The coffee planter's manual:

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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
LIBRARIES

N.A. Forde

CINNAMON GARDENS,
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BOOKS#LLERS & GENERAL IMPORT

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THE

offer Mlanters dtlanual ;

BY THE LATE

ALEX. BROWN,
KANDY.

To WHICH IS ADDED

A VARIETY OF INFORMATION USEFUL ToO_
PLANTERS,

INCLUDING

A SUMMARY OF PRACTICAL OPINIONS ON

THE MANURING OF COFFEE ESTATES,.
&C., &c.

°

[THOROUGHLY REVISED WITH NOTES.
' BY PRACTICAL PLANTERS
IN 1880.]_

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED AT THE

“ CEYLON OBSERVER” PRESS,
COLOMBO.

1880. .

PREFACE

TO THE

COFFEE PLANTER’S MANUAL,

(Hirst Edition. )

WuHeEn, at the request of the Proprietor of the Ceyloa
Observer, I commenced writing the Manual, it was
with the double intention that it should be published
first in ‘‘ Ferguson’s Directory,” and again in pamphlet
form—as a sort of vade-mecwm that any Superintendent,
Assistant, or Conductor, could without inconvenience
carry in his coat-pocket, to the field or elsewhere.
Both these objects demanded conciseness, and I fixed
upon thirty pages as the probable quantity that would
be convenient for the Directory, and sufficient to give
a cursory description of the whole art and practice of
coffee-planting. ‘To confine my remarks as nearly as
possible to those limits, I was obliged to touch but
slightly on the various processes explained. Those
considered most important, and those least likely to
occur naturally to the mind of the beginner, received
most attention. Compress as I would, however, the
work has extended to forty pages. It has met with
guch a favourable reception at the hands of experienced
practical planters, that, in reproducing it in this form,
I feel bound in deference to the suggestions of some
of these friends to amplify somewhat my remarks on
Lining, Roads, Manuring, Cisterns, and Estimates.

Tun AUTHOR OF THE MANUAL.

THE PyBLISHERS have to add, by way of explanation,
that the principal portions of the information added
to the Manual—and especially the Summary of practical
opinions on Manuring—have been’ included by the

PREFACE.

desire of several planters. Some useful letters, such
as Mr. Tytler’s on fixing iron-roofing, and one on the
laying of asphalte, have also been re-published by
request. A few other papers and tables which had
not hitherto seen the light are given, in addition to
copious extracts from valuable cgntributions to the
literature of coffee-planting which appeared in the
Ceylon Observer, and it is to be hoped that the whole
will be found most useful and suggestive to the young
planter as well as to all interested in the chief in-
dustry of Ceylon.
CoLtomBpo, 7th May 1872.

PREFATORY NOTE TO THE
SECOND EDITION.

oe

Tus littl Manual has been generally considered
-one of the most concise and at the same time
correct guides ever published for the young cofiee-
planter. It has now for some time been out of print,
and in “publishing a Second Edition we have taken
the opportunity to lay the pages before three prac-
tical planters, whose Notes will be found prefixed to
Mr. Brown’s Manual. On the whole the .opinion of
the planting critics to whom we referred is that the
little work is singularly correct even when considered
in the light of eight years’ additional experience. We
have also taken the opportunity of adding to the
book some seventy pages containing summaries of the
latest discussions on Manuring, Chemical Analyses
of Soils, Agricultural Experiments bearing on Coffee
Culture, the Enemies of Coffee (White Grub, Leaf
Disease, &c.), Estimates of Crops, Liberian Coffee
Culture, and other practical subjects of interest to
the young planter of the present day. We trust,
~ therefore, that THE CoFFEE PLANTER’S MANUAL of
1880 may be found even more useful and be more

generally appreciated than its predecessor of 1872,

THE PUBLISHERS AND COMPILERS.

“‘CEYLON OBSERVER” Orricz, April, 1880.

CONTENTS.

~———: 0 :——_—

INTRODUCTION :— rae
Note on Estate Expenditure I
Low-country Plantations and New Products... 1v
Note on Estate Roads ue tn Ri eV
Note on Estate Drains _... ee nee WIE
Note on Manuring th phe: *

THE CoFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL :—

Securing Land esi ee 1
Felling and Clearing 4
Lopping ... 6
Good Land 8
Suitable Elevation.. 9
Desirable Lay 9
Favorable Exposure He ah: LG
Not Devastated by Wind... ee FORO
Nor Inundated by Water... Te,
, Lining, Pegging, Holing and Planting rb stl 4
Planting under Shade : .. I4
Holing versus Dibbling se ; 2 at
-How are the Plants Got Nursery .. : Meio I,
Permanent Buildings aad Hai serdits)
The Bungalow and ‘Lines... ent 20)
Roads and Weeders se he Bessie | lh
Draining .. is ae nie eee
Topping ... an we aa i 2d
Staking... ts aiaieke
Supplying, Handling, and Buildings damian:
Weeding ... a Sane ee
Pruning... Hoe ee soci 24D
Handling after Praning bu a a. of
Manuring .. pi ts aoe wee 3D
Water Holes r se fee ei!)
The Bearing and Blossoming ries heal
Crop Time and Cherry Ripe ne 42) 42
The Cherry Loft and Pulper ‘ . 44
The Cisterns——Receiving and Washing .. 45
Tail Cisterns and the Barbecue 45
Estimates for Opening a Coffee Estate and
__ Bringing it into Bearing ... : 47
Lining... “a cua et)
Roads, Manuring and Mixtures ip .., (OO
Perindorge’ s Manure ue hs bie ogee
Cisterns... a Hi cyan cae:

Estimates ... #82 SG £2 ae

CONTENTS.

Page.

THE CorrrE PLANTER OF CEYLON (being a review
of Sabonadiére’s ‘‘ Coffee Planter of Ceylon,” by
the Editor of the Coulee Bo a

Manuring

Manuring... 59
Mana, Grass . 60
Draining and Manuring 63
Sombreorum “3 64
Buildings... 67
Cost of Manures 68
Enemies of the Coffee Tree .. a .» 68
Planting and Draining ae BBA 7A)
Estimates (Mr. Sabonadiére’ ey) ee fk
EXTRACT :—
Estimate applicable to the Wynaad ... oe 4
Manuring Coffee Estates : by ‘‘ Agriculturalist Mo eg
by. <P e Mia 7s
How to Build a Chimney for a Hill puneeley 80
Asphalte Flooring ; Sane tS
Iron Roofing .. segs ie 88 & 89
Measuring Sawn Timber ate Apevia)
Area of Land 90
Foreign Weights and Measures for Coffee 90
JOUsEFuL MEMORANDA :
Asphalte Flooring, Iron Roofing, Sound, ea
Glue, Admiralty Knot, Water-power ... 91
Heights with Sextant, Distances, Weight of
Earths and Rocks, ’ Rainfall, Roads soul) oP
Potato Culture at Nuwara ee 98
Table of Coolies’ Pay — ; 95
», of Kanganies’ do .. 95
Distances, &e., of Plants 95
Estate Working Tables 96
Manure Tables 96
Cost of Coffee, Raw and Roasted 97
MANURES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE COFFEE
PLANT: SURFACE AND Svus-soiL MANURING
(being summary of discussion by practical
planters and other authorities in the columns of
the Ceylon Observer) :—
“‘Orum’s ” Letter . eA Mis soaledss)
Mr. Corbet’s Letters ... 102 & 105
The Coffee Tree Its Own Advocate : a Shuck
Tree and a Tree Not Shuck .. 106 & 110
Mr. W. Sabonadiére’s Letter : . 113
‘¢ X.’s”? Letter . 117
What i is a Weed ? ... «. LIQ
‘The Bracken as Manure... . 122
Mr. Sabonadiére’s and Mr. Ward’s Views 123
Subsoil of Surface Manuring 125
Mr. Thwaites’ Opinion on Subsoil or Surface os

CONTENTS.

Page.

Mr. W. C. Buchanan on Manuring and Manures es 139
The Fertility of Soils A ev

Dr. Sortain’s Notes on Manuring .... ee Le
Mr. Thwaites’ do do 144
Fertilizing Substances for Ceylon Coffee Lands 145
Mr. Mechi’s Advice in applying Manures__... 148
Artificial Manures: Analyses and Cost of ... 148

CorFreE PLANTING IN CEYLON, according to the

author of ‘‘ Young Ceylon ” 149

The Estimates in ‘‘ Young Ceylon” “and of
Messrs. Sabonadiére and ss ed ry ae 154

Brief Reply from Mr. Brown 157

Further Correspondence ise ee ... 159
Coffee Planting in Natal : ... 160
How to Prepare Coffee in Roasting and

Cooking ... ae --- 162
Coffee Prices in London since 1845 se 165
How to Prepare Soils for Analysis 168 & 169

Tue CorreE PLANTER’S MANUAL: SECOND EDITION :—

Directions for Taking Samples of Soil for Ana-

lysis .., eee on ae . 174
Crop Estimates... a Lia:
How to Buy Artificial Manures : ‘Voelcker’s s

Rules 176
Hints for the Conside ration ‘of Coffee ‘Planters. 179
Coffee Trees in 1870 and 1880 be . 181
An Answer to the above ... . 183
Pedigree Wheat and Disease- -proof Potatoes ;

and Why Not Fungus-proof Coffee ? ... 183
On Manuring Coffee --. 185
Artificial Manures vs. Cattle Manure Gio UO GO
Artificial Manures for Coffee 204.
Mr. Hughes’ Handbook of Ceylon Soils and

Manures 206

Mr. Hughes’ Analyses of ‘Coffee, Fruit and
Leaves, and the Conclusions They Lead to
as regards Quantity and Quality of Manure 208

The Enemies of Coffee :—White Grub 223
The Campaign against Cockchafers and Grubs.. 227
Grub and the Colfee Tree ... ty . 229
White Grub 230

The Grub Question : A Planter who is No Sci-
entist Argues for No Delays in Destroying
the White Grub, as the Enemy of Coffee... 234
An Old Planter on His Campaign against Cock-

chafers and His Remedy for Grub 234
ee of Soda a Cure for White Grub: << Try

SNe ... 236

Agricultural Experiments ... da s. 2OF

Shingling... ous ae ... 239

Land Suitable for Coffee... he: 2

Rules for the dtesiment of Liberian Coffee ... 241

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-NOTES TO THE COFFEE PLANTER’S

MANUAL.
(By an old Planter, )

NOTE ON ESTATE EXPENDITURE.

The financial question lies at the root of coffee
planting, as of every undertaking, and it behoves the
‘person who thinks about opening an estate to con-
sider very carefully the amount of his resources
available within four years. He will have abundance
‘of counsellors to tell him how much he can accom-
plish with any given amount, but if his own judgment
is not a pretty sound one, he may find a good
‘deal of difficulty in deciding between the eminent
planter, who tells him that coffee has been brought
into bearing for less than HK100 per acre, and the
other experienced hand, wno warns him that it will
take R250 per acre all out, to create a complete coffee
estate, and send its first crop away. Should the
enquirer be of a sanguine temp:rament, he will probably
accept the lowest es*imate for expenditure, and the
highest for crops ; with a capital of from R20,000 to
R30,000, he will open the standard 200 acres, spend
all his money before he gathers a berry of crop,
commence borrowing, g t deep-r into debt every year,
up to say the seventh; when the estate goes out of
his hands for less than the debt on it, and he is
free to begin the world anew unencumbered with any
of the filthy lucre that encouraged him to undertake
more than his means could accomplish.

Another way of going to work has had its advoc-
ates, and its actors, namely, scamping all the work done,
from the felling to the gathering; having no roads,
no drains, no decent buildings; leaving weeding till
here is something important to be done in that way,
and then spending as much on one weeding as would

II INTRODUCTION.

have served for twelve if taken in time; creating in
fact not an estate, but so many acres of bad and
neglected coffee, that, if it is ever wrought into an
estate, will cost much more, and be much less satis-
factory, than if everything had been properly done
at the right time.
As coffee land may now cost anything from R50
to R200 per acre, it is impossible to say what an
estate should cost, with the price of the land included.
Indeed the most skilful planter can only come near
the mark of probable expenditure, when he has the
cost of the land before him, knows the locality, the
distance from a cart road, the probable amount of
contributions to roads, medical wants, &c. On the
whole, the planter who proposes to open an esiate
will do well if, after paying for lis land, he resolves
not to open an acre, for which he caunot command
R200 within four years, without depending on any
return from his crop. It is always the truest economy,
to do well and substantially the work that has to be
done; for, depend upon it, other things being equal,
the most complete job of work will pay best. He
who attends most carefully to have the underwood
spread flat on the surface, who sees that the trees
are properly cut to fall in one direction, and who
insists on the large branches that stand up in the
fallen forest being laid down, will have the best fire,
and save both time and money thereby. He who
traces, clears, and partially cuts his roads at the earliest
possible time will save five per cent on all the work
he has to do in the field. He who within the second
year puts up permanent substantial buildings, for lodg-
~ing his coolies and himself, will save more than he
who repairs or renews temporary lines and bungalow.
He who makes 18x18 inch holes will have better
and more forward plants than he who is content with
halt the size. He who completes a good system of
surface drains earliest will lose the smallest propor-
tion of his surface soil. He who begins systematic
' weeding three weeks after the fire, and weeds all
- over within every subsequent month, need never spend
even so much as R1O per acre per annum to keep his
estate perfectly clean. He who from first to last
concentrates the bulk of his labour on whatever job is

INTRODUCTION. ILE

for the time most necessary, will effect a vast saving
on the expenditure of him who endeavours to carry
on many works at one and the same time. Finally,
he who administers half a pint of lime and 4 oz. of ©
bonedust to each plant when three months out will
reap an abundant return in due time.

The planter who is well up in the what, the when,
and the how, of estate work, and works up to
his knowledge, can in an average case bring his
estate into bearing for less than R200 per acre, and ~
have everything ready and in good order for the
first crop, but I think no prudent man would in the
firs: instance undertake it. If in the course of the
work it is found, that a saving can be effected, it
is easy enough to extend afterwards, but if the work
is under estimated, and alarger tract opened than
the available funds can do justice to, there must be
a resort to borrowing, by which ninety planters
have been ruined for every ten that finally escaped
from the toils. For my own part I would rather
have 50 acres, or even 20 acres, that I could by my own
resources cultivate in the best style known to the
profession, than struggle with a large extent, of which
I was only proprietor in name, and at the mercy
of parties who might force a sale on a declining
market, any day that suited them. Every planter
of thirty years’ standing can call to mind many in-
stances of this kind of transaction among their own
friends and acquaintances, and has had good oppor- .
tunities of watching how it affected men of different
characters. One would toil late and early deny himself —
necessaries, economize in every way possible, and sink
struggling to the last. Another would fight manfully
for a time, but as fate closed in about him he would
give in, seek comfort and oblivion in the bottle, and ~
sink rapidly into adrunkard and a loafer; to reside
some time in a lunatic asylum, and finally die in a
pauper hospital. Perhaps those who made the best
of the circumstances were those who went to Hngtand,
and enjoyed life, as long as their agents would honour ~
their drafts. The collapse came very hard on tiose
who to the very last believed themselves on the high
road to fortune, and assumed matrimonial responsibilities
on the strength of it. The tale of ‘‘ How I Lost My

Iv INTRODUCLION.

Wattie” is no fiction, but falls short of facts that;
have really happered, not only in one but in many
instances.

Had all the planters’ who have been ruined by
undertaking more than they could do, with the means
they could command, confined their operations.
within the bounds of their own resources, fewer part-.
ners of agency firms would have retired with large
fortunes, and Ceylon would have been accountable for-
fewer broken hearts and broken lives, but I suppose.
such things will happen, while the desire for wealth
outruns the slow process of patient industry, and
capitalists lend, on terms of their own making, which
they well know must in nearly every case assure
the ruin of the borrower, by gradually bringing into.
their pockets all he possesses.*

LOW-COUNTRY PLANTATIONS AND NEW

PRODUCTS.
As the cultivation of Tea, Liberian Coffee, Cacao, &c.
at low elevations, has widened the area of the piant-.
ing enterprise, it will become necessary for such plant-
ers as go into these cultivations to apply themselves
to the study of the conditions of success. I have some
knowledge both of the mountain zone in the region
of Arabian coffee and of the cultivation of lands from
sea level up to 1000 feet of elevation, and I cannot
hold out any encouragement to the hope that low coun-
ry work will be cheaper than mountain cultivation.
Among the waste lands of the louw-country there is.
very little forest, and the soil of much that exists
has ben left by the natives as too poor for chena.
The districts in which forest with soil of good quality
is to be found are generally unhealthy, and sparsely
populated, and though there is no want of people who
would undertake their cultivation, it is just as well

* We are bound to say, however, that there is an-
other side to this picture: there are cases in which
agents having trusted planters with capital, lose it
through bad or injudicious work, the security in a
plantation which jerhaps ought never to have been
opened, being worse than useless. COMPILERS.

INTRODUCTION. Ni

‘to avoid them so long as tolerable soil is to be found.
in places where there is less risk of fever. Some of
the old chenas of the Western Province have very
fair soil, but they are very dirty, and the better the
soil, the dirtier they are. A running fire through heavy
fallen forest has generally strength enough to de-
“stroy the vitality of every plant on the land, but it
is not so even with the oldest chena. The cost of
‘felling and clearing may be from R10 to R15 per
acre, but it is only when burnt off and cleared
‘ap that the real battle begins ; the fire is too feeble
‘to reach the seat of life of even small arboraceous
plants, and there are many species of herbaceous
piants, the seeds of which seem to remain in the soil
for a long series of years, ready to avail themselves
of the conditions. produced by clearing the jungle.
Thus it only requires a few showers to cover a
cleared chena of thirty years’ standing with annual
or perennial herbaceous weeds, and no sooner is one
“species mastered than another takes its place, so that
an the very first season the full equivalent of
cleaning a long neglected coffee estate has to be
undertaken. In one case, felling and clearing cost
R10 per acre, but in seven months rootiug and weed-
ing cost R20 per acre, and still the land very far from.
being as clean as old forest newly burned off. Be-
sides the original cost of clearmg the land, there are
several extra works on low-country as compared w'th
mountain estates : on the former a fenceis an absolute
‘necessity, and the levelling down of white ant hills
will, in most localities, be an item of some importance |
“On the other hand, there are several advantages that
the low-country estates have over the highlands : not-
ably, in transport of supplies, and material, in the
cost of buildings, in a paying market for timber, where
‘any timber, is ;in the greater number of products that
may be cultivated, and probably five cents aday saved.
in the all-round pay of the coolies. I do not see,
however, that a low-country estate} can be fairly es-
timated to cost much less at the end of the fourth
year than one on the mountains, butit is the duty
of every one engaged in such an enterprise to do
everything as cheaply as may be consistent with
good work.

VI INTRODUCTION.
NOTE ON ESTATE ROADS.

I have always considered this a matter of import-
ance in opening a coffee plantation. I would make
a mile of road to every twenty-five to thirty acres,
and, wherever possible, without incurring an expense
out of proportion to the advantages to be gained, I
would trace them, so that they might ultimately be
made to bear carts, at least the small single bullock-
boxes, must suitable for estate work. The finish.
ing of the roads may extend over years, but, if possi-
ble, the traces shouldgbe run, and cleared, and the
path formed, however slightly, before planting. If this
ean be done, the cost will be soon recouped, in sav-
ing the time of the coolies, on their way to work,
as any one will admit who has seen a string of them
in Indian file getting over half a mile of steep ground
strewed with charred logs. The roads of an estate
should be asystem, all radiating from the site of the
store, and accommodating the bungalow, so that,
departing by one line, the superintendent may be
able to return by another, after having seen every
part of the plantation, without leaving the roads,
unless he should be called on to make a closer in-
Spection of any particular spot.

An estate on which the roads are not traced the
first season ig never likely to be a well roaded pro-
perty. There will be always a reluctance to destroy
or remove well-grounded plants of any size, and we
may fairly expect, that where this work has been
deferred till the coffeeisin bearing the reads will be
few and bad; I would therefore recommend, that, if
nothing more be possible the first season, the traces
should be laid and left unplanted.

I have never had to do with a place where a good
system of roads could be traced on an arbitrary gradi-
ent with an instrument, unless I had been pre-
pared (which I never was) to expend a good deal of
gunpowder. Where rocks are to be dodged, and
easy crossing places to be caught in rough ravines,
the eye is the best instrument when the tracer has
studied his ground well and made a map of it on
his sensorium; he will find no serious difficulty in
~evoiding abrupt dips, unless the ground be too full

INTRODUCTION. VII

of boulders to be dodged cleverly, in which case he
has only to satisfy himself that he has made the best
of it.

NOTE ON ESTATE DRAINS.

There is no part of Ceylon not subject to deluges
of rain, in which I have known above two inches
fall in one hour, while the most absorbent soil can-
not take in one half of that quantity. In its natural
state the soil is protected by a wilderness of indigen-
ous growth that strews the surface with fallen leaves
and twigs, and it is bound by a felt of intertwined
roots that retards the flow of the superfluous water,
and refuses to deliver up a particle of the soil, so
that such part of the rainfallas cannot be absorbed
flows off as clear and pure as when it left the clouds
(so far as the eye can detect). Inthe process of culti-
vation, we cut down and burn the indigenous growth,
whether the result of ten years or of ten centuries
of nature's dominion. We thus throw the surface
open to the action of a tropical sun ; we weed out
all the plants with which nature endeavours to re-
clothe the land; we dig holes and leave the loose
earth on the surface: in fact all our acts of culti-
vation tend to facilitate the flow of the superfiuous
rainfall, and to supply it with disengaged soil to
carry to the nearest watercourse. The first heavy
rain sweeps away all the wealth of ashes resulting
from our burning ; every succeeding shower too heavy
to be immediately absorbed ; takes away a part of our
soil, and after a longer or shorter period all our soil
proper; has left us, and our cultivated plant exists,
but has ceased to grow, ona rain-beaten, sun-baked
subsoil, mechanically and chemically unfit for the
production of any plant of economical value.

Various plans have been tried to prevent this waste
of soil on inclined surfaces, 7 such as terracing, and
wash holes; but the plan that plain practical
commonsense has taken is to make surface drains
at such distances apart, that they will catch the
superfluous water, and carry it away, before itaccu-
mulates intoa body sufficient to move the locse sur-
face soil; wash holes and terracing, with all their

VIII INTRODUCTION,

modifications, work on the principle of retaining the
superfluous rainfall till the earth is at leisure to
absorb it, but there is a weak point in this way of
dealing with the heavy rains of Ceylon. No one
has ever made holes big enough, or embankments
strong enough, to meet; the requirements of the case.
All precautions may be taken with satisfactory results
for a long time; yet the day comes, when all is of
no avail: embankments give way, holes overflow, the
water gathers body and force, and rushes down the
hill sweeping away every obstacle, leaving a deep
trench behind it, down to the subsoil, and often far
into it, all which may be the spoil of a few minutes,
and thus the work and watching of years may be
neutralized in an hour.

If I could retain the superfluous rainfall of one
Season so as to apply it to the deficiency of another,
1t would in some districts be a paying operation to
secure that end at a considerable cost; but retaining
the water on the surface till the land can absorb
it is not the way to accomplish this, nor do I know
of any plan within the limited expenditure of a paying
cultivation, by which it can be done. The water
that passes through the soil occupied by the roots
of my plant, and sinks beyond them, may feed
springs at a lower elevation, butit is of no service to
my plant. Were there a definite quantity of ammonia,
in all the rain that fell, and were that quantity
proved of sufficient value to justify expensive works
for retaining it in the land, good and well, but all
that we know on this subject is, that there is more
or less ammonia contained ina thunder shower that
falls after a period of dry weather, whea the soil is
most absorbent; but that in the great bulk of the rain
that falls in the course of the year there is hardly
a trace of nitrogenous matter. I cannot therefore
see any advantage to my cultivated plant in retain-
ing more of the rainfall on my land than the soil
naturally absorbs during the fall, and as I observe
that the period of thorough saturation is not one of
growth, but of compelled rest to the plant, I see it
to be my business to convey the superfluous water,
as quickly and with as little injury as possible, off

INTRODUCTION. 1X

my cultivated land, which will likewise reduce the--
length of the time during which the growth of the
plant is suspended, from the extreme dilution of its
available food.

‘The readiest way to attain this appears to me
to be surface drains: not deep wide gaping chasms
at long distances apart, but six inches deep to begin
with, and an incline of one in fifteen, thirty feet
apart on a surface of one in ten, wider apart on
more level land, and closer on steeper. The capacity
of the drains, besides, must to some extent be governed
by their length: drains thirty feet apart, and one
hundred feet long, will collect and deliver in the
main the superfluous rainfall on 3,000 feet, but if the
main should be 300 feet distant from the source, the ex-
tent of surface will be9,000 feet, and the drain must have
three times the capacity at the point of delivery, unless
the incline is greater : thus the capacity of the drain
should increase in direct proportion to its length, or the
same object may be attained ky increasing the number,
and reducing the distance between them.

When I name thirty feet as the distance between
the drains, it must be taken asa mere arbitrary assump-
tion: the true principle is the permeability of the
soil, and one tract may be as perfectly protected.
from wash by drains one hundred feet apart, as
another where thirty is the distance; indeed I have
seen even steep land, that took in every drop of rain
that fell, and that was in greater danger of being
denuded of its surface soil in dry than in wet
weather ; of course on such land it would be mere
waste of labour to make drains.

Whatever operation increases the permeability of
the soil diminishes the necessity of drains. To break
up and pulverize the soil before the decay of the
roots is an operation that I cannot recommend, be-
cause it would be a very costly one, and I have no
data to prove it a remunerative one, but I have no
doubt that if within the first year from planting
an alavanga were driven a foot into the ground,
one foot beyond the verge of the original hole, and
the earth raised to the extent of the available lever-
age, three or four repetitions of this operation round

x INTRODUCTION.

each plant would loosen the soil and render it more
permeable, admit a free circulation of air, while some
of the surface soil would fall into the holes and rifts made
in the compact mass; it will be easier for the plant
to extend its roots, and it will be encouraged to
throw out laterals at a greater depth than if the
walls of the hole remained unbroken. This operation
might be repeated from time to time, extending the
area operated on round each plant, on every repeti-
tion, and thus not only rendering (the soil more per-
meable but benefiting the plant directly. When the
roots of the original forest are sufficiently decayed to
render the operation comparatively easy, the whole.
guriace may be broken, up with the pronged mamo-
tie, and from twelve to twenty bushels of lime per
acre forked in according to the comparative stiffness
of the soil.

I have been met with the objection, that loose
soil is naturally much more easily carried off by wash
than if it were an unbroken, and compact surface. To
those who have advanced this objection I have always.
replied: ‘‘Go and try : question nature, by experi-
ment.” When a heavy rainfall has only the
scratchings of the karandi to deal with, it makes
short work of then, but there is a fresh supply after
every weeding, by which, in afew years, you get
down to ,the till! having disposed of all your true
soil; but if you break it up a foot deep, and. leave
the surface rough and cloddy, the quantity of water
it will absorb is amazing, while such part of the
supply as it cannot dispose of will reach the next
drain, not by surface flow but by permeation.

NOTE ON MANURING.

