of  its  magnitude,  and  to  make  it  always  subordinate  to  the 
uninterrupted  view  of  its  principal  feature.  Thus  the  statue  of  Queen  Anne, 
before  St.  Paul's,  presents  an  admirable  centre  and  scale  to  the  whole  front, 
ivithout  in  any  degree  obstructing  its  view.  The  statue  of  King  Charles 
Tilays  the  same  part,  with  reference  to  the  National  Gallery,  from  M'hitehall 
Place,  and  the  contrast  is  greatly  to  its  advantage  in  approaching  from  Par- 
liament .-'treet.  The  proposed  column  would  supersede  that  well-proportioned 
centre,  and  present  a  succession  of  centres,  contrary  to  the  usual  architec- 
tural practice,  which  places  successive  objects  at  the  sides,  but  never  in  the 
cenUe  of  an  avenue,  especiallj-  when  such  centres  would  obstruct  the  view 
cf  a  fine  object  in  the  back  ground. 

In  answering  the  fourth  question  of  y(  ur  Honourable  Committee,  I  am  con- 
strained, for  the  above  reasons,  to  offer  my  liumble  opinion,  that  the  pro- 
posed position  for  the  column  is  not  favourable  to  it  with  reference  to  the 
whole  square,  nor  to  the  National  Gallery  as  seen  from  Whitehall.  And  in 
cliffering.  with  very  great  regret,  from  the  able  architect  who  has  suggested 
this  position,  and  the  distinguished  Committee  who  have  sanctioned  it,  I  feel 
myself  in  candour  bound,  w  ith  your  pennission,  to  oftijr  some  further  expla- 
nation, both  in  fulfilment  of  my'duty  towards  ynur  Honourable  Committee, 
and  the  great  public  object  you  have  in  view,  and  in  deference  to  those  gen- 
tlemen, since  my  judgment  may  have  been  biased  by  a  preconceived  view  of 
the  subject,  which  may  apologise  for  the  objection  wiiich  I  have  ventured  to 
express  in  reply  to  the  questions  of  your  Honourable  Committee. 

1  w  as  not  able  to  offer  the  result  of  my  reflections  on  this  great  national 
intention  in  the  general  competition,  but  deeming  the  square  too  large  to 
admit  of  a  central  column  with  that  effect  which  the  ancients  attained,  1  had 
always  conceived  that  the  proposed  memorial  of  a  naval  commander  should 
cecupy  one  side  of  the  square,  leaving  the  other  for  a  future  and  at  least 
equally  interesting  record  of  a  military  commander. 

T«o  Biidi  columns,  placed  ai,  the  dislauce  of  70  or  SO  feet  from  the  south 
angles  of  the  square  would  connect  its  somewhat  straggling  proportions, 
present  an  admirable  picture  in  emerging  from  Charing  Cross,  and  leave  the 
Gallery  open  ;  they  would  group  admirably  in  the  vicw^  from  the  .Strand  to 
Cockspur  Street,  they  would  conceal  the  defect  of  the  irclincd  roads,  accord- 
ing to  the  long  projected  terraces  now  forming,  and  their  coloss.al  proportions 
would  gain  gi-eatly  by  their  juxtaposition  to  the  buildings.  By  such  an 
arrangement  the  whole  area  would  be  left  open  for  all  those  monuments 
which  in  process  of  time  will,  we  hope,  increase  upon  us.  reproducing  that 
altis,  or  torum,  in  which  the  gratitude  of  the  country  may  be  e.xpressed  inall 
the  variety  of  design  suited  to  the  situation. 

It  will  he  remembered,  that  the  enthusiasm  of  the  country  placed  the  re- 
mains of  the  immortal  Nelson  in  the  centre  of  St.  Paul's,  as  if  no  future  hero 
could  deserve  such  a  position,  and  perhaps  a  much  greater  than  Nelson  will 
have  to  be  recorded  by  us;  if,  therefore,  the  centre  of  Trafalgar  Square  is 
now  to  le  occupied,  it  is  certain  that  no  other  equally  large  monument  can 


be  erected  there,  and  yet  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  elsewhere,  in  the  metro- 
polls,  a  site  equally  eligible  for  such  a  memorial. 

I  trust  these  observations  iu  explanation  of  mv  view  of  the  whole  subject, 
may  not  be  deemed  obtrusive  by  your  Honourable  Committee. 

jolni  Deering.  Esq. — I  think  the  proposed  Nelson  Monument  presents  that 
precise  character  ot  altitude  most  to  be  desired  at  the  particular  site  intended, 
whore  a  great  and  wide  street  of  entrance  necessarily  branches  oft  right  and 
left  into  a  principal  artery  of  the  metropolis,  and  w'here  the  idea  of  termi- 
nation is  the  impression  most  essential  to  be  avoided  :  for  we  must  recollect 
that  the  object  is  not  to  arrive  at  Trafalgar  Square  or  the  National  Gallery, 
it  is  to  convey  to  the  mind  of  the  stranger  the  true  and  peculiar  character  of 
our  capital,  its  endless  continuation. 

If  this  view  l)e  correct,  the  worst  object  would  be  a  plain  unbroken  mass, 
which  like  the  County  Fire  Office  to  its  site  (grasped  by  the  eye  at  once), 
conveys  the  idea  of  obstniction.  and  limits  consideration  to  its  own  preten- 
sions alone,  as  the  sole  object  of  the  whole  arrangement.  The  broken  line  of 
architecture  in  the  National  Gallery  obliges  the  eye  to  travel  along  its  length, 
but  the  proposed  form  completely  gets  over  the  difficulty,  presenting  a  mag- 
nificent object  in  the  vista  of  approach,  while  it  leaves  the  idea  of  space 
beyond,  and  suggests  the  idea  of  divergence,  without  obstruction,  w  here  that 
idea  is  most  essential. 

I  cannot  suppose  the  effect  would  be  unfavourable  upon  the  National  Gal- 
lery, for  although  that  building  could  be  no  longer  seen  in  its  whole  extent 
from  any  point  more  distant  than  the  column.  I  doubt  whether  its  broken 
character  of  outline  and  laboured  details,  as  well  as  snnllness  of  parts,  do 
not  require  that  it  should  not  be  seen,  as  a  whole,  beyond  the  distance  whence 
those  features  could  be  visible  at  the  same  time,  and  so  form  as  it  were  a 
p.art  of  the  design ;  but  on  the  whole.  I  think  it  equally  certain  that,  in  its 
magnitude,  this  monument,  in  reducing  to  comparative  insignificance,  not 
only  the  Gallery,  but  St.  Martin's  Churcli.  fits  pedestal  beng  nearly  as  large 
as  the  portico,  "and  the  whole  nearly  as  high  as  the  spire  of  that 'building.) 
will  not  also  be  a  monument  equally  unfavourable  to  the  memory  of  those 
who  spoilt  the  National  Gallery  inside  and  outside  for  the  assumed  sake  of  a 
building,  of  which  the  unimportance  will  be  thus  placed  in  its  true  light. 

But  notwithstanding,  we  must  not  forget  that  the  great  end  should  be  to 
adorn  the  metropolis,  and  not  to  persuade  the  unwilling  of  the  architectural 
beauty  of  Trafalgar-square,  or  any  particular  building  around  its  circuit. 

General  Ohserrations  by  T.  L.  Donaldson,  Esq. — The  opinions  I  have  given 
are  strictly  confined  to  the  questions  put  in  reference  to  the  column,  and  I 
therefore  do  not  offer  any  judgment  as  to  whether  any  other  arrangement  of 
Trafalgar-square  would  be  more  advantageous.  As  the  Nelson  column  must 
necessarily,  from  its  size,  be  the  most  important  feature  in  the  area,  it  is 
essential  that  it  should  form  a  central  object,  as  it  were,  to  w-liich  all  the  rest 
must  be  subordinate  and  merely  contribute.  .Size  alone  will  not  be  sufficient. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  decorative  embellishments  should  be  of  a  character 
consistent  therewith  :  a  denuded  mass  of  masonry,  however  gigantic,  will  have 
a  mean  effect,  and  bear  a  parsimonious  character  disgraceiid  to  the  nation 
The  examples  of  tlie  ancients  and  that  of  the  moderns  prove,  that  the  eiu-ich-' 
ments  of  sculpture,  and  a  due  decoration  in  the  subordinate  parts  are  essentia  1 
to  convey  all  those  impressions  which  it  is  necessary  to  produce  when  erecting 
a  monument  to  the  honour  of  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  a  great  country.  It 
is  to  be  hoped  that  the  erection  of  the  Nelson  column  may  not  become  an  in- 
stance of  miserable  national  parsimony  on  such  a  noble  occasion. 

Appendix. 
EsTiitATE  OF  Peoposed  Works,  Tr.a.falfaii-sqi:.\ee. 


19.214  cubic  yards  of  digging  and  carting  away  .  at  3.5. 
34.5  cubic  yards  of  concrete        ....     at  6j.  lOJ. 

71  rods  reduced  brickwork 12/.  Ifts. 

630  feet  run,  12  iu.  gun-barrel  drain  .  .  .  at  2s.  3rf. 
9,370  cubic  feet  of  Aberdeen  gTanite,  w  ith  a  fine  axed  face. 

joints  and  beds  included  .        ,        .        .        .at  6s. 

372  feet  superficial  extra  sunk  work  .  .  .at  Is.  lid. 
200  ditto  .  ditto  circular  ditto  .  .  .at  2*-. 
1.016  ditto  .  ditto  moulding  to  ditto  .  .  at  4,s. 
74  ditto      .      ditto     circular  ditto      .        .    at  5s.  6d. 

180  ditto  .  ditto  rock  face  .  .  .at  Is.  Gd. 
2,615  cubic  feet  of  Aberdeen  granite  steps  .  .  at  7s. 
Bosting  and  carving  16  blocks  in  four  principal 

pedestals at  4/. 

98  Aberdeen  granite  posts  complete,  including  fi.xing  at  6/.  10s. 
8  pedestals  in  balustrade  of  Aberdeen  granite,  comp.  at  4/. 
213  Aberdeen  granile  balusters  •  .  .  .  at  40s. 
6.062  cubic  feet  Irish  or  other  gi-anite,  with  a  fine 

axed  face,  beds  and  joints  included  .        .     at  5s.  6rf. 

4S7  vards  superficial  Roman  cement  .        .     at  2s.  3d. 

2  sink  stones     ........    alI40s. 

Cast-iron  work  to  cable  bars         ...         ... 

Coinmission.  Clerk  of  Works  and  Contingencies 

Total  £. 


£.      s. 

d. 

2,882    0 

0 

117  17 

6 

887  10 

0 

70  17 

6 

2,811     0 

0 

27  18 

0 

20    0 

0 

203     4 

0 

20    7 

0 

13  10 

0 

915    5 

0 

fit    0 

0 

637    0 

0 

32    0 

0 

426    0 

0 

1,667    1 

n 

54  15 

9 

4     0 

0 

220    0 

0 

720    0 

0 

11,794    3 

9 

.hne  1,  1840. 


(Signeil) 


C.  B.^KBV. 


Danish  Railwai/.— It  is  not  generallv  known  that  a  railway  from  Altona, 
two  miles  from  Hamburgh  to  Kiel,  in  the  Duchy  of  Holstem,  has  been  pro- 
jected, and  is  about  to  be  constructed,  under  the  auspices  of  the  King  of  Den- 
mark, with  a  view  of  effecting  a  communication  between  the  Norlh  Sea  and 
the  l!altic.  Mr.  George  Watson  Buck,  [engineer-in-chief  to  the  Manchester 
and  Birmingham  Railway  Company  has  been  selected  as  the  engineer  to  the 
undertaking. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


309 


A  NEW  PROCESS  FOR  MAKING  GAS  FOR  ILLUMINATIONS 
FROM  BITUMINOUS  SCHIST. 

The  utilization  of  bituminous  schist  is  a  subject  of  great  importance, 
as  promising  to  make  tliis  substance  profitable.  M.  Selligue  is  the 
inventor  of  the  process  for  distilling  this  mineral,  and  has  works  for 
the  purpose  on  a  large  scale.  His  mines  are  in  the  department  of 
Saone  and  Loire,  between  Autun  and  the  Central  Canal ;  his  three 
works  are  at  St.  Leger-du-Bois,  Canton  of  Epinal ;  Surmoulin,  near 
Autun,  and  Igernay,  Canton  of  Cardesse.  In  these  works  the  schist 
is  distilled  in  close  retorts,  they  leave  a  residuum  of  carbonaceous 
matter,  which  may  be  used  for  disinfection  or  discolouration,  but  not 
yet  made  serviceable.  The  volatile  products  are  oils  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  dirterent  carburets  of  hydrogen,  which  are  made  available 
for  profit.  A  great  quantity  of  intlammable  gases  are  also  disengaged 
during  the  distillation,  and  are  directed  into  the  furnace  and  used  as  a 
combustible. 

The  schists  of  Autun  are  very  variable  in  character,  but  all  are  re- 
jected which  afford  less  than  6  per  cent,  of  oil  on  distillation,  but  those 
now  used  average  10  per  cent.,  it  is  not  rare  however  to  find  as  much 
as  20  or  25  per  cent.,  some  were  as  much  as  half  their  weight  of 
oleaginous  products. 

The  composition  of  100  parts  of  liquid  bitumen  is  as  follows: 
Light  oil  of  variable  density  from  0-766  to  0.810, 

used  for  gas         .-..-.     35.57 
Oil  of  greater  density  susceptible  of  being  used 

in  lamps      .-.-•..     25-85 
Fattv  matter  containing  12  per  cent,  of  parajfine     12- 

Pitch  or  tar  17-28 

Residue 9-3 


100 


It  has  long  been  suspected  that  the  defiant  gases  derive  their 
illuminating  properties  from  the  oleaginous  vapours  which  accompany 
the  generally  slightly  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  which  always  forms 
the  base  of  these  gases.  M.  Pelletan  maintained  this  view  in  a  paper 
read  before  the  Academy  in  December  1816,  and  it  has  been  confirmed 
by  M.  Selligue.  It  has  been  on  the  other  hand  asserted  and  received 
as  certain  that  oxidated  carbonic  gas  is  always  injurious  in  illuminating 
gas,  and  that  it  diminishes  the  brilliancy  of  the  flame  by  lowering  its 
temperature,  on  account  of  the  low  degree  of  heat  developed  during 
its  combustion.  M.  Selligue  has  however  established  the  fallacy  of 
this  doctrine. 

M.  Selligue's  process  is  as  follows : — Three  tubes  or  retorts,  situated 
vertically  in  a  new  and  ingeniously  constructed  furnace,  are  heated 
red.  The  first  and  second  contains  charcoal,  and  as  fast  as  the  char- 
coal disappears  it  is  reolaced,  which  is  every  five  hoars.  This  carbon 
is  for  the  purpose  of  effecting  the  decomposition  of  the  water  intro- 
duced into  the  first  tube  in  a  continued  stream,  and  where  it  is  con- 
verted into  hydrogen  gas,  and  carbonic  acid,  and  oxide  of  carbon.  But 
as  the  production  of  carbonic  acid  is  to  be  avoided,  the  gases  produced 
by  the  first  tube  are  conducted  into  the  next,  where  they  are  exposed 
again  to  incandescent  charcoal,  by  which  means  the  carbonic  acid 
first  formed  is  converted  into  oxide  of  carbon.  The  furnace  is  so  ar- 
ranged that  this  tube  is  the  hottest  of  the  three,  so  as  to  favour  the 
total  decomposition  of  the  carbonic  acid. 

The  third  tube  is  fitted  with  iron  chains,  the  use  of  which  is  to  pre- 
sent a  large  incandescent  metallic  surface,  capable  of  distributing 
caloric  in  an  equal  and  rapid  manner  to  the  gases  or  vapours  passing 
through.  On  the  one  side  this  tube  receives  the  gases  produced  by 
the  decomposition  of  the  water  in  the  two  preceding  tubes,  and  in  the 
other  a  continued  stream  of  light  schislose  oil.  This  light  oil  is  de- 
composed into  new  products  still  more  volatile,  and  passes  with  the 
gas  into  a  refrigerator,  which  by  cooling  down  the  products  causes 
some  of  them  to  reappear.  The  schistose  oil  is  therefore  not  entirely 
gasified,  but  that  which  does  not  change  into  gaseous  matter  is  pre- 
served uninjured.  What  is  very  singular  is  that  the  links  of  the  chain 
in  tlie  tube  are  never  covered  with  any  carbonaceous  deposit.  Thus 
while  the  schistose  oil  is  evidently  decomposed  by  heat  during  this 
operation,  its  decomposition  is  modified  in  a  successful  manner  by  its 
diffusion  amid  a  large  volume  of  gas,  such  as  that  produced  from  the 
decomposition  of  water,  and  whicYi  serves  as  a  vehicle. 

From  the  third  tube  is  produced  hydrogen  and  oxide  of  carbon, 
produced  from  the  decomposition  of  the  water,  and  the  gases  or  va- 
pours from  the  decomposition  of  the  oil.  By  passing  into  the  appara- 
tus 20  gallons  of  vi'ater,  and  25  of  schistose  oil,  50,000  gallons  of  oil  fit 
for  illumination  are  produced  in  twenty  hours.  The  gas  so  produced 
requires  no  farther  purification,  having  passed  through  a  refrigerator 


where  are  deposited  the  nondecomposed  oil,  and  steam  from  the  water. 
From  the  refrigerator  the  gas  passes  into  the  gasometer. 

M.  Selligue's  process  and  apparatus  are  represented  as  being  so 
simple,  as  to  be  easily  used  in  factories  and  private  establishments,  while 
the  price  of  the  gas  so  produced  is  low  enough  to  be  employed  for 
lighting  the  streets.  It  has  been  proved  by  experiment  not  to  de- 
teriorate, but  to  improve  at  a  distance  from  the  gasometer;  at  five 
miles  distance  the  flame  was  purer  than  when  just  issuing  from  the 
gasometer.  When  cooled  down  to  13"  F.  below  zero,  its  illuminating 
power  was  not  sensibly  diminished.  The  gas  is  also  free  from  sul- 
phuretted compounds,  and  gives  no  unpleasant  smell.  The  odour  of 
coal  gas,  we  may  observe,  however,  is  attributed  by  some  chemists  to 
vapour  of  naptha,  and  not  to  sulphur  solely.  As  it  does  not  act  upon 
metallic  reflectors,  M.  Selligue  is  able  to  use  these  additions  with  great 
advantage,  so  much  indeed  that  with  a  parabolic  reflector  one  of  his 
burners  enables  a  middling  size  print  to  be  read  80  yards  off. 

M.  Selligue  has  set  up  gas  apparatus  at  the  Royal  Printing  House, 
and  the  BatignoUes  at  Paris  ;  at  Dijon,  and  other  cities,  all  of  which 
work  well. 

We  may  observe  that  this  process  is  on  similar  principles  to  that  of 
the  air  light,  in  which  air  was  decomposed  and  the  oxygen  burned 
with  oily  or  bituminous  matters,  and  in  this  case  water  is  decomposed 
and  the  hydrogen  similarly  combined. 


STONE  FOR  THE  NEW  HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

Sir — 1  wish  your  correspondent  in  No.  33  of  your  valuable  Journal  who 
stiles  himself  "  Amicus,"  had  done  that  which  he  started  to  do  in  tlie  first 
part  of  his  letter,  or  at  least  what  he  pretended  his  epistle  should  do,  and 
have  endeavoured  to  correct  the  many  "  inaccuracies  and  misstatements," 
which  have  already  appeared,  and  not  have  added  to  their  number  by  writing 
the  letter  under  notice,  which  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  perfect  puff,  to 
extol  his  fortunate  purchase  of  "  Mansfield  Woodhouse  Quarr)-,"  as  well  as 
his  other  "  White  Sandstone  Quarr)-,"  as  he  calls  it. 

It  is  very  true  and  well  known  that  Commissioners  were  appointed  by 
Government  to  select  the  best  material  the  united  kingdom  could  produce,  as 
to  durability ;  and  well  they  have  performed  their  task,  certainly.  In  the 
first  place  they  only  go  two-thirds  over  the  kingdom,  leaving  out  the  only 
part  that  could  yield  them  the  article  wanted,  such  an  article  as  is  to  be  found 
in  most  parts  of  Ireland,  for  it  is  well  known  tliat  that  country  abounds  with 
stone  of  an  nndecaying  nature  (as  for  instance  look  at  her  "  Round  Towers,") 
and  selected  a  material  not  half  so  good  as  that  which  could  have  been  pro- 
cured as  above,  and  from  a  quarry  too  according  to  their  own  showing,  that 
could  not  produce  the  necessary  quantity  or  blocks  of  sufficient  magnitude 
for  tlie  purpose  intended,  as  witness  the  Report  published  by  the  House  of 
Commons  (which  any  one  can  purchase  for  sixpence),  there  it  is  stated  the 
depth  of  workable  stone  to  be  only  "  12  feet,"  and  the  size  of  the  blocks  to 
be  no  more  then  from  "  8  inches  to  2  feet."  Now  how  can  such  slovenly 
conduct  be  tolerated,  but  this  is  not  all,  for  as  "  Amiens  "  shows,  they  were 
within  a  few  months  obUged  to  abandon  this  mighty  quarry  and  seek  a  new 
one,  in  the  newly  discovered  quarry  purchased  by  Air.  Lindley,  alias  Amicus, 
which  that  gentleman  states  to  be  of  a  quality  and  character  precisely  similar 
"  to  that  of  the  beds  on  the  Jloor,"  if  that  is  so,  and  we  have  no  reason  to 
say  otherwise,  then  the  stone  will  he  found  wanting  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Balsover,  in  not  possessing  blocks  of  the  size  required.  So  much  for 
"  Amicus,"  having  set  at  rest  the  "  inaccuracies  and  mis-statements,"  that 
have  gone  abroad.  But  before  I  have  done,  I  must  ask  him  a  question  or 
two,  which  no  doubt  he  will  be  enabled  to  answer,  which  will  show  how  the 
public  are  generally  imposed  on  in  jobs  of  this  nature,  lias  the  New  Mansfield 
Woodhouse  Quarr)'  been  enabled  to  supply  the  Works  yet,  with  either  quan- 
tity cr  quality  as  to  size  of  blocks,  or  will  it  ever  ?  If  it  has,  why  have  the 
said  works  been  so  nearly  at  a  stand  still  for  some  time,  and  why  has  the 
Steettey  Quarry  been  apphed  to  for  the  required  supply,  and  whether  that 
appUcation  has  not  been  answered  by  the  sending  of  great  quantities  to  West- 
minster to  carr)-  on  the  building  .'  And  lastly,  though  not  the  least  point  of 
the  business,  whether  this  said  stone  has  ever  been  tested  by  the  Commis- 
sioners aforesaid  .'  If  so,  I  can  find  no  report  thereof,  which  ought  to  have 
been  done,  the  public  having  a  right  to  expect  that  no  material  should  be 
stealthily  used  in  their  national  buildings  without  having  it  duly  tried  in  all 
possible  ways,  particularly  after  the  heavy  sum  that  has  been  paid  these  gen- 
tlemen to  protect  their  interest  and  fame. 

If  these  questions  are  well  and  truly  answered,  then  indeed  will  "  Amicus"' 
be  correcting  the  "  inaccuracies  and  mis-statements"  that  have  gone  abroad, 
and  be  rendering  the  public  infinite  service  by  showing  them  how  they  are 
generally  hoodwinked  in  snch  matters. 

I  cannot  conclude  this  letter  without  referring  him  and  your  readers  to  a 
most  excellent  article  in  the  same  number,  "  On  Limestone  in  Ireland,"  by 
W.  Bald,  F.R.S.E.,  &c.,  a  gentleman  of  the  very  first  rate  talent  and  ability, 
which  I  have  no  doubt  has  been  duly  seen  and  read  by  all  who  are  fortunate 
enough  to  take  in  your  valuable  journal,  but  should  it  have  escaped  the  eyes 
of  any,  I  can  only  say  it  will  well  repay  their  looking  back  to  and  reading  it 
mth  attention,  then  all  will  I  am  sure  hear  me  out  in  my  censure  of  the 

2  T 


310 


THE  CIA  IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[September, 


neglect,  nav  insult  that  lias  been  offered  to  Ireland ;  jiarticularly  as  to  the 
stone  that  lias  been  tendered  (at  least  so  I  have  seen  stated  in  several  of  the 
public  priiitt)  yratU  to  the  public. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  your's, 

A  Lovua  OF  Fair  Play. 

[We  always  view  with  sus]iicion  any  offer  that  is  made  gratis — ^it  is  fre- 
quently a  complete  delusion.  We  have  also  lieard  of  offers  being  made  by 
noblemen  and  gentlemen  to  supply  tlie  stone  for  the  New  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment f/rali'iloux!if.  btit  when  the  offers  were  sifted,  they  were  generally  found 
not  worth  accepting,  for  what  is  meant  by  the  word  i/ralis,  in  this  business, 
is  to  supply  the  stone  embedded  in  the  quarry,  which  may  be  generally  ob- 
tained at  any  new  quarry  upon  i)aying  a  royalty  of  Xa.  to  \s.  (jd.  per  ton,  or 
about  Irf.  per  foot  cube — this  royalty  forms  the  most  trifling  part  of  the  price 
of  stone — the  cost  is  made  up  by  the  heavy  and  tmavoidable  ctjiences  of 
quarrying,  getting,  carriage  to  the  water  side,  and  freightage.  Besides  it  is 
oft«n  found  that  the  stone  is  of  such  a  hard  quality  that  the  labour  upon 
working  it,  is  double  the  price  of  another  stone  which  fully  answers  the  pur- 
pose— for  instance  the  labour  upon  granite  in  working  it  in  gothic  mouldings 
is  treble  the  price  of  labour  on  Portland  stone,  and  the  same  with  other 
stones  and  marbles ;  which  « ould  render  the  cost  of  the  stone  work  of  a 
htiilding  when  worked,  nearly  double,  if  not  more ;  thus  instead  of  the  coun- 
try gaining  by  the  gift,  it  would  be  very  materially  the  loser — so  much  for 
gratit.  .\sto  the  injustice  to  Ireland,  the  Scotch  might  as  well  complain  of 
the  refusal  of  their  granite  which  was  offered  by  a  nobleman  to  be  supplied 
gratuitously  ;  but  when  it  was  explained  to  him  that  the  cost  of  the  stone 
when  worked  would  be  far  more  than  the  stone  which  is  being  supplied  for 
the  New  Houses,  he  immediately  acknowledged  that  his  offer  was  not  worth 
accepting. — Editor.] 


IMPROVTED  LAND  SURVEYING  CHAIN. 

Sir — Obsening  in  a  former  number  of  your  Journal  a  description  of  an 
improved  suneying  pole,  I  venture  to  trouble  you  with  an  account  of  what  I 
consider  an  improvement  w  hich  I  have  lately  made  in  the  chain,  namely,  having 
thellth, 21st, 31st, and4l8t  links  made  of  brass,  the  rest  being  of  iron ;  by  this 
arrangement  the  brass  link,  being  in  all  cases  nearer  the  middle  of  the  chain 
than  the  token,  will  at  once  point  out  whether  such  token  be  10  or  90,  60  or 
40,  &c.,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  the  liability  to  mistake  40  for  00,  and  so 
on,  entirely  done  away  with.  In  mineral  surveying  a  chain  of  this  construc- 
tion is  incalculably  superior  to  one  of  the  old. 

If  you  think  the  hint  is  likely  to  be  useful  to  any  of  your  readers,  I  shall 
feel  obliged  by  yoiu'  giving  it  a  place  in  the  Journal. 
Most  respectfully  your's, 

William  James  Hindle. 

Bamsley,  Aug.  3,  1840. 


PARISIAN  AND  LONDON  HOUSE  BUILDING. 

[The  following,  from  a  series  of  letters  in  the  "Dublin  Evening 
Post,"  IS,  we  conceive,  well  worthy  of  being  triinsferred  to  our  Journal, 
where  it  will  be  better  aud  more  conveniently  preserved  than  in  the 
columns  of  a  newspaper.  Besides  some  direct  information,  it  contains 
some  clever  and  pertinent  remarks,  although  we  do  not  subscribe  to 
every  one  of  the  writer's  opinions.] 

Paris,  as  a  city,  pleases  me  more  this  time  than  last  year,  though  it  cannot 
boast  of  the  grace  of  novelty  in  my  travelled  eyes.  Hut  I  have  looked,  and 
am  endeavouring  to  look  through  it  more  carefully.  There  is  a  cheerfulness 
in  the  warm  colouriug  of  the  buildings  in  that  beautiful  stone,  of  which  the 
city  is  made,  which  cement  can  never  imitate.  It  is  not  one  gray,  uninterest- 
ing, and  monotonous  brick  like  Dublin — nor,  like  London,  is  the  dirty  and 
smoky  red  interrupted  in  some  quarters  of  the  town  liy  the  masks  of  stucco, 
of  all  colours  and  in  all  states  of  decomposition,  which  covers  the  skeleton 
palaces.  The  finest  and  most  showy  parts  of  London  are  gingerbread  and 
pasteboard  to  the  buildings  here.  I  doubt  not,  however,  to  an  un])ractised 
eye,  several  parts  of  London — I  am  uot  now  talking  of  public  buildings — will 
appear  as  fine  as  the  general  run  of  iiouses  in  this  city — such  as  the  shops  in 
Regent  Street,  and  flic  mansions  in  the  Regent's  Park.  I  select  these,  for 
they  were  the  first  erected  under  the  new  system.  They  were  the  earliest 
eftbrfs  of  (leorgc  IV.,  a  ri;au  magnificent  enough  in  his  asjiirafion,  but  of  a 
taste  most  tawdiy  and  glaring.  lie  wished,  appareutly,  to  say,  with  Angtis- 
tus,  Ibat  he  found  his  capital  of  brii  1;,  and  that  he  left  it  of  marble.  Hut  he 
forgot  that  the  Roman  Emperor  spent  bis  life — and  he  attained  the  purple 
at  a  very  early  age — in  building  up  the  alia  mmiia  Rmnce  such  as  Attila 
found  it — and  that  he  had,  in  the  mean  time,  the  absolute  command  of  all 
the  riches  of  the  world,  and  of  the  genius  of  Greece  and  Italy — those  riches 
for  such  purposes  would  have  been"useless.  The  Regent  of  England— and 
he  deserves  some  credit  for  the  design,  childish  anif  ridii;ulons  as  it  was, 
inasmuch  as  it  evinced  the  presence  of  some  geims  of  imagination  in  a  man 
whose  character  was  stained  by  ra,iny  dezrading  vices — the  Regent,  I  say, 
thought  to  accomplish,  in  a  dozen  years,  what  occupied  the  entire  reign  of 
he  second  Csrsar.     He  set  about  tl'ie  scheme  w  ith  great  zeal — he  had  ready  a 


class  of  secondary  arch'te-ts — he  liad  nra^^ings  anil  plans  in  abundance — 
and,  above  all,  he  had  the  sanction  of  Parliament.  To  work  he  went — but 
it  was  not  to  marble,  nor  yet  to  Portland  stone,  or  to  granite  that  he  applied 
himself — it  was  to  making  Roman  cement.  It  was  to  plastering  the  bouses 
with  a  verj-  pretty,  nay  excellent  composition,  I  admit,  and  cutting  out  the 
fronts  of  the  dwelling-houses  as  Temples  of  Theseus,  P.trtlicuons,  Acropolises, 
and  fanes  dedicated  to  the  winds.  .Vll  was  lUrty  and  perishing  brick  within 
— without  all  was  a  coating  of  architcclnral  painting.  And  then  the  strange 
variety  in  which  all  orders  and  ages  of  architecture  were  jumbled  together. 
The  tailor's  house  had  a  Grecian  portico,  ami  his  next  door  neighbour,  the 
draper,  rejoiced  in  a  Gothic  castle.  Here  was  a  temple  of  Bacchus — there 
was  a  thing  somewhat  resembling  a  Chinese  pagoda,  only  more  full,  if  possible, 
of  pretension  and  exaggeration.  You  saw  at  a  glance,  that  this  part  of  the 
city  of  Loudon  was  made  for  the  nonce — that  it  was  gotten  u]i  for  a  show — 
that  it  was  fine  and  glaring  scene-iiainting,  not  half  so  fine,  or  half  so  striking 
as  Stanfield's  sketches,  because  the  designs  and  the  executors  of  the  plan 
bad  not  half  the  genius  of  that  excellent  ,irt;st.  But  let  me  be  just.  The 
design  of  trying  to  alter  the  dirty  and  ferruginoui'  aspect  of  London  was  com- 
mendable ;  and  if  he  deserves  any  praise  for  anything — an  hypothesis  upon 
which  I  am  very  unwiUing  to  insist — George  IV.  is  entitled  to  some  com- 
mendation for  what  he  attempted.,  rather,  certainly,  than  for  anything  he 
accomplished.  An  impulse  was  given  to  architectural  improvement,  in  a  city 
which,  though  it  contains  many  splendid  edifices,  was,  until  this  endeavour 
was  made,  the  most  uninteresting — and,  may  1  not  add,  notwitlistanding  its 
situation  on  a  river  twenty  times  more  magnificent  than  the  Seine,  thchugest 
and  nglieet  collection  of  brick  and  mortar  in  the  world — nothing  but  tiles  and 
brick.  Why,  there  is  the  Corporation  of  London — I  have  seen  the  halls  of 
some  of  their  guilds  made  to  dine — and  principally  made  for  that  purpose — 
seven  or  eight  hundred  individuals — I  have  seen  one  which  was  as  big  as  a  Me- 
thodist meeting-house,  and  as  ugly  as  a  barn  ;  the  building  itself  (and  it  was  a 
new  one  when  I  saw  it)  was  placed  in  a  nook  or  alley,  and  piled  up  with  brick,  I 
know  not  how  mit\\ /at/wi/is  high.  The  money  expended  to  make  such  an 
edifice,  would,  in  Paris  or  in  Petersburg  (a  city  of  yesterday),  produce  abeauti- 
ful  biulding,  architecturally  elegant  in  the  exterior,  and  containing  within  all 
the  accommodation — all  the  appurtenances  and  means  to  boot,  of  dining 
gloriously  on  green  fat,  and  getting  gloriously  drunk  with  dancing  champaign. 
The  trtith  is,  that  until  a  recent  period,  John  Bull  was  thinking  of  nothing 
e\en  in  his  public  buildings,  but  being  com/orladle — a  word  that  he  delights 
in,  and  which  you  hear  in  France  pronounced  with  great  ytixlo — John  insist- 
ing, truly,  I  believe,  that  the  French  language  is  without  an  equivalent  term — 
his  notions  of  comfort,  however,  in  tlus  regard,  being  confined  to  eating  and 
drinking.  The  admission  is  due  to  George  IV.,  I  must  repeat  again,  that  to 
his  absurd  zeal,  in  trying  to  convert  the  brick  of  London  into  marble,  the 
real  improvements  which  that  great  city  is  now  in  the  process  of  acquiring, 
may  be  fairly  enough  attributed.  A  better  order  of  architects  are  forming ; 
private  buildings,  as  well  as  public,  .ire  not  any  longer  left  to  the  taste  of  the 
bricklayer,  or  the  cunning  of  the  carpenter.  'The  two-foot  rule  and  the  plum- 
met are  indispensable,  and  the  builder  must  employ  them ;  but  it  has  been 
found  out  at  length  that  there  are  other  things  indispensable  in  building  an 
edifice  for  an  imperial  city.  When  sought  for,  talents  of  the  kind  required 
are  always  to  be  found.  They  existed  in  what  are  called  the  dark  ages,  when 
Westminster  Abbey  and  Rouen  Cathedral  were  built.  It  would  be  an  un- 
courtly  satire  on  England — it  would  be  a  most  false  misrepresentation  of  her 
intellect,  ingenuity,  and  taste,  to  pretend  that  architects  wouhl  be  wanting  if 
they  were  required.  They  are  uot  wanting.  It  is  true  the  National  (iallery 
is  a  national  disgrace,  and  the  Royal  Exchange,  when  it  arises  from  its  ashes, 
may  prove  an  ignominy,  if  the  city  don't  look  to  it;  but,  on  the  whole, 
within  the  last  twelve  or  fifteen  years,  the  signs  and  tokens  of  a  better  order 
of  things  are  manifest  even  to  an  observer  the  most  cursory.  But  ar/es  must 
elapse  liefore  London  can  be  what  she  ought  to  be  architecturally,  and  what 
she  will  be,  no  doubt,  should  she  hold,  as  she  has  done,  with  such  transcen- 
dant  glory,  the  sceptre  of  the  seas. 

But  Paris  has  been,  since  it  first  became  great,  an  architeclurnl  town. 
During  all  her  eventful  history,  her  public  buildings  held  a  prominent  place 
in  the  minds  of  her  kings  and  politicians.  The  French  are  fond  to  madness 
of  glory — of  martial  renown  principally — but  all  sorts  of  fame,  e\  eu  to  the 
making  of  a  cap  or  periwig,  are  prized,  perliaps,  beyond  their  v,alue.  They 
value  themselves  upon  their  I'oets,  their  orators,  their  historians,  their  painters, 
their  architects.  In  Louis  XIV.  they  had  a  king  who  was  as  vain  as  any  of 
his  subjects  on  all  these  national  vaiiitieg — if  you  will,  a  king,  too,  that  had 
the  power  to  execute  his  will,  at  any  expense  of  treasure  and  oppression. 
The  policy  of  his  reign  may  be  questionable,  and  he  may  have  been  himself  a 
tyrant ;  but  he  adorned  Piuis,  and  he  completed  Versailles.  It  was  pride,  if  you 
Uke,  and  selfishness;  but  to  it  the  present  generation  is  indebted,  at  least,  for 
fixing,  propagating,  and,  I  think,  pcrpttuating  the  taste  of  the  people  in  this 
regard.  The  improccmi-nts  of  Paris  began  nearly  two  hundred  years  ago,  and 
they  have  been  in  constant  progress.  Those  of  London  are  scarcely  thirty 
years  old.  But,  in  the  interim  (of  200  years)  London  has  increased  ueaiiy 
fifteen  fold  in  population  and  houses,  while  Paris  has  certainly  not  l;eeu  trebled. 
At  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  George  III.,  a  comedy — 1  forget  the 
name — was  produced — I  saw  it  acted  myself,  when  they  used  fo  play  come- 
dies— in  which  two  interlocutors  are  introduced,  discussing  the  relative  popu- 
lation and  size  of  the  two  greatest  cities  of  Europe.  In  those  days,  statistics 
was  no  science ;  but,  the  circumstance  is  enough  to  show,  without  hunting 
yoiur  library  to  ascertain  the  truth,  and  missing  tlie  game,  most  probably,  at 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


311 


last,  tliat.  about  seventy  or  eighty  years  atro,  the  jiopulation  of  these  two 
cities  v;ere  nearly  alike.  I;i  population,  London  is  now  doubled,  at  least,  and 
she  contains  six  or  eight  times  as  many  honsas,  and  consumes  much  more 
ground.  But  London  lias  been  built  at  random.  It  is  not  houses  they  run 
up — a  good,  familiar,  and  descriptive  phrase — but  n'reefs.  Aye — streets.  An 
instance  has  been  known  of  a  street  of  considerable  extent  being  built  in 
three  months.  It  takes  three  years  to  build  a  house  in  Paris ;  but  then  it  « 
a  house — a  great  house — three  or  four  times  the  extent  of  a  mansion  in  Mer- 
rion-square,  for  example.  The  Merrion-square  house  may  be,  and  is,  no 
doubt,  more  comfortable,  in  conformity  to  our  notions  of  comfort.  It  con- 
tains only  one  family,  while  the  great  buildings  I  speak  of  gives  magnificent 
apartracTits  to  two  or  three.  And  do  not  imagine  that  the  families  which  in- 
habit these  houses  pay  less  for  their  houses  than  the  gentry  of  Merrion-square. 
Two,  thi-ee,  and  even  four  hundred  francs  a  year  is  not  an  uncommon  rent 
for  these  s-eparate  families  in  one  house.  Some  have  been  mentioned  to  me 
which  brings  the  proprietor  in  from  .-GL.iOO  to  £2,000  a  year.  Obsen-e.  that 
I  am  not  discuasiug  which  is  the  best  mode  of  living — the  Fi-ench  or  the  En- 
glish. Por  my  part,  I  should  like  to  have  a  house  to  myself;  but  that  is  not 
the  question  here.  I  am  stating  a  fact  with  a  view  of  showing  you  why  it  is 
that  Paris  is  so  much  superior  in  its  buildings  to  London.  First,  they  b\uld 
in  Paris  greater  houses ;  secondly,  these  houses  occupy  a  longer  time  in  build- 
ing ;  and  thirdly,  they  are  built  of  materials  vastly  superior  to  those  employed 
in  England.  Tliey  are  built  of  a  coarse  marble,  or  of  a  beautiful  stone,  as  / 
think  it  is,  supplied  by  the  quarries  of  Normandy  and  the  valley  of  the  Seine 
— the  stairs  in  many  of  them  are  of  marble— the  floors,  all  that  I  have  seen  of 
them,  in  the  latter  order  of  houses,  are  made  of  oak — the  landing  places,  and 
little  Eute-rooms,  are  constructed  of  marble,  or  a  Roman  cement,  or  some  su- 
perior preparation  of  tile.  In  short,  tliese  houses  are  made  to  last — not  for 
one  genei'ation  or  two,  but,  perhaps,  for  ten.  When  finished,  there  they  stand 
compact  and  line,  and   knit  together,  with  a  view  of  enduring  for  centuries. 

To  build  a  house  in  Paris  is  a  very  serious  thing ;  the  ground  rent  is  enor- 
mously high.  Vou  go  to  the  stone  quarn;'  for  your  material,  and  not  to  the 
brick-tield.  You  must  employ  oak  instead  of  Canada  pine.  You  must  cm- 
ploy  stone-cutters  and  masons  instead  of  bricklayers.  In  short,  for  the  private 
houses  of  the  first  class,  that  is  to  say,  for  houses  in  the  first  class  of  streets, 
you  must  proceed  in  Paris  as  you  would  in  London  or  Dublin  if  you  ai'o  about 
to  design  a  public  edifice.  They  are  built,  therefore,  most  substantifflly,  and, 
as  in  public  edifices,  their  exterior  is  designed  on  architectural  princii)les,  and 
with  a  view  to  suit  the  r/enius  loci.  Now,  as  I  have  said,  this  system  has  been 
in  operation  for  centuries,  and  you  can  almost  pronounce  the  age  of  a  build- 
ing, if  you  have  given  any  previous  time  to  the  study,  on  inspection.  Hence 
it  is  that,  notwitlistanding  the  vast  number  and  beauty  of  the  buildings  made 
by  Napoleon,  and  the  great  addition  that  has  been  made  during  the  present 
improving  reigu,  the  air  of  Paiis  is  that  of  an  old  city ;  while  London  looks, 
and  will  always  look,  from  the  material  it  is  made  of,  neither  new  nor  old,  a 
sort  of  Provisiotial  City,  a  multitudmous  congregation  of  houses,  that  are 
constantly  changing  their  aspect — that  are  constantly  in  a  state  of  transition 
of  being  run  up  or  run  down — qnadrata  rotundis.  But  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  on  a  town  passing  away,  as  it  were,  with  the  autumnal  leaves,  and  re- 
newed with  the  swallow  and  the  zephyr,  architecture  can  have  impi*ssed  her 
permanent  type.  Brick,  however,  neatly  put  together,  will  not  take  the  im- 
pression. It  is  too  perishable  and  fliinsy  to  l)ear  the  weight  of  her  machinery 
— and,  indeed,  it  has  never  been  tried.  The  bricklayers  and  carpenters  of 
London  content  themselves  with  erecting  houses  of  three  or  four  stories  high, 
with  a  comfortable  basement  for  the  kitchens  and  pantries,  a  hall,  a  front 
parlour,  and  a  dining-room — above,  two  drawing-rooms,  opening  into  each 
other,  best  beil-rooms  higher  up,  and  inferior  apartments  next  the  stairs. 
They  are  all  alike — like  as  eggs — the  only  difference  being  in  the  size — from 
a  sparrow's  egg,  or  a  pigeon's,  to  a  duck  or  a  goose's  egg.  In  regard  to  the 
apartments  and  their  disposition,  you  might,  after  describing  number  one  in 
any  given  street  of  London  or  DubUn,  write  ditto  against  number  two,  and 
ditto  to  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and  to  the  bottom  of  the  next,  and  to  the 
end  of  the  volume.  It  is  curious  that  our  ordinary  builders  exhibit  such  a 
poverty  ef  contrivance — no  taste,  no  variety,  no  resources,  apparently,  except 
in  iixiuga  water-closet,  or  managing  a  projecting  recess.  I  have  httle  doubt 
that  these  deficiencies  are  attributable,  in  a  great  degree,  to  the  materials  we 
employ,  and  are  obliged  to  use,  as  well  as  from  long  habit,  wliich  has  grown 
up  into  a  second  nature.  Houses  are  built,  in  London,  to  answer  temporary 
purposes,  or  for  the  accommodation  of  two,  or  three,  or  four  generations. 
They  are  made  of  brick — a  perishable  article — they  are  made  of  Canada  deal 
— a  decaying  wood.  But  tb.ey  answer  the  ends  of  their  creation.  Art,  science, 
in  the  disposition  of  the  interior,  and  considering  also  the  size  of  the  man- 
sions, would  be  tlirown  away,  or  rather  would  not  have  space  to  move  about 
in  "  the  cribbed,  cabined-in  and  confined"  precincts  of  a  London  or  Dublin 
private  house.  In  this  city,  from  what  I  have  already  said,  you  will  readily 
infer  that  the  case  is  quite  diffeient.  I  have  been  in  several  houses  since  I 
came  to  France,  and  I  did  not  find  two  of  them  alike  in  their  interior  arrange- 
ments. It  would  be,  indeed,  a  sad  puzzle  to  an  ordinary  London  or  Dublin 
builder  to  make  a  house  in  the  French  fashion  ;  to  design  a  house  like  that, 
for  instance,  in  which  I  a;u  now  residing — poh  !  he  would  eat  it  as  soon. 

But,  as  I  have  said  before,  a  better  taste  is  arising  amongst  ourselves. 
When  people  shall  be  convinced,  that  even  in  the  construction  of  an  ordinary 
building,  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  employ  an  architect  as  well  as  a  builder — 
and,  I  should  hope,  this  taste  is  beginning  to  prevail,  our  children,  and  our 
childreus'  children  wUl  see  a  finer  London  and  a  finer  Dublin  than  we  do  now 


—and,  /  e.rpect  that  our  country-houses— I  mean  the  houses  of  our  gentry— 
if  they  can  keep  their  station,  which  so  many  of  them  are  built  upon  endan- 
gering, will  not  be  made  up  by  a  country  mason  and  his  helps — bnt,  will  ex- 
hibit the  common  sense  and  understanding  in  which  the  mansions  of  their 
grand-papas  have  been  so  lamentably  deficient.  With  respect  to  public  build- 
ings, the  prospect  for  our  posterity  is  still  more  cheering.  Our  superior 
artists  are  studying  the  Greek  models  with  a  zeal  that  promises  excellent 
effect.  There  are  drawings  and  elevations  of  all  the  architectural  remains  of 
Greece  and  Italy.  The  taste  in  England  never  died  entirch-,  from  the  time  of 
Athenian  Stuart,  but  it  shmibered  in  the  interval  deeply,  until  a  few  yeais 
after  the  last  war.  But,  t'le  pure  taste  to  be  acquired  from  the  study  of  these 
immortal  models  has  had  to  struggle  hitherto  with  the  so  called  Gothic,  Nor- 
man, and  above  all  with  that  thing,  now  the  most  fashionable  of  all,  called 
the  Tudor  or  Ehzabethan  architecture,  of  which  it  may  be  asserted,  tneo 
perioulo.  that  it  is  the  worst  of  all  the  rest — and  only  better  than  the  poor, 
bald,  and  miserable  system  prevailing  in  England  since  the  Revolution.  But, 
Ancient  Greece  will  conquer  at  last — though  they  are  building  the  parliament 
house  after  a  model  of  their  own. 

This  is  a  long  letter,  and  upon  a  subject  which  can  be  popular  only  in  cer- 
tain, perhaps,  rather  restricted  circles.  But,  I  am  writing  with  the  glorious 
Madeleine  looking  in  at  my  window — that  most  superb  copy  of  the  finest  and 
purest  architectural  powers  of  Greece.  Here  is  a  building  that  the  eye  never 
tires  in  gazing  upon — so  sublimely-simple,  so  quietly  beautiful,  and  such  a 
magidficent  array  of  Corinthian  columns.  But,  I  am  not  here  to  describe  the 
Madeleine,  any  more  than  any  other  edifice.  But,  looking  around  me,  and 
with  this  memento  constantly  before  my  eyes,  I  could  not  resist  the  topics 
which  the  contemplation  of  these  objects  suggested. 


ON  RAILWAY  AND  CANAL  TRAFFIC. 

By  Charles  Ellet,  Jun.,  of  the  United  States,  Civil  Engineer. 

[The  following  judicious  remarks  on  Railway  and  Canal  Tolls,  which 
we  extract  from  the  "  Franklin  Journal,"  are  well  deserving  of  the 
serious  attention  of  all  parties  connected  with  either  railways  or  canals, 
there  will  be  found  many  hints  worth  their  consideration.] 

The  object  of  this  essay  is  to  point  out,  in  a  brief  and  popular  view,  the 
consequences  of  some  of  the  errors  which  are  committed  in  the  charges  as- 
sessed on  the  public  works  of  this  country. 

The  wi-iter  has  recently  pubUshed  a  work*  in  which  he  has  attempted  to 
expose  the  true  principles  of  trade,  and  to  show  the  only  correct  mode  of 
determining  the  tolls  proper  to  be  levied  on  oar  great  lines  of  canals  imd 
railroads.  But  it  has  been  suggested  to  him  by  some  intelligent  readers  of 
that  work,  that  the  method  of  analysing  the  subject  which  he  has  been  com- 
pelled to  adopt  in  it,  is  not  the  best  adapted  to  the  pursuits  of  the  class  of 
readers  most  likely  to  be  interested  in  the  subject ;  and  that  some  advantage 
might  be  derived  from  exhiinting,  in  a  popular  form,  a  few  of  the  results 
which  were  there  obtained  by  a  different  process.  This  essay  is  intended  to 
subsen'c  that  purpose ;  and  to  show  that  the  principles  on  which  all  the 
tariffs  in  the  countiy  are  based,  are  unsound,  and  lead,  in  their  application, 
to  oppressive  injustice  to  a  portion  of  the  community,  and  to  great  loss  of 
trade  and  revenue  to  the  improvements. 

Of  the  Importance  of  the  Subject. 

1.  There  arc  no  questions  of  public  policy  which  are  thought  to  concern 
so  intimately  the  general  and  particidar  interests  of  the  people  of  this  country, 
as  those  which  relate  to  their  internal  improvements.  The  consideration  of 
this  subject  constitutes  tlie  greatest  part  of  the  legislation  of  nearly  aU  the 
states  in  the  Union,  and  the  employment  of  the  privileges  sanctioned  by  the 
law,  constitutes  a  prominent  portion  of  the  efforts  of  individual  enterprise. 
There  are  now  completed  and  in  use  in  the  coimtry  more  than  three  thousand 
miles  of  railroads,  and  not  less  than  three  thousand  miles  of  canals,  the  con- 
struction of  which  has  occasioned  an  actual  expenditure  of  probably 
150,000,000  dollars,  and  for  which  loans  have  been  incurred  by  the  state 
governments  or  incorporated  companies,  to  nearly  an  equal  amount. 

This  enormous  investment  of  capital  is  by  some  viewed  as  alarming ;  and 
might,  indeed,  appear  so,  when  it  is  considered  that  a  draft  of  some  eight 
millions  of  dollars  will  be  annually  made  on  the  country  for  the  payment  of 
the  interest  on  this  sum,  and  that  the  principal  itself,  in  the  brief  space  of 
twenty  years,  may  possibly  have  to  be  refunded.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  sanguine  advocates  of  improvements,  who  look  to  the  revenue  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  works  themselves,  consequent  on  the  rapid  growth  and  pro- 
gressively increasing  productiveness  of  the  coimtry,  as  offering  an  ample 
guarantee  for  the  prompt  payment  of  the  interest,  and  the  due  liquidation  o{ 
the  principal,  of  the  debt. 

It  is  not  the  intention  now  to  discuss  this  momentous  question,  or  to  en- 
deavour to  ascertain  which  of  these  hypotheses  approaches  nearest  the  truth. 
Both  are  but  surmises,  advanced  as  the  result  of  a  hasty  glance  at  the  facts, 
or  possibly  based  on  no  safer  evidence  than  the  prepossessions,  or  mere  con- 
jectures, of  the  parties.     They  are  wanting  in  that  detail,  that  exhibition  of 

•  "An  Essay  on  the  Laws  of  Trade  in  reference  to  the  works  of  Pubile 
Improvement  in  the  United  States. 

2  T  2 


312 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Skptember, 


statistical  information,  williout  which  it  is  impossible  to  generalize  with  se- 
curity. 

Doiiljtless  many  of  the  works  of  the  country  will  possess  abundant  means 
lo  sustain  their  credit ;  and  among  so  many  enterprises,  it  is  equally  probable 
that  some  have  been  undertaken  wliich  will  fall  very  far  short  of  the  expec- 
tations of  their  patrons. 

But,  whatever  may  be  the  general  aljiUty  of  these  immense  lines  of  im- 
provements, it  is  certain  that  the  success  and  ])rofitableness  of  those  which 
are  now  progressing  under  the  fairest  auspices,  are  not  so  well  established 
but  that  it  ought  to  be  an  object  of  deep  solicitude  with  their  proprietors  to 
find  the  means  of  increasing  their  productiveness.  To  every  State  that  has 
embarked  in  a  career  of  internal  improvement,  and  to  every  individual  who 
has  invested  his  property  in  such  stock,  it  is  an  interesting  question  to 
ascertain  the  most  efficient  means  of  equalizing  the  charges  on  the  trade,  and 
increasing  the  revenue  and  tonnage  of  the  line. 

The  public  improvements  of  I'ennsylvania  are  sinking  that  commonwealth 
in  debt  about  a  million  and  a  half  per  oilman — or,  in  other  words,  the  inte- 
rest on  the  loans  incurred  for  their  construction,  added  to  the  annual  charges 
for  repairs  and  superintendence,  exceeds  the  gross  revenue  of  the  works  from 
one  to  two  millions  of  dollars  per  annum. 

Of  the  Incorrectness  of  the  Principles  on  which  Tolls  are  at  present  assessed. 

To  be  able  to  appreciate  the  necessity  of  a  dei)arture  from  the  principles  on 
which  the  present  charges  for  the  use  of  our  public  works  are  established,  it 
is  essential  to  examine  into  the  eft'eetive  operation  of  the  scale  now  in  use. 
To  render  the  view  which  I  design  to  take  as  little  complicated  as  possible, 
it  may  be  confined  for  the  present  to  one  of  the  principal  divisions  of  the 
trade  of  the  country.  For,  in  treating  of  the  laws  of  trade,  it  is  found  con- 
venient to  divide  the  connuerce  of  the  line  into  two  principal  classes ;  in  the 
first  of  which  is  included  all  those  commodities  which  will  bear  but  a  hmited 
charge  for  their  trarisportation,  and  which,  if  taxed  beyond  that  limit,  will  be 
excluded  from  the  line  and  from  market.  This  division  usually  consists  of 
stone,  coal,  lumber,  ore,  lime,  and  many  agricultural  productions.  Indeed  it 
embraces  all  articles  which  will  seek  a  market  along  the  line  in  question,  and 
no  other  ;  and  in  this  respect  is  to  be  distinguished  from  that  division  of  the 
trade  which  consist  of  more  valuable  commodities,  and  which,  if  not  accom- 
modated on  one  line,  will  find  a  passage  by  the  route  of  a  rival  work. 

Our  present  investigation  will  be  confined  to  the  first  of  these  divisions. 

The  charges  which  are  levied  on  this  trade  consist  of  what  are  usually 
termed  freight  and  toll.  If  the  work  be  a  canal,  by  freight  is  understood  the 
charge  of  the  carrier,  and  by  toll  that  of  the  state  or  corporation  omiing  the 
work.  In  the  management  of  railroads,  it  is  usual  for  the  company  to  act  as 
carrier  on  their  own  line;  aiul  to  make  but  one  charge,  which  is  called  toll, 
for  both  objects.  In  tliis  essay  I  shall  make  a  somewhat  different  application 
of  these  terms,  and  designate  by  freight,  in  either  case,  every  expense  actually 
incurred  in  the  carriage  of  the  commodity,  and  by  toll,  the  clear  profit  on  its 
transportation.  So  that  if  the  carrier,  or  transporting  company,  charge  seven 
mills  per  mile  for  the  carriage  of  one  ton  of  any  article,  and  tlie  cost  of  re- 
pairs and  superintendence  of  the  line  due  to  the  passage  of  that  ton  is  three 
mills  per  mile,  I  call  the  freight  on  the  article  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile  ; 
and  any  charge  exceeding  this  three  milk;  which  is  assessed  by  the  state  or 
company,  is  what  I  denominate  their  toll. 

In  nearly  every  tariff  of  toll  adopted  in  this  country,  the  charge  on  every 
article  is  proportional  to  the  distance  it  is  transported  on  the  hue.  The  toll 
is  some  fixed  amount  per  ton  per  mile.  This  scale  of  taxation,  I  contend,  is 
improper  and  unjust. 

To  examine  the  question,  let  us  suppose  the  article  to  be  lumber,  of  which 
the  market  value,  at  the  point  to  which  it  is  sent,  is  10  dollars  per  ton.  Let 
us  also  assume  that  the  cost  of  producing  this  article,  or  preparing  it  for 
shipping  on  the  canal,  is  6  dollars  per  ton.  It  is  then  most  olnious  that  if 
the  charge  for  transportation  on  this  commodity  exceed  4  dollars  per  ton,  it 
will  be  wholly  excluded  from  the  line ;  for  then  the  cost  of  carriage,  added 
to  the  cost  of  production,  would  exceed  the  market  value  of  the  article,  and 
there  could  be  no  profit  to  remunerate  the  producer.  But  if  the  charge  be 
less  than  4  dollars,  there  mil  l)e  a  certain  profit,  and  the  article  will  be  found 
to  seek  the  market. 

If  now,  this  lumber  is  carried  a  space  of  100  miles  to  its  mart,  and  the 
charge  for  freight  is  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile,  the  freight  for  that  distance 
mil  obviously  be  one  dollar,  and  there  will  remain  a  balance  of  three  dollars 
for  the  extreme  limit  which  the  article  will  bear  to  be  charged  for  toll.  The 
toll  levied  by  the  state,  at  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile,  will  be  one  dollar,  or 
one  third  the  amount  which  the  article  could  in  this  case  sustain. 

Let  us  next  suppose  that  similar  lumber  comes  upon  the  line  at  a  distance 
of  300  miles  from  the  same  mart.  The  charge  for  freight  would  now  be 
three  dollars,  and  there  would  consequently  be  a  residue  of  only  one  dollar 
on  which  the  state  might  levy  for  toll.  The  commodity  could  bear  no  more 
than  one  dollar,  since  that  sum  added  to  the  three  dollars  freight,  would  be 
four  dollars,  or  the  difference  between  the  cost  of  producing  the  lumber  and 
its  price  in  market.  But,  by  the  princiiile  of  taxation  usually  adopted,  the 
toll  assessed  at  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile,  would  here  be  three  dollars,  or 
three  times  as  much  as  the  article  would  bear.  In  other  words,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  one  hundred  miles  from  the  mart,  in  the  usual  tariffs,  a  commodity 
is  charged  one  dollar  where  it  might  bear  a  charge  of  three,  and  at  three 
hundred  miles  it  is  charged  three  dollars  where  it  could  bear  but  one. 

Does  it  need  any  argument  to  prove  that  a  scale  producing  such  resiUts  is 


neither  compatible  with  principles  of  equity  or  good  economy?  Is  it  not 
manifestly  unjust  to  charge  the  man  who  is  situated  300  miles  from  market 
three  times  as  much  as  he  can  afford  to  pay,  while  the  man  at  100  miles  can 
afford  to  pay  three  times  as  nuich  as  be  is  charged  ?  Is  it  not  any  thing  but 
good  economy  to  tax  all  the  trade  in  this  article  beyond  200  miles  so  hcarily 
tliat  it  is  totally  driven  from  the  line,  when,  if  the  tolls  were  differently  as- 
sessed, it  might  be  invited,  and  made  to  pay  a  respectable  revenue  to  the 
state  ?  And  is  not  the  primary  object  of  the  work  defeated  by  the  adoption 
of  a  tariff  that  excludes  those  conmiodities  from  it  which  it  was  especially 
intended  to  draw  to  market,  an  effect  which  is  accompanied  by  a  direct  sacri- 
fice of  trade,  revenue,  and  even  justice  ? 

I  think  it  can  scarcely  need  more  than  this  plain  exposition  to  make  clear 
to  any  reflecting  mind  that  some  of  the  charges  on  the  public  works  of  this 
country  need  revision  ;  that  they  are  based  on  priucijiles  which  are  unsound, 
and  at  once  do  injury  to  the  proprietors  of  the  work,  and  injustice  to  a  large 
portion  of  the  public.  The  commonwealth,  as  the  constructor  and  ow  ner  of 
the  improvement,  is  a  sufferer  in  the  loss  of  the  trade  that  is  excluded,  and 
the  reven\ie  that  might  be  derived  from  it ;  the  citizens  of  the  emporium 
w  liich  is  the  mart  of  the  line,  softer  from  the  contraction  of  their  business  in 
consequence  of  the  exclusion  of  the  articles  in  which  they  traftic ;  and  the 
country  traversed  by  the  improvement,  and  taxeil,  perhaps,  for  its  construc- 
tion, suffers  from  its  inability  to  share  the  benefits  which  the  work  was 
designed  to  confer. 

Further  evidence  of  the  loss  of  Trade  consequent  on  uniform  Charges. 

To  render  more  palpable  the  fact  that  a  charge  for  toll  proportioned  di- 
rectly to  the  distance  will  cause  the  exclusion  of  a  certain  amount  of  tonnage 
without  conferring  any  compensating  advantage,  we  will  consider  the  subject 
with  the  aid  of  a  diagram.     (See  Fig.  1.) 

Fig.  1. 


Let  M  in  the  figure  be  the  position  of  the  mart,  and  ML  the  line  of  the 
improvement ;  and  let  us  assume,  as  before,  that  the  commodity  will  be  ca- 
llable of  sustaining  a  charge  of  four  dollars  per  ton  for  its  transportation  ; 
that  the  toll  is  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile,  the  freight  likewise  one  cent,  and 
the  cost  of  carriage  on  the  lateral  roads  by  which  the  tonnage  is  brought  to 
the  work,  is  ten  cents  per  ton  per  mile. 

The  distance  M  n  from  which  this  commodity  can  be  brought  to  the  mart 
at  M  on  the  lateral  roads  n  M,  n  M,  will  then  be  forty  miles ;  and  the  di-- 
tance  M  P  which  we  can  afford  to  carry  it  along  tlie  improvement,  at  an 
aggregate  charge  of  two  cents  per  ton  per  mile,  will  of  course  be  200  miles. 
The  area  of  coimtry,  therefore,  which  will  supply  trade  to  the  line,  will  be 
represented  by  the  triangle  n  P  n,  having  a  base  n  n  of  eighty  miles,  and  a 
height  M  P  of  200  miles. 

Now,  it  is  apparent  that  the  line  will  receive  no  tonnage  of  this  article, 
from  beyond  tlie  point  P  ;  and  therefore,  that  if  the  trade  were  permitted  to 
come  free  of  toll  from  beyond  that  point,  there  would  result  a  certain  in- 
crease of  tonnage,  which  would  be  accompanied  by  no  diminution  of 
revenue. 

Under  such  an  arrangement  of  the  tariff,  the  charge  for  freight  from  P  to 
M,  for  produce  coming  from  the  country  beyond  P,  would  be  only  two  dol- 
lars, and  there  would  consequently  be  left  a  balance  at  P  of  two  dollars  out 
of  the  limit  of  four  dollars  which  the  article  could  sustain,  to  bear  the  cost 
of  its  carriage  along  the  lateral  roads  to  the  improvement,  and  down  the  im- 
provement to  the  mart. 

This  balance  will  be  sufficient  to  pay  the  cost  of  transportation  on  the 
lateral  road  from  y  to  P,  a  distance  of  twenty  miles,  at  ten  cents  per  ton  per 
mile ;  and  the  charge  for  freight  along  the  improvement,  from  R  to  P,  a  dis- 
tance of  200  miles,  at  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile.  It  would,  therefore,  be 
within  the  ability  of  the  state  or  company,  in  this  example,  to  extend  the 
benefits  of  the  improvements  400  miles  into  the  interior  instead  of  200,  and 
increase  the  tonnage  of  the  line,  with  all  the  incidental  advantages,  50  per 
cent.,  without  sustaining  any  loss  of  revenue. 

It  is  far  from  my  intention  here  to  advocate  a  tariff  arranged  with  a  view 
to  this  efteet,  but  merely  to  show  what  is  lost  by  those  which  are  commonly 
adopted.  Instead  of  draining  only  the  country  contained  in  the  triangle 
H  P  H,  which  will  supply  the  trade  where  the  charge  for  toll  is  one  cent,  and 
freight  one  cent,  by  charging  toll  from  M  to  P,  and  permitting  all  articles 
brought  from  beyond  the  angle  P  to  pass  free  of  toll,  the  shaded  triangle 
V  R  y  in  the  figure  will  be  added  to  the  area  using  the  work  and  supplying 
its  tonnage.  The  value  of  the  improvement  to  the  country  will  be  increased 
one  half ;  the  trade  of  the  city  at  M  w  ill  hkewise  be  increased  one  half,  and 
the  value  of  the  property  of  the  commonwealth,  as  far  as  it  is  dependent  on 
the  activity  of  the  work,  will  be  ptoportionally  augmented. 


1S40] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


313 


But  such  an  arrangement  would  effect  injustice,  and  could  not  therefore 
receive  the  sanction  of  a  government  administered  in  a  due  regard  to  the 
first  principles  of  its  existence — the  equal  protection  of  the  citizens,  and  an 
equitahle  distribution  of  the  benefits  which  its  constitution  was  intended  to 
confer. 

Such  a  tarifl"  would  augment  the  tonnage  of  the  line — but  it  would  pro- 
duce that  result  by  taxing  the  citizen  immediately  at  P  four  dollars,  and  ex- 
cluding him  from  tlie  work,  and  the  neighl)0ur  immediately  beyond  P  hut 
two  dollars,  and  inviting  him  at  the  expense  of  a  preuiiuni. 

Besides  these  oljjections  to  this  arrangement,  there  exists  the  additional 
and  important  one,  that  it  would  not  fidfil  another  imperative  condition — 
that  of  obtauiing  the  greatest  revenue  from  the  trade. 

Of  the  most  judicious  charge  on  articles  of  heavy  burden  and  small  value. 

I  conceive  that  it  is  essential  to  the  fulfilment  of  the  condition,  that  the 
tax  levied  on  the  trade  of  the  line  shall  be  reconcilable  with  principles  of 
equity,  that  the  charge  at  each  point  shall  be  proportional  to  the  ability  of 
the  article  to  sustain  it ;  and,  it  fortunately  happens,  that  when  the  charges 
are  regulated  in  the  mode  that  will  produce  the  maximum  revenue,  this  con- 
dition will  be  fully  satisfied. 

We  are  to  understand  by  the  ability  of  a  commodity  to  sustain  a  charge 
for  carriage,  the  difference  between  the  cost  of  production  and  the  market 
value  of  the  object.  If  the  article  be  worth  ten  dollars  in  market,  and  it 
costs  six  dollars  to  produce  and  prepare  it  for  ULirket,  it  will  sustain  any 
charge  for  transportation,  including  both  freight  and  toll,  not  exceeding  four 
dollars.  But  its  ability  to  sustain  a  charge  for  toll  only,  depends  on  the 
position  iu  which  it  reaches  the  line  of  the  improvement.  For,  after  deduct- 
ing the  cost  of  production  from  the  market  value,  the  residue  may  go  to  bear 
the  whole  cost  of  carriage ;  but  we  must  still  deduct  from  this  residue  the 
charge  for  freight,  to  obtain  the  sum  wliich  it  will  bear  to  be  charged  for 
toll. 

If,  for  example,  the  above  article  reach  the  line  at  100  miles  from  the 
mart,  and  the  freight  be  one  cent  per  ton  jier  mile,  the  charge  for  freight 
will  be  one  dollar,  and  the  residue  will  be  three  dollars.     If  it  reach  the  line 
at  200  miles,  the  charge  for  freight  will  be  two  dollars,  and  this  residue  will 
be  two  dollars.     If  it  come  on  the  work  at  300  miles,  the  charge  for  freight 
will  be  three  dollars,  and  the  residue  will  be  one  ;  and  if  it  reach  it  at  400 
miles,  the  freight  will  be  four  dollars,  and  the  residue  will  be  nothing,     I 
say,  therefore,  that  to  make  the  tax  for  toll  proportional  to  the  ability  of  the 
commodity,  the  charge  levied  by  the  State  for  its  passage  along 
100  miles  should  be  proportional  to  3  dollars, 
200  miles  shoulil  be  proportional  to  2  dollars, 
300  miles  should  Ije  proportional  to  1  dollar, 
and  along  400  miles  it  should  lie  allowed  to  pass  free.     From  which  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  greater  the  distance  the  commodity  is  can-ied,  the  less  should 
be  the  toll  levied  ujion  it.     In  short,  I  propose  that  the  tax  should  be  pro- 
portional to  the  ability  of  the  trade  to  sustain  the  cliarge ;    and,  by  such  a 
tarift',  to  supersede  those  now  in  use — liy  which  the  tax  is  increased  in  pro- 
portion as  the  ability  of  the  trade  to  bear  the  tax  is  diminished. 

Now,  it  may  be  demonstrated,  that  when  the  toll  is  assessed  on  this  prin- 
ciple, both  the  tonnage  and  the  revenue  will  be  greater  than  if  the  most 
profitable  uniform  charge  per  mile  that  it  is  possible  to  \c\y  were  adopted. 

But  the  method  of  determining  this  most  productive  charge,  cannot  be 
conveniently  pointed  out,  with  a  demonstration  of  its  correctness,  in  a  mere 
popular  discussion.  I  have,  however,  elsewhere  considered  the  subject  in 
some  detail,  and  have  shown  that  the  toll  on  this  division  of  the  trade  which 
will  yield  the  greatest  possible  revenue,  is  about  three-eighths  of  the  cliarge 
which  wo\ild  exclude  the  article  from  market ;  or  three-eighths  the  limit  of 
the  tax  which  it  would  bear. 

In  the  above  example,  therefore,  tlie  charge  at 

100  miles,  should  be  f  of  3  dollars,  or  1  dollar    12^-  cents. 
200  miles,  should  be  t  of  2  dollars,  or  75         „ 

300  miles,  should  be  g  of  1   dollar,  or  STJ-        „ 

400  miles,  0  GO  „ 

The  difference  between  these  sums  and  those  above  given  constitutes  the 
profits  of  the  proprietors. 

It  cannot  be  objected  to  this  scale  of  charges,  that  it  deprives  the  citizen 
on  the  line,  near  the  mart,  of  any  of  the  advantages  of  his  position.  The 
work,  on  the  contrarj-,  furnishes  him  with  the  means  of  transporting  the 
products  of  his  estate  to  a  market  for  one  fourth  or  one  fifth  the  sum  he  was 
compelled  to  expend  before  its  construction.  This  is  a  positive  advantage 
for  whicli  he  is  indebted  to  the  commonwealth  ;  and  he  has  no  right  to  com- 
plain if  the  same  commonwealth  extend  the  benefits  of  the  enterprise  to 
more  distant  citizens.  The  avowed  object  of  the  improvement  is  to  bring  to 
market  productions  which  could  not  otherwise  reach  it,  and,  generally,  to 
reduce  the  tax  on  transportation.  And  if  the  objection,  that  the  mode  of 
charging  here  recommended  may  seem  to  disturb  the  relative  advantages  of 
position  of  the  near  and  distant  denizen,  be  a  valid  one,  it  is  a  fortiori  a 
conclusive  argument  against  all  improvement.  A  consequence  of  the  con- 
struction of  any  canal  or  railroad,  is  to  increase  the  value  of  estates  to  which 
it  affords  new  facilities,  and  of  course  disturb  the  relation  between  the  ad- 
vantages possessed  by  such  property  and  other  estates  in  the  commonwealth, 
on  which  it  has  no  effect. 

But  such  an  objection,  even  if  a  legitimate  one,  cannot  be  applied  to  the 


scale  here  adrised.  It  is  not  proposed  to  tax  the  distant  man  less  for  the 
transportation  of  his  effects  than  the  nearer  one;  on  the  contrary,  he  is 
charged  more.  The  metlmd  merely  proposes  to  make  t'lat  portion  of  the 
tax  which  is  to  be  considered  as  the  profit  of  the  State— tliat  portion  which 
is  levied  for  revenue — proportional  to  the  ability  of  the  trade  to  pay  it.  And 
tins  is  just. 

\ix.  2. 


If,  now,  we  represent  by  a  proper  scale,  as  in  Fig.  2,  the  area  of  the  coun- 
tiT  which,  with  tlie  data  of  this  example,  would  furnish  tlie  tonnage,  in  the 
hypothesis  of  an  uniform  charge  of  one  cent  for  freight  and  one  cent  for  toll, 
we  shall  have,  as  before  stated,  a  triangular  figure  N  P  N,  with  a  base,  N  N, 
of  80  miles,  and  height,  M  P,  of  200  miles. 

But  if  the  charges  were  adjusted  with  a  view  to  the  obtaining  of  the  maxi- 
mum revenue,  the  triangle  would  have  a  base,  n  n,  of  50  miles,  and  a  lieight, 
M  R,  of  four  hundred  miles.  In  the  one  case  the  area  of  the  country  would 
be  represented  by  the  triangle  N  P  N,  and  in  the  other  by  the  triangle  n  R  n. 

But,  instead  of  aiming  to  obtain  the  maximum  revenue  on  all  the  trade 
which  would  reach  the  improvement  from  R  to  M,  we  may,  by  the  system 
which  it  is  intended  to  recommend,  adopt  iu  both  instances  an  uniform 
cliarge  for  toll,  as  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile,  from  JI  to  M' — the  point  which 
corresponds  with  the  intersection  n'  of  the  sides  of  the  superior  and  inferior 
triangles — and  confine  the  arrangement  made  with  a  view  to  the  maximum 
revenue,  to  that  portion  of  the  country  situated  between  M'  and  R. 

The  consequence  of  this  arrangement  would  be  to  obtain  the  same  tonnage 
and  revenue  from  the  country  traversed  by  the  portion  M  M'  of  the  line,  in 
both  cases,  since  the  tariff  would  iu  that  distance  be  common ;  and  at  the 
same  time  to  increase  the  area  of  the  countiT  trading  on  the  improvement, 
a  quantity  equal  to  the  whole  of  the  shaded  space  in  the  figure,  and  to  in- 
crease the  revenue  a  quantity  equal  to  whatever  would  be  due  to  this  addi- 
tional trade  and  the  charge  upon  it,  determined  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciples here  laid  down. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  increase  of  tonnage  and  revenue  which,  in  the 
first  part  of  tliis  article  is  shown  to  have  place,  will  be  obtained  without  any 
increase  of  toll  on  any  part  whatever  of  the  trade.  ^A■e  have  only  to  take 
the  present  tariff  of  New  York  or  Pennsylvania,  or  any  other  state  or  com- 
pany, and  obtain  these  results  by  a  reduction  of  the  charges. 

For,  at  the  point  P,  which  is  supposed  to  be  200  miles  from  M,  we  have 
seen  that  a  toll  of  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile  would  entirely  exclude  the  trade. 
But  if,  instead  of  a  charge  of  one  cent  per  ton  per  mile,  at  that  point,  or  two 
dollars  for  the  entire  toll  from  P  to  M,  tlie  article  were  taxed  but  75  cents 
per  ton,  as  is  stated  to  l)e  the  proper  toll  under  the  circumstances,  there 
would  remain  out  of  the  two  dollars,  which  is  the  limit  of  the  charge  for  toll 
it  would  bear  at  that  position,  a  balance  of  one  dollar  25  cents,  to  pay  the 
expense  of  its  transportation  from  j;  to  P — a  distance  of  12  J  miles  on  each 
side  of  the  line.  So  that,  Ijy  simply  reducing  the  charge  resulting  from  a 
tariff  proportioned  to  the  distance,  we  shaU  here  obtain,  instead  of  nothing, 
a  revenue  due  to  the  tonnage  that  would  be  furnished  by  a  district  ji; /;,  25 
miles  in  breadth,  at  a  charge  of  75  cents  per  ton. 

It  is  true  that  a  much  more  important  increase  of  revenue  might  be  ex- 
perienced by  a  modification  of  the  uniform  charge  supposed  to  be  levied  from 
M  to  jr,  and  a  reduction  from  the  new  tariff  beyond  M'.  For,  even  where 
we  to  adopt  the  principle  of  fixing  on  a  determinate  toll  per  ton  per  mile  for  a 
certain  distance,  we  should  bear  in  mind  that  there  is  a  certain  uniform 
charge  which  will  yield  a  higher  result  than  any  other.  But,  without  any 
reference  to  this,  or  any  of  the  other  advantages  which  would  be  derived 
from  a  thorough  and  strict  regard  to  the  laws  of  trade  in  the  establishment 
of  the  tariff",  I  have  only  sought  to  render  clear  the  fact,  that  by  simple  re- 
duction of  the  charges  on  a  portion  of  the  trade  on  all  our  public  works,  the 
revenue  and  tonnage  may  be  simultaneously  increased,  and  the  tax  on  the 
public  may  be  rendered  more  equitable. 


EXPERIMENTS  ON  THE  AMERICAN  COTTON-GINS. 

On  Wednesday  the  12th  July,  a  deputation  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of 
the  East  India  Company,  paid  a  visit  to  Liverpool,  for  the  pm-pose  of  wit- 
nessing a  series  of  experiments  in  the  cleaning  of  East  India  cotton  by  means 
of  the  saw-gins  brought  to  England  by  Captain  Bayles.  The  object  of  these 
experiments  was  two-fold  :  firstly,  to  show  that  by  the  introduction  of  the 
American  saw-gin  into  India,  the  cotton  of  that  country  might  be  so  well 
cleaned,  and  with  so  Uttle  injury  to  the  staple,  as  to  render  it  a  marketable 
article  to  an  almost  unhmitcd  extent;  and,  secondly,  to  ascertain  which  of 
the  four  gins  was  best  calculated  for  the  cleaning  of  Indian  cotton,  in  order 
that  other  machines  might  be  manufactured,  either  precisely  on  the  same 
principle,  or  with  such  improvements  as  might  seem  desirable. 


314 


THE  Cn  IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Skptkmber, 


Thcexpcrimerits  took  jilace  on  Friday  the  1 4tli  ult.,  on  t\:t'  pvcinises  of  Messrs. 
Fawcett  and  Preston,  where  the  gins  liad  been  fitted  up.  and  steam-power 
applied  to  them.  There  were  present  the  directors,  deputations  from  tlje 
Gla-sgow  .ind  Manchester  Chambers  of  Commerce,  tlie  Mayor  of  Liverpool, 
and  a  great  number  of  e.\te:;sive  spinners,  infiuential  merchants  and  brokers, 
probably  to  the  extent  of  150  persons. 

The  Chairman  ot  tlie  directors  haWng  explained  briefly  the  objects  of  the 
Board,  the  experiments  were  commenced,  under  the  superintendence  of  Cap- 
tain liayles,  who  was  assisted  by  the  four  .\merican  planters  remaining  vitli 
him.  .A.  quantity  of  Sural  cotton,  in  the  state  in  whieh  it  had  been  gathered, 
and  wliicli  had  been  two  years  in  this  country,  was  first  exhibited  to  the  com- 
pany.  It  seemed  to  liave  been  gathered  when  wet,  and  was  very  dirtv;  and 
the  general  opinion  seemed  to  be  that  in  its  then  state  it  was  nearly, 'if  not 
altogetber,  worthless.  Twenty-one  pounds  of  this  cotton  were  put  into  each 
of  the  three  .American  gins;  No.  1,  being  the  invention  of  Mr.  E.  Carver; 
No.  2,  that  of  Mr.  Jones;  and  No.  3,  that  of  Mr.  W.  U.  Hrooks.  Two  of  the 
gins  have  60  saws ;  the  other  has  40  ;  the  time  occupied  in  ginning  therefore 
Taricd  somewhat.  Two,  we  believe,  accomplished  their  work  in  about  9i 
minutes ;  the  third  in  about  1 1 1. 

The  result  of  the  experiment  with  the  gin  No.  3  vras  first  testeil ;  it  was  as 
follows  r— cotton,  5  lbs.  3  oz. ;  seeds,  12  lbs.  8  oz. ;  waste,  2  lbs.  11  oz. ;  mak- 
ing within  lOoz.  of  the  original  quantity  of  21  lbs.  put  into  the  macliine. 
The  yield  of  cotton,  it  will  be  seen,  was  one  quarter.  A  sample  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  inspection  of  the  company  generally,  and  they  were  requested 
to  put  upon  it  a  value.  Mr.  Ilardman  Earle,  Mr.'.Vshton,  and  another  gen- 
tleman, were  appointed  special  valuers.  They  decided  that  this  sample  was 
worth  45d.  per  lb. 

Gin  No.  2.— Cotton,  5  lbs. ;  seeds,  14  lbs.  10  oz. ;  waste,  12  oz.  Value  of 
sample,  4d. 

Gin  No.  1. — Cotton,  5  lbs.  5  oz. ;  seeds  and  waste,  lolbs.  Goz.  Value, 
4. id. 

It  is  necessary  to  mention  that  the  machines  were  not,  as  may  well  be 
imagined,  in  the  best  working  order.  This  was  especially  the  case 'with  No. 
2,  between  the  saws  of  which  ulunerous  seeds  had  forced  tlieir  way,  thus  in- 
juring the  staple  more  than  would  otherwise  have  been  the  case.  '  The  saws 
having  been  cleaned,  a  second  experiment  was  made  with  this  gin,  the  result 
of  which  was  the  production  of  a  better  cotton,  valued  at  4id. 

An  experiment  was  then  made  upon  the  fourth  saw-gin.  This  was  .ilso 
from  America,  but  it  was  a  machine  of  older  date  than  the  foregoing  ones. 
Patterns  of  it  had  been  made  and  sent  out  to  each  of  the  Presidencies,  and 
the  machines  had  been  tried,  but  were  pronounced  to  be  a  failure.  They  were 
in  India  worked  with  hand-power.  Steam-power  was  employed  in  tlie  pre- 
sent experiment ;  and  21  lbs.  of  the  old  Surat  cotton  was  put  into  the  gin. 
The  time  occupied  in  ginning  this  was  141  minutes;  but  the  comparative  in- 
crease of  time  may  in  part  be  accounted  for  from  the  fact  of  the  machine 
having  a  less  number  of  saws.  The  result  was — cotton,  4  Ibj.  10  oz. ;  seed, 
15  lbs. ;  waste,  10  oz.  The  cotton  was  well  cleared  of  the  seed  and  dirt,  but 
the  staple  was  vcrj-  much  cut.     The  estimated  value  was  4d. 

As  steam-engines  aie  at  present  almost  unknown  in  the  interior  of  India, 
animal  power  will  probaldy  be  employed,  at  least  in  the  first  instance,  in  the 
working  of  the  gins.  The  above  four  are  so  constructed  that  either  steam  or 
animal  power  may  be  applied  to  them. 

An  experiment  was  now  made  on  a  hand-gin,  constructed  by  Messrs.  Faw. 
cett  and  Preston,  under  the  superintendence  of  Dr.  Jones,  who  had  only 
commenced  the  macliine  twelve  days  beforehand.  The  doctor  stated  that  hi's 
great  object  had  been  to  produce  a  machine  which  should  possess  the  essen- 
tial qiiality  of  standing  the  climate  of  India  without  warping.  That,  he 
thouglit,  would  do  so  ;  and  he  felt  convinced  that  it  would,  with  the  substi- 
tution of  properly  finished  saws,  and  the  outlay  of  a  little  more  time,  turn  out 
a  good  working  gin.  It  has  twenty-five  saws.'and  may  be  worked  with  horse 
power.  As,  how  ever,  it  was  scarcely  in  a  finished  state,  a  regular  experiment 
of  its  capabilities  was  not  made.  A  small,  but  unspecified  amount  of  the 
Surat  cotton  Iiitherto  employed  was  put  into  the  gin,  so  as  to  obtain  samples. 
At  first  the  result  seemed  unsuccessful.  The  cotton  was  said  to  be  more  cut 
than  in  any  other  instance  ;  but,  after  closer  inspection,  the  staple  was  allowed 
to  be  very  fair,  and  the  machine  to  have  done  its  work  well.  A  samjile  was 
compared  with  the  others,  and  the  cotton  was  pronounced  to  be  equal  to  that 
produced  by  gins  Nos.  2  and  i. 

These  were  the  most  important  experiments  of  the  day,  and  were  generally 
considered  sufficient  to  prove  that  cotton  of  East  Indian  growth  may  be  well 
cleaned  by  the  saw-gin,  without  any  very  material  injur)-  to  the  staple.  The 
establishment  of  this  important  fact  will  thus  enable  India  once  more  to  enter 
into  competition  with  America  as  a  producer  of  the  raw  material,  and  to  oc- 
cupy the  place  from  which  she  was  driven  by  the  invention  and  general  adop- 
tion of  the  saw-gin  in  America. 


Improvements  In  obliimi}::;  powrr ;  patented  by  Moses  Poole.  Lincoln's  Inn. 
July  ".—The  intention  cimsisis  in  obtaining  power  by  means  ol  an  apparatus. 

_..l_l_l_  K_       _     ..„r,«a  .^f  l..l.,,l.,^  .-,-  f iLl--    J. H./  .1    : .-1,1; S? .:  -  .- 


juiy  (.— ine  intention  cimsisls  in  otitaining  power  by  ..„....o  „.  ....  ,l,,|.,.,,.ii,^. 
which  has  a  series  of  blades  or  surfaces  like  fivers  fixed  in  an  oblique  direction 
to  an  axis,  which  is  made  to  revolve,  ami.  consequently  to  carry  them  round 
at  any  velocity  required,  the  atmosphere  actinp;  as  Ihc  power  of  resistance. 


Mi^u.  uie  aiiiMispiiere  aciinx    as   uie    power    ul    lesistancf 
wiiereoy  a  gre  ii  potter  is  obtained  for  propelling  boats,  carriages.  Sec.    The 
inventor  proposes  to  work  this  apparatus  by  means  of  an  engine,  which,  if 
Vlr.ced  in  a  boat,  carriage,  or  car  of  a  ballou'n.  the  fivers  or  blades  actin'.'  '.n 
the  atmosphere  will  cause  the  machine  to  move  in  any  direction  re.juired." 


FROCESDIKGS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 
March  0. — The  Prksidext  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected  : — Robert  Napier  and  Daniell 
Mackain,  as  Members;  John  Salkeld,  Robert  Batson,  John  Gandell,  and  Sie- 
gerick  Clu-istopher  Kreeft,  as  Giaauates. 

"Description  of  the  '  Aotixnch'  Iron  Passage  Boat  phjiny  on  the  Limeriek 
narit/ntion,  between  that  place  and  Killaloe."  By  Charles  Wye  Williams, 
Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  attention  of  Mr.  Williams  having  been  attracted  to  the  successful  plan 
for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  adopted  on  the  Glasgow  and  Paisley  Canal, 
where  light  sheet-iron  boats  of  great  length  travel  at  a  speed  of  nine  miles 
an  hour,  he  was  induced  to  attempt  the  introduction  of  the  same  system  on 
tlie  Irish  canals.  .\  great  difliculty,  however,  presented  itself,  as  the  locks 
there  would  only  admit  boats  60  feet  long,  which  length  was  quite  inade- 
quate to  the  carrying  out  with  advantage  the  princijile  involved  in  the  long 
light  Scotch  boat.  To  overcome  this  difliculty,  he  constructed  a  sheet-iron 
boat,  80  feet  long  and  6  feet  6  inches  wide  at  midships,  having  the  stem  and 
stern  ends  (each  10  feet  long)  attached  by  strong  hinges  to  the  body,  and 
susceptible  of  being  rajiidly  raised  to  a  vertical  iiosition  by  means  of  winches, 
thus  reducing  the  length  to  60  feet  when  required  to  pass  through  a  lock. 
It  is  evident  that  by  this  means  there  would  be  gained  not  merely  the  ap- 
parent additional  buoyancy  of  10  feet  at  each  end  of  the  boat,  which,  from 
the  form,  would  not  be  vep.'  effective,  but  in  reality  the  buoyancy  due  to  an 
addition  of  20  feet  of  the  midship  section.  The  boat  thus  constructed  has 
been  found  to  answer  jierfectly ;  the  buoyancy  is  erpial  to  that  of  the  Scotch 
boats  of  similar  dimensions ;  no  craiikness  or  unsteadiness  accnies  wiicn  the 
ends  are  raised ;  it  is  capable  of  carrying  60  passengers,  travelling  at  a  speed 
of  9  miles  per  hour,  with  the  same  power  that  was  required  to  draw  a  CO 
feet  tioat  with  a  less  load,  and  there  is  a  much  less  action  on  the  canal  hank, 
in  consequence  of  the  increased  length,  which  at  the  same  time  imparts  stiff- 
ness, and  enables  passengers  to  enter  and  leave  the  boat  with  safety.  Con- 
siderable time  is  saved  in  passing  the  locks,  by  the  opposition  of  the  square 
end  when  the  bow  is  raised ;  the  boat  may  thus  be  run  almost  at  full  speed 
into  the  lock,  and  both  ends  being  raised  simultaneously,  it  is  stopped  much 
more  easily  than  if  the  tapered  ends  were  down.  No  provision  is  necessary 
for  keeping  the  ends  down,  as  the  weight  of  the  bow  and  steersman  answers 
the  purpose. 

This  boat  has  been  working  without  intermission  for  three  years  between 
Limerick  and  Killaloe,  traversing  twice  daily  a  distance  of  15  miles,  on  a 
navigation  of  considerable  intricacy,  and  passing  11  locks,  without  any  acci- 
dent haying  hitherto  occurred. 

Mr.  Parkcs  observed  that,  independent  of  the  advantages  of  carrying  more 
passengers,  by  continuing  the  midship  section  to  the  length  of  60  feet,  con- 
siderable speed  was  gained  by  the  80  feet  boat,  in  consequence  of  its  fine 
entrance  and  run.  Mr.  Millianis  informed  him  that  the  velocity  was  found 
to  dejiend  on  tlie  position  of  the  boat  on  the  wave ;  that  the  rider  of  the 
horses  employed  in  towing  the  boat  knew  exactly  the  proper  position  of  the 
wave  with  respect  to  the  boat,  and  regulated  the  exertion  of  the  liorses  ac- 
cordingly— the  velocity  of  the  boat  and  the  tractive  force  depending  on  the 
relative  position  of  the  boat  and  wave. 

Mr.  Field,  in  reply  to  some  remarks  respecting  the  effect  of  these  rising 
ends  on  the  buoyancy  of  the  boat,  stated  that  he  did  not  understand  it  to  be 
Mr.  Williams's  design  to  obtain  additional  buoyancy  thereby.  The  ends  only 
press  on  the  water  as  much  as  is  due  to  their  own  weight,  and  are  principally 
useful  ill  giving  a  fine  entrance  and  run  to  the  boat ;  thus  having  the  whole 
space  between  the  rising  ends  for  the  accommodation  of  passengers,  and  ob- 
taining an  absolute  gain  of  the  whole  space  that  is  hfted  at  each  end,  as  in  a 
boat  of  the  ordinary  length  there  must  he  the  same  tapering  of  the  bow  and 
stern  ends.  So  great  is  the  facility  in  managing  the  ends,  that  on  quitting 
a  lock  the  bow  end  is  lowered  as  the  gates  arc  opening;  the  boat  is  set  in 
motion  at  the  same  time,  and  as  it  moves  on  the  stern  end  is  let  down,  and 
the  usual  speed  is  obtained  very  soon  after  it  clears  the  lock.  When  a  lock 
is  to  be  entered,  the  boat  is  suffered  nearly  to  reacli  the  gate  at  full  speed, 
when  the  bow  end  being  raised,  the  additional  resistance  caused  by  the  square 
section  being  suddenly  opposed  to  the  water  stops  the  boat  almost  imme- 
diately. The  weight  of  one  man  at  each  end  is  amjily  sufficient  to  keep  down 
the  ends  wlien  the  boat  is  in  motion. 

"  On  the  experiments  and  results  nf  Mr.  TV.  J.  Ilenwood,  as  to  the  power 
of  the  IIucl  Toiran  Eiujine."     Jiy  George  Woods. 

In  this  communication,  the  author  refers  to  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Henwood,  published  in  the  second  volume  of  the  Transactions,  and  to  the 
result  there  stated,  that  the  curve  traced  by  the  pencil  of  the  indicator 
during  the  expansion  of  the  steam  deviates  from  a  true  parabola,  according 
to  the  temperature  of  the  medium  contained  in  tlie  jacket.  Mr.  Woods 
coiaes  to  the  conclusion  that,  the  temperature  rcm.ainiiig  constant,  the  curve 
will  de\iate  very  considerably  from  a  true  parabola.  The  results  obtained 
by  the  author  as  to  the  relative  powers  of  the  engine  before  and  after  the 
steain  is  cut  oflT,  and  the  mean  pressure,  as  given  by  tlie  indicator  diagram, 
do  not  diflfer  materiallv  from  those  given  by  Mr.  Henwood.     But  Mr.  Woods 


)S40.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


315 


differs  from  Mr.  llenwood  as  to  tliat  portion  of  the  curve  wliich  the  latter 
selects  as  represenliiis  the  true  value  of  expansive  working. 

"  Description  of  a  Riimiing  Gauge  for  ascertaining  the  Parallelism  of  a 
Raihcay."     By  Edward  Cowper.     (Described  in  the  Journal,  vol.  ii,  p.  245.) 

"  All  Azimuth  Cap  as  an  addition  to  the  common  Level."  By  Edward 
Cowper. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  in  levelling  operations  to  ascertain  the  bearing 
of  objects  which  are  cither  above  or  below  the  tield  of  view  of  the  telescope. 
The  comiuon  level  alone  cannot  take  the  bearing  of  such  objects  ;  for,  by 
elevating  or  depressing  the  telescope,  the  action  of  the  compass  is  destroyed  ; 
but,  by  slipping  the  azimuth  cap  on  to  the  end  of  the  telescope  of  the  level, 
object's  50°  above  or  below  the  field  of  view  may  be  observed  without  dis- 
turl>ing  the  compass  or  altering  the  level  of  the  telescope. 

This  instrument  consists  of  a  brass  cap  containing  two  slips  of  looking- 
glass  placed  at  an  angle  to  each  other,  precisely  as  in  Iladley's  quadrant ; 
one  glass  being  fixed  at  an  angle  to  the  axis  of  the  telescope,  and  the  other 
being  moveable  about  a  centre.  When  any  object  is  required  to  be  brought 
within  the  field  of  view,  the  cap  is  placed  on  the  end  of  the  telescope,  and 
the  angle  of  the  moveable  glass  is  varied  until  the  object  is  reflected  on  the 
fixed  glass,  and  thence  to  the  eye. 

March  10. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected : — John  Manby,  as  a  Graduate; 
Frederick  John  Evans,  Richard  Ravenhill,  and  John  Glutton,  as  Associates. 

"  A  mode  of  li ending  Discs  of  Silvered  Plate  Glass  into  Concare  or  Conre.v 
Mirrors  hg  means  of  the  pressure  of  the  Atmosphere."     By  James  Nasmyth. 

The  dilficulty  of  obtaining  large  specula  for  telescopes,  together  with  the 
disadvantages  attending  the  weight,  the  brittleness,  and  liability  to  oxidation, 
of  the  speculum  metal  generally  used,  induced  llr.  Nasmyth  to  turn  his  at- 
tention to  the  employment  of  silvered  plate  glass  for  telescopic  purposes,  as 
it  possesses  perfect  truth  of  surface,  is  lighter  than  metal,  is  not  liable  to 
oxidation,  and  a  greater  quantity  of  Ught  is  reflected  from  it  than  from  any 
metallic  surface. 

To  give  a  concave  or  convex  form  to  a  disc  of  plate  glass,  a  certain  pres- 
sure must  be  made  to  act  equally  over  the  surface.  This  equal  pressure  is 
obtained  on  Mr.  Nasmyth's  plan,  by  taking  advantage  of  tlie  weight  of  the 
atmosphere. 

A-  disc  of  silvered  plate  glass,  39  inches  in  diameter  and  f^  of  an  inch  in 
thickness,  is  fitted  and  cemented  into  a  shallow  cast-iron  dish,  turned  true 
on  its  face  so  as  to  render  the  chamber  behind  the  glass  perfectly  au:-tight; 
by  means  of  a  tube  communicating  with  this  chamber,  any  portion  of  air  can 
be  withdrawn  or  injected. 

To  produce  a  concave  mirror  so  slight  a  power  is  required,  that  on  apply- 
ing the  mouth  to  the  tube  and  exhausting  the  chamber,  the  weight  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  amounts  in  this  case  to  3558  lb.,  acting  with  equal  pres- 
sure over  a  surface  of  1186  square  inches,  causes  the  glass  to  assume  a  con- 
cavity of  nearly  three-quarters  of  an  inch,  wliich,  in  a  diameter  of  39  inches, 
is  far  beyond  what  would  ever  be  required  for  telescopic  purposes.  On  re- 
admitting the  air,  the  glass  hnmediately  recovers  its  plane  surface,  and  on 
forcing  in  air  with  the  power  of  the  lungs,  it  assumes  a  degree  of  convexity 
nearly  equal  to  its  former  concavity.  The  degree  of  concavity  or  convexity 
may  be  regulated  to  the  greatest  nicety,  and  it  is  proposed  to  render  the 
degree  of  concavity  constant,  by  placing  in  the  air  tight  chamber  a  disc  of 
iion  turned  to  the  required  form,  and  allowing  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
to  retain  the  glass  in  the  form  given  to  it  by  its  close  contact  with  the  iron 
disc.  The  curve  naturally  taken  by  the  glass  when  under  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  is  believed  by  Mr.  Nasmyth  to  be  the  catenary,  inasmuch  as  its 
section  would  be  the  same  as  that  of  a  line  suspended  from  each  end,  and 
loaded  equally  throughout  its  length. 

Mr.  Lowe  did  not  feel  weU  assured  that  the  curve  naturally  taken  by  the 
"  Pneumatic  Mirror"  was  a  catenarian,  as  the  plate  being  set  iu  a  frame  was 
supported  all  round  its  periphery,  and  resembled  an  arch  resting  on  its  abut- 
ments. He  suggested  the  ]>ropriety  of  attempting  to  attain  given  curves  by 
grinding  the  plate  of  dilfereut  thicknesses  ia  paits,  so  that  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  should  affect  it  unequally. 

Mr.  Macneill  was  inclined  to  believe  the  curve  assumed  was  the  "  Elastic 
Curve,"  the  properties  of  which  were  exaudued  by  James  Beruouilli,  iu  the 
Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Science,  17U3. 

March  17. — Henry  R.  Palmer,  V.  P.,  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected  : — Theodore  Budd  and  Thomas 
Steel,  as  Graduates ;  Geddcs  Pearce,  William  Lane,  Thomas  Jevons,  and 
George  ilills,  as  .\ssociates. 

"  An  Account  of  the  Performances  of  the  Locomotive  Engines  on  the  Lon- 
don and  liirmiwjham  Railtray  during  the  gear  1839."  By  Edward  Bury, 
M.  last.  C.  E. 

The  engines  used  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  Railway  are  all  con- 
structed on  the  same  principle  as  to  the  main  parts,  the  whole  being  upon 
four  wheels,  and  oidy  differing  from  each  other  in  some  of  the  minor  details. 
The  engines  used  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  have  cyUnders  12  inches 
diameter,  with  an  18  inch  stroke  ;  the  driving  wheels  are  5  feet  diameter, 
and  the  carrying  wheels  4  feet  diameter.  The  merchandize  engines  have 
cyhnders  13  inches  diameter,  with  an  18  inch  stroke,  and  differ  from  the 


others  in  having  all  the  wheels  of  5  feet  diameter  and  coupled  togetl'.er.  The 
framing  is  of  wrought  iron,  fixed  inside  the  wheels  for  the  greater  conve- 
nience of  connecting  it  with  the  boiler.  The  cylinders  are  attached  to  the 
frame  by  two  strong  wrought-iron  bars  passing  beneath  the  lower  semi- 
diameter,  and  secured  by  bolts  to  the  ears  cast  on  them.  The  cranks  and 
fore  axles  are  also  fixed  to  the  frame.  By  this  arrangement,  any  concussioa 
is  received  directly  by  that  part  of  the  machine  best  calculatcil  to  bear  it, 
and  when  the  force  of  the  engine  is  exerted  in  either  pushing  or  drawing,  it 
is  done  directly  tlirough  the  line  of  the  framing,  and  thus  any  strain  is  di- 
verted from  the  boiler  or  from  those  paits  of  the  machine  liable  to  be  injured. 
There  are  only  two  bearings  on  the  axles,  and  they  are  inside  the  wheels. 
.-Vny  tendency  towards  depression  iu  the  centre  from  the  weight  would  be 
counteracted  Ijy  the  continual  upward  pressure,  arising  from  blows  received 
by  the  flauneh  of  the  wheels  striking  against  the  rails  on  curves,  passing 
crossings,  lic.  The  bushes  which  the  axles  run  in  are  fitted  ijito  the  frame 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  springs  to  play  vertically,  but  have  flauches 
which  prevent  any  tendency  to  lateral  action  beyond  that  necessary  for  the 
irregularities  of  the  road,  and  they  are  of  such  a  length  as  to  enable  them  to 
hold  up  the  engine  in  case  of  the  breakage  of  one  of  the  axles.  It  would 
appear  that  the  breakage  of  the  axles  is  a  ver)-  rare  occurrence,  and  that  even 
when  it  has  happened,  the  engines  have  performed  the  remainder  of  the  jour- 
ney and  brought  home  the  train  with  only  a  slight  diminution  of  speed.  The 
engines  differ  in  weight  according  to  the  class  they  belong  to.  A  passenger 
engine,  with  its  coke  and  water  in  the  fire-box  and  boiler,  weighs  9  tons, 
13  cwts.  1  qr. 

Tons.  cwts.  qrs. 
The  fore  end  ....        3       19       1 

The  after  end        ....        5       17       2 
A  merchandize  engine,  with  coke  and  water,  weighs  11  tons,  13  cwts.  1  qr. 

Tons.  cwts.  qrs. 
The  fore  end  ...-541 

The  after  end         ....        6       12      3 

This  form  of  engine  was  adopted  by  the  atithor  as  early  as  the  year  1R2!>, 
when  he  constructed  the  "  Liverpool,"  which  was  the  original  model  engine 
with  horizontal  cylinders  and  cranked  axles.  It  was  set  to  work  on  the 
Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway  in  July,  1830.  This  form  of  engine  has 
been  invariably  used  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  Railway  since  its 
opeiuug. 

The  paper  is  accompanied  by  complete  drawings  of  the  engines,  and  tabu- 
lar statements  of  their  performances  during  the  year  1839,  showing  the 
number  of  miles  traversed  by  each  engine,  the  weight  conveyed,  with  the 
cost  in  detail  of  coke,  oil,  tools,  wages,  repairs,  and  general  charges. 

The  performances  of  the  engines  extend  over  a  distance  of  700,000  miles, 
and  a  period  of  12  months ;  and  it  appears  that  with  the  passenger  engines. 
For  the  first  6  months  the  average  total 

cost  of  conveyance  was 
For  the  second  0  months  the  average  to- 
tal cost  was        ..... 
While  with   the  merchandize  engines — 
For  the  first  G  months  the  average  total 

cost  was  i^Mr  '^i**''- 

And  for  the  second  G  months  the  average 

was -nnnx  '^'t*0- 

"  Earth  Falls  at  the  Undercliff  in  the  Isle  of  Wight."  By  William  Rick- 
man. 

The  remarkable  tract  of  coast  called  the  "  Undercliff"  extends  from  the 
south  point  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  nine  miles  to  the  eastward.  Its  surface  is 
distorted  in  fonn,  somewhat  resembling  in  miniature  tlie  volcanic  features  of 
Southern  Italy ;  for  although  the  latter  has  been  formed  by  the  action  of  fire, 
and  the  former  by  that  of  water,  botli  have  been  moulded  when  in  a  state  of 
partial  fluidity.  The  soil  is  of  a  boggy  nature,  is  intersected  with  numerous 
springs,  and  in  it  are  imbedded,  in  the  utmost  confusion,  detached  masses  of 
the  weather-worn  cliff-rock,  forming  in  places  natural  terraces  on  the  face  of 
the  clitf,  and  inclining  inwards  at  different  angles  towards  the  land. 

A  sectional  view  taken  through  the  south  point,  bearing  north  to  the  sum-, 
mit  of  St.  Catherine's  Down,  would  jiresent  tliese  features. 

From  the  sea  beach  of  iron  sand,  strewed  with  shingle  and  boulders,  rises 
a  cliff  of  GO  feet,  and  from  it  a  rugged  and  irregular  ascent  of  320  feet  iu 
height,  half  a  mile  in  extent,  composed  of  vegetable  soil,  chalk,  green  sand- 
stone in  masses  an<l  fragments,  and  of  blue  marie,  the  whole  mingleil  indis- 
criminately and  irri::rited  by  numerous  springs.  Thus  much  constitutes  the 
Underclift"!  Above  it  appears  the  perpendicular,  serrated  profile  of  the  Upper 
Cliff,  260  feet  in  height,  from  which  the  surface  of  the  Down  jirocceds  with 
a  slight  descent  for  :i.  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  then  gradually  rises  in  the  extent 
of  half  a  mile  to  a  v.-  tical  height  of  200  feet,  being  the  highest  land  in  the 
island — 780  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  strata  are  nearly  horizontal, 
with  a  slight  dip  to  the  north-east.  They  are  the  upper  part  of  the  secon- 
dary or  supcrmedial  order,  and  consist  of  cliallc,  chalk-stone,  gi'een  sand., 
stone,  blue  marl,  and  iron  or  red  sand. 

This  stratification  would  account  for  the  subsidences  of  the  Cliff  which 
have  occurred  so  repeatedly.  The  water  collected  by  the  extensive  surface 
of  the  Down  would  percolate  througli  the  chalk  and  sand-stone  beds  until  it 
reached  the  impervious  blue  marlc,  where  it  would  accumulate  until  it  finally 
escaped  by  oozing  out  over  the  edge  of  the  stratum,  carrying  with  it  portions 


of  a  penny  per  ton  per  mile. 


ditto. 


316 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[September, 


of  the  saiulv  subsoil ;  in  this  state  it  has  the  a]i])carancc  of  a  slimy  grit,  con. 
sistiug  of  [laiticlcs  of  the  saiul-stoiie  luliricateil  with  clay;  it  is  f.ciuiliaily 
called  "the  blue  slipper."  A  continuation  of  this  infiltration  for  any  length 
of  time  must  end  by  undermining  certain  portions  of  the  face  of  the  Clitt'. 
which,  being  unsupported  Ijcneath,  detach  themselves  from  the  main  rock 
and  settle  ;  the  first  settlement  may  not  exceed  a  few  inches,  but  a  fissure 
having  been  formed  the  whole  length  behind  the  subsidence,  the  surface 
water  ))0urs  into  it,  and  continuing  to  moisten  and  undermine  it,  at  length 
causes  the  slip  to  assume  its  present  aspect.  This  soakage  of  water  at  the 
back  of  the  mass  may  be  supposed  to  sap  its  foundation  at  the  rear  and  to 
give  it  the  dii)  inwards,  which  is  observed  in  all  cases,  and  most  evidently  in 
such  as  are  farthest  advanced  in  their  descent.  A  number  of  natural  terraces 
are  thus  formed,  and  the  process  may  be  traced  in  every  stage  of  its  progress 
at  ditferent  parts  of  tlie  Clitf,  as  at  Mirables,  in  the  Pelham  Walks,  at  Vent- 
nor,  and  at  the  Luccondie  landslip.  These  subsidences  appear  to  have  suc- 
ceeded each  other  at  long  intervals  of  time,  but  there  is  no  record  of  any  so 
extensive  as  that  which  occurred  in  1799,  at  which  time  upwards  of  100 
acres  were  set  in  motion.  That  the  principal  landslips  took  place  prior  to 
the  Norman  Conquest  is  proved  by  the  existence  of  Bonchurch  and  St.  Law- 
rence Chapel,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  Inult  soon  after  the  manor 
was  surveyed  for  entry  in  Doomsday  Book. 

The  President  oljserved,  that  altliough  papers  of  this  kind  did  not  appear 
to  be  exactly  adapted  for  the  meetings  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
yet,  as  geology  was  so  intimately  connected  with  engineering,  and  it  was 
always  essential  to  ascertain  accurately  the  nature  of  the  ground  where  works 
were  to  be  executed,  such  commnnications  became  not  only  acceptable,  but 
very  valuable,  to  the  profession. 

jlr.  Lowe  liad  paid  ranch  attention  to  a  similar  formation  at  Hastings,  and 
while  he  agreed  to  the  general  correctness  of  the  observations,  he  diil  not 
think  a  sufficient  reason  had  been  assigned  for  such  a  mass  of  iron  sand  with 
its  incumbent  chalk  being  driven  seaward.  He  would  attribute  the  subsi- 
dences at  the  Undercliff  to  the  action  of  water  percolating  through  the 
fissures  into  the  thin  beds  of  clay  interspersed  with  lignites,  with  which  the 
iron  sand  abounded.  This,  when  moistened,  would  ooze  out  and  permit  the 
chalk  to  crush  it  outwards,  causing  the  sidjsidences  so  ably  described  by  Jlr. 
Rickman. 

March  24,  1810.— The  President  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected: — Charles  Lanyon,  as  a  Mem- 
ber ;  Henry  Addams,  Thomas  Macdougal  Smith,  and  Robert  Richardson,  as 
Graduates ;  Henry  Heathorn  and  Ardaseer  Cursetjee,  as  Associates. 

"  On  the  manufacture  of  Flint  Glass."  By  ApsleyPellatt,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E. 
Flint  glass,  called  by  the  French  "  cristal,"  from  its  resemblance  to  real 
crystal,  is  composed  of  silcx  (whence  the  English  name),  to  which  is  added 
carbonate  of  potash  and  htharge,  or  red  lead ;  to  whicli  latter  material  is 
owing,  not  only  its  great  specific  gravity,  but  its  superior  lustre,  its  ductility, 
and  ]iower  of  refraction. 

It  is  necessary  for  optical  purposes  that  flint  glass  should  be  perfectly  free 
from  strise,  otherwise  the  rays  of  light  passing  through  it  diverge  and  become 
distorted,  and  this  defect  is  caused  by  the  want  of  homogeneity  in  the  melted 
mass,  occasioned  by  the  difficulty  of  perfectly  fusing  substances  of  such  dif- 
ferent density  as  the  materials  employed.  The  materials,  being  properly 
prepared,  are  thrown  at  intervals  into  a  crucible  of  Stourbridge  clay,  which 
will  hold  about  1600  lbs.  weight  of  glass  when  fused.  The  mouth  of  the 
crucible  is  then  covered  with  a  double  stopper,  but  not  luted,  to  permit  the 
escape  of  th.c  moisture  remaining  in  the  materials,  as  well  as  the  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  excess  of  oxygen.  It  reiiuires  from  50  to  60  hours  application 
of  a  rapid,  intense,  and  equal  heat  to  etfect  the  perfect  fusion  of  the  materials 
and  to  drive  ott'  the  gas ;  during  whicli  time  the  unfused  particles  and  excess 
of  salts  are  skimmed  off  as  they  rise  to  the  surface.  The  progress  of  fusion 
cannot  be  watched,  nor  can  any  mechanical  means  for  blending  the  material 
during  fusion  be  resorted  to,  lest  the  intensity  of  heat  requisite  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  perfectly  homogeneous  glass  should  be  diminished,  the  quality 
of  the  product  being  influenced  by  any  inattention  on  the  part  of  the  fireman, 
as  well  as  by  the  state  of  the  atmospliere  or  of  the  wind.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained, that  there  is  a  certain  point  or  crisis  of  fusion  at  which  the  melted 
metal  must  be  kept  to  insure  a  glass  fit  for  optical  purposes,  and  even  when 
that  point  be  attained,  and  the  crucible  shall  furnish  proper  glass  during 
several  hours,  should  there  be  such  diminution  of  heat  as  to  require  the  fur- 
nace to  be  closed,  the  rciuainder  of  the  metal  in  the  crucible  becomes  curdy 
and  full  of  stri;e,  and  thus  unfit  for  use.  It  is  the  same  with  tlie  glass  made 
for  the  flat  bore  tubes  for  thermometers,  which  are  never  annealed,  because 
the  smoke  of  the  annealing  furnace  would  render  the  interior  of  the  bore 
unfit  for  the  reception  of  the  mercury.  These  tubes  will  only  bear  the  heat 
of  the  blow-]iipe  when  they  are  made  from  a  metal  which  has  been  produced 
under  all  the  favourable  circumstances  before  described.  It  is,  therefore,  to 
be  inferred,  that  the  most  homogeneous  and  perfect  flint  glass  can  only  be 
produced  by  exposure  to  an  intense  anil  equable  degree  of  heat,  and  that  any 
excess  or  diminution  of  that  heat  is  injurious  to  its  quality. 

The  English  method  of  manufacturing  the  flint  jilate  for  optical  purposes 
is  thus  described.  About  7  lb.  weight  of  the  metal  is  taken  in  a  ladle  of  a 
conical  shape  from  the  pot  at  the  proper  point  of  fusion,  and  then  blown 
into  a  hollow  cylinder,  cut  open,  and  flattened  into  a  sheet  of  glass  of  about 
14  inches  by  20,  and  varying  in  thickness  from  J  to  ,  of  an  inch.  This  plate 
is  afterwards  annealed,  aud  iu  this  state  goes  into  the  hands  of  the  optician, 


who  cuts  and  grinds  it  into  the  requisite  form.  When  a  glass  furnace  is 
about  to  be  put  out,  whole  pots  of  metal  are  sometimes  suffered  to  remain  in 
it,  and  cool  gradually.  The  crucibles' being  destroyed,  pieces  of  glass  may 
be  cloven  from  the  mass  of  metal,  softened  by  heat,  and  made  to  assume  the 
requisite  form,  and  then  ground.  It  is  believed  that  the  excellent  glasses 
made  by  Frauenhoft'cr,  and  other  manufacturers  on  the  continent,  are  jiro- 
duced  by  some  such  means.  On  aMempting  to  cut  glass  ware,  it  is  easilv 
]ierceived  if  it  be  sufficiently  annealed ;  if  not,  the  ware  is  put  into  tcpiil 
water,  which  is  heated,  and  kcjit  at  the  boiling  point  during  several  hours  ; 
it  is  then  suflfered  to  become  gradually  cold.  Tliis  method  is  more  efficacious 
than  re.anncaling  by  the  ordinary  means.  A  |)iece  of  imannealed  barometer 
tube  of  40  inches  in  length  being  heated  and  quickly  cooled,  contracted  only 
-^  of  an  inch,  whereas  a  similar  piece,  annealed  by  the  usual  means,  con- 
tracted nearly  J  of  an  inch.  Unannealed  flint  glass,  being  heated  and  sud- 
denly cooled  in  water,  exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  mass  of  crystals  ;  it  is 
thence  inferred  that  the  process  of  annealing  renders  the  glass  more  compact 
and  solid ;  it  thus  becomes  incapable  of  polarization. 

Flint  glass  being  remarkably  elastic,  has  caused  it  to  be  used  for  chro- 
nometers. To  prove  its  elasticity,  a  hollow  ball  of  unannealed  glass  of  3 
inches  diameter,  weighing  about  10  ounces,  was  dropped,  when  cold,  from  a 
height  of  7  feet  upon  a  stone  floor;  it  rebounded  uninjured  about  31  feet, 
but  broke  on  falling  to  the  ground  after  the  rebound.  Similar  balls,  both  at 
a  bright  and  a  low  red  heat,  were  dropped  from  the  same  height,  aud  both 
broke  immediately  without  any  rebound  ;  thus  demonstrating  that  its  elasti- 
city only  exists  while  cold.  Glass  being  sometimes  deteriorated  in  the  pro- 
cess of  reheating,  not  only  in  colour,  but  in  its  faculty  of  welding,  by  the  sul- 
phur existing  in  the  coal  or  coke  used  in  the  furnace,  this  is  prevented  by 
occasionally  throwing  about  a  quart  of  cold  water  on  the  fire  ;  the  explosive 
vapour  thus  raised  carries  off  the  sulphureous  gas. 

The  process  of  annealing  has  the  remarkable  property  of  carrying  off  from 
the  glass  tlie  reddish  tint  imparted  to  it  by  manganese  ;  and  in  large  masses, 
not  only  the  reddish  tint  disappears,  but  the  glass  sometimes  becomes  green 
or  blue,  probably  by  the  action  of  the  sulphureous  acid  gas  from  the  coke. 
The  reddish  tint  will  however  return,  and  the  greenish  one  disappear,  should 
the  annealed  glass  be  afterwards  heated  or  renielted.  Should  the  pot  crack 
during  fusion,  and  the  flame  or  smoke  come  in  contact  with  the  melted  metal, 
a  green  tint  and  abundance  of  dense  stria:  will  be  the  consequence.  Such  an 
accident  can  only  be  repaired,  if  the  crack  be  accessible,  by  throwing  cold 
water  on  the  exuding  metal,  which  thus  becomes  gradually  cooled,  and  itself 
forms  a  lute,  so  as  to  enable  the  process  of  melting  to  be  continued.  Long 
experience  has  shown  that  the  best  fuel  for  melting  glass  in  the  furnaces  is 
oven-burnt  coke  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  screened  coal. 

Mr.  Pellatt  illustrated  the  preceding  paper  by  specimens  of  glass  exhibiting 
peculiar  eftects  of  crystallization  ;  among  them  were  cylindrical  solid  pieces 
of  flint  glass,  which,  from  being  suddenly  cooled  by  plunging  them  into  water, 
bad  the  interior  entirely  dislocated,  and  were  merely  held  together  by  the 
exterior  coating;  portions  of  tubes  showing  the  same  effect;  a  portion  of  a 
vase  of  white  glass  dipped  into  blue  glass  of  a  greater  density — in  cooling, 
the  interior  white  glass  appeared  to  be  crushed  by  the  contraction  of  the  ex- 
terior coating ;  a  similar  vase  of  white  and  blue  glass  of  more  equal  density 
had  cooled,  and  bore  cutting  without  cracking ;  a  mass  of  optical  glass,  ex- 
hibiting stria:,  specks,  and  imperfections  ;  which,  together  with  the  modes  of 
manufacture,  he  explained. 

In  answer  to  several  questions,  Mr.  Pellatt  was  not  aware  of  any  attempt 
having  been  made  to  cut  the  bulb  of  Prince  Rupert's  drops :  he  believed  the 
perculiar  property  of  the  bursting  of  these  drops  or  tears,  on  the  end  being 
broken,  arose  from  a  crack  suddenly  commencing  and  extending  itself  rapidly 
throughout  the  mass,  causing  the  dislocation  of  the  particles.  Flint  glass  is 
seldom  sufficiently  fluid  to  make  these  drops  ;  they  are  generally  made  from 
glass  which  does  not  contain  lead. 

Alluding  to  the  use  of  plate  glass  in  Nasniyth's  Pneumatic  Mirror,  he  ob- 
served that,  owing  to  the  absence  of  lead,  plate  glass  was  purer  and  more 
homogeneous  than  flint  glass,  and  the  equality  of  thickness  produced  by 
grinding  and  polishing  enabled  the  curve  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  atmos- 
phere to  be  very  regular. 

The  use  of  coke  as  a  fuel,  by  the  regularity  of  its  combustion,  assists  ma- 
terially in  producing  good  results,  and  prevents  the  injury  which  frequently 
arises  from  a  difi'ereuce  in  the  heating  powers  of  various  coals ;  unfortunately, 
the  form  of  the  furnaces  causes  the  greatest  heat  to  be  in  the  centre,  thus 
acting  most  powerfully  upon  the  backs  of  the  pots,  instead  of  being  equally 
distributed  around  them,  which  would  be  more  desirable  and  would  insure 
better  results. 

Mr.  Pellatt  still  continued  to  use  nine  parts  of  coke  mingled  with  one  part 
of  small  coal  iu  preference  to  any  other  fuel.  He  had  abandoned  the  use  of 
gas  coke,  and  now  purchased  small  coal  at  a  low  price,  which  he  converted 
into  a  moderately-hard  coke,  rather  less  dense  than  that  used  for  smelting 
iron.  In  the  north  of  England,  a  charge  of  coal  generally  remained  in  the 
oven  during  48  hours  ;  in  London,  only  30  hours;  lie  made  lighter  charges 
and  coked  them  in  24  hours.  He  still  found  the  calorific  efl'ect  of  8  or  9  lb. 
of  coke  to  be  equal  to  that  of  12  lb.  of  coal ;  in  his  ovens,  20  cwt.  of  coal 
produced  14  cwt.  of  coke. 

Mr.  Parkes  inquired,  which  was  the  best  method  of  annealing  tubes  for 
water  gauges  on  boilers  ?  He  generally  used  those  prepared  by  Mr.  Adie,  of 
Liverpool,  who  annealed  them  by  placing  them  in  cold  water  and  gradually 
raising  the  temperatiux  to  the'boiUng  point,  at  which  it  was  kept  for  24 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


317 


hours ;  yet,  in  spite  of  these  precautions,  wliich  generally  were  successful,  he 
had  seen  twelve  of  these  tubes  break  in  one  day,  while  an  apparently  ill-made 
tube  had  lasted  six  weeks.  lie  found  thin  tubes  last  longer  than  thick  ones. 
He  was  in  the  habit  of  removing  the  stains  of  bog  water  from  his  boiler  gauges 
by  scouring  them  with  emery ;  when  reheated,  they  invariably  broke  ;  after 
many  experiments,  he  tried  the  use  of  acid,  which  answered  iierfectly,  and  no 
tubes  were  subsequently  broken. 

Mr.  PeUatt  recommended  boiling  as  a  safe  and  good  mode  of  annealing  all 
kinds  of  glass ;  in  the  ordinary  method  of  annealing,  thick  and  thin  ware  is 
often  subjected  to  the  same  process,  and  remains  in  the  leet  for  the  same 
jieriod  :  this  would  account  for  the  superior  duration  of  the  thin  tubes.  He 
attributed  the  fracture  of  the  tubes  to  the  tension  of  the  exterior  coating  and 
tlie  vibration  caused  by  the  process  of  cleaning :  this  effect  was  so  well  known 
that  old  tube  could  scarcely  be  sold,  as  it  generally  broke  in  cleaning. 

Mr.  Hawkins  observed,  that  tubes  almost  Invariably  broke  in  merely  re- 
mo\ing  dust  from  the  inside,  whether  it  was  done  by  rubbing  with  a  tight 
packing  or  by  slightly  wiping  it  out.  In  some  experiments  on  the  production 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  he  used  glass  tubes  of  -J  of  an  inch  internal  diameter  and 
I  of  an  inch  thick  :  they  bore  a  pressure  of  100  atmospheres.  Some  wrought- 
iron  tubes  into  which  holes  of  J  of  an  inch  diameter  were  drilled  and  pieces 
of  glass  inserted,  bore  a  pressure  of  600  atmospheres. 


REVIEVT'S. 


Papers  on  Iron  and  Sleel,  Practical  and  Experimental.     By  David 
MusHET.     London:  Jolin  Weale,  1840. 

In  the  volume  before  us  we  have  the  result  of  Mr.  Mushet's  labours 
for  the  last  40  years  and  upwards,  on  the  investigation  of  the  proper- 
ties of  iron.  Most  of  the  papers  have  appeared  in  the  Philosophical 
Magazine,  the  first  as  long  ago  as  1798,  they  are  now  collected  together 
in  one  volume  with  additional  notes  and  remarks,  occasioned  by  the 
new  discoveries  since  the  period  of  their  first  publication. 

It  must  be  most  gratifying  to  Mr.  Mushet  to  reprint  the  precept  at 
the  commencement  of  the  present  volume,  which  was  also  the  prelude 
of  the  first  paper  which  appeared  in  public,  and  one  which  we  are 
sure  every  scientific  man  will  read  with  pleasure. 

It  is  much  to  be  wished,  that  men  practically  versed  in  the  various  manu- 
factures of  Britain  would  turn  their  attention  to  the  best  means  of  dissemi- 
nating a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  operations  which  have  been  deter- 
mined by  experience  as  the  best  to  be  followed  in  the  large  way,  according 
to  local  and  other  circumstances.  A  candid  and  liberal  communication  of 
individual  observation,  by  promoting  the  common  interest,  would  tend  ulti- 
mately to  the  benetit  of  each  manufacturer,  by  the  increased  improvement 
and  perfection  of  their  various  articles ;  for  the  real  welfare  of  any  particular 
branch  depends  less  upon  the  superiority  of  one  man's  article  over  that  of 
another,  in  the  same  line,  than  upon  the  general  superiority  of  a  national 
product  over  that  of  any  other  country — a  pre-eminence  that  depends  entirely 
on  the  aggregate  mass  of  industry,  ingenuity  and  intellect  exerted  in  the  one 
or  the  other. 

What  I  recommend  is  the  more  necessary,  as  inaccurate  and  fallacious 
principles  are  often  brought  forward  by  men  of  science,  even  the  best  inten- 
tioned,  from  a  want  of  that  practical  knowledge,  which  can  only  be  acquired 
by  a  long  and  personal  acquaintance  with  the  processes  carried  on  in  the 
large  way  of  manufacture.  The  mischiefs  hence  occasioned  are  incredible : 
it  tends  to  separate  the  man  of  science  and  the  manufacturer ;  it  shackles  the 
latter  with  increasing  prejudice ;  makes  him  view  the  former  with  a  suspi- 
cions eye ;  is  the  principal  reason  why  science  has  been  so  long  excluded 
from  our  manufactories ;  and  why  the  accurate  results  of  the  laboratory  have 
so  long  been  despised  by  the  practical  artist,  and  been  deemed  undeserving 
of  experiment  on  an  extended  scale.  The  artist  and  the  man  of  science 
should  mutually  inform  each  other :  principles  will  then,  and  not  till  then, 
acquire  consistence  and  correctness,  and  their  value  w  ill  be  established  on  the 
surest  foundation. 

The  volume  before  us  as  we  have  stated  is  not  a  mere  reprint  or 
collection  of  the  original  papers,  but  contains  in  addition  the  results  of 
Mr.  Mushet's  subsequent  experience,  thus  forming  a  complete  and 
uniform  work.  Although  confined  only  to  one  branch,  that  of  the 
manufacture  of  pig  iron,  and  the  description  of  the  ores  and  fuel  ne- 
cessary for  producing  it,  it  gives  in  a  volume  of  952  pages  a  mass  of 
information,  which  is  invaluable  to  the  manufacturer  ana  the  student. 
It  is  fo  be  hoped,  however,  that  should  this  volume  meet  with  the 
success,  which  it  cannot  fail  to  attain,  if  it  be  rewarded  according  to 
its  merits,  that  Mr.  Mushet  may  be  induced  to  give  a  second  volume, 
as  he  intimates,  on  malleable  iron  and  steel,  and  possibly  a  third  volume 
on  the  subject  of  some  of  the  other  metals.  We  feel  certain  that  Mr 
Mushet  need  not  delay  on  this  account,  but  that  in  full  anticipation  of 
a  successful  reception,  he  may  go  on  confidently  to  render  fresh  services 
to  the  public,  and  add  new  honours  to  those  he  has  already  received. 
Mr.  Mushet  has  done  much  himself,  but  he  has  done  more  in  showing 


how  much  it  is  in  the  power  of  an  individual,  by  his  own  exertions,  to 
benefit  his  fellowmen,  and  increase  the  resources  of  his  native  land. 
To  those  who  know  Mr.  Mushet  no  enumeration  of  his  labours  is  ne- 
cessary, but  those  who  do  not  cannot  do  better  than  peruse  the  narra- 
tive given  in  the  preface  to  the  present  work,  from  which  we  extract 
that  portion  relating  to  the  grand  discovery,  by  which  he  conferred 
such  a  boon  on  Scotland  and  the  iron  trade  in  general. 

Notwithstanding  these  early  reproaches,  I  have  lived  to  see  the  nomencla- 
ture of  my  youth  furnish  a  vocabulary  of  terms  in  the  art  of  iron  making 
which  is  used  by  many  of  the  iron  masters  of  the  present  dav,  with  freedom 
and  etfect,  in  communicating  with  each  other  on  the  subject  of  their  respec- 
tive manufactures. 

Prejudices  seldom  outlive  the  generation  to  which  they  belong,  when  op- 
posed by  a  more  rational  system  of  explanation.  In  this  respect,  indeed, 
"  Time,"  as  my  Lord  Bacon  says,  "  is  the  greatest  of  all  innovators." 

In  a  similar  manner  has  Time  operated  in  my  favour,  in  respect  to  the 
Black-band  iron-stone.  The  discovery  of  this  was  made  in  1801,  when  I 
was  engaged  in  erecting  for  myself  and  partners  the  Calder  Iron  Works. 
Great  prejudice  was  excited  against  me  by  the  iron  masters  and  others  of 
that  day  in  presuming  to  class  the  wild  coals  of  the  country  with  iron-stones 
fit  and  proper  for  the  blast-furnace.  Yet  that  discovery  has  elevated  Scot- 
land to  a  considerable  rank  amongst  the  iron  making  nations  of  Europe — 
with  resources  still  in  store  that  may  be  considered  inexhaustible. 

But  such  are  the  consolatory  effects  of  time,  that  the  discoverer  of  1801  is 
no  longer  considered  the  intrusive  visionary  of  the  laboratory,  but  the  ac- 
knowledged benefactor  of  his  country  at  large,  and  particularly  of  an  exten- 
sive  class  of  coal  and  mine  proprietors  and  iron  masters,  who  have  derived, 
and  are  still  deriving,  great  wealth  from  this  important  discovery  ;  and  who, 
in  the  spirit  of  grateful  acknowledgment,  have  pronounced  it  worthy  of  a 
crown  of  gold,  or  a  monumental  record  upon  the  spot  where  the  discovery 
was  first  made.* 

At  an  advanced  period  of  life,  such  considerations  are  soothing  and  satisfac- 
tory. Many  under  similar  circumstances  have  not,  in  their  own  Ufe-time, 
had  that  measure  of  justice  awarded  to  them  by  their  country,  to  wliich  they 
were  equally  entitled.  I  accept  it,  however,  as  a  boon  justly  due  to  me,  and 
as  an  equivalent  in  some  degree  for  that  laborious  course  of  investigation 
which  I  had  prescribed  for  myself,  and  which,  in  early  life,  was  carried  on 
under  circumstances  of  personal  exposure  and  inconvenience,  which  nothing 
but  a  frame  of  iron  could  have  supported.  They  atone  also,  in  part  for  that 
disappointment  sustained  in  early  life  by  the  speculative  habits  of  one  partner, 
and  the  constitutional  nervousness  of  another,  which  eventually  occasioned 
my  separation  from  the  Calder  Iron  Works,  and  lost  me  the  possession  of 
extensive  tracts  of  the  Black-band  iron-stone,  which  I  had  secured  while  the 
value  of  the  discovery  was  appreciated  only  by  myself. 

How  gratifying  must  it  be  to  Mr.  Mushet  to  look  back  and  contem- 
plate these  labours  of  his  pen,  which  have  been  received  by  the  public 
with  so  much  interest.  We  are  unable  now  to  enter  into  an  examina- 
tion of  the  very  many  papers  which  the  work  contains,  but  we  can 
assure  those  of  our  readers  who  desire  information  on  this  important 
department  of  our  national  wealth  and  strength,  that  they  will  find  it 
the  most  valuable  work  on  that  subject  yet  published,  one  which  we 
are  sure  must  find  its  way  into  every  scientific  library  throughout  the 
world.  We  shall  not  suffer  Mr.  Mushet's  work  to  escape  us  without 
another  notice. 

*  From  the  Airdrie  estate  last  year,  from  Black-band  iron-stone  alone,  Sir 
W.  Alexander  derived  a  clear  income  of  i£16,.500. 


A  Treatise  on  Engineering  Field  Work.     By  Peter  Bruff,  C.  E. 
London :  Simpkin,  Marshall,  &  Co.     1840. 

We  noticed  at  some  length,  in  the  first  volume  of  the  Journal,  the 
first  edition  of  this  work,  which,  we  are  happy  to  find,  has  arrived  at 
a  second  edition  with  considerable  additions.  It  contains  a  great  deal 
of  real  practical  information  for  the  student,  and  even  to  the  old  prac- 
titioner it  will  be  valuable,  who  will  find  many  hints  dispersed 
throughout  the  work  well  worth  knowing.  We  perceive  that  the 
present  volume  is  entirely  confined  to  land  surveying,  and  that  the 
division  on  levelling  will  appear  hereafter  in  a  distinct  volume.  It  is 
our  intention  to  turn  to  this  volume  next  month,  when  we  shall  give 
a  few  extracts  ;  in  the  mean  time,  we  have  much  pleasure  in  recom- 
mending the  work  to  all  those  who  wish  to  become  acquainted  with 
land  surveying. 


./i  Brie/  Surrey  of  Physical  and  Fossil  Geology.     By  Frederick 
John  Francis.     London:  Hatchard,  1S39. 

This  small  work  is  a  republication  of  two  lectures  delivered  at 
Literary  Institutions,  and  therefore  well  adapted  for  popular  circula- 
tion. The  object  of  such  a  performance  almost  places  it  out  of  the 
range  of  criticism,  particularly,  whereas  in  this  instance,  the  work 
seems  carefully  compiled. 

2  U 


31S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL.  [September, 


STONE  CHURCH. 


Illmtrations  of  S!oiie  Church,  KinI,  with  an  Historical  Account.  By 
Edwai'd  Cresy,  F.S.A.  Published  for  the  Topographical  Societv', 
Trafiilgiir  Square.     London:  H.  Hooper,  1840. 

That  an  active  society  formed  of  competent  members,  having  for 
ils  object  tlie  making  known  those  specimens  of  architectural,  and 
sculptured  antiquities,  which  from  their  remoteness  from  the  capital, 
or  other  adventitious  circumstances,  are  liable  to  be  overlooked  by  the 
mass  of  observers,  and  thus  exposed  to  neglect,  was  felt  to  be  a  great 
desideratum,  i;o  intelligent  Englishman  will  deny;  and  to  such  a  one 
it  must  be  a  suljject  of  congratulation,  that  a  task  so  replete  with 
•lifficulties,  and  requiring  so  much  sound  knowledge,  and  varied  talent 
on  the  part  of  those  who  engage  in  it,  should  have  become  the  pro- 
vince of  a  topographical  society,  whose  members  possess  the  valuable 
acquirements  displayed  in  theirbeautiful  publication  of  "Stone  Church." 

Nothing  tliat  we  can  say  can  possibly  enhance  the  merits  of  this 
charming  volume ;  and  in  speaking  of  it  in  the  highest  terms  of 
prais',  we  are  guided  by  no  other  motive  than  that  of  indulging  a 
feeling  of  gratitude,  towards  a  society  which  shews  such  devotion,  to 
a  cause  in  which  we,  in  common  with  all  sincere  lovers  of  art  and  their 
country,  feel  the  deepest  interest. 

The  creating  among  the  masses  an  intelligent  admiration  of  the 
monuments  which  adorn  their  country,  lias  theliappy  effect  of  binding 
tlie  former  more  and  more  to  the  land  of  their  birth,  and  becomes  a 
sure  means  of  fostering  and  promoting  that  noble  feeling,  love  of  coun- 
try ;  and  we  know  of  no  subject  more  worthy  of  the  civilized  state  in 
which  we  live,  than  that  of  rescuing  from  oblivion  and  decay,  the 
numerous  unpretending,  but  beautiful  structures,  left  us  by  our  ances- 
tors, which,  whilst  they  have  thrown  an  irresistible  charm  over  our 
country,  have  also  given  birth  to  that  taste  for  the  beautiful,  in  the 
exercise  of  which  at  various  periods  of  her  history,  England  has  reaped 
so  many  unfading  laurels. 

Tlie  means  wiiich  it  is  clear  the  members  of  the  topographical  so- 
ciety possess  of  honourably  compassing  their  laudable  object,  will  we 
trust,  insure  them  the  willing  co-operation  of  those  who  simpatbising 
with  the  subject,  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  the  power  of  exerting 
themselves  usefully  in  a  sphere  yielding  so  much  personal  entertain- 
ment as  well  as  benefit  to  the  public,  for  be  it  remembered  that  the 
revival  of  that  which  is  old  and  good,  far  from  being  of  a  merely  re- 
trospective character,  has  in  it  an  active  principle,  tliat  of  kindling  a 
generous  emulation  in  the  minds  of  the  present  generation,  and  that  at 
no  ])eriod  of  our  history  has  this  stimulus  to  mental  exertion  been  more 
required  than  at  the  present,  when  throughout  the  country  we  find 
coupled  with  great  zeal  for  building  ecclesiastical  edifices,  a  reckless 
indifference  to  taste,  a  fitness  of  character,  degrading  to  our  religion  as 
well  as  to  art. 

In  selecting  Stone  Church  for  publication,  the  society  have  chosen 
a  subject  well  calculated  to  exercise  the  taste  and  antiqna  ian  know- 
ledge of  its  members,  it  is  an  elegant  building,  most  carefully  designed 
and  executed  in  that  [lure  style,  which  was  the  offspring  of  the  13th 
century,  and  associated  wiih  it  are  many  interesting  historical  details, 
all  of  which  is  most  clearly  and  scientifically  set  forth  in  the  work  be- 
fore us;  connoisseurs  are  unanimous  in  their  opinion  of  the  merits  of 
tiiis  interesting  structure,  and  recognise  in  it  the  standard  of  taste  in 


the  beautiful  style  in  which  it  is  designed,  there  being  nothing  to  be 
found,  not  even  in  our  cathedrals,  to  transcend  the  fine  style,  and  mas- 
terly execution  of  the  ornaments  ;  this  building  ofTers  a  peculiarity  in 
its  system  of  internal  decoration,  viz.,  that  of  tlie  ornaments  gradually 
assuming  a  richer  character  as  they  are  placed  nearer  the  altar,  this 
arrangement,  whether  the  result  of  some  fortuitous  circumstance,  or 
the  original  intention  of  the  architect,  is  so  pleasing,  as  to  be  quite 
worthy  of  imitation. 

The  following  passage  shows  upon  wdiat  severe  principles  these 
decorative  accessories  are  composed,  and  we  quote  this  passage  the 
more  willingly,  because  it  advocates  that  important  principle,  the 
knowledge  of  geometry,  which  we  believe  to  be  the  true  foundation  of 
excellence  in  architecture,  and  because  it  has  long  been  our  conviction, 
that  a  no  more  sure  method  could  be  adopted  of  upholding  amongst  us 
a  fine  taste  in  that  sublime  art,  than  that  of  an  assiduous  cultivation  of 
the  science  of  geometry,  in  schools  destined  for  the  education  of 
architects ;  whose  motto,  over  the  threshold  of  their  studios  should 
ever  be,  "  Nemo  geometriae  expers,  hue  ingrediatur." 

"  Salisbury,  Lincoln,  Westminster,  Winchester,  and  other  buildings  of 
this  time,  no  longer  exhibited  the  round  arch  or  features  borrowed  by 
the  Normans  from  Roman  constructions,  but  a  new  style  altogether, 
having  principles  essenti.dly  geometrical ;  and  it  is  in  vain  that  we 
attempt  to  imitate  the  tracery  or  mouldings  belonging  to  this  style 
correctly,  unless  we  consider  them  to  emanate  from  some  simple  figure. 
However  numerous  the  mouldings,  they  never  appear  confused,  which 
entirely  arises  from  tlie  order  observed  in  their  arrangement;  this 
may  be  better  expressed  by  the  subjoined  diagram,  taken  from  the 


1840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


319 


BOSSES  AND  ENRICHMENTS  FROM  THE  CHANCEL. 


mouldings  vrhicli  form  the  trefoil  arches  round  the  chancel  of  Stone 
Church.  The  points  of  intersection  of  the  two  equilateral  triangles 
are  the  centres  for  the  hollows,  and  the  more  prominent  parts  of  the 
moulding  ai-e  set  out  with  the  same  radius  at  the  points  of  the  trian- 
gles; or,  in  other  words,  four  circles  are  encircled  within  a  circle,  and 
bv  omitting  each  alternate  one  the  figure  is  formed.  From  the  equi- 
lateral triangle  are  readily  produced  the  hexagon  and  duodecagon; 
and  the  rose  windows  of  the  churches  and  cathedrals  of  France,  many 
nearly  fifty  feet  in  diameter,  and  exhibiting  a  great  varity  of  figures 
in  their  designs,  are  among  the  most  beantiful  exam|iles  which  can  be 
cited  of  the  early  and  later  application  of  the  eqiiilateral  triangle  to 
the  figures  of  architecture.  From  the  trefoil,  sexfoil  and  their  multi- 
ples, as  shewn  at  St.  Denis,  proceeded  the  flowing  tracer_v,  simply 
produced  by  omission  of  portions  of  the  regular  geometrical  fignre, 
that  which  remained  being  so  combined  that  the  manner  of  its  setting 
out  was  concealed,  probably  for  the  ])urpose  of  exciting  wonder  in  the 
spectator,  and  thereby  adding  to  that  air  of  mystery  which  the  craft 
delighted  to  spread  around  them.  The  system  depending  on  the  equi- 
lateral triangle  for  its  variety  of  form  continued  in  use  till  the  be- 
ginning of  15th  century  in  France,  when  it  underwent  a  great  and  im- 
portant change  by  the  introduction  of  the  isosceles  triangle,  and  its 
compound  the  pentagon.  A  pupil  of  Alexander  de  Berneval,  archi- 
tect to  the  church  of  St.  Ouon  at  Rouen,  proved  that  these  figures 
could  furnish  novelties  in  design,  and  that  all  beauty  was  not  confined 
to  the  long  used  favourite  triangle. 

"  To  the  common  observer  this  theory  may  appear  fanciful,  but  the 
writer  does  not  hesitate  to  assert  that  the  boldest  mouldings,  and  the 
most  delicate  tracery,  where  gently  flow  ing  lines  seem  the  result  of  a 
sportive  fancy  only,  equally  emanate  from  the  same  sources,  and  that 
it  is  to  the  neglect  of  the  application  of  the  rules  of  geometry  that  we 
may  attribute  the  defects  and  failures  wherever  an  imitation  of  this 
early  style  has  been  attempted  in  the  present  day,  which  neglect  has 
been  greatly  fostered  by  the  too  prevailing  opinion  that  all  the  beauty 
we  admire  is  produced  by  ait  alone  unaided  by  the  science  of  geome- 
try, the  time  devoted  to  line  and  rule  being  considered  lost.  The 
beautiful  tracery,  called  by  some  par  excellence,  the  decorated  English, 
cannot  accurately  be  displayed  without  a  knowledge  of  these  principles. 
JNIany  examples  have  been  tested  to  prove  this  fact." 

In  this  building  we  also  find  an  instance  of  the  comprehensive  view 
which  our  ancestors  took  of  architecture,  in  common  with  other  by- 
gone nations  excelling  in  that  art,  painting — not  restricted  to  the 
stained  glass  window — entering  largely  into  tne  composition. 


The  principle  of  combining  painting  with  architecture  appears  to 
have  been  upheld  at  all  periods  signalized  for  devotion  to  the  latter 
art,  and  that  whatever  be  the  styles  which  have  arisen,  their  authors 
seem  to  have  participated  in  the  feeling  that  a  building  erected  for 
some  dignified  purpose,  however  carefully  designed  and  executed, 
might  be  its  architectural  features,  would  fail  to  fulfil  its  object,  if  it 
lacked  the  charm  of  color,  considering  the  true  province  of  architec- 
ture to  be  the  medium  of  gracefully  uniting  the  sister  arts  of  painting 
and  sculpture. 

"Polvchromy  was  introduced  into  our  churches  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  became  the  general  decoration  where  magnificence  was 
aimed  at,  and  the  more  costly  substitute  of  mosaic  could  not  be  ob- 
tained. The  Greek  temples  in  the  days  of  Pericles  even  had  their 
pure  white  marble  painted  and  gilt,  and  traces  of  it  may  still  be  found 
in  the  frieze  of  the  admired  Parthenon.  The  Egyptian  as  well  as  the 
Roman  buildings  at  a  very  early  as  well  as  later  period  were  all 
painted  ;  and  the  practice  seems  only  to  have  been  lost  in  this  country 
after  the  Reformation." 

Until  lately  we  believe  there  existed  some  doubt  as  to  whether  the 
authors  of  the  Gothic  style  indulged  in  the  art  of  polycromy,  that  they 
cultivated  this  fascinating  art  willingly,  is  however  now  certain — and 
were  consequently  not  partial  to  that  gloomy  aspect  which  many  of 
their  buildings  assume,  when  denuded  of  the  brilliancy  of  their  colours, 
introduced  no  doubt  for  the  express  purpose  of  counteracting  that 
sombre  effect  incident  from  either  the  nature  of  the  design  itself  or  its 
inclosed  situation.  Thus  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey  now  so 
repulsively  gloomy,  must  have  been  most  attractive  when  exhibiting, 
as  they  once  did,  all  the  pomp  of  colour.  It  is  impossible  to  take 
leave  of  this  subject  without  otfering  our  sincere  congratulations  to 
the  topographic  society  upon  the  success  of  their  efibrts,  and  expressing 
our  conviction  that  all  lovers  of  art  will  acknowledge  their  present 
volume  of  Stone  Church  to  be  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  store  of 
literature  and  art.  The  manner  in  which  the  work  is  executed  de- 
serves the  highest  commendation,  the  plates  exhibiting  great  delicacy 
as  well  as  vigour. 


Specifications  for  Practical  Architecture.     By  Alfred  Bartholomew, 
Architect.     London:  John  Williams,  1840. 

Mr.  Bartholomew  has  produced  a  very  valuable  work,  containing  a 
vast  accumulation  of  materials  connected  with  the  construction  of 
buildings;  he  has  condensed  in  a  moderate  size  octavo  volume  a  larger 


320 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[September, 


quantity  of  practical  information  than  will  be  found  in  any  other  work 
of  a  similar  description,  we  have  besides  IGO  illustrations  by  wood 
cuts  of  the  first  character.  Although  we  do  not  agree  with  the  author 
in  many  of  his  remarks,  particularly  in  some  of  his  strictures  on  archi- 
tecture and  the  use  of  cement,  we  are  not  disposed  to  find  fault  with 
him  on  that  account,  as  the  great  variety  of  useful  instruction  which  is 
conveyed  by  the  many  precepts,  if  we  may  be  allowed  to  call  them  so, 
contained  in  this  work,  far  outweigh  the  few  faults  we  might  be  dis- 
posed to  look  into.  Both  professions,  the  architect  and  the  engineer, 
will  read  this  work  with  much  interest,  and  the  student  by  a  careful 
study  and  perusal  of  it,  will  gain  considerable  practical  knowledge. 
We  have  not  time  now  to  minutely  examine  the  contents  of  the  volume, 
as  they  are  far  too  voluminous  for  us  to  attempt  hastily,  but  we  shall 
not  fail,  next  month,  examining  largely,  and  extracting  freely,  from 
the  pages  of  this  text  book,  we  shall,  before  we  conclude  this  notice, 
state  tliat  we  fully  agree  with  Mr.  Bartholomew  in  what  he  has  saiil 
regarding  specifications,  particularly  with  the  following: 

Except  for  the  mere  manner  of  the  work,  the  author  can  hardly  think 
strong  general  clauses  just ;  and  he  now  never  inserts  them,  unless  he  has 
previously  included  in  the  particular  description,  even.'  thing  which  he  be- 
lieves the  building  can  require :  indeed  he  cannot  think  it  borders  upon 
honesty,  to  involve  perhaps  in  bankniptcy,  the  builder,  who  like  all  labourers 
is  worthy  of  his  hire,  by  rendering  him  ignorantly  liable  to  perform,  to  the 
detriment  of  his  family  and  his  creditors,  and  to  the  scandal  of  society,  that 
work,  of  the  nature  of  which,  at  the  time  of  signing  of  the  contract,  the 
architect  himself  has  not  had  a  clear  idea. 

We  have  more  than  once,  denounced  the  unjust  sweeping  clauses 
which  are  frequently  inserted  into  specifications,  particularly  one,  that 
the  builder  is  to  do  all  that  is  expressed  or  implied  by  the  drawings 
and  specifications,  and  also  another,  whereby  the  responsibility  of  the 
construction  of  the  building  is  thrown  on  the  builder,  which  is  strictly 
belonging  to  the  engineer  or  architect,  by  the  introduction  of  such 
clauses,  it  allows  any  man  to  call  himself  an  architect,  for  he  is  thus 
enabled  to  escape  censure  and  cloak  his  ignorance  of  construction. 


ArcTiitectural  Remains  of  the  Reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I. 

As  a  series  of  historical  documents,  illustrating  the  architecture  of 
the  period  referred  to,  and  also  as  contributions  towards  topographical 
information,  these  drawings  possess  considerable  interest,  apart  from 
the  pictorial  merit  of  several  of  them.  Still,  we  must  be  allowed  to 
question  the  propriety  of  taking  examples  of  that  period  as  models 
suitable  for  imitation,  at  the  present  day.  To  revert  to  a  style  of  the 
art  that  was  in  itself  merely  an  attempt  towards  one,  it  being  super- 
seded by  another  before  it  had  time  to  develop  itself,  to  get  rid  of  its 
crudities,  to  become  refined  as  well  as  matured,  appears  to  us  a  rather 
backward,  crab-like  advance,  and  not  very  much  less  absurd  than  it 
would  be  for  an  adult  to  imitate  the  tottering  steps  of  a  child  just 
learning  to  walk.  There  might  be  something  like  sense  in  going  back 
to  any  Renaissance  style  for  the  purpose  of  taking  it  up  where  it  had 
been  abandoned,  and  applying  to  it  those  lessons  in  taste  which  we 
have — or  ought,  by  this  time,  to  have — acquired  from  what  has  since 
been  produced  or  been  studied.  Could  we,  by  some  architectural 
chemistry,  extract  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  Elizabethan  style, 
leaving  all  its  dross  and  impurities  behind; — could  we  transfer  to 
modern  designs  its  stateliness,  its  picturesque  combinations  and  out- 
lines, its  freedom  and  spirit,  without  any  of  its  barbarisms  and  defor- 
mities, without  any  of  its  uncouthness  and  extravagance,  its  puerile 
conceits  and  incongruities,  without  its  inconsistent  mixture  of  over- 
done finery  in  one  part  and  poverty  in  another,  could  we  accomplish 
this,  or  were  we  to  attempt  it,  there  would  be  some  plausible  pretext 
for  taking  the  style  so  far  into  favour  again.  But  to  adopt  it,  as  we 
find  it  to  be  when  adopted  at  all,  with  all  its  vices,  is  surely  somewhat 
preposterous.  At  present  it  is  imitated  without  any  discrimination  ; 
we  either  find  it  copied  in  all  its  rude  and  unmeaning,  yet  most  expen- 
sive finery,  or,  if  attempted  to  be  simplified,  reduced  to  naked  de- 
formity and  insipid  nionotonousness,  and  deprived  of  all  that  tends  to 
render  it  if  extravagant,  at  least  picturesque. 

However,  there  is  no  occasion  for  our  deprecating  the  imitation — 
the  literal  imitation,  we  mean,  of  Elizabethan  architecture  any  further, 
because,  we  conceive,  its  day,  as  a  fashion  of  the  day,  is  nearly  over. 
The  recent  application  of  it  to  shop  fronts  is  likely  to  open  people's 
eyes  to  its  rulgarity,  far  sooner  than  all  the  objections  of  criticism. 
Besides  which,  it  has  lately  received  some  tolerably  staggering  blows 
from  criticism  itself.  Mr.  Wightwick— and  his  book  is  likely  enough 
to  find  its  way  into  fashionable  circles— speaks  of  Elizabethan  as 
"beneath  abhorring"  as  a  style,  though  deserving  notice  as  a  link  in 
the  history  of  the  art ;  which  opinion  will  doubtless  cause  some  of  its 


fashionable  admirers  to  stand  quite  aghast.  Mr.  Bartholomew,  ag.iin, 
speaks  of  it  without  more  respect  or  ceremony,  denouncing  it  in  good 
set  terms  as  founded  in  ignorance  and  corruption.  Nay,  he  goes  so 
far  as  to  say, 

"  Among  the  numerous "  (quoere)  "  architectural  publications  tliat 
issue  from  the  press  in  these  times  with  such  rapidity,  may  be  men- 
tioned those  which  treat  of  buildings  erected  in  England  during  tlie 
reigns  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  King  James  the  First ;  but  while  these 
works,  some  of  them  so  splendid  in  their  embellishments,  are  so  valu- 
able as  furnishing  historical  records,  yet  is  it  to  be  regretted  that  no 
works  ever  published  ever  had  a  more  pernicious  effect  upon  public 
taste ;  for  some  of  those  who  view  their  embellishments  feel  a  strange 
inclination  to  copy  that  in  which  their  eye  delights,  although  they 
know  its  corruption,  in  the  same  way  as  children  look  at  dirt  till  they 
desire  to  handle  it." 

"It  may  be  said,"  he  afterwards  observes,  "to  contain  all  the  faults 
and  corruptions  of  design  and  composition,  which  have  ever  been  con- 
demned in  every  style  of  architecture  by  every  description  of  critics, 
of  everv  age,  and  of  every  country  in  the  world"  ! 

This  is  a  clincher!  and  if  it  does  not  put  people  out  of  conceit  with 
Elizabethan  architecture,  and  make  them  heartily  ashamed  of  their 
fancy  for  it,  we  know  not  what  will.  Of  course  Bartholomew  must 
look  upon  Mr.  Richardson  as  a  very  great  offender,  one  of  those  who 
have  contributed  to  vitiate  public  tiiste  by  their  splendid  publications. 
To  say  the  truth,  some  of  the  subjects  contained  in  the  part  before  us, 
are  so  seductive  and  captivating  as  pictures,  as  almost  to  disarm  criti- 
cism ; — little  is  it  to  be  wondered  at,  therefore,  if  those  are  apt  to  be 
mislead,  and  have  their  fancy  led  captive  by  them,  who  either  cannot 
or  will  not  be  at  the  pains  to  discriminate  between  the  charm  of  pic- 
torial treatment  and  effect,  and  what  belongj  merely  to  architectural 
design. 

The  view  of  the  quadrangle  at  Kirby,  the  seat  of  Lord  Chancellor 
Hatton,  and  now  belonging  to  the  Earl  of  Winchelsea,  affords  a  striking 
instance  to  the  purpose  ;  since  although  a  singular  melange  as  to  style, 
— although  the  entrance  tower  and  porch  [iresent  a  mere  grotesque 
parody  of  Roman  architecture,  and  although  large  fluted  piasters  of 
the  Ionic  order  appear  in  other  parts  between  lofty  and  spacious 
windows  and  bays,  whose  openings  are  divided  into  a  system  of  small 
panels,  by  numerous  muUions  and  transoms, — the  general  effect  is  so 
imposing,  picturesque,  and  even  scenic,  that  we  admire  almost  in  spite 
of  ourselves.  Still  we  should  not  admire  the  less,  were  some  of  the 
mere  extravagances  expunged  or  abated.  However  this  building — or 
at  least  a  portion  of  it,  for  if  not  altogether  so  grotesque,  the  Garden 
Front  is  by  no  means  so  "exciting,"  is  of  superior  quality  to  the  gene- 
rality of  Elizabethan  designs. 

The  Garden  Porch  at  Coombe  Abbey,  opening  upon  a  terrace  with 
a  rich  open  work  parapet,  is  another  picturesque  bit,  thougli  a  mere 
bit,  of  architecture ;  but  it  shows  exceedingly  well  in  the  drawing,  be- 
cause it  is  given  on  a  satisfactory  scale,  and  the  subject  is  confined  to 
it.  On  the  same  plate  is  another  drawing  representing  part  of  the 
Great  Chamber  and  its  fireplace,  at  Coombe ;  b.it  although  we  are  well 
satisfied  vrith  it  as  a  picture,  we  have  no  admiration  to  bestow  on  the 
subject  itself,  for  nothing  can  be  more  barbarous  and  uncouth,  more 
perversely  hideous  in  taste,  than  the  whole  of  the  chimney  piece ; 
however,  there  is  very  little  danger  of  its  being  copied,  at  least  not  by 
any  one  who  has  not  a  terribly  heavy  purse,  and  is  distressed  how  to 
lighten  it. 

Of  that  celebrated  mansion  Burghley  House,  we  have  here  two 
views  of  the  North  and  West  Fronts,  but  we  also  desiderate  a  ground 
plan,  and  one,  if  not  more  elevations,  notwithstanding  that  the  character 
of  the  detail  can  be  tolerably  well  made  out  in  the  perspective  draw- 
ings, which  show  the  building  from  a  near  point  of  view.  In  its  gene- 
ral style  this  edifice  is  rather  plain,  and  derives  its  air  of  magnificence 
and  richness  chiefly  from  its  magnitude,  and  from  the  variety  produced 
by  its  being  broken  into  numerous  parts,  yet  so  as  not  to  interfere  too 
much  with  regularity,  or  with  breadth  of  character.  What  decoration 
there  is,  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  summit  of  the  structure, 
where  the  open  parapets,  turrets,  domes  and  chimneys,  make  a  "  brave 
show."  The  chimney  stacks,  however,  composed  of  two  or  more 
Doric  columns,  with  a  piece  of  entablature  above  them,  are  offensive 
conceits,  and  tend  to  suggest  the  idea  of  there  having  been  originally 
some  upper  structure,  of  which  they  are  the  remaining  fragments. 
.Some  of  the  parts  of  the  parapets  and  their  ornaments  are  shown  at 
large  in  one  of  the  Plates  of  Details,  of  which  several  are  here  given. 

How  far  these  latter  will  be  found  serviceable  as  practical  studies, 
we  pretend  not  to  say,  being  inclined  to  suspect  that  the  taste  for  the 
style  itself,  of  which  it  may  truly  be  affirmed  that  it  is  viiiis  imitabile, 
will  wear  away  as  quickly  as  it  arose. 


'-'jAc   '-/e'W/ttcn>€cc   lyoz^ullctu 


^-^^C^^^ke^ 


ccm. 


t-ZZ^, 


ELEVATION 


TRANSVERSE    SECTION    OF   THE    GREAT    GALLERY 


Mifiht.         3S  J* 


Jv.jaUfUi  2Mo  't*^.  w««*(^ 


0    c 


JljI 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL 


321 


POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTION. 

U'i:h  an  Engraving,  Plate  XV. 

This  institution  was  founded  in  1S3S,  and  shortly  after  its  opening 
we  gave  a  brief  description  of  it  at  page  318  of  our  first  volume  ;  we 
now  present  our  readers  with  some  farther  details.  The  amiexed 
engraving  gives  the  elevation,  transverse  section,  and  ground  plan  of 
the  building,  and  to  these  we  refer  our  re^iders  as  a  substitute  for  a 
lengthened  description.  What  we  anticipated  at  a  former  ptriod  has 
since  been  fully  carried  out,  and  this  institution  has  become  in  its 
neighbourhood,  like  the  Adelaide  Gallery,  of  great  utility  in  promot- 
ing the  practical  arts.  If  we  have  not  like  at  Paris,  an  Exponition 
des  Jlrta  el  Metiers,  or  Mechanics  Exhibitions  like  our  provincial 
towns  or  American  cities,  we  have  at  any  rate  the  advantage  of  them 
as  regards  permanent  museums,  by  means  of  these  institutions.  The 
mechanical  collections  of  Paris  are  now  far  from  equalling  those  of 
London,  and  it  wants  but  very  little  exertion  to  give  us  a  decided 
superiority.  We  may  observe,  by  the  bye,  on  this  subject,  that  it  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  the  museum  of  the  Society  of  Arts  is  not 
made  more  available.  We  may  remind  our  readers  that  these  exhibi- 
tions emanated  from  the  attempt  to  form  a  national  exhibition  of  arts 
and  manufactures  in  the  King's  Mews. 

The  design  of  the  building  does  credit  to  Mr.  Thomson,  the  archi- 
tect, for  having  so  skilfully  adapted  it  to  the  purpose  to  which  it  is 
devoted,  the  lighting  of  the  great  hall  is  provided  for  in  the  coved 
ceiling  or  roof,  a  gallery  passes  all  round  the  great  hall,  supported  on 
each  side  by  cantilevers,  as  shown  in  the  section ;  on  the  ground  line 
there  is  a  canal  formed  for  the  exhibition  of  hydraulic  works,  steam 
boats,  water  wheels,  &c.,  and  at  the  end  is  a  circular  reservoir  for  ex- 
hibiting the  diving  bell,  and  working  imder  water  in  the  diving  dress ; 
at  the  east  end  is  the  entrance  hall  from  Regent-street,  above  is  a 
theatre  for  lectures,  &c.,  and  below  a  laboratory  and  other  rooms  for 
experiments.  The  west  end  of  the  great  hall  or  saloon  communicates 
with  premises  in  Cavendish-square.  The  total  depth  of  the  premises 
is  320  feet,  and  44  feet  wide,  and  the  great  gallery  120  feet  long,  40 
feet  wide,  and  38  feet  high  in  the  centre. 


HARBOURS  OF  REFUGE  ON  THE  SOUTH  EASTERN  COAST. 

In  our  last  month's  Journal  we  gave  a  few  extracts  from  the  Com- 
missioners Report,  pointing  out  some  discrepancies,  upon  which  we 
intended  to  have  made  remarks,  but  upon  mature  consideration  we 
think  it  better,  instead  of  contending  with  details,  or  occupying  our- 
selves with  the  misconception  of  the  Commissioners,  to  look  at  the 
question  in  a  broader  kind  of  view  and  on  national  grounds,  that  we 
may  see  how  far  the  Government  will  be  justified  in  recommending 
Parliament  to  grant  so  large  a  sum  of  money  as  is  required  for  carry- 
ing out  the  harbours  proposed.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  generally  ad- 
mitted that  England  has  not  on  her  south  easteni  shores  any  harbours 
of  sufficient  magnitude  or  depth  of  water  to  receive  a  fleet  of  men-of- 
war,  or  even  for  our  largest  class  steamers,  and  the  absolute  necessity 
of  having  such  harbours  is  also  admitted.  It  therefore  only  remains 
to  examine  whether  the  localities  selected  are  the  best,  and  whether 
there  is  any  necessity  for  erecting  them  on  the  magnificent  scale  pro- 
posed in  the  report  before  us.  With  regard  to  the  latter  question,  we 
have  only  to  look  at  the  artificial  harbours  which  have  been  executed, 
and  we  shall  generally  find  that  they  have  been  constructed  on  too 
small  a  scale,  to  render  them  of  any  service  for  shipping,  such  as  men-of- 
war  of  the  largest  class,  and  in  consequence  of  their  contracted  scale 
they  soon  silt  np  and  bars  are  formed  at  their  entrances,  rendering 
them  almost  useless  except  to  mercliantmen  of  small  tonnage.  With 
regard  to  the  necessity  for  harbours  of  refuge  in  time  of  war,  there 
cannot  be  a  doubt ;  it  is  therefore  highly  expedient  that  harbours  should 
ba. constructed  of  sufficient  capacity  for  a  fleet  of  men-of-war,  either 
to  sail  or  be  towed  in  or  out  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  an'  hour  lost  may 
be  the  cause  of  irreparable  damage  to  our  coast,  a  descent  on  our 
shores,  or  the  escape  of  the  enemies  fleet,  and  on  this  account  we 
should  be  prepared  to  recommend  the  construction  of  harbours  on  the 
boldest  scale  that  our  finances  will  allow,  for  we  would  rather  have  one 
on  an  extensive  scale  than  we  would  have  half  a  dozen  ot  the  small 
fry,  of  these  descriptions  of  harbours  we  have  had  enough,  and  if  they 
are  wanted,  the  local  authorities  ought  to  be  able  to  raise  funds  suffi- 
cient without  Government  aid.  We  have  always  been  averse  to  the 
interference  of  Government  for  what  may  be  justly  considered  private 
purposes. 

We  shall  now  look  to  the  situations  selected  by  the  Commissioners, 
and  the  first  to  which  our  especial  attention  is  required  is  the  harbour 


of  Dover.  Here  all  parties  must  admit  it  is  a  situation  that  requires 
to  be  well  provided  and  well  watched ;  and  moreover  the  passage  of 
the  Straits  must  be  made  our  own,  it  must  be  kept  at  all  hazards  and 
at  all  costs.  To  allow  an  enemy's  fleet  to  remain  there  for  a  day  would 
be  madness,  and  the  only  way  to  avoid  it,  is  to  have  a  good  harbour, 
where  in  case  of  need,  the  largest  cUxss  steamers  may  be  able  to  take 
shelter,  for  which  no  situation  is  so  well  adapted  as  Dover. 

The  next  site  selected  is  Beacby  Head,  where  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  already  a  good  anchorage,  with  a  situation  well  adapted  for  a 
breakwater  similar  to  that  of  Plymouth.  This  would  afford  shelter  for 
large  class  vessels  between  Dover  or  the  Downs  and  Portsmoutli,  at 
present  a  long  line  of  coast  without  the  slightest  refuge  for  a  man-of- 
war,  and  consequently  without  protection  for  the  small  merchantmen. 
The  next  and  last  situation  is  that  of  Forness,  near  Margate,  which 
affords  protection  to  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  this  requires  a  harbour 
of  spacious  dimensions,  in  which  vessels  riding  in  the  Downs  may 
take  shelter  if  required.  If  we  view  the  coast  from  Margate  to  Ports- 
mouth, there  cannot,  on  the  whole,  be  found  more  eligible  sites  for 
harbours  than  those  selected,  keeping  in  mind  the  grand  object,  that 
they  must  be  harbours  of  refuge,  not  for  merchantmen  alone,  but  for 
the  Queen's  service  also,  where  vessels  carrying  lOU  or  120  guns  may 
take  shelter  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  and  the  steam  frigate  like  the 
Gorgon  and  the  Cyclops  may  run  in  and  out  w  ith  facility,  and  be  ready 
for  action  at  a  moment's  notice. 

We  are  therefore  under  all  the  circumstances  disposed  to  support, 
most  strongly,  the  recommendation  of  the  Commissioners,  and  trust 
that  Parliament  when  called  upon  for  a  grant,  will  look  at  the  question 
boldly,  and  judge  whether  it  be  not  better  to  grant  four  or  five  millions 
in  the  time  of  peace,  rather  than  wait  until  war  takes  place,  when 
shipping  to  more  than  that  amount  may  be  destroyed  in  one  year. 


REMARKS  ON  MR.  TOMSON'S  PAPER   ON  THE  WORKS 
OF  SIR  JOHN  VANBURGH. 


discussion    at    the    Institute  on    Mon- 
a   very   pleasing    way,    that   the  little 


The   animated  and   lively 
day  evening,  manifested  in 

citadel  of  taste  is  becoming  more  and  more  the  object  of  zealous  and 
vigilant  scrutiny.  The  beautiful  pourtrayal  by  Mr.  Thomson  of  Sir 
John  Vanburgh's  style,  (the  subject  of  Monday  evening's  attention) 
though  it  requires  no  record  of  approval  from  a  person  like  myself,  to 
give  it  one  feature  of  additional  interest,  prevents  the  silence  of  one 
insensibly  attracted  by  any  commentary  upon  by-gone  talent,  or  the 
merits  of  originality.  Sir  John  Vanburgh,  recognised  as  a  pupil  of 
Wren,  and  included  in  the  school  of  Palladio,  seems  to  display,  I 
humbly  imagine,  too  little  of  oniamental  sweep  and  the  flowings  of 
elegance,  too  exact  a  distribution  of  the  several  parts,  too  cool  a  dis- 
play cf  effect,  to  rank  as  a  disciple  of  Palladio,  or  a  pupil  of  Wren; 
and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  too  much  of  extended  variety  in  bodily 
proportion,  to  present  a  true  idea  of  Grecian  sentiment. 

Exuberance  with  him  is  never  beheld  in  the  drooping  festoon  or  the 
careless  sweep  of  foliated  bands.  The  curves  and  benaings  of  elegant 
contour,  deck  not  the  facade,  but  the  care  of  distribution  figures  in  a 
thousand  lines,  in  a  prim  exactness,  in  a  minute  attention  to  the  rules 
of  his  art.  For  this  he  seems  to  stand  isolated  from  his  school,  and 
like  Soane,  betrays  the  fretwork  of  a  self-constituted  style,  connecting 
and  harmonizing  the  fashion  of  two  rival  styles,  the  Greek  and  the 
Roman.  More  extended — more  daring  in  his  ideas  than  Soane,  he 
seems,  like  him,  to  have  studied  general  minuteness.  But  it  is  the 
proportion,  the  loftiness,  and  the  general  effect  of  magnitude,  which 
infuses  in  the  mind,  grand  impressions,  whilst  contemplating  Blenheim. 
It  is  to  this  ability  in  outline,  this  arrangement  of  a  mass,  which 
creates  the  desired  effect;  though  the  rules  of  his  style  appear  as 
licences  to  an  admirer  of  the  Greek  or  the  Roman.  With  all  the 
blemish  of  incorrect  detail,  (if,  as  to  general  effect,  it  be  a  blemish), 
Vanburgh  had  the  feelmgs  of  an  artist,  and  felt  that  poetry  of  senti- 
ment, which  shines  in  his  works  ;  though  unimbued  with  the  delicate 
fijiish  of  Chambers  and  a  later  day. 

To  comment  further  ujjon  (in  some  respects)  this  Soane  of  the  last 
century,  would  be  inconsiderate ;  yet  it  is  a  gratification  to  see  the 
merits  of  past  days  recalled — and  to  pluck  from  the  thousand  beds  of 
taste  some  of  those  beauties,  identified  with  faded  talent  and  forgotten 
genius ;  to  see  a  mind  original  and  rare  regaining  its  buried  influence, 
and  asserting  it  with  a  liberal  and  enlightened  community  of  archi- 
tects. 

The  deduction  in  favour  of  the  subject,  the  nataral  effect  of  Van- 
burgh's style,  is  this,  that  the  head  of  the  student,  and  the  heart  of  the 
poet — the  enquiring  mind,  and  the  soul  to  admire  its  own  researches, 
must  unite  in  the  same  man,  if  that  man  is  to  be  an  architect.    A 

2  X 


322 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[September 


mere  knowledge  in  the  existence  of  this  style,  ortIiiit,or  tliat  it  tiourisli- 
ed  in  tliis  age,  or  tliat,  cannot  improve  the  architect,  though  it  may  the 
mind  ;  and  unless  we  can  raise  ourselves  above  that  pedantry  of  igno- 
rance, which  covets  every  thing  anticpie,  be  it  dust  or  marble,  we  can 
never  rival,  nor  even  faintly  imitate,  tlie  lovely  relics  of  antiquity. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  column  or  the  pedestal  should  be  brother 
to  some  Greek  or  Roman  model,  since  it  is  not  every  one  whose  brain 
can  swim  with  the  pleasures  of  a  connoisseur.  A  stranger  to  Athens 
or  Rome  would  perhaps  turn  from  the  external  polish  of  a  modern 
edifice,  however  skilfully  arranged,  and  become  lost  in  the  strange 
grandeur  of  Blenheim, 

FllEDERICK    E.\ST. 

Jum  18,  1840. 


TRUSSED  BEAMb. 

Sir — In  reference  to  the  method  of  trussing  beams,  communicated 
in  the  32nd  number  of  your  Journal,  and  said  to  be  invented  by  Herr 
Laves  of  Hanover,  I  beg  to  observe  that  the  principle  is  by  no  means 
new  to  this  country,  in  the  practice  of  Mr.  John  13rown  of  Norwich, 
I  have  long  had  occasion  to  describe,  in  specifications,  precisely  the 
same  method  for  many  purposes,  but  chiefly  for  the  purlins  of  roofs, 
where  the  transverse  trusses  have,  imavoidably,  been  at  a  great  dis- 
tance apart.  In  order  to  show  you,  indeed,  how  little  the  method  we 
pursue  difters  from  that  of  Mr.  Laves,  I  will  extract  from  a  speci- 
tication  I  have  at  hand  the  following: — "All  lengths  of  purlins  wliich 
may  exceed  9  feet  between  the  bearings,  to  be  sawn,  lengthwise, 
through  the  middle  of  the  depth,  and  trussed  as  shown  by  the  accom- 
panying sketch*  with  a  wrought  iron  collar  at  each  end,  and  a  i  screw 
bolt  with  broad  clasp  irons  in  the  centre. 

I  remain, 

ifs'oTwich,  Your  obedient  servant, 

June  G/A,  1S40  William  B.  Colling. 


LOCOMOTIVE  ALARUM. 

Sir — Various  suggestions  liave  lately  appeared  in  the  public  prints,  rela- 
tive to  the  best  means  of  conimnnic.itiiig  an  alarnm  to  the  eiigine-man  in 
case  of  fire  or  other  accident  in  a  railway  train. — I  would  suggest  a  steani- 
whistlc,  wliich  should  diflfer  decidedly  in  sound  from  those  used  by  the 
engine-men. — A  light  chain  attached  to  the  cock  of  the  whistle  would  enable 
each  guard,  .nnd  (if  thought  desirable)  the  passengers  in  each  carriage  to  give 
an  alarm  in  case  of  an  accident  occurring,  or  being  likely  to  occur. 

The  advantage  which  such  an  alarum  would  possess  over  any  other,  is, 
that  not  only  the  engine-man,  hut  all  the  guards  and  attendants  would  he 
immediately  on  the  ywi  rive,  and  prepared  to  act  as  circumstances  might  re- 
quire. The  disadvantage  is,  that  passengers  hearing  the  alarum,  might  lose 
their  presence  of  mind,  and  endanger  themselves  by  attempting  to  escape 
from  the  carriages,  instead  of  doing  the  only  thing,  which  can  tend  to  ensure 
their  safety,  viz.,  firndy  keeping  their  sittings. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

Robert  Shkppard. 

Horsham,  Sutsex,  Aug.  19,  1810. 


ON  SCREW  PILE  LIGHTHOUSES. 

Sir — K  coiTespondent  in  your  excellent  Journal  for  July,  under  the  signa- 
ture of  "  One  of  the  Old  School,"  endeavours  to  institute  a  comparison  be- 
tween the  patent  screw  ])ile,  and  the  common  driving  pile,  the  latter  of  which 
it  is  evident  enjoys  his  exclusive  favour,  on  the  very  rational  grounds  of  its 
antiquity. 

In  summing  up  its  superior  merits  bis  readers  might  reasonably  expect  to 
have  their  attention  directed  to  many  lighthouses,  and  other  buildings  sup. 
ported  by  his  favourite  pile,  and  placed  upon  banks  of  loose  sand  covered  by 
the  ocean. 

That  he  has  failed  to  do  so,  is  for  the  simple  reason  that  no  such  structure 
ever  did  or  ever  can  exist. 

The  experiment  has  indeed  been  frequently  made  of  driving  piles  in  such 
positions,  and  it  has  hai)pened  that  owing  to  the  buoyancy  of  the  wood  and 
mobility,  and  want  of  tenacity  in  the  sand,  they  have  invariably  been  found 
extracted  by,  and  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  succeeding  tide. 

If  then  the  old  pile  or  pointed  stake,  which  has  been  in  use  for  at  least 
20  centuries,  has  been  always  found  incapable  of  forming  a  sound  foundation 
in  such  positions,  how  can  it  reasonably  be  put  in  comparison  with  the  screw 

*  Me  have  not  given  the  sketch,  as  it  is  very  similar  in  principle  to  those 
shown  m  page  IBl,  excepting  that  in  tlie  above,  at  the  end  of  the  slit,  there 
is  a  key  ot  oak  with  au  iron  strap  passing  round  the  outside,  and  in  the 
centre  there  is  a  block  of  oak  with  a  nut  and  screw  bolt  passing  through  it 
and  the  top  and  bottom  scantlings.— En.  C.  E.  6c  A.  JovK. 


pile,  which  within  four  years  of  its  being  made  public,  has  been  successfully 
applied  in  submarine  sandbanks  of  the  most  infirm  description,  and  has  more- 
over received  the  unqualified  approbation  of  the  first  engineers  of  the  present 
day. 

Of  these  I  might  furnish  an  ample  list,  but  feel  the  impropriety  of  giving 
names  of  the  highest  respectability  to  be  handed  about  in  idle  discussion 
with  your  nameless  corres|iondent. 

I  may  however  mention  tliat  a  screw  pile  lighthouse,  on  a  sandbank  off  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames,  is  at  present  in  progress  of  erection,  luider  the  auspices 
of  a  gentleman  who  deservedly  stands  at  the  head  of  his  profession.  And, 
that  another  upon  a  sandbank'  thirty  miles  north  of  Liverpool,  was  erected 
during  the  past  winter,  at  the  earnest  recommendation  of  a  gentleman  well 
known  as  an  ex]>erienced  aiul  highly  talented  marine  surveyor,  who  has  no 
antiquated  prejudices  staiuling  in  the  way  of  recent  improvements.  And  I 
boldly  assert,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  from  any  pracfical  enyincer  of 
I'.rjjerimce,  that,  to  construct  such  a  hgbthouse  on  either  site  upon  common 
piles,  would  be  totally  impossible. 

As  the  other  objections  raised  by  your  correspondent  to  the  scrc?w  pile 
lighthouse,  are  only  supported  by  bis  marvelous  gift  of  prophecy,  I  sh.ill  con- 
tent myself  with  requesting  him  to  visit  the  one  at  foot  of  Wyre,  where  he 
will  have  proof  positive  of  the  fallacy  of  Ins  conclusions,  and  when  tlierc,  if 
he  will  drive  a  common  pile  into  the  sand,  so  as  to  resist  a  downward  pres- 
sure or  upward  strain,  equal  te  that  which  the  screw  pile  will  bear,  I  shall  at 
once  relinquish  the  latter  as  a  useless  expense. 

1  am.  Sir,  your  obliged  and  huiuble  servant, 

Alexander  Mitchell. 

Belfast,  Auyust  18,  1840. 


THE  SAFETY  ROT.VTION  RAILWAY. 

{A  New  Method  of  Construction  in  Hailwai/s,  and  in  apphjinrj  Power  to  pro- 
pel Carriages  thereon.     Patented  by  Mr.  Ranyely.     Marcli,  1840.) 

FROM    A    CORRESPONDENT. 

This  invention,  of  which,  in  our  present  number,  we  can  give  but  a  brief 
description,  aims  at  effecting  a  complete  revolution  in  the  present  mode  of 
railway  construction  and  locomotion.  In  place  of  having  the  ordinary  rails 
and  wheeled  carriages,  two  series  of  wheels  are  fixed  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  road  .It  about  two  yards  apart,  and  at  an  equal  distance  from  centre 
to  centre  of  each  wheel.  These  wheels  are  connected  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  line  by  bands  working  in  grooved  pullies  keyed  on  to  the  same 
axle  as  the  wheels,  but  the  .ixlcs  of  one  side  of  the  line  are  not  connected 
with  those  of  the  opposite  line.  The  axles  of  the  wheels  are  raised  about 
one  foot  from  the  ground,  the  top  of  the  wheel  (which  is  proposed  to  be  of 
3  feet  diameter,)  will  he  therefore  elevated  25  feet  above  the  surface.  On 
these  wheels  is  placed  a  strong  framing  of  timber,  having  an  iron  plate 
fastened  on  each  side  in  the  line  of  the  two  series  of  wheels.  A  little  within 
this  bearing  frame,  so  as  just  to  clear  the  wheels,  is  a  luggage-box  or  hold, 
descending  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  ground,  in  which  it  is  proposed  to 
stow  all  heavy  commodities,  for  which  purpose  it  is  well  adapted,  ojiening  as 
it  does  at  either  end,  and  its  flooring  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  At 
each  end  of  the  lower  part  of  the  framing  of  this  luggage-box,  are  fixed  hori- 
zontal guide  or  friction  wheels  working  against  the  supports  'of  the  bearing 
wheels  and  ])ullie8,  by  which  arrangement  cur\es  will  be  traversed  with  little 
friction,  and  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  framing  to  quit  the  track.  The 
framing  of  timber  will  be  about  19  feet  in  length,  so  that  it  will  rest  alter- 
nately on  six  and  eight  wheels,  but  never  on  less  than  six.  On  this  framing 
the  passenger  carriages  are  erected,  which,  in  its  progi-ession  forward,  it  is 
thought  will  be  kept  steady  and  free  from  lateral  motion  by  the  weight  in 
the  luggage  box,  assisted  by  the  horizontal  guide  wheels.  The  method  by 
which  locomotion  is  produced,  is  by  putting  the  wheels  in  motion  by  means 
of  machinery  at  cither  end,  which  would  be  eft'ected  for  an  immense  distance 
with  a  moderate  power,  as  there  would  be  very  little  more  friction  due  to  the 
wheels  than  that  arising  from  their  own  weight ;  and  the  frame,  bearing  the 
carriage,  would  not  be  run  on  to  the  bearing  wheels  tintil  the  whole  w  ere  in 
motion,  when  its  weight  woidd  act  almost  after  the  manner  of  a  fly  wheel, 
resting,  as  it  would,  on  the  periphery  of  the  bearing  wheels.  It  will  be  per- 
ceived that,  by  this  plan,  the  bearings  of  the  wheels  must  be  kept  perfectly 
in  the  direction  of  the  plane  of  the  road,  whether  inclined  or  horizontsl; 
otherwise  serious  concussions  would  occur.  But  this  would  not  he  the  case 
by  the  depression  of  one  wheel,  or  even  by  its  entire  removal,  as  the  framing 
will  be  constructed  sufficiently  stifl'  as  not  to  deflect  by  having  the  distance 
of  the  hearings  doubled. 

If  this  plan  should  be  found  to  answer,  it  will  present  facibties  of  trans- 
port never  before  thought  of,  as  carriages  might  be  continually  despatched 
without  a  chance  of  collision,  either  by  stojjpage  or  from  increased  speed  of 
the  last  beyond  the  preceding.  It  also  promises  to  remove  the  present 
great  drawback  to  railway  progression,  viz.  the  being  able  to  surmount  but 
very  slight  acclivities  by  locomotive  power  with  any  profitable  load  ;  but  by 
the  rotative  system,  inclines  may  be  surmounted  of  almost  any  steepness 
without  the  chance  of  accident.  In  ease  a  band  should  break,  tlie  action  of 
this  railway  would  not  be  impeded,  as  the  power  being  transmitted  from 
either  end,  rotation  would  take  place  throughout  its  whole  length,  but  the 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


323 


power  would  not  he  transmitted  from  either  ciiil  past  tlie  disjunction.  Even 
slrould  two  l)ands  be  destroyed  at  a  distance  from  each  other  and  on  tlie 
same  side  of  the  track,  its  action  would  not  lie  destroyed,  for  althougli  the 
isolated  portion  of  wheels  would  be  dead,  those  on  the  other  side  of  the 
track  would  he  in  action,  which,  with  the  horizontal  guide  wheels,  would 
move  forward  tlie  carriage,  although,  on  such  portion,  at  a  diminished  speed. 
Instead  of  an  increased  outlay  being  required  in  the  formation  of  railways, 
on  this  system  it  is  estimated  that  a  very  considerable  saving  will  be  effected, 
as  a  single  track  will  be  sufficient,  with  sidings  of  dead  wheels  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  several  jiortions  into  which  a  long  line  would  be  divided.  In 
crossing  valleys,  a  framing  of  piles  to  sup])ort  the  bearing  wheels  would  be 
quite  sufficient,  and  the  road  might  be  left  quite  open  between  each  line  of 
wheels,  as  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  carriage  to  quit  the  track,  and 
therefore  no  necessity  for  making  a  solid  read  for  safety  sake.  As  this  sys- 
tem is  so  novel  and  rei'ohtl ionarij  in  its  mode  of  action,  it  will  of  course  meet 
with. numerous  opponents  who  are  interested  in  the  i)resent  state  of  things  ; 
such  as  are  not  wedded  thereto,  or  can  admit  the  possibility  of  a  total  change 
in  tlie  system,  we  would  advise  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  Polytechnic  Institution 
in  Regent  Street,  where  working  models  of  this  invention  may  be  inspected. 


THE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH. 

From  the  fifth  Report  of  the  Select  Committee  on  RoUwoy^f. 

As  everything  connected  with  the  operations  of  a  power  the  development 
of  which  is  calculated  in  its  progress  to  effect  very  great  changes  in  our  social, 
commercial,  and  perhaps  political  condition,  must  be  viewed  with  no  incon- 
siderable interest,  we  propose  to  give,  from  time  to  time,  condensed  but  com- 
plete abstracts  of  such  portions  of  the  report  as  we  think  best  calculated  to 
arrest  pulilic  attention. 

The  first  evidence  taken  before  the  committee  relative  to  the  magnetic 
telegraph,  for  which  a  patent  has  been  taken  out  by  Messrs.  Cooke  and 
AVheatstone,  and  which  is  now  in  operation  between  West  Drayton  and  Pad- 
dingtou,  on  the  Great  Western  line  of  railroad.  As  it  would  be  impossible 
without  a  representation  of  the  dial  and  apparatus,  to  impart  a  distinct  notion 
of  the  manner  in  which  intelhgence  is  conveyed  from  one  station  to  another, 
suffice  it  to  say  that  the  communication  is  effected  by  metallic  wires  made  to 
operate  upon  fine  magnetic  needles  which  point  to  20  letters  of  the  alphabet 
marked  upon  the  dial,  being  acted  upon  by  electrical  currents  passing  through 
coils  of  wire  placed  immediately  behind  them. 

According  to  the  information  contained  in  the  evidence  of  Mr.  C.  \yiieat- 
stone,  professor  of  experimental  philosophy  in  King's  College,  there  is  no 
necessary  connexion  between  this  species  of  communication  and  railroads. 
On  the  contrarv',  it  can  be  established  on  a  common  road,  or  even  where  no 
road  exists,  though  a  railroad,  in  consequence  of  the  continuity  of  property 
which  it  possesses,  is  best  adapted  for  the  experiment.  In  answer  to  a  ques- 
tion, "  whether  (in  the  event  of  the  Great  Western  Railway  being  finished 
from  London)  the  telegraph  could  be  carried  through  the  whole  way  ? "  Mr. 
'Wheatstone  replied,  that  he  believed  it  could  be  done,  and  with  but  little 
multiplication  of  power,  inasmuch  as  late  experiments  had  shown,  contrary 
to  former  opinions,  that  to  send  an  electric  current  to  any  considerable  extent, 
there  was  no  need  of  a  strong  battery,  a  weak  one  in  fact  being  quite  suffi- 
cient, provided  it  consisted  of  a  number  of  elements  proportionate  to  the 
distance.  The  communication  between  London  and  Bristol  might  require 
some  intermediate  stations  at  very  considerable  distances,  though  bis  own 
opinion  was  that  they  would  not  be  required.  From  experiments  which  ho 
made  some  years  since,  he  ascertained  that  electricity  travelled  through  a 
copper  wire  at  the  rate  of  about  200,000  miles  in  a  second,  being  8,000  miles 
quicker  than  the  rate  at  which  light  passes  during  the  same  period. 

Mr.  Wheatstone  states  the  advantages  which  the  electric  possesses  over 
the  ordiuary  telegraph  as  follows : — "  It  will  work  day  and  night,  but  the 
ordinary  telegraph  will  act  only  during  the  day.  It  will  also  work  in  all 
states  of  the  weather,  whilst  the  ordinary  telegraph  can  be  worked  only  in 
fine  weather.  There  are  a  great  many  days  in  the  year  during  which  no 
communications  can  be  given  by  the  ordinary  telegraph,  and  besides,  a  great 
many  coimnuuications  are  stopped  before  they  can  be  finished,  on  account  of 
changes  in  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  ;  no  inconveniences  of  this  kind  would 
attend  the  electrical  telegraph.  Another  advantage  is,  that  the  expense  of 
the  several  stations  is  by  no  means  comparable  to  that  of  the  ordinary  tele- 
graph ;  no  look-out  men  are  required,  and  the  apparatus  may  be  worked  in 
any  room  where  there  are  persons  to  attend  to  it.  There  is  another  advant- 
age which  the  electric  possesses  over  the  ordinary  telegiaph,  viz.,  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  signals  may  be  made  to  follow  each  other.  30  signals  may 
be  made  in  a  minute,  a  number  which  could  not  be  made  by  the  ordinary 
telegraph.  There  is  one  thing  I  will  take  the  opportunity  to  mention.  I 
lia\e  been  confining  the  attention  of  the  committee  to  the  telegraph  now- 
working  on  the  Great  Western  Railroad,  but  having  lately  occupied  myself  in 
carrying  into  eft'ect  numerous  improvements  which  have  suggested  themselves 
to  rac,  I  have,  conjointly  with  Mr.  Cooke,  who  has  turned  bis  attention 
greatly  to  the  same  subject,  obtained  a  new  patent  for  a  telegraphic  arrange- 
ment, which  I  think  will  present  very  great  advantages  over  that  which  at 
present  exists.  It  can  be  applied  without  entailing  any  additional  expense  of 
consequence  to  the  line  now  laid  down,  it  lieing  only  neccssarj-  to  substitute 
tlie  new  for  the  former  instruments.     This  new  apparatus  requires  only  a 


single  pair  of  wires  to  effect  all  which  the  present  one  does  with  five,  so  that 
three  imlependent  telegraphs  may  be  immediately  placed  on  the  line  of  the 
Great  Western.  It  presents  in  tlie  same  place  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
according  to  any  order  of  succession,  and  the  apparatus  is  so  extremely 
simple,  that  any  person,  without  any  previous  acquaintance  with  it,  can  send 
a  communication,  and  read  the  iuswer." 

.Vccording  to  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Alexander  Saunders,  secretary  to  the 
Great  Western  Railroad  Company,  the  expense  of  laying  down  the  iron  tubes 
through  which  the  magnetic  wires  pass,  and  completing  the  telegraphic  line, 
was  from  250/.  to  300/.  per  mile.  To  a  question  as  to  whether  all  the  ad- 
vantsges  which  were  expected  had  been  derived  from  the  magnetic  telegraph, 
tliis  gentleman  replied,  "  I  think  we  have  scarcely  had  it  in  a  state  to  say 
that  we  have  derived  all  the  advantages  which  were  contemplated  from  it, 
because  between  West  Drayton  and  Paddington  we  have  very  little  induce- 
ment to  work  the  telegraph  separately  for  that  part ;  it  had  much  more  refcj- 
rence  to  the  more  distant  stations,  and  the  communications  of  one  line  with 
others,  or  to  communications  between  places  on  the  line  where  short  and 
long  trains  together  are  running  upon  the  same  portion  of  railroad.  As  yet 
we  have  had  no  practical  benefit  of  that  description,  but  it  has  enabled  us  to 
ascertain  that  the  telegraph  perfectly  perforins  all  the  duty  that  was  expected 
of  it.  As  far  as  it  goes  it  works  perfectly  true,  and  if  it  work  as  well  when 
the  whole  line  is  completed,  I  fully  anticipate  all  the  useful  residts  contem- 
plated from  it." 

Used  with  a  view  to  commercial  purposes,  Mr.  Saunders  admitted  that  the 
sole  possession  of  the  magnetic  telegraph  would  give  the  Great  Western  com- 
pany a  great  advantage  over  the  rest  of  the  public,  who  could  not,  and  as  he 
conceived  ought  not  to  have  any  remedy,  inasmuch  as  the  company  were  the 
sole  proprietors  of  the  land,  and  would  be  at  the  entire  expense  of  laying 
down  the  line  of  telegraph.  If  the  Government  chose  to  have  a  line  of  tele- 
graph alone  the  Great  Western  Railroad,  he  did  not  see  any  objection,  pro- 
vided the  company  were  adequately  paid  for  the  use  of  their  land,  and  that 
the  line  should  be  used  for  Government  purposes  only.  A  restriction  of  the 
use  of  the  telegraph  by  the  company  solely  to  matters  relating  to  the  railway, 
and  prohibiting  the  transmission  of  other  intelligence,  would  prevent  the  com- 
])aiiy  from  laying  down  the  line.  He  also  thought  it  would  be  a  great  hard- 
ship if  an  expenditure  had  been  incurred  by  any  company  in  laying  down  a 
line  under  the  expectation  that  they  were  to  derive  a  benefit  from  it,  whether 
in  transmitting  railway  or  general  information,  that  they  should  be  compelled 
to  permit  another  company  to  lay  down  another  telegraph  on  their  line. 

Mr.  Wheatstone,  observing  upon  the  expense,  said  the  cost  of  the  present 
experiment  has  exceeded  2.50/.  per  mile.  We  will  assume  that  it  cannot 
safely  be  reduced,  though  I  think  with  more  experience  that  it  might  be.  If 
we  consider  that  the  cost  of  laying  down  the  whole  telegraphic  line  from 
London  to  Bristol  will  be  only  the  cost  of  one  mile  of  tlie  railroad  itself,  the 
expenditure  will  not  ajipear  great,  considering  the  lienefits  to  be  obtained ; 
this  is  less  than  one  per  cent,  on  the  original  estimate  of  the  expenditure. 
Now  with  respect  to  tlie  proposed  Government  line.  The  principal  expense 
of  laying  down  the  telegraph  line  is,  in  fact,  the  iron  tulie,  and  the  other 
things  connected  with  it.  The  mere  cost  of  the  wires  is  very  little,  not  more 
than  6/.  or  11.  per  mile  each ;  as  many  wires  as  you  please  may  be  put  in  the 
same  tube,  consequently,  supposing  an  iron  tube  to  be  laid  down  hence  to 
Portsmouth,  if  wires  for  three  distinct  lines  were  enclosed  within  it,  the  ex- 
pense of  each  line,  considered  separately,  would  be  very  considerably  dimi- 
nished. One  line  might  be  appropriated  for  the  railroad  purposes  alone, 
another  for  general  commercial  intercourse,  and  a  third  for  the  exclusive  use 
of  Government.  There  would  be  no  difficulty  if  the  Government  have  a 
telegrajibic  line  thus  associated  with  others  to  make  the  terminations  in  their 
own  offices, — from  the  Admiralty  in  London,  for  instance,  to  any  office  be- 
longing to  the  same  department  at  Portsmouth,  so  that  information  might  be 
sent  without  communicating  with  any  person  but  their  own  clerks.  If  this 
plan  was  adopted,  it  would  do  away  with  every  objection  which  has  been 
made  with  regard  to  the  injury  a  private  company  would  do  the  public  by 
having  the  conclusive  means  of  intelligence  in  their  own  hands,  and  I  am  sure 
any  railway  company  would  enter  willingly  into  an  arrangement  by  which  the 
Government  might  possess  an  exclusive  line,  at  a  very  moderate  expense- 
much  below  that  at  which  they  could  lay  it  down  themselves.  If  the  new 
telegraph  of  which  I  have  spoken  succeeds — and  it  has  succeeded  perfectly  so 
far  as  experiments  have  yet  been  tried — we  might  place  three  telegraphs  in 
connexion  with  the  six  wires  now  used  on  the  Great  Western  Railway ;  and 
these  might  be  applied,  as  I  have  said  before,  to  three  specific  purposes — one 
exclusively  for  railway  purposes  ;  another,  to  be  let  to  any  persons  w  ho  choose 
to  avail  themselves  of  it ;  and  another  for  Government  objects." 

