Clinical anatomy of the European hamster : Cricetus cricetus, L.

CLINICAL ANATOMY

OF THE
EUROPEAN HAMSTER

CRICETUS CRICETUS, L.

LIBRARY

JUN 1 6 1993
Mationsi Institutes of Heeltb

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Wastiington, D.C. 20402
Stoclt Number 01 7-042-00122-6

CLINICAL ANATOMY
OF THE EUROPEAN HAMSTER

Cricetus cricetus, L.

By

Gerd Reznik, D.V.M.
Hildegard Reznik-Schiiller, D.V.M.
Ulrich Mohr, M.D.

Abteilung f iir Experimentelle Pathologic
Medizinische Hochschule Hannover
Hannover, West Germany

Prepared For The
Carcinogenesis Program
Division Of Cancer Cause And Prevention
National Cancer Institute
Under Contract No. NOl-CP-55687

Edited by

Peter Dodson, Ph.D.

School of Veterinary Medicine
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Penna. 19174

With Editorial Assistance From

Paul C. Walter, M.D.
Ronald B. Levine

Science Information Services Department
The Franklin Institute
Philadelphia, Penna. 19103

1979

FOREWORD

The European hamster has proved to be a very useful animal for research in
pulmonary carcinogenesis. However, prior to the publication of this handbook
there has been little useful anatomical information on the animal. In 1974, Drs.
Mohr, Reznik and Reznik-Schiiller of the Medizinische Hochschule Anatomical
of Hannover produced an illustrated manuscript entitled "The European Ham-
ster, An Anatomical Atlas." The manuscript was reviewed by Drs. Robert E.
Habel and Howard E. Evans of the Cornell University Veterinary School, and in
1975 a contract was awarded by the National Cancer Institute to the Franklin
Institute Research Laboratories (FIRL) for publication of the manuscript. Dr.
Stephen Tauber of FIRL directed this project, with Dr. Paul Walter of FIRL
editing the publication and Dr. Peter Dodson of the University of Pennsylvania
School of Veterinary Medicine acting as anatomical consultant.

This volume is not an all-inclusive atlas. Clinically relevant systems such as
the respiratory system are emphasized and the anatomical orientation is focused
on regions rather than systems. Details of the anatomy of the appendages or of
other regions not covered in this volume may be obtained by writing to the
authors.

Likewise, emphasis is not given to microanatomy; however, when the his-
tology of structures is described, it is noted in smaller typeface to alert the reader.

Nomenclature was standardized by using the Nomina Anatomica Veter-
inaria (N.A.V. 1968, 1973) as an authority, except insofar as it failed to denote
structures unique either to rodents or hamsters (i.e., bursa buccalis). Each
anatomical structure is introduced with its Latin (N.A.V.) term but the English
term is used subsequently throughout the text.

The German manuscript was translated in the authors' laboratory and
edited by Dr. Waher and Dr. Dodson and Mr. Ronald Levine of FIRL. Dr.
Walter also contributed significant segments of original text, especially with
regard to limits and landmarks of thoracic and abdominal cavities, peritoneal
relationships, and clinical considerations. Any editorial addition was read and
approved by the authors who accept full responsibility for the text.

The typing help of Francine Davis, Barbara Knox, Brenda Allen, and Clare
M. Byrnes is most gratefully acknowledged.

This monograph is part of Contract No. NOl-CP-55687 awarded by the
National Cancer Institute, Division of Cancer Cause and Prevention, Dr. Thomas
P. Cameron, Project Officer.

Hi

ERRATA

P 38 Figure 2-33 Upside down
Figure 2-34

P 41 Figure 2-40 Upside down

P 42 Figure 2-42 Upside down

P 147 Figure 5-11 Upside down

P 159 Figure 5-32 Upside down

PREFACE

Since our research has been oriented for many years towards lung cancer,
especially studies in etiology, we have been consistently seeking sensitive experi-
mental animals. Such models should fulfill the following stipulations: 1. that
lesions be induced within a survevable time period after administration of known
carcinogens; 2. that well-differentiated tumor types (adeno- and squamous cell
carcinomata) should originate in the respiratory tract; and 3. that no infectious
diseases of the respiratory tract should interfere with the experimental results.

About 10 years ago, our work was confined to the use of the Syrian golden
hamster {Mesocricetus auratus) which had been recognized as the model for res-
piratory tract carcinogenesis (Saffiotti 1969, 1974; Saffiotti, et ai, 1968; Althoff,
et ai, 1971a, b; Nettesheim. 1972; Laskin and Sellakumar, 1975; Wynder and
Hoffman. 1964. 1967; Delia Porta, et ai, 1958; Dontenwill and Mohr, 1961;
Montesano and Saffiotti, 1968, 1970). This animal, however, frequently pre-
sented with early tracheal papillomata, resulting in premature death by asphyxi-
ation; consequently, the time required for induction of lung carcinomata, whose
histopathologv would be significantly differential (adenocarcinoma, squamous
cell carcinoma) could not be realized (Feron, et ai, 1972; Montesano, 1970;
Lijinsky, et al., 1970; Haas, et al., 1973; Herrold and Dunham, 1963). More-
over, the pulmonary tumors in this experimental animal have been suspected as
originating from parts of tracheal papillomata ''transplanted'' to the lungs (Spit
and Feron, 1975; Stenback, et ai, 1973; Creasia and Nettesheim, 1974). Studies
on respiratory tract sensitivity to known carcinogens in Chinese hamsters led to
mainly negative results, so that this animal species had to be rejected (Mohr,
etai, 1966, 1967, 1970; Althoff, a/., 1971b; Reznik, a/., 1976a, b, c).

VVe have finally verified that the European hamster, which lives wild in
West Germany, fulfills the set stipulations for an animal model and that, in
comparison to the .Syrian golden hamster (Fig. 0-1), offers additional advantages.
With known nitroso- compounds, respiratory tract tumors have developed within
a relatively short time of 13 weeks (Mohr, et ai, 1972); moreover, these tumors
are for the most part well-differentiated. With corresponding doses of carcinogens,
tumors are produced in all animals (100%) (Mohr, et ai, 1972, 1973, 1974a, b;
Reznik-Schiiller and Mohr, 1975; R^mk, etal., 1977).

The European hamster is comparable in size to the guinea pig and therefore
offers sufficiently large anatomical dimensions for the execution of clinical test
procedures (radiology, bronchography, cytology) throughout the period of tumor
development (Freyschmidt, etai, 1975; Reznik, etai, 1975a; Eckel, etai, 1973,
1 974a, b, 1 975). The value of such studies in determining early tumor recognition
cannor be under-estimated. Moreover, Cricetus cncetus is quite appropriate for
special treatment techniques such as intratracheal and intrabronchial instillation
of a carcinogen; this procedure can be performed without difficulty and much
more easily than in other rodents. It also appears that the European hamster will
prove to be better for studies on inhalation because its tidal volume is larger than
that of the Syrian golden hamster (Kmoch, et al., 1975; Reznik, et al., 1975b, c;
Kmoch, et ai, 1976). Moreover, it has been demonstrated in inhalation experi-
ments with labelled cigarette smoke that about 30% more particulate matter is
deposited in the lungs of the European hamster than in the Syrian golden hamster

(Kmoch, et ai, 1975; Reznik, et ai, 1975b; Kmoch, et ai, 1976). Its size also
means that biochemical studies to establish metabolites of carcinogens in the
larynx, trachea and lungs are likely to be more successful than similar studies in
th'e Syrian golden hamster, since the experimenter has significantly more tissue
at his disposal.

As is well known, C. cncetus is a hibernator (Fig. 0-2) (Kayser, 1961;
Precht, et ai, 1973) and, according to the reports of zoologists, should live up to 8
years of age (Gaffrey, 1961; Zimmermann, 1965). Accordingly, we attempted to
establish a breeding colony under laboratory conditions (Mohr, et ai, 1973;
Reznik-Schiiller, et ai, 1974a). The problem of breeding has now been solved
and we presently have a well established colony of seven generations with suffi-
cient numbers of animals for experimental use. From all observations, the Euro-
pean hamster has adapted quite well to laboratory life and, under standard
conditions, the animals demonstrate no inclination toward hibernation. However,
in the absence of hibernation, the lifespan of the hamsters may be shortened from
the reported 8 years to 5 years. Nevertheless, this survival time still doubles the
average span of the Syrian golden hamster. Of course, a longer survival time is a
definite advantage for inhalation studies in carcinogenesis of the nasal and para-
nasal spaces, larynx, trachea and lungs.

Thus, our experimental animal has higher sensitivity to already known
carcinogens and lives substantially longer than conventional laboratory rodents
such as the mouse, rat and Syrian golden hamster. In addition, the European
hamster, similar to the Syrian golden hamster, is free of infectious diseases of the
respiratory tract. It is clear, then, that the European hamster is the animal of
choice for studies in chemical carcinogenesis. Accordingly, yve are engaged in
enlarging our breeding colony and maintain the hope that other scientists will
also use this species in their investigations. We are making everv effort to place
enough breeding pairs at the disposal of others.

For studies in experimental carcinogenesis, it became apparent that a
knowledge of the anatomy of C. cncetus would be especially useful. It must be
possible to detail exactly the location of lesions to establish higher confirmation
of species sensitivity to carcinogenic challenge. For this reason the present work
on the anatomy of the European hamster has been compiled. The reader should
bear in mind that we have placed special importance upon the respiratory tract.
Moreover, the conventional systemic treatment of anatomical structure has been
replaced in favor of topical regionalization, compatible with the purpose of a
work designed especially for the non-anatomist in experimental pathology.
Accordingly, attention is given to traditional mammalian body regions, including
sections of all relevant organ systems and their relations, rather than exhaustive
and exclusive treatment of single systems independent of region.

[Figures 0-1 and 0-2 are located on pp. 4 and 5, respectively. I

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Finally, it is appropriate to extend our deep appreciation to Mr. E. Theel
and Mr. K. Fischer for their meticulous draftsmanship and their ability to com-
prehend the scientific intent of projected illustrations in preparing the anatomical
drawings. Also especially deserving of our indebtedness are Mr. W. Fischer and
Mrs. A. Boysen for assistance in obtaining optimal macroscopic pictures and for
making slides and prints. We are also grateful to Naoma Crisp-Lindgren who
has translated the text. To our many colleagues of the Abteilung fur Experi-
mentelle Pathologic who critically advised and supported the production of this
work, as well as having helped sustain our enthusiasm, we remain profoundly
grateful.

Gerd Reznik, D.V.M.

Hildegard Reznik-Schiiller, D.V.M.

Ulrich Mohr, M.D.

Hannover
May 1, 1976

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Foreword jii

Preface v

Chapter 1: External Anatomy, Reproduction and Distribution

1.1 External Features 1

1.2 Physiology of Reproduction 2

1.3 Present Distribution of European Hamsters in Europe 2

Chapter 2: Anatomy of the Head

2.1 Bones of the Skull 17

2.2 Facial Skeleton 17

2.3 Nasal Cavity 17

2.4 Nasopharynx 18

2.5 Vomeronasal Organs 18

2.6 Paranasal Cavity 19

2.7 Oral Cavity 19

2.8 Lips 19

2.9 Cheeks 20

2.10 Palate 20

2.11 Gums and Tongue 20

2.12 Teeth 21

2.13 Salivary Glands 21

2.14 Mandibular Gland 22

2.15 Sublingual Gland 22

2.16 Parotid Gland 22

2.17 Zygomatic Gland 23

2.18 Neurocranium and Brain 23

2.19 Hypophysis 23

2.20 Orbital Adipose Tissue 24

2.21 Lacrimal Apparatus 24

2.22 Lacrimal Gland 24

2.23 Accessory Lacrimal Gland 24

2.24 Nasolacrimal Duct 25

2.25 Cranial and Facial Vascularization 25

2.25.1 Arteries 25

2.25.2 Venous Drainage of the Skull and the Ophthalmic Plexus 25

Chapter 3: Cervical Region

3.1 Cervical Skeleton 65

3.2 Topography of the Ventral Cervical Region 65

3.3 Pharynx 66

ix

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Page

3.4 Lymphatic System of Neck and Adjacent Thoracic Region 66

3.5 Larynx 67

3.5.1 Ligaments of the Larynx 68

3.5.2 Muscles of the Larynx 68

3.6 Trachea 68

3.7 Thyroid and Parathyroid Gland 69

Chapter 4: Thorax

4.1 Bony Thorax 85

4.2 Thoracic Musculature 86

4.3 The Diaphragm 86

4.4 Thoracic Cavity 87

4.4.1 Pleura and Pleural Sinuses 87

4.4.2 The Mediastinum 88

4.4.2.1 The Ventral Mediastinum 88

4.4.2.1.1 Heart 89

4.4.2.1.2 The Great Vessels 90

4.4.2.1.3 Thymus and Lymphatic Tissue 91

4.4.2.1.4 Nerves 92

4.4.2.2 The Dorsal Mediastinum 92

4.4.2.2.1 Lymphatic Tissue 92

4.4.2.2.2 The Esophagus 93

4.5 Respiratory System 93

4.5.1 Trachea and Extrapulmonary Bronchi 93

4.5.2 The Intrapulmonary System 94

4.5.3 Lungs and Pulmonary Topography 95

Chapter 5: Abdomen and Pelvis

5.1 Limits and Landmarks 121

5.2 Bony Skeleton of the Abdomen and Pelvis 121

5.3 Abdomen and Peritoneum 122

5.4 Segmental Topography of the Abdomen 122

5.5 Craniomesocolic Region 122

5.5.1 Craniomesocolic Peritoneum 122

5.5.2 Craniomesocolic Viscera and Relations 124

5.5.2.1 Esophagus 124

5.5.2.2 Stomach 124

5.5.2.3 Proximal Duodenum 125

5.5.2.4 Liver 125

5.5.2.5 Pancreas 127

5.5.2.6 Spleen 127

5.5.3 Craniomesocolic Vascularization and Innervation 127

5.5.4 Greater Nerves of the Abdominal Cavity 128

5.6 Caudomesocolic Region 128

X

Table of Contents

Page

5.6.1 Caudomesocolic Peritoneum 128

5.6.2 Caudomesocolic Viscera and Relations 129

5.6.2.1 Structureof the Small Intestine 129

5.6.2.2 Duodenum 129

5.6.2.3 Jejunum * . . . 129

5.6.2.4 Ileum 129

5.6.2.5 Structure of the Large Intestine 130

5.6.2.6 Caecum 130

5.6.2.7 Colon 130

5.6.3 Retroperitoneal Viscera and Relations 131

5.6.3.1 Rectum 131

5.6.3.2 Urinary Organs 131

5.6.3.2.1 Kidney 131

5.6.3.2.2 Ureter 132

5.6.3.2.3 Urinary Bladder 132

5.6.4 Adrenal Gland 132

5.6.5 Caudomesocolic and Retroperitoneal Vascularization 133

5.6.5.1 Arteries 133

5.6.5.2 Veins 133

5.6.5.3 Portal Circulation 134

5.7 Lymphatic System of the Abdomen and Pelvis 134

5.7.1 Lymph Nodes of the Gastrointestinal Tract 134

5.7.1.1 Coeliac Lymph Center 134

5.7.1.2 Cranial Mesenteric Lymph Center 134

5.7.2 Lumbar Lymph Center 135

5.7.3 Lymph Nodes of the Pelvis and Hind Limb 135

5.8 Male Genital Organs 135

5.8.1 Testis 136

5.8.2 Epididymis 136

5.8.3 Accessory Genital Glands 136

5.8.3.1 Vesicular Gland 136

5.8.3.2 Prostate Gland 137

5.8.3.3 Bulbourethral Gland 137

5.8.4 Penis 137

5.9 Female Genital Organs 138

5.9.1 Ovary 138

5.9.2 Oviduct 138

5.9.3 Uterus 138

5.9.4 Vagina 139

xi

i

CHAPTER ONE

EXTERNAL ANATOMY, REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION

The European hamster, Cricetus cricetus Linee,
belongs to the family Cricetidae and the subfamily
Cricetinae of the order Rodentia.

1.1 EXTERNAL FEATURES

When kept under laboratory conditions, adult
male European hamsters have an average body
weight of 451 ± 49 g in summer and 245 ± 92 g in
winter; while the adult females weigh an average
of 359 ± 63 g in summer and 174 ± 49 g in winter.
Under cold laboratory conditions (4°C; 90% rela-
tive humidity) hibernating males and females have
average body weights of 245 ± 92 g and 174 ± 49
g, respectively (Reznik, et ai, 1973); the weight
loss during winter is dependent upon hibernation
(Fig. 0-2). Adult males have a mean length of 241
± 9 mm and adult females of 237 ± 12 mm (Figs.
1-1, 1-2; Table 1).

The full-grown body is stocky, has a short tail
('A of body length, or 3-6 cm) and the fur of the
dorsal and lateral surfaces is yellow reddish-brown
to grayish-brown in color (Figs. 1-1, 1-2). The tip
of the snout, lips, throat and feet are white to
yellowish-white, while the ventral surface is black
(Fig. 1-1). Throughout summer, the dorsal surface
is lighter in color than during winter (Kourist,
1957). The hairs (pili) of the tail and the scrotum
are much shorter than those on the rest of the body
(Figs. 1-1, 1-2). During late summer and autumn,
the animals have large subcutaneous fat deposits in
preparation for hibernation (Fig. 1-3).

On the head of the living European hamster, the
black, round protruding eyes (oculi) are striking
characteristics (Figs. 1-4, 1-5). Their deep black
color is the result of very marked pigmentation,
especially of the iris. A prominent planum nasale
is formed by the epidermis. The nostrils (nares) are
more broad than long and run obliquely caudally.
A philtrum, which begins at the upper lip and ex-
tends dorsally, is located in the mid-line between
the two nostrils (Fig. 1-4, 2-9). No hair follicles
can be seen around the nares; this portion of the
planum nasale has a whitish-gray color.

The facial whiskers or vibrissae are especially
noticeable laterally on the upper lip of both male
and female European hamsters. They are straight
stiff hairs mainly occurring in two main colors,
white and brown. They appear in four or five dis-
tinct rows and consist of up to 30 hairs on each side
(Figs. 1-4, 1-5). The length of the dark hairs is 32
to 39 mm with root lengths of 0.585-0.730 mm.
The maximal width is 0.166-0.191 mm above the
root, narrowing towards the apex, which has a
width of 0.005 mm. The measurements for the
lighter-colored hairs are the following: length 7.5-
25.1 mm, breadth 0.074-0.136 mm, root length,
0.292-0.542 mm (Kourist, 1957).

The prominent external ears, {auris externa),
2.3-3.2 cm long in the adult (Figs. 1-4, 1-5), are
translucent and relatively avascular in bright light.
They are directed dorsomedially and appear short-
er than they actually are due to the long body hairs.

The soles of the hands and feet {palma manus,
planta) demonstrate no sex differences (Figs. 1-6,
1-7). The soles of the forefeet have five pads {ton).
The hindpaws are very long (3.0-4.0 cm), with six
pads on each paw. The arrangement of the pads is
less symmetrical than that of the forefeet (Fig. 1-7).
The pads vary in size on the hindfeet and the fore-
feet, with the size increasing from the digits to the
metapoidal joint in the forefeet, and decreasing in
the hindfeet.

When hibernating, it is difficult to distinguish
the sex of the animals, as the testes lie intrapelvic-
ally during this period of sexual inactivity. This
does not occur in laboratory bred animals when
kept under standard laboratory conditions through-
out the year.

Other characteristics which differentiate the
sexes are the round preputial opening {ostium prae-
putiale) and the space, about 2 cm. long, between
the anus and prepuce {praeputium) in the male.
(Figs. 1-8, 1-9, 1-10). In the female, the distance
between the clitoris and anus is only about one cm.
When the females are about 10 to 14 days old, eight
teats {papillae mammae) (one cranial thoracic
pair, one caudal thoracic pair, one abdominal pair,

7

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

one inguinal pair) become prominent (Figs. 1-10,
1-11) (Nehring, 1901). Furthermore, in contrast to
the relatively large round prepuce of the males, the
clitoris has a pointed shape with only a very small
urinary opening {orificium urethrae externum).
Before sexual maturity as well as during hiberna-
tion, the vagina is closed by a layer of squamous
epithelium in both wild and laboratory bred ham-
sters (Illman, 1968; Kayser and Aron, 1938; Jahn,
1968).

Males and females have a sac-like cutaneous or-
gan in the umbilical region, the umbilical glandular
organ (Fig. 1-12, 1-13).

It consists of compound sebaceous glands covered with a very thick
epidermis (Vrtis, 1932). *

Bilaterally, at the level of the anterior process of
ilium, the European hamster has dark cutaneous
stripes 2 cm long and 2 mm wide (Vrtis, 1930), the
so-called flank organs (Fig. 1-14).

On their surfaces, the flank organs have a thin epidermis under
which compound sebaceous cells are located. These cells, especially
active in sexually mature males, produce a secretion by which the
hamsters mark their territories (Petzsch, 1943; Eibl-Eibesfeld, 1953;
Petzsch and Petzsch, 1968; Sulzer, 1974; Pidoplicka, 1928; Kristal,
1929).

Beneath the epidermis of the umbilical glandular
and the flank organs, as well as between the glands,
is abundant melanin which, because of its dark
brown color, may be externally identified from
earliest youth (Fig. 1-17).

1.2 PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION

Wild European hamsters observe a seasonal
sexual cycle. Their mating season begins around
the end of April and ceases in the first weeks of
August (Petzsch, 1937). During this time, the
females demonstrate a regular estrus cycle consist-
ing of the following four stages: proestrus (a few
hours), estrus (1 to 2 days), metestrus (a few hours)
and diestrus (4 to 6 days) (Reznik-Schiiller, et ai,
1974a). The females are willing to mate only dur-
ing estrus, since they demonstrate marked aggres-
sive behavior towards males in the other three
stages. The European hamster has a distinctive
mating behavior. The pronounced foreplay is quite
extensive and requires a great deal of space. During
foreplay, the female runs in a figure eight while the
male follows closely behind, uttering a mating call
which increases in loudness with the female's readi-

ness to mate. Finally, the hamsters copulate several
times before mating is completed.

Pregnancy lasts from 18 to 21 days and the young
remain sucklings for about 30 days. Depending
upon the annual variation of temperature, the
European hamster hibernates from about the mid-
dle of October to the middle of March. Breeding of
the European hamster (Fig. 1-15) has been under-
taken to obtain animals of a defined age and pedi-
gree for experimental purposes (Mohr, et ai, 1973;
Reznick-Schiiller, a/., 1974a).

The variation in aggressiveness of the females
during their estrus cycles and the great demand for
space throughout foreplay and actual mating has
been considered in developing a breeding method.
Laboratory-bred hamsters have gradually lost their
seasonal sexual cycles and observe no hibernation
when kept under standard laboratory conditions.
Pregnancy has shortened to only 15.5 to 17 days.
The females deliver young from 2 to 5 times per
year and litters are born in each month of the year.
In addition, the laboratory-bred European hamster
shows neither aggressiveness towards man nor
members of its own species. Contrary to wild Euro-
pean hamsters which are reported to live only
solitarily (Petzsch, 1937; Eibl-Eibesfeld, 1953),
the laboratory bred animals can be kept in groups
(Fig. 1-16) and develop a social order with the
largest male dominant (Fig. 1-17).

1.3 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF

EUROPEAN HAMSTERS IN EUROPE

The European hamster, an animal species which
had been recognized as a pest by the agricultural
community, was a menace especially around the
turn of the century. However, today we know of
only a few small areas where this animal has not
yet been exterminated and where it can, at definite
periods of time, be found in great numbers.

The results of a general inquiry concerning the
presence of European hamsters in Germany, which
was distributed throughout the entire Federal Re-
public by a questionnaire in a specialty magazine
for hunters, are pictorially represented on the fol-
lowing geographic map (Fig. 1-18). Within the
boundaries of the Democratic Republic of Germany,
the European hamster is found in the regions es-

2

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

pecially surrounding Halle, Saale, Jena, Weimar
and Erfurt. It can also be found in smaller num-
bers in Western Europe (particularly in parts of
France, Belgium and The Netherlands). This spe-
cies is also scattered in the Ukraine, Rumania and
southern Czechoslovakia. The most northern limit
of its occurrence, which appears to be at a latitude,
of about 60 degrees, is in the U.S.S.R. (Serebrenni-
kov, 1930; Saint Girons, et ai, 1968; Hannoun,
1974; Vohralik, 1974). In its western ranges, it is
limited strictly to rural districts with loess soil. In
addition to the typically colored European hamster,
albino, black and transitionally colored animals can
also be found, though only rarely (Petzsch and
Petzsch, 1970). Petzsch and Petzsch (1956) report-
ed that black hamsters are dominant over non-
black animals; this fact explains the increase in
number of these hamsters in some areas around
Thuringen (Zimmermann, 1969). C. cncetus lives
only in small well-defined areas (Fig. 1-18) within
these regions; however, the incidence of the species
is high.

Annually, variations in the number of these ham-
sters are observed and presumed to be seasonally
dependent; sometimes the animals become so nu-
merous that they are a scourge to the land. Geo-
graphically, they are abundant in rural areas
bordering highly industrialized regions, especially
those where predominately summer and winter
grains as well as root crops are planted. The Euro-
pean hamster prefers ground that is heavy, clayish,
and not too damp — ground appropriate for build-
ing burrows with depths varying from 30-60 cm in
summer to more than 2 m in winter. Each burrow
has several exits with tunnel diameters approxi-
mately 8-9 cm. This species lives primarily on
plains not more than 400 m above sea level (Petzsch,
1936,1937).

Due to the proximity of heavily industrialized,
thickly populated districts with relatively high en-
vironmental pollution, wild European hamsters
from these areas have special interest for research
on "spontaneous" cancer and respiratory diseases.

3

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 0-1: Comparison of 1-year-old male European and Syrian golden hamsters.

4

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

Figure 0-2: Adult European hamster hibernating under artificially induced hibernating conditions ( + 4°C. 90%
relative humidity). Note typical curled posture with outstretched forelegs.

5

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 1-1: Anesthetized adult male and female hamsters in supine position. Note
larger size of male as compared to female, and black color of their ventral fur.

Figure 1-2: Adult hamsters in prone position; note short tails of both animals in
comparison to length of whole body.

6

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

Figure 1-3: Adult hamster sacrificed in autumn. Note large subcutaneous fat
deposits, especially in thoracic and lumbar regions.

7

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 1-4: External features of head, rostral view. l=dorsum nasi; 2 = vibrissae; 3 = naris;
4 = philtrum; 5 = auris externa; 6 = bulbus oculi.

Figure 1-5: External features of head, lateral view. l = meatus acusticus externus; 2 = pal-
pebra; 3 = vibrissae.

8

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

Figure 1-6: External features of palmar aspect of forefeet. Note strongly reduced first digit.
I-V = digiti.

Figure 1-7: External features of plantar aspect of hind feet. I-V = digiti; 1 = unguis; 2 = torus.

9

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 1-8: Sketch demonstrating ventral aspects of perineal regions of both
sexes. Note location of caudal, inguinal pair of teats in female.

Figure 1-9: Ventral aspect of perineal regions of adult male and female hamsters;
sexes are well differentiated.

10

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

Figure 1-10: Drawing of ventral view of two litter mates, 14 days old, demonstrat-
ing sex differences. Note larger urogenital orifice of male and smaller one of female.
Preputial opening of male is circular or slightly oval; it has pointed form in female.
Note longer space between urogenital openingand anus in male, and teats in female.

Figure 1-11: Ventral view of adult female during lactation, which causes teats to
become prominent.

11

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 1-12: Ventral view of part of abdomen of adult male shaved
to demonstrate well-developed umbilical glandular organ.

■ .

Figure 1-13: Umbilical glandular organ after removal of skin; the sac-like organ
has opening at ventral surface that is occupied by fatty secretion of the sebaceous
glands.

72

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

Figure 1-14: Dorsolateral aspect of two litter mates, 8 days old, demonstrating flank organs.

13

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 1-16: Litter of laboratory-bred European
hamsters demonstrating group living.

14

External Anatomy, Reproduction, Distribution

Figure 1-17: Adult male, dominant
animal of one-year-old litter.

15

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

16

Figure 1-18: Map of Germany showing distribution of various types of European hannsters. B
color represents normally occurring animal; black, orange, and purple colors represent rare, trans
ally colored animal.

rown
ition-

CHAPTER TWO
ANATOMY OF THE HEAD

2.1 BONES OF THE SKULL

The skull of the European hamster accounts for
approximately a fifth of the length of the body (Fig.
2-1). The skull includes two bone assemblies,
neurocranial and facial, which partly overlap. The
neurocranium (cranium) encloses the brain, while
the facial skeleton (Jacies) encloses the nasal, para-
nasal and oral cavities, including the mandible.

The soft tissue over the neurocranium, includes
the skin, superficial fascia and m. cervicoauricu-
laris with its aponeurosis. The skin is among the
deepest in the body and attaches firmly to the apo-
neurosis via the superficial fascia, the freely movable
skin carrying the aponeurosis with it. The loose
subaponeurotic connective tissue and the perios-
teum to which it attaches underneath are easily torn
from the skull, except at the sutures, and are sites
of freely spreading effusions, sometimes indicative
of subcranial or submeningeal neoplasms.

2.2 FACIAL SKELETON

The facial skeleton (Fig. 2-2) invests the nasal
and paranasal cavities (cavum nasi, sinus parana-
sales) as far as the nasopharynx {pharynx, pars
nasalis), extending between the choanae and the
epiglottis, and the oral cavity {cavum oris) as far as
the oropharynx {pharynx, pars oralis), extending
between the soft palate {palatum molle) and the
hyoid bone {os hyoideum) (Figs. 2-3, 2-4, 2-5).

2.3 NASAL CAVITY

The nasal cavity {cavum nasi) is separated from
the braincase by the ethmoid bone {os ethmoides)
(Fig. 2-6). The roof of the nasal cavity {dorsum
nasi) includes the paired nasal {os nasale) and
frontal {as frontale) bones (Figs. 2-2, 2-6, 2-7).
The lateral wall is composed of incisive or premax-
illary {os incisivum), maxillary {maxilla) and cau-
dally the palatine {os palatinum) bones (Figs. 2-2,
2-7). The base of the nasal cavity, the ventral sur-
face of which is the bony roof of the oral cavity, is

formed by the horizontal laminae of the incisive,
maxillary and palatine bones (Figs. 2-6, 2-8). The
incisive duct {ductus incisivus) perforates the bony
base of the nasal cavity through the palatine fissure
{Jissura palatina) in the incisive and maxillary
bones (Fig. 2-8.).

The interior of the nasal cavity is best studied in
serial section (Figs. 2-9 to 2-37). The nasal cavity
extends from the nostrils to the choanae and is bi-
sected by a principally cartilaginous median septum
{septum nasi) (Figs. 2-9 to 2-20, 2-29 to 2-33)
(Reznik and Reznik-Schiiller, 1974). The cavity is
filled with epithelium disposed in a highly elabo-
rated pattern, borne by thin bony processes, the
turbinal scrolls {turbinalia) or nasal conchae (Figs.
2-10 to 2-20, 2-29, 2-33). Dorsal and ventral
nasal conchae are attached to the lateral walls of the
nasal cavity (Figs. 2-3, 2-4). The dorsal nasal con-
cha {concha nasalis dorsalis) (termed nasoturbinal
by various authors) attaches to the nasal bone; the
ventral nasal concha {concha nasalis ventralis) (also
called maxilloturbinal) attaches to the maxillary
bone. The conchae curl inward to shape the scrolls,
whose overhang forms the recesses of various
lengths which ultimately communicate with the
nasal cavity. In this species the conchae extend
about 8 mm caudally into the lumen of the nasal
cavity. The ventral concha, partially situated above
the nasolacrimal duct {ductus nasolacrimalis) (Fig.
2-13) is shorter than the dorsal concha and bears
no mucosal fold, unlike the Syrian golden hamster
(Schwarzeand Michel, 1959-60; Och, 1959).

More complicated than the conchal apparatus is
a second group of projections in the ethmoid region,
the ethmoturbinals (ethmoturbinalia) (Figs. 2-3,
2-4, 2-6). They are lined almost entirely by olfac-
tory epithelium (Fig. 2-38) and are disposed in two
rows, termed endoturbinals {endoturbinalia) and
ectoturbinals {ectoturbinalia) (Figs. 2-16 to 2-20,
2-31 to 2-33). This hamster has four endoturbinals
and three ectoturbinals (Reznik and Reznik-
Schiiller, 1974); similar counts are reported for
rats (Kelemen and Sargent, 1946; Vidic and Gre-
ditzer, 1971; Giddens, et al., 1971), mice (Kele-

17

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

men, 1953), guinea pigs (Kelemen, 1950) and rab-
bits (Kelemen, 1955). The ectoturbinals are
situated ventral and caudal to the folds of the endo-
turbinals. Both groups represent true independent
turbinals, as each arises separately from the wall of
the ethmoid bone with an individual base.

The architecture of the turbinals is best seen in
serial section. The basal lamella of the first endo-
turbinal (Fig. 2-16) is divided into two parts dis-
tally, each forming a spiral. Caudally (Fig. 2-17),
only the dorsal spiral is present. The second endo-
turbinal (Figs. 2-16 to 2-19) is separated from the
first and the third by separate meatuses. Rostrally
(Figs. 2-16, 2-17) the second endoturbinal consists
of only a tuberosity which broadens near the nasal
septum. Caudally (Fig. 2-18) it bifurcates into two
broad terminal parts. The third endoturbinal (Figs.
2-16 to 2-19) is longer and broader than the first
and second ones. While the fourth endoturbinal
bends only slightly dorsally and laterally, the third
endoturbinal bends strongly dorsolaterally (espe-
cially prominent in Figs. 2-17 and 2-18); in this
way, a semicircle is formed which is distinctly
isolated from the nasal cavity.

The three ectoturbinals (Figs. 2-16, 2-17) are
smaller than the endoturbinals; they are enclosed
by the first and second endoturbinals, the cribri-
form plate (lamina cribrosa) of the ethmoid bone
and the medial wall of the maxillary sinus. The
first ectoturbinal (Figs. 2-16, 2-17) extends ven-
trally from the roof of the nasal cavity, recurving
mediodorsally. Cranially the second ectoturbinal
projects mediodorsally without curling (Figs. 2-16,
2-17); caudally however, it rolls ventrolaterally
forming a small recess (Fig. 2-18). The third ecto-
turbinal (Figs. 2-16, 2-17), the smallest of all the
turbinals, projects vertically from the medial wall
of the maxillary sinus, nearly touching the second
ectoturbinal.

The nasal conchae define three nasal passages or
meatuses (Figs. 2-3, 2-4, 2-11 to 2-14, 2-38).
The dorsal nasal meatus {meatus nasi dorsalis)
(Fig. 2-13) lies between the dorsal wall of the nasal
cavity and the dorsal nasal concha. The limits of the
dorsal meatus include the dorsal concha, the nasal
septum and the dorsal wall of the nasal cavity.
Caudally, it narrows and ends at the cribriform
plate of the ethmoid bone. The middle nasal meatus

{meatus nasi medius) (Fig. 2-13) is located between
the dorsal nasal concha and the ventral nasal
concha and is a narrow fissure which joins the dor-
sal meatus along the rostral edge of the endotur-
binals and ends shortly thereafter. The ventral
nasal meatus {meatus nasi ventralis) (Fig. 2-13),
which is the continuation of the nostril, lies between
the ventral nasal concha and the base of the nasal
cavity. The middle and ventral conchae and mea-
tuses comprise the respiratory portion of the nasal
cavity, since they converge at the caudal end of the
conchae and continue as a single median passage,
the ventral meatus (formerly the nasopharyngeal
duct) ventral to the endoturbinals, (Figs. 2-3 to
2-5, 2-16 to 2-26, 2-31 to 2-37, 2-38). The endo-
turbinals are thus supplied with air via all three
nasal meatuses (Fig. 2-39). In passing the endo-
turbinals, the ventral meatus gradually turns ven-
trally, not continuing in the straight caudal direction
typical of the Syrian golden hamster (Schwarze and
Michel, 1959-60).

2.4 NASOPHARYNX

The nasal cavity passes caudally into the naso-
pharynx {pharynx, pars nasalis) at the level of the
soft palate, by means of the internal nostril or
choana (Fig. 2-3). The choana is bordered laterally
and ventrally by the palatine, and dorsally by the
vomer and presphenoid {os praesphenoidale) bones
(Fig. 2-8). The nasopharynx stretches 1 .5 to 1 .8 cm
from the choana to the epiglottis, and varies in
width from 1.5 to 3.0 mm (Figs. 2-16 to 2-26,
2-31 to 2-37) (Jensen, 1977).

It is lined for most of its length by respiratory epithelium, but
caudally the ventral portion is protected with multilayered unkeratin-
ized squamous epithelium, which becomes keratinized lateral to the
epiglottis.

Lateral to the epiglottis, the tiny Eustachian tube
{tuba auditiva) establishes communication between
the nasopharynx and the auditory bulla {bulla tym-
panica). The tube measures 2 mm in length and
0.25 mm in diameter (Jensen, 1917).

It is lined with respiratory epithelium, and is supported by hyaline
cartilage

2.5 VOMERONASAL ORGANS

Paired vomeronasal organs {organum vomero-
nasale) are situated at the ventral margin of the

18

Head

anterior nasal septum, as far caudally as the pala-
tine fissure (Figs. 2-10 to 2-15, 2-29, 2-30). They
are involved in the sense of smell, since they are
supplied by tw^igs of the olfactory nerve (Nickel, et.
al, 1960). Each measures 5 mm in length, while
the width ranges between 0.4 to 1.0 mm (Jensen,
1977). Rostrally it has a laterally compressed,
eliptical cross-section, which caudally assumes a
half-moon shape, convex medially. The organ is
invested by a bony covering of the vomer, and com-
municates with the incisive duct (Fig. 2-14), ending
blindly slightly caudal to that structure.

The vomeronasal organs are lined by two types of epithelium. The
ventral margins of the glands are covered by epithelium similar to the
olfactory region of the nose, including olfactory sensory cells inter-
spersed throughout the supporting columar epithelium, which is non-
ciliated pseudostratified and free of goblet cells. The dorsal edges are
continuous with the respiratory epithelium of the nasal cavity, which
is pseudostratified, ciliated, columar and interspersed with goblet cells
(Fig. 2-40).

T~he initial part of the nasal cavity, the nasal vestibule (vestibulum
nasi) approximately 4 mm in length, is lined with stratified squamous
epithelial mucosa. The nasal cavity proper, the nasopharynx and the
nasal septum are lined with a respiratory mucosa consisting of cili-
cated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells (Figs.
2-40, 2-41, 2-42). The ethmoturbinais are invested with olfactory
epithelium (Fig. 2-38).

2.6 PARANASAL CAVITY

The European hamster has only one true para-
nasal cavity (sinus paranasalis), the maxillary sinus
(sinus maxillaris) (Figs. 2-16 to 2-18, 2-31, 2-32).
It is surrounded by the outer and inner surfaces
of the maxillary bone and extends 4.5 mm from the
level of the union of the ventral nasal meatuses to
an imaginary line drawn perpendicular from the
orbits to the lower jaw. Two portions can be dis-
tinguished, a smaller rostrodorsal portion 2.5 mm
high and 1 mm wide, and a larger caudoventral
portion, 5 mm high and 1 mm wide (Jensen, 1977).
The maxillary sinus communicates with the nasal
cavity via the nasomaxillary opening (apertura
nasomaxillaris) into the middle nasal meatus.

The paranasal sinus is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium containing goblet cells (Figs. 2-43, 2-44). Directly beneath
this epithelium are situated glandular bundles (100 //m in diameter)
composed of serous and mucous parts. In the oral region these glands
demonstrate a more mucous character, whereas caudally they contain
more serous parts.

2.7 ORAL CAVITY

The oral cavity (cavum oris) extends from the
lips (labia oris) to the oropharynx. Its bony struc-
ture consists dorsally of paired incisive and maxil-
lary (Figs. 2-2, 2-8) and single palatine bones, and
ventrally of the paired dentary bones constituting
the mandibles (mandibulae) (Fig. 2-45). The oral
cavity is bordered rostrally by the lips and laterally
by the cheeks (buccae). The roof of the oral cavity
consists of the hard palate (palatum durum) and the
soft palate (palatum molle) (Figs. 2-3, 2-46). The
oral cavity is floored by the tongue and by the
reflections of mucous membrane extending from the
tongue to the gum (gingiva) on the medial surface
of the mandible (Fig. 2-46).

The oral vestibule (vestibulum oris), between the
teeth and lips, is separate from the oral cavity
proper (cavum oris proprium); however, the sepa-
ration is incomplete due to the long diastema in the
tooth row. Associated with the presence of cheek
pouches is a longitudinal separation of the vestibule
into buccal and labial parts (vestibulum buccale,
vestibulum labiale). The separation, better devel-
oped in the mandibular than the maxillary vesti-
bule, results from a fold of oral mucosa (tunica
mucosa oris). Median labial frenula (frenulum labii
maxillaris, frenulum labii mandibularis) separate
maxillary and mandibular labial vestibules into
left and right halves and serve to bind the lips
tightly to the gums.

2.8 LIPS

The entrance of the oral cavity (rima oris) is en-
closed by the upper lip (labium maxillare) and the
lower lip (labium mandibulare) . The relatively
short lips cannot be completely closed, so the inci-
sors always remain visible. The upper and lower
lips join at the labial commissure (angulus oris),
20 to 25 mm caudal to the mandibular incisors. The
commissure is actually a compound structure, with
maxillary and mandibular portions, separated by a
mucosal fold. The resulting valve-like structure
controls entrance into the cheek pouches, as in the
Syrian golden hamster (Schwarze and Michel,
1959-60). The lips are not confined to the rima
oris, but project prominent flaps of hair-covered
skin, the buccal pads (pulvini buccales) into the

79

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

oral cavity, approaching to within a millimeter of
the midline from each side. The buccal pads line
the hard palate, and the corresponding surface of
the lower jaw, between the molars and the incisors.

2.9 CHEEKS

The cheeks (buccae) of the European hamster
are occupied by remarkable structures, the cheek
pouches (bursae buccales), which are situated be-
tween the skin and masticatory muscles (Fig. 2-48).
The pouches begin at the labial commissure and
run caudodorsally along the base of the ear muscu-
lature, covering the ventral part of the parotid
gland, and are applied to the dorsolateral surface
of the neck, extending to the scapulae (Fig. 2-49).
Their length varies with the size of the animal, the
adult pouches ranging between 60 and 70 mm. The
empty pouches, the mucosa of which is relaxed and
marked by deep folds, are 12 to 15 mm wide. When
filled, the cheek pouches become thin-walled and
evaginate the buccal mucosa which lies immediately
under the external skin. The diameter of the fully
filled cheek pouches expands up to 30 mm. The
cheek pouches are longest when empty because the
carrying capacity, between 20 and 30 g, is not de-
pendent upon elongation of the pouches but rather
upon their widening.

The pale pink, simple squamous epithelium, marked with delicate
longitudinal folds, is covered with multiple, small papillary elevations
visible only with the aid of magnification.

Hamsters empty their cheek pouches by pushing
the food mass with their forepaws out of the cheek
pouch and into the oral cavity for mastication,
thereby employing the underlying and supporting
musculature (retractor bursae buccalis et retractor
buccinator), which originates in the lumbodorsal
fascia {fascia lumbodorsalis) at the level of the first
two lumbar vertebrae (slightly caudal to the origin
of these muscles in the Chinese hamster (Geyer,
1973) and inserts on the cheek pouch in the vicinity
of the scapula (Fig. 2-50).

2.10 PALATE

The palate is approximately 20 mm long and is
divided into the rostral hard palate {palatum
durum), which extends 20 to 25 mm from the in-
cisors to a line posterior to the third molar, and the

caudal soft palate {palatum molle) 7 to 9 mm long,
which is attached to the caudal margin of the hard
palate (Fig. 2-3). The mucous membrane of the
hard palate lines the ventral surface of the bony
palate and forms eight symmetrical pairs of palatine
rugae {rugae palatinae) (Fig. 2-46); they are com-
pact, smooth and pinkish-red in color. These rugae
are divided into four large rostral pairs and four
smaller caudal pairs located between the molars.
The smaller rugae adjacent to the molars decrease
rostrally, while the four large rostral pairs decrease
caudally. With the exception of the fourth and also
usually the third, or widest (9 mm), the rugae de-
cline obliquely toward the median plane. The
first four pairs unite in the median plane but the
last three pairs do not completely join. In contrast
to the Syrian golden hamster (Schwarze and
Michel, 1959-60), the European hamster has an
additional eighth rugal pair which completely
coalesces in the adult and is positioned at a right
angle to the median plane. The first rugal pair
forms a V-shape in the median plane with its apex
directed rostrally. At the rostral surface of the first
pair, 0.5 to 1 mm from the lateral margin of the
apex, lie the oral orifices {papillae inciswae) of the
two incisive ducts. By applying pressure to the first
rugal pair, the orifices can be made to appear. The
rugae between the molars are flatter laterally than
medially. At the termination of the hard palate,
7-9 mm of caudally oriented soft palate is attached.

The mucosa of the soft and hard palates is pinkish-red in color, com-
pletely smooth and lined with keratinized stratified squamous epithe-
lium (Fig. 2-51). Beneath the epithelium of the hard palate, mucous
glands are located on either side of the median plane. These glands are
especially prominent at the level of the orbit.

The tonsils, which lie between the caudal ends
of the palatine rugae in other rodents, are neither
histologically nor grossly demonstrable in the
hamster (Roscher, 1909; Kittel, 1953, 1955).

2.11 GUMS AND TONGUE

The smooth mucosal surface of the fioor of the
mouth meets the molars laterally as the gums {gin-
givae) and is continuous with the mucosal surface
of the tongue {lingua).

At the median plane from the fioor of the mouth extending to the tip
of the tongue, the keratinized stratified squamous cell mucosa forms a
rather indistinct lingual frenulum {frenulum linguae).

At the base of the frenulum are located small,

20

Head

paired, flattened, pyramidal toruli, the tips of which
are oriented towards the Hps; these are the sub-
lingual carunculae {carunculae sublinguales)
through which the ducts of the mandibular and the
sublingual glands discharge.

C. cricetus has an especially well-developed
spoon-shaped tongue (lingua) (30-55 mm long and
10-12 mm wide); since the tip is not attached at the
sides, it is freely mobile (Fig. 2-47). The rostral
portion of the tongue is so broad that its surface
accounts for about two-thirds of the total area. The
tip of the tongue (apex linguae) is approximately
twice as wide as the body (corpus linguae) which is
situated between the molars. The median sulcus
(sulcus medianus linguae) is restricted to the dorsal
surface of the tip of the tongue. The root of the
tongue (radix linguae) coalesces ventrolaterally
with the surrounding tissue.

Located on the keratinized stratified squamous epithelium of the
tongue are numerous papillae {papillae Imguales ).

Multiple small, filiform papillae, scarcely visible
to the naked eye, are distributed over the lateral and
ventral surfaces of the tongue (Fig. 2-52), confer-
ring a velvety texture to the surface.

-At the root of the tongue, seromucous glandular bundles can be
identified.

2.12 TEETH

The dentition (denies) of the European hamster
is composed only of incisors (denies incisivi) and
molars (denies molares); canines (denies canini)
and premolars (denies premolares) are lacking
(Figs. 2-53, 2-54). In total there are 4 incisors and
12 molars arranged in the following manner:

ll

1 0 0 3

Only a single generation of permanent teeth (den-
ies permanenles) is present.

The incisors are very long rooted and ever-
growing. The roots of the lower incisors pass nearly
through the entire length of the mandible, terminat-
ing caudal to the roots of the last molar (Fig. 2-53).
About one-third of the lower incisor is erupted,
while two-thirds is seated in the alveolus (alveolus
dentalis). The crowns (corona denlis) of the upper
incisors are much shorter (4 mm) than those of the
lower incisors (10-12 mm) (Fig. 2-53); corres-

pondingly, their roots (radices denies) penetrate
the premaxilla only to the level of the first molars.
The labial surface of the incisors is coated with
whitish-yellow enamel. The cross section of the
upper incisor within the alveolus changes rostro-
caudally from oval (Fig. 2-11), to triangular (Fig.
2-12), and finally becomes round at the base (Fig.
2-13). The pulp cavity is long and narrow. The
configuration of the temporomandibular joint
(arliculalio lemporomandibularis) and of the cor-
responding articular process (processus condylaris)
of the jaw is such as to permit fore and aft move-
ment of the jaw. Consequently, the positions of the
upper and lower incisors can vary greatly relative
to one another, while the molars are in occlusion,
the lower incisors are retracted out of contact with
the upper incisors (Fig. 2-53), but during gnaw-
ing the lower incisors work against the labial side of
the upper incisors. In addition, the mandibular
symphysis (symphisis inlermandibularis) does not
fuse completely even in adults, and therefore inde-
pendent movement of each jaw is possible (Haber-
mehl, 1970a, b on the Chinese hamster); this is
more prominent, however, in juveniles.

The molar tooth rows are not parallel, but con-
verge slightly towards the midline caudally, so that
the first molars are more widely separated than are
the third molars (especially for the upper dentition)
(Fig. 2-54). The molar crowns are rectangular and
flat, with three small cusps on the first, two cusps
on the other two (Figs. 2-46, 2-47, 2-55, 2-56).
The crown of the first lower molar is 3 mm long, 2
mm wide and 1 .2 mm high. The roots are long and
narrow (Fig. 2- 57). The first upper molar has four
roots, the second and third but three roots.

The first teeth to appear are the incisors, which
erupt on the 4th and 5th day postpartum. There-
after, the first mandibular and maxillary molars
follow on about the 10th or 11th day; the second
molar appears in both the upper and lower jaws
around the 20th day; and the third molar erupts
on the 33rd day, completing the dentition.

2.13 SALIVARY GLANDS

The secretion of the salivary glands (gll. oris),
the saliva, wets the food as well as the wall of the
oral and pharyngeal cavities and begins the diges-
tive process.

27

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

In general, there are iwo kinds of salivary glands, those of serous
type whi< h produre a watery secretion and those of mucous type, the
secretion of which is viscous.

The salivary system consists of the followine;
glands: the parotid ifxirotis), the mandibular
{l^landula mandihularis), the sublingual {i^landula
snhlini^ualis) and the zygomatic {^laruJula zyf^o-
matua), and various other glands which are only
detectable histologically.

2.14 MANDIBULAR GLAND

I hc triarigidar iiiaiidil)ular gland (4'/. mandihu-
laris) lies su[)crricially in the ventral cervical region
caudal to the larynx and covering the cranial part of
the sternohyoid muscle (Figs. 2-58, 2-59, 2-60).
The two glands contact each other in the median
plane. 1 he length of the gland ranges l)etwecn 14
and 16 mm, the width between 8 and 10 mm and
the thickness between 4 and 5 mm; each mandib-
ular gland weighs between 350 and 400 mg (Figs.
2-60, 2-61). Macroscopically, these glands present
a distinct lobular structure, after removal of the
connective tissue; the lobes are larger than those of
the parotid gland (Tables 20, 20a).

Ttic ni.mdihiiiar glands show a compact lul)ul()alvcol.ir sttudurc
with lioth serous and mucous alveoli, ihc majorily of whidi ,uc of
mucous type (I' ig. 2-62).