While of late years Ceylon has been making pro-
gress in the knowledge by which suitable fertilizing
substances are scientifically selected, there are probably
still wide divergence of opinions, among practical planters
in respect to the best mode of applying them. Since
the controversy was at the hottest in 1871, it has.
cropped up from time to time, in the correspondence
columns of the Observer; without bringing forward
anything novel or original. There is hardly any
possible way of applying manure to the coffee plant,

INTRODUCTION. XI

from tossing it under the bush and leaving it there,
to depositing it in the bottom of a hole under two
feet of soil, that has not found advocates, and what-
ever plan has been proposed, its advocate professes to
be a student of nature. ‘‘ Nature,” says one, ‘‘ never
buries her fertilizers in holes, but drops them on
the surface.” On this it may be remarked that when
we have manufactured an artificial coffee bush we
have thwarted and tortured nature too much to
pretend to follow her in any part of its treatment;
we have made a condition of surface very different
from that on which nature feeds her wild vegetable
children. Our manures are much more elaborately
got up than nature’s, and we cannot afford to let them
be baked into inertness by the sun, or washed into
like condition by the rains; besides, our plant has its
roots under the surface, and it is not conducive to
its health and longevity to encourage the production
of feeders above the natural surface. Again we are not
well acquainted with the resources of nature in
placing food within reach of the roots of plants en-
tirely under ber own charge, and if we were fully
informed of her operations, ten to one that the con-
ditions are so changed that we cannot apply them
to the case in point. To the gentleman who tells
us that nature, having furnished the coffee plant
with a deep taproot, intended that it should assist
n collecting the food of the plant, and there-
ore should have manure placed in deep pits to en-
courage it to throw out feeding roots, I reply: I
have never questioned nature on the point, but I
have observed that in all sizes of hole, in all kinds
of soil, the coffee plant throws out its strongest
lateral roots within six inches of the surface. What
nature’s intentions may be as to the uses of the tap-
root I know not, but I can freely attest that, the
deeper it goes, the fewer, the shorter, and the more
slender, are the laterals thrown out. It isin the process -
of chemical decomposition that any organic substance
supplies plant food; the circulation of atmospheric
air is the chief agent of decomposition; if therefore
I bury my fertilizer with eighteen inches of earth
trodden down over it, I put it where decomposition
is seriously impeded ; where there are few or no roots

i
L
i

XII INTRODUCTION.

to avail of it, and I find that, instead of drawing
fresh laterals from the taproot, those that finally
reach it grow from above downwards. My object in
applying any fertilizer to my coffee tree is, that I
may at the earliest possible date obtainan equivalent
value in coffee beans, together with a fair profit on
the capital invested; I therefore put my manure
where there are thousands of sucking mouths gasping
for it, and where the surrounding influences will tend
to hasten the complete decomposition on which its
value depends. If therefore I am obliged to put it
in holes, I make them only nine inches deep, fill
them with blended soiland manure, finished off with
a surface covering of from one to two inches of well
broken earth. I should, however, infinitely prefer,
spreading it over the whole surface, and digging it
into the soil. By this mode of application the whole
region in which the rvots forage, for the plants’
sustenance, is rendered more accessible, any plant
food already in the soil is brought under influences
that hasten its solubility, while all the feeders will
be equally stimulated and the reaction will be
slower as the manure becomes exhausted. A friend
objects, that by digging in the manure I shall destroy
the greater part of the lateralroots: sobeit, Lreply ;
I have never met with the cultivated plant, that could
not avail itself of manure for want of roots, and 1
have yet to learn that roots will be more injured by
burning than branches are. If, however, the system
of digging with or without manure, while the plant
is still young, become an institution, the lateral roots
will naturally run deeper, the stiffness and density
of the soil being the sole cause of their horizontal
extension, immediately under the surface ; the princi-
pal laterals indeed branch off the stem close to the
surface, but if the earth be broken up, and blended
with the richer surface, they assume a descending
angle, and retain it till they reach the hard earth
that has not been stirred. I have heard that some
planters have, for several years past, adopted the
digging in system of manuring, with the most satis-
factory results, even on old fields, and I believe that
faith in the system is gaining ground among practical
men. Ido not know, however, if I would venture it
myself on a large scale, unless in conjunction with
a complete system of surface drains.

INTRODUCTION. ‘XIII

(Corrections and Notes by two other planters
of experience.)

Pace 1.—At foot of page for £1 read R10, and
for 303 read R15. [and so on throughout the Manual. |

Pace 2.—In the second line for £15 and £10 read
R120 and R150; in the fourth line for £2 to £3
read R20 to R100.

Pace 5.—The cost of felling and clearing has been
reduced, For heavy forest in the higher districts from
R18 to R20 is now given, and in the low-country
from R12 to R15. In almost all cases the contract-
or has now to supply his own tools. In the middle
of the page for £2 to £2 10s real R15 to R25.

Pace 8.—Land being heavily timbered is by no
means a sure indication of its being good, as witness
the heavy jungles in many parts of Ambagamuwa and
Yakdessa, where the soil is poor. In these jungles
the Doon and other trees are often very large.

Pace 9.—Coffee is now grown in dry districts up
to 5,500 and even 6,900 feet.

Pacer 12.—Much smaller pegs are used now than
formerly, and a man’s task is usually 1,000 pegs per
day. ut
Pace 13.—Add :—In lining, I would suggest there
ought to be a base line made first to facilitate work.’

Pace 15.—It has been found that coffee under
shade does not bear as wellas coffee planted in the
open, and, except occasionally in a very low district,
shade clearings are now seldom planted.

Pace 1i7.—In filling the holes, care should be taken
that no stones and roots are put in, and the earth
should be firmly tramped down, so that there may
be no dangtr of the plant sinking into a hollow, when
it would probably die from damp. Nursery beds
should not be dug more than 6 or 8 inches deep, as
the growth of the taproot should be discouraged.
With a long tap root planting is more difficult, and
there is always a danger of the taproot being doubled
ap. The seed should not be planted more than half
an inch deep ; indeed it should merely be covered with
soil, Close planting is to be avoided, asthe plants will
be weakly, 3 inches by 2 is sufficiently close, ard
you will there’ y get strong vigorous plants.

o

XIV INTRODUCTION.»

Pace 18.—In the 20th line, after ‘level it’ insert :—
‘Pulverize &c., and then lay out in beds.’ Nurseries
from seedlings are not so good as from seed; as the
roots of the seedlings are liableto be bent when being
planted in the beds, and the plants are seldom as
healthy as those raised from seed. It is a waste of seed
and nursery room to sow broad-cast. It is now rarely
done. The price of plants has risen to from R6 to
R750 per 1,000. Village stumps should never be
used, as they make unhealthy trees.

Pace 23.—It is very expensive to put on coolies to
break off suckers, and as a rule when done in this
way it is done too seldom, and the trees are weakened,
and look untidy. The usual and cheapest way is to
make the weeders break the suckers off monthly as
they weed.

Pace 24,—In the 9th line, make it—‘the top will
sometimes die’ &c. Attheend of thesame paragraph,
add :—‘ Always cut off one of the top pairs of primaries
to prevent any splitting of the stem.’ In the 14th
line from the bottom change ‘necessary’ into ‘un-
necessary. ’

Pace 28.—Hand-weeding is the rule now on most
estates in the young districts. By this, wash is
avoided, and the feeding rootlets of the coffee are
not disturbed. When weeding is done by hand, it
is more carefully and neatly done; the weeds are
gathered off the ground and buried. The usual rate
is Rl per acre, but it is sometimes as low as 75c. and
even 50c. per acre on high estates.

Pace 3l.—The sixteenth line from the bottom, after
‘sawed’ add ‘slopingly. ’

Pace 34.—To the second paragraph add this note :—
‘When coffee trees are bearing well and are likely to
suffer from leaf disease, handling should be omitted.’

Pace 33.—Pruning is now muzh lighter than in
olden days. A heavily pruned tree is quickly at-
tacked with leaf disease. On account of short crops,
from leaf disease and bad seasons, planters are glad
to have as much wood as possible on their trees.
They know there is little risk of overbearing, and they
get better average crops than when comparatively
heavy pruning is carried out.

INTRODUCTION. XV

Pace 35.—6th line of second paragraph, delete ‘the
Colombo and Kandy’; 14th line of the same, delete
‘the present.’ Manure, both bulky and artificial, is now
applied in larger and more shallow holes than form-
erly, and more care is taken to mix the manure
well with earth. Even artificial manure is now applied,
mixed with a large quantity of earth, andin this way
it is as good as bulky manure. The mode in which
it. is applied is as follows :—Holes are cut, either
above the tree, or between four trees, 24 feet long,
two feet wide, and four or five inches deep or2 feet
by 14 feet and the same d“pth. The holes should
first be half or three quarter filled with earth, leaves
and prunings ; over this the manure (if artificial) should
be put and well mixed with the earth in the hole.
It is well to have separate coolies doing each work,
and the coolies covering the holes should never be
allowed to mix the manure withthe earth, as, if the
superintendent is not at hand, they will often cover
the holes without. mixing. Of late years digging or
forking in manure and lime has -become very common,
and this is doubtless the best way of applying them.
The ground is thereby loosened, and the rain water
allowed to pass freely through. If the land has been
drained there is much Jess wash after forking than
formerly. Care must be taken in forking not to turn
up the roots, else harm will follow. If properly
done, the coffee will rapidly improve. Frequently the
mere digging of the soil is equal toa manuring.

Pace 36.—To the first paragraph add this note :—
‘In these times cattle manure does not pay, but cattle
manure composts in advantageous circumstances may. *

Pace 40.— Add this note :—‘In districts with heavy
rains, water holes give a temporary benefit, but gener-
ally lead to permanent injury from filling and then
breaking out, or from subsidence of soil, leaving the
trees on pinnacles.’

Pacr 41.—Since leaf disease began, the bearing
powers of coffee have been greatly impaired, and this,
together with bid seasons, has reduced the yield con-

siderably. Estates which formerly gave eight to 10 cwt.
regularly now give only from three to five cwt. per

acre,

XVI INTRODUCTION.

Pace 42.—Add a foot-note after ‘name’ in the
middle of the page :—‘ Occasionally there is only one
round bean, known then as_peaberry.’

Pace 48.—In first line, in place of £3, make it
R100 per acre; also add :—‘ Nothing has been allowed
here for miscellaneous expenses. A little more would
be required for ‘‘tools” and also for ‘‘bungalow”
than is mentioned in our list.’

PaGE 67.—2nd paragraph 3rd line for ‘roots’
read ‘ roofs.’

PaGE 167.—Coffee prices, the ‘ Economist” table
ean be added to as follows ;:—

1 6

DATES, Coffee, Tea.
1873—1 January ... sy n3 171 100
1 July dain aban ort aantoa ptt Soa
1874—1 January ... Ne tee 233 108
1 July bs aoe oe 196 101
1875—1 January ... a re 173 100

: 1 July of sae ae 179 100
. 1876—1 January... oe ss 183 100
1 July ay bai ae 164 100
1877—! January .... tee ue 178 116
_1878—1 January ... es aie 183 11]
1 July si He ja 163 124
13879—1 January ... ee Me 143 lll
1 July oft das £5 133 132
18S80—1 January... - tas 151 14]

A MANUAL

COFFEE PLANTERS.

First catch your hare—then skin him—is the dic-
tum of an eminent culinary authority. Sotothe young
Planter I would say first ‘‘catch” your land—then
open. Catch is not so expressive a word in our Eng-
lish as in the native idiom. In our style it implies
the act of running away. Now the land will not
run away. Select your land, so and so, is the gen-
eral advice given by writers on this subject. But
select is not the proper word. You may select and
yet not get the land. Some one else may be before,
or outbid you. Choose it then. No, choose will not
do either,’ as for the above reason you may choose
your land and not get it. It may even not be for
sale after you have chosen. Secure is the _ better
word. Well, secure and catch to the native idea are
equally applicable and equally express- ive. Foa ex-
ample, a native friend once consulted me on the
subject of a quarrel he had with another man. After
hearing him state his case, and seeing the difficulties
surrounding it, I advised him to engage a Proctor.
Natives do not often require to be advisedto do this.
They do it intuitively—generally too happy to have
a case in Court. Well! my friend replied, quite
pleased, ‘‘then shall I catch a Proctor, Sir?” ‘This
word is expressive to the native for to secure, to
engage, to seize. The former of these is however
our proper term.

First then SECURE YOouR LAND. This may be done
in a variety of ways. You may buy it from the
Crown at public auction. All such sales are held
periodically, at the Government Agent’s Office, after
being duly advertised in the Government Gazette and
other newspapers, and are by auction. The land is
put up generally at the upset price of £1 per acre,
and may be knocked down at that if there be no.
competition. If it be bid up, it may bring—30/, £2,
£3, £5, or any price to which competing bidders may

2 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

raise it. I have known land, sold in that way, bring
£20 per acre. £15 and £10 are not uncommon,
while £5 is frequently bid. In general, however, the
average price may be set down at about from £2 to
£3, covering stamps, fees and all cost. At such Gov-
ernment sales the practice is to pay down on the
fall of hammer 10 per cent. of the purchase price,
balance within a month. Or you may buy land at
Fiscal’s sale, when you may chance to get it very
cheap: or you may buy it dear if run up. These
sales are generally the property of insolvents and are
unreserved: unless the mortgagee step in, and for
some suitable reason get the sale postponed. In Cey-
lon of late years, however, such sales have in most
instances been neither more nor less than a transfer
to the mortgagee. Such has been the dearth of money
that there has not, for cultivatec land, been much
competition. And it is so common for the mortgagee
to buy in such property, expecially if it owes him
anything near its value, that other would-be buyers
often keep away, believing he will buy, and that it
will be no free sale. In this, however, they are
sometimes mistaken. There are cases wherein either
there is no mortgagee, or if there be, he has resolved
to let it go for what it will bring, and does not at-
tend. In such instances rare bargains may sometimes
be had. I have known at such a sale an estate of
30 acres good coffee within two miles of the high
road sold for £10. I have known a house in town
that cost £2,000 in building, sell for £30. And I
have known a coffee estate with 200 acres in culti-
vation, sold for £250: the roof on the store of the
property being worth all the money. I have also
known an estate of 180 acres sold for £250. It
yielded yearly for several years about 1,000 ewt.
coffee, and made it’s new proprietors fortune. Cases
like these are however of but rare occurren e. They
are the prizes, so to speak, of Fiscals’ sales. Where
a sale is known to be unreserved, and where the land
is in a known and approved district, it will gener-
ally bring as much at such sale as anywhere else.
At Fiscal’s sale the purchaser has to pay down 25
per cent. of the purchase money on the fall of the
hammer. If not exeeeding £50, the balance is pay-
able in one month.
If exceeding £50 and not exceeding £200 in 2 months.
Exceeding £200 <5 ey £500in 3,
a £500 —Ci,, », £1000in two instal-
ments within 3 & 6 months.
1000 in three instalments at 3, 6, & 9 months,
“The Fiscal’s fees, costs of survey where necessary,
and advertising, amounting to probably a few pounds.

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 3

have likewise to be paid; or rather they are deduc'«d
by the Fiscal from the proceeds of sale. So that if
the purchaser be an outsider (not a mortgagee) he
does not have to bear these.

Besides the modes described, through the Crown,
and the Fiscal; there are other means of becoming
possessed of land. You may buy it from a private
holder: and in doing so you will make the best bar-
gain you can with him. In such cases from £2 to
£5 may be considered the average range: the latter
figure being given only if the land be either in a
very choice locality, or have the advantage of a cart
road to tbe property—or be within very easy reach
of a road, a river, or a railway. Yet I have known
land in private hands without such advantage, or in
a doubtful locality, or when there was a great dearth of
money, sell at 5s. per acre and at all rates upward.
Or, again, you may lease your land from a previous
holder. Temple lands, which cannot by the rules of
the Buddhist religion be permanently alienated, are
often let out for cultivation in this way—sometimes
on a lease of 10, 15, 20, 25, 50, and up to 99 years.
They cannot lease for a longer period. The rents
required for such are according to agreement. I have
known £1 a year paid for 50 acres: and I have
known 10s. per acre per annum given. All this de-
pends on the quality of the land, and the competition
for it ; or on the convenience, or the need or greed
of the incumbent of the partieular. temple whose
property it is. He it is who gets the benefit: and
after him his successor. Or property may be leased
from other private holders.

Having now shewn, to the beginner in coffee cul-
tivation, how he is to acquire his land, I shall pro-
ceed to point out to him what next he ought to
do, towards its conversion into a coffee plantation.
And here I would guard myself against being supposed
to be conveying unnecessary instruction to those of
equal or greater experience than myself. My object
is simply to state briefly, and in plain language, for
the benefit of the novice in coffee agriculture, the
whole process of this cultivation, trom the felling of
the first tree, to the gathering in and pveparing of
the crop for market. In doing this, I shall have to
go over ground that has been gone over by others
before. I shall have to state many things not new
to experienced planters, but necessary for the in-
formation of the learner; and which I hope to do
with as little bias to individual theories on the
various branches of this business as a clear state-
ment of the case will allow. Of course I shall give
expression to my own opinion on all points which

4 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

are not disputed, and where opinions differ among
planters of established reputation, I shall quote as
far as I think necessary, such variety of opinion. If
in doing so, I may, by errors of omission or com-
mission, offend the prejudices, or run counter to the
preconceived notions of others, my plea must be that.
{ am endeavouring to inform the young and inex-
perienced, not the veteran Planter. Still, in doing
so, 1 claim his indulgence should anything be over-
looked which he may consider necessary to this end,
and promise to give due weight to all suggestions
made by experi nced practical Planters, with a view
to the correction or amplification of this little manual,
should a future issue of it be required. Thus far by
way of explanation. Now revenons a nos moutons.
FELLING AND CLEARING.—Having got his land, the
young Planter should now look out for a contractor
to clear it of the jungle. But why a contractor, I
may be asked? Cannot he doit by daily or monthly
labourers? Yes, but not so satisfactorily. The Tamils
(Immigrants from the continent of India) who are the
class Whick alone can be relied on for ordinary, steady,
estate work, are of a more slender make than the
Sinhalese, and not nearly so expert at the use of the.
axe and the catty or bill-hook- Hence their work im
this operation is slower and much more costly than
by Sinhalese. But Sinhalese have an aversion to
steady labour. ‘They will much rather take a contract.
And it is better and safer as a rule for the proprie-
tor to encourage this taste in the Sinhalese than to
attempt the work himself. Even if he could procure
daily labourers to dothe work, he has to take the risk
of the season, and the burn. If, after felling and Icpp-
ing, rain falls in quantity before the felled trees are
dry enough to burn off, a mess will be made. A
little patch here and there will be burned. The rest
merely charred; and that charring will be sufficient
to prevent a running fire subsequently. He will there-
fore have to pile and burn, in separate heaps, all the
timber that has come under the axe and the catty—
i. €., all the leaves and branches, everything in fact
except the trunks, which must be left to decay at
. their leisure. Being only single sticks however and
generally straight, these do not much interfere with
the work of planting afterwards. To get rid of the
underwood and branches is the great desideratum.
And if you have, in the above contingency, to pile
and burn these, the labour of cutting into pieces,
carrying to the pile, stacking in heaps as large as.
hay-ricks, and burning, involves an expense much
greater than any profit the contractor would derive.
by undertaking the whole work of felling, clearing

- COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 5

and burning ; while you may, from carscity of labour
or its inefficiency, lose a season, before you are able
to plant tke field: as your Tamil labourers are slow
at this work, while Sinhalese do not cire about it.
They would much rather look out for fresh work at
‘a new clearing, than even contract—fond as they are
of contracts—to clear up a bed burn. And if they
do undertake it, it will be at a price that generally
makes the Planter regret having undertaken the risk
of the burn. There are cases in exceptionally dry
-districts, or seasons, Where this work may be done
profitably by the Planter himself: but the risk is so
‘great, that as a rule it is better for him to avoid it.
As workmen, at this sort of labour, Sinhalese are pro-
ficient. very Kandyan especially is so in a high
‘degree: in fact he seems born with an axe or a catty
in his hand, so expert is he in the use of these
tools. Sinhalese generally are fond of this work : and
-contractors can readily be got to undertake any quan-
tity of clearing at the rate of from £2 to £2 10s.
per acre; £2 5s, may be considered the average cost
by means of a contractor, of felling, lopping, burning
and clearing up, so as to leave the land ready for
planting. Engage your contractor then at once And
you must provide him with tools, which of course
he returns to you on the completion of the work.
To clear one hundred acres, which we shall assume
‘as our young Planter’s first clearmg, 5 dozen axes
and 4 dozen bill hooks will suffice. With this stock
he can start his contractor in the work of felling.
Nor will other tools be required till this operation be
finished, and he be ready to commence lining.

Before proceeding further, I shall describe to our
young friend the process of felling and clearing—a
process with which he will have no more trouble, if
he act as above advised, than seeing the work per-
formed, and paying his contractor for the job. The
felling is'a very simple, yet a very interesting pro-
cess. Fancy fifty men, each armed with a sharp axe,
taking post at the foot of a hill, every man behind
his tree. At the appointed time, whack, whack, goes
every axe, till a niche about half through the tree
is cut on the lower side. Then each axe is plied
on the upper side, a little, say half a foot above the
‘eut on the opposite or lower side. This upper in-
‘cision need not be so deep as the lower, which is
on the side, to which as a rule the tree is intended
to fall. The upper cut suffices if it break the skin
and approach the centre by about one-fourth the
thickness of the tree or even less. Tier after tier
sof trees is thus served in succession, till the top of
‘the hill is reached, if not too distant, or broken

6 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

up by intervening valleys. In the latter case the
hill is divided into suitible sections, and each felled
in its order. Suppose the hill or the part of it thus
niched to be of the form of a cone. The last tree
at the top is not only nicked, but cut so far through,
that it yields to the weaker, or lower side, falling
with a loud noise. In its fall its extended branches
catch the adjoining and neighbouring trees imme-
diately below it, and drag them along. One tree
grapples another, and the impetus given by the fall
of the first bears away those lower down the hill on
either side of it. They, in turn, their neighbours
below them and on either side, they theirs, and so
on till the whole hill-side goes down with a tre-
mendous roar. This is but the work of a moment:
and from the fall of the topmost tree to the levell-
ing of the whole hill-side takes much less time than
does this description. It is a thrilling moment: and
there is something majestically grand in the whole-
sale crash with which the giant trees salute their
mother earth. One of the oldest and most respected
Planters who has now ‘‘ crossed that bourne whence
no traveller returns,” in an Ode published some
years ago under the signature of Aliquis, has thus
graphically described this exciting scene :—

‘* The axe resounds on the gum trees tall,

‘‘ They stoop, rend, crackle, and crashing fall.

“* See that monarch of ages, o’erlooking the glen,

‘* As a chieftain predominates over his men ;—

** Around and beneath him, on either hand,

‘*Great trees, though half severed, still motionless

stand—

‘* Now watch for the blow which shall lay him low—:

‘* A forest goes down in his overthrow !

‘* Roaring and thundering down they swing !

‘*'their mightiest branches splinter and ring ;

‘* With an earthquake’s dint they smite the ground,

‘** And down, in their fall’s far-echoing ‘sound,

‘* The cheer of the wood-cutters crouching around.”

Thus is the forest felled. The operation of Lopping
follows. Experienced Planters generally wish this
work to follow close on the heels of the felling;
because, while the wcod is green, the branches are
easier cut than after the tree has got seasoned and
tough. Some require the fellers to stop felling every
week : some let the contractor choose his own time :
some leave the lopping till the clearing is all felled.
These last do not certainly act judiciously : nor is it
good for the contractor himself to leave the wood to
harden ere he begins to cut, for it makes the work
much harder on his men and more expensive to him-
self. I prefer to do the lopping every day; either

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 7

by stopping felling at say 2 o’clock every afternoon,
and insist‘ng on each man then changing his axe for
-a catty; or by having a party of catty men follow-
ing close upon the fellers, and not more than a day
betind them. In lopping, all the branches are cut off
and strewed on the ground. If only partially cut,
or not well scattered, you may get a bad burn, as
the linbs of a gigantic tree will not dry nearly so
fast attached to the tree as separate; besides heaps
of sood collect about those branchy trees and form
nests for vermin and nurseries for weeds. Separate
the branches therefore, and strew them about. They
wiil then dry sufficiently in about a month; after
which apply your torch at different poin's, and you
will soon see the whole field in one glorious blaze.
If your lopping has been well done, and fairly dried,
there will be nothing left after the burn but charred
logs and wood ashes. The former will waste away
in time. The latter act as a manure as long as they
remain on the ground. But if the land be steep, they
are soon washed away by the heavy rains of the South-
West monsoon. It would be better doubtless for the
land if the burning could bedispensed with. But where
the land is so heavily timbered, as it generally is
in Ceylon, the work of clearing up without burning,
would be too great and costly to be adopted on any
large scale, although some small clearings have been
done in that way to the satisfaction of the parties in-
terested in the work. The proper time to begin to
fell is about October. And felling should be finished
by the end of January, or at all events not later than
the 10th February. By the 12th to 15th March you
should be ready to burn off. After that date, al-
though it may sometimes be done successfully, it is
never safe ; as showers frequently fall about the 20th
to 22nd, sometimes even earlier. If these be heavy
enough to cause the dry leaves to drop from the
scattered branches, and soak the logs the.nselves, it
makes a burn difticult—sometimes impossible. And
as I have already shewn when a good burn is not
got, it enhances considerably the cost of the clear-
ing. These remarks about the felling and clearing
refer of course to the opening of a plantation from
forest land. Sometimes, however, they are opened
out of chena scrub, a small kind of jungle of differ-
ent sizes and ages, which is not primitive forest, but
land that has been cleared and cultivated with grain
within the memory of man. As a rule, such land
~ af not exhausted, is considerably weakened by the
successive crops it has borne, and requires renova-
tion by manure. This kind of land can be got of
ell ages from a year to thirty years old. After

8 COFEEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

that it may almost pass for virgin-forest—the land
having rested so long and been enriched by the
decaying leaves and branches without huving borne
crops for all that time. Even grass lands are occa-
sionally opened, and where they are favourably situ-
ated for manuring such lands sometimes do well.
They are generally uncertain, however, and always
expensive, and i do not recommend the tyro in Coffee
Planting to try his hand at such cultivation. There
is nothing like virgin forest :—given a block of good
forest land, at a suitable elevation, with a desirable
lay, and a favourable exposure—not subject to be
swept by wind, or inundated by water—and you
have the natural conditions necessary to the forma-
tion of a good plantation. If you do not make a
good estate with such favouring elements, blame
yourself and not the situation. Yes, but says my
young friend, ‘‘ That is all very fine—you have stated
a number of conditions that should be favourable.
How am I to find these out?” Listen, and I will
tell you.

ist.—Good Land. One indication of this quality,
is, if it be heavily timbered. Rarely do you find
tall, straight, strong trees growing on bad land. Next,
mark the soil. What depth do you find of virgin
mould, t.¢., of the decomposed vegetable matter that
in course of ages has been shed by the trees, and has
rotted where 1t fell, and remained there forming soil?
In steep lands very often a great deal of what should
be such mould has been washed away by the ‘inces-
sant rains to which Ceylon is periodically subject.
In that case you need not be surprised, if you find
only six inches where the forest is centuries old. If
the land be flat, or only gently undulating, you may
find several feet of this description. It will be a
mine of wealth to you, and save the need of manure
for many years to come. The other is, however, the
more common way, simply because the great majority
of our coffee land is situated on the slopes of steep
mountains, whose altitude draws down the passing
elouds, which in the rainy season wash away much
of the surface soil. In the absence of such soil,
however, in any great quantity, we must look to
the sub-soil. A rich chocolate is my favourite, and
I have generally seen the best estates where that was
the body of the soil. But a deep blaek is also good
—sometimes indeed very fine. And there are other
kinds not to be despised. A free friable kind of
soil, is generally a very desirable first condition,
whatever be the colour. But it should not be sandy,
clayey or ferruginous. If well studded with large
boulders so much the better. These keep the soil

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 9

together, as well as improve it by the process of
their decay. Avoid land where there is much slab-
rock cropping out on the surface, however. ‘The soil
is seldom deep upon such rock, and it gradually
slides away: while even before it slips, the roots of
the coffee trees coming in contact with the hidden
rock, cause the tree to wither and die when in its
very prime.

2nd.—Suwitable elevation. On this subject there are
differences of opinion. Some like a low elevation,
others prefer a high. And the feeling in favour of
the one or the other is sometimes led by the kind
of seasons freshest in our recollection. A course of
rainy seasons makes a low district very productive,
and a run is sure to be made on a locality that
produces early and heavy crops. A few dry seasons
im succession, while they wear out estates at a low
elevation, bring life, health and vigour to estates on
high altitudes. Then the run will be on these. I
have known both kinds of ranges by turns run upon
as described, at intervals of every few years. Speak-
ing for myself, -I prefer a medium elevation—say
from 2,000 to 3,500 feet above the level of the sea.
At this altitude will generally be found combined,
a good climate, and large productiveness, with a fair
average quality of coffee. Higher you will get keener
air—more mist, heavier and more frequent rain, with
a better-flavoured berry, and generally less of it.
However, at high elevations, these conditions vary :
especially where the district is dry. Coffee that at
4,000 feet altitude in a wet district, where the hill-
tops are crested by perpetual fogs will bear but a
sprinkling of crop, with a most vigorous supply of
leaves, and abundance of strong branches, will at
4,500, and even sometimes up to 5,000 feet bear
wonderful crops if the district be a dry one. A high
and dry elevation, with fair soil, generally bears well,
and a good quality. .