In  answer  to  some  questions,  Mr.  Wheatstone  said,  that  if  Government 
feared  that  any  third  person  might,  by  means  of  portable  instruments,  be- 
come acquainted  with  their  messages,  they  should  communicate  in  cypher,  of 
which  an  extremely  safe  and  simple  mode  had  been  devised,  enabling  a  per- 
son to  communicate  with  a  thousand  correspondents  so  as  that  it  would  be 
impossible  for  any  one  of  them  to  read  what  was  intended  for  another.  With, 
respect  to  the  time  the  apparatus  would  continue  without  requiring  renewal, 
he  could  not  say.  It  depended  upon  the  tubes  being  kept  water-tight,  as  the 
wires  in  that  case  would  remain  uninjured  for  an  indefinite  period.  The  wear 
and  tear  of  the  telegraph  apparatus  from  London  to  Bristol  would  be  far  less 
expense  than  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  railroad  for  one  mile. 

There  is  one  suggestion  with  respect  to  the  use  of  the  telegraph  for  rail- 
road purposes  which  should  not  be  overlooked,  being  of  the  greatest  import- 

2X2 


324 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[September, 


ance,  inasmuch  as  all  danger  from  collision  would  be  obviated,  and  more 
prompt  assistance  rendered  in  case  of  accident.  Mr.  Wlieatstone's  proposal 
is  to  have  posts  through  which  the  magnetic  wires  can  be  carried  up,  anil 
with  an  apparatus  on  the  top  placed  at  every  quarter  of  a  mile  along  the  line. 
Bjr  this  means  the  guard  having  with  him  a  jiortable  instrument,  might  com- 
municate a  message  in  either  direction  of  the  line  at  pleasure. 


IMPORTANT  DISCOVERY  IN  METALLURGY. 

At  a  recent  sitting  of  the  Jcailemie  des  Sciences,  M.  Becqucrel  read  a  paper 
relating  to  a  most  important  discovery,  namely,  the  application  of  the  electro- 
chemical power  to  the  art  of  metallurgy,  especially  as  regards  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  lead. 

After  a  few  preliminary  remarks,  explaining  tlie  various  serrices  which  this 
force  can  render  to  natural  sciences,  to  arts  and  manufactures,  the  learned 
academician  alluded  in  particular  to  the  refining  of  the  precious  metals ;  and 
it  will  be  seen  in  the  course  of  tliis  analysis  the  great  advantage  he  lias  de- 
rived from  the  uew  methods  introduced  by  him  into  different  branches  of  in- 
dustry. 

It  will  also  be  gratifjing  to  learn,  that  one  of  the  poorest  departments  of 
France  possesses  a  gold,  silver,  and  lead  mine,  and  that  the  happy  results 
already  obtained  hold  out  a  still  more  flattering  prospect.  The  following  is 
an  analysis  of  the  memoir  presented  by  M.  Becquerel: — 

The  experiments  relative  to  the  application  of  the  electro-chemical  power 
to  refining  (metaUitryieJ  of  silver,  cojiper,  and  lead,  without  the  aid  of  quick- 
silver, and  with  little  or  no  fuel,  have  been  continued  by  M.  Becqucrel  with 
constant  success :  his  operations  were  conducted  upon  a  large  scale,  and  em- 
braced considerable  quantities  of  ores  derived  from  Europe,  Asia,  and  America. 
The  object  of  these  researches  was  in  the  first  place  the  immediate  separation 
(redtictionj  of  the  metals  one  from  the  other,  and  especially  of  silver  and  of 
lead  from  galena  ;  this  operation  was  effected  with  so  much  rapidity,  that  at 
the  preparatory  foundry  in  Paris  four  pounds  weight  of  silver  can  now  be 
drawn  off  in  the  metalled  state  from  silver  ore  in  the  space  of  six  hours ;  se- 
condly, the  preparation  which  the  ore  is  to  undergo,  so  as  to  render  each 
metal  capable  of  being  withdrawn  by  the  electric  cuiTent.  This  preparation 
varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ore,  presents  no  obstacle  when  tlie  silver 
is  in  the  metallic  state,  or  in  the  nature  of  a  sulphate,  as  usually  occurs  in 
Mexico  and  Peru,  but  it  becomes  more  complicated  when  the  silver  is  mixed 
with  other  substances ;  the  use  of  a  small  qiiantity  of  combustible  matter  is 
then  indispensable  in  order  to  effect  the  roasting  at  a  low  temperature. 

Ores  are  generally  found  in  great  quantities  in  those  countries,  but  are  for 
the  most  part  abandoned,  owing  to  the  want  of  sufficient  fuel  for  effecting 
their  amalgamation,  or  to  their  being  found  at  too  great  a  distance  from  the 
sea  to  transport  them  to  Europe,  unless  at  an  enormous  expense. 

In  Columbia,  where  large  masses  of  gold  and  silver  ore  are  found  mixed 
with  zinc,  the  richest  are  sometimes  exported  to  Europe  to  be  fused,  whilst 
the  poorest  and  those  of  a  medium  quality  are  either  rejected  altogether,  or 
used  to  so  little  advantage,  that  the  mining  companies  lose  by  them.  Exer- 
tions are  now  in  progress  for  introducing  the  new  methods,  which  are  equally 
applicable  to  amalgamation  and  to  the  electro-chemical  process. 

The  silver  ores  which  are  most  difficult  of  amalgamation  are  those  which 
contain  a  large  portion  of  copper  and  arsenic.  Ores  of  this  description  are 
found  in  considerable  quantity,  especially  in  Cliili,  where  the  inhabitants  fre- 
quently offer  them  to  Europeans,  by  whom  they  are  sometimes  taken  for 
ballast  for  want  of  freight,  and  without  any  certainty  of  turning  them  to  ad- 
vantage. 

The  great  difficulty  was  to  be  able  to  treat  these  substances  in  Europe  so 
as  to  obtain,  in  separate  portions,  and  at  little  expense,  all  the  silver,  copper, 
and  arsenic  they  contained.  This  problem  has  just  been  solved  in  a  satis- 
factory manner,  and  so  as  to  ensure  immense  advantages  to  new  speculators, 
w^ho  will  no  longer  have  to  contend  with  the  obstacles  met  with  by  their 
predecessors. 

On  inquiring  into  the  causes  of  the  delay  experienced  in  working  the  mines 
in  America,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  principal  ones  arise  from  the  high  price  of 
quicksilver,  and  the  great  difficulty  of  draining  the  water  by  which  the  mines 
are  inundated.  This  is  not  the  case  in  Asia,  in  the  Russian  possessions, 
which  are  rich  in  mineral  productions,  and  \-ield  larger  profits  from  day  to 
day  in  consequence  of  the  introduction  of  the  improvements  lately  adopted 
in  Europe  for  reducing  metalUc  ores.  In  the  silver  mines  of  Altaic  the  ex- 
penses for  extracting  the  ore,  process  of  reduction,  and  of  the  estabUshment, 
do  not  amount  to  a  quarter  of  the  rough  produce,  Jilthough  the  ore  in  general 
is  of  slight  tenacity.  These  advantages  are  owing  to  the  modern  price  of 
labour,  the  abundant  supply  of  combustible  matter  and  substances  required 
in  the  fusing,  and  which  are  not  to  be  had  in  America,  especially  in  Mexico 
and  the  Cordilleras. 

The  electro-chemical  process  can  be  easily  applied  to  the  ores  at  Altaie ; 
however,  in  countries  where  sufficient  fuel  is  at  hand,  and  salt  cannot  be 
procured,  the  fusing  operation  will  be  always  preferred,  except  in  cases  of 
complex  ores,  which  often  exercise  the  ingenuity  of  metallurgists. 

There  are  but  few  silver  mines  worked  in  Russia.  The  only  ones  of  im- 
portance are  those  of  Altaie,  Nertchinsk,  and  those  of  the  Caucasus  and  the 
Ural ;  but  the  great  source  of  mineral  riches  in  that  kingdom  consist  princi- 
pally of  the  gold  and  platina  dust  (sands),  the  wasliing  of  which  engrosses 
th«  chief  attention  of  the  Government.     This  process,  though  methodically 


conducted,  is  very  imperfect,  for  a  large  quantity  of  the  gold  contained  ia 
the  sand  is  lost ;  the  proceeds,  however,  are  considerable;  during  the  last 
year  no  less  than  12,200H>.  were  obtained,  upwards  of  800,000/.  value. 

The  argentiferous  and  auriferous  galenje  which  have  been  subjected  to  the 
electro-chemical  process  are  perfectly  lit  for  tlie  extraction  of  golil  aud  silver 
by  washing.  This  method  requires  that  the  ores  should  be  pulverized  and 
roasted  so  as  to  separate  the  metal  from  the  pyrites  and  other  compounds 
which  detain  it.  The  silver  and  lead  being  removed,  the  ore  thus  reduced 
to  about  half  its  weight,  can  be  washed  with  the  greatest  facility,  and  one 
man  can  wash  several  hundred  pounds  i)cr  day.  This  method  was  tried  mth 
the  galena  (very  argentiferous)  discovered  a  few  years  since  at  St.  Santia 
Cantales,  in  the  department  of  Cantal,  and  which  yielded  not  more  than 
2',  grains  of  gold  in  every  2001b.  of  ore,  with  30  per  cent,  of  lead.  But,  upon 
adopting  the  electro-chemical  i)rot:ess,  the  same  qu,intity  of  ore  produced 
something  more  tlian  three  draclims  of  gold.  From  this  important  result  it 
is  supposed  that  the  rocks  in  that  part  of  the  country  arc  amilerous,  as  might 
also  be  inferred  fiom  the  name  of  the  place,  Aurilac  (imri  lacus).  Another 
great  advantage  of  the  elect ro-chymical  method  is,  that  it  enables  the  metal- 
lurgist to  separate  those  portions  of  ore  which  contain  gold,  silver,  &c.,  from 
those  which  contain  none. 

M.  Becqucrel  then  alluded  to  the  other  uses  to  which  electricity  might  be 
applied  in  the  manufacture  of  metals,  especially  in  the  art  of  gilding  silver 
and  copper,  as  also  for  taking  impressions  in  copper  of  medals,  bassi  relievi, 
and  engravings. 

The  learned  academician  concluded  by  observing  that  this  new  and  highly 
important  power  was  only  in  its  infancy,  and  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
foresee  the  immense  services  it  was  likelv  to  render  to  the  arts. 


GRANTON  PIER. 

There  are,  perhaps,  few  engineering  works  at  present  in  progress  in  Scot- 
land that  seems  to  attract  more  general  interest  than  the  magnificent  pier, 
now  in  course  of  being  erected,  by  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Buccleugh,  on  His 
Grace's  property  at  Granton,  a  few  miles  northward  from  the  city  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

The  original  object  and  design  for  a  new  pier  at  Granton,  was  to  supply 
the  wants  of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in  regard  to  steam-vessel  conveyances, 
that  passengers  might  there  embark  and  disembark  with  safety,  in  all  states 
of  the  tide  and  weather,  without  boating — the  inconvenience  arising  from  the 
want  of  which,  both  from  there  not  being  found  a  proper  site,  and  the  requi- 
site funds  for  accomplishing  so  truly  desirable  an  object  elsewhere,  has  been 
but  too  long  felt  and  acknowledged  in  that  quarter.  Accordingly  Mr.  Walker 
of  London,  that  most  talented  and  deseivedly  celebrated  ciril  engineer,  was 
sent  for  in  the  year  1836;  and  after  examining  the  coast  adjacent  to  the 
Scottish  capital,  without  any  restrictions  as  to  locality,  he  pitched  upon 
Grautou  as  being  the  most  eligible  site  for  such  a  work  ;  and  having  prepared 
suitable  working  plans,  this  great  and  useful  work  was  forthwith  commenced, 
and  has  since  been  unremittingly  carried  on  at  the  sole  expense  of  a  single . 
indi\-idual — that'  distinguished,  patriotic,  and  benevolent  nobleman  the  Duke 
of  Buccleuch. 

A  brief  descrijition  of  the  general  plan  of  the  pier  may  not  prove  uninte- 
resting herfe.  Granton  Pier  commences  at  high  water  mark  on  the  shore, 
and  runs  at  right  angles  with  it  iiito  the  Frith  of  Forth  ;  it  is  intended  to  be 
about  1,700  feet  in  length,  by  about  150  feet  in  breadth;  is  to  be  built 
chiefly  with  stone,  and  founded  upon  shale  rock ;  it  will  be  so  arranged  as 
that  it  will  have  a  double  roadway  and  front  wall,  one  on  either  side,  with  a 
parapet  wall  in  the  centre  (with  connecting  openings  between  the  sides),  on 
each  side  of  which  will  be  a  footpath.  The  sea  or  front  walls  will  be  exactly 
alike,  and  so  divided  that  there  will  be  six  jetties,  and  one  slip  or  inclined 
plane  on  each  side  of  the  pier,  and  one  jetty  at  its  outer  end  ;  these  jetties 
will  be  each  strongly  faced  with  timber,  ancl  so  ingeniously  contrived  and  put 
together  that  a  platform  of  planking  will  be  on  its  top,  and  an  intermediate 
one  below,  which  will  communicate  with  the  roadway  by  means  of  an  easy 
stone  staii'.  Each  jetty  will  have  two  cranes  on  an  improved  jirinciple,  one 
at  each  end,  and  a  double  warehouse,  in  the  centre  of  which  the  aforesaid 
stair  passes  ;  the  jib  of  each  crane  will  swing  right  into  one  of  the  doors  of 
each  warehouse,  and  obove  the  liatchways  of  vessels  lying  at  jetty.  The  slips 
or  inclined  planes  are  faced  with  wooden  defenders,  so  that  vessels  landing 
live  stock,  &c.,  may  haul  up  or  down  as  the  state  of  the  tide  may  be.  The 
depth  of  water  on  both  sides  of  the  pier,  with  the  lowest  spring  ebbs,  will 
be  twelve  feet  at  low  water  at  the  outer  end,  diminishing  very  gradually  in- 
ward ;  and  the  bottom  is  of  a  soft  and  fine  clay.  It  is  intended  that  the  pier 
shall  have  an  elegant  approach,  and  a  lighthouse  at  its  extremity. 

From  the  principle  on  which  Granton  Pier  has  been  carried  on,  namely, 
finishing  as  it  goes  outwaril,  it  has  already  proved  itself  to  answer  better  than 
was  anticipated,  not  only  as  a  place  where  steamers  of  the  largest  size  can 
dash  in  and  out  with  the  lowest  ebbs,  where  the  passenger  can  by  a  few  safe 
and  simple  paces  step  from  the  steamer  into  the  cab,  and  drive  off  at  full 
speed,  and  vice  versa,  but  as  a  place  of  accommodation  and  refuge  to  all 
classes  of  vessels,  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  As  a  pier  from  which  steamers 
can  arrive  and  depart  with  ease  at  their  respective  fixed  hours,  it  has  already 
been  fairly  proved  without  failure  ;  as  a  place  for  despatch,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  one  of  the  large  London  steamers  lately  arrived  heavily  laden — she  was 
unladen  and  laden  again,  she  disembarked  and  embarked  her  passengers,  and 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


325 


sailed,  all  in  the  course  of  eight  hours.  As  a  place  of  refuge  and  shelter  it 
was  lately  tested,  for,  with  a  severe  easterly  gale  of  wind  in  April  last,  the 
Steam  boats  plying  to  the  stone  and  chain  piers  of  Ne%vhaven  were  obliged  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  facilities  afforded  at  Grauton ;  and  with  the  same 
gale  seven  or  eight  steamers  might  at  once  have  been  seen  lying  snug  at,  or 
departing  from  the  western  side  of  Granton  Pier.  Very  shortly  afterward, 
with  a  similar  gale,  a  vessel  in  a  sinking  state,  with  her  crew  on  board,  run 
for  and  obtained  shelter  at  Granton  at  low  water,  and  but  for  this  fortunate 
escape  all  hands  must  have  perished. 

In  addition  to  carrying  on  the  pier,  wliich  has  been  found  to  answer  so 
admiraljly,  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  has  formed  a  splendid  new  road 
between  it  and  Edmburgh ;  and  a  magnificent  hotel  and  warehouse,  and  also 
a  pier  master's  house,  adjoining  the  pier,  have  been  finished  lately.  It  is  also 
in  contemplation,  if  not  already  commenced,  to  make  a  road  from  Granton 
Pier  to  join  the  Cramond  Road  to  the  we'stward  ;  and  a  water-work  for  sup- 
plying the  pier  and  houses  with  good  fresh  water.  Indeed,  the  improvements 
at' present  going  forward  at  Granton  with  such  gigantic  strides,  may  justly 
be  viewed  as  an  era  in  the  history  of  civil  engineering. 

It  would  be  improper  to  close  the  present  account  of  Granton  Pier  without 
observing  the  credit  which  it,  as  a  novel  and  highly  important  work  of  engi- 
neering, "reflects  on  its  judicious  and  skilful  principal  engineer,  Mr.  Walker. 
The  improvements  daily  going  forward  in  its  detail  and  parts,  so  ingeniously 
and  carefully  concocted  by  the  resident  engineer,  Mr.  Howkins,  as  well  as 
the  excellent  arrangements  in  carrying  on  the  work  without  in  the  slightest 
degree  interrupting  the  extensive  and  growing  trade  of  the  pier,  are  richly 
deserving  of  praise. 

The  Granton  Pier  will  yet,  at  no  distant  day,  give  facilities  to  every  descrip- 
tion of  trade,  and  have  resources  which  time,  together  with  the  assiduous 
endeavours  of  its  noble  and  indefatigable  proprietor,  will  only  disclose.  As 
far  as  the  work  lias  now  proceeded,  and  in  proportion  as  it  is  capable  of 
doing  good,  the  public  are  certainly  deeply  indebted  to  the  Duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch.— Elffin  Courant. 


THE  THAMES  FLOATING  FIRE-ENGINE. 

Hitherto  the  London  Fire  Office  has  had  its  fire-engines  on  the  Thames 
placed  in  vessels  or  floatsc  oustiucted  of  wood,  and  although  built  exceedingly 
strong,  yet  considerable  loss  of  engine  power  was  sustained,  through  the 
vibratory  motion  of  the  hull,  in  addition  to  which,  the  bottom  of  the  vessels 
or  floats  became  soddened  and  foul,  so  that  great  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  removing  them  from  their  moorings  to  the  scene  of  action.  The  fire  oflice 
being  about  to  place  another  engine-veesel  or  float  upon  the  Thames,  the 
advantages  of  a  wrought-iron  huU  were  submitted  to  the  committee  of  ma- 
nagement, who  decided  in  favour  of  the  same,  and  on  Thursday,  20th  ult., 
(off  Blackwall),  a  novel  and  interesting  trial  took  pl.ace,  on  board  the  said 
WTOugbt-iron  float  (built  by  Messrs.  Ditchburn  &  Mare).  The  fire  engines 
are  by  Mr.  Tilley,  of  Blackfriars  Road,  of  larger  dimensions  and  different 
arrangement  than  those  hitherto  used ;  the  handles  or  levers  are  placed 
parallel  to  the  vessel's  sides,  leaving  a  convenient  passage  in  the  middle  of 
the  deck.  Thirty  men  were  placed  to  each  handle  or  lever,  (of  which  there 
are  four,)  two  on  each  side,  making  120  men ;  every  thing  being  ready,  the 
order  was  given  to  start,  when  one  of  the  fire-meu  (holding  the  branch-pipe) 
was,  by  the  force  of  the  water  entering  the  pipe,  knocked  on  the  deck ;  the 
men  were  instantly  stopped:  on  starting  again,  it  was  found  that  it  required 
four  of  the  stoutest  fire-men  to  manage  the  pipe,  (the  nozle  aperture  of  which 
measures  two  inches  in  diameter,)  and  a  column  of  water  was  discharged 
from  it,  in  a  direct  measured  distance  of  200  feet.  The  hull  of  the  vessel 
was  found,  under  the  most  \iolent  effect  that  could  be  produced  upon  it,  per- 
fectly free  from  vibration,  quivering,  or  roUing  motion;  18  men  propelled 
her  by  the  means  of  oars,  at  the  rate  of  6  miles  an  hour.  The  result  was 
highly  satisfactory  to  all  parties  concerned  ;  but  we  are  disposed  to  ask,  why 
does  not  the  London  Fire  Office  avail  itself  of  the  best  motive  power — steam. 
A  10-horse  engine  would  propel  such  a  vessel  10  miles  an  hour  in  Stillwater, 
and  double  the  eft'ect,  they  can  at  present  produce  with  manual  labour;  would 
be  witliont  cessation,  and  under  entire  command ;  the  steam  could  be  raised 
at  any  time  in  15  minutes,  and  all  this  for  the  trifling  smu  of  dtoOO. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


THE  EARL  OF  HARDMKKE  EAST  INDIAMAN. 

On  the  8th  ult.  we  had  the  pleasure  of  steaming  down  the  river  with  a 
select  naval  and  scientific  party,  who  had  met  on  board  tor  the  purpose  of 
inspecting  this  beautiful  vessel  ^^ith  her  new  improvements,  which,  to  the 
great  credit  of  her  spirited  and  entei-prising  owners  Messrs.  Green,  has  several 
cf  considerable  value  and  importance,  but  the  one  with  which  we  were  most 
interested  was  that  of  a  steam  engine  ofSO-horsc  power,  manufactured  by 
jMessrs.  Seawards,  employed  to  rotate  paddle-wheels  placed  in  the  usual 
position,  but  without  paddle-boxes,  and  having  a  skeleton  like  appearance  ; 
these  arc  to  be  used  as  auxiliaries  to  the  vessel  during  light  winds  and  calm 
»  eafher,  or  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  off  a  lee  shore,  or  on  any  other  occa- 
sion when  the  sail  fails  its  duty  ;  and  in  order  to  render  these  padd'es  less 
objectionable,  they_  are  constructed  so  as  to  be  thrown  cut  of  gear  at  a  minute's 


notice,  and  made  to  revolve  upon  their  own  axis,  independently  of  the  ma- 
chinery, and  prevent  that  resistance  in  sailing  that  they  would  otherwise 
render.  They  can  likewi.se  be  disengaged  altogether  by  willidrawin;;  the 
several  floats  separately,  that  are  attached  to  the  shaft  of  the  paddle  by  arms, 
similar  to  the  levers  of  a  capstan,an;l  secured  on  their  boundary  by  a  lonj 
linked  chain  which  is  easily  disconnected,  ami  the  whole  of  the  paddle-wheel 
removed  in  case  of  stormy  weather.  The  shaft  ami  arms  are  of  iron,  and 
the  floats  of  wood,  the  latter  material  being  considered  easier  to  handle  than 
if  made  of  iron.  The  engine  works  horizontally,  and  occupies  but  little 
space,  being  24  feet  in  length,  and  but  10  feet  wide,  in  that  part  of  tlie  vessel 
which  is  but  of  little  consequence,  namely,  between  the  fore  and  main  hatch- 
way, and  being  entirely  between  decks,  neither  part  appears  above  deck,  nor 
in  the  hold.  The  boiler  is  jacketted  with  two  coat.s  of  felt,  over  which  is  a 
thickness  of  two-inch  deal  planking,  which  being  an  excellent  non-comluctor, 
entirely  retains  the  heat,  and  prevents  the  wood-uork  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  boiler  being  injured  by  excessive  heat.  The  fuel  used  was  that  patented 
by  Oram,  made  of  pitch,  small  coal  and  muil.  moulded  into  the  form  of  bricks, 
which  are  stacked  up  close,  and  by  their  compact  form  appear  to  occupy  but 
little  room  ;  the  consumption  was  120  bricks  of  4  lb.  weight  each,  in  2  hours 
12  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  a  little  more  than  2  cwt.  per  hour,  burning  with- 
out smoke — and,  according  to  the  patentee,  with  a  more  intense  heat,  and 
much  more  economically  tlian  that  of  its  rival,  coal.  The  Earl  of  Hardwicke 
is  of  1000  tons  burihen.  draws  17  feet  of  water,  bound  for  Bengal,  and  is  full 
of  passengers,  troops  and  cargo.  She  left  the  East  India  Docks  on  the  8tU 
ult..  worked  her  engine  down  to  Gravesend.  but  owing  to  a  strong  easterly 
wind  was  assisted  "by  a  steam-tug,  accomplished  the  distance  in  two  hours 
and  a  half,  going  at  the  rate  of  six  knots,  with  all  her  yards  square ;  upon 
heaving  round  at  the  end  of  Gravesend  Reach,  the  tug  was  cast  off,  and  she 
steamed  to  the  town  again  by  her  o«a  engines  at  the  rate  of  four  knots.^on  a 
strong  ebb  tide.  On  Monday  at  noon  she  weighed  anchor,  light  airs  W.b.W., 
steamed  down  to  tlie  Nore  L'ght  in  three  hours  by  her  own  engine,  and  ar- 
rived at  Spithead  at  3,  50  p.m.  on  Thursday  the  13th,  beating  the  M  ellington 
(which  she  passed  on  Monday  night)  by  12  hours.  The  steam  engine  being 
of  the  most  essential  service,  working  upwards  of  40  hours.  ,She  tookhec 
departure  from  Portsnumth  for  Calcutta,  and  is  expected  to  peiform  the  dis- 
tance in  75  days.  On  the  Friday  previous  to  her  departure  she  was  visited 
by  Admiral  Bouverie,  Sir  E.  Codrington,  Mr.  Blake,  master  shipwnglit  ot 
Portsmouth  Dock-yard,  and  many  other  naval  officers  and  persons  connected 
with  the  navy,  who  expressed  themselves  highly  pleased  with  the  plan. 

The  "  'V^ernon,''  asistership.  upon  which  the  experiment  of  auxiliary  steam 
was  first  tried,  made  the  voyage  from  Calcutta  to  Spithead,  in  a  very  bad 
season,  in  86  days,  notwithstanding  she  had  calms  and  light  airs  all  the  way 
down  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  when  she  used  her  steam  consecutive  y  for  eiglit 
days  and  nights,  and  slie  came  from  the  Cape  to  Spithead  m  42  days,  bein<j, 
we  believe,  the  shortest  ^  ovage  upon  record,  during  which  time  she  used  her 
steam  nine  days.  Mr.  Green,  the  spirited  proprietor  of  a  fleet  of  these  splen- 
did East  Indiamen,  intends  to  apply  generally  auxiliary  steam,  and  there  can 
be  little  doubt  but  it  must  soon  be  adopted  in  our  men-of-war.  Ihe  space 
occupied  by  the  machinery  being  the  same  amount  as  that  formerly  occupied 
for  a  cable  tier.  .,, 

It  is  a  rather  curious  coincidence  that  the  day  on  which  the  \  emoti  will 
sail  for  India,  the  10th  instant,  is  also  the  day  fixed  for  the  sailing  ot  the 
"  India"  steam  vessel  of  .320-horse  poH  cr,  thus  an  excellent  opportunity  will 
be  afforded  for  ascertaining  the  comparative  advantages  of  the  two  plans. 
Many  bets  have  already  been  made  at  Lloyds,  that  both  the  "  Veirnou 
(which  is  the  only  steamer  that  has  ever  made  the  voyage  to  India  and  back), 
and  the  "  Hardwicke,"  of  30-horse  power  each,  will  make  the  passage  out 
in  less  time  than  the  '■  India"  of  320-horse  power.  Shoidd  this  prove  to  be 
the  case,  it  will  satisfactorily  establish  the  superiority  of  steam  applied  as  an 
auxiliary  over  large  steam  power  applied  in  the  usual  way. 

Iron  Boats.— Oa  the  15th  ult.  there  were  launched  from  the  building  yard 
of  Messrs.  Ditchburn  and  Mare,  Blackwall,  lu-o  wrought  iron  steam  vessels 
at  tlie  same  time,  an  occuiTence  we  believe  never  before  witnessed  on  the 
Thames;  one  was  named  the  "Swallow,"  intended  tor  the  Baltic,  the  other 
•'  Elberfeld."  for  the  Rhine.  Messrs.  Penn  and  Son,  ot  Greennich.  are  the 
engineers  for  Ihe  former,  Messrs.  Miller  and  Ravenhill,  Blackwall,  tor  the 
latter ;  the  engines  in  both  vessels  are  oscillating. 

Bnthh  Steamers  on  the  A'lYc— The  Oriental  Steam  Company  have  purchased 
the  iron  steamer  Dahlia,  which  is  on  the  point  of  starting  tor  Egypt  to  ply 
on  the  Nile,  under  license  of  the  Pasha,  to  convey  the  East  India  mails  and 
passengers  through  Egypt. 

Tlie  British  Queen  steam  ship,  which  sailed  from  Portsmouth  on  the  after- 
noon of  the  1st  July,  arrived  at  New  York  on  the  morning  of  the  IStli,  hav- 
ing made  the  passage  in  IGl  days.  The  Britannia  steam-ship,  the  first  of 
Mr.  Cunard's  Royal  mail  steamers,  wliich  sailed  from  Liverpool  on  the  after- 
noon of  the  4th  July,  for  Halifax  and  Boston,  reached  the  latter  place  on  the 
evening  uf  the  18tli,  having  accomplished  the  passage,  including  a  stoppage 
at  Halifax,  in  14  days  and  a  half. 

The  Oricr.tal  built  for  the  Peninsula  and  Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany, is  believed  to  be  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  naval  architecture.  She 
is  frigate  built ;  her  engine^  are  equal  to  450  horse  power,  and  appear  to  be 
of  the  best  construction.  The  elegance  with  w  hich  she  is  fitted  up.  and  the 
accommodation  which  she  offers  in  every  department,  must  render  her  ac- 
ceptable to  the  most  fastidious  passengers.  She  is  stated  to  he  of  1,6(3  tons 
burden.  The  great  cabin  is  beautifully  ornamented  with  panels oi papier mache. 
Tliere  are  48  tablets  on  the  doors  and  sides  of  the  compartment,  made  of 
the  material  by  Messrs.  Jennens  and  Bettridge,  of  Birmingham,  prepared  la 
a  manner  that  renders  them  more  durable  than  oak :  they  never  can  decay 
from  dry  rot,  or  become  worm-eaten,  nor  are  they  combustible,  or  capable  of 
being  broken.  The  tablets  are  ornamented  in  arabesques  a  I'orient,  in  bronze 
scrolls  of  the  acanthus,  with  gold  tendrils  and  leaves,  with  sea -weed  on  a 
primrose  grotmd,  which  supplementary  colours  accord  well  with  the  black 
moulding,  which  is  richly  covered  with  burnished  gold  matted  tracery  work. 


320 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Skptkmber. 


that  has  tlie  appearance  of  being  raiscil  from  tlie  ground,  and  produces  an 
effect  alike  Ijeaiitifnl  by  day  cr  lamp  light.  The  makers  are  entitled  toptreat 
praise  for  tin'  inlrudiictiun  of  a  material  capable  of  admitting  so  much  elegance 
and  taste  in  decoration. 

Till-  Arcliimeiles. — This  vessel  reached  Oporto  from  Plymouth  in  70  hours, 
Ijeing  .sui)pn.sed  to  l)e  the  quickest  steam  communication  that  has  ever  been 
madebetHcenthe.se  places;  and  tliis  was  ellected  without  her  liaving  once 
had  occasion  to  stop  her  engines.    The  distance  is  about  800  miles. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAII.WAYS. 


Tht  Quern  Dnwdi^t'/s  Trip  on  thr  Railwmj. — E-rtrnnrdifutrij  Speed, — On  the 
recent  occasion  of  llie  return  of  the  Queen  Dowager  from  Lancaster,  a  special 
train  was  provided  for  the  conveyance  of  her  Majesty  and  suite,  from  Lan- 
caster and  Preston  and  North  Union  Raihva>  Companies,  and  thence  to 
Stafiord,  being  the  nearest  point  to  Alton  Towers,  the  .seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  which  was  her  Majesty's  destination,  by  the  Orand  Junction 
Kailway  Company.  The  train,  consisting  of  tliree  railway  carriages,  one  of 
which  had  been  handsomely  fitted  up  by  the  London  and  Birmingham  Com- 
pany for  her  Majesty's  use,  and  five  private  carriages  on  trncKs,  making 
eight  in  all — 

Started  from  Lancaster,  at    lOh.  12m.,  a.m. 

Arrived  at  Preston  Station    llh.  15m. 

Stopped  there 13m. 

And  on  the  Viaduct  over  the  Kibble  Valley      Gm. 

Time  at  Preston 19m. 

Arrived  at  Parkside 12h.  Urn. 

Vhere  it  M,as  attached  to  an  engine  of  the  Grand  Junction  Railway.  The 
latter  part  of  the  journey,  viz.,  from  Newton  Junction  to  Stafford,  a  distance 
of  fifty-four  miles,  was  performed.  e.\clusive  of  a  stoppage  of  five  minutes,  at 
Crenc,  for  water,  in  one  hour  and  thirty-one  minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  up- 
wards of  S.JJ  miles  per  hour.  Her  Majesty,  on  her  arrival  at  Stafford,  per- 
sonally expressed  to  Captain  Cleather,  the  manager  of  the  Grand  Junction 
Company,  who  was  in  attendance,  her  satisfaction  at  the  rapidity  of  the 
passage,  and  the  uncommon  smoothness  of  the  line.  The  engine,  the  Vandal, 
on  its  return,  brought  back  from  Birmingham  a  train  occupied  by  the  direc- 
tors and  chief  officers  of  the  company,  who  had  been  inspecliug  the  line,  and 
holding  a  board  ,at  Birmingham  on  that  day.  It  left  Birmingham  at  fi  30r.M., 
and  arrived  at  Kdgehill  at  9  2  p.m.,  having  made  three  stoppages  of  five,  four, 
and  three  minutes;  thus  running  the  distance  in  two  hours  and  thirty-two 
minutes,  or  at  the  rate  of  thirty-eight  miles  an  hour  including  stoppages,  or 
forty-one  miles  an  hour  cxclu-sive  of  them.  This  is  believed  to  be  tlie  most 
remarkable  performance,  fur  a  continued  distance  of  this  extent,  that  has  yet 
taken  place  on  this  or  any  other  railway  in  the  kingdom.  This  engine,  in 
Ijoth  its  trips,  was  under  the  direction  ol  Mr.  Buddicom,  the  superintendent 
of  the  locomotive  department  of  the  company. 


THE  NORTH  UNION  RAILWAY. 

Engineer's  Report  to  the  Directors. 

GE^TLF.M^N — In  drawing  to  a  close  the  construction  of  the  North  Union 
Kailway.  I  consider  it  will  be  satisfactory  to  the  Directors  and  Proprietors 
to  have  the  detailed  cost  of  the  several  great  heads  of  cxpemliture  brought 
into  one  view  before  them.  It  is  due  to  myself  and  the  other  officers  of  the 
Company,  that  the  rjuantity  of  work  executed  for  the  monev  should  be  set 
forth;  .-ind  without  any  thing  beyond  a  simple  statement  of  facts  in  this 
respect  I  shall  be  content,  should  'this  report  be  promulgated,  to  leave  the 
Shareholders  in  this  concern  and  the  public  to  form  their  judgment.  I  like- 
wise conceive  that,  as  the  first  aullientic  detailed  dcrcument  of  the  kind,  it 
may  be  taken  as  the  coniniencement  of  similar  statements  which  will  here- 
after be  brought  forward,  and  thereby  be  the  means  of  collecting  that  statis- 
tical information  on  the  Railway  system,  which  has  naturally,  and  of  late, 
l)een  so  much  sought  after. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  total  length  of  line  embraced  herein  is  2.3  miles  ; 
the  main  line  from  Parkside  through  M'igan  to  Preston  being  22  miles,  and 
the  New  Springs  Branch  3  miles  ;  and  it  should  be  observed,  that  from  the 
peculiar  nature  of  this  railway,  the  total  extent  of  sidings,  extra  lines,  &c.  is 
very  much  above  the  usual  proporlion. 

In  the  total  sum  of  £.378,931  Ki?.  2il.  (say  in  round  numbers  £.580,000.)  is 
included  the  cost  of  re-laying  the  old  line  between  Parkside  and  Wigan;  the 
Cottages  now  building  along  the  line;  the  mainten,ance  of  the  Railway  by 
the  Contractors,  for  two  years,  from  the  respective  openings  ;  and  not  only 
all  that  has  been  already  exnendeil  on  the  several  items,  but  that  which  is 
now  in  progress,  la-  contemplated  to  be  <lone,  to  make  the  railway  complete, 
and  to  draw  the  line  at  the  foot  of  capital  accoimt. 

From  a  consideration  of  the  natiue  of  the  works  on  this  lir.e,  many  of  ihem 
of . a  gigantic  character,  particularly  the  Ribble  Viaduct,  and  including  the 
various  slips  and  accidents,  I  hojic  I  may  be  permitted  to  consider  the  average 
cost  of  £23, 1.57  per  mile  as  a  moderate  amount,  including,  as  it  does,  stations, 
carrying  establishments,  interest,  and  management. 

The  actual  cost  of  the  Railway  itself  has"  been  only  £15,793  per  mile,  ex- 
clusive of  land  ;  and  if  the  peculiarly  heavy  expense  of  the  Ribble  Vi.aduct 
(consisiing  of  five  arches  of  120  feet  span  each,  erected  at  a  cost  of  about 
£-H.885.  includin"-  all  contingent  extras)  Ije  excluded,  as  it  fairly  might,  for 
comparative  results,  the  cost  of  the  works  alone  is  £13,998  per  mile;  the 
purchase  of  land  for  the  railway  is  £1,974  per  mile  additional ;  £3.017  is  the 


Cost  ]ier  mile  for  the  stations  .and  carrying  establishments ;  and  £1,872  pe- 
mile  for  intere-t  and  management.  Separating  the  latter  item  from  the  in 
ferest,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole  expense  of  the  superintendance  of  th-* 
North  Union  Railway,  over  a  period  of  ten  years  of  greater  or  less  activity 
has  sciircely  exceeded  7  Jier  cent.  This  item  is,  of  course,  not  in  the  en- 
gineer's department,  but  it  is  due  to  the  managing  officer  of  the  Company  to 
state  the  circumstance  :  it  will  also  be  found  that  the  average  quantities  per 
mile  are — of  eaiMh  work,  11C.120  cubic  yards,  averaging  under  W\il.  per  v,avd  ; 
of  masonry,  1-000  cubic  y.ards,  averagirig  22s.  Id.  per  yard  ;  and  of  iron,  287 
tons,  averaging  something  below  9/.  Ija-.  per  ton. 

In  respect  fo  the  mode  in  which  the  ilitTiculties  presented  by  the  physica 
obstructions  on  the  face  of  the  country  have  been  surmounted,  by  the  adop- 
tion of  gradients  of  1  in  100  to  a  consider.ible  extent,  and  thereby  a  vast  sav- 
ing effi^cted  in  the  construction  of  the  railway,  I  hope  to  be  able  to  demon- 
strate, at  the  close  of  the  first  t\\o  years'  entire  working  of  the  line  in 
October  next,  that,  with  the  exception  of  some  very  little  addition  to  the 
quantity  of  fuel,  the  cost  of  working  the  North  Union  Railway,  reduced  to  a 
rate  per  mile  per  train,  is  belute  that  of  other  lines  with  superior  gradients, 
while  the  trains  and  rate  of  travelling  are  at  least  equal  to  the  averages  else- 
where ;  and  I  feel  confident  of  being  able  shortly  lo  give  a  very  close  ap- 
proximation of  what  that  average  expense  is  per  mile  per  train,  including  all 
the  deductions  from  the  gross  receipts,  before  declaring  a  dividend. 

There  being  then  but  little  difference,  as  far  as  observation  and  experience 
have  liitherto  gone,  in  the  working  trains  of  passengers  and  light  goods  on 
railways,  diflcring  considerably  in  gradient,  at  velocities  and  with  loads  such 
as  usually  occur,  the  high  importance  of  economy  in  the  first  construction  is 
self-evident.  It  has  thus  told  effectively  on  the  (irand  Junction  Railway, 
and  I  trust  will  be  equally  felt  on  the  jlidland  Counties  Railway,  each  of 
which  lines,  with  similar  equipments  to  those  on  the  North  Union  Railway, 
will  be  found  to  have  cost  at  about  the  same  rate,  or  but  little  e.weeding  It, 
say  certainly  within  £23,000  per  mile.  Reducing  the  whole  expenses  on  the 
North  Union  Kailway  to  round  numbers  md  to  a  per  centagc,  the  account 
will  stand  as  follows  : 

Total.      Percent.   Per  mile. 

Eartli  AVork £126,000 22    —  £.5000 

Masonrv 120,000 21    4800 

Fencing  21,000 3J 800 

Upper   (Railway  laid  complete  .      61,000 lOJ 2400 

AVorks.  (Iron 67,000 lU  —  2700 

Land  and  Damages  ....       50,000 8i 2000 

Stations 44,000 7A 1800 

Carrying  Establishment      44.000 7| 1 800 

Interest  .5,000. ■      « 200 

Management 42,000 7^ 1700 

£580,000  100    £23,200 

15ut  to  enable  a  more  critical  examination  to  be  made,  I  shall  subjoin  the 
following  abstract : 

Abstract  of  the  Cost  of  the  Works  upon  the  Line  of  the  North  Union  Rail- 
»a) — 25  miles — with  the  General  Heads  of  Expenditure  in  the  various  De- 
partments. 

Earth  Work 2,903,028  cubic   yards, 

(average  1  Off/. j  per  yard  .  .  .   £125,676    3  11 

M.vsoNRv  and  Brihges.— 100,265  cubic  yards 

Masonry  .  .  .        .£113.096    0    5 

325  tons  Iron  Work  .  .  .        3.875    0    0 

25,022  cubic  feet  Timber  .  .        3  277  14    8 

FiiNci.N-o  and  Dr. ains.— 87,712  lineal  y.ards. 
— N.li.  Tlii.1  iiirhldes  Roiid  Dirersions, 
.S-c,  Gates,  S^T.Sfc.  .  .  .      20,533     2     7 

Ui'i'ER  Works. — 6,885  tons  of  Iron  Rails  and 

Chairs 66,833  17    7 

91,.')-l-5   lineal  yards  of  Railway,  laid  on 
Blocks  and  Sleeiiers,  including   Balla.-t, 
Drains,    Walling.    Bolls.    Kevs,    Felt, 
■     Plugs,  and  small  Materials  ami  Labour      61,538    0    2 

£394,826  19    4 

Land  and  D.VM.VGES.— 320  acres  for  Railway        .        .        .       49,342    3  lU 
.Stations.— Land  for  Stations  .        .  '     .   £17,2.57  15    5 

Station  Buildings  ....       13.589    8     I 

Warehouses  9,266     0     0 

Fixtures,  Turnplates,  and  Sundries  .        4,164  16    6 

Carrvino  ETAni.isiiMF.NT.— Repairing  Shops, 

Tools,  and  Fixtures       ....      11,8?4    0    0 
Locomotive  Engines,  Tenders,  &£c.  .       18.863    6    7 

Carriages,  Horse  Boxes,  Trucks,  &c.        .       12.934  17  10 

88,960    4    5 

Intere.st.— Interest  Account,  Kates,  Taxes.  &c.      4,746  15    8 
Manaof.ment. — Parliamentary  and   Law  Ex- 
penses         17,147     8    0 

En'.;incering  and  Surveying  .  .  .  6,193  5  9 
Office  Expenses.  Travelling.  Ad\erfising,&.c.  3.134  19  2 
S.darics    .        .        .        7       .        .        .       15,580    0    0 

46,802    8    7 


Total  Cost 


.      £23,157     5    0  per  mile.— or— £578,931   16    2 

It  should  also  be  mentioned  that,  of  the  above  land  there  remains  to  the 
value  of  about  four  or  five  thousand  pounds  available  for  re-sale  ;  and,  in 
conclu.simi,  I  trust  that  the  dividend  of  nearly  7  per  cent,  per  annum  out  of 
the  clear  profits  of  the  Railway,  since  its  entire  completion  and  opemng 
throughout,  in  October.  1838.  to  the  present  time,  with  a  prospect  of  a  steady 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


327 


increase,  is  a  sufllcient  proof  of  the  soumlncss  of  the  concern  ;  and  with  my 
grateful  acknowledgments  to  the  Directors  for  their  invariahle  kind  bupport 
amidst  many  trying  difiicullies,  now  happily  surmounted. 
'I  have  the  hoiiour  to  subscribe  myself. 

Their  very  faithful  servant. 

CnARi.r.s  Vignot.es. 
4,  Trafiilgnr-sqmn:.  London,  Engineer-in-Chief. 

■  .higtist  4, 1840. 


PXTBLIC    BVIIiDINGS,    AND    IMPROVEMENTS. 


New  Church  at  Golileit  Hill.— On  Monday,  3rd  idt.,  the  first  stone  was  laid 
of  a  new  church  about  to  he  erected  at  Golden  Hill,  a  populous  village  .situated 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Potteries.  The  church  will  contain  'jOO 
sittings,  one-half  of  whicli  will  be  free.  Mr.  Stanley  is  the  arcliitcct.  and 
Str.  Sliufllehotham  is  the  builder,  and  it  is  expected  that  the  building  will  be 
ready  for  consecration  in  the  month  of  July  ne.vt  year. 

Kew  Church  at  Hill  Tup.  West  liromicich.— On  Tuesday.  4lh  ult.,  the  first 
stone  of  this  church  was  laid.     The  architect  is  Mr.  Hottert  lOiibells. 

The  Nelson  Pillar.— On  Friday.  7lh  ult..  the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  Sir 
George  Cockburn,  Mr.  Herries,  Sir  Peter  Laurie,  and  other  members  of  the 
Nelson  Testimonial  Committee,  met  at  tlie  Nalional  Gallery  on  the  subject 
of  the  magnificent  pillar  now  rapidly  rising  in  Trafalgar-.square.  The  brick- 
work appears  above  the  hoarding,  and  will  soon  be  very  cons[iicuous,  and  the 
committee  expressed  their  warm  approbation  of  the  energy  manifested  by  the 
contractors,  ^Icssrs.Cirissell  and  Peto.  It  appears  from  what  has  recently 
taken  place  before  the  members,  that  the  altitude  of  the  pillar  is  not  to  he  so 
great  by  .30  feet  as  was  at  first  contemplated.  Mr.  Bailey  is  at  work  upon 
llie  figure  of  the  naval  A\"arrior,  M  Iiich  is  to  be  of  Portland  stone,  and  for  the 
execution  of  wliich  the  sculptor  is  to  receive  lOOU  guineas.  It  is  calculated 
that  Portland  stone  will  retain  its  colour  ami  polish  upon  being  strongly 
salurated,  better  than  bronze  ;  and  Mr.  Croker  instanced  the  Nelson  statue 
of  Dublin  as  a  proof  of  the  superiority  of  the  former.  Mr.  Lough  is  to  exe- 
cute ■•  the  lions"  at  the  pedestal  ;  biit  they  are  not  to  be  commenced  until 
the  near  approach  of  spring,  when  it  is  expected  ihe  subscription  will  recei\'e 
numerous  additions.  A  committee  of  the  Uouse  of  Commons  reported  a  little 
while  ago  that  Ihe  Nelson  pillar  imght  not  to  be  raised  in  Trafalgar-sciuare. 
hut  the  house  having  taken  no  notice  of  the  suggestion,  the  work  will  pro- 
ceed without  a  check  to  completion.  The  project  of  a  new  site  would  not,  it 
is  conjectured,  be  very  kindly  received,  as  government  gave  the  ground,  and 
contriljutors  gave  their  money,  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  testi- 
monial on  that  spot  to  the  great  naval  hero  of  Lngland. — Daili/  paper. 

Ulac/.friars  B'idge. — We  are  requested  to  call  the  attention  of  the  pubjc 
and  especially  of  the  ddlercnt  paving  committees,  to  the  paving  of  the  car- 
riage way  now  in  progress  on  Blackfriars  Bridge.  It  is  the  first  time  the 
narrow  paving  has  been  tried  in  this  metropolis,  and  it  is  considered  a  very 
great  improvement,  as  a  horse  will  not  be  so  liable  to  slip  as  on  wider  stones. 
The  blocks  are  principally  of  Guernsey  granite,  9  inches  long,  only  3  inches 
wide,  an<l  square  at  the  top  and  bottom.  Tlie  substratum  is  formed  of  a  con- 
crete 12  inches  thick,  of  stone-lime  and  Thames  ballast.  The  contractor  is 
Mr.  .Tohn  Mowlem,  of  Paddinglon,  who  has,  we  hear,  met  with  very  great 
ditTicultv  in  obtaining  the  granite  from  Guernsey.  It  is  considered  the  best 
piece  of  paving  in  London,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  bridge  will  be  o[ien  in 
about  a  week. —  Times.  Aug.  27. 

Chard  Canal. — This  undertaking,  which  has  now  occupied  .six  years,  is  fast 
approaching  to  completion.  The  whole  extent  of  the  line,  with  the  exception 
of  a  mile  and  a  half  of  its  basin,  is  almost  finished.  The  principal  and  only 
hazardous  point  is  now  the  reservoir  in  Chard  Common  ;  here  liie  attempts 
to  make  a  liank  have  once  or  twice  alieady  failed,  but  increased  labour  and 
jTCrseverancc  wi  I.  we  trust,  overcome  the  obstacle,  and  within  a  period  of  six 
months  we  trust  Ihe  reservoir  may  present  an  immense  sheet  of  water,  occu- 
]iying  a  sp,ace  of  70  acres.  The  expenditure  on  the  works  has  been  very 
great ;  during  the  last  year  £20,7.j!)  is.  9d.  has  been  expended,  and  the  whole 
expenses  have  been  i.2b',47y  llis.  'Jr/.  Of  the  1,140  new  shares  created  by  the 
committee  in  April  last,  992  have  been  taken.  The  proprietors  have  now  a 
very  cheering  prospect,  as  the  committee  hope  and  expect  the  canal  will  be 
completed  in  the  early  part  of  next  year. —  Western  paper. 

Napoleon  Monument. — A  model  of  the  monument  proposed  to  be  executed 
to  tlie  memory  of  Napoleon,  has  been  erected  beneath  the  dome  of  the  Inva- 
lidcs,  under  the  ilireelion  of  M.  Maroehctti,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining 
its  effect ;  from  the  description,  it  seims  to  combine  simplicity  with  grandeur. 
It  stands  in  Ihe  centre  of  the  mosaic  work,  beneath  Ihe  dome,  and  is  com- 
posed of  four  parts.  The  first  is  a  va^t  base,  surrounded  by  columns  and  has 
reliefs,  supporting,  at  its  corners,  four  statues,  one  of  which  holds  the  globe, 
another  the  sceptre,  a  third  Ihe  emblem  of  justice,  and  the  fourth  the  im- 
]ierial  crown.  On  this  base  rests  another,  half  the  height  of  the  first,  two- 
thirds  smaller  in  extent,  also  adorned  with  has  reliefs,  and  having,  at  its 
angles,  four  eagles,  with  outspread  wings.  From  this  second  base  rises  a 
pedestal  8  feet  in  height,  likewise  enriched  witth  bas  reliefs,  having  in  its 
centre  the  single  word  "  Napoleon."  And  finally,  on  this  pedestal,  stands 
the  colossal  equestrian  statue  of  the  Emperor,  wearing  the  imperial  mantle, 
and  having  the  laurel  crown  upon  his  brow.  His  left  hand  holds  the  bridle, 
and  in  his  raised  right  liand  is  the  sceptre  of  empire.  The  two  bases  and 
perlestal  are  40  feet  in  height,  and  tlie  equestrian  statue  is  Ij  ;  the  eagles  are 
6  leet  liigh,  and  the  four  figures  on  the  lower  base  ol  the  same  proportions  as 
the  imperial  figure.  The  colossal  and  pyramidal  form  of  tlie  monument  gives 
us  the  impression  of  lieing  well  adapted  to  its  site  beneath  the  vast  dome  of 
lhe  Invalides.  It  will  be  entirely  of  bronze,  and  three  jears  arc  assigned  for 
Us  execution. — Athenteum. 


Draining  the  Huerlent  Lake. — M.  Dietz.  a  celebrated  Dutch  engineer,  has 
invented  a  machine  which  it  is  supposed  will  be  adopted  for  this  purpose,  and 
by  means  of  whichhe  calculates  that  100,000  cubic  ells  of  water  may  be 
drained  o/f  daily.  This  ingenious  person  estimates  the  body  of  water  con- 
t.iined  in  the  Haarlem  .Sea  at  770,000,000  of  cubic  feet,  to  empty  which  it 
would  require  10  of  his  maeliines  of  30  horse  power  each,  the  quantity  drained 
off  by  them  daily  being  1.000,000  of  cubic  feet,  thus  making  the  period  re- 
quired for  its  entire  removal  800  days.  The  estimated  expenditure  of  this 
work,  second  only  in  grandeur  and  importance  to  the  Thames  Tunnel,  is  as 
follows: —  Florins. 

10  machines,  at  30.000  florins  for  each 300,000 

Coals,  Sec,  .)00  florins  per  diem  for  800  days    400,000 

60  workmen  at  Uf.  each  per  diem  for  800  days  ..       72.000 
Stiperintendence,  plans,  &c 2.'),000 


Total . . . . 
About    .. 


797. OOU 
£66,41  G 


MISCELLANEA. 


Electro-chemic.\l  Gilding. — M.  De  la  Rive,  of  Paris,  has  been  very 
successful  iu  gilding  by  electricity.  This  kind  of  gilding  is  thicker  and  firmer, 
as  has  been  ])roved  by  the  experiments  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  by  a 
Parisian  goldsmith,  who  was  requested  to  examine  it.  .'V  vase,  gilt  by  this 
process,  was  heated  in  a  fire  to  a  red  heat,  and  then  thrown  into  cold  water, 
and  when  taken  out  was  found  to  have  lost  notlung  of  its  lustre. 

Steam  Boiler. — Lieutenant  .lanvier.  of  tlie  French  navy,  is  said  to  have  dis- 
covered the  means  of  getting  up  the  steam  of  engines  with  such  rapidity, 
that  in  ten  minutes  from  the  first  lighting  of  the  fire,  and  although  the  water 
in  the  boiler  be  quite  cold,  a  vessel  may  be  set  in  motion.  This  is,  it  is  added, 
to  Ix!  accomplished  \vithout  an_v  additional  apparatus,  and  at  very  little  ex- 
pense. 

Goeeniment  School  of  .Irrhiteetnre. — The  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Ad- 
miralty having  come  to  the  determination  that  a  civil  architect's  department 
shall  lie  established  at  each  of  Her  Majesty's  dockyards,  the  w  hole  to  be  un- 
der the  superintendence  of  Capta'n  Brandreth,  of  the  Uoyal  Engineers,  the 
following  are  the  names  of  officers  who  will  he  attached  to  the  department  at 
M'oolwich  dockyard  :— Lieutenant  M'illiam  Dennison,  Royal  f'lnginccrs  ;  Mr. 
William  Scamp,  Clerk  of  M"orks  ;  Messrs,  Colborne  and  Young.  Assistants  ; 
Mr.  .lohn  Hopkins,  superintendent  of  bricklayers  ;  Mr.  'William  Reed,  super- 
intendent of  carpenters. 

.In  Iron  Express  Coach,  for  cmssiui;  Sandy  Deserts. — The  want  of  a  vehicle 
of  this  description  has  long  been  considered  a  desideratum  by  European  tra- 
vellers, in  their  toilsome  jouriieyings  across  the  arid  and  scorching  deserts  of 
Egypt  and  Arabia,  Hitherto  the  means  of  conveying  travellers  or  merchan- 
dise over  these  extensive  and  barren  sands  has  been  by  camels  and  drome- 
daries, for  w  ooden  carriages  of  any  constructicjn  were  utterly  useless,  as  it 
was  found  impossible  to  discover  any  species  of  timber  that  could  resist  the 
intense  heat  of  those  districts,  which  soon  splits  and  rends  the  best  seasoned 
timber.  British  ingenuity  has,  however,  found  out  a  mode  of  overcoming  the 
difficulty,  by  substiluting'/'roH  for  wood.  In  fact  a  carriage  has  been  con- 
structed, under  the  direction  of  -Mr.  W'aghorn.  by  Messrs.  Theodore,  Jones, 
and  Co.,  of  Spitalfields.  the  patent  iron  wheel  manufacturers.  This  vehicle, 
which  is  calculated  to  hold  six  person.s,  their  stores,  water,  &.C.,  has  not  the 
smallest  portion  of  wood  in  its  construction.  The  frame-work,  the  wheels, 
shafts,  flooring,  benches,  S,:c..  are  all  of  wrought  iron  bars,  either  flat  or 
round  according  to  purpose  required,  the  bottom  being  open  like  a  net  work 
to  allow  the  temperate  air  to  come  up  freely,  and  drive  out  the  hot  air  as  it 
generates  through  the  top  valves.  There  arc  hair  cushions  placed  on  the 
benclies,  which  form  seats  quite  .as  comfortable  as  those  of  any  other  coach. 
The  machine  is  hung  on  the  centrical  spring  principle,  wdiich  discharges  the 
weight  from  the  horse,  and  throws  it  on  the  wheels— this  is  another  great 
advantage  in  a  hot  country.  It  will  thus  aflord,  when  brought  fully  into 
operation,  p.  safe  and  comfortable  conveyance  for  travellers,  despatches,  and 
the  lighter  articles  of  commerce,  and  is  I'ikely  to  be  the  means  of  opening  e.x- 
teiisivclv  th.at  easy  intercourse  between  Palestine,  Persia,  Arabia,  and  Egypt, 
w  hieh  is  greatly  w  anted,  and  wotdd  vastly  extend  the  bounds  of  human  know- 
ledge, commerce,  and  civilisation. — Morning  Herald. 

Improrenients  in  the  construction  of  furnaces  and  in  boilers ;  patented  by  Philippe 
Marie  Moiudron,  Bedford  Place,' Russcl  Square,  .luly  31.— These  improve- 
ments are  with  a  view  to  bring  into  action,  more  fully  than  is  now  practised, 
the  useful  properties  of  caloric,  by  the  combined  using  of  polished  reflecting 
surfaces  and  non-conducting  materials,  by  which  means  the  heat  evolved  is 
reflected  on  to  the  surface  of  a  boiler  or  other  apparatus.  The  heat  is  pre- 
vented from  passing  awav  without  fulfilling  the  duties  to  which  it  is  applied. 
First,  to  envelop  ihe  boiler  or  other  apparatus  with  a  reflecting  surface,  at 
sudr  a  distance  that  the  heat  can  pass  between  the  reflecting  surfaces  and 
the  surfaces  to  be  heated,  but  in  so  applying  reflecting  surfaces,  care  is  to 
be  observed  in  arranging  the  same,  that  they  may  be  conveniently  got  at 
from  time  to  time  to  be  polished.  The  materials  employed  for  obtaining 
heat,  when  working  the  invention,  are  comljustible  gases  and  .'spirits,  or  fatty 
matters,  which  arc  consumed  by  burners  or  lamps.  The  boiler  is  placed  on 
a  frame  that  will  allow  the  gas  flame,  from  three  or  more  cniicentrical  and 
perforated  rings,  to  pass  round  ;  the  outer  casing  is  made  of  any  non-con- 
ducting material,  and  the  lining  nearest  to  the  boiler  consists  of  polished 
steel ;  the  draft  of  .lir  below  supports  combustion.  Tea-kettles,  or  other  culi- 
nary articles,  m,ay  be  encased  with  this  reflecting  surface  and  non-conducting 
material,  whereby  is  obtained  great  economy  of  fuel  and  he.at.— /«cen/ors 
.Ideocatc. 


328 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[September, 


ylnjiiirntns  for  rrgtitnt'niii  fl<<-  ^^uppltj  of  wtifrr  to  .sh^nin  /tni!,-rs  :  patfi.ted  Ijy 
James  Knoulcs,  Lillle  Bolton.  Lanc'-isliire.  July  10.— C  lainis  tlie  use  of  a  .selt- 
acling  apparatus,  llic  working  parts  of  which  are  within  the  holier,  anil  com- 
municate to  the  siiiiply-valvc  from  without.  A  lever  or  roil  i.^  placed  longi- 
tudinally on  a  fulcrum  within  the  boiler,  the  longer  end  of  whiciris  an  up 
right  roil,  with  a  Hoat  tittachetl  thereon,  passing  to  the  outside  of  the  hoiler  ; 
at  the  shorter  end  of  the  lever  Is  another  upright  rod  connciteJ  with  the 
supply  vahe,  working  in  a  tube.  As  long  as  there  is  plenty  of  water  in  he 
boiler,  the  do  t  will  cijntiiuie  to  press  up  the  long  end  of  the  lever,  and,  con- 
sc'juently,  cause  the  valve  on  the  upright  rod  of  the  short  end  of  the  lever 
to  press  (lown  on  its  bearing,  pnd  prevent  the  admissiun  of  water  from  the 
tank.  But  when  the  height  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  diminishes,  the  lloat 
lowers  with  it.  and  thereby  forces  up  the  rod  wi;h  the  valve,  thus  admitting 
a  further  supply  of  water  until  the  Hoat  again  rises  to  close  down  the  valve. 
^Invcnior^s  Advocate. 

Preserving  Wood  from  dtcajf ;  patented  by  Arthur  Howe  Holdsnorth. 
Brookill,  Devonshire,  July  21. — The  object  of  this  invention  is  to  preserve 
Wood  or  timber  from  dec.iy  by  inimer»ing  it  in  certtiin  liiiuids,  having  the 
properties  of  receiving  a  temperature  capable  of  charring  or  searing  the  .sur- 
face of  wood  that  hjs  been  e.\posed  to  their  action,  and  of  concreting  or  har- 
dening more  or  less  by  subsequent  cooling,  so  as  to  remain  in  those  pores 
into  «liich  they  have  pre\inusly  entered,  as  well  as  to  cover  the  surface  of 
the  wood,  and  thus  \iievent  it  from  the  injurious  i  fti?cts  of  uir  and  moisture. 
The  liquid  employed  is  compesed  of  tar,  pilch,  resin,  or  tallow,  or  that  of  its 
products,  where  it  has  been  subsequently  inspissated.  This  liquid,  which 
can  be  brought  to  a  higher  degree  of  temperature  than  water,  is  placed  into  a 
suitable  receiver,  into  which  the  wood  is  immersed,  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  all  bubbling  ceases,  occasioned  by  the  air  passing  from  the  wood. 
VTien  the  wr^od  is  required  for  (IcNible  purposes,  sucli  as  the  decks  of  vessels, 
&c.,  then  it  is  only  allowed  to  remain  in  the  liquid  while  at  a  temperature 
ranging  from  212°  to  120' — but  fur  charring  or  searing  the  wood,  the  liquid 
must  be  brought  to  the  boiling  point.  The  receiver  has  a  cover  with  ascend- 
ing pipes,  to  take  oif  the  intiammable  vapour  rising  from  the  tallow,  tar, 
pitcn  or  resin.  Wlien  the  wood  is  removcci  from  the  liquid,  it  must  be  dried 
iu  suitable  ovens. — Ibid. 


I.IST    OF    NEW    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IN    ENGLAND    KROM    30tH    JULV    TO    27tH    AUGUST,    1840. 

John  Louis  Bachklard,  of  Saint  Martin's  Laue,  Gentleman,  for  '•  im- 
provements in  the  mamifacture  of  beds,  tiialtresses,  chairs,  sofas,  cushions, 
pads,  and  other  articles  of  a  similar  nature."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — Sealed  July  30  ;  six  months  for  eurolment. 

Felix  Troub,\t,  of  Mark  Lane,  London,  Merchant,  for  "improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  vinegar." — August  1  ;  six  months. 

ViLLiAM  Uauunev  Holmes,  of  Lanibcth  Square,  Surrey,  Civil  Engineer, 
for  "  certain  improrements  in  steam  engines,  and  in  generating  and  applying 
steam  as  motive  pou-er." — August  1  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Barnabas  Dakt,  of  Birmingham,  Gentleman,  for  "improve- 
ments in  itiistands  or  inkholders." — August  1  ;  six  months. 

James  Taaffe,  of  Shaw  Street,  UubUn,  Slater  and  Builder,  for  "  im- 
provements in  roofing  and  slating  houses  and  other  buildings." — August  1  ; 
SLX  months. 

James  Hodgson,  of  Liverpool,  Engineer,  for  "  a  new  mode  of  combining 
and  applying  machinery  for  the  purjiose  of  exit  ting  and  planing  wood,  so  as  to 
produce  plane  or  moulded  surfaces." — August  3  j  six  months. 

John  Sanders  and  William  Williams,  of  Bedford,  Iron  Founders, 
and  Samuel  Laurence  Taylor,  of  Old  Marden,  in  Bedford,  aforesaid. 
Machine  Maker,  for  "  improvements  in  ploughs." — August  3;  six  months. 

George  Edward  Noon,  of  High  Holliorn,  Engineer,  for  "improvements 
in  pumps  and  in  engines  for  drawing  beer,  cyder,  and  other  fluids." — August 
3 ;  six  months. 

William  Saunders,  of  China  Terrace,  Lambeth,  Chemist,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  paring  streets,  roads,  and  trays." — August  3  ;  sLx  months. 

William  Beetson,  of  Brick  Lane,  Old  Street,  Brass  Founder,  for  "  im- 
provements  in  voter  closets  and  stuffing  bo.ies,  applicable  to  pumps  and  cods." 
—August  5  ;  six  months. 

Colin  Macrae,  of  Cornliill,  Perthshire,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements 
in  rotary  engines,  worked  by  steam,  smoke,  gasscs,  or  heated  air,  and  in  the 
mode  of  applying  such  engines  to  ireful  purposes."  Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad. — August  5  ;  six  months. 

Theophilus  Richards,  of  Birmingham,  Merchant,  for  "  improvements 
in  cutting  or  salving  wood."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. 
—August  5  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Trewhitt,  of  Nevvcastle-on-Tyne,  Esquire,  for  "  improvements  in 
applying  the  power  of  steam  engines  to  paddle-shafts  used  in  propelling  vessels. 
Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — August  7  ;  six  mouths. 

Robert  Stirling  Kevvall,  of  Dundee,  Gentleman,  for  "  imjirorernents 
in  wire  ropes,  and  in  machinery  for  making  such  ropes.  Partly  communicated 
liy  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — August  7  ;  six  months. 

Andrew  Smith,  of  Princes  Street,  Leicester  Square,  Engineer,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvcmrmts  in  carriage  wheels,  rails,  and  chairs,  for  railways." — 
August  7  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  John  Davis,  of  5,  Bloomsbnry  Square,  Esquire,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  the  form  and  combination  of  blocks  of  such  materials  as  are 
notvtised,or  hereafter  maybe  used,  in  building,  on  for  paving  public  and 


private  roads,  and  court  yards,  or  public  and  jirivate  causeu-ays  and  su'nrays, 
or  any  other  purposes  to  which  the  said  form  and  combination  of  blocks  may 
be  ajijilied." — August  8  ;  six  months. 

DowNEs  Edwards,  of  Surbiton  Hill,  Kingston,  Farmer,  for  "improve- 
ments in  preserving  potatoes  and  other  vegetable  substances." — August  8; 
six  months. 

JoH.N  IsA.\c  Hawkins,  of  College  Place,  Camden  Town,  Civil  Engineer, 
for  "  an  improvement  or  improvements  in  buttons,  and  in  the  modes  of  affixing 
them  to  clothes."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — August 
8  ;  six  mouths. 

Francis  William  Gerish,  of  East  Road,  Ironmonger,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  to  be  used  as  a  fire  escape,  also  applicable  to  other  pur- 
poses  where  ladders  are  used." — August  8  :  six  months. 

Samuel  Howard,  of  Manchester,  Eugiaeer,  for  "  certain  improvements 
in  boilers  and  furnaces," — August  8  ;  two  mouths. 

Baron  Charles  Wetterstedt,  of  Limeliouse,  for  "  improvements  in 
preserving  vegetable,  animal,  and  other  substances,  from  ignition  and  decay. " 
August  11 ;  six  months. 

John  Peter  Isaie  Poncv,  of  Well  Street,  O.xford  Street,  Watch  Dealer, 
for  "  improvexnents  in  clocks  and  chronometers."  Commimicated  by  a  fo- 
reigner residing  abroad. — .\ugust  13;  six  months. 

KliLES  Berry,  of  Chancery  Lane,  Patent  Agent,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  arrangement,  construction,  and  mode  of  applying  certain  appa- 
ratus fur  propelling  ships  and  other  vessels."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — August  14  ;  six  months. 

Pierre  Armand  Le  Comte  de  Fontainemoreau,  of  Skinners  Place, 
Size  Lane,  Gentleman,  '•  certain  improvements  in  covering  and  coating  metals, 
and  alloys  of  metals," — August  1.^  ;  six  months. 

John  Young,  of  Wolverhampton,  Ironmaster,  for  "improvements  in  the 
manufacture  or  construction  of  knobs,  handles,  frames,  tablets,  bo.ies,  and 
other  ornamental  articles,  applicable  to  tlie  decoration  of  houses  and  domestic 
furniture." — August  17;  six  mouths. 

Luke  Hebert,  of  Birmingham,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in  the 
manufacture  of  needles." — -August  17;  six  months. 

Joseph  Lockett,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
manufacturing,  jyreparing,  and  engraving  cylinders,  rollers,  or  ottter  surfaces, 
for  printing  or  embossing  calicoes,  or  other  fabrics." — August  27 ;  six 
months. 

Ch.vrles  Smith,  of  Exeter,  Builder,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  lime  and  cements,  or  compositions." — August  27  ;  six  mouths. 

William  Church,  of  Birmingham,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in 
fastenings  applicable  to  wearing  apparel,  and  in  apparatus  for  making  the 
same  aiid  like  articles,  and  also  in  the  method  or  methods  of  preparing  the 
said  articles  for  sale." — August  27  ;  six  months. 

Hugh  Unsworth,  of  Blackood,  Lancaster,  Bleacher,  for  "certain  im- 
provements  in  ?nachiuery  or  apparatus  for  mangling,  drying,  damping,  and 
finishing  woven  goods  or  fabrics." — August  27  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Robinson  Williams,  of  Cheapside,  Gentleman,  for  "  certain 
improrements  in  measuring  the  velocities  with  wtiich  ships  or  other  vessels  or 
bodies  move  in  fluids,  and  also  for  ascertaining  the  velocities  of  fluids  in  mo- 
tion."— August  2";  six  months. 

Benjamin  Hick,  Junior,  of  Bolton-le-Moors,  Lancaster,  Engineer,  for 
*'  certain  improvements  in  regulators  or  governors  for  regulating  or  adjusting 
the  speed  or  rotary  motion  of  steam-engines,  water-wheels,  and  other  ma- 
chinery."— August  27  ;  sLx  months. 

Henry  Waterton,  of  Fulmer  Place,  Gerards  Cross,  Buckingham,  Esquire, 
for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  sal  ammoniac." — August  27  ;  six 
mouths. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


Communications  jereivedfrovi  Mr.  Francis  ;  J.  H.  on  Felling  of  Timber  ■  and 
*'  A  Lover  of  the  Beautiful,"  will  appear  ue.i't  month. 

AVrc  Town  Hall  at  Ashton-nnder-Lyne  wilt  appear  in  a  future  number. 

Tin'  Reform  Club  7ie.it  month. 

Reports  for  the  Improvement  of  Lough  Erne  ;  ■'ileam  Navigation  in  France  : 
Authrncite  Pig  Iron,  and  some  others ;  also  The  Architecture  of  Liverpool;  will 
appear  in  the  luwf  Journal. 

Air.  Pinkus'  rommnnieation  was  received  too  late  for  insertion  in  this  month's 
Journal ;  it  shall  appear,  if  he  wi.shes  it,  with  some  slight  modification  ne.xt  month. 

"  A  Lover  of  Machinery."  IVe  hare  before  alluded  to  the  ingenious^  Travers- 
ing Crane  adopted  by  Messrs.  Grissel  l^-  Peto  at  their  works  at  the  Refonn  Club, 
and  since  introilneed  nt  the  building  of  the  Setv  Houses  of  Parliantent. 

"  Robortus  "  could  not  hare  seen  our  lieo  Inst  numbers  when  he  sent  his  coni- 
munieation  respecting  the  "  Atmospheric  Railway."  it- ^ 

'■  Anagnostes"  0)1 /fni/n'ny  f'Hn'fs,  7)ii(.5/  stand  over  with  others  on  the  same 
subject. 

4lr.  'Wightwick's  new  work,  "  Palace  of  Architecture,"  will  be  noticed Jn 
the  ne.xt  Journal. 

Comninnications  are  requested  to  be  addressed  to  ''The  Kditor  of  the  Civil 
Kugineer  and   Architect's  Journal."   A'o.  il,  Parliament   Street,  JVeslminster. 

Books  for  review  must  be  sent  early  in  the  month,  communications  on  or  befurc 
the  20th' (if  with  drawings,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  befort  the  25!h 
instant. 

The  FmsT  Volume  may  be  had,  lound  in  cloth  and  Lr-rrEEED  in  gold 
Price  17.s. 

*,'  The  Second  Volume  mav  also  be  had,  Price  20s. 


18-lO.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


329 


ON  BEAUTY  OF  OUTLINE  IN  BUILDING. 


ScALB.  1    '    '   '    '  1    '    '    '    '    ! ^r^;7^ 

Bow  St.  Paul's  Facade. 


Feft. 


St.  Bride's. 


ScALr  1   I   I  I   I  T  I  1   1   I  f 


Feet. 


Shaking  Minarets  of  the  Mosque 
at  Armedabad. 

No.  37.— Vol.  III.- October,  1840. 


Salisbcry.  St.  Peter's,  Caen. 


Freibourg.  Four  great  angle  turrets  of 

lung's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 

2  Y 


330 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[OcTODKR, 


Of  Beauty  of  Outline  in  BuildingH ;  of  the  Inferiority  of  the  Bhderns, 
compared  in  tliia  respect  with  the  Ancient  Masters  ;  and  of  the  inutility 
of  Decoration,  without  goodness  of  Outline.* 

By  Alfred  Bartholomew,  Architect. 

But  tliat  for  which  the  ancient  masters  are  so  eminently  superior 
to  the  modern  arcliitects,  is  elegance  of  outline :  almost  every  one  of 
the  old  buildings,  however  exceptionable  in  point  of  details,  has  a 
grand,  a  neat,  and  a  picturesque  outline.  The  Gothic  steeples  of  all 
countries,  the  dome  of  Saint  Paul's,  and  the  bell-towers  of  Wren,  and 
numerous  other  old  buildings  both  in  England  and  abroad,  whether 
viewed  from  afir  or  near,  they  all  have  almost  universally,  an  impos- 
ing and  agreeable  appearance  ;  their  considerate  architects,  seem  at 
once  to  have  designed  the  elegant  outward  shells  of  buildings,  so  as  to 
contain  amply  all  the  internal  requisites,  without  unsightly  additions ; 
or  if  from  any  necessity,  enlargement  of  a  pile  afterwards  became  ne- 
cessarv,  the  picturesque  massing  and  grouping  together  of  the  build- 
ings was  never  lost  sight  of. 

But  what  is  the  mode  now  pursued  ?  In  mo-^t  instances  very  dif- 
ferent. A  debased  exterior  copy  of  some  old  baildiug,  is  made  on  a 
small  scale,  in  base  materials;  this  pretended  eeo;i<unic.d  crust,  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  is  discovered  eventually,  to  be  neither  high  enougli, 
long  enough,  nor  broad  enough,  to  contain  properly  all  the  accommo- 
dations and  internal  details  of  the  building:  hence  are  added  the  ex- 
ternal incumbrances  of  lantern-lights,  ngly  dormers,  chimneys,  and 
other  deforming  excrescences,  for  which  modern  buildings  are  so  cele- 
brated. 

Nature,  always  contrives  to  place  every  necessary  apparatus, 
within  the  compass  of  the  general  outline;  but  most  modern  buildings, 
exhibit  the  same  contrivance,  as  birds  would,  if  their  giblets  being 
omitted  within,  were  afterwards  skewered  upon  their  backs. 

If  a  building  at  a  distance,  appear  ngly,  it  is  in  vain  that  it  have 
delicate  enrichments,  and  that  it  be  composed  of  rich  materials ;  it 
cannot  please  either  the  vulgar  or  the  tasteful,  ncr  can  the  scientific 
give  it  commendation. 

The  qualities  of  form  and  outline,  stand  apart  from  all  the  petty 
quarrels  about  orders  and  styles,  by  which  unskilful  professors  have 
pestered  and  lowered  a  once-noble  art. 

The  most  picturesque  edifices  of  all  coimtries,  have  a  wonderful 
similarity  in  their  outline.  The  most  perfect  architectural  composi- 
tion is  that  which  forms  one  immense  Pyramid  of  Decoration  consist- 
ing of  many  minor  subservient  pyramidal  masses  : — such  are  the  cele- 
brated Indo-moslem  Tombs  of  Akbar  at  Secundra,  Shere  Sha  at  Sosse- 
ram,  Humaioon  at  Delhi,  and  the  Tiij  Mahal  at  Agra:  such  are  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral,  the  steeples  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow,  St.  Bride's,  and 
those  of  all  the  others  of  Wren's  churches. 

The  same  principle  is  to  be  found  governing  all  Gothic  steeples. 

The  same  <lelicate  and  refined  principle  pervades  Gothic  turrets 
and  moslem  minarets. 

While  upon  the  subject  of  outline,  the  author  cannot  refrain  from 
contradicting,  as  far  as  in  him  lies,  the  opinion  put  forth  with  regard 
to  spires  by  Mr.  Britton,  in  his  exquisite  work  upon  '  The  Hislory  and 
Anttquitits  of  the  Cathedral  Church  of  Salisbury,'  (p.  74).  'Although 
this  spire  is  an  object  of  popular  and  scientific  curiosity,  it  cannot  be 
properly  regarded  as  beautiful  or  elegant,  either  in  itself,  or  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  edifice  to  which  it  belongs.  A  May  pole  or  a  poplar  tree, 
a  pyramid  or  a  plain  single  column,  can  never  satisfy  the  eye  of  an 
artist,  or  be  vie tved  with  pleasure  by  the  man  of  taste.  Either  may 
be  a  beautiful  accessory,  or  be  )ileasing  in  association  with  other  forms. 
The  tall  thin  spire  is  also  far  from  being  an  elegant  object.  Divest  it 
of  its  ornamental  bands,  crockets,  and  jjinnacles,  it  will  be  tasteless  and 
formal,  as  we  may  see  exemplified  in  the  pitiful  obelisk  in  the  centre 
of  Queen  Square,  Bath;  but  associate  it  with  proportionate  pinnacles, 
or  other  appropriate  forms,  and  like  tlie  spire  of  St.  Mary's  Church  in 
Ox  ord,  and  rhat  of  the  south-western  tower  of  Peterborough  Cathe- 
dral, we  are  then  gratified.' 

Very  odd  reasoning  this,  and  quite  at  variance  with  the  in-born 
feelings  of  nearly  every  native  of  Christian  lands.  The  author  would 
have  deemed  it  unnecessary  to  refute  such  a  passage  if  it  had  been 
put  forth  by  any  other  than  an  antiquarian  gentleman  to  whose  taste 
and  perseverance  we  owe  so  much. 

By  the  denuding  process  mentioned  by  Mr.  Britton,  every  thing 
accounted  beautiful  in  the  world  might  be  rendered  both  uncouth  ami 
ugly  :  thus,  take  away  the  features  of  the  finest  head  and  face,  you 


*  Wc  have  through  the  kind  permission  of  the  author,  taken  this  paper 
from  a  work  recently  publiibcd  by  liim,  cniillcil  "  Spccilicatiuns  for  Praciiral 
Architecture ;  preceded  by  an  lOssay  on  the  decline  of  excellence  in  the 
Stiuctuie  and  in  the  Science  of  Modern  English  Buildings." 


have  remaining  a  raw  skull :  take  away  the  sauce  garniture  and  cookery 
of  a  feast,  and  you  leave  but  crude  Hesh,  raw  vegetables,  and  a  few 
other  thing.;  equally  untempting. 

The  builders  of  the  Christian  steeples,  those  outward  beacons  of  a 
religious  country,  so  caught  from  the  true  sublime  one  of  the  chords 
holding  mastership  over  the  human  heart  and  feelings,  that  the  totter- 
ing child  and  the  snowy-headed  old  man,  the  religionist,  and  the 
scolfer,  the  churchman  and  the  sectarian,  alike  pay  the  tribute  of  ad- 
miration to  the  beauty  of  form  of  the  Church  spires  built  by  o<ir  fore- 
fathers on  principles  the  mechanism  of  which,  perhaps,  they  cannot 
understand,  and  from  feelings,  which  though  some  of  them  cannot 
possess,  yet  cannot  but  revere. 

But  the  truth  is,  the  myriads  of  these  glorious  outward  church 
pdornments  which  told  at  every  step  the  alien  as  he  came  to  Europe, 
in  this  land  Christ  is  great,  now  deemed  useless  though  sublime,  em- 
)doyed  industriously  and  profitably  that  portion  of  our  Christian  popu- 
lation which  from  the  want  of  employment  now  begs  or  tenants  the 
workhouse  and  the  gaol. 

No  object  exists  more  subhme  than  the  steeple  of  St.  Peters' 
Church  at  Caen,  unless  it  be  that  of  St.  Michael's  Church  at  Coventry, 
■ — none  more  sublime  than  .St.  Michael's,  unless  it  be  that  of  Louth, — 
none  more  sublime  th.ui  Louth,  unless  it  be  that  of  Chichester  Cathe- 
dral,— none  more  sublime  than  the  steeple  of  Chichester  Cathedral, 
unless  it  be  that  of  Antwerp  Cathedral,— none  more  so  than  Antwerp 
steeple,  unless  it  be  that  of  Strasbourg  Cathedral, — none  more  so  than 
Strasbourgh  steeple,  unless  it  be  that  of  Freibourg  in  the  Breisgau, — 
none  more  sublime  than  Freibourg  steeple,  unless  it  be  that  of  Salis- 
bm-y  Cathedral,  which  tapering  up  to  heaven  in  beauteous  proportion 
till  it  seems  more  lofty  tlian  it  really  is,  appears  as  though  it  had  drawn 
down  the  very  angels  to  work  over  its  giand  and  feeling  simplicity  the 
gems  and  embroidery  of  Paradise  itself;  and,  indeed,  the  most  gorgeous 
of  the  English  Horid  works  of  architecture  always  retain  such  a  pecu- 
liar character  of  sacredness  that  they  always  unfold  a  truly  religious 
appearance. 

The  pyramid  is  Nature's  own  form  ;  her  mountains,  the  grandest 
of  earthly  masses,  diminish  to  heaven;  architectural  science  requires 
that  a  building  to  endure  should  end  in  a  pointed  summ  t:  a  mere  heap 
of  sand  will  by  its  own  gravity  assume  a  pyramidal  form,  and  so  endure 
for  thousands  of  years,  and  long  outlive  a  wall  of  granite  reared  per- 
pendicularly. 

The  feeling  of  love  for  the  scientific  and  picturesque  form  of  the 
pyramid  is  so  inherent  in  man,  that  any  modern  steeple  which  is 
erected,  is  immediately  universally  condemned  if  its  outline  be  not 
strictly  pyramidal,  and  the  most  illiterate,  who  knovvs  not  why  he  con- 
demns it,  is  strictly  correct  in  his  condemnation. 

A  pyramidal  outline  is  of  such  importance,  that  if  even  a  dome  do 
not  conform  to  it,  ungraceful  clumsiness,  and  disgust  to  every  class  of 
beholders,  are  the  sure  results.  In  this  may  be  seen  the  wonderful  art 
of  Wren,  in  proportioning  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  The 
cupola  is  placed  a  great  distance  within  the  tambour,  so  as  at  once  to 
suit  the  particular  scheme  of  its  construction,  and  to  form  a  pyramid. 


Outine  of  St.  Paul's  Cupola. 


Diagonal  outline  of  the  spire  of 
St.  Dunstan's  in  the  East,  London. 


1S40.1 


TTIE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


331 


De  Qimicy  says  it  appears  very  liavmonioiis,  notwitlistaiirling  tliis  pe- 
culiarity; but  the  truth  is,  that  the  perfection  of  its  form  emanates 
from  this  rliminution.  Indeed,  many  of  the  modern  cupolas  built  by 
Sir  J(jhn  Soane  and  others,  being  almost  as  large  in  diameter  as  their 
tambours,  show  as  little  mastery  of  the  picturesque  as  of  construction, 
and'violating  the  principles  of  natural  taste,  have  become  so  unpopular 
as  to  have  obtained  for  themselves  the  cognomen  of  'Pepper-boxes;' 
and  the  same  title,  but  too  often  applies  to  bad  copies  of  the  ogive 
domes  of  King's  College  Chapel,  from  their  not  being  built  with  the 
graceful  and  spiring  elegance  of  their  prototypes. 

The  principle  of  the  picturesque  in  architecture,  absolutely  re- 
quires tliat  if  a  mass  have  not  a  plain  square  o\itline,  it  should  appear 
to  be  hewn  out  of  an  exact  pyramidal  or  conical  block. 

The  principle  appears  to  have  been  first  discovered  in  Egypt,  and 
to  have  spread  over  all  nations  from  China  to  the  farthest  extremity  of 
Europe. 

The  same  principle  pervades  the  Egyptian  pyramid,  the  Egyptian 
needle,  and  those  vast  mules  of  masonry  which  ascend  to  an  enormous 
elevation  before  the  Egyptian  temples:  it  pervades  the  Grecian  and 
the  Roman  Temple,  the  Athenian  Choragic  monument,  the  Pagoda  of 
Cliina,  the  mysterious  edifices  of  Mexico,  the  temple  of  ancient  Hin- 
doostan,  the  Mosque  and  tlie  Tomb  of  the  Moslem,  and  the  Christian 
steeple. 

-  The  Greeks,  whose  sever.il  states  were  inconsiderable,  and  there- 
fore incapable  of  raising  such  ample  funds  as  powerful  kingdoms  like 
ancient  Egypt  or  modern  Britain,  never  erected  buildings  which  were 
not  small  and  low ;  most  of  their  edifices,  therefore,  not  breaking  above 
the  general  altitude  of  their  dwellings,  they  did  lo'  require  that  strict 
attention  to  perfect  pyramidal  outlme  which  was  always  attended  to 
in  the  lofty  buildings  of  other  nations.  They  made  no  advances  what- 
ever in  the  more  lofty  departments  of  science  which  were  requisite, 
and  which  were  of  necessity  cal'ed  into  use  in  the  construction  of  such 
gigantic  edifices,  they  contented  themselves  with  a  mere  triangular 
facade. 

Both  Greeks  and  Romans,  however,  appear  to  have  been  well 
aware  of  the  upward  diminution  requisite  in  order  to  correct  the  other- 
wise overhanging  appearance  of  the  upper  part  of  a  building,  whether 
from  optical  illusion,  or  from  the  projection  of  a  cornice ;  hence  we 
find  nianv  of  their  finest  edifices  were  formed  with  the  plain  faces  of 
their  architraves  receding,  as  if  to  continue  the  upward  diminution  of 
their  columns.  But  the  proper  display  of  sculpture  in  the  Frieze  of 
an  order,  in  general  forbade  that  member  to  recede,  except  in  small 
buildings,  such  as  the  Choragic  monuments  of  Lysicrates  and  Thrasyllus, 
which  were  fully  taken  into  the  eye  at  one  view.  Of  the  following 
ancient  buildings  the  faces  of  the  architraves  recede  :  at  Athens,  the 
Parthenon,  the  temples  of  Theseus  and  Erectheus,  and  the  arch  of 
Adrian, — at  Salonica,  the  '  Incantada,' — at  Rome,  the  external  and  in- 
ternal orders  of  the  Panthenon,  the  temples  of  JU|)iter-Tunans  and 
Bacchus,  the  reputed  frontispiece  of  Nero,  the  reputed  temple  of 
Pallas  in  the  forum  of  Nerva,  the  arch  of  Constantine,  and  the  Ionic 
and  Composite  orders  of  the  Coliseum  :  at  Tivoli,  the  reputed  Temple 
of  Vesta  :  all  these  examples  show  the  possession  of  the  same  know- 
ledge, but  different  degrees  of  skill  in  making  use  of  it ;  and  there  is 
at  Agrigentum  a  remarkable  monument,  shown  by  Mr.  Wilkins  in  his 
'Magna  Graeca,'  the  order,  entablature,  and  other  members  of  which, 
all  converge  uj)wardly  in  a  very  peculiar  manner,  not  altogether  unlike 
some  of  the  spires  of  Norman  architecture,  as  at  Rochester  Cathedral. 
This  structure  is  reputed  to  be  ihe  tomb  of  Theron,  Tyrant  of  Agri- 
gentum. 

In  buildings  to  be  viewed  from  a  great  distance,  the  great  art  con- 
sists in  making  them  appear  pleasing  from  every  point  of  view.  VV^ren 
was  in  this  as  great  a  master  as  in  geometry  and  construction:  not 
only  do  his  steeples  bear  the  test  in  a  front  view ;  but  when  viewed 
diagonally  and  in  various  other  ways  they  still  conform  to  pyramidal 
outlines  whether  passed  down  their  utmost  breadth,  or  through  the 
distended  open  parts  of  them  which  appear  in  a  side  view. 

How  ill  the  moderns  have  succeeded  in  steeple  building  by  piling 
one  discordant  heap  upon  another,  may  be  gathered  from  the  almost 
universal  contempt  with  which  the  architect,  the  architectural  critic, 
and  the  public  in  general,  view  our  modern  steeples:  to  raise  upon 
each  other,  to  coarse  broken  outlines,  imitations  of  delicate  small  works 
of  ancient  architecture  which  stood  on  the  ground,  cannot  satisfy  the 
mind  or  the  eye  :  these  things  all  require  to  be  designed  on  purpose: 
the  higher  the  stages  of  the  work  ascend  they  are  more  and  more  re- 
stricted in  general  magnitude  by  the  outlines  of  the  pyramid,  yet  from 
their  superior  altitude  they  require  to  be  designed  in  a  larger  and  sim- 
pler style,  otherwise,  not  being  read  by  the  eye,  they  become  confused 
and  thence  tasteless.  The  steeple  of  the  new  church  at  Shadwell, 
from  being  formed  with  a  good  outline,  has  received  almost  geiier;il 
Jiraise,  althougli  its  details  are  coarse  and  its  materials  are  mean  and 


fragile  :  the  easy  labour  of  drawing  two  pencil  boundary  lines,  meeting 
at  its  summit,  gained  for  its  designer  this  praise,  and  saved  him  from 
the  reprehension  given  to  luany  works,  the  details  of  which  would 
rank  higher  if  placed  in  proper  situations.  The  author  always  knew 
that  good  steeples  were  formed  on  this  principle,  and  he  has  been 
much  pleased  by  finding  the  boundary  lines  remaining  in  pencil  upon 
ancient  drawings  of  thera. 


ARCHITECTURAL  COMPETITION. 

Sir — I  admire  exceedingly  the  bitter  complaints  which  the  members 
cf  the  profession  never  cease  to  pour  forth,  upon  the  manifold  wrongs 
and  indignities  to  which  they  are  exposed  in  architectural  compe- 
titions— as  if  the  fault  were  attribut.dile  to  any  one  but  themselves. 

I  am  not  going  to  waste  the  time  of  your  readers  upon  any  new 
version  of  the  lamentations  of  the  architects — they  may  be  "heard 
wherever  architects  most  do  congregate,  and  will  continue  to  be  he.ird 
until  the  profession  take  the  remedy  for  their  grievances  into  their 
own  hands,  a  course  they  have  never  yet  attempted  to  any  good  pur- 
pose, because  they  have  never  attempted  it  in  earnest.  The  Institute 
of  British  Architects,  indeed,  have  published  a  report  in  wliicli  they 
profess  to  denounce  the  present  system  of  competition,  but  they  roar 
you  as  gently  as  any  sucking  dove.  They  are  polite  enough  to  assume 
that  if  any  unfairness  ever  attaches  itself  to  competitions,  it  is  only 
now  and  then  by  mistake.  They  make  no  endeavour  to  fix' the  posi- 
tion of  the  profession  with  regard  to  the  competition-monger,  and  they 
shrink  from  the  only  probable  remedy  for  injustice  on  the  one  side, 
and  meanness  on  the  other — exposure.  If  the  profession  really  seek 
for  justice  in  competitions,  let  them  ascertain  their  due  and  demand 
it,  let  them  sift  every  unsatisfactory  proceeding  and  expose  it,  regard- 
less of  the  regulation  sneer  at  "disappointed  candidates,"  and  let  them, 
O  let  them  acquire  a  little  honest  pride,  and  not  persist  in  snapping 
at  every  paltry  bait  dangled  before  them,  without  even  a  decent  con- 
cealment of  the  hook. 

In  the  mean  time,  until  the  profession  think  it  worth  while  to  rouse 
and  shake  themselves,  it  may  be  of  some  use  to  collect  facts,  and  a 
pretty  collection  we  might  have  if  every  one  would  but  speak  out 
who  could.  I  consider  the  profession  greatly  indebted  to  Messrs. 
Wyatt  and  Brandon  for  the  example  they  set  of  this  course  of  pro- 
ceeding in  your  number  for  February  last,  but  it  is  uio.->t  discouraging 
that  so  long  an  interval  should  have  elapsed  vvitlioul  any  one  having 
stepped  forward  to  second  these  gentlemen.  I  now  oSer  myself  in  the 
absence  of  a  better  supporter,  and  beg  the  favour  of  you  to  afford  me 
a  place  in  your  pages. 

In  the  month  of  October,  1839,  the  following  letter  was  issued : — 

Bury  St.  Edmund's,  29lh  Octoler,  1839. 

"  Sir — The  subscribers  to  a  new  Cluirch  to  be  built  in  Bury,  having  agreed 
to  propose  to  six  architects  to  give  designs  and  estimates  of  the  building,  beg 
respectfully  to  invite  you  to  do  so,  and  to  call  your  attention  to  the  general 
nature  of  the  building  they  require,  and  to  the  mode  of  proceeding  which 
they  intend  to  adopt.  The  subscribers  wish  that  the  cliurch  be  capable  of 
containing  800  persons  upon  the  tloor  of  it,  with  an  end  gallery  to  contain 
not  less  than  loO ;  provision  also  to  be  made  for  side  galleries  if  it  shall  be  found 
expedient  at  any  time  to  erect  them.  Tliat  it  be  faced  with  white  Woolpit 
bricks  with  stone  quoins,  and  they  wish  the  architect,  to  specify  the  materials 
proposed  to  l)e  used  in  the  several  parts  of  the  fabric,  tlie  thickness  of  the 
walls,  tiie  dimensions  of  the  timbers,  and  tlie  mode  of  fitting  up  the  in- 
terior. 

"The  expense  of  the  whole  work,  after  being  completed  in  every  respect, 
must  not  exceed  the  sum  of  ±'3000. 

"  Upon  the  receipt  of  the  designs  and  estimates  from  the  six  architects,  the 
subscribers  will  arrange  the  designs  in  the  order  which  they  shall  consider 
the  order  of  merit,  and  their  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  the 
case,  marking  that  which  they  shall  most  approve  No.  1,  the  next  No.  2,  and 
so  on.  If  the  subscribers  sBall  think  lit  themselves  to  employ  a  builder  to 
erect  the  church  according  to  tlie  design  No.  1,  the  architect  who  has  sup- 
plied such  design  shall  provide  all  the  necessary  specili cations  and  working 
drawings,  anti  shall  employ  and  pay  a  clerk  of  the  works,  who  shall  be  con- 
stantly on  the  spot,  and  the  architect  himself  shall  as  often  as  may  be  neces- 
sary visit  the  building,  and  direct  and  superintend  tlie  work  himself,  being 
allowed  for  the  designs,  specitications,  and  working  drawings ;  for  his  time, 
trouble  and  services, — for  his  journeys,  and  other  expenses,  ami  for  the  wages 
of  the  Clerk  of  the  Works,  ten  per  cent.  Up  m  tlie  sum  for  which  the  builder 
shall  have  contracted  to  complete  the  church. — ] 

"  If  the  suliscribers  shall  call  upon  the  jicrson  whose  design  shall  be  marked 
No.  1,  to  carry  it  into  effect,  he  shall  give  security  for  tlie  execution  of  his 
design  within  mnnths,  making  the  church  complete   both  cxterually 

and  internally  for  the  sum  at  which  he  may  have  estimated  the  co...t, — aucli 
sum  not  to  exceed  £3000,  and  in  this  case  the  subscribers  will  appoint  and 

2  Y  2 


332 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


pay  their  own  survejor ;  and  an  addition  of  5  per  cent,  as  architect's  com- 
mission. 

"  In  case  of  failure  to  give  such  security  as  may  he  satisfactory  to  the  sub- 
scribers, if  called  upon  by  them  to  do  so ;  he  shall  have  no  claim  of  any  kind 
upon  tlieni  for  any  payment  or  remuneration  whatever,  and  they  shall  be  at 
liherty  to  carry  into  effect  any  other  plan  they  may  select. 

"  [  The  subscribers  will  present  to  the  gentleman  whose  design  is  marked 
No.  2,  £lb,  and  to  No.  3,  £10. 

"  Should  you.  Sir,  be  desirous  upon  these  terms  to  send  a  design,  &c.,  for 
the  Church,  you  will  be  pleased  to  inform  the  subscribers  of  your  intention 
to  do  so,  by  a  letter  addressed  to  me  on  or  before  the  30th  of  November  next, 
and  you  will  send  the  designs  and  estimates  to  me  on  or  before  the  30th  of 
December  next. 

"  I  am,  Sir,  your's,  obediently, 

James  Sparke,  Hon.  Sec." 

"  P.S. — The  architect  is  requested  to  conform  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the 
details  of  the  work,  to  the  printed  instructions  of  the  Incorporated  Society 
for  promoting  the  building,  &c.  of  Churches." 

I  wish  to  lay  the  facts  of  this  case  before  the  public  witli  as  few 
remarks  upon  them  as  possible,  but  it  is  necessary  here  to  observe, 
that  it  has  been  stated,  by  way  of  apology  for  the  most  offensive 
clauses  in  this  most  offensive  letter,  that  they  were  considered  requi- 
site in  order  to  protect  the  subscribers  against  a  fraud  to  which  other 
parties,  in  similar  circumstances,  had  been  recently  exposed,  by  a  no- 
torious falsification  of  estimates — but  this  excuse  can  by  no  means  be 
admitted.  The  subscribers*  selected  the  competitors,  and  were  not 
justified  in  assuming  that  all  architects  are  of  the  stamp  alluded  to. 
I  sliould  like  to  ask  the  respectable  legal  gentleman  who  signs  this 
document  on  behalf  of  the  subscribers,  (begging  his  pardon  for  using 
the  argiwiaitum  ad  hominem,)  how  he  wculd  like  to  be  sorted  with 
such  veimin  as  might  be  raked  out  of  his  profession? 

Whatever  opinion  the  subscribers  may  have  thought  fit  to  hold  con- 
cerning the  parties  to  whom  this  letter  was  addressed,  it  is  certain 
that  the  terms  it  offered  were  peremptorily  rejected  by  the  majority, 
or  by  the  whole  of  them  for  any  thing  I  know  to  the  contrary,  it  may 
be  presumed,  also,  that  somebody  took  the  trouble  to  enlighten  the 
subscribers  upon  some  little  miscalculations  into  which  they  luul  fallen 
with  regard  to  the  sort  of  building  which  £3000  might  be  expected  to 
produce,  since  they  shortly  favoured  the  same  parties  with  two  other 
letters. 

The  first  of  these  coramimications,  dated  the  18th  Nov.  1839,  is 
nearly  word  for  word  the  same  as  that  dated  in  October,  to  the  end  of 
the  passage  marked  ].     It  then  proceeds  as  follows: — 

"  7f  the  mbscribers  shall  be  unable  to  find  a  respectable  builder  willing  to 
execute  the  design  of  any  architect  for  the  sitm  of  £3000,  snch  architect  shall 
have  no  claim  of  any  kind  npon  the  subscribers  for  any  payment  or  reniunera- 
tion  vhatever,  and  they  shall  be  at  liberty  to  carry  into  effect  any  other  de- 
sign they  may  think  fit  to  select. 

"  The  plans  to  be  drawn  to  the  scale  of  J  of  an  inch  to  a  foot. 

"  No  colouring  or  shading  to  any  of  the  drawings  except  the  plans  and 
sections. 

"  No  perspective  views  will  be  admitted. 

"  One-third  of  the  sittings  in  the  body  of  the  church  to  be  in  pews  2  ft.  10 
in.  by  1  ft.  8  in. 

"  One-third  in  pews  2  ft.  7  in.  by  1  ft.  7  in. 

"  One-third  ditto  2  ft.  6  in.  by  1  ft.  6  in. 

"  The  west  gallery  te  be  fitted  up  with  open  seats  with  back  rails." 

The  letter  then  concluded  as  before  from  the  passage  marked  [  to 
the  end.     To  the  postcript  was  added, 

"  Your  opinion  is  requested  whether  it  is  desirable  that  any  part  of  the 
timber  be  Kyanized,  ami  if  so,  what  ])art  ? 

"  Your  ojiinion  is  requested  whether  800  persons  be  too  great  a  number 
to  be  accommodated  on  the  floor  of  the  Church,  considering  that  £3000  is 
the  sum  to  be  expended  on  the  whole  building,  which  it  is  wished  to  be  of 
an  ecclesiastical  character,  though  not  of  a  rich  or  highly  ornamented  style." 

The  last  is  as  follows  : —  . 

"  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  Nov.  30,  1839. 

"  Sir — I  have  to  inform  you  of  the  alterations  the  subscribers  have  deter- 
mined upon,  and  shall  feel  obliged  by  your  attention  thereto. 

"  To  contain  (>50  on  the  ground  tloor. 

"  The  West  gallery  200  children,  and  a  staircase  at  each  end,  to  be  ser- 
viceable for  the  side  galleries  when  built. 

"  A  Tower  is  indispensable. 

"  £3000  to  be  expended  on  the  building  exclusive  of  architect's  commis- 
sion, and  of  any  drawback  for  duty  on  the  materials. 

"  I  bog  to  observe,  that  the  term  "  sub.scribers"  is  used  tliroiii;bout  in  the 
simr-  sense  in  which  it  is  used  by  the  Hon.  Sec.  Mr.  Sparke,  and  in  no  oilier, 
llie  business  was  of  course  conducted  by  a  Committee. 


"  Pulpit  and  desk  to  be  included,  but  not  the  furniture  of  the  Church,  en- 
closure of  same,  or  bells. 

"  The  price  of  Woolpit  bricks  is  about  £3  per  thousand  delivered,  but  it  is 
presumed  allowance  will  be  made  for  duty. 

"  It  is  guaranteed  that  the  building  shall  be  open  for  public  competition. 
"  The  question  of  Kyanizing  is  left  open. 
"  Colouring  of  the  elevation  to  be  allowed. 

"  I  am,  &c. 

"  James  Sparke,  Hon  Sec." 

Upon  the  faith  of  the  conditions  set  forth  in  these  three  letters,  five 
designs  were  sent  in,  three  of  them  by  members  of  tlie  Institute  of 
British  Architects.  How  these  gentlemen  reconciled  it  to  themselves 
or  to  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  report  on  competitions  published 
in  their  name,  and  deal  on  any  terms  with  parties  who  had  shown  by 
their  first  letter  the  sort  of  temper  in  which  they  might  be  rtipected  to 
meet  the  competitors,  and  so  gross  a  misapprehension  of  the  practice 
and  duties  of  their  profession,  is  best  known  to  themselves.  Perliaps 
they  imagined  that  the  passage  in  italics,  in  the  second  letter,  was  in- 
serted for  the  purpose  of  being  acted  upon,  and  if  so,  they  are  greatly 
to  be  commendeil  for  the  purity  of  their  minds.  The  other  two  designs 
were  by  gentlemen  not  known  as  architects  to  the  profession  in  Lon- 
don, and  these  two  were  the  designs  preferred.  And  not  without 
reason  ;  that  selected  as  No.  1,  presented  the  striking  feature  of  a 
gpire  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet  high,  and  was  not  tidopted  without 
certain  reflections,  anything  but  flattering,  upon  the  incompetency  of 
the  "  London  Architects,"  none  of  whom  had  been  able  to  produce  any 
thing  to  compare  with  it. 

Having  selected  the  design,  the  subscribers  proceeded  to  receive 
tenders  for  its  execution;  but  it  having  been  whispered  that  the  esti- 
mates of  the  builders  greatly  exceeded  the  stipulated  sum,  the  result 
was — not  that  the  subscribers  rejected  the  design  and  chose  another — 
but  that  the  tenders  were  returned  to  the  builders  unopened,  and  the 
design  referred  back  to  the  architect,  for  the  purpose  of  being  altered 
so  as  to  bring  it  within  the  means  of  the  subscribers.  Certain  alte- 
rations having  been  effected,  tenders  were  received  a  second  time,  a 
contract  was  made,  and  the  building  is  now  in  progress.  How  the 
subscribers  have  fulfilled  the  conditions  they  dictated,  may  be  seen  by 
the  following  statement: 

The  accepted  tender  amounted  to  £3550  (in  round  numbers). 

Ill  addition  to  this,  extra  foundations,  to  the  amount  of  £150  to 
£200,  were  found  to  be  necessary,  not  in  consequence  of  any  unfore- 
seen difficulty,  such  as  might  arise  from  the  nature  of  the  soil,  but 
because  it  was  discovered  that  the  section,  (a  copy  of  which  lies  before 
me,)  represented  the  foundations  to  be  one  foot  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground .' 

The  cost  of  the  building  is  therefore  to  be  from  £3,700  to  £3,750  %. 
nor  is  this  all,  for  neither  plastering  nor  painting  are  included  in  the 
contract. 

Instead  of  G50  sittings  in  pews  on  the  ground  floor,  there  are  but 
3G0;   ISO  more  are  in  open  seats,  and  the  remainder  on  benches. 

Instead  of  stone  quoins  there  is  not  an  atom  of  stiuie  in  the  building 
but  what  may  be  indispensable.  The  window  jambs.  Sec,  are  of 
moulded  brick,  not  gauged  brick,  gentle  reader,  but  bricks  from  the 
kiln,  with  good  s  joints  between  them. 

The  side  walls  are  24  bricks  tliick,  but,  to  save  materials,  are  built 
hollow,  the  construction  of  the  rest  of  the  building  being  in  strict  keep- 
ing ;  the  side  roofs  are  to  be  covered  with  zinc.  Whether  all  this  is 
quite  acting  up  either  to  the  letter  or  the  spirit  of  the  instructions  of 
the  Incorporated  Society,  may  admit  of  a  doubt  at  least ;  also  whether 
a  building  with  bare  walls  of  ordinary  brick,  and  fittings  of  naked 
deal  inside,  can  be  exactly  said  to  maintain  an  ecclesiastical  cha- 
racter. 

Now  these  be  truths.  I  offer  no  commentary  upon  them,  for  the 
case  is  neither  sufficiently  novel  nor  peculiar  to  call  for  it.  If  any 
thing  should  be  mis-stated,  I  hope  somebody  better  informed  will  be 
so  lihliging  as  to  correct  it,  and  I  am  sure  your  columns  will  be  open, 
either  for  that  purpose,  or  for  an  explanation  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  subscribers,  which  I  should  exceedingly  like  to  see,  tliat  is  to  say, 
made  upon  honourable  and  equitable  grounds.  The  misfortune  is, 
fto  drop  now  the  particular  case  and  pursue  the  question  generally,) 
that  subscribers  and  committees,  possessing  the  privilege  of  iniper- 
sonalitv,   and,  as   Lord  Erskine  once  said  of  a  corporation,  having 

neither  a  body  to  be  kicked  nor  a  soul  to  be  d d,  are  apt  to  consider 

that  they  have  fulfilled  every  obligation  incumbent  upon  them,  when 
they  have  squared  their  moral  sense  by  the  Law — and  who  is  to  blame 
tlieiii  ?  They  have  a  right  to  suppose  that  the  architects,  in  a  matter 
in  which  they  are  so  much  interested,  are  as  well  informed  both  upon 
the  law  and  the  practice  as  themselves,  and  content  to  abide  by  both, 
since  they  send  their  designs.  Lest,  how  ever,  any  professional  gentle- 
man should  chance  to  be  in  ignorance  of  his  legal  position,   or  should 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


333 


be  tempted  to  plead  it  in  extenuation  of  liaving  offered  liis  back  to  the 
saddle,  I  beg  leave  to  make  public  the  following  case  and  opinion  for 
the  benefit  of  all  whom  it  may  concern,  and  especially  of  the  archi- 
tectural profession,  to  whom  it  is  dedicated  with  the  profouudest  sen- 
timents of  regard. 

Case. 

Six  architects  were  invited  to  offer  designs  and  estimates  for  build- 
ing a  new  church.  The  conditions  proposed  by  the  parties  making 
the  application  are,  that  the  cost  of  the  church  shall  not  exceed  £30UU, 
and  that  it  shall  be  sufficiently  capacious  to  seat  G50  persons  in  pews 
of  given  dimensions  ou  the  ground  floor,  and  certain  other  requisitions, 
and  they  engage  to  employ  the  architect  whose  design  shall  be  most 
approved. 

From  the  designs  sent  in  to  the  parties  in  consequence  of  this  appli- 
cation, one  is  selected  by  them  which  they  consider  the  best ;  but  the 
cost  of  carrying  this  design  into  execution  will  be  £3750,  and  only  a 
part  of  the  sittings  is  provided  for  in  pews  of  the  required  dimensions, 
the  remainder  being  on  benches  occupying  less  space. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  that  in  the  present  day  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  invite  architects  to  make  designs,  &c.,  for  public  buildings,  on  terms 
similar  to  those  here  stated,  and  architects  of  the  first  eminence  have 
tendered  designs  accordingly. 

In  making  a  design  for  a  particular  building,  conformable  with  cer- 
tain stipulations,  and  to  be  limited  to  a  certain  cost,  an  architect  has 
to  bestow  much  careful  consideration,  in  order  to  make  the  accommo- 
dation req\iired  as  complete  as  possible,  and,  whilst  employing  the 
cost  to  the  best  advantage,  not  to  exceed  it.  To  effect  this,  he  is 
obliged  to  curtail  embellishments,  which  he  otherwise  might  have 
considered  desirable  :  but  another,  not  restraining  himself  by  the  sti- 
pulations or  the  limited  cost,  makes  a  design  much  more  ornamental 
and  likely  to  be  accepted.  The  one  who  faithfully  follows  his  instruc- 
tions is,  therefore,  unfairly  treated  if  the  parties  who  lay  down  the 
instructions  do  not  themselves  act  upon  them  in  making  their  se- 
lection. 

In  this  present  case,  the  design  which  will  costi£3750  in  its  erection, 
will  have  less  area  tlian  one  in  which  all  the  seats  were  to  be  in  pews, 
and  consequently,  not  only  the  extra  £750,  but  also  the  difference  in 
the  quantity  of  building  tend  to  increase  an  outlay  in  the  decoration, 
which  it  could  not  have  had  if  the  author  had  followed  the  instruc- 
tions issued  to  the  candidates.  Besides  this,  the  design  varies  con- 
siderably in  other  particulars  from  the  written  instructions. 

Mr.  Serjeant  Talfourd's  opinion  is  requested. 

1st.  Whether  tliis  application  to  the  six  architects  created  an  im- 
plied contract  on  the  part  of  those  who  made  it,  that  if  the  architects 
would  send  in  designs,  they  would  select  from  them  one  which  could 
be  built  for  £3000,  and  which  should  be  conformable  with  the  instruc- 
tions ? 

■2nd.  Whether  the  parties,  having  selected  one  which  they  are 
carrying  into  execution  at  a  cost  of  £3750,  and  which  is  not  conform- 
able with  the  instructions  in  various  particulars,  are  not  liable  to  the 
other  architects  to  remunerate  them  for  their  professional  labours? 

3rd.  Whether  such  liability  to  remunerate  would  depend  upon  the 
other  architects  being  able  to  prove  that  their  designs  could  be  severally 
executed  for  the  £3000,  and  were  conformable  with  the  instructions  '. 

Opinion. 

Although  the  application  to  the  six  architects  created  an  honourable 
obligation  to  accejit  the  design  of  one  in  accordance  with  its  terms,  I 
regret  to  be  compelled  to  express  my  opinion  that  it  did  not  create  an 
implied  contract  binding  in  point  of  law,  and  capable  of  being  enforced 
by  action.  Regarded  as  a  several  contract  with  each,  its  enforcement 
would  he  attended  with  this  diiiiculty,  that  no  one  could  prove  that^is 
plan  would  have  been  accepted,  if  the  other  plan  had  not  been  pre- 
ferred, withont  which  h  could  show  no  damage — and  if  regarded  as  a 
joint  contract,  it  must  include  as  a  complaining  party  the  architect^re- 
/erred,  who  has  no  grievance,  and  will  not  of  course  join  in  complaining 
of  his  own  success. 

2nd.  Unless  there  is  some  evidence,  whence  it  can  be  inferred,  that 
the  architects  were  entitled  to  expect  reninnetation  in  the  event  which 
has  happened,  beyond  the  mere  invitation,  I  am  of  opinion  that  they 
cannot  make  any  legal  claim  for  payment  in  respect  of  exertions,  which 
have  been  rendered  abortive  by  the  bad  faith  of  the  proposers. 

3i'd.  Supposing  any  claim  to  remuneration  existing,  as  it  could  only 
be  founded  on  the  failure  of  the  parties  inviting  the  plans  to  perform 
the  terms  of  their  proposal,  it  is  clear  that  it  must  depend  upon  the 
ability  of  the  claimant  to  show  his  own  compliance  with  those  terms. 
But,  for  the  reason  a'ready  given,  I  think  the  claim,  even  if  made  by 


an  architect  who  is  able  to  prove  that  his  design  was  within  the  esti- 
mate, and  conformable  to  the  instructions,  cannot  be  supported. 

(Signed)  T.  N.  Talfourd. 

August  15,  1840. 

I  have  nothing  more  to  add  except  that  I  inclose  my  name  and  ad- 
dress in  case  any  thing  in  this  communication  should  be  construed 
into  a  personality. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

K.  P.  S. 
Sept.  15,  1840.- 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XIX. 


"  I  must  have  liberty 
AVitlial,  as  large  a  cliarier  as  the  winds, 
To  blow  on  whom  I  please." 


I.  In  an  article  on  the  Fine  Arts  in  Scotland,  (Edinburgh  Monthly 
Review,  vol.  5,)  the  writer  says,  with  reference  to  some  of  the  recent 
buildings:  "although  we  cannot  but  applaud  the  public  spirit  with 
which  these  undertakings  have  been  projected,  we  are  compelled  to 
speak  in  less  favourable  terms  of  the  taste  which  they  display.  It 
unfortunatelv  happens  that  some  of  them  which  offend  us  most,  occupy 
very  conspicuous  stations,  namely,  Nelson's  Monument,  the  new  Jail, 
and  the  new  buildings  on  the  North  Bridge  ;  to  which,  were  we  to 
enter  into  a  minute  examination,  we  should  feel  ourselves  under  the 
necessity  of  making  sundry  serious  objections.  But  we  prefer  to  draw 
a  veil  over  the  subject,  sincerely  wishing  that  the  next  undertakings 
of  this  kind  may  be  conducted  with  more  judgment  and  in  better 
taste." — This  is  certainly  the  very  pink  of  good  nature  in  criticism, 
but  as  for  the  judgment  displayed  in  it — it  would  not  be  amiss  to  dram 
a  veil  over  that  also.  To  be  sure,  the  passage  just  quoted,  sounds  very 
prettily,  and  bespeaks  a  delicate  forbearance  on  the  part  of  criticism, 
well  calculated  to  render  its  writer  popular  with  those  who  expected  a 
castigation  from  it.  Yet  if  we  draw  aside  the  Jliinsy  veil  of  words, 
what  is  the  writer's  naked  meaning  ? — why  this :  he  is  perfectly  aware 
that  reproof  is  richly  merited,  yet  instead  of  shovving  up  the  offenders, 
he  prefers  screening  them ;  instead  of  holding  up  errors  and  blunders, 
and  failures,  by  way  of  wholesome  warning  for  the  future, — whicli,  per- 
haps, he  felt  would  be  venturing  beyond  his  depth, — he  contents  him- 
self, good,  easy  creature,  with  "  sincerely  wishing  that  the  next  under- 
takings of  this  kind  maybe  conducted  with  more  judgment  and  on 
better  taste"! — which  amiable  phrase  maybe  handed  down  to  the 
verv  end  of  the  chapter  of  architectural  blunders  and  failures.  Really 
I  prefer  the  motto  of  "Old  Blue  and  Brimstone,"  Judex  damnatur  cum 
noctns  absolvitur ;  and  I'm  sure  there  is  ;io-se?ise  or  nonsense  enough 
in  some  one  of  the  works  mentioned  in  the  paper  referred  to. 

II.  Let  us,  however,  try  another  s.ice  of  it.  "  In  examining  the 
various  public  buildings  which  have  been  erected  in  Edinburgh,  within 
the  last  fyrty  years,  no  very  favourable  view  of  the  progress  of  our 
taste  is  afforded  in  the  circumstance  of  the  tirst  in  point  of  time, 
namelv,  the  Register  Office,  being  so  much  superior  in  design  to  those 
which  have  followed  it;  and  the  recent  improvements  betraying,  while 
they  profess  to  be  formed  on  the  style  of  the  ancients,  a  strange  neglect 
of  the  principles  of  composition,  and  even  of  the  details  which  come 
within  the  grasp  of  ordinary  talent."  This  is  well  observed,  and  if 
for  'Edinburgh,'  we  substitute  the  word  'London,'  all  the  rest  will 
still  hold  good.  Yes  we  have  imitated  the  ancients  after  a  very  strange 
fashion  indeed,  or  rather  have  deluded  ourselves  into  the  notion  that 
we  were  actually  running  a  race  with  them,  while  we  were  only  hob- 
bling alter  tliem  on  classical  crutches.  Which  reminds  me  of  what  was 
once  said  to  one  of  the  Servum  Pecus  who  piqued  himself  on  his 
classical  exactness:  your  portico  may,  as  you  observe,  be  (t//er  the 
Parthenon,  but  it  lags  a  confounded  way  htlinid  it." 

III.  The  next  slice  of  this  criticism  may  not  be  to  every  one's  taste 
— more  likely,  perhaps,  to  turn  some  folks'  stomachs  :  "  We  have  also 
to  regret  the  mama  nows  so  prevalent  for  the  Gothic  style,  which  we 
cannot  help  thinking  to  be  inconsistent  in  every  respect,  with  the 
manners  and  the  means  of  the  age,  and  with  the  great  principles  of 
beauty  which  have  been  recognized  in  civilized  Europe,  as  the  basis 
of  excellence  in  architectural  composition," — For  this  opinion  we 
consign  the  writer  over  to  Welby  Pugin,  he  being  one  of  those  who 
are  desperately  far  gone  indeed  in  the  Gothic  mania,  and  therefore 
likely  to  take  the  writer  to  task  to  some  purpose. 


334 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


rOcTOBKR, 


IV.  Perlv.i])?  John  Britton  may  fall  foul  upon  the  writer  too,  for  John   | 
lias  told  us   in  his   '  Modern  Athens,'  that  at  Edinhurgh,  "  public  and    I 
private  edifices  of  the  most  splendid  description  crowd  on  our  notice"  !    ' 
althougii  there  is   nothing  whatever   in  his  hook  to  confirm — or  even 
give  decent  colouring  to  that  piece  of  puff.     lie  assures  us,  indeed, 
that  that  most  horribly  dowdy  building  the  new  Edinburgh  Academy, 
is  "a  handsome  structure,  !7/«s/ra/irf  by  a  beautiful  poTt'ico  siipporltd 
by  Grecian  Doric  columns."     But  such  handsome  structures  and  such 
"beautiful  porticos,"  are  almost  enough  to  make  us  sicken  at  the  very 
name  of  arcliitecture.     At  beholding   them,  one   is  tempted  to  pray 
that  an  earthquake  may  swallow  them  up. — And  yet  after  jiraising 
that  balderdash,  Britton   actually  snu\)bed  the  poor  Queen  on  the  sub- 
ject cf  Buckingham  Falace,  — though  he  had  previously  spoken  of  it 
as  something  prodigiously  grand  ! 

V.  By  very  far  the  greater  part  of  Edinburgh  architecture,  as  re- 
gards modern  buildings,  is  even  when  not  censurable  for*  positive 
faults,  of  that  mawkishly  insipid,  bald,  coW,  tame  sort,  a«  to  be  utterly 
valueless  in  regard  to  assthetic  quality.  When  you  have  said  that  the 
builders  employ  stone  instead  of  brick  and  cement,  you  liavegone  to  the 
utmost  extent  of  the  eulogium  they  merit.  As  to  architecture  pr<iperly 
so  called,  the  Scottish  capital  is  a  perfect  desert :  and  should  the  gude 
folk  of  Auld  Reikie  take  this  character  of  it  in  dudgeon,  they  ought 
at  least  to  keep  some  of  their  anger  for  themselves;  for  if  they  have 
not  thought  it  worth  while  at  the  time  to  produce  something  really 
deserving  praise,  they  ought  not  now  to  be  scandalized  at  finding  them- 
selves reproached  with  want  of  taste.  At  all  events  they  may  feast 
upon  the  flowery  flummery  with  which  a  certain  Doctor  has  dosed 
them, — to  wit,  Dibdin,  describing  Edinburgh  as  "a  city  of  palaces,  the 
Genoa  of  ihc  J\'oiih."  Surely  there,  the  Doctor  drew  most  largely 
upon  his  imagination ;  or  else  must  have  mistaken  some  architectural 
mirage,  for  a  reality,  and  the  plain  homespim  buildings  around  him  for 
so  many  palaces,  after  the  same  f.ishion  that  Don  Quixote  mistook  the 
frowsy  Moritornes  for  a  lovely  princess.— Happy  mortals  those  who 
like  the  Don  and  the  Doctor  can  conjure  up  princesses  and  palaces  as 
they  please ! 

VI.  "I  do  not  understand  what  you  mean  by  Feeling:  what  has 
feeling  to  do  with  architecture  V  This  was  once  said  to  me  by  one 
who  was  by  no  means  the  greatest  dunce  in  his  profession  ;  whereupon 
I  was  tempted  almost  to  reply:  "if  you  rap  that  thick  head  of  yours 
against  the  wall,  you  will  perhaps  understand  what  feeling  is — 1  mean 
the  only  kind  of  it  you  are  capable  of  comprehending." 

VII.  'Effect'  is  another  word  that  seems  banished  from  the  archi- 
tect's vocabulary:  or  if  the  term  be  occasionally  employed,  that  which 
it  expresses  is  very  rarely  considered  or  aimed  at.  Instead  of  being 
studied  and  purposely  introduced,  it  appears  rather  to  be  shunned. 
Not  but  that  I  have  seen  effects  and  singularly  striking  and  beautiful 
ones  too.  No  thanks  for  them,  however,  to  the  architect  ;  for  I  have 
almost  invariably  found  that  the  most  beautiful  effects  of  all,  have  been 
entirely  the  result  of  sheer  accident;  and  never  contemp'ated  before- 
hand in  the  design;  and  further,  that  where  any  originalitv  of  plan  has 
been  adopted — any  deviation  from  the  wearisome  monotony  and  in- 
sipidity which  prevail  in  the  forms  and  arrangement  of  rooms,  it  has 
in  almost  every  instance  been  occasioned  by  some  peculiar  and  iiii/o- 
W!icc(  circumstance  in  the  building  that  has  compelled  the  architect  to 
fling  away  his  secundum  aiitm  recipes  and  prescriptions,  and  resort  to 
some  expedient  and  contrivance — not  of  the  ready  "cut  arwl  dried" 
school,  therefore,  I  suppose,  ilkgitnnaie — and  to  be  more  or  less 
original  in  spite  of  himself. — It  was  a  marvellous  mercy  for  Sir 
Jetfry  Wyatville  that,  instead  of  being  ordered  to  raze  Windsor  Castle 
to  the  ground,  and  prepare  an  entirely  new  plan,  he  was  left  to  contend 
with  the  dirticu  ties  imposed  by  the  old  one.  The  consequence  is  that 
there  are  now  many  piquant  parts  in  the  interior,  and  much  variety  iu 
the  plan,  that  would  else,  in  all  probability,  not  have  occurred. 

Vm.  It  would  not  be  amiss,  if,  instead  of  proposing  as  architectural 
prize-subjects  to  students  such  high  flown  things  as  palaces,  and  senate 
houses,  which  are  not  wanted,  the  Academy  were  to  require  of  them 
ideas,  for  that  which  none  of  our  palace-builders  have  been  able  to 
design — to  wit,  a  sentry-box.  Those  at  Windsor  Castle  and  Buck- 
ingham Palace,  are  most  beggarly  things,  literally  wooden  boxes,  not 
only  homely  in  material,  but  barbarous  in  taste.  Surely  if  it  were 
worth  wdiile  to  erect  a  marble  arch  before  the  palace  in  St.  James' 
Park,  it  would  also  have  been  worth  while  to  erect  sentry-boxes  that 
should  accord  w  ith  it ;  whether  they  were  detached  from  the  arch 
itself,  or  made  to  form  part  of  its  design.  The  perversitv  of  taste 
displayed  in  such  matters  is  all  the  more  unaccountable,  because  one 
seldom  finds  simdar  contrast ;  of  shabbiness  and  finery  iu  any  others. 
One  does  not  see  common  e,.i  thouware  and  plate  on  the  same  table, or 
rteal  chairs  and  rosewood  tables  in  the  same  room. — I  shouhl  certainly 
like  to  be  informed,  wherefore,  if  there  must  be  senlry-boxes  at  all  in 
front  of  a  palace,  they  must  invariably  be  shabby  eyesores.     Vet,  I 


believe,  I  might  inquire  for  some  time  before  any  one  could  give  me  a 
satisfactory  reason.  It  might  possibly  be  alleged  that  it  would  be  quite 
infra  dig  for  any  architect  to  attempt  to  design  aught  of  the  kind. 
Nevertheless  I  apprehend  that  a  Greek  architect  would  not  have 
scrupled  to  do  so,  or  iiave  thought  it  derogatory  either  to  his  talent  or 
Ills  art  to  invent  even  a  sentry-box — if  there  was  occasion  for  one, 
with  elegance  of  form.  Nav,  do  we  not  find  among  the  structures  of 
Athens  itself,  one  that  affords  a  very  strr  ng  hint — almost  a  direct  mo- 
del, for  such  purpose?  Would  not  thai  example  be  more  consistently 
adopted  by  being  so  transferred  than  after  the  manner  in  which  we 
now  behold  it  copied,  without  any  modification  to  adapt  it  for  the 
modern  application  of  it  ?  Scarcely  shall  1  be  asked  what  is  the  ex- 
ample I  allude  to,  for  no  doubt,  every  one  will  now  instant'y  discover 
it.  As  for  those  who  cannot,  it  matters  little  to  them  whether  I  say 
what  it  is  now,  or  a  month  hence.  I  am  therefore  determined  not  to 
satisfy  their  curiosity  this  time. 


ON    THE    METHOD.?    OF    COMPUTING    THE    QUANTITIES 
OF  EARTHWORK  IN  CUTTINGS  AND  E.MBANKMENTS. 

By  S.  Hughes,  C.E. 

At.THOt'GH  the  prismoidal  formula  of  Dr.  Hutton,  by  means  of  which 
are  found  the  contents  of  the  figures  composing  cuttings  and  embank- 
ments, is  now  well  understood,  and  although  great  facilities  for  com- 
puting these  contents  are  given  by  Mr.  Macneil's  tables,  and  by  a 
tabular  sheet  more  lately  published  by  Mr.  Bidder,  yet  it  seems  that 
a  ready  method  of  calculating  separately  the  slopes,  and  the  middle 
part  of  the  excavation  or  embankment  is  still  wanting. 

Mr.  Macneil  has  one  table  in  his  book  giving  areas  for  a  base  of  1, 
and  aslope  of  1  to  1,  from  which  by  simple  multiplication  the  contents 
for  any  slope  and  for  any  base  may  be  found.  Mr.  Bidder's  table  also 
gives  the  contents  for  slopes  of  1  to  1,  and  base  of  1,  but  for  lengths  of 
one  chain  or  22  yards.  These  tables  are  useful  only  for  cdcul.iting 
sections  where  the  scale  is  very  small,  and  where  the  heights  cannot 
be  taken  otherwise  than  in  feet,  because  the  tables  are  only  computed 
for  whole  numbers.  In  the  process  of  calculating  from  working  sec- 
tions however,  where  the  scale  is  sufficiently  large  to  show  the  heiglits 
in  feet,  and  decimals  of  a  foot,  the  tables  will  be  of  no  use,  and  the 
following  simple  formula  derived  from  that  of  Dr.  Hutton,  mentioned 
above,  are  intended  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  more  extensive  tables, 
and  it  is  believed  they  may  be  used  with  so  much  ease  as  entirely  to 
supersede  the  use  of  any  tables. 

Fig.  I. 


Let  a  6  c  rf  be  the  longitudinal  section  of  a  cutting,  from  whichjt  is 
required  to  find  the  contents  down  to  the  line  A  B. 

The  surface  line  should  first  be  divided  into  straight  portions,  and 
vertical  lines  drawn  from  each  poi  it  of  division  to  the  line  A  B.  Then 
the  contents  of  all  the  spaces  into  which  these  lines  divide  the  section 
being  added  into  one  sum,  will  be  the  content  of  the  wdiole  cutting.  It 
is  required  therefore,  independently  of  tables,  to  adopt  a  ready  method 
of  ascertaining  the  cubical  capacity  of  a  portion  of  the  cutting  whose 
vertical  area  is  represented  by  one  of  the  before  mentioned  spaces,  as 
b  b'  c  c'. 

For  this  purpose  let  the  two  deptlis  of  the  cutting  at  the  greater 
and  smaller  ends,  or  /)  V,  cc',  be  respectively  =  D  and  d;  let  the 
breadth  be  =  b,  the  ratio  of  slopes  =  r,  and  th'  distance  between  the 
two  ends  :=  /. 

The  area  of  this  piece  of  cutting  at  the  greater  end  will  hi 

Fig.  2. 


And  at  the  sinaller  end 


Fig.  3. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


335 


so  that  the  solid  figure,  comprised  between  these  two  end  areas  is 
composed  of  a  middle  part  or  core  which  is  the  frustrum  of  a  wedge, 
and  of  two  side  pieces,  which  together  form  the  frustrum  of  a  pyramid. 

It  is  evident  that  the  content  of  the  core  is  simply  lb.  — —  and  by 

file  prismoidid  formula  the  content  of  the  side  pieces  is  also  readily 
D'  r  +  d-r  +  4  (D- r  4-c?-  r  +  2  r  D  rf) 

found  =  I. 


6 


which  reduced  becomes  =  l.  „  (D^  -\- d'-[-V>d). 

This  expression  appears  to  be  so  simple  as  scarcely  to  require  any 
table  by  way  of  aid  in  the  calculation.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that 
the  only  table  which  can  at  all  be  necessary  in  using  this  method  of 
computing  sections  is  one  of  squares,  such  as  may  be  found  in  the 
Engineer's  Pocket  Book,  and  many  other  works  of  reference. 

The  following  example  will  show  the  manner  in  which  the  formulae 
should  be  used. 


Fig.  4. 


Cutting 


Embankment. 


Let  the  above  be  a  part  of  the  section  to  be  computed  then  the  cal- 
culation will  be  as  under. 

Excavation,  No.  1. 


Lengths 

Depths 

Middle 

Sides 

in  chains. 

in  feet. 

(D  +  d)l 

/(D-  +  rf=  +  D<f) 

215 

0 

9 

193-5                           1741                1 

7-0 

9 

14 

161- 

2«21 

6-5 

14 

29 

279-5 

9380 

16-3 

29 

25 

880-2 

35713 

3-7 

25 

21 

170-2 

5887 

6-5 

21 

25 

299- 

10341 

14-8 

25 

25 

740- 

27750 

39 

25 

14 

152-1 

4567 

20-7 

14 

12 

538-2 

10516 

8-1 

12 

0 

97-2 

1166 

3510-9                      109882 

22 

Middle  3510 

•9  X  n — 2  =  '*291  cube  yards  for  base  of  1  foot. 

Sides  10988 

22 
2  X  ^ — 7  =  44707  cube  yards  for  slopes  of  i  to  1. 

Embankment  No.  1. 

6-8 

0 

9 

61-2 

551 

16-8 

9 

17 

436-8 

8780 

7-9 

17 

20 

292-3 

8129 

4-8 

20 

15 

168- 

4440 

8-5 

15 

17 

272- 

6536 

8-0 

17 

11 

224- 

4776 

9-2 

11 

6 

156-4 

2052 

1010-7 

35270 

Middle  161( 

22 
■7  X  g72  =  1969  cube  yards  for  base  of  1  foot. 

Sides  35270 

22 
X  5 — g  =  14369  cube  yards  for  slopes  of  i  to  1. 

Very  little  explanation  will  be  required  to  render  the  preceding 
calculation  understood.     It  is  evident  that  the  multiplication  by  the 

22        11 
fraction or  —  is  necessiry  (in  consequence  of  the  lengths  being 

JX  ^        'J 

in  chains,  and  the  depths  in  feet,)  to  reduce  the  first  results  into  cube 
yards. 

Ar.d  it  will  also  be  clear  that  as  the  numbers  in  the  column  headed 

7* 

"sides,"  are  determined  without  multiplication  by  the  fraction-,  that 

o 

is  for  a  slope  of  3  to  1,  the  further  division  by  6  is  necessary  to  reduce 
them  to  aslope  of  i  to  1.  The  quantities  may  be  determined  with 
equal  readiness  for  any  slope,  integral  or  fractional,  by  simply  raulti- 


plying  the  numbers  found  as  above,  by  the  fraction  -,  where  r  is  the 

rate  of  slope  required. 

It  will  be  found  extremely  convenient  for  engineers  and  others  con- 
sulting the  sections  of  new  lines  of  railways,  or  comparing  together 
two  or  more  sections  of  the  same  line,  to  know  the  quantities  for  dif- 
ferent slopes,  and  these  may  be  readily  exhibited  by  simple  addition, 
thus : 

(For  a  base  of  30  ftet.) 


EXCAVAl 

ION    1. 

Embankment  1. 

Cube  yards. 

Cube  yards. 

Upright  sides. 

128,730 

Upright  sides. 

59,070 

Slopes  of   i  to  1 

173,497 

Slopes  of   i  to  1 

73,439 

»        1    to  1 

218,264 

1    to  1 

87,808 

U  to  1 

263,031 

U  to  1 

■      102,177 

2    to  1 

307,798 

2    to  1 

116,546 

2i  to  1 

352,565 

2J  to  1 

130,915 

3    to  1 

397,332 

„         3    to  1 

145,284 

It  may  be  useful  now  to  glance  at  certain  erroneous  methods  of  cal- 
culating earthwork  which  were  at  one  time  exceedingly  prevalent. 
These  methods  have  often  been  the  occasion  of  serious  loss  and  disap- 
pointment to  contractors  and  others,  by  some  of  whom  they  are  not 
abandoned  even  at  the  present  day.  It  will  be  shown  that  calculations 
of  earthwork  made  according  to  the  common  erroneous  rules  maybe 
readily  altered  so  as  (o  give  a  correct  result.  Hence  the  investigation 
of  these  errors  will  furnish  us  with  new  and  distinct  rules  for  finding 
the  contents  of  earthwork  sections,  each  rule  being  correct  and  giving 
the  same  result  as  the  formula  already  derived. 

I.  Let  it  be  required  to  determine  the  error  occasioned  by  taking 
the  mean  of  the  two  enrf  areas,  and  multiplying  this  mean  by  the  length 
for  the  solid  contents  of  a  prismoid.     This  method  may  be  expressed 


thus  -.—l 


D  6  -I-  D=  r  +  db  +  d'r  _ 


=  lb.  ^f^+  I  ^(D^  ■+  i-')  from 


which  it  appears  that  the  difference  between  this  and  the  correct  ex- 

T 

pression  exists  only  in  the  side  pieces,  and  is  equal  to  -  (D-  +  d^)  — 

liiy^-^d^  +  iid)=:lB^-  +  ^^d'-lB^-^d^  +  l^d=y:B^ 

.   irrf^_?ZD'+^''i^+|rDrf=^(D3  -{-^-2Drf).   Excess 

tj  0  i>  O"  D 

above  the  correct  area.  Now  this  excess  is  equal  to  one-sixth  the 
square  of  the  difference  of  the  depths  multiplied  by  the  ratio  of  the 
slopes. 

H.  The  other  erroneous  method  is  more  commonly  in  practice  than 
the  preceding,  and  gives  a  result  nearer  to  the  correct  one,  but  the 
difference  here  is  one  of  defect,  not  excess,  that  is  on  the  wrong  side 
for  the  contractor.  According  to  this  method,  an  area  is  calculated 
for  the  arithmetical  mean  of  the  depths,  and  this  area  is  used  as  the 
one  which  being  multiplied  by  the  length,  is  to  give  the  content  of 
the  figure. 


330 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


ro 


CTOBER. 


Tims  6  — c ^  '^  \  — "^ —  )      '^  *''"  ^""^^  corresponding  to  the 


nipiin  of  llie  deptlis  from  which  it  is  seen  that  tlie  difference  here  also 
between  this  and  the  correct  area  exists  only  in  the  side  pieces.   This 

r 
4 
4r„.  .  4r  „   ,   4r„  ,     3r_.  .   3/  ,     ,  6  r. 


T  T  T 

difierence  is  readily  obtained  thus:  -\f-\--d'^  -f-     Dc? —  '-  D^  J- 


J- 

=  ix  (D"  -\-d^  —  2  D  rf),  which  is  equal  to  one-tnelfih  the  square  of 

tne  difference  of  the  depths  multiplied  by  the  ratio  of  the  slopes. 

We  have  now  examined  three  difl^erent  methods  of  calculating 
earthwork,  the  two  latter  of  which  require  certain  corrections ;  and 
combining  these  corrections  with  the  original  erroneous  rules,  in  order 
to  render  them  perfect,  the  whole  three  methods  may  be  correctly  ex- 
pressed as  follows. 

I.  Square  the  sum  of  the  depths  and  deduct  their  product,  muldplv 
the  remainder  by  one-third  the  ratio  of  slopes.  To  this  add  the  half 
sum  of  tlie  depths  multiplied  by  the  breadth. 

Or, 

II.  From  the  half  sum  of  the  two  end  areas  deduct  one-sixth  the 
square  of  the  difference  of  the  depths,  multiplied  by  the  ratio  of  the 
slopes,  the  remainder  is  the  correct  area. 

Or, 

III.  To  the  area  corresponding  to  the  half  sum  of  the  depths,  add 
one-twelfth  the  square  of  the  ditference  of  the  depths,  multiplied  by 
the  ratio  of  the  slopes,  the  sum  is  the  correct  area. 

Example. 

Suppose  a  piece  of  cutting  or  embankment  39'8  feet  deep  at  one 
end,  and  24-6  at  the  other  end,  the  base  or  top  30  feet,  and  slopes  2  to 
],  required  the  area,  which  being  multiplied  by  the  length,  shall  give 
the  true  content. 


I. 


II. 


39-8 
24-6 


64-4  X  64-4  =  4147-36 
39-8  X  24-6=   979'08 


31G8.28 
2 


6336-56 


(39 
(24 

8  X  2  +  30) 
6  X  2  +  30) 

2(39-8-24 
6 

39-8  = 
24-6  = 

6)=^ 

=  4362-08 
=  1948-32 

2|6310-40 

3155.20 
77-01 

2112-19 
32-2x30=   966 


correct  area  3078-19 
III. 
(39-8  +  24-6  +  30)  32-2  =  3039-68 
2(39-8-24-6)2 


correct  area  3078-19 


12 


38-51 


correct  area  30 78- 19 


The  first  and  third  of  these  methods  are  recommended  to  practical 
men  in  preference  to  any  of  the  common  tables. 

The  writer  having  both  calculated  himself,  and  superintended  others, 
while  calculating  some  thousands  of  miles  in  length  of  sections,  can 
speak  very  positively  as  to  the  s-aving  of  time  which  is  effected  by  the 
simple  calculations  here  pointed  out.  The  mode  of  applying  the  first 
method  to  extensive  sections  has  been  already  shown,  and  the  appli- 
cation of  the  third  is  equally  simple.  The  labour  of  calculation  is 
nearly  balanced  between  these  two. 

12,  Universily-slreel,  Sept.  12,  1S40. 


THE  REFORM  CLUBHOUSE. 

ClVilh  2  Engravings,  Plates  IG  &  17. J 

Hardly  shall  we  be  censured  for  bestowing  farther  notice  on  the 
exterior  of  this  edifice,  because,  although  the  Wood-cut  view  of  it  in 
our  May  number,  served  very  well  to  convey  a  general  idea  of  the  de- 
sign and  style  of  architecture,  the  details  and  admeasurements  could 
oiily  be  guessed  at,  whereas  it  is  highly  desirable  that  they  should  be 
correctly  represented  on  an  intelligible  scale,  similarly  to  those  given 
of  the  Travellers'  Club-house  in  the  series  of  "  Studies  and  Examples 


of  the  English  School  of  Architectnre."  We  hope  that  the  la^t-men- 
tioned  building,  this  new  production  of  Mr.  Rarry's  will  be  fuUv  illus- 
trated liv  thi>  s.ime  artists:  in  the  mean  while  we  shall  show  in  this 
and  our  following  number,  as  much  as  will  enable  i  ur  readers  to  under- 
stand both  the  external  elevations,  and  the  leading  arrangement,  &c. 
of  the  interior;  which  last  we  intend  to  expUin  by  a  Section  as  well  as 
Ground  Flan. 

Whether  there  be  any  who  do  not  admire  this  piece  of  arcliitecture, 
ve  cannot  positively  say;  yet  if  any  there  are  at  all,  we  conceive  that 
they  are  very  few.  Neither  can  we  be  certain  that  there  are  none, 
who  do  not  regret  that  the  style  here  adopted  is  likelv  to  supplant 
that  pun  Greek  architecture  which,  till  very  lately,  was  in  such  rejiute 
and  request  among  us.  It  happens  curiously  enough,  however,  that 
the  Reform  and  Conservative  Club-houses,  almost  inevitalilv  force  a 
comparison  between  their  res[iective  styles.  While  the  contrast  thev 
present  is  most  striking  in  itself;  it  is  evidently  enough,  in  favour  of 
Mr.  Barry's  building:  yet  whether  the  two  styles  are  thus  fuirlv  tested 
is  a  different  question,  for  it  may  be  said  that  we  have  here  the  very 
choicest  Italian  confronted  not  with  any  example  of  Grecian  architet-- 
ture,  nor  with  what  is  considered  a  skilful  and  artist-like  modification  of 
it,  but  with  what  exhibits  only  the  poverty  and  defectiveness  of  that 
style  without  any  of  its  redeeming  qualities.  At  all  events,  therefore, 
the  admirers  of  the  latter  must  now  be  as  little  satisfied  with  that 
specimen  of  Sir  R.  Smirke's  taste  and  ideas  of  classical  design,  as 
those  who  give  their  unqualified  preference  to  the  Italian  style.  In 
no  respect  is  the  contrast  between  the  two  designs  more  striking  than 
as  to  those  particulars  which  exhibit  similarv  of  purpose  in  both.  In 
the  one  case,  we  perceive  that  so  far  from  at  all  detracting  from  the 
beauty  or  character  of  the  rest,  the  area  is  so  treated  as  to  be  exceed- 
ingly ornamental,  and  to  give  additional  dignity  to  the  whole  design, 
being  enclosed  by  a  terrace-like  screen  consisting  of  a  balustrade,  upon 
a  deep  socle  of  elegant  rustic  work  ;  while  that  of  the  Conservative 
Club-house  is  no  better  than  the  area  of  a  common  house,  and  the 
railing  is  as  poor  in  effect,  and  as  un-(ireciau  in  design,  as  it  was 
possible  to  make  it.  No  less  strongly  marked  is  the  contrast  between 
these  two  facades  as  regards  the  character  they  derive  from  their 
crowning  members :  though  somewhat  less  plain  and  scanty  than  in 
some  other  exam))les  of  the  same  school,  the  entablature  and  cornice 
of  the  Conservative,  lame  and  meagre  enough  at  the  best,  now  appears 
utterly  insignificant  in  comparison  with  the  cornicione  one  of  its  neigh- 
bour the  Reform  Club-house: — which  latter  may  in  fact  be  considered 
as  the  entablature  to  the  whole  structure,  therefore  not  at  all  excessive 
as  to  bulk.  The  same  remarkable  disparity  of  character  pervades 
the  two  designs  generally:  in  Sir  R.  Smirke's  building,  almost  every 
part  is  left  chillingly  bare  and  poor,  and  at  the  best,  shows  certain 
Grecian  forms  stripped  of  all  their  beauty,  whereas  in  Mr.  Barry's  all 
the  lesser  members  and  details,  such  as  string  courses,  &c.  are  made 
to  conduce  to  architectural  elegance  and  expression.  The  "Conser- 
vative" may  be  compared  to  a  |  icture  mere  dead-coloured,  the  "Re- 
form" to  one  consistently  worked  up  and  carefully  finished  in  all  its 
accessories. 

If  it  be  objected  that  the  microstyle  application  of  columns  to  the 
windows  of  the  Reform  Club-house,  is  not  strictly  legitimate,  inasmuch 
as  those  parts  are  thereby  converted  into  mere  decorative  appendages ; 
we  think  that  so  applied  they  are  less  faulty  than  either  tnicroslyle 
orders  affecting  to  be  somewhat  more  than  decoration,  or  than  such 
apology  for  an  order  as  a  few  large  antje  gratuitously  stuck  on  here 
and  there  to  the  front  of  a  building,  and  which  are  allowed  to  contri- 
bute as  little  towards  decoration  as  they  do. 

Either  Greek  architecture  does  not  by  any  possible  modification  of 
it,  admit  of  the  variety  and  richness  which  the  Italian  style  aflfords, — 
at  least  not  where  columns  are  excluded  ;  or  else  no  one  has  as  yet 
thought  it  worth  while  so  to  mould  the  former  as  to  render  it  quite  as 
suitable  as  the  other  for  buildings  of  this  class.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
example  of  the  Reform  Club-house  most  assuredly  is  not  calculated  to 
obtain  much  favour  for  tlie  style  of  its  neighbour;  but  neither,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  it  likely  to  recommend  the  petty  Falladian  manner, 
which  has  hitherto  been  generally  received  as  the  quintessence  of 
Italian  art. 

In  our  account  of  the  interior  of  Mr.  Barry's  building  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  enter  into  description,  but  on  the  present  occasion  the 
elevation  given  in  the  plate  renders  description  unnecessary,  those  of 
the  south  and  west  sides  being  perfectly  similar,  except  that  there  the 
pediments  to  the  windows  are  alternately  segmental  and  triangular. 
Besides  the  elevation,  the  details  of  the  exterior,  viz.  Cornicione, 
windows,  &c.  are  shown  in  a  separate  plate,  so  that  the  design  is  per- 
fectly intelligible. 


^ 


^ 


J  K  t7oKtH#  I 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


.3.37 


ON  THE  DISTINCTIVE  CAUSES  WHICH  OPERATED  IN 
PROMOTING  THE  RISE  AND  PROGRESS  OF  GREEK 
AND  ROMAN  ART. 

By  Frederick  J.  Francis,  Architect. 

Among  all  those  nations  the  records  of  whose  history  reach  to  the 
present  time,  those  of  Greece  and  Rome  stand  out  the  most  conspi- 
cuous and  illustrious.  Every  thing  which  relates  to  them,  is  by  com- 
mon consent,  invested  with  a  sustained  and  continuous  interest,  which 
the  annals  of  no  other  countries  are  able  to  produce.  The  very  men- 
tion of  their  names  calls  up  in  the  mind  a  thousand  noble  and  spirit- 
moving  recollections,  the  dynasties  of  the  present  age  seem  to  shrink 
abashed,  when  placed  in  comparison  with  their  ancient  national  gran- 
deur ;  and  wo  have  but  to  let  our  thoughts  sweep  in  the  range  of  their 
contemplations,  over  the  successive  epochs  of  their  history  to  discern 
at  one  period  or  another  the  ascendancy  of  every  thing  great  or  ex- 
cellent, whether  in  political  constitution — in  national  and  individual 
virtue — in  the  refinements  of  literature,  or  the  peaceful  glories  of  art. 

And  yet,  great — eminently  great,  as  were  both  those  countries  in 
politics,  philosophy  and  art,  no  one  can  doubt  that  the  circumstances 
which  attended  the  highest  national  altitude  of  the  one  nation,  were 
singularly  contrasted  with  those  which  attended  the  other.  In  Greece, 
as  we  shall  hereafter  see  more  particularly,  the  period  of  purest  poli- 
tical freedom  was  contemporaneous  with  "the  development  of  the  sub- 
limest  philosophy,  and  the  most  exalted  art:  while  in  Rome,  it  is 
unhappily  notorious,  that  at  the  time  when  their  literature  and  arts 
were  at  their  meridian,  the  subjects  of  merited  astonishment  to  foreign 
and  surrounding  states,  extorting  the  homage,  and  compelling  the  ad- 
miration of  all— the  essential  freedom  of  their  political  system  was 
totally  undermined — the  roots  of  that  despotism  which  was  subse- 
quently the  wreck  of  every  thing  illustrious  among  them,  had  firmly 
implanted  themselves,  and  their  successes  in  art  did  not  so  mucli  re- 
sult from  the  combined  ettbrts  of  a  people  coUectivelv  imbued  with  a 
thorough  passion  for,  and  appreciation  of,  the  sublime  and  beautiful, 
as  from  the  effects  of  a  few  accomplished  but  tyrannic  emperors,  who, 
by  means  of  a  gorgeous  display  of  the  beauties  of  art,  hoped  to  blind 
the  once  free  born  citizens  of  Rome,  to  the  disastrous  consequences 
which  must  inevitably  accrue  to  the  nation,  from  the  establishment  of 
eastern  absolutism ;  and  to  amuse  them  with  the  tinsel  trappings  of 
national  prosperity,  when  they  were,  all  the  while,  forging  for  them, 
manacles,  (he  most  degrading  that  ever  weighed  down  the  energy,  and 
annihilated  the  spirit  of  the  noble  and  the  free. 

But  to  confine  our  i-emarks  strictly  to  the  subject  we  have  under- 
taken brietly  to  examine.  It  will  not  be  imagined  from  what  we  have 
already  stated,  tliat  there  was  any  similaiity  in  the  principles  which 
gave  to  the  arts  of  the  two  countiies  their  leading  impulse,  or  contri- 
buted to  their  final  success.  As  tliere  was  a  great  ditference  in  the 
period,  so  was  there  a  marked  contrast  in  the  causes,  immediate  as 
well  as  secondary,  which  induced  their  consunimatiiTn  among  the  one 
people  and  the  otiier:  and  a  steady  consideration  of  this  unquestioned 
fact,  will  help  to  make  us  duly  estimate  the  relative  claims  of  the  two 
to  the  higher  and  more  illustrious  place  in  our  esteem.  In  both  coun- 
tries we  cannot  fail  to  recognise  a  state  of  things  wherein  the  arts 
were  loved,  cherislied  and  venerated :  but  still,  Greece  in  the  meri- 
dian of  her  arts,  under  the  sway  of  Pericles,  and  Rome,  correspondently 
great,  under  the  dominion  of  Augustus  Cassar,  present  far  more  nume- 
rous features  of  contrast,  than  analogy ;  the  whole  current  of  the  public 
mind  of  the  one  nation  ran  in  a  diflferent  channel  from  that  of  the 
other ;  and  we  contemplate  with  far  greater  satisfaction  the  intellec- 
tual eminence  of  the  one,  than  the  splendid,  but  withal  treacherous 
distinctions  of  the  other. 

But  it  will  be  necessary  for  tlie  riglit  elucidation  of  the  subject,  that 
we  should  glance  with  some  minuteness  at  the  various  isolated  and 
connected  chain  of  circumstances  which  attended  the  rise  of  Grecian 
art,  in  order  that  it  may  the  more  clearly  appear  that  all  analogies  to 
it,  are  wanting  in  the  correspondent  progression  of  art  in  Rome. 

The  rise  of  Grecian  art  took  place  under  circumstances  singularly 
striking.  Like  other  nations  in  their  infant  state,  the  country  of 
Greece  was  originally  inhabited  by  a  wild  race  of  hardy  mountaineers, 
men  to  whom  the  fortresses  of  nature  were  dwelling  places,  and  the 
pursuits  of  the  chase,  a  subsistence.  Gradually  consolidating  them- 
selves into  societies,  settled  laws  took  the  place  of  that  uncertain 
authority  founded  only  on  might:  the  savage  barbarism  of  aboriginal 
life  was  laid  aside,  from  being  predatory  wanderers  they  became 
civilized  settlers;  and  progressively  advanced  in  mental  and  moral 
acquirement.  At  a  very  early  period  of  their  existence  as  an  inde- 
pendent people,  many  of  the  inhabitants  emigrated  to  the  neighbour- 
ing coasts,  and  long  antecedent  to  the  parent  state,  reached  to  great 
national  eminence  and  distinction. 


The  great  Ionic  migration  to  the  fertile  and  beautiful  settlements  of 
Asia  Minor,  was  the  most  illustrious  of  them  all ;  and  it  was  among 
these  celebrated  and  volu|)tuous  colonies  that  the  real  and  inherent 
genius  of  the  (irecian  people  originally  manifested  itself.  Here  philo- 
sophy, poetry,  history  and  art  first  found  a  home ;  while  the  parent 
state  had  scarcely  emerged  from  the  long  pupilage  of  nations,  they 
had  attained  the  summit  of  their  intellectual  development,  and  were 
even  giving  unequivocal  symptoms  of  prostration  and  decline.  They 
struggled  and  fell,  to  rise  no  more  ;  but  as  if  by  their  dissolution  an 
additioual  impetus  was  given  to  the  efforts  of  continental  Greece,  it 
was  only  subsequent  to  the  protracted  war  with  Persia,  which  had  been 
the  ruin  of  her  colonies,  that  Athens,  the  metropolis  and  heart  of 
Greece,  took  the  van  in  the  department  of  art;  she  then  vindicated 
her  claim  to  that  superiority  which  of  right  belonged  to  her,  as  the 
capital  of  a  free  and  manly  race  ;  and  although  formerly  she  had  pro- 
duced no  artists,  and  possessed  no  genius  equal  to  those  Sicyon,  Egina, 
and  Miletus,  she  now  as  far  outstripped  them  in  the  peaceful  glories 
of  art,  as  she  had  done  in  the  deeds  of  military  and  naval  valour.  She 
soon  reached  to  her  proudest  intellectual  eminence,  and  under  the 
fostering  sway  of  the  renowned  Pericles,  showed  marvellous  proofs 
that  the  really  sublime  and  beautiful  in  material  objects  were  thoroughly 
appreciated  and  understood. 

But  here  we  pause  for  a  moment  to  mark  the  causes  which  induced 
these  extraordinary  triumphs.  How  was  it  that  among  these  small, 
independent,  and  comparatively  insignificant  states,  the  human  mind, 
as  if  relieved  from  a  burden  which  formerly  oppressed  it,  and  visited 
with  an  elastic  and  buoyant  energy,  previously  unknown,  should  so 
signally  assert  its  appropriate  dignity,  and  display  its  brightest 
efflorescence. 

How  was  it,  that  although  empires,  mighty  and  illustrious,  had  pre- 
ceded even  the  commencement  of  her  national  individuality,  who  had 
wielded  the  sceptres  of  well  nigh  universal  monarchy,  and  in  whose 
hands  were  lodged,  treasures  the  most  unlimited,  they  had  never 
evidenced  the  possession  of  aught,  but  a  narrow  and  contracted  intel- 
lect— had  never  been  able  to  achieve  anything  remarkable  in  the  region 
of  intellectual  superiority,  nor  were  even  at  the  summit  of  their  glory, 
a  tenth  part  so  really  and  truly  great,  as  were  those  comparatively 
small  and  insignificant  states. 

Are  we  to  look  at  the  nations  by  whom  Greece  was  surrounded,  for 
the  germ  of  that  architectural  beauty — that  sculptural  grace — that 
artistic  excellence,  whicli  pre-eminently'distinguished  them?  Did 
they  derive  from  a  source  extensive  to  themselves,  as  we  shall  pre- 
sently find  to  be  the  case  with  Rome,  those  principles  of  the  beantiful 
and  the  sublime,  which  they  so  exquisitely  carried  out  and  acted  upon  ? 
Was  there  ought  in  the  arts  of  Egypt  or  the  Eastern  world,  which  can 
be  referred  to,  as  giving  to  the  gifted  children  of  Greece,  any  of  the 
original  ideas  of  that  mingled  grandeur,  simplicity  and  grace,  which  are 
acknowledged  so  thoroughly  to  pervade  their  unrivalled  productions? 
We  answer,  assuredly  not.  We  think  it  is  doing  great  injustice  to 
the  striking  originality  of  the  Grecian  mind,  to  contend  that  as  Rome 
derived  her  arts  from  Greece,  so  Greece  derived  her  arts  from  Egypt 
or  Asia.  There  may  be,  and  there  doubtless  are,  distant  and  obscure 
analogies  between  the  architecture  of  the  Nile,  cumbrous  as  it  was,  and 
the  symmetrical  productions  of  Greece  ;  but  still,  whatever  the  Greeks 
borrowed  in  this  branch  of  art,  was  only  incidental  and  subordinate, 
and  became  so  essentially  changed  by  its  tranmission,  as  to  well  nigh 
the  product  of  their  own  independent  and  unaided  genius.  And  then, 
whatever  differences  of  opinion  may  exist  upon  this  point,  it  must  be 
admitted  by  all,  that  in  sculpture  and  painting  they  owe  to  the  Egyp- 
tians, absolutely  notliiug.  Look  at  the  ideal  beauty  of  their  immortal 
creations,  that  god-like  expression  of  majesty  which  pervades  one — 
that  manly  grace,  or  matronly  dignity  which  distinguishes  another  ; 
that  winning  tenderness  which  beams  forth  in  a  third ;  and  in  the 
whole  range  of  either  Egyptian  or  Asiatic  art,  can  there  be  adduced 
one  single  group  or  figure,  by  the  contemplation  of  which  a  Grecian 
artist  might  have  caught  one  additional  ray  of  inspiration,  or  been 
enabled  so  to  guide  his  chisel  or  his  pencil  as  to  convey  to  his  works 
one  previously  unimagined  lineament  of  grace,  expression  or  beauty. 
Emphatically  we  answer,  assuredly  not.  The  Egyptians,  a  severe 
people — hard  as  their  own  granite — only  reached  a  certain  point  in 
the  region  of  art,  and  attained  to  no  progressive  and  advancing  ex- 
cellence. In  their  thorough  hatred  of  reform,  and  scrupulous  attach- 
ment to  the  miscalled  wisdom  of  their  ancestors,  they  laid  equally  an 
interdict  upon  novelties  in  art,  as  upon  novelties  in  political  aflFairs ; 
and  consequently,  in  architecture,  were  never  able  to  reach  that  sin- 
gular combination  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful  which  pervades  the 
works  of  Greece  :  in  sculpture,  were  ignorant  of  that  true  ideal  beauty 
founded  in  the  abstract  upon  nature,  yet  soaring  above  any  individual 
instance  of  it:  and  in  painting,  they  were,  we  are  competently  in- 

2  Z 


33S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


furmeii,  destitute  oT  ;iU  knowledge   of  expression  iniii  grace,  and  the 
fascinations  of  varying  liglits  and  sliadows. 

If  then  tlie  (ireeks  did  not  owe  the  superiority  of  their  attainments 
in  ait,  to  the  extrinsic  aid  of  foreign  states,  if  tln'ough  tlie  entire  range 
of  Egyptian  and  Asiatic  prochictions,  we  see,  speaking  comparatively, 
absolutely  nothing  of  that  iniiigled  grandeur,  grace  and  beauty,  which 
is  stamped  in  almost  every  creation  of  the  pure  Greek  mind  :  we  are 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  they  derived  their  excellence  from  tlieir 
own  direct  and  inherent  genius ;  that  they  had,  what  no  other  nation 
possessed  before,  the  elements  of  \mre  and  exalted  art,  within  the 
precincts  of  their  own  national  mind:  and  were  able,  moreover,  to  re- 
tine  and  purify  all  that  they  saw  around  them  ;  bringing  about,  in  short, 
an  entirely  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  art.  It  was  tlieir  leading  aim, 
and  they  accomplished  it,  to  raise  architecture  from  the  unmeaning 
and  the  colossal,  into  the  simple,  tlie  grand,  and  the  graceful;  to  trans- 
form the  emblematic  ugliness  which  pervaded  all  the  efforts  of  the 
earlier  sculptors,  into  the  beauty  and  majesty  of  the  perfect  ideal ; 
and  to  transform  into  the  formerly  cold  and  lifeless  ])roductious  of  the 
Eg\  ptian  painters  that -perfection  of  form,  outline,  and  expression, 
which  shines  forth  for  instance  in  the  Venus  Anidyomene. 

Now  who  does  not  perceive  at  once,  from  this  brief  detail,  that  the 
rise  of  the  arts  in  Rome,  stands  remarkably  contrasted  with  that  in  the 
country  we  have  been  reviewing.  Greece,  we  have  seen,  was  pre- 
ceded by  no  people  who  had  any  clear  or  definite  conception  of  what 
was  really  and  expressively  beautiful,  and  evolved  all  that  we  most 
admire  and  venerate  from  the  recesses  of  her  own  national  intellect : 
Rome,  on  the  contrary,  was  in  the  infancy  of  her  existence,  while 
Greece  was  perfect  and  efflorescent,  and  had,  in  living  in  the  midst  of 
such  mental  greatness,  just  that  advantage  which  a  gifted  individual 
has,  on  being  born  in  an  age  of  intellectual  eminence. 

In  the  rise  of  art  in  Greece,  and  in  the  correspondent  rise  of  art  in 
Rome,  there  is  just  this  difference,  that  while  with  the  former  nation 
it  was  uriginal,  with  the  latter  it  was  dtriralire;  it  is  beyond  cavil 
that  till  the  treasures  of  Greece  were  disclosed  by  conquest  to  the 
eyes  of  the  ambitious  and  aspiring  Romans,  there  were  no  advances 
made  in  art  among  them,  worthy  distinctive  mention — nothing  which 
at  all  equalled,  or  can  he  regarded  even  as  a  forerunner  to  the  eminence 
they  subsequently  attained. 

The  Romans  in  the  first  ages  of  their  power,  under  the  dominion  of 
the  kings,  and  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  republic,  were  practically 
speaking,  unacquainted  witli  the  liberal  arts.  Simple,  frugal,  and  hardy, 
renowned  for  wisdom  in  the  senate,  and  valour  in  the  field,  their  minds 
were  more  engrossed  with  constant  endeavours  to  preserve  unimpaired 
the  political  institutions  of  their  country,  than  to  produce  ought  great 
or  noble  in  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting.  The  severity  of  their 
manners  forbade  all  unnecessary  display, — they  seemed  entirely  desti- 
tute of  all  love  for  the  beautiful,  and  all  taste  to  appreciate  it  :  the 
great  men  of  the  time  were  neglectful  of  their  city,  and  careless  to 
adorn  it.  They  passed  the  principal  part  of  their  time,  says  Sallust, 
in  the  retirement  of  the  country,  practising  the  frugality  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  age,  attending  to  the  cultivation  of  their  farms,  taking 
no  pride  in  the  outward  decoration  of  their  capital,  and  only  visiting 
it  upon  occasions  of  religious  and  judicial  solemnity.  Everything  in 
short,  combines  to  prove  that,  unlike  their  celebrated  predecessors, 
they  achieved  nothing — unaided  and  alone,  in  exalted  art.  The 
commencement  of  their  artistic  excellence,  must  be  dated  from  the 
period  when  the  conquering  legions  of  Scylla,  laid  siege  to  the  elegant 
and  luxurious  Athens  ;  and  as  tlie  very  extreme  of  refinement  to  which 
she  had  arrived,  proved  a  self-destroying  ))o\ver  in  her  constitution, 
and,  co-operating  with  other  causes,  sapped  the  vitals  of  her  strength, 
she  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  fury  of  the  relentless  dictator;  under  his 
revolutionary  violence  the  city  of  Athens  was  sacked,  pilaged,  and 
destroyed  :  her  matchless  monuments  of  art  were  rudely  transferred 
from  their  legitimate  resting  places — were  seized  as  trophies  of  Roman 
valour,  and  sent  to  the  cajntal  to  grace  a  Roman  triumph.  Unspairiiig 
indeed  and  merciless  was  the  hand  of  the  conqueror  upon  the  once 
glorious  and  sacred  city  ;  every  thing  of  value  was  removed,  even  to 
the  ornaments  which  decorated  the  friezes  of  the  temples,  ami  the 
basso  relievos  on  the  walls.  Syracuse,  Carthage,  and  Corinth  shared 
a  similar  fate;  spoliation  and  (lillage  marked  universally  the  progress 
ol  the  Roman  arms  ;  and  the  once  proud  states  of  Greece  were,  one 
and  all,  compelled  to  own  the  superiority  and  bow  to  the  power  of  the 
foe. 

Thenceforward,  Rome  presented  a  different  asjiect  from  what  she 
had  done  formerly;  no  longer  severely  great,  and  nationally  simple, 
she  had  laid  aside  the  just,  and  equitable  spirit  of  lier  ancestors,  and 
by  embarking  in  an  unprincipled  war,  became,  by  her  conquest  of 
Greece,  possessed  of  some  of  the  proudest  memorials  of  human  genius. 
Italy  was  at  once  inundated  with  the  productions  of  Greek  talent; 
men  stood  astonished  at  the  perfection  of  works— the  similitudes  to 


which  thev  had  never  before  witnessed,  (ireciau  artists  were  every- 
where caressed  and  sought  alter,  and  although  this,  in  some  respects  was 
desirable,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  it  had  the  effect  of  putting  a  complete 
extinguisher  upon  whatever  risii'g  t.ilent  the  Rora.in  artists  might  have 
possessed.  When  tlie  grand,  the  majestic,  and  the  beautiful  from 
Attica  was  exposed  to  the  eyes  of  the  proud  citizens  of  the  imperial 
citv,  they  were  charmed,  fascinated,  ami  spell  bound;  they  regarded 
what  they  saw,  as  evidencing  consummate  excellence,  ;uid  despairing 
of  equalling  that  which  they  deemed  unapproachable;  the  spirit  of 
emulation  died  within  them.* 

The  influx  of  foreign  productions  entirely  suffocated  native  Italian 
genius,  Greek  productions  became  matters  of  jMoperty,  and  dealers 
sprung  up  who  manufactured  originals  to  supply  the  market  of  the 
rich  collector;  galleries  were  formed  to  produce  genius,  wdiich  had 
sprung  up,  from  national  demand,  without  a  single  gallery,  or  a  single 
collection  of  any  works,  except  the  produclions  of  their  native  soil. 
The  most  celebrated  works  were  copied  and  re-cojiied  by  the  Greeks 
in  all  parts  of  the  Mediterranean.  Horace  alludes  to  this,  and  there 
can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  effect  was  to  render  all  native  at- 
tempts of  the  Romans  and  Etruscans  no  longer  available.  For  not  one 
great  artist  is  named  during  the  whole  period  of  progressive  decay, 
from  the  Caesars  to  Constantine;  and  the  Romans  or  Latins  never  pro- 
duced any  talent  worth  consideration,  till  the  revival  of  art  in  Italy, 
after  so  many  ages,  in  the  1.5th  century.'!' 

It  is,  therefore,  abundantly  clear  from  this  comparison,  that  great 
abatement  on  the  score  of  originality  must  be  made  when  reflecting  on 
the  peculiar  causes,  which  contributed  to  the  full  development  of  art 
in  ancient  Rome.  While  among  the  gifted  inhabitants  of  Greece,  its 
principles  and  its  practice  seem  thoroughly  indigenous;  while  we 
search  in  vain,  the  arts  of  preceding  and  contemporaneous  nations  for 
any  traces  of  these  manifold  excellences  which  distinguish  their  im- 
mortal productions ;  while,  in  short,  the  eminence  they  attained,  mainly 
resulted  from  a  creative,  an  ever  active  self  energising  influence  pos- 
sessed by  the  national  intellect;  with  the  people  of  Rome  it  was  as 
we  have  seen,  entirely  and  emphatically  otherwise.  They  of  them- 
selves evolved,  not  the  material  elements  of  the  expressive  and  the 
beautiful ;  they  derived  all  their  notions  of  them  from  their  prostrate 
rivals,  the  Greeks.  Their  architecture,  their  sculpture,  and  their 
painting,  all  breathes  of  Attica.  It  was  constantly  the  aim  of  the 
Italian  artists  to  cultivate  the  Attic  taste,  they  laboured  not  to  produce 
a  distinctive  style  of  art,  but  endeavoured  simply  to  travel  in  the  patli, 
previously  followed  by  the  people  of  Greece. 

To  do  them,  however,  justice,  it  should  be  remarked  that  they  ap- 
pear less  fettered  in  their  architectural  productions.  In  this  branch 
of  art,  we  discern  characteristics  more  strictlv  national,  and  less  slavishly 
imitative  than  these  which  distinguish  their  sculpture  or  their  paint- 
ing. For  although  we  are  aware  that  before  the  conquest  of  Greece, 
the  structures  of  Rome  were  both  rude  and  inelegant,  and  that  to  the 
(ireeks,  the  Romans  were  especially  indebted  for  the  more  polished 
forms  of  cohimnar  architecture,  yet  as  it  has  been  judiciously  observed 
by  Mr.  Hosking,  "  the  difference  between  the  Greek  and  Roman  styles 
of  architecture  is  not  merely  in  the  preference  given  to  one,  over 
another  peculiar  mode  of  columnar  arrangement  and  com])osition,  but 
a  different  taste  pervades  even  the  details;"  and  a  wide  dep-arture  is 
frequently  to  be  traced  from  the  primitive  forms  of  the  ancient  models. 
By  their  discovery  of  the  arch,  which  undoubtedly  was  imknown  to 
the  Greeks,  the  principles  of  their  architecture  became  more  flexible 
and  less  unbending;  and  they  were  enabled  thereby,  we  do  not  say  to 
render  their  productions  more  strictly  beautiful,  but  more  decorative 
and  profusely  ornate.  The  simplicity  of  the  Ctreek  forms  could  not 
be  excelled  by  any  additional  decorative  embellishment,  the  outline  of 
their  purest  ediflces  was  in  perfect  harmony  with  all  the  acknowledged 
principles  of  exalted  art.  But  still,  the  Romans,  whom  unbounded 
military  success  had  swe'.led  with  the  workings  of  the  most  ambitious 
pride,  anxious  to  erect  edifices  of  corresjionding  majesty  with  their 
achievements  in  the  field,  which  should  be  lit  memorials  of  the  vic- 
tories they  had  won,  and  appropriate  receptacles  of  the  trophies  they 
had  captured,  threw  around  the  architecture  of  their  city  all  the  fasci- 
nations of  gorgeous  and  elaborate  decoration,  and  that  violation  of  the 
principhsof  pure  taste  observable  in  their  works,  which  if  extended 
to  painting  and  sculpture,  would  have  appeared  ridiculous — was  in 
architecture  redeemed,  bv  the  vastuess  of  the  objects  to  which  it  was 
a|)plied,  and  the  nature  of  the  ends  it  was  intended  to  serve.  In  all 
their  buildings  they  certainly  show  a  less  refined  taste  than  the  people 
of  Greece :  it  will  be  seen  that  they  relied  for  effect  less  on  the  sim- 


'  We  intend  Ihese  remarks  to  apply  chiefly  toscili'ture  and  p:.in'.ing,  they 
cannot  be  extended  to  architeclure,  as  we  shall  here  illor  iec,  without  con- 
siderable nio(li(ic;ilion. 

t  See  Art,  Paintiu';.     Encv-  Britannia. 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


33f> 


plicity  of  form  and  outline,  than  on  the  miilti|ilicity  of  detail,  and 
glittering  profusion  of  ornament.     At  the  same  time  let  us  not  deny' 
tliat  splendid  were  the  structures,  and  magnifii-ent  the  edifices  which, 
vinder  the  sway  of  the  Cssars,  adorned  the  Imperial  city. 

"  Xot  Baliylon, 
Nor  great  Alcaii-o,  such  magnificence 
Equalled  in  all  their  glories,  to  enshrine 
Bolus  or  Serapis,  their  gods,  or  seat 
Their  kings,  when  Egypt  with  Assyria  strove 
In  wealth  and  luxury." 

But,  even  with  this  ready  acknowledgment  of  the  distinctive  excel- 
lence attained  by  the  Romans  in  this  branch  of  art,  a  reflection  presses 
immediately  upon  our  minds,  which  detracts  from  the  glory  of  the 
nation  itself,  and  gives  us  humiliating  thoughts  of  their  condition,  even 
while  we  admire  the  splendour  of  their  city.  With  the  people  of 
Greece  the  period  of  greatest  architectural  triumph  Wiis  contempo- 
raneously with  their  possession  of  the  purest  political  freedom.  The 
enthusiasm  in  favour  of  art  was  not  confined  to  a  few,  but  pervaded 
the  minds  of  the  whole  people;  Pericles  was  but  the  instrument  of 
the  national  will — merely  acted  in  conformity  with  the  national  spirit; 
but  in  Rome  there  was  unquestionably  magnificence,  yet  it  was  the 
magnificence  not  of  popular  enthusiasm,  not  as  the  result  of  any  love 
for  the  beautiful  pervading  the  mind  of  the  nation,  but  rather  of  a  few 
accomplished,  but  withal  tyrannic  emperors.  The  liberty  which  had 
distinguished  the  nation  in  the  purer  ages  of  the  republic,  which  had 
been  at  once  the  consolidation  of  their  political  system,  and  the  secret 
of  their  military  success,  was  fast  vanishing  away.  Under  the  domi- 
nation first  of 'dictators  and  then  of  emperors,  tlie  people  lost,  one 
after  another,  the  principles  of  pure  and  exalted  liberty ;  tyranny 
usurped  the  place  of  freedom,  and  while  there  was  thrown  around 
their  declining  dynasty  all  the  splendour  which  characterizes  an 
Eastern  empire,  it  was  at  the  same  time  in  near  connection  with  that 
slavish  and  degrading  prostration  of  the  nation's  mind,  which  is  its  in- 
separable concomitant. 

Architecture  then,  with  all  its  multiform  resources  of  grandeur  and 
beauty  was  resorted  to,  and  diligently  encouraged  by  the  Roman  em- 
perors ;  not,  as  was  the  ease  wUh  the  rulers  of  Greece,  with  a  view 
of  rousing  the  minds  of  the  nation  at  large  to  an  appreciation  of  the 
varied  forms  of  material  beauty,  as  contributing  thereby  to  the  forma- 
tion of  an  elevated  and  dignified  character,  but  rather  from  the  desire 
to  render  the  people  unconscious  of  the  value  of  those  privileges  they 
were  snatching  from  their  grasp.  The  city  was  everywhere  adorned 
with  emblems  of  their  valour,  and  trophies  of  their  military  success — 
temples,  columns,  triumphal  arches  and  fora,  were  raised  in  honour  of 
individual  emjjerors,  and  the  mighty  deeds  for  which  they  were  said 
to  be  con?|)icuous,  just  to  cast  a  false  glare  around  the  real  condition 
of  the  nation,  and  to  blind  them  to  any  sense  of  that  thraldom,  as  de- 

frading,  as  it  should  have  been  felt  to  be  galling,  of  which  they  were 
iligently  forging  the  chains.  Instead  of  the  severe  manners  and  stern 
morality  whicli  marked  the  times  of  a  Brutus  and  a  Scippio,  there  was 
introduced  that  extreme  luxury,  which  comports  well  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  Eastern  absolutism,  and  which  invariably  weakens, 
enervates,  and  eventually  destroys  the  people  among  whom  it  takes 
root. 

Under  the  continual  agency  of  such  an  influence,  even  architecture 
itself  gradually  declined — all  fc\ste  was  corrupted,  and  art  consequently 
soon  felt  into  utter  extinction.  The  empire  itself  fell  by  an  act  of 
suicide,  and  dragged  into  the  chasm,  literature,  science  and  art,  and 
for  many  ages  the  slumber  of  primitive  barbarism  enwrapped  the  face 
of  Europe.  Unlike,  however,  other  nations  who,  when  once  ruined, 
have  been  ruined  utterly,  she  "  has  conquered  and  been  conquered — 
and  again  has  conquered  her  conquerors."  After  her  ancient  fall,  she 
was  destined  once  more  to  rise  again, — "when  her  carnal  empire  had 
been  stripped  oif  from  her,  she  came  forth  as  the  queen  of  a  spiritual 
empire,  and  within  her  walls,  the  dead  seem  to  stand  side  by  side  with 
the  living,  in  awful  and  most  indisguisable  communion."  Her  arts 
again  revived  in  the  loth  century,  Italy  vindicated  to  herself  the  pos- 
session of  that  originality  she  had  not  evidenced  in  ancient  time — she 
came  forth  like  a  giant  refreshed  with  sleep,  and  reared  up  men  of 
the  profoundest  genius,  such  as  Michael  Angelo,  Rafi'aelle,  Leonatdi, 
Titian,  and  others,  who  have  shed  a  halo  of  glory  around  the  age  they 
adorned,  and  rendered  it  memorable  and  illustrious  in  the  annals  of 
art. 

Here  then  it  is  time  to  close — we  have  traced  the  rise  of  the  arts  in 
the  two  countries,  and  have  seen  that  while  with  the  one  they  were 
original,  with  the  other  they  were  derivative :  we  have  traced  their 
progressive  advancement,  and  have  seen  the  different  characteristics  of 
the  two  nations,  at  the  period  when  they  were  in  their  highest  ex- 
cellence ;  we  have  shown  that  while  in  Greece  they  were  conjoined 


with  free  political  institutions,  in  Rome  they,  in  far  too  great  a  degree 
were  the  handmaids  and  attendants  on  tyranny.  Finally,  we  have 
glanced  at  tlieir  downfall,  and  while  we  have  perceived  the  dominion 
of  death  over  Greece  to  be  total,  as  far  as  all  real  greatness  is  con- 
cerned; we  have  marked  the  re-vivifying  energy  exhibited  by  Rome, 
and  the  marvellous  display  of  genius  which  she  has  produced  in  modern 
times.  We  have  endeavoured  in  all  we  have  written  to  do  full  justice 
to  the  claims  whirh  the  arts  of  the  two  countries  have,  for  preference 
and  superiority,  and  wliile  firm  in  the  opinion  that  Greece  must  un- 
questionably bear  the  palm,  have  striven  not  to  forget  what  was  due 
to  Imperial  Rome,  as  the  once  proud  mistress  of  the  world. 

108,  Mount  S/reef,  Gro^  rcnor  Square, 
.August  •2",  IS  40. 


PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  IN  LONDON. 

./Z  Crilical  Revk.i:  of  the  Public  Buildings,  Statues  and  Ornaments  in 

and  about  London  and  Westminster — 1734. 

By  R.iLPH. 

(  Concludedfrom  page  30t.J 

Gray's  Inn  is  certainly  too  considerable  a  place  to  be  passed  over 
unobserved  :  but  t!ie  notice  we  shall  take  of  it,  will  be  rather  in  com- 
pliment to  what  it  might  have  been  made,  not  what  it  is  at  present; 
it  is  no  more  than  a  confused  heap  of  ugly  buildings  that  have  neither 
order,  regularity  or  connection,  and  yet  the  ground  they  stand  on  was 
capable  of  all :  they  might  have  had  a  fine  open  front  to  the  street, 
and  another  to  the  gardens,  and  that  too  with  as  little  expence :  but 
the  taste  of  our  ancestors  did  not  seem  to  be  altogether  fixed  on  beauty, 
and  we  ourselves  make  but  very  slow  advances  towards  a  reformation. 
As  to  the  gardens  belonging  to  this  Inn,  they  are  certainly  an  advan- 
tage to  the  students  there,  and  a  convenience  to  the  town  in  general; 
and  if  they  have  not  many  beauties  to  entertain  you,  they  have  few 
absurdities  to  disgust  you  :  it  is  true  indeed  they  might  be  made  much 
better  than  they  are,  by  keeping  the  vistas  full  of  trees,  the  walks 
smooth,  and  the  borders  even.  The  mount  and  summer-house  upon 
the  top  of  it,  might  be  made  quite  delightful,  and  if  the  two  porticos 
at  the  ends  of  the  terrace,  had  been  in  taste,  they  would  have  given 
an  air  of  magnificence,  w'iiich  at  present  is  much  wanting,  i  could 
wish  too  that  the  piece  of  ground  between  the  two  terraces  and  the 
road,  was  made  better  use  of  by  the  society,  than  turning  it  into  a 
kitchen  garden,  as  well  as  that  next  Gray's-inn-lane  :  these  two  spots 
might  have  been  covered  with  trees,  in  the  most  beautiful  manner,  and 
supplied  with  fountains,  which  would  make  this  place  one  of  the  most 
delightful  spots  about  town. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  pass  by  the  new  church  of  St.  George, 
Bloomsbury,  without  giving  it  a  very  particular  survey  ;  it  is  built  all 
of  stone,  is  adorned  with  a  pompous  portico,  can  boast  many  other 
decorations,  has  been  stinted  in  no  expense,  and  yet,  upon  the  whole, 
is  ridiculous  and  absurd,  even  to  a  proverb.  The  reason  is  this  ;  the 
builder  mistook  whim  for  genius,  and  oniament  for  taste  :  he  has  even 
erred  so  much,  that  the  very  portico  does  not  seem  to  be  in  the  middle 
of  the  church,  and  as  to  the  steeple,  it  is  stuck  on  like  a  wen  to  the 
rest  of  the  building;  then  the  execrable  conceit  of  setting  up  the 
king  on  the  top  of  it,  excites  nothing  but  laughter  in  the  ignorant,  and 
contempt  in  the  judge.  In  short,  it  is  a  lasting  reflexion  on  the  fame 
of  the  architect,  and  the  understanding  of  those  who  employed  him. 

The  new  church  of  St.  Giles's  is  one  of  the  most  simple  and  elegant 
of  the  modern  structures  ;  it  is  raised  at  very  little  expence,  has  very 
few  oniaments,  and  little  beside  the  propriety  of  its  parts,  and  the 
harmony  of  the  whole,  to  excite  attention  and  challenge  applause; 
yet  still  it  pleases,  and  justly  too ;  the  east  end  is  both  plain  and  ma- 
jestic, and  there  is  nothing  in  the  west  to  object  to  but  the  smallness 
of  the  doors,  and  the  poverty  of  ajipearance  that  must  necessarily 
follow.  The  steeple  is  light,  airy,  and  genteel,  argues  a  good  deal  of 
genius  in  the  architect,  and  looks  very  well  both  in  comparison  with 
the  body  of  the  church,  and  when  it  is  considered  as  a  building  by 
itself,  in  a  distant  prospect.  Yet,  after  all  I  have  confessed  in  favour 
of  this  edifice,  I  cannot  help  again  arraigning  the  superstition  of 
situating  churches  due  east  and  west ;  for,  in  complaisance  to  this 
folly,  the  building  before  us  has  lost  a  great  advantage  it  might  have 
otherwise  enjoyed  ;  I  mean  the  making  the  east  end  the  front,  and 
placing  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  ended  the  vista  of  what  is 
called  Broad  St.  Giles's  ;  whereas,  now,  it  is  nowhere  to  be  seen  with 
ease  to  the  eye,  or  so  as  justly  to  comprehend  the  symmetry  and  con- 
nexion of  the  whole. 

2  Z  2 


340 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


Tlu're  is  iiolliing  in  the  whole  prodigious  length  of  the  two  Bond 
Streets,  or  in  any  of  the  luljacRnt  places,  though  almost  all  erected 
w  ithin  cnir  memories,  that  has  any  thing  worth  our  attention  ;  several 
little,  wretched  attempts  there  are  at  foppery  in  building,  but  thev 
are  even  too  inconsiderable  for  censure. 

There  is  something  particular  in  the  manner  of  George  Street, 
which  deserves  our  attention,  it  being  laid  but  so  considerably  wider 
at  the  upper  end,  towards  Hanover  Square,  that  it  quite  reverses  the 
perspective,  and  shows  the  end  of  the  vista  broader  than  the  beginning, 
which  was  calculated  to  give  a  nobler  view  of  the  square  itself  at  the 
entrance,  and  a  better  prospect  down  the  street  from  the  other  side ; 
both  ways  the  effect  answers  the  intention,  and  we  have  only  to  lament 
that  the  buildings  themselves  are  not  laore  worthy  this  pains  to  show 
them  to  advantage.  The  west  side  of  Hanover  Square  is  uniform, 
argues  a  very  tolerable  taste  in  the  architect,  and  deserves  a  good 
deal  of  approbation:  but  all  the  rest  are  intolerable,  and  deserve  no 
attention  at  all. 

I  must  own  this,  however,  that  the  view  down  George  Street,  from 
the  upper  side  of  the  square,  is  one  of  the  most  entertaining  in  the 
whole  city  :  the  sides  of  the  square,  the  area  in  the  middle,  the  breaks 
of  building  that  form  the  entrance  of  the  vista,  the  vista  itself,  but, 
above  all,  the  beautiful  projection  of  the  portico  of  St.  George's 
Church,  are  all  circumstances  that  unite  in  beauty,  and  make  the 
scene  perfect. 

If  any  thing  is  wanting,  it  is  a  graced  building  at  the  end  of  the 
vista ;  and  the  chapel  which  now  stands  there  afforded  a  handsome 
opportunity  even  for  adding  this  too,  if  the  undertakers  had  taste  or 
generosity  enough  to  make  the  best  use  of  it. 

The  church  of  St.  George's  is,  at  least,  one  of  the  most  elegant  in 
London  ;  the  portico  is  stately  and  august,  the  steeple  handsome  and 
well  proportioned,  and  the  north  and  east  prospects  very  well  worth 
a  sincere  approbation  :  but  even  this  structure  is  nowhere  to  be  seen 
but  in  profile,  as  mentioned  above,  though  situated  in  the  very  centre 
of  the  vista  that  leads  to  Grosvenor  Square,  and  were  it  not  for  two 
or  three  intervening  houses,  would  be  seen  in  the  noblest  point  of  light 
in  the  world.  In  short,  it  would  fill  the  eye  quite  from  the  other  side 
of  that  square  in  all  its  perfection ;  and  I  leave  any  one  to  judge  to 
what  superior  advantage  it  would  then  appear,  and  how  many  more 
beauties  it  would  add  to  the  prospect. 

We  must  now  cross  the  road  to  Oxford,  or  Cavendish  Square,  I  am 
uncertain  by  which  of  those  names  it  is  most  properly  distinguished, 
and  there  we  shall  see  the  folly  of  attempting  great  things,  before  we 
are  sure  we  can  accomplish  little  ones.  Hene  it  is,  the  modern  plague 
of  building  was  first  stayed,  and  I  think  the  rude  imfinished  figure  of 
this  project  should  deter  others  from  a  like  infatuation.  When  we 
see  any  thing  like  grandeur  or  beauty  going  forward,  we  are  uneasy 
till  it  is  finished,  but  when  we  see  it  interrupted,  or  entirely  laid  aside, 
we  are  not  only  angry  with  the  disappointment,  but  the  author  too  ; 
I  am  morally  assured  that  more  people  are  displeased  at  seeing  this 
square  lie  in  its  present  neglected  condition,  than  are  entertained  with 
what  was  meant  for  elegance  or  ornament  in  it.  To  be  free,  nobodv 
should  undertake  things  of  this  public  nature,  without  resolving  to  go 
through  with  them ;  for  the  declining  it  afterwards  is  so  notorious, 
that  the  whole  world  has  occasion  to  blame  it,  though  few  or  none  can 
be  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  motives,  so  as  either  to  defend  or 
absolve. 

It  is  said  the  imperfect  side  of  this  square  was  laid  out  for  a 
certain  nobleman's  palace,  which  was  to  have  extended  the  whole 
length ;  aud  that  the  tw  o  detached  houses  which  now  stand  at  each 
end  of  the  line,  were  to  have  been  the  wings;  I  am  apt  to  believe  this 
can  be  no  other  than  a  vulgar  mistake,  for  these  structures,  though 
exactly  alike,  could  have  been  no  way  of  a  piece  with  any  regular  or 
stately  building;  and  it  is  to  be  presumed  this  nobleman  would  have 
as  little  attempted  any  other,  as  he  would  have  left  any  attempt  lui- 
tinished. 

The  house  of  the  late  Lord  Bingley,  on  the  west  side  of  the  square, 
is  one  of  the  most  singular  pieces  of  architecture  about  town  ;  in  my 
opinion  it  is  rather  like  a  convent  than  the  residence  of  a  man  of 
quality,  and  seems  more  a  copy  of  some  of  Poussin's  landscape  orna- 
ments, than  a  design  to  inntate  any  of  the  genuine  beauties  of  building. 
1  may  be  mistaken,  perhaps,  in  my  opinion,  and  what  I  esteem  Gothic, 
heavy  and  fantastic,  may  really  be  harmonious,  light  and  elegant  ;  so 
1  leave  the  determination  of  it  to  better  judges. 

I  have  now  brought  this  painful  survey  almost  to  an  end,  and  am  not 
a  little  pleased  on  that  account;  it  was" not  so  easy  a  task  as  I  at  first 
imagined,  and  whoever  will  make  it  their  guide  to  measure  the  same 
ground,  will  be  of  the  same  opinion ;  huge,  indeed,  as  this  city  is,  the 
toil  of  examining  it  from  place  to  place  is  the  least ;  for  a  building 
ought  to  be  viewed  several  times  before  we  come  to  a  conclusion, 
either  with  regard  to  its  faults  or  beauties:   part  of  tluit  trouble  this 


Review  was  designed  to  save,  ujid  if  it  will  not  polish  the  taste,  or 
reform  the  judgment,  it  will  serve,  however,  as  an  index  to  the  public 
buildings,  &c.,  and  point  out  to  the  stranger  whatever  is  worthy  of  his 
attention. 

Grosvenor  .Square  is  not  only  the  last  addition  which  has  been  made 
to  the  town,  but  the  last  in  situation  too  ;  and  as  it  is  generally  under- 
stood to  be  the  finest  of  all  our  squares,  I  am  sorry  I  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  say  it  has  so  few  advantages  to  recommend  it,  and  that  the 
public  is  disposed  to  like  these  few  so  well ;  I  have  frequently  ob- 
served already,  that  magnificence  should  never  be  attempted ;  it  ought 
always  to  be  perfect  and  complete,  or  else  the  very  essay  mocks  the 
builder,  and  excites  ridicule  instead  of  admiration.  This  is  the  case 
of  Grosvenor  Square  ;  it  was  meant  to  be  \ery  fine, but  has  miscarried 
very  unfortunately  in  the  execution;  there  is  no  harmonv  or  agree- 
ment in  the  parts  which  compose  it,  neither  is  there  one  of  those  parts 
which  can  make  us  any  thing  like  iimends  for  the  irregularity  of  the 
whole.  The  triple  house,  of  the  north  side,  is  a  wretched  attempt  at 
something  extraordinary;  but  I  hope  not  many  people,  beside  the 
l)urchasers,  are  deceived  in  their  opinions  of  its  merits;  for  it  is  not 
only  bad  in  itself,  but  in  its  situation  too ;  had  it  been  in  the  centre  of 
the  line,  there  would  have  been  some  excuse  for  the  project,  but  as  it 
is  almost  in  one  extreme,  there  can  be  no  plea  remaining;  unless  the 
view  of  taking  in  some  young  heir  to  buy  it,  at  a  great  rate,  may  be 
allowed  one. 

The  east  side  is  the  only  regular  one  of  the  four,  and  is  undoubtedly  ' 
nmch  the  most  elegant  for  that  reason ;  but  then  even  this  is  not  in 
taste,  and  neither  the  house  in  the  middle,  nor  the  two  which  serve  as 
wings,  have  anything  remarkable  to  recommend  them,  though  the 
builder  seems  to  design  they  should;  the  pediment  over  that  in  the 
middle,  particularly,  is  proportioned  only  to  the  breadth  of  that  house, 
and  not  the  entire  line  ;  whereby  it  appears  that  the  artist  forgot  his 
first  design,  of  making  this  the  main  body  to  the  whole. 

The  other  two  sides  are  little  better  than  a  collection  of  whims  and 
frolics  in  building,  without  anything  like  order  or  beauty,  and  there- 
fore deserving  no  farther  consideration. 

I  have  often  wondered  that,  in  the  number  of  squares  which  adorn 
this  city,  no  builder  ever  thought  of  an  octangular  one ;  I  am  fully 
persuaded  that  it  would  make  a  nobler  figure  than  any  we  have  seen 
yet,  and  is  capable  of  greater  beauties  ;  it  is  to  be  observed,  thourfi, 
that  I  would  not  have  it  broken  at  the  angles,  for  the  sake  of  tiie 
streets  or  entrances,  because  that  woidd  spoil  the  theatrical  appear- 
ance of  the  whole ;  I  would  rather  choose  to  have  all  those  inlets 
under  an  arch,  in  the  centre  of  each  particular  side,  and  if  the  super- 
structure was  elevated  proportionably,  in  a  grand  and  noble  stile,  what 
was  principally  meant  as  a  conveniency,  would  prove  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  ornaments  in  the  world. 

I  would  not  be  understood  iiere  as  recommending  any  farther  addi- 
tions to  this  mighty  metropolis ;  no,  I  am  of  opinion  the  head  is  al- 
ready much  too  big  for  tlie  body,  and  therefore  its  farther  growth 
cannot  be  checked  too  soon.  But  this  I  leave  to  the  determination  of 
wiser  heads  than  mine. 


STONE  FOU  THE  NEW  HOUSES  OF  PARLIAMENT. 

Sib — It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  anonymous  writers  would  endeavour  to 
give  more  practical  proof  of  their  candour,  love  of  fair  play,  and  other  good 
qualities  and  dispositions  which  their  signatures  profess.  In  the  letter  in 
your  last  lumiber  on  the  "  Stone  for  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,"  by  "  A 
Lover  of  Fair  Play,"  though  there  are  some  just  and  reasonable  complaints, 
there  is  still  so  much  that  is  unjust  and  ungenerous,  that  I  think  few  who 
have  taken  an  impartial  view  of  the  subject  will  think  he  has  any  claim  to  the 
honourable  title  he  has  assumed. 

I  am  far  from  thinking  that  Mr.  Barry  and  the  Commissioners  are  alto- 
gether free  from  censure,  and  I  am  decidedly  of  opinion,  that  after  donating 
from  their  first  recommendation,  they  should  he  called  upon  to  lay  before  the 
pubhc  a  second  report  explanatory-  of  the  changes  which  have  taken  place ; 
and  till  this  is  done,  I  think  every  body  has  a  right  to  give  his  own  opinion 
on  the  suliject.  At  the  same  time,  however,  I  think  that  the  tone  in  which 
the  subject  has  been  treated  in  many  public  prints,  aud  which  is  echoed  by 
your  conespondcnt,  cannot  be  too  strongly  deprecated.  M'hen  men  of  science 
and  reputation  are  engaged  on  a  )>ublic  object,  their  conduct  is  certainly  open 
to  public  discussion,  hut  such  discussions  should  be  conducted  in  the  spirit 
of  cool  and  impartial  inquiry  ;  the  coirectness  of  the  judgment  of  the  parties 
in  qiiestion  should  he  carefully  investigated,  but  the  correctness  of  their  in- 
tentions should  not  for  a  moment  be  called  in  question.  Had  this  been  the 
course  pursued  on  the  present  subject,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  satisfactory- 
explanation  would  have  been  given  by  the  Commissioners ;  but  when  every 
kind  of  alnisc  and  brutal  insult  has  been  heaped  upon  them  by  the  lowest 
political  prints,  I  think  no  one  need  wonder  that  men  of  science  and  integrity 
wodd  not  stoop  to  defend  themselves  from  such  impotent  attacks. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


341 


The  following  appear  to  me  to  be  {prima  facie)  the  complaints  which  may 
be  reasonably  brought  against  the  commissioners  :^ 

1.  That  having  been  commissioned  to  make  a  survey  of  the  quarries 
throughout  the  linitetl  Kingdom,  they  omitted  to  examine  those  of  Ireland. 