The gross and histological appearance of this
gland is similar to that described for the Syrian
golden hamster (Schwarze and Michel, 1959-60)
and Chinese hamster (Horber, et ai, 1974).

2.15 SUBLINGUAL GLAND

Cranial to tl\c mandibular gland lies the sublin-
gual gland {i^l. suhlirifrualis) which is in close rela-
tion to the former and can be distinguished only by
its lighter color (Figs. 2-58, 2-59, 2-60, 2-61, 2-
62). The sublingual gland, similar in both sexes, is
4 to 5 mm long and .3 to 4 mm wide and weighs be-
tween 40 and 60 mg (Tables 21, 21a). The sul)iin-
gual gland is a mucous gland, with a compact sur-
face like the mandil)ular but with a more delicate
lobular structure.

The sublingual glands are tubuloalveolar, consisting of both mucous
and serous parts, with the mucous type predominating (Fig, 2-63),

The secretory ducts of both glands coalesce intra-
glandularly to form either the mandibular duct
(ductus mandibularis) or the sublingual duct

(ductus sublmguali.s ). Both ducts discharge at the
sublingual caruncles which are located at the root
of the frenulum of the tongue. The mandibular and
sublingual glands press cranially against the parotid
gland (Fig. 2-59). Both glands are connected by
dense connective tissue. The mandibular and sub-
lingual glands obscure the caudal part of the laryn-
geal musculature, the ventral pharyngeal muscula-
ture and the cranial portion of the thoracic
musculature. These glands are not firmly attached
to the musculature, especially caudally, since
brownish fatty tissue separates the glands and the
musculature at this position.

2.16 PAROTID GLAND

The parotid gland (parotis) (Fig. 2-58) lies at
the base of the ear, embedded within a pocket of
fatty tissue (panniculus adipo.sus), the amount of
which varies during different seasons of the year.
Especially in late summer and fall when the ham-
ster stores up fat for hibernation, this gland is sur-
rounded by a very thick deposit of fat. The parotid
has a width of 8 to 10 mm at the base of the ear and
a width of 3 to 4 mm in the area of the larynx (Figs.
2-59, 2-60; Tables 19, 19a). Caudally, it borders
the sublingual gland for a distance of several milli-
meters. The weight of the parotid gland ranges
from 400 to 500 mg and the color of a fresh speci-
men is light pinkish-red (Fig. 2-62). Macroscopic-
ally, the parotid demonstrates a lobular structure
with a honeycombed appearance. This lobular
structure is made quite prominent by the presence
of well developed interstitial connective tissue. The
secretions of the parotid are transported through
the parotid duct (ductus parotideus) which courses
superficially along the lateral surface of m. mnsse-
ter before it discharges in the buccal vestibule in the
form of a salivary papilla (papilla parotidea) located
about 4 mm rostral to the first upper molar.

The parotid gland is of tubuloalveolar ly|)c and its cells predomin-
.ilcly serous (Fig, 2-64).

In the immediate vicinity of the parotid gland,
between the external auditory meatus (meatus
acusticus externus) and the ascending condylar
process of the mandible, a sebaceous gland is
present.

riicsc glands can be classified as tvpicallv holocrine; histologically
ihcv rcscnil)lc the Zymbal glands of the rat (Zymbal, 1933) (Fig. 2-6.S).

22

Head

2.17 ZYGOMATIC GLAND

The zygomatic gland {gl. zygomatica) (some-
times called the external orbital gland), (Fig. 2-58)
is an oval-shaped gland which lies rostral to the
parotid gland on the lateral surface of the masseter
and temporalis muscles, completely outside the
orbital cavity. It is yellowish-brown to brown in
color (Figs. 2-61, 2-62) and measures 8-10 mm in
length, 6.3-7.5 mm in breadth and 2.5-2.8 mm in
thickness, depending on sex and season (Tables 22,
22a). The dorsal portion is located immediately
under the epidermis while the ventral portion is
covered by the cheek pouch. It is applied to the
lateral aspect of the masseter muscle and the ventral
aspect of the temporal muscle. It overlaps the pa-
rotid duct as well as the buccal nerve and, macro-
scopically, presents an indistinct lobular structure.
The secretory ducts of the zygomatic gland join
intraglandularly and form the main duct, which
leaves the dorsorostral fourth of the gland.

The zygomatic gland has a tubuloalveolar structure and is of the
serous type. The columnar cells which line the glandular acini do not
contain fat droplets. The cytoplasm of the cells is finely granulated and
the nuclei spherical and basally situated.

In contrast to the parotid gland, which is con-
tinuous with the surrounding tissues, the zygomatic
gland is easily ablated. It is firmly attached only at
the excretory ducts rostrally and afferent blood
vessels caudally.

2.18 NEUROCRANIUM AND BRAIN

The brain (encephalon) is overlaid dorsally by
paired frontals {os frontale) in part, and parietals
{os parietale) and a median interparietal bone {os
interparietale) (Fig. 2-7). Lateral support is pro-
vided by petrous and tympanic portions of the
temporal bone {os temporalis, pars petrosa et
tympamca) and the wing of the sphenoid bone {ala
sphenoidalis) (Fig. 2-2). The base of the braincase
is formed by the sphenoid {os sphenoidale) and the
occipital {os occipitale), which also forms the caudal
limit of the neurocranium (Figs. 2-6, 2-8). The
cribriform plate of the median ethmoid bone {lam-
ina cribrosa, os ethmoidale) demarcates the rostral
border of the neurocranium (Fig. 2-6).

The brain {encephalon) of the European hamster
has an average weight of 2.85 g in animals with a
body weight of 450 g (Brauer and Schober, 1970).

The following measurements were obtained from
brains fixed in formalin:

Brain length:

29

mm

Brain width:

18.5

mm

Brain depth:

11.9

mm

Telencephalon length:

23

mm

T T l_ * 1 il_

Hemispheric length:

16.7

mm

Hypothalamus length:

5.7

mm

Rhombencephalon length:

11.4

mm

Cerebellum width with Pons:

18.2

mm

Cerebellum width without Pons:

15.3

mm

The European hamster has well-

-developed cere-

bral hemispheres {hemispheria cerebri) which are
without sulci (lissencephalous) (Fig. 2-66). The
olfactory bulbs {bulbi olfactorii) are relatively large
and are overlapped caudally by the hemispheres to
a depth of 5 to 8 mm. The cerebellum is about half
as large as the cerebral hemispheres. The vermis
cerebelli, the lobi paramediani and the lateral para-
flocculi (Figs. 2-67, 2-68, 2-69, 2-70) are dis-
tinctly developed. The large rami of the trigeminal
nerve (n. trigeminus) and the optic chiasma {chi-
asma opticum) are prominent on the ventral aspect
(Fig. 2-69).

2.19 HYPOPHYSIS

The pituitary gland {hypophysis) (Fig. 2-70)
lies in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone, flat
against the base of the brain between the trigeminal
nerves. Caudally, it presses against the pons whose
ventral surface it partly covers. The hypophysis
also overlaps the cerebral crurae {pedunculi cere-
bri) with the oculomotor nerve (n. oculomotorius)
and the trochlear nerve {n. trochlears), as well as
the mamillary body {corpus mamillare). At the
ventrolateral edge of the hypophysis the abducens
nerves {nn. abducentes) emerge. Also noteworthy
is the large space between the hypophysis and the
optic chiasma which is bridged by the tuber cine-
reum. The hypophysis is positioned dorsal, and
somewhat rostral, to the synchondrosis spheno-
occipitalis (Fig. 2-71). At this position, trepanation
is performed for hypophysectomy. The origins of
the cranial nerves are similar to those reported for
other rodents (Brauer and Schober, 1970; Horber,
etal, 1974).

The schematic longitudinal view of the hypo-

23

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

physis (Fig. 2-72) demonstrates its structure in the
European hamster. The largest part is the adeno-
hypophysis or anterior lobe, with its ventrally dis-
posed distal part (pars dtstalis). The middle lobe
(pars intermedia) is small and surrounds the neuro-
hypophysis, or posterior lobe, ventrally and later-
ally. Between the distal and intermediate parts of
the adenohypophysis is the prominent interhypo-
physeal cleft (cavum hypophysis) which extends to
the caudal third of the hypophysis. The neuro-
hypophysis is relatively small and lies dorsomedi-
ally. The short, narrow, cone-shaped infundibular
cavity (pars cava infundibuli) penetrates into the
neurohypophysis. The details of the hypophysis of
the European hamster are similar to those of the
.Syrian golden hamster (.Schwarze and Michel,
1959-60) and the Chinese hamster (Horber, et ai,

1974) .

The adenohypophysis contains acidophilic, basophilic and chromo-
phobic cells in hematoxyiin-eosin stains. Each type is either loosely
dispersed or arranged in cords surrounding sinusoids and sparse inter-
stitial connective tissue elements. The acidophils include somatotropes,
producing growth hormone (.STH) and mammotropes, producing
mammotropic hormone (LTH). The basophils include the gonado-
trophs, thyrotrophs and corticotrophs; the gonadotrophs are the source
of the follicle-stimulating hormone (F.SH), luteinizing hormone (LH)
and male interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH). The thyro-
trophs produce thyroid stimulating hormone (T.SH) and the cortico-
trophs produce adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). Chromo-
phobe cell function is still unclarified. TTie chromophobe cell is thought
to be either a precursor acidophil or basophil or else a mature cell with-
out staining potential due to cytoplasmic degranulation (Herlant,

1975) .

Histometrical studies in the European hamster
show variations in cell frequency, distribution and
size of the nucleus during hibernation (Schlotter,

1976) . Nuclear size is construed as a measure of the
cell's functional state (Muschke, 1953) and fre-
quency of cell type as a shift in total amount of hor-
mones secreted. In females the basophils were most
active in May and in non-hibernating animals in
January. In males the highest activity was also in
May but, in contrast to the female, the January
values in nonhibernating animals were signifi-
cantly lower. Lowest activity in both sexes was
recorded during hibernation. Only the males
showed a significant decrease in acidophilic cells
during hibernation. There was significant change
during October, May and in the nonhibernating
animals, in January (see Table 9). From examina-
tion of the testes (Reznik-Schiiller and Reznik,
1973, 1974), ovaries (Ziichner, 1975) and the thy-

roids (Schlotter, 1976), variation in basophil func-
tion can be attributed to variation in number and
function of the gonadotropic component.

2.20 ORBITAL ADIPOSE TISSUE

The orbital adipose tissue {corpus adiposum
orbitae) occupies much of the orbit, especially the
ventral portion (Figs. 2-18 to 2-21 , 2-32, 2-33).

At low magnification, it resembles glandular tissue, but higher mag-
nification demonstrates that it consists of multivacuolated fat cells
(Fig. 2-73).

2.21 LACRIMAL APPARATUS

The lacrimal apparatus (apparatus lacrimalis)
consists of the lacrimal gland (gl. lacrimalis), the
accessory lacrimal gland (gl. lacrimalis accessoria)
(Fig. 2-58) and associated ducts. The lacrimal or
tear glands have the function of lubricating the
cornea and preventing the drying of the epithelium.
In addition to their secretory function, the acces-
sory lacrimal gland, along with the opthalmic plex-
us and orbital adipose tissue, has the function of
protecting the very large eye balls (bulbi oculi).

2.22 LACRIMAL GLAND

The lacrimal gland is the smallest of the tear
glands, lying in a triangle formed by the zygomatic
arch, the temporal muscles and the eye ball (Fig.
2-58). Its medial surface presses against the oph-
thalmic plexus, and it is partially covered on the
lateral side by the periorbita.

The glandular structure is of the tubuloalveolar type and the secre-
tion is serous.

2.23 ACCESSORY LACRIMAL GLAND

The accessory lacrimal gland is situated ventro-
laterally, completely within the orbit (Fig. 2-58).
It forms a triangular mass between the zygomatic
arch and the temporal muscle, surrounding the eye-
ball and the optic nerve, investing them rostro-
medially as it does in the Chinese hamster (Horber
et ai, 1974). The gland extends caudally 3-4 mm
from the zygomatic arch to the area of the optic
foramen (foramen opticum). Numerous excretory
ducts (ductuli excretorii) discharge into the con-
junctival sac (saccus conjunctivae). The fiuid is

24

Head

conveyed through the tear canals {canaliculi lacn-
males) in the upper and lower evelids {palpebrae
superior et inferior) to the lacrimal sac {saccus lac-
rimalis) located at the medial canthus (angulus
oculi medialis). The lacrimal sac represents the en-
larged proximal portion of the nasolacrimal duct
{ductus nasolacrimalis). Macroscopically, the ac-
cessory lacrimal glands are grayish-white to yellow
in color.

Histologically, thev are compound and tubuloalveolar in structure.
The glandular acini are lined bv a simple laver of columnar cells. The
cells of the glandular epithelium are large, with relatively small, round
nuclei basallv located. The cvtoplasm is verv finely granulated.

2.24 NASOLACRIMAL DUCT

Lacrimal secretions drain from the orbit to the
nasal vestibule through the nasolacrimal duct {duc-
tus nasolacrimalis). As there is no lacrimal bone in
the European hamster, the duct exits the orbit
through the infraorbital canal {canalis infraorbi-
talis) of the maxillary bone, accompanied by vessels
and nerves. Emerging from the infraorbital canal,
the duct runs along the lateral wall of the maxilla
covered only by muscle. It penetrates the nasal
cavity through a small oval foramen located be-
tween the maxilla and incisive bone, at about the
level of the rostral end of endoturbinal I (Jensen,
1977). It then runs along the internal surface of the
incisive bone, ventromedial to the root of the incisor
(Figs. 2-12, 2-13), terminating in the nasal vesti-
bule at the level of the incisive duct.

The terminal portion of the nasolacrimal duct is lined with multi-
lavered unkeratinized squamous epithelium, but for most of its length,
it is of double-iavered prismatic transitional epithelium (Jensen, 1 977).
In certain places, this epithelium resembles ciliated epithelium.

2.25 CRANIAL AND FACIAL
VASCULARIZATION

2.25.1 Arteries

Arterial blood is carried to the head by branches
of the common carotid {a. carotis communis) and
the vertebral {a. vertebralis) arteries. The common
carotid divides at the level of the thyroid gland into
the internal {a. carotis interna) and external carotid
{a. carotis externa) arteries. The external carotid
first gives off the occipital artery {a. occipitalis) to
the neck and then the lingual artery {a. lingualis) to

the tongue. The continuation of the external carotid
is called the maxillary artery {a. maxillaris). It
gives off the common vascular stem from which the
arteries to the masseter {a. massetenca) and the
cheek pouch {a. bursa buccalis) originate. Also
coming off this common vascular stem are the trans-
verse facial artery {a. transversa faciei) to the zygo-
matic arch, the auricular arteries {aa. auricularis
caudalis et rostralis) to the ear, and the superficial
temporalis artery {a. temporalis superficialis) to the
temporal region, respectively. The maxillary artery
runs to the incisura vasorum facialium and supplies
the face as the facial artery {a. facialis).

The internal carotid artery (Fig. 2-70) extends
to the caudal edge of the mastoid process of the
temporal bone {os temporale, pars mastoidea).
Here it separates into a dorsal and a ventral branch.
The ventral branch {a. intercarotica rostralis) enters
the cranial cavity through the jugular foramen (for-
amen jugular e), at the level of the hypophysis, be-
tween the basisphenoid and the mastoid process,
and supplies the base of the brain rostral to the
hypophysis. The caudal portions of the brain are
served by the basilar artery {a. basilaris) and its
branches, the rostral and caudal cerebellar arteries
{aa. cerebelli rostralis et caudalis). The dorsal
branch extends dorsally along the bulla. Rostral to
the bulla tympanica, it divides into a ventral branch
{a. maxillaris interna) which runs through the
pterygoid to the orbit, nose and palate, and into a
dorsal branch which enters the cranium, runs lat-
eral to the brain and finally becomes the internal
ophthalmic artery {a. ophthalmica interna) which
accompanies the optic nerve. The internal carotid
artery does not wind through the base of the crani-
um nor within the cranial cavity, a pattern also
characteristic of the rabbit (Mone, et ai, 1973) and
the rat (Wells, 1968; Horber, et al., 1974). The
nomenclature and distribution of some important
arteries of the brain can be seen in Figure 2-70.

2.25.2 Venous Drainage of the Skull
and the Ophthalmic Plexus

The external jugular vein {v. jugulans externa),
the principal vessel draining the head, is formed
from the junction of the linguofacial vein {v. linguo-
facialis) and the maxillary vein caudal to the lower
jaw (Figs. 2-58, 2-74). At the level of the incisura

25

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

vasorum facialium the linguofacial vein receives the
lingual vein {v. lingualis) and facial vein {v. facialis).
The lingual vein drains the mandibular glands and
the tongue. The facial vein drains the lips {v. labialis
mandibularis and v. labialis maxillaris), the dorsal
part of the nose {v. lateralis nasi) and the medial
corner of the eye {v. angulans oculi). The latter
anastomoses with the superficial temporal vein {v.
temporalis superficialis), and thereby also with the
ophthalmic plexus (plexus ophthalmicus).

From caudal to rostral, the maxillary vein (v.
maxillaris) receives the caudal auricular vein {v.
auricularis caudalis) and the superficial temporal
vein. Thereafter, it runs medially from the jaw
joint and takes up a large branch draining the ven-
tral sinus system of the brain. The rostral auricular
vein {v. auricularis rostralis), the transverse facial
vein (v. transversa faciei) and the masseteric vein
(v. masseterica) discharge into the superficial tem-

poral vein which itself ultimately communicates
with the caudal edge of the ophthalmic plexus.

The ophthalmic plexus is a large complex of
venous blood vessels in the orbit. Blood may be
easily drawn from this vascular plexus in the Euro-
pean hamster, just as in the rat (Wells, 1968),
mouse (Cohrs, et ai, 1958) and Syrian golden ham-
ster (Stewart, et ai, 1944; House, et ai, 1961;
Hoffman, et al. , 1 968). It fills the caudal half of the
orbit completely and invests much of the medial
surface of the eyeball and optic nerve. Its largest
mass is positioned caudolaterally. The venous plex-
us also gives off a medial vessel which accompanies
the maxillary artery and connects with the basal
sinus system of the brain above the foramen orbito-
rotundum. The nomenclature and distribution of
the most important veins of the brain can be seen
in Figs. 2-58 and 2-74.

26

Head

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Os Nasale
Os Incisivum
Os Maxillare
Os Zygomaticum
Os Frontale
Os Temporale
I Os Parietale
Os Interparietale
I Os Occipitale
Bulla Tympanica

Figure 2-2: Skull of adult hamster with mandibles removed; lateral view.

28

Head

Figure 2-3: Sagittal section sketch of skull and adjacent parts of neck of adult hamster at level of nasal septum
(nasal septum lacking). l=os nasale; 4 = os frontale; 5 = os parietale; 6 = os interparietale; 12 = dens incisivum;
14 = endoturbinale I; 15 = endoturbina!e II; 16 = endoturbinale ifl; 17 = endoturbinale IV; 18 = choanae; 19 = os
sphenoidale; 22 = lingua; 23 = palatum molle; 24=palatum durum; 25 = concha nasalis dorsalis; 26 = concha
nasalis ventralis; 27 = naris; 28 = bulbus olfactorius; 29 = cerebrum; 30 = adhesio interthalamica; 31 = pons; 33 =
cerebellum; 34=medulla spinalis; 35 = vertebrae cervicales; 36 = trachea; 37 = esophagus; 38 = larynx; 39 = carti-
lago arytaenoidea; 40= epiglottis; 41 = cavum oris; 42 = mandibula; 45 = medulla oblongata: A = meatus nasi
dorsalis; B = meatus nasi medius; C = meatus nasi ventralis; D = nasopharynx.

Figure 2-4: Sagittal section of skull after fixation in 4% formalin; nasal septum
removed except at rostral end of ventral meatus. Note well-developed turbinal
apparatus.

29

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-5: Sagittal section of formalin fixed skull at level of nasal septum. Note
clearly visible nasopharynx which curves only slightly downwards at entrance into
larynx.

Figure 2-6: Drawing of skull with mandibles removed; sagittal section taken at level of nasal septum. l = os
nasale; 2 = os incisivum; 3=maxilla; 4 = os frontale; 5 = os parietale; 6 = os interparietale; ll=dentes molares;
12 = dentes incisivi; 16 = condylus occipitalis; 17 = meatus acusticus internus; 18 = choanae; 19 = os ethmoides;
20=lamina perpendicularis; 24 = endoturbinale I; 25 = endoturbinale II; 26 = endoturbinale III; 27 = endoturbinale
IV.

30

US OS Nasale
■I Os Incisivum
m Os Maxillare
Os Zygomaticum
os Frontale
Os Temporale
7 Os Parietale
Os Interparietale
Os Occipitale

Figure 2-7: Drawing of the skull with the mandibles removed, dorsal view. l = Os
nasale; 2 = 0s incisivum; 3 = Maxilla, processus zygomaticus; 4 = 0s frontale; 5 = 0s
parietale; 6 = 0s occipitale; 7 = 0s interparietale; 9 = 0s temporale, processus zygo-
maticus; 10 = 0s zygomaticum; ll = Dentes molares; 12 = Meatus acusticus ex-
ternus; 13 = 0rbita.

Os Nasale
MiOs IndsivufD
HI Os Maxillare

Os Zygomaticum
BE^ Os Frontale
WP Os Temperate

Os Palatinum et Os Sphenoides
BBOs Occipitale
■i Bulla Tympanica

Figure 2-8: Drawing of the skull with the mandibles removed, ventral view. 2 = 0s
incisivum; 3 = Maxilla; 7 = 0s occipitale; 8 = Bulla tympanica; 9 = 0s temporale; 10 =
Os zygomaticum; ll = Dentes molares; 12 = Dentes incisivi; 14 = Vomer; 15 = Fora-
men incisivum; 16 = Foramen magnum; 17 = Meatus acusticus externus; 18 = Fora-
men lacerum; 19 = Processus pterygoideus; 20= Foramen jugulare; 21=Synchon-
drosis sphenooccipitalis; 22 = Os sphenoidale; 23= Foramen ovale; 24= Processus
pterygoideus; 25 = Os palatinum; g = Condylus occipitalis.

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-9 (upper left): External appearance of nasal apex in adult hamster. l = dens incisi-
vus; 2 = naris; 3 = phlltrum; 4= planum nasale.

Figure 2-10 (lower left): Section caudal to lingual aspect of incisors. l = dens incisivus; 5 =
cutis; 6 = septum nasale; 7 = concha nasalis dorsalis; 8 = concha nasalis ventralis; 9 = organum
vomeronasale; 17 = maxilla.

Figure 2-11 (upper right); Rostral view of 2 mm thick transverse section immediately caudal
to that of Fig. 2-10. Note slightly curled parts of dorsal and ventral conchae. l = dens incisivus;
5 = cutis; 6 = septum nasale; 7 = concha nasalis dorsalis; 8 = concha nasalis ventralis; 9 = organ-
um vomeronasale; ll = processus alveolaris; 13 = os nasale; 14 = palatum durum; 15 = vomer;
16 = cavum oris; 17 = maxilla; A = meatus nasi dorsalis (meatus olfactorius); B = meatus nasi
medius; C = meatus nasi ventralis (meatus respiratorius).

Figure 2-12 (lower right): Caudal view of above section (Fig. 2-11) demonstrating highly
developed curling of conchal parts. Note nasolacrimal duct (10) and vomeronasal organ (9).
l = dens incisivus; 5 = cutis; 6 = septum nasale; 7 = concha nasalis dorsalis; 8 = concha nasalis
dorsalis; 9 = organum vomeronasale; 10 = ductus nasolacrimalis; ll = processus alveolaris;
12 = ductus incisivus; 13 = os nasale; 14=palatum durum; 15=:vomer; 16 = cavum oris; 17 =
maxilla; A = meatus nasi dorsalis; B = meatus nasi medius; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

32

Head

16

Figure 2-13 (upper left): Rostral view of succeeding section demonstrating distribution of
dorsal and ventral conchae and three meatuses in nasal cavity. 1 =dens incisivus; 5 = cutis; 6 =
septum nasale: 7 = concha nasalis dorsalis; 8==:Concha nasalis ventralis; 9 = organum vomero-
nasale; 10 = ductus nasolacrimalis; ll = processus alveolaris; 13 = os nasale; 14=palatum
durum: 15 = vomer; 16 = cavum oris: 18 = ruga palatina; A = meatus nasi dorsalis: B = meatus
nasi medius: C = meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-14 (lower left): Caudal view of above section. 1 =dens incisivus: 5 = cutis; 6 = septum
nasale: 7 = concha nasalis dorsalis: 8 = concha nasalis ventralis; 9 = organum vomeronasale;
10 = ductus nasolacrimalis: ll = processus alveolaris; 13 = os nasale: 16 = cavum oris: 17 =
maxilla; 18=ruga palatina; 20 = blood vessel; 21 = sinus maxillaris; A = meatus nasi dorsalis;
B = meatus nasi medius; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-15 (upper right): Rostral view of succeeding section: l = dens incisivus: 5 = cutis;
6 = septum nasale: 7 = concha nasalis dorsalis: 8 = concha nasalis ventralis: 9 = organum vom-
eronasale: ll = processus alveolaris: 13 = os nasale: 14=palatum durum; 16 = cavum oris;
18 = ruga palatina; 19 — recessus cavi nasi; 20 = blood vessel; 21=sinus maxillaris; A = meatus
nasi dorsalis; B = meatus nasi medius; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-16 (lower right): Caudal view of above section. Note endoturbinals (24-27), ecto-
turbinals (28-30), and maxillary sinus (21), the only paranasal cavity of European hamster. 1 =
dens incisivus; 5 = cutis; 6 = septum nasale; 13 = os nasale: 14=palatum durum; 16 = cavum
oris; 20=blood vessel; 21=sinus maxillaris; 24 = endoturbinale I; 25 = endoturbinale 11; 26 =
endoturbinale III; 27 = endoturbinale IV; 28 = ectoturbinaie I; 29 = ectoturbinale 11; 30 = ecto-
turbinale III; 31 = glandula lacrimalis; A = meatus nasi dorsalis; B = meatus nasi medius; C =
meatus nasi ventralis.

33

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-17 (upper left): Rostral view of succeeding section: 5 = cutis; 6 = septum nasale; 14 = palatum durum;
16 = cavum oris; 21=sinus maxillaris; 24 = endoturbinale I; 25 = endoturbinale II; 26 = endoturbinale III; 27 —
endoturbinale IV; 28 = ectoturbinale I; 29 = ectoturbinale II; 30 = ectoturbinale III; 31 = glandula lacrimalis; 33 =
palpebra; 34 = os frontaie; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-18 (bottom left): Caudal view of above section; note eyes (35) and orbital adipose tissue with lacrimal
gland (31). 5 = cutis; 6 = septum nasale; 14 = palatum durum; 16 = cavum oris; 21=sinus maxillaris; 24 = endo-
turbinale I; 25 = endoturbinale II; 26 = endoturbinale III; 27 = endoturbinale IV; 28 = ectoturbinale I; 29 = ectoturbi-
nale II; 31=corpus adiposum orbitae et glandula lacrimalis; 33 = palpebra; 35 = bulbus oculi; 36 = diploe; C =
meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-19 (upper right): Rostral view of succeeding section. 5 = cutis; 6 = septum; 14=palatum durum; 16 =
cavum oris; 24 = endoturbinale I; 25 = endoturbinale II; 26 = endoturbinale III; 27 = endoturbinale IV; 28 = ecto-
turbinale I; 29 = ectoturbinale II; 31 =corpus adiposum orbitae et glandular lacrimalis; 33 = palpebra; 35 = bulbus
oculi; 36 = diploe; 37 = dens molaris; 38 = mandibula; 39 = radix molaris; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-20 (lower right): Caudal view of above' section. 5 = cutis; 6 = septum; 14 = palatum durum; 16 = cavum
oris; 27 = endoturbinale IV; 31 = corpus adiposum orbitae et glandula lacrimalis; 35 = bulbus oculi; 37 = dens
molaris; 38 = mandibula; 40= bu I bus olfactorius; 41 = pulpa dent is; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

34

Head

Figure 2-21 (upper left): Rostral view of succeeding section. 20= blood vessel; 27 = endoturbinale IV; 31 ^corpus
adiposum orbitae et glandula lacrimalis; 35 = bulbus oculi; 36 = diploe; 37 = dens molaris; 38 = mandibula; 40 =
bulbus olfactorius; 41 = pulpa dentis; C = meatus nasi ventralis.

Figure 2-22 (lower left): Caudal view of above section; 18=choanae; 20= blood vessel; 38 = mandibula; 43 =
cerebrum; 44 = nerve.

Figure 2-23 (upper right): Rostral aspect of succeeding section. 20 = blood vessel; 38 = mandibula; 43 = cere-
brum; 44 = nerve; D = nasopharynx.

Figure 2-24 (lower right): Caudal view of above section. 20=blood vessel; 38 = mandibula; 43 = cerebrum; 44=
nerve; D = nasopharynx.

35

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-25 (upper left): Rostral view of succeeding section. 20= blood vessel; 43 = cerebrum; D = nasopharynx.

Figure 2-26 (lower left): Caudal view of above section. 20 = blood vessel; 43 = cerebrum; D = nasopharynx.

Figure 2-27 (upper right): Rostral view of succeeding section. 20= blood vessel; 43 = cerebrum; 46 = meatus
acusticus externus; 47 = auris media.

Figure 2-28 (lower right): Caudal view of above section. 20 = blood vessel; 43 = cerebrum; 45 = os basisphenoid-
ale; 46 = meatus acusticus externus; 47 = auris media.

36

Head

Figure 2-29: Rostral view of first four sections demonstrating beginning of dorsal
and ventral nasal conchae.

Figure 2-30: Caudal view of above sections.

37

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-31 (upper left): Rostral view of succeeding two serial sections. Note maxillary
sinus on lower section.

Figure 2-32 (upper right): Caudal view of above sections. Note large mass of orbital adi-
pose tissue in upper section.

Figure 2-33 (lower left): Rostral side of following two sections; note endo- and ectoturbi-
nals in upper section.

Figure 2-34 (lower right): Caudal view of above two sections; note olfactory bulb in lower
section.

38

Figure 2-35 (upper left): Rostral view of next two serial sections; upper shows middle ear.
Figure 2-36 (upper right): Caudal view of above two sections.

Figure 2-37 (lower): Caudal view of last two sections: top, cervical region; bottom, last
section of skull.

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-38 (above): Histology of epithelial layer of endoturbinals: olfactory epithelium. (Toluidine blue, X1043).

Figure 2-39 (below): Lateral sketch of skull demonstrating major air-conducting pathways.

40

Head

Figure 2-40: Histology of vomeronasal organ, one side of which (above) is covered
with olfactory epithelium and the other (below) with pseudostratified ciliated co-
lumnar epithelium. (H & E, X37).

Figure 2-41: Histology of dorsal nasal concha, covered by pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium. (H & E, X145).

41

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-42 (lower): Nasal septum coated with pseudostratified columnar ciliated
epithelium on left and with olfactory epithelium on right. Between epithelium and
cartilage is well developed submocosal layer. (H & E, X60).

42

Head

Figure 2-44: Histology of maxillary sinus at higher magnification, demonstrating
that pseudostratified columnar epithelium is of ciliated type, and that subepithelial
layer consists of mucous glands. (H & E, X160).

43

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

b

Figure 2-45: Mandible, a, lateral view; b, medial view; A = corpus mandibu-
iae; l=:dens incisivus; 2 = dentes molares; 3 = processus condylaris; 4=pro-
cessusangularis; 5 = processus coronoideus; 6 = incisura vasorum facial! um;
7 = foramen mentale; 8 = foramen mandibulae; 9 = fossa masseterica; 10 =
fossa pterygoidea; 1 1 =articulatio intermandibularis.

44

Figure 2-46: Dorsal aspect of oral cavity, showing Figure 2-47: Floor of the oral cavity; main part

hard palate and soft palate. Note four well-developed formed by spoon-shaped tongue,
rostral palatine rugae, and four smaller caudal pairs,
which do not fuse completely in midline.

Figure 2-48: Cheek pouch in situ, demonstrating superfi-
cial position of this structure. Note mucous membrane,
which forms delicate longitudinal folds.

45

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-49: Radiogram of adult European hamster, demonstrating size and shape
of cheek pouches in distended state. Cheek pouches filled with 10 ml mikropaque
(Nicolas).

46

Head

Figure 2-50: Insitu. preparation of m. retractor bursae buccalis et retractor buc-
cinator. The muscle originates in m. longissimus dorsi at the level of first and sec-
ond lumbar vertebrae and inserts on the caudal aspect of cheek pouch.

47

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-51: Histology of hard palate. Mucous membrane consists of stratified
squamous epithelium with keratinization. Note presence of submucous gland. (H &
E. X57).

Figure 2-52: Histology of tongue. Stratified squamous epithelium forms promi-
nent papillae which show thick superficial layer of cornif ied cells. (H & E, X141).

48

Head

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-55: Occlusal views of upper and lower jaws. Note: rows of
molars do not parallel each other.

50

Head

3 2 1

Figure 2-56: Right palatine, ventral view. A^maxilla; b = palatine; l = first nnolar;
2 = second molar; S^third molar.

Figure 2-57: Radiogram of lateral aspect of adult hamster skull. Note long root of incisor, which originates far
caudally in incisive bone and bony base of turbinal apparatus. (Mandibles are removed, X2.5) (See also Figure
2-53).

51

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-58: Schematic drawing of head of one-year-old male European hamster, lateral view. A-D = salivary
glands; A = parotis; B = gl. mandibularis; C = gl. sublingualis major; D = gl. sublingualis minor; E = gl. zygomatica;
F-G=: lacrimal glands; F = gl. lacrimalis; G = gl. lacrimalis accessoria; a = lymphocentrum mandibulare; b = bursa
buccal is; c = bulbus oculi; d = ear; e = In. parotideus; 1 =v. jugularis externa; 2 = v. linguofacial is; 3 = v. facialis; 4 =
anastomosis to v. transversa faciei; 5 = v. lateralis nasi; 6 = v. angularis oculi; 7 = v. maxillaris; 8 = v. auricularis
caudaiis; 9 = v. masseterica; 10 = v. temporalis superficialis; ll=v. auicularis rostralis; 12 = v. transversa faciei;
13 = connecting branch of v. temporalis superficialis to ophthalmic plexus.

52

Head

Figure 2-59: Schematic drawing of ventral cervical region demonstrating posi-
tions of salivary glands in relation to surrounding tissues: a-a' = bursa buccalis;
b-b' = glandula mandibularis; c-c' = glandula sublingualis; d-d' = parotis; e'-e" =
m. pectoralis superficialis; e' = pars clavicularis; e" = pars sternocostalis; f-f' = m.
obliquus abdominis externus; g-g' = m. masseter; h = m. digastricus; i = m. sterno-
hyoideus; l-l' = glandula zygomatica.

53

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-60: Paired salivary glands in situ. Larger mandibular glands show lobular struc-
ture. At cranial poles are smaller sublingual glands.

Figure 2-61: Some isolated digestive glands of adult European hamster: on left is pinkish-
white mandibular gland, at cranial pole of which lies a whitish, smaller sublingual gland.

54

Head

Figure 2-62: Isolated glands of head. From left to right are parotid gland, sub-
mandibular gland, sublingual gland, and zygomatic gland. Note excavation at cra-
nial pole of mandibular gland from which sublingual gland was removed.

Figure 2-63: Histology of mandibular and sublingual glands. Both glands consist
of mucous and serous parts and can be distinguished by their different colors;
lighter one in upper half of plate is sublingual gland; while darker staining subman-
dibular gland is located in lower half. (H & E, X37).

55

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-65: Histology of sebaceous gland situated behind ear. This gland resem-
bles Zymbal gland in other rodents. (H & E, X93).

56

Head

Figure 2-66: Above. Drawing of brain in male European hamster, 1 year old, formalin fixed, dorsal
view. 1 = bulbus olfactorius; 2 = neopallium; 3 = fissura V cerebelli (f. prima); 4 = lamina tecti; 5 = lobulus
simplex; 6 = crus I lobuli ansiformis; 7 = crus II lobuli ansiformis; 8 = paraflocculus. Below. Formalin
fixed brain of male European hamster, 1 year old, dorsal view.

57

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hams ter

Figure 2-67: Above. Schematic drawing of brain in 1-year old male European hamster, lateral view. 1 =
bulbus olfactorius; 2 = neopallium; 3 = fissura V cerebelli (f. prima); 6 = crus I lobuli ansiformis; 7 = crus
II lobuli ansiformis; 8 = paraflocculus; 9 = sulcus rhinalis lateralis (fissura palaeo-neocorticalis); 10 =
fissura VIII cerebelli; ll = pons; 12=:medulla oblongata. Below. Formalin fixed brain of male European
hamster, 1 year old, lateral view.

58

Head

Figure 2-68: Above. Schematic drawing of brain of male European hamster, 1 year old; sagittal section.
l = bulbus olfactorius; 2 = neopallium; 3 = fissura V cerebelli (f. prima); ll = pons; 12=medulla oblon-
gata; l = lobuli I cerebelli; ll = lobuli II cerebelli; lll^lobuli III cerebelli; IV = lobuli IV cerebelli; V=lobuli V
cerebelli; Vl^lobuli VI cerebelli; VII = lobuli VII cerebelli; VIII = lobuli VIII cerebelli; IX = lobuli IX cerebelli;
X = lobuli X cerebelli; 13 = ventriculus quartus; 14=aquaeductus mesencephali; 15 = corpus mamillare;
16 = massa intermedia; 17=ventriculus tertius; 18 = chiasma opticum; 19 = commissura rostralis; 20 =
fornix; 21=corpus callosum; 22 = colliculus rostralis. Below. Sagittal section through formalin fixed
brain of male European hamster, 1 year old.

59

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-69: Above. Schematic drawing of brain of male European hamster, 1 year old; ventral view.
l = bulbus olfactorius; 8 = paraflocculus; 9 = sulcus rhinalis lateralis (fissura palaeo-neocorticalis); 11 =
pons; 23 = tractus olfactorius lateralis; 24 = tuberculum olfactorium; 25 = chiasma opticum; 26 = infun-
dibulum; 27 = palaeopallium; 28 = lobulus paramedianus; 29 = n. facialis; 30=n. trigeminus; 31 = n.
oculomotorius; 33 = pyramis; 34 = n. hypoglossus; 35 = decussatio pyramidum; 36 = corpus trapezoides.
Below. Formalin fixed brain of male European hamster, 1 year old, ventral view.

60

Head

Figure 2-70: Ventral view of brain of male European ham-
ster representing basal arteries of the brain. a = bulbus olfac-
torius; b = bulbus oculi; c = n. opticus; d = chiasma opticum;
e = tuber cinereum; f = hypophysis; f' = infundibulum hypo-
physis; g = n. trigeminus; g' = n. maxillaris; g" = n. mandibu-
laris; h = hemispherium cerebri; i = lobus piriformis; k =
pons; l = hemispherium cerebelli; 1' = paraflocculus; m =
medulla oblongata; l = a. vertebralis; 2 = a. basilaris; 3 = a.
cerebelli caudalis; 4 = a. cerebelli rostraiis; 5 = a. carotis
interna; 6 = a. cerebri caudalis; 7 = a. cerebri media; 8 = a.
cerebri rostraiis.

61

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-71: Radiogram of ventral aspect of adult hamster skull. Note sphenoid bone which consists of two parts:
basisphenoid and presphenoid (arrows). Two mandibles are connected by intermandibular symphysis (A).

Figure 2-72: Schematic drawing of longitudinal section through hypophysis of European hamster, 1-year-old
female, a = neurohypophysis; b-d = adenohypophysis; b = pars intermedia; c = pars distalis; d = pars infundibu-
laris; e = cleft or cavum hypophysis; f = pars cava infundibuli; g=ventriculus tertius.

62

Head

Figure 2-73: Histologic features of orbital adipose tissue, demonstratingglandular
appearance but actually consisting of multivacuolated fat cells. (Sudan III, X58).

63

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 2-74: Ophthalmic plexus and the cranial veins of a male European hamster, 1 year old. 1 =vena jugularis
externa; 2 = vena cervicaiis superficialis; 3 = vena linguofacialis; 4 = vena lingualis; 5 = vena facialis; 6 = vena labi-
alis mandibularis; 7 = vena labialis maxillaris; 8 = vena lateralis nasi; 9 = vena angularis oculi; 10/10' = vena maxil-
laris; ll=vena auricularis caudalis; 12 = vena temporalis superficialis; 13 = vena masseterica; 14 = vena auricu-
laris rostralis; 15 = vena transversa faciei; 16/16 = flow of blood to ophthalmic plexus; A = plexus venosus; B =
bulbus oculi; C = cheek pouch (dotted lines).

64

CHAPTER THREE
CERVICAL REGION

3.1 CERVICAL SKELETON

The cervical vertebrae form a lordosis between
the sixth cervical and second thoracic vertebrae
(Fig. 3-1). There are seven cervical vertebrae {ver-
tebrae cervicales) with a total length of 26.6 mm
(Figs. 3-1, 3-2). The first vertebra, or atlas, has a
ring shape (Fig. 3-3). Its outer and inner diameters
are 14.1 and 10.3 mm, respectively. Dorsoventrally
flattened, its external height is 8.2 mm- and its in-
ternal height is 6.2 mm. The ventral side is thin and
frail. The caudoventrally directed transverse proc-
esses are perforated by the vertebral artery and vein,
which pass through the transverse foramen {fora-
men, transversarium). The second cervical vertebra,
the axis or epistropheus, has a spinous process
9.5 mm long (Fig. 3-4). Its length is 6.3 mm. The
axis includes a body {corpus), odontoid process
{dens), vertebral arch {arcus vertebrae), spinous
process {processus spinosus), transverse processes
{processus transversi) and articular processes {pro-
cessus articulares). The dens, which is a cranial
extension of the vertebral body supporting the atlas,
is 9 mm long and 4.7 mm high. The vertebral arch
is angled somewhat caudal to the vertebral body.
It begins with a thin root above the base of the
transverse process and broadens into a small, caudal
articular process. From the dorsal posterior edge
of the vertebral arch, a hatchet-shaped spinous
process arises and elongates caudally, projecting
over the third cervical vertebra (Fig. 3-1). A cranial
projection touches the posterior 'ubercle of the atlas.

The third to seventh cervical vertebrae are prac-
tically identical. Their bodies are dorsoventrally
flattened and shorter than those of the second ver-
tebra. The dorsoventral obliquity of the articular
ends of the vertebral bodies is partly responsible for
the definite cervical lordosis. The thin spike-shaped
transverse processes are perforated at their bases by
transverse foramina.

3.2 TOPOGRAPHY OF THE VENTRAL
CERVICAL REGION

The paired mandibular glands (Fig. 2-59) are

prominent superficial structures of the ventral cer-
vical region. The two glandular bodies press against
each other in the median plane, and lateral to these
glands is adipose tissue. This fat accumulation,
along with the mandibular glands, covers the ven-
tral cervical surface and the cranial portion of the
thoracic musculature. The sternohyoid muscle {m.
sternohyoideus) parallels the trachea on its ventral
surface. Caudally, the sternohyoid muscle is covered
at its origin on the manubrium by the sternocephalic
muscle {m. sternocephalicus). The omotransver-
sarius muscle {m. omotransversarius) originates
on the acromion process of the scapula (Fig. 3-5),
extends dorsal to the omohyoid muscle {m. omo-
hyoideus), and continues to the cervical vertebrae.
The digastric muscle (m. digastricus) lies cranial to
the sternohyoid and omohyoid muscles (Figs. 3-6,
3-7).

The clavicle {clavicula){¥\^?,. 3-2, 3-9) separates
the brachiocephalic muscle (m. brachiocephalicus)
into a cleidobrachial muscle {m. cleidohrachialis)
and a cleidocephalic muscle (m. cleidocephalicus) .
The cleidobrachial muscle extends from the distal
humerus to the lateral half of the clavicle in a fan-
shaped array. The cleidocephalic muscle originates
further medially on the clavicle, lies against the
sternocephalic muscle laterally and extends with the
latter to the skull. The sternocephalicus extends
from its origin on the manubrium in a laterodorsal
direction to the head and inserts on the occiput. The
dorsal scalene muscle (m. scalenus dorsalis) con-
nects the second, third, and fourth ribs with the
transverse processes of the second, third, fourth and
fifth cervical vertebrae. The middle scalene muscle
(m. scalenus medius) extends ventral to the dorsal
scalene muscle as a thin cervical muscle from the
first rib to the third through fifth cervical vertebrae.
The longus colli muscle lies between the trachea
and the cervical vertebrae and extends caudally
within the thoracic cavity to the fourth thoracic
vertebra. The pectoralis muscles connect the sternal
area with the humerus and form a triangular sur-
face between the clavicle, the xiphoid process of the
sternum and the humerus.

65

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

In the European hamster, the pectoraHs muscu-
lature consists of the superficial pectoralis (m. pec-
toralis superficialis) and the pectoralis profundus
(m. pectoralis profundus) muscles. A cranial de-
scending {pars descendens) part and a caudal trans-
verse {pars transversus) part of the former can be
distinguished. The deep pectoral is covered by the
superficial pectoral. Since the caudal part of the
latter muscle is very thin, it is very difficult to sepa-
rate the two muscles at this point (Figs. 3-7, 3-8).

At the thoracic aperture {apertura thoracis cra-
nialis), each cranial vena cava divides into a sub-
clavian vein {v. subclavta), an external jugular vein
{v. jugularis externa) and internal jugular vein {u.
jugularis interna). The external jugular vein
emerges into the cervical region between the clavicle
and the pectoral and sternocephalic muscles; it
then extends lateral to the sternocephalic and clei-
docephalic muscles until it reaches the head. The
internal jugular vein turns medially and runs with
the common carotid artery along the trachea to-
wards the head. The right subclavian artery, which
originated from the brachiocephalic trunk in the
ventral part of the cranial mediastinum, passes
dorsal to the right external jugular vein at the level
of the thoracic aperture. The right common carotid
artery, also originating from the brachiocephalic
trunk, and the left common carotid artery, arising
directly from the aortic arch (Figs. 3-10, 3-11,
4-18) in the cranioventral mediastinum, both divide
at the level of the larynx, giving rise to the external
and internal carotid arteries of either side.

The cranial cervical ganglion {ganglion cervicale
craniale) of the sympathetic trunk {truncus sympa-
thicus) is dorsolateral to the thyroid gland. The
vagus and sympathetic nerves run together in the
neck as the vagosympathetic trunk {truncus vago-
sympathicus) (Fig. 3-11) ventrolateral to the com-
mon carotid artery, but separate before entering
the thoracic cavity. Adjacent to the cranial thoracic
aperture and ventrolateral to the edge of the longus
colli muscle, the stellate ganglion {ganglion stell-
atum) and the middle cervical ganglion {ganglion
cervicale medium) of the sympathetic trunk are
located. TTie sympathetic trunk runs ventrolateral
to the longus colli to the caudal end of that muscle;
then it is dorsolateral to the vertebral column. The
sympathetic trunk and the cervical ganglia are only

visible histologically. However, the vagosympa-
thetic trunk in the cervical area and the vagus nerve
in the thoracic cavity are visible under low power
magnification.

3.3 PHARYNX

Caudal to the oral cavity is the pharynx, the
chamber common to the respiratory and digestive
systems. The pharynx is divided into three parts,
the nasal part {pars nasalis) rostrodorsally, the
oral portion {pars oralis) rostroventrally, and the
laryngeal portion {pars laryngea) caudally. The
oropharynx extends 6 mm from the entrance to the
pharynx {aditus pharyngis) to the epiglottis {val-
lecula epiglottica) and is floored by the tongue (Figs.
2-3, 2-4). The soft palate separates the oropharynx
from the nasopharynx, which lies between the cho-
ana and the epiglottis. The laryngeal portion is
continuous posteriorly with the esophagus.

The epiglottis projects into the dorsal pharyngeal
space and lies with its cranioventral surface on the
free caudal edge of the soft palate {velum palati-
num). Ventral to the free edge, the pharyngeal
cavity is closed by the epiglottis. The epiglottis
guides the swallowed food down the pharyngeal
furrow which lies lateral to the aryepiglottic fold
{plica ary epiglottica). The free crest of the soft
palate continues bilaterally along the pharyngeal
walls, forming the palatopharyngeal arch {arcus
palatopharyngeus) which attaches the pharynx to
the esophagus.

3.4 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF NECK
AND ADJACENT THORACIC
REGION

Tonsils are neither macroscopically recog-
nizable nor histologically demonstrable. The man-
dibular lymph center {lymphocentrum mandibu-
lare) is a cluster of four lymph nodes in the laryngeal
region. It lies rostral, dorsal and lateral to the large
complex consisting of the mandibular and sublin-
gual glands (Fig. 3-12). Usually, two of the lymph
nodes {Inn. mandibulares rostrales) are embedded
in adipose tissue in front of the salivary glands. In
general, the lymph nodes can be seen only with a
magnifying glass, but in some animals the nodes are

66

Cervical Region

visible without magnification, contrasting with the
surrounding tissue by their red color and discrete
boundaries. Additional nodes lie between the two
sahvary glands and the laryngeal surface of the
parotid gland {Inn. mandibu lares caudales). They
are medial to the facial vein.

The retropharyngeal lymph complex {lympho-
centrum retropharyngeum) consists of two lymph
nodes {Inn. retropharyngei). They lie deep to the
sternocephalic and cleidocephalic muscles, dorso-
lateral to the carotid artery and extend from the
pharynx to the thyroid gland. Usually the parotid
node {In. parotideus) can be found under the paro-
tid gland caudal to the ear.

Superficial cervical lymph nodes are not found in
this species. The deep cranial cervical node {In.
cervicalis profundus cranialis) is located between
the trachea and the lateral margin of the omohyoid
muscle. Via the rostral mandibular nodes, it drains
the tongue, floor of the mouth, face, and cheek
pouches, and itself drains the neck musculature and
pharynx and empties into the jugular system. The
deep caudal cervical lymph node {In. cervicalis pro-
fundus caudalis) is located between the trachea and
the insertion of the sternocephalic muscle. It drains
the neck musculature and the pharynx and empties
into the jugular system.

The axillary lymph node {In. axillaris) (usually
one large node, occasionally two small nodes) is
situated between lateral thoracic wall and teres
major muscle, near the insertion of the latissimus
dorsi muscle (Fig. 3-12). It drains the pectoral
limb, thoracic and dorsal skin, lateral abdominal
wall, the accessory axillary lymph node and over-
flows to the subclavian vein.

The accessory axillary lymph node {In. axillaris
accessorius) is situated between the long head of the
triceps brachii and the latissimus dorsi muscles. It
drains the pectoral limb and skin of the thorax, and
flows to the axillary lymph node.