3rd.— Desirable lay. For facility of working, table-
land would be the most desirable: as well as because
whatever is deposited in the shape of manure will
remain and enrich the soil. But somehow very flat
land does not suit the coffee tree. It retains too
much moisture and does not drain itself. Very steep
land on the other hand, where rain is heavy, drains
itself too much. Gently undulating land is the most
suitable and best adapted for the growth of coffee,
and for lasting.

4th. —Favourable exposure. An eastern aspect is
generally preferred. Ist, because it gets the morning
sun; and 2nd, because it escapes the violence of the
South-Wozt monsoon. Yet a western aspect at a

10 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

medium elevation sometimes does very well: while
at a low elevation I would always prefer it; and for
this reason that at a low elevation the sun pours out.
his rays in too great force,—‘‘from early morn to
dewy eve” drying up the soil, and evaporating too
soon the moisture that settles on the tree during the
night. On such lands, therefore, I would rather see
the sun touch them all over about eight or nine
o'clock in the morning, than immediately he appears
above the horizon. For high lands, however, where
there is no danger of too much sun, I would always
prefer the eastern exposure.

5th.—Not devastated by wind. Avoid a windy lo-
cality where you can. This is not always so easy
however as one would iwagine. The course of the
wind is very deceptive. I know one estate at whose
back is a large high precipice, and whose front gently
declines, facing the rising sun, and at an inclination
which makes a difference between the higher and
the lower portions of the land, of probably one thou-
sand feet. The precipice at its back faces the South-
West, the violence of whose monsoon one would
naturally think would break there and disperse.
Not so, however, It strikes there certainly—then
comes round the corner at the lower end of the
estate and rushes over its surface with a fury which
nothing can withstand—shaking the very house in
which the manager dwells, unroofing frequently the
store and other buildings, and tearing and mutilat-
ing the trees in a frightful manner. Yet to haye
looked at the lay, aspect, and exposure of that piece
of land before it was opened into an estate, one
would have thought it a most choice lot. I know
another estate also in a windy district, but so ap-
parently sheltered,—lying in a valley surrounded by
high hills—that one would at once select it after a
mere bird’s eye view, from whatever point, as a
most eligible and desirable site. It has fine soil,
and grows coffee magnificently, during the interval
between the monsoons. The North-East does not bother
it much; but the South-West—oh havoc !—comes
howling in at a gap as the lower end, and goes
roaring out at another gap at the top, carrying wreck
and devastation along its route—stripping the trees.
of every green thing, and leaving nothing but bare
sticks, where was a fine healthy green field of coffee.
The store, unless unusually well secured, gets un-
roofed: the iron sheets whirling about like birds in
the air. The door of the bungalow even gets some-
times unhinged, and flung across the room, by the
violence of the gale, and an amount of damage is
done, which would be almost incredible to those

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. l}

who have not had experience of the fierceness and
destructiveness of monsoon winds in exposed situa-
tions. Wind is undoubtedly the greatest enemy of
the planter. You may have a poor soil: that can
be improved by manure. You may be in a wet dis-
trict: seasons change and you may have a dry sea-
son after a wet, or a course of them. You may have
an invasion of bug: it will go away. An incursion of
rats: they will retire having left their mark. Beetle,
borer, grub and all the enemies that have ever ap-
peared in Ceylon may be got rid of or cured. But
you cannot cure the wind, so ‘‘ what can’t be cured
must be endured,” 7%. ¢., if you have already got a
windy estate. But if not, give it a wide berth: for
although, in general, estates get used to the wind,
and after six or seven years, gain stamina sufficient
to resist, it 1s not the thing for a man of small
means, as I suppose the beginner to be, to tackle.
Instances are not rare, however, of estates that suf-
fered much in their infancy, even to abandonment
in fright by their early owners, coming to the front
at the sixth or seventh year, and bearing heavy and
paying crops for many years thereafter. It is enough
to know this, if you be so unfortunate as to find
yourself possessed of such a property, only do not
get possessed of it if you can help it. How shall I
avoid it? do you ask. This is easier asked than
answered, as the currents are sometimes vncertain
and deceptive; but what has been will be. The sea-
sons follow each other with the regularity of the
sun. Look at the forest you have selected, or may
select, walk through it, mark the bearing and inclin-
ation of the trees. If these, though tall and straight,
have a leaning to one side, depend upon it the wind
is hard upon them on the opposite side: or if they
are short and stunted, or gnarled and distorted, you
may be sure the cold biting wind has done it, for
there is no part of Ceylon sufficiently elevated to
prevent trees going straight and strong, but for the
wind, which represses their growth, warps and twists
them out of their original shape, and curtails their
natural proportions. Your land may be as good as
can be got, your lay may be perfection, your alti-
tude be the most approved—but watch for this enemy.
If you have neighbours whose lands adjoin yours,
and have been earlier opened, this will lighten your
task. Mark how or whether the wind affects them.
If it does not, see if there be circumstances in their
ease differing from yours, such as another aspect,
higher land to windward, or a sheltered position ;
and if none of these be at variance, you may rea.
sonably conclude that your clearing should, all othe;

12 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

circumstances being equal, turn out as good as theirs.
For further tests you must be left to your own sagacity
and the experience of your neighbours. Instances have
occurred of some of the most experienced Planters in Cey-
lon being deceived in their selection of forest land so far
as this liability to wind and storms is concerned.

INUNDATED BY WATER.—Beware of opening too
close to the side of a river liable to overflow its
banks, as such overflow may destroy a fine field of
coffee when in full maturity, your labour and ex-
pense in bringing it to that age being labour in
‘vain. Beware also of opening on the slope of a
mountain where rain is perpetual. This is perhaps a
strong expression, but there are some mountains on
which the rainfall is excessive. On such the soil
soon washes away, besides causing the growth to
run chiefly to wood. Be advised by your neighbours
and avoid such situations.

Lintine, Pecerne, Honing anp Piantine.—Well
now, you have got your land, felled it, lopped if,
burned it off and cleared it up,—at least as much
of it as you wish to open at the outset. What
must you do then? Your next duty will be to Line
and PEG IT, so as to be ready for holing. Ist, then
let us see to the pegs. hese are pieces of wood,
sharpened at the pointe, about 2 and 23 feet long,
and eay 1 inch thick at the top. They are found
either on the clearing or in the jungle, whichever
may be most convenient for your present operations,
and are obtained by splitting up a tree into suitable
sizes, having previously cut it into the lengths re-
quired, ‘This is done with the axe and catty, anda
good workman will cut 400 in a day. A good splitt-
ing wood should be chosen for this purpose, such as
Keena, Malaboddy, Doong, &c. Any wood with
jong straight fibre will suit, of which there are many
descriptions in Ceylon. A sufficient supply of these
pegs having been obtaioed, proceed to line. This is
done with a rope of about 4 inch thick. English
hempen rope is the best, because it does not stretch
so much as either jute or coir. Fasten pieces of
rag to the rope, at suitable distances, tnese
being decided according to the number of plants
you wish to have per acre. 5 ft. x 5 ft. is perhaps
the most common distance—5 ft. x 6ft. is by many
preferred, while 6 ft. x 6ft. is not uncommon, and
suits well where the soil is rich and free. The longer
distances of 7 and 8 feet which were at one time
approved by Planters have long since been discarded.

5 x 5 will give about 1,740 trees to an acre,
(9a oF) ’ 52 29 29

5 x 6
6 x 6 39 23 1,210 oe) 99

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 13

shorter distances, such as 44x43, 4x4, and even
3x3 have been tried: but the result does not
seem to have encouraged many repetitions of the
experiment. Either of the three distances above-
quoted will be found that most suitable to the cir-
cumstances and conditions of most lands. Well,
having attached pieces of rag to the rope at the dis-
tances you have resolved on planting by, fix the
rope to two poles one at each end, of say 6 feet
high. Employ two stout coolies to carry the rope,
having first pulled it straight: one cooly marches up
the hill, the other remains at the bettom; each with
pole in hand now s‘retches the line which is fas-
tened up the pole about half-way, or sufficiently
high above the ground not to be impeded by the
logs or stones strewed on the surface. Hach of these
two coolies is also provided with a wand, or stick,
of a length suited to the breadth, the lines or rows
of coffee are intended to be apart from each other—
say 5 or 6 ft. The line being thus stretched, a third
cooly now carrying a bundle of pegs or pickets
moves up the row and drops one perpendicularly at
each rag on the line. Falling vertically, it reaches
the ground at the exact spot where it is intended
to be placed. A fourth cooly follows with a mallet
and drives in the pegs exactly where their points have
touched the ground, unless where a rock or log in-
tervenes, when he shifts that individual peg to suit
the occasion. The two men holding the rope then
measure off the distance to the next row with their
wands, and move the line on, the other two repeat-
ing the process already described, and so on, till the
field be pegged. The lines of coffee should be made
to run all one way; up-hill is generally preferred, it
being most easily workable, and the labourers being
thus always visible to the superintendent, or overseer,
in their rows. Besides, it looks neater and prettier
to have the rows all leading in one direction, than
to have some running up, and some obliquely. or
across the face of the hill. Planters who wish to be
particularly neat in this operation line across the hili
also, at right angles with the previous up and down
rows, so that the whole field appears to have been
done in squares, the lines looking perfect each way, %. ¢.,
above and across: while some are not satisfied nnless
they have their rows so mathematically accurate, that
they run ten or more different ways: one gentleman
I know, who wished to make a show field border-
ing a river and near a high road, made his rows to
run 16 different ways. This is very pretty no doubt,
and the planter who does so will take rank as a very
neat and precise workman. But I had rather not be
B

14 COFEEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

nis employer, as that sort of needless extra work costs
mone’, wile its atvantages are all for the eye.
Having thus linet your field, let us proceed to the
next operation, Horin@. For this purpose, you will
select !rom the able-bodied men of your labor force
as muny as you require according to the quantity of
Jand you mean to open during the seison, one man
to every acre is a fair allowance. If you are late of
beginning and in danger of losing the season for plant-
ing, you wilt employ more. But if you begin early
in the season, or as soon as the land is burned off,
which shoul’ be by the end of March, one man to
each avre will suffice to enable you to hole the clear-
ing, allowing for broken time and casual interrup-
tions, by the middle or end of May. If you succeed
in this, you should be able to plant up your clear-
ing by the end of July; and unless you have much
broke: time, through heavy rains or other cause pre-
ventins the laborers from working, you may even
finish planting by the end of June; in which case
you will have inade a good start. An early fell, an
early burn, and an early plant, are three most desir-
able conditions towards making an early estate. For
if you lose the proper season, vr get late, either in
burning, and the rain set in before you can clear,
or if after clearing, you lose the fine dry weather,
suitable for burning, and equally suitable for lining
and holing; and if you thus be thrown into the
south-west monsoon with your work half done, you
will most likely drag on bebind the season till its
close. You may have to plant at the end of the
year instead of in the middle, while your planting
will be followed, before the young plants have fairly
made a start in growing, by. the three or four dry
months common at the beginning of the year. Many
of the young plants will then be killed out, while
inany more will drag on a sickly existence till the
next rains revive them; and it frequently happens that
these continue feeble and seedy plants, imstead of
becoming healthy aud vigorous trees. I have known
a second season’s plants when put out at the proper
time, and with the first of the monsoon, completely
overtake and sometimes outstrip in the race those
planted at the end of the previous season, and which
had to encounter all the drawbacks above mentioned.
There ig another way of CLEARING, which has come
anto practice of late years, an old system revived.
ft is to PLANT UNDER SHADE, and without a burn.
It is done thus:—First cut down the underwood,
leaving the large forest trees standing. Let the un-
derwood rot, which it will generally do in about a
couple of months, or at least sufficiently to enable

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 15

you to plant. By this process the fallen underwood
decays, adding fresh mould to the original soil, in-
stead of burning away the surface soil as is the case
with a thorough clearing on the burning-off principle.
You save soil, and mikeit therefore by the prccess
now described. And there is yet another way of
PLANTING UNDER SuHAD=z. It is thus: cut down all
the trees great and small, except a sufficient number -
for the shade you require—say leave a tree at every
40 feet or as near that distance as thé forest will
admit of. Lop well the felled trees, cut them into
handy lengths except the large s‘ems, which you will
leave where they fell. Lop off all branches close to
the stems, and cut them up into easy sizes for shift-
ing. Lay them in rows between the lines of coffe.
You will thus shelter the coffee, while young, from
the wind; and when the rows of timber decay, which
they will do probably in a year or eighteen months,
they will have greatly added to the soil, for by their
decay will be ieft in their place a top-dressing of
fresh virgin mould. This mode is only advisable, how-
ever, in dry and low-lying districts. In high and
wet lands there is the danger of the piled timber
washing out of its place and destroying the plants in
its course, as well as of harbouring weeds which ie
up so rapidly in a moist climate.

Still another plan of CLEARING has recently been
adopted in one district I know of, that of only FELL-
ING THE ForEstT—not lopping or burning, or leaving
shade. The tree hes as it falls, and its spread branches
cover the ground till they join and entwine with those
of the neighbouring trees—thus providing as is sup-
posed a natural cover for the ground from the heat
of the sua, and sheltering the young piants from the
wind. This plan looks well in theory, and it doubtless
is by far the cheapest. But to plant in rows amid
the entangled branches, and to climb and hop over the
mighty trunks of the fallen ‘‘monarchs of the forest ”
is no easy task. It will in all probability lead to a
shirking of systematic work in planting out, from the
difficulty cf getting over the ground with the holing,
as well as of placing out the plants in line. But
perhaps ‘‘dibbling” is the mode of planting on this
plan: and reonlarity of lining may not-be thought
necessary. This mode is yet only experimental. The
result will be ascertained hereafter. Meantime it
appears on the face of it to have this difficulty and
this inconvenience, the difficulty of keeping the clear-
ing clean amid so much encumbering branch wood—anii
the inconvenience of harbouring vermin such es rata,
&c., which often prove destructive to the young plants.
J have known a whole field of coffee devastated by

16 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

an incursion of rats when about eighteen months old.
On the failure of certain succulent plants in the jun-
gles, which occurs periodically, they leave their shelter
in the forest and attack and sometimes over-run young
clearings. Even old ones do not escape their visita-
tion. But it is the young shoots or branches that are
most acceptable to them. These they cut through to
get at the pith, and the cut is sometimes so clean,
that one would think it had been done with a knife.
Traps are frequently set; and watchers with sticks
appointed to go regularly ‘over the fields in rows,
killing where they can the destructive vermin, the -
watchers’ pay depending on the amount of the slaugh-
ter. In this way I have known four thousand killed
on one estate in three months, and it is well worth
the expense, getting rid of the vermin. Shelter for.
them on the land such as the mode of clearing re-
ferred to affords, will most likely encourage these
destructive raids.

But I have not yet described the operation of Hot-
inc. Here it is: Provide each man with a holing
mamoty or hoe, and an alavanga or spade bar. Draw
a circle round the peg to the breadth you intend your
holes to be. Loosen or break the ground within the
circle, and remove roots and stones with the spade
bar, end cut clean, and clear out the earth with the
mamoty to the depth required. In ordinary land 18
inches broad and deep is considered a sufficient size.
If the ground be very stiff this will be quite enough,
while if it be soft and friable a foot will suffice, or
even less, It has come considerably into vogue lately
to make very small holes in free soil which may be
9 to 12 inches each way, and of these sometimes 100.
holes will be made by each man per day. Of 18 inch
holes, however, 40 per man daily is about the aver-
age task, and it is good work if they be made the
full size. In very hard gravelly or clayey soils I
have known only 25 per man made in a day. Some
planters too are not satisfied with a hole of average
size, and fix for their standard a two feet hole. In
such cases 15 to 20 per man daily will be about all
they can get done, which of course makes the work
expensive and slow.

DispBLInG, a practice which had long since been
discarded, has of late been revived to a considerable
extent. It is done either with the alavanga or a
pointed stick, pushed into the ground to the depth
of 12 or 18 inches, and wriggled about till the earth
gives way. Then the plant is put in and the earth
closed around. Another and no doubt a better mode
is to make first tbe centre hole with the alavanga or.
atick, then to make around it a circle of similar holes,

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 17

working the alavanga or stick about till the eartb is
well loosened and one hole broken into the others in
*

x x
form like this: * o * You have by this mode
1 *

where the soil is free, a loosened surface equal in size
to the common hole. Few soils in Ceylon, however,

are so free as to make this a safe or desirable pro-
cess. Where the soil is very free, it is doubtless a
very cheap mode of planting. But unless the soil be
very free and soft, not only in itself, but clear also
of roots and stones, this system is one not to be
commended. In fact, in most Ceylon soils a good
hole is necessary to the making of a good estate.
Having made your hole, scrape in the surface soil in
its immediate neighbourhood for two or three inches
deep, and one to two feet around. This being gener-
ally virgin mould is the best of the soil. I’ feeds
well the young rootlets, and aids the plant in miking
its start, much better than the soil which came out
of the bottom of the hole would do: and is besides
permanently retained, without the risk which it would
run on the surface of being washed away. ‘the hole
thus filled should be levelled at the top, and freed_
from sticks, stones, roots, &c. The cooly who is to
PLANT may then, either with a mamoty or with the
hand, make an opening into the loose earth in the
centre of the hole, deep and broad enough to admit
the roots of the plant. The tap or perpendicular rost
should not be allowed to be bent, twisted, or broken,
in this process. It should go down straight as the
stem. The lateral roots too should be spreid ont as
they grew. They will thus sooner take a start in
their new bed than if pushed in carelessly, or in a
heap, and left to right themselves afterwards. Then
cover over the earth and press it down firmly, around
the stem, so firmly that a gentle pull would not raise
it. This is necessary to protect it from the frequent
heavy wash and wind so common on our hills during
both monsoons.

How ARE THE PLANTS Got? is a question that will
naturally suggest itself to the learner here. Every
careful and considerate planter will lay out his NURSE-
RY immediately he has secured his land, or as soon
after as the weather will permit. This is done by
clearing one or two acres of ground on a gentle in-
cline in the heart of the forest. Dig it to the depth
of a foot, or, if the soil be very free, the depth ofa
mamoty will do, lay it out in beds, just as if you
were sowing peas, leaving space to walk between, five
feet broad is enough, and will admit of the centre of

ig COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL,

the hed being reached from each side, A long bed
1s preferabl», as it will contain a greater number of
plants than a short one, and the ground will not lose
so much by cross paths between the beds. But this
may be adapted to the nature and size of the ground
selected for the purpose. A flat is often prepared,—
especially if near water, as a nursery should always
be in dry districts, or when planted just before the
approach of our dry season,—so that in a run of dry
weuther it might be watered. In a very moist climate,
however, it is not so important that a stream should
be near, as the fall of rain in such climate generally
suffices. In such too, I would prefer a gentle undu-
Jating piece of ground to a flat, as it drains itself
naturally. In making a nursery where there is the
least incline in thes ground, run a deep drain across
the top to prevent wash damaging the young plants.
Having laid out your nursery in beds, pulverize and
smooth the surface earth, free it from lumps and
stones, and level it. Then take a line with a peg at
each end and divide the bed into rows. about six
inches apart; a man follows the lines with a bag of
seed and dibbles it in like peas, or makes a groove
along the length of the rope about 1 to 2 inches deep,
and places the seed, like peas, about 1 inch apart.
Being planted so closely they grow up thick and
support each other—leaving no room for the weeds
to grow in tae planted lines, while the 6 inches space
between admits of the beds being weeded as required.
The seed is coffee in parchment just taken from the
pulper, without having been dried in the sun. Old
dry cherry coffee is sometimes used also; but the un-
dried parchment, before its growth is injnred by the
drying process, sprcuts most readily, and is therefore
generally preferred,

Some planters prefer making their nursery of SEED-
LINGs, ¢@.e, of the young plants which spring up around
the old coffee trees after crop,—the result of berries
fatlen, frequently from the violence of the wind or
rain about the time they are ripe, and sometimes
from the estate being too short-handed to admit of
its being gone over by the pickers as fast as the
crop ripens, but always to a greater or less extent
nnavoiduble, The same process of preparing beds for
these is requisite as that used for seed: an’ the
plants are dibbled in the same way. In a moist cli-
mate or season these come on much faster than seed ;
ut in dry weather they are apt to be very much
tried—hbefore they get fairly acclimatized to their new
bed— unsheltered by the parent tree. Again a NursE-
RY is sometimes sown broad-cast, £.¢., where the
soil is very free and contains sufficient moisture to

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 19

germinate the seed. Under such circumstances where
it succeeds, and it often does succeed, it is the cheap-
est kind of nursery. Care should be taken, however,
to cover the seedlings with some light shade, when
a course of dry hot weather sets in, before they have
aequired sufficient strength to withstand the grilling
effects of a tropicalsun. Where the planter has had
no time to make a nursery before his planting began,
or where from any cause he has not a nursery of his
own, he may purchase from a neighbour, if he have
one, who can spare plants, at about 8s. to 10s. per
1,000 plants fit for putting out, or he may buy from
the villages. In this last case they are generally
planted out as stumps, 7.e., the top is cut off and
the roots trimmed in both tap and lateral, so that
they are much more easily planted out than nursery
plants. In dry weather too they are more hardy,
and will endure a long course of it without being
injured ; on the other hand they are slower of growth.
But after they have fairly made a start they grow
very fast, frequently overtaking nursery plants put
out at the same time. As a rule, however, given an
ordinarily favourable season, I would always prefer
nursery plants to stumps: while, if the weather were
doubtful or dry, 1 would put out stumps. A course
of wet weather after planting will often kill out stumps,
while it is the very life of plants. The reason vil-
lage plants are generally stumped before being planted
out is, because, having been reared in the shade, they
are apt to sicken and die when exposed to the full
blaze of the sun. They are besides of all ages; and
old ones do not grow so readily as the young. Many
of the old too are black-hearted, or injured in the
roots, which the stumping discovers, enabling the
planter to discard such as are diseased. Whenever
practicable, however, I recommend the planter to have
. his own. nursery. It is much cheaper than buying
plants. It makes him independent of foreign aid, and
it ensures him a supply of sound and healthy plants
by the time he wants them.

Weli, we have now Felled our Land, Cleared it in
the way we have approved, Planted it out with Nurse-
ry or Village Plants or Stumps,—what, asks the
tyro, are we to do next? Your heavy work is now
over, your firldis clear, and you can leok about you
for sites of PERMANENT BuiLpines. We shall suppose
that up to this time you have been residing either
with a neighbour or in a temporary hut erected on
the outskirts of your land, far enough removed from
your clearing to avoid the risk of its being carried
away by your fire at the burning. Such has happened
occasionally, from the want of a little forethought on

20 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

the part of those who were above asking advice or
seeking counsel from their more experienced brethren.
You will want a Bungalow for yourself, and one or
more sets of Lines for your laborers.

The BUNGALOW is a matter so entirely of taste and
pocket, that it is hardly necessary to describe it here,
If you want a common mud and thatch house, any
Kandyan will undertake to build you one very cheap.
If you want a more stylish article, you had better
engage a builder, get a plan, specifications and esti-
mate for the sort of house you want, and you will
have one in course of time. One man may be satisfied
with a building of wattle and daub, consisting of two
small rooms and cook-house with common doors and
ehutters and mud floor, which may cost him £20,
Another may think the cheapest place he could live
in would be one a little bigger, with shingled roof, glass
windows, good doors and wooden floor, and some addi-
tional out-houses, which might cost him £50. An-
other may find £500 bis lowest figure; while Il have known
several planters’ bungalows cost £2,000 each. It is
entirely a matter of taste and money. My plan would
always be to build a suitable house according to my
means, of a sufficient size, and at a moderate cost,
which could be enlarged or replaved when the planta-
tion had given some return; from the amount of
which I could be guided as to the size and style of
my future habitation. For work-a-day men, however,
who do not wish to cultivate luxurious habits, a house
to begin with suitable for a bachelor and sufficiently
commodious could be built for about £50, and for
a family at all rates according to quality from £100
to £200.

Links in like manner must depend upon the quali-
ty for their cost. Some planters prefer these being
permanent, brick and tile, or stone and lme build-
ings. These, where the materials are handy, are the
most economical in the long run. But their first cost
is more than many planters care to incur. For the
man of money he may as well have all his buildings
permanent from the first, but for the man of small
means, he can afford to wait for fine buildings and
be satisfied at first with those of a more ordinary
construction. Wattle and daub lines with thatched
roof can be built in rooms capable of holding 10
people each, at from £1 to £2 per room, according to
the district they are in. Lines of stone pillars, pointed
with lime, mud interstices, and shingled roof, may
cost £5 per room; while proper pucka buildings, 4¢.,
all stone and lime, or brick and lime with tiled roof,
may cost all rates up to £10 per room according to
the facility or otkerwise of procuring the materials,

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 21

And there will be no difficulty in getting these built
of the kind you require, either on contract or by daily
labor.

Having now got a Bungalow for yourself and Lines
for your laborers, you have leisure to look about you
to see what is the next necessary operation that
should engage your attention. Roaps will strike you
as very necessary for the convenient working of the
plantation. Some people make these before planting
at all, and doubtless where labor is in sufficient abund-
ance to admit of this being done without your being
thrown behind with the more important work of
planting, or if you are sure to be able to complete
your planting within proper season, after having done
your roading, by all means road first. It will save
you cutting a number of holes, which from the course
of your road you have afterwards to destroy, as well
as save many plants from being buried during the
progress of the road, But this is not often possible.
Seldom has a planter at the outset the command of
labor sufficient to do such works as roading and drain-
ing, but when he has it is well to do both. When
pressed however for time to do his planting before
the season passes away, we generally find the planter
using the energy of every man he has to plant up
his Jand, leaving every other work to stand over till
that be accomplished. In the present case we have
finished our planting, and now for the Road. Begin
at the bottom of the hill, set your level to a gradi-
ent of 1 foot in 10, and follow. it up till you reach.
the top of the clearing. This will be a very good
working gradient, and will suit the lay of most lands.
It will also divide your estate sufficiently, and make

working easy. Should you intend it ultimately to be
a cart road, then let 1 in 20 be your gradient.
Drive in pegs as you move on the level, and cut
from the lower side, to the breadth you intend your.
road to be. For ordinary estate purposes, short of
cartage, four feet in the solid will be a very good
size, even for tavalam cattle, or pack bullocks. But
if you want to be very economical at the commence-
ment, a two feet road can be made to answer your
requirements for a good while, widening it as you
find necessary or expedient.

Your work is now so far advanced that you will
be able to take it easy for a while. You may sit
down and see your plants grow. The only work you
will have for some two years from this time will be
to look after your WEEDERS, and see that they keep
the estate clean. This you will find necessary whe-
ther you weed by daily labor or by contract, and it
is by no means the least important part of the plant-

22 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL,

ers operations: for the. difference between weeding
an estate occasionally or whenever the weeds have
attained to the flowering stage, and keeping out the
weeds altogether, is th:t between a profit and a loss.
Keep down the weeds say some. Keep out the weeds
is more valuable advice, and much more economical
work. You may keep them down by regular monthly
weeding, so that at one part of each month few weeds
are visible. But this may be ata cost of 30s. to
40s., and even 50s. to 60s. per acre per annum,
while by keeping out the weeds from the first you
should be able to weed for ls. 6d. per acre, some-
times less each weeding, or say 18s. per annum, some-
times 15s., and I have even heard of 10s. sufficing
for the year. But say 20s. as an average, and you
will save at least 20s. or 30s. more by this system.
That, on an estate of 200 acres will be, at 20s., £200;
at 30s., £300, and so on. Nor need you wait till
your land is planted before putting on a weeding
force. Immediately your clearing is burned off, and
before weeds have time to take root, commence weed-
ing: and continue it monthly afterwards. The small
jungle which first springs up, if the land have been
forest, will soon give way; three or four weedings or
at most half-a-dozen generally eradicate this descrip-
tion of weed. It is not the worst kind, as it does
not seed, and is easily pulled up by the root. If
left, however, seeding weeds are apt to spring up,
under its concealment, which give a world of trouble
to get rid of. Those seeding weeds, especially one
called the Hulantala, and another called the Span-
ish Needle,—but notably the former,—are the plant-
ers bane. Several grasses also, and some creeping
weeds give much trouble to eradicate. To keep them
out therefore is, or ought to be, the object of every
prudent planter. A few regular weedings will make
your field quite clean, and going over it once a month.
will keep it so. Once arrived at that stage, you will
want but a very small labor force for some time.
One man will suffice to keep cle:n 10 acres, whereas
in a weedy estate one to every 3 or 4 acres is about
the force required. You can also weed by hand on
a clean estate, which saves your soil from being wasted,
and washed away, the resuit of continual hacking at
it with the hoe. In every way therefore it is cheap,
thrifty, and profitable to keep an estate clean from
the commencement. Having arranged to give this
work proper attention, you will now ask, what next?
When the plants are a few months old, it will be
well to keep a small party of searchers going over
the fields occasionally, to pluck off suckers and any
irregular branches which make their appearance about

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 23

this time. Suckers are upright shoots that spring from
the stem, generally below one of the arms or lateral
branches, and draw sustenance from the tree, without
giving back crop in return, unless allowed to grow
so large as to send out branches and blossom of
tbeir own. This is however unwise and exhausting,
and is never tolerated ona well-managed plantation.
Irregular branches are those that point towards the
stem, or across the tree in a different way from their
normal direction. By allowing these, the natural
branches get covered up, are excluded from lght and
air, do not bear, but grow matted and form the com-
mencement of a neglected and irregular tree, fre-
quently called ‘‘a crow’s nest.” This is easily checked
while young, and if done then the tree will be nicely
kept in condition, and easily pruned when it requires
pruning. The natural tendency of a coffee tree is to
throw out its branches as nearly as possible at right
angles, and, with fair treatment, no tree is more
symmetrical, or regular, or beautiful.