2.  That  a  very  superior  Irish  stone  having  been  offered  to  them,  without 
charge  for  royalty,  they  declined  the  offer. 

3.  That  they  recommended  (among  other  reasons),  "for  facility  and  eco- 
nomy of  conversion,"  a  stone  which  couM  not  be  procured  either  in  sufficient 
quantity,  or  in  blocks  of  a  sufficient  size. 

4.  Tliat  on  the  failure  of  this  quarry,  tliey  did  not  go  to  another  which 
might  be  considered  to  stand  next  in  theh  report,  but  to  a  new  quarrj',  which 
has  also  proved  insufficient  to  supply  the  required  quantity. 

5.  That  this  deficiency  of  supply  has  not  been  made  good  by  application 
to  the  quan-y  at  first  so  strongly  recommended,  which  is  said  to  contain  stone 
exactly  similar  to  that  of  the  new  quarry,  and  which  might  be  expected  to 
be  at  the  least  capable  of  supplying  some  stone  ;  but  that  two  other  quarries 
have  been  applied  to  which  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Commissioners'  report. 
In  short,  that  after  all  the  parade  of  the  commission,  the  supply  of  stone  has 
been  obtained  from  three  several  quarries,  not  one  of  wliich  was  recom- 
mended, nor  even  its  existence  hinted  at,  in  the  report  of  the  Commissioners. 

This  seems  a  strong  case  against  them,  and  certainly  evinces  a  want  of 
care  in  the  first  survey,  and  some  inconsistency  in  their  subsequent  conduct, 
but  I  have  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  objections  are  capable  of  satisfactory 
explanation. 

The  first  cliarge,  I  think,  a  very  dubious  one,  and  rests  upon  the  simple 
question  of  whether  they  were  commissioned  to  visit  the  Irish  quarries  or 
not. 

The  second  is  entirely  refuted  by  the  very  judicious  remarks  with  wliich 
you  have  favoured  your  readers,  and  by  the  fact  that  in  colour  and  general 
appearance  the  stone  in  question  was  altogether  unsuitable  to  the  purpose. 

The  third  certainly  evinces  some  want  of  care.  As  to  the  beauty  and  pro- 
bable durability  of  the  Bolsover  stone,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  hut  the  thin- 
ness of  the  majority  of  the  beds,  which  is  the  great  objection,  is  obvious  on 
a  sUght  examination  of  the  quarry;  though  the  Commissioners,  in  their  just 
admiration  of  the  quality,  might  have  flattered  themselves  that  by  sinking 
deeper  or  opening  new  quarries  in  the  neighbourhood,  better  blocks  could  be 
obtained.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  they  do  not  distinctly  specify 
the  quarry,  hut  recommend  the  stone  of  Bolsover  Mgor  and  il.i  neiyhbonr- 
hood. 

The  fourth  objection  at  first  sight  appears  reasonable,  but  on  consideration 
I  think  no  one  will  deny  that  the  stone  first  recommended  having  proved 
insufficient  in  quantity,  Mr.  Barry  was  quite  right  in  adopting  that  which 
most  resembled  it  in  quality,  though  he  had  not  seen  it  when  acting  on  the 
commission ;  being  also  within  a  few  miles  of  Bolsover,  it  may  (though  by  a 
little  stretch  of  the  meaning  of  the  words)  be  considered  to  be  in  "  its  neigh- 
bourhood." 

The  fifth  objection  I  am  unable  satisfactorily  to  answer.  I  do  not  see  why 
the  Bolsover  stone  should  not  have  been  used,  so  far  as  it  would  go,  in  sup- 
plying th^deficiency  (which  I  beheve  to  be  only  temporary)  in  the  snjiply  of 
the  other  quarry.  The  quality  of  the  Bolsover  appears  to  me  to  be  far  su- 
perior to  the  Anston  and  infinitely  better  than  the  Steetley  (which  latter, 
however,  I  think  is  only  used  internally),  and  there  certainly  is  stone  at 
Bolsover  of  sufficient  size,  though  not  in  large  quantities.  The  circumstance 
of  the  Woodhouse  quarry  being  only  lately  discovered  (or  rather  re-dis- 
covered), removes  the  objection  of  its  not  being  in  the  report ;  but  the 
Steetley  and  Anston  being  old  and  well-known  quarries,  it  certainly  looks 
like  negligence  not  to  have  reported  on  them,  and  like  inconsistency  to  have 
selected  them  though  not  mentioned  in  the  report.  One  would  certainly 
have  expected  that  before  going  to  these  quarries,  consistency  would  have 
prompted  strong  measures,  such  as  sinking  shafts,  opening  new  quarries,  &c., 
for  ascertaining  whether  suitable  steue  was  not  to  be  obtained  on  Bolsover 
Moor.  Such  measures  may  have  been  taken — I  only  mention  this  as  one  of 
the  points  which  require  clearing  up  for  the  sake  of  satisfying  the  public. 

The  most  important  question,  however,  after  all,  is,  whether  tlie  stone  now 
using  is  of  suitable  quality.  On  this  question  I  am  not  capable  of  giving  an 
opinion,  but  will  state  a  few  points  which  have  struck  me  on  an  examination 
of  the  different  varieties  of  stone,  with  a  view  to  call  forth  the  remarks  of 
more  competent  judges. 

1.  The  stone  from  Mansfield-wood  House  is  not,  as  has  been  stated,  exactly 
like  the  Bolsover.  It  very  strongly  resembles  it,  but  differs  in  having  a 
browner  and  less  brilliant  colour,  and  in  having  a  far  greater  proportion  of 
black  metallic  specks,  which  in  some  blocks  arc  minute  and  clearly  defined, 
in  others  large  and  difl'used.  This  diflference  appears  to  be  a  great  cause  of 
the  difference  of  colour  which  is  observed  among  the  blocks.  On  the  whole, 
I  think  the  Mansfield-wood  House  a  darker  coloured  and  less  beautiful  stone 
than  the  Bolsover,  but  still  a  very  beautiful  stone. 

2.  The  question  may  be  asked,  what  proof  have  we  of  the  durability  of 
this  stone  ?  In  answer  to  this,  I  think  it  may  be  safely  said,  that  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  stone  used  in  the  Norman  parts  of  Southwell 
Minster,  and  which  was  supposed  to  be  the  Bolsover  stone,  was,  in  fact,  pro- 
cured from  ilansfield-wood  House.  A  comparison  of  the  stone  from  the  two 
quaiTies  with  that  at  Southwell  would,  I  think,  satisfy  any  careful  observer 
on  this  head. 

3.  The  Anston  stone  does  not  appear  equal  to  either  the  Mansfield-wood 
House  or  the  Bolsover,  but  is  still  a  good  and  probably  a  very  durable  stone. 


4.  The  Steetley  appears  to  be  a  very  friable  stone,  certainly  scrai-ciystal- 
line,  but  the  crystals  detached  and  ill-cemented.  It  is,  I  believe,  only  used 
internally,  but  I  nmch  wonder  that  the  infinitely  more  beautiful  stone  of 
Roche  Abbey,  which  is  so  eminently  suited  to  internal  work,  was  not  pre- 
ferred. 

What  your  con-espondent  can  have  discovered  in  Mr.  Bald's  very  interest- 
ing papers,  to  confirm  so  decidedly  the  superiority  of  the  Irish  limestones,  I 
am  at  a  loss  to  discover.  Mr.  Bald's  papers  only  treat  of  the  white  limestone 
of  Antrim,  which  no  one  even  dreamed  of  recommending  for  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  and  which  Mr.  Bald  says  should  never  be  used  for  any  buildings 
where  durability  is  an  object.  Your  correspondent  is,  perhaps,  not  aware 
that  Dr.  Smith,  of  whom  Mr.  Bald  speaks  witli  veneration  as  the  father  of 
English  geology,  and  who,  he  says,  has  carefully  examined  the  Antrim  lime- 
stone, is  himself  one  of  the  Commissioners  who  have  been  so  much  vilified. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be.  Sir, 
London,  Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Sepfember  3rd,  1840.  Axother  Lover  of  Fair  Play. 

P.S. — It  is  a  question  worthy  of  being  investigated,  whether  magnesian 
limestones  have  not  a  tendency  to  acquire  a  dark  and  gloomy  colour  by  age. 
The  old  churches  and  other  buildings  on  that  formation  have  certainly  a 
gloomy  appearance  compared  with  those  in  some  parts  of  Northamptonshire 
and  Lincolnshire,  which  arc  of  oolite.  May  it  not  be  the  case  that  the 
lichens  which  grow  on  the  magnesian  limestone  are  of  a  dark  disagreeable 
colour,  while  those  which  thrive  on  the  oolites  are  of  a  white  liveher  hue  > 
This  is  rather  an  important  question. 


ON  FIRING  BLASTS  UNDER  WATER. 

Mr.  Editor, — It  occuis  to  me  that  a  much  more  simple,  and  much  more 
efficient  method  for  firing  blasts  under  water,  may  be  obtained,  than  the 
method  used  to  break  up  the  Royal  George,  and  a  method  so  simple  that  it 
would  not  require  a  colonel  to  superintend.  A  percussion  cap  is  all  that  is 
necessary  to  fire  10,0001b.  of  powder  as  easily  as  an  ounce.  Suppose  that 
an  air-tigbt  compartment  at  the  top  of  the  powder  cylinder,  to  be  fitted  up 
with  an  apparatus  similar  to  the  lock  of  a  gun,  and  a  strong  spring  carrying  4  or 
5  hammers,  to  strike  as  many  caps.  The  cock  to  set  the  spring  being  ground 
into  the  side  of  the  box,  and  fitted  with  a  leather  collar  ;  the  trigger  should 
also  pass  into  the  box  in  a  similar  manner.  What  would  be  more  easily  for 
the  diver  after  having  secured  the  cylinder  strongly  to  its  place,  than  to  raise 
the  spring  and  fasten  a  strong  line  to  the  trigger ;  the  line  might  be  of  any 
length,  and  when  strongly  pulled  would  as  eft'ectnally  fire  the  blast  as  a  dozen 
batteries.  The  caps  being  inside  the  air-tight  box  would  be  protected  from 
the  water  and  kept  dry. 

Mines  might  thus  be  fired  at  the  exact  instant  when  they  woidd  do  the 
greatest  mischief  to  the  enemy. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  to  engineers  and  miners,  tliat  when  it  is  desirous 
to  detach  a  large  mass  of  rock  by  means  of  several  blasts,  a  great  part  of  the 
effect  is  lost  by  not  being  able  to  explode  them  at  the  same  instant ;  but  by 
means  of  percussion  caps  a  hundred  blasts  might  be  fired  at  the  same  instant, 
a  very  simple  arrangement  would  be  sufficient  for  this  piu-pose. 

Would  not  cannon  be  also  very  easily  fired  by  large  percussion  caps,  and 
struck  by  a  small  hammer  held  in  the  hand  of  the  person  appointed  to  dis- 
charge the  gun  ? 

Those  lucifer  matches  which  explode  by  friction  I  have  used  without  faihue 
to  fire  trains  of  gunpowder,  by  merely  placing  two  or  three  in  the  slit  end  of 
a  stick  (kept  down  by  a  large  stone),  which  on  being  bent  sideways  and  de- 
tained in  that  position  by  another  stick,  to  which  a  long  line  is  fastened,  on 
pulling  the  line  the  latter  stick  is  withdrawn,  and  the  first  carrying  the  matches, 
springs  straight,  the  matches  scrubbing  on  the  ground  or  dry  stone,  explode, 
and  fire  the  train. 

Should  you  think  these  desultory  remarks  worth  a  place  in  your  Journal, 
you  will  oblige, 

Youi's,  respectfidly, 

C.  L.  Dresse*. 

Commercial  Buildings,  Leeds,  Sept.  4,  1840. 


FELLING  TIMBER. 

Sir — Should  the  enclosed  be  of  sufficient  value  in  your  estimation,  to  en- 
title it  to  a  place  in  the  Journal,  it  is  at  your  service.  I  cut  it  out  of  the 
"  New  Y'ork  Albion"  a  few  years  ago,  while  residing  in  America.  The  sub- 
ject of  felling  timber  is  of  more  consequence  to  engineers  and  architects  than 
many  of  them  have  supposed,  as  few  would  feel  desirous  of  knowing  that 
their  labours  are  not  destined  in  many  instances  to  endure  longer  than  the 
brief  period  of  their  own  life,  should  the  dry-rot  allow  it  even  that  extent  of 
duration. 

I  was  told  by  a  very  skilful  mechanic  in  the  city  of  Philadelpliia,  that  he 
had  observed  in  his  own  experience  that  timber  cut  in  the  winter  was  in- 
variably more  thoroughly  impregnated  with  sap  than  at  any  other  time.  That 
as  soon  as  the  new  wood  was  at  its  full  growth,  say  in  August,  he  had  found 
was  the  best  time  for  felling  the  timber. 


342 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Octo'bkr, 


I  have  mvself  s''cn  tliousanils  of  trees  Iviug  in  the  woods  of  Amcriea,  in  the 
state  denominated  "  logged,"  ^tl.at  is  cnt  into  Ici.gtlis  for  the  mills)  which, 
were  rapidly  hastening  to  decav,  and  in  almost  all  these  cases  it  was  owing 
to  their  having  heen  cut  in  the  winter,  as  there  all  the  logs  are  left  after  being 
cut,  till  they  are  needed  for  the  mill,  and  mauy  are  so  left  fur  months,  nor  is 
it  uncommon  to  sec  timber  under  the  saw,  of  which  at  least  one-third  is  at 
the  lime  in  a  state  of  absolute  decay. 

Your's,  very  respectfully, 

J.    IIOI.DEN. 

36,  Jll  Saiuls  Place,  Ormund  Slrcet,  Manchester, 

August  22,  1840. 
"  Mr.  Rainey,  of  Middletown,  Conn.,  a  bbip-bnilder  of  considerable  ex- 
perience, having  become  convinced  that  the  sap  was  the  cause  of  the  decay 
of  wood,  instituted  a  scries  of  experiments  to  ascertain  its  place  iu  ditfcrent 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  found  that  in  the  winter,  the  heart  wood  contained 
raucli  more  than  the  sap  wood,  while  in  the  summer  it  seemed  concentrated 
in  the  alburnum  or  outside  layers  of  wood.  It  has  been  generally  supposed 
that  the  sap  of  the  tree  was  principally  in  the  roots  during  tlie  winter,  and 
acting  on  this  supposition,  Mr.  Eaineyhad  preferred  for  ship  building,  timber 
cut  in  the  winter;  some  cases,  however,  iu  which  timber  cnt  in  the  summer 
was  used  with  that  cut  in  the  winter,  and  remained  sound  while  the  latter 
decayed,  induced  an  investigation  as  to  the  cause,  and  resulted  as  stated.  Mr. 
R.  now  uses  timber  cut  as  far  from  December  as  possible,  and  finds  much  less 
cause  for  complaint  than  formerly.  The  following  was  one  of  the  experi- 
ments that  led  Mr.  R.  to  doubt  the  propriety  of  cutting  timber  in  winter  :— 

"  ■  Having  cut  a  small  oak  staddle,  on  or  about  the  20th  of  June,  I  placed 
eeveral  pieces  of  it  in  the  fire  place,  and  put  a  fire  under  them  ;  after  a  little 
while  there  appeared  at  the  end  of  the  sticks  a  wet  circle  describing  the  exact 
thickness  of  the  albiu-num,  or  sap  wood,  and  when  they  became  considerably 
heated,  the  steam  rushed  with  violence  from  the  tubes  of  the  sap  wood,  while 
there  was  but  a  small  appearance  of  vapour  from  the  heart  wood.  About  the 
same  day  of  December,  of  the  same  year,  I  had  another  small  oak  cut,  and 
went  through  with  the  same  process  of  heating  several  pieces  of  the  wood ; 
and  wiien  they  began  to  be  heated,  the  whole  surface  of  the  heart  wood,  ex- 
cept a  small  circle  enclosing  the  pith,  was  wet,  but  the  alburmim  was  dry, 
and  when  they  were  fairly  heated  through,  the  steam  rushed  with  violence 
from  tlie  heart  wood,  though  the  whole  epiantity  that  escaped,  was  not  so 
large  as  iu  the  former  case.  The  results  of  these  experiments  accord  with  a 
well  known  fact  in  regard  to  the  sugar  maple,  namely,  that  no  sap  can  be  ob- 
tained from  the  tubes  of  the  alburnum  of  the  tree,  and  therefore  they  are  ob- 
liged to  bore  a  hole  for  the  tube  through  the  alburnum,  into  the  heai't  wood 
before  it  w  ill  run.' 

'•  Mr.  Kainey's  inference  as  to  the  position  of  the  sap  during  the  severe 
weather  of  winter,  is  probably  correct,  as  we  have  observed  many  appearances 
that  ^vould  go  to  confirm  it ;  but,  that  at  the  time  of  making  sugar,  the  sap 
is  found  in  the  heart  wood  of  the  maple,  is  decidedly  incorrect,  as  every  per- 
son acquainted  with  the  manufaclr.re  well  knows.  In  many  cases  in  tapping 
the  trees,  the  heart  wood  is  not  touched  at  all,  and  it  is  deemed  desirable  to 
avoid  it  when  practicable.— The  sap  of  the  maple  will  not,  however,  flow 
until  the  temperature  of  tlie  earth  and  air  has  been  raised  by  the  sun  of 
spring,  and  the  circulation,  which  is  partially  or  totally  suspended  iu  the  al- 
burnum during  the  severe  frosts,  is  restored.— The  relative  position  of  the 
sap  is  consequently  changed  from  what  it  was  a  few  weeks  previous,  having 
passed  from  the  centre  to  the  surface  through  the  lateral  pores,  or  what  is 
called  the  silver  grain,  as  well  as  commeuced  its  flow  upwards  to  the  expand- 
ing leaves  and  branches. 

"  Farmers  find  the  cutting  of  timber  for  posts  and  rails  an  important  item 
in  their  profit  or  loss  account ;  and  if  Mr.  Rainey's  experiments  as  to  the 
duration  of  timber  can  be  fuliy  relied  upon,  or  substantiated  by  further  ex- 
perience, a  very  great  )>oint  in  domestic  farming  economy  would  be  gained. 
We  think  the  early  settlers  of  Western  New  York  could  throw  much  light  on 
this  subiect,  by  ascertaining  the  relative  duration  of  their  rail  fences  made 
from  tiniber  cut  in  the  winter,  or  midsummer,  as  most  farms  must  have  had 
Bpechuens  of  both  kinds ;  and  any  notices  of  this  nature,  furnished  us,  shall 
be  inserted  with  pleasure." 


TIDE  GAUGE. 

c,R J5y  attention  was  directed  by  a  friend,  who  is  a  Civil  Engineer,  to  a 

j)aragr.iiih  in  "  The  Civil  Engineer  and  .A.rchitect's  Journal,"  for  May  1838, 
under  the  head  of  "  Proceedings  of  Scientific  Societies,"  Royal  Society,  giving 
a  description  of  a  new  Tide  G"auge,  constructed  by  T.  G.  Bunt,  and  erected 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  river  .\von,  in  front  of  the  Hotwell  House,.  Bristol, 
in  18.37.  At  this  I  was  astonished,  as  1  was  on  a  visit  at  Mr.  Mitchell's,  at 
Sheerness  Dock-yard,  three  or  four  years  since,  when  Mr.  T.  G.  Bunt  was 
carrying  on  a  seljf-cstahUshed  con-espondence  with  Mr.  Mitchell,  n-ho  was  a 
strmtijer  to  fimi,  and  Mr.  Mitchell,  to  my  knowledge,  actually  sent  him  a 
drawing  of  his  tide  gauge  with  a  description,  wliich  so  sinyularly  and  so 
niicli/  ayrees  with  that  given  by  Mr.  Bunt  of  his  neiv  lido  ijamje ;  and  Mr.  M. 
showed  me  at  the  time,  some  of  the  letters  that  he  had  received  from  Mr. 
Kiint,  which  had  they  come  to  me  from  a  stranger  as  they  did  Mr.  Mitchell, 
I  should  have  thought  it  great  impudence.  I  have  since  shown  this  para- 
graph to  Mr.  Mitchell,  who,  like  the  immortal  Watt,  with  "  dirty"  Prony, 
was  too  inoft'ensive  a  man  to  attack  the  person  when  the  injustice  done  was 


mentioned  to  him.  I  have  since  this  again  asked  Mr.  Mitchell  if  he  had 
known  Mr.  Bunt  before.'  He  replied,  no;  nor  have  I  ever  seen  him.  I 
asked  .Mr.  M.  why  he  ever  answered  the  first  letter?  He  said  (and  should 
this  meet  his  Mr.  M.'s  eye,  1  hope  he  will  forgive  me  publishing  private  con- 
versation), "  why,  really  I  thought  the  person  Mr.  Bunt,  might  have  afamily 
like  myself,  and  might  be  it  riving  to  gain  something  by  working  out  his  owu 
ideas,  at  seeing  mine  in  its  complete  state,  but  I  had  no  idea  of  such  as  you 
have  shown  me." 

ilr.  M.  then  again  showed  me  his  "  tide  gauge,"  which  as  aforesaid,  was 
erected  in  all  her  Majesty's  Dock-yards,  and  has  answered  admirably  for 
years ;  he  also  showed  nie  that  of  Mr.  Lloyds,  which  is  quite  different. 

A  description  of  Mr.  Mitchell's  tide  gauge  may  be  seen  in  the  "  Nautical 
Magazine,"  for  one  of  the  months  In  the  year,  I  think,  of  1835,  and  wliich 
was  inserted  by  a  frienil  of  Mr.  M.'s,  at  that  frhnd's  reri/  kind  request. 

Now  these  facts,  for  the  good  of  the  community  at  large,  especially  the 
various  scientific  gentlemen  that  read  your  Journal,  whose  protection  is  of 
importance,  I  lay  at  your  disposal,  and  as  it  is  the  duty  of  every  person  to 
crush  "  plagiarism,"  I  have  forwarded  this,  which  I  would  thank  you  to  give 
insertion  in  your  valuable  scientific  and  interesting  Journal,  as  a  "beacon" 
to  warn  persons  from  being  unexpectedly  similar  passive  objects. 
I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

James  Inglis. 

London,  Sept.  2,  1840. 

P.S. — Since  writing  the  foregoing,  I  have  seen  Mr.  Mitchell's  son  who 
made  the  drawings  and  WTOte  the  description  that  was  sent  to  Mr.  Bunt  of 
Mr.  Mitchell's  tide  gauge,  who  says  that  the  correspondence  could  doubtless 
be  produced. 

[We  have  omitted  the  first  part  of  Mr.  luglis's  communication,  as  it  only 
relates  to  the  invention  of  a  tide  gauge  which  has  failed,  there  is  no  charge 
of  plagiarism  against  the  party. — Editor.] 


YSTALYl-ERA  ANTHRACITE  IRON. 
Mr.  Evans,  of  Manchester,  has  given  a  report  upon  the  strcni/ih  of  the 
Y'stalyfcra  .\nthracite  Pig  Iron,  of  the  several  qnahties,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  with 
a  view  to  ascertain  its  properties,  particularly  in  relation  to  other  irons,  being 
the  result  of  about  28()  experiments  upon  rectangular  tiansverse  liars.  The 
experiments  were  made  liy  breaking  the  bars  between  supports  of  their  dis- 
tances ;  namely,  of  4  ft.  0  iu.  and  2  ft.  3  in.  apart. 

The  trials  were  confined  to  the  transverse  strength  of  1-inch  rectangular 
bars,  with  their  several  values,  as  under : — 

1st.  Specificgravity. — 2nd.  Modulus  of  elasticity. — 3rd.  Transverse  strength 
of  1-inch  rectangular  bars,  4  ft.  6  in.  apart. — 4th.  Transverse  strength  of 
1-inch  rectangular  bars,  2  ft.  3  in.  apart.* — 5th.  Ultimate  deflections. — 6th. 
Power  to  resist  impact,  of  v.hich  the  tables  f  are  divided  into,  and  contain 
bars  broken  from 

72  spec-imens  of  No.  1, 
65  ditto  of  No.  2.  • 

.61  ditto  of  No.  3, 

all  cast  horizontally  in  stand,  melted  by  coke  from  the  cupola  in  the  usual 
way ; — 

44  specimens  of  bars  melted  as  above,  of  equal  mixtures  of  Nos.  1 , 2,  &  3  ; — 
24  specimens  ditto,  of  the  same  melting  and  mixture,  but  afterwards  planed 
down  to  a  perfect  1-inch  square  gauge;  and — 

16  specimens  ditto,  of  the  same  mixture,  but  melted  in  the  crucible. 
The  area  of  breaking  section  is  calculated  as  the  square  of  the  depth,  info 
the  breadth,  and  inversely  as  the  length  ;  an  example  of  which  is  subjoined, 
for  the  bars  requiring  reduction  to  I'OO  inch  square  from  excess  of  area  at 
the  fracture  or  otherwise :  thus.  No.  12  measured,  depth  1-002,  breadth  1-005, 
which,  reduced,  stands  499  5  lb.  in  the  table,  under  the  head  of  4  ft.  6  in. 
bars. 

Rule. — To  find  from  the  above  table  the  breaking  weight  in  rectangular 
bars,  calling-4  and  d  the  breadth  and  depth  in  inches,  and  I  the  distance  be- 
tween the  supports  in  feet,  and  putting 4-5  for  4  ft.  6  in.,  we  have 

=  breaking  weights  iu  lbs. — The  value  of  S  being  taken  from  the  above 
tables. 

For  example:  What  weight  would  be  necessary  to  break  the  bar.  No.  21, 
in  No.  1  table,  2  inches  broad,  3  inches  deep,  and  6  feet  between  the  sup- 
ports ?     According  to  the  rule  given  above,  we  have  i  =  2  inches,  <?= 3  inches, 

i-byihd-S     4-5x2x3-x484 
/=6fcct,  5=484  from  the  table.     Then- 

0534  Ib.J 


/ 


'■'  The  2  ft.  3  in.  bars  are  reduced  to  4  ft.  6  in.,  as  being  a  fair  method  of 
obtaining  a  more  correclmean;  a  separate  column  in  the  tabulated  lorm  being 

set  apart  for  them.  ,    ,     »,    i^ 

T  'hie  report  contains  six  tables  of  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Iwans,  «e 
have  given  the  table  only  containing  the  mean  result  of  all  the  experiments. 

~;  The  modulus  of  elasticiiy  is  taken  from  the  deflection  caused  by  112  lb. 
on' the  4  It.  6  in.  bars.  ,  „      .  ,  i     ,,,-,, i         ■     i 

Elasticity  calculated  from  the  deflection  caused  by  112  lb.  on  inch  square 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


343 


We  will  briefly  take  the  mean  vaUies  of  each  table,  together  with  a  snm- 
mar>'  of  comparison  of  the  whole,  &c.  §7%?  specific  yraeilij  of  No.  1  Iron 
at  7-093,  is  rather  under  the  standard  7-207,  as  given  by  Tredgold,  but  above 
the  mean  of  the  No.  1  in  Messrs.  Fairbairu  and  Uodgkinson's  list,  which  give 
7-032  for  twelve  different  irons  of  this  number.  .\s  Tredgold's  is  a  general 
one,  and  not  the  result  of  any  particular  number ;  and  as  it  will  be  found  in 
Anthracite  Iron,  as  well  as  in  Messrs.  F.  and  H.'s  results,  that  the  No.  1  is 

bars. — I  =  distance  in  inches  between  supports. — tv  =112  lb. — c  =  breadth 
of  bar. — d=  depth  of  bar.— a  =:^  defluction  caused  by  112  lb. 

formula.    ^  ^  ^.,  ^  =  m,  or  modulus  of  elasticity  in  lb.  to  work  which  lo- 

garitlims  had  better  be  employed. 

For  the  above  formula,  see  Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson's  report, 
Tredgold.  &c. 

§  ■■  The  precise  detenuinalion  of  the  maximum  and  minimum  specific  gravity 
of  cast-iron  is  of  importance  to  the  Founder  and  Kngineer  as  giving  llie  data 
upon  which  the  weight  of  castings  are  estimated,  and  which,  as  stated  by 
autliois,  are  an  unsafe  guide,  inasmuch  as  the  s|iecific  gravity  of  cast-iron 
varies  with  its  composition. — the  way  in  which  it  is  cast,  the  rate  of  its  cool- 
ing, and  tlie  depth  of  the  mould,  tn  an  extent  not  generilly  considered  ; 
hence  the  diHerent  specific  gravities  of  bars  cast  vertical,  and  those  cast  hori- 
zontalhj." — Mallet  on  Iron.    See  7ih  Report  of  British  Association. 


usually  a  lighter  iron  tlian  either  of  the  Nos.,  tlie  above  may  be  considered  a 
near  approximation  to  the  usual  irons  of  the  same  No.  or  quality  made- from 
coke. 

lis  modulus  of  elasticity,  the  mean  of  which  is  13970614  shows  the.com- 
parative  stiffness  of  the  metal,  and  is  given  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  breaking  weights  are  given  in  three  separate  tables,  the  mean  of  which 
makes  444  lb.,  445  tt).,  and  •)44-j  lb.  respectively,  which  approximate  in  rather 
a  singular  manner  to  each  other,  and  must  be  taken  as  the  best  proof  of  uni' 
furmify  ai  strength  and  texture  of  this  number,  the  value  of  which,  as  com- 
pared with  other  irons,  stand  as  under : — 

Mean  of  72  results  upon  the  Ystalyfera  Anthracite  Iron,  No.  1  444  tb. 

Mean  ditto  of  10  different  sorts  of  No.  1,  in  Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Hodg- 
kinson's list       ......         430  lb. 

being  a  superior  strength  in  favour  of  the  Anthracite  Iron  of  about  3i  per 
cent.  I  regret  that  most  of  the  other  authorities  give  the  breaking  of  1-inch 
bars  on  a  very  limited  scale,  in  few  instances  distinguishing  the  different  A'o.?. 
they  were  made  from,  and  broken  between  distances  of  even"  variety,  which 
is  an-  additional  objection  to  my  offering  them  in  the  above  comparison ;  but 
in  a  suinmarv'  of  a  few  that  I  found  more  easy  to  reduce,  they  form  rather  an 
inferior  value  to  Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson's  irons. 

The  following  table  comprises  a  summary  of  the  whole  of  the  experiments 
made  by  Mr.  Evans,  together  with  the  same  from  Messrs.  Fairbairu  and 
Hodgkinson's  list : — 


Summary  and  Comparison  of  the  Total  Mean  Results  from  each  of  the  Tallies,  together  with  the  same  from  Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson's  List. 


Number  of  experiments  4  ft.  6  in.  between 
supports,  and  2  ft.  3  in.  bars,  reduced  to 
4  ft.  6  in. 

Specific 
gravity. 

Modulus  of 

elasticity  in  tb. 

per  square 

inch,  or 

stiffness. 

Breaking 

weight  in  lbs. 

of  liars,  4  ft.  6 

in.  between 

supports. 

Breaking 
weight  in  lbs. 
of  bars,  2  ft.  3 
in.  reduced  to 

4  ft.  6  in. 

Mean  breaking 
weight  in  lbs. 

(S.) 

Ultimate  de- 
flection of  4  ft. 
6  in.  bars,  in 
parts  of  an 
inch. 

Power  of  the 

4  ft.  6  in.  bars 

to  resist 

impact. 

Mean  of  72  on  No.  1 

7-093 
7-120 
7130 
7-110 
7-190 

7110 

13970644 
14544293 
16622197 
15200982 
14894800 

14676771 

444           1         445 
494           1         /iQO 

444-5 

496 

533 

471 

574 

536 

1-843 
1-632 
1-640 
1-553 
1-625 

2-447 

821 

811 

916 

749-7 

901-2 

13131 

Ditto  of  65  on  No.  2 

Ditto  of  61  on  No.  3 

Ditto  of  41  on  equal  mixtures  of  Nos.  1,  2,  &  3 
Ditto  of  the  same  from  the  crucible.  No.  16. . 
Ditto  of  24  of  equal  mixtures  as  the  41,  but 

531 
465 
551 

533 

537 

479 
597 

539 

Forty-seven  Specimens 

from  Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson's  Tables  of  Nos.  1 ,  2,  and  i,  as  under  : — 

No.  1.  10 

7-032 
7-029 
7-122 

14132994 
14570118 
17683712 

433 
435 

478 

428 
443 

487 

430 
439 
483 

1-597 
1-626 
1-374 

694 
711 
685 

No.  2.  25 

No.  3.  12 

Summary  of  the  Mean  of  the  198  Jiesi 

Ms  of  t tie  Z  Qu 

alities  of  Anthracite,  and  the  47  from  Messrs 

Fairbairn  and  Hodgkinson's  List. 

198 
47 

7-114 
7-060 

15045711 

15462274 

439 
448 

493 
542 

491 
450 

1-705 
1-532 

840 
696 

In  making  a  comparison  of  the  same  numbers  of  the  Anthracite  Iron,  and 
those  which  are  comprised  in  the  latter  47  results,  the  three  first  of  the  six 
only,  contained  in  the  preceding  table,  must  be  taken,  the  other  specimens 
being  on  iron,  under  other  conditions,  containing  the  mixed,  planed,  and  cru- 
cible results,  &c.,  a  final  mean  of  which  may  be  taken  as  aliove  : — 

Which  taken  singly,  or  collectively,  show  a  superior  value  in  every  column 
in  favour  of  Anthracite  Iron  as  compared  with  the  most  numerous  list  of 
other  makes ;  and  it  would  appear  that  the  No.  1  is  the  most  uniform  in 
texture,  strength,  &c.,  having  the  greatest  fluidity,  softest,  and  lowest  specific 
gravity,  and  for  its  strength,  which  is  the  weakest,  is  most  to  be  reUed  upon, 
as  far  as  it  extends. 

The  No.  2,  less  uniform  a  little  in  texture,  and  strength,  fluidity,  &c.,  but 
of  higher  specific  gravity,  and  stronger  than  No.  1. 

The  No.  3  still  less  to  be  depended  upon  in  the  above  qualities,  but  of  in- 
creased specific  gravity  and  strength  to  the  No.  2. 

The  equal  mixtures  show  a  deterioration  of  the  several  Nos.,  compared  to 
their  values  separately,  and  the  same  as  regards  specific  gravity.  The  same, 
but  cast  from  a  crucible,  e.xhibit  an  improved  Ust  of  values,  including  a  greater 
specific  gravity. 

The  planed  bars  show  an  increased  stre;igth  above  the  same  metal  in  the 
black  bar  :  this  is  the  only  specimen  whose  strength  is  increased,  without  the 
,  specific  gravity  being  greater  also,  which  must  be  due  to  the  planing,  and  not 
any  alteration  of  metal,  &c. 

It  may  be  inferred  from  the  whole  of  the  tables,  except  the  last,  and  the 
higher  specific  gravity  exhibited  by  the  Iron,  the  greater  the  strength. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  LOUGH  ERNE,  IRELAND. 

Report  of  the  improvement  of  Lough  Erne,  for  the  purpose  of  rendering 
Navigable  for  Steam  Vessels,  and  other  Craft,  and  for  keeping  the  Lake  at 
a  more  uniform  level. 

The  Upper  Lake  extends  from  Belturbet  to  Enniskillen,  and  can  be  navi- 
gated through  the  channels  or  sources ;  that  along  the  eastern  side  is  18 
miles  in  length,  and  that  on  the  western  is  about  16  miles,  which  are  de- 
scribed by  red  dotted  lines  on  the  map  or  chart  No.  1. 

The  Lower  Lake  extends  from  Enniskillen  to  Belleek,  its  north  western 
extremity,  and  measures  about  24  miles. 

The  fall  from  the  Upper  Lake  at  Lisgoole  Abbey  to  the  Lake  at  Portora 
is  only  1\  inches.  This  is  occasioned  by  the  Danes  Eel  Weirs,  the  bridges 
at  Enniskillen,  and  the  shoal  at  Portora. 

The  Upper  and  Lower  Lakes,  considered  together,  present  a  most  magnifi- 
cent sheet  of  water,  interspersed  with  numerous  islands,  which  are  in  geueral 
highly  cultivated  j  and  for  beauty  and  luxuriance  of  scenery  cannot  w  ell  be 
surpassed,  and  forms  one  of  the  finest  lines  of  inland  steam  boat  communi- 
cation in  the  United  Kingdom,  creating  as  it  does  one  direct  line  from  east 
to  west  of  upwards  of  42  miles  in  extent,  besides  the  numerous  inlets  to 
every  village  and  farm  along  its  coasts,  which  may  be  safely  calculated  at 
three  times  the  above  length — the  whole  of  which  may.  when  improved,  be 
navigated  without  the  interruption  of  a  single  lock  or  other  obstruction,  so 
that,  with  good  steamers,  the  journey  from  Belleek  to  Enniskillen,  Belturbet 
and  Wattle  Bridge,  may  be  accomplished  in  a  few  hours,  which  at  present, 
I  am  told,  takes  the  boats,  containing  only  a  few  tons  of  goods,  upwards  of 
a  week,  besides  their  having  to  be  lightened  at  every  shoal  to  enable  them  to 


344 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


The  I'pper  Lougli  may  be  termed  a  scries  or  chain  of  I^ikes,  branching  ami 
.ramifying  its  courte  along  tlic  vallies  of  the  country,  forming  numerous  inlets, 
whicli  arc  sufficiently  rleep  at  the  lov.est  water  to  navigate  vessels  of  con- 
siderable burthen,  and  which  att'ord  a  ready  means  of  transit  for  merchandize, 
and  the  produce  of  tlie  country,  in  eveiy  direction,  particularly  to  Belturbet, 
Enniskillen,  and  Belleek,  which  latter  place  is  situated  on  the  Lower  Lake, 
and  is  only  tliree  miles  distant  from  the  seaport  town  of  Ballyshannon. 

Near  Wattle  Bridge,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Lough,  the  Ulster  Canal 
enters,  which  I  expect  will  be  opened  in  the  course  of  a  few  months.  This 
canal  will  form  one  of  the  grand  outlets  for  the  produce  of  this  finely  culti- 
vated  country  to  Belfast,  -Newry,  ic,  it  being  at  present  shut  out  completely 
from  competition  in  these  markets,  on  accouut  of  the  want  of  a  ready  and 
cheap  conveyance  by  water  ;  and  when  such  great  facilities  for  intercourse 
and  trade  present  themselves,  and  requiring  comparatively  so  small  a  sum  for 
accomplishing  such  a  desirable  object,  it  appears  somewhat  extraordinary 
that  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  this  fine  sheet  of  water  should 
have  been  so  long  deferred. 

Tlie  several  shoals,  eel  weirs,  and  other  impediments  to  the  navigation, 
besides  causing  the  before-mentioned  disadvantages,  also  act  as  dams  across 
the  channel,  and  retard  the  natural  and  regular  flow  of  the  water,  which  is 
backed  up  to  an  incalculable  extent,  and  thrown  over  the  low  lands  along 
the  ditterent  vallies  bordering  on  the  lakes,  sulnnerging  and  inundating  for 
several  months  of  the  year,  from  20,000  to  30,000  acres  of  the  finest  land  in 
the  country,  which,  if  the  water  could  be  taken  off,  might  be  brought  under 
the  most  perfect  state  of  cultivation. 

I  found,  from  observations  and  levels  taken  on  the  spot,  that  the  difference 
of  level  between  the  winter  floods  in  January  last,  and  the  summer  water  in 
May,  at  the  undermentioned  points,  wa  -  as  follows,  viz. 

Belturbet  and  Wattle  Bridge 9  ft.  0  inches. 

Enniskillen 7       10 

Belleek    4      0 

and  the  surface  of  the  water,  between  these  points,  forms  nearly  an  inclined 
plane.  The  least  or  smallest  rise  is  at  Belleek,  which  is  owing  to  the  Lower 
Lake  being  of  so  much  greater  extent  than  the  Upper  one,  and  acting  as  a 
compensation  reservoir,  and  allowing  the  water  to  escape  more  uniformly. 

Having  given  a  general  description  of  the  lake,  I  will  now  enter  more  into 
detail,  and  describe  the  impediments  which  exist  in  the  narrow  parts  of  the 
river,  their  effects,  and  what  alterations  are  necessary  to  improve  the  navi- 
gation and  drainage  of  the  country  from  Belleek  to  Belturbet,  and  having 
been  supplied,  as  1  before  mentioned,  with  the  very  accurate  charts  i)ublished 
by  order  of  the  .\dmiralty,  w  hicli  point  out  distinctly  the  deep  and  shallow 
parts  of  the  lake  ;  it  became,  therefore,  unnecessary  for  me  to  take  the 
soundings  of  the  whole  extent  of  the  lakes,  my  principal  duty  was  to  investi- 
gate tlie  shoals  and  impediments  existing  at  the  following  places  and  points, 
viz. 

1st.  From  Belleek  to  Roscor. 

2nd.  Portora. 

3rd.  The  two  channels  and  bridges  at  Enniskillen. 

4th.  Dane's  Eel  Weirs. 

5th.  Carry  Bridge. 

6th.  Black  Rock,  and  some  small  ridges  of  gravel,  on  the  south  west 
passage  near  Crom  Castle. 

7th.  Blockson  Shoal,  which  is  within  two  miles  of  Belturbet,  and  com- 
posed*of  solid  limestone  rock. 

Accurate  soundings  were  taken  at  the  above  places,  and  plans,  longitudinal 
and  transverse  sections  have  been  jirepared  wiiich  I  now  forward,  showing 
the  depth  of  water,  with  the  line  of  proposed  deepening  for  improving  the 
navigation  and  drainage. 

The  soundings  and  other  observations  were  taken  at  a  very  favourable 
timfe,  viz.,  the  latter  end  of  hist  .\pril  and  the  beginning  of  May,  when  the 
season  was  remarkably  fine  and  dry  ;  so  much  so  that  the  water  was  within 
six  inches  of  the  lowest  point  ever  reracndjered  by  the  oldest  inhabitant  re- 
siding on  the  Lake — the  floods  during  the  previous  winter  season  being  the 
highest  ever  recollected. 

The  above  being  the  case,  I  was  afforded  a  good  opportunity  of  judging  of 
the  effects  likely  to  be  produced  by  "  reducing  the  waters  to  a  uniform 
level." 

The  datum  or  surface  of  water  shown  on  the  sections,  is  supposed  to  be 
nine  feet  eight  inches  under  the  lower  edge  of  the  string-course  at  the 
springing  of  the  abutment  arch,  S.  W.  angle  of  the  West  bridge  at  Ennis- 
killen. 

At  this  level,  the  water  being  very  tranquil,  and  with  scarcely  any  percep- 
tible current,  I  found,  by  taking  accurate  levels  of  the  shoals  at  Portora.  En- 
niskillen, and  Dane's  Eel  Weirs,  that  the  difference  of  surface  between  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Lakes,  at  their  extreme  points,  only  amounted  to  2|  ins. — 
I  was  gratified  upon  determining  this  fact  to  find  there  was  no  necessity  for 
erecting  a  lock,  as  I  had  been  led  to  suppose  there  was  a  fall  of  from  two 
feet  to  three  feet  between  the  two  lakes.  This  not  being  the  case,  it  will 
simplify  the  works  required  to  be  done,  both  in  the  execution  and  the  ex- 
penditure. 

The  bridge  of  Belleek  is  of  old  construction,  and  appears  in  a  very  dilapi- 
dated state.  It  is  built  with  rubble  masonry,  and  composed  of  four  arches 
of  the  following  dimensions,  viz. — 35  feet,  19  feet  4  inches,  20  feet,  and 
7  feet  G  inches  span.  It  rests  on  a  soHd  rock  of  limestone  ;  the  water  in  the 
river  flows  through  the  large  arcb,  under  which  there  is  a  deep  chasm  cut 


out  of  the  rock  30  feet  in  depth,  causeil  by  the  incessant  rushing  of  the 
water  from  the  falls  above,  wliich  descend  with  great  violence  and  rapidity, 
falling,  from  the  surface  of  the  water  at  the  Eel  Weir  to  the  level  below,  15 
feet  in  the  distance  of  100  feet  in  length. 

The  arches  are  e\  idently  too  small  in  capacity  for  so  great  a  body  of  water 
rushing  dpwn  during  tlic  floods,  at  which  times  it  shakes  the  bridge  very 
much,  making  it  appear  in  danger  of  being  carried  away. 

I  would  recommend  a  new  bridge  being  built  at  this  place,  in  a  more 
direct  line  with  the  entrance  of  the  town,  with  stone  piers  and  abutments, 
and  a  cast-iron  arch  of  100  feet  span,  witli  two  side  arches  of  stone,  30  feet 
span  each. 

The  Eel  Weirs  at  the  top  of  the  fall  are  a  great  obstruction  to  the  free 
passage  of  the  water,  being  built  of  stone,  and  forming  solid  walls  about  4 
feet  6  inches  high,  and  4  feet  Ijroad  at  tlie  base,  by  which  means  two-thirds 
of  the  distance  across  the  river  is  blocked  up.  These  walls  or  weirs  should 
be  cleared  entirely  away,  and  a  wall  erected  about  five  or  six  inches  below 
the  summer  level,  and  1,100  feet  in  length,  according  to  the  form  described 
on  the  drawings.  The  i)roposed  site  is  a  very  favourable  one  for  the  purpose, 
being  of  solid  limestone  rock — the  surface  will  require  very  little  levelling  or 
preparing,  and  upon  an  average  one  course  of  stone  will  be  sufficient  to  build 
the  Dam  from  one  end  to  another ;  for  this  pmpose  and  also  for  b\iilding  the 
proposed  bridge  there  is  abundance  of  flat  bedded  stone  on  the  spot. 

The  falls  of  water  at  this  place  arc  remarkably  fine  and  well  worth  atten- 
tion, as  they  present  several  such  sites  for  mill  power  as  are  rarely  to  be  met 
with. 

The  old  corn  mill  at  the  end  of  the  bridge,  which  is  now  working  to  great 
disadvantage,  will  require  to  be  removed  (to  make  way  for  the  proposed  weir) 
to  a  far  better  site  to  be  selected. 

The  three  channels  of  the  river  course  leading  to  tlie  dam  will  require  to  be 
deepened  from  one  foot  six  inclies  to  two  feet,  which  can  easily  be  effected, 
to  allow  the  water  to  flow  freely  to  the  dam ;  also  tlie  point  of  rock  below 
the  line  of  the  proposed  dam  should  be  taken  oft"  to  allow  the  water  to  escape 
to  the  chasm  below.  Above  the  dam  there  are  several  good  sites  for  landing 
places  and  quays  for  Steam  Packets  and  Trade  Boats. 

The  channel  of  the  river  from  Belleek  to  Roscor,  entering  the  lake  is  fine, 
and  strait,  and  of  sufficient  width.  Tliere  are  several  shoals  which  are  com- 
posed of  gravel  and  clay,  besides  the  Carry  Eel  Weir,  which  is  similar  to  the 
one  at  Belleek,  (formed  of  stone)  and  dams  up  the  water  in  a  much  greater 
degree,  causing  a  head  of  from  one  foot  six  inches  to  two  feet  during  the 
floods. 

The  above  shoals  and  Eel  W"eirs  require  to  be  removed  to  the  breadth  and 
depth  sliown  on  the  plans  and  sections,  ^■iz.,  200  feet  wide,  and  seven  feet  deep. 

Tlie  shoal  at  Portora  is  formed  of  gravel  and  clay,  and  will  require  to  be 
deepened  as  shown  on  tlie  plan  and  section. 

The  West  bridge  at  Enniskillen  is  of  recent  construction,  and  built  of  rub- 
ble masonry,  ashlar  quoins  and  arch  stones,  string  courses  and  parapet  for 
fixing  the  railing ;  it  has  three  arches  of  45  feet  0  inches  span  each  ;  segments 
of  circles  rise  15  feet  G  inches,  and  19  feet  6  inches  in  height  from  the  sur- 
face of  water  to  soflit  of  arches ;  piers  are  1 1  feet  thick.  I  was  informed  by 
Mr.  Maguirc,  the  builder,  that  the  west  abutment  is  sunk  G  feet  under  the 
bed  of  tlie  river,  and  the  other  abutment  and  the  two  piers  3  feet.  The 
water-way  under  the  arclies  is  very  shallow,  and  the  piers  and  east  abutment 
would  require  under-pinning,  as  shown  in  the  elevation;  and  the  channel 
both  above  and  below  the  bridge,  as  well  as  under  it,  requires  deepening  from 
opposite  tlie  Castle  to  the  deej)  water  near  the  Distilleries  below  the  bridge. 

There  are  several  encroachments  on  the  river  at  this  place,  in  the  shape  of 
walls  and  quays,  which  should  be  taken  down,  so  as  to  give  the  river  its  ori- 
ginal sectional  area. 

The  East  bridge  is  an  old  structure  and  built  of  rubble  masonrj',  it  is  com- 
posed of  five  arches  of  the  following  dimensions,  viz.,  22  feet  3  inches;  24 
feet ;  23  feet ;  2G  feet ;  and  21  feet  span,  and  from  the  surface  of  the  water 
to  the  soffit  of  the  arches  is  17  feet  in  height.  At  this  time  nearly  all  the 
arches  were  dry,  with  the  exception  of  one  of  them,  through  which  small 
boats  might  pass.  I  would  recommend  the  bed  of  the  river  under  the  arches 
to  be  deepened  and  the  piers  under-pinned. 

There  are  several  shoals  in  tlie  river  in  the  East  Channel,  which  require 
deepening,  particularly  at  Boston's  Ford. 

The  Eel  Weirs  at  Dane's  Weirs  appear  very  formidable  erections  which 
■ilmost  choke  up  the  channel  of  the  river,  merely  leaving  a  small  space  of 
about  20  feet  in  w  idth  for  the  boats  to  pass  through.  In  other  respects,  also, 
it  forms  a  very  diflicult  channel  for  the  Navigation  at  any  time ;  but  particu- 
larly so  in  the  winter  season ;  and  when  the  head  of  water  is  great,  and  is 
necessarily  attended  with  much  danger  to  the  boats  navigating  up  and  down 
stream.  In  summer  the  boats  are  required  to  be  lightened,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  enabled  to  pass  over  the  shoal.  The  Eel  Weirs  are  constructed 
according  to  the  form  represented  on  the  plan,  and  composed  of  piles,  stakes, 
&c.,  and  made  to  close  with  wattles,  &c.,  that  few  fish  can  pass  through  the 
eyes  or  gaps.  The  bed  of  the  river  where  the  Weirs  are  erected  is  very 
shallow,  and  is  composed  of  clay  and  gravel. 

The  banks  of  the  river  at  this  place  are  high  and  slope  towards  the  river's 
edge. 

This  shoal  and  Eel  Weir,  and  the  shoal  and  contraction  of  the  Bridges  at 
Enniskillen,  are  the  principal  obstructions  in  this  quarter,  and  which  cause 
the  lands  and  property  on  the  Upper  Lake  to  be  inundated  to  a  great  extent 
— these  Eel  Weirs  to  be  cleared  away,  and  the  shoal  deepened. 


1S40.]. 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


3J5 


In  case  the  Weirs  cannot  be  purchased  for  a  reasonable  sum,  I  would  pro- 
pose making  a  cut  across  the  bed  of  the  river  near  Lisgoole  Abbey.  The  line 
I  have  selected  is  very  favourable  for  this  purpose  ;  it  would  lessen  the  dis- 
tance considerably,  and  might  be  done  for  a  comparatively  small  sum.  At 
the  same  time  I  would  prefer  keeping  by  the  river  channel,  although  the  dis- 
tance is  greater ;  still  it  would  he  easier  accomplished  and  wouhl  keep  the 
channel  wider,  so  as  to  give  every  facility  to  the  Drainage  and  Navigation. 

The  channel  of  the  river  from  Dane's  Weirs  to  Carry  Bridge  is  fine  and 
open,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  small  ridges  or  shoals  of  gravel,  which  can 
be  cleared  away  in  tlie  course  of  a  week,  with  a  good  Dredging  Machine. 

Carry  Bridge  forms  a  great  obstruction  to  the  navigation  and  drainage ;  in 
fact  it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  bridge,  as  tlie  opening  is  but  12  feet  wide, 
and  10  feet  high,  the  remaining  part  being  a  long  wall  forming  tlie  roadway 
to  the  island  of  Inishmore.  In  flood  time  this  oljstruction  creates  two  feet 
head  of  water,  and  nearly  stops  the  passage  of  the  water ;  so  that  although 
this  channel  is  the  finest  no  boats  are  able  to  pass.  This  erection  requires 
to  be  entirely  cleared  away,  and  the  channel  deepened  according  to  the  sec- 
tion ;  and  instead  of  the  present  bridge,  I  propose  that  a  new  bridge  be 
erected  of  three  arches,  each  40  feet  span,  the  two  side  ones  to  be  fixed  stone 
arches,  and  the  centre  one  of  cast  iron,  in  two  parts,  so  as  to  allow  steamers 
and  masted  vessels  to  pass  at  all  times  witliout  lowering  their  chimneys  or 
masts. 

Proceeding  along  the  western  channel,  the  Black  Rock  is  the  next  obstruc- 
tion to  be  met  with,  upon  entering  the  narrow  channel,  which  is  from  70  to 
80  feet  in  width.  There  are  a  considerable  number  of  large  detached  pieces 
of  rocks  in  the  sides  and  Ijottom  of  the  river,  which  in  summer  have  only 
about  two  feet  water  upon  them,  which  can  easily  be  cleared  away  either  by 
blasting  or  lifting  tiiem  out  of  the  river  with  proper  tackle. 

There  are  two  or  three  smaller  ridges  or  slioals  above  this  in  the  western 
channel,  which  are  composed  of  clay  and  gravel,  and  which  ought  to  be  re- 
moved to  the  depth  of  7  feet  from  summer  water,  and  to  the  width  of  100 
feet,  which  can  be  easily  done  by  the  Dredging  Machine. 

At  the  ferry  at  Inishmore  there  is  a  fine  site  for  a  snsjiension  bridge,  which 
might  be  elevated  sufficiently  so  as  to  allow  masted  vessels  to  pass.  It  would 
also  be  of  great  convenience  to  the  county. 

.^.bove  Crom  Castle  there  are  two  shoals  or  ridges,  also  near  Wattle  Bridge, 
which  are  composed  of  gravel  and  clay,  and  easily  removed  at  a  small  ex- 
pense. 

Blockson's  Ford  is  of  solid  limestone  rock ;  this  shoal  is  a  great  obstruction 
to  the  free  discharge  of  the  water,  and  ought  to  be  removed.  This  part  is 
the  most  difficult  to  be  remedied,  and  will  require  a  C'offre  Dam,  so  as  to 
clear  one-half  of  the  river,  first  by  blasting  and  removing  the  rock,  and  when 
this  is  accomplislied,  to  remove  the  Coffre  Dam  to  the  other  parts  of  the 
river,  and  clear  it  in  like  manner. 

I  have  carefully  prepared  Estimates  of  the  before-mentioned  works,  and 
find  that  the  whole  may  be  executed  in  a  workman-like  manner,  for  the  sum 
of  £29,797. 

In  conclnsion,  I  beg  to  remark  that  I  am  not  aware  of  any  work  or  project 
whatever,  where  so  much  benefit  might  be  derived  at  so  small  a  cost,  both  on 
account  of  the  Drainage  and  Navigatiou,  and  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
Ulster  Canal  is  now  on  the  eve  of  completion,  wliich  connects  the  port  of 
Belfast  with  Lough  Erne:  and  the  possibilityof  the  projected  Junction  Canal, 
which  will  join  Lough  Erne  with  the  river  Shannon,  being  carried  into  exe- 
cution, it  will  form  a  communication  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  St.  George's 
Channel,  and  as  it  is  a  work  similar  to  the  Shannon,  and  next  to  it  in  im- 
portance, it  well  deserves  the  consideration  of  the  Legislature,  so  as  to  put  it 
in  every  respect  upon  the  same  footing  with  that  great  national  undertaking. 

Trusting  the  foregoing  Report  may  meet  with  your  approbation,  and  the 
Gentlemen  connected  therewith,  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir-, 

Your  most  obedient  and  humble  servant, 

Thomas  Rhodes. 

Estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  proposed  works  for  the  improvement  of  the 
navigation  and  drainage  of  Lough  Erne,  to  accompany  Mr.  Rhodes's  report, 
dated  13th  July,  1840. 

New  Bridge  at  Belleek £8,000     0     0 

Dredging  the  bed  of  the  river  from  Belleek  to  Roscor,  includ- 
ing the  clearing  away  of  the  Eel  Weirs  and  the  masonry  of 

the  proposed  Weir     9,147     4     6 

Dredging  the  bed  of  the  river  at  Portora     784  14     6 

Dredging  both  channels  of  the  river  at  Enniskillen,  and  under- 

pinning  the  piers  of  the  bridges    1,860  19     6 

Clearing  away  Dane's  Eel  Weurs,  and  dredging  the  bed  of  the 

river    2,250     0     0 

Dredging  the  bed  of  the  river  at  Black  Rock 150     0     0 

Excavating  the  channel  of  the  river  at  Carry   Bridge,  and 

building  a  new  bridge  there,  as  shown  on  the  plan    6,000    0     0 

Excavating  and  blasting  the  rock  at  Blockson's  Ford,  and  other 

small  fords  and  shoals 1,604     2     6 

Total  amount £29,797     1     0 


N-B. — If  the  river  course  be  abandoned  at  Dane's  Weirs,  and 
a  cut  made  across  the  low-  lands  near  Lisgoole  Abbey,  a  fur- 
ther sum  must  be  added  of  the  amount  of .' 3,516  13     9 


£33,313  14     9 


Thomas  Rhodes. 
In  the  above  calculation  no  allowance  has  been  made  for  the  purchase  of 
Eel  W'eirs. 


FALL  OF  A  SUSPENSION  BRIDGE  IN  INDIA. 

It  is  with  feelings  of  much  regret  that  we  announce  a  lamentable  accident 
which  has  just  occurred  at  Madras,  attended  witli  great  personal  injury  to 
many  unfortunate  individuals,  though,  as  yet,  so  far  as  we  have  heard,  with 
but  one  loss  of  life.  On  Monday  afternoon  the  33rd  Regiment  of  Native  In- 
fantiT  (or  certain  coinpanies  of  that  corps)  were  crossing  the  Suspension- 
bridge  at  Chintandripett,  on  their  way  to  escort  His  Highness  the  Nabob, 
and  take  part  in  the  customary  procession  to  his  father's  tomli,  when  one  of 
the  great  suspension  chains  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  bridge  gave  way,  preci- 
pitating the  roadway  and  the  concourse  of  persons  then  upon  it  (al)out  a 
company  and  a  half  of  sepoys)  into  the  stream  below.  The  crash  must  have 
been  tremendous,  and  great  personal  injury  sustained  by  manv.  We  hear 
that  1  Subadar,  !  llavildars,  and  26  men  were  severely  hurt  and  bruised,  and 
several  more  slightly  injured ;  indeed,  had  not  the  elevation  of  the  bridge 
above  the  water  Ijeen  so  small,  and  the  water  itself  so  shallow,  the  accident 
would  have  been  attended  with  great  loss  of  life.  The  part  of  the  bridge 
which  gave  way  was  the  links  of  the  eastern  suspension  chain,  wliere  they 
pass  over  the  friction  roller  of  the  nortli-eastern  pier.  Two  of  the  three  links 
have  snapped  across,  and  on  examining  the  fracture  it  is  evident  that  both, 
but  one  more  especially,  has  for  a  long  time  been  in  a  defective  state,  having 
a  crack  extending  almost  through  it.  Indeed,  it  seems  to  us  that  the  bridge 
has,  at  some  forujer  period,  experienced  a  powerful  strain,  which  had  partially- 
cracked  these  links,  weakening  them  so  far,  that  the  pressure  of  the  crowd  at 
once  tore  away  the  remaining  fibres,  and  occasioned  the  whole  fabric  to  give 
way.  It  is  a  fact  ofsDme  importance,  and  one  perhaps  not  very  generally 
known,  that  a  concourse  of  people  is  one  of  the  greatest  loads  which  can  be 
imposed  upon  any  structure,  since  it  brings  a  vast  weight  witliin  a  narrow 
compass,  and  that  the  strain  is  especially  severe  in  the  case  of  a  body  of  mili- 
tary- marching  in  regular  order.  We  may  here  observe  that  one  of  the  few 
occasions  on  vliich  we  have  know-n  an  English  suspension-bridge  to  fail  was 
about  ten  years  ago  at  Morpeth,  in  Northumberland,  when  exposed  to  a  some- 
what similar  strain  to  the  one  in  question,  being  crowded  liy  persons  returning 
from  a  fair.  On  two  other  occasions,  where  suspension-bridges  at  home  have 
given  way,  it  has  been  during  the  passage  of  troops  in  a  regular  march  over 
them, — we  allude  to  the  bridges  at  Broughton  and  Jlontrose.  The  severe 
strain  or  vibration  occasioned  by  the  measured  tread  of  a  body  of  military  is 
indeed  so  tning  to  these  structures,  that  it  is  considered  by  engineers  that 
they  will  in  this  case  bear  but  one-eighth  part  of  the  weight  they  might  be 
otherwise  safely  loaded  with. — Madras  paper. 


ERECTION  OF  A  SAFETY  BEACON  ON  GOODWIN  SANDS. 

The  task  undertaken  by  Captain  Bullock,  of  Her  Majesty's  steamer  Boxer, 
of  erecting  a  safety  beacon  on  the  Goodwin  Sands,  about  seven  miles  from 
the  town  of  Deal,  has  Ijeen  successfully  accomplished,  by  which  it  is  hoped 
to  avert  the  dreadful  loss  of  life  by  shipwreck  which  has  so  frequently  oc- 
curred in  that  part  of  the  British  Channel.  To  the  high  credit  of  Captaia 
Bullock  this  desirable  object  was  accomplished  on  Thursday,  10th  ult.,  under 
his  superintendence  and  that  of  Captain  Boys,  superintendent  of  the  naval 
store  deparment  of  Deal.  Captain  Bullock  has  been  long  engaged  in  carry- 
ing out  the  above  object,  and  in  tbe  arduous  duty  of  correcting  the  charts  in 
various  parts  of  tlie  globe,  and  is  now  doing  so  under  the  authority  of  Go- 
vernment in  the  waters  of  England.  lie  commenced  at  'Westminster  Bridge, 
and  proceeded  towards  tlie  Land's  End,  which  is  at  present  undergoing  Ids 
survey.  The  beacon  he  has  succeeded  in  erecting  consists  of  a  column  about 
40  feet  above  tbe  level  of  the  sea,  having  elects  and  ropes  attached  to  four 
of  its  sides,  with  holds  for  hands  and  feet.  At  the  summit  of  the  column  is 
attached  a  gallery  of  hexagon  form,  made  of  trellis  work,  and  capable  of 
holding  20  persons  at  one  time.  -Vbove  the  gallery,  and  in  continuation  of 
the  column,  is  a  flagstafi'  10  feet  long,  thus  making  the  entire  beacon  50  feet 
in  height.  The  sides  of  the  gallery  are  so  constructed  as  to  enable  the  per- 
sons in  it  to  be  covered  in  with  sailcloth,  which  is  reefed  in  and  round  it, 
and  can  be  used  at  pleasure ;  as  also  an  awning  to  pass  over  it,  which  is  fixed 
to  the  flagstaff ;  thus  entirely  protecting  any  unfortunate  mariner  who  may 
seek  shelter  on  the  column  from  foul  and  tempestuous  weather.  A  barrel  of 
fresh  water,  together  with  a  painted  bag  enclosing  a  flag  of  distress,  is  sta- 
tioned on  tbe  gallery,  and  the  words  "hoist  the  flag"  painted  in  the  lan- 
guages of  aU  nations  on  bosrds  stationed  round  the  inner  part  of  the  gallery, 
so  that  the  foreigner  as  well  as  native  seaman  may  be  enabled  to  show  a  sig- 
nal of  distress,  and  obtain  help  from  shore,  which  is  about  seven  miles  distant 
from  the  beacon.     The  means  by  which  the  beacon  has  been  erected  in  so 

3  A 


340 


THE  Cn  IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


cxtiaoidiiiary  a  |)lace  as  the  Goodwin  Sands  aie  as  follow  : — the  foundation 
of  the  column  is  several  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  sand,  and  is  secured  in 
the  centre  of  a  stout  oak  platform,  extending  from  it  on  eiiher  side  several 
yards.  This  is  secured  by  ujiwards  of  two  tons  of  pig-iron  ballast  being 
lashed  to  it.  In  addition  to  tins,  eight  stout  iron  bars,  each  six  feet  long, 
are  driven  obliquely  on  each  quarter  of  the  colunni,  and  two  also  put  at  a 
distance  of  12  feet  on  each  quarter,  and  chains  attached  to  them,  conimuiu- 
cating  with  the  upper  part  of  the  column  and  the  galler\ .  The  sands  for 
three  or  four  hours  during  the  tides  are  high  and  dry,  anil  present  a  fine  tract 
of  level  extending  for  several  miles.  Great  numbers  of  visitors  from  Rams- 
gate  and  Deal  attended  the  erection  of  this  tribute  to  humanity.  The  first 
person  to  mount  it  was  Lieutenant  G.  C.  Boyes,  a  young  and  intrepid  officer, 
wlio,  on  reaching  the  summit,  hoisted  his  handkerchief,  a  fac  simile  to  a 
union  jack.  The  indefatigable  exertions  of  Captain  Bullock,  Captain  Boyes, 
Lieutenants  Gull  and  Bowes,  and  the  other  officers  and  men  engaged  in  the 
undertaking  are  deserving  of  the  highest  praise,  they  being  compelled  to 
work  for  several  hours  up  to  their  knees  in  water.  Several  visitors  afterwards 
ascended  the  column,  and  testified,  in  the  strongest  terms,  their  approbation 
of  this  stupendous  work  for  the  benefit  of  humanity. —  Times. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

March  31. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected  : — John  Crannis  Birch,  Charles 
Denrochc,  John  M'illiam  Power,  Henry  Rawnsley,  and  George  Dobson,  as 
Graduates. 

"  On  rfclaimincj  Land  from  the  Sea,  vilh  Plans  ilhistrathe  of  Works  in 
Lour/hs  Siril/i/  and  Foyle."     By  J.  \V.  Bazalgette,  Grad.  Inst.  C.E. 

The  art  of  reclaiming  land  from  the  sea  has  been  practised  from  a  very 
remote  period.  Among  the  instances  best  knowni  to  us  are  Romney  Marsh, 
in  Kent ;  the  Foss  Dyke,  in  Lincolnshire ;  and  the  coasts  of  Holland  and 
Flanders.  The  extreme  fertility  consequent  on  such  reclamations  has  caused 
many  attempts  to  be  made,  and  nearly  all  have  been  successful ;  but  none 
presents  a  greater  prospect  of  success  than  that  about  to  be  undertaken  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Macneil  on  the  borders  of  Loughs  Swilly  and  Foyle,  iu 
the  counties  of  Donegal  and  DeiTv. 

Lough  Foyle  communicates  with  the  Irish  Channel  by  a  narrow  inlet, 
above  which  it  spreads  over  a  wide  tract  of  land,  and  then,  suddenly  con- 
tracting, joins  the  river  Foyle  aliout  four  and  a  half  miles  below  Londonderry, 
up  to  which  city  it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  500  or  600  tons  burden.  The 
rush  of  the  tide  through  such  a  small  inlet  has  carried  with  it  great  quantities 
of  alluvial  soil,  which  it  has  gradually  deposited  on  the  side  of  the  lough,  and 
thus  formed  a  bank  which  extends  four  or  five  miles  in  length,  and  is  only 
covered  by  the  tide  at  high  water.  In  order  to  reclaim  this  tract  of  valuable 
land,  of  about  25,000  acres,  it  is  jjroposed  to  construct,  somewhat  below  low- 
water,  an  embankment  or  sea  wall,  of  .ibout  14  miles  in  length.  The  tide 
never  rises  here  above  12  feet,  nor  is  there  ever  any  swell  in  the  lough  to 
endanger  the  structure. 

Lough  Swilly  is  wider  at  the  mouth  which  opens  into  the  Western  Ocean, 
and  is  consequently  more  subject  to  the  eflfect  of  wind  than  Lough  Foyle. 
The  highest  tides  rise  about  18  feet.  Several  embankments  are  proposed, 
which  v^ill  reclaim  altogether  about  2000  acres  of  land ;  a  tract  already 
reclaimed,  which  is  considered  to  be  of  the  best  quality  in  the  counti-y,  lets 
at  5/.  per  acre.  The  measurements  and  soundings  to  ascertain  the  best 
position  and  requisite  depths  of  the  embankments  were  thus  taken.  A  tide 
gauge  was  permanently  fixed  on  which  the  range  of  high  and  low  water  was 
marked  ;  a  constaut  register  was  kept  of  the  soundings,  and  the  time  at  which 
they  were  made  ;  these  were  afterwards  reduced  to  the  high  ami  low  water 
of  any  one  tide.  The  distances  were  determined  at  the  same  time,  by  means 
of  a  pocket  sextant  from  the  boat,  angles  being  taken  between  certain  fixed 
objects  on  the  shore,  so  that  the  exact  soundings  could  be  ascertained  and 
laid  down  with  great  accuracy.  The  slopes  of  the  faces  of  the  embankments 
vary  on  the  sea  face  from  three  or  four  to  one,  and  two  to  one  on  the  land 
side.  Each  has  a  culvert  4  feet  diameter,  with  sluices  and  flood-gates, 
founded  upon  piling  with  tie  beams,  and  the  spaces  filled  with  concrete,  the 
whole  being  covered  with  planking.  The  gates  are  at  the  lowest  level  of 
spring  tides,  so  as  to  allow  of  the  greatest  degree  of  drainage.  The  wing 
walls  of  squared  rubble  stone  stretching  on  either  side  of  the  gates  are  founded 
also  on  a  bed  of  concrete,  4  feet  wide  by  2  feet  deep.  These  gates  are  to  be 
used  either  to  keep  back  the  fresh  water  for  the  purposes  of  irrigation,  or  for 
scouring  away  the  silt  which  would  accumulate  externally  in  front  of  them. 
A  bed  of  puddle,  4  feet  6  inches  wide  at  the  bottom  and  3  feet  wide  on  the 
top,  extends  longitudinally  throughout  the  embankments.  The  land  water 
is  carried  away  by  a  series  of  catcbwater  drains,  which  extend  around  the 
reclaimed  lands  at  the  level  of  high  water,  having  sufficient  fall  to  secure  its 
drainage  through  the  sluices.  These  drains  are  puddled,  and  have  their  in- 
ternal faces  covered  with  sods,  at  an  incUnation  of  two  to  one. 

As  there  are  many  situations  where  stone  is  very  scarce,  and  where  timber 


abounds,  the  author  has  turned  his  attention  to  devising  a  plan  of  eniljanking 
applicable  to  such  locaUties.  It  may  be  thus  briefly  described  ;  the  body  of 
the  embankment  should  be  of  clay,  earth,  gravel,  and  stones,  dug  from'  the 
surface  and  thrown  up  in  a  bank,  with  a  slope  suited  to  the  force  likely  to 
act  upon  it.  On  the  water  side  is  placed  a  strong  facing  of  fascines,  Gfeet 
thick  at  the  bottom  and  4  feet  thick  at  the  top,  embedded  in  the  soil  in  an 
oblique  direction,  the  dip  being  towards  the  land  ;  they  are  securely  fastened 
down  by  iron  screws  running  at  right  angles  through  the  whole  height.  The 
land  face  is  covered  witii  sods.  In  a  country  where  wood  abovmds,  this  kind 
of  embankment  woidd  be  formed  at  a  very  cheap  rate.  In  other  situations, 
where  the  embankments  would  be  subjected  to  greater  strain,  the  thickness 
of  the  mass  of  fascines  should  be  increased  to  13  feet  at  the  bottom  and  4 
feet  at  the  top.  In  this  case,  at  four  feet  from  the  front  of  the  bottom  of 
the  slope  should  be  placed  a  row  of  fender  fascines,  3  feet  wide  by  2  feet 
high,  bolted  down,  for  the  purpose  not  only  of  defending  the  face  of  the 
liank  from  the  action  of  the  sea,  but  for  retaining  all  deposits  left  behiud  by 
it ;  Ijy  which  means  the  embankment  would  in  time  acquire  a  natural  face  of 
soil,  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  endjankments  in  Holland.  The  average 
cost  of  this  kind  of  embankment,  including  the  sluices  and  the  necessary 
bed  of  puddle  in  the  centre,  would  be  about  12/.  per  running  yard. 

This  paper  is  accompanied  by  seven  plans  of  the  proposed  embaukments 
and  charts  of  the  loughs. 

"  On  the  use  of  Mica,  as  a  substilute  for  Glass,  in  (he  Windows  of  Work- 
shops."    By  Joseph  Glynn,  F.R  S.,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  &c. 

In  the  windows  of  the  workshops  at  the  Butterly  Iron  Works  so  much 
glass  was  broken  by  the  chi])pings  of  iron,  that  a  substitute  was  sought  which 
should  resist  a  moderate  blow,  and  yet  be  translucent.  A  quantity  of  sheets 
of  mica  were  procured  from  Calcutta,  which,  when  fixed  into  the  cast-iron 
window  frames,  were  found  to  resist  the  blow  of  a  chipping  of  iron  driven  oflf 
by  the  chisel  with  such  force  as  would  have  shivered  a  pane  of  glass.  Mica 
possesses  both  toughness  and  elasticity,  and  when  a  piece  of  iron  does  pene- 
trate it,  merely  a  hole  is  made  large  enough  to  allow  the  piece  to  pass,  while 
the  other  parts  remain  uninjured.  It  is  not  quite  so  transparent  as  glass,  but 
it  is  not  so  much  less  so  as  to  be  objectionable ;  but  this  circumstance  is  not 
important  at  Butterly,  as,  in  consequence  of  the  quantity  of  fluoric  acid  gas 
evolved  from  the  fluate  of  lime  used  as  a  flux  in  the  blast  furnaces,  the  glass 
in  the  windows  is  speedily  acted  upon,  and  assumes  the  appearance  of  being 
ground.  Mica  is  a  little  more  expensive  than  common  glass ;  but,  as  its 
duration  promises  to  be  much  longer,  it  must  be  more  economical ;  and  if 
an  extensive  use  of  it  could  be  induced,  a  more  ready  supply  would  be  ob- 
tained— probably  from  Pennsylvania  or  from  Russia,  where  it  is  commonly 
used  for  windows  in  farm-houses,  and  also  on  board  ships  of  war,  as  it  is  less 
liable  to  be  fractured  Ij^v  the  concussion  of  the  air  during  the  discharge  of 
heavy  artillery.  It  can  be  procured  of  almost  any  dimensions  necessary  for 
ordinary  purposes,  as  it  has  been  found  in  Russia  in  masses  of  nearly  3  feet 
diameter.  It  is  susceptible  of  very  minute  subdivision,  as,  according  to 
llaiiy,  it  may  be  divided  into  plates  no  thicker  than  ^ „ „'^j „ „  of  an  inch. 

"  On  a  specimen  of  White  Cedar  from  Bathurst,  Aew  Brnnsirici,  sent  by 
Mr.  Cliurchill." 

The  specimen  exhibited  to  the  meeting  was  of  the  <limensions  calculated 
for  a  railway  sleeper,  for  which  use  it  was  proposed  to  introduce  this  timber, 
as  it  is  stated  to  possess,  in  a  very  superior  degree,  the  quality  of  durability 
in  situations  calciUated  to  try  its  properties.  It  can  be  imported  at  about 
3s.  9(f.  to  4s.  per  sleeper. 

Mr.  Hawkins  observed,  that  he  knew  that  species  of  timber  well,  having 
seen  it  extensively  employed  in  the  United  States.  It  is  an  evergreen  tree, 
and  grows  only  in  wet  or  boggy  grounds,  and  is  found  most  plentifully  in 
New  Jersey,  Maryland,  and  Virginia.  It  attains  the  height  of  70  to  80  feet, 
but  is  rarely  more  than  3  feet  in  diameter.  The  concentric  circles  in  it  are 
always  perfectly  distinct,  and  prove  that  the  tree  only  arrives  at  its  full 
growth  after  a  long  term  of  years — as  many  as  277  anmdar  rings  have  been 
counted  in  a  trunk  21  inches  diameter,  at  5  feet  from  the  ground.  The  wood 
is  light,  soft,  fine  grained,  and  easily  wrought.  It  has  an  aromatic  odour, 
which  it  preserves  as  long  as  it  is  guarded  from  humidity.  It  resists  alter- 
nations of  dryness  and  moisture  better  than  any  other  wood,  and  on  this 
account  is  extensively  used  for  shingles  for  roofing.  They  sell  at  Baltimore 
for  4  or  5  dollars  per  1000.  These  shingles  will  last  from  30  to  40  years. 
It  is  in  great  demand  for  household  utensils,  so  much  so  that  a  distinct  class 
of  coopers  are  called  cedar  coopers.  It  is  used  for  boat  building  on  account 
of  its  great  buoyancy.  Cedar  boards  are  sold  at  Philadelphia  at  20  dollars 
per  1000  feet.  White  cedar  rails,  with  red  cedar  posts,  form  the  most  du- 
rable kind  of  fence,  being  known  to  have  lasted  from  50  to  60  years.  The 
rails  are  sold  at  6  to  8  dollars  per  100,  and  the  posts  at  12  or  15  cents  each. 

Mr.  Brunei  did  not  think  it  was  a  cheap  or  a  strong  wood.  He  had  used 
it  chiefly  for  covering  locomotive  boilers,  as  it  resisted  heat  better  than  any 
other  wood.  AMien  he  purchased  some  there  was  but  little  in  the  market, 
and  it  was  consequently  dear. 

Mr.  Joseph  Home  oiijected  to  its  use  for  sleepers  on  account  of  its  ten- 
dency to  split  30  easily ;  but  he  had  found  it  resist  wet  perfectly. 

April  7. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected :— Thomas  Hawksley,  as  a 
Member ;  William  Pole  and  John  Dickenson,  as  Associates. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


.347 


*'  Account  of  a  scries  of  Experiments  on  Locomotive  Engines,  more  par- 
ticularly on  the  '  Enyland'  the  '  Columlia'  and  the  '  Atlantic'  mannfactiired 
by  Mr.  Norris,  of  Philadelphia."     By  Captain  Moorsom,  R.E.,  Assoc.  I.C.E. 

The  engines  of  wliicli  tlie  author  more  especially  treats  were  constnicted 
by  Mr.  Nonis,  of  Philadelphia,  and  sent  by  him  to  England,  under  an  agree- 
ment to  supply  "locomotive  engines  of  a  higher  power,  greater  durability, 
and  less  weight,"  than  could  be  obtained  in  this  country.  They  were  to  be 
subjected  to  fifteen  tri.ls  within  thirty  days,  and  prove  their  capaliility  of 
drawing  "  up  a  gradient  of  1  in  330,  a  load  of  100  tons  gross  weight  at  the 
speed  of  20  miles  per  hour  ;  and  up  a  gradient  of  1  in  180,  a  load  of  100 
tons  gross  weight  at  the  speed  of  14  miles  per  hour."  The  pressure  of  the 
steam  in  the  boiler  was  stipulated  by  the  Grand  Junction  Company  (on  whose 
railway  the  trials  were  made)  not  to  exceed  60  lb.  per  square  inch. 

The  construction  of  these  engines  is  very  simple,  and  the  work  plain.  The 
boiler  is  horizontal,  and  contains  78  copper  tubes,  2  inches  diameter  and 
8  feet  long  each,  with  an  iron  fire-box.  The  cylinders,  10  V  inches  diameter, 
are  slightly  inclined  downwards,  and  so  placed  that  the  piston  rods  worii 
outside  the  wheels,  thus  avoiding  the  necessity  of  cranked  axles.  The  frame 
is  supported  by  6  wheels ;  the  two  driving  wheels,  of  4  feet  diameter,  are 
placed  close  before  the  fire-box ;  the  other  4  wheels,  of  30  inches  diameter, 
are  attached  to  a  truck,  which  carries  the  front  end  of  the  boiler,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  frame  by  a  centre-pin,  on  which  it  turns  freely,  allowing  the 
truck  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  exterior  rail  of  the  curve,  and  with  the 
assistance  of  the  cone  of  the  wheels  to  pass  round  with  very  little  stress  upon 
the  rails. 

Tons.C'wt. 
The  weight  of  the  engine,  with  the  boiler  and  fire-box  full  was  9  11} 
That  of  the  tender,  with  21  cwt.  of  coke  and  520  gallons  of 

water,  was 6     4} 


Total  weight 


15  151 


The  engine,  when  empty,  weighed 8  tons. 

The  trials  were  made  on  the  Grand  Junction  Railway  in  April  and  May, 
1839,  and  were  continued  over  the  whole  distance  from  Birmingham  to  Liver- 
pool, except  when  stopping  short  at  Warrington  to  take  loads ;  and  occasion- 
ally making  double  trips,  so  as  to  travel  the  total  distance  of  156  miles  per 
day.  Attention  was  more  particularly  paid  to  the  speed  when  ascending  the 
gradients,  which  rise  at  the  rate  of  1  in  330  (16  feet  in  a  mile),  or  1  in  177 
(29  ft.  4  in.  per  mile),  and  as  the  engines  approached  these  gradients  fre- 
quently either  at  an  accelerated  or  a  diminished  speed,  the  observations  were 
iiiade  at  the  points  most  remote  from  the  cause  of  variation  from  uniform 
velocity.  Some  of  the  trials  were  made  with  such  a  number  of  empty  wag- 
gons to  make  up  the  weight,  that  the  train  attained  a  length  of  nearly  an 
eighth  of  a  mile :  this  required  some  allowance,  which  was  estimated  at  from 
one-eighth  to  one-ninth  in  addition  to  the  actual  weight  of  the  empty 
waggons. 

The  extreme  limit  of  working  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler  was 
62  lb.  per  square  inch,  except  for  a  few  minutes  on  one  occasion,  when  it  rose 
to  64  lb.  The  usual  piessure  for  the  locomotive  engine  boilers  on  railways 
now  generally  at  work,  is  from  50  to  75  lb.  per  square  inch. 

An  analysis  of  the  tabulated  results  of  the  several  trips  give  these  general 
results  : — that  on  a  plane  of  1  in  330,  with  a  load  varying  from  100  to  120 
tons,  the  speed  varied  from  13^  miles  to  22 J  miles  per  hour;  that  on  a 
plane  of  1  in  177,  with  a  load  of  100  tons,  the  speed  varied  from  9^  miles 
to  13-^  miles  per  hour. 

From  the  analysis  it  appears,  that  allowing  in  five  of  the  trials  the  stipu- 
lated amount  of  performance  to  have  been  made,  and  that  in  five  otlier  trials 
a  doubt  may  exist,  still  in  the  remaining  eleven  trials  the  exact  amount  of 
duty  demanded  was  not  performed. 

A  comparison  of  the  journeys  up  from  Liverpool  to  Birmingham,  with 
those  down  from  Binuinghara  to  Liverpool,  gives  rather  a  singular  result. 
The  aggregate  rise  of  the  gradients  from  Liverpool  to  Birmingham  is  about 
€20  feet,  that  from  Birmingham  to  Liverpool  is  about  380  feet  (exclusive  in 
both  cases  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway) ;  the  difference,  there- 
fore, up  to  Birmingham  is  about  240  feet.  In  7  journeys  of  596  miles  up  to 
Birmingham,  the  engine  conveyed  682  tons  gross,  evaporated  12,705  gallons 
of  water,  and  consumed  177  sacks  of  coke  (l-j  cwt.  each).  In  7  journeys  of 
596  miles  down  from  Birmingham,  the  same  engine  conveyed  629  tons  gross, 
evaporated  12,379  gallons  of  water,  and  consumed  177  sacks  of  coke.  It 
•would  thus  appear  that  the  consumption  of  fuel  was  the  same  in  both  cases, 
and  the  only  diflference  was  the  evaporation  of  326  gallons  of  water  more  in 
the  journey  up  than  in  the  journey  down,  conveying  nearly  the  same  load  both 
ways. 

The  author  remarks,  that  in  the  early  stage  of  his  observations  on  the  en- 
gine, he  would  have  inferred  that,  from  the  mode  of  construction,  it  was  not 
calculated  for  high  speeds,  such  as  are  required  for  the  mail  trains ;  yet  that 
he  has  often  seen  it  travel  with  apparent  ease  at  the  speed  of  30  miles  per 
hour ;  and  he  thinks  that,  with  some  slight  modification  of  the  working  parts, 
engines  of  this  construction  may  be  made  to  do  any  duty  now  required  from 
locomotive  engines  ;  and,  from  the  small  quantity  of  repair  required  during 
the  trials  (only  renewing  the  fire-bars,  which  were  originally  intended  for 
burning  wood,  and  putting  nine  stronger  ferules  in  the  tubes),  he  is  of  opinion, 
that  the  present  construction  is  exceedingly  well  calculated  for  heavy  loads — 


that  it  may  be  modified  for  attaining  high  speeds — and  will  prove  a  durable 
and  economical  machine. 

Captain  Moorsom,  in  reply  to  some  questions  from  several  members,  stated, 
that  although  the  -American  locomotive  engines  had  not  strictly  complied 
with  the  stipulated  conditions,  yet  he  considered  them  good,  serviceable  en- 
gines, and  it  was  the  intention  of  the  directors  of  the  Birmingham  and  Glou- 
cester Railway  Company  to  have  ten  of  them  on  their  line.  The  price  of  the 
engine  complete,  including  the  import  duty  of  20  per  cent.,  is  from  £1500  to 
f  1600.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  the  engines  is  the  facility  afforded 
by  the  truck  for  going  round  curves — the  same  engineers  managing  indis- 
criminately the  ordinary  six-wlieel  engines,  and  the  American  ones  are  ob- 
served to  go  faster  round  the  curves  with  the  latter  than  with  the  former. 
Round  a  curve  of  10  chains  radius,  they  had  gone  at  a  speed  of  20  miles  per 
hour.  They  run  also  quite  as  well  on  a  straight  road,  lie  had  travelled  on 
them  between  Whitmore  and  Crewe  at  the  speed  of  from  30  to  40  miles  per 
hour.  They  appeared  less  likely  to  be  thrown  off  the  rails  than  other  engines, 
as  in  some  instances  they  had  run  over  the  short  pointers  of  the  Grand 
Junction  Railway — the  engineer  had  merely  felt  a  slight  jar,  but  no  accident 
had  occurred.  He  attributed  this  to  the  truck  adapting  itself  so  readily  to 
the  rails.  The  coke  used  in  the  trials  was  the  same  as  that  in  daily  use  on 
the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  and  was  of  average  quality.  The  mode  of  at- 
taching the  tender  to  the  engine  was  peculiar,  and  lie  conceived  it  to  be  ad- 
vantageous, as  it  threw  a  portion  of  the  weight  upon  the  engine  and  was  an 
assistance  in  starting.  The  engines,  as  they  are  now  constructed,  will  do 
well  for  all  ordinary  speeds ;  but  if  higher  speeds  are  required,  a  greater  ex- 
pense must  he  incurred,  and  certain  alterations  must  be  made  in  them. 

Mr.  Bury  conceived  tlie  chief  peculiarity  of  the  engine  to  consist  in  the 
end  of  the  boiler  being  placed  on  the  moveable  truck,  which  certainly  enabled 
it  to  adapt  itself  easily  to  any  curve  in  the  railway.  The  cylinders  are  in  the 
same  position  as  those  in  the  first  of  Stephenson's  engines,  and  the  other 
parts  are  as  nearly  as  possible  identical  witli  plain  engines  constructed  in 
England.  The  pointers  on  the  Grand  Junction  Railway  are  constructed  and 
placed  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  throw  off  a  carriage  which  might  run  over 
them,  and  a  four-w  lieeled  engine  would  not  have  been  thrown  off  by  meeting 
a  closed  pointer.  To  enable  him  to  form  a  correct  comparative  estimate  of 
the  work  done  by  these  engines,  it  should  be  shown  what  power  was  exerted 
at  the  wheels.  This  was  a  clear  mode  of  arriving  at  a  result  and  comparison 
with  other  engines. 

Mr.  Dnnkin  remarked,  that  the  flanches  on  the  wheels  appeared  to  be  all 
that  retained  tliein  on  the  rails,  and  that  the  truck  turning  on  a  centre-pin 
would  allow  considerable  lateral  friction,  unless  there  was  some  mode  of 
keeping  the  truck  in  a  proper  position  when  on  a  straight  line  of  railway.  If 
this  kind  of  engine  is  superior  to  those  generally  in  use  in  this  country,  it 
must  be  in  some  jiart  of  the  construction  which  is  not  shown  in  the  model  or 
by  the  description.  He  inquired  whetlif  r,  in  any  of  the  four  or  six-wheeled 
English  engines,  any  provision  is  made  for  changing  the  position  of  the  a.xles, 
so  as  to  allow  of  a  divergence  from  parallelism  when  rounding  curves. 

Mr.  Bury  replied,  that  in  the  engines  on  the  Leeds  and  Manchester  Rail- 
way, although  the  axles  were  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  a  considerable 
allowance  was  made  in  the  journals  of  one  pair  of  the  wheels,  so  as  to  facili- 
tate  the  passage  round  curves. 

The  President  observed,  that  the  wheels  being  turned  conically  was  of 
much  assistance  in  passing  curves,  even  although  the  axles  were  confined  by 
the  journals  in  a  parallel  position.  He  was  aware  that  (his  threw  an  extra 
strain  upon  the  curve  rails,  but  that  would  only  require  more  attention  in 
securing  them  than  on  the  straight  line  of  railway. 

"  Model  of  the  Coal  Field  of  the  Forest  of  Dean." 

Mr.  Sopwith  exhibited  a  model  of  a  tract  of  30  square  miles  of  Gloucester, 
shire,  comprising  the  mining  districts  in  the  Forest  of  Dean.  This  model 
showed  all  the  undulations  of  the  surface,  the  towns,  villages,  and  detached 
buildings,  railways,  coal  and  iron  mines ;  and  separating  vertically  through 
the  centre  from  north  to  south,  and  from  east  and  west,  exhibited  the  geolo- 
gical formation  down  through  the  coal  measures  to  the  old  red  sand-stone  : 
the  construction  is  such  that,  by  Ufting  off  horizontal  layers,  the  extent  and 
position  of  each  bed  of  coal  is  shown,  with  the  extent  of  the  workings  in  the 
different  collieries,  and  on  each  bed  is  marked  the  portion  that  can  be  worked 
by  level  and  freed  from  water  by  natural  drainage.  This  coal  tract  forms  an 
elliptical  basin  ;  the  longest  diameter  of  which,  from  N.  N.  E.  to  S.  S.  W.  is 
about  10  miles,  and  the  shorter  about  6  miles,  ranging  round  Coleford  as  a 
centre.  There  are  about  20  beds  of  coal  of  various  thickness,  containing  to- 
gether nearly  37  feet  of  clear  coal.  The  carboniferous  strata  crop  out  regu- 
larly all  round  against  the  mountain  lime-stone  and  old  red  sand-stone,  and 
dip  uniformly  towards  the  centre  of  the  basin.  This  could  scarcely  be  shown 
clearly,  even  by  an  almost  indefinite  number  of  plans,  which  induced  Mr. 
Sopwith  to  project  the  model,  the  method  of  constructing  which  he  described 
to  be  by  framing  together  in  squares  a  given  number  of  thin  strips  of  wood, 
joining  them  b^  half  lapping  at  the  intersections  ;  on  these  strips,  the  profiles 
of  the  sections  were  drawn,  from  measurements  and  borings.  The  compart- 
ments of  these  skeleton  frames  were  then  filled  in  with  lime-tree  wood,  as 
being  lightest  and  easiest  to  work,  and  carved  out  to  the  depth  of  the  lines 
drawn  on  the  strips ;  by  these  means  a  series  of  horizontal  sections  fitting 
into  each  other  were  obtained,  and  when  painted  of  the  proper  colours,  both 
on  the  surfaces  and  on  the  edges,  prodaced  the  complete  model  which  he 
exhibited.    The  cost  of  it  was  about  iSSO  complete.     It  was  constructed  un- 

3  A  2 


348 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


der  Mr.  Sojiwitli's  direction, 
meiil. 


and  from  surveys  made  1)\  liini  for  the  (io\ern- 


^jjril  14. — The  Puesidest  in  the  Chair. 
Tlie  fnlloHing  were   Ijalloted  for  and  elected  : — James  C.  Sherrard,  and 
George  II.  Phipps,  as  Members  ;  and  John  Harris,  as  a  Graduate. 

"  Drscription  of  the  Sfeani  Ship  '  India,'  with  a  table  of  the  proportions  of 
large  Steam  Ships."     By  Lieutenant  E.  N.  Kendall,  U.N'.,"  Assoc,  lust.  C.  E. 

This  vessel  was  built  at  Greenock  by  Messrs.  John  Scott  and  Sons,  and  the 
engines  were  constructed  by  Jlessrs.  Scott,  Sinclair,  and  To.  To  readei  her 
eligible  as  a  packet  sbiji  bctvieen  London  and  Calcutta,  via  the  Cape  -of  Good 
Hope,  the  timbers  were  lengthened  so  as  to  admit  of  tlie  quart«r  deck  and 
forecastle  being  raised  2  feet  more  tlian  is  usual ;  by  w  hich  means  a  llush 
deck  was  formed  along  the  whole  lengtli  of  the  vessel,  200  feet  by  29  feet, 
materially  adding  to  tlie  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  passengere. 

The  long  flat  floor,  with  straight  sides  and  fine  ends,  adopted  in  all  the 
best  of  the  Clyde-builf  ships,  for  the  purpose  of  attaining  a  consiiiei-able  speed 
Avith  comparatively  small  power,  and  uniting  with  a  liglit  dj-aft  of  water  a 
good  cajiacity  for  cargo  or  passengers,  has  been  adhered  1o,  altiiough  tlie 
cstabhshed  usag2  on  tlie  Clyde  of  making  the  length  sik  times  tlie  beam  has 
been  somewhat  exceeded,  witliout  impairing  the  speed,  as  the  \o>ag«  fixan 
Greenock  to  London  was  made  in  86  hours,  against  a  strong  head  wind  dur- 
ing a  considerable  portion  of  the  time. 

The  rigging  is  fitted  so  as  to  combine  lightness  with  strength,  arid  th«  fa- 
cility of  making  every  thing  "  snug"  when  steaming  against  the  wind;  the 
spars  lieiiig  so  jiroportioned  as  to  carry  a  large  sju-ead  of  canvass  when  run- 
ning dowu  the  trade  winds.  There  are  several  improvements  in  the  rigging. 
Two  of  them  are  paiticularly  mentioned.  1st.  The  employment  of  iron 
sockets,  into  which  the  shrouds,  having  been  tapered,  parcelled,  and  seried, 
are  inserted  and  firmly  rivetted.  Instead  of  passing  over  the  mast-head,  Hjey 
are  attached  by  shackles  to  a  series  of  holes  along  the  edge  of  a  strong 
wrought -iron  plate  or  cap  wliich  surrounds  the  mast.  This  is  more  secure 
than  the  ordinary  fastening,  as  it  prevents  all  chafing  or  injury  from  tlie  wet, 
besides  being  more  compact,  and  allows  any  repairs  to  be  more  easily  eiSitted. 
2nd.  The  mode  of  fitting  the  foreyard  for  coming  dovsn  readily  in  bad  weather. 
The  truss  bow  is  made  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  the  heel  of  the  fore-top 
mast  passing  readily  tlirougli  it,  and  has  on  its  fore-end  an  eye  through 
which  passes  an  iron  bolt,  .5  feet  long,  which  is  held  in  its  positioii  by  a  chain 
passing  round  the  mast-head ;  to  the  lower  end  of  the  bolt  is  attached  a 
chain,  which  passes  through  a  swiv«l  eye  on  the  yard,  and  is  drawn  tight  by 
a  screw  traversing  one  of  the  deck-beams.  When  the  yard  is  hoisted  op,  it 
slides  along  tlie  chain  jackstay,  which  prevents  it  from  swaying  about  uutil  it 
reaches  the  bolt  which  enters  the  swivel  eye,  and  when' it  is  close  up,  the 
yard  is  slung  by  two  slioit  eliains  shackled  on  to  tlie  mast-head  chains.  Thfi 
operations  of  striking  the  yard  and  top-mast  may  be  thus  accomplislied 
simultaneously  in  a  few  minutes  in  the  worst  weather,  or  they  may  be  replaoed 
in  the  same  short  period. 

The  engines  have  most  of  the  acknowledged  improvements,  and  are  fitted 
with  "  Hall's  Condensers"  in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  work  with  them 
or  with  the  ordinary  condensers.  The  cylindere  are  62  inches  in  diameter, 
with  5  feet  9  inches  stroke.  The  diamcte'r  of  the  paddle-wheels  is  26  feet ; 
the  length  of  the  floats  is  8  feet,  divided  into  two  parts  in  the  depth,  and 
fixed  one  before  and  the  other  behind  the  arms.  There  is  an  apiiaratus  for 
cutting  off  the  steam  at  any  portion  of  the  stroke.  The  boilers  are  of  a  pe- 
culiar construction,  combining  vertical  flues  with  a  series  of  horizontal  fire 
tubes,  exposing  a  very  considerable  surface  so  as  to  be  worked  by  slow  com- 
bustion of  the  fuel  from  two  sets  of  fire-places  over  each  other;  by  throwing 
on  the  coals  alternately,  the  gas  evolved  from  the  fresh  fuel  is  ignited  in  its 
passage  over  the  other  fire-places.  A  considerable  economy  has  been  eftected 
by  these  means. 

The  paper  is  accompanied  by  a  drawing  of  the  improvements  in  the  rigging, 
with  plans  of  the  vessel  and  engines,  and  a  tabular  statement  of  the  propor- 
tions and  scantling  of  a  number  of  other  large  steam  ships. 


ON  IRON  AND  TIMBER  BUILT  SHIPS. 

Ok  the  Ki'mesis  primle-armeJ  Siciimer,  mid  on  tlie  rompariillve  effiriency  of  Iron- 
built  and  Timber-built  Ships.  By  Augustjn  F.  B.  CRiiVzr.'of  11.  M.  Dock- 
yard, Portsmouth. 

(From  the  United  Service  Journal.) 
Most  persons  wlio  take  any  interest  in  naval  afihirs  v ill  have  olservcd. 
for  some  years  past,  occasional  notices  in  the  nenspancrs.  of  hoats  and  ves- 
sels buili  of  iioii.  It  appears  to  be  very  probaljle  that  this  material  may 
eventually  almost  wholly  supersede  timber  in  the  construction  of  boats, 
barges,  steam,  and  the  smaller  classes  of  sailing  vessels;  aiul  therefore  any 
"''O'''"'''ion  as  to  the  manner  of  building  such  cratt,  or  on  their  qualities, 
aiid  the  comparative  increase  either  of  safely  or  danger,  bv  tBe  substitution 
ot  iron  tor  limber,  must  l,e  worthy  of  notice.  The  KenieJis,  a  steam-vessel 
of  nearly  700  tons  burthen,  and  built  wholly  of  iron  ha.-;  been  lately  docked 
at  her  Majesty  s  Yard,  at  F(  rtsmonlh.for  llie  purpose  of  having  damages  re- 
paired, uliich  she  bad  .uistained  by  striking'  on  a  rock  off  Scilly,  in  ihick 
weaiber,  «ben  on  her  passage  Irom  Luerpiol  to  Odessa.  This  aflorded  a 
moat    avourablc  opportunity  of  obtaining  considerable  insight  into  the  de- 


tails of  -n  iron  vessel,  uliile  the  co\nteoiis  anxiety  displayed  by  the  gentle- 
man who  buili  her,  Mr.  LairJ,  of  the  Berkenbcadlron  Works,  at  Liverpool, 
and  by  the  officer.  Mr.  Hall,  a  Master  in  the  Royal  Navy,  who  commands 
licr.  t'l  give  ejery  information  tliat  was  in  their  power,  removed  all  the  diffi- 
culties which  generally  ati«pd  such  a  task.  The  following  particulars,  as  far 
as  facts  are  coiicemcil.  may  therefore  be  relied  upon  as  correct  :  the  opinions 
which  ma^  be  intermingled  «ith  those  facts  must,  of  course,  be  received  only 
as  such.     The  dimensions  of  the  Nemesis  are  as  follows  : — 

Length  between  the  perpendiculars     1 65 

Length  over  all 181 

Length  from  stem  to  taflrail 173 

Breadth    29 

Depth  11 

Burthen  (old  measurement)  tons 660 

The  keel-plate  was  laid  in  August  of  the  last  year  ;  the  vessel  was  launched 
in  November  ;  her  engines  put  on  board,  and  .'^iie  herself  tried  hi  December  ; 
and.  finally,  she  was  ready  for  sea  by  the  middle  of  January. 

The  vessel  is  l.uilt  almost  entirely  of  iron  ;  tlie-eyrieptkms  beiagitlie  ptenk- 
sheer  or  gunwale,  which  is  of  oak  4'iiicli«s  ihiek  and  lOiBcbes  broad,  -brougfat 
uiipon  and  .secured  to  a  jnhnksiieer  or  gtuivi  ale  of  anyle  iron  ;  the  liat  of  tie 
(leek.  '>>jMeh  is  of  3-ii:ch  &{;  lour  beams  tinder  tlic  deck,  yjiwljes  squiuie. 
Tliese  are  forward,  and  supju^rt  ilie  cairiek-bixts,  paul-bitis.ajid  tlie  foremost 
gun.  Tlie  Jemamilei'  ol  the  beams,  uilh  the  exeepiion  of  tlie  piuldle-ljeams, 
uliicb  are  of  oak.  12-inch  sided  and  14-inch  moulded,  are  of  iron.  The  knee 
of  tie  head,  the  rudder,  llu?  paildle-lxixcs,  and  a  liglil  berthing  above  the 
gunM  ale.  about  2  feet  8  inches  high,  are  of  wood.  The  coamings  and  fittings 
upon  deck  are  generally  of  noc  d,  altliotigh  for  liiese  purposes  more  iron  is 
used  in  the  Nemesis  than  in  timber-built  vessels.  The  cabins  and  fittings 
for  liie  oflicers,  passengers  and  crew ,  are  of  WLod,  and  are  very  neat  and 
handsome. 

The  mean  launching  draught  of  water — with  masts,  yards,  rigging,  anchor, 
and  cable,  with  the  cabi-n  fittings  in  a  forw  ard  state — 'yas,  acconling  to  the 
information  aliijidedby  Mf.  Laird.  2feet4i  incl*s.  The  mean  load  draught, 
ivitli  12  days'  full  supp'ly  of  coals,  water  and  provisions,  for  a  crew  of  40  men 
for  4  raontlis.  and  3  jears'  slii-p  stores  of  all  sorts,  with  duplicate  and  extra 
machiiiery.  is  a.lse  stated  to  have  been  6  feet. 

The  engines  were  made  at  Liverpool,  U'  Wessj-s.  Forrester  aJ'.d  Co.  Tlie 
diameter  of  the  cylinders  is  44  inches,  and  tire  length  of  tlie  stroke  4  feet.  The 
estimate  in  horse-power  for  the  two  engi'nes  is  KO.  The  framings  or  supports 
for  the  engines  are  of  urougbt  iro-n.  It  is  'usiuil  to  have  them  of  east  irom. 
Tlie  greater  strcngtii  of  u  roiaght  iron  enables  them  to  be  rande  of  much  leas 
size  and  v.eight.  and  tlifir  apjiearance  is  also  neces.-iai-ily  lighter.  The  Ixiiiers 
may  be  worked  either  separately  or  together.  iJie  jvailjle-wheels  are  17 feet 
G  inches  diameter  to  the  ijiner  edge  of  the  rim.  Th;-  floats,  which  are  16  iu 
number,  are  6  feet  9  inches  long,  and  14|  inches  broad.  The  paddle-shaft  is 
78  feet  abaft  the  fore-end  of  the  water-line.  The  vessel  carries  two  32-pounder 
medium  guns,  one  forward  and  the  other  aft,  on  JiiTut-carriagcs,  to  fire  over 
all  ;  and  it  is  this  iriiich  constitutes  one  of  tlie  c4i;ef  points  of  intwest  in  the 
Nemesis.  T)ie  guns  are  reported  to  have  been  fired  several  times  with  an 
extra  charge  of  powder,  and  double-shotted.  Tlie  coitcussion  has  left  na 
visible  traces  on  the  vessel :  and,  the  expciimeiaf,  as  tar  as  it  has  as  yet  been 
carried,  certainly  does  not  militate  against  the  aJopUoiiof  irou  in  the  coo- 
struction  o'sliips  for  war. 

The  fore-mast  rakes  2  feet  in  20,  and  is  32  I'etH  aL>aft  the  fore-end  of  the 
vater-bne.  The  main-mast  rakes  1  foot  in  20,  and  is  1)1  feet  G  inches  aba/t 
the  fore-end  of  the  water-line.  The  bowsprit  steaves  5  feet  C  irclics  iu  20 
feet.    The  foliovting  are  the  dimensions  of  the  spars  : — 

I^engUi,  ft.  Diameter,  in. 

Fore-mast,  from  deck  to  houods i2      Jo 

Fore-mast,  froiu  head    8      — 

M:iin-ni3st,  from  deck  to  hounds 42i     15 

Main-mast,  fi-om  head    8 

Fore  top-mast 24 

Fore  head 4 

Sliiling  gonler-mast    28 

Shding  pole 8 

Maintop-mast 33 

Main  pole 13       .. 

Fore  gall    23       .. 

-Maingafl' 23       .. 

Fore-yard  cleated   52\ 

l""ore-yard  arms   3j     '' 

F»ie  topsail-yard,  cleated     36> 

Fore  to|)sail-yanl  arms 2)     ' ' 

Fore  topgallant-yard,  cleated 25 

Fore  topgallant-yard,  arms li     . 

ISowsprit,  out-hoard 21 

Jib-boom,  out-board 13 

Jib-boom,  in-board    13J     — 

The  form  of  the  midship  section  may  be  best  described  by  saying  that  it  is 
an  olilong,  1 1  feet  in  depth  and  29  in  breadth,  with  its  liase  curved  down- 
wards 6  inches  in  15  feel,  to  the  middle  linn  of  the  keel,  its  sides  slightly 
curved  outwards,  and  the  lower  corners  rounded  oil  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  to  a 
radius  of  about  three  fee'.  The  midship  portion  of  the  body,  in  which  the 
engines,  boilers  and  coal  lie,  preserves  much  tlie  same  section  throughout  its 
length.  Forward  and  aft,  the  form  becomes  finer,  and  gradually  appro.ximates 
to  the  usual  bow  anil  stern  of  sailing  vessels.  The  stern-post  is  plumb.  The 
stem  rakes  forward  of  the  perpendicular  at  an  angle  of  16".  It  may  here  be 
remarked,  that  the  body  is  throughout  remarkably  fair  ;  and  that  an"observer, 
standing  either  before  'the  stem  Ic^oking  aft.  or  abaft  the  post  looking  forward, 
can  detect  i.o  more  difference,  if  anv  there  be,  between  the  two  sides,  than 
would  he  uliserved  in  a  vessel  built  wholly  of  wood. 

Mlth  respect  to  the  method  of  connecting  the  various  parts,  strictly  speak- 


10 

6 

10 

n 

lOJ 

8i 
6 
6 
15 
8 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


.349 


ing  there  is  no  keel,  altlKaisli  tlic  lo^^"er  plate  of  iron,  wliicli  connects  the 
two  sides  of  the  ship,  and  which  is  ahout  a  foot  in  breadth,  is  called  the  keel- 
plate.  This  plale  is  slightly  cm'vod.  with  its  conve.K  side  downwards,  so  as 
to  form  a  channel  for  water  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  vessel,  under 
the  tloors.  The  floors  are  straight  bars  of  angle  iron,  with  one  flange,  four 
inches  wide,  lying  horizontally  ;  the  other  9  inches  deep,  hanging  vertically. 
The  vertical  flange  is  connected  to  the  bottom-plates  of  the  ship  by  3-inch 
angle  iron — that  is,  angle  iron  of  3  inches  width  of  flange.  Upon  the  npper 
surfaces  of  the  floors,  iive  ranges  of  sleepers,  of  timber  12  inches  square,  and 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the  hold  of  the  ship,  are  laid,  and  securely 
bolted  to  the  horizontal  flans^es  of  the  floors,  by  1 -inch  bolis,  their  poin:s 
secured  umhr  the  flange  of  the  floor  by  imts  on  to  screws  at  these  points. 
The  frames,  which  are  of  angle  iron  3  inclies  wide,  are  18  inches  apart  along 
the  midship  body  of  the  vessel ;  but  forward  and  aft  this  space  is  gradually 
increased,  until  they  become  about  three  feet  apart.  The  in  and  out  flaiif^e 
of  the  frames  is  rivetrd  to  tlie  vertical  flange  of  the  floors  by  J  iron  rivets, 
about  6  inches  apart.  The  iron  plates  foiming  the  planking,  or  rather  skin, 
of  the  vessef,  are  secured  to  these  frames  by  being  riveted  to  the  other  flange 
of  the  frames  with  rivets  of  j  iron,  which  are  distant  apart  about  3  inches 
from  centre  to  centre. 

The  connection  of  the  sleepers  or  keelsons,  which  are  of  red-pine  timber, 
with  the  iron  floors,  and  of  the  floors  with  the  frames,  and  of  the  iron  plates 
with  the.se  frames,  may  be  more  easily  understood  by  reference  to 
Fig.  1.  The  rivets  by  \\hich  the  plates  are  secured  to  the  frames,  are  luit  in 
from  the  inside  of  the  vessel,  and  are  clenched  flush  on  the  plate  :  the  outer 
part  of  the  hole  through  the  plate  being  counter-sunk  to  receive  the  rivet,  so 
tha!  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  a  perfectly  even  and  smooth  .surface.  Tlie 
whole  of  the  riveting  is  pcrforineu  with  rivets  heated  nearly  to  a  welding 
heat;  therefore,  the  contact  between  the  surfaces  of  the  iron  is  exceedingly 
perfect,  as  it  is  insured  not  only  by  the  care  applied  to  the  riveting,  but  by 
the  contracting  of  the  rivets  in  cooling.  The  frames  run  up  to  and  end  upon 
the  iron  gunwale,  which  h;'s  been  before  mentioned.  This  is  of  3-inch  angle 
iron,  with  one  flange  horizontal,  to  which  the  4-inch  wooden  giinwale  is 
secured  by  screw-bolts:  the  other- flange  is  vertical,  and  to  that  the  upper 
ends  of  the  frames  are  riveted.  Between  the  wood  and  the  iron  forming  this 
compound  gunwale,  felt  is  laid,  which  is  so  firmly  compressed  by  the  screw- 
bolts,  that  the  joint  is  perfectly  water-tight.  The  beams  are  of  iron,  and 
formed  by  two  bars  of  angle  iron,  having  their  vertical  flanges  back  to  back, 
with  a  bar  of  iron  9  inches  deep  and  \  of  an  inch  thick  riveted  between  these 
two  vertical  flanges.  The  deck  is  of  fir,  3  inches  thick,  lying  upon  an  I  being 
secured  down  to  the  horizontal  flanges  of  the  beams  by  screv.-  bolts,  the  heads 
of  which  are  sunk  about  J  an  inch  Ijelow  the  surface  of  the  plank,  and  are 
hidden  by  plugs  driven  down  upon  them  v. ith  white  lead.  Thus  the  fasten- 
ings of  the  deck  are  scarcely  perceptible.  The  points  of  these  bolts  .are  se- 
cured beneath  the  horizontal  flanges  ot  the  beams  by  nuts  on  a  screw.  I  he 
connection  of  the  angle-iron  gunwale  with  the  wooden  gunwale  and  with  the 
planking  i  also,  the  connection  of  the  deck  with  the  beams,  and  the  method 
of  forming  the  beams,  will  be  more  easily  understood  by  the  following 
sketches  :  (Figs.  2  and  3.) 


Fig.  3. — Section  of  beam. 


r?!?-i. 


z 


p  < 


^ 

^ 

,^-J 

> 

1 

Fig.  4. 


f^n 


o  -y-o    6^ 


T 


^^^■■ 


Fig.  2. 

Reference— Fig.  1. — S,  sleeper, 
iron  plate.    fF,  frame  between. 

Figs.  2  &.'3.— D,  deck.  B,  beam, 
frame. 

Figs.  4  !!^  5.— R,  rudder.  P,  port, 
stern. 


Fig.  5. 


The  ends  of  the  beams  are  secured  to  the  sides  by  angle-iron  knees.  The 
paddle-beams,  which,  it  has  been  before  said,  are  of  timljcr,  pass  the  sides  of 
the  vessel  through  what  may  be  called  sockets,  formed  by  bars  of  angle  iron 
placed  above,  below,  and  on  each  side  of  them.  One  flange  of  each  bar  is 
firmly  riveted  to  the  planking  o'  the  vessel  ;  and  the  other  flange  is  secured 
to  the  beam  by  screw  bolts.  Felt  is  also  inserted  here  in  the  joiijts  between 
the  wood  and  iron.  This  appears  to  be  a  general  precaution  in  similar  con- 
nections. 


The  stem  is  formed  of  sheet-iron,  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  alread^ 
described  for  the  keel.  At  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  there  if  a  sort  of '"^ 
soA'et  of  iron,  which  forms  the  gripe,  and  in  which  the  lower  end  of  the 
wooden  knee  of  the  her.d  is  inserted.  It  has  been  already  mentioned  that  the 
rudder  of  the  Nemesis  is  of  tinil  er  ;  but  this  appears  to  be  an  exception  to 
the  general  practice  in  th?se  iron  vessels.  The  main  piece  inclusive  of  the 
head,  is  usually  of  iron  ;  and  when  of  iron,  is  thus  formed  and  connected 
with  tlie  stern-pcst.     (Figs.  4  and  !>.) 

The  s  ern  is  strengthened  by  a  fasliion-piece  of  angle  iron:  and  the  tie 
across  the  stern  is  by  a  transom,  also  of  angle  iron.  The  berthing  all  round 
the  vessel,  already  mentioned  :^s  being  of  fir,  is  secured  to  short  fop-timbers 
of  wood,  which  are  let  through  the  gunwale  and  run  do',\n  about  two  feet 
below  It.  They  are  secured  by  two  riveted  bolts  through  the  planking  of  the 
vessel ;  and  at  their  intersection  with  the  iron  gunwale,  by  angle  iron  on  each 
side. 

The  sheets  of  iron  which  form  the  planking  of  the  vessel  are  about  8  feet 
long  anil  2  feet  6  inches  broad.  Of  cou  se,  these  dimensions  vary  according 
to  the  place  of  the  sheet  in  the  body  of  the  vessel.  The  lowerGsirakes  ivhich 
form  the  bottom,  and  extend  from  the  keel-pl  ite  to  the  turn  of  the  bi'ge.  are 
clinker-tui  t.  The  stnke  at  the  turn  uf  the  bilge,  and  the  5  strakes  which 
form  the  side  of  the  vessel  from  this  turn  upw.irds,  are  carvel-built.  The 
lands  of  the  clinker  seams  are  riveted  with  f  iron  rivets  similarly  to  the  lands 
of  a  clinkcr-ljuilt  boat,  without  any  strengthening  bands.  The  carvel  seams, 
and  the  buts  of  b^th  clinker  and  carvel  strakes.  are  secured  by  bringing  the 
edges  of  the  plates  in  contact,  and  riveting  each  edge  to  a  strip  of  puate-iron, 
lying  on  and  linir.g  the  inside  of  the  j  int.  The  scams  arc  caulked  by  closing 
the  edges  of  the  two  plates  tcge'.lier  with  blows  of  a  cold  chisel.  The  whole 
of  the  rivets  are  flush  on  the  outsiile  of  the  vessel.  The  keel-plates  are 
7-16ths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  clinker-worked  plates  covering  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  are  Jihs  of  an  inch  in  thickness  ;  and  the  carvel-w;  rked 
pi  ites,  covering  the  top-sides,  are  from  5-16ths  to  J  of  an  inch  in  thlcknes.'. 
The  irrii  work  is  first  painted  wiih  several  coats  of  red  lead,  and  then  var- 
nished with  a  patent  varnish.  This  covering  to  the  iron  did  not  appear  to 
beat  all  disturbed  on  any  part  of  the  botttm  excepting  where  it  had  been 
itibbcd  ofl  by  the  rocks  on  which  she  had  grounded. 

There  are  several  peculiarities  in  the  internal  arrangements  of  the  vessel. 
The  whole  internal  space  is  separated  into  seven  water-tight  compartments, 
by  six  iron  alhwar'ships  bulkhe.ul  .*  Four  of  lhe;e — those  in  the  wider  part 
of  the  vessel — are  of  ,5-161113  of  an  inch  iron.  The  bulkhead  nearest  to  each 
extremity,  be'ng  of  small  surface,  .and  liable  to  less  immersion,  is  only  3-lUths 
in  thickness.  Ihe  wooden  sleepers  necessarily  pass  through  e'.ch  of  these 
bulkheads,  and  they  are  secure,!  where  they  pass  through  by  strong  flanges 
bolted  down  to  them  over  felt,  and  riveted  to  the  bulkheads,  so  that  no  water 
can  possibly  pass  from  any  oiu'  compartment  to  the  other.  Therefore,  a  leak 
v.  hich  may  be  sprung  in  any  part  of  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  can  only  anect 
that  compartment  between'  the  bulkheads  of  which  it  happens.  Thus  tie 
damage  caused  by  the  rock  on  which  she  struck,  admitted 4  feet  of  water  in'o 
the  compartment  in  which  it  occurred,  before  the  leak  could  be  stopped,  but 
there  was  none  in  any  other  part  of  the  vessel.  There  is  trsmall  hand-pump 
fitted  to  each  compartment,  the  pipe  from  which  leads  into  the  hollow  of  the 
keel-plate.  Large  pumps  are  not  necessary,  as  the  compartment  can  only 
fill  to'^the  level  of  the  ex'ernal  water,  and  may  then  be  emptied  at  leisure; 
or,  if  the  leak  be  gre:Uer  than  the  discharge  of  the  pump,  may  remain  filled 
until  a  port  is  reached. 

In  the  space  between  the  engines  and  the  boilers,  usually  called  the  stoke- 
hole, there  is  a  very  ingenious  means  adopted  to  strengthen  the  b-idy,  with- 
out interfering  with  the  accommodations  of  the  engine-room.  Tliis  is  the 
introduction  of  a  partial  bulkhead  with  an  aperture  bounded  above  by  an 
erect,  and  below  by  an  inverted  arch  of  bar-iron  ;  thus  supplying  by  me- 
clnnicnl  contrivance  ihc  support  which  otherwise  could  not  be  obiained  for 
this  part  of  the  body,  without  great  inconvenience.  To  obviate  the  disad- 
vantages atendant  on  the  small  draught  of  water  which  this  vessel  diaws, 
there  are  two  sliding  keels,  similar  in  jirincip'eto  Iho^e  which  were  originally 
proposed  by  Capt.  .Shank,  of  the  Royal  Navy,  when  in  command  if  the 
British  force  on  the  American  Lakes,  during  tlie  War  of  Independence.  These 
keels  are  each  7  feel  long,  and  capable  of  being  protruded  5  feet  below  the 
keel  of  the  vessel.  They  are  of  wood,  -ll  inches  thick,  and  each  w orks  up 
and  down  by  means  of  a  small  windlass  and  an  endless  chain,  in  a  water- 
t  ght  case  or  trunk  12  inches  wide,  formed  like  the  rest  of  the  bvdkheads.  of 
sheet  iron,  and  running  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  up  to  the  deck.  The 
plates  of  these  trunks  are  7-16ths  of  ,an  inch  thick,  and  they  are  strongly 
secured  by  angle  iron  to  the  athwartship  bulkheads,  which  they  also  serve 
to  support. 

The  report  of  the  officers  on  the  advantage  which  they  derived  from  these 
keels,  when  under  sail,  in  enabling  them  to  keep  the  vessel  up  to  windward, 
and  in  keeping  her  steady,  is  very  lavourable.  In  fact,  they  are  an  ingenious 
modification  of  ihe  lee-board.  One  of  them  is  situated  jist  before  the  engine- 
room,  and  the  other  just  abaft  it.  There  is  also  a  contrivance  by  which  the 
depth  of  the  rudder  in  the  water  may  be  increased  whenever  these  sliding 
keels  are  used. 

Having  now  described  the  vessel,  we  will  proceed  to  descrilie  ihe  damage 
she  sustained  by  striking.  When  she  struck,  her  sped  is  reported  to  have 
been  nearly  9  knots :  her  average  speed  was  8i.  The  first  blow  was  evident!/ 
received  exactly  in  the  centre  of  tlie  front  of  the  fore-foot  or  gripe,  which 
was  dented  in' about  3  inches,  and  split  about  S  inches  in  its  length.  This 
blow  must  have  been  inflicted  by  a  rock  at  least  as  sharp  as  the  pea  of  a  mo- 
derate sized  anchor.    The  blow  appears  to  have  been  repealed  under  the  keel- 

*  \V"e  have  been  told  that  this  method  of  dividing  the  whole  length  of  a 
vessel  into  separate  water-tight  comparlments  is  adopted  in  all  sea-going 
Chinese  junks.  We  trust  uur  naval  men  engaged  in  those  seas  will  keep  their 
eyes  open  to  these  and  many  other  interesting  particulars  respecting  the 
Chinese  vessels — for  a  description  of  which  our  pages  shall  alw  ays  be  open. — 
Editor. 


350 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


^ilate,  about  7  feet  abaft  the  fore-foot,  but  tlierc  it  only  occnsioned  a  sligbt. 
though  long  indentaticn.  The  principal  damage  was  on  the  starboard  side 
under  the  bilpe,  and  at  the  station  of  the  foremost  bulkhead.  The  (utside 
plate  or  jilanking  was  cut  ihrovifih  by  the  blow  having  forced  it  on  to  the 
ed<;es  of  the  bulkhead  plates  ;  and  the  lower  plate  of  tjjC  Inilkliead  was  broken 
l)y  this  pressure.  Tlie  wooden  sleeper,  which  lay  on  the  iron  floor  almost 
diiecily  above  the  blow,  was  started  up  li  inches  from  off  the  floor,  and  tlie 
iron  bolt  which  secured  il  to  the  Hoor  was  broken. 

The  blow,  to  liave  produced  such  damage  as  has  been  described,  must  evi- 
dently have  been  very  severe.  It  apparently  clearly  establishes  that  tlie  in- 
jury afiects  the  part  struck  only,  for  the  rivets  seem  to  have  held  as  tif;ht, 
and  the  contiguity  of  the  plates  of  iron  to  have  remained  as  perfect  after  the 
tlow  as  before  it  had  occurred,  excepling  onlv  the  plates  cut  by  the  bulk- 
lead.  There  might  have  been  a  very  rational  'doubt,  before  the  experience 
this  accident  has  aff  rded,  whether,  under  such  an  injury,  sheets  of  iron 
would  not  have  rent  almost  as  sheels  of  paper  would  teal  ;  and  whether  the 
livets  would  not  have  started  by  the  dozen  at  a  time,  as  the  stitches  in  the 
seams  of  a  sail.  Several  of  the  plates  aba^t  the  cut  plates  were  indented  in 
a  long  wa\7  indentation.  The  greatest  depth  of  the  indentation  occurred  at 
the  cut,  where  it  was  31  inches. 

The  injuries  were  repaired  by  placing  a  shoe  over  the  fore-foot,  somewhat 
similar  in  shape  to  the  shoe  used  to  drag  the  wheel  of  a  carriage  when  going 
down  hill.  This  shoe  was  riveted  strongly,  by  rivets  passing  through  it  and 
tlie  gripe,  from  side  to  side.  The  two  plates  of  the  bottom  which  were  cut, 
and  the  plate  of  the  bulkhead  which  was  broken,  were  taken  out  bv  punching 
out  the  rivets,  and  new  plates  were  substituted  for  them.  Those  plates  which 
■H-ere  only  inden'ed  were  taken  out,  straightened  in  the  fire,  and  replaced.  A 
small  quantity  of  the  angle  iron  framing,  ccnnccting  the  bulkhead  to  the  bot- 
tom, was  also  removed,  and  substituted  by  new.  According  to  information 
afforded  by  Mr.  I^aird,  the  weight  of  new  materials  used  in  the  repairs  was 
under  3  cwt.  and  the  e.xpense  for  tlie  materials,  and  wages  of  the  smiths  and 
riveters,  about  £30  ;  which,  he  says,  would  have  been  diminished  to  £20,  if 
lie  could  have  had  the  facilities  that  are  afforded  by  his  own  factory. 

It  is  not  ea^y  to  institute  any  comparison  between  the  expense  of  this  re- 
pair and  that  of  a  similar  accident  to  a  timber-built  ship,  because  we  cannot 
ascertain  what  would  have  been  tlie  extent  of  the  damage.  If  any  timbers 
had  been  broken,  which  would  in  all  probability  have  been  the  case,  the  ex- 
pense would  h.ave  been  much  greater.  But  unless  timbers  had  been  broken. 
the  mere  upsetting  of  the  gripe  of  a  ship,  the  rubbing  off'  of  a  few  sheets  of 
copper,  and  the  shifting  of  a  plank  or  tw  o,  would  no!  have  involved  expense 
much  exceeding  that  of  the  repair  of  the  Nemesis. 

Before  the  vessel  was  grounded  upon  the  blocks,  sights  were  placed  towards 
each  extremity,  140  feet  apart,  with  a  third  sight  between  them.  By  means 
of  these  sights,  observations  were  taken  before  and  after  groun-ling,  and  the 
deviation  from  the  straight  line,  in  the  length  of  140  feet,  was  only  a  quarter 
i)f  an  inch. 

Two  questions  now  naturally  arise  : — 1.  What  are  the  adv.-,ntages  or  dis- 
advai  ;agcs  of  the  iubstituticn  of  iron  for  timber  in  the  ccnstniction  of  ships  P 
— 2.  To  what  limit  may  this  substitution  be  advantageously  carried?  Among 
the  advantages  are  the  employment  of  a  less  material,  of  whicli  the  supply 
is  inexhaustible,  and  for  which  supply  we  are  totally  independent  of  other 
-nations.  Also,  the  greater  durability  of  the  m  lerial,  not  only  arising  from 
its  relative  durability  with  that  of  timber,  but  from  its  requiring  no  metallic 
sheathing  to  protect  it  from  the  ravages  of  worms.  Also,  the  greater  dura- 
bility of  the  structure  as  a  whole,  in  consequence  of  the  greater  permanency 
in  the  perfect  combination  of  its  several  parts,  arising  fr^  m  the  fastenings 
teing  of  the  same  hardness  of  texture  as  tlie  portions  of  maieiials  brought 
into  connection.  The  metallic  astenin:;s  to  a  timber-built  vessel  act.  it  must 
be  remembered,  not  only  chemically  but  also  mechanically,  to  accelerate  her 
flertruetion,  immediately  the  clore  connection  of  the  several  parts  is  at  all 
fliriinisbed. 

'These  appear  to  be  the  principal  advantages  of  iron  in  connection  with  the 
qu  'Stion,  as  far  as  first  expense  of  material  and  durability  are  concerned. 
Bit  these  considerations  are  independent  of  the  expense  in  relation  to  the 
comparative  total  quantities  of  materials  reiiuired  to  build  a  ship  of  each  sort. 
Fcr  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  iron-built  vessel  is  of  iron  alone:  the 
Jit  iber-buill  vessel  is  of  timber,  iron,  ami  copper. 

iVerc  it  possible  to  compare  an  iron-built  ship  with  one  entirely  built  of 
limber,  setting  aside  the  question  of  durability,  undoubtedly  the  advantage 
-would  be  wholly  on  the  side  of  the  timber-built  ship.  For  the  strength  of 
oak  is  one-fifth  that  of  wrought  iron,  and  its  weight  is  only  one-eighth  tliat 
of  wrought  iron.  But  this  comparison  is  untenable,  because  of  the  great 
quantity  of  metal  which  necessarily  enters  in  the  construction  of  the  tiinber- 
built  shp,  by  which  its  relative  weight  is  very  much  increased,  and  its  rela- 
tive strength  diminished.  By  the  term  "timber,"  in  speaking  of  a  timber- 
built  ship,  a  compound  of  timber,  copper  and  iron  is  meant,  having  less 
strength  in  proportion  to  weight  than  the  timber  alone,  but  greater  weight 
in  proportion  to  strength.  It  is  impossible  within  the  limits  of  this  paper  to 
investigate  the  actual  weights  of  wood,  iron,  and  copper,  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  a  timber-built  ship,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  exact  answer 
to  the  question  as  to  which  is  the  heavier  material  ii;  proportion  to  its  strength, 
the  "timber"  of  the  timber-built  ship,  or  the  iron  of  the  iron  vessel.  'We 
shall,  however,  assume  as  correct  that  which  we  believe  would  be  found  to  l.c 
■so,  viz.  that  the  material  of  the  timber -built  ship  would  be  the  heavier  in  pro- 
portion to  its  strength,  and  shall  proceed  to  the  further  investigation  of  the 
original  questions  on  that  assumption.  Therefore,  by  the  substitution  of 
iron  we  obtain  equal  strength  wiih  less  weight  of  material.  From  which  ad- 
vantage it  follows,  that  if  the  "  limber"  and  the  iron  vessel  be  each  built  for 
the  same  loaded  displacement,  the  iron  vessel,  with  equal  strength  will  be 
capable  of  carrying  a  heavier  cargo,  and  with  greater  strength  an  equal  cargo. 
Also,  that  if  a  "timber"  and  an  iron  vessel  be  built  of  the  same  strength, 
and  to  carry  the  same  weight  of  cargo,  the  iron  vessel  may  be  of  less  dis- 
placement, and  consequently  smaller  in  dimensions,  or  if  of  less  displacement 
with  the  same  dimensions,  may  be  more  advantageously  formed  for  velocity 


and  for  weatherly  qualities.  The  small  dimensions  'nvolvc  the  advantage  of 
light  dr.aught  of  water,  diminished  expense,  and  l.ss  numerous  crew,  xhe 
diminished  displ.acement  with  the  small  dimensions  involves  quicker  return 
of  capital  and  greater  safety  in  navigation. 

The  answer  to  the  second  question,  as  to  the  limit  in  the  size  of  the  vessel 
to  which  the  substitution  of  iron  for  "  timber  "  may  be  carried,  appears  also 
to  be  in-.-olved  in  the  foregoing  considerations.  For,  if  greater  strength  may- 
be obtained  with  equal  weight  of  material,  or  equal  strength  with  less  weight 
of  material,  there  can  be  no  limit  short  of  that  limitation  which  may  equally 
apply  to  "  timber.'  And.  by  an  application  of  the  foregoing  reasoning  to  the 
question  at  issue,  it  appears  that  a  first-rate  may  be  more  strongly  built  of 
iron  than  of  timber,  with  the  same  light  displacement,  and  equally  strong 
built,  but  capable  of  carrying  a  greater  quantity  of  water,  provisions,  and 
stores,  with  the  same  load  displacement;  or.  equally  strongly  built,  and 
capable  of  carrying  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  provisions  and  stores,  with  a 
less  load  displacement.  This  may  appear  to  be  a  bold  and  startling  result  of 
our  investigation  :  but  if  our  original  assumption  be  correct,  it  is  nevcrtlie- 
less.  within  the  bounds  of  truth.  Nay.  it  is  even  an  under  estimate  of  the 
limit  to  the  substitution  of  iron  for  wood  in  the  construction  of  ships.  For 
the  limit  to  the  possibility  of  constructing  a  fabric  of  any  conceivable  dimen- 
sions is  necessarily  dependent  upon  the  ratio  of  the  strength  of  the  material 
used  to  its  weight.  And  as  this  is  greater  in  iron  than  in  the  "  timber"  of 
the  timber-built  ship,  the  limit  of  dimensions  for  the  iron-b.iilt  ship  is  more 
extended  than  the  limit  of  the  dimensions  of  the  timber-built  ship. 

It  may.  perhaps,  be  necessary  to  repeat  that  the  word  "timber"  in  this 
investigation  means  the  copper,  iron  and  wood  of  the  timber-built  ship.  • 

If  we  take'into  consideration  the  very  few  years  that  have  passed  since  the 
first  application  of  iron  as  a  total  substitute  for  timber  in  building  ships,  it  is 
astonishing  to  what  perfection  this  branch  of  art  has  arrived;  and,  conse- 
quently, very  great  credit  attaches  to  Mr.  Laiid.  tor  the  intelligence  and 
talent  which  he  has  displayed  in  thus  adding  to  the  manufacturing  resources 
of  this  country.  As  the  art  proceeds,  and  becomes  more  general,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  great  improvements  will  be  made.  This  is  said  without  the 
slightest  intention  of  withholding  from  Mr.  Laird  the  high  meed  of  praise 
which  is  so  justly  his  due.  In  speaking  of  the  progress  of  improvement,  we 
are  too  prone  virtually  to  set  bounds  to  its  advance  ;  forgetful  of  the  fact  that 
perfection  being  unattainable  by  mortals,  it  is  a  mere  abstract  term,  meaning 
one  thing  yesterday,  another  to  day.  and  another  tomorrow.  One  improve- 
ment, and  that  probably  not  an  unimportant  one.  would  be  the  diagonal 
arrangement  of  the  plates  or  planking  of  the  vessel,  and  also  of  the  angle 
iron  frames.  Iron  offers  greater  resistance  to  compression  than  to  extension. 
And  bar-iron  offers  greater  proportionate  resistance  to  extension  than  plate- 
iron.  These  facts,  wHiich  have  been  ascertained  by  experiment,  enable  us  to 
determine  upon  the  positions  in  which  to  place  the  plates,  so  that  the  pecu- 
liarities of  strength  of  the  angle  and  bar-iron  shall  be  most  advantageously 
developed.  The  angle  iron  should  be  placed  so  as  to  act  as  tru  ses  in  sup- 
porting the  weight  of  the  extremities  of  the  vess  1 ;  the  weight  or  dow  nward 
pressure  of  which  is  neces-arily  greater  than  the  upward  pressure  of  the 
water.  The  frames  should,  therefore,  be  placed  with  their  heels  toward  the 
midship  part  of  the  ship,  and  their  heads  inclining  forward  in  the  fore  body, 
and  aft  in  the  after  body  to  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  horizon.  The 
plates  have  already  been  described  as  connected  together  at  their  edges  by 
being  riveted  to  strips  of  bar-iron.  These  may  form  the  ties,  and  the  direc- 
tion of  these  continuous  bands  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of 
the  angle  iron  frames.  Thus  the  whole'body  would  be  divided  by  these  two 
series  of  lines  into  compartments  ;  which,  in  the  vertical  part  of  the  body, 
would  be  squares,  each  with  one  diameter  vertical  and  the  other  horizontal, 
as  in  the  following  sketch.  Tlie  double  lines  are  the  angle  iron  frames,  the 
single  lines  the  continuous  bais  to  which  the  edges  of  the  sheets  rre  riveted. 
Of  course,  the  angle  iron  frames  will  receive  the  rivets  of  one  series  of  seams, 
and  therefore  by  ibis  adjustment  some  small  weight  of  iron  will  be  saved. 

The  floors  and  all  the  lower  part  of  the  vessel  may  remain  as  in  the  Ne- 
mesis. The  introduction  of  water-tight  bulkheads  is  very  gooil.  This  has 
been  be''ore  attempted  in  timber-built  ships,  but  has  failed,  from  the  igno- 
rance of  (he  pri  jectors  of  the  nature  of  the  pressure  of  water.  They  assumed 
that  a  caulked  bulkliead  of  three  or  four  inches  in  thickness,  that  would  be 
quite  adequate  to  resist  the  pressure  of  a  small  depth  of  water,  would  also  be 
of  su.fficient  strength  to  resist  the  pressure  to  which  it  would  be  subjected  by 
•Iceper  immersion.  Bulkheads,  to  resist  the  pressure  of  water,  must  increase 
in  strength  in  proportion  to  their  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
This  fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  construction  of  these  water-tight 
iron  bulkheads.  It  is  not  of  consequeni  c  with  small  draughts  of  water  ;  but 
when  larger  and  deeper  vessels  arc  built  of  iron,  it  will  become  a  question  of 
importance  ;  and  if  not  duly  attended  to,  the  kha  of  safely  from  water-tight 
bulkheads  may  be  most  delusive. 

The  question  of  the  durability  of  these  vessels,  of  their  little  liability  to 
accident,  and  of  the  ease  with  which  damage  done  to  them  may  be  repaired, 
appears  to  be  very  clearly  proved  from  the  experience  w  hich  has  already  been 
obtained  on  these  points;  and  this  is  not  little,  for  there  are  boats  built  by 
Mr.  Laird  in  both  North  and  South  America  ;  in  all  parts  of  India,  and  on 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Indus ;  in  F.gypt,  on  the  Nile  and  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean ;  oil  the  Vistula,  on  the  Shannon,  and  on  the  Thames,  One  of  these 
boats  on  the  Savannah  has  been  constantly  at  work  for  these  last  six  years 
without  any  repair  ;  which  is  a  great  test,  if  we  consider  the  frequent,  con- 
stant caulkings  required  to  preserve  a  timber-built  ship.  There  is  also  a 
steam-yacht  Iniilt  of  iron,  the  Glow-worm,  the  property  of  Asheton  Smith, 
Esq.  This  vessel  has  made  the  passage  from  Bristol  to  Carnarvon,  a  distance 
of  210  miles,  in  18  hours.  In  the  report  to  the  House  ot  Commons  on  steam- 
vessel  accidents,  we  find  the  following  slated  of  the  Garryowen,  one  of  these 
vessels  : — "  We  went  ashore  about  two  cables'  length  to  the  eastward  of  the 
pier  (Kilrush)  and  struck  very  heavy  for  the  first  hour.  The  ground  under 
oilr  weather-bilge  was  rather  soft  clay,  covered  with  shingle  and  loose  stones, 
some  of  them  pretty  large.  Under  our  inside,  or  lee-bilge,  the  ground  was 
very  hard,  being  a  footpath  at  low  water.    I  was  greatly  afiiid  slie  would  be 


1840] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


351 


very  much  injured  by  it  in  her  bottom,  but  am  iKippy  to  say  she  has  not  re- 
ceived any  injury  ;  in  facf.  her  bottom  is  as  perfect  and  as  good  as  on  tJie 
day  slie  left  Liverpool — not  a  single  rivet  started  nor  a  rivet-head  floivn  oil'. 
If  an  oak  vessel,  with  the  cargo  I  had  on  deck,  was  to  go  on  shore  where  the 
Garryowen  did,  and  get  such  "a  hammering,  they  w  ould  have  a  different  story 
to  teil.  .  .  .  Out  of  twenty-seven  vessels  that  got  ashore  that  niglit,  the 
Garryowen  is  the  only  one  that  is  not  damaged  more  or  less." 

Colonel  C'hesney,  the  commander  of  the  Euphrates  expedition,  writes  thus 
of  the  iron  vessels  which  were  employed  on  that  service  : — •'  It  is  but  right 
to  tell  you  tliat  the  iron  vessels  constructed  by  you  far  exceeded  my  expec- 
tations, as  well  as  those  of  the  naval  officers  employed  in  the  late  expedition, 
who  would  one  and  all  bear  testimony  anywhere  to  their  extraordinary  soli- 
dity ;  indeed,  it  was  often  repeated  by  Lieut.  Cleavelanil  and  the  others,  that 
any  wooden  vessel  must  have  been  destroyed  befoie  the  .service  w:  s  one  half 
completed  ;  whereas  the  Euphrates  was  as  perfect  when  they  laid  her  up  at 
ISagdad  as  the  first  day  she  w  as  floated.  As  I  am  now  occupied  in  preparing 
a  work  on  the  expedition.  I  shall  have  a  better  opportunity  than  the  present 
of  doing  justice  to  the  subject  of  iron  vessels,  lor  it  is  my  belief  ihat  they  will 
entirely  supersede  wood,  on  account  of  their  comparative  strength,  cheapness, 
and  durability,  whenever  people  are  satisfied  that  iheir  only  disadvantage — 
the  free  working  of  the  compass— has  been  overcome. 


REVIE^VS. 


Seville  and  its  T'icinily.  By  Frank  Hall  Standish,  Esq.,  Author  of 
the  "Shores  of  the  Mediterranean,"  &c.,  Svo.  London,  184u.  Black 
and  Armstrong. 

"The  work  now  presented  to  the  public,"  we  are  told  in  the  pre- 
face, "contains  an  enumeration  of  almost  all  the  Ccnvents  and  Public 
Buildings,  which  existed  in  Seville  during  the  last  century,  with  their 
most  remarkable  contents  in  the  present ;"  it  is  accordingly  one,  far 
more  calculated  to  interest  architectural  and  antiquarian  readers,  and 
those  who  study  the  history  of  art,  than  the  public  generally  ;  for  the 
description  of  the  Alcazar  and  Cathedral  alone,  the  one  a  splendid 
monument  of  Moorish,  the  other  of  Gothic  architecture,  extends  to 
somewhat  more  than  sixty  pages.  In  fact,  a  considerable  mass  of  in- 
formation relative  to  architecture  and  the  other  arts,  and  to  many 
Spanish  artists,  is  here  presented  to  the  English  reader,  which  has 
hitherto  been  hardly  accessible  to  those  who  are  unacquainted  with 
Spanish.  Instead  of  being  as  its  title  alone  would,  perhaps,  lead  us  to 
suppose,  a  traveller's  sketch  of  the  city  and  its  inhabitants,  this  volume 
is  altogether  topographical  in  form, — and  so  far  rather  a  phenomenon 
in  these  days  of  'light  reading.'  It  is  in  fact  rather  one  for  study  and 
reference,  than  for  off  hand  perusal ;  and  therefore  we  conceive,  ought 
to  have  been  furnished  with  that  now  almost  obsolete  appendage,  an 
Index.  Neither  is  that  all  we  here  desiderate,  for  we  conceive  that 
the  Alcazar  and  the  Cathedral  might  very  properly  have  been  made 
to  furnish  something  like  disqiiisition  as  to  the  Moorish  and  the  Gothic 
architecture  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  generally  ;  and  so  also  would 
the  Lonja  (here  printed  throughout  Louja),  or  Exchange,  have  afforded 
an  opportunity  for  discussing  the  peculiar  character  of  the  style  trans- 
planted from  Italy  in  the  10th  century.  Something  of  this  kind  would 
have  relieved  the  drj-ness  of  the  work  which  is  written  too  much  in  the 
usual  technical  Guide-book  style.  As  it  is,  the  volume  is  too  much  of 
a  mere  catalogue  raisoime  of  buildings  and  pictures,  and  therefore  likely 
to  be  considered  dull  by  the  many,  and  tantalizing  by  the  few  for  whom 
it  seems  to  have  been  more  particularly  intended ;  for  as  there  are  no 
illustrations  of  any  kind — not  even  so  much  as  a  general  plan  of  the 
city  to  enable  us  to  form  some  distinct  idea  of  its  topography,  little 
positive  information,  except  as  to  historical  facts,  and  names  and  dates, 
can  be  collected  from  it.  Nor  do  we,  we  must  confess,  understand 
why  so  many  minor — not  to  call  them  trivial,  circumstances  should 
have  been  brought  forward  in  regard  to  a  place  so  very  unlikely  to  be 
visited  by  English  travellers,  and  which  requires  to  be  described  to 
the  English  public  quite  as  much  by  the  pencil  as  by  the  pen. 

At  present  only  one  or  two  of  its  buildings  are  known  to  us,  and 
those  very  imperfectly — the  Giralda  or  Tower  of  Gever,  some  por- 
tions of  the  interior  of  the  Cathedral,  the  Patio  de  Naranjos,  the  .Sala 
de  los  Embazadores  in  the  Alcazar,  the  Golden  Tower,  &c.,  which  we 
meet  with  in  Roberts'  Spanish  Sketches,  and  the  Landscape  Annual, 
and  which  are  certainly  calculated  to  excite  a  vehement  desire  for  a 
complete  acquaintance  with  those  edifices,  and  with  similar  informa- 
tion as  to  others.  Though  not  to  be  compared  with  the  Alhambra, 
the  Alcazar  alone  would  supply  materials  for  an  architectural  volume, 
if  we  may  judge  from  the  Sala  above  mentioned,  and  from  some  other 
views  of  the  edifice,  which  we  lately  met  with  in  a  recent  French  pub- 
lication, whose  exact  title  we  do  not  now  remember.  As  to  the  Cathe- 
dral, we  are  here  told  the  architecture  is  of  all  classes — Arabic,  Gothic, 
the  'Plateresco,'  and  the  Greek-Roman;  yet,  although  all  these  are 
jumbled  together,  and  an  abominably  unsightly  "grand  entrance"  has 


been  recently  attempted — fortunately,  not  finished,  by  a  Sevillian  archi- 
tect, Cano,  and  a  good  deal  of  the  outside  walls  are  left  rough,  "  never- 
theless, of  all  the  cathedra's  I  have  seen,  this  is  the  one  which,  upon  the 
whole,  has  most  pleased  me  in  Europe,"  says  the  author.  After  this  we 
naturally  look  for  some  vindication  of  such  opinion — for  some  remarks 
that  would  explain  to  us,  in  what  its  particular  charm  and  merit  con- 
sists, more  especially  as  we  are  told  that,  "the  Interior  of  this  temple 
is  of  the  plainest  Gothic." — However,  provided  too  much  be  not  ex- 
pected from  it,  we  can  recommend  this  volume  to  those — their  num- 
ber, we  fear,  is  but  small — who  have  not  the  means  of  consulting  Ponz 
and  Cean  Bermudez,  yet  are  desirous  of  obtaining  more  minute  in- 
formation relative  to  Seville,  and  Spanish  art  and  artists  than 
English  publications  will  supply.  For  our  own  part,  we  greatly  regret 
that  Roberts  did  not  return  to  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  devote  his 
pencil  to  illustrating  and  recording  the,  at  the  present  almost  unknown, 
treasures  it  contains,  in  the  class  of  architectural  and  picturesque  ob- 
jects, instead  of  proceeding  to  the  Holy  Laud  which  is  not  exactlv  the 
land  best  fitted  for  the  display  of  his  talent.  At  all  events,  we  hope, 
that  in  these  days  of  travelling,  some  other  artist  will  visit  the  Spanish 
territory,  and  return  with  a  portfolio  well  stocked  with  architectural 
subjects  there  to  be  met  with  in  profusion,  and  of  which  we  have,  as 
yet,  had  no  more  than  a  mere  whet — a  slight  foretaste,  a  provocative 
that  is  in  itself  quite  provoking. 


Egert07i's  Hems  in  Mexico  ;  being  a  Series  of  T.aelve  Coloured  Plates, 
executed  by  himself  from  his  Original  Drawings.  Large  Folio. 
London,  1840.     D.  T.  Egerton. 

If  it  was  not  every  one  who  could  afford  to  visit  Corinth,  so  neither 
have  all  of  us,  even  in  this  age  of  steam  navigation,  the  means  or 
opportunity  of  taking  a  trip  to  Mexico  ;  although  in  the  course  of 
another  generation  such  a  trip  may  become  a  very  ordinary  feat,  and 
that  too,  in  a  still  more  expeditious  mode  than  tliat  by  a  sea  voyage 
across  the  Atlantic, — to  wit,  in  a  balloon,  should  the  experiments 
which  are  now  actually  making,  to  prove  the  practicabilitv  of  sucli 
mode  of  travelling,  be  found  to  realize  the  sanguine  expectations  of  its 
projector.  In  the  meanwhile  we  are  well  content  to  take  our  ideas  of 
Mexican  scenery  and  vegetation, — of  the  costume  of  the  people,  of 
their  habitations  and  cities,  from  Mr.  Egerton,  an  artist  who  has  not 
merely  visited,  but  been  long  resident  in  the  country,  and  whose  draw- 
ings are  no  less  atlractive  as  landscapes,  than  they  appear  to  be  faith- 
ful and  characteristic  as  local  portraitures  of  the  sites  they  represent. 
We  say  seem,  because  of  course  we  cannot  pledge  ourselves,  as  eye-wit- 
nesses, to  their  veracity ;  but  they  certainly  do  bear  very  strong  internal 
proofs  of  it,  not  only  the  general  physiognomy  of  the  landscapes  and 
buildings,  bearing  testimony  to  it,  but  more  especially  the  plants  and" 
shrubs  in  the  foregrounds,  whose  particular  characters  are  clearly  dis- 
criminated. 

Looking  at  these  views  as  imitations  of  the  original  drawings,  we 
may  place  them  among  the  most  successful  attempts  we  have  e  7er 
met  with,  to  give  the  effect  not  of  mere  tinted  ones,  but  the  depth  of 
tone,  the  vigour,  the  surface,  and  the^eculiar  execution  of  the  modirn 
school  of  water-colour  drawing.  Therefore,  though  the  work  is  much 
higher  in  price  than  any  of  the  masterly  productions  in  lithography 
that  have  of  late  been  published,  it  cannot  be  called  dear,  considering 
the  great  dimensions  of  tlie  plates,  and  the  time,  labour  and  care  be- 
stowed upon  the  colouring,  which  has  been  executed  under  the  artist's 
immediate  inspection.  Naj',  as  compared  with  what  is  frequently 
asked  for  a  single  drawing,  not  at  all  of  more  value  as  a  work  of  art, 
than  one  of  sulyects  forming  this  set,  it  may  be  termed  cheap.  One 
great  advantage,  too,  attending  the  form  in  which  they  are  done  up, 
namely,  their  being  a  series  of  separate  drawings  motmted  upon  card- 
board, and  put  into  a  portfolio, — is  that  any  one  or  more  of  them  may 
be  selected  and  framed,  and  would  then  scarcely  be  at  all  distinguish- 
able from  an  original  or  autograph  production  of  the  kind.  A  separate 
sheet  of  letterpress  descriptions  forms  a  very  suitable  accompaniment 
to  the  engravings,  for  the  information  it  affords  gives  additional  in- 
terest to  the  subjects  it  explains.  Perhaps  we  cannot  do  better  than 
quote  by  way  of  specimen  the  description  of  tl»e  first  plate,  the  city  of 
Puebla,  as  it  commences  with  an  observation  that  meets  an  objectior* 
very  likely  to  be  made  by  those  who  do  not  take  into  account  the  pe- 
culiarity of  the  climate  where  the  scenery  lies. 

THE  CITV  OF  PUEBLA. 

In  representing  scenery  withia  the  tropics,  where  the  atmosphere  is  sa 
highly  rarified,  more  particularly  in  situations  that  arc  considerably  elevated 
above  the  sea,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  convey,  to  the  inexperienced  eye,  aa 
adequate  Idea  of  distances,  which  always  appear  to  be  lessened;  and  the 
hardness  of  outline,  with  the  distinctive  form  of  objects,  as  exhibited  in  faith- 


352 


THE  CIVIL  EXGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October 


ful  pictures,  freiiueiitly  subject  tne  artist  to  tlie  imputation  of  a  want  of 
skill  : — thus,  in  tlie  two  mountains  siiown  in  this  subject,  tliey  appear  to  come 
forward  upon  the  eye,  whilst  tlieir  bases  are  at  a  distance  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  forejjrounrl,  of  about  thirty  miles.  Tlie  sides  of  these  mountains 
are  covered  vitli  deep  forests,  extending  from  the  base  to  that  point  where 
vegetation  ceases  to  exist ;  this  may  be  observed  in  the  picture,  wliere  the 
grey  tone  of  the  forest  is  succeeded  by  a  warm  sand  colour,  and  the  higher 
elevation  is  distinctly  marked  by  the  sno-.v,  which  perpetually  covers  the 
summit.  The  loftiest  of  these  mountains,  called  PopocatC]ictl,  stands  at  an 
elevation  of  17,8S4  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (nearly  three  miles  and  a 
half),  and  a(  aliont  10,684  feet  above  the  city  of  Pueb'hi,  from  whence  the 
crater  of  tins  volcano  is  plainly  visible,  the  e'dije  of  winch  falls  considerably 
towards  the  soutli  side  ;  it  still  burns  feebly,  and  the  surrounding  country 
bears  the  devastating  niarks  of  violent  eruptions  ;  though  no  records  have 
been  kept  of  these.  The  neighbouring  mountain,  called  htaccihuatl,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  an  extinguished  volcano^and  these  two  form  the  barrier  to  a 
direct  communication  between  Puebla  and  tlie  Capital,  which  places  are 
distant  from  each  other  about  70  miles,  the  former  being  1C2  miles  from  the 
port  of  Vera  Cruz.  The  city,  a  small  portion  of  which  only  is  seen  in  the 
picture,  is  the  richest  bishoprick  in  the  country,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  fine 
cathedral,  the  altars  of  which  are  decorated  with  the  most  costly  magnifi- 
cence. 

As  likely  to  be  interesting  to  several  of  our  readers,  we  shall  also 
copy  what  is  said  of  the  Mine  of  Rayas. 

IN'TEKIOR  OF  THE  MINE  OF  RAYAS. 

This  mine,  situated  at  Guanaxuato,  is  esteemed  the  richest  upon  the  Tc/a 
Madre  (mother  vein).  One  of  the  principal  leveh  is  shown  in  this  plate, 
"  the  eafion  of  San  Cayetaao."  Tliis  excavation  has  been  formed  by  blasting 
the  rocks,  .amongst  wiiioli  the  silver  is  disseminated  in  minute  panicles ; 
occasionally  threads  and  lumps  of  silver  are  found  iu  a  pure  state,  hut  these 
form  an  insignificant  proportion  to  the  mass.  The  principal  shaft  of  tliis 
mine  is  of  large  dimensions,  being  31  feet  in  diameter,  of  .an  octagonal  form, 
and  464  TOr«s  deep  (1,270  feet).  In  the  lower  workings,  the  air  is  very 
confined,  and  the  heat  rather  oppressive,  the  mean  temperature  being  85°  of 
Fahrenheit;  in  the  level  represented  here  it  is  80'.  The  Tenateros  (carriers) 
who  convey  the  ore  from  the  ditferent  workings  to  the  bottom  of  the  shaft, 
from  whence  it  is  raised  to  the  surface,  are  paid  according  to  weight  and 
distance ;  they  are,  from  long  practice,  rendered  capalile  of  bearing  great 
weights — the  average  ,aIlow,ance  is  9  or  10  nrrolias  (2251b.  and  2501b.) ;  but 
there  are  instances  of  their  far  exceeding  this ;  and  in  the  Despncho  (office) 
of  Santa  Rosa,  belonging  to  this  mine,  there  are  two  m<asses  of  ore  which 
have  been  brought  up  entire  liy  one  man,  in  successive  journeys,  one  weigh- 
ing IS  arrohus  (450  lb.),  the  other  22  arrobas  (550  lb.),  which  are  kept  as 
trophies  of  human  strength.  When  it  is  considered  that  300  lb.  is  the  ave- 
rage weight  that  a  mule  carries,  and  that  those  masses  were  brought  from 
the  level  shown  in  the  id.ite,  to  a  distance  of  260  varns  (nearly  as  many 
yards),  with  an  ascent  of  upwards  of  100  vara^,  it  will  appear  more  extra- 
ordinary. The  miners,  who  are  voluntary  workmen,  are  a  very  superstitious 
race :  they  are  subject  to  many  accidents,  from  blasting,  rush  of  waters, 
descending  and  ascending  the  sh.ift,  &c. ;  but  the  limits  of  a  short  descrip- 
tion cannot  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  life  of  these  singular  men,  which 
is  full  of  stirring  incidents. 


The  Palace  of  jli-chiUciiire :  a  Romance  of  Art  and  History.  By 
George  Wightwick,  Architect.  Imp.  8vo.  67  Plates  and  143 
Woodcuts.     London  :  Fraser,  1840. 

If  the  singularity  of  its  title  is  well  calculated  to  excite  curiosity, 
and  the  splendid  appearance  of  the  volume  itself  is  likely  to  secure  for 
it  admiration,  the  author's  aim  is  by  far  more  singular  than  the  one — 
more  admirable  than  the  other;  while  some  of  his  opinions  and  re- 
marks are  so  striking  as  to  be  absolutely  startling.  Jt  is  not  tlie  least 
extraordinary  circumstance  of  all  that,  although  a  professional  luan, 
Mr.  Wightwick  is  so  free  from  professional  prejudices,  so  ultra-liberal, 
in  fact,  that  he  is  in  danger  of  being  considered  highly  illiberal  in  many 
parts  of  his  book  by  his  brother  architects.  That  he  is  not  at  all 
anxious  to  have  the  art  kept,  as  heretofore,  a  sort  of  close  borough,  is 
evident  from  the  very  first:  nor  is  tliere  any  mistaking  his  object, 
which  is  nothing  less  than  to  divest  the  study'  of  architecture  of  that 
kind  of  freemasonry,  mystery,  and  mystification,  in  which  it  has 
hitherto  been  kept  shrouded  from  the  million.  Nay,  he  even  goes  so 
far  as  to  express  the  hope  "that  quackery  may  no  longer  practise  its 
meretricious  frauds,  to  the  delusion  of  ignorance  ;  "  a  pretty  broad 
hint  that  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  quackery  in  architecture  ere 
now,  and  that  such  quackery  has  succeeded  mainly  in  consequence  of 
the  inability  of  the  public  to  detect  it,  and  to  discern  plodding 
feebleness  and  sterility  of  mind  just  plaUd  over  with  the  specious,  yet 
superficial  surface  of  art.  In  time,  perhaps,  the  plating  wears  off;  and 
people  begin  to  be  ashamed  of  the  sorry  stuff  which  they  had  been 
taught  to  look  upon  as  sterling  metal ;  but  in  the  meanwhile  the  mis- 


chief has  been  committed,  and  the  public  have  no  other  means  of  con- 
soling themselves  for  the  despicable  specimens  cf  taste  foisted  upon 
them,  thin  by  sneering  at  the  want  of  discernment  on  the  part  of  the 
generation  which  could  allow  itself  to  be  so  duped,  notwithstanding 
that  they  themselves  are  probably  gulled  to  the  very  same  extend 
although  after  a  contrary  fashion.  '  Had  the  course  here  recommended 
by  .Mr.  Wightwick  been  adopted  a  century  ago,  and  had  the  study  of 
arcliitecture  been  consi.lered  one  of  the  requisites  towards  a  polite 
education,  the  art  itself  wouU!,  in  all  probability,  have  been  in  a  very 
ditferent  condition  among  us  from  what  it  now  actually  is.  If  exe- 
cuted at  all,  many  things  that  have  in  their  dav  obtained  praise,  would 
have  incurred  derision  at  the  very  first.  Hardly  would  such  men  as 
Tavlor  and  Wyatt  have  obtained  the  celebrity  they  did — more  to  the 
astonishmejit  of  the  present  time  than  to  the  credit  of  their  own — for 
their  talent,  more  especially  that  of  James  Wyatt,  is  now  beginning 
to  be  better  understood,  and  rated  at  its  actual  worth,  which  is  ex- 
ceedingly low  indeed,  for  he  was  at  the  best  a  complete  maimerist, 
while  his  manner  was  at  the  best  completely  insipid.  Nash's  repu- 
tation is  now  scarcely  worth  a  bawbee  ;  nor  would  we  give  much  for 
the  reversion  of  that  of  .Sir  R.  Smirke,  whose  frigid  soulless  classicalitu 
has  impnverisheil  our  modern  architectural  style  most  deplorablv. 

Should  Mr.  Wightwick's  counsel  be  followed,  the  next  generation 
will  not,  we  conceive,  be  put  to  its  shifts,  so  much  as  tlie  present  one, 
to  find  competent  judges  in  mailers-  of  architectural  taste;  wliereas 
now  it  is  universally  complained  that  hardly  two  or  three  non-pro- 
fessional jiersons  can  be  found  at  all  qualified  to  be  entrusted  with  the 
selection  of  designs  at  competitions.  So  far,  therefore,  Mr.  W.'s  book 
is  eminently  calculated  to  be  of  service,  by  inducing  people  to  discard 
the  fatally  absurd  prejudice  that  the  study  of  architecture  concerns 
architects  alone.  Either  it  is,  or  it  is  not,  a  fine  art ;  iu  the  latter  case, 
of  course  it  deserves  to  he  applied  to  only  by  those  who  jiractise  it; 
but  in  the  other,  it  claims  the  attention  of  all  who  make  |)refensions  to 
taste,  and  the  more  extensively  it  is  cultivated  the  better,  else  how 
can  the  public  sympathize  with  it  ? — how  can  they  appreciate  or 
enjoy  it  ? — how  should  they  encourage  it  properly,  or  wherefore  should 
they  encourage  it  at  all  ?  because  a  public  without  taste  for  architecture 
does  not  need  architects,  but  merely  builders.  All  this  we  take  to  be 
pretty  self-evident,  whether  it  be  exactly  palateable  or  not. 

To  ourselves  it  is  most  satisfactory  to  find  that  there  is  at  least 
one  individual  in  the  profession,  who,  with  no  ordinary  degree  of  elo« 
quence  and  persuasion,  strives  to  induce  non-professional  persons  to 
apply  themselves  to  architecture  as  one  of  those  pursuits  which  of 
themselves  reward  the  student.  We  do  not  say  that  others  have 
actually  dissuaded  from  such  attempt,  or  that  they  have  not  occa- 
sionally acknowledged  the  ability  and  services  of  amateurs;  but  it  has 
been  as  if  they  looked  upon  the  latter  as  a  cla-ss  necessarily  limited  to 
a  very  few  individuals,  and  those  chiefly  wealthy  ones.  Never  do 
they  seem  to  have  contemplated  tlie  possibility  of  that  class— if  it 
now  deserves  the  name  of  one — becoming  a  numerous  one  ;  for  never 
have  they  uttered  any  exhortations  to  that  effect ;  never  have  they 
recommended  that  architecture  should  be  taught  at  schools  and  col- 
leges ;  never  have  they  pointed  out  what  course  of  study  in  it  would 
be  most  suitable  for  such  purpose.  Without  doubt  every  one  has 
always  been  at  liberty  to  make  architecture  his  hobby  if  he  pleased, 
but  then,  whenever  it  has  been  taken  up  at  all,  it  has  been  entirely 
through  accident  or  fortuituous  circumstances,  and  not  in  consequence 
of  any  provision  made  for  tlie  study  in  the  usual  coiu'se  of  pre'dous 
education.  The  question,  then,  is,  why  has  no  provision  of  the  kind 
been  made  ?  how  happens  it  that  architecture  lias  been  completely 
overlooked  as  a  branch  of  education  ?  And  to  this  question  no  one, 
we  will  venture  to  say,  is  prepared  w  ith  an  answer,  for  the  reason 
that  no  one  has  ever  tho'.ight  of  its  being  ever  asked.  Shall  we  say 
it  is  because  architecture  has  iiolliing  wdiatever  to  recommend  it  as  an 
elegant  and  liberal  pursuit  to  those  who  do  not  intend  to  follow  it  as 
a  profession  ?  and  because,  although  nominally  accounted  one  of  the 
fine  arts,  it  has  nothing  iu  common  with  the  rest,  being,  in  fact,  no 
better  than  a  dry,  plodding,  mechanical  calling,  fit  to  be  left  entirely 
to  those  whose  trade  it  is  ?  It  may  be  so ;  at  any  rate  such  is  the 
light  in  which  it  is  generally  considered,  though  architects  woidd  fain 
have  the  world  believe  quite  the  contrary. 

Let  us  disguise  it  as  we  may,  the  truth  is,  there  is  very  little  relish 
for  art  in  this  country ;  for  instead  of  any  pains  being  taken  to  instil  a 
taste  for  it  into  young  persons,  they  and  all  others  are  left  either  to 
pick  up  their  notions  of  it  as  well  as  they  can,  or  else  to  remain  all 
their  lives  in  a  "gentlemanly  ignorance"  of  it,  while  they  find  more 
congenial  food  for  their  taste  in  dandyism  or  politics,  or  on  the  turf 
and  at  the  gaming-table — perliaps  in  amusements  a  la  Waltrford.* 

'  It  would  not  be  amiss  were  we  to  look  at  some  of  the  portraits  drawn  of 
us  by  foreigners.     It  was  not  very  long  ago  that  we  met  with  a  very  long 


IS40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


353 


article  in  a  German  review  whieh  animadverted  mast  severely  updn  our  pre- 
sent extraordiiary  prediloctinn  for  "  mob  literature,"  upon  our  Jack  Slieppard 
and  Oliver  Twist  mania,  and  upon  productions  of  that  Newgate  school  of 
literature  which  is  calculated  only  lo  hegct  a  low  and  scoundrelly  sympathy 
with  crime  and  vice  : — an  odd  taste  fur  a  people  who  ixive  themselves  the  airs 
of  being  the  most  moral  nation  on  the  f.ace  of  the  earth.  Hardly  more  com- 
plimentary are  some  of  the  remarks  we  have  met  with  in  foreign  publications, 
in  regard  to  our  feeling  for  art,  and  the  mode  in  which  we  profess  to  encourage 
it.  As  far,  too,  as  architecture  is  concerned.  English  buildings  do  not  always 
make  that  favourable  impression  upon  foreigners  which  it  were  to  be  wished 
they  should  do. 

Whether  this  state  of  things  is  at  all  to  be  regretted  or  not,  certain  it 
is  that  we  have  no  leason  to  be  surprised  at  it;  whereas  it  would  be 
almost  miraculous  were  we  to  find  a  strong  love  of  art  diffused  through- 
out the  public  without  any  pains  being  taken  to  implant  it,  or  there 
being  anything  in  the  present  constitution  of  society  to  cherish  a  pas- 
sion for  art,  as  was  formerly  the  case  in  this  country,  as  well  as  others, 
when  art  was  munificently  patronized  by  the  church.  There  is  now 
scarcely  any  inducement  for  those  wdio  have  leisure,  to  devote  any  of 
it  to  architecture  as  a  recreative  study,  for  they,  no  doubt,  know  that 
they  would  have  very  few  to  sympathize  with  them,  and  also  that  they 
may  be  wholly  ignorant  of  it  with  perfect  impunity. 

Possibly  the  time — should  it  arrive  at  all — is  not  very  far  distant, 
when  an  acquaintance  with  tlie  principles  and  elements  of  architecture 
will  be  considered  nearly  as  indispensable  as  several  other  things  that 
are  now  taught  as  accomplishments.  At  any  rate  it  will  be  no  fault  of 
Mr.  Wightwick's  should  such  not  prove  lo  be  the  case,  the  primary 
object  of  his  work  being  to  gain  proselytes  to  the  study  from  among 
the  educated  of  both  sexes,  although  hitherto  there  seems  to  have 
been  a  kind  of  Salic  law,  excluding  females  from  it  altogether. 
Yet  wherefore  an  art  which  depends  so  much  upon  the  beauty  of 
forms  and  their  combinations,  and  the  study  of  which  tends  so  greatly 
to  correct  and  refine  taste  generally,  should  have  been  considered  un- 
siiited  for  the  female  sex,  or  else  far  above  their  mental  faculties,  is 
one  of  those  questions  that  wlien  considered  without  prejudice,  startle 
us  by  there  being  any  occasion  for  putting  them  at  all.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  but  that  indirectly  at  least,  female  taste — or  rather  the 
want  of  it — has  been  more  influential  than  is  suspected,  upon  archi- 
tecture ;  for  almost  one  entire  branch  of  the  art  has  in  consequence 
been  exterminated — or  rather  checked  and  prevented  from  developing 
itself;  that  wdiich  shoidd  properly  belong  to  the  architect  and  the 
artist,  being  allowed  to  devolve  upon  the  upholsterer.  We  cannot, 
however,  allow  ourselves  to  enter  here  upon  a  topic  that  would  lead 
us  on  to  a  very  great  length,  and  shall  therefore  merely  observe  that 
architecture  had  been  previous'y  recommended  as  a  very  suitable  study 
for  females,  both  in  the  Foreign  Quarterly  and  Loudon's  Architectural 
Magazine  ;  therefore  supposing  theie  is  any  absurdity  in  such  view  of 
the  matter,  it  is  not  here  broached  for  the  first  time  by  Mr.  W.,  al- 
though his  advice  in  that  respect,  will,  no  doubt,  appear  entirely  novel 
to  most  of  his  readers.  Whether  so  considered  or  not,  we  trust  that 
it  will  not  be  altogether  thrown  away  ;  and  coming  directly  from  a 
professional  man,  it  may  probably,  have  greater  weight  than  it  else 
would.  So  far  from  objecting  to  it  ourselves,  we  could  wish  that  the 
author  had  expatiated  more  fully  upon  this  particular  point,  and  had 
gone  so  far  as  to  advise  that  those  who  have  any  inclination  for  the 
study  at  all  should  go  through  such  a  course  of  elementary  lessons 
with  an  Archifecture -master,  as  would  familiarize  them  with  all  the 
technicalties  of  architectural  drawing  and  detail,  and  thereby  enable 
them  to  carry  on  their  studies  afterwards  by  themselves.  Until  an 
acquaintance  with  geometrical  representation  be  formed,  and  a  relish 
acqidred  for  that  as  well  as  perspective  delineation,  little  progress 
can  be  made  in  the  pursuit ;  and  although  such  mode  of  study  may  at 
first  sight  appear  formidably  tedious,  it  in  fact  opens  a  source  of  in- 
terest unknown  to  those  who  for  want  of  sucli  instruction  see  only 
general  masses  and  forms,  without  taking  any  note  of  minor  traits 
which  confer  individual  character  and  expression. 

Why  then  not  call  in  the  Architectural  Master? — Because,  people 
wili^ay,  it  would  be  so  very  odd,  and  after  all  the  acquirement  itself 
woiild  be  a  useless  one,  especially  to  ladies.  This  last  ought  of  course 
to  be  admitted  as  a  most  reasonable  reason;  yet  when  we  consider  by 
how  many  exceedingly  useless  pursuits  women  now  suffer  themselves 
to  be  engrossed,  that  of  architecture  would  be  such  a  trifling  pecca- 
dillo, that  it  need  not  weigh  heavily  upon  their  utilitarian  consciences. 
It  would  seem,  however,  that  there  is  at  least  one  lady,  and  she  too  of 
high  rank,  who  does  not  consider  architecture — that  is,  the  EEsthetic  or 
artistical  part  of  it,  either  an  unfeminine  or  a  vulgar  study ;  for  as 
Mr.  Wightwick  has  dedicated  his  volume  to  the  Countess  of  Morley, 
we  may  presume  that  in  her  he  lias  met  with  that  example  which  h  is 
encouraged  him  to  recommend  the  study  to  others  of  the  sex.  If  it 
be  true — but  as  we  have  only  newspaper  report  for  it,  it  is  just  as 
likely  to  be  false, — if  it  be  true,  we  say,  that  her  Majesty  is  now  taking 


lessons  in  etching,  we  hope  she  will,  by  and  by,  condescend  to  take 
some  also  in  architecture,  because  there  her  taste  might  prove  of  sin- 
gidar  benpfit,  and  might  encourage  works  that  would  redound  to  the 
credit  of  the  age  and  of  the  nation,  whereas  her  Majesty's  etchings  are 
likely  to  have  just  as  much  effect  upon  art  as  those  of  any  other  young 
lady — and  no  more.  Had  George  IV.  possessed  a  tithe  of  the  taste  for 
which  he  was  so  liberally  credited  by  flattery,  Buckingham  Palace 
would  have  been  a  worthy  architectural  monument  of  his  reign,  instead 
of  being,  as  at  present,  an  ignominious  one,  and  even  Windsor  might 
have,  perhaps,  been  better  by  several  degrees,  than  it  now  actually  is. 
If  there  be  any  one  of  the  fine  arts  which  it  is  more  especially  desir- 
able that  a  sovereign  should  be  able  to  appreciate,  it  is  surely  archi- 
tecture, because  its  more  important  productions  are  durable,  and  ought 
therefore  to  be  noble,  memorials  of  the  period  when  they  were 
erected. 

If  we  have  thus  far  said  very  little  in  regard  to  the  volume  before 
us,  it  is  Mr.  Wightwick  himself  who  has  diverted  our  attention  from 
its  contents  generally,  by  adapting  it  to  those  who  are  without  the  pale 
of  the  profession,  and  by  his  endeavouring  to  enlist  as  many  as  he  can 
into  the  volunteer  corps  of  amateurs.  And  if  we  have  confined 
our  attention  to  this  single  point,  it  is  because  we  consider  it  to  be 
one  of  paramount  importance,  and  perhaps  go  further  in  regard  to  it 
than  even  Mr.  Wightwick  himself,  being  of  opinion  that  unless  the 
public  be  educated  to  understand  and  relish  architecture  as  a  fine  art, 
it  is  almost  hopeless  to  expect  that  it  should  flourish  among  us.  We 
may  probably  bestow  some  further  notice  on  this  work,  but  lest  we 
should  not  do  so,  we  will  here  express  our  hearty  approbation  of  the 
writer's  intention;  nor  do  we  entertain  any  doubt  as  to  his  book 
effecting  considerable  good. 


A  Treatise  on  Engineering  Field  Worjc.  By  Peter  Bruff,  C.  E. 
Second  edition,  corrected  and  enlarged.  London:  Simpkin  and 
Marshall.    1840. 

In  our  last  number  we  took  a  cursory  glance  at  the  contents  of  this 
work,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  point  out  what  is  additional  in  the  new 
edition:  in  the  first  place  we  must  state  that  the  whole  of  the  work 
has  been  carefully  revised,  and  that  there  are  several  passages  distri- 
buted throughout,  which  did  not  appear  in  the  former  edition;  we 
shall  now  confine  ourselves  to  the  leading  subjects  which  have  been 
introduced  in  the  present  volume. 

Chapter  3  is  entirely  new,  and  contains  directions  for  conducting  a 
survey,  laying  out  a  base  line,  a  most  important  object  in  land  survey- 
ing, and  more  particularly  in  railway  surveying;  for  the  latter  we 
think  it  should  be,  if  possible,  marked  out  the  whole  length  of  the  line 
by  the  engineer  or  his  principal  assistant,  and  that  the  connection  of 
the  work  of  the  different  surveyors  should  also  be  done  by  him.  This 
chapter  likewise  contains  some  useful  directions  for  the  student  in 
detecting  and  avoiding  errors. 

In  chapter  4  we  have  some  judicious  observations  on  parish  survey- 
ing, and  remarks  on  Captain  Dawson's  directions  for  the  surveys  made 
under  the  Tithe  Commissioners.        , 

Chapter  5  contains  instructions  for  surveying  with  angular  instru- 
ments— town  surveys  and  subterranean  surveying. 

In  chapter  (j  there  are  several  hints  for  facilitating  calculations,  and 
various  methods  and  instruments  explained  for  that  purpose ;  for  our 
own  part,  we  are  generally  averse  to  most  ready  reckoners,  for  in  nine 
cases  out  of  ten,  if  a  person  has  any  nouce,  he  will  beat,  by  mental 
calculation,  one  who  has  recourse  to  tables  and  instruments,  both  in 
accuracy  and  time; — we,  however,  shall  give  the  description  of  an  in- 
strument which,  Mr.  Bruff  tells  us,  has  lately  been  adopted  in  the  Tithe 
Commissioners  Office,  and  which  appears  to  be  an  instrument  not  easily 
put  out  of  order. 

"The  last,  and  most  simple  method,  which  we  shall  describe,  and 
which  is  now  in  the  course  of  adoption  by  all  surveyors,  and  at  present 
exclusively  employed  at  the  Tithe  Commission  Office,  presents  the 
greatest  facility  in  peiforming  computations,  without  in  the  least 
damaging  the  plans,  by  equalizing  boundaries,  &c.,  as  by  all  the  pre- 
vious contrivances.  "The  principle  of  the  plan  has  long  been  in  use 
by  some  few  surveyors,  but  they  prudently  kept  it  to  themselves,  in 
order  that  the  price  of  such  work  might  not  be  reduced;  but  at  last 
the  method  has  become  publicly  known,  and  a  vast  reduction  has  taken 
place  in  the  remuneration  of  such  operations.  In  the  first  place, 
tracing  paper  of  a  superior  quality  is  procured,  and  parallel  lines,  at 
exactly  one  chain  apart,  drawn  in  one  direction  only  along  the  whole 
width  of  the  paper.  This  paper  is  then  carefully  laid  over  the  en- 
closure which  is  to  be  computed  ;  the  scale  to  which  the  map  has 
been  plotted  is  then  laid  on  the  first  division  of  one  chain — the  ine- 

3  B 


354 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL 


[October, 


qualities  at  cither  end  being  equalized  by  the  eye — and  the  distance   1 
noted.     Tins  first  distance  is  brought  forward  at   the  second  division,   j 
and  the  sum  of  the  first  and  second  at  the   third,  and   so   on;    thus,  if  i 
the  length  of  the  first  division   is  five  chains,  the  scale,  when  applied   ! 
to  the  second,  is  set  on  the  left  han  1  at  five  chains;  and  if  the  second 
division  is  seven  chains  in  length,  the  right  hand  extremity  is   set  to 
twelve  chains,  which  quantity  is  again   brought  forward   at  the  third 
division,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  distance  of  a  field,  in  strips  of  one   I 


chain,  is  ascertained,  when  the  acreage  is  at  once  deduced,  by  cutting 
off  three  figures  from  the  right  hand — those  on  the  left  are  acres — 
whicli  are  multi|)lied  for  roods  and  ])erclies.  An  ingenious  application 
of  the  above  system  is  now  in  operation  at  the  Tithe  UHice,  by  which 
means  all  calculation  is  avoided,  and  the  area  has  merely  to  be  read 
off  on  a  scale.  The  following  diagram  and  explanation  will  enable 
any  surveyor  instantly  to  practice  it : 


0„     0, 

1  1  1 

1  ,    )..   1,   2„   2, 

.'.   2..   3,   .'^,    3.,  3,   4o   4,    4.  4,   5., 

I™"  =11 

1                              _ 1 

t          1 

1                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1 

„10  „9    ^9   ,9   „9   38   ,8   ,8   „8   ,7   .7   J  „7   36  „6   ,G  „6  ^5   „5   ,5   „5 


"The  instrument  consists  of  a  box  rule,  with  divisions  at  ii  chains 
apart,  and  numbered  U,„0,,&c. ;  at  four  of  these  divisions,  or  ten 
chains,  it  is  numbered  1„,  or  an  acre — the  reader  bearing  in  mind  that 
the  divisions,  on  the  tracing  paper  laid  over  the  field  to  be  computed, 
are  one  chain  apart — therefore  each  single  division,  as  0,,  is  a  rood. 
There  is  a  brass  slider  attached  to  the  rule  with  a  horsehair  strained 
perdendicular  to  its  length,  for  the  purpose  of  equalizing  the  fences 
at  the  end  of  eacli  strip.  On  this  slider — which  embraces  rather  more 
than  two  roods  in  its  aperture — are  laid  off  40  divisions,  on  alternate 
sides,  each  way  from  tlie  centre,  and  which  are  exactly  the  length  of 
one  rood,  consequently  each  division  is  a  perch  The  figures  on  the 
upper  side  denote  the  acres  and  roods,  as  far  as  the  rule  extends,  and 
are  continued  backwards  on  the  lower  part;  the  large  figures  are  acres, 
and  the  small  figures  roods.  Now,  to  apply  this  instrument  to  prac- 
tice, lav  the  ruled  tracing  paper  over  the  enclosure,  and  move  the 
slider  until  its  centre  is  on  U„;  place  the  scale  in  such  a  position  that 
the  horse-hair  forms  a  mean  line  of  such  part  of  the  left  hand  bound- 
ing fence  as  is  included  in  the  first  strip  of  one  chain  wide,  and  press 
it  gentlv  on  the  paper ;  with  the  right  hand  move  the  slider  along 
the  rule,  until  the  horsehair  forms  a  mean  line  on  the  required  part  of 
the  right  hand  bounding  fence.  Then  move  the  instrument  a/ZojjtMtT 
on  to  the  next  division — the  slider  still  remaining  as  last  set — the 
horsehair  forming  a  mean  line,  as  before,  w  ith  the  left  hand  hedge  ; 
press  the  ru'e  gently,  and  move  the  slider  on  the  scale,  until  the  horse- 
hair forms  a  mean  line  with  the  right  hand  hedge,  as  before  ;  which 
process  is  repeated  until  the  entire  length  of  the  rule  is  passed  over, 
when  it  is  reversed,  and  the  slider  moved  towards  the  left  hand,  the 
equalization  in  this  case  commencing  first  on  the  right  hand  side. 
When  the  slider  is  brought  back  to  its  original  starting  point,  if  there 
remains  any  further  quantity,  it  is  again  moved  forward  to  the  right, 
as  at  first,  the  continuous  measurement  being  easily  kept  up  by  the 
decimal  arrangement  of  the  contents.  For  example,  in  the  position 
(he  slider  occupies  in  the  diagram — supposing  it  had  been  moved  over 
the  scale  and  back- — the  contents  woulii  be  ten  acres  and  3  roods;  and 
if,  instead  ot  the  centre  exactly  coinciding  with  the  division  repre- 
senting 3  roods,  it  was  '20  of  the  small  divisions  on  the  slider  beyond 
it,  the  contents  would  be  10  acres,  3  roods,  and  20  perches.  As  a 
proof  of  the  great  saving  effected  by  this  instrument,  we  need  only 
observe,  that  the  price  of  scaling' has  been  reduced  from  50  to  75  per 
cent,  since  its  introduction." 

In  our  last  number  we  stated  that  in  this  work,  there  would  be  found 
several  useful  hints,  we  shall  therefore  conclude  by  giving  another  ex- 
tract, although  it  may  not  be  new  to  the  experienced  practitioner,  we 
have  no  doubt  it  will  be  found  serviceable  to  the  student. 

"On  the  subject  cf  reducing  and  copying  plans  we  cannot  be  ex- 
jiected  to  say  much.  For  ordinary  purposes  the  pentagiaph  presents  the 
readiest  method,  both  for  copying  on  the  original  scale,  and  also  for 
reducing  or  enlarging  the  copy  to  any  proportional  size  of  the  original. 
There  are,  however,  several  improved  instruments  for  copying  with 
greater  accuracy  than  the  common  pentagraph  admits  of.  llie  re- 
ducing of  a  jilan  by  hand,  is  commonly  performed  by  drawing  squares 
of  a  size  commensurate  with  its  minutiae  all  over  its  extent.  .Similar 
squares  of  ary  required  proportion  to  the  first  are  then  drawn  on  the 
paper  on  which  the  plan  is  to  be  copied,  and  in  every  square  of  the 
copy  is  constructed  that  which  is  contained  in  the  corresponding 
square  of  the  original ;  to  enlarge  a  plan  the  operation  is  reversed. 

"A  much  more  accurate  method  than  the  above  for  reducing  or  en- 
larging plans  for  railways  or  other  similar  purposes,  is,  to  lay  down 
lines  of  construction  thereon,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  would 
be  done  in  surveying  it;  then  take  ofl'  the  lengths,  offsets,  &c.,  viith 
the  proper  scale,  and  replot  the  survey  to  that  scale  on  which  it  is 
required.  The  usual  method  of  copying  plans  by  hand  is  to  piick  all 
the  angular  points  and  principal  features  through  the  original  on  to  a 
plain  sheet  of  paper  fixed  beneath  it,  ou  which  the  copy  is  to  be  drawn; 


these  points  being  then  connected — first  with  pencil  lines — are  inked 
in,  and  a  tolerably  accurate  copy  obtained:  but  the  method  is  not  to 
be  recommended,  from  the  injury  it  does  to  the  original,  and  the  inci- 
dental errors  from  oblique  punctures  of  the  pricker,  &c.  The  best 
method  of  copying  plans,  which  we  are  aware  of,  is  either  by  a  copy- 
ing glass,  or  by  tracing  and  transferring.  That  by  the  copying-glass 
is  performed  thus : — in  a  frame,  which  can  be  fixed  at  any  inclination, 
is  placed  a  sheet  of  plate  glass;  to  the. frame  is  fixed  the  original 
plan,  and  above  it  the  paper  on  to  which  it  is  to  be  copied;  the  frame 
is  then  placed  behind  a  strong  light — or  lighted  candles  placed  below 
it — which  enables  the  draughtsman  to  see  all  the  lines  of  the  original, 
and  to  trace  them  in  ink  on  the  plain  paper  without  difficulty.*  The 
second  method  is  to  make  a  tracing  of  the  original  on  proper  tracing 
paper;  rub  the  back  of  it  with  powdered  black  lead,  and  fix  it  down 
carefully  on  to  the  paper  on  which  the  cooy  is  to  be  made;  then 
lightly  trace  all  the  lines  with  the  end  of  a  porcupine's  quill,  or  other 
pointer  which  will  trace  fine  lines,  and  a  perfect  copy  similar  to  pencil 
will  be  obtained,  which  has  then  to  be  inked  in." 

We  again  with  much  pleasure  recommend  this  work  to  the  student, 
we  think  it  the  best  practicable  work  that  has  been  published  on  land 
surveying. 


ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ARCH. 

All  must  admit  that  any  attempt  to  fix  the  date  of  antiquities  is  a 
dangerous  task  :  that  all  who  steer  amidst  the  shadows  of  the  past  are 
subjects  of  suspicion  and  mistrust,  is  also  true.  Yet  though  I  do  seek 
the  region  of  doubt,  and,  like  the  antiquary,  revel  for  a  little  amidst 
problems  and  enigmas,  I  trust  the  importance  of  the  subject  may 
guarantee  me  in  some  measure  from  the  fate  predicted.  In  throw- 
ing out  a  few  hints  then,  upon  the  "origin  of  the  arch,"  wrap|)ed  as  it 
is  in  mystery,  it  is  not  from  an  idea  that  to  fix  the  period  of  its  birth 
is  vital  to  art,  but  rather  that  to  assign  to  the  relics  and  fragments  of 
antiquity  their  proper  age,  seems  virtually  to  guide  us  into  the  spirit 
of  past  times.  Thus  we  shall  be  prevented  from  identifying  much 
that  is  curious  and  singular  in  design,  or  grand  in  invention,  with  a 
barbaric  sra ;  when  a  more  civilized  race  might  more  consistently 
claim  It. 

Rome,  we  say,  deserves  credit  for  this  invention,  because  Livy,  in 
allusion  to  the  "Cloaca  maxima,"  remarks,  that  Tarquinius  Priscus 
drained  the  low  grounds  of  the  city  about  the  Forum,  and  the  valleys 
lying  between  the  Palatine  and  Capitoline  Hills,  by  carrying  sewers 
from  a  higher  level  into  the  Tiber.  (Lib.  i,  c.  38.)  But  the  drain  was 
unfinished,  and  Tarquinius  Superbus  completed  it,  for  he  adds,  "  Tar- 
quin  the  Proud  made  the  great  subterranean  cloaca  to  carry  olT  the 
filth  of  the  city,  &c.  &c.  (Lib.  i,  c.  o(J.) 

Let  us  presume  Livy  to  be  correct,  and  that  Tarquin  really  con- 
structed that  magnificent  work  ;  still  we  cannot  conceal  the  statement 
of  Herodotus  and  Strabo  in  their  description  of  Assyrian  monuments, 
&c.  We  may  admit,  perhaps,  the  cloaca  maxima  as  a  work  of  the 
Romans,  but  if  Strabo  be  an  authority,  the  arch  was  instrumental  in 
the  construction  of  the  hanging  gardens  of  Babylon,  which  must  have 
been  raised  somewhere  about  izM  years  before  Christ.  Authorities 
may  and  do  disagree  as  to  the  real  author  of  those  works,  but  that  the 
pile  of  terraces  w  as  sustained  by  vast  arches,  raised  upon  other  arches, 
seems  indisputable.  (Strabo,  1.  xvi,  p.  73S.)  Then,  again,  as  to  the 
date  assigned  to  them,  v\hether  we  take  Ktesias  or  Herodotus,  still 
their  date  was  very  long  before  the  building  of  Rome.     Thus  it  fol- 

*  We  have  frequently  practised  this  method  in  copying  railway  plans  and 
sections  in  the  c.  untry — using  common  window  class  lor  the  purpose,  and 
found  a  great  saving  of  time  in  cumparisoa  with  the  uommon  niethud  of 
pricking  ilirough. 


1S-!0.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


355 


lows  tlirtt,  if  Bnbylon  displaveri  the  arch  in  her  magnificent  works,  long 
before  Romiihis  flourished,  ihen  Rome  must  (if  she  is  to  share  in  the 
discovery  of  its  properties),  at  least  yield  in  the  antiquttrj  of  her  claim 
to  that  of  the  Assyrian  capital. 

Then  another  question  arises  out  of  this.  Can  the  statement  of 
Livy  be  coirect  ?  May  not  the  cloaca  maxima  be  as  Ferguson  hints 
in  his  Roman  Republic,  the  relics  of  some  great  city,  on  the  ruins  of 
wliich  Romulus  pitched  and  settled.  That-the  arch  existed  in  As- 
syria is,  as  far  as  nice  authorities  are  concerned,  certain.  That  two 
countries  might  discover  a  grand  principle  in  construction  at  distinct 
times,  \s  possiblt — but  that  the  arch  is  exclusively  of  eastern  origin,  is 
mort  than  probable.  To  say  nothing  of  the  magnificence  of  such  a 
work  as  the  cloaca  maxima,  in  the  ruder  times  of  a  republic,  unequalled 
iis  it  was  in  the  time  of  Augustus,  there  are  those  \vho  countenance 
the  idea  of  a  city  on  tlio  site  of  Rome  long  before  the  time  of  Romu- 
lus. Virgil  alludes  to  this ;  for  Evander,  in  speaking  to  -Eneas,  is 
made  to  say  : 

"Hffic  duo  prffiterea  disjectis  oppida  muris 
Reliquias  veterumque  vides  monumenta  virorum : 
Hanc  Janus  pater,  hanc  Satumus  cundidit  urbein, 
Jauiculum  huic,  illi  fuerat  Saturuia  nomen." — M^.  viii,  355. 

In  another  passage  Virgil  again  alludes  to  this,  and  presumes  it  of 
Lydian  extraction: 

"  Ubi  Lydius  arva, 
Inter  opima  virilm  leni  fluit  agmina  Tybris." 

In  looking  into  the  history  of  Lydia,  we  discover  that  Ninus,  who 
married  Seniirauiis  (the  probable  author  of  the  hanging  gardens,)  sub- 
dued the  Lydians  about  1232  years  B.C.,  and  it  is  probable  that,  when 
his  second  son  Ezron  became  the  king,  the  arts  of  Babylon  might  have 
crept  after  him,  and  thus  the  arch  might  have  travelled  with  he  Ly- 
dian colonists.  Then,  again,  there  are  those  who  contend  the  arch 
was  unknown  in  Greece  till  within  a  hundred  years  of  the  Christian 
aera.  So  that  if  Rome  were  its  original  source,  it  would  seem  much 
more  reasonable  to  expect  its  application  at  an  earlier  period,  since 
we  discover  the  arch,  even  in  China,  in  familiar  and  extensive  use  at 
a  very  early  period. 

Such  are  the  doubts,  I  humbly  oflfer  to  the  curious  antiquary,  and 
without  prejudice  to  the  pretensions  of  Rome,  would  add,  that  there 
seems  a  disposition  in  us  to  fancy  that  great  city  to  be  the  cradle  of 
this  important  principle  in  construction,  since  in  Rome  we  find  its 
boldest  application.  Existing  evidences,  too,  carry  us  back  into  times 
so  remote,  that  we  yield  insensibly  to  this  malerial  impression,  and 
hush  all  whispers  of  record  and  history  in  behalf  of  claims,  vv-hen  no 
remains  of  the  past  confirm  them.  Perhaps  an  abler  hand  than  mine 
may  yet  clearly  prove  these  suggestions,  and  discover  Tarquin  the 
elder,  in  his  attempts  to  drain  the  city,  as  the  finder  of  a  hidden  won- 
der, and  nut  as  the  introducer  of  a  novel  discovery  ;  whilst  Tarquin 
the  proud  may  appear  only  applying  to  the  magnificence  of  Rome  the 
skill  of  an  earlier  day — worthy,  however,  of  praise  for  the  ingenuity 
which  detected,  and  the  bold  promptitude  which  applied  it  to  the 
improvements  of  Rome, 

Frederick  East. 
Sept.  IQt/i,  18-10. 


THE  NELSON  MONUMENT. 

There  seems  to  be  a  pretty  strong  feeling  entertained  against 
Railtou's  Corinthian  Column;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  such  a  hack- 
neyed and  tasteless  object  will  never  be  erected  as  a  munumeat  to 
Nelson,  for  in  reality,  it  will  prove  a  disgrace  to  Brittish  art. 
Even  at  this  eleven'.h  hour  it  will  be  better  for  the  parties  more  im- 
mediately concerned,  to  make  the  best  of  a  bad  bargain,  and  to  put  up 
with  the  loss  of  the  money  already  thrown  away,  than  obstinately  to 
persist  in  completing  an  absurdity,  because  it  happens  to  have  been 
begun.  The  Nelson  Committee  ought  rather  to  think  themselves 
fortunate  in  having  a  very  good  excuse  for  even  yet  re-tracing  their 
steps,  and  thus  sparing  themselves  the  obloquy,  and  art  the  discredit, 
that  must  else  redound  to  them  from  such  a  puerile  monstrosity. 

Are  we  never  to  profit  by  experience,  however  dearly  bought  ? — 
Must  we  continue  to  doom  ourselves,  time  after  time,  to  the  sneers 
and  reproaches  directed  against  our  blunders  in  nearly  all  matters  of 
taste,  by  other  nations  ? 

Some  may  perhaps,  be  of  opinion  that  quite  enough  has  been  said 
upon  the  subject  already,  and  that  any  further  remonstrance  would  be 
useless.  We  however,  tliink  very  dilferently,  being  persuaded  in  our 
own  mind,  that  it  is  mainly  owing  to  want  of  detern)ined  perseverance 
in  remonstrance,  that  so  many  abortions  in  architecture  are  inflicted 
upon  this  couutry.     Or  are  we  to  be  told  that  there  is  no  public  opinion 


whatever  worth  attending  to  in  such  matters  ? — that  there  does  not  as 
yet  exist  among  us  even  one  class  of  persons  that  can  justly  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  an  architectural  public?  If  such  be  reallv  the 
case,  the  next  question  is,  are  we  ever  likely  to  have  one  ? 

As  to  the  Nelson  bore, — for  sucli  it  now  turns  out  to  be, — there  was,  if 
we  mistake  not,  a  good  deal  said  beforehand  in  the  newspapers  rela- 
tive to  the  talent  that  would  be  elicited  by  the  Competition.  Talent, 
forsooth!  Well,  if  there  was  talent,  the  Nelson  Committee  had  cer- 
tainly not  nous  enough  among  all  of  them,  to  find  it  out;  else  never 
would  they  have  pitched  upon  such  a  miserable ^;s  alkr  as  they  have 
done. — Should  the  Column — as  we  devoutly  hope  it  will  not — e'ver  be 
erected,  at  all  events  a  statue  personifying'the  Collective  Taste  of  the 
Committee  ought  to  be  clapped  on  the  summit  of  it.  Verily  it  de- 
serves to  be  extolled  and  in  no  other  way. 


THE  NELSON  MONUMENT. 

Sir — I  am  desirous  of  addressing  you  upon  the  subject  of  the  proposed 
Nelson  Monument ;  feehng  that  an  unaccountable  etfort  being  now  apparent 
to  render  our  metropolis  a  laughing-stock  to  foreigners,  it  is  a  duty  of  every 
lover  of  art  to  raise  his  voice,  however  feeble,  for  the  warding  otf  of  tlie  im- 
pending calamity.  I  will  for  the  most  part  confine  myself  to  the  examina- 
tion of  the  question,  whether  an  isolated  column  can  with  propriety  be  em- 
ployed. Columns  at  first  rude  in  execution,  were  erected  by  tlie  ancients  as 
actual  supports  to  horizontal  entablatures,  and  indeed  according  to  one  theory, 
that  of  Leljrun,  we  may  say  tliat  their  proportions,  chosen  as  producing  the 
most  beautiful  etfect,  were  also  those  best  calculated  to  ensure  stabihty.  The 
epistyha  being  of  great  length,  the  supports  or  columns  were  corbelled  out  at 
the  top,  with  a  \iew  to  shorten  the  part  unsupported,  and  thus  was  invented 
the  capital.  It  is  erroneous,  accorcUng  to  Sir  William  Chambers,  and  all  other 
great  artists,  to  employ  ornaments  which  have  not  the  semblance,  at  least, 
of  utility,  and  if  this  excellent  maxim  be  observed,  we  shall  not  admire  a 
statue  whose  features  cannot  be  distinguished,  a  capital  without  an  archi- 
trave, and  a  column  with  nothing  to  support,  and  in  fact,  as  I  have  heard  it 
said,  we  might  with  as  much  propriety  erect  a  colossal  representation  of  the 
leg  of  our  great  hero.  But,  I  am  aware,  there  is  yet  a  powerful  argument 
in  favour  of  isolated  columns,  viz.  that  they  were  employed  by  the  ancients. 
But  those  who  favour  this  opinion  surely  forget,  that  though  in  the  columns 
of  Trajan  and  Antoninus,  the  impropriety  stUl  exists,  it  is  almost  obscured  by 
the  ornaments  and  the  spiral  basso-relievos  which,  twining  round  the  shafts, 
destroy  in  a  considerable  measure  the  idea  of  support.  The  object  of  the 
Roman  structures  could  not  be  mistaken,  they  are  evidently  monuments;  but 
the  proposed  erection  will  never  have  other  than  the  appearance  of  a  luige 
fac-simile  of  a  small  column.  Surely  some  who  argue  that  Roman  precedent 
is  sufficient  to  prove  the  proposed  structure  beautiful,  pass  over  the  numerous 
instances  in  which  Roman  artists  have  tortured  and  debased  their  plundered 
architecture.  They  it  was,  who  totally  ruined  the  proportions  of  the  Doric 
and  Ionic  orders,  who  introduced  broken  entablatures  and  overloaded  cor- 
nices, who  placed  order  above  order,  and  who  set  the  order  upon  a  lofty 
pedestal,  and  crushed  it  with  a  ponderous  attic. 

The  truth  of  the  saying  of  Aristotle,  let  us  all  hope  will  be  marufested, 
and  that  "the  people"  will  prove  that  they  are  the  best  judges  of  whatever 
is  "  graceful,  harmonious  or  sublime,"  and  I  am  confident  that  the  best  re- 
sults would  Bave  followed,  if  t/iei/  had  been  allowed,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
give  judgment  between  the  competing  designs.  Amidst  the  general  apathy, 
whilst  the  column  is  actually  being  commenced,  an  important  Journal,  Sir, 
like  your's,  should  raise  its  voice,  and  you  will  therefore  pardon,  I  hope,  my 
trespass  on  so  much  of  your  space. 

I  am.  Sir,  very  obediently,  your  servant, 

A  Lover  of  the  Beaotiful. 

47,  Lower  Stamford-street. 


COMPARISON  OF  STONE  AND  BRONZE  STATUES. 

Sir — I  observe  with  regret,  that  the  statue  for  the  summit  of  the  Nelson 
column  is  to  be  of  stone,  from  the  very  nature  of  that  material  it  is  impossible 
to  make  a  statue  which  can  look  well  in  such  a  position,  and  this  for  reasons 
which  I  think  have  been  overlooked,  not  only  where  statues  of  bronze  have 
been  placed  on  columns,  but  also  in  the  majority  of  bronze  statues  erected 
in  our  public  places.  An  error  in  judgment  and  in  taste  is  observable  in 
these,  which  becomes  particularly  offensive  when  a  statue  is  placed  on  the 
summit  of  a  column,  and  it  arises  from  not  considering  the  nature  of  the 
material  em|)loyed.  Bronze  statues  are,  in  our  times,  executed  on  the  same 
principles  of  composition  adopted  in  marble  statues,  from  the  necessities  of 
the  latter  material.  A  glance  at  the  arrangement  of  bronze  statues  amongst 
the  ancients  may  assist  us  in  determining  what  principles  of  composition 
should  be  followeil ;  in  these  we  find  that  trunks  of  trees,  masses  of  drapery, 
and  the  various  contrivances  necessary  to  strengthen  marble  statues,  and  onlij 
tolerated  because  ne  essary,  are  entirely  dispensed  with,  and  where  drapery 
is  essential  to  the  subject,  it  descends  in  peculiarly  hght  folds,  and  is  gene- 
rally tighened  round  the  ancles,  every  advantage  of  the  material  being  taken 


356 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


to  imitate  the  thinness  of  real  drapery.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt  of  the 
proprictv,  and  consequently  of  the  taste  of  tliis  arrangement,  and  an  exami- 
nation of  (lie  heavy  dark  masses  in  our  streets  and  squares  cannot  fail  to 
impress  us  with  the  conviction  that  the  ancient  practice  is  the  proper  one. 
The  consequences  where  such  masses  are  placed  on  the  summit  of  columns, 
are  peculiarly  disastrous  ;  it  cannot,  however,  lie  doubted  that  bronze  is  the 
material  which  should,  at  all  times,  be  adopted  in  such  situations.  We  find, 
liy  the  examination  of  ancient  coins,  that  tlie  statues  of  Trajan  and  Antoninus, 
placed  upon  the  summits  of  their  respective  columns  at  Rome,  were  of  a 
lightness  in  the  arrangement  wholly  unattainable  in  marble  or  stone;  these 
were  clad  in  the  military  costume  of  their  times. 

The  able  artists  who  executed  the  statues  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  now 
occupying  (very  incongruously,  it  is  true,)  the  summits  of  these  columns,  had 
this  difficulty  to  contend  with,  that  their  statues  were,  of  necessity,  enve- 
loped in  drapery ;  the  talent  with  which  the  difficulty  has  been  met  is  evident, 
and  viewed  at  any  reasonable  distance,  the  statues  look  well.  The  drapery 
is  arranged  so  as  to  be  narrowest  at  the  ancles,  and  the  small  perforation 
which  it  has  been  possible  to  take  advantage  of  between  the  feet,  has  not 
been  neglected,  whilst  the  narrowing  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  pedestals 
has  greatly  aided  the  grace  of  the  general  contour.  It  seems  to  me  apparent 
thatlironze  is  the  only  material  which  can  enable  the  sculptor  to  make  a 
statue  fit  in  every  respect  for  such  a  position  ;  besides,  to  raise  a  monumental 
statue  of  so  mean  a  material  as  that  proposed,  is  altogether  indefensible, 
placed  on  a  magnificent  column  it  becomes  absurd  ;  reason  and  good  taste 
require,  and  the  universal  practice  of  the  best  periods  of  art  point  out,  that 
statues  in  the  position  of  that  contemplated,  should  be  of  a  more  costly  ma- 
terial than  the  pillar,  which  can  only  be  considered  its  pedestal.  The  same 
reasoning  by  no  means  applies  to  the  lions  or  sculptured  portions  of  the 
column,  as  witness  such  ancient  monuments  as  we  are  acquainted  with,  where 
the  sculpture  is  merely  intended  as  appropriate  architectural  decoration.  In 
the  Parthenon,  the  exterior  sculptures  were  of  marble  ;  they  only  served  to 
mark  distinctly  the  character  of  the  temple,  the  statue  of  tlie  Deity  within. 
The  object,  so  to  express  myself,  of  the  erection,  was  of  far  more  costly 
material.  The  columns  at  Rome  were  decorated  with  appropriate  and  historic 
sculptures  marking  their  character ;  the  statues  of  the  Emperors,  the  objects 
of  the  monuments,  were  of  bronze. 

I  have  some  doubts  whether  the  bronze  columns  which  the  French  have 
erected  are  in  good  taste ;  they  are  imitations,  or  are  designed  on  the  princi- 
ples of  structures  erected  in  marble.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  ever  appeared 
to  me  that  Bernini  has  displayed  more  philosophy  and  taste  in  his  famous 
Baldachino  in  St.  Peters,  in  having  erected,  as  be  has  done,  a  light  and  pe- 
culiar structure,  in  which  he  has  taken  every  advantage  of  the  capabilities  of 
his  material. 

When  we  look  around  us  and  see,  I  had  almost  said  in  every  important 
eitv  in  Europe,  monuments  of  the  most  magnificent  description  erected,  it  is 
with  a  feeling  of  mortification  that  we  contemplate  a  proposed  departure 
from  propriety  and  good  taste  in  our  great  and  wealthy  metropolis.  I  hope 
that  an  effort  may  yet  be  made  to  amend  the  resolution  as  to  the  statue. 
Should  you  think  these  few  general  observations  worthy  of  a  place  in  your 
excellent  journal,  you  will  gratify, 

Sir, 

Edinburgh,  Your  very  obedient  servant, 

Sept.,  1840.  C.  II.  W. 


cliinery  for  altcmalely  closing  the  dampers  is  exceedingly  simple.  Tlie  smoke 
being  all  consumed  a  saving  of  fuel  is  olitained. 

Whether  the  manufacturers  will  avail  themselves  of  this  invention,  and 
tliiis  materially  improve  the  town,  is  uuceriain  ;  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  will ; 
they  ouglit  at  least  to  investigate  tlic  matter.  One  of  Mr.  Hall's  furnaces  is 
generally  at  work  in  Messrs,  Brigg  and  Sons'  mill  in  Carl  Ion-street,  where 
its  oneralion  and  eflects  may  be  seen.  The  inhabitants  of  Leeds  should  not 
lit  tnis  opportunity  pass  without  making  an  eflnrt  to  abate  this  nuisance. 
.    Your's  respectfully, 

C.  L.  Dresser. 

Comniercial'buildings,  Leeds,  Sept.  IGth,  ISiO. 


CON.'iUMP'I^DN  OF  SMOKE. 

■  g,H The  possibility  of  ridding  a  large  manufacturing  town  of  the  smoke 

which  rises  in  such  dense  volumes  from  the  long  chimnies  has  always  been  a 
desideratum  ;  but  the  methods  employed  to  eflect  this  have  been  so  expensive 
or  complicated,  involving  loss  of  power  or  extra  labour,  that  they  have  been 
but  little  used,  and  the  nuisance  with  all  its  disagreeable  effects  continues  un- 
abated. .         .      ,       ,  , 

Mr.  Hall  of  this  town  has  pist  patented  an  invention,  simi'le,  cheap,  anil 
effectual.  I  have  this  day  w'ilnesSed  its  eflects.  and  was  much  pleased  with 
its  simplicity,  and  astonished  by  the  efiective  consumption  of  the  smoke. 

The  principle  of  the  invention,  that  smoke  passed  over  a  bright  tire  is  con- 
sumed, lias  long  been  known;  Mr.  Hall  only  claims  the  adaptation  of  the 
principle  which  is  thu    etfected: — 

The  fire  place  is  divided  lengthwise,  by  a  thin  wall  of  fire  bricks,  so  that 
there  is  as  it  were  two  fire  places  under  tlie  boiler,  each  of  wliiih  communi- 
cates wiih  Ihe  main  flue  or  chimney  by  a  separate  flue,  therefore  Ihe  two  fire 
places  would  have  no  connexion  were  it  not  than  an  aperture  is  left  at  the  top 
of  the  partition  wall,  near  the  front  of  the  fire-places,  by  which  means  the 
two  fires  can  communicate  wilh  each  other,  so  that  were  Ihe  flue  at  the  end 
of  one  (ire  closed,  and  the  other  open,  the  only  passage  for  the  hot  air  and 
smoke  of  the  fire,  whose  direct  communication  wilh  the  chimney  is  cut  oft', 
woulil  he  through  the  aperlure  at  the  top  of  the  partition  wall,  and  over  the 
other  fire  whose  direct  communication  wilh  the  chimney  is  still  open.  It 
will  be  seen  that  by  means  of  this  arrangement  the  principle  is  easily  applied. 
The  fire,  whose  (lirect  coinmunication  wilh  Ihe  chimney  is  closed,  being 
charged  with  fresh  fuel,  its  smoke,  in  its  route  to  the  chimney,  must  pass 
through  the  aperture  of  the  partilion  and  over  Ihe  other  fire,  which,  being 
brighl,  efiectually  consumes  it.  By  Ihe  time  the  fire  last  charged  has  burnt 
bright,  Ihe  other  will  require  replenishing,  its  C(  mmnnicalion  with  Ihe  chim- 
ney is  therefore  closed  and  the  other  opened,  the  low  fire  is  charged,  its  smoke 
passes  over  and  is  consumed  by  the  other  bright  fire.  Thus  by  allernately 
charging  one  fire  and  then  the  other,  all  the  smoke  is  consumed.    The  ma- 


COMMENTS  ON  PORTTCOES. 

Sir — When  in  his  '  Remarks  on  Porticoes,'  page  295,  speaking  of  those 
which  project  across  the  pavement  for  foot  passengers,  A.  W.  II.  says:  "the 
beautiful  portico  of  Hanover  Chapel,  in  Regent-street,  and  those  of  the  Hay- 
market  Theatre,  and  Melbourne  House,  Whitehall,  favourably  illustrate  this 
position,"  are  we  to  imagine  that  be  at  all  regards  with  a  favourable  eye,  or 
intends  to  express  himself  in  favour  of,  Nash's  portico  to  the  theatre  above- 
mentioned  .'  If  he  does  not,  be  has  expressed  himself  most  incautiously ; 
and  if  he  does,  I  for  one  certainly  do  not  envy  his  taste,  nor  covet  his  com- 
pliments, since  in  my  opinion  that  portico,  in  whatever  direction  it  may  be 
viewed,  is  a  most  vile  and  trashy  piece  of  design.  Its  poor  miserable  and 
st<arved  looking  cornice — as  meagre  and  shrivelled  as  that  of  the  United 
Clubhouse, — would  alone  suffice  to  damn  both  the  design  and  the  designer. 

If  your  readers  are  not  so  ultra-genteel  as  to  shudder  at  those  horrible 
vulgar  things  called  proverbs,  I  would  remind  them  of  that  which  says  "  Fine 
words  butter  no  parsnips,"  as  being  quite  a  propos  to  the  occasion,  for  though 
that  miserable  affair  in  the  Haymarket,  is  called  Corinthian,  its  more  proper 
title  would  be  the  Cockneyfied  Order.  With  regard  to  the  inner  or  back 
elevation,  it  would  disgrace  a  modern  Ginshop.  I  know  not  what  A.  W.  H.'s 
ideas  may  be  of  a  portico  "  gracefully  breaking,"  the  hue  of  bouses  by  pro- 
jecting into  the  street ;  but  I  do  know  that  seen  in  profile  the  Haymarket 
portico,  presents  a  most  ungraceful  gap,  looking  as  if  a  column  had  been 
there  knocked  ont  pro  bono  publico,  so  as  to  leave  room  enough  for  a  half-a- 
dozen  fat  old  ladies  to  walk  through  arm  in  arm. 

As  A.  W.  H.  has  condescended  to  mention  St.  George's,  Hanover  Square, 
— which  is  so  little  spoken  of  as  a  piece  of  architecture  that  we  might  fancy 
it  to  be  some  most  obscure  and  insignificant  church,  not  included  within  the 
'  bills  of  gentility,' — it  is  strange  he  should  not  have  quoted  that  one  as  the 
very  best  instance  of  all  where  the  footway  is  carried  through  the  portico. 
A  portico  projecting  over  the  foot  pavement  is  it  seems  just  about  to  be  erected 
in  front  of  the  Adelphi  Theatre ;  hut  it  may  %vith  tolerable  safety  be  predicted 
beforehand,  that  it  will  not  be  particularly  ornamental  to  the  street,  since 
unless  extended  in  front  of  the  adjoining  house  on  each  side,  it  cannot  be 
much  bigger  than  an  apple  stall,  and  will  perhaps  look  not  much  unlike  aa 
unglazed  shop  front,  dragged  forward  before  its  neighbours. 

c.  c. 


THE  ARCHITECTURE  OF  LIVERPOOL. 
By  a  Stranger. 

In  the  following  remarks,  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  the  writer  is  governed 
by  prejudice  or  partiality,  or  "  set  down  aught  in  extenuation  or  malice." 
He  scarcely  knows  an  individual  in  the  town,  and  his  visit  lias  been  but  to 
add  a  little  more  to  his  stock  of  architectural  knowledge,  which,  with  a  stu- 
dent's patience  and  perseverance,  he  has  spent  days  in  travelling  and  many 
nights  in  study,  during  nearly  half  his  life,  to  obtain. 

And  first  to  the  Custom-house.  This  edifice,  uniting  within  itself  the 
Post-office,  and  one  or  two  other  departments  beside,  is  considerably  larger, 
more  imposing  and  magnificent,  than  its  namesake  in  the  metropolis,  and  yet 
there  are  many  things  deteriorating  from  its  otherwise  grandeur  of  appear- 
ance, and  most  painful  to  the  practised  eye  of  taste  or  travel.  The  principal 
front  facing  Castle  Street  consists  of  a  quadrangle,  the  centre  composed  of  a 
massive  prostylar*  octostylarf  portico,  the  columns  being  copied  from  those 
of  the  little  Ionic  Temple  of  Ilissus,  situated  upon  the  banks  of  the  river  of 
that  name  in  Greece.  This  portico  is  simple,  grand,  and  expressive,  and  its 
large  and  chaste  proportions  beautifully  adapted  to  its  purposes.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  rest  of  the  building  are  upon  the  same  scale  of  plainness, 
simphcity,  and  largeness,  I  had  almost  said  ponderosity  of  proportion,  suit- 
able to  the  extent  and  commercial  nature  of  the  building,  where  not  elegance, 
but  the  substantiality  and  solidity  commensurate  to  its  objects  are  required. 
The  plain  portions  of  the  buildings  are  adorned  by  pilasters,  but  the  highly 
ornamental  base,  both  of  columns  and  (lilasters,  shotdd  never  have  been  per- 
mitted to  continue  their  corrugated  torrij  round  the  edifice,  thus  dispropor- 
tionately mixing  richness  and  plainness  upon  the  same  face.  The  wings  are 
simple  and  unexceptionable,  and  tlie  bold,  handsome  stylobale§  gives  both 


Projecting,    t  Eight  columned.    }  Circular  portions  of  the  base. 
§  Plinth  or  base,  on  which  the  building  seems  to  rest. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


3.57 


dignity  ami  elevation.  But,  upon  carrying  the  eye  upwards,  it  is  most  pain- 
fully offended  by  the  unsightly  dome  and  tambour  upon  which  it  rests.  This 
excrescence  is  most  truly  unfortunate  ;  firstly,  the  Greek  character  of  the 
architecture  did  not  require  a  dome,  a  thing  utterly  unknown  to  the  Greeks 
themselves;  and,  secondly,  the  contour  of  the  thing  itself  is  both  ugly  and 
inharmonious.  Had  the  architect,  when  he  had  resolved  upon  a  dome  at  all, 
consulted  the  graceful  simplicity,  swelling  circumference,  and  taiicring  out- 
line of  that  of  St.  Paul's,  Loudon,  his  conceptions  might  have  been  more 
chaste,  and  his  work  less  open  to  criticism.  Tlie  circular  heads  to  the  win- 
dows are  equally  architectural  anachronisms.  The  sides  facing  tlie  Dock  and 
Hanover  Street,  are  adorned  by  a  similar  portico  to  tliat  last  described,  and 
placed  upon  a  bold  flight  of  steps.  Here  the  critic  can  only  praise  the  pilas- 
ters, intercolumniations,  entablature,  cornice,  windows,  and  doors;  the  latter, 
especially,  are  bold,  handsome  specimens.  Tlie  rear  elevation  is  most  infa- 
mously miserable.  The  eye  is  pained  and  disappointed  at  the  wretched 
poverty  of  ornament  and  detail ;  entablatures  discontinued  ;  two  tiers  of 
windows  in  one  part,  and  three  tiers  in  another,  the  upper  one  being  Ijeggarly 
loojiholes  in  the  place  where  the  entablature  should  have  been.  Tlie  interior 
has  also  faults  of  no  mean  order;  besides  want  of  t.aste,  the  mixtures  of 
'styles,  the  commonplace,  unimaginative  nature  of  the  details,  it  wants  light. 
Still,  upon  the  whole,  in  spite  of  many  serious  defects,  this  edifice,  from  its 
size,  grandeur,  chastened  simplicity,  isolation  of  position,  and  importance  as 
to  utility,  is  well  worthy  of  admiration  from  the  stranger,  and  respect  from 
the  citizens  of  the  good  town  of  Liverpool. 

Let  nie  now  turn  to  the  Royal  Bank,  Dale  Street,  /.  e.  froir.  the  extreme  of 
simplicity  to  that  of  richness  and  luxuriance.  This  edifice  is  just  completed, 
and  is  composed  of  a  basement  of  enormous  height,  upon  which  is  placed  a 
Corinthian  order  containing  two  tiers  of  windows.  The  centre  is  composed 
of  seven-eighths  columns.  There  is  nuicli  richness  and  originality  in  this 
edifice,  and  although  its  gorgeousness  and  profusion  of  complicated  carvings, 
mouldings,  and  detads  may  please  vulgar  taste,  it  is  too  sadly  overdone  to 
please  the  more  practised  eyes  of  the  architect  or  amateur.  The  basement  is 
ridiculously  high;  the  Venetian  windows  too  redundant  of  carving  and 
various  ornaments ;  the  cornices  would  not  be  too  rich  upon  a  plainer  face, 
but  now,  cut  dentd,  carved  ovolo,  and  ruuning  heads  weary  the  eye,  which, 
like  the  dove  of  old,  finds  no  resting-place  to  fix  upon,  but,  wearied  and  fa- 
tigued, it  turns  away,  but  is  reluctantly  compelled  to  own  the  extravagant 
richness  and  luxuriance  of  ornament.  And  yet,  whilst  some  parts  are  more 
adorned  than  any  building  in  the  country,  the  central  windows  are  mere  loop- 
holes, not  having  even  an  architrave  round  them,  whilst  the  rest  of  the 
windows  have  not  merely  rich  architraves,  hut  revel  amid  a  profusion  of 
carved  foliations.  The  top  is  surmounted  by  a  balustrade,  which,  with  the 
plinth,  is  ridiculously  high.  I  would  also  call  attention  to  the  wretched 
life-size  sculpturing  of  the  arms  in  the  centre  of  the  budding,  which  bears  a 
distant  resemblance  to  an  amatory  lion  making  love  to  some  sportive  unicorn, 
who,  rejecting  his  addresses,  and  tossing  up  his  head  with  its  tremendous 
horn,  seems  to  repeat  to  himself  the  scriptural  piece  of  self-satisfaction,  "My 
horn  hall  be  exalted."'  Upon  entering  the  interior,  the  eye  is  dazzled  by 
the  rich  profusion  of  arcliitraves,  friezes,  cornices,  ceilings,  panels,  and  orna- 
ments ;  the  eye  is  wearied  and  confused,  and  attention  exhausted  ;  no  repose, 
no  chasteness,  all  is  the  most  lavish  profusion.  The  grand  error  seems  to 
have  been  to  have  crammed  as  much  ornament  and  expense  as  possible  within 
a  given  surface. 

I  will  now  turn  to  the  Town-hall  and  Exehange.  It  is  much  to  lie  re- 
gretted thr-.t  the  former  does  not  face  directly  down  Castle  Street,  instead  of 
the  portico  approaching  one  side  of  the  street  considerably  more  than  the 
other.  Tills  edifice  is  highly  creditable  for  the  day  in  which  it  was  executed; 
and,  although  there  are  no  great  beauties,  there  is  little  actually  to  condemn 
beyond  the  meagre,  wretched  carvings  between  the  capitals  of  the  columns. 
The  ass£mbly-roouis  are  admirably  jirnportioued,  more  especially  the  great 
room,  which  is  in  sesquilateral  proportion,  but  the  ornaments  are  somewhat 
few  in  number,  and  poor  in  detail.  To  the  staircase,  a  later  work,  by  Sir 
Jeffry  Wyatville,  must  be  afforded  the  most  unqualified  ajiprobation.  Its 
proportions,  decorations,  colour,  and  all  other  adjuncts,  are  beyond  all  jiraise. 
Its  efi'ect  is  that  of  the  most  chaste  repose  ;  ami.  of  its  size,  there  are  few 
finer  in  tlie  kingdom.  Returning  to  the  "  place  "  forming  the  quadrangle  of 
the  Exchange,  the  stranger  is  much  struck  with  the  similarity  of  this,  upon 
a  small  scale,  with  certain  edifices  upon  the  Continent.  The  effect  of  this 
square  from  one  corner,  with  the  Nelson  monument  in  the  centre,  is  par- 
ticularly fine ;  for,  although  there  is  nothing  worthy  of  note  in  the  arclii- 
tecfture  itself,  still  there  is  an  importance  highly  ])leasiiig  and  effective.  The 
monument  is  worthy  of  attention  ;  the  lost  arm  of  this  great  hero  is  here  in- 
geniously hidden  by  a  flag.  The  base,  whicli  is  circular,  is  ornamented  by 
basso  relievos  and  statues,  full  size,  chained  to  the  base,  and  resting  upon  a 
step,  which  gives  a  pleasing  breadth  to  the  lower  portions.  This  adds  much 
to  the  effect  of  the  base ;  but  whether  it  is  worthy  of  the  better  feelings  of 
humanity  to  commemorate  our  triumphs  by  figures  in  chains  and  painful  pos- 
tures, thus  perpetuating  the  fierce  passions  of  war,  new  that  peaceful  times 
are  emptying  their  cornucopias  around  us,  I  leave  to  more  philosophic  critics_ 

Eder. 


y/H  enormous  or^an  is  now  in  the  course  of  erection  in  the  Abbey  of  St.  Denis. 
It  contains  about  6,000  pipes,  amongst  v.hich  are  some  measuring  52  feet, 
and  weighing  12,0001b.    This  m.iguificent  instrument  is  nearly  completed. 


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADV.VNCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 
Tenth  Meetixg. — Septemler,  1840. 

(From  tlie  Athenaeum.) 

Section  G. — Mech.\nical  Science. 

President. — Sir  John  Robison. 

Vice-Presidents. — His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Argvle  ;    Rev.  Dr.  Robinson 

(Armagh);  Messrs.  J.  Taylor  ;  J.Walker. 

Secretaries. — Jlessrs.  J.  S.  Russell;  C.  Vignoles  ;  J.  Thcmson  ;  J.  Tod. 

Committee. — Messrs.  J.  Dun,  T.  Edington,  W.  Fairbairn,  J.  Glynn,  Professor 

Gordon,  Messrs.  R.   Griffiths,   I.  ifawkius,  E.  Ilodgkinson.'W.  Jessop,  A. 

Liddell,  J.  Macneil,  R.  Napier,  Sir  J.  Rennie,  Messrs.  J.  Roberts,  J.  Smith, 

C.  W.  Williams. 

The  first  paper  read  was  "  On  Safety-valves  for  Steam  Boilers,''  By  Mr. 
Galline. 

The  merit  of  the  proposed  alteration  rested  on  the  general  principle,  that 
the  safety  valves  at  present  in  use  are  not  large  enough  ;  and  Mr.  Galline's 
object  was  to  allow  a  large  surface,  like  the  lid  of  a  chest,  to  rise  when  the 
pressure  becomes  sufficient  to  force  it  up ;  so  that,  on  an  accumulation  of 
steam,  it  might  escape,  before  any  accident  could  take  place.  His  proposal 
was,  in  brief,  that  a  large  valve  shall  open  instead  of  a  small  one. 

"  On  extinyuishing  Fire  in  Steam  J'essels."     By  Mr.  Wallace. 

Mr.  Wallace  proposes  to  effect  this  by  steam  itself.  The  plan  has  beeu 
some  time  before  the  public,  and  many  successful  experiments  made  in  the 
presence  of  scientific  persons.  Among  the  most  important  was  the  following, 
made  on  board  the  Leven  steam-boat : — On  the  cabin  floor,  a  space  of  10  feet 
by  14  was  covered  with  wet  sand,  on  which  was  laid  iron  jilates  and  on  tliese 
a  fire  was  kindled  with  about  4.1  ewt.  of  very  combustil)Ie  materials,  such  as 
tar  barrels,  &c.  A  hose  S4  feet  long,  2i  inches  in  diameter,  extended  from 
tlie  boiler  of  the  engine  to  the  crdiin,  and  when  the  fire  had  been  suflieicntly 
kindled,  so  that  the  panes  of  glass  in  the  windows  of  the  cabin  began  to  crack 
by  the  heat,  the  steam  was  let  in,  and  the  door  of  the  cabin  shut.  The  fire 
was  extinguished  in  about  four  minutes.  Several  trials  were  made,  and  all 
with  like  success.  On  another  trial,  a  metal  pipe  of  a  greater  diameter  than 
the  hose  was  connected  with  the  steam-boiler,  and  extended  into  the  cabin. 
.V  small  square  hatch  was  cut  in  the  deck  immediately  above  the  cabin,  and 
through  this  o]ieniiig  were  lowered  down  into  the  cabin  two  moveable  grates, 
each  containing  a  blazing  fire,  well  kindled,  of  about  1  cwt.  of  coals.  The 
hatch  on  the  deck  and  cabin  doors  were  then  shut,  and  the  steam  let  in,  and 
in  1j  minutes  the  small  hatch  was  opened,  and  one  of  the  grates  hoisted  up, 
when  the  whole  mass  of  coal  and  cinders,  which  had  before  formed  a  power- 
ful fire,  were  found  to  be  completely  extinguished.  This  experiment  was 
repeated  twice  with  equal  success. 

In  reply  to  a  question  from  the  President,  Mr.  Wallace  said,  that  the  hose 
might  be  made  either  or  silk  or  canvas  painted.  It  was  stated  that  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  now  in  London,  the  firemen  always  direct  the  water  to  the 
lowest  part  of  the  fire,  that  it  might  be  converted  into  steam.  Dr.  Hamel, 
of  St.  Petersburgh,  mentioned,  that  in  Russia  they  have  used  woven  hemp 
hose  for  fire-engines  more  than  forty  years.  Mr.  Roberts,  of  Manchester, 
said,  that  in  that  town  there  had  been  a  fire  in  a  factory  some  time  since, 
when  the  men  went  in,  broke  the  steam-pipes,  which  were  charged,  shut  the 
doors,  and  the  fire  was  out  immediately. 

"  On  Wheels  of  Locomotive  Enyines."     By  Mr.  Grime. 

The  rim  or  felloe  of  the  wheel  is  turned,  welded,  and  blocked  in  the  usual 
way  to  the  size  required,  iay  three  feet  diameter ;  the  side,  or  front  rim  of 
the  wheel,  is  formed  out  of  boiler  pl,ate-iron,  say  |  of  an  inch  thick,  clipped 
round  to  size  required.  I  then,  said  the  writer,  take  the  plates  and  punch 
out  the  centre,  which  forms  the  eye  of  the  wheel.  After  this  the  shapes  are 
punched  out,  leaving  the  boss  and  arms  standing  together,  with  a  sufficient 
breadth  of  iron  at  the  extremity  of  the  arms  that  will  be  eqiul  to  thickness 
of  felloe,  say  1^  inch  to  2  inches,  for  wear,  and,  when  weldeil,  forms  part  of 
the  felloe.  The  boss  of  the  wheel  is  punched  out  of  plate-iron,  s.ay  \  of  an 
inch  thick,  into  what  I  denominate  washers ;  I  then  pile  them  one  upon 
another,  to  the  breadtli  of  the  wheel,  taking  notice  to  cross  the  grain  of  iron 
every  washer  when  pdingthem.  By  so  doing,  the  boss,  or  nave,  will  be  con- 
siderably stronger  and  tougher  thau  if  the  grain  of  iron  went  all  one  way. 
When  this  is  done,  it  bears  the  name  of  "faggotted  iron."  The  washers  being 
piled  to  the  required  thickness,  I  pin  them  to  one  of  the  punched  plates,  the 
diameter  of  wheel  required  ;  then  jiiit  the  rim  or  felloe  on,  and  pin  it  to  the 
plate.  This  being  done,  I  put  in  the  midfeathcr,  say  J  inch  thick,  and  the 
depth  of  felloe  and  piled  plates  or  boss,  there  being  in  every  washer  a  half 
circle  punched  out  to  receive  the  midfeather ;  the  other  plate  is  then  put  on, 
and  pinned  to  the  other  parts.  The  wheel  being  now  formed,  it  is  taken  to 
the  furnace,  which  is  constructed  with  a  revolving  table  at  tlie  bottom,  so 
arranged  that  it  can  be  dropped  or  raised.  This  table  is  formed  of  fire-brick, 
and  on  the  top  are  placed  five  loose  bricks,  to  keep  the  wheel  from  touching 
the  table,  and  to  enable  the  workmen  to  get  the  wheel  into  the  furnace  and 
out  again  by  means  of  a  fork.  The  furnace  having  been  got  up  to  an  intense 
heat,  thstable  is  set  to  a  particular  mark,  the  door  of  the  furnace  is  raised, 
and  the  wheel  slided  on  to  the  table  ;  the  door  is  then  closed,  and  the  table, 
which  is  worked  from  underneath  by  a  tooth  and  pinion,  is  turned  round, 
presenting  every  part  of  the  wheel  regularly  to  the  flame,  as  the  flame  rushes 
through  the  furnace.     The  wheel,  having  been  in  about  three-quarters  of  an 

3  C 


358 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Ot  TOBER. 


hour,  and  liaving  arrived  at  a  perfect  welding  heat,  tlic  taUe  ia  turned  to  the 
mark  hefore  uientioned,  and  the  wheel  is  slided  out  on  to  r.n  anvil.  This 
anvil  is  planed  perfectly  true  on  the  face,  and  is  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
wheel.  .Vliovc  the  auvil  is  the  hammer,  of  al)Out  13  cwt..  suspended  at  a 
height  of  about  12  feet,  the  face  of  this  hammer  being  phined  perfectly  true, 
to  correspond  with  the  face  of  the  anvil.  As  soon  as  the  wheel  is  placed  on 
the  anvil,  the  hammer  is  released,  falls  on  the  wheel,  and  perfectly  welds  it 
into  one  entire  solid  at  a  single  blow.  Before  pinning  tlie  wheel  together,  I 
put  the  various  parts  into  a  solution  of  vitriol  and  water,  and,  should  there 
he  any  part  corroded,  it  immediately  removes  it,  so  that  tliere  is  nothing  but 
pure  iron,  and  a  good  welding  is  easily  obtained.  The  wheel,  when  cold,  is 
turned  up  in  the  usual  way. 

'*  On  JJ'arntinff  and  Ventilatint/  Buildings."     lly  Mr.  Ritchie. 

The  principal  oljject  of  this  paper  was  to  call  the  attention  of  architects  to 
the  construction  of  houses,  with  a  view  to  a  better  provision  for  heating  and 
ventilation.  The  author  described  the  method  adopted  by  Sir  J.  Robison, 
whose  house  is  warmed  by  a  large  supply  of  air  heated  to  "0',  which  is  al- 
lowed to  issue  directly  into  the  lobby  and  staircase,  whicli  it  heats  to  60 
even  in  the  coldest  weather.  This  heated  air  is  ■'dlowed  to  enter  the  sitting 
rooms  freely  by  concealed  apertures  over  the  doors,  and  tlie  vitiated  air  is 
carried  off  tlirough  openings  in  the  ceilings  by  separate  flues  in  each  room. 

Mr.  Hawkins  always  found  tliat,  in  the  sitting  rooms,  open  fires  were  re- 
quired to  warm  the  feet,  though  not  necessary  in  bed-rooms. — Mr.  Hartop 
agreed,  and  considered  Sylvester's  Radiating  Stove  the  best  for  the  purpose, 
in  addition  to  the  general  heating  ajiparatus. — Mr.  Vignoles  concurred,  and 
stated  that  nothing  prevented  Sylvester's  stoves  being  universally  introduced, 
but  their  high  price. — Mr.  Hawkins  stated,  that,  from  experience,  a  large  fire 
with  a  small  supply  of  air,  was  the  most  economical  mode  of  using  fuel. — 
Sir  John  Kobison  stated  that,  witli  the  apparatus  it\  his  house,  he  can  keep 
his  staircase  at  a  temperature  of  from  .'JS'  to  G2',  when  the  current  of  heated 
air  was  only  61'  as  it  issued  from  the  appai-atus,  and  that  the  additional  ex- 
pense caused  by  his  provision  for  ventilation  did  not  exceed  20/. 

"  On  the  Temperature  of  most  effective  condemation  in  Steam  Vessels.' 
By  Mr.  J.  Scott  Russell. 

Much  (said  llr.  Russell)  has  been  said  regarding  the  perfection  of  the 
vacuum  formed  in  the  condenser  of  a  steam-engine,  especially  a  marine  en- 
gine. It  does  not  appear  to  be  known,  that  a  vacuum  may  be  too  good. 
We  hear  it  boasted  every  day,  by  rival  engineers,  that  their  engines  have  the 
best  vacuum.  Some  boast  their  vacuum  at  27  inches,  others  at  28,  others 
at  29,  some  at  30,  and  at  last  an  engineer  appears  who  boasts  a  vacuum  of 
30  J  inches  1  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  time  and  talent  should  be  thus  wasted. 
It  is  a  fact  of  great  importance,  and  it  is  the  result  of  theory,  estabUshed  on 
incontrovertible  truth,  and  confirmed  by  experiment  and  by  practice,  that  a 
vacuum  may  be  too  good,  and  Ijecome  a  loss  instead  of  a  gain.  The  truth  is 
simply  this,  and  should  be  known  to  every  engineer:  If  the  larometer  atand 
at  2<i\  inches,  the  standard  of  tills  cmntrij,  the  facuum  in  the  condenser  is 
TOO  GOOD  if  if  raise  in  the  barometer  more  than  28  inches  nf  mercury.  This 
important  truth  is  incontrovertible — it  is  practically  exhibited  every  day. 
The  following  is  a  simple  proof  of  this  doctrine,  divested,  as  far  as  possible, 
of  a  technical  form,  and  put  in  the  shape  of  an  inquiry  into  the  best  state  of 
a  condenser ; — 

Let  /=tlie  caloric  of  water  of  V. 

c  =  the  constituent  caloric  of  water  in  the  state  of  steam. 
e  =  lhe  total  force  of  steam  in  the  boiler,  in  inches  of  mercury  ;  and 
,1=  the  elastic  force  of  steam  at  the  temperature  of  best  condensation, 
which  we  seek  to  discover. 

Then  from  the  law  which  connects  the  elastic  force  of  steam  with  tempe- 
rature, it  follows,  that  in  case  of  maximum  effect,  or  the  temperature  of  best 
condensation, — 


I 


el 
,  that  IS,  .r=  — 


=  004 


-  =  0-045 


Now^  (•  is  1000  J  and  if  the  steam  in  the  boiler  be  at  5  it.,  above  the  atmos- 
phere, or  if  e=40  inches  of  mercury,  and  /=  1, 

■'~iooo 

Again,  if  tlie  steam  be  at  1\  lb.  =  45  inches, 
45 

''~Ioob 

Again,  if  the  steam  be  at  10  ft.  =  50  inches, 

50 
.,=___  =  0-05 
1000 

Hence  we  find,  that  the  best  elasticity  or  temperature  in  the  condenser  de- 
pends on  the  elastic  force  of  the  steam  in  the  boiler. 

Witli  steam  of  5  ft.  in  the  boiler,  the  elasticity  of  maximum  effect  in  the 
con(lenser  is  93-  Fah.,  and  the  best  vacuum  on  the  barometer  is  28. 

With  steam  of  7v  ft.  in  the  boiler,  the  elasticity  of  maximum  et%ct  in  the 
condenser  is  95°,  and  the  best  vacuum  on  the  barometer  is  27-8. 

With  steam  of  10  ft.  in  the  boiler,  the  elasticity  maximum  effect  in  the 
condenser  is  97°,  and  the  best  vacuum  on  the  barotiieter  is  27-6. 

In  like  manner  it  would  be  found,  tliat  with  steam  of  50  ft.  iu  the  boiler, 


worked  expansively,  as  in  Cornwall,  the  best  vacmuu  in  the  condenser  would 
be  about  2G.  on  the  barometer. 

It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  engineers  will  not  in  future  distress  themselves 
at  finding  the  vacuum  of  their  condenser  much  less  perfect  than  the  vacuum  of 
others  wb.o  have  obtained  30  andSOS  inches  at  so  great  loss  of  fuel  and  power. 
To  obtain  a  v.icuum  of  29A,  with  the  weather  glass  at  29-75,  and  steam  at  /  .1 
ft.,  would  he  to  sacrifice  four  horses'  power  out  of  every  hundred,  in  a  day 
when  the  barometer  is  as  low  as  281  inches,  the  vaomm  in  the  condenser 
would  indicate  26'8.  In  speaking  of  the  vacuum  in  the  condenser,  it  would 
save  much  ambiguity  to  indicate  the  elasticity  merely  of  the  steam  in  the 
condenser  ;  thus,  if  tlie  barometer  stand  without  at  29J.  and  the  barometer 
of  the  condenser  at  28,  it  might  be  stated  that  the  steam  in  the  condenser 
stands  at  1 .' ,  being  the  point  of  maximum  effort.  The  indication  would  con- 
vey at  all  times  more  precise  information. 

Mr.  Russel  stated  that  the  President  had  just  jiut  into  his  hands  a  com- 
munication in  French  on  this  subject  from  Mr.  Barnes.  Instead  of  a  jet  play- 
ing inside  the  condenser,  M.  Barnes  allows  it  to  nish  in  suddenly,  and  then 
stops  it  by  a  slide  valve. — Mr.  Fairbairn  wished  to  know  whether  the  facts 
staled  by  Mr.  Russell  had  been  jiractically  estabUshed. — Mr.  Russell  stated 
how  tlie  experiment  might  be  made. — ;\Ir.  Fairbairn  considered  tliis  a  very 
important  subject,  as  bearing  on  the  economy  of  fuel,  and  regretted  that  Mr. 
Russell  had  not  given  an  account  of  his  experiments. — Mr.  Russell  suggested 
that  Mr.  Fairbairn  should  himself  undertake  the  experiments. — Mr.  llodgkin- 
son  considered  it  very  important  that  experiments  should  be  carried  on ;  and 
Mr.  Fairbairn,  that  experiments  should  be  made  on  steam  at  all  pressures.  It 
was  suggested  that  this  was  a  proper  subject  to  be  inquired  into  by  the  Bri- 
tish Association,  and  it  was  agreed  that  the  Committee  of  the  Section  should 
discuss  the  propriety  of  applying  for  a  grant  to  pursue  the  exjieriments. — Mr. 
Taylor  stated  that  they  use  plungers  in  tb.e  air-pumps  in  North  Wales ;  and 
Mr.  Hartop,  that  in  America  air-pump  buckets  have  been  made  without  pack- 
ing, and  found  to  answer  well. — Mr.  Roberts  stated  that  he  had  made  engines 
with  solid  pistons  without  packing,  both  cylinder  and  air-pump. — Mr.  Vignoles 
mentioned  that  such  solid  pistons  had  been  used  on  some  of  the  first  locomo- 
tive engines  on  the  Dublin  and  Kingstown  Railw.iy. 

"  On  Timber  BriJrjes  of  a  large  size,  in  special  reference  to  Raihrags." 
By  Mr.  'V'iguoles. 

Mr.  Vignoles  commenced  his  remarks  by  stating,  that  he  had,  by  permis- 
sion of  the  committee,  selected  this  subject  for  illustration  and  discussion  be- 
foie  the  Mechanical  Section,  from  the  notes  of  a  ivork  he  was  prejiaring  for 
publication,  '  On  the  fieneral  Principles  aud  Economy  of  Railways,'  his  object 
in  so  doing  being  to  elicit  the  opinions  of  liis  brother  engineers,  and  to  in\ite 
discussion  and  obtain  information,  but  especially  to  direct  the  attention  of  all 
parties  interested  in  the  extension  of  the  railway  system  to  a  principle  of 
construction  which,  in  many  cases,  would  he  found  of  great  advantage  in  the 
economy  and  facility  presented  for  overcoming  obstacles,  otherwise  insur- 
mountable, within  reasonable  limits  of  expense.  Mr.  Vignoles  took  a  rapid 
view  of  the  history  of  timber  bridges,  tracing  their  first  erection  in  Germany, 
then  through  the  United  States  of  America,  and  back  to  Great  Britain.  He 
also  described  the  difference  between  the  principles  of  large  bridges  con- 
structed with  baulks  and  half-baulks,  and  of  timber  arches,  forpjed  of  layers 
of  plank  laid  over  each  other,  and  fastened  securely  together,  and,  with  felt 
or  other  means,  to  make  the  joints  and  beds  wholly  impervious  to  water.  Mr. 
Vignoles  stated,  that  the  first  bridge  on  this  principle  in  Great  Britain  had 
been  erected  at  some  place  in  Scotland,  by  an  ingenious  mechanic  of  that 
cuuntiT,  whose  name  lie  regretted  not  to  he  able  to  state.  Tiiis  was  many 
years  since.  The  principle  had  been  also  made  known,  particularly  of 
late  years,  by  the  timber  viaducts  erected  under  the  direction  of  Messrs. 
Green  and  Son,  of  Newcast!e-on-Tyne,  wiio  had  been  built  several,  and  had 
designed  more ;  and  Mr.  Vignoles  further  explained,  that  Mr.  Nicholas  Wood, 
of  Killiugworth,  who  at  this  time  erecting,  for  the  Duke  of  Buecleugh,  a  tim- 
ber viaduct,  of  great  height,  aud  with  large  openings.  Mr-  Vignoles  dis- 
claimed any  intention  of  discussing  the  question  as  to  whom  the  merit  of 
orjinality  belonged,  and  observed,  tliat  he,  at  present,  purposely  refrained 
from  any  details,  as  these  had  Ijeen  entered  into  by  Mr.  Green  both  at  New- 
castle and  at  Birmingham,  reserving  any  remarks  on  such  details  for  a  future 
occasion,  should  it  present  itself.  Mr.  Vignoles  then  explained  the  peculiar 
applicability  of  timber  bridges  or  viaducts  to  the  passage  of  deep  ravines,  so 
often  met  with  in  hilly  and  mountainous  districts,  illustrating  his  remarks  by 
diagrams.  Tlie  communications,  for  example,  to  be  made  between  the  north 
of  El-gland  and  Scotland  would  probably  have  to  be  sought  along  son\f  of 
the  valleys  leading  to  the  passes  through  the  Cumberland  Hills,  and  here,  as 
in  many  similar  districts,  engineers  iu  the  habit  of  considering  such  lines  well 
knew,  that  many  miles  of  favourable  country  for  roads  or  railways  were  often 
to  be  obtained  along  the  sides  of  sucli  ]irincipal  valleys,  until  some  unavoid- 
able appalling  obstacle  appeared  in  the  passage  across  some  of  the  lateral 
openings  or  ravines.  Instances  had  and  might  occur  where  the  whole  of 
such  a  line,  otherwise  highly  desirable,  would  have  to  be  al'andoned.  unless 
some  economical  construction  were  devised  to  surmouut  the  difficulty :  and 
here  the  timber  viaduct  would  most  advantageously  be  introduced,  since 
many  feet  additional  height  in  the  level  of  the  railway  would  add  but  little 
to  the  expense.  He  then  instanced  several  places  of  formidable  height,  and 
of  various  breadths,  where  he  had  already  designed,  or  knew  of  the  applica- 
bility of  such  constructions.  In  reference  to  the  expense,  he  stated,  that  it 
was  chiefly  when  extraordinary  height  and  either  one  arch  of  great  span  were 
required,  or  where  a  scries  of  arches,  of  large  openings,  were  wanted  or  could 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


359 


be  introducetl,  tliat  the  timber  viaducts  weve  the  most  economical.  In  ordi- 
nary heights  of  50  or  60  feet,  and  mth  arches  of  less  span  than  100  feet,  and 
particularly  in  countries  presenting  faciUties  for  construction  of  stone,  these 
latter  would  be  undoubtedly  preferable;  but  when  the  height  of  the  con- 
struction became  great,  the  great  expense  for  the  centering  for  arches  of 
masonry,  and  the  multiplication  of  the  number  of  ]ners,  in  order  to  keep  the 
span  of  the  arches  to  a  moderate  size,  greatly  increased  the  expense,  and 
threw  the  balance  vastly  in  favour  of  the  timber.  Mr.  Vignoles  instanced 
the  Ribble  Viaduct  on  tlie  North  Union  Railway  (a  model  and  description  of 
which  is  in  the  Model  Room  of  tlie  -Association'),  which  was  about  50  feet 
high,  with  five  large  arches,  of  120  feet  span,  and  had  cost  60^.  per  lineal 
foot;  whereas,  in  another  place,  a  timber  viaduct,  of  140  feet  high  in  tlijc 
centre,  and  averaging  100  feet  high,  with  arches  of  130  feet  span,  and  ex- 
tending for  a  lengtli  of  nearly  2000  feet,  was  proposed,  which  would  not  ex- 
ceed in  price  201.  jier  lineal  foot,  the  breadth  of  roadway  being,  in  both  cases, 
28  feet  for  a  double  line  of  rails.  Mr.  Vignoles  stated,  that  in  extending 
hues  of  railways  through  the  west  of  England  to  the  packet  stations,  through 
the  mountains  of  Wales  for  a  communication  between  London  and  Dublin, 
and  through  many  parts  of  Ireland,  along  the  lines  laid  out  by  him  for  the 
Government  Railway  Commissioners,  the  timber  viaducts  would,  from  their 
cheapness,  enable  the  works  to  be  entered  upon,  which  the  great  cost  of  stone 
would  quite  forbid ;  and  he  concluded  by  calling  on  his  fellow  engineers  to 
turn  their  attention  to  this  while  laying  out  new  lines,  and  to  take  bolder 
steps  across  the  valleys,  relying  on  the  timber  viaducts  to  accomplish  their 
objects. 

Mr.  Blytli  thought  that  Jlr.  Vignoles  had  over-estimated  the  expense  of 
stone,  which  Mr.  Blyth  knew  had  been  executed  at  about  25/.  per  foot. — Mr. 
Vignoles  replied,  that  it  was  seldom  that  stone  could  be  had  at  so  small  an 
expense ;  when  the  span  is  large,  and  the  height  great,  it  is  much  more  costly. 
— Mr.  Smith,  of  Deanston,  agreed  Nvith  Mr.  Vignoles,  but  did  not  think  that 
planking  was  the  best  method,  as  it  woidd  not  stand  so  long.  A  wooden 
bridge  should  be  so  constructed,  that  any  decayed  part  could  be  taken  out 
and  replaced. 


THE  THAMES  EMBANKMENT. 


The  Select  Committee  appointed  to  consider  the  Petition  of  the  Cor- 
POR.A.TIOX  of  London-  relative  to  the  Embankment  of  the  River  Thames, 
and  to  report  their  observations  and  opinions  thereupon  to  the  House,  to- 
gether with  the  best  means  of  carrying  the  same  irito  effect ;  and  to  whom 
several  Petitions  relative  to  the  measure,  and  Reports  of  former  Committees, 
were  severally  referred ; — have  considered  the  matters  to  them  referred, 
and  have  agreed  to  the  following  Report : 

The  Committee  have  met  and  proceeded  to  examine  a  Plan  and  Estiiuates 
of  the  proposed  Embankment,  submitted  by  Mr.  Walker  and  Mr.  Higgins, 
and  other  witnesses  :  that  several  petitions  for  and  against  the  measure  hav- 
ing been  referred  to  the  Committee  by  the  House,  and  many  other  witnesses 
both  for  and  against  the  intended  plan  being  proposed  to  be  examined,  the 
Con.imittee  are  obliged,  by  the  near  approach  of  the  prorogation  of  Parlia- 
ment, to  conclude  the  inquiry  without  the  examination  of  many  i)lans  for  the 
embankment  of  the  river,  or  the  consideration  of  any  plan  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  navigation,  without  any  alteration  of  the  present  line  of  emljank- 
ment.  Upon  the  general  subject,  therefore,  of  the  improvement  of  the  navi- 
gation, with  or  without  any  embankment,  they  give  no  opinion  in  the  present 
state  of  the  inquiry. 

29  Jvly  1840. 

Abkidgement  of  the  Evidence. 

Jiniu's  IValker.  Es  J.,  was  examined  and  stated  that  he  has  been  profession- 
ally acquainted  with  the  river  Tharaes,  in  reference  to  the  subjects  of  inquiry, 
for  the  last  30  years  he  has  been  employed,  either  as  assistant  or  ])riiieipal 
engineer,  at  rhe"  greater  part  of  the  dock's  that  hive  lieen  constructed  in  the 
port  of  London.  In  ISIU  he  constructed  Vauxhall  Bridge,  and  in  1821  his 
attention  was  called  rlirectly  to  the  etiecis  that  the  then  proposed  removal  of 
London  Briilge  would  ba\e  on  tiie  river  Thames.  He  has  been  almost  con- 
stantly employed  on  works  of  a  similar  nature  ou  Ihe  Thames  from  (hat  time 
to  the  present  day.  He  was  called  in  by  the  comrailtee  for  letting  ihe 
Bridge-house  estates  in  1821,  n.long  with  Iiis  friend  -Mr.  Leach,  to  report  on 
the  effect  that  the  removal  of  Londc  n  Bridge  would  have  on  the  water  of  the 
river  Thames.  He  did  not  think  that  ballasting  h'ls  done  much  good;  it  is 
done  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  ballast,  and  it  is  only  v.here  Ihe  ballast  is 
good  that  the  are  iging'  engines  have  got  io  work  ;  that  has  no;  much  regard 
to  the  inlerests  of  the  navigation.  It  does  nothing  to  take  away  the  shoals. 
At  present  the  water  ebbs  so  low  in  the  river,  above  bridge,  that  in  some 
parts  of  it,  whore  the  width  is  very  great,  the  shoals  are  periectly  dry  for  the 
greater  part  of  Ihe  widlh  across  the  river;  mostly  in  that  part  of  ilie  river 
above  Waterloo  Brid;ie  and  the  neighbourhood  ;  between  Westminster  and 
Waterloo  Bridges  and  below.  The  dredging  vessel  above  bridge  is  used 
chiefly  for  obtaining  gravel  lor  roads,  not  for  ballasting-  ships  and  similar 
[Turposes.  Tlie  effect  of  the  removal  of  London  Bridge  opcra.ing  in  the  way 
he  lias  stated,  increased  the  ve'ocity  of  the  current  through  Blackfriars 
Bridi^'e,  and  had  nearly  undennined  the  p  ers  ;  so  that  bv  going  down,  which 
he  did  in  a  diving  helmet,  he  could  put  his  leg  under  the  caissoon  bottoms, 
under  the  platibrm  on«h:ch  the  bridge  stands;  the  consequence  was  that 
Ihe  city,  partly  throauh  that  cause,  and  partly  through  the  decayed  condi- 
tion of  the  stone,  ordered  a  survey  to  be  made,  and   an  esiimate  ;  and  since 


that  time,  five  of  the  piers  have  had  coffer-dams  put  round  them,  and  the 
foundations  exiended  down  to  about  11  feet  below-  the  old  bottom,  as  re- 
gards Westminster  Bridge,  although  a  gr  at  deal  of  trouljle  had  been  taken 
for  a  great  many  years  in  supporting  it,  the  Commissioners  of  Westminster 
Bridge,  also  for  the  same  reason,  have  commenced  strengtheninc;  tlie  piers  in 
the  same  wiy  as  has  been  done  at  Blackfriars  Bridge,  bv  coffer-dams  ;  he 
considers  that  both  of  them  are  the  effect  of  the  removal  of  London  Bridge. 
He  did  not  think  that  any  increase  of  ballasting  v.ould  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion and  increase  of  shoals,  because  while  thi^river  is  so  unequal  in  width  as 
it  is  now,  yiu  may  keep  ballasting,  but  the  velocitv  being  slow  at  ihe  wide 
parts,  you  v:\\\  have  a  settlement  always  taking  r^'ace  there  again,  an  1  then 
you  must  go  on  constantly  with  the  ballasting.  "  The/irst  thing  to  be  dene  is 
to  regulate  the  width  of  the  river.  Tlie  plan  of  the  river  wdiich  is  before 
von  will  show  you,  ihat  in  places  now  between  London  Bridge  and  Vauxhall 
Bridge  the  river  is  double  the  width  that  it  is  at  other  places.  The  effects  by- 
London  Brid^.e  being  removed  since  1821.  are  what  he  has  before  described, 
to  deepen  naujiow-  places  very  much,  and  to  cause  large  shoals  in  the  places 
where  tiie  river  is  so  very  wide.  To  give  the  Committee  an  idea  what  the 
present  width  is,  he  stated,  that  the  width  now  opposite  the  Penitentiary  is 
600  feet  at  hipli  water  :  opposite  Millbank.  to  the  Bishop's-walk,  it  is  1,050  ; 
opposite  the  Roard  of  Control  it  is  1.200  ;  and  opposite  Buckingham-terrace  it 
is  1.480.  Then  it  keeps  narrowing  by  ilegrees,  uniil  belo'\-  Soulhwark  Bridge 
it  is  720,  and  at  London  Bridge  the  v,-aterway  is  690.  While  Ihe  river  is  so 
unequal  as  that,  no  dredg-ng  would  do  much  good.  If  you  (Iredged  so  as  to 
get  proper  depths  for  navigation  in  the  wide  parts,  you'have  a  settlement  of 
mud,  and  a  constant  removal  of  that  again,  or  an  accumulation  of  shingle  to 
(ill  up  those  cavities.  The  idea  here  was.  first  to  endeavour  to  get  something 
like  a  regular  section,  not  strictly  increasing  in  width  by  degrees,  but  ap- 
proaching to  il  as  far  as  could  be  done  consistently  with  the  value  of  the 
property  on  the  sides  of  the  river.  The  waterway  of  Vauxhall  Bridge  itself 
is  702  feet ;  the  width  of  the  river  200  or  300  yards  above  is  G80  feet  at  high 
water,  between  the  wharfs.  He  does  not  consider  the  whole  of  that  water- 
way useful  for  the  purposes  of  navigation  as  a  thoroughfare,  but  it  is  for 
the'  general  purposes  of  trade,  that  is  to  say.  that  the  barges  can  go  up  to  the 
wharf-side,  and  can  go  away  again  at  high  ■«  ater  at  all  times.  There  was  an 
apprehension  that  the  present  embankments  that  have  been  carried  out,  such 
as  that  one  at  the  House  of  Commons  and  others,  would  have  left  in  the 
parts  of  the  river  near  it  a  considerable  quantity  of  mul,  and  the  proprietors 
of  property  above  bridge  had  a  clause  introduced  into  the  Act  for  building 
the  Houses  of  Parliament,  keep  ng  open  their  claim  for  compensalion  in  case 
of  damage  being  done.  I^e  has.  from  time  to  time,  as  employed  by  the  Com- 
missioners of  Crown  Lands,  sections  taken  of  the  states  of  the  ground  at  dif- 
ferent times,  and  the  fears  of  those  parties  have  proved  to  be  very  much 
over  rated  ;  the  increase  is  not  so  great  as  he  expected.  The  increase  is  very 
variable  ;  perhaps  in  some  places  it  is  lower,  and  in  other  places  higher,  but 
as  a  general  posiiion  he  does  not  think  there  is  much  increase.  There  ai'e 
now  deposits  in  consequence  of  the  embankments.  The  coffer-dam  around 
two  of  the  piers  of  Westminster  Bridge  tended  to  send  the  water  over  to  the 
opposite  side,  and  to  cause  a  settlement  of  mud  on  Ihe  Middlesex  side  :  that 
colii=r-dam  is  now  removed,  and  the  opening  which  was  closed  by  the  coffer- 
dan-i  is  deeper  ami  better  than  ever  it  was.  The  deposits  have  been  between 
high  and  low-water  mark.  The  effect,  opposite  the  projection  itse  f,  is  to  de- 
crease the  deposits  by  narrowing  them  ;  but  the  effect  also  is  to  cause  the 
settlement  of  mud  above  and  below.  The  effect  that  would  otherwise  be  pro- 
duced is  much  lessened  by  the  constant  passage  of  steam-packets  up  and  down 
the  river.  "The  mud  is  kept  in  a  stateof  suspension  instead  of  being  deposited. 
What  tlie  embar.kment  would  have  tended  to  have  done  has  been  prevented 
or  removed  by  the  wash  of  the  steam-packets.  The  removal  of  the  coffer- 
dun  from  the  western  arch  of  Westminster  Bridge  will  tend  to  remove  the 
deposit  'hat  li-.s  taken  place  in  the  course  of  last  year  :  and  when  the  coffer- 
dam in  front  of  the  new-  Houses  is  removed  Cwhicli  it  will  be  when  the  Houses 
of  Parli.iment  are  finished),  with  the  large  quantity  of  ground  «hich  he  had 
put  out  for  the  purpose  oi'sec^iring  the  cofler-dam,  that  will  tend  to  bring  the 
current  over  totlio  Middlesex  side.  He  hopes  the  effect  of  continuing  the  em- 
bankment will  be,  if  properly  done,  to  remove  the  shoals.  The  idea  would  be. 
whether  bv  embankment  or  otherwise,  to  deepen  the  river  b>-  the  removal  of 
the  shoals',  and  to  apply  those  shoals  to  filling  up  behind  the  embankment. 
He  contemplates  two  operations,  both  deepening  the  river  artificially  and 
building  the  embankment;  the  embankment  could  not  be  made  »i;hont  the 
material  which  will  be  taken  from  the  bed  of  it  to  fill  in  behind  the  embank- 
ment, which  will  have  the  eflect  of  deepening  ihe  river.  Deepening  the  river, 
the  supply  of  water  remaining  the  same,  will  tend  to  throw  a  greater  quantity 
of  water  within  a  certain  part  of  the  channel,  but  it  will  not  be  at 
Ihe  expense  of  that  side  of  the  river  where  there  is  no  embankment  ;  the  em- 
bankment being  to  be  Ibrnied  close  up  to  low-water  mark  on  the  north  side. 
There  will  be  more  water  on  the  south  side  ihan  there  was  before. 

Mr.  Walker  explained  that  it  is  not  only  the  land  floods  coming  down, 
that  chiefly  furms  the  cun-ent  of  water  in  the  river  Thames  opposite  Lambeth  ; 
but  it  is  also  owing  verv  much,  except  in  extreme  floods,  to  the  tides.  Now, 
Mhetherit  be  from  tidal  water,  or  from  land  Hoods,  the  effect  of  narrowing 
the  river  on  the  north  side  would  be,  as  there  is  a  given  quantity  of  water  to 
come  down  during  the  land  floods,  to  press  that  water  more  over  to  the  south 
side,  and  to  increase  the  velocity.  With  land  floods  the  quantity  is  given; 
that  is  to  say.  it  is  fixed,  whether  the  opening  be  large  or  small.  With  regard 
to  tidal  water,  it  depends  on  the  space  to  receive  the  tidal  water ;  but  the 
eflect  in  any  way  would  be  to  give  greater  velocity,  and  tend  to  the  removal 
of  mud  from  the  shoals  on  the  south  side.  Where  the  river  is  very  wide  and 
straight,  there  is  a  very  considerable  quantity  of  mud,  three,  four,  or  five 
feet  and  more  ;  at  other  places,  at  Waterloo  Bridge,  for  instance,  although 
the  width  is  very  great,  there  is  not  so  great  a  quantity  of  mud,  because  the 
flood -tide  rather  takes  that  oft.  Mr.  Walker  stated  that  his  evidence  dven 
referred  to  one  side  of  the  Thames  only.  The  ultimate  scheme  is  to  embank 
both.  It  may  be  done  wiih  one  side  only,  but  not  so  complete  as  with  both 
sides.  Although  he  uses  the  word  embanking,  the  Committee  must  not  un- 
derstand that  there  is  an  intention,  or  that  it  is  practicable  to  embank  both 

3  C  2 


300 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


sides  of  llic  liver  l^y  wnl'.s  from  side  lo  side.  Ijut  lliat  every  rcsi't'Ct  must  te 
paid  to  tlie  way  in  Hliicli  the  ])reseiit  premises  are  occiniied,  still  improving 
llie  navigntion,  and  the  value  of  tlie  property,  'iliere  is  a  lar^'e  space  cccii- 
pied  now  Lv  coal  larpes.  some  on  tlie  opposite  side  In'  barges  « ilh  timlier. 
There  may  he  places  vliere,  by  carrying  out  the  embankment  wall,  llie  trade 
may  be  so  much  interfered,  with  as  to  damage  the  property,  unle.'^.s  provision 
be  made  in  llie  proposed  improvements  for  accommodating  those  barges.  He 
proposes  to  place  tlie  barges  alongside  the  wharfs,  and  extended  a  great  way 
cut.  and  to  lie  on  their  beds  as  they  do  now  ;  but  still  the  river,  as  regards  the 
navigation,  and  as  regards  the  iThalth  of  the  town,  and  lie  thinks  as  regards 
the  property  itself,  niiproved.  The  area  of  the  river  would  be  diminished 
where  it  is  too  viile. 

The  cilect  of  tlie  removal  of  London  Bridge  on  the  severage  has  been  to 
expose  a  larger  surface  of  the  bank  of  the  river  at  low  water,  and  to  render, 
therefore,  the  iujuiious  (u- unpleasant  ed'ect  from  a  d'scharge  of  the  seivers 
greater  than  before.  The  elJect  on  the  bottom  of  the  river  generally  has 
been  to  deepen  it  in  certain  places,  and  to  render  it  shoal  in  other  places 
very  much,  as  he  ascertained,  and  as  he  re;»d  from  the  reiwrt  fi'F  1821.  Me 
thinks  it  is  quite  impossible  to  look  at  the  river  Thames,  at  lou"  water  now, 
without  seeing,  as  regards  the  trade  up  the  river,  and  the  navigation  opposite 
to  London  itself,  that  the  river  is  in  a  state  that  wants  improvement  very 
much;  and  this  is  to  be  taken  along  with  it.  that  as  the  ellect  of  all  those 
floods  is  constantly  to  deepen  in  one  place,  and  to  shoal  in  others,  that  that 
deepening  will  extend  in  time,  so  as  to  be  injurious  to  the  property  on  the 
banks  of  the  river,  as  regards  its  foundations.  He  thinks  the  river  will  un- 
dergo further  change.  The  effect  of  the  dam  at  London  Bridge  was  to  keep 
the  bottom,  iibove  London  Bridge,  very  much  higher  than  below  London 
Bridge;  the  dam  is  now  removed,  and  there  is,  as  was  predicted  by  Mr. 
Smealon.  a  constant  movement  of  the  bottom  of  the  river  douniwards,  and  an 
increase  in  the  depth  in  certain  places  ;  and  that  will  go  on  for  many  years 
to  come,  perhajis  generations.  Tlie  cHcct  on  the  water-side  i>roperly,'if'^con- 
tinued  without  some  protection,  may  he.  as  he  has  already  said,  to  endanger 
the  foundations  of  some  of  the  liest  buildings  on  the  river'Tliames;  T  refer  to 
the  gieat  current  in  one  place,  and  to  the  forming  pools  in  the  middle  of  tlie 
river.  «hicli  tends  to  draw  the  sand  from  under  the  buildings  on  tlie  banks 
of  the  river.  It  would  be  desirable,  in  his  opinion,  that  the  bed  of  the  river 
should  be  made  uniform,  or  nearly  so,  in  point  of  depth,  and  gradually 
increase  in  width  from  Vauxhall  Bridge  downwards. 

The  calculation  which  has  been  made  for  forming  the  embankment  has 
been,  in  the  front  of  the  private  houses,  where  the  embankment  is  to  be  made, 
built  of  brick  and  filled  behind  with  the  e.tcavations  from  the  bed  of  the 
river;  the  Government  property  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Whitehall,  and  also 
Somerset  House,  has  been  estimated  to  be  faced  w  itii  stone.  He  has  no  hesi- 
tation in  saying  that  this  embankment  wouhl  improve  the  navigation 
throughout ;  there  is  no  way,  he  contemplates,  in  which  any  person  could 
say  (ithenvise,  excepting  this,  that  where  the  embankments  are  made  there  is 
a  small  decrease  of  tidal  water,  somewhat  less  of  tidal  w.ater  comes  up  the 
river  than  would  before,  referring  to  width  oiilv.  and  tlierefore  a  somewhat 
smaller  velocity  of  the  ebbing  tide  ;  but  ibat  w'ouK!  be  partly  compensateil 
for  by  the  deepening.  He  has  seen  this  done  under  his  own  directicms  on  the 
river  Yare.  and  the  eHect  has  been  good,  both  as  regards  the  harbour  from 
the  removal  of  the  bar,  and  the  mipiovement  of  the  navigation  up  lo  the 
tow n  ;  that  was  done  not  by  embankment  w  all.  but  by  a  dw arf  piling,  exai-tly 
as  the  section  now  before  the  chairman  shows  it.  ^tensions  into  the  river 
Thames  are  sanctioned,  and  their  extent  defined  and  regulated,  by  the  nari- 
gation  committee  of  the  city  of  London.  The  proposed  w  idth  varies  from 
fiOO  to  800  ft.  If  the  conservators  of  the  river  think  that  barges  can  lie  without 
prejudice  to  the  navigation  or  highway,  they  may  lie  in  tlie  river  afterwards 
lust  as  they  do  now;  but  if  the  embankment  be  carried  on.  and  those  recesses 
left,  both  as  regards  the  current  of  the  tide,  and  as  regards  being  injured  by 
other  barges,  those  docks  would  be  snugger  than  the  Barges  lying  out  in  the 
river.  Injury  may  be  done  to  the  individual  by  not  allowing  lu'm  to  go  far 
enough  into  the  river,  or  injury  may  be  done  to  the  river  by  allowing  him  to 
go  too  far,  unless  a  general  plan  is  laid  down  and  ;.cted  up  to.  When  one 
embankment  is  carried  out,  or  a  wharf  carried  out  beyond  the  other,  great 
inconvenience  arises  to  both  of  the  parties  ;  and  it  is  a  constant  source  of 
quarrel  in  the  river  Th:.mes  at  this  moment;  one  party  opposing  the  em- 
bankment and  another  supporting  it;  ami  he  takes  it  the  members  of  the 
navigation  committee  itself  arc  mudi  annoved  by  indi\idual  applications, 
they  themselves  having  no  certain  rule  to  go  by.  He  proposes  that  the 
allinement  should  be  general;  it  should  be  either  an  embankment  or  a  dwarf 
piling,  to  regulate  the  section  of  the  river.  He  need  hardly  s:iy  that  his 
answers  must  be  very  general  ;  but  in  a  great  work,  such  as  this,' reference 
would  be  had  to  the  interests  and  wishes  of  the  individual  parties  who  have 
property  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  and  their  wishes  complied  with,  so  far  as 
that  can  be  done  without  prejudice  to  the  great  public  measure  ;  and  if  that 
were  dune,  he  thinks  benefit  would  be  done  to  all.  These  recesses  woidd.  in 
degree,  be  injurious  to  the  general  plan  of  regulating  the  velocity  of  the  river, 
and  the  less  of  them  the  better;  but  as  they  would  be  reces'ses  with  their 
sides  at  right  angles  with  the  line  of  the  river,  their  eflect  would  be  far  less 
injurious  than  gradual  wideniiigs  and  narrowings.  He  presumes  that  the 
only  way  the  thing  ci.uld  be  done  practically,  is  to  consider  these  recesses, 
as  well  as  the  back  ground,  private  property  after  Ihe  works  should  be  com- 
plete ;  he  thinks  it  impossible  to  introduce  any  occupier  or  proprietor  between 
the  present  bank  of  the  river  and  the  jiroposed  embankment.  His  idea  is. 
that  all  the  ground  reclaimed  slioidd  be  considered  as  belonging,  uixin  terms 
to  be  agreed,  to  the  owner  of  the  adjoining  property.  He  considers  that  the 
property  on  the  banks  of  the  river  will  be  improved  in  value  by  the  altera- 
tions ;  he  docs  not  mean  to  say  there  may  not  be  some  exeeinions.  but  lie 
thinks  very  few  ;  and  it  is  impossible,  in  a  great  work  like  this,  to  have  good 
done  to  all  without  some  injury,  perhaps,  to  individuals.  He  has  estimated 
tor  a  brick  wall,  generally  ;  but,  in  some  places,  stone  ;  he  considers  all  the 
answers  he  has  given  now  to  htive  reference  to  the  north  side  of  the  river 

i  he  w  hide  length  of  the  embankment,  betw een  Vauxhall  and  London  Bridge 
isll,Ojj  feet,  which  is  exclusive  of  the  part  th.it  is  not  intended  to  be  inter' 


fered  wiih.  The  length  lie  has  given  terminates  at  Dowgate  Dock  ;  that  is 
the  whole  length  he  proposed  embanking  on  this  plan.  There  has  since  been, 
he  has  been  in.brmed,  anplicalious  made  by  the  owners  of  property  below  to 
extend  it  farther,  nearer  to  London  Bridge.  Dowgate  Dock  is  about  LCOO 
feet  from  London  Bridge.  The  11.055  feet  includes  not  only  the  portion  he 
proposes  to  embank,  but  .alsotlic.se  recesses  which  he  proposes  to  le.ave  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  trade.  The  total  distance  trom  Vauxhall  to  Lon- 
don Bridge  is  lo.'jOO  feet,  according  to  the  present  line  of  river  frontage  ;  his 
whole  estimata  is  £310.000  ;  £105, OJO  if  that,  as  far  as  he  can  ascertain,  is 
crown  property.  He  thinks  2'/.  per  foot  per  annum  would  cover  all  the  ex- 
penses of  the  cost,  with  moderate  additions  for  contingencies,  expenses  of 
management,  rent.  &:c.  He  considers  that  the  mud  so  carried  aw.ay  would 
not  be  deposited  in  a  still  more  im[ortant  part  of  the  river,  in  the  Pool,  fi.r 
instance.  There  would  be  a  diminished  quantity  of  tidal  water,  but  that 
would  be  compensated  partly  by  increased  depth,  by  removing  the  shoals 
w  hich  now  appear  above  low  water,  and  would  be  more  than  compensated  by 
making  the  bed  of  the  river  of  a  uniform  character  both  in  bread  ih  and  depth  ; 
at  present  there  is  a  rise  at  low  water  from  London  l^ridge  up  tri  "Westminsler 
Bridge  of  2  ft.  3  in.,  the  water  being  kept  up  by  the  shoals  in  the  w  ay  describ- 
ed ;  it  the  river  were  regulated  and  deepened,  ilic  effect  would  be  to  lower  the 
water  at  ^\'eslminster  Bridge,  and  all  the  way  up  the  river  lower  than  it  is 
now  :  th-3.efore  in  de|ith  there  would  be  a  greater  quantify  of  tidal  water  to 
ebb  and  flow,  which,  he  apprehends,  in  cubic  quantity  would  exceed  the  con- 
tents of  the  embankments.  The  width  of  the  river  when  the  embankment  is 
done,  with  what  is  ils  present  width  at  Ihose  points,  will  be  as  follows: — at 
the  Penitentiary  no  diminution  is  proposed  to  take  place  in  the  600  feet. 
From  Millbank'to  the  east  end  of  Bishop's-w.alk  is  intended  to  be  reduced 
from  1.050  to  800  feet.  Ojiposite  the  Board  of  Control  it  is  proposed  to  re- 
duce it  frc.m  1.200  to  S-iO  feet.  Opposite  Buckingham  terrace,  from  1,480  to 
850  feet.  Opposite  .Somerset  House,  from  1.250  to  S70  feet.  Opposite  Tem- 
ple-stairs to  Lett's  timber-yard,  from  l,2i0  to  870  feet.  Oppo.-itc  White- 
friars-dock  to  Bull-stairs,  from  1,040  to  770  feet.  From  Trig  wharf  to  the 
opposite  side,  from  920  to  7.30  feet.  West  side  of  Queenhithe  dock  to  opp.isite 
side,  from  700  to  GSO ;  after  which  the  diminuiions  are  smtill,  and  the  river 
gels  narrower. 

(To  he  continued.) 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


STEAM  NAVIGATION  IN  FEANCE. 

Eftracis  from  the  Report  of  Covnt  Barn  to  ihe  C7iam6er  of  Deputies,  in  the 
name  of  n  Special  Co7nmi.^sion  intrusted  irittl  the  erominafion  of  a  pro- 
jected taw  relative  to  the  estahlishnent  of  Steam  Packets  detween  France 
and  America. 

The  form,  dimensions,  and  power  of  steam-boats  evidently  depend  on  the 
service  to  w  hich  they  are  destined.  They  w^re  not  long  merely  employed  in 
the  ascent  and  descent  of  rivers,  but  soon  the  limits  of  steam  navigation  were 
enlarged,  increasing  the  ]iower  of  the  engines  from  20  to  80,  ICII,  200,  and 
250  horses,  it  became  possible  to  extend  the  field  of  their  employment  to 
venture  on  the  sea  with  them.  Towing  boats,  which  had  been  constructed 
in  a  few  ports,  soon  threw  a  light  on  the  siqieriority  of  the  new  system,  by 
bringing  out  large  vessels,  weather  bound  and  condemned  to  inactivity,  aud 
drawing  them  in  their  %vake  with  a  facility  which  seemed  to  defy  the  ele- 
ments. From  that  day  the  bright  days  of  sail-navigation,  which,  till  then, 
was  looked  upon  as  the  chef  d^icuvre  of  human  understauding,  were  eclipsed. 
Now  vessels  were  started  on  every  coast.  Kegular  and  rapid  communications 
linked  together  every  important  town,  such  as  Havre,  London,  Dover,  Ham- 
burgh, Ilotterdam.     This  was  the  forerunner  of  more  daring  attempts. 

Ill  1S19  a  vessel  from  the  United  States,  ''the  Savannah,"  had  crossed  the 
ocean  from  Liverpool  to  New  York,  jiartly  by  wind  and  partly  by  steam. 
America,  then,  had  the  lead  again  in  daring  to  apply  Fulton's  machine  to 
long  voyages,  and  this  is  the  more  remarkable,  that  it  has  always  had  but 
few  steam-boats  on  sea  service.  This  first  essay  was  not  repeated,  until,  in 
1835,  when  the  English  undertook  the  passage  from  Falmouth  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  the  .\talante,  provided  with  an  engine  nearly  similar  to  that  of 
the  Savannah,  accomplished  in  37  days  a  distance  of  2,400  nautical  miles. 
The  Berenice,  the  Medea,  the  Zenobia,  ])erforined  jiassages  of  different  lengths 
on  the  coast  of  .iVfrica,  and  in  the  Indian  seas.  All  these  boats  were  English. 
In  the  Mediterranean,  steamers  of  different  nations,  Neapolitan,  Sardinian, 
Austrian,  French,  crossed  from  one  port  to  another.  Lastly,  our  service  of 
steam-packets  fiom  Marseilles  to  .Mexandria  was  cstablisheil,  and  threw  open 
to  us  a  nc«"  access  to  the  East.  The  passage  to  Constantinople,  which  was 
sometimes  45  days  in  duration,  was  thus  reduced  to  13-i  clays. 

These  numerous  experiments  gave  rise  to  the  idea  that,  by  the  aid  of 
steam,  it  was  possible  to  accom]ili>li  the  distance  between  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  The  ditticidty  of  carrying  the  necessary  quantity  of  coals  for 
the  consumption  of  an  engine  acting,  without  interruption,  from  one  shore  of 
the  ocean  to  the  other,  during  a  space  of  from  15  to  20  days,  was  no  longer 
an  obstacle.  It  had  been  discovered  that  the  consumiition  of  combustible 
did  not  increase  in  the  same  ratio  with  the  jiowcr  of  the  motors, — that  an 
engine  of  250  horse  power,  for  instance,  was  far  from  burning  twice  as  much 
fuel  as  was  necessary  for  an  engine  of  125  horse  power ;  that,  moreover,  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  mechanism  might  he  simplified  in  such  a  manner  as  to  take 
up  less  room,  and  consequently,  leave  more  space  at  disposal  for  the  accom- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


361 


modation  of  passengers  or  merchandize.  From  this  time  operations  ^\ere 
commenced,  anil  on  the -Ith  of  April.  1838,  the  first  experiment  was  tried. 
You  are  all  acqnainted,  gentlemen,  with  the  result.  You  all  heheld  the  en- 
thusiasm e.\cited  by  the  success  of  the  voyage  undertaken  by  the  Sirius,  15 
days  had  been  sufficient  for  its  passage.  Scarcely  had  this  vessel  arrived  in 
the  port  of  >'ew  York,  when  it  was  joined  by  tlie  Great  AVesteni,  which 
started  from  Bristol  on  the  8th  of  the  same  month,  after  a  passage  of  14 
days.* 

Henceforth  the  problem  was  solved.  America  was  nearer  the  European 
continent  by  half  the  distance  which  formerly  separated  them.  There  could 
be  no  more  doubt  concerning  it ;  the  events  which  have  since  occurred  have 
ratified  these  first  expectations. 

The  Great  Western  has  crossed  the  .\tlantic  28  times  during  the  period  of 
the  14  months  just  elapsed  without  accident,  maintaining  an  almost  uniform 
speed,  of  which  the  average  time  was  16  days  going,  and  13  to  14  days 
coming  back:  the  last  voyage  was  even  accomplished  in  ll.V  days. 

During  two  years  since  tliey  began  their  operations,  with  what  strides 
have  tlie  English  advanced  ? 

A  first  line  from  Bristol  to  New  York  was  established  in  1S3S.  The  com- 
pany to  whom  it  belongs  has  four  steamers  of  450  horse-power — namely,  the 
Sirius,  the  Great  Western,  the  Royal  William,  and  the  Liverpool.  The  price 
of  each  of  these  boats  is  l,300,000f.  It  is  said  that  they  now  are  building  an 
iron  steamer,  which  is  to  carry  two  engines,  whose  united  powers  will  amount 
to  1,000  horses.  These  engines  were  constructed  on  the  plan  of  Mr.  Hum- 
phrevs ;  the  boat  will  only  be  100  meters  in  lengtli,  and  will  have  room  for 
300  passengers,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  merchandise.  The  works  are 
in  active  continuation,  and  will  be  terminated,  according  to  appearances,  in 
the  course  of  the  year  1841. 

Another  line  was  established  for  the  service  of  London  and  New  York.  Two 
vessels  were  emi)loyed  on  it — the  British  Queen  and  the  President ;  the  engine 
of  the  British  Queen  was  of  500  horse-power,  that  of  the  President  GOO ;  they 
can  aecommodate  from  225  to  250  jiassengers,  and  receive  a  load  of  from 
500  to  COO  tons.  A  third  hue  connects  New  fork  to  Liverpool,  so  that  there 
are  already  three  establishments  sending  steam-vessels  from  different  parts  of 
Great  Britain  to  the  L'nited  States. 

Moreover,  a  compact  was  sealed  on  the  4th  of  July,  1839,  between  the 
Admiralty  and  Mr.  Samuel  Cunard  for  the  transit  of  letters  from  Liverpool 
to  Halifax.  Mr.  Cunard  has  engaged  that  there  should  be  two  departures 
per  month,  and  receives  from  the  Government  an  annual  remuneration  of 
l,500,000f.  The  Britannia,  of  450  horse-power,  was  launched  into  the  sea 
in  the  beginning  of  February,  1839. 

Lastly,  a  more  extensive  service  will  soon  connect  Great  Britain  with  the 
West  India  islands :  there  is  a  company  in  existence  under  the  name  of  the 
Royal  Steam  Navigation  Company,  which  is  preparing  vessels  for  New  Orleans, 
Mexico,  and  part  of  the  South  .American  coast.  This  comjiany  the  Govern- 
ment indemnifies  by  an  annual  payment  of  6,000,000f. 

You  must  all  perceive,  gentlemen,  that  we  must  not  delay  entering  into  the 
lists,  for  we  are  urged  on  by  competition  from  every  quarter,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  English  steamers  on  everj'  point  of  the  New  World  to  the  exclusion 
of  our  own  would  soon  banish  us  from  those  regions. 

However  serious  the  character  of  these  motives,  gentlemen,  they  are,  liow- 
ever,  secondary  when  compared  to  a  consideration  which  we  will  not  endea- 
vour to  conceal.  The  navy  is  a  weapon,  and  one  wliich  to  all  appearances  is 
destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  the  conflicts  which  a  future  day  may 
bring  to  light.  Attempting  to  foretell  what  consequences  may  be  reserved 
for  a  future  period  by  the  introduction  of  steam  in  constructing  ships  of  war 
would  be  presumptuous ;  it  is  a  question  of  entirely  recent  origin  ;  experi- 
ments witli  regard  to  it  are  in  their  infancy.  It  is,  however,  already  dis- 
cernible that  the  use  of  new  motors  will  infallibly  produce  the  following 
eflTects ; — In  the  first  place,  it  will  render  every  vessel  in  similar  conditions 
equally  supple  and  tractable,  by  whatever  men  she  may  be  manned.  It  will 
be  sutiicient  to  have  able  engineers  in  order  to  effect  manoeuvres  with  a  facility 
and  precision  as  entirely  independent  of  the  state  of  the  sea  as  of  the  greater 
or  less  aptitude  of  the  sadors. 

Secondly,  the  number  and  proportion  of  the  men  required  for  the  perform- 
ance of  the  ship's  duty  would  be  entirely  changed.  The  Great  Western,  whose 
form  and  dimensions  are  nearly  those  of  an  ordinary  frigate,  is  conducted  by 
50  men,  including  engineers  and  stokers.  Now,  if  it  be  true  that  the  naval 
enrolment  of  France  is  incompetent  to  supply  all  its  necessities,  this  incon- 
venience will  vaidsh ;  and  the  more  so,  because  the  zone  in  which  we  shall 
be  able  to  find  men  fit  for  the  service  will  be  extended. 

Lastly,  the  draught  of  water  occasioned  by  a  steamer  depends  upon  its 
power ;  but  for  all  it  is  less  than  that  of  sliips  of  war.  Whence  it  follows, 
that  instead  of  the  five  or  six  ports  to  which  our  vessels  and  frigates  can  re- 
sort, steam-boats  will  be  able  to  cast  anchor  oft'  any  coast,  and,  so  to  speak, 
in  any  bay. 

Thus  the  new  vessels  provided  with  a  good  engine  will  be  swiff,  will  offer 

"  The  length  of  this  bnat  is  236  feet,  its  depth  23  feet  3  inches,  its  width 
outside  the  pa.ldle  boxes  58  feet  4  inches,  draught  corresponding  to  the  load. 
16  feet,  tonnage  I.S'IO  tons.  The  engines  are  so  constructed  as  to  diminish 
the  consumption  of  steam  and  fuel.  It  is  said  that  tliey  consume  .33  tons  of 
coal  a  day.  The  total  cost  of  the  vessel  \\hen  it  was  launched  was  55,000/.  ; 
since  that  time  improvements  have  been  effected  in  it  which  have  amounted 
to  15.0C0/.  It  carries  700  tons  o'  gojds.  135  passengers.  I'lic  rest  represents 
the  weight  of  the  engine,  the  boilers,  and  the  waterl 


less  hold  to  the  enemy,  will  have  a  greater  number  of  safe  harbours  to  resort 
to,  will  require  a  less  numerous  crew,  and  require  less  previous  apprenticeship 
than  in  sailing  vessels.  This  will  evidently  become  a  new  weapon ;  and  if 
these  ships  carry  guns  for  the  discharge  of  bombs  of  a  recent  invention,  whose 
efi'ect  is  such  that  at  one  discharge  they  are  capable  of  disabling  the  largest 
craft,  they  will  become  a  weapon  at  once  easy  of  management,  safe,  and  of 
the  most  destructive  nature.  Is  there  not  wherewithal  here  to  change  the 
whole  direction  of  naval  tactics,  all  the  jiroportions  existing  between  the 
powers  of  nations .'  Here  is  an  entire  revolution.  Slow  or  fast,  partial  or 
complete,  this  revolution  will  ensue.  Now,  with  the  examjde  given  us  by  a 
Government  whose  energetical  endeavours  are  dedicated  to  the  contiiuied  in- 
crease of  its  naval  resources,  when  we  see  Great  Britain  during  two  years 
continually  nuiltiplying,  at  the  cost  of  such  enormous  sacrifices,  its  steam 
navigation,  and  finding  in  the  gigantic  establishments  of  its  industry  those  in- 
exhaustible resources  of  which  we  are  deprived,  would  it  be  wise,  would  it  be 
prudent  to  ^bufinne  our  materiel  in  its  present  state,  to  abstain  from  making 
some  progress  in  the  new  career  which  has  been  traced  out  to  us  .-  Un- 
doubtedly we  do  not  indidge  in  the  chimera  that  our  country  can  ever  equal 
the  English  in  their  naval  establishment.  The  strength  of  tlie  British  nation 
rests  eutirely  on  its  foreign  trade  ;  they  arc  an  exclusively  seafaring  nation. 
.\ll  the  springs  of  its  prosperity  are  there ;  it  drags  after  it  tliat  colossal 
superiority  which  constituted  at  once  its  greatness  and  its  peril.  The  condi- 
tions of  existence  in  which  France  is  situated  are  difli'erent ;  but  the  extent  of 
its  coast,  its  position,  the  genius  of  a  portion  of  its  inhabitants,  compel  it  to 
possess  a  navy,  and  in  that  case  it  is  becoming  that,  wherever  she  may  be 
pleased  to  hoist  her  flag,  she  may  be  enabled  to  assemble  and  display  a  suffi- 
cient force  in  order  to  insure  resjject.  Without  this  she  could  never  effectually 
protect  her  national  interests  l)eyond  the  seas.* 

The  construction  of  steam-boats  for  transatlantic  voyages  presents,  then,  a 
double  object  to  our  view.  Applied,  in  time  of  peace,  to  the  growth  and 
preservation  of  our  commerce,  they  may  be  transformed,  during  hostilities, 
into  ships  of  war;  they  may  assume,  in  turn,  the  double  character  of  a  de- 
fensive wea])on  and  of  a  means  of  conveyance — of  a  commercial  and  of  a 
military  navy;  to-day  they  may  carry  merchandise,  and  when  requisite  guns 


STE.AM  PAC'KF/l'S  TO  CONVFA'  THE  MAILS  BETWEEN  FRANCE 
AND  AMERICA. 

We,  Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French,  have  proposed,  the  Chambers 
have  adopted,  we  have  ordered  and  do  order  the  follow ing  : — 

Article],  A  line  of  steam-packets  shall  be  established  in  order  to  convey 
the  mails  between  the  ports  of  Havre  and  New  York. 

Tlie  Minister  of  Finance  is  authorized  to  treat,  within  the  space  of  three 
months,  »ith  a  commercial  company  who  will  undertake  the  service,  on  con- 
dition that  they  receive  in  payment  an  aniui»l  fee  not  exceeding  8S0f.  per 
horse  power.  The  number  of  steam-packets  to  be  employed  in  the  service  of 
this  line  shall  be  three  at  the  least,  or  five  at  the  most ;  each  packet  to  be 
propelled  by  en;;ines  of -t.^O  horse  power. 

A  list  of  conditions,  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  administration,  will  determine 
the  times  of  departure,  the  number  of  passengers,  and  every  detail  re'ative  to 
tlie  service  of  this  line. 

2.  Two  principal  lines  of  communication  shall  be  established  by  the  Go- 
vernment, in  order  to  convey  the  mails  between  France  and  America,  and 
served  by  steam-packets  of  450  horse  power,  one  starting  from  Bordeaux 
every  20  days,  and  from  Marseilles  every  month,  in  order  to  arrive  at  Mar- 
tinique, and  continuing:  by  Guadaloiipe.  St.  Thomas's,  Porto  Rico,  Cape 
Hayti,  and  St.  Jago,  to  Havannali ;  the  other  starting  from  St.  Nazaire  every 
month  to  Rio  Janeiro,  passing  by  Lisbon,  Goree,  Pernambuco,  and  Bahia. 
Three  secondary  lines,  served  by  steamers  of  220  horse  power,  will  be  esta- 
lilished  in  order  to  continue  the  principal  lines,  the  first  to  Mexico,  touching 
at  Vera  Crux.  Tampico.  Galveston,  and  New  Orleans  ;  the  second  to  Central 
America,  touching  at  Chagres,  Carthagena,  Santa  Martha,  and  La  Gnayra  ; 
the  third  to  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Ayres. 

To  effect  tiiis  a  special  credit  has  been  opened  to  the  Minister  of  the  Navy, 
to  the  amount  of  28,400, OOOf'.,  to  be  devoted  to  the  construction,  arming,  and 
fitting  up  of  14  steam-packets  of  4.50  horse  powtr.  and  4  sleam-p'ickels  of 
220  horse  pow  er.  and  w  liich  is  to  be  appropriated  to  the  expenditures  of  1840, 
1841,  1842,  and  1843, 

From  the  total  sum  of  28,400,000f.  a  grant  is  made  to  the  Minister  of  the 
Navy — 

Francs. 

1.  For  the  year  1840.  of 5,000.000 

2.  For  the  year  1841,  of 10,000,000 

Total 15,000.000 

3.  The  steam-boats  belonging  to  the  Government  shall  be  constructed  so 
as  to  enable  them,  in  case  of  necessity,  to  carry  guns,  and  when  performing 
the  duty  of  packets  to  carry  merchand  se. 

In  the  latter  case  the  Government  may  either  intrust  them  to  the  command 
of  officers  of  the  Royal  navy  or  to  sea-captains,  w  hichever,  in  the  interest  of 
the  service,  it  considers  preferaljle. 

4.  When  the  command  is  intrusted  to  officers  of  the  Royal  navy,  an  agent 
commissioned  by  the  adminis;ration  shall  be  placed  on  board,  and  specially 

*  England  had,  in  1831,  840  commercial  steam-boats,  representing  alto- 
gether 64,700  horse  power.  Besides  which,  the  English  Admiralty  possesses 
66  vessels,  whose  powers  amount  to  nearly  9,400  horses,  w  bile  in  France  we 
reckon  only  640  commercial  sle-imers,  and  38  belonging  to  Government. 


302 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


intrusti'il  miIi  i1k- cK-iailt.  ul'  ihe  strvke,  respccliiig  tlu-  c:irriage  ol  passcn- 
tters  merchanilize.  biillioii,  ami  the  mails. 

5  The  articles  of'tlic  title  4  of  hook  2  of  the  Code  of  Commerce,  deter- 
mining the  responsibility  of  sea  captMins  towards  the  consignors  and  their 
assi"ns.  will  apply  exclusively  to  the  commissioncil  a-ent. 

e" Ordinances,  published  in  the  form  of  administrative  regulations,  will 
determine  all  the  details  of  the  service  of  steamers  undertaken  by  the  Hovem- 

7.  The  steam-packets  which  are  under  the  direction  of  the  state  will  be 
considered  as  pari  of  the  Royal  navy,  and  the  t  me  served  by  seamen  on 
these  packets  will  be  considered  as  in  the  service  of  the  state. 

8.  Royal  ordinances,  inserted  i  ■  the  Bulletin  dcs  Lois,  and  the  official  por- 
tioli  of  the  Jnnales  Maritimes.  will  fix  the  postage  of  the  letters,  journals, 
gazettes,  and  printed  documents  of  every  kind  transmitted  by  the  French 
Transatlatitie  packets.  „     .,,  ,  . 

Modifications  introduced  into  the  courses  indicated  in  art,  2  will  be  pub- 
lished in  the  same  manner,  but  such  changes  caimot  take  place  with  regard 
to  the  starting  points  in  the  kingdom  or  the  gencial  direction  of  tte  different 

lines. 

9.  The  expences  authorized  by  art.  2  will  be  provided  for  from  the  suras 
granted  for  1840  an  1  IPIl  l.y  the  financial  laws. 

10.  After  the  year  1842  the  projected  law  for  expenditures  will  include  ihe 
demand  of  the  funds  nccessuiy  for  carrying  on  the  above  lines  oi'  packets. 


Steamtrs  on  Ihe  Pnciflc— Extract  of  a.  hUer  from  Captain  Peacock,  dated 
on  board  the  Pacific  .Steam  Navigr.tion  Company's  steam-vessel  Peru, 
lat.  fl  15  N..  long.  25  50  W.,  out  14  days  from  Plymouth  ;— "  The  Peru  has 
hitherto  had  a  most  prosperous  voyage,  answering  in  every  respect  mv  most 
sanguine  expectations.  On  leaving  Plymouth  ve  experienced  a  head  wind, 
witii  a  heavv  cross  swell,  until  the  evening  of  the  following  day,  when  I 
ordered  the  fires  to  be  burnt  down,  blew  out  the  boilers,  and  made  sail.  On 
this  first  trial  of  sailing,  although  deep,  we  got  seven  knots  out  of  her.  There 
was  a  good  deal  of  swell  on.  and  the  vessel  occasionally  rolled  deep,  but 
after  a  minute  investigation  of  the  moveable  parts  of  the  tunnel,  I  saw  no 
risk  in  lowering  it,  and  in  eight  minutes  from  the  commencement  i  had  the 
gratification  to  see  it  snug  in'  the  chock,  without  str.aining  a  rivet  or  a  rope- 
yarn.  When  (lie  wind  died  away,  we  had  every  thing  in  its  place  again,  and 
the  fires  alight  in  four  minutes  from  hauling  taut  the  main  gears.  The  ope- 
ration elicited  the  admiration  of  every  one  on  board,  and  the  correct  work- 
manship of  the  arrangement  reflects  the  highnst  credit  on  Messrs.  Miller, 
Ravenhill,  and  Co.  The  funnel,  when  down  in  the  chock,  lies  within  the 
level  of  the  paddle-box  boats,  and  at  a  distance  would  resemble  a  long  mid- 
ship gun.  It  is  completely  out  of  the  way  of  workin"  the  square  mainsail, 
anil  when  do«n,  the  operation  of  sweeping  it  is  much  simplified.  We  had 
only  one  entire  day's  sailing  before  getting  into  Ihe  trades,  and  then  we  had 
only  three  more.  The  trade  wind  was  very  light,  except  for  two  days  out  of 
the  three,  wdien,  with  Ihe  wind  dead  aft,  with  lower,  toiimast,  and  topgallant 
studding  sails  set,  we  went  11  knots  for  four  consecutive  hours,  and"  in  24 
hours  ran  225  miles.  This  w  as  the  greatest  run  under  sail.  The  least  was 
140,  and  this  was  the  fifth  day  of  sailing,  when  near  the  edge  of  the  variables. 
We  only  consume  half  a  ton  of  *oals  per  hour  on  the  average,  and  find  no 
difficulty  in  keeping  steam,  without  the  additional  Icng'h  of  funnel.  The 
Hull  coals  are  excellent :  and  in  my  own.  as  well  as  the  chief  engineer's 
opinion,  are  superior  to  the  Llanelly  coals.  The  sails  all  tit  admiral)]y,  and 
the  engines  work  extremely  well.  The  vacuum  now  exceeds  28  in  both.  I 
perceive  the  great  advania'gc  of  .Sir  W.  Burnet's  patent  solution  on  the  stud- 
ding sails  and  :i«niu|js  ;  it  will  increase  iheir  value  50  per  cent.  I  am  happy 
to  inform  you  that  my  passengers  are  well,  very  contented,  happy,  and  com- 
fortable, which  is  daily  expressed.  I  hope  to  lx>  at  Rio  on  the  26ih  day.  of 
which  there  is  every  prospect." 

Fatfm-  T/iames. — On  Tuesday  the  8th  ult.,  an  experimental  trip  was  made 
w-itli  this  new  vessel  intended  to  run  from  London  to  Gravesend.  She  is  an 
iron  boat,  built  by  Messrs.  Ditchburn  and  Mair,  of  Blackwall,  and  fitted  with 
a  pair  of  .37  horse  oscillating  engines  by  Messrs.  Penn  and  Son,  of  Greenwich. 
She  started  from  the  Brunswick  Wharf,  Blackwall,  with  several  Directors  of  the 
Blackwall  Railway,  and  a  party  of  scientific  and  naval  gentlemen,  at  21  minutes 
after  3,  and  arrived  at  the  Pier,  Gravesend,  at  33  miuutes  past  -1,  making  the 
trip  in  1  hour  and  12  minutes.  She  run  the  mile  distance  at  Long  Reach 
(with  the  tide)  in  3  minutes  22  seconds,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  178  miles 
per  hour.  .Vffer  staying  a*  Gravesend  for  some  time,  she  started  off  with  the 
Rub;/,  the  crack  Gra\esend  boat ;  it  was  very  soon  perceived  that  Father 
Thames  was  making  a  head  of  the  Ruby,  and  after  running  a  short  distance 
the  Father  went  completely  round  her.  The  Father  Thames  then  followed 
her,  passed  her  again,  and  by  the  time  she  was  off  Blackwall,  the  Ruby  was 
2  miles  astern.  Messrs.  Ditchburn  and  Mair  have  so  constructed  the  bow  of 
the  vessel  that  she  does  not  throw  up  the  slightest  wave  in  front,  in  fact  we 
could  scarcely  jierceive  a  rijiple  so  clean  did  she  cut  through  the  water.  This 
is  an  imiiortaiit  improvement,  and  one  that  Mr.  Ditchburn  has  been  trying  to 
obtain  for  many  years,  and  v.ho  at  length,  we  are  hajipy  to  say,  is  successful. 


ENGINEERING  -WORKS. 


WOOLWICH  DOCK-YARD. 


constructed  uf  tiie  iiuwt  durable  materials.  Ijeing  first  laid  in  ihe  bottom  with 
one  foot  of  brickwork,  and  over  it  large  granite  stones,  about  3  feel  6  inches, 
in  thickness,  and  each  many  tons  in  weight.  The  base  of  this  dock  is  230' 
feet  in  length,  and  of  a  proportionate  breadth  ;  but  it  will  contain  vessels  of 
upwards  of  300  feet  in  length  on  the  upper  deck,  owing  to  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  constructed.  At  the  west  end  of  the  dockyard  excavations  h:ive 
been  going  on  during  the  whole  summer,  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  dock 
of  still  greaterdiinensions,  designed  by  Mr.  Walker,  engineer,  and  it  is  in- 
tended "to  lay  the  foundation  stone  in  the  course  of  a  lew  day.s.  The  con- 
tractors for  this  dock.  Messrs.  Grissell  and  Peto.  of  York-road,  Lambeth, 
have  had  great  difficulties  to  contend  with  in  m.king  the  excavations.  At  a 
few  feet  fiom  the  surface  they  came  on  a  rich  aiiuvial  deposit,  in  which  tlie 
hazel  and  other  nuts  and  clumps  of  trees  were  found  in  a  perfect  stii'.e  of 
preservation,  and  the  loaves  were  in  many  instances  in  layers  six  feet  thick. 
Under  these  was  a  considerable  bed  of  concrete  liive  blue  clay,  all  of  which 
had  to  be  gone  through  before  a  safe  gravelly  bottom  could  Le  found.  This 
lias  now  been  obtained,  but  nut  without  great  interruption  from  ]  owerful 
springs  rising  in  all  directions,  and  it  has  require  J  the  constant  and  unceasing 
exertion  of  a  40-horse  power  steam-engine  pumping  night  and  day  to  enable 
the  men  to  proceed  with  their  labours.  The  dimensions  of  this  dock  will  be 
■iOO  feet  at  the  base,  and,  as  it  will  be  constructed  on  the  improved  principle  , 
it  will  admit  of  vessels  of  400  feet  in  length  on  the  upper  deck.  This  is  con- 
siderably larger  than  any  ever  yet  made,  but  it  is  aniicipated  that  sleam-ves- 
sels  of  this  g  gantic  size  will  be  laid  down  when  docks  capable  of  containing 
them  for  fitting  and  repairing  are  ready  for  their  reception. 

FisKERTON  Drainage. — Tlie  new  steam  water  engine,  for  the  better 
drainage  of  the  fen-lands  on  the  north  side  of  the  river  Witham,  between 
Fiskerton  and  Short  Ferry,  is  at  length  upon  the  point  of  comjiletion.  A 
meeting  of  the  proprietors  was  held  at  the  City  Arms  hotel,  Lincoln,  on  Fri- 
day, the  4th  idt.,  for  the  purpose  of  heariug  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Tuxford,  en- 
gineer, of  Boston,  relative  to  the  working  of  the  engine,  he  being  deputed  to 
inspect  the  works,  and  to  advance  part  of  the  contract  money  to  Mr.  Smith, 
of  Belper,  who  furnished  the  building  with  the  necessarj-  works  for  the  engine, 
and  to  decide  upon  paying  him  the  remaining  sum  when  tile  alterations 
pointed  out  by  Mr.  Tuxford  were  completed. — Nollingham  Journal. 

Woolwich. — The  foundation  stone  of  the  new  dock  at  Woolwich,  was  laid 
on  Tuesday,  22nd  ult.,  by  Mr.  Walker,  the  engineer,  attended  by  the  authori- 
ties  of  the  dock-yard.  The  construction  of  this  dock  is  different  from  any 
that  has  ever  been  made  before.  The  stones  are  so  cut  that  when  placed 
together  they  will  act  on  the  same  principle  as  an  inverted  arch.  By  this 
plan  the  greater  the  weight  and  pressure  of  the  \  essel  in  the  dock,  the  greater 
the  security  that  the  bottom  will  not  be  raised  by  springs  of  water  or  from 
any  other  internal  cause. —  Times. 

Liverpool  Dock  Committee. — .\t  the  meeting  of  this  committee  on  Thurs- 
day, Sept.  17,  Mr.  Aid.  Evans  gave  notice  of  his  intention  to  move  for  a  sub- 
committee to  frame  a  Bill  to  Parliament  for  the  construction  of  a  new  dock 
or  docks,  and  warehouse  on  the  docks  and  quays  in  this  town. — Liverpool 
Chronicle. 


The  extensive  improvements  taking  place  in  this  great  naval  depot  are  such 
as  will,  in  a  short  time,  render  it  superior  to  any  in  the  kingdom.  The  dry 
deck  opposite  the  blacksmith's  shop  at  ihe  east  end  of  the  yard,  is  without 
exception  the  finest  and  must  commodious  that  has  ever  been  bu  It,  and  is 


PUBLIC    BUILDINGS,    ANQ    IIYZPRO'VEIVIENTS. 

The  Citi/ of  Lo^idnn  fir,d  Toirer  Hnnilets  Cemeteri/,  aiuntcd  in  the  Mile  Knd 
Road,  coriiprising  22J  acres  of  land,  is  now  proceeding  under  the  directions  of 
Messrs.  Wyatt  and  Brandon.  The  style  of  the  buililitigs  and  enclosure  will 
bj  Karly  English. 

The  Pedestal  at  Ilyde  Park  Corner,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  crossing 
from  St.  Georges'  Hospital  to  the  entrance  to  Hyde-park,  has  been  erected 
by  the  trustees  of  the  Grosvenor-place  District,  and  is  about  100  feet  west- 
ward of  the  district  boundarj'.  The  pedestal  which  is  circular,  is  executed  in 
Park  .^prinrj  sione,  and  is  2  ft.  8  in.  diameter  at  the  base,  and  6  ft.  1  in.  high. 
The  column  supporting  three  lamps  is  executed  in  cast  iron,  and  is  7  ft.  9  in. 
high  to  the  brackets,  supporting  the  two  side  lights.  The  tot.al  height  from 
the  paving  to  the  top  of  the  centre  light  is  19  ft.  6  in.  The  whole  pedestal 
is  surrounded  with  Aberdeen  granite  kirb,  enclosing  a  causeway  10  feet 
square,  which  is  paved  with  Yorkshire  stene,  forming  an  octagon  line  round 
the  base  of  the  pedestal.  .\n  Aberdeen  granite  post  13  J  inches  diameter  at 
the  base,  diminishing  to  the  top,  and  3  feet  high  is  fixed  at  each  angle  of  the 
causeway  for  the  protection  of  foot  passengers  on  their  way  from  one  side  of 
the  road  to  the  other,  being  a  distance  of  87  feet.  The  top  arrises  of  each  of 
the  plinths  of  the  pedestal  is  chamfered  off,  and  the  cap  (above  a  band  upon 
which  is  inscribed  "  Grosvenor  Place  District,  1840"),  molded  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  persons  climhiug  up,  and  to  obviate,  if  possible,  the  necessity 
of  having  the  encumbrance  of  iron  rails  or  spikes.  The  pedestal  has  been 
executed  and  fixed  by  Mr.  Samuel  Cuudy,  of  Belgrave-wharf  ;  the  iron  work 
by  Messrs.  Thompson,  of  Ecclcston-street,  East ;  the  granite  posts  by  Messrs. 
Thompson,  of  Millbank,  ^\'estminster,  and  the  paving  by  the  workmen  be- 
longing to  the  trustees,  from  designs  and  drawings,  and  under  the  superia- 
tendance  of  Mr.  Turner,  the  surveyor  to  the  trustees. 

./  Church  in  Bethnal  Green,  in  the  Early  Lombardy  style  of  architecture, 
is  now  being  built  under  the  directions  of  Messrs.  Wyatt  and  Brandon. 

Ramxgate  Chapel. — This  building  is  110  feet  in  frontage,  60  feet  in  width, 
and  90  feet  in  height,  to  the  top  of  the  tower.  The  style  of  architecture  is 
original,  uniting  the  features  of  Saxon  and  Norman,  with  a  slight  indication 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


363 


of  the  Gothic,  which  are  so  deigned  and  hlended  togetlier  that  the  whole 
buikliug  is  kept  in  perfect  symmetrj'  of  style  throughout.  The  interior  is  fitted 
up  in  a  kind  of  double  theatre,  having  at  each  side  rising  seats,  with  a  row  of 
seats  in  the  centre.  The  interior  is  plain,  but  would  have  been  executed  in 
a  more  elaborate  style  had  not  the  limited  funds  prevented.  There  are  gal- 
leries at  eacli  end  of  the  chapel,  one  appropriated  for  the  organ,  and  the 
other  for  children.  The  cost  of  the  entire  building  is  about  f  4,000,  and  is 
capable  of  containing  1400  persons.  Mr.  James  Wilson,  of  London  and 
Bath,  is  the  architect. 

A  spacioufi  huildivi*  iox  Xh^  Sciitlnvark  Literary  and  .Scientific  Instilution, 
situated  in  the  Borough  Road,  occupying  a  !ronla;-e  of  50  feet  by  70  feet 
deep,  is  nuw  in  course  of  erection  ;  it  will  comprise  a  Library.  Reading  Room, 
Newspaper  Kooni.  Class  Rooms.  Lecturers'  Room,  and  Libraria'i's  apartments. 
Messrs.  Wyatt  and  Brandon  are  the  Uichitects. 


niISC£I.I<A?7£A. 


Improved  methods  of  coating  iron,  under  various  circtnnstances,  to  prevent  oxida- 
tion or  corrosion,  and  for  other  purposes  ;  patented  by  James  Beaumont  Nei'son. 
Glasgow,  Aug.  29. — The  invintor  claims  th^  method  of  coaling  or  covering 
iron,  &c.,  by  means  of  copper  or  alloys  of  copper,  with  zinc  or  tin.  The 
copper  or  alloy  is  brought  to  that  minute  state  of  division  in  which  it  is  ob- 
tained by  precipitation  fi'om  its  solution,  or  it  may  be  used  in  a  gninulate.l 
state.  In  order  to  cover  cast-iron,  sprinkle  a  thiu  coating  of  granulated,  or 
other  fine  copper  or  alloy  over  the  surface  of  the  mould,  to  which  may  be 
added  borax,  or  other  flux,  to  facilitate  the  spreading  or  difl'usion  of  the  metal. 
Thus,  when  the  molten  iron  is  poured  into  the  mould,  the  copper  or  alloy  will 
be  fused,  so  as  to  cover  the  casnng,  and  render  it  secure  against  o.\idation  or 
corrosion.  If  malleable  iron  is  to  be  coated,  put  a  covering  of  the  pulverised 
copper  or  alloy  over  the  upper  surface  of  the  iron,  wliile  it  is  being  heated, 
and  the  borax  or  other  flux  will  S"on  cause  it  to  spread  over  the  heated  part, 
which  should  be  plunged  into  water,  to  detach  the  sca'e  of  oxide  that  forms 
upon  it. — Invenfor^s  Advocate. 

Improvements  in  apparatus  fir  tvithdraivivg  air  or  vapour;  patented  by 
Samuel  Carson,  Caroline-street,  Euston-stpi;  re.  Aug.  5. — The  inventor  states, 
that  revolving  heads  with  cones  have  been  applied  to  chimneys,  in  order  to 
improve  the  draft  thereof,  but  in  such  case  the  cones  have  not  been  made 
of  sufficient  length  to  pass  beyond  the  opening  of  the  chimney  ;  hence  the 
same  has  been  of  little  use.  owing  to  the  w  ind  being  blown  dow  n  ihe  chiin  - 
ney.  First  improvement  is  tor  withdrawing  heated  air  from  chimneys,  by 
means  of  the  atmospheric  air  blowing  through  a  cone,  situated  in  a  cylin- 
drical box  that  revolves,  at  the  chimney  top,  by  the  aid  of  a  vane  or  weather- 
cock ;  the  wind  passing  through  this  cone,  the  orifice  of  which  extends  be- 
yond the  opening  of  the  chimney  or  shaft,  causes  by  its  attraction  or  draft 
the  smoke  from  the  fireplace,  or  rarilied  air  of  the  chamber,  to  rise  rtith  ve- 
locity, and  pass  round  the  casing  connected  to  the  chimney  by  a  revolving 
joint.  Second  improvement  consists  in  bringing  the  pi[io  that  is  to  carry  off 
the  condensed  or  heated  air  of  an  apartment,  down  to  the  conical  apparatus 
situated  near  a  jet  of  steam,  or  near  the  waste  steam-pipe  of  a  boiler.  In 
place  of  the  atmospheric  air  passing  through  the  cone,  a  jet  of  steam  is 
made  to  draw  oH  the  confined  air  of  the  chamber,  or  from  the  bottom  of  a  mine. 
Third  im])rovement  is  to  introduce  a  jet  of  steam  into  a  chamber,  without 
the  use  of  a  cone,  whereby  the  vacuum  is  produced,  and  the  confined  air 
passes  up  from  the  mine  or  chamber  through  the  valve  at  the  upper  orifice  of 
the  tube.  This  improvement  we  have  examined  at  the  Polytechnic  estab- 
lishment, where  it  works  beyond  all  expectation,  and  we  have  since  learned 
that  Mr.  Brunei  has  allowed  Mr.  Carson  to  introduce  it  at  the  Thames  tunnel, 
where  a  four-horse  engine  cannot  sufl^iciently  ventilate  the  shaft  ;  by  this 
improvement,  the  waste  steam  alimewill  perform  the  whole  operation. — Ihid. 

Materials  used  in  lighting  or  landling  fires  ;  patented  by  Richard  Kdwards, 
of  Fairfield -place.  Bow.  Middlesex,  Aug  29. — In  the  ordinary  faggots  of  uood, 
used  for  lighting  fires,  there  is  not  sulhcient  ventilation  to  allow  the  wood  to 
burn,  in  case  it  be  used  in  the  close  form  of  a  bundle,  but  by  this  improvement, 
the  pieces  of  wood  are  so  combined  with  rope,  cotton,  paper,  or  other  such  like 
material,  as  to  leave  a  space  between  each  slip  of  wood  or  reed  ;  ihus  it  be- 
comes what  ihe  inventor  terms  a  "  Ventilated  Faggot,"  which  may  have  its 
ends  dipped  into  pitch,  tar,  resin,  liquid  sulphur,  or  other  inflammable  matter. 
By  throwing  one  of  these  "ventilated  faggots''  into  a  lire-place,  the  coals 
may  Le  heaped  over  it,  and  the  servant,  or  other  individual,  will  find  no  diffi- 
culty in  causing  the  fire  to  burn  after  it  is  once  lighted. — Ibid. 

An  improved  method  or  methods  cf  adjusting,  shifting,  and  working  theatrical 
sceneryj  and  apparatus;  patented  by  Rowland  Macdonald  .Stephenson.  Tpper 
Thames  street,  civil  engineer.  Aug.  29. — The  object  proposed  by  the  patemee 
is  the  greater  speed  and  facility  with  which  stage  scenery  may  be  b.ought 
forward,  shifted,  or  removed.  The  arrangement  about  to  be  described,  pro- 
vides means  for  shifting  or  removing  simultaneously,  and  without  noise,  .35 
distinct  pieces  of  scenery,  viz.,  10  side  scenes  removed  and  10  fresh  sutjjects 
brought  Ibrward  ;  five  sets  of  clouds  removed  and  five  substituted  ;  and  five 
main  scenes  removed.  The  general  arrangement  of  the  machinery  for  efi'ect- 
ing  the  above,  may  be  described  as  follows  : — The  interior  of  the  house  be- 
tween the  basement  and  the  roof  may  be  said  to  be  divided  into  four  floors  or 
comparments,  viz.,  1.  a  raised  platform,  on  which  the  gearing  for  working 
the  stage-traps  is  to  be  placed.  2nd.  The  stage  with  traps  of  various  forms 
and  dimensions,  including  a  considerable  portion  formed  to  rise  or  fall  by 
suitable  machinery,  and  called  the  sinking  stage.  3rd.  The  lower  flats,  be- 
tween which  and  the  stage  are  placed  the  wing  scenes  :  between  the  framing 
formed  by  the  girders  and  the  supporting  columns,  and  stretching  from  side 
to  side  of  the  stage,  are  suspended  the  border  frames,  w  hich  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  by  means  of  ropes  passing  over  drums  and  connected  with  counter- 


poise weights  ;  and  fourthly,  the  upper  flats  upon  which  the  inventor  places 
the  movins  power  to  communicate  motion  to  the  whole.  On  each  side  of  the 
stage  on  the  upper  flat,  are  placed  a  series  of  frames  called  main  scene  car- 
riages, having  racks,  which  can  Le  connected  ni'th  piniors  or  long  horizon'al 
shafts  when  reciuired  to  bo  moved  backuards  or  forwards  :  these  two  shafts 
are  connected  at  their  extremities  by  a  third  shaft.  From  the  upper  hori- 
zontal shafts,  by  means  of  bevel  gear  and  vertical  rods,  on  the  lower  ends  of 
which  are  drums,  an  endless  chain  is  driven  horizontally  in  either  direction, 
tri  which  are  attached  the  borders  representing  clouds,  foliage,  arches,  &c. 
The  side  frames,  of  which  the  number  is  limited  b  the  depth  of  the  stage, 
may  be  cither  flat,  circular,  or  triangular ;  in  the  present  case  they  are  trian- 
gular, and  receive  a  forward,  backward,  or  rotatory  motion,  or  both  at  plea- 
sure, and  can  be  placed  at  any  convenient  angle'  to  the  audience,  so  as  to 
represent  closed  doors,  &c. ;  at  every  change  of  tlie  scene  they  will  be  moved 
round  130  degrees,  or  one-third  of  a  circle  ;  the  whole  of  the  side  frames  may 
be  moved  together  or  separately,  by  m"ans  of  gear  connected  with  the  mov- 
ing power  on  the  upper  flat.  Attached  to  the  centre  of  the  border  frames, 
and  revolving  i^n  a  pivot,  are  the  traversing  frames  for  crossing  the  stage  in 
any  direction,  and  at  any  given  inclination  ;  these,  when  ready  for  use.  are 
raised  up  and  secured  at  one  end  so  as  to  farm  an  inclined  plane,  and  the 
object  to  be  traversed  having  been  attached  to  a  wire  passing  round  a  drum 
fixed  in  a  heavy  frame,  will  descend  Ly  its  own  gravity.  The  trap-frame 
consists  of  a  rectangular  platform  traversing  on  the  lower  or  fixed  platform, 
and  having  an  upright  frame  of  iron  mounted  on  rollers  and  capable  of  being 
traversed  on  the  lower  platform  in  any  direction  ;  when  brought  under  the 
aperture  in  the  stage,  it  allows  the  trap  to  be  sunk  steadily  by  bearing  on  a 
disc  or  square  iron  plate,  counterbalanced  by  weights.  The  clium  is  to  the 
improved  mode  of  shifting  and  working  scenes  and  theatrical  machinery,  and 
to  the  obvious  modifications  of  which  the  above  arrangements  are  susceptible. 
—Ibid. 

Improvements  in  tlie  stuffing  boxes  of  lift  pumps  :  patented  by  James  Home, 
Claphani  Common,  Esq..  March  3,  1840 — These  improvements  consist  in  the 
.'ipplication  of  tnu  cupped  leathers  to  the  purpose  staled,  in  the  following 
manner:  the  stuffing -box  consists  of  a  metal  collar  and  cap,  each  having  a 
projecting;  ring  or  shoulder  on  the  inside  ;  two  pieces  of  leather  are  blocked 
into  the  form  of  cones  with  a  horizontal  base,  having  an  aperture  at  the 
apex  just  large  enough  to  receive  the  piston-rod  ;  one  of  these  cones  is  placed 
ujjon  the  piston-rol  with  it.s  apex  downwards,  its  base  resung  upon  the 
shoulder  in  the  collar  of  the  stuffing-box  ;  a  metal  disc  is  then  shpped  on  to 
the  piston-rod,  and  af  <'rwards  the  second  leather  cone  with  its  apex  upwards, 
its  Ijase  resting  upon  the  metal  disc  ;  the  stuffing-box  cap  is  then  put  into  its 
place,  and  screwed  down  tight.  The  metal  disc  becomes  a  guide  for  the  pis- 
ton-rod. while  the  pressure  of  the  fluitl  telow,  and  of  the  air  above,  upon  the 
external  surfaces  of  the  tivo  cui>ped  leathers,  keeps  all  tight.  The  arrange- 
ment is  doubtless  a  good  one.  but  we  think  the  patentee  would  hardly  have 
gone  to  ihe  expence  of  a  patent,  ha, I  he  been  acquainted  with  the  more  beau- 
tiful, as  weil  as  more  ingenious  mo  le  of  constructing  stuffing- boxes,  employed 
by  Bramah  in  his  hydraulic  press  half  a  century  ago  ;  and  which  has  proved 
efficient  under  greater  pressures  than  a  lift  pump  can  possibly  be  exposed  to.  ' 
— Merlianics^  Magazine.  ^ 

Petroleum  Oil  Well. — About  ten  years  since,  whilst  boring  for  salt  water, 
near  Burksville,  Kentucky,  aftei  penetrating  through  solid  rock  upwards  of 
200  feet,  a  fountain  of  pure  oil  was  struck,  which  w , as  thrown  up  more  than 
twelve  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Although  in  qu  mtity  somewhat 
abated  after  the  discharge  of  the  first  few  minutes,  during  which  it  was  sup- 
posed to  emit  seventy-five  gallons  a  minute,  it  still  continued  to  flow  fur 
several  d  ys  successively.  The  well  being  on  ;he  margin  and  near  the  mouth 
of  a  small  creek  emptying"  mto  Cumberland  river,  ihe  oil  soon  found  its  way 
thi.her,  and  for  a  long  tim.-  covered  its  surface.  .St  me  gentlemen  below  ap- 
plied a  torch,  when  the  suriace  of  the  river  blazed,  and  the  flames  s^^on  climbed 
the  most  elevated  cliffis.  and  scorched  the  summit  of  the  lottiest  trees.  It 
ignites  freely,  and  produces  a  flame  as  brilhant  as  gas.  Its  qualities  were 
then  unknown,  but  a  quantity  w-as  barrelled,  most  of  which  soon  leakel  out. 
It  is  so  penetrating  as  to  be  ditflcult  to  confine  in  a  wooden  vessel,  and  has 
so  much  gas  as  frequently  to  burst  bottles  when  filled  and  tightly  corked. 
Upon  exposure  to  the  air  it  assumes  a  greenish  hue.  It  is  extremely  volatile, 
has  a  strong,  pungent,  and  indescribable  smell,  and  tastes  much  like  the  heart 
of  pitch  pine.  For  a  short  time  after  the  discovery,  a  small  quantity  of  the 
oil  would  flow  nhilst  pumping  the  salt  water,  which  led  to  the  impression 
that  it  could  always  be  drawn  by  pumping.  But  all  subserjuent  attempts  to 
obtain  it,  except  hy  a  spontaneous  flow,  have  entirely  failed.  There  have 
been  two  such  flows  within  the  two  last  years.  The  last  commenced  on  the 
4;h  of  July  last,  and  continued  about  six  weeks,  during  which  time  about 
twenty  barrels  of  oil  were  obtained.  The  oil  and  the  salt  water,  with  which 
it  is  invariably  combined  during  these  flows,  are  forced  up  by  the  gas.  above 
t«o  hundred  feet,  into  the  pump.and  thence  through  the  spout  into  acovered 
trough,  where  the  water  soon  becomes  disengaged  and  settles  at  the  bottom,  ^ 
whilst  the  oil  is  readily  skimmed  from  thesurlace.  A  rumbling  noise  resem- 
bling distant  thunder,  uniformly  attends  the  flowing  of  the  oil,  whilst  the 
jL  as,  which  is  then  visible  every  day  at  the  top  of  the  pump,  leads  the  passing 
.'ranger  to  inquire  whether  the  we'll  is  on  fiie,^Sitli7iian's  Journal. 

Napier's  Patent  Shot  Machine. — The  Board  of  Ordnance  have  determined 
upon  emiiloying  Napier's  machine  for  making  balls  by  compression  at  the 
iioyal  Arsenal,  Woolwich  ;  it  is  to  be  worked  by  steam,  as  also  the  turners 
and  borers  r  f  cannon.  At  present,  the  same  system  as  was  in  vogue  forty 
years  ago,  is  used  in  the  boring  of  large  guns,  horses  being  employed  as  the 
moving  power.  This  alteration  will  relieve  about  ten  artiUerymeti  who  have 
charge  of  the  horses  employed  in  this  duty. 

Hint  for  Hou-ie  Decorators. — The  walls  had  a  novelty  of  decoration  not  pe- 
culiar to  Affghanistan,  as  I  have  seen  it  in  India,  though  never  so  well  done 
as  m  the  rooms  I  speak  of;  the  chunam  or  plaster  being  stamped  w  hen  moist 
or  plastic,  and  worked  into  a  pattern,  over  which  a  varnish  of  po.vdered  talc  is 
spread,  which  more  nearly  resembles  the  richness  and  hue  of  new  and  unused 
frosted  silver  plate  than  anything  I  have  seen  elsewhere.    This  might  be  in- 


3<54 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[October, 


trodiiceU  in  London  as  a  very  cheap  and  elegant  drawing-room  decoration.— 
Dr.  KenuctUj's  Campaign  of  the  .-Irjiii/  of  the  Indus. 

Locomotire. — Mr.  E.  Rudge.  of  Tewkesburj-,  tannei-,  has  obtained  a  patent 
for  a  new  method  or  methods  of  otjtaiiiing  motive  power  for  locomotive  and 
other  purposes,  and  of  applying  the  same.  These  improvements  are  for  the 
construction  and  ajiplicatiou  of  a  new  form  of  atmospheric  engine,  which  may 
consist  of  two,  three,  or  more  open  (opjied  cylinders,  placed  cither  vertically 
or  horizontally,  the  piston  rods  of  which  are  connected  with  two  or  three 
throw  cranks.  The  air  below  each  piston  in  the  cylinder  is  condensed  by  a 
jet  of  steam,  when  the  preponderating  influence  of  the  atmosphere  on  the 
external  surface  of  the  several  pistons  produces  the  available  power.  The 
cylinders  are  lubricated  by  means  of  a  small  funnel  on  the  top  of  the  piston 
rod,  whence  the  oil  flows  into  a  hollow  space  within  the  rod,  and  thence  into 
a  groove  turned  in  tlie  piston.  In  order  to  gain  a  reserve  of  power,  for  any 
particular  purpose,  a  large  cylindrical  receiver  is  filled  by  a  condensing  air- 
pump  placed  on  either  side,  and  connected  with  tlie  main  shaft  of  the  engine ; 
thus  when  the  carriage  is  descending  the  hill,  the  air-pumps  will  compress 
the  air  into  tlie  large  cylinders,  which  again  will  supply  the  air  for  working 
the  pistons  while  ascending  a  hill. — Glottcestersliire  Chronldc. 


ZiIST    OF    NEW    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IN    ENGLAND    FROM    30tH    AUGUST    TO     2GtH    SKPTEMBF.R,    1840. 

William  Daubxey  Holmes,  of  Cannon-row,  Westminster,  Civil  Engi- 
neer, for  "  certain  improreynenis  in  naval  nrchitecfnre  and  apparatna  con- 
nected thereirith,  affordiny  increased  security  from  foundering  and  shipwreck,'* 
— Sealed  September  3;  six  montlis  for  enrolment. 

Thomas  Horne,  of  Birmingham,  Brass  Founder,  for  "  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  hinges." — September  3;  six  months. 

James  Bixgham,  of  Sheflield,  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  improved  com- 
positions irtiich  are  made  to  resemble  ivory,  tione,  mother  of  pearly  and  other 
s^ilstances  apfilicalle  to  the  manufacture  of  handles  of  knives,  forks,  and 
razors,  piiinofortc  keys,  snuff  boxes,  and  various  other  articles." — September 
3 ;  six  months. 

William  Freemax,  of  Millhank-street,  Stone  Merchant,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  paving  or  covering  roads  and  other  ivags  or  surfaces."  Communi- 
cated by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad." — September  7  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Motley,  of  Bath  Villa,  Bristol,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  apparatus  and  means  of  burning  concrete  fatty  matter." — September 
7  ;  six  months. 

AViLLiAM  CoLTMAK,  of  I.ciccster,  Framesmith,  and  Joseph  Wall,  of  the 
same  place,  Framesmith,  for  "  their  invention  of  imjrroventents  in  machinery 
eTT'ployed  in  framework  knitting  or  stocking  fabrics." — September  7  ;  six 
months.  ^ 

John  Whitehouse,  the  younger,  of  Birchall-street,  Birmingham,  Brass 
Founder,  for  "  improvements  in  the  construction  of  spring  hinges  and  door 
springs." — September  7  ;  six  months. 

Samuel  Parker,  of  Piccadilly,  Manufacturer,  for  "  improvements  in  ap- 
paratus  for  preserving  and  purifying  oils,  and  in  apparatus  for  burning  oils, 
fallow,  and  gas." — September  10;  six  months. 

Mark  Freeman,  of  Sutton  Common,  Gentleman,  for  "improvements  in 
weighing  machines." — September  10;  six  months. 

Paul  Han.ninc,  of  Clement's  Lane,  London,  Solicitor,  for  "  improvements 
in  the  construction  of  govo^iors  or  regulators  applicable  to  steam  engines,  and 
to  other  engines  naed  for  obtaining  motive  power."  Being  a  communication. 
— September  10  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Delbruck,  of  Oxford-street,  Oentleman,  for  "  improvements  in 
apparatus  for  applying  combustible  gas  to  the  purposes  of  fieat."  Being  a 
communication. — September  10;  six  months. 

Edward  John  Dent,  of  the  Strand,  Chronometer  Maker,  for  "  certain 
improvements  in  clocks  and  otlier  time  keepers." — September  10  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Houldsworth,  of  Manchester,  Cotton  Spinner,  for  "  an  improve- 
ment in  carriages  uaed  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  on  railways,  and  an 
improved  seat  applicable  to  such  carriages  and  other  purposes." — September 
10 ;  six  months. 

Hugh  Lee  Pattinso.v,  of  Bensham-grove,  Durham,  Manufacturing  Che- 
mist, for  "  improvemen  s  in  tlie  manufacture  of  white  lead." — September  10; 
six  months. 

George  Alexander  Gilbert,  of  Southampton-buildings,  Gentleman,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  machinery,  or  apparatus  for  obtaining  and  apply- 
ing motive  power." — September  10;  six  months. 

Robert  Goodacre,  of  AUesthorpe,  Leicester,  for  "an  apparatus  for  rais- 
ing heavy  loads  in  carts,  or  other  receptacles  contniniuy  the  said  loads,  when 
it  is  required  that  the  unloading  should  take  place  at  any  considerable  eleva- 
tion above  the  ground." — September  10  ;  six  months. 

James  Pilurow,  of  Tottenham,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in 
iteam  engines." — September  10;  six  months. 

William  Bedford,  of  Hinckley,  Leicestershire,  Frame-work  Knitter,  for 
**  certain  improvements  in  machinery  employed  in  mannfacturing  hosiery  goods, 
or  what  is  commonly  calledframe-vork  knitting." — Seiitember  1 7 ;  six  months. 
Henry  Fourdrinier  and  Edward  Newman  Fourdrinier,  of  Hanley, 
Stafford,  Paper  Makers,  for  '•  certain  improvements  in  steam  engines  for 
actuatinq  machinery,  and  in  apparatus  for  propelling  ships  and  other  vessels 
on  water." — September  17;  six  months. 


MosEs  Poole,  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  Middlesex,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements 
in  preparing  materials  to  facilitate  the  teaching  of  writing."  Being  a  com- 
munication.— September  17;  six  mouths. 

Walter  Richardson,  of  Regent-street,  Gentleman,  and  George  Mott 
Braithwaiti;,  of  Manor-street,  Chelsea,  Cientlenian,  for  " /;«/)TOfewe«^»-  in 
tinning  metals."     Being  a  communication. — September  17;  six  months. 

Samuel  Draper,  of  Nottingham,  Lace  Manufacturer,  for  "  improvements 
in  the  manufacfwe  of  ornamented  twist  lace,  and  looped  fabrics." — Septem- 
ber 21  ;  six  months. 

William  Mill,  of  Blackfriar's-road,  Engineer,  for  "certain  improvements 
in  propellers,  and  in  steatn  engines,  and  in  the  method  of  ascertaining  and  mea- 
suring steam  power,  parts  of  which  improvements  are  applicable  to  other  lise- 
ful  poposes."- — September  21  ;  six  months. 

Charles  IIandford,  of  High  Ilolbom,  Tea  Dealer,  for  "  an  improved 
edible  vegetable  prapnration  called  '  Eupooi,'  and  tlie  mode  of  manufacturing 
the  same." — September  21 ;  six  mouths. 

Thomas  Pain,  Junior,  of  I'pper  Seymour-street,  Euston-square,  Student 
at  Law,  for  "  a  plan  by  means  of  which  carriages  may  be  propelled  by  atmos- 
pheric pressure  only,  without  the  assistance  of  any  other  power,  being  an  im- 
provement upon  the  Jtmospheric  Hailivay  now  in  use." — September  22 ;  six 
months. 

John  Maughan,  of  Connaught  Terrace,  Edgeware  Road,  Gentleman,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  wheeled  carriages." — September 
24  ;  six  months. 

George  Goodman,  of  Henley,  near  Birmingham,  Needle  Manufacturer, 
for  "  certain  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  mourning  and  other  dress 
pins." — September  24  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Muir  and  John  Gibson,  of  Glasgow,  Silk  Manufacturers,  for 
"  improvements  in  cleaning  silk  and  other  fibrous  substances." — September 
24  ;  six  months. 

William  Hirst,  of  Leeds,  Clothier,  for  "improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  woollen  cloth  and  cloth  made  from  wool  and  other  materials." — Sep- 
tember 24  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Pinkus,  of  Panton-square,  Coventrj'-street,  Esquire,  for  "  im- 
provements  in  the  method  of  applying  motive  power  to  the  impelling  of  ma- 
chinery applicable  amongst  other  things  to  impelling  carriages  on  railways  on 
common  roads  or  ways  and  through  felds,  and  vessels  afloat,  and  in  the  me- 
thods of  constructing  the  roads  or  ways  on  which  carriages  may  be  impelled 
or  propelled." — September  24  :  six  months. 

John  Johnston,  of  Glasgow,  Gentleman,  for  "a  new  method  (by  means 
of  machineryj  of  ascertaining  the  velocity  of  a  space  jiassed  through  by  ships, 
vessels,  carriages,  and  other  means  of  locomotion,  part  of  which  is  also  apj)li- 
cable  to  the  measurement  of  time." — September  24  ;  six  months. 

Pierre  Erard,  of  Great  Marlborough-strcet,  for  "  improvements  in  piano- 
fortes."-— Se])tember  24  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Robinson  Williams,  of  Cheapside,  Gentleman,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  the  manufacture  of  woollen  fabrics  or  fabrics  of  which  wools,  furs 
or  hairs  are  the  principal  components,  as  well  as  for  the  machinery  used  there- 
in."— September  24  ;  six  months. 

.Alexander  Dean  .ind  Evan  Evans,  of  Birmingham,  Millwrights,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  mills  for  reducing  grain  and  other  substances  to  a 
pulverised  state  and  in  the  apparatus  for  dressing  or  bolting  pulverised  sub- 
stances."— September  24  ;  six  montli.-. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


Cnmmnnicalions  arc  requested  In  be  addressed  to  ■'The  Ivlitor  of  the  Civil 
Enirineer  and   Architect  s  Journal,"  No.  W.  Parliament  Street.  Westminster. 

Books  for  review  7}iusl  he  sent  early  in  the  montli,  communications  on  or  before 
tlie  20th  (if  with  drawings,  earlier),  and  advertisements  c/i  or  before  the  25th 
instant. 

3.  D..  the  substance  of  his  communication  on  Suspension  Bridges  bus  appiarcd 
in  print  be/ore. 

"  .'/  Student,"  his  communication  will  he  noticed  next  month. 

J.  I  .  his  communication  dated  18Wi  nit.,  was  not  received  until  the  2ith,  when  it 
was  too  late  to  comply  with  his  request. 

"  .7  Constant  Reader,"  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  give  the  names  and  addresses  of 
the  inventors  at  ull  times,  it  would  subject  us,  in  many  in.Ktunecs,  to  be  charged 
with  the  advertisement  duly.^ 

"  .7  Constant  Subscriber,"  shall  be  answered  ne.rt  month. 

G.'s  work  was  not  received  until  near  the  end  of  trie  month,  it  shell  be  noticed  in 
the  nt.rt  Journal. 

A  Subscriber  wishes  fur  the  address  of  the  agent  for  supplying  the  Porcelain 
Letters,  notiied  in  oui  Journal  in  May  lust. 

Bu'Ks  received — Scott's  Cotton  Spinner  ;  The  Process  of  Blasting  by  Galvanism  ; 
On  Excavation  and  Embankment  on  Itfiihvay  ;  Thoughts  nn  Steam  I.oeumotion  ; 
and  E.vperintcnls  on  tlie  Compass  on  Jron-huitl  Sliips  :  they  will  be  noticed  in  the  next 
Journal.  Jf'c  have  been  compelled  to  postpone  farther  notices  of  Mr.  Mushet's 
eiilitdble  work,  and  oho  Mr.  Bartlioh ,iu'w  on  Specificatifns. 

Xe.cl  month  we  shall  give  the  Pliiii  uf  the  Principal  Floor  and  Section  of  the 
Reform  Club. 

ERRATA. 

In  the  August  number,  column  2.  page  '^S7,  paragraph  Steam  Tug. /or  Buld 
read  Bald  ;  fur  the  velocity  of  wheel  i  58  miles  rend  14  j8  miles. 

In  the  September  number,  page  321,  column  2,  for  Tomson's  read  Thomson's. 


18-10.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


365 


ON  BUTTRESSES,  PINNACLES,  &c. 


F—B.  Bent  of  the  force 
communicated  to  the  1st 
flying-buttresses. 

F.  B.  P.  C.  Parallelogram 
of  forces. 

C—F.  Direction  of  the 
combined  forces. 

f—b.  Bent  of  the  force 
communicated  from  the 
1st  to  the  2nd  Flying- 
buttress. 

p—f.  The  direct  downward 
force  of  the  gravity  of 
the  2nd  pinnacle. 

e—f.  The  active  direction 
of  the  combined  forces 
after  leaving  the  2nd 
buttress,  and  more  and 
more  inflected  till  it 
reaches  the  ground  at  ff. 


ON  BUTTRESSES,  PINNACLES,  &e. 
By  Alfred  Bartholomew,  Architect.* 

Were  it  the  author's  wish  to  prove  by  one  example  more  striking 
I'lan  any  other,  the  falling  off  of  science  in  the  absolute  practice  of 
;ircl)iteclure,  in  these  times  of  pretended  superiority,  in  which  the 
ill-taugbt  pr;ictitioner  who  wishes  to  pursue  the  integrity  of  his  art, 
is  obliged,  after  he  is  turned  adrift  by  his  master,  to  re-educate  himself 
as  far  as  he  is  ab!e,  by  picliing  up  whatever  scraps  of  scientific  infor- 
mation may  fall  in  his  way,  instead  of  receiving  from  his  master  at 
once  the  full  depth  of  skill  whicli  (he  free-masons  for  centuries  handed 
down  from  father  to  son,  from  master  to  pupil,  without  diminution  pnd 
without  reserve, — he  would  fearlessly  instance  the  most  singular  ad- 
vancement whicl)  the  mid-eval  architects  seem,  by  nothing  short  of 
inspiration,  to  have  made  in  the  most  delicate  acquaintance  with 
Architclural  DynamicB  ;  a  knowledge  which  taught  them  at  once  to 
unite  in  their  abutments,  strength  with  economy,  uje  with  beauty: 
wliile  in  our  ignorance  we  fancy  that  strength  and  economy  are  ene- 
mies of  eacli  other  and  tliat  use  and  beauty  are  of  necessity  opposite 
qualities.  This  refined  intelligence  taught  them  to  render  every  ne- 
cessary part  of  their  constructions  such  exquisite  ornaments,  that  the 
ignorant  modern  looking  at  them,  without  knowing  their  use,  fancies 
them  to  be  merely  ornamental. 

They  first  began  in  their  vaultings  with  reducing  the  lateral  thrust 
of  the  work  to  the  smallest  limits,  by  cutting  out  all  the  otherwise 
more  level  and  hazardous  parts  of  the  vaulting,  so  that  what  remained 
scarcely  left  its  perpendicular  bearing  upon  the  walls :  they  next 
greatly  reduced  further  the  weight  of  the  vaulting,  by  forming  it  of 
small  stone  ribs,  with  a  mere  thin  cuticle  of  lighter  materials  in  short 
and  narrow  panels  between  the  ribs ;  and  whereas  in  our  modern  brick 

*  \V"e  have  through  the  kind  permission  of  the  author,  taken  this  paper 
from  a  vvurk  recently  published  by  him,  entitled,  '•  Speciticatioiis  for  Practical 
Architecture  ;  preceded  by  an  Kssay  on  the  decline  of  excellence  in  the 
Structure  and  in  the  Science  of  Modcin  English  Buildings." 

No.  38.— Vol.  III.— November,  1840. 


vaultings,  tlie  groin-points  are  weak  by  their  bond,  and  are  still  weaker 
from  the  soft  and  inferior  nature  of  the  bricks  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed (vulgarly  termed  "ctil/ers,"  and  wholly  unfit  for  the  purposes  of 
any  good  work),  and  we  know  scarcely  any  thing  of  the  dytiatnics  of 
such  a  vault, — the  mid-eval  builder  put  all  the  strength  in  the  ribs, 
strutted  his  ribs  across  as  he  deemed  necessary,  and  made  every  strut 
a  beauty,  conducted  the  active  force  down  those  ribs  as  easily  as  water 
is  conducted  down  a  pipe,  and  then,  instead  of  leaving  the  active  force 
within  each  rib  to  expend  itself  in  committing  unknown  and  unre- 
strained damage  to  the  walls  of  the  fabric,  he  united  their  force  in  one 
[loint  so  that  he  could  deal  with  it  as  an  active  power  well  ascertained; 
then  knowing  by  the  laws  of  the  resolution  of  forces  the  way  in  which 
the  united  thrust  of  the  ribs  would  move,  he  counter-acted  by  the 


N,  nave.  A,  A,  aisles.  R,  R,  &c.,  ribs  of  the  vaulting,  the  several  thrusts 
of  which  all  uniting  at  the  centre  C  ;  the  dynamic  action  is  confined  to  one 
point  lending  to  move  from  V  to  F.  F,  flying-buttress,  falling  against  the 
point  C,  in  the  direction  exactly  suited  for  opposing  the  united  thrust  of  the 
vaulting-ribs.  B,  wall-buttress  from  which  the  flying-buttress  springs. 
P,  pinnacle.  The  small  letters  indicate  the  repetition  of  sets  of  the  same 
parts  belonging  to  other  divisions  of  the  vaulting. 

3  0 


•3i]C> 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


smallest  possible  quantity  of  materials  set  in  the  form  of  flying-but- 
tresses, pinnacles,  and  wall-buttresses,  that  force  which  unrestrained 
might  have  endangered  the  walls.  Thus  by  making  use  of  only  a 
small  quantily  of  materials,  every  particle  of  which  was  brought  into 
active  service,  he  was  enabled  to  carve  ornament  and  enrich  every 
part  of  his  fabric  out  of  those  funds  which  we  ignorant  moderns  expend 
in  raising  coarse  masses  which  iierfonn  no  duly,  or  ill-directed  cither 
waste  much  of  their  weight  and  strength,  or  else  employ  it  in  rending 
and  dilapidating  the  fabric. 

The  author  comes  now  to  a  department  of  the  dynamic  knowledge 
of  the  Gothic  arcliilects,  wliich,  as  he  believes  it  outstrips  in  combi- 
nation of  skill  and  beauty  all  other  efforts  of  the  architectural  prac- 
titioner, ancient  or  modern,  affords  him  matter  of  surprise,  that  as  far 
as  he  knows  or  remembers,  it  has  not  been  noticed  by  any  previous 
writer. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Gothic  architects  conducted  the  active 
force  of  a  vault  to  one  place,  and  then  with  practical  certainty  counter- 
abutted  that  force  by  a  small  rpiantity  of  materials  placed  exactly  in 
the  situation  proper  for  the  purpose,  has  just  been  shown;  it  is  now 
proposed  to  show  the  wonderful  manner  in  which  the  flying-buttresses, 
the  wall-buttresses  froni  which  they  spring,  and  the  surmounting  pin- 
nacles, are  together  disposed  so  as  with  the  most  delicate  union  of 
the  extreme  of  beauty,  to  unite  the  most  wonderful  economy  and  such 
a  knowledge  of  mechanics  as  will  in  vain  be  sought  for  in  any  other 
description  of  buildings. 

Having  found  out  exactly  tlie  precise  place  where  the  active  force 
of  the  vaulting  was  pressing  against  the  wall,  they  distended  the 
Jlyhig-hiiltresses  or  arc-boutant  widely  at  that  part,  in  the  same  manner 
'as  a  modern  carpenter,  in  ttm/.orary-shoring,  places  a  board  flat  against 
a  dangerous  wall ;  they  then  gradually  concentrated  this  distention  of 
tlie  wall-thrust  into  one  point,  where  the  flying-buttress  joins  the  wall 
buttress;  thus  they  concentrated  at  the  head  of  the  wall-buttress,  all 
the  active  force  communicated  by  the  vaulting,  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  wrestling  all  the  force  received  by  the  arms  becomes  concentrated 
in  the  spine,  pressing  its  vertebree  closely  together ;  but  then  as  the 
operation  of  this  force,  would  have  required  the  wall-buttress  to  be 
made  sprawling  out  to  a  vast  distance  from  the  wall,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  active  power  from  throwing  it  over,  they  change  the  course 
of  the  active  force,  simply  by  running  up  the  head  of  the  wall-buttress 
in  the  form  of  a  pinnacle,"  which,  having  only  a  direct  downward 
gravity,  by  the  resolution  of  forces,  so  changed  the  course  of  the  active 
force,  that  it  could  be  confined  within  the  body  of  a  buttress  of  com- 
1  aratively  moderate  dimensions,— the  downwardly-increasing  gravity 
of  the  wall-buttress  in  fact  mingling  with  the  force  communicated  to 
it,  curved  the  direction  of  the  force  more  and  more  inwards,  till  it  was 
eventually  re-dift'used  horizontally  over  the  broad  foundation  of  the 
buttress,  and  was  from  thence  communicated  to  the  earth  itself.  Thus 


f—h.  Bc-nl  of  the  force  communicated 
to  Ibo  llying-butlrcss  by  ihe  drift 
of  llie  vauUino;,  which  force  would 
proceed  unrestrained  to  u,  if  the 
pinnacle  were  removed,  and 
weuld  consequently  drive  over 
the  wall-butlress  in  thai  direc- 
tion. 

p—f.  The  direct  downward  force  of  the 

fravily  of  the  pinnacle, 
he  active  ilirection  of  the  two 
combined     forces     above-slated, 
more  and  more  restrained  in  i[s 
downward  course,  within  the  body  z£ 
of  the  wall-buttress,  till  it  reaches 
the  ground  at  ^. 
f,h,p,c.  Parallelogiam  of  forces. 


pinnacles,  which  are  vulgarly  considered  merely  as  ornaments,  became 
the  most  refined  instruments  in  the  economy  and  security  of  ecclesias- 
tical and  other  buildings,  and  like  the  position  of  the  human  head,  had 
a  most  material  influence  upon  the  stiffness  and  activity  of  the  whole 


frame.  With  this  knowledge,  it  was,  tliat  the  Gothic  architects  pro- 
portioned the  weight  and  size  of  their  pinnacles,  and  when  we  see 
them  assuming  an  extraordinary  altitude,  as  at  Worcester  Cathedral, 
it  is  not  from  idle,  wild,  or  luxuriant  caprice,  but  because  extraor- 
dinary means  were  required  in  order  to  change  suddenly  the  course  of 
an  active  power,  which  wo\ild  otherwise  have  expended  itself  beyond 
the  body  of  the  abutment,  and  by  displacing  it,  have  brought  to  ruin 
the  whole  work.* 

They  did  not  always  stop  here,  for  knowing  that  there  was  a  por- 
tion of  the  wall-buttress  near  the  ground  and  adjoining  to  the  side 
aisles,  which  received  no  thrust,  and  lay  as  it  were  dead,  this  they  cut 
out  altogether,  as  at  Gloucester  Cathedral,  some  of  our  English  Chap- 
ter-houses, Westminster-hall,  and  some  of  the  Continental  Cathedrals 
which  have  chapels  set  between  their  wall-buttresses  ;t  so  that  in  fact, 
the  wdiole  form,  position,  and  management  of  the  counter-abutments 
of  Gothic  vaultings,  were  like  those  of  a  human  skeleton,  placed  in  a 
leaning  posture,  with  the  bones  of  the  legs  away  from  the  base,  those 
of  the  nands  and  arms  pressing  against  the  moving  part  of  the  vault, 
with  the  skull  erect  to  confirm  and  steady  the  spine,  and  the  whole 
strengthened  by  sufficient  flesh  and  muscle. 

That  the  true  mechaoical  office  of  the  pinnacles  of  pointed  architecture 
is  as  stated  above,  appeared  to  the  author  to  be  so  evident,  that  it  at 
once  struck  him  after  coming  to  this  knowledge,  that  the  double  'set  of 
flying  buttresses  on  the  south  side  of  Westminster  Abbey,  must  be  respec- 
tively inclined,  so  as  to  receive  within  their  solid  substance  the  pres- 
sure of  the  vaultiug  ;  and  that  on  account  of  the  operation  of  the  two 
sets  of  pinnacles,  the  lower  flying-buttresses  must  be  set  more  uprightly 
than  the  upper  ones;  this  upon  examination  pioved  to  be  the  case, 
showing  that  if  the  original  budders  were  not  fully  versed  in  the  sub- 
ject (which  may  be  greatly  doubted).  Wren,  who  restored  these  but- 
tresses, was  so,  and  probably  by  his  great  scientific  knowledge,  was 
enabled  to  adjust  them  more  accurately  to  their  proper  positions. 
The  great  masters  who  had  to  do  with  this  fabric,  could  not  avoid  the 
great  extra  consumption  of  materials  which  arose  from  removii:g  the 
great  buttresses  away  from  the  wall  out  into  the  cloister-green,  in 
order  to  leave  room  for  the  north  avenue  of  tlie  cloister;  but  having 
a  difficult  task  to  perform,  they  performed  it  with  admirable  skill, 
and  knowledge  greater  than  is  exhibited  in  many  of  the  Continental 
Cathedrals,  some  of  which  have  two  sets  of  buttresses  in  order  to 
admit  side  chapels. 

With  what  humility  should  we  look  upon  our  modern  use  of  but- 
tresses, pinnacles  and  abutments,  which  we  pretend  are  the  results  of 
a  far  outstripping  science,  and  of  an  improved  taste, — while  men  whom 
we  have  been  in  the  habit  of  calling  barbarians,  have  in  a  dark  age 
(more  enlightened  in  many  things  than  the  best  ages  of  Greece  and 
Rome)  at  once  mingled  in  their  works,  poetry,  economy,  taste,  strength, 
and  invention. 


Geometrical  Survey. — The  officers  of  the  engineers  appointed  to  conduct  the 
survey  of  die  island  have  been  for  the  last  six  weeks  stationed  upon  the  top 
of  Ben  Volicb,  a  high  and  peaked  mountain  in  Rannocb,  east  of  Lochgarry. 
They  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  the  summer  un  Schihallion.  but  the  severity 
of  the  weather  of  late  lias  both  both  impeded  their  operations  and  rendered 
the  station  very  uncomfortable.  For  the  last  fortnight  the  snow  has  been 
lying  some  inches  deep  around  their  very  superficial  temi'orary  dwelling,  and 
the  carriage  of  fuel  from  the  surrounding  districts  is  at  once  expensive  and 
precarious.  The  view  from  this  moutain,  as  well  as  from  Schihallion,  is  very 
extensive  from  their  commamling  altitude,  and  enables  the  engineers  to  take 
B  very  wide  observation. — Scotch  Paper. 


*  Ronilclet  in  his  "  Traite  The'orlque  et  Pratique  dc  VArt  de  Bdtir,"  shows 
that  he  bad  sagacity  enough  to  find  out  the  benuty  of  the  whole  management 
of  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's,  and  that  he  saw  plainly  the  consolidating  effect 
which  the  weight  of  the  covering  of  the  dome  has  upon  the  hollow  cone;  but 
it  is  singular  that  this  sagacity  did  not  preserve  him  from  in  some  sort  depre- 
cating the  oblujue  meeting  of  the  cone  with  its  supporting  piers;  be  did  not 
perceive,  that  besides  the  enormous  collection  of  surrounding  abutments 
which  the  great  cone  possesses,  the  perpendicular  extension  of  the  external 
peristylium  aljove  the  foot  of  the  cone,  acts  so  as  by  the  resolution  of  furces 
to  materially  change  the  direction  of  any  expanding  thrust  which  the  base  of 
the  cone  may  possess,  and  to  confine  it  strictly  within  the  bodies  ol  the  first 
set  of  piers. 

t  Mr  Savage,  at  the  New  Chelsea  Church,  has  omitted  the  nactive  parts 
of"  the  wall -buttresses  in  order  to  admit  a  free  passage  in  the  dry  areas  which 
surround  the  basement-story  of  the  edifice  ;  but  he  has  not  changed  the  drijt 
in  tile  (lying. buttresses  by  placing  p  nnacles  over  the  wall-buttresses;  allow- 
ing the  present  wall-buttresses  ot  the  church  to  lie  sufhcicnt,  the  present 
combustible  ceilings  over  the  galleries  of  the  church  might  be  exchanged  for 
groined  roofs  of  stone,  and  the  addition  of  pinnacles  would  still  confine  the 
drift  within  the  present  wall-buttresses,  notwithstanding  the  added  drift  of 
the  new  side  vaults. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


3(17 


ON  CLOTfflNG  OF  STEAM  BOILERS. 

Report  ttpon  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  Clothing  Steam  Boilers, 
Pipes,  Cylinders,  ^-c,  with  the  Patent  Felt,  mannfaclured  by  JMessrs, 
Borradaile,  IFTtiting,  and  Company. 

By  Thos.  Wicksteed,  Mem.  Inst.  Civil  Eng.,  Hon.  Mem.  Roy.  Cornish 
Polytech.  Soc,  &c.  &c. 

[We  feel  mucli  pleasure  in  being  able  through  the  kindness  of 
Messrs.  Borradaile  and  Co.,  to  give  to  our  readers  the  following  very 
valuable  report  on  Clothing  of  .Steam  Boilers  and  Cylinders,  and  which 
we  are  sure  will  be  perused  with  much  interest.  We  must  here  ob- 
serve that  too  much  praise  cannot  be  given  to  those  gentlemen  for  the 
spirited  manner  they  have  had  the  experiments  made,  which  could 
rot  have  been  done  excepting  at  a  very  large  outlay.  We  think  after 
a  careful  study  of  tliis  report  by  those  who  have  a  steam  engine  not  al- 
ready clothed,  they  will  hesitate  no  longer  iu  adopting  that  very  essential 
requisite,  which  we  are  sorry  to  say  has  been,  heretofore,  most  shame- 
fully neglected.  The  experiments  were  conducted  under  the  direction 
of  Mr.  Wicksteed,  the  eminent  engineer  of  the  East  London  Water 
Works,  whose  abilities  are  too  well  known  to  the  profession  to  need 
any  praise  on  our  part  for  the  very  elaborate  manner  he  has  performed 
his  task.] 

Upon  the  25th  of  April  last,  Mr.  Francis  Whiting  called  and  re- 
quested me  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  advantages  of  using  Borra- 
daile's  Patent  Felt  as  a  non-conductor;  and  to  state  what  I  considered 
was  the  actual  amount  of  saving  in  fuel  obtained  in  the  use  thereof 
as  a  clothing  for  steam-boilers,  cylinders,  &c.  I  stated  that,  although 
I  never  had  had  the  opportunity  of  trying  experiments,  I  was  satisfied 
it  was  a  good  non-conductor,  and  as  the  amount  of  saving  stated  as 
having  been  obtained  by  those  that  had  used  it  varied  from  6  to  17 
per  cent.,  I  thought  it  would  be  advisable  to  try  a  series  of  experi- 
ments upon  a  large  scale,  continued  for  so  long  a  time  that  the  expe- 
rience obtained  should  put  at  rest  all  question  as  to  the  actual  amount 
of  saving. 

Mr.  Whiting  approved  of  this  suggestion,  and  gave  me  instructions 
to  try  any  experiments  1  thought  proper. 

In  pursuance  of  these  instructions  I  determined  to  ascertain  the 
quantity  of  water  evaporated  by  a  given  weight  of  coals,  when  the 
boiler,  steam-pipes,  and  flues  were  exposed,  or  not  clothed,  and  also 
when  they  were  clothed  with  one,  two,  three,  and  four  couts  of  the 
Patent  Felt  respectively ;  having  been  in  the  habit  also  of  using  hop 
sacking  as  a  covering  for  the  boilers,  I  determined  to  ascertain  the 
evaporative  power  of  tlie  boiler  when  clothed  with  three  and  five  coats 
of  hop-sacking  respectively,  these  experiments  would  give  me  the 
proportionate  amount  of  fuel  required  to  evaporate  a  given  weight  of 
■water  under  the  dilferent  circumstances  before  stated. 

To  ascertain  the  saving  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  Patent  Felt  in 
clothing  the  cylinder,  nozzle,  and  steam-pipes,  I  determined  to  ascer- 
tain the  quantity  of  water  that  was  required  to  pass  through  the 
cylinder  in  the  form  of  steam,  to  do  the  duty  of  one  horse,  when  the 
cylinder,  steam-pipes,  &c.,  were  exposed,  or  not  clothed,  and  when 
clothed  partially,  or  wholly,  with  Patent  Felt,  as  described  in  Table 
No.  IV.  appended  to  this  report. 

The  boiler  on  which  the  experiments  were  tried  was  made  by 
Boulton  &  Watt;  it  was  of  that  form  called  wagon-headed,  with  a 
flue  passing  through  the  centre,  the  fire  being  underneath;  the  di- 
mensions were  as  follow : 

Ft.     In. 
Length  of  boiler  .  .  .  .       21       U 

Depth  .  .  ,  .  .88 

Width  in  widest  part  .  .  .         5     11 

Width  of  flue  passing  through  the  centre       .26 
Depth  of  ditto  ditto  .         3       0 

The  engine,  which  was  a  single  pumping-engine,  was  made  by  the 
same  parties,  the  cylinder  GO  inches  in  diameter,  and  average  stroke 
7ft.  llin. ;  the  cylinder  had  a  steam  jacket  around  it. 

A  long  series  of  experiments  was  made,  the  details  of  which  are 
given  in  Tables  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  appended  to  this  report. 

Before  commenting  upon  the  experiments,  I  will  give  an  expla- 
nation of  the  Tables,  to  show  in  what  way  the  ditFerent  results  have 
been  arrived  at. 

Table  No.  I. 

The  columns  1  and  2  require  no  explanation. 

Column  No.  3,  shows  the  number  of  hours  the  engine  was  at  work  per 
diem  of  24  hours. 

Column  No.  4,  gives  the  bushels  of  coals  consumed,  which  were  accurately 
weighed,  each  bushel  weighing  84  lb.,  being  the  weight  of  the  imperial 
bushel. 


Column  No.  5,  gives  the  weight  of  water  in  hundred  weights  introduced 
into  the  boiler  every  24  hours,  the  way  in  which  this  was  ascertained  was  as 
follows : — There  were  two  cisterns  of  given  dimensions  placed  one  above  the 
other,  the  top  one  communicating  with  the  feed  pump  of  the  engine,  having 
an  overflow,  or  waste  water-pipe  attached  to  it,  and  a  valve  in  the  bottom  to 
let  water  into  the  lower  cistern  when  required  ;  the  lower  cistern  communi- 
cated with  the  boiler,  supplying  it  in  the  ordinary  way  adopted  for  low  pres- 
sure boilers ;  the  lower  cistern  was  gauged,  the  gauge  being  divided  into 
hundred  weights,  the  divisions  being  obtained  by  actually  weighing  tlie  water 
into  the  cistern ;  the  lower  cistern  was  filled  with  21  cwts.  of  water,  and 
when  that  was  exhausted  in  feeding  the  boiler,  the  feed  valve  was  closed, 
and  the  cistern  was  refilled  with  21  cwts.  more,  so  that  the  actual  quantity 
evaporated  was  most  accurately  obtained. 

Column  No.  6,  represents  the  mean  teraperatnre  of  the  water  in  the  lower 
cistern  before  evaporation,  and  was  thus  obtained  :  the  temperature  of  the 
water  each  time  the  cistern  was  filled  was  taken,  and  again  when  it  was  nearly 
empty,  the  mean  of  all  these  temperatures  is  represented  in  column  No.  6. 
The  mean  temperature  in  the  line  of  Totals  was  otjtained  by  multiplying  each 
weight  of  water,  given  in  column  No.  5,  by  the  corresponding  temperature  iu 
column  No.  6,  the  products  being  added  together,  and  divided  by  the  total 
weight  of  water,  which  gives  the  true  mean  temperature  of  the  whole  water 
evaporated. 

Table  No.  II 

Column  No.  1,  refers  to  the  totals  in  Table  No.  1. 

Columns  Nos.  2,  3,  4,  5,  &  6,  require  no  further  explanation  than  has  been 
already  given. 

Column  No.  7,  represents  the  pounds  weight  and  decimals  of  a  pound  of 
water  evaporated  by  the  consumption  of  one  pound  of  fuel ;  the  water  before 
evaporation  being  at  the  corresponding  temperatures  given  in  column  No.  6. 

Column  No.  8,  represents  the  cubic  feet  and  decimals  of  a  cubic  foot  of 
water  evaporated  by  the  consumption  of  1 12  tb.  of  coal,  under  similar  circum- 
stances to  those  given  in  column  No.  7. 

Column  No.  9,  represents  the  cubic  feet  and  decimals  of  a  cubic  foot  of 
water,  that  would  have  been  evaporated,  if  the  temperature  of  the  water  ad- 
mitted into  the  boiler  had  been  equal  to  212^  of  Fah.,  and  is  obtained  thus  :* 
The  latent  heat  of  steam  was  stated  by  Mr.  Watt  to  be  equal  to  950°,  the 
sensible  heat  at  the  boiling  point  is  212°,  the  sensible  and  latent  heat  together 
being  equal  to  1162°,  but  as  the  water  to  be  evaporated  (see  experiment  No. 
1,)  had  already  80'9°  of  beat  in  it,  the  number  of  degrees  of  heat  required  to 
be  communicated  to  the  water  to  convert  it  into  steam  would  be  1081-1° 
only,  and  if  the  temperature  of  the  water  had  been  212°,  it  would  have  re- 
quired only  950°  of  heat  (equal  to  the  latent  heat)  to  be  communicated  to  it 
to  convert  it  into  steam,  hence 

Heat.  Coal.  Heat.  Coal. 

As  1081-1°    :    n2tb.    ::    950°    :    98-4 tb. 

Thus  if  the  temperature  of  the  water  had  been  212°  Fah.  before  it  had  been 
admitted  into  the  boiler,  98-4  tb.  of  coals  would  have  evaporated  as  much 
water  as  112  tb.  of  coals  would  have  done,  the  temperature  being  80-9,  hence 
Coal,  Water.  Coal.  Water. 

98-4  tb.      :     13.43  cubic  feet     ;  :     112  tb.      :     15-28  cubic  feet, 
in  other  words,  112  tb.  of  coal  will  evaporate  15-28  cubic  feet  of  water  from 
212°  Fah.,  and  only  13-43  cubic  feet  from  80-9°  Fah. 

The  oljject  of  column  No.  9,  is  to  show  a  fair  comparison  betweefi  all  the 
experiments,  reducing  them  to  one  standard,  which  is  rendered  necessary  from 
the  circumstance  of  the  temperatures  given  in  column  No.  6,  varying  in  each 
series  of  experiments. 

Column  No.  10,  shows  the  amount  of  saving  in  fuel  under  different  states 
of  clothine,  or  exposure  of  the  boiler,  steam-pipes,  &c.,  as  described  in  column 
No.  11. 

Table  No.  HI. 

Columns  Nos.  1,  &  2,  require  no  farther  explanation  tlian  has  already 
been  given. 

Column  No.  3,  represents  the  weight  of  water  passing  through  the  cylinder, 
or  into  the  steam  jacket  in  the  form  of  steam,  in  the  time  stated  in  column 
No.  2. 

Column  No.  4,  represents  the  number  of  strokes  made  by  the  engine  in  the 
time  stated  in  column  No.  2,  which  is  necessary  to  be  recorded,  that  the 
power  of  the  engine  may  be  ascertained. 

Column  No.  5,  is  the  pressure  under  which  the  engine  worked,  or  the 
height  to  which  the  water  was  raised,  and  was  obtained  by  noting  down 
every  15  minutes  during  the  time  the  experiments  lasted,  tlie  pressure,  indi- 
cated by  a  mercurial  syphon-gauge  attached  to  the  pump,  then  taking  the 
mean  of  the  pressures  so  noted  down,  and  adding  to  it  the  height  from  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  engine  well  to  the  datum  line  of  the  mercurial 
gauge  ;  the  mean  pressure  in  the  line  of  totals  was  obfamed  by  multiplying 
the  figures  in  columns  No.  4  and  5  together,  and  dividing  by  the  total  num- 
ber of  strokes,  which  gives  the  true  mean  of  the  observations  made  every 
15  minutes. 

Table  No.  IV. 
Column  No.  1  refers  to  the  totals  in  Table  No.  3. 

*  Vide  Mr.  Parke's  paper  on  the  evaporation  of  water  from  steam  boilers. 
Trans.ictions  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Kngineers,  vol.  2.  page  172. 

3  D  2 


6S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[Novembkr, 


Columns  No.  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  6,  require  no  farther  explanation  than  has  been 
already  given. 

Column  No.  7,  shows  the  average  ntimhcr  of  strokes  made  by  the  engine 
per  minute  during  the  time  of  the  experiments. 

Column  No.  8,  shows  the  effective  power  of  the  engine,  and  is  obtained  by 
multiplying  the  weight  of  water  lifted  eaeh  stroke  (which  was  equal  to 
1920-j^)  by  the  pressure  shown  in  column  No.  6,  and  by  the  strokes  per 
minute  shown  in  column  No.  7,  the  product  being  the  number  of  pounds 
weight  raised  I  foot  high  per  minute,  which,  divided  by  33,0001b.,  will  give 
the  horses'  power  indicated  in  column  No.  8. 

Column  No.  9,  shows  the  quantity  of  water  (in  decimals  of  a  cube  foot) 
required  per  hour  to  pass  through  the  cylinder  and  steam  jacket  in  the  form 
of  steam  to  produce  one  horse's  power,  and  is  obtained  by  reducing  column 
No.  4  to  cubic  feet,  and  dividing  by  the  hours  given  in  column  No.  3,  and 
again  dividing  the  quotient  by  the  horses'  power  represented  in  column 
No.  8. 

Column  No.  10,  shows  the  proportional  quantity  of  water  in  the  form  of 
steam  required  per  horse's  power  under  different  states  of  clothing  or  ex- 
posure of  the  cylinder,  &e.,  as  described  in  column  No.  12. 

Column  No.  11,  shows  the  proportionate  saving  of  water  by  clothing  the 
cylinder  as  described  iu  column  No.  12. 

Upon  examination  of  the  results  shown  in  the  Tables,  a  description 
of  which  has  just  been  given,  it  will  be  seen  in  Table  No.  2,  that  when 
the  boiler  was  clothed  with  one  coat  of  Bo  radaile's  Patent  Felt,  that 
the  evaporation  was  a  little  greater  tlian  when  clothed  with  five  coats 
of  hop  sacking.  When  clotlied  with  In-o  coats  of  felt  it  was  not  su- 
perior to  one  coat  of  felt,  but  when  clotlied  with  three  coats,  the  evapo- 
ration was  1-jif  per  cent,  greater;  and  when  one  coat  of  felt  liad  been 
laid  on  the  top  of  the  flues,  on  the  flag  stones  round  the  boiler,  the 
evaporation  was  increased  8^77  per  cent.,  and  when  the  boiler  was 
clothed  with  four  coats,  and  the  top  of  the  flues  with  two  coats,  the 
evaporation  was  increased  -^  per  cent,  only  ;  from  this  it  would  ap- 
pear that  to  produce  a  considerable  saving  in  fuel,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  at  least  three  coats  of  felt,  and  that  the  top  flues  should  be  coated 
with  at  least  one  coat  of  felt. 

Upon  examination  of  Table  No.  4,  it  will  be  seen,  (hat  to  obtain  the 
greatest  effect  of  saving  from  casing  with  Patent  Felt,  that  not  only 
the  steam-jacket  and  steam-pipes  should  be  clothed,  but  also  the 
cylinder-cover,  and  steam-nozzle.  Tlie  result  of  these  experiments, 
which  an  examination  of  the  tables  will  prove  to  have  been  carried  on 
upon  a  large  scale,  each  trial  being  continued  for  several  days,  shows 
that  by  properly  clothing  the  boilers,  steam-pipes,  and  flues,  with 
Borradaile's  Patent  Felt,  a  saving  of  fuel  of  10^  per  cent,  may  be 
elfected ;  and  by  properly  clothing  the  cylinder-steam-jacket,  steam- 
pipes,  nozzle  and  cylinder-cover,  a  s  iving  of  15  per  cent,  is  eft'ected  in 
the  quantity  of  water  converted  into  steam  to  produce  a  given  effect ; 
and  consequently,  the  combined  result  is  equal  to  a  saving  of  fuel  of 
25^  per  cent. 

Although  the  saving  in  fuel  effected  may  be  considered  as  the 
greatest  advantage  in  using  the  Felt,  yet  there  are  others  of  no  slight 
importance  which  should  be  noticed. 

1st.  The  saving  in  the  repairs  of  the  boilers ;  supposing  two  boilers 
equally  well  made,  of  equally  good  materials,  uniler  which  the  same 
quality  of  coals  is  burnt,  and  in  which  the  same  quality  of  water  is 
used,  it  is  very  certain  that  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  two  boilers  will 
be  in  proportion  to  (he  quantity  of  fuel  burnt  under  them ;  now  if  the 
same  effect  can  be  produced  by  using  25  per  cent,  less  fuel  under  one 
than  under  the  othei,  the  wear  and  tear  will  be  25  per  cent,  less  in 
one  than  in  the  other;  now  although  the  actual  amount  of  saving  can- 
not be  estimated,  as  it  must  depend  upon  the  quality  of  materials  and 
workmanship  employed,  which  varies  in  almost  every  boiler,  never- 
theless, that  it  is  a  matter  of  importance  will  strike  every  one  who 
ha.s  had  to  do  with  repairs  of  boilers. 

2ndly.  In  steam-vessels  it  must  be  remembered  that  a  reduction  in 
the  weight  of  coals  is  equivalent  to  an  increase  of  toimage,  or  in  other 
words,  supposing  a  foreign  vessel  whose  cylinders,  steam-pipes,  and 
boilers  are  unclothed,  carries  in  the  course  of  twelve  months  401JU  tons 
of  coals  as  fuel  for  the  engines,  a  reduction  in  the  fuel  of  25  per  cent, 
will  enable  them  to  carry  lOOU  tons  extra  weight  of  cargo. 

3rd.  Reduction  in  the  cost  of  labour  in  working  the  engines,  espe- 
cially on  board  steam-boats.  Upon  this  point  it  is  not  necessary  to 
say  more  than  that,  by  reducing  the  quantity  of  fuel  to  be  used,  and 
reducing  the  temperature  of  the  engine  room,  and  stoke  hole,  the 
labour  of  the  engine  men  and  stokers  will  be  considerably  less,  and  it 
is  very  evident  a  considerable  saving  may  be  made  in  this  item  of  ex- 
penditure. 

4th.  If  judiciously  applied,  the  felt  will  prove  a  great  safe-guard 
against  fire,  as  it  will  be  seen,  by  reference  to  Mr.  Aikin's  experiments, 
an  account  of  which  is  appended  to  this  report,  that  it  may  be  exposed 
to  a  temperature  of  4011"  Fabi.  without  being  aB'eeted. 


EsPENXE  OF  Clothing. 

This,  of  course,  must  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  engine  and 
boilers,  whether  land  or  marine,  engines,  &c.  &c. ;  the  cost,  however, 
of  clothing  the  engine  upon  which  the  trial  was  made,  and  two  boilers 
with  four  coats  of  felt,  the  engine  work  covered  with  green  baize 
oil-cloth,  and  the  boiler  with  canvas,  as  herein  before  described,  was 
£'IG;  the  engine  working  12  hours  per  day  exposed,  or  not  clothed, 
would  consume  llOU  tons  of  small  Newcastle  coals  per  annum,  which, 
at  17s.  per  ton  would  be  equal  to  £03.');  25  per  cent,  saving  on  this 
would  be  £233  158.  or  251  per  cent,  profit  upon  the  outlay  of  £915. 

Durability  of  the  Felt. 

It  has  been  the  general  practice  to  coat  the  boilers,  pipes,  and  cylin- 
ders with  a  mixture  of  white  lead,  alum,  Paris  wliite,  and  liuseeil  oil, 
before  the  first  coat  of  felt  is  laid  upon  it,  with  the  intention  of  pre- 
venting the  felt  from  being  scorched  from  direct  contact  with  the 
heated  metal ;  and  it  has  been  said  that  the  fire  which  occurred  in  the 
Great  Western  steam  ship  when  in  (he  Thames,  on  her  first  voyage, 
was  occasioned  by  the  oil  hi  this  composition  catching  fire  ;  to  ascer- 
tain how  far  the  use  of  this  paint  was  necessarv,  and  also  what  heat 
the  felt  would  bear  without  being  injuriously  affected,  I  requested  Mr. 
Arthur  Aikiu  to  try  some  experiments,  and  favour  me  with  his  opinion 
on  this  matter,  and  beg  to  refer  you  to  his  letter,  which  is  appended 
to  this  report,  and  which  to  me  appears  most  satisfactory  ;  I  also  beg 
to  draw  your  attention  to  his  valuable  suggestion  of  a  new  mixture  to 
be  applied  in  the  place  of  that  used  at  present  in  places  where  it  may 
be  found  necessary,  as  being  much  more  efficacious.  With  a  view  of 
showing  the  saving  which  may  be  effected  by  the  use  of  the  patent 
felt,  1  have  calculated  the  Table  No.  V.,  shewing  the  saving  in  annual 
expence  in  proportion  to  the  consumption  of  coals  per  annum,  and  the 
price  per  ton. 

In  conclusion,  I  beg  leave  to  say  that  I  had  not,  before  I  tried  these 
experiments,  an  idea  that  the  saving  would  be  so  great  as  it  proves  to 
be;  the  experiments  have  been,  however,  conducted  with  so  much 
care,  each  series  has  been  continued  for  so  long  a  time,  and  the  coals 
used  having  been  from  the  same  cargo,  (hat  1  have  not  the  slightest 
doubt  any  person  clothing  their  boilers  and  engines  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  to  the  same  extent  hereinbefore  ehscribed,  will  at  once  effect  25 
per  cent,  saving  in  fuel,  or  in  case  of  a  boiler  and  steam  pipes  alone 
where  an  engine  is  not  used,  a  saving  of  10  per  cent. 

THOM.4.S   WiCKSTEED, 

Civil  Engineer. 
Old  Ford,  August  Mlh,  1840. 

Report  of  Arthur  Aikin,  Esq.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c. 

My  dear  Sir — You  inform  rae  that  it  is  customary  to  cover  the  outside 
of  steam  boilers  with  a  paint  composed  of  lead,  oil  and  alum  previous  to  ap- 
plying the  coating  of  felt.  This  you  say  is  done  with  the  intention  of  pre- 
venting the  felt  from  being  scorched  by  direct  contact  with  the  heated  metal 
of  the  boiler.  You  require  my  opidion  if  it  is  necessary  to  interpose  any  sub- 
stance in  order  to  avoid  injury  to  the  felt,  and  likewiae  inform  mc  tliat  in 
one  instance  a  fire  was  said  to  have  originated  from  the  oil  paint  becoming 
overheated. 

With  the  view  of  answering  your  inquiries  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  my 
first  object  was  to  ascertain  the  utmost  degree  of  heat  which  felt  is  capable 
of  hearing  without  injury.  For  this  purpose  1  put  several  pounds  of  mercury 
in  an  iron  basin,  and  then  placed  another  smaller  basin  on  the  mercury — in 
the  smaller  basin  I  put  a  layer  of  felt,  and  a])plied  pressure  to  (he  upper  sur- 
face of  the  felt  suiiicient  to  force  the  bottom  of  the  iron  basin  iu  wliich  it 
was  contained,  so  deep  in  the  mercury  that  there  was  only  about  half  an  inch 
of  mercury  between  the  two  basins.  A  pot  of  burning  charcoal  was  then 
placed  below  the  larger  basin,  and  a*  mercurial  thermometer  graduated  to 
COO  Fah.  was  dipped  from  time  to  time  in  the  mercury  to  ascertain  the  tem- 
perature. When  the  heat  had  risen  to  300  Fah.  a  small  piece  of  felt  was 
immersed  in  the  mercury  between  the  two  basins,  and  was  withdrawn  occa- 
sionally as  the  heat  increased,  in  order  to  observe  the  effect  produced  on  it. 
Up  to  the  temperature  of  440"  or  450°,  the  felt  appeared  to  suffer  no  injury, 
the  colour  remaining  unaltered  ;  but  from  450°  to  480°  the  colour  first  became 
deeper,  the  elasticity  of  the  fibre  was  destroyed,  it  then  became  nearly  black, 
and  at  the  same  time  gave  out  the  odour  of  burning  hair.  The  hot  charcoal 
was  then  removed,  and  on  examining  the  felt  which  was  in  tlie  small  basin, 
it  gave  out,  while  warm,  a  burnt  odour,  and  the  surface  in  contact  with  the 
iron  had  become  of  a  dark  brown  colour,  as  you  may  see  in  the  specimen 
wlilch  accompanies  this  report.  1  consider  therefore  the  heat  of  440  Fah.  as 
the  highest  to  which  felt  can  he  exposed  without  injury,  even  for  a  short 
time  (for  my  experiment  did  not  continue  above  an  hour),  and  if  the  heat 
were  continued  for  several  days,  it  probably  ought  not  to  exceed  400  Fah.  If 
therefore  the  external  heat  of  a  steam  boiler  is  liable  to  rise  to  400  Fah.,  it 
would  be  prudent  to  interpose  some  substance  between  the  surface  of  the 
boiler  and  the  felt,  but  for  this  purpose  oil  paiut  with  a  basis  of  Utharge,  red 


18J0.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


.300 


lead  or  wliite  lead  is  not  to  be  recommended  ;  for  the  oxides  of  lead  are,  all 
of  them,  especially  the  second,  very  easy  of  decomposition  when  mixed  with 
oil  and  heated.  While  decomposing,  that  is,  while  the  oxygen  of  the  lead  is 
combining  with  the  combustible  ingredients  of  the  oil,  a  considerable  increase 
of  heat  is  excited,  and  this  may,  under  favourable  circumstances,  be  so  great 
as  to  produce  actual  combustion  of  the  oil. 

In  making  experiments  with  the  intention  of  discovering  a  composition  free 
from  the  objections  to  oU  paint,  and  at  the  same  time  cheap,  the  following 
occurred  to  me,  and  I  liud  on  trial  that  it  adheres  perfectly  well  when  dry  to 
the  surface  of  iron,  and  will  bear  a  heat  of  between  500°  and  600°  without 
material  injury  ;  it  also  retards  considerably  the  efflux  of  heat,  and  will  there- 
fore, I  think,  be  found  a  very  good  protection  for  the  felt.  It  is  made  as 
follows  :^ 

Take  very  stiff  clay  and  sand  (that  of  a  bright  yellow  colour  is  best),  dry 
them  separately  at  a  heat  not  much  exceeding  that  of  boiling  water ;  reduce 


them  to  powder  and  pass  them  througli  a  moderately  fine  sifve.  Of  the  sond 
take  four  measures,  and  of  the  clay  two  measures,  and  mix  tliem  well ;  then 
add  one  measure  of  linseed  meal,  and  one  measure  of  horse  dung,  mixing  them 
with  the  other  ingredients  as  accurately  as  possible.  Pour  into  any  con- 
venient vessel  boiling  hot  water,  and  shake  into  it  the  above  composition  by 
small  quantities  at  a  time,  observing  that  the  last  added  quantity  is  thoroughly 
soaked  Iiefore  another  is  jjut  in  ;  there  will  thus  be  obtained  a  slippery  semi- 
gelatinons  mass  whicli  is  best  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  boiler  by  means  of 
a  trowel. 

The  first  layer  snould  be  very  thin,  ami  care  must  he  taken  that  it  does  not 
slip  down  while  wet,  when  it  has  become  dry  it  will  adhere  firmly,  and  if  its 
surface  is  left  ratlier  rough,  the  second  layer  may  be  applied  without  any 
hazard  of  its  slipping. 

A.    AlKIN. 

7,  Bloomsbury  Square,  Aug.  6,  18-10. 


TABLE  No.  T. 

Dttail  of  Coals  consumed  and  water  evaporated  in  the  course  of  72  experiments,  daring  which  there  were  4275  bushels  of  coals  consumed,  1287  tons  and 

8  cvvts.  of  water  evaporated. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7                       j    1 

2 

3      14 

5       1 

6 

7 

id 

o  c 

.S.a 
a  s 

-1 

■si 

.2  S 
P  (a 

111 

SO  g 

a     ° 

5->,    i 

<a   o        f 

State  of  Boiler. 

o 

r  ^ 

.2  a 

-1-4 

o      ,-,■ 

I"  1 

1 

fcD  «i   c  1 

§.^  i- 

M  ,„  .o  a. 

*5                    Oj 

State  of  Boiler. 

Hours. 

Bushls. 

Cwts. 

Degs.  of 
Fab  re  n. 

lours. 

Bushls. 

Cwts. 

Degs.  of 

lOi 

65 

357 

74-8      - 

11} 
11} 

61 

02 

375 

368 

92-4      - 
92-2 

lOJ 
lOi 
lOJ 
101 
lOi 

63 
63 
64 
62 
64 

357 
357 
357 
354 
360 

76-6 

79-0 
83-6 
85-2 
80-3 

Boiler,  steam   pipes  and 
flues   exposed  or    not 
clothed. 

11} 

lOi 
10} 
11} 

62 
59 
54 
53 

368 
344 
319 
314 

91-2 

87-0 
87-4 
8-)-7 

Boiler  and  steam    pipes 
clothed  with  2  coats  of 
Borradaile's     patent 
felt. 

V. 

6 

66} 

351 

2088 

89-5      - 

I. 

6 

62i 

381 

2142 

80-9      • 

11} 
11} 

54 
52 

318 
312 

83-5       - 
83-5 

1 

lOi 

63 

366 

86-3 

1 

10^ 

63 

376 

86-7 

11} 

51 

305 

85-4 

1 

1 

10^ 
lOi 

63 
62 

362 
357 

85-0 
851 

11} 
11} 

52 
53 

307 
316 

85-0 
86-3 

Boiler  and  steam    pipes 
clothed  with  3  coats  of 

1 
1 

lOi 
104 

63 
63 

369 
364 

84-9 
84-7 

Boiler   and  steam  pipes 

11} 

Hi 

52 
51 

314 
313 

87-5 
90-0 

Bonadaile's     patent 
felt. 

1 

m 

64 

375 

85-6 

j"       clothed  with  3  coats  of 

11} 

50 

312 

90-7 

1 
1 

lOf 
lOJ 

62 
61 

360 
356 

85-1 
80-3 

hop  sacking. 

VI 

8 

90 

415 

2497 

86-4 

1 
1 

lOf 
lOf 

63 
63 

375 
376 

87-0 
88-0 

• 

11} 
11} 
11} 
11} 
lU 

55 
56 
55 
54 
54 

341 
355 
347 
339 
337 

94-0      " 

92-6 

90-1 

904 

95-3 

II. 

11 

116f 

690 

4036 

85-8 

1 

10} 

60 

346 

89-0 

1 

10* 

61 

383 

89-0 

111 
12 

54 

345 

94-8 

1 

lOi 

60 

368 

910 

53 

339 

93-3 

1 

lOi 

57 

353 

94-2 
92-6 

12 

54 

338 

92'0 

Boiler  and  steam    pipes 

1 

10} 

61 

341 

12 

54 

336 

93-2 

clothed   with   3   coats 

1 

10} 

62 

387 

99-3 

11 J 

55 

361 

95-3 

Y       and  flues  round  boiler, 

1 

11 

62 

361 

97-7 

Boiler   and  steam  pipes 

14i 

72 

439 

96-5 

with  1  coat  of  Borra- 

1 

1 

11 

11* 

64 
65 

378 
389 

98-6 
97-5 

clothed  with  5  coals  of 
hop  sacking. 

11} 
11} 

57 
59 

361 
370 

95-2 
95-0 

daile's  patent  felt. 

1 
1 

Hi 

IH 

63 
65 

387 
387 

97-8 
96-8 

11} 

Hi 

58 
60 

371 
380 

93-4 
94-2 

1 

Hi 

65 

375 

95-8 

11} 
iif 

63 

393 

94-4 

1 

IH 

64 

373 

93-5 

Boiler    and  steam  pipes 

63 

376 

95-0 

HI. 

13 

142} 

809        4828 

94-9 

VII. 

17 

202^ 

976 

6128 

93-8 

1 
1 

11} 
11} 

64 
65 

382 
383 

95-0 
95-7 

11} 
Hi 

58 
58 

364 
366 

92-0 
93-3 

1 

11} 

63 

380 

94-3 

,        clothed  with  1  coat  of 

11} 

57 

359 

953 

Boiler  and  steam    pipes 

clothed  with  4    coats 

y       and  top  of  flues  with 

1 

11} 

«3 

380 

93-4 

Borradaile  s     patent 
felt. 

11} 

11} 

57 
56 

359 
354 

92-3 
90-3 

IV. 

4 

45 

255 

1525 

94-6 

11} 

56 

351 

92-3 

2  coats  of  Borradaile's 

11} 

56 

351 

88-4 

patent  felt. 

1 

vm 

7 

82} 

398 

2504 

92-0 

370 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[November. 


TABLE  No.  II. 


A  summary  of  experiments  detailed  in  Table  I.,  and  also  showing  the  lbs.  of  water  evaporated  per  lb.  of  coals,  and  cubic  feet  evaporated  per  112  lbs.  of  coals 

from  212°  Fahrenheit. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Cubic  feet 

of  H  aler 

that  would 

Proportion- 

Mean tem- 

Cubit feet 

have  been 

ate  saving  by 
the  increase 

Refe- 

Number 

Duration 

Quantity 

Weight  of 

perature  of 

M'aler 

of  water 

evaporated 
by  112  lbs. 

rence  to 

of 

of 

of  coals 

nater 

water  be- 

evaporated 

evaporated 

of  evapora- 

State of  Boiler. 

Table 

Experi  - 

Experi- 

consumed. 

evaporated. 

fore  evapo- 

by  1  lb.  of 

by  112  lbs. 

of  coals,  ii 

tion  15  28 

No. 

ments. 

ments. 

Bushels. 

tion. 

coals. 

of  coals. 

the  initial 
tempera- 
ture had 
been  212°. 

cubic  feet 
being  =100. 

Hours. 

Cwts. 

Fahrenheit 

Lbs. 

Cubic  feet. 

I. 

6 

621 

381 

2142 

80  9° 

7*496 

13  43 

15  28 

100 

{ 

Boiler  steam  pipes  and  flues  exposed,  or 
not  clothecf. 

II. 

11 

1161 

690 

4036 

85-8° 

7799 

13-97 

15F3 

103  0 

Boiler  and  steam  pipes  clothed  with  3 
coals  of  hop  sacking. 

III. 

13 

\m 

809 

4828 

94-9° 

7  957 

14-25 

16  00 

104-7 

- 

Boiler  and  steam  pipes  clothed  with  5 
coats  of  hop  sacking. 

IV. 

4 

45 

255 

1525 

94-6° 

7973 

14-28 

16  04 

1C5 

• 

Boiler  and  steam  pipes  clothed  with  1 
coat  of  Borradaile's  patent  telt. 

V. 

6 

66J 

351 

2088 

89-5° 

7-931 

1421 

16  04 

105 

" 

Boiler  and  sicam  pipes  clothed  with  2 
coats  of  Borradaile's  patent  felt. 

VI. 

8 

90 

415 

2497 

86  4° 

8022 

1437 

1627 

1064 

{ 
{ 

Boiler  and  steam  pines  clothed    with   3 

coats  of  Borradaile  s  patent  lelt. 
Boiler  and  steam  pipes  clothed   with  3 

VII. 

17 

202* 

976 

6128 

93-8° 

8371 

15  00 

16  86 

1103 

coats  and  flues  round  boiler  with  1  coat 

of  patent  felt. 

( 

Boiler  and  steam   pipes  clothed   with  4| 

VIII. 

7 

82i 

398 

2504 

92  0° 

8-388 

15  03 

16  93 

1108 

{ 

coats  and  top  of  flues  with  2  coats  of 
Borradaile's  patent  felt. 

TABLE  No.  IV. 

A  summary  of  experiments  detailed  in  Table  No.  III.,  and  also  showing  the  strokes  per  minute,  power  of  engine,  and  water  consumed  per  hour  per  horse 

power  under  difl'erent  states  of  clothing. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

Height  of 

Number  of 

Water  eva- 

Proportional 

diminution  in 

the*-ater 

Saving 

Refe- 

Number 

Duration 

Weight 

.Strokes 

column  of 

strokes 

Effective 

porated  per 

required  per 

efieeted 

rence  to 

of 

of 

of   water 

made  by 

vvaterunder 

made  by 

power  of 

hour  to 

hor6e's  power 

by  cas- 

State of  Cylinder. 

Table 

experi- 

experi - 

evapo- 

engine. 

which  the 

engine  per 

engine. 

produce  one 

per  hour 

ing  the 

No.  111. 

ments. 

ments. 

rated. 

engine 
worked. 

minule. 

horse 
power. 

■828  of  a 

cubic  foot 

being=115. 

cylinder 
&c. 

Hours. 

Cwts. 

Feet. 

horsepower 

Cubic  feet. 

I. 

6 

73 

2282 

48381 

105-2 

1104 

67  59 

.828 

115 

100 

I 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket,  and  steam 

pipes  exposed  or  not  covered. 

f 
1 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket,  and  steam 

II. 

7 

82J 

2504 

55555 

1058 

11  -25 

69-26 

-787 

109  3 

105  7 

pipes  clothed    with  4  coats   of 

Borradaile's  patent  felt. 

f 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket,  and  steam 

III. 

5 

58| 

1G76 

39602 

106  0 

11-23 

69-27 

737 

102-3 

IT' 8 

pipes  clothed  with  4  coats,   and 

i 

cylinder   cover    with    one  cjat 

of  Borradaile's  patent  felt. 

( 

Cylinder,  steam  j  icket.  and  steam 

IV. 

4 

47 

1.339 

3IS18 

106  7 

11-28 

70-04 

•728 

101-1 

113-9 

{ 

( 

pipes,  cylinder  cover  and  steam 
nozzle  clothed  with  4  coats  of 
patent  felt. 
Cylinder,  steam  jacket,  and  steam 
pipes,  and   cylinder  cover  and 

V. 

5 

58J 

1608 

39901 

107-2 

1136 

7087 

•720 

100 

115 

1 

steam  nozzle  clothed  with  four 
coats  of  patent  felt  covered  with 
green  baize  oil  cloth. 

1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


371 


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TABLE  No.  III. 

Detail  of  water  evaporated  and  strokes  made  by  engine  in  the  course  of  23 
experiments,  during  which  the  engine  made  215,257  strolces. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5           1 

6 

"3      c 
?  2  s 

"Mg    0 

-S  &  ft 

0  ■^.-a  ft 

Average  pres- 
sure  shown  by 
gauge  during 
each  Experi- 
ment. 

State  of  Cylinder. 

Hours. 

lU 

14i 

m 

111 
11* 

Cwts. 

361 
439 
361 
370 
371 
380 

7484 
9739 
7820 
7712 
7950 
7676 

Feet. 

104-9 
105-1 
105-3 
105-3 
105-1 
105-6 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket, 
and  steam-pipes  ex- 
posed or  not  clothed. 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket, 
and    steam     pipes 
clothed  with  4  coats 
of  Bonadaile's  patent 
felt. 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket, 
and    steam     pipes 
clothed  with  4  coats 
and    cylinder    cover 
with  1  coat  of  Borra- 
daile's  patent  felt. 

~,  Cylinder,  steam  jacket, 
and  steam  pipes,  cy- 
linder cover  &  steam 
nozzle  clothed  with  4 
coats  of  Borradaile's 

■'        patent  felt. 

Cylinder,  steam  jacket, 
steam  pipes,  cylinder 
cover  and  steam  noz- 
zle clothed  with  four 
coats  of  Borradaile's 
patent    felt,  covered 
with  green  baize  oil 
cloth. 

I. 

73 

2282 

48381 

105-2 

11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 

364 
366 
359 
359 
354 
351 
351 

8218 
7748 
7928 
8012 
7909 
7790 
7950 

105-5 
105-5 
105-7 
104-5 
105-4 
108-3 
106-6 

II. 

82i 

2504 

55555 

105-8 

11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 

331 
326 
329 
342 
348 

7885 
8018 
7819 
7860 
8020 

106-8 
105-2 
106-3 
106-0 
106-1 

III. 

58f 

1676 

39602 

106-0 

11* 
11* 
11* 
11* 

336 
336 
335 
332 

7953 
7811 
8015 
8039 

106-3 
107-0 
106-7 
107-0 

IV. 

47 

1339 

31818 

106-7       - 

11* 
11* 

lU 
11* 
11* 

344 
327 
332 
334 
331 

7804 
8044 
7852 
8104 
8097 

107-3        " 

107-1 

107-1 

107-4 

107-4 

V. 

58J 

1668 

39901 

107-2 

COMPETITION  DESIGNS. 
Mr.  Sparke    in  reply  to  K.  P.  S. 

Sir — In  yournumber  of  this  present  month  appeared  a  letter  signed 
K.  P.  S.,  containing  a  charge  against  the  persons  who  are  engaged  in 
building  a  New  Church  in  this  town.  I  have  to  request  that  you  will 
give  insertion  in  your  forthcoming  number  to  some  observations  in 
reply  to  those  charges. 

Your  correspondent  K.  P.  S.  i-efers  to  a  letter,  dated  Oct.  29,  1839, 
addressed  by  the  Subscribers  to  the  New  Church  to  six  Architects,  in- 
viting them  to  send  designs  for  the  proposed  building,  upon  certain 
terms  therein  specified. 

This  letter  is  designated  by  K.  P.  S.  as  "most  offensive."  But 
surely  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  that  the  subscribers*  intended  an 

*  K.  P.  S.  criticizes  the  expression  '•  Subscribers,'"  and  says  "  the  business 
\\3.i  of  course    unducted  by  a  committee."    He  is  as  ill  informed  on  this  as 


offence  to  the  gentlemen  with  whom  they  sought  communication.  The 
letter  indeed  contained  a  clause,  obliging  the  architect,  whose  design 
should  be  selected  to  carry  the  work  into  execution  for  the  specified 
sum  of  £3,000,  if  required  by  the  subscribers  so  to  do.  The  sub- 
scribers, however,  learnt  that  this  arrangement  was  contrary  to  the 
practice  of  the  profession,  and  therefore  they  at  once  altered  the  terms 
of  the  proposition  to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  architects,  who  [so  far 
as  the  subscribers  are  informed]  were  perfectly  satisfied  with  the 
terms  as  amended,  to  which  they  all  assented. 

Let  me  now  address  myself  to  that  point  which  has  led  the  sub- 
scribers to  think  it  proper  to  take  notice  of  this  letter  of  K.  P.  S., 
namely,  the  charge  of  bad  faith  towards  the  architects. 

The  substance  of  this  complaint  is,  that  the  subscribers  selected  a 

on  other  points  connected  with  this  church.  The  subscribers  at  large,  and 
not  a  committee  transacted  the  business  K.  P.  S.  speaks  of.  The  building 
committee  was  not  appointed  till  after  the  design  was  selected. 


372 


TFIE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[NoVKMBKn. 


design,  tlie  execution  of  wliioli  will  cost  £700  or  .£750  more  tluiii  the 
sum  mentioncil  in  the  instructions  given  to  the  architects. 

Yuur  correspondent  K.  V.  S.  says,  "having  selected  the  design,  the 
subscribers  proceeded  to  receive  tenders  for  its  execution;  and  it 
having  been  whispered  that  the  estimates  of  the  builders  greatly  ex- 
ceeded the  stipulated  sum,  the  result  was — not  that  the  subscribers 
rejected  the  design  and  chose  another — but  that  the  tenders  were  re- 
turned to  the  builders  unopened,  and  the  designs  referred  back  to  the 
architect,  for  the  purpose  of  being  altered,  so  as  to  bring  it  within  the 
means  of  the  subscribers." 

This  statement  is  totally  at  variance  with  the  truth.  The  first  ten- 
ders were  not  retarne(i  to  the  builders,  and  the  design  was  not  referred 
back  to  the  architect  for  the  reason  stated.  This  course  was  taken 
solely  on  account  of  an  objection  to  the  mode  of  constructing  the  roof, 
made  by  the  lncorpori<ted  Society  for  building  Churches;  and  the  ob- 
jection of  the  Society  was  communicated  to  the  subscribers  after  the 
first  tenders  were  received. 

Your  correspondent  proceeds,  "how  the  subscribers  have  fulfilled 
the  conditions  they  dictated,  may  be  seen  bv  the  following  statement: 
The  acce[)ted  tender  amounted  to  £35.')U  in  round  numbers." 

This  .Sir,  is  not  in  accordance  with  the  fact:  the  sum  for  which  the 
Church  is  to  be  completed  is  i;3,3.;>3. 

K.  P.  S.  continues,  "in  addition  to  this,  extra  foundations,  to  the 
amount  of  A' 150  to  ^6200,  were  found  to  be  necessary,  not  inconse- 
quence of  any  unforeseen  difficulty,  such  as  might  arise  from  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  \'c." 

The  fact.  Sir,  is,  that  the  "  extra  foundations  were  required  by  the 
nature  of  tlie  soil."  It  was  necessary  to  remove  a  very  considerable 
body  of  earth  lor  every  part  of  the  foundations,  and  in  the  site  of  the 
tower,  the  ground  was  excavated  to  the  depth  of  13  feet ;  and  the 
foundations  was  made  of  the  best  concrete,  comprised  of  lime  and 
gravel,  brought  from  a  distance  of  nearly  .3  miles. 

"  The  cost  of  the  building,"  continues  K.  F.  S.,  "  is  therefore  to  be 
from  £3,70U  to  £3,75U." 

This  inference  is  very  far  from  the  truth.  The  sum  for  which  the 
Church  is  be  completed  is,  as  i  have  before  observed,  £3,353.  But 
from  this  gross  sum  is  to  be  deducted  the  amounts  of  the  drawback  on 
the  duties  ujjon  the  customable  and  exciseable  materials  used  in  the 
building,  as  was  expressly  stated  in  the  directions  to  the  architects  in 
the  letter  dated  Nov.  30,"  183H.  This  drawback  is  estimated  at  £3)0. 
The  tost  of  the  Church,  therefore,  will  amount  as  nearly  as  possible 
to  £3,000,  the  sum  w  hich  the  subscribers  have  always  stated  that  they 
intenderl  to  expend. 

K.  P.  S.  continues,  "neither  plastering  nor  painting  are  included  in 
the  contract." 

This  is  opposed  to  the  fact.  The  walls  indeed  are  not  to  be  plas- 
tered, but  all  the  plastering  which  the  subscribers  think  ht  to  do,  tn  iii- 
ciudtd  in  the  contract;  and  so  also  is  the  painting. 

K.  P.  S.  continues,  "instead  of  G50  sittings  in  pews  on  the  ground 
floor,  there  are  but  360 ;  ISO  more  in  open  seats,  and  tl;e  remainder 
on  benches." 

The  subscribers  have  thought  fit  to  substitute  for  pews  of  tliree  dif- 
ferent widths,  seats  of  uniform  width  throughout  the  body  of  the 
Church,  some  olose  pews,  some  open  pews,  and  along  the  middle  aisle, 
benciies. 

K.  P.  S.  continues,  "  instead  of  stone  quoins,  there  is  not  an  atom  of 
stone  in  the  building  but  what  may  be  indispensable." 

This  statement  also  is  opposed  to  truth.  There  is  much  more  stone 
in  the  building  than  would  have  been  indispensable  in  making  stone 
quoins  :  all  the  weatherings  are  of  stone,  as  are  also  the  string  courses. 
K.  P.  S.  continues,  "the  window  jambs,  Szc,  are  of  moulded  brick, 
not  gauged  brick,  but  bricks  from  the  kiln,  with  good  %  joints  between 
them.     The  side  roofs  are  to  be  covered  with  zinc." 

1  have  only  to  observe  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  instructions  to 
the  architects  which  rendered  it  improper  to  build  in  the  way  that  has 
been  adopted. 

K.  P.  S.  continues,  "  the  side  walls  are  2a  bricks  thick,  but,  to  save 
materials,  are  built  hollow,  the  construction  of  the  rest  of  the  building 
being  in  strict  keeping." 

The  inference  which  an  incautious  reader  might  be  induced  to  adopt 
from  this  statement,  would  perhaps  be  this — that  the  walls  are  hollow 
throughout.  Nothing  coulil  be  further  from  the  fact.  There  are  no 
diambers,  but  in  those  parts  of  the  walls  where  there  is  little  weight 
to  be  supported.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  last  clause,  K.  P.  S.  has 
been  more  guarded  and  prudent  than  in  the  rest  of  his  letter,  because 
it  is  only  an  insinuation,  and  therefore  does  not  admit  of  any  direct 
contradiction. 

K.  P.  S.  continues,  "whether  all  this  is  quite  acting  up  either  to  tlie 
letter  or  the  spirit  of  the  instructions  of  the  Incoijioraled  Society,  may 
admit  of  a  doubt  at  least." 


The  doubt.  Sir,  is  soon  resolved  ;  for  the  subscribers  have  the  ap- 
probation of  the  Incorporated  Society  testified  by  the  signature  of 
their  secretary  upon  the  plans  ;  and  indeed  the  q\iantity  of  materials 
used  in  the  walls  is  greater  than  is  required  by  those  approved  plans. 

"  It  will  admit  of  a  doubt,"  continues  K.  P.  S.,  "  whether  a  building 
with  bare  walls  of  ordinary  brick,  and  fittings  of  naked  deal  inside,  can 
be  exactly  said  to  maintain  an  ecclesiastical  character." 

How  far  the  New  Church  can  be  said  to  maintain  an  ecclesiastical 
character,  must  be  a  matter  of  taste  of  opinion;  but  it  is  believed  tlrat 
no  one  has  seen  the  designs  of  Mr.  Ranger,  the  architect,  without  ad- 
miration of  their  beauty  and  their  perfect  ad.iptation  to  the  purposes 
for  which  the  building  is  required;  and  that  no  one  has  seen  the 
building  itself,  so  far  as  it  has  already  been  executed,  without  appro- 
bation of  the  mode  in  which  the  work  is  done. 

So  great  a  discordance  between  the  statements  of  K.  P.  S.  and  the 
facts  of  the  case,  the  subscribers  conceive  can  only  have  arisen  from 
this  cause — that  K.  P.  S.  has  seen  neither  the  contract  nor  the  build- 
ing, and  therefore  neither  knows  what  has  been  done,  nor  what  it  is 
intended  to  do.  He  might  have  seen  both  by  applying  either  to  me, 
or  to  the  clerk  of  the  woiks,  and  he  is  quite  welcome  to  do  so  when- 
ever he  pleases. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  Sparke,  Hon.  See. 

Bury  St.  Edmund's,  Oct.  10,  1S40. 


RANGELEY'S  SAFETY  ROTATION  RAILWAY. 
C  IFith  an  Engraving,  Plate  XVII.^ 

In'  the  September  nnmber  of  our  Journal  we  gave  a  short  descriptioti 
of  this  invention,  and  also  in  the  present  number  will  be  found  an  ab- 
stract of  a  paper  read  at  the  British  Association,  but  as  we  thought 
many  of  our  readers  might  feel  interested  in  the  proposed  novel  mode 
of  transit,  we  have  prepared  tlie  accompanying  plate  illustrative  of 
the  subject,  and  wdiich,  with  the  following  description,  will  fully  enable 
our  readers  to  judge  of  its  ])racticabiUty. 

This  system  consists  in  the  adoption  of  two  parallel  lines  of  fixed 
wdieels  along  the  proposed  road,  at  any  moderate  gauge,  and  at  a  short 
distance  longitudinally  from  centre  to  centre  of  each  wheel.  These 
are  termed  the  bearing  wheels,  which,  together  with  a  double  pulley, 
are  cast  or  keyed  on  to  a  common  axle  marked  d  and  e  in  the  engrav- 
ing. The  axles  of  these  bearing  wheels  and  pullies  work  in  plummer 
blocks  c,  fixed  on  to  cast-iron  beds  or  bearing  frames  b,  wdiich  are  pro- 
posed to  be  in  V2  feet  lengths,  and  secured  to  three  wood  sleepers  and 
to  each  other  in  the  way  shown  in  fig.  3 ;  but  to  prevent  elevating 
these  iron  beds  much  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  a  chamber  of 
masonry  or  iron  is  necessary  to  enable  the  bearing  wheels  to  revolve 
free  from  obstruction.  Over  every  pulley  is  passed  an  endless  band 
working  into  the  adjoining  pulley  each  way,  so  that  for  any  distance 
that  the  road  may  be  carried  there  would  be  an  equal  distance  of  band, 
but  in  a  series  of  lengths,  equal  to  the  distance  from  each  other,  of 
pulley  from  pulley.  Having  proceeded  so  far  in  our  description,  we 
will  now  explain  the  method  of  action  : — A  steam  engine,  water  wheel, 
or  other  motive  power  being  connected  with  the  pullies  at  each  end  of 
such  a  series  of  wheels,  and  motion  given  thereto,  it  would  in  a  short 
time  communicate  it  throughout;  and  each  wheel  revolving  in  the 
same  direction,  it  is  evident  that  any  body  placed  on  the  upper  peri- 
phery of  the  wheels,  so  that  it  could  not  quit  the  track,  would  be  in  a 
short  time  carried  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  in  greater  or  less 
time  according  to  the  greater  or  less  rapidity  with  which  the  wheels 
revolve. 

By  referring  to  figs.  I  and  2,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  carriage 
is  without  wheels,  and  in  fact  a  kind  of  sledge;  an  iron  rail  is  fixed  in 
the  underside  of  the  bearing  frame  to  prevent  the  rapid  wear  which 
would  otherwise  take  place  from  the  friction  of  the  wheels  in  pro- 
gressing the  carriage. 

The  safety  of  this  mode  of  transit  arises  from  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  carriage  depending  between  the  wheels,  and  which  is  termed 
the  baggage  box  k,  and  the  steady  motion  of  the  carriage  will  in  a 
great  measure  depend  on  the  load  which  may  be  stowed  therein.  To 
prevent  lateral  friction  against  the  wheels  on  beds,  guide  wheels  are 
fixed  at  each  end  of  the  baggage  box,  which  will  prevent  the  carriage 
at  any  time  from  quitting  the  track,  ami  also  assist  in  its  passage  round 
corners;  a  break  at  each  end  (for  regulating  the  speed,  or  stopping 
the  carriage,  by  slightly  raising  it,  and  of  course  diminishing  the  fric- 
tion or  bite  of  the  wheels  on  the  carriage),  is  shown  in  figs.  1  and  2, 


RANGELEY'S   PATENT    SAFETY  ROTATION    RAILWAY. 


Sc«U  of  V 


t\o   -l 


Fig  3 


T.g4 


^M^     AV*r<t. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


373 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XX. 


I  must  Iiave  liberiy 
Withal,  as  large  a  cliarter  as  tlic  winns, 


To  blow  on  whom  I  please/' 


I.  It  is  somewhat  odd  that  those  who  profess  so  greatly  to  admire 
St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  should  not  have  cared  to  aim  at  the  same 
kind  of  effect,  as  regards  one  peculiarity  in  it.  It  is  almost  doubtful, 
however,  whether  the  circumstance  alluded  to  has  been  taken  into 
account  at  all,  since  it  has  never  been  especially  pointed  out,  as  de- 
serving to  be  noted  and  studied.  What  I  mean  is,  the  projection  of 
the  pediment  as  seen  in  profile,  and  the  bold  shadows — or  rather  depth 
of  shadow  in  the  tympanum  of  the  pediment.  Perhaps  I  shall  be  told 
that  this  is  a  circumstance  attending  the  peculiar  kind  of  entablature 
and  cornice  there  employed,  and  (hat  consequently  the  same  effect  cannot 
be  obtained  in  the  pediment  of  a  portico  whose  columns  are  of  the  Gre- 
cian Doric,  or  Ionic  order.  Most  \mdoubtedly  not,  if  we  ai-e  deter- 
mined merely  to  copy  Grecian  authorities,  yet  not  only  so  slavishly, 
but  so  blindly,  as  not  to  study  such  modifications  of  the  originals  as 
shall  in  some  degree  give  us  a  tolerable  equivalent  for  what  is  un- 
scrupulously abandoned  in  the  professed  copy,  however  essential  it 
may  be  to  resemblance.  There  is  no  occasion  whatever  for  impover- 
ishing Grecian  architecture,  yet  we  do  so  continually  without  the 
slightest  compunction,  making  naked  entablatures  and  pediments,  with 
scanty  cornices,  absolutely  slarving  our  buildings,  yet  congratulating 
ourselves  all  the  while  on  the  classicality  and  purity  of  our  taste,  and 
fancying  that  we  are  perfectly  Grecian,  whereas  we  are  no  better  than 
architectural  paupers,  dressed  up  in  old  finery  of  which  the  trimmings 
and  embroidery  have  been  cut  away. 

II.  Should  future  generations  form  their  ideas  of  Grecian  architec- 
ture from  our  modern  English  imitations,  prodigious  will  be  their 
wonder  at  the  praises  bestowed  upon  it;  for  they  will  be  greatly 
puzzled  to  discover  in  them  any  of  its  spirit,  or  any  adherence  to  its 
principles — aught  of  refined  taste  and  artistical  feeling.  In  his  recent 
work  on  Kannt-Sinnhilder,  Menzel  makes  some  remarks  on  the  ancient 
orders  and  the  modern  versions  of  them,  that  architects  would  do  well 
to  take  into  consideration.  He  condemns  the  recipes  and  prescriptions 
for  making  Doric,  Ionic,  &c.,  given  by  Vignola,  Palladio,  Serlio, 
Scamozzi  and  others,  as  leading  only  to  the  most  servile  and  blind 
imitation  of  the  patterns  so  set,  and  which  are  certainly  not  the  very 
best  in  themselves.  Of  even  the  very  best  examples,  too,  the  con- 
tinual repetition  not  only  becomes  wearisome  in  itself,  but  also  tends 
to  check  all  invention  in  design, — at  least  as  regards  detail,  and  so  far 
degrades  the  architect  from  an  artist  to  a  mere  parrot  or  automaton. 
Yet  in  this  as  in  other  matters  over-strictness  is  apt  to  lead  to  the 
opposite  extreme  of  licentiousness  :  and  those  who  would  be  shocked 
at  the  idea  of  any  innovation  in  Greek  detail,  even  though  it  were 
perfectly  in  accordance  with  Greek  feeling,  feel  no  scruple  whatever 
in  reverting  for  the  sake  of  variety,  to  such  deformities  as  the  Italian 
Ionic, — which  would  be  reckoned  positively  detestable  after  Greek, 
were  it  not,  that  tliere  is  precedent  for  it,  and  it  is  not  an  invention  of 
our  own.  Out  upon  the  sii'Vitm  ptcias  of  pedants,  whose  dislike  to 
originality  arises  from  their  own  incapacity  to  originate  any  thing 
whatever,  and  who  therefore  bolster  up  their  own  imbecillity  by  a 
most  convenient  veneration  for  precedent. — In  the  grounds  of  Mr. 
Anderson's  villa  in  the  Regent's  Park,  there  has  lately  been  executed 
a  small  building,  the  capitals  of  whose  columns  would  scandalize  such 
pseudo-Zegitimatts,  for  the  very  reason  that  they  must  charm  every  one 
whose  taste  is  any  thing  better  than  mere  prejudice.  Ionic  in  charac- 
ter, though  unlike  any  existing  exam|)le,  they  display  genuine  artisti- 
cal feeling,  and  a  perfect  knowledge  of  arcliitectural  principles  with  a 
thorough  contempt  for  ready-made  architectural  patterns,  and  for  those 
who  make  use  of  them.  By  all  means,  let  the  Institute  procure  a  cast 
of  that  capital ;  and  were  the  two  Professors  of  Architecture  to  do  so 
likewise,  they  might  get  from  it  something  they  now  seem  to  be  terri- 
bly in  lack  of. 

III.  In  an  article  on  Modern  Churches,  British  Critic,  No.  LII,  there 
are  many  remarks  worth  attending  to,  and  among  others  what  is  there 
said  in  regard  to  the  excessive  quantity  of  light  admitted  into  churches 
generally,  in  consequence  of  painted  glass  having  been  destroyed  or 
removed  from  the  windows  of  the  older  buildings,  and  its  not  being  in- 
troduced into  those  of  modern  ones,  notwithstanding  that  the  apertures 
are  made  as  large,  and  the  spaces  between  them  as  narrow,  as  if  it  were 
intended  to  damp  the  light,  and  hinder  the  effect  of  rawness  generally, 
by  glazing  the  windows  with  rich  material.     "  Nearly  all  our  ancient 


churches,"  says  the  writer,  "  from  the  cathedral  to  the  smallest  oratory 
are  now  considerably  overllghted.  They  are  not  now  seen  in  their 
proper  dress;  but  arc  like  the  face  of  nature  in  winter  without  leaves 
or  flowers.  Thus  the  interior  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  is  as  light  as  the 
open  air  ;  nay,  in  a  sense,  it  is  lighter ;  for  out  of  doors,  there,  is  an  in- 
finite variety  of  light  and  shade,  and  still  greater  variety  of  hue  ;  but 
in  that  building,  as  reformers  and  puritans  have  left  it,  there  is  no 
relief,  no  repose :  with  inconsiderable  exception,  all  is  one  equally 
monotonous,  shadowless,  colourless  medium  :  nothing  recedes,  nothing 
stands  out.  The  proportions  suffer  ;  for  neither  height  nor  length  are 
felt  in  the  glaring  mass  of  day-light. — The  cathedral  is  reduced  to  one 
great  airy  room.  The  aisles  are  no  longer  depths  of  shade  ;  the  lofty 
pillars  and  arches  no  longer  stand  out  in  bold  relief,  bathed  in  copious 
streams  of  light  and  colour  from  the  high  clerestory  windows,  every 
stone  from  the  vaults  above  to  the  pavement  under  our  feet  seeming 
instinct  with  life." — "Our  churches  having  been  nearly  all  built  or 
altered  with  a  view  to  paiuted  glass,  as  soon  as  this  essential  part  of 
their  plan  was  destroyed,  there  was  immediately  found  to  be  double 
or  treble  the  quantity  of  aperture  sufficient  for  light.  In  spite  of  bad 
glass,  windows  wholly  or  partially  blocked  up,  curtains,  galleries,  and 
staircases,  lofty  screens,  and  all  the  other  numberless  accretions  of  the 
last  three  centuries,  they  are  still  greatly  too  light.  The  restorations 
of  the  present  age,  by  opening  windows,  substituting  larger  panes  of 
clear  white  glass,  clearing  away  heavy  screens  and  partitions,  and 
lowering  pew-walls,  have  in  fact  accidentally  increased  the  evil,  and 
rendered  the  glare  of  our  churches,  especially  those  of  the  later  styles, 
quite  intolerable,  not  only  to  the  mental  feeling,  but  to  the  bodily 
eye." 

IV.  In  speaking  of  Vestries,  the  writer  just  quoted  is  of  opinion 
there  is  little  occasion  for  them  in  country  churches.  Such  a  place 
"is  useful  of  course  to  the  crack  preachers  of  the  metropolis,  some  of 
whom  sit  there  and  comfoii  themselves  during  the  service,  that  they 
may  come  forth  fresh  as  giants  to  the  event  of  the  day — the  sermon." 
It  is  said  also  that  Dr.  Parr  used  to  illustrate  his  attachment  to  rural 
psalmody,  by  "smoking  in  Me  «s/ry  during  the  performance  of  the 
choir"!  Considering  the  character  of  the  publication  in  which  the 
article  appears,  these  remarks  are  somewhat  freely  satirical,  though 
certainly  not  without  foundation  ;  for  I  myself  have  been  in  an  exceed- 
ingly snug  vestry,  where  there  was  a  delightful  blazing  fire,  and  every 
thing  vastly  coiiifortable  indeed,  so  much  so  that  I  should  have  mis- 
taken it  for  the  parson's  own  parlour,  had  not  the  sash  windows  been 
much  higher  up  from  the  floor  than  they  are  in  modern  houses;  which 
certainly  did  not  diminish  the  appearance  of  comfort,  inasmuch  as  it 
aftbrded  comfortable  assurance  that  there  was  no  danger  of  any  one's 
accidentally  peeping  in. 

V.  Whether  I  be  censured  or  not  for  my  last  comment,  the  passage 
which  I  shall  now  quote  from  the  same  writer,  is  so  excellent,  that  I 
shall  be  thanked  for  here  introducing  it. — "  Mere  novelty  is  not  origin- 

■  ality.  Many  things  have  never  been  done  ;  some  things  have  never 
been  thought  of,  simply  because  they  are  unnatural  and  out  of  the  way. 
True  origmality  is  a  power  of  invention  or  discovery ;  but  whether 
employed  in  the  regions  of  science  or  of  poetry,"  for  of  art)  "  it  only 
discovers  or  invents  what  is,  in  some  sense,  natural  and  true.  It  does 
not  so  much  make  new  ideas,  asjiiid  what  have  escaped  the  minds  of 
others.  It  conceives  ideas  which  strike  us  at  once  as  having  a  sort  of 
self-evident  propriety  and  beauty.  Its  creations  are  at  the  same  time 
like  and  unlike  what  we  know  already, — like,  in  that  they  accord  with 
our  existent  taste  and  notions ; — unlike,  in  that  they  seem  each  to  have 
an  individual  essence." — This  last  expression,  indeed,  is  not  altogether 
a  happy  one :  perhaps  it  would  be  better  to  say — unlike,  in  that  some 
new  modification  is  presented  to  us,  for  which  there  is  no  actual  pre- 
cedent, but  which  recommends  itself  so  strongly,  and  withal  appears 
so  obvious  that  we  wonder  no  one  should  have  hit  upon  it  before. 

VI.  Shall  I  venture  to  quote  another  observation  from  the  same 
source?  Yes;  for  what  the  writer  says  in  regard  to  the  notion  of 
Grecian  architecture  requiring  greater  attention  to  study  and  rules 
than  Gothic  does,  is  well  worthy  of  attention.  "  There  cannot  be  a 
greater  mistake.  Gothic  architecture  appears  less  formal  and  less  re- 
gular than  its  ancient  rival,  only  because  it  embraces  more  elements  of 
calculation, — because  it  has  more  forms  and  rules  of  art."  True,  most 
true  !  A  person  may  go  through  the  whole  of  Grecian  architecture — 
may  learn  all  the  Five  Orders,  secundum  artem,  in  less  time  than  he 
can  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  varieties  of  Gothic  doors  or 
windows,  or  any  other  single  feature  belonging  to  that  style.  Car- 
penter's Gothic  indeed, — or  even  the  Jemmy-Wyatt  Gothic  is  a  dif- 
ferent matter ; — that  is  regular  enough,  all  done  by  rule  without  any 
study,  and  therefore  regularly  bad,  or  at  least  insipid. 


3  E 


374 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


ON  LONG  AND  SHORT  STROKE  STEAM  ENGINES. 
By  John  Seaward,  C.  E. 

A  ))oinilui-  notion  has  for  a  considerable  timfi  ]);>.st  prevailed,  that  a 
long  stroke  engine  is  much  superior  to  a  short  stroke  engine  ;  and  it 
will  consequently  be  found  lliat  the  practice  of  most,  if  not  all  engineers, 
is  greatly  regulated  by  this  idea.  On  very  careful  consideration,  how- 
ever, it  does  not  appear  that  this  alleged  superiority  can  be  satisfac- 
torily proved.  That  a  long  stroke  engine,  under  certain  circunistancrs, 
may  be  much  more  advantageously  emi)loyed  than  a  sliort  one,  is  un- 
doubtedly true,  but  considering  the  steam  engine  ptr  se,  that  is  without 
reference  to  adventitious  or  extraneous  circumstances,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  show  that  the  former  has  any  advantage  whatever  over  the 
latter. 

For  let  a  careful  comparison  be  made  of  a  long  stroke  engine  with  a 
short  stroke  eneine ;  let  there  be  two  beam  engines  of  thirty  liorses 
power  eacli,  both  equally  well  made,  but  the  one  having  a  stroke  of 
eight  feet,  while  the  stroke  of  the  other  is  only  four  feet,  the  cylinder 
of  the  latter  being  double  the  area  of  that  of  tiie  former  ;  it  being  un- 
derstood that  both  engines  shall  make  the  satjie  number  of  revolutions 
per  minute  ;  tlje  steam  passages  and  valves  to  be  of  the  same  area  and 
capacity ;  and  the  two  engines  in  all  other  respects  to  be  well  propor- 
tioned and  made  without  any  limitation  as  to  space  or  weight. 

Now  as  regards  the  mere  mechanical  effect  of  the  moving  power 
0'.  e.  of  the  steam)  it  is  jjerfectly  clear  that  it  must  be  precisely  the 
same  in  both  engines,  because  the  same  volume  of  steam  must  produce 
the  same  mechanical  effect  whether  it  is  let  into  a  long  narrow  cylinder 
or  into  a  short  wide  one  ;  therefore,  if  there  be  found  any  difference 
ill  the  efficient  duty  or  economical  working  of  these  two  engines,  that 
difference  must  arise  from  circumstances  quite  unconnected  with  the 
mechanical  effect  of  the  steam  power. 

The  only  circumstances  which  really  can  make  any  essential  diffe- 
rence in  the  efficient  duty  or  economical  working  of  these  two  engines 
are  these : — First,  the  greater  or  smaller  quantity  of  friction  in  the 
various  jiarts  of  the  machines.  Second,  the  greater  or  lesser  radiation 
of  heat  from  the  cylinders  and  passages;  third,  the  greater  or  smaller 
loss  of  steam  bv  the  clearance  of  the  piston  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
the  cylinder.  Fourth,  the  inertia  and  the  impulse  of  the  parts  of  the 
machine  in  motion  on  the  surrounding  air. 

First,  then  of  the/iictioii.  It  will  be  found  in  the  working  of  a  well 
made  engine  of  the  proportions  of  the  short  stroke  engine  under  com- 
parison, that  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  whole  friction  are  due  to  the 
packings  of  the  piston  and  air  pump  bucket,  and  of  the  piston  rod  and 
bucket  rod,*  and  less  than  one-fifth  to  the  main  gudgeons,  the  end 
gudgeons,  the  crank  pin  and  other  moving  joints  about  the  engine. 
But  the  friction  of  the  piston  packing  will  vary  as  the  circumference 
of  the  piston,  multiplied  into  the  distance  which  the  piston  travels. 
Now  in  the  long  stroke  engine  the  piston  supposing  it  to  be  30  inches 
diameter,  will  move  eight  feet,  and  the  friction  of  the  packing  be 
therefore  as  24,  while  in  the  short  stroke  engine  the  piston  will  be 
about  42-4  inches  diameter,  will  move  only  four  feet,  while  the  friction 
of  the  jiacking  will  be  only  as  17.  In  the  same  way  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  friction  caused  by  the  packing  of  the  air  pump  bucket,  of  the 
piston  rod,  and  of  the  bucket  rod,  is  also  respectively  in  the  ratio  of 
24  to  17,  in  the  two  engines.  With  respect  again  to  the  friction  due 
to  the  main  and  end  gudgeons,  cSrc,  it  is  clear  that  it  will  be  less  in  the 
long  stroke  engine,  because  in  the  latter  engine,  the  force  acting  upon 
these  parts  will  be  one-half  what  it  is  in  the  short  stroke  engine.  As- 
suming therefore  lUO  to  be  the  whole  quantity  of  friction  in  an  ordinary 
engine  then,  SO  of  these  parts  in  the  short  stroke  engine,  will  be  due 
to  the  piston,  air  |iunip,  bucket,  &c.,  while  in  the  long  stroke  engines 
the  friction  of  these  parts  will  be  as  1 13  that  is  =  f^  X  SO,  but  the 
friclion  on  the  main  and  end  gudgeons  in  the  former  engines  will  be  as 
20,  and  in  the  latter  only  10,  making  the  total  friction  in  the  short 
stroke  engine  100,  and  in  the  long  stroke  engines  123,  or  one-fourth 
more. 

Second. — The  radiation  of  hat  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  surface,  but  the  surface  of  the  long  stroke  cylinder,  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  short  cylinder,  whence  it  follows  that  the  loss  by  radia- 
tion in  the  former,  must  be  greater  than  in  the  latter. 

Third. — The  cliuruvce  (if  the  pinton  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
cylinder,  which  will  evidently  be  greater  in  the  short  stroke  engine 
than  in  the  long  stroke  engine.  Because  the  area  of  piston  in  the 
former  is  double  that  of  the  latter,  some  persons  would  be  disposed  to 
say,  that  the  loss  by  clearance  in  the  former  must  be  double  what  it  is 
in  the  latter  ;  but  this  is  not  quite  certain,  for  it  is  not  required  to  give 
so  much  clearance  in  a  4  feet  stroke  cylinder  as  it  would  be  advisable 

'llic  friction  of  the  slide  is  nut  included,  as  that  «ill  obviously  be  the 
same  in  both  engines.    .See  remarkb  on  Friction  at  the  end. 


to  give  in  an  8  feet  stroke  cylinder,  the  reason  of  which  is  obviously 
that  the  spring  and  elasticity  of  the  parts  in  the  long  stroke  engine, 
must  be  much  greater  than  in  the  short  stroke  engine,  and  that  they 
must  therefore  require  more  clearance.  However,  it  is  probable  that 
there  would  be  more  loss  in  the  latter  engine  than  in  the  former. 

The  loss  of  steam  by  filling  the  passages  and  nozzles,  as  also  by  the 
radiation  of  heat  from  those  parts,  must  evidently  be  the  same  in  both 
engines. 

Fourth. — The  inertia  and  impulse  of  the  muring  parts  on  the  sur- 
rounding air.  The  loss  in  a  steam  engine  occasioned  by  tliese  two 
causes  may  not  be  very  considerable ;  indeed  as  regards  what  is  called 
tlie  inertia  of  matter  in  the  moving  parts,  it  is  doubtful  wliether  any 
such  source  of  loss  really  exists;  however  if  it  does  exist,  it  is  clear 
that  the  amount  of  loss  must  vary  in  proportion  to  the  momenta  of  those 
jjarts  of  the  machine  which  are  in  motion,  but  as  the  momenta  must  be 
as  the  mass  of  matter  in  motion  mnlti|)lied  by  the  velocity,  and  as 
these  are  evidently  much  greater  in  the  long  stroke  than  in  the  short 
stroke  engines,  (because  the  parts  in  the  former,  are  if  any  thing,  of 
greater  weight  than  in  the  latter,  and  also  move  at  a  double  velocity,) 
it  follows  that  whatever  loss  may  arise  from  the  inertia,  must  be  much 
greater  (double  0  ill  the  long  stroke  engine  than  in  the  short  stroke 
engine.  With  regard  to  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  impulse  of  the 
moving  parts  on  the  air ;  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  very  slow  motions 
it  cannot  he  very  important ;  nevertheless  with  a  material  increase  of 
velocity  this  source  of  loss  becomes  serious  ;  it  varies  as  the  extent  of 
surface  of  the  moving  parts  multiplied  into  the  square  of  the  velocity; 
It  is  tolerably  manifest  however  that  the  surface  of  the  moving  parts 
in  the  long  stroke  engine,  will  be,  if  any  thing,  greater  than  in  the  short 
stroke  engine,  and  that  the  velocity  oi' the  former  will  be  twice  that  of 
the  latter;  therefore  the  loss  by  impulse  on  the  air  in  the  long  stroke 
engine,  must  be  four  times  that  in  the  shoit  stroke  engine. 

Beside  the  foregoing  causes,  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  are  any 
others  that  can  produce  any  material  difference  in  the  efficient  duty 
or  economical  working  of  a  steam  engine  ;  at  least  none  that  can  in  any 
way  influence  the  question  now  under  consideration.  In  estimating 
therefore,  the  advantages  of  the  short  and  long  stroke  engines,  we 
have  in  favour  of  the  former  a  diminution  of  loss  occasioned  by  fric- 
tion, by  radiation,  by  inertia,  and  by  impulse  on  the  air;  while  on  the 
other  hand,  we  have  in  favour  of  the  long  stroke  engines,  a  diminution 
of  loss  in  the  clearance  of  the  piston  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
cylinder.  It  may  be  difficult  to  strike  an  exact  balance  between  these 
several  sources  of  loss;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  a  steam  en- 
gine the  loss  by  friction  is  much  greater  than  the  loss  by  all  the  other 
causes  before  mentioned  put  together;  and  it  is  past  dispute  that  the 
balance  of  loss  as  regards  these  causes,  is  decidedly  against  the  long 
stroke  engine.  (The  advantages  offered  by  the  short  stroke  engine 
as  regards  diminution  of  space  ami  weight,  although  of  vast  importance, 
are  not  here  adverted  to,  because  they  form  no  part  of  the  immediate 
inquiry.) 

It  may  be  objected  that  to  select  an  engine  with  an  8  feet  stroke 
and  a  cylinder  of  only  22  feet  diameter  for  comparison,  is  not  a  fair 
proceeding,  because  an  engine  of  such  proportions  is  unusual ;  and  it 
may  be  also  asked  whether,  if  the  principle  is  further  extended  by 
making  the  stroke  only  2  feet,  and  again  doubling  the  area  of  the  pis- 
ton, wliether  the  advantage  would  still  be  in  favour  of  the  short  stroke 
engine? 

To  this  it  may  be  answered  that  although  an  engine  of  8  feet  stroke 
and  22  feet  diameter  of  cylinder,  may  be  unusual  in  this  country,  it  is 
not  so  in  America;  in  that  part  of  the  world,  many  engines  are  em- 
ployed of  very  nearly  the  above  proportions,  for  purposes  of  steam 
navigation ;  and  in  which  engines  it  is  not  unusual  for  the  piston  to 
travel  at  the  rate  of  300  or  400  feet  per  minute.  Again,  as  regards 
the  carrying  out  of  the  principle  by  still  farther  reducing  the  length  of 
stroke,  say  to  two  feet,  and  increasing  the  diameter  of  cylinder  pro- 
])ortionately,  say  to  5  feet*  there  is  no  doubt  whatever  that  such  an 
engine  would  have  precisely  the  same  mechanical  effect  as  either  of 
the  other  two ;  but  the  balance  of  advantages  would  be  against  an  en- 
gine of  such  proportions;  because  it  would  be  verging  to  an  extreme 
on  one  side  as  much  as  the  8  feet  stroke  engine  may  be  thought  ex- 
treme on  the  other  side.  It  may,  however,  be  safely  affirmed  that  the 
principle  applies  most  powerfully  to  the  case  where  the  diameter  of 
cylinder  is  the  same  as  the  length  of  stroke  ;  because  in  that  case  the 
proportions  are  most  favourable  for  the  diminution  of  friction  and  of 
radiation,  and  offer- the  minimum  of  disadvantage  under  the  several 
heads  of  loss  above  enumerated. 

As  it. is  manifest,  therefore,  that  in  all  particulars  which  more  im- 
mediately affect  the  beneficial  employment  or  working  of  a  steam  en- 
gine, the  long  stroke  has  no  manifest  superiority  over  the  short  stroke; 
it  may  appear  strange  that  so  decided  a  preference  should  have 
hitherto  been  given  to  the  former  by  the  generality  of  engineers.. 


1840.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


37.5 


Perhaps  this  is  chieHy  to  be  attributed  to  the  circumstance  of  the  long 
stroke  offering  on  most  occasions  greater  convenience  than  a  short 
stroke.  Much  may  be  due  also  to  fashion.  The  earliest  application 
of  steam  power  was  for  the  purpose  of  pumping  water  in  the  course 
of  mining  operations,  and  in  this  sort  of  work  a  good  long  stroke  was 
found  to  be  attended  with  considerable  convenience  and  advantage. 
In  blast  engines,  and  many  other  of  the  earlier  applications  of  steam 
power,  the  same  result  was  manifest;  the  earlier  habits  and  ideas  of 
engineers  were  therefore  naturally  associated  with  long  stroke  engines. 
Moreover,  the  earlier  manufacturers  of  steam  engines  had  neither 
good  machinery  nor  good  workmen;  they  could  neither  depend  upon 
the  correctness  of  their  proportions,  nor  upon  the  exactness  of  the 
workmanship ;  besides,  timber  and  other  inefficient  materials  were 
formerlv  employed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  construction  of  en- 
gines; from  all  which  causes  imperfections  and  irregidarities  were 
numerous  in  the  earlier  engines,  and  they  were  consequently  very  in- 
efficient. As  all  these  sonrces  of  imperfection  and  inefficiency  operated 
much  more  extensively  against  short  stroke  engines  than  against  long, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  the  latter  soon  obtained  a  preference,  and  that 
the  prejudice  should  still  continue  to  exist,  notwithstanding  the  same 
causes  are  no  longer  in  operation.  At  the  present  day,  with  our  good 
materials  and  workmanship,  exact  proportions  and  adjustments,  a  short 
stroke  engine  will  be  found  to  work  as  accurately  and  as  perfectly  as  a 
long  stroke  engine. 

There  is  one  very  important  circumstance  to  be  kept  in  view  as  re- 
gards long  and  short  stroke  engines;  which  is,  that  whenever  an  en- 
gine of  the  latter  description  has  hitherto  been  made,  it  has  always 
been  considered  necessary  to  keep  the  cylinder  nearly  of  the  same 
diameter,  as  in  the  long  stroke  engine,  and  to  cause  the  engine  to  make 
a  greater  number  of  revolutions  in  proportion  to  the  shortness  of  the 
stroke,  so  that  the  piston  in  every  case  might  travel  at  a  nearly  uniform 
speed  of  about  200  feet  per  minute.  Now,  to  a  short  stroke  engine, 
made  on  this  plan,  there  may  undoubtedly  be  many  objections.  The 
more  frequent  alteination  of  the  stroke — the  greater  loss  of  steam  by 
the  more  frequent  filling  of  the  passages  and  nozzles,  and  the  clearance 
at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  cylinder — the  much  greater  angular  mo- 
tion of  all  the  bearings  and  moving  joints,  thereby  materially  increasing 
friction  and  wear — are  all  circumstances  tending  to  lessen  the  efficiency 
of  a  sliort  stroke  engine  made  iqionthis  plan.  It  is  clear  however  that 
an  engine  made  upon  the  principle,  herein  before  laid  down,  is  not 
open  to  the  same  objections. 

And,  as  regard  the  speed  of  the  piston  in  engines,  whatever  may  be 
the  length  of  stroke,  being  regulated  to  the  uniform  standard  of  about 
200  feet  per  minute,  there  can  be  no  valid  reasons  given  for  such  rule  ; 
no  one  can  prove  that  double  the  above  speed,  or  onlv  one-half  that 
speed,  might  not  be  employed  with  equal  or  greater  advantage ;  it  is 
certain  that  in  many  steam  engines  of  the  transatlantic  world  the  pis- 
tons move  at  a  speed  of  30'>,  tOO,  and  even  as  much  as  .500  feet  per 
minute,  and  no  substantial  reason  can  be  alleged  why  such  engines 
should  not  do  good  duty  ;  indeed  it  may  be  safely  affirmed,  that  whether 
the  speed  of  an  engine  be  100  feet,  ioO  feet,  or  300  feet  per  minute, 
it  matters  nothing;  provided  all  the  parts  of  the  engines  are  well  pro- 
portioned for  the  pi'oposed  speed,  the  efficient  duty  and  economical 
use  of  the  engine  will  be  much  the  same:  keejnng  this  always  in 
mind,  that  the  sloic  speed  mill  be  more  favourable  for  the  easy  and  plea- 
sant working  of  the  engine,  and  for  durability. 

This  question  may  however  be  asked — Since  it  is  shown  that  the 
long  stroke  has  no  superiority  over  a  short  stroke,  but  on  the  contrary 
that  the  balance  of  advantage  is  rather  in  favour  of  the  latter,  is  it  in- 
tended to  recommend  the  invariable  adoption  of  a  short  stioke  engine 
to  the  total  exclusion  of  a  long  stroke  '.  By  no  means.  All  that  is 
contended  for  is,  that  in  every  case  a  length  of  stroke  should  be  adopted 
whether  long  or  short  that  shall  prove  to  be  most  convenient,  and  best 
adapted  to  the  object  for  which  the  engines  are  to  be  employed  ;  and 
that  an  engineer  should  not  be  fettered  and«ramped  by  any  fallacious 
abstract  notions,  that  what  is  termed  a  long  stroke  engine  must  neces- 
sarily be  more  efficient  than  an  engine  with  a  short  stroke ;  and  that 
he  should  not  therefore  be  obliged  to  sacrifice  many  other  far  more 
important  considerations,  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  in  every  case  the 
longest  possible  stroke. 

The  application  of  steam  power  fur  the  purpose  of  navigation  has 
had  such  wonderful  results,  the  character  of  the  steam  engine  has  be- 
come so  greatly  changed,  and  the  proportions  so  altered,  that  a  marine 
engine  of  the  present  day,  and  a  land  engine  of  former  times  can 
scarcely  be  recognised  as  belonging  to  the  same  class  of  machines. 
The  length  of  stroke  of  marine  engines  is  probably  not  more  than  half 
what  used  formerly  to  be  given  to  engines  of  similar  power  for  mining 
and  manufacturing  purposes,  but  still  no  one  can  say  that  this  departure 
from  old  rules  and  maxims  has  been  attended  with  any  disadvantage ; 
on  the  contrary,  it  can  be  shown  to  have  been  most  beneficial  and 


glorious  in  its  results;  and  if  a  slill  further  departure  from  old  estab- 
lished notions  can  be  proved  advantageous  for  steam  navigation,  we 
can  have  no  reason  whatever  to  regret  die  change. 

There  is  no  question  that  the  ordinary  beam  engine  as  employed  in 
steam  vessels  has  proved  most  efficient,  and  that  in  its  application  it 
has  been  productive  of  vast  benefit.  If  however,  by  a  modification  of 
the  existing  steam  engines,  these  benefits  can  be  still  further  augment- 
ed, and  that  in  an  eminent  degree,  no  consideration  ought  to  stand  in 
the  way  of  the  proposed  improvements.  The  great  and  paramount 
objects  to  be  aimed  at  in  the  construction  of  steam  engines  for  navi- 
gation are  the  following,  viz.,  the  greatest  saving  of  fuel,  the  greatest 
saving  of  space,  the  greatest  saving  of  weight,  and  the  greatest  dura- 
bility of  the  machinery.  The  more  eminently  the  marine  engine  shall 
combine  the  above  important  qualities,  the  more  nearly  will  it  have 
arrived  at  perfection  ;  and  much  as  may  be  advanced  in  favour  of  the 
beam  engines  generally  used  for  marine  purposes,  it  cannot  be  con- 
sidered presumptuous  to  declare  that  the  system  of  engines  employed 
in  the  "Cyclops"  and  "Gorgon"  Fiigates  is  far  superior  in  all  the 
qualities  before  enumerated. 

It  only  remains  to  be  stated,  that  the  real  question  is,  not  whether 
the  stroke  of  an  engine  shall  be  8  feet  or  4  feet;' but  relates  to  a  dif- 
ference of  stroke,  of  probably  from  7  feet  to  G  feet:  that  is,  whether 
the  reducing  of  the  stroke  of  a  200  horse  engine  one  fool,  with  a  pro- 
portionate increase  of  diameter  in  the  cylinder,  can  be  attended  with 
such  injury  and  inefficiency  as  shall  wholly  neutralise  or  outweigh  all* 
the  important  advantages  of  the  Gorgon  Engines. 

In  conclusion,  it  should  be  observed  that  as  regards  the  ordinary 
beam  engines,  there  are  many  circumstances  of  convenience  wdiicli 
render  it  advisable  to  make  the  stroke  as  long  as  practicable,  i.  e.,  the 
adopting  a  tall  nan-ow  cylinder  instead  of  a  short  and  wide  cylinder; 
for  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ordinary  beam  engine  for  marine  pur- 
poses, it  is  evident  that  a  considerable  space  lengthways  is  required 
for  conveniently  placing  the  slide  jackets  and  passages,  the  condenser, 
the  hot-well,  and  the  air  pump ;  this  necessarily  causes  a  great  elonga- 
tion of  the  side  levers  or  beams;  there  is  therefore  much  local  con- 
venience in  making  the  stroke  long,  and  thereby  having  a  tall  narrow 
cylinder  instead  of  a  short  wide  cylinder,  less  strain  is  thrown  upon 
the  beams ;  the  beams  become  more  close  and  compact,  and  afford 
more  space  for  a  passage  between  and  on  the  off-sides  of  the  pair  of 
engines:  the  cross-heads  and  fork -heads  become  shorter,  and  have 
much  less  strain  thrown  upon  them  ;  these  are  all  very  important  con- 
siderations which  clearly  indicate  the  convenience  and  possible  advan- 
tage of  having  as  long  a  stroke  as  possible  in  the  ordinary  beam  engine. 
But  in  the  Gorgon  Engine  none  of  these  considerations  have  any  in- 
fluence whatever ;  here  there  are  neither  beams  nor  cross  heads  ;  we 
can  increase  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder  to  almost  any  extent  without 
any  local  inconvenience  whatever. 

We  shall  conclude  these  observations  with  the  remark,  that  as  it 
cannot  be  proved  that  there  is  any  superiority  in  a  long  stroke  engine, 
over  a  short  stroke  engine,  and  as  it  is  also  evident  that  there  is  no 
disadvantage  whatever  in  employing  a  short  connecting  rod,  it  is  there- 
fore clear  that  the  two  objections  are  decidedly  absurd  and  ground- 
less. 

Ok  the  Friction  i.\  Steam  Exgink. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  offered  an  investigation  of  the  com- 
parative merits  of  the  Gorgon,  and  of  the  common  beam  engine;  in 
the  course  of  our  reuiarks  it  became  necessary  to  advert  to  the  im- 
portant subject  of  friction;  it  will  not  therefore  be  deemed  misplaced 
to  add  a  few  general  remarks  upon  the  nature  of  the  friction,  vpliich 
occurs  in  a  steam  engine  of  the  usual  construction. 

To  attempt  anything  like  a  correct  estimate  of  the  absolute  quantity 
of  friction  in  an  engine,  would  we  conceive  be  very  fallacious,  because 
there  are  so  many  circumstances  which  affect  the  quantity  of  friction, 
which  are  quite  bevond  the  reach  of  calculation;  as  for  example,  the 
uncertain  degree  of  tightness  to  which  the  several  bearings  or  pack- 
ing may  be  screwed  down — the  state  of  the  rubbing  surfaces,  as  to 
smoothness,  polish  or  roughness — the  perfect  or  imperfect  state  of  the 
lubrication,  Xrc,  all  of  which  are  circumstances  which  have  a  vast  in- 
fluence on  the  quantity  of  friction  in  a  steam  engine.  From  observa- 
tions which  the  writer  has  made  he  is  induced  to  believe,  that  in  a  well 
made  engine,  in  good  working  condition,  the  total  amount  of  friction 
does  not  exceed  five  or  six  per  cent,  on  the  whole  power  of  the  engine ; 
but  that  with  no  very  great  change  of  circumstances  this  quantity  may 
be  increased  readily  to  as  much  as  10  or  12  per  cent. 

It  happens  however  that  in  the  preceding  investigation,  the  con- 
sideration of  the  absolute  quantity  of  friction  in  the  engiue,  is  not  re- 
quired ;  all  that  is  wanted  is  on  estimation  of  the  relative  proportions 
of  friction  which  are  due  to  tL>  several  parts  of  the  engines;  now  this 

3  E  2 


376 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


sort  of  estinialion  is  not  very  diflicult,  at  all  events  we  can  arrive  at  an 
approximation  siiHiciently  near  fur  practical  pnrposes. 

For,  if  we  assume  tliat  all  the  moving  or  nibbing  surfaces  through- 
out the  engine  are  equally  smooth,  that  all  the  packings  and  bearings 
are  unifiirnily  secured  down,  that  all  parts  are  well  lubricated ;  then 
the  comparative  quantity  of  friction  in  the  several  parts  will  be,  as  the 
area  of  one  of  the  rubbing  surfaces,  multiplied  into  the  distance  which 
it  moves  up  on  the  other  rubbing  surface. 

We  obtain  tluis  the  following  rules  ;— 

1.  For  the  relative  quantity  of  friction  due  to  the  piston,  multiply 
the  circumference  of  the  piston  by  the  depth  of  the  packing,  and  by 
the  distance  which  the  piston  moves  up  and  down  in  the  cylinder. 

2.  For  the  friction  of  the  main  shaft  bearings,  multiply  the  square 
of  the  circumference  by  the  length  of  the  bearing. 

3.  For  the  friction  of  those  bearings  which  do  not  revolve  entirely 
round,  but  oscillate  backwards  and  forwards,  as  the  beam,  gudgeons, 
&c.,  multiply  the  area  of  the  bearing  into  the  angular  distance  moved 
backwards  and  forwards  during  one  revolution  of  the  engine,  Sec. 

4.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  when  one  of  the  two  rubbing 
surfaces  is  hemp  packing,  the  amount  of  friction  will  be  at  least  double 
what  it  will  be  when  botli  surfaces  are  metal. 

5.  Furthermore,  there  are  certain  bearings  which  receive  the  direct 
strain  of  the  engine,  while  others  do  not.  The  following  receive  the 
direct  strain,  viz. ;  the  crank  pin,  the  fork  head  gudgeons,  the  main 
gudgeons,  the  upper  and  lower  bearings  of  the  side  rods ;  now  the 
quantity  of  friction  upon  these  several  bearings  will  be  considerably 
more  than  that  which  is  simply  due  to  the  tightening  down  of  the 
bearings,  as  before  assumed  ;  it  is  difficult  to  say  what  may  be  the  in- 
crease of  the  friction  from  this  cause,  but  it  will  be  safe  to  assume  that 
the  friction  on  these  bearings  will  be  three  times  greater  than  what  is 
due  to  the  other  bearings. 

Upon  the  foregoing  principles  therefore,  is  calculated  the  following 
table  of  the  comparative  friction  of  the  different  parts  of  an  engine, 
having  a  40-inch  cylinder,  a  3i-feet  stroke,  and  furnished  with  the 
common  D  slide. 

Table  of  Comparative  Friction  of  the  moving  parts  of  a  Steam  Engine. 
Piston,  with  lieinp  packing   4   in.   deep, 


2 

(rule  4 

) 

120 

.',  in.  circuui.  "| 

4 

84 

in.  deep.      J- 
in.  dist.       J 

2 

13 

m 

circum.    T 

4J 

84 

in 

in 

deep.        \ 
dist.         J 

2 

82 

in 

cncimi. 

3 

42 

in 
in 

deep 
dist. 

2 

8 

in 

circum.    1 

3; 

42 

in 
in 

deep         I 
dist.         J 

2-2 

12 

in. 

circum. 

3 
42 

in. 
in. 

deep 
dist. 

15 

in. 

wide        "] 

8 

in. 

2    faces 

14 

hi. 

deep  f 
dist.        J 

2 

24 

in. 

eircnin.    I 

12 
14 

in. 
in. 

deep         y 
dist.         J 

2 

4.'. 

in. 

circum.    l 

2A 
14 

m. 
in. 

deep         \ 
dist.        J 

2 

25 

m. 

circum.    ] 

9 
25 

in. 
in. 

length      V 
dist.         J 

84-33G 


niovinc;  a  distance  of  84  in. 


„  „,„  J  Pis'""   i"''-  hemp  packing  44  in.   deep, 
■^      moving  84  in. 


,,..nfn\  Air  pump  bucket,  hemp  packing  3  in. 
•1       deep,  and  moving  42  in. 


o.-tro\  Bucket  rod,  henlp  packed  3a  in.  deep. 


■\ 


moving  42  in 


P  „,„  J  Two  plunger  poles,  with 
I      3  in.  deep,  moving  42  i 


th  hemp  packing 


10-059 


Flat  face 
1-680 


The  slide  face  metal   and 

metal  liack  hemp  packed. 

Back,  hemp  j-     G   in.   at  top,   G   in.  at 


8-064 


Slide  rod 
315 


bottom,    moving    7    in. 
each  wav. 


U-250|^'-^ 


main  shaft  bearings  moving  en- 
round  metal  and  metal. 


18     in.  circiuii. 
9     in.  deep 
18     in.  dist. 

:■.  (rule  5) 


2,208.)  The  hearing  at  outer  end  of  paddle  shaft 


lo.V  in.  circum.  1  ff^      i       ■              ■            i-    i              i 

^  .     ,  I  i.nni     Crank  pin,   moving  entirely  round 

C  in.  long  >  i-62i<             .K    ' ,,     ,.    ".    ,    .    •^., 

fi  ■     d"  t  I  I      recemng  the  direct  strain  of  the  en 


and 
gine. 


3-2— 

10 

in 

circum. 

3,V 

2i 

in. 
in. 

long 
dist. 

3-2— 

10 

in 

circum. 

3J 
2i 

m 
in. 

long 

dist. 

■i-2— 

18  in.  circmu. 

7  in.  long 

9  in.  dist. 


{The  two  fork  liead  joints  moving  at  an 
angle  of  45"  each  way,  but  receiving 
the  direct  stain  of  the  engine. 


side  rods  same  as 


fi-804  J  The  two  main  gudgeousreceiving  the  strain 
I      of  the  engines  and  moving  90°  each  way. 


45     in.  circum. 

13}  in.  deep         ^   3-543  <j  Eccentric  ring  moving  quite  round. 

45     in.  dist. 


1000     Sundry  small  joints. 


163  123 


Therefore,  if  it  be  assumed  that  the  total  quantity  of  friction  in  a 
steam  engine  is  as  103-123,  then  will  the  relative  quantity  of  friction 
in  the  several  parts  be  nearly  as  is  represented  by  the  numbers  in  the 
preceding  table. 


ON  THE  THEORY  OF  TOLLS  UPON  CANALS  AND 
RAILWAYS. 

.Sir — As  I  am  aware  that  Mr.  Ellett's  remarks  on  Canal  and  Railway 
Tolls,  extracted  in  your  Journal  for  September,  have  attracted  some 
attention,  and  have  been  received  as  sound  and  judicious  principles  by 
some  persons,  who  are  in  a  position  which  enables  them  to  carry  out 
these  principles  into  practical  operation,  I  beg  to  offer  a  few  observa- 
tions, with  the  view  of  pointing  out  what  I  conceive  to  be  erroneous  in 
Mr.  Ellett's  statement. 

Mr.  Ellett's  object  is,  so  to  regulate  the  charge  of  toll  upon  a  canal 
or  railway,  as  that  every  part  of  the  country  through  which  the  line 
passes,  near  or  remote,  may  derive  from  the  improved  mode  of  con- 
veyance the  same  advantage,  an  equal  share  ,of  trade.  And  he  con- 
tends that  this  cannot  be  effected  by  the  system  of  tolls  that  generally 
prevails,  namely,  a  fixed  mileage,  or  a  certain  rate  per  ton  per  mile  ; 
and  he  therefore  recommends  the  adoption  of  the  directly  opposite 
method,  viz.,  that  the  lowest  charge  should  be  levied  on  the  trade  that 
is  brought  from  the  greatest  distance,  and  increasing  grathially  as  we 
approach  nearer  to  the  mart  or  place  of  consumption,  tTiat  the  heaviest 
toll  should  be  charged  on  that  which  comes  the  shortest  distance.  And 
Mr.  Ellett  then  proceeds  to  show  that  this  plan  would  produce  the 
largest  trade,  (that  is,  would  command  the  largest  extent  of  country,) 
and  the  greatest  amount  of  revenue. 

Now  all  Mr.  Ellett's  argument  depends  upon  one  little  i\ssumption,- 
whicli  he  quietly  introduces,  without  remark  or  explanation,  quite  un- 
conscious that  it  contains  the  grossest  fallacy.  The  market  price  of 
any  commodity  at  the  pla^e  of  consumption  may  be  said  to  be  fixed, 
(for  our  present  purpose,)  and,  in  order  to  obtain  a  sale  for  this  com- 
modity brought  by  the  canal  or  railway,  the  cost  of  production  and  the 
expense  of  conveyance  must  not  exceed  the  fixed  market  price.  Mr. 
Ellett  takes  for  granted  that  the  cost  of  production  is  fixeil  also,  and  on 
this  rests  the  whole  theory  of  tolls.  "  Let  us  also  assume  that  the  cost 
of  producing  this  article  (lumber)  is  G  dollars  per  ton,"  and  the  market 
price  being  fixed  (10  dollars,)  he  consequently  assumes  that  the  ex- 
treme cost  of  carriage  which  the  article  can  bear,  so  as  to  be  sold  in  . 
the  market,  is  fixed  too,  that  it  must  not  exceed  4  dollars,  in  the  in- 
stance given.  But  lie  assumes  also,  and  it  follows  in  like  manner  from  . 
the  preceding  assumption,  that  the  cost  of  production  is  fxed,  that  the 
article  can  always  bear  this  fixed  charge  of  4  dollars,  that  whether  the 
commodity  be  brought  from  near  or  far,  whether  it  is  carried  100  or 
400  miles,'  it  can  always  bear  the  full  charge  of  4  dollars  for  carriage, 
•and  cannot,  in  any  case,  afford  more.     And  on  this  assumption  Mr. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


377 


EUett  builils  his  theory, — that  as  the  cost  of  carriage  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  actual  expense  of  conveyance,  including  the  maintenance  of 
the  canal  or  railway,  called  the  freight,  and  the  profit  of  the  canal  pro- 
prietors, called  loll ;  and  as  the  freight  must  necessarily  be  directly 
proportional  to  the  distance,  the  toll  (their  simi  being  fixed)  should  be 
inversely  proportioned  thereto. 

Even  were  this  principle  correct  in  theory,  it  would  in  practice  be 
exceedingly  unjust,  and  therefore  injurious.  For  nothing  can  be  more 
unreasonable  tlian  that  the  trade  wiiich  passes  along  the  canal  but  50 
miles,  should  pay  three  times  as  much  toll  as  that  which  comes  150 
miles,  thus  paving  actually  nine  timts  its  due  proportion.  Let  it  be 
observed  also  that  Mr.  EUett's  system  is  one  that  can  be  fully  carried 
out  only  on  such  a  canal  or  railway,  as  has  to  sustain  no  competition 
with  common  roads.  On  the  latter  the  charges  of  conveyance  will 
always  be  directly  proportioned  to  the  distance,  and  being  lowest  for 
the  nearest  parts,  will  of  course  successfully  compete  with  the  canal 
or  railway,  whose  toll  is  here  the  highest.  The  maximum  charge  for 
conveyance  being  4  dollars,  and  supposing  with  Mr.  EUett  that  land 
carriage  is  five-fold  more  expensive  than  by  the  "improvement,"  it 
will,  according  to  the  scale  given  by  him,  be  cheaper  than  the  canal 
for  the  first  -10  miles,  (one-tenth  of  its  whole  length,)  and  from  so  much 
of  the  country,  therefore  the  canal  will  derive  no  trade.  With  us  the 
proportion  of  the  cost  of  land  and  canal  carriage  is  much  nearer,  per- 
haps greater  than  two  to  one  ;  and  the  portion  of  the  country  com- 
manded by  the  superior  cheapness  of  laud  carriage,  under  Mr.  EUett's 
system  of  tolls,  will  be  proportionately  larger.  Wherever  there  is  the 
competition  of  another  conveyance,  on  which  the  charges  are  made 
according  to  the  distance,  the  inverse  system  of  toll  will  be  impracti- 
cable. 

Leaving,  therefore,  for  the  present,  the  practical  objections  to  Mr. 
EUett's  proposed  system,  I  turn  again  to  that  which  forms  the  basis  of 
his  whole  theory,  and  wdiich  I  conceive  to  be  a  most  fallacious  as- 
sumption. I  am  indeed  surprised  that  any  one  writing  upon  such  a 
subject,  who  ought  to  have  some  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of 
Political  Economy,  should  hazard,  or  should  carelessly  make,  an  as- 
sumption so  opposed  to  the  mere  elements  of  that  science,  as  well  as 
to  ordinary  experience.  So  far  from  the  cost  of  production  of  any  arti- 
cle being  a  fixed  sum,  throughout  an  extensive  district  of  country,  it 
is  dependent  upon,  and  varies  exceedingly  with,  a  great  many  circum- 
stances. Every  one  knows  that  there  is  a  difference  of  prices  in  many 
markets  throughout  the  kingdom,  and  the  price  at  the  place  of  produc- 
tion is,  generally,  the  actual  cost  of  production,  added  to  the  usual 
profits.  For  reasons  which  will  be  noticed  hereafter,  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction, and  consequently,  prices  differ  less  in  an  improved  country 
like  England,  than  in  one  possessed  of  fewer  artificial  advantages,  such 
as  America  or  Ireland.  But  the  fact  is  notorious  to  every  one,  that 
differences  do  exist  in  the  expenses  of  production,  at  different  places, 
of  commodities  of  the  same  quality,  and  of  equal  value  at  the  place  of 
consumption. 

The  cost  of  production  is  made  up  chiefly  of  rent,  the  wages  of 
labour,  and  the  profits  of  the  producer,  (and,  in  manufactures,  of  the 
price  of  the  raw  material.)  Rent  is  well  known  to  vary  exceedingly 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  even  for  lands  of  the  same  kind,  and 
equal  fertility.  JVages  differ  too,  not  oiUy  between  the  manufacturing 
and  agricultural  districts,  but  also  between  different  districts  engaged 
in  the  same  occupations.  Profits  differ  likewise,  but  being  nearly  in  a 
fixed  proportion  to  the  total  cost,  they  need  not  be  considered  sepa- 
rately. As,  then,  the  component  parts  of  the  cost  of  production  thus 
vary  throughout  the  country,  their  sum,  the  total  cost,  cannot  be  said 
to  be  fixed.  Yet  Mr.  EUett  seems  to  have  forgotten  these  facts,  pal- 
pable as  they  are  to  eveiy  man's  observation. 

There  are,  however,  certain  articles  whose  value  is  very  small,  and 
the  cost  of  production  of  which  consists  merely  of  the  wages  of  the 
labour  employed  upon  it ;  and  this  labour  being  of  the  coarsest  kind, 
its  wages  vary  but  little.  Of  such  commodities  the  expense  of  pro- 
duction cannot  differ  much,  and  may  be  said  to  be  fixed.  Such  are 
stone,  lime,  and,  in  a  wooded  country  like  America,  timber,  and  per- 
haps coal,  ores,  &c.  It  is  to  such  products  Mr.  EUett  chiefly  applies 
his  theory,  but  he  does  not  confine  it  to  them.  He  intimates  that  some 
other  principles  come  into  operation  with  reference  to  the  more  value- 
able  articles  of  trade.  But  as  I  have  not  seen  his  observation  on  that 
part  of  the  subject,  and  as  it  appears  to  me  that  his  principle,  if  cor- 
rect, must  be  equally  applicable  to  every  branch  of  trade,  and  as  I  know 
that  it  has  been  so  interpreted  and  applied  by  some  of  his  readers,  I 
have  discussed  the  subject  generaUy,  endeavouring  to  refute  the  theory 
in  its  application  to  either  division  of  canal  trade.  In  certain  cases, 
then,  it  would  appear  that  Mr.  EUett's  assumption  is  correct,  that  the 
cost  of  production  is  fixed  (or  nearly  so).  But  it  so  happens,  that  in 
these  instances,  our  author's  system  of  tolls  would  be  altogether  im 
practicable.     The  commodities  are  of  such  little  value  as  to  be  scare 


worth  removing,  unless  at  a  very  small  cost;  they  cannot,  in  general, 
be  brought  from  a  distance,  the  necessary  charge  for  freight,  even  if 
there  be  no  toll,  acting  as  a  prohibition  ;  and  to  have  any  trade,  even 
from  the  nearest  places,  you  must  levy  only  the  lowest  rate  of  toll. 
Thus  on  the  Irish  Grand  Canal  the  toll  on  stone  is  iid.  per  ton,  and  on 
manure  -id.  per  ton  for  any  distance, — because  at  higher  rates  they 
would  scarcely  be  carried  at  all.  And  here,  it  is  evident,  there  is  no 
room  for  graduation  according  to  Mr.  EUett's  plan. 

But  resuming  the  consideration  of  the  cost  of  production,  where  it  is 
not  fixed,  let  us  examine  into  the  causes  of  the  differences  that  exist ; 
why  rent  is  high  in  one  district,  and  low  in  another,  and  why  wages 
vary  so  much  as  they  are  found  to  do  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Of  course  they  all  depend  upon  the  economical  principle  of  the  rela- 
tion of  supply  and  demand.  But  in  the  same  country,  all  parts  of 
which  are  subject  to  the  same  laws  and  conditions  of  trade,  and  all 
contribute  to  the  supply  of  the  same  great  market,  this  relation  be- 
tween the  supply  and  demand,  that  is  the  different  values  of  rent  and 
wages  in  the  various  parts  of  this  district,  depends  mostly  upon  their 
respective  distances  from  the  place  of  consumption,  and  the  facilities 
of  conveyance  thither.  Near  a  large  town,  rent  and  wages,  and  con- 
sequently the  cost  of  production,  are  high,  because  there  the  great 
demand  can  be  most  I'asily  supplied,  and  with  very  little  expense  for 
carriage.  Farther  off,  as  the  cost  of  conveying  the  products  to  the 
markets  increase  with  the  distance,  both  rent  and  wages  are  lower. 
And  if  a  canal  or  railroad  be  made  into  the  country,  as  it  cheapens  the 
cost  of  conveyance,  and  thereby  facilitates  its  supplying  the  market,  it 
raises  rent  and  wages,  or  the  cost  of  local  production.  Thus  the  true 
state  of  the  case  is  very  different  from  Mr.  EUett's  theory.  The  cost 
of  production  is  not  fixed ;  it  is  found  to  depend  on  the  charges  for 
conveyance,  varying  inversely  with  them,  (not  in  the  same  ratio,)  that 
is,  with  the  distance.  Of  course  I  speak  here  of  the  natural  charge 
for  conveyance,  which  consists  of  freight  only,  and  is  always  propor- 
tionate to  the  distance.  Such  is  the  cost  of  carriage  upon  common 
roads,  and  as  these  are  generally  the  first  modes  of  conveyance,  and 
the  most  universal,  it  is  by  the  principles  and  circumstances  that  relate 
to  them  the  cost  of  production  is  generally  governed.  In  England  the 
facilities  for  transport  are  so  great,  and  so  ecjually  diftused  throughout 
every  part  of  the  country,  that  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  production 
in  different  places  is  small,  as  I  before  mentioned.  But  in  countries 
where  the  improved  methods  of  conveyance  are  few,  the  diflerence  of 
price,  or  the  cost  of  production,  at  places  at  unequal  distances  from 
the  market,  or  not  having  the  same  facilities,  is  often  very  striking. 
In  Ireland,  the  price  of  potatoes,  for  instance,  is  frequently  found  to 
differ  to  an  astonishing  degree,  in  various  parts  more  or  less  remote 
from  the  large  towns ;  and  the  only  cause  appears  to  be  the  expense 
of  carriage,  which  being  in  proportion  to  the  distance,  increases  or 
diminishes  the  cost  of  production  and  the  facility  of  removal. 

If,  then,  the  cost  of  production  is  found  to  vary,  and  inversely  with 
the  distance,  the  diflerence  between  it  and  the  market  price  is  not 
fixed,  but  varies  directly  with  the  distance ;  and  the  total  sum  which 
the  commodity  will  bear  as  the  cost  of  conveyance  to  the  market  is  a 
varying  quantity,  increasing  with  the  distance.  The  freight,  one  of 
its  parts,  is  proportioned  to  the  distance,  and  the  other  portion,  the 
toll,  should  also,  in  general,  be  regulated  by  the  same  proportion. 
There  are,  of  course,  many  circumstances  which  modify  this  law,  at 
least  in  practice  ;  but  looking  at  the  abstract  question,  I  think  that  the 
theory  of  tolls,  which  the  principles  of  economy  and  the  laws  that 
govern  the  relations  of  value  and  price  indicate,  is  the  simple,  natural, 
and  just  system  of  charging  according  to  the  distance,  in  proportion 
to  the  benefit  conferred,  or  to  "the  value  given." 

This  is  not  only  the  true  theory,  but  it  is  also  the  only  system  that 
is  practicable,  wherever  there  is  the  competition  of  common  roads  ;  it 
is  easy  to  show  that,  in  all  cases,  it  would  be  the  most  profitable  sys- 
tem also, — the  most  productive  of  revenue  to  the  proprietors  of  the 
canal  or  railway;  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  impartial,  and  the 
most  equally  advantageous  to  every  part  of  the  country.  Each  district 
has  its  own  advantages,  in  which  it  is  superior  to  the  others,  and,  under 
a  natural  system,  its  facilities  for  production  and  transport  are  propor- 
tioned duly  to  its  means ;  while  the  retrograde  principle  must  have 
the  effect  of  encouraging  the  remoter  districts,  and  depressing  the 
nearer, — by  destroying  the  natural  and  equable  balance,  which  prevails 
in  the  social  commonwealth. 

I  cannot  trespass  on  your  space.  Sir,  by  entering  further  on  the  proofs 
that  the  natural  system  is  also  the  most  productive ;  neither  could  I 
do  so  without  introducing  diagrams,  which  would  be  found  to  differ 
very  much  indeed  from  those  of  Mr.  EUett.  I  shall  only  add,  that  I 
hold  the  true  and  most  effectual  mode  of  gaining  for  a  canal  or  railroad 
the  largest  amount  of  traile  and  revenue  to  be  moderate  tolls,  charged 
fairly  according  to  the  distance.  I  am  convinced  that  the  charges 
upon  most  canals  and  railways  are  much  too  high ;  that  considerably 


378 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[NOVEMBKR, 


lower  rates  would  greatly  increase  their  prosperity,  and  add  vastly  to 
the  resources  and  commercial  facilities  of  the  comitry.  Wherever 
the  experiment  of  reduction  has  been  tried,  I  believe  it  has  proved 
successful,  in  augmenting  the  trade  and  its  profits ;  and  I  have  no 
doubt  that  soon  the  proprietors  of  many  public  works  will  be  compelled, 
for  their  own  sakes,  to  resort  to  such  measures;  and  it  is,  therefore, 
of  much  importance  that  the  princi|)les  of  "the  theory  of  tolls"  should 
be  clearly  understood;  and,  conceiving  that  those  advocated  by  Mr. 
EUett  are  fallacious,  unjust,  and  injurious,  I  have  endeavoured  to  refute 
them, — and  regret'  that  the  task  has  been  so  feebly  and  hastily  per' 
formed. 

C.  E.  B. 


ON  COMPETITION  DESIGNS. 

We  receive  many  letters  on  the  suVject  of  Competition,  which  are 
almost  unanimous  in  complaining  of  the  uttek  want  of  good  faith 
on  the  part  of  those  who  invite  architects  to  send  in  designs.  And 
though  we  are  sorry  there  should  be  room  for  sucli  complaint  in  any 
instance  whatever,  we  are  glad  to  find  that  the  evil  itself  prevails  to  so 
shameful  an  extent,  because  it  is  now  likely  that  the  profession  will 
be  stirred  up  to  adopt  some  dciisive  measures  to  correct  it.  They 
certainly  ought  to  do  so  ;  and  we  should  advise  a  pubUc  meeting  to  be 
convened  by  them  for  that  purpose.  In  the  meanwhile  our  own  pases 
shall  be  open  to  the  exposure  of  the  impositions  now  practised  under 
the  mask  of  Competition;  and  no  doubt,  many  a  strange  tale  might  be 
unfolded  that  would  open  the  eyes  of  the  public  to  the  mysterious 
doings  of  those  Secret  Tribunals  which  exercise  an  arbitrary  and  irre- 
sponsible power,  and  generally  no  less  injuriously  to  the  interests  of 
architecture  and  good  taste,  than  unjustly  towards  individuals  in  the 
profession. 

From  among  the  letters  addressed  to  us  on  the  subject,  we  give  the 
three  following  as  being  well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  our  readers, 
though  we  dare  not  promise  the  writers  that  their  remonstrances  will 
produce  any  effect. 

Sir — The  exposure  made  by  your  correspondent  K.  P.  S.  relative 
to  the  Bury  St.  Edmund's  affair,  ought  to  produce  some  good  effect, 
yet  that  any  is  likely  to  result  from  it  is  more  than  can  reasonably  be 
anticipated;  for  not  only  are  committees — even  though  composed  of 
"all  honourable  men,"  perfectly  callous  to  any  thing  like  shame,  but 
there  is  a  sad  want  of  energy  in  architects  themselves,  or  they 
would  even  now  have  taken  some  decided  steps  to  check  the  scanda- 
lous abuses — I  may  say,  the  barefaceil  impositions  and  deceptions  at- 
tending competitions. 

If  there  is  positively  no  remedy  for  the  evils  complained, — why 
then  in  the  name  of  common  sense  let  them  be  endured,  without  any 
pitiful  whining  on  the  part  of  those  who  choose  to  lend  themselves  to 
a  system  of  humbug. — Well,  I  liave  said  linmhng,  and  although  that 
word  is  certainly  not  the  most  delicate,  there  is  hardly  another  in  the 
language  that  would  be  so  appropriate,  unless  it  were  one  more  offen- 
sive still. — But  remedy  i  am  persuaded  there  is — at  least  to  a  very 
great  extent,  provided  we  choose  to  adopt  such  measures  as  will  secure 
it.  No  doubt,  there  are  many  difficulties  to  be  first  overcome  ;  but 
that,  I  conceive  is  a  reason  the  more,  why  they  should  be  boldly  en- 
coimtered,  and  the  task  of  refonn  be  set  about  with  fearless  resolution. 
Such  reform  ought  to  iiave  been  carried  through  by  the  Institute  ;  be- 
cause that  Body  might  have  taken  up  the  matter  actively  without 
incurring  the  invidiousness  and  risk  to  whicli  individuals  might  ex- 
pose themselves  by  so  doing.  There  was,  indeed,  an  attempt  of  the 
kind,  and  a  most  feeble  one  it  was, — amounting  to  nothing  more  than 
a  little  palavering.  It  would  therefore  have  been  greatly  more  to  the 
credit  of  the  Institute,  had  the  subject  never  been  brought  forward  at 
all  ;  because  now  it  looks  as  if  the  present  vile  system  of  competition 
was  formally  acquiesced  in  by  those  who  ought  to  leave  no  stone  un- 
turned until  they  correct  it.  But  there  have  been  two  other  oppor- 
tunities which,  had  they  been  properly  turned  to  account,  might  have 
gone  far  towards  bringing  about  the  so-nnich-desired  reform.  As  you 
will  perhaps  anticipate,  [  allude  to  the  Nelson  Monument  and  Royal 
Exchange  Competitions,  in  both  ofwliich  those  \sho  engaged  in  them, 
suffered  themselves  to  be  more  injuriously  and  contemptuously  treated, 
without  venturing  to  protest  against  it.  With  regard  to  the  first  one, 
notliing  could  be  a  more  insulting  piece  of  mockery  than  the  pretended 
Second  Competition — without  any  warning  on  the  part  of  the  Com- 
mittee, that  tliey  w  ere  decidedly  in  favour  of  some  kind  of  Column  ; — 
although  the  result  too  plainly  shows  that  they  were  predetermined  to 
adopt  Railtou's  design ; — for  had  they  not  been  so  predetermined,  they 
would  at  least  have  decently  expressed  their  regret  that  they  sliould 
have  been  driven  into  so  particularly  awkward  a  situation,  being  under 


the  necessity  of  coulirming  their  first  choice,  though  aware  that  it 
would  be  in  opposition  to  public  opinion.  No  explaniilion,  hewever, 
was  offered — and  what  is  much  more,  none  was  demanded  by  the  Com- 
petitors.— Pity  would  be  thrown  away  upon  such  pu'^illanimous  crea- 
tures; for  they  have  shown  that  they  deserved  to  be  kicked. 

Had  a  bold  and  resolute  stand  been  made  then, — and  the  public  . 
would  almost  to  a  man  have  supported  them ; — had  they  called  the 
Nelson  Committee  to  account,  and  let  the  latter  know  that  they  were 
not  wholly  irresponsible  ;  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  would  have 
served  as  a  most  wholesome  warning  to  the  Gresham  Committee,  and 
the  Royal  Exchange  competition  would  have  been  conducted  very  dif- 
ferently from  what  it  has  been.  But  in  that,  too,  the  Competitors  have 
allowed  themselves  to  be  kicked  like  spaniels;  and  the  authors  of  the 
Eight  Designs  which  obtained  the  approbation  of  the  professional 
umpires,  suffered  themselves  to  be  set  aside,  and  not  permitted  to  try 
their  strength  again! 

Tame,  spiritless,  pluckless  \  they  have  been  served  rightly,  but  THE 
CAUSE  1 — that  has  been  most  cowardly  betrayed.  Had  those  compe- 
titors been  firm,  the  Committee  would  have  chaunted  Pecca!v»»is  in 
full  chorus.  Had  not  those  Competitors  been  milk-livered  the  Com- 
mittee would  have  blushed  like  boiled  lobsters.  But  now.  Actum  est.' 
Peril .'  And  with  such  a  memorable  example — such  a  fatal  precedent 
before  them,  future  Committees  may  laugh  at  both  competitors  and 
the  public. — There  is  but  one  chance  left :  and  that  is  to  urge  Reform  in 
Competition,  incessantly;  to  discuss  it  in  every  possible  shape,  and 
without  intermission; — and,  not  least  of  all,  to  insist  in  future  upon 
Pre-exhibition  of  Designs, — not  for  merely  a  day  or  two,  but  for  suffi- 
cient length  of  time,  according  to  the  number  of  drawings. 

I  remain,  &c. 

P.  S. 

Sir — Apropos  to  the  subject  of  Competition  there  is  an  anecdote 
now  circulating  of  so  extraordinary  a  nature  that  it  ought  to  be  either 
publicly  confirmed,  or  publicly  contradicted.  Reporting  it,  just  as  I 
heard  it,  the  case  is  this :  from  among  the  designs  sent  in  for  the  Pro- 
testant Memorial  at  Oxford,  that  by  Mr.  Blore  was  tina?iimonslt/  chosen, 
consequently  whether  such  selection  was  actually  the  very  best  or  not, 
it  is  evident  that  it  was  judged  to  be  so  by  those  who  made  it.  But 
they  afterwards  discovered  to  tlieir  astonishment  and  mortification  that 
they  had  clapped  the  saddle  on  the  wrong  horse,  for  misled  by  the 
name,  they  had  decided  in  favour  of  that  design,  taking  for  granted 
that  it  was  by  iJie  Mr.  Blore  who  has  been  employed  at  Buckingham 
Palace,  &c.  As  soon  therefore  as  they  detected  their  error,  and  ascer- 
tained that  /heir  Mr.  Blore  was  a  different  individual,  and  one  com- 
paratively unknown  in  the  profession,  they  came  to  the  worthy  resolu- 
tion of  setting  aside  the  design,  which  had  jireviously  been  approved 
of  by  them  merely  through  mistake  .'  Is  not  this  a  most  delicious 
anecdote  ?  Does  it  not  speak  volumes  as  to  the  sort  of  discrimination, 
and  the  kind  of  integrity  and  good  faith,  displayed  by  gentlemen  on 
such  occasions  ?  And  mark  you,  I  pray,  this  extraordinary  tergiver- 
sation was  not  manifested  in  a  paltry  hole-and-corner  competition  in 
some  obscure  town  and  village,  but  in — Oxford! — the  seat  of  learning, 
and  of  orthodoxy. 

Unless  the  matter  is  altogether  misrepresented — in  which  case  it 
becomes  the  duty  of  those  who  are  concerned  in  it,  to  clear  themselves 
from  so  highly  injurious  a  charge,-  Mr.  Blore  has  sufficient  grounds 
for  bringing  his  action  for  damages  against  his  quondam  judges;  and 
would  no  doubt  obtain  them  to  a  very  heavy  amount,  because  he  has 
not  only  suffered  pecuniarily,  but  mwy  be  said  to  have  been  stigmatised 
in  his  professional  character,  having  been  formally  set  aside  as  incom- 
petent, consequently  placed  in  a  very  different  situation  from  the  other 
misuccessful  competitors. 

Dtlenda  est  Carthago:  the  Humbug  and  Decejiliou  now  attending 
Competition  must  be  blown  up, — the  present  system  must  be  entirely 
reformed ;  and  as  the  Institute  will  not  exert  itself  at  all  in  the  cause, 
so  much  the  more  manfully  must  individuals  do  so.  The  pen  and  the 
press  must  bring  the  subject  continually  before  the  profession  and  the 
public,  until  both  shall  be  completely  roused  :  and  then,  perhaps,  when 
the  needed  reform  shall  have  been  commenced  by  others,  the  Institute 
will  valiantly  prefer  their  services,  and  come  forward  to  share  in  the 
merit  of  the  victory. 

1  remain,  &c. 

J.  P.  M. 


o.  for  this  mouth  of  your  excellent  Journal,  there  is 
rchitectural  Conipetition  signed  "  K.  P.  S,"  in  which 


Sill — In  the  No. 
an  article   on  Architectural  (Jompe 

some  "facts"  are  detailed  relative  to  that  subject,  especially  as  relates 
to  a  church  to  be  built  or  now  building  at  Berry. 

If  "K.  P.  S."  was  aware  of  how  these  matters  are  managed  with 
us  in  Ireland,  it  might  excite  his  honest  indignation  still  more,  as  the 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


379 


system  geiiernUv  adopted  here  is  to  place  all  the  competition  designs 
submitted  into  (he  hands  of  a  favonred  architect,  from  which  to  choose 
and  model  snch  plans  as  the  committee  may  direct,  who  kindly  indulge 
the  favourite  with  the  necessary  time. 

It  mav  be  supposed  that  the  writer  is  a  disappointed  candidate,  and 
that  this  is  merely  the  ebulhtion  of  his  chagrin  and  mortification  from 
defeat.  Not  so ;  for  having  had  the  benefit  of  seeing  the  fate  of 
others  on  these  occasions,  he  has  invariably  steered  clear  of  this 
species  of  competition. 

An  instance  of  the  flagrant  injustice  done  in  this  way  took  place  a 
short  time  since,  wherein  architects  were  invited  by  public  advertise- 
ment to  send  in  plans  for  an  edifice  to  be  erected  near  Dublin,  to  be 
appropriated  as  a  place  of  worship.  After  the  plans,  &c.,  had  been 
sent  in,  considerable  shuffling  took  place  on  the  part  of  the  committee. 
At  length,  after  frequent  postponements  and  delays,  it  was  announced 
that  none  of  the  designs,  in  their  judgment,  were  suitable  to  the  re- 
quired building,  although  they  numbered  upwards  of  a  dozen  designs, 
some  of  which  were  shown  to  me  jn'eviously,  and  possessed  (in  my 
opinion)  very  great  merit,  and  were  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
rules  laid  down  in  the  advertisement.  In  a  short  time  afterwards  the 
building  was  begun,  after  the  design  and  inspection  of  an  architect 
who  had  not  competed,  ainl  as  the  building  is  now  nearly  completed, 
I  can,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  assert  that  it  is  a  "fac  simile"  (as 
far  as  I  have  been  able  to  examine  it)  of  one  of  the  designs  I  had  been 
shown,  and  which  was  sent  in  to  the  committee. 

The  profession  of  an  architect  is  completely  degraded  in  Ireland; 
for  instance,  in  the  erection  of  any  county  public  building  (the  archi- 
tect, if  indeed  any  be  engaged  at  all)  is  merely  a  subordinate  to  the 
county  surveyor,  who,  with  very  few  exceptions,  know  nothing  of  our 
profession,  and  until  the  clause  which  relates  to  this  subject  in  the 
present  Grand  Jury  Act  is  remedied,  things  must  remain  in  this  state. 
At  present  every  public  work  is  placed  in  their  hands,  and,  generally 
speaking,  when  anything  architectural  (or  at  least  what  should  be 
architectural)  is  to  be  done,  they  attempt  it  themselves,  and  a  prettv 
finish  they  make  of  it,  instances  of  which  are  but  too  numerous. 

Again,  a  paragraph  is  now  going  the  round  of  our  papers,  eulo- 
gizing a  new  Saving's  Bank  erected  in  Limerick,  "  by  Sir  Thomas 
Deane,  the  Eminent  Architect,  the  progress  of  the  work  wan  superin- 
tended by  William  H.  Owen,  Esq.,  Civil  Engineer,  rvhose  professional 
taste  and  skill  are  so  highly  appreciated." 

Not  wishing  to  occupy  too  much  space  in  your  valuable  journal,  I 
have  merely  glanced  at  some  of  the  strange  doings  perpetrated  here, 
which,  if  properly  "shown  up,"  would  undoubtedly  throw  the  gi'iev- 
ances  complained  of  by  K.  V.  S.  into  the  shade. 

I  am,  Sir, 

Yoiu"  verv  obedient  servant, 

DMitt,  Oct.  12,  1S40.  J.  A.",  Architect. 


LAND  SURVEYING. 

Sir — I  should  not  trespass  on  your  very  valuable  time,  and  on  the 
pages  of  your  most  deservedly  popular  Journal,  did  I  not  know  that 
you  make  it  your  study  to  give  publicity  to  every  thing,  however 
trifling,  which  may  be  of  use  to  any  member  of  the  profession,  whose 
interests  you  so  very  ably  advocate  on  all  occasions.  Should  this 
obtain  your  approval,  your  insertion  of  it  will  much  oblige  the  writer. 

It  has,  I  dare  say,  occurred  to  every  one  engaged  in  an  extensive 
survey,  that  there  is  a  great  danger  of  mistakes  taking  place  in  the 
change  of  pins  in  a  long  chain  line ;  as  the  number  of  changes  or  re- 
moves must  be  kept  in  memory,  and  one  is  very  likely  to  become  con- 
fused if  there  are  a  great  many  of  them.  To  obviate  this  incon- 
venience, I  would  beg  to  propose  a  very  simple  plan,  viz.,  that  the 
leader  should  be  provided  with  a  small  bag,  containing  a  number  of 
common  marbles,  such  as  school-boys  employ  in  their  games ;  and 
that  on  giving  up  his  pins  to  the  follower,  or  hind  chainman,  at  every 
remove,  he  should  give  him  one  of  these  marbles,  to  be  kept  by  the 
follower  in  another  bag  provided  for  the  purpose,  until  they  arrive  at 
the  end  of  the  line ;  when  each  marble  will  stand  for  10,  and  the  pins 
in  the  follower's  hand,  as  usual,  for  single  chains. 

By  this  method  nothing  is  left  to  the  memory,  and  of  course  a 
greater  degree  of  certainty  is  obtained. 

I  have  the  honour  to  remain,  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  servant, 

Dublin,  Oct.  3,  1840.  E.  William  Mansell. 


LAND  SURVEYING. 

Sir, — I  observe  in  your  last  Number  an  extract  from  Mr.  Bruff's 
Treatise  on  Engineering  Field  Work,  wherein  he  says,  in  describing 
the  new  instrument  for  measuring  the  contents  of  maps,  that  "  the 
principle  of  the  plan  has  been  long  known  to  some  few  suveyors,  but 
that  they  prudently  kept  it  to  themselves,  &c."  Now,  Sir,  1  should 
very  much  like  to  know  the  names  of  any  surveyors  to  whom  the  in- 
strument was  known  before  its  introduction  into  "the  Tithe  Office,  and 
perhaps  Mr.  Bruff  will  be  good  enough  to  afford  this  information 
through  the  medium  of  your  Journal,  as  it  is  certainly  important  to 
know  to  whom  surveyors  are  indebted  for  the  invention  of  this  instru- 
ment, which  most  justly  deserves  all  the  praise  that  can  be  bestowed 
upon  it. 

I  beg  it  to  be  understood,  that  in  seeking  this  information  from  Mr. 
Bruff,  I  am  actuated  by  no  hostile  or  cavilling  spirit,  on  the  contrary^  I 
think  generally  the  contents  of  his  work  are  most  valuable,  and  strictly 
to  be  depended  on  ;  in  this  instance,  however,  I  think  he  is  misin- 
formed, and  believing  that  Mr.  Bruff  would  not  wish  to  deprive  the 
inventor  of  his  due  share  of  credit,  I  trust  he  will  have  no  hesitation 
in  stating  publicly,  who  are  the  parties  to  whom  he  alludes,  as  having 
long  known  the  principle  of  the  jilan. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

An  Old  Surveyor. 

London,  Oct.  15,  1840. 


THE  NELSON  AFFAIR. 

Mr.  Editor — I  send  you  some  stanzas  which  you  may,  if  you  like, 
suppose  were  intended  to  have  been  put  into  the  foundation  stone  of 
Railton's  Column,  but  somehow  or  other  escaped  that  honour ;  allow 
them  therefore  to  be  preserved  in  one  of  your  columns. 

A'nti-Stylites. 
Nelson  loquitur : — 

You  see  that  I  stick  to  my  post, 

Stuck  up  here  on  the  top  of  a  peg, 
And  having  before  but  one  arm, 

I  am  now  left  to  stand  on  cue  leg. 

Though  not  on  a  leg  made  of  wood, 

Oh  no  ! — 'tis  a  leg  built  of  stone ; 
And  so  wondrous  tall  too  it  is, 

That  I  stand  "  all  aloft  and  alone," 

Just  after  that  ■n  liimsical  fasliion 

Old  Simeon  adopted  of  yore  ; 
But  then  he  «as  a  saint  most  sublime. 

And  his  practice  a  bit  of  a  bore. 

Yes,  my  case  is  confoundedly  hard, 

Tho'  some  other  folks'  heads  are  quite  soft, 

So  I  wish  they  had  left  me  alone, 
Before  they  had  left  me  aloft. 

For  Wightwick  I  see  there  is  sneering. 

While  others  are  laughing  outright. 
And  folks  seem  myself  to  be  queering, 

AVhile  they  gape  at  ray  pitiful  pUglit. 

0  !  were  but  the  stick  I  am  stuck  on, 
A  good  walking-stick — by  my  fay, 

1  would  not  stand  here  to  be  quizzed  at, 

But  with  stick  and  all  walk  away. 


PNEUMATIC  OR  ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY. 

Sir — ^The  fairness  that  should  guide  a  public  Journalist,  and  a  scien- 
tific one  especially,  will  doubtless  induce  you  to  afford  me  a  place  to 
reply  to  an  invidious  article  contained  in  your  Journal  for  July,  which 
does  me  great  injustice — has  an  injurious  tendency,  and  at  the  same 
time  confers  approbation  on  Messrs.  Clegg  and  Samuda,  who  are  en- 
deavouring to  avail  themselves  of  the  result  of  information  communi- 
cated to  them,  whilst  they  were  confidentially  employed  by  me  in 
1836-7-8,  in  the  construction  of  works  and  machinery  designed  for 
carrying  into  practical  operation  the  pneumatic  or  atmospheric  rail- 
way, which  was  intended  to  be  applied  on  the  Birmingham,  Bristol, 
and  Thames  Junction  Railway  at  Wormwood  Scrubs,  as  the  first  pro- 
spectus of  that  railway  (1835)  will  show,  and  on  which  line  ray  in- 
vention is  now  pirated  by  Clegg  and  Samuda. 

The  article  in  your  Journal  appears  intended  as  a  disparagement  of 
my  invention.    I  Lave  before  publicly  accused  those  persona  of  the 


380 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[NOVKMBKR, 


conduct  coinplaiiied  of  in  the  Sun  newspaper  of  tlio  17tli  and  Uttli 
June  last.  I  am  preparing  to  stop  their  jjroceedings  (hrongli  the  me- 
dium of  a  court  of  justice,  but  that  is  no  gn.und  for  my  sustaining  in 
the  mean  time  injurious  remarks,  and  the  public  mind  abused  through 
the  columns  of  ])ublic  journals. 

I  am  prepared  to  prove  that  the  system  carried  into  effect,  even  in 
all  its  minute  details,  is  wholly  my  invention;  as  well  as  the  inore  im- 
proved applications  of  the  same'priuciple,  as  specified  in  my  patents 
of  1834  and  183G,  all  of  which  are  legally  held  by  me  under  the  autho- 
rity of  the  Patent  Laws,  which  forbid  those  persons  or  others  from 
using  any  portion  of  that  which  is  described  in  the-  article  inserted  in 
your  Journal, 

In  regard  to  the  remarks  that  "the  idea  of  employing  the  power  of 
the  atmosphere  against  a  vacuum  created  in  an  extended  pipe  laid 
between  rails,  and  communicating  the  moving  power  thus  obtained  to 
propel  carriages  travelling  on  a  road,  we  believe  originated  with  Mr. 
Medhurst,  in  1827,  and  that  in  1812  he  published  some  ideas  on  this 
method.'!  And  that  "about  1835  some  experiments  were  made  with 
a  model  in  Wigmore-street,  by  Mr.  Pinkus,  very  similar  to  those  des- 
cribed by  Mr.  Medhurst ;  these  experiments,  however,  failed  from  the 
same  cause  probably,  which  prevented  Mr.  Medhurst  from  carrying  his 
into  effect,  viz.,  the  impossibility  of  making  an  air  tight  communication 
from  the  inside  of  the  pipe  to"  the  carriage,  tight  enough  to  allow  a 
useful  degree  of  rarefaction  to  be  produced." 

Now,  Sir,  I  have  to  complain  that  not  even  so  ranch  as  one  particular 
of  all  the  allegations  in  the  above  quotations  is  true,  and  declare  that 
I  can  disprove  them  all  by  documentary  evidence  of  record,  and  printed 
publications  of  old  dates.  Myself  an  humble  labourer  in  the  field  of 
science,  I  trust  I  shall  never  be  guilty  of  that  meanness  of  mind  that 
would  detract  from  another  the  merit  justly  due  to  him  for  any  mental 
production,  and  I  will  contend  for  equal  justice  to  myself. 

First,  then,  the  merit,  and  it  is  a  high  one  of  "employing  the  power 
of  the  atmosphere  ag;iiiist  a  vacuum,"  and  transmitting  that  power,  as 
well  as  the  suggestion  of  obtaining  a  similar  power  bv  plenum  (the 
latter  though  impracticable)  is  due  to  the  celebrated  Papin,  who  sug- 
gested them  120  years  ago,  and  not  Mr.  Medhurst. 

Second.  The  suggestions  and  the  experiment  "  employing  the  power 
of  the  atmosphere  against  a  vacuum,  and  by  impelling  a  piston  through 
a  tunnel,"  is  due  to  Mr.  Valance,  who  did'  it  at  Brighton  in  1824,  and 
not  to  Mr.  Medhurst,  who  in  1810  only  proposed  thu  impractical  part 
uf  Papin' i  plan  of  forcing  arr  under  t/ie  comprfsswn  of  manij  almos- 
p/itrts,:\s  several  others  before  him  had  done;  and  added  at  a  subse- 
quent date  the  idea  of  inovinga  piston  through  an  underground  tunnel, 
by  forcing  in  air  behind  it,  from  distances  of  20  miles  apart,  and  so 
impel  goods  and  passengers  therein.  In  1824  Mr.  Valance  took  out  a 
patent  for  his  method  of  an  underground  tunnel,  and  the  more  correct 
and  practical  priiiciple  of  rarefaction  and  atmospheric  pressure. — Mr. 
Medhurst,  who  held  no  patent,  made  claim  to  Mr.  Valance's  invention 
of  transmitting  a  piston  through  an  underground  tunnel. — Mr.  Valance 
in  a  pamphlet  of  that  date,  answered  Mr.  Medhurst,  and  pointed  out 
in  what  his  invention  differed  from  the  other's  claims ;  thus  both  Papiu 
and  Valance  went  before  Mr.  Medhurst. 

In  1825,  not  1835  as  is  alleged,  I  proposed  to  apply  Papin's  princi- 
ple by  anew  method,  combination  of  apparatus  and  machinery,  wliereby 
I  was  enabled  to  transfer  the  power  generated  under  partial  vacuum  to 
the  exterior  of  extenekd  mains  or  pipes  laid  on  the  margin  of  a  canal  or 
railway,  and  transmitting  the  power  so  generated  along  such  main.  I 
combined  the  main  with  a  canal,  and  proposed  to  use  Brown's  Gas 
Vacuum  Engine  as  the  prime  mover,  my  plans  and  specifications  were 
recorded,  my  models  constructed  and  exhibited  :  these  contained  such 
a  mechanical  arrangement  for  effecting  a  propelling  power  under  rare- 
faction, as  alone  admits  of  its  application  at  all ;  subsequently  they 
became  the  subject  of  the  first  patent  (1834)  ever  taken  out  for  that 
object.  As  I  was  for  tlie  first  time  informed  in  183lj,  Mr.  Medhurst 
in  1828  reprinted  liis  pami)hlet  of  1810,  for  the  Underground  Tunnel 
and  the  application  of  a  Plenum,  and  with  it,  now  for  the  first  time 
proposed  to  transfer  the  power  to  the  outside  of  the  underground 
tunnel,  and  to  have  stationary  engines  20  miles  apart  for  forcing  in  air, 
he  shewed  a  lithographic  drawing  of  the  method,  and  having  4  years 
before  claimed  the  plan  of  Valance,  and  3  years  before  of  my  method 
of  transferring  the  power  of  partial  vacuum  to  the  exterior  of  a  main, 
he  proposed  a  long  box  and  a  pipe  suspended  over  a  channel  of  water 
in  order  to  make  a  water-joint ;  these  suggestions  made  at  that  late 
date,  were  nevertheless  so  crude  and  undigested,  as  to  be  utterly  im- 
practicable as  they  show.  His  calculation  based  upon  them  he  can  in  no 
way  obtain.  He  never  made  an  experiment,  as  I  am  well  iuformed,  and 
his  pamphlet  was  in  the  hands  only  of  private  friends ;  1  saw  one,  for 
the  first  lime,  in  183G.  Having  been  engaged  until  1830,  I  in  that 
year  again  prepared  fresh  plans  and  specifications,  such  as  are  now  en- 
rolled, and  exhibited  them  to  friends.  In  1833  I  commenced  my  patent. 


scaled  in  1834,  and  in  that  year  constructed  a  large  working  model 
tlrat  was  publicly  exhibited,  and  upon  its  success  in  183(5  an  association 
for  working  my  system  was  formed,  which  is  now  extant ;  contracts 
were  made  for  works  to  demonstrate  the  principle  with  my  subsequent 
improvements,  for  which  patents  also  were  taken  out  in  various  coun- 
tries. The  works  were  designed  to  be  applied  on  the  Birmingham 
Bristol  and  Thames  Junction  Railway,  at  Wormwood  Scrubs ;  those 
works  were  nearly  completed,  the  line  half  a  mile  in  length  formed  on  the 
margin  of  the  Kensington  Canal,  which  was  united  with  that  line  of 
railway.  Samuda  and  Hague  were  the  contractors  for  the  engines,  the 
former  as  well  in  the  construction  of  the  pneumatic  mains  and  valve, 
and  Samuel  Clegg  was  confidentially  employed  and  consulted,  and  wit- 
nessed the  progress  of  the  experiments  'during  such  employment, 
learned  from  me  all  the  minute  details  that  they  have  now  carried  into 
effect,  but  which  are  nevertheless  held  by  me  under  patents.  Clegg 
and  Samuda  saw  my  experiments  in  1835-G  made  upon  rough  models, 
but  which  were  attended  with  perfect  success,  only  some  of  the  details 
were  pur|)osely  omitted  until  further  patents  were  sealed. 

Not  only,  therefore,  is  the  invention  in  all  its  details  my  own,  and 
legally  held  by  my  patents,  which  embrace  such  mechanical  combina- 
tions, as  without  which  that  well  known  principle  cannot  possibly  be 
carried  into  effect,  but  I  shall,  when  my  interest  best  requires  it,  stop 
their  further  progress. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

H.    PlNKUS. 

11,  Panton  Square,  Aug.  20,  1840. 


MUSEUM  OF  ECONOMIC  GEOLOGY, 

CRAIg's    court,    charing    cross,    LONDON. 

CEd  tract  from  the  President's  Addrena  of  the  Geotof/ical  Society  of  London, J 

Among  the  most  important  of  the  remarkable  events  of  the  past  year,  we 
recognise  with  gratitude  and  confident  anticipation  of  great  advantage,  both 
to  science  and  the  arts,  the  establishment  by  her  Majesty's  government  of  an 
institution  hitherto  unknown  in  England,  namely,  a  Museum  of  Economic 
Geology.  This  is  to  he  freely  accessible  to  the  public  at  stated  periods,  in 
the  department  of  her  Majesty's  Woods  and  Forests,  and  Public  Works,  for 
the  express  oljject  of  exhibiting  the  practical  application  of  geology  to  the 
useful  purposes  of  life.  In  this  Museum,  a  large  store  of  valualjle  materials 
has  already  been  collected  and  arranged,  chiefly  by  the  exertions,  and  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  De  la  Beche.  In  it  will  be  exhibited  examples  of  me- 
tallic ores,  ornamental  marbles,  building  stones  and  limestones,  gi-anites,  por- 
phyries, slates,  clays,  marls,  brick  earths,  and  minerals  of  every  kind  produced 
in  this  country,  that  are  of  pecuniary  value,  anil  applicable  to  the  arts  of  life. 
Information  upon  such  subjects,  thus  readily  and  gratuitously  accessible,  will 
he  of  the  utmost  practical  importance  to  the  miner  and  the  mechanic,  the 
builder  and  the  architect,  the  engineer,  the  whole  mining  interest,  and  the 
landed  proprietors.  The  establishment  will  contain  also  examjiles  of  the 
results  of  metallurgic  processes  obtained  from  the  furnace  and  the  laboratory, 
with  a  collection  of  models  of  the  most  improved  machinery,  chiefly  employed 
in  mining,  X  well-stored  laboratory  is  attached  to  this  department,  con- 
ducted hy  the  distinguished  analytical  chemist,  Mr.  Richard  Phillips,  whose 
duty  it  already  is,  at  a  fixed  and  moderate  charge,  to  conduct  the  analysis  of 
metallic  ores,  and  other  minerals  and  soils  submitted  to  him  by  the  owners 
of  mines  and  jnoprictors  of  land,  who  n)ay  wish  for  ijuthenfic  information 
upon  such  matters. 

The  pupils  in  this  laboratory  are  already  actively  employed  in  learning  the 
arts  of  mineral  analysis,  and  the  various  metallurgic  processes, 

A  second  department  in  the  Economic  Museum,  will  be  assigned  to  the 
promotion  of  improvements  in  agriculture,  and  will  contain  sections  of  strata 
vi\ih  specimens  of  soils,  sub-soils,  and  of  the  rocks  from  the  decomposition 
of  which  they  have  been  produced. 

To  this  last-mentioned  collection,  proprietors  of  land  are  solicited  to  con- 
tribute from  their  estates  labelled  examples  of  soils,  with  their  respective 
sub-soils ;  and  all  persons  who  wish  for  an  analysis  of  any  sterile  soil,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  it  fertility,  by  the  artilicial  addition  of  ingredients  with 
which  natiu'e  had  not  supplied  it,  may  here  obtain  at  a  moderate  cost,  an 
exact  knowledge  of  its  composition,  which  may  point  out  the  corrective  ad- 
ditions which  it  requires.  This  jiortion  of  the  Museum  will  more  especially 
exhibit  the  relations  of  geology  to  agriculture,  in  so  far  as  a  knowledge  of  the 
materials  composing  the  sub-strata  may  afford  extensive  means  of  permanent 
improvement  to  the  surface. — Phil.  Mag.,  October,  1840. 


Si.  James  s  Park. — An  ornamenlal  building  in  the  Swiss  style,  consisting  of 
council-riiDm,  briJge,  and  keeper's  cotlaKe,  is  now  building  in  .St.  James's 
park  fiir  the  Oniitbological  .Society  of  London.  The  site  is  nearly  opposite 
the  Horse  Guards,  and  the  design,  approved  by  the  Board  of  Work.s,  has 
been  prepared  Ijy  Mr.  Watson,  under  whose  direction  it  will  be  completed. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


381 


AN  ACT  FOR  REGULATIXG  RAILWAYS. 

PASSED  AUGUST  10,   1840. 

.Vo  railway  to  be  opened  without  notice  to  the  Board  of  Trade. — Wliereas 
it  is  exjiedient  for  the  safety  of  the  public  to  provide  for  tlie  due  supervision 
of  railways :  be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  Queen's  most  excellent  Majesty, 
by  and  with  tlie  advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  spiritual  and  temporal,  and 
Commons,  in  this  present  Parliament  assembled,  and  by  the  authority  of  the 
same,  that,  after  two  mouths  from  the  passing  of  this  Act,  no  railway,  or 
portion  of  any  railway,  shall  be  opened  for  the  public  conveyance  of  passen- 
gers or  goods  until  one  calendar  month  after  notice  in  writing  of  the  intention 
of  opening  the  same  shall  have  lieen  given,  by  the  Company  to  whom  such 
railway  shall  lielong,  to  the  Lords  of  the  Committee  of  Her  Majesty's  Privy 
Council  appointed  for  trade  and  foreign  plantations. 

Penalty  /by  opening  railways  without  notice. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  if 
any  railway,  or  portion  of  any  railway,  shall  be  opened  without  due  notice, 
as  aforesaid,  the  Company  to  whom  such  railway  shall  belong  shall  forfeit  to 
her  Majesty  the  sum  of  20/.  for  every  day  during  which  the  same  shall  con- 
tinue open,  until  the  expiration  of  one  calendar  month  after  the  Company 
shall  have  given  the  like  notice  as  is  liereiu-before  required  before  the  opening 
of  the  railway ;  and  any  such  penalty  may  be  recovered  iu  any  of  her  Jla- 
jesty's  courts  of  record. 

Returns  to  be  made  by  railway  companies. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  the 
lords  of  the  said  committee  may  order  and  direct  every  railway  company  to 
make  up  and  deliver  to  them  returns,  according  to  a  form  to  be  provided  by 
the  lords  of  the  said  committee,  of  the  aggregate  traffic  in  passengers,  ac- 
cording to  the  several  classes,  and  of  the  aggregate  trathc  in  cattle  and  goods 
respectively,  on  the  said  railway,  as  well  as  of  all  accidents  which  shall  have 
occurred  thereon,  attended  with  personal  injury,  and  also  a  table  of  all  tolls, 
rates,  and  charges  from  time  to  time  levied  on  each  class  passengers,  and  on 
cattle  and  goods  conveyed  on  the  said  railway ;  and  if  the  returns  herein 
specified  shall  not  be  delivered  within  thirty  days  after  the  same  shall  have 
been  required,  every  such  company  shall  forfeit  to  her  Majesty  the  sum  of 
20/.  for  every  day  during  which  the  said  company  shall  wilfully  neglect  to 
deliver  the  same  ;  and  every  such  penalty  may  be  recovered  in  any  of  her 
Majesty's  courts  of  record ;  provided  always,  that  such  returns  shall  be  re- 
quired, in  like  manner  and  at  the  same  time,  from  all  the  said  companies, 
unless  the  lords  of  the  said  committee  shall  specially  exempt  any  of  the  said 
companies,  and  shall  enter  the  grounds  of  such  exemption  in  the  minutes  of 
their  proceedings. 

Penalty /or  makinrj/alse  retunu. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  every  officer  of 
any  company  who  shall  wilfully  make  any  false  return  to  the  lords  of  the  said 
committee  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 

Board  0/  trade  may  appoint  persons  to  inspect  railways. — .\nd  be  it 
enacted,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  tlie  lords  of  the  said  committee,  if  and 
when  they  sliall  think  tit,  to  authorize  any  proper  person  or  persons  to  in- 
spect any  railway  ;  and  it  shall  be  lawful  for  every  person  so  authorized,  at 
all  reasonal)Ie  times,  upon  jirodncirig  his  authority,  if  requh-ed,  to  enter  upon 
and  examine  the  said  railway,  and  the  stations,  works,  and  buildings,  and  the 
engines  and  carriages  belonging  thereto ;  provided  always,  that  no  person 
shall  be  eligible  to  ttie  appointment  as  in.^pector  as  a/oresaid  who  shall  within 
one  year  0/ his  appointment  fiave  been  a  director  or  have  held  any  office  0/ 
trust  ar  pro/t  under  any  railway  company. 

Penalty  on  persons  obstructiny  in.yiector. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  every 
person  wilfully  obstructing  any  person,  duly  authorized  as  aforesaid,  in  the 
execution  of  his  duty,  shall,  on  co^^■iction  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  having 
jurisdiction  in  the  |ilacc  where  the  offence  shall  have  been  committed,  forfeit 
and  pay  for  every  such  offence  any  sum  not  exceeding  10/.;  and  011  default 
of  payment  of  any  penalty  so  adjudged,  immediately  or  within  sucli  time  as 
the  said  justice  of  the  peace  shall  appoint,  the  same  justice,  or  any  other 
justice  having  jurisdiction  in  the  place  where  the  offender  shall  l)e  or  reside, 
may  commit  tlie  otfcnder  to  prison  for  any  period  not  exceeding  three  calen- 
dar months,  such  commitment  to  be  determined  on  payment  of  the  amount 
of  the  penalty ;  and  every  sucli  penalty  shall  be  returned  to  the  next  ensuing 
court  of  quarter  sessions  in  the  usual  uianner. 

Copies  0/ existing  bye-laws  to  be  laid  be/ore  the  board  0/  trade  ;  otherwise 
to  be  ooid. — And  whereas  many  railway  companies  are  or  may  hereafter  be 
empowered  by  Act  of  Parliament  to  make  bye-laws,  orriei's,  rules,  or  regu- 
lations, and  to  impose  penalties  for  the  enforcement  tliercof,  upon  persons 
other  than  the  servants  of  the  said  companies,  and  it  is  expedient  that  such 
powers  should  he  under  proper  control ;  be  it  enacted,  that  true  copies  of  all 
such  bye-laws,  orders,  rules,  and  regulations  made  under  any  such  powers  by 
every  such  company  before  the  passing  of  this  Act,  certific'd  in  such  manner 
as  the  lords  of  the  said  committee  shall  from  time  to  time  direct,  shall,  w  ithin 
two  calendar  months  after  the  passing  of  this  .\ct,  be  laid  before  the  lords  of 
the  said  committee ;  and  that  every  such  bye-law,  order,  rule,  or  regulation, 
not  so  laid  before  the  lorils  of  the  said  committee  within  the  aforesaid  period, 
shall,  from  and  after  that  period,  cease  to  have  any  force  or  effect,  saving  in 
so  far  as  any  penalty  may  have  been  then  already  incurred  under  the  same. 

No/uture  bye-laws  to  be  valid  till  two  calendar  months  a/ter  they  have 
been  laid  be/ore  the  board  0/ trade. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  no  such  bye- 
law,  order,  rule,  or  regulation  made  inuler  any  such  power,  and  which  shall 
not  be  iu.  force  at  the  time  of  the  passing  of  this  act,  and  no  order,  rule,  or 
regulation  annulling  any  such  existing  bye-law,  rule,  order,  or  regulation 


which  shall  be  made  after  the  passing  of  this  Act,  shall  have  any  force  or 
effect  until  two  calendar  months  after  a  true  copy  of  such  bye-law,  order, 
rule,  or  regulation,  certified  as  aforesaid,  shall  have  been  laid  before  the  lords 
of  the  said  committee,  unless  the  lords  of  the  said  committee  shall,  before 
such  period,  signify  their  approbation  fliereof. 

Board  0/  trade  may  disallow  bye-laws. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  it  shall  be 
lawful  for  the  lords  of  the  said  committee,  at  any  time  either  before  or  after 
any  bye-law,  order,  rule,  or  regulation  shall  have  been  laid  before  them  as 
aforesaid  shall  have  come  into  operation,  to  notify  to  the  company  who  shall 
have  made  the  same  tlieir  disallowance  thereof,  and  in  case  the  same  shall  be 
iu  force  at  the  time  of  such  disallowance,  the  time  at  which  the  same  shall 
cease  to  be  in  force  ;  and  no  bye-law,  order,  rule,  or  regulation  which  shall 
be  so  disallowed  shall  have  any  force  or  effect  whatsoever,  or,  if  it  shall  be  in 
force  at  the  time  of  such  disallowance,  it  shall  cease  to  have  any  force  or 
effect  in  tlie  time  limited  in  the  notice  of  such  disallowance,  saving  in  so  far 
as  any  penalty  may  have  been  then  already  incurred  under  the  same. 

Provisions  of  Railway  Acts  requiring  confirmation  0/  bye-lavs  repealed. — • 
.And  be  it  enacted,  that  so  much  of  every  clause,  provision,  and  enactment  in 
any  Act  of  Parliament  heretofore  passed  as  may  require  the  approval  or  con- 
currence of  any  justice  of  the  peace,  court  of  quarter  sessions,  or  other  per- 
son or  persons,  other  than  members  of  the  said  companies,  to  give  validity 
to  any  bye-laws,  orders,  rules,  or  regulations  made  liy  any  such  company, 
shall  lie  repealed. 

Board  of  trade  may  direct  prosecutions  to  cn/orce  provisions  0/  Railway 
Jet.  Notice  to  be  given  to  the  company. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  whenever 
it  shall  appear  to  the  lords  of  the  said  committee  that  any  of  the  provisions 
of  the  several  Acts  of  Parliament  regulating  any  of  the  said  companies,  or  tlie 
provisions  of  this  Act,  have  not  been  complied  with  on  the  part  of  any  of  the 
said  companies,  or  any  of  their  officers,  and  that  it  would  be  for  the  public 
advantage  that  the  due  jierformance  of  tlie  same  should  be  enforced,  the 
lords  of  the  said  committee  shall  certify  the  same  to  her  Majesty's  attorney- 
general  for  England  or  Irelaad,  or  to  tlie  lord  advocate  for  Scotland,  as  the 
case  may  require  ;  and  thereupon  the  said  attorney-general  or  lord  advocate 
shall,  by  information,  or  by  action,  bill,  plaint,  suit  at  law  or  in  equity,  or 
other  legal  proceeding,  as  the  case  may  require,  proceed  to  recover  such 
penalties  and  forfeitures,  or  otlierwise  to  enforce  the  due  performance  of  the 
said  provisions,  by  such  means  as  any  person  aggrieved  by  such  non-com- 
pliance, or  otherwise  authorized  to  sue  for  such  penalties,  might  emplo)' 
under  the  provisions  of  the  said  acts  :  provided  always,  that  no  such  certifi- 
cate as  aforesaid  shall  be  given  by  the  lords  of  the  said  committee  until 
twenty-one  days  after  they  shall  have  given  notice  of  their  intention  to  give 
the  same  to  the  company  against  or  in  relation  to  whom  they  shall  intend  to 
give  the  same. 

Prosecutions  to  be  under  sanction  0/  board  of  trade,  arul  within  one  year 
after  the  offence. — .And  be  it  enacted,  that  no  legal  proceedings  shall  be 
commenced  under  the  authority  of  the  lords  of  the  said  committee  against 
an>  railway  company  for  any  offence  against  this  act,  or  any  of  the  several 
Acts  of  Parliament  relating  to  railways,  except  upon  such  certificates  of  the 
lords  of  the  said  committee  as  aforesaid,  and  within  one  year  after  such 
offence  shall  have  been  committed. 

Puuisliment  of  servants  of  railway  companies  guilty  0/  misconduct. — And 
be  it  enacted,  that  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any  officer  or  agent  of  any  railway 
company,  or  for  any  special  constable  duly  appointed,  and  all  such  persons 
as  they  may  call  to  their  assistance,  to  seize  and  detain  any  eneiue-ilriver, 
guard,  porter,  or  other  servant  in  the  employ  of  such  company,  who  shall  be 
found  drunk  while  employed  upon  the  railway,  or  commit  any  offence  against 
any  of  the  bye  laws,  rules,  or  regulations  of  such  company,  or  shall  wilfully, 
maliciously,  or  negligently  do  or  omit  to  do  any  act  whereby  tlie  life  or  hmb 
of  any  per^on  passing  along,  or  being  upon  the  railway  belonging  to  such 
company,  or  the  works  thereof  respectively,  shall  be,  or  might  be  injured  or 
eiiilangered,  or  whereby  the  passage  of  any  of  the  engines,  carriages,  or  trains 
shall  be  or  might  be  obstructed  or  impeded,  and  to  convey  such  engine- 
driver,  guard,  porter,  or  other  servant  so  offeuding,  or  any  person  counselling, 
aiding,  or  assisting  in  such  offence,  with  all  convenient  despatch,  before  some 
justice  of  the  peace  for  the  place  within  which  such  offence  shall  be  com- 
mitted, without  any  other  warrant  or  authority  than  this  act;  and  every  such 
person  so  offending,  and  every  person  counselling,  aiding,  or  assisting  therein 
as  aforesaid,  shall,  when  convicted  before  such  justice  as  aforesaid,  (who  is 
hereby  authorised  and  required  upon  complaint  to  him  made,  upon  oath, 
without  information  in  writing,  to  take  cognizance  thereof,  and  to  act  sum- 
marily iu  the  premises),  in  the  discretion  of  justice,  be  imprisoned,  with  or 
without  hard  labour,  for  any  terra  not  exceeding  two  calendar  months,  or,  in 
the  like  discretion  of  such  justice,  shall  for  every  such  offence  forfeit  to  her 
Majestv  any  sum  not  exceerling  10/.,  and  in  default  of  payment  thereof  shall 
be  imprisoned,  with  or  without  hard  labour  as  aforesaid,  for  such  period,  not 
exceeding  two  cilendar  months,  as  such  justice  shall  appoint ;  such  comniit- 
ineut  to  be  determined  on  payment  of  the  amount  of  the  penalty ;  and  every 
such  penalty  shall  be  returned  to  tlie  next  ensuing  court  of  quarter  sessions 
iu  the  usual  manner. 

Justice  of  the  peace  empowered  to  send  any  case  to  be  tried  by  the  quarter 
sessions. — Provided  always,  and  be  it  enacted,  that  (if  upou  the  hearing  of 
any  such  complaint  he  shall  think  fit)  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such  justice,  in- 
stead of  deciding  upon  the  matter  of  complaint  summarily,  to  commit  the 
person  or  persons  charged  with  such  offence  for  trial  for  the  same  at  the 
quarter  sessions  for  the  county  or  place  wherein  such  offence  shall  have  been 

3  F 


382 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


committed,  ami  to  order  that  any  such  person  so  committed  sliall  be  impri- 
soned and  detained  in  any  of  her  Majesty's  gaols  or  houses  of  correction  in 
the  said  county  or  place  in  the  mean  time,  or  to  take  hail  for  his  appearance, 
with  or  without  sureties,  in  his  discretion  ;  and  every  such  person  so  otTend- 
ing,  anil  convicted  hcfore  such  court  of  quarter  sessions  as  aforesaid  (which 
saiil  court  is  herehy  required  to  take  cognizance  of  and  hear  and  determine 
such  complaint),  shall  be  liulile,  in  tlic  discretion  of  such  court,  to  be  impri- 
soned, with  or  without  hard  lal)our,  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two  years. 

Punishnent  of  persons  ofjsfriict'mg  raitwoy. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  from 
and  after  the  ])assing  of  this  Act  every  person  who  shall  wilfully  do  or  cause 
to  be  done  any  thing  in  such  manner  as  to  obstruct  any  engine  or  carriage 
using  any  railway,  or  to  endanger  the  safety  of  persons  conveyed  in  or  njion 
the  same,  or  shall  aid  or  assist  therein,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and 
teing  convicted  tliereof  shall  he  liable,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court  before 
which  he  shall  have  been  convicted,  to  be  imprisoned,  with  or  without  hard 
labour,  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two  years. 

For  punis/imetit  of  persons  ohstrucling  the  officers  of  railwnij  company,  or 
tresjiassing  upon  any  railvay. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  if  any  person  shall 
wilfully  obstruct  or  impede  any  officer  or  agent  of  any  railway  company  in 
the  execution  of  his  duty  upon  any  railway,  or  upon  or  in  any  of  the  stations 
or  other  works  or  premises  connected  therewith,  or  if  any  person  shall  wilfully 
trespass  upon  any  railway,  or  any  of  the  stations  or  other  works  or  premises 
connected  therewith,  and  shall  refuse  to  quit  the  same  upon  request  to  him 
made  by  any  officer  or  agent  of  the  said  company,  every  such  person  so 
offending,  and  all  others  aiding  or  assisting  therein,  shall  and  may  be  seized 
and  detained  by  any  such  officer  or  agent,  or  any  person  whom  he  may  call 
to  his  assistance,  until  such  offender  or  offenders  can  be  conveniently  taken 
before  some  justice  of  the  peace  for  the  county  or  place  wherein  such  offence 
shall  be  committed,  and  when  convicted  before  such  justice  as  aforesaid  (who 
is  hereby  authorized  and  required,  njion  complaint  to  him  upon  oath,  to  take 
cognizance,  thereof,  and  to  act  summarily  in  the  premises,)  shall,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  such  justice,  forfeit  to  her  Majesty  any  sum  not  exceeding  5/ ,  and 
in  defaidt  of  payment  thereof  shall  or  may  be  imprisoned  for  any  term  not 
exceeding  two  calendar  months,  such  imprisonment  to  be  determined  on  pay- 
ment of  the  amount  of  the  penalty. 

Proceedings  not  to  be  quashed  for  want  of  form,  or  removed  into  the  supe- 
rior covr/s. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  no  proceedings  to  be  had  and  taken  in 
pursuance  of  this  Act  shall  be  quashed  or  vacated  for  want  of  form,  or  be  re- 
moved by  certiorari,  or  by  any  other  writ  or  process  whatsoever,  into  any  of 
her  Majesty's  courts  of  record  at  Westminster  or  elsewhere,  any  law  or  statute 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

Jiepefft  of  atl  provisions  in  railway  Acts  that  empmrer  two  justices  to  decide 
disputes  respecting  the  proper  places  for  openings  in  tlie  ledges  orjtanclies  of 
railways. — .\nd  whereas  many  railway  companies  are  bound,  by  the  provisions 
of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  by  which  they  are  incorporated  or  regulated,  to 
make,  at  the  expence  of  the  owner  or  occu])ier  of  lands  adjoining  the  railway, 
openings  in  the  ledges  or  flanches  thereof  (except  at  certain  places  on  such 
railway  in  the  said  Acts  specified),  for  effecting  communications  between  such 
railway  and  any  collateral  or  branch  railway  to  be  laid  down  over  such  lands, 
and  any  disagreement  or  difference  which  shall  arise  as  to  the  proper  places 
for  making  any  such  openings  in  the  ledges  or  flanches  is  by  such  Acts 
directed  to  be  referred  to  the  decision  of  any  two  justices  of  the  peace  within 
their  respective  jurisdictions  :  and  whereas  it  is  expedient  that  so  much  of 
every  clause,  provision,  and  enactment  in  any  Act  of  Parliament  heretofore 
passed,  as  gives  to  any  justice  or  justices  Ihe  power  of  hearing  or  deciding 
upon  any  such  disagreement  or  difference  as  to  the  proper  places  for  any  such 
openings  in  the  ledges  or  flanches  of  any  railway,  should  be  repealed ;  be  it 
therefore  enacted,  that  so  much  of  every  such  clause,  provision,  and  enact- 
ment as  aforesaid  shall  be  repealed. 

Board  of  Trade  to  determine  such  disputes  in  future. — And  be  it  enacted, 
that  in  case  any  disagreement  or  difference  shall  arise  between  any  such  owner 
or  occu])ier,  or  other  persons,  and  any  railway  company,  as  to  the  proper 
places  for  any  such  openings  in  the  ledges  or  flanches  of  any  railway  (except 
at  such  i)laces  as  aforesaid),  for  the  purpose  of  such  communication,  then  the 
same  shall  be  left  to  the  decision  of  the  lords  of  the  said  committee,  who  are 
hereby  enjpowered  to  hear  and  determine  the  same  iu  such  way  as  they  shall 
think  fit,  and  their  determination  shall  be  binding  on  all  parties. 

Communications  to  the  l/oard  to  be  left  at  their  office. — Comuninications 
by  the  board  how  to  be  authenticated.  What  shall  be  deemed  good  service 
on  milway  company. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  all  notices,  returns,  and  other 
documents  required  by  this  Act  to  be  given  to  or  laid  before  the  lords  of  the 
said  committee  shall  be  delivered  to  or  sent  by  the  post  to  the  office  of  the 
lords  of  the  said  committee  ;  and  all  notices,  appointments,  requisitions,  cer- 
tificates, or  other  documents  in  writing,  signed  by  one  of  the  secretaries  of 
tlie  said  connnittee,  or  by  some  officer  appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  lords 
of  the  said  committee,  and  purporting  to  be  made  by  the  lords  of  the  said 
oommiltee,  shall,  for  the  i)urposcs  of  this  Act,  be  deemed  to  have  been  made 
))y  tlie  lords  of  the  said  committee ;  and  service  of  the  same  upon  any  one  or 
more  of  the  directors  of  any  railway  company,  or  on  the  secretary  or  clerk  of 
the  said  company,  or  by  leaving  the  same  with  the  clerk  or  officer  at  one  of 
the  stations  belonging  to  the  said  company,  shall  be  deemed  good  service 
upon  the  said  company. 

Meaning  of  the  u'ords  "railway"  and  "company." — And  he  it  enacted, 
that  wherever  the  word  "  railway"  is  used  in  this  Act  it  shall  be  construed 
to  extend  to  all  railv\ays  constructed  under  the  powers  of  any  Act  of  Parlia- 


ment, and  intended  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  in  or  upon  carriages 
drawn  or  impelled  by  the  power  of  steam  or  by  any  other  mechanical  power ; 
and  wherever  the  word  "  company"  is  used  in  this  Act  it  shall  be  construed 
to  extend  to  and  include  the  proprietors  for  the  time  being  of  any  such  rail- 
way, whether  a  body  coqiorate  or  iiuliWduals,  and  their  lessees,  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  unless  the  subject  or  context  be  repugnant  to 
such  consfniction. 

Jet  may  be  repealed  this  session. — And  be  it  enacted,  that  this  Act  may 
be  amended  or  repealed  by  any  Act  to  be  passed  in  the  present  Session  of 
Parliament. 


THK  THAMES  EMBANKMENT. 

Abridgement  of  the  Evidence. 

(Concluded from  p.  360.J 

Mr.  Stephen  Leach  stated,  that  he  is  clerk  of  the  works  on  the  river  Thames, 
from  .Staines  to   Yautlet  Creek;  39  years  in  all  he  has  been  in  the  service 
of  the   corporation  :   nine  years  assistant  to  his  predecessor,  and  30  years 
since.     Very  considerable  improvements  have  taken  place  under  his  direction 
in  the  navigation  of  the  Thames  between  Putney  and  Staines  ;  when  he  came 
into  the  oflice,  the  navigation  there   was  in  a  very  bad  state  ;  it  was  no  un- 
usual thing  for  50  or  60  barges  to  be  aground  in  one  place,  and  some  of  them 
he  has  knimn  to  be  a  fortnight  working  through  the  city  jurisdiction.    At 
present  they  get  up  with  tolerable  certainty,  from  the  Pool  to  Staines,  in  16 
or  18  hours,  and  dowai  from  that  place  in  less  time  ;  those  improvements  have 
been  made  under  his  direction.    "The  improvements  consist  of  the  building  of 
six  pound-locks  and  five  veirs,  in  ditierent  places,  wliere  the  impediments 
were  the  greatest ;  the  removal  of  a  number  of  shoals,  and  the  raising  of 
towing-paths  with  the  ballast  so  removed.     He  has  considered  the  plan  now 
before  the  Committee  for  embanking  the  river  Thames  from  Vaushall  Bridge 
to  London  Bridge,  on  the  north  side  ;  he  considers  it  certainly  as  calculated 
to  effect  an  indispensable  improvement,  by  a  very  obvious  and  usual  mode  of 
improving  river  navigation,  namely,  by  contraction;  it  is  much  too  wide  in 
several  places  to  preserve  a  uniform  depth,  and  a  convenient  one  for  naviga- 
tion.    The  object  of  this  embankment  would  be  to  equaUze  the  section  of  the 
river,  to  regulate  the  velocity,  and  thereby  to  displace  and  enclose  the  large 
quantities  of  mud  which  are  at  present  on  the  shores,  and  which  receive  the 
noxious  contents  of  the  sewers.    The  embankment  bef; ins  at  Vauxhall  Bridge, 
where  there  is  a  short  length,  not  very  important.     With  regard  to  the  na- 
vigation that  joins  from  Vauxhall  Bridge  to  Millbank,  opposite  the  Peniten- 
tiary, there   the  embankment  is  complete,  which  is  carried  out   to  the  full 
extent ;  there  is  no  intention  in  that  part  of  carrying  it  further  out  ;  he  con- 
siders it  as  a  specimen  of  what  the  embankment  would  be  if  it  were  continued 
in  a  similar  way.    The  line  is  taken  to  the  Horseferry-road,  Horseferry-stairs, 
in  front  of  the  Marquess  of  Westminster's  property  ;  that  vsould  be  a  very 
Ijeneficial  improvement  in  his  opinion.     No  part  of  that  is  embanked  at  pre- 
sent ;  the  proposition  is,  to  come  flush  with  a  very  old  wharf,  w  hich  has  been 
there  for  many  years,  now  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Johnson,  a  stone  wharf, 
in  a  line  with  Ihe  embankment  at  the  Parliament  Houses,  which  completes  it 
to  Westminster  Bridge;  below  Westminster  Bridge  the  embankment  is  pro- 
posed to  be  continued  to  Scotland-yard  ;  and  there,  on  account  of  the  parti- 
cular nature  of  the  business,  and  the  number  of  coal  barges,  it  is  proposed  to 
discontinue   the  embankment,  and  adopt  a  low  embankment  of  some  two  or 
three  feet  above  low  water,  so  as  to  form  a  dock  for  the  more  convenient 
carrying  and  entering  those  barges  ;  that  is  Mr.  Walker's  plan,  and  it  is  one 
in  wliich  he  (Mr.  Leach)  quite  concurs,  according  to  the  present  occupation. 
From  Scotland-yard,  in  front  of   the  llunperford  Market  estate,  the  York- 
buildings'  estate,  the  Savoy,  and  so  on,  he  thinks  there  is  a  length  of  about 
1,400  feet,  and  an  average  width  of  about  300  feet ;  the  mud  on  part  of  this 
ground  is  alreadv  so  grown  up  as  to  have  a  pretty  large  vegetation  upon  it 
in  front  of  York-Tiuildings,  already  embanked  with  an  accumulation  of  mud. 
From  Waterloo  Bridge  the  embankment  is  proposed  to  be  continued  in  front 
of  Somerset  House  and  King's  College,  auout  600  feet  in  length,  and  all 
average  width  of  130  feet ;  and  at  no  place,  in  his  opinion,  is  an  embankment 
so  much  needed  as  in  front  of  Somerset  House,  where  there  is  a  very  lofty 
heavy  pile  of  building  imniedialely  on  Ihe  brink  of  the  river,  and  he  thinks 
it  wants  sumething  to  defend  it  in  tront  of  it,  which  woukl  be  a  protection  to 
the  building;  there  is  a  depth  of  water  in  frunt  of  it,  at  Ihe  upper  end  of  it 
particularly;  the  set  of  the  current  is  immediately  in  that  direction  :  that 
violent  current  has  so  deepened  the  water  at  Waterloo  Bridge,  that  the  late 
Sir  Edw  ard  Banks  recommended  a  deposit  of  about  3.000  tons  of  stone  to  pro- 
tect the  Bridge.     l'"rom  King's  Cullege  the  embankment  proceeds  about  460 
feet  in  length,  with  an  average  wiilfh  of  about  190  feet  to  Water-street,  from 
whence,  the  occupation  ot  the  wharfs  being  principally  by  coal  merchants, 
the  open-dock  system   of  low  wharfing  is  proposed  ;  there  must  be  an  open 
dock  there  to  accommodate  the  coal  trade;  then  the  embankment  »ould  be 
continued  to  the  end  of  Temple  Gardens  ;  it  is  tlieu  intended  to  adopt  the 
open-dock  system  and  the  low  wharfing  below  the  Temple,  from  Whitefriars- 
dock  to  Ulackfriars  Bridge.    There  is  nothing  particular  between  Blackfriars 
and  Soulhwark  Bridges,  only  to  correct  the  present  irregularities,  and  make 
a  fair  and  straight  line.     It  goes  on  to  London  Bridge  ;  at  the  bridge  it  wants 
no  contraction  whatever,  it  is  already  (piile  small  enough. 

Mr.  James  H'hile  Higgins  was  examineil ;  he  is  a  surveyor  of  long  standing  ; 
has  been  engaged  both  in  the  service  of  the  Commissioners  of  Woods  and 
Forests,  and  of  the  City  of  London,  on  very  many  occasions.  The  quantity 
of  land  to  be  embanked  is,'J!)5,400feet,  that  is,  reclaimed  by  suld  embankment ; 
that  1  have  from  Mr.  Walker's  estimate, and  that  is  independentof  theCrown 
property.  The  amount  of  Crown  property  is  430,1,'50  feet.  With  reference  to 
value,  it  is  an  exceedingly  difficult  question  to  deal  with,  and  one  that_does 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


383 


not  often  occur  ;  and  as  practice  and  experience  are  the  best  test  of  value,  he 
has  felt  !i  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  dealing  with  it.    He  has  mide  it  a  matter 
of  inquiry,  and  having  had  a  great  deal   to  do  with  wharf  property,  perhaps 
more  than  most  professional  persons    he  has  endeavoured  to  bring  the  ex- 
perience he  possesses  and   the  infi  rmation  he  could  gain  to  bear  upon  the 
subject ;  the  conviction  of  his  mind   is,  that  2d.  a  superficial  foot,  which  was 
talked  of.  the  property  could  not  bear  -,  he  thinks  it  would  be  excessive  ;  but 
he  thinks  Id.  a  foot  superficial   might  be  borne,   which  would   yield  nearly 
2,500i.  per  annum  upon  the  siilid  embankment  ;  he  thinks  so,  as  he  has  already 
Stated,  from  the  experience  he  has,  from  the  advantages  it  is  calculated  to 
afford.    It  involves  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  river,  which 
the  persons  using  the  wharfs  would  be  benefited  by;  it  gives  them  an  in- 
creased quantity  of  freehold  property;  and  with  regard  to  tliat  freehold  pro- 
perty, if,  as  was  done  in  a  fomier  case,  he  believes,  and   that  to  some  con- 
siderable extent,  at  the  time  of  building  Blackfriars  Bridge,  tlie  freehold 
property  was  madi^  also  free  from  rates  and  taxes,  it  would  atford  another 
advantage.    That  properly  so  reclaimed  at  Blackfriars  Bridge  was  charged 
at  Ifi.  a  foot,  he  finds ;  as  far  as  he  has  been  able  to  learn,  it  was  found  to  work 
well ;  and  one  advantage  that  would  be  afibrded  here  is,  that  in  some  cases 
persons  with  bad  wharf  walls  would  get  good  ones.     In  other  cases,  the  gene- 
ral property  would  be  secured  by  this  embankment,  and  a  great  public  high- 
way, the  Thames,  would  be  benefited,  and  persons  using  it.     Persons  possess- 
ing themselves  of  freehold  land,  he  thinKS.  would  have  no  just  ground  of 
complaint  in  paying  \d.  a  foot  for   the  property  reclaimed  ;  but  tljere  would 
be  this  difficulty  about  It.  and  one  which  the  honourable  Committee  will  feel 
perhaps  to  be  considerable,  a  penny  a  foot  on  some  portion  of  the  property 
would  be  much  ton  little,  and  on  others  it  would  be  too  much ;  in  some  cases 
persons  would  get  Ihe  more  valuable  part  of  the  property  in  Thames-street; 
he  knows  that  they  would  be  very  glad  to  pay  2d.  a  foot ;  but  in  other  cases 
he  knows  persons  w  ould  not  be  willing  to   pay  a  penny  per  foot.    The  hon- 
ourable member  for  Lambeth  has  alluded  to  eases  in  which  the  advantages 
now  possessed  by  individuals  would  be  lessened.    Those  points  all  want  con- 
sideration.    Every  individual  case,  to  do  what  he  is  quite  sure  the  Committee 
are  desirous  to  do,  viz.  to  do  justice,  would  require  a  matter  of  consideration  ; 
that  is  an  affair  which  he  has  not  entered  upon  except   in  this  way,  he  has 
judged  from  bis  own  experience.     He   has   valued  a  good  deal  of  wharf  pro- 
perty ;  he  has  lately  had  to  buy  a  good  deal  for  the  Crown  at  the  enormous 
price  that  was  invariably  asked  ;  we  were  then  told  that  a  few  feet  «  ere  worth 
nobody  knows  what  money.     He  has  also  bad  to  value  with  reference  to  a 
good  deal  of  the  parish  assessments  along  the  river,  Hungerford  Market  and 
other  parts;  now  he  is  quite  satisfied  that  in  some  cases  it  would  be  an  ex- 
traordinary boon  at  a  penny  per  foot ;  but  in  others  \d.  per  foot  could  not  be 
borne.  How  the  separate  cases  are  to  be  met  he  must  leave  to  the  Committee  ; 
but,  in  going  from  wharf  to  wharf,  (he  does  not  mean  the  C^ommittee  to  un- 
derstand that  he  has  been  on  every  wharf,  he  has  been  on  many),  he  has  put 
down  what  each  h  harf  would  bear,  and  that  comes  nearly  to  Irf.  per  foot,  so 
that  he  feels  warranted  in  saying  that  2.500/.  a  year  might  be  charged  for  the 
whole  line  of  embankment,  from  one  extremity  to  the  other,  where  a  solid 
embankment  exists ;  but  it  is  a  miilter  of  considerable  difficulty.    He  has  en- 
deavoured to  do  it  as  honestly  and  impartially  as  he  could,  and  bring  all  the 
experience  which  he  has  to  the  subject.    Then  as  regards  the  dwarf  piling, 
that  is  72.5,700  feet ;  the  superficial  quantity  enclosed  by  the  dwarf  piling,  a 
halfpenny  per  foot  has  been  talked  of  for  that ;  he  has  more  difficulty  in  this 
than  in  the  other  case,  in  saying  what  is  right.    There  are  advantages  with 
reference  to  the  navigation  and  security  oi   buildings,  and  the  possession  of 
freehold  instead  ol^  what,  so  far  as  he  has  heard  of  the  evidence,  appears  to  be 
a  doubtful  property,  the  city  claiming  a  right  over  it,  which  would  be  aban- 
doned, he  takes  it.  in  this  case.     But  he  has  not,  as  in  the  case  oF  Blackfriars 
Bridge,  any  test  here,  and   after  thinking  of  it  a  good  deal,  he  has  taken  an 
annual  sum  for  it  of  1,133/.,  that  is,  between  a  halfpenny  and  a  farthing,  the 
intermediate  sum,  as  an  annual  sum  ;  a  halfpenny  per  foot  was  mentioned  ; 
he  thought  it  too  much,  for  it  gave  larger  rent  in  some  phicesthan  it  appeared 
to  me  they  could  bear,  though  they  have  advantages  in  this  case ;  by  becom- 
ing their  own  freehold  they  would  have  a  right  to  embank  at  any  future 
period  ;  but  it  is  a  matter  of  so  much  difiicully,  that  to  give  his  evidence  as 
he  could  upon  some  subjects,  to  say  that  he  knows  from  experience  that  the 
property  would  produce  such  results,  he  could  not  pretend  to  do.    It  is  open 
to  much  doubt.     His  impression  is,  that  in  both  cases  he  has  been  moderate  ; 
he  intended  to  be  so.     It  would  be  worth  to  sell,  twenty-five  years'  purchase. 
He  would  not  be  warranted  in  putting  it  at  25  years'  purchase  unless  it  was 
connected  with  the  other  portions  of  tbe  properly.     Freehold  land  connected 
with  buildings  is  generally  at 20  years'  purchase  only.     A  ground-rent,  amply 
secured,  has  sold  tor  30  or  31  years'  purchase.    This  is  an  intermediate  case 
of  25  years'  purchase.     He  thinks  30  years  would  be  too  much,  as  there  is 
some  speculation  in  it,  or  else  it  is  a  ground-rent,  and  therefore  he  thought 
25  was  safer. 

The  following  is  tbe  Report  of  Mr.  Walker  made  in  1821.  referred  to  in  his 
evidence  given  in  the  last  month's  Journal. 

•■  From  the  recent,  and,  we  believe,  accurate  surveys  that  have  been  made, 
it  appears  that  the  difference  of  level  in  the  water  above  and  beluw'  bridge, 
towards  the  latter  end  of  the  ebb  of  a  spring  tide,  is  from  4  feet  4  inches  to  5 
feet  7  inches  ;  the  water  is  therefore  at  present  dammed  up  to  that  extent  at 
the  bridge ;  we  find,  by  calculation,  that  this  pen  will  be  redticed  from,  .say  5 
feet,  to  about  3  inches,  by  the  proposed  alterations ;  and  the  water  above 
bridge,  at  low  water,  will  therefore  be  4  feet  9  inches  lower  than  at  present. 
But  as  the  velocity  of  the  stream  above  bridge  will  be  increased  by  a  greater 
quantity  of  water  having  to  run  through  in  the  same  time,  both  on-account 
of  the  water  flow  ing  higher  at  high  water,  and  ebbing  lower  at  low  water,  the 
inclination  of  the  surface  will  also  be  increased  ;  and  this  lowering  of  4  feet 
9  inches,  above  referred  to,  will  decrease  as  the  distance  from  the  bridge  in- 
creases. Now,  by  the  survey  above  referred  to,  the  present  rise  in  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  from  London  Bridge  to  Westminster  Bridjje,  at  low  water, 
is  12  inches,  being  6  inches,  per  mile  ;  and  supposing  the  velocity,  after  the 
alterations,  to  be  increased  so  as  to  produce  twice  the  inclination,  or  12  inches 
per  mile,  the  surface  of  the  water  at  Westminster  Bridge  will  be  lowered,  at 


low  water,  4  feet  9  inches,  less  one  foot  (the  increase  of  fall),  or  3  feet  9  inches 
below  its  present  level  at  spring  tides.     Again,  from   the  best  information  we 
can  collect,  the  rise  of  surface  from  Westminster  to  Fulham  is  about  8  inches 
per  inile  ;  and  as  the  effect  of  the  alterations  of  London  Bridge  will  be  less 
sensiljly  felt  here  than   nearer  the  bridge,    we  assume  that  tbe  inclination, 
after  the  alterations,  will  be  12  inches  per  mile,  and  the  distance  being  nearly 
6  miles,  the  water  at  Fulham  will  be  lowered  at  low  water  3  feet  9  inches  less 
2  feet,  or  1  foot  9  inches,  which  will  increase  as  we  descend  towards  West- 
minster Bridge,  when  (as  before  stated)  the  depression  will  be  3  feet  9  inches. 
Again,  as  at  Fulham.  the  surface  will  be  lowered  I  foot  9  inches,   this  de- 
pression  will  decrease  upwards  ;  but  as  in  any  given  length  upwards,  the 
effect  of  the  proposed  alterations  will  also  decrease,  this  depth  (1  foot  9  inches) 
will  be  felt  a  considerable  way  up  the  river  ;  for  wc  think  it  probable  that  the 
efl'ect   of  the  alterations  may  be  sensible,  in  point  of  the  navigation,  for  6 
miles  above  Fulham  Bridge,  or  at  Kew  Bridge  ;  and  that  though  it  will  really 
extend  higher,  we  apprehend  that  its  effects  will  not  be  of  any  consequence 
above  th.at  point.    We  believe  there  is  no  speculation  in  any  of  the  above 
numbers,  excepting  in  the  assumed  increase  of  declination  of  surface  ;  for  the 
correctness  of  which  we  cannot  vouch,  but  we  have  been  guided  by  the  con- 
sideration that  4  feet  9  inches  at  low  water,  and  about  9  inches  at  high  water, 
making  together  5  feet  6  inches,   will  be   added  to  the  depth  of  water  which 
» ill  pass  through   the  bridge  at  every  spring  tide  ;  and  by  allowing  an  in- 
crease of  fall  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  increase  of  velocity  or  quan- 
tity, and  also  by  referring  to  the  inclination  in  the  upper  part  of  the  river, 
say  between  Morllake  and  Teddington,  as  thown  upon  Mr.  Whitwortli's  sur- 
vey, and  making  such  allowance  as  from   tbe  difference  of  situation  appeared 
tons  reasonable,  we  apprehend  that  we  are  not  far  from  being  correct,  parti- 
cularly between   Fulham  and  London  Bridge  ;  and  it  is  hardly  necessary, 
after  the  above,  to  say  that  we  agree  in  n|iinion  w  ith  Mr.  .Smeaton,  that,  by 
this  reduction  of  fall  at  the  bridge,  '  the  navigation  of  that  pjart  of  the  river 
will  be  materially  affected.'    It  appears  to  us,  from  our  own  knowledge,  and 
from  the  statements  that  have  been  given  to  us,  that  although  the  increased 
velocity  of  the  river  would  have  a  tendency  to  restore  the  river  to  its  ancient 
depth,  and  in  course  of  time  would  probably  effect  that  object,  yet  that  so 
great  a  lowering  at  once  would  be  productive  of  great  temporary  incon- 
venience, unless  artificial  means  were  resorted  to,  to  deepen  the  shoals,  which, 
even  in  the  present  state  of  the  river,  are  attended   with  considerable  hin- 
drance to  the  navigation.    Mr.  Smeaton's  opinion  on  this  subject  goes  beyond 
our  ideas  of  time  ;  but,  as  great  respect  is  due  to  his  opinion,  we  extract  it  in 
his  own  words:  '  If  this  difference  of  bed,'  that  is,  the  difference  above  and 
below  bridge,  '  is  original,  we  must  expect  it  to  remain  after  the  bridge  is 
taken  away  ;  but  if  an  effect,  the  cause  being  removed,  the  river  would  gra- 
dually restore  itself;  but  as  this  might  probably  take  up  700  or  800  years 
(the  time  it  ha.s  probaiJy  been  gathering),  the  work  of  restitution  would  go 
on  far  too  slowly  to  answer  the  demands  of  the  present  generation.'     Our 
opinion  is.  that  the  difference  of  level  in  the  bottom  of  the  river,  above  and 
below  bridge,  is  caused,  in  a  great  measure,  by  the  pen  of  the  bridge ;  and 
although  we  think  that  the  work  of  restitution  would  be  complete  in  less  time 
than  stated  by  Mr.  Smeaton,  unless  where  the  accumulation  has  got  cemented 
into  a  solid  mass,  which  we  have  no  doubt  is  in  many  places  the  case,  yet, 
both  for  the  ptu-poses  of  present  trade,  and  to  prevent  the  shoals  from  beinjj 
moved  down  tbe  river  by  the  current,  and  forming  obstructions  lower  down 
the  river  or  below  bridge,  we  think  that  ballasting  to  a  great  extent  will  be 
expedient  and  requisite;  as.  in  addition  to  the  above  reason,  the  stuff' that 
is  excavated  from  the  upper  part  may  be  applied  to  raise  ihe  towing-paths 
and  banks,  so  as  to  meet  the  increased  height  of  the  high  water,  which  will 
occasionally  be  from  1  to  2  feet  above  the  present  level.    One  principal  shoal 
is  close  above  London  Bridge,  on  the  Surrey  side  ;  it  extends  almost  half-way 
across  the  river,  and  is  even  now  occasionally  above  low  water.    This  must 
therefore  be  deepened  to  a  considerable  extent  ;  and  to  prevent  the  opening 
of  any  of  the   proposed   widened   arches,  which  will  he  opposite  to  it,  from 
washing  any  part  of  it  into  the  Fool,  and  settling  upon  the  shoals  below  bridge, 
it,  as  well  as  the  other  shoals,  ought  to  be  ballasted  away  before  the  proposed 
arches  are  opened.    In  ref>:ard  to  Ihe  navigation  throvigh  London  Bridge,  we 
are  of  opinion  that  it  will  be  very  essentially  improved  by  the  proposed  alter- 
ations, and  that  the  cause  of  the  losses,  accidents,  and  dangers  to  which  the 
ptissage  is  at  present  subject,  from  the  great  fall  or  shoot  in  the  arches,  will 
be  almost  entirely  removed.    We  have  mentioned,  that  the  velocity  of  the 
current  above  bridge  will  be  increased.    Tbis  will  take  place  during  both  the 
flood  and  ebb  tide,  but  will  be  greatest  in  the  latter  ;  and  the  increase  of  ve- 
locity will,  as  before  stated,  be  greatest  Ijetween  Westminster  and  L^cmdon 
Bridges,     in  our  calculation  of  the  fall,  we  have  supposed  that  the  increase  of 
velocity  will  amount  to  one-half  of  the  present  velocity.    This  will,  in  many 
ca.ses,   be  important,  not  only  as  regards  the  velocity  itself,  (as  to  which  it 
will  sometimes  be  found  of  advantage  to  craft  and  sometimes  probably  other- 
wise), but  as  the  water  will  ebb  sooner  from  all  the  wharfs,  the  time  in  each 
tide  during  which  the  barges  are  afloat  at  the  wharfs  and  when  they  can  ffoat 
to  and  from  them,  will  be  decreased.    This  will,  so  far,  he  a  disadvantage 
l3ut  will  occur  only  during  the  ebb  of  tide.    It  is  evident,  however,  that  it 
will  not  be  comiiensated  by  the  increased  velocity  of  the  flood-tide  bringing 
tlie  barges  sooner  to  the  wharf's  above  bridge,  as  the  velocity  of  the  flood  will 
not  be  so  much  increased   as  that  of  the  ebb-tide,  and  although  barges  may 
come  up  opposite  to  the  wharfs  sooner  in  the  tide  than  they  do  at  present,  if 
the  channel  is  deep  enough,  they  will  not  be  able  to  get  close  to  the  wharfs 
until  about  the  same  time  of  tide  they  do  at  present,  unless  a  general  artificial 
deepening  takes  place  opposite  to  each  wharf.    In  some  cases,  however,  barges 
which  may  get  opposite  to  the  wharfs  early  in  the  tide,  will  be  enabled  by 
having  done  so  to  draw  in  to  the  w  harfs  so  soon  as  there  is  depth  enough  of 
water  to  float  them  in,  and,  so  far  as  this  goes,  the  effect  of  this  proposed 
alteration  « ill  be  useful.    The  great  cause  of  shoals  is  the  unequal  velocity  of 
currents,  and  this  inequality  increases  as  the  velocity  mcieases;  for  there- 
fore it  is  that  floods,  or  great  velocities,  are  always  found  to  add  to  the  shoals 
of  navigable  rivers,  aud  lo  deepen  «hat  was  too  deep  before.    The  increased 
current  through  the  narrow'  parts  disturbs  and  carries  down  the  materials  of 
the  bottom  through  those  narrow  parts  or  deeps,  and  they  are  lodged  upon 

3  F  2 


3S4 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


the  shoals  liclow,  where  the  decreased  velocity,  caused  by  the  wldenlne  of  the 
river,  has  not  force  enoii;^h  to  carry  them  along  with  it.  There  ean  be  no 
more  striking  illustration  of  this  general  theory,  than  the  effect  of  floods  upon 
the  river  near  London  Hridge,  which  is  invariably  to  deejien  belneen  tlie 
arche.s.  and  ai  the  same  time  to  raise  the  shoals  below  the  biiilge;  therefore, 
althoMgii  the  natural  effect  of  the  increase  of  current  is  \ip()n  'he  ^^"holc  to 
deepen  its  channel,  it  does  it  so  partially  that  it  has  also  the  eflect.  in  rivers 
of  unequal  current,  such  as  the  Thames  is,  of  forming  and  increasing  shoals, 
and  unless  guarded  against  by  projier  means  may  therefi  re  be  injurious  to 
the  navigation.  Now  the  effect  of  opening  London  Bridge  Mill  be.  that  tlie 
cbb-tidc  and  land-floods,  not  being  checked  by  the  pen  of  London  Bridge, 
will  increase  in  velocity  to  the  extent  vp  the  river  that  the  eflects  of  this  pen 
are  felt,  and  produce  the  consequences  we  have  mentioned,  so  that  an  increase 
of  expense  in  drepening  the  shoals  after  floods,  and  a  greater  iiier|uality  of 
level  in  the  bottom,  will  I'e  the  consequence,  and  this  will  be  a  lasting  ex- 
pense unless  means  are  taken  to  prevent  it.  The  means  we  should  recommend 
are,  the  nearer  approsimation  to  an  uniform  velocity,  which  would  best  be  ac- 


complished by  producing  an  rqitolifij  of  area,  such  as  contracting  the  width  of 
the  river  abreast  of  the  shoals,  by  means  of  enthanhments  or  otherwise :  as  this 
cannot,  however,  be  done  in  many  places  to  the  required  extent  without 
enormous  expense,  ballasting  must  be  had  recourse  to  until  a  new  regimen 
corresponding  to  the  existing  circumstances  is  obtained.  Finally,  althougli 
we  think  it  might  have  been  desirable  that  the  great  change,  which  the  pro- 
posed opening  of  the  arches  in  London  Bridge  will  certainly  produce  in  the 
navigation,  had  been  made,  so  that  ilicir  effects  might  have  been  felt,  and 
things  conformed  to  the  new  state  by  degrees,  yet  when  called  upon  to  give 
an  opinion  witheut  these  experiments,  \\c  feel  little  hesitation  in  saying  that 
if  effectual  means  are  taken  for  preventing  the  evils  to  which  we  have  re- 
ferred, then  the  proposed  alterations  will  be  benefic  al  to  the  navigation  above 
bridge,  but  that  without  those  efleclual  means  they  will  be  injurious.'" 

No» ,  the  fact  is,  that  the  alterations  have  been  made  to  the  full  extent 
stated  in  this  report,  and  the  consequences  have  been  to  the  lull  extent  of 
what  is  stated,  but  as  yet  no  means  have  been  taken  to  remove  the  evil  which 
was  anticipated,  and  is  now  fell. 


A  Statement  showing  the  .Sec'ional  Areas  of  the  River  Tliames,  taken  in  the  Years  1823  and  1831. 


Sectional  Area 

of  the 

Tidal  Water 

Sectional  Area 
below 

Total 
Sectional  Area 

of  the 
River  Thames 

No.  7. 

below 

Trinity  High-water 

Mark. 

Difference 

Low-water  Mark. 

Difference 

below 
TrinityHigh-water 

Difference 

Sections. 

in  1831. 

in  1831. 

in  1831.3 

By 

By 

By 

o^y 

e^-^ 

o'^y 

Survey 

Survey 

Survey 

Survey 

Survey 

Survev 

[ 

of  1823. 

of  1831. 

of  1823. 
Siip.Feet. 

of  1831. 
Sup.Feet. 

of  1823. 

of  183i. 

Sup. Feet. 

Sup. Feet. 

Sup.Feet. 

.Sup.Feet. 

About  230    yards   north  of  West- 
minster Bridge 

4 

15,409 

16,559 

increase  1,150 

3,939 

3,487 

decrease     4,52 

19,348 

20,046 

increase     698 

Near  King's  Arms  Stairs  and  M'hite- 

5 

16,411 

17,090 

ditto        679 

4,757 

6,570 

increase  1,813 

21,168 

23,660 

ditto     2,492 

Near  Huiigerford  Stairs 
Near  Waterloo  Bridge     , 
Opposite  Bouverie  Street 

6 

16,083 

17.902 

ditto      1,819 

3.891 

3,920 

ditto         29 

19,974 

21,8:'2 

ditto     1,848 

8 

16,818 

16.958 

ditto         140 

3,7.52 

3,947 

ditto        195 

20,570 

20,905 

ditto       335 

11 

13,959 

14,310 

ditto        351 

4,332 

3,900 

decrease     432 

18,291 

18,210 

decrease      81 

BetHeen  Blackfriars  and  Southwark 
Bridge 

13 

12,982 

13,822 

ditto        840 

3,976 

3,381 

ditto        595 

16,958 

17,203 

increase     245 

PROCCSDINGS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES. 

INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 
/Ipril  14. — Tlie  President  in  the  Chair. 

"  Des-cripti07i  of  a  Diptamomefer,  or  an  Instrument  for  meai^uring  Hie 
Friction  on  Roads,  Railways,  Canals,  Sfc."  By  Henry  CaiT,  Grad.  Inst.  C. E. 
The  object  of  Mr.  Can-'s  modification  of  the  djTiamometer  is  to  obviate  the 
irregularity  of  the  common  indicator  arm,  caused  by  the  jerking  motion  of 
the  tractive  power  or  any  inequality  of  resistance.  The  instrument  consists 
of  a  cylinder  half  tilled  with  mercury,  and  containing  a  piston  connected  with 
the  spring  of  the  dynamometer,  so  as  to  be  lowered  or  raised  as  the  tractive 
power  is  increased  or  diminished.  Two  tubes  of  glass,  connected  by  a  pass- 
age with  a  regulating  valve,  stand  in  front  of  the  cylinder,  one  of  them  com- 
municating freely  with  it,  and  in  this  tube  the  mercury  is  raised  or  lowered 
proportionally  to  the  power  applied;  while  in  the  other,  an  average  of  the 
variations  is  obtained  as  the  facility  of  communication  between  the  tubes  is 
increased  or  diminished  by  the  opening  or  closing  of  the  stop-valve.  The  in- 
strument must  be  graduated  by  actual  experiment,  and  the  results  of  the 
average  power  may  be  read  oft' from  the  scales  placed  behind  the  tubes.  The 
paper  is  illustrated  by  a  detailed  drawing  of  the  machine. 

*'  .Jn  account  of  a  proposed  .Suspension  Bridge  over  the  Uaslar  Lake  al 
Portsnionth."     By  Andrew  Burn,  Jun.,  Grad.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  usual  calculation  for  the  maximum  load  on  each  sujicrlicial  foot  of  the 
jilatforms  of  suspension  bridges  is  70  lb. ;  b\it,  as  in  the  event  of  a  crowd  of 
persons  assembling  the  pressure  may  increase  to  nearly  100  lb.  per  foot,  and 
by  the  passage  of  soldiers  marching  in  regular  time  the  strain  may  be  greatly 
augmented,  the  projector  assumed  200  lb.  per  superficial  foot  as  the  amount 
of  load  to  which  the  platform  might  be  subjected.  The  pecidiar  feature  of 
this  bridge  is  the  substitution  of  cast-iron  chains  for  the  wrought-iron  ones 
generally  used.  This  deviation  from  the  usual  practice  is  adopted  as  a  mea- 
sure of  cconomv,  and  with  a  view  of  increasing  their  stability  and  durability, 
cast-iron  being  much  less  iiiflueuccd  by  atmospheric  action  than  wrought- 
irou.  Cast-iion  beams,  when  well  proportioned,  will  bear  a  very  considerable 
tensile  strain.  As  these  chains  would  be  proved  beyond  the  weight  they  are 
intended  to  bear,  no  doubt  is  entertained  bv  the  author  of  their  securitv.  The 


platform,  which  is  formed  of  transverse  iron  girders  carrv'ing  cast-iron  plates 
f  of  an  inch  thick,  with  dovetails  falling  into  holes  cast  in  the  girders,  is  sus- 
pended by  WTOught-iron  rods  1^  inch  square  from  two  lines  of  chain  only,  as 
the  strain  is  more  easily  brought  to  bear  on  them  than  on  a  greater  number 
of  chains.  They  are  trussed  laterally  to  prevent  oscillation,  and  the  balus- 
trade is  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  undulation  so  prejudicial  to  suspen- 
sion bridges  generally.  To  insure  a  perfect  bearing,  each  pair  of  links  of  the 
chains  are  in  manufacturing  cramped  together,  and  the  holes  bored  out  to 
receive  the  pins  which  are  turned  to  fit  them  accurately ;  they  are  of  a  larger 
size  than  usual,  being  4  inches  diameter,  and  a  less  numlier  are  employed. 
The  piers  on  which  the  chains  pass  are  of  cast-iron,  33  feet  high  above  the 
level  of  the  roadwav. 

Feet. 
The  extreme  length  of  the  bridge  is       .         .         •         .     032 

The  breadth  of  the  roadway l/J 

The  clear  waterway  between  the  piers  .         .         .     300 

The  clear  headway  of  the  platform  above  the  high  water 

hne 18.\ 

Ditto  ditto  above  low  water  hne         .         .       33 

The  tension  on  the  chains  is  calculated  as  equal  to  991'4143  tons.  To  sus- 
tain this  tension,  the  section  of  the  chains  is  25C  square  inches,  and  taking  7 
tons  per  square  inch  as  the  elastic  limit  of  cast-iron,  the  resistance  of  the 
chains  will  equal  1792  tons,  leaving  a  surplus  of  SOO'IJ  tons  after  the  calcu- 
lated strain  has  been  deducted  from  the  real  strength  of  the  chains.  Three 
elaborate  detailed  drawings  accompany  tliis  paper. 

Jlr.  Smith,  of  Deenston,  e.rplained  a  nrni'  system  of  Lockage  for  Canals 
proposed  by  him,  a  model  of  which  he  presented  to  the  Institution. 

To  avoid  the  present  expensive  construction  of  locks  and  their  waste  of 
water,  Ihc  author  proposes  to  divide  the  canal  into  a  series  of  basins,  the 
water  levels  of  which  should  be  from  12  to  18  inches  above  each  other.  The 
extremity  of  each  basin  is  so  contracted  as  to  permit  only  the  free  passage  of 
a  ho.at ;  in  this  is  placed  a  single  gate,  hinged  to  a  sdl  across  the  bottom,  the 
head  pointing  at  a  given  angle  against  the  stream,  and  the  lateral  faces  press- 
ing against  rabbets  in  the  masonry.  The  gate  is  to  be  coustrncted  of  buoyant 
materials,  or  made  hollow  so  as  to  float  and  be  held  up  by  the  pressure  of  the 
water  in  the  higher  level ;  on  the  top  is  a  roller  to  facilit.ite  the  passage  of 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


.3Se 


the  boats.  When  a  boat  is  required  to  pass  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  level, 
the  how  end,  which  must  be  armed  with  an  inclined  ]n-ojeetion,  depresses  the 
gate  as  much  as  the  depth  of  the  immersion  of  the  boat,  and  as  much  water 
escapes  as  can  jjass  between  its  sides  and  the  walls  of  the  contracted  part  of 
the  basin.  The  same  action  takes  place  in  ascending,  except  that  a  certain 
amount  of  jiower  must  be  expended  to  enable  the  boat  to  surmount  the  dif- 
ference of  level  betv\een  the  basins.  The  quantity  of  water  wasted  by  each 
boat  would  be  in  proportion  to  its  immersion  and  the  speed  at  which  it  passed 
over  the  gate.  In  case  of  diflerent  sized  boats  passing  along  the  same  canal, 
it  is  proposed  to  ha%e  a  small  gate  forming  pait  of  the  main  gate,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  loss  of  water  which  would  ensue  from  the  whole  width  being  open 
for  the  passage  of  a  small  boat. 

This  system  has  only  been  tried  by  models ;  but  it  is  proposed  to  make  an 
essay  on  an  extensive  canal  next  summer,  when  the  results  will  be  communi- 
cated to  the  Institution. 

May  5. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected  : — Angier  JTarch  Perkins,  St- 
George  Burke,  and  Beriah  Botfield,  as  Associates. 

"  Description  of  the  Enginen  on  board  the  Iron  Steam  Tug,  the  Alice^  By 
J.  Patrick,  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  speed  of  this  boat  having  far  exceeded  the  constructor's  expectations, 
induced  the  author  to  send  a  description  of  her  proportions,  and  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  engines.  The  chief  peculiarity  in  the  engines  is  their  being 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  vessel,  with  the  two  cylinders  in  a  line  with  the 
keel,  and  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°,  inclining  inwards  towards  the  paddle 
shaft,  to  which  the  motion  is  communicated  direct  (without  the  use  of  side 
beams)  by  long  connecting  rods  attached  to  the  cross  heads,  which  are 
placed  at  the  lower  ends  of  the  cylinders,  instead  of  being  on  the  top  as  in 
the  usual  manner ;  the  connecting  rods  are  thus  enabled  to  be  three  times 
instead  of  twice  the  length  of  the  stroke,  as  is  usually  the  case.  The  framing 
is  entirely  of  wrougbt-iron  on  the  tension  principle,  and  appears  to  resist  the 
tendency  to  vibration  better  than  cast-iron  framing.  For  the  two  cylinders 
of  31  inches  diameter,  there  is  only  one  air  pump  of  22i  inches  diameter, 
with  19-J  inches  length  of  stroke,  instead  of  the  usual  complement  of  two  air 
pumps,  18  inches  diameter  each;  this  is  found  to  be  sufficient,  as  a  vacuum 
of  13f  lb.  per  square  inch  is  maintained.  One  of  the  advantages  proposed  by 
this  mode  of  construction  is  the  reduction  of  weight ;  these  engines  only 
weighing  9  cwt.  per  horse  power.  The  small  space  occupied  leaving  more 
room  for  passengers,  they  are  particularly  adapted  for  river  navigation,  where 
the  breadth  of  beam  must  be  limited.  The  simplicity  of  their  construction 
renders  them  less  liable  to  expensive  repairs. 
The  principal  proportions  of  the  Alice  are — 

Feet.     Inches. 
Length  between  perpendiculars        ...      95 

Breadth  of  beam  20 

Draft  of  water  ......         4  6 

Diameter  of  wheel 14 

Size  of  engines         .....         two  30  horse  power 

Diameter  of  cylinder         .         .         .         .         .         0  31  inches 

Length  of  stroke      ......         3  3 

The  engines  were  constructed  by  Messrs.  Davenport  and  Grindrod,  of 
Liverj)0ol.  Drawings  of  the  boat  and  engines  accompany  this  communica- 
tion. 

"  Deseription  of  an  Apparatus  for  preventing  the  Explosion  of  Steam 
Boilers."     By  Robert  M'Ewen. 

The  frequent  explosions  of  steam  boilers,  caused  in  many  instances  by  the 
steam  being  confined  until  it  acquires  a  density  greater  than  the  boiler  can 
resist,  induced  the  author  to  invent  a  simple,  self-acting  apparatus,  intended 
to  warn  the  engineer  whenever  the  pressure  exceeded  the  proper  degree  of 
safety. 

The  apparatus  under  consideration  is  constructed  on  the  principle  that 
steam,  in  proportion  to  its  density,  will  support  a  column  of  water  or  mer- 
cury, of  a  given  height,  and  that  any  fluid  will  find  the  same  level  in  two  or 
more  vessels,  provided  there  be  a  free  communication  between  them.  It  may 
be  called  a  mercurial  safety  valve,  and  consists  of  a  cyUnder,  within  w  liicli 
are  two  cups,  with  two  pipes  dipping  into  them  of  a  length  proportioned  to 
the  pressiu-e  of  the  steam ;  these  pipes  are  connected  at  the  top  with  two 
valves  on  one  spindle,  so  arranged,  as  that  when  one  is  open  the  other  must 
be  closed.  On  the  top  is  a  waste  steam  pipe  open  to  the  atmosphere.  One  pipe 
being  filled  with  mercury,  and  the  valve  connected  with  it  being  open,  the 
mercury  remains  stationary  until  the  pressure  of  the  steam  exceeds  its  proper 
point.  It  will  then  be  blo-mi  out  and  fall  into  the  empty  cup,  allowing  the 
steam  to  escape  by  the  waste  pipe,  and  giving  warning  to  the  engineer  by  its 
noise.  When  the  pressure  is  again  reduced  to  its  proper  point  the  valve  is 
reversed,  and  the  mercury  will,  on  the  next  occasion  of  an  increase  of  pressure, 
be  blown  back  again,  still  giving  warning  on  either  side. 
Plans  and  sections  of  this  apparatus  accompanied  the  paper. 
"  On  setting  out  Railway  Curves."  By  Charles  Bourns,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 
Mr.  Bourns  having  been  engaged  in  setting  out  the  Taff  Vale  Railway 
tlirough  a  country  presenting  circumstances  of  more  than  ordinary  difficulty, 
which  rendered  it  necessary  to  vary  the  radii  and  the  flexure  of  the  cm-ves 
frequently,  his  attention  was  particularly  directed  to  the  sulijeot ;  and  he  has 
treated  it  in  this  paper  clearly  and  successfully,  demonstrating  the  severaj 


cases  geometrically,  and  generally  in  a  plain  and  satisfactory  mannei-.  He 
calls  attention  to  the  inaccuracy  of  applying  a  square  to  the  setting  out  of 
segmental  curves,  particularly  those  of  short  radii,  and  recommends  an  offset 
staff  as  theoretically  correct  and  practically  much  more  convenient.  The 
general  rule  to  find  the  offset  is — "  Divide  the  number  of  inches  in  the  chain 
used  by  the  number  of  such  chains  in  the  radius  of  the  required  curve,  the 
quotient  is  the  offset  in  inches."  The  paper  is  accompanied  by  a  table  of 
offsets  for  curves  of  different  radii ;  which  the  author  found  extremely  con- 
venient for  use  in  the  field. 

The  paper  being  altogether  mathematical  is  not  adapted  for  publication  in 
abstract ;  but  it  will  be  given  at  length,  with  examples  and  diagrams,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Institution. 

"  Description  of  an  Instrument  for  describing  the  Profile  of  Roads."  By 
Heniy  Carr,  Grad.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  object  of  the  author  was  the  construction  of  a  machine,  which,  being 
drawn  along  any  road  of  moderately  even  surface,  should  describe  the  section 
of  the  line  over  which  it  passed.  It  is  evident,  that  if  a  pendulum  be  sus- 
pended from  a  frame  standing  perpendicularly  when  the  machine  rests  on  a 
horizontal  plane,  on  passing  over  a  plane  inclined  at  any  angle  with  the 
horizon,  the  pendulum  must  form  the  same  angle  with  the  frame  the  tan- 
gent of  which  angle  in  terms  of  the  radius  will  be  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  • 
plane.  The  duration  of  the  tangent  will  be  determined  by  the  paper  on 
which  the  secti.^n  is  drawn  being  made  to  traverse  at  a  speed  proportionate 
to  the  distance  passed  over;  and  the  extent,  by  the  diflerence  of  the  speeds 
of  a  nut  and  screw  which  are  made  to  revolve  in  the  same  direction — the  nut 
turning  at  a  constant  velocity,  and  the  screw  at  a  speed  differing  from  that 
of  the  nut  in  proportion  to  the  tangent,  slower  or  faster  as  the  tangent  is 
plus  or  minus,  raising  or  lowering  the  nut  according  to  the  deviation  of  the 
plane  from  the  horizontal  line. 

The  machinery  is  set  in  motion  by  the  wheels  of  the  carriage,  and  a  series 
of  wheels  and  pinions  of  given  diameters  cause  the  ground  line  and  datum 
Une  to  be  drawn  simultaneously  by  two  pencils  on  a  paper  which  gradually 
unfolds  itself  from  one  drum,  and  is  transfered  to  another  at  the  rate  of  16 
inches  per  mile  passed  over,  or  on  a  scale  of  5  chains  to  the  inch.  A  profile 
of  a  line  of  country  may  thus  be  obtained  with  sufficient  accuracy  for  a  pre- 
liminary survey. 

A  comprehensive  perspective  drawing  accompanies  the  paper,  and  explains 
the  construction  of  the  machine. 

May  12. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

"  Photography,  as  applicable  to  Engineering."  By  Alexander  Gordon,  M. 
Inst.  C.  E. 

The  object  of  the  author  in  this  paper  is  to  direct  general  attention  to  the 
advantages  which  may  be  expected  to  result  to  the  profession  of  the  Ci«I 
Engineer  from  the  discoveries  of  Mans.  Daguerre  and  others,  in  enabling 
copies  of  drawings,  or  views  of  buildings,  works,  or  even  of  machinery  when 
not  in  motion,  to  be  taken  with  perfect  accuracy  in  a  very  short  space  of 
time  and  with  comparatively  small  expense.  This  system  of  copying  not 
only  the  outline,  but  the  tints  of  light  and  shade,  united  with  accurate  linear 
perspective,  he  contends  may  be  easily  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the  engi- 
neer, as  well  as  to  all  those  professions  in  which  the  art  of  drawing  is  used. 
The  photographic  apparatus  has  already  been  employed  to  bring  before  us 
exact  copies  of  the  most  interesting  monuments  of  antiquity,  the  French 
antiquarians  and  artists  having  found  it  more  easy  and  correct  to  Daguerreo- 
type the  Egyptian  monuments  and  decipher  the  hieroglyphics  at  their  leisure, 
than  to  labour  over  the  originals. 

The  subject  is  divided  into  two  branches :  the  first  being  the  art  of  copjing 
drawings  and  plans  by  the  transmission  and  absorption  of  light  by  prepared 
paper.  The  drawing  to  be  copied  is  placed  between  two  pieces  of  plate  glass, 
held  down  in  close  contact  with  a  sheet  of  photogenic  paper,  prepared  by 
being  washed  over  on  both  sides  with  a  neutral  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
of  a  spectfic  gravity  of  1'0G6,  and  afterwards  with  a  solution  of  common  salt 
and  water  (lib.  of  salt  to  25  pints  of  water).  The  paper  thus  prepared  must 
be  dried  and  kept  in  the  dark,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  delicacy.  The  rays 
of  the  sun  are  then  permitted  fo  pass  through  the  white  portions  of  the 
drawing  or  print,  while  they  are  interrupted  by  the  black  hues,  and  more  or 
less  by  the  tinted  portions.  The  rays  of  light  thus  act  upon  the  prepared 
paper,  and  produce,  in  a  few  minutes,  a  reversed  copy,  reproducing  the  lights 
of  the  oi'iginal  in  shadows  ;  this  c;^  be  remedied  by  taking  a  second  copy 
from  the  first,  and  thus  the  shadows  are  restored  to  their  original  positions. 
To  destroy  the  sensitiveness  of  the  prepared  paper,  and  preserve  the  copy,  it 
is  soaked  in  pure  water,  which  carries  off  the  excess  of  nitrate  of  silver,  then 
covered  with  a  solution  of  hjiio-sulphite  of  soda  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1,055, 
and  again  washed  in  pure  water,  so  that  when  dried  it  is  permanently  fixed. 
It  is  evident  that  a  copy  thus  obtained  must  be  exactly  like  the  original,  and 
the  value  of  such  a  process  may  be  readily  estimated  by  engineers. 

The  second  branch,  which  is  named  '•  Daguerreotype,"  after  the  distin- 
guished artist  who  brought  it  to  its  present  state  of  perfection,  is  of  a  much 
higher  order.  This  is  the  art  of  fixing  and  preserving  on  the  surface  of  a 
poUshed  silvered  plate  the  images  collected  in  the  focal  plane  of  a  camera 
obscura. 

The  process  is  rather  complicated,  but  may  be  thus  briefly  described.  The 
surface  of  the  silvered  plate  being  cleaned  and  polished  very  perfectly  by 
means  of  finely  levigated  pumice  stone,  olive  oil,  and  cotton,  is  rubbed 
lightly  over  with  diluted  nitric  acid,  in  the, proportion  of  1   pint  of  acid  to 


38G 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[NOVKMBKR, 


16  pints  of  distilled  water;  it  is  then  subjected  to  the  heat  of  charcoal  or  a 
spirit  lamp  until  a  firm  white  coating  is  formed  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
«Uver.  The  plate  is  then  suddenly  cooled.  This  process  is  repeated  three 
times]  It  is  placed  in  a  dark  chamber  with  the  face  or  silver  surface  down- 
wards, where  it  is  acted  upon  by  the  spontaneous  evaporation  of  iodine ;  this 
condenses  upon  the  silver,  and  produces  a  fine  gold-coloured  surface,  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  the  impressions  of  light.  It  is  then  placed  in  a  camera 
obscura,  the  light  having  becu  until  then  perfectly  excluded  from  it.  It  there 
receives  the  impression  of  any  images  brought  within  the  focal  plane ;  and 
by  subsequently  e.vposing  il  in  a  dark,  close  chamber,  with  its  silver  surface 
downwards,  to'the  fumes  of  heated  mercury,  the  images  are  rendered  visible  ; 
to  fix  the  images  so  received,  the  iodine  is  removed  by  dipping  the  plate  in 
pure  water,  and  then  washing  it  either  with  a  weak  solution  of  hypo-sulphite 
of  soda  or  a  saturated  solution  of  common  salt,  and  finally  dipping  it  in  dis- 
tilled  water  and  drying  it.  It  should  then  be  framed  and  glazed  to  preserve 
it  from  external  injury,  and  the  picture  will  remain  unchanged. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  use  this  process  for  preparing  the  plates  for 
engravers,  as  much  time  and  cost  would  thereby  be  saved,  but  hitherto  it  has 
not  been  done  to  any  extent. 

The  author  presses  upon  the  Institution  the  applicability  of  these  processes 
to  engineering  uses,  and  quotes  the  remark  of  "Mons.  .\rago — "  That  photo- 
graphic delineations  having  Ijcen  subjected  during  their  formation  to  the 
rules  of  geometry,  we  may  be  enabled,  by  the  aid  of  a  few  simple  data,  to 
ascertain  the  exact  dimensions  of  tin-  most  elevated  parts  of  the  most  inac- 
cessible edifices." 

Mr.  Cooper,  Senior,  introduced  the  subject  of  photography  by  explaining, 
and  illustrating  by  instruments  and  diagrams,  the  principles  of  the  division 
and  dispersion  of  the  rays  of  light,  according  to  the  Newtonian  theory,  as 
well  as  the  most  recent  researches  into  the  subject.  He  described  the 
chemical  properties  of  light — its  affinity  for  certain  combinations,  such  as 
chloride  of  silver — its  heating  powers — the  different  effects  of  the  rays  on 
vegetation — and  the  application  of  these  known  principles  to  photography. 
He  then  explained  the  chemical  properties  of  the  chloride  of  silver,  iodine, 
and  other  substances  used  in  the  process.  In  alluding  to  the  probable  uses 
of  the  Daguerreotype,  he  observed  that  the  process  might  be  employed  to 
make  drawings  of  machinery,  as  graduated  scales  might  be  fixed  to  certain 
parts  of  the  objects,  and  they  would  be  copied  in  their  relative  proportions 
to  the  machine. 

Jlr.  Cooper,  Junior,  illustrated  Mr.  Gordon's  communication  by  explaining 
the  photographic  apparatus,  and  the  process  of  obtaining  a  specimen  of 
Daguerreotype  by  means  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  light.  He  described,  among 
other  points,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  pure  silver  upon  the  copper  plates, 
as,  for  the  advantage  in  rolling,  the  manufacturer  will  introduce  an  alloy 
of  J  to  1 5  per  cent.  On  this  account,  acid  is  used  so  repeatedly  in  cleaning 
the  plates,  that  any  particles  of  copper  which  have  been  rolled  into  the 
surface  may  be  carried  off.  He  explained  his  improveiucnt  to  the  iodine 
box,  which  consists  in  spreading  the  iodine  all  over  the  bottom  of  a  tray 
lined  with  glass,  and  covering  it  with  a  piece  of  card-board,  wliich  becomes 
saturated  with  the  fumes  of  the  iodine,  and  on  the  silvered  plate  being  placed 
over  it,  acts  equally  over  its  surface,  instead  of  partially,  as  in  the  old  system 
of  placing  the  iodine  in  a  mass  in  the  centre  of  the  tray.  He  had  found  this 
to  be  a  great  improvement.  The  shortest  time  in  which  he  bad  obtained  a 
photographic  picture  in  England  was  11  minutes;  while,  during  a  gloomy 
day  in  November,  it  took  an  hour  and  a  half  to  procure  a  moderately  good 
one. 

"  An  Universal  Screu'-Jack."     By  George  England. 

This  machine,  a  model  of  which  was  presented  to  the  Institution,  is  in- 
tended for  raising  heav7  weights  and  moving  them  in  any  required  direction ; 
the  vertical  motion  is  similar  to  that  of  a  common  screw-Ufting  jack,  and  the 
lateral  motion  is  communicated  by  a  ratchet  lever  to  a  horizontal  screw, 
working  in  bearings  on  a  strong  cast-iron  bed  with  planed  surfaces  through  a 
double  nut  attached  to  the  base  of  the  jack.  The  jack  has  been  found  useful 
for  erecting  heavy  pieces  of  machinery,  and  for  replacing  railway  carriages 
and  locomotives  on  the  rails  when  they  have  been  accidentally  thrown  off. 
"  Description  of  a  Traversiny  Screw-Jack."  By  W.  J.  Curtis. 
The  screw-jack  is  attached  to  a  plank  w^itb  a  rack  in  it,  and  slides  in  a 
groove  in  another  plank  which  is  placed  beneath  it,  across  the  railway ;  in 
the  lower  plank  is  a  rack,  by  means  of  which  and  a  hooked  lever,  tlie  jack, 
with  the  engine  or  any  other  weight  resting  upon  it,  is  drawn  easily  across 
the  rails  and  lowered  to  its  proper  position.  By  this  apparatus,  engines  and 
carriages  of  considerable  weight  have  been  replaced  on  a  railway  by  two  men 
in  a  very  short  space  of  time. 

A  model  of  the  machine  was  presented  to  the  Institution. 

May  19. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

Peter  Bruff  was  balloted  for  aud  elected  an  Associate. 

'•  Description  of  a  new  Gas  Reyula/or."     By  James  Milne. 

The  object  of  this  instrument  (which  tlie  inventor  exhibited  in  action,  and 
presented  to  the  Institution)  is  to  regulate  the  supply  of  gas  to  burners,  so 
that  any  variation  in  the  pressure,  arising  from  extinguishing  the  adjacent 
hghts  along  the  line  of  the  street  main,  or  in  the  diflferent  floors  of  manu- 
factories, shall  not  affect  those  lights  which  are  supplied  through  the  regu- 
lator. 


The  regulator  consists  of  a  cylindrical  outer  case,  to  which  is  affixed  a 
water  gauge  to  show  the  pressure  ;  to  the  top  is  attached  an  inner  cylinder, 
open  at  the  lower  end  and  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  llie  outer  case; 
tlie  gas  is  introduced  from  beneath  by  a  tube  in  the  centre,  terminating  in  a 
conical  valve  at  the  top ;  the  male  part  of  the  valve  is  fixed  by  three  arms  to 
the  top  of  a  float,  which  moves  freely  in  the  space  l)etween  the  inner  cylinder 
and  the  centre  tulie ;  the  areas  between  the  outer  case  and  the  inner  cylinder, 
ami  between  the  inner  cylinder  and  the  centre  tube,  being  alike,  the  pressure 
of  the  gas  acts  upon  the  water  within  the  inner  cylinder,  and  causes  it  to 
rise  in  the  outer  case  just  as  much  as  it  is  depressed  in  the  inner  space.  This 
depression  carries  down  the  float  with  the  male  part  of  the  valve  attached 
to  it,  and  thus  diminishes  the  aperture  of  the  supply  pipe,  until  the  pressure 
is  relieved  by  other  burners  being  lighted,  and  enables  the  supply  of  gas  to 
be  in  proportion  to  the  demand.  The  pressure  may  be  regulated  at  will  by 
increasing  or  diminishing  tlie  quantity  of  v,  ater  in  the  cylinders,  and  it  is 
shown  correctly  by  the  graduated  glass  [range.  This  apparatus  has  been 
found,  in  an  experience  of  two  years,  to  effect  a  saving  of  about  20  per  cent., 
independent  of  its  ensuring  a  perfect  equality  to  all  the  burners  in  action. 
Drawings  of  the  instrument  accompanied  this  communication. 

Mr  Lowe  believed  the  "  gas  regulator"  to  be  an  efficient  instrument.  It 
was  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  light  from  gas  should  he  steady  aud 
equal,  as  the  nerves  of  the  eye  were  more  injured  by  an  unsteady  than  by  an 
intense  light.  In  large  estabhshraents,  the  greatest  care  would  scarcely  pre- 
vent constant  variation  in  the  lights,  so  that  an  efficient  means  of  producing 
regularity  must  be  valuable. 


BRITISH  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 

Tenth  Meeting. — September,  1840. 

(From  the  Atheneeum.J 

Section  G. — Mechanic.\l  Science. 

Mr.  Dircks  gave  an  account  of  a  railway  irheet  with  wood  tyre,  which  was 
exhiliited  in  the  museum.  It  was  one  of  a  set  which  had  been  in  use  for  two 
months,  carrying  five  tons  each  day.  The  construction  of  the  wheel  will  be 
understood  by  imagining  an  ordinary  spoked  wheel,  but  with  a  deep-eAa»»- 
nelled  tyre.  In  this  channel  is  inserted  blocks  of  African  oak,  measuring 
about  4  X  3i  inches,  prepared  by  filling  the  pores  with  such  unctions  prepa- 
rations as  counteract  the  effects  of  capillary  attraction  in  regard  to  wet  or 
damp.  The  blocks  are  cut  so  as  to  fit  very  exactly,  with  the  grain  placed 
vertically  throughout,  forming  a  kind  of  wooden  tyre.  There  are  about  thirty 
blocks  of  wood  round  each  wheel,  where  they  are  retained  in  their  places  by 
bolts,  the  two  sides  of  the  channel  having  corresponding  holes  drilled  through 
them  for  this  purpose ;  each  block  of  wood  is  thus  fastened  by  one  or  two 
bolts,  which  are  afterwards  well  rivetted.  After  being  so  fitted,  the  wheel  is 
put  into  a  lathe,  and  fumed  in  the  ordinary  manner  of  turning  iron  tyres, 
when  it  acquires  all  the  appearance  of  a  common  railway  wheel,  but  with  an 
outer  wooden  rim,  and  the  flange  only  of  iron.  Mr.  Du'cks  proposes  the  use 
of  either  hard  or  soft  woods,  and  of  various  chemical  preparations  to  prevent 
the  admission  of  water  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  :  he  also  contemplates  the 
using  of  wood  well  compressed. 

Mr.  JeftVey  on  a  New  Hydraulic  Jppnralm. — It  comprised  an  improvement 
on  the  ancient  endless  chain  of  buckets,  which  he  considers  of  Egyptian  origin. 
This  apparatus  has  hitherto  never  acquired  the  value  it  admits  of,  on  account 
of  a  defect  having  remained  in  its  construction,  opposed  to  geometrical  prin- 
ciple— the  buckets  which  bring  up  the  water  being  fixed  outside  instead  of 
within  the  rope.  The  effect  of  this  is  such  an  acceleration  of  the  bucket, 
when  it  is  carried  round  the  wheel  at  top,  as  causes  it  to  overtake  the  water 
and  carry  much  of  it  down  again.  But,  liy  placing  the  buckets  on  the  centre 
side  of  the  ropes,  that  is,  within  them,  the  bucket  when  passing  round  the 
wheel,  being  very  near  the  centre,  is  much  retarded,  and  the  momentum  of 
the  water  causes  it  to  ride  out  of  the  bucket  very  effectually  into  the  trough. 
A  peculiarity  in  the  form  of  the  bucket  also  prevents  the  spilling  of  the  water 
in  cases  where  the  motion  is  very  slow. 

Sir  J.  Robison  stated  that,  although  the  methods  in  India  are  rude,  yet 
they  give  a  greater  return  of  work  done  for  power  applied  than  other  methods 
known. — Mr.  Jeffrey  stated  that  he  bad  tried  this  method  on  a  large  scale, 
each  bucket  containing  IJ  cwt.  of  water.  A  small  valve  at  the  liottom  of  the 
bucket  allows  the  air  to  enter,  aud  the  bucket  is  thus  quickly  emptied. 

"  Additional  Notice  conceminy  the  most  economical  and  effective  proportion 
of  Engine  Power  to  the  tonnaye  of  the  hull  in  Steam  Vessels,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  those  desiyned  for  long  voyages."     By  Mr.  Scott  Russell 

Lai-gc  power  or  small  power  ?  has  always  been  a  disputed  question.  The 
early  steam  boat  engines  had  but  a  small  power  proportioned  to  the  tonnage. 
The  Comet  had  25  tons  burden,  and  only  three  horses  power— being  a  pro- 
portion of  power  to  tonnage  amounting  to  i-  On  this  subject  modern  prac- 
tice and  opinion  seem  to  offer  no  guide.  The  East  India  Company  have  used 
low  proportions  of  power  to  tonnage,  and  in  this  they  appear  to  have  adopted 
the  general  ma.\ims  of  Southern  engineers.  The  Government  appear  also  to 
have  followed  the  same  course,  but  without  going  to  the  same  extreme.  The 
Clyde  engineers  adopt  the  opposite  maxim,  and  place  as  much  power  in  their 
vessels  as  can  be  conveniently  applied.     There  appears  at  present  to  be  a 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


387 


feeling  in  favom-  of  a  high  proportion  of  power  to  tonnage.  It  has  been  found 
by  some  of  tlie  best  mercantile  companies  that  a  high  proportion  of  ])ower  to 
tonnage  is  not  only  better  for  expedition,  but  also  more  ecouomical  of  fuel 
and  of  capital ;  and  instances  are  frequent  of  an  increase  in  the  power  of  a 
steam  vessel,  producing  a  diminution  in  the  consum])tion  of  fuel.  As  this 
question  is  becoming  every  day  of  greater  importance,  it  is  proper  to  examine 
it  carefully.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  known  that  the  proportion  of  power  must 
be  very  much  increased  to  gain  a  given  increase  of  speed  ; — thus,  if  ten  horses 
power  propel  a  vessel  through  water  five  mile  an  hours,  it  will  require  forty 
horses  power  to  propel  the  same  vessel  ten  miles  an  hour ;  since  it  will  re- 
quire a  quadruple  power  to  obtain  a  double  speed,  in  like  manner  it  will  re- 
quire a  ninefold  power  to  triple  the  speed.  A  large  power  of  engine,  it  may 
be  said,  occupies  nuicb  useful  space  which  might  be  filled  with  cargo.  It 
consumes  much  coal,  and  the  speed  is  by  no  means  proportioned  to  the  ex- 
pense of  fuel  and  machinery.  But  this  is  a  limited  view  of  the  subject.  If 
time,  as  an  element,  and  a  very  important  one  in  the  value  of  mercantile  con- 
veyance, be  calculated,  then  it  will  be  found  that  in  many  cases  the  effects  of 
high  speed,  at  any  expense  of  fuel,  will  compensate  for  that  expense.  But  it 
is  not  on  the  value  of  speed  at  the  present  day  that  we  proceed  in  this  in- 
qiiiiy.  We  are  to  ascertain  what  may  be  the  best  proportion  of  power  to 
tonnage  in  sea-going  vessels.  We  have  seen  that  the  lowest  speed  is  the 
most  economical,  and  that  it  requires  expensive  additions  to  give  high  veloci- 
ties. But  in  arriving  at  this  conclusion,  we  have  taken  only  the  case  of  smooth 
water  :  here  it  is  obvious  that  the  smallest  power  will  be  most  economical. 
But  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  great  purposes  of  steam  arc  generally 
of  a  different  natOTe  from  the  mere  generation  of  motion  through  a  quiescent 
fluid.  The  force  of  adverse  winds,  waves,  and  tides  are  to  be  overcome, — and 
it  is  the  success  of  steam  in  olitaining  regularity  and  speed,  in  spite  of  these, 
which  constitutes  its  superiority.  Now.  if  we  take  a  simple  case  of  one  of 
these,  we  shall  soon  find  that  a  higher  proportion  of  power  to  tonnage  may 
be  essential  not  only  to  speed  hut  even  to  economy.  Suppose,  a  steam-boat 
with  a  small  proportion  of  power,  capable  of  propelling  the  vessel  at  the  velo- 
city of  three  miles  an  hour  through  still  water,  to  be  applied  to  stem  a  cur- 
rent of  three  miles  an  hour,  or  a  proportionately  strong  breeze,- — is  it  not 
plain  that  the  vessel  would  make  no  headway .'  This  extreme  case  of  too 
little  power  shows  that  there  is  at  least  one  proportion  of  power  which  is  too 
small  for  economy  of  fuel.  We  may  now  proceed  to  investigate  the  question 
of  best  proportion,  or  the  point  where  the  attainment  of  high  speed  is  accom- 
panied by  absolute  saving  of  fuel,  as  compared  to  lower  velocity.  For  this 
purpose  we  merely  take  it  for  granted,  that  the  speed  through  the  water  will 
be  nearly  as  the  square  root  of  the  former,  according  to  the  general  law  of 
the  resistance  of  fluids ;  that  the  resistance  offered  by  adverse  winds,  &c.  has 
been  ascertained,  and  is  determined  on  a  particular  station,  that  is,  that  it  is 
known  that  on  a  given  station,  a  given  vessel,  with  a  given  power,  makes  a 
voyage  in  adverse  circumstances  in,  suppose,  double  the  time  of  her  most 
prosperous  voyage,  say  her  prosperous  voyage  in  fourteen,  and  her  adverse 
voyage  in  twenty-foiu-  days,  being  a  retarding  power  of  ten  days  out  of  twenty- 
four  ;  we  take  this  retardation  of  ten  days  as  the  measure  of  the  retarding 
power  of  adverse  weather  in  the  given  circumstances.  By  working  out  the 
result,  we  obtain  the  very  simple  rule  for  finding  the  best  proportion  of  power 
to  tonnage :  from  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  any  given  vessel  in  good 
weather,  subtract  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  the  same  vessel  in  the  worst 
weather,  divide  the  difference  by  the  square  of  the  velocity  in  good  weather, 
and  the  quotient  multiplied  into  double  the  horses'  power  of  the  said  vessel, 
will  give  the  power  which  would  propel  the  same  vessel  in  the  same  circum- 
stances, with  the  smallest  quantity  of  fuel.  It  further  appears,  that  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel  in  the  worst  voyage,  will  not  exceed  that  of  the  best  voyage, 
in  a  greater  proportion  than  10  to  7— that  is  to  say,  for  70  tons  of  fuel  burnt 
on  a  good  voyage,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  carry  more  than  100  tons,  in 
order  to  provide  against  the  worst.  Let  us  take,  as  example,  a  Transatlantic 
steam-ship,  which  has  a  proportion  of  1  horse  power  to  4  tons  of  capacity  ; 
her  unfavourable  voyage  being,  between  England  and  America,  twenty-two 
days,  and  her  favourable  voyage  fourteen  davs,  being  a  comparative  velocity 
7  and  11. 

„2_»'2         121—49  72      12 

Then  A' =  2  V 


»'2         121 
—  =2 


49     „    72      __ 

=  2  =  r-  nearly. 

121  121     10  ' 


Hence  the  power  should  be  increased  in  the  ratio  of  6  to  5 — that  is  to  say, 
the  engines  at  present  capable  of  exerting  a  power  of  500  horses  should  have 
been  capable  of  exerting  a  power  of  600  horses,  and  would,  in  this  case,  con- 
sume less  fuel,  as  well  as  produce  greater  regularity.  The  following  result 
also  follows  : — The  vessel  of  less  power  burns  30  tons  per  day,  performs  the 
distance  in  fourteen  days,  consuming  420  tons  of  coal  in  fair  weather.  The 
vessel  of  less  power  burns  30  tons,  performs  the  distance  in  twenty-two  days, 
consuming  660  tons  in  foul  weather.  The  vessel  of  greater  power  burns  36 
tons,  performs  the  distance  in  twelve  and  a  half  days,  consuming  468  tons  in 
fair  weather.  The  vessel  of  greater  power  burns  36  tons,  performs  the  dis- 
tance in  17'5  days,  consuming  630  tons  in  foul  weather ;  being  a  consumption 
of  64  tons  less  fuel,  and  performing  the  journey  in  four  and  a  half  days  less 
than  the  other.  It  is  manifest,  that  the  store  of  fuel  carried  in  the  vessel 
with  less  power,  must,  on  all  occasions,  be  equal  to  the  greatest  consumption, 
that  is  to  say,  at  least  660  tons,  whereas  630  tons  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
vessel  of  greater  power,  and,  as  in  all  vessels  for  long  voyages,  coals  carried 
are  much  more  costly  than  the  mere  price  of  coals,  or  as  the  freight  of  the 
vessel  is  more  costly  than  the  fuel,  coals  carried  are  to  be  reckoned  at  least 


as  expensive  as  coals  burnt.  Moreover,  as  the  gain  in  time  is  4  J  out  of  22, 
!)eiug  20  per  cent.,  it  is  plain  that  the  vessel  may  lie  calculated  to  do  the  dis- 
tance oftener  in  a  year,  because,  as  the  times  of  starting  must  be  regulated 
not  by  the  shorter,  but  by  the  longest  period  of  a  voyage,  seventeen  and  a, 
half  days  in  the  one  case,  stand  in  the  place  of  twenty-two  in  the  other.  It 
appears,  therefore,  that,  for  long  voyages  especially,  there  are  great  advantages 
in  point  of  economy,  certainty,  and  speed  to  he  obtained  by  the  use  of  vessels 
of  a  higher  power  than  usual ;  and  that  in  a  given  case,  the  best  proportion 
of  power  to  tonnage  may  readily  be  determined  from  the  rules  already  laid 
down.  In  regard  to  absolute  or  definite  proportion,  it  may  be  stated,  as  the 
result  of  the  best  vessels,  that  the  proportion  of  power  to  tonnage  should  not 
be  greater  than  one  horse  power  to  two  tons,  nor  less  than  one  horse  to  three 
tons ;  the  greater  proportion  holding  in  the  smaller,  and  the  less  proportion 
of  power  in  the  greater  vessel. 

Mr.  Fairbaim  agreed,  that  the  horse  power  should  be  increased,  but  that 
in  bad  weather  the  consumption  of  fuel  was  not  so  great  as  in  fine  weather.— 
Mr.  Russell  said,  that  practically  in  good  weather  the  engines  are  worked  ex- 
pansively. There  are  two  systems.  The  south  engineers  are  afraid  of  using 
full  powers  ;  they  use  smaller  proportions  of  power  to  tonnage,  and  slack  the 
power  in  head  winds.  The  north  engineers  always  set  head  to  wind  in  bad 
weather,  and  work  full  power ;  and  in  good  weather  work  expansively.  lu 
steamers  worked  on  the  south  system,  the  advantages  would  be  as  Mr.  Fair- 
baim stated  ;  in  steamers  worked  on  the  north  system,  the  advantages  would 
be  as  he  stated. — Mr.  Fairbairn  was  of  opinion,  that  three  tons  to  one  horse 
power  were  better  than  four  to  one. — Mr.  Russell  said,  that  it  was  safe  to 
give  more  power  than  the  ride  gives ;  that  on  the  introduction  of  longer  and 
sharper  vessels  less  power  would  be  required. — Mr.  Fairbau-n  observed,  that 
the  goverment  post-office  steamers,  in  the  Mediterranean,  were  so  bad,  that 
the  French  vessels  constantly  pass  them. 

Mr.  Smith  made  some  observations  "  On  the  Drainage  of  Railway  Embank- 
menis  and  Slopes." — Mr.  Vignoles  observed,  that  had  Mr.  Smith  had  as  much 
experience  on  railways  and  their  constructiou  as  himself,  he  would  have 
known  that  all  he  had  recommended  had  been  done  on  various  occasions, 
whenever  the  expense  could  be  justified. 

Mr.  Mallet  •'  On  the  Action  of  Air  and  Water  on  Iron." — Mr.  Mallet 
stated,  generally,  the  nature  of  the  principal  practical  results  obtained  by  him, 
with  respect  to  the  durability  and  modes  of  protecting  cast  iron,  wrought 
iron,  or  steel,  under  various  conditions,  when  exposed  to  the  corroding  or 
chemical  action  of  air  and  water,  whether  fresh  or  salt.  These  researches 
have  been  made  under  the  sanction  of  the  Association,  and  are  still  in  pro- 
gress. Numerical  results  have  ah-eady  been  obtained  of  the  absolute  and  re- 
lative durabiUties  of  about  100  different  varieties  or  makes  of  cast  iron  and  of 
wrought  iron,  in  each  of  the  following  conditions  as  to  water, — viz.  In  clear 
sea  or  ocean  water ;  in  foul  sea  water,  as  in  the  harbours  of  large  cities  ;  in 
clear  river  water ;  in  foul  river  water ;  in  sea  water  at  high  temperatures ;  in 
sea  water  at  various  depths  ;  in  sea  water  of  variable  saltness.  The  residts 
in  all  these  cases  are  given  in  voluminous  tables,  so  arranged  as  to  enable  the 
engineer  to  predict  with  confidence  the  durability  of  a  given  scanthng  of  iron 
of  a  given  sort,  under  given  cuxumstances.  The  conditions  of  corrosion  of 
iron,  in  contact  with  copper,  with  zinc,  and  with  tin,  and  with  various  atomic 
alloys  of  these,  have  been  determined,  and  printed  tables  of  the  results  dis- 
tributed to  the  Section.  Results  are  also  given  as  to  the  relative  protecting 
power  of  several  paints  or  varnishes,  to  the  surface  of  iron  exposed  as  above. 
The  specific  gravities  of  all  the  irons  experimented  on,  have  been  taken  by  a 
new  method,  and  the  increment  of  specific  gravity  due  to  increased  depth  (or 
head  of  metal)  in  castings  determined,  and  also  the  decrement  of  specific 
gravity  due  to  increased  bulk  or  scanthng  of  castings  determined.  These  are 
necessaiy  data  to  the  foregoing  investigation,  and  are  in  themselves  of  im- 
portance to  the  engineer,  with  reference  to  the  ultimate  cohesion  of  cast  iron, 
which  seems  to  be  related,  and  probably  is  some  function  of  the  specific  gra- 
vity in  any  given  case.  The  experiments  are  now  extended  to  wrought  iron 
and  steel ;  a  final  report  is  proposed,  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  chemical 
changes  induced  on  cast  and  wrought  iron  by  the  action  of  sea  water,  and  to 
complete  the  numerical  results  now  given,  which  have  lately  been  in  several 
instances  submitted  to  control,  or  tested  by  the  actual  corrosion  of  castings 
recovered  from  the  wrecks  of  the  Edgar  and  Royal  George,  &c.,  and  found 
strikingly  to  coincide. 

Mr.  Grimes  described  Dennett's  Rockets  for  preserving  lives  from  ship- 
wreck,  and  read  a  letter  from  Capt.  Denham,  stating  that  the  range  of  these 
rockets  exceeded  that  of  the  mortar  by  100  yards,  the  range  of  the  rockets 
being  about  350  yards,  while  that  of  the  mortar  was  but  about  250. 

Dr.  Wallace  on  Arches.  The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  exhibit  a  method 
for  geometrically  constructing  a  catenary.  After  explaining  Ids  method.  Dr. 
Wallace  stated  that  he  was  about  to  pubhsh  a  set  of  tables  for  constructing 
the  catenary,  and  also  for  suspension  bridges. 

Mr.  Wallace  exhibited  and  explained  his  smoke  protector. — Mr.  Haw- 
kins exhibited  and  gave  an  account  of  Mr.  J.  R.  Bakewell's  instrument  for 
measuring  the  angles  of  the  dip  of  strata. — Mr.  Rayner  exhibited  a  machine 
for  regulating  the  speed  of  macbinerj'  in  cotton-miUs,  &c. — Mr.  Smith,  of 
Deanston,  exhibited  a  model  of  a  new  canal  lock,  the  advantages  of  which 
he  stated  to  be,  that  the  descent  in  each  lock  would  not  be  more  than  twelve 
to  eighteen  inches — that  the  locks  were  opened  by  the  passage  of  the  vessels 
— that  the  locks  shut  of  themselves— that  the  vessels  did  not  require  to  stop 
—and  that  Uttle  or  no  water  was  lost.    The  lock  gate  is  hinged  at  the  hot- 


388 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[NOVKMBER, 


torn  the  upper  portion,  whicli  is  round,  floats  at  the  level  of  the  higher  part 
of  the  water,  and  is  pressed  doivn  by  the  bow  of  the  vessel  in  passing,  and 
when  it  has  passed,  rises  to  its  former  position. 

"  Experimental  Ini/itiri/  into  the  Strenytti  of  iron,  with  respect  to  its  ap- 
plication as  a  Substitute  for  IVood  in  Ship-ljuitdini/."     By  Mr.  Fairbairn. 

The  number  of  vessels  which  of  late  years  have  been  made  entirely  of  iron, 
and  the  probabihty  of  the  greatly  extended  use  of  this  metal  in  ship-building, 
renders  it  desirable  to  attain  additional  knowledge  as  to  its  power  to  resist 
these  strains  to  which  it  is  subjected,  in  its  appUeation  to  the  purposes  above 
stated.  Mr.  Fairbairn's  experiments  have  convinced  him,  that  in  proportion 
as  the  public  become  better  acquainted  with  the  valuable  properties  of  this 
material,  and  its  fitness  for  almost  any  purpose  of  naval  architecture,  they 
will  be  convinced  that  it  is  safer,  and,  perhajis,  more  duralile  tlian  timber, 
and  that  confidence  in  it  will  be  completely  established.  To  meet  the  re- 
quirements for  this  purpose,  the  following  series  of  experiments  have  been 
undertaken,  and  in  a  great  measure  completed.  Part  only,  however,  could 
at  present  be  laid  before  the  Section.  1st.  A  eries  of  experiments  on  the 
strength  of  plates  of  iron,  as  regards  a  direct  tensile  strain,  both  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  fibre  and  across  it.  2ud.  On  the  strength  of  the  joints  in 
plates  rivetted  together,  and  on  the  best  modes  of  riveting.  3rd.  On  the 
strength  of  the  various  forms  of  ribs  or  frames  used  in  ship-building,  whether 
wholly  composed  of  iron,  or  of  iron  and  wood.  4th.  On  the  resistance  of 
plates  to  compression  and  concussion,  and  on  the  power  necessary  to  burst 
them.  The  experiments  were  superintended  by  Mr.  Ilodgkinson,  to  whom 
Mr.  Fairbairn  acknowledged  himself  indebted  for  many  of  the  results. 

On  Strength  of  Iron  Plates. — In  these  experiments  all  the  plates  were  of 
uniform  thickness.  Their  ends  had  plates  rivetted  to  them  on  both  sides, 
with  boles  bored  through  them  perpendicular  to  the  plate,  in  order  that  they 
might  be  connected  by  both,  with  shackles  to  tear  them  asunder  in  the 
middle,  which  was  made  naiTower  than  the  rest  for  that  purpose.  The 
results  were  as  follow : — Mean  breaking  weight  in  tons  per  square  inch,  when 
drawn  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 

Tons. 

Yorkshire     plates     25-77~l 
Do  do.       2276 

Derbyshire     do.        21-68  ^  Mean  22-52  tons. 

Shropshire     do.        22-83  ) 

Staffordshire  do.        19-56  J 
Mean  breaking  weights  in  tons  per  square  inch,  when   drawn  across  the 
fibre : — 

Yorkshire     plates     2  7-49  ~] 
Do.  do.        26-04 

Derbyshire     do.        18-65  j.  Mean  23-04  tons. 

Shropshire      do.        22-00  I 

Staffordshire  do.  21 -01 J 
The  foregoing  experiments  show  that  there  is  little  difference  in  the  strength 
of  iron  plates,  whether  drawn  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre  or  across  it.  Mr. 
Fairbairn  then  gave  the  results  of  a  long  series  of  experiments  on  the  strength 
of  riveted  plates.  The  same  description  of  plates  was  here  used,  as  in  the 
previous  experiments ;  the  plates  were  however,  made  wider  than  the  former, 
in  order  that  they  might  contain  (after  the  rivet-holes  were  punched  out) 
the  same  area  of  cross  section  as  the  previous  ones.  Mean  breaking  weights 
in  pounds,  from  four  plates  of  equal  section,  rivetted  by  a  single  row  of 
rivets ; — 

20127T 

18982  1''^'"='"  '8^90  lb. 

I9147J 
The  mean  breaking  weights  in  pounds  from  four  plates  of  equal  sections  to 
the  last,  but  united  with  a  double  row  of  rivets : 

22699T 

23371  I  iiipan  ooof.Q  11, 
20059  f  *"^^"  —^•'^  '"• 
22902J 
Whence  the  strength  of  single  to  double  riveting  is  as  18590  !  22258.     But 
from  a  comparison  of  the  refults  taken  from   tlie  whole  experiments,  the 
strength  derived  from  the  double  rivetted  joints  was  to  that  of  the  single  as 
250.3(1  !   18591,  or  as  1000  to  742.     Comparing  tlie  strength  of  plates  alone 
with  that  of  double  and  single  riveted  joints,  Mr.  Fairbairn  gave  their  relative 
values  as  under : — 

For  the  strength  of  the  plate     100 

For  that  of  double  riveted  joints   70 

And  for  the  single  riveted  joints  56 

Hence  the  strength  of  plates  to  that  of  the  joints,  as  the  respective  numbers, 
100,  70,  and  56.  Mr.  Fairbairn  then  gave  a  table  containing  the  dimensions 
and  distances  of  rivets  for  joining  together  ilifferent  thicknesses  of  plates. 

A  discussion  ensued  as  to  the  comi)arative  strength  and  safety  of  iron 
boats.  Mr.  Fairbairn  stated,  that  from  the  manner  in  which  the  shcithing 
is  rivetted,  the  whole  vessel  becomes  one  njass;  and  though  he  did  not  come 
forward  as  the  advocate  of  iron  against  wood,  be  would  state  that  be  con- 
sidered iron  as  one-third  stronger  than  wood,  weight  for  weight. — Mr.  Gran- 
tliara  knew  iron  boats  that  had  lasted  28  years  in  fresh  water. — Mr.  Taylor 
built  an  iron  boat  for  a  canal  in  180.'),  and  it  was  now  in  good  condition. — 


Wheal  Vor,  Borlase's  engine. . 
Fowey  Consols,  Austin's  . .  . . 
Wheal  Darlington  Engine  . . 
Cbarlcstown  United  Mines  . . 


Mr.  Mallctt  had  found,  from  bis  experiments  on  the  action  of  sea  water  upon 
iron,  that  the  duration  of  a  half-inch  plate  in  sea  water  would  be  about  100 
years. 

Mr.  Ilodgkinson  read  a  paper  "  On  the  Strength  of  Pillars  of  Iron."  This 
was  an  abstract  of  a  paper  by  Mr.  Ilodgkinson.  read  at  the  Uoyal  Society,  of 
which  we  gave  an  abstract  at  the  time. — (See  Journal,  No.  34,  page  248.) 

Mr.  Fairbairn  "  On  raising  JTater  from  Low  Lands."  The  commissioners 
for  draining  the  Lake  of  Haarlem  having  aj)plied  to  Mr.  Fairbairn  on  the 
subject,  he  proposed  a  method  where  the  water  is  raised  by  a  large  scoop, 
which  rises  on  the  descent  of  a  weight,  which  weight  is  raised  by  steam 
power,  on  the  Cornish  principle.  It  is  calculated  to  raise  17  tons  at  each 
stroke.     Mr.  Fairbairn  cxhiljited  a  model  in  illustration. 

Mr.  Taylor  mentioned,  that  he  had  that  morning  received  a  letter  from 
Mr.  Enys,  stating  that  commissioners  from  the  Dutch  government  had  visited 
Cornwall,  to  ascertain  the  duty  done  by  the  Cornish  engines.  Several  ex- 
periments had  been  made  at  their  request,  and  the  following  was  the  result. 

Feet  stroke.     Lifted  one  foot. 

80  in.    single    8-0 123,300,5931b. 

80  „      9-0   ....    122,731.766 

80  „      8-0   78,257,675 

50  „       7-5   55,912,.392 

Ditto  Stamping  engine 32  hfting  66  stamps     60,525,000 

Wheal  Vor,  ditto   36  dble.  lifting  72  stamps     50,085,000 

Mr.  Glynn  stated,  that  by  a  scoop  wheel  25  feet  diameter,  and  80  horse 
power,  used  by  him  in  Lincolnshire,  4a  tons  of  water  were  raised  in  a  second, 
the  difference  of  level  being  about  five  feet. 

Mr.  Hawkins  exhibited  a  Model  of  a  Railway  and  Carriage,  recently  patented 
by  Mr.  Rangeley,  and  by  him  called  the  Safety  Rotation  Railway ;  which  is 
an  inversion  of  the  ordinary  construction,  inasmuch  as  wheels  are  made  to 
revolve  on  fixed  bearings,  placed  in  two  parallel  lines  along  the  road ;  and 
the  carriage,  without  wheels,  is  built  upon  a  pair  of  running  rails,  carried 
along  upon  the  pcriplieries  of  the  train  of  w  heels  kept  in  revolution  by  steam- 
engines  fixed  at  every  mile  or  two  of  the  road.  It  is  intended  to  have  the 
wheels  three  feet  diameter,  and  three  feet  apart,  which  will  give  1760 wheels 
on  a  mile.  They  are  to  be  driven  by  a  succession  of  endless  bands,  one  band 
in  every  case  passing  around  two  pullies  attached  to  every  two  contiguous 
wheels.  The  carriages  are  designed  to  hold  forty  passengers  each,  with  their 
luggage  ;  the  whole,  including  the  carriage,  not  to  exceed  five  tons :  the  run- 
ning rails  always  to  hear  on  eight  or  teu  wheels,  so  that  no  wheel  shall  have 
to  support  more  than  about  ten  or  twelve  hundred  weight.  The  wheels, 
therefore,  need  not  weigh  more  than  half  a  hundred  weight  each,  to  be  suffi- 
ciently strong  for  supporting  the  carriage.  It  is  found  by  experiment,  that 
three  ounces  suspended  from  the  periphery  of  such  a  wheel,  causes  it  to  re- 
volve. Any  weight  that  sets  a  wheel  in  motion,  will,  if  continued,  cause  the 
same  to  revolve  with  accelerated  velocity,  until  the  resistance  of  the  atmos- 
phere becomes  equal  to  the  accumulated  force,  after  which,  a  steady  speed 
will  be  kept  up.  It  is  inferred  from  observation,  that  the  w heels  driven  with 
a  continued  force  of  three  ounces  each,  would  acquire  a  constant  speed  of 
about  thirty  miles  an  hour.  It  is  also  ascertained  from  experiment,  that 
eight  pounds  would  draw  a  ton  weight  on  four  three-feet  wheels  running  on 
level  rails,  and  thus  that  a  force  of  forty  pounds  would  draw  the  carriage. 
The  following  table  is  constructed  from  data,  by  which  it  is  found  that  seven- 
teen horse  power  of  steam-engine  is  required  to  turn  each  mile  of  wheels,  and 
two  horse  power  to  drive  each  carriage.  The  power  to  turn  the  wheels,  is 
neither  increased  by  additional  carriages  nor  by  acclivities;  each  carriage 
added,  taking  only  two  horse  jiower  more  to  carry  it  along  upon  a  level ;  and 
an  acclivity  of  1  in  180  doubling,  1  in  90  quadrupling,  and  1  in  45  octupUng 
oidy  the  tractive  force,  without  in  any  case  requiring  more  than  the  seventeen 
horse  power  to  turn  the  wiieels. 


Carriages 
Every  2 
Minutes. 

PASSENGERS. 

HORSE 
Per  Mile  in 

POM'ER. 

2  Miimtes 

Every  2 
Minutes 

In 
12  Hours. 

On 
a  Level. 

Up 
1  in  180. 

1  in  90. 

Up 
1  in  45. 

1 

1       40        i    14,400 

19 

21 

25 

33 

2 

1       80 

28,800 

21 

25 

33 

49 

3 

1     1 20 

43,200 

23 

a  9 

41 

65 

4 

160            57,600 

25 

33 

49 

SI 

5 

200        ,     72,000 

i 

27 

37 

57 

97 

Tlie  Brilituniii.— This  steamer  has  brought  to  Havre  frnm  London  an  iron 
steamer  in  ,372  pieces.  The  vessel,  which  is  ilestired  for  llio  Lake  of  Gi'neva, 
will  be  135  feet  long,  and  these  materials  are  to  bo  transpined  ihiiber  lurib- 
uilb. 


1840.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


38f) 


BEVIEWrS. 

Penny  Cyclopcedia.  Part  92.  Article  "PouTico." 
Unless  the  style  adopted  prohibits  the  introduction  of  sucli  feature, 
a  portico  is  now  considered  almost  a  sine  qua  nun  in  a  design;  ample 
proof  of  which  being  the  case  was  afforded  by  those  for  the  Royal 
Exchange,  the  Assize  Courts  at  Liverpool,  &c.  ;  and  yet,  whether  in 
designs  or  executed  buildings,  we  very  rarely  find  any  attempt  at 
originality,  or  any  fresh  comtjinations  in  regard  to  phm.  On  the  con- 
trary, nearly  all  our  porticoes  consist  merely  of  a  single  range  of 
columns  in  front,  and  it  is  fortunate  when  that  disposition  of  them  is 
attended  with  the  negative  merit  of  there  being  no  disagreeable 
drawback  on  the  effect  aimed  at  by  them,  resulting  fi'om  a  mean  back- 
ground to  the  external  elevation.  In  fact,  notwithstanding  that  so 
very  much  depends  u]ion  them,  and  almost  endless  variety  may  be 
obtained  from  them,  j5/aH  and  background — /.  e.  the  interior  elevation 
of  the  portico — have  scarcely  any  study  or  attention  at  all  bestowed 
upon  them.  We  trust,  however,  that  the  very  excellent  article  which 
lias  just  appeared  in  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia — a  work  which  has 
already  more  than  once  obtained  our  notice  and  approbation  for  the 
architectural  information  it  contains — will  not  be  thrown  away  upon 
the  profession,  but  spirit  them  up  to  endeavour  to  get  out  of  their  old 
routine  course,  and  give  us  something  more  than  six  or  eight  columns, 
put  beneath  a  pediment. 

When  we  inform  ovu'  readers  that  the  article  in  the  Cyclopaedia  ex- 
tends to  several  pages,  we  hardly  need  observe  that  it  is  altogether 
original,  for  we  know  of  no  other  work  of  the  kind  which  contains 
much  more  thin  a  mere  definition  of  the  term  itself,  while  here  in 

TABLE  OF 


addition  to  the  information  brought  together,  there  is  a  very  great 
deal  of  able  comment  and  criticism.  Even  were  there  nothing  else  to 
recommend  it,  this  article  would  deserve  to  be  noticed  by  us  on  account 
of  the  novel  and  ingenious  terms  invented  by  the  writer  to  express 
clearly  at  once,  of  what  kind  a  portico  is,  as  regards  its  flanks,  and  its 
projection  from  the  building  to  which  it  is  attached.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  makes  use  of  the  terms  JMonoprostyle,  Dtproslyle,  Hyptr- 
diprostyk,  Tripws/i/le,  &c.,  the  first  indicating  the  simplest  form  of 
prostyle,  namely,  that  which  projects  only  one  intercolumn  before  the 
buildirg;  the  second,  that  which  projects  two  intercolumns,  and  so  on. 
By  this  most  convenient  innovation  in  architectural  terminology, — and 
therefore  likely  to  be  generally  adopted  at  once,  — the  plan  of  the  por- 
tico of  St.  Martin's  Church,  would  be  clearly  described  by  terming  it 
Hexastyle  Diproslyle,  that  i>,  having  six  columns,or  five  intercolumns  in 
front  and  two  intercolumns  at  its  flanks,  consequently  one  column  there 
besides  that  at  the  angle.  A  Tripivslyle  has  of  course  three  open  inter- 
columns at  its  sides;  but  the  meaning  of  Hyper-diprostyle  requires 
some  explanation, — after  which  it  becomes  obvious  enough,  this  term 
being  coined  by  the  writer  to  express  that  besides  having  two  open 
intercolumns,  the  portico  is  advanced  from  the  building  by  an  addi- 
tional space,  whether  equal  to  a  third  intercolumn  or  not:  thus  the 
portico  of  the  National  Gallery  is  described  as  a  Corinthian  Octastyle, 
Hi/per-dtprostyle,  and  with  regard  to  its  interior  as  liaving  a  distyle  in 
antis  within  it, — that  is,  a  recess  of  three  intercolumns,  produced  by 
two  columns  between  autas. 

The  article  is  illustrated  with  a  great  many  plans,  showing  various 
arrangements,  and  is  further  accompanied  with  a  table  of  some  of  the 
more  remarkable  examples,  which  we  shall  here  give,  referring  our 
readers  to  the  Cvclopaedia  itself  for  the  rest  of  the  article,  not  doubt- 
ing that  they  will  procure  the  number  which  contains  it. 

PORTICOES. 


Class. 


Dodecastyle 

Decastyle 

Octastyle 


Octastyle-Pe- 
ripteral 


Octastyle 


Hexastyle 


Pseudo-hexa- 
stvlfi 


Order. 


Corinth. 


Doric 
Ionic 

Doric 

Corinth. 


Ionic 


Doric 


Corinth. 


Building. 


Chamber  of  Deputies,  Paris 
University  College,  London 
Pantheon,  Rome 
National  Gallerj',  London 
Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cambridge 

Victoria  Rooms,  Bristol 
Exchange,  Glasgow 

Buckingham  Palace 
Birmingham  Town-hall 

La  Madeleine,  Paris 
Girard  College,  Philadelphia 
The  Walhalla,  Bavaria 
Glyptotheca,  Munich 
Great  Theatre,  Petersburg 
Church  at  Possagno 
Manege,  Petersburg 
Royal  Institution,  Edinburgh 
St.  Martin's,  Charing-cross 
St.  George's,  Blooinsbury 
St.  George's,  Hanover  Sq. 
Law  Courts,  Dublin 

Kazan  Church,  Petersburg 
Pantheon,  Paris 
Madre  di  Iddio,  Turin 

Custom-house,  New  York 
St.  Nicholas's  Potsdam 
Bethlem  Hospital,  London 
Post-office,  London 
Theatre,  Berlin 
East  India  House,  London 
St.  Paucras'  Church,  London 

Royal  Institution,  Manchester 

Post-Office,  Dublin 
Raadhus,  Copenhagen 
Colosseum,  London 
Hunterian  Museum,  Glasgow 
County  Hall,  Chester 
Wacht-Gebaude,  Berlin 
Front  of  Roman  Catholic  Chapel, 
Finsbury  Circus 


Architect. 


Poyet 
W'ilkins 

VVilkins 
Basevi 

Dyer 
Hamilton 

Nash 

Hansom  and 
Welsh 
Huve 
Walter 
Klenze 
Kleiize 
Tbomond 
Canova 
Quarcughi 

Gihhs 

Hawksraore 
J.  .lames 
Coojcy    and 

Ganilon 
Voroniklun 
Soufflot 
Buonsiguore 

W.  Ross 
Schinkel 
Lewis 
Smirke 
Schinkel 
Jupp 

Messrs.    In- 
wood 

C.  Barry 

F.  Johnston 
Hansen 

D.  Burton 


Remarks 


T.  Harrison 
Schinkel 


Monoprostyle.  sculptured  pediment. 

Ilyper-diprostyle,  recessed.     Height  of  columns  30  feet. 

Hyper-triprostyle.     Polystyle  and  recessed. 

Hyper-diprostyle,  with  distyle  in  antis,  recess  within. 

Monoprostyle,  recessed,  and  with   order  continued  laterally,  forming  three 

intercohunns  on  each  side. 
Unequal  diprostyle,  recessed,  five  intercolumns. 
Diprostyle,  with  two  inner  columns  corresiwnding  with  second  and  seventh  of 

the  octastyle. 
Columns  fluted,  their  height  26  feet 
Columns  36  feet  high.     Side  elevations  of  twelve  intercolumns  on  flanks. 

See  Paris. 

Columns  55  feet  high  ;  marble. 

Monoprostyle,  polystyle,  recessed,  tetrastyle  in  antis. 

Mono])rostyle. 

Diprostyle,  polystyle,  doul)le  <  ctastyle. 

Monoprostyle,  polystyle,  recessed. 

Diprostyle,  height  of  columns  31  feet, 

Diprostyle,  five  arched  doors,  and  five  arched  windows  above  them. 

Monoprostyle. 

Monoprostyle. 

Diprostyle,  polystyle,  a  triple  hexastyle. 
Reliefs  within  portico,  height  of  columns  62  feet. 

A  diprostyle,  attached  to  a  rotunda.     Two  inner  columns  behind  the  penulti- 
mate ones  in  front. 
Monoprostyle.     White  luarljle ;  columns  32  feet  high. 
Hyper-monoprostyle. 

Monoprostyle  ;  height  of  cohunns  36  feet. 
Diprostyle,' recessed,  cohnnus  37  feet  high. 
Monoprostyle,  flight  of  steps  in  front. 
Pseudo-prostyle ;  height  of  columns  30  feet. 
Monoprostyle;  floiid  Ionic;  columns  36  feet  high. 

Monoprostyle.      Order   continued   laterally,  forming  loggias  of  three  inter- 
columns on  each  side  of  prostyle. 
Monoprostyle,  columns  36  feet  high,  fluted. 
Monoprostyle;  deep  recess  in  centre  with  steps. 
A  monoprostyle  attached  to  a  polygon. 
Monoprostyle,  recessed,  with  a  distyle  in  antis. 
Monoprostyle,  jjolystyle,  recessed.     A  double  hexastyle. 
Monoprostyle,  recessed  as  a  tetrastyle  in  antis. 
Four  pilasters  and  two  columns  beneath  a  pediment,  or  five  intercolumns. 


3  G 


390 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL.  [Novkmbeu, 


Papers  on  Iron  and  Slat,  Praclical  and  Exptrimtntal.    Ey  David 
Ml'Shet.     London :  Weale,  1S40. 

Second  Notice. 

Iron  possesses  among  metallic  products  tlie  same  pre-eminence  wliicli 
cotton  lias  over  those  of  vegetable  origin,  and  has  for  many  centmies 
been  one  of  the  great  staples  of  our  foreign  trade,  and  a  main  sup- 
porter of  our  internal  industry;  to  the  progress  of  this  manufacture  in 
our  own  country  we  shall  subsequently  have  occasion  to  refer,  we  shall 
iiovp  therefore,  call  attention  to  its  origin  elsewhere.  Mr.  Mushet  in 
his  fourteenth  paper  combats  tlie  traditional  account  of  the  discovery 
of  iron  in  Greece  by  the  accidental  burning  of  a  forest,  and  gives  a 
probable  theory  so  well  confirmed  by  experience  here  as  to  carry  with 
it  a  high  degree  of  authority.  I  have  seen,  says  lie,  a  mass  of  per- 
fectly malleable  iron  produced  by  roa-iting  a  specie?  of  ironstone,  iniited 
with  a  considerable  quantity  of  bituminous  matter.  After  a  high  tem- 
perature had  been  excited  in  the  interior  of  the  pile  [ilates  of  malleable 
iron  of  a  tough  and  flexible  nature  were  found,  and  under  circumstances 
%vhere  there  was  no  fuel  but  [hat  furnished  by  the  ore  itself.  Mr. 
Mushet  thence  argues  the  possibility  of  the  properties  of  the  metal 
having  been  discovered  during  the  process  of  making  charcoal  by  a 
mass  of  ore  accidentally  dropping  into  Ihe  burning  pile.  Iron,  it  is 
most  probable,  was  for  a  long  time  after  its  discovery  applied  solely 
to  agricultural  purposes,  for  the  want  of  a  regular  method  of  converting 
it  into  steel  long  gave  a  preference  to  ha,-Jened  copper  and  its  alloys 
as  the  material  for  edged  tools  and  instruments  of  war.  So  little  in- 
deed was  the  art  of  making  steel  advanced,  that  a  present  of  40  lbs. 
of  steel  from  Porus  to  Alexander  is  quoted  by  biographers  as  a  most 
acceptable  anrl  valuable  gilt.*  Even  in  hulia  "itself  where  this  branch 
of  art  is  now  carried  on  upon  a  very  extensive  scale,  the  progress  seems 
to  have  been  very  slow,  for  the  value  of  that  gift  of  Porus"\vould  now 
be  the  produce  of  one  man's  Uibour  in  2-10  davs.  It  is  to  India  how- 
ever, that  according  to  the  best  authorities 'we  are  to  look  for  the 
origin  of  steel,  and  from  which  other  countries  were  supplied  ;  even 
the  obelisks  of  Egypt  being  supposed  to  have  been  worked  with  Indian 
tools.  Among  ourselves  the  production  of  iron  claims  a  very  early 
date,  for  there  is  every  probability  of  the  Cornish  mines  having  beeii 
worked  at  least  2300  years  ago  by  the  Phenicians,  while  we  know  bv 
the  testimony  of  Caesart  that  this  branch  of  mining  was  still  pursued 
by  the  nations  inhabiting  Britain.  The  current  money  was  of  brass 
01-  iron,  valued  according  to  weight,  although  Cssar  observes  that  the 
produce  of  this  latter  met  d,  which  was  worked  in  the  maritime  dis- 
tricts was  small.  As  however  the  tin  trade  had  long  been  a  staiile, 
and  copper  and  brass  were  imported,  it  maybe  reasonably  doubted 
whether  among  a  mining  population,  the  workings  were,  although  rude, 
carried  on  upon  a  greaier  sca'e  of  magnitude  than  is  implied  from  the 
terms  used  by  the  Romans.  During  the  subsequent  occupation  bv  the 
Romans,  remains  now  existing  fully  attest  that  the  workings  were  kept 
up  by  them,  and  indeed  during  thewhole  period  of  history  there  seems 
to  have  been  no  intermission  in  the  prosecution  of  this  brand)  of  the 
national  wealth  and  strength.  The  Danes  are  particularly  noted  in 
this  pursuit,  and  large  heaps  of  scoria,  named  after  them,  are  to  this 
day  to  be  met  with  in  many  parts  of  England,  with  so  great  an  accumu- 
lation of  soil  upon  tliem  as  to  bear  trees  of  large  size.  At  the  time  of 
the  Norman  accession  we  find  the  king  demanding  of  the  inhal)itants 
of  Ghister  3(j  icres  of  iron,  for  making  nails  for  his  fleet,  every  icre  to 
consist  of  10  bars  or  rods  of  iron  ;  which  iron  was  very  probably  made 
in  the  neiglibourbood  in  the  Forest  of  Dean.  The  kings  of  England 
Iield  in  this  forest  iron  works,  consisting  of  three  blast  furnaces  and 
two  forges,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  given  up  by  Charles  1st, 
somewhere  about  the  year  l.)37.  Cromwell  and  other  princes  are  also 
said  to  have  embarked  capital  in  such  pursuits,  and  indeed  the  iron 
trade  seems  always  to  have  been  the  object  of  the  highest  solicitude. 

One  of  the  first  events  which  led  to  an  extension  of  the  iron  trade, 
particularly  as  regards  castings,  was  the  invention  of  cannon,  the  pre- 
cise date  of  which  is  not  however  known.  Cast  iron  is  said  by  M. 
Verlit  to  h.ive  been  known  in  Holland  in  the  13th  century,  and  staves 
to  have  been  cast  from  it  at  Elass  in  1400,  but  how  produced  is  not 
known.  Cannon  are  mentioned  in  a  record  of  the  accounts  of  the 
Chamber  of  Paris  in  1338,  and  were  used  by  the  English  at  Cressy  in 
134G,  and  by  the  Venetians  in  13150  and  7,  but  we  are  by  no  means  to 
conclude  th.it  such  cannon  were  cast,  as  for  two  hundred  years  hooped 
cannon  were  made,  formed  of  staves  of  wrought  iron,  bound  together 
with  strong  hoops  of  the  same  metal.  It  was  not  until  1517  that  the 
first  iron  guns  were  cast  in  London  by  a  person  named  Owen.  The 
precise  date  of  the  origin  of  the  blast  furnace  is  far  from  being  ascer- 
tained.    Mr.  Mushet  who  has  investigated  the  subject  with  his  usual 


iuiulus  Curlius,  R.  9.  cli.  2.').     Ferri  candid)  talcnta  cunlum 
T  De  Bi'llo  Galileo,  L.  5,  c.  10. 


research,  seems  to  be  of  o|)inion  that  it  cannot  be  beyrmd  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  tlien  that  we  perceive  a  fresh  epoch 
in  the  jirogress  of  the  manufacture,  as  a  greater  power  of  blast  was 
required,  {he  old  situations  would  be  abandoned,  and  the  iron  trade 
pass  from  the  township  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mines  to  the  banks 
of  the  adjacent  streams;  this  is  particularly  evident  from  examining 
the  sites  of  the  oldest  workings.  The  introduction,  or  invention  of 
the  blast  furnace  here,  for  we  seem  to  have  some  claim  to  its  first  use, 
was  productive  of  a  great  extension  of  the  trade;  a  great  exportation 
of  iron  artillery  to  the  continent  was  the  result,  and  without  giving 
implicit  belief  to  the  statements  of  Dudley,  in  his  Metallum  Martis,  we 
are  still  bound  to  believe  that  the  trade  was  great.  According  to 
Dudley's  computation  in  1G15,  there  were  then  no  less  than  300  blast 
furnaces  for  smelting  iron  ore  vvith  charcoal,  and  oOO  forges  and  iron 
mills.  The  total  quantity  of  iron  produced  from  the  works  is  said  to 
have  been  180,000  tons  per  year,  an  enormous  amount  considered  in 
relation  to  the  then  population  of  the  country,  although  not  impossible 
so  far  as  the  question  of  fuel  is  concerned.  .Supposing  Dudley's  state- 
ment of  the  number  of  furnaces  to  be  accurate,  although  some  question 
may  be  raised  upon  that  point,  a  deduction  is  still  to  be  made  for  fur- 
naces out  of  blast  and  building,  for  which,  trom  modern  experience  we 
might  easily  assume  the  deduction  of  a  third,  leaving  200  as  the  actual 
number  in  work.  A  less  njmiber  of  weeks  (perhaps  35;,  and  a  lower 
average  fsay  ]2),  should  also  be  taken,  and  the  estimated  produce 
would  tlien  not  exceed  80,000  tons,  a  quantity  by  no  means  incredible. 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  by  the  way  that  the  extensive  exportation 
of  artillery  is  not  only  in  favour  of  the  origin  of  blast  furnaces  in  this 
Country,  but  also  of  our  possessing  a  very  large  share  of  this  trade, 
which  might  well  give  an  impulse  to  it  in  this  country. 

We  have  now  to  contemplate  the  history  of  another  great  improve- 
ment, the  use  of  pit  coal,  for  which  we  find  several  patents  granted  by 
.Tames  I.     In  1G12  a  patent  was  granted  to  -Simeon  Sturtevant,  Esq. 
fseeminglv  a  Dutch  name)  fir  31  years  for   nuking  iron  with  pitcoal, 
in  return  for  which  patent  Sturtevant  was  bound  to   publish  his  dis- 
coveries, wdiicli  appeared  in  a  quarto  form  under  the  rame  of"  Metal- 
lica."     In  the  next  year  Sturtevant,  having  tried  his  plan  upon  a  large 
scale  and  failed,  was  obliged  to  give  up  his  monopoly.     John  Raven- 
son,  Esq.,  was  the  next  in  the  field,  and  was  also  enjoined  by  his  patent 
to  publish  his  discoveries,  which  he  did  under  the  title  of  his  "  Me- 
t.illica."     Several  other  candidates  also  failed,  wlien,  in   lul9,  anew 
competitor   came  into  the   field,  wdio  was  destined  to  excite  more 
attention.     Dudley's  father  possessed  iron  works  at  Pinsent,  in  Wor- 
cestershire, and  it  was  there  that  Dudley  perfected  the  patent  which 
he  obtained  in  1619.     He  declared  that  although  he  made  only  at  the 
rate  of  three  tons  of  pig  iron  weekly,  that  be  made  it  with  profit.    His 
success  was  such  as  to  excite  the  alarm  of  the  charcoal  iron  manufac- 
turers, who  formed  a  powerful  opposition,  and  obtained  a  limitation  of 
his  patent  from  31  to  14  years,  new  adventurers  also  spr.uig  up  to  en- 
croach upon  his  rights,  until  at  last  their  rivalship,  and  his  attachment 
to  the  cause  of  Charles   1st,  prevented  his  improvements  from  being 
followed  up.     In  the  meanwhile  the  deficiency  of  wood  had  begun  to 
be  felt,  and  Dudley  had  fully  proved  the  efficacy  of  his  plan  for  the 
manufacture  of  pig  and  bar  iron,  and  for  various  castings,  all  of  which 
he  sold  much  lower  than  the  charcoal-manufacturers.     In  the  article 
of  castings  alone,  Mr.  Mushet  says,  he  must  have  h.id  greatly  the  st.art 
of  the  charcoal  foundries,  as  the  quality  of  c.irbonated  coke  pig  iron 
is  far  superior  to  that  of  the  charcoal  iron  of  this  country  for  the  gene- 
ral   purposes   of  casting.     .Such  success  greatly   provoked  the   hos- 
tility of  his   rivals,   particularly  of  those   who  still  possessed  a  good 
sujiply  of  fuel,  who  at  last  in  "the  true  s|iirit  of  combination  led  on  an 
attack  upon  his  devoted  works,  and  led  to  tliee>il  results  to  which  we 
have  alluded.     His  impioved  bellows,  forge,  &c.  all   fell  a  prey  to  the 
lawless  banditti.     While  he  was  thus  openly  plundered,  his  rivals  were 
not  less  active  in  endeavouring  to  undermine  him,  or   at  least  profit  by 
his  success  by  evasions  of  his  patent.     Among  these  attem|)ls  that  of 
Captain   Buck,  Major  Wildman  and  others  is  a  singular  instance  of 
failure.      Attacked  on    all    sides   Dudley    was    also    foiled    in    1603, 
in    his    last   attempt  to   obtain   a   patent  from   Charles    the    Second, 
and   deserted  by  all.he   was   compelled    to  give   up   the    pursuit. — 
Dudley  was  the  author  among  other  works  of  the  "Metallum  Mar- 
tis,"  in  which  we  possess  many  curious  det.iils  of  the  early  state  of 
the  trade.     We  may  here   pause   and   view  the   present  state  of  the 
charcoal   iron   manufacture,   which   from   310  furnaces   has  dwindled 
down  to   insignificance,  so  as  to  be  almost  extinct,  the  whole  annual 
quantity  manufactured   not  exceeding  1000  tons.     In  Lancashire,  two 
or  three  fiunaces  are  occasionally  in  blast,  and  one  in  Argyleshire. 
The  jiurposes  to  which  iron  made  from  this  fuel  is  now  applied  are 
limited   inileed.     In  Lancashire  a  small  quantity  of  steel  iron  for  the 
Sheflield  marker  has  of  late  years  been  made  from  it;  but  the  principal 
consumption  is  for  casting  knives,  forks,  razors,  snuffers,  bridle  bits, 


1840.1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


301 


stirrup  irons,  &c.  These  articles,  after  having  been  cast,  undergo  a 
process  of  (leoxi(l;ition,  which  gives  them  a  surprising  degree  of  tena- 
city, with  great  flexibility  and  a  capacity  of  polish  resembling  steel ; 
those  castings,  not  intended  to  receive  a  polish,  present  surfaces  capa- 
ble of  receiving  and  retaining  tin  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

To  return  to  the  date  where  we  left  off,  we  may  observe  that  the 
improvements  which  had  been  made  had  increased  the  power  uf  the 
furnaces,  from  which  as  well  probably  as  from  their  concentration  a 
diminution  had  taken  place  in  their  number.  In  a  prospectus  drawn 
up  about  the  year  1720,  near  the  time  of  the  .South  Sea  Bubble,  we  find 
the  number  of  furnaces  rated  at  only  .59,  but  as  this  list  is  manifestly 
imperfect,  we  are  perhaps  bound  to  considerthe  number  aslaiger.  Sus- 
sex, Kent,  and  Hampshire  were  then  the  seat  of  l.i  furnaces,  now  of  not 
one.  Resuming  the  histi.ry  of  pitcoal  iron  we  find  that  after  the  time  of 
Dudley,  nothing  of  importance  was  done  imtil  1740,  when  a  new 
auxiliary,  the  steam  engine,  had  come  into  the  field.  The  application 
of  this  machine  gave  the  manufacturer  greater  liberty  in  selecting  the 
site  of  his  works,  and  enabled  him  to  erect  larger  furnaces  with  a  pro- 
portionate quantity  of  blast.  From  this  d^ite  the  use  of  pitcoal  every 
year  became  more  prevalent,  and  has  ended  by  superseding  charcoal 
in  this  country.  In  aid  of  this  two  other  circumstances  operated  with 
advantage,  the  inlroduction  of  Mr.  Watt's  double  blast  engine,  and  the 
invention  of  puddling  and  rolling  bar  iron  by  Mr.  Cort. 

In  our  own  days  improvements  not  less  important  have  been  effected, 
and  since  the  commencement  of  tlie  literary  career  of  the  author,  whose 
work  is  now  before  us,  the  quantity  of  pig  iron  necessary  to  pioduce  a 
tun  of  bar  iron  has  been  reduced  from  40  cwt.  to  2o  or  27  cvvf.,  with 
almost  as  great  an  economy  of  fuel.  '1  his  has  principally  been  accom- 
plished by  means  of  the  hot  blast,  the  use  of  which  however  can  be 
onlv  C(;nsidered  as  recently  established,  so  strong  was  the  prejudice 
against  its  application.  One  gre.it  property  it  possesses  is  that  it 
diminishes  the  qu mtity  of  vitreous  matter  formerly  required  in  the 
furnaces,  so  as  to  diminish  the  consumption  of  both  fuel  and  limestone. 
An  equalization  of  the  blast  is  another  result,  so  as  to  dimmish  the 
effect  of  the  atmospheric  influence,  which  it  is  well  known  interferes 
vritli  the  oper.itions  of  the  furnace.  In  this,  as  in  other  countries,  a 
larger  produce  of  cast  iron  is  obtained  in  the  winter  months  than  dur- 
ing the  summer  or  autumn,  while  the  quality  of  the  metal  is  improved 
by  being  nuRh  more  carbonated  and  less  fuel  is  consumed.  During 
the  months  of  June,  July  and  August,  more  especially  in  hot  seasons, 
the  qiialily  of  the  iron  in  this  country  will  be  depreciated  3U  per  cent., 
and  the  quantity  very  considerably  reduced,  and  in  many  parts  of 
.Sweden,  says  Ivir.  Mushet,  when  the  summer  heats  are  intense,  the 
manufacturer  is  obliged  to  blow  out  or  stop  his  furnace  for  two  or 
three  months ;  not  only  is  he  unable  to  make  carbonated  metal,  but  is 
frequently  incapable  of  keeping  the  furnace  in  such  trim  as  to  make  a 
produce  of  any  quality  whatever. 

An  improvement  scarcely  inferior  in  importance,  although  only  local 
was  the  discovery  by  the  author  in  1801,  of  the  Mushetstone  or  Black 
Band  ironstone,  a  new  class  of  carboniferous  ironstone,  principally 
found  n^ar  the  river  Calder,  near  Glasgow,  but  also  in  South  Stafford- 
shire, NcM'th  Wales,  and  North  Statibrdshire,  in  which  latter  district 
it  is  called  Red  Mine.  Although  used  by  Mr.  Mushet  in  the  Calder 
iron  works,  so  strong  was  the  prejudice  ag.iinst  it  that  it  was  not  until 
1825  t.liat  its  application  was  at  all  extensive.  It  is  now  used  in  about 
50  furnaces  in  Scotland,  and  the  quantity  of  iron  produced  is  above 
100,0;JO  tons ;  on  one  estate  alone  £12,0J0  is  received  as  royalty  in 
consequence  of  this  discovery.  A  powerful  auxiliary  in  the  hands  of 
the  Scotch  masters  has  been  the  use  of  raw  pit  coal,  and  coking  under 
dust,  which  have  been  found  to  be  particularly  suited  to  the  Scotch 
coal  and  iron.  A  dawning  discovery  and  one  which  promises  to  be 
not  less  important  than  that  of  the  Mushetstone,  is  Mr.  Crane's  process 
for  smelt  ng  iron  with  anthracite,  thus  making  available  a  large  supply 
of  mineral  wealth,  and  extending  our  national  resources. 


»4  Practical  Inquiry  into  the  Larvs  of  Excavation  and  Embankment 
upon  Hallways,  being  an  attempt  to  develop  the  natural  causes  which 
affect  the  progress  of  such  works,  Sfc.  By  a  a  Resident  Assistant 
Engineer.     London  :  Saunders  and  Otley,  1S40. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  axiom  that  in  every  inquiry  of  this 
nature,  the  degree  of  dependance  which  shall  be  placed  upon  the 
laws  established,  should  be  proportionate  to  the  extent  and  generality 
of  the  experiments  on  which  such  laws  are  founded. 

If  we  take  as  our  groundwork  the  gross  performances  of  a  long 
series  of  months  during  which  the  attendant  circumstances  as  to  weather, 
state  of  the  earth,  as  it  may  be  wet  or  dry,  adhesive,  loose,  or  crumb- 
ling, and  so  troublesome  or  otherwise  in  filling  and  teaming,  with  all 


the  other  circumstances  by  which  earth-works  are  affected,  we  shall 
be  afjle  to  deduce  from  these  in  connection  with  detailed  experiments 
ujion  the  requisite  particulars  of  getting,  filling,  teaming,  and  times  of 
travelling,  a  tolerably  perfect  set  of  expressions  by  which  calculations 
mav  be  made  with  reference  to  earth  works  in  general. 

it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  ail  results  derived  from 
such  expressions,  however  acc\irately  determined,  and  however  com- 
prehensive the  data  from  which  they  have  been  derived,  are  still  liable 
to  be  affected  by  circumstances  which  no  liuman  foresight  can  predict. 
All  that  can  ever  be  with  safety  relied  upon  is,  that  supposing  all  at- 
tendant circumstances  to  be  identical  as  to  effects  with  those  which 
had  place  during  the  period  of  former  observations,  then  that  the  cal- 
culations applied  to  other  works  varying  in  form  and  magnitude,  shall 
give  results  agreeing  with  such  former  observations. 

But  if  we  attempt  without  reference  to  the  gross  performance  during 
some  long  period,  to  derive  from  the  observation  of  a  few  days,  fixed 
laws  for  the  actual  time  of  executing  large  works,  it  is  obvious  how 
impossible  it  must  be  to  derive  correct  results  in  any  such  way.  The 
days  during  which  the  observations  have  been  made,  may  have  been 
remarkably  fine  or  remarkably  unfavourable,  or  in  some  intermediate 
stage  between  these.  But  whatever  this  stage  may  have  been,  there 
is  no  alternative  but  to  adopt  them  as  our  standard  for  the  whole  year, 
and  thus  it  will  be  seen  on  what  an  unstable  foundation  such  a  struc- 
ture must  be  raised. 

We  do  not  mean  to  sav  that  any  experimentalist  would  so  far  stultify 
himself  as  to  proceed  blindly  on  the  isolated  experiments  of  certain 
days  on  which  tlie  performances  would  notoriously  be  either  much  less 
or  much  more  than  on  the  average  of  the  year,  but  we  can  readily 
imagine  that  the  imputation  of  improper  selection  can  scarcely  fail  to 
apply  more  or  less  to  the  experiments  of  any  10  or  12  single  days  at 
any  period  of  the  year.  Let  us  suppose  on  the  one  hand  one  of  the 
dull  gloomy  days  of  our  winter  months,  the  ground  slowly  parting  with 
the  frost  which  had  hardened  it  for  some  weeks  before — the  falls  of 
earth  possessing  more  than  usual  tenacity,  the  workmens'  tools  clogged 
with  the  soft  retentive  clay  adhering  to  every  thing  like  bird  lime; 
the  rails  clammy  and  dirty  from  the  same  cause,  the  wagons  when 
teamed  retaining  a  third  of  their  contents  plastered  to  the  sides  and 
bottom,  and  so  requiring  double  the  time  for  teaming,  and  then  let  us 
with  this  contrast  a  fine  dry  day  of  spring  or  autumn,  the  rails  almost 
free  from  dirt,  the  shovels  all  clean  and  bright,  and  parting  instantly 
with  t!ie  contents  filled  into  the  wagons.  'These  latter  again  wlfen 
tipped  immediately  discharging  their  contents,  and  leaving  none  to  be 
shovelled  out  by  the  teamers.  And  let  us  ask  any  man,  practical  or 
not  practical,  on  which  day  the  performance  will  be  greatest.  We 
shall  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  performance  on  the  one  day  shall  be 
50  per  cent,  more  than  on  the  other,  and  shall  be  independent  of  the 
number  of  hands  employed,  because  assuming  that  on  the  favourable 
day  each  department  of  the  labour  is  occupied  by  the  proper  pro- 
portion of  men  and  horses,  then  on  the  unfavourable  day  an  increased 
number  will  rather  serve  to  impede  than  to  hasten,  as  they  will  be  in 
each  others  way,  and  the  hands  will  at  intervals  have  to  wait  for  their 
turn  to  exert  themselves,  it  being  im,iossible  that  more  than  a  certain 
number  at  a  time  can  be  fully  employed. 

We  repeat  we  have  no  intention  of  charging  the  experiments  before 
us,  or  anv  otiier  of  the  same  kind  with  such  glaring  absurdity  as  would 
attach  to  them,  did  they  exhibit  the  extraordinary  results  of  one  or 
other  of  the  extremes  we  have  pointed  out  as  a  foundation  for  esti- 
mating the  work  of  the  year,  but  we  contend  the  chances  are,  that  as 
isolated  experiments  they  bear  more  or  less  to  one  or  other  of  the  ex- 
tremes. It  is  barely  possible  that  the  days  selected  shall  represent  a 
fair  average  of  what  may  be  done  throughout  the  year. 

It  is  for  such  reasons  that  we  would  hesitate  before  adopting  as  the 
basis  of  important  calculations,  the  results  of  a  few  days  observation. 

We  would  much  rather  rely  on  well  authenticated  records  of  the 
performance  during  many  months,  under  different  systems  of  working, 
and  we  would  suggest  to  the  author  of  the  present  treatise,  and  to  all 
others  who  may  in  future  undertake  experimental  inquiries  of  this  na- 
ture, that  the  really  practical  and  experienced,  whether  engineers  or 
contractors,  will  invariably,  as  their  test  upon  the  accuracy  of  any  par- 
ticular theory,  however  derived,  proceed  at  once  to  compare  the  re- 
sults which  such  a  theory  will  give  them  with  their  own  actual  know- 
ledge of  what  has  been  done  on  the  great  scale  in  other  works.  They 
will  therefore  pronounce  the  theory  correct  or  otherwise,  according  as 
it  coincides  or  disagrees  with  their  own  experience.  We  are  thus 
over  and  over  again  impressed  with  the  importance  of  founding  all 
theories  upon  the  actual  performance  of  as  long  a  period  as  possible. 

Let  it  not  be  understood  that  we  are  here  objecting  to  experiments 

in  detail.     These  are  exceedingly  useful,  because  placing  as  they  do 

before  our  eyes  the  precise  amount  of  time  occupied  in  all  the  various 

tages  through  which  the  soil  passes  from  its  original  position  in  the 


302 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Nov  EMBER, 


cutting  till  it  is  fiiiiilly  placed  in  tlie  embankment,  we  are  better  able 
justly  to  apportion  tlie  quantity  of  labour  necessary  iu  each  several 
department,  and  so  to  economize  both  time  and  money. 

Our  autlior  professes  to  have  selected  the  experiments  he  has  given 
from  a  much  more  extensive  series,  and  this  may  possibly  be  held  as 
an  answer  to  our  olyections,  as  to  the  limited  space  over  wliich  the 
experiments  extend,  but  it  must  be  understood  we  are  not  objecting  to 
the  insiiiTiciency  of  these  experiments,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the. 
distinct  periods  of  time  occupied  iu  the  several  processes  of  filling, 
tipping,  and  travelling;  the  real  meagreness  of  the  experiments,  we 
conceive,  arises  from  the  absence  of  all  information  as  to  the  gross 
performance  of  some  long  periods.  It  is  obvious  that  with  such  in- 
formation, even  should  the  results  not  agree  with  those  which  might 
be  derived  from  calculation  by  the  author's  formulcP,  these  latter  might 
still  be  of  service,  as  expressing  the  ratio  of  the  times  occupied  by  the 
various  details  of  earthwork  operations,  and  this,  we  apprehend,  is 
almost  the  extent  of  what  can  be  expected  from  the  experiments  we 
are  considering. 

TIius  should  we  find  that  the  calculations  on  being  applied  to  any 
particular  work  already  executed,  shall  afford  a  less  result  in  point  of 
performance  than  we  actually  know  to  have  been  accomplished,  we 
may  still  perhaps  rely  upon  the  numercial  relation  to  each  other  of  the 
several  times  determined  in  the  experiments,  which  form  the  basis  of 
such  calculations.  We  may  conclude  that  the  separate  times  assumed 
for  filling,  teaming  and  travelling  are  all  too  great,  but  that  they  may 
all  safely  be  reduced  in  a  certain  ratio :  and  when  so  reduced  we  may 
be  satisfied  with  the  conclusions  they  establish.  Thus  for  purposes  of 
comparison  as  to  the  amounts  of  labour  which  can  most  advantageously 
be  employed  in  the  several  departments  of  earthworks,  we  hold  the 
experiments  in  this  book  to  be  extremely  useful,  and  we  think  with 
the  restriction  we  have  laid  down  against  applying  them  to  establish 
gross  results,  that  they  may  be  safely  depended  upon. 

We  will  now  briefly  describe  the  mode  of  investigation  pursued  in 
this  work. 

From  the  observations  of  sixteen  days  the  author  proceeds  to  esta- 
blish first  the  rate  of  speed  at  which  the  wagons  travel,  and  then  the 
time  occupied  in  tipping  each  wagon,  or  each  set  of  wagons,  suppos- 
ing a  sulficient  number  of  men  at  the  teaming  place  to  prevent  unne- 
cessary delay.  His  method  of  deriving  the  rate  of  speed  is  neat  and 
ingenious,  and  liable  to  less  objection  than  actual  observation  on  the 
time  of  passing  between  fixed  points.  For  instance,  the  time  occupied 
in  "filling,  removing,  and  tipping  the  wagons,"  as  the  average  of 
several  experiments,  on  a  lead  of  half  a  mile,  was  55  minutes.  Also 
the  time  occupied  in  filling,  removing,  nnd  tipping  the  wagons  on  a 
lead  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  amounted  to  t)0-47  minutes.  Hence 
we  have  t)9'47  —  55  =  14'47  minutes  for  the  difference  between  the 
time  required  for  filling,  removing,  tipping  and  bringing  back  a  set  of 
wagons  upon  a  lead  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  long;  and  the  time 
required  for  filling,  removing,  tipping  and  bringing  back  a  set  of 
wagons  upon  a  lead  of  half  a  mile  long.  This  difference,  namely,  14-47 
minutes  is  evidently  the  time  which  elapsed  while  the  horses  were 
drawing  the  loaded  and  empty  wagons  backwards  and  forwards  over  a 
quarter  (jf  a  mile,  or  in  fact  the  difference  in  the  lengths  of  the  leads. 

"This  shows  that  the  average  speed  of  transit  rates  at  2-4U  miles 
per  hour." 

We  regret  to  be  under  the  necessity  of  pointing  out  that  the  author 
has  here  made  an  error  in  calculation,  as  may  at  once  be  verified  by 
ascertaining  the  rate  of  speed  corresponding  to  half  a  mile  in  14-47 
minutes.  This  rate  will  be  found  equal  to  2-U7,  instead  of  2-40  miles 
per  hour;  a  material  difference,  and  one  which  must  affect  any  subse- 
quent calculations  founded  upon  it.  We  believe  that  the  rate  made 
use  of  by  the  author,  namely,  2-40,  is  more  correct  in  practice  than  the 
other,  but  this  tends  rather  to  weaken  our  faith  in  the  experiments, 
since  they  undoubtedly,  by  the  author's  own  showing,  establish  2-U7 
miles  per  hour  as  the  rate  of  horses'  speed  in  transporting  earih.  To 
proceed,  the  time  of  tip|)ing  is  then  found  ;=  7-UG  minutes,  and  that  of 
filling  =:  19  minutes,  both  these  being  derived,  independently  of  the 
rate  of  speed,  and  so  not  affected  by  the  error  we  have  pointed  out 
above. 

From  the  data  thus  established,  our  author  derives  in  a  simple  man- 
ner, the  necessary  expressions  for  finding  the  number  of  wagon  loads 
which  may  be  removed  fron)  cutting  to  embankment  in  a  given  time, 
with  a  given  number  of  wagons,  both  for  constant  and  varying  loads. 

The  next  section  is  devoted  to  the  investigation  of  the  causes  which 
limit  the  rate  of  progress  in  forming  an  embankment.  The  author 
shows  that  this  rate  of  progress  is  limited  by  the  number  of  teaming, 
or  as  he  terms  them  shunt  roads,  which  can  be  fixed  at  the  end  of  the 
embankment,  and  this  number  will  of  course  depend  upon  the  height, 
top  breadth,  and  rate  of  slopes  of  the  embankment,  as  affording  a 
greater  or  less  breadth  to  team  over.     The  breadth  occupied  by  each 


road,  he  assumes  at  8  feet,  so  that  the  whole  breadth  available  for 
teaming  over  being  divided  by  8,  will  give  the  number  of  roads  which 
can  be  laid  down. 

It  will  now  be  necessary  to  notice  the  author's  hypothesis  as  to  the 
available  breadth  of  the  teaming  or  battery  head!  He  assumes  that 
most  soils  will  stand  at  a  slope  of  li  to  1,  when  first  tipped,  and  as 
most  embankments  are  to  be  finally  dressed  off  to  flatter  slopes  than 
this,  the  difference  between  the  base  for  a  slope  of  lA  to  1,  and  that 
for  the  slope  to  which  the  embankment  is  to  be  finally  dressed  off  will 
be  so  much  additional  breadth,  which  being  added  to  the  top  breadth 
will  give  the  whole  available  breadth  for  teaming.  Thus  for  an  em- 
bankment  40  feet  high,  slopes  2  to  1,  and  top  breadth  3U  feet,  we  shal 
have  40 x  2 X  2  +30  —  40 X  U  X2  =  190—  120=  70  feet,  the  avail- 
able breadth  for  teaming  over  in  this  case. 

This  brief  analysis  contains,  we  believe,  the  elements  of  the  author's 
theory,  as  to  the  limits  of  progress  in  an  embankment,  for  taking  7-07 
minutes  as  the  time  of  lipping  a  set  of  wagons,  it  is  evident  that  84-8 
can  be  tipped  from  each  shunt  road  in  a  day  of  10  hours. 

The  number  of  wagons  that  can  be  tipped  per  day  from  each  shunt 
road,  being  multiplied  by  the  number  of  these  roads,  gives  the  total 
number  of  wagon  loads  that  can  be  tipped  per  day  from  all  the  roads, 
and  this  number  being  multiplied  again  by  2i;0,  the  working  days  in  a 
year,  gives  the  whole  performance  in  wagon  loads  ]ier  annum. 

The  quantity  in  cube  yards  depends  of  course  on  the  capacity  of  the 
wagons,  which  varies  from  two  to  three  cube  yards,  according  as  they 
are  heaped  or  not,  and  according  to  their  build. 

Our  opinion  of  this  part  of  the  author's  work  is  principally  influenced 
by  comparing  the  gross  results  which  his  calculations  establish  as  to 
the  rate  of  progress,  with  what  we  know  to  have  been  the  actual  per- 
formance in  cases  where  every  effort  was  made  to  get  through  as  large 
a  quantity  of  work  as  possible.  Taking  the  case  of  an  embankment 
50  feet  high,  slopes  2  to  1,  and  top  breadth  30  feel,  it  would  appear 
by  the  formul<e  that  we  have  been  considering,  that  S4b  wagon  loads, 
or  say  (at  the  most  moderate  allowance  for  each  wagon)  ltj9G  cube 
yards  per  day  of  10  hours,  can  be  tipped  at  eich  end  of  the  embank- 
ment. We  think  our  author  woidd  be  somewhet  puzzled  to  point  out 
an  instance  n  here  even  two-thirds  of  this  amount  has  ever  been  per- 
formed, under  the  circumstances  we  have  supposed,  even  for  a  single 
day,  much  less  during  any  long  continued  period. 

There  is  some  difficulty  in  comparing  the  formulae  in  detail  with 
actual  performance,  for  the  want  of  knowing  the  breadth  of  tip  in  the 
latter  cases.  There  is  however  one  well  authenticated  example  which 
may  be  found  in  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Provis,  on  the  Loudon  and  Brighton 
Railways. 

We  allude  to  his  description  of  the  great  Skelmere  embankment  on 
the  Birmingham  and  Liverpool  Canal,  where  he  states,  that  over  a 
breadth  of  60  feet,  105,000  yards  were  teamed  in  10  weeks  during  fine 
summer  weather,  being  at  the  rate  of  1094  cube  yards  per  day. 

"  During  one  month,"  how-ever,  says  Mr.  Provis,  "  we  worked  double 
gangs,  beginning  at  three  in  the  morning,  and  ending  at  ten  at  night." 
So  that  this  quantity  reduced  to  days  of  ten  hours  in  length,  becomes 
105,000  in  120  days,  equal  to  875  yards  per  day.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  Mr.  Provis  was  here  certainly  not  underslatmg  the  per- 
formance on  this  work.  It  was  his  interest  to  show  the  greatest 
possible  quantity  which  had  ever  before  been  accomplished,  and  the 
fact  he  relates  was  considered  at  the  time,  as  indeed  it  is  entitled  to 
be  considered  now,  a  wonderful  and  almost  unexampled  performance, 
exhibiting  no  small  share  of  contrivance  and  energy  on  the  part  of 
those  directing  the  operations. 

We  shall  only  further  remark  that  up  to  April  1S37,  no  instance 
could  be  found  where  even  200,000  yards  had  been  teamed  into  em- 
bankment from  one  face  in  a  year;  whereas  our  author's  formulcE  for 
an  embankment  of  the  dimensions  last  described,  would  lead  us  to  cal- 
culate taking  250  w  orking  days  in  a  year,  as  a  performance  of  124,000 
yards  per  annum,  and  this  too  without  nightwork,  but  simply  during 
250  days  of  10  hours  each. 

The  differeiice  between  actual  experience  and  the  results  of  our 
author's  experiments  arises  here,  we  conceive,  principally  from  the 
use  of  the  constant  7-07  minutes  as  the  time  of  tipping.  This  time 
may  be  perfectly  correct  as  applicable  to  small  embankments,  and  a 
few  sets  of  wagons  where  there  is  no  danger  that  either  men,  horses, 
or  wagons  will  ever  be  in  each  others  way,  but  we  conceive  it  is  quite 
inapplicable  to  large  works,  where  interruptions  to  the  regularity  of 
proceeding  would  inevitably  be  very  frequent,  if  the  wagons  were 
worked  with  the  proper  complement  of  labour  to  ensure  the  condition 
that  no  instant  of  time  shall  be  lost  at  the  teaming  place.  Thus  it  will 
ever  be  found  that  the  theory  here  laid  down  furnishes  results  as  to 
gross  performance,  which  must  not  be  expected  in  practice. 

The  second  part  of  the  work  commence  with  an  inquiry  into  the 
effects  of  the  lead,  principally  as  determining  the  number  of  wagons  lo 


18-lO.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


393 


be  employed  for  diftereut  lengths  of  lead.  Without  accompanying 
the  author  through  his  investigation  of  this  snbject,  it  may  be  snfficient 
to  say  that  while  his  theoretical  deductions  from  certain  assumed  data 
cannot  be  objected  to,  yet  these  deductions  are  certainly  at  variance 
with  what  any  practical  man  would  think  of  adopting.  For  instance, 
he  aseestainsby  means  of  this  investigation,  that  for  working  a  20  feet 
embankment  at  one  end  only,  and  for  a  lead  of  150  chains,  there  should 
be  employed  no  fewer  than  109  horses  and  235  wagons,  a  proposal 
sufficiently  monstrous  to  startle  any  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  na- 
ture of  earjhworks. 

The  next  section  is  devoted  to  an  examination  "of  the  amount  of 
friction  incident  upon  contractor's  rails."  The  author  here  establishes 
that  the  gross  load  for  a  horse  on  contractors'  rails  may  vary  ton  a 
level?)  from  5-2S  to  7-17  tons,  so  that  knowing  the  weight  of  the 
wagons  employed,  and  deducting  this  from  the  gross  load  mentioned 
above,  we  may  readiiy  ascertain  the  number  of  wagons  to  be  assigned 
to  each  horse,  provided  the  quantity  of  sturt' which  each  wagon  is  to 
hold  be  known,  or  nee  ixrsn,  the  quantity  of  stuff  which  each  viragon 
is  to  carry,  according  as.  1,  2,  or  3  wagons  are  to  be  drawn  by  each 
horse. 

The  following  extract  from  this  section  exhibits  the  author's  results 
derived  from  an  examination  of  the  friction. 

"  Let  P  represent  the  power  of  a  horse,  F  the  friction  per  ton,  upon  the 
load  wliicli  he  draws,  and  fV  the  weight  of  a  loaded  wagon  in  tons ;  then  it 
follows,  that 

P 


Fx  ;r 


-=X 


is  the  load  proper  for  each  horse,  expressed  in  wagons;  and  this  value  of  A' 
has  been  given  in  the  following  table  : — 

Table,   giving  the  Load  proper  for  a  singe  Horse,  expressed   in 
Wagons,  according  to  the  state  of  the  Weather. 


Value 
ofF 
in  ft). 


Value    Value 

of  W  \    oiP 

in  tons.!  in  ft. 


Valne  of 

P 
TTW 


25-45  1  3-43 


188-27 


188'27  25-45  x  3-43 
188-27 


31-22!  3-43     188-27  31-22x3-43 
3-43 


26-86 


35-54 


188-27 
188-27  26-06"TFl3 


188-27 


3-43     188-27  35-54x3-43 


Value 
of  .Y. 


2-09 


1-75 


State 

of  the 

weather. 


Remarks. 


Fine.     |  Rails  in  good  order. 


Fine. 


Road  wet,  and  rails 
greasy. 


2-04        Fine.     ,  ^^']\  *"^,  ™=''   '° 
tolerable  order. 


Road  and   rails  in 
1-51   I     Wet.  verv  bad  order. 


We  observe  that  in  several  pages  of  this  section  the  erroneous  velo 
city  of  2-40  miles  per  hour  is  made  use  of. 

'fhe  eighth  section  contains  a  summary  of  those  preceding,  but  as 
w-e  liave  alreadv  considered  these  so  minutely,  it  may  be  unnecessary 
to  remark  particularly  on  the  summary. 

The  remainder  of  the  work  is  occupied  by  an  investigation  into  the 
burrowing  system,  our  notice  of  which  we  must  defer  till  next  month, 
and  in  the  mean  time  we  may  safely  recommend  the  work  to  the 
younger  branches  of  the  profession,  as  exhibiting  a  very  neat,  clear, 
and  simple  application  of  algebraical  calculation  to  subjects  of  practi- 
cal inquiry. 

For  the  reasons  already  so  fully  stated,  Vf  e  cannot  advise  dependance 
on  the  gross  results  to  be  derived  from  the  author's  mode  of  calcula- 
tion, but  whenever  the  student  shall  either  from  his  own,  or  the  ex- 
perience of  others,  have  acquired  sufficient  rfa/a  to  fonnd  his  calcula- 
tions u|)on,  then  the  method  of  handling  the  subject  generally,  and 
particularly  of  adapting  calculations  to  the  practical  facts  on  which 
they  are  established,  will  be  found  exceedingly  useful. 

A  great  deal  of  useful  information  may  also  be  gleaned  from  the 
observations  detailed  in  the  work,  and  the  young  engineer  in  particu- 
lar, can  scarcely  fail  to  have  his  knowledge  of  the  subject  improved  by 
a  perusal. 


Report  of  a  Proposed  Line  of  Raihcay  from  Plymouth  to  Exeter,  over  the 

Forest  of  Dartmoor.     Bv  James  M.  Rendel,  C.E.     Plymouth:  Stevens, 

1840. 

This  is  a  well  drawn  up  report,  but  we  can  do  no  more  than  call  attention 
to  the  mode  proposed  of  worUing  tlie  inclines,  respecting  which  we  may  also 
mention  that  a  similar  plan  is  described  in  the  First  Volume  of  the  Journal. 

"  From  the  point  of  divergence  of  the  Tavistock  branch,  the  main  line 
ascends  to  Dartmoor;  the  prevailing  gradient  being  1  in  38,  and  the  plane  5 
miles  860  yards.  This  part  would  be  worked  as  one  continuous  plane,  by  two 
water  wheels,  each  equal  to  160  horse  power,  constructed  at  the  head  of  the 
plane,  and  supplied  with  water  as  hereafter  to  lie  described.  The  rope  to  be 
Used  for  drawing  tlie  trains  up  this  plane  would  be  what  is  technically  called 
an  end  rope,  of  the  whole  length  of  the  plane;  being  verv  little  longer  than 
the  rope  similarly  used  on  the  Loinlon  and  Blackwall  Railway,  upon  which 
there  is  an  enormous  passenger  traffic." 

"To  insure  a  snpjily  of  water  for  working  the  water-wheels  before  describ- 
ed, by  which  the  trains  are  to  be  drawn  up  tlie  two  great  inclined  planes,  at 
a  velocity  of  not  less  than  from  15  to  20  miles  an  hour,  I  propose  to  throw 
dams  across  the  gorges  of  tlie  following  valleys  on  Dartmoor,  vi-i. — across  the 
Blackabrook  valley  east  of  the  prisons  of  war,  the  Cowsick  valley  above  Two 
Bridges,  and  the  East  Dart  valley,  about  three  miles  north  of  Post  Bridge. 
These  reservoirs  wotdd  liave  an  area  of  255  acres,  with  an  average  depth  of 
20  feet,  and  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  during  a  continued  drought, 
to  pass  eigiit  trains  per  day  up  the  planes,  for  three  months;  their  height 
above  the  wheels  is  from  50  to  SOUfeet.  The  great  depth  of  these  reservoirs 
will  cause  their  sujiply  of  water  to  he  independent  of  the  severest  known 
frost ;  whilst  from  their  height  above  the  Railway,  the  leats  by  whicli  the 
water  is  conveyed  to  the  wheels,  will  have  so  quick  a  descent  as  to  prevent 
all  chance  of  the  passage  of  the  water  being  interrupted  by  either  frost  or 
snow.  The  wheels  will  work  under  ground,  or  rather,  in  chambers  under  the 
Railway,  and  would  not  therefore  be  affected  by  weather." 

Tlte  Process  of  Blastivg  by  Galvanmn,  addressed  to  the  Hiytitand  and  Agri- 
cultural  Association  of  Scotland.     By  Martin  J.  Roberts,  F.R.S.E. 

In  mentioning  that  Mr.  Roberts  has  been  as  successful  in  Scotland  with 
blasting  by  Galvanism,  as  Col.  Pasley  has  been  in  England,  we  say  enough 
for  the  merits  of  Mr.  Roberts.  We  may  farther  observe  that  this  small  pam- 
phlet contains  in  addition  to  a  good  description  of  the  process,  several  dlus- 
trative  plates. 


By  Robert  Scott  and 


Memorial,   Oxford.     By   S.  S.  Scott,  and  W.  B.  Moffatt 


Scott's  Practical  Cotton  Spinner  and  Manufacturer. 
William  Scott.     Preston:  Livesey,  1840. 

We  are  glad  to  perceive  that  a  useful  class  of  works  by  practical  men  are 
springing  up  in  the  manufacturing  districts,  and  likely  to  prove  of  great  hene- 
tit.  The  book  now  before  us  is  a  collection  of  calculations  applied  to  the 
several  parts  of  cotton  spinning  machinery,  adapted  equally  to  the  use  of  the 
engineer  and  the  manufacturer.     It  seems  indeed  to  be  a  most  useful  work. 

J  Glossary  of  Civil  Engineering.     By  S.  C.   Brees,  C.  E.,  &.C.     London : 
Tilt,  andWeale,  1840. 

Mr.  Brees  seems  to  have  been  so  successful  with  his  previous  works,  and 
rendered  so  confident  by  his  good  reception  by  the  public,  that  after  a  very 
short  interval  he  is  again  before  us.  The  present  work  is  one  of  less  preten- 
sions than  those  usual  emanating  from  his  pen,  being  a  glossary  of  the  terms 
used  in  civil  engineering,  adapted  for  popular  use,  and  that  of  the  yonnger 
members  of  the  profession,  and  very  useful  as  a  handbook  of  reference.  It 
is  copiously  illustrated  with  woodcuts,  some  of  them  of  considerable  artistic 
pretension.  We  should  have  wished  that  Mr.  Brees  had  given  a  little  more 
room  for  mining  terms,  of  which  a  manual  is  much  wanted. 

T/te   Martyr^ 
Architects. 

This  fine  monument  is  an  elevated  cross  in  the  pointed  style,  of  majestic 
proportions,  having  in  the  second  story  statues  of  the  three  bishops.  The 
cross  is  raised  upon  a  series  of  steps,  and  we  are  glad  to  observe  without  an 
iron  railing  round  it.  The  irregular  pinnacles  of  the  church  in  the  back 
ground  are  made  by  the  cross  to  look  rather  awkward,  and  should  he  made 
more  symmetrical — we  should  suggest,  by  the  gentlemen  who  have  so  well 
fulfilled  their  previous  task. 

Jiicauti's  Rustic  Architecture,  No.  5.     Loudon  :  Grattan  and  Gilliert,  1840. 

Mr.  Ricauti  goes  on  with  success  in  his  undertaking,  he  has  shown  com- 
pletely how  much  beauty  may  be  combined  with  economy  by  the  simplest 
means.  Even  the  woodman's  axe  is  an  efficient  instrument  in  Mr.  Ricauti's 
hands  for  giving  a  picturesque  appearance  to  unbarked  trees  and  small 
branches.  It  appears  to  us  that  in  several  of  the  plans  Mr.  Ricauti  might 
h.->.ve  greatly  promoted  the  convenience  of  the  arrangements  by  a  few  slight 
alterations. 

The   Dominican    Convent   and    Chapel  at   Afherstone,    Wanvicishire.     By 
Joseph  Hansom,  iVrchitect. 

These  buildings  were  finished  in  August  1839,  and  consist  of  a  pile  of 
mixed  character  in  the  pointed  ?tyle.     The  turret  or  spire  attached  to  the 

3  H 


304 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


chapel  is  a  new  arrangement   of  tlie  details  of  tlie  pointed  style,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  us  to  be  rather  out  of  character  with  the  remaining  portions. 

A   Brief  Suney   of  Physicnl  and  Fossil  Geoloyy.     By   Frederick  John 
Francis.    London:  Ilatchard,  1839. 

This  small  work  is  a  republication  of  two  lectures  delivered  at  Literary  Insti- 
tutions, and  therefore  well  adapted  for  popular  circulation.  The  object  of 
such  a  pei-formance  almost  places  it  out  of  the  range  of  criticism,  particularly, 
whereas  in  this  instance,  the  work  seems  carefully  compiled. 


LITERARY  NOTICES. 

Mr.  Standish  Motte,  the  Parliamentarj-  Barrister,  has  published  at  the 
request  of  the  Aborigines  Protection  Society,  a  system  of  registration  for  the 
Aborigines  of  our  Colonies,  which,  although  it  recommends  engineers  to  he 
sent  out  to  the  colonies,  hardly  comes  within  our  province ;  we  can  say, 
however,  that  it  contains  many  profound  and  original  views. 

Mr.  ^^'vLD,  the  Geographer,  in  addition  to  his  national  wo»k  on  the  Cam- 
paigns of  the  English  Armies  in  the  Peninsula,  has  recently  published  several 
authentic  Maps  and  Plans  of  the  Seat  of  War  in  the  East, 

Mr.  Tyas  is  about  to  publish  a  cheap  Map  of  England  in  shilling  sheets, 
from  the  graver  of  Mr.  Jobbins,  and  on  the  scale  of  a  third  of  an  inch  to  a 
mile.     From  the  specimen  it  seems  likely  to  prove  a  useful  work. 

The  new  Catalogue  of  Mr.  \\'eale  contains  the  most  copious  list  yet  pub- 
lished of  works  on  engineering  and  architecture. 


NOTES  OF  THE  MONTH. 

M'lTH  the  rage  for  promenade  concerts,  it  is  scarcely  surprising  that  archi- 
tecture should  have  been  a  little  affected  with  the  mania.  The  Princess's 
Theatre  in  Oxford  Street,  has  been  opened  at  present  for  concerts ;  it  is  a 
gorgeous  building  in  the  style  of  the  revival ;  finished  by  Mr.  Thomas  Marsh 
Nelson ;  tlie  original  design,  we  believe,  being  by  Mr.  Duncan.  The  ground  in 
Leicester  Square,  next  to  the  Zoological  Society,  is  being  cleared  preparatory  to 
a  building  for  promenade  concerts. — The  Adelphi  Theatre  has  had  a  new 
front  put  on,  we  believe  from  the  designs  of  Mr.  Beasley.  It  is  a  novelty 
admissible  in  such  a  style  of  decoration,  but  the  pilasters  of  the  lower  arch 
have  been  unfortunately  contracted,  from  the  interference  of  a  neighbour 
who  possesses  a  right  of  way. — Oxford  Street  is  being  improved  by  the  erec- 
tion of  several  new  shops  on  a  large  scale. — The  Architectural  Society  com- 
menced its  pioceedings  on  Tuesday  the  3rd. — Mr.  Baily  has  just  finished  two 
statues,  one  of  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane,  for  New  South  Wales,  and  a  statue  of  a 
distinguished  Irish  judge  for  Dublin. — The  foundation  has  been  laid  of  the 
new  Collegiate  School  at  Livcrjiool. — The  British  Museum  has  received  seve- 
ral accessions  to  its  Egyptian  collections ;  a  fine  colossal  head  has  been  erected 
over  the  doorway,  which  produces  a  fine  effect. — Considerable  stir  is  being 
made  as  to  the  formation  of  new  railways,  but  we  fear  that  the  Standing 
Orders  will  jirevent  their  making  much  way  this  Session.  Among  others  we 
mention,  the  London  and  Manchester,-  the  Cambridge  and  Norwich,  through 
Thetford,  the  Lincoln  and  Nottingham,  the  Devon  and  Cornwall  lines,  the 
Edinburgh  hnes,  one  from  Mr.  JIarshall's  Slate  Quanies  to  Ulverstou. 


ON  TIDE  GAUGES. 

Sir. — In  your  October  number  you  have,  somewhat  incautiously, 
given  insertion  to  a  letter  most  injurious  to  my  character,  signed 
"  Jurnes  Jnglis,  London,"  on  the  subject  of  my  new  Tide  Gauge,  a  de- 
scription of  which  was  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  by  the  Rev. 
Professor  Whewell,  of  Cambridge,  and  printed  in  their  Transactions 
for  1338. 

Divested  of  those  portions  of  it  which,  being  merely  ornamental, 
may  be  safely  passed  over  without  remark,  Mr.  Inglis's  letter  contains 
an  assertion  and  an  implication,  to  each  of  which  I  must  give  a  se- 
parate reply.  It  is  asserkd,  that  in  answer  to  various  letters  which 
I  had  addressed  to  Mr.  Mitchell,  I  received  from  him  a  description 
and  drawings  of  his  machine,  by  the  aid  of  which  my  own  was 
constructed.  In  reply  to  this  assertion,  I  beg  to  state,  distinctly 
and  simply,  that  I  never  had  the  slightest  correspondence  or  com- 
municntioii  with  Mr.  Mitchell  in  my  life,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, and  challenge  either  him  or  his  friend,  Mr.  Inglis,  to  produce 
one  scrap  or  syllable  of  any  letter  of  mine  in  evidence  of  such  coires- 
pondence.  1  may  also  add  that  I  never  saw  any  drawing  or  descrip- 
tion of  Mr.  Mitchell's  tide  gauge,  and  that  I  have  not,  at  this  moment, 
the  least  idea  of  its  principle. 

The  implicalioH  contained  in  the  letter  of  Mr.  Inglis  is,  that  as  my 
tide  gauge  was  merely  a  copy  taken  from  that  of  Mr.  Mitchell,  with 


little  or  no  claim  either  to  originality  or  improvement,  it  was  not  only 
su|ierfluous  but  unjust  that  any  description  of  that  machine  should 
liave  been  permitted  to  apnear,  with  my  name  attached  to  it,  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  .Society.  On  this  latter  point  I  cannot  do 
better  than  transcribe  the  document  itself  which  was  the  immediate 
occasion  of  my  communicating  that  description  to  the  public.  This 
document  was  a  letter  addressed  by  Major  J.  B.  Jervis,  to  the  Hydro- 
grapher  to  the  Admiralty,  Captain  Beaufort,  R.N.,  and  by  him  enclosed 
to  me,  with  the  following  note : — 

"  Admiralty,  Feb.  23,  1838. 

"  Mv  DEAR  Sir — The  enclosed  note  is  from  the  Engineer  Officer  who  has 
been  appointed  to  succeed  the  present  Surveyor  General  of  India. — Do  me 
the  favour  to  read  it,  and  tell  me  how  far  you  can  assist  us,  and  when. 

"  Yours  verj-  truly, 

'  "  F.  Beaufort." 

(Note  enclosed.) 

"To  Capt.  F.  Beaufort. — My  dear  Sir — I  rejoice  to  say  that  I  have 
found  the  Court  of  Directors  disposed  to  give  the  fullest  effect  to  om-  wishes 
in  respect  of  the  registry  of  the  Tides,  throughout  the  whole  line  of  coast  of 
India,  and  wherever  their  authority  extends.  I  stated  my  own  views  to  the 
Chairman,  Sir  James  Carnac,  to  Mr.  Melville,  and  other  influential  persons, 
and  fully  explained  to  them  that  unless  the  thing  were  well  done,  it  were  far 
better  let  alone  ;  whereupon  they  directed  the  dispatch  and  instructions  which 
they  had  already  prepared  for  the  Governor  General  and  Bombay  Govern- 
ment to  be  withheld,  and  empowered  me  to  arrange  with  Mr.  Whewell,  Mr. 
Lubbock,  and  yourself,  to  propose  any  course  of  proceeding  and  measures  we 
thought  advisable,  and  point  out  the  requisite  apparatus.  With  such  a  mag- 
nificent carte  blanche,  with  such  superior  co-adjutors,  it  would  indeed  be  a 
reproach  to  be  either  su])ine  or  unsuccessful.  Mr.  Whewell  heartily  con- 
curred with  us  on  the  importance  of  having  the  Tides  registered  with  a  far 
greater  degree  of  precision,  and  at  shorter  intervals,  at  several  additional 
points  on  the  shores  of  India,  Arabia,  Persia,  the  Eastern  Islands,  and  China ; 
and  was  of  opinion  that  at  such  stations  exact  meteorological  observations 
should  also  be  made  contemporaneously,  and  these  punctually  and  promptly 
transmitted  home  in  duplicate  eveiy  mouth,  to  the  Admiralty,  to  the  India 
House,  and  to  the  Royal  Society.  Although  Mr.  Mitchell's  Tide  Guage, 
erected  at  Sheerness  appears  to  Mr.  Wliewell  to  answer  sufficiently  well  for 
the  subordinate  stations,  he  laid  great  stress  on  the  necessity  of  something 
far  superior  to  this,  for  those  stations  where  it  was  intended  to  have  more 
precise  and  frequent  measurements.  He  spoke  to  me  in  terms  of  high  praise, 
as  did  also  Ca))tain  Washington,  of  Mr.  Bunt's  ajiparatus,  but  said  that  he 
much  regi'etted  that  it  had  not  been  puWished,  although  he  had  been  in 
treaty  with  the  inventor  to  give  it  to  the  pubUc  with  a  complete  description." 

"  It  is  the  chief  object  of  this  epistle  to  move  you  to  write  to  Mr.  B. 

to  publish  his  descriptions  and  drawings.  Do  let  me  urge  you  to  use  all  your 
influence  with  him  in  so  good  a  cause, — and  if  he  would  permit  a  working 
model  to  be  made  under  his  own  eye,  it  would  greatly  assist  the  native  arti- 
ficers of  India  and  expedite  the  construction  of  the  several  tide  gauges.  The 
Directors  would  readily  defray  the  expense  of  such  model. 

"  Y'ours,  sincerely, 

"  J.  B.  Jervis." 

In  compliance  with  this  earnest  solicitation,  I  immediately  prepared 
and  forwarded  to  Professor  Whewell  drawings  and  a  description  of  my 
tide-gauge,  which  were  soon  afterwards  inserted  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Royal  Society.  In  doing  so,  I  acted  in  opposition  to  the  advice 
of  some  of  my  scientific  friends,  who  thought  that  I  was  entitled  to 
secure  to  myself  the  fruits  of  so  much  labour  and  study.  A  few  months 
afterwards  I  was  requested  to  superintend  the  construction  of  two 
machines,  similar  to  my  own,  for  the  East  India  Directors,  agreeably 
to  the  tenor  of  Major  Jervis's  letter,  already  quoted  ;  with  which  re- 
quest I  also  complied  without  hesitation.  "These  machines  were  com- 
pleted and  intrusted  to  the  care  of  two  scientific  officers  in  the 
Company's  service,  Lieuts.  Elliott  and  Ludlow;  who,  after  visiting 
Bristol  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  my  original  tide-gauge,  sailed 
with  the  two  new  machines  for  India  in  February  last.  From  one  of 
these  gentlemen  (Lieut.  Elliott,  who  had,  I  think,  seen  Mr.  Mitchell's 
tide-gauge,)  I  have  received  several  letters,  in  all  of  which  he  speaks 
of  my  machine  in  terms  of  the  highest  commendation. 

Immediately  on  the  appearance  of  Mr.  Inglis's  letter,  I  inserted  a 
reply  to  it  in  several  of  the  Bristol  newspapers,  and  sent  a  copy  of  ray 
reply  to  Professor  Whewell,  from  whom  I  received  the  following  note : 

"  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  Oct.  9,  1840. 

"  Mv  DEAR  Sir — I  have  received  your  shp  of  the  Bristol  Standard,  and 
am  full  of  astonishment  at  the  mahgnant  absurdity  of  Mr.  Inglis.  Even  on 
his  own  letter  his  conduct  has  this  character ;  for  no  amount  of  correspon- 
dence with  Mr.  Mitchell  could  have  deprived  your  machine  of  its  vast  supe- 
riority."  "I   am  glad  you  have  replied  to  him  so  calmly.     Captain 

Beaufort's  and  Major  Jerris's  letters  must  satisfy  every  body,  and  do  you 
justice." 


F-ivr 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


395 


I  now  beg  leave  to  request  of  you,  Mr.  Editor,  that  you  will  write 
immediately  to  Mr.  Mitchell,  and  inquire  of  him  what  letters  of  mine 
he  is  able  to  produce  in  confirmation  of  Mr.  Inglis's  statements  ; 
whether  lie  acknowledges  any  friendship  or  acquaintance  with  that 
gentleman  ;  and  whether  he  will  favour  you  with  his  precise  address  : 
and  when  you  have  received  Mr.  Mitchell's  reply,  that  you  will  be 
pleased  to  communicate  it  to  the  public. 

I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant. 
Small  Street  Court,  Thos.  G.  Bunt. 

Bristol,  October  15,  1S40. 

[In  addition  to  Mr.  Bunt's  letter,  we  may  ourselves  mention  that  we 
have  written  to  Mr.  Mitchell,  and  received  from  him  a  complete  denial 
that  he  was  ei'er  in  correspondence  with  Mr.  Bunt,  or  that  he  autho- 
rized Mr.  Inglis  to  circulate  such  statements.  In  closing  this  corres- 
pondence, therefore,  which  must  be  most  satisfactory  to  the  claims  of 
Mr.  Bunt,  we  have  to  express  our  regret  that  we  should,  by  the  inser- 
tion of  Mr.  Inglis's  unfounded  charges,  have  been  the  means  for  a 
moment  of  raising  a  doubt  as  to  the  originality  of  Mr.  Bunt's  invention. 
We  must  say  that  we  have  never  seen  a  case  of  grosser  or  more 
wicked  representation  than  this  by  Mr.  Inglis,  to  call  it  by  no  other 
name,  and  we  cannot  forbear  expressing  our  severe  reprobation  of 
such  unwarrantable  conduct.  We  hope  that,  if  he  has  any  feeling  of 
shame  about  him,  he  will  see  the  propriety  of  apologizing  as  publicly 
to  Mr.  Bunt  as  he  has  been  the  means  of  annoying  him. — Editor.] 


STATE  CAPITOL  AT  RALEIGH,  U.S. 

Sir — Under  the  head  of  America,  at  page  52  of  the  volume  of 
183r-'8  of  your  learned  work,  entitled  "  The  Civil  Engineer  and  jQ.r- 
chitecl's  Journal,"  the  Stale  Capitol  in  this  city  is  introduced  to  the 
attention  of  your  readers,  in  an  extract  of  a  letter  from  Ithal  Town, 
Esq.,  Architect,  dated  New  York,  Nov.  3,  1837. 

As  a  Senator,  myself,  of  the  State  Legislature  which  ordered  its 
erection,  and  residing  on  the  spot,  I  have  watched  its  progress  with 
pride  and  pleasure,  and  beg  leave  to  tender  to  you  my  thanks  and 
those  of  my  State  for  even  that  brief  notice  of  this  noble  edifice,  con- 
fessedly unrivalled  by  any  State  Capitol  in  this  country.  But  as  I  am 
very  sure  your  readers,  and  especially  artists,  would  be  pleased  to  see 
in  your  Journal  a  more  full  and  satisfactory  description  of  the  building 
than  Mr.  Town's  letter  furnishes,  I  here  copy  such  a  description  from 
the  "  Star,"  a  weekly  newsjiaper  published  in  this  city,  and  dated 
25th  March  last.  It  was  furnished  for  publication,  at  the  request  of 
the  editor  of  that  periodical,  and  is  known  to  be  from  the  pen  of 
David  Paton,  Esq.,  some  years  since  of  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  the  ripe 
scholar  and  scientific  architect,  under  whose  daily  and  untiring  super- 
vision and  direction,  for  5i  years  past,  this  great  public  work  has  been 
executed,  and  is  now  nearly  completed — a  work  which  entitles  him  to 
rank  among  the  first  architects,  theoretical  and  practical,  of  this  or 
any  other  country,  and  his  private  virtues  and  retiring  worth,  claim  for 
him  universal  esteem. 

I  would  not,  if  I  could,  detract  aught  from  Mr.  Town;  his  profes- 
sional fame  is  the  property  of  my  country;  but  then,  "let  justice  be 
done,  though  the  hearers  should  fall."  I  can  not,  I  will  not,  conceal 
the  fact,  that  Mr.  Town  is  mistaken  when  he  supposes  that  the  archi- 
tectural honour  of  this  fine  building  belongs  to  him.  It  is  an  honour, 
indeed,  of  which  any  artist  might  be  proud,  because  it  is  so  perfect 
and  durable  a  monument  of  his  fine  taste  and  great  ability.  But  this 
honour  belongs  to  David  Paton,  Esq.,  and  to  none  else — and  it  will 
wear  well,  because  he  has  earned  it  well,  and  left  to  others  and  the 
work  itself,  to  inscribe  his  name  upon  the  scroll  of  fame.  Mr.  Town 
did,  indeed,  furnish  a  draft  for  the  building,  and,  likewise,  most  fortu- 
natelv  for  the  people  of  this  State,  engaged  the  services  of  Mr.  Paton, 
loth  Sept.,  1834,  to  execute  it ;  but  he  is  probably  unaware  that  his 
draught  was  laid  aside,  and  the  whole  of  the  details,  alterations,  and 
working  drawings,  made  and  executed  by  Mr.  Paton  himself.  But  to 
the  description: — 

"The  length  of  the  State  Capitol  in  this  city,  (Raleigh)  from  north 
to  south,  is  IGO  feet,  and  from  east  to  west  HO  feet ;  the  whole 
height  is  '.)7^  feet.  The  columns  of  the  east  and  west  porticoes  are 
eight  ill  number,  and  are  5  ft.  2^  in.  in  diameter,  and  30  feet  high,  and 
standing  on  a  stylobate  18  feet  high,  which,  as  well  as  tlie  entablature, 
which  is  12  feet  high,  are  continued  romid  the  building;  and  the 
details  are  of  the  Temple  of  Minerva,  commonly  called  the  Parthenon, 
which  was  erected  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  under  the  government 
of  Pericles,  about  500  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  Rotunda, 
in  the  centre  of  the  Capitol,  is  formed  into  an  octagon  at  top,  which 
is  built  of  polished  granite  and  surmoiuits  the  building,  ornamented 


with  Grecian  cornice,  and  its  dome  is  crowned  at  top  with  a  decoration 
similar  to  that  of  the  Lanthem  of  Demosthenes  at  Athens. 

"The  interior  of  the  Capitol  is  divided  into  three  stories.  The 
basement  consists  of  ten  rooms,  eight  of  which  will  be  soon  occupied 
by  the  Governor,  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Comptroller,  and  the 
Public  Treasurer;  each  liaving  two  rooms  of  the'same  size  and  finish, 
which,  as  well  as  the  corridors,  are  of  the  Roman  Doric,  and  are  com- 
pletely tire-proof,  by  arches  springing  from  pillars  and  pilasters  of 
polished  granite.  The  east  and  west  vestibules  are  richly  decorated 
with  granite  columns,  ants  and  staircases ;  all  of  polished  granite, 
copied  from  the  Ionic  Temple  of  Ilissus,  uear  Athens ;  also  two  com- 
mittee-rooms. 

"  The  second  or  principal  story  consists  also  of  ten  rooms,  two  of 
which  are  appropriated,  one  for  the  Senate  Chamber,  and  the  other 
for  the  Hall  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  which  are  38  ft.  C  in.  in 
height,  having  galleries,  and  their  walls  are  contained  in  areas  of  the 
same  size,  59  ft.  by  553  ft.,  having  retiring  rooms  taken  off  the  cor- 
ners, four  in  the  former,  and  two  in  the  latter.  They,  as  well  as  the 
rotunda  and  vestibules,  are  respectively  of  the  octagon  Tower  of  An- 
dronicus  Cyrrhestes,  of  the  Temples  of  Erechtheus,  Minerva,  Polias 
and  Paiidrosus,  in  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  near  the  Parthenon.  The 
other  rooms  on  this  iloor  are  appropriated  for  committee  rooms. 

"  The  third,  or  attic  story,  contains  a  room  for  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  State,  and  one  for  the  State  Library,  which  are  situated  in  the 
east  and  west  wings  ;  which,  as  vs-ell  as  the  galleries  and  other  apart- 
ments, will  be  approached  by  granite  steps,  and  the  lobbies  and  Ro- 
tunda are  lit  with  cupolas  ;  the  whole  of  which  is  now  in  progress,  so 
as  to  be  ready  for  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature. 

"Before  concluding,  it  may  be  well  to  remark  that  the  stone  with 
which  this  edifice  is  constructed  is  of  the  toughest  and  hardest  de- 
scription, containing  less  iron  than  any  stone  I  have  ever  seen;  hence 
it  presents  a  beautiful  cream  colour,  of  a  much  warmer  tint  than 
marble.  It  is  also  variegated  with  beautiful  veins  of  quartz,  the  con- 
formation of  which  deserves  notice,  having  every  appearance  of  having 
been  separated  and  again  knit,  by  some  trembling  or  concussion  in  its 
fonnation ;  and  from  the  circumstance  of  no  petrifaction  being  as  yet 
discovered,  whether  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral  kingdoms, 
geologists  would  term  it  a  primitive,  if  not  a  transition,  formation. 

With  regard  to  the  cost  of  the  Capitol;  the  Legislature  have  ap- 
propriated 500,300  dollars  ;  it  may  cost  a  little  more  by  the  time  it  is 
finished.  The  President's  house  at  Washington  cost,  without  furni- 
ture, 6t)5,527  dollars ;  and  the  Federal  Capitol  cost  2,596,500  dollars, 
both  of  which  have  to  be  repeatedly  painted,  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of 
12,000 ;  and  this  has  to  be  done  to  prevent  the  disintegration  of  the 
stone,  they  being  built  of  soft,  loose,  friable  and  porous  sandstone. 

Architectus." 


Citi/  of  Raleigh,  North  Carolina, 
United  States  of  America. 
22nd  November  1839. 


J.  B.  Hinton. 


RECOVERY  OF  THE  CHAIN  CABLE  OF  HER  MAJESTY'S  SHIP 
HOWE,  AT  SPITHEAD. 

The  chain  cable  of  the  Howe  having  by  an  unfortunate  accident  run  en- 
tirely out  of  the  hause-hole  on  Friday  morning  last,  after  the  anclior  was 
cast,  and  fallen  to  the  bottom,  a  creeper  was  euiployed  to  discover  it,  which 
grappled  it  near  the  buoy  over  the  anchor.  On  Saturday  afternoon,  in  com- 
pliance with  a  request  communicated  by  one  of  the  lieutenants  of  the  Howe, 
Colonel  Pasley  sent  a  boat  to  the  spot  with  Mr.  George  Hall,  one  of  his  most 
expert  divers,  and  a  party  of  men  employed  about  the  wreck  of  the  Royal 
George,  to  attend  liini,  who  threw  out  a  small  anchor  near  the  Howe,  and 
then  moored  their  boat  in  the  supposed  diraction  of  the  chain  cable,  by  mak- 
ing fast  a  hne  from  the  stern  of  the  boat  to  that  cable's  buoy.  Mr.  Hall  then 
descended  by  the  rope  attached  to  the  creeper,  l)y  which  he  found  the  chain, 
and  from  that  point  walked  along  the  whole  extent  of  the  chain  until  he 
reached  the  extreme  end  of  it,  to  the  last  link  of  which  he  made  fast  one  of 
the  bull  ropes  that  had  been  used  for  weighing  the  fragments  of  tlie  Royal 
George,  by  means  of  whicli  Mr.  Purdo,  master-attendant  of  Portsmouth  dock- 
yard, and  Mr.  Taylor,  master  of  the  Howe,  with  a  strong  party  of  seamen  and 
marines,  got  up  the  end  of  the  chain  cable  first  into  a  mooring  lighter,  and  in 
the  course  of  about  two  hours  afterwards  it  was  passed  thsough  one  of  the 
hause-holes  of  the  Howe  and  properly  secured.  Mr.  Hall  went  down  to  tlie 
bottom  about  half-past  2,  and  finished  his  task  about  1  o'clock,  arid  only 
came  up  twice  in  ihe  mean  time,  to  communicate  with  the  men  in  the  boat. 
It  is  supposed  that  he  walked  at  least  200  yards  along  the  bottom,  and  during 
thi's  period  the  boat  with  the  pump,  which  was  constantly  at  work  to  supply 
him  with  air,  being  warped  along  in  the  same  direction,  according  to  signals 
made  by  him  from  below.  This  i»  the  second  time  tiiat  this  excellent  diver 
has  been  of  use  to  the  navy  at  Portsmouth,  having  on  a  former  occasion  ex- 

3  H  2 


39G 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


amiiiCd  tlie  liottnin  of  the  Vangiiai  J  after  she  took  tlic  grouiul  on  being  towed 
out  of  harbour  by  tlie  Ecbo  steamer.  As  this  difficult  operation  required  him 
repe:.tedl.v  to  pass  head  foremost  under  the  keel  of  the  Vanguard,  he  per- 
formed it  in  Mr.  Sielje's  improved  tight  diving  dress,  but  in  recovering  the 
cable  of  the  Howe,  which  was  comparatively  an  easy  task,  he  used  the  eom- 
mou  diving  dress,  in  which  he  has  generally  worked  on  the  wreck  of  the 
Royal  George,  leaving  Siebe's  dress  to  tlie  divers  of  the  Royal  Sappers  and 
Miners,  who  liave  lieen  employed  on  the  same  wreck  for  the  last  three  months, 
and  whom  it  was  desirable  to  send  down  in  a  tight  dress,  as  being  the  safest, 
they  not  having  had  any  i)revious  experience  like  the  professional  divers  with 
wboii  they  have  been  co-operating. 


NEW  IN\'ENTIONS  AND  IMPUOVEMENTS. 

Improvements  iu  Steam-engines  and  Steam-Ijoilers ;  patented  by  Thomas 
Craddock,  of  Broadheath,  near  Presteign,  in  the  county  of  Radnor,  Sept.  16. 
— T);e  improvements  in  steam-engines  consist,  first,  iu  an  improved  mode  of 
obtaining  a  rotary  motion  from  the  rectilinear  and  reciprocating  motion  of 
the  jiiston  rod  ;  and,  second,  in  an  improved  method  of  condensing  steam. 

Tlie  improvements  in  boilers  consist  in  an  improved  construction  of  boiler, 
and  in  an  improved  method  of  regidating  the  generation  of  steam. 

Fiist  claim  is  to  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  apparatus  delineated 
and  described,  whether  employed  for  converting  the  rectilinear  into  the 
rotary  motion,  or  the  rotary  motion  into  the  rectilinear.  In  this  improve- 
ment'the  piston  rod  carries  two  toothed  racks,  one  being  behind,  on  one 
side  of  the  other;  one  of  these  toothed  racks  works  into  a  pinion,  which 
pinion  takes  into  the  teeth  of  a  drum,  which  is  firmly  keyed  on  the  main 
shaft,  which  drum  has  teeth  over  half  its  circumference  on  one  side,  and  over 
the  lemaining  half  of  its  circumference  on  the  other  side.  The  mode  of 
working  is  as  follows :  by  the  np-stroke  of  the  piston-rod,  the  pinion,  taking 
into  the  teeth  on  one  side  of  the  drum,  brings  it  half  round,  and  is  released  ; 
then  by  the  returning  stroke  of  the  piston-rod,  the  other  rack  takes  into  the 
teeth  on  the  other  side  of  the  drum,  and  finishes  the  stroke  in  the  same 
direction. 

Sccoiul  claim  is  to  the  exclusive  right  of  condensing  the  steam  or  vapour 
of  water,  or  other  liquids,  by  causing  it  to  pass  into  metallic  tubes  of  small 
diameter,  or  into  metallic  vessels  of  any  other  suitable  figure,  which  tubes  or 
vessels  are  put  in  motion,  either  rotative  or  otherwise,  either  in  air  or  water, 
independently  of  any  motion  of  the  carriage,  boat,  or  vessel,  to  which  the 
condenser  may  be  attached,  whereby  the  condensation  of  the  steam  or  vapour 
is  greatly  accelerated.  This  condenser  is  composed  of  two  chambers,  con- 
nected by  a  liar,  and  supported  by  hollow  axes  revolving  in  bearings,  which 
axes  are  connected,  the  one  with  the  eduction  pipe  of  the  engine,  the  other 
with  a  liot  well  or  reservoir.  From  each  chamber  a  number  of  hollow  arms 
diverge,  which  are  connected  together  by  small  tubes,  reaching  across  several 
times. 

The  condensing  is  performed  as  follows  :  the  steam,  after  operating  on  the 
piston,  is  introduced  through  the  chamber  into  the  tubes;  the  condenser  is 
then  caused,  by  bearings  from  the  engines,  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity,  by 
which  means  the  caloric  is  abstracted  and  the  steam  condensed  ;  the  water 
resulting  from  which  is  conveyed  from  the  other  chamber,  into  which  it  flows, 
through  a  pipe  into  the  hot  well ;  from  whence  it  is  drawn  by  the  feed  pump 
into  the  boiler. 

Third  claim. — The  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  parts  constituting 
the  boiler. 

Fourth. — The  use  of  a  separate  cylinder  to  supply  both  air  and  fuel  to  the 
furnaces,  and  regulating  the  supply  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  by  the  pressure 
of  steam  in  the  boiler,  in  such  a  manner  that  as  the  pressure  increases,  the 
supply  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  is  diminished,  thereby  diminishing  the  supply 
of  air  and  fuel  to  the  furnace.  The  boiler  is  composed  of  two  furnaces,  the 
sides  of  which  are  formed  of  ranges  of  hollow  tubes,  which  are  full  of  water, 
conmiunicating  at  the  top  and  bottom  with  rectangular  reservoirs ;  the  bot- 
tom is  formed  of  smaller  tubes,  extending  liorizontally  from  one  reservoir  to 
the  other,  and  acting  as  fire-bars ;  the  top  is  likewise  composed  of  tubes 
extending  from  one  resen-oir  to  the  other ;  the  ash-pit  is  a  taidt  filled  with 
water,  which,  by  the  heat  from  the  fire-bars,  evaporates,  and  jiassing  up  a 
tube  into  the  condenser,  is  there  condensed ;  thereby  supjilying  any  loss  from 
leakage.  The  fuel  is  conveyed  into  the  furnaces  by  shoots  from  two  hoppers; 
ujion  being  thrown  into  the  hopper,  it  falls  upon  two  fluted  rollers,  which 
are  worked  by  the  pinion  that  drives  the  fan;  it  then  falls  through  or  between 
these  rollers,  and  down  the  shoot  upon  a  swinging  plate,  which  scatters  it 
over  the  surface  of  the  fire.  The  wind  passes  from  the  fan  through  a  pipe 
to  tlie  liottom  of  the  fire-bars.  Mlien  the  steam  gets  beyond  the  regular 
working  pressure,  it  shuts  the  valve  which  supplies  the  fan  cylinder  with 
steam,  and  escajies  through  another  opening  into  the  atmosphere,  whereby 
the  pinion  that  works  the  fan  is  either  stopped,  or  works  very  slowly,  by 
which  means  the  sujiply  of  air  and  fuel  to  the  furnaces  is  very  much  decreased 
or  cut  ofi"  altogether;  wiien  the  steam  has  returned  to  the  regular  working 
pressure,  it  is  again  admitted  to  the  fan  cylinder,  which  works  as  before. 
There  is  a  suitable  opening,  provided  with  a  cover,  for  the  admission  of  the 
fire,  and  likewise  a  tube  with  an  eye-piece  of  talc  for  viewing  the  fire  when 
required.  There  is  likewise  a  contrivance  for  burning  the  smoke  arising  from 
the  coals  when  newly  thrown  on  the  fire ;  it  0])erates  in  this  manner— there 
is  a  tube  whicli  communicates  with  the  two  shoots,  and  at  the  bottom  of  each 


furnace  there  is  a  valve  for  slnitting  off  the  supply  of  air ;  when  one  or  both 
of  the  furnaces  have  burnt  bright,  and  fresh  fuel  is  required,  the  sui)i)ly  of 
fuel  and  air  is  shut  off  from  the  other  one  ;  the  smoke  arising  from  the  fresli 
fuel  is  driven,  by  the  force  of  the  air  from  the  fan,  through  the  flue  into  the 
other  furnace,  where  it  passes  through  the  fire  and  is  consumed. — Inrenlor's 
Ath'ocate. 

Improvemt-nis  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  oilier  metals :  patented  by  Sir 
.Tosiah  .lohn  Guest,  of  the  Dowlais  Iron  Works.  Glamorgan,  Baronet,  and 
Thomas  Ev.ms,  of  the  same  place.  .Sept.  28.  These  consist  principally  in 
the  introduction  of  jets  of  steim  into  the  puddling  furnace  while  the  iron  is 
in  the  state  usually  called  "fermentation."  The  success  of  the  operation 
depends  very  mueli  on  bringing  the  steam  in  close  contact  with  the  melted 
iron,  to  etlcct  which,  wrought  iron  telescope  tubes,  sliding  one  on  the  oilier, 
are  employed,  the  jet  pipe  being  J  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  the  steam 
pressure  iSttj.  upon  the  inch.  These  tubes  are  raised  or  lowered  according 
to  the  quantitv  of  fluid  metal  in  the  furnace,  by  means  of  a  suitable  lever. 
In  the  seconil  place,  jets  of  damp  steam  are  introduced  into  the  refining 
furnace,  after  the  pig  iron  is  melted,  through  the  same  apertures  as  the  blast, 
the  quantity  and  pressure  of  tlie  steam  being  regulated  by  the  quality  of  the 
metal  acted  upon.  During  this  process,  in  order  to  keep  the  sides,  bridge, 
and  bottom  of  the  furnace  from  burning,  a  quantity  of  steam  is  introduced 
upon  the  fluid  cinders  as  soon  as  the  heat  is  drawn,  until  the  cinders  become 
of  the  consistence  of  paste;  this  paste  is  then  raked  up  against  the  back, 
sides,  and  bridge  of  the  furnace,  so  as  to  fill  up  any  cavity  that  may  have 
been  burned  during  the  previous  heat  of  iron.  The  use  ot  cinders  in  this 
state  keeps  the  iron  (piitc  clean  and  free  from  the  dirt  which  always  attends 
the  use  of  clay  and  limestone.  In  this  instance  four  jet  pipes  are  used,  J  an 
inch  in  diameter,  and  steam  of  2011).  on  the  inch.  The  steam  may  be  gene- 
rated in  a  tube  or  cvlinder  in  the  furnace  cbimney,  or  may  be  supplied  from 
a  regular  steam  boiler.  The  employment  of  steam  in  a  similar  manlier  in 
melting  the  allovs  of  copper  and  iron,  and  iron  and  tm,  is  also  cb:imed,  but 
tlie  particular  application  is  stated  to  be  to  the  manufacture  of  iron,  whereby 
a  better  material  is  obtained  with  greater  economy.  The  claim  set  forth  is 
for  the  use  or  application  of  steam  forced  upon  or  into,  or  in  contact  with 
the  melted  iron  in  the  refining  or  puddling  furnaces  for  the  manufacturing  of 
flic  same;  also  for  the  similar  use  of  steam  in  the  process  of  melling  or 
manufacturing  alloys  of  copper  and  iron,  and  of  tin  and  iron,  m  such  fur- 
naces: and  lastly,  ibe  application  of  steam  to  fluid  cinders  as  described,  to 
produce  the  paste  aforesaid  ;  and  the  use  and  application  of  the  said  paste.— 
Merh.  Ma2,  ,  ,      tt  m     .• 

Improvements  in  preparing  surfaces  of  paper:  patented  by  Henry  Marlm,  o 
Morton-terrace,  Camden  Town.  Sept.  30.  The  processes  constituting  these 
improvements,  are  fourfold,  viz.;  1.  The  mode  of  preparing  surlaces  of 
paper  by  combining  thereon  a  coating  of  oil  paint,  with  subsequent  embassing 
as  afterwards  described.  2.  The  mode  of  preparing  surfaces  of  paper  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper-hangings,  by  combining  thereon  a  coating  of  oil  paint, 
and  aftenvards  printing  or  producing  ibereon  the  required  pattern.  3-  the 
mode  of  preparing  surfaces  of  paper  by  combining  thereon  a  coating  of  oil 
paint,  and  subsequently  alazing  or  planishing  the  same.  4.  ihe  mode  of 
producingacoatingof  oil  paint  on  paper,  by  means  of  rollers,  ihe  paint 
used  for  this  purpose  is  the  same  as  ordinarily  employed  in  house  painting; 
a  piece  of  paper  of  12  yanls,  or  other  required  length,  is  to  be  laid  upon  a 
table  of  similar  dimensions,  sized  with  one  or  two  coals  of  common  or  su- 
perior size,  and  then  painted  with  an  ordinary  brush;  while  yet  wet.  the 
surface  is  to  be  smoothed  over  with  a  dry  brush,  to  take  out  the  mirks  left 
by  the  first,  and  subsequently  finished  with  a  badger  softener,  which  produces 
a  smooth  and  level  surface,  so  essential  to  the  success  of  this  process.  In  the 
other  process,  oil  colour  is  laid  on  the  surface  ol  paper  by  passing  it  between 
two  rol  ers,  togethei  u  itb  an  endless  felt ;  this  felt  in  its  revolution  is  sup- 
plied with  oil  colour  by  passing  into  a  trough,  and  under  a  roller  partly  im- 
mersed in  the  colour  ;  a  scraper  removes  the  superfluous  colour  as  it  r  ses. 
and  levels  and  equalizes  the  colour;  the  iraper  is  passed  through  the  roi.ers 
two  or  three  times,  according  to  the  thickness  ot  colour  required.  Paper 
thus  prepared  on  the  surface,  may  be  embossed  with  engraved  dies  or  rollers 
in  the  usual  manner,  or  printed  willi  blocks,  ike  ,  for  paper  hangings,  whicli 
may  be  washed  with  soap  and  water  when  soiled.  If  marbled  paper  Is  to  be 
produced,  the  colours  are  thrown  upon  water  in  the  usual  manner,  the  eflfect 
being  increased  by  softening  oft'  before  they  are  dry.  II  the  surface  is  to  be 
glazed  or  enamelled,  the  oil  colour  is  thinned  wholly  with  turpentine,  as  a 
flatting  colour;  when  set,  it  is  to  be  mounted  on  a  woollen  cloth,  cotton  vel- 
vet, or  other  firm  soft  bed.  and  smoothed  over  with  a  palletle  knife,  or  trowel 
having  a  very  smooth  surface  ;  when  dry  and  hard,  the  polish  may  be  height- 
ened by  any  of  the  usual  methods,  which  will  produce  a  beautiful  surlace  for 
copper-plate  printing,  paper  hangings,  and  various  other  purposes.— iV/ec//. 
Mas. 

Vahesfor  Canal  locks;  patented  in  America  by  William  Lake,  Richmond. 
Virginia,  .lune  7,  1839.  The  patentee  remarks,  that  ■■the  valves  of  canal 
locks  are  subject  to  a  pressure,  the  intensity  of  which  is  measured  by  the 
height  of  the  head  and  the  area  of  the  valves  ;  and  this  pressure  on  the  com- 
mon sliding-valves  for  locks  of  ordinary  lifts  is  of  such  magnitude,  .-,nd  re- 
quires the  application  of  so  great  a  force  to  open  them,  as  greatly  to  de  ract 
from  the  superiority  which  they  otherwise  possess." 

"  My  improvement  consists  in  giving  such  form  to  the  valves  and  apertures 
that,  by  the  momentary  application  of  a  very  small  force  in  opening  a  small 
orifice,  I  apply  the  hydrostatic  pressure  in  such  a  manner  .as  to  open  the 
valves.  Upon  ihc  back  of  Ihe  valves  closing  the  aperture  through  which  the 
water  flows  in  filling  and  discharging  the  lock,  I  attach  a  flaueb  ot  the  same 
length  as  that  of  the  aperture,  and  of  such  a  width  as  to  have  the  same  Jiro- 
portion  to  the  width  of  the  valves  as  the  friction  ol  ihe  valve  on  the  seat  has 
to  the  pressure.  At  the  lower  edse  of  the  valve,  below  the  flanch,  1  make 
an  orifice  of  about  one  inch  in  width  and  .about  hall  the  lengdi  of  the  valve  l 
this  orifice  I  open  and  shut  by  means  of  a  lever  and  cunnecung  rod. 

We  were  about  to  make  further  extracts  from  the  specification,  but  hnd 
that  in  so  doing  we  must  occupy  more  space  than  is  convenient  to  allow  to 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


.307 


the  subject ;  anj  after  all,  sliould  probably  fail  to  Rive  a  clear  idea  of  the 
construction  without  the  aid  of  the  drawing  ;  we,  therefore,  skip  over  to  the 
conchidinf;'  paragraph. 

"1  have  represented  tlie  valve  as  fixed  in  a  locli-gate,  but  I  by  no  means 
intend  to  restrict  myself  in  my  said  improvement  to  valves  placed  in  this  par- 
ticular situation  ;  neither  do  I  claim  as  my  invent  on  llie  manner  of  applying 
the  lever  and  screw  as  exhibited  in  the  drawing.  What  I  do  claim  as  my 
invention,  and  desire  to  secure  by  letters  patent,  is  the  application  of  the 
hydrostatic  pressure,  to  open  sliding  valves  for  canal  and  river  locks,  and 
making  such  improvements  in  the  construction  of  the  said  valves,  and  in  the 
form  of  the  apertures  to  which  they  are  applieil,  as  will  adipt  them  to  the 
application  of  this  pressure,  as  herein  descnl)ed." — Franklin  Journal. 


RAILWAY  CAUTION. 

Sir — Being  a  frequent  traveller  on  railways,  and  generally  choosing  the 
slow  trains,  I  beg  leave  to  trespass  on  your  valuable  columns  by  suggesting 
an  expedient  by  which,  in  my  humble  opinion,  travellers  situated  like  myself 
may  avoid  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  being  run  over  by  quicker  trains. 
The  plan  to  which  I  allude  is  this : — that  at  each  station  on  the  line  of  rail- 
way be  placed  a  large  dial,  similar  to  a  clock  face,  with  minutes  marked  upon 
it  from  1  to  60.  It  should  liave  one  moveable  hand  of  sufficient  size  to  be 
distinctly  visible  to  the  guard  and  engineer  as  they  tiy  past ;  the  officer  in 
attendance  to  fix  the  hand  at  that  pai'ticular  number  on  the  dial  that  may 
denote  the  number  of  minutes  which  have  elapsed  since  the  preceding  train 
passed.  This  signal  might  be  illuminated  at  night.  Or  a  perfect  clock  face 
might  be  adopteil  to  denote  the  hours  in  addition  to  the  minutes. 

I  am,  Sir, 
Kenninqfon,  Your  obedient  servant, 

Oct.2Wi,  1840.  T.  W. 


ROTARY  ENGINE. 

An  engine,  upon  tliis  principle,  was  latelytried  in  Leeds,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  several  engineers.  Its  enormous  power,  in  so  small  a  compass, 
(the  whole  machinery,  with  the  exception  of  the  fly-wheel,  being  contained 
in  a  box  2 J  inches  in  depth  and  10  inches  diameter)  surprised  every  one  pre- 
sent ;  the  speed  was  tremendous,  making  from  600  to  700  revolutions  per 
minute.  Its  power  was  tested  by  placing  breaks  upon  the  fly-wheel,  which 
was  done  to  the  extent  that  the  shaft  was  actually  twisted  in  two  pieces,  but 
no  accident  occurred.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  inventor  to  apply  the  ma- 
chine to  propel  carriages  on  common  roads,  for  which  purpose  it  appears  ad- 
mirably adapted ;  likewise  for  the  purposes  of  marine  navigation,  where  tlie 
small  quantity  of  room  it  requires  is  a  material  consideration ;  in  short,  it 
will  answer  all  the  purposes  wherein  steam  is  required  ;  and  the  expense  will 
be  considerably  abridged.  The  inventor  is  Josh.  Briggs,  watchmaker,  of  this 
town. — Jieeds  Intelligencer. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


INCRUSTATION  STEAM  ENGINE  BOILERS. 

We  are  informed  by  L'Echo  dii  ilonde  Savant,  of  the  25th  of  July,  that  M. 
Edouard  Richard  had  presented  to  the  Geological  Society  of  France  a  calca- 
reous incrustation,  which  must  be  considered  of  great  value,  as  it  was  not 
formed  in  the  boiler,  but  in  the  cylinder  of  the  engine,  and  beneath  the  pis- 
ton. The  incrustation  formed  a  disc  12 J  centimetres  in  thickness;  and  in 
consequence  of  tlic  pressure  of  the  piston,  it  is  so  hard  that  it  is  capable  of 
receiving  as  high  a  polish  as  the  densest  marble.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  explosions  may  be  produced  as  well  by  calcareous  concretions  of  the  cy- 
linders as  of  the  boilers  of  steam  engines.  The  engine  from  which  this  spe- 
cimen was  procured,  has  been  used  for  the  purpose  of  pumping  water  from 
the  mine  of  Auzin.  and  has  been  built  after  Newcomen's  plan. — In  L'Echo  du 
Monde  Savant  of  August  the  5th,  we  find  a  communication  upon  the  subject 
of  steam-ljoiler  explosions  by  M.  Flesselle,  a  retired  officer  of  the  French 
Marine,  resident  at  Graville,  near  Havre.  M.  Flesselle  suggests,  that,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  calcareous  incrustations,  (which  have  long  been 
considered  tlie  principal  causes  of  accident,)  some  common  salt  or  muriate  of 
potash,  sliould  be  \mi  into  the  boiler  with  each  fresh  supply  of  water.  M. 
Flesselle  recommends  this  measure,  because  the  incrustations  are  formed  of 
the  carbonate,  the  sulphate,  and  perhaps  the  phosphate  of  lime — (salts,  in- 
soluble, or  sparingly  soluble) ;  and  these  salts,  boiled  with  the  muriate  of 
soda  (common  salt),  or  muriate  of  potash,  will  undergo  double  decomposition 
with  these  muriates;  the  products  being  the  carbonate,  sulphate,  and  phos- 
phate of  soda,  and  the  muriate  of  lime — salts  all  of  which  are  soluble. 

M.  Flesselle  says  that  M.  Chaix,  of  Maurice,  has  invented  a  method  of  pre- 


venting explosions,  which  appears  to  have  been  adopted  with  success  in  the 
French  government  steam  vessels ;  but  M.  F.  considers  that  auxiliary  means 
also  are  requisite — ^and  we  tliink  he  is  right ;  for  the  fact  we  have  related  re- 
garding  the  engine  at  Auzin,  proves  that  we  should  avail  ourselves  of  every 
cheap  and  simple  aid  to  prevent  the  fearful  accidents  to  which  incrustations 
may  give  rise,  seeing  that  the  snipliate,  carbonate,  and  phosphate  of  lime 
may  be  held  in  suspension  by  the  steam — be  carried  by  it  in  a  state  of  minute 
molecular  division  even  into  the  cylinders — and  there  also  be  deposited  in  the 
form  of  hard  concretions. — The  method  of  M.  Flesselle,  seeming  founded  on 
correct  chemical  principles,  will,  we  hope,  be  put  to  the  test  of  experience, 
by  some  of  the  numerous  engineers  of  our  neighbourhood.  We  shall  feel 
great  pleasure  in  recording  the  residt. 

In  England  the  precaution  taken  against  incrustations  is  an  index  of  the 
density  of  the  fluid  in  the  boiler ;  but  this  is  evidently  inadequate — for  the 
calcareous  particles  are  conveyed  by  the  steam  into  the  pipes  and  cylinder. 
Perhaps  some  of  our  scientific  readers  will  have  the  goodness  to  inform  us 
whether  the  English  method  of  preventing  incrustations  is  identical  with  that 
of  M.  ChaLx. — Gateshead  Observer. 


THE  PROPELLER  STEAM-BOAT. 

This  vessel  was  built  in  the  yard  of  Mr.  Dichburn,  at  Blackwall-  The 
engine  by  »  hich  her  paddles,  or  propellers,  as  they  are  termed,  are  worked, 
was  made  by  Mr.  Beale,  the  engineer,  at  his  premises  at  Greenwich.  She  is 
a  small  vessel,  but  very  elegant  in  her  proportions,  and  formed  to  cut  through 
ths  water  with  great  rapidity.  The  engine  is  of  24  horse  power.  The  pro- 
pellers differ  from  the  paddle-wheels  used  by  other  steamers,  in  being  single 
bladi'S  o!  iron,  only  one  b'ade  on  each  side  of  the  vessel,  and  not  a  series  of 
blades  brought  into  the  water  by  the  revolution  of  wheels.  Kach  blade  is 
very  broad  and  large,  and  dips  almost  perpendicularly  into  the  water,  so  that 
the  concussion  fomied  by  the  blades  of  paddle-wheels  dipping  into  the  water 
at  angles  is  avoided,  and  the  consequent  unpleasant  vibration  of  the  vessel. 
Directly  the  liladc  rlips  into  the  water  it  is  forced  back  by  an  arm  or  limli  of 
iron,  performing  a  motion  similar  to  the  leg  and  web-foot  of  an  aquatic  bird, 
and  by  means  of  this  motion  the  vessel  is  propelled  forward.  She  can  per- 
form fnim  10  to  11  knots  or  miles  an  hour.  The  appearanceof  the  propellers 
is  like  that  of  the  legs  of  a  grasshopper,  and  when  in  motion  fheir  action  in 
some  degree  resembles  the  legs  of  that  insect  in  its  walk.  One  great  ad- 
vantage is,  that  the  propellers  occasion  no  swell  in  the  wafer,  no  wake  or 
trough  in  the  river,  and  no  backwater,  so  that  no  danger  is  occasioned  to 
small  boats  by  the  rapidity  of  her  progress.  This  vessel  now  runs  hourly 
between  Blackwall  and  Greenwich,  and  appears  to  be  a  great  favourite,  from 
the  number  of  passengers  she  is  continually  conveying  backwards  and  for- 
wards between  tliose  places. — Times. 


Iron  Steamers. — Anotlier  iron  steam  vessel  was  launched  from  the  yard  of 
Messrs.  William  Fairbairn  and  Co  ,  at  Millwall,  on  Tuesday  the  27th  ult., 
being  the  second  of  three  vessels  for  New  South  Wales,  intended  for  the  trade 
from  Sydney  to  the  Hunter's  River.  She  glided  gracefully  into  the  water 
amid  the  cheers  of  a  number  of  spectators,  and  of  nearly  600  men  who  are 
employed  on  the  premises,  and  was  named  The  Thistle.  She  is  145  feet  long, 
20  feet  6  inches  beam,  and  11  feet  6  inches  depth  of  hold,  about  305  tons 
burthen,  and  drew  when  launched  only  3  feet  6  inches  of  water  upon  an  even 
keel. —  The  Rose,  the  first  of  the  trio,  has  sailed  for  her  destination,  and  she 
proved  herself  before  leaving  the  river  to  have  a  speed  of  13. 5  miles  per  hour, 
and  to  be  one  of  the  strongest  and  best  sea  going  vessels  afloat.  The  frames 
of  these  vessels  were  much  admired  on  account  of  their  great  strength,  as 
well  as  the  manner  in  which  the  whole  was  put  together.  The  engines, 
which  are  of  50  horsepower  each,  were  also  manufactured,  and  the  whole  of 
the  fittings  executed  by  Messrs.  Fairbairn  and  Co.,  within  the  same  premises. 
The  extent  of  work  which  was  in  progress  in  the  yard,  and  in  the  engine 
manufactory,  &c.,  seemed  to  surprize  many  of  the  gentlemen  present,  wha 
remembered  the  place  in  which  these  operations  are  now  carried  on  as  a  piece 
of  marsh  land  overflowed  by  the  tide  little  more  than  four  years  ago.  Withia 
this  period  the  whole  of  the  extensive  workshops  and  iron  foundry  have  been 
built.  Thirty-one  iron  vessels,  to  the  amount  of  6100  tons  have  been  con- 
structed, and  steam  engines  to  the  extent  of  1260  horse  power  have  been 
manufactured.^An  iron  schooner  intended  for  the  coasting  trade  from  Lon- 
don, and  various  steam  boats,  are  now  in  course  of  preparation,  so  that  it 
seems  this  material  is  making  rapid  strides  in  the  public  estimation  for  the 
purposes  of  ship  building. 

Tf'ar  Steamer.— It  will  be  recollected  that  the  steamer  of  war  Polyphemus, 
of  800  tons  burthen,  was  launched  at  Chatham,  on  Monday  the  28th  of 
September,  the  same  day  that  the  London  of  92  guns  was  launched,  the 
former  vessel  proceeded  up  on  the  following  Thursday,  the  1st  of  October,  to 
the  engineering  establishment  of  the  Messrs.  Seawards  and  Capel,  of  London, 
and  they  have  comjiletely  equipped  this  fine  vessel  with  engines  of  200  horses 
power,  with  all  her  fittings,  s]iare  gear,  implements  and  stores,  and  coal  boxes 
of  wrought  iron  to  contain  220  tons  of  coals,  in  the  short  space  of  22  work- 
ing days  ;  being  the  shortest  time  upon  record  that  a  vessel  of  this  magnitude 
has  been  fitted.  She  proceeded  down  by  steam  to  Chatham  on  ^^'ednesday 
the  28th  instant,  to  take  in  lier  masts,  being  quite  completed  in  her  machinery  ; 
it  is  considered  that  it  would  require  a  period  of  six  months  in  any  port  of 


308 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[November, 


Great  Britain  to  fit  a  vessel  of  war  of  tlie  same  magnitude.  There  were  about 
220  men  employed  by  the  Messrs.  Seawards  on  the  vessel ;  her  engines  are 
upon  the  same  system  as  those  of  the  "  Gorgon,  Cyclops,  Alecto  and  Pro- 
metheus." The  "Poh-phemus"  will  be  immediately  armed  with  two  10 
inch  guns,  and  will  proceed  directly  to  the  Mediterranean. 

Kttviyation  of  the  Trent. — An  attem])t  is  about  to  be  made  to  revive  the 
steam  navigation  of  the  river  Trent.  There  were  packets  on  the  river  about 
twenty  years  ago,  but  the  extreme  shallowness  of  the  water  in  dry  seasons 
between  Nottingham  and  Newark,  fretjuently  interrupted  the  navigation. — 
flull  .idvertisei: 

Great  Western  Steam  Ship  Compant/.—'We  understand  that  some  of  the 
experimentalizing  Directors  of  this  Company,  have  resolved  on  adopting  the 
Archimedean  screw  for  the  great  iron  shiji,  and  are  now  reconstructing  her  at 
an  enormous  expense,  for  that  purpose.  We  need  hardly  observe,  that  this 
course  has  been  adopted  without  the  sanction  of  the  Proprietors. — Bristol 
Mirror. —  [How  many  more  changes  and  whims  ?] — Ed.  C.  E.  &  A.  Journal^ 

Steamers  in  ttte  Pacific. — Extract  of  a  letter  from  Captain  Peacock,  dated 
on  board  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company's  steam  vessel  Peru,  lai.  9 
15  Jv.,  long.  25  50  W.,  out  14  days  from  Plymouth  : — "  The  Peru  has  hitherto 
had  a  most  prosperous  voyage,  answering  in  every  respect  my  most  sanguine 
expectations." 

Calcutta. — A  Company  has  been  formed  at  Calcutta  for  establishing  two 
steam  ferry  boats  upon  the  river  I  oghly  with  chains,  upon  the  principle  of 
Mr.  Rendel's  floating  bridges  at  I  lyuiouth,  Portsmouth,  and  Southampton  ; 
and  orders  have  been  sent  to  this  country  for  their  purchase.  We  have  great 
pleasure  in  stating,  that  the  contractors  are  Messrs.  Acraman,  Morgan  &  Co., 
of  the  Bristol  iron  works ;  their  competitors  ba\ing  been  Messrs.  Fairbairn,  of 
London,  and  Messrs.  Jawcett  and  Co.,  of  Liverpool.-  -Bristol  Mirror. 

Sicily. — On  Thursday,  the  15th  ult.,  was  launched  at  Mr.  Pitcher's  yard, 
at  Northfleet,  the  Moriyibelle,  a  vessel  of  500  tons  burden,  for  the  service  of 
the  Steam  Navigation  Company,  for  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies.  It  is 
intended  to  fit  the  Mongibelle  with  a  pair  of  Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons,  and 
Field's  patent  double  cylinder  engines,  of  the  collective  power  of  200  horses. 

America. — Two  large  steam-ships  are  building  at  New  York  for  the  Spanish 
government,  and  one  for  the  Russian.  Mr.  Norris,  the  engine  manufacturer 
of  Philadelphia,  has  received  an  order  from  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  for  15  of 
his  best  locomotives.  Thus  American  ingenuity  in  steam  machinery  is  pros- 
pering.—  Times. 

Canal  Steam  Navigation. — The  experimental  steamer,  at  present  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  was  lately  docked  for  the  purpose  of  making  certain 
alterations  on  the  propeller.  On  the  former  occasion  the  floats  were  fixed  at 
an  angle  of  45  deg.  to  the  shaft  of  the  propeller,  which  gave,  of  course,  a  pro- 
gressive motion  from  six  feet  in  each  revolution,  the  diameter  of  the  propeller 
being  two  feet.  On  the  present  occasion,  the  floats  were  placed  on  the  shaft 
at  a  more  obtuse  angle,  so  as  to  reduce  the  progressive  motion  six  to  four  feet. 
On  Friday  week,  the  boat  was  got  under  way  from  Lock  16.  To  conduct  to 
a  satisfactory  conclusion,  of  course,  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler  was 
made  the  same  as  on  the  first  experiments,  viz.,  54  lb.  on  the  square  inch  ; 
and  the  result  of  this  change  in  the  angle  of  the  floats  to  the  shaft,  was  found 
to  be  an  acceleration  of  speed  of  20  per  cent.,  or  rather  more,  as  compared 
with  the  first  experiments.  That  is,  when  the  floats  are  placed  at  an  angle 
of  45  deg.  npon  the  shaft,  the  speed  was  found  to  be  five  miles  an  hour ;  now, 
when  the  angle  was  rendered  more  obtuse  so  as  to  produce  four  feet  pro- 
gressive motion,  it  was  found  that  the  speed  was  at  the  rate  of  sL\  miles  an 
hour.  The  result  was  extremely  satisfactory  to  all  the  gentlemen  present, 
confirming,  as  it  did,  their  former  anticipations;  and  the  boat  has  again  been 
laid  up  preparatory  to  otlier  alterations  which  are  contemplated,  in  order, 
experimentally,  to  demonstrate  the  most  eflicient  angle  at  which  the  floats 
should  be  placed  upon  the  propelling  shaft. — Paisley  .lilvertisen 

Improrement  in  Sliip-luiUUiig. — The  liosranna,  a  new  tliip,  lately  built  by 
Mr.  Jnckson.  at  the  South  Shore,  is  the  first  vessel  ever  entirely  fitted  with 
iron  Io«er-di  ck  beams.  '1  hey  are  remarkable  fur  their  strength  and  neatness, 
and  above  nil,  give  additional  room  for  stowage,  equivalent  to  12  inches 
depth  of  hold.  It  is  by  such  practical  combinations  of  wood  and  iron  tlMt 
we  may  expect  to  compete  with  other  nations  more  highly  favoured  with 
shipbuilding;  and  we  advise  every  man  who  takes  an  interest  in  the  "  wooden 
walls  "  to  KO  and  judge  for  hinisell.  The  Roseanna  lies  at  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  Brunswick  Dock. — Liverpool  Albion. 


ENGINEERING  'WORKS. 


New  Aqtiedvct  at  Dijon — It  is  stated  in  a  letter  from  Dijon,  that  the  ex- 
periment made  there  of  the  aqueduct  which  is  to  conduct  the  water  from  the 
fountain  ot  Rosoir  to  Dijon,  a  distance  of  12,610  metres  (about  13.700  yards) 
eompletely  fucceeded.  iLrowds  of  people  assembled  on  the  day  the  aqueduct 
was  to  be  opened,  to  wait  for  the  coming  of  the  wnler.  which  was  three  hours 
ami  a  half  in  flowing  through  that  distance.— /«iT«;ors'  Advocate. 

The  Fleet  Scwtr,  Blachfriars  Briil^e.^A  meeting  v{  the  City  Ccmmissioners 
of  .Sewers  took  place  a!  ijuildhall  on  Tuesday  the  13th  ult  ,  feir  the  purpose  of 
taking  into  consideration  Mr.  Walker's  plan  of  a  culvert  at  tlie  mouth  of 
FleetJitth,  adjacent  to  Blackfriars  Bridge,  as  a  remedy  for  the  very  great 


nuisance  occasioned  by  the  want  of  some  scientific  application.  After  some 
discussion  in  the  cummittee,  the  Commissioners  of  Sewers  agreed  to  the 
adiiption  of  Mr.  Walker's  plan  of  the  culvert  by  a  ni,ajoriiy  of  about  15  to  3. 
'j  he  apprehen.sions  so  generally  entertained  of  the  (ippcjsilion  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  .Sewers  to  the  enlightened  project  of  the  President  of  the  Civil 
Engineers,  are  thus  very  agreealily  and  Jiermanently  removed. 

Herefordshire  and  Gloucestershire  Canal — A  general  meeting  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  this  canal  was  lately  held  at  Ledbury.  The  report  on  the  state  of 
the  works  was  very  sat'sfactory,  the  committee  expressing  their  conviction 
after  a  careful  survey,  that  the  main  part  of  the  line  betw  ecu  Ledbury  Wharf 
and  Ashberton,  nj on  w  bich  the  heaviest  portion  of  the  works  occurred,  would 
be  completed  within  the  estimated  cost,  notwithstanding  that  the  payments 
for  land  had  been  much  larger  than  was  expected.  The  three  locks,  com- 
municating \v;th  the  summit  level,  would  be  completed  before  November  next, 
when  the  trade  of  the  canal  would  be  brought  up  to  the  town  of  Ledbury, 
from  which  an  immediate  increase  of  traftic  was  anticipated,  and  by  the  end 
of  August,  next  year,  the  canal  would  be  opened  for  the  conveyance  of  goods 
to  the  distance  of  74  miles  beyond  Ledbury,  by  which  extension  the  trade 
would,  in  all  probability,  be  doubled,  if  not'trebled.  M'hen  it  was  recollected 
that  the  present  annual  average  receipts  of  the  canal,  subject  as  it  was  to 
suspension  and  loss  of  trade  lor  many  months  of  the  year  from  want  of  water, 
was  £1,800,  the  committee  anticipated  a  profitable  traffic  on  the  completion 
of  the  whole  of  the  works.  The  estimated  expense  of  the  line  to  Hereford 
was  £76,000,  of  which  sum  £4-5,000  was  to  be  raised  by  preference  shares, 
and  they  recommended  that  the  remainder  should  be  obt:  iued  by  mortgage 
at  five  per  cent,  upon  the  lolls  of  the  canal.  The  report  concluded  by  a  refe- 
rence to  the  ccimplotion  of  the  Birmingham  and  Gloucester  Railway,  which 
would  open  a  direct  communication  with  all  the  large  manufacturing  towns 
of  the  north,  and  thus  operate  most  beneficially  upon  the  interests  of  the 
canal.  By  the  statement  of  accounts  presented  to  the  meeting,  it  appeared 
that  the  receipts  amounted  to  £21,477  5s.  .5rf..  and  the  expenditure  to 
£21.296  3s.  id.,  leaving  a  balance  in  hand  of  ±181  2s.  U.  Mr.  Ballard,  the 
Company's  engineer,  read  a  satisfactory  report  on  the  state  of  the  works,  the 
leading  features  of  which  are  embraced  in  the  s'atement  of  the  committee. 
The  report  was  unanimously  ailopted,  and  a  resolution  passed  for  raising  the 
sum  of^ £35,000.  in  the  manner  suggested  by  the  committee.  Votes  of  thanks 
were  then  passed  to  the  committee  (who  were  rc-appointed  for  the  current 
year)  and  to  the  Chairman,  after  which  the  meeting  separated. — Midland 
Counties  Herald. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAILWAYS. 


Dublin  and  Drogheda  Railway. — We  are  happy  to  announce  that  the  Dublin 
and  Drogheda  Railway  Company  made  their  first  contract  on  Friday  last. 
The  Messrs.  Jeff  of  Lanarkshire  were  declared  the  contractors  for  the  part  of 
the  line  between  the  Royal  Caial  and  Raheny,  on  very  favourable  terms  lor 
the  Company,  and  for  an  amount  less  than  the  estimate  of  Mr.  Macneill,  the 
rngineer-in-chief.  The  competition  was  a  very  brisk  one,  there  being  no 
fewer  than  seventeen  temlers  for  the  work,  and  from  some  of  the  principal 
contractors  on  the  great  lines  in  Englanil  and  Scotland,  as  well  as  from  some 
very  respectable  Irish  Companies. — The  parties  selected  have  been  engaged 
extensively  on  the  Ballocbine  Railway,  the  Monkland  and  Kirkintilloch 
Railway,  and  have  just  completed  a  large  work  to  the  amount  of  thirty  or 
forty  thousand  pounds,  on  the  Wishaw  and  Collness  Railway  in  Scotland. 
Mr.  Ilarl,  a  contractor  on  the  Great  Western  Railway  at  Box,  near  Bath, 
made  so  satisfactory  a  tender,  and  so  close  in  amount  to  that  by  the  Messrs. 
Jeff,  (we  hear  it  was  within  fi\c  pounds.)  that  the  Directors  thought  It  right, 
with  a  view  of  encouraging  such  competition,  to  hand  him  a  gratuity  of  £50, 
» ith  an  assurance  that  they  will  be  happy  to  deal  with  him  on  a  future  occa- 
sion.— Dublin  Evenini^  Mail. 

Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Cambridgeshire  Railway. — Considerable  exertions  are 
being  mode  in  these  counties  for  getting  up  subscriptions  to  form  a  railway 
to  Norwich  and  Y.arniouth.  in  continuation  of  the  Northern  and  Eastern 
Railway  from  Cambridge.  The  latter  line  it  is  expected  will  be  opened  to 
Bishop  Stortford  in  June  next. 

H'est  London  RaiUcau. — An  adjourned  general  meeting  of  the  proprietors 
in  the  West  London  (fate  Birmingham.  Bristol,  and  Th,ames  Junction)  Kail- 
way  C(;mpany  w  as  held  in  London  on  fhe  Titli  ult.,  to  receive  the  report  of  .Mr. 
R  .Stet  henson.  the  recently  appointe.l  engineer,  on  the  stale  of  the  works. 
The  chairman  explained  lliat  the  report  of  Mr.  .Stephens(m  was  not  yet  pre- 
pared, but  tl.at  the  secretary  would  read  to  the  meeting  the  report  of  the 
directors.  It  stated  that  it  was  proposed  (o  make  two  exte.sions  of  the  line, 
one  to  the  Thames,  (the  originalline  stopping  short  of  Ihe  river  by  about  a 
mile  and  a  half,)  and  the  other  to  Knightsljridge  ;  the  extensions  to  be  under- 
taken by  a  separate  company.  The  directors  ealculated  that  £140.000  would 
be  sufficient  to  accomplish  the  object.  lo;li  companies  to  be  amalgamated 
when  Ihe  whole  of  the  works  were  completed,  or  as  soon  after  the  extension 
company  had  obtained  an  act  of  incorporation  as  ihe  proprietors  of  the  two 
bodies  might  consider  fit.  The  report  was  unanimously  adopted,  as  was  also 
a  series  of  resolutions  in  respect  to  the  mode  of  issu  ng  the  new  shares  for 
the  raising  of  ihe  additional  capital.  It  was  expUiined  ihat  the  amount  of 
arrears  dti^e  upon  calls  was  £14,437.  llie  meeting  adjourned  to  the  14lh 
November,  to  receive  Mr.  .Stephenson's  report. 

Opening  of  tlie  Tuff  Vale  Railway.— The  public  opening  of  the  comnleted 
portion  of  this  interesting  an  1  important  line,  between  Cavdifl  and  Navi- 
gation House,  nine  miles  from  Merlbyr.  took  place  on  Thursday  the  8lh  ult. 
The  manner  in  which  the  works  on  the  line  are  executed,  drew  iurlh  frequent 
expressions  of  admiration  from  the  parly.  The  tunnel  and  viaduct  at  Qua- 
ker's Yard  are,  indeed,  noble  specimens  of  engineering  skill ;  the  viaduct 
across  ihe  Tail' rises  to  the  height  of  120  feet,  and   is  built  on  six  massive 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


399 


arches,  the  masonry  of  which  is  in  admirable  keeping  witli  the  character  of 
the  surrounding  landscape.  The  tunnel  w  hich  passes  under  Godre-y-coed  is 
500  yards  in  length  ;  it  was  brilliantly  illuminated  for  the  occasion,  and  as 
the  company  passed  through  it,  preceded  by  the  hand,  the  efl'ect  pr.iduccdby 
the  echoes  of  its  walls  and  roof,  and  the  glare  tif  upwards  of  2,500  lights, 
■R'as  striking  and  novtd  in  the  extreme.  The  line  is  differently  constructed 
from  the  Great  Western,  the  company  having,  on  account  of  the  number  of 
curves  which  the  face  of  the  country  rendered  necessary,  adopted  the  narrow- 
gauge,  and  the  rails  being  laid  on  chairs  atfixed  to  transverse  sleepers.  The 
travelling  is  easy,  and  will  safely  admit  of  a  speed  of  from  forty  to  fifty  miles 
per  hour.  The  carriages,  which  are  admirably  constructed.  weK'  built  by  our 
respected  fellow-citizen,  Mr.  Walter  Williams,  and  the  two  engines  at  present 
on  the  line,  the  Tnff  and  the  RhoniUa,  by  Messrs.  Sliarp,  Roberts,  and  Co., 
of  Manchester, — Bristol  Mercury. 

Further  Opetiing  of  the  Manchester  and  Leeds  Railway. — The  first  portion  of 
this  line,  which  was  opened  in  July,  1839,  was  a  length  of  about  fourteen 
miles,  from  Manchester  to  L  ttleborough  ;  and  on  Monday  5th  ult.,  another 
portion  was  opened,  to  the  extent  of  27J  miles.  This  portion  of  the  line 
commences  at  Helxlen  Bridge,  about  nine  miles  from  Littleborough,  and  ter- 
minates at  Mormanton,  where  It  joins  the  North  Midland  Railway,  about 
fifty  miles  from  Manchester. — Manchester  Guardian.  The  Leeds  Mercury,  in 
noticing  the  further  opening  of  this  line  of  railway,  says, — "  We  speak  on 
the  highest  authorily  when  we  say,  that  this  railway  is  the  greatest  triumph 
of  engineering  science  over  the  obstacles  interposed  by  nature,  presented 
by  any  raihi ay  in  the  kingdom.  The  high  chain  of  liills  which  separates  the 
counties  of  York  and  Lancaster  is  only  intersected  by  one  valley,  namely,  the 
valley  of  the  C'alder,  and  that  so  narrow  and  winding,  so  lined  with  towns 
and  villages,  and  so  preoccupied  by  the  turnpike  road,  the  river,  and  the 
canal,  as  to  make  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  carry  a  railway  through  it.  Yet, 
by  embankments  and  cuttings,  oy  removing  rocks  and  building  up  arches,  by 
occasionally  divertin"  the  river  and  the  road-  and  often  crossing  both,  by 
piercing  the  hills  witn  short  tunnels,  and  taking  first  one  b.ide  of  the  valley 
and  then  the  other,  a  line  has  been  constructed  not  only  capable  of  being 
worked  by  locomotive  engines,  but  of  being  easily  and  advantageously  worked. 
There  are  no  objectionable  curves,  and  there  is  not  one  gradient  haring  half 
the  inclination  of  those  on  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway.  The  line 
is  somewhat  circuitous,  and  tliis  is  its  only  disadvantage  ;  a  clisadvantage 
which  the  speed  of  locomotive  travelling  reduces  to  iusignificance.  The  en- 
gineer by  wnom  the  line  was  planned,  and  under  whose  superintendenc  it  has 
been  executed,  is  the  celebrated  George  Stephenson,  whose  genius  and  unpa- 
ralleled works  we  have  so  often  had  occasion  to  notice  witli  high  admiration. 
Under  him  Mr.  Gooch,  one  of  his  pupils. has  been  employed  as  resident  engi- 
engineer,  and  has  displayed  abilities  equal  to  the  execution  of  the  greatest 
undertakings.  The  managing  director,  who  has  given  up  his  whole  time  to 
the  superintendence  of  the  work,  is  Robert  Gill,  Esq.,  to  whose  remarkable 
energy,  zeal,  and  talent,  the  company  are  very  greatly  indebted  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  work  within  so  short  a  period." 

Birmingham  and  Gloucester  Railway. — The  railway  from  Cheltenham  to 
Gloucester  is  now  completed,  or  at  least  one  line  of  rails  is  permanently  laid 
down  through  the  entire  distance,  and  along  these  several  experimental  trips 
have  been  made  during  the  past  week,  wsth  the  most  complete  success.  The 
first  of  these  took  place  on  the  17th  ult.,  and  the  furiher  opening  of  the  line 
for  the  public  will  certainly  take  place  on  the  day  already  announced,  viz., 
the  2nd  of  November. — Cheltenham  Lool<er-on. 


PUBLIC    BUII.DZNGS,   AND    iraPROVEMENTS. 


ROYAL  EXCHANGE. 

This  building  appears  at  length  likely  to  be  commenced  ;   the  following 
tenders  for  the  foundation  were  received,  and  that  of  Mr.  Webb  accepted. 
Webb  .....  8124 

Grimsdale  .....  8738      6 

Cubitt  .....  8984    14 

Little  i  Son     .  .  .  .  .  9423      1     8 

Warde 9586    17 

Piper 9979     16    4 

Grissell  &  Peto  ....  10165      5    4 

Lee 10387 

Bridger  ....  10627      6    8 

Baker  &  ?on  ....  10932      3    4 

Bennett  .....  11181       9     6 

Winsland  .....  11302      6    8 

The  New  Riding-house  ayid  Stabling  in  Windsor  Park. — This  extensive  build- 
ing, the  expense  of  which  is  to  be  defrayed  by  the  Parliamentary  grant  of 
seventy  thousand  pounds,  is  now  fast  approaching  towards  completion.  .Some 
delay  has  been  occasioned  in  consequence  of  extensive  alterations  in  the  roof 
of  the  stabling  on  the  southern  side  of  the  riding-house  having  been  sug- 
gested by  Prince  Albert  a  short  time  since.  The  woodwork  of  the  roof  of  this 
portion  of  the  building,  which  was  then  nearly  completed,  was  observed  by 
his  Royal  Highness  to  be  discernible  (from  the  interior)  through  the  windows 
along  the  top  of  the  south  side  of  the  riding-house  ;  and  as  this  was  con- 
sidered to  be  an  "  eye-sore,"  and  highly  disapproved  of  the  Prince,  the  build- 
ing was  unroofed  and  its  height  reduced  upwards  of  three  feet.  The  riding- 
house  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  the  Kingdom  ;  its  dimensions  being  as 
follows  : — height,  38  feet;  width,  52  feet ;  and  its  length  upwardsof  170  feet. 
The  frontage  of  the  whole  pile  facing  the  Home  Park  is  nearly  300  feet. 
Numerous  bed -rooms  for  the  grooms  and  stable  boys  in  the  service  of  Her 
Majesty  have  been  erected  over  the  riding-house.  These  are  of  very  small 
dimensions,  many  of  them  not  being  more  than  ten  feet  by  nine.    Their  long 


line  of  windows  extending  the  whole  length  of  the  roof,  and  discernible  from 
any  point  a  view  is  oljtained  of  the  building,  tends  considerably  to  detiMct 
from  the  beauty  and  general  harmony  of  the  structure.  Her  Majesty  and 
Prince  Albert,  who  have  occasionally  visited  the  riding-house  and  stables 
during  the  progress  of  th.^  works,  have  expressed  themselves  much  pleased 
with  the  economy  of  the  whole  of  the  arrangements,— r/mes. 

Improrements  on  the  E.xlerior  nf  the  Jl/nnsi(i«-7io«se.— Scaffolding  has  been 
erected  in  front  of  the  Mansion-house  by  direclion  of  the  General  Purposes 
Commiltee,  for  the  purpose  of  repairing' the  dilapidated  masonry  which  has 
exhibited  itself  in  several  parts  of  the  building,  which  lias  been  vastly  im- 
proved in  appearance  by  the  frequent  appheation  of  the  Bank  water  engines. 
The  alteration  is  so  great  that  the  walls  actually  look  in  some  parts  as  if  they 
were  whitewashed.  Tlie  figures  above  the  pillars,  which  had  been  for  many 
years  completely  hidden  under  a  mass  of  soot  and  filth,  are  now  objects  of 
striking  interest.  As  they  are  in  a  measure  new  to  the  \isitors  and  even  the 
residents  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  we  shall  briefly  describe  them.  The 
centre  is  occuped  by  a  female  figure  supposed  to  represent  the  presiding  pa- 
troness or  genius  of  the  city  of  London.  She  holds  in  her  right  hand  a  spear. 
Her  left  hand  is  resting  on  a  shield  sculptured  with  the  city  arms.  She  sup- 
ports a  small  sculptured  castellated  tower  on  head,  and  is  trampling  on  a 
recumbent  figure,  representing  her  vanquished  enemies.  On  her  right  hand 
stands  the  Roman  Lictor  and  a  boy  holding  the  cap  of  liberty.  Tlie  extreme 
right  hand  angle  of  the  tympamtm  is  occupied  by  a  reprcs  -ntation  of  the 
superiority  of  the  British  empire  on  the  seas  Ijy  a  large  roclining  fisure  of 
Neptune,  with  his  insignia  as  God  of  the  ocean  ;  and  the  spaces  are  filled  up 
with  an  anchor  and  cable,  &c.  On  the  left  of  the  centre  is  another  female 
figure,  attended  by  two  boys,  bearing  the  olive  branch  in  her  right  hand,  and 
pouring  out  abundance  from  cornucopise  witlj  her  left ;  the  emb'ems  of  com- 
merce occupy  the  extreme  angle  on  the  left  side,  with  casks  and  bales  of 
goods.  It  has  been  considered  the  more  necessary  to  make  all  practical  im- 
provements in  the  exterior  of  the  Mansion-house,  as  the  new  Royal  Exchange 
will  much  sooner  than  it  is  generally  expected  begin  to  show  itself. — Times. 


■StT^fr  CHURCHES,  arc 


Boston  Wesleyan  Centenary  Chapel,  erected  from  the  design  of  Mr.  .Stephen 
Lewin.  architect  of  Boston,  is  one  hundred  feet  long,  and  seventy  feet  wide 
between  the  walls,  and  is  calcidated  to  seat  two  thousand  five  hundred  per- 
sons. The  design  of  the  front  is  Grsco  Italian  :  a  flight  of  steps  forty -eight 
feet  long,  and  a  colonnade  of  Ionic  columns  in  antis,  and  towers  at  each  end, 
in  whicli  are  constructed  the  grand  staircases  that  communicate  with  the 
gallery,  having  steps  five  feet  long,  and  landings  at  each  angle  five  feet 
square  ;  above  the  staircase  are  rooms  appropriated  to  the  Wesleyan  service. 
There  are  two  main  entrances  to  the  oody  of  the  chapel  through  spacious 
lobbies,  with  jib  doors  communicating  with  the  aisles.  The  ground  floor  of 
the  chapel  contains  three  divisions  of  pews,  and  the  sides  are  provided  with 
free  sittings,  on  each  side  of  the  communion  is  occupied  by  the  schools  ;  the 
pulpit  is  approached  by  two  flights  of  stairs,  at  the  back  of  the  pulpit  are 
vestries  with  private  enlrances  to  the  same.  The  ceiling  is  forty  feet  high 
froni  the  ground  fluor,  it  is  panneled  with  ornamented  ventilators  at  the 
angles,  and  a  block  cornice  with  panneled  pilasters  round  the  gallery,  uniform 
with  pannels  of  ceiling;  the  divisions  and  doors  of  the  pews,  &c.,  next  the 
aisles  are  made  of  wainscot,  framed  and  moulded  ;  the  orchestra  is  formed 
at  the  back  of  the  gallery  with  private  stairs  and  roum  for  the  singers. — 
The  building  and  ground  will  cost  upwardsof  eight  thousand  pounds. 

St.  Micliael's  Church.  Basingstoke. — Extensive  alterations  are  being  made  in 
this  edifice,  which  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  style  of  Parochial  Church  of  the 
rei.gn  of  Henry  6th.  It  is  being  entirely  repaired  and  provided  with  new 
galleries.  &c.  to  accommodate  fifteen  humlred  persons.  The  fittings  through- 
out will  be  of  wainscot.  The  esiimated  expense  is  upwards  of  two  thousand 
pounds,  which  has  been  raised  by  a  liberal  subscription  in  the  town  and  neigh- 
bourhood, with  the  Societies  for  church  extension.  Mr.  J.  B.  Clacy,  of  Read- 
ing, is  the  architect.  The  church  is  also  undergoing  extensive  repairs,  esti- 
mated at  fourteen  hundred  pounds,  to  effect  wliich  a  vestry  last  week  em- 
powered the  churchwardens  to  borrow  one  thousand  pounds,  in  addition  to  a 
previous  rate  of  about  five  hundred  pounds.  This  is  an  example  worthy  of 
imitation  by  other  parishes,  where,  from  a  fal  e  economy,  memorials  of  an- 
cient ecclesiastical  architecture  are  fast  mouldering  to  decay. 

Birmingham. — The  ceremony  of  consecrating  the  church  of  St.  Mathew,  at 
Ashted.  t"he  first  of  the  proposed  ten  new  churches  to  be  erected  in  the  town, 
took  place  on  the  20th  ult.,  it  is  a  spacious  and  commodious  building  of  early 
decorated  Gothic  architecture,  built  of  brick,  with  dressings  to  the  windows, 
doors.  &c.  of  Wedley  Castle  red  stone,  and  also  a  spire  of  the  same  stone.  It 
contains  about  one  thousand  and  fiftv  sittings,  including  four  hundred  free 
seats,  without  side  galleries.  It  was  designed  by  Mr.  Thomas,  the  architect 
of  Leamington,  w  ho  very  handsomely  presented  a  window  of  stained  glass. 

Wolverhampton. — The  ceremony  of  laying  the  first  stone  of  St.  Mary's 
Church,  wh  ch.  with  the  parsonage  house  and  school  attached,  will  be  erected 
at  the  sole  expense  of  Miss  llinckes,  of  Tettenhall,  took  place  in  the  presence 
of  a  very  numerous  concourse  iof  spectators,  on  Thursday  last.  The  endow- 
ment, which  it  is  understood  will  ultimately  amount  to  three  hundred  pounds, 
and  the  site,  are  also  the  gift  of  the  sameljenevolent  lady  ;  the  total  cost  of 
the  building  is  estimated  at  ten  thousand  pounds. — Midland  Counties  Herald. 

Great  Haywood. — The  consecration  of  St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  recently  erected 
on  a  beautiful  site  given  for  the  purpose  by  the  Earl  of  Lichfield,  in  the 
parish  of  Colwich,  took  place  last  month.  It  is  of  very  beautiful  construction, 
and  reflects  great  credit  on  the  taste  and  ability  of  Mr.  T.  Trubshaw.  by  whom 
ti  was  designefl. — Staffordshire  Gazette. 


400 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[November , 


MtlSCELIiANCA. 

New  mode  ofhimging  Pictures.— K  very  clever  and  useful  inviTilion  for  tlie 
above  purpose  lias  been  lately  ]jaleined  by  Mr.  W.  Potts,  of  Kini;  \yilli;im 
Street.  Strand,  wliich  we  think,  as  it  becomes  known,  cannot  fail  ol  l.eaig 
patronised  by  all  collectors  of  pictures.  The  metiiods  of  Iianjjing  pi-tures 
commonly  in  use  are  by  drivinf;  nails  into  tlic  walls,  or  running  iron  or  hrass 
roils  round  the  room.  'Both  arc  objectionable,  the  former  as  it  damages  the 
decorations,  and  the  latter  not  only  destroying  the  archiiectural  effect  of  a 
well-proportioned  apartment,  but  also  that  the  brackets  which  support  the 
rod  prevent  the  hooks  or  cords  from  sliiling  to  any  part  wanted.  In  the 
patent  plan,  the  means  of  fixing  being  above  the  hooks,  they  can  be  moved 
all  round  the  room  with  the  greatest  facility,  and  necessarily  saves  much 
time  in  hanging  or  arranging  a  collection,  particularly  wlien  any  addition  is 
made  to  it.  Attached  tolhe  invention  are  moveable  pendant  chains  and  rods, 
with  cross  bars  and  shifting  biutons  or  studs,  which  can  be  used  or  not  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  party.  Another  and  very  great  advantage  connected  with 
the  plan  is,  that  the  rail  combines  a  cornice  miiulding  with  the  means  of  sup- 
porting pictures,  and  can  be  made  to  form  the  lottom  member  of  the  entabla- 
ture, a's  the  line  in  front  is  not  touched  either  by  the  hooks,  chains,  or  cord. 
We  cannot  but  recommend  the  plan  to  the  notice  of  archilects,  as  well  as  tJ 
the  artist  and  amateur,  as  an  invention  deserving  their  attention  and 
adoption. 

Mr.  Junius  Smith. — The  American  paj  ers  mention  that  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
has  been  conferred  by  the  University  authorities  on  Mr.  Junius  Smith,  of 
London,  the  gentleman  whose  enterprise,  science,  and  perseverance,  Iiave  so 
eminently  contributed  to  the  establishment  of  steam  navigation  between  the 
old  and  tlie  new  worlds. — Morning  Post. 

Experiment  of  Large  GK7iS.— On  Friday.  11th  ult.,  a  party  of  the  Royal  Ar- 
tillery, commanded  by  Major  Chalmers,  proceeded  to  the  proof  butt  in  the 
Roy.al  Ar.«enal,  AVoolwich.  at  I  o'clock  p.m..  for  the  purpose  of  trying  a  plan 
which  has  been  some  time  in  operation  in  France,  for  discharging  large  pieces 
of  ordnance  by  a  hammer  and  detonating  powilcr,  the  present  system  in  the 
British  army  being  with  a  portfire,  ignited  and  kept  burning  until  the  word 
of  command  is  given.  Sir  John  May,  Colonel  Dundas,  and  Colonel  Dancey 
attended  towilness  the  experiment.  The  gun  selected  was  a  32-pounder,  and 
the  charge  each  time  was  101b.  of  powder  in  a  flannel  cartridge,  with  a  321b. 
ball  tltted  in  a  wi  oden  cup  made  flat  at  the  end  next  the  T'owder.  Forty 
rounds  were  fired,  and  the  simplicity  and  certainty  wiih  which  they  were 
discharged  gave  great  satisfaction.  The  invention  is  so  simple,  and  might 
be  so  easily  applied,  that  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  it  will  be  universally 
adopted  in  the  Ordnance  department. '  It  consists  of  a  small  hammi'r,  with  a 
handle  about  six  inches  in  length,  the  whole  made  of  brass,  acting  in  holes 
made  in  two  small  pieces  of  steel  fixed  by  screws  to  the  right  side  of  the  gun. 
The  action  is  given  by  pulling  a  piece  of  cord  six  feet  long,  when  the  hammer 
falls  on  the  vent  charged  wilh  detonating  powder  with  such  force  as  to  cause 
instant  and  certain  ignition.  There  is  a  small  piece  of  steel  to  cover  the  de- 
tonating ponder,  that  it  may  not  become  wet  in  rainy  we  ither,  and  this  is  so 
contrived  that  it  falls  back  the  moment  the  hammer  begins  to  descend. 

The  New  Town  of  Fteetwood-on-  fVyre. — Three  years  ago  there  were  only 
two  houses  at  Fleetwood,  and  the  site  of  the  town  was  a  barren  waste  over- 
run with  rabbits  ;  now  there  are  103  houses  inhabited  to  overflowing,  and  54 
in  course  of  erection.  It  is  said  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  land  is  pur- 
chased for  building  upon,  but  there  is  considerable  ilifhculty  in  procur  ng  a 
sufficient  supply  of  brick,  stone,  and  lime,  consequently  building  operations 
are  c  nsideral)ly  refaided.  We  may  meniion.  however,  that  a  small  but  neat 
church,  capable  of  accommodating  aijoiit  400  persons  is  reared,  and  that  the 
two  shore  ligluhouses,  which  will  be  lighted  with  gas.  are  in  a  for«ard  state, 
one  being  about  60  feet  high,  and  the  other  about  12.  As  the  designs  are 
chaste  and  beautiful,  they  will  be  highly  atiraetive  objecis  to  strangers  visit- 
ing the  district.  A  portion  of  the  iron  pier  head  is  completed,  and  the  re- 
mainder is  in  a  forw ard  slate.  There  will  be  a  shade  erected  on  the  pu r  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  the  goods,  as  they  are  landed,  dry,  and  a  line  of  rail- 
way will  be  laid  along  the  pier,  with  suitable  cranes  for  the  landing  of  heavy 
goods  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  these  works  will,  in  the  course  of  a  month  or 
six  weeks,  b-  so  far  comple'e  as  to  enable  the  Company  to  commence  the 
carrying  trade  on  a  great  scale,  when  a  considerable  increase  of  trade  to  the 
port  may  reasonably  be  expected.  

French  Steam  Engine  Factory. — The  Armoricain  of  Brest,  in  giving  an  ac- 
count of  the  Government  steam-engine  manufactory  of  Indiet,  says  in  its 
present  condition  it  can  only  turn  out  three  engines  of  IfiO  to  220  horse 
power  per  annum,  but  that  Government  w  ishes  to  increase  it,  so  as  to  enable 
it  to  make  annually  12  engines  of  4.50  horse  power  each.  The  sum  allotted 
to  this  establishment  last  year  by  Government  was  700,000f..  but  it  has  now 
been  carried  up  to  2,000,000f.  Six  slips  for  building  steamers  are  attached 
to  the  establishment;  and  a  war-steamer,  ih^  Gassendi,  of  220  horse  power, 
s  at  present  building  here. — Galignani's  Messtnger. 


LIST    OF    NE-W    PATENTS. 

GRANTED    IN    ENGLAND    FROM     IsT    OCTOBER    TO  22nD  OCTOBER,    1840. 

Frederick  Payne  Mackelcan,  of  Birmingham,  for  "  certain  improved 
thrashing  machinery,  a  portion  of  which  may  be  used  as  a  means  of  trans- 
mitting power  to  other  machinery." — Sealed  October  1 ;  six  months  for  en- 
rolment. 

Thomas  Joyce,  of  Manchester,  Ironmonger,  for  "  a  certain  article  which 
forms  or  may  be  used  as  a  handsome  nob  for  parlour  and  other  doors,  bell 
pulls,  and  curtain  pins,  and  is  also  capable  of  being  used  for  a  variety  of  use- 
ful and  ornamental  purposes  in  the  interior  of  dwelling  houses  and  other 
places." — October  1  ;  six  months. 


William  Henry  Fox  Talbot,  of  Lacock  Abbey,  Esquire,  for  "  improve- 
7nenis  in  producing  or  obtaining  motive  power." — October  1  ;  six  months. 

William  Horsfall,  of  Manchester,  Card  Maker,  for  "an  improvement 
or  improvement.^  in  cards  fur  carding  cotton,  wool,  silt,  flax,  and  ot  lie' fibrous 
substances." — October  1  ;  six  mnnths. 

James  Stirlixg,  of  Dundee.  Engineer,  and  Robert  Stirilng,  ofGalsten, 
.-Vyraliu'e,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  for  *'  certain  improvements  in  air-engines." — 
October  1  ;  six  months. 

George  Richie,  of  Gracechureh  Street,  and  Edward  Bowra,  of  the 
same  place.  Manufacturers,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  boaSf 
muffs,  cuffs,  flounces,  and  tippets." — October  1  ;  six  months. 

J.\MES  FiTT,  Senior,  of  Wilraer  Gardens,  Hoxtoii  Old  Town,  Manufacturer, 
for  "  a  novel  constructionof  machinery  for  communicating  mechanical  power." 
October  7  :  six  months. 

John  Davies,  of  Manchester,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "certain  improvements 
in  machinery  or  apparatu.f  for  weaving."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  re- 
siding abroad.^October  7     six  months. 

Thomas  Spencer,  of  Liverpool,  Carver  and  Gilder,  and  John  Wilson, 
of  the  same  place,  Lecturer  on  Chemisti-)-,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  the 
process  of  engraving  on  metals  by  means  of  voltaic  electricity" — October  7  ; 
six  months. 

Thomas  Wood,  the  younger,  of  Wandsworth  Road,  Clapham,  Gentleman, 
for  "  improvements  in  paving  streets,  roads,  bridges,  sqttares,  paths,  and  such 
Hie  ways." — October  7  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Payne,  of  South  Lambeth,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements  in 
salting  animal  matters." — October  13  ;  six  months. 

RoHERT  Pettit,  of  Woodhousc  Place,  Stepney  Green,  Gentleman,  for  "  im- 
provements in  railroads,  and  in  the  carriages  and  wheels  employed  thereon." — 
October  15  ;  six  months. 

Henry  George  Francis  Earl,  of  Ducie,  Woodchester  Park,  Gloucester, 
Richard  Clydurn,  of  Uley,  Engineer,  and  Edwin  Budding,  of  Dursley, 
Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  machinery  for  cutting  vegetable  and 
other  substances." — October  15  ;  six  months. 

William  Newton,  of  Chancery  Lane,  Civil  Engineer,  for  ■'  certain  im- 
provements in  engines,  to  be  worked  by  air  or  other  gases." — October  15  ;  six 
months. 

James  Hancock,  of  Sidney  Square,  Mile  End,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  an 
improved  method  of  raising  vmter  and  other  fluids." — October  15  ;  six 
months. 

Henry  Pinkus,  of  Panton  Square,  Middlesex.  Esquire,  for  "  an  improved 
method  of  combining  and  applying  materials, applicable  to  fornmtion  or  con- 
struction of  roads  or  ivays." — October  15  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Parker,  of  Darlington,  Durham,  Flax  Spinner,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  looms  for  weaving  linen  and  other  fabrics,  to  be  worked  by  hand, 
steatn,  water,  or  any  otiter  motive  power." —OcieAitx  22  ;  si.x  months. 

Richard  Edmiinds,  of  Banbury,  Oxford,  Gentleman,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  machines  or  apparatus  for  preparing  and  drilling  land,  and  for 
depositing  seeds  or  manure  therein." — October  22 ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Clark,  of  Wolverhampton,  Ironfounder,  for  **  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  construction  of  locks,  latcfus,  and  such  like  fastenings,  applicable 
for  securing  doors,  gates,  window  shutters,  and  such  like  purposes."  Com- 
municated from  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — October  22  ;  six  months. 

Gabriel  Riddle,  of  Paternoster  Row,  Stationer,  and  Thomas  Piper,  of 
Bishopsgate  Street,  Builder,  for  "  a  certain  improvement  or  improvements  on 
wheels  for  carriages,"  for  the  term  of  seven  years,  being  an  extension  of  former 
letters  patent  granted  to  Theodore  Jo.s-es,  of  Coleman  Street,  and  by  hira 
assigned  to  the  said  Gabriel  Riddle  and  Thomas  Piper. — October  22. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


R.  U'e  have  some  suspicion  that  tite  Propeller  is  not  new ;  we  will  iui]uire 
respecting  its  originality. 

RoSerius.  iVe  have  not  space  fr  the  ci.nnnuuication  he  has  favoured  us  with, 
containing  a  list  of  the  "  Qui  ell's  subjects"  whose  trades  are  connected  with 
Brif'sh  shipping. 

n   We  will  take  advantage  of  his  communication  at  some  future  opportunity. 

S.  L    Designs  of  a  ff 'eslcyan  Centenary  Chapel  were  received  last  month. 

Mr.  Kingsford'sp/ffji /(ir  a  Harbour  of  Refuge  at  Dover,  we  are  compelled  to 
omit  for  the  present. 

A  Constant  Reader.   JVe  cannot  inform  him. 

Arcliitec;us.  Ilis  ronnnunicationfrom  .-tnierica  will  appear  in  the  next  Journal. 

Booh  received  : — Science  of  I'ision. 

U'e  have  been  obliged  to  defer  until  ne.tt  month  the  Plan  and  Section  of  the 
Reform  Club,  in  consequnwe  of  the  artist  not  Iwing  able  to  complete  them  in  time. 

The  ne.tt  number  for  December  will  complete  the  Third  Volume,  and  will  con- 
tain the  Title.  Pre/ace,  and  Inde.r.  Subscribers  are  requested  to  complete  their 
sets  of  the  Journal. 

Communications  are  requested  to  be  addressed  to  "The  Editor  of  the  Civil 
Engineer  and   Architect  s  Journal,'    No.  II,  Parliament  Street,  Westminster. 

Books  for  review  must  he  sent  early  in  the  month,  communications  on  or  befde 
the  20W.  (if  with  drawings,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  the  'ibth 
instant. 

The  First  Volume  may  be  had,  bound  in  cloth  and  letteeied  in  gold 
Pr  c£  17.«. 

%*  The  Second  Volume  may  also  be  had,  Phice  20s. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


401 


DIRCKS'  PATENT  IMPROVED  METALLIC  RAILWAY  WHEEL  WITH  WOOD-FACED  TYRE. 


ri^.-.  1. 


FiK.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


I'nwi/lilllllNiiiiillimmi"'^ 


Fig.  5. 


Description. 


the  view  Ijciiig  a  front  elevation. 


Fig.  1,  represents  the  wheel,  ha'f  in  sedicn,  as  at  A,  and  half  complete,  as  at  B  ; 

Kig.  2.  edge  elevation,  in  section.  ,  i       i       • 

Fig.  3.  showing  the  channelled  tyre  aJcwith  the  wood  inserted  at  rf,  fastened  l.y  tl.e  pin  or  rivet  ee. 

Fig.  4.  represents  one  of  the  wooden  blocks  in  perspective,  perforated  with  two  holes,^,  lor  receiving  the  pins  or  rivets. 

Fig.  5,  cross  section  of  arm  of  w  heel. 


Read  by  Mr.  Henry  Dircks,  before  the  Mechanical  Section  of  the 
Brilissh  dissociation,  at  Glasgow,  Stpt.  10,  1840.  Jliid  also  before 
the  Polytechnic  Society  at  Liverpool,  Oct.  8,  1S40. 

As  an  introduction  to  the  observations  immediately  relating  to  the 
improved  wheel  which  is  the  subject  of  the  present  communication,  a 
few  preliminary  observations  may  serve  to  make  its  nature  and  ad- 
vantages more  generally  understood. 

Wooden  wheels  were  originally  in  common  use  on  railways;  these 
were  afterwards  superseded  by  the  extensive  use  of  cast-iron  wheels; 
and  both  of  4hese  descriptions  of  wheels  were  much  improved  by 
manufacturing  them  with  wrought  iron  tyres.  Modifications  of  these 
vvheels  are  still  in  use  on  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  the 
wooden  wheels  having  the  nave  of  cast  iron,  and  the  spokes  and  rim 
of  wood,  the  tyre  being  of  wrought  iron.  On  the  London  and  Bir- 
mingham Railway,  cast  iron  wheels  are  extensively  used.  On  the 
continent  of  Europe,  and  in  America,  cast  iron  wheels  are  seemingly 
employed  by  preference  ;  and  are  no  doubt  quite  as  safe  for  travelling, 
where  great  speed  is  not  practised. 

In  England,  a  decided  preference  is  given  to  wrought  iron  wheels, 
in  which  this  metal  is  used  throughout,  with  the  exception  of  the  boss 
being  cast  around  the  ends  of  the  spokes.  The  latest  improvement 
on  these  has  been  the  making  of  the  entire  wheel,  including  the  boss, 
of  wrought  iron. 

The  wheels  now  in  general  use  derive  their  chief  novelty  from  the 
construction  and  placement  of  the  spokes,  with  a  view  to  obtain  elas- 
ticity, strength,  and  durability.  One  variety  which  does  not  come 
under  this  denomination,  is  the  plate  wheel,  supposed  on  its  intro- 
duction to  possess  some  peculiar  advantage  in  overcoming  a  supposed 
resistance  of  the  atmosphere.  Except,  however,  in  relation  to  vari- 
ations in  size,  the  present  wheels  are  little  more  than  varieties  in 


pattern.  The  common  diameter  of  carriage  and  waggon  wheels  is 
three  feet,  and  the  largest  driving-wheels  for  locomotives  are  those 
employed  on  the  Great  Western  Railway,  being  six  to  seven  feet  in 
diameter, — thougli  at  one  time  they  were  made  as  la.ige  as  ten  feet. 

The  action  of  an  iron  wheel  on  an  iron  rail,  though  derived  firom  a 
rolling  motion,  can  only  be  compared  to  a  series  of  blows,  and  the 
rebound  occasioned  by  iron  striking  iron  is  well  known  to  be  con- 
siderably greater  than  is  produced  by  striking  wood  on  iron.  To  this 
simple  fact  we  may  trace  the  tremulous  motion  occasioned  by  iron 
wheels  on  an  iron  railroail ;  and  when,  by  any  trifling  accident,  as  an 
inequality  from  the  rising  of  one  end  of  a  rail,  or  sometimes  even  from 
small  flinty  pebbles  getting  on  the  rail,  the  rebound  is  not  more  fearful 
than  dangerous.  The  tremulous  motion  of  the  rail  just  adverted  to 
renders  it  necessary  in  most  cases  to  lay  the  rails  on  wooden  sleepers. 
As  an  illustration  of  what  is  meant,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  on  the 
Dublin  and  Kingstown  Railway  the  rails  were  originally  laid  on  granite 
sleepers,  but  the  tremor  was  so  great  as  to  loosen  the  rails,  and  oc- 
casion serious  fears  from  the  consequent  damage  sustained  by  engines 
and  carriages  passing  along  the  line.  It  was,  therefore,  ultimately 
agreed  to  take  up  the  granite  and  lay  down  longitudinal  wooden 
sleepers,  a  work  of  considerable  labour  and  expense.  In  some  cases 
the  nature  of  the  soil  or  sub-soil  may  allow  the  use  of  stone  blocks; 
and  where  they  can  be  applied  with  safety,  they  are  preferred,  for  the 
reason  that  a  road  laid  on  stone  blocks  can  be  kept  up  at  a  lower  rate 
than  one  laid  on  woodtn  sleepers  ;  and,  as  has  been  endeavoured  to  be 
clearly  shown,  the  only  reason  for  laying  the  stone  aside,  arises  from 
the  tremor  imparted  to  the  rail  by  iron  wheels  as  at  present  used. 
Brees,  in  his  Railway  Practice  (1839),  gives,  in  a  copy  of  an  estimate 
for  work  on  the  "North  Union  Railway,"  the  following  particulars,  at 
page  142: — 

3  I 


402 


THE  CIA  IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


Maintaining  railway  crossings  and  sidings,  when  laid 
on  stone  blocks  of  five  cubic  feet,  for  the  first  year, 
per  mile "       .    £150     0     0 

Ditto  ditto  second  year  .        .        .         SO    0     0 


£230     U     0 


Ditto,  on  larch  sleepers,  for  the  first  year, 

per  mile £200    0    0 

Ditto  ditto  second  year         120     0     0 


-£320     0     0 


We  shall  now  proceed  to  a  description  of  the  improved  metallic 
wheel  witli  wood-faced  tyre,  showing  its  advantages  in  connexion  with 
the  preceding  observations.  The  construction  of  the  wheel  may  be 
undarstood  by  imagining  a  spoked  wheel  with  a  deep  channelled  tyre. 
The  wheel  may  be  made  either  of  cast  or  wrought  iron,  it  having  been 
ascertained  that  tyre  bars  can  be  rolled  to  the  recpiired  pattern.  In 
this  channelled  tyre  are  inserted  blocks  of  African  oak,  measuring 
about  four  inches  by  three  and  a  half  inches,  solidified  by  filling  the 
pores  with  unctuous  preparations ;  thereby  counteracting  the  eti'ects 
of  wet  by  capillary  attraction, — to  which,  by  this  means,  it  becomes 
impervious,  and  at  the  same  time  is  not  liable  to  unequal  contraction 
and  expansion.  The  blocks  of  wood  are  cut  to  the  requisite  form  to 
fit  very  exactly  in  the  external  circular  cliannel  of  the  wheel,  with  the 
grain  placed  vertically  throughout,  forming  a  complete  facing  of  wood, 
as  shown  in  the  engraving.  There  are  about  from  twenty-eight  to 
thirty  of  these  blocks  round  each  wheel,  where  they  are  retained  in 
their  place  by  one  or  two  bolts  passing  through  each,  the  two  sides  of 
the  channel  having  corresponding  holes  drilled  through  them  for  this 
purpose  :  the  bolts  are  then  well  rivetted.  After  being  so  fitted,  the 
■wheel  is  turned  in  the  usual  manner.  The  wheel  when  finished  has 
all  the  appearance  of  a  common  railway  wheel,  but  with  a  rather 
deeper  rim,  the  tyre  faced  with  wood,  and  the  fiacge  of  iron.  Woods 
of  various  qualities  may  be  used,  whether  hard  or  soft,  requiring  dif- 
ferent clieraicat  preparations  according  to  their  porosity,  and  in  some 
instances  requiring  to  be  compressed. 

The  several  advantages  which  this  wheel  possesses,  are — 

1.  That  the  wood  facing  will  wear  a  considerable  time  without  re- 
quiring any  repair. 

2.  That  the  wood  can  be  refaced,  by  turning  it  up  again  in  the  lathe, 
as  practised  with  worn  iron  tyres. 

3.  That  the  tyre  can  be  re-faced  with  wood  at  little  expense,  and 
at  a  far  less  loss  of  time  than  usual.  In  the  operations  of  re-facing 
these  wheels,  or  putting  in  new  wood,  the  work  can  be  performed 
without  the  labour  and  cost  of  removing  the  wheels  from  the  axles, 
which  in  the  keying  and  unkeying  is  known  to  be  very  troublesome.* 
,  4.  That,  in  regard  to  their  working,  it  is  the  opinion  of  practical 
engineers,  confirmed  by  actual  experiment,  that  they  will  work 
smoother,  easier,  and,  as  some  have  expressed  it,  more  "sweetly" 
than  iron-tyred  wheels  ;  with  the  advantage  of  going  well  in  wet 
weather,  even  upon  inclines, — having  sufficient  adhesion  to  the  rail, 
without  dropping  sand  to  assist  them  in  this  respect,  as  practised 
when  iron  wiieels  are  used. 

6.  That  another  and  \eiy  important  result  will  be,  that  the  rails 
themselves  will  suffer  less  wear  by  using  this  kind  of  wheel,  and  that 
the  fastenings,  sleepers,  and  blocks  will  receive  considerably  less  in- 
jury, and  thereby  favour  the  laying  of  railroads  on  stone  blocks,  where- 
ever  they  are  considered  to  be  most  desirable.+ 

A  metallic  wheel  with  a  wood-faced  tyre,  which  is  the  principle  of 
this  construction,  obviates  most,  if  not  all,  the  difficulties  which  have 
been  experienced,  whether  in  the  use  of  wooden,  cast  iron,  or  even 
wrought  iron  wheels.  Cast  iron  wheels  may,  indeed,  now  be  con- 
sidered not  far  short  of  being  equal  to  wrought  iron  wheels,  for  safety 
and  durability,  with  all  the  superiority  of  which  the  ap|)lication  is  sus- 
ceptible. They  are  also  neither  clumsy  nor  inelegant  in  form,  and  are 
capable  of  being  made  to  any  pattern,  even  for  carriage  wheels  for 
common  roads.  It  may,  therefore,  very  possibly  occur  that  they  will 
Lave  the  effect  to  bring  cast  iron  wheels  into  as  general  use,  and  as 
much  reputation  here  as  on  the  continent.  This  new  construction  and 
simple  adoption  of  wood  makes  excellent  driving  wheels  for  locomo- 
tives; it  may  be  readily  stopped  by  using  a  cast  iron  break,  and  does 
not  undergo  that  wear  which  might  be  expected  from  the  friction  it 

*  As  in  every  tiling  allectiug  railways,  it  is  a  desideratum  to  decrease  the 
expense  as  much  as  possible,  it  may  here  be  mentioned  that  three  feet  cast 
iron  wheels,  with  wuoil-faceil  lyres  and  wrought  iron  axles  complete,  can  be 
made  much  cheaper  than  the  generality  of  wheels. 

t  Ou  lines  situated  like  the  (ireenwich  Railway  and  theBlackwall  Railway, 
wood  faced  wheels  would  diminish  much  of  the  noise  which  at  present  is  a 
source  of  general  complaint. 


then  has  on  the  rail.  The  wood,  by  use,  becomes  exceedingly  close 
and  firm,  acquiring  a  surface  not  easily  distinguishable  from  metal  in 
appearance. 

These  wheels  are  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Brocklehurst,  Dircks, 
and  Nelson,  millwrights,  engineers,  and  iron-founders,  at  their  works, 
No.  12,  Oil  Street,  Liverpool;  where  tliey  may  at  any  time  be  seen. 


CANDIDUS'S    NOTE-BOOK. 
FASCICULUS  XX. 


"  I  must  have  lifjerty 
Witlial.  as  large  a  charter  as  the  winds, 
To  blow  on  whom  1  please." 


I.  After  "-B«V' t'le  niost  provoking  word  in  the  language  is  your 
"Only";  which  is  employed  extenuatingly  to  apologize  away,  as  it 
were,  the  very  sum  of  complaint,  as  being  a  mere  trifle,  too  insignifi- 
cant to  be  taken  into  the  general  account.  This  or  that  building  may 
have  only  such  or  such  defect,  and  of  course  you  run  the  risk  of  being 
set  down  for  a  very  ill-natured,  or  an  exceedingly  fastidious  hyper- 
critical sort  of  person,  if  you  object  to  it  on  such  account,  even  though 
it  should  be  of  such  nature  as  absolutely  to  cancel  all  other  merits  and 
recommendations.  There  are  cases  in  which  a  single  defect  may  be 
a  fatal  one  ;  I  might  instance  this  directly  and  architecturally  by  re- 
ferring to  buildings  which  furnish  cases  in  point ;  but  it  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  anecdote  related  somewhere,  if  I  mistake  not,  by 
Theodore  Hook,  of  the  Adonis  who  had  only  a  single  blemish.  In 
every  other  respect  his  person  and  countenance  were  unexceptionable. 
His  mouth,  teeth,  hair,  eyes,  hands,  were  all  allowed  to  be  perfect,  and 
were  expatiated  upon  by  a  friend  so  elociuently  that  a  lady  fell  in  love 
with  his  description,  and  dejired  that  the  original  might  be  introduced 
to  her;  on  which  the  other  thought  fit  to  hint  that  he  had  omitted  one 
slight  imperfection  in  the  portrait  he  had  drawn,  but  it  was  "only  a 
single  blemish,"  a  mere  trifle,  absolutely,  in  comparison  with  the  loss 
of  an  arm  or  a  leg.  "Oh!  some  scar,  I  suppose — perhaps  a  wart  ?  " 
inquired  the  lady;  "an  imlucky  wart,  perhaps,  on  the  tip  of  his  nose." 
"  A  wart  on  tip  of  his  nose !  Bless  your  heart,  no!  for  the  truth  is, 
he  has — no  nose  at  all !  which  little  defect  is  the  one  I  alluded  to." 

II.  It  is  precisely  such  "little  defects"  and  slight  blemishes  that  mar 
so  many  buildings  and  works  of  architecture.  They  have — in  description 
at  least — a  host  of  merits;  columns  comme  ilfaul,  Doric  or  Corinthian, 
unexceptionable  proportions,  amplitude  of  dimensions,  solidity  of 
materials,  &c.,  are  expatiated  upon  till  you  raise  your  expectations 
almost  to  the  highest  pitch.  At  length  you  discover  that  the  "slight 
defect" — the  "  only  fault " — should  any  have  been  hinted  at,  renders 
the  anticipated  piece  of  perfection  very  much  in  the  same  plight  as 
the  Adonis  with  the  single  blemish — the  Adonis  without  a  nose. 

HI.  When  people  begin  to  be  sick  of  the  everlasting  boring  and 
twaddling  about  styles,  they  will  then,  perhaps,  begin  to  find  out  that 
quite  as  much  or  more  depends  upon  the  application  of  a  style,  as 
upon  its  merits  as  such.  For  what  are  the  diflerent  styles  of  archi- 
tecture, but  so  many  different  languages  of  the  art^some  of  them 
more  perfect,  more  expressive  than  others;  but  the  excellence  of  a 
language,  and  the  excellence  of  a  composition  in  it,  are  quite  distinct 
matters.  The  same  language  may  be  the  vehicle  of  wit  or  of  stu- 
pidity ;  and  so  also  may  the  same  style  of  architecture  be  employed 
tastefully  or  uncouthly ;  by  one  so  as  to  charm  and  delight,  by  another 
so  as  to  excite  only  ridicule  and  disgust.  Which  being  the  case,  of 
what  practical  value  are  all  those  superficial,  vague,  and  wearisome 
discussions  from  time  to  time  on  the  subject  of  styles,  in  which  not  a 
single  idea  is  brought  forward  that  has  not  been  repeated  times  innu- 
merable before?  On  no  other  subject  would  such  mere  school-boy 
stuff  be  endured,  much  less  pass  for  any  show  of  learning,  as  is  parroUd 
in  regard  to  architecture.  Many  prate  most  glibly  about  the  age  of 
Pericles  ;  yet  ask  one  of  those  erudite,  sagacious  gentlemen,  what  he 
thinks  of  that  age  in  its  chryseo-elephantine  works,  and  architectural 
polychromy,  and  ten  to  one  but  he  will  be  struck  all  of  a  heap ;  he 
wonders  what  eltplia?tls  have  to  do  with  the  matter,  nor  did  he  know 
before  that  Pericles  had  a  daughter  named  Polly. 

IV.  The  fact  is,  we  are  apt  to  j\idge  of  styles  as  we  do  of  national 
or  of  professional  character — in  the  lump;  which,  though  a  most 
expeditious  and  convenient,  save-trouble  mode,  not  unfrequently  leads 
into  dreadful  blunders.  The  French  are  a  lively  people,  yet  shall  you 
find  Frenchmen  of  most  excessive  dulness  and  stupidity.  You  may 
stumble  upon  honesty  in  the  shape  of  a  lawyer,  on  temperance  in  that 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


403 


of  an  alderman,  and  on  perfect  good-nature  in  the  person  of  a  sar- 
castic satirist. 

V.  In  an  article  in  the  Gardener's  Magazine  for  November  occurs 
the  following  bit  of  architectural  comment :  "  in  returning  we  observed 
two  frightful  chapels;  the  Hanover  Chapel  at  Peckham,  in  the  form  of 
a  pentagon,  with  small  mean  windows  without  facings,  and  red  brick 
walls  without  cornices  or  any  decoration  whatever:  and  another  chapel 
nearer  Cambervvell,  of  larger  size,  with  similar  walls,  and  three  or  four 
Scorns  of  naked  windows  like  those  of  a  third-rate  dwelling-house! 
Chapels  in  general,  throughout  the  country,  are  at  present  a  disgrace 
to  it,  in  an  architectural  point  of  view  ;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
spread  of  knowledge  and  taste  will  raise  them  to  a  par  with  other 

,  religious  buildings."  Yes,  our  chapels — and  churches,  too — generally 
are  a  disgrace  to  the  country,  as  well  on  account  of  the  beggarly, 
shabby,  sordid  meanness,  as  for  the  execrably  bad  taste  they  display. 
But  as  for  the  good  taste  that  is  to  lead  to  a  better  system  of  things, 
•where  is  it  to  come  from  ?  Certainly  not  from  the  fountain  head — not 
from  the  Church  Commissioners.  However,  I  will  not  be  quite  sure 
that  even  brick  boxes,  with  three  or  four  stories  of  sash  windows,  are 
not  a  degree  more  endurable  than  those  most  trumpery  Golhicisings 
or  Grecianizings,  as  the  case  may  be,  which  spring  up  like  mushrooms 
in  the  purlieus  of  Islington,  &c.,  and  whose  scanty  pauper  finery  forms 
a  contrast  no  less  ludicrous  than  woful,  with  the  bareness  of  their 
posterior  parts.  Economy  is  excellent,  but  the  economy  which  treats 
itself  with  a  smart  shirt  front,  while  it  denies  itself  a  pair  of  breeches, 
cannot  possibly  be  extolled  for  its  nice  attention  to  decency. 

VI.  If  I  am  rightly  informed,  more  than  one  of  the  Islingtonian 
buildings  alluded  to  is  the  joint  production  of  two  architects,  in  which 
case,  to  judge  from  the  littleness  of  their  united  taste,  the  taste  of 
each  singly  must  be  exceedingly  little  indeed.  Or,  would  not  the 
rather  stale  anecdote  of  the  two  helpmates  come  in  here  most  pat  ? 
"  What  are  you  doing.  Jack  ?  "  "Nothing,  sir."  "And  Tom,  what 
are  you  doing  there  ?  "  "Please,  sir,  I'm  just  helping  Jack."  It  was 
undoubtedly  after  some  such  fashion  that  the  Messrs.  Tom  and  Jack 
there  employed  assisted  each  other  in  providing  taste  for  the  Isling- 
tonians.  Certain  it  is  that  taste  fares  no  better  among  Church  Com- 
missioners than  among  their  worships  the  Churchwardens. 


ON  THE  ORIGIN  OF   ALPHABETIC  WRITING  ON  MONU- 
MENTS, TOMBS,  &c.,  IN  ANCIENT  GREECE. 

Amongst  the  many -pleasures  connected  with  historic  research,  may 
be  recorded  that  which  the  antiquary  feels,  as  the  evidences  of  some 
lost  truth  unfold  themselves  to  his  eye.  To  find  how  link  after  link 
completes  the  chain,  or  how  the  past  is  restored  to  observation  after  a 
lapse  of  centuries,  is  no  less  interesting,  however,  to  the  architect,  the 
painter,  and  the  sculptor,  whenever  the  purposes  of  art  are  assisted  by 
such  a  discovery.  With  this  preface  of  apology  for  discussing  the 
present  subject,  I  humbly  offer  my  opinions,  with  the  unpretending 
■wish  only,  that  it  may  lead  to  a  deeper  attention  from  others.  My 
idea  of  handling  the  theme  arose  from  a  remark  of  Canina's  upon  some 
ancient  tombs  found  at  Coere,  (now  Cervetri,  or  Ceveteri).  His  re- 
mark is  embodied  in  a  paper,  read  at  the  Institute  on  the  30th  March, 
1840.  He  concludes  from  the  peculiar  form  of  the  Greek  characters 
of  the  inscriptions,  that  the  tomb  must  have  been  erected  before  the 
Trojan  war.  Now  the  Trojan  war  is  an  event — an  epoch  in  history. 
It  encompasses  within  it  a  variety  of  interesting  facts,  customs,  man- 
ners and  rites.  To  determine  the  existence  of  alphabetic  writing,  as 
existing  on  monuments  and  tombs,  before  or  after  that  period,  is  no 
less  interesting ;  especially  as  in  the  investigation  we  trample  on  the 
memory  of  the  honoured  dead  ;  for  whom  art  has  done  and  expected 
so  much,  and  for  whose  deeds  and  memorable  acts,  genius  has  prepared 
such  monuments  of  beauty  and  of  skill. 

Canina  evidently  presumes  alphabetic  writing  as  common  to  the 
tombs  of  the  great  before  the  Trojan  war.  Witli  submission  then  to 
his  opinion,  as  well  as  to  others,  who  I  know  agree  with  him,  I  will 
assume  the  contrary,  and  endeavour  to  prove  it  of  a  later  period. 

First,  I  rely  greatly  on  the  authority  of  Homer,  on  the  minuteness, 
care,  and  correctness  of  that  poet,  on  his  punctilious  observance  of 
customs,  and  on  the  extreme  finish  of  his  descriptions.  Assuming  this, 
I  turn  to  the  tale  of  hfAXeporpov  (Iliad  Gth,  1G8),  not  to  disprove  the  non- 
existence of  letters,  &c.,  but  to  reveal  Wolfius  a  German  commentator 
upon  Homer,  guilty  of  the  same  idea  as  myself,  since  upon  that  tale, 
he  presumes  alphabetic  writing  unknown  in  the  heroic  ages.  Secondly, 
our  introduction  to  Patroclus's  tomb,  has  no  mention  of  any  inscription, 
or  written  memorial.  Thirdly,  that  the  word  ■ypaijjeii'  of  such  frequent 
occurrence,  according  to  Guoquet,  "ne  signifie  jamais  chez  Homer 
•que  representer  oOi  decrire  un  objet."     Fourthly,  that  wherever  com- 


mands are  given,  or  messages  sent,  they  are  done  verbally ;  and  when- 
ever a  treaty  is  ratified,  it  is  done  by  sacrifice,  or  oath.  Then  again, 
Virgil's  careful  picture  of  Misemis's  death  and  burial,  and  of  the  tomb 
erected,  &c.,  mentions  no  inscription,  which  strengthens  the  argument, 
when  we  consider  that  Enoeas  is  trying  to  pacify  the  spirit  of  that  hero 
in  the  infernal  regions,  with  a  minute  detail  of  all  the  honours  and  tri- 
butes paid  to  his  memory.  To  omit  one  observance,  would  display  a 
carelessness  totally  at  variance  with  an  otherwise  ingenious  recital. 

Besides  no  nation  was  ever  more  jealous  than  the  Greeks  of  funeral 
honours.  The  advantages  of  an  illustrious  victory  were  often  neglected 
to  perform  this  duty.  Victorious  generals  were  sacrified  for  want  of 
zeal  in  burying  the  soldiers  slain  in  battle ;  whilst  the  auguries  they 
derived  from,  and  the  vows  they  made  over  tombs,  evince  with  what 
earnestness,  the  depositaries  of  the  precepts  of  religion,  had  ever  re- 
commended the  duties  of  the  sepulchre.  But  perhaps  it  may  be  said 
that  Guoquet  in  his  work  "sur  les  origines  des  lois,  des  sciences  et  des 
arts,"  admits  the  existence  of  alphabetic  writing  in  Greece  before  the 
Trojan  war.  If  so,  let  it  be  remembered,  he  adds,  "  that  it  was  less 
practised."  Besides  if  Guoquet  were  correct  in  his  supposition,  the 
knowledge  of  letters  as  a  medium  of  conveying  thoughts  through  the 
body  of  the  people,  must  necessarily  prove  tardy  and  progressive.  And 
although  we  believe  it  in  existence  at  the  time  of  Cadmus,  still  a 
natural  inference  would  be,  that  the  priests,  as  in  ancient  Egypt,  were 
for  a  long  time  alone  familiar  with  the  written  or  descriptive  language. 
The  fact,  too,  that  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians  had  attained  to  a 
great  degree  of  civilization,  without  the  use  of  letters,  may  assist  such 
an  idea. 

The  question  then  naturally  arises,  how,  if  inscriptions  be  to  memo- 
ralize  worth,  or  to  record  virtue,  and  how,  if  the  knowledge  of  letters 
be  assumed  as  slight,  partial  and  confined,  could  the  object  be 
effected ;  or  why  would  the  artist  chisel  out  in  letters,  the  deeds  of  the 
departed,  when  most  of  the  passers  by  were  unable  to  interpret.  Upon 
these  grounds  I  humbly  dispute  the  remark  of  Canina's  :  and  I  do  so, 
not  for  the  bare  love  of  agitating  subjects,  which  but  for  the  curious 
and  ingenious,  would  be  contentedly  dismissed,  as  unworthy  and 
trivial ;  but  from  an  anxiety  to  arouse  the  slumbering  energies  of  the 
artist,  and  to  invite  a  cool  and  rational  enquiry  into  the  antiquities, 
literature  and  minutive  of  his  art. 

Frederick  East. 

November,  1840. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HYPSOMETER. 

^11  Instrument  invented  by  Johk  Sang,  Esq.,  Land  Surveyor,  for 
taking  the  Heights  of  Trees,  Buildings,  and  other  objects.  Communi- 
cated by  Mr.  Sang,  Land  Surveyor,  Kirkcaldy. 

(From  the  Gardeners'  Magazine.) 

I  have  taken  the  first  leisure  hour  to  make  you  the  instrument  for 
measuring  the  height  of  trees  and  buildings  which  I  mentioned  to  you 
when  having  the  pleasure  of  visiting  you  at  Bayswater.  It  is  sent  by 
post  at  the  same  time  as  this  letter. 

The  instrument  was  tried  on  some  houses  and  trees  here,  and  it 
gave  their  height  (especially  the  houses)  with  great  accuracy.  It  is 
rather  difficult  to  manage  at  first,  but  after  a  few  trials  it  becomes 
quite  easy.     The  method  is  as  follows  : — 

By  means  of  a  small  hook  (if  a  knot  of  white  cloth  be  attached  to  it, 
so  much  the  better),  fix  the  end  of  a  tape  line  to  the  bole  of  the  tree, 
at  exactly  the  height  of  the  observer's  eye  from  the  ground.  Retire 
from  the  tree,  letting  the  tape  line  unwind  until,  by  using  the  instru- 
ment, the  top  of  the  tree  and  the  end  of  the  tape  line  are  seen  quite 
close  together.  Add  the  height  of  the  observer's  eye  to  the  length  of 
the  tape  line,  and  the  sum  is  the  height  of  the  tree.  Now,  the  diffi- 
culty is,  to  catch  the  image  of  the  top  of  the  tree  in  the  instrument, 
and  it  is  this  which  requires  a  few  trials,  although  any  person  who  has 
been  accustomed  to  use  a  sextant  will  do  it  at  the  very  first.  Hold 
the  instrument  at  one  of  the  milled  ends,  taking  care  that  the  fingers 
do  not  project  over  any  of  the  holes,  and  that  the  brim  of  the  hat  is 
out  of  the  way.  Apply  the  eye  to  the  round  hole  marked  a  in  fig.  1, 
and  look  through  in  the  direction  of  the  small  square  hole  b,  the  in- 
strument being  held  so  that  the  line  joining  a  6  is  about  level,  while  the 
large  square  hole  c  is  turned  towards  the  sky.  You  will  then  see  some 
object  directly  through  the  small  hole,  and  at  the  same  time  the  image 
of  some  other  object,  the  light  from  which  enters  the  large  aperture, 
and,  after  being  reflected  by  the  two  mirrors  inside,  passes  into  the 
eye.  Whatever  two  objects  are  thus  seen  in  contact,  subtend  at  the 
eye  an  angle  of  45°,  as  in  fig.  2  ;  so  that,  if  one  of  them  be  the  end  of 
the  tape  line  on  a  level,  or  nearly  so,  vvith  the  observer's  eye,  while 

3  I  Z 


404 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


the  other  is  the  tup  of  a  tree,  supposed  to  be  growing  straight  iij),  th 
distance  from  the  eye  to  the  bole  of  tlie  tree  will  be  exactly  equal  t 
the  distance  from  the  end  of  the  tape  line  to  the  top  of  the  tree. 

I'ib'- I'  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


1  io'-  4. 


You  will  thus  observe  that  the  accuracy  of  the  measurement  depends 
on  the  tree  being  erect  from  the  ground.  On  sloping  ground  the  mea- 
surer would  require  to  go  out  from  the  tree  in  such  a  direction  that 
the  tape  line  was  perpendicular  to  the  stem,  but  this  could  be  judged 
suflBciently  well  by  the  eye  to  give  the  height,  of  even  a  very  high 
tree,  nearly  correctly.  The  heights  of  those  houses  I  tried  were  given 
within  an  inch,  which  was  no  doubt  owing  to  their  being  perfectly  up- 
right on  a  level  court  yard. 

The  principle  of  the  instrument  is  quite  simple,  being  exactly  the 
same  as  tliat  of  the  sextant  or  quadrant,  only  that  the  mirrors  are  fixed 
at  a  certain  angle  instead  of  being  movable.  Thus,  in  fig.  3,  a  is  tlie 
eye,  k  a  mirror  partly  silvered,  and  c  a  larger  mirror  wholly  silvered. 
A  ray  of  light  r,  falling  on  the  mirror  c,  is  reflected  from  it  in  the 
direction  cb,  and  again  reflected  from  the  mirror  i  in  the  direction  6  a 
to  the  eye ;  at  the  same  time  another  ray  of  light  comes  from  an  ob- 
ject o  direct  to  the  eye  at  a,  without  being  reflected.  From  the  na- 
ture of  reflected  light,  the  angle  r  a  o  is  equal  to  twice  the  inclination 
of  the  mirrors,  and  is  constant,  however  much  the  whole  instrument 
may  be  moved  in  the  plane  of  the  objects,  as  you  will  easily  perceive 
by  catching  the  reflection  of  the  candle  in  the  instrument,  and  moving 
it  in  the  plane  of  the  milled  ends. 

I  am  sure  this  very  portable  instrument  will  be  useful  for  measuring 
single  trees,  or  buildings,  which  are  as  far  asunder  as  they  are  high, 
but  I  am  afraid  it  will  not  work  well  in  a  close  wood,  on  account  of 
the  operator  not  having  room  to  retire  as  far  from  the  trees  as  their 
heigh;.  If  this  is  found  to  be  the  case,  the  remedy  is  to  construct 
another  instrument  in  which  the  mirrors  are  placed  so  as  to  give  an 
angle  of  03"  2(j'  05".  In  this  case  the  height  of  the  trees  will  be 
equal  to  twice  the  length  of  the  tape,  added  to  the  height  of  the  ob- 
server's eye.  (See  fig.  4.)  Of  course  a  small  deviation  from  square- 
ness iu  the  trees  and  tape  line  will  make  a  greater  error  than  with  the 
instrument  sent,  bnt  still  it  will  give  a  result  near  enough  for  all  prac- 
tical purjjoses. 

I  have  only  to  add,  that  the  mirrors  are  made  of  common  window 
glass  selected  as  the  most  even  from  among  a  great  manv  pieces,  but 
still  they  are  not  quite  flat.  I  had  some  glass  from  London  perfectly 
true  and  flat,  but  so  dim  and  badly  polished  as  to  be  unfit  for  use. 

Kirlxaldy,  Jan.  31,  1S40. 


Poahcript  in  Aimwer  to  Home  Qiitsli07i8  asked  of  Mr.  Sang  by  the 
Conductor. 

The  instrument  for  measuring  the  height  of  trees  is  not  a  ])ocket 
sextant,  like  that  of  Mr.  Blackadder,  mentioned  in  vol.  xiv.  p.  257, 
although  nearly  allied  to  it.  The  sextant,  quadrant,  reflecting  circle, 
improved  Wollaston's  goniometer,  as  well  as  the  optical  square  and 
tree-measuier,  are  all  varieties  or  improvements  on  Hadley's  first  in- 
vention. The  two  latter  differ  from  the  rest  in  the  mirrors  being  per- 
manently fixed  at  angles  suitable  for  the  purposes  fur  which  they  were 
intended.  The  pocKet  sextant  would  measure  the  height  of  trees 
quite  as  well,  but,  being  expensive,  and  requiring  some  skill  to  use  it, 
it  is  not  likely  to  be  much  employed  for  such  purposes.  There  is  no 
sort  of  merit  in  designing  the  instrument;  and  is  so  exceedingly  sim- 
ple, that  I  have  no  doubt  the  idea  of  modifying  the  sextant,  so  as  to 
make  it  readily  measure  the  height  of  trees,  lias  occurred  to  many  a 
one.  I,  however,  never  heard  of  such  an  instrument,  and  believe  that 
the  one  you  have  is  the  second  of  its  kind  in  existence.  The  other  is 
one  which  was  made  for  yourself.  My  father  was  so  much  pleased 
with  it  that  he  asked  me  to  make  one  for  him,  which  turned  out  neater 
than  the  first,  and  accordingly  I  sent  it  to  you,  as  being  the  better  of 
tlie  two.  As  there  is  nothing  like  a  Greek  name  for  giving  identity 
to  it,  you  might  call  it  a  dendrometer,  or,  better  still,  a  hypsometer 
(measure  of  height). 

Of  course  any  instrument  maker  could  supply  these  articles;  the 
price,  I  should  think,  would  be  about  20s.  each.  If  there  were  any 
prospect  of  selling  a  dozen  or  two,  I  could  easily  employ  a  workman 
liere  to  make  them,  and  they  might  be  sent  from  the  seedshop  to  any 
place  by  post. 

Kirkcaldy,  Feb.  18, 1840. 


BRITISH  MUSEUM. 

Sir — That  the  British  Musenm  is  a  monument — as  the  French  term  it, 
which  does  honour  to  this  age  and  country,  is  what,  for  peace  sake,  I  will 
take  for  granted,  notwithstanding  that  1  myself  perceive  nothing  par- 
ticularly monumental  or  dignified  in  the  sulky  and  barrack-like  aspect 
of  the  exterior  of  the  new  buildings.  Xo  one,  indeed,  can  deny  that 
the  most  frugal  economy  has  been  observed  there — of  course  a  very 
plain  proof  with  what  rigorous  conscientiousness  the  cash  is  uniformly 
doled  out  of  John  Bull's  public  purse.  Still  there  are  illnatured  grum» 
biers  who  opine  there  are  occasions  when  liberality  bespeaks  more 
prudence  than  cheese-paring  economy,  and  is  the  more  becoming  vir- 
tue of  the  two;  and  that  such  an  edifice  as  the  "one  I  am  speaking  of, 
ought  to  be  in  every  respect  a  finished  piece  of  architecture.  Possi- 
bly, the  fafade — whenever  that  comes  to  be  executed — may  make 
some  amends ;  yet  it  surely  would  have  been  better  that  the  whole 
should  be  of  a  piece,  and  not  like  Dick  Wilson's  fine  embroidered 
waistcoat,  with  its  '  back-front'  made  out  of  one  of  his  own  picture- 
canvasses.  It  may  be  very  true  that  the  rest  of  the  building  is  not 
intended  to  be  seen,  but  still  as  it  is  not  screened  from  view,  it  is 
rather  hard  to  tax  the  imagination  of  matter-of-fact  folks  like  myself, 
so  far  as  to  tell  us  we  are  to  imagine  we  do  not  see  what  is  staring  us 
in  the  face,  nor  to  give  credit  to  our  own  eyesight.  Upon  such  nota- 
ble principle  of  economy,  the  backs — I  mean  the  East  end  of  St.  Paul's, 
might  have  been  left  a  plain  brick  wall ;  but  it  seems  Sir  Chris- 
topher's notions  of  economy  were  very  different  indeed  from  those  of 
Sir  Robert. 

I  find  I  have  rather  committed  myself,  for  wliat  I  have  been  saying 
is  likely  to  call  the  sincerity  of  my  first  sentence,  terribly  into  question. 
IS'o  matter;  it  can't  now  be  helped;  and  only  proves  that  liars  and 
critics  ought  to  liave  good  memories.  Accordingly  my  willingness  to 
'  take  for  granted '  and  so  forth,  must  now  either  be  set  down  as  a  pal- 
pable hnm,  or  be  imputed  to  my  considerate  forbearance  iu  not  dis- 
cussing the  architectural  merits  and  demerits  of  Sir  R.  Smirke's  edi- 
fice. I  will  not  inquire  whether  the  taste  he  has  shown  in  the  interior 
of  the  building  is  such  as  to  indemnify  us  for  its  excessive  homeliness 
without;  nor  whether  he  has  been  prodigal  or  economical  in  drawing 
upon  his  fancy  ami  imagination.  But  I  will  say  that  however  much 
he  may  have  consulted  convenience  rather  than  splendour,  or  may  havs 
succeeded  in  combining  both,  in  other  parts  of  the  plan,  he  has  at- 
tended to  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  iu  the  Reading  Rooms,  which 
are  about  as  inconvenient  for  the  purpose  as  could  well  have  been 
devised, — to  such  a  degree  that  without  taxing  our  fancy  very  much, 
we  might  fancy  no  instructions  respecting  them  had  been  given  to  the 
architect,  and  that  when  it  was  afterwards  discovered  that  the  Book- 
makers and  Novel-readers  who  frequent  the  British  Museum,  nuistbe 
put  somewhere,  they  were  accommoda/id  where  they  are  now  crammed. 
"Remuneration  means  five  farthing?,"  and  in  the  present  case  accom- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


405 


modation  means  being  left  to  shift  as  well  as  you  can  for  yourself,  and 
perhaps  be  forced  to  sit  in  dim-twilight — wliere  if  you  cannot  see  to 
read,  you  may  at  least  sit  and  muse, — which  of  course  looks  solemn  and 
meditative,  and  is  highly  becoming  in  a  l\Lise-um. 

This  is  no  exaggeration  of  mine,  since  it  is  hardly  possible — except, 
indeed,  for  literary  omls — to  see  to  read  at  any  of  the  tables  on  the 
window-side  of  the  West  room,  in  dull  weather ;  those  windows  being 
at  a  considerable  height  from  the  floor,  and  there  being  no  others  at 
either  end.  Consequently  one-half  of  it  is  so  imperfectly  lighted,  that 
were  it  a  church  people  would  grumble  at  it  as  a  dismal  dark  liole, 
where  they  could  not  see  either  to  hear  the  sermon,  or  to  study  the 
newest  fashions  of  the  congregation.  There  may  indeed  be  some  who 
can  see  to  read  by  their  own  inward  liglit ;  but  the  generality  of  people 
will  perhaps  agree  with  me  that  apartments  not  intended  merely  as 
libraries,  but  as  public  reading.rooms,  wliere  instead  of  seating  them- 
selves just  where  they  can  see  best,  people  must  be  content  with  the 
best  vacant  places  they  can  find, — that  such  apartments  should  be 
sufficiently  and  uniformly  lighted,  so  that  every  part  should  be  equally 
commodious  in  that  respect. 

It  would  have  been  infinitely  better  to  have  had  for  the  purpose, 
rooms  less  lofty,  and  lighted  entirely  from  above,  with  a  clerestory 
lantern  along  the  centre,  and  skylight  compartments  along  the  sides,  so 
as  to  diffuse  the  light  as  equally  as  possible  every  where.  But,  it  will 
be  said,  it  was  quite  out  of  the  architect's  power  to  do  this,  there 
being  an  upper  floor :  yet  it  was  surely  then  matter  for  consideration 
whether  it  would  not  be  more  eligible  to  convert  the  present  rooms  to 
some  other  purpose,  and  make  use  of  one  of  the  upper  galleries  (lighted 
from  above)  as  Reading-rooms.  The  extra  trouble  of  having  to  ascend 
higher  in  order  to  reach  them,  would  be  amply  compensated  by  their 
greater  comfort  and  commodiousness, — for  their  present  length  might 
then  have  been  considerably  extended.  Perhaps  it  will  be  objected — 
for  bids  and  objections  are  always  plentiful  enough — that  this  would 
have  been  attended  with  one  serious  inconvenience, — namely,  the  dis- 
tance from  which  books  would  have  to  be  fetched  were  the  Reading- 
rooms  not  upon  the  same  floor  as  the  Libraries.  Yet  that  difficulty 
would  be  at  once  obviated  by  having  a  li/t  or  shaft  ("as  many  as  might 
be  requisite),  close  by  the  bar  where  the  books  are  delivered ;  and  by 
means  of  whicli  a  whole  cargo — if  requisite,  might  be  raised  equally 
expeditiously  and  easily. 

There  are,  however,  other  inconveniences  in  the  present  rooms  that 
ought  to  be  remedied.  One  is  that  the  space  is  by  much  too  conflned, 
for  either  the  tables  ought  to  be  nearly  double  their  present  width,  or 
there  ought  to  be  seats  only  on  one  side,  for  when  a  person  has — which 
is  frequently  the  ca^ — very  large  folios  before  him,  they  occasion  in- 
convenience both  to  his  opposite  neighbour  and  himself:  besides  which 
sufficient  space  is  not  allowed  between  one  sitter  and  another,  should 
they  both  happen  to  have  many  books  or  very  large  ones  by  them. 

Were  it  not  that  it  might  be  deemed  a  piece  of  shameful  extrava- 
gance, I  would  hint  that  it  would  not  be  omiss  if  a  few  yards  of  drugget 
or  matting  were  purchased  to  lay  down  along  the  centre  avenue  of  the 
Reading-rooms,  in  order  to  deaden  the  noise  of  persons  ])erpetually 
passing  to  and  fro  on  the  stone  pavement  there.  By  way  of  providing 
the  ways  and  means  for  raising  the  sum  required  for  buying  the  said 
drugget,  I  would  recommend  that  the  open  wire-work  doors  now  en- 
closing the  bookcases  in  those  rooms  should  be  taken  oft" their  hinges 
and  sold  ;  because  so  far  from  being  of  any  use,  they  are  merely  a  very 
gieat  nuisance.  Being  unglazed  tney  do  not  protect  the  books  from 
dust,  neither  are  they  any  protection  whatever  against  plundering — if 
such  be  their  intended  purpose,  because  those  cases — which  contain 
books  of  reference,  journals,  dictionaries,  &c.,  are  accessible  to  any 
one,  as  he  may  have  as  many  as  he  pleases  opened  in  turn,  if  he  sum- 
mons the  turnkey  attendant,  and  as  wlieu  once  opened  the  cases  are 
left  unlocked,  there  are  always  several  from  which  persons  can  take 
down  books.  There  are,  besides,  always  piles  of  books  on  the  tables, 
from  which  a  person  frequenting  the  Museum  for  such  a  purpose, 
might  filch  away  any  pocketable  volume,  though  even  then  he  could 
not  pawn  it  without  first  mutilating  it,  by  tearing  oat  the  Museum 
stamp-mark.  Therefore  in  the  way  of  precaution  against  filching 
books,  the  doors  to  the  cases  in  the  Reading-rooms  are  quite  nugatory 
— a  mere  idle  show  of  carefulness  and  security.  In  themselves,  how- 
ever, they  are  a  nuisance,  not  only  as  imposing  needless  trouble  and 
busthng  about,  to  both  attendants  and  visitors  ;  but  because  they  are 
actually  in  the  way  when  opened,  while  persons  are  referring  to  the 
books,  there  being  then  no  room  for  other  people  to  pass  between  them 
and  the  tables.  If,  therefore,  there  must  be  doors  to  those  bookcases, 
the  tables  ought  to  be  shortened  two  feet,  so  as  to  allow  greater  space 
between  the  ends  of  the  tables  and  the  walls.  I  will  nut  now  speak 
of  the  Catalogues  except  to  say  that  I  believe  they  are  blessed  unde- 
voutly  backwards,  every  day  and  all  day  long.  Neither  will  I  now 
touch  upon  the  literary  wealth  of  the  Museum  in  those  departments 


which  are  most  likely  to  interest  your  own  readers,  it  being  utterly 
impossible  to  do  justice  to  either  topic  at  the  fag  end  of  my  present 
letter;  I  must,  therefore,  reserve  them  for  another.  That  some  im- 
provements have  taken  place  of  late  years  I  do  not  deny,  but  still  the 
Museum  requires  a  good  deal  of  poking  up,  before  it  will  be  placed 
upon  the  footing  which  it  ought  to  be. 

I  remain,  &c.,  &c.,  &c., 
John  [but  not  John  Wilson]  Croker. 
P.S.  I  forgot  to  remark  that  had  the  Reading-rooms  been  on  the 
floor  above  that  where  they  now  are,  namely,  on  the  first  floor  from 
the  sky,  they  would  have  been  much  more  in  character,  for  the  votaries 
of  literature  have  always  greatly  aiTected  the  upper  regions  of  build- 
ings— vulgarly  termed  garrets — for  their  abodes. 


SURVEYING. 

REMARK3    ON   THE    NEW   SCALING   INSTUMENT. 

Sir — '1  he  last  number  of  your  Journal  contained  a  letter  from  "  An 
Old  Surveyor,"  in  which,  speaking  of  the  New  Scaling  Instrument  re- 
cently introduced  at  the  Tithe  Office,  and  extracted  from  my  Treatise 
on  Engiimriiig  Field  tVork,  into  your  Journal  for  October,  he  remarks 
"  that  I  mnst  have  been  misinformed  when  I  stated  that  the  principle 
of  the  plan  had  long  been  known  to  some  few  surveyors,  &c.,  and  also 
believing  that  I  did  not  wish  to  deprive  the  inventor  of  his  due  share 
of  credit,  to  state  who  were  the  parties  acquainted  with  tlie  principle 
of  the  plan,  prior  to  its  introduction  at  the  Tithe  Office."  From  the 
courteous — not  to  say  complimentary  tone  of  your  correspondent's 
letter,  I  feel  much  pleasure  in  affording  him  the  requisite  information. 
By  referring  to  page  353  of  your  Journal,  he  will  perceive  what  I  mean 
by  the  principle  of  the  plan,  which  was  communicated  to  me  about  three 
years  since  by  an  esteemed  professional  friend,  but  who  at  the  time 
did  not  inform  me  that  it  was  his  own  conception ;  and  which  I  was  not 
aware  of  until  I  applied  to  him,  since  reading  "An  Old  Surveyor's" 
letter,  to  know  in  what  manner  he  became  acquainted  with  the  pro- 
oess.  Subjoined  is  the  reply,  but  at  his  request  his  name  is  withheld  ; 
but  for  your  correspondent's  satisfaction,  I  send  you  the  letter  to  take 
the  requisite  particulars  from.  In  the  autumn  of  1837,  he  observes, 
"  being  engaged  upon  a  survey  of  12,000  acres,  I  looked  with  some 
degree  of  concern  at  the  drudgery  of  computing  the  quantities.  Mr. 
B.  had  previously  explained  to  me  his  mode  of  ruling  parallel  lines 
across  the  several  enclosures,  but  this  method  I  thought  would  be 
troublesome,  and  be  attended  with  the  risk  of  injuring  the  maps.  The 
idea  then  occurred  to  me  of  using  a  thin  piece  of  horn  ruled  with  lines 
one  chain  apart.  In  the  interval  that  elapsed  between  my  sending  for, 
and  receiving  the  horn,  I  made  of  tracing  paper  the  machine  I  described 
to  you,  and  find  it  to  answer  my  purpose,  used  it  to  the  end  of  my 
survey  in  the  spring  of  183S,  since  which  time  it  has  not  seen  the 
light,  but  is  no  doubt  amongst  my  old  papers." 

I  think  the  above  particulars  must  be  satisfactory  to  your  corres- 
pondent, at  least  I  hope  so  ;  and  now  perhaps  I  may  be  excused  asking 
him,  who  the  inventor  of  the  modified  instrument  at  present  in  use  at 
the  Tithe  Office,  is  ?  for  certainly  there  is  great  credit  due  to  him, 
and  which  I  indeed  stated  in  my  work,  when  I  called  it  an  "ingenious 
application  of  the  above  system."  If  an  Old  Surveyor  will  favour  me 
with  this  particular,  I  shall  have  much  pleasure  in  mentioning  it  in  the 
second  part  of  my  work  shortly  to  be  published. 

I  remain.  Sir,  your's  very  obediently, 

Peter  Bruef. 

Charlotte  Street,  Bloomsbury,  Nor.  16,  1840. 

Sir — An  "Old  Surveyor"  in  your  last  number  doubts  the  remark 
made  by  Mr.  BruflT,  that  the  principle  of  the  New  Scaling  Instrument 
had  long  been  in  use  by  some  few  surveyors. — In  reply  I  beg  to  observe 
that  I  have  known  many  surveyors  of  the  old  school  who  worked  »n 
this  principle,  by  means  of  a  long  scale  and  pricker,  taking  the  amount 
of  the  chain  widths  and  transferring  them  into  acres,  roods  and  perches 
by  the  decimal  table ;  the  new  instrument  has  certainly  much  im- 
proved the  system,  and  having  the  parallel  lines  on  glass  paper  is  a 
further  improvement.  The  old  system  was  a  very  defective  one,  and 
repudiated  by  all  really  practical"  men.  As  to  the  new  instrument, 
after  using  it  in  my  office  for  many  months,  and  in  various  large  sur- 
vevs— I  find  it  unsatisfactory,  it  is  after  all  (notwithstanding  its  high 
recommendation)  best  adapted  for  the  schoolboy  and  the  tyro. 

I  am  not  surprised  at  its  general  adoption,  for  the  former  approved 
system  of  equalizing  into  trapeziums  and  triangles  is  very  laborious 
work,  if  pursued  for  a  length  of  time  successively,  but  after  giving 
both  a  fair  trial,  I  must  say  I  find  the  old  system  the  most  expeditious 


406 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


and  certainly  the  most  satisfactory.  One  feels  no  satisfaction  with 
the  instrument  without  repeating  the  operation,  in  repeating,  the  re- 
suits  will  not  always  be  the  same,  a  third  or  even  a  fourth  operation 
will  frequently  be  required,  each  time  requiring  the  whole  to  be  done 
over  again ;  whereas  by  allowing  two  young  hands  to  figure  for  each 
scaler,  they  check  one  another,  and  repeating  the  operation  from  op- 
posite points,  prevents  any  serious  errors  by  using  proper  precautions. 

Perhaps  I  have  a  little  feeling  with  yourselves  against  "  ready 
reckoners,"  but  I  have  experience  on  my  side,  and  I  nave  laid  the 
imlntmenl  on  the  shelf. 

It  is  a  pity  to  see  practical  men  recommending  such  games  of  mar- 
bles as  your  Dublin  correspondent,  if  he  would  work  with  eleven  arrows 
and  maWe frequent  use  of  his  pen,  he  would  bequeath  his  marbles  to 
his  children.  Every  surveyor  should  follow  his  own  chain  in  long 
lines,  and  stopping  to  book  his  changes,  stations,  crossings,  &c.,  will 
find  him  plenty  to  do,  without  carrying  a  marble  bag. 

The  number  of  mushroom  surveyors  whom  the  pressure  of  business 
have  hatched  into  life,  has  detracted  much  from  the  respectability  of 
the  profession,  the  public  however  are  beginning  to  find  out,  that  old 
and  tried  hands  are  most  to  be  depended  on ;  an  engineer  too  may  be 
a  good  surveyor  in  theory,  but  he  will  never  come  up  in  the  field  to  an 
old  fashioned  surveyor.  I  do  not  know  any  thing  that  would  give  me 
greater  pleasure  than  to  give  a  certain  eminent  gentleman  in  that  line, 
(well  known  to  our  profession,  fur  his  upright,  impartial,  and  gentle- 
manly demeanour),  one  week's  practical  surveying,  he  would  find  there 
was  but  little  "Sham  Abraham"  in  it. 

I  shall  conclude  these  few  remarks  by  again  assuming  a  name  under 
which  I  have  before  entered  your  columns, 

As  your  very  obedient  servant, 

"  Surveyor." 

Ailfori,  Nov.  14, 1840. 


ON  REMOVAL  OF  EARTH-WORK  FOR  EMBANKMENTS. 

f  Sir — In  your  Number  38,  for  November  1840,  at  page  392,  you 
state  that  "  up  to  April  1837,  not  even  200,000  cube  yards  had  been 
teamed  to  embankment  on  one  face,  in  one  year." 
VI  Between  Nov.  2,  1839  and  Oct.  17,  1S40,  there  were  tipped,  accord- 
ing to  my  ofiBcial  returns,  on  the  Birmingham  and  Gloucester  Railway, 
on  one  face  of  embankment,  across  the  valley  of  the  river  Rea,  near 
Birmingham,  293,240  cube  yards ;  the  mean  lead  being  1|  miles,  and 
the  extreme  height  of  embankment  62  feet  from  the  meadows.  I  be- 
lieve that  a  ratio  of  progress  fully  equal  to  the  above,  was  maintained 
not  far  from  Gloucester  on  the  same  railway,  for  a  few  months  in  the 
Autumn  of  1839 ;  but  as  the  work  was  then  in  the  hands  of  the  Chel- 
tenham and  Great  Western  Company,  I  cannot  give  you  farther  parti- 
ticulars.  I  am  under  the  belief  that  other  engineers  could  supply  you 
with  information  as  to  larger  quantities  than  the  above  being  tipped 
in  the  same  space  of  time. 

I  am,  your's  faithfully, 

W.  S.  MooRSOM,  Engineer. 
[Communications  similar  to  the  above  are  of  great  importance  to 
the  profession ;  we  hope  other  engineers  will  follow  Mr.  Moorsom's 
esample,  and  favour  us  with  the  result  of  their  observations. — Ed.] 


THE  NAPOLEON  MONUMENT. 

Mr.  Editor- — Having  in  the  September  number  of  your  highly  in- 
teresting periodical,  perused  an  article  under  this  head,  and  feeling  a 
deep  interest  in  the  subject,  I  take  the  liberty  of  sending  you  my  own 
opinion  ;  though,  whether  it  is  likely  to  effect  any  goo(l^  or  is  worthy 
of  insertion  in  your  Journal,  your  able  judgment  will  best  decide. — 
During  a  recent  visit  to  Paris,  I  was  particularly  struck  by  the  exhi- 
bition (mentioned  in  the  above  number)  of  a  full  size  model  of  the  in- 
tended testimonial  to  the  Emperor  in  the  Dome  des  Invalides,  as  not 
being  altogether  consistent  with  that  good  taste  so  frequently  dis- 
played in  the  French  capital.  To  every  one  who  has  seen  the  effect 
of  the  Baldachino  in  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  which  is  univeisally  ac- 
knowledged a  complete  eye-sore,  this  striking  similarity  of  arrange- 
ment must  evidently  tend  to  give  the  same  result.  The  magnificent 
Dome,  being  itself  such  a  tastefully  decorated  room,  can,  according  to 
my  ideas,  by  no  means  suffer  any  erection,  like  this  complicated,  by 
an  equestrian  statne  crowned  monument,  to  dispute  its  grand  simpli- 
city. A  colossal  statue  of  the  hero,  say  from  18  to  24  feet  high,  cast 
in  leliite  metal  and  frosted,  erected  on  a  circular  pedestal  of  Egyptian 
porphyry,  in  the  centre  of  the  large  Mosaic  star,  would  methinks  pro- 
duce a  different  effect.     The  sublime  grandeur  of  the  Egyptian  colossi, 


all  rude  and  mutilated  as  they  are,  speak  for  themselves,  and  in  behalf 
of  my  opinion.  They  likewise  convince  me  that  supernatural  size 
would  here  especially  answer  the  purpose.  I  suggested  my  idea  on 
the  spot  to  a  friend  present,  and  have  since  found  no  reason  to  make 
any  alteration. 

Your's  most  respectfully, 

C.   TOTTIE. 

14,  University  Street,  Nov.  9,  1840. 


COMPETITION  DESIGNS. 

K.  P.  S.  IN  REPLY  TO  Mr.  Sparke. 

Sir — It  gives  me  much  pleasure  to  see  in  your  number  for  the  pre- 
sent month,  that  you  have  ether  correspondents  who  interest  them- 
selves in  the  subject  of  competition,  and  it  is  with  especial  satisfaction 
that  I  have  read  the  answer  of  Mr.  Sparke,  to  my  letter  on  the  subject 
of  the  Bury  affair,  since  it  leaves  every  essential  fact  in  my  statement 
unshaken,  except  one.  Nobody  can  be  imposed  upon  for  one  mo- 
ment by  the  mist  of  words  in  which  the  Hon.  Sec.  flatters  himself  he 
has  enveloped  the  truth. 

It  seems  I  have  been  misinformed  as  to  the  amount  of  the  contract, 
which  is  £3,353  instead  of  £3,550.  What  then?  Does  the  amount 
affect  the  moral  principle? 

There  certainly  are  cases  which  differ  from  competitions,  inasmuch 
as  the  law  is  apt  to  take  cognizance  of  them,  in  which  the  proper  name 
by  which  the  transaction  is  called,  varies  according  to  the  pecuniary 
amount  involved  in  it,  but  as  we  cannot  suppose  the  Hon.  Sec.  to  the 
subscribers  means  to  insinuate  any  analogy,  we  must  conclude  that  he 
argues  like  the  damsel  who  excused  her  peccadillo  because  it  was  "  a 
very  little  one." 

As  to  the  conundrum  about  the  duties,  it  is  too  shallow  to  be  re- 
spectable. The  contract  is  £3,353, — there  is  £230  to  be  laid  out  in 
foundations,  which  it  was  evident  must  be  laid  out  to  all  but  those 
determined  not  to  see,  and  then  there  is  the  painting  and  plastering. 
£350,  supposing  it  to  be  so  much,  will  not  cover  an  excess  of  upwards 
of  £600. 

Though  quite  unnecessary  for  the  argument,  I  will  beg  your  readers 
to  peruse  the  clause  referred  to  by  Mr.  Sparke  relative  to  the  duties. 
Will  any  one  undertake  to  say  whether  it  is  intended  to  mean  that  the 
duties  are  or  are  not  to  be  considered  in  the  estimate.  It  is  most  in- 
genious, and  well  calculated  to  maintain  a  quibble  upon.  Where  the 
meaning  is  obscure,  we  must  enlighten  it  by  the  context.  "  Jf  the  sub- 
scribers shall  be  unable  to  find  a  respectable  builder  willing  to  execute  the 
design  of  any  architect  for  the  sum  of  £3,000,  such  architect  shall  have 
no  claim  of  any  kind  upoti  the  subscribers,"  &c.  This  at  least  is  plain 
English,  and  I  shall  take  the  liberty  to  believe  it  can  have  but  one  mean- 
ing, even  though  it  should  be  explained  away  as  satisfactorily  as  Lord 
Peter  proved  his  shoulder-knot  to  mean  neither  more  nor  less  than  a 
broomstick,*  or  as  Mr.  Sparke  has  explained  away  all  the  rest  of  my 
statement. 

But  one  word  more — I  will  not  dispute  whether  the  contrivers  of 
this  business  were  called  a  committee,  but  it  is  notorious  to  all  Bury 
that  it  vras  managed  by  a  clique  who,  according  to  Mr.  Sparke's  show- 
ing, turn  out  to  have  been  as  irresponsible  as  they  were  ofEcious.  I 
could  name  an  occasion  on  which  one  of  the  leading  members  express- 
ed himself  in  no  measured  terms,  apon  some  symptoms  of  dissent  from 
his  authority,  shown  by  other  parties  concerned. 

Enough  of  this,  and  more  than  enough  for  any  good  it  is  likely  to 
produce.  I  have  said  before,  and  say  again,  that  reform  must  come 
from  the  jirofession,  and  to  them  I  would  recommend  a  very  simple 
plan,  by  which  it  may  be  effected,  viz.,  that  every  one  should  reform 
himself.  In  the  mean  time.  Sir,  accept  another  contribution  to  the 
fads,  which  I  hope  to  see  accumulated,  until  architects  shall  be  ashamed 
to  rake  in  the  filthy  puddle  of  competition  at  the  command  of  every 
body  and  any  body.  For  reasons  which  will  instantly  be  appreciated, 
I  omit  all  names. 

It  is  now  nearly  two  years  since  the  following  advertisement  ap- 
peared in  the  public  papers : — 

"To  Architects. — Any  architect  desirous  of  competing  for  the  pro- 
posed enlargement  ofW church,  must  send  in  his  plans,  specifi- 
cations, and  estimates,  free  of  all  charge  or  expence,  to  the  Secretary, 

the  Rev.  Mr.  T ,  Vicarage  W ,  on  or  before  tho  19th  January, 

1S39.     For  farther  information  apply  to  the  Secretary." 

Application  having  been  made  for  farther  particulars,  the  following 
were  furnished  in  reply : — 

*  SieiheTaleofaTub, 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


407 


"Tliattlie  committee  would  require  apian  of  the  different  floors  of 
the  church,  showing  the  present  arrangements  and  pro|)osed  alterations, 
an  elevation  of  each  front  affected  by  the  nroposed  alterations,  a 
longitudinal  and  transverse  section  showing  the  timbers  of  the  roof, 
&c.,  together  with  a  detailed  specification  of  the  works,  and  estimate 
of  rendering  the  church,  both  inside  and  out,  fit  in  every  respect  for 
public  worship.  An  additional  estimate  of  what  would  be  the  expence 
of  repewing  the  present  church  on  a  better  plan,  in  conformity  with 
the  proposed  new  addition.  An  estimate  of  the  expence  for  an  addi- 
tional gallery. 

"  That  the  limited  amount  of  the  funds  would  not  allow  of  any  pre- 
miums being  given  for  the  plans. 

"That  the  committee  considered  it  indispensable  for  the  competi- 
tors to  inspect  the  church. 

•'  That  a  commission  of  five  per  cent,  on  the  sum  expended  would 
be  allowed  to  the  architect  for  his  plans,  &c.,  including  the  superin- 
tendance  of  the  works." 

And  now,  gentlemen  of  the  profession,  what  do  you  suppose  was  to 
be  the  amount  of  this  commission  for  the  chance  of  which  all  this  was 
to  be  done,  and  a  journey  to  be  made  to  W at  the  candidate's  ex- 
pence  ? 

"  That  the  Secretary  informs  the  several  architects  that  the  sum  to 
be  expended  will  not  exceed  four  hundred  and  ffty  pounds  .'!  .'"  I 
■write  it  at  length  that  no  one  may  suppose  a  figure  has  been  dropped. 

The  following  letter,  part  of  the  correspondence,  is  too  curious  not 
to  be  given  entire.  The  naive  impudence  of  the  latter  part  will  not 
easily  be  surpassed  : — 

«  W ,  January  5,  1S39. 

"  Sir — In  answer  to  your's  of  this  morning,  I  beg  to  state  that  the 
committee  desire  me  to  say  that  they  consider  a  personal  inspection 
of  the  church  necessary.  Should  you  consider  this  worth  your  while, 
I  shall  be  happy  to  give  you  any  information  in  my  power  on  the  sub- 
ject. I  should  state  that  the  length  of  the  church  is  GO  feet  by  IG  feet 
10  inches,  so  that  the  work  will  be  on  a  small  scale.  The  amount  to  be 
expended  will  not  exceed  £450.  The  Rector  of  the  parish  is  an  Archi- 
tect, but  has  not  informed  me  whether  he  intends  to  compete  for  the  work. 
"  I  am.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

"H S " 

Begging  every  architect  who  values  the  respectability  of  his  pro- 
fession to  lend  his  aid  in  exposing  these  scandalous  practices. 
I  remain,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

K.  P.  S. 

Nov.  13,  1840. 


ATMOSPHERIC  RAILWAY. 

In  our  last  monthly  number  we  published  a  letter  received  from  Mr. 
Pinkus,  commenting  on  an  article  in  our  July  number  on  the  atmos- 
pheric railway,  in  which  he  complains  that  great  injustice  had  been 
done  him,  by  giving  credit  to  Mr.  Medhurst  "for  having  originated 
the  idea  of  employing  the  power  of  the  atmosphere  against  a  vacuum 
created  in  an  extended  pipe  laid  between  the  rails,  and  communicating 
the  power  thus  obtained  to  propel  carriages  moving  on  a  road,"  and 
to  Messrs.  Clegg  &  Samuda  "  for  having  rendered  this  idea  practicable 
and  useful,  by  their  simple  and  ingenious  invention  of  constructing  and 
closing  a  continuous  valve,  by  hermetically  sealing  it  up  with  a  com- 
position each  time  the  train  passes." 

In  treating  on  scientific  inventions  of  interest,  this  Journal  pursues 
the  undeviating  course  of  giving  the  fullest  and  clearest  information, 
preserving  the  strictest  impartiality  as  to  the  inventors;  conferring 
praise  where  it  is  justly  due,  and  pointing  out  error  where  we  consider 
it  to  exist.  Mr.  Pinkus,  after  denying  in  tola  all  we  have  said  of  Med- 
hurst and  of  himself,  describes  himself  as  "  an  humble  labourer  in  the 
field  of  science,"  who  would  "never  be  guilty  of  that  meanness  of 
mind  that  would  detract  from  another  the  merit  justly  due  to  him  for 
any  mental  production."  This  principle  we  admire,  and  Ciuinot  but 
regret  that  l:e  should  have  lost  sight  of  it  in  the  very  next  paragraph 
of  his  letter,  where  he  attempts  to  deprive  Medhurst  of  the  praise  we 
awarded  him,  by  describing  Papin  as  the  author  "  of  employing  the 
power  of  the  atmosphere  against  a  vacuum."  We  are  aware  that 
this  is  due  to  Papin,  but  if  Mr.  Pinkus  had  not  stopped  short,  but 
quoted  our  whole  sentence,  Medhurst  must  have  come  in  for  the  praise 
■we  justly  awarded  him,  viz.  "of  using  the  power  of  the  atmosphere 
against  a  vacuum  created  in  a  pipe  laid  between  the  rails,  and  com- 
municating the  power  thus  obtained  to  propel  carriages  on  roads," — 
a  very  diflerent  tiling  from  simply  "using  the  power  of  the  atmos- 
phere against  a  vacuum,"  which  we  were  fully  aware  originated  with 
Papin,  had  been  followed  by  Lewis  in  1817,  and  Vallence  in  1824. 
Returning,  then,  to  the  original  idea  of  employing  atmospheric  pres- 


sure against  a  vacuum  inside  a  pipe,  and  communicating  that  power 
to  carriages  moving  on  a  road  outside  it"  ;  we  see  nothing  to  alter 
our  assertion  that  it  is  the  invention  of  Medhurst,  who  published  a 
detailed  account  of  the  means  he  employed,  in  1837.* 

Indeed,  however  reluctant  Mr.  Pinkus  may  be  to  admit  this  fact,  the 
following  extracts  from  Medhurst's  pamphlet,  places  the  matter  be- 
yond all  doubt. 

In  page  15,  this  passage  occurs — 

When  the  carriage  is  to  go  through  the  canal,  from  the  engine,  the  air 
must  be  forced  into  the  canal  behind  it ;  but,  when  it  is  to  go  the  contrary 
way,  the  same  engine  is  to  draw  the  air  out  of  the  canal,  and  rarify  the  air 
before  the  carriage,  that  the  atmospheric  air  may  press  into  the  canal  behind 
the  carriage,  and  drive  it  the  contrary  way. 

In  the  following  page  16,  he  says — 

It  is  practicable,  upon  the  same  principle,  to  form  a  tube  so  as  to  leave'a 
continual  communication  between  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  it,  without 
suiTering  any  part  of  the  impelling  air  to  escape  ;  and,  by  this  means,  to  im- 
pel a  carriage  along  upon  an  iron  road,  in  the  open  air,  with  equal  velocity, 
and,  in  a  great  degree,  possessing  the  same  advantages  as  in  passing  within- 
side  of  the  tube,  with  the  additional  satisfaction  to  passengers  of  being'uu- 
confined,  and  in  view  of  the  country. 

If  a  round  iron  tube,  24  inches  in  diameter,  he  made,  with  an  opening  of  2 
inches  wide  in  the  circumference,  and  a  flanch  6  or  8  inches  deep  on  each 
side  of  the  opening,  it  will  leave  a  channel  between  the  flanches,  and  an  open- 
ing into  the  tube.  If  the  tiauches  of  this  tube  are  immersed  in  water  up  to 
the  circumference,  as  represented  in  fig.  1,  where  a,  a,  is  a  section  of  the 
tube  ;  I),  the  channel ;  and  c,  c,  the  snrface  of  the  water. 

FiR.  I. 


If  such  a  tube  is  laid  all  along  upon  the  ground,  ■nith  the  iron  channel  ini- 
mersed  in  a  channel  of  water,  up  to  m,  and  a  piston  or  box  made  to  fit  it 
loosely,  and  pass  through  it  upon  wheels  or  rollers,  tliis  box,  driven  througli 
the  tube  by  the  air  forced  into  it,  may  give  motion  to  a  carriage  without,  by 
a  communication  through  the  channel  and  the  water. 

Again  in  page  20,  he  describes 

A  plan  to  combine  the  two  modes  together,  that  the  goods  may  be  con- 
veyed nithin  the  canal,  and  a  conuuunication  made  from  the  inside  to  the 
outside  of  it,  so  that  a  carriage  may  he  impelled  in  the  open  air,  to  carrj-  pas- 
sengers, would  he  an  improvement  desirable  and  practicable.  It  must  be 
effected  without  the  aid  of  water,  that  it  may  rise  and  fall  as  the  land  lies ; 
and  it  must  give  a  continual  impulse  to  the  outside  carriage,  without  suffer- 
ing the  impelling  air  to  escape. 

And  aware  that  his  only  difficulty  was  in  constructing  a  means  of 
confining  the  power  in  the  tube  by  using  a  valve  in  lieu  of  the  water 
joint,  he  remarks,  that 

For  this  purpose,  there  must  be  some  machinery  which  will  diminish  the 
simplicity,  make  it  more  expensive,  and  more  liable  to  be  disordered,  unless 
executed  in  the  most  substantial  and  perfect  manner ;  but,  by  skill,  by  ex- 
perience, and  sound  workmanship,  it  may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways, 
one  of  which  I  will  describe,  which,  I  presume,  will  evince  the  practicability 
of  it. 

In  order  to  make  this  in  the  best  manner,  the  top  of  the  canal  should  be 
made  of  wrought  iron  (or  copper)  plates,  rivetted  together,  and  rivetted  all 
along,  on  one  side,  to  a  cast  iron  rail  securely  laid  upon  the  top  of  one  of  the 
side  walls ;  and  made  to  shut  down  close,  and  aii'-tight,  upon  a  cast  iron  rail 
laid  firmly  down  upon  the  other  side  wall. 

In  order  to  make  the  plate  shut  down  air-tight  upon  the  cast  iron  rail, 
without  being  rivetted  to  it,  there  should  be  a  groove  all  along,  upon  the  top 
and  inner  edge  of  the  cast  iron  rail,  and  a  thin  edge  of  iron  rivetted  to  the 
plates  all  along,  to  fall  into  the  gi-oove;  then,  if  the,  groove  is  partially  filled 
mth  some  soft  and  yielding  substance,  as  cork,  wood,  leather,  hemp,  Sec,  the 
thin  iron  edge  will  bed  itself  into  it,  and  shut  so  close  that  the  air  will  not 
escape,  with  so  light  a  pressure  as  one  pound  per  square  inch. 

The  plate  that  is  to  form  the  top  of  the  canal,  being  thus  prepared,  may  be 

*  This  work  was  entitled  "  A  New  System  of  Inland  Conveyance." 


408 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


lifted  up  out  of  the  groove  two  or  tlirce  inches  higli,  in  any  particular  place 
of  the  side  that  is  not  rivcttcil  ;  and,  wlien  kH  down  again,  tlie  edge  will  fall 
into  the  groove,  by  tlie  sjiring  and  weight  of  the  plate,  and  stop  close  as  lie- 
fore. 

Therefore,  if  there  is  a  large  and  light  iron  wheel  fixed  in  the  front  of  the 
interior  carriage,  and  close  to  the  side  wall  on  which  the  plate  shuts  into  the 
groove;  and  if  this  wheel  is  planted  to  stand  two  inches  higher  than  the  un- 
der side  of  the  covering  plate,  this  wheel,  as  it  passes  along,  will  constantly 
lift  up  the  plates,  and  make  an  opening  of  two  inches  wide,  or  more,  and  8 
or  10  feet  long;  and,  when  the  wheel  has  passed,  the  plate  will  fall  down 
into  the  groove,  and  close  the  joint,  as  before. 

Through  this  o]iening,  a  bar  of  iron  may  pass,  that  is  fixed  to  the  interior 
carriage,  may  project  over  the  side  wall,  and  the  outer  end  may  be  attached 
to  the  exterior  carriage  by  a  chain  or  strap,  and  pidl  it  along  upon  its  own 
wheels  and  wheel  track,  which  should  lie  along  by  the  side  of  the  wall  of  the 
canal. 

The  iron  bar  will  not  touch  any  thing  as  it  passes  through  the  opening,  for 
the  iron  covering  may  be  lifted  up  two  or  three  inches  high  ;  but  the  bar 
need  not  be  more  than  one  inch  in  thickness. 

In  page  24,  he  says — 

The  same  principle,  and  the  same  form,  may  be  advantageously  applied  to 
convey  goods  and  passengers  in  the  ojien  air,  upon  a  common  road,  at  the 
same  rate  of  a  mile  in  a  minute,  or  sixty  miles  per  hour  ;  and  without  any 
obstruction,  except,  at  times,  contrary  winds,  which  may  retard  its  progress, 
and  heavy  snow,  which  may  obstruct  it. 

If  a  square  iron  tube  be  formed,  2  feet  on  each  side.  4  feet  in  area,  with 
three  sides,  and  one-half  of  the  top,  of  cast  iron,  the  other  half  of  the  top 
made  of  plate  iron  or  copper,  to  lift  up  and  shut  down  in  a  groove  in  the  cast 
iron  semi-top  plate,  as  before  described;  and  if  a  strong  and  light  box  or 
frame  be  made  to  run  upon  wheels,  within  the  tube,  and  an  iron  arm  made 
to  pass  out,  through  the  opening  made  by  lifting  up  the  plate,  as  before 
described,  this  arm  may  give  motion  to  a  carriage  in  the  open  air.  and  upon 
the  common  road,  without  any  rail-way,  if  the  pressure  within  the  tube  is 
made  strong  enough  for  the  purpose. 

The  opening  of  the  iron  plate  shoidd  be  made  in  the  middle  of  the  top,  so 
that  the  iron  arm  may  pass  out,  and  stand  upright  a  few  inches  above  the 
top,  to  which  the  strap  should  be  attached,  to  communicate  motion  to  the 
carriage. 

The  frame  or  box,  within  the  tube,  should  be  10  or  12  feet  long,  and  must 
be  guided  by  wheels,  on  all  sides,  as  large  as  can  be  admitted,  and  as  truly 
formed  and  planted  as  possible ;  the  nundier  will  be  14  or  1 6. 

A  piston,  or  vane,  must  be  formed  near  the  middle  of  the  frame,  to  inter- 
cept the  air,  and  must  be  leathered  all  round,  so  as  lightly  or  barely  to 
touch  the  sides  of  the  tube. 

!,  The  inside,  or  middle  of  this  vane,  should  be  open,  and  the  opening  filled 
up  and  closed  by  a  valve,  suspended  by  an  axis  across  the  middle  of  the  open- 
ing, so  that  this  valve,  by  turning  on  its  axis,  may  open  the  vane,  and  suifer 
the  air  to  pass  through,  and  prevent  its  impulse  ujion  the  vane  and  carriage, 
or,  by  closing  the  valve,  intercept  the  air,  and  give  it  motion. 

By  this  means,  the  conductor  of  the  carriage  may  restrain  and  limit  the 
velocity,  and  stop  the  carriage,  at  any  time  and  at  any  place,  by  a  communi- 
cation from  the  valve,  through  the  opening,  to  the  conductor  on  the  outside ; 
and  this  will  he  done  without  the  least  violence,  shock,  or  chance  of  disor- 
dering any  thing,  either  within  or  without. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  vane  within  its  frame  m,  m,m,m;  the  outside  edge 

FiK.  2. 


Fig.  4. 

of  the  vane,  a,  b,  c,  d,  is  leathered  all  round,  and  the  middle  part,  o,  p,  q,  r, 
is  open,  and  is  to  be  closed  by  the  double  valve,  that  is  to  turn  upon  its  ver- 
tical axis  e,  e.  The  valve  will  shut,  half  on  one  side  of  the  vane  a,  b,  c,  d. 
and  half  on  the  other ;  when  it  is  shut,  the  air  will  be  intercepted,  and  the 
impulse  of  the  air  will  be  given  to  the  carriage  ;  but,  when  the  valve  is  turned 
a  quarter  of  a  circle,  it  presents  its  edge  to  the  air,  and  leaves  the  interior  of 
the  vane  open  for  the  air  to  pass  by  unobstructed,  when  the  carriage  will 
gradually  be  stopped,  by  the  friction  of  the  road  and  the  resistance  of  the 


outward  .lir.     It   m.iy  be  put  in  motion  again,  as  soon  and  as  gradually,  by 
closing  the  valve. 

m,  in,  m,  m,  is  the  box,  or  open  frame,  that  is  to  )iass  through  the  tube, 
on  the  wheels  «,  n,  »,  n,  n,  to  support  the  vane,  and  tlie  iron  arm,  and  to  be 
inii»elled  by  the  air  in  the  tube. 

rig.  3  is  a  section  of  the  iron  tube,  with  the  wrought  iron 
semi-top,  a,  b,  rivetted  to  the  flanch,  and  represented  as  Ufted 
up  by  the  projection  of  the  wheel  under  it;  and  of  the 
crooked  iron  arm  w,as  it  is  to  come  out  through  the  opening, 
and  stand  up  for  the  carriage  to  be  attached  to  it. 

The  semi-top  of  cast-iron,  o,  /;,  is  to  he  screwed  upon 
the  tube  by  the  flanch  p,  aiul,  at  the  edge  o,  is  a  small  pro- 
jection, which  the  edge  of  the  wrought  iron  is  to  cover,  to 
prevent  the  rain  or  dust  from  entering  into  the  tube. 

Fig.  4  represents  a  part  of  tlie  tube,  with  the  semi-top  as  lifted  up  at  m, 
and  the  section  of  the  crooked  iron  arm,  w,  as  it  is  to  pass  out  of  tlie  open- 
ing, besides  the  wheel  that  lifts  it. 

The  iron  tube  slioukl  lie  in  the  ground,  with  the  top  of  it  a  few  inches 
above  the  surface  ;  and  the  carriage  should  run  over  it,  with  the  wheels  on 
each  side  ;  then  the  iron  arm  n,  would  draw  the  carriage  in  the  fairest  posi- 
tion. 

The  opening  being,  in  this  plan,  made  in  the  middle  of  the  top  of  the  tube, 
instead  of  the  side,  the  lifting  wheel  will  act  either  way,  without  being  re- 
moved ;  but  the  iron  arm  that  passes  through  the  opening  (to  draw  the  car- 
riage), as  well  as  the  arm  that  is  to  pass  through  (to  open  and  shut  the  valve), 
must  be  changed  to  the  other  side,  when  the  motion  is  changed  to  a  contrary 
direction. 

If  the  carriage  is  attached  to  the  regulating  arm  that  is  to  pass  through  the 
opening,  and  tliat  arm  is  supported  by  the  main  bar.  the  effect  will  be,  that, 
if  by  any  accident  the  chain  should  let  go  its  hold  of  the  arm,  the  inside  valve 
would  instantly  fly  open  ;  and  the  vane,  being  no  longer  impelled,  would  soon 
stop  of  itself,  and  the  chain  might  be  replaced. 

In  summing  up  tliis  invention  he  remarks, 

Although  the  perfection  of  this  work  is  not  to  be  olitained  but  by  time, 
skill,  experience,  and  the  wealth  of  a  nation,  yet,  upon  a  smaller  scale,  and 
less  rapidity,  the  expense  will  be  moderate,  and  within  reach ;  and  the  value 
of  it,  compared  with  the  present  mode  of  conveyance,  would  be  abundantly 
advantageous  and  desirable. 

Here  then  is  a  clear  and  full  explanation  of  a  mechanical  arrange- 
ment for  employing  the  power  of  the  atmosphere  against  a  vacuum 
inside  a  tube,  and  communicating  the  power  so  obtained  to  carriages 
moving  on  a  road  on  the  outside. 

No  impartial  person,  and  not  even  Mr.  Pinkus  can  read  these  pas- 
sages without  being  convinced  that  this  most  ingenious,  though  unfor- 
tunate inventor  Medhurst,  had  brought  the  atmospheric  system  to  the 
point  where  it  was  taken  up  by  Messrs.  Clegg  and  Samuda,  and  that 
his  great  practical  failure  was,  that  he  could  not,  and  did  not  make 
the  valve  air-tight,  upon  doing  which  the  entire  success  of  tlie  system 
depended. 

And  now  that  we  have  shown  what  Medhurst  did,  and  what  he 
failed  in,  viz.,  "in  making  a  continuous  communication  from  the  inside 
of  the  pipe  to  the  carriage  tight  enough  to  allow  a  useful  degree  of 
rarifaction  to  be  produced  ;"  we  will  examine  what  progress  the  in- 
vention has  made  since  then. 

On  the  3rd  January,  1839,  Clegg  and  Samuda  obtained  a  patent 
"for  a  new  improvement  in  valves  and  the  combination  of  them  with 
machinery."  This  valve,  says  the  inventor,  "  works  in  a  hinge  of 
leather,  (or  other  flexible  material  wliich  is  practically  air-tiglit),  simi- 
lar to  the  valves  commonly  used  in  air-pumps.  The  extremity  or 
edge  of  these  valves  is  caused  to  fall  into  a  trough  containing  a  com- 
position of  beeswax  and  tallow,  or  beeswax  and  oil,  or  any  substance 
or  composition  of  substances  wliich  is  solid  at  the  temperature  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  becomes  fluid  when  heated  a  few  degress  above  it ; 
after  the  valve  is  closed,  and  its  extremity  is  laying  in  the  trough,  the 
tallow  is  heated  sufficiently  to  seal  up  or  cement  together,  the  fracture 
round  the  edge  or  edges  of  the  valve  which  the  previous  opening  of 
it  had  caused,  and  the  heat  being  removed  the  tallow  again  becomes 
hard  and  forms  an  air-tight  joint  or  cement  between  the  extremity  of 
the  valve  and  the  trough.  When  it  is  requisite  to  open  the  valve,  it 
is  done  by  lifting  it  out  of  the  tallow  with  or  without  the  application 
of  heat,  and  the  before  named  process  of  sealing  it  or  rendering  it  air- 
tight is  repeated  every  time  it  is  closed. 

The  inventor  then  goes  on  to  describe  how,  by  means  of  this  valve 
in  combination  with  a  line  of  partially  exhausted  tubes,  it  may  be 
rendered  useful  to  move  weights  on  railways.  The  combination  em- 
ployed being  described  precisely  similar  to  that  invented  and  published 
by  Medhurst.  The  only  claim  set  up  in  the  patent  being  "  the  method 
of  constructing  and  using  valves  as  above  described."  The  success  of 
this  valve  has  been  demonstrated  by  six  months  experience  on  the 
Thames  Junction  Railway,  and  as  the  whole  combination  there  em- 
ployed, except  the  valve  and  mude  of  sealing  it,  is  precisely  that  invent- 


5 


s| 


--\ 


^  •^ 


.-^ 


^ 


as  ^m  ^    ^m 


as  ^m-  ^ 


^ 


s»^^^^^^vwwtt^^^<<^■^'^<■v>w^^v^^ 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


400 


ed  and  published  by  Medhurst, — it  follows  that  to  Clegg  and  Samnda 
is  due  the  credit  of  perfecting  what  he  began. 

Now  let  us  see  what  Mr.  Pinkus  has  done.  His  first  patent  we  find 
is  dated  1st  March,  1834,  in  this  he  sets  forward  a  combination  pre- 
cisely similar  to  that  published  by  Medhurst  seven  years  previously, 
only  proposing  to  use  a  rope  for  his  continuous  valve,  which  he  terms 
a  valvular  cord,  and  which  he  describes  thus:  "A  flexible  cord  E  lies 
ill  the  groove  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  for  the  purpose  of  closing  the 
longitudinal  aperture ;  this  cord  is  to  be  of  the  same  length  as  the 
pneumatic  railway,  and  to  fit  tightly  into  the  groove  or  channel.  The 
cord  is  passed  under  the  wheel  r,  and  over  the  wheel  P ;  and  its  pur- 
pose being  to  close  the  opening  in  the  cylinder,  it  is  required  to  yield 
freely  when  acted  upon  by  the  apparatus,  and  it  should  be  made  heavy, 
and  it  may  be  pressed  down  into  the  groove  by  the  wheel  W,  which 
passes  over  it." 

Now  if  Mr.  Pinkus  can  prove  any  better  result  to  arise  from  this 
rope  than  from  the  valves  suggested  by  Medhurst,  he  has  a  perfect 
right  to  it.  We  fear,  however,  that  the  success  he  says,  attended  his 
experiments  made  in  1S35  on  a  model,  could  not  have  been  very  flat- 
tering, as  we  find  he  took  out  another  patent  in  lS3li,  "  For  improve- 
ments in  inland  transit,"  in  which  he  says,  "  the  method  of  carrying  it 
into  practice  consists  in  a  method  or  in  methods  of  constructing  the 
pneumatic  valve  and  the  valvular  cord,  and  in  the  manner  of  using  the 
same,  one  of  which  methods  hereinafter  described,  I  design  tosubsfi- 
iuie/or  and  in  lieu  of  the  valve  and  cord  described  in  the  specification  of 
my  said  former  patent."  He  then  goes  on  to  describe  a  valve  formed 
of  iron  plates  secured  to  felt  to  lay  against  pieces  oi  wood,  which  he 
proposes  to  fix  to  the  inner  sides  of  the  trough,  as  presenting  a  smoother 
surface  than  cast  iron.  He  next  describes  a  spring  copper  valve  fas- 
tened at  its  foot  to  the  pipe,  and  meeting  at  the  top  in  the  shape  of 
an  inverted  V;  and  lastly,  a  combination  of  the  two,  viz.,  using  half 
the  spring  copper  valve  against  the  upraised  side  of  the  trough,  and 
pressing  it  against  its  surface  with  the  valve  with  iron  plates,  as  before 
described,  which  in  this  case  acts  as  a  wedge  pressing  against  the 
side. 

These  valves,  however,  could  not  have  pleased  him  much  better, 
for  on  3rd  August,  1839,  he  obtained  a  third  patent,  in  which  he  not 
only  describes  a  valve  similar  in  every  respect  to  that  of  Messrs. 
Clegg  and  Samuda,  but  also  proposes  to  seal  it  with  a  composition  to 
be  rendered  fluid  and  solid,  as  described  by  them ;  with  the  sole  ex- 
ception of  using  a  galvanic  wire  instead  of  a  heater  to  melt  the  cement. 
As  this  patent  was  enrolled  eight  months  after  the  publication  of 
Clegg  and  Samuda's  specification,  we  cannot  but  think  that  their  in- 
vention was  instrumental  in  leading  Mr.  Pinkus'  ideas  to  this  valve, 
as  nothing  of  the  sort  is  discoverable  in  either  of  his  previous  patents. 

[Erratum.— For  1837  read  1827,  p.  407,  2nd  col.,  4  lines  from  the 
top.] 


REFORM  CLUB-HOUSE. 

(With  2  Engravings,  Plates  XVm.  &  XIX.; 

Fully  to  describe  and  explain  the  interior  of  the  structure  would 
require  a  plan  of  every  floor — amounting  altogether  to  six,  besides  as 
many  sections,  to  say  nothing  of  particular  sections  on  a  larger  scale, 
of  some  of  the  rooms,  perspective  views,  and  drawings  of  ceilings  and 
other  details:  in  short  it  would  demand  a  volume  similar  to  that  on 
the  Travellers'  Club  House.*  Of  course  we  cannot  devote  so  many 
engravings  to  a  single  edifice,  though  it  be  one  so  deserving  of  atten- 
tive study  as  this  of  Mr.  Barry's;  nevertheless  a  sufficiently  clear  idea 
of  the  general  arrangement,  of  the  sizes  of  the  rooms,  and  of  the  height 
of  the  different  stories,  maybe  obtained  from  the  ground  floor  plan  and 
section  through  the  building  from  East  to  West.  Being  confined  to  a 
single  section,  we  have  judged  this  last  to  be  the  best  for  our  purpose, 
because  although  one  through  the  centre  from  north  to  south,  would 
have  shown  the  ascent  from  the  vestibule  to  the  hall,  and  the  coftee- 

*  The  whole  of  the  plates  in  that  work  have  lately  been  pirated  in  the  most 
barefaced  manner  by  the  editor  of  the  Revue  Generalo  d'Architccture,  with- 
out the  slightest  acknowledgement,  or  mention  of  the  source  » hence  they 
have  been  taken,  notwithstanding  that  a  copy  of  the  publication  was  actually 
given  to  the  French  editor  in  order  that  he  might  give  a  notice  of  the  book  ! 
Yet  instead  of  doing  any  thin^'  of  the  kind,  he  does  not  even  inform  his 
readers  that  there  is  such  a  vuUirae  in  existence,  but  makes  il  appear  tJiat 
both  his  article  and  the  plates  are  entirely  bis  own.  and  llie  informuion  col- 
lected hj  himself  while  he  was  in  London.  It  is  true  the  drawings  are  not 
exactly  facsimiles,  for  they  are  considerably  reduced  in  scale  from  the  origi- 
nals, and  in  other  respects  far  less  satisfacuiry  :  still  that  circumstance  does 
not  cancel  the  act  of  piracy,  or  the  injury  done  by  it  to  the  Knglish  pub- 
isher. 


room  and  drawing-room  above  it,  it  would  have  shown  merely  the  end 
elevations  of  those  apartments,  not  their  longitudinal  ones — which  are 
their  more  important  ones:  whereas  the  line  of  section  chosen  makes 
no  difference  as  regards  the  hall,  while  it  explains  the  character  of  the 
staircase,  and  the  room  over  it,  and  also  shows  the  kitchen  court,  at  the 
east  end  of  the  building.  When,  however,  we  say  none,  we  mean  that 
it  makes  no  other  difference  in  respect  to  the  hall  itself  than  what  is 
evident  from  the  ground  plan,  namely,  that  in  this  direction  the  three 
intercolumns  are  of  equal  width,  whereas  the  east  and  west  sides  being 
somewhat  shorter,  the  lateral  intercolumns  are  narrower  than  the  cen- 
tre one,  on  which  account  those  elevations  are  better  than  the  others, 
where  the  columns  are  wider  apart  than  is  altogether  consistent  with 
the  richness  of  character  here  observable  in  other  respects.  This  ex- 
cess of  width  in  the  intercolumns  is  not  so  apparent  in  our  drawing, 
because  that  being  both  a  geometrical  and  outline  one,  it  is  the  plan 
which  chiefly  explains  that  the  arches  between  the  columns  belong  to 
a  different  plane,  viz.,  that  of  the  wall  within  the  colonnades.  Hence  it 
is  likely  enough  that  from  the  first  glance  at  the  section  it  will  be  sup- 
posed that,  instead  of  being  insulated  the  columns  are  attached  to  the 
piers  of  the  arches,  in  which  case  the  internals  between  them  would 
not  be  too  great.  It  becomes  a  question,  therefore,  whether  it  would 
not  have  been  better,  to  enclose  the  lower  part  at  least  of  this  salo  on 
by  open  arcades  so  decorated,  whereby  a  character  of  solidity  would 
have  been  there  produced,  that  would  have  served  to  relieve  and  set 
off  the  upper  colonnades.  .Still  wherefore  that  idea — su])posing  it  to 
have  presented  itself — was  not  adopted  is  sufficiently  apparent  from 
the  plan  being  neither  a  perfect  square,  so  as  to  allow  three  arches  of 
equal  width,  on  each  of  its  sides;  nor  so  much  greater  than  a  square  as 
to  afford  five  spaces — whether  arches  or  intercolumns,  on  each  of  the 
longer  sides.  Perhaps  as  the  deficiency  in  the  breadth  from  north  to 
south,  could  not  be  supplied  without  intrenching  too  much  upon  other 
parts,  it  might  have  been  adviseable  to  have  got  rid  of  the  excess  in 
the  other  direction,  curtailing — not  the  entire  hall,  but  merely  the 
cetral  space  within  the  columns,  reducing  that  to  a  perfect  square. 
By  this  means,  indeed,  the  breadth  of  the  east  and  west  colonnades 
would  have  been  somewhat  increased,  yet  that  objection  might  have 
been  got  over  by  apparently  contracting  the  width,  putting  columns 
against  the  wall,  corresponding  with  those  in  front,  and  so  as  to  render 
the  distance  between  them  equal  to  the  breadth  within  the  north  and 
south  colonnades.  This  adjustment  of  the  plan,  reducing  the  centre 
to  a  square  of  28  feet,  instead  of  34  X  28, — might  have  rendered 
some  other  modifications  requisite,  and  among  the  rest,  some  abate- 
ment of  the  present  height. 

If  we  have  thus  far  taken  the  liberty  of  objecting  to  what  we  regard 
as  a  rather  offensive  irregularity  as  regards  the  colonnades,  we  com- 
mend the  mode  of  grouping  of  two  columns  and  square  pillar,  here 
employed  at  the  angles,  which  produces  a  very  desirable  fulness  of 
effect,  as  well  as  appearance  of  solidity  at  those  points,  and  at  the 
same  time  avoids  the  confusion — and  perhaps  heaviness  withal — that 
might  have  resulted  from  three  columns  similarly  placed.  Another 
pleasing  and,  we  believe,  original  circumstance  is,  that  in  the  upper 
and  lower  colonnade  on  the  south  side,  a  view  is  admitted  into  the 
cott'ee-room  and  drawing-room  over  it  through  the  centre  arcade, 
which  is  to  be  filled  in  with  plate  glass  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
floor,  that  is,  to  the  level  of  the  chimney-piece.  By  this  means,  the 
saloon  itself  will  always  present  a  striking  architectural  scene  as  so 
viewed  from  either  of  the  two  principal  apartments,  especially  of  an 
evening  when  brilliantly  lit  up.  The  mode  also  of  lighting  the  saloon 
entirely  through  the  cove,  appears  to  us  both  a  novel  and  happy  one, 
although  we  can  at  present  merely  guess  at  its  effect,  it  being  quite 
blocked  up  vvith  scaffolding  when  we  last  went  over  the  interior  of  the 
building,  when  very  little  progress  had  been  made  in  the  decorations, 
or  rather,  they  were  hardly  commenced  at  all,  nor  was  it  began  to  be 
paved.  The  staircase  was  also  then  a  mere  shell,  with  brick  walls, 
and  without  any  steps.  Consequently,  until  we  can  see  the  in- 
terior again,  in  a  much  more  advanced,  if  not  perfectly  finished  state, 
we  can  add  very  little  to  the  information  the  plan  and  section  supply 
as  to  the  parts  just  mentioned.  For  which  reason,  we  must  be  al- 
lowed to  reserve  further  description  for  another  opportunity,  and 
request  our  readers  to  consider  the  present  account  merely  a  pro- 
visional one. 


Rilde,  NoiK  7. — The  committee  appointed  to  decide  on  the  plans  for  our 
new' cfiureh,  have  selected  the  designs  of  Mr.  T.  Hellyer,  architect  It  is  a 
handsome  structure,  and  the  interior  is  composed  after  tlie  model  of  the 
Temple  church  in  L;ind(jn.  The  subscriptions  for  the  building  are  progressing 
steadily,  and  the  contributions  for  enclosing  the  ne«-  burial-grouiid  alrea  ly 
amount  to  more  than  1.50/.  Too  much  praise  cannot  be  given  to  our  vicar, 
the  Rev.  W.  S.  Phillips,  for  the  energy  and  e.xertions  he  has  put  forth  to 
accomplish  these  two  important  objects.-  Hampshire  Advertiser. 

3  K 


410 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  LIVERPOOL. 

Sir — When  I  first  saw  the  remarks  of  your  correspondent  "Eder"in 
a  Liverpool  paper,  I  felt  strongly  disposed  to  make  a  few  observations 
in  reply  to  some  of  tlieni,  which  seemed  to  me  strangely  at  variance 
with  his  professions  of  careful  and  long  continued  architectural  study. 
This  inclination  was  confirmed  when  I  found  they  had  obtained  a  place 
in  your  journal,  and  would  thus  fall  under  the  "notice  of  so  many  in- 
terested in  the  matters  they  refer  to.  In  putting  this  design  in  prac- 
tice, I  shall  borrow  his  introductory  paragraph,  in  so  far  as  it  relates 
to  partiality  and  prejudice,  both  which  feelings  so  inimical  to  all  fair 
discussion,  I  can  most  candidly  disavow. 

The  Custom  House  is  the  first  building  noticed  by  Eder — its  size 
perhaps  entitles  it  to  such  priority.  He  applies  the  terms  "  imposing 
and  magnificent,"  to  this  structure.  Now  any  very  large  mass  of 
building  may  be  allowed  to  be  imjmiiig,  if  of  an  adequate  height,  but 
magnificence  implies  soraethine  more  than  mere  mass  of  material  and 
extension  of  surface:  it  includes,  I  conceive,  a  symmetrical  arrange- 
ment of  parts,  fine  proportions,  and  a  degree  and  character  of  orna- 
ment suited  to  the  importance  and  purpose  of  the  building.  In  these 
three  points  I  hold  the  Liverpool  Custom  House  to  be  most  lamentably 
deficient.  First,  as  to  armngttmni  or  composition.  The  building  is 
on  a  plan  much  like  the  letter  H,  the  cupola  occupying  the  centre  of 
the  cross  jrart  of  the  letter,  and  a  portico  on  one  side  of  tlie  cross,  and 
on  each  of  the  upright  parts.  The  consequences  of  this  arrangement 
are  destructive  of  all  fine  perspective  eftijct,  for  when  viewed  on  its 
north  front,  the  cupola  serves  only  to  destroy  the  effect  (such  as  it  is) 
of  the  portico  on  that  side,  and  seen  from  the  east  and  west  fronts  that 
feature  seems  hardly  to  be  part  of  the  pile,  so  completelv  is  its  con- 
nection with  those  fronts  hidden  by  the  projection  of  the  vvings.  This 
cupola  (in  his  opinion,  in  which  every  body  I  imagine  must  agree  with 
your  correspondent),  in  fact  never  terminates  the  perspective  from 
any  point  of  view,  nor  combines  with  any  of  the  intersections  of  the 
■wings  and  central  portion  of  the  mass.  With  regard  to  the  position 
of  the  porticoes,  that  to  the  north  is  buried  between  the  wings,  and 
can  never  be  seen  in  profile,  and  its  projection  is  so  slight  that  were  it 
not  that  the  only  light  it  ever  receives  from  the  sun  falls  very  much 
aslant,  and  consequently  gives  a  great  prolongation  of  shadow,  it  would 
have  no  more  relief  than  a  row  of  attached  columns  with  a  pediment 
over  them.  The  above  remarks  as  to  want  of  projection,  apply  with 
greater  foi-ce  to  the  other  two  porticoes,  which  however  can  be  seen 
in  profile,  or  obliquely,  though  for  reasons  I  shall  point  out  when  I 
come  to  speak  of  the  proportions  of  the  parts,  their  eftect  is  completely 
destroyed.  The  site  of  this  building  was  well  adapted  to  a  cruciform 
plan,  and  had  such  an  arrangement  been  adopted,  the  porticoes,  how- 
ever deficient  in  projection  and  depth,  would  at  least  have  formed 
suitable  terminations  to  the  several  portions  of  the  cross ;  and  the 
cupola,  however  foreign  to  this,  so  called,  Grecian  design,  would  have 
risen  naturally,  as  I  may  say,  at  the  intersection,  and  have  terminated 
the  converging  perspective  of  the  body  and  transepts  with  good  results 
as  regards  its  own  effect  and  importance,  and  without  interfering  with 
the  porticoes  in  those  respects.  Such  a  disposition  of  the  plan  would 
also  have  insured  a  better  distribution  of  light,  and  greatly  have  bene- 
fitted the  interior  arrangements,  which  as  your  correspondent  justly 
observes,  are  sadly  wanting  in  this  point.  As  regards  the  proportions 
of  the  several  fronts,  and  the  features  which  compose  them,  it  seems 
to  me  that  very  little  consideration,  or  consideration  to  very  little  pnr- 
posejias  been  bestowed  on  them,  more  especially  as  respects  those 
very  important  parls  of  the  composition,  the  porticoes.  Their  pro- 
jection (for  they  are  all  alike)  is  so  slight  as  to  appear  nothing  in  com- 
parison with  their  frontal  extent,  and  to  take  away  all  idea  of  shelter 
or  shade.  I  do  not  know  whether  Candidus  will  include  expression  as 
one  of  the  banished  or  obsolete  architectural  terms,  but  tliis  quality 
(for  I  for  one  believe  in  its  existence)  appears  to  me  to  be  utterly 
wanting  in  three  of  the  fronts.  As  I  wish  to  advance  nothing  without 
endeavouring  to  give  a  reason,  I  shall  explain  myself  as  well  as  I  can. 
I  am  of  opinion,  then,  that  there  are  two  general  proportions  in  which 
a  portico  may  be  combined  with  a  front,  of  which  it  does  not  occupy 
the  whole  extent,  without  loosing  its  own  efi'ect,  or  interfering  in- 
juriously with  that  of  the  front  of  which  it  forms  so  material  a  feature. 
These  proportions  seem  to  me  to  be  firstly,  such  as  shall  give  to  the 
portico  the  greater  part  of  the  fafade,  and  make  the  remainder  on 
either  side  appear  as  mere  adjuncts  or  accessories  thereto ;  or  secondly, 
such  as  shall  make  the  portico  a  subordinate  feature  in  the  design, 
leaving  an  extended  surface  on  either  hand.  In  the  first  case  the  im- 
pression on  the  mind  will  be  (such  at  least  is  the  eti'ect  with  myself,) 
that  the  front  being  of  a  proscribed  extent  both  as  to  length  and  height, 
and  a  portico  a  requisite  part  of  the  edifice,  that  portion  had  been 
kept  within  the  extreme  dimensions  of  the  site  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 


serving to  it  a  fitting  proportion  as  to  elevation:  and  in  the  second,  that 
the  portico  being  as  before  supposed  a  necessary  and  ornamental  fea- 
ture in  the  pioposed  arrangement,  had  been  so  proportioned  to  the 
whole  extent  of  front  as  not  to  destroy  its  unity  and  continuiti'  of  ap- 
pearance. The  expression  of  the  first  named  portico,  I  conceive,  will 
be  found  that  of  dignity  and  grandeur  combined  with  use,  and  that  of 
the  second  more  allied  to  comfort  and  convenience  judiciously  united 
with  a  due  regard  to  ornamental  eftect.  Of  the  first  mentioned  pro- 
portion I  consider  the  portico  of  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge, 
a  good  example.  As  a  specimen  of  the  second  I  may  quote  that  of 
the  India  House,  inharmonious  as  that  front  may  be  in  some  of  its  de- 
tails. In  spite  of  what  I  have  said  above,  I  still  greatly  prefer  the 
truly  Grecian  application  of  the  portico,  where  it  includes  the  whole 
front  of  the  building,  and  continues  without  interruption  or  break,  save 
its  own  angle,  the  order  or  entablature,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the 
lateral  portion.  But  to  apply  these  remarks  to  the  building  under 
consideration. 

Fis.  \. 


The  east  and  west  porticoes  of  the  Liverpool  Custom  House  occupy, 
to  my  eye,  exactly  the  unhappy  medium  between  the  proportions  I 
have  attempted  to  describe ;  and  instead  of  leaving  the  mind  at  rest 
to  contemplate  and  enjoy  their  air  of  simple  dignity,  or  of  inviting 
and  hospitable  shelter,  together  with  the  varied  effects  of  light  and 
shade  of  which  these  beautiful  architectural  features  are  capable  when 
happily  conceived  and  applied,  they  distract  the  eye,  both  mental 
and  physical,  by  a  puzzling  uncertainty  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  archi- 
tect, and  by  their  bareness  and  lack  of  depth  give  no  idea  but  that  of 
useless  show,  and  of  an  exposed,  comfortless,  and  contracted  entrance 
passage.  With  regard  to  the  north  or  principal  front,  the  portico  has 
an  advantage  over  those  of  the  east  and  west  fronts — having  in  rear  a 
slight  projection  of  its  own  width  from  the  main  building  ;  this  gives 
an  appearance  of  greater  projection  from  the  general  line,  but  is  of  no 
avail  as  regards  the  shallow  and  ineffective  aspect  arising  from  defi- 
ciency of  depth.  The  proportion  which  this  portico  bears  to  the  whole 
space  between  the  wings  is  nearly  the  same  as  the  two  already  described 
bear  to  their  respective  fronts,  and  it  appears  to  me  to  labour  under 
the  same  uncertainty  as  to  whether  it  be  a  principal  or  accessory  in 
the  general  design.  The  wings  themselves  are  perhaps  not  too  far  in 
advance  as  respects  their  own  proportion  as  wings,  but  they  unques- 
tionably do  stand  out  to  such  a  degree,  as  to  drown  completely  the 
portico  and  its  adjoining  projection.  The  fronts  of  the  wings  which 
consist  of  openings  of  three  intercolumniations  divided  by  two  columns 
in  antis,  and  a  flank  of  about  two  intercolumns  pierced  with  windows, 
on  each  side,  are  certainly  the  most  eft'ective  and  least  objectionable 
parts  of  the  front  under  notice,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  a  greater 
height  of  blocking  either  over  the  whole  front,  or  at  least  over  the 
central  jiortion,  would  tend  to  improve  their  aspect.  I  come  now  to 
speak  of  the  rear  or  south  elevation  which  Eder  describes  as  "in- 
famously miserable," — terms  which  well  apply  to  the  whole  of  the 
wings  on  that  side,  but  not,  I  maintain,  to  the  main  front  which  com- 
prises, in  my  opinion,  the  only  really  redeeming  feature  in  the  whole 
building. 

All  pretension  to  Grecian  character  appears  here  to  have  been  aban- 
doned. The  cornice  of  the  columnar  order  is,  to  be  sure,  continued, 
but  without  the  frieze  and  architrave,  and  being  of  good  projection, 
with  a  massive  ilentil  member  in  the  bed-rtiould,  it  harmonizes  well 
with  the  general  character  of  this  portion  of  the  building,  \VTiich  is 
most  decidedly  Italian.  Though  I  think  the  central  projection  of  this 
front  is,  like  those  in  the  others,  faulty  in  its  indecision  of  proportion 
to  the  vvhole,  still,  in  itself,  I  consider  it  in  all  respects  much  the  best 
part  of  the  structure.  It  consists  of  a  plain  well-proportioned  ele- 
vation, divided  into  three  parts  by  two  slight  breaks.  The  middle 
portion  of  the  three  is  pierced  below  by  three  open  segmental  arches 
leading  through  the  building  to  the  opposite  front ;  and  above  these, 
three  semicircular-headed  windows  of  good  proportions,  and  pleasing 
though  simple  character.  The  lateral  divisions  have  above  each,  one 
window  corresponding  with  those  of  the  centre;  and  below,  a  window 
recessed  in  an  arch  similar  to  those  forming  the  three  openings  above 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


411 


mentioned.  The  front  is  divided  horizontally  by  a  bold  string  course, 
and  surmounted  by  a  massive  but  suitably  proportioned  plain  attic 
wall,  vpitli  its  cornice  and  blocking.  The  impost  moulding  of  the 
upper  windows  is  also  carried  through,  vfhich  lightens,  without  too 
much  cutting  up,  the  massive  and  substantial  piers  which  divide  them. 
There  is  a  good  height  of  plain  wall  between  these  windows  and  the 
cornice,  which,  in  my  opinion  is  a  great  assistance  towards  gaining 
dignity  of  aspect,  giving  me  always  the  same  kind  of  impression  as  a 
lofty  forehead  surmounting  a  human  face.  The  solid  and  void  are, 
I  think,  very  happily  apportioned  in  this  front,  and  though  I  could 
wish  for  a  better  description  of  rustic  work  than  the  horizontal  chan- 
nels in  the  basement,  still  the  effect  of  the  whole  is  simple,  s\ibstantial, 
and  dignified.  Here,  and  here  only,  does  a  cupola,  supposing  it  to  be 
something  very  different  from  that  which  really  exists,  not  appear 
misplaced.  The  attic  wall  hides  the  roof  completely,  and  conveys 
the  idea  of  a  solid  support  for  the  mass  above  it,  and  the  breaks 
dividing  the  front  are  so  proportioned  as  to  carry  the  eye  easily 
upwards  to  the  plinth  or  stylobate  of  the  cupola,  which  falls  just 
enough  within  their  line  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  proper  degree  of 
stability.  In  the  article  of  decoration,  which  I  mentioned  as  the  third 
requisite  to  fill  up  my  idea  of  magnificence,  the  Liverpool  Custom 
House  offers  but  little  for  our  consideration,  and  the  quality  of  what 
exists  can  hardly,  I  imagine,  excite  a  wish  that  there  was  more  of  it. 
It  is  difficult  to  conceive  that  Greek  details  could  be  applied  with  a 
more  complete  absence  of  all  classical  effect  and  feeling.  Unfluted 
Ionic  columns,  with  fluted  tori  in  their  bases,  composed  each  of  eleven 
stones;  pilasters  with  capitals,  whose  mouldings  are  certainly  copied 
from  Greek  examples,  and  enriched,  according  to  established  use, 
with  water-leaf,  &c.,  but  which  mouldings,  alas,  project  more  than 
three  times  as  far  beyond  the  faces  of  the  pilasters,  as  the  pilasters  do 
from  the  wall,  the  projection  of  these  latter  being  barely  3i  inches  to 
a  diameter  of  4  ft.  <i  in.  The  projection  of  the  entablature  follows,  of 
course,  that  of  the  pilasters,  and  shares  in  their  meagre  aspect.  In 
the  architraves  of  the  porticoes  it  appears  that  stone  could  not  be 
obtained  in  sufficient  lengths  to  bear  from  column  to  column,  and  the 
architect  has  had  recourse  to  the  method  of  notching  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  2. 


— = 

i\         I 

/ 

:  ■' 

1       ' 

1/    1 

•> 

- 

.....     1 

Plan  of  joint  at  C. 

The  effect  of  this  mode  of  jointing  is,  that  in  one  portico  the.  part 
marked  a  has  broken  through  and  tne  stone  fallen  considerably  out  of 
the  horizontal,  a  defect  which  is  only  too  clearly  shown  by  the  broken 
lines  of  the  tenia  moulding  and  the  faces  of  the  architrave ;  and  in 
another  a  fracture  has  occurred  as  shown  at  b,  but  not  to  the  same 
extent.  Might  not  these  evils  have  been  avoided  by  showing  a  vertical 
joint  in  front,  and  backjointing  the  stones  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines 
at  c.  This  must  be  considered  a  digression  as  it  belongs  rather  to 
the  constructive  part  of  the  matter;  but  it  was  mentioned  for  the 
purpose  of  calling  attention  to  the  bad  practical  effect,  of  a  mode  of 
construction  which  is  in  itself  an  eyesore,  and  which  is  enhanced  in 
the  present  case  by  the  fact,  that  the  stones  resting  on  the  columns  are 
almost  uniformly  some  degrees  darker  in  colour,  than  the  intermediate 
ones  which  are  notched  into  them.  Through  some  defect,  as  I  ima- 
gine, in  the  foundation,  a  very  serious  fracture  is  visible  in  the 
N.  W.  wing  over  one  of  the  windows  within  the  recess.  But  to  return 
to  the  details ;  the  stylobate  so  much  commended  by  Eder  is  a  plain 
square  plinth,  projecting  just  sufficiently  to  receive  the  bases  of  the 
very  slab-like  pilasters  1  have  described,  whose  moulding  is  also,  as 
noticed  by  yoiu-  correspondent,  carried  entirely  round  the  building, 
with  the  exception  of  the  south  front  and  wings.  This  stylobate  is 
certainly  much  too  low  to  be  in  proportion  to  the  order — as  to  the 
doors  and  windows,  I  marvel  much  what  any  one  can  find  to  admire  in 
them.  The  windows,  except  those  I  have  mentioned  in  the  south 
front,  and  similar  ones  under  the  north  poftico,  are  either  plain  oblong 
holes,  or  have  a  meagre  ghost-Uke  architrave,  without  even  the 
knees  or  projections  at  the  upper  angles  to  be  found  in  the  only  genu- 
ine Grecian  example  of  such  features  in  the  Erectheum.    The  doors 


may  be  copied  from  Greek  examples;  but  who  can  say  that  the  up- 
right unenriched  cyma,  is  not  an  ungraceful  member  ?  I  imagine  that 
the  very  vertical  profile  of  these  mouldings,  was  adopted  in  the  origi- 
nals for  the  better  display  of  the  ornamental  surface,  which  decorated 
them  ;  but  as  here  applied,  in  their  naked  state,  they  are  positively 
ugly.  '1  he  trusses  of  the  doorways  are,  to  my  eye,  little  less  unpleas- 
ing,  and  the  nature  of  the  stone  and  quality  of  workmanship,  give  no 
great  effect  to  what  ornaments  they  can  boast.  I  have  as  yet  said 
nothing  of  the  interior,  or  of  the  details  of  the  cupola.  The  whole  of 
the  former  is  not  yet  opened  to  the  public,  the  fittings  of  the  long 
room  being  incomplete.  Having  had  a  view  of  this  room,  I  can  only 
say  that  it  seems  to  me  no  great  improvement  on  the  exterior.  The 
plan  is  confused  and  choked,  and  the  effect  of  space  destroyed  by  the 
numerous  columns,,  which,  in  their  disposition,  evince  a  singular  disre- 
gard to  any  regular  arrangement.  The  internal  cupola,  which  springs 
from  pendentives  rising  upon  the  entablature  of  the  Ionic  order  of 
this  room,  is  spacious,  and  considerably  enriched,  but  claims  no  notice 
on  any  other  grounds.  On  its  exterior  companion  I  must  decline 
making  any  rema.iks,  as  my  disclaimer  of  prejudice  might  perhaps  not 
avail  me,  were  I  to  say  all  I  think  of  it.  I  believe,  however,  the  ori- 
ginal design  of  the  architect  was  not  so  utterly  tasteless.  That  part 
of  the  interior  already  occupied  is  sufficiently  and  fairly  described  by 
Eder,  being  very  dark  and  inconvenient.  I  have  trespassed  long  on 
your  valuable  space  ;  my  excuses  are  that  a  great  deal  of  unmeaning, 
and  I  think  ignorant  admiration  has  been  bestowed  on  this  structure, 
both  by  residents  and  visitors;  that  I  li  ive  never  heard  a  reason  given 
for  any  thing  which  has  been  said  in  its  favour;  that  all  that  is  the 
least  good  in  it  seems  to  have  been  uniformly  overlooked  ;  and  that 
it  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  costly  buildings  which  have  been 
erected  in  this  country  of  late  years,  having  occupied  more  than  ten 
years  in  completion,  and  having  cost,  as  I  have  been  informed,  a  sum 
approaching  £400,000.  In  conclusion,  I  hope  I  have  said  nothing  to 
impugn  my  opening  professions  of  impartiality.  Let  those  who  liave 
seen  this  building  judge  for  themselves,  and  if,  in  comparing  these 
remarks  with  the  original,  they  consider  the  objections  urged  beyond 
the  bounds  of  just  and  fair  criticism,  I  hope  they  will,  as  I  have  en- 
deavoured to  do,  give  the  reasons  which  influence  their  opinions; 
should  such  meet  my  view  or  that  of  others  who  think  like  me,  I  hope 
they  will  be  judged  of  in  the  spirit  of  candour,  which  I  trust  has 
guided  my  pen  in  the  foregoing  observations. 

Your's,  &c., 
H. 
Liverpool,  Nov.  9,  1840. 

Since  the  above  remarks  were  written,  the  Long  Room  has  been 
completed  and  opened  for  business.  I  have  only  to  add,  as  regards 
this  room,  that,  although  a  vista  is  preserved  through  its  entire  length, 
the  effect  is  destroyed  before  one  third  of  that  length  is  traversed,  by 
the  confused  appearance  presented  by  the  columns.  This  arises  from 
the  strange  indifference  here  manifested  to  regularity  of  intercolum- 
niation,  which  is  such  that,  looking  on  either  side  of  the  room,  no  two 
pairs  (not  couples,  for  there  are  no  really  coupled  columns,  however 
nearly  they  approach  such  an  arrangement)  of  columns  seem  equally- 
far  apart.  The  coffers  of  the  cupola  appear  much  too  shallow,  and 
the  mouldings  as  much  too  large  for  the  depth  of  the  coffers,  though 
perhaps  not  so  when  viewed,  with  respect  to  their  surface,  rather  than 
their  depth. 


VICTORIA  ROOMS,  BRISTOL. 

Sir — The  portico  of  the  Victoria  Rooms,  Bristol,  although  correctly 
placed  in  the  Octastyle  Class  in  the  table  of  porticoes  given  in  the 
Civil  Engineer  and  Architect's  Journal  for  this  month,  is  therein 
stated  to  have  five  intercolumniations,  a  contradiction  which  you  may 
not  perhaps  think  it  necessary  to  explain ;  allow  me,  however,  to  add 
that  there  is  an  important  omission  in  the  description  of  it,  as  the 
pediment  I  am  happy  to  say  is  sculptured,  or  more  properly  is  being 
sculptured,  from  a  working  model  by  Mr.  M.  L.  Watson,  the  principal 
relief  from  the  face  of  the  tympanum  being  2  feet  3  inches.  I  shall 
feel  obliged  by  your  attention  to  this  letter. 

And  remain,  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

Charles  Dyer. 

36,  Guilford  Street,  Nov.  11,  1840. 


3  K  2 


41: 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


'  1)  K  C  E  M  B  E  R  , 


ON  THE  DRAINAGE  OF  LOW  LANDS. 

Bv  Mn.  William  Fairbairx. 

Tmdi'.k  are  few  subjects  of  more  importance  or  more  deserving  of 
public  attention  than  the  drainage  of  lands.  In  cultivating  land  below 
the  level  of  the  sea,  drainage  is  one  of  the  first  steps,  for  unless  the 
superfluous  waters  of  a  low  marshy  district  be  freely  removed  and 
discharged  at  a  level  above  its  surface,  it  is  in  vain  "to  look  for  pro- 
ductive crops,  however  rich  the  soil  or  tlie  alluvial  deposit  may  be. 

Hydraulic  machines  of  almost  every  description  have  been  in  re- 
quisition for  this  object,  and  in  countries,  such  as  Holland  and  the  Fen 
districts  of  Lincolnshire,  where  tlw  land  is  in  many  instances  several 
feet  below  the  sea,  those  machines  have  been  extensively  used,  and 
many  improvements  have  from  time  to  time  been  introduced.  Formerly 
windmills  and  animal  power  applied  to  scoop-wheels  seem  the  only 
methods  adopted,  but  since  the  introduction  of  the  steam  engine  a  ma- 
terial change  has  been  effected.  Engines  of  great  power  may  now  be 
seen  giving  motion  to  wheels  of  25  to  30  fe'et  diameter,  discharging 
large  quantities  of  water  from  the  lower  to  the  higher  levels. 

The  scoop-wheel,  although  a  simple  and  effective  machine,  is  not 
(according  to  Mr.  Fairbairn's  opinion),  the  most  economical  for  the 
drainage  of  low  lands.  In  countries  where  fuel  is  expensive,  it  is  an 
object  of  great  importance  to  obtain  power  at  a  cheap  rate,  and  by  tlie 
application  of  the  steam  engine  upon  the  Cornish  principle,  a  saving 
of  three  times  the  fuel  now  consumed  may  be  effected.  The  consump- 
tion of  fuel  by  a  well  constructed  condensing  engine  is  from  10  to  12 
lbs.  of  coal  per  horse  power,  per  hour,  or  10  lbs.  of  coal  will  raise 
2,000,000  lbs.  of  water  one  foot  high  in  a  minute;  whereas  a  single 
acting  Cornish  engine,  according  to  the  returns,  will  raise  with  the 
same  quantity  of  fuel  8,000,000  lbs.— a  duty  four  times  greater  than 
has  yet  been  attained  by  the  common  condensing  engine.  Taking  it, 
however,  at  only  three  times  the  duty,  or  6,000,000  lbs.  one  foot  high 
in  a  minute,  the  saving  is  even  then'  so  great,  as  to  be  entitled  to  the 
attention  of  proprietors  whose  lands  are  situated  at  a  level  requiring 
the  aid  of  steam  to  clear  them  of  water. 

From  these  considerations  it  appeared  to  Mr.  Fairbairn  desirable  to 
apply  the  Cornish  engine,  and  having  been  requested  by  parties  in- 
terested in  the  drainage  of  the  Lake  of  Haarlem,  to  consider  the  best 
and  cheapest  means  for  the  attainment  of  that  object,  he  proposed  a 
machine,  of  which  the  following  is  a  description. 

In  raising  water  by  the  scoop-wheel,  it  is  obvious  that  a  uniform 
force  is  necessary  to  overcome  the  resistance  upon  the  floats,  as  they 
successively  discharge  their  contents  from  tiie  lower  to  the  higher 
level.  This  resistance  being  constant,  the  force  applied,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  fuel  consumed,  will  be  equal  to  the  load,  or  to  that  of  a  low 
pressure  condensing  engine,  similarly  constructed  to  those  on  board  of 
steam  boats.  The  effect  produced  on  the  bailing-scoop  will  be  totally 
different,  and  instead  of  a  continuous  action  as  exhibited  in  the  com- 
mon wheel,  a  reciprocating  motion  will  be  produced,  and  the  same 
economy  insured  as  is  now  exemplified  in  the  returns  of  the  Cornish 
engines.     In  applying  this  description  of  engine  it  becomes  necessary 


to  adopt  the  reciprocating  principle,  and  by  raising  a  weight  suspended 
at  the  opposite  end  of  the  engine  beam  B,  the  large  bailing-scoop  A, 
revolving  on  a  fulcrum  at  C,  descends  to  the  lower  level,  and  is  filled 
with  water  through  the  opening  valves  D,  D.  The  weight  having 
been  elevated  to  the  full  height  of  the  stroke,  it  descends  by  the  force 
of  gravitation,  and  raises  theTiailing-scoop  to  a  horizontalposition  as 
at  E,  causing  the  water  to  flow  over  the  pivot  C,  into  the  level  above. 
The  same  process  is  repeated,  each  stroke  by  the  admission  of  steam 
into  the  cylinders  to  raise  the  weight,  and  the  bailing-scoop  is  again 
elevated  by  its  descent. 

The  principal  advantage  peculiar  to  this  machine,  is  its  adaptation 
to  the  single-acting  Cornish  engine  ;  first,  by  the  introduction  of  a  por- 
tion of  high  pressure  steam  to  overcome  the  inertia  of  the  weight; 
secondly,  by  its  subsequent  expansion  to  maintain  the  momentum;  and 
lastly,  by  the  gravitation  of  the  w  eight  to  lift  the  load ;  on  the  same 
principle,  in  fact,  as  the  engine  at  the  East  London  Water  Works, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Wicksteed,  and  as  those  in  Cornwall. 

The  bailing-scoop  is  2.5  feet  long  and  30  feet  wide,  composed  of 
boiler-plates,  with  two  partitions  to  strengthen  the  bottom  and  support 
the  valves  for  the  admission  of  water  at  D.  The  machine  is  calculated 
to  raise  about  17  tons  of  water  each  stroke,  and  with  an  engine  of  UO 
horse  power  will  effect  a  duty  equal  to  2n  or  3  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse 
power,  per  hour.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  length  of  the  stroke 
continues  at  all  times  the  same  in  the  cylinder,  whilst  at  a  a,  b  b,  &c. 
it  is  varied  by  a  series  of  stops  fixed  horizontal  to  the  sides  of  the 
engine  beams,  and  upon  inclined  planes  on  the  bailing-scoop.  This  is 
done  in  order  to  lessen  or  increase  the  dip,  and  to  accommodate  the 
lift  to  a  height  commensurate  with  the  difference  of  the  levels  which 
may  exist  between  the  surface  of  the  lake  and  the  height  to  which  tlie 
water  has  to  be  raised. 


ON  THE  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 

Sir — Having  lately  submitted  to  the  public  an  improved  mode  of 
introducing  air  to  the  gaseous  matter  of  coal  in  a  furnace,  by  which  its 
complete  combustion  is  effected,  and  the  generation  of  smoke  neces- 
sarily prevented  ;  and  finding  that  the  principles  on  which  this  is  pro- 
duced have  been  misrepresented  or  misunderstood  by  the  contributors 
to  some  of  the  public  journals,  I  am  desirous,  through  the  medium  of 
your  columns,  of  being  set  right  in  the  public  view  on  this  iuiportant 
subject.  In  some  instances,  indeed,  the  effect  produced  by  my  mode 
is  attributed  to  causes  which  are  the  very  reverse  of  the  fact,  and 
though  evidently  by  a  friendly  hand,  yet  the  result  is  so  opposed  to 
chemical  truth,  that  I  am  unwilling  to  sanction  such  an  explanation  of 
the  principles  on  which  I  have  effected  perfect  combustion  on  the 
large  scale  of  the  furnace. 

In  the  treatise  published  by  me  on  the  "  combustion  of  coal,  chemi- 
cally considered,"  I  have  explained  the  source  of  those  errors  into 
which  the  patentees  of  "smoke  burning"  systems  have  fallen,  by  their 
search  after  a  high  temperature,  and  looking  to  that  temperature  as 
the  means  of  consuming  the  gas  or  smoke,  to  the  utter  neglect  of  all 
that  regards  the  quantity  of  air  admitted  to  the  furnace,  or  the  condi- 
tions on  which  it  combines  with  the  combustible.  In  that  treatise  I 
have  mainly  relied  on  the  fact  that  the  question  of  effective  combus- 
tion is  a  question  as  regards  the  air,  and  not  the  temperature.  Modern 
patents  have  run  on  the  erroneous  idea  that  the  gas  evolved  from  coal 
in  the  furnace,  and  from  which  flame  is  exclusively  derivable,  is  to  be 
consumed  by  bringing  it  into  contact  with  a  mass  of  highly  ignited 
carbonaceous,  or  coky  matter.  This  I  deny,  and  consider  it  to  be  not 
only  a  chemical  fallacy,  but  a  great  practical  error.  On  this  ground, 
therefore,  I  am  unwilling  to  be  considered  as  regarding  the  question 
of  a  high  temperature  as  the  essential  to  the  ignition  or  combustion  of 
the  gaseous  matter  of  coal.  My  mode  of  effecting  combustion,  by  in- 
troducing air  to  the  gas  in  the  way  of  numerous  jets,  depends  for  suc- 
cess on  principles  quite  distinct  from  those  which  are  attributed  to  the 
action  of  heated  air.  By  one  writer,  the  effect  of  my  system  is  stated 
to  be  attributable  to  the  circumstance  of  the  air  being  heated  in  the 
))assage  through  the  diffusion  tubes  ;  now  these  tubes  are  used  by  me 
for  the  sole  purpose  of  throwing  the  air  into  small  jets,  corres|)onding, 
in  principle,  to  the  jet  from  a  blow  pipe.  This  mode  of  explaining 
my  principle  goes  neither  to  the  right  cause  or  effect. 

So  far  from  the  tubes  or  pipes,  which  are  made  of  fire  clay  or  east 
iron,  heating  the  air  in  its  passage  through  them,  I  have  proved,  prac- 
tically, that  the  combustion  goes  on  equall)'  when  the  tubes  are  black 
and  cold,  and  the  air  passipg  through  them  necessarily  cold ;  this  cold 
air,  on  issuing  from  the  numerous  small  orifices,  conveying  the  idea  of 
jets  oijlavie  rather  than  air.  It  is  important  to  state  that  I  place  no 
reliance  on  the  question  of  the  temperature  of  the  admitted  air. 


1840. 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


413 


It  has  been  stated  in  explanation  of  the  effect  produced  by  my  dilTu- 
sion  tubes,  that  as  there  is  always  plenty  of  air,  or  oxygen,  in  the 
furnace,  and  a  deficiency  of  heat,  the  introducing  the  air  at  a  high 
temperature,  supplies  this  deficiency.  This  is  directly  the  reverse  of 
what  I  have  stated  to  be  the  condition  of  the  furnace,  and  the  flues 
leading  from  it.  The  following  extracts  from  my  tract  will  put  this 
in  a  clear  point  of  view. 

At  page  124,  I  state,  "  The  leading  condition  of  the  combustion  of 
the  inflammable  gases  being  the  mixture  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in 
given  quantities,  and  at  a  given  temperature,  those  inventors  have  in 
too  many  instances,  to  the  utter  neglect  of  the  former,  exclusively 
directed  their  attention  to  the  latter, — -the  obtaining  the  highest  de- 
gree of  heat,  even  to  incandescence,  for  the  gases.  Now'  this  is  un- 
questionably the  condition  which  demands  the  least  attention  on  their 
parts,  if  any  at  all." 

Again,  page  129,  "  It  is  the  palpable  oversight  of  the  distinction  be- 
tween increasing  the  faculty  of  combustion,  and  actually  producing 
that  combustion,  which  has  led  to  that  manifest  chemical  blunder, — 
the  supposing  that  coal  gas  is  to  be  btirmd  by  the  act  of  bringing  it 
into  contact  with  bodies  at  a  high  tenqierature  :  or,  in  the  words  of 
the  patentees,  by  '  causing  it  to  pass  through,  over,  or  among,  a  body 
of  hot  glowing  coals.'  In  our  efforts  then,  towards  effecting  the  com- 
bustion of  the  gaseous  products  of  coals,  it  is  essential  that  we  steer 
clear  of  this  hitherto  unquestioned  practice  :  attending  solely  to  the 
question  oi  an,  and  all  that  has  reference  to  its  introduction,  distribu- 
tion, and  diffusion:  for  we  may  take  it  for  granted,  that  the  condition 
of  heat  is  but  a  secondary  condition  ;  and  tliat  the  required  tempera- 
ture will  never  be  wanting  in  the  furnace,  from  the  moment  we  '  light 
ihejire,'  if  air  be  supplied  in  the  proper  quantity,  at  the  proper  place, 
and  in  the  proper  manner:  but  if  these  conditions  be  not  satisfied,  an 
accession  of  heat  cannot  remedy  the  evil,  however  it  mav  aggravate 
it." 

I  assert  then,  that  there  can  be  no  greater  fallacy,  than  su])posing  that 
giving  a  high  temperature  to  the  air  admitted,  can  be  the  means  of 
effecting  the  combustion  of  the  gases,  or  the  prevention  of  smoke.  An 
analogy  has  been  deawn  between  the  effectiveness  of  hot  air  in  the 
manufacture  of  iron — this  however  bears  no  analogy  with  the  intro- 
duction of  hot  air  to  the  furnace,  as  the  means  of  effecting  combustion 
or  preventing  smoke.  With  your  permission  I  propose  considering 
this  point  on  a  future  occasion — at  present  I  confine  myself  to  denying 
the  assertion  that  my  plan  obtains  any  advantage  from  the  circumstance 
of  the  air  being  heated  in  its  passage  into  the  flues  through  the  small 
orifices  of  my  diffusion  or  distribution  tubes. 

I  am,  Sir,  your's,  &c. 

C.  W.  Williams. 

Liverpool,  Nov.  20,  1840. 


THE  NELSON  MONUMENT. 

Sir — Since  I  last  addressed  you,  the  first  stone  of  the  Nelson  Colmnn 
has  been  laid,  the  work  is  progressing  rapidly,  and  will  continue  to  do 
so  until  the  public  rise  en  masse  to  protest  against  so  great  an  outrage 
upon  the  principles  of  beauty,  or,  peradventure,  the  subscriptions  be, 
as  at  present,  insufficient  to  complete  the  structure.  We  shall  then 
have  a  piece  of  a  column,  to  show  succeeding  generations  the  lofty 
standard  of  beauty  amongst  us,  and  to  point  out  how  we  delight  to 
honour  the  great,  the  virtuous,  and  the  brave.  Shall  we,  the  British 
nation,  permit  this  living  libel  to  appear  against  our  love  of  art; 
glorying  in  the  matchless  works  of  our  ancestors,  shall  we  allow  pos- 
terity to  point  with  derision  to  the  evidence  of  their  effect  upon  us. 
Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  Nelson  Committee  are  alone  in 
their  project,  and  it  will  be  disgraceful,  if  the  public  submit  to  have 
this  column  thrust  upon  them,  in  opposition  to  their  better  judgment. 
Those  journals  in  which  we  place  most  confidence  in  matters  of  taste, 
the  Athenaeum,  the  Literary  Gazette,  and  the  Art  Union,  have  all  pro- 
tested against  the  proposed  column;  but  despite  this  and  the  positive 
opinion  of  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons,  the  pro- 
jectors pursue  their  object  ^Jeryas  aiit  nefas,  and  the  stone  which  Wel- 
lington would  have  been  proud  to  lay,  is  laid,  with  no  public  announce- 
ment, and  no  popular  enthusiasm,  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Committee. 
We  do  not  hesitate  to  say,  despite  the  expression  of  condemnation 
upon  the  whole  building,  that  the  portico  of  the  National  Gallery,  ex- 
hibits many  architectural  beauties  in  its  internal  columns,  and  the  depth 
of  shadow  caused  by  the  projection  of  the  antJE  in  front  of  the  wall, 
and  it  is  the  portico  which  the  pedestal  of  the  column  will  completely 
hide.  With  all  deference  to  one  vvfiose  opinion  as  to  the  good  effect 
in  juxta-position  of  colossal,  and  ordinary  proportions,  demands  from 
all,  the  liighest  respect,  I  would  beg  to  notice  that  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 


has  been  objected  to  on  account  of  the  enormously  disproportionate 
figures  lessening  the  effect  of  the  architecture,  and  St.  Paul's  itself,  for 
the  difference  in  size  of  its  two  internal  orders.  Sir  F.  Chantrey  in 
his  evidence  as  to  the  effect  of  the  column  as  an  ornamental  object, 
says,  "the  Trajan,  the  Antonine,  and  the  Napoleon  columns  are  the 
only  monumental  objects  of  this  class  that  I  have  ever  looked  upon 
with  entire  satisfaction  ;  I  read  the  history  of  the  man  on  the  shaft  of 
the  column,  and  thf  mind  is  thus  reconciled  to  see  the  statue  so  ele- 
vated. I  may  be  told  we  have  not  money  enough  for  a  work  of  this 
character,  that  naval  exploits  furnish  bad  materials  for  sculpture,  or 
that  the  arts  of  this  country  are  in  too  low  a  state  to  accomplish  so 
noble  a  work ;  then  I  say,  abandon  the  impossibility  at  once,  and  try 
something  more  in  keeping  with  our  means  and  our  genius."  The 
"general  observations  by  T.  L.  Donaldson,  Esq.,"  contain  opinions  as 
to  the  bad  effect  of  a  naked  column.  If,  therefore,  it  can  be  shown, 
not  that  the  funds  do  not  suffice  to  enrich  the  shaft  with  bas-reliefs, 
and  crown  the  column  with  a  statue  of  bronze,  but  that  the  subscrip- 
tions are  actually  inadequate  to  complete  the  denuded  shaft  and  the 
perishable  statue,  and  if  in  addition  to  these  sufficiently  cogent  reasons 
it  can  be  proved,  that  a  colossal  column,  when  used  without  the  struc- 
ture of  which  it  is  as  much  a  part  as  the  leg  is  of  the  man,  is  an  out- 
rage against  our  most  cherished  principles  of  beauty, — it  becomes  the 
people  to  prit^st  lor.liy  and  speedily  against  the  infliction  of  so  great 
a  national  indignity. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  humble  servant, 

A  Lover  of  the  Beautiful. 
3G,  Tollbridge  Place,  New  Road, 
November  20, 1840. 


ON  COMPUTING  EARTHWORK. 

Sir — Observing  an  article  in  your  October  number,  page  334,  on  the 
methods  of  computing  Earthwork,  by  Mr.  S.  Hughes,  in  which  the 
writer  asserts,  that  the  tables  of  Messrs.  Macneil  and  Bidder,  "  are 
useful  only  for  calculating  sections  where  the  scale  is  very  small,  and 
where  the  heights  cannot  be  taken  otherwise  than  in  feet — and  that 
where  the  scale  is  sufficiently  large  to  show  the  heights  in  feet,  and 
decimals  of  a  foot,  they  are  of  no  use."  I  take  the  liberty  of  trans- 
mitting to  you  tiie  following  for  the  purpose  of  proving  that  the  tables 
of  Messrs.  Macneil  and  Bidder,  are  as  useful  for  such  calculations, 
where  the  heights  are  in  feet  and  decimals,  as  in  feet  only. 

I  have  at  present  the  tables  of  Mr.  Bidder  only  at  hand,  although  I 
constantly  make  use  of  Mr.  Macneil's  for  similar  calculations,  but  an 
example  based  on  the  tables  of  the  former  gentleman  will  be  equally 
illustrative  of  the  use  to  be  made  of  those  of  the  latter. 

For  my  purpose  I  have  selected  the  same  example  as  Mr.  Hughes, 
in  page  33[>. 

E.rample. — Suppose  a  piece  of  cutting  or  embankment  39"8  feet 
deep  at  one  end,  and  24't)  at  the  other  end,  the  base  or  top  30  feet 
and  slopes  2  to  1,  required  the  area,  which  being  multiplied  by  the 
length,  shall  give  the  true  content. 

Mid.  part.  Slopes. 
Intersection  of  columns  40  and  25,  gives  79-5  and  2628. 
'^■""  ■'■"-        39  and  24,  gives  77     and  2471. 


Ditto 


ditto 


Difference 


2-5  and    157. 


Then  '-— -^^  =  -7,  -7  X  2-5  =  1-75,  1-75  -f  77=  78-75  mid.  part^ 

•7  X  157=  109-9,  109-9  -f  2471  =  2580-9  slopes. 
Mid.  part         78-75  x  30  =:  2362-50 
Slopes      2580-9  X  2  to  1  =  5161-8 


Total  contents  in  yards  per  chain 
Then    ^         X  9  =  3078-18  correct  area. 


r524-3. 


In  practice  the  last  operation  forms  no  part  of  the  calculation,  as  the 
lengths  are  taken  out  in  chains  and  decimal  parts. 

I  remain.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

Geo.  B.  W.  Jackson. 
Radcliffe  Terrace,  Gosmell  Road. 
Nov.  24,  1840. 

[The  above  is  a  very  round  about  way  for  ascertaining  quantities,  to 
say  the  least  of  it. — Ed.] 


414 


THE  CIA  IL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL.  [December, 


RAILWAY  MANAGEMENT. 

Sib,— Before  railways  can  ever  be  expected  to  be  properly  managed, 
several  important  alterations  mvist  be  made  in  the  present  system.  In 
the  first  place,  the  Directors  must  efl'ectually  suppress  the  propensity 
to  amateur  engineeriitg  on  the  part  of  the  "clever  practical  men"  of 
their  body,  of  whom  all  boards  have  more  or  less.  In  the  next  place, 
they  must  make  a  common  sacrifice  of  all  patronage  and  personal  con- 
sideration in  the  appointment  of  persons  to  situations,  when  any 
neglect  would  be  likely  to  be  followed  by  danger  to  either  life  or  pro- 
perty. Were  this  system  to  be  fairly  and  honestly  acted  upon,  I  have 
no  doubt  the  necessary  result  would  be  the  appointment  of  an  indi- 
vidual, to  whom  would  be  confided  the  enfire  and  uncontrolled  manage- 
ment of  the  whole  of  the  out-duor  business  of  the  railway.  To  him 
would  be  committed  the  whole  charge  of  the  selection,  employment, 
pay,  and  superintendence  of  every  engineman,  fireman,  guard,  porter, 
rail-layer,  and  labourer  on  every  part  of  the  line,  any  of  whom  he 
should  fine,  punish,  or  dismiss  at  his  pleasure,  and  on  him,  and  him 
alone,  should  rest  the  responsibility,  both  with  respect  to  the  public 
and  the  Directors,  of  every  hindrance  or  accident  which  might  cccur. 
In  proportion  to  the  success  of  his  management  he  should  be  paid,  and 
on  his  appointment  it  should  be  distinctly  intimated  to  him,  that  in  the 
event  of  his  being  found  unfit  fc:-  his  office,  or  even  unfortunate,  no 
hesitation  or  dehcacy  would  be  tljserved  with  respect  to  his  dismissal 
and  the  appointment  of  another  in  his  room.  Any  person  aware  of 
the  importance  of  the  duties  which  would  devolve  on  an  officer  of  this 
description,  would  at  once  perceive  that  they  could  not  be  properly 
and  efficiently  fulfilled  without  his  constantly  traversing  every  part  of 
the  line,  and  by  personal  inspection  and  observation,  making  himself 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  respective  abilities,  character,  and  dis- 
position of  every  man  employed  under  him,  obtaining  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  varying  circumstances  of  the  traffic,  and  of  those  parts  of 
the  railway,  where  danger  was  most  to  be  apprehended,  and  by  the 
foresight  which,  by  this  means,  he  would  be  enabled  to  exercise  to 
prevent  the  confusion  and  accidents  with  which  the  present  system  is 
so  rife.  The  influence,  moreover,  which  an  officer  of  this  description 
would  exercise  over  the  men,  would  be  instantly  visible  in  their 
guarded  and  more  careful  conduct,  the  well  disposed  from  a  hope  of 
reward  or  promotion,  and  the  bad  from  the  fear  of  detection  and 
punishment.  Energy,  perseverance,  and  tact,  combined  with  sobriety 
and  habits  of  business,  would  be  the  chief  requisites  in  his  character. 
It  would  also  be  essential  that,  in  addition  to  his  being  an  experienced 
engineer,  he  should  be  practically  conversant  with  the  nature  and 
details  of  every  man's  employment,  especially  that  of  the  engine-men, 
as  a  more  self-important  and  uncontrollable  set  of  men  do  not  exist,  if 
they  have  reason  to  think  that  those  who  are  placed  over  them  are 
not  perfect  masters  of  their  craft. 

The  first  thing  to  which  I  should  suppose  a  person  placed  in  this 
situation  would  direct  his  attention  and  instantly  prohibit,  is  the  very 
common  practice  of  making  use  of  either  line  while  travelling  in  the 
same  direction,  a  practice  so  obviously  fraught  with  danger,  that  I  am 
astonished  how  any  board  of  directors  or  superintendant  can,  for  a 
ment,  allow  it,  except  under  the  most  extraordinary  circumstances, 
and  most  stringent  and  well  defined  regulations,  whereas,  on  the  con- 
trary, there  appears  to  be  no  instructions  whatever  on  this  important 
point,  nor  any  farther  discretion  exercised  in  the  practice  of  it,  than 
such  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case,  in  the  opinion  of  those  present, 
seem  to  require.  Indeed,  throughout  the  whole  system,  the  absence 
of  individual  and  responsible  management  is  glaringly  evident,  and  in 
all  cases  of  danger  and  emergency,  every  one  seems  to  "  do  that  which 
is  right  in  his  own  eyes." 

Then  as  regards  the  signals,  there  is  a  red  light  for  danger,  a  green 
light  which  indicates  neither  "  danger  or  safety,"  and  a  white  one 
which  it  would  appear  means  anything  or  nothing,  as  the  engine-man 
can  best  make  out,  all  of  which  are  confided  without  check,  and  almost 
without  instructions,  to  ignorant,  forgetful,  and  sometimes  careless 
men.  Can  any  reasonable  person  for  a  moment  expect,  that  with  a 
complex  and  ill-defined  code  of  signals  like  fliis,  railways  are  likely  to 
be  free  from  danger,  or  would  he  not  rather  express  his  astonishment, 
that  so  few  accidents  should  have  happened.  If  the  road  is  perfectly 
clear,  what  necessity  is  there  for  any  signal  whatever,  if  it  is  not  so, 
what  need  of  more  than  one  ?  Instead  of  all  this  complexity,  I  would 
at  once  adopt  the  broad  and  intelligible  principle,  that  a  signal  of  any 
kind,  exhibited  under  any  circumstances,  should  always  indicate  danger; 
and  in  order  to  carry  it  out,  I  would  render  it  imperative  on  every 
train  to  have  a  light  in  front  and  one  behind  from  sunset  to  sunrise, 
placed  at  such  a  height  from  the  ground  that  persons  moving  about 
could  not  intercept  the  view.  Similar  lights  should  be  exhibited 
during  the  same  period  at  all  the  stations,  placed  at  the  same  height, 


and  occupying  the  same  relative  position,  as  those  in  the  trains,  so  that 
an  engine-man  could  not  be  certain,  on  seeing  the  signal,  that  it  was 
not  a  train  in  his  way,  But  the  improvement  to  which  I  should  be 
disposed  to  attach  the  most  importance,  and  from  which  I  should 
anticipate  the  happiest  results,  would  be  to  place  the  whole  of  the 
station  signals  on  a  machine,  which  should  be  so  far  self-acting  as 
always,  when  left  to  itself,  to  indicate  danger,  and  to  require  an  ifforl 
on  the  part  of  the  attendant,  before  that  warning  could  be  removed; 
from  this  very  simple  precaution  would  be  derived  the  important 
result,  that  wegfec^o/' or /iwHtHtoK  to  the  signals  would  insure  safety, 
which  is  sufficiently  evident,  as,  whether  danger  did  or  did  not  exist, 
the  signals  would  always  indicate  it,  and  cause  tlfe  coming  train  to 
step  until  it  should  be  removed.  There  are  many  more  points  con- 
nected with  railway  management,  which  are  by  no  means  brought  to 
the  greatest  degree  of  perfection  of  which  they  are  capable,  but  for 
the  present,  I  will  leave  them  for  a  future  communication,  should  it 
be  necessary. 

I  am.  Sir, 

Your's  very  respectfully, 
November  24,  1840.  A  Railway  Engineer. 


REVIEWS. 


Papers  on  Iron  and  Steel.     By  David  Mushet. 

(THIRD    NOTICE.) 

Continuing  our  remarks  upon  the  subject  of  iron,  we  may  remark 
that  the  ores  from  which  the  metal  is  derived  are  distinguished  by 
the  autlior  into  two  principal  classes,  primary  iron  ores  and  iron  stones. 
The  primary  iron  ores  are  defined  to  be  those  found  in  the  older  for- 
mations, bearing  little  resemblance  to  those  in  the  stratified  planes, 
and  have,  in  Mr.  Mushet's  opinion,  been  formed  by  secondary  agency, 
although  they  differ  widely  from  each  other  in  their  properties.  Some 
are  distinguished  as  being  obedient  to  the  magnet,  and  others  the  re- 
verse, but  this  property  is  by  no  means  dependent  upon  the  quantity 
of  iron  contained  in  the  ore,  but  on  its  being  in  the  state  of  protoxide, 
united  or  not  with  a  portion  of  peroxyde,  as  ore  from  the  Isle  of  Elba 
yielding  70  or  80  per  cent,  is  but  slightly  affected  by  the  magnet,  while 
many  of  the  Norwegian  and  Danish  ores  with  only  18  to  30  per  cent, 
of  metal  are  highly  magnetic.  Mr.  Mushet  well  defines  the  magnetic 
property  as  a  test  rather  of  the  presence  of  iron  than  of  the  probable 
quantity  to  be  obtained.  The  principal  localities  in  England  for 
primary  iron  ores  are  Cumberland,  and  Furness  in  Lancashire,  also  in 
the  island  of  Islay,  Muirkirk,  and  other  places  in  the  north,  Cornwall, 
Devon,  &c. 

The  Cumberland  ores  which  present  a  perfectly  formed  crystal 
seem  to  be  formed  by  the  agency  of  water,  an  opinion  which  is  coun- 
tenanced not  only  by  the  structure  but  by  several  remarkable  circum- 
stances, water  having  been  found  in  cavities  of  this  ore,  which  had 
been  transported  several  hundred  miles.  This  ore  is  generally  found, 
as  well  as  that  of  Furness,  in  caverns  or  churns  of  the  mountain  lime- 
stone in  large  masses,  splinty  and  globulated,  consisting  of  various 
kidney  terms  called  hamatites,  striated  and  smooth,  of  bluish  and 
reddish  colours.  The  Lancashire  ore  is  composed  of  smaller  masses, 
softer  and  of  a  more  greasy  appearance,  but  highly  crystalized.  Both 
of  these  ores,  in  the  kidney  variety,  contain  fine  specimens  of  graphite 
or  fossil  plumbago.  The  ores  both  of  Cumberland  and  Furness  are 
much  sought  after  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  with  poorer  ores,  large 
quantity  of  the  Furness  ore  being  shipped  from  Ulverston  for  South 
Wales.  An  opinion  has  prevailed  unfavourable  to  the  working  of 
these  ores  on  the  spot,  where  both  coal  and  limestone  are  at  hand;  no 
effective  method  of  reducing  them  having  yet  been  employed,  although 
the  autlior  of  the  work  before  us  has  on  more  than  one  occasion  given 
his  weighty  testimony  as  to  the  practicability.  The  Islay  ore  is  found 
regularly  stratified,  and  resembling,  in  point  of  deposition,  the  Nor- 
wegian and  Danish  ores.  The  strata,  as  described,  are  almost  vertical, 
ana  are  found  imbedded  in  a  loose  ochreous  earth  surrounded  with 
soil.  The  ore  is  not  smelted  with  advantage  owing  to  the  excess  of 
silex  it  contains.  In  different  parts  of  Scotland,  in  the  West  High- 
lands, at  Muirkirk,  Salisbury  Craggs,  La  Mancha,  Cranston,  the  Ochil 
hills,  &c.,  small  quantities  of  ore  have  been  found,  but  no  quantity- 
sufficient  to  justify  the  working.  The  chief  Cornwall  ores  found  in 
the  granite  are  those  of  Lostwithiel,  much  mixed  with  quartz  and 
manganese,  and  averaging  about  48  per  cent.,  and  those  of  Fowey,  a 
brown  hsematite,  with  58  per  ceftt.  Those  of  Devon  are  the  ores  of 
Haytor,  containing  about  4.">  per  cent,  and  lying  in  a  schistose  forma- 
tion.    We  may  also  notice  here  the  alluvial  Minehead,  in  the  new  red 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


415 


sandstone,  yielding  44  per  cent.,  and  at  Brisham,  yielding  G2  per  cent. 
The  Devon  and  Cornwall  ores  are  used  extensively  in  South  Wales, 
as  also  a  rich  heematite  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Bristol,  containing 
from  45  to  liO  per  cent.  The  iron  of  ores  of  the  Forest  of  Dean  are 
found  like  those  of  Cumberland  in  the  carboniferous  limestone  ;  brush 
ore  is  one  of  the  principal  varieties,  a  hydrate,  with  protoxyde  of  iron, 
containing  frequently  from  tiO  to  65  per  cent,  of  iron,  the  leaner  ores 
containing  a  great  deal  of  calcareous  matter  in  the  shape  of  spar,  and 
so  yielding  only  about  15  or  "25  per  cent.  The  Forest  of  Dean  ores 
are  the  only  ores  worked  alone,  and  instead  of  being  treated  with  lime- 
stone, require  a  mixture  of  burnt  argillaceous  schist,  as  on  account  of 
their  containing  liu^estone,  they  are  refractory  and  infusible. 

We  now  come  to  the  iron  stones — these  are  commonly  found  in 
horizontal  strata,  subject  to  the  same  acclivity  and  declivity  as  the 
other  stratified  substances  under  the  surface;  their  inclination  varying 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and  the  disposition  of  the  in- 
cumbent "strata.  They  are  supposed  to  be  of  aqueous  origin,  and  are 
generally  found  imbedded  in  scliistous  clay  more  or  less  compact, 
which  moulders  away  on  being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  fre- 
quently accompany  coal  and  limestone,  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
coal.  The  ores  are  of  two  principal  forms,  in  strata  from  half  an  inch 
to  twelve  inches  thick;  regularly  connected  strata  called  bands,  and 
strata  of  detached  stone  found  in  distinct  masses,  from  the  size  of  a 
small  shot  up  to  a  weight  of  several  hundred  pounds.  The  smaller 
masses  being  called  in  Scotland  ball  stones,  and  the  larger  lunkers  (qy. 
lumpers).  Band  ironstone  accompanying  limestone  is  most  commonly 
of  inferior  quality,  its  component  parts  being  chiefly  calcareous,  and 
the  quantity  of  iron  contained  being  small,  while  ball  iron  stones  ac- 
companying lime  are  of  much  superior  quality.  The  iron  stones  are 
divided  by  Mr.  Mushet  into  four  classes.  1.  Argillaceous  ironstone, 
which  has  clay  for  its  chief  component  earth,  and  this  clay  compara- 
tively pure  and  free  from  sand.  2.  Calcareous  ironstone,  possessing 
lime  for  its  chief  mixture,  and  this  lime  also  comparatively  destitute 
of  sand.  3.  Siliceous  ironstones,  uniting  clay  and  lime,  and  containing 
large  proportions  of  silex.  4.  Mixed  ironstone,  containing  nearly  an 
equalized  mixture  of  clay,  lime  and  sand.  Each  of  these  classes  re- 
quires a  different  treatment  dependent  on  its  constituent  parts,  which 
with  the  quality  of  the  fuel  are  the  causes  of  the  great  diversity  of 
processes  which  prevail  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.  Besides  these 
four  classes  must  be  mentioned  the  Muslietstone  or  Blackband,  a  car- 
boniferous ironstone,  partaking  much  of  the  nature  of  coal  as  generally 
it  contains  carbonaceous  matter  enough  to  terrify  the  stone  and  make 
it  (it  for  the  furnace.  Its  exact  geological  position  has  not  yet  beer, 
determined,  but  is  supposed  by  its  discoverer  to  be  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  coal  field  near  the  millstone  grit.  The  usual  criterions  by  which 
ironstone  is  judged  are — 1,  the  degree  of  tenacity  with  which  it  ad- 
heres to  the  tongue  after  torrefaction ;  2,  its  colour ;  3,  the  obedience 
to  the  magnet  when  pulverized;  4,  by  depriving  of  its  iron  a  given 
weight  of  the  ore  in  the  assay  furnace.  The  first  and  third  of  these 
methods  are  peculiarly  liable  to  error,  as  the  degree  of  adhesion  to  the 
tongue  will  be  more  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  kind  of  clay 
contained  in  the  stone,  than  to  its  real  contents  of  iron,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  magnet  as  before  remarked,  is  equally  deceptive.  The 
test  by  colour,  although  an  empirical  method,  is  one  far  more  to  be 
depended  upon.  A  correct  chemical  analysis,  however,  although  the 
surest  test,  is  scarcely  ever  used,  from  the  ignorance  of  the  manufac- 
turers. Mr.  Mushet  complains  loudly  and  truly  of  the  deplorable  state 
of  scientific  knowledge  of  this  class,  which  is  as  slow  in  acquiring  in- 
structions as  in  adopting  improvements.  He  asserts  that  to  his  own 
knowledge  the  grossest  mistakes  have  been  made,  and  cites  one  case 
of  iron  ores  of  30  per  cent,  having  been  sold  for  and  smelted  as  ores 
containing  GO  per  cent.  Detection  it  appears  in  such  cases  is  difficult, 
as  the  charge  of  the  furnace  often  consists  of  an  association  of  iron 
ores,  iron  stones,  and  scoria  from  the  forge  and  mill.  Nor  does  the 
case  appear  to  be  much  better  among  those  professing  some  know- 
ledge, as  from  want  of  proper  instruction  they  are  also  open  to  gross 
errors.  Instruction  of  this  kind  therefore  seems  to  be  a  legitimate 
object  in  schools  of  mining  and  engineering,  the  inculcatiob  of  which 
would  be  of  more  good  than  all  the  attempts  at  teaching  practice  by 
theory. 


A  Practical 
Pambour. 


By  the   Comte  de 


Treatise  on  Locomotive  Engines. 

London :  J.  Weale,  1840. 
We  feel  much  gratification  in  being  enabled  to  recommend  to  the 
notice  of  those  of  our  readers  who  are  interested  in  the  theory  or 
practice  of  locomotive  endgines,  a  second  edition  of  this  excellent  and 
truly  valuable  work.  The  former  edition,  although  conveying,  in  the 
form  of  experiments,  more  practical  information  relative  to  locomotives 
than  any  other  work  which  has  appeared  on  the  subject,  and  embody- 


ing the  results  of  those  experiments  in  a  theory,  which,  though  no 
perfect,  was  nevertheless  calculated  by  the  soundness  of  the  reasoning 
in  general,  to  throw  much  light  on  the  true  theory,  was  still  defective 
in  several  points.  The  resistance  of  the  air  to  the  motion  of  the 
trains,  and  that  of  the  extra  pressure  of  the  waste  steam  on  the  back 
of  the  pistons,  caused  by  the  blast-pipe,  did  not  enter  into  the  evalu- 
tion  of  the  work  done  by  the  engines.  To  supply  these  deficiencies, 
the  author  undertook,  in  the  month  of  August,  1S36,  some  experiments 
on  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  from  the  results  of  which 
he  has  deduced  formultB  for  determining  those  quantities  which  had 
previously  been  neglected  in  the  calculation  of  the  resistance  over- 
come. 

These  experiments  comprise  also  several  other  researches,  such  as 
the  vaporization  of  boilers  in  different  circumstances  of  rest  and 
motion,  the  effects  of  different  proportions  between  the  fire-box  and 
the  tubes  on  the  total  vaporization  of  the  engine,  and  on  its  consump- 
tion of  fuel,  &c. 

In  the  first  edition  the  loss  of  steam  by  the  safety  valves  had  been 
very  incorrectly  measured ;  this  has  suffered  a  material  alteration  in 
the  edition  now  before  us,  but  how  far  the  new  determinations  are  to 
be  depended  on,  remains  yet  to  be  proved.  It  is  an  investigation 
which  demands  that  the  experiments  should  be  conducted  witli  the 
utmost  nicetv,  and  in  the  greatest  possible  variety  of  circumstances. 

The  table'of  experiments  on  the  quantity  of  water  carried  over  with 
the  steam  in  the  liquid  state,  differs  in  some  respects  from  that  which 
was  published  in  our  Journal  for  December,  1S30,  and  to  which  we 
appended  a  note  explaining  our  reasons  for  not  putting  implicit  confi.- 
dence  in  the  results  obtained.  Two  different  experiments  with  the 
Star  engine  have  been  substituted  in  the  work  under  consideration, 
for  those  contained  in  the  table  which  was  published  in  the  Journal, 
and  in  all  the  other  experiments  which  are  the  same  as  in  that  table, 
w-e  observe  that  a  different  deduction  has  been  made  for  the  loss  by 
blowing  through  the  safety-valves  during  the  asceut  of  the  plane. 
The  first  of  our  objections  is  removed  by  the  indirect  statement  that 
there  was  no  loss  by  leakage  during  the  experiments  given  in  the 
table,  the  second  in  some  measure  by  the  corrections  in  the  determi- 
nation of  the  loss  through  the  valves,  and  the  last  by  the  declaration, 
that  the  mean  is  only  intended  to  be  adopted  approximatively  for 
engines  that  have  not  been  directly  submittea  to  experiment  in  this 
respect.     This  mean  has  been  corrected  from  0-GS  to  U-70. 

The  second  chapter,  which  treats  of  the  laws  which  reg\ilate  the 
mechanical  action  of  the  steam,  is  the  same  as  the  corresponding 
chapter  of  the  "  r/ieon/  of  the  Steam  Engine,'"  by  the  same  author, 
which  vpas  published  last  year.  It  has  been  introduced  here  in  order 
to  save  the  reader  the  trouble  of  recurring  to  another  work,  besides 
which,  it  has  the  advantage  of  rendering  unnecessary  the  purchase  of 
that  work  to  those  who  are  only  interested  in  steam  engines  in  as 
much  as  they  are  applied  to  the  purpose  of  locomotion  on  railways, 
and  whose  means  may  be  too  limited  to  justify  such  an  addition  to 
their  libraries. 

We  are  compelled,  for  want  of  time,  to  postpone  a  more  particular 
examination  of  this  very  interesting  w^ork  until  next  month,  in  the 
mean  time  assuring  those  of  our  readers  who  are  desirous  of  making 
themselves  more  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  ettects  of  locomotive 
engines,  that  they  cannot  do  better  than  possess  themselves  of  this 
second  edition  of  Comte  de  Pamboiir's  Treatise ;  for  those  who  were 
unable  to  obtain  the  first  edition,  will  be  amply  recompensed  for  their 
disappointment,  by  the  superiority  of  the  new  one,  and  those  who 
possess  the  former,  will  find  it  almost  equally  necessary  to  purchase 
the  latter,  since  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  a  reproduction  of  the 
same  work,  but  almost  rather  as  a  continuation  of  it,  so  many  and 
important  are  the  corrections  and  additions  which  have  been  intro- 
duced.   


REPORT  ON  THE  REMOVAL  OF  THE  WEIR  AT  THE  BROOMIELAW 

BRIDGE,  GLASGOW. 

By  William  Bald,  F.R.S.E..  M.R.I.A..  &e..  Engineer  of  the  Clyde. 

To  the  Trustees/or  Improviitg  the  River  Clyde  and  the  Harbour  of  the  City 

of  Glasgow. 
My  Lord,  and  Gentlemen, 

In  conformity  with  the  remit  transmitted  to  me,  dated  the  6th  instaut,  I 
have  read  over  the  Report  of  Captain  Jolmstone  and  Mr.  Russell,  Harbour 
Masters.  It  has  been  drawn  up  with  great  care ;  and  from  the  facts  therein 
stated,  is  of  great  value,  and  merits  deep  attention.  I  have  no  hesitation  in 
signing  their  report,  so  far  as  it  treats  of  the  many  advantages  which  would 
arise  from  the  opening  up  the  spaces  between  the  bridges  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  small  steamers,  sailing  craft,  &c.  But  there  are  other  points, 
in  my  opinion,  of  vital  importance,  connected  with  this  subject,  which  have 
not  been  mentioned  in  their  report ;  and  which  I  beg  lea^  e  to  lay  before 
your  lordship  and  the  trustees. 


416 


THI']  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


]Decf.meer, 


The  removal  of  tlie  weir  at  the  Uroomiolaw  Briiige,  and  the  ileepeiiiiig  and 
dearing  of  the  space  upwards  to  Stockwell  liridge,  containing  nearly  1-1  acres, 
would  give  much  additional  tidal  water ;  thereby  increasing  the  currents  not 
only  through  tlie  liarbour,  but  also  to  some  extent  in  every  part  of  the  Clyde 
downwards ;  thus  aiding  and  assistijig  that  scouring  force  which  acts  so 
powerfully  in  freeing  and  keeping  clear  all  river  estuary  channels  from  hanks 
and  shoals — the  great  obstacle  to  navigation.  In  the  improvement  of  the 
navigation  of  tidal  rivers,  no  ex]>cnse  or  pains  should  be  spared  to  increase 
xhis  scouring  force,  arising  from  that  uniform  and  constant  tidal  flow  and 
run  of  currents  ascending  and  descending  alternately,  and  which  are  so  emi- 
nently distingmshed  by  their  beneficial  effects  in  preserving  navigaljle  chan- 
nels, as  compared  to  tliose  violent  land-floods,  which,  in  many  instances,  so 
frequently  carry  down  immense  masses  of  matter,  forming  shoals,  banks,  and 
bars  in  them,  extremely  injurious  to  the  navigation,  and  involving  great  ex- 
pense in  keeping  them  clear. 

The  removal  of  the  Weir  at  the  Broomielaw  Bridge,  and  the  additional 
receptacle  for  tidal  water  between  the  Bridges,  would  have  a  tendency  to 
sweep  and  scour  away  all  those  impurities  which  are  at  present  discharged 
into  it  by  the  city  sewers.  The  removal  of  the  weir,  ami  the  deepening  and 
clearing  away  of  the  channel  of  the  river,  would  also  have  the  effect  of  les- 
sening the  miasma  which  arises  from  the  present  condition  of  the  bed  of  the 
Clyde  between  the  bridges,  and  woidd  render  the  atmosphere  of  that  part  of 
the  city  much  more  pure  and  healthy. 

It  is  noble  and  praiseworthy  to  erect  hospitals  and  asylums  for  the  relief 
of  those  who  may  unfortunately  be  aftlicted  with  fever ;  but  how  much  more 
advantageous  would  it  be  to  cut  oft'  and  destroy  the  sources  from  which  that 
contagion  arises,  by  the  removal  of  all  ottensivc  Matter  ?  In  this  respect,  the 
attention  paid  by  the  Dutch  to  many  of  their  cities  and  towns,  offers  an  ex- 
cellent example  to  the  jieople  of  other  countries. 

At  present,  the  harbour  of  Glasgow  is  a  receptacle,  not  only  for  a  large 
portion  of  the  debris  which  the  Clyde  sends  down  during  floods,  but  it  is  also 
a  reservoir  for  almost  the  whole  of  the  matter  discharged  by  the  city  sewer- 
age. The  quantity  delivered  into  the  present  harbour  from  those  two  sources 
is  immense. 

The  flood  of  last  .\ugust  left  a  deposit  on  the  steps  of  the  upper  ferry- 
stairs,  on  the  south  side  of  the  harljour,  as  follows  ; — On  the  upper  step, 
reached  by  the  flood,  a  ilepth  of  2  inches ;  on  the  descending  steps,  2|,  2J, 
2f,  .31-,  4J,  and  5  inches.  The  last  step  was  about  3  feet  4  inches  below 
ordinary  liigh  water  line.  It  has  been  alleged,  that  the  River  Clyde  leaves 
little  or  no  deposit ;  but  the  above  facts  prove  the  fallacy  of  such  a  statement. 
Besides,  no  experienced  observer  could  have  a  doubt  on  this  subject,  who  has 
seen  the  extremely  <Iiscoloured  state  of  the  water  of  the  Clyde  during  a  flood, 
by  the  quantity  of  alluvium  held  in  suspension,  and  which  is  deposited  in  the 
bed  and  sides  of  the  Clyde,  wherever  the  tranquillity  of  the  water  is  not  dis- 
turbed by  a  current  sutlicient  to  carry  it  away ; — and  it  should  always  be  re- 
collected, that,  in  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  a  river,  and  the 
widening  of  a  harbour  through  which  it  runs,  a  velocity  of  3  inches  per  second 
at  bottom  will  work  on  fine  clay ;  that  C  inches  per  second  will  lift  fine  sand  ; 
8  inches  per  second,  sand  as  coarse  as  lintseed ;  12  inches  per  second  will 
sweep  along  fine  gravel ;  24  inches  per  second,  gravel  one  inch  in  diameter. 
These  established  facts  ought  to  govern  the  engineer  as  to  the  width  which 
should  be  given  to  rivers,  and  to  harbours  through  which  rivers  flow,  so  as  to 
regulate  the  velocity  of  the  water  and  prevent  them  from  being  silted  up  with 
alluvial  matter,  or  involve  a  serious  expenditure  in  keeping  them  clear  by  the 
artificial  means  of  steam-dredging ;  therefore,  no  exertion  or  expense  should 
be  spared  to  increase  the  natural  force  of  the  scouring  power,  by  the  descend- 
ing currents  through  river  harbours  and  river  navigations. 

It  may  be  observed,  that  to  keep  the  harbour  of  Glasgow  clear,  and  suffi- 
ciently deep  for  vessels  sailing  out  and  in,  requires  at  least  the  power  of  two 
steam-dredges  constantly  working ;  the  annual  approximate  expense  of  which 
is  as  follows : — 

Expense  of  one  dredging-boat  per  annum,  including  repair 

of  wear  and  tear,  and  interest  on  capital,  at         .  .  JE1368     9     4 

Steam-power  drawing  the  punts      ....        500     0     0 

Discharging  the  material  and  carrying  it  away         .  .      1200     0     0 

Expense  of  one  dredging-vessel  .  .  .  ^3068     9     4 

Then,  the  annual  expense  of  two  steam  dredging- vessels  will  he  about 
£6,130  I8.S.  M.  The  area  of  the  wide  part  of  the  harbour  between  Messrs. 
Todd  and  Higginbotham's  mill,  and  the  Weir  at  the  Broomielaw  Bridge,  is 
about  twenty-one  acres,  which  requires  to  be  operated  on  constantly  by  two 
steam  dredging-vessels ;  this  is  nearly  equal  to  the  rate  of  300/.  per  acre  of 
harbour  surface  per  annum. 

Immediately  below  the  Weir,  and  within  the  Port,  spaces  have  been  cleared 
and  deepened  to  10  feet  below  low-water  line,  but  which  have  been  filled  up 
in  the  short  period  of  a  few  months  to  2  feet  above  it ;  thus  fiUing  up  a  space 
of  12  feet  in  height.  Looking  at  the  vast  expense  of  keeping  the  harbour 
clear — and  again,  at  the  great  inconvenience  to  the  shipping  by  a  reduced 
depth  of  water,  arising  from  shoals  and  banks  being  so  rapidly  formed  w  ithin 
it,  so  extremely  detrimental  to  its  free  navigation — I  am  impressed  with  a 
more  full  conviction,  that  the  most  active  and  the  most  energetic  steps  should 
be  adopted  to  diminish  those  evils  as  far  as  practicable.  Therefore,  the  clear- 
ng  away  immediately  of  the  Weir  at  the  Broomielaw  Bridge,  the  widening 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Harbour,  and  the  deepening  of  the  River  up  to  Stock- 
well  Bridge,  would  tend  partly  to  remove  the  evils  here  stated,  because  those 


operations  would  increase  the  tidal  currents  through  the  harbour,  and  equahse 
them  at  its  mouth. 

The  matter  discharged  from  the  city  sewers  on  the  north  side  into  the 
harbour,  might  be  entirely  removed  by  the  construction  of  a  large  sewer, 
commencing  near  the  .fail,  and  running  parallel  with  the  river  down  to  below 
Barcbiy's  Slip,  where  it  would  enter  the  Clyde.  This  sewer  would  receive 
the  whole  of  the  drainage  which  at  ])rc>ent  falls  into  the  harbour  from  the 
city  of  tilasgow  on  the  north,  and  would  consequently  free  the  port  from  eon- 
sideralile  deposits  which  are  discharged  into  it. 

The  pecuhar  construction  of  the  present  harbour  of  Glasgow,  with  its  nar- 
row entrance,  its  head  barred  by  a  stone  weir  extending  across  from  side  to 
side,  over  which  the  high  tide  only  sometimes  rises  Ijut  a  few  inches,  so  that 
there  is  scarcely  any  percejitible  tidal  current  upwards  through  it  during  the 
whole  period  of  flood  tide,  until  the  water  has  reached  above  the  top  of  the 
weir  at  the  Broomielaw  Bridge ;  the  water  sent  up  by  the  tide  of  flood,  as 
well  as  the  river  water  descending  and  falling  over  the  weir  into  the  harbour, 
remains  in  a  quiescent  state,  except  iluring  the  times  of  floods.  Thus,  the 
alluvium  contained  in  the  descending  waters  of  the  river,  the  silt  carried  in 
by  the  city  sewers,  and  the  fine  particles  of  matter  held  in  suspension  by  the 
tidal  water  flowing  up — all  meet  in  the  harbour  of  CUasgow — at  every  tide, 
forming  immense  deposits,  undisturbed  by  any  tidal  current  for  more  than 
four  hours  ;  which  fully  accounts  for  tlie  ra])id  manner  in  which  the  harbom: 
of  Glasgow  silts  up,  and  the  great  ex])ense  which  is  constantly  required  to 
keep  it  clear  and  open  by  steam  dredging-vessels.  But  if  that  part  of  the 
river  between  the  Broondelaw  Bridge  and  Stockwell  Bridge,  were  deepened, 
it  would  receive  the  river  ilehris  before  it  could  reach  the  harbour,  and  it 
could  be  dredged  up  there  as  cheaply  as  any  where  else,  and  without  any  in- 
convenience to  the  shipping. 

What  can  he  compared  to  a  fine  navigable  river  flowing  free  and  unfettered, 
without  lock  or  dam,  through  a  city,  liiyiug  open,  by  its  upper  reaches,  the 
rich  mineral  wealth  of  the  interior  country  to  the  enterprise  and  industry  of 
the  people  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  lower  reaches  of  the  river  waft  the 
ships  to  the  ocean,  that  highway  to  all  the  regions  of  the  world  ! 

It  must  he  manifest  to  any  person  who  has  obsei  ved  the  immense  business 
which  is  carried  on  by  small  craft,  on  the  waters  of  the  Thames  at  London 
between  the  bridges,  on  the  Seine  in  Paris,  and  on  many  other  rivers  which 
run  through  cities  and  towns,  and  the  clearing  away  of  the  weir  at  the 
Broomielaw  Bridge,  and  making  the  river  Clyde  navigable  through  the  city, 
would  be  a  work  of  the  greatest  public  utility,  conferring  advantages  of  the 
most  beneficial  kind,  not  only  on  the  shipping  interests,  but  also  on  the  whole 
population  of  Glasgow. 

The  Govan  Railway  delivers  at  the  harbour  of  Glasgow  annually  from  60 
to  05,000  tons  of  coal ;  and  although  this  railway  will,  in  my  opinion,  con- 
tinue to  increase  in  its  traflic,  yet  I  aui  confident  that  the  opening  of  the  up- 
per navigation  of  the  Clyde  would  be  the  means  of  sending  down  by  water 
considerable  quantities  of  coal  and  other  minerals,  &c.  to  the  shipping  in  the 
harbour  ;  and  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  descending  tidal  and  river  currents 
— a  power  which  costs  nothing — would  offer  every  facility  to  the  transmission 
of  coal  and  other  articles  downwards,  which  could  be  shipjied  at  once  from 
the  barges  or  punts  into  the  ships  and  steamers  lying  in  the  harbour,  without 
encumbering  and  occupying  so  much  of  the  quays,  or  wearing  the  streets  by 
the  constant  cartage  of  s\ich  vast  quantities  of  coal,  which  are  not  only  re- 
quired for  exportation,  but  also  for  the  supply  of  the  numerous  steamers  on 
the  Clyde,  and  those  plying  to  the  ports  of  England  and  Ireland.  Coal- 
lighters,  carrying  about  100  tons,  descend  the  Mersey,  enter  the  docks  of 
Liverpool,  and  supply  the  shipping.  The  facilities  to  river  navigation  which 
the  Clyde  offers,  from  the  harbour  to  a  considerable  distance  above  the  city, 
into  the  coal  and  iron  districts,  are  extremely  inviting  for  the  caiTying  on  of 
a  similar  traflic. 

The  space,  as  already  mentioned,  between  the  Stockwell  and  Broomielaw 
Bridges,  contains  an  area  of  nearly  14  acres.  The  deepening  and  the  con- 
struction of  wharves  within  it,  would  be  less  expensive,  and  would  aflford 
comparatively  more  acconmiodation  to  the  small  shipping  craft,  than  any 
other  place  which  could  be  found  anywhere  within  the  vicinity  of  the  harbotu". 
The  expense  of  the  contemplated  works  will  he  nearly  as  follows  : — 

Masonry,  in  wharves  and  quay-walls,  1350  feet  long  .  .d7,287  11  6 
Deepening  channel,  paving,  cranes,  pauls,  &c  .  .  8,047  17  0 
Securing  Stockwell  Bridge 1,234  11     8 


Total 


.f2G,570     0     2 


It  may  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  deepening  between  the  bridges  to 
two  feet  below  low  water  line,  will  not,  in  my  opinion,  disturb  the  foim- 
dations  of  the  existing  quay-walls  in  the  harbour. 

In  concluding,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  space  between  the  Broomielaw 
and  Stockwell  Bridges,  which  is  now  waste  and  useless,  without  a  raft  of 
timber,  or  even  a  small  boat,  to  adorn  its  surface,  will  very  soon  be  covered 
with  numerous  classes  oT  small  vessels,  presenting  a  scene  of  a  busy  maritime 
trade  neariy  in  the  middle  of  the  city.  And  now  that  railways  are  about  to 
compete  with  the  steam-boat  passenger  trade,  what  immense  advantages 
would  it  confer  on  the  steam  navigation  of  the  river,  if  the  weir  were  re- 
moved, thereby  enabling  the  steamers  sailing  to  all  the  lower  parts  of  the 
Clyde,  to  arrive  and  take  their  departure  from  between  the  bridges,  or  even 
from  the  Broomielaw  Bridge,  which  would  be  so  extreu.ely  convenient  and 
central  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  city. 


1S40.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


417 


BRITISH  MUSEUM.— FUNEREAL  MEMORIALS  OF  ROME. 
fFrom  the  Times.) 

There  are,  perhaps,  few  rooms  in  the  British  >Iuseum  whose  contents 
deserve  or  attract  more  inquiry  and  observation  among  the  generality  of  its 
visitors  than  the  one  appropriated  to  the  funereal  memorials  of  the  Romans, 
and  of  which  less  account  is  given  in  tlie  meagre  synopsis  of  the  institution  ; 
the  other  remains  of  Grecian  or  Egyptian  antiquity  wliich  fill  its  halls,  although 
possibly  placed  with  sufficient  taste  and  judgment,  yet  having  no  connexion 
■with  the  scenery,  if  it  may  he  so  called,  of  the  localities  in  wliich  they  are 
contained  necessarily  lose  much  of  the  effect  tliey  are  calculated  to  produce. 
To  the  artist  who  contemplates  the  beauty  and  boldness  of  their  designs,  or 
the  excellence  of  their  execution,  and  takes  them  as  models  for  his  study,  this 
is  perhaps  scarcely  felt ;  his  taste  may  discern  their  value  ;  hke  the  lapiilary, 
he  is  equally  aware  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  gem  when  it  first  meets  his  view, 
■whether  disguised  by  the  crust  that  nature  gave  it,  or  set  oft"  with  all  the 
splendid  adjuncts  which  art  or  study  can  devise.  Still,  even  the  genius  of  the 
artist  may  become  cramped  and  clouded  in  its  development  from  contemplat- 
ing the  master-pieces  of  antiquity  isolated  and  unconnected  from  the  archi- 
tecture to  which  they  appertain,  and  when,  instead  of  viewing  them  as  part 
of  a  magnificent  whole,  he  sees  them  but  in  a  state  of  chaotic  vagrancy  and 
isolated  decay.  In  contemplating  the  minutiai  of  beauty  displayed  in  the 
dilapidated  or  even  in  the  more  perfect  remains  of  antiquity,  apart  from  tlie 
designs  of  which  they  form  but  a  portion,  the  imagination  necessarily  becomes 
concentrated  and  confined  by  that  which  it  contemplates,  and  however  much 
the  taste  of  the  observer  maybe  improved,  and  however  excellent  may  be  the 
work  he  in  consequence  produces,  yet  in  his  productions  that  sense  of  unity 
and  grandeur  of  thought  is  often  found  ■wanting,  which  is  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  ancient  art.  To  this,  perhaps,  may  be  attributed  those  anomalies 
of  design  whicli  are  to  be  seen  in  almost  all  the  classic  monumental  sculpture 
of  our  cathedrals,  and  also  in  most  of  the  modern  architectural  elevations  of 
the  Greek  and  Roman  school.  The  different  parts  or  sections  of  one  or  the 
other  will  often  be  found  perfect,  but  few  tliere  are  that  taken  as  a  whole  will 
bear  comparison  witli  the  edifices  or  monuments  of  antiquity.  We  mention 
this,  because,  in  the  chamber  we  are  about  to  describe  its  architecture  and 
decorations,  with  the  exception  of  the  northern  side,  form  a  perfect  repre- 
sentation of  a  Roman  columbarium,  or  place  of  family  sepulture  ;  the  urns 
■which  are  in  the  niches  of  the  walls  originally  occupied  similar  positions ;  the 
sculptue  of  few  of  them  possesses  pretensions  to  excellence,  and  had  they 
been  placed  in  a  room  among  a  generality  of  sculptures,  they  probably  would 
have  caused  no  observation,  or  if  any,  contempt;  yet  in  this  chamber,  fitted 
up  in  resemblance  of  those  in  which  tliey  were  found,  tliey  acquire  conse- 
quence, and  well  ■worthy  are  they  of  the  observation  they  attract.  It  is  the 
only  part  of  the  Museum  in  which  the  sculptures  are  in  connexion  witli  the 
edifice,  and  which,  from  that  connexion,  give  a  true  idea  of  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  designed ;  in  the  contemplation  of  them  the  spectator,  with- 
out much  stretch  of  imagination,  might  almost  fancy  himself  in  a  family  se- 
pulchre of  ancient  Rome,  surrounded  by  the  ashes  of  its  members. 

This  saloon  is  entered  from  a  door  in  the  nortliern  side  of  the  statue  gallery ; 
it  is  16  feet  in  length  liy  10  in  breadth,  and  the  height  10  feet ;  the  roof  is 
vaulted  .ind  divided  into  compartments ;  the  colour  gray.  On  either  side, 
cut  in  the  depth  of  the  wall  in  lines  one  above  the  other,  are  niches,  in  which 
are  placed  the  funeral  urns  of  a  family,  and  on  tlie  pavement  on  the  eastern 
and  western  sides  are  some  of  greater  magnitude,  and  also  some  smaller  ones 
placed  on  votive  altars ;  almost  all  of  them  are  richly  sculptured,  and  the 
various  designs  have  an  allusion  either  to  the  mythological  dreams  of  the  an- 
cients, or  represent  some  domestic  scene  :  none  of  tliem  possess  that  cliarac- 
ter  of  awful  simplicity  which  distinguisli  the  la>t  receptacles  of  our  Gothic 
ancestors.  Beneath  some  of  the  niches  are  marble  tablets,  hearing  inscrip- 
tions, and  where  this  is  the  case  within  the  tliickness  of  the  walls  are  enclosed 
earthen  jars,  with  covers,  in  which  the  ashes  of  the  deceased  were  placed. 
The  floor  is  formed  of  Mosaic. 

The  niche  No.  35  contains  a  sarcophagus,  on  the  front  of  which  the  mar- 
riage of  Cupid  and  Psyche  is  sctdptured.  Of  this  Apuleius  gives  tlie  follow- 
ing description  : — "  The  bridegroom  in  the  centre  is  lying  on  a  couch.  Psyche 
'  yrctmio  suo  comple.riis ;'  Jupiter  and  Juno  are  in  the  centre  liehind  in  a  sit- 
ting posture,  and  all  the  gods  according  to  their  rank  are  standing  around ;  a 
bowl  of  nectar  is  passing  from  one  to  the  other.  Jupiter  has  a  particular 
cupbearer  to  himself  to  attend  and  fill.  Bacchus  waits  on  the  others,  while 
Vulcan  ccoks  the  supper ;  the  loaves  are  strewed  with  roses  and  other  flowers, 
and  perfumes  are  scattered  over  all  Ijy  the  graces  :  ■  Mime  voce  canora  per- 
sonabayit !'  Ajjollo  sings  to  the  lyre,  while  Venus  dances  in  time  to  soft  music, 
and  the  graces  sing  in  chorus ;  the  pipe  is  Idowni  Ijy  a  satyr,  and  Pan  plays  on 
the  reed.  The  whole  of  this  is  a  representation  of  the  rites  by  which  Pysche 
is  conferred  on  Cupid."  In  this  piece  of  sculjiture  the  principal  figtn-es  shown 
are  Cupid  and  Psyche,  with  their  immediate  attendants ;  they  are  sitting  on 
a  couch,  in  front  of  which  is  a  small  tripod  table,  on  which  is  a  fish ;  around 
are  the  attendants  playing  on  musical  instruments  in  honour  of  the  bride,  and 
bearing  to  her  wine,  fruit,  and  presents :  the  companion  of  each  of  these  at- 
tendants is  represented  as  a  Cupid  or  a  Pysche,  for  the  ancients  had  many 
Cupids  and  more  than  one  Psyche.  The  ends  of  the  sarcophagus  are  rounded, 
the  length  of  it  is  4  feet  6  inches,  tlie  breadth  IS  inches,  and  the  height  15  ; 
it  was  brought  from  Rome. 

No.  33  is  a  sepulchral  urn  of  an  oblong  form  ;  three  fluted  spiral  columns 


and  two  pilasters  divide  the  front  into  four  compartments,  in  cacli  of  which 
is  a  door  ornamented  on  the  top  with  pendant  garlands  of  laurel  ;  tliere  are 
four  tablets  passing  across  the  upper  part,  one  of  which  has  the  fallowing  in- 
scription on  it :— "  2  C.  JIagio,  F..  Pal.  Heraclida;  V.  A.  xviii. ;"  tlie  others 
are  blank.  The  lid  resembles  those  found  on  the  Etruscan  tombs ;  it  is  like 
two  lids  joined  together  lengthways ;  in  the  centre  is  an  ornament  of  a  rabbit 
feeding  on  fruit  from  a  basket,  on  each  side  of  which  ornament  is  a  deer, 
which  a  serpent  and  a  dog  are  attacking  in  front  and  rear.  Tlie  doors  are 
supposed  to  be  tlie  portals  of  the  abodes  of  departed  spirits,  thev  are  remark- 
able as  having  their  pediments  of  the  shape  generaUv  chosen  for  the  covers  of 
sepulchral  monuments.  At  the  end  of  the  urn  are  two  spears  crossed,  which 
probably  had  some  allusion  to  the  youth  to  whom  it  is  dedicated,  who  per- 
haps took  deliglit  in  the  sports  of  the  chase,  and  who  appears  to  lie  according 
to  the  incription— C.  Magius  Ileraclidaj,  of  the  Palatine  tribe,  tlie  son  of 
Quintus ;  it  has  a  handsome  pediment,  in  which  are  figures  of  dogs  hunting. 

The  niche  which  is  marked  21  contains  an  exceedingly  curious  cineraiy  um 
of  baked  clay ;  the  has  relief  on  tlie  front  rejiresents  the  hero  Echetles  fisht- 
ing  at  the  battle  of  .Marathon  for  the  Greeks,  his  arms  are  a  ploughsliare. 
Upon  the  cover  is  a  female  figure  asleep  in  a  recumbent  position ;  beneath 
her  head  is  a  jiillow.  Pausanias  gives  the  following  account  of  the  circum- 
stances of  tlie  combatant  who  used  so  singular  a  weapon  : — '•  It  happened  in 
this  battle  (as  tliey  say)  that  a  man  dressed  and  having  the  appearance  of  a 
peasant,  and  armed  with  an  agricultural  weapon,  should  appear  when  the 
barbarians  ^^•ere  prevailing,  who  when  lie  liad  slain  a  number  of  them  shotild 
vanish  ;  no  one  knew  him  as  an  Athenian,  but  others  said,  according  to  the 
oracle,  that  he  was  a  native  of  Echetlreum."  On  the  border  of  the  urn  there 
is  an  inscription  over  the  has  relief,  which  is  slightly  cut,  and  has  not  been 
painted.  The  whole  of  this  urn  is  exceedingly  well  designed ;  there  is  great 
spirit  shown  in  the  attitude  of  the  figure  wlio  has  been  forced  down  by  the 
strength  of  the  rustic  weapon  tlie  eftbrt  it  is  making  to  rise  is  true  to  na- 
ture ;  the  figure  with  the  helmet  has  tlie  arms  of  a  Roman  legionary,  but  the 
shields  of  all  the  combatants  are  Grecian ;  much  vigour  and  spirit  is  displayed 
in  the  niele'e  of  the  combat. 

No.  13  is  a  sarchophagus,  on  which  a  family  is  represented  mourning  over 
the  body  of  the  dead ;  the  corpse  is  that  of  a  female  lying  on  a  couch,  whicli 
is  surrounded  liy  the  friends  and  relations  of  the  deceased  :  they  are  exceed- 
ingly well  grouped,  and  the  expressions  of  grief  are  well  designed.  Beneath 
the  couch  are  seen  the  sandals  of  the  departed,  as  also  a  wreath  which  has 
been  used  as  an  ornament  to  the  hair  :  a  dog,  proiialily  a  favourite,  is  also  in- 
troduced, and  appears  as  a  mourner.  On  each  side  of  the  sarchophagus  is  a 
griffin,  resting  on  its  hind  legs ;  the  lid  and  plintli  are  modern.  It  formerly 
stood  in  the  Caprinaca  palace  at  Rome,  and  has  been  several  times  engraved. 
Montf.iucon  mentions  the  sculptures  of  this  monument,  as  illustrating  the 
Roman  manner  of  lamenting  the  dead ;  the  two  figures  close  to  the  couch 
with  their  arms  extended  are  alluded  to  in  the  passage  of  Lucan — "  E.racte 
ad  sai-as  fainnlarum  brachia planetus,"  and  represent  a  singular  part  of  the 
Roman  ceremony,  the  "  erclamatio,"  or  calling  aloud,  on  the  name  of  the 
just  departed,  intended  either  to  arrest  or  call  back  the  flight  of  the  soul,  or 
to  rouse  the  dormant  spirit  in  case  death  should  not  actually  have  taken  place, 
that  the  person  might  not  be  exposed  to  neglect  or  placed  upon  the  funeral 
pile  while  any  breath  of  life  might  still  remain.  It  might  be  curious  to  in- 
quire if  the  singular  custom  of  the  death  wake,  still  so  pertinaciously  adhered 
to  by  liie  Irish  peasantry,  and  to  perform  which  dacently,  as  they  call  it,  the 
poorest  will  s.icrifice  all  they  possess,  and  the  non-performance  of  which  is 
looked  upon  as  a  sacrilege  committed,  derived  its  origin  from  the  custom  of 
ancient,  or  the  priestcraft  of  modern,  Rome.  Xt  each  end  of  the  sculpture 
the  father  and  mother  of  the  deceased  are  standing;  an  old  man  at  the  ex- 
treme end  holds  one  liand  to  liis  eyes,  in  the  other  is  a  funeral  cake.  On 
each  side  of  the  female  are  two  children.  Altogether  there  are  ten  figures  in 
the  group.  Tlie  father  is  sitting  on  a  stool  and  the  mother  in  a  curule-shaped 
chair ;  the  Iiead  of  the  father  is  wrapped  in  a  veil. 

No.  34  is  an  Etruscan  cinerary  urn  of  baked  clay.  The  has  relief  in  front 
represents  the  single  combat  of  Eteecles  and  Polynices,  who  were  both  slain 
in  the  combat ;  the  first  from  a  wound  in  the  groin,  and  the  latter  from  a 
stab  in  the  breast.  The  female  figures  standing  by  the  combatants  are  furies; 
eacli  hold  a  torch  in  one  hand,  while  the  other  is  extended  over  the  antagonist 
encouraging  and  inflaming  the  combat ;  at  each  end,  on  a  pilaster,  is  an 
Etruscan  inscription,  which  is  written  from  the  right  to  the  left  in  red  letters. 
All  the  figures  have  been  painted,  and  some  of  the  colours  yet  remains.  Upon 
the  cover  of  the  monument  is  a  female  figure  asleep.  The  action  of  tlie 
whole  group  is  excellent ;  the  warrior  who  is  down  has  lost  his  helmet ;  his 
hair  is  curled  in  the  Etruscan  fashion.  His  opponent  is  more  completely 
armed,  and  the  manner  in  which  he  forces  the  shield  from  his  opponent,  and 
drops  his  own  while  he  stabs  him  to  the  heart,  is  masterly  designed.  The 
expressions  on  the  countenance  of  each  are  difterent ;  extreme  anguish  in  that 
of  the  fallen,  and  the  exultation  of  victory  in  the  other,  are  strongly  defined; 
the  figure  of  one  of  the  furies  is  sandalled,  while  the  other  is  bare.  The  re- 
presentation of  the  combat  as  here  given  exactly  corresponds  with  the  account 
of  it  by  the  poet  Statius,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he  was  indebted  for  it  to 
these  figures.  It  is  highly  probable  that  this  contest  was  by  no  means  an 
uncommon  suliject  among  the  ancient  artists.  Pausanias  says  that  the  re- 
presentation of  it  made  one  of  the  subjects  which  ornamented  the  sarchophagus 
iu  which  the  tyrant  Cypselas,  of  Corinth,  was  deposited  :  in  that  the  same 
author  mentions  that  Polynices  is  represented  as  having  fallen  on  his  knee, 
which  is  the  exact  attitude  liere  represented" — "£i'  (Edipifilius  Polynicem 

3  L 


41.S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


in  getiii  cellajwim /rater  E/ecclesvrr/e/."     Take  this  sculpture  as  a  whole,  it 
is  one  of  the  most  sjilentlid  specimens  of  sepulchral  uni  in  existence. 

No.  13.     This  is  a  sepulclual  urji  of  a  square  form  :  in  the  centre  of  the 
front  is  a  tablet,  on  which  is  the  following  insci'iption  : — 

"  Dis  manilius 

"  Pelire.  Philtatse 

"  M.  Pilius.  eucarpus 

"  Convgi.  B.  il. 

"  fecit,  ct  sibi." 
At  each  of  the  four  corners  is  an  eagle  j  the  lid  resembles  a  pointed  roof;  in 
the  centre  of  the  face  of  the  urn  is  a  bust  of  Pelia  Philtata,  and  at  the  corners 
are  the  usual  ornaments  of  honeysuckle  llowcrs.  The  particular  for  which 
this  urn  is  remarkable  is  a  iieculiarity  in  the  lid,  which  is  occasioned  by  a 
singular  custom  of  the  ancients,  aud  sometimes  practised  in  honour  of  the 
deceased,  ^^^len  the  funeral  rites  were  performed  it  was  the  custon  at  stateil 
periods  to  \-isit  the  ashes  of  their  friends,  and  to  adorn  their  urns  with  flowers 
and  garlands,  and  to  offer  sacrifices  of  oil  and  wine  to  their  manes.  In  some 
cases  these  visits  arose  from  friendship  or  affection,  but  the  performance  of 
them  was  often  strictly  ordered  by  the  will  of  the  deceased,  and  funds  pro- 
%-ided  for  it.  In  this,  i'n  order  that  it  might  with  greater  convenience  be  com- 
phed  will),  on  the  top  of  the  lid  of  the  urn  a  patera  is  formed,  in  the  bowl  of 
■which  is  an  opening  through  which  the  wine,  oil,  and  ointments  were  poured 
upofi  the  ashes.  Propertius  says—"  Adfert  hao  unguenta  mihi,  sertisipie  se- 
pulcbrum  ornabit,  eustos  ad  mea  hasta  sedens."  Ovid  in  mentioning  libations 
to  the  funeral  urn  says : — 

"  Jam  tanien  extincto  cineri  sua  dona  ferebant, 
"  Compositique  nepos  btfsta  piabat  avi." 
On  the  left  side  of  the  doorway  as  you  enter  is  a  sepulchral  urn  dedicated  by 
riavia  Dada,  and  by  Fortunatu's,  a  freed  man  of  the  Emperor,  to  the  metnory 
of  her  deserving  husband,  aud  his  most  worthy  father,  Admetus,  a  superin- 
tendent of  the  furniture  of  the  Imperial  Palace,  and  also  a  freed  man.  Above 
this  inscription  is  a  has  reUef  representing  the  "  cffifia  feraUs,"  or  funeral 
feast.  Naked  to  the  waist  is  the  figure  of  Admetus  reclining  on  a  couch ;  in 
his  left  hand  he  holds  a  large  cup  or  vessel,  and  in  his  right  a  wreath ;  ac- 
cording to  the  Eouian  custom  at  feasts,  his  head  is  decorated  with  a  garland  ; 
two  children  naked  are  sitting  at  his  feet ;  behind  is  a  female  attendant,  who 
is  supporting  his  body  ;  the  hair  of  this  figure  is  singularly  bound  on  tlie  front 
of  the  head  in  a  knot.  All  these  attendants  are  dwarfish  in  their  proportions, 
as  was  frequently  the  case  when  inferior  persons  or  slaves  were  represented 
on  the  ancient  sculptures.  These  representations  of  the  funeral  feast  are 
curious  and  interesting :  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  enter  into  the  feelings  which 
dictated  thetii ;  yet  the  custom  of  offering  the  funeral  cake  and  wine  at  the 
present  day  may  have  derived  its  origin  from  it ;  we  kno\v  not  in  what  light 
the  ancients  regarded  a  future  existence,  Iiut  these  scfilptures  sufficiefitly  in- 
dicate their  hopes,  though  they  show  the  indistinctness  of  their  ideas ;  here 
are  the  monnied  dead,  represented  as  exercising  the  animal  functions  of  life  ; 
elegances  are  displayed  to  please  the  eye,  food  and  wine  to  gratify  the  taste, 
often  music  to  charm  the  ear,  atid  garlands  to  perfume  the  air,  and  to  these 
enjoyments  are  addcil  the  presence  of  their  fiiends  who  are  yet  in  existence ; 
thus' the  living  and  the  dead,  the  spu-itual  and  the  material  worid,  are  asso- 
ciated together  in  one  common  act ;  circumstances  are  represented  in  the 
history  of  vfhich  we  can  hardly  participate  or  understand,  l)ut  by  which  we 
may  perceive  that  the  ancients  did  cfitertain  notions,  though  inaccurate  and 
ill-defined,  of  a  future  state.  The  urn  is  ornamented  at  the  top  with  gariands, 
which  take  the  shape  of  volutes,  the  ends  of  which  terminate  in  a  rose.  The 
pra;fericnlum  and  patula  are  scidptured  on  the  sides  of  the  urn.  The  top  has 
never  been  separated  from  the  body  ;  it  has  a  large  circular  excavation  in  the 
middle,  about  seven  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  room,  in  the  niche,  the  third  as  you  enter,  is  an 
urn  different  from  fuost  of  the  others,  aud  yen-  rarely  fuet  with,  being  square, 
and  of  an  upright  shape ;  it  is  enriched  by  a  festoon  of  laurel  leaves.  On  it 
is  this  inscription  in  fovtr  Mnes : — "  Vernasire  Cycladi.  Conivgi  optima,  vix. 
ann.  xxviii.  vitalis,  Aug.  1.  scrib.  cv.  B.''  The  figures  of  a  man  and  his  wife 
are  represented  as  standing  beneath  a  portico,  the  roof  or  which  resembles 
that  of  a  sepulchral  urn ;  they  are  in  the  act  of  joining  hands ;  between  them 
are  the  letters  F.  A.  P.  Lighted  torches,  placed  in  an  upright  position,  form 
the  corners  of  this  urn,  each  side  of  which  is  embellished  with  a  la\ucl  tree  ; 
a  WTCath  is  placed  on  the  centre  of  the  lid,  and  a  dolphin  at  each  corner. 
The  intetition  of  the  portico  on  the  monument  is  in  allusion  to  the  entrance 
of  the  habitation  of  departed  spirits,  where  the  wife  must  take  a  long  farewell 
of  her  partner.  Among  the  Romans  in  the  earlier  times  of  the  empire  their 
funeral  ceremonies  were  alwnys  performed  at  night,  which  was  formerly  also 
the  custom  in  this  country,  and  the  torches  at  the  corners  allude  to  it ;  and 
even  at  a  later  date  wlien  the  funerals  took  place  in  the  day  time,  lighted 
ones  always  formed  part  of  the  accompaniment ;  those  placed  here  are  of  the 
sort  called  "  ta:die,"  being  the  semblance  of  a  nufuber  of  tine  slips  tied  toge- 
ther with  thongs.  The  dolphins  relate  to  that  superstition  of  the  ancients 
wliieh  supposed  that  the  spirits  of  the  dead  were  conveyed  by  them  across 
the  seas  to  the  liapjiy  abodes  of  the  blessed.  Vitalis,  who  by  the  inscription 
erected  this  moiuunent  to  the  memory  of  his  beloved  wife,  Yernasia  Cyclax, 
seems  to  have  been  a  freed  man  of  the  Emperor,  and  a  favourite,  as  he  held 
au  oflice  similar  to  that  of  private  secretaiy  ;  the  letters  "  F.  A.  P.,"  between 
the  figures,  denote  that  the  tomb  was  erected  by  order  of  the  ffidiles.  No. 
6,  is  a  small  slab  let  into  the  wall,  it  shows  the  manner  in  which  the  inemorj' 


of  the  favoured  dependents  of  a  family  were  preserved ; 
tion — 


on  it  is  this  iuscrip- 


SERVILIA 


IRENE. 


ANNIOLENA 

T.  F. 

MAXIMA 

Within  the  wall  which  it  faces  are  two  oUae  or  circiUar  vases  of  earthenware, 
somewhat  of  the  shape  of  the  alabaster  one  near  the  centre  on  the  south  side 
of  the  room,  in  it  were  deposited  the  ashes  of  the  two  persons  whose  names 
are  recorded  on  the  slab  in  front.  The  lids  of  these  vases  alone  are  visible, 
which  can  be  taken  off,  to  allow  hbations  to  be  poured  which  the  jiious  affec- 
tion of  survinng  friends  might  offer  to  the  memory  of  the  departed.  Some- 
times in  family  tombs  four  or  more  excavations  were  made  in  each  niche,  in 
general  they  are  found  sufficiefitly  large  at  the  top  to  allow  the  urn  to  be  taken 
out,  but  occasionally,  as  in  this,  they  are  so  constructed  at  the  mouth  that 
the  space  does  not  allow  of  the  removal. 

In  the  centre  of  the  room  is  a  mosaic  pavement,  which  in  the  year  1805 
was  found  on  making  some  repairs  under  the  south-western  angle  of  the  Bank 
of  England,  about  20  feet  west  of  the  westcrmost  gate,  opening  into  Lothbury ; 
it  was  11  feet  beneath  the  surface,  the  design  is  handsome  and  well  executed, 
but  the  workmanship  is  evidently  inferior,  and  probably  that  of  a  native  artist. 
The  outer  border  is  composed  of  pieces  of  brick.  It  is  not  sepidchral,  nor  is 
it  connected  with  the  other  objects  here  :  it  endently,  from  the  cross  in  the 
centre,  was  made  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  the  island. 

On  the  south  side,  near  the  centre  compartment  of  the  room,  placed  on  au 
altar,  is  a  sepulchral  urn  without  either  inscription  or  decoi'ation ;  it  has 
handles  and  a  cover,  the  shape  is  exceedingly  elegant,  the  material  of  which 
it  is  made  is  the  alabaster  of  the  ancients,  which  is  of  a  yellowish  colour  with 
pinkish  stripes ;  near  it  there  is  auotlier  of  the  shape  of  a  truncated  cone, 
w  hich  has  a  cover  and  veiy  small  handles  ;  the  stripes  on  it  are  more  strongly 
defined  ;  the  colour  is  the  same,  as  is  also  the  substance  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed ;  the  height  of  it  is  20  inches,  the  diameter  at  the  top  8^,  and  at  the 
bottom  12. 

The  saloons  containing  the  Elgin  and  Phigalian  marbles  have  lately,  after 
a  variety  of  trials,  been  coloured  in  imitation  of  rose-colomed  Egyptian  por- 
phyry,  and  the  roof  of  grayish  granite  ;  time  may  in  some  degree  reduce  the 
luxuriancy  and  briUiancy  of  the  colour ;  at  present,  perhaps,  the  rosy  warmth 
which  it  throws  over  the  apartments  somewhat  hurts  the  effect  of  the  sculp- 
tures. The  brown  and  dark  appearance  which  time  has  given  to  these  mas- 
ter-pieces of  antiquity  is  comproiuised  by  the  blooming  walls  by  which  they 
are  surrounded  and  supported,  their  look  of  youthful  pretention  and  roseate 
bloom  but  badly  harmonizes  with  the  severity  of  age.  The  monstrosities  of 
Egypt  in  the  adjoining  halls  would  have  been  more  in  keeping  with  that 
mythias  of  colour  by  which  their  neighbours  in  a  great  degree  are  eclipsed 
and  overwhelmed. 


ON  DRY  ROT. 

I  Has  desirous  of  taking  only  a  partial  view  of  this  subject,  and  of  confin- 
ing my  observations  to  that  species  of  Dry-rot  vhicb  is  common  in  new 
buildings  ;  wilhout  encountering  what  is  known  by  that  name,  which  at  one 
time  threatened  the  extermination  of  the  British  Navy,  and  is  by  some  attri- 
buted to  the  Fungi  Sporotrichi,  but  I  attempted  in  vain  to  make  the  distinc- 
tion.* 

The  rot  which  I  allude  to.  might  be  more  properly  called  the  damp-rot, 
or  wet-rot,  than  the  dry-rot,  for  it  appears  to  arise  i'rom  coyifitiecl  moisture  ; 
and  the  prevention  as  well  as  the  cure  for  it.  I  believe,  may  consist  in  merely 
giving  the  confined  moisture  an  opportunity  to  escape,  by  the  admission  of 
air.  1  do  not  mean  to  say  that  atmospheric  air  is  a  specific,  by  the  adminis- 
tering of  which  rotton  wood  can  be  made  sound  ;  but  I  do  mean  to  express 
my  belief,  that  the  introduction  of  air,  even  in  small  quantiiies,  will  effectually 
arrest  the  destructive  progress  of  the  dry-rot. 

1  will  mention  two  instances  now  existing  of  this  dry-rot  in  two  new 
churches,  namelv,  that  of  Trinity  Church,  Oswestry,  and  the  New  Church  at 
AberystH ilh.  The  fonuer  is  built  of  rublde-stone  oi  the  neighbourhood,  from 
Sweeney  Mountain,  which  is  a  free-stone,  with  a  large  proportion  of  mortar  ; 
the  latter  is  built  of  rubble-stone  of  that  neighbourhood,  which  is  of  a  slaty 
quality,  with  a  large  proportion  also  of  mortar.  In  lioth  these  cases  the  ends 
of  the"  pews  are  closely  fitted  with  framed  panels  of  deal  upon  damp  walls, 
good  oak  floors  in  the  former,  and  I  think  in  the  latter  also,  and  risers  of 
deal  under  the  pew  doors.  The  eftects  of  this  dry-rot  have  become  very  con- 
spicuous in  both  instances,  by  an  exlensive  destruction  of  the  wood  work, 
against  the  w  alls,  and  under  the  doors  of  the  pews  :  upon  removing  the  panels 
Stc,  it  was  found  that  a  ])arasitic  fungus  has  made  extensive  ramifications, 
and  the  deal  is  very  much  decayed,  but  the  oak  has  as  yet  sull'ered  compara- 
tively little  injury.  I  believe,  that  if  a  perforated  plate'  containing  apertures 
equal  to  tliree  or  four  square  inches  had  been  inserted  in  the  upper  panel, 
fixed  to  the  wall  in  each  pew,  and  the  like  under  each  door,  the  mischief 
would  not  have  happened;  and  that  if  these  means  of  ventilation  were  re- 
sorted to  now,  they  would  stop  the  progress  of  the  drv-rot.  But  I  do  not 
know  any  thing  more  certain  to  produce  the  dry-rot  tluin  what  I  have  just 
noticed,  and  eonseqiienlly  nothingcould  put  any  expedient  for  the  prevention 
or  cure  of  the  evil  to  a  severer  test  than  to  have  thus  impounded  the  moisture. 
A  pretty  little  gothic  pattern,  weighing  three-quarters  of  a  pound,  has  been 


*  The  following  Fungi  are  considered  as  the  cause  of  dry-rot ;— Boletus 
laehrymans,  Merulius  lachrymans,  Polyporus  destructor,  and  the  genus 
Sprorotrichum. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


419 


prepared  ami  partially   put  up  in  Trinity  Church,  for  ventilating  the  parts 
afi'ected  with  dry-rot. 

The  growth  of  the  parasitic  plant,  and  the  decay  of  the  wood  coming  into 
contact  with  it,  seeming  to  he  in  a  great  degree  contemporaneous.  1  am  not 
prepareil  to  say  which  is  the  cause,  and  wliicli  is  the  efTect  of  the  other  ;  but 
X  think  that  the  growth  of  the  plant  takes  precedence  of  the  destruction  of 
the  wood. 

I  shall  relate  two  or  three  facts  which  have  come  within  my  knowledge, 
because  they  strengthen  my  conviction  as  to  the  most  effectual  means  for  the 
prevention  .and  cure  of  the  dry-rot. 

The  usual  manner  of  preparing  the  walls  of  a  house  for  skirting-boards,  and 
fixing  (hem,  is  likely  to  pruduce  the  dry-rot.  as  thus : — a  coat  of  mortar 
mixed  with  pounded  glass  tills  up  very  closely  the  space  behind  the  sk-rting- 
boards,  to  prevent  mice  from  having  a  run  iHere.  and  a  moulded  cap  of  wood 
is  rabbeted  and  put  up  for  receiving  the  plain  board :  on  the  door  is  sprigged 
down  a  rib  of  wood,  of  about  one  inch  squ  re,  for  the  whole  side  of  a  room, 
without  any  intermission,  and  the  skirting-board  is  then  scribed  and  closely 
fitted  to  the  Moor,  he. 

In  a  new  house  the  walls  and  the  plaister  may  not  be  perfectly  dry.  and 
the  same  mischief  which  has  been  described  in  the  pews  of  a  church  is  likely 
10  occur,  and  does  so  continually,  in  the  decay  of  the  skirting-boards,  parti- 
cularly on  the  ground  floor  ;  but  I  think  that  it  happens  less  frequently  when 
there  are  arched  cellars  below,  which  m  ly  carry  off  some  of  the  moisture.  A 
little  of  the  water  in  washing  the  floor,  the  skirting-board  being  in  a  dry 
state,  will  find  its  uay  behind  it,  and  increase  its  liability  to  decay,  by  im- 
pounding a  little  more  moisture. 

I  Iiave  observed  this  to  take  place  to  some  extent  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years 
after  a  house  has  been  built,  but  not  perceived  till  the  damage  w  ,s  consider- 
able, because  the  paint  will  conceal  it.  In  replacing  the  skirting-board  in- 
stead of  a  continuous  rib  of  A\-ood  sprigged  on  the  floor,  I  have  taken  jiieces 
of  a  foot  or  foot  and  half  in  length,  leaving  a  vacant  space  of  two  or  three 
inches  between  them,  and  not  fitfing  the  skirting-boards  very  closely  to  the 
floor,  so  that  a  small  circulation  of  air  may  be  preserved  ;  and  no  decay  has 
occurred  in  a  similar  period,  at  least  I  can  answer  for  a  term  of  thir'y-five 
years  from  the  erection  of  the  buibiing. 

When  a  new  mansion  house  is  to  be  built,  it  often  happens  that  a  certain 
quantity  of  sound  limber  I'rom  an  old  house  is  to  be  made  use  of,  in  the  shape 
of  beams,  joists,  Sec.  and  the  old  beams  and  joists  are  apt  to  be  immediately 
applied  to  the  ground  floor,  which  is  a  great  mistake.  An  instance  of  this 
having  occurred  within  my  knowledge,  I  must  give  a  minute  account  of  facts 
and  consequences  in  order  to  bring  them  to  bear  on  the  points  which  are  un- 
der consideration. 

The  front  of  the  house  faces  the  west,  and  consists  of  two  principal  rooms 
extending  length-ways  to  the  right  and  left  of  an  entrance  room,  the  floors 
being  three  steps  above  the  ground  ;  and  1  am  pretty  sure  that  the  joists,  if 
not  the  beams  also,  were  of  uld  timber:  the  boarded  floors  were  of  the  best 
Baltic  oak,  prepared  and  finished  in  the  most  careful  manner.  Beneath  these 
front  rooms  there  are  no  cellars,  but  arched  cellars  extend  under  all  the  back 
rooms,  which  appe,ar  to  have  prevented  the  evil  that  I  am  about  to  describe 
as  havi:  g  occurred  in  the  floors  of  the  two  principal  rooms. 

In  the  course  of  twenty  or  t^\■enty-five  years  from  the  building  of  thehouse, 
the  deal  skirting-boards  on  the  outwai'd  walls  were  found  to  have  decayed, 
particularly  on  the  west,  and  the  floor  sunk  nearly  an  inch  in  some  places 
from  the  skirting-boards.  It  was  evident  that  the  joists  had  failed  at  their 
insertion  into  the  outward  walls.  The  floor  was  then  taken  up  for  an  open- 
ini,  suflicient  to  admit  a  man  with  alighted  candle,  who  crawled  on  his  hands 
and  knees  under  the  floor,  to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  mischief:  the  para- 
sitic pi  :nt  or  the  dry-rot  had  got  so  great  a  footing,  that  it  became'a  question 
whether  the  whole  of  the  tw  o  floors  ought  not  to  have  been  taken  up  ;  but  it 
was  at  length  resolved  to  try  the  eflect  of  a  less  expensive  operation,  w  hich 
at  tile  present  time,  after  a  lapse  of  ten  or  fifteen  yeirs,  seems  to  have  an- 
swered perfectly  well.  Several  new  oak  joists  were  j^laced  crossways  beneath 
those  which  had  partially  failed,  and  as  nearly  as  conveniently  might  be  to 
the  decayed  ends  of  those  joists  which  had  wholly  or  in  part  lost  their  holds 
upon  the  outward  walls,  propping  the  new  joists  with  bricks,  slates,  and 
stones  ;  and  the  skirting-boards  were  then  replaced  in  the  manner  before 
described. 

But  the  thing  on  which  the  greatest  reliance  is  to  be  placed  was  the  pre- 
paration to  be  made  fi  r  the  circulation  cjf  air  beneath  the  floors:  plates  of 
iron  were  cast  three  inches  square,  perforated  w  ith  many  holes  of  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  diameter,  four  of  these  plates  were  applied  to  each  of  the  two 
rooms,  two  distantly  from  each  other,  at  the  two  outward  sides  of  the  walls, 
below  the  floors,  and  two  on  either  side  of  the  fire-places  in  the  floors,  wdiereby 
a  continual  circulation  of  air  w'as  established,  and  his  ever  since  been  kept 
up  :  and  I  conceive  that  the  progress  of  the  dry-rot  is  stopt,  while  the  supply 
of  air  required  for  the  fires  is  materially  assisted. 

The  disagreeable  mouldy  smell  of  dampness  accompanying  the  dry-rot  was 
evident  enough  as  soon  as  the  floor  was  opened,  and  continued  to  be  less  and 
less  perceptible  for  months,  or  perhaps  years,  thr,  ugh  the  small  g:-ates  ;  but 
those  near  the  fire-places  were  covered  occasionally:  the  grates  had  better 
have  been  made  of  brass  one-;hii\l  or  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick.  I  shall 
bring  forward  only  one  more  instance,  to  prove  that  confined  moisture  is  the 
cause  of  the  dry-rot,  and  I  must  again  be  very  minute,  that  I  may  be  the  bet- 
ter able  to  support  my  suggestions  when  I  attempt  to  apply  them  to  general 
purposes. 

About  the  year  1820,  or  a  little  later,  there  was  occasion  to  build  a  new 
sitting-room  tit  a  farm-house,  and  the  site  fixed  upon  was  over  a  cellar,  then 
roofed  as  a  shed  or  lean-to  :  the  new  floor  was  approached  by  four  steps  out 
of  the  kitchen,  the  walls  were  built  of  rubble-stone  eighteen  inches  thick,  the 
size  of  the  room  is  14ft.  y  in.  by  11  ft.  6  in. — the  floor  over  a  slope,  and  from 
four  to  two  feet  above  the  grtamd,  w  hile  a  grate  of  seven  inches  square  venti- 
lates the  cellar  from  the  north. 

The  object  of  this  is  to  show  in  how  short  a  time  the  new  floor  was  totally 
destroyed  by  the  dry-rot,  without  in  any  way  accounting  for  it,  but  from  the 
floor  itself.    The  joists  were  cut  out  of  sound  poplar,  probably  the  upper  or 


inferior  parts  of  trees,  and  between  the  joists  were  nailed  ribs  of  wood  to  sup- 
port short  pieces  of  boards  for  grouting  in  the  usual  manner  of  counter-ceil- 
ing, the  floor  was  neatly  laid  with  inch  poplar  boards  well  seasoned,  planed, 
and  of  the  best  quality. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  months,  I  believe,  the  floor  joists,  boards,  S:c.  were 
entirely  decayed,  excepting  a  few  feet  near  to  the  door  out  of  the  kitchen, 
which  were  only  partially  so.  Although,  1  believe,  that  the  decay  was  very 
rapid,  I  can  only  assert  from  recollection  of  some  other  particular  occur- 
rences, that  in  the  course  of  three  years  the  room  was  built,  the  one  floor 
laid,  that  floor  decayed,  and  a  new  floor  put  up,  which  is  perfectly  sound  at 
the  present  lime,  after  a  lapse  of  more  than  17  years 

The  present  floor  is  mule  of  oak  teams  and  joists,  and  very  good  poplar 
boards,  without  any  ceiling  or  laths  and  plaister  under  them. 

The  »  ay  I  w  oiild  account  for  this  extraordinary  instance  of  dry-rot  is,  that 
the  walls  were  damp  when  the  first-mentioned  floor  was  laid,  and  that  the 
counter-ceiling  was  very  damp,  that  the  boards  were  dry  and  closely  fitted, 
that  a  fire  h  as  rarely  (if  ever)  used  in  this  room,  and  that  the  progress  of  the 
dry-rot  was  extremely  swift,  as  it  would  be  in  any  case  under  similar  circum- 
stances of  confined  muisture. 

I  may  mention  chamljer  floors  of  poplar  boards  at  the  present  time,  over  a 
considerable  extent  of  kitchen  and  other  ofiices,  which  have  been  laid  down 
for  thirty-five  years,  and  are  as  sound  now  as  tliey  ever  were  :  although  I 
have  seen  poplar  boards  used  as  window  shelves  in  inferior  apartments,  and 
in  some  other  ways,  which  have  gone  into  complete  decay,  grub-eaten  or 
otherwise,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years. 

The  reader  who  may  have  wailed  through  tho  details  of  facts,  which  I  have 
thought  necessarv  for  my  purpose,  may  wish  to  have  the  conclusions  drawn 
from  tliem  recapitulated  in  a  few  short  sentences,  as' thus  :— That  wherever 
joiner's  work  is  to  be  fitted  to  newly-built  walls,  there  should  be  means 
taken  for  the  circtilation  of  a  little  air.  That  the  beam,  and  joists  used  for 
the  ground  floor  of  a  house  should  be  of  British  oak,  larch,  or  best  foreign 
deal.  That  the  ends  of  beams  or  joists  inserted  into  the  outward  walls  of  a 
new  house,  on  the  ground  floor,  should  be  eased  with  sheet  lead,  zinc,  or 
cast  iron,  all  impervious  to  moisture,  but  not  too  tightly  fitted,  for  fear  of 
the  sap's  producing  confined  moisture  ;  or  they  might  be  secured  at  their 
ends  with  cases  made  on  purpose  of  fire-brick  clay,  or  other  clay  impervious 
to  moisture.  I  have  used  cast-iron  sockets  and  fire-brick  cases  very  satis- 
fectorily.  That  the  wooden  ribs  upon  whicli  the  lower  edges  of  the  skirting 
boards  are  to  be  nailed  should  not  be  in  continued  lengths,  without  some 
intermission.  That  wherever  floors  are  laid  with  stone  bricks,  or  slate  flags, 
the  skirtings  should  be  made  of  slate-flags  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to 
one  inch  in  thickness,  with  one  sawed  edge.  That  in  servants'  halls  and 
other  oHices.  where  it  may  be  desirable  for  the  skirting  or  dado  to  extend  to 
the  height  of  three  feet  or  more,  slate-flags  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  cr- 
one inch  thick,  might  very  properly  be  preferred  to  wood,  but  capped  with  a 
grooved  ledge  of  wood  ;  these  slate-flags  being  worth  only  about  9cl.  the 
square  yard. 

Many  of  the  particulars  respecting  the  rooms  which  have  been  affected 
with  dry-rot  may,  as  I  have  observed  before,  appear  trivial,  or  even  ludi- 
crous ;  but  when  it  is  recollected  that  we  have  been  alluding  to  facts  that 
oceurre  1  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago,  and  which  engaged  attention  only  for 
the  moment,  I  wish  to  state  what  is  still  to  be  seen  ;  and  more  particularly 
to  sh"W,  that  there  was  nothing  in  the  position  nor  dimensions  of  the  room 
last-mentioned,  neither  door,  window,  chimney,  nor  any  other  circumstance, 
whereby  such  an  eflect  of  dry-rot  could  have  been  produced  or  promoted, 
excepting  only  by  the  confined  moisture,  and  to  which  al  ine  the  dry-rot  is  to 
be  attributed. 

A  simnle  remedy  for  any  grievance  is  sometimes  unpopular,  aiid  you  may 
be  advised  to  poison  unwelcome  vegetation  as  you  would  rats,  without  con- 
s  dering  that  poison,  like  gun-powder  or  steam,  is  not  a  thing  to  be  played 
with.*  Is  it  not  more  reasonable  to  trace  a  mischief,  if  possible,  to  its  cause, 
and  by  removing  or  counteracting  the  cause,  endeavour  to  prevent  or  arrest 
the  progress  of  the  eflect  ?  .Suppose  that  a  ship  may  be  liable  to  dry-rot, 
from  confined  moisture  and  the  sap  ( juicej  of  unseasoned  tiinber,t  the  natural 
remedy  would  be  to  give  a  change  and  circulation  to  the  stagnant  atmosphere 
by  ventilation  :  I  see  no  reason  why  dry-rot  in  a  ship  might  not  be  prevented 
or  arrested  by  a  suflicient  number  of  small  grates,  wliich  have  been  used  so 
successfully  about  ilie  floors  of  the  two  rooms  as  above  described.— «ato/jia« 
Journal. 


ON  THE  ECONOMY  OF  RAISING  WATER  FROM  COAL  MINES  ON 
THE  CORNISH  PRINCIPLE. 

At  the  annual  meeting  of  the  members  of  the  Manchester  Geological  Society, 
held  at  their  rooms,  on  Thursday,  the  29th  October,  Mr.  Fairbairn  read  a 
communication  •■  On  the  Ecenomy  of  raising  Water  from  Coal  Mines  on  the 
Cornish  Principle."  In  introducing  his  piper  to  the  meeting,  Mr.  tairbairn, 
after  explaining  the  sections  of  the  engine  and  pumps  made  by  him  lor  some 
Belgian  coal  mines,  said,  that  the  improvements  introduced  ot  late  years  into 
the  Cornish  engines,  w  ere  of  so  important  a  nature  as  to  be  high.y  worthy 
the  attention  of  the  miners  of  this  district.  They  had  not.  till  very  lately, 
the  slightest  conception  of  the  great  saving  effected  by  the  performance  of 

'■■  Corrosive  sublimate  is  the  only  known  specific,  mineral  or  vegetable,  for 
preventing  the  growth  of  the  dry-rot  fungi,  and  which,  I  believe,  has  formed 
the  basis  of  Mr.  Kyan's  patent.  . 

T  Oak  would  require  less  seasoning,  and  be  much  fitter  tor  use,  it  it  were 
cut  down  in  winter  instead  of  in  spring.  I  recollect,  some  fifteen  or  twenty 
years  ago.  observing  a  sound  oak  plank  in  the  gable  end  of  a  house  which 
was  under  repair:  some  of  the  sap  (alburnum)  and  bark  was  still  on  the  oak, 
and  very  slighily  grub-eaten,  although  it  might  have  been  in  the  building 
an  hundred  years,  perhaps,  or  more,  on  the  inside  of  an  outward  wall,  nogged 
with  bricks,  and  never  had  been  covered  with  plaister  nor  colour  of  any  sort. 

3  L  2 


420 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


llie  Cornisli  oi>gincs.  wliich  Mas  so  groat  tiiat  the  pressure  of . steam  in  the 
cylinder,  wliicli  wou'd  amount  td  7,500  ll>.  per  square  inch,  would  raise  nearly 
double  the  amount  of  any  in  the  neighbourhood,  chiefly  from  the  advanlaffe"s 
of  the  exnan>ive  principle  adopted  in  the  Cornish  engine.  Mr.  Fairbairn  then 
proceeded  with  liis  paper,  of  which  the  following  is  an  abstract : — 

"  The  steam  engine  performs  so  important  a  i  art  in  almost  all  the  transac- 
tions of  man,  where  great  power  is  required,  that  the  progressive  nnprove- 
ments  of  this  mighty  agent,  indispensable  to  the  miner,  must  be  regarded 
with  interest  by  all.  By  the  geologist  its  improvement  will  be  looked  at  with 
additional  pleasure,  since  by  its  means  he  is  enabled  to  explore  the  earth  to  a 
much  greater  depth  than  he  otherwise  could  have  done.  For  this  reason.  I 
liave  thought  it  might  not  be  out  of  place  to  give  here  some  account  of  the 
progress  of  the  steam  engine  during  the  last  120  years,  mentioning  the  dates 
of  its  leading  improvements. 

"  From  the  time  of  Savery  and  Newcomen,  in  1707,  to  that  of  Beighton,  in 
1717,  it  remained  stationary,  till  1769,  when  Sme  ton  introduced  considerable 
improvements  U|ion  atmospheric  engines,  the  average  duty  from  fifteen  of 
which  amounted  to  5,590,000 lbs.,  lified  one  foot  high  by  a  bushel  of  coal* 
These  improvements  continued  ;  and  the  duty,  in  1772,  was  raised  to  9,450,000 
lbs. 

"  Mr.  Watt's  improvements  commenced  in  177G,  when  the  average  duty 
was  declared  at  21,600,000— more  than  double  that  of  .Smeaton's  ;  and,  during 
the  years  1778-9,  it  was  still  further  increased. 

"In  1779.  and  from  that  to  1788.  Mr.  Watt  introduced  the  improvement  of 
working  steam  expansively,  which  raised  the  duty  to  26,600.000.  From  1788 
to  1812,  few,  if  any  improvements  were  made  in  the  Cornish  engines;  and, 
provided  we  except  the  plunger  pole,  which  was  introduced  about  this  time, 
I  question  whether  the  Cornish  engineers  and  miners  did  not  retrograde  rather 
tlian  advance  during  a  period  of  tw  enty-lbur  years. 

"In  1814  considerable  advances  were  made,  which  raised  the  duty  to 
32,000,000 lbs.  During  that  year,  Woolf 's  engine,  with  two  cylinders,  was 
introduced,  which  again  advanced  the  duty  to  54,000,000  lbs. 

"  Mr.  Woolf,  above  all  others,  did  most  for  the  Cornish  engines,  by  show- 
ing the  advantages  peculiar  to  high  pressure  steam,  and  prepared  for  suljse- 
quent  improvements,  wliich  led  to  the  present  efiective  system  of  expansive 
working. 

"During  a  period  of  six  y'cars,  from  1814  to  1820.  Woolf 's  double  cylinder 
engine  maintained  its  superiority,  and  gave  a  higher  duty  than  any  other. 

"  Woolf 's  engine,  in  process  of  time,  gave  way  to  others  of  a  better  con- 
struction. They  were  intr.  duced  by  Captain  Samuel  Grose,  whose  experi- 
ments upon  the  generation  and  preservation  of  heat  led  to  great  improvements, 
and  ultimately  established  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Cornisli  engine. 

"  In  1826,  Captain  Grose's  engine,  at  Wheal  Hope,  attained  a  duty  of 
62,000.000  lbs. ;  and,  in  .July  of  the  following  year,  one  of  Mr.M'oolf  "s  single 
cylinder  engines  performed  the  unpreccdented'duty  of  07  million. 

"  From  this  time  Captain  Grose's  improvements  were  appreciated,  and 
generally  introduced  ;  they  led  to  a  slill  greater  advance  in  the  duty,  wliich 
this  year  reached  as  high  as  87  million  Ibs^ 

•■  Messrs.  Lean  and  Brothers  report  the  duty  of  a  few  of  the  Cornish  en- 
gines at  this  time  as  follow  ; — 

Millions  lbs. 

Wheal  Towan  Engine    87'0 

Wheal  Hope    74  8 

Consols 676 

Binner  Downs 63  5 

Consols    61-7 

Consols 61-3 

Wheal  Vor 611 

Wheal  Towan.  (Druce's) 59"4 

Consols 584 

PoUlice 57-8 

Wheal  Vor 51-9 

These  give  a  mean  duty  of  sixty-four  millions  of  pounds. 
"Nothing  remarkable  took  place  till  1834,  when  the  duty  was  raised  to 
90  millions  lbs  Since  then,  it  has  continued  to  increase  in  the  ratio  of  90, 
100,  and  llOmillions  :  and  during  the  last  meeting  of  tlie  British  Association, 
at  Glasgow,  Mr.  Taylor  reported  the  present  duty  at  the  unequalled  perform- 
ance of  123.  300.593. 

"  Having  briefly  stated  the  progressive  improvements  that  have  taken  place 
in  the  Cornish  system  of  pumping,  I  would  now  direct  the  attention  of  the 
society  to  the  important  results  which  these  improvements  have  produced. 

"  The  quantity  of  coals  consumed  by  all  the  engines  w  orking  at  the  mines 
in  Cornwall,  in  the  year  1835,  was.  according  to  Messrs.  Lean  and  Brothers, 
1,669,421  bushels.  Now,  if  we  compare  this  with  the  number  of  bushels 
which  would  have  been  consumed  to  produce  tlie  same  power  iit  1814,  we 
should  have,  for  the  consumption  at  that  iicriod,  4,049,878  bushels,  making  a 
saving  of  99,18';  tons;  which  taken  at  n.s.  per  ton,  (the  price  of  coal  in 
Cornwall.)  we  have  the  enormous  saving  of  £84,308. 

"  From  the  above  facts,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  that  the  improvements  in 
steam  engines,  and  the  consequent  saving  thus  effected  in  the  consumption  of 
fuel,  are  matters  of  deep  importance.  Lven  in  districts  where  coal  is  cheap, 
it  is  a  consideraticm  well  w  orthy  of  attention  ;  and  we  are  assured  by  geolo- 
gists, that  the  coal  of  this  country,  although  abundant,  will  not  last  for 
ever." 

In  the  cotirse  of  a  very  interesting  discussion  which  followed  the  reading  of 
the  paper,  Mr.  l''airbaim  said,  he  might  mention  that  so  great  was  the  saving 
from  the  improveil  system  of  w  orking  tlic  Cornish  engines,  that  it  was  not 
improbable  that,  in  this  neighbourhood,  we  might  come  back  to  the  old  sys- 
tem of  power  for  factories-     If  the  duty  performed  by  the  Cornish  engine  was 

*  Duty  is  a  teim  first  used  liy  Mr.  Watt  for  ascertaining  the  comparative 
merits  of  steam  engines.  In  Cornwall  it  is  used  for  determining  the  number 
of  millions  of  pounds  of  waler  lifted  one  foot  liigh  by  a  bushel  of  coal,  (,94 
lbs.  0  the  time  of  lifting  it  not  being  considered. 


so  much  more  than  that  of  any  factory  engine  in  this  district,  it  migli:  l.e 
desir.able  to  liave  a  Cornish  engine  connected  with  a  water-wheel  to  drive  mill 
machinery.* 

Mr.  Boothman. — Why  not  apply  it  to  rotatory  motion  ?— Mr.  Fairbairn 
said,  that  it  would  not  apply  to  any  thing  where  the  force  required  was  con- 
stant. The  value  of  the  tiling  bay  in  overcoming  the  inertia  of  matter.  The 
Cornisli  engine  first  raised  a  weight,  and  then,  by  the  descent  of  that  weight, 
it  raised  the  water.    That  was  the  w  hole  secret  of  the  Cornish  engines. 

Mr.  P.  Clare  asked  if  Mr.  Fairbairn  had  made  a  calculation  of  tlie  eftective 
force  of  the  factory  engines  in  this  neighbourhood,  so  as  to  afford  a  compari- 
son as  to  the  combustion  of  coal  by  them  with  that  of  the  Cornish  engines  ? 
— Mr.  Fairbairn  said,  he  had  done  so.  The  consumption  of  fuel  in  our  best 
condensing  engines  here  was  10 lbs.  to  12 lbs.  per  horse  power  per  hour,  while 
the  consumption  of  fuel  by  the  best  Cornish  engines  was  only  21  ll«.  per  horse 
power  per  hour.  In  other  s'  ords.  we  consume  four  times  more  coal  than  the 
Cornish  engines  in  producing  the  same  effect.  The  circumstance  was  most 
extraordinary;  but  the  facts  were  before  the  meeting.  The  returns  of  the 
duty  performed  were  regularly  registered  in  Cornwall,  and  published  monthly, 
so  that  any  gentleman  might  see  them,  in  reference  to  any  period  :  and  it 
would  be  found,  that  the  performance  of  the  best  Cornish  engines  (for  he  did 
not,  in  reference  to  this  question,  speak  of  the  average  duty)  did  nut  exceed  a 
consumption  of  2i  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse  pow  er  per  hour. 

A  Member  asked  whether  there  was  not  some  doubt  as  to  the  accuracy  of 
the  calculations  of  the  duty  performed  by  the  C'ornish  engines,  and  as  to  the 
mode  of  estimating  them'?— Mr.  Fairbairn  said,  that  the  calculations  were 
made  upon  the  area  of  the  bucket  and  the  length  of  the  stroke.  He  was  aware 
that  doubts  hid  been  expre.ssed  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  calculations  ;  but 
they  were  backed  by  such  authorities,  and  the  returns  were  so  numerous  and 
regular,  that  he  thought  their  general  accuracy  could  not  well  be  doubted. — 
The  Member  observed,  that  a  small  quantity  of  air  coming  up  the  pumps 
would  make  a  difference.— Mr.  Fairbairn  :  No  doubt ;  but  still  the  engine  has 
to  lift  this  great  weight  of  all  the  pumps  and  iron  work,  and  the  plungers, 
which  must  lie  lifted  by  the  force  of  steam.  He  had  a  return  from  Mi\  Wick- 
steed,  of  the  East  London  Water  Works,  which  was  not  a  pit  at  all ;  but  the 
Cornish  engine  there  was  used  to  raise  water  for  the  supply  of  the  eastern 
[lart  of  London — which  return  gave  a  duty  of  118,552,475  lbs.  raised  one  foot 
nigh  ;  the  consumption  of  fuel  being  2  4  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse  power  per  hour. 
Of  course  he  did  not  speak  of  the  duty  performed  by  these  Cornish  engines 
from  his  own  knowledge,  but  he  had  every  reason  to  believe  the  returns  sub- 
stantially correct. — The  Member  said,  he  believed  some  doubts  liad  been  re- 
peatedly'thrown  on  the  method  of  calculation. — Mr.  Fairbairn  said,  that  some 
years  ago  he  had  Ijeen  present  at  a  discussion  on  the  subject  in  the  .Society  of 
Civil  Engineers,  when  great  doubts  were  expressed,  but  further  documents 
were  brought  forward  to  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  calculations.  However, 
taking  the  consumption  of  fuel  by  the  C'ornish  engines  to  be  3  lbs.  per  horse 
power  per  hour,  that  was  a  very  great  difference,  as  compared  with  our  factory 
engines. 

Mr.  Eaton  Hodgkinson  thought  there  had  undoubtedly  been  great  improve- 
ments made  in  the  Cornish  engines,  chiefly  the  result  of  the  adoption  of  the 
expansion  of  steam,  wh  ch  they  had  not  been  used  to  any  great  extent  in  this 
neighbourhood,  at  least  till  very  recently.  Whether  the  returns  Kere  quite 
accurate  or  not,  no  one  could  doubt  that  the  improvements  were  immense. 
He  thought  the  p'an  of  making  the  engine  to  lift  the  pump-rods  only,  and 
then  the  descent  of  the  pump-roils  lifting  up  the  water,  seemed  to  be  a  con- 
siderable improvement  in  adaptation.  Again,  whether  Mr.  M'oolf's  plan  of 
the  expansion  of  steam,  or  that  of  Mr.  M'att,  expanding  it  in  the  s.ame  cylin- 
der, and  cutting  it  off  when  at  a  distance  of  one-fourth  or  one-fitth  down, 
were  adopted,  (and  it  was  a  question  as  to  wdiich  plan  was  the  best,)  in  l:oth 
cases  there  was  a  great  improvement  upon  former  methods.  These  improve- 
ments had  a  strong  bearing  upon  geology,  for  were  it  not  for  these  engines, 
they  could  not  investigate  the  strata  in  mines,  for  the  water  would  drive  them 
out  or  drown  them.  These  engines,  by  draining  lakes,  might  enable  the 
geologist  to  obtain  a  great  deal  of  information  he  must  otherwise  be  wiihojt. 


PROCEEDINGS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETIES. 

BRITISH  ASSOCL\TION  FOR  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 
Tenth  Meeting. — September,  1840. 

fFrom  the  Aihenmum.J 
Section  G, — Mechanical  Science. 

•Mr.  James  Milne  gave  an  account  of  an  instrument  termed  a  Gas  Regulator, 
of  his  invention,  by  means  of  which  the  length  of  the  flame  is  equalized, 
notwithstanding  the  variations  of  ]>ressure  that  occur,  and  a  considerable  sav- 
ing in  the  consumption  of  gas  is  effected. 

Mr.  Coles  on  Railway  Carriages. — Mr.  Coles  proposes  to  introduce  friction 
wheels  ;  and  that,  excepting  the  first  and  last  carriage  in  the  train,  the  car- 
riages should  run  on  two  wheels.  He  also  proposes  a  step-rail  at  the  cur\cs 
or  bends. 

"  On  the  Turbine  Water-wheel."     By  Prof.  Gordon. 

The  fundamental  principle  upon  which  the  construction  of  the  Turbine- 
Foitmegron  is  based,  is  that  by  which  the  maximum  of  useful  effect  is  obtained 
from  a  given  fall  of  water,  depending  on  the  relative  velocity  of  the  water 
and  its  recipient,  which  ought  to  be  such  that  the  water  enters  the  wheej 

*  See  Mr.  M'icksteed's  report  in  the  Journal  for  January  last,  page  7' — Ed. 
C.  E.  and  A.  Journal. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


421 


without  bliock,  and  quits  it  again  Tivitliont  velocity.  A  notion  of  its  eonstrnc- 
tion  may  readily  l)e  formed,  by  supposing  an  ordinary  water-wlieel  laid  on 
its  side,  the  water  being  made  to  enter  from  the  interior  of  the  wheel  by  the 
imier  circumference  of  the  crown,  flowing  along  the  buckets,  and  escaping  at 
the  outer  circumference.  Then  centrifugal  force  becomes  a  substitute  for  the 
of  gravity.  A  drawing  was  here  exhibited  of  a  Turbine  of  about  5  horse  force 
power,  the  fall  being  3  feet,  and  the  expenditure  of  water  20  cubic  feet  per 
second.  It  was  explained  that  the  Turbine  consists  essentially  of — 1.  A  re- 
servoir, the  bottom  of  which  is  divided  into  radial  compartments  by  curved 
plates,  serving  to  guide  the  water  to  take  a  particular  direction  of  efflux.  2. 
A  circular  sluice,  capable  of  nicety  of  adjustment.  3.  The  wheel  with  curved 
buckets,  on  to  which,  when  the  sluice  was  raised,  tlie  water  entered  at  every 
point  of  the  inner  circiunference,  and  flowing  along  the  buckets,  escaped  at 
every  i>oint  of  the  outer  circumference.  This  latter  is  a  cliaracteristic  feature 
in  tlin  Turbines  of  Fourneyron.  Reference  was  made  to  the  principal  Tur- 
bines erected  in  France  and  Germany, — particularly  to  that  at  Inval,  near 
Gisors.  and  tliose  at  Miillbach  .and  Jloussay,  as  illustrative  of  their  use  for 
falls  varying  from  9  inches  to  10  feet.  And,  again,  to  those  at  St.  Blasier, 
in  the  Black  Forest,  as  instances  of  high  falls, — the  one  lieing  70v  feet,  the 
other  345  feet ;  the  one  expending  5  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  other  1  cubic 
foot  per  second;  the  one  being  56  horse  power,  the  other  very  nearly  60 
horse  power  ;  the  one  giving  an  eiHciency  of  upwards  of  TO,  the  other  of  up- 
wards of  80  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  efl^'ect.  A  drawing  of  the  latter  was 
exhibited — full  size.  It  is  14-j  inches  diameter.  Its  extreme  dejith  or  breast 
is  -225  inch,  or  less  than  I.  It  makes  2,200  to  2,300  revolutions  jier  minute. 
It  serves  a  factory,  in  which  are  8,000  water  spindles,  34  fine  and  36  coarse 
carding-engiues,  2  cleansers,  and  other  accessories.  The  conclusions  drawn 
by  Morier  from  his  experiments  on  these  wheels  with  the  Break  dynamome- 
ter, or  friction  strap,  are  these: — 1.  That  Turbines  are  with  equal  advantage 
a])plicable  for  high  and  for  low  falls.  2.  That  their  net  useful  effect  equals 
70  to  78  per  cent,  of  the  theoretical  effect  of  the  power.  3.  That  they  may 
work  at  speeds  varying  from 

3-3  V  5-6  V 

Where  »i  =  number  of  revolutions;  V  =  velocity  due  to  fall;  R  =  extreme 
radius.  The  useful  effect  still  not  dift'ering  notably  from  the  maximum.  4. 
That  they  work  at  ver)'  considerable  depths  under  water,  the  relation  of  use- 
ful to  theoretical  effect  not  being  thereby  much  diminished. 

Mr.  Smith  (Deanstown)  said,  there  was  much  in  the  principle  for  very  high 
and  very  low  falls,  and  for  varying  falls.  The  principle  had  Ijeen  long  applied 
in  Perthshire,  but  in  that  part  of  the  country  a  great  velocity  is  obtained  at  a 
great  expenditure  of  power. — Prof.  Gordon  stated,  that  for  all  falls  above  50 
and  below  10  feet,  the  Turbine  is  to  be  preferred.^Mr.  Fairbairn :  The  com- 
mon water-wheel  at  Gisors,  in  France,  was  made  by  himself  and  comparative 
trials  were  made  witli  it  against  tlie  Turbine.  Mr.  Fairbairn  was  quite  satis- 
fied, by  Arago's  experiments,  and  otherwise,  that  the  Turbine  is  a  very  im- 
portant machine,  and  gives  a  result  of  70  to  75  per  cent,  of  tlie  theoretical 
eflfect. — Mr.  Smith  proposed,  that  as  he  had  peculiar  facilities  for  experiment- 
ing on  the  subject,  he,  along  with  Prof.  Gordon  and  Mr.  Fairbairn,  should 
investigate  the  comparative  merits  of  the  Tm-bine  and  other  water-wheels 
before  tlie  next  meeting  of  the  Association. 

"  On  prodncing  True  Planes  or  Surfaces  on  Metals."  By  Mr.  Jos.  Whit- 
worth. 

Surface  plates  were  exhibited,  intended  to  illustrate  the  proper  mode  of 
preparing  surfaces  where  great  accuracy  is  required.  If  one  lie  put  upon  the 
other,  it  will  float,  until  by  its  weight  it  has  excluded  some  of  the  air,  wheu 
they  will  adhere  together  with  considerable  force.  These  surfaces  were  got 
up  without  grinding.  The  only  operations  performed  spon  them  were  those 
of  planing,  filing,  and  scraping.  Practically,  the  excellence  of  a  surface  con- 
sists in  the  number  and  equal  distriliution  of  the  bearing  points ;  the  more 
numerous  these  are,  and  the  nearer  together,  the  more  perfect  is  tlieir  action. 
But,  if  a  ground  surface  be  carefully  examined,  the  bearing  points  wUl  be 
generally  found  lying  together  in  in'egular  masses,  vrith  extensive  cavities  in- 
tervening. The  cause  of  this  irregularity  is  evident  in  the  unmanageable  na- 
ture of  the  process.  The  action  of  the  grinding  powder  is  under  no  control. 
There  are  no  means  for  securing  its  equal  diflfusion,  or  for  modifying  its  ap- 
plication with  reference  to  the  particular  condition  of  different  parts  of  the 
surface  ;  while  the  practical  result  is,  that  the  mechanic  neglects  the  proper 
use  of  the  file,  knowing  that  grinding  will  follow,  to  efface  all  evidence  either 
of  care  or  neglect.  In  various  departments  of  the  arts  and  manufactures,  the 
want  of  improvement  in  this  respect  is  already  felt.  The  valves  of  steam 
engines,  for  example,  the  tallies  of  printing  presses,  stereotype  plates,  slides 
of  all  kinds,  require  a  degree  of  truth  much  superior  to  that  they  now  possess, 
for  want  of  which  there  is  great  waste  constantly  accruing  in  time,  in  steam 
power,  in  wear  and  tear,  and,  above  all,  in  skill  misapplied.  The  improve- 
ments so  much  to  be  desired  will  follow  upon  the  discontinuence  of  grinding, 
The  surface  plate  and  the  scraping  tool  will  then  come  into  vogue,  and  a  new 
field  will  be  opened  to  the  skill  of  the  mechanic.  Supposing  him  to  be  pro- 
vided with  a  true  surface  plate,  he  will  find  no  difficulty,  after  a  little  practice, 
in  bringing  up  his  work  to  the  required  nicety.  For  this  purpose  he  will  find 
it  advantageous  to  employ  a  scraping  tool  made  from  a  three-sided  file,  and 
carefully  sharpened  on  a  Turkey  stone,  the  use  of  which  must  be  frequently 
repeated.  X  light  colouring  matter,  such  as  red  chalk  and  oil,  being  spread 
over  the  surface  plate,  and  the  work  in  hand  applied  thereto,  friction  will 


cause  the  prominent  places  to  be  marked,  which  will  instruct  the  experienced 
mechanic  where  and  liow  to  operate  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

Mr.  Scott  Russell  presented  the  Report  of  the  Committee  On  the  Form  of 
Vessels  :  the  members  of  this  Committee  were  Sir  John  Robison,  Mr.  Smith, 
(Jordan  Hill),  and  liimself. 

Since  their  appointment  by  the  Association,  the  Committee  had  been  con- 
stantly engaged  in  carrying  out  the  various  investigations  committed  to  their 
charge ;  and  it  had  been  their  earnest  desire  to  discharge  their  duties  in  such 
a  manner  as  conclusively  to  settle  the  many  important  practical  questions  in 
naval  arcliitecture  whicli  were  matters  of  uncertainty  and  dispute,  especially 
in  reference  to  steam  navigation.  The  importance  of  precise  knowledge  in 
constructing  a  mercantile  navy.shijis  of  war,  and  steam  vessels,  was  reckoned 
so  great,  that  in  almost  all  civilized  kingdoms  experiments  had  been  under- 
taken at  the  national  expense,  and  Italy,  Spain,  Sweden,  and  France  had  ob- 
tained by  those  means  a  very  superior  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  the  con- 
struction of  ships.  In  this  country  the  labours  of  individuals  had  supplied 
the  only  experiments  of  this  nature ;  and  it  was  matter  of  regret,  that  these 
were  not  of  such  a  description  as  to  furnish  the  ship-builder  with  any  certain 
foundation  for  rules  of  art.  The  new  demand  upon  the  invention  of  the  naval 
architect  by  the  introduction  of  steam  power,  had  also  contributed  much  to 
augment  the  disparity  which  already  subsisted  between  the  data  of  experi- 
mental hydrodynamics  and  the  demands  of  the  practical  builder  of  ships.  It 
had  also  been  thought  not  improbable,  that  certain  singular  phenomena  in 
hydrodynamics,  recently  discovered,  might  considerably  modify  the  views 
hitherto  entertained  of  the  nature  of  fluid  resistance  ;  and  the  Association 
had,  therefore,  resolved  on  the  appointment  of  this  Committee,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  this  subject  a  thorough  and  searching  examination.  The  first 
subject  of  concern  with  the  Committee,  was  the  mechanism  by  whicli  to  con- 
duct experiments  on  a  scale  sufticiently  large  to  render  the  results  of  juactical 
value,  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently  manageable  to  free  the  experiments, 
as  far  as  possible,  from  elements  foreign  to  the  immediate  subject  of  examina- 
tion. It  was  desirable  to  obtain,  for  experiment,  a  force  capable  of  moving 
the  vessels  subjected  to  experiment,  through  the  water  with  an  uniform  force 
and  velocity  capable  of  being  continued  for  a  considerable  interval  of  time 
over  a  considerable  length  of  space.  All  the  forms  of  apparatus  hitherto 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  experiment,  were  examined  with  the  view  of 
adopting  the  best.  None  of  them  appeared  fully  to  answer  the  end  in  view, 
and  it  became  necessary  to  invent  another  and  better  apparatus  for  giring 
motion  to  the  vessels.  This  had  been  found  ;  a  simple  contrivance  of  Mr. 
Russell's  had  beeii  adopted,  by  which  a  force,  perfectly  uniform,  could  lie  ap- 
plied witliout  inconvenience  throughout  any  given  space,  free  from  the  usual 
errors  of  friction,  rigidity,  &e.,  whicli  had  become  interwoven  with  the  results 
of  former  experiments.  This  apparatus  he  regarded  as  an  engine  of  experi- 
ment so  important  to  the  future  acquisition  of  knowledge  of  the  resistance  of 
fluids,  that  he  was  desirous  to  communicate  it  to  the  distinguished  men  around 
liim  taking  an  interest  in  the  sidiject,  in  order  that  if  it  met  their  approba- 
tion, they  might  avail  themselves  of  it  in  future  investigation.  He  then  pro- 
ceeded to  give  a  description,  with  illustrative  drawings,  of  an  apparatus  by 
which  experiments  were  made  of  from  a  small  scale  up  to  100  feet  in  length, 
over  a  sheet  of  water  from  100  feet  to  half  a  mile  or  a  mile  in  length.  For 
each  scale  of  experiment,  strings,  cords,  and  ropes  of  various  thickness  were 
employed ;  and  for  the  most  delicate  experiments,  a  slender  Indian  fibre, 
brought  home  by  Sir  John  Robison,  had  lieen  found  most  useful.  Two 
chroiiometers  by  Robert,  of  Paris,  also  brought  over  by  Sir  John  Robison, 
were  employed  with  great  advantage,  as  observations  were  obtained  which 
could  be  depended  on  within  two-tenth  parts  of  a  second.  The  next  point 
to  be  determined  was.  tlie  general  metliod  of  conducting  the  experimental 
inquiry,  so  as  to  elicit  the  most  valuable  truths,  and  those  most  apposite  to 
practical  art.  For  this  purpose  the  most  eminent  ship-builders  were  consult- 
ed, as  to  the  points  upon  wliicli  they  most  wanted  information,  and  were  re- 
quested to  point  out  what  were  the  forms  of  vessel  which  they  would  wish  to 
have  tried.  More  than  100  models  of  vessels  of  various  sizes,  from  30  inches 
to  25  feet  in  length,  had  been  constructed.  These  were  drawn  tlirough  the 
water  with  various  velocities,  and  at  difl'erent  degrees  of  immersion,  so  as  to 
determine  the  resistance  of  all  the  various  forms  that  might  be  adopted  in 
practice,  and  enable  the  builder  to  adopt  the  form  best  suited  to  his  purpose. 
A  large  pile  of  papers,  laid  on  the  talile,  contained  the  results  of  the  experi- 
ments, which  were  still  continued.  Of  these  experiments,  different  series 
were  conducted  with  very  various  objects.  One  class  regarded  the  transverse 
sections  of  sliips ;  another  the  water-lines  of  the  bow ;  another  the  water- 
lines  of  the  stern;  another  the  form  of  ribbaud-line  and  of  buftock-hne; 
another  class,  the  place  of  greatest  breadth,  and  so  on.  From  these  experi- 
ments it  resulted  that  vessels  might  be  made  fidler  than  usual  at  some  points 
and  finer  in  others,  with  great  advantage,  A  peculiar  class  of  lines,  called  by 
Mr.  Russell  "  wave  lines,"  appeared  best  adapted  for  high  velocities  both  in 
smooth  water  and  at  sea.  It  also  appeared,  that  the  manner  in  which  the 
particles  were  displaced  by  a  moving  body,  and  replaced  themselves  after  its 
passage,  was  very  different  from  what  was  generally  supposed.  There  also 
appeared  to  be  three  different  conditions  of  fluid  motion  and  resistance,  ac- 
companied with  distinct  characteristic  phenomena  :  motion  slower  than  that 
of  the  wave — motion  on  the  wave — motion  on  wings  of  water.  The  last  oc- 
curred only  at  vei7  high  velocities,  and  when  two  high  and  beautiful  films  of 
water  spread  themselves  in  the  air,  and  carried  the  boat  as  on  gossamer  wings 
along  the  snrface  of  the  water.  Mr.  Russell  concluded  the  report,  by  stating, 
that  the  experiments  would  soon  be  published,  and  submitted  to  the  examina- 


422 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Deoembkr, 


tion  of  those  interested  in  the  siiliject,  in  a  form  helter  adaptcil  to  use  than 
that  of  verbal  description.  He  lioped  it  would  be  found  that  tlieir  experi- 
ments had  gone  far  to  fill  up  one  of  the  great  desiderata  of  jiractical  science. 
Sir  Jolm  Robison  stated,  that  the  whole  merit  of  imagining  and  conducting 
he  experiments  belonged  to  Mr.  Russell. — .Mr.  Arch.  Smith  made  some  ob- 
servations, disputing  the  matliematical  accuracy  of  one  of  the  illustrations 
used  bv  Mr.  Russell. — .Mr.  Russell  exjilained  that  the  physical  effect  dilfered 
in  this  instance  from  the  niathematiral  theoiT. — The  Key.  Mr.  Brodie  had 
arrived,  by  calculation,  at  nearly  the  same  results  as  Mr.  Russell  had  by  ex- 
periment. Mr.  Brodie  hoiied  Mr.  Russell  would  ditect  his  attention  to  the 
phenomena  at  very  high  velocities,  such  as  fi'om  25  to  30  miles  an  hour.  Mr. 
Brodie's  calculations  h.ive  led  to  such  curious  conchisinns.  as  to  make  him 
stispect  some  mistake :  he  was,  therefore,  anxious  that  Mr.  Russell  should 
prove  their  accuracy  by  his  delicate  exiierinients. 

"  On  the  Economy  of  Railways  in  resjiect  of  Gradients."  By  Mr.  Vignoles. 
Jlr.  Vignoles  stated  that  this  was  another  subject,  in  addition  to  the  former 
one  on  timber  bridges,  selected  from  a  general  work  ou  the  I'rinciples  and 
Economy  of  Railways,  which  he  was  preparing  for  publication.  Looking  to 
the  great  cost  of  railways,  he  had  turned  his  attention  to  a  comi)arison  of  the 
result  of  the  working  of  railways,  with  the  price  paid  for  various  degrees  of 
perfection.  He  disclaimed  asserting  that  sh.irp  curves  or  steep  gradients  were 
preferable  to  straight  and  level  lines,  but  he  would  endeavour  to  show  th  .t 
good  practicable  lines  might  be  and  had  Ijeen  constructed,  on  which  trains 
sufficient  for  the  traffic  and  public  ':ccommodatioa  could  and  did  move  at  the 
same,  or  nearly  the  same  velocities.  \nd  with  little,  if  any,  additional  expense. 
Ou  an  average,  the  hitherto  ascei  ..iiucd  cost  of  the  principal  lines  might  be 
divided  thus : — 

Land 10  per  cent. 

Stations  and  carrying  establishment 20       „ 

Management 10       „ 

Iron    10       „ 

Works  of  construction  proper 50       „ 

100 
though,  of  course,  these  items  differed  considerably  in  various  railways,  but 
in  general  it  might  he  said  that  the  works  of  construction  constituted  one- 
half  of  the  whole  first  cost.  He  left  out,  on  the  present  occasion,  all  con- 
sideration of  the  saving  of  any  of  the  items,  except  as  to  the  works  of  con- 
struction ;  though  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  show  a  reduction  on  these,  to 
the  extent  of  at  least  one-half.  Mr.  ^'ignoles  stated  that  he  had  analyzed 
railway  expenses  of  working,  and  had  reduced  them  to  a  mileage, — that  is, 
the  average  expense  per  mile,  per  train,  as  deduced  from  several  years'  ex- 
perience, and  observations  of  various  railways  under  different  circumstances, 
and  with  greatly  difl'erent  gradients,  some  of  which  lines  were  enumerated. 
The  result  on  passenger  and  light  traffic  lines  was,  that  the  total  deductions 
for  expenditure  from  gross  receipts  was  3«.  per  mile  per  train  ;  2s.  (td.  being 
the  least,  and  3s.  id.  the  highest ;  and  that  this  average  seemed  to  hold  good, 
irrespective  of  gradients  or  curves.  Particular  lines  might,  from  local  circum- 
stances, differ  in  detail,  but  he  was  satisfied  fliat  the  following  detail  was  a 
fair  average  approximation  : — 

s.  d. 

Daily  cost  of  locomotive  power  and  repairs  1     6 

Annual  depreciation,  sinking  fund,  and  interest  on  stock,  tools,  shops, 

and  establishment    0     6 

Daily  and  annual  cost  in  carriage  department  0     4 

(iovernnient  duty,  office  expenses,  police,  clerks,  guards,  management, 

and  maintenance  of  railway    0     8 

3     0 

It  was  not  found  practicable  to  distinguish  the  additional  expense,  if  any, 
arising  from  curves  or  gradients ;  but  as  three-fourths  of  railway  expenses 
were  quite  independent  of  these  curves,  such  addition  must  be  small ;  espe- 
cially as,  on  the  North  Union  Railway,  a  line  which  had  5  miles  out  of  22  in 
the  gradients  of  1  in  100,  or  nearly  53  feet  per  mile,  the  total  expenses  were 
less  than  on  the  Grand  Junction  Railway,  and  several  other  lines.  Mr.  Vig- 
noles then  proceeded  to  illustrate,  by  diagrams,  the  mode  in  which  the 
economy  might  be  made  in  the  works  of  construction,  ou  what  he  called  the 
Jirst  sysfetn,  by  the  occasional  introduction  of  inclines  of  50  and  even  CO  feet 
per  mile,  if  not  of  too  great  a  length  ;  and  again,  on  the  second  systeem,  by 
introducing  entire  series  of  severe  gradients,  such  as  those  of  30,  35,  and  40 
feet.  On  the  first  system,  he  had  executed  the  Korth  Union  Railway ;  and 
had  also  thus  designed  all  the  goveinment  railways  to  the  south  and  west  of 
England.  On  the  second  system  was  the  Bolton  and  Manchester  Railway, 
by  the  late  Mr.  Nimmo,  Mr.  Macneill's  government  railway  lines  to  the  north 
districts  of  Ireland;  and  that  engineer  had  lately  altered  the  Dublin  and  Kil- 
kenny,  and  the  Dublin  and  Drogheda  Railways,  from  better  but  more  expen- 
sive gradients,  to  those  on  the  second  system  ;  and  Mr.  Vignoles  was  about 
to  apply  it  to  the  DubUn  and  Kingstown  Railway ;  and  he  had  set  out  the 
whole  extent  of  the  Sheffield  ami  Manchester  Railway,  for  40  miles,  on  an 
average  gradient  of  nearly  10  feet  ))er  mile,  mixed  with  occasional  incUnations 
of  1  in  100,  and  with  curves  of  one-third  mile  radius.  That  work  was  now 
under  execution  by  Mr.  Locke,  who  had  succeeded  Mr.  Vignoles  an  engineer, 
and  who  fully  concurred  in  the  general  principles, — which,  as  also  the  details, 
and  the  introdnction  of  timber  viaducts  on  a  large  scale  for  economy,  Mr. 


Nicholas  Wood  ajiproved.  Mr.  Gibbs  had  also  .idnptcd  the  saiu'!  svstcm  on 
the  first  ten  miles  eastward  of  the  Newcastle  and  Carlisle  Railway.  Mr. 
Vignoles  went  on  to  state,  that,  on  either  one  or  both  of  these  systems,  in- 
troduced as  miglit  he  considered  most  advantageous  by  the  directing  engineer, 
lines  of  railway  might  be  laid  out  so  as  not  to  exceed  10,000/.  per  mile,  being 
jiarticularly  applicable  where  fertile,  populous,  and  manufacturing  districts, 
or  the  metropolis,  with  the  extremes  of  the  empire,  had  to  be  connected 
through  difficult  and  unproductive  districts.  Mr.  Vignoles  concluded  by  re- 
marking, that  when  a  continued  stream  of  heavy  Iraftic  justified  the  ex]>ense, 
he  saw  no  reason  to  \ary  from  the  general  rules  adopted  hitherto  by  engineers 
for  laying  out  railways,  or  from  his  own  former  opinions  and  jn^actice.  But 
it  was  forced  on  him  by  daily  experience,  that,  to  accommodate  the  public 
convenience,  the  Post  Office  arrangements,  and  business  in  general,  it  was 
scarcely  once  in  twenty  times  that  a  locomotive  engine  went  out  with  more 
than  half  its  load,  and  in  general  the  engines  were  only  worked  up  to  two- 
fifths  of  their  full  power :  he  was,  therefore,  conclusively  of  opinion,  that  it 
was  much  cheaper  to  put  ou  additional  engines  on  extraordinary  occasions; 
and  on  such  principle  railways  shoidd  be  constructed  through  the  more  re- 
mote parts  of  the  country,  so  as  to  be  made  in  the  cheapest  possible  manner. 
The  possession  of  all  \hc  profit alle  lines  of  railway  by  private  companies,  was 
likely  to  throw  on  the  government  theon«s  of  constructing  their  lines  through 
such  districts,  in  which  case  economy  was  desu'able  :  or,  if  not  to  be  con- 
structed by  the  government,  then  was  economy  still  more  important;  for 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales,  and  western  and  eastern  England  would  want  rail- 
ways, until  some  such  system  as  those  now  promulgated  could  be  brought  to 
bear  in  the  laying  out  lines  of  internal  conimimicatiou. 

Mr.  Roherfs  entirely  concurred  with  Mr.  A'ignoles  with  regard  to  the  gra- 
dients and  curves,  as  also  to  the  propriety  of  the  economy  of  adopting  timber 
bridges,  and  so  reducing  the  price  of  conveyance  to  the  public. — Mr.  Vignoles 
being  asked  whether,  in  the  gradients  of  1  in  100,  on  the  North  Union  line, 
any  practical  danger  was  to  be  apprehended,  stated  that  no  danger  whatever 
was  apprehended  ;  and  tliat,  on  these  gradients  of  1  in  100,  the  trains  tra- 
velled doivn  at  full  speed,  or  about  forty  miles  per  hour. 

Mr.  Jeftreys  described  a  fire-grate,  exhibited  in  the  model-room,  which 
may  be  placed,  he  said,  so  far  forwards  as  to  be  (pnte  out  of  the  chimnej', 
and  radiate  a  two-fold  quantity  of  heat  into  the  apartment ;  and  yet  there 
shall  be  no  tendency  to  send  smoke  into  the  room.  By  an  addition,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  same  principle,  fresh  air  is  introduced,  comfortably  warm- 
ed before  it  enters  the  room. 

"  Timber  Bridget." 

Mr.  Mitchell  observed,  that  Mr.  Vignoles  liaving  drawn  attention  to  the 
subject  of  Timber  Bridges,  with  reference  to  their  application  to  the  econo- 
mical construction  of  Railways,  he  begged  to  report  the  result  of  some  ex- 
perience in  works  of  this  nature  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  .\bout  twelve 
years  ago  he  had  erected  a  bridge  across  the  Spey,  consisting  of  an  arch  of 
100  feet  span ;  another  about  six  years  since  of  two  arches  of  100  feet  span, 
with  stone  abutments  and  piers ;  a  third  across  the  Dee,  of  five  arches  of  75 
feet  span,  with  timber  piers;  besides  a  number  of  others  of  smaller  dimensions. 
Economy  was  the  chief  object  in  building  bridges  of  this  material.  It  was 
found  they  were  one-third  less  expensive ;  that  across  the  Dee  with  timber 
piers  less  than  lialf:  the  period  of  duration  he  found  to  be  from  thirty  to  forty 
years ;  the  accumvdated  value  of  the  saving  being  more  than  equivalent  to 
rebuilding  the  structure.  In  his  opinion,  viaducts  of  this  material  might  be 
beneficially  applied  in  the  construction  of  railways,  of  course  being  suitably 
constructed  to  resist  the  violent  action  and  heavy  weights  of  railway  trains. 
He  was  glad  to  hear  that  Mr.  Vignoles  considered  that  railways  might  be 
constructed  with  gradients  so  much  steeper  than  what  has  been  hitherto  con- 
sidered practically  advantageous.  Of  course,  there  could  be  but  one  opinion 
about  the  propriety  of  a  level  and  direct  line  both  for  safety  and  speed  :  but 
the  subject  was  of  great  importance  to  Scotland,  where  neither  the  country 
admits  nor  the  traffic  demands  such  perfect  construction.  He  thought  prac- 
tical exjicriraents  should  be  made  on  the  amount  of  locomotive  traction  at 
different  inclinations,  and  with  difl'erent  rates  of  speed ;  it  appears  that  hitherto 
engineers  had  acted  more  by  theory  than  observation.  One  fact  he  would 
mention.  On  a  railway  recently  constructed,  he  found,  that  with  inclinations 
of  from  1  in  70  to  1  in  100,  locomoti\es  travelled  nearly  at  full  speed,  and  at 
one  point,  an  inclined  jdaiic  of  half  a  mile  with  a  gradient  of  1  in  22,  a  train 
of  loaded  carriages,  with  a  gross  weight  of  thirty-five  tons,  was  drawn  up 
with  ease,  of  course  at  a  reduced  speed,  but  not  such  as  to  affect  tlie  general 
rate  of  travelling ;  the  carriages  also  passed  along  curves  with  radii  less  than 
500  feet. 

"  On  the  application  of  Native  Alloy  for  Compass  Pivots."  By  Capt.  E.  J. 
Johnson,  R.N. 

Among  those  portions  of  a  ship's  compass  which  most  affect  its  working, 
are  the  jiivots  and  caps  on  which  the  needle  and  card  traverse,  and  which, 
like  the  balance  of  a  chronometer  (but  of  far  more  importance  to  the  practi- 
cal navigator),  should  not  only  be  fitted  witli  the  most  scrupulous  attention 
to  accuracy,  but  be  made  of  materials  capable  of  maintaining  a  given  form 
under  the  trials  to  which  such  instruments  are  necessarily  exi)Osed.  Having 
examined  a  great  variety  of  compasses  wliich  had  been  used  at  sea,  wiierein 
Capt.  Johnson  noticed  that  their  pivots  were  generally  injured,  and  often  by 
rust,  he  searched  numerous  records  of  experiments  for  its  |)revention,  and  for 
improving  the  quality  of  steel  in  other  respects,  by  means  of  alloys  of  plati- 
num, palladium,  silver,  &c.  (he  alluded  particlarly  to  the  experiments  of  Dr. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


423 


Faraday  and  Mr.  Stodflart) ;  aiid  Mr.  Pepys  liaving  obligingly  sujiplied  Capt. 
Johnson  ^\'ith  specimens  of  similar  kinds  of  steel  lo  those  used  by  them,  these 
examples,  together  with  pivots  made  of  the  ordinary  kind  of  steel,  and  har- 
dened and  tempered  in  the  manner  recommended  by  eminent  instrument- 
makers,  were  placed  in  a  frame  for  experiment ;  and  to  these  again  Captain 
Johnson  added  certain  contrivances  of  his  own,  such  as  rubbing  a  steel  pivot 
with  sal-ammoniac,  then  dipping  it  into  zinc  in  a  state  of  fusion,  and  after- 
wards changing  the  extreme  point.  Some  specimens  he  coated  with  a  mix- 
ture of  powdered  zinc,  oil  of  tar,  and  turjieutine ;  and  others  again  were  set 
in  zinc  pillars,  having  small  zinc  caps,  through  which  the  extreme  point  of 
the  pivot  protnided  after  the  manner  of  black  lead  through  pencil  tubes. 
The  whole  of  the  specimens  were  then  placed  in  a  cellar,  occasionally  exposed 
to  the  open  air,  examined  from  time  to  time  during  more  than  half  a  year, 
and  their  several  states,  as  respected  oxidation,  duly  registered.  Without 
going  into  the  details  of  this  register,  the  general  result  was,  that  not  any  of 
the  kinds  of  steel  pivots  used  in  this  trial,  except  such  as  were  coated  with 
zinc,  remained  free  from  rust,  while  the  ])ivot  made  of  the  "native  alloy'' 
which  is  found  with  platinum,  completely  retained  its  brilliancy.  Captain 
Johnson  then  applied  a  more  severe  test  to  this  singular  substance,  first,  by 
placing  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  nitio-muriatic  acid  upon  it ;  but  even  under 
this  trial  he  could  not  observe  that  any  change  had  been  effected,  although 
the  blade  of  a  penknife,  subjected  to  a  similar  process,  was  rusted  to  the  cen- 
tre. Having  enumerated  the  facts  respecting  the  trials  to  which  he  had  sub- 
jected this  curious  material,  Capt.  Johnson  stated  the  conclusion  that  he  had 
come  to,  namely,  that  it  is  sufficiently  tough  not  to  break,  and  hard  enough 
not  to  bend,  under  the  trials  to  which  it  would  he  fairly  exposed;  and  that 
being  alike  free  from  magnetic  properties  and  liability  to  oxidation  from  ex- 
posure to  the  atmosphere,  it  possesses  the  requisite  {pialities  for  the  iiivot  of 
the  mariner's  compass ;  and  he  could  not  but  anticipate  that,  when  fitted 
with  a  ruby  cap  to  cori'espond,  it  would  lie  found  greatly  to  improve  the 
working.  Besides  the  application  of  this  substance  for  compass  pivots,  Capt. 
Johnson  stated  that  it  might  probably  be  found  advantageous  for  other  in- 
struments, and  especially  for  the  points  of  the  axes  of  the  dipping  needles 
fitted,  on  Mr.  Fox's  plan,  for  use  on  board  ship. 

Mr.  Hawkins  has  used  this  "native  alloy"  for  several  years  in  tipping  the 
points  of  pens,  and  not  a  single  instance  exists  of  any  of  these  pens  showing 
the  least  symptom  of  wear.  He  tried  native  alloy  on  a  cap,  in  comparison 
with  ruby,  when  he  found  that  in  the  same  circumstances,  the  ruby  was 
ground  away  with  diamond  dust  twice  as  rapidly  as  the  native  alloy.  He  had 
made  engravers'  tools  of  the  same  metal,  and  when  made  too  sharp  they  can- 
not be  blunted  on  the  Turkey  stone,  but  only  by  diamond  dust.— Su-  J. 
Kohison  could  bear  testimony  to  one  of  Mr.  Hawkins's  pens,  which  he  had 
used  for  years,  not  being  at  all  changed. — Mr.  Hawkins  stated  that  this  alloy 
consists  of  native  crystals  of  osmium  and  iridium  in  conjunction  with  plati- 
num. 

Mr.  Lang  "  On  an  Improvement  on  the  Air  Pump."  A  letter  from  this 
gentleman  was  read,  but  from  some  mistake,  the  paper  itself  had  not  been 
received. 


INSTITUTION  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS. 

"  On  the  Properties  and  Chemical  Constitution  of  Coal,  with  Remarks  on 
the  ]\/ethods  of  increasing  its  Calorific  Effect,  and  prevent iuf/  the  Loss  which 
occurs  duririrj  its  Combustion."     By  Charles  Hood,  F.R.A.S.,  &c. 

It  appears  that,  previous  even  to  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  coal  was 
used  as  a  fuel  in  Great  Britain ;  but  such  was  the  prejudice  against  it,  that 
wood  was  the  fuel  generally  in  use  among  the  higher  classes  until  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  the  supply  of  it  diminished  so  considerably  as  to 
render  necessaiT  the  substitution  of  coal ;  and  from  that  time  the  increase  in 
its  consumption  has  been  immense. 

Previously  to  the  seventeenth  century,  the  smelting  of  iron  and  all  other 
metals  was  performed  by  charcoal ;  but  the  attempts  of  Sturtevant  and  Ra- 
venson  in  1612-13,  and  of  Dudley  in  1619,  to  introduce  the  use  of  coal  or 
coke  in  blast  furnaces  having  proved  the  possibility  of  success,  the  progress 
of  the  innovation,  though  slow,  was  certain,  and  led  to  the  transfer  of  the 
iron  works  from  many  of  the  original  positions  in  the  midst  of  forests  to  the 
coal  districts  where  they  are  now  placed. 

The  author  considers  his  subject  under  three  heads :— -1st,  The  chemical 
character  and  composition  of  coal ;  2ndly,  Its  properties  as  a  combustible  ; 
and  3dly,  The  nature  and  application  of  its  various  gaseous  products. 

1st.  The  opinion  that  coal  is  a  compound  of  carbon  and  bitumen  has  been 
objected  to  by  some  chemists,  on  the  gi'ound  that  Ijy  no  process  hitherto 
pursued  in  analyses  has  it  been  possible  to  resolve  it  entirely  into  these  two 
substances ;  even  at  a  low  temperature  a  quantity  of  gaseous  matter  is  thrown 
oif,  and  at  an  elevated  degree  of  heat  an  evident  decomposition  of  the  bitu- 
men takes  place.  Even  anthracite  contains  a  small  portion  of  volatile  matter, 
its  coniiionent  parts  being  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen;  the  hy- 
drogen being  either  combined  with  the  oxygen  to  form  water,  or  with  a 
small  portion  of  carbon  to  form  carburetted  hydrogen,  which  exists  in  a 
gaseous  state  in  the  pores  of  the  coal.  In  bituminous  coal,  the  hydrogen  is 
combined  with  a  larger  proportion  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen ;  the  mechanical 
difference  being,  that  the  bituminous  and  free-burning  coals  (more  particu- 
larly) melt  by  heat  when  the  bitumen  reaches  the  boiling  point,  whereas 


anthracite  is  not  fusible,  nor  will  it  change  its  form,  until  it  is  exposed  to  a 
much  higher  degree  of  temperature. 

Two  tables  of  the  analyses  of  different  coals  are  given  from  the  authorities 
of  Jfuslict,  Thomson,  Vannxem,  Daniel],  Ure,  aud  Keynault ;  No.  1  showing 
the  proportions  of  carbon,  ashes,  and  volatile  matter,  with  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  coal  and  of  the  coke ;  and  No.  2  showing  the  proportions  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  azote,  and  oxygen.  These  tables  show  that  the  lai-gest  quantity  of 
carbon  (92'87)  is  contained  in  llie  Kilkenny  anthracite,  and  the  least  quan- 
tity (61-72)  in  Cannel  coal ;  and  that  the  nature  of  the  volatile  matter  greatly 
afi'ects  the  quantity  of  coliC — the  aggregate  quantity  of  the  gaseous  products 
of  coking,  splint,  and  cherry  coal,  being  very  nearly  similar;  while  the  quan- 
tity of  coke  obtained  from  these  different  species  varies  more  than  45  per 
cent. 

The  author  then  points  out  the  continual  presence  of  azote,  which  quits 
the  base  with  the  greatest  difficulty ;  and  also  the  affinity  of  sul])hu]',  not 
only  for  the  coal,  but  for  the  coke,  as  it  is  rarely  found  to  have  been  com- 
pletely expelled,  even  from  the  most  jierfectly  made  coke ;  the  only  coal 
found  to  be  even  partially  free  from  it  being  anthracite,  in  some  species  of 
which  no  traces  of  its  presence  are  found. 

2dly.  The  application  of  coal  as  a  fuel  depends  on  the  chemical  change 
which  it  undergoes  in  uniting,  by  the  agency  of  heat,  mth  some  body  for 
which  it  possesses  a  powerful  affinity.  In  all  ordinary  ease?  this  effect  is 
produced  by  its  union  with  oxygen.  AThen  coal  is  entirely  consumed,  the 
carbon  is  wholly  converted  into  carbonic  acid  gas  and  carbonic  oxide,  and 
the  hydrogen  into  water  in  a  state  of  vapour.  The  atmosphere  supplies  the 
necessai-y  oxygen  for  this  puqjosc  ;  and  in  this  state  the  products  of  the  com- 
bination are  nearly  or  quite  invisible,  both  of  them  being  almost  colourless 
fluids ;  if,  therefore,  any  smoke  be  visible,  it  is  the  result  of  imperfect  com- 
bustion. Some  calculations  are  given  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  loss  that  is 
sustained  when  the  smoke  escapes  unconsumed;  from  which  it  appears,  that 
with  bituminous  coal  about  37  or  38  per  cent,  more  heat  is  produced  when 
the  smoke  is  consumed  than  when  it  escapes  freely.  Many  modes  of  con- 
suming smoke  have  been  attempted ;  those  which  appear  to  have  been  at- 
tended with  the  greatest  success  are — 1st.  Causing  the  smoke  from  the  fresh 
coals  to  pass  through  or  over  that  portion  of  the  fuel  which  is  more  perfectly 
ignited;  2dly.  Supplying  heated  air  to  the  top  of  the  fuel,  as  well  as  admit- 
ting cold  air  through  the  ash-pit  in  the  usual  manner;  and  3dly,  Throwing 
a  jet  of  steam  into  the  furnace  or  into  the  chimney.  The  various  modes  of 
earning  into  effect  these  plans  are  briefly  alhuled  to  ;  from  them  a  few  may 
be  selected.  Robertson's  plan  was  to  use  inclined  furnace  bars,  where  the 
fresh  coals  were  placed  close  to  the  fire-door,  and  lieing  there  partially  car- 
bonized, gave  out  the  gas,  which,  in  passing  over  the  mass  of  incandescent 
fuel,  was  ignited,  and  became  active  flame,  thus  economizing  fuel  aud  pre- 
venting smoke.  In  this  and  similar  cases,  by  the  slow  distillation  of  the  coal, 
a  gas  is  jiroduced,  which  not  only  inflames  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the 
dense  defiant  gas  produced  by  rapid  distillation,  but  which  only  requires  for 
its  combustion  a  quantity  of  oxygen  never  exceeding  double  its  own  volume, 
or  ten  times  its  bulk  of  atmosjilieric  air,  wliile  defiant  gas  requires  three 
times  its  own  volinne  of  oxygen,  or  fifteen  times  its  bulk  of  atmospheric  air. 
The  elimination  of  a  gas  which  burns  with  so  small  a  portion  of  oxygen  is, 
therefore,  the  principal  cause  of  the  non-production  of  smoke  in  furnaces  of 
this  description.  The  second  mode  of  consuming  smoke  is  founded  on  the 
necessity  which  exists  for  a  large  supply  of  air  being  requisite  to  inflame  the 
gases  given  oflT  from  coal  by  a  rapid  and  intense  heat ;  and  this  is  accom- 
plished by  introducing  a  qiiantity  of  heated  air  above  the  burning  fuel.  When 
a  qua)itity  of  fuel  is  thrown  into  a  funiace,  the  increased  thickness  of  the 
mass  opposes  additional  resistance  to  the  passage  of  air  through  the  bars ; 
the  temperature  of  the  furnace  is  lowered,  and  an  increased  volume  of  gas  is 
at  the  same  time  given  out.  If  at  this  moment  a  quantity  of  air,  heated  to 
the  temperature  of  the  gas,  be  admitted,  the  gas  immediately  inflames,  and 
that  which  would  have  produced  a  dense  black  smoke  passes  oft'  in  the  in- 
visible state  of  carbonic  acid  gas  and  vapour  of  water.  Different  gases  re- 
quire dift'erent  degrees  of  heat  to  inflame  them  ;  and  this  explains  the  easy 
combustibility  of  the  volatile  products  of  coal  when  the  heat  is  so  managed 
as  to  produce  those  gases  which  inflame  at  the  lowest  temperature.  A  larger 
quantity  of  air  is  required  at  the  time  that  the  coal  is  first  thrown  on  than  at 
a  subsequent  period  ;  therefore,  when  economy  is  studied,  the  supply  of  air 
should  be  gradually  diminished  as  the  mass  approaches  an  incandescent  state. 
The  use  of  heated  air  has  produced  most  important  results  in  the  manufacture 
of  iron  with  bituminous  coal,  and  also  with  anthracite;  the  latter  fuel  having 
been  almost  neglected  until  the  recent  application  of  this  principle  of  era- 
ploying  heated  air  to  promote  its  combustion,  although  it  is  known  to  be 
capable  of  producing  perhaps  a  more  intense  heat  than  any  other  carbo- 
naceous fuel.  The  rationale  of  the  third  plan  of  consuming  smoke  by  in- 
jecting a  jet  of  steam  into  the  fire  or  the  chimney,  is  less  obvious  than  the 
others.  In  1805,  Mr.  Danes  Gilbert  observed,  that  whenever  the  waste 
steam  of  one  of  Trevithick's  engines  was  permitted  to  escape  into  the  chim- 
ney, the  smoke  from  the  coal  was  rendered  invisible.  Subsequent  expeii- 
ments  confirmed  this  fact;  and  it  was  supposed  that  the  steam,  being 
decomposed,  furnished  oxygen  to  support  combustion.  The  author  combats 
this  opinion,  and  accounts  for  the  efl'ect  by  the  increased  draught  of  the 
furnace  caused  by  the  jet  of  steam  into  the  chimney,  by  which  means  a  larger 
portion  of  air  is  brought  into  contact  with  the  burning  fuel ;  thus  supplying 
the  previous  deficiency  of  oxygen  to  the  fire,  and  promoting  the  combustion. 
As  steam  is  only  about  half  the  weight  of  air  at  a  like  temperature,  and  the 


40 1 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECTS  JOURNAL. 


TDecembkr. 


power  of  all  gaseous  flniils  to  ascend  is  "  inversely  as  the  square  roots  of  their 
specific  gravities,"  the  velocity  of  its  escape  hy  the  chimney,  compared  with 
common  air  of  the  same  temperature,  is  about  as  1'4  to  1;  therefore  the 
compnund  mixture  of  steam,  air,  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  will  escape  with  a 
considerably  increased  velocity,  and  more  air  must  consequently  enter  the 
furnace.  It  appears  that  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  of  steam 
generated  is  necessary  to  effect  the  combustion  of  the  smoke  by  this  means; 
therefore,  unless  the  waste  steam  only  be  used,  the  saving  of  the  fuel  must 
be  reduced  by  this  amount.  Brief  mention  is  made  of  the  experiments  of 
Messrs.  Apsley  Pellatt,  Parkes,  and  the  Chevalier  de  Pambour,  proving  that 
a  given  quantity  of  oven  coke  will  produce  as  much  heat  as  the  coal  from 
•which  it  was  produced  ;  and  of  the  various  kinds  of  artificial  fuels  which  had 
been  invented,  especially  that  composed  of  resin  and  peat  coke,  of  which  the 
author  remarks  that  its  combustion  probably  produces  a  mechanical  effect, 
as  the  hydrogen  is  converted  into  water  in  a  state  of  vapour,  which  escapes 
through"  the  chimney  with  a  great  velocity,  and  consequently  a  large  quan- 
tity of  air  is  drawn  into  the  furnace,  and  a  more  perfect  combustion  of  the 
fuel  is  the  result.  In  the  same  manner  he  accounts  for  the  necessity  which 
exists  for  having  the  openings  between  the  bars  wider  in  a  furnace  in  which 
coke  is  burned  than  in  one  used  for  coal.  In  opposition  to  the  general 
opinion,  he  considers  that  less  air  is  required  for  the  consumption  of  coke 
than  for  coal ;  the  carbon  only  requiring  21  times  its  weight  of  oxygen  for 
its  combustion,  while  the  hydrogen  contained  in  coal  requires  8  times  its 
weight  of  oxygen ;  and  the  only  reason  that  the  openings  between  the  bars 
are  required  to  he  wider  in  the  former  tlian  in  the  latter  case,  is  in  conse- 
quence of  the  draught  being  so  much  slower  during  the  combustion  of  coke 

.■Jdly.  "  On  the  nature  and  application  of  the  volatile  products  of  coal."  In 
treating  this  portion  of  the  subject — many  of  the  observations  on  which  have 
l)een  necessarily  anticipated  in  the  preceding  sections — the  author  traces  the 
ajiplication  of  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  to  the  purposes  of  artificial  illumi- 
nation from  the  year  1798,  when  its  first  successful  application  was  made  by 
Murdock  at  Soho  ;  lie  then  proceeds  to  Dr.  Henry's  investigations  of  the 
phenomena  of  its  production  and  combustion ;  the  variation  of  the  intensity 
of  light  obtained  from  carburetted  hydrogen,  due  to  the  proportion  of  carbon 
contained  in  it;  the  difference  in  the  gas  olttained  from  different  qualities  of 
coal ;  the  superiority  of  the  illuminating  power  of  the  gas  from  Cannel  coal ; 
and  the  still  greater  power  of  that  produced  from  the  decomposition  of  oi], 
which  is  2  to  2i  times  greater  than  that  of  coal  gas.  He  then  mentions  the 
other  products  of  coal  by  distillation,  such  as  ammoniacal  liquor,  carbonic 
acid  and  oxide,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  tar,  essential  oil,  naphtha,  petroleum, 
asphaltum,  and  other  substances.  The  paper  concludes  by  jjointing  out  the 
advantages  which  would  result  from  the  jiioduction  of  such  gas  as  is  usually 
given  out  at  the  beginning  of  the  distillation  of  coal,  as  it  contains  2  volumes 
of  gaseous  carbon  united  with  2  volumes  of  hydrogen,  and  its  illuminating 
power  is  consequently  more  than  double  that  of  ordinary  coal  gas. 

Mr.  Parkes  observed,  that  the  quantities  of  air  required  for  the  combustion 
of  different  fuels  as  determined  in  the  laboratory  and  on  the  large  scale  of 
practice,  were  frequently  very  different.  It  might  be  quite  correct  that  a 
given  weight  of  coal  would  require  more  air  for  its  perfect  combustion  than 
the  same  weight  of  coke.  There  was  great  difficulty  in  ascertaining  the  fact 
practically,  under  steam-boilers,  as  the  gases  given  out  by  the  coal  must  have 
air  supplied  to  them  distinct  from  that  which  passed  tlirougb  the  grate  to 
ensure  their  perfect  ignition,  and  many  circumstances  prevented  the  con- 
sumption of  air  from  being  exactly  measured.  Generally,  be  bad  found  it 
necessary  to  use  wider  spaces  between  the  grate  bars  for  coke  than  for  coal. 
In  some'late  experiments  very  carefully  made  on  a  boiler  invented  by  Mr. 
A.  M.  Perkins,  equal  weights  of  coal  and  coke  required  the  same  time  for 
their  destruction  on  the  same  grate,  the  apertvu'es  of  the  damper  and  ash-pit 
door,  which  were  used  to  govern  the  draught  being  precisely  the  same.  Coke 
effected  a  greater  evaporation  than  coal  at  similarly  rapid  and  slow  rates  of 
combustion ;  and  in  every  case  the  temperature  of  an  oil  bath  at  the  foot  of 
the  chimnev  was  higher  with  coke  than  with  coal.  It  must,  however,  be 
remarked,  tliat  no  process  had  been  used  to  ignite  the  gases  which  escaped 
from  the  furnace  uniuflamed.  He  had  tried  different  kinds  of  coke,  coal,  and 
anthracite  at  this  boiler,  and  the  same  fuel  in  every  instance  performed  a 
greater  evaporative  effect  at  a  slow  than  at  a  rapid  rate  of  combustion.  He 
thought  that  much  of  the  air  which  entered  the  grate  of  a  boiler  passed 
through  the  fire  unconsumed,  for  want  of  time  to  effect  a  sufliciently  intiuiate 
combination  with  the  fuel.  In  some  experiments  lately  made  at  Swansea  on 
the  properties  of  anthracite.  Dr.  Schaftcutl  had  found  from  analysis,  that  no 
less  than  40  per  cent,  of  the  products  of  combustion  taken  from  the  chimney 
consisted  of  oxygen,  yet  he  had  effected  the  large  evaporation  of  11  lb.  of 
water  with  1  lb.  of  that  fuel. 

Mr.  Field  stated,  that  Mr.  Cooper  had  expressed  an  opinion  that  in  the 
use  of  coke  as  a  fuel,  a  less  portion  of  heat  reached  the  chimney  than  with 
coal,  on  account  of  the  large  quantity  of  unconsumed  air  that  ])assed  through 
the  fire,  owing  to  the  open  spaces  necessarily  existing  between  the  pieces  of 
such  a  dry  fuel  as  coke ;  whereas  in  a  fire  made  of  binding  coal,  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  air  combined  with  tlie  fuel  in  its  passage  through  the  body  of 
fire. 

Mr.  Pellatt  observed,  that  although  in  practice  coke  appeared  to  reqmrc 
more  air  to  support  combustion  than  coal  did,  yet  long  experience  had  taught 
him  to  believe  that  when  coal  was  exposed  to  a  rapid  combustion,  it  required 
more  air  than  coke. 

In  answer  to  an  observation  that  some  experiments  lately  made  on  the 


measurement  of  the  quantity  of  air  which  entered  the  blast  furnaces  of  Sir 
John  Guest  at  the  Dowlais  Iron  Works  might  bear  on  this  subject — Mr. 
Farey  objected  to  the  application  of  such  results  to  determine  the  question, 
as  the  air  is  injected  with  considerable  force  into  a  furnace;  there  is  fie- 
quently  a  great  reflux  of  blast  from  the  Tuyere  when  the  furnace  is  workiiig 
close;  whereas  when  it  is  working  open  tlie  flame  at  the  top  shows  that  the 
l>assage  of  the  air  through  the  mass  of  burning  fuel  is  very  free,  and  that 
consequently  a  portion  of  it  passes  off  unconsumed.  He  had  found  in  his 
experiments  on  blast  furnaces,  that  unless  there  was  a  redundancy  of  carbon, 
and  a  deficiency  of  oxygen,  there  was  no  chance  of  making  good  iron. 

May  26t/t. — The  President  in  the  Chair. 

The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected : — Thomas  Illman,  Joseph 
Chessborough  Dyer,  and  G.  S.  Saunderson,  as  Associates. 

'■  On  a  new  Mode  of  Coreriny  Roofs  with  Planking."  By  William  Cubitt, 
Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E. 

The  roof  itself  is  framed  in  the  usu.il  manner  with  principals  and  purlins, 
but  without  rafters.  The  boards  intended  for  the  covering  are  cut,  by  means 
of  a  circular  saw,  from  planks  7  inches  wide  by  2i  inches  thick,  in  such 
manner  that  each  plank  makes  Xv;o  boards,  the  one  tapering  from  its  centre 
towards  the  edges,  the  other  from  its  edges  towards  the  coitre.  The  hollow 
boards  are  laid  side  by  side,  at  intervals  of  41-  iuches,  and  nailed  to  the  pur- 
lins by  their  centres  only,  so  as  to  admit  of  shrinking ;  the  intervening  spaces 
are  then  covered  by  the  other  boards,  overlapping  \^  inch  on  each  edge,  and 
nailed  in  like  manner.  The  covering  thus  formed  presents  a  series  of  alter- 
nate elevations  and  depressions,  longitudinally  from  the  ridge  to  the  gutter, 
and  consequently  the  rain  falls  off  very  rapidly,  and  a  roof  so  constructed  is 
easily  kept  water-tight.  The  author  conceives  this  to  be  the  most  economical 
mode  of  using  timber  for  covering,  and  he  has  adopted  it  extensively.  The 
communication  was  accompanied  by  a  model  of  the  roof  and  specimens  of 
the  hoards  as  they  are  left  by  the  saw. 

'*  On  Lony  and  Short  Connecting-rods  for  Marine  Eityines." 

A  letter  was  read  from  Ardaseer  Cursetjee,  of  Bombay,  in^^ting  a  discussion 
on  the  relative  advantages  of  long  and  short  connecting  rods  for  marine 
engines.  He  was  induced  to  make  inquiry  on  this  subject  from  some  obser- 
vations in  a  communication  to  the  Institution,  relative  to  the  engines  of  the 
steam  tug  the  "  Alice  "  (Minutes  of  Proceedings,  page  385).  In  that  paper 
their  superiority  is  in  part  attributed  to  the  increased  length  of  the  coimecting 
rods.  This  is  the  point  upon  which  he  requests  information,  as  he  conceives 
that  the  power  of  the  piston  upon  the  crank  is  the  same  whatever  may  be 
the  medium  through  which  it  is  transmitted,  and  the  effect  to  be  the  same 
throughout  a  complete  revolution,  whetlier  the  connecting  rod  be  long  or 
short,  except  that  from  the  increased  angle  of  a  very  short  connecting  rod 
some  additional  friction  is  thrown  upon  the  joints. 

On  the  general  construction  of  the  engine  of  the  "  Alice,"  he  remarks,  that 
engines  of  similar  form  are  now  used  for  pumping  at  the  Tliames  Tunnel 
under  Mr.  Brunei's  direction ;  and  that  a  pair  of  engines  of  this  kind  were 
built  by  Messrs.  Seaward,  13  years  ago,  for  the  "  Staadt  Francfort "  steam- 
boat, to  ply  between  Francfort  and  Coblentz ;  in  this  instance,  the  cylinders 
were  firmly  fixed  to  the  bed-plate  and  sleepers,  with  the  cross  bars  above  the 
cylinders,  thus  having  one  connecting  rod  only  leading  to  the  cranks,  which 
he  considers  a  superior  arrangement  to  that  of  the  engines  of  the  "  Alice." 

A  drawing  of  the  engines  of  the  "  Staadt  Francfort "  accompanies  the 
communication. 

A  letter  was  read  from  Mr.  John  Cooper,  of  Dover,  describing  the  effect  of 
the  worm  (Teredo  navalis)  on  several  kinds  of  timber  which  had  been  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  sea  water.  The  kinds  of  timber  on  which  the  experi- 
ments were  made  were  fir,  English  oak,  and  African  oak  ;  specimens  of  each 
sort,  some  Kyauized  and  the  others  unprepared,  having  been  tried  under  ex- 
actly similar  circumstances  on  the  piles  of  the  south  ]iier  of  Dover  harbour. 
The  results  show  that  Kyanizing  timber  does  not  in  any  degree  protect  it ; 
as,  after  exposure  from  December  1837  until  May  1840,  it  was  fouml  that 
the  worm  made  equal  ravages  among  all  the  specimens.  The  author  also 
tried  the  process  of  saturating  timber  with  copperas  water,  but  did  not  find 
any  good  result  from  it.  In  July  1835,  he  placed  under  water  some  2-incli 
oak  planks  which  had  been  prepared  with  copperas ;  and  on  examining  theiu 
in  May  1840,  they  were  found  to  lie  as  much  attacked  by  the  worm  as  the 
worst  specimens  of  unprepared  fir  timber  which  had  been  exposed  for  a  similar 
length  of  time.  The  African  oak  resisted  the  attack  of  the  worm  better  than 
either  fir  or  English  oak. 

It  was  stated  that  Teak  timber  resisted  the  attacks  of  the  worm  and  of  the 
white  ant,  which  destroy  all  other  kinds  of  timber.  It  is,  however,  liable  to 
injury  from  the  attacks  of  liarnaoles. 

•'  On  the  Corrosion  of  Cast  and  Jl'ronght  Iron  in  Water."  By  Kobert 
Mallet,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E'.,  &c. 

This  communication  is  one  of  those  forwarded  to  the  Institution  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Council  having  considered  this  subject  a  suitable  one  to  com- 
pete for  the  Telford  Premiums  ;  and  the  author  having  been  long  engaged  in 
making  experiments  on  this  subject  at  the  request  of  the  British  Association, 
refers  in  the  introductory  part  of  this  paper  to  the  contents  of  that  report, 
which  may  be  viewed  as  a  '■  precis"  of  the  state  of  our  knowledge  on  the 
subject  to  tlie  year  1S39,  together  with  original  researches  forming  the  basis 
of  the  present  results.     This  communication  is  accompanied  by  a  most  elabo- 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


425 


rate  set  of  tables  of  results ;  but  these  laborious  investigations  being  yet  in 
progress,  the  author  directs  his  special  attention  to  so  much  only  of  the  sub- 
ject as  may  be  necessary  for  their  elucidation,  divesting  his  remarks  as  much 
as  possible'  of  a  purely  chemical  character,  and  contiuing  them  to  those  prac- 
tical conclusions  which  are  of  immediate  use  and  importance  of  the  engineer. 

The  tables  of  results  are  altogether  twelve  in  number.  The  first  five  con- 
tain the  data  and  results  of  the  chemical  or  corroding  action  of  sea  and  fresh 
water  on  cast  and  wrought  iron  under  five  several  conditions,  during  a  period 
of  a  year  and  ten  months ;  and  these  five  series  of  experiments  are  so  co- 
ordinate with  each  other  as  to  form  one  connected  and  comparable  whole, 
whence  the  relative  rates  and  absolute  amounts  of  corrosion  of  cast  and 
wrought  iron — by,  1.  clear  sea  water,  2.  foul  sea  water,  3.  clear  sea  water  at 
temperature  115°  F.,  4.  foul  river  water,  and  5.  clear  river  water — may  be 
ascertained.  The  corrosive  action  of  water  and  au'  combined  produces  on  the 
surface  of  csst  or  wrought  iron  a  state  of  rust  possessing  one  of  the  five  fol- 
lowing characteristics — 1.  Uniform,  2.  uniform  with  plumbago,  3.  local  pitted, 
4.  local  pitted,  5.  tubular — or  of  two  or  more  of  these  characteristic  condi- 
tions in  combination  ;  these  facts  for  82  different  specimens  of  British  and 
Irish  cast  iron-  -together  with  their  original  external  characters,  mode  in 
which  they  were  cast,  specific  gi'avity,  dimension  and  weight  before  and  after 
immersion,  loss  of  weight  per  square  inch  of  surface,  this  loss  referred  to  a 
standard  bar,  and  the  weight  of  water  absorbed  for  clear  sea  water — compose 
Table  I.  The  four  subsequent  tables  contain  similar  results  for  specimens  of 
iron  immersed  under  the  other  four  conditions  mentioned  above.  These  five 
tables  contain  also  the  results  of  the  corrosion  of  certain  cast  iron  protected 
by  either  of  ten  several  paints  or  varnishes,  the  results  of  which  are  compara- 
ble with  those  for  the  unprotected  iron.  Table  VI.  exhibits  the  general  com- 
parison of  the  results  set  forth  in  the  preceding  tables  for  specimens  of  iron 
one  inch  thick,  and  reduced  to  one  common  or  equal  period  of  immersion. 
Table  VII.  shows  the  average  loss  of  all  varieties  of  cast  iron  experimented 
on  per  square  inch  of  surface.  Table  VIII.  the  average  calculated  amount  of 
coiTosion  (assumed  uniform)  of  various  specimens  of  east  and  wrought  iron 
per  superficial  foot  of  surface  at  the  end  of  one  century.  From  these  tables 
it  appears,  that  the  metallic  destruction  or  con-osion  of  the  iron  is  a  maximum 
in  clear  sea  water  of  the  temperature  of  115'  F. — that  it  is  nearly  as  great  in 
foul  sea  water — and  a  minimum  in  clear  fresh  river  water. 

Iron  under  certain  circumstances  is  subject  to  a  peculiar  increase  of  corro- 
sive action — as,  for  instance,  cast  iron  piling  at  the  mouth  of  tidal  rivers— 
from  the  following  cause.  The  salt  water  being  of  greater  density  than  the 
fresh,  forms  at  certain  times  of  tide  an  under  current,  while  the  upper  or 
surface  water  is  fresh  ;  these  two  strata  of  different  constitutions  coming  in 
contact  with  the  metal,  a  voltaic  pile  of  one  solid  and  two  fluid  elements  is 
formed ;  one  portion  of  the  metal  will  be  in  a  positive  state  of  electrical  ac- 
tion with  respect  to  the  other,  and  the  corrosive  action  on  the  former  portion 
is  augmented.  The  lower  end  of  an  iron  pile,  for  instance,  under  the  circum- 
stances just  mentioned,  will  be  positive  with  respect  to  the  other,  and  the 
corrosion  of  the  lower  part  will  be  augmented  by  the  negative  state  of  the 
iipper  portion,  while  the  upper  will  be  iVse^ preserved  in  the  same  proportion. 
From  this  theoretical  view  may  be  deduced  the  important  practical  conclu- 
sion, that  the  lower  parts  of  all  castings  subject  to  this  increased  action  should 
have  increased  scantling. 

The  increased  corrosive  action  of  Jbul  sea  water  may  be  referred  to  the 
quantity  of  hydrosulphuric  acid  disengaged  from  putrifying  animal  matter  in 
the  mud,  converting  the  hydrated  oxides  and  carbonate  of  iron  into  various 
sulphurets,  which  again  are  rapidly  oxidized  further  under  certain  conditions, 
and  becoming  sulphates  are  washed  away.  Hence  the  rai)id  decay  of  iron  in 
the  sewage  of  large  cities,  and  of  the  bolts  of  marine  engines  exposed  to  the 
bilge  water.  The  corrosive  action  being  least  in  fresh  water  may  be  partly 
referred  to  this  being  a  worse  voltaic  conducting  fluid  than  salt  water. 

It  appears  also  that  wrought  iron  sufl'ers  the  greatest  loss  by  corrosion  in 
hot  sea  water ;  which  fact  has  led  the  author  to  inquiries,  with  reference  to 
marine  boilers,  at  what  point  of  concentration  of  the  salt  water,  whether 
when  most  dilute,  after  the  common  salt  has  begun  to  deposit,  or  at  a  farther 
stage  of  concentration,  the  corrosive  action  on  wrought  iron  is  the  greatest, 
and  he  points  out  the  important  practical  use  which  can  be  made  of  this  in- 
formation. It  appears  also,  that  the  removal  of  the  exterior  skin  of  a  casting 
greatly  increases  the  corrosive  action  of  salt  water  and  its  combined  air,  so 
that  the  index  of  corrosion  under  these  circumstances  is  not  much  less  than 
that  of  wrought  iron,  and  in  clear  river  water  is  greater. 

It  farther  appears,  that  chilled  cast  iron  corrodes  faster  than  the  same  sort 
of  cast  iron  cast  in  green  sand,  and  that  the  size,  scantling,  and  perhaps  form 
of  a  casting,  are  elements  in  the  rate  of  its  corrosion  in  water.  The  explana- 
tion of  these  facts  is  to  be  found  in  the  want  of  homogenity  of  substance, 
and  the  consequent  formation  of  numerous  voltaic  couples,  by  whose  action 
the  corrosion  is  promoted.  It  is  also  observable  that  the  corroded  sm-face  of 
all  these  chilled  specimens  is  tubular. 

It  appears  also  that,  in  castings  of  equal  weight,  those  of  massive  scantling 
have  proportionately  greater  durability  than  those  of  attenuated  ribs  and 
feathers.  Hence  appears  also  the  great  advantage  of  having  all  castings,  par- 
ticularly those  intended  to  be  submerged,  cooled  in  the  sand,  so  as  to  insure 
the  greatest  possible  uniformity  of  texture.  The  principles  now  stated  afford 
an  explanation  of  the  fact  often  observed,  that  the  back  ribs  of  cast  iron  sheet 
piling  decay  much  faster  than  the  faces  of  the  piles.  It  is  also  probable  that 
castings  in  dry  sand  and  loam  will,  for  these  reasons,  be  more  durable  than 
those  cast  in  green  sand.     The  general  residt  of  all  these  experiments  gives 


a  preference  to  the  Welsh  cast  iron  for  aquatic  purposes,  and  to  those  which 
possess  closeness  of  grain.  Generally,  the  more  homogeneous,  the  denser 
and  closer  grained,  and  the  less  graphytic,  the  smaller  is  the  index  of  corro- 
sion for  any  given  specimen  or  make  of  cast  iron. 

The  author  next  proceeds  to  the  important  question  of  the  protection 
afforded  by  paints  and  varnishes.  White  lead  perishes  at  once  in  foul  water, 
both  fresh  and  salt ;  and  caoutchouc  dissolved  in  petroleum  appears  the  most 
durable  in  hot  water,  and  asphaltum  varnish  or  boiled  coal  tar  laid  on  while 
the  iron  is  hot  under  all  circumstances.  The  zinc  paint,  which  is  now  so 
much  noticed  as  an  article  of  commerce,  the  author  has  analyzed,  and  states 
its  composition  as — 


Sulphuret  lead 

Oxide  zinc 

Metalhc  zinc 

Sesqui-oxide  iron  . 

Silica 

Carbon 

Loss 


905 
415 
81-71 
0-14 
1-81 
1-20 
1-94 

100- 


It  may,  a  priori,  be  considered  likely  to  produce  a  most  excellent  body  for  a 
sound  and  durable  paint  under  water.  The  black  oxide  of  mangar\ese  has  no 
advantages  but  that  of  being  a  powerful  drier.  The  defects  of  all  oil  paints 
arise  from  the  instability  of  their  bases  ;  the  acids  which  enter  into  the  con- 
stitution of  all  fixed  oils  readily  quit  their  weakly  positive  organic  bases  to 
form  salts  with  the  oxides  of  the  metal  on  which  they  may  be  laid.  Hence 
we  must  look  for  improvements  in  our  paints  to  those  substances  among  the 
organic  groups  which  have  greater  stability  than  the  fat  or  fixed  oils,  and 
which,  in  the  place  of  being  acid  or  Haloid,  are  basic  or  neutral.  The  heavy 
oUy  matter  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  resin,  called  "  resenien."  and 
eupion,  obtained  from  rapeseed  oil,  have  valuable  properties  as  the  bases  o£ 
paints. 

Tables  IX.  and  X.  contain  the  results  as  to  the  corrosion  of  cast  iron  in 
sea  water  when  exposed  in  Voltaic  contact  with  various  alloys  of  copper  and 
zinc,  copper  and  tin,  or  either  of  these  metals  separately,  per  square  inch  of 
surface.  It  appears  that  neither  brass  nor  gun  metal  has  any  electro-chemi- 
cal protective  power  over  iron  in  water,  but  on  the  contrary  promotes  its 
coiTOsion.  This  question  is  only  a  particular  case  of  the  following  general 
question  :  viz.  if  there  be  three  metals,  A.  B.  C,  whereof  A.  is  electro-posi- 
tive, and  C.  electro-negative,  with  respect  to  B.,  and  capable  of  forming 
various  alloys,  2A  +  C....A-(-C....A  +  2C;  then  if  B.  be  immersed  in  a 
solvent  fluid  in  the  presence  of  A.,  B.  will  be  electro-cheraically  preserved, 
and  A.  corroded,  and  vice  versa.  If  B.  be  so  immersed  in  the  presence  of  C, 
B.  will  be  dissolved  or  corroded,  and  C.  electro-chemically  preserved ;  the 
amount  of  loss  sustained  in  either  case  being  determined  according  to  Fara- 
day's "  general  law  of  Volta-equivalents."  The  tables  show  that  the  loss 
sustained  by  cast  iron  in  sea  water,  as  compared  to  the  loss  sustained  by  aa 
equal  surface  of  the  same  cast  iron  in  contact  with  copper,  is  8'23:  I1'37; 
and  when  the  cast  iron  was  in  contact  with  an  alloy  containing  7  atoms  of 
copper  and  1  of  zinc,  the  ratio  was  8'23  :  13'21  ;  so  that  the  addition  in  this 
proportion  of  an  electro-/;osi7it'e  metal  to  the  copper  produces  an  alloy  (a 
new  metal,  in  fact)  with  higher  electro-negative  powers,  in  respect  to  cast 
iron,  than  copper  itself.  The  author  discusses  many  results  equally  remark- 
able, and  is  therefore  enabled  to  suggest  by  its  chemical  notation  the  alloy  of 
"  no  action,"  or  that  which  in  the  presence  of  iron  and  a  solvent  would 
neither  accelerate  nor  retard  its  solution,  one  of  the  components  of  this  alloy 
being  slightly  electro-negative,  and  the  other  slighly  electro-positive,  with 
respect  to  cast  iron.  These  results  will  also  enable  some  advances  to  be 
made  towards  the  solution  of  the  important  problem  proposed  by  the  author 
in  his  former  report,  viz.  "  the  obtaining  a  mode  of  electro-chemical  protec- 
tion, such  that  while  the  metal  (iron)  shall  be  preserved,  the  protector  shall 
not  be  acted  on,  and  the  protection  of  which  shall  be  invariable." 

Table  X.  exhibits  especially  the  results  of  the  action  of  sea  water  on  cast 
iron  in  the  presence  of  copper  and  tin  or  their  alloys.  It  appears  that  copper 
and  tin  being  doth  electro-negative  with  respect  to  cast  iron,  all  their  alloys 
increase  or  accelerate  the  rate  of  corrosion  of  cast  iron  in  a  solvent,  though  ia 
very  variable  degrees ;  the  maximum  increase  is  produced  by  tin  alone,  thus 
indicating  that  this  metal  (contrary  to  what  was  previously  believed)  is  more 
electro-negative  to  cast  iron  than  copper.  Hence  the  important  practical  de- 
duction, that,  where  submerged,  works  in  iron  must  be  in  contact  with  either 
alloy,  viz.  brass  or  gun  metal ;  common  brass,  or  copper  and  zinc,  is  much  to 
be  preferred.  These  experiments  %viU  also  serve  to  demonstrate  the  fallacy 
of  many  of  the  patented  so-called  preservatives  from  oxidation,  which  are 
brought  before  the  public  with  so  much  parade. 

The  author  lastly  proceeds  to  the  subject  of  the  specific  gravity  of  cast  ii'on, 
tables  of  which  aie  added  to  the  preceding.  The  specific  gravities  here  re- 
corded were  taken  on  equal  sized  cubes  of  the  several  cast  irons  cut  by  the 
planing  machine,  from  bars  of  equal  size,  cast  at  the  same  temperature,  in 
the  same  way.  and  cooled  in  equal  times.  Many  of  these  results  differ  con- 
siderably from  those  given  by  Dr.  Thompson  and  Mr.  Fairbairn  ;  which  the 
author  refers  to  the  probability  that  those  of  Dr.  Thompson  were  taken  from 
pieces  of  the  raw  pig,  and  those  of  Mr.  Fairbaurn  by  weighing  in  air  equal 
bulks  cut  from  the  mass  by  the  chisel  and  file,  by  which  latter  process  the 
volume  is  liable  to  condensation.    The  experiments  of  Mr.  Fairbairn  and  Mr. 

3  M 


42r, 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Dkcember, 


Eaton  lloilgkinson  seem  to  show  that  tlie  ultimate  strength  of  cast  iron  is  in 
the  ratio  of  some  function  of  the  specific  gravity  dependant  upon  the  follow- 
ing conditions :  viz.  1.  the  bulk  of  the  casting  ;  2.  the  de))tli  or  head  of  metal 
under  which  the  casting  was  made  ;  3.  the  temperature  at  which  the  iron  was 
poured  into  the  mould ;  4.  the  rate  at  which  the  casting  was  cooled. 

Tahle  XI.  All  the  irons  experimented  on  are  arranged  in  classes,  according 
to  the  cliaracter  of  the  fracture;  for  which  piu'pose  the  terms — 1.  silverj',  2. 
jnicaccous,  3.  mottled,  4.  bright  grey,  5.  dull  grey,  and  6.  dark  grey,  have 
been  adopted  hy  the  author  as  a  sufficient  basis  on  which  to  rest  a  uniform 
system  of  nomenclature  for  the  physical  characters  of  all  cast  irons,  as  recog- 
nisable by  their  fracture ;  and  it  is  to  be  wished  that  experimenters  in  future 
would  adopt  this  or  some  other  uniform  syitem  of  description,  in  place  of 
the  vague  and  often  incorrect  characteristics  commonly  attached  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  fracture  of  cast  iron. 

The  twelfth  and  last  table  contains  the  results  of  a  set  of  experiments  on 
the  important  subject  of  the  increase  of  density  conferred  on  east  iron,  by 
being  cast  uniler  a  considerable  head  of  metal,  the  amoimt  of  which  conden- 
sation had  not  been  previously  reduced  to  numbers.  It  shows  this  increase 
of  density  in  large  castings,  for  every  2  feet  in  depth,  from  2  to  14  feet  deep 
of  metal. 

A  very  rapid  increase  of  density  takes  place  at  first,  and  below  4  feet  in 
depth  a  ncaily  uniform  increment  of  condensation. 

The  importance  of  these  results  is  obvious ;  for,  if  the  ultimate  cohesion  of 
castings  is  as  some  function  of  their  specific  gravity,  tlie  results  of  experiments 
in  relation  to  strength,  7nade  on  casfiuffs  of  dijferent  magnitudes,  or  cast  un- 
der different  heads,  can  only  be  made  comparable  by  involving  their  variable 
specific  gravities  in  the  calculation. 

June  2 — The  President  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected : — Lieutenant  T.  il.  Sale,  B.E., 
and  George  Larmer,  as  Associates. 

June  16 — The  President  in  the  Chair. 
The  following  were  balloted  for  and  elected  : — William  Joiy  Henwood,  as 
a  Member  ;  John  Thomas  Cooper  and  John  Oliver  York,  as  Associates. 

"  On  the  Action  of  Steam  as  a  Moving  Power  in  the  Cornish  Single  Punip- 
ing  Engine."     By  Josiah  Parkes,  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 

In  this  communication,  the  author  presents  a  detailed  analysis  of  some  of 
the  facts  collected  and  recorded  by  him  in  his  former  communications,  with 
the  special  object  of  ascertaining  from  the  known  consumption  of  water  as 
steam,  the  whole  quantity  of  action  developed — the  quantity  of  action  had  it 
been  used  unexpansively — the  value  of  expansion — the  correspondence  be- 
tween the  power,  and  the  resistance  overcome— and,  finally,  a  theory  of  the 
steam  action,  with  a  view  of  determining  the  real  causes  of  the  economy  of 
the  Cornish  single  pumping  engine. 

The  data  employed  for  the  purposes  of  this  investigation  are  those  obtained 
from  the  Iluel  Towau  engine  by  Mr.  Henwood,  from  the  llolmbush  by  Mr. 
Wieksteed,  and  from  the  Fowey  Consols,  and  recorded  in  the  author's  com- 
munications in  the  Transactions  of  the  Institution  of  CivU  Engineers,  Vols.  2 
and  3. 

Steam  may  be  applied  in  one  or  other  of  the  two  following  modes  :  expan- 
sively, that  is,  when  admitted  into  the  cylinder  at  a  pressure  greater  than  the 
resistance,  and  quitting  it  at  a  pressure  less  than  the  resistance  ;  or  unexpan- 
sively, that  is,  when  its  pressure  on  the  piston  is  equal  to  the  resistance 
throughout  the  stroke.  By  the  term  economy  in  the  use  of  steam,  is  meant 
the  increase  in  quantity  of  action  obtaiued  by  the  adoption  of  that  mode 
which  produces  the  greatest  effect. 

The  weight  of  pump-rods,  &c.,  which  effects  the  pumping  or  return  stroke 
in  a  Cornish  engine  is  greater  than  the  weight  of  the  column  of  water,  by  the 
amounts  necessary  to  overcome  the  friction  of  the  water  in  the  pipes — to  dis- 
place the  water  at  the  velocity  of  the  stroke — to  overcome  the  friction  of  the 
pitwork,  and  of  the  engine  itself.  The  absolute  resistance  opposed  to  the 
steam,  consists  of  the  weight  which  performs  the  return  stroke,  plus  the  fric- 
tion of  the  engine  and  pitwork,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  uncondensed  steam. 

The  water-load  in  the  Huel  Towau  engine  was  very  accurately  ascertained 
as  11  lbs.  per  square  inch  on  the  piston  ;  and  it  is  shown  that  the  additional 
resistance  amounted  to  7  lbs.  in  the  Huel  Towan,  and  to  Gibs,  in  the  other 
engines,  so  that  the  whole  resistance  in  the  Huel  Towan  engine  is  18  lbs.  per 
square  inch  of  the  piston.  Ts'ow,  the  elastic  force  of  the  steam  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  stroke,  and  before  the  equilibrium  valve  is  opened  (ascertained 
from  the  ratio  of  the  volumes  of  steam  and  water  consumed),  is  only  7  lbs. 
per  square  inch,  that  is,  4  lbs.  less  than  the  water-load  alone.  The  corres- 
ponding results  for  the  other  two  engines  are  equally  remarkable,  and  show- 
most  distinctly  that,  at  the  termination  of  tlie  stroke,  the  pressure  of  the 
steam  is  far  below  the  water-load,  as  had  been  previously  observed  hy  Mr. 
Henwood  and  others. 

The  next  step  in  the  analysis  is  to  determine  the  portion  of  the  stroke  per- 
formed when  the  pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  is  just  Ijelow  the  re- 
sistance, and  tlien  to  separate  and  estimate  the  spaces  through  which  the 
piston  is  driven  respectively  by  steam  of  a  pressure  not  less  than  the  resistance, 
and  less  tlian  the  resistance.  These  facts  being  ascestained,  the  virtual  or 
useful  expansion,  and  the  dynamic  efficiency  of  the  steam,  during  the  two 
portions  of  the  stroke,  are  known  ;  and  it  appears  that  there  is  a  deficiency 
of  power,  as  compared  with  the  resistance  overcome,  of  above  3  lbs.  in  the 
Huel  Towau,  and  more  than  4  lbs.  in  the  other  engines,  per  square  iuch  on  the 
piston. 


From  these  startling  facts,  and  a  careful  examination  of  Mr.  llcnwoorl's  in- 
dicator diagi'ams,  the  author  was  induced  to  inquire  whether  the  jiiston  had 
not  lieen  impelled  by  a  force  altogether  distinct  from  the  continuous  action  of 
the  steam  upon  it,  namely,  by  a  force  which  is  to  be  referred  to  the  sudden 
impact  on  the  piston  when  the  admission  valve  is  so  fully  and  instantaneously 
0|>ened,  as  it  is  in  these  engines,  and  a  free  communication  established  be- 
tween the  cylinder  and  the  boiler.  To  this  instantaneous  action  on  the  pis- 
ton, the  author,  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  assigns  the  term  percussion ;  and, 
proceeding  to  analyse  the  authentic  facts  under  this  view,  it  appears  that  the 
space  of  the  cylinder  though  which  the  piston  was  carried  by  virtue  of  this 
percussive  action  was  about  21  inches  in  the  Huel  Towan,  27  inches  in  the 
llolmbush,  and  33  inches  in  the  Fowey  Consols  engines. 

The  resiUts  thus  unfolded,  which  are  facts  independent  of  any  hypothesis, 
appear  less  startling  on  a  full  consideration  of  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  steam  is  admitted  into  the  cyhnder.  The  engine  has  completed  a  stroke, 
and  is  brought  to  rest  by  the  cushion  of  steam  between  the  piston  and  the 
cyhnder  cover ;  a  vacuum  is  formed  on  the  other  side  of  the  piston ;  the 
elastic  force  of  the  steam  in  the  cushion  then  nearly  balances  the  resistance. 
A  communication  is  now  suddenly  opened  between  the  cylinder  and  the  boiler 
containing  steam  of  a  high  elasticity  ;  and  the  piston,  being  ready  to  move 
with  a  slightly  increased  pressure,  receives  a  violent  impulse  from  the  steam's 
instantaneous  action.  The  piston  having  started,  the  influx  of  the  steam  is 
more  or  less  retarded  by  the  throttle  valve,  and  its  elastic  force,  though  at 
first  greater  than  the  resistance,  is  soon  reduced  considerably  below  it,  the 
mass  of  matter  in  motion  acting  the  part  of  a  fly  wheel,  absorbing  the  excess 
of  the  initial  power  over  the  resistance,  and  discharging  it  by  degrees  until 
the  stroke  is  completed. 

The  indicator  diagrams,  which  are  the  transcripts  of  the  ])iston's  move- 
ments, show  that  such  may  be  the  nature  of  the  action  on  the  piston,  and 
the  discussion  of  numerous  well-established  facts  and  phenomena,  for  the 
Cornish  engines,  strongly  confirms  this  view  of  the  case.  Whatever  may  be 
the  theory  of  the  steam's  action,  the  fact  that  the  sum  of  those  actions  has 
carried  the  piston  through  its  course,  is  certain ;  and  it  seems  equally  certain 
that  the  quantity  of  water  as  steam  which  entered  the  cylinders  was  insuffi- 
cient alone  to  overcome  the  resistance. 

The  author  then  investigates  the  amount  of  useful  action  due  to  the  steam 
imprisoned  between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  cover,  and  recovered  each 
stroke,  which,  for  its  use  in  bringing  the  engine  to  a  state  of  rest  at  the  end 
of  the  return  stroke,  he  terms  the  cushion.  This  quantity,  though  small,  is 
appreciable,  and  its  value  is  assigned  for  each  engine. 

The  author  treats  lastly  of  the  evidence  furnished  by  the  diagi'ams  of  the 
indicator,  and  of  its  utility  as  a  pressure  gauge.  The  communication  is  ac- 
companied by  elaljorate  tables  of  the  results  of  the  analysis,  and  an  appendbc 
with  the  calculations  worked  out  in  detail. 


SCIENTIFIC  SOCIETY. 

The  opening  meeting  of  the  present  Session  was  held  by  the  Scientific  So- 
ciety on  Thursday  evening,  Nov.  19,  at  their  rooms  in  Great  Russell-street, 
Bloomsbury.  In  the  absence  of  the  President,  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents, 
John  Stevens,  Esq.,  delivered  the  annual  address,  in  which,  after  adverting 
to  the  advanced  position  of  the  institution,  he  explained,  at  some  length,  its 
characteristic  features,  and  the  pecuhar  objects  which  it  is  designed  to  pro- 
mote. The  great  and  known  want  of  adequate  facilities  for  collecting  and 
registering  scientific  observations,  seriously  impeded  the  progress  of  inductive 
generalization, — facts  are  lost  for  want  of  channels  through  which  they  may 
be  brought  to  a  common  centre,  and  there  has  never  yet  been  formed  a 
Museum  of  recorded  and  classified  data,  to  which  the  scientific  inquirer  may 
resort  for  evidence  to  snp^iort  or  subvert  theoretical  views.  The  leailing  pur- 
pose of  the  Scientific  Society  is  to  supply  this  deficiency,  but  they  can  only 
hope  to  succeed  in  so  arduous  an  undertaking,  by  the  most  active  individual 
exertion,  and  by  the  friendly  co-operation  of  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
advancement  of  science.  After  the  address  a  paper  was  read  on  a  new  dis- 
covery in  Electrotype.  The  meeting  was  numerously  attended,  both  by  mem- 
bers and  visitors,  which  evince  the  interest  taken  in  the  proceedings  of  the 
societv. 


KING'S  COLLEGE. 

We  understand  that  regretting  the  necessity  of  refusing  many  applications 
for  admission  of  students,  whose  age  and  previous  character  were  not  suffi- 
ciently advanced,  into  the  civil  engineering  department — and  feeling  at  the 
same  time  the  advantage  of  having  their  previous  education  directed  to  those 
studies,  which  would  ground  them  in  the  subjects  of  the  more  extensive  read- 
ings of  the  senior  class,  and  convinced  as  well,  that  even  to  a  general  studeu 
would  be  useful,  some  knowledge  of  the  principle  and  nature  of  that  me- 
chanism and  machinery  which  is  now  becoming  the  subject  of  every  day  re- 
mark and  conversation',  witliout  which  the  education  of  the  gentleman  is 
scarcely  complete,  the  council  of  the  college  have  established  a  junior  class 
for  students  of  14  years  and  upwards. 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


427 


ARCHITECTURAL  SOCIETY. 


The  Tenth  Session  of  this  Society  was  opened  on  the  3rfl  ult.,  at  their 
apartments  in  Lincohi's  Inn  Fields,  with  a  conversazione.  The  President, 
William  Tite,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  the  Architect  of  the  New  Royal  Exchange,  took 
the  Chair  at  nine  o'clock ;  when  the  Secretary,  Mr.  Grellier,  proceeded  to 
read  the  Report  of  the  Committee,  which  stated  the  arrangements  made  for 
the  lectures  and  papers  of  the  ensuing  session,  and  announced  five  prizes  for 
the  competition  of  the  student-mSmbers,  upon  the  following  subjects  :- — The 
best  architectural  composition ;  the  best  measured  drawing  of  the  front  of 
St.  George's  Church,  Bloomsburj' ;  the  best  series  of  architectural  sketches 
produced  during  the  season  ;  the  best  notes  of  the  lectures  delivered  at  the 
several  meetings  of  the  Society ;  and  the  best  drawing  iu  chalk  or  pencil 
from  the  plaster  figure. 

The  President  then  read  an  elaborate  essay  on  the  history,  chemistry,  and 
uses  of  bitumen  and  its  compounds,  tracing  the  facts  of  their  application  from 
the  earliest  times,  with  illustrations  from  the  Bible,  from  Herodotus,  Diodorus 
SiciUus,  Josephus,  Dioscorides,  Vitruvius,  and  Pliny.  The  lectiu-er  then 
described  the  various  kinds  of  bitumen,  beginning  with  its  most  liquid  state 
of  naptlia,  and  descending  to  petroleum,  mineral  tar,  mineral  pitch  (some- 
times called  maltha),  and  then  to  the  compact  bitumen  known  as  aspbaltum, 
elastic  bitumen,  or  mineral  caoutchouc,  mineral  wax,  and  mineral  tallow. 
This  part  of  the  dissertation  was  illustrated  by  specimens  of  most  of  these 
substances  on  the  lecture  table,  and  by  references  to  the  principal  sources 
from  which  they  are  derived  in  the  present  day.  It  appears  that,  for  the 
purpose  of  commerce  and  the  arts,  they  are  now  obtained  from  the  mines  of 
Avlona  in  Albania,  of  Lobsaun  in  Alsace  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  from 
Pyi-emont,  which  furnishes  the  asphalte  of  Seyssel,  known  in  England  as 
Claridge's,  besides  the  asphaltes  of  the  Landes  known  as  the  Basteune  and 
Gaujac.  Bitumens,  in  various  states,  are  also  found  in  great  abundance  at 
Rangoon,  in  the  Birmau  Empire,  at  Coxitambo  in  South  America,  in  the 
famous  Pitch-Lake  of  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  iu  the  celebrated  Naptha  Wells 
at  Baku  on  the  Caspian,  in  Persia,  iu  Greece,  Sweden,  Gallicia,  Moldavia, 
Sicily,  England,  and,  in  fact,  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  many  cases,  the 
varieties  are  found  pure ;  and  in  others,  as  at  Seyssel  and  Lobsaun,  they  are 
mixed  with  argillaceous  sands,  calciferous  bitumens  or  bituminous  grits  or 
shales  :  all  the  deposits  appear  to  belong  to  the  tertiary  formation.  There 
are  various  opinions  as  to  their  origin ;  their  chemistry,  however,  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  they  must  have  been  derived  from  the  destructive  distillation 
of  vegetable  matter,  the  produce  of  ancient  forests.  Among  other  curious 
facts  facts  stated  by  the  lecturer,  it  was  mentioned  that  the  streets  of  Parma 
are  lighted  with  petroleum  from  the  mines  of  Avlona ;  and  that  a  kind  of 
purified  bitumen  had  been,  for  some  centuries,  used  in  Paris  for  greasing  the 
■wheels  of  carriages,  under  the  name  of  graisse  noire. 

The  introduction  of  bitumen  into  mastic,  for  the  purposes  of  paving,  lining 
tanks,  &c.,  though  recently  revived  in  Paris  as  a  novelty,  does  not  appear  to 
be  so.  Jlr.  Tite  noticed  upon  this  subject,  a  Tract  in  the  British  Museum, 
entitled,  "  Dissertation  sur  1' Asphalte,  ou  ciment  naturel,  decouvert  depuis 
quelques  annees  an  Val  Travers,  dans  la  Comte  de  Neufchatel,  par  le  Sieiu: 
Eirini  d'Eyrinys,  Professeur  Grec,  et  Docteur  en  Medecine.  Avec  la  maniere 
de  I'employer,  tant  sur  la  piene  que  sur  le  bois ;  et  les  utilitee  de  I'huile  que 
I'on  en  tire."  Paris,  1721,  12mo.  From  this  tract  the  following  extracts 
were  read  ;  from  which  it  would  seem  that  the  proportions  and  applications 
of  bitumen  in  mastic  were  known  more  than  a  centuiy  since.  '•  Pour  former 
le  ciment,  et  le  mettre  en  etat  d'etre  employe,  il  faut  prendre  la  mine  toute 
pure,  et  la  bien  pulveriser.  Pour  le  faire  avec  moins  de  peine  et  de  frais  (car 
elle  est  fort  dure),  on  pent  I'attendrir  en  la  mettant  devant  le  feu,  ou  a  sec 
dans  un  chaudiere.  Des  qu'elle  sentira  la  chalem-,  on  la  broyera  tres  facile- 
ment ;  U  vaut,  cependant,  mieux  la  piler  froide,  parcequ'en  la  chauffant, 
I'huile  s'evapore,  et  elle  perd  beaucoup  de  sa  quahte  et  de  sa  force. 

"Quand  elle  est  absolument  ecrasee,  et  reduite  comme  duterreau,onprend 
de  la  poix  de  Bourgoyne  blanche  on  noire  (la  blanche  est  la  meilleure)  on  la 
fait  fondre  a  petit  feu  dans  uue  chaudiere  de  cuivre  ou  de  fer ;  quand  la  poix 
est  entierement  fondue,  it  faut  prendre  garde  que  le  feu  n'y  prenne ;  on  y 
mele  pen  a  pen  I'asphalte  en  le  remuant  continuellement  avec  un  baton  ou 
spatulc,  jusqu'a  ce  que  I'incorporatiou  soit  faite,  on  le  voit  parceque  I'asphalte 
doit  L'tre  liquide  comme  de  la  bouillie ;  la  doze  de  la  poix  est  la  dixieme 
partie,  c'est  a  dire,  qu'il  faut  neuf  livres  de  mine  et  une  livre  de  poix  pour 
former  le  ciment  dans  sa  perfection." 

After  giving  an  account  of  the  manner  of  employing  the  asphalte  as 
mortar,  the  author  continues, 

"  L'on  pourroit  encore  faire  des  bassins,  reservoirs,  citemes  et  terrasses, 
meme  sans  employer  des  pierres  de  taille,  et  cette  facon,  qui  couteroit  moins 
que  les  autres,  serrit  aussi  solide,  et  auroit  sa  beaute,  &c.  &c." 
His  recommendations  of  the  invention  are  warm  : — 
"  Quand  le  ciment  d'asphalte  est  fait  exactement,  il  resiste  egalement  au 
chaud  et  au  froid;  la  plus  grande  ardeur  du  soleil,  ni  la  gelee  la  plus  forte, 
n'y  peuvent  faire  aucun  dommage.  Je  cvois  avoir  trouve  la  chose  du  monde 
la  plus  avantageuse  pour  le  public,  principalement  pour  Paris,  &c.  &c." 

The  lecturer  exhibited  tables  showing  the  chemical  analysis  of  various  sub- 
stances from  recent  woody  fibre  down  through  the  lignites,  coals  and  jets  to 
the  most  compact  anthracite,  and  from  the  recent  tm'pentine  through  the 
napthas,  pitches,  &c.,  down  to  the  asphaltes.  lie  pointed  out  the  chemical 
analogy  or  isomerism  of  many  of  these  substances,  as  contrasted  with  their 
uses  and  appearances.    Iu  the  com-se  of  the  lecture,  reference  was  made  to 


the  ruins  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  as  well  as  to  the  ancient  Oracles  and 
Nymphaia  connected  with  tlie  springs  of  Naptha,  and  particidarly  to  the  ruins 
of  Avlona,  which  seem  to  connect  the  ancient  NymphEcum  spoken  of  by 
Strabo  and  Dio  Cassius,  on  the  banks  of  the  Aias,  or  Aous,  the  modern  Viosa, 
with  the  mineral  pitch  formation  of  Selenizza,  furnishing  the  modem  asphalte 
of  Avlona. 

Mr.  Tite  explained,  at  some  length,  the  composition  of  the  asphalte  mas- 
tics,  recommending  to  the  notice  of  the  architects  present  a  cai'eful  consider- 
ation of  their  appUcation  and  introduction. 

The  lecture  was  received  with  the  strongest  marks  of  approbation  from  a 
very  large  auditory,  including  many  of  the  leading  members  of  the  Royal 
Society,  the  Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  the  Institute 
of  Architects ;  and,  after  the  announcement  of  various  donations  to  the 
Library  and  JIuseum  of  the  Society,  the  meeting  separated. 


INTERESTING  EXPERIMENTS  WITH   LOCOMOTIVE  ENGINES,  ON 
THE  HULL  AND  SELBY  RAILWAY. 

On  Tuesday,  the  10th  ult.,  a  course  of  five  days'  experiments  commenced 
with  the  engines  of  the  above  Railway,  originating  through  the  following 
circumstances  : — 

About  the  commencement  of  the  present  year,  six  engines,  somewhat  similar 
to  those  on  the  Leeds  and  Selby  line,  were  in  a  greater  or  less  state  of  for- 
wardness for  the  Hull  and  Selby  Railway,  at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Fenton, 
Murray,  and  Jackson,  of  this  town,  when  the  Hull  and  Selby  Railway  Com- 
pany resolved  to  have  six  other  engines,  on  the  most  approved  construction 
which  experience  up  to  that  period  could  produce,  from  the  previous  working 
of  locomotives  ou  the  various  Railways.  Four  objects  were  particularly  kept 
iu  view,  namely,  safetij,  simpUcift/,  accessHiUty  of  the  various  parts,  and 
ecmifjmy,  the  whole  combining  general  efficacy  and  dnrability  of  the  engine 
throughout. 

The  first  object  is  secured  by  giving  a  more  extended  Jose  for  the  action  of 
the  springs  in  supporting  the  weight  of  the  engine,  being  about  six  and  a  half 
by  eleven  feet,  whereby  a  remarkably  steady  motiou  is  secured  at  thirty  miles 
per  hour.  It  is  not  at  all  a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  four  wheel  engines  of 
several  Railways  now  in  use  should  every  now  and  then  go  off  the  road,  and 
in  an  instant,  when  it  is  recollected  the  extreme  base  of  their  springs  for  sup- 
porting the  engine  is  only  about  three  three  quarters  by  about  six  feet ;  hence 
then:  rocking,  seqientine,  and  pitcliing  motion,  which  without  any  other  cause 
than  a  shght  increase  of  speed,  literally  lifts  the  flanges  of  the  wheels  above 
the  smface  of  the  rails,  and  in  three  or  four  seconds  the  engine  is  turned  end 
for  end,  upset  in  the  act,  and  the  train  with  it ;  whilst  the  stability  of  the 
engine  is  effectually  secured  through  an  extended  base  upon  the  front  and 
hind  wheels.  By  means  of  a  new  combination,  the  best  properties  of  the 
four-wheeled  engines  are  also  completely  applied,  by  resting  the  weight  on 
the  crankshaft  immediately  within  the  wheels,  which  experience  has  for  years 
proved  to  be  the  place  least  likely  to  injure  it,  and  thereby  avoid  the  alarm- 
ing accidents  which  have  so  often  taken  place  by  the  breaking  of  the  shaft, 
through  placing  the  weight  on  bearings  outside  of  the  wheels ;  the  centre  of 
the  engine  being  a  sort  of  neutral  axis,  there  is  very  httle  power  over  its  mo- 
tion in  that  part,  and  this  advantage,  by  placing  the  weight  on  the  crank  in- 
side the  wheels,  is,  in  consequence,  got  without  a  sacrifice  of  stability. 

Secondly,— In  addition  to  the  safety  and  simpUcity  of  having  only  Urn 
inner  frames,  instead  of  three  or  four,  with  as  many  bearings  on  the  crank 
shaft,  the  space  under  the  boiler  is  still  further  stripped  of  machinery  by  a 
new  valve  motion,  which  gives  a  high  degi-ee  of  openness  and  facility  of  access 
so  desirable  in  examination,  cleaning,  &c  ,  of  the  working  parts. 

Tliirdlv,— The  steam  being  used  expansively  by  the  valve  motion  above 
alluded  to,  a  great  saving  in  fuel  is  effected,  as  will  be  seen  on  examining  the 
results  of  the  experiments,  and  as  the  excessive  wear  and  tear  of  locomotive 
boilers  arises  from  intense  heat,  it  is  not  improbable  this  decided  step  towards 
remoring  the  cause  mil  prevent  the  effect,  namely,  the  rapid  destruction  of 
the  boiler.  The  action  of  this  valve  motion  is  perfectly  smooth,  being  worked 
by  eccentrics  (which  are  also  of  an  improved  construction),  and  any  quantity 
of  steam  from  25  to  90  per  cent,  on  the  stroke  can  be  admitted  into  the 
cylinders  with  the  most  ready  and  complete  control,  at  any  speed  the  engine 
may  be  going ;  if  a  high  wind  or  an  incline  oppose  the  progress  of  the  engine, 
a  greater  quantity  of  steam  is  admitted  ;  if  wind  or  gradients  be  favoiurable, 
the  steam  is  stUl  admitted  at  full  pressm-e  into  the  cylinders,  hut  shut  off  at 
an  earUer  period,  propelling  the  pistons  the  remainder  of  the  stroke  by  its 
elastic  force,  similar  to  driving  a  time-piece  by  the  uncoiling  of  the  main 
spring. 

Lastly,— A  combination  of  dimensions  and  proportions  have  been  gleaned 
from  the  best  results  of  locomotive  engines  of  various  constructions,  and  in 
use  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  The  driving  wheels  are  6  feet  diameter, 
length  of  the  stroke  2  feet,  diameter  of  cylinders  12  inches,  inside  dimensions 
of  fire-box,  2  by  3i-  feet,  tubes,  94  in  number,  by  °i\  feet  long,  and  2  inches 
diameter.  The  general  diminution  of  machinerj'  iuthe  construction  has  given 
room  for  ample  dimensions  in  the  principal  working  parts,  and  thus  the  whole 
arrangement  has  a  close  bearing  on  safety,  simplicity,  accessibility,  and 
economy. 
Circiunstances  led  to  those  engines  being  ordered  of  Messrs.  Shepherd  and 

3  M  2 


42S 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[December, 


Todd,  Railway  Foiindn-,  of  this  town.  The  Hull  and  Selby  line  was  opened 
%\ith  the  engines  of  the  former  order,  but  the  public  and  the  company  being 
so  much  annoyed  by  hot  cinders  from  their  chimneys,  burning  wliatever  they 
lighted  upon,  and  rapidly  destroying  the  smoke  boxes  themselves,  three  of 
those  engines  were  altered,  and  succeeded  to  a  considerable  extent  in  diminish- 
ing the  nuisance,  whilst  the  engines  performed  better,  and  with  less  fuel. 
That  fact,  however,  being  (piestioued,  and  two  engines  of  the  improved  con- 
struction having  got  to  work,  Mr.  John  Cray,  the  engineer  of  the  locomotive 
department,  and  patentee  of  the  improved  engines,  urgently  requested  a  most 
rigorous  and  simultaneous  trial  of  the  different  engines,  and  to  be  witnessed 
for  the  parties  concerned  by  persons  above  suspicion.  Mr.  J.  Miller  and  Mr. 
T.  Lindsley  represented  Messrs.  Fenton,  Murray,  and  Jackson  ;  Mr.  J.  Craven 
and  Mr.  J.  Barrons  represented  Messrs.  Shepherd  and  Todd ;  and  Messrs.  E. 
Fletcher,  ^Y.  B.  Bray,  J.  G.  Lynde,  jun.,  J.  Farnell,  and  J.  Gray,  were  the  re- 
preaentatives  of  the  Hull  and  Selby  Railway  Company.  The  arrangements 
for  the  experiments  were,  that  the  gross  load  should  include  engine,  tender, 
carriages,  and  every  thing  in  the  train. 

The  steam  was  got  up  in  the  respective  engines  to  the  pressure  of  from  56 
to  66  lb.  per  square  inch ;  the  tires  tilled  to  a  certain  level  at  the  starting  in 
the  morning,  and  filled  to  the  same  level  on  finishing  the  last  trip  at  night. 
The  pressure  of  steam  at  starting  was  generally  up  to  66  lb.  and  was  at  about 
half  that  pressure  at  the  end  of  each  trip.  There  v^eref/ty  experimental 
trips  made  in  all,  namely,  twenty-four  trips  with  the  CoHinywood,  Andreic 
Marvel,  and  Tfellinyton,  the  unaltered  engines  of  Messrs.  Fenton,  Murray, 
and  Jackson.  Their  average  gross  load  was  53'4  tons,  or  1656  tons,  over  one 
mile:  consumption  of  coke  10131b.  or  0-611  lb.  per  ton  per  mile;  water, 
6500  lb.  or  3'90  lb.  per  ton  per  mile.  There  were  ten  trips  made  with  the 
other  three  engines  of  Messrs.  Fenton,  Murray,  and  Jackson,  which  were 
altered  at  Hull,  namely,  the  Exley,  Kinyston,  and  Selhy.  Their  average  load 
was  49'16  tons,  or  1 524  tons  over  one  mile  ;  consumption  of  coke,  635  lb.  or 
0-416  lb.  per  ton  per  mile:  water,  42641b.  or  2-79  lb.  per  ton  per  mile. 

the  patent,  engines  made  by  Messrs.  Shepherd  and  Todd,  viz.  the  Star  and 
Testa,  made  sLxteeu  trips,  and  their  average  loads,  &c.,  were  55-4  tons,  or 
1718  tons  over  one  mile;  coke  consumed,  465  lb.  or  0-271  lb.  per  ton  per 
mile;  water,  2874  lb.  or  1-62 lb.  per  ton  per  mile.  The  average  gross  load 
of  aU  the  fifty  trips  is  53-2  tons,  or  1649-4  tons  over  one  mile,  and  taking 
that  as  a  standard  load,  the  consumption  of  fuel  and  water  performing  exactly 
equal  quantities  of  work,  is  represented  in  the  following  tables  : — 


Load  in 

Elsecar 

Water 

,Water 

tons  con- 

Coke used 

Coke  used  Coke  used 

used 

Water 

per  ton 

Class  of 

veyed 

per  trip 

per  mile, 

per  ton 

per  trip 

per 

per 

Engine. 

over  one 

of  31 

in  lbs. 

per  mile, 

of  31 

mile  in 

mile,  in 

mile,  in 

miles,  in 

in  lbs. 

miles. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

in  lbs. 

Patent 

1649-4 

446-98 

14-41 

0-271 

2672 

86-19 

1-62 

Altered 

1649-4 

686-15 

22-13 

0-416 

4601-6 

148-43 

2-79 

Unaltered 

1649-4 

1007-78 

32-59 

0-611 

6432-8 

207-5 

3-90 

The  financial  annual  resiJt  of  the  three  classes  of  engines  for  coke  and 
boilers,  with  such  a  traffic  as  that  of  the  Hull  and  Selby  hne,  will  be  about — 

£4,500  for  the  unaltered  engines. 

£3,250  for  the  altered  ditto;  and  about 

£2,000  for  the  patent  engines. 

In  conclusion,  it  is  deserving  of  remark,  that  all  the  attesting  witnesses 
expressed  themselves  highly  satisfied  mth  the  manner  in  which  the  experi- 
ments had  been  conducted,  and  with  the  facilities  which  the  Company  so 
readily  granted  to  enable  them  to  come  at  correct  results.  Probably  no  ex- 
periments were  ever  made  under  similar  circumstances  where  the  parties  con- 
cerned displayed  greater  independence,  impartiality,  and  good  feeUng  than  on 
the  present  occasion. — Leeds  Mermry. 


PATENT  LAW. 

An  Important  Case  of  Patent  Law  reyardiny  the  Ammdment  of  Specification 
was  heard  in  the  Rolls'  Court,  on  Friday,  Nov.  6. 

IN    THE    MATTER    OF    JOHN    SHARP's    LETTERS    PATENT. 

The  petition  of  Joshua  Wordsworth,  of  Leeds,  machine-maker,  for  expung- 
ing from  the  memorandum  of  alterations  in  the  specification  of  Sharp's  letters 
patent  "  for  machinery  for  converting  ropes  into  tow,  &c.,"  such  portions  as 
were  in  substance  descriptive  of  the  same  machinery  as  was  invented  by  the 
petitioner  Wordsworth,  was  resumed,  and  Mr.  Bacon  for  Mr.  Sharp  followed 
Mr.  Hill  against  the  petition,  and  Mr.  Pemberton,  in  behalf  of  Wordsworth, 
the  petitioner,  replied. 

By  statute  5  and  6  Wilham  IV.,  c.  73,  "  to  amend  the  law  touching  letters 
patent  for  inventions,"  it  is  enacted  "  that  any  person  having  obtained  letters 
patent  for  an  invention  may  enter  with  the  clerk  of  the  patents  (having  first 
obtained  the  leave  of  the  Attorney  or  SoUcitor-Gencral)  a  disclaimer  of  any 
part  of  his  specification,  or  a  memorandum  of  any  alteration  therein  wliich  is 


to  he  deemed  part  of  such  specification."  Wordsworth's  petition  stated  that 
letters  patent  were  granted  in  October,  1836,  to  Sharp  to  make  and  vend  his 
invention,  part  of  which  the  petitioner  stated  was  applicable  to  the  preparing 
cotton  wool  and  silk  for  spinning.  The  specification  was  enrolled  in  April, 
1837.  In  May,  1838,  letters  patent  were  granted  to  the  petitioner  M'ords- 
worth  for  an  invention  of  improvements  in  machinery  "  for  heckling  and 
dressing  flax,  hemp,  and  other  fibrous  materials,"  and  in  November  following 
the  specification  was  enrolle<l.  The  petition  then  stated,  that  after  this  en- 
rolment he  (Wordsworth)  discovered  that  Sharp  had,  in  September,  1838, 
obtained  from  the  SoUcitor-General  a  certificate  that  Sharp  had  applied  for 
leave  to  enter  with  the  Clerk  of  the  Patents  certain  memorandums  of  altera- 
tions of  parts  of  his  specification,  and  that  the  SoUcitor-General  had  directed 
him  to  advertise  the  alterations,  which  was  done ;  and,  no  objection  having 
been  made,  the  Solicitor-General  granted  leave  to  Sharp  to  file  the  memoran- 
dum of  alterations,  which  alterations  the  petitioner  stated  were  a  new  ar- 
rangement of  machinery,  and  extended  Sharp's  patent  to  what  were  in  sub- 
stance his  (Wordsworth's)  inventions,  as  described  in  his  specification.  The 
petitioner  submitted  that  the  statute  did  not  authorize  the  addition  to  a  spe- 
cification of  any  description  of  new  machinery,  and  prayed  for  expunging  the 
memorandum  of  alterations. 

For  the  petition  it  was  argued  by  Mr.  Pemberton  and  Mr.  James  Russell, 
that  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  (in  whose  custody  the  rolls  of  the  Court  in  Chan- 
cery were)  had  authority  to  permit  alterations  to  be  made  in  the  rolls,  and 
his  jurisdiction  for  that  purpose  remained  unimpeached  by  the  act  of  WilUani 
TV.  The  jurisdiction  originally  inherent  in  tliis  court  had  been  acted  upon 
under  the  Municipal  Corporation  jVct  in  question  respecting  the  authority 
given  to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  of  interfering  with  the  rolls  of  the  court 
in  the  cases  of  "  The  Attorney-General  against  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool," 
and  against  the  Mayor  of  Poole,  where  it  had  been  laid  down  by  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  that  to  exclude  the  jurisdiction  of  one  court  there  must  be  not 
only  another  tribunal  created,  hut  an  absolute  exclusion  of  all  other  authori- 
ties enacted.  In  a  case  of  charitable  trusts,  which  were  to  be  exercised  in 
such  manner  as  the  Lord  Chancellor  should  direct,  there  was  an  appeal  from 
the  direction  to  the  House  of  Lords,  in  which  the  question  whether  that  house 
had  jurisdiction  was  not  decided,  but  the  opinion  expressed  was  that  they  had 
not.  In  "the  Attorney-General  against  Norsvich,"  the  judges  were  unani- 
mous against  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bouse.  To  exclude  the  jurisdiction  of 
this  court  there  must  be  an  express  legislative  exclusion  ;  and  the  mere  giring 
an  authority  to  another  tribunal  would  not  have  that  effect.  Where  a  cleri- 
cal mistake  was  established  that  might  be  corrected.  Every  coiu-t  had  an 
entire  control  over  its  own  records,  as  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas  had  over 
fines  and  recoveries ;  whether  the  error  were  clerical  or  otherwise,  it  made 
no  difference,  for  the  record  was  not  in  the  state  it  ought  to  be.  The  roUs 
of  tliis  court  were  under  the  control  of  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and  the  state 
in  which  the  records  ought  to  be  was  subject  to  his  determination,  which 
must  control  the  opinion  of  the  SoUcitor-General.  The  memorandums  of 
alterations  were  filed  with  the  specification  and  became  part  of  it.  Had  there 
been  an  alteration  by  erasure  and  substitution  of  other  words,  a  difficulty 
would  have  been  created ;  but  there  was  no  difficulty  here  in  ordering  the 
memorandum  to  be  taken  oft'  the  rolls.  The  act  had  not  given  the  Solicitor- 
General  power  to  decide  conclusively  and  without  appeal  what  should  or 
should  not  be  on  the  rolls,  nor  had  it  excluded  the  jurisdiction  of  the  judges 
of  the  court  over  its  rolls.  Suppose  joer  incuriam  or  by  mistake  in  his  clerk 
a  fiat  for  an  inconsiderate  alteration  had  been  given,  or  suppose  the  fiat  had 
been  attached  to  a  wrong  memorandum,  the  SoUcitor-General  would  have  no 
authority  after  he  had  given  his  fiat  to  correct  any  mistake  or  fraud,  nor  would 
there  be  any  means  of  making  such  correction  if  the  jurisdiction  of  this  Court 
were  taken  away.  The  effect  of  the  fiat  was  merely  that  certain  things  should 
be  placed  upon  the  record,  subject  in  all  respects  to  the  same  concUtions  as 
the  other  records  were.  If  the  memorandum  were  not  warranted,  the  Court 
could  take  it  oflf.  Had  the  statute  made  the  fiat  absolute,  that  could  not  have 
been  done,  but  the  fiat  left  the  jiu-isdiction  precisely  in  the  same  state  it  was 
in  before,  and  it  was  for  his  Lordship  to  determine  whether  the  memorandum 
of  alterations  ought  or  ought  not  to  remain  a  record  of  the  Court,  and  if  not, 
his  Lordship  had  jurisdiction  to  order  it  to  be  removed.  He  did  not  contend 
that  his  Lordship  could  order  a  patent  to  be  taken  off  the  roUs  of  the  coiui; 
on  the  ground  that  the  invention  was  not  new,  but  whether  his  Lordship  was 
to  decide  whether  such  circumstances  had  existed  as  could  justify  the  memo- 
randum being  put  upon  the  rolls.  The  question  was  not  to  be  determined 
by  the  law  officers  of  the  Crown  without  the  control  of  any  other  authority. 
The  act  had  not  declared  their  fiat  conclusive,  nor  had  it  extended  any  right 
given  by  the  letters  patent.  The  Legislatm-e  prevented  the  record  being  al- 
tered at  the  mere  will  of  the  parties,  enacting  that  there  must  be  the  leave  of 
the  Attorney  or  Solicitor-General.  Their  fiat  was  not  to  extend  the  exclusive 
right  granted  by  the  letters  patent,  but  this  fiat  extended  those  rights;  there- 
fore the  memorandum  of  alteration  was  not  such  as  the  act  allowed,  and  if 
so,  the  fiat  was  good  for  nothing.  It  might  be  said,  that  if  the  memorandum 
is  not  warranted  by  the  act,  the  objection  might  be  taken  in  an  action  at  law ; 
but  the  answer  to  that  would  be,  that  the  alteration  is  incorporated  into  the 
letters  patent,  and  alters  the  specification  ;  and  although  the  petitioner  in  au 
action  at  law  might  say  the  invention  as  specified  in  the  alteration  was  neither 
new  nor  useful,  he  could  not  say  it  was  no  part  of  the  specification,  and  he 
might  have  a  right  to  have  his  action  tried  upon  the  original  specification.  If 
the  fiat  were  conclusive,  the  alterations  could  not  be  averred  to  be  no  part  of 
the  record,  for  the  statute  had  made  them  part  of  the  record  so  long  as  the 


1840.] 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


429 


fiat  remained.  Unless  the  court  had  jurisdiction,  the  fiat  wouhl,  in  altering 
the  records  of  the  Court,  be  conclusive  not  only  against  the  Court,  hut  against 
the  Attorney  and  Solicitor-General  themselves,  for  the  act  had  not  provided 
a  mode  of  amending  any  mistakes  they  might  have  been  led  into.  Where 
surreptitious  or  forged  documents  were  discovered  to  he  placed  upon  the  rolls 
of  the  court,  it  w-ould  he  no  answer  to  an  application  for  theu-  removal  to  say 
that  an  action  could  not  be  brought  upon  them.  The  Court  would  order  an 
invalid  instrument  to  be  delivered  up,  on  the  ground  that  it  formed  a  cloud 
upon  the  title  of  the  individual  whose  interest  was  sought  to  be  affected  by 
it. 

Mr.  Hill  and  Jlr.  Bacon,  for  Mr.  Sharp,  against  the  jietition,  said  the  argu- 
ments for  the  petition  were,  that  the  specification  witli  the  alteration  was  a 
record  of  the  court,  that  such  records  might  be  amended  by  his  Lordship, 
that  the  prayer  was  in  substance  for  an  amendment,  and  that  the  petitioner 
had  that  interest  in  the  question  wiiich  authorized  him  to  make  the  applica- 
tion. The  specification  with  the  alterations  might  for  many  purposes  be  a 
record,  but  under  the  colour  of  that  general  term  inferences  not  quite  sound 
had  been  drawn.  The  patent  was  granted  upon  a  proviso  that  the  patentee 
should  at  a  certain  time  enrol  a  specification  ;  but  that  proviso  did  not  give 
the  specification  any  of  those  high  attributes  of  records  which  had  been 
claimed  for  it.  A  record  imported  verity,  and  if  the  petitioner's  argument 
was  well-founded,  no  person  could  defend  an  action  in  which  the  patentee 
could  prove  an  infringement  of  his  patent.  But  from  the  statute  of  James  I. 
these  records  had  been  treated  only  as  the  statement  of  a  party  who  was 
bound  to  prove  every  averment  he  made,  as  that  there  was  an  invention,  that 
he  was  the  first  inventor,  &e.  The  patentee  could  not  hold  up  his  specifica- 
tion, and  say  "  Here  is  a  record,  you  are  estopped  from  saying  I  am  not  the 
first  inventor ;  my  case  was  determined  before  we  came  into  court."  NotJiing 
of  that  sort  could  be  said.  The  specification  was  not  a  record  in  the  sense 
and  for  the  purposes  for  which  that  word  had  been  used,  nor  was  the  memo- 
randum incorporated  in  the  specification  such  a  record.  In  one  of  the  cases 
cited  (Redmond's)  there  was  a  clerical  error,  and  that  which  had  been  in- 
tended was  not  done.  If  that  had  been  the  case  here,  his  Lordship  might, 
but  with  considerable  trepidation,  go  back  and  bring  the  intention  and  the 
act  which  had  parted  company  into  agreement  again  ;  but  his  Lordship  had 
heen  required  to  erect  the  Court  into  a  court  of  appeal  over  judgment  of  the 
Solicitor-General,  and  to  do  what  that  officer  might  have  done  had  he  viewed 
the  matter  in  a  different  light.  Such  a  procedure  would  not  come  within  the 
doctrine  of  amendments.  It  might  as  well  be  said  that  the  reversal  by  writ 
of  error  of  a  judgment  at  common  law  was  an  amendment  of  the  record ;  it 
was  confounding  things  entirely  different ;  it  was  not  an  amendment  of  the 
record,  but  the  correction  of  the  errors  of  an  inferior  court.  In  analogy  to 
the  practice  of  the  common  law,  there  must  be  something  to  amend  by.  The 
present  was  not  a  question  of  amendment.  Before  the  statute  of  William  IV. 
there  was  no  authority  that  could  enable  a  patentee  to  disclaim  any  part  of  his 
patent ;  it  was  a  new  power  given  to  the  Crown,  and  vested  in  its  legal  offi- 
cers. By  the  common  law  the  Crown  had  great  powers  in  granting  monopo- 
lies, which  by  the  statute  of  James  were  restricted  to  new  inventions,  and  to 
the  term  of  14  years,  and  where  the  patentee  by  his  specification  had  made 
his  claim  too  large,  it  was  fatal  to  his  patent ;  but  the  late  act  had  given  the 
Attorney-General  power  to  permit  the  patentee  to  disclaim  a  portion  of  his 
patent.  When  a  power  was  created  by  the  Legislature  and  vested  in  a  cer- 
tain tribunal,  then  no  other  court  had  jurisdiction.  The  invention  was  only 
one  condition — the  inventor  must  have  a  patent  and  specification.  The  me- 
morandum remaining  on  the  files  of  the  Court  decided  nothing  but  that  the 
memorandum  was  authentic;  it  did  not  decide  tliat  there  was  an  invention, 
or  that  the  patentee  was  the  inventor.  The  alleged  invention  might  not  be 
new,  but  that  would  be  no  reason  for  taking  the  memorandum  oft'  the  files  of 
the  court.  A  bill  in  equity  was  not  taken  off'  the  files  of  the  coiu-t  because  it 
contained  false  allegations.  If  a  judgment  were  eiToneous,  it  would  be  a 
reason  to  appeal  from  it,  but  no  reason  to  take  it  off"  the  rolls  of  the  court. 
The  difl'erence  was  between  what  was  genuine  and  what  was  authentic.  He 
did  not  argue  that  all  was  necessarily  genuine,  but  he  did  say  it  was  all 
authentic,  and  the  question  was  to  try  the  authenticity.  The  argument  for 
the  petition  went  to  change  the  whole  course  of  proceedings  in  patents  from 
the  time  of  James  I.,  and  he  would  advise  his  friend,  who  was  the  inventor 
of  the  doctrine,  to  get  a  patent  for  it.  Whether  it  would  stand  as  a  new  ma- 
cliiner}-  for  trying  the  validity  of  patents  by  their  specification  before  the 
Master  of  the  Rolls,  would  be  a  question.  It  was  said  that  whatever  had  any 
vice  would  be  tak  en  oif  the  roUs  of  the  court,  which  would  not  bear  anything 
on  its  rolls  which  contained  an  erroneous  allegation.  The  question  was,  who 
was  the  new  inventor  ?  An  issue  could  not  be  gi'anted  to  determine  the  ques- 
tion of  amendment.  The  SoUcitor-General  required  advertisements  to  be 
made  of  the  application  to  him,  and  gave  it  two  hearings  ;  so  that  the  fiat  for 
filing  the  memorandum  of  alterations  was  not  granted  in  haste,  but  after  due 
consideration.  The  validity  of  patents  ought  not  to  be  decided  in  the  pre- 
sent mode  of  proceeding.  The  mode  of  trying  those  questions  had  been 
settled  for  years,  and  ought  not  to  be  altered. 

Mr.  Pemberton  replied.  As  long  as  the  memorandum  of  the  alterations 
with  the  fiat  of  the  Solicitor-General  remained  as  part  of  the  rolls  of  the 
court,  it  would  not  be  competent  for  any  person  to  deny  that  the  memoran- 
dum was  a  part  of  the  specification  on  which  the  patent  was  granted.  The 
statute  did  not  authorize  the  memorandum  to  be  placed  on  the  rolls,  for  the 
memorandum  did  not  form  part  of  the  specification.  He  would  ask,  had  the 
Crown  granted  letters  patent  with  the  alteration  ?    If  it  had,  the  objection 


that  his  Lordship  had  no  power  to  interfere  would  be  good  ;  but  if  the  me- 
morandum were  improperly  placed,  then  it  formed  no  part  of  the  grant,  and 
his  Lordsliip  would  remove  it  from  the  record,  as  he  would  remove  a  forged 
specification  or  correct  a  clerical  error. 

Lord  Langdale  said,  it  was  his  duty  to  receive  the  records  of  the  court, 
and  in  his  character  of  recipient  he  had  no  doubt  of  his  jurisdiction.  He 
was  to  receive  such  documents  as  parties  presented  as  tlie  records  of  their 
own  acts.  If  it  were  shown  that  documents  had  been  presented  which  were 
not  an  accurate  record,  it  would  be  his  care  to  discover  where  the  error  arose, 
and  to  satisfy  himself  that  it  was  an  error.  He  would  see  what  had  been 
done  upon  former  occasions. 

Mr.  Pemberton. — The  question  was  not  whether  his  Lordship  could  alter 
a  record,  but  whether  the  enrolment  as  it  stood  was  a  record. 


NEW  INVENTIONS  AND  IMPROVEMENTS. 

An  impxoved  method  of  retarding  and  stopping  railway  trains  ;  patented  by 
Henry  Montague  Grover,  of  Boveney,  Buckingham,  Nov.  7.— Claim  first.— 
The  application  of  electro  or  other  magnetism,  for  the  purpose  of  retardins 
or  stopping  railway  trains — A  magnet,  of  the  ordinary  burse-shoe  form,  is 
let  into  a  block  of  n'ood.  and  fixed  by  sustaining  rods  in  such  a  position  that 
its  ends  are  a  shnrt  dist-.nce  from  the  face  of  the  tire  of  one  of  the  wheels. 
A  galvanic  battery  is  placed  on  the  bed  or  platform  of  the  carriage,  and  a 
connection  of  the  'magnet  and  the  face  of  the  tire  of  the  wheel  formed  when 
necessary,  by  means  of  connecting  wires,  which  will  cause  the  wheel  to  be 
retarded  or  stopped.  These  magnets  may  be  applied  to  any  number  of  wheels 
in  this  manner,  or  through  one  magnet  to  a  kver,  and  by  cranks  or  otherap- 
paratus,  indirectly  to  the  wheels.— /noc/i^ors'  Advocate. 

An  improved  apparatus  or  process  for  producing  sculptured  forms,  figures,  and 
devices,  in  marble  and  otiier  hard  substances  ;  patented  by  William  Newton,  of 
Chancery-lane,  Middlesex,  (being  a  communication  from  a  foreigner  residing 
abroad),  Oct.  22.— These  improvements  consist,  first,  in  the  construction  of  a 
mould,  die,  or  matrice,  of  metal  or  other  hard  substance,  in  which  the  coun- 
terform  of  the  figure  or  device  intended  to  be  sculptured  has  been  made,  and 
its  application  to  the  stone  or  marble  intended  to  be  cut.— Secondly,  in  the 
means  by  which  the  sculpturing  is  effected  ;  viz.,  by  the  repetition  of  slight 
but  rapid  blows  of  the  nidvdd.  or  die,  struck  against  the  face  of  the  stone,  by 
which  the  surface  becomes  abraded,  and  particles  are  gradually  broken  off, 
leaving  the  stone  ultimately  in  a  form,  or  figure,  corresponding  to  the  mould 
or  die  which  has  been  working  upon  it.— Claim.— Application  of  a  mould  or 
striking  die,  which  being  by  any  arrangement  made  to  strike  a  rapid  succes- 
sion of  light  blows  on  the  substance  to  be  sculptured,  shall  abrade  or  wear 
away  the  superfluous  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  material  under  operation,  and 
produce  a  form,  or  figure,  corresponding  with  the  mould  or  die. — The  mould 
must  be  mounted  in  any  convenient  mechanical  apparatus  capable  of  holding, 
raising,  and  depressing  it,  that  it  miy  strike  very  light  but  rapid  blows  on 
the  face  of  the  block  to  bo  sculptured,  which  must  be  supported  upon  firm 
stationary  bearings  ;  the  mould  or  die  is  securely  atlached  to  a  lever,  which 
is  a  stronK  frame  of  iron,  mounted  on  pivots,  which  are  made  adjustable,  in 
order  to  regidate  the  height  of  the  frame,  from  the  block  of  marble  or  stone  ; 
to  the  outer  end  of  the  lever  a  staple  also  adjustable  by  a  screw  and  nut  is 
fixed,  to  which  is  attached  a  cord,  also  connected  to  a  series  of  cranks  and 
rods,  which  are  mounted  in  a  horse-shaped  frame ;  a  crank  in  the  lower  end 
of  this  series  is  acted  upon  by  stops,  notches,  or  teeth,  in  the  periphery  of  a 
tappet  or  rachet  wheel,  which  is  acted  on  by  a  pulley  being  made  to  revolve 
on  its  axis  driven  by  a  band  from  any  first  mover  ;  so  ihat  on  a  rotary  motion 
of  the  tappet  wheel,  its  teeth  will  ac"t  against  the  arm  of  the  lower  crank,  and 
produce  a  slight  reciprocating  motion  in  the  series  of  cranks  and  rods,  which 
nill  be  communicated  through  the  cord  to  the  lever  which  holds  the  mould, 
thereby  causing  a  rapid  succession  of  slight  blows  to  bear  upon  the  surface  of 
the  block,  and  in  a  short  time  to  abrade  all  those  parts  of  the  stone  against 
which  the  mould  or  die  strikes.  The  process  will  be  facilitated  by  the  intro- 
duction of  sand,  emery,  or  diamond  dust,  with  water,  at  an  early  stage  of 
the  work,  and  may  be  introduced  by  a  simple  inclined  plane,  or  in  any  con- 
venient manner ;  towards  the  end  of  the  process  a  finer  powder  should  be 
used  and  the  work  will  leave  the  mould  in  a  highly-finished  state.  This  in- 
vention applies  to  busts,  statues,  and  groups  of  figures,  even  the  most  com- 
plicated and  extensive,  and  finishes  them  with  the  greatest  dehcacy,  only  it 
is  necessaiT  to  employ  several  small  moulds  instead  of  one,  and  it  will  act 
equally  well  on  crumbling  stone,  that  would  not  bear  the  chisel,  as  upon  a 
solid  mass.— The  inventor  claims  no  particular  arrangement  of  apparatus  for 
causing  the  mould  to  strike  the  face  of  the  block,  although  he  considers  that 
above  described  suitable  and  appropriate  for  the  purpose.— /i/rf. 

A  composition  for  tlie  prevention  of  corrosion  in  metals,  and  for  otiier  purposes  ; 
patented  by  Arthur  Wall,  of  Bermondsey,  surgeon,  October  15,  1840.— This 
composition  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner  :— 20  lb.  of  strong  muriatic 
acid  are  diluted  with  3  gallons  of  water  and  placed  in  a  shallow  cast  iron 
vessel ;  112  lb.  of  steel  or  iron  filings  are  heated  to  redness  and  quenched  in 
the  diluted  acid  to  eff'ect  their  oxidation  ;  to  facilitate  this  action,  the  pan  is 
placed  on  a  furnace  or  sand-bith,  and  the  contents  repeatedly  stirred  for 
about  24  hours,  or  until  ebullition  lakes  place,  the  liquor  is  then  drawn  off, 
and  the  foregoing  process  repeated  with  such  portion  of  the  filings  as  remain 
unoxidized.  The  oxide  thus  obtained  is  exposed  on  a  red  hot  iron  plate,  till 
all  the  moisture  has  been  driven  off,  and  the  oxide  assumes  a  red  appearance. 
When  cold,  161b.  of  quicksilver  are  to  be  added  to  the  mixture,  by  sifting 
through  a  fine  sieve,  and  afterwards  intimately  incorporated  in  a  mortar ; 
enough  water  to  cover  the  surface  is  then  poured  over  it,  and  from  8  to  9  lb. 
of  strong  nitric  or  nitrous  acid  added  ;  this  mixture  is  to  be  placed  in  a  sand- 
bath  till  all  the  moisture  is  driven  off.  When  the  mass  is  dry  it  is  to  be  well 
pounded  in  a  mortar  till  it  assumes  a  uniform  state  of  blackness.     All  the 


430 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Bkcembkr, 


finer  particles  are  to  be  separated  by  wasliing  in  water,  and  left  to  settle  ;  the 
sediment  is  to  be  placed  in  a  crucible  or  earthen  retort,  with  a  receiver  at- 
tached to  collect  any  chloride  or  mercury  that  may  come  over.  When  red 
hot  plunge  it  into  frcsli  boiling  water,  stir  it  well  and  leave  it  to  settle,  then 
draw  ok  tlie  water  and  add  any  chloride  that  may  have  come  over  into  the 
receiver.  Then  add  one-f'ourtli  of  its  weight  of  common  black  or  red  lead, 
accordinj;  to  the  colour  desired.  This  composition  is  to  be  mi.\ed  with  boiled 
linseed  oil  wiib  one  fifth  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  applied  as  thinly  as 
possible  with  a  brush  to  the  sheets  of  metal  to  be  protected.  The  metal 
coated  in  this  manner  is  to  be  dried  by  the  application  of  heat,  beginning  with 
a  low  temperature,  and  gradually  raised  to  about  300°  of  Fahrenheit,  so  as 
to  make  the  metal  "imbibe''  the  preparation.  The  claim  is,  for  the  invention 
of  the  composition  prepared  as  above  described,  for  the  prevention  of  corro- 
sion in  metals,  and  for  other  purposes. — Mech.  Mag. 


STEAM    NAVIGATION. 


The  Cli/ile. — There  was  launched,  on  the  27th  October  last,  at  Clyde  Bank 
a  new  steam  dredging  vessel  for  the  River  Clyde  trustees.  This  vessel  is  the 
largest  of  the  kind  which  has  yet  been  built  on  the  Clyde;  she  is  100  feet 
long  and  22  feet  broad  ;  she  is  to  carry  an  engine  of  24  horse  power,  and  to 
work  etl'ectively  in  18  feet  depth  of  water.  The  engine  for  this  vessel  has 
been  constructed  by  Mr.  John  N'lson,  of  Oak  Bank  Foundry,  in  accordance 
with  the  specification  drawn  up  ■■y  Mr.  Bald,  engineer  of  tlie  Clyde.  This 
vessel  is  now  in  the  harbour  of  iJk'  Broomielaw,  for  the  purpose  of  receiving 
the  engine  and  machinery  on  bo  ad.  A  very  beautiful  model  of  this  vessel, 
on  a  scale  of  one  foot  to  an  inch,  was  e.Khibited  in  the  model  room  of  the 
British  Association,  and  which  was  constructed  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Eald,  before  the  steam  dredge-boat  was  built. 

Navigation  of  the  Mersey. — The  Warrington,  a  new  iron  steamer,  of  200  tons 
burthen,  builder's  measurement,  built  entirely  (engines  and  bull)  by  the 
Warrington  Bridge  Foundry  Company,  made  her  first  experimental  trip  down 
the  Mersey  to  Liverpool  and  back  on  Wednesday,  Uth  ult.  On  her  down- 
ward voyage  she  sailed  remarkably  well,  and  toolc  in  tow  several  flats  bound 
for  Liverpool.  On  her  return  home,  she  steamed  from  the  Old  Quay  Pier, 
Liverpool,  to  the  Old  Quay,  at  Runcorn,  in  one  hour  and  twenty-two  minutes, 
towing  one  of  Messrs.  John  Hodson  and  Company  s  flats.  From  Runcorn 
to  Warrington,  a  distance  of  ten  miles  and  a  half,  her  speed  was  put  to  the 
test.  In  spite  of  a  heavy  fresh,  and  the  disadvantage  of  getting  up  her  speed 
after  stopping  at  Runcorn,  she  completed  the  distance  in  forty-seven  minutes. 
As  far  as  the  navigation  of  the  Mersey  is  concerned,  all  difficulties  thrown  in 
the  way  of  Wanington  one  day  becoming  a  bonded  port  have  now  been  made 
to  disappear. — Liverpool  Times. 

The  Mammoth  Iron  Steamer  at  Bristol. — A  gentleman  who  has  recently  seen 
the  immense  iron  steamer  buildini;  by  the  Great  Western  Steam  Ship  Com- 

Eany  at  Bristol,  infonns  us  that  she  will  register  about  3,000  tons,  but  that 
er  actual  tonnage  will  e.\ceed  3, GOO  tons,  or  about  600  tons  more  than  any 
ship  ever  built.  An  immense  saving  in  stowage  will  be  gained  in  consequence 
of  the  adoption  of  iron  for  her  hull,  whilst  her  draught  of  water  will  be  com- 
paratively small,  owing  to  the  great  buoyancy  possessed  by  iron  vessels.  She 
will  consequently  be  able  to  carry  coals  sufficient  both  for  her  outward  and 
homeward  passages,— a  most  important  point,  w  hen  the  inferior  quality  of 
coals  obtainable  in  America,  and  consetjuent  diminution  in  speeii,  is  con- 
sidered. Her  engines,  we  hear,  are  to  be  of  1000  horse  power,  and  it  is  con- 
fidently expected  that  the  average  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  will  be  reduced 
to  ten  (lays.  She  will  carry  a  vast  spread  of  canvass,  so  that  in  all  proba- 
bility the  engines  will  frequently  be  at  rest.  In  consequence  of  the  adoption 
of  Smith's  Screw  Propeller,  this  stupendous  ship,  the  greatest  experiment  in 
steam  navigation  ever  made,  will,  we  believe,  be  able  to  pass  the  present 
locks  at  Cumberland  Basin,  and  discharge  her  cargo  in  Bristol  Harbour.  We 
congratulate  our  Bristol  neighbours  upon  the  enterprise  which  they  are  dis- 
playing. Two  magnificent  steamers  are  now  building  at  Bristol,  by  Messrs. 
Acraman.  for  the  Royal  Mail  Company  ;  and,  altogether,  the  ancient  port 
seems  to  be  "going  a-head.'' — G/oneester  Chronicle. 

Iron  Steamer.— On  Saturday  the  21st  ult.,  was  ktunched  from  Messrs.  Ditch- 
burn  and  Mare's  building  yard,  at  Blackwall.  a  wrought  iion  steam  vessel  of 
160  tons,  named  the  "  Mermaid,"  to  be  propelled  by  an  engine  on  an  entirely 
new  principle,  if  50  horse  power,  invented  e.\-pressly  to  drive  the  Archimedes 
screw  without  the  aid  of  geering-wheels.  Should  its  power  equal  its  simpli- 
ciiy,  it  is  likely  to  cause  a  change  in  steam  engines.  The  engine  is  making 
by  Messrs.  Rennie's. 

Prevention  of  Steam  Packet  Coilisions.— The  Corporation  of  tlie  Trinity 
House  has  deemed  it  right  lo  frame  and  promulgate  the  following  rules, 
"  which,  on  communication  with  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty, 
the  Elder  Brethren  find  have  been  ah'cady  adopted  in  respect  of  steam-vessels 
in  Her  Majesty's  service."  Rule  first — "When  steam-vessels  on  different 
courses  must  unavoidably  or  necessarily  cross  so  near  that  by  continuing 
their  respeciive  courses  there  would  be  a  risk  of  coming  into  collision,  each 
vessel  shall  piit  bt?r  "  helm  to  port,'  so  as  always  to  pass  on  the  larboard  side 
of  each  other.''  Rule  second — "  A  steam  vessel  passing  another  in  a  narrow 
channel  must  always  leave  the  vessel  she  is  passing  on  tlie  1  rboard  hand." 

Steamers  Wanted. — We  had  hoped  that  the  cry  of  "  steamers  wanted"  which 
we  have  continually  kept  up  for  the  last  two  years,  would  before  this  have 
been  responded  to  by  the  arrival  of  steamers  from  England  ;  but  as  we  see 
that  that  the  subject  was  alluded  lo  in  several  London  and  Liverpool  papers 
of  November  and  December  last,  we  .still  hope  that  many  months  will  not 
elapse  before  several  steamers  ai-rive  in  the  colnny.  The  following  steamers 
are  now  urgently  wanted,  in  fact  we  are  suHering  much  from  the  want  of 
them  :— Two  large  steam-boats  to  run  from  Port  Pliilip  to  Sydney  ;  a  large 
boat  to  run  from  Sydney  to  New  Zealand  ;  a  second  to  be  added  in  about  12 


months;  three  boats  to  run  to  Hunter's  River;  a  boat  to  run  to  William's 
River;  a  boat  to  run  to  Brisbane  Water;  a  couple  of  small  boats  to  run  be- 
tween Newcastle  and  the  different  towns  on  the  Hunter,  Williams,  and  Pater- 
son.  Besiiles  tlie  above,  a  boat  will  be  rc(|uired  to  run  to  Twofold  Bay  very 
shortly,  .as  the  country  between  there  and  il.anaroe,  called  the  Bija  country, 
is  beginning  to  attract  attention  ;  boats  for  Jervis's  and  Bateman's  Bay  will 
soon  be  required.  We  consider  the  above  boats  are  required  at  once,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  now  here,  for  there  will  always  be  some  of  the  vessels  meeting 
with  accidents,  and  otherwise  requiring  repair,  and  it  is  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance that  boats  should  run  regularly.  Although  the  above  are  urgently 
required,  we  believe  that  the  only  boats  tb.at  can  be  depended  upon,  as  sure 
to  arrive  during  the  present  year,  are  two  for  the  Hunter's  River  Company, 
and  one  for  Port  Philip.  Half  a  dozen  vessels  of  different  burdens  sent  to 
this  colony  would  be  a  splendid  speculation.— 5i/(/«(i/  Herald,  May  15. 


PROGRESS   OF  RAII.'VirAYS. 


America. — There  are  now  2,270  miles  of  railroads  completed,  or  nearly  com- 
pleted, in  the  United  States,  besides  2.346  miles  of  railroads  in  progress  of 
construction,  making  a  total  (when  finished)  of  4,616  miles. — Times. 

Greenwich  Railway. — Tenders  as  delivered  on  Tuesday.  3rd  November,  for 
widening  the  Greenwich  Railway,  fr.jm  the  Croydon  Junction  to  Tooley  Street, 
(extending  nearly  a  mile  for  the  present  contract.) 


Mr.  Jackson 

Messrs.  Grissell  and  Peto 

Messrs.  Baker  &  Son 

Messrs.  Little  &.  Son 

Mr.  Lee 

Messrs.  Piper  &.  Son 

Mr.  Bennett 

Messrs.  Ward 

Mr.  M'Intosh 

Mr.  Grimsdell 


£34.900 
37.791 
38,734 
38,800 
38.850 
39.300 
39,972 
43.320 
43.500 
46,596 


Taff  Vale  Raihnay. — We  are  glad  to  perceive  that  the  promoters  of  the 
prosperity  of  this  tbwni,  are  not  unmindful  of  the  inducements  which  its  great 
natural  advantages  hold  out  for  the  accomplishment  of  railway  communi- 
cation with  other  districts  of  the  kingdom,  as  well  as  the  importance  of 
meeting  other  places  in  the  race  of  competition  by  the  aid  of  this  grand 
achievement  of  modern  science;  The  progressive  commercial  importance, 
and  the  exhaustless  mineral  wealth  of  Newport  and  its  neighbourhood,  have 
been  so  frequently  the  theme  of  observation  in  this  journal,  that  it  would  be 
superfluous  at  present  to  dwell  on  facts,  admitted  uy  all,  as  incentives  to 
action  during  the  railway  undertakings  now  completed  or  in  course  of  ope- 
ration through  the  leading  districts  of  the  kingdom.  Our  position  is  com- 
manding, our  advantages  great,  and  our  exertions  shoidd  be  commensurate 
to  obtain  a  participation  in  the  benefits  for  our  town  and  port,  and  for  the 
county  at  large,  that  railway  communication  with  the  great  arteries  of  the 
traffic  of  the  kingdom,  is  now  diffusing.  A  railway  is  projected  between 
Newport  and  Gloucester,  taking  the  circuit  of  Monmouth  and  Usk.  We 
understand  that  Mr.  Barber,  late  of  the  Tafl"  Vale  Railway,  a  gentleman 
highly  spoken  of  as  possessing  great  talents  in  his  profession,  is  directing 
his  best  energies  to  the  subject,  and  with  the  support  he  has  already  received, 
we  augur  well  for  the  maturity  of  his  plans.  The  question  shall  be  resumed 
in  our  columns. — Monmouthshire  Merlin. 

South-Eastern.  Raihvay. — Tills  great  undertaking  is  now  proceeding  with 
tlie  utmost  vigour ;  all  the  works  between  Tunbridge  and  Redhill  are  in  a 
state  of  great  forwardne  s,  it  being  the  intention  of  the  directors  to  open  the 
line  as  far  as  Tunbridge,  with  the  least  possible  delay.  The  tunnel,  near  the 
village  of  Bletchingly.  wdiich  is  a  particularly  arduous  and  heavy  structure, 
is  also  progressing  considerably.  This  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  works 
upon  the  line,  particularly  to  the  geologist,  as  it  passes  under  ground  near 
the  foot  of  Tilburston-hill.  which  it  is  well  known  has  been  subjected  to  some 
powerful  subterraneous  action,  the  strata  upon  some  parts  of  the  hill  being 
singularly  distorted.  All  the  phenomena  observed  by  the  engineer  in  the 
progress  of  the  work  shows  this  spot  to  have  been  peculiarly  subjected  to  the 
upheaving  and  disturbing  powers  which,  at  some  remote  period,  liave  been  in 
active  operation.  Mr.  Simms,  the  engineer,  who  resides  at  Bletchingly,  is 
in  possession  of  several  interesting  fossils,  which  he  has  found  in  the  progress 
of  his  work. — Sussex  E.vpress. 

Gloucester  and  Monmouthshire  Railway. — Agreeably  lo  our  promise,  we  this 
week  recur  to  the  subject  of  a  railway  from  Newport  to  Gloucester.  It  ap- 
pears that  two  lines  have  been  surveyed,  the  one  by  Usk  and  Monmouth,  the 
other  by  Chepstow  and  Newnh:ira ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  moment 
to  arrive  at  a  sound  conclusion,  as  to  which  line  will  best  subserve  the  in- 
terests of  the  public,  and  of  the  districts  through  which  it  passes.  We  have 
been  long  impressed  with  the  importance,  and  indeed,  the  necessity  for 
a  railway  communication  through  this  rich  and  greatly  improving  district ; 
and  having  attentively  considered  the  subject,  it  appears  that  there  can  be  but 
one  opinion  as  to  the  eligibility  of  the  centr.il  line,  and  of  the  impolicy  of 
allowing  a  trifling  difference  of  cost,  to  weigh  in  the  consideration  of  a  ques- 
tion involving  results  of  such  paramount  advantage  Tlie  line  pro|  osed,  to 
follow  the  banks  of  the  Severn,  is  open  to  so  many  objections  from  its  being 
parallel  with  a  fine  navigation,  and  with  a  probability  of  another  railway  from 
Gloucester  to  Bristol  being  carried  along  the  opposite  bank,  that  we  think  it 
will  not  bear  comparison  ,with  a  line  embracing  towns  of  importance,  and 
laying  open  a  splendid  district  of  country,  greatly  needing  the  facilities  of 
raihvay  communication,  i  he  traffic  from  the  important  districts  of  Ponty- 
pooi,  Abergavenny,  Brecon.  &c.,  largely  flow  into  Ihc  line  near  Usk,  and  the 
City  of  Hereford  would  doubtless  communicate  near  Ross.  The  central 
character  of  this  line  atlbrds  a  guarantee  that  traffic  will  be  derived  on  every 


1840.J 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


431 


side.  We  linvc  bad  the  pleasure  of  inspecting  the  plans  of  the  line  sui-veyeil 
by  Mr.  Barber,  ami  as  our  readers  feel  great  interest  in  the  subject,  we  will 
endeavour  to  obtain  the  details  of  its  course.^iJr;.«(()/  Paper. 

Proving  Steam-Engvic  Boilers  in  Belgium. — Ey  a  decree  of  King  Leopold, 
flated  Oct.  28.  it  is  ordained  : — "  That  every  boiler  in  which  the  steam  is  re- 
quired to  have  a  pressure  of  more  th  n  one  atmosphere  shall  be  submitted  to 
a  proof  of  trcple  the  force  it  will  be  required  to  support.  This  pressure  to  be 
determined  by  the  diiTerence  between  the  authorised  pressure  ot  the  steam  in 
the  boiler  .md  atmospheric  pressure. — Considering  that  tabular  boilers  of  lo- 
comiitive  engines  may  safely  be  exposed  to  less  rigorous  proof,  on  the  report 
of  our  Minister  of  the  Public  Works,  we  have  decreed.— Article  1.  That  the 
toilers  of  locomotive  engines  intended  to  run  on  railroads  shall  be  submitted 
to  a  proof  of  twice  the  amount  those  engines  are  required  to  support. — Art. 
2.  The  permission  to  make  use  of  locomotives  belonging  to  the  state  will  be 
granted  after  the  trials  prescril)ed  by  the  articles  of  the  first  and  second  de- 
cree, by  the  director  of  the  rai'roads  now  in  operation. — Art.  3.  The  proof  of 
the  locomotive  engines  shall  be  renewed  at  least  once  a  year  ;  they  shall  take 
place  after  every  important  repair  of  the  boiler.  The  boilers  that  are  injured 
during  the  proof  shall  not  be  used. — Art.  4.  The  director  of  the  railroads  in 
operation  shall  address  to  our  Minister  of  the  Public  "Works  a  duplicate  of  the 
permission  to  use  the  engines,  and  of  the  declarations  of  proof." 

Tliames  Haven  Doek  and  Railway.— CoxisiieraXAe  exertions  are  being  made 
for  pushing  forward  this  important  undertaking  in  the  ensuing  spring. 


MISCEI.L,ANEA. 


Mast  Comieying. — It  has  been  usual  of  late,  since  it  has  been  considered  ob- 
iectionable  tu  immerse  made  masts  in  the  wafer,  to  send  them  from  the  mast- 
nouses  on  trucks,  a  process  which  does  them  no  good,  and  occupies  a  whole 
day  when  a  line-of-baltle  ship's  lower  mast  is  to  be  dealt  with.  A  method, 
however,  was  tiied  on  Tuesday  last  with  the  Indus"s  foremast,  and  it  answered 
admirably,  to  convey  it  by  water,  without  wetting  it,  in  the  following  way  :— 
Two  flat-bottomed  boats,  placed  side  by  side,  and  having  strong  skids  laid 
on  their  gunwales,  were  brought  to  the  slipway,  at  the  l)ack  of  the  mast- 
houses,  and  properly  placed  ;  the  mast  was  then  launched  out  until  it  pre- 
lected beyond  the  boats,  and  over  the  centre  of  the  skids  until  its  heel  end 
rested  upon  tliem;  the  launching  of  the  mast  was  then  continued,  the  boats 
hearing  it,  and  another  pair  of  flat-bottomed  boats,  similarly  fitted  with  skids, 
were  brought  and  placed  under  the  mast  towards  its  head,  which,  as  it  des- 
cended the  slip,  presently  rested  on  them,  as  the  heel  had  done  before,  upon 
the  skids  of  the  boats  first  placed  ;  the  tressel  trees  were  then  bolted  on,  and 
the  flats  with  their  burden  were  towed  away  to  the  sheers,  where  the  Indus 
was  waiting  for,  and  very  soon  received,  her  foreinast,  which  had  thus  been 
conveyed  perfectly  dry.  This  novel  operation  was  carried  into  effect  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  officers  of  the  mast-house  ;  for  the  idea,  however, 
and  also  the  details  of  the  scheme,  the  service  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Whettem, 
an  intelligent  and  zealous  inspector  in  the  mast-making  department. — Times, 
Nov.  2. 

A  steam  fire-engine  has  been  invented  at  New  York,  by  Captain  Erichscn. 
It  weighs  only  2i  tons,  and  will  throw  3.000  pounds  of  water  per  minute  to  a 
height  of  105  feet,  through  a  nozzle  of  IJ  inch  diameter. — Times. 

Patent  Wire  Hope  for  Standing  Rigging. — Last  week  a  series  of  trials  of 
Smith's  Patent  Wire  Rope  was  made  at  the  Corporation  testing-machine,  in 
Trentham  Street,  Liverpool,  in  presence  of  a  number  of  nautical  gentlemen 
and  others  interested  in  improvements  in  navigation,  and  the  result  was 
highly  satisfactory.  The  patent  consists  of  improved  melho<ls  of  forming  a 
rope  from  any  number  of  wires  that  shall  be  flexible,  is  served  with  hemp, 
and  can  also  'be  spliced  or  knotted.  The  rope  is  tarred  in  the  usual  way,  so 
as  to  exclude  the  water ;  and  a  chemical  preparation  is  employed  to  prevent 
oxidation.  The  rigging  with  wire  rope  is  smaller  and  lighter  than  of  hempen 
rope,  and  as  it  offers  much  less  resistance  to  the  wind,  is  of  great  advantage 
in  beating  to  windward.  The  cost,  too,  is  much  less,  and  the  durability 
greater.  In  the  trials  we  have  alluded  to,  the  following  results  were  ascer- 
tained : — 

1-inch  rope  broke  at  2  tons  1  cwt. 
U         ..        ..        5    ..    0  .. 
2f  . .         . .        8    . .  14  . . 

other  sizes  were  also  tried  with  proportionate  success ;  and  it  should  be  re- 
marked, that  a  three  inch  hempen  rope  of  the  best  quality  broke  at  2  tons 
1  cwt.  The  weight  or  traction  borne  by  each  piece  of  different  sized  rope  far 
exceeded  that  fixed  in  the  scale  of  the  patentee,  thus  showing  great  superi- 
ority in  the  w  orkmanship  of  the  manufacturers,  Messrs.  Fox  and  Co.  of  Lon- 
don and  Birmingham.  According  to  the  scale  alluded  to,  the  weight  to  be 
sustained  by  li  inch  wire  rope  is  3  tons  10  cwt.,  and  so  in  proportion. 
Another  good  quality  of  the  wire  rope  is  its  elas;icity,  which,  though  not  of 
course  equal  to  that  of  hemp  rope,  is  quite  sufficient  to  counteract  the  efff!cts 
of  a  sudden  jerk  while  a  vessel  is  rolling  heavily  at  sea.  One  comparatively 
short  length  of  rope  that  was  tried,  stretched  ISi  inches  before  it  broke.  A 
very  short  length  of  li  inch  stretched  6  inches.  The  machine  on  which  the 
tests  were  made  is  very  ingenious,  and  of  tremendous  multiplying  power  ;  it 
is  that  on  which  iron  cables  for  the  largest  ships  are  put  to  their  utmost 
tension  of  many  tons.  The  gentlemen  present  took  a  deep  interest  in  the 
operations,  and  were  at  once  gratified  and  astonished  to  witness  the  immense 
weight  or  traction  sustained  by  lengths  of  wire  rope  so  comparatively  small 
and  light.  It  should  be  added,  that  this  patent  rigging  has  been  tested  at  sea 
upwards  of  five  years,  and  that  amongst  the  ships  htted  with  it  in  our  own 
port  are  those  crack  steamers  the  Oriental  and  the  Liverpool.  The  new  light 
ship,  the  Albert,  destined  for  the  Victoria  Channel,  is  also  rigged  with  it,  and 
it  has  hitherto  been  highly  approved  by  practical  men.— Liverpool  Standard. 


Survey  of  the  Northern  Counties  of  England. — ^^"c  have  much  satisfaction  in 
conveying  the  gratifying  iufelligonce  that  the  secretary  of  the  Manchester 
Geological  Society  has  received  a  communication  from  the  Lords  of  the  Trea- 
sury, announcing  their  intention  to  co  duct  the  survey  of  the  six  northern 
counties  of  England,  on  an  enlarged  scale  of  six  inches  to  the  mile,  instead 
of  two  inches,  the  .size  adopted  for  the  other  counties,  and  that  they  are  to 
commt^nce  with  Lancashire  forthwith.  This  is  a  matter  of  very  great  im- 
portance to  the  landed  interest,  as  well  as  to  the  proprietors  of  mines,  coal 
mines,  and  quarries,  and  hence  to  the  community  at  large,  in  this  thickly 
peopled  district.  For  this  important  improvement  in  the  survey,  we  are 
indebted  to  the  exertions  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Manchester,  with  whom 
the  idea  originated.  They  memorialised  the  Treasury,  and  inffuenced  other 
scientific  societies  to  follow  their  example,  and  thus  paved  the  way  to  this 
important  result.  This  fad  alone  proves  the  high  importance  of  the  Geo- 
logical Society,  seeing  that  their  first  acts  are  directed  to  the  prosperity  of 
the  county  and  its  varied  mercanti'e  interests.  It  is,  therefore,  the  duty  of 
the  gentlemen  of  this  and  the  surrounding  towns  to  become  members  of  this 
society,  and  by  increasing  its  funds  enable  it  to  pursue  its  useful  and  laudable 
exertions  with  increased  vigour. — Manchester  Chronicle. 

Ancient  Window. — An  ancient  stained  glass  window  of  the  15th  centmy, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  a  convent  at  Mechlin,  has  just  been  placed  in  the 
church  of  St.  George's.  Hanover  Square. — Times. 

Improvement  of  the  Severn. — T^he  Bristol  Journal  has  the  following  remarks 
upon  the  proposed  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  river  Severn; — "In 
the  trading  interests  of  Bristol,  this  long-wanted  improvement  must  be  of 
the  greatest  advantage  in  developing  and  carrying  out  those  vast  enterprizes 
which  our  fellow  citizens  have  of  late  projected  with  such  laudable  spirit  and 
liberality ;  thereby  securing  to  them  the  readiest  and  cheapest  conveyance 
of  the  vast  mineral  products  and  the  produce  of  the  potteries  of  Staffordshire, 
the  salt  of  Droitwich,  and  the  various  manufactures  of  Birmingham  and  its 
neighbourhood,  through  the  Worcester  and  Birmingham  canal ;  nor  v  ill  the 
port  of  Gloucester,  and  more  particularly  those  of  Newport  and  Cardiff,  in 
South  Wales,  be  less  benefitted.  In  the  present  migratory  state  of  commerce 
and  manufactures,  with  competition  every  where  taking  place,  and  in  which 
the  minutest  fraction  in  cheapness  and  certainty  of  conveyance  will  turn  the 
scale,  »"e  do  consider  the  contemplated  improvement  of  first-rate  advantage 
to  Bristol.  The  great  wonder  is,  that  such  an  anomalous  stale  of  things,  in 
these  days  of  commercial  enterprise,  should  so  long  have  been  suffered  to 
e.xist." 


ZjIST  op  ne'w  patents. 

GRANrED    IN    ENGLAND    FROM    2nD    NOVEMBER   TO  25TH  NOVEMBER,    1840' 

John  Duncan,  of  Great  George  Street,  Westminster,  Gentleman,  for 
"  improvements  in  machinery  for  cutting,  reaping,  or  severing  grass,  grain, 
com,  or  other  Ulce  growing  plants  or  kerbs."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — Sealed  November  2  ;  six  months  for  enrolment. 

Elijah  Galloway,  of  Manchester  Street,  Engineer,  for  "  improvements 
in  propelling  railroad  carriages.'* — November  2  ;  six  months. 

JosiAH  Humphrey,  of  New  Tower  Row,  Birmingham,  Brass  Founder,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  machinery  to  be  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
wire  hooks  and  eyes." — November  2  ;  six  months. 

Henry-  Wimshurst,  of  Limehouse,  Ship  Builder,  for  "  improvements  in 
steam  vessels,  in  communicating  jmifer  to  propellers  of  steam  vessels,  and  in 
shipping  and  uyishipping  propellers." — November  2  ;  six  months. 

James  Heywood  M'hitehead,  of  Royal  George  Mills,  York,  Manufac- 
turer, for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  vioollen  belts,  bands,  or  driv- 
ing straps." — November  2 ;  six  months. 

James  Boydell,  junior,  of  Cheltenham,  for  "  improvements  in  working 
railway  and  other  carriages,  in  order  to  stop  them,  and  aho  to  prevent  their 
running  off  the  rails." — November  2  ;  six  months. 

John  Edward  Orange,  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Old  Square,  Captain  in  the  81st 
Regiment,  for  "  improvements  m  apparatus  for  serving  ropes  and  cables  with 
yarn." — November  2  ;  six  months. 

Herman  Schroeder,  of  Surrey  Cottage,  Peckham,  Broker,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  filters."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — Novem- 
ber 2  ;  six  months. 

John  Wordsworth  Robson,  of  Wellclose  Square,  Artist,  for  "certain  im- 
provements in  water  closets." — November  2 ;  six  months. 

Richard  Farcer  Emmerson,  of  AValworth,  Gentleman,  for  "  improve- 
inents  in  applying  a  coating  to  the  surfaces  of  iron  pipes  and  tubes." — No- 
vember 3 ;  six  mouths. 

John  Rapson,  of  Limehouse,  Millwright,  for  "  improvements  in  jmddle- 
wheels  for  propelling  vessels  by  steam  or  other  power." — November  3  ;  six 
months. 

Henry-  Hind  Edwards,  of  Nottingham  Terrace,  New  Road,  Engineer, 
for  **  improvements  in  evaporation." — November  5  ;  six  months. 

Pierre  M.\thew  Mannourv,  of  Leicester  Square,  Gentleman,  for  *'  im- 
proveynenis  in  wiiid  and  stringed  musical  instruments"  Communicated  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  5  ;  six  months. 

George  Gwynne,  of  Duke  Street,  Manchester  Square,  Gentleman,  for 
"  improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  candles,  and  in  the  operating  on  oils 
and  fats." — November  5  ;  six  months. 

George  Dacres  Paterson,  of  Truro,  Esquire,  for  "  improvements  in 
curvilinear  turning,  (that  is  to  sayj  a  rest  adapted  for  cutiing  out  wooden 


432 


THE  CIVIL  ENGINEER  AND  ARCHITECT'S  JOURNAL. 


[Deckmber, 


bowls,  ami  a  .iel/-acliiiff  side  rest  for  other  kinds  of  curvilinear  turnings'' — 
November  5  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Kirk,  of  Blaekheatli,  Gentleman,  for  "  imjirovements  in  Die  apjili- 
cation  of  a  substance  or  composition  ns  a  substitute  for  ice  for  statinr/  and 
sliding  purposes." — November  T) ;  six  months. 

Charles  Joseph  IIullma-ndel,  Great  Marlborough  Street,  Lithographic 
Printer,  for  "  a  new  effect  of  liglil  and  s/iadou;  imitating  a  bruuli  or  stump 
drawing  or  both  combined,  produced  on  paper,  being  an  impression  from  a 
plate  or  stone  prepared  in  a  particular  manner  for  tliat  purpose,  as  also  the 
mode  of  preparing  the  said  plate  or  static  fur  that  object." — November  5  ; 
four  months. 

John  Clarke,  of  Islington,  Lancaster,  Plumber  anil  Glazier,  for  "  an 
hydraulic  double  action  force  and  lift-pump."  Communicated  by  a  foreigner 
residing  abroad. — November  5  ;  six  months. 

George  Delianson  Clark,  of  the  Strand,  Gentleman,  for  "  an  improve- 
ment in  purifying  tallow  fats  and  oils  for  various  uses,  bg  purifying  them  and 
depriiing  them  of  offensive  smells,  and  solidifying  sucti  as  are  fluid,  and  giving 
additional  hardness  ami  solidity  to  such  as  are  solid,  and  also  by  a  neiv  pro- 
cess of  separating  stearine  or  stearic-acid  from  theelanie  in  such  substances." 
Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  5  ;  six  mouths. 

Alexander  Horatio  Simpson,  of  New  Palace  Yard,  Westminster,  Gen- 
tleman, for  "  a  machine  or  apparatus  to  be  med  as  a  movable  observatory  or 
telegraph,  and  as  a  movable  platform  in  erecting,  repairing,  painting,  or  clean- 
ing  the  interior  and  exterior  of  buildings,  and  ako  as  afire-escape."  Com- 
municated by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad." — November  5  ;  six  months. 

.\ndrew  Kurtz,  of  Liverpool,  Manufacturing  Chemist,  for  "  a  certain 
improvement  or  certain  improvements  in  the  construction  of  furnaces." — No- 
vember 5  ;  six  months. 

George  Halpin,  jvinior,  of  Dublin,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in 
applying  air  to  lamps." — November  7  ;  sLx  months. 

William  Crofts,  of  New  Radford,  Nottingham,  Machine  Maker,  for 
"certain  improvements  in  machinery,  for  t  lie  purpose  of  making  figured  or 
ornamental  bobbin-net  or  twist-lace,  and  other  ornamental  fabrics  looped  or 
woven." — November  7  ;  six  months. 

Charles  de  Bergue,  of  Blackheath,  Gentleman,  for  "  improvements  in 
machinery  for  making  reeds  used  in  weaving"  Communicated  to  him  by  a 
foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  7  ;  six  months. 

Edward  Dodd,  of  Kentish  Town,  Musical  Instrument  Maker,  for  "  im- 
provements  in  piano-fortes." — November  7  ;  six  months. 

George  Edward  Donisthorpe,  of  Leicester,  Machine  Maker,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  machinery  or  apparatus  for  combining  and  preparing 
wool,  and  other  te.vtile  substances." — November  7  ;  six  months. 

John  Joseph  Mechi,  of  Leadeuhall  Street,  Cutler,  for  "  improvements  in 
apparatus  to  be  applied  to  lamps,  in  order  to  carry  off  heat  and  the  products 
of  combustion." — November  10  ;  two  months. 

Thomas  Lavves,  of  Canal  Bridge,  Old  Kent  Road,  Feather  Factor,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  the  method  or  process,  and  apparatus  for  cleansing 
or  dressing  feat  tiers." — November  10;  six  months. 

William  M'Kinley,  of  Manchester,  Engraver,  for  "  certain  improvements 
in  machinerg  or  apparatus  for  measuring,  folding,  plaiting,  or  lapping  goods 
or  fabrics." — November  10;  six  months. 

Charles  Edwards  Amos,  of  Great  Guilford  Street,  Millwright,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  paper." — November  10  ;  sLx 
months. 

Thomas  William  Parkin,  and  Elisha  Wilde,  of  Portland  Street, 
Liverpool,  Engineers,  for  "  an  improved  metliod  of  making  and  working  loco- 
motive and  other  steam-engines." — November  12;  two  months. 

Eugenius  Birch,  of  Cannon  Row,  Westminster,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  im- 
provements  applicable  to  railroads,  and  to  the  engines  and  carriages  to  be 
worked  thereon." — November  12  ;  six  months. 

John  Heaton,  of  Preston,  Overlooker,  for  "  improvements  in  dressing 
yams  of  linen,  or  cotton,  or  both,  to  be  woven  into  various  sorts  of  cloth." — 
November  12;  six  months. 

Otto  C.  Von  Almonde,  of  Threadneedle  Street,  Merchant,  for  "  im- 
provements in  the  production  of  Mosaic  xrork  from  wood."  Communicated 
by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  12;  six  months. 

Charles  Dod,  of  Buckingham  Street,  Adelphi,  Gentleman,  for  "  certain 
methodsor  processes  for  the  manufacture  of  plate-glass,  and  also  of  substances 
in  imitation  of  marbles,  stones,  agates,  and  otiier  minerals,  of  all  forms  and 
dimensions,  applicable  to  objects  both  of  use  and  ornament."  Communicated 
by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  12  ;  two  months. 

'  Charles  Wye  Williams,  of  Liveriiool,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  furnaces  and  boilers." — November  17;  six 
months. 

Joshua  Shaw,  of  Goswell  Street  Road,  Artist,  for  "  certain  improvements 
in  discharging  ordnance,  muskets,  fowling-pieces,  and  other  fire-arms." — No- 
vember 17;  six  months. 

Joseph  Whitwortii,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  and  John  Spear,  of  the 
same  place.  Gentleman,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  machinerg,  tools,  or 
apparatus  for  cutting  and  sliaping  metals  and  other  mbs(/inces." — November 
1 7  ;  six  months. 

James  Deacon,  of  Saint  John  Street  Road,  Gentleman,  for  "  improve, 
menis  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  chimneys  for  lamps." — November  19  ;  six 
months. 

Alexander  Stevens,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improve- 


ments in  machinery  or  apparatus  to  be  used  as  an  universal  cJieclcfor  turning 
and  boring  purposes,  which  said  improvements  are  also  applicable  to  other 
useful  purposes." — November  19;  .six  months. 

William  IIenson,  of  Allen  Street,  Lambeth,  Engineer,  for  "improve- 
ments in  machinery  for  making  or  producing  certain  faljrics  with  threads  or 
yarns  applicable  to  various  useful  purposes." — November  19  ;  six  months. 

John  Co.x,  of  Ironmonger  Lane,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improve- 
ments in  the  comtruction  of  ovens  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of  coke,  and 
other  purposes." — November  21 ;  two  months. 

John  Wakefield,  of  Salford,  Hat  Manufacturer,  and  John  Ashton,  of 
Manchester,  Hat  Manufacturer,  for  "  certain  improvements  in  t/ie  manufacture 
of  tiat  bodies." — November  21  ;  six  months. 

William  Henry  Hutchins,  of  Whitechapel  Road,  Gentleman,  and 
Joseph  Bakewell,  of  BrLxton,  Civil  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in  pre- 
venting ships  ami  other  vessels  from  foundering,  and  also  for  raising  vessels 
when  sunk."- — November  21 ;  six  months. 

Francis  Pope,  of  Wolverhampton,  Engineer,  for  "  improvements  in  de- 
taching locomotive  and  other  carriages." — November  24  ;  six  months. 

John  Haughton,  of  Liverpool,  Clerk,  M.  A.,  for  "  improvements  in  the 
means  employed  in  railway  accidents  resulting  from  one  train  overtaking 
anotlier." — November  24  ;  sLx  months. 

Henry  Charles  Danberry,  residing  at  Boulogne,  Esquire,  for  "  an  im- 
provement in  the  making  and  forming  of  paddle-wheels  for  the  use  of  vessels 
propelled  on  the  wa  ter  by  steam  or  other  power,  and  applicable  to  propel  ves- 
sels ami  mills." — November  25  ;  six  months. 

Thomas  Barratt,  of  Somerset,  for  "  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  paper." — November  25  ;  six  months. 

Junius  Smith,  of  Fen  Court,  Fenchurch  Street,  Esquire,  for  "  certain  im- 
provements in  furnaces."  Comnuuiicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad.— 
November  25  ;  six  months. 

Charles  Grellett,  of  Hatton  Garden,  for  "  new  modes  of  treating  pota- 
toes in  order  to  their  being  converted  into  various  articles  of  food,  and  new 
apparatus  for  drying,  applicable  to  that  and  other  purposes." — November  25; 
six  months. 

William  Henry  Bailey  Webster,  of  Ipswich,  Surgeon,  for  "  improve- 
ments in  preparing  skins  and  other  animal  mattei-s,  for  the  purpose  of  tanning f 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  gelatine." — -November  25  ;  six  months. 

Oliver  Louis  Reynolds,  of  King  Street,  Cheapside,  Merchant,  for  "  cer- 
tain improvements  in  machinery  for  producing  stocking  fabric  or  framework 
knitting.  Communicated  by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  25; 
six  months. 

Nathaniel  Batho,  of  Manchester,  Engineer,  for  "  certain  improvements 
in  machinery,  tools,  or  apparatus,  for  planing,  turning,  boring,  or  cutting 
metals,  and  other  substances." — November  26 ;  six  months. 

Frederick  Theodore  Philippi,  of  BeMeld  Hall,  Cabco  Printer,  for 
"  certain  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing  cotton,  silk,  and  other  woven 
fabrics." — November  25  ;  six  months. 

James  Lee  Hannah,  of  Brighton,  Doctor  of  Medicine,  for  "  an  improve- 
ment or  improvements  in  fire-escapes." — November  25  ;  six  mouths. 

Robert  Roberts,  of  IJradford,  Blacksmith,  for  "  a  new  method  or  process 
for  case  tinrdening  iron." — November  25  ;  six  months. 

Henry  Walker  Wood,  of  Chester  Square,  Gentleman,  for  "  an  improve- 
ment in  producing  an  uneven  surface  in  wood  and  other  substances."  Com- 
municated by  a  foreigner  residing  abroad. — November  25  ;  six  months. 


TO  CORRESPONDENTS. 


Notice. 

The  present  Number  concludes  the  Third  Volume.  The  Title,  Preface, 
and  Index  will  be  given  extra  with  the  next  month's  Journal. 

Vols.  1,  II,  and  III,  may  be  had,  bound  in  cloth,  price  £1  each  Volume. 

"  A  Constant  Reader,"      /F«  linvr  not  seen  the  carriage. 

We  have  rcceimd  two  other  Mlers  Ijesides  the  one  inserted  respecling  Mr.  Man- 
seV s  proposition  for  using  marbles  to  check  the  lengths  of  the  vliain  ;  we  think  it 
unnecessary  to  publish  any  other  than  the  one  by  a  "  Surveyor." 

.lames  Inglis's  letter  commenting  on  our  remarks,  regarding  his  conduct,  in  last 
munlh's  Journal,  we  must  decline  publishing,  /fi"  are  at  all  limes  disposed  to 
lend  our  aid  in  crushing  plagiarism  ;  in  doing  so  ive  must  be  supported  by  facts, 
ami  no  part  of  tlie  statement  should  contain  any  matter  but  what  could  be  fully 
proved  ill  a  court  of  law,  to  which  we  render  ourselves  liable  to  be  brought,  when 
vindicating  any  particular  interest,  or  exposing  piracy.  Mr.  Inglis  staled  in  his 
letter,  that  his  assertions  could  be  supported  by  written  documents,  which,  upon 
investigation,  turned  out  not  to  be  the  ease.  We  therefore  cannot  allow  any  further 
correspondence  on  the  subject  of"  Tide  Gauges,"  unless  it  is  the  wish  of  eitlier 
Mr.  Milchell  or  Mr.  Bunt. 

A  Road  Engineer.  Il'e  shall  attend  to  the  Report  on  Turnpike  Roads  ne.rt 
month. 

Books  received : — Lecount  on  the  London  and  Birmingham  Railway;  Parseij 
on  Perspective  ;   Williams  on  Combustion  ;  Pambour  on  the  Steam  Engine. 

Communiealimis  arc  requested  to  be  addressed  to  "The  Editor  of  the  Civil 
Kngineer  and   Architect  s  Journal.'    No.  M,  Parliament  Street,  Westminster. 

Books  for  review  must  be  sent  early  in  the  month,  communications  on  or  before 
the  20lh  (if  with  drawings,  earlier),  and  advertisements  on  or  before  the  25(A 
instant. 


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