3.5 LARYNX

The larynx is situated behind the root of the
tongue and ventral to the pharynx. It is a sphincter
valve at the entrance to the windpipe, preventing
food from entering the trachea, and controlling the
air flow. The larynx may be up to 9 mm long and

has an outer diameter of about 6 mm (Figs. 3-13,
3-14, 3-15, 3-16). In one year old males, it weighs
222±36 mg and in females, 185±36 mg (Table 5),
when freed of all superficial muscles. The larynx is
positioned between the caudal ends of the mandibles
and is adjoined to the proximal part of the overly-
ing esophagus (Fig. 2-3). Laterally, the larynx is
flanked by the thyroid and parathyroid glands
{glandula thyreoidea et glandula parathyreoidea)
which extends to the level of the cricoid cartilage
(Figs. 3-13, 3-14). Cranially, the interior of the
larynx empties through the laryngeal opening
{aditus laryngis) into the dorsal part of the pharynx,
while caudally the larynx merges into the trachea.

The larynx of the European hamster contains
three single median cartilages: thyroid {cartilago
thyreoidea), cricoid {cartilage cricoidea) and epi-
glottis {cartilago epiglottic a); and three paired
cartilages: arytenoid {cartilago arytenoidea), corni-
culate {cartilago corniculata) and cuneiform {carti-
lago cuneiformis), the latter two of which are
identifiable only under magnification (Figs. 3-17,
3-18).

The thyroid cartilage (Fig. 3-18), which defines
the body of the larynx, has a concave shape, open
dorsally. It is formed by two sagittal cartilaginous
plates {laminae thyreoideae) that bend ventrally
towards the median plane where they fuse to form
a ventral median crest. The dorsal edge of each
lamina extends cranially as a short horn {cornu
rostrale) and caudally as a longer horn {cornu
caudale) with another short horn {cornu dorsale)
projecting from the dorsal edge of the lamina. The
lamina has an oblique ridge, running caudally on
the dorsolateral surface, which serves as the inser-
tion of m. cricothyreoideus.

The smaller cricoid cartilage, which is overlapped
craniolaterally by the caudal thyroid horns, is
shaped like a signet ring. It is composed of elastic
cartilage and consists of the arch {arcus cricoideus)
and lamina {lamina cricoidea) (Fig. 3-18). A con-
nective tissue membrane, the crico-thyroid ligament,
{lig. cricothyreoideum) is stretched over a cartila-
ginous free space between the thyroid cartilage and
the cricoid arch. A dorsal median ridge {crista
mediana) projects caudally over the first one to
two tracheal rings.

The arytenoid cartilages are paired sagittal

67

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

elastic cartilages that are almost triangular in shape
(Fig. 3-18). They lie between the thyroid laminae,
and their caudal ends articulate with the cranio-
dorsal cricoid laminae. A muscular process {proc-
essus muscularis) is bent laterally, while a vocal
process (processus vocalis) points ventrally and
possesses a small hook at its cranial edge.

The epiglottis is a leaf like structure that protects
the entrance to the glottis (Fig. 3-18). The cranio-
ventral surface of the epiglottis lies adjacent to the
free, caudal edge of the soft palate, and the tip
{apex) projects dorsally into the pharynx. Ventral
to this free edge, the epiglottis closes the pharynx
caudally. The craniodorsal edge of the epiglottis
forms an arch which bends laterally and continues
medially, narrowing to form the base {basis). The
epiglottis is composed of elastic cartilage.

At the dorsal part of its inner surface, the epiglottis is covered by
stratified squamous epithelium, while the remaining inner surface is
of a pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. At the cranial base
of the epiglottis, the uniform structure of this epithelium is interrupted
by excretory ducts of some subepithelial glands so that the epithelium
sometimes takes on a mixed appearance (Fig. 3-18).

The dorsal part of the lateral walls of the vestibule of the larynx is
covered with stratified squamous epithelium, whereas its ventral sur-
face is coated with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. At
the vestibular fold (plica vestibularis) this stratified columnar epi-
thelium is also found, while the vocal folds {plicae vocales) are coated
with stratified squamous epithelium. Between these two folds is situa-
ted the ventricle of the larynx, which is lined by a pseudostratified
ciliated cylindrical epithelium with areas of stratified squamous epi-
thelium. Caudally from the vocal folds begins a ciliated columnar
epithelium, two-cell-layers thick, which extends to the trachea (Fig.
3-19).

3.5.1 Ligaments of the Larynx

The various cartilages of the larynx are connected with each other by
ligaments. For example, the cricothyroid ligament (lig. cricothyreoi-
deum) and the thyroepiglottic ligament (Itg. thyreopiglotticum) are
distinctly visible microscopically. A cricotracheal ligament {lig. crico-
tracheale) is likewise recognizable. In horizontal section through the
larynx, the vocal ligament {lig. vacate) is especially prominent histo-
logically.

3.5.2 Muscles of the Larynx

Except for m. arytaenoideus transversus and the
m. hyoepiglotticus, all muscles of the larynx are
paired. M. thyreohyoideus joins the hyoid bone to
the thyroid cartilage. M. sternothyreoideus is prom-
inent, originating with m. sternohyoideus on the
manubrium and extending craniodorsally to insert
on the lateral surface of the thyroid lamina.

M. cricothyreoideus originates on the cricoid arch
and runs craniodorsally to the caudal thyroid lam-

ina. M. cricoarytaenoideus dorsalis originates dor-
sally on the cricoid lamina and inserts laterally on
the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage. M.
arytaenoideus transversus forms a muscular con-
nection between the dorsal edges of the two aryten-
oid cartilages. M. cncotrachealis runs from the
cricoid arch to the first and second tracheal rings
dorsally. The minute m. cricoarytaenoideus later-
alis extends craniodorsally from the cricoid to the
vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage. M. thyreo-
arytaenoideus runs ventrally from the vocal process
of the arytenoid cartilage. The prominent m. vocalis
parallels m. thyreoarytaenoideus.

The interior of the larynx is divided into the ves-
tibule {vestibulum laryngis), the glottis and the
infraglottis {cavum infraglotttcum). The vestibule
extends from the laryngeal opening {aditus laryn-
gis) to the vestibular folds {plicae vestibulares). The
laryngeal opening is bordered ventrally by the epi-
glottis, laterally by the aryepiglottic folds {plicae
aryepiglotticae) and dorsally by the arytenoid carti-
lages. A plica lateralis is not found. A median ven-
tricle {ventriculus laryngis medianus) is formed at
the base of the epiglottis; this is more pronounced
in older animals. The vestibular fold at the cau-
dal end of the vestibule is formed by m. ventricu-
laris and its mucosa. It extends obliquely ventrally
from the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage to
the base of the epiglottis.

Between the vestibular fold and the vocal fold
{plica vocalis), a perpendicular fissure is located,
the lateral ventricle {ventriculus laryngis lateralis),
which begins cranial to the vocal process of the
arytenoid cartilage and extends ventrally to lie be-
tween the m. vocalis and the m. ventricularis. The
glottis is a laterally compressed space between the
vocal folds cranially and the infraglottis caudally.
Hie vocal folds are folded into the rima glottidis,
especially by the vocal ligament {lig. vocale), a con-
nective tissue extension of the vocal process of the
arytenoid cartilage, which extends ventrally, lying
lateral to m. vocalis. Caudally, the interior of the
larynx broadens to form the infraglottis, which
assumes the inner diameter of the first tracheal
ring, with which it is continuous caudally.

3.6 TRACHEA

The cervical and thoracic trachea is a nearly

68

Cervical Region

cylindrical tube extending from the larynx at the
level of the cervical vertebra to the sixth rib where
it divides into a smaller left and larger right main
bronchus. The trachea in situ (Fig. 3-20) is 33. 7±
2.9 mm long in the adult hamster. Isolated, the
organ has an average length of 23.0±4.3 mm and
weighs about 86 mg in adult males and 68 mg in
adult females (Tables 1, 5).

The ventral surface of the cervical trachea is
covered by the sternohyoid muscle, which also over-
laps the thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands;
the caudal thyroid veins; cervical fascia and, super-
ficially, the anastomosing branches of the jugular
veins. The lateral surface is related to the common
carotid arteries, the right and left lobes of the thy-
roid gland, the caudal thyroid arteries and the
recurrent laryngeal nerves. The cervical trachea
lies ventral to the esophagus in the dorsal part of
the neck (Fig. 3-16). It is accompanied on both
sides by the common carotid arteries.

The skeleton of the trachea consists of 14 or 15
hyaline cartilaginous rings (Figs. 3-12, 3-15, 3-
16) (Reznik, et ai, 1973). The first tracheal ring,
3.9 mm in luminal diameter, is the largest while the
last tracheal ring, with a lumen diameter of 2.7 mm,
is the smallest (Table 1). All of the rings are ap-
proximately 0.5 mm thick, even though their lumi-
nal diameters vary (Figs. 3-15, 3-17, Table 1). The
tracheal cartilages {cartilagines tracheales) are
slightly compressed; the c-shaped rings are incom-
plete dorsally (Fig. 3-16). The first tracheal ring
is joined to the cricoid cartilage by the cricotracheal
ligament, while annular ligaments {ligg- annularia)
connect all tracheal rings in series. Very thin trans-
verse muscle fibers {mm. tracheales) connect the
two open ends of each ring on the dorsal aspect of
the tube.

The tracheal lumen is lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium, with only a few submucosal glands interspersed, especially
cranially; some isolated seromucous glands are found in the adventitia
(Fig. 3-21).

3.7 THYROID AND PARATHYROID
GLAND

The thyroid {gl. thyreoidea) and parathyroid
glands {gl. parathyreoidea) belong to the endocrine

hormonal system and supply the body with thyroxin
and parathormone. In contrast to the findings of
other workers (Kittel, 1952-53), the gland lies lat-
eral and dorsal to the trachea between the caudal
plate of the thyroid cartilage and the first three
tracheal rings (Fig. 3-14). This highly vascular
gland is larger in hibernating than in non-hibernat-
ing animals. In hibernating animals it weighs
around 10 mg (Kittel, 1952-53) and consists of two
longitudinally oval glandular bodies which can be
up to 7 mm long and 3 mm thick (Tables 10, 10a).
An isthmus is not present in this species and only
small strips of each ventral wall are visible ventrally.

The gland, whose surface is smooth and without
conspicuous lobulation, is of the alveolar type.

The follicles composing the gland are lined by simple cuboidal epi-
thelium and vary in size up to 100^ m. The epithelial cells secrete the
colloid which is subsequently stored in the follicular lacunae and con-
tains the thyroid hormones, tri- and tetra-iodothyronin (Fig. 3-22).

Production and release of the thyroid hormones
are controlled by the thyrotropic pituitary hormone
(TSH). Histometrically, small follicles indicate a
high secretory activity, while large follicles a low
activity (Neumann, 1963; Eickhoff, 1965; Warner,
1971; Matthiesen and Messow, 1972; Messow, et
ai, 1973). A change in cylindrical epithelial cells
from large to small nuclei indicates reduced activity
(Warner, 1971; Matthiesen and Messow, 1972;
Messow, et ai, 1973). Based on follicle size and
nuclear volume, both males and females showed
maximum glandular activity in October before the
onset of hibernation. The male thyroid activity was
lowest during hibernation, while female activity
was lowest in May following hibernation.

The parathyroid is a paired gland consisting of
two oval glandular bodies located dorsolaterally
within the thyroid gland.

The glandular structure is compact with interstitial capillaries and
sparse connective tissue elements surrounding epithelial cells in cord
or cluster patterns. Two cell types can be differentiated with hema-
toxylin-eosin staining; the water-dear cells are regarded as the site of
parathyroid hormone production; the chief cells are thought to be
inactive, depot phases of the water-clear cell (Leonhardt, 1 97 1 ).

In both males and females the peak number of
cells and nuclear volume in the water-clear com-
ponent occurred during hibernation, with the
fewest in May after reanimation.

69

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-1: Vertebral column. Left, dorsal
view. Right, lateral view. Regions: l=cervi-
cal; ll = thoracic; lll = lumbar; IV = lumbar;
V = caudal.

70

Cervical Region

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-3 (above, left): Schematic drawing of first cervical vertebra (atlas), a, cranial aspect; b, caudal aspect.
l = processus transversus; 2 = tuberculum dorsale; 3 = fovea articularis cranialis: 4=massa lateralis; 5 = arcus
caudalis; 6 = foramen alare; 7 = foramen transversarium; 8 = fovea articularis caudalis; 9 = tuberculum ventrale.

Figure 3-4 (above, right): Axis, right lateral view. 1 = processus spinosus; 2 = processus transversus; 3 = foramen
transversarium; 4 = dens.

Figure 3-5 (below): Left scapula, a, lateral view; b, caudal view. l = margo caudalis; 2 = fossa infraspinata; 3 =
spina scapulae; 4 = processus suprahamatus; 5 = processus coracoideus; 6 = angulus caudalis; 7 = margo dorsal is;
8 = fossa supraspinata; 9 = angulus cranialis; 10 = margo cranialis; 1 1 =facies articularis; 12 = acromion.

72

Cervical Region

Figure 3-6: Prominent features of head and neck regions; a, left ventral aspect; b, right lateral aspect. l = m.
masseter, pars superficialis; 2 = m. cleidocephalicus; 3 = trachea; 4 = larynx; 5 = meatus acusticus externus; 6 =
m. digastricus; 7~rr\. thyrohyoideus; 8 = ductus parotideus; 9 = parotis; 10=m. temporalis; 11 = m. masseter
medialis, pars rostralis; 12 = mandibula.

73

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-7: Sketch of larynx and first tracheal rings dennonstrating position of
these organs in respect to surrounding musculature, a - a' = bursa buccal is; e'-e" =
m. pectoralis superficialis; e' = pars clavicularis; e" = pars sternocostalis; f-f' = m.
obliquus abdominis externus; g-g' = m. masseter; h = m. digastricus; i = m. thyro-
hyoideus; k = trachea.

74

Cervical Region

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-10: Venogram of head, neck, and chest regions.
Internal, external jugular, and pulmonary veins prominently
displayed by X-ray contrast method.

76

Cervical Region

Figure 3-11: Cervical and thoracic organs of 1-year-old male European ham-
ster. Sternum, clavicle, and parts of ribs and cervical muscles removed; man-
dibular gland folded back. a = bursa buccalis; b = diaphragma; c = ventriculus
dexter; d = ventriculus sinister; e = auricula dextra; f = auricula sinistra; g =
thymus dexter; h = thymus sinister; i-l = pulmo dexter; i=:lobus cranialis; j =
lobus medius; k=lobus caudalis; l = lobus accessorius; m = pulmo sinister; n =
trachea; o = mm. sternohyoid et sternothyroid; p = gl. mandibularis; l=arcus
aortae; 2 — a. carotis communis sinistra; 3 — a. carotis communis dextra; 4 =
n. vagus sinister; 5 = n. vagus dexter; 6 = a. subclavia dextra; 7 = v. cava cau-
dalis; 8=a. subclavia sinistra; 9 = a. brachiocephalica.

77

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-12: Superficial (left side of animal) and deep
(right side of animal) lymph nodes of European hamster.
Lymph nodes of thorax and gastrointestinal tract omit-
ted. l = ln. parotideus; 2 = lnn. mandibulares rostrales;
3 = lnn. mandibulares caudales; 4=ln. retropharyngeus
lateralis; 5 = In. retropharyngeus medialis; 6 = In. cervi-
calis profundus cranialis; 7 = ln. cervicalis profundus
caudalis; 8 = ln. axillaris; 9 = ln. axillaris accessorius; 10 =
In. hepaticus; ll = lnn. hepatici accessorii; 12= Inn.
renales; 13=lnn. iliaci; 14 = ln. sacralis; 15 = ln. inguinalis
superficialis; 16 = ln. inguinalis profundus; 17 = ln. pop-
liteus.

78

Cervical Region

Lanfnx et Trachea

Figure 3-13: Diagram of trachea and larynx, including thyroid and parathyroid
glands. A, ventral view; B, dorsal vievi/; C, internal view.

Figure 3-14: Isolated trachea with larynx Figure 3-15: Isolated trachea with larynx

and bifurcation, dorsal view. Open ends of and bifurcation, ventral view, demonstrat-

C-shaped tracheal rings connected by thin, ing 14 well-defined cartilaginous rings.

transverse muscle fibers. At caudal end of

larynx, dark red thyroid glands are visible,

with small white parathyroid glands on

surface.

79

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-16 (above, left): Drawing of transverse section through larynx of female European hamster, 5 months
old. a = vestibulum laryngis; b = cavum laryngis intermedium; c = cavum laryngis caudale; d = ventnculus laryngis
lateralis; e = plica vocalis; f = cartilago arytaenoidea; g = cartilago cricoidea; h = cartilago epiglottica; i = cartilago
thyroidea; j = pharynx; k = m. cricoarytaenoideus.

(below, left): Schematic drawing of section through trachea at level of second tracheal ring in a female
European hamster, 5 months old. a = cartilage of tracheal ring; b = m. transversus tracheae; c = lamina cricoidea;
d = m. cricoarytaenoideus dorsalis; e = esophagus; f = giandula thyreoidea.

Figure 3-17 (right): Isolated trachea with larynx and bifurcation, trachea longitudinally resected. Right, ventral
aspect; left, internal surface. Cartilaginous rings clearly discernable through shiny epithelial layer of internal sur-
face of trachea.

80

Cervical Region

Figure 3-18 (above): Cartilaginous parts of larynx in male European hamster, 8
months old. Lateral view. a = cartil. epiglottica; b = cartil. thyreoidea; c = cartil.
cricoidea: d = cartil. arytaenoidea.

Figure 3-19 (below): Histology of larynx. This part covered by pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium. Note subepithelial glands, which on left interrupt
epithelial layer with an excretory duct. (H & E, XI 16).

87

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 3-20: Ventral aspect of cervical and thoracic
regions demonstrating position of trachea, larynx,
and heart.

Cervical Region

Figure 3-21: Histology of tracheal epithelium, composed of pseudostratified cili-
ated columnar type with goblet cells and a few basal cells, (l-^m-thick section; tol-
uidine blue, X223).

Figure 3-22: Histology of thyroid gland, demonstrating follicles filled with serous
secretion and surrounded by flattened epithelial cells (H & E, X57).

83

CHAPTER FOUR
THORAX

The shape of the thorax resembles that of a trun-
cated cone (Figs. 3-1, 4-1, 4-2). Its cranial apex
at the level of the thoracic inlet {apertura thoracis
cranialis) is a concave surface circumscribed dor-
sally by the seventh cervical vertebra, laterally by
the first rib pair and ventrally by the sternum at the
level of the clavicular notch {incisura clauicularis) .
The diaphragm serves as its much larger caudal
base, curving upward from the eleventh and twelfth
thoracic vertebrae. The ribs, with prominent curva-
ture, are the lateral limits.

The capacity of the thoracic cavity, which varies
with the phase of respiration, is less than that of the
bony thorax, because the lower part of the region
enclosed by the ribs is encroached upon by the
diaphragm.

4.1 BONY THORAX

The bony thoracic cage {ossa cavi thoracis) in-
cludes the sternum, ribs and vertebrae (Figs. 2-1,
4-1, 4-2), reinforced ventrally and laterally by a
thin layer of soft tissue. The cavity is separated from
the cervical region cranially by the first rib. The
boundaries are formed by the ribs (costae), the
spinal column {columna vertebralis) and the ster-
num (Figs. 2-1, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3, 4-4). The eleventh
rib, the xiphoid process {processus xiphoideus) and
a dorsal line connecting the last rib and the inter-
vertebral disc (discus intervertebralis) of the twelfth
and thirteenth thoracic vertebrae are regarded as
the caudal borders of the thoracic cavity, which is
finally enclosed by the diaphragm (Figs. 4-2, 4-3).
The length of the thorax from the midpoint of the
cranial aperture to the midpoint of the caudal aper-
ture {apertura thoracis caudalis) is 61 mm. The
external depth of the thoracic space measured from
the fifth thoracic vertebra to the sternum is 40 to 43
mm in males and 35 to 40 mm in females (Figs.
4-1, 4-4); the internal depth is 37 mm. The tho-
racic inlet has an external depth of 18 to 20 mm and
an internal depth of 8.5 to 9.5 mm in males and
females.

The sternum consists of the manubrium {manu-
brium sterni), the body {corpus sterni) and the

xiphoid process (Fig. 4-6). The sternum is subcu-
taneous and readily palpable. A chondral plate
{episternum) lies cranial to the manubrium while a
thin, longitudinally oval xiphoid cartilage {cartilago
xiphoidea), with an approximate dimension of 8 X
10 mm, lies caudal to the xiphoid process. The
xiphoid cartilage lies in the epigastric region, pro-
jects into the ventral abdominal wall and, under
extreme distension markedly protrudes, especially
in young animals, outwards. Four bony sternebrae
compose the body of the sternum (Figs. 4-2, 4-5,
4-6), the length of each decreasing caudally. From
the cartilaginous plate of the manubrium {cartilago
manubrii) to the caudal end of the cartilaginous
plate of the xiphoid process, the sternum has a
length of between 45 and 50 mm in adult males and
between 40 and 45 in adult females.

The manubrium articulates with the clavicle and
the first rib pair. The junction of the manubrium
and the sternal body is opposite the second rib. At
this point the cranial edge of the body is displaced
ventrally, lying above the caudal edge of the manu-
brium, to form a projection, or sternal angle {angu-
lus sternae). The angle marks the level of the
conventional separation of cranial and caudal
mediastina. The sternal body represents a cranio-
caudal line below which the pulmonary pleurae
nearly contact. The cranial margin of the manu-
brium is opposite the lower edge of the first thoracic
vertebra, the caudal edge of the sternal body is
opposite the fifth and the tip of the xiphoid cartilage
is opposite the seventh. The line of junction between
the sternal body and the xiphoid cartilage makes a
palpable depression, to each side of which the
cartilage of the seventh rib is felt. The tracheal
bifurcation is at the level of the third to fourth
sternebrae (Fig. 4-7).

There are thirteen rib pairs, of which nine are
sternal {costae verae) and four are asternal {costae
spuriae). The ribs are not perpendicular but present
a dorsoventral obliquity which is most pronounced
in the first two rib pairs (Figs. 2-1, 4-1, 4-2, 4-3,
4-4, 4-5). Accordingly, with a caudodorsal to cra-
nioventral curvature, the first rib ventrally corre-

85

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

spends to the fourth rib dorsally. The second rib
curves somewhat caudally in its dorsal aspect and
somewhat cranioventrally in its ventral aspect.
Therefore, the ventral part is markedly wider than
the dorsal part of the first intercostal space (spati-
um intercostale), which is the broadest of the 12
spaces. The remaining ribs run caudoventrally from
their dorsal origin to the manubrium and bend
somewhat cranial in the cartilaginous parts ven-
trally (Figs. 4-3, 4-4). The second to sixth ribs end
at the cartilaginous discs between the sternebrae.
The seventh rib pair does not reach the sternum but
fuses with the cartilaginous ends of the sixth rib
pair (Fig. 4-1). The twelfth and thirteenth ribs are
floating (Figs. 4-1, 4-3).

The thoracic vertebrae form a kyphosis, whose
vertex lies between the thirteenth thoracic and first
lumbar vertebrae and which is continued into the
lumbar and sacral parts of the vertebral column
(Figs. 3-1,4-1). The length of the thoracic column
is 63.3 mm, nearly three times that of the cervical
column (Fig. 3-1). The axial thoracic skeleton con-
sists of thirteen vertebrae (vertebrae thoracicae)
whose length and breadth increase caudally (Figs.
4-1, 4-2). The second thoracic vertebra has the
tallest spine {processus spmosus), 9.5 mm high
(Fig. 4-8). The spinal processes of the first nine
thoracic vertebrae are caudally oriented, each over-
hanging the body of the next vertebra, while the
remaining four lie in a cranial or perpendicular
direction and do not overhang adjacent vertebrae
(Fig. 3-1). The first vertebral bodies are dorso-
ventrally compressed (Fig. 3-1). With increasing
vertebral number, the transverse section becomes
more semi-circular.

Up to the ninth or tenth vertebra, the surface of
each articular process (processus articularis) lie
almost horizontally permitting lateral as well as
dorsoventral movement.

4.2 THORACIC MUSCULATURE

The pectoralis muscle (m. pectoralis), which
connects the sternal region with the humerus and
forms a triangular surface between the clavicles,
xiphoid process and humerus (Fig. 3-7), is divided
into a superficial pectoral (m. pectoralis superfi-
cialis) and a deep pectoral (m. pectoralis profun-
dus). There is a cranial descending part (pars

descendens) and a caudal transverse part (pars
transversus) of the superficial pectoral (Figs. 3-12),
The deep pectoral is overlapped by the superficial
pectoral. Since the caudal part of the latter is very
thin, it is difficult to separate the two muscles at this
point. The intercostal muscles, which span the in-
tercostal spaces, are subdivided into internal and
external divisions. The external intercostals (mm.
intercostales extemi), which regulate inspiration,
originate on the caudal margin of the cranial rib of
each intercostal space and run caudoventrally to the
cranial margin of the caudal rib. The internal inter-
costals (mm. intercostales interni), which regulate
expiration, originate on the cranial edge of the cau-
dal rib of the intercostal space and run cranioven-
trally to the caudal margin of the cranial rib. The
mm. levatores costarum represent a vertebral rein-
forcement of the external intercostals, from which
they can not be completely separated. The levators
originate on the transverse processes of the first to
twelfth thoracic vertebrae and run caudoventrally
to the angle (angulus costae) of each succeeding
caudal rib, where they insert on the cranial margins.

4.3 THE DIAPHRAGM

The diaphragm (Figs. 4-9, 4-10, 4-11), which
curves from the twelfth rib to the xiphoid process
(Fig. 4-3), has a horseshoe-shaped central tendon
(centrum tendineum) and a periphery consisting of
strong muscle fibers (pars muscularis), grouped
into three parts: sternal, costal and lumbar. The
muscle fibers of sternal origin are affixed to the
ventral side of the second lumbar vertebra cranial
to the curvature of the last costal pair and ventral to
the dorsal surface of the xiphoid process. The lum-
bar muscle fibers are composed of the left and right
lumbocostal arches (arcua lumboco stales), which
originate at the third lumbar vertebra (vertebra
lumbalis). The crura are not sharply differentiated,
as in larger mammals. The esophageal aperture
(hiatus oesophageus), which lies at the level of the
eighth or ninth rib, is located in the muscular part
of the diaphragm dorsal to the crural bifurcation of
the central tendon. Dorsal to the esophageal hiatus
and close to the vertebral column is the aponeurotic
opening for the descending aorta (hiatus aorticus),
found in the muscular part between the left and

86

Thorax

right fibers of the central tendon at the level of the
last thoracic vertebra. The aperture of the vena cava
{foramen venae cavae) is ventrolateral to the esoph-
ageal hiatus and rests on the right side of the central
tendon (Figs. 4-10. 4-11). During expiration the
diaphragmatic dome projects forward to the fourth
or fifth rib.

4.4 THORACIC CAVITY

4.4.1 Pleura and Pleural Sinuses

Unlike the abdomen, which contains a single sac,
the chest cavity {cavum thoracis) presents three
completely separate serous sacs, the two pleurae
{cavum pleurae smistrum, cavum pleurae dextrum)
and the pericardium {cavum pencardiacum). The
pleurae are two serous membranes forming inde-
pendently closed cavities and into each of which the
respective lung is invaginated. Appended to, and
patent with, the right pleural cavity is the inter-
mediate pleural sac {cavum pleurae intermedium)
which invests the accessorv and intermediate acces-
sory lobes of the right lung. The right cavity is thus
larger than the left. There are two layers of pleura:
the parietal {pleura parietalis), adherent to the
thoracic wall and diaphragm and reflected over the
structures in the middle of the thorax, and the vis-
ceral layer {pleura pulmonalis) applied over the
surface of the invaginating lung. The layers, which
are normally continuous with each other around
the root of the lung, allow excursion of the lungs
over the thoracic wall with a minimum of friction.
Between the two layers is the pleural cavity, nor-
mally a potential space with a minute amount of
serous fluid and constituting a true cavity onlv in
pathology. The very thin visceral pleura is bound to
the lung surface and dips into the interlobar fissures
{Jissurae interlobares). Continuous with the pleura
over the mediastinum, or space between the two
pleural sacs, at the root of the lung, the visceral
pleura cannot be detached without laceration of
lung tissue. The disposition of the pleurae resem-
bles that of domesticated mammals (Nickel, et al,
1960).

The four divisions of the parietal pleura are
named according to their position in the thorax and
the structures invested by each are named after their
division.

The costal pleura {pleura cos talis) contacts the
ribs, costal cartilages, intercostal musculature and
endothoracic fascia. It separates easily from the
chest wall due to its loose attachment to the endo-
thoracic fascia. It normally continues ventrally into
the mediastinal pleura and forms with it a vertical
sinus, or recess, along the costomediastinal line of
pleural reflection.

The diaphragmatic pleura {pleura diaphrag-
matica) contacts the superior, or convex, surface of
the diaphragm and invests the caudal margin of the
two pleural sacs. The phrenic nerves follow the
pleural extensions over the diaphragm. Adhering
tightly to diaphragmatic muscle, the pleura covers
the area not touched by the diaphragmatic pericar-
dium. It does not extend to the line of attachment of
the diaphragm to the chest wall, but is separated
from it by fatty areolar connective tissue.

The mediastinal pleura {pleura mediastinalis)
covers the lateral wall of the mediastinum and is
only in loose contact with the structures against
which it rests. It consists of a double fold that sepa-
rates to pass around each side of the pericardial
space, joining again dorsally to enclose the peri-
cardium. In the cranial part of the mediastinum it
extends without interruption from the sternum to
spine; in the caudal part it reflects from the peri-
cardium over the root of the lung and becomes con-
tinuous with the costal pleura.

The cervical pleura {pleura cervicalis), or cupula
pleurae, is bounded medially by the trachea and
attaches dorsally to the ventral border of the trans-
verse process of the seventh cervical vertebra. It is
covered by the scalene muscles and its surface topog-
raphv is indicated by a craniallv convex curve
drawn from the center of the sternoclavicular joint
to the junction of the sternal and middle thirds of
the clavicle. The apices of the lung fill the domes
completely during normal inspiration. The dorsal
and middle scalene fibers lie on the lateral surface
of the pleura before attaching to the upper surface
of the first rib. The subclavian artery {arteria sub-
clavia) lies in a groove on the medial and dorsal
aspect of the pleural dome. The internal thoracic
vessels, the beginning of vertebral and intercostal
arterialization, the inferior ganglion of the cervical
chain and the lower trunk of the brachial plexus
also rest on the cervical pleura.

87

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

The intermediate pleural cavity, which freely
opens with the right pleural cavity, is bordered
cranially by the wall of the pericardium, latero-
ventrally and on the right by the plica venae cavae,
on the left by the dorsal mediastinum, ventrally by
the sternum and caudally by the diaphragm. The
accessory lobe of the right lung, which the inter-
mediate pleural sac invests, lies in a recess {recessus
mediastini sive cavum pleurae intermedium) be-
tween the dorsal mediastinum and the pleural fold
{plica venae cavae) surrounding the vena cava at
this site. Because of the large size of the accessory
lobe, the ventral part of the dorsal mediastinum is
displaced to the left and the capacity of the left pleu-
ral sac is correspondingly reduced.

The pericardial sac lies between the two pulmo-
nary pleurae and is fixed to the sternum by two
sternopericardial ligaments {ligamenta sternoperi-
cardiaca). The pericardium extends between the
second and seventh thoracic vertebrae.

The pleura are completely in contact with the
lungs only when the lungs are fully distended. In
ordinary diaphragmatic breathing, when the lungs
are not fully inflated, the ventral and caudal mar-
gins of the lung do not extend as far as the medial
and caudal limits, respectively, of the pleural reflec-
tion. Since the costal pleura is also loosely attached
to the endothoracic fascia and separates easily from
the chest wall, it collapses on the mediastinal pleura
forming a thin bursa-like slit, or costomediastinal
sinus {recessus costomediastinalis). Further, the
costal pleura, which is not approximated caudally
by the inferior border of the lung, dips into the
groove between the costal wall and diaphragm
forming another slit-like narrowing, the costodia-
phragmatic sinus {recessus costodiaphragmaticus).
These two recesses are called reserve sinuses.

The collapse of the edges of the two pleural folds
along the lines of reflection prevents the formation
of a cavity under physiological conditions. Just as
the pleural space becomes a true cavity only in
pathology, so the reserve sinuses become visible
only under abnormal conditions. The reserve sin-
uses are sensitive to effusions or adhesions, and
conversion of the slits to true cavities can serve as
yseful indices for regional tumors. For example, the
presence of noninflammatory transudates in hydro-
thorax, which will dilate the reserve sinuses, is often

symptomatic of fluid accumulation from pulmonary
compression. Moreover, the reserve sinuses are also
useful in exploratory intervention. The costomedi-
astinal sinus will allow transthoracic exploration of
the mediastinal contents without opening the
pleura. Further, the fatty areolar interval between
the costal attachments to the diaphragm and the
pleural reflection permits an extra-pleural approach
to the diaphragm and subdiaphragmatic space.

4.4.2 THE MEDIASTINUM

The mediastinum, or central part of the thoracic
cavity, is the space between the lungs bounded by
the dorsal aspect of the sternum, the ventral surface
of the vertebral column, the two pulmonary spaces
and the diaphragm. Its dorsoventral depth at the
level of the fifth thoracic vertebra is approximately
40 mm (Fig. 4-1). It includes all of the thoracic
viscera, except the lungs and pleurae, embedded
in a thickened extension of the thoracic subserous
fascia. The mediastinum can be artificially divided
into a ventral and dorsal part by a frontal plane
passing ventral to the trachea and its bifurcation
and the dorsal surface of the heart. It is effectively
insulated from the abdominal cavity except at the
three following points: the aortic opening dorsally,
the esophageal hiatus, and ventrally the narrow
space between the sternal and costal attachments
of the diaphragm filled with loose connective
tissue.

4.4.2.1 The Ventral Mediastinum

The cranial part of the ventral mediastinum is
bounded by the craniothoracic inlet, the cranial
edge of the pericardium, the manubrium, the frontal
plane passing ventral to the tracheal bifurcation
and, laterally, the mediastinal pleura of the two
lungs. It contains the aortic arch (at the level of the
first rib pair), the brachiocephalic trunk with its
right common carotid and right subclavian
branches, the thoracic parts of the left common
carotid and left subclavian arteries, the cranial half
of the two cranial venae cavae (all of which are
extrapericardial), the thymus gland, scattered
lymph nodes and, between the venous and arterial
layers, the vagus and phrenic nerves.

The caudal part of the ventral mediastinum in-

88

Thorax

eludes the heart, pericardium, ascending aorta,
caudal half of the cranial vena cava (with the azygos
vein opening), the pulmonary arteries (all of which
are intrapericardial), the right and left pulmonary
veins and the phrenic nerves.

4.4.2.1.1 Heart

The heart {cor) (Figs. 3-11 , 4-7, 4-12 to 4-19)
is a hollow muscular organ with the form of a trun-
cated cone and lies in the caudal part of the ventral
mediastinum between the second and fifth rib pairs
(Fig. 3-10). It is enclosed within a fibroserous sac,
the pericardium, which consists of a visceral and
parietal portion {lamina visceralis et parietalis).
The pericardium is formed from collagenous fib-
rous tissue.

The base of the heart {basis cordis) is situated
predominately in the right half of the thorax, while
the apex {apex cordis) is oriented caudally and to
the left (Figs. 3-10, 3-11). The horizontal position
of the heart is maintained by the phrenicopericar-
dial ligament {ligamentum phrenicopericardiacum) ,
which is composed of two small sagittal ligaments
(Kittel, 1953) drawn from the apex of the peri-
cardium to the diaphragm. During expiration of the
lungs, the heart is covered dorsolaterally only by the
pulmonary lobes. It does not contact the diaphragm.
The tracheal bifurcation is craniodorsal to the heart
and the vertebral column; caudodorsal to the heart
are the esophagus, aorta {aorta thoracica) and vagus
nerves {nn. vagi). The pericardial surface also is
applied to the visceral pleura of the right accessory
lobe. Cranially, the pericardium reaches to the
height of the second intercostal space where it
curves and lies adjacent to the thoracic artery. The
surfaces of the heart are named according to their
relation to adjacent organs. The sternocostal surface
{facies sternocostalis) is formed by a large part of
the cranial wall of the right ventricle and by the
medial part of the right atrium. The vertebral side
of the heart is primarily formed by the dorsal wall
of the left atrium and the smaller cranial portion of
the wall of the left ventricle. The greatest portion of
the cardiac surface is made by the right and left pul-
monary surfaces (jacies pulmonales dextra et sinis-
tra). The former is represented by the dorsal wall of
the right ventricle and the largest part of the right

atrium with its auricle; the latter is formed by the
main part of the left ventricular wall and the dorsal
wall of the left atrium with its auricle. The sterno-
costal surface is flattened while the rest of the car-
diac surface is rounded; in this way, a dull edge is
formed on the dorsal side of the heart.

The right atrium {atrium dextrum) lies in the
second intercostal space and is bordered laterally by
the right lung. It is bent ventrally before the origin
of the ascending aorta. The dorsal wall of the right
atrium extends caudally to the level of the fourth
thoracic vertebra. The right ventricle {ventriculus
dexter) lies in the second and third intercostal space
and borders the right medial and right diaphrag-
matic lobes (Figs. 3-10, 3-11) of the lung. The left
atrium {atrium sinistrum), lying at the level of the
fourth thoracic vertebra, assumes the space dorsal
to the fourth costal cartilage and lies adjacent to the
left pulmonary lobe. The left ventricle {ventriculus
sinister) is in the fourth intercostal space and pro-
jects cranially and caudally (Fig. 4-7, 4-18). It is
bordered by the left and right accessory lobes. The
heart measures approximately 19 mm from base to
apex. Its width is about 1 1 mm and 10 mm and its
weight approximately 1.46 g and 1.30 g for males
and females, respectively (Tables 2, 5).

The heart is divided into four major chambers,
the left and right atria and left and right ventricles.
Externally, the atria are separated from one another
by a very indefinite, vertical, interatrial sulcus; and
the coronary sulcus {sulcus coronarius) separating
the atria from the ventricles is also quite obscure
(Fig. 4-15). Within these grooves lie the trunks of
the coronary vessels. The shallow longitudinal
grooves do not coincide with the ventricular boun-
daries (Fig. 4-15). Even though a right descending
longitudinal groove {sulcus interventricularis) of
the right ventricular wall is present in most cases, a
left descending longitudinal sulcus is rarely recog-
nizable; rather, in the area of the latter longitudinal
groove, an oblique vascular sulcus is usually formed
which runs caudodorsally (Fig. 4-15). In the area
of the interatrial, interventricular and coronary
grooves, very little or no adipose tissue is visible.
The paths of the coronary vessels vary greatly from
animal to animal.

Externally, the atria are recognizable only by the
triangular auricles {auriculae) (Fig. 4-14), of which

89

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

the right is usually larger than the left. The thin-
walled right ventricle (Fig. 4-14), in contrast to the
thick-walled left ventricle, does not extend to the
apex of the heart. Internally, the left atrium is sepa-
rated from the left ventricle by a bicuspid valve
{valva bicuspidalis), of which the papillary muscles
(mm. papillares) are a very prominent part (Fig.
4-16). The right atrioventricular valve is a tricuspid
valve {valva tricuspidalis), the cusps of which are
named angular (cuspis angular.is), parietal (cuspis
parietalis) and septal (cuspis septalis). The angular
and parietal cusps normally fuse in adults to form
one large cusp. The third cusp is smaller and as-
sumes a caudodorsal attachment to a fibrous ring
(annulus fibrosus). All three papillary muscles
originate from the ventricular septum. The aortic
(valva aortae) and pulmonary (valva truncae pul-
monis) valves exist in the form of three crescentic
semilunar valves (valvulae semilunares) (Fig.
4-16).

The heart consists of 3 layers: epicardium, mvocardium and endo-
cardium. The epicardium is the outer covering of the heart and the
great vessels of the heart; it is the serous visceral layer of pericardium
intimately applied to the heart. The myocardium constitutes the mus-
cular body of the heart, with fibers Vk-hich are transversely and longi-
tudinally situated and are intricately interlaced. They can be subdi-
vided into atrial fibers, ventricular fibers and fibers of the conduction
system. The endocardium is a thin smooth glistening membrane which
is composed of endothelial cells placed upon a stratum of connective
tissue and elastic fibers.

4.4.2.1.2 The Great Vessels

The ascending aorta (aorta ascendens) has its
origin from the left ventricle on the dorsal side of
the heart at the level of the second thoracic verte-
bra. It is oriented slightly to the left, ascending
cranially and dorsally along the cranial vena cava —
to which it is not fully applied, since parts of
thymus tissue intervene between the two vessels —
and finally crosses over the pulmonary artery at the
level of the third thoracic vertebra.

At the sternal end of the second costochondral
joint the brachiocephalic trunk (truncus brachio-
cephalicus) arises at the initial curvature of the
aortic arch (arcus aortae), or 7 mm distal to the
origin of the aorta (Figs. 3-11,4-17, 4-18). There-
after the aorta continues cranially along the cranial
part of the ventral mediastinum where it changes
direction caudally at the level of the first rib pair to
complete the arch, which curves from a right ventral

to a left dorsal direction. The left pulmonary hilus
is caudal to the site where the aortic arch disappears
dorsal to the left lobe of the lung.

The length of the brachiocephalic trunk in the
cranial part of the ventral mediastinum is about
4 mm; it represents the largest branch from the
arch (Figs. 3-11, 4-18). Initially it runs cranially
along the right side of the trachea and then dorsally
and to the right of the right internal jugular vein
before dividing into the right subclavian and right
common carotid arteries. The right common carotid
(a. carotis communis dextra) runs cranially while
the right subclavian (a. subclavia dextra) diverges
to the right brachium. The left common carotid, the
second and smallest branch from the arch, origi-
nates at the level of the second thoracic vertebra
ventral to the left wall of the trachea and runs
cranially in close proximity to the tracheal wall
(Figs. 3-11,4-17,4-18, 4-19). A third branch, the
left subclavian artery, arises 2 mm distal to the left
common carotid and continues from the aortic arch
in a cranial direction dorsal to the left internal
jugular vein until it turns into the upper brachium
dorsal to the clavicle (Fig. 4-19). The left internal
thoracic artery (a. thoracica interna) is given off
from the subclavian artery 1 mm distal to its origin;
it runs caudoventrally close to the lateral borders
of the sternum and just dorsal to the costal carti-
lages, between the intercostal spaces.

After the caudal turn at the level of the third
thoracic vertebra, the aortic arch continues as the
descending aorta (aorta descendens) down the
dorsal mediastinum ventrally and laterally along
the thoracic column to the aortic hiatus of the
diaphragm.

The pulmonary artery (a. pulmonalis) (Fig. 4-
17) is the most dorsal of the great vessels leaving
the heart in the caudal ventral mediastinum. It orig-
inates from the right ventricle ventral to the proxi-
mal aorta and dorsal to the right auricle, whose
medial edge covers it, then extends to the left be-
tween the ascending aorta and the left auricle in
alignment with the hilus of the lungs where it meets
and partially winds around the bronchus, continu-
ing along the medial wall of the aorta before doub-
ling back dorsally. About 7 mm from its origin, at
the level of the fourth thoracic vertebra and ventral
to the tracheal bifurcation, it divides into a right and

90

Thorax

left branch. The left branch enters the root of the
left lung close to the tracheal bifurcation, where it
runs between and cranial to the left main bronchus
and the bronchial artery. It continues on the dorsal
surface of the bronchus, finally ramifying into three
parts within the left lobe of the lung. The right
branch of the pulmonary artery extends between
the trachea and the right main bronchus, where it
gives off one branch to the right cranial lobe. Dis-
tally the right pulmonary artery gives off a second
branch to the right middle lobe and then a third
branch to the right caudal lobe. Accordingly, a
fourth and fifth is given off to the right accessory
and intermediate accessory lobes, respectively.

The pulmonary veins {vv. pulmonales), two from
each lung, arise from pulmonary capillaries that
coalesce into increasingly larger branches running
through the parenchyma of the lung, finally form-
ing a single venous trunk (vena pulmonalis). Their
network is generally independent of the pulmonary
bronchi and arteries. The pulmonary veins are the
only veins which carry oxygenated blood. The left
pulmonary vein accompanying the left bronchus,
which lies dorsal to the left auricle, runs trans-
versely and cuts ventral to the esophagus, collecting
the branches originating from the right accessory
and intermediate accessory lobes; it takes up a right
branch from the right accessory lobe during the
terminal fourth of its length, continuing obliquely
and cranially to the left and lying ventral to the
entry of the bronchus into the lung. The course of
the right venous branches conforms roughly to that
described for the right pulmonary arteries, both
vessel layers lying in the caudal part of the ventral
mediastinum. The left and right pulmonary veins
join before emptying into the left auricle of the heart
immediately after crossing the cranial vena cava
(Fig. 4-17).

The European hamster has two cranial venae
cavae {venae cavae craniales), one caudal vena cava
{vena cava caudalis) and one azygos vein {vena
azygos sinistra).

At the level of the eleventh thoracic vertebra the
caudal vena cava is admitted to the thorax from the
abdominal cavity via the aperature of the vena cava
in the diaphragm. At the level of the third thoracic
vertebra, the caudal vena cava bends ventromedi-
ally and is applied to the side of the esophagus.

emptying into the right auricle along with the
cranial vena cava.

The right cranial vena cava arises from the
internal jugular vein and a venous trunk composed
of the right subclavian vein, which runs along the
superficial pectoral muscle, and the external jugular
veins, which run caudally just below the cervical
superficial fascia before crossing the clavicle ven-
trally. It enters the thoracic cavity at the caudal
border of the clavicle, dorsal to the insertion of the
sternomastoid muscle (m. sternomastoideus) on the
manubrium, and runs a short distance along the
right side of the trachea in the dorsal mediastinum,
crossing the right subclavian artery (immediately
distal to the origin of the brachiocephalic trunk)
into the cranial part of the ventral mediastinum and
finally emptying into the dorsal wall of the right
auricle. The left cranial vena cava is similarly posi-
tioned on the left side, originating from the left
subclavian junction ventral to the clavicle and the
left internal jugular vein. The left external jugu-
lar— left subclavian trunk anastomoses distally
with branches of the right internal jugular vein,
which crosses the left subclavian artery 2 mm before
emptying into the left cranial vena cava. The left
cranial vena cava then crosses the left subclavian
artery, passes ventral to the left branch of the pul-
monary artery and the left bronchus and empties
into the dorsal wall of the right atrium near the left
side of the caudal vena cava. At the level of the third
rib, the left cranial vena cava takes up the azygos
vein {v. azygos) which runs cranially along the
vertebral column, taking up the intercostal veins.

4.4.2.1.3 Thymus and Lymphatic
Tissue

The thymus, part of the lymphatic system, lies
intrathoracically at the ventrolateral surface of the
auricles of the heart (Fig. 4-20). This two-lobed
organ is about 8 mm long and each lobe has a width
of about 2 mm. The thymus is proportionally much
larger in young than in adult animals. The entire
organ is invested by a fibrous capsule from which
originate several septae which subdivide the two
lobes into various, irregular lobules.

Histologically, epithelial reticular cells, lymphocytes and corpuscles
of Hassall can be distinguished.

91

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

To date, only benign tumors have been induced,
with some spontaneous tumors observed in this
organ.

The tracheobronchial lymph nodes {Inn. trache-
obronchiales) consist of eight to ten nodes, of which
the smaller are found in the ventral mediastinum.
There are three right ventral bronchial lymph
nodes located lateral to the thymus gland on the
right side of the trachea. They drain the heart,
esophagus and trachea and empty into the right
lymphatic duct {ductus lymphaticus dexter), which
empties into the right jugular vein. There are also
three left ventral bronchial lymph nodes lateral to
the trachea and directly ventral to the bifurcation.
They drain the left lungs and empty into the thor-
acic trunk {truncus thoracicus) which opens into the
left brachiocephalic vein (Fig. 4-24).

4.4.2.1.4 Nerves

The right vagus nerve {n. vagus dexter) (Figs.
3-11, 4-17) enters the thoracic cavity to the right of
the right common carotid artery. There it veers
dorsally and extends along the right side of the
esophagus throughout the thoracic cavity. The left
vagus nerve {n. vagus sinister) (Figs. 3-11, 4-17)
runs dorsally along the left common carotid, dorsal
to the left external jugular vein and left cranial vena
cava, and crosses between the left common carotid
and the left subclavian arteries, ventral to the aortic
arch, running in the serosa ventral to the root of the
left lung. Here it gives rise to a branch, the left re-
current laryngeal nerve {n. laryngeus recurrens
sinister), which wraps around the aortic arch and
runs cranially up the left side of the trachea to the
laryngeal muscles. The right recurrent nerve (n.
laryngeus recurrens dexter) originates from the
right vagus nerve at the level of the base of the
heart. It wraps around the truncus costocervicalis
and runs cranially up the right side of the trachea to
the laryngeal muscles. Caudal to the aortic arch, the
left vagus turns toward the surface of the left cranial
vena cava, where it is found just dorsal to the tho-
racic aorta. It then runs along the left side of the
esophagus, which it accompanies into the abdomi-
nal cavity. In addition to the vagus nerves, the
thoracic cavity also houses the paired phrenic
nerves (nn. phrenici) originating from the brachial
plexus. The right phrenic nerve enters the thoracic

cavity dorsal to the right subclavian vein and pro-
ceeds dorsally along the right cranial vena cava to
the right auricle of the heart, continuing left of the
caudal vena cava to the central diaphragmatic ten-
don. The left phrenic nerve runs along the left side
of the cranial vena cava and lies dorsal to the left
ventricle of the heart and ventral to the esophagus.
It runs with the esophagus to the diaphragm where
it divides into several smaller branches. The brach-
ial plexus {plexus brachialis) is composed of the
large ventral branches of the fifth to eighth cervical
and first thoracic nerves. Only by very careful prep-
aration can two additional fine ventral branches be
recognized under magnification. These come from
either the fourth cervical or second thoracic nerves.
The nerves from the brachial plexus wrap around
the first rib and approach the shoulder ventral to
the middle scalene muscle.

4.4.2.2 The Dorsal Mediastinum

The dorsal mediastinum lies behind the frontal
plane passing in front of the tracheal bifurcation
and the dorsal surface of the pericardium, running
parallel with the vertebral column. It is an irregur
larly shaped space extending caudally beyond the
pericardium, due to the slope of the diaphragm. The
pericardium is its ventral border and the vertebral
column from the second to the eleventh thoracic
vertebrae is the dorsal boundary. The mediastinal
pleurae are the lateral limits and the diaphragm is
the caudal boundary. Meshed in abundant alveolar
tissue, its structures include the thoracic part of the
descending aorta, the azygos vein, the vagus and
phrenic nerves, the tracheal bifurcation with the
two main bronchi and lung roots, the esophagus,
thoracic duct and clusters of large lymph nodes.

4.4.2.2.1 Lymphatic Tissue

The dorsal mediastinum includes the largest of
the tracheobronchial lymph nodes. The two right
dorsal bronchial nodes are found adjacent to the
laterocranial wall of the right main bronchus at the
level of the tracheal bifurcation. These nodes drain
the right lung and heart and empty into the right
lymphatic duct. The left dorsal bronchial lymph
node is located at the level of the tracheal bifurcation
and adjacent to the aortic arch. It drains the left

92

Thorax

thoracic wall and empties into the thoracic trunk
(Fig. 4-24).

4.4.2.2.2 The Esophagus

The esophagus is a tube-like organ connecting
the pharynx with the forestomach (Fig. 4-21). The
cranial thoracic esophagus lies in the medial line.
Dorsal to the left ventricle it is displaced to the left
of the trachea and accompanies the aorta. It then
turns somewhat ventrally and runs in relation to
the venous branch from the intermediate accessory
lobe, continuing in the dorsal mediastinum toward
the esophageal hiatus {hiatus oesophageus) of the
diaphragm. The thoracic esophagus is approxi-
mately 25 to 30 mm long (Figs. 4-21 , 4-22).

Lined with a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, the entire
musculature of the esophagus is striated (Fig. 4-23).

The right and left vagus nerves descend through
the dorsal mediastinum on the right and left sides,
respectively, of the esophagus. The left phrenic
nerve runs caudally on the ventral surface of the
esophagus where it branches at the diaphragm.
Paired sympathetic nerves (trunci sympathici) de-
scend through the mediastinum to the right and left
of the vertebral column.

4.5 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

4.5.1 Trachea and Extrapulmonary
Bronchi

The trachea, occupying the median sagittal plane
of the chest ventral to the esophagus in the cranial
part of the dorsal mediastinum, runs for about
10 mm (Tables 1, 5) from the cranial margin of the
sternum to the level of the fourth or fifth rib where
it divides into a smaller left and larger right main
bronchus {bronchi principales) (Figs. 3-13, 3-14,
3-15, 4-7, 4-17, 4-21). It is covered by the manu-
brium, parts of the thymus, the brachiocephalic
vein, the aortic arch, and the left subclavian and
common carotid arteries. Dorsally, the trachea is in
contact with, and remains ventral to, the esophagus,
which runs above the trachea cranially but which
now bends slightly to the left in the thorax. The
right common carotid artery and brachiocephalic
trunk lie to the right, and the left common carotid
to the left, of the trachea, which crosses dorsal to the

aortic arch. Parts of the thymus gland separate the
vessels layer from the trachea.

The caliber and structure of the thoracic trachea
resemble those of the cervical part. The bifurcation
of the trachea {bifurcatio tracheae) is at the level of
the fourth thoracic vertebra where it divides into the
two main bronchi {bronchi principales) (Fig. 4-7).
The main bronchi are strengthened by C-shaped
cartilages which run obliquely downward. At the
margins of the main bronchi, a sagittal spur {ca-
rina), 3-4 mm in length, runs upward into the
lumen. The right bronchus continues closely in the
original tracheal direction, but the left diverges
more laterally. The bifurcation is displaced to the
right by the aorta, and the left lung root is displaced
to the left by the heart. The right main bronchus,
about 9 mm in length, is about 1 mm longer than
the left and has 6 or 7 cartilaginous rings while the
left main bronchus consists of 5 or 6 cartilaginous
rings. The left and right branches of the pulmonary
artery run alongside their respective dorsal bron-
chial surfaces.

The left main bronchus, which does not divide
into lobar bronchi (Eckel, et al, 1974a), runs cau-
dolaterally from the trachea at an angle of 15° from
the right main bronchus and then continues to the
base of the left lobe {lobus sinister). Within the left
lobe parenchyma the main bronchus gives rise to
eight or ten segmental bronchi, from which several
subsegmental bronchi and the terminal (lobular)
bronchioles {bronchi terminales) originate (Fig.
4-7).

Before entering the right lung, the right main
bronchus gives rise to four branches, the lobar
bronchi, supplying five lobes of the right lung
(Eckel, et al, 1974a). The first lobar bronchus
runs dorsally to the right and ventilates the cranial
lobe {lobus cranialis). Extending to the right, the
second ventilates the middle lobe {lobus medius).
Only the third lobar bronchus, which supplies the
accessory lobe {lobus accessorius) and the interme-
diate accessory lobe {lobus intermedius accessorius),
branches to the left side of the lung. The fourth
lobar bronchus extends caudally, supplies the dia-
phragmatic lobe {lobus caudalis) and is the immedi-
ate continuation of the main bronchus (Fig. 4-24).

Although a single cartilaginous ring is occasion-
ally found on a lobar bronchus in the lung paren-

93

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

chyma, the rings lose their cartilaginous support
when the main bronchi divide into the lobar bronchi
{bronchi lobares) (Fig. 4-25) before entering the
right lung.

The interior of the bronchi is lined with pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium (Figs. 4-26, 4-27^4-28, 4-29, 4-30).

4.5.2 The Intrapulmonary System

The lung is structurally the sum of all bronchial
branchings. All of the lobar bronchi divide into
several smaller intrapulmonary segmental bronchi
{bronchi segmentales) which ultimately aerate a
circumscribed conical region, the "bronchopul-
monary segment," of the lungs (Fig. 4-25). A bron-
chopulmonary segment is theoretically a subsection
of the lung to which any particular segmental
bronchus is distributed, including even the second-
ary lobule and the terminal (lobular) bronchiole
which aerates it. Practically, however, the broncho-
pulmonary segment is defined as that part of the
lung supplied by direct branches of the lobar bron-
chi, or segmental bronchi in the case of the left
hamster lung. These bronchopulmonary segments
are as discrete as the lobes and can be teased apart
by following the connective tissue planes. The fact
that most of the extra fissures in the lung follow
planes of separation between segments tends to con-
firm their morphogenetic and morphometric reality.

The intrapulmonary bronchi become increasing-
ly smaller by continuous division and subdivision
of the bronchial tubes in the lung parenchyma,
from the segmental level down to the terminal, or
lobular, bronchioles. This transition is mainly
characterized by diminishing luminal diameter
rather than qualitative change in structure.

Throughout this interval of division each bronchiole presents a
mucous layer lined by cuboidal epithelium with a few ciliated and
many non-ciliated (Clara) cells, on a basement membrane surrounded
by a smooth layer invested by fibrous tissue, with more or less regular
mucous acini.

The middle layer of smooth muscle remains more
or less continuous with the segmental bronchi and
subsegmental bronchioles.

Each terminal, or lobular, bronchiole ventilates
a secondary lobule, which is an aggregate of pri-
mary lobules and is separated from neighboring
secondary lobules by varying amounts of areolar
and fibrous tissue. Secondary lobules are the basic
structural units of the lung parenchyma. Terminal

bronchioles divide within the secondary lobule into
respiratory bronchioles, each of which aerates a
primary lobule or basic functional unit of the lung.
The respiratory bronchiole divides into several
alveolar ducts, each of which contains increasingly
large numbers of alveoli, or clusters of alveolar (air)
cells, as the duct approaches its terminus in an
evaginated blind cavity of alveolar cells, or atria.
From each atrium arises a variable number of ex-
panded alveolar sacs, whose walls are lined by
alveolar cells. The ramification of the bronchial
tree coincides with the findings of Ehard (1973) in
the Syrian golden hamster.

The alveoli, or luminal evaginations of the respiratory bronchiole,
alveolar duct and atrium are lined by a continuous layer of epithelial
cells; the nuclei of these cells extend into the air space and the cyto-
plasm is extended into thin sheets along a basement membrane. The
alveolar wall also includes capillary endothelium, with its basement
membrane, but the alveolar and capillary layers are not adherent and
can be distinguished by varying depths of connective tissue elements.
The blood-air barrier, therefore, is at least two cell layers thick. The
alveolar epithelium is of the two following types: Type I is a littoral
cell with thin cytoplasmic extensions along the alveolar lumina lying
back-to-back with cytoplasmic extensions of capillary endothelium; the
Type II ("niche" or "septal") cell has a larger, rounder cell body,
larger nucleus, more cytoplasmic inclusions and is usually found in the
interstices of the capillary networks, often at the termini of Type I
extensions.

The right and left pulmonary arteries arising
from the pulmonary trunk divide into branches
which accompany the bronchi, relating especially
to their dorsal surface. The main intrasegmental
branches, which are usually single, follow the seg-
mental bronchi. Unlike segment aeration, however,
segment vascularization is likely to overlap, with
each artery to one segment supplying branches to
another. The arterial network is continuous with
the capillary plexus forming part of the epithelial
barrier in the alveolar system. The capillary plexus
is also continuous with the venule anastomosis
carrying aerated blood from the lung, but subse-
quent venous arborization is independent of the
arterial layer.

The bronchial arteries, which arise from the
aorta (or intercostal arteries) and which vascularize
the lung parenchyma, often form capillary plexuses
which link with those from the pulmonary artery,
forming small venous trunks that are one source of
the pulmonary vein. Most of the blood supplied by
the bronchial arteries is believed to return via the
pulmonary, and not by the bronchial veins, which
arise in, and drain, the hilar area only before empty-

94

Thorax

ing in the azvgos or intercostal system.

The nonparenchymatous part of the lung is
composed of an external serous membrane, the
visceral pleura, under which there is an areolar
layer of mainly elastic fibers investing the whole
lung surface and extending into the parenchyma to
invest the secondary lobules.

4.5.3 Lungs and Pulmonary
Topography

Each lung (pulmo) is roughly a half-cone with its
base resting on the diaphragm and its apex occupy-
ing the cervical dome of the pleura and reaching the
level of the first rib (Figs. 3-11, 4-17). The medial
or concave surface lies against the mediastinum and
the outer convex wall against the rib cage. The
lungs are separated by a complete interpulmonary
septum, the mediastinum, extending from sternum
to spine. The soft, sponge-like tissue is molded
against the walls of the chest cavity and bears the
impression of the structures to which it is related.

In adult male hamsters the lungs have an average
weight of 2. 1 ±0.7 g and in adult females 1 .8±0.4 g.
Measured by water displacement, the volume of the
organ is 2.6±0.6 ml in adult males and 2.0±0.5 ml
in adult females (Tables 2, 5) (Reznik, et ai, 1973).
In an exsanguinated hamster, the lungs are pinkish
white in color and have an elastic consistency. When
perfused, the lungs become nearly white (Fig. 4-
31, 4-32). After in situ fixation, the lung turns dark
brown and on the surface, especially at the margins,
small and verv delicate lobulations are visible (Fig.
4-33). The lungs fioat in water and crepitate when
handled, due to the presence of air in the alveoli. As
the left thoracic cavity houses not only the heart but
also a large part of the accessory lobe of the right
lung (Figs. 3-11, 4-17, 4-25, 4-34), the left lung is
relatively small and is not divided into lobes (Figs.
4-25, 4-34, 4-35).

The right lung is divided into five lobes {lobi) by
deep interlobar fissures that extend from the mar-
gins to the main bronchi; these lobes are completely
isolated from one another, and there exists no par-
enchymatous communication between them except-
ing only some consolidation between accessory
lobes. The apex of the right lung ends at the cranial
margin of the first rib. The sharp edges (margo
acutus) of the left lung extend from the diaphragm

only to the midpoint of the first rib. The right mid-
dle lobe lies caudolaterally between heart and ster-
num. The diaphragmatic, or most caudal, lobe is
the largest lobe and has the form of a right-angle
triangle; it is related to the diaphragm, extending
from the fifth or sixth intercostal space to the
twelfth intercostal space. The accessory lobe and
the intermediate accessory lobe begin cranial to the
diaphragmatic lobe and immediately dorsal to the
caudal vena cava, the mesentery of which separates
the accessory lobes from the diaphragmatic lobe.
The accessory lobes are connected by a broad pa-
renchymatous fusion and are separated only by a
short fissure. The intermediate accessory lobe lies
partially dorsal to the heart and is displaced to the
left lateroventrally and caudally. Most of the lateral
surface of the accessory lobe is overlapped by the
left lung (Fig. 4-36).

The pulmonary root {radix pulmonis) contains
several pulmonary veins, the pulmonary artery,
bronchi, bronchial arteries of small size, nerves in
the form of the pulmonary plexus and bronchial
lymph nodes (Inn. bronchiales) and lymphatics,
bronchial glands and the origin of the pulmonary
ligament — all bound in a cuff of pleura and con-
nective tissue.

The costal, or lateral, surface of the lungs is
smooth and convex, adapting accurately to the chest
wall. The mediastinal surface is irregular and con-
cave; its most important part corresponds to the
pulmonary hilum and its primary relation is with
the heart and pericardium. After reflecting off the
sides of the vertebral bodies, where it is separated
by the narrow dorsal mediastinum from the pleura
on the opposite side, the mediastinal pleura passes
to the side of the pericardium, where it is closely
applied for a short distance before investing the
dorsal part of the root of the lung.

From the caudal margin of the lung root, a dorsal
and ventral layer of pleura come into opposition
and are prolonged caudally to the diaphragm as one
distinct fold, the pulmonary ligament {lig. pulmon-
ale). From the ligament the ventral layer is reflected
on the pericardium and dorsal surface of the ster-
num. From the dorsal margin of the lung root the
pleura can be traced over the costal surface of the
lung, apex and base, sides of the interlobar fissures,
onto the mediastinal surface and ventral margin of
the root.

95

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

The impression of the right heart {impressio
cardiaca dextra) appears on the medial surface
{fades medialis) of the right cranial and middle
lobes. The right atrium of the heart is embedded
within this impression. Cranial to the cardiac im-
pression, there is a flat, sagittal groove {sulcus venae
cavae) in which the cranial vena cava runs. The
root of the lung lies upon the medial surface, dorsal
to the right atrium and the end of the caudal vena
cava. Out of the right pulmonary lobe, a branch of
the pulmonary vein comes directly adjacent to the
right stem bronchus. The right branch of the pul-
monary artery branches dorsal to the bronchus and
extends to the individual pulmonary lobes.

The hilus of the right lung conveys the following
efferent and afferent vessels: cranially, the bron-
chial opening and the right branch of the pulmonary
vein lie juxtaposed. Caudodorsal to these is the
point of entry of the right branch of the pulmonary
artery. The diaphragmatic surface ijacies diaphrag-
matica) is formed by the medial edge of the right
middle and right diaphragmatic lobes. The dia-
phragmatic surface of the right accessory lobe
covers the largest part of the diaphragm and, there-
fore, conforms to the shape of the diaphragmatic
arch (Figs. 4-17, 4-19). At the dorsal side of the

right accessory lobe, a flat, sagittal groove-shaped
depression extends in which the caudal vena cava is
found. The intermediate accessory lobe is indented
dorsally by the esophagus and ventrally by the cau-
dal vena cava. The edges of the lungs are variously
shaped, depending on their positions in relation to
other organs. Whereas the sternal margin and the
diaphragmatic margin are more sharply edged, the
dorsal margin covered by the vertebral column is
dull and in part even flattened as a result of the
pressure applied by the esophagus.

In the cranial half of the medial surface of the left
and intermediate lobes, the cardiac impression is
found (Figs. 4-17, 4-19). The left impression is
definitely larger than the right in that the greater
part of the left ventricle and the cardiac apex is ap-
plied on the left. The cardiac apex is invested ven-
trally by the right accessory lobe. By forming the
left cardiac impression, a sharp edge is produced on
the right accessory lobe between the medial surface
and the diaphragmatic surface. Similarly, a sharp
edge is formed between the medial surface and the
costal surface of the left lobe. The surface of the
right accessory lobe, which lies adjacent to the left
lobe, forms another sharp edge along its diaphrag-
matic surface.

96

Thorax

Figure 4-1: Bony thorax with parts of forelegs and neck.

97

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-2: Radiogram of bony thorax. Note four sternebrae of sternu

98

Thorax

Figure 4-3 (left): Schematic drawing of dorsal aspect of thorax, internal view (ventral parts of ribs and sternum
removed). Ribs demonstrate pronounced obliquity; first two rib pairs bend cranially, whereas remaining ribs bend
caudally. 1 =costae; 2 = diaphragma; 3 = plexus brachialis.

Figure 4-4 (right): Schematic drawing of lateral aspect of thorax, internal view (animal cut longitudinally in mid-
line). Ribs demonstrate marked dorsoventral obliquity most pronounced in first two ribs. First rib curves from
caudodorsal to cranioventral, whereas second rib, in dorsal part, bends caudally and forms cranioventral curve
with its ventral portion. Ventral part of intercostal space between first two ribs is thus markedly wider than dorsal
part. 1 =costae; 2 = diaphragma; 3 = vertebrae thoracicae; 4= pleura costalis.

99

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-5: Ribs and sternum, ventral view. l = manibrium sterni; 2 = caput
costae; 3 = tuberculum costae; 4 = sternebra; 5 = cartilago xiphoidea; 6 =
processus xiphoideus.

100

Thorax

Figure 4-6: Isolated sternum. Note four sternebrae which constitute body of
sternum.

101

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-7: Bronchogram of adult European hamster after intratracheal instilla-
tion of Hytrast R (Byk Gulden), demonstrating position of tracheal bifurcation at
level of 6th rib and ramifications of bronchial tree. Note left main bronchus (L),
smaller of two main bronchi: it branches into small segmental bronchi without first
dividing into larger lobar bronchi, as does right main bronchus.

102

Figure 4-8: Above: Schematic drawing of second thoracic vertebra (left,
lateral aspect; right, cranial aspect). 1 = processus spinosus; 2 = canalis
vertebralis; 3 = processus transversus; 4 = processus articularis cranialis;
5 = fovea costalis cranialis; 6 = fovea costalis caudalis; 7 = processus articu-
laris caudalis; 8 = incisura vertebralis caudalis; 9 = incisura vertebralis
cranialis; 10=fovea costalis transversalis.

Below: Schematic drawing of fourth thoracic vertebra (left, cranial as-
pect; right, caudal aspect). 1 = processus spinosus; 2 = corpus vertebrae;
3 = processus transversus; 4 = processus articularis cranialis; 5 = proces-
sus articularis caudalis.

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-10: Isolated diaphragm demonstrating well-
developed central tendon. Note esophageal hiatus in
lower part.

104

Thorax

Figure 4-11: Drawing of diaphragm, cranial aspect. A = centrum tendineum;
B = pars costalis; C = pars sternalis; D = pars lumbaiis; l^hiatus aorticus; 2 =
hiatus esophageus; 3=foramen venae cavae; 4=sternum.

105

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-12: Schematic drawing of heart, internal view. g = atrium dextrum; h = atrium sinistrum; c =
ventriculus dexter; d = ventriculus sinister; i = trabecula septomarginaiis; j = septum interventriculare;
k = myocardium.

106

Figure 4-13: Isolated fresh heart, left side, demon-
strating size of organ (scale in mm).

Figure 4-14: Isolated fresh heart, right side. Thin-
walled musculature of right ventricle is collapsed
(scale in mm).

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-16: Internal view of longitudinally bisected heart, fixed by perfusion with
glutaraldehyde. Note smaller, thin-walled right ventricle, which does not extend to
apex of organ. In left half, well-developed trabecula septomarginalis runs obliquely
through left ventricle.

108

Thorax

Figure 4-17: Cervical and thoracic organs of one-year-old male Euro-
pean hamster. Sternum, clavicle, and parts of ribs and cervical muscles
removed. Gl. mandibulares folded back and heart displaced craniolater-
ally to right. a = bursa buccalis; b = diaphragma; c = auricula sinister;
d = ventriculus sinister; e = auricula dexter; i-l = pulmo dexter; i = lobus
craniaiis; j = lobus medius; k = lobus caudalis; l = lobus accessorius; m =
pulmo sinister; n=trachea; o = mm. sternohyoid et sternothyroid; p =
gl. mandibularis; r=esophagus; s=thyroid; l = arcus aortae; 2— a. caro-
tis communis sinistra; 3 = a. carotis communis dextra; 4 = n. vagus sin-
ister; 5 = n. vagus dexter; 6 = a. subclavia dextra; 7 = v. pulmonalis; 8 = a.
pulmonalis; 9 = a. subclavia sinistra; 10=v. cava caudalis; ll=truncus
brachiocephalicus.

109

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-18: Arteriogram of thoracic and cervical region. l==arcus aortae; 2 =
truncus brachiocephalicus; 3 = a. subclavia sinistra; A — a. subclavia dextra; 5 = a.
carotis communis dextra; 6 = a. carotis communis sinistra; 7 = aa. brachiales (dex-
tra et sinistra); 8 = vv. pulmonales.

770

Thorax

Figure 4-19: Schematic drawing of heart and lungs of 1-year-old male European
hamster. Pulmonary artery cut through and left cranial vena cava removed. a =
ventriculus dexter; b = ventriculus sinister; c^auricula sinistra; d = trachea; e = pul-
mo sinister; f = lobus accessorius (pulmo dexter); g = esophagus; l = arcus aortae;
2=truncus brachiocephalicus; 3 = a. subclavia dextra; 4 = a. carotis communis dex-
tra; b — a. carotis communis sinistra; 6 = a. subclavia sinistra; 7 = aorta descendens;
8 = a. pulmonalis; 9 = v. pulmonalis; 10=v. cordis magna.

Figure 4-20: Thymus in situ, ventral aspect. Organ has fatty, pale appearance and
is bordered caudally by heart, on left by lungs, and craniolaterally by clavicle.

777

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-21: Radiogram of esophagus during instillation of contrast agent
(gastrografin, Schering A. G. Berlin). At level of twelfth thoracic vertebra,
esophagus bends to left and enters forestomach (F) at level of first lumbar
vertebra.

772

Thorax

Figure 4-22: Isolated esophagus, cut longitudinally. Mucosa thrown into distinct
longitudinal folds.

Figure 4-23: Histology of esophagus, longitudinal section. Stratified squamous
epithelium covered with thick cornif ied layer at luminal surface (H & E, X141).

113

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-24: Schematic representation of lungs and thoracic lymph
nodes. a = pulmo sinister; b = pulmo dexter: lobus cranialis; c = lobus
medius; d = lobus caudalis; e = lobus accessorius; f = lobus intermedius
accessorius; g = trachea; h = bronchus principalis sinister; i = bronchus
principalis dexter; l = lnn. tracheobronchales dextri dorsales; 2 = lnn.
tracheobronchales dextri ventrales; 3 = Inn. tracheobronchales sinistri
ventrales; 4 = ln. tracheobronchalis sinister dorsalis; 5 = ductus thoracicus.

114

Thorax

I Lobus sinister a
I Lobus cranialis dexter b
I Lobus tnedius dexter c
Lobus caudalis dexter d

Lobus accessonus dexter e
I Lobus intermedius accessorius e'

Figure 4-26: Sagittal section of right cranial pulmo-
nary lobe after formalin fixation. HytrastRwas instilled
intratracheally (Byk Gulden) before death so that
bronchi are prominent. In this section, larger lobar
bronchus gives rise to three smaller segmental bronchi.

Figure 4-25: Schematic drawing of lungs and bron-
chial tree. Right lung consists of five lobes; left remains
undivided. Left main bronchus does not form lobar
bronchi as does right.

115

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-27: Histology of bronchial epithelium and surrounding lung tissue. (H &
E, X58).

Figure 4-28: Detail of above, demonstrating characteristic pseudostratified cili-
ated columnar cells. (Toluidine blue, X500).

7 76

Thorax

Figure 4-29: Histology of lung, demonstrating small bronchus on the right and a
small blood vessel on the left. (Toluidine blue, X93).

Figure 4-30: Histology of lung at higher magnification, demonstrating close re-
semblance of bronchiolar epithelium to tracheal epithelium. (Toluidine blue, X232).

777

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-32: Ventral aspect of lungs with attached
heart, trachea, larynx, and mandibles. Fixation by per-
fusion with glutaraldehyde.

118

Thorax

Figure 4-34: Lungs in situ (organ collapsed). Beneath
right accessory lobe, part of esophagus and caudal
vena cava are visible.

119

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 4-36: Ventral view of lungs and heart, demon-
strating position of right intermediate accessory lobe,
which projects far to left and thus lies close to heart.
Organs fixed by glutaraldehyde perfusion.

720

CHAPTER 5
ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

5.1 LIMITS AND LANDMARKS

The abdominal cavity {cavum abdominis) is the
largest serous sac in the body of the hamster, ex-
tending horn the diaphragm to the pelvic inlet
{apertura pelvis cranialis), or brim of the pelvis. Its
greatest expansion is represented by a line from the
diaphragmatic insertions on the sternum to the
cranial margin of the pubic symphysis (symphysis
pubica). The cranial boundary is formed by the dia-
phragm, describing a dome-like arch over the cav-
ity, which protrudes high into the bony thorax up
to the level of the seventh thoracic vertebra (Figs.
3-11,5-1, 5-2).

The dorsal wall is supported by the lumbar ver-
tebrae {vertebrae lumbales) (Figs. 2-1, 3-1). The
dorsal wall includes the psoas major, iliacus and
quadratus lumborum muscles. The lateral wall
consists of the obliquus internus, and the ventral
wall the rectus abdominis musculature. The lateral
surface is supported cranially by the last rib and
cartilages and caudally by the iliac crest (crista
iliaca), and the ventral surface cranially by the end
of the sternal body and the xiphoid process (Figs.
5-1, 5-2).

As in man, the abdominal cavity is separate from
the pelvic cavity (cavum pelvis). The bony support
of the pelvis dorsally is provided by the sacral verte-
brae (vertebrae sacrales) and by the first caudal
vertebrae (vertebrae caudales). The lateral bound-
ary is formed by the ilium (os ilium) and the ischium
(os ischium). The pubic bone (os pubis) and the is-
chium confer skeletal support ventrally. The pelvic
inlet is obliquely situated and is described by a
plane passing through the sacral prominence (pro-
montorium) of the sacral base (basis ossis sacri) and
the cranial rim of the symphysis. The cross-section
of the pelvic inlet is heart-shaped, while that of the
pelvic outlet (apertura pelvis caudalis) is oval.

5.2 BONY SKELETON OF THE
ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

The lumbar-sacral column forms a spinal kypho-
sis (Figs. 3-1, 5-2). The six lumbar vertebrae roof

the abdominal cavity, extending for a length of
52 mm. The vertebral bodies are relatively long,
and kidney-shaped in transverse section (Fig. 5-3).
The vertebral canal (canalis vertebralis) is dorso-
ventrally compressed. The spinous processes are
long, rectangular, and of moderate height, with
thickened dorsal borders. The last lumbar vertebra
(Fig. 5-4) is the most prominent, with a spinous
process 6.9 mm long and 5.1 high.

The sacrum (os sacrum) consists of usually three
synostosed vertebrae measuring 21.3 mm in length
(Fig. 5-5). The transverse processes of all three ver-
tebrae form a continuous surface (pars lateralis),
the cranial portion of which is expanded into an
ear-shaped shallow concavity (facies auricularis)
for articulation with the ilium (Figs. 3-1, 5-6).
The sacral canal (canalis sacralis) is completely en-
closed.

There are 17 caudal vertebrae (vertebrae cau-
dales) disposed in a lordosis (Fig. 3-1). They de-
crease caudally in both length (from 5.8 mm to
1.3 mm) and complexity. The first four or five
caudal vertebrae retain articular processes and
transverse processes, but caudal to this, the verte-
brae are simple pentagonal spools.

The pelvic bone (os coxae) ossifies from three
separate centers: os ilium, os ichii, and os pubis.
The sutures are obliterated by 12 months postpar-
tum (Table 23), and a single adult structure 41 mm
long and 16 mm wide remains (Fig. 5-7). The
ilium is a long rod-like structure that diverges
craniolaterally (Fig. 5-6). It constitutes a portion
of the acetabulum. The craniomedial surface is
roughened (facies auricularis) for articulation with
the sacrum. The ischium constitutes the caudo-
dorsal and caudal portions of the pelvis, while the
pubis constitutes the ventral portion of the posterior
pelvis. The pubes join across the ventral midline to
form the pubic symphysis (symphysis pubica). The
pubis and ischium surround the large triangular
obturator opening (foramen obturatum). The ace-
tabulum, the articular surface for the head of the
femur (Fig. 5-6), is composed of all three pelvic
bones, and measures 5.4 mm in diameter.

727

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

5.3 ABDOMEN AND PERITONEUM

Just as the thoracic cavity and its pleurae are not
simply equivalent in the chest, so the abdominal
and peritoneal cavities (cavum peritonei) are not
coextensive. The peritoneal sac, but not the abdom-
inal cavity, dips caudally into the pelvis. The ab-
dominal space extends only to the pelvic inlet, while
the peritoneum continues into the true pelvis,
normally as far as the rectogenital and vesicogeni-
tal pouches {excavationes rectogenitalis et vesico-
genitalis). Accordingly, there are two sections,
intra-abdominal and intra-pelvic, of one continu-
ous peritoneal surface.

Like the thoracic pleurae, the abdominal peri-
toneum consists of a parietal part {peritoneum
parietale), applied to the abdominal wall, and a
visceral part (peritoneum uiscerale), reflected over
the abdominal organs. Between the two surfaces is
the peritoneal cavity, which — as with the pleural
cavity — is only a potential space under normal con-
ditions. It follows that no healthy tissue assembly
is intraperitoneal.

It follows also that some surface of each invagi-
nating abdominal and pelvic organ is not covered
by peritoneum, usually between attachments. Ac-
cordingly, the extent of peritoneal reflection is a
convenient criterion of intra-abdominal and intra-
pelvic organization. Those organs almost com-
pletely invested by peritoneum and only narrowly
connected to the abdominal wall by peritoneum-
covered connective tissue (carrying that organ's
vascularization and innervation) are effectively
suspended in the abdominal cavity by the parietal
peritoneum. The suspensions represent the "liga-
ments," omenta, mesenteries (of the small intestine)
or mesocolons (of the large intestine) nearly sur-
rounding the post-diaphragmatic digestive tube and
its supportive glands (liver and pancreas) and the
spleen. The non-suspended organs more closely
applied to the abdominal wall, projecting negligi-
bly into the cavity and covered by peritoneum only
on their visceral surfaces, such as the kidney, rec-
tum and bladder, or situated caudal to the pelvic
inlet, are said to be retroperitoneal.

Superficial to both visceral and parietal peri-
tonea is a fibrous layer of connective tissue with
more or less fatty tissue. Behind the parietal peri-
toneum the layer merges with the fascia transversa-

lis. It is often impossible to differentiate the sub-
peritoneal fat from the underlying fascia, especially
in the mesentery, mesocolon, renal and inguinal
regions; fatty herniation is not uncommon. The
transverse fascial planes blend with, and invest,
the visceral surface of the abdominal musculature
surrounding the cavity. The marked variations in
abdominal contour reflect principally the state of
distention of the viscera and the subcutaneous fat
accumulation. In this elasticity, the abdomen differs
from the thorax and other body cavities.

The peritoneum is the abdominal expression of
the pleural and pericardial layers.

Each is histologically identical fluid-secreting serous membrane of
mesothelial cells derived embryologically from one continuous body
cavity, the coelom.

The peritoneum is a lymph sac with great ab-
sorptive power (solids via the lymphatics, liquids
via the capillaries) and high secretory potential
(abundant exudate with actively phagocytic mac-
rophages on inflammation).

The mesothelial pavement cells, each of which is cemented to its
neighbors by an intercellular substance, can self-regenerate over small
lesions. If the peritoneal tear is sufficiently large, repair is impossible,
and the underlying connective tissue fibroblasts — which cannot form
new serous cells — generate only fibrous adhesions.

5.4 SEGMENTAL TOPOGRAPHY OF
THE ABDOMEN

The topography of the abdominal space can be
divided into cranio- and caudomesocolic regions.
A plane drawn transversely at the level of the first
lumbar vertebra will intersect the stomach,
pylorus and proximal duodenum, spleen, kidneys,
pancreas, transverse colon and the root of the trans-
verse mesocolon (Figs. 5-8, 5-9). The tissues lying
between the transverse plane and the diaphragmatic
arch are craniomesocolic; those lying between the
plane and the pelvic inlet are caudomesocolic. This
topography reflects a functional difference: the
craniomesocolic, unlike the caudomesocolic, sys-
tems are characterized bv tractable fixation, con-
nection to the secretory ducts of liver and pancreas
and deep cavity position.

5.5 CRANIOMESOCOLIC REGION
5.5.1 Craniomesocolic Peritoneum

Viewed in a sagittal section and beginning at the

722

Abdomen and Pelvis

level of the transverse mesocolic root, the perito-
neum sweeps cranially on the dorsal surface of the
ventral abdominal wall relatively free of attach-
ments until it passes across the visceral surface of
the diaphragm, which it covers, to form the falci-
form ligament (lig. falciforme hepatis), enclosing
the ligamentum teres (lig. teres hepatis) and
spreading between the left medial and quadrate
lobes of the liver. The falciform ligament runs just
under the xiphoid process caudally into the umbili-
cal region. Cranially, the peritoneal sheets sepa-
rate laterally from the falciform fold to form the left
coronary ligament {lig. coronarium sinistrum
hepatis), between the diaphragm and the upper
margin of the left lateral lobe, and the right coro-
nary ligament, between the diaphragm and the
dorsal wall of the right medial lobe. The peritoneum
then reflects from the liver to the diaphragmatic
part of the dorsal abdominal wall as the left and
right triangular ligaments {ligg. triangularia sinis-
trum et dextrum). The right ligament reflects from
the right lateral lobe and the left ligament from the
left lateral lobe, and there is a bare area free of
peritoneum between them.

After investing the liver, the peritoneal sheet
leaves the transverse fissure and passes to the
stomach, forming the ventral layer of the lesser
omentum {omentum minus). The cranial end of
the lesser omentum extends from the left side of
the liver to the lesser curvature of the glandular
stomach as the hepatogastric ligament {lig. hepa-
togastricum); the caudal end attaches the glandular
stomach to the papillary process of the liver, to the
right of which the hepatogastric ligament continues
as the hepatoduodenal ligament {lig. hepatoduo-
denale).

The lesser omentum serves as part of the ventral
wall of the lesser peritoneal cavity, or omental
bursa {bursa omentalis), along with the caudate
lobe of the liver in the cranial part and, in the dor-
sal part, the stomach and the greater omentum
{omentum majus). Through the lesser omentum
there is a perforation, the epiploic foramen {fora-
men epiploicum) which lies between the caudal
vena cava and the portal vein and links the lesser
with the greater peritoneal cavity. In effect, the
edge of the lesser omentum, which spreads between
the liver and the small intestine, borders the fora-

men on the right side. The caudal limit of the lesser
peritoneum consists of the cranial section of the
greater omentum and the transverse colon, while
the transverse mesocolon, ventral surface of the
pancreas, left adrenal gland and cranial pole of the
left kidney form the caudodorsal boundary. Since
the lesser omentum extends obliquely in a cranio-
dorsal-caudoventral plane, the dorsal abdominal
wall serves as its dorsal boundary until the parietal
peritoneum on the dorsal wall is interrupted by the
coronary ligament under the diaphragm, thus clos-
ing the sac. The visceral peritoneal layer is then
reflected from the liver at the transverse fissure to
the dorsal gastric surfaces, forming the dorsal layer
of the hepatogastric ligament. From the greater
curvature it passes caudally and then cranially to
the transverse colon to form the dorsal layer of the
greater omentum. From the dorsal margin of the
transverse colon it runs as the cranial layer of the
transverse mesocolon to the ventral surface of the
pancreas.

After covering the ventral wall of the glandular
stomach, by reflecting from one margin of the lesser
curvature to the greater curvature on the other
side, the peritoneum leaves the greater curvature
of the glandular stomach, forestomach and duode-
num to form the ventral layer of the greater omen-
tum. It then passes dorsal to the transverse colon,
which it invests, to the vertebral column at the
lower edge of the pancreas, before passing caudally
to cover the distal duodenum and caudomesocolic
structures.

At its origin, the dorsal layer of the greater
omentum forms adhesions with the transverse
mesocolon in adult animals, settling between the
stomach and ventral abdominal wall and extend-
ing only slightly caudally to cover the intestines.

Viewed in a transverse plane through the cranio-
mesocolic viscera at the level of the epiploic fora-
men and beginning at the ventral midline, the
parietal peritoneum moves to the right kidney
without interruption, except for the falciform liga-
ment ventrally, along the ventral and lateral ab-
dominal walls. After covering the visceral surface
of the right kidney and forming the dorsal wall of
the epiploic foramen, it covers the caudal vena cava,
aorta, vertebral column and pancreas on the left
side of the animal. The peritoneum then passes

123

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

over the left kidney to the spleen, forming the ven-
tral layer of the lienorenal ligament {lig. lienore-
nale), from which it reflects to the dorsal surface of
the stomach to form the dorsal layer of the greater
omentum. Passing over the dorsal stomach, past the
pylorus to the cranial surface of the proximal duo-
denum, it winds around the hepatic artery, portal
vein and common bile duct to reach the ventral sur-
face of the stomach. This reflection forms the ven-
tral layer of the greater omentum. The sheath then
winds around both the costal and renal surface of
the spleen before passing to the left kidney to form
the dorsal layer of the lienorenal ligament. Moving
dorsally to cover the lateral surface of the left kid-
ney, it then reflects back on the abdominal wall,
which it follows uninterruptedly on the left side
back to the ventral midline.

5.5.2 Craniomesocolic Viscera and
Relations

5.5.2.1 Esophagus

The abdominal portion of the esophagus, about
25 mm long, begins in the muscular part of the dia-
phragm at the level of the eighth or ninth thoracic
vertebra, 6 mm ventral to the aortic hiatus, and just
dorsal to the central tendon of the bifurcation into
lateral leaflets (Fig. 4-11). From the esophageal
foramen, the esophagus runs between the visceral
surface of the left lateral lobe of the liver and the
cranial margin of the forestomach, crossing the
pylorus and the first duodenal flexure cranially. It
enters the forestomach at the margo plicatus, the
border between the glandular and forestomachs
(Figs. 5-10, 5-11), slightly to the left of the midline.

As in the thoracic region, the abdominal esophagus is lined with
keratinized stratified squamous epithelium surrounded by striated
musculature (Fig. 4-23). The matte white mucosa is thrown into small
longitudinal folds in its empty and contracted state (Fig. 4-22).

The gastrophrenic ligament {lig. gastrophreni-
cum), which becomes the point of origin for the
greater omentum, extends dorsally from the lesser
curvature of the forestomach to the diaphragm and
there envelops the abdominal portion of the esoph-
agus lying cranial to the liver.

5.5.2.2 Stomach

The European hamster receives its nourishment
124

mainly from plants and utilizes a forestomach for
predigestion. The compound stomach is thus di-
vided by a distinct constriction into a larger blind
forestomach (proven triculus) and a smaller true or
glandular stomach (ventnculus glandularis) (Fig.
5-10). The European hamster differs from the rat
(Wells, 1968) and the mouse (Theiler, 1972) in
which no such constrictions are found. The com-
pound stomach lies in the cranial abdominal region
(regio abdommis cranialis) and completely occu-
pies the left hypochondrium [regio hypochondriaca
sinistra) (Figs. 5-8, 5-9). Depending upon the
distention of the stomach, it protrudes to a greater
or lesser extent into the corresponding right side of
the abdominal cavity, where it presses against the
lateral abdominal wall. In general, one-fourth of
the glandular stomach lies to the right, and three-
fourths to the left of the median sagittal plane of
the body, the glandular stomach lying to the right
of the forestomach (Figs. 5-8, 5-9). The most
cranial part of the forestomach lies at the level of
the 12th thoracic vertebra, while the greater curva-
ture of the glandular stomach extends caudally to
the level of the second or third lumbar vertebra.
The weight of the fully distended stomach (fore-
stomach and glandular stomach) is about 1 1 g and
10 g for male and female hamsters, respectively,
while the empty stomach weighs approximately 3 g
for both sexes (Tables 3, 6).

When markedly distended, the forestomach
ranges from 45 to 50 mm long and from 15 to
25 mm wide (Figs. 5-1 1 , 5-12). The grayish-white
forestomach lies in the cranial portion of the peri-
toneal cavity near the left abdominal wall and ex-
tends obliquely in a caudoventral direction towards
the umbilical region (Fig. 5-13). Its cranial surface
usually impinges upon the left lateral lobe of the
liver and, in formalin-fixed animals, leaves an im-
pression of this lobe. From dorsal to ventral, the
caudal surface is related to the spleen, the left part
of the pancreas and the head of the caecum, respec-
tively (Fig. 5-9). When very distended, the con-
tents of the forestomach can be seen through the
serous surface.

The epithehal lining of the forestomach is pale, almost white in
color, and is thrown into delicate transverse and slightly curled folds
(Fig. 5-14). At the blind end of the forestomach, these folds become
distinctly more elevated, sometimes attaining a height of up to 7 mm
(Fig. 5-14). Under magnification these folds easily can be misinter-
preted as papillomas. The forestomach is lined with simple keratinized

Abdomen and Pelvis

squamous epithelium (Fig. 5-15), which is separated from the mucosal
lining of the glandular stomach by a distinct margo plicatus.

At the level of the esophageal junction with the
forestomach, a fissure bordered by two well-defined
labia runs along the lesser curvature {curvatura
ventriculi minor) to the transition of the two stom-
achs. The labia continue along the internal surface
of the glandular stomach for about 3 or 4 mm, and
their edges are considerably elaborated (Fig. 5-14).
When fully distended, the glandular stomach is be-
tween 30 and 40 mm long and attains a diameter of
20 to 25 mm. When empty, the glandular stomach
is bordered by the transverse colon, the duodenum
and the head of the caecum; its greater curvature
{curvatura ventriculi major) is oriented to the right
(Fig. 5-14), and in an extremely distended state, it
rests against the left lateral lobe of the liver. The
parietal surface (Jacies parietalis) of the glandular
stomach is affixed to the left lateral lobe of the liver
by the hepatogastric ligament. The greater curva-
ture is bordered sinistrodorsally by the ventral end
of the spleen; when full, it is also bordered ventrally
by the abdominal wall, to the right by the pancreas
and, in some cases, by a portion of the S-shaped
flexure of the ascending colon. Since the lesser curv-
ature is markedly concave, the cardia {pars cardi-
aca) and pylorus are closely applied, with the
opening to the forestomach lying caudal to the
pylorus (Figs. 5-12, 5-14).

The largest part of the glandular stomach is lined with gastric glands
consisting of tall columnar epithelium with many goblet cells (Fig. 5-
16).

A circular constriction formed by the pyloric
sphincter (m. sphincter pylori) separates the py-
lorus {pars pylorica) from the rest of the stomach.
This segregated portion of the stomach tapers
sharply towards the duodenum.

The serous surface of the glandular stomach is grayish-red in color,
smooth, thick and surrounds an inner circular and an outer, faintly
visible, longitudinal muscle layer. Extending up to 1.5 mm in height,
the pyloric margin is white in color and possesses varying amounts of
villi; however, macroscopically, one cannot distinguish color differ-
ences among the cardia, fundus {fundus ventriculi) and pylorus of the
glandular stomach. The area with cardiac glands {gll. cardiacae) is
found in varying striations along the pyloric margin, while the pyloric
glandular zone {gll. pyloricae) circumscribes the pylorus.

5.5.2.3 Proximal Duodenum

The proximal, or cranial, duodenum {pars cra-

nialis) arises from the pylorus, somewhat cranial
and dorsal to the hilus of the liver (Fig. 5-17),
where it doubles back caudoventrally to the right
at the first flexure {Jlexura duodeni cranialis) be-
fore turning caudally at the right lateral hepatic
lobe. The proximal duodenum is fixed to the liver
by the hepatoduodenal ligament of the lesser
omentum.

5.5.2.4 Liver

The functions of the liver {hepar) are manifold.
During fetal life, it contains focal areas for the for-
mation of blood, which function until birth. Even
in the newborn animal, the liver occupies a large
part of the abdominal cavity, but then it rapidly de-
creases in size. The liver is an important storage
organ for glycogen produced from digested carbo-
hydrates in the intestines and supplied via the por-
tal blood. It can also store fat and protein in its
cells. In addition to its storage function, the liver
also has an excretory function. It synthesizes ni-
trogenous metabolites to urea and uric acid, which
are then excreted by the kidneys. The liver extracts
toxic substances from the blood and detoxifies them.
Moreover, the liver secretes bile and removes the
metabolic products of red blood cells that originate
in the spleen.

The largest organ of the body is the liver. The
size and weight of the liver can vary greatly; but,
on an average, it weighs about 15 g in both males
and females (Tables 2, 5). In an exsanguinated
state, the liver is brown in color; however, this color
is dependent upon the blood content, the age and
especially the nutritional condition of the animals.
In especially fat hamsters, usually in the fall, the
liver is more yellow in color due to abundant fat
deposits.

Due to the peritoneal lining, the surface of the
liver is smooth and shiny. Its structure of many
small lobules is macroscopically visible only if
abundant interlobular connective tissue is present.
Because of its elastic consistency, the liver accom-
modates the neighboring organs. Deep fissures
(Figs. 5-18, 5-19) divide the liver into the follow-
ing parts: a bipartite left portion with the left lat-
eral lobe {lobus hepatis sinister lateralis) and the
left medial lobe {lobus hepatis sinister medialis); an
intermediate supraportal caudate lobe {lobus cau-

125

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

datus), including caudate (processus caudatus) and
papillary processes (processus papillaris); the
quadrate lobe (lobus quadratus); and a bipartite
right portion with a right lateral lobe (lobus hepatis
dexter lateralis) and a right medial lobe (lobus
hepatis dexter medialis).

On its convex parietal surface (Jacies diaphrag-
matica) (Fig. 5-20) the liver is applied to the dia-
phragm, whose curvature encircles most of the or-
gan right and left of the midline. To the right of the
median sagittal plane, the liver lies between the dia-
phragm and duodenum, the jejunum and the right
kidney. On the left, it lies between the diaphragm
and the stomach. The visceral surface (jacies vis-
ceralis) is only slightly concave (Fig. 5-21) and is
characterized by deep impressions of the forestom-
ach, convoluted intestine and kidneys; these im-
pressions are particularly prominent in formalin-
fixed animals. The edges of the liver are sharp and
smooth except for a small area to the left of the dor-
sal midline, where the blunt edges show an esopha-
geal impression (impressio oesophagea).

The left lateral lobe is the largest of the six sep-
arate hepatic lobes, and constitutes approximately
Vi of the entire organ. Its diaphragmatic surface is
bordered laterally by the lateral abdominal wall in
the xiphoid region (regio xiphoidea). Cranially,
the left medial lobe is inserted between the left lat-
eral lobe and the diaphragm; it is overlapped ex-
tensively by the cranial surface of the former (Fig.
5-18). The visceral surface exhibits a rather pro-
nounced impression of the forestomach and glandu-
lar stomach (impressio gastnca). The left medial
lobe is smaller than the left lateral lobe and lies
against the left ventral quadrant of the diaphragm.
It is bordered medially by the parietal surface of
the glandular stomach. The left medial lobe is sepa-
rated from the quadrate lobe by a medial fissure
(fissura lig. teretis) in which the ligamentum teres
hepatis lies. A small portion of the left medial lobe
may project ventrally into the xiphoid region. The
right medial lobe extends ventrally to the xiphoid
region, as does the left medial lobe; dorsally its
cranial surface covers the caudal surface of the
right lateral lobe. The right lateral lobe, almost as
large as the right medial lobe, lies far dorsally in
the intrathoracic part of the abdominal cavity and
rests against the dorsal right quadrant of the dia-

phragm. Its dorsal edge is inserted between the
dorsal abdominal wall and the cranial pole of the
right kidney, which imposes a renal impression
(impressio renalis). Its visceral surface is bordered
dorsally by the right kidney and ventrally by the
duodenum, which likewise makes an impression.
The caudate lobe lies dorsal to the hepatic portal
(porta hepatis), distinct from the right lateral lobe
(contrary to Kittel [19531), who denied the presence
of a caudate lobe in the hamster). The papillary
process is moderately developed, 6 to 9 mm long. It
extends caudally and lies dextrodorsal to the fore-
stomach, between the forestomach and the pan-
creas. The well-developed caudate process is about
9 mm long and extends to the right abdominal wall
and sits as a cap at the cranial pole of the right
kidney.

The triangular quadrate lobe lies ventral to the
porta hepatis; it does not reach the ventral edge of
the liver. On the left, it has a deep indentation in
which the ligamentum teres lies and which sepa-
rates it from the left medial lobe. The ligamentum
teres runs from the interlobular fissure between the
left medial lobe and the quadrate lobe in a cranial
direction towards the diaphragm ventral to the xi-
phoid process and caudoventral to the umbilical
region.

The liver is attached on the right and left to the
diaphragm by two triangular ligaments (ligg. tri-
angularia), the coronary ligament (Itg. coro-
narium) and the falciform ligament (lig. falci-
forme). The left triangular ligament extends from
the dorsal diaphragmatic edge of the left lateral
lobe to the diaphragm. The right triangular liga-
ment originates at the right lateral lobe and ends
at the right dorsal quadrant of the diaphragm. The
coronary ligament reaches from the left lateral and
right medial lobes to the diaphragm, while the falci-
form ligament connects the right lateral lobe with
the ventral abdominal wall in the umbilical region.

The European hamster possesses no gall bladder
(vesica fellea). The common bile duct (ductus chole-
dochus) originates from the porta hepatis and dis-
charges into the duodenum 20 to 25 mm distal to
the pylorus.

The liver is enclosed in peritoneum which covers

the fibrous capsule (capsula fibrosa) of the organ.

726

Abdomen and Pelvis

From this capsule, several septa penetrate the liver
tissue, thus subdividing the organ into hepatic
lobules.

These lobules are polyhedral in shape and are composed of numer-
ous liver cells which are radiallv arranged around the central vein
(v. centralis), or venule of the hepatic vein {v. hepatica) (Fig. 5-22).
Each lobule is surrounded at its edges by the portal triad, which is
composed of a branch of the portal vein, a branch of the hepatic arterv
(a. hepatica) and an interlobular bile ductule (ductulus biliferus) (Fig.
5-23). Within the lobules, anastomosing sinusoids run from the portal
to the central vein. Berv\-een these capillaries and the hepatic cells are
found the spaces of Disse.

5.5.2.5 Pancreas

The pancreas produces enzvmes which break
down lipids, carbohydrates and proteins. More-
over, the pancreatic islets of Langerhans provide
the body with insulin and glucagon, which plav an
important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates.

The pancreas is a rather large (up to 60 mm
long) digestive gland of the "dendritic" type con-
sisting of several elongated lobes (Fig. 5-24),
which are inserted between various abdominal
organs (Tables 11-1 Ic). Unlike the human pan-
creas, no definite head. neck, bodv and tail can be
distinguished in the hamster. The in situ pancreas
is not visible in the superficial ventral aspect; it is
covered by greater omentum and adipose tissue
(Fig. 5-25). When the stomach is displaced caudo-
ventrallv. the right lobe of the pancreas (lobus pan-
creatis dexter) becomes visible (Fig. 5-26). This
part extends along the greater curvature of the glan-
dular stomach to the duodenum, occupving the en-
tire space between the first duodenal flexure and the
glandular stomach. K ing dextrocaudal to the papil-
lary process of the liver. From this part of the pan-
creas, a second portion extends within the duodeno-
colic ligament from the second duodenal flexure to
the ascending colon (Fig. 5-27). The third part of
the pancreas becomes visible bv ventral displace-
ment of the forestomach and spleen. This part oc-
cupies the space between the spleen and the de-
scending colon (Fig. 5-28). The pancreatic duct
(ductus pancreaticus) discharges into the duodenum
2 to 4 mm distal to the common bile duct.

Histologicallv, the pancreas consists of two different tvpes of tissue,
each of which represents an independent functional unit. The exocrine
part consists of compound tubuloalveolar glands, while the endocrine
part is represented bv the islets of Langerhans. which are composed of
aggregated alpha-cells, beta-cells and D-cells ^Fig. 5-29).

5.5.2.6 Spleen

The spleen {lien) of the European hamster serves
not onlv as a blood reservoir but also as a compon-
ent of the lymphatic system. The color, consistency,
size and weight of the spleen are dependent upon
the age, nutritional status and sex of the hamster,
and especiallv on the actual functional status of the
organ. The spleen has an average weight of about
229 mg for males and 209 mg for females; it is ap-
proximately 34 mm long and 5 mm wide in both
sexes (Tables 3,6). The spleen is located in the left
hvpochondriac region and extends between the
11th and 12th intercostal spaces (Fig. 5-25). It is
dorsoventrallv disposed with its parietal surface
(facies parietalis) adjacent to the dorsal and the left
lateral abdominal walls; its dorsal end is slightly
arched craniallv. while the ventral end inclines
slightlv caudallv. This organ lies against the
greater curvature of the forestomach, and is at-
tached at the hilus ihilus liems) by the gastrosplenic
ligament {lig. gastrolienale). The dorsal end {ex-
tremitas dorsalis) presses against the left kidney,
while the ventral end {extremitas ventralis) is bor-
dered bv the junction of the transverse colon and the
descending colon. The dorsal edge of the spleen is
fixed to the left kidnev bv the lienorenal ligament.

The color of this organ is reddish-purple in fixed
specimens, and dark red in fresh-killed animals.
Macroscopically in cut section, the spleen is red-
dish-brown in color. It has a lanciform shape (Figs.
5-30. 5-31 ) and, as a result of its prominent hilus,
a triangular cross-section.

In histological section, the serous coat and the fibroelastic capsule
predominate. From this capsule originate the trabeculae, which pass
into the spleen where thev branch and form the framework for the
parenchvma. or red and white pulp (Fig. 5-32). Numerous ervthro-
cvtes identify the red pulp (pulpa liems rubra), whereas the white pulp
fpulpa lienis alba) is composed of dense Ivmphatic tissue which sur-
rounds the small splenic capillaries and forms the splenic Ivmphatic
follicles, the .\talpighian bodies.

5.5.3 Craniomesocolic Vascularization
and Innervation

The aorta enters the abdominal cavity via the
aortic hiatus of the diaphragm (Figs. 4-10, 4-11)
and runs caudally along the left side of the spinal
column and the medial edge of the left psoas major
muscle (Fig. 5-33). Since the aorta lies dorsal to the
abdominal space, running ventrally and applied to

727

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

the lumbar vertebrae, all of the intra-abdominal
organs are ventral to it. The craniomesocolic part
of the abdominal aorta relates to the left lateral
lobe of the liver, the glandular stomach, the duode-
num, the transverse colon and assorted small in-
testinal loops. At the level of the tenth thoracic ver-
tebra, the aorta gives rise to the coeliac trunk {a.
coeliaca); this, in turn, divides into the left gastric
artery (a. gastnca sinistra), which runs to the car-
dia of the glandular stomach; the splenic artery
(<2. lienalis), which passes behind the stomach to
the spleen; and the hepatic artery (a. hepatica).
The latter gives off a gastroduodenal (a. gastro-
duodenalis) and a right gastric {a. gastnca dextra)
branch to the greater and lesser curvatures of the
compound stomach, respectively (Fig. 5-34). Some-
what distal to the coeliac trunk is the cranial mesen-
teric artery (a. mesentenca cranialis), which crosses
the caudal vena cava {v. cava caudalis) ventrally
before giving rise to the caudal pancreatoduodenal
artery {a. pancreatoduodenalis caudalis), to the
pancreas and proximal duodenal loop. It runs on
the cranial root of the mesentery ventral to the
stomach before turning caudally between the
jejunal-ileal loops. More caudal branches join with
the caudal mesenteric artery {a. mesentenca cauda-
lis) to supply the caudomesocolic region.

Shortly after its point of origin, craniodorsal to
the aortic bifurcation in the umbilical region {regie
umbilicalis), the caudal vena cava runs cranially to
the right of the aorta. At the level of the tenth and
eleventh thoracic vertebrae, the vena cava turns
dextroventrally and extends along the liver where
it lies in close relation to the caudate lobe (Fig. 5-
35). The caudal vena cava is subsequently invested
completely by the right hepatic lobe before entering
the thoracic cavity via the foramen venae cavae to
the right of the falciform ligament. Shortly before
the caudal vena cava passes through the diaphragm
it receives the cranial phrenic veins (uv. phrenicae
craniales).

5.5.4 Greater Nerves of the Abdominal
Cavity

The vagus nerves enter the abdominal cavity on
either side of the esophagus. The right vagus di-
vides into two branches, of which the gastric branch

{ramus gastncus uisceralis) extends to the caudal
margin of the stomach, while the coeliac branch
{ramus coeliacus) innervates the liver, spleen,
pancreas and kidneys. The left vagus nerve gives
off branches to the ventral surfaces of the stomach
and liver. From the lumbar plexus {plexus lumba-
lis), the iliohypogastric nerve {n. ilio hypo gastncus)
can be followed between the kidney and the dorsal
abdominal wall, where it enters m. quadratus
lumborum. An additional branch of the lumbar
plexus is the genitofemoral nerve {n. genitofemo-
ralis), which passes obliquely over the psoas major;
it crosses dorsal to the point of origin of the com-
mon iliac vein {v. iliaca communis) (Kittel, 1953)
to enter the pelvic cavity. The sympathetic trunk
{truncus sympathicus) runs along the vertebral
column medial to the origin of the psoas major.
The splanchnic nerves {nn. splanchnici), which
arise from sympathetic ganglia {ganglia trunci
sympathici) within the thoracic cavity, accompany
the aorta as it enters the abdominal cavity. The
splanchnic nerves {nn. splanchnici major et minor)
run beside the abdominal aorta and ventral to the
adrenal glands to the coeliac ganglia {ganglia coeli-
aca), which lie cranial to the origin of the cranial
mesenteric artery.

5.6 CAUDOMESOCOLIC REGION
5.6.1 Caudomesocolic Peritoneum

After forming the ventral layer of the greater
omentum and passing dorsal to the transverse colon
and on to the vertebral column at the caudal limit of
the pancreas, the peritoneum runs caudally to
cover the distal duodenum and forms the ventral
layer of the mesentery. It covers the small intestine,
then moves dorsally back to the vertebral column to
form the dorsal mesenteric layer. Passing caudally
along the dorsal wall, it invests the cranial and ven-
tral margins of the rectum, from which it is re-
flected ventrally onto the vagina and uterus, after
covering the open interval between the rectum and
female reproductive organs. This interval, the rec-
togenital pouch {excavatw rectogenitalis), is en-
tirely patent. After reflecting over the uterine fun-
dus and body, the peritoneum dips again cau-
dally to cover the bladder at the level of the cervix,
where it forms the vesicogenital pouch {excauatio

128

Abdomen and Pelvis

vesicogenitalis). In males, it covers a much less
prominent vesicogenital pouch and reflects directly
over the bladder. After investing the cranial surface
of the bladder, the peritoneum moves cranially
along the ventral abdominal wall.

5.6.2 Caudomesocolic Viscera and
Relations

The convoluted intestines of the European ham-
ster are subdivided into the duodenum, jejunum,
ileum, caecum, colon and rectum (Figs. 5-36, 5-
37). The total length of the gut averages 1425 mm
in males (n = 10, s.d.=250 mm) and 1100 mm in
females (n = 10, s.d.=250 mm). The total length of
the gut is thus 4 to 5 times the length of the body.
The weight of the distended intestines is 28.7 g ±
4.0 g in males and 22.9 g ±. 4.0 g in females (Tables
3, 6).

5.6.2.1 Structure of the Small
Intestine

The small intestine {intestinum tenue) extends
from the pylorus to the iliocaecal junction {ostium
lie ale).

The intestinal wall is composed of serous, muscular, submucous and
mucous layers (Fi^. 5-38) The serous layer is formed of visceral peri-
toneum, which merges with the subserous stratum of areolar connective
tissue. The muscular coat is thicker in the cranial than in the caudal
part of the small intestine. It consists of a thin outer longitudinal and a
thicker inner circular layer of nonstriated muscle fibres. The submu-
cous layer consists of submucous glands and loose connective tissue
with blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves. The mucous membrane is
thick and highly vascular in the upper part of the small intestine but
thinner and less vascular in the lower part. It is thrown into circularly
or spirally arranged folds; the circular folds and the entire surface are
composed of Hngerlike, filiform projections, the intestinal villi. Ex-
tending into the mucosa from the surface between the intestinal villi are
simple tubular intestinal glands {gll. intestinales). They reach almost
to the muscular layer. In the duodenum are mucous tubuloalveolar
duodenal glands {gli duodenales), the ducts of which extend through
the muscular layer to proliferate in the submucous coat.

5.6.2.2 Duodenum

The duodenum of the European hamster is seg-
mented into cranial (pars cranialis), descending
(pars descendens) and ascending (pars ascendens)
parts. This portion of the intestine is about 140 mm
long and 3.5 mm wide, and it is from light yellow
to whitish-red in color. After the first flexure (flex-
ura duodeni cranialis) the duodenum runs ventral
to the caudal process of the liver and ventromedial

to the right kidney and continues in a caudomedial
direction as the descending part. The descending
part forms an arch convex towards the midline,
turns around at a second flexure (Jlexura duodeni
caudalis) in the pelvic region and continues crahio-
medially as the ascending segment to the visceral
surface of the stomach. The ascending part of the
duodenum turns to the right and runs between the
jejunal loops and the transverse colon, where it be-
comes the jejunum. The ascending duodenum is
connected to the descending colon, and the descend-
ing duodenum is fixed to the ascending colon by the
duodenocolic ligament (plica duodenocolica) ven-
tral to the kidneys.

5.6.2.3 Jejunum

The transition of the duodenum into the jejunum
is not visible superficially, nor is the transition of
jejunum into the succeeding ileum. The sharply
contorted loops of the jejunum are situated pre-
dominantly in the dorsal region of the mesogas-
trium, or mesentery attached to the greater curva-
ture of the glandular stomach (Figs. 5-39, 5-40).
Due to a long mesojejunum, the entire jejunum is
easily tractable (Fig. 5-41). With a length of about
350 mm and a width of approximately 4 mm, it is
the longest segment of the intestine; the serous sur-
face is grayish-red in color. The jejunal loops rest
dorsally against the duodenum and the ascending
colon, ventrally against the abdominal wall in the
umbilical region, and caudally against the urinary
bladder as well as the epididymal fat in males.
Cranial to the base of the caecum, the jejunum
merges into the ileum.

In the jejunum the mucous membrane forms especially tall villi
(Fig. 3-42).

5.6.2.4 Ileum

The length of the ileum is between 20 and
25 mm, while the width may be up to 3 mm. The
serous surface of the ileum is generally grayish-
yellow green in color. The ileocaecal ligament
(plica ileocaecalis) extends as a broad band between
the ileum and caecum. Originating at the border
between the jejunum and ileum, the ligament grad-
ually narrows as it approaches the dorsal surface
of the caecum. At the point of attachment, the ileum

129

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

empties into the caecum through a cone-shaped
process forming the so-called "ileocaecal valve"
{papilla ilealis). This valve marks the transition
from caecum to colon.

5.6.2.5 Structure of the Large
Intestine

The large intestine {intestinum crassum) extends
from the ileocaecal junction to the anus. The tissue
layers in the wall of the large intestine are similar
in structure to those of the small intestine. The mu-
cous membrane of the caecum and colon is pale,
smooth and free of villi; it is thrown into numerous
crescentic folds which correspond with the inter-
vals between sacculi. The mucous membrane of the
rectum is thicker, of a darker hue, more vascular
and more loosely connected with the muscular coat.

The epithelium of the caecum, colon and upper rectum consists of
scattered mucous-secreting goblet cells and columnar absorptive cells
with striated borders (Fig. 5-43). The solitary lymphatic follicles of
the large intestine are most abundant in the submucous layer of the
caecum.

5.6.2.6 Caecum

In European hamsters of good nutritional status,
the caecum is a large structure (Figs. 5-36, 5-37,
5-39) with a distinct apex (apex caeci) body {cor-
pus caeci) and base {basis caeci). The caecum meas-
ures up to 120 mm in length and 15 mm in width.
The apex of the caecum lies in the left ventral part
of the abdominal cavity and rests against the ab-
dominal wall at an imaginary margin between the
left lateral abdominal region {regio abdominis
lateralis sinister) and the umbilical region. The cae-
cum is bordered cranially by the visceral surface of
the stomach, dorsolaterally by the descending colon
and dorsomedially by the duodenum. The caecum
proper, when distended, exhibits a helical shape
(Fig. 5-36). The base of the caecum is freely mobile,
consequently prohibiting exact establishment of its
location. Neither taeniae nor haustra are recogniz-
able in the caecum. The retaining capacity of the
caecum exceeds that of the stomach.

5.6.2.7 Colon

The colon of Cricetus cricetus is divided into
three parts: the ascending colon {colon ascendens),

the transverse colon {colon transversum) and the
descending colon {colon descendens) (Fig. 5-36).

The ascending colon has a grayish-green serous
surface and, depending on the age of the hamster, a
length of about 350 mm. It commences with a
broad S-shaped loop which lies dorsal to the apex
of the caecum. In this area, the colon has a diameter
of 10 to 12 mm, depending upon its distention; it
gradually constricts as it runs dorsomedially (to
the left) toward the apex of the caecum. It extends
along the apex of the caecum to the cranial border
of the epididymal fat tissue in males, while in fe-
males it extends to the left inguinal region {regio
ingmnalis sinister) at the level of the third or
fourth lumbar vertebra, where it forms a horse-
shoe-shaped loop (Fig. 5-44). Craniolateral to the
urinary bladder, the ascending colon turns cranio-
dorsally while continuing in an oblique direction
to the level of the cranial pole of the right kidney,
where it crosses the body of the caecum dorsally
and the ileum and duodenum ventrally. At the
cranial pole of the right kidney, it bends caudolat-
erally; in the right lateral abdominal region, it
forms a large S-shaped loop about 30 mm in diam-
eter. From the right kidney, it extends to the ventral
abdominal wall and, alongside the right abdominal
wall, executes another bend of about 180°. From
this flexure, the ascending colon doubles back by
means of an arch open caudally and proceeds caudo-
dorsally nearly to the level of the right kidney,
turning 180° a second time.

The distal part of the double loop is applied
closely to the proximal part by means of a short,
fatty, 5 mm long mesocolon which binds the two
flexures together up to the level of the cranial pole
of the right kidney. Between the kidney and the
visceral surface of the right lateral lobe of the liver,
the ascending colon becomes the transverse colon.
Shortly before the U-shaped loop of the ascending
colon, fecal formation begins (Fig. 5-44).

The transverse colon has a length of 60 to 70 mm
and its diameter is about 3 mm. The serous surface
of the transverse colon is grayish-green in color.
This segment of the colon runs caudal to the stom-
ach and liver and ventral to the cranial segment of
the duodenum, remaining perpendicular to the me-
dian plane until it reaches the left abdominal wall.
Here it turns caudally and at the end of the spleen

130

Abdomen and Pelvis

progresses as the descending colon.

The descending colon (Figs. 5-45, 5-46) is
about 120 to 180 mm long and about 3 mm in di-
ameter; it also has a grayish-green serous surface.
It extends caudally along the left lateral abdominal
wall; in male hamsters, it runs dorsal to the epi-
didymal fatty tissue in a caudomedial direction and
crosses the left ureter. In female hamsters, it crosses
ventrally over the uterine horns. At about the level
of the sacrum, the descending colon reaches the
midline and, dorsal to the urinary bladder and the
body of the uterus, runs between these organs and
the sacrum where it continues into the rectum.

5.6.3 Retroperitoneal Viscera and
Relations

5.6.3.1 Rectum

In European hamsters the rectum of the male is
considerably longer (40 to 60 mm) than that of the
female (35 to 45 mm). It extends from the descend-
ing colon through the pelvic cavity to the anus,
which lies more caudally in males than in females.
The grayish-green rectum lies dorsal to the uri-
nary bladder, vagina and body of the uterus and
ventral to the proximal caudal vertebrae and sac-
rum in females. It runs dorsal to the bladder, ac-
cessory glands and the origin of the penis, and ven-
tral to the sacral and caudal vertebrae in males
(Fig. 5-46).

5.6.3.2 Urinary Organs

The urinary organs {organa uropoetica) include
the kidneys (ren), which secrete the urine; the ure-
ters {ureter), which convey the urine to the bladder;
the urinary bladder {vesica urinaria), which tem-
porarily stores the urine and the urethra, through
which the urine is discharged from the urinary
bladder (Fig. 5-47).

5.6.3.2.1 Kidney

The kidneys constantly filter waste materials
from the blood. They regulate body fluids and salts
and maintain normal osmotic pressure of the blood
and tissues. The bilaterally paired kidneys weigh
about 930 mg each (Tables 2, 5) and lie retroperi-

toneally in the lumbar region (Fig. 5-48). The
axes of the kidneys lie oblique to the midsagittal
plane of the body; the distance between the caudal
poles {extremitates caudales) of the kidneys being
18mm, while that between the cranial poles (e.>r-
tremitates craniales) is only 11 mm. The right kid-
ney lies between the first and the third lumbar ver-
tebrae and is covered cranioventrally by the caudate
lobe of the liver (Fig. 5-33). The hilus {hilus ren-
alis) of the right kidney lies at the level of the trans-
verse process of the third lumbar vertebra, while the
hilus of the left kidney is situated between the third
and fourth lumbar vertebrae. One renal artery {a.
renalis) and one renal vein {v. renalis) pass over the
hilus of each kidney (Figs. 5-33, 5-47). At the cra-
nial end of each kidney lies an adrenal gland {gl.
suprarenalis), which is separated from the kidney
proper by fatty and connective tissue.

The vessels to the right kidney originate more
cranially than those supplying the left kidney (Fig.
5-33). Craniodorsal to the left renal vein, the left
renal artery originates from the abdominal aorta
between the second and third lumbar vertebrae.
At this level, the right renal vein also runs towards
the caudal vena cava.

The dorsal surfaces of both kidneys are flat-
tened while the ventral surfaces are arched (Fig. 5-
49). Both poles of the kidneys are rounded; the
lateral edge is convex while the medial edge, on
which the hilus is situated, is slightly concave. A
longitudinal section through the kidney demon-
strates a more triangular cut surface (Fig. 5-51).
The right kidney is bean-shaped, and its lateral side
is slightly bowed. The left kidney is more markedly
curved so that the lateral wall forms a semicircle.

The color of the kidneys is red-brown (Fig. 5-
49), the surface is smooth and, like the Chinese
hamster (Geyer, 1972), Syrian Golden hamster
Schwarze and Michel, 1959-60) and rat (Wells,
1968), each kidney contains one papilla {papilla
renalis) (Figs. 5-50, 5-51). In sagittal section, the
kidneys exhibit a white-gray to red-brown cortex
about 3 mm wide, surrounded by a grayish-red
medulla, which is from 3 to 4 times as wide as the
cortex (Fig. 5-51). The cortical-medullary boun-
dary is clearly defined; at this division are elevated
interlobular vessels {aa. et vv. interlobular es)
(Figs. 5-50, 5-51). Depending upon the nutritional

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

status of the animals the kidneys are embedded in
perirenal fat (capsula adiposa) (Fig. 5-48). Espe-
cially in autumn, the hamsters accumulate much
fat around the kidneys in preparation for hiberna-
tion.

The outer covering of the kidneys is a thin but dense connective tis-
sue capsule (capsula fibrosa) from which thin filaments proceed into
the kidnev proper. The entire parenchyma consists of densely packed
tubules which are embedded in loose connective tissue through which
the renal vessels, lymphatics and nerves run. The renal cortex {cortex
renis) is comprised of the renal corpuscles (corpuscula rents) (Figs. 5-
52, 5-53), and the proximal convoluted tubules (tubuli reriales con-
lorti) the terminal parts of which become either straight (tubuli renales
recti) or slightly spiralled (spiral tubules). These spiral tubules run
toward the medulla (medulla renis) to become the descending limb of
Henle's loop, connected by a U-turn to the ascending limb. The renal
tubules are lined by a single layer of epithelial cells, outside of which is
a basement membrane. The height of the epithelial cells varies in the
different parts of the tubules. The renal medulla consists of radiating
straight-running tubules which discharge at the papillary surlaces mto
the calyces (calices renalei) (Fig. 5-54). The pelvis of the kidney (pel-
vis renalis) is lined with simple polygonal epithelium without glands
(Fig. 5-55.)

5.6.3.2.2 Ureter

The ureter transfers the continually-produced
urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder
(vesica urinaria), where the urine is stored. The
ureters leave the renal pelves caudomedially and
proceed in a caudal direction; they are protected by
a rich retroperitoneal fatty tissue. They continue
parallel to the aorta and caudal vena cava (Fig. 5-
47) and discharge on each side into the dorsal wall
of the urinary bladder. The course of the ureters
differs somewhat between the sexes. In males the
ureter runs dorsal to the vesicular gland (gl. vesicu-
laris) and the ductus deferens, crossing the latter
and emptying into the bladder. The female ureters
run dorsal to the uterine horns {cornua uteri) and
lateral to the cervix {cervix uteri).

The ureters have three layers: fibrous, muscular and mucous (luni-
cae adventitia, muscularis, mucosa). The fibrous layer is continuous
at one end with the fibrous capsule of the kidney in the floor of the renal
pelvis while, at the other end, it merges with the wall of the urinary
bladder. The muscular coat consists of an outer circular part and an
inner longitudinal part. TTie mucous layer is smooth with longitudinal
folds. It contains many elastic fibers and is covered with a transitional
epithelium, four or five cells thick.

5.6.3.2.3 Urinary Bladder

Depending upon the degree of distension, the
urinary bladder (vesica urinaria) is about the size
of a cherry and projects, even when only slightly
distended, over the pubic crest into the ventral pubic

region (regio pubica) (Fig. 5-48). The walls of the
urinary bladder are so thin that one can view the
contents of the bladder. In male hamsters, the blad-
der is bordered lateroventrally by the abdominal
wall and cranially by the caecum or distended loops
of the small intestine. Dorsal to the bladder lie the
vesicular glands and the well-developed ampulla of
the ductus deferens (Fig. 5-59). The male urethra
(urethra masculina) extends along the ventral side
of the penis. The external orifice of the urethra (os-
tium urethrae externum) is not at the end of the
penis, which has two points at its tip, but rather on
the ventral surface of the circular mucosal fold. In
female hamsters, the urinary bladder pushes ven-
trally against the abdominal wall, cranially against
the caecum and jejunal loops, and dorsally against
the uterine horns and cervix. The middle ligament
of the bladder (lig. vesicae medianum) is well de-
fined, and two lateral true ligaments (ligg- vesicae
laterales) are erected as small serous folds towards
the lateral abdominal walls. The urethra of the fe-
male (urethra feminina) discharges separately from
the vagina and the anus. Thus, while the female
urethra is purely a urinary duct, the male urethra
serves two functions, urinary and reproductive.

The bladder has a wall similar to that of the
ureters. The abdominal surface is covered by
peritoneum.

The muscular stratum (m. pubovesicalis and m. rectourethralis),
consists of three layers of smooth muscle — an external and an internal
layer of longitudinal fibers and a middle layer of circular fibers The
mucous membrane is whitish-pink in color. It is continuous above with
the mucous membrane of the ureters and below with that of the ureth-
ra. The epithelium is of the transitional type, 3 or 4 cells thick (Fig
5-56). The loose texture of the submucosa allows the mucosa to be
thrown into folds or rugae when the bladder is in an empty state.

5.6.4 Adrenal Gland

The adrenal glands (gll. suprarenales) belong to
the endocrine system. The cells of their cortex pro-
duce corticosteroids, whereas those of the medulla
synthesize noradrenalin and adrenalin.

The adrenals are located at the level of the last
thoracic vertebra or the first lumbar vertebra, cra-
niomedial to the kidneys, 1 to 3 mm lateral to the
abdominal aorta and caudal vena cava (Fig. 5-50).
The right adrenal gland, like the right kidney, is

132

Abdomen and Pelvis

positioned about 1 to 2 mm more cranial than the
left adrenal gland. The right lateral lobe of the liver
overlaps the right adrenal ventrally. Both adrenal
glands are almost completely embedded in areolar
tissue containing much fat (Fig. 5-48).

The red brow^n to dark brow^n color of the smooth
surfaces of the adrenal glands resembles that of the
kidneys (Fig. 5-49). The glands are ovoid in shape,
with a length of about 4 mm and width about 2 mm
(Tables 3, 5, 12-12e).

Histologically, the adrenals show the typical structure of a darker
cortical substance and a higher medullary substance (Fig. 5-57). The
cortex of the adrenal glands exhibits an indistinct segmentation because
the transition of the zona fasciculata, composed of small columnar cells,
into the zona glomerulosa and the zona reticularis is indistinctly de-
marcated. The substance of the medulla is constructed from single cords
that are separated bv vessels and vascular capillaries.

The suprarenal arteries (aa. suprarenales),
which arise from the renal arteries, supply the
adrenal glands; the venous return is via the supra-
renal veins {vu. suprarenales) , which join the renal
veins.

5.6.5 Caudomesocolic and

Retroperitoneal Vascularization

5.6.5.1 Arteries

The cranial mesenteric artery (Fig. 5-33) gives
off a series of intestinal branches to the jejunum (aa.
jejunales) and ileum {aa. dei); an ileocolic branch
{a. ileocolica) to the ileum, caecum and the proxi-
mal colon; a right colic branch {a. colica dextra) to
the ascending colon; and a middle colic branch {a.
colica media) to the transverse colon. The middle
colic artery often anastomoses with branches from
the caudal mesenteric artery {a. mesentenca cau-
dalis), which arises from the ventral aorta near the
level of its origin. The left colic branch of the caudal
mesenteric artery supplies the descending colon,
while the cranial rectal artery is the caudal continu-
ation of the caudal mesenteric artery, and supplies
the rectum (Fig. 5-58).

Close to the origin of the cranial mesenteric ar-
tery, the paired renal arteries arise to supply the
kidneys, adrenals and other retroperitoneal tissue
(Fig. 5-34). From the ventral side of the aorta at the
level of the caudal pole of the left kidney, two rela-

tively small vessels, the testicular arteries (aa. testi-
culares), originate in males, passing eventually
through the inguinal canal {canalis inguinalis); the
ovarian arteries (aa. ovaricae) are the female
counterpart.

At the level of the cranial pole of the left kidney,
the abdominal aorta approaches the left wall of the
caudal vena cava and, after crossing the left renal
vein dorsally, is applied ventrally to the vena cava
until it bifurcates at the level of the sixth lumbar
vertebra into its largest branches, the paired com-
mon iliac arteries (aa. iliacae communes), (Fig. 5-
58) and the smaller median sacral artery (a. sacralis
mediana) and median caudal artery (a. caudalis
mediana), which continue the aorta into the tail.
The common iliac arteries run initially along the
medial borders of the psoas major muscles and then
turn obliquely laterally. In males, they are covered
by the vesicular glands (§■//. vesiculares). In the
female, they are crossed ventrally by the uterine
horns, caudal to which they bifurcate into the in-
ternal and external iliac arteries (aa. iliacae in-
ternae et externae).

5.6.5.2 Veins

The caudal vena cava (vena cava caudalis) is
formed from the junction of the right and left com-
mon iliac veins (vv. iliacae communes) at an acute
angle craniodorsal to the bifurcation of the abdom-
inal aorta at the level of the sixth lumbar vertebra.
Each common iliac vein is formed by the junction of
the external and internal iliac veins (vv. iliacae
externae et internae) a short distance from the ingu-
inal ligament (lig. inguinale) just medial to the
origin of the respective arteries. Shortly after its
point of origin, the vena cava crosses dorsal to the
right common iliac artery and continues cranially
along the right side of the abdominal aorta. At
approximately the same level as the origin of the
testicular arteries, the caudal vena cava takes up the
right testicular vein (v. testiculans), while the left
testicular vein empties into the caudal side of the
left renal vein. In females, both ovarian veins (vv.
ovaricae) empty symmetrically into the caudal vena
cava. Cranial to the terminus of the right testicular
vein, the caudal vena cava takes up the renal veins.

133

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

The main tributaries from the caudomesocolic
viscera emptying into the vena cava (in cranial di-
rection) include the testicular and ovarian, respec-
tively, in males and females; the renal veins; and
the portal shunt-hepatic vein system. Since the
hepatic veins (vv. hepaticae) are so small and (Fig.
5-35) vary greatly from animal to animal, the
exact number draining the different lobes of the
liver cannot be exactly determined. For example,
tributaries from the caudate lobe are not demon-
strable and probably empty into the caudal vena
cava during its transit through the liver. Other col-
lecting branches enter the ventral side of the vena
cava just caudal to the foramen venae cavae.

Because the walls of the larger vessels passing
through the liver are embedded in liver connective
tissue, they do not easily collapse, so that hemor-
rhage in the liver is often diagnostically critical.

5.6.5.3 Portal Circulation

The hepatic portal system includes those veins
draining the gastrointestinal tract caudal to the
diaphragm, whose blood is transported to the liver
by the portal vein {v. porta) for circulation through
the liver sinusoids before returning to the systemic
circulation via the hepatic veins and caudal vena
cava (Fig. 5-34). The portal vein is formed chiefly
by the gastroduodenal vein {v. gastroduodenalis),
splenic vein {u. lienalis) and cranial mesenteric vein
{v. mesenterica cranialis). The cranial mesenteric
vein is formed by branches from the jejunum {vv.
jejunales) and ileum {vv. ilei), and by the ileocolic
{v. ileocolica), right colic {v. colica dextra) and mid-
dle colic {v. colica media) veins, from the ascending
and transverse colons. The caudal mesenteric vein
{v. mesenterica caudalis), arising from the cranial
rectal {v. rectalis cranialis) and left colic veins {v.
colica sinistra), and draining the descending colon
and rectum, also discharges into the cranial mesen-
teric vein. All of these vessels run through the mes-
entery and, at the level of the eleventh thoracic
vertebra, join to form the portal vein, which runs
to the liver, dorsal to the common bile duct and
dextrodorsal to the hepatic artery within the hepa-
toduodenal ligament. At this level, the portal vein
gives off two branches corresponding to the right
and left lobes of the liver.

5.7 LYMPHATIC SYSTEM OF THE
ABDOMEN AND PELVIS

5.7.1 Lymph Nodes of the
Gastrointestinal Tract

The lymph nodes of the abdominal viscera are
organized into two major lymph centers, the coeliac
{lymphocentrum coeliacum) and the cranial mes-
enteric {lymphocentrum mesentericum craniale),
which empty into the cisterna chyli. The cisterna
chyli represents a dilated portion of lymphatic trunk
situated between the crura of the diaphragm at the
level of the last thoracic to the second lumbar ver-
tebrae. It receives the coeliac {truncus coeliacus),
lumbar {truncus lumbalis) and intestinal {truncus
intestinalis) trunks, and continues intrathoracically
as the thoracic duct.

5.7.1.1 Coeliac Lymph Center

The following nodes all drain through the coeliac
trunk. The gastric lymph nodes {Inn. gastrici), 3 to
5 in number, are situated along the pylorus and the
proximal duodenum, as well as within the gastro-
splenic ligament. Occasionally one or two may also
be found within the greater omentum. They drain
the fore- and glandular stomachs, duodenum,
spleen and greater omentum.

The hepatic lymph nodes {Inn. hepatici) lie dor-
sal to the right lobe of the pancreas, between the
pancreas and the portal vein (Fig. 3-12). The ac-
cessory hepatic lymph nodes {Inn. hepatici acces-
sorii) are situated within the hepatoduodenal liga-
ment (Fig. 3-12). They too drain the liver.

The pancreaticoduodenal lymph nodes {Inn.
pancreaticoduodenales), 4 to 7 in number, lie within
the gastroduodenal ligament and the greater omen-
tum immediately ventral to the right lobe of the
pancreas. (They are sometimes difficult to distin-
guish from the pancreatic tissue.) They drain parts
of stomach and liver, the pancreas and duodenum.

5.7.1.2 Cranial Mesenteric Lymph
Center

The following nodes drain through the intestinal
trunk: the cranial mesenteric lymph nodes {Inn.

134

Abdomen and Pelvis

mesenterici craniales) lie near the apex of the cae-
cum, caudal to the pancreas at the root of the mes-
entery {radix mesenterii). All lymphatic vessels
draining the intestines (except the descending
colon) overflow^ to this lymph node.

The jejunal lymph nodes {Inn. jejunales) consist
of an aggregation of up to 10 lymph nodes situated
near the root of the mesentery of the small intestine,
adjacent to the cranial mesenteric lymph nodes.
They drain the jejunum and ileum and flow to the
cranial mesenteric lymph nodes.

The ileocaecal lymph nodes {Inn. ileocaecales)
form an aggregation of 3 to 5 lymph nodes in the
region of the ileocaecal junction, within the mes-
entery between ileum and caecum. They drain the
ileum and caecum and flow to the cranial mesenteric
lymph node.

The colic lymph nodes {Inn. colici) vary in num-
ber from 3 to 6 and are situated within the meso-
colon of the various segments of the colon. They
drain the respective segments of the colon and flow
to the cranial mesenteric lymph node.

5.7.2 Lumbar Lymph Center

The renal lymph nodes {Inn. renales) lie medial
to the hilus of each kidney (Fig. 3-12) and drain the
kidney into the lumbar trunk. The lumbar aortic
lymph nodes {Inn. lumbales aortici), which are
situated along the aorta and caudal vena cava, also
are drained by the lumbar trunk.

5.7.3 Lymph Nodes of the Pelvis and
Hind Limb

A number of separate lymph centers in this re-
gion are identified {lymphocentra iliosacrale, ilio-
femorale, inguinofemorale, popliteum, and others).
However, all lymphatic flow from this region ulti-
mately passes cranially through the lumbar trunk,
the iliac lymph nodes {Inn. iliaci).

The lateral iliac lymph nodes {Inn. iliaci later-
ales) consist of a pair of large ellipsoid nodes (Fig.
3-12) situated lateral to the aorta and vena cava
immediately cranial to the origin of the common
iliac arteries and veins. The medial iliac lymph
nodes {Inn. iliaci mediales) consist of a group of

two or more small nodes medial to the common
iliac arteries just caudal to the bifurcation. The iliac
lymph nodes drain the pelvis and pelvic organs, as
well as parts of the hind limb directly, into the lum-
bar trunk. The sacral lymph nodes {Inn. sacrales)
consist of one or two lymph nodes which lie imme-
diately caudal to the bifurcation of the aorta (Fig.
3-12). They drain the sacral region, tail and repro-
ductive organs into the iliac lymph nodes.

The superficial inguinal lymph nodes {Inn. in-
guinales super ficiales) (Fig. 3-12) are very small
and lie superficially on the proximal medial surface
of the hind limb, covered only by the skin. They
drain the skin of the abdominal wall and proximal
parts of the hind limb and flow to the deep inguinal
nodes {Inn. inguinale s profundi) (Fig. 3-12). The
latter are situated lateral to the femoral vein {v.
femoralis) at the point where it courses through the
abdominal wall. They drain the superficial inguinal
and the popliteal lymph nodes and fiow to the iliac
lymph nodes.

The popliteal lymph node {In. popliteus) (Fig.
3-12) lies at the bend of the knee medial to the
biceps muscle of the thigh {m. biceps femoris), lat-
eral to the semitendinous muscle {m. semitendino-
sus), and cranial to the gastrocnemius muscle (m.
gastrocnemius). It drains the lateral and dorsal
parts of the foot and overflows to the deep inguinal
lymph node.

5.8 MALE GENITAL ORGANS

The testes are located within the scrotum when
active, and are responsible for the formation of the
sperm. The ductus deferens originates from the
epididymis and empties into the urethra. In this
way, a urogenital canal is formed, arourui which
the following accessory genital glands {gll. genitales
accessoriae) are grouped: vesicular glands {gll.
vesiculares), prostate gland {prostata) and bulbo-
urethral glands {gll. bulbourethrales). Also con-
sidered as accessory genital glands are the glandu-
lar portions of the vas deferens, the ampullae. All
empty into the pelvic part {pars pelvina) of the
urethra. The ejaculate is formed at the time of ejac-
ulation, when the secretions of these glands mingle
with the discharged sperm.

135

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

5.8.1 Testis

The testes are compound tubular glands, slightly
flattened and oval in shape, with the function of
sperm formation and production of androgen. They
have a length of 20 to 25 mm and a breadth of 1 1
to 13 mm in adult animals during spring and sum-
mer (Tables 4, 6) (Reznik, et ai, 1973). During the
sexually active period of the year, they each weigh
about 2.6 g and are completely lodged within the
vaginal tunic {tunica vaginalis). In autumn and
winter, the testes weigh only about 0.55 g (Tables
4, 6, 7, 13, 13a). Only during the mating period are
the testes located within the scrotum of wild Euro-
pean hamsters. Coiled testicular veins are detecta-
ble on the surface of the tunic that tightly invests
the testis {tunica albuginea) (Fig. 5-61 ).

The parenchyma of the testicles is yellowish-
white in color and is of such soft spongy consistency
that the seminiferous tubules {tubuli seminiferi)
protrude. During the months of August through
October, the testes migrate back through the in-
guinal canal into the pelvic cavity. Within the pelvic
cavity, both testes rest within a large fat pad which
almost completely invests them (Fig. 5-62). While
situated within the pelvic cavity, the right testis
lies between the caudolateral abdominal wall and
the urinary bladder. Its caudomedial surface is
adjacent to the ascending portion of the ampulla of
the ductus deferens. The left testis is similarly situ-
ated, except its dorsal surface rests against the
descending colon.

During the sexually active period, various cell types are microscop-
ically demonstrable within the seminiferous tubules of adult males
Spermatogonias A and B, Sertoli cells, resting spermatocytes, spermat-
ocytes, spermatids in different stages of maturity (Leblond and Cler-
mont, 1952a and b) and mature sperm (Fig. 5-63) are visible on the
tubule walls.

The interstitial tissue of the testes consists of the cells of Leydig (Fig.
5-64) and various other cells, some of connective tissue type, together
with the vessels and nerves. Only during hibernation is spermiogenesis
reduced to the 15th stage (Fig. 5-65); however, all other cell types are
represented (Reznik-Schuller and Reznik, 1973, 1974b) (Fig. 5-67).

5.8.2 Epididymis

The epididymis serves as storage site for the
sperm, and is connected with the testis by the rete
testis. Under the influence of the epididymal secre-
tion, the maturation of the previously immobile
sperm is completed. At the time of ejaculation, the

sperm are transported into the ductus deferens by
peristaltic contractions.

The cranial extremity of the head of the epidi-
dymis {caput epididymidis) (Figs. 5-59, 5-60) -s
firmly attached to the cranial pole of the testis in a
hood-like manner and is surrounded by yellowish-
white fat bodies. The head of the epididymis and a
portion of the fat bodies lie intra-abdominally. The
body of the epididymis {corpus epididymidis) is
quite thin and extends dorsolaterally to the ductus
deferens and dorsomedially to the testis (Figs. 5-59,
5-60). The caudal extremity, or tail {cauda epidi-
dymidis) (Fig. 5-59), has the form of a blunted
cone and is located at the caudal pole of the testis
{extremitas caudata). The convolutions of the epi-
didymal duct {ductus epididymidis) are clearly
recognizable. At the level of the pelvic inlet, the
ductus deferens expands to form the prominent
ampulla, doubles back medially to join the dorsally
situated urethra through the ejaculatory duct {duc-
tus ejaculatorius) (Fig. 5-59). The weights and
sizes of the epididymal regions are given in Tables
14- 14c.

The coiled efferent ductules lined with ciliated columnar epithelium
contain circularly arranged muscle fibers in their walls; thev form the
small vascular cones (com vascuhsi) of the head of the epididymis (Fig.
5-66). Their union forms a coiled tube that constitutes the body and
tail of the epididymis and becomes the ductus deferens (Fig. 5-59).
Within this duct, the muscle layer becomes thicker, the epithelium is
pseudostratified columnar and the superficial cells have long, regular
microvilli.

5.8.3 Accessory Genital Glands

The accessory genital glands {gll. genitales ac-
cessoriae) are grouped around the pelvic part of the
urethra. Their growth and function are controlled
by the sex hormones. During hibernation, they are
markedly atrophied (Tables 15, 16, 16a, 17). The
secretion of the accessory genital glands provides
the specific substrate for the completion of the ma-
turation and mobilization of the sperm.

5.8.3.1 Vesicular Gland

The paired vesicular glands {gll. vesiculares) are
flattened falciform or sickle-shaped coiled tubes
which are concave medially, lying dorsal to the
urinary bladder and ampulla of the ductus deferens,
and ventral to the rectum. The small tubes stretch
cranially to form two points which often press

136

Abdomen and Pelvis

against the bladder when the latter is distended.
The vesicular gland discharges dorsally into the
urethra through the ductus excretorius, situated
near the ejaculatory duct. During summer, these
glands weigh ten times more than they do in the
winter months (Tables 4, 6, 16, 16a). They are
grayish-white in color, up to 25 mm long, and their
surfaces are nodular. Internally, each gland has a
spacious, central main duct which gives rise to
lateral ducts, ramifying as diverticula and ending
blindly.

The vesicular glands have three layers: an external areolar sheath
(tunica adventitia); a two-layered middle muscular sheath (tunica
muscularu). thinner than that of the ductus deferens, which includes
an outer longitudinal and inner circular layer; and an internal mucous
coat (tunica mucosa) with a reticular structure. The epithelium is col-
umnar or flat, depending upon its functional state (Fig. 5-68), and
goblet cells, the secretion of which increases the volume of the seminal
fluid, are present in the diverticula.

5.8.3.2 Prostate Gland

The prostate gland (prostata) appears as flat-
tened bodies composed of many glandular lobules
separated from one another by loose connective
tissue. The two largest lobes lie dorsal and lateral
to the base of the urinary bladder and ventral to the
caudal segment of the ductus deferens. Three small-
er lobes are situated ventral to the neck of the
bladder and the end of the ampulla of the ductus
deferens. From the glandular lobes of the prostate
several efferent ducts [ductuli pro static i) enter the
urethra dorsolaterally. During hibernation, these
glands are barely recognizable macroscopically.
Prostate weights and sizes are given in Table 15.
Unlike the rat (Wells, 1968), no paraprostate is
present.

The muscular tissue constitutes the stroma of the prostate, the con-
nective tissue being very scanty and merely forming thin trabeculae
between the muscle fibers where the vessels and nerves of the gland
ramify. The glandular substance is composed of numerous follicles with
frequent internal papillary elevations. The lining of the canals and
follicles is of the simple columnar variety (Fig. 5-69).

5.8.3.3 Bulbourethral Gland

The bulbourethral glands {gll. bulbourethrales)
are paired small, rounded, somewhat lobulated,
lentil-sized, yellowish bodies, about 5 mm in di-
ameter (Fig. 5-59; Table 17). They are positioned
at the caudal border of the ischial tuberosity {tuber
ischiadicum), almost in the middle of the penis and

are surrounded by striated musculature. Each dis-
charges its secretion through a separate thin duct
{ductus gl. bulbourethralis ) into the urethra at the
root of the penis.

Each lobule consists of a number of acini lined with colufnnar
epithelial cells.

5.8.4 Penis

The penis is the male organ of copulation and
comprises a glans {glans penis), a body {corpus
penis) and a root {radix penis), all of which lie sub-
cutaneously, enclosed within the prepuce (prae-
putium). The fibrous penis of the European ham-
ster originates in two crura arising from the ischial
arch. When lying within the prepuce, it has the
form of a cylinder kinked about 90° (Fig. 5-70) and
is approximately 30 mm long when erected.

Its dorsal surface {dorsum penis) is flat while its
ventral urethral surface {sulcus urethralis) forms a
deep groove. The erectile mechanism is based on
two parallel and anastomosing corpora cavernosa,
both of which are invested by a compact connective
tissue sheath {tunica albuginea corporum caverno-
sorum). The urethra is partially surrounded ven-
trally by m. ischiourethralis. Many microscopically
visible mucosal papillae are found on the surface of
the glans penis. At the apex of the glans, the mucosa
forms a circular fold and the urethra discharges
into its ventral surface {ostium urethrae externum).
The OS penis is located in the apex of the corpus
cavernosum, covered by the glans, and is a small
pyramid shaped bone (Kittel, 1953).

The prepuce is composed of external and internal
laminae {laminae externa et interna), which ex-
hibit many macroscopic rugae. The large praeputial
glands {gll. praeputiales) form paired submucosal
cylindrical structures.

The corpora cavernosa, which confer a spongy
consistency to the fibroelastic penis, are lined with
endothelium only in the area of the root. The tra-
beculae are composed of white fibrous tissue, elastic
fibers and nonstriated muscle fibers; they are richly
vascularized and innervated. The cavernous spaces
are filled with blood during erection. In an erected
state, the penis lies along the abdominal wall
oriented cranially, as opposed to the caudal orien-
tation when lying subcutaneously.

137

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

5.9 FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS

The reproductive organs of the female include
the ovaries; oviducts; uterus with uterine horns
and cervix, and the vagina (Fig. 5-71). Externally,
the female hamster also has a quite prominent
clitoris as well as a bulb of the vestibule.

5.9.1 OVARY

The ovaries (ovaria) have two functions: produc-
ing ova and synthesizing the hormones estradiol
and progesterone. Each lies dorsolateral to the most
caudal quarter of the corresponding kidney, be-
tween the kidney and the dorsal abdominal wall
(Figs. 5-71, 5-72). Only rarely do the ovaries lie
at the level of the caudal pole of the respective kid-
neys. Depending on the nutritional condition of the
hamster and the season of the year, the ovaries are
embedded in varying amounts of adipose tissue. In
many cases, only the ventral side of the ovaries are
free from fat; in especially well-nourished ham-
sters, the ovaries are totally surrounded by fat (Fig.
5-72). Each ovary weighs about 26 mg (Tables 4,
6, 8, 18, 18a). In general, the variance in weight of
the ovaries is greater during the seasonal cycle than
during the estrus cycle (Fig. 5-73). The maximum
diameter is about 5 mm (Zuchner, 1975).

On the ventral side of the ovaries, the knobbed,
grayish-red surface shines through a pale, glossy
bursa (bursa ovarica), which has the shape of a
longitudinal oval and surrounds the entire ovary.
The bursa is compressed laterally so that the tubal
extremity of the ovary {extremitas tubaria) is ori-
ented cranially and the uterine extremity {extremi-
tas uterina) caudally, while each surface — lateral
or medial — is oriented ventrolaterally or dorso-
medially. The ovaries are invested by the meso-
varium which originates from the broad ligament
{lig. latum uteri). At the ovarian hilus {hilus
ovarici), the ovarian bursa and ligament of the
ovary {hg. ovarii proprium) are inserted; the latter
is relatively well developed and runs to the lateral
angle of the uterus at a point just dorsal to the uter-
ine horns.

The ovary consists of a peripheral cortex (zona
parenchymatosa) and a central medulla (zona vas-
culosa). The cortex is surrounded by connective
tissue (tunica albuginea), the outer surface of which

is covered by a simple cuboidal epithelium. The
cortex contains follicles (folliculi ovarici) at various
stages of maturation (Fig. 5-74), which are sur-
rounded by the stroma. In the cortex, intact or
involuting corpora lutea, corpora albicantia, atretic
follicles and corpora atretica are found. The central
medulla is composed of reticular fibers, elastic fibers
and connective tissue cells and contains numerous
vessels. The medulla also contains numerous inter-
stitial cells which appear epitheloid. During hiber-
nation a pronounced decrease in the number of
mature follicles occurs, and corpora lutea are almost
completely lacking (Fig. 5-75) (Zuchner, 1975).
This effect is not observed in nonhibernating ani-
mals during winter (Zuchner, 1975). Females kept
under standard laboratory conditions (i.e., nonhi-
bernating) demonstrate the highest ovarian activity
(most numerous mature follicles and corpora lutea)
from February to the end of May. Females that
hibernate during winter develop the same degree of
functional activity at the beginning of May (Zuch-
ner, 1975).

5.9.2 Oviducts

The oviducts (tuba uterina) are present as wind-
ing, narrow tubes which run caudally from the
ovary to the pointed uterine horns, with which they
merge at the ostium uterinum tubae. The ovarian
end of the oviduct is funnel-shaped and broadens
into the infundibulum (infundibulum tubae uter-
inae) which surrounds the caudolateral ovarian
pole and opens freely into the abdominal cavity.
The infundibular funnel includes finger-like pro-
jections {fimbriae tubae), some of which are orien-
ted along the lateral ovarian wall.

The oviduct is lined by a simple columnar epithelium which is also
in distinct papilliform folds (Fig. 5-77).

5.9.3 Uterus

All ova are transmitted to the uterine hOrns
where they adhere to the wall of the tube before
passing to the uterus; if unfertilized, they degener-
ate with extrusion of the debris through the uterus
and vagina. The uterus is bipartite, composed of an
undivided body (corpus uteri), and the uterine horns
(cornua uteri) (Fig. 5-76). Caudodorsal to the uri-
nary bladder, the uterine horns separate, diverging

138

Abdomen and Pelvis

craniolaterally. The uterine horns rest upon the
dorsal abdominal wall and extend to the region of
the caudal pole of the kidneys. The diameter of the
cylindrical uterine horns is about 2 to 3 mm and
their length about 59 mm (Tables 4, 6).

The two uterine horns continue as two distinct
channels within the body of the uterus, separated
by a septum {velum uteri), and they coalesce near
the cervix. Thus, cranially there are two internal
orifices (ostia uteri interna) within the uterus, while
caudally only a single external orifice {ostium
uteri externum) exists. On palpation, the cervix, or
neck of the uterus, a tube 10 mm long, presents a
firm consistency which distinguishes it from the
vagina and uterus.

From the cervix to the vagina, the mucosal Hning of the uterus is
composed of simple cylindrical epithelium (Fig. 5-78) which is thrown
into high longitudinal folds

In the propria, which is also folded, there are transient tubular
uterine glands lined with ciliated columnar epithelium (Fig. 5-78).
The stratified squamous epithelium of the cervix is thrown into shallow
folds.

5.9.4 Vagina

The vagina, the female organ of copulation, is a
fibromuscular tube whose orifice {ostium vaginae)

lies at the base of the clitoris. It is dorsoventrally
compressed, investing the urethra ventral to it and
enclosing the rectum to almost half the latter's
height.

Caudally, the vagina is lined with a keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium; cranially, where the major alterations occur during the
sexual cycle, the mucosa is a nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.

Since the European hamster has only a short
sexual cycle (4 to 6 days) (Reznik-Schuller, et al.,
1974), the epithelium of the vaginal mucosa is
constantly in a state of restoration, transformation
and disintegration. Young female hamsters reach
sexual maturity when they weigh about 200 g; at
this time the epithelium closing the vagina disap-
pears. Throughout hibernation, the vaginal orifice
is tightly closed by an epithelial layer which dis-
appears in the spring at the end of hibernation. The
orifice is almost completely round and, depending
on the age of the animals, about 3 mm in diameter.
The urethra is separated from the vagina and dis-
charges at the dorsal surface of the clitoris, which
stands in distinct relief from the surrounding tis-
sues and overlaps the vaginal orifice caudoventrally.
Caudodorsal to the vaginal orifice lies the anus
(Figs. 1-1,1-8).

139

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

140

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-2: Lateral radiogram of thorax and abdomen. Note spinal curves (kyph-
osis, lordosis) and dorsoventral obliquity of ribs.

141

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

a

b

Figure 5-3: Third lumbar vertebra, a, lateral view; b, cranial view. l = processus
spinosus; 2 = processusarticulariscranialis; 3 = processus mamillaris; 4 = processus
articularis caudalis; 5 = processus accessorius; 6 = centrum, cranial articular sur-
face; 7 = centrum, caudal articular surface.

Figure 5-4: Sixth lumbar vertebra, a, lateral view; b, dorsal view. 1 = processus
spinosus; 2 = processus articularis cranialis; 3 = processus mamillaris; 4=proces-
sus articularis caudalis; 5 = processus accessorius; 6 = centrum, cranial articular
surface; 7 = centrum, caudal articular surface.

142

Abdomen and Pelvis

c

Figure 5-5: Sacrum and last lumbar vertebra, a, ventral view; b, lateral view^; c,
dorsal view. l = processus articularis cranialis; 2=canalis sacralis; 3=facies
auricularis; 4=processus spinosus; 5 = foramina sacralia pelvina; 6 = processus
articularis caudalis; 7 = basis ossis sacri; 8=vertebra lumbalis VI; 9=vertebra
sacralis I; 10=vertebra sacralis II; 1 1 = vertebra sacralis III.

143

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-6: Radiogram of pelvis and sacrum. Note articulation of auricular surface of
sacrum, particularly prominent on first sacral vertebra, with wing of ilium.

Figure 5-7: Left pelvic bone, a, ventral view; b, lateral view; c, dorsal view.
l=crista lateralis; 2 = spina iliaca ventraliscaudalis; 3 = acetabulum; 4=tuber
ischiadicum; 5 = spina iliaca ventralis cranialis; 6 = spina iliaca dorsalis crani-
alis; 7 = incisura ischiadica major; 8 = incisura ischiadica minor; 9 = foramen
obturatum; 10 = tuberositas iliaca; ll=ala ossis ilii; 12 = facies auricularis;
13=fossa acetabuli; 14 = facies symphysialis.

144

Abdomen and Pelvis

Trachea a
Thymus b
Cor c
Pulmo d
Diaphragma e
Hepar f
Duodenum g

B ventriculus h
proventriculus i

Jejunum j
■caecum k

H Colon ascendens I
Vesica urinaria m
□Adipose tissue n

Figure 5-8: Diagram of thoracic and abdominal regions of male hamster, with
positions of various organs.

745

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Abdomen and Pelvis

BjV^ritriculus a Oesophagus c

( Proventriculus b Duodenum d

Figure 5-10: Schematic drawing of compound stomach of adult hamster, demonstrating two parts: glandular
stomach (a) and forestomach (b), which are separated by deep constriction. a = ventriculus; b= proventriculus;
c = duodenum; d = esophagus; 1 =fundus ventriculi; 2 = pars cardiaca; 3 = pars pylorica; 4 = sulcus ventriculi; 5 =
margo plicatus.

Figure 5-11: Isolated stomach. Forestomach, on
right, in empty state is smaller than glandular
stomach on left. At forestomach, stump of esoph-
agus is present: at glandular stomach, pylorus is
adjacent to proximal duodenum.

Figure 5-12: External surfaces of iso-
lated stomach fixed by perfusion with
glutaraldehyde. Note transparent thin
wails of forestomach, which become
thicker and more opaque at blind end
of organ.

U7

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-13: Radiogram of lateral aspect of abdominal
region after intraesophageal instillation of Mikropaque and
air. Position of abdominal part of esophagus as well as site
of forestomach and glandular stomach wVo are clearly
shown.

Figure 5-14: Internal aspect of longitudinally bisected
stomach fixed by perfusion with glutaraldehyde. Glandular
stomach is coated with relatively thick velvet-like mucosa,
whereas mucous membrane of forestomach is thin and
glistening, except at its blind end where epithelial layer is
thrown into folds. Note also well-developed margo plicatus
at transition from forestomach to glandular stomach.

148

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-15: Histology of forestomach. Mucous membrane consists
of simple squamous epithelium with thick layer of keratanized cells.
(H&E, X73).

Figure 5-16: Histology of glandular stomach exhibit-
ing gastric glands composed of tall rows of columnar
epithelium. (H & E, X42).

149

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-17: Radiogram of forestomach, glandular stomach and duodenum
m vivo. Double contrast with Mikropaque and air, animal in hanging position,
ventral view.

750

Abdomen and Pelvis

" Lobus dexter lateralis d H Processus caudatus f

in Lobus quadratUS e Figure 5-19: Drawing of diaphragmatic surface of

m Processus caudatus f
■ Processus papillaris g

Figure 5-18: Drawing of visceral surface of liver dem-
onstrating position of various lobes.

757

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-20: Isolated fresh liver, diaphragmatic aspect. Note strongly convex
shape of surface and distinct lobular structure.

Figure 5-21: Isolated fresh liver, visceral aspect. This
side is only slightly concave.

752

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-22: Histology of liver. Liver cells are radially arranged around central
vein, and separate into cords, or "plates" (laminae hepaticae), by anastomosing
sinusoids characteristic of liver lobules (lobuli hepatis). (H & E, X141).

Figure 5-23: Histology of edge of liver lobule, demonstrating portal triad, which
consists of branch of portal vein, branch of hepatic artery, and interlobular bile
ductule. (H&E,X88).

153

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-24: Isolated pancreas with adipose tissue (A) and parts of the greater omen-
tum (0). 1 = right lobe, extending between greater curvature of glandular stomach and
cranial flexure of duodenum; 2 = left lobe, occupying space between spleen and de-
scending colon; 3 = lobe, extending within duodenocolic ligament from caudal duode-
nal flexure to descending colon.

154

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-25: Ventral view of abdomen. Pancreas covered
by adipose tissue (A).

755

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-26: Right lobe of pancreas (1), visible along dorsal aspect of greater curva-
ture of stomach (stomach displaced ventrally).

Figure 5-27: Isolated stomach and gut with spleen and pancreas, (gut displaced cra-
nioventrally). l = right lobe of the pancreas; 2 = left lobe of pancreas occupying space
between spleen and descending colon; 3 = lobe within duodenocolic ligament.

156

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-28: Dorsal view of stomach with spleen, pancreas, and parts of gut. 1 = right
lobe of pancreas; 2 = left lobe of pancreas.

757

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-29: Histology of pancreas. Above. On left, two pancreatic islets of Lan-
gerhans are visible, while remaining tissue consists of glandular structures which
form exocrine parts of this organ. (H & E, X88). Below. Entrance of main pancreatic
duct into duodenum. (H & E, X88).

158

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-30: Parietal aspect of isolated lanciform spleen.

Figure 5-31: Visceral aspect of isolated spleen. Note gastrosplenic ligament attach-
ing organ to forestomach.

Figure 5-32: Histology of spleen. At bottom, part of Malpighian body arranged
around two capillaries can be seen. (H & E, X88).

159

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-33: Arteriogram of thoracic and abdominal regions (gut and left kid-
ney displaced). l=aorta abdominalis; 2 = a. coeliaca; 3 = a. mesenteries crani-
alis; 4 = aa. renales; 5 = arcus aortae; 6 = vv. pulmonales.

160

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-34: Dorsal arteriogram of abdominal
region at level of spleen. 1 =aorta abdominalis;
2 = a. mesenterica cranialis; 3 = a. pancreatico-
duodenalis caudalis; 4 = a. lienalis; A = lien; B =
ren dexter.

Figure 5-35: Venogram of hepatic portal vein, hepatic
venules, hepatic veins, and caudal vena cava. Note also small
internal jugular veins.

767

162

Abdomen and Pelvis

163

Clinical Anatomy oj the European Hamster

Figure 5-39: Abdominal organs /n s/ra note position
of jejunal loops (pink) and thick fat deposits, especially
around epididymis. Also visible along right lateral ab-
dominal wall is portion of contorted ascending colon
(whitish, showing feces) and caecum (pinkish gray) in
left lateral region.

164

Abdomen and Pelvis

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-41: Isolated gut demonstrating curled jejun-
al loops. Broad mesojejunum allows certain change in
position of this segment of intestine.

Figure 5-43: Histology of mucosal coat
of colon. In this part of intestine, epithelial
layer is thrown into distinct folds but does
not form villi. Note abundant goblet cells
(H&E.X45).

166

Figure 5-42: Histology of mucosal coat
of jejunum; mucous membrane in this
part of intestine forms tall villi. (H & E,

Figure 5-44: Radiogram of colon />? vivo, ventral view;
exposure taken with animal in hanging position; double
contrast with Mikropaque and air. Note beginning of
fecal formation.

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-45 (left): Radiogram of descending colon and rectum of mature hamster (contrast medium, 1 ml Angi-
ographin" and 9 ml air, introduced through anus).

Figure 5-46 (right): Lateral radiogram of descending colon and rectum of mature hamster (contrast medium,
1 ml Angiographin f and 9 ml air, introduced through anus). Note position of rectum relative to bony pelvis.

767

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

nGlandula suprarenalis b
Ureter c

Vesica urinaria d

Diaphragma e
Q Aorta abdominalis f
L^Vena cava caudalis g

Figure 5-47: Schematic drawing of urinary organs.

168

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-48: Urinary organs in situ. These organs are embedded
in well-developed adipose tissue. Urinary bladder in distended
state.

169

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-50: Schematic drawing of kidney and adrenal gland, longitudinally sec-
tioned. a=capsula fibrosa; b = cortex renis; c = zona intermedia; d = zona basalis;
e = papilia renalis; l=cortex glandulae suprarenalis; 2 = medulla glandulae supra-
renalis; 3 = capsula adiposa glandulae suprenalis.

170

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-51: Isolated kidney with adrenal gland, cut longitudinally. Note different
colors of cortical and medullary zones in adrenal gland, and clearly visible grayish-
white papilla of kidney.

Figure 5-52: Histology of renal cortical zone. This zone consists of proximal con-
voluted tubules and renal corpuscles. (H & E, X22).

771

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-53: Histology of renal corpuscle demonstrating its typical elements:
glomerular loops and Bowman's capsule. (H & E, X223).

Figure 5-54: Histology of renal medulla, composed of radiating tubules. (H & E,

772

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-56: Histology of urinary bladder. Stratified
transitional epithelium thrown into distinct folds when
organ is empty. (H & E, X90).

Figure 5-57: Histology of adrenal gland, demonstrat-
ing typical structure of this organ. Zona medullaris can
be identified on right side, with zona fasciculata on left.
(H&E,X58).

173

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

■ Ren a

■I Giandula suprarenalis b

Ureter c
§m Vesica urinaria d
H Giandula prostatica e

■ Giandula vesicularisf

Giandula bulbourethralis g
Giandula praeputialis h
Penis i

H Epididymis j ,

Hi Testis k

H Ampulla ductus

deferentis I

I I Ligamentum intercornuale
m

Figure 5-59:

Schematic drawing of male urogenital organs.

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-60: Male urogenital organs />? s/Yu. Note
abundant adipose tissue around kidneys and epidi-
dymides and thick ampullae of vas deferens.

Figure 5-61: Isolated formalin-fixed testes demonstrating seasonal
variation in size. From left to right: testis in May; two testes in Octo-
ber; two testes in December during hibernation.

776

Abdomen and Pelvis

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-63: Histology of seminiferous tubule of sexually active male sacrificed in
May. Note large diameter of tubule and numerous mature spermatids. (H & E, X88).

Figure 5-64: Histology of interstitial tissue in testis of sexually active male sacri-
ficed in May. (H & E, X141).

178

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-65: Histology of testis from male hamster during hibernation. Note small
seminiferous tubules without mature spermatids and sparse interstitial tissue.
(H & E, X88).

Figure 5-66: Histology of efferent ductule of head of epididymis. It is lined by col-
umnar ciliated epithelium. (H & E, X141).

779

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-67: Histology of glandular part of ductus deferens. Note densely packed
glands beneath pseudostratified columnar epithelium, on surface of which project
long microvilli. (H & E, X88).

Figure 5-68: Histology of vesicular gland of sexually active male sacrificed in May.
Caverns are filled with secretion, and epithelial cells of walls are flat in shape. (H &
E, X35).

180

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-69: Histology of prostate gland. Note distinct papillary projections lined
by simple columnar epithelium. (H & E, X88).

Figure 5-70: Penis of adult male. Note rectangular bend of cranial part, found
when organ lies flaccid within prepuce.

181

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

■ Ren a Hi Ovarium f

■1 Glandula suprarenalis b Diaphragma g

Ureter c Vena cava caudalis h

Vesica urinaria d Vena renalis i

"^Cornu uteri e fm abdominalls k

^ Arteria renalis I

Figure 5-71: Schematic drawing of female urogenital organs.

182

Abdomen and Pelvis

Figure 5-72: Ventral aspect of abdomen showing female genitalia in situ, abdominal organs displaced.
Note abundant fat deposits, which accumulate in autumn.

Figure 5-73: Isolated ovaries demonstrating variation in size that occurs during annual cycle. On left,
organ of sexually active female sacrificed in May; on right, that of female killed during hibernation.

183

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

184

Abdomen and Pelvis

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Figure 5-78: Histological aspect of uterus, with internal lining of simple cylindrical
epithelium. Note two uterine glands in propria; one discharges through mucosa into
uterine lumen. (H & E, X124).

186

TABLES

The following tables give salient statistics on the size and weight of various organs and glands of the
Europ)ean hamster, Cricetus cncetus L.

The data for Tables 9 through 22a were obtained bv examining the organs of five groups of European
hamsters (five males and five females in each group) in a study of the influence of hibernation on the various
endocrine (hypophysis or pituitary gland, thyroid glands, pancreatic islets, adrenal glands) and exocrine
glands. The data for tables 1 through 8 were based on a sample of 10 males and 10 females.

Group January (WH)

Groupjanuary (H)

Group May (WH)

Group May (H)

Group October (WH)

was killed without hibernation in January.

was killed during hibernation in January.

was killed without hibernation in May.

was killed after awakening from hibernation in May.

was killed before hibernation in October.

Data given for the weights and measures include the mean (x) and standard deviation (s).

187

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table 1. Weight and size of organs Table 2. Weight and size of organs

Cricetus cricetus L.

?

Cricetus cricetus L.

?

Body weight in g

X

451.14

358.58

Number of lobes of the lung

s

49.00

63.42

Right lung

4

4

Left lung

1

1

Total length in mm

X

241.06

236.48

s

9.15

12.42

Weight of lungs in g

X

2.12

1.79

s

0.66

0.37

Length from neck to coccyx

X

190.00

184.30

in mm

s

6.20

12.30

Volume of lungs in ml

X

2.63

2.01

s

0.56

0.48

Length of cranium in mm

X

51.06

52.14

s

4.70

1.38

Weight of heart in g

X

1.46

1.30

s

0.25

0.26

Length of trachea in in situ

X

33.69

33.34

in mm

s

2.92

3.88

Length of heart in mm

X

19.31

18.04

s

1.51

1.45

Length of isolated trachea

X

23.00

21.98

in mm

s

4.30

2.70

Breadth of heart in mm

X

11.08

10.23

s

1.53

0.90

Number of tracheal rings

X

15.00

14.50

s

0.99

0.99

Weight of liver in g

X

15.25

15.34

s

1.91

1.86

Weight of trachea in mg

X

86.30

67.80

s

18.50

22.20

Number of lobes in liver

X

5
1

5
0

Weight of larynx in mg

X

221.50

185.00

s

s

36.00

36.00

Weight of right kidney in mg

X

926.70

922.50

s

83.50

188.90

Outer diameter of the first

X

4.48

4.06

two tracheal rings in mm

s

0.27

0.30

Weight of left kidney in mg

X

930.00

910.60

s

118.50

198.10

Inner diameter of the first

X

3.90

3.51

two tracheal rings in mm

s

0.41

0.36

Length of right kidney

X

18.44

17.61

in mm

s

0.84

0.10

Outer diameter of the 7th and

X

3.90

3.56

8th tracheal rings in mm

s

0.43

0.41

Breadth of right kidney in

X

8.02

7.52

mm

s

0.89

0.65

Inner diameter of the 7th and

X

3.38

3.17

8th tracheal rings in mm

s

0.46

0.40

Height of right kidney in mm

X

10.07

9.91

s

1.05

0.72

Outerdiameter of the last

X

3.24

3.19

two tracheal rings in mm

s

0.36

0.40

Length of left kidney in mm

X

17.89

17.18

s

1.07

1.19

Inner diameter of the last

X

2.70

2.83

two tracheal rings in mm

s

0.31

0.37

Breadth of left kidney in mm

X

8.21

7.84

0.83

0.94

s

Height of left kidney in mm

X

10.65

10.17

s

1.13

0.97

J88

Tables

Tables. Weight and size of organs Table 4. Weight and size of organs

Cricetus cricetus L.

s

?

Cricetus cricetus L.

a

9

Weight of right adrenal gland

X

15.60

11.10

Weight of right testis in mg

X

2540.70

in mg

s

4.20

5.50

s

325.10

>

Weight of left adrenal gland

X

16.90

21.60

Weight of left testis in mg

X

2623.50

in mg

s

5.30

3.27

s

349.60

Length of right adrenal gland

X

4.13

3.64

Length of right testis in mm

X

25.14

in mm

s

0.63

0.45

s

3.39

Breadth of right adrenal

X

2.15

1.82

Breadth of right testis in

X

14.19

gland in mm

s

0.36

0.31

mm

s

2.09

Height of right adrenal gland

X

2.75

2.42

Height of right testis in mm

X

14.22

in mm

s

0.24

0.44

s

1.44

Length of left adrenal gland

X

4.34

3.92

Length of left testis in mm

X

25.22

in mm

s

0.55

0.62

s

4.09

Breadth of left adrenal gland

X

2.23

1.87

Breadth of left testis in mm

X

14.52

in mm

s

0.38

0.24

s

2.09

Height of left adrenal gland

X

2.69

2.39

Height of left testis in mm

X

14.97

in mm

s

0.36

0.34

s

1.51

Weight of spleen in mg

X

228.30

208.00

Weight of vesicular glands

X

267.20

s

51.60

63.80

in mg

s

24.00

Length of spleen in mm

X

33.89

35.07

Weight of empty urinary

X

228.10

180.70

s

4.31

3.98

bladder in mg

s

67.80

100.90

Breadth of spleen in mm

X

5.27

4.81

Weight of right ovary in mg

X

26.30

s

0.94

1.27

s

18.60

Height of spleen in mm

X

1.97

1.74

Weight of left ovary in mg

X

25.90

s

0.54

0.52

s

22.40

Weight of filled stomach in g

X

10.82

10.29

Diameter of right ovary in

X

4.58

s

2.70

2.85

mm

s

1.16

Weight of empty stomach in g

X

3.03

3.07

Diameter of left ovary in

X

4.47

s

0.45

0.65

mm

s

0.99

Weight of filled intestine in g

X

28.71

22.94

Length of right uterus in

X

58.56

s

3.96

3.99

mm

s

8.98

Length of left uterus in mm

X

59.52

s

7.63

189

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Tables. Proportional weight and size of organs (in %) Table 6. Proportional weight and size of organs (in %)

Cricetus cricetus L.

9

Cricetus cricetus L.

9

Lengin ot cranium

_

X

21.16

22.11

Weight of spleen

X

0.05

0.06

s

1.48

1.21

s

0.01

0.01

Lengin oi irdcricd in siiu

X

14.00

14.09

Length of spleen

X

14.07

14.88

V

s

1.47

1.42

s

1.81

1.92

vveigriiui udcricd

_

X

0.02

0.02

Weight of filled stomach

X

2.40

2.96

s

0.005

0.006

s

0.60

1.05

vveigiii ui idryrix

_

X

0.05

0.05

Weight of empty stomach

X

0.68

0.88

s

0.009

0.005

s

0.12

0.23

VVtJIgllLUI lUI

_
X

0.47

0.51

Weight of filled intestine

X

6.27

6.50

s

0.12

0.13

s

1.07

1.30

VVtrlgiU UI ricdri

_

X

0.33

0.37

Weight of right testis

X

0.57

s

0.05

0.09

s

0.09

VVtrl^ill UI livtri

_
X

3.41

4.44

Weight of left testis

X

0.58

s

0.52

1.59

s

0.07

vveigrii UI rigrii rviuricy

_

X

0.21

0.26

Length of right testis

X

6.89

s

0.02

0.06

s

1.42

vveigrii UI icii KiuriGy

X

0.20

0.26

Length of left testis

X

6.82

s

0.03

0.07

s

1.17

Lengin ui rignt KiCiney

X

7.65

7.25

Weight of vesicular gland

X

0.06

s

0.31

0.42

s

0.002

Lengin ot leii Kianey

X

7.43

7.47

Weight of urinary bladder

X

0.05

0.05

s

0.46

0.38

s

0.01

0.03

vveigni ot rigni aorenai giano

X

0.004

0.003

Weight of right ovary

X

0.007

s

0.001

0.002

s

0.004

Weight of left adrenal gland

X

0.004

0.003

Weight of left ovary

X

0.007

s

0.001

0.002

s

0.006

Length of right adrenal gland

X

1.72

1.54

Diameter of right ovary

X

1.95

s

0.26

0.19

s

0.51

1 oncr+h r\f loft ^Hronal olanH
l-Kzt l^l'l UI lc.ll dUitrlldl ^IdllU

X

1.81

1.66

Diameter of left ovary

X

1.90

s

0.23

0.27

s

0.45

Length of right uterus
Length of left uterus

X

s

X

s

24.67
2.79

25.13
2.53

790

Tables

Table?. Absolute and relative weights of male gonads in hibernating and non hibernating animals

Group

A(H)

B(H)

C (WH)

D (WH)

E(WH)

F(H)

G (WH)

Death

February

May

February

May

October

December

December

Body weight in g

X

245.06

507.24

259.00

453.68

416.92

261.32

305 30

s

38.57

46.48

15.57

73.85

69.81

67.86

37.80

Absolute weight of right

X

0.55

2.61

1.78

2.54

0.59

0.54

testis in g

s

0.12

0.39

0.48

0.32

0.11

0.08

0.30

Absolute weight of left

X

0.55

2.61

1.76

2.62

0.59

0.52

0.57

testis in g

s

0.10

0.32

0.46

0.35

0.08

0.07

0.34

Relative weight of right

X

0.22

0.51

0.69

0.57

0.14

0.22

0.19

testis in %

s

0.03

0.06

0.19

0.09

0.04

0.05

0.10

Relative weight of left

X

0.23

0.52

0.68

0.58

0.15

0.21

0.19

testis in %

s

0.03

0.06

0.18

0.07

0.04

0.05

0.10

H = With Hibernation

WH = Without Hibernation

Tables. Absolute and relative weights of female gonads in hibernating and nonhibernating animals

Group

A(H)

B(H)

C(WH)

D(WH)

E(WH)

F(H)

G(WH)

Death

February

May

February

May

October

December

December

Body weight in g

X

174.130

165.240

295.000

356.230

336.640

278.820

310.000

s

30.490

17.810

60.560

32.170

31.270

49.610

62.290

Absolute weight of right

X

0.032

0.025

0.139

0.154

0.019

0.029

0.066

ovary in g

s

0.015

0.004

0.051

0.011

0.002

0.015

0.051

Absolute weight of left

X

0.031

0.026

0.108

0.162

0.168

0.030

0.063

ovary in g

s

0.011

0.006

0.029

0.009

0.005

0.006

0.035

Relative weight of right

X

0.018

0.017

0.048

0.220

0.006

0.011

0.212

ovary in %

s

0.006

0.006

0.021

0.065

0.001

0.056

0.191

Relative weight of left

X

0.018

0.016

0.038

0.218

0.005

0.007

0.209

ovary in %

s

0.004

0.005

0.014

0.042

0.002

0.004

0.164

H = With Hibernation
WH = Without Hibernation

191

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table9. Weight and size of hypophysis (N = 5^, )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

?

?

?

?

?

January (WH)

X

s

3.28
0.26

3.20
0.36

2.94
0.09

2.66
0.25

1.06
0.27

1.10
0.22

6.69
0.69

6.33
0.79

0.002
0.000

0.002
0.000

January (H)

X

s

3.24
0.19

3.38
0.21

2.86
0.18

2.68
0.41

1.38
0.16

1.10
0.12

8.45
1.73

5.88
1.34

0.002
0.001

0.003
0.000

May (WH)

X

s

3.24
0.32

3.40
0.19

2.70
0.19

O o

2.92
0.39

1.02
0.25

1.32
0.08

8.60
1.00

7.60
1.05

0.001
0.000

0.002
0.000

May (H)

X

s

4.34
0.47

4.32
0.40

2.76
0.44

2.32
0.47

1.20
0.16

1.04
0.39

8.66
1.09

7.78
1.10

0.002
0.000

0.003
0.000

October (WH)

X

s

3.76
0.57

2.96
0.47

2.26
0.21

2.04
0.23

1.16
0.23

1.10
0.28

7.54
1.44

5.71
0.94

0.002
0.000

0.002
0.000

Table 10. Weight and size of right thyroid gland (N = 5<?, 5$ )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

<?

?

9

?

9

$

9

January (WH)

X

6.26

7.06

2.90

2.72

1.54

1.70

20

20

0.005

0.005

s

0.91

1.47

0.31

0.16

0.23

0.25

4

3

0.001

0.001

January (H)

X

6.02

5.42

3.10

2.52

1.90

1.56

22

14

0.006

0.007

s

0.94

0.59

0.58

0.30

0.46

0.26

9

3

0.002

0.001

May (WH)

X

7.10

6.76

3.33

3.22

1.68

1.50

26

30

0.006

0.008

s

1.00

1.48

0.59

0.70

0.05

0.34

6

11

0.001

0.003

May (H)

X

6.30

5.80

3.42

2.92

1.98

1.68

30

19

0.007

0.008

s

1.34

0.45

0.25

0.63

0.31

0.08

10

5

0.003

0.002

October (WH)

X

5.50

4.54

2.64

2.20

1.30

1.44

13

11

0.004

0.004

s

0.53

0.94

0.21

0.32

0.29

0.24

2

4

0.001

0.001

192

Tables

Table 10a. Weight and size of left thyroid gland (N = 5^, 5$ )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

?

S

?

?

S

9

i

9

January (WH) x
s

5.78
0.28

6.46
0.85

2.96
0.20

2.64
0.35

1.70
0.36

1.70
0.44

19
4

18
2

0.005
0.001

0.005
0.001

January (H) x

s

5.62
0.62

5.36
0.54

2.88
0.49

2.52
0.30

1.86
0.25

1.44
0.18

22
7

15
5

0.006
0.002

0.007
0.002

May(WH) x
s

6.50
0.40

6.00
0.73

2.96
0.39

2.76
0.33

1.66
0.50

1.66
0.39

25
8

23
5

0.005
0.001

0.006
0.001

May(H) x
s

6.86
0.74

5.36
1.33

3.02
0.61

2.80
0.49

1.90
0.22

1.82
0.13

30
10

21
8

0.006
0.003

0.009
0.003

October x
s

5.08
0.43

4.44
0.77

2.30
0.47

2.08
0.30

1.44
0.27

1.54
0.34

13
3

9
4

0.004
0.001

0.004
0.001

Table 11. Weight of pancreas (N = 5^, 5?)

Time of death

Weight in mg

Weight in %

S

?

S

?

January (WH)

x

723

700

0.181

0.193

s

85

74

0.029

0.025

January (H)

X

867

626

0.237

0.292

s

268

38

0.067

0.037

May (WH)

X

854

915

0.190

0.257

s

164

144

0.030

0.049

May (H)

X

1045

914

0.253

0.383

s

92

135

0.044

0.024

October (WH)

X

786

574

0.237

0.242

s

159

75

0.043

0.040

Table 11a. Size of pancreas (cranial portion)
(N = 5^,59)

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

S

9

9

January (WH)

X

56.94

48.74

5.30

5.90

s

10.25

6.20

1.75

1.12

January (H)

X

62.00

49.12

6.94

4.44

s

12.22

3.03

2.05

1.18

May (WH)

X

53.40

58.18

5.52

5.20

s

6.92

11.51

1.55

1.44

May(H)

X

57.60

61.42

5.58

5.38

s

14.95

10.09

1.15

1.39

October (WH)

X

55.18

41.80

4.48

4.32

s

19.30

7.21

1.13

1.97

193

Clinical Anatomy uj the European Hamster

Table lib. Size of pancreas (right portion)
(N = 5^,5?)

Table 11c. Size of pancreas (body) (N = 5(J, 5?)

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

a

?

o

9

37.64

37.92

4.48

4.94

s

8.29

1.53

0.71

0.99

January (H)

X

32.50

36.32

5.00

5.16

s

8.91

8.39

0.57

1.39

May (WH)

X

38.28

42.92

5.18

5.02

s

5.76

6.33

0.55

0.94

May (H)

X

60.26

44.26

5.95

4.04

s

10.26

12.10

1.70

1.01

October (WH)

X

48.76

51.32

4.88

4.64

s

20.16

15.83

2.48

1.18

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

$

9

9

January (WH)

X

7.56

7.20

3.40

5 68

c

2.07

1.87

0.89

1.67

January (H)

X

6.96

5.10

5.16

5 1?

s

0.25

0.38

0.18

1.47

May (WH)

X

9.90

8.54

5.90

6.18

s

1.86

2.75

1.06

1.46

May(H)

X

23.38

18.24

7.22

5.20

s

5.99

9.54

1.57

0.90

October (WH)

X

14.70

10.78

5.62

2.72

s

3.21

2.22

2.12

0.54

Table 12. Weight and size of right adrenal gland (N = 5^, 5$ )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mm

Weight in %

9

9

<?

9

$

9

9

January (WH) x
s

4.42
0.45

3.96
0.27

3.04
0.22

2.84
0.24

1.96
0.11

1.98
0.13

16
1

16

2

0.004
0.000

0.005
0.001

January (H) x
s

4.30
0.63

3.80
0.20

3.08
0.34

2.54
0.39

2.18
0.25

1.66
0.13

19
6

11

2

0.005
0.002

0.005
0.000

May(WH) x
s

4.38
0.11

3.75
0.49

2.72
0.29

2.60
0.44

2.08
0.27

1.88
0.35

19

2

14
3

0.004
0.001

0.004
0.001

May(H) x
s

3.98
0.27

3.44
0.47

3.00
0.21

2.52
0.41

2.12
0.15

1.76
0.23

20
1

11

2

0.004
0.001

0.005
0.001

October (WH) x
s

3.88
0.27

3.48
0.31

2.94
0.15

2.44
0.40

1.98
0.27

1.72
0.28

13
2

11

2

0.004
0.000

0.005
0.001

194

Tables

Table 12a. Weight and size of left adrenal gland (N = bS, 5$ )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

$

+

9

$

S

9

S

2

+

January (WH)

X

4.76

4.00

2.86

2.74

2.22

2.36

20

18

0.005

0.005

s

0.36

0.38

0.24

0.42

0.15

0.37

2

1

0.001

0.000

January (H)

X

4.42

3.82

2.84

2.52

2.28

1.90

20

13

0.005

0.006

s

0.55

0.43

0.32

0.24

0.45

0.22

7

3

0.002

0.001

May (WH)

X

4.44

4.08

2.84

2.68

2.44

1.88

22

18

0.005

0.005

s

0.34

0.13

0.23

0.28

0.15

0.30

4

4

0.001

0.001

May (H)

X

4.34

3.82

3.06

2.68

2.26

1.42

21

13

0.005

0.005

s

0.64

0.24

0.23

0.23

0.18

0.28

2

1

0.001

0.000

October (WH)

X

4.14

3.56

2.86

2.80

2.20

1.84

15

13

0.004

0.006

s

0.61

0.54

0.31

0.00

0.19

0.24

4

2

0.001

0.001

Tablel2b. Size of right adrenal medulla (N = 5^, 5?) Table 12c. Size of right adrenal cortex (N = 5^, 59)

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Time of death

Length in mm

9

S

9

a

9

January (WH)

X

3.18

2.86

1.60

1.68

January (WH)

X

0.76

0.52

s

0.28

0.21

0.20

0.24

s

0.20

0.08

January (H)

X

3.16

2.72

1.76

1.56

January (H)

X

0.62

0.50

s

0.84

0.31

0.65

0.19

s

0.05

0.19

May (WH)

X

2.94

2.90

1.70

1.80

May (WH)

X

0.76

0.65

s

0.41

0.22

0.07

0.29

s

0.18

0.17

May (H)

X

2.82

2.48

1.36

1.04

May (H)

X

0.76

0.50

s

0.44

0.30

0.52

0.30

s

0.15

0.21

October (WH)

X

2.74

2.46

1.40

1.16

October (WH)

X

0.70

0.64

s

0.15

0.25

0.22

0.06

s

0.16

0.09

195

Clinical Anatomy oj the European Hamster

Table 12d. Size of left adrenal medulla (N = 5^, 5?) Table 12e. Size of left adrenal cortex (N = 5tf, 5?)

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Time of death

Length in mm

S

2

S

?

?

January (WH)

X

2.82

3.04

1.78

1.62

January (WH)

X

0.70

0.62

s

0.39

0.32

0.08

0.19

s

0.12

0.11

January (H)

X

3.38

2.64

1.86

1.52

January (H)

X

0.70

0.62

s

0.33

0.43

0.38

0.19

s

0.10

0.14

May(WH)

X

3.12

3.04

1.62

1.64

May (WH)

X

0.70

0.56

s

0.59

0.41

0.26

0.31

s

0.24

0.09

May(H)

X

2.75

2.74

1.65

1.32

May(H)

X

0.70

0.56

s

0.25

0.18

0.26

0.34

s

0.10

0.02

October (WH)

X

2.86

2.64

1.46

1.32

October (WH)

X

0.74

0.72

s

0.46

0.75

0.15

0.30

s

0.25

0.13

Table 13. Weight and size of right testis (N = 5<J )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

12.68

6.96

6.62

354

0.088

s

1.12

0.88

0.71

79

0.020

January (H)

X

13.46

8.22

6.82

468

0.129

s

0.98

0.99

0.96

88

0.029

May (WH)

X

21.84

13.64

11.28

2109

0.468

s

1.11

0.58

0.39

298

0.041

May(H)

X

23.16

14.88

13.68

2430

0.584

s

1.18

1.18

0.69

136

0.061

October (WH)

X

9.20

5.68

4.96

145

0.044

s

0.27

0.37

0.15

14

0.009

196

Tables

Table 13a. Weight and size of left testis (N = 5^ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

12.10

7.00

6.40

324

0.081

s

0.91

0.71

0.58

58

0.018

January (H)

X

13.32

8.06

6.38

462

0.128

s

0.78

1.26

0.99

74

0.035

May (WH)

X

21.86

13.12

11.82

2024

0.451

s

0.79

0.92

0.49

223

0.047

May(H)

X

23.54

14.98

13.38

2512

0.607

s

0.35

0.99

1.99

199

0.109

October (WH)

X

9.06

5.60

4.86

141

0.043

s

0.22

0.40

0.52

17

0.009

Table 14. Weight and size of head of right epididymis (N = 5i? )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

5.82

2.70

3.50

36 1

0.009

s

2.05

0.24

0.20

12

0.003

January (H)

X

6.94

2.96

1.96

51

0.013

s

2.67

0.84

0.46

28

0.006

May (WH)

X

14.32

6.00

5.04

436

0.096

s

2.58

0.57

0.93

85

0.013

May (H)

X

14.92

6.54

5.76

470

0.112

s

1.80

0.83

0.82

60

0.009

October (WH)

X

3.92

2.12

2.80

27

0.008

s

1.07

0.40

0.20

7

0.002

These weights are for the total epididymis

797

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table 14a. Weight and size of head of left epididymis (N = 5^ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

5.33

2.88

3.20

38'

0.009

s

1.87

1.02

0.20

15

0.004

January (H)

X

7.88

3.08

2.23

64

0.016

s

3.13

0.56

0.38

42

0.010

May (WH)

X

15.36

6.10

4.76

449

0.100

s

2.41

0.37

0.43

74

0.019

May (H)

X

13.98

6.80

5.76

450

0.100

s

2.37

0.91

0.52

50

0.019

October (WH)

X

4.28

2.38

2.80

31

0.010

s

0.81

0.55

0.30

5

0.002

These weights are for the total epididymis

Table 14b. Sizeof tail of right epididymis (N = 5^) Table 14c. Size of tail of left epididymis (N = 5^)

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

January (WH)

X

5.50

2.13

1.40

January (WH)

X

5.75

2.75

1.60

s

1.41

0.50

0.20

s

1.50

0.52

0.30

January (H)

X

6.20

1.70

1.35

January (H)

X

6.78

2.40

1.62

s

1.58

0.47

0.29

s

2.54

0,73

0.38

May (WH)

X

13.00

4.92

3.78

May (WH)

X

14.32

4.66

3.42

s

1.57

0.55

0.45

s

2.34

0.51

0.30

May(H)

X

13.50

4.58

4.72

May (H)

X

12.64

5.18

4.04

s

1.55

0.88

0.35

s

1.58

0.76

0.54

October (WH)

X

3.60

2.02

1.20

October (WH)

X

4.52

2.64

1.30

s

0.72

0.59

0.15

s

1.11

0.43

0.20

198

Tables

Table 15. Weight and size of prostate gland (N = 5^ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

joiiuaiy ^vvii^

V
A

10.24

Q 48

2 52

168

0.042

s

1.83

1.26

0.25

28

0.006

Jail Ua ' y V "I /

Y
A

14.32

fi ^0

692

0.177

s

3.74

2.09

2.89

57

0.130

May (WH)

X

1 ^ fin

Q 8fi

Q 44

1181

0.244

s

4.33

2.82

2.13

250

0.112

May(H)

X

15.58

10.50

6.80

1053

0.246

s

2.81

1.79

1.28

487

0.090

October (WH)

X

6.06

3.30

2.70

39

0.012

s

0.86

0.26

0.25

14

0.004

Table 16. Weight and size of right vesicular gland (N = 5^ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

5.78

2.50

1.03

11

0.003

s

1.67

0.85

0.17

6

0.002

January (H)

X

11.72

2.76

1.20

39

0.010

s

6.41

0.82

0.46

27

0.007

May (WH)

X

21.90

8.60

3.42

455

0.099

s

0.63

1.87

0.94

172

0.029

May (H)

X

23.70

10.04

5.12

620

0.148

s

4.01

2.19

0.63

320

0.066

October (WH)

X

8.82

5.72

3.18

115

0.034

s

1.22

1.07

0.13

38

0.008

199

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table 16a. Weight and size of left vesicular gland (N = 5^ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

5.80

2.80

1.15

14

0.003

s

0.74

1.03

0.21

10

0.003

January (H)

X

11.92

2.84

1.32

39

0.010

s

6.34

0.87

0.78

31

0.008

May (WH)

X

21.62

7.62

3.44

441

0.097

s

4.54

1.73

0.59

40

0.034

May (H)

X

24.78

9.36

5.06

670

0.159

s

3.74

1.67

0.98

270

0.052

October (WH)

X

9.04

6.12

2.94

102

0.030

s

1.17

1.34

0.37

32

0.008

Table 17. Weight and size of bulbourethral gland (N = 5^ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

2.83

1.97

0.90

4

0.001

s

0.38

0.71

0.40

3

0.001

January (H)

X

5.16

2.94

1.78

31

0.007

s

3.97

1.03

0.51

34

0.008

May (WH)

X

11.18

9.10

3.66

365

0.079

s

3.33

0.95

1.13

137

0.016

May (H)

X

19.38

12.16

4.22

630

0.148

s

5.90

3.29

0.91

150

0.024

October (WH)

X

6.10

2.12

1.36

10

0.003

s

2.04

0.49

0.56

5

0.001

200

Tables

Table 18. Weight and size of right ovary (N = 5? )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

5.00

2.82

1.64

17

0.005 .

s

0.44

0.42

0.61

3

0.001

January (H)

X

4.38

2.44

1.54

14

0.006

s

0.89

0.26

0.15

5

0.001

May (WH)

X

6.88

4.12

2.84

66

0.018

s

1.16

0.61

0.78

33

0.007

May (H)

X

6.66

4.44

2.78

52

0.022

s

0.61

0.25

0.46

13

0.005

October (WH)

X

3.70

2.54

1.74

9

0.004

s

0.45

0.66

0.25

4

0.001

Table 18a. Weight and size of left ovary (N = 5$ )

Time of death

Length
in mm

Breadth
in mm

Depth
in mm

Weight
in mg

Weight
in %

January (WH)

X

4.82

2.76

1.66

16

0.004

s

0.49

0.42

0.35

2

0.000

January (H)

X

4.30

2.60

1.78

14

0.006

s

0.71

0.20

0.26

4

0.001

May (WH)

X

7.32

4.00

2.76

65

0.017

s

1.23

0.81

0.84

27

0.005

May (H)

X

6.18

3.96

2.48

43

0.018

s

0.61

0.80

0.29

13

0.005

October (WH)

X

3.50

2.38

1.56

9

0.004

s

1.01

0.41

0.37

3

0.001

201

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table 19. Weight and size of right parotid gland (N = 5^: 5? )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

S

S

e

?

?

$

9

January (WH)

X

38.00

32

02

4.98

5.18

2.38

1

88

210

201

0.052

0.055

s

3.70

1

95

1.12

1.42

0.21

0

16

50

34

0.011

0.007

January (WH)

X

36.50

32

58

4.30

4.06

1 .86

1

84

216

171

0.059

0.079

s

2.35

2

40

0.50

0.72

0.48

?7

61

34

0.018

0.007

May (WH)

X

1

46

C-\J C-

97A

n r)S8

s

5.93

4

23

0.80

0.26

0.58

0

23

34

33

0.005

0.007

May (H)

X

35.18

27

08

5.02

4.30

2.96

2

04

203

154

0.048

0.065

s

3.15

4

99

1.03

0.87

0.32

0

56

26

12

0.003

0.009

October (WH)

X

32.40

36

60

5.76

3.96

2.22

1

54

219

171

0.066

0.069

s

5.79

7

65

0.95

0.91

0.28

0

52

29

55

0.001

0.006

Table 19a. Weight and size of left parotid gland (N = 5^, 5$ )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

S

? J

8

?

S

S

9

S

9

January (WH)

X

34.24

30.14

5.00

5.54

1.96

2.00

216

199

0.054

0.055

s

6.54

4.86

1.31

1.56

0.48

0.58

33

38

0.008

0.010

January (H)

X

36.48

30.22

4.08

4.66

2.30

1.72

217

181

0.060

0.083

s

3.88

5.10

0.92

0.44

0.21

0.23

31

28

0.014

0.007

May (WH)

X

37.32

34.30

5.60

4.54

2.46

1.46

243

214

0.053

0.061

s

8.41

4.43

0.91

0.67

0.80

0.34

101

33

0.016

0.016

May (H)

X

33.36

30.62

4.62

4.38

2.32

1.90

216

163

0.052

0.069

s

7.79

7.75

0.84

0.65

0.41

0.77

25

12

0.007

0.002

October (WH)

X

35.08

35.38

5.40

3.68

2.42

1.56

230

163

0.069

0.068

s

6.12

2.33

1.32

0.56

0.61

0.47

27

28

0.005

0.008

202

Tables

Table 20. Weight and size of right mandibular gland (N = bS, 5? )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

s

$

0

0

0

T

0

¥

January (WH)

X

14.82

14.74

9.36

10.00

3.68

3.88

319

332

0.079

0.092

s

n on "5

U.Ul 0

January (H)

X

15.92

15.08

9.24

8.24

3.20

2.88

315

227

0.085

0.104

s

1

I . / D

1 7R

1 79

n A7

U. / o

D /

n nn7

U.UiO

May (WH)

X

17.26

14.44

9.30

8.80

3.94

3.44

378

343

0.085

0.097

s

3.09

2.22

1.38

1.09

0.43

0.56

33

35

0.011

0.023

May (H)

X

14.08

16.08

9.36

9.90

5.08

4.18

370

359

0.089

0.152

s

1.33

2.08

0.95

1.25

0.68

0.93

30

41

0.012

0.024

October (WH)

X

15.56

14.50

9.70

8.52

3.82

3.82

298

241

0.090

0.100

s

2.38

2.23

0.60

1.07

0.62

0.81

34

42

0.011

0.011

Table 20a. Weight and size of left mandibular gland (N = 5^ , 5? )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

$

?

$

?

S

? J

S

9

January (WH)

X

14.38

13.30

10.26

9.26

3.02

3.32

317

310

0.079

0.086

s

1.03

1.83

1.15

1.05

0.35

0.15

38

50

0.006

0.015

January (H)

X

16.14

15.12

9.72

7.52

3.64

3.04

309

221

0.084

0.102

s

3.07

2.29

2.24

0.98

0.56

0.50

55

41

0.009

0.015

May (WH)

X

16.78

14.14

9.32

8.32

3.24

3.14

361

346

0.080

0.097

s

3.23

1.37

2.26

1.85

0.67

1.18

70

46

0.010

0.018

May (H)

X

16.28

15.44

9.38

9.90

3.92

4.88

380

364

0.091

0.154

s

1.45

0.31

2.04

1.04

0.87

0.59

60

35

0.013

0.023

October (WH)

X

15.90

14.46

8.74

7.88

3.86

3.20

293

230

0.088

0.095

s

1.21

3.78

1.04

0.44

0.46

0.55

34

52

0.007

0.010

203

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table 21. Weight and size of right sublingual gland (N = 5(?, 5? )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

?

?

?

?

?

January (WH)

X

/.9o

/ .bb

D./2

b.o6

^ O A

2.50

89

76

0,022

0,021

s

0.47

0.89

0.59

0.61

0.35

0.34

6

16

0,003

0,005

January (H)

X

/.DO

/.o4

D.o4

b./b

2.94

2.22

92

67

0,025

0,030

0.89

1.67

0,62

0.95

0.15

0.70

9

33

0,004

0,010

May (WH)

X

8.22

7 78

6.04

6.08

2.96

2.76

102

81

0,023

0,031

s

0.25

0.79

0.74

0.81

0.29

0.29

15

24

0,004

0,002

May (H)

X

9.62

8.14

6.42

5.94

2.90

2.80

100

85

0,025

0,036

s

1.77

0.91

0.65

0.89

0.79

0,33

30

7

0,005

0,005

October (WH)

X

7.96

7.48

6.20

5.60

3.02

2.52

81

66

0,024

0,028

s

0.66

0.56

0.46

0.90

0.65

0,30

11

9

0,002

0,006

Table 21a. Weight and size of left sublingual gland (N = 5^, 5?)

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

?

$

9

?

?

9

January (WH)

X

7,76

7.42

6,58

5,64

2.58

2,18

88

73

0.022

0.020

s

0,68

1.35

0,50

0,49

0.55

0.42

7

10

0.002

0.003

January (H)

X

7.82

7.22

5,98

5,22

3.20

2,32

93

60

0.026

0.028

s

0.49

0.84

0,82

0,66

0.56

0,39

12

10

0.005

0.002

May (WH)

X

8.16

7.88

6,62

5,86

2.40

2,58

109

87

0.024

0.037

s

0.78

0,67

0,75

0,38

0.49

0,48

24

10

0.006

0.016

May (H)

X

9.38

7,68

6,84

6,02

3.18

2,36

120

82

0.028

0.035

s

1.31

0,79

0,66

0.40

0,59

0,39

30

6

0.005

0.004

October (WH)

X

7.66

7,10

5,68

5.20

2,64

2,40

78

62

0.023

0.026

s

0.86

0,86

0,48

0.68

0,26

0.34

13

9

0.002

0.006

204

Tables

Table 22. Weight and size of right zygomatic gland (N = 5^. 5?)

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

S

9

?

?

$

?

$

$

January (WH)

X

9.18

8.78

6.30

6.36

2.30

1.98

97

81

0.024

0.022

s

n 4P

1 1 S

n 84

n 41

1 s

n 004

0 005

January (H)

X

8.84

9.36

5.78

5.88

2.38

1.78

73

69

0.020

0.032

s

1 ?9

0.75

n 68

\J.\JKJ

n 4^^

1 4

«

O

0 006

0 nop

\J .\J\J C-

May (WH)

X

9.74

8.96

6.66

5.76

2.44

2.22

121

95

0.027

0.027

s

0.59

2.31

0.61

0.62

0.44

0.41

8

36

0.005

0.011

May (H)

X

9.80

8.88

7.50

6.38

2.64

2.70

130

103

0.030

0.043

s

0.54

0.90

0.10

0.85

0.54

0.39

30

17

0.005

0.004

October (WH)

X

9.18

8.10

6.08

5.72

2.50

2.22

85

64

0.026

0.027

s

0.57

1.13

0.44

0.58

0.46

0.25

17

9

0.005

0.005

Table 22a. Weight and size of left zygomatic gland (N = 5^, 5? )

Time of death

Length in mm

Breadth in mm

Depth in mm

Weight in mg

Weight in %

$

$

S

2

$

?

$

?

January (WH)

X

8.74

8.32

6.34

5.44

2.26

2

20

97

86

0.024

0.024

s

0.71

1.68

0.64

076

0.57

0

33

13

14

0.004

0.004

January (WH)

X

8.48

8.92

5.50

5.00

2.54

1

90

81

69

0.022

0.032

s

0.93

1.09

0.60

1.13

0.34

0

37

14

8

0.006

0.002

May (WH)

X

9.46

10.02

6.74

6.22

2.48

2

14

116

112

0.026

0.032

s

1.22

1.37

0.80

0.58

0.46

0

34

9

4

0.003

0.006

May (H)

X

8.92

8.48

7.58

7.06

2.46

2

54

110

105

0.027

0.044

s

0.86

0.85

0.93

0.62

0.22

0

23

40

15

0.007

0.003

October (WH)

X

8.14

7.70

6.38

5.84

2.34

1

80

87

63

0.026

0.027

s

0.75

0.73

0.16

0.68

0.42

0

41

11

10

0.004

0.003

205

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

Table 23. Age dependent alterations of the skeleton In European hamsters

Age

Shoulder-joint

Elbow-joint

Hip-joint

Knee-joint

Vertebrae

18 days

Epiphysis wide

Epiphysis wide

Epiphysis wide

Epiphysis wide

Periphery not
ossified

2 months

Epiphysis
narrowed

Epiphysis
narrowed

Epiphysis wide

Epiphysis wide

Periphery not
ossified

6 months

Epiphysis
narrowed

Epiphysis
narrowed

Epiphysis
narrowed

Epiphysis
narrowed

initial ossification
of periphery

12 months

Epiphysis
narrowed

Epiphysis
closed

Epiphysis
closed

Epiphysis
narrowed

Complete
ossification

20 months

Epiphysis
closed

Epiphysis
closed

Epiphysis
closed

"Scar"

Complete
ossification

206

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210

INDEX

HAMSTER ATLAS

The N.A.V. standard nomenclature is given in
italic typeface. Pages referring to illustrated struc-
tures are given in bold type face.

Abdomen

bony structures of, 140, 141, 145, 146, 148,

155, 164
cavity

abdominal {cavum abdominis), 121, 122
peritoneal {cavus peritonei), 122

crest

iliac {crista iliaca), 121
diaphragm, abdomen upper limit of, (dia-

phragma), 121
esophagus, 124

inlet, pelvic, abdomen lower limit of, {aper-

tura, pelvis cranialis), 121
intestines

large {intestinum crassus), 130, 131
caecum, 130
colon, 130, 131
small {intestinum tenue)

duodenum, 124, 125, 129
ileum, 129, 130
jejunum, 131 , 132
kidney {ren), 131, 132
liver {hepar), 125-127
lymph

nodes, 134
centers

coeliac, 134
lumbar, 135

mesenteric, cranial, 134, 135

muscles

m. iliacus, 121

m. obliquus internus, 121

m. psoas major, 121

m. quadratus lumborum, 121

m. rectus abdominis, 121
nerves, see below under abdomen, regions
pancreas, 127
portal system, 134
regions, see also pelvis, 145

craniomesocolic, 122, 128

peritoneum, 122, 123

vessels, nerves, 127, 128

viscera, 124-127
caudomesocolic, 128-131

peritoneum, 128, 129

vessels, nerves, 1 33

viscera, 129-131
rectroperitoneal, 131-133

vessels, 133

viscera, 131-133
spleen {lien), 127

stomach {gaster or uentriculus), 124, 125, 147
vessels, arteries and veins, see above under
abdomen, regions
accessory lacrimal gland {gl. lacrimalis accessoria),

see also gland, lacrimal, accessory, 24, 25
acetabulum {acetabulum), see also pelvis, 121
adhesio interthalamica, 29
adipose tissue {panniculus adiposus)
of adrenal gland, 170

capsule of kidneys {capsula adiposa), 132, 169,
170,176

of epididymis, testis, 164, 176, 177

lumbar region, 7

of mandibular glands, 65

orbital {corpus adiposum orbitae), 24, 35, 38,
63

ovarian, 138, 183
of pancreas, 127, 154, 155
of parotid gland, 22
thoracic region, 7

aditus laryngis

see opening, laryngial
aditus pharyngis

see pharynx, entrance
adrenal gland {gll. suprarenales), 132, 133

see also glands, adrenal
ala sphenodalis

see bones, sphenoid, wing
alveolus, teeth {alveolus dentalis), 21
alveolus dentalis

see alveolus, teeth
alveolar system of lungs, 94

277

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

ampulla

of ductus deferens, 136
angle

of ribs {angulus costale), 86
angulus costae

see angle, rib
angulus oculi medialis

see canthus, medial
angulus oris

see commissure, labial
annulus fibrosus

see ring,' fibrous
anus {anus), 1, 10,11, 130, 131, 132
aorta

abdominal {aorta abdominis) 131, 133, 160,
161, 174

arch of, {arcus aortae), 66, 88, 92, 93, 109,
160

ascending {aorta ascendens), 89, 90
bifurcation, 128

descending {aorta descendens), 90, 111
hiatus of, diaphragm {hiatus aorticus), 86, 88,
124

• lumbar lymph nodes of {Inn. lumbales aortici),
135

nerves of, 1 28

thoracic {aorta thoracica), 89

valve {valva aortae)
of heart, 90
aorta abdommis

see aorta, abdominal
aorta ascendens

see aorta, ascending
aorta descendens

see aorta, descending
aorta thoracica

see aorta, thoracic
apertura nasomaxillaris

see opening, nasomaxillary
apertura pelvis caudalis

see outlet, pelvic
apertura pelvis cranialis

see inlet, pelvis, or pelvis, inlet, or abdomen,
inlet

apertura thoracis caudalis

see aperture, thoracic, caudal
apertura thoracis cranialis

see aperture, thoracic, cranial

212

aperture

thoracic, caudal {apertura thoracis caudalis),
85

thoracic, cranial {apertura thoracis cranialis),
66, 85

vena cava {foramen venae cavae),
of diaphragm, 87
apparatus, lacrimal {apparatus lacrimalis), 24
ducts, lacrimal, 24

gland, accessory lacrimal {gl. lacrimalis acces-
soria), 24

gland, lacrimal {gl. lacrimalis), 24
apparatus, turbinal,

see also endo/ectoturbinates, 40, 51
apparatus lacrimalis

see apparatus, lacrimal

apex

caecal {apex caeci), 130, 135

epiglottic, 68

heart {apex cordis), 89

lung {pulma), 95

penis {penis), 1 37

thoracic cranial {apertura thoracis cranialis),
85

tongue {apex linguae), 21
apex caeci

see apex, caecal
apex cordis

see apex, heart
apex linguae

see tongue, tip
aquaduct, mesencephalic {aquaeductus mesenceph-

ali), 59
aquaeductus mesencephali

see aquaduct, mesencephalic
arch, arches

aortic {arcus aortae), 66, 77, 88, 92, 93, 109,
110, 160

cricoid {arcus cricoideus), 67

lumbocostal {arcua lumbocostales), 86

palatopharyngeal {arcus palatopharyngeus),
66

soft palate {palatum molle), 66
vertebral {arcus vertebrae)

of cervical vertebrae {vertebrae cervi-
cales), 65
zygomatic, 24
arcua lumbocostales

see arches, lumbocostal

Index

arcus aortae

see arch, aortic
arcus cricoideus

see arch, cricoideum
arcus palatopharyngeus

see arch, palatopharyngeal
arcus vertebral

see arch, vertebral

aa. auricularis caudalis et rostralis

see arteries, auricular
a. basilaris

see artery, basilar
a. bursa baccalis

see artery, cheek pouch
a. car Otis communis

see artery, carotid, common

a. carotis communis dextra

see artery, carotid, common, right
a. carotis externa

see artery, carotid, common, external

a. carotis interna

see artery, carotid, common, internal
a. caudalis mediana

see artery, caudal median
aa. cerebelli caudalis

see arteries, cerebellar, caudal
aa. cerebelli rostralis

see arteries, cerebellar, rostral
a. coeliac

see artery, coeliac
a. colic a dextra

see artery, colic, right
a. colica media

see artery, colic, middle
a. facialis

see artery, facial
a. gastrica dextra

see artery, gastric, right
a. gastrica sinistra

see artery, gastric, left
a. gastroduodenalis

see artery, gastroduodenal
a. hepatica

see artery, liver
aa. ilei

see arteries, ileal
a. ileocolica

see artery, ileocolic

aa. iliacae communes

see arteries, iliac, common
aa. iliacae externae

see arteries, iliac, external
aa. iliacae internal

see arteries, iliac, internal
aa. intercarotica caudalis

see arteries, carotid, internal, dorsal branch
aa. intercarotica rostralis

see arteries, carotid, internal, ventral branch
aa. interlobularis

see arteries, interlobular
aa. jejunales

see arteries, jejunal
a. lienalis

see artery, splenic
a. lingualis

see artery, lingual
a. masseterica

see artery, masseter
a. maxillaris

see artery, maxillary
a. maxillaris interna

see artery, maxillary, internal
a. mesenterica caudalis

see artery, mesenteric, caudal
a. mesenterica crania lis

see arterv, mesenteric, cranial
a. occipitalis

see artery, occipital
a. ophthalmica interna

see artery, ophthalmic, internal
aa. ovaricae

see arteries, ovarian
a. pancreatoduodenalis caudalis

see artery, pancreatoduodenal, caudal
a. pulmonalis

see artery, pulmonary
a. renalis

see artery, renal
a. sacralis mediana

see artery, sacral, median
a. subclavia

see artery, subclavian
a. subclavia dextra

see artery, subclavian, right
aa. suprarenales

see arteries, suprarenal (or adrenal)

213

Clinical Anatomy oj the European Hamster

a. temporalis superficialis

see artery, temporal, superficial
aa. testiculares

see arteries, testicular
a. thoracica interna

see artery, thoracic, internal
a. transversa faciei

see artery, facial, transverse
a. vertebralis

see artery, vertebral
artery, arteries

adrenals

see artery, suprarenal

aorta

abdominal, 133, 160, 161
ascending {aorta ascendens), 90
descending {aorta descendens), 90
aortic arch {areas aortae), 77, 90, 110, 160

see also aorta, and arch, aorta
auricular {caudal and rostral) {aa. auricularis

caudalis et rostrales), 25
basilar {a. basilaris), 25, 61
brachial {a. brachiales), 1 10
brachiocephalic trunk {truncus brachiocephal-
icus), 77,90, 109, 110, 111
of bronchus, 94
carotid, common {a. carotis communis), 25,
66, 88,90,93

external {a. carotis externa), 25, 66
internal {a. carotis interna), 25, 61, 66
dorsal branch {a. intercarotica cau-
dalis), 25

ventral branch {a. intercarotica ros-
tralis), 25

left {a. carotis communis sinistra), 77,

93, 109, 110, 111
right {a. carotis communis dextra), 77,
90, 93, 109, 110, 111
caudal, median {a. caudalis mediana), 133
cerebellar, caudal {a. cerebelli caudalis), 25,
61

cerebellar, rostral {a. cerebelli rostralis), 25,
61

cerebral

caudal {a. cerebri caudalis), 61
medial {a. cerebri media), 61
rostral {a. cerebri rostralis), 61

cheek pouch {a. bursa buccalis), 25

coeliac {a. coeliaca), 128, 160

214

colic, middle {a. colica media), 133
colic, right {a. colica dextra), 133
facial {a. facialis), 25

transverse {a. transversa faciei), 25
gastric

left {a. gastrica sinistra), 128

right {a. gastrica dextra), 128
gastroduodenal {a. gastroduodenalis), 128
hepatic (a. hepatica), 124, 127, 128
ileal {aa. ilei), 1 33
ileocolic (a. ileocolica), 133
iliac

common {aa. iliacae communes), 133,
174

external {aa. iliacae externae), 133, 174
internal {aa. iliacae internae), 133, 174

incisura vasorum, 25

interlobular (flfl. interlobulares), 131

jejunal {aa. jejunales), 133

of kidneys, 133

lingual {a. lingualis), 25

masseter {a. massetenca), 25

maxillary, internal {a. maxillaris interna), 25

mesenteric

caudal {a. mesentenca caudalis), 128, 133
cranial {a. mesentenca cranialis), 128,
160, 161

occipital {a. occipitalis), 25

ophthalmic, internal {a. ophthalmica interna),
25

ovarian {aa. ovaricae), 133
pancreatoduodenal, caudal {a. pancreatoduo-

denalis caudalis), 128, 161
pulmonary {a. pulmonalis), 90, 91, 94-96,

109, 111
rectal, 133

cranial {rectalis cranialis), 174
renal, 131, 133, 160

sacral, median {a. sacralis mediana), 133
splenic {a. linealis), 128, 161
subclavian {a. subclavia), 66, 87, 90

left {a. subclavia sinistra), 77, 93, 109,
110

right {a. subclavia dextra), 77, 88, 90,
109, 110, 111

suprarenal {aa. subrarenales), 133
temporal, superficial {a. temporalis super-
ficialis), 25
testicular {aa. testiculares), 133, 174

Index

artery, arteries — continued
thoracic {a. thoracica),

internal (a. thoracica interna), 90
trachea, 90

vertebral {a. vertebralis), 25, 61
articulatio intermandibularis

see joint, intermandibular
articulatio temp oromandibula res

see joint, temporomandibular
atlas (atlas)

of cervical vertebrae, 65
atrium

left (atrium sinistrum)
of heart, 88, 90

right (atrium dextrum)
of heart, 89
atrium dextrum

see atrium, right
atrium sinistrum

see atrium, left
auditorv bulla (bulla tympamca). 18, 31
auriculae

see auricles
auricles (auriculae)

of heart, 89
auris externa

see ears, external
axis (axis) of cervical vertebra, 65

articular processes (processus articularis), 65

body (corpus). 65

odontoid process (dens), 65

spinous process (processus spinosus), 65

transverse processes (processus transversi), 65

vertebral arch (arcus vertebrae), 65
base (basis)

caecal (basis caeci), 129, 130

of heart (basis cordis), 89

sacral (basis ossis sacn), 14

basis

see base
basis caeci

see base, i aecal
basis cordis

see base, heart
basis ossis sacn

see base, sacral
basophils

of pituitarv, 24
behavior, social and dominance. 14, 15

bifurcatio tracheae

see bifurcation, tracheal
bifurcation

aortic

craniomesocolic vascularization, 125

tracheal (bifurcatio tracheae), 88, 92, 93
bladder

gall (vesica fellea),

lacking in this species

urinary (vesica urinaria), 132, 173, 185
body (corpus)

caecum (corpus caeci), 130

cervical vertebrae (vertebrae cervicales)
axis (axis), 65

epididymis (corpus epididymidis), 136

Malpighian, of spleen, 159

mamillary (corpus mamillare), 23, 59

penis (corpus penis), 137

sternum (corpus sterni), 85

uterus (corpus uteri), 128, 131, 138
bone(s), see also skeleton

basisphenoid (os basisphenoidale), 36, 62

clavicle (clavicula), see also clavicle, 71, 111

ethmoid (os ethmoides), 17, 30

cribriform plate of (lamina cnbrosa), 18

frontal (os frontales), 17, 29,30,31,34

hyoid {os hyoideum), 17

ilium (os ilium), 121

incisive (premaxillary) (dens inciswum), 17,

29,30,31,51
interparietal (os interparietale), 29, 30, 31
ischium (os oschium), 121
mandible (mandibula), 29, 34, 35, 44, 62, 73,

118

maxillary (maxilla), 17, 30, 31, 32, 33, 51
nasal (os nasales), 17, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33
occipital (os occipitale), 23, 31
palatine (os palatinum), 17,31,51
parietal (os parietale), 23, 29, 30, 31
pelvic (os coxae), see also pelvis, 121
penis (os penis), 137

premaxillary (incisive) (os incisivum), 17
presphenoid (os praesphenoidale), 18, 62
pubic (os pubis), 121

sacrum (os sacrum), see also sacrum and ver-
tebrae, sacral, 121, 131, 143, 144
scapula, see scapula, 71
of skull, 17

sphenoid (os spehenoidale), 23, 29, 31, 62

275

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

bone(s), see also skeleton — continued
sternum, (see sternum)
temporal, 31

mastoid process {os temporale, pars mas-

toidea), 25
petrous portion (as temporalis, pars

petrosa), 23
tympanic portion (os temporalis, pars
tympanica), 23
vomer (vomer), 31

nasopharynx (pharynx, pars nasalis),
18,32,33
zygomatic (os zygomaticum), 31
brain (encephalon)

bony case of, (cranium), 23
cerebellum (cerebellum), 23
lobi paramediani, 23
paraflocculi, 23
vermis cerebelli, 23
cerebral hemispheres (hemispheria cerebri),
23

neurocranium or cranium, 23
olfactory bulbs (bulbi olfactorii), 23
optic chiasma (chiasma opticum), 23
branch

coeliac (ramus coeliacus)

nerves, 128
gastric (ramus gas tricus visceralis)

nerves, 128

breeding

see also mating, pregnancy, 14

effect of laboratory on, vi
bronci lobares

see bronchus, lobar
bronchi principales

see bronchus, main
bronchi segmentates

see bronchus, segmented
bronchi terminales

see bronchioles, terminal
bronchioles

terminal (bronchi terminales), 23, 94, 117
bronchus(i), 93, 94, 116, 117

lobar (bronchi lobares), 93, 94, 102, 115

main (bronchi principales}, 93, 102

left (bronchus principales sinister), 114,
115

right (bronchus principales dexter), 114
sagital spur (carina), 93

276

segmental (bronchi segmentates), 94, 102, 115
buccae

see cheeks
bulbi oculi

see eye(s)
bulbi olfactorii

see bulbs, olfactory
bulbourethral gland

see gland, bulbourethral
bulbs, olfactory (bulbi olfactorii), 29, 34, 35, 38,

57,58,59,60,61
bulla tympanica

see auditory bulla
bursa

omental (bursa omentalis), 123

ovarian (bursa ovarica), 138
bursa omentalis

see bursa, omental
bursa ovarica

see bursa, ovarian
bursae buccales

see cheek pouches
caecum, 130, 164

apex (apex caeci), 130

base (basis caeci), 130

body (corpus caeci), 130

cage

bony thorax (ossa cavi thoracis), 85
calices renales

see calyces, renal ^
calyces

renal (calices renales), 132
canal(s)

infraorbital (canalis infraorbitals), 25

sacral (canalis sacralis), 121

tear (canaliculi lacrimales), 25

vertebral (canalis vertebralis), 103, 121
canaliculi lacrimales

see canals, tear
canalis infraorbitalis

see canal, infraorbital
canalis sacralis

see canal, sacral
canalis vertebralis

see canal, vertebral
canthus, medial (angulus oculi medialis), 25
capsula adiposa

see capsule, adipose

Index

capsula fibrosa

see capsule, fibrous
capsule(s)

adipose {capsula adiposa)

of kidney, 132
fibrous {capsula fibrosa)
of kidney, 132
of liver, 126
caput epididymidis, 136
cardia {pars cardiaca)

of stomach, 125
carina

see spur, sagital, or bronchus, main
cartilage(s)

arytenoid {cartilago arytenoidea), 29, 67, 80,
81

corniculate (cartilago corniculata), 67
cricoid {cartilago cncoidea), 67, 69, 80, 81
cuneiform {cartilago cun.eiformis), 67
of epiglottis {cartilago epiglottica), 29, 67, 80,
81

of manubrium {cartilago manubrii), 85

thyroid {cartilago thyreoidea), 67, 80, 81

tracheal {cartiligines.tracheales), 69

xiphoid {cartilago xiphoidea), 85
cartilagines tracheales

see cartilages, tracheal
cartilago arytenoidea

see cartilage, arytenoid
cartilago corniculata

see cartilage, corniculate
cartilago cncoidea

see cartilage, cricoid
cartilago cuneiformis

see cartilage, cuneiform
cartilago epiglottica

see cartilage, epiglottis
cartilago manubrii

see cartilage, manubrium
cartilago thyreoidea

see cartilage, thyroid
cartilago xiphoidea

see cartilage, xiphoid
carunculae sublinguals '■

see carunculae, sublingual
carunculae

sublingual, 21, 22
Cauda epididymidis

see tail, epididymis

caudomesocolic region, 128-134
arteries, 133
caecum, 129
circulation, portal, 134
colon, 129
duodenum, 129
gland, adrenal, 132, 133
ileum, 129
intestine

large, 130, 131

small, 129, 130
jejunum, 129
kidneys, 131, 132
lymph, system of, 134, 135
peritoneum, 128, 129
ureter, 131, 132
urinary organs, 131
veins, 133, 134
cavity(ies)

abdominal {cavum abdominis), 122

see also abdomen, cavity
infundibular {pars cava infundibuli)

of pituitary gland, posterior lobe {neuro-
hypophysis), 24
laryngeal

caudal {cavum laryngis caudalis), 80

intermediate {cavum laryngis intermedi-
um),SO
nasal {cavum nasi), 17, 18
oral {cavum oris), 19, 20, 29, 32, 33, 34, 45

proper {cavum oris proprium), 19
paranasal {sinus paranasalis), 19
pelvic {cavum pelvis), 121, 128
peritoneal {cavum peritonei), 122
pleural

intermediate {cavum pleurae interme-
dium), 87
left {cavum pleurae sinistrum), 87
right {cavum pleurae dextrum), 87
thoracic {cavum thoracis), 87-93
cavum abdominis

see cavity, abdominal
cavum hypophysis

see cleft, interhypophyseal
cavus infraglotticum
see infraglottis
cavum laryngis caudale

see cavity, laryngeal
cavum laryngis intermedium
see cavity, laryngeal

217

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

cavum nasi

see cavity, nasal
cavum oris

see cavity,. oral
cavum oris proprium

see cavity, oral, proper
cavum pelvis

see cavity, pelvic
cavum peritonei

see cavity, peritoneal
cavum pleurae dextrum

see cavity, pleural, right
cavum pleurae intermedium

see cavity, pleural, intermediate
cavum pleurae sinistrum

see cavity, pleural, left
cavum thoracis

see cavity, thoracic
centrum tendineum

see tendon, central
cerebellum, 23, 29

fissures (Jissura cerebelli), 57, 58, 59

hemisphere of {hemisphenum cerebelli), 61

lobules (lobuli cerebelli), 57, 58, 59, 60
cerebrum, 29,35,36

cervical region, 65-69, 71, 97

hemisphere of (hemisphenum cerebri), 61
cervix (cervix uteri), 138, 139
cervix uteri

see cervix

cheek pouches (bursae buccales), 19, 20, 45, 46, 47,

52,53,64,73,77,109
cheeks (buccae), 19, 20
mastication in, 20

retractor bursae buccalis et retractor bucci-
nator of, 20

chiasma, optic (chiasma opticum), 23, 59, 60, 61
chiasm a opticum

see chiasma, optic
choana (choana), 17, 18,29,30,35
cisterna chyli, 1 34
clavicle (clavicula), 65, 66

extremitas acromialis, 76

extremitas sternalis, 76
clavicula

see clavicle
claws (ungues), 9
cleft

interhypophyseal (cavum hypophysis)

218

of pituitary gland, anterior lobe (adeno-
physis), 24
clitoris (clitoris), 138
coelic lymph center, 134
colliculus ros trails, 59
colon, 166

ascending (colon ascendens), 164

caecum, apex (apex caeci), 130

caecum, body (corpus caeci), 130

descending (colon descendens), 130, 131, 167

lymph centers, 135

mesocolon, 130

mucosa, 166

transverse (colon transversum), 123, 128, 130,
131

colon ascendens

see colon, ascending
colon descendens

see colon, descending
colon transversum

see colon, transverse
coloring

summer vs. winter, 1 , 6
column

spinal (columna vertebralis), 70, 72, 85, 88,
93, 123, 125, 128, 141
columna vertebralis

see column, spinal, and vertebra
commissure, labial (angulus oris), 19, 20
commissure, rostral (commissura rostralis), 59
concha

nasal

dorsal (concha nasalis dorsalis), 17, 18,

29,32,37,41
ventral (concha nasalis ventralis), 17, 18,
29,32,37
concha nasalis dorsalis

see concha, nasal, dorsal
concha nasalis ventralis

see concha, nasal, ventral
condyle, occipital (condylus occipitalis), 30, 31
cor

see heart
corona dentis

see teeth, crowns of
cornua uteri

see horns, uterine
cornu caudate

see horn, caudal

Index

comu dorsale

see horn, dorsal
cornu rostrale

see horn, rostral
corpora

albicantia, 138

atretica, 138

cavernosa, 137

lutea, 138
corpus

see body
corpus adiposum orbitae

see orbit, adipose tissue of
corpus caeci

see body, caecal
corpus callosum, 59
corpus epidid\midis

see body, epididvmis
corpus linguae

see tongue, bodv
corpus mamillare

see body, mamillary
corpus penis

see bodv. penis
corpus sterni

see body, sternum
corpus trapezoides, 60
corpus uteri

see bodv. uterine
corpuscles

renal {corpuscula renis), 132
corpuscula renis

see corpuscles, renal
cortex

of adrenal glands igll. suprarenales), 133

of ovary {zona parench\matosa), 138

renal (cortex renis), 132
cortex renis

see cortex, renal
costae

see ribs
costae spuriae

see ribs, asternal ("false"" ribs)
costae verae

see ribs, sternal ("true"" ribs)
cranial and facial vascularization. 25, 26

arteries, 25

ophthalmic plexus {plexus ophthalmicus), 25,
26

venous drainage of. 25. 26
cranial lymph center. 134. 135
craniomesocolic region. 124-128

arteries. 12". 128

duodenum, proximal. 125

esophagus. 124

liver, 125-12"

nerves, 128

pancreas. 12"

peritoneum, 122-124

spleen. 12"

stomach. 124. 125

veins, 128
cranium

see neurocranium

crest

iliac {crista iliaca). 121. 132
cribriform plate {lamina cnbrosa). 18, 23
Cricetus cricetus Linee

see hamster. European
crista iliaca

see crest, iliac
crista median a

see ridge, median
crurae, cerebral (pedunculi cerebri), 23
cupula pleurae

see pleura, cervical
curiatura ventriculi major

see curvature, greater
curvatura ventriculi minor

see curvature, lesser
curvature

greater (curvatura ventriculi major)
siomach (ventriculus). 125

lesser {curvatura ventriculi minor)
of stomach (ventriculus). 125
cuspis angularis

see cusps, angular
cuspis parietalis

see cusps, parietal
cuspis septa lis

see cusps, septal
cusps

angular < cuspis angularis), 90
parietal (cuspis parietalis), 90
septal (cuspis sep talis). 90
cutis, 32,33,34

decussation, pyramidal {decussatio pyramidum),
60

219

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

dens

see process, odontoid, of iixis
dens incisvium

see teeth, incisor
denies

see teeth
dentes incisivi

see teeth, incisors
dentes molares

see teeth, molars
dentes permanentes

see teeth, permanent
dentes p rem o lares

see teeth, premolars
dentition {dentes), 21

see also teeth

diaphragm (diaphragma), 77, 86, 87, 99, 104, 105,
109

foramen, vena cava (^foramen venae cavae), 87,

105
hiatus

aortic {hiatus aorticus), 86, 105
esophageal {hiatus esophageus), 86, 104,
105

muscle of {diaphragma, pars muscularis), 86
parts

rostral {pars ros trails), 105
sternal {pars sternalis), 105
lumbar (pars lumbalis), 105
peritineum on, 123

tendon of, central {centrum tendineum), 86,
104, 105

vessels of, 127, 128
diaphragma, pars muscularis

see diaphragm, muscle of
diploe, 34, 35
disc

intervertebral {discus interuertebrales), 85
discus intervertebralis

see disc, intervertebral
distribution, of species, 2, 16
dorsal mediastinum, 92, 93
dorsum nasi, 8, 17
dorsum penis

see penis surface, dorsal
duct(s), ductule(s)

hi\e {ductus choledochus), 126, 127

bulbourethral gland {ductus gl. bulbourethra-
lis), 137

220

ductus deferens, 132, 135, 136, 137, 180
efferent, of prostate {ductuli prostatici), 137
ejaculatory {ductus ejaculatorius), 137
epididymis {ductus epididymidis), 136
excretory

of accessory lacrimal gland {ductuli excre-
torii), 24

of vesicular gland {ductus excretorius),
137

incisive {ductus incisiuius), 17

interlobular, bile {ductulus biliferus), 127

mandibular {ductus mandibularis)
of sublingual gland, 22

nasolacrimal {ductus nasolacrimalis), 17, 25

pancreatic {ductus pancreaticus), 127

parotid {ductus parotideus), 22, 73

prostatic {ductuli prostatici), 13, 7

sublingual {ductus sublingualis), 22

thoracic {ductus thoracicus)
see lymph trunks, thoracic
ductuli excretorii

see ducts, excretory, of accessory lacrimal gland
ductuli prostatici

see ducts, prostatic
ductulus biliferus

see duct, interlobular, bile
ductus choledochus

see duct, bile
ductus deferens

see duct, deferens and vas deferens
ductus ejaculatorius

see duct, ejaculatory
ductus epididymidis

see duct, epididymis
ductus excretorius

see duct, excretory, of vesicular gland
ductus incisivius

see duct, incisive
ductus mandibularis

see duct, mandibular
ductus nasolacrimalis

see duct, nasolacrimal
ductus pancreaticus

see duct, pancreatic
ductus parotideus

see duct, parotid
ductus sublingualis

see duct, sublingual

Index

ductus thoracicus

see lymph trunks, thoracic
duodenum, 125, 129, 147, 150

flexures

caudal {flexura duodeni caudalis), 129
cranial (flexura duodeni cranialis), 129

ligaments, duodenocolic, 129

parts

ascending {duodenum, pars ascendens),
129

cranial (duodenum, pars cranialis), 129

see also duodenum, proximal
descending (duodenum, pars descendens),
129

peritoneum of, craniomesocolic, 123
proximal, 125

vascularization of, craniomesocolic, 128
duodenum pars ascendens

see duodenum, ascending
duodenum pars cranialis

see duodenum, cranial and proximal
duodenum pars descendens

see duodenum, descending
ear, external (auris externa), 1, 8
ear, internal (auris interna), 52
ear, middle (auris media), 36, 39
ectoturbinalia

see ectoturbinals
ectoturbinals (ectoturbinalia), 17, 18, 33, 34, 38
edge(s)

sharp, of lung (margo acutus), 95
of soft palate (velum palatinum), 66
encephalon
see brain

end

dorsal, of spleen (extremitas dorsalis), 127
ventral, of spleen (extremitas centralis), 127

endocardium, 90

endocrine system, see glands

endoturbinalia

see endoturbinals

endoturbinals (endoturbinalia), 17, 18, 29, 30, 33,
34,35,38,40

entrance

of epiglottis (vallecula epiglottica), 66
of pharynx (aditus pharyngis), 66
epicardium, 90

epididymis (epididymidis), 135, 136, 176
body (corpus epididymidis), 136

caudal extremity (cauda epididymidis), 136
duct (ductus epididymidis), 136
head (caput epididymidis), 136
vascular cones of (coni vasculosi), 136
epiglottis (epiglottis or valecula epiglottis), 18, 29,
66, 68

base (basis), 68

cartilage of (cartilago epiglottica), 67

soft palate, caudal edge (velum palatinum), 66

tip (apex), 68
episternum, 85

see also sternum
esophagus, 29, 80, 86, 92, 93, 109, 111, 112, 113,
119, 124, 147, 162

foramen of

see hiatus, below

hiatus (hiatus esphageus), 93, 124
estrus cycle

wild vs. laboratory bred, 2
ethmoturbinalia

see ethmoturbinals
ethmoturbinals

ectoturbinals, 17, 18

endoturbinals, 17, 18
eustachean tube (tuba auditiva), 18
excavationes rectogenitalis et vesicogenitalis

see pouches, rectogenital and vesicogenital
external anatomy & features

body weight

dependence on hibernation, 1
male vs. female, 1 , 6
summer vs. winter, 1

coloring

summer vs. winter, 1 , 6

length

male vs. female, 1 , 6
extremitas caudata

see poles, caudal
extremitas dorsalis

see end, dorsal
extremitas tubaria

see extremity, ovarian
extremitas uterina

see extremity, uterine
extremitas ventralis

see end, ventral
extremitates caudate s

see poles, caudal

227

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

extremitates craniales

see poles, cranial
extremity(ies)

ovarian {extremitas tubaria), 138

uterine {extremitas uterina), 138
eye(s) {oculi or bulbi oculi), 1, 8, 24, 26, 34, 35,

52,61,64
eyelid(s), 8,34

lower (palpebra inferior), 25

upper (J)alpebra superior), 25
fades

see skeleton, facial
facies auricularis ossis sacri, 121
facies diaphragmatica

see surface, diaphragmatic
facies mediales

see surface, medial
facies parietalis

see surface, parietal
facies pulmonales

see surface, pulmonary
facies sternocostalis

see surface, sternocostal
facies uisceralis

see surface, visceral
fascia, lumbodorsal (fascia lumbodorsalis), 20
fascia lumbodorsalis

see fascia, lumbodorsal

feet

see forefeet and hindfeet
female genital organs, 10, 11, 138, 139, 182, 183,
185

in active period, 183, 184

in hibernation, 183, 184

cervix, 138, 139

clitoris, 138, 139

ovaries, 138, 183

oviducts, 138, 186

uterine horns, 138, 139

uterus, 138, 139, 186

vagina, 138, 139
fissura lig. teretis

see fissure, ligamentum teres
fissura palatina

see fissure, palatine
fissurae interlobares

see fissures, interlobar
fissure(s)

interlobar {fissurae interlobares)

222

of lung, 95
ligamentum teres {fissura lig. teretis)

of liver, 126
palatine {fissura palatina), 17, 19
transverse

of craniomesocolic peritoneum, 128
flank organs

see organs, flank
flexura duodeni caudalis

see flexure, duodenal, caudal
flexura duodeni cranialis

see flexure, duodenal, cranial
flexure(s)

duodenal

caudal {flexura duodeni caudalis), 129
cranial {flexura duodeni cranialis), 125,
129

fold(s)

aryepiglottic {plica aryepiglottica), 66
oral, mucosa {tunica mucosa oris), 19
pleural, investing the vena cava {plica venae

cavae), 88
vocal {plica uocalis), 80
follicles

ovarian {folliculi ovarici), 138
folliculi ovarici

see follicles, ovarian
foramen

epiploic {foramen epiploicum)

of craniomesocolic peritoneum, 123
esophageal, 124

jugular {foramen jugulare) , 25, 31

mandibular {foramen mandibulae) , 44

mental {foramen mentale), 44

optic {foramen opticum), 24

transverse {foramen transversarium) , 65

vena cava {foramen venae cavae), 128
foramen epiploicum

see foramen, epiploic
foramen incisivum, 31
fo ramen jugu la re

see foramen, jugular
foramen lacerum, 31
foramen magnum, 31
foramen mandibulae

see foramen, mandibular
foramen mentale

see foramen, mental

Index

foramen obturatum

see opening obturator
foramen opticum

see foramen, optic
foramen ovale, 25, 31
foramen transversarium

see foramen, transverse
foramen venae cavae

see aperture, vena cava and foramen, vena cava
forestomach (proventnculus), 93, 124, 126, 127,
134

see also stomach
forefeet

pads (ton), 1 , 9

palms or soles (palma manus), 1, 9
fornix, 59

fossa masseterica, 44
fossa pterygoidea, 44
fovea costalis caudalis

see ribs, fovea
fovea costalis cranialis

see ribs, fovea
frenulum(a)

labial

mandibular (frenulum labii mandibu-
laris), 19

maxillary (frenulum labii maxillaris), 19

lingual (frenulum linguae), 20-22
frenulum labii mandibularis

see frenulum, labial, mandibular
frenulum labii maxillaris

see frenulum, labial, maxillary
frenulum linguae

see frenulum, lingual
fundus

of stomach (fundus ventriculi), 125
fundus ventriculi

see fundus, of stomach
gall bladder: lacking in this species {vesica fellea)
ganglia coeliaca

see ganglia, coeliac
ganglia trunci sympathici

see ganglia, sympathetic
ganglion(a)

cervical cranial (ganglion cervicale craniale),
66

cervical middle {ganglion cervicale medium),
66

cotliac {ganglia coeliaca), \28

stellate {ganglion stellatum), 66

sympathetic {ganglia trunci sympathici), 128
ganglion cervicale craniale

see ganglion, cervical, cranial
ganglion cervicale medium

see ganglion, cervical, middle
ganglion stellatum

see ganglion, stellate
gingivae

see gums
girdle, pectoral

see bones, clavicle, ribs, scapula, and sternum
gland(s)

adrenal, 132, 133, 170
cortex, 170, 171
medulla, 170, 171
nerves, 128

suprarenal arteries {aa. suprarenales),
133

suprarenal veins {vv. suprarenales), 133
zona fasciculata, 173
zona glomerulosa, 133
zona medullaris, 173
zona reticularis, 133
bronchial, 95

bulbourethral {gll. bulbourethrales), 134, 137
duct {ductus gl. bulbourethralis), 137

cardiac {gll. cardiacae)
of stomach, 125

duodenal (gll. duodenales), 129

genital, accessory {gll. gemtales accessoriae),
136

intestinal {gll. intestinales), 129
lacrimal apparatus {apparatus lacrimalis), 24,
25,52

accessory lacrimal gl. {gl. lacrimalis ac-

cessoria), 24
canals

infraorbital {canalis infraorbital),
25

tear {canaliculi lacrimales), 25
duct(s)

excretory {ductuli excretorii), 24
nasolacrimal {ductus nasolacrimal-
is), 25

lacrimal gl. {gl. lacrimalis), 24, 33, 34, 35
sac(s)

conjunctival {saccus conjunctivae),
24

223

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

lacrimal {saccus lacrimalis), 24
mandibular (gl. mandibularis), 21, 22, 65, 66,
77, 109

orbital, external

see gland, zygomatic
parathyroid (gl. parathyreoidea), 69, 79

parotid {parotis), 22, 73

lymph node {In. parotideus), 67
parotid duct {ductus parotideus), 22
salivary papilla {papilla parotidea), 22

pituitary {hypophysis), 23, 24, 61, 62

anterior lobe {adeno hypophysis) distal
part of, {pars distalis), 24, 62
acidophils, 24

somatotropes, 24
mammotropes, 24
basophils, 24

gonadotropes, 24
thyrotropes, 24
corticotropes, 24
chromophobes, 24
cavity, infundibular {pars cava mfundi-

buli), 24, 62
cleft, interhypophyseal {cavum hypo-
physis), 24, 62
middle or intermediate lobe {pars inter-
media), 24, 62
posterior lobe {neurohypophysis), 24, 62
sella turcica, 23
tuber cinereum, 23

praeputial {gll. praeputiales)

of penis, 137
prostate (proitoto), 135, 137, 181
pyloric {gll. pyloricae), 125
salivary {gll. oris), see also under individual
glands, 21, 22, 52,53,54,55

mandibular {glandula mandibularis), 22,

52,53,54,55
parotid {parotis), 22, 23, 52, 53, 55, 56
sublingual {glandula sublingualis), 22,

52,53,54,55
zygomatic {glandula zygomatica), 23, 52,
53

sebaceous

gland, Zymbal gland analogue, 56
umbilical glandular organ, 2, 12

sublingual {gl. sublingualis), 22

mandibular duct {ductus mandibularis),
22

sublingual caruncles, 22

sublingual duct {ductus sublingualis), 22
thymus, 88, 92, 93, 111

left {thymus sinister), 77

right {thymus dexter), 77
thyroid (^/. thyreoidea), 67, 69, 79, 80, 83
uterine, 186

vesicular {gll. vesiculares), 136, 137, 181

duct, excretory {ductus excretorius), 137
sheaths

external areolar {tunica adventitia),
137

internal mucous {tunica mucosa),
137

muscular {tunica musculosa), 137

zygomatic {gl. zygomatica), 23
gll. bulbourethrales

see glands, bulbourethral
gll. cardiacae

see glands, cardiac
gll. duodenales

see glands, duodenal
gll. genitales accessoriae

see glands, genital accessory
gll. intestinales

see glands, intestinal
gl. lacrimalis

see gland, lacrimal
gl. lacrimalis accessoria

see gland, lacrimal, accessory
gl. mandibularis

see gland, mandibular
gl. parathyreoidea

see gland, parathyroid
gll. praeputiales

see glands, praeputial
gll. pyloricae

see glands, pyloric
gl. suprarenale

see gland, adrenal
gl. sublingualis

see gland, sublingual
gl. thyreoidea

see gland, thyroid
gll. vesiculares

see glands, vesicular

224

Index

gl. zygomatica

see gland, zygomatic
glans penis, 137
glottis

of larynx, 68
groove(s)

interventricular {sulcus interventricularis)

of heart, 89
urethral {sulcus urethralis)

of penis, 137
vena cava {sulcus venae cavae)
of lung, 96
gunns (gingivae), 20, 21
hairs {pili)

length of, 1 , 6
tail and scrotum
length of, 1 , 6
hamster, European {Cricetus cricetus Linee)

comparison with Syrian golden hamster, 4
haustra

of caecum, 1 30

head

of epididymis {caput epidid\midis), 136
head, region, 17-26

heart (cor), 82, 89, 90, 107, 111, 118, 120
aorta, ascending, 89
apex {apex cordis), 89
atrium

left {atrium sinistrum), 89, 90, 106
right {atrium dextrum), 89, 90, 106

auricles, 89

left {auricula dextra), 11 , 109

right {auricula sinistra), 11 , 109, 1 1 1

base {basis cordis), 89

cusp

angular {cuspis angularis), 90
parietal {cuspis panetalis), 90
septal {cuspis septalis), 90

endocardium, 90

epicardium, 90

ligament

phrenicopericardial (ligamentum phreni-
copericardiacum), 89
mediastinum, ventral, 89, 90
muscles, papillary {mm. papillares), 90
myocardium, 90, 106, 107
nerves, 89, 92
pericardium

parietal portion {lamina panetalis), 89

visceral portion {lamina visceralis), 89
ring, fibrous {annulus fibrosa), 90
septum

interventricular {septum interventricu-
lare), 106

sulcus

coronarv (sulcus coronarius), 89
interventricular {sulcus interventricu-
laris), 89

surface

left pulmonary {facies pulmonales sinis-
tra), 89

right pulmonary {facies pulmonales dex-
tra), 89

sternocostal {facies sternocostalis), 89
trabecula septomarginalis, 106, 108
valve

aortic {valva aortae), 90
bicuspid {valva bicuspidalis), 90
pulmonary {valva truncae pulmonis), 90
semilunar {valvulae semilunares), 90
tricuspid {valva tricuspidalis), 90
ventricle

left (ventricle sinister), 11, 89, 90, 106,
109, 111

right {ventricle dexter), 11, 89, 90, 106,
107, 108, 111
hepar (see liver)

hemisphere, cerebellar {hemispherium cerebelli)

see cerebellum, hemisphere of
hemisphere, cerebral (hemispherium cerebri)

see cerebrum, hemisphere of
hiatus (see also opening, aperture)

aortic (hiatus aorticus), 86, 124, 127

esophageal (hiatus esophagus), 86, 88, 93,
104

hiatus aorticus

see opening, aortic
hiatus esophageus

see hiatus, esophageal
hibernation

deposits, fat, 1, 7

glands, in

ovaries, 138

parathyroid (gl. parath\reoidea), 69
pituitary (hypophysis), 24
prostate (prostata), 131
thyroid (gl. thyreoidea), 69
testis, 136

225

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

hibernation — continued
laboratory effects in

artificial induction, 5

lifespan changes, v
reproduction, 2
sex determination, 1 , 2
vagina, 2, 1 39
weight, body, 1

hilus

kidney {hilus renalis), 131
liver (see portal, hepatic)
lung, 95, 96

ovary {hilus ovarici), 138

spleen {hilus lienis), 127
hilus hems

see hilus, spleen
hilus ovarici

see hilus, ovary
hilus renalis

see hilus, kidney
hindfeet

claws {ungues), 9

pads {ton), 1 , 9

soles {planta), 1 , 9
horn(s)

caudal {cornu caudale), 67

cranial {cornu rostrale), 67

dorsal {cornu dorsale), 67

uterine {cornua uteri), 131 , 138, 139
humerus

xiphoid process, 65
hypophysis

see gland, pituitary
hypothalamus

length of, 23
illeum, 129, 130

ligament, ileocaecal {plica ileocaecalis), 129,
130

lymph

centers, 135

nodes, ileocaecal {Inn. ileocaecales), 135
"valve, ileocaecal" {papilla ilealis), 130

impressio cardiaca dextra

see impression, of lung
impressio esophagea

see impression, of liver, gastric
impressio gastrica

see impression, of liver, esophageal

226

impressio renales

see impression, of liver, renal
impression

of liver

esophageal {impressio esophagea), 126
gastric {impressio gastrica), 126
renal {impressio renalis), 126
of lung

cardiac, left {impressio cardiaca sinistra),
96

cardiac, right {impressio cardiaca dextra),
96

incisura clavicularis

see notch, clavicular
incisivus ductus

see duct, incisive
incisura vasorum facialium, 25, 44
incisura vertebralis caudalis

see ribs, incisura
incisura vertebralis cranialis

see ribs, incisura
infraglottis {cavum infraglotticus), 68
infundibulum,

of the oviducts {infundibulum tubae uterinae),
138

of pituitary {pars cava infundibuli), 24, 60, 61
infundibulum tubae uterinae

see infundibulum, of the oviducts
intrapulmonary system, 94, 95

bronchioles, 94

segmental bronchi {bronchi segmentales), 94
intestine, see also under separate terms, 162
large {intestinum crassum), 130
anus {anus), 1 30
caecum {caecum), 130
colon {colon), 130

lymph centers {lymphocentrum), 135
mucous membrane, 130
rectum {rectum), 130
small {intestinum tenue), 129
duodenum, 129
glands

duodenal {gll. duodenales), 129
intestinal {gll. intestinales), 129

illeum, 129

jejunum, 129

junction, ileocaecal {ostium ileale), 129
layers, 163

lymph centers {lymphocentrum), 135

Index

intestine — continued

mucous membrane of, 129, 163

peritoneum of

caudomesocolic, 128
craniomesocolic, 123

pylorus, 125
intestinum eras sum

see intestine, large ^
intestinum tenue

see intestine, small

jaws

see also bone, mandible, maxilla, 50
jejunum {jejunum), 129, 164, 165, 166

lymph centers (lymphocentrum), 135

lymph nodes {Inn. jejunales), 135

mucosa, 166
joint(s)

intermandibular {articulatio intermandibular-
is), 44, 62

temporomandibular {articulatio temporoman-
dibularis), 44
junction,

esophageal, with stomach, 125

ileocaecal {ostium ileale), 129
kidney {ren), 131, 132, 161, 168, 169, 170, 171

arteries

interlobular {aa. interlobulares), 131

renal {a. renalis), 131
calyces (calices renales), 132
capsule, connective tissue {capsula fibrosa),
132

capsule, perirenal fat {capsula adiposa), 132,
170

corpuscles {corpuscula renis), 132, 172 ■
cortex {cortex rents), 132, 170, 171
hibernation, in, 132
hilus {hilus renalis), 131
lymph nodes {Inn. renales), 135
medulla {medulla renis), 132, 172
nerves, 128

papilla {papilla renalis), 131, 170
pelvis (pelvis renalis), 132, 173
pole, caudal (extremitates caudales), 131
pole, cranial {extremitates craniales), 131
tubules, convoluted (tubuli renales contorti),
132

tubules, straight {tubuli renales recti), 132
veins

interlobular {vv. interlobulares), 131

renal {v. renalis), 131

zona intermedia, 170

zona basalis, 170
labium mandibulare

see lip, lower
labium maxillare

see lip, upper
labia oris

see lips
lacrimal apparatus, 24
lacrimal gland, 24

see gland, lacrimal
lactation, 11
lamina

cricoid, of larynx {lamina cricoidea), 67, 80
external {lamina externa) of prepuce, 137
internal {lamina interna) of prepuce, 137
thyroid {laminae thyreoideae) of larynx, 67

lamina cribrosa

see cribriform plate

lamina cricoidea

see lamina, cricoid

lamina perpendicularis, 30

lamina tecti, 57

laminae externa et internae

see lamina, external and internal

laminae thyreoideae

see lamina, thyroid

Langerhans, islets of, 158

larynx, 29, 67, 68, 73, 75, 79, 82, 118
cartilages

arytenoid {cartilago arytenoidea), 29, 67,
80,81

muscular process {processus muscu-
laris), 68

vocal process {processus vocalis), 68
corniculate {cartilago corniculatq), 67
cricoid {cartilago cricoidea), 67, 80, 81
arch {arcus cricoideus), 67
lamina {lamina cricoidea), 67, 80
ridge {crista mediana), 67
cuneiform {cartilago cuneiformis), 67
epiglottis {cartilago epiglottica), 29, 67,
80,81

thyroid (cartilago thyreoidea), 67, 80, 81
plates (laminae thyreoideae), 67

cranial horn (cornu rostrae), 67
caudal horn (cornu caudale), 67
dorsal horn (cornu dorsale), 67

227

Clinical Anatomy oj the European Hamster

larynx — continued
cavities

caudal (cavum laryngis caudate), 80
intermediate {cavum laryngis intermedi-
um), 80

epiglottis, 68

folds

aryepiglottic {plicae aryepiglotticae), 68
vestibular {plica vestibularis), 68
vocal {plica vocales), 68, 80
glottis, 68

infraglottis {cavum infraglotticum), 68
muscles

arytaenoideus transversus (m. arytaeno-

ideus transversus), 68
cricoarytaenoideus dorsalis muscle {m.

cricoarytaenoideus dorsalis), 68
cricoarytaenoideus lateralis muscle (m.

cricoarytaenoideus lateralis), 68
cricothyreoideus (m. cricothyreoideus), 68
cricotrachealis muscle (m. cricotrache-

alis), 68

hyoepiglotticus (m. hyoepiglotticus), 68
sternohyoideus (m. sternohyoideus), 68
thyreoarytaenoideus muscle (m. thyreo-

arytaenoideus), 68
thyreohyoideus muscle (m. thyreohyoide-

us), 68

vocalis muscle (m. vocalis), 68
opening {aditus laryngis), 61
ligaments

cricothyroid (/z^. cricothyreoideum), 67,
68

cricotracheal (/z^. cricotracheale), 68
thyreoepiglottic (/z^. thyreoepiglotticum),
68

vocal (%. vocale), 68
rima glottidis, 68
ventricles, 80

lateral {ventriculus laryngis lateralis), 68,
80

median {ventriculus laryngis medianus),
68

latissimus dorsi

see muscle, latissimus dorsi
layers

fibrous {tunica adventitia) of ureter, 132
mucous {tunica mucosa)

of ureter, 1 32

of vesicular glands, 137

225

muscular {tunica muscularis)

of ureter, 1 32

of vesicular glands, 137
sheath, external areolar {tunica adventitia) of
vesicular glands, 137

length

male vs. female, 1

lien

see spleen
lifespan

under laboratory conditions, vi
ligament(s)

annular, {ligg- annulana) of trachea, 69
broad, of ovary {lig. latum uteri), 138
coronary, of liver {lig. coronarium hepatis),
123, 126

cricothyroid {lig. cricothyreoideum) , 67
cricotracheal {lig. cricotracheale), 68
duodenocolic {plica duodenocolica), 129, 156
falciform, of liver {lig. falciforme), 126, 128
gastrophrenic {lig. gastrophrenicum) , 124
gastrosplenic {lig. gastrolienal), 127, 159
hepatoduodenal, {lig. hepatoduodenal) of

lesser omentum, 125
hepatogastric {lig. hepatogastricum), 123, 125
ileocaecal {plica ileocaecalis), 129, 130
lateral, of urinary bladder {lig. vesicae later-
ales), 132
lienoreal {lig. lienorenale), 124, 127
middle, of urinary bladder {lig. vesicae medi-

anum), 132
ovarian {lig. ovarii), 138

phrenicopericardical {lig. phrenicopericardi-
acum), 89

pulmonary {lig. pulmonale), 95

sternopericardial {lig. sternopencardiaca), 88

teres, of liver {lig. teres hepatis), 126

thyroepiglottic {lig. thyreopiglotticum), 68

triangular, left, of peritoneum {lig. tnangu-
laria sinistrum), 123, 126

triangular, right, of peritoneum {lig. triangu-
laria dextrum), 123, 126

vocal {lig. vocale), 68
ligg. annulana

see ligaments, annular
lig. coronarium sinistrum hepatis

see ligament, coronary, left
lig. cricothyreoideum

see ligament, cricothyroid

Index

lig. cricotracheale

see ligament, cricotracheal
lig. falciforme hepatis

see ligament, falciform, of liver
lig. gastrolienale

see ligament, gastrosplenic
lig. gastrophrenicum

see ligament, gastrophrenic
lig. hepatoduodenale

see ligament, hepatoduodenal
lig. hepatogastricum

see ligament, hepatogastric
lig. latum uteri

see ligament, broad, of uterus
lig. lienorenale

see ligament, lienorenal
lig. ovarii

see ligament, ovarian
lig. phrenicopericardiacum

see ligament, phrenicopericardial
lig. pulmonale

see ligament, pulmonary
lig. sternopericardiaca

see ligament, sternopericardial
lig. teres hepatis

see ligament, teres, of liver
lig. thyreopiglotticum

see larynx, ligaments
lig. triangulare dextrum

see ligament, triangular, right
lig. triangulare sinistrum

see ligament, triangular, left
lig. vesicae lateralis

see ligament, lateral, of urinary bladder
lig. vesicae medianum

see ligament, middle, of urinary bladder
lig. vocale

see ligament, vocal and larynx, ligaments
lingua

see tongue
lips {labia oris), 19

lower, {labium mandibulare), 19

upper, {labium maxillare), 19
liver (hepar), 125-127, 152

artery {a. hepatica), 127

capsule, fibrous {capsula fibrosa), 126-127

ducts

bile {ductus choledochus), 126
ductules

interlobular {ductulus biliferus), 127

fissure, ligamentum teres {/is sura lig. teretis),
126

impressions

esophageal {impressio esophagea), 126.
gastric {impressio gastnca), 126
renal {impressio renalis), 126

ligaments

coronary {lig. coronarium), 126
falciform {lig. falciforme), 126
teres {lig. teres hepatis), 126
triangular {ligg- triangularia), 126

lobes, 151

caudate {lobus caudatus), 125, 126
lateral, left {lobus hepatis sinister later-
alis), 125

lateral, right {lobus hepatis dexter later-
alis), 126

medial, left {lobus hepatis sinister medi-
alis), 125

medial, right {lobus hepatis dexter medi-
alis), 125

quadrate {lobus quadratus), \26
lobules, 127, 153
portal {porta hepatis), 126
processes, of caudate lobe

caudate {processus caudatus), 126

papillary {processus papillaris), 126
surfaces

convex parietal {facies diaphragmatic a),
126, 151

visceral {facies visceralis), 126, 151

veins

central {v. centralis), 127
hepatic {v. hepatica), 127
lobes {lobi)

of brain, 23

of hver, 125-128

of lung, 95, 96

of pancreas, 127, 154
lobi paramediani

of brain, 23, 60
lobules

of liver, 127
lobus accessorius

see lung, lobes
lobus cranialis

see lung, lobes

229

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

lobus caudalis

see lung, lobes
lobus caudatus

see liver, lobes
lobus hepatis dexter lateralis

see liver, lobes
lobus hepatis dexter medialis

see liver, lobes
lobus hepatis sinister lateralis

see liver, lobes
lobus hepatis sinister medialis

see liver, lobes
lobus intermedius accessorius

see lung, lobes
lobus medius

see lung, lobes
lobus pancreatis dexter

see pancreas, lobes
lobus piriformis, 61
lobus quadratus

see liver, lobes
lobus sinister

see liver, lobes
lordosis

of cervical vertebrae, 65 ^
lumbar

fat deposits of, 7

lobi

see lobes

lungs (pulmo), 77, 94-96, 111, 114, 115, 118,
119, 120

alveoli, 94
arteries

pulmonary {a. pulmonalis), 94, 96
bronchioles, 94
ducts

alveolar, 94
edge, of left lung {margo acutus), 95
fissures

interlobar, 95
groove

vena cava {sulcus venae cavae), 96
hilum

pulmonary, 95
impressions, cardiac

left lobe, 96

intermedial lobe, 96
ligaments

pulmonary {lig. pulmonale), 95

230

lobes

accessory (lobus accessorius), 77, 95, 109,

111, 114, 119
cranial (lobus cranialis), 77, 95, 109,

115, 119

diaphragmatic (lobus caudalis), 77, 95,
109, 114

intermediate accessory (lobus intermedius

accessorius), 95, 114, 120
left (lobus sinister), 77, 95, 109, 111, 114
middle (lobus medius), 77, 95, 109, 114,

119

lobules, 94, 109

lymph nodes, bronchial (Inn. bronchioles), 95
nerves of, 92
pleura, 95

segments, bronchopulmonary, 94
root (radix pulmonis), 95
surfaces

diaphragmatic (Jacies diaphragmatica),
96, 104

veins

pulmonary, 96

lymph

centers

coeliac (lymphocentrum coeliacum), 134
cranial mesenteric (lymphocentrum mes-

entericum craniale), 134
ilofemoral (lymphocentrum iliofemorale),

135

ilosacral (lymphocentrum iliosacrale),
135

inguinofemoral (lymphocentrum inguino-

femorale), 135
mandibular (lymphocentrum mandibu-

lare), 52, 66, 67
popliteal (lymphocentrum popliteum),

135

retropharyngeal (lymphocentrum retro-
pharyngeum), 67
duct, right (ductus lymphaticus dexter), 92
lymph nodes

accessory hepatic (Inn. hepatici accessorii), 78,
134

accessory axillary (Inn. axillaris accessorius),
67, 78

aortic lumbar (Inn. lumbales aortici), 135
axillary (In. axillaris), 67, 78
bronchial (Inn. bronchiales), 95

Index

lymph nodes — continued

cervical, caudal, deep {Inn. cervicalis profun-
dus cranialis), 67, 78

colic or colonic {Inn. colici), 135

gastric {Inn. gastrici), 134

hepatic {Inn. hepatica), 78, 134

iliac, lateral {Inn. iliaci laterales), 78, 135

iliac, medial {Inn. iliaci mediales), 78, 135

iliocaecal {Inn. iliocaecales), 135

inguinal, deep {Inn. inguinales profundi), 78,
135

inguinal, superficial {Inn. inguinales super-

ficales), 78, 135
jejunal {Inn. jejunales), 135
mandibular {Inn. mandibu lares), 66, 67

caudal {Inn. mandibulares caudalis), 78
rostral {Inn. mandibulares rostralis), 78
mesenteric, cranial {Inn. mesentenci cranial-
es), 135

pancreaticoduodenal {Inn. pancreaticoduoden-

ales), 134
parotid {Inn. parotideus), 52, 67, 78
popliteal {In. popliteus), 78, 135
renal {Inn. renales), 78, 135
retropharyngeal {Inn. retropharyngei), 67

lateral {Inn. retropharyngeus lateralis),
78

medial {Inn. retropharyngeus medialis),
78

sacral {Inn. sacrales), 78, 135
tracheobronchial {Inn. trachiobronchales), 92
left dorsal {In. tracheobronchales sinister

dorsalis), 144
left ventral {Inn. tracheobronchales sinis-

tri ventrales), 114
right dorsal {Inn. tracheobronchales dex-

tri dor sales), 114
right ventral {Inn. tracheobronchales dex-
tri ventrales), 114
lymph trunks

coeliac {truncus coeliacus), 134
intestinal {truncus intestinales), 134
lumbar {truncus lumbalis), 134
thoracic {truncus thoracicus or ductus thor-
acicus), 92, 114
lymphocentrum coeliacum

see lymph centers, coeliac
lymphocentrum mandibulare

see lymph centers, mandibular

lymphocentrum mesentericum craniale

see lymph centers, mesenteric, cranial

lymphocentrum retropharyngeum

see lymph centers, retropharyngeal

male

genital organs of, 10, 11, 175, 176, 177

ampullae, of vas deferens, 135, 176, 179,
180

ductus deferens, 135
epididymis, 135, 176
penis, 181
glands

accessory genital {gll. genitales acces-

soriae), 135
bulbourethral {gll. bulbourethrales), 135
prostate {prostata), 135, 181
vesicular {gll. vesiculares), 135, 180
scrotum, 135
testes, 135, 176

urethra, pelvic part {pars pelvina), 135
vas deferens, 135
mammillae
see teat

mandibles

see bones, mandible, 19
mandibular gland, 22

see glands, mandibular
manubrium

of sternum, 65, 88, 93
mar go acutus

see lungs, edge
margo plicatus

of esophagus, 124
massa intermedia, 59
mastication

cheeks {buccae), 20
mating

wild vs. laboratory bred, 2
maxilla

see bones, maxillary
maxilloturbinal

see concha, nasal, ventral
meatus, auditory, external {meatus acusticus exter-

nus), 8, 31, 36, 73
meatus, auditory, internal {meatus acusticus inter-

nus), 30
meatus

nasal

dorsal {meatus nasi dorsalis), 18, 29, 32,
33

231

(Hinual Anal limy of I he I'liirafx-nii I lanisl.cr

rnc'itiis, ii;isal continuetl

middle {meatus nasi rncdius), 18, 29, 32,
33

V('ntr;ii irricalus nasi vrntralis), IH, 29,
32,33,34
nicdiasl ilium

dorsal, 92 93
ventral, KH 92
medulla

ol brain (inn/u/la nhhunuita), 23, 29, 58, 59,
f>l

ol (^land, adrenal, 1 33
ol kidney, I 32

ol ovar y i;:<in'i /'asrulosa ), 138

ol spinal (ord (inrJi/l/a \f>uiiili\), 29
rnelanui, 2
niemhr ane, niu( oiis

ol hard palate, 20

ol large intestine, 1 30

ol small intestine, 1 29
mesocolon, 122, 123, 130
mcsogastr iirrn, I 29
mcsojeiunum, 1 29, 165
mesovarium, 1 38
mucosa

or or a! cavity iluriira murnsa oris), 19, 20
muse lc(s)

aryldcnouh'us Iran svcrsns, 68
ln( ('f)s Icrniiris, 1 35

brai hio( cphalic (m. I rrachiocrph aliens), 6S
cleidobr acliial (ni. clridohrai hialis), 65
( leido( ('ijlialic (///. ( Ii-hIik iphal n us), 6S, 66,
73

cnconrytacnouicus

ilorsalis, 68, 80

lal.cralis, 68
cricolliyreindcus, C)^
cricotrachealis, 68

digastric (m. digaslricus), 53, 6.S, 73, 74

gastrocnemius, 1 35

hyoepiglotticus, 68

iliac (m. iliacus), 121

intercostals

external (mm. intercostales externi), 86
internal (mm. intercostales interni), 86

?.vr// k; rethra lis, 1 3 7

laryngeal, 68

latissimus dorsi, 67

levatores costarum, 86

232

longus colli, 63, 66
masse ter, 22, 53, 74

rnedialis, pars rost.ralis, 73
/»an superficialts, 73

oblique, external (m. ohlu/uus exlernus), 53,
74

oblifjue, internal (m. obliquus internus), 121
omohyoid (m. ornohyoideus), 65
ornotr ansversarius (m. ornotransnersarius), 65
[japillar y, of heart (rnrn. fjafjillarcs ), 90
pectorals, deep (m. pectoralis profundus), 66
pectorals, superficial (m. pectoralis suf)erfi-
ciales), 53

caudal transverse (/^ars transversus), 66
clavicular (/^I'irs clavicularis), 53, 74
cranial descending (par.v descendens), 66
sternocostal (/?ar.v sternocos talis), 53, 74
psoas nriaj or (rn. psoas major), 121, 128
quadrate (m. (juadrutus lurnhorurn), 121
rectus abdominis, 121

buccinator, 20
bursae buccalis, 20, 47
scalene

dorsal scalenus dorsalis), 65
midflle (?//. stalenus rnedius), 65

semitendtnosus, 135

sphincter

pyloric (m. sphincter pylori), 125

sternoce[)halic (m. sternocef)halicus), 66

sternohyoid (m. sternohyoideus), 53, 77, 109

sternothyreonJeus, 68, 77, 109

tem[)oral ternfxiralis), 73

terres major, (il

thyreoarytaenoideus, 68

thyreohyoideus, 68, 73

tra( healcs, 69

transversus tracheae, 80

triceps brachii, (lil , 74

Docalis, 68
///. 1)1 (K hto<cplnili( us

see nnrs( le, brachiocephalic
m. cleidobraehialis

see muscle, cleidobrachial
. r /c i c/r; ( ('f)li(ili c u s

see muscle, cleidocephalic
m. di^astricus

see mu.s( le, digastric

Index

m. iliacus

see muscle, iliac
mm. mtercostales externi

see muscles, intercostals, external
mm. intercostales interni

see muscles, intercostals, internal
m. obliquus internus

see muscle, oblique, internal
m. omohyoideus

see muscle, omohyoid
mm. papillares

see muscles, papillary
m. pectoralis superjicialis pars descendens

see muscle, pectoral, superficial, descending
m. pectoralis superficialis pars transversus

see muscle, pectoral, superficial, transverse
m. quadra tus lumborum

see muscle, quadrate
m. scalenus dorsalis

see muscle, scalene, dorsal
m. scalenus medius

see muscle, scalene, middle
m. sternncephalicus

see muscle, sternocephalic
myocardium, 90
nares

see nostrils
nasal cavity

see cavity, nasal, 17, 18
nasolacrimal duct {ductus nasolacrimalis), 25

see also duct, nasolacrimal
nasopharynx (pharynx, pars nasalis), 17, 18, 24,

29,36,66
nasoturbinal

see concha, nasal

neck

see cervical region
neopallium, 57, 58, 59

neurocranium or brain case (cranium), 17, 23
ethmoid bone (os ethmoides), 17, 23

cribriform plate of (lamina cribrosa), 23
frontal bone (os frontale), 17, 23
interparietal bone (os interparietale), 23
occipital bone (os occipitale), 23
parietal bone (os parietale), 23
sphenoid bone (os sphenoidale), 23

neurohypophysis

see gland, pituitary, posterior lobe

nerves

cervical, 92

cranial, 23

iac'ial (n. facialis), 60

genitofemoral nerve (n. genitofemoralis), 128
hypoglossal (n. hypoglossis), 60
iliohypogastric nerve (n. iliohypogastricus),
128

laryngeal, recurrent, left (n. laryngeus recur-

rens sinister), 92
laryngeal, recurrent, right (n. laryngeus recur-

rens dexter), 92
mandibular (n. mandibularis), 61
maxillary (n. maxillaris), 61
of mediastinum, ventral, 92
oculomotor (n. oculomotorius), 23, 60
olfactory, 19
optic, 23, 26, 61
phrenic (nn. phrenici), 88, 92
splanchnic (nn. splanchnici), 128

major (n. splanchnici major) , 128
minor (n. splanchnici minor), 128
thoracic, 92

trigeminal (n. trigeminus), 23, 60, 61

trochlear (n. trochlears), 23

trunk, sympathetic (truncus sympatheticus),

88, 92, 93, 128
trunk, vagosympathetic (truncus vagosympa-

theticus), 66
vagus nerves (nn. vagii), 88, 89, 92, 128

left (n. vagus sinister), 77, 92, 109, 128
right (n. vagus dexter), 77, 92, 109, 128
coeliac branch (ramus coeliacus),
128

gastric branch (ramus gastricus vis-
cera lis), 128
n. genitofemoralis

see nerve, genitofemoral

n. iliohypogastricus

see nerve, iliohypogastric

n. laryngeus recurrens dexter

see nerve, laryngeal, recurrent, right

n. laryngeus recurrens sinister

see nerve, laryngeal, recurrent, left

n. oculomotorius

see nerve, oculomotor

233

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

nn. phrenici

see nerves, phrenic
nn. splanchnic

see nerves, splanchnic
n. trigeminus

see nerve, trigeminal
n. trochlear IS

see nerve, trochlear
nn. vagi

see nerves, vagus
n. vagus dexter

see nerve, vagus, right
n. vagus sinister

see nerve, vagus, left
nostrils (nares), 1 , 8, 32
notch, clavicular, 85

see also sulcus

oculi

see eyes
olfactory nerve

see nerve, olfactory
omentum

greater {omentum majus), 123, 124, 127

lesser (omentum minus), 125
omentum majus

see omentum, greater
omentum minus

see omentum, lesser
opening

aortic

mediastinum, 88

laryngeal (aditus laryngis), 67, 68

nasomaxillary

of paranasal cavity, 19

obturator

of pelvis, 121

preputial (ostinum praeputiale), 1

urinary (orificium urethrae externum), 2

urogenital, 11
ophthalmic plexus, 25, 26, 64
oral cavity, 19

see cavity, oral
orbit (orbita), 31

adipose tissue of (corpus adiposum orbitae),
24

organa uropoetica, 168, 169

see separate urinary organs
organ(s)

flank, 2, 13

234

umbilical glandular, 2, 12, 32, 33, 37
vomeronasal (organum vomer onasale), 18-19,
32,33,34,41

organum vomeronasale

see organs, vomeronasal
oropharynx (pharynx, pars oralis), 17, 19, 66
orifice(s)

external, of uterus (ostium uteri externum),
139

internal, of uterus (ostia uteri interna), 139

vaginal (ostium vaginae), 1, 139
orificium urethrae externum

see opening, urinary
OS coxae

see bone, pelvic
OS ethmoidale

see bone, ethmoid
OS frontale

see bone, frontal
OS hyoideum

see bone, hyoid
OS ilium

see bone, ilium
OS incisivum

see bone, premaxillary
OS interparietale

see bone, interparietal
OS ischium

see bone, ischium
OS nasale

see bone, nasal
OS occipitale

see bone, occipital
OS palatinum

see bone, palatine
OS parietale

see bone, parietal
OS praesphenoidale

see bone, presphenoid
OS pubis

see bone, pubic
OS sacrum

see bone, sacrum
OS sphenoidales

see bone, sphenoid
OS temporalis, pars mastoidea

see bone, temporal, mastoid process
OS temporalis, pars petrosa

see bone, temporal, petrous portion

Index

OS temporalis, pars tympanica

see bone, temporal, tympanic portion
ossa cavi thoracis

see cage, bony thorax
ostinum ileale

see junction, iliocaecal
ostium praeputiale

see opening, preputial
ostium urethrae externum

see opening, urinary
ostium uteri externum

see orifice, external, of uterus
ostia uteri interna

see orifice, internal, of uterus
ostium vaginae

see orifice, vagina
outlet, pelvic {apertura pelvis caudales), 121
ovaries (ovaria), 138

bursa of {bursa ovarica), 138, 183

corpora albicantia, 138

corpora atretica, 138

corpora lutea, 138

cortex (zona parenchymatosa), 138

extremity, tubal {extremitas tubana), 138

extremity, uterine {extremitas uterina), 138

follicles {folliculi ovarici), 138

hibernation, in, 138

hilus {hilus ovarici), 138

ligament {lig. ovarii proprium), 138

medulla (^ona ya5cii/o5(2), 138

tunica albuginea, 138
oviducts {tuba uterina), 138, 186

fimbriae tubae, 138

infundibulum {infundibulum tubae uterinae),
138

pads {ton)

of forefeet, hindfeet, 1 , 9
palate

hard {palatum durum), 19, 20, 29, 32, 33, 34,
45,48

rugae of {rugae palatinae), 20

soft {palatum molle), 17-20, 29, 45, 66, 68
palatum durum

see palate, hard
palatum molle

see palate, soft
palae op allium, 60
palma manus

see forefeet, soles

palpebra

see eyelid(s)
palpebrae inferior

see eyelids, lower
palpebrae superior

see eyelids, upper
pancreas, 122, 127, 154, 156, 157

islets of Langerhans, 158

lobes

left, 127, 154, 156, 157
right, 127, 154, 156, 157

within duodenocolic ligament, 127, 154,
156

panniculus adiposus

see adipose
papilla

of kidney {papilla renalis), 131

salivary, of parotid {papilla parotidea), 22
papilla renalis

see kidney, papilla
papilla ilealis

see valve, ileocaecal
papilla parotidea

see papilla, salivary
papillae incisivae

of incisive ducts, 20
papillae linguales

see tongue, papillae
papillae mammae

see teats
paraflocculi

of brain, 23, 60, 61
paranasal cavity {sinus paranasals)

see cavity, paranasal, 17, 19
parathormone, 69
parotid gland

see gland, parotid
parotis

see gland, parotid
pars cardiaca

see cardia, of stomach
pars cava infundibuli

of pituitary, 24
pars distalis

of pituitary, 24
pars intermedia

of pituitary, 24
pars pylorica

see pylorus, of stomach

235

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

pedunculi cerebri

see crurae, cerebral
pelvis, 121, 130-139, 144, 167

acetabulum, 144

ala ossis ilii, 144

crista lateralis, 144

fades auricularis, 144

fades symphysialis, 144

foramen obturatum, 144

fossa ace ta bull, 144

incisura ischiadica major, 144

incisura ischiadica minor, 144

spina iliaca dorsalis cranialis, 144

spina iliaca ventralis caudalis, 144

spina iliaca ventralis cranialis, 144

tuber ischiadicum, 144

tuberositas iliaca, 144
penis, 10, 11, 137

body of {corpus penis), 137

corpora cavernosa, 1 37

sheath of {tunica albuginea corporum
cavernosum), 137

glans {glans penis), 137

opening, urethral {ostium urethrae externum),
137

OS penis, 1 37

prepuce {praeputium), 137

glands of {gll. praeputiales), 137
laminae of, external {laminae externa),
137

laminae of, internal {laminae internal), 137

root {radix penis), 137

surfaces

dorsal {dorsum penis), 137

ventral, urethral groove {sulcus urethral-
is), 137

pericardium

parietal portion {lamina panetalis), 89
visceral portion {lamina visceralis), 87, 88, 89,
92, 95

peritoneum, 122-124, 128, 129

bursa, omental {bursa omentalis), 123
caudomesocolic region, 128, 129
cavity {cavum peritonei), 122
craniomesocolic region, 122-124
foramen of

epiploic {foramen epiploicum), 123
ligaments of

coronary, left {lig. coronarium sinistrum

hepatis), 123
falciform {lig. falciforme hepatis), 123
gastrolienic {lig. gastrolineale), 127
gastrophrenic {lig. gastrophrenicum),

124

hepatoduodenal {lig. hepatoduodenale),
123

hepatogastric {lig. hepatogastricum), 123
lienorenal {lig. lienorenale), 124
ligamentum teres {lig. teres hepatis), 123
triangular, left {lig. triangularia sinis-
trum), 123
triangular, right {lig. triangularia dex-
trum), 123
mesentery, 122
mesocolon, 122
mesovarium, 138
omentum

greater {omentum majus), 123
lesser {omentum minus), 123
parietal part {peritoneum panetale), 122
rectogenital pouch {excavationes rectogeni-

tales), 122, 128
vesicogenital pouch {excavationes vesicogen-

itales), 122, 128, 129
visceral part {peritoneum viscerale), 122
pharynx, 66, 80

arch, palatopharyngeal {arcus palatophar-
yngeus), 66

entrance, lower limit {vallecula epiglottica),
66

entrance, upper limit {aditus pharyngis), 66
fold, aryepiglottic {plica aryepiglottica), 66
palate, soft, caudal edge of {velum palatinum),

66
parts of

laryngeal {pars laryngea), 66
nasal {pars nasalis), 66
oral {pars oralis), 66
philtrum, 1, 8,32
pharynx, pars nasalis

see nasopharynx, pharynx
pharynx, pars oralis

see oropharynx, pharynx

pill

see hairs
planta

see hindfeet, soles
planum nasale, 32

236

Index

plates

of thyroid cartilage {laminae thyreoideae), 67
pleura

cervical portion {pleura cervicalis or cupula

pleurae), 87
costal portion {pleura costalis), 87, 99
diaphragmatic portion {pleura diaphragma-

tica), 87
folds of

vena cava {plica venae cauae), 88
intermediate sac, of {cavum pleurae inter-
medium), 87
left sac of {caimm pleurae sinistrum), 87
mediastinal portion {pleura mediastinalis), 87
parietal layer {pleura parietalis), 87
recesses of

recessus mediastini sive

cavum pleurae intermedium, 88
costodiaphragmatic {recessus costodia-

phragmaticus), 88
costomediastinal {recessus costomedias-
tinalis), 88
right, sac of {cavum pleurae dextrum), 87
sinuses of, 87

visceral surface, investing lung {pleura pul-
monalis), 87
pleura cervicalis

see pleura, cervical portion of
pleura costalis

see pleura, costal portion of
pleura diaphragmatica

see pleura, diaphragmatic portion of
pleura mediastinalis

see pleura, mediastinal portion of
pleura parietalis

see pleural, parietal surface
pleura pulmonalis

see pleura, visceral surface
plexus

brachial {plexus brachialis), 92, 99

lumbar {plexus lumbalis), 128

ophthalmic {plexus ophthalmicus), 26
plexus brachialis

see plexus, brachial
plexus lumbalis

see plexus, lumbar
plexus ophthalmicus

see plexus, ophthalmic

plica aryepiglottica

see folds, aryepiglottic
plica duodenocolica

see ligaments, duodenocolic
plica ileocaecalis

see ligaments, ileocaecal
plica venae cavae

see pleura, folds
plica vocalis

see folds, vocal
plica vestibularis

see folds, vestibular

poles

cranial {extremitates craniales)

of kidney, 130, 131
caudal {extremitates caudales)
of epididymis, 135
of kidney, 131
pons, 22, 29,58,59,61
portal

hepatic {porta hepatis), 126
porta hepatis

see portal, hepatic
portal circulation, 134

colic

left vein {v. colica sinistra), 134
middle vein {v. colica media), 134
right vein {v. colica dextra), 134

gastroduodenal v. {v. gastroduodenalis), 134

iliocolic vein {v. ileocolica), 134

ilial veins {vv. ilei), 134

jejunal veins {vv. jejunales), 134

mesenteric

caudal vein {v. mesenterica caudalis), 134
cranial vein {v. mesenterica cranialis),
134

portal vein {v. porta), 134
rectal, cranial {v. rectalis cranialis), 134
splenic vein {v. lienalis), 134
pouch

rectogenital {excavationes rectogenitalis), 122
vesicogenital {excavatio vesicogenitalis), 128,
129

praeputium

see prepuce
pregnancy (see also reproduction)

duration

wild vs. laboratory-bred, 2

237

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

prepuce (praeputium)

of penis, 1 , 137, 10, 11
preputial opening {ostium praeputiale)

see opening, preputial
process

acromion

of scapula, 65

alveolar {processus alveolaris), 32, 33

angular {processus angularis), 44

articular

of vertebra {processus articulares), 65,

86, 103, 121
of mandible {processus condylaris), 21
caudate

of liver {processus caudatus), 126
condylar {processus condylaris), 44
coronoid {processus coronoideus), 44
muscular {processus muscularis)

of arytenoid cartilage, 68
odontoid {dens)

of axis, 65
papillary

of liver {processus papillaris), 126
pterygoid {processus pterygoideus), 31
spinous

of vertebra {processus spinosus), 65, 86,
103, 121
transverse

of vertebra {processus transversi), 65,
103, 121
vocal {processus vocalis)

of arytenoid cartilage, 68
xiphoid {processus xiphoideus)

of sternum, 86, 121

processus articulares

see process, articular
processus caudatus

see process, caudate
processus condylaris

see process, articular, of mandible
processus muscularis

see process, muscular
processus papillaris

see process, papillary
processus spinosus

see process, spinous
processus transversi

see process, transverse

processus vocalis

see process, vocal
processus xiphoideus

see process, xiphoid
prominence {promontorium)

sacral

of pelvis, 121
promontorium

see prominence
prostata

see gland, prostate
proventriculus

see forestomach
proximal duodenum, 125
pulmo

see lung
pulvini buccales

see pads, buccal
pulp, of teeth {pulpa dentis), 34, 35
pylorus, 125, 126, 129, 134
pyramis, 60

quadrate lobe {lobus quadratus)

see liver, lobes
radices denies

see teeth, roots
radix inciswis

see root, incisor
radix linguae

see tongue, root
radix mesenterii

see root, mesentery
radix molaris

see root, molar
radix penis

see root, penis
radix pulmonis

see root, pulmonary
ramus coeliacus

see branch, coeliac
ramus gastricus visceralis

see branch, gastric
recessus cavi nasi, 33
recessus costodiaphragmaticus

see pleura, recesses of
recessus costomediastinalis

see pleura, recesses of
recessus mediastini sive cavum pleurae intermedium

see pleura, recesses of
rectum, 131, 167

238

Index

regio abdominis lateralis sinister

see region, abdominal, lateral, left
regio hypochondriaca

see region, hypochondrium
regio inguinalis

see region, inguinal
regio pubica

see region, pubic
regio umbilicalis

see region, umbilical
regio xiphoidea

see region, xiphoid
region

abdominal, lateral, left {regio abdominis later-
alis sinister), 130
caudomesocolic, 128
cervical, ventral, 65, 66
hypochondriac {regio hypochondriaca) , 124
inguinal {regio inguinalis), 122
pubic {regio pubica), 132
renal, 122

umbilical {regio umbilicalis), 124, 129, 130
•K\Y>^oiA {regie xiphoidea), 126

ren

see kidney
reproduction

see breeding, pregnancy, mating, 2
behavior, 2, 14
breeding, laboratory, 2, 14
estrus, 2
organs

female genital, 138, 139
male genital, 135-138
respiratory system, 93-96

extrapulmonary bronchi, 93, 94
intrapulmonary system, 94, 95
lungs and pulmonary topography, 95, 96
trachea, 93, 94
rete testes, 136

retractor bursae buccalis et retractor buccinator, 20
retroperitoneal viscera and relations, 131, 132
rhombencephalon, 23
ribs {costae), 99, 100, 141

angle of {angulus costae), 86

asternal, see ribs, false

false {costae spuriae), 85

head of {caput costae), 100

space, intercostal {spatium intercostale), 86

sternal, see ribs, true

true {costae verae), 85
muscles of

intercostal

external {mm. intercostales externi),
86

internal {mm. intercostales interni),
86

levatores costarum, 86
tuberculum costae, 100

ridge

cricoid

of larynx, 67
dorsal median

of larynx, 67

rima oris

see cavity, oral
rings, of trachea

see trachea, cartilages of

root

incisor {radix inciswi), 49, 51

mesentery {radix mesenteri), 135

molar {radix molaris), 34

pulmonary {radix pulmonis) , 95, 96

penis {radix penis), 137
rugae palatinae

see rugae, palatine
rugae, palatine {rugae palatinae), 20, 33, 45
sac

conjunctival {saccus conjunctivae), 24

lacrimal {saccus lacrimalis), 25
sacculi

of large intestine, 1 30
saccus conjunctivae

see sac, conjunctival
saccus lacrimalis

see sac, lacrimal
sacrum {os sacrum), 121, 144
salivary glands {gll. oris), 21, 22

see also glands, salivary
scapula {scapula), 65

acromion, 72

angulus caudalis, 72

angulus cranialis, 72

fades articularis, 72

fossa infraspinata, 72

fossa supraspinata, 72

margo caudalis, 72

margo cranialis, 72

margo dorsalis, 72

239

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

scapula {scapula) — continued

processus coracoideus, 72

processus suprahamatus, 72

spina scapulae, 72
scrolls, turbinal

seeturbinals (turhinala), 17
scrotum, 135
sella turcica

of pituitary gland, 23
seminal fluid

of vesicular glands, 137
septum

interventricular

see heart, septum

nasal {septum nasi), 17, 19, 29,42
septum nasi

see septum, nasal
sex differentiation

external, 1 , 2, 6, 11

sinus

maxillary {sinus maxillaris), 33, 34, 38, 42, 43

paranasal {sinus paranasales), 19
sinus maxillaris

see sinus, maxillary
sinus paranasales

see cavity, paranasal and sinus, paranasal
skeleton, 27

abdominal and pelvic, 121

adult European hamster, 27

cervical

see also vertebrae, cervical {vertebrae cer-
vicales), 65
facial {Jacies), 17, 28,29,30
skull, 17, 28,29,30,31,40,49,51,61,71
thoracic, 85, 86
smell

vomeronasal organs {organum vomeronasale),
19

soles {planta)

of hindfeet, 1, 9
space

intercostal {spatium intercostale), 86
spatium intercostale

see space, intercostal
sperm, 13

spermatids, 178, 179
spinal column, 70

spleen {lien), 127, 156, 157, 159, 161
body, Malpighian, 159

240

ends

dorsal {extremitas dorsalis), 127
ventral {extremitas ventralis), 127

hilus {hilus lienus), 127

ligaments

gastrosplenic {lig. gastrolienale), 127, 159

pulp

red {pulpa lienis rubra), 127
white {pulpa lienis alba), 127
surface

parietal {Jacies parietalis), 127
sternum {sternum)

angle of {angulus sternae), 85
body {corpus sterni), 85, 101, 105
cartilages of

episternum, 85

cartilago manubrii, 85

cartilago xiphoidea, 85, 100
manubrium {manubrium sterni), 85, 100
process

xiphoid {processus xiphoideus), 85, 86,
100

sternebrae, 98, 100, 101
stomach {gaster or ventriculus), 124, 125, 147, 156,
157, 162, 165

cardia {pars cardiaca), 125, 147
curvature, of

greater {curvatura ventriculi major), 125,
156

lesser {curvatura ventriculi minor), 125
forestomach {proventriculus), 112, 124, 125,

147,148,149,150,159
fundus {Jundus ventriculi), 125, 147
glands of

cardiac {gll. cardiacae), 125

pyloric {gll. pyloricae), 125
glandular stomach {ventriculus glandularis),

124, 125, 147, 148, 150
labia, 125
ligaments of

gastrophrenic, 124

gastrosplenic, 159

hepatogastric, 125
margo plicatus, 124, 147, 148, 149
pylorus {pars pylorica), 125, 147
regions of

abdominal, cranial {regio abdominis cra-

nialis), 122, 124
hypochondrium, left {regio hypochondri-

Index

stomach {gaster or ventriculus) — continued
aca sinistra), 124

sphincter (m. sphincter pylori), 125

sulcus {sulcus ventriculi), 147
sublingual glands

see glands, subhngual
sulcus

coronary {sulcus coronarius), 89
sulcus coronarius

see sulcus, coronary
sulcus interventricularis

see groove, interventricular
sulcus medianus linguae

see tongue, sulcus, median
sulcus rhinalis lateralis {Jissura palaeo-neocortical-

is), 58, 60
sulcus urethralis

see urethra, surface, ventral
sulcus venae cavae

see groove, vena cava
surface

diaphragmatic {facies diaphragmatica)

of liver, 126

of lung, 96
dorsal, penis {dorsum penis), 137
ear {Jacies auriculares), 121
lateral {Jacies lateralis)

of sacrum, 121
medial {Jacies mediales)

of lung, 96
parietal

of peritoneum, 121

of spleen, 127

of stomach. 125
pulmonary

left {Jacies pulmonales sinistra)
of heart, 89

right {Jacies pulmonales dextra)
of heart, 89
sternocostal {Jacies sternocostalis)

of heart, 89
visceral ( Jacies visceralis)

of peritoneum, 122
symphysis

mandibular {symphysis intermandibulans), 21
pubic {symphysis pubica), 121
symphysis intermandibularis
see symphysis, mandibular

symphysis pubica

see symphysis, pubic
synchondrosis sphenooccipitalis, 23, 31
taeniae

caecum, lack of, 130
tail, 1, 6

teats {papillae mammae), 1, 2, 10, 11
teeth {denies) see also dentition

alveolus of {alveolus dentalis), 21

canines {denies canini), 21

crowns of {corona dentis), 21

incisors {denies incisivi), 19, 21, 29, 30, 31,
32,33,44

molars {denies molares), 21, 30, 31, 34, 35,
44,50,51

gums of (gingivae), 21
permanent {dentes permanentes), 21
premolar {denies premolar es), 21
pulp of {pulpa dentis), 34, 35
roots of {radices dentes), 21

incisor {radix incisivi), 49, 51
molar {radix molaris), 34
telencephalon, 23
tendon

central {centrum tendineum)
of diaphragm, 86
teres major muscle

see muscle, teres major
testes {testes)

in active periods, 178

in hibernation, 135, 136, 176, 179

Leydig cells, 136, 176

scrotum, 136

Sertoli cells, 136

sex differentiation, 10, 11

sperm, 136

spermatocytes, 136

spermatogonia, 136

tubules, seminiferous (tubuli seminifen), 136,
179

tunica albuginea, 136
tunica vaginalis, 136
thorax, 85-96, 145

cage, bony {ossa cavi thoracis), 85, 97, 98, 99,
140, 141

cavity {cavum thoracis), 85, 87-93
diaphragm {diaphragma), 85
fat deposits in, 7

ligament, sternopericardial {lig. sternoperi-

241

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

thorax — continued
cardiaca), 88
limits of

apex, cranial {apertura cranialis), 85
opening, caudal {apertura thoracis cau-
dalis), 85
lungs (pulmo), 94-96
mediastinum, 88-93
dorsal, 92, 93

esophagus, 93
lymphatic tissue, 92, 93
ventral

great vessels, 90, 91
heart (cor), 89, 90
nerves, 92

thymus and lymphatic tissue, 91, 92
muscles, 86
intercostal

external (mm. intercostales externi),
86

internal (mm. intercostales interni),
86

levator es costarum, 86
pectoral

deep (m. pectoralis profundis), 86
caudal transverse (pars trans-

versus), 86
cranial descending (pars de-
scendens), 86
superficial (m. pectoralis superficial-
is), 86

pericardum, sac (cauum pericardium), 87, 88
pleura, 87, 88

cervical (pleura ceruicalis or cupula pleu-
rae), 87
costal (pleura costalis), 87
cupula pleurae, see pleura, cervical
diaphragmatic (pleura diaphragmatica),
87

mediastinal (pleura mediastinalis), 87
parietal (pleura parietalis), 87
visceral (pleura visceralis), 87
pleural sacs, 87

intermediate (cavum pleurae intermedi-
um), 87

left (cauum pleurae sinistrum), 87
right (cairum pleurae dextrum), 87
pleural sinuses

costodiphragmatic (recessus costodia-

242

phragmaticus), 88
costomediastinal (recessus costomedia-
stinalis), 88
respiration, 85
ribs, (costae), 85

angle of (angulus costae), 86
spinal column (columna vertebralis), 85
sternum, 85

xiphoid process of (processus xiphoideus),
85

thymus, 91

vertebrae (vertebrae thoracicae), 86
kyphosis of, 86
processes

articular (processus articularis), 86
spinous (processus spinosus), 86
thymus and related lymphatic tissue, 91 , 92

see also gland, thymus
thyroid and parathyroid glands

see gland, thyroid and gland, parathyroid
thyroxin, 69

tissue, adipose, orbital (corpus adiposum orbitae),
24

tongue (lingua), 20, 21, 29,45
body of (corpus linguae), 21
frenulum (frenulum linguae), 20, 21, 22
median sulcus (sulcus medianus linguae), 21
papillae (papillae linguales), 21, 48
root (radix linguae), 21, 22
sublingual carunculae (carunculae sublingu-
als), 21

sublingual gland (gl. sublingualis), 21

tip (apex linguae), 21
tonsils, 66
tori

see pads, forefeet, and hindfeet

toruli

see tongue, sublingual carunculae

trabeculae

of penis, 131

septomarginalis, of heart,
see heart, trabecula
trachea, 29, 68, 69, 73, 74, 79, 82, 83, 93, 94, 109,
111, 114, 118

bifurcation (bifurcatio tracheae), 79, 80, 93,
102

cartilages of (cartilagines tracheales), 69, 75,
79,80

ligaments, annular (ligg- annularia), 69

Index

trachea — continued

muscles {mm. tracheales), 69, 80
nerves, 92

rings of, see trachea, cartilages
tractus olfactorius laterus, 60
triceps brachii

see muscle, triceps brachii
truncus brachiocephalicus

see trunk, arterial, brachiocephalic and artery,
brachiocephalic
truncus coeliacus

see trunk, lymphatic, coeliac
truncus intestinalis

see trunk, lymphatic, intestinal
truncus lumbalis

see trunk, lymphatic lumbar
truncus sympathicus

see trunk, nerves, sympathetic
truncus thoracicus

see trunk, lymphatic, thoracic
truncus sympathicus

see trunk, nerve, sympathetic
truncus vagosympathicus

see trunk, nerve, vagosympathetic
trunk

arterial

brachiocephalic (truncus brachiocephali-
cus), 66, 93, 109, 110, 111
lymphatic

coeliac (truncus coeliacus), 128, 131
cranialmesocolic vascularization, 128
intestinal (truncus intestinalis), 134
lumbar (truncus lumbalis), 134
lymph nodes, 134
thoracic (truncus thoracicus), 92
nerve, sympathetic (truncus sympathicus), 92
cranial cervical ganglion (ganglion cervi-
cale), 66

middle cervical ganglion (ganglion cervi-

cale medium), 66
stellate ganglion (ganglion stellatum), 66
vagosympathetic (truncus vagosympathi-
cus), 66
tuba auditiva

see Eustachian tube
tuba uterina

see oviducts
tuber ischiadicum

see tuberosity, ischial

tuber cinereum

of pituitary gland, 23, 61
tuberculum olfactorium, 60
tuberosity

ischial (tuber ischiadicum), 137
tubules

convoluted

of kidney (tubuli reriales contorti), 132

efferent, of epididymis, 179

seminiferous (tubuli seminiferi), 136, 178,
179

straight

of kidney (tubuli renales recti), 132
tubuli renales contorti

see tubules, convoluted
tubuli renales recti

see tubules, straight
tubuli seminiferi

see tubules, seminiferous
tunica adventitia, of ureter

see layer, fibrous
tunica adventitia, of vesicular glands

see layer, sheath, external areolar
tunica albuginea

see testes, tunica
tunica mucosa

see layers, mucous
tunica mucosa oris

see mucosa, oral
tunica muscularis

see layers, muscular
tunica vaginalis

see testis, tunica
umbilical glandular organ

see organ, umbilical glandular
umbilicus, 11
unguis

see claws
ureter, 132

layers

fibrous (tunica adventitia), 132
mucous (tunica mucosa), 132
muscular (tunica muscularis), 132

location of, 1 32

renal pelvis, 132

urinary bladder (vesica urinaria), 132
urethra

external orifice of (ostium urethrae externum),
132

243

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

urethra — continued

female {urethra feminina), 132
male (urethra masculina), 132, 137
pelvic part (pars pelvica), 135
urethra feminina

see urethra, female
urethra masculina

see urethra, male
urethra pars pehnna

see urethra, pelvic part
urinary bladder (vesica urinaria), 132
ligaments

lateral (lig. vesicae laterales), 132
middle (lig. vesicae medianum), 132
muscles

m. pubovesicalis, 132
m. rectourethralis, 132
ureter, 132

vesicular glands (gll. vesiculares), 132, 136,137
urinary organs (organa uropoetica)

kidneys (ren), 131

urethra, 131, 132, 135, 137

ureters (ureter), 131

urinary bladder (vesica urinaria), 132
uterus, 138, 139, 186

body (corpus uteri), 138

cervix, 139

external orifice (ostium uteri externa), 139

glands of, 139

horns (cornua uteri), 138

internal orifices (ostia uteri internum), 139

septum (velum uteri), 139
vagina, 2, 139

orifice (ostium vaginae), 139
vallecula epiglottica

see epiglottis
valva aortae

see valve, aortic
valva bicuspidalis

see valve, bicuspid
valva tricuspidalis

see valve, tricuspid
valva truncae pulmonis

see valve, pulmonary

valve

aortic, of heart (valva aortae), 90
bicuspid (valva bicuspidalis)

of heart, 90
ileocaecal (papilla ilealis)

of colon, 1 30
pulmonary (valva truncae pulmonis)

of heart, 90
semilunar (valvulae semilunares)

of heart, 90
tricuspid (valva bicuspidalis)
of heart, 90
valvulae semilunares

see valves, semilunar
vas deferens, 135, 174
vein(s)

auricular, caudal (v. auricularis caudalis), 26,
52,64

auricular, rostral (v. auricularis rostralis), 26,

52,64
azygos (vena azygos), 91

brachiocephalic (truncus brachiocephalicus),93
of brain, 26
central (v. centralis)

of liver, 127
cervical, superficial (v. cervicalis superficialis),

64
colic

left (v. colica sinistra), 134
middle (v. colica media), 134
right (v. colica dextra), 134
of eye, 26

medial angle of (v. angulans oculi), 26,
52, 64

facial (v. facialis), 25, 64

facial, transverse (v. transversa faciei), 26, 52,
64

gastroduodenal (v. gastroduodenalis), 134
of heart (v. cordis magna), 111
hepatic (v. hepaticae), 127, 134, 161

of portal circulation, 134
ileocolic (v. ileocolica), 134
of ileum (v. ilei), 134
iliac

common (v. iliacae communis), 133
external (v. iliacae externae), 133
internal (v. iliacae internae), 133

interlobular (vv. interlobulares)
of kidney, 131

ofjejunum (vv. jejunales), 134

jugular

external (v. jugularis externa), 25, 52,

64,66, 76,90, 91
internal (v. jugularis interna), 76, 91,

244

Index

vein(s) — continued
161

lingual {v. linguahs), 26, 52, 64
lingofacial {v. linguofacialis), 25, 52, 64
lips

upper {v. labialis maxillaris), 26, 64
lower (iK labialis mandibulans), 26, 64
of manubrium, 91

masseteric {v. masseterica), 26, 52, 64
maxillary {v. maxillaris), 25, 52, 64
mesenteric, 134

nasal, dorsal (v. lateralis nasi), 26, 52, 64
ophthalmic plexus {plexus ophthalmicus), 25,

52,64
of orbit, 26

ovarian (vv. ovaricae), 133
phrenic, cranial {vv. phremcae cranialis), 128
portal {v. porta), 134, 161
portal shunt — hepatic vein system, 134
pulmonary {vv. pulmonales), 76, 91, 95, 96,
110, 160

rectal, cranial {v. rectalis craniales), 134

renal {v. renales), 131, 133, 134

splenic {v. lienalis), 134

subclavian {v. subclavia), 66

suprarenal {vv. suprarenales), 133

temporal, superficial {v. temporalis superfi-
cialis), 26, 52, 69

testicular {v. testicularis), 133

trachea, 91
velum palatinum

see edge, palate
velum uteri

see uterus, septum
vena cava

caudal {vena cava caudalis), 77, 91, 119, 131,
133, 161

cranial {vena cava cranialis), 88, 91
V. angularis oculi

see vein, eye, angle
V. auricularis caudalis

see vein, auricular caudal
V. auricularis rostralis

see vein, auricular, rostral
V. azygos

see vein, azygos
vena cava caudalis

see vena cava, caudal

vena cava craniales

see vena cava, cranial
V. centralis

see vein, central
V. colic a dextra

see vein, colic, right
V. colica media

see vein, colic, middle
V. colica sinistra

see vein, colic, left
V. cordis magna

see vein, of heart
V. facialis

see vein, facial
V. gastroduodenalis

see vein, gastroduodenal
vv. hepaticae

see veins, hepatic
vv. ilei

see veins, ileum
V. ileocohca

see vein, ileocolic
V. iliaca communis

see vein, iliac, common
vv. interlobulares

see veins, interlobular
vv. jejunales

see veins, jejunum
V. jugularis externa

see vein, jugular, external
V. jugularis interna

see vein, jugular, internal
V. labialis mandibulans

see vein, lip, lower
V. labialis maxillaris

see vein, lip, upper
V. lateralis nasi

see vein, nasal, dorsal part
V. lienalis

see vein, splenic
V. lingua I IS

see vein, lingual
V. linguofacialis

see vein, linguofacial
V. masseterica

see vein, masseteric
V. maxillaris

see vein, maxillary

245

Clinical Anatomy of the European Hamster

vv. ovaricae

see veins, ovarian
vv. phrenicae craniales

see veins, phrenic, cranial
V. porta

see vein, portal
vv. pulmonales

see veins, pulmonary
V. rectalis cranialis

see vein, rectal, cranial
v. subclavia

see vein, subclavian
vv. suprarenales

see veins, suprarenal
V. temporalis superficialis

see vein, temporal, superficial
V. testicularis

see vein, testicular
V. transversa faciei

see vein, facial, transverse
venous drainage

of skull, 25, 26
venous plexus, ophthalmic, 26, 64

{plexus ophthalmicus), 26, 64
ventral mediastinum, 88-92

great vessels, 90, 91

heart, 89, 90

nerves, 92

thymus and lymphatic tissue, 91,92
ventricle(s)
of brain

fourth {ventriculus quartus), 59
third {ventriculus tertius), 59, 62

of heart

left {ventriculus sinister), 89
right {ventriculus dexter), 89

of larynx

lateral {ventriculus laryngis lateralis), 68
median {ventriculus laryngis medianus),
68

ventriculus dexter

see ventricle, of heart, right
ventriculus sinister

see ventricle, of heart, left
ventriculus glandularis

see stomach, glandular
ventriculus laryngis lateralis

see ventricle, laryngeal, lateral
ventriculus laryngis medianus

see ventricle, laryngeal, median
ventriculus quartus

see ventricle, of brain
ventriculus tertius

see ventricle, of brain
venules, hepatic, 161
vermis cerebelli

of brain, 23
vertebrae

caudal, 70, 121, 131

cervical, 29,65, 70

arcus caudalis, 72

articular process {processus articularis) ,
65

atlas {atlas), 65, 72
axis {axis), 65, 72
body {corpus), 65
foramen alare, 72
fovea articularis caudalis, 72
fovea articularis cranialis, 72
mass a lateralis, 72
odontoid process {dens), 65, 72
spinous process {processus spinosus), 65
transverse foramen {foramen transversa-
rium), 65

transverse process {processus transversii),

65, 72
tuberculum dorsale, 72
tuberculum ventrale, 72
vetebral arch {arcus vertebrae), 65
lumbar {vertebrae lumbales), 70, 121, 122,
130, 141
centrum

surface, caudal articular, 142
surface, cranial articular, 142
process

accessory {processus accessorius),
142

articular, caudal {processus articu-
laris caudalis), 142

articular, cranial {processus articu-
laris cranialis), 142

mamillary {processus mamillaris),
142

spinous {processus spinosus), 142
sacral {vertebrae sacrales or sacrum), 70, 121,
131

base {basis ossis sacri), 143
canal of {canalis sacralis), 143

246

Index

vertebrae — co ntinued

foramen (foramina sacralia pelvina), 143

process

articular, caudal {processus articu-

laris caudalis), 143
articular, cranial {processus articu-

laris cranialis), 143
spinous {processus spinosus), 143
surface, auricular {Jacies auricularis), 143
thoracic {vertebrae thoracicae), 70, 92, 99,
112, 141

canal {canalis vertebralis), 103
fovea costalis caudalis, 103
fovea costalis cranialis, 103
fovea costalis transversus, 103
incisura vertebralis caudalis, 103
incisura vertebralis cranialis, 103
process

articular

caudal {processus articularis

caudalis), 103
cranial {processus articularis
cranialis), 103
spinous {processus spinosus), 103
transverse {processus transversus),
103

vertebrae cau dales

see vertebrae, caudal
vertebrae cervicales

see vertebrae, cervical
vertebrae lum bales

see vertebrae, lumbar
vertebrae sacrales

see vertebrae, sacral
vertebrae, thoracicae

see vertebrae, thoracic
vesica fellea

see bladder, gall
vesica urinaria

see bladder, urinary

vestibule

buccal {vestibulum buccale), 19

labial {vestibulum labiale), 19

laryngeal {vestibulum laryngis), 68, 80

lateral {vestibulum laryngis lateralis), 80

nasal {vestibulum nasi), 19, 25

oral {vestibulum oris), 19
vestibulum buccale

see vestibule, buccal
vestibulum labiale

see vestibule, labial
vestibulum laryngis

see vestibule, laryngeal
vestibulum nasi

see vestibule, nasal
vestibulum oris

see vestibule, oral
vibrissae, 1 , 8
villi

of small intestine, 129
vomer

see bone, vomer
vomeronasal organs

see organs, vomeronasal
weight, 1, 6
zona fasciculata

see gland, adrenal

zona glomerulosa

see gland, adrenal

zona medullaris

see gland, adrenal

zona parench ymatosa
see cortex, ovary

zona reticularis

see gland, adrenal
zona vasculosa

see medulla, ovary
zygomatic gland, 23

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