DRAINING, like Roading, will best be done before
the Planting. But this in most cases must depend
on the purse of the proprietor and his supply of
labor. If both abound it will be economy to finish
all necessary drains and roads before planting. For
the reasons given under the heading Foads, howver,
this is often impracticalle, and where it is so it will
be wise to defer the making of drains till the plants
are about 18 months old. If undertaker immediately
after the plants are put out, or even within 6 months,
a great many fine healthy and promising plants will
unavoidably be destroyed by the loose earth that is
taken out of the drains burying entirely the row
nearest the lower side of the drain, sometimes even
a couple of rows, especially if the land be steep ;
whereas, if the plants have got up to 18 inches or
upwards in height, the falling earth may cover up
the lower part of the stem, but the top of the plant
will shew, and the earth can be cleared away. 15
incbes broad and deep will make a very good drain.
But if the land be steep I would prefer 18 inches:
and drains should be traced at a gradient of about 1
in J2to1 in 16 according to the nature of the ground ;
and about 50 feet apart. If the angle be much easier,
the drains will fill up and give trouble to keep clear:
while if much steeper they will eut up the land.

Toprine will also be necessary about this time. It
should be carefully and judiciously performed. This
operation consists in cutting off the top of the tree
at the height which you intend it not to exceed. 3
feet is a very good average height; where the soil
is rich, however, I would allow 34 feet; on the other

24 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

hand where the soil is poor, or the spot blown, I
would be content with 2}, 2, or even 14 feet accord-
ing to circumstancs. In strong soil where the trees
do not suffer from wind, a 33 feet shrub will yield
as much crop as it can safely carry: and it is a much
handier size than if it were allowed to grow taller,
The cutting off the top prevents the tree attaining a
greater height. But it should not be cut till the
brown bark shew. If cut while green, the top will
die back to the brown wood, and you will lose one
or two pairs of branches, or more.

STAKING should be begun about March, so as to
be completed before the setting-in of the south-west
monsoon about the Ist of June. It is seldom necess-
ary till the second year after planting: as, if the
plants have been put out between June and Decem-
ber, they will scarcely be tall enough to feel the
wind by the following June, for they will only prob-
ably be 9 to 12 inches high: and at that age they
will bend to the breeze. When, however, they get
to the height of 18 inches or 2 feet, if in an exposed
situation, the wind takes a strong hold, and twists
and wriggles about the tree to such an extent that
it often dies out: or if it do not immediately it has
frequently a sickly struggle for a long time, till it
make new roots and they take a firm hold of the
ground. Often the twisting and whirling about of
the tree leaves a hole around its stem, which if not
noticed and pressed around with the foot so as to
replace the forced back earth, the monsoon rains fill
the hole and rot the roots. The tree then withers
and dies, It is important therefore to go frequently
over the clearing and inspect all the blown trees ;
for even staked trees frequently suffer in the way
above described, while, if they were left unstaked,
they would suffer and perish in much greater num-
ber. Some districts and some estates however do not
suffer from wind at all: and where this is the fortun-
ate case staking is necessary. The mode of staking
is as tollows:—Take a picket similar to that you
have used to peg out the ground for planting—like
it too, pointed, but a little longer. If the tree be 2
feet or more in height, 3 to 4 feet is a very com-
mon and very suitable size; but you will require that
height, as you will lose from 6 inches to 1 foot
under ground, while the angle at which you place it
will use up another 6 inches. It should be driven
in slantingly across the tree like an X, and with its
head facing the point whence the wind blows. Tie
it about half way up to the peg with a loose loop
or noose at the end adjoining the stem, to admit of
a little pay without chafing the tree; and coir rope

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 25

or rag, or any soft substance may be used for the
purpose. I have known plantain fibre used very suc-
cessfully. It is soft and strong, and abounds in a wild
state in many jungles, chiefly in the low country
however.

Supeiyine should be carried out whenever you have
seasonable weather after the first planting, until all
vacancies have been filled up, and the plants are
growing. You may sometimes require two or three
supplyings before all the plants take root, especially
in dry or uncertain seasons. Ina moist climate or
‘season, supplies succeed much better than in dry wea-
ther. But whether the seasons be wet, dry, or vari-
able, this operation should be persevered in till your
field be complete, for nothing offends the eye more
than a patchy field—or a field with clumps cf good
coffee interspersed with blanks. It is besides not eco-
nomical, as you have to weed and keep clean the vacant
spaces which give you no return, as regularly and
frequently as the planted portion. Strong, healthy
plants or stumps should be selected for supplies.

HANDLING or searching, systematically, is a work
that from this time onward, till the trees be in crop,
will claim your attention. This consists in taking off
suckers, gormandisers, cross branches and extra or
unnecessary shoots—especially all that grow within a
span of the stem. If this be regularly done while
the tree is young, or before it come into bearing, the
work of pruning afterwards will be comparatively
‘easy, as you will have a regular symmetrical tree to
work upon, and will not be driven to the necessity
of cutting and training it back into shape, for it will
never have left the shape which nature intended it
to have. The coffee tree has a s'rong tendency to be
exuberant in the production of wood at this early
stage of its existence; and if neglected then, and
allowed to grow as it likes, it will force out shoots at
every eye far in excess of what is necessary to pro-
duce crop, and such superfluous production will reduce
the bearing power of the tree.

Buiiprines. —Harly in the 3rd year you should select
sites for your store and pulping-house. ‘lhese are
frequently built under one root ; but, whether in one
building or detached, both will be equally required
this season. No time, therefore, should be lost in
their erection. Like bungalow and lines, they may
be made either of wattle-and-daub, if intended only
for a crop or two, or if permanent they may: be of
wood, brick, or stone, and tiled, shingled ‘or iron
roofed, and of a size and style dependent on the purse
and taste of the proprietor. If he be wealthy, he
will most likely desire to have his buildings complete

c

26 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

and permanent at once ; and capacious enough to cure
and store all the crop his estate will yield when
fully opened up. If on the other hand bis means
are limited, he will prefer either a cheap and small
store for a crop or two, or he will make the build-
ing perwanent but small at first, and capable of ex-
tension as the productiveness of the plantation may
demand. Supposing you intend to open up to 200
acres, but have begun with 100, a store commodious
enough for your first and probably your second crop
also, 40 ft. x20 with a loft, would suffice, and a pulp-
ing-house 20 ft.x 10 with a cherry loft and pulper
floor. These could be built of sawn timber and iron-
roofed for about £200. If you build with a view to
extension, however, a better size would be 50 ft. x 30,
taking off 10 feet at the end for your pulping-house.
Next year you could extend this building to 80 feet
or even 100, which would be as large as the estate
would ever require. Extended thus, the outlay on
store and pulping-house should not exceed from £400
to £500. If stone or brick and lime are the mate-
rials used, however, they will cost double this amount.
But, as before said, this so greatly depends on purse
and taste, that it is with reluctance I name cost
price at all in connection with buildings. The figures
named, however, will suffice for those of a mediocre
quality. Or you may build a store of jungle wood,
with sawn timber floors and shingled roof, which will
do for two or three crops, for about £100, inclusive
of pulping-house. I have built one of this descrip-
tion 70 ft x20 with two floors, capable of storing a
crop of 400 ewt., for £70. This was in a dry district,
however. In a wet one large accommodation would
be necessary. Buildings, especially stores, are works
on which much money is often unnecessarily wasted,
Houses, larger, stronger, more capacious, and of ma-
sonry more massive. than the property will ever require
are frequently built at a ruinous cost fo the proprie-
tor. Partly this is the result of inexperience; but
sometimes also it arises from the manager’s desire to
eclipse his neighbours in the character of his build-
ings. Many proprietors too indulge in this extrava-
gance under the belief that it is economy to have all
the buildings their estate will require made complete
and permanent at the outset. It will save the con-
struction of temporary buildings, the cost of which
they consider money wasted. But I shall shew that
this is an error; and that it is neither expedient nor
economical to erect permanent buildings at the com-
mencement of an estate. It is inexpedient because
you have many things to learn, such as how the wind
affects the spot upon which you wish to place your

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 27

bungalow, how the sun strikes on the spot on which
you would build your store, and how both sites are
off for a constant supply of water. Springs often dry
up. And various other matters which you will learn
by experience will be useful and available before you
come to require your permanent buildings. Neither is
it economical, because the interest on the outlay on
permanent buildings before they are necessary will
exceed the cost of the temporary erections, thus :—
Supposing you estimate that the permanent build-
ing you intend to erect on the estate will involve
an expenditure of £1,200, a modest enough amount
for an estate which is to be opened up to 200 acres.
I will guarantee to put up all needful buildings, com-
fortable enough and sufficient to last for the first
four years, for £200. You will thus save interest on
£1,060 for that period, which at 10 per cent will be
£400. So that you will be a gainer of £200 after
Paying the cost of your temporary erections. Even
Supposing that the store is only built at the end of
the second year, and that it costs £500, althouch on
it you only save two years’ interest, you will still
,be a gainer of £100 by having adopted the principle
of temporary buildings at the outset. But temporary
buildings of the kind above contemplated would last
five years instead of four, so that there would still
be a profit of £200 to £300 by the transaction.
WEEDING is the planter’s bane. It is his cease-
less, watchful, constant care, his never-ending toil.
It begins immediately his clearing is burned off; and
he gets no rest from the constant weed, weed, weed,
as long as it is an estate; for weeds will grow, and
quickly too, in such a forcing climate as ours. On
a field of coffee every green thing is a weed, except
the coffee tree. All feed on the same land, are nour-
ished by the same atmosphere, and exhaust those pro-
perties of the soil which combine to produce the
coffee bean. Some weeds in fact—such as the Hu-
lantala, one of the most generative as well as de-
structive of weeds—contain all the elements required
by the coffee tree and in nearly the same proportions.
Now it is very evident that if they extract from the
soil those substances necessary for the formation of
ccftee, the coffee tree must lose what the weeds gain.
It is true all weedsare not equally exhaustive. But
all take nourishment from the soil—whether it be a
flowering weed whose seed in millions overspread the
ground, reproducing its kind till the field is covered
with a greensward like a carpet, or whether it bea
root-spreading weed, a jungle plant, or grass, all are
weeds, and ought to be eradicated. All are tict, how-
ever, equally difficult to be got rid of. If you com-

28 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

mence weeding, immediately after you have burned
off, which is the plan I would always recommend,,
there will be only a weed here and there—easily picked
up: and you will have no difficulty in getting this.
done either by contract or daily labor at a cost not
exceeding 1/6 per acre ; and if you continue this prac-
tice monthly, you will not, over the year, have to
spend more than 18s, which amount per acre per
annum will weed the estate afterwards. If however
you have been unable to put ona force to weed im-
mediately after you burn, a rush of weeds will soon
cover the ground. If there be no weedy estate ad-
joining you, and your estate has been opened out
of forest, the first cover of weeds will be chiefly
jungle stuff, which does not flower and will be easily
pulled upat acost for the first weeding of probably 5s
per acre. If you follow up this weeding quickly with
another, and another you will reduceit in two or three
weedings to the normal figure. Then continue weed-
ing monthly, even if you can only see a weed here
and there. Go over the ground regularly, and you
will prevent their spread, and do your weeding cheap.
It is a very false economy, as most old planters now
know to their cost, to leave over your weeding for
another month; because you hardly see a weed.
Doubtless there are a few, although you have not
discovered them: and one flowering weed will be a
nursery for your estate, and will soon cover the fields
with myriads of its progeny. If you have been un-
fortunate enough to get into this state, and can spare
the men and the money to make your estate again
clean, you can do so by going over it twice a month
for the first three months or so, then weeding it
once a month afterwards. It may be again rendered
clean in about two years; this will be costly, but it
will well repay itself. I have said in another place
that the cost of weeding ranges from £1 to £3 per
acre. You will see therefore what you will save if
you can do it on the £1 scale. EHven less it is some-
times done for, as I have also shewn elsewhere. If
your estate be weedy, and you, having given up all
idea of making it clean, are satisfied with six or
eight weedings a year, you may keep it clean enough
to prevent it doing much harm to the coffee. In this way
you will have perbaps one expensive weeding after crop,
whico may cost you 5s or 6s per acre: and afterwards
you may doit for 4s 6d to 4s, or even 3s 6d accord-
ing to your elevation, soil, climate, &c., while if
you can do it ten or twelve times you may doit forfrom
2s 6d to 3s 6d per aere each time, according to the same
circumstances. The tools you will use for this work
will be the mamoty or hoe, if your estate be weedy.

COFFEH PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 29

If clean or monthly weeded, you will use the scraper,
or as the coolies called it karandi (a spoon). There
are various kinds of this instrument :—1st, The piece
of hoop bent at one end like the letter 7 and at the
other pointed. Then there is the same hoop without
the point, fastened on to the end of a stick about
three feet long, which the coolies work standing.
There are also varieties of pointed diggers, and scrap-
ers of various forms, used by the laborers in a sitting
posture, suitable for taking out single weeds here
and there. Each have their recommendations, to ex-
plain which, space in this small work cannot be
afforded. The tyro will soon however learn for him-
self the tool best suited to his particular circumstances,
and will adopt it. Again there is the hand-weeding
system, whereby everything is pulled up by the band—
no pointed instrument being allowed. And where this
is practicable it is doubtless the best and most pro-
fitable system, for, as most of our plantations are
hilly, and from the nature of the ground subject to
be burned by the sun, and washed by the rain, whereby
much valuable earth is wasted, it is well to disturb
the soil as little as possible.
PRUNING is perhaps the most important operation
of the planter. It requires his careful and judicious
supervision: for, while nothing is simpler than to cut
off 2 or 3 cwt. per acre, nothing is more difficult than
sticking them on. Many planters, from a _ laudable
desire to have an ornate tree, cut, hack, strip and
lop off everything that militates against the regu-
larity of its proportions; but the prudent planter will
study to prefer crop to symmetry. Where a_ planta-
tion has been carefully tended in its earlier years;
where it has been properly, and regularly handled,
it will not, when it arrives at maturity, give much
trouble in trimming; and except the cutting oft dead
wood, or wood that has borne (for the same wood
never bears twice) removing suckers, cross branches,
and exuberant shoots from the centre and along the
primaries, in the way hereafter explained, there will
be very little to do in that line for some time. It
is after an estate has borne two or three crops—after
it has, either from over-cutting or from want of timely
handling, been allowed to get matted, umbrella-topped,
or choked up by superfluous wood, that the real
difficulty of pruning begins. It is now too that the
planter’s skill and science are called into play. Asto
the best time and mode of dealing with a field so
circumstanced, opinions differ, even among practical
men who have made the business their study. For
instance, Mr. James Taylor, a planter of considerable
experience, thinks pruning should not be commenced

30 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

till after the blossom has set; while Mr. W. Sabona-
dicre, another experienced pianter, in his work on
Coffee Planting, differs entirely from Mr. Taylor, and
thinks pruning should be completed before the blossom
comes out. In this he is borne out by many other
planters of as great or greater experience. In sup-
port of Mr. Sabonadiére’s position a great deal can.
be said:—Ist, By pruning early the tree is at once
relieved of much dead and useless wood that has served
its purpose, but is now an encumbrance. 2nd, By
relieving it of such impedimental matter now when
faint as it were from the loss of blood—weak from
the drain on its vitality by the crop it has given,
the tree looks seedy and sutfering,—you bring into
full play all its latent juices, for the support of those
boughs which are worth retaining, as well as for the
creation of new wood against next year’s crop. drdly,
The spring of the year is the spring time of all
vegetable life, and in no plant is this more marked
than in the coffee tree. 4th, It is the most conve-
nient time, as your crop force is still available, and
the most practised of them can be set to this work,
before their usual exodus to their native country.
5th (and this is a point which does not appear to
have been noticed by the several experienced plant-
ers who replied to Mr. Taylor). Although as a rule
much wood is not produced capable of bearing the
same year, ends of branches stretch out which fre-
quently give a considerable sprinkling of crop, while
not a few strong and healthy secondaries mature suffi-
cientiy to give fruit.

Mr. Taylor's theory has however this advantage,
that you see where your crop is to be before you
begin to prune, and need not deprive yourself of any
partof it by cutting off bearing branches. But this is
inconsistent with preserving the proper form of the
tree ; for when every eye has blossomed you will
often jack the courage to apply the knife to a most
irregular branch, even though next year its retention
will cause you amuch greater sacrifice. Under all the
circumstances therefore surely Mr. Sabonadiére’s plan
should carry off the palm ; seeing it is supprted by so
many coyvent reasons, besides being the system first
sketched out by that chief of the writers on Coffee
Planting, ‘‘Ladvorie,”” and pursued successfully by him,
and subsequently by many practical agriculturalists in
Ceylon as experienced as himself. On another point
in the practice of pruning does Mr. Taylor differ from
Mr. Sabonadiére, and many orther planters whose opi-
nions are entitled to great weight. It isas regards the
long hanging-down primaries, generally denominated
whips—i. e¢., branches which in the centre have few

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 31

leaves and fewer berries, but at the ends shew vitali-
ty and fruit. To those who are fond of horizontal
lateral branches and whose eyes turn away from 4
hanging-down bough, doubtless those whips are an
eyesore: and it is a common remark among such
persons, ‘‘What’s the use of all these whips, with only
a few yellow leaves at the end? Cut them off, why
cumber they the tree?” Not so fast, my friend. It
is wonderful what these ends of branches sometimes
bear. Although immediately after crop they look seedy
and withering, just watch them after the pruning has
divested the tree of its useless encumbrances, watch
them on the first shower thereafter, and you will find
that the leaves get gradually green,—then more nu-
merous,—then blossom shews,—and by crop-time you
see dangling towards the ground a series of fine healthy
bearing boughs, loaded with considerable clusters of
ripening cherry. Just the other day i walked over
an estate of this sort at an altitude of from three
to four thousand feet above the sea level ; and a prettier
show I have seldom seen. Out of a crop ranging from
8 to 12 cwts. an acreon the parts in bearing, I should
think quite half was produced by those whip ends.
And would any proprietor, who sees what these can
do, be insane enough to cut them off? On this point
therefore I agree with Mr. Taylor. Another dogma
that obtains favor among many planters requires to
be received cum grano. It is, ‘‘Never cut a primary” —
on this head I would add with ‘‘W.”’, ‘‘till 1¢ requires
it.” A primary may be dead at the end, or it may
be broken. In either case it will never rally, then
why retain a useless encumbrance? Relieve the tree
at once by cutting off such. In the same way should
be served any other part of the tree that has been
injured, wounded, or has died from disease, attacks
of insects, or exhaustion: with ‘‘ Laborie,” I would
say:—‘‘If a head be spoiled it must be sawed, If
“‘any of the superabundant branches have been left
“through neglect, these must be cut off. Ifa bough
“‘has been broken by accident, and if any branches
“‘have become spent and withered from too great a load
“‘of fruit, these must be pruned. In short everything
“‘that is defective must be completely taken away,
“but without retrenching anything else.” Thus much
as regards the general outline of pruning. But the
learner will want something more. He will want me
to come to particulars. This I shall presently do.
But I must premise my remarks by saying that where
such a wide field is open for discussion, and where
varying systems differ as do men’s minds, it would
never do to occupy space in a small handbook like
this, discussing the conflicting theories that prevail

32 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

among planters on the several branches of this import-
ant operation. I shall content myself therefore with
describing how I would prune a coffee tree. For this
purpose I shall assume a tree as a type of a field that
has had moderately fair and not very bad treatment,
and shall suppose the season to be after crop. I would
commence by cutting off the dead wood, as far back
as the first living eye: Then I would pluck off the
suckers ; then thin out the centre by divesting it of
every shoot a span back from the stem. This is
necessary to give the tree ventilation, and to let the
sun penetrate through it to the earth, thus warming
into activity its dormant elements: preventing the
accumulation of moss, and rendering the tree manageable
to both searchers and pickers. I further believe that,
by well opening out the centre, the tree is- much
less liable to be attacked by bug than when close and
impenetrable. I would then take off all cross branches,
7. €., those which either from accident, injury, wind
or any other cause take a different course from that
which nature intended them to have. If left to grow
in the course they have chosen, they either cover up
other branches and prevent them from bearing, or
grow into the centre, choking it up, and retarding
free circulation. Be bold therefore, and though it be
a good branch pluck it off. If you find more than
one shoot at each eye on the lateral boughs, pluck
it or them off, leaving only on the quantity nature
intended the tree to have. I now come to what I
consider the most important step in the pruning of
the tree—the secondaries—because you are to deal with
what is to givea great part of your next year’s crop.
A writer whom I have already quoted, ‘‘W.”, a well-
known planter of great experience (but, having written
under cypher, I have noright to unveil his incognito), in
an able paper on pruning which he addressed some
year’s ago to the Planters’ Association, describes this
operation and that of handling generally, so well, that
I take the liberty of giving his directions in his own
words:—‘‘To ensure a regular and strong tree then,
‘‘handling must be resorted to early. In doing so take
‘Soff all the branches that are within 6 inches of the
‘““stem, and make an opening of one foot in circum-
‘‘ference in the centre of the tree. This, besides
‘strengthening the primaries, will admit the sun and
“air to penetrate, both of which are beneficial to the
““srowth of the tree, as wellas the ripening of crop.
““ Next run along the primaries and single out the
“‘secondaries, leaving no pairs, but one secondary only
“fat each joint, on either side of the primary alternately.
“‘This I know is thought very unnecessary by a large
‘‘class of planters, but if they will only study the tree

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 33

‘itself, they will find that although nature throws
*‘out the secondaries in pairs, almost invariably one is
** stronger than the other; and by a little care the strong
**ones can be left and the weak ones taken off. It is
‘better to look to the strength of the wood than the
“quantity of it. As secondaries lefton too near the stem
“tend to weaken the primaries, so do they when left in
‘*pairs, cramping as it were that expansion, which takes
**place under the treatment I advise. ‘lo those who
“wish to leave everything on for the virgin-crop, 1
““would say that I have known coffee trained under
“the above system give a virgin crop of seven cwts.
‘per acre.” This is a very good description of the
whole process of handling out the tree: but the por-
tion for which I mainly quoted it, and which fits in
to my previous directions, is that which I have ital-
icized. On this point, the late Mr. R. D. Gerard,
who was a leading planter in his day, used to direct
his superintendents ‘‘to leave not more than five se-
condaries on cach primary.” That number he consi-
dered as many as the tree could safely carry, and
sufficient to produce all the crop the shrub was thought
capable of yielding. This too, in experienced hands,
I think was valuable advice. But inasmuch as a super-
intendent who may have fifty or hundred men engaged.
at one time in pruning a field cannot possibly at the
same time have his eye on every one of them, watch-
ing each cut of every knife, I am inclined to prefer
the system of ‘‘W.” as being the one most easily taught
to the coolies,—therefore most likely to be correctly
carried out. Thus then we have pruned an estate
which wasfound in tolerable order. Let us suppose the
case of one found in very bad order as regards prun-
ing: with trees growing as they liked, matted in the
centre, umbrella-topped, exuberant in suckers, abound-
ing in dead wood, and that have not been pruned
for years. Trees in such condition [ would not attempt
to reform all at once: because if I did I would have
to cut off the most of the bearing wood, in divesting the
trees of all that was unshapely, irregular, or not in
accord with the natural expansion of the tree. And_
that would not pay—for by so doing I would get
very little crop for two years. In such case I would
begin with suckers, tearing out every one, so as to
let me see the tree, and let the sun and air penetrate
it. Then I would cut off all dead branches back to
where there was life, then I would clear everything
within a span of the centre. Then, how then ?—aye
that is the difficulty, for where there is much vitali-
ty, almost all wrongly-directed, it puzzles one to
know what to cut and what to avoid. I would begin
by training into shape the primaries. Supposing they

34 COFFHE PLANTERS’ MANDAL, |

have been cut back to parrot sticks, or broken, or
deformed, I would cut back to the first eye that is
sound and healthy, at the point where a secondary
has shot out. By making a slanting cut on the lower
side of the primary, but without touching the second-
ary, the latter will soon accommodate itself to the posi-
tion and take the place of the destroyed primary, or.
if a secondary has sprung from the side of the primary
at right angles, and if a strong tertiary has sprung
out from it, I would cut the secondary at the point
of junction with the tertiary, leaving this latter to
take the place of the primary. This, however, I
would only do if the secondary has so grown, that it
cannot be trained to follow the lead of the primary.
I would then apply myself to secondaries and tertiaries,
taking off such as could best be spared and training
those left as far as practicable into their original shape :
for it is by a careful selection now of the old wood
you have, that the future tree is formed. Thus I
would go on systematically reforming the tree: but
instead of doing it at once, I would do it gradually
over two or three years: even at the risk of offending
the good taste of some sprightly young friend, who is
an admirer of symmetry. By these means I would
retain for the time a good deal of wood of irregular
growth, which many planters would be disposed to
eall horrid pruning: but the wood so left would re-
pay me for pocketing my pride, and preserving my
sticks: while 1 would repeat to my fastidious friends
that it is my practice to prefer crop to symmetry. 'The
tree would thus be trained into shape in course of
time without involving too great an immediate
sacrifice.

HANDLING aftcr PRUNING is equally important with
pruning itself, and cannot be dispensed with. The
process is already described, but the time of perform-
ing this operation demands a passing notice. Within
from one to two months after you have pruned, will
spring out a rush of young wood especially from the
eyes nearest to the parts to which the knive has
been applied. These you must take off, going regularly
round the tree, like a cooper round his cask, lifting
every branch and divesting it of whatever is superfluous.
This is your first handling. But you will require
another before crop, say about May or June, and
this time you ought to be doubly careful, for it is
now that you select your wood for next crop. Re-
member it is not the present crop alone that you
have to consider. It has now set and you see it.
But most of the branches now bearing it will have
to come off next year. ‘Then where will you be for
its crop, if you do not leave the wood now? Be care-

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 30

ful therefore that you do not strip off anything that
will be necessary to yield another crop. You must
always have wood for two crops on your trees, that
now bearing and that reserved to mature against next
year, as wood hardly ever bears till the second year.
In very fine soil, or with a very forcing climate, you
may require a third handling before crop. And so
important is this operation, that if you are not disposed
to handle when necessary, you may as_ well not
prune; for the pruning forces ont the life of the
tree, which left neglected grow to wood instead of
fruit. ’

MANURING is as necessary in a coffee plantation
as in any other culture. From the inaccessible posi-
tion of some estates however, it is not always prac-
ticable at a cost which would be warranted. But
where it is so, it will always pay. A great impetus
has been given to this branch by the opening of the
Colombo and Kandy Railway. Previously transport
from the sea-coast to the interior was so expensive as
to be almost prohibitory to the use of imported man-
ures, while those that can ke made on estates are
in general far from sufficient to meet the planters’
requirements. Cart roads too—which under the wise
and liberal administration of some of our Governors,
and markedly of the late Sir Henry Ward and the
present Sir Hercules Robinson, have been carried out
during the last few years, into every producing dis-
trict,—have most materially aided the planters’ efforts
in this direction. So much is this benefit apparent
that manure, which could not formerly have been
transported from Colombo to Kandy under £3 to £4 per
ton is now carried up by railway for 12s 6d. As
a consequence many new manures are finding their
way to the interior, and it seems if a new era in
coffee culture had been commenced since the intro-
duction of the railway. The Mode of Application de-
pends much upon the nature of the article to be applied.
if it be cattle dung—and I know not of any manure
yet manufactured or introduced more generally effect-
ive than this good old staple—you will require large
holes. A basket containing about half-a-bushel is
gencrally considered enough for one tree; although
some planters appiy two, and I have been told with
adequate results. This way takes so much longer
time however to go over a field than by the single
basket process, and is so much the more costly, that
most planters are satisfied with a dose of one basket
and going over the field the oftener. Once in three
years is generally thought sufficient. But in hungry
soil I should like to have half of my estate manured
every year. To contain a basket of either cow-dung

36 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

or estate-made compost, or any other bulky substance,

a hole should be dug about 18 inches long and 9 to

10 deep and broad: made in a semi-circular form,

round and above the tree. It may be placed at

either side or below the tree; but above is generally
more convenient, and less liable to suffer from wash.

Fill this hole and cover it up. Another mode which

many planters prefer, and which where the soil is -

rich and free, is doubtless also a good plan, is to

make a square hole between every 4 trees, of say 20

inches by 15, or 18, at the discretion of the manager.

By this process you are less liable to cut the feed-

ing roots than by cutting near the stem—while on

the other hand if the tree be seedy and poor, it
may not extend its roots so far as to reach the hole
in the centre. In that case to deposit the manure
within 9 to 12 inches of the stem will be found the
most beneficial process. If it be artificial manure
such as Bones, Poonac, Superphosphates, Gaano, Som-
breorum, or any other concentrated manure, a much
smaller hole will do. If the land be flat and there
be no wash, 3 inches in depth will suffice. In this
way you will disturb very few of the feeders, but
will just deposit the manure above them and cover
it up. The hole for this kind of manure will be
made round the stem and close to it. Should the
land be steep, you had better make the hole 6 inches
deep and press the earth down on the top of the
manure; or the wash may undo the beneficial effects
of the dose, by carrying away the manure entirely.
To discuss the various Kinds of Manure now in vogue
would require a treatise for itself, and I cannot there-
fore enter upon it here. But those I have named
are a very fair selection of the kinds in most com-
mon use, each of which has its advocates, and there
are many more, of which experience will teach the
young planter the kind most suitable to his soil and
circumstances. For further information on the differ-
ent kinds of manure in use among planters, and the

modes of application, I quote the first Report of a

Sub-Committee of the Planters’ Association appointed

by that body to consider the manuring question, and

which Committee is still sitting :—

Proceedings of a Meeting of the Sub-Committee, appointed
tr October 1868, to consider the Manuring Question
held in Kandy, on Wednesday, 1st September 1869, at
12 noon.

Present—Messrs. A. BRown, W. Bowpzrn Smiru, W.

D. Grppon and the SECRETARY.
1. Mr. W. Bowden Smith was requested to take the chair.
2. The Secretary then proceeded to read draft of the
proposed report. The draft having been carefully consi-

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 34

-dered, and such alterations made as were considered ne-
-cessary, the following form was finally adopted :—

“The Sub-Committee, appointed in October 1868, to
consider ‘The Manuring Question,’ beg now to come
forward with an account of their labors; and though the
result of their enquiries may not be so satisfactory as might
have been expected, yet they trust that their efforts bave
not been in vain, and that these preliminary enquiries
will be the means of drawing attention to so important
@ subject, and induce those engaged in manuring opera-
tions, to keep more careful records of their work than
seems to have been the case hitherto. .

“Your Sub-Committee issued in October 1868 to the
-members of Committee, for circulation in their respective
‘alistricts, a series of Questions bearing on the different
points on which information was sought. Of these lists
of questions 152 were circulated, but it is a matter of
regret that the Sub-Committee have only been favoured
with 25 answers from the following districts :— ~~

« Ambagamuwa 3; Badullal; Dumbara 3; Hantane 4;
Hewaheta 1; Kadugannawa 1; Kotmale2; Kurunegala 2;
renee 2; Pussellawa 4; Sabaragamuwa 1; Udapussel-
awa 1, .

“The reason for this, your Sul-Committee are led to
Delieve, arises, not so much from an unwillingness to give
information, though it is the case in some instances, as
from inability to give accurate information for want of
proper records. ay ke

“That. Manuring operations have been carried:on_ ex-
tensively for a number of years there is no possible doubt,
but, from various causes, till very recently no authentic
xzecords seem to have been kept of the nature of manures
applied, the cost of same, and relative effects, and the
Committee are therefore met with difficulties at the outset’
in arriving at conclusions for want of sufficient data.
~The manures generally applied, as collected from thé
‘veports sent in, seem to be the following :— ; eer

“ 1, Cattle manure; 2, Pig manure; 3, Poonac and Bones
(in proportion of 2 to 1 in weight); 4, Bones and Guano :
5, Pulp; 6, Pulp and Lime ; 7, Cattle manure and. Pulp;
8, Bones and Pulp; 9, Bones, Pulp and Guano; 10,~Enu-
reka; 11, Guano, Peruvian, Bolivian, Bird Island. and
Phospho; 12, Sombreorum; 13, Fish; 14, Ashes; 15; Ani-
mal Charcoal; 16, Phosphoric Potash; 17, Sal-amimoniac
and Poonac; 18, Sulphate of Ammonia ; 19, Dissolved Bones
and Swamp Soil; 20, Cuera; 21, Compost, Leechmdn’s; 22,
Compcst, Cattle Manure, Bones, Pulp, Coffee Husk and
Mana Grass; 23, Compost Vegetable matter saturated
with diluted Sulphate of Ammonia; 24, Compost Poonac
(1 ewt.), Bone Dust (4 cwt.), Bolivian Guano (4 ewt.);
25, Compost Cattle manure, Pulp, Mana Grass, and rub-
bish ; 26, Compost Pulp, Line manure and mud from drains;
27, Compost Poonac (5-8ths), Bones (2-8ths), Guano (1-8th).

“The mode of application seems to be to place the
‘bulky mauures in holes varying from 1} ft.414 ft. in the
square, and in depth from 6 inches to 18 inches, and about
to 18 inches trom the stem of the tree. paler

D

33 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

7 the artificial manures being placed in smaller holes
of Jess depth. On one estate the plan seems to have suc-
ceedel of placing a large quantity of pulp (5 baskets) in
holes cut in a space between every four trees, at a cost
of £9 per acre and a yield of 18 ewts.

“The qva titics of the several manures seen to be as
follows :

* Phosphoric Potash § lb. to tree. Bonedust and Poonac
8lb. to 13 lb. per tree. Leechman’s # lb. to 1 lb. per tree.
Cattle Dung 1 ba-ket full to 3 baskets (30 lb.).

Sombreorum: 4 to 7 oz.

Bones: ? lb. to 1 lb.

Cuera : # lb. to tree.

Composts: Pulp, Lime and Ravine Soil 1. 3b. Lime,

1 bushel Pulp.

Do. 1 bushel Ravine Soil.

Do. Dissolved Bones (11b.), and Swamp Soil (1
basket).

Do. Bolivian Guano (3 lb.), Peruvian (3 Ib.), and
Bones (4 lb.)

Do Cattle manure (1 basket), Guano (3 oz.)

“Tt seems from the reports that the cost of cattle manure,
including application, varies from £4 Is. 6d. to £10 10s.
per acre, according to the facilities fur grazing of cattle,
transport of bedding and manure, and other circumstances.
Of other manures the cost, as can be gathered from the
reports is as foll ws:—

*¢ Artificial manures £6 2s per acre; Bones and Poonac
£5 10s. to £8 per acre; Leechman’s £7 10s. per acre;
Sombreorum £3 to £6 10s. per acre; Bonedust and Ashes
£10 to £12 per acre; Poonac, Bonedust, and Bolivian
Guano £7 2s. per acre; Poonac, Bonedust, and Guano (No.
27) £6 15s. 3d per acre; Pulp £1 lé6s. 6d. to £2 10s. per
acre.

‘““Of the relative effects of the manures, the following
seems to be the result deducible trom the majority of these
reports :—

“1, That Cattle manure is par excellence the best
and most lasting. The effects remaining over two to
three years.

«9. Next in order come Bones and Poonac, which are
said to be good from one to two years.

** 3. Guano alone is considered too stimulating and not
lasting; but in mixtures (in small quantities) with Bones
and Poonac seems to have a very beneficial effect.

“4, Several of the writers speak very favorably of the
application of Pulp; and one indeed goes so far as to put
it on a par with Cattle manure.

©The Sub-Committee would beg now to make the fol-
lowing suggestions with regard to mode and time of ap-
plication of manures. First, that all lands except such
as have little or no slope should, in the first instance,
be carefully drained, that bulky manures should be placed
in holes of not less size than 2 ft. 1 ft., and not exceed-
ing one foot in depth, and at a distance of from 9 to
18 inches from the stem of the tree. That artificial
manures should be in semicircular holes above the tree,

*

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 39

and not exceeding six inches in depth, and the manure
should be well mixed with the soil previous to being co-
vered, Thatthe best time of application of cattle manure
and pulp, which are longer in taking effect than some of
the artifici:l manures, should be as soon after crop as
possible, whereas artificial manures can be kept for a later
period of the year, till the rainy season commences. To
those gentlemen who have taken the trouble to furnish
detailed statements of the cost «f the different kinds of
manure and their application, the Sub-Committee have
to return thanks, and espec'ally to Mr. Corbet for a
valuable set of tables shewing the cost of mannres. Yet,
with a great deal of valuable in’ormation b fore them, it
seems to the Sub-Committee very clear, that the Reports
sent in for the most part shew a great paucity of results.
Very few planters appear ever to have accurately tested
these. ‘This could only be done by setting aside certain
rows of coffee of an average field for each kind of man-
ure-—if running up from the bottom to top of a hill so
much the better, as the effects would be the mor. obsery-
able. On either side of these manured rows should be
left as many unmanured, so that the contrast would be
visible. J'hese manured rows ought to be picked separ-
ately from the rest of the estate. A distinct account:
should be kept of the produce of each set, and samples
of the coffee put aside, so as to enable the manager to
judge as well of the quality as of the quantity.

“Tn order to carry out the above suggestions, and to
turn them to practical account, your Sub-Commi‘tee are
of opinion that planters should be invi ed to co operate
with the Committee, and that one or two gentlemen im
each district should be appointed to collect reliable in-
formation, based on fature experiments, and submit the
results quarterly to the General Committee till the full
effects of manures are fully tested.”

In this connection I shall mention Jiater Ho’es.
These were first introduced as holes int-nded to }e
filled with manure. The article however runnin
short the holes remained open, and it was fount
after some time that the tree took a fresh start of
growth, partly perhaps caused by the temporary
exposure of the roots to the sun and air, «nd partly
by the loose earth that gradually dribbled into the
hole again, together with whatever accumulations of
leaves, timber and other decayed vegetable matter
lay about on the surface of the ground ne:r. Jihs
since become a system to make water holes between
every four trees, or between every 8 or 12 trees.
These are generaily made about 2 feet squire by j
foot deep. or 20 inches square, or 18, according to
taste and space. If the object be to collect wat r
and save wash, the more holes the better, while if
it be in a dry district, and intended to cateh the
accumulated surface débris, by slipping four trees on
each side, or say by opening a hole between four

40) COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

trees, then passing over four to the next four, both,
up, the line and across the field, you will admit suffi-
ciently of every tree getting a taste of the fresh
earth as roots from every tree may thus reach a hole
and draw sustenance from its contents. The first.
described process will be thus :—

9) ce) (a) oO Oo O
(] U [] RL eS mee AL

oO ro) (0) O- (0) 0)
] U] [J ] [I

(0) ce) oO Oo re) ©.
[] | [] U a

co) oO oO (6) (0) (;
oi [] ] U []

6) oO re) (¢) O @)
(] 8) Ll ( [

(0) (a) (0) oO (0) ©

The second thus :—

(0) 18) ©) O oO Qs.
= =
O oO (¢) oO ie) ®
6) 6) O O O C0)
[3] [eae | [or
— — \aoomel
© oO O oO oO co)
O O ©) O 6) C9)
—) a 1
ed a} —
(9) O O oO (a) 0)

By the former process we find 25 holes in 6 rows:
of 6 trees each. In the same number of rows and
trees of the second style we find only 9 holes. By
the first process every four trees draw nourishment
from five holes. By the second, every four trees
have a hole to themselves. The latter is of course
the more economical plan, while the former opens
up the land the better, and provides space for col-
lecting more of the surface wealth of the soil which
otherwise too often finds its way to the sea. Jf,

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. “41

‘your trees be old and their roots exposed, you will
“do well to throw what you take out of the holes over
the exposed roots. The loose earth about them and
“the cover from the blazing sun will serve as well as
a manuring to the fields so treated: and when in
2egourse of time it washes back, the hole is there to
‘catch it up.

~ Tur Brartne in full of the coffee tree begins in
‘the third year from its being planted out. Then the
‘tree generally yields its first full crop. It gives what
‘is called a maiden crop in the second year. This
sometimes amounts to a considerable quantity. I have
‘known estates yield from 7 to 9 cwts. per acre in the
‘second year. This is unusual however, and is gener-
ally the result of particularly good soil and a par-
ticularly favorable season. low estates with’ good
soil yield as a rule a much larger first crop than do
the higher altitudes. Yet from a field on a planta-
tion at an elevation of 4,000 feet above the level of
+he sea, I once had 9 cwts. per acre at 2 years and
2 months old. It was good soil and in a dry climate.
A high elevation combined with a dry climate gener-
ally bears well. A high and wet climate on the
other hand sends a great deal of its growth to wood.
The sap that would otherwise nourish the berry goes
to a considerable extent to feed the branch. This
tendency to excessive production of wood requires to
be kept in check by judicious handling.
' THE BLossoMING is the most beautiful sight that
can greet the planter’s gaze. For weeks before it
opens, he has seen the buds peering out irom every
‘branch, studding the tree all over lke jevels in’ a
casket. He has watched their spear-like form push-
ing out into longer spikes until ready to burst: and
then he rises’: some fine morning to find they have
~opene? during the night, and his fields are covered
with full-blown flowers, waite as flakes of driven snow,
toading the air with the most fragrant perfume.
This is also an anxious period, and he watches his
trees with care till these blossoms set. No work is
allowed which may shake the tree or rub off the
flower. Pruning is stopped, and weeding and all works
which would bring the laborers in contact with the
blossomed fields, This is a precaution within the
planter’s power. But he has no control over the ele-
ments, and must be watchful still, for too much rain
‘at this period may wash off a blossom, while too
much sun may burn it off. The same great Being,
however, who ‘‘tempers the wind to the shorn lamb,”
moderates the elements to suit the blossoming season.
‘And we generally find, for a few days about this
‘time, close, cloudy, and hazy weather, dense fogs fre-

42 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

quently obscuring the sun, and _ keeping his fiercest
- Pays in check. The blossom once fairly set, the planter
May form an approximate estimate of what his crop
will amount to. From blossom till crop there is 2
Japse of about seven months.

Crop-TIME is to the planter the most interesting
period of the year. For it he has worked, and waited, —
and hoped, during the three preceding years, if anew
estate; and if an cld one, his reward or the labors
of the year igs n w in view. For it he must be pre-
pared with a force of laborers twice as large as dur-
ing the rest of the y ar, if his estate have been
weedy, and four times as large if it be clean. The
laborers are chiefly Tamils from the Indian Continent
who immigrate to this island in search of employ-
ment. Many of them come and go for crop gather- |
ing, as tlie Irish laborers come over to England for
the harvest, returning to their country after it is over.
Sinhalese also are frequently available for this work :
but they are not such good pickers as the Tamils,
while they expect more pay. When the coffee is ripe
on the trees it is called cherry: the outer covering
called the pulp resembling in size and color that of
a ripe English cherry. Inside this are two beans, en-
veloped in covers or cases like parchment, and called
by that name. Again, the silver skin, inside the
parchment, is a thin coating which adheres to the
bean, and of which it is only divested by drying in
the sun during the preparation for shipment at Co-
lombo.

CHERRY Ripe is a pretty sight. None more lovely,
animating or interesting can present itself to the ardent
plant-r than his fields of coffee trees laden and borne
down at ev'ry bough with rich clusters of blood-red
fruit. One such tree in heavy bearing would be a
mect sign for a fruiterer’s shop. And glad would an
Fnglish fruiterer be to have such a sign-post. With
fai. soil, climate, and season, the tendency of the
coffee bush is to bear heavily. Sometimes os much as
2 an: even 3 lb. may be gathered off one tree. Yet
1 lb. per tree over a field or over an estate is a high
average. This is of course | lb. of clean coffee—of
tue bean itself after bein» divested of the pulp, parch-
ment and silver skin, It is plucked from the tree by
the hand—the coolies picking regularly in rows. Each
man takes a row or two rows if crop be not heavy—
and proceeds up it regularly, dropping his pickings
int) wua’t is call-d a cooty sack, or small bag slung
round his waist with a string, cipable of bolding from
4 to 4 of a bushel. When full, he empties it into
a large two-bushel bag, which he has left on the nearest
road at a convenient distance from where he is pick-

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 43

ing—and so he goes on filling his cooty-sack and
~emptying it into the large bag till he has got his two
-bushels—the day’s task when an estate is in full pick-
ing. But 14 bushel, 1 bushel, #? and even 4 have
sometimes to be put up with, when crop is either
not fully ripe, or when it is very light on the trees.
The superintendent must judge of the quantity to
be fixed as the day’s task by the state of his crop.
He will soon know what the laborers can gather and
~will fix the task accordingly. It is well always to
-do this work by task rather than for day’s pay. It
-stimulates good pickers to extra exertions, by which
they gain extra pay, and it coerces the sluggish into
full work: for there are great opportunities at this
work to loiter between the rows or around a large
iree. When in full picking, a good hand will some-
times bring in an extra bushel, or even two: and,
when he does this, his pay rises in proportion. So,
cas it is an interesting time to the master, it is also
a profitable time for the active laborer on an estate.
A common plan is to’ give ready money for the extra
-bushel, This, which the coolies call kai kasi, greatly
stimulates exertion, and is much liked by them.
‘There is, however, the danger, that by placing too
“much money in the cooly’s hands he will become
idle while it lasts and shirk work: for, although
-coolies are expected to turn out to work every work-
ing day and are paid accordingly at the month’s end
for every day they have worked, there is no slavery
here, laborers being treated like free laborers at home
-or elsewhere, and they have many opportunities of

leading illness or absenting themselves from work
~beyond the master’s utmost vigilance to prevent. It
is better ther fore to give them tickets for these extra
‘bushels, retiring them eon pay-day or at the end of
-erop. This precaution is necessary, for the double
reason that seldom has an estate when in bearing
‘more coolies than it requires during crop-time, and
therefore it cannot afford to have any off-work where
avoidable ; and 2ndly, because Ramaswami with money
in hand is prone to be off to the villages or nearest
“town to spend it, never allowing master’s necessity to
interfere with his pleasure or convenience; or in fact
taking the trouble to think that bis acting thus
-causes his employer frequently heavy loss; for labor
-at that critical time is generally in such demand that
it can neither be hired nor borrowed. There is less
danger in the practice now very common of paying
ready cash at the rate of a penny when the second
heaped bushel is brought in, as this requires time to
-accumulate to a sufficient extent to draw the cooly
-off the estate, while it gives him a little ready

44 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

ep aiey in hand for procuring necessaries or comforte
there.

THE Cuerry Lorr or upper floor of the pulping-
house is the place where the cherry coffee is measured,
as it comes in from the field, each picker receiving a
ticket to denote the quantity he has brought in.
These tickets are retired at the end of the day, week, -
or month by placing the laborer’s name in the check-
roll for the quantity he has brought in. In the cherry
loft is a hole about 6 inches square, right over the
pulper through which on withdrawing a trap door it
is allowed to fall into the pulper where it is divested
of the pulp.

THE PULPER is just a nutmeg-grater on a large
scale, standing on a frame of about 4 feet high, con-
sisting of a cylinder set horizontally, covered with
copper punched on wood, about 2 feet long by 1 foot
diameter, which, on being turned, presses against two
bars or chops, one set close enough to crush off the
skin or pulp, which is dragged backward by the cy-
lider, goes out behind and is carried away by a
spout to the pit in which it accumulates for manure,
while the seed or bean drops down into a sieve
below attached to the machine. The other or lower
chop is set so close to the cylinder, that the beans
cannot pass through. They therefore pass out in front,
and falling on the beforenamed sieve are thrown for-
ward by an oscillating motion, till after a few tossings
they fall through into a spout below which carries
tkem into a trough or cistern in front—and any pulp
that may have found its way forward with the beans
is again gathered up and thrown into the hopper or
box on top of the pulper which receives the fresh
cherry from the cherry-loft. With it this pulp, which
is called tails, is made to perform another revolution ;
during which process most of the beans are squeezed
out and mix with the rest of the parchment coffee in
the cistern. Any that escapes a second time with the
pulp on it is afterwards either trampled out, and
washed as second quality when time permits, or is
dried and the husk separated from it afterwards.
This description of a pulper refers to what in planter
parlance is called the old ‘‘ Rattletrap,’—the same
machine described by ‘‘Laborie.” But there are many
new inventions since, which space will not permit of
being particularized here. Suffice it to say that, after
all the modern improvements, a well-set rattletrap
will generally be found to do its work as clean and
well as any one of them.

THE CISTERNS are sunk into the ground in front
‘of and below the pulper floor, and consist of Receiv-
ing Cistern or Cisterns, Washing Cistern, and Tail

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL, 45.

Cistern. 1 shall describe one of each.

Tue RECEIVING CISTERN may be 10 or 12 feet square
or larger or sinaller according to the requirements of
crop. But say 10 feet square by 24 fect high as a
medium size. Into it goes the coffee fresh from the
pulper. Divested of the skin a gummy substance
adheres to the parchment, rendering it difficult to
wash till fermentation has set in, liberating this gum
from the bean. It is left therefore in the heap in the
receiving cistern for a night on a low estate, while
it takes two nights on a high one to fit it for wash-
ing clean. The washing process therefore begins on
the first or second day after being pulped. But for
this purpose the then fermented coffee is drawn into
the washing cistern through a door which communi-
cates between the two.

THE WASHING CISTERN may be assumed as of the
same size as the receiving one. There the coffee is
first trampled for a while by men’s feet to loosen the
gum, then drawn up in a heap at one end, cleaw
water is run in from above by a spout, the coffee is
dragged about by a sort of blind-rake called a mata-
palaka, and is made to undergo two or three waters
till quite clean, all the gummy water having been
allowed to run off. This, when utilized, makes a very
good addition to a dung-pit; but very few’planters
take the trouble of turning it thus to account. I
have seen it added to a pit filled with mana grass
compost with great effect.

THE Tait CISTERN is a small cistern, of say the
same length and half the breadth as the others, into
which the light coffee which floats on the surface at.
the time of washing is drawn. ‘There it is washed
and kept separate from the heavy coffee. When pro-
perly washed, the coffee is spread out on a barbacue
or levelled space, adjoining the store and pulping-
house, which buildings if not contiguous should always
be near each other, so as to diminish the labor of
carrying the wet coffee from the pulping-house, and:
the dry coffee into the store.

THE BaRBACUE is a levelled piece of ground adjoin-
ing the store. When properly made, it is covered
with from six inches to a foot of broken metal, well
pounded down, covered again with sand to fill the
interstices, then coated over with chunam or lime,
and polished on the surface, or it may be tarred on
the surface, or it may be laid with brick and tarred ;
or with large flat stones, or chunamed or tarred.
Many planters are satisfied however with just a ley-
elled space of ground pounded down to make an even
surface. In this case mats must be spread out to.
keep the coffee clean and free from contact with the

46 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

earth. Again some planters prefer trays or platfo ms
upon which to dry the coffee. Thee consist of tables:
set on posts, the tables being 4 or 5 feet wide and
as long as the space admits. They are covered w.th:
waratchies, or reepers, and a mat spread over them; —
to keep the coffee from falling through. Two or three
days will generally suffice for drying the coffee fit.
for transporting; or for retaining in store if the wea~
ther be too wet for despatching. It is then sent. off
to Colombo, the port of shipment, where it under-
goes the processes of peeling, sizing, packing, and’
shipping. These I need only briefly describe; as:
they form no part of the planter’s work on the es-
tate, but may be convenient for him to know.

On this point, however, I may be asked why send
the coffee to Colombo for preparation. Why not do
this on tke estate and save the carriage of the parch-
ment? Because there is seldom sufficient drying wea-
ther on estates in the interior at the time when the:
crop comes in, and because labor is more plentiful im
Colombo for such work; also because it would greatly
interfere with the labor of the estate which is usually.
all required immediately after crop to put the estate
in order by weeding, pruning, &c., while in Colombo.
at that season there is abundance of labor and always:
bright sun. Arrived at Colombo then, the coffee. is:.
first spread out on barbacues, where it gets one, two,.
or three days’ drying as it may require to fit it for-
peeling. It is then put into the peeler. This is a
large circular trough in which a wheel about 6 feet
in diameter and about 1 foot in breadth, like »
gigantic grindstone suspended, is made to run round
upon the coffee, bruising the parchment into chaff,.
and leaving the beans unhurt. They are afterwards:
passed through a winnower to take off the silver skin:
Then through a sizer, which divides the sizes into
No. 1, 2, 3, and peaberry. Thereafter itis packed
in casks or bags and shipped.

Having thus cursorily described all the necessary
operations of the planter, from the felling of the first
tree to the gathering in and despatching of his crop,
I shall take my leave of the reader, hoping that this:
humble effort to inform the tyro in Coffee Culture
will be received in the spirit in which it is meant,
not as a full and complete Treatise on Coffee Culti-.
vation, but merely as a Handbook for Beginners,
placing before them, simply and concisely, the routine
of duty that will devolve on them in this pursuit.
The want of such a portable little work which any
man could carry in his pocket to the field or else-.
where has long been felt: and in my early planting.

COFFEE PLANTER’ MANUAL. 47

days no man would have more highy appreciated its
possession than myself That it may be found useful
to the class for which it was intended is my earnest
wish and hope. Let no one however suppose that I
recommend the embryo planter to proceed, even if he
‘have the means, with this little book in his pocket,
to make an estate for himself. He will drop plenty
-of money if he tries it. There is much to learn in
Coffee Planting, that he will not find written in these
pages, much that experience alone can teach him, and
much that he can only learn in time and by practice.
He will act wisely therefore, be he ever so smart,
-or well supplied with the necessary finances, to place
himself for a time under the instruction of some senior
in the art, from whom he will gradually acquire a
practical acquaintance with this very interesting branch
-of agriculture.
ALEX. Brown,
April 1871. Kandy, Ceylon.

APPENDIX :

EsTIMATE FOR OPENING A “OFFEE ESTATE.

This treatise would not be complete if it did not
furnish a table to shew at what rate a Coffee Estate
~ean be opened and brought into bearing. So much of
the cost, however, depends on the mode in which the
work is done, the nature of the ground, the abund-
ance or searcity of labor, and though last, not least,
the habits, expensive or economical, of the manager,
that the sketch I am now to give will doubtless be
found to differ materially fromthe experience of many
of my fellow planters. With careful management, how-
ever, I consider the scale is liberal, and 1 have known
the work done for a lower figure—£15 per acre is I
am satisfied a fair allowance to bring an estate into
bearing: and it will be seen that in detail it works
-out at this. Yet I have known a new clearing opened
and brought into bearing for £10. And I have even
heard of its having been done under peculiarly favorable
circumstances for £8. In this table I assume that
the planter starts with a block of land of 200 acres
—that he opens only half of it—keeping the balance
as a reserve to be opened at his convenience. And
that he works with his own money. Such a clearing
will generally be managed by a neighbour—which is
the most economical way till it arrives at the 2nd
_year. Hence, till then 1 fix the salary at only £100
per annum. After that, with buildings to put up
and crop to gather; as well as new land to open,
the item of superintendence will increase,

45 COFEEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

EsTIMATE FOR BRINGING A CoFFEE ESTATE INTO

BEARING IN CEYLON,
lst Year.

200 acres land at average value say £3 per acre £600
Felling and leaning 100 acres @ £2 5s, = £225
Pegs.. 15
Lining sik aes ~ ; i 10
Tools sek “ge set av oe 30
Holing tive me uk aide eg teed
Planting... se se “3 bi 50
Lines for laborers.. she _ 30
Superintendent's bungalow at sn 50
Plants a be od 75
Weeding, Ist. six months... en esl!
Ditto, 2nd six months.. ory (eee
— 135
Superintendence Ist year wh .. 100
—- £920
2nd Year.
Weeding... ie ae oe Seco hOg
Supplying ... hos bic ¥ ce 50
Roads — ae ree Sue TRAE BBS 50
oppime -o.. ee e eh ste 10
Suckering ... A at. set “35 10
Superintendence ... ge P88 OF, 800
— £320
3rd Year.
Ordinary work as last... Ae VERE 320
Extra to Superintendent... A .. 100
Handling ... Re Oe, id Fe: 30
Pulper ot Sh Ny Lu By, 30
Pulping House... 2. ae Soc 50
‘Temporary Store ... kd a) TOUS:
Crop, Gatherin
ee Guiagon | 600 cwts.@ 6/8 ... 200
Transport to folontbe of 3,000 bushels
‘ Parchment @ 1/ r 150
80
£2,820
Cr.
By value of 600 cwts. of Coffee at 50/in Colombo £1,500
Estate now three years old, stands to the debit £1,320
And should be worth £5,000

-N.B.—The other 100 acres could, if all available, be
brought into bearing for £1,500, when the estate if it
had been well cared for should be worth £10,000. It
would then, however, require more per manent and

therefore more costly buildings.

49

PART II.

THE COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL—

(Continued).
By A. Brown.

[The following additional remarks were written aiter
the ‘“‘Manual” bad been reprinted from the CEYLoN
Directory; but they ought to be read along with
what is said under the same headings in the body
of the work. ]

Lintine.—Pegs made and lining rope ready, the next
thing is, with the aid of a compass or common cross
staff, to lay off in sections the clearing to be lined.
To do this, place the instrument as near as possible
in the middle of the field and where a good long sight
can be had. With this, place poles at short distances,
the length of the field in the direction most suitable
for the future working of the estate. If it be intended
to have the lines to run in one direction only (and
more than this is fancy, and unnecessary work) the
pegs In this line may be placed by the lining rope.
At right angles to the first line, and also about the
middle of the field, run another line which will
‘divide the field into four sections. This line cannot,
like the other, be pegged by the lining rope, as the
distance on sloping ground would be incorrect, and
the lines zigzag as the surface varied. Stretch a rope
from pole to pole, and with a measuring rod _ place
the pegs at the distance it is intended to have the
lines apart. In measuring up or down hill, the
rod must be held horizont:] and the peg dropped
from the end of it. The field now laid off into sec-
tions, these can be taken up in rotation, lining all
from the horizontal line. _ A cooly will place one end
of the rope at the first peg from the perpendicular
line, and another at the other end will measure with
a rod the distance and place his end, drawing the
rope tight and straight; other coolies then drive the
peg at the marks on the rope, and so proceed line
by line across the field, always returning to the per-
pendicular line to take upa fresh length. The mea-
suring ‘rod must always, be -held level and at right
angles. If laid on ‘sloping | ground or held obliquely,
the measurement will be incorreet. To assist in mea
-suring, one end of the rod may: be made in ‘the form

E

50 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

of a square to place against the rope. Bad lining after
an estate is formed cannot be remedied, and therefore care
is amply repaid ; good lining both adds much to appear-
ance and aids the future working of the property.

Roabs.—Have two sets of pegs, the one four, the
other fifteen inches in length. The position ascer-
tained by the tracer, drive one of the short pegs
flush with the surtace, and a large one close beside
to mark it; and so proceed. Inside of these, mea-
sure and line off the road at any breadth agreed upon,
making allowance for depth of bank, and cut down to
the level of the short pegs. :

MANURING is no doubt a different kind of thing on
old and worn estates from what it is on new or com-
paratively young places. From the former, after many
years of cropping, some of the most important ele-
ments that go to compose the coffee tree and the coffee
bean have doubtless been extracted to a much greater
extent than can have been added by any system of
manuring hitherto practised. Such soils, therefore, re-
quire to be made up. New estates or those but little
worn may have parted with only a few of those ele-
ments which have been exhausted on the older lands.
A mere ‘fig-up,’ so to speak, may be all they require ;
and a pinch of Sombreorum or a few ounces of Bones,
Poonac, or Superphosphate, may supply the desider-
atum for a time. Even on new lands, however, these
very stimulating manures should be used with cau-
tion and not alone. Mix them with some bulky sub-
stance, such as ravine soil, decayed cattle manure,
jungle soil, rotten wood, leaves, grass, or vegetable
matter of any description. You will thus add sub-
stance to the soil as well as a stimulant. Mana grass.
both buried and laid on the surface has been found
very effectual; as a manure sprinkled over with a
little sal-ammoniac it soon decays. If placed in layers
in a pit 6 to 10 feet deep, each layer sprinkled with
sal-ammoniac in a liquid state, it will be fit for ap-
plying in about four months, when if it has been
kept covered up, it can be cut up with the mamoty
like cheese. If the pulp water has been allowed to
run over it in the pit, it assists its decay and im-
proves the compost greatly.

A very good mixture is :
5 oz. Bones
8 oz. Poonac
4 seers pulp or jungle or ravine
soil or decomposed cattle dung

applied to each tree.

Another good mixture where the trees are in robust
health is as follows :—

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 5k

2 cwt. Superphosphate of Lime

1, etigata te een? 4 lb. per tree
+ ,, Sal-ammoniac 3 1D. s
4. ,, Guano.

As another mixture, night soil and common earth,
has been found a most effective manure. By having
a latrine near every set of lines, and seeing that they
are made use of, a good deal of this valuable manure
can be collected and turned to useful account. While
on the subject of manures, and before leaving it,
Tam glad to have the opportunity it affords me of
rescuing from the oblivion into which it had very
undeservedly fallen a valuable paper written by Mr.
Perindorge about twenty years ago, describing a com-
post and the way to make it, in different forms called
Perindorges Manure, The paper was not published
by him. It was considered too valuable for that.
But the secret was sold for a large sum to two gen-
tlemen of the planting community who retiiled it
{the paper) at £5 per copy. The manure was found
very valuable ; and not very costly where the requis-
ite vegetable matter which forms the basis of the
compost can be had m ebundance. This is not always
tue cage however, and, even where it is, the manu-
facture gives trouble, and therefore has to a great
extent been allowed to slip out of use. As I was
one of the subscribers, I feel no hesitation now in
giving the ;aper thus freely to the public, and hope
it will be the means of reviving a process which was
found when first introduced to form a cheap and
effective manure. In the neighbourhood of patanas
especially ought this manure to be easily made, as
well as where jungle is convenient, as the leaves of
juagle trees do as well as grass :—-

PERINDORGEH’S MANURE.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING A HEAP OF 2,100 CUBIC FEET
OR ABOUT 40 TONS.

In any ¢nvenient part of the estate, and neara small
supply of water if possible, erect with jungle posts a
kraal or pen 30 feet long, 10 feet wide and 7 high, This
may be easily done by digging a trench 2 feet deep
around a space of ground of those dimensions, setting up
the posts close'y side by side, avd pounding in the clay
well about their feet. The posts do not require tying as.
they are merely intended as walls to retain the heap of
manure for a short time. A light and temporary roof of
branches is also desirable to keep off the sun and part of
the heaviest rain which might wash through the heap.

The bottom or flor of the kraal ought to be sunk a
foot or two lower than the surroun\ing ground, to prevent
the escape of the liquid manure.

Commence making the compost by spreading on the
floor of the pen a layer about 18 inches thick of fresh

52 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

weeds, grasses, leaves, small succulent branches, or. in
fact any kind of green vegetable matter. If the vegetable
matter, of whatever. sort, be long, it ought to be chopped,
for the purpose of facilitating the removal and applica-
tion of the manure afterwards. At the same time put
a layer of earth next the posts to prevent drainage at the
sides; but on the second occasion of using the kraal this
edge stratum may be conveniently formed of a little of.
the manure that was previously made.

Over the 18 inch layer of weeds, &e., spread some
cattle manure--the more of course the better-—but a few
inches—say six—will be sufficient.

Then pour over the heap as equally as possible a portion-—
say one-sixth part—of Pickle No. 1, well stirred up before use.

_The same process is to be pursued daily util the pen
is filled somewhat above the tops of the posts. Nothing
more should then be done for a week, with the exception.
of taking care to keep the heap moist by sprinkling water
over it occasionally, or even daily if necessary in hot weather.

At the end of a week make holes witha lone crow-bar.
down through the heap about one foot apart, and funnel-
shaped at the top, to within 18 inches of the bottom, and
pour into them one-third of Pickle No. 2.

Next day make other holes between those first made,
and to within 3 feet of the bottom, and pour in the same
quantity of the Pickle No. 2. On the drd day make the
holes to about 5 feet from the bottom and pour in the
remainder of the pickle.

Then cover over with old manure or soil, and in a week
or 10 days the compost will be fit for application.

PiIckLE No. 1.

Put 2 bushels of bone-dust, 1 bushel of woodashes, and~
about a quart of fresh burnt lime, to steep for a few days
in as much water as will cover them. Then throw them
into a mixture of 20 gallons of ferment and 300 gallons
of water. Adda bushel of lime, and mix all well together.
Stir them up also when taking out part to apply.

Note.—The object of macerating the bone-dust in
potash and lime is to remove the oil which prevents bone
trom speedily decomposing. The oilis thus converted into.
soap; and the plant is then enabled to make use of the-
phosphate ef lime contained in the bone. This pickle
can be made in smaller quantity for convenience. A couple
of beer casks would hold 50 gallons or a sixth part of the
above—that is sufficient for a day’s consumption in making
40 tons of manure,

The ‘* Ferment.”—Take 5 gallons of molasses, 15 gallons
of water (warm is preferable): mix together in a beer cask
or other suitable vessel, and keep in a close warm room
for a couple of days, when it will be fit for use. This will
be ascertained by a scum or froth rising on the surface.
If molasses are not procurable, common coarse sugar or
jaggery may be substituted in the proportion of 8 lb.
to every gallon of molasses.

Note.—The Ferment is most required on cold, high
estates.

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL. 53

PicktE No. 2.

Sal-ammoniac, 20 lb.; Common Salt 20 1b.; 10 gallons
of Ferment, filled to 300 gallons with water. 20 1b. of
Saltpetre may be added if easily procurable, but it may
be omitted with very little detriment.

Add any fresh Cattle Manure that is to be had.

Notre.—The salts should be thoroughly dissolved in a
sufficient quantity of the water before mixing them with
the other ingredients.

Remarks.

Thug, in about 20 or 25 days from the commencement
of operation, there will be made a heap of most valuable
manure, which ought to be sufficient for four acres of
coffee at the rate of 4 bushel for each tree, but, of course,
the quantity must depend upon the more or less exhausted
condition of the soil.

The object of the above process is in the first place
to hasten decay in the vegetable matter by artificially excit<
ing fermentation, and the chemical changes dependent
upon that action. This effected, the other materia!s which
the vegetatable matter does not possess iu sufficient quanti-
ty for the coffee tree are then added, and in a manner
that prevents their dissipation or loss. The whole mass
is thus brought into the condition most suitable for being
taken up by the roots of the tree. Cattle manure is of
course the best form under which nutriment can be fur-
nished to most fruit-bearing trees; and the compost as
above made is a tolerably close imitativn of cattle man-
ure. It must be borne in mind that cattle discharge no
materials as manure—either excrement or urine—which
they have not previously taken in with their food. The
vegetable matter which forms the basis of this artificial
manure being however inferior in quality to what cattle
generally consume, and being rather deficiest, although not
altogether wanting, in some materials, these are added
ina manner not only most economical, but also calculated
to preserve them from loss. The cattle manure used is
included not only for its own inherent value, but for assisting,
by a well-known chemical law, the assimilation of other
materials to the same condition as itself. A few cattle
will sufficiently answer this purpose, although the amount
of their manure if used alone would be of little avail,
The cow is a small natural laboratory in which chemical
changes are continually going on; and tke heap above
‘described is, for the purposes of manure making, an-artificial
imitation of the cow or a large scale. Rather, it should
be said, the heap closely resembles so much farm-yard
manure—that it consists of a supply of carbonaceous matter
in the condition most suitable for supplying the plants
with this prime necessary ; with the salts (both of excre-
ment and utine) universally, equally, and in sufficient
quantity diffused throughout the mass,

_ CISTERNS is the next point on which I consider a
tew additional observations desirable. There are vari-

54 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

rious vays of constructing these. A very common
way is to make them in a line out in front of the
pulper platform and below it thus :—

Pulper Floor.

Receiving “istern.

| Washing Cistern.

Washing Cistern.

too

\ Tail Cistern.

And the floor of each cistern is on a slope of a few
inches, each inclining outwards, the object of the
inclination being to facilitate the washing and removal.
When the parchment has sufficiently fermented in the
receiving cistern, the door communicating with No. ]
washing cistern is opened and the coffee drawn through.
To clear No. 1 of its washed coftee and leave room
for the second day’s washing, the same process is
performed, aud the coffee drawn into No. 2 washing
eistern. At end of No. 2 is the tail cistern, which is
depressed a few inches below No. 2, so that the
light coffee which generally floats on the surface over-
flows into the tail cistern. This is a style of cistern
accommodation very common, or they may be doubled
in number by simply putting a division down the
centre. That may be left however to the taste and
requirements; of the planter constructing. The simple
set of three large and one tail cistern is however
sufficient for my illustration. On the same scale then
I will shew what I consider a better plan, the three
large cisterns as before running out in line from the
pulper, but each cistern independent of the other
and the tail cistern running along the whole length

COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.
of the three, thus :—

i
Ot

Receiving and wash-
ing. ;
2 Ss
on
eae ee ee OM o
»
oes
do. 2
i
eee ic
eH

cdo,

In this way each of the three large cisterns is both
a receiving and a washing cistern, and the tail cis-
tern receives the floatings of them all. By these
means the shifting of the contents of the one into the
other is avoided, and time and labonr saved, as there
is no communication between the three: a spout
merely conveying the pulped coffee from the pulper
into the cistern intended to contain that day’s pulp-
ing. You could thus be operating, if need were, on
three days’ pulping at one and the same time with-
out confusion or trouble. Another point to which lL
would direct attention is the inclination or slope of
‘the floor of the cisterns. This, as I have before shewn,
is generally nade outwards. But a better plan is to
slope it inwards, and have a back or side trap-door
through which to pass off the dirty warer after the
coffee has been washed. The manipulation of the coffee
in this way is easier, and the operators have it better
in command when it lies at the lower than when
drawn about by the ‘mattapalaka’ at the upper end
of the cistern. The water covers up the coffee, and
the light beans during the operation of turning or
stirring readily float to the surface. I have seen this
process in excellent working on an estate in Dimbula.
The door may even be at the upper end of the cis-
tern, as the angle of the incline is so gentle, that
almost all the water flows off with a rush when the
«oor is opened, carrying the floats along with it;
and what little water remains with the coffee undis-
placed will drain off as the coffee is lifted out upon
a grating outside the cistern: a very convenient mode
of separating the remaining water from the parch-
ment, as the water passes through the grating and
goes off in a spout underground, while the coffee
remains high and dry, to be afterwards conveyed to
the barbacue.

THE Estimate for bringing a small estate into bear-
ing is the only other point on which I find it necess-
-ary to make a few remarks. It will be seen that I

56 ‘* THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON,”

reckon this at £15 an-acre. The estimate when
worked out, however, would, if unexplained, shew a
higher figure. If the cost of the land, which is the
plant ; extra to superintendent 3rd year; pulper,
pulping-house, store, cost of gathering and transport—

all charges against crop after the estate has been

brought into bearing—be deducted, the result will be
very close on what I have stated; and, besides to
be very economical, a saving might be effected on
roads, and on supplying if the seasons have been
favorable.

A. B:

“ THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

JA Review oF Mr. SABONADIERE’S ‘‘COFFEE PLANTER
OF CEYLON,’ BY THE EpIror oF THE ‘' CEYLON
OBSERVER.”’|
February 1871.

First Notice.

A careful perusal of Mr. Sabonadiére’s valuable manu-
‘al gives us amore vivid idea than ever of the mistake
which some people commit in supposing that any half-
educated person will do for a coffee planter ; that
less of natural intelligence and acquired knowledge is
requisite for the tropical agriculturist than for his
brethren, who are destined for the walks of commerce
or the ranks of the civil and military services of
government. We fear that much of the loss and dis-
appointment which proprietors have had to mourn
over owe their origin to the fallacious notion we have
referred to. To make a good coffee planter, as to
make a good anything else, a man ought to have
a sound mind in a healthy body. A robust constitu-
tion is perhaps more to be desiderated in this line
‘of life than in those of commerce, banking, the civil
service, and the learned professions. A conscience
guided by Christian principle, too, is here of the last
importance. Why have so many, who began a cofiee
planting career so well, broken down, and why are
the experienced planters who can be thoroughly trust-
ed, and for whose services proprietors and agents
eagerly compete, comparatively so few ? Moral princi-
ple has not been strong enough to enable men to resist
temptations to which a solitary life, distant from so-
‘cial amenities and religious restraints and_ privileges,
has added force. Comfort is found in stimulants;
‘the man ‘“‘takes to drink”; that leads to habits and

“THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 57

associations: which deprive the victim of his own self-
respect and the respect of even the coolies it is his
business to command. Rapidly or gradually the depths
of degradation are reached, and the once bright youth
is a broken-down loafer, mooning about, talking of
his having been unfortunate, and that in Ceylon
people are ‘‘down on a poor chap” who has not
been ‘‘lucky.” We will not fill in the details of a
picture but too familiar to many of our readers. The
waifs and strays of the planting community—who
find asylums at the expense of their fellows—are to
be heard of, if not seen, in most large districts (some
are shipped off by subscription), and if you listen to
their story and believe it, you will lay at the door of
misfortune what owed its origin simply to fault—to
moral infirmity. Our readers willnot misunderstand
us as making an assertion more sweeping than we intend
it to be: we are talking only of a percentage, though
a serious one. But to be a good coffee planter it is not
enough that a man should have a good constitution and
industrious habits, with the power of controlling his
appetites. He must have at commencing, or acquire as
he goes on, afair acquaintarce with many branches of
general knowledge and especially natural science. It is:
not necessary that the coffee planter should be learned
in the classical languages or fluent in the modern
tongues, but certainly a facility in acquiring
languages is of importance. The manager of a coffee
estate in Ceylon, to be thoroughly useful and
successful, ought to be well up in_ colloquial
Tamil, at least. Mr. Sabonadiére attributes his
own good relations with his coolies to his ability.
to communicate with them directly by a fluent
use of their own language. We know what the
prejudices against the ‘‘ middleman” are amongst
races far higher in the scale of civilization than
the coolies. We cannot wonder, therefore, at the
great advantage possessed by the superintendent,
who, without descending a step to anything that
is degrading in the native level, is able wth pre-
cision to convey his directions to the workmer
in their own language, and perfectly to understand
the reports, written or oral, of his kanganies
(overseers of gangs), and the representation of coo-
lies who may consider themselves aggrieved. To be
a good superintendent, a man, then, must be a
bit of a philologist. He must have a knowledge
of law at least so far as the relations of master
and servant are concerned, and the relations of
the planters with thes owner of trespassing cattle. He
ought to be well up in sanitary science, especially
‘the philosophy of smells.” Mr. Tytler, of Dum-

58 ‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

bara, induiges largely in a species of pride which
we should wish to see generally prevalent. ‘This gen-
tleman will take visitors over his numerous sets
of lines and defy them to ‘‘feel a smell” (as the
Scotch, with strict accuracy, put it). The planter
ought to know and act on the conviction that,
while nothing is so deadly as dirt in the wrong —
place, nothing is more useful in the right place.
Bone, dust and ashes are just like ‘‘ line manure”:
dirt. Each requires to be properly manipulated and
utilized instead of being allowed to run to waste
or worse. But not only must the European superin-
tendent of a coffee plantation know how to com-
bat the propensities of a race, whose best friends
do not claim for them the merit of cleanliness,—he
must not only know how to convert dirt from a
source of disease into a source of fertility, but he
must know at least enough of the principles of
medicine and surgery contained in the Medical
Hints which have been prepared for his use, to
be able to treat or guide the treatment of disease
and ordinary accident amongst his laborers. Even
in the healthiest districts, fevers and bowel diseases
will ogeur, coolies will cut their fingers or toes
and get bitten by noxious reptiles. The superin=
tendent must be ready to treat simple cases, and
have intelligence enough to know where cases are
beyond his control, and conscience enough to give
such cases at once the benefit of those splendid
and well-regulated hospitals at Gampola and else-
where—so palatial in their beauty and airiness that
we can imagine patients feigning sickness in
order to remain in them. [We shall not soon
forget the favourable impression resulting from a
visit to that truly magnificent hospital which the
Government of Ceylon has provided, mainly for
the treatment of coolies, at Gampola. Mr. Keyt
keeps it so, that the only odour possibly perceptible
is that of the flowers in the neat garden plots. |
But it is in natural and chemical science that
the planter must specially posses:, and be ever
acquiring, knowledge. Acquaintance with the prin-
ciples of geology and mineralogy will enable the
planter to form a fair idea of the soil he is
called to work on. A knowledge of its constituents
will enable him to judge what the soil requires
for the continued and healthy growth of a plant
over severely pruned and handled into yielding
the maximum of a most exhausting crop. [Big
words, such as geology and mineralogy, ought not
to frighten any planter. The well-known planter
who ‘‘ hangs out” somewhere below Hunasgiriya

‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON,” 59

peak, and who tells the Planters’ Association that
‘*chocklat ” coloured soil, when friable, is good for coffee
and amenable to manure, is a geologist and min-
eralogist in his practical way, though he may
not be able to classify the rock or name its main
constituents.]| But to know what the requisite
applications should be, and how the applications
should be made, the planter, above all, perhaps, should
havea competent knowledge of the science which
Liebig and Johnson and Voelcker and others have so
greatly advanced in our day—agricultural chemis-
try. If able to try a few simple experiments, s0
as to test soils, but especially to enable him ito
judge of the quality of fertilizers imported and sent
to the estate, so much the better. Bone dust may
be impure or almost inert, and even superphos-
phates may differ most materially in percentages
‘of fertilizing qualities—just as spirits vary in the
degrees of alcohol they contain. But there must
be no slavish adherence to the results of mere ana-
lysis. Substances poor in fertilizing properties may
yet be eminently useful from their mechanical and
chemical effect in warming and disintegrating soil
naturally stiff and poor. Ifwe judge merely by
Liebig’s analysis of the coarse lemon-grass mana,
which covers such vast savannahs in the hill country
of Ceylon, we should contemptuously dismiss it as
valueless. Its ashes yield only 3 per cent of potash
and 2 of chloride of potassa, against 814 0f silica
(the latter the substance of which glass is made and
which gives the straw of wheat and other corns and
grasses its strong and shining covering). What help,
therefore, can so wretchedly poor a substance yield
to the planter ? Just this, that if it could be
procured in sufficient quantity within a reasonable
distance, so as to render its application possible at
a moderate expense, a complete thatching of it would
probably warm the stiff cold clays of Ambagamuwa
and set free their fertilizing ingredients for the growth
of coffee crops: crops whieh would compete with
those gathered in Dimbulaat its best. The applica-
tion of phosphates to the warmed and loosened soil
could be usefully and remuneratively made. What
we here incidentally notice is well worthy the seri-
ous attention of planters. If grass for thatching
soil cannot be procured great benefit might be ob-
tained by a similar use of other substances not like-
ly to leave seeds cf weeds or injurious insects be-
hind them. Mr. Sabonadiére’s experience has led
him to the decided conviction that to all the other
good effects of an application of mana grass is to
be added the eradication of the ‘‘ bug” blight from

60 “THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

coffee plants. It is now nearly fourteen years since
Mr. Wall (in a paper which we trust he will soon
republish, corrected and ‘expanded as the result of
extended experience) drew attention to the applica-
tion of mana grass and the result in extirpating
weeds on free soils, and, in additon, largely promot-
ing (indeed creating) fertility in the case of cold
stiff soils. We quote as follows:—

“Mana GRass is most useful, both as bedding
for cattle and a litter to be applied on the surface
of the soil. When used for the former purpose, its
chief advantages are its abundance, and the facility
with which it may be cut and carried ; for the latter
purpose I have employed it very extensively, and
with widely different results. When applied te
free soils that abound in vegetable matter, as those
of Hunasgiriya, it is scarcely of any use except to
keep down weeds or to kill running grass; but on
the cold, wet soil of Ambagamuwa, its effect is almost
magical, exceeding that of a heavy dose of cattle-
manure. I have applied it to a cold, heavy, yellow
soil, in which coffee bushes could scarcely exist, and
where their scraggy branches had only a few small
yellow leaves on them, and the effect was most sur-
prising. Not only were the trees soon clothed with
fine dark green foliage, but even the soil appeared to
be changed, and, to the depth of three or four inches,
became friable and dry. How this change was aecom-
plished, whether by the acids resulting from the de-
composition of the grass, or by the protection afforded
to the soil, I do not pretend to say, but I can speak
confidently to the fact.

‘‘Hrrect.—The increase of crop obtained through
the agency of this manure, in the instance above
alluded to, was at least five hundredweights per acre.

‘¢Cosr.—The cost of this method of manuring is
much less felt on a weedy estate than on a clean one,
because on the former it almost supersedes the neces-
-sity for weeding. The principal item of cost is the
carriage of the grass. I have, therefore, restricted the
-use of mana grass to places within one hundred trees
of the spot where the grass is grown. Under this
system the cost of a heavy littering, in which each
tree has a very heavy cooly-load of grass, is 35s. per
acre. One such heavy littering, and two light ones
of about 20s. per acre each, are sufficient for a year,
that is, about 75s. per acre per annum for weeding
and manuring. 1 am of opinion, that, after two or
three years of this treatment, the land would beable
to bear several successive ‘crops without requiring the
assistance of litter.

‘<The effect of surface littering 1s much inhereased

«THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 61

by the digging up of the soil, previous to the appli-
cation of the mana grass.”

Mr. Sabonadiere, writing more than thirteen years
after the above was published, shews how, when buried
in trenches, mana grass is beneficial to any soil; the
trench system, we may remark, obviating the one
great danger of fire which attaches to the over-ground
application. Besides incidental notices, Mr. Sabona-
diére writes in the chapter devoted to manuring :—

“Mana GRASS must be buried in trenches cut
longitudinally across the face of the hill; the trees not
only benefit from the decaying grass, but from the
loosening of the soil. The benefit is most marked ;
and all patena lands planted with coffee should he
treated in this manner. Mana grass has also a won-
derful effect in improving poor coffee, when applied
as 2a thick thatch to the soil six to nime inches deep.
It thus not only prevents the growth of weeds and
stops wash, but the decaying grass seems to give
freshness to the soil; the trees make wood fast and
bear heavily. Thatching the ground as above is a
successful cure for the bluck bug; this £ can vouch
for from personal experience; the cost is considerable,
but the results quite justify the outlay.”

This instance will shew what scope the planting
enterprise presents for the intelligent and discriminat-
ing application of the laws of agricultural chemistry
to substances within more or less easy reach of the
planter as well as to imported fertilizere. But Mr.
Sabonadiére’s book shews us also how important it
is that a planter should be botanist and horticulturist
enough to have a fair acquaintance with the laws of
vegetable life, so as usefully to guide the operations
of topping, pruning, handling, and even manuring.
Entomology, too, must be studied, so as to enable
the planter to have an intelligent knowledge of the
history and habits of such ‘‘enemies of the coffee ”’
as grub and bug. Then the planter must be a bit
of an architect, so as to judge of the fitness for his
purposes of the excellent plan and elevations for bun-
galows, stores, and pulping-houses, which Mr. Sabona-
diere’s book supplies; and he must be a very gvod
bit indeed of a mechanical engineer to do justice to
water-power (perhaps steam) machinery in the shape
of wheels, pulpers, &c. Hydraulic science will claim
much attention and pneumatics some, for, whether a
“‘Clerihew” is set up or not, there must be floors
of coir, or wire netting, through which the pulped and
washed coffee can get fresh air to carry off damp
and prevent fermentation. A knowledge of common
mortar and of cements and asphaltes, and of the best
mode of applying them, is useful. But it is difficult

F

62 ‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON,”

to say what knowledge of science and the arts would
not be useful to the coffee planter: perhaps above all
he ought to be a good financier, for it is clear that
a coffee estate of 200 acres cannot be brought into
cultivation (say in four years) at a less expenditure
than from £25 to £30 an acre—from £5,000 to £6,000
in all after allowing for the proceeds of some crop
in the close of the period. That fact must be faced,
and borrowing as much as possible avoided. How to
obtain money is about the only thing which Mr. Sa-
bonadicre does not teach. On most of the other sub-
jects we have iniicated, his book will greatly aid
the neophyte planter; while experience (short or long
according to the man’s own intelligence and industry)
will do the rest. We meant to enter more into de-
tails, but the reflections which a perusal of the work
and our own experience and observation have forced on
us must sufiice for to-day. We hope to have some-
thins more to say in our next issue with reference to.
the useful book which forms the subject of remarks
already more extended than we contemplated. But
the enterprise of which it treats is of paramount
importance to Ceylon, and with the r-turn of peace
we trust this enterprise will become still more im-
portant, and a good deal more profitable than it has
lately been to those engaged in it.

Second Notice.

‘To justify our s'atement that to be a coffee planter
it is necessary that a man should be possessed of
knowledge v:ried and comprehensive, we have but
to quote the headings of the chapters into which Mr.
Sabonidiére’s book is divided :—

‘‘ Introductory Remirks, Selection of Land, Soil,
Hlevation, &c.; Felling, Clearing, and Loppinz, Nurse-
ry, Lining, Holing, and Planting ; Roads and Drains;
Weeding, Topping, Pruning, and Handling; Manur-
ing, Trenching, &¢.; Picking, Curing, and Despatching
Crop; Bungalows and Lines; Stores, Pulping Hous,,
and Barbacues; Tools and Machinery ; the Enemies
of the Coffee Tree; the Malabar Cooly ; Estimates.”

The great feature in the present edition is an en-
tirely new chapter on Manuring, which embodies the
large experience the author has obtained in the use
of artificial manures applied to the extensive proper-
ties un‘ler his eharge. Mr. Sabonadiére’s experience
has led him thoroughly to believe in the vast benefits
of judicious manaring when combined with draining
and trenchzig, and we know that he traces the short
crops of the present season to meteorological influ-
ences and not to manuring, although, of course, harm
has been done and ‘can be done by the ill-advised

yaa

Ace:
i Ae

“THE COFFERK PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 63

use of forcing manures. It has now been effectually
proved, he states, that

‘‘ Draining to prevent wash and waste of soil, and
a system of manuring while the trees are still young
and vigorous, tend to prolong the age of estat-s.
There is no doubt that under such a sssiem coffee
trees may have as long an existence as other ever-
greens; excepting o course such con!ingencies as
overbearing, a'tacks of grubs, the tap roo! coming in
contact with rock, cr becoming rotten from swampy
soil, all of which bring the tree to peer a decay.”

Mr. Sabonadieére, like every one elxe, gives the pre-
ference to cattle dung where it can be plen ifutly and
economically applied, Of course the mere opening of
so large a hole asis usually dug near the cotie2 trees
“would effect. much good even if 9 manures were ap-
pled. But as the expense of applyin large quantities
of so bulky and heavy a material as cow-dung is
very great, it may be important to our planting read-

to know that a gentleman with considersble ex-
perience _in the use of manures has found that a
much smaller quantity than is ordinarily used of cow-
dung or pulp will have all the effect of the larger
quantity ii mixed with a proportion of bone-dust, or,
better sill, superphosphate. Manuring with cattle.
dung, aided by bone-dust or artificial manure, My.
Sabonadiére believes could be so managed tha‘, with
an average expenditure of £3 per acre pr annum,
‘* properties of even medium sol might be kept to
an average bearing rate of eight to ten cwts. an acre,
which would filly repay the cost, and leave a large
profit besides.” As Mr. Sabonaiére is speaking of
eves where the cattle are wholly stall-fed, this judg-
ment founded on his experience 1s most important as
showing that where capital and skill are applied to
the coffee en' ‘erprise that enterprise can be rendered
profitable. not merely temporarily bat permanently.
But clea'ly here, as in all other pursuits, skill must
be supplemented by erpital. There can be no doubt
that much of the failure we have to mourn over in
Ceylon has been due to the mistake of attempting
too much. Men have cleared and planted 2v0 to 400
acres of land, when they ought to hive concentrated
their energies and means on !00. Mr Sabonadicre is,
of course, in favour of burying all the prunings. It
labor cannot be spared for so unecessary an operation
as this, the look out is a bad one. We quoted noticrs
of mana grass in our last, but there are many pro-
perties where this substance cannot be procured within
available distance. In thoze cases a reserve of forest
would be valuable, from which fresh earth could be
brought to be applied with manure; also twigs to be

64. “THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON,”

buried in trenches or to be burnt into ashes, while
the larger branches could be converted into charcoal.
Purchasers of lots in Dimbula, which ar- high and
close to forest, not likely ever to be felled for coffee
planting purposes, have their compensating advantages
in the Mrection we have indicated. Some of their
young plants may be gnawed by rats from the forest,
and there may be some tendency to bug from near-
ness to damp and shade, but it is an immense ad-
vantage to be close to inexhaustible reserves of humus
and potash. With these from the neighbouring forest,
the pulp and prunings of the estates, some cow-dung
and a small quantity of good bone-dust or really
rich superphosphate, we have little doubt that pro-
perties at from 4,300 to 5,000 feet above the sea
can be kept at an average yield of 7 or 8 cwts. an
acre. This, in aclimate far superior to that of Eng-
land, ought to content reasonable men. When sceptics
point to the earlier Dimbula estates opened at a high
elevation, estates whick bore largely for the first few
years of their existence and then went back, it must
be remembered that such properties were opened in
the pre-manuring era, while portions of them, revived
by high cultivation, are again yielding heavy and
remunerative crops. Mr. Sabonadiére enters fully into.
the nature and value of composts made of poonae,
bone-dust, and guano, the latter, a substance which
should never be used except in combination with
others, such as poonac. Of Leechman’s compost, the
author speaks as ‘‘ A capital manure: one pound a
tree is a proper quantity to be used, and the average
cost including application is, say, £6 anacre. It may
also be beneficially mixed with other manures. On
ahis estate it was very effective in supporting trees
under heavy bearing.”

Of Sombreorum, Mr. Sabonadiére’s experience does
not seem to have been large, but it is favourable as
recards the very cases where manuring is most re-
quired, those of ‘‘ poor coffee.” We quote the para-
graph :—‘‘Sombreorum is one of the artificial man-
ures that has lately been manufactured, and owes its
origin to Mr. R. B. Tytler of Palakelle. As opinion
yaries much on its virtues, I have included in the
Appendix some correspondence that has appeared in
the newspapers upon the subject. My own experience
of Sombreorum is that it is a yood manure; but
having tried it on very good coffee, the effects were
not so perceptible as would have been the case on a
poor estate. I have seen it apphed to very poor
‘cotfee with most beneficial effects, but I fancy it re-
quires to be frequently applied to afford lasting and.
remunerative results.”

‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 65

The cost of the leading manures and composts, in-
cluding application, is given; but for the detailed
figures we refer to the work. On> result is clear:
in addition to £25 to £39 an acre, which (including
buildings) an estate of 200 acres will cost by the
time it is brought into full bearimg, an annual ex-
penditure of from £1 10s. to £3 103. an acre should
be calculated on for trenching and manuring. Trench-
ing, closed and open, is described, as we'l as modes
of loosening the soil, applying swampy soil, &c. But
we have dwelt long enoug», thdugh not too long, on
this important subject of mmanuring, the great ques-
tion on which the prosperity and permanency of cofiee
estates depend. Knowing the large direct benetits de-
rived from a complete system of paths and carb roads
through an “estate (as well as the indirect benefits
from the loosening of the soil in making them), Mr.
Sabonadiére strongly advises the thorough roading of
a property as one of the earliest operations, and he
is doubtless right, although even the sacrifice of coftee
bushes on old estates is as nothing compared with
tke benefits compared by paths and cart roads for
which they are sacrificed. In glancing over the book
some curious facts strike us. In ordinary farming,
cost of seed is an important and ever-recurring item.
In the case of coffee-planting, the quantity and cost
are, we should say, the smallest that can possibly
occur. Five bushels of parchment coffee at the most
will be sufficient for a nursery yielding plants tor
100 acres. So that the equivalent of less than 2 cwis
of clean coffee, value say £6, would suffive to yield
plants for an average estate of 200 acres. In the
estimates we see that the cost of plants is taken at
£100 for 200 acres in one case, at £45 for 100 acres
in the other, or 63. per thousand. We believe the
cost of good plants in Dimbula is now Ss. per thou-
sand. But, even taking grubs and the necessity of
supplies into account, the cost of plants is about the
smallest item of all. In sugar planting and other
planting pursuits, the case is very different. ‘The
instructions for lining, holing, and planting are full
and precise. The importance of keeping estates clean
from the first is shewn by the astounding fact men-
tioned by Mr. Sabonadiére, that if weeding costs 3s.
per acre per annum, then the sum expended on only
800 estates was £288,000 annually. Now the sum
cannot be under £300,000, an average of £300 for
each estate. The prevailing weed, as our readers are
aware, is the goat weed (ageratum conyzoides), which
unfortunately feeds on the very elements required by
the coffee plant for its healthy existence. Botanists,
who ought to know, tell us it is not indigenous, but

66 ‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” |

introduced, like the thistle in Australia, and likely
equally to demand special legislation for its control
if not its extirpation. Much might be done, we sus-
pect, by the appl.cation of some powerful chemical
substance to gathered heaps of the ageratwm. Burn-
ing cannot often from the dampness of the climate be
so ettectually accomplished as to destroy the amazing

quantities of s°eds which this plague of a weed pro-_

duces. Mr. Sabona‘lere favours contract weeding
under, proper reguiations. When he comes to prun-
ing, the authcr expresses his belief (contrary to the
general practice) that, if young trees were allowed to
bear their maiden crop before being topped, it would
be very much to their future benefit and endurance.
He certainly gives good reasons for his belief and
against the too early forcing of the trees for the sake
of crop. We fancy that the greater or less exposure
to wind will determine the practice. In Dimbula we
suppose it would be safe to let plants grow to four
feet hign before topping, while in Medamahanuwara
such plants would be blown to shreds or uprooted.
Mr. Sabonadiere must have been thinking of the
women’s right theory when, in regard to pruning, he
wrote :—‘‘Kven women may be taught to use the knife
in a very workmanlike manner.” In treating of pick-
ing there is an application of common sense which
seems too obvious to be mentioned, and yet the vast
majority of young planters would require to learn from
experience what Mr. Sabonadicre thus describes :—

“‘In steep ground, my orders invariably were to
pick trom the top of the hill. My reasons were, that
if any coffee dropped, it rolled down forwards and
was iore likely to be seen and picked up, and _ be-
cause tue coolies were not loade? when near the top
of the tield, so they had not to come down to empty
their small bags and then have to go up again—per-
haps to finish only a few trees—w«hich they are very
loth to do, their natural object being to complete
their task as quickly as possible.”

The value of such an appliance as spouting on an
estate 1s presented vividly in the following extract :—

““Wihere there is a sufficient declivity and a suffi-
ciency of water, spouting should be made use of to
transmit the cherry to the pulping house from distant
parts of the estate. Along the lines of spouting, here
and there, in convenient spots where paths converge
receiving hous:s must be put np, into which the coffee
is taken and spouted down to the works. ‘The coolies,
being thus enabled to deliver their loads near at hand,
are not only spared the toil and labour of a long
and, in wet weather, sometimes a dangerous jou rney
to the p:Iping house, but time, which is always money,

‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 67

is saved; the coolies are able to gather a larger quan-
tity, and they are saved bodily wear and tear. With
a force of 200 coolies in the field, an inerease of at
least 100 bushels, or 10 cwts. a day may be safely
reckoned upon, amounting say to 300 cwts. for the
. five heavy weeks of picking, and_ representing a mo-
ney value of fully £1,002 in the London market.”

Under the head of bungalows and lines, Mr. Sabona-
diére argues strongly for permanent buildings of stone
with shingled roots. Very valuable plans and estimates
are given from which we gather that, even in so remote
and expensive a district as Udapussellawa, buildings
can be erected at about the following prices :—

“STORE. —Stone pillars, roof of galvanized Morewood’s
tiles, sawn t'mber, coir- -matting floors in three sto-
ries, £485.

‘“Purpine Hovse.—Solid mason: ‘y, pillars, and
cisterns; a double floor for curing purposes, corru-
gated iron roof, but not including “cost of machi inery
£483.

‘¢ BUNGALOW. —Outside walls of stone, inner walls,
sawn timber, mudded between sawn reapers, planked
floors, and shingle roof, and including £70, as cost
of godowns, £356.

** The levelling of the sites has not been included.”

A first-cliss bungalow for a married European gen-
tleman with a family would cost £500. The cost of
lines is, strangely, omitted, but to provide for a pro-
perty of 200 acres in full bearing, we suppose the
following figures would be pretty near the mark :—

Store a ie see y an ... £500
Puiping-house ... Hee: OU
Bungalow for proprietor o or chief supdt. BE SOO

Do. for ‘*Sinna Durai ” 8 ey Wares OO
Lines (say) HT. ee 2: a Hee N10,

Total... £2,800

This must be near the mark, for one of the estates
gives £2,530 for buildings and machinery, including
£250 for spouting. Less than £2,000, it is evident,
will not suffice for really good buildings, or at the
rate of £10 per acre, leaving £15 to £20 per acre
for planting, roads, drains, “&e. We need sca reely
remark how much the use is facilitated, and the cost
lessened, of imported machinery, iron roofs, spouting,
&e., by the railway and extension of cart roads. The
planters of the present generation may have to pay
higher for labor and materials of local production,
but they have nevertheless great advantages as com-
pared with their predecessors, those for instance who
had to employ elephants to carry heavy machinery
up the Kandy road.

68 ‘*THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

In looking over the valuable matter in the Append-
ix, we are struck with some curious results arrived
at by further experience. Mr. Wall wrote on manur-
ing some fourteen years ago. Time has confirmed (as
we shewed in our last issue) his estimate of the value
of mana grass; but it has completely overset what he
wrote about coffee pulp. All he could say of pulp

was that it was not ‘‘very valuable or very effective, _

but it costs nothing or next to nothing.” In the
experience of others it has proved of immense value,
even alone ; but certainly most beneficial when mixed
either with cattle dung, bones, or superphosphates.
Mr. L. St. G. Carey considers pwip and superphos-
phate about the best possible application to coffee ;
while in Mr. Sabonadiére’s estimation, pulp mixed
with cattle dung, is equal in value to the cattle dung
itself. But can extended use alone, in the face of
such large exports, have led to the great rise in the
cost of bones? Mr. Wall stated the cost of bones
in 1857 at 3s. 6d. per cwt. (£3 15s. per ton!) im
Colombo or 6s. on the estate. Taking 5 cwts. as the
quantity for an acre, about 45s. per acre would suf-
fice for cost on estate and applying. Mr. Sabonadiere
is moderate when he calculates the cost of a ton of
steamed bone dust at Colombo now at £8 10s. or £10
on the estate. He would apply half a ton ata cost
of 17s. 6d. or £6 2s. 6d. per acre in all. The half
of this would be 61/3 against Mr. Wall’s 40/;
the cost of bones in Colombo having thus more than
doubled ; the cost of carriage to the estate being
reduced from £2 10s. to £2 per ton; while the cost
of applying has risen from 14s. 8d., say 15s., to 17s.
6d. Allowing for the additional cost of grinding and
steaming, the great fact is that bones in Colombo
cost now considerably more than double what they
could bs procured for in 1857. Even so, if of good
quality, they are well worth the money, and recent
experience points not to their disuse, but to their
judicious use.
Third Notice.
KNEMIES OF THE COFFEE TREE.

The note of alarm sounded by a correspondent to-
day gives a new interest to anything referring to the
ravages of ‘‘erub” on coffee estates and the remedies
proposed. In Dimbula, where large expanses of pata-
nas alternate with forest, we can scarcely be surprised
that black and white grub (the larve of moths and
cockchafers) should abound and should be destructive
to young coffee as well as to cultivated plants of every
kind. We have already stated in these columns that
on many young estates in Dimbula fifty per cent of

“THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 69

the plants were destroyed in the first year by grubs,
which ringed off the bark close to the ground. But
our information went to shew that, as the trees in-
ereased in age and vigour, the attacks of the grubs
became of less importance, and that the planters on
the whole made light of the prospect of permanent
danger from these pests. Like bug-blight and buffalo
trespass, they would have their day, but would cease
to attract attention as g-od markets for coffee en-
abled planters to cultivate highly and to build fences,
eut ditches, or station watchers. But this alarm from
one of our older districts demands, and doubtless
will receive, serious attention. Happily Ceylon is
not much troubled with the ‘‘borer” so frightfully
destructive in Southern India, but, so long ago as
1861, Mr. Nietner characterized the lirve of the moth,
known to naturalists by the title of AGRoris segetum,
as ‘‘the well-known and very destructive black bug ;”
while in regard to white bug ‘‘ ANCYLONYCHA Spec.”
he wrote :—‘‘ Under the name of ‘white grub,’ the
larve of various melolonthide de much harm to coffee
plantations, young and old, by eating the roots of
the trees.” Lime put into the holes with the young
trees was mentioned as a remedy, and My. Nietner
expressed surprise that the ashes of the recently
burned forest had not a deterrent effect. Wuth the
light of all further experience, here is Mr. Sabona-
diere’s deliverance on the subject :—

““ With coffee-planters, as with English farmers,
there is seldom a season when everything goes right.
Thus, if the crop is a good one, there are not suffi-
cient coolies to pick it; or, when there is a short
crop, there are so many hands that one is puzzled
how to employ them. At other times, scarcity and
dearness of rice, exorbitant cart hire, excess of rain
or drought :—all more or less tend to make the planter
anything but a contented man.

‘‘ In addition to the drawbacks enumerated above,
the coffee-tree suffers from the attacks of various
‘creatures of the animal and insect kingdoms. In its
youth coffee is attacked by large grubs, which eat
round the bark of the plants just above the ground,
so that the stems break and the plants generally die
off. Ashes and limes are sometimes spread round the
tree in hopes of averting this evil, but with no very
great success. I am inclined to think that coal tar
applied to the stem would be more efficaciovs in
stopping the ravages of these insects, which are par-
ticularly destructive at the lower elevations, where _
the soil is light, dry, and quartzy.”

We fancy that even in such elevated districts as
Dimbula, grub, like bug, chiefly affects low, swampy

70 ‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

parts of estates. At any rate, after the first year,
grubs are found only on parts of estates, and drain-
ing with high cultivation would probably be the best
remedy in such cases. Coal-tar cannot but be ue-
ful in the case of grub, as well as bug, if judiciously
used. A story was afloat in Dimbula, when we last
visited the district, of a planter having destroyed not
the grub but a number of coffee bushes, the stems of
which he had painted with tar. If the case occurred,
the dose of tar must have been an over-dose. Messrs.
Worms were wont to put tar on about two inches of
the stems of their trees, with the effect of driving
away bug and without injury to the painted trees.
But, for ‘eradicating grub, we should think the coal-
tar should rather be buried near the tree—say in a
limited circular trough roun the stem. But, instead
of using coal-tar in this way, we should think that
the almost universal remedy, carbolic acid. would
answer. As sold by the chemists, this spirit of tar
will bear a solution cf 80 times its bulk of water
before it can be safely sprinkled on trees infested
with bug or other insects. But we should think that
as a mixture with cow-tung or other manure, or to
be placed direct in holes near trees, a much greater
st trength would be safe—a strength which would rap-
idly destroy every form of “ poochee” (i asect) life by
asphyxia or combustion, while no harm would happen
to the roots of the coffee tree. Hxperim-nt would soon
settle the quantity of carbolic acid to be used. In
applying it, the planter would have the satisfaction of
knowing that he was, while destroying insect life,
using the best possible means of increasing the chances
for health and life of the human beings and cattle
on his estate, carbolic acid being about the best-known
agent for destroying the germs of epidemic disease,
such as ecnolera and cattle murrain. If, as seems
certain, thaiching of ground with mana grass is de-
structive to bug deny from the evolution of an acid ?)
we should think it would be equally inimical to grub.
At any rate wisps of mana or other grasses, saturat-
ed in carbolic acid, buried near grub-infested txees,
could not but be effective. These are our suggestions,
submitted for the consideration and comment of prac-
tical and experienced planters. There must be much
valuable information in plauting circles on this sub-
ject. In view of the alarming letter we publish, we
should be glad to be reassured. Are we right in
hopivg that the grub pest, like that of bug, is merely
temporary, partial, and not largely destructive ; or is
it about to scatter rain over the coffee districts of
Ceylon, similar to that which the borer has e:rried
through Coorg and other portions of Southern India ?

“THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 71

Fourth Notice.

We would just cull a few further facts from Mr.
Sabonadiére’s volume. ‘‘ Native” coffee bushes of great
age are scattered all over the country, but they grow
under conditions different to a great extent from those
which exist on regular plantations. On the oldest
formed plantations in British times, however, bushes
more than forty years old still exist and still produce
coffee. The best average distance for coffee bushes is
six feet square, which will give 1,200 to the acre;
while 18 inches square is the size of hole most com-
monly approved of, and the holes can he advantage-
ously left open for some time before being planted.
Plants for the nursery should be carried out in bas-
kets, their 100ts covered with wet moss. The drying
up of the small fibrous roots is supposed to be the

reat cause of failures. In going over the book we
find the following further reference to bug : —

‘‘During tue dry weather, in February, March, and
April, young plants in many districts suffer from the
attacks of a very large grub, which eats the bark in
a eircle just above the ground; and the flow of the
zap being thus stopped, the trees droop aud die.
Estates with a light reddish ot quartzy soil suffer
more than those where rocks and stones are plentiful.”

Another quotation is as follows :—

*‘ Drains, like roads and paths, should be cut as
soon as the estate is commenced, or at all events
before the trees cover the ground, or the same causes
will obtain with reference to damage being eaused to
coffee trees. These drains must be about fifteen inches
wide and deep, at the distance of every fifteen t»
twenty trees—i. e. 120 feet apart; the gradient should
not be more than from one foot in ten to one foot
in fifteen. These drains should be directed into the
natural ravines, and these may also with advantage
be cleared of obstacles, such as logs and large stones,
so as to open out the water-way.”

Large pits for the drains to empty soil in will, of
course, be most useful. Contract weeding, carefully
regulated, is the best. Fruit trees should be planted
round estate bungalows.

ESTIMATES.

We (compiler of ‘‘ Handbook”) add two other
‘Estimates’ from distinct sources to that of Mr.
Brown’s, in order to shew the great differences between
the views of different planters. The first is one of
those given by Mr. Sabonadiere in his ‘‘ CoFFEE
PLANTER OF C&eYLON” :—

72 “«“‘THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

No. 2.—ESTIMATE FOR THE BRINGING INTO COFFEE
CULTIVATION 200 ACRES OF ForEST LAND.

First YEAR: | Sept. 186— to 31 August 186—.
£

Sas, ti

Purchase of 300 acres of forest land—say at
£1 per acre. ¥y ag saab OOO
Government survey fees oe 50
Felling, lopping, burning, clearing, cutting
pegs, hning, and holing (6 by 5), at £5

oo

oo

eooocoso] ooooceco S&S ©

per acre; 100 acres e: 500 0

Filling-in holes, planting, and supplying ; ;
100° acres, at £1 per acre 100 0

Purchase of. 150,000 plants for planting and
supplying, at 6s. per thousand... r 45 0
Making nursery and purchase of seed a3 3 LOAD)
Stone pillar and shingle lines, 60 by 20). 70 0
Superintendent’ s bungalow ... ssid OOO AO
Conductor’s bungalow iy i tp ep O.
Wossvon Licey) ce 2 s. seep ROUM Wh
Purchase of tools... gn PWG by ccd) 10
Roads, 3 miles 45 0

Weeding 100 acres, from March 1 to ‘August
31; 6 months, at 2s. per acre per month.. 60 0
Superintendent ae i ~ vy pt OOO
Conductor oa ret He i aa? fared) Oa)
Contingencies ... a: Pe we ee)
General transport —... 7 ¥ dg OOMMO.
£1,840 0

Seconp YEAR: 1 Sept. 186— to 31 August 186—.
Felling, lopping, burning, clearing, cutting
pegs, lining and holing; 100 acres, at

£5 per acre.. 900 0
Filling-in holes, planting, and supplying,

ab £1 per acre ai 100 0
Making nurseries and “purchase ot seed.. 10 0
Stone pillar, one set, and shingle lines,

OOF by 20 10... om fi 4s skp at 1 OO
Roads, 3 miles 40 a, an “i ‘yams O
Planting grass .. 30 0
Weeding, Ist clearing ¢ for 12 ‘months, at 2s, 120 0

>» 2nd, 65, * 60 0
Loss on rice... ee BY of: to, OREO
Purchase of tools _... us as tim pl ORG
Superintendence ae ae oh erties 15) (ee
Conductor ee oa ~ : £4 pome
Contingencies ... be. as sat Pe aN
General transport... ae er eer)

id
Ry)
=
(STI
ou
S

eocooocoeoceoeooec

Faas

**THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 73
TuHirD YEAR: 1 Sept. 186— to 31 August 186—.
£

Ss, a.
Se a ae a we oe, Oa One
Conductor 2 i be Aecadieidals 2 Veal vical U
Weeding 100 acres, at 2s. 6d... Remand 3.1 4)
ee at 2s. at re nite oo A OO
Handling sy “iC a PRE! og Wied |
Draining 200 acres, at 165s... ee iat Sess 0
Stone pillar and shingle fnrest 2 rept) Beil

Roads. ommiless abeelou 7.0 Peto OO

Cart-roads a aa eee COU! “Onn G
245 0 0

Pulping-house, store, purchase and eae
up of machinery see Ae ig L000 OO
tron coffee-spouting ... iy iy et 00 0 00
Purchase of tools... Bele ah Fo a OenG
Loss on rice... et Hes ee Meee LOO O20
Contingencies ... ae si ae Mea OO 30,
General transport 50 0 0

Picking, pulping, and. drying 400 cwt. off
100 acres, viz. 4 cwt. at 6s... 120, 0. 0

"Transport to Colombo, 1,900 bushels, at ls.
per bushel ... 9 0 0

Colombo charges : curing, 4s. 6d.3 export
- duty, Is. per)cwt.*=5s., 6d... ces | L1Ox OPO
Total expenditure ... bee £6,015 0 0

Loss: 3 years’ loss of exchange on £6,015,
at 6 per cent. hoe aan sae iP DOOM Ome
Total expenditure ... ey, £6,375 O 9

Less, net value of 400 cwt. in London, at
67s. per cwt. wi ae ae .1,340 0 0
Estate Dr. ... ae ae 5,035 020

Note.—The superintendence in this estimate is cal-
culated as if the property was opened by els man-
ager of an adjoining estate.

“[It is interesting to note where the ance discre-
pancies exist between Mr. Brown and Mr. Sabonadiére’s
correspondent. The latter clearly goes in for more
expensive buildings and a greater amount of work
altogether. At the same time it must be remembered
that, with £5,000 to the debit, 200 acres have been
opened in the above; while Mr. Brown is £1,320 to
the debit with 100 acres opened, his estate being
worth £5,000. In Mr. Sabonadiére’s case the estate
ought to be worth £10,000. The following estimate,
which appeared in our last Handbook, has been

* No export duty now.—CoMPILER.
G

74 ‘“*THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.”

«ompiled in Southern India, but it will be found to
corroborate Mr. Brown’s lower rates. Indeed we have
the most positive assurance of strict economy, under
favourable circumstances, securing the opening of a
coffee estute and bringing it into bearing at rates vary-
ing from £12 to £15 an acre. This, of course, could
only be done by working with ouve’s own capital, an
opening carefully and energetically.—CoMPILER. ]

We (South of India Observer) have réceived the fol--
lowing Estimate from a correspondent who assures us
that it is based on actual experience :—

Estimate for bringing 200 acres of Forest Land
into bearing, opening 100 xcres in the lst, and 50
acres ip the 2nd and 3rd years; supposing that a
block of 300 acres has been purchased at R30 per acre.

{ a}
Ist) Beds. Srdaly ita inayin
Year, Year.) Year. Year.) Year.

KOE) Regan ite | Rs. | Rs.
Tools ... WG ...| 600, 100 75| 100) 500
Nurseries and Planis ...) 15VU0 100; 100) ... ae
Bungalow and Furniture} 1,000 50 50, 3,000; 100
Lines... nt wel. SOD} 50 50' 2,500) 120
Belimg and Clearing ...| 2,000 1,000) 1,000) ... ee

Lining, Pitting and Fill- |

3,900, 1,400) 1,500

ing in nO8 aN ane es
Plauting se Pa AO 20M e200 were a
Roads ... a ...{ 1,000 600} 600) 100} 150
Deains .. Hr | 500 800) 300 50; 150

W: eding oe ...{ 1,000, 1,700, 2,300) 2600; 2,400
~tore and Pulping House| ... | ... | 3,0'0) 4000; 100
Loss on Ad: unces eal OK 504) LOO Me loo LOO

Loss on Grain. ...| 500, 300 300; 400 600

Land Tax eis ae Paiste PRE ODO wo Oy akNt)

_ Superi:tendence ...| 3,000; 3,000 8,600) 3,600; 4,800
Supplying : anal Wiukese 200 150 50, 100
Contingencies ... ...| 1,500, 915, 1,352/ 1,630; 932

Interest on cost of Lan} 900) 900; © 940} 900) 900

Do: Outlay, -:. ...| 460) 1,155) 1,823) 2,700 3,465

Total...| 18 0601 12,120] 17,600! 22.036 14,617
Toval... R82,477=£8,247 148.

The cost of the land has been taken at R30 per
acre. This may seem high, but it is a question
whether good forest land with a sound title can be
had now in Wynaad even at that rate.

The ‘‘year” of the estate is supposed to commence
in September. | !

I.—The allowance for tools will be found sufficient,
if decent cure is taken of them.

II.—It is generally necessary to purchase plants for
the first year’s clearing—allowance has therefore been
made for the cost of 120,000 at R10 per 1,000.

——+_

“THE COFFEE PLANTER OF CEYLON.” 75

III. —Bungalow.—An allowance has been made for the
erection of a good temporary house and office, as well as
for the purchase of necessary furniture in the estimate
for the first year. The allowance in the fourth year is
for the building of a good sawn timber bungalow.

It would be better to commence the permanent build-
ings in the second and third, instead of in the third
and fourth, years. Sucha cou se, huwever, although
‘very desirable, is not always practicable.

I¥.—The cost of roads will depend yvreatly on the
lay of the land, whether many or comparatively few
are required.

V.—The loss on advances can only be estimated
approximately. With good management and luck, it
should not exceed the amount estimated.

VI.—The loss on grain is also merely an approximate
estimate. It has been a very serious item lat-ly, but
the prospects of the coming grain crops are now good ;.
and raghy, &e., should be eheap before lony.

VII.—Superintendence. —This item provides for Agen-
cy, if required, but in the event of there being no
Agent, due allowance has been made for a good su-
perintendent—a man content to wait for «n increase
of pay until the estate can afford it.

VIII.—For store and pulping house R7,000 have:
been allowed, and this sum should pay for a water-
wheel if the works are judiciously arranged.

IX.—Contingencies.—Tnese have been calculated at
10 per cent. on the total expenditura. It will be
observed that loss on grain and advances have been:
taken separately.

X.—Interest.—This has been calculated at the rate
of five per cent. per annum.

Crop expenses calculated at Rupees 100 per ton.
3rd year’s crop :—
Maiden crop off 100 acres=20 tons ; value on
the coast, less expenses, say RI10,000:
4th year :—
Maiden crop off 50 acres—10 tons ; Value, less ) 25 000
Good tndoy! 100) 3° =40™ 2 expenses! a
5th year :—
Maiden crop off 50 acres=10 tons j Value,
Good rdagls:. 50" 4 '==20' 1 essex 8) 40 000:
Full do. ,, 100 ,, =40 ,, \ peuses. (
By interest for 2 years at 5 ® cent. on
R10,000=R1,000 R75,009:
By interest for 1 year ——~——-— - on
R25,000—R1,250 2,250:

RTT, 250

SourH Wywnaap, 27th April, 1867.

76 MANURING OF ESTATES.

MANURING COFFEE ESTATES.
(From the Ceylon Observer, 5th April 1871.)

The most interesting topic discussed in this con-
nection of late has been the .effect of manures on old
estates, and, in addition to several other communica-
tions, we have received to-day the following valuable
_expression of opinion from a very competent authori-
by

Kanpy, 4th April.

Dzar Sir,—Although not one of the shining lights
whose opinion has been specially solicited by you on
the all-important question of manuring old estates,
still as one who has spent some £15,000, and a
greater portion of his time during the last three years,
on artificial manures, peradventure you will permit
me space for a few remarks thereon.

I am ‘a man under authority,’ having excellent
superintendents to whom I have only to say: Put
Sombreorum here or Bones and Poonac there, so many
ounces to a tree, and it is done—and with all the
punctuality and care which those most interested
could desire. The board placed by the wayside in-
dicates the nature of the application and date thereof.
For the first year our work was purely experimental ;
we wasted much money and gained much valuable
knowledge—if I am right, as I believe I am, that
the result has been a system of cultivation by which
we can renovate many of the exhausted properties,
while we preserve the younger estates from premature.
decay, you will agree with me the experience has
been cheaply purchased.

In all these experiments it is but right to say I
have had the valuable assistance of the most intelli-
gent estate managers, men whose apathy towards the
P, A. is much to be regretted, because there one
might expect such subjects to be ventilated ; but
what can any Chairman do if unsupported by the
experience and intellect of the various districts ?

We do not go to Yakdessa to learn planting, and
it is quite as absurd to expect the Chairman of the
P. A. to enlighten us on cultivation. Much less do
I presume to come before you with an Essay on
Manuring. My time is not my own—any more than
the results of the manure. I merely wish to state,
briefly but emphatically, that old estates can be reno-
vated, and that artificial manures do pay. Who among
us on re-visiting our native land have not seen the
black moor, where erstwhile our grandfathers dug
their praties, now transformed into rich fields of
waving corn, and by what? Simply by artificial man-
ures; and if such results can be obtained in such a,

MANURING OF ESTATES. 77

‘climate from such uncompromising materials What
might not be done here in one of the best climates
in the world?

If a man cannot keep an average estate in this
‘country in a remunerative condition, he simply shews
be knows no more of cultivation than his grandmother.

I deprecate the tendency in this country to whine
over every little difficulty. A disappointed man finds
his crop short, and, without thinking whether the
‘cause be climatic or otherwise, puts it down to his
hap-hazard manuring, and exclaims at once, What ’s
the use of manure?

Another cross-grained individual finds a spotted leaf
which he croaks over and magnifies, until he bursts
before the world as a great authority on ‘‘leaf disease.”

That there are a great number of estates too far
gone to be profitably renovated, I am but to sensible
of: one needs only to travel in the lower districts
to see this. It is lamentable indeed to watch how
tenaciously the planter will stick to his weeding and
manuring long after the dry sticks have ceased to
give the slightest hope—better for himself, much
better for his agents, that his energies were trans-
ferred to Borella. But this is no reason why an aver-
age estate favourably situated should not be kept in
a remunerative state for all time coming.

I shall give three instances out of many where I
have found manures to pay :—

No. 1.—An estate of 200 acres, altitude 3,000 feet,
steep and rocky, ten years oid, had given two very
heavy crops, afterwards a crop every alternate year
which was killing the coffee out at the rate of 5 per
‘cent per annum, barely paying expenses. Every tree
was manured with artificial manures, partly with
Sombreorum, but chiefly bones and poonac; crop of
last year 7 cwt. per acre. This year 8 cwt., con-
‘dition of trees very much improved, and not | per
cent dead. Yearly profit £2,000.

No. 2.—An estate of 300 acres, altitude 4,000 feet,
soil somewhat stiff, easy undulations, ‘‘a beautiful
sheet of coffee,” but stems of trees ‘‘ hide-bound,”
and the wiry little branches inclined to form crows’
nests, average crop 3 cwt. per acre, which left a
dead loss. Manured two years ago; crop this year 6
‘cwt. per acre, character otf wood wonderfully im-
proved. Profit £1,200.

No. 3.—An old estate probably 35 years planted,
partially abandoned for several years, crops reduced
to 2 cwt. per acre, leaving a loss of £1,200 peran-
num. Large portions reclaimed from lantana and man-
ured. chiefly with poonac (which it is but right to say
in this case we improved by passing through the cattle)-

78 MANURING OF ESTATES.

Crops of this year 6 cwt. per acre, which leaves a
profit of £1,500.
I find the following average results from manuring
good coffee :—
CartLe Manure costing £12 per acre gave 4 ewt,
per acre increase for 3 years. :
BonrE Dust costing £8 gave 44 cwt. per acre first
year, 2 second.
BonrES AND Poonac costing £8 10s. per acre, 4 cwt.
for 2 years.
SoMBREORUM costing £4 10s. 5 to 4 cwt. (some-
what uncertain).
ANIMAL REFUSE £8, gave 2 to 4 cwt. do.
PuHospHoric PorasH costing £3 5s., nil.
Compost costing £6 improved the fohage for 6
months.
ft am, dear sir, yours faithfully,
AGRICULTURIST,

‘MANURING.

(From the Ceylon Observer, 22nd April 1871.)
20th April 1871.

Dear Sir,—The appearance of the second edition
of Mr. Sabonadiére’s Planting Manual is very apropos
at a time when some authoritative statement relative
to manuring seems to be desiderated. The new chap-
ter added on this subject is as full as it can be.
No dogmatic rule can be laid down that will apply
generally ; facts can be stated and recommendations
made; but, beyond this, circumstances so vary, that
practical managers alone must decide what is best
for each individual case.

Cattle dung is the only fertilizer that can be uni-
versally applied with success.

All others must be guardedly used according to
local circumstances, taking into consideration soil, clim-
ate, age, and condition of the trees.

Guano is rightly discarded, or nearly so, from the '

list of manures. To it can be attributed much of
the disappointment of early manuring, and many of
the desolate fields one sees. It may be serviceable
at great elevations in small quantities, but it is un-
‘safe. At this time of day it should be neealers to
remark that the freer from weeds a property is, and
all estates now being opened should be kept perfectly
clean, the more benefit will the trees derive from
manuring, because they will not be robbed. When
‘there are weeds, they should, with prunings, leaves,
‘&¢., Le collected and utilized by a system of compost

heer

MANURING OF ESTATES. ~ 79

dépéts at distances that it will pay to carry all to.
This would remove the objection s0 common that heavy
cowposts can be applied only close to roads. In ad-
dition to weeds and prunings, compost heaps can_ be
formed wherever there is patana land, as in some dis-
tricts, and swamps. These must not be applied crude
and sour, but after thorough manipulation and always
with the addition say of half a pound of bones, or
half that quantity of Sombreorum or other highly con-
centrated preparations.

When patanas adjoin an estate it is customary to
have cattle sheds at different points. When both
estate and native cattle are housed, the natives will
bring their cattle in considerable numbers for a small
payment per head; thus one stone can be made to kill
two birds, make valuable manure and alleviate cattle
trespess. Itis advisable always to put a small quani!-
ty of some artificial manure with all cattle dung
and composts, it makes them go further and im-
proves the latter. The approved modes of application
are different in new and old coffee; the first has not
suffered from wash and is easy work. A _ hole to each
tree is better than one to four, the semicircular nine
inches by four, above the tree, or what I have seen
answer remarkably well in a shallow hole all round
the tree and close to the stem. In this mode of
application great care is necessary that none of the
large rootsare cut. The manure, well mixed with soil, is
appled immediately over these. Manuring old coffee is
as difficult work as new coffee is easy. In old washed
places where tons upon tons of the soil have gone to
fertilize Neptune’s garden and the trees stand out of
the ground as boys grown out of their trowsers, it
is not an easy matter to place the manure where the
trees can get it. Where stones are plentiful it is a
good plan, and not very expensive, to build a small
terrace to every tree, and then the manure well
mixed, with the best soil procurable out of the holes
usually dug for the manure above the trees, is shaken
in among the roots and all well covered, the holes
left open as an open trench, and the sediment col-
lecting in them should be put round the tree every
time they are cleared out. Where stones are not pro-
curable, the best must be done with the soil alone.

Much of the disappointment arising from manuring
not realizing expectations is caused first from the use
of over-stimulants ; and secondly, the trees being al-
lowed to over-bear without further timely aid being
afforded them. How often one hears the remark:
Such and such a manure put a splendid crop on that
field but did not ripen it. A manager knows when
trees have more crop than they can ripen, or just

80 HOW TO BUILD A CHIMNEY.

ripen, thoroughly exhausted, and it should be in his
power to help them.

Thatching is good if it can be kept up, not other-
wise. And I should rather advise, that all vegetable
substances be made into compost and applied as re-
commended above.

Yours faithfully, P.M:

HOW TO BUILD A CHIMNEY FOR A
HILL BUNGALOW.

[WRITTEN EXPRESSLY FOR THE BENEFIT OF CEYLON
COFFEE PLANTERS, BY A PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHER. |
What a comfort it is, on a wet night, up in the
hills, to sit down and toast your shins, at a fine
blazing fire; and how tormenting it is to find as one
often does that, with the comfort of the fire, you
must also put up with the discomfort of smoke.
The number of ingenious dodges which the build-
ers of chimneys on coffee estates have adopted for
jadiciously mingling the bitter with the sweet in this
matter is truly astonishing. A very common dodge
is to make a narrow entrance with sharp shoulders,
to catch a sufficiency of smoke as it enters the chim-
ney, and bring it out into the room. Another is to
contract the vent to the narrowest possible passage,
say to a four-inch pipe, where one four times as large
or eight inches is needed. Another is to make pigeon-
holes at the top not more than half the size needed.
Sometimes you find the fire away back at the far
end of a long archway, and looking into the vista,
the glare of flame is seen steaming up the vent far
away, conveying a vague impression of warmth, while
at the same time the wonderful arch is so constructed
that the roof slopes downward toward the fire, and
at the far end juts into the current of smoke, catch-
ing the necessary quantum which eddies up the slope
somewhat reluctantly into the room. A skilful com-
bination of two or more of these is not uncommon.
For the benefit of those who would prefer a cheer-
ful fire without the ‘‘soor reek,” it may be good
news to learn, that there is no more mystery about
the requisites of a good chimney, than there is about
the requirements of a water channel. <A vent is simply
a conduit for smoke, and its requirements are very
much the same asa conduit for any other fluid. To
understand it aright, one common error about chim-
neys must be got quit of, and that is ‘‘THE DRAFT.”
Smoke, like other air, may be pushed, but can’t be
drawn. You may draw a bucketful of water, but

HOW TO BUILD A CHIMNEY. St

the rope draws the bucket, not the water, the bucket
pushes the water all round and below. So you may
draw a bucket of air, by the bucket pushing it, not
otherwise. Smoke is lighter than common air, so the
air gives the bigger (heavier) push, and pushes the
smoke upwards. The hotter the smoke is, it is the
lighter, consequently the greater the difference be-
tween it and the air, and so the push of the air is
so much greater, and the smoke must move off faster.
It is to be noted, however, how very small this
push is. Suppose you have a chimney a square foot
in vent and twenty-two feet high, and the fire heated
the smoke in it, till it expanded one-tenth more
than the air outside. Then the twenty-two feet of
smoke in the chimney would be only equal in weight
(suppose smoke same weight as air, which it 1s not)
to twenty feet of air: consequently there is equal to
the weight of two feet of air less pressure inside
than outside the chimney. Hence, if the bottom of
the chimney is open to the air, the smoke is forced
upwards by a pressure equal to the weight of two
feet of air, an amount hardly to be detected by the
finest aneroid. If heat be increased till the volume
of smoke be increased to a fifth more, there would
be nearly four feet of extra pressure outside. So if
the chimney be doubled in height, and the heat
maintained so as to increase the smoke by one-tenth
throughout, we would have four feet of preseure extra
outside, and the smoke be pushed upwards with corre-
spondingly quickened speed. It is, however, a very
small pressure at that. A windgauge would shew a
very swall amount of pressure and speed at a chim-
ney top. Therefore, this small pressure must be care-
fully utilized. With pressure enough plenty of air
might be driven through an inch pipe to supply a
smelting furnace, and the smoke of an ordinary fire
through a tobacco pipe, but to secure such a speed
the pressure must be many atmospheres, not a few
feet or irches of air. When we kindle a fire in the
fire-place, we have then smoke (which is heated air,
and bits of coal, &c.) pushed up gently by the heavier
air around in a continuous current. To allow it to
get up at the speed such small force causes, there
must be room enough, say from 80 to 140 square
inches (i.e. 8x 10 to 12x12) of avent. The straighter
and smoother the vent, the easier the passage, just
as in flowing water. All bends should be easy, and
no sudden contractions, no jutting corners. To secure
this, perhaps the best thing would be to make a
block or frame the requisite size, and make the mason
build round it, ¢rawing it up ashe raises his build-
ing, thus securing a free and equal passage all the

2 HOW TO BUILD A CHIMNEY.

way up. So much for the vent. A very important
matter, however, is its mouth or entrance. When it
is desired to direct the flow of a wide stream into a
narrow channel, the channel is made wide at the
mouth and gradually narrowing to the narrow chan-
nel. So, to direct the current of smoke into the nar-
row vent, the mouth of the vent must widen, so as
to enclose all the smoke, and gradually narrow. All
sharp shoulders must be avoided. The vent must be
like an inverted funnel, or like a helmet hat, with
the crown elongated and open to form the vent.
There is no advantage gained, and much heat lost,
by having the chimney and fire far back into the
wall. If the front edge of the funnel rim (or hat
brim) comes far enough forward to catch all the smoke,
no more is needed. If the lintel ofthe fire-place
were the chop of an old pulper, its edge forming the
rim of the funnel, and the vent gradually narrowing
from that upwards, one foot and a half would be far
enough back for the wall behind, and the fire would
thus give out plenty of heat, and all the smoke go
up the vent. |

Suppose the dimensions as follows :—

ire-place, width 24 feet, from back to front 14
foot, height of lintel 3 feet, chimney vent 80 inches.
square, or 10x 8.

Fire-place, width 2 feet 9 inches, back to front 1
foot 8 inches, height of lintel 3 feet 6 inches, chim-
ney vent 120 inches, or 12x 10.

The fire-place should be so constructed that the air
may get freely wnder the centre of the fire, but not
behind it, otherwise the current rushing in behind fills
up the chimney, and forces the smoke forward, and
out into the room. A very simple way of avoiding
this is to make the bars reach only half-way back,
closing up the space behind, or, if bricks only are
used, leaving an open ho'e, say the space of a brick,
half-way, i.e., nine inches in from the front. The
current of air thus getting in below the fire, and being
directed upwards through its centre, carries the smoke
upwards and backwards safely into the vent.

Another thing of importance is the chimney-top:
aif there were no wind or rain, it would only be ne-
cessary to leave it open the same width as the ehim-.
ney. As there is wind, however, and that generally
so very much stronger in cnrrent than the current
of smoke, as to beable to stop it, and turn it back,
it must be guarded against. Where the wind is blow-
ing level there is little difficulty. A little contraction
at the top, such as the pressure, &c., will bear, may
give speed to the smoke current, to push through the
horizontal wind current. Where the wind current

HOW TO BUILD A CHIMNEY. 83

slopes downwards however, as it does where the house
is on the side of a hill, over which the wind is
blowing; or even if the house be on the edge of a
precipice, down which the current sweeps,—of course
the wind will blow slanting downwards into the upper
mouth of the vent; and, if it is at all strong, will
easily send down the current of smoke. To avoid
this, a sufficient protection is needed at the top.
Pigeon-holes—as one is always (and two often) turned.
to the wind, and so wind allowed to enter, which may
go down, or at best occupy the opposite hole for
egress—are not good in any difficult case. The sim-
plest and best in ordinary circumstances is an iron
pipe, say of 9 inches diameter, with a pyramidal
cover fixed over it, sufficiently high and wide to allow
of the easy exit of the smoke, and reaching far enough
down to keep the downward slanting wind from get-
ting into the pipe. In very bad situations, an ‘‘old
wife” may be necessary, i.e., a movable bent tube
over the other tube, the mouth of the bent tube turned |
to one side, and, by the aid of a vane, kept turned
from the wind. Or better still a ‘‘sailor’s hat,” ie.
2 pyramidal cover like the firet-mentioned, but, instead.
of being fixed, turning on a universal ball joint in
the apex. Hither of these has the advantage of
keeping out the current that would blow down the
vent, and also another advantage which will be no-
ticed hereafter. The only other source of annoyance
requiring to be noticed is the interruption, by any
cause, of the pressure of the external air. At home
where doors and windows are so close as to allow
scarcely any opening for air to enter, the greater part
of the few feet of extra pressure of the air without
is expended, in forcing the requisite current of air into
the room through the key-hole, and sending it whi:tling
through other chinks and crannies, so that often not
enough pressure is left to carry up the smoke. The
opening of a door, or window, or other hole to carry
the air below the fire, is the easy remedy. In this
country where al! is so open no such cause operates.
But an interruption may also be caused by an eddy.
If we put a board into a swift running stream, and
hold it firm with the end on the bottom and its breadth
across the current, it will be found that the water,
although it bends in its current round the edges of
the board to fill the space behind it, yet does not
stand so deep behind the board as elsewhere. If the
current be strong and the wat-r say a foot deep gener-
ally, behind the board it will be only 9, or 8, or
6 inches, according to the force of the current. So
with a stone, even when the water flows over it.
Behind the board or stone where the eddy is, there

34 HOW TO BUILD A CHMINEY.

is only the pressure of 9 or 6 inches on the bottom,
while elsewhere there is a foot. Now an eddy in the
same way may take place with the wind, blowing
over and past a house, and though, as air is an expans-
ive fluid, it does not leave a vacancy entirely, still
the pressure of the air that is in the eddy is lessened
in proportion to the force of the current. Nowif the
door or window through which the pressure is applied
and tke current flows, to carry up the smoke, should
happen to be in such an eddy, the pressure might be
greatly lessened, even to the extent of entirely coun-
teracting the effect of the lesser pressure in the chim-
ney, and causing a current in the opposite direction,
z.e., down the chimney and owt at the door or win-
dow, or the effect of the eddy is often easily detect-
able by an aneroid or barometer. Of course the only
remedy is to close that door or window, and open
one somewhere else. ‘The shape and construction of
the ‘‘old wife” and ‘‘sailor’s hat”’ forms of chimney-
tops gives them the advantage of this eddy, in re-
moving by so much the pressure of air at the top of
the chimney and thereby increasing the force of the
current up the chimney.

Such are a few facts and philosophies which may be
useful, let it be hoped, in producing fire and warmth
without smoke.

P.S.—In building a fire-place, two objects are to
be kept in view. Allowing the heat to come out
into the room and tbe smoke to escape up the chim-
ney. To effect the first, openness is required, the
latter closeness. A convenient compromise may be
made by making the back and sides of the fire-place
of the same width as the chimney, or only a very
little wider at the back and contracting gradually
into it. The sides of the same width as the sides
0! the chimney, so that the whole forms as it were
a continuation of the chimney with the front want-
ing. From the line of the front the sides widen out
on a slope as much as possible to allow the heat
to radiate through the room. The advantage of this
is that the air only gets the opportunity of rising
with the smoke on one side, 7.e., the front, and thus
the volume of smoke is not increased, and what is
is kept at the back and must go up the chimney.

ASPHALTE FLOORING. 85

na The publisher appends some papers which have
previously seen the light in the Observer and elsewhere,
and which contain information of special service to
planters :-—

ASPHALTE FLOORING,
(From the Overland Observer, 30th April 1863.)

A correspondent sends us a paper containing ‘‘ Notes
upon the Laying of Asphalte Floors,” which he has no
doubt will be interesting and useful to many in Cey-
lon :—

The first requisite in laying down asphalte floor-
ing is @ boiler, made of either cast or malleable iron.
Any size may do, but the larger it is, the greater will
be the surface covered at one melting, and the fewer,
therefore, the joints or seams upon the finished floor.
The tools required are—a light malleable iron stirrer,
for mixing the sand and bitumen in the boiler; a few
sheet iron cans with which to carry the melted ma.
terial irom the boiler to the floor ; a strong sheet-iron
ladle, for filing it into the cans; a few iron or wooden
straight-edges, to form the boundary of the asphalte
fiag when being laid; a narrow wooden spreader for
spreading out the asphalte when poured upon the
broken metal ; and two or three wooden rubbers (some-
thing like plasterers’ floats) for rubbing up the surface
of the flag as it cools and hardens,

In commencing an asphalte floor, the first thing
is to satisfy yourself the bottom is firm. [If it is not,
then ram it well down before laying on the broken
road metal. Next, if the metal itselfis not carefully
beat over the surface, no care afterwards will ever make
good asphalte out of it. The stones must lie pretty
close, and the surface be made level and even. :

For cart or any other sort of heavy traffic, double
coat work is absolutely necessary, and may be pro-
eeeded with as follows :—Dig out the ground to within
four inches of what is to form the surface of the fin-
ished fioor. Spread in from three to three and-a-haif
inches of broken metal, and ram it slightly and evenly
over the surface. Metal composed of one to one-and-a-
half inch stones, and free from dirt or sand, forms
the best floor. Smooth boulders or pebbles never do
so well. Have a boilerful of soft bitumen pr-pared,
and, when thoroughly melted, add about half its own
- weight of thoroughly dried sand or fine gravel, and
stir well, till all be intimately mixed. This half-gray-
elled stuff won’t be very viscid, and must be ladled,
therefore, into asphalte cans that wen’t leak, and
poured from thence into the broken metal, one canful
after another, till it fills up all the interstices, and
nearly flushes the stones, Mam all well down as the

ze

36 ASPHALTE FLOORING.

asphalte cools, so as to consolidate the structure as
much as possible.

_ Melt another boilerful of medium bitumen, if for
imside work, or soft, if for outside, and when melted
add fully its own weight of dried sand. Stir well
while doing so, and the produce will be a thick viscid
mass. Lay down your straight-edges upon the under
coat (now perfectly hard), so as to enclose such a
space as the contents of the boiler are likely to cover.
Ladle these contents into the cans, and empty them
smartly, beginning from one corner across the floor;
spread evenly, about three-fourths of an inch thick ;
and, when one strip is finished, begin again at the
first, ere it has time to harden. This upper coat will
incorporate thoroughly with the one below, and so wil:
each canful with its predecessor. Dust the surface
immediately with a mixture of ground chalk or éried
whitening and finely-sifted sand; or, if the floor be
wished rough, use coarsely-sifted sand alone. As the
asphalte cools, clap and rub up the surface, so as to
expel air-bubbles and remove wrinkles, and render all
firm and smooth, As it hardens, rub still more firmly
and rapidly.

When the asphalte flag is broad, a plank must be
laid across it about six inches from the surface, upon
which one of the assistants can go upon his knees
and rub it over everywhere.

Single-coated asphalte may do for barn floors and
other places subjected to the common wear and tear
of foot traffic.

The under-coat of asphalte is thus dispensed with.
Medium bitumen is used if for inside work—soft, if
for outside; and when melted it is mixed with its own
weight of dried sand, stirred well, and spread out
upon the broken metal, which may be an inch shal-
lower than in the case of double-coated work. Part
of the asphalte sinks among the stones, and binds
them well together, but the greater part remains on
the surface, and may be spread about three fourths
ot an inch thick, and dusted and iubbed up same as
in double-coated work.

The irons should be placed straight on the broken
metal, levelled carefully, and fixed firmly down, A
smart stroke will bring them away when the flag has
cooled, and then it will present a clean and square
edge, against which a second flag may be laid, and
will adhere closely. The seams or joints may be soft-
ened either by a chauffer or a, red hot-iron held over
it. (but not in contact), dusted with the chalk, pared
carefully with the edge of the rubber, and pressed
and vigorously rubbed, after which the joining will
scarcely be seen, Before laying one dag against an-

ASPHALTE FLOORING, 83

other, brush the joint clean, and see you press the
hot asphalte well into the edge of the cold flag.

The straight-edges should be three-fourths of an
inch thick, and are better made of malleable or cast.
iron. The cast iron ones are generally bevelled on the
one side, so as to form the edge of channels when
turned upside down. Wooden straight-edges will do,
if rubbed over with chalk or clay, to prevent the
asphalte adhