Full text of "Climate; an Inquiry Into the Causes of Its Differences, and Into Its Influence on Vegetable Life ..."

See other formats

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http: //books .google .com/I

O 5/ja/6

HARVARD
COLLEGE
LIBRARY

^CLIMATE:/^

AN INQUIRY INTO THE CAUSES OF ITS DIF-
FERENCES, AND INTO ITS INFLUENCE
ON VEGETABLE LIFE.

COMPBISINQ THE SUBSTANCE OF

$anx '^tttnnn

DELIVEEED BEFORE

THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

THE MUSEUM, TORQUAY, IN FEBRUARY, 1863.

C. DAUBENY. M.D., F.R.S.,

FUJAAyW OF THE LINN JEAN AND GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES ; HONORART MEMBER OF THE ROYAL
IRISH ACADEMY, OF THE RQYAL AGRICULT17EAL, AND OF THE MEBICO-CHIRUROICAL
BOCIXTIES; FOREIGN ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF MUNICH; CORRESPONDING
ASSOCIATE OF THE GKENEAN SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY AT CATANIA ; MEMBER OF THE
SOCIETIES OF QUEBEC, MONTREAL, PHILADELPHIA, AND BOSTON ; OF THE ACADEMY OF

OENEYA, ETC. ;
PROFESSOR OF BOTANY AND OF RURAL ECONOMY TN THE UNIYERSITY OF OXFORD.

-♦♦-

JOHN HENRY and JAMES PARKER.

LOlfDON : H. G. BOHN, •
YOBK.STREET, COVENT-GARDEN.

1863.

s^n^J'o

HARVARD
UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY
APR 8 1974

(\'i

iprinteb bs ^tnnts. $atker, Corntnarhft, #xibrb.

WILLIAM HENRY TINNEY, ESQ., Q.O.,

MASTER IN CHANCERT, ETC.,

Cj^jesje "^tttnxtB,

ORIGINALLY DRAWN UP TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS

OF A POPULAR AUDIENCE,

AND NOW COMMITTED TO PRINT,

IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS FRIENDLY WISHES

AND HIS INDULGENT ESTIMATE OF THEIR SHORTCOMINGS,

ARE INSCRIBED,
AS A TOKEN OF REGARD AND ESTEEM,

THE AUTHOR.

'■*^^^"^**^-— ""— "^^■-■^^^— '-^■-'- " — - — -^- ^ 'f , -^^ , ,-- ■ -V^

LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS

UP TO APRIL 6iH.

A. Saldry, Esq.^ BTthom, Bronshill Eoad
A. Barton, Esq., Falkenstein, Gaoy Bbad
Dr. Becker, Park Crescent, 4 copies
J. S. Beckett, Esq., Knoll, Barton Boad

Mrs. Belfield, Parkfield, Paignton

Bey. H. Biddulpli, Carclew, Hesketh Boad, 2 copies

W. J. Booth, Esq., Liswomey

Hon. J. Boyle, Bockwood, Park Hill Boad

J. Buckton, Esq., Laoriston Hall

Mrs. Burgess, Lisbum Crescent

Miss Burdett Coutts, Ehrenberg Hall, 2 copies

Miss Cole^ Lauriston Hall

Dr. Coates, Hillside, Lower Woodfidd.Boad

J. Corrie, Esq.^ Springfield, Springfidd Boad

W. H. Cosway, Esq., FonthiU, Lower Warberry Eoad,

2 copies
— Calhoun, Esq., Madeira .Villa, Tor Church Boad.
Miss M. Croome, Iffley, near Oxford . .

A. Cunninghame, Esq., Belgrare House, 2 copies

The Lady Dunsany, Bockland, Cary Boad

A. Dendy, Esq., Bock House, Bock Boad

G. D. Wingfield Digby, Esq., Sherborne Castle, Dorset

Mrs. Wingfield Digby, ditto

J. Dugmore, Esq., Beacon Terrace

Miss Dyott, Bay Monnt, Heathfield, Warberry Boad, 2 copies

Mrs. Dykes, Kilmorie, Hesk^h Crescent

N. B. Edmonstone, Esq., St. Anne's, Meadfoot Eoad
Mrs. C. English, Vomero, Stitchill Eoad, 2 copies
J. Enys, Esq,,w.Ep7S, n^ar Pex^ryB,i;^ copies » - ;
Dr. Evanson, Homehurst, LoWer Warberrj^ Eoad

' . • •

E. S. Ffarington, Esq., Wellswood Park

Rev. E. Fayle, Park HiU Villi, Park HiURoad . ' • ' .

J. H. Fenton, Esq., Launston Hall

• r •

W. Gott, Esq., Bay Foft, Warren Eoad, 2 copies
Rev. H. Griffin, Glenthome, Lower Warbeiiry Eoad

The Viscountess Hood, Barton Seagrave^ Kettering . .

Dr. Eadclyffe Hall, Pljonswood House, Bronshill Eoad, 2 cdpies
Dr. C. Henry, Haffield, near Ledbury, 2. copies
Rev. J. E. Hogg, Eastholme, Upper Lincombe Road

Eev. C. M. Jarvis, Capo' di Monte, Lower Wafberry Eoad,

2 copies
Mrs. Jarvis, Brock Street, fiath

Eev. L. Jenyns, Daarlington Place, Bath, 2 copies .

• ...

' . w ■ » •

Sir John Kennaway, Bart., Escot, near Ottery St. Mary,

2 copies .
W. H. Kitson, Esq., Vaughan Parade
Sir Eichard Kirby, C.B., Launston Hall, 2 copies

The Lady Julia Lockwood, Barcombe, Paignton
Captain Vaughan Lee, Osborne House
Eev. S. Lovett, Warxen Hall, St. Luke's Eoad
Major Lumley, Lauriston Hall

Dr. Maddega, Gorton, Lower Woddfield Eoad

W. Marshall, Esq., M.P.^ Eingwood, Meadfoot, 2 copies

1 i

Ml8sMAter;Bay.Moiiit,TaiKHiURb4di '* . • f'

Miss E. M. Mansfidd^.Bi^taU,: Uppei* ibadjloti HiB'Roacf ^^
W. Metcalfe, Esq., Woodleigh Vale,< Waibeny Bead, 2 copiiels' ■
Miss Caroline* !MilBe8^ Fiyrtone, ])f eadfoot Boad
E. Mount, Esq., Mod^a Tenrade ' '^ •

;- • ' " ' 4 . '' » ' '• '.■'■•••. . ' • . •

Dr. Nankivell, Laytofc:BAuse, Wal3oB Tertaoe
Kev. Dr. Newman, Underheath, Warbeny Eoad
W. Norris, Esql,' Belvoir, Meadfooi Edad

; i

( •

W. Pengelly, Esq., Lamohia, St. Mary-Chuich Road
Marcli Phillipps, Esq.", Wellswood, Xower Warbcrry Boad
Dr. Lovell Phillips, Toirville, Teignmwith Boad ^ •'

Mrs. Potts, r|ai8<Sn,Wktberry Road
J. Pynsent, Esql, Linden, St. Luke's Road /

. ' ' ■ '

W. Rashleigh, Esq., Port Neptune, Fowey
l^Irs. 6. Richards, I£9ey, near Oxford
Mrs. Roberts, Torwood Mount

N. W. Senior, Esq., Ken^gton Gore

N, G. Senior, Esq., ditto

Miss Senior, ditto

A. B. Sheppard, Esq., Hove, Furze Hill Road

Philip Sleeman, Esq., South Town House

Mad. Smirnoff, Enfield, Meadfoot Road

Rev. W. J. Smithwick, Beacon Terrace

W. D. Splatt, Esq., Abbotsford, Lower Warbeny Road

W. Stabb, Esq., Portland Place

J. Stoddart, Esq., Collingwood

Cortlandt Taylor, Esq., Western Terrace, Belgrave Road

Mrs. Taylor, Warberry Lodge, 2 copies

Dr. Tetley, Belmont, Teigmnouth Road, 8 copies

Captain Tibbets, Barton Seagrave, Kettering

B. Tighe, Esq., Mertou Lodge, Middle Linoombe Boad

W. H. Ttpnej, Esq.» Snowdeiiliamy 5 copies

Mrs. Tiime^, ditto^ 2 wpjbs

Mrs. Alexander Toogood, QorpliwyBSBLj Wanen Boad

B. Toogood, Esq., Annandale, Torwood Gardens

lieut-Col. H. Trevelyan, Oke Lodge, Southampton

A. TumbuD, Esq., Prioiy, Park Hill Boad

• - -

E. Vivian, Esq., Woodfield, Lower Woodfield Boad

Miss Walker, Broadlands, Broncdiill Boad

Bey. Sanc^s Wall, Beacon Terrace, 4 copies

Bev. G. Warner, Highstead, Bronshill Boad.

Miss Warrington, Fercj Lodge, Abbey Boad, 2 ciopies

J. North White, Esq., St. Hilajy, Warren Boad

Sherlock Willis, Esq., Torwood Monnt

N. Wing, Esq., 2, Park Crescent

Bev. B. B. Wolfe, Furze Park, Furae Hill Boad

Dr. Tonge, Plymouth

Hon. Mrs. Yorke, Kanescombe, Lower Warberry Boad^ 4 copies

Count von Zech, Lisbum Crescent

V ■ ,

8TJPPLEMENTAEY LIST OF SUBSCEIBEES,

TO MAY 22HD.

Sir Thomas Acland^ Bart.^ Killertpn^ 2 copies.

Thomas Acland^ Esq.^ Exeter^ 2 copies.

Rev. P. Arnold^ Council Office, Downing-street^ London.

Sir B. Brodie, Bart., Oxford.

Rev. Dr. Bulley, Magdalen College, Oxford, 2 copies.

J. Bailey, Esq., Magdalen College, Oxford.

J. Burden, Esq., Marine Villa, Torquay.

ErOV. E. Daubeny, Ampney, Cirencester, 5 copies.

P. Duncan, Esq., Bath.

Lady Easthope, 2, Great Cumberland-street, Hyde Park.

E. Fox, Esq., Falmouth, 2 copies.

Rev. R. Greswell, Worcester College, Oxford.

G. Griffiths, Esq., Jesus College, Oxford.

J. Hoyte, Esq., Glastonbury.

Rev. H. Jenkins, Stanway, Colchester, 4 copies.

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., Carclew.

A. Luscombe, Esq., Coombe Royal, Kingsbridge.

Dr. Masters, Bridgwater.

Sir W. Palmer, Bart., Bridport, 2 copies.

J. Payne, Esq., Magdalen College, Oxford.

Professor Phillips, Oxford.

Professor B. Price, Oxford.

Professor RoUeston, Oxford.

Professor Goldwin Smith, Oxford.

VI SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.

Rev. R. H. Tiddeman, Oxford.

Mr. Weeks, Chemist, Torquay.

Rev. H. Winwood, Bath.

H. Wyndham, Esq., Oriel College, Oxford.

ERRATA.

For "Kon. J. Boyle, Rockwood, Park Hill-road, read J. Bogle, Esq.,
Woodside.

To J. Corrie, Esq., add 4 copies.
To J, Stoddart, Esq., add 3 copies.
Ibr Mrs. Roberts, read Robertson.
For E. Mount, Esq., read E. Mevert.

LECTURE I.

-**•

Introdnctory remarks. Definition of Climate. Temperature — ^how far in-
dependent of solar influence. Different sources of Heat considered ; — ^all except
the solar influence may be passed over. Solar Heat considered. Conjectures
as to its nature founded upon the Spectrum analysis. Brief statement of the
recent discoveries made on that subject. Methods of determining mean tem-
peratures — new instruments for the purpose. Rate of the decrease of Heat
dependent on latitude. Concurrent causes affecting temperature. Instances of
places where the actual temperature exceeds the normal one. Instances of the
reverse. Tabular view of the temperature of certain places. Summer tempera-
ture that which most operates upon vegetation. Causes affecting temperature —
general and local. General ones — ^influence of solar light in tropical countries
upon land and water — by day — by night. Influence of solar light in northern
latitudes — in summer upon land — upon water. Ditto in winter on each.
Speculations as to the existence of a polar sea. Temperature of America and
Europe different — and why. Causes of the greater heat of the Globe in former
times. Sir C. Lyell's hypothesis — how far admissible. Probable greater pre-
ponderance of 'Water over land during former periods of the earth's history.

Ladies and Gentlemen,

It has been my practice for the last five winters to resort
to some mild spot, either in the south of England or on the
Continent, with the view of escaping the trying effects of
the cold and damp of Oxford upon a chest rather susceptible
of such influences ; and as I have been compelled during the
periods of my absence from the University to intermit the
ordinary routine of my duties and occupations, it is a satis-
faction to me, whenever an opportunity seems to present
itself of labouring in ever so slight a degree in the same
direction, by imparting any information that I possess on
matters of science, to those who may be thrown in my way
in the places to which I have been induced to migrate.

And in the present instance I was also glad to be able to
do something towards expressing my acknowledgments for
the compliment paid me during my former visit to Torquay
by your Natural History Society, in electing me an honorary
member of that body; so that when it was intimated by
your Secretary and by other influential members that it

2 • Introductory Remarks, [lect.

would be gratifying to them if I were to deliver one or more
lectures at their Institution during my stay in the neigh-
bourhood, I coYild not do less than respond to the call,
without waiting to enquire whether the wares, that I had
brought with me from one of the supposed great emporiums
of learning and science, were of sufficient value to be worth
exporting to so great a distance.

Nor had I much difficulty in fixing upon a theme for
my discourse — one, that is, which persons of every descrip-
tion could enter into, and which the inhabitants of such
a place as this might be expected to regard with especial
favour; of a character sufficiently popular to arrest the
attention of the many, and yet connected with the highest
speculations which can occupy the man of science; in its
principles soaring to the sublimest regions of philosophy,
in its applications throwing light upon the most important
questions which concern the interests of daily Ufe. Need
I say that this subject is the Weather, or, in more grandilo-
quent phraseology, the Science of Meteorology-^a science,
indeed, still in its infancy, yet even in its infantine state
already assuming gigantic proportions ; one into which the
untutored peasant sometimes would seem to possess an in-
tuitive insight, whilst the philosopher, although he may
plume himself on his acquaintance with the general laws of
atmospheric phenomena, is often at a loss to unravel the
entangled skein of efiects connected with it which daily ob-
servation brings before him.

Indeed, whilst many a Charlatan, utterly ignorant of
science, preys upon the credulity of the public by boldly
prognosticating the atmospheric changes that are about to
take place, the man of science, who has spent his life in
investigating the laws of Nature, will engage with diffidence
in any such undertaking ; and hence we find Ignoramuses,
who figure in print under the sobriquets of Zadkiel, or Thomas
Moore^ Physician, predicting the weather for a year to
come with the most entire confidence, whilst an Herschel
or an Arago. declare themselves, incompetent to anticipate
what may chance to supervene within the space of the next
four-and-twenty hours.

I*
I

I.] Introductory Remarks. 3

Not that there is any reason to suppose the changes in the
atmosphere less brought about through the operation of
secondary forces than other natural phenomena; or to be
more immediately under the direction of the great Cause of
all than physical events in general are admitted to be ; and
hence we can perceive no greater inconsistency, when the
devout philosopher, after praying for fine weather, speculates
upon the meteorological changes which may cause the sun to
come out, or the rain to fall, than when a pious general, like
an Havelock or a Stonewall Jackson, after supplicating the
Almighty for success to his arms, shapes his conduct purely
by military considerations as to the question of accepting or
declining battle.

Indeed, the most submissive waiter upon providence is,
in spite of himself, more or less of a meteorologist.

The first thing which we enquire about in the morning,
and the last thing which it occurs to us to speculate upon at
night, — especially in so fickle and changeable a climate as
our own, — is the weather.

Ilr controls all our proceedings, and modifies all our re-
sidts ; it reads us a constant lesson of humility, by shewing
how large a part of the results which we are striving at by
the exertion of our own forethought and industry is de-
pendent upon forces over which we have no control ; and it
affects our calculations, not only throughout all the ordinary
transactions of daily life, but when our mind indulges in
a wider range, and interests itself respecting the animals, the
plants, the statistics, the sanitary condition of other climes
and countries ; in short, it is of equal concern to the physi-
cian, to the painter, to the poet, to the agriculturist, and to
the natural historian.

Indeed, the chief reason why my own attention has been
drawn to the subject of meteorology, is the* influence which
Climate exerts upon the plants which characterize different
portions of the globe, and upon the methods of cultivating the
soil in our own, questions which come before me in my double
capacity as Professor of Botany and of Rural Economy.

Nor is it one of the least powerful reasons for introducing
a mention of it here, that Torquay, in common with the rest

B 2

4 Introductory Remarks. [lect.

of the coast of Devonshire and Cornwall, presents a meteor-
ological phenomenon almost without parallel in any other
part of the globe, namely, as being situated on a line of
coast occupying a latitude as high as 50° or 51° N., and yet
favoured with a climate so mild, that in various places of
Cornwall the myrtle and camellia will grow in the open air
to the dimensions of large shrubs, the orange and lemon will
bear fruit with little or no protection during the winter, and
even in a few of the more favoured spots, the Fan Palm of
Europe and the Chusan Palm of China, three species at
least of the Dragon-tree, the Pride of India, and the Camphor-
tree, may be seen flourishing in the open soil of a garden *.

Probably the only part of the world which presents an
equally striking variation from the normal condition be-
longing to its latitude is the coast of the Mediterranean,
between Marseilles and Genoa, where, between the paral-
lels 43° and 44°, the Date Palm assumes the proportions of
a large tree, and many other tropical productions thrive
almost as in their native climates.

By the Climate of a country, then, we understand its re-
lations to temperature, light, moisture, winds, atmo^heric
pressure, electricity, and so forth ; but amongst these the first
place must be conceded to the intensity of the heat, and to
its distribution over different portions of the year, as it is
this which in a great degree regulates the other conditions,
and is also itself of all others the one most indispensable for
the exercise of the functions of vegetable and animal life.

It has been calculated, that were all the existing sources
of heat withdrawn, the temperature which the globe pos-
sessed would not exceed 76° below zero, or 108° below the
point at which water freezes. Fourier indeed assigned to it
one considerably higher, namely 46° below zero, or 85° below
the freezing point of water, but as a cold of — 76° has been
actually observed in the open air at Melville Island, and one of
— 72° 4', according to Erman, at Yakoutzk in Siberia, it does
not seem possible to suppose, that a temperature higher than

* See Appendix.

1.] Temperature — mi what dependent. 5

this could prevail over the earthy if the sun were blotted out
of the firmament.

Now this temperature, which is after all probably far
removed from the point of the absolute negation of heat, and
indeed is not so low as has been often produced by artificial
means % is conjectured to arise from the heat distributed
over the globe by the innumerable stellar bodies which emit
rays from their orbits.

This, indeed, is a more important element in its influence
upon terrestrial bodies than might at first sight be supposed.
Fourier remarks, that if the celestial spaces were entirely
devoid of heat, the decrease of temperature from the equator
to the poles ought to proceed in a much higher ratio than is
the case, and also that the cold in high latitudes would be
incalculably greater.

The least variation in the distance of the sun would
produce extreme differences in the climate of a place, and
the transition from day to night would be attended with a
much greater change of temperature than is found to occur.
It is therefore to be inferred, that a physical cause is always
present, which moderates the tempei*ature of the earth's
surface, and imparts to it a fundamental heat which is in-
dependent of the sun.

Now the excess of heat beyond this point, even in the
coldest part of the globe, namely in the Arctic regions,
averages probably not less than 76 degrees of Fahrenheit, as
the mean temperature of the polar regions is generally set
down as about zero of that scale ; whilst in the tropics it is
about twice as great ; so that, curiously enough, it would ap-
pear that nearly half as much heat is obtained extraneously
in the Arctic regions, as in those at or near the equator.

The sources from which this accession of temperature
beyond that of the space in which our planet is moving can
be supposed to be derived, are the following : 1st, the heat
generated by the various living bodies scattered over the face
of the globe ; 2nd, that resulting from various processes

^ M. Katfcerer by mixing liquid protoxide of azote and bisulphide of carbon,
and placing the mixture in vacuo, produced a cold of — 220" F. This is the
lowest teraperatore hitherto obtained. Miller, vol. i. p. 254.

6 - Sources of Heat. [lect.

carried on either by natural agencies or through the in-
strumentality of man over various parts of the globe, includ-
ing the different forms of combustion ; 3rd, the internal
heat of the globe ; 4th, the radiation from the sun.

It must be admitted, that all animals generate a certain
amount of heat, in proportion to the energy with which their
vital functions are conducted, and that a powerful local in-
fluence is also exerted upon the temperature of particular
spots by artificial combustion. But both these agencies,
although jointly they may affect to a certain extent the tem-
perature of cities, where large masses of people are con-
gregated, seem wholly inadequate to produce any sensible
change in the climate of the globe generally.

It was indeed suggested to me by an ingenious member
of this Society, that a certain calorific influence must be
assigned to all the great movements of the air and water —
to the action of the tides, and to the waves that dash
against the coast, &c. ; nor, if Grove's views be correct, is
it possible to deny, that some effect ought to arise from the
conversion of motion into heat, according to the views at
present entertained with regard to the transmutation of na-
tural forces one into the other. This, however, it is im-
possible to estimate, and therefore in the present enumeration
of the causes which tend to elevate the general temperature
of the earth's surface, it will be necessary to pass them over.
Nor does the internal heat of the globe, whatever it may
have done in former titnes, exercise any material influence
over the crust at present; so that in considering the sub-
ject of climate, this element also may be thrown out of the
calculation altogether, as not affecting the result at the
present time.

There remains, therefore, only the direct effect of the
sun, concerning the nature of which we, as meteorologists,
have but little to do.

It may be sufiicient to say that, according to Arago, the
body of the solar orb is itself almost entirely dark, but is en-
compassed at a considerable distance by a luminous envelope,
in which funnel-shaped openings exist, through which per-

I.] Solar Radiation — its Nature, 7

tioBs of the dark body below are sometimes seen, producing
what are called the spots on its surface.

But both below and above this envelope there is, accord-
ing to the same philosopher, an atmosphere of vapour, the
former intervening between the luminosity and the body
of tlie solar orb, the latter surrounding it externally; and
from the undulations or protuberances of its surface, pro-
ducing those red moimtain or flame-like forms which are
so remarkable in every total eclipse, as in the last one so
well photographed by Mr. Delarue in the north of Spain.

Sut it is not light only, but also heat, which is radiated
from the sun ;. and hence, in spite of the authority of Arago,
and the plausible explanation of the spots in the sun which
his hypothesis affords, it may be inferred, that the surface of
a body contiguous, as the orb of the sun is, to a photo-
sphere or zone of vapour of so exalted a temperature, would
be itself rendered incandescent, and therefore luminous. Be
that, however, as it may, we are induced, from the property
common to all solid bodies, when intensely heated, of be-
coming luminous, to conclude, that the rays of light emitted
from this source must arise from particles of matter brought
into a high state of incandescence.

Of what nature these particles of matter may be, a beau-
tiful discovery lately made in Germany affords us, perhaps,
the means of conjecturing.

It had been known ever since the time of Newton, that
a sunbeam passed through a prism is separated into seven
distinct portions, possessed of different colours ; and it was
pointed out by WoUaston, and afterwards confirmed by
Frauenhofer, that in the spectrum produced by thus refract-
ing the sun's rays, a vast number of dark lines exist, which
can be distingmshed if the spectrum be sufficiently mag-
nified.

Now it has been found, that if any mineral substance be
exposed to a heat sufficient to cause it to volatilize, and if the
light produced by its incandescence be transmitted through
a similar prism, a spectrum is produced which, although in
other parts dark, as compared with that from the sun, ex-
hibits, at some one or more particular points, luminous banda

8 Spectrum Analysia explained, [lect.

of a certain colour, and that both the colour and the position
of the band is always dependent upon the nature of the
l^e which enters into the composition of the mineral body
employed.

Many of these, indeed, require for their yolatilization a
higher temperature than can be produced by an ordinary
lamp ; and these, of course, can only be rendered sufficiently
luminous by the more intense heat produced by other meanfl,
as, for instance, by electricity. Such are the metals, iron,
copper, gold, silver, &c., and their compounds ; but others, like
sodium, lithium, calcium, strontium, and barium, will exhibit
these characteristic bands when introduced into a common
gas lamp of Bunsen's construction, when the light produced
by the incandescent body is passed through a prism.

Thus the smallest portion of a salt of sodium, such, for
instance, as common salt, produces a bright yellow line in
that part of the spectrum which is indicated by the letter A ;
lithium by one red line at A, and one yellow at B ; strontium
by a broad orange line at A, followed by a number of narrow
streaks of fainter red at B ; calcium by a broad greenish line
at B, followed by a number of narrow streaks of yellow, and
terminated by a bright broad orange line at A ; barium, by
a numerous succession of faint blue and brighter green and
yellow bands in the places indicated in the chart ^.

The quantity of each of these bodies capable of pro-
ducing these bands of colour was found to be inconceiv-
ably small, it being calculated by Kirchkoff and Bunsen,
that the one hundred and eighty millionth part of a grain
of sodium could be rendered apparent by the bright yellow
band characteristic of that metal; and such infallible in-
dices are these bands of the presence of the body, and so
exactly do they maintain in each instance their relative
position in the spectrum, as ascertained by the most rigorous
measurements, _that when the above philosophers perceived
other lines, not coincident with those noticed in the spectra,
to be produced upon rendering certain other bodies in-
candescent by the same method, it was inferred that they

* I refer to the chart constructed by Kirchkoff with the view of exhibiting
these spectra.

I.] Dark lines in the Solar Spectrum — haic produced. 9

must have arisen from the presence of some other suh-
stances not hitherto discovered. And this inference, won-
derful to relate, was verified by the detection of two new
metals in the mineral water of Durkheim in Bavaria, the
residuum of which had been introduced into the flame of the
lamp^ as in the other cases. One of these bodies is called
caesium, the other rubidium ; and both have been separated
from the water, and examined by the chemists alluded to,
although existing ia it in such minute quantities, that in
order to obtain 105 grains of the chloride of caesium, and
135 of that of rubidium, no less than forty tons of the mine-
ral water of Durkheim were evaporated. They have been
since detected in the ashes of plants, and seem to be gene-
rally distributed, although in minute quantities, throughout
nature.

An English chemist, Mr. Crookes, has since been led,
•by the same mode of investigation, to the discovery of
a third substance, called thallium, present in iron pyrites,
which though it resembles in appearance lead, approaches
in chemical properties more nearly to the alkaline metal-
loids.

On this new method, however, which has received the
name of Spectrum Analysis, my time does not permit me
to dwell ; but what more relates to our present purpose, is
the inference which the discoverers of this mode of research
have deduced, as to the nature of the bodies which, by their
incandescence, give rise to the sun^s light.

It has been found that every body absorbs the description
of rays which itself sends forth. Sodium, for instance, which
emits yellow light, intercepts that of the same colour or
quality, so that by interposing the vapour of this metal in
the path of a ray containing yellow light, the portion of the
spectrum, in which the latter exists, becomes extinguished,
and a dark band takes its place.

If, therefore, a ray proceeding from the incandescent body
of the sun passes through the vaporous atmosphere surround-
ing its orb, any yellow light present in it will be cut off,
if sodium be present in a volatile condition in the medium
which it traverses, and hence a dark streak will result, ex-

10 Metals present in the Sun*s Orb. [lect.

actly corresponding in position and in magnitude to the
bright sodium band.

Hence the existence in the solar spectrum of a dark line,
exactly corresponding in point of position with the yellow
sodium band^ is regarded as an evidence that this metal exists
in the solar orb, as well as in the photosphere surrounding
it, the former emitting, the latter absorbing, the yellow ray ;
and as this yaporous atmosphere is infinitely less bright than
the orb itself, the rays which the former emits are too feeble
to be perceived in conjunction with those of the latter, so that
a dark band exists in the spectrum where the yellow line
of sodium would otherwise have appeared.

Proceeding upon the same principle, we ascribe the other
dark lines which exist in the sun's spectrum to the pre-
sence of particular metals in its orb, wherever these lines are
found to coincide in point of position with the luminous
bands produced by these same substances in a spectrum ob-
tained artificially, the dark band in these cases, as in the
former one, being attributed to the extinction of the light in
that particular position during its passage through a medium
in which the substance itself was present.

On these data, then, it is concluded, that iron exists in
the solar atmosphere, as the particular bright lines produced
by the introduction of this metal into an artificial spectrum
are reversed in the solar one, by dark lines precisely cor-
responding in position to the former.

By a similar method of research, Kirchkoff concludes
that the solar atmosphere contains lime, magnesia, and soda.
Chromium has likewise been recognised in it by the same
means ; nickel too appears to be present, as well as barytas,
copper, and zinc in small quantities ; but of the remaining
metals no indications have as yet been obtained, nor, what is
remarkable, does silica appear to be present.

• Thus by this remarkable discovery, which would indeed
surpass our powers of belief, if it had not been verified by the
best possible test, namely, by the detection through its means
of several new and before unsuspected substances, we seem
to have obtained a glimpse of the physical constitution of
that great luminary, which is placed at the unapproachable

I .] Temperature of different Latituctes. 1 1

distance of ninety-five millions of miles from the earth we
inhabit. Moreover, hy employing the same method, it has
since been inferred, that the composition of the fixed stars is
not always identical with that of the sun ; Sirius, for instance,
and some others that have been examined, presenting a spec-
trum differing from that of our own luminary, and one which
appears to indicate the existence of other elements ^,

But it is time to terminate this digression, for which my
best apology is the great general interest felt in the novel
and beautiful investigation alluded to, as it is with the effects
of the solar orb upon the condition of our own planet, rather
than with its own intrinsic nature, that we as meteorologists
have to deal.

These effects, it is evident, will be experienced more sen-
sibly in proportion to the directness or perpendicularity with
which its rays impinge upon the earth's surface, so that they
will be least energetic in the polar regions, and most so
within the tropics.

If indeed the globe presented throughout a solid surface,
unchequered by any irregularities, and uniform both as to
texture and colour, the temperature of each portion might
be calculated by simply appealing to its latitude, since each
parallel would differ from the one above or below it in a cer-
tain fixed and easily ascertainable ratio.

Were the earth for instance, as the ancients considered it,
and as for convenience sake it is represented on Mercator's
projection, a plain surface, it is evident that, granting the
mean temperature of the equator to be 80°, and that of the
poles zero of Fahrenheit, there would be a decrease of 8^**
of Fahr. for every addition of 10° of latitude.

But as it is a sphere, the ratio is different ; and it appears

^ Professor Donati, in a recent memoir read before the Astronomical Society,
has classified a few of the more conspicuous of the fixed stars into four groups,
according to the kind of light they emit, namely, into white, yellow, orange,
and red stars, and has observed that whilst in each class the position of the
dark lines corresponds one with the other, every separate group differs from
the remaining ones, as well as from the solar orb, in that respect. Oh. News,
March 21, 1863.

13 Methods of determining Mean Temperatures. [lecx.

from the calculations of Professor Dove, who is regarded
as the highest authority on the subject of temperature,
that if the annual mean at the equator be reckoned at 79^«
there would be no diflference, but rather a slight increase,
in the heat of the globe in all the latitudes within 10 de-
grees of the line; after which, in the 20th parallel, the
temperature would sink to 76® ; in the 30th, to 68® ; in the
40th, to 56® : in the 50th, to 41® ; in the 60th, to 30® ; in
the 70th, to 17® ; and that it would stand nearly at zero
in the 80th, the highest latitude yet attained by man, from
which point to the poles there would probably be found Uttle
or no deviation as to temperature-

Thus the decrement of heat from the equator up to the
20th parallel does not exceed 3® of Fahr. ; between 20° aud
30°, and 30° and 40®, it goes on pretty uniformly at the rate of
8® of Fahr. for 10° of latitude ; it then progresses in an in-
creasing ratio from 40® to 50®, namely, about 15° of tem-
perature for 10° of latitude; diminishes again between 50°
and 60°, between which parallels the rate of decrease is 1 1°
of temperature for 10° of latitude ; rises again to 13° between
60° and 70°, where the difference amounts to 13°; and attains
its highest rate of diminution between 70° and 80°, where it
is as much as 17°.

The difference between the actual rate of diminution in
temperature according to latitude, and that which wOuld
prevail if the earth had been a flat surface with the sun
stationed exactly perpendicularly to the equator, may be
exhibited in a tabular form by a curved line describing the
rate of decrease in temperature in different latitudes. See
Table opposite.

It is, however, evident, that although the figures I have
given represent the heating effect produced by the direct
solar influence upon each portion of the globe, so far as it is
due to latitude, so many concurrent causes contribute to the
aggregate effect, that few spots exactly accord with this
theoretical estimate, some falling short of it, and a still
greater number exceeding the number assigned.

But before entering upon this subject it will be well to

LATITUD

le
as
:)e
ae

y»

is
a-

at
m

ri-
ch

fro
as

thi

th<

gr^

tec

40'

th<

2(y

30'

cr€

pea

an(

60'

its

is I

tei
pr<
Bta
ex]
ra<
Ta

sol
dui

agj
the

gr<

I.] Mantimum and Minimum Thot^moineter. 13

point out the methods by which meteorologists ascertain the
mean temperature of different spots on the globe. This
is not so simple and easy a problem as might at first be
conceii?ed. Two methods are generally proposed for the
purpose.

The first is to determine the maximum and minimum tem-
perature during every twenty-four hours, and to assume the
mean between the two as the mean of the climate.

The maximum and minimum points are ascertained by
means of a self-registering thermometer, either that of Six
or tliat of Rutherford having been generally employed for
that ,purpose.

These answer very tolerably, the former one especially,
'w^hen the instruments are stationary ; but for travelling it is
necessary to substitute others.

T'or ascertaining the maximum temperature, one which is
easily managed, not liable to get out of order in being con-
veyed from place to place, and at the same time sufficiently
exact, is one, the principle of which we owe to my friend
and colleague, Professor Phillips of Oxford.

In this, it will be perceived by the annexed drawing, that
tlie thread of mercury being broken, the detached portion
is pushed forwards as the temperature advances, and remains
at the point which it had reached, when the subsequent
decrease of temperature causes the remainder of the colutun
to recede.

prof" PHILLIPS'S MAXIMUM THERMOMETER ^^

it pi 'p 1 9 1 'p I y. I y. j„y. ! y i.ff i.y 1.3* i„??..f„ 'y^^

p.L.. ■|.:.....1 / .1 |. . UJ...l.. . l..1...|..f. |..l.|..r.,,|,,.^,,.r,,,,],,|,|| ,,L|..l,|.,..U..^^^

CASELLA. FECIT LONDON. ^04

The most convenient and accurate thermometer for mea-
suring the minimum of temperature during the twenty-
four hours appears to be the one invented by Casella, Jun.
Its peculiarity consists in having attached to the straight
tube which indicates the temperature one of larger dimen-
sions, terminating in a small chamber, by means of which

Standard hourBfm* observing Temperature, £i^:bct.

contrivance the mercury, when It expands by heat, finds an
easier passage into the chamber than into the tube itself so
that it remains in the tube at the same point to which it had
receded during the cold of the preceding night, and tlius
indicates the lowest point to which it had sunk since the
last observation.

But the accuracy of this method of determining the mean
temperature of a place by ascertaining the diurnal maximum
and minimum, depends upon the assumption, that the pas-
sage from the one to the other extreme goes on at a regular
ratio throughout the twenty-four hours.

Thus it would not hold good if the diminution of tempe-
rature proceeded for a greater number of hours slowly, and
afterwards went on at a more rapid rate for the remaining
ones. Accordingly it has been found that this method is
only quite exact for December, and that for the other months
it requires a certain correction; no less than 1.9 being sub-
tracted for July, 1.7 for August and May, 1.5 for April,
1.3 for September, 1.0 for October and March, and a small
fraction of a degree for the remaining months.

Others therefore prefer the method of obtaining the mean
temperature of a place by selecting for its registration some
hour which has been found by previous observation to re-
present as nearly as possible the mean temperature of the
whole day.

This varies a little for each p^ce and for every month in
the year ; but if we take Quetelet as our authority, and re-
gard the law he has laid down for Brussels as applicable to
this and other adjacent countries, we may assign the hours
from 8.12 to 9.36 in the morning, and from 6.40 to 8.6 in
the evening, as the times most suitable for obtaining the
mean temperature of the whole day. Accordingly the hours

x.] Deviations from the Normal Mean Temperature. 15

of nine in the morning and of nine in the evening are generally-
selected for observations on mean temperatures, but it must
be recollected that for perfect precision certain corrections
'wdll be required, and probably observations taken at other
liours should at the same time be registered®.

Accordingly, Professor Dove of Berlin, who, as has been
already remarked, is regarded as the highest authority on
tlie subject of meteorology, has framed a series of most
elaborate tables, which give the mean temperature of more
than 600 places^ respecting which sufficiently exact obser-
vations have been obtained. A selection from his reports
have been made by myself, and by reference to the table
thus constructed it will be seen, that in Europe most of
the places quoted exceed the calculation made as to what
might be called their normal temperature, or that due to
their respective latitudes, whereas many in America and in
Central Asia fall short of it.

Thus Petersburg, in latitude 59° 50', ought to have a mean
temperature of about 30** 50*, whereas observation assigns to
it one of 39** 60', or 9** 10' in excess ; XJpsal, in the same lati-
tude, one of 42° 54', or 11° 54' higher than that calculated ;
Copenhagen, in 55° 41', which should have a mean tempe-
rature of 35°, is found to have one of 46° 56', or 11° 56' higher ;
Edinburgh, standing nearly in the same latitude, a mean
temperature of 47° 15', or 12° 15' above the mark ; London,
in lat. 51° 30', instead of 39° of Fahr., has one of 50° 83', or
11° 83' higher; Penzance, in 50° 7' north latitude, which
would be set down at 41° of Fahr., enjoys a temperature as
high as 49° 63' ; and Gosport, in the same parallel, one of
51° 82', or 11° 32' above the calculated mean.

On the other hand, Yakoutzk in Siberia, in lat. 62° 1', has
a mean temperature of only 13° 43', whereas its normal one
would be 27° 0', or 13° 57' higher.

Irkutzk, in the same country, in the 52nd parallel, a mean
temperature of 32^ 62', or 6° 38' lower than it ought by
calculation to possess.

« For these niceties, however, T shall refer to Drewe's practical work on
Meteorology, or to Kamtz's German treatise, of which an ahridgment has
been published by MTalker, translated into the English language.

16 Winter Temperatures alxyre or behw the average, []lect.

Nertschinsk, in the 51st parallel^ one no less than 15** too
low, being quoted at 24** 17' of Fahr. ; Orenburg, in lat.
60° 45', 6° too low, or 35«.

Now it is remarkable that these parts of Siberia lie near
one of the two points determined by Hansteen at which there
is no variation in the compass caused by the magnetic cur-
rents which circulate round the globe'.

This curious coincidence between the extreme of cold and
the isoclinal magnetic lines, holds good also on the opposite
side of the globe, namely, in North America, although in
a less striking manner, for the coldest spots in that hemi-
sphere also are placed roimd and about the point which has
been determined to be that of no variation.

Everywhere indeed in North America we find the tempe-
rature relatively lower than in Europe.

Thus Quebec, in lat. 46° 48', possesses a mean temperature
of only 41® 85', which is a fraction of a degree lower than
calculation would assign to it ; and although in more south-
erly locaUties the observed exceeds the normal temperature
somewhat, yet the excess is far less than we find to be the
case in Europe.

Contrast, for instance, the temperature of places situated
in corresponding latitudes near the western coasts of Europe
and the eastern of America, — of Nantes, for instance,, in
France, and St. John^s in Newfoundland, the former 54° 90',
the latter 38° 39' ; or of Quebec and Poitiers, the first 41° 85',
the latter 53° 13', — and it will be seen that the difference of
position in the western or eastern sides of a continent has
produced a difference of 16° 5' of temperature in the former
instance, and of 11° 28' in the latter.

Yet even in these cases some slight exaltation seems to be
due to the proximity of the sea, for in the interior of a vast
continent, such as Asia, we have seen that the mean tempe-
rature is lower still, so as in some places even to fall as much
short of the normal point, as on the coasts of the American
continent it exceeds it.

' See in Berghaus* Physical Atlas, 4th Abth., Magnetismns, 5th No., or in
Keith Johnson's Atlas, Erinan's Map of the degrees of Declination from 1827
to 1831.

1.] Real and Normal Temperatures compared. 17

Nor is this all, for if we examine the mean winter tem-
perature of these several places, it will be found that the
discrepancy is still more striking.

Thus, whilst the winter temperature of Drontheim in the
63rd parallel is + 23° 29', that of Yakoutzk in the 62nd is
— 36** 37', an enormous difference of 60** ; whilst the winter
temperature of Quebec is 14** 15', that of Rochelle in France,
situated in the same latitude, is 61** 70' ; and Penzance, 4**
nearer the pole than either, enjoys a mean temperature of
44** 23', or one of 30** higher than that of Quebec.

Perhaps these conclusions may be rendered more palpable
by exhibiting the following tabular view of the annual, the
winter, and the summer mean temperatures of a few selected
places on the surface of the globe, or of what meteorologists
choose to denominate their isocheimal and iaotheral, as well
as their isothermal temperatures ; the latter of which terms is
confined to the expression of their mean heat during the
entire year, whilst the two former terms indicate their mean
winter and mean summer temperatures.

JReal and Normal Temperatures compared. {juBCt.

TABLE OF MEAN TEMPERATURES.

Tempsretiure.
*

AnnnaL

Winter.

LooaUtr.

pr.Latitode. Bod.

EUBOPE.

Archangel .
Petersburgh
Stockholm .
ITpsal . .
Stromness .
Edinburgh .
Moscow . .
Copenhagen
Amsterdam .
Warsaw . .
London . .
Dresden . .
Gosport . .
Penzance .
Munich . .
Paris . . .
Vienna . .
Pesth . .
Montpellier

Asia.

Yakoutzk .
Irkutzk . .
Nertschinsk
Orenburg .
Astrachan .

N.Ameeica.

Quebec . .
Montreal
Rochester .
Toronto . .
Cambridge,
(Boston)
New York .
Philadelphia
Cincinnati .
Washington
St. Louis

HazmaL

DSO. XIN.

64.32
59.50
59.21
59.00
58.59
55.58
55.45
55.41
52.23
52. 13
51 .30
51.03
50.47
50.07
48.80
48.50
48. 13
47.29
43.36

62.01
52. 19
51 .18
50.45
46.21

DBS. Mm. DKo. xnc.

33.53
39.60
42.27
42.54
46.54
47.15
40.00
46.56
49.86
44.15
50 . 83 •

49.10
51.82
49.63
48.38
51.31
51 .03
47.48
59.51

13.43
32.62
24.17
35.00
50.05

46 .48 41 . 85
45 . 31 I 42 . 35

43.08
43.40

42.25
40.00
39.57
39.06
38.57
38.36

44.36
44.81

48. 61
51 .58
50.78
53.81
56.89
55.16

25 . 00«I

30.50

31.00

32.00

35.00

39.00

39.50

40.50

41 .00

44.00

44.50

45.00

46.00

51 .50

27.00
39.00
39.50
41 .00
47.00

47.00
49.00
52.00
52.00

52.00
55.50
57.56
58.00
58.50
58.56

Ufferaios.

8.53

9.10
11.77
11 .54
14.54
12. 15

5.00
11.56
10.86

5.15
11.83

9.60
11.32

8.65

4
6
6
1

38
81
03
48

8.01

■13 . 57
•6.38
■15 , 33
•6.00
3.00

6. 15
6. 65
7.64
7.19

3
3
6
4

39
92
72
19

1 .61
3.34

DBO. xnr.

9.43
18.66
26.24
23.76
39 . 35
38.45
15.20
31 .31
35.63
25.20
39.50
32.06
40.97
44.23
32.50
37.85
31 .95
27.69
44.23

36 . 37
0.90

16 . 83
4.33

19.17

14. 15
17.79
26.50
25.43

27.34
30. 12
30.07
31 .93
37.76
32.57

oxo. -rnxs,

57 . 85

61. 6S
60.43
59. 17
54.42
57. 17
63.97

62. 70
64.39
64.60
62.93
66.00
62.74
60.91

63. 65
64.58
69.40
65. 78
75.95

61.72
61.50
61 .10
63.99
75.94

68.08
71.40
67.19
64.63

70.15
70.93
71.36
73.20
76.74
75.27

' These figures must only be regarded as approximations to the truth.

I.] Effects of Winter Temperatures on Vegetation. 19

Climates^ then, may be divided into equable and excessive,
according to the degree in which the mean temperature of
the summer and winter differs from that of the entire year ;
and with reference to the growth of vegetables, far more
importance must be attached to the heat prevailing during
summer than to the mean temperature of the climate col-
lectively taken.

Thus, as will be more fully explained in a subsequent lec-
ture^ even in Russia and Siberia fine crops of wheat and
other kinds of corn are obtained, because the summer tem-
perature rises to the requisite point for ripening the seed,
whilst in the north of Scotland, the Orkneys, and the Faroe
Islands, although the mean temperature of the year is higher,
these crops do not succeed.

It may be doubted, however, whether even the mean tem-
perature of the summer season affords a sufficient clue to all
the variations in the character of the vegetation which are
attributable to heat. A plant is not like a spring, which is
pushed forwards a certain number of degrees by the appli-
cation of a definite force, and when that pressure is removed,
returns again to its original position ; for when the stimu-
lus of heat is applied to it, its organs undergo a degree
of development, which they retain even although the tem-
perature should afterwards be reduced. Hence it is neces-
sary to note the extremes of temperature to which a country
is liable, as well as the mean of its summer and winter
climate.

Sbould it happen, for instance, that the cold in a low or
sub-tropical latitude ever approaches even for a single night
to the «ero of Fahrenheit, certain trees, such as the Orange,
would infallibly perish ; and hence they can never be indi-
genous in countries subject to such contingencies.

The general climate of the British Isles is so exceptionally
mild, that we have introduced the plants of warmef regions
generally into cultivation, and begun to consider them as in
a manner naturalized; but that they are not so, and could
never have established themselves in the soil without the aid
of man, became evident from the effects of the rigorous winter
of 1860-61, — one of those seasons of unusual severity which,

20 Severe Seasom in England. [i^bct.

however, are sure to recur within a certain cycle of years, and
to entail the destruction of all those denizens of a more tem-
perate climate, which, rashly presuming upon the mildness
of many preceding winters, had begun to regard this as
their home.

In the season to which I allude the thermometer fell in
Cambridgeshire to — 15® below zero ; in several of the mid-
land counties to — 12° ; in Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire
to — 2° ; and even at Dawlish to the unusual point of 8**
of Fahrenheit.

No winter at all approaching this in point of severity
occurred in England since that of 1837-8, when the thermo*
meter at Walton, near Claremont, is quoted at — 14°; at
Bicton, in Devonshire, at 18°; and at Binstead, in the Isle
ofWight, atl5°ofFahr.

In that year the temperature in Cambridgeshire is stated
to have been — 3° ; at Chiswick, — 4° ; in Norfolk, — 3° ;
and in Surrey as low as — 14°.

These occasional invasions of extreme cold tend, of course,
to curtail the number of trees and shrubs which can be in-
troduced from more southern latitudes, even though capable
of enduring without injury the ordinary severity of an Eng-
lish winter.

But the destruction of tender evergreens and other plants
on the late occasion seems to have been out of proportion
to the difference between the cold in this and in former
severe seasons. In both cases, indeed, the Laurels of all
kinds — Arbutus unedo, Photinias, Edwarddaa; Pinus longifolia,
insignia, halepensis, and others, were killed to the ground;
but in the instance alluded to we had to deplore in many
of our midland counties the probable loss of the Deadaras,
which we had flattered ourselves would have been a perma-
nent accession to British timber-trees, and of several which
had lived for many years past in the Oxford Botanic Garden,
such as the Judas-tree, the Arbutus Andrachne, &c.

It was the peculiar severity of a few days in this winter,
rather than the greater coldness of the year itself as com-
pared to others, that caused this destruction of the cultivated
plants in our gardens and pleasure-grounds, for the mean

I.] Causes affecting Temperature. 21

temperature of 1860-1 appears to have been only 3° 13' below
the average ; although if we reckoned that part of the winter
came into the next year, the rigour of the season would be
set down as somewhat greater.

TTnusual, however, as the cold in 1860 and 1837 was
for the British Isles, it never reached the point ordi-
narily arrived at in much lower latitudes of America, for
20** below zero is not unfrequent in Pennsylvania and New
Jersey, places where the thermometer rises in summer to
100° and even 110° of Fahrenheit in the shade.

Hence we can understand the absence of our conmion
evergreens, and even of the comparatively hardy Ivy, which
strikes us at first with so much astonishment in the midland
states of North America; in latitudes, that is, where the
Maize flourishes, and where an almost tropical heat is felt
during a portion of the year.

On the other hand, a hardy plant like the Vine seldom
succeeds in England ; but whenever it meets with a certain
number of days of sunshine of an intensity sufficient to ma-
ture its fruit, the vintage will be good, not only if the winter
be cooler, but even though the mean temperature of the year
be lower than is the case in England. Thus the grapes at
Astrachan are said to be delicious, and yet the mean winter
temperature is 19°, and that of the year 50°, which is 1°
lower than that of London.

Now the differences in climate, which have just been
pointed out, may be referred to two sets of causes, the first
of which are general, the latter local.

The general causes which affect temperature are, the re-
lative distribution of sea and land ; the proximity to an ex-
tensive tract of continent, or to a wide expanse of ocean ;
the shelter afforded by forests, or hills of moderate eleva-
tion ; and the chilling influence of a chain of mountains suf-
ficiently lofty to retain the winter snow during the greater
part of the year, or to give rise to glaciers which may invade
the neigjibouring valleys.

In order to understand how these circumstances affect
climate, it will be necessary to consider the different man-

22 Operation of Solar Seat upoti Land. [lbct.

ner in which the solar rays operate upon the surface of land
and of water, first in tropical, and secondly in arctic regions.

Now it is evident, that wherever the snn strikes so directly
upon the earth as to produce a powerful effect, the surface soil
will get hotter and hotter as the day advances, owing to the
absorption of the solar rays, and the slow transmission down-
wards of the heat thus generated, by materials so deficient in
conducting power as those of which the crust of the earth is
for the most part composed.

So feeble, indeed, is the conducting power of the ground
upon which we tread, that in Siberia, in places where the
heat in summer rises sometimes to 90^ and upwards of
Fahrenheit, the soil remains frozen throughout the year to
a depth, according to Middendorff, of more than 380 ft., for
at Yakutzk, in latitude 62° 2', the temperature, which at 50 ft.
from the surface was about 17° of Fahrenheit, had only
risen to 26° 6' at the above depth ^,

And yet even here there can be no doubt, that at a still
lower point a high temperature is attained ; and that this
augmentation goes on in all parts of the globe at a certain
definite rate down to the lowest point to which man has ever
penetrated, — arising, as is supposed, from the internal heat of
the globe.

Accordingly, if we set aside the cold produced by the
evaporation of moisture from the surface, as well as the
heat abstracted from the ground by the stratum of air
which immediately touches it, and which, as it becomes
heated, expands, and rising gives place to another and
a colder portion ; we shall see reason to attribute the cooling
of the solid portion of the crust of the globe mainly to radia-
tion from its surface upwards towards the sky.

Now as the interchange of heat between two bodies by
radiation depends upon the relative temperature which they
respectively possess, the earth, by the rays transmitted from
the sun during the day, must be continually gaining an
accession of heat, which would be far from being counter-
balanced by the opposite effect of its own radiation into
space.

« Homb. Cosm., vol. iv. p. 44.

I-] Operation of Solar Heat on Water, 23

Hence from sun-rise till two or three hours after mid-day,
tlko earth goes on gradually increasing in temperature, the
a.TLgmentation being greatest, where the surface consists of
Tn.£tterials calculated from their colour and texture to absorb
Keat, and where it is deficient in moisture, which by its
e^vaporation would have a tendency to diminish it.

In regions where the sun's rays are powerful, and the
a.'tmosphere sufficiently transparent to allow of their ready
tiransmission, the propinquity of hills of moderate elevation
may even augment the temperature of the lower levels, by
radiating heat downwards upon them, if their own surface
l>e black and of an absorbent texture, or by reflecting it,
if they be of a lighter colour and of a more glistening
character.

These effects will, however, be counteracted by the radia-
tion into space of heat from the ground, which continues
uncompensated by that from the sun, after darkness has
set in.

If, indeed, the sky be overcast, there will be some return
of caloric by counter-radiation from the clouds ; but when
the atmosphere is clear and transparent, the heat transmitted
from the surface into space during the night may produce
a great reduction of temperature, sufficient indeed in some .
cases to cause water even in tropical latitudes to congeal.
Inde^, it is from this cause that ice is procurable in Bengal,
by exposing water in shallow earthen pans to the night air.

But to this part of the subject we shall return in the next
lecture.

Far different is the influence of solar heat upon the sur-
face of water in corresponding latitudes. Although the
radiating properties of the fluid are inferior to those of the
solid portion of the globe, the power of distributing heat
belonging to the former is nevertheless greater, for whilst
a part of the rays which impinge upon the surface of water
is reflected, another portion is transmitted downwards through
the body of the fluid, and becomes gradually absorbed in its
passage through it.

Now the heat absorbed by a fluid increases the rate of its
evaporation, and the latter process reduces the sensible, by

24 Operation of Solar Meat in Arctic Regions. [lect.

increasing liie amount of latent heat whicli the hody re-
quires.

Hence every accession of temperature brings with it its
own remedy, by adding to the amount of aqueous vapour dis-
engaged from the surface of the liquid; and, accordingly,
during the day the temperature of the water never rises
much beyond the mean of the climate at the particular
season.

But at night the case is reversed, not only because radia-
tion takes place more slowly from the surface of water than
of land, but also because the former, when cooled, becoming
heavier and sinking, gives place to another portion fix)m
below, so that the temperature at the surface continues
almost unaltered.

Hence it is that islands, and other maritime tracts which
partake of the temperature of the contiguous seas, enjoy an
equable climate, whilst extensive continents at a distance
from large bodies of water possess an excessive one.

And hence, too, it happens, that in warm latitudes, there
is always a cool breeze setting in from the sea during the
day, and the same from the land during the night, for the
latter being hottest by day, produces an upward current of
air, which causes a rushing in of cooler air from the sea to
supply its place ; and for the same reason becoming coldest
after sunset, brings about just the reverse effect daring
the night.

Let us now consider the mode in which the solar rays
affect the surface of the land and of the sea in higher
latitudes.

In summer, of course, the same general difference between
the two with respect to the absorption and emission of heat
will prevail, but wherever a chain of mountains of a cer-
tain elevation exists, the climate will be rendered more rigor-
ous in the valleys and plains below, owing to the interchange
of caloric between the latter and the high ground near, as
well as to the conversion of the sensible heat received by
radiation into a latent form, which is caused by the melt-
ing of the snow and ice covering the slopes and summits
of the hills.

T.] Different effect of Solar Meat upon Land and Water. 25

Thus it is only on extensive plains, at a distance from
snow-capped mountains, that a high range of temperature
can maintain itself even during the day in a northern
latitude. On the other hand, over such level tracts as those
of Russia and Siberia, great heats prevail in summer even
in comparatively northern regions.

Moscow, for instance, in north latitude 55® 48', where the
mean temperature of the coldest month is only 13® of Fahr.,
enjoys in July a heat of 66® 4' ; and at Yakoutzk, a Siberian
town, in latitude 62®, at which the mean temperature of
January is 36® 37' below zero, the thermometer in July rises
to nearly 69® of Fahrenheit.

In islands, on the contrary, situated in northern parallels,
the radiation of heat in summer exerts a much feebler in-
fluence; so that Stromness, in lat. 68® 57', has a summer
temperature of only 64® ; and XJnst, the most northern of the
Shetland Islands, in lat. 60®, one only of 52®.

Hence whilst at Christiana, in lat. 59® 56', fine timber
abounds, and crops of wheat and other grain ripen, inasmuch
as the mean summer temperature rises nearly to 60®, none
but the hardiest kind of barley will grow in the Hebrides,
between the parallels of 56® and 58® ; and the trees are there
reduced to a few of the robuster species, which are both
stunted and uncommon.

In winter, however, the case is reversed. The extreme cold of
extensive continents, such as Bussia and Siberia, is caused in
part by the radiation of heat from their surface during the
long nights of these northern latitudes, and still more through
their participation in the climate of regions more northerly
than themselves, owing to the winds which commonly come
from that quarter in the winter season, and which, bringing
with them the temperature of the Arctic circle, first con-
dense the moisture into snow, and afterwards impart to the
countries they pass over the dry and cutting cold which
characterizes them.

But on the sea the circumstances are different, owing to
a property peculiar to water, which would seem specially
designed as a provision for mitigating the intensity of cold.

This is its arriving at its greatest density, not at the point

26 Different effect of Solar Heat upon La^id and Water, [lect.

at whicli it freezes, but 8° above, so tliat whilst it goes on
progressively contracting in volume down to 40**, it after-
wards again expands, until it falls to tbe temperature
of 32o.

Let us consider bow tbis circumstance affects the cooling
of large bodies of water.

Supposing tbe liquid at the commencement to be at 50° or
60° of Pahr., tbe access of cold from tbe nortb will gradually
abstract its beat, until by tbe sinking of tbe heavier, and
tbe rise of tbe lighter strata of the fluid, all the upper por-
tions are brought down to the standard of 40°.

But when this is effected, no further diminution of tempe-
rature can take place, until tbe whole body of tbe liquid has
sunk to the same level, because the instant it reaches that
point, its greater density causes it to gravitate below the
Ughter and warmer water which Ues beneath it.

Thus supposing the entire ocean in that part to be re-
duced to 41°, it could not be brought below 40® on tbe sur-
face by any degree of cold which might exist in the atmos-
phere above, until the whole body of water had sunk to
that level, because the instant it had reached it, it would
gravitate to the bottom, and be replaced by the warmer
water beneath.

Hence owing to this constant circulation of the lighter and
heavier portions of the water, the whole must attain the tem-
perature of 40° before any ice is formed upon its surface, and
accordingly it is hardly possible, that a deep lake should be
frozen over even by the longest and most intense frost that
can occur.

The effect of this constant circulation throughout all por-
tions of a body of water in mitigating the severity of insular
climates is sufficiently apparent.

The ocean may in fact be regarded as a store-house of
heat, which it dispenses to the air passing over its surface,
thus rendering it impossible that the latter should ever
attain the same extreme degree of cold which it acquires on
a continent.

Hence the equable character of the climate in insular situa-
tions, which has been pointed out as prevailing during the

I.] Possible eamtence of a Polar Sea, 27

Biunmer, holds good also, for the reasons just given, in the
^^nter likewise.

It has even been conjectured, that if a large expanse of
^^^vater existed at either pole, it would continue from this
oause uncongealed, for no sooner had the surface arrived at
40°, than it would gravitate downwards, and be carried by
an under current towards the equator, its place being sup-
plied by the lighter and warmer water of the tropics, which
'would be moving northwards.

This speculation became the more interesting, from the dis-
<5overy, which Dr. Kane the American Arctic navigator, pro-
fessed to have made, of an open polar sea, which arrested the
progress of his exploring party to the north, and which was
surveyed from an elevated point of land called by them
Cape Constitution, which he pronounces to be the highest
northern land, not only of America, but of the globe. As
they approached the coasts of this polar ocean, the ice upon
which they had travelled became rotten, and the snow wet
and pulpy. They found themselves on the shores of a chan-
nel so open, that a frigate, or a fleet of frigates, might have
sailed up it. In every direction, so far as their eye extended,
the waters appeared unencumbered with ice^.

"Without vouching for the truth of this statement, which
has since been disputed, it is possible, that if no tract of
land did exist between 80° of north latitude and the pole,
the temperature would be comparatively mild, and the sea
as navigable as in lower latitudes.

Even betwixt continents, indeed, a difference of climate
exists, which may be best referred to the same circumstances.
Supposing, for instance, one, like America, to be connected
with the polar regions by a continuous belt of land, it would
possess a more rigorous climate than another like Europe,
which is separated from them by a wide expanse of water.
This is one of the causes of the vast difference in this respect
between Great Britain and Labrador, countries placed in
nearly corresponding latitudes.

How far a different distribution of sea and land from the

»» Vol. i. p. 302.

28 Higher Temperature infortner Times. [i,ect.

present might affect the general temperature of the earth's
crust has been a favourite specuLition with geologists, who
in eyery step of their inquiries are met with the startling
fact, that the inhabitants of our former seas, and the tenants
of whatever dry land might have then existed, whether be-
longing to the animal or to the vegetable creation, repre-
sent more nearly the fauna and flora of tropical, or at least
sub-tropical, regions, than those of the more northerly lati-
tudes in which they are so frequently found.

It is impossible, I think, to resist this conclusion; for
although it may be true, that Tree-ferns are met with as low
as New Zealand^ ; that one species of Palm grows in Tas-
mania, and another at a height of 8,000 feet on the Hima-
layas; and although the larger quadrupeds of the tropics
may exist for a time in the colder regions of the north, yet
these must be regarded as stragglers from their normal posi-
tion, not as representatives of the class of plants and animals
appropriate to the country and latitude.

And the broad fact which meets us, whenever we examine
into the records of the creation, as displayed in the organic
remains, animal or vegetable, that have been preserved, is,
that the temperature during the whole of the secondary, and
most of the tertiary epochs, was sufficiently exalted, at least
as far north as latitude 55^^ or 56^, to admit of the growth of
Tree-ferns, Cycadese, Araucarise, gigantic Lycopodiaceae, and
in a few instances even of Palms ; whilst Reptiles of the kinds
that now are confined to the warmer regions of the globe
existed as low down as the chalk, and Coral reefs continued
to be formed down to the commencement of that great
accession of cold, which gave rise to what geologists have
called the Glacial Period.

And this is rendered more striking, when we reflect that
the portion of the globe we inhabit is even now enjoying
a temperature perhaps belonging normally to a latitude 10°
lower, so that it is not difficult to understand that changes

* Hooker states that the most sonthem latitude in which Tree-ferxui have
been foond is in the north of New Zealand, south latitude 44*. Phillips, how-
ever, mentions Aapidium arboreum in 52° 5', as well as the AlsophUa

,in New Zealand. A.

nLu/jC^*^ H ^^ ^^^ Diemen's Land, and the CyQihe<3LJ>%clc9<>ni^

!•] LyelVs Theory considered. 29

in the distribution of sea and land might have brought about
the excessive cold which appears to have prevailed just be-
fore man came into existence.

Sir Charles Lyell has suggested, that the most favourable
condition for diffiising throughout the globe a genial tem-
perature, would be that, in which all the principal tracts of
land were collected within the tropics, and all the water in
more northern and southern latitudes, as the soil heated by
the solar rays would communicate its warmth to the sur-
rounding waters, and thus produce a northerly and south-
erly current, which would modify very materially the climate
of the Arctic regions, whilst the latter, consisting of water,
would, for the reasons above stated, undergo a less degree
of refrigeration than at present.

This theory is developed by the author with his usual
ability, but it may be questioned, whether it be not beset
with unnecessary difficulties, owing to his adherence to his
favourite principle of uni/ormitarianism, or, in other words,
his reluctance to admit, that any progression can be traced
in the order of physical events from the earliest to the most
modern condition of our planet.

And yet the doctrine of Darwin, which he now espouses,
would seem more in harmony with such a notion, if even it
does not imply it, than that of the reversion of the earth's
surface to its status quo, after the fulfilment of a certain cycle
of revolutions ; for if the globe had been equally fitted for the
abode of man and the higher Mammalia from the earliest
period known to us, as it is at the present time, one does not
understand why such classes of animals should have been
absent, and if they did exist, what then becomes of the theory
which supposes the gradual evolution of more complex from
more simple organisms, of man from the monad P

Sir Charles Lyell has been accused, most unjustly, of
maintaining that the world never had a beginning, but
this erroneous impression of his meaning has arisen, &om
his contending, that geology has never yet mounted far
enough into the records of creation to be able to find traces
of its dawn, or, in other words, that from the earliest to the
latest of the deposits, which .compose the crust we recognise /

30 Objections to LyelPs Theory, [^lect.

only a series of alternating movements, of elevations of land
in one region , and of depressions in another ; so that in the
course of an indefinite number of ages each portion of the
globe will have been subjected at one time or another to the
same internal commotions, occasioning the same amount of
external change.

Now if this view be correct, one does not see, why periods
of intense cold should not have been intercalated at many
different epochs between those of high temperature, which
the organic remains preserved in the rocks appear to indi-
cate, and why evidences of glacial action anterior to the
post-pliocene epoch should not have been traced repeatedly.

One such event, indeed, has been pointed out to us by Pro-
fessor Ramsey, who contends, that towards the close of the
palaeozoic period a glacial sea was spread around several of
the islands which occupied the place of what now con-
stitutes our British and Scottish mountains, and that the
remarkable conglomerate rock found in the Malvern and
Abberley Hills, now pronounced to be of permean origin, is
due to the floating of icebergs along the sea which washed
the Langwyd, Abberley, and Malvern Hills.

Granting, however, the correctness of this deduction, it
still remains to be explained why, if the sources of heat in
former periods did not possess more intensity than at pre-
sent, the local circumstances should have been, in so much
the greater number of instances, more favourable to their
operation than is the case under existing conditions.

It seems indeed contrary to all probability, that the very
arrangement of sea and land, most favourable to the produc-
tion of warmth, should have existed almost universally, till
the commencement of the glacial epoch, which represents
nearly the most modem date in our geological calendar.

But what would be the temperature of the entire globe, if
it had been uniformly covered with sea, so that the flow of
its warm currents proceeded continually from the equator
towards the poles without let or hindrance from the in-
terposition of continents, and that at a time when, owing to
the absence of land, no such radiation of heat into space
occurred, as takes place from continents at present P

I.] Former Preponderance of Water over Land^ 31

Without pretending to calculate what the precise tem-
perature in each parallel would be under such circumstances,
as we have probably not sufficient data for determining this
with exactness, it may at least be affirmed, that the climate
everywhere would be much more uniform, and that even in
the polar regions it would nowhere at the surface sink
to the freezing point of water ; nor would the case be ma-
terially altered, even when large islands started up in the
midst of the abyss, provided the latter were not numerous
enough to oppose a barrier to the circulation of the aqueous
currents, and also presented no lofty chains of moimtains to
serve as centres of refrigerating influence.

It may be remarked, that the plants that have principally
left their traces in the coal formation, namely the Ferns,
LycopodiaceaD, and the like, are such as abound principally
on islands, and delight in an equable and humid, rather than
in a scorching and sultry atmosphere. Even the Tree-ferns
of the tropics thrive principally in the midst of deep forests,
protected at once from drought and from excessive heat.

If therefore we suppose the globe to have been at that
time covered with water, with only some islands occasionally
protruding above it, it is conceivable, that the temperature
even in these latitudes might have been exalted enough for
tke plants that have left their vestiges in the coal.

Now this gradual emergence of the land above the waters
is rendered probable, not only from considering the nature of
the plants and animals which came successively into being,
but also from the character of the rocks themselves which
predominated at each successive period.

With regard to the former, it may be remarked, that at
the earliest epoch of which we find any traces, namely the
palaeozoic, fish and marine productions alone existed ; at
one somewhat later, during the carboniferous, reptiles were
the only animals that peopled the land ; whilst mammals of
a low order first appeared in the oolite, and went on gra-
dually increasing in number and in variety in proportion as
the most recent period was approached.

And with reference to the rocks themselves, it seems un-
questionable, that all those of igneous formation which have

33 The Vokanos chiefly submarine, [lect. i.

been obsenred intruding tbemselves into the strata, appear to
be submarine, for although it may be said, that all traces, of
craters^ of cones of scorise, and eyen of streams of lava, might
have been obliterated by the series of catastrophes that had
since occurred, yet vestiges of the description of rocks which
had constituted them would nevertheless present themselves,
if volcanos had at that period broken out frequently upon
dry land.

Their debris, even if washed into the contiguous seas,
and covered over with neptunian deposits, would have re-
tained their vitreous and porous character — they would have
partaken often of the structure belonging to obsidian and
pumice, which indicates sudden cooling; whereas the ig-
neous rocks we observe in the older formations, if cellular,
have their interstices filled by crystaline matter, and possess
when compact that lithoid aspect which is so generally
absent from lavas erupted in the open air^.

Thus, whether we consider the nature of the rocks them-
selves, or that of the organic beings that existed upon their
face, we are alike led to the conclusion^ that the globe was
at first covered with water, — that, next, only a few low islands
gradually emerged from the abyss, suitable for the abode of
reptiles and other of the lower animals, — that these gradually
increased in number, and became more elevated in position —
but that until a later period no such extensive continents or
such lofty chains of mountains existed, as would be sufficient
to bring about that degree of cold which belongs to the
higher latitudes of the globe at present.

This low temperature, since the introduction of man upon
our planet, has been mitigated by causes already pointed
out in this lecture, but it is quite conceivable that, supposing
a different disposition of land and sea to have existed ante-
cedently, a climate might have prevailed in these regions as
severe as that of Siberia, and therefore corresponding to
what we find traces of during the so-called Glacial Period.

^ See my "Description of Active and Extinct Volcanos," 2nd Edit., 1848;
especially chap. xl. p. 669, &c.

LECTURE II.

•*^

liocal influences affecting temperature — the Gulf-stream increasing the
i??armth of the West of Europe — ^the Antarctic current increasing the cold of
the Southern Hemisphere. Cause of the greater coldness of mountainous re-
gions. Line of perpetual congelation. Temperature of the soil differs from
that of the atmosphere — ^its influence on vegetation. Geothermal culture — in-
stance of its advantages. Influence of solar light as distinct from solar heat.
Instruments for measuring it. Humidity of a climate. Instruments for esti-
mating it. Productive of three classes of phenomena : first, Fogs, mists, and
clouds — nature of vesicular vapour ; second. Rain and Snow — causes producing
them — ^why rain does not fall in certain countries ; third. Dew — theory of its
formation. Winds. General laws affecting the aerial currents — arising from the
difference in the temperature of different zones — coupled with the effect of the
earth's rotation. Hence the Trade Winds. Why calms exist near the equator.
Monsoons, typhoons, and hurricanes — ^their vorticose and progressive movement.
Winds in temperate regions more variahle and less violent, hut apparently suh-
ject to the same laws — ^Admiral Fitzroy's method of forecasting their arrival.
Influence of winds on vegetables. The Simoom. Pressure of the atmosphere
varies in proportion to the elevation — hence the latter may be estimated by
the barometer. The pocket aneroid, the most convenient and portable instru-
ment for estimating heights in travelling. Pressure of the atmosphere de-
pendent on height. Indications afforded by the barometer. Electrical state
of the atmosphere during rains — ^hail dependent on the same cause — its effects
on plants and animals. Ozone — ^how its presence is detected — ^its probable
nature — its existence in certidn states of the atmosphere — and the inferences
to be deduced from its presence.

In my former Lecture I considered the general causes
which influence climate, namely, the proximity to the sea,
the existence of high mountains, the radiation from a large
surface of sandy desert, and the like.

I shall now point out to you certain causes of a more local
kind which affect the temperature of particular parts of the
globe, and shall begin with one which seems to be chiefly
instrumental in bringing about that mild and equable cha-
racter of the seasons for which this spot, in common with
most parts of the western coasts of Great Britain and Ire-
land, is celebrated.

34 Influence of the Gulf-stream. [lect.

I allude to the Gulf-stream, a branch of the great equa-
torial current, which, as will be explained when speaking of
the trade winds, is constantly circulating round the globe
from north-east to south-west above the equator, and from
south-east to north-west below it.

This tendency of the waters of the ocean to the west, pro-
duced, as is supposed, by the influence of the trade winds, is
interrupted owing to the barrier opposed by the American
continent, and hence the north-easterly current is deflected
by the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and compelled to flow
through the strait intervening between the southern part of
Florida and the West India Islands, from whence it emerges
into the open sea.

Here it is first known as the Gulf- stream, and under
this name flows across the Atlantic in a diagonal direction,
so as to impinge upon the great bank of Newfoundland,
where it is recognised by the higher temperature it im-
parts to its waters in comparison with those of the sur-
rounding ocean.

It then travels eastward to the coasts of Europe, and
produces a very sensible efiect upon the climate of Great
Britain, and even of Norway, contributing mainly to bring
about that remarkable difference which has been already
noticed in my last Lecture, as existing between the temper-
ature of regions so nearly corresponding in point of latitude
as Devonshire and Labrador.

Its influence is felt even more powerfully in Cornwall,
especially at Falmouth and Penzance, admitting in both
places the growth of plants of too tender a nature to stand
the winter even in the most favoured spots in Devonshire,
and rendering the latter locality famous for the early growth
of vegetables intended to supply the London markets.

It is to the Scilly Islands, however, that we must look for
what is due to the unmixed influence of the Gulf-stream,
lying, as they do, so detached from the mainland, as to be
but little affected by its temperature.

Trees, indeed, are scarcely found on these islands, owing
to the boisterous winds that prevail ; but in spots protected
from their violence, shrubs and herbaceous plants grow with

1 1. 3 Antarctic current in the Southern Hemisphere. 35

the utmost luxuriance, and evince by their nature the extra-
ordinary mildness of the climate *.

The Gulf-stream when issuing from the straits of Florida
has an average velocity of four miles an hour, and a tempe-
rature of 86** Fahr. In the parallel of 42** or 43° it ranges
still between 76° to 79% and there by its genial warmth
favours the rapid growth of that species of sea- weed called
the Sargasso; or Gulf- weed, which covers vast tracts of sea
in those latitudes.

Even on our own coasts, though its temperature is much
reduced, it produces those warm vapours which moderate the
rigour of our winters, and sometimes indicates its presence
by conveying to us tropical plants, as well as multitudes of
sharks, which is reported to have been the case during the
last season.

I will next point out to you an oceanic current which
seems to operate upon other parts of the globe in quite the
reverse manner to the Gulf-stream.

Callao, on the western coast of South America, is situated
in the 12th parallel of south latitude, whilst Rio Janeiro, on
the eastern coast, is in the 23rd. Yet the former has a
mean temperature of only 68° 9' of Fahr. (20 cent.), whilst
the latter has one of 73° 76', (23° 260. In like manner the
Falkland Islands, in south lat. 52°, have a mean temperature
of 46° 83', (8° 24' cent.) ; and Port Famine on the coast of
Magellan, in south lat. 53°, one of 41° 5', (5° 3') ; whUst
the Faroe Islands, in north lat. 62°, have a temperature
of 45° Fahr., (7° 1') ; and Dublin, in north lat. 53°, one of
49° 3', (9° 6').

Now the lower temperature of the shores of the southern
hemisphere, as compared with the northern, seems to be
owing to the influx of the waters of the Antarctic Ocean,
unmitigated by any such genial current as the Gulf-stream.
A cold stream flowing from the Polar seas reaches even the
latitude in which Callao is situated, before it takes a west-
erly direction, and acquires the temperature of the general
body of the Pacific.

* See Appendix.

36 Differences in Climate due to Elevation. [lect.

Obtaining, however, by degrees a heat of 80*» or 82° of
Fahr., it flows into the Indian Ocean, and a portion reach-
ing the eastern coast of Japan, imparts to those islands
a more genial climate than belongs to their position on
the globe.

Thus far I have confined myself to the question, how far
the temperature of different localities is affected by their
position, without reference to their respective height.

Let us now briefly inquire into the differences in. that
respect which are produced by a high or low elevation.

We are all familiar with the fact, that the air of mountains
is cooler and fresher than that of the plains below, and that
every addition to the height above the level of the sea brings
with it a corresponding reduction in the temperature of the
place itself. Hence in all latitudes, even indeed at the
equator, there is a certain point at which perpetual snow
prevails, the sun's rays being never powerful enough to
maintain the highly rarefied air which exists at such an
elevation above the point at which water congeals. In-
deed, if other causes did not interfere, we might estimate
the relative height of two places by simply noticing the
difference of temperature subsisting between the two.

The late balloon ascents of Mr. Glaisher, of which he gave
us an account the other day, seem, however, to shew that we
have still much to learn on this subject ; for it would appear
from his statement, that the law of decrease of temperature
does not go on with any regularity in the upper regions of
the atmosphere; the fall in the thermometer for the first
5,000 ft. being no less that 20° of Fahr. ; sinking to 10° be-
tween 5,000 and 10,000 ft. ; from thence to 15,000 ft. being
only 7** ; and lastly, from 15,000 to 25,000 ft. only 2i*» ; after
which the temperature sunk 9° between 25,000 and 30,000 ft.,
the highest point attained by this aeronaut.

Further observations, therefore, are necessary to reconcile
these anomalies with the received opinions on this subject.
They arise, no doubt, from the intermixture in the higher
regions of the atmosphere of aerial currents of different
temperatures, by which we may account for the fall of hail

II.] Temperature of the Soil, 37

in summer^ and for its occurrence even in more southern
latitudes where frost is altogether unknown.

I know of no other assignable cause for the greater cold-
ness of rarefied air, than the increased capacity for heat which
the latter acquires in proportion to its expansion.

TJpon the atmosphere, indeed, the solar rays will fail to
produce their full effect, because they are only in part ab-
sorbed in their passage through it to the earth ; but although
this circumstance may account for the cold experienced in
motmting into the higher regions of the atmosphere, it leaves
it still for us to inquire, why an equal amount of solar light
does not warm the surface of an elevated table-land, in the
same degree as it will do a tract situated near the sea's level,
such as the great plains of Egypt or Arabia. Be that, how-
ever, as it may, it cannot be denied, that the climate of a
country, so far as regards temperature, greatly depends
upon its physical elevation ; and that although hills of
moderate height in a warm latitude may even enhance the
temperature of the adjacent plains, both by radiating heat
down upon them during the day, and by obstructing its
free passage upwards during the night, yet the proximity
of moimtains, lofty enough to be covered with snow during
the summer months, will tend very much to depress it ; just
as a ball of ice placed in the focus of a metallic reflector
causes a thermometer, situated in the focus of another mirror
opposite to it, to sink rapidly.

But another element in the consideration of climate, as con-
cerns the vegetable kingdom, is the temperature of the soil.

This is by no means uniformly the same as that of the
external air, for we find the earth to be heated, at least for
short periods of time, to a much higher point than the at-
mosphere above, so that at the Cape of Good Hope Sir John
Herschel observed, that on the same day on which his
thermometer in the shade ranged from 92° to 98°, the soil
of his garden caused it to mount up to 150° and 159°, and
even in shaded spots as high as 119°. Even at 5 p.m. the
temperature of the soil, similarly circumstanced, was as high
as 102°.

Temperature of the Soil^

[lbct.

In other countries temperatures as mucli exceeding that
of the air as these noticed are recorded, and the following
are a few of the statements giiren, with respect to the tem-
perature obserred immediately beneath the earth's sarface,
in different parts of the globe : —

Ooontiy.

Tlempentore.

Authority.

Tropics, often •

126— 134«.

Humboldt.

Egypt. .

• •

133— 144«.

Edwards and Colin

Oronoco,

(air

in white sand 140*'.

Humboldt.

being 84'

'6')

Chili . .

• •

113 — 118", among dry
grass.

BouBsingault.

Cape of

Good

IdO*', under the soil of a

Herschel.

Hope .

• •

bulb garden.

Bermuda .

• •

1 42'', thermometer barely

Emmet.

coTcred in earth.

•

China

■ •

water of the fields 113%
adjacent sand much
higher, blackened sides
of the boat at mid-day
142— 150^

Meyer.

France

> •

118—1220, and in one
instance 127°.

Arago.

The above, however, I presume, applies to places where
the intensity of solar radiation is very intense ; for whilst
in India the difference of temperature between the earth
and the air is always in favour of the former to the extent
of 8** in summer, and about 3** in winter, in England it
would appear that at Chiswick it did not exceed 2®, the
earth being so much warmer than the air in autumn and
winter, and nearly as much colder in May, June, and July ;
whilst in March and April the two nearly corresponded.
And in accordance with the above results, the following
table shews the mean monthly temperature at Chiswick, as
indicated by a thermometer the bulb of which was plunged
24 ft. below the soil during the year 1857.

Assuming the mean temperature in London to be 50° 83',

Ji.] Influence of the Temperature of the Soil upon Plants. 39

tlie diflference between the warmth of the ground and of the
air in each month is represented by the signs — or + pre-
fixed to the figures : •

Temperature or the Soil at London as compared to

THAT OF THE AlR, THE LATTER ASSUMED TO BE 50 . 83.
1867.

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

DEG. MIN.

DEO. MIN.

51 . 05 .

. + . 22

50 . 26 .

. — . 57

49 . 37 .

. — 1 . 46

48 . 65 .

. —2.18

48 . 24 .

— 2.59

48 . 23 .

— 2.60

48 . 72 .

. —2.11

49 . 64 .

. —1.19

50. 68 .

. —0.15

51 . 69 .

. + . 86

52 . 29 .

. + 1 . 46

52.31 .

. + 1 . 48

The importance of this to vegetation may be estimated by
the following considerations.

It is known that every plant requires a certain amount of
heat, varying in the case of each species, for the renewal of
its growth at the commencement of the season.

Now when this degree of heat has spurred into activity
those parts that are above ground, and caused them ^ to ela-
borate the sap, it is necessary that the subterranean portions
should at the same time be excited by the heat of the ground
to absorb the materials which are to supply the plant with
nourishment. Unless the latter function is provided for, the
aerial portions of the plant will languish from want of food
to assimilate. Indeed, it is even advisable that the roots
should take the start of the leaves, in order to have in readi-
ness a store of food for the latter to draw upon ^.

^ That the roots are not merely passive agents, I have shewn in my paper
in the Journal of the Chemical Society, vol. xiv.; and their importance in
elaborating the materials for the development of the aerial portions of the
plant has been insisted upon in Liebig's late work, entitled " The Natural Laws
of Husbandry."

40 Geothermal Culture, [lect.

The practical importance of maintaining the soil at a
higher temperature than the air^ has been lately pointed out
by a French naturalist, M. Naudin^ who gives instances, in
which the mere passage of spring water firom a neighbouring
rock through the bottom of a conservatory communicated
heat enough to maintain its temperature above the freezing
point, without the assistance of any artificial heat.

The object may, however, be effected more completely by
means of flues heated at certain periods, and by affording
protection to the plants in winter by matting, tarpaulin^ &c.,
which latter will also contribute to preserve the stem and
branches from the effects of the winter's frosts.

In the " Gardener's Chronicle" for Feb. 16, 1861, Lindley
corroborates these statements of M. Naudin. '^ The mere
protection," he says^ ''afforded by a glass frame will tend to
keep up this bottom heat, for although it be true that glass
radiates heat more quickly than textile fabrics, and con-
sequently will tend in this way to lower the temperature of
the ground, yet if the soil be merely excavated to the depth,
of six or eight feet, and glass be placed over it on a level
with the surface of the ground, a thermometer suspended
below the glass would not fall below freezing during the
frosts of ordinary winters, and probably not even in one as
intense as that we had in 1860. The heat which maintains
a comparatively high temperature below the glass, can in
this case only be derived from the natural warmth of the
earth."

Indeed, it has been found, that many half-hardy plants
might be kept alive by merely passing flues through the
soil in an open border, so as to impart to their roots an arti-
ficial temperature, even though the plants themselves were
unprotected by any glass at all. This method, which goes
by the name of Geothermal culture, although suggested by
Dr. Lindley in his work on Horticulture as long ago as
1855, does not appear to have been as yet put into practice
to the extent which it deserves.

It is on this principle that Cape Bulbs thrive so much
better in their own native soil th^ in stoves, for though it
may be easy to raise the temperature of the air to any given

11.^ Influence of Solar Radiation. 41

point, it is not equally practicable to maintain the soil at
the high degree of heat, which it attains, as we have seen^ in
the places where they are indigenous.

A remarkable instance of successful geothermal culture has
been afforded by a Brazilian climber called the Bougainvillea
speciosa, which was first made to flower freely in England
by Mr. Keene's gardener at Swyncombe House, near Henley,
in Oxfordshire, owing to his bringing the roots of the plant
into close proximity with the flue of the stove, and thus
obtaining a bottom heat almost sufficient to bake the soil in
which they were placed.

This plant, from its numerous and graceful festoons of
flowers, or rather bracteae, like those of the female hop, but
of a rich colour, in which crimson, violet, and purple are
exquisitely blended, presented a most gorgeous spectacle,
and excited great admiration in Oxford at a flower-show in
1861, where it was for the first time exhibited.

It has flowered in the same conservatory for three suc-
cessive years, its blossoms first making their appearance in
January, and continuing in the greatest exuberance till May
or June °.

But two countries may be very differently circumstanced
as to climate, even though enjoying the same temperature,
according to the amount of solar light which they respec-
tively receive.

It is even conceivable, that the country least favoured in
the former respect may be the most sultry, because the
clouds, when they intercept the solar beams, contribute to
the warmth received by the earth, by reflecting back the
heat which the latter would lose by radiation.

Thus an Alpine valley in the summer season may be sub-
jected to a heat more oppressive than a level plain con-
tiguous, although it experience a less amount of light ; and
possibly the different influence it exerts upon plants and
animals may be dependent upon this circumstance.

It is therefore important to have instruments for mea-

* Another species, B. glabra, also a beautiful plant, does not require bottom
heat, and may be made to flower probably in any greenhouse.

42 Humidity of a Clitnate considered. [legt.

Buring the force of solar radiation^ as distinct from tlie mere
temperature of the place as observed in the shade^ and for
this purpose we employ a thermometer with a blackened
bulb to absorb the sun's rays, which should be enclosed in
a glass tube from which the air has been expelled, in order
that the heat absorbed by the bulb may not be carried off
by the currents of air which would otherwise come into con-
tact with it.

By an instrument of this kind I have ascertained, that
even in the present wintry month of February the direct
solar radiation often raises the temperature to 85°, and even
sometimes as high as lOS"" of Fahrenheit.

A more exact instrument, however, for this purpose is
Sir John HerscheFs actinometer, in which the amount of
solar heat is determined by a coloured liquid inclosed in
a wide tube, exposed to the direct rays of the sun for a
certain definite space of time, as for one minute in each
instance, the dilatation being estimated by the rise of the
liquid into a narrow tube connected with the wider one
below, when the contents of the latter are expanded by the
heat.

Having now considered the most important element of
Climate, namely Temperature, in its various relations to the
Latitude, Position, and Elevation of the country, I shall next
proceed to discuss the other atmospheric influences which
affect the condition of plants and animals.

Of these, there can be no doubt, that the one most indis-
pensable to vegetation is the amount of moisture which the
air is capable of dispensing to the ground, and that this must
be dependent ccet, par. upon the quantity present in it, or on
its approach to a state of saturation. Kow the latter is de-
termined by the instruments called hygrometers, of which
there is a great variety, although in constructing them
the only two principles which cwi be regarded as correct,
are, either that proposed by Danielle in which the amount
of moisture is estimated by the temperature at which dew
begins to be deposited, or that adopted in the apparatus
which goes by the name of Mason's Hvgrometer, in which

II.] Instruments for Measuring Humidity. 43

the same result is arrived at by observing the difference
between two exactly similar thermometers, the one with
a dry bulb, the other with one kept constantly moistened,
as a means of estimating the rapidity with which water
evaporates, which c<Bt. par. will be in proportion to the dry-
ness of the atmosphere at the time being.

In the instrument invented by Daniell we obtain the dew-
point directly, by lowering the temperature of the blackened
bulb, by means of ether applied to the opposite one, which is
covered with muslin ; in that of Mason, we are enabled to
arrive at the same result indirectly, without the inconvenience
of employing ether, by simply comparing the temperature
of the dry bulb of the instrument with that of the moistured
one beside it.

In either case, we acquire the data for estimating the fol-
lowing particulars : —

1. The elastic force of the aqueous vapour contained in
the air.

2. The weight of vapour present in a cubic foot of the air.

3. The weight of vapour required for saturating the same
volume.

4. The degree of humidity a« compared with complete
saturation, which latter is expressed as 1,000.

5. The weight in grains of a cubic foot of air at each
reading of the barometer.

All these results are given numerically in Mr. Glaisher's
excellent Hygrometrical Tables, published in 1847, and in
a more compendious form in Drew's "Practical Meteorology,"
London, 1855.

Thus let us suppose that we have ascertained by observa-
tion, that on a given day, the dry bulb of Mason's hygrometer
stood at 64% and the moistened one at 54°.

Then by reference to Glaisher's Tables we find that the
dew-point, if ascertained by Daniell's instrument, would
have been 47°, and therefore, the elastic force of vapour
0.337°; — the weight of vapour in a cubic foot of air, 3.75 gr. ;
the weight of vapour required for saturating this same
volume of air, 2.90 gr. ; the degree of humidity in the air,
as compared to the point of complete saturation, (the latter

44 Nature of Vesicular Vapour, [lect.

being expressed by 1,000,) 0.664 gr. ; the weight of a cubic
foot of air in grains, (barometer being 30**,) 525.700 gr.

Now the humidity of the atmosphere manifests itself to our
senses in a palpable manner by the production of three classes
of phenomena, namely, 1st, by the generation of fogs and
clouds; 2ndly, by the descent of rain and snow; and Srdly,
by the deposition of dew.

A fog is a collection of vapour diffused through the strata
of air nearest to the earth, which bears the same relation to
the superficial, which a cloud does to the upper regions of
the sky.

In either case the phenomenon is occasioned, by the air
ceasing to retain the same capacity for moisture which it had
before possessed, and by the consequent deposition of the re-
dundant portion in the form of what is called vesicular vapour.

The term " vesicular vapour," applied to the diffused mois-
ture which constitutes a cloud or fog, is a theoretical ex-
pression originating with the celebrated Saussure, who repre-
sented it as composed of an infinite number of little bladders^
the walls of which consisted of films of water in the utmost
state of tenuity.

But what, it will be asked, is inclosed within these films to
prevent their collapsing ? If it be aqueous vapour, the spe-
cific gravity of each little bladder^ with its contents, will be
greater than that of the circumambient air^ and it would
therefore gravitate towards the earth.

It has been suggested, indeed, that as clouds are in a state
of electrical tension, the vesicles which constitute them will
be kept apart, and prevented from coalescing by their own
mutual repulsion.

This, however, although it might retard, would not prevent
their gradual tendency downwards, unless the latter were
counteracted by some other cause. Fresnel, therefore, sup-
poses the vesicles to be filled with air, which being sur-
rounded by a film of water possessing a certain degree of
opacity, and therefore calculated to absorb the solar rays,
becomes in consequence hotter and rarer than the circum-
ambient atmosphere ; the latter, owing to its transparency.

II.] Water present in Air in a Gaseous State, 45

transmitting the sunbeams without becoming heated by
them in the same degree. Hence he conceives, that the
specific gravity of each little balloon or vesicle may be less
than that of the air near the earth's surface, so that it will
ascend until it reaches a stratum of the same weight as it
is itself.

Whether this ingenious explanation be regarded as satis-
factory or not, the term ^^ vesicular vapour'^ may be retained,
if we accept, on the authority of M. de Saussure, the fact for
which he vouches, that he saw on the slopes of the Alps, on
ascending through a region of clouds, a multitude of these
vesicles, which he compares to the soap-bubbles blown by
children from the mouth of a tobacco-pipe. Considering
their extreme tenuity. Gay Lussac conceived, that the con-
stant rise of currents of warm air, which is taking place from
the groimd, might be sufficient to keep them suspended for
a certain time at the elevation at which we find them.

Perhaps, however, a consideration of the phenomena of fog
might lead us to frame a more simple explanation with
regard to the analogous case of clouds.

The aqueous particles of which the former consist do not
appear to be made up of vesicles, but the water is in a state
of such minute division, that it overcomes with difficulty the
resistance of the air, and therefore gravitates but slowly to-
wards the earth. So long, therefore, as the formation of mist
above proceeds with a rapidity equal to that of the deposition
of water from below, the fog will continue permanent ; and
the same thing will happen with a cloud, if we suppose its
inferior surface to go on continually wasting, whilst its
upper one is in the same ratio increasing.

We need only suppose that the particles of water which
form the lower limit of the cloud are taken up by the air at
that pointy and are thus converted into, invisible vapour as
fast as they descend to that level.

We must, however, carefully distinguish between the
humidity present in the atmosphere in the form of vesicular
vapour, and that existing in it in an invisible or aeriform
condition.

46 Effects of a Humid Atmosphere. [lect.

AU liquids hare a tendency to pass into vapour^ nntil
cheeked by tlie pressare of their own atmosphere; and this
tendency, which goes by the name of the tension of Tapoor,
increases in each case in proportion to the advance of its
temperature.

Whenever, therefore, the soil and subsoil are not entirely
destitute of humidity, the atmosphere above must contain
a certain amount of water, not as vesicular vapour, but in
a perfectly aeriform condition.

Now the effects produced upon living beings by the pre-
sence of moisture in the atmosphere are entirely different,
according as it exists in one or other of these states.

Vesicular vapour, manifesting itself in the form of fog or
mist, causes, as every one knows, a sensation of chill, owing
to the abstraction of heat from our persons, caused by the
moisture which attaches itself to them ; and likewise for the
same reason interferes with the healthy functions of the skin^
and even of the lungs.

But in an aeriform condition the very opposite effect
takes place.

Professor Tyndall has lately pointed out, that humid air, or
air containing much moisture in a transparent or an aeri-
form condition, exerts a remarkable influence both in ab-
sorbing and in radiating heat. Owing to the former pro-
perty, aqueous vapour acts as a kind of blanket upon the
ground, and contributes in a very striking manner to the
retention of its heat.

Hence when the air is perfectly divested of moisture, as
in the sandy deserts of Africa, in Siberia, and even in
Australia, the cold at night is almost insupportable, owing
to the absence of that protection which is afforded by
aqueous vapour when present in the atmosphere ; whilst
during the day the rapid abstraction of moisture from the
surface of plants and animals, caused by the dryness, is
equally deleterious to both.

And as the radiation of heat from a body is always equal
to its power of absorbing it, it follows, that air containing
much moisture, wlQ, when it rises into the higher regions,
sink rapidly in temperature, in consequence of the heat it

II. 3 Causes of Bain considered. 47

sends forth into space; and indeed, according to Tjmdall,
the amount radiated from air saturated with moisture is
16,000 times as great as that of air perfectly dry.

One cause, therefore, of the profuse rains that occur in
the tropics may be the cooling of the heated air, which rises
from the earth into the higher regions of the atmosphere, and
which, when it arrives there, radiates its heat freely into
space, and thus has its capacity for moisture reduced.

Professor Tyndall calculates, that 10 per cent, of the heat
radiated from the earth in this country is stopped by 10 ft.
of the air which lies nearest .to the ground.

It would appear from the recent investigations of M. Du-
chartre in France, that the refreshing influence of rain and
dew upon plants does not arise from the moisture deposited
upon their surfaces being absorbed, — for not a particle of
water enters into them through the leaves or stem, — but
from its supplying the groimd with water for the roots to
absorb^ ; and likewise, as I should infer, from the check which
its presence affords to a too rapid radiation of heat from the
parts above ground, by which the prejudicial effects of a too
rapid cooling are provided against.

According to the views I have laid before you with respect
to the nature of clouds, there will be so much in common
between the mode of their formation and that of rain, that
it will be better to consider the two together, and thus to
enter at once into the inquiry, what are the causes that give
rise to a deposition of the aqueous vapour present at all
times in the atmosphere, whether this deposition take the
form of vesicular vapour or of actual rain-drops.

^ M. Dachartre found, that the weight of a plant, after being exposed to
a night of heavy dew, was not increased, provided only that its roots were so
enclosed within a proper case as to prevent moisture from reaching them from
without.

He points out three causes for the non-absorption of water by the leaves and
stems : Ist, the stratum of air which covers the leaves, and thus intervenes be-
tween the plant and the superimposed moisture ; 2nd, the waxy covering of the
external surface of most parts of a plant ; 3rd, the presence of air between the
cells of the parenchyma.

But though dew and mist are not absorbed, they contribue to the health of
the plant by checking the transpiration of moisture during the night.

Causes of Rain,

[lect.

The immediate cause in both instances must be a change
in the capacity of air for moisture, and this may arise, in
the first place, from a direct diminution of its temperature.

Accordingly, the sudden chilling of a body of air may, as
I have already pointed out^ at any time cause the formation
of cloud, or a fall of rain, supposing the atmosphere to be at
the time near its point of saturation.

Thus the warm air of the tropics, in passing into a cooler
region, would sooner or later reach a point where it could no
longer retain the whole of the moisture present in it, and
where consequently the latter would be discharged in the
form of clouds or rain.

But independently of this, the law regulating the amount
of aqueous vapour which can remain in an invisible state
suspended in the air, (or in other words, "the tension of
aqueous vapour,") involves as a consequence the deposition
of water, whenever two currents of air of different temper-
atures, saturated with humidity, intermix.

A French meteorologist, M. Gasparin, has given a table
representing the weight of vapour in grammes present in
every cubic metre of air at different temperatures % shewing
that the difference in the amount of vapour taken up goes on
increasing faster than the temperature itself: —

Tension and Weight of Vapour.

Temperature.

Weight of Vapour in the Difference in each five De
cubic metre of Air. grees of Temperature.

5.66 .

. 0.00

5 .

7.77 . . .

2.11

10 .

. 10.57 .

2.80

15 .

. 14.17 .

3.60

. 18.77 .

4.60

25 .

. 24.61 . .

5.84

30 .

. 31.93 .

7.32

35 .

. 41.13 .

9.20

Thus let us suppose a cubic metre of air possessing a tem-
perature of 0° to come into contact with an equal quantity
possessing a temperature of 30*", and both to be saturated

* A gramme Ib about 15i gndns ; a metre about 3 ft. 3 in. English.

II.] Causes of Rain, 49

with aqueous vapour, the two metres, when they mix, will
attain the mean temperature of 15°.

Now at this point 2 cubic metres of air take up only
(14.17 X 2) = 28.34 grammes of vapour ; whereas before
they were intermixed, —

The cubic metre at 0° contained . • 5.66
„ „ at 30° „ . . 31.93

Together amounting to . .37.59

So that after deducting . . . 28.34

There will be deposited' in clouds or rain 9.25

Now this intermixture of air of different temperatures
may be brought about by the interposition of any obstacle
to the free transmission of the currents that are constantly
circulating around the globe, such, for instance, as a chain
of mountains, or even any other more trifling irregularity of
surface.

These deflect the stream of warmer air from above, and
mix it with the colder below, or vice versa, and in either
case, if the strata of air are replete with moisture, the de-
position of a portion in the form of rain or cloud will ensue.

Just in the same manner a shoal in the sea causes a change
in the direction of the currents of water, bringing up the
cold portions to the surface ; a fact of which navigators are
so well aware, that they are in the habit of foreboding, by
a fall in the thermometer, that shallow water is at hand.

Nor is this the only way in which hills contribute to the
formation of clouds and rain ; for the summits and sides of
the former, being cooler than the land below, will condense
the moisture of the air brought into contact with it.

Hence in tropical regions, where there are no hills, rain
rarely, if ever, falls, because the winds which reach them
will generally proceed from a colder quarter, and therefore
will contain less moisture than the amount which can be
held in a state of vapour, at the higher temperature they
will attain on reaching that latitude.

From this cause arises the absence of rain on the great
plains of Africa and Arabia, although parallel latitudes in

50 Causes of Dew. [lect.

India and in America, wliicli lie in the neighbourhood of
mountainous tracts, receive periodically a much more co-
pious supply of moisture from the heavens, than is the case
in the colder parts of the globe.

Indeed, as the capacity of air for moisture increases in
proportion to its heat, a greater condensation of it will be
occasioned by the intermixture of currents of different tem-
peratures in tropical than in temperate climates, wherever
a chain of mountains occurs to intercept and deflect down-
wards the streams of air from above.

Among the Khasia mountains in Bengal, Dr. Hooker states,
that in seven months the rain-fall amounted to 502 inches ;
and Hartwig sets down that at Guadaloupe at 274.2 French
inches ; whereas in England, notwithstanding the number of
rainy days of which we complain, 45 to 52 inches of rain are
regarded as a high average even in the Lake district, the
wettest in England. Such appears to be the case at White-
haven and Cockermouth, places situated near the sea, and
therefore affording a fairer representation of the general rain-
fall in that part of England than the mountains adjoining.

In the latter, indeed, the rain-fall is much greater, though
still much inferior to that in the tropical regions alluded to ;
for at the Head of Borrowdale it is reported as amounting
to 151 inches in the year, and at Sprinkling Fell, a mile and
a half from Scathwaite, to as much as 211 ; the exceptional
character of which places, however, is shewn, by the enormous
difference between these quotations, and those given above
with respect to the adjacent towns '.

Indeed, the average in this island, proverbial as it is for
its dampness, is considerably less than in the latter; for
at Oxford it amounts to about 26, in London to 25, and
in Cambridgeshire to only 22^ inches annually.

The third source from whence the earth derives its hu-
midity is dew, which serves to compensate in some degree
for the absence of rain in the hotter regions of the globe.

Although occurring generally in all latitudes, it is most
abundant where it is most needed, namely, in the hottest

* ' See Miller's Papers, Ph. Tr. for 1849 and 1860.

II.] . Causes of Bete. 51

and most cloudless regions, owing to a beautiful natural
provision, the reason of which cannot be well understood,
without entering a little into the consideration of the laws
of heat, and the inferences deduced from them by Dr. Wells,
in his masterly Essay on the subject of Dew.

It may be shewn, by a very easy and well-known ex-
periment, that all substances are sending forth rays of heat
from their surfaces more copiously in proportion to their
respective temperatures.

If a heated ball of iron, for instance, be placed in the focus
of a parabolic metallic mirror, the heat rays emitted may be
rendered palpable, by their effect upon an inflammable body
in the focus of a similar reflector placed opposite to it at the
distance of many feet.

If we reverse the experiment, and replace the heated iron
by a ball of ice, the contrary effect will ensue, for a ther-
mometer situated in the focus of the opposite reflector will
then sink perceptibly.

Hence it follows, that an interchange of heat goes on be-
tween the two bodies, to the advantage of the one placed in
tbe focus of the second mirror in the flrst instance, and to
its disadvantage in the second.

Applying this experiment to the case of the earth and of
the air surrounding it, the former during the day ought to
gain by an interchange of calorific rays between itself and
the atmosphere, since the latter transmits the beams of the
sun, of which it is the first recipient, without absorbing
them in their passage. Hence the ground gets hotter in
proportion as the day advances.

But during the night the reverse effect takes place, because
the earth continues to send forth rays to the air without
receiving any adequate compensation. The ground therefore
gets gradually cooler from sun-set to sun-rise, so that during
this period the difference between its temperature and that
of the circumambient atmosphere goes on increasing.

That portion of the air which touches the surface must,
however, experience a diminution of temperature by contact
with the ground, and will therefore have its capacity for
moisture reduced in proportion. Hence will arise a deposi-

62 Causes of Dew. [LfecTT.

tion of moisture apon the bodies which lie upon the sur&ce
of the soil.

The amount of moisture deposited will, however, vary at
different times and seasons, for when the sky is misty, a por-
tion of the heat radiated from the earth will be returned
back to it from the opaque body of the clouds, and hence
at those times a lesser diminution of the earth's temperature
will take place ; whereas if it be clear and cloudless, the loss
of heat by radiation is not balanced by any counter-radiation
firom the sky.

Still, however, if a brisk wind should sweep over the
ground, the rapid contact of warm air will prevent any
great difference between its temperature and that of the
atmosphere, so that little or no dew will then form.

But if the air be neither cloudy, nor in rapid motion,
a speedy reduction of temperature ought upon the above
principles to obtain, and then the deposition of moisture
will be proportionately greater.

Dew, however, is not collected indiscriminately upon all
bodies, — wool, cotton, silk, and other filamentous substances
absorbing it in a great degree ; straw, shreds of white paper^
grass, and plants of all kinds, still more ; whilst glass, chalky
charcoal, sand, and earths in general attract less ; and me-
tallic bodies least of all. Now the difference between the
temperature of these bodies, and of the air during the time
at which dew was formed, appeared to be greatest in those
cases where most moisture was deposited ; and hence tlie
cause and the effect are seen to correspond. No other reason
can be assigned for this difference in temperature, than the
greater or less force of radiation belonging to these several
bodies, and hence the whole is ultimately reducible to the
laws first established by M. Prevost, of Geneva, upon this
subject.

It must not, however, be concluded, that a perfectly still
atmosphere is the one most favourable to the formation of
dew.

On the contrary, a slight movement in the lower strata of
the air contributes to its deposition, because by means of it
new portions of air are brought in succession into contact

II.] General Lam of the Aerial Currents. 53

with the cooling surfaces of the ground, each of which por-
tions leaves behind it its tribute of moisture.

Thus, then, it appears, that the hottest regions ought to
be the ones most fayourable to this phenomenon, because
tlie air is there most loaded with moisture, and the ground
radiates heat most freely into space, so that the difference
between the temperature of the two will be at its maximum
in such situations.

Hence it happens, that the dew which falls in the tropics
BO greatly surpasses in copiousness what we experience in
our own climates.

Travellers in tropical countries have indeed reported ^, that
at times, when the ground was perfectly dry and the sky
clear, the quantity of dew condensed upon the trees adjacent
was so great, that it flowed down them like a shower of fine
rain, so that it is no wonder, that an exposure to the night
air in such regions should be found dangerous to health.

The consideration of the causes which contribute to the
humidity of the earth's surface is so intimately connected
with that of the winds, that, if for that reason alone, the
latter would naturally come under our review in treating of
climate.

Thus, for instance, the greater amount of rain which falls
in the western quarter of our island, as compared with the
eastern, is connected with the greater prevalence of westerly
gales, which are more loaded with humidity than any others,
and deposit their aqueous contents in the greatest quantity
on those portions of land which they first reach.

The cause of this greater prevalence of westerly winds
will not be fiilly imderstood, until we shall have obtained
a clear and complete insight into the laws that regulate
those aerial currents, which, independently of local causes,
extend at all times over the globe.

These being more regular and uniform than what we ex-
perience in temperate regions, present the problem to be
solved under its simplest aspect, and hence invite our atten-

' Bonssmgaolt, Econ. BuraL, vol. ii. p. 717 ; Dachartre, Ann. des Sc. Nat.,
1861.

64 Equatorial Currents. [lect.

tion first, both as holding out to us the fairest chance of
being solved, and as promising to afibrd the readiest clue to
the explanation of the remaining phenomena.

Now we can point to a general cause, afiecting the entire
circumference of the globe, which would bring about an
aerial current setting in a certain definite direction on both
sides of the equator, as far as from the 25th to the 30th
parallel of latitude from either pole.

This cause is the rise in the equatorial regions of heated
air, which, as it ascends, will induce a rushing in of the
colder and heavier air from higher latitudes to supply its
place, thus tending to produce near the surface of the earth
a wind from the north above the , line, and the same from
the south below it, together with a current above flowing^
in just the contrary direction from the equator towards
either pole.

The direction, however, of these aerial currents must be
modified by the rotation of the earth upon its axis.

The diurnal movement of the different parts of the globe
will be more or less rapid according to their distance from
the equator, being null at either pole, but tending from
west to east at the rate of 1,000 miles an hour at the line.

The wind, on the contrary, which reaches the latter, will
bring with it only the velocity which it had acquired from
that part of the earth from which it proceeded, and must
therefore, as it travels towards the equator, be moving more
slowly in the direction of the east, than the earth is doing
in the latter quarter.

Hence its apparent motion will be in the contrary direc-
tion, and accordingly the north wind, which is always tend-
ing towards the equator, will have a westerly direction im-
pressed upon it by virtue of the movement of the earth upon
its axis, or, in other words, be an east wind.

This, perhaps, may be rendered plainer by the following
calculation.

In the 30th degree of latitude the earth is said to rotate at
the rate of 1,229 feet per second.

This amount of motion is accelerated in the 29th degree by
13 feet, and in the 28th degree by 29 feet per second.

II-] How influenced by the EarWs Rotation. 55

Suppose then a wind to be moving towards the south
from 30° to 29°, or from 29° to 28° : if it retain the velocity
due to its former position, and has not acquired that of the
latter, it will appear to us to be moving towards the west,
as its motion east will be 13 feet in the first instance, and
16 in the second, less rapid than that which the earth pos-
sesses at this parallel of latitude.

A south-easterly current, therefore, will prevail constantly
T^lierever the colder air from the north is rushing in towards
the equator.

It has also been above stated, that whilst the cold air from
the Arctic regions is moving towards the south, the warm
air of the tropics will have a tendency northwards, forming
an aerial current at a higher elevation than the former,
which will be moving in a direction exactly opposite to the
one before noticed.

This upper current has been perceived, by those who
have ascended high mountains, blowing in a direction just
the reverse of that taken by the wind in the plain below.
Humboldt observed it at the Peak of Teneriffe, and I my-
self on two occasions on the summit of Mount Etna. It was
also proved to exist, from the fact that the ashes ejected by
the volcano of St. Vincent in 1812 were wafted to Barbadoes,
so as to fall in great quantities on that island.

Now it is well known, that there is a wind blowing at all,
times about the level of the sea between the two islands, in ex-
actly the opposite direction to the course taken by the ashes.

This south wind becoming colder and heavier as it pro-
ceeds, will, by about the time it reaches the 30th parallel of
latitude, gravitate to the level of the ocean.

Here, as the velocity it had acquired from the equatorial
regions from which it proceeded is greater than that of the
region of the globe which it has reached, it will appear to
move to the east at a rate proportionate to the difference be-
tween its own velocity and that of the earth in this latitude,
BO as to assume the character of a north-west wind.

Accordingly easterly winds will prevail in the tropics
as high as the 28th or 30th parallel, and westerly ones
afterwards.

56 Trade Winds, how explained. [lect.

The easterly ones above mentioned are commonly known
as the trade winds, from the facility they afford to com-
merce, as the navigator can reckon upon them with so much
certainty when he enters the tropics, and can regulate his
course by a knowledge of their direction.

They blow as far north as the 30th parallel above the
equator^ and as far south as the same latitude below it ; in
the former from south-east to north-west, and in the latter
from north-east to south-west; in both cases the primary
motion imparted being from either pole, but the tendency
towards the west being given to them by their blowing in
apparent opposition to the course which the earth is taking
in its diurnal rotation.

As, however, the north and south winds will counteract
each other's influence near their lines of contact, calms are
apt to prevail in the equatorial regions, at least over the sea,
where no inequalities of surface exist to disturb the regu-
larity of the aerial currents.

They have been often alluded to by navigators, who dread
the long detention they are apt to experience from this cause
in latitudes extending from 2° to 12** on either side of the
equator, and have furnished a subject for the poet Coleridge
in his " Ancient Mariner," where he describes the ill-fated
vessel kept stationary in these seas owing to the long-continued
calms which there prevail, till thirst and famine had swept
away all on board, except the narrator of the catastrophe : —

'* Day after day, day after day
We stuck, nor breath, nor motion,
As idle as a painted ship
Upon a painted ocean.'*

The south-east and north-west winds will differ materially
in their relations to moisture, in consequence of the source
from which they arise ; as the former, coming from a warmer
latitude, will be charged with moisture, which they will de-
posit in rain as they proceed towards the north ; whilst the
latter, being derived from a colder region, will become drier
in proportion as they advance into a climate warmer than
their own, and consequently have their capacity for aqueous

II.] Monsoam of the Tropics. 67

vapour increased. The southerly winds also will have a
tendency to become more violent as they proceed north,
l>ecause the diameter of the globe lessens as it recedes from
tlie equator, whilst for the same reason the northerly winds
-will diminish in force as they advance towards the south.

The trade winds, however, are liable to have their direc-
tion changed by local causes.

Thus, as the continent of Mexico is hotter than the sea
in the same parallel, a westerly wind will be created, to
supply the vacuum caused on the land by the rise of the
air over it.

Captain Hall, in Daniell's Essays^, mentions his having
been once thrown out of his reckoning by this circumstance.

In like manner, the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are
occasioned by the continent becoming hotter than the sea,
and consequently causing the air to rush in from the latter,
to supply the place of the more rarified stratum extending
over the land. When the sun has its greatest northern
declination, the peninsula of Hindostan, the north of India,
and China will be the parts most heated, and consequently
the monsoon will blow from the south-west. When, on the
other hand, the sun goes to the Bouth, the land cools faster
than the surrounding seas, and the course of the winds will
be to the north-east, producing what is called the north-
east monsoon.

Within the tropics the direction of the winds is subject
chiefly to the above modifications, which may be accounted
for by causes acting periodically, and are therefore capable
of being predicted with some degree of certainty.

It 18 very different with those winds which blow in more
temperate regions, in which so many interfering causes
operate, that no one can pretend to prognosticate with any
confidence the direction which they will assume at any
given moment.

Nevertheless above the latitude of 30°, westerly winds, as

^ Dauiell, p. 485.

58 Winds of more Northern Latitudes. [lect.

I have said, predominate S beings as Gasparin stajies, at Paris
in the proportion to those from other quarters as follows : —

West ^^9^46

South-west . . . . . 67

South 63

North 45

ITorth-east 40

ITorth-west 34

East 23j4g

South-east 23

So that whilst the winds from the west and south-west were
in the proportion of 146, those from the east and south-east
were only 46, being in the ratio of 76 per cent, of the
former to 24 of the latter. Accordingly, whilst the average
length of a voyage from Liverpool to New York by a sailing
packet is reckoned at forty days, that from New York to
Liverpool is only twenty-three. The former is called by
sailors going up-hill, and the latter down-hill.

M. Gasparin has given an interesting chart of the average
direction of the winds on the continent of Europe.

The general tendency in the northern parts of that tract is,
as I have said, towards the west ; but this is interfered with
towards the south by circumstances connected with the con-
figuration of the land. It will be observed that Europe is
crossed by a chain of mountains which, under the name of
the Alps and Pyrenees, stretch over it from west to east;
whilst to its south extends a long and broad tract of sandy
desert, called the Sahara of Africa. The former acts the part
of a refrigerator, and gives rise to a cold and heavy stratum
of air, ready to descend into the plains below. The latter,
by its intense heat, causes an ascending current of air, which
flows towards the north, at first at a high elevation, but after-
wards descending to the level of the land. Hence northerly
winds will predominate in Spain, the south of France, and
Italy.

Thus after making due allowance for the irregularities
occasioned, by the position of each place^ by counter cur-

1 p. 288.

II.] Hurricane, their Force and Directioti, 69

rents, and by the dulling influence of neighbouring hills, it
TTould appear, says Gasparin, that Europe may be divided
into two zones ; a northern one, in which south-west winds
prevail, and a southern one, in which winds proceeding more
or less from the north predominate. The first of these zones
is liable to mists and fogs, because it receives the winds from
the ocean, but it is also under the influence of the warmth
proceeding from the same source, which moderates the rigour
of its winters ; the second zone^ which is brighter, as re-
ceiving the dry winds which have swept over the continent,
is for this reason cooler than its latitude would denote, and
is also subject to greater variations of temperature in accord-
ance with the different seasons of the year.

As the rarefaction of the air will be greatest where its tem-
perature is highest, the winds arising from this cause will be
most violent within the tropics, and will take place, whenever
the interference of a chain of mountains, or other such cause,
produce^ a sudden change in the temperature of the atmos-
phere in those regions.

Hence arise the famous typhoons of the China seas, and
the hurricanes of the West Indies, the force of which may
be estimated by this single fact, that whereas a gentle
breeze may be set down as travelling at the rate of about
seven miles in the hour, a brisk wind at fourteen, and a gale
at forty-one, it has been calcTilated that the rate of speed
in a West Indian hurricane is not less than from 90 to 100
miles an hour ^.

Such a degree of rapidity is suflElcient to level trees, un-
roof houses, and even to prostrate buildings when not very
solidly constructed.

In the great hurricane of Jidy 16, 1825, the town of
Basseterre, in Guadaloupe, was utterly destroyed. Three

^ The velocity of these winds may be estimated by the following calcn-
lation.

The mean velocity per second of all the winds collectively, taken at Cnx-
haven, was estimated at 6.66 metres, the wind which had the highest mean
velocity being the north-west, which was as high as 8.70, that which had the
least (the east) being 5.58.

This is equal to about 21.85 feet per second, 1,311 per minute, and nearly
16 miles an hour.

60 Hurricanes^ their Force and Direction. [lect.

twenty-four pounders were blown away, and a piece of deal
board thirty-seven inches long, nine inches wide, and seven-
eighths of an inch thick, was driven into a palm-tree sixt-een
inches in diameter.

At St. Thomas's thirty-six vessels were wrecked, and a brig
was actually carried up into the air by the whirlwind.

It would appear, however, from Admiral Fitzroy's state-
ments, that even in these latitudes the velocity of the wind
has been known to approach that of a hurricane.

Thus on the 25th of October, 1859, the storm in which
the " Royal Charter" perished is calculated to have had a velo-
city of not less than 60, or more than 100 miles, an hour. I
should rather accept the former as the nearer approximation
to the truth, for the effects of this tempest, terrific as they
were, did not approach to those reported in the case of many
a West Indian hurricane: but the great storm of 1703,
recorded by De Foe, and immortalised by Macaulay's elo-
quent description ^ certainly seems to have rivalled even
the latter in point of intensity.

Now it has been, pointed out, that all these great storms
possess a revolving as well as a progressive tendency, de-
scribing with immense velocity a circle or ellipse round

1 See Macaulay's Sketch of the Life and Writings of Addison. EcUnbargh
Beview. 1843.

" Here it was^ that he introduced the famous comparison of Marlborough to
an angel guiding the whirlwind. . . . The extraordinary effect which this simile
produced when it first appeared, is doubtless to be attributed to a line which
most readers now regard as a feeble parenthesis : —

' Such as of late o'er pale Britannia passed.'
Addison spoke not of a storm, but of the storm. The great tempest of No-
vember, 1703, the only tempest which in our latitude has equalled the rage of
a tropical hurricane, had lefb a dreadful recollection on the minds of all men.
No other tempest was ever in this country the occasion of a Parliamentary ad-
dress or of a public fast. Whole fieets had been cast away. Large mansions
had been blown down. One prelate had been buried beneath the ruins of his
own palace. London and Bristol had presented the appearance of cities just
sacked. Hundreds of families were still in mourning. The prostrate limbs of
large trees, and the ruins of houses, still attested, in all the southern counties,
the fury of the blast. The popularity which the simile of the angel enjoyed
amongst Addison's contemporaries, has always seemed to us a remarkable in-
stance of the advantage which, in rhetoric ^d poetry, the particular has over
the general."

i
i

B
S

r
t

I.
e

1
e
s
i

e
t

Hurricane of Augusty 1837. 61

a, which, as they proceed onwards, becomes larger
, whilst at the same time the rapidity, and con-
the violence, of the movement undergoes a pro-
abatement. It has also been observed that the
is always from right to left above the equator, and
to right below it.

g been myself involved in a cyclone of this kind
rossing the Atlantic in 1837, as a passenger in the
ip "Mediator," recorded in one of Sir John Reade's
•> as one of the vessels which had weathered this
dons hurricane, and that, I may add, without the loss
|>ar, I retain a lively recollection of the fury of the
which first assailed us in one quarter, and then, after
rary lull, re-appeared from exactly the opposite point
compass, with as much violence as before,
tempest was ushered in by a singularly fine sunset,
tract of red light pervading the whole region of the
whilst the horizon was bordered by a fringe of grass-
of a tint which I had never before beheld, extending
the margin of the ocean for a considerable distance,
gorgeous spectacle, accompanied as it was by a gentle
favourable breeze, brought all the passengers on deck ;
there was something in the appearance of the heavens
hich, coupled with a fall of the barometer, forewarned our
rCxperienced captain of the coming danger, and induced him,
to our surprise, to take in sail.
^ From this wise forethought arose the immunity which
w© enjoyed, although had our Navigator been aware of the
great discovery as to the vorticose movement of these storms
"~ which had then been made known, we should have escaped
with less peril, as this law would have suggested to him,
that in order to get out of the path of the hurricane, he
should have steered in just the opposite direction to that
which was pursued, so as to avoid encountering the opposite
side of the cyclone, after having ridden through the first.

We had thus a striking illustration of the relative advan-
tages of practical skill and of scientific knowledge ; as whilst
the former enabled our captain to extricate us from the diffi-

' "> See the Chart of the Hurricane of Angust, 1837.

62 Storms whether Progressive. [lect.

culties of our positioiii the latter might have instructed him
how to avoid inyolying us in them at alL

It has also been stated on apparently good authority^ that
whenever a hurricane rages in a particular direction north
of the equator, one of similar intensity occurs at the same
time south of the line, blowing in just the opposite one ; a fact
which would seem to point to some widely pervading cause
as influencing both.

I abstain, however, for the sake of my hearers as well as
of myself, from attempting the difficTilt task of explaining
these revolving storms, and shall only remark that Mr. Red-
field, an American, who has made them his particular study,
refers them to the mingling and collision of the upper equa-
torial current with the lower one proceeding from the
poles ^.

If the progressive motion of the hurricane too be, as Mr.
Bedfield and Sir John Reade contend, a reality, it affords us
a means of apprizing distant places, situated in the line
which the storm is taking, of its approach, for by telegraph-
ing to this effect from the point at which the storm is first
perceived, time may often be given to ships in other ports
to prepare for the emergency.

Admiral Fitzroy, however, appears to doubt, whether the
storms that occur in these latitudes have this progressive
movement combined with the vorticose one attributed to tro-
pical hurricanes, and his method of forecasting the weather,
which has on many occasions been of great use in warning
seamen of the probability of a storm, is founded upon more

" Henchel says, (Astronomy, p. 149,) " It seems worth enqniiy, whether
hurricanes in tropical climates may not arise from portions of the upper cur-
rents prematurely diverted downwards hefore their relative velocity has been
sufficiently reduced hy friction on, and gradual mixing with, the lower strata;
and so dashing upon the earth with that tremendous velocity which gives them
their destructive character, and of which hardly any rational account has been
given. But it by no means follows that this must always be the case. In
genera], a rapid transfer, either way, in latitude of any mass of air, which local
or temporary causes might carry above the immediate reach of the earths sur*
face, would give a fearful exaggeration to its velocity. Wherever such a mast
should strike the earth, a hurricane might arise ; and should two such masses
encounter in mid-air, a tornado of any degree of intensity on record might easily
result from their combination."

II.] Effects of Winds on Anhnal and Vegetabk Life. 63

general considerations^ namely^ on the fact of a change in
the weather^ or on a fall in the barometer^ haying occurred
in some part of the British Islands^ as indicating the like-
lihood of a similar change following elsewhere.

Gentle breezes are useful in yegetation, by keeping plants
in slight motion^ by strengthening their fibres, and by acting
fayonrably upon the process of their fecundation through the
assistance they render in the dispersion of the pollen.

They contribute also to the drying of the surface of the
land^ and thus in bringing it into a state fayourable to cul-
tiyation ; and they likewise occasion the equalization of the
temperature throughout different tracts, by conyeying the
redundant heat from one quarter to another in which it is
deficient; in which way, however, they sometimes injure
plants by the sudden abstraction of heat and moisture from
them. Dry and hot winds, indeed, are eminently injurious
to vegetation, and it is in this way that the Simoom of the
desert appears to produce its destructiye consequences both
upon plants and animals.

It is probable that the poisonous qualities ascribed to this
wind are not due to any particular noxious principle, but
to its extraordinary dryness, coupled with its high tempera-
ture, together with the suffocating effect of the accompany-
ing drifts of sand in which the travellers are enveloped*.

A rapid abstraction of moisture from the surface of the
body, as well as from the lungs, may indeed be expected to
bring about the most fatal effects ; and that this is the main

* Colamns of sand came moving on.
Bed in the burning ray.
Like obelisks of fire.
They rushed before the driving wind.
Vain were all thoughts of flight.
Could they have backed the dromedary then.

Who in his rapid race
Gives to the tranquil air a drowning fbrce.

High, high in heaven upcurled.
The dreadful sand-spouts moved :
Swift as the whirlwind that impelled their way.
They came towards the travellers.

Thalaba, bk. iv.

64 Pressure of the Atmosphere dependent on Height, [lect.

cause^ may be inferred from the accounts given of tlie con-
dition in which the carcases of animals overtaken by the
storm are afterwards found, they being described as in a
manner mummified, and reduced to that desiccated state to
which the corpses of the monks in the Capuchin convent at
Palermo are brought by the mere operation of a dry atmos-
phere, and which indeed may be induced in any animal
matter, by placing it under a jar, together with an absorb-
ent substance, such as oil of vitriol or chloride of calcium.

The other circumstances which are to be taken into account
in considering the climate of a place or country need not de-
tain us long.

The pressure of the atmosphere varies, as is well known,
according to the height of each spot above the level of the
sea, and that with so much regularity, that we are able to
calculate with the greatest exactness the difference of level
between two places by the point at which the barometer
stands at each.

The inconvenience of carrying about an instrument so
liable to get out of order as the common mercurial barometer,
has hitherto very much circumscribed the use of this method
of determining heights in the hands of casual observers ; but
the invention of the aneroid has in great measure removed
this difficulty, and the reduction of the latter instrument to
the size of a watch has really placed it in the power of every
person, to note a difference of less than fifty feet in his ascent
of a mountain, with the utmost facility.

Unfortunately, these smaller instruments can only be de-
pended upon as far as twenty-five inches, or from 4,000 to
5,000 feet, a range, however, sufficient for any mountain in
the British dominions. In the Alps the larger kinds of
aneroid must be resorted to by those who wish to avoid the
trouble of carrying with them a mercurial barometer, and if,
as will often happen, this instrument becomes deranged by
the shocks incident upon a long journey, it can be set right
by appealing to the smaller instrument, which may be always
carried about the person, and therefore is exempt from the
same liability to accident.

II.] Indications of the Barometer, 65

With regard to the indications of the weather afforded by
the rise or fall of the barometer, I shall abstain, for the sake
of my hearers as well as of myself, from saying much. In
Mr. Leonard Jenyns' " Observations in Meteorology," 1858,
may be foimd (in pp. 130 et seq.) some sensible remarks, on
the general principles which determine the relative weight
of the atmosphere, and on the cautions that must be exer-
cised in drawing practical deductions from it; whilst in
a subsequent chapter (chap, vii.) the general subject of
weather-prognostications is fully entered upon.

These, proceeding as they do from ohe who has for the
last twenty years kept an accurate register of the weather,
deserve to command confidence ; but in my own case, all
I should venture to offer on the subject, are two or three
general remarks upon the causes which may bring about
a fall or a rise in the barometer.

As heat produces rarefaction, a sudden rise of temperature
in a distant quarter may affect the weight of the atmosphere
ever our heads, by producing an aerial current outwards, to
supply the place of the lighter air which has moved from its
former position ; in which case the barometer will fall.

Now such a movement in the atmosphere is likely to bring
about an intermixture of currents of air of different tempera-
tures, and from this intermixture, rain, as we have seen, is
likely to result.

On the other hand, as cold produces condensation, any
sudden fall of temperature causes the column to contract,
and sink to a lower level, whilst other air rushes in from
above to supply the void; and accordingly the barometer
rises.

Should this air, as often happens, proceed from the north,
it will contain in general but little moisture ; and hence, on
reaching a warmer latitude, will take up the vapour of the
air, so that dry weather will result.

It is generally observed, that wind causes a fall in the
instrument ; and, indeed, in those greater movements of the
atmogphere which we denominate storms or hurricanes, the
depression, as we have seen, is so considerable, as to fore-
warn the navigator of his impending danger.

66 Ekctrical Condition of the Atmosphere. [user.

It is evident, that a draught of air in any direction must
dimmish the weight of the column overhead, and conse-
quently cause the barometer to sink.

The connection, therefore, of a sinking barometer with
rain is frequently owing to the wind causing an intermixture
of the aerial currents, which by their motion diminish the
weight of the atmosphere over our heads ; whilst a steady rise
in the column indicates the absence of any great atmospheric
changes in the neighbourhood, and a general exemption from
those causes, which, as I have shewn, are apt to bring about
a precipitation of afjueous vapour.

As it is possible that the electrical condition of the air
may exert some effect upon plants, it may be well to state,
what little we know as to the distribution of electricity
throughout the globe.

The now familiar fact, that lightning is owing to the dis-
charge of electricity, from a cloud to the earth, or from the
earth to a cloud, would prepare us to expect, that the elec-
trical fluid is distributed unequally under different circum-
stances both in the one and in the other.

It is indeed observed, that during serene weather the earth
is generally positive, although its electrical intensity varies
every moment, through the influence of passing clouds, pu£&
of wind, and the like. There is also a variation according to
the time of the day, the intensity being greatest about mid-
day, and then decreasing till about two hours before sunset,
after which it again increases, and obtains its maximum
about two hours after sunset. It then diminishes till sunrise,
when it is feeble, but continues to increase till mid-day.

It is also stronger in winter than in summer, and varies in
a regular manner during the interval which separates these
two seasons.

During violent and transient rains the electricity is en-
hanced in intensity, but sometimes in the positive, some-
times in the negative direction; and the occurrence of
lightning, or the discharge of the electrical fluid from the
clouds, which occurs during storms, shews that the electrical
equilibrium is then disturbed.

.II.] Its. Influence upon the Weather. 67

But it would seem doubtM, whether the storm is the cause
of the discharge of electricity, or the electricity the cause
of the storm ; for, on the one hand, we know that the instan-
taneous precipitation of aqueous vapour disengages a cer-
tain amount of electricity ; and on the other, that if the
particles of aqueous vapour contained in a cloud be in a
positive or negative state of tension, they will repel each
other, and thereby be prevented from coalescing ; whereas
when the redundant electricity is discharged, and this im-
pediment to their union is removed, rain is likely to ensue.

After all, our actual knowledge of the electrical conditions
of the atmosphere, and of the causes of that condition, may
be summed up in a very few words.

Dry atmospheric air, whether it contains much vapour in
a gaseous state suspended in it or not, is a non-conductor of
electricity ; but if it be damp to the feel, or contain much
vesicular vapour, it becomes a conductor.

The condensation of moisture, therefore, so as to form a
cloud, will create a tendency in the air surrounding to im-
part its surplus electricity to any contiguous body, whether
that body be a cloud or the earth, which happens to be in
an opposite electrical condition.

This tendency, however, may for a time be counteracted
by an intervening space of cloudless atmosphere, which op-
poses a non-conducting surface to both the electrically-
excited bodies^ and during this period the particles of vesi-
cular vapour, being in a similar state of electricity, will be
repelled, and thus be prevented from coalescing.

But suppose the intensity of the electricity in either cloud,
or in the cloud and the earth, to reach the point at which it
can overcome the resistance of the non-conducting medium
interposed, and lightning will pass from one to the other,
the clouds returning into a state of electrical equilibrium.

Now when in this latter condition, there will be no further
impediment to the particles of vesicular vapour coalescing
into drops^ and rain will consequently ensue.

With the electrical disturbance of the atmosphere the
occurrence of hail seems to be in some manner intimately

68 Hail caused by Electricity. [legt*

connected, although I am not aware of an explanation of the
phenomenon haying been offered which is in all respects
satisfactoiy. . , ^ \

M. Peltier imagines, that if two douds in opposite states of
electricity are brought together within striking distance,
the particles of vesicular vapour which they respectively
contain will be attracted and repelled backwards and for-
wards for some time before they fall to the ground, and
during this interval they will be subject to a rapid evapora-
tion. The latter process, by the cold it occasions, will con-
vert them first into particles of snow ; these, however, by
being brought into contact with other particles of the same
kind, will coalesce, and form masses of ice of greater or less
size, according to the time during which they were attracted
and repelled, before their ultimate precipitation to the earth
in the form of hail p.

The destructive effect of hail-storms upon vegetation is
well known, but it is only in those comparatively rare casee^
in which the size jof the masses is considerable, that animals
are also liable to injury from them. Yet it is stated, that on
the 15th of January, 1829, a hailstorm occurred at Gazorla^
in Spain, in which the stones weighed two kilogrammes ^
each, and in which they even broke through the roofs of
houses.

Although the causes of the electrical disturbances whicli
take place in the atmosphere may as yet not be fully under-
stood, the influence they exert upon vegetation is a matter of
general notoriety.

No one can be unaware of the stimulating effect of a
thunderstorm in spring and summer upon growing plants^
and there can be little doubt that this is connected with
the generation of nitric acid in the atmosphere^ caused by
the direct union of nitrogen and oxygen, which can only by
this method be brought about.

This nitric acid easily resolves itself into ammonia, by the

p May not Prof. Tyndall's experiments on revelation, Sixth Lecture, on
** Heat considered as a Mode of Motion/' throw some light upon the coalescence
of hailstones into large blocks of ice ?

1 A kilogramme is about 2 lbs. 8 oz. English.

II.] Ozotie — how detected. 69

substitution of hydrogen for oxygen in the manner which
Liebig has explained^ and thus affords a supply to plants of
that essential ingredient nitrogen, which they appear unable
to derive directly from the atmosphere, but which they ob-
tain indirectly from it through the agency of the electricity
thus set in motion.

As these Lectures are professedly limited to the considera-
tion of those meteorological conditions which may be sup-
posed to affect more or less directly the vegetation of a coun^
try, I shall pass over various phenomena which come within
the range of an ordinary treatise on Climate ; but there is
one which ought not to be omitted, from its possible connexion
with the salubrity of a spot, in relation to animal life, and
perhaps in like manner to vegetable. This is the presence
in it of that still obscure principle called Ozone.

All that we know for certain of the body which goes by
this name may be comprehended in a few sentences.

During the slow combustion of phosphorus, as well as in
the passage of a spark from an electrical machine, or during
the more gigantic discharges of electricity which take place
in nature, a principle appears to be evolved, which physically
is distinguished by one only of our organs of sense, namely
the smell, from which its name, ozonCy is derived.

The smell which accompanies the emission of electrical
sparks from a machine, and that which manifests itself in
cases where a flash of lightning passes within a short dis-
tance of the spot where we happen to be, is familiar to most
of us, and will be recognised as similar to that taking place
during the slow combustion of phosphorus in a jar.

This principle also reveals its existence by certain chemical
effects, all of which seem to point in the same direction,
namely, as producing in an eminent degree oxygenation.

Thus it changes the sulphuret of lead into sulphate, and
the protoxide of manganese into peroxide.

The phenomenon, however, by which its presence can be
most readily detected is its power of decomposing the com-
pound which iodine forms with hydrogen, in consequence,
as is presumed, of its bringing about the union of the latter
with oxygen, and thus displacing the iodine. This is the

70 Ozone — when fnost prevalent [lect.

test originally proposed by Schoenbeln, the discoverer of this
new body.

Dr. Moffat also has proposed another sort of preparation
for the purpose of detecting ozone^ but as this is now no
longer obtainable, it may be better to confine our considera-
tion to the original papers of Schoenbein, which being all
prepared by the same person are more likely to present com-
parable results.

In these, then, the amount of ozone is estimated, by com-
paring the colour produced, with a scale of tints marked
with numbers from 1 to 10 according to the degree of their
intensity.

Accordingly, if ozone be brought into contact with
Schoenbein's papers, a blue colour is produced; its in-
tensity being in proportion to the quantity present, just
as will happen when a strong acid, like aquafortis, which
readily gives out oxygen, is added to the same preparation.
It must be evident, however, that this method cannot afford
us an accurate measure of the quantity present in the atmo-
sphere, since the amount of this principle brought into con-
tact with the paper will be in direct proportion to the brisker
or slower circulation of the air at the time being.

This change to the characteristic colour, arising from the
elimination of iodine, and its combination with the starch,
takes place, after a few hours^ exposure to the air, in certain
states of the atmosphere and not in others ; and it appears,
that even at those times when the prepared papers are deeply
affected after exposure to the open air, no change takes place
when they are hung up in an inhabited room, so that it
seems to be in some measure ascertained, that the purest
and most salubrious air is most strongly impregnated with
this same oxygenating principle.

A resident practitioner at Weston-super-Mare, Mr. Pooley'
in a pamphlet on the causes of the salubrity of that watering-
place, assures us, that in the autumn of 1861, when a malig-
nant fever existed in the place and neighbourhood, ac-
companied with a chill and damp air, no ozone could be
detected in the atmosphere; but that when a south wind
came on, the disease gradually disappeared, and at the same
time a gradual increase took place in the amount of this prin-

II.] Ozone — its Nature. 71

ciple, which on the 21st of November rose to 9, or to nearly the
highest point of the scale, at which precise period the type of
the disorder changed, and a rapid improvement was noticed.
After these remarks, it may be satisfactory to my hearers
to know, not only that ozone seems prevalent at Torquay,
but that I have found it generally present in greater abund-
ance here than at Oxford.

With regard to the nature of ozone, it has been conjectured,
either that it must contain oxygen, or be itself a modified
condition of the same element.

Those who hold the former opinion, regard it either as
a deutoxide of hydrogen, or as another combination of hy-
drogen and oxygen not before isolated.

Those who advocate the second view of its nature, consider
it oxygen itself in another form, or in what chemists call
an alhtropic state ; and Schoenbein, its discoverer, even con-
ceives, that before oxygen can enter into combination with
any body, it first assumes the form of ozone.

It is possible, indeed, that whether arising from the slow
combustion of phosphorus, or from the discharge of elec-
tricity, its existence may have an electrical origin, and that
the first step in the process by which phosphorus becomes
oxygenised, consists in the conversion of a portion of the
oxygen present into ozone.

But the fact with which we are most concerned, is the pre-
sence of this principle at certain times in the atmosphere, in
quantities considerable enough to be detected by the test
above pointed out. The only connection I have been able to
trace between it and the weather is, that at Torquay at least,
it seems to abound most during south and south-westerly
winds, the average proportion of ozone during their preva-
lence being 9.5; during east, north-west, west, and south-
east winds, about 5.0, or from 5.3 to 4.6 ; during north winds
only 3.1 ^

' The proportion may be stated more clearly as follows :—

South and south-west , 53.5

North-west, west, south-east, and east . . . 28.2

North « 18.3.

72 Ozone — its Influence on Living Beings. [r-Ecr. ii-

May we not from this conjecture, that ozone is instrumental
in removing by oxygenation offensive and noxious animal
products, existing therefore in appreciable quantities in the
air, only when no organic matters are present which it can
act upon.

It must at the same time be admitted, that we have no
direct proof of the effect produced by the air upon the paper
in the instances alluded to being necessarily attributable to
the presence of ozone, any other oxygenising agent wiiicli
might be present, and especially nitric acid, being competent
to produce the same effects; and as nitric acid in small
quantities is generated in the air by electricity, it is con-
ceivable that the effect may be due to this, and not to tlie
hypothetical agent alluded to".

Still I cannot agree with Dr. Frankland, who has lately-
pointed out this possible fallacy, that it is a lost labour to
continue observations on the effect produced upon the paper
by exposure, for be the principle what it may which pro-
duces the coloration, its presence must have a sensible in-
fluence upon the purity of the air, by removing from it foetid
and injurious organic effluvia.

It is also quite possible, that this sfeme body may play an
important part in regulating the functions of the vegetable
kingdom likewise, and although it would be premature at
present to speculate upon its specific office, yet for this reason
alone it may be well to note the fact of its frequency, in con-
junction with the different phases which vegetation assumes,
persuaded that no principle can be generally diffiised through-
out nature, as appears to be the case with this, without hav-
ing some important and appropriate use assigned for it to
fulfil.

* This may perhaps explain the remarkahle coloration of the papers which
often takes place after thunderstorms.

LECTURE III.

■♦•-

CiiiiCATE shewn to inflaence vegetation. Monocotyledonous plants are best
suited to a hot climate — dicotyledonous best adapted for a temperate one —
deep-pooted plants for extremes of heat and cold — plants with shallow roots
for equable climates — deciduous trees for climates in which the length of
the day is very unequal — evergreens for those in which it is more uniform
throughout the year.

Decandolle's five propositions with regard to the adaptation of plants to
climate. Influence of the distribution of solar heat upon plants — what kinds
are fitted to an excessive — whsit to an equable climate — what to a bright,
what to a cloudy atmosphere — what to a humid^ what to a dry climate.

Distinction between wild and cultivated plants with reference to climate.

Farinaceous matter generally distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom.

Plants from which the inhabitants of tropical climates obtain their supply of
this material — the Date — Banana — Cassava — Cocoa-nut — Cycas — Sagus —
Bread-fruit — ^Arums — Tacca — Ferns, &c. — ^Yam — Sweet Potato — Maize — Rice
— Millet — Chesnut, &c. — Wheat — Barley — Rye — Oats — Potatoes — Native
country of our common cereals — whether derived from other Grasses by natural
selection. Comments upon Mr. Darwin's theory on that subject.

Having in the two preceding Lectures pointed out the
various meteorological influences that affect vegetation, I
shall proceed in the present to examine the operation of
these combined causes, in bringing about that variety which
characterizes the Flora of different parts of the globe.

Flowering plants are divided into those with only one
Cotyledon or germinal leaf, and those with two* ; being ac-
cordingly distinguished by the names of Monocotyledonous
and Dicotyledonous.

Now these two classes of plants present the most marked
differences in their structure, their growth, their mode of
flowering, &c. ; and from a review of these differences it will
be obvious, that whilst dicotyledonous are, as a rule, best
adapted for cold climates, monocotyledonous are equally so

* Or if with more than two, as in the Coniferse, having them all in one
whorl, or opposite.

74 Plants adapted for Hot j^iiEcr.

for warm ones ; so that plants possessing tKe latter organiza-
tion may be expected to attain within the limits of the
tropics a loftier height and larger dimensions^ than they
can ever reach within the limits of the temperate zone.

Dicotyledonous plants, such as those which constitute tlie
forests of this and other moderately warm climates^ consist
of a series of concentric layers of wood and bark, between
each of which we may suppose a stratum of confined air to
be interposed.

It cannot, therefore, be wondered at that they should be
tolerant of cold, both when we consider the slowly conduct
ing power of dry wood of all descriptions, and also that of
the air detained within the interstices of the timber itself.

Accordingly, the trees most susceptible of cold are those
whose pores are most occupied by sap, the liquid nature of
which renders it liable to freeze — an act which, by the ex-
pansion it occasions, proves of most fatal consequence at all
times to the vegetable organization.

During the severe frost of 1860-61, Professor Balfour
states ^, that the bark and wood of several shrubs and trees
split open with rents fully half-an-inch wide, and extending
eight or ten feet up the stem, and that this rending of the
timber was accompanied in one case, at Chatsworth, with
a loud noise.

The same thing, indeed, had been remarked by Bobart, at
Oxford, during the severe winter of 1683-84.

But monocotyledonous trees, of which Palms afford us the
most familiar examples, consist merely of one hard concen-
tric layer of ligneous matter, inclosing a soft pulpy substance,
full of juice, and therefore very susceptible of freezing.

Accordingly there are but rare instances of a Palm, or
of an arborescent plant of similar structure, existing beyond
the limits of the tropics-— a few stragglers only, such as
the Chamaerops humilis, or Dwarf Palm, being found in the
south of Europe ; the Chamaerops excelsa, or Chusan Palm,
in China; the Palmetto in the milder parts of the North
American States ; and the Livistonia inermis, and Seaforthia
elegans, indigenous in the south of Australia, and the latter

*» Ed. Ph. Journ., No. xxvi. p. 259.

iTi.] and for Cold Climates. 75

introduced as a cultivated plant in as low a latitude as
Tasmania.

Nevertheless it must be confessed that the vegetables
-which afford the largest proportion of farinaceous food to the
inhabitants of the cooler portions of the globe, as well as to
their cattle, possess the very structure which we have been
describing, and indeed in many of the most essential parts of
their organization approximate very nearly to the Palms.

Such are the yarious kinds of Bread-corn, and the Grasses
which cover our meadows.

Both these, however, owe their fitness for a colder climate
to the circumstance of ripening their seeds in the summer or
autumn of the same year in which they have sprouted from
. the ground, so that, although killed by the severity of the
winter, they admit of indefinite propagation from seeds,
wherever the summer temperature is such as to allow of the
latter coming to maturity.

We may also observe, that of the dicotyledonous trees
which belong to temperate regions, those which extend
farthest to the north are either protected from cold by nume-
rous layers of bark, as is the case with the Birch, or else are
provided with juices not susceptible of freezing, such as the
essential oil, which occupies the so-called turpentine- vessels
found in the bark and wood of the Coniferae.

It is also quite natural to expect, that plants with roots
that sink deep into the soil should resist the extremes of
temperature better, than those which penetrate but a small
way beneath the surface. The former derive their nourish-
ment from a depth at which the earth maintains throughout
the year an equable temperature; whilst the latter, being
affected by all the vicissitudes to which the surface of the
ground is exposed, are equally liable to be scorched by
the heats of summer, and blighted by the frosts of winter.
This may contribute to account for the power which many
trees in northern regions possess of resisting cold, inasmuch
as they derive their sap from a depth to which changes of
atmospheric temperature never extend; and likewise, for
the converse reason, it will explain the coolness of the juice
which may be extracted from the Palms of tropical regions,

76 Decandolle^s General Laws |[r.BCT.

where the roots sink deep enough into the ground, to ex-
tract their nourishment from parts of the soil wliich lie
beyond the reach of the mid-day heat. Thus there is no
cooler or more refreshing beverage in the tropics than the
milk of the Cocoa-nut fresh gathered from the tree, the fruit
being surrounded by a dense fibrous covering, whicli pre-
vents the heat of the external air from penetrating into its
interior. On the other hand, it is evident that for the same
reason, herbaceous plants, whose roots sink very little below
the surface, will be ill adapted in general for either extreme
of climate, flourishing neither amongst the frosts of the polar
regions, nor yet amidst the scorching heats of the tropics.

Being sensible of every change of temperature, such plants
can exist only where neither the heat nor the cold is very-
excessive, and hence are found to abound most within the
limits of the temperate zone, diminishing in number and
variety both as we advance northward and southward of this
medium climate.

Independently, too, of the mere differences in point of
heat which distinguish a temperate from a tropical climate,
the unequal length of the days in the one, as contrasted with
the uniformity in that respect which exists in the other,
brings about a corresponding diversity in the character of
their respective vegetations.

The short duration of the solar influence during the winter
of northern latitudes is well adapted to such plants as shed
their leaves in autumn, and which, like certain hybemating
animals, fall into a kind of torpor during the colder months ;
whilst the constancy, both as to the duration and the inten-
sity of the sun's heat, which characterizes the tropics, is pro-
pitious to those evergreen trees and shrubs the progress of
whose growth is never altogether arrested,

I shall wind up this portion of the subject by stating the
few simple propositions, under which the elder Decandolle
condensed the whole of what was known in his time, with re-
spect to the conditions, upon which the adaptation of plants
to different degrees of temperature is found to depend.

The first of these is, that the power of each entire plant, or

III.3 respecting the Distribution of Plants, 77

X>c^i^ of % plants to resist extremes of temperatare^ bears an
inverse ratio to the quantity of water it contains,
t Aoid hence it follows that the frosts of autumn are less in-
jixrioTis than those of spring, on account of the greater dry-
ness of the wood at the former season.

His second law states, that the power of resisting cold is in
a direct ratio to the viscidity of the juices which a plant con-
tains ; agreeably to the principle in physics, that water which
is tliick or muddy freezes less readily than that which is
pure or limpid.

This may be one reason why resinous trees, such as some
o£ the Conifer89, are found to brave so well the cold of the
most northern latitudes, and likewise that of the highest
mountains of the globe.

A third law is, that the resistance to cold in a plant is in
the inverse ratio to the mobility of its juices ; just as we find
that water may be cooled several degrees below the freezing
point without passing into the state of ice, if only kept un-
disturbed.

A fourth law is, that the larger the diameter of the vessels
and cells in a plant may be, the more liable it is to injury
from frost ; just as we find that water becomes solid much
sooner in wide, than it does in capillary tubes.

This is one cause of the tenderness of those plants which
consist of an assemblage of cells of considerable diameter,
such for instance as the Melon, the Banana, or the Palm
tribe.

A fifth law laid down by Decandolle is, that the power of
resisting extremes of temperature bears a direct ratio to the
quantity of air entangled betwixt the parts of the vegetable
tijssue.

The down, which covers the exterior of certain organs in
many plants, may be intended as a protection against both
excessive heat and excessive cold, in consequence of the air
contained within its meshes, which serves to prevent the
rapid transmission of heat either from without or from
within.

This down, accordingly, is found equally amongst the vege-
table productions of the tropical and of the arctic regions ;

78 Plants adapted for an Excessive Climate [t^eot.

and its presence in the Horse-chesnut may, by protecting
the young buds^ contribute to the hardiness of that tree,
which, although a native of the tropics, flourishes well even
in our northern latitudes.

Independently, however, of the amount of solar heat which.
characterizes particular climates, its distribution over tte
several seasons exercises a considerable influence upon tlie
growth of plants.

There are certain ones, like the Vine, which require an
intense heat in summer to bring their fruit to maturity, bnt
yet are capable of resisting a severe cold duidng winter ;
they thrive, for instance, on the borders of the Rhine, or in
Switzerland, where the winters are very severe ; but scarcely
ever ripen their fruit in England, even in Devonshire or
Cornwall, where the thermometer rarely falls to the freezing
point of water.

Other plants, on the contrary, like the Myrtle, cannot
resist cold, but do not demand during any part of the year
an exalted temperature.

Thus they luxuriate near the southern coasts of England,
but do not shew themselves on the Continent, until we reach
a much lower latitude than that of this country.

The former class of plants therefore may be said to be
adapted for an excessive climate, and therefore thrive best
on continents; the latter for an equable one, and conse-
quently succeed most upon islands.

It may also be remarked, that annuals are adapted for
continental climates, as they require heat for the ripening
of their seeds, but die away in winter; whilst perennials
are better calculated for islands, as it is essential that the
winter should not be so rigorous as to destroy them, but
not equally necessary that the summers should be always
hot enough to ripen their seeds, a failure in this respect
for several successive years not entailing the destruotion of
the species.

It would also seem, that the intensity of solar light exerts
an influence upon plants, as it does upon animals, altogether
independent of that of heat, many functions of the vegetable

ixi.] and for an Equable one. 79

economy, such as the so-called respiration, exhalation of
moisture, irritability, &c., being attributable to the presence
of light, and suspended during the periods of darkness.

Now as different plants require different degrees of stimu-
lus, we may easily understand, why some should thrive best
on the tops of mountains, where the light of the sun is vivid,
although the temperature may be comparatively low; and
others in the bottom of valleys, where the solar influence is
more often intercepted by clouds, although the climate itself
may be more sultry.

Hence arises the difficulty of cultivating Alpine plants, as
for example the Gentians ; for although we may be able to
command by artificial means almost any required tempe-
rature, yet we are unable to select a situation, where the
degree of light which such plants demand can be secured to
them, unless it be accompanied with an amount of heat
which is uncongenial to their constitution.

The different manner in which the stimulus of light affects
plants may be illustrated by the various times of the day
or night at which they open and shut their flowers, that
amount which is conducive to the vigorous discharge of the
vegetable fiinctions in one species, being apparently pre-
judicial to it in another. Thus the Cactus grandiflora, or
night-blomng Cereus, the most beautiful perhaps, although
the most short-lived of flowers, in general begins to open
in the evening, but I have once seen it, in cool and
dull weather, suspend the expansion of its flower till the
morning.

But, independently of the different amount and distribution
of the solar influence through the four seasons of the year,
other peculiarities of climate may stamp a different character
upon the vegetable productions of a country.

Thus two regions, corresponding in all respects in point of
temperature, may favour a different class of plants, by reason
of the relative degree of dryness which pervades their re-
spective atmospheres.

Ferns, for example, of whatever description they may be,
delight in damp, and hence occur most abundantly in in-
sular situations.

Amongst the islands of tropical America, Tree-ferns, toge-

80 Plants adapted for a Dry and for a Moist Climate, []i.ect.

ther with a numerous assemblage of tlie herbaceous sx>ecies^
prevail; whilst in the colder climates of European islands
those of the latter description are in equal abundance.

Nor are the remote regions of the Antarctic zone, such as
the coasts of Australia or New Zealand, less stocked with
this class of vegetables.

As the fossil remains of plants found in the Coal fonnation
consist in a far greater degree of Ferns than of any other
tribe of plants, we are hence led to conclude, as I have
already remarked in a former Lecture, that during- the
period at which the Coal was in the act of forming, large
islands, rather than tracts of continent, prevailed over the
surface of the globe, and hence perhaps, as I then explained,
may have arisen that genial temperature, and humid at-
mosphere, which enabled the larger and ligneous species
of Ferns to exist in these latitudes, and to be accompanied
with Palms, and other tribes, which would seem to indicate
a degree of heat not very far removed from tropical.

Cacti, on the contrary, and other succulent plants, are
peculiarly suited for arid situations, their spongy texture
enabling them to absorb a larger quantity of moisture when-
ever it is presented to them, and the deficiency of stomata
rendering the exhalation less rapid than it is in plants gene-
rally, and thereby enabling them to store it up and econo-
mise it, during the long intervals of drought, which succeed
in those regions to the short and rare visitations of rain
and dew.

Hence the thirsty camel finds, within the tough and often
thorny skin of the Sempervivums and Mesembryanthemums,
a refreshing juice, wherewith to refresh himself in the
scorched plains of Arabia.

The difference in the pressure of the atmosphere also affects
vegetation in various ways, and especially by influencing the
rate of evaporation ; and hence it happens, that the plants of
mountainous regions, where the barometer is low, differ from
those of the places where it stands habitually higher, being
in general more aromatic and having a tougher fibre.

Hence the difficulty of cultivating Alpine plants in our
gardens, however favourably they may be circumstanced as
to exposure to light, humidity, &c.

.] Geographical Distribution of Plants. 81

It may therefore be observed that the conclusions to which
have arrived with respect to the laws of the geographical
cLlstribiition of plants, are partly physiological, and partly
empirical : physiological, when we are able to deduce from
tlie structure and organization of a plant its fitness or unfit-
ness for a particular locality ; empirical, when from observ-
ing, that plants of a particular structure are ill adapted for
supporting certain meteorological conditions, — as for instance
excessive heat or cold, — we conclude, that others nearly allied
to them are likewise similarly circumstanced.

In a very large proportion of cases, however, both these
modes of determining a priori the habit of an unknown plant
fail us altogether ; for it is notorious, that species belonging
to the same family, and even to the same genus, are indi-
genous in parts of the world the most contrasted in point of
climate i and that whilst some plants are limited perhaps to
one particular locality, others are able to thrive under the
most opposite conditions of soil and temperature.

For example, physiology might suggest to us, that ar-
borescent monocotyledonous plants, such as Palms^ are best
adapted for a tropical climate ; and observation might lead
us to expect, that if any particular family — such for example
as the Melastomacese — abound in warm climates, a plant of
this or of an allied group would not be likely to grow in
such latitudes as our own.

But when we see the Eanunculus tribe equally prevalent
in India and in England, we are at a loss to understand in
what way climate can have anything to do with its dis-
tribution.

On taking a survey of the globe, we find that every ex-
tensive region or tract, if isolated either by the sea, by
a chain of mountains, or by a sandy desert, from others,
possesses a pecuKar set of plants, which appear to have
spread from one central point round in every direction, until
it was stopped by something uncongenial in the climate, or
insurmountable in the nature of the obstacles which pre-
vented its further extension.

The reason why these plants, rather than others, have
possessed themselves of the regions or tracts in question, lies

82 Distribution of Plants not explained by Climate. [uBcrr.

for the most part beyond our powers even of conjecturing ; for
although Palms, for example, seem, for the reasons stated, to
be best fitted for a tropical climate, yet why one particular"
Palm should be indigenous in Africa, and another in America^
remains altogether a mystery ^,

In like manner the Heaths, with the exception of a very
few European species, are crowded together in Southern
Africa ; whilst in the cognate climate of Australia they are
replaced by a nearly allied family, the Epacrises, but true
Heaths are unknown.

Thus, too, only one or two Boses are indigenous in
America; no Cactuses exist in the Old World, but are
represented in kindred climates of Africa by Euphorbias ;
the Agave, or the so-called American Aloe, is confined to
Mexico, but Southern Africa possesses, in the true Aloe,
plants of analogous character, though of a distinct family.

Nor can there be any reason assigned from the nature of
the climate, why New Holland should abound in trees and
shrubs with a sombre light-green foliage, and be so plen-
tifully provided with plants of the Mimosa tribe, which
possess no leaves of ordinary construction, but have their
petioles so developed and expanded, that they would be
taken for ordinary leaves, were it not that their flat sur-
faces are turned to the right and left, and not horizontally
in a manner to receive and intercept the solar light.

These and other peculiarities form the subject of that new
branch of botany, which goes by the name of the Geography
of Plants — one in itself of great interest, both scientifically
and practically.

It ought, however, to be introduced into a course of Lec-
tures, as supplementary to a description of the principal fa-
milies of plants, since it is only to those who possess some
acquaintance with the leading features of the vegetable
kingdom, that an account of their distribution over the
globe can become intelligible.

« In the southern hemisphere Palms with pinnatisect leaves are fonnd,
(Areca, Phcenix, &c.) ; in the northern only those with fan-shaped ones, (Sahal,
Chamserops.)

.] Wider Range of Cultivated Plants. 83

I shall therefore confine myself on this occasion to the
consideration of such plants as are cultivated by way of
food, either for man or beast, which might naturally be ex-
pected to vary in different regions of the globe, in a man-
ner corresponding to the general laws that have been laid
down. • ^

It must be observed, however^ that an important differ-
ence exists betwixt the distribution of wild and of cultivated
plants. The former can never establish themselves in a
country, where the temperature during any part of the year
is too high or too low for the conditions of their existence,
and even if either contingency were to take place only once
now and then, it would equally have the effect of excluding
such productions from its indigenous Flora.

But cultivated plants are quite differently circumstanced
in this respect, since if an accident of such a kind were to
occur, it is easy to renew the stock by importing fresh seeds
or plants from other countries.

Thus, in spite of the warm climate of New Orleans, and
of Hyeres in France, it sometimes happens, that a degree of
cold sets in, sufficient to destroy the Orange-trees in either
locality.

This plant, therefore, can never have been indigenous^
though, as many years often elapse without the occurrence of
BO rigorous a temperature, it is quite within the power of the
inhabitants to cultivate it in their gardens, if they find it
answer to do so.

At New Orleans, I believe, the proximity to Cuba, where
Orange-trees are never liable to that disaster, and afford an
abundant produce, renders the people indifferent to the cul-
tivation of this fruit ; but at Hyeres, where there is a ready
sale for it throughout France, it is well worth while to re-
place by art the losses, which any such extraordinary cold
may have brought about in their Orange plantations.

In short, the number of species which admit of cultivation
is greater than that of those which grow wild, inasmuch as
the former can be maintained, if during any portion of the
year the climate is suitable, the latter only, if during no
season it is the reverse.

84 Starch presefit in all Plants, [tject.

In this we may trace the operation of a beautiAil law of
natare^ intended to give the widest extension to those kinds
of vegetables which happen to possess useful or nutritiYe
qualities.

There is also another provision by* means of which, the
exigencies of the animal kingdom appear to have been
consulted, in the laws laid down for the organization of
vegetables.

No shoot can be produced from the surface of a tree, no
new individual can start into existence from a seed, unless
it be furnished with a supply of nourishment in immediate
contact with it, and in a condition calculated to enable its
delicate organs to take it up.

The substance stored up for this purpose in the seeds, the
tubers, the bulbs, and the pith of different plants, much as
it may be modified by extraneous matters occasionally super-
added, possesses nevertheless in the main a remarkable de-
gree of uniformity, being composed of that material, which,
when obtained in a separate form, we call starch, or at least
of some body so analogous to it, that chemists would deno-
minate it isomeric, but often mixed with a portion of gluten,
of sugar, and of some oily matter.

Now it is remarkable that this material, or rather this
combination of materials, is exactly the one of all others
best adapted for the food of man and many other animals,
and hence is emphatically called " the staff of life^

And well does it deserve that name, for whilst it may
fairly be doubted, whether any portion of the human race
could be brought to subsist for a length of time upon ani-
mal food alone, there can be no question, that existence
might be prolonged indefinitely by means of that compound
of starch, sugar, and gluten, which is present in ordinary
flour.

Accordingly, few parts of the world, except those very
northern latitudes where vegetation may almost be said to
be extinct, are destitute of some indigenous plant yielding
an abundant supply of starch ; and there are still fewer in
which such productions cannot be cultivated by art.

iiT.] The Date Palm. 85

The sources nevertheless from which different nations
derive this material are extremely various \

In tropical regions, for instance, the plants from whence
tlie inhabitants extract their farinaceous nutriment are more
commonly of an arborescent character. Thus in Northern
-Airica the fruit of the Date Palm supplies food to a large
proportion of the human race.

It may appear strange to some of my hearers that in
enumerating the plants which supply man with farinaceous
matter^ I should begin with one which contains in its ripe
state no farinaceous matter at all.

But this surprise will not be felt by the chemist, who re-
collects, that the saccharine matter, which renders the Date so
nutritious, is in fact formed by the transmutation of starch
into sugar by the processes of the vegetable economy ; and
that this transmutation, or something very analogous to it,
is brought about in the animal, before the starch which we
feed upon can be secreted.

In fact, when we subsist upon sugar, nature has already
performed for us a pao't of the task, which the digestive
organs have imposed upon them, when our diet is farinaceous ;
for starch must undergo that amount of chemical change
which is necessary to render it soluble, before it can undergo
assimilation.

Hence sugar and other analogous, or (as chemists call
them) isomeric substances, are more easily digested than
bodies simply farinaceous, and perhaps for this very reason
are better adapted to the more languid temperaments of
the natives of tropical regions, as they are to the feeble
digestion of infants, who obtain it from their mother's milk.
Sugar, as Liebig has shewn, is readily converted into fat
in the system of animals, and hence the negroes are said
to increase in corpulency, during the period of the year at
which the ripe sugar-cane is crushed for the purpose of ex-
tracting its juice, and at which the labourers live chiefly
upon molasses.

* See Thouin's Cours de Culture, vol. i., for a fuU list of the diflferent vege-
tables cultivated for food by man.

86 The Date Palm, [i*ect.

It has also been proved* that bees convert into wax, vvhich
is a kind of fat, as well as into honey, the sugar which they
extract from the nectaries of the flowers they visit.

Hence the saccharine matter of the Date may be pro-
nounced to be highly nutritious, in the sense in which, all
farinaceous matter is so considered, namely, as furnishing
the carbon, by which the heat of the animal body is main-
tained, and respiration is carried on.

Now this tree demands, according to M. Arago, a mean
temperature of 70" Fahr., although from the more exact
observations of Rozet, in Algeria, where it flourishes^ one
only of 62° appears to be sufficient for it.

The latter figure, indeed, appears to represent the mean
temperature of Palestine, where, as in ancient days, the Vine
and the Date both flourish together ; a proof, according to
Arago's acute remark, that the climate continues the same
as it was at the earliest known historical period, since had it
been colder, the Date would not have borne fruit ; and if
hotter, the Vine would not have succeeded.

There is, I believe, only one place in Europe where the
Date ripens into fruit, I mean Elche, in Valentia, for in
Portugal and in Sicily, which are somewhat colder than
Syria, it seldom or never comes to maturity, and on the
coast between Nice and Genoa, which enjoys a mean tempe-
rature of 59, the tree maintains itself indeed in a state of
vigour, but does not produce Dates. It is, however, culti-
vated in large quantities in a few favoured spots on this
coast, in order to supply Palm leaves for the processions at
BrOme and other cities in Italy, on the Sunday preceding
Easter.

Yet though it abounds throughout that belt of land which
stretches along the southern coasts of the Mediterranean,
it is not found in truly tropical countries, where the heavy
rains which fall during a certain period of the year are as
injurious to it, as a low temperature would be. May not this
be connected with a peculiarity in this tree, namely, that its
male and female blossoms are on different plants? Thus,

* See Grondlach's " Natural History of Beee," quoted In Liebig's Treatise on
Animal Chemistry, London, 1842.

.] The Banana — tJie Cassava. 87

cept in dry states of the atmosphere, the pollen of the
ale plant will not be wafted to the pistilliferous flower, and
Ixence no fruit will be produced.

This peculiarity of the Date was noticed by the ancients,
and is familiar to the natives of Eastern countries, who in
'their wars on hostile tribes, are in the habit of cutting down
■the male Date trees, in order to deprive the people whom
iihey invade of their accustomed means of subsistence, al-
though this practice seems prohibited in the Bible', and
I believe is also so in the Koran.

Accordingly the Date seems to be confined to sub-tropical
regions, and its place is taken in the tropical ones of the
"West Indies, of Africa, and of a large portion of equinoctial
America, as well as in the Old Worlds, by the Banana;
of which there are two cultivated varieties, viz. Musa para-
disiaca, commonly called the Plantain, and Musa sapientum,
distinguished by its stalk being marked by deep purple
streaks and spots.

The succulent stem, rising to the height of fifteen or
twenty feet, is formed by the stalks of the leaves which
wrap round one another so as to form a kind of sheath,
whilst their lamince, or blades, are of an enormous size^, some-
times as much as ten feet in length and two in breadth, but
very fragile, so as to be torn asunder by a gust of wind.

From the centre of the leaves rises a series of purple
bractesB enveloping spikes of flowers, which develop into
fruit full of pulpy and saccharine matter, of the size and

' See Deut. xx. 19, 20. " When thou shalt besiege a city ^ long time, in
making war against it to take it, thou shalt not destroy the trees thereof by
forcing an axe against them : for thou mayest eat of them, and tLou shalt not
cut them down (for the tree of the field is man's life) to employ them in the
siege. Only the trees which thou knowest that they be not trees for meat,
thou shalt destroy and cut them down ; and thou shalt build bulwarks against
the city that maketh war with thee, until it be subdued."

f M. DecandoUe (Geog. Bot., p. 924) inclines to the opinion that it is a native
of the Old World, and had been introduced from thence into America.

^ The specific name of paradisiaca was given to the Plantain, from the
fancy of the old Botanists, that from the size of its leaves, it was likely to have
furnished our first Parents with the material for aprons in Paradise.

88 The Banana — the Cassava. [

shape of cucumbers, and often in their native soil amounting"
to seyeral hundred.

These fruits afford food to a large portion of the popuXa—
tion in the countries in which they are cultivated, being-
eaten either raw, or cooked in various ways. The fibres €>£
the stem also supply the material for the excellent Manilla
hemp. According to Humboldt, a given quantity of ground
cultivated with this plant affords forty-four times as muclx
nutritious matter as it would do if laid down with Potatoes,
and 133 times as much as with Wheat.

The Banana seems to require a temperature of more than
68® Fahr. in order to ripen well its fruit. It, however, is
cultivated with some success in a few of the very warmest
localities of Europe, as for instance on the shores of Spain,
in Valentia.

In South America an article extensively employed for
food is extracted from the roots of the latropha Manihot,
a plant belonging to the Spurges, or EuphorbiacesB, which
family is characterized by the presence of a milky juice
generally more or less acrid and poisonous.

It is remarkable, as containing a perfectly wholesome form
of starch, combined with a juice so malignant as to be em-
ployed by the Indians for poisoning their arrows. Yet this
very juice when expressed may be rendered innocuous by the
mere act of boiling, and is then eaten under the name of
Cassarine.

After the liquor has been expressed, the starchy matter
which remains may be obtained by washing, and after being
heated, to destroy any of the poisonous principle that may
adhere, forms the nutritious substance called Cassava, which
constitutes the food of the inhabitants, and under the name
of Tapioca is imported into Europe.

In Jamaica the cultivation of the Cassava is recommended
on the score of the readiness with which it grows, the ease
with which it is introduced into the ground by cuttings,
each of which forms a new plant, the circumstance of its
not requiring manure, and the large amount of produce
obtained from it.

III.] The Cocoa-nut — the Cycas. 89

Another poisonous species of latropha, viz. I. curcis, or
Kiysic-nut, having acrid seeds, is nevertheless used in Pa-
nama as a culinary vegetable^ its leaves after boiling being
innocuous.

In the tropical regions of the East Indian Archipelago,
tlie Cocoa-nut is the principal article of daily food, and^ al-
though probably a native of the Old World, it is very
extensively distributed also over the equinoctial portion of
the New. A mean temperature of 72®, and an exposure to
tlie breezes and spray of the sea, seem the conditions most
favourable to its growth, so that it is not met with at any
great distance from the ocean.

Its milk, which consists of oily and saccharine matter,
and its kernel, which is a more consolidated form of the
same ingredients, with probably a slight intermixture of
some nitrogenised element, afford a highly nutritious food
to the population, whilst the other parts of the plant, the
husky or fibrous covering of the nut, the stem and leaves of
the tree, &c., supply materials for almost every other use
with which the savage is conversant.

In the islands of the Indian Archipelago, however, an-
other plant, namely a species of Cycas, the circinalis, is
extensively cultivated for its farina, on account of the small
amount of labour and skill it entails. The stem of the Cycas
is swollen into nearly a globular form by the pulpy farina-
ceous matter which fills its interior. This is scooped out,
and constitutes the nutritious material called Sago, so that
a whole tree is sacrificed for the sake of the pith which it
contained.

The Cycas, however, is not the only material which sup-
plies us with Sago.

Amongst the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and espe-
cially near New Guinea, a particular kind of Palm, the Me-
troxylon, or Sagus Rumphii, which here forms extensive
forests, serves the same purpose. In order to procure it, the
trunks are cut into logs a few feet in length, their soft interior
extracted, pounded, and thrown into water, after which the

90 The Bread-fruit. [lecet.

starch settles at the bottom of the vessel. After being thiifii
separated, it is generally sent to Singapore, where it un-
dergoes a process of refinement.

It is calculated that a tree fifteen years of age will yield
from 600 to 800 pounds of this nutritious matter, and that
a good-sized tree is sufficient to support a man for a year,
whilst the labour of extracting nourishment from it would
not occupy more than twenty days, ten days for felling the
tree and scooping out the starch, and ten for boiling it, so as
to render it fit for food.

In the South Sea Islands the Bread-fruit, Artocarpus
incisa, a plant allied to the Fig, takes the place of the
other tropical productions above-mentioned, as an article of
daily consumption.

It is remarkable, however, that the tree is not indigenous
in these islands, being only a variety of a plant called Jack,
the Artocarpus integrifolia, which is found native in the
Eastern Archipelago.

The fruit may be regarded as a gigantic Mulberry, as in
both instances the seeds are inclosed in a pulp, which in the
Artocarpus is farinaceous, in the Mulberry succulent. In
the Bread-fruit of the Pacific, however, the seeds are de-
veloped at the expense of the surrounding cellular sub-
stance, and these are the portions eaten.

After roasting them on the fire, they obtain much of the
taste of new bread, whereas in the East Indies the whole of
the fruit of the other variety, or of the Jack, is eaten, al-
though it constitutes a much less palatable food than the
Bread-fruit of the Pacific.

And whilst the fruit of this tree supplies the natives with
subsistence, its inner bark furnishes them with clothing, for
by a process of soaking, spreading out in layers, which ad-
here together, and then beating it with a mallet, the bark is
converted into a kind of cloth, which when the islands were
first visited by Europeans, constituted the principal dress of
the natives.

The Bread-fruit is cultivated also in the Brazils, where the

XII.] Species of Arum used far food. 91

xnean temperature of the coldest montli is 67% that of the
w^a.nnest being 81°.

"When we recollect that the thickened underground stem

(oT conn) of our common Arum, or Cuckoo-flower, yields

a» quantity of starch, which used to be collected in the island

of Portland, and sold as Arrow-root, we shall be less surprised

a.1; finding that those larger kinds, belonging to the genus

Oaladium, viz. C. macrorhizum in the Pacific, and the C. escu-

lentum in the West Indies, should supply the inhabitants

of those countries with food. . The former species constitutes

tlie Eddoes, which the negroes subsist upon ; the latter was

the principal nutriment of the aborigines of New Zealand

"before European modes of culture were introduced. It goes

by the name of Tare in that island, and, like the tubers of

our Potato, has stored up in it for the uses of the vegetable

a large amount of farina.

The Arum canariense has lately been imported into Guern-
sey for the same purpose, and is said to be there perfectly
naturalized, requiring only the shelter of a walled garden.
If the Report of the Acclimatisation Society can be relied
upon, the produce is very remunerative, although I suspect
some mistake in the figures given as to the amount said to
have been obtained.

In Madagascar, another plant allied in some respects to
the Arum family, although differing from the latter very
widely in its infloresence, (as it has a perinth containing twelve
stamens, instead of a spadix with male and female flowers
distinct,) is extensively cultivated for food. It is called the
Tacca pinnatifida \ or Otaheite Arrow-root, being also found
in that island, and in other parts of the Pacific. Its tubers
yield starch mixed with acrid matter, which is separated
from it by washing.

The inhabitants of Australia, and in some cases those of

* See Herb. Amboinenae under the name of T. pinnatifolia ; also Hort.
Malab., vol. ii. tab. 21. Forster in his Genera Plant, describes it ; and Goertner,
vol. i. p. 43, exhibits its seed-vessels. The best drawing, however, is in Encjcl.
Meth., pi. 282.

92 Tarn — Sweet Potato — Maize. [lbct.

the Sandwich Iskmds. and of India, are compelled to descendl.
to a still lower tribe of plants for their daily food, namely,
to different species of Fem, (such as Diplazinm escnlentum,
Pteris escnlenta, Marattia alata, Nephrodinm esculentum^)
which possess rhizomes sufficiently filled with &rina to be
taken as food. Notwithstanding their bitter taste, necessity
has reconciled the aborigines to their use ; just as during the
Arctic expeditions the same stem preceptor drove our seamen
to assuage the pangs of hunger with the Tripe de Roche,
a species of seaweed most repulsive to ordinary palates.

There is also a species of fudgus called Melitta austraHs,
employed by the Australians for food, and called by the
English Native-bread. It must, however, go through some
process of maceration or cooking, before it can be fi.t for
digestion.

But the plant most extensiyely cultivated in tropical
coimtries on account of its nutritious qualities is the Dios-
corea alata, or Yam, the root of which so abounds in fecula>
that a single plant will sometimes weigh thirty pounds.

This plant is a climber, belonging to the same family as
the common Black Bryony, and nearly allied to the Sar-
saparilla tribe. Numerous species of it are found in both
hemispheres, but they are confined to the tropics.

The Sweet Potato also, a species of Convolvulus, is much
used in these countries. It is a native of India, but admits
of cultivation throughout the United States, in Carolina espe-
cially, and even extends into the warmer parts of Europe,
where it takes the place of the ordinary Potato.

It is a perennial, with trailing stalks putting forth roots
at each joint, which swell into large dimensions from the
amount of fecula which they contain. It is these roots
which afford the supply of nutritious matter for which the
Sweet Potato is so much valued.

As we proceed northwards, we find that the plants which
supply us with food are chiefly of an herbaceous character,
and of annual or biennial growth.

The one, perhaps, which has the widest range of distribu-

.] Bice. 93

tion is the Maize^ a plant which we owe to the discovery of
A^xaerica ; for although it is called Indian Com, there is every
i-eason to believe it to have been unknown throughout every
portion of the ancient world.

Some doubt, I am aware, has been thrown upon this from

tlie report of its seed having been found in connexion with an

Egyptian mummy at Thebes ; but DecandoUe (pp. 946, 947)

lias exposed the extreme improbability of this being true, as

if the plant had been known in Egypt, it would have been

depicted on their monuments, as is the case with those kinds

of com which were in actual use amongst them, and would

hardly have failed to be extensively cultivated in a country

so well adapted for it. Yet although there is every reason

to believe that Maize was introduced into Europe from the

-warmer parts of America, perhaps even from the Brazils, it

is cultivated with success in north latitude 50°, near Frank-

fort-on-the-Maine, and in Gallicia, in latitude 49®. Being an

annual, the degree of winter cold is unimportant to it, but

a certain intensity of solar heat is requisite for the ripening

of its seeds.

Now the mean temperature of Frankfort seems to vary
from 65® to 66® of Pahr. This is greater than the mean
summer temperature of England, which, except in Hamp-
shire, does not exceed 61° or 62®. We can therefore under-
stand, why Maize is a kind of crop which does not succeed
in this country, although it thrives even in Canada, where
notwithstanding the rigour of the winter cold, the summers
are much hotter than in Great Britain.

But wherever a high summer temperature co-exists with
a soil abounding in water, the most profitable kind of cul-
ture is that of Rice, owing to the large proportion of farina
which it contains.

A mean summer heat of about 73® seems to be that which
suits it best, but it is cultivated in Lombardy, in the south
of France, and in Hungary, where the heat is several de-
grees inferior.

Notwithstanding that rice cultivation seems to be circum-
scribed within narrow limits by the joint conditions of high

94 MUM — Chemuta — Wheat, £jlect.

temperature and great humidity^ it would appear that a larger
proportion of the human race subsists upon this than upon
any other description of food^ although its dependence upon
humidity renders it a precarious crop^ and exposes the people
who trust to it for subsistence to frequent scarcities and
famines.

In drier situations, indeed, where the cUmate is warmer
than our own, some of the numerous species of Millet^ viz.
Panicum miliaceum, P. italicum, &c., and a species of a grass
called Holcus, which goes by the name of Negro Com in
Africa, and by that of Sorghum in Italy, is cultivated in
many parts of Asia, of Africa, and of Italy. The latter is
not only used as food, but an intoxicating liquor is prepared
from it by fermentation, which goes in Nubia by the name
of Dhourra.

In Tuscany, where the soil and temperature are eminently
favourable to the growth of the Chesnut, the fruit of that
tree, instead of being merely regarded as an agreeable addi-
tion to the dessert, is used by the peasants as a substantial,
and indeed a principal, article of daily consumption. The
Chesnuts are not merely roasted as with us, but also ground
into a fine meal, and in that condition are cooked in a variety
of ways, especially forming a kind of pudding or Polenta,
when mixed up with a quantity of Olive-oil sufficient to give
it a proper consistency.

I will next proceed to enumerate the plants which fiimish
nourishment to the inhabitants of this and other similarly
circumstanced countries.

Omitting the Quinoa, (Chenopodium Quinoa,) a species of
goosefoot confined to the high plateaus of Southern Peru,
but probably capable of introduction into Europe, and the
Amaranthus fariniferus, cultivated in the same manner on
the table-lands of the Himalayas, together with certain tuber^
ous roots used for food in parts of the globe rather warmer
than our own, such as those of the Oxalis tuberosa on the
Cordilleras of the New World, and of the Sagittaria sagit-
tata in China, I shall notice first Wheat, as being the cereal

III.] Wheat — range of its culture. 95

which, extends over the widest range of latitude, although
its produce varies greatly according to latitude, in cold coun-
tries not exceeding 6 or 8 fold, in the north of Mexico 17,
and in the southern part of that country 24 and even 35
fold that of the grain sown.

The power which this plant possesses of resisting cold
in northern regions, and of enduring a high temperature
in tropical ones, may perhaps be connected with the great
depth to which its roots, comparatively to the size of the
plant, are able to penetrate into the ground, sometimes, it
is said, in light and yielding soils extending as far as six
feet from the surface.

This circumstance enables it to draw its sap from a depth
at which the earth is, comparatively speaking, little under
the influence of the vicissitudes of diurnal temperature.

It is cultivated indeed, according to Humboldt, near Ca-
raccas, at a height of 1,600 feet above the sea ; in Cuba at
even a lower level than this ; and in the Mauritius almost to
the water's edge.

It is also grown in the Island of Lufon, and in many parts
of India, as well as near Canton, by sowing it at that period
of the year when the temperature is lowest. Thus in Bengal,
wheat, barley, oats, beans, &c., are sown in October, and
reaped in Ma;*ch or April.

It would seem that the extreme point which admits of the
cultivation of Wheat is about 71® Fahr. : now the winter
chmate of Havanna does not exceed that point, and that of
Canton and Mexico rises only to 65°.

In Egypt, where Wheat is grown abundantly, the mean
temperature of the three coldest months is as low as 58°, so
that the seed is sown in December and the crop is reaped in
February.

Such are the extreme boundaries of the cultivation of
Wheat in a southern direction.

On the other hand, a summer temperature of 58° is gene-
rally set down as requisite for the ripening of this vegetable,
so that it is limited in its extension northwards by this cir-
cumstance.

Accordingly in this country, its cultivation does not sue-

96 Wheat — range of its culture. [lect.

ceed at a height of more than 600 feet above the level of tl^o
sea, and is limited in point of latitude to the neighbour—
hood of Aberdeen, situated in the 57th parallel.

It is not long ago, indeed, namely in 1727, that a crop of
Wheat in Edinburgh was noted as a curiosity ; nor was its
cultivation at all extensive throughout Scotland even so late
as 1770.

At present, however, abundant crops are to be seen in the
Lowlands, and its culture is pushed as far as the Moray
Firth. Now as the mean temperature in summer of those
parts of Scotland does not exceed 57% or even 56% we must
account for the growth of Wheat by the length of the day,
which seems in some measure to compensate for the defect of
solar radiation — ^agreeably to the statement of Boussingault,
that Wheat requires 8,248** of Fahr. to bring its grain to
maturity, so that a longer duration of solar heat will produce
the same effect as a shorter period of greater intensity.

It appears from an interesting report on the climate of
Scotland, published in 1862 by the Meteorological Society of
that country, that the mean temperature of the whole
island varies very little, being 47* 1' for the east coast^
47° 2' for the inland portions, and 47° 8' for the west ; the
only places which fall below this standard being the Orkney
and Shetland Islands, and the remoter Hebrides, wHere the
mean temperature is only 45° 8'.

But though the temperature of the year may be the same
throughout Scotland, its distribution throughout the different
seasons differs; and hence it happens, that owing to their
lower summer heat the western parts of the island scarcely
admit of the successful cultivation of Wheat, and that else-
where it is limited to a height of 500 feet above the sea in
the south, and 100 in the extreme north.

It is curious, as corroborating the views of M. Boussin-
gault, that the ripening of Wheat in the northern part of
Scotland took place at a somewhat ^ower temperature than
in the south of that island, owing to the greater length of
the days in the former.

The following table represents the temperature required
to mature crops of Wheat and Barley in Scotland : —

III.]

Barley — range of its Culture.

DEO.

DAYS.

. 8188 .

. 156

. 6560 .

. 119

. 6767 .

123

. 8362 .

. 159

. 6900 .

129

. 7125 .

. 133

Colloden, i ^ ,

Barley

^- I Oats

East Linton, ( ""^^^^
g j Barley

' Oats

In Norway Wheat is cultivated as high as Drontheim, in
lat. 69** ; in Sweden np to the 63rd parallel ; and in Eussia it
is met with extending to St. Petersbnrgh, in lat. 59** 5', where
the summer heat indeed is said to average 60°.

Now this represents very nearly tb,e mean temperature of
that season in the midland counties of England^ nor does
Penzance even, mild as it is in winter, exceed that point in
summer. On the Hampshire coast alone the thermometer
is quoted nearly as high as GS*". As the summers of this
country in general so little exceed the point necessary for the
successful cultivation of Wheat, we can understand why the
western side of the island^ which is cooler in summer than
the eastern, should be better adapted for the growth of Grass
than of Com. And hence we perceive why Wheat is carried
from the eastern to the western counties, whilst cattle are
driven from the eastern to the western.

On turning to a map of England it will be found, that all
our principal com districts are situated on the eastern side
of the island, from the Lothians to Kent.

In the western part of Scotland, indeed, the simimer sun
is so insufficient for the ripening of Wheat, that other kinds
of produce take its place altogether.

The other species of cereal Grasses cultivated in this coun-
try are indeed exempted from the influence of the winter's
cold, by being sown after the rigour of the season has passed
away. Hence it is not surprising, that Barley should extend
further to the north than Wheat, as being sown in March,
and accordingly we find the hardier kind, called Bere, at
the extreme limits of Scotland, as likewise in the Orkney and
Faroe Islands, in Lapland, at the North Cape in latitude
70*, in Bussia as far north as Archangel, and even in Siberia
in lat. 58« and 59^

98 Bt/e — Oats — Potato. [ukct.

Hence it seems to admit of being cultivated, wherever the
summer temperature does not fall short of 46° or 47**, althoug^h
this has been of late disputed by an author \ who contends,
that at its northern limit in Norway the mean temperature
in summer is 53° 4'.

He alleges, moreover, that in Iceland, where the mean
temperature is 49° 5', Barley will not ripen j but this I
imagine to arise, less from the low mean of the thermometer,
than from the unseasonable rains that ravage that desolate
island during the period of its ripening.

In a southern direction the limit of Barley is considerably
less extended than wheat, as it is unable to endure an equal
intensity of solar heat.

♦

Rye would seem to be rather less hardy than Barley, for
it ceases to grow in Sweden about the 66th parallel of latitude,
and in Norway at about the 67th.

The northern boundary of the cultivation of Oats is not yet
ascertained with accuracy, but this cereal extends at least as
far as the most northern point of Scotland, and is therefore
but little, if at all, less hardy than rye or barley.

The relation as to temperature subsisting between these
four kinds of cereals is also clearly discerned^ by comparing,
one with the other, the point above the level of the sea, at
which their respective cultivation has been ascertained to
cease.

In Switzerland,

Wheat may be cultivated as high as 3,400 feet.

Oats 3,500 „

Rye 4,600 „

Barley 4,800 „

"Where the only apparently anomalous fact is, that Oats
should not admit of being grown at about the same eleva-
tion as Rye and Barley.

Of all known vegetables, however, the Potato is the one
which has the widest range of distribution.

^ Whitby, in Roy. Agr. Journ., vol. ii. p. 38.

III.] Cereals tchence derived. 99

It is supposed to be derived from the neighbourhood of
Ilfiina^ or from Chili, and yet it has been diffused throughout
tlie whole of Europe, and even attains a higher latitude than
"barley itself.

It succeeds in Iceland, where, as above stated, no kind of
cereal can be made to grow ; and it is remarkable, that whilst
it yields an abundance of wholesome nourishment in a cold
climate, it degenerates in countries whose mean temperature
approaches to that of the regions of which it appears to be
a native. In the latter, indeed, it is a poor stunted pro-
duction, with tubers so small as to yield but little nourish-
ment. Art has brought about that development in them
-which renders the plant serviceable to our uses ; but in so
doing, it may be presumed to have induced in it an un-
natural condition, and thereby rendered it liable to those
diseases which have of late so much detracted from its
utility.

It is, however, by no means a peculiarity of the Potato,
to be derived from a country considerably warmer than
those in which it is principally cultivated.

All our staple productions may be reasonably suspected of
having had a similar origin.

It is true, that the native country of the cereal Grasses is
still open to discussion. Wheat and Barley have, it is said,
been found growing wild, in Persia, Mesopotamia, and on
the banks of the Euphrates ; and a writer in the " Edin-
burgh Philosophical Journal*' in 1827, comes to the con-
clusion, that the valley of the Jordan may be the native
coimtry of all the cereals.

But who does not perceive, that the existence of wild Corn
in a country formerly inhabited by an agricultural popula-
tion, only implies that the climate is warm enough to allow
of its maintg-ining itself when once introduced, not that it
was originally itself a native of the soil.

We know, in fact, nothing as to the origin of Oats or
of Rye, and with respect to Barley, we can scarcely infer its
native country, from being told that it grows wild in coun-
tries so remote from each other as Tartary and Sicily.

Wheat is said to be a native of Sicily, which was the fabled

100 ^gilops ovata, whetJwr the source of Wheat [^r-JEcr.

birthplace of Ceres ; but then we are told, on the other h.aJi<I^
by Strabo, that it came from the borders of the Indus.

It is, however, certain, that in our northern latitudes iroixe
of the aboye cereal Grasses will diffuse themselves spon-
taneously, for although a few scattered seeds may come up
of themselves from a field which has been the year before ixi
a state of cultivation, yet it seems generally admitted, thxxt
there is no instance of these crops maintaining themselires
for any length of time in ground abandoned to itself.

This therefore would seem at least to indicate, that oiu*
cereal Grasses have been derived from a warmer climate,
unless, indeed, we feel disposed to adopt the views of Darwin,
and imagine them to be produced by a long process of na-
tural selection from other kinds of Grasses.

The experiments of M. Favre, who professes to have con-
verted the grass called -Slgilops ovata gradually into Wheat,
by cultivating the former for a number of successive years
in a rich soil, have excited much attention, and if their accu-
racy were admitted, the conclusion we should arrive at would
be favourable to the hypothesis of Darwin; but another
Frenchman, M. Goudin, maintains, that the changes which
Favre had remarked in the ^gilops arose from a crossing
that occurred between this grass and the contiguous wheat.
Hence would occur hybrids, which partook of the characters
of both the parents, and which are not permanent, as, ac-
cording to M. Favre's view, they ought to be, but revert
gradually to the original stock.

I do not, therefore, venture to bring forward the case of
the JEgilops as affording any independent support to the
doctrine of Darwin regarding the gradual transmutation of
species, although those who are already persuaded of the
truth of that hypothesis, may feel themselves justified in
interpreting the facts observed by M. Favre in accordance
with it.

We do not, however, find in other cases any such tendency
to change, even after a period of immense duration.

The Spruce Fir, which Dr. Heer describes in the upper
pleiocene beds, near Happisburgh, in Norfolk, making part

in. 3 Darwin' & Law of Natural Selection. 101

of a submarine forest, has all the characters of the Spruce
Fir of the present day ; and the most extreme examples of
divergence from the normal condition of a species which can
l>e brought about, are all, so far as we know, capable of
breeding together, and of producing a fertile offspring.

I am of opinion, indeed, that divines have presumed too
far upon our imperfect acquaintance with the laws of creation,
and of the limits set to their operation, when they pronounce
dogmatically, that the introduction of a 6ew species of animal
or plant necessarily requires the immediate interposition of
tlie Divine energy; considering that other phenomena equally
mysterious and unaccountable are attributed without scruple,
or offence taken, to the agency of secondary causes.

But on the other hand, whilst recognising the existence of
provisions, which seem intended for the adaptation of each spe-
cies to the new circumstances under which it might be placed,
and for the production of varieties suited for these altered
conditions, we must not ignore the operation of another law,
which those who at the earliest times meditated upon physical
phenomena pointed out, that, namely, apparently framed for
the maintenance of the order of creation instituted upon our
globe, which, like that of the planetary systems in general,
seems to be secured by means of constant change y oscillating
within certain definite limits.

Amongst organic bodies, as I have observed on another
occasion *, this stability appeal's to have been provided for by
means of which we have some comprehension, namely, by the
limit which nature has imposed upon the divisibility of matter ;
by which simple law, as an ancient poet long ago observed,
the immutability of the Universe is effectually secured : —

" For if overcome
By aught of foreign force, those seeds could change,
AH would be doubtful ; nor the mind conceive
"What might exist, or what might never live"."

Good's Lucbetius, bk. i. 639.

* See Introduction to Popular Geography of Plants. (Lovell Reeve, 1855.)

" Nam, si primordia rerum

Commutari aliquft possent ratione revicta,
Incertum quoque jam constet, quid possit oriri.
Quid nequeat ; finita potestas denique quoique
Qa4 nam sit ratione, at que alte terminus hoBrens;

102 Darwin^ 8 Theory. fr-Kcr.

Yet the elements themselves, no less than their combina-
tions, seem susceptible of certain modifications in their pro-
perties^ arising perhaps out of a new arrangement o:f their
constituent particles, as the phenomena of alloirqpmn, lately
made known to us by chemists, seem to demonstrate.

Amongst organic bodies, indeed, the machinery is veiled, in
greater obscurity, but the end is still the same ; for here also
Nature appears to have attached equal importance to tlie
preservation, unchanged throughout all time, of that order
and arrangement which she has herself instituted.

Hence, apparently, the impediments she has set up to the
production of varieties by hybridization, impediments, the ex-
istence of which we must all acknowledge, however much we
may be in the dark as to the causes which produce them.

These remarks, of mine were introduced into a popular
work before the views of Mr. Darwin had been promul-
gated ; and I am still inclined to think, that there is no real
inconsistency between the law therein enunciated, and all
that observation has as yet substantiated, with respect* to
the effects of natural selection in inducing new and widely
divergent varieties. For whilst the great array of facts so
ingeniously brought to bear upon his theory by Mr. Darwin,
compels us to grant, that a much wider range of variation
must be allowed to species than had been hitherto contem-
plated, it is still open to us to pause, before we go to the
length of maintaining, that this power of variation has no
limits prescribed to it — at least until some undisputed in-
stance shall have been adduced of varieties gradually merg-
ing into species" ; or, in other words, so far divergent in fun-

Nee totiens possent generatim ssecla referre

Naturam, motus, victum^ moresque, parentum. — ^Lib. I. 585.

" The following instances, which Mr. Darwin has adduced in support of this
position, do not appear to me conclasive.

Two varieties of Maize, a dwarf and a tall kind, did not cross.

Three varieties of Gourd became less fertile in proportion to the differences
between them.

Tellow and white Verbascnm, when intercrossed, produced less seed than
each did separately.

Tobacco plant is less fertile with some varieties than with others.

III.3 Sow far admissihle. 103

daxnoiital points from the normal type^ as to be incapable of
"breecling with other members of the species from which they
originated, and likewise exhibiting no tendency to revert
to tlie characters of the primary stock.

I should moreover be inclined to withhold my assent to
tlxese views, until some of those vast gaps have been bridged
over, which at present interrupt the chain of connection
'bet'ween one part of the system of organic nature and that
to which it most nearly approximates, and which, so long
as they exist, present in the minds of many a formidable
obstacle to the entire reception of the ingenious and fasci-
nating theory of Natural Selection.

LECTURE IV.

-••-'

Power of man to modify dimate — hj cutting down timber. Instances
shewing the effect of this — in America — ^in other oonntries. Causes of the
change of climate prodncible by man's agency — whether Europe is warmer now
than formerly — Iceland and Greenland seem to indicate the contrary. Limited
power of man to modify climate as compared with natural agencies — ^the lattca*,
however, have never, within the limits of our experience, operated so hanefnlly
upon our well-being, as our own had passions have done. Power of man to
acclimatize plants considered — analogous case in the animal kingdom. Modes
in which varieties may arise — Archbishop Whately's scheme for introdacing
hardier varieties of the plants of warmer countries. Other modes of adapting
plants to climate — Street's directions — ^Root pruning. Description of plants
best fitted for introduction into a colder dimate. 'Adanson's principle as to the
sum of heat necessary for the flowering of each plant. Exceptional cases of
climate as affecting plants considered — ^Ck>mwall — ^Tierra del Fuego. Practical
bearing of these principles upon farming. Lawes on the influence of climate
upon the crops. Cultivation in England — of Miuze — of Hops — of the Vine.
Daniell's so^estions. Selection of soil and situation for plants. Orchard
houses. Gardens under glass. Importance of meteorological records for de-
termining the exact character of the dimate in each locality. Combination of
circumstances rendering Torquay suitable as a winter residence for invalids.
Conclusion.

Having in my preceding Lecture pointed out, in what
manner, and to what extent, the distribution of plants over
the globe is affected by climatic influences, and also the
kinds of vegetables which are found to be most suitable for
cultivation in each region, I shall proceed in the next place
to consider, how far human agency is capable of modifying
these natural arrangements, either by the change it may
induce in the character of the climate itself, or in that of the
plants subjected to its influence.

The former of these enquiries belongs more properly to
the subject of Husbandry, the latter to that of Horticulture,
although it must be admitted, that both these departments
of Sriiral Economy are to a certain extent involved in either
branch of the enquiry.

In considering the power of man to modify the climate of

. IV.] Climate affected by eutting down Timber. 105

tlie country in which he resides, it may be observed, that the
q[ixcuitity of rain which falls in a particidar district seems to
"be often affected by the cutting down of its forests, and like-
Mrise that the water which the soil receives from the hea-
vens will be got rid of more rapidly after a clearage of its
timber.

Trees will naturally arrest in their progress the clouds and
nxists which sweep over the country, and cause them to
deposit their moisture upon them, whilst at the same time
evaporation from the surface will go on more rapidly, when
tte wind has a free circulation, than when the ground is
protected from it by wood.

Of the extent to which these causes operate, Boussingault
has given a striking example, in his account of the change
produced in the climate of Venezuela by the cutting down
of the forests, in regard to the fall of rain, and the humidity
of the district. The Lake of Valentia in that province, being
destitute itself of an outlet, is calculated to gauge with the
greatest nicety^ by the rise and fall of its waters, the increase
or diminution in the rivers that discharge themselves into it.
During the early part of this century, when Humboldt
visited the spot, the lake was reported to him to be constantly
lessening. By the recession of its waters, low islands formerly
standing just above the water^s level became converted into
hillocks, land once covered by water had been transformed into
beautiful plantations of Bananas and Sugar-canes, and a bed
of fine sand intermixed with fresh- water shells was detected
several yards above the level of the lake.

This diminution in the rivers of the district was traced to
the felling of timber on the contiguous hills, followed by the
falling off of rain; and a confirmation of this theory was
afforded by the subsequent increase in the dimensions of the
lake, which was observed by M. Boussingault twenty-five
years afterwards, owing to the partial return to a state of
nature, which followed upon the desolation caused by the
civil wars during the struggle for independence. Hence as
timber was no longer felled to the same extent, rain fell in
greater abundance than before.
Another lake without an outlet, situated in New Granada,

106 Climate affected by MatCs Interference. {jubct.

supplied Boussingault with a second and a similar instance
of the connexion between the quantity of timber and the
amount of rain. Here the recession of the waters was a mat-
ter of general notoriety, and coincident with this diminution
had been the clearing of the surrounding forests, to afford
fuel for the salt works that exist in the neighbourhood.

Nor can this have arisen from any change of climate, for
in other places in the same neighbourhood, where no clearings
have taken place, and the country continued to be left to
nature, the level of the lakes had undergone no change since
the memory of man.

Humboldt in his travels through Siberia was assured, that
connected with an increased cultivation of the soil in those
regions, the same diminution had occurred in the depth of their
lakes; and those of Neuchatel, Bienne, and Morat, must have
sunk since Switzerland began to be peopled, if it be true iiiat
they formerly constituted one continuous sheet of water.

Saussure also asserts that the same diminution has taken
place in the Lake of Geneva.

Berghaus has pointed out, that the Oder and the Elbe are
both inferred to be undergoing diminution, from observa-
tions made from 1778 to 1838 with respect to the former,
and from 1728 to 1836 on the latter river.

Whether, however, this has arisen from a decrease in the
amount of rain, or from an increase in the rate of evapora-
tion caused by the clearance of the coimtry, may admit
of doubt.

Gasparin shews, that during the last century the quantity
of rain that falls annually has remained stationary, at Paris,
at Milan, and in other places; whilst Boussingault states,
that in the province of Popayan, where the supply of water
had fallen off so considerably that the mines of Marmato
suffered, the rain-fall nevertheless had not diminished.

An interesting confirmation of this truth is afforded by
the Island of Ascension.

In this case it appears, not only that the removal of the
trees was followed by the drying up of the only spring
which the Island possessed, but also that the restoration of
the timber brought with it the recovery of the lost water.

XAT.] Causes of the Deterioration of Land, 107

Boussingaiilt, however, contends, that although this may-
be conceived to have happened from the timber having im-
peded evaporation, and thereby preserved the water that
fell from the heavens, it could not have arisen from any de-
orease in the actual rain-fall effected over so small an area as
'tliat which the Island of Ascension occupies.

It is, however, enough for our purpose if we are able to
substantiate the fact, that by the removal of the forests we
have it in our power to modify the character of the country
-with respect to humidity, whether this be brought about in
one way or in the other ; of which fact I apprehend there is
abundance of proof. •

It is not many months ago, that a correspondent in the
'* Times'' newspaper predicted the gradual decay of Great
Britain from the exhaustion of the vegetable mould which
imparts fertility to our fields, and his remarks were con-
sidered as of so much weight, that the Editor thought it
necessary in the subsequent number to devote a leading
article to the subject.

That vegetable mould supplies plants directly with nutri-
ment, or that it can ever be exhausted, so long as the crops
are maintained in a state of luxuriance by tillage and manure,
is a notion which I had believed to have been altogether ex-
ploded by Liebig ; but that many of those countries, which in
ancient times were fertile enough to maintain a large popu-
lation, are barren and desolate at present, is nevertheless
a fact which does not admit of dispute.

To me the cause of this deterioration appears obvious, as
arising from the denuded state of these countries as regards
timber, for which we need not go further than to many of
the islands of the Archipelago, to parts of Greece, and even
of Italy.

But that the land can be maintained in a state of fertility
for an indefinite period, where the country enjoys a sufiicient
degree of humidity, and where the natural richness of soil
supplies the mineral ingredients which the crops require in
sufficient abundance, in those cases in which they are not
furnished from extraneous sources, is evident, I think, not
merely from the case of Egypt, where the waters of the Nile

108 Methods of improving Climate. [lect.

convey an unusual supply of nutritious matter from the high,
lands of Ethiopia, but also irom. that of Naples, Tuscajiy,
and even of parts of Sicily, and indeed wherever the ground
obtains fair play from the industry of man.

Where the reverse is the case, I should attribute it rather
to the aridity caused by the destruction of the forests, than to
the exhaustion of the vegetable matter itself.

In addition to the facts already adduced in proof of the
influence of trees upon the fall of rain, it may be mentioned,
that Lower Egypt, which is usually cited as a country where
rain never falls, has lost this character, having, as it is said^
experienced of late shojnrers occasionally of rather a heavy
description, at least in the neighbourhood of Cairo and Alex-
andria; this remarkable change being coincident with the
planting of trees, which the late Pasha has brought about
to a considerable extent in the neighbourhood of his capital,
and in other parts of Lower Egypt.

It would appear, then, that man is really capable of exer-
cising a certain control over the humidity of the climate, by
thinning the forests, or by renewing them in the manner
represented ; nor can it be doubted, that the same effect will
be brought about by drainage, which carries off the redun-
dant waters into their appropriate channels, instead of allow-
ing them to stagnate upon the surface.

And in thus altering the character of a country with re-
spect to its humidity, he may hope to bring about a corre-
sponding change also in its temperature, for the tendency of
swamps and stagnant waters is to cool down by their evapo-
ration the surface of the earth, as well as to intercept the
rays of the sim by the mists and fogs they engender.

Nor must we forget the genial influence, upon a soil pro-
perly drained, of summer showers, possessing as they often
do a temperature from 10** to 20** higher than the ground.
This is lost in an undrained soil, because the water which
descends from the heavens is mixed with the moisture of the
ground, and thus adds very little to its warmth.

It has been calculated by Mr. Bailees, from experiments
made at Chat-Moss, that the temperature of the soil when

IV.] Climate of the Aiicient World. 109

drained averages 10** more than it does when undrained ; and
tliis is not surprising, when we find that 1 lb. of water eva-
pox*a.ted from 1,000 lb. of soil will depress the whole by 10**,
o'^^ng to the latent heat which it absorbs in its conversion
steam.

similar influence in depressing temperature will be

exerted upon a newly-peopled country by the forests which

ex^tend so generally over its surface, at least by intercepting

tlxe sun's rays, if not, as we have endeavoured to shew, by

increasing the rain-fall. Woidd not this circumstance lend

piH)bability to the idea, that countries like our own were

formerly colder than they are at present; not that any

secular variation of climate can be supposed to have taken

place within the limits of human experience, but that the

general character of the country, whilst yet unreclaimed

and overspread with forests, would be naturally more humid,

and consequently colder.

It has been already remarked that Wheat was but little
cultivated in Great Britain some centuries back ; might not
this have been owing to the climate being formerly of too
low temperature to admit of its general introduction ?

But this opens a large question, namely, what was the
temperature of the ancient world as compared to that of the
modem, and of England in olden times in relation to what
it is at present P

In entering upon this enquiry I have no intention to go
back so far as the Glacier period of Agassiz, or even the
age of Flint Instruments, of which we have lately heard
so much.

Suffice it to say, that even the latter epoch, which is con-
sidered to have been vastly more modern than the glacial
period, which overspread Europe with those boidders, that
have been carried to such a distance from the rock from which
they originated, is supposed by Sir Charles Lyell to have
possessed a climate much colder than the present, so that at
the time when the inhabitants of what is now the valley of
the Somme, in Normandy, chipped into the shape of arrow-
heads the flints of the district, the river was frozen over

110 Evidences of the greater Seventy [t^ject.

every year for several montlis^ and floatmg masses of ice
deposited in the bed of the river, as they melted, blocks of
stone and strata of mud and sand. Hence those fragments
^of hard and angular sandstone which occur both in the lower
and higher gravels near Amiens, and hence those irregnlari*
ties in the strata which have been remarked in the same
formations.

Whether these indications of a continuance of the cold of
the glacial epoch to these comparatively later times lend any
probability to the notion, that during any portion of the his-
torical period the climate of Europe was more rigorous than
it is at present, I shall leave for others to determine — strictly
confining myself to the enquiry, whether there is any evidence
from ancient writers as to the fact that such was the case.

Now the severe winters which Ovid* describes at the
place of his banishment in the Crimea, where he represents
the Danube covered over with ice solid enough to be crossed
by horses, the very sea frozen so as to be walked upon, the
plains destitute of verdure and wood, the apple-trees bearing
no fruit, the inhabitants mufSed up to their very throats in
skins, seem to point to a climate more rigorous than what
prevails at present in that country.

Similar is the picture given by Virgil in his Georgics of
the climate on the Danube, — ^the wine frozen and cleft with
an axe, the cattle sheltered during winter in houses, or else
smothered in the snow.

I may be permitted, perhaps, to quote some lines from
Sewell's translation of the Georgics in proof of this : —

" But not where Scythia's hordes,
And wave Mseotian, and that turbid flood,
Ister, in eddies rolling golden sands ;
And where far outstretched llhodope returns
Towards the meridian pole ; there keep they herds
Preserved in folds, nor anywhere appear
Or herbs in field, or foliage upon tree ;
But shapeless beneath snow-drifts, and deep ice.
The earth lies all around, and rises high
E'en to seven ells

• See especially De Ponto, lib. iv. eleg. 7 and 9.

IV.] of the Climate in Ancient Days. Ill

Crusts of ice
All of a sudden in the running stream
Shoot into masses, and the wave now bears
Steel-plated wheels upon its back ; that wave
Erst broad-bowed boats, now welcoming the wains.
And brazen vessels oft asunder split.
And robes freeze stiflP while worn, and liquid wines
They cleave with axes. And whole lakes have turned
To solid ice, and grim on beards imkempt
The icicle has hardened. All the while
Unceasingly through heaven entire it snows.
Perish the herds — thus stand all wrapt in showers
Of sleet huge shapes of oxen, and, in throng
Close gathered, harts beneath the novel weight
To numbness freeze, and scarce with antler tips
Above it peer ^.**

I quote this description, not of course in the same sense as
I should have been jiistified in doing the report of a prose
writer, in proof pf these very phenomena having actually
been witnessed on the Danube at the time to which Virgil

^ " At non, qua Scythise gentes MsBotiaque unda,
Turbidus et torquens ilaventes Hister arenas,
Qaaque redit mediam Bhodope porrecta sub axem.
Illic clausa tenent stabulis armenta ; neque uUa)
Aut herbsB campo apparent aut arbore frondes;
Sed jacet aggeribus niveis informis et alto
Terra gelu late, septemque assurgit in ulnas :
Semper biems, semper spirantes frigora Cauri.
Turn Sol pallentes baud unquam discutlt umbras :
Nee quum invectus equis album petit eetbera ; nee quum
Prsecipitem Oceani rubro lavit seqaore currum.
* CoDcrescunt snbitee currenti in ilumine crustse,
Undaque jam tergo ferratos sustinet orbes,
Puppibus ilia prius, patulis nunc bospita plaustris.
^raque dissiliunt vulgo, vestesque rigescunt
Indutse, cseduntqne securibus bumida vina,
Et totse solidam in glaciem vertere lacunee,
Stiriaque impexis indoruit horrida barbis.
Interea toto non secius aere ningit ;
Intereunt pecades, stant circumfusa pruinis
Corpora magna bourn, confertoque agmine cervi
Torpent mole nova, et summis vix cornibus exstant."

(Line 349—370.)

112 Winters of great Severity in Modern Times. [x*»CT.

refers^ but as a proof, that countries in that latitude
then visited with such severe winters, as to lead the poet to
single them out, as affording examples of what he pictixred
to himself to be the characteristics of a rigorous and almost
arctic climate.

Other writers, too, speak in the same terms of the cold.
experienced in Gaul and Britain, and even tHe accurate
Strabo states, that the Fig and Olive would not grow,
and that Vines would not ripen their grapes, north of tlie
Cevennes.

The freezing of the Tiber, as Hume remarks, seems not to
have been an uncommon event in ancient days, whereas it is
at present unusual for the snow to lie two days at a time
in the streets of Bome ®.

Descending to modem days, we may perhaps obtain evi-
dence of a greater rigour in the climate of these northern
latitudes than is perceived at present.

Arago, in the Annuaire for 1828, has enumerated some of
the most severe winters on record in France and England.

It appears that the Seine was frozen over in

1740, and the thermometer went down to 6.8 Pahr.
1744 „ „ 14.0

1760 „

1767

1776

1788

15.8
3.2

10.4
8.6

The greatest cold observed was in 1795, when on the 25th
of January the thermometer sank to — 10° below zero.

The next, on the 13th of January, 1709, when it fell
to —9° 5'.

In England the winter of 1708-9 was, if not more severe,
at least of longer duration, than we have ever since ex-
perienced ; and during the course of the last century, several
seasons have occurred of sufficient severity to cause the
Thames to be frozen over.

It is true, that during the late severe winter of 1860-61,

^ See Hume, Popnlousness of Ancient Nations, Essays, vol. i. p. 477.

rv.3

Severest Winters recorded in Modern Times.

113

more damage seems to have been done to the tender shrubs
and evergreens than had been recorded on previous occasions.
These fatal effects, however, appear to have been owing to
tlie occurrence of a great cold succeeding a moist autumn ;
for if we look at the extreme of temperature that occurred,
'we sliall find it equalled in some preceding years.

Indeed, out of ninety years, from 1771 to 1861, recorded
in Glaisher's Tables, no less than eighteen had a lower mean
temperature than the one which we have lately experienced^.

' The foUowing is a list of some of the lowest mean temperatures recorded
in the Tables alluded to, none being noticed excepting those below 35o ; that of

DEO. MIK.

1860-61 (mean

of Dec,

Jan., and Feb

.) being

37.3

1837-8

y»

»t

34.3

1813-14

»»

32.5

1799-1800

>»

34.7

1798-9

34.4

1796-7

*»

»>

33.8

1794-5

31.6

1788-9 •

>»

34.1

1784-5

32. 5

1783-4

32.0

1779-80

>»

34.7

If we take the mean winter temperatures for each period of ten years since
1771, we find that during —

DEO. MIK.

1st decennial period, viz. from 1771 to 1780, Greenwich 36 . 94

2nd

3rd

»9

4th

5th

6th

7th

»>

8th

»>

9th

>»

1780 „ 1791

36.52

1791 „ 1800

36.8

1801 „ 1810

38.0

1811 „ 1820

»>

37.3

1821 „ 1830

37.8

1831 „ 1840

38.2

1841 „ 1850

38.7

»>

1851 „ 1860

Oxford

38.98

Curve ofmnter temperatures duritiff the nine decennial periods,
123456789

39.0
38.5
38.0
87.5
37.0
36.5

The mean temperature of London has been stated in p. 18, on the authority

114 Increase of Cold in Modem Times. [lbct.

The inference, therefore, I should be inclined to dra\r,
would, upon the whole, be rather favourable to an improve-
ment in the temperature of this country, than the reverse,
notwithstanding the experience we have lately had of two
winters of more than average severity.

The former existence of vineyards, indeed, in this country,
if it be an admitted fact, might lead to the opposite conclu-
sion ; but these must at any rate have been confined to the
neighbourhood of the rich monasteries, or the domains of
the larger proprietors, where the climate may have been
already mitigated by culture.

Even now, it would appear, &om the statements of Boussin-
gault, that the mean temperature of Hampshire ''might be
bigh enough to admit of vine culture,*^ as well, perhaps, as the
northern parts of Germany, where it is carried on.

At any rate, some amelioration in the climate of l^orth.
America is stated on good authority to have taken place,
since the country has been brougbt imder tillage, and the
forests reduced in extent.

It must, however, be admitted, that in some nortbem
coimtries, such as Iceland and Greenland, a very marked
deterioration of climate has taken place within historical
times.

Sir H. Holland, in his " Dissertation on the History and
Literature of Iceland," prefixed to Sir G. Mackenzie's Travels,
observes, that it appears certain, that Com was formerly
grown in that island, and that the trees and shrubs at one time
attained a much larger size, and were more numerous than at
present, — ^both from the discovery of trunks in the morasses,
and from the frequent mention made in the ancient writings
of houses, and even ships, constructed of native timber. We
read, too, of a feast in the western part of the island con-
tinuing for fourteen days, at which nine hundred persons were
assembled ; and of an entertainment given by two brothers
in the northern province, where was an assemblage of four-

of Dove, at 50** 83' ; bat that of Greenwich is set down by Glaisher at 49^ 6',
or 1*> 2' lower.

That of Oxford I have calculated as being, in a series of years, 0° 83' less
than Greenwich, so that its mean temperature will be 48** 74'.

IV.] Changes of Climate producible by Physical Causes, 115

teen hundred guests. In Greenland, too, a colony from Nor-
^way was established in the ninth century, which continued
to tlirive up to the year 1408, when it was destroyed, through
tlie neglect of the mother country, and the attacks of the
Esquimaux. It had a bishop, twelve parishes, and two con-
vents, till the year 1408, when all communication with East
Greenland was cut off by a vast accession of ice ; and from
that time no intercourse with this country and the rest of
tlie world has been possible.

These and other facts doubtless point to a deterioration of
climate ; but this is connected with some one of those great
physical changes which have taken place from time to time in
our globe, and which impress upon our minds the conviction
of man's impotence, to counteract, in any great degree, the
laws of nature, which he struggles to modify for his own
advantage.

I may remind you, that the sinking by a few hundred feet
of the great valley of the Mississippi, or the depression of
a strip of the continent near the Isthmus of Darien, might
divert the course of the Gulf-stream, and thus do infinitely
more than all human efforts could hope to achieve towards
modifying the climate of Western Europe.

" We should thus," as Hartwig remarks (p. 50), "not only
lose the benefit of its warm current, but cold polar streams,
descending further to the south, would take its place, and be
ultimately driven by the westerly winds against our coasts.

'' Our climate would then resemble that of Newfoundland,
and our ports be blocked up during many months by enor-
mous masses of ice.''

"Under these altered circumstances, England would no
longer be the grand emporium of trade and industry, and
would finally dwindle down from her imperial station to an
insignificant dependency of some other country more favoured
by nature."

It is, however, a fact of deep significance, and one calcu-
lated to lead to solemn reflections, that whilst our utmost
efforts to ameliorate our condition might be counteracted by
any one of those great physical changes, which geology in-

116 Greater National Calamities [user.

forms us have happened, and which, therefore, might occur
apin, Man, by the indulgence of his own malignant pas-
sions, produces often ten times as much mischief, as the
most tremendous visitations of Providence, that we have ever
witnessed, are known to have occasioned.

That the former of these propositions is based on truth
will be admitted, when we reflect, that such effects as I have
contemplated are by no means beyond the range of those
powers, which, at the bidding, and under the control, of the
great Author of the Universe, are working constantly be-
neath our feet.

The fact that during a period, geologically speaking,
modern, the whole of the northern hemisphere, fiir below
the latitude in which we reside, was covered with ice, leads
to the inference, that owing to some of those great changes
in the distribution of sea and land which we have abundant
evidence of in other parts of the globe, the Grulf-stream, if
indeed it had existed, was diverted from its present course ;
so that the very condition of things which I have contem-
plated must then have been realized.

But when we enquire into the character of the animated
creation that had then been called into existence, we find
that man was not then in being, and that the animals and
plants of that period were such, as might be suited to the
conditions of the climate which then prevailed over the
northern hemisphere.

And with respect to the latter part of the proposition —
setting aside as foreign to the present subject that great
physical catastrophe of which Scripture speaks, and which,
whatever might be its nature and extent, does not affect our
argument, as we are told by the same Authority as that
which relates it, that it is never to recur— we may remark,
that a general review of history and tradition fully justifies
us in recognising the greater intensity of those evils which
man brings upon himself, as compared with those which are
attributable to natural causes.

I am aware, indeed, of the fearful ravages that have been
caused by pestilence in certain ages and countries, but this
is a calamity in producing which moral as well as physical

IV.] caused by Man than by Nature. 117

causes co-operate ; and in order to estimate fairly the extent
o£ the evil proceeding from the latter, it would be necessary
in the first place to eliminate all that was due, to the filthy
ariid vicious habits of society — ^to the indolence, the improvi-
dence, the selfishness of man.

It was, indeed, from feeling how much natural evils are
^SgvB'^Qiedi by human misconduct, that old Homer puts into
tlie mouth of Jupiter the complaint, that man is always
laying his misfortunes at the door of the Immortals, whereas
lie by his own folly is continually bringing upon himself
calamities beyond what the Fates had decreed : —

''Perverse mankind! whose wills, created free.
Charge all their woes on absolute decree,
All to the dooming Gods their guilt translate,
And follies are miscalled the crimes of fate ®."

But if we take the case of a physical catastrophe, over
v«^hich man has no control at all, such, for instance, as an
earthquake, it may be remarked, that one of the severest on
record, namely, that which desolated the Neapolitan pro-
vinces in 1858, swept away only about 20,000 persons in all
the different places which lay in its path, whereas the pre-
sent war in America, even if it were brought to a speedy
issue, will have cost the lives of half a million of the
human race.

Well might David say, " Let us fall into the hands of the
Lord, for His mercies are great, but let us not fall into the
hands of men."

In considering these facts, we cannot but be impressed
with the truth, that in this, as in other cases, it is by taking
advantage of the arrangements of nature, rather than by
struggling against them, that we can hope to advance in
civilization, and to ameliorate our comforts and condition.

Let us therefore proceed to consider whether, if the cul-
tivator is unable to do much towards accommodating the

* *Ci tr6iroi, otov 7Hi vv Oeohs fiporol airiSotvrai,
*E( riix4fav ydp <pcurt kAiC ifiyi.evai' oi h\ koX alnoX
"Xip^aiv ara<r$a\lyinv (fnhp fi6poy &\ye* tx"^^^^^*

Od^ss. I. 30—32.

118 Power of accomfnodation in Man to Climate. [user.

climate to the vegetation, he may not effect something in
the way of adapting the plants themselves to the nature of
the climate.

To this latter branch of the enquiry belongs the question
as to the power of man to acclimatize plants^ which has long
been a matter of dispute.

If the analogy between plants and animals be allowed to
enter into the consideration, there would seem to be an an-
tecedent probability, that such a change in the constitution
of a plant, as should adapt it to a climate colder or warmer
than its native one, might gradually be brought about.

The human race, it may be said, as well as many of the
domestic animals which accompany him in his various
migrations, prove themselves capable of subsisting in every
climate, not from natural insensibility to differences of tem-
perature, &c., for an individual brought up in one climate
soon feels the injurious influence of removal into another,
but from the race gradually accommodating itself to the
new circumstances in which it is placed.

If then, it may be said, we admit that man is descended
from a single pair, it must be assumed, that a process of
acclimatization has been going on, by which the Negro on
the one hand, and the Esquimaux on the other, have been
gradually adapted to those excesses of heat or of cold,
neither of which the inhabitant of a temperate region is
calculated to support.

But the analogy fails in one important particular.

An animal, like man, possessed of a certain amount of in-
telligence, is capable of modifying to a great extent the
effects of the climate in which he is placed.

The Negro reposes during the extreme mid-day heat, and
by the influence of that insensible perspiration which takes
place in all warm-blooded animals, keeps his body down to
the normal point, even though the external temperature
should exceed it.

The Esquimaux, on the other hand, by the aid of ample
garments when out of doors, and by the joint etEdct of close
apartments and artificial heat when within, as well as by
taking advantage of the more equable temperature of the

IV.] Whether Plants can be rendered more hardy. 119

ea^rtli by burrowing under ground, contrives to maintain an
iix variable warmtb within his own person during the most
rigorous winter.

If, as is the case with the Fuegeans, and some other
xniserable tribes of savages, life is supported without these
eixtemal appliances, — and if it be true, that in the former in-
hospitable region the native is almost destitute of clothing,
and lives so unprotected from the weather, that he imprints
tlie form of his naked person upon the snow on which he
stretches during the night, — the stimted frames of these crea-
tures, and their feeble and unhealthy physical organization,
prove that there are limits beyond which no amount of
training or discipline, though it be carried over many gene-
rations, can enable even man, the most flexible in his or-
ganization perhaps of all animals, to proceed.

But passing over these analogical arguments, let us ex-
amine how far facts support the idea, that plants are capable
of being acclimatised.

It must be confessed, in the first place, that there is little
or no evidence, that plants produced from the seeds of a
tropical species, if sown in a region colder than that to
which they are indigenous, acquire in consequence a dif-
ferent temperament, or a lesser degree of susceptibility to
cold, than what is the attribute of the species in general.

Mr. Darwin indeed remarks, that the Pines and Rhodo-
dendrons which had been sown from seed collected by
Dr. Hooker from trees growing at different heights on the
Himalayas, were found to possess different constitutional
powers of resisting cold ; that Mr. Thwaites had observed
similar facts in Ceylon ; and Watson in England.

These facts, however, may perhaps admit of a different
explanation ; for that mere habit should have produced such
a change of constitution as is here supposed, seems re-
futed by the case of the Jerusalem Artichoke, which Mr.
Darwin with his usual candour adduces, a plant of which, as
it has not been propagated by seed, new varieties have never
been produced, and which is as tender now as it was on its
first introduction into our country.

Notwithstanding, therefore, the contrary opinion of Darwin,

120 Acclimatizatian Societies c&nsideredn [i^cr.

I am disposed to regard as chimerical the suggestion wKich
has been sometimes put forth, namely, that the produc-
tions of a hot country might perchance be gradually natu-
ralized in a cold one, by introducing them by successive
steps into countries intermediate in point of temperature, be-
tween that of their native country and the one in whicli it is
wished to establish them. I cannot, for instance, bruig myself
to believe that the Date-palm, taken from the neighbourhood
of Nice, where it may be supposed to have already acquired
a certain degree of hardihood beyond that which it possesses
in Algeria, might be made to grow on the western coasts of
France, as at Bordeaux ; that from thence it might be trans-
ported to Jersey, and thus in the course of a certain number
of generations might establish itself at Penzance or at Fal-
mouth.

There are, I am aware, both in London and Paris, AccKma-
tization Societies, founded with a view to the introduction
both of exotic animals and plants ; and the latter^ which is
under the immediate auspices of the Emperor of the French,
possesses a garden which, if it has no other merit, is at least
a great ornament to the Bois de Boulogne.

Nevertheless, I am not aware that either here or in England
the efforts of these Societies have been yet crowned with
success ; and undoubtedly, when I visited in winter the Paris
establishment, in which the attempt appears to be that of
maintaining the objects of experiment at the lowest tempera-
ture compatible with their life, the plants therein cultivated
appeared to have suffered in vigour and luxuriance, in propor-
tion as the temperature fell short of that point which it ordi-
narily attains in the regions to which they were indigenous.

Of course, the ready answer to this objection would be,
that sufficient time had not yet elapsed to produce a sen-
sible influence upon their temperaments ; but at least I am
afraid it must be admitted, that no facts can be as yet
brought forward, founded upon the experiments proceeding
in these Acclimatization Societies, which are calculated to
shake our faith in the a priori arguments tending to shew,
that the idea of hardening a tender plant, by gradual ex-
posure to a severer climate, is chimerical.

rv-^ Method of producing hardier varieties of Planta, 121

But I believe the cultivator may in some cases succeed in
arCclimatizing a plant in a colder region, by selecting for his
puxpose the robuster varieties of the species he wishes to
ixttroduce.

Thus the late variety of the Walnut flourishes in localities
-wliere the eariy ones are killed by the frost. Thus the eariy
sorts of Vine bear fruit in climates, where, owing to the in-
sixfficient heat of summer, or the eariy frosts of winter, the
plant in general fails.

In like manner, by selecting the tubers of those Potatoes
iw^hich blossom first, and by repeating that selection several
times in succession, we may at length obtain a variety, which
arrives at maturity in less than three months, and which
therefore, as it would seem, might be introduced into cli-
mates where the summer is too short to ripen the ordinary
samples.

The importation of Olive trees obtained in the Crimea,
"wiich appear less sensible of cold than those of the south of
France, might perhaps enable us to extend the cultivation of
that fruit beyond its present geographical limits.

In accordance with the above views, the Archbishop of
Dublin some years ago suggested to me a scheme of acclima-
tising plants, which seems in some measure an anticipation
of the great principle of natural selection, since brought so
prominently forward by Mr. Darwin.

That the variation in point of vigour which we perceive
in certain individuals of a species, in the vegetable as well
as in the animal kingdom, is constitutional, may be proved
by the experiments which the Archbishop had himself tried
of grafting an early Hawthorn upon a late one, and vice
versa.

In these cases the scions kept to their times of flowering
(which differed by about a fortnight from that of the stock)
just as before they were grafted; thus shewing that the
difference between them was congenital, and not dependent
upon soil and situation.

Proceeding, then, upon the assumption, that amongst every
hundred individuals of a given species some are naturally
hardier than others, he proposed to sow a number of seeds of

122 MeaM of cultivating tender Exotics, [lect.

each In a climate considered somewhat too cold for the plant
in general to be reared in it.

It follows, of course, that the larger portion will die, but
a few of the hardier individuals may nevertheless survive.

Repeating this process by sowing seeds obtained from
these latter varieties, in a climate somewhat colder than the
first, it is conceived that a robuster race might be produced ;
inasmuch as the survivors would be the hardiest varieties
of the hardiest parents, and therefore might be capable of
existing in a climate very much colder than the one natural
to the species in general.

It is indeed in this way alone that we can suppose the
human race to have become acclimatised in regions hotter or
colder than the one in which it was originally planted ; not
that individuals became altered in constitution by being
transplanted into a new country — for of this notion our
Indian experience shews us the fallacy, — ^but that those en-
dued with the greatest power of resisting heat in the one
case, and cold in the other, survived ; whilst those to which
the climate was less congenial, perished.

But although the above is the only sense iix which the
term acclimatisation can, properly speaking, be applied to the
vegetable kingdom, yet other means of cultivating plants
under unsuitable conditions of climate have been suggested
by horticulturists.

I need not particularly allude to the methods of preserving
tender plants from cold by placing them under glass, and
subjecting them to artificial heat.

These expedients appear to be as old as the Roman Em-
pire ; and from allusions made to them by Martial in his
Epigrams, it might be conjectured that glass as transparent
as what we have at the present day was manufactured for
the purpose.

In one passage, indeed. Martial gives a description seem-
ingly applicable to a modern orchard-house, where he
says: —

Your oranges and myrtles, with what cost
You guard against the nipping Mrind and frost*

IV.] Oreenhouses of the Ronmm. 123

Tlie absent sun the constant stoyes repair,
^Windows admit his beams without the air^"

But in another passage, where the poet celebrates the
garden of bis friend Entellus, he gives equal praise to the
" gemma'^or translucent stone, with which the vintage was
protected, but not concealed, comparing it to female beauty
sTiiTiJTig through silken folds — a simile much more applicable
to Hiapis specularis or Talc, than to the glass of modern
days : —

•* Here, lest the purple branch be scorched with frost,
And Bacchus' gifts by cold devouring lost,
Shut in the glass {gemma) the living vintage lies
Securely clothed, yet naked to the eyes ;
Through finest lace so female graces beam.
Pebbles are counted in the lucid stream.
What will not nature yield to human skill
When sterile winter shall be autumn still « ?"

It is indeed very improbable that glass should have been
employed by the Romans for their conservatories, when we
consider how very scanty a use was made of it by them for
otter purposes where transparency was required,— their win-
dows being composed of Talc, or Lapis specularis, and Nero
himself selecting a kind of stone called phengites for the
purpose of glazing the windows of one of his temples.

Plates of glass indeed, taken from the baths of Pompeii,

' " Pallida ne Cilicum timeant pomeria brumam
Mordiat et tenerum fortior aura nemus
Hybernis objecta notis specularia puros
Admittant soles, et sine feece diem."

fs The force of my remark will be felt more forcibly by consulting the ori-
ginal, which I subjoin : —

" Invida purpureos urat ne bruma racemos

Et gelidum Bacchi munera frigus edat,
Condita perspicua vivit vindemia gemma,

Et tegitur felix, nee tamen uva latet
FcQmineum lucet sic per bombycina corpus :

Calculus in nitida sic numeratur aqua.
Quid non ingenio voluit natura licere ?

Autumnum sterilis ferre jubetur hyems.''

See also Seneca, Epist. 90; Columella, xi. 3. 51 ; and Pliny, xix. 23.

124 Expedient% for cultivating [lecd.

are preserved in the Museo Borbonico at Kaples, but they
are only semi-transparent, and therefore calculated to trans-
mit no more than that dim sort of light which was re-
quired in a bath.

Very imperfect indeed, even so late as a century ago, were
the expedients for preserving plants under glass ; and it is
only since the improyements in the art of manufacturing
that article have in so wonderful a manner reduced its price
and extended its use, that in our stoves or conservatories
anything more has been aimed at, than to minister to tlie
luxuries of the rich, or to aid in the introduction of rare and
tender exotics.

Of late, however, attempts have been made to render glass
houses really available for the cultivation of our commoner
fruits, by erecting Orchard and Peach-houses, which with
little or na artificial heat secure these productions from the
contingency of an early frost.

And something also has been already done towards the
still more important object of establishing Sanatoriums, by
the construction of gardens under glass, where the invalid
might find in his native land those opportunities of taking
exercise without exposure to cold, which he is at present
compelled to seek in a distant land.

But without resorting to these expedients for introducing
an artificial climate into our own country, much may be done
by the horticulturist, by duly attending to the principles upon
which the distribution of heat is known to be regulated.

Thus in selecting the stations in which an exotic is to be
planted, it will be better that the spot fixed upon should
be shaded from the sun, than that it should be exposed to
its full glare.

In the latter situation the plant is rapidly thawed by the
morning sim after a cold night, and suffers in consequence
materially.

It is also stimulated into early growth, and therefore is
more apt to be damaged by the late frosts of spring, a cause
which has probably interfered with the cultivation of the
Vine in the United States, where in the spring a degree of

IV.] tender Plants in the open air. 125

vicissitude in the temperature from extreme heat to extreme
cold takes place, such as we have little or no experience of
in Europe.

Thus during a tour I made in the Western States of North
America in 1837, 1 noticed the thermometer on the 9th of
April, at Little Rock, in Arkansas, standing at 83° ; on the
15th, in the same district, at Washita Springs^ it fell in the
night to, the freezing point, but rose in the day at Little
Hock again to 83°, sinking to the freezing point on the fol-
lowing night; again, on the 19th of April, it fell in the
night to 37° ; during the succeeding days it ranged betwixt
68® and 84° in the shade, but duriag the month of May
frequently sank during the night to 40°, and even some-
times to a still lower point.

This alternation of almost tropical heat during the day
-with a temperature approaching to freezing by night, which
often takes place in these parts of America, cannot but exer-
cise an injurious influence upon plants like the Vine, full of
juice, and easily excited into action by the genial warmth of
the day.

Much also may be eflfected by accommodating a plant to
the new circumstances under which it is placed.

Thus, for example, the injury caused by the winter^s cold
may be greatly mitigated, by taking care that the plant shall
be in as dry a condition as possible, so that it may be free
from those juices which by their freezing cause the principal
misejiiief.

This is done by selecting a soil as perfectly drained as pos-
sible, and a situation somewhat elevated, the former prevent-
ing the plant from gorging itself with moisture in winter,
the latter securing it from those early frosts of autumn, or
the late ones of spring, which prove so injurious.

In the seventh volume of the " Horticultural Transac-
tions,'* Mr. Street has published the details of a method, by
which he succeeded in growing tender plants in East Lothian,
referable chiefly to the principles above laid down.

In this memoir l^e points out, that for tender exotics
a loose sandy soil on a decHvity presents the most favour-
able conditions.

126 What Plants beat admit of Introduction. [lect.

He considers, moreover, that cuttings are in general more
hardy than seedlings, and that the seeds of annuals usually
sown in hotbeds, produced plants of a hardier character,
when sown in a warm situation in the open ground.

Another circumstance to be attended to in the treatment
of plants introduced from warmer countries than our own,
is not to over-tax their energies by allowing them to rear too
large an amount of fruit.

Setting out with the principle, that the vigour of a plant
is in a direct proportion ccet. par, to the warmth of the locality,
and that in a cold climate there is the same tendency in it
to put forth branches and fruit without the same capacity to
mature them, it will be wise to adopt the plan recommended
by a skilful cultivator of the Vine, who prunes at least seven-
eighths of the shoots and branches that make their appear-
ance upon the tree.

Another method, which has been strongly recommended by
Dr. Lindley in the " Gardener's Chronicle," consists in prun-
ing away several of the roots, by which means the quantity of
sap drawn up is diminished, so that no more is carried into
the stem and branches than the energy of the plant enables
it to elaborate. Hence it does not waste itself in producing
branches and leaves instead of fruit, and is less liable to
freeze from not being filled with so large a quantity of
aqueous juices. This is a good plan to pursue with fruit
trees that are not good bearers.

With regard to the description of plants most capable of
being introduced into other climates than their native ones,
it may be observed, that annual and other herbaceous species
are best fitted to be naturalized in a temperate region, be-
cause their existence is limited to a few months' duration, in
which the temperature may approach that of their native
country. And if it be said, that the heat, even during these
months, rarely rises to the point which it attains in the
tropics, it may be replied, that this will not be material, pro-
vided the continuance of the heat be long enough to com-
pensate for its want of intensity.

I have already in a former Lecture alluded to the rule

IV.] Definite amount of Heat required by each. 127

laid down by Adanson^ namely, that each plant requires
a certain definite amount of heat to cause it to put forth
flo^v^ers.

Tlxiis, he says, the White Poplar comes into flower when
168** of heat have entered it since the 1st of January, the
Liil£kc when 723^ the Vine when 1,770° have been communi-
cated to it.

The method by which Adanson arrived at these results is
open doubtless to objection; for, as Decandolle the elder
pointed out, the Ist of January is an arbitrary point of de-
parture from which to begin calculating the temperature re-
ceived by the plant; it. being probable, that the degree of
-w^armth present in the autumn will influence the plant like-
-wise, and that each species will not have arrived at an equal
degree of development on the day which is taken as the start-
ing-point. Nor ought we to leave out of the account the
relative coldness of the nights, or the degree of brightness of
the sun, during the period to which the plant is exposed to
its influence.

Still, the principle laid down by Adanson seems to be so
far true — inasmuch as each plant requires to absorb a certain
amount of heat in order to arrive at its due development —
inasmuch as this amount varies in each particular case, — and
as it is immaterial, comparatively speaking, whether the re-
quisite amount be obtained in a short time by an intense
temperature, or in a longer time by a more moderate one.

Accordingly, in Russia, where the day in summer is both
longer and hotter than with us, the Barley is sometimes fit
for reaping within forty days from the period of sowing,
whereas in our climate about 150 days are considered requi-
site \

Plants which die down every year, but possess tuberous or
bulbous roots, which are vivacious, as is the case with the
Lily tribe, become naturalized more easily from a warmer
to a colder climate, than the reverse.

Thus the common and the sweet Potato, both natives of
hot climates, are cultivated with more or less success over
the greater part of Europe ; whereas the Asparagus, a native

^ See above, Lect. iii. p. 96.

128 Cultimtion of Tender Exotics in CornwalL [lect.

of this and other temperate regions^ when tranjsplanted to
India, speedily perishes.

Plants whose stems grow uninterruptedly throughout the
year^ such as the Banana, Crinum, &c., cannot be naturalized
in a country subject to occasional frosts ; for being filled with,
juice during the winter, they are liable to be destroyed by
the rupture of the vessels occasioned by the congelation of
their aqueous contents.

On the other hand, trees from the warmer regions of the
globe, which have certain alternations of rest and activity
in their circulation, may often be introduced into colder ones.

Thus we owe to Persia the Walnut and Peach; to Ar-
menia the Apricot, and perhaps the Yine ; to Asia Minor
the Cherry and the Chesnut ; to Syria the Fig, the Pome-
granate, the Olive, and the Mulberry. Even the Paper
Mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera, brought from the Society
Islands, thrives in sheltered parts of this country.

The greater tenderness of evergreen trees, where the vege-
tation goes on uninterruptedly, throughout the year, may be
estimated, by the necessity which exists for preserving the
Orange and Lemon under shelter in all but the warmest
parts of Europe.

Thus in Louisiana, where the summer temperature is
tropical, and admits of the cultivation of the sugar-cane,
the Orange and Lemon trees are frequently cut off by the
cold of winter, as happened only a few years ago.

It is truly remarkable to meet with plants which, properly
speaking, cannot be said to be naturalized in North America
in latitude 30°, flourishing in the open air at Falmouth in
latitude 50°.

I have seen' in Mr. Fox's garden at Grove-hill, near that
town. Orange and Lemon trees bearing fruit, — in one case
planted out in the common border, and in others covered
over only by a mat in seasons of peculiar severity.

I have seen in the same garden at least ten shrubs, usually
regarded as stove plants in this country, flowering freely,
and growing vigorously' in the open air, with no other pro-
tection than a mat.

In the Abbey gardens, at Tresco, in the Scilly Islands, be-

IV -3 Vegetation of Tetra del Fuego. 129

longing to Mr. Smith, M.P, for Truro, a still nearer approach
to the vegetation of southern climes is exhibited; and as
I liave been favoured with a list of plants grown in both
these localities, I shall insert them at the close of this
little volume^, as likely to convey a more faithful idea of the
remarkable mildness of either spot, than could be imparted
by any more general description.

-A. yet more remarkable deviation from the ordinary laws
of climate, — as not being limited, like the former, to a par-
ticular locality, but spreading over an entire region, — occurs
in Terra del Fuego, a country situated in latitude 45°, of
which the mean temperature, during the hottest month, is
only 61°, and during the coldest 33°, as we learn from Cap-
tain King and Mr. Darwin ; notorious for its stormy and
inhospitable climate, and as it would appear, most un-
favourable to the healthy development of man and the
higher animals; and yet in this inhospitable tract Cap-
tain King°^ describes a luxuriant vegetation — ^large-stemmed
trees of Fuchsia and Veronica, in England treated as tender
plants, in full flower, within a short distance of a moimtain
covered for two-thirds down with snow, and with the tem-
perature at 36'*.

A little higher, on the island of Chiloe, in latitude 42°,
Mr. Darwin represents the character of the Flora as almost
tropical. Stately trees of many kinds, with smooth and highly
coloured barks, were loaded with parasitical Orchidacese,
large and elegant Ferns were abundant, and arborescent
Grasses entwined the trees in one entangled mass, to the
height of thirty or forty feet above the ground.

Yet, he says in another place, our fruit-trees rarely ever
ripen their produce in this climate, and the inhabitants are
frequently driven to cut down their corn before it is ripe,
and to bring it into their houses to dry.

The above remarks on the naturalization of plants may
possibly appear to have but little practical bearing upon the
conduct of an English farm, since in a country, every por-
tion of which, with the exception of a few mountainous tracts,

* Soe Appendix, No. II. ^ Geograph. Journ., 30 and 81.

f .

130

Influence of Climate

[lect.

enjoys a stunmer temperature high enough for the cultiva-
tion of all the kinds of Cerealia alluded to, the question of
climate may be thought hardly fit to enter into the calcula-
tions of the fanner in the allotment of his crops. Neverthe-
less, even to him it may be useful tx> possess the data for
estimating the influence which a summer, warmer or colder,
wetter or drier than ordinary, has exerted upon the produc-
tions of his farm, so as not to be misled in his calculations
as to the advantages or disadvantages of any novel plan of
cultivation.

These data have in part been supplied by Mr. Lawes in
an elaborate paper published in the eighth volume of the
Royal Agricultural Society's Journal for 1848, in which he
shews, that in 1844, 1846, and 1846, the diflference in the
amount of produce was in accordance with the general cha-
racter of their respective seasons.

Thus it will be seen by turning to the table referred to in
the note'*, that in 1844, when there were only 81 rainy days,
and when the mean summer temperature was 57** 6', the farm
produced 16 bushels of Corn to the acre, and the weight of
the bushel was 60J lb., whilst the grain bore to the straw as
high a ratio as about 82 to 100.

In 1846, when there were 93 rainy days, and when the
mean temperature was as high as 59**, the yield was about
17 bushels per acre, and the weight of a bushel 68 lb. ; but
the proportion of grain to straw was lower, namely 76 to

^ The following table indicates the effect of climate upon the quantity and
quality of the produce of the unmanured piece of the experimental wheat-field^
(daring three seasons) ; the average results of the variously manured^ ^c.^ are
also given : —

Com per acre in bushels

Straw per acre in pounds

Weight of Com per bushel in pounds

Per centage of Corn to straw, (straw 1,000) .

Mecm of all the plots.
Weight of Com per bushel in pounds
Per centage of Com in straw, (straw 1,000) .
Mean temperature ....
Rainy days in 30i weeks

1844

1845

1846

17.25

1120

2712

1513

58i

56i

esk

821

534

797

60i

868

490

765

57° 5'

5502'

59'>1'

110

iv.] upon certain Crops. 131

100, shewing that the yield of Com had been influenced by
temperature, but that the quantity of straw had been in-
creased by the amount of rain.

Zjastly, in 1846, when the number of rainy days was
g^reater^ though the temperature had been lower than in
eitlier of the two other years, — the former being 110, the
latter 55, — ^the yield was much greater, amounting to 23
busliels per acre, but the weight of the com per bushel
less, namely 56 lb. ; and the increase in the produce of straw
Bucli, that the grain only bore to it the proportion of 49
to 100.

These figures appear to shew, that although the greater
quantity of rain was favourable to the amount of grain, yet
that it tended to increase ra a still greater ratio that of straw ;
and that the higher the temperature of the year was, the
lieavier the grain would prove, so as to make up in quality
for its deficiency in actual quantity.

Thus it would appear, that under the same treatment, the
produce may vary in the proportion of 7 bushels per acre,
according to the difference of season, which is equivalent
to one-quarter of the normal produce ; or, calculating this at
30 million quarters in a good year, may be as much as 7^
million deficient.

The above statements may likewise assist him in selecting
proper positions for any new and tender plants which he
may be disposed to introduce ; for when we recollect that all
our cultivated plants are natives of warmer climates, it cannot
be considered chimerical to imagine, that other articles of
culture may hereafter be discovered suitable to this country.
To descend to particulars.

The Maize, where it succeeds, yields a larger return than
either Wheat or Barley, and it is probable that in some
warm spots it might be cultivated even in England. But the
success of the experiment would turn upon the selection of
a spot, combining in the greatest degree those conditions
which most favour the absorption of heat.

Thus, too, to take the instance of a plant of native growth,
the Hop is commonly regarded as a very capricious kind of

132 Whether the Vine might succeed in England, [lect.

crop, for although it be a native of almost all parts of Europe,
it admits of sacceasfol cultivation only in a few.

In England it is limited to the southern and western por-
tions of the kingdom ; from which circumstance it might be
inferred, that something beyond the average sunmier tem-
perature of our island was congenial to it.

The blight to which it is peculiarly liable seems connected
with the want of sun rather than with deficiency of heat^ bo
that solar radiation would seem to be one of the conditions
essential to its healthy and vigorous constitution.

Hence it appears clear that considerations of climate
ought to be taken into account by those who contemplate
engaging in the precarious speculation of hop-growing.

Again^ to take the case of a plant which, although not
indigenous, has been from time inmiemorial in a certain
sense naturalized in this country.

I allude to the Vine, which affords an example of a plant,
in the culture of which attention to the charactenstics of
local situation would afford material aid.

TJnpropitious as the climate of England is pronounced to
be to the ripening of the grape, there can be littie doubt
that vines were formerly grown ia some of the southern
counties ; and it seems therefore probable, that by selecting
certain favoured spots enjoying a higher summer tempera-
ture than common, wine not inferior to what is made in
some of the northern parts of the Continent might be pro-
duced from our own vineyards.

Boussingault, from observations made in Alsace, concludes,
that the mean temperature of the period of the year during
which the vine is producing its fruit, namely, from April to
October, ought to be as much as 61®. Now it so happens,
that the summer temperature of Gosport is quoted as above
62**, so that the vicinity of this spot at least would seem to
come within the limits assigned for the successful cultivation
of the Vine.

At any rate, until these points are more fully settied, it
cannot be said that the consideration of climate is alien to an
agriculturist placed ra the southern portions of this country;
whilst in the northern, many cases will occur^ in which the

IV.3 Situations most favourable for Gardens, 133

cultivation of Wheat, Barley, or Oats, will probably be de-
termined by tbe local circumstances, which tend to impart
to the particular locality more or less than the average de-
gree of temperature or of humidity.

Considerations of climate may also be of great importance
to the horticulturist. Cold air being heavier than warm,
the stratum next to the soil will, as a rule, be colder than
the one above it.

Hence land at the bottom of a valley will be chilled by
the descent of cold air more than that higher up, so that
what are called sheltered places are often in spring and
autumn the coldest.

The Dahlias, Potatoes, and Kidney-beans of the sheltered
gardens in the valley of the Thames have often been killed
by frosts, whose eflfects were unfelt in the low hills of Surrey
and Middlesex.

Professor Daniell says, he has seen a thermometer on the
same night stand SO"" higher on a gentle eminence than in
a valley below.

This, indeed, was remarkably illustrated during the severe
winter of 1860-61, when it was found, that low-lying parts
of Scotland experienced the cold in a greater degree than the
more elevated districts.

For example, Braemar and other places in the upper parts
of Aberdeenshire had the thermometer at 8° or 11° above
zero, when in the lower parts of the same county it sank
— 6 degrees below it.

In Dumfriesshire the thermometer fell below zero, but at
Wenlock Head Station, 1,330 feet above the sea's level, the
lowest marking was 6° above zero.

The coldest spot in England during this frost was Not-
tingham, where the thermometer indicated — 11° at 4 feet
from the ground, and — 13° upon the grass.

Hence the advantage of placing a garden upon a gentle
slope, especially when there is a running stream at its foot,
which, at the same time that it presented a surface not liable
to refrigeration, would also prevent an injurious stagnation
of the air.

Dr. Lindley also states, that a south-eastern exposure is by

134 Importance of Meteorological Registers. [lect.

no means the most favourable position for plants in general;
for, as he remarks, the advantage of receiving the early sun-
beams is counterbalanced by the exposure to easterly windjs,
which are the coldest and driest of any.

Moreover, the sudden action of the sun's rays is very detri-
mental to vegetables, that have been frozen by the cold oc-
casioned through the radiation of heat from their surfaces
during the preceding night; which, according to the ex-
planation offered by Dr. Lindley, causes the air contained
within the tissue of the plant to be expelled by the contrac-
tion of the fibres which then takes place.

The expelled air is consequently forced into parts not in-
tended to contain it, and is there expanded rapidly by the
sudden warmth of the sun.

This increases the disturbance already produced in the
minute vessels by its expulsion from the parts properly in-
tended to contain it, and a rupture of the vessels will often
in consequence supervene; whereas if the thaw had been
gradual, the air would have had time to retreat from its
new position, without producing any additional derangement
of the tissues.

It is also possible, that leaves from which their natural air
has been expelled in the act of freezing, may from that cir-
cumstance alone have their tissue too little protected from
the force of the solar rays, wbich we know produces a specific
stimulus of a powerful kind upon their organs °.

Such, then, are the facts with respect to the connection of
climate with agriculture, which I have endeavoured to place
before you.

They are defective, indeed, in many particulars which
might assist us in deducing practical inferences from them,
such, namely, as the influence of a greater or less intensity
of solar light, of exposure to humidity, and of radiation,
upon the crops noticed.

What, for instance, would be the effect of bright dear
nights alternating with warm sunny days, as compared with
that of a cloudy atmosphere possessing the same average
temperature P What of a climate highly charged with hu-

• Hort. Trans., New Series, vol. ii. p. 805.

IV.] How a Reguter should be kept 135

midity, as compared with one which from its drjmess pro-
moted evaporation from the surface of the vegetable P

Considering, then, in how many ways vegetation is aflfected
"by the conditions of the atmosphere, and how much a climate
may differ in its effects upon plants, not only from its con-
taining more or less vesicular vapour or mist, but also ac-
cording as it retains suspended in it more or less water,
even though it be in a condition in which it in no degree
afifects its transparency, a farmer or a gardener would do
iJrell, if he were to take the trouble of registering daily the
'weather upon some uniform system, noting at the same time
the quality and quantity of his crops during the same period.

By this proceeding he might hope to arrive at many in-
teresting results, by which the observations of Lawes and
others, to which I have already directed your attention,
would be confirmed or corrected.

For this purpose the temperature should be noticed at
certain fixed times of the day, in the manner pointed out
in my first Lecture.

The amount of radiation should also be observed, and the
effects of any remarkable degree of intensity in the solar
power upon particular plants should be carefully noted.

Professor Daniell, in one of his meteorological essays, has
set us a good example as to the mode of conducting such
a register ; and has pointed out the probability of obtaining
from records of this kind some insight into the causes of the
various blights which affect the productions of the soil, whe-
ther it be the mildew and smut of Wheat, the fungus which
attacks the Vine and the Potato, or the so-called fly of the
Turnip and the Hop.

Thus he has traced a connexion between the relative force
of the sun's radiation in the years 1821 and 1822, and con-
trasted the mildewed condition of the crops of Corn in the
former or more cloudy season, with the healthy appearance
they presented in the latter or brighter summer above
mentioned.

The relative drjmess of the atmosphere should likewise be
tested by DanielVs hygrometer, or the more simple con-
trivance of Mason, called the wet-bulb, which I have already
explained.

136 Uses of a Register of Hie Weather. [lect.

And lastly^ the amount of rain and the direction and force
of the wind should each day be entered in appropriate and
distinct tables.

Haying then once ascertained^ what in point of fact are
the circumstances of climate which act prejudicially upon the
particular crops which he grows> the agriculturist in any
experiments he may be led to institute would be able to
discriminate^ how much of any observed difference in the
amoimt of produce was referable to the season, and how
much to any new modes of culture which might have
been introduced. He might also learn, how to lessen or
remove the disadvantages of the climate under whicli his
operations were carried on^ by a judicious choice of soil
and situation.

Is the temperature of the place insufficient for any of the
crops he cultivates, he will recollect that wet tenacious soils
are of all others the most difficult to heat and to drain.

Is it excessive^ he will know that light sandy soils part
with their moisture most readily, and absorb the greatest
proportion from the sum of heat communicated by the sun.

A register of the weather, conducted upon the plan re-
commended, would also be of considerable utility in a sanitary
point of view, both as affording a clue to an understanding
of the causes which impart to the climate of the place in
which it is carried on its peculiar character, and also as
a guide to direct us in the search after other spots, likely to
possess the qualities which we prize in the one under our
consideration.

For it is not sufficient that we should be acquainted, in
a vague general way, that the mean temperature of a parti-
cular spot is higher, or that the cold of winter is less severe
than that of other contiguous places, since it is a combination
of various meteorological conditions, more or less propitious
to health, which stamps upon the climate its peculiar and
characteristic physiognomy. Amongst these conditions —
for I will not seek to enumerate them all — are, first, a tem-
perature not subject to sudden vicissitudes, for the most part
genial, and seldom, or never, sinking to any extreme degree
of cold ; secondly, an atmosphere sufficiently charged with
moisture, in a state of perfectly transparent vapour, as to

Advantages of the Climate of Torquay.

137

ecxert that soft and sootliing influence over the lungs and
sldn^ which, according to the views put forth by Professor
rFyndall, will arise from the impediment it offers to the
escape of heat from our persons ; and yet exempt from fog
and mists, so as to convey no such sensation of rawness, as
"we are apt to experience in other places, at times when
Ironchial diseases and rheumatic affections prevail; and
thirdly, transmitting such a supply of sunshine, even during
the winter months, as may be sufficient to exercise a cheer-
ing influence over the nerves and spirits.

Thus, although I have every reason to speak well of the
climate of Torquay, as having carried me over two winters,
without my being a sufferer from those bronchial annoyances,
which it has been my lot to encounter in other parts of
England during the worst portion of the year ; it would be
hasty in me, were I to attribute its superiority simply to its
relative temperature, seeing that, during the present winter,
the differences in this respect existing between this and
other spots, even in the interior of the island, have been upon
the whole not very considerable, as may be collected from
a register containing the maximum and minimum tempera-
ture of every twenty-four hours during the last six weeks p at

p In lien of the Hegister exhibited at the Lecture, I will now present one
indnding the months of December, 1862, and of January, February, and
March, 1863, and exhibiting the mean temperatures at three different places,
viz., at Oxford, Bath, and Torquay, from which it will appear, that except
during December, the difference in favour of the latter over the two former
was not very remarkable.

The temperatures for Oxford are given on the authority of Mr. Main, of the
Radcliffe Observatory ; those for Bath by the Rev. L. Jenyns, from observa-
tions taken by him daily at 9 ▲.!£. at Darlington-place ; those for Torquay are
deduced from the mean maximum and minimum of each month at Woodfield,
supplied to me by Mr. £. Vivian. The latter are rather higher than those
taken by myself at Torre during a part of this period. The following are the
results : —

DKO. MIN.

{mean max. 51 .
„ min. 43 . 4
{mean max. 46 . 4
„ min. 40 . 2

{mean max. 47 . 7
„ min. 41 .

{mean max. 50 . 2
.. min. 40 . 6

December

OXFOBD.

DBO. MIN.

Bath.

DKO. MIK.

43.8

TOBQTJAT.

DSG. MIN.

. 47.2

January . .

. . 41.2 .

41.2

. 43.30

February . .

. . 42.6 .

41 .2

. 44.35

March

43.9

43.0

45.40

>»

138 Peculiarities of the Climate [LVicrTm

Oxford aad at Torquay. Nor, on the other hand, oouLd I
venture at any season to ascribe to this place the mildness
of climate which belongs to Falmouth or Penzance^ where,
as I have already stated, tender, and even sub-tropical
plants, of which this part of Devonshire cannot boast,
flourish in the open air.

Nor assuredly will the brilliancy of the winter sun, cheer-
ing as it may be in comparison with other parts of England,
compete with that which greets us in Italy, and in the south,
of France, where days are often met with, even in December
and January, which we should be only too glad to transfer to
the most genial month in the most highly favoured locality
throughout Great Britain.

It would not become a mere bird of passage like myself,
to speak with any confidence with respect to the peculiarities
of climate belonging to a place in which he has taken up his
temporary abode ; and I shall therefore do best by referring
you to the observations of residents, carried on during a con-
siderable period of time, such as those for which we are in-
debted to the diligence and perseverance of your President,
Mr. Vivian, who, for the last twenty years, has kept an accu-
rate register of the weather at Torquay. From his published
reports it would appear, that Torquay is colder than London
in the summer, but that it is no less than 5° warmer in
winter, at which season, indeed, it does not fall short of
Home by more than '2° 8'. With regard to rain, it has the
advantage over many parts of the United Kingdom, so far
as concerns the number of wet days it experiences, which
bear the proportion to those of London and its vicinity of
132 to 178 ; whilst in relation to the quantity of rain that
falls, it would appear that the number of inches annually
collected may be reckoned at 28, being 4 inches indeed more
than the rain-fall in London, and also exceeding in quantity
that of the eastern coasts of England ; but, at the same
time, only 2 inches more than Oxford, which is calculated at
about 26 inches, and 16 less than Penzance, which is stated
as being 44.

The dryness of the atmosphere here is said to be greater
than at Clifton ; and, moreover, Torquay enjoys an enviable
exemption from violent thunderstorms, the absence of which

rv.] and Local Situation^ of Torquai/, 139

is an index of a tranquil and equable condition of the atmo-
spbere, and, perhaps^ also points to the existence of other me-
teoric conditions favourable to the temperament of invalids.

From these data I should infer, that the excellence of the
climate of Torquay depends in part upon the absence of ex-
tremes of temperature ; upon the general clearness and me-
dium quality of its atmospheric condition, equally removed
from excessive dryness and excessive humidity ; from the less
frequent occurrence and shorter duration of fogs, and parti-
cularly from a comparative exemption from those emanating
from the land ; and, moreover, from the presence of a larger
amount of solar radiation than is to be met with in winter
over most other parts of our island.

But I should also be inclined to attribute the advantages
of Torquay in part to the nature of the rock formations upon
"which the town and its suburbs are erected, and to the gene-
ral disposition of the houses upon an inclined plane ; from
which arises, not merely the dryness of the roads and foot-
paths, even soon after a fall of rain, but also a great facility
for good drainage, and, in consequence, a general absence of
morbific exhalations.

It is remarkable, that Birmingham, notwithstanding its
crowded, and in some respects ill-conditioned population with
respect to cleanliness and general habits of living, escaped
the visitation of cholera on two occasions when it was raging
all around it, owing, as I conceive, to the houses being in
a great degree built upon a slope, and to the subsoil possessing
the quality of absorbing moisture of all kinds, in consequence
of being composed of porous red sandstone.

Something, too, must be attributed to the character of the
dwellings themselves which compose the town and its en-
virons, of which the better kind so often stand in the midst
of gardens and pleasure-grounds, or else in detached blocks,
with a free circulation of air around them ; whilst even those
of the poorer classes, with some exceptions, are scattered over
a larger space of ground than in most other places, and
therefore present fewer of those foci of contagion which are
apt to be engendered by large communities when crowded
within a small compass.

140 Cimcluding Remarks. [lect. iv.

There is abo a groat adTantage connected with Toiqaa jv
in the Tariety of sitnationB which it presents, so difEering
one firom the other in point of exposure^ height, and con-
seqoent warmth, that the inTalid can seldom be at a loss to
find somewhere or other a dimate suited to his particiilar
constitution.

And as the temperatnie of different spots even in ToTq[nay
itadf diflEers considerably, it may be nsefid to have observa-
tions taken simnltaneooaly in different parts of the town,
a task, which I am happy to find has been undertaken by Dr.
Becker, a yonng physician recently established in this place.

Possibly, as I so^ested in a former Lecture, the large
proportion of ozone which has been noted in the air of this
place may be connected with its purity, since there is reason
to suppose, that what is detectable in the atmosphere repre-
sents the excess remaining, after the remoTal by oxidation
of those exhalations whidi arise from animal or yegetable
impurities.

But it is time for me to bring to a close remarks, which
could only come with any authority firom a person long resi-
dent in the place to which they relate, and therefor^ with
my best thanks to those who have honoured me with their
attendance upon this and on the three preceding occasions, I
will conclude, by expressing my satisfaction at finding, that
I had not over-estimated the interest, which a Community,
mainly drawn together to this place by the attractions of its
climate, was likely to feel in a discussion, relating to the
general laws which affect the weather, and to the influence
which the latter exerts upon the vegetable and animal
economy.

APPENDIX I.

(See p. 20.)

Eetficts of the Winter of 1860-61 on the Plants at

THE Botanic Garden, Oxford.

I extract from the "Gardener's Chronicle" for Dec. 7, 1861, the fol-
lowing particulars of a report communicated by myself respecting this re-
markable winter ; and have appended to it under the initial C a statement
of the effects which it produced at Combury Park, Oxfordshire, as reported
to me by Lord Churchill, the proprietor : —

It will be understood, that all the plants enumerated refer to the Botanic
Grarden, the addition of the letter C. being intended merely to express, that
they met with the same fate at Combury.

Cupressus, sempervirens C, torulosa C *, macrocarpa C, Toumefortii C ^
fonebris, and Goveniana C, destroyed •.

Deodars, three fine specimens killed ^.

Cedrus Libani C, and Atlantica, injured, but recovered.

Juniperuses, all the exotic species killed, except chinensis ' , virginiana,
and squamata.

Taxodium sempervirens ', injured, but recovering.

Pinus Llaveana C, insignis, macrocarpa, and Pinea, killed '.

Cryptomeria japonica killed \

Quercus Suber killed. Ilex severely injured *.

Lucombe oak severely injured, but has since recovered.

Common Laurel C, Portugal Laurel C, Laurustinus C, and Bay Laurel
C, all cut to the ground.

Rosa Banksii destroyed, and severe havoc made amongst the standard
Boses in general.

Phillyreas C, much injured, but recovering.

Photinias C, killed.

Arbutus Unedo C ^ killed ; Andrachne, a fine and old tree, so nearly
destroyed as to be cut down ^

Pig-trees killed down to the roots.

Magnolia grandiflora C^ killed down, but since putting out from the stem.

Cercis siliquastrum °, a tree of thirty years' growth, killed.

* All but one. ^ Much damaged. ° Also Cupressus thurifera and

Uhdiana at C. ^ Much damaged at C. <* At C escaped. ' At C escaped,
f At C two plants escaped, two killed. ^ Also P. Montezumse and muricata
at C, and P. Bratea, much damaged. * At C some unhurt. ^ Some

escaped with damage at C. ^ Arbutus procera at C much damaged. " At
C escaped.

142

APPENDIX I.

Ligostrajn japonicum, lucidum C, killed.

Fittospomm Tobira, do.

Euonymus japonicos C, do.

Garrya elliptica, standard at C killed, against a wall at C escaped.

Baplenrom firaticosnm*, killed.

Geanothos aznreos, do. ; pallidus, do. ; papillosus, do. ; rigidns, do.

BoxQs balearica^ do.

Ribes echinatnm, do.

Moras mbra, do. ; multicanlis, do.

Escallonia macrantba^ do.

Arundinaria fedcata, severely injured, but since recovered.

Rbamnus Alatemus, do.

Hydrangea quercifolia, do.

Leycesteria formosa, do.

Ulex europsBus C, killed.

Yuccas, old plants killed to the ground'.

-••-

APPENDIX II.

(See p. 129.)

Including a list of the tender plants growing in Mr. Smith's garden at
Tresco, in the Scilly Islands, and at Mr. Robert Fox's, either at Grove Hill,
or at Pengellert, near Fahnouth, the former being distinguished by the letter
S appended to the name of the plant, the two latter by the letter F.

No plants are mentioned in this list, which are not too tender to be grown
in the open air at the Botanic Garden in Oxford.

Where the name given is unknown to me a ? is added.

Abutilon Bedfordii, S; vitifolium,

S; venosum, S.
Acacia affinis, F; lophantha, S and

F; melanoxylon, S; nigricans, F.
Adenandra uniflora, S.
Agapanthus, S.
Aloe, several species, S.
Aralia Sieboldtii, S ; quinquefolia, S ;

trifoliata, S; crassifolia^ S; pa-

pyrifera, S.
AraucariaBidwillii, S; Braziliensis, S;

excelsa, S.'

Arundinaria falcata^ 8.
Aster argophyllus, S and F.

Banksia ericifolia^ F.

Beaufortia decussata, F.

Bignonia jasminifoha, F; semper-

florens, F.
Brachyglottis repandus, S.
Brugmansia suaveolens, F.

Calothamnus lineiformis, S; qua-
drifida,F.

° At C much damaged. " Escaped at C. ^ At C. escaped.

*! Lately blown down by a violent gale.

APPENDIX II.

143

Calendula japonica, ? S.
Camellia japonica, F.
Cassia corymbosa, S and F.
Cantna dependens, 8.
Chamserops hnxnilis, S and F; ex-

celsa, S.
Cbiy santhemum trifurcatiim, S j

frxttescens, S.
Cineraria arborea, (and petasitesP) S ;

large-leaved, F.
Citrus communis, F ; medica, F.
Clethra japonica, S ; arborea, F.
Cliaiithns puniceus, S. and F.
Cluytia pulchella, F.
CouTolvulns Cneorum, S.
Cordyline rubra, S.
Coronilla glauca, F.
Corrsea alba, S; ferruginea, S;
pulchella, F; rubra, S; spe-
ciosa, S, F.
Cotyledon ovata, F.
Crassula coccinea, S ; jasminea, S ;
lactea, S; orbicularis, S; portu-
lacea, S.
Cupressus fanebris, S.
Cytisus algavensis, S.

Dactylis csespitosa^ S.

Dammara australis, S.

Diosma cordata, F.

Dracaena australis, S ; Draco, S ; fra-
grans, F ; indivisa, S, has flowered
twice, one plant about twelve feet
high.

Drimia indivisifolia, ? F.

Edwardsia grandiflora, F; macro-

phylla, S; microphylla, S.
Elseagnus reflexus, S.
Escallonia floribunda, S; organen-

sis, S.
Eryobrotia japonica, F.
Eugenia australis, S and F; Ug-

ni, S and F.
Erica colorans, F; gracilis, F; lae-

vis, F.

Erythrina Crista-galli, F.
Eurybia ilicifolia, S ; purpurea, S.
Eucalyptus coccinea, 8 ; robusta, S ;

saiigna, 8.
Eutaxia myrtifolia, F.

Fitzroya patagonica.

Fuchsia, 14 species or varieties, 8.

Genista canariensis, 8.
Gnidia simplex, F.
Grevillia rosmarini folia, F.
Griselinia littoralis, 8 ; lucida, 8.
Grewia occidentalis, F.
Guonera scabra, 8.

Habrothanmus elegans, 8 ; Hezelii, ?

F.
Hedychium flavum, 8.
Heimia salicifolia, F.
Hibbertia, 8.

Hydrangea involucrata, 8.
Hypericum chinense, F.

Jasminum revolutum, F.

Kennedya macrophylla, F.

Lardizabula bifurcata, 8.
Lasiopetelum ferrugineum, F.
Laurus Camphora, 8 and F.
Leptospermum australe, 8 ; am-

biguum, F.
Lomatia aromatica, 8.
Lophospermum erubescens, F.

Mesembryanthemum, 10 species at
F, and 56 other species besides the
above in 8.

Metrosideros robusta, 8.

Myrsine undulata, 8.

Myrtus trinervis, 8.

Nerium Oleander, F.
Olea europsea, 8.

144

APPENDIX U.

(Edera prolifera, F.
Opnntia cjlindrica, S; ezaviata, S.
Oxalis floribunda, F ; lobata, S.
Oxylobium calycinum, S.

Passiflora edulis, F.

Felargomums, various, in great luxu-
riance, S and F.

Phygelius capensis, S.

Philadelphus mexicanus, S.

Phormium tenaz, S.

Pitcaimia chilensis, S.

Pittosporum Toberi, S and F;
tenuifolium, S ; undulatum, F.

Plumbago capensis, S and F.

Podocarpus asplenifoKus, S; chi-
lensis, S ; ferrugineus, S.

Polygala grandiflora, F ; latifolia, F ;
myrtifolia, F ; spmosa, F.

Polygonum Sieboldtii, S.

Prostanthera Lasanthus, S.

Psoralea pinnata, F.

Quercus glaber, S.

Sedum arboreum, S ; canariense, S.

Solanum ferox, S.

Sparmannia aMcana, S.

Statice Dicksoniana, S; lavendu-

lacea, F S ; Ebeinwardtii, S.
Salvia chamsedryoides, F; invo-

lucrata, F.
Sutherlandia frutescens, F.
Swammerdammia antennaria, S.

Tasmannia aromatica, S.
Tecoma capensis, F.
Thunbergia coccinea, F.
Tetrantherajaponica, S.

Yeronica Andersonii, S ; decussata,
S ; Lindleyana, S ; salicifolia, S ;
speciosa, S ; variegata, S.

Viburnum awafuhi, or japonica, S.

Vitex littoralis, S.

Woodwardia angustifolia, F.

•**-

(nnttb b^ ^n%n. (srlur, €ommvxhti, ^%bnb.

CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS.

-♦♦-

Page 58, sixteenth line from the bottom, for "towards" read "from."
Ibid., three lines from the bottom, after " Italy," add " to take the place of
the ascending current from the Sahara."

In the Hurricane Chart opposite to page 61, by Sir John Beid, (erroneously
printed " Reade,") the dotted line traversing the tinted portion denotes the
course of the ship " Castries," which, on the 23rd of August, 1837, and there-
fore almost cotemporaneously with the hurricane delineated in the untinted
part of the map, was involved in a smaller vorticose storm, on the spot desig-
nated by the concentric lines.

Puiluations by the Author,

■#•■

A DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVE AND EXTINCT

VOLCANOS, OF EARTHQUAKES, AND OF THERMAL
SPRINGS; With remaiks on their Causes, Products, and Influence on
the Condition of the Globe. Second Edition, greatly enlarged. With
Twelve Maps and Plates.

London : Taylor and Francis. 184S.

BRIEF REMARKS ON THE CORRELATION OF

THE NATURAL SCIENCES. Drawn up with reference to the
scheme for the extension and the better management of the Studies of the
University.

Oxford : Printed and Published by J. Vincent. 1848.

A POPULAR GUIDE TO THE BOTANIC GARDEN

OF OXFORD, AND TO THE FIELDING HERBARIUM
ANNEXED TO IT. Second Edition. S9U omfy at the Garden.

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ATOMIC THEORY.

Second Edition, greatly enlarged. 185 a. Published at the Oxford
University Press.

CAN PHYSICAL SCIENCE OBTAIN A HOME IN

AN ENGLISH UNIVERSITY ? An inquiry suggested by some
remarks contained in a late number of the ** Quarterly Review."

Oxford: Vincent. 1853.

ON THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF

CHEMISTRY AS A BRANCH OF EDUCATION FOR
ALL CLASSES. A Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution of
Great Britain, 1854.

London: J. W.- Parker, West Strand.

LECTURES ON ROMAN HUSBANDRY, delivered

before the University of Oxford ; comprehending such an account of the
System of Agriculture, the Treatment of Domestic Animals, the Horti-
culture, &c., pursued in Ancient Times, as may be collected firom the
Scripiores ret Rustics, the Georgics of Virgil, and other Classical
Authorities, with Notices of the Plants mentioned in Columella and
Virgil. 8vo., cloth, reduced to 6s.

Oxford and London : J. H. and J. Parker.

% 3ht 4

RECENTLY PUBLISHED BY

JOHN HENET and JAMES PARKER,

OXFORD. AND 377. STRAND. LONDON.
NEW THEOLOGICAL W0EK8.

B£V. JOHK KEBLE.
THE LIFE OF THE RIGHT REYEREND FATHER IN GOD,

THOMAS WILSON, D.D., Lord Bishop of Sodor and Man. Compiled, chiefly
from Original Documents, by the Bev.JoHN Keble, M.A., Vicar of Hursley.
In Two Parts, 8to., price 21s.

Forming Vols, 87 cmd 88 of the Anglo- Catholic Librctrtf,

BISHOP WILSON.

THE WORKS OF THE RIGHT REVEREND FATHER IN GOD,

THOMAS WILSON, D.D., Lord Bishop of Sodor and Man.— Vol. VII., con-
taining PAROCHIALIA, with other TRACTS and FRAGMENTS, and
a GENERAL INDEX. 8vo., cloth, price 7s.

Forming Vol, 86 of the Anglo-Catholic Library,

THE LOBB BISHOP OF OXFOBB.
SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OX-

FORD: Second Series, from MDCCCXLVII. to MDCCCLXII. 8vo.,
cloth, 10s. 6d.

THE ORDINATIOIT SERVICE. Addeesbes on tfe Questions

TO THE Candidates for Ordination. By the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop
OF Oxford. Fourth Edition, Crown 8vo., cloth, 6s.

FELLOWSHIP US JOT AND SORROW. A Sermon preached in

Her Majesty's Royal Ciiapel in Windsor Castle, on the Sunday preceding the
Marriage of H. R. H. the PRINCE OF WALES, March 8, 1863. By Samuel,
Lord Bishop of Oxford, Lord High Almoner to the Queen; Chancellor of the
Most Noble Order of the Garter. 8vo., in wrapper, price 6d. (Published by
Her Majesty's command.)

REV. P. FREEMAN.
THE PRINCIPLES OF DIVINE SERVICE ; or, An Inquiry con.
ceming the True Manner of Understanding and Using the Order for Morning and
Evening Prayer, and for the Administration of the Holy Communion in the
English Church. By the Rev. Philip Freeman, M.A., Vicar of Thorverton,
Prebendary of Exeter, and Examining Chaplain to the Lord Bishop of Exeter.
2 vols., 8vo., cloth, price J L 4s. The Second Fdition of Vol, I, is now ready.

**.... It will take its rank with Mabillon's Galilean Liturgies, or Bona's great work, while
in style it soars high above them. We congratulate the Church of England on receiving such
a work fiom one of her priests." — Christian Remembrancer.

OXFORD LENTEN SERMONS.
THE OXFORD LENTEN SERMOJSTS FOR 1863, preached in the
Church of St. Mary-the- Virgin. By the Lord Archbishop of York; Rev.
Prof. Manskl; Rev. Dr. Wordsworth; Rev. T. L. Clauohton, M.A.; Rev.
Dr. Stanley; Rev. T. T. Cart fr, M.A.; the Lord Bishop of London;
Rev. J. R. Woodford, M.A.; Rev. Dr. Pusey; Rev. D. Moore, M.A.;
Rev. Dr. Magee; Very Rev. Dr. Alford. 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

6<)3-(5).5

Samctifxoatiok.
Confession and A.bsoi.ution.
Thk Doctrins of ths Atonsmxnt.
Ths Lord's Day.

2 THEOLOGICAL WOBKS, (eontinued).

THE LATE DB. WILLIAMS.
SEl^MONS preached before the University of Oxford, and in Win-
chester Cathedral, by the late David "Williams, D.C.L., Warden of New College,
Oxford, and Canon of Winchester ; formerly Head Master of Winchester College.
With a BKIEF MEMOIR OF THE AUTHOR. 8vo., cloth, 10a. 6d.

BEY. B. PAYKE SMITH.

THE AUTHENTICITY AND MESSIANIC INTERPRETATION

OF THE PROPHECIES OF ISAIAH vindicated in a Course of Sermons
preached before the UniVersity of Oxford, by the Rev. R. Payne Smith, M.A.,
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, and Select Preacher. 8vo.^ cloth, 108.6d.

BEY. C. A. HETTBTLEY, B.B.

THE FORM OF SOUND WORDS : HELPS TOWARDS HOLDING

IT FAST : Seven Sermons preached before the University of Oxford, on some
Important Points of Faith and Practice.

HiND&ANCKS TO SrCCEEB IN PRKACBIKO.

TuK Form of Sound Words.

TuK Inspiration of Scripturr.

Thk Connkctiun bktwekn Baptism and

By CHARLES A. HEURTLEY, D.D., Margaret Professor of Divimly, and

Canon of Christ Church. 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

ABCHBEACOir CHUBTOH.
A MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOSHUA WATSON, Esq. By Oio

Venerable Archdeacon Churton. A new and cheaper Edition, with Portrait*
Crown 8vo., cloth, 78. 6d.

BEY DB MOBEBLY

SERMONS ON THE BEATITUDES, with others mostlj preached

before the University of Oxford ; to whicli is added a Prefac^relating to the recent
volume of ''Essays and Reviews." By the Rev. George Moberly, D.C.L.,
Head Master of Winchester CoIleg:e. Second Edition. 8vo., price 10s. 6d.

The Preface separately, price 2«.

BEY E B PUSEY D D

THE MINOR PROPHETS ; with a Commentary Explanatory and

Practical, and Introductions to the Several Books. By the Rev. E. B. Posey,
D.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew, and Canon of Christ Church. Part III.
Amos vi. tl to end — Obadiah — Jonah — Micah i. 12. 4to., sewed, 5s.

Lately published, 4ito,, sewed, 58,
Part I. Hosea — Joel, Introduction. Part II. Joel, Introduction — Amos vi. 6.

THE COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, from the Council of Jeru-
salem, A.D. 51, to the Council of Constantinople, a.d. 881 ; chiefly as to their
Constitution, but also as to their Objects and History. By the Rev. £. B.
PusBY, D.D., Regius Professor of Hebrew ; Canon of Christ Church ; late Fel-
low of Oriel College. 8vo., 10s. 6d.

BEY. J. W. BTTBGOir.

INSPIRATION AND INTERPRETATION. Seven Sermons
preached before the University of Oxford; with an Introduction, being an
answer to a Volume entitled " Essays and Reviews." By the Rev. John W.
BuBQON, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, and Select Preacher. 8vo., cloth? 14«.

BEY. WILLIAM BBIGHT.

A HISTORY OF THE CHURCH, from the EDICT of MILAN,

a.d. 318, to the COUNCIL of CHALCEDON, a.d. 451. By William Bright,
M.A., Fellow of Universiiy College, Oxford ; late Professor of Ecclesiastical His-
tory in the Scottish Church. Post 8vo., price 10s, 6d.

ANCIENT COLLECTS AND OTHER PRAYERS, Selected for De-
votional Use from various Rituals, with an Appendix on the Collects in the
Prayer-book. By William Bbiqht, M.A., Fellow of University College, Oxford,
Author of " A History of the Church," &c. Second Edition, enlarged, printed
in red and black, on toned paper, antique cloth, Ss.

TKEOLOQICAL JTOMKS, (contimted).

DS. ELYET.
TBE PSALTEE, or Canticles and Psalms of David, Pointed for

Chanting, upon a New Principle ; with Explanations and Directions. By the
Jate Stephen Elvet, Mus. Doc, Organist of New and St. John's Colleges, and
Organist and Choragus to the University of Oxford. Second Edition, 8vo., cloth,
price 78. 6d.

ST. JOHK CHBYSOSTOH.

S- JOANNIS CHRTSOSTOMI II^TERPRETATIO OMNITTM:

EPISTOLABUM PAULINABUM PER HOMILIAS PACTA. Tomus VI. In
Efistolas ad Timothsxxm, TiTiTM, ST Philemonem. Svc, cloth, price 10s. 6d.

Tomus VII. Continens

Homilias in Epistolam ad Hebraeos, et Indices. 8vo., cloth, 128.

ST. J17STIH UABTYB.

THE WORKS OF 8. JUSTIN MARTYR, Translated, with Notes
and Indices. 8vo., cloth, price 8s.

ST. AN8ELM.

CTJR DEirS HOMO, or WHY GOD WAS MADE MAN; by

St. Anselm. Translated. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo., 2s. 6d.

MEDITATIONS AND SELECT PRAYERS, by St. AbTSELM, for-
merly Archbishop of Canterbury. Edited by E.B.PusEY, D.D. Fcap. 8vo., 5s.

BEFLIES TO ESSAYS AND BEVIEWS.
REPLIES TO " ESSAYS and REVIEWS." By

V. The Rev. G. Robison, LL.D.
VI. The Rev. A. W. Haddan, B.D.
VII. ThbRby.Chb.Woedswoeth,D.D.

I. The Rev. E. M. GoiTLBrEN, D.D.

II. The Rev. H. J. Rose, B.D.
III. The Rev. C. A. HErBTLEY, D.D.
IV. The Rev. W. J. Ibons, D.D.

With a Preface hy the Lord JBishop of Oxford; and Letters from the MadcUffe
Observer and the Reader in Geology in the University of Oxford, — Second
Edition, with a Note by Vrofessor Owen, Svo., cloth, 128.

BEY. JOHK WALEEB.
THE SUPFERINGS OF THE CLERGY DURING THE GREAT

REBELLION. By the Rev. John Walker, M.A., sometime of Exeter Col.
lege, Oxford, and Rector of St. Mary Major, Exeter. Epitomised by the Author
of ** The Annals of England." Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 5s.

BEY. W. H. KABSLAEE.

AN EXPOSITION OF THE LORD'S PRAYER, Devotional, Doc-
trinal, and Practical ; with Four Preliminary Dissertations, and an Appendix of
Extracts from "Writers on the Prayer for Daily Use. By the Rev. W. H. Eabs-
IiAXB, Fellow and sometime Tutor of Merton College, Oxford. Svo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

BEV. T. LATHBTTBY.
A HISTORY OF THE BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, AND

OTHER AUTHORIZED BOOKS, from the Reformation; and an Attempt to
ascertain how the Rubrics, Canons, and Customs of the Church have been under-
stood and observed from the same time: with an Account of the State of Reli-
gion in England from 1640 to 1660. By the Rev. Thomas Lathbury, M.A.,
Author of "A History of the Convocation," *'The Nonjurors," ficc. Second
Edition, with an Index, 8vo., lOs. 6d.

TSTEOLOQICAL WORKS, (continued).

THE LATE BEV. H. HEWLANB.

A NEW CATENA ON ST. PAUL'S EPISTLES.— A Pbacticai

AND EXXaSTICAL COMUSNTABY ON THE EpJSTLES OP St. PArii TO THE EpiiE-

8IANS, AND THE Philippians: in which are exhibited the Results of the most
learned Theological CriticismB, from the Age of the Early Fathers down to the
Present Time. Edited by the late Rev. Hbhey Newt^nd, M.A., Vicar of
St Mary Church, Devon, and Chaplain to the Bishop of Exeter. 8vo., cl., 128.

EEV. H. BOWKIITO.
SHOET NOTES ON ST. JOHN'S GOSPEL, intended for the Use

of Teachers in Parish Schools, and other Readers of the English Version. By
Henry Downing, M.A., Incumbent of St. Mary's, Eingswiuford. Fcap. 8vo.,
cloth, 2s. 6d.

SHORT NOTES ON THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, intended

for the use of Teachers in Parish Schools, and other Readers of the English
Version. By the same Author. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 28.

BEY. L. P. HEBGIEB.
CONSIDEEATIONS EESPECTINQ A EUTTJEE STATE. By

the Rev. Lewis P. Mercier, M.A., University College, Oxford. Fcap. 8vo., 49.

BEY. J. H. NEALE.

A HISTOEY or the so-called JANSENIST CHTTECH

OF HOLLAND ; with a Sketch of its Earlier Annals, and some Account of the
Brothers of the Common Life. By the Rev. J. M. Neale, M.A., Warden of
Sackville College. 8vo., cloth, reduced to Ss.

BEY. B. W. MOBOA|r.

ST. PAUL IN BEITAIN ; or. The Origin or British as opposed

TO Papal Christianitv. By the Rev. R. W. Morgan, Perpetual Curate of
Tregynon, Montgomeryshire, Author of " Verities of the Church," "The Churches
of England and Rome," "Christianity and Infidelity intellectually contrasted," &c.
Crown 8vo., cloth, 4s.

THE LATE DEAN OF FEBKS.

THE LIFE AND CONTEMPOEANEOUS CHIJECH HIS-

TORY OF ANTONIO DE DOMINIS, Archbishop of Spalairo, which in-
cluded the Kingdoms of Dalmatia and Croatia; afterwards Dean of Windsor,
Master of the Savoy, and Rector of West llsley in the Church of England, in
the reign of James I. By the late -Henry Newland, D.D., Dean of Ferns,
8vo., cloth lettered, reduced to 7s.

BEY. J. DAYISON.

DISCOUESES ON PROPHECY, in which are considered its Struc-
ture, Use, and Inspiration ; being the substance of Twelve Sermons preached in
the Chapel of Lincoln's-Inn, by John Davison, B.D. Sixth and cheaper Edition.
8vo., cloth, 98.

BEY. DB. SEWELL.

CHETSTIAN VESTIGES OF CREATION. By William Seveil,
D.D.., late Professor of Moral Philosophy in tho University of Oxford. Post
8vo., cloth, price 4s. Cd.

SJBSMONS, <^o, 6

SERMONS, &c.

rLI^TJSTRATION'S OF FAITH. EIGHT PLAIIT SERMONS,

by a Writer in the '* Tracts for the Christian Seasons:" — Abelj Enoch ; Noah ;
Abraham; Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph ; Moses; The Walls of Jericho ; Conclusions.
Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 2s. 6d.

Uniform, and hy the same Author,

PlcAXBT SsBHOirS ON THE BoOK OP COM-

m:on Pbateb. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, Ss.
Historical and Pbactioal Sebmons

OK THE StTFFEBINOS AND BESXXB-

BECTION OV OTTB LOBD. 2 vols., Fcap.

8vo., cloth, 10s.
Seemons ON Kew Testament Chabac-
TEBS. Fcap. 8vo., 4s.

CHRISTIAl^ SEASONS.— Short and Plain Sermons for every Sunday

and Holyday throughout the Year. Edited by the late Bishop of Grahamstown.
4 vols., Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 168.

■ A Second Series of Sermons for the Christian

Seasons. Uniform with the above. 4 vols., Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 16s.

AEMSTRONG'S PAROCHIAL SERMONS. Parochial Sermons, by

John Armstrong, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Grahamstown. A New Edition,
Fcap. Svo., cloth, 58.

ARMSTRONG'S. SERMONS FOR FASTS AND FESTIYALS. A

new Edition. Fcap. 8vo., 5s.

PAROCHIAL SERMONS, by the Rev. Henby W. Bxieeows, B.D.,

Perpetual Curate of Christ Church, StPancras. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 6s.
■ ' Second Series. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 5s.

SERMONS PREACHED FOR THE MOST PART IN THE

CHURCHES OF ST.MARY AND ST. MATTHIAS, RICHMOND, SUR-
REY, By Charles Wellington Furse, M.A., of Balliol College ; Curate of
Christ Church, St. Pancras ; and formerly Lecturer of St. George's Chapel,
Windsor. Post 8vo., cloth, 6s.

SHORT SERMONS FOR FAMILY READING. Ninety Short

Sermons for Family Reading, following the course of the Christian Seasons. By
the Author of <* A Plain Commentary on the Gospels." 2 vols., cloth, 8s.

SERMONS PREACHED BEFORE THE TJNIYERSITY OF OX-
FORD, and in other places. By the late Rev. C. Marriott, Fellow of Oriel
College, Oxford. 12mo., cloth, 6s.

Yolume the Second. 12mo., cloth, 7s. 6d.

LECTURES ON THE EPISTLE OF ST. PAUL TO THE RO-
MANS. By the late Rev. C. Marriott, B.D., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.
Edited by his Brother, the Rev. John Marriott. 12mo., cloth, Gs.

REFLECTIONS IN A LENT READING OF THE EPISTLE TO

THE ROMANS. By the late Rev, C. Marriott. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 8s.

6 ENGLISH DIVINJSS.

Morh of Wit ^taniari (Bngliah gidnes,

PUBLISHED IN THE LIBRAKT OF ANGLO-CATHOLIC THEOLOGY,

AT THE FOLLOWING PKICE8 IN CLOTH.

ANDRE WES' (BP.) COMPLETE WORKS. 11 vols., 8vo., £3 7b.

The Seemons. (Separate.) 5 vols., £1 15s.
BEYERIDGKS (BP.) COMPLETE WORKS. 12 vols., 8vo., £4 4s.

The English Theological Works. 10 vols., £3 10s.
BRAMHALL'S (ABP.) WORKS, WITH LIFE AND LETTERS, &c.

6 vols., 8vo., £\ 15s.

BULL'S (BP.) HARMONY ON JUSTIFICATION. 2 vola., 8vo.. 10s.

DEFENCE OF THE NICENE CREED. 2 vols., IDs.

JUDGMENT OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. Ss.

COSIN'S (BP.) WORKS COMPLETE. 5 vols., Bvo., £1 lOs.
CRAKANTHORP'S DEFENSIO ECCLESLE ANGLICAN^E.

8vo., Vs.

FRANK'S SERMONS. 2 vols., Bvo., 10s.

FORBES' CONSIDERATIONES MODESTO. 2 vols., Bvo., 12s.
GUNNING' S PASCHAL, OR LENT FAST. Bvo., 6s.
HAMMOND'S PRACTICAL CATECHISM. Bvo., 5s.
MISCELLANEOUS THEOLOGICAL WORKS. 58.

THIRTY-ONE SERMONS. 2 Parts. 10s.

HICKES'S TWO TREATISES ON THE CHRISTIAN PRIEST-
HOOD. 3 vols., 8vo., 15s.

JOHNSON'S (JOHN) THEOLOGICAL WORKS. 2 vols., Bvo., 10s.

ENGLISH CANONS. 2 vols., 128.

LAUD'S (ABP.) COMPLETE WORKS. 6 vols., (B Parts,) Bvo.,

£2 10s. ^ ''

L'ESTRANGE'S ALLIANCE OF DIVINE OFFICES. Bvo., 6s.
MARSHALL'S PENITENTIAL DISCIPLINE. Bvo., 4s.
NICHOLSON'S (BP.) EXPOSITION OF THE CATECHISM. (This

volume cannot be sold separate from the complete sef.)

OVERALL'S (BP.) CONVOCATION-BOOK OF 1606. 8vo., Ss.
PEARSON'S (BP.) VINDICI^ EPISTOLARUM S. IGNATH.

2 vols. .8vo., IDs.

THORNDIKE'S (HERBERT) THEOLOGICAL WORKS COM-

PLETE. 6 vols., (10 Parts,) 8vo., £2 10s

WILSON'S (BP.) WORKS COMPLETE. With LIFE, by Rev.

J. Klble. 7 vols., (8 Pans,) 8vo., £3 Ss.

A complete set, £25.

KSW DEVOTIONAL WORKS.

DAII^Y STEPS TOWARDS HEAVEN; or, Practical Thoughts on

the Ck)8pel History, and especially on the Life and Teaching of our Lord Jesus
Obriflt:, for every day in the year, according to the Christian Seasons. With
Titles and Characters of Christ; and a Harmony of the Four Gospels. Uleventh
SdUian. 82mo., roan, 2s. 6d. ; morocco, 4s. "Gd.

LARGE-TYPE EDITION, square crown 8vo., cloth,

price 58.

THIB PASTOR UT HIS CLOSET ; or, A Help to the Devotions
of the Clergy. By John Armstrong, D.D., late Lord Bishop of Grah^mstown.
Third Edition, Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 2s.

BAILY SEEVICES FOR CHRISTIAIT HOUSEHOLDS, compiled
and arranged by the Rev. H. Stobabt, M.A. 18mo., paper. Is. ; cloth, Is. 4d.

THOUGHTS DURING SICKNESS. By the Author of " The Doc-
trine of the Cross,'* and « Devotions for the Sick Room." Second Edition,
Price 28. 6d.

BREVIATES FROM HOLY SCRIPTURE, arranged for nse hy the

Bed of Sickness. By the Rev. G. Arden, M.A., Rector of Win terbome- Cain e;
Domestic Chaplain to the Right Hon. the Earl of Devon ; Author of **A Manual
of Catechetical Instruction." Fcap. 8vo. Second Edition. 2s.

THE CURE OP SOULS. By the Rev. G. Arden, M.A.

Fcap. 8vo., 28. 6d.
PRECES PRIVATE in studiosorum gratiam collectee et regia auc-

toritatp approhatae: anno mdlxviii. Londini edhas : ad Vetera exemplaria denuo
recognits. £d. C. Marriott. l6mo., cloth, 68.

OXFOBD SERIES OF DEVOTIONAL WORKS.

THE IMITIITION OF CHRIST.
FOUR BOOKS. By Thomas a Kem-
pis. A new Edition, revisedi hand-
somely printed on tinted paper in Fcap.
8vo., with Vignettes and red horders,
cl., tjs. ; antique calf, red edges, IDs. 6d.

LAUD'S DEVOTIONS.
THE PRIVATE DEVOTIONS of
Dr. William Laud, Archhishop of
Canterbury, and Martyr. A new and
revised Edition, with Translations to
the Latin Prayers, handsomely printed
with Vignettes and red lines. Fcap.
8vo., antique cloth, 5s.

WILSON'S SAORA PRIVATA.
THE PRIVATE xMEDlTATIONS,
DEVOTIONS, and PRAYERS of
the Right Rev. T. Wilson, D.D.,
Lord Bishop of Sodor and Man.
Now first printed entiie. From the
Original Manuscripts. Fcap. 8vo., 6r.

ANDREWES' DEVOTIONS.
DEVOTIONS. By the Right Rev.
Father in God, Launcelot An-
DREWES, Translated from the Greek
and Latin, and arranged anew. Fcap.
8to., 58.; morocco, 8s.; antique calf,
red edges, 10s. 6d.

SPIRCKES' DEVOTIONS.
TRUE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
MAN'S COMPANION IN THE
CLOSET; or, a complete Manual
of Private Devotions, collected from
the Writings of eminent Divines
of the Church of England. Sixteenth
Edition, corrected. Fcap.Svo., floriated
herders, cloth, antique, 4s.

The ahove set of 5 Vol nines, in neat grained
calf binding, ^2 Ss.

TAYLOR'S HOLY LIVINS.
THE RULE AND EXERCISES
OF HOLY LIVING. By Bishop
Jeremy Taylor. In which are de-
scrihed the means and instnimenrs of
obtaining every virtue, and the reme-
dies against every vice. In antique
cloth binding, 4«.

TAYLOR'S HOLY DYIR8.
THE RULE AND EXERCISES
OF HOLY DYING. By Bishop
Jeremy Taylor. In which are de-
scribed the means and instruments of
preparing ourselves and others respec-
tively for a blessed death, &c. In an^
tique cloth bindings 4j.

ANCIENT COLLECTS.
Lately published. Vide p. 2.

8 CHURCH POBTRY.

THE AUTHOB OF "THE CHSISTIAH YEAB."
THE CHEISTIAN YEAR. Thoughts in verse for the Sundays and

• Holy day 8 throughout the Year. Imperial Octavo, with Illuminated Titles, — Cloth,
11. 5b,} morocco, II, lis. 6d.; hast morocco, 21, 2s. Octavo J^c^/fion,.— Large
type, cloth, 10s. 6d. ; morocco by Hayday, 2l8. ; antique calf, ISs. Foolscap
Octavo Edition^ — Cloth, 78. 6d.; morocco, lOs. 6d. ; morocco by Hayday, 158.;
antique calf, 128. %2mo. Edition, — Cloth, 88. 6d. ; morocco, plain, 5b, \ morocco
by Hayday, 7s. Cheap Editioti, — Cloth, Is. 6d. ; bound, 2s.

LYEA INNOCENTIXIM. Thoughts in Verse for Christian Children,

Foolscap Octavo Edition,— Clothe 7a. 6d. ; morocco, plain, lOs. 6d. ; morocco by
Hayday, 15s.; antique calf, 128. ISmo. Edition, — Cloth, 6s.; morocco, 88. 6d.
S2mo. Edition, — Cloth, Sa. 6d. ; morocco, plain, 58. ; morocco by Hayday, 78.
Oieap Edition, — Cloth, Is. 6d.; bound, 28.

THE AUTHOB OF "THE CATHEDBAL."
THE CATHEDEAL. Foolscap 8vo., cloth, 7s. 6d. ; 32mo., with

Engravings, 4s. 6d.

THOUGHTS IN PAST YEARS. The Siath Udition, with several

new Poems, 32mo., cloth, 4s. 6d.

THE BAPTISTERY ; or, The Way of Eternal Life. 32mo., doth,

3s. 6d.

The above Three Volumes uniform, ^2mo,, neatly hound in morocco, ISs.

THE CHRISTIAN SCHOLAR. Foolscap 8vo., 10s. 6d. ; 32mo.,

cloth, 48. 6d.

THE SEVEN DATS ; or, The Old and New Creation. Second

Edition, Foplscap 8vo., 7s. 6 d.

MORNING THOUGHTS. By a Clbrgyman. Suggested by the
Second Lessons foi the Daily Morning Service throughout the year. 2 yols.
Foolscap 8vo., cloth, 5s. each.

THE CHILD'S CHRISTIAN YEAR. Hymns for every Sunday

and Holyday throughout the year. Cheap Edition, 18mo., cloth, Is.

COXE'S CHRISTIAN BALLADS. Foolscap 8vo., cloth, 3s. Also

selected Poems in a packet, sewed. Is.

ELORUM SACRA. By the Rev. G. Hukt Smtttan. Second

Edition Ifimn.- la.

2^W HISTORICAL AND ARCffJSOLO&ICAL WORKS.

PBOFESSOB GOLDWIN SMITH.

IltlSH HISTORY AND IRISH CHARACTER. By Goldwh^
Smith. Second JEdiHon, Post 8vo., price Ss.

JJniform with the above,

THE EMPIRE. A SERIES OF LETTERS PUBLISHED 1^

«*THE DAILY NEWS," 1862, 1863. By Goldwin Smith. Post 8vo., cloth,
price 68.

PB0FES80B WTLLISi

FACSIMILE OP THE SKETCH-BOOK OP WILARS DE HONE-

CORT, an Architect of the Thirteenth Century. With Commentaries and De-
scriptions by MM. Lassus and Quicherat. Translated and Edited, with many
additional Articles and Notes, by the Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S.,
Jacksonian Professor at Cambridge, &c. With 64 Facsimiles, 10 Illustration
Plates, and 43 Woodcuts. Royal 4to., cloth, 21, 10s.

The English letterpress separate f for the purchasers of the French edition^ 4ito,, I5s.

JOHK HENBY PABEEB.

a:n iin^RODircTioiT to the study op gothic archi-
tecture. By John Henry Parker, F.S.A. Second Edition, Revised and
Enlarged, with 170 Illustrations, and a Glossarial Index. Fcap. 8vo., cloth let-
tered, price 5s.

AN ATTEMPT TO DISCRIMINATE THE STYLES OP AR-

CHITECTURE IN ENGLAND, FROM THE CONQUEST TO THE
REFORMATION: WITH A SKETCH OF THE GRECIAN AND
ROMAN ORDERS. By the late Thomas Rickman, F.S.A. Sixth Edition,
with considerable Additions, chiefly Historical, by John Henrt Parker, F.S.A.,
and numerous Illustrations by O. Jewitt. 8vo., cloth, price II, Is.

ANCIENT ARMOUR AND WEAPONS IN EUROPE. By Johbt

Hewitt, Member of the Archaeological Institute of Great Britain. Vols. II. and
III., comprising the Period from the Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Century,
completing the work, \l. 12s. Also Vol. I., from the Iron Period of the Northern
Nations to the end of the Thirteenth Century, 18s. The work complete, 3 vols.,
8vo., 21, lOs.

M. yiOLLET-LE-BTTC. .

THE MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OP THE MIDDLE AGES,

Translated from the French of M. Viollet-le-Duc. By M. Macdermott,
Esq., Architect. With the 151 original French Engravings. Medium 8vo.,
cloth, price 4)1 Is.

EBITOB OF GLOSSARY.

SOME ACCOUNT OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENG-
LAND, from Richard II. to Henry VIII. (or the Perpendicular Style). With
Numerous Illustrations of Existing Remains from Original Drawings. By the
Editor of "The Glossary of Architecture." In 2 vols., 8vo., II, lOs.

Also,

Vol. I.— FROM WILLIAM I. TO EDWARD 1, (or the Norman and Early
English Styles). Bvo., 21s.

Vol. II.— FROM EDWARD L TO RICHARD IL (the Edwardian Period,
or the Decorated Style). 8vo., 21s.

_ •

The work complete, with 400 Sngravings^ and a General Index,

4 vols, Svo., price £3 I2s,

OUR ENGLISH HOME : its Early History and Progress. With

Notes on the Introduction of Domestic Inventions. Second Edition, Crown

8vo., price 5s.

" It contains the annals of our English ciyilization, and all about our progress in social and
domestic matters, how we came to be the family and people which we are. All this forms a book
as intereenng as a novel, and our domestic history is written not only with great research, but
also with much spirit and MyfeUxieBa.**— Christian Remembrancer,

10 A KEW SERIES OF SISTOEICAL TALES.

HISTORICAL TALUS, illustrating the chief events in :Ecele^

nagtieal History, British and Foreign, adapted for General Reading, J^caroe^dl
Libraries, ifc. In Monthly Volumes, toith a Frontispiece, price Is,

This Series of Tales embraces the most important periods and transactions
connected with the progress of the Church in ancient and modern times. They
are written by authors of acknowledged merit, in a popular style, upon sound
Church principles, and with a single eye to the inculcation of a true estimate
of the circumstances to which they relate, and the bearing of those circnmatancefl
upon the history of the Church. By this means it is hoped that many, who now
regard Church history with indifference, will be led to the perusal of its singularly
interesting and instructive episodes.

£ach Tale, although forming a link of the entire Series, is complete in itself*

Already published.

No. 1.— THE CAVE IN THE HILLS; or, Caecilius Viriathns.

No. 2.— THE EXILES OF THE CEBENNA. a Journal written during the Dedan
Persecution, by Aurelius Gratianus, Priest of the. Church of Aries ; and now
done into English.

No. 3.— THE CHIEFS DAUGHTER ; or. The Settlers in Virginia.

No. 4— THE LILY OP TIPLIS : a Sketch from Georgian Church History.

No. 6.— WILD SCENES AMONGST THE CELTS.

No 6.— THE LAZAR-HOUSE OF LEROS: a Tale of the Eastern Church
in the Seventeenth Century.

No. 7.— THE RIVALS: a Tale of the Anglo-Saxon Church.

No. 8.— THE CONVERT OF MASSACHUSETTS.

No. 9.— THE QUAY OP THE DIOSCURI: a Tale of Nicene Times.

No. 10.— THE BLACK DANES.

No. 11.— THE CONVERSION OP ST. VLADIMIR; or. The Martyrs of Kief,
A Tale of the Early Russian Church.

No. 12.— THE SEA-TIGERS: a Tale of Mediseval Nestorianism.

No. 13.— THE CROSS I^ SWEDEN; or. The Days of King Ingi the Good.

No. 14.— THE ALLELUIA BATTLE ; or, Pelagianism in Britain.

No. 15.— THE BRIDE OP RAMCUTTAH : A Tale of the Jesuit Misdona to
the East Indies in the Sixteenth Century.

No. 16.— ALICE OF FOBBING; or. The Times of Jack Straw and Wat Tyler."

No. 17.— THE NORTHERN LIGHT: a Tale of Iceland and Greenland in the
Eleventh Century.

No. 18— AUBREY DE L'ORNE ; or. The Times of St. Anselm.

No. 19.— LUCIA'S MARRIAGE ; or, The Lions of Wady-Araba.

No. 20.— WOLFINGHAM; or. The Convict- Settler of Jervis Bay: a Tale of the
Church in Australia.

No. 21.— THE FORSAKEN; or. The Times of St. Dunstan.

No. 22.— THE DOVE OF TABENNA.— THE RESCUE : A Tale of the Moorish
Conquest of Spain.

No. 23 — LARACHE : a Tale of the Portuguese Church in the Sixteenth Century.

No. 24.— WALTER THE ARMOURER; or. The Interdict: a Tale of the Times
of King John.

No. 25.— THE CATECHUMENS OF THE COROMANDEL COAST.

No. 26.— THE DAUGHTERS OF POLA. Family Letters relating to the Pewe-
cution of Dioeletian, now first translated from an Istrian MS.

No. 27.— AGNES MARTIN; or. The Fall of Cardinal Wolsey.

No. 28.— ROSE AND MINNIE ; or. The Loyalists : a Tale of Canada in 1837.

yUir WOUKS OF FICTZOy.

ALICE LISLE : A Tale of Puritan Times. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 4s.
THE SCHOLAR AND THE TROOPER; ok, OXFORD DURING

THE GREAT REBELLION. By the Rev. W. £. HsYaATB. Second Edition.
Poap. 8va, cloth> 68.

SOME YEARS AFTER : A Tale. Fcap. 8vo., cloth lettered, 7s.
ATHELINE; or, THE CASTLE BY THE SEA. A Tale. By

XiouiSA Stewart, Author of ** Walks at Templecombe,*' '* Floating away," &c.
2 Yols., Fcap. 8vo. 98.

MIGNONETTE: A SKETCH. By the Author of "The Curate of
Holy Cro88." 2 vols., Fcap., cloth, 10s.

THE CALIFORNIAN CRUSOE : A Tale of Mormonism. By the

Rev. H. Caswall, Yicar of Figheldean. Fcap. 8vo., with Illustration, cloth,
28. 6d.

STORM AND SUNSHINE ; ob. THE BOYHOOD OF HERBERT

FALCONER. A Tale. By W. E. Dickson, M.A., Author of "Our Work-
shop," &c. With Frontispiece, cloth, 28.

AMY GRANT; ob, THE ONE MOTIVE. A Tale designed

principally for the Teachers of the Children of the Poor. Second Edition. Fcap.
8to., cloth, 3s. 6d.

THE TWO HOMES. A Tale. By the Author of " Amy Grant."

Third Edition, Fcap. Svo., cloth, 2s. 6d.

DAWN AND TWILIGHT. A Tale. By the Author of "Amy

Grant," " Two Homes," &c. 2 vols. Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 7s.

KENNETH; ob, THE REAE-GUARD OF THE GRAND

ARMY. By the Author of the " Heir of Redely ffe," «• Hearteease," &c, &c.
Fcap. 8vo., with Illustrations, 58. Fourth Edition.

TALES FOR THE YOUNG MEN AND WOMEN OF ENG-

LAND. A Series of Tales adapted for Lending Lihraries, Book Hawkers, &c.
Fcap. 8vo., with Illustrations, strongly bound in coloured wrapper, Is. each: —

No. 1. Mother and Son.

No. 2. The Recruit

No. 3. The Strike.

No. 4. James Bright, the Shopman.

No. 5. Jonas Clint.

No. 6. The Sisters.

No. 7. Caroline Elton ; or,^

Vanity and Jealousy. Vis.
No. 8. Servants' Influence, j
No. 9. The Railway Accident.
No. 10. Wanted, a Wife.
No. 11. Irrevocable.

No. 12. The Tenants at Tinkers' End.
No. 13. Windycote HalL
No. 14. False Honour.
No. 15. Old Jarvis's Will.
No. 16. The Two Cottages.
No. 17. Squitch.
No. 18. The Politician.
No. 19. Two to One.
No. 20. Hobson's Choice. 6d.
No. 21. Susan. 4d.
No. 22. Mary Thomas; or,\ . .
Dissent at Evenly./

"To make boys learn to read, and then to place no good books within their reach, is to give them
an i^;>p6tite, and leave nothing in the pantry save unwhulesume and puisvnoua food which, depend
apun it, they will eat rather than starve."— <S»r W* ScoU,

ySW PAMOCSIAZ BOOKS.

CATECHETICAL WOEKS. Designed to aid the Qergy in PubKc

Catechising. Uniform in size and type with the ** Parochial Tracts.''

Jllread^ published in this Series.

I. Catiohxtical Lsssoks on

the Creed. 6d.

II. Catechetical Lessoks on

the Lord's Prayer. 6d.

III. Catechetical Lessoks on

the Ten Commandments. 6d.

lY. Catechetical Lsssoirs on

the Sacraments. 6d.

y. Catechetical Lessoits on

the Parables of the New Testament
Part L Parables I.— XXI. Is.

VI. Part II. ^arables XXII.

—XXXVII. Is.

VII. Catechetical Notes on

the Thirty- Nine Articles. Is. 6d.

Vin. Catechetical Lessoitb on

the Order for Morning and ^vcmng
Prayer, and the Litany. Is.

IX Gatbohktioa]^ Lebboks on

the Miracles of our Lord. Part I.
Miracles I.— XVI L Is.
X. Paet II. MifiACLES XVIII.
— XXXVII. Is.

XI. Catechetical Notes on

the Saints' Days. Is.

Questions on the Collects,

Epistles, and Gospels, throughout
the Year ; edited by the Rev. T. I-.
Clauohton, Vicar of Kidderminster.
For the use of Teachers in Sunday-
Schools. Two Parts, I8mo.« cloth, each
2s. 6d.

COTTAGE PICTUEES. Cottage Pictures from the Old Testament.
Twenty-eight large Illustrations, coloured hy hand. The set, folio, 7s. 6d.

COTTAGE PICTURES from the New Testament, (uniform with
ahoTe). The set of Twenty-eight, 7s. 6d.

SCEIPTUEE PRINTS FOR PAROCHIAL USE. Printed in

Sepia, with Ornamental Borders. Price One Penny each ; or the set in an orna-
mental envelope. One Shilling.

1. The Nativity.

2. St. John Preaching.

8. The Baptism of Christ.

4. Jacoh's Dream.

5. The Transfiguration.

6. The Good Shepherd.

7. The Tribute,Money.

8. The Preparation for the Cross.

9. The Crucifixion.

10. Leading to Crucifixion.

11. Healing the Sick.

12. The Return of the Prodigal.

One hundred thousand have already been sold of these prints. They are also kept

mounted and varnished, 3d. each.

TALES AND ALLEGORIES reprinted from the "PENNY POSO'."

Fcap. 8vo., with Illustrations.

FANNY DALK Is. 6d.
THE CHILD OP THE TEMPLE. Is.
THE HEART-STONE. lOd.
FAIRTON VILLAGE. Sd.
GILL'S LAP. Sd.

FOOTPRINTS IN THE WILDER-
NESS, 6d.
TALES OP AN OLD CHURCH. 4.d.
MARGARET OF CONWAY. 4d.
MARY WILBRAM. 4d.
MARION. 4d.

MARTINMAS. 4d.

OLD WINTERTON'S WILL. 4d.

MARY MERTON. 2d.

THE TWO WIDOWS. 2d.

LEFT BEHIND. 2d.

AMNEMON THE FORGETFUL. 2d.

EUSTATHES THE CONSTANT. 2d.

LITTLE TALES. 4d.
LITTLE ALLEGORIES. 2d.
LITILE FABLES, 2d.

ITEW AND STAND AMD EDUCATIONAL WOSKS, 13

THE FIFTH BOOK OE ETJCLID.— The Propositions of the Fifth

Book of Euclid proved Algebraically : with an Introdaction, Notes, and Questions.
By George Sturton Ward, M.A., Mathematical Lecturer in Magdalen Hall,
and Public Examiner in the University of Oxford. Crown 8to., price 2s. 6d.

JH KAINH AIAeHKH. The Greek Testament with English

Notes. By the Rev. Edward Burton, D.D., sometime Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Oxford. Sixth Edition, with Index. 8vo., cloth,
1 Os. 6d.

PASS AND CLASS. An Oxford Guide-Book through the Conrses

of ZAtera Mumaniores, Mathematics, Natural Science, and Law and Modem His-
tory. By Montagu Burrows, M.A. Second Edition, with some of the latest
Examination Papers, Fcap. 8vo., cloth, 58.

ANNALS OF ENGLAND. An Epitome of English History. From

Cotemporary Writers, the Rolls of Parliament, and other Public Records. 3 vols*
Fcap. SVC with Illustrations, cloth, 15s. Recommended by the Examiners in the
School of Modern History at Oxford,

Vol. I. From the Roman Era to the Death of Richard II. Cloth, 5s.
Vol. II. From the Accession of the House of Lancaster to Charles I. Cloth, 5s.
Vol. III. From the Commonwealth to the Death of Queen Anne. Cloth, 5s.

Each Volume is sold separately.

OBATHnWARS AND DICTIONARIES.

JELF'S GREEK GRAMMAR.— A Grammar of the Greek Language,

chiefly from the text of Raphael Kiihner. By Wm. Edw. Jelp, M.A., Student
of Ch. Ch. Third Edition, greatly improved, 2 vols. 8vo., 1/. lOs.

This Grammar is in general use at Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, and Durham ; at
Eton, King's College, London, and most other public schools,

MADVIG'S LATIN GRAMMAR. A Latin Grammar for the Use
of Schools. By Professor Madvig, with additions by the Author. Translated by
the Rev. G. Woods, M.A. Uniform with Jelp's " Greek Grammar." Fourth
Edition. 8vo., cloth, 12s.

Competent antborlties pronounce this work to be the very best Latin Grammar yet published in
England. This new Edition contains an Index to the Authors quoted.

LAWS OF THE GREEK ACCENTS. By Johw Geipfiths, M.A.

16mo. Eleventh Edition. Price Sixpence.

Printed at the Oxford University Press.

A GREEK-ENGLISH LEXICON, based on the German work of
F. Passow. By Henry George Liddell, D.D., and Robert Scott, D.D.
Fifth Edition. Crown 4to., cloth, £1 lis. 6d.

A LEXICON chiefly for the use of Schools, abridged from the Greek-
English Lexicon of H. G.^ Liddell, D.D., and R. Scott, D.D. Tenth Edition,
square 12mo., cloth, price 7s. 6d.

SCHELLEE'S LATIN LEXICON. Translated by Riddle. In

sheets, £1 10s. (published at £4) ; a few copiee may be had bound in calf,

£2nett.

This is by far the most complete Latin Dictionary in existence, containing many hundred
words more than any otber.

SCAPULA, GREEK AND LATIN LEXICON. In sheeU, 128. (pub^

lished at £S ISs. 6d.) ; a few copies may be had bound, £1 Is. nett.

Sold by J. H. and J. Parker, Oxford, and 377, Strand, London ;
and Longman, Green, fie Ca, Paternoster- row.

CLASSICS.

OCTAVO BBITIOirS OF OI<ASSICa

THTJCTDIDES, with Notes, chiefly Historical and Geographical. By
the late T. Arnold, D.D. With Indices hy the Rey. JL P. G. Tiddbman. Fifth
Edition, Z toIb^ 8vo., cloth lettered, £1 16s.

THE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE. With Notes by the Rev. W. E.

Jelp, B.D., Author of "A Greek Grammar," &c. 8to., cloth, 12a.
The Text separately, 5s. The Notes separately, 7s. 6d.

BOPHOCLIS TRAGOEDIiE, with Notes, adapted to the use of Schools
and Universities. By Thomas Mitch bll, M.A. 2 yds. Svo., £1 Ss.

The following Plays may alto be had separately, at 6s, each .*—

Philoctetbs. I Ajax.

Tbachinijb. I Electra.

(Edipus Coloneus.

A SERIES OF GREEK AND LATIN CLASSICS

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS.

GREEK AUTHORS,

iEschylug

Aristophanes. 2 vols.
Euripides. 3 toIb.

■ Tragcediae Sex
Sophocles ••• •••

Homeri Ilias ...

■ Odyssea

•••

• ••

• *.

..•

• ••

•••

Aristotelis Ethica

Demosthenes de Corona, et )
iEschines in Ctesiphontem ) '**
Herodotus. 2 toIb. ...
Thucydides. 2 toIb. ...
Xenophontis Memorabilia
■ Anabasis

Horatius

JuTenalis et Persius

Lucanus

Lucretius

Phsdrus

Virgilius

•••

• ••

••• •*.

• ••

•t. •••

■ ••

• *•

••• •*•

.• *

.. •

... •••

LATI

If ATJTHOBS.

• ••

...

• a.

• ••

• t.

• ••

...

• ••

Paper.

Bonnd.

«.

•*.

..«

...

** •

**•

...

•**

•••

...

•••

...

•••

...

••.

k.a

2 ... 2 6

CiesaTis OommeDtarii, cum Supplementis Auli Hirtii et aliorum 2 ... 2 6

— — Commentarii de Bello Qallico

Cicero De Officiis, de Senectute, et de Amidtia

Oiceronis Tusculanarum Disputationum Libri Y. ...

— — Orationes Select®, in the press

Cornelius Nepos

Liyius. 4 toIb.

Sallustius

Tacitus. 2 vols.

...

•••

..«

...

.* .

•.•

•..

••*

n:ew sssiss of unglish notes.

JPoeket Editions of the folhmng ham been published

Short Notes.

SOPHOCLES.

A J AX ( Text and Notes)
Electra I,

(Edipus Rex „
(Edipus Coloneus
Antigone
Philoctetes
Trachinijs

-ffiSCHYLUS

EURIPIDES

The Notes only, in one vol., cloth, Ss.

• . Frometuevs YivcTus {Text and Notes)

Sf.ptem Contra Thebas

Persjs

Agamemnon

Choephor^

eumenides

Svpplices
The Notes only, in one vol., cloth, Ss. 6d.

. .Hecuba (Text and Notes)
Medea
Orestes

HiPPOLYTUB
Ph(ENIS8A

Alcestis

ti
it
it

t»
If

The Notes only, in one vol., cloth, Ss.
ARISTOPHANES . The Knights, {Text and Notes)

Acharnians

DEMOSTHENES . De Corona, (7e«^ attt/ JVb/e«,)
OLYNTHIAC ORATIONS, in the press.

iESCHINES

HOMERUS

VIRGILIUS

HORATIUS

In Ctesiphontem, {Text and Notes)

Ilias, Lib. i. — vi. {Text and Nofes,)

BucoLiCA, {Text and Notes,)
Georgica „

^NEiDOS, Lib. i. — iii.

SALLUSTIUS
M. T. CICERO

. Carmina, &c., {Text and Notes,)
Satirje „ •

Epistoljs et Ar8 Poetica „
The Notes only, in one vol., cloth, 2s.

. Juourtha, {Text and Notes,)
Catilina

Pro Milone, {Text and Notes)

In Catilinam „

Pro Lege Manilia, and Pro Archia „

De Senectute and De Amicitia

LIYIUS . • • . Lib. XXI. — xxir. {Text and Notes,)

C^SAR .... Lib. i. — xii. {Text and Notes,)

COHI^ELIVS NEVOS, {Text and Notes,)

PHiEDRUS . . . Taevlm, {Text and Notes,)

Other portions of several of the above-named Authors are inpreparati*

toith

s. d.

1
I

1
1
1
1

1
1

1
1
1

I
1

1
1

1
1
1

"The notes eontaln sufficient information,
without afTording the pupil so much assistance
as to supersede all exertion on his part." —
Athenaum, Jan. 27, 1855.

** Be all this as it may, it is a real heneflt to
public schoolboys to be able to purchase any
Greek Play they want for One Shilling. When
^e were introduced to Greek Plays, about forty

on.

years ago, we had put into our hands a portly
8yo. volume, containing Porson*s four Plays,
without one word of English in the shape of
notes; and we have no doubt the book cost
nearer twenty than ten shillings, and after all
was nothing near so useful as these neat little
copies at One Shilling esja\i.** ^ SdueatUtnai
Times,

16 PSBI0VICAL8.

THE GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE.— As time has passed on, the

Hagasine which Stlyanus Urban, now one hundred and thirty^two yean ago
commenced, has given rise to very many others. It is true that the greater part
have died soon after their hirth, hut still there are some occupying a portion of
the ground once covered hy St iv am us Urban : this has rendered it necessary for
him to prescrihe certain limits for his lahours. While Magazine after Magazine has
heen set on foot, none has ever clearly marked out for itself the ground whicii has
ever held the most prominent place in the Gentleman's Maoajbine« namely,
History and Archaeology. The Gentleman's Magazine has done more than any
periodical to support and promote archseological tastes and studies. In former years
It is true much of its space was occupied with general literature, but of late, as its
ground became more circumscribed, the Magazine was able to give a more complete
rStume of archaeological progress and labours. It therefore depended from that time
more especially upon archaeological and historical students to supply the place of
those supporters whom death year hy year remoTes.

An independent organ in such a study as archaeology Is of the greatest importance,
and he therefore appeals to the several Societies to receive him as such, believing
that his Magazine, by shewing what other Societies are doing, stimulates the mem-
bers of each Society to further exertion ; that by its independence it preyents the
injury that is often done to a science by that narrowness of view which small
separate Societies tend to engender ; and finally, that by treating of various subjects
distinct firom those coming beneath the scope of such Societies, he supplements their
labours without interfering with them.

PoldiBhed Mootlily, with numenma QlustiatianB, 8vo., 2b. 6d.

All Commumcaiums to be addressed to Mr, URBAN, 377, STRAND, JT.C,

THE PENNY POST. A Chinch of England niustrated Magazine,

issued Monthly. Price One Penny.

enlargement of the penmt post.

Each number of 1863 will consist of Thirty- two Pages, and numerous Illus-
trations, containing Tales, Stories, Allegories; Notes on Religious Events of the
Day ; Essays, Doctrinal and Practical. The object is to combine amusement
with instruction ; to provide healthy and interesting reading adapted for the Village
as well as the Town. A part of each number is devoted to the " Children's
Corner." The Editor's Box is continued.

MONTHLY— ONE PENNY.
Subscribers' names received by all Booksellers and Newsmen.

PARDEE'S CHURCH CALENDAR FOR 1863, price 6d., being

the Eighth Year of Issue.

CONTENTS :— The Calskdab, with the Daily Lessons.— Tax Chi7sch : Statisties of the
Church in England, Ireland, Scotland, the Colonies, &c. Contocation : Provinoe of Canter-
bury ; Province of YotIl. The Archhishops and Bishops of Ei^oland ; Deans ; Archdeacons ;
Proctors of Convocation ; Benefices ; Chnrch and other Sittings, &o. The Archbishops and
Bishops in Ibkland, Scotland, and the Colonies ; and other information. The Bishops in
Amebica, with Statistios of the Dioceses, Extent, Population, Clergy, fto., ftc. ; First Bishops of
the American Church; Statistical Summaries. — Tbe Unite&sitiss, &c.: The University of
OxFOBD ; the University of Cambbidob ; and other Universities. Theological Colleges ; Training
Institutions; Public Schools. Societies and Institutions ; Church Unions; Colleges.— Ths
State, &c. : The State and Royal Family. Members of the House of Peers and Commons. The
Kings and Queens of England. Statistics of the Population. Postal Regulatious, and a variety
of otiier information.

Crown Svo., price Is. ; 140 pages of close type^ in wTapper,

THE OXFORD DIOCESAN CALEITOAR, AND CLERGY LIST
for 1863. Issued under the sanction of the Lord Bishop of the Diocese.

Also,
THE LONDON DIOCESAN CALENDAR, AND CLERGY LIST

for 1863.

A JDiary is also prinled, uniform with the Calendar,

The two together, bound in roan, 3*.

Oxford and London : J. H. and J. Pabkkb.

t r,

THE BORROWER WILL BE CHARGED
AN OVERDUE FEE IF THIS BOOK IS
NOT RETURNED TO THE LIBRARY ON
OR BEFORE THE LAST DATE STAMPED
BELOW. NON-RECEIPT OF OVERDUE
NOTICES DOES NOT EXEMPT THE
BORROWER FROM OVERDUE FEES.

Harvard College Widener Library
pambrid9eTMA0 2138 (617)495-2413

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Climate; an Inquiry Into the Causes of Its Differences, and Into Its Influence on Vegetable Life ..."

See other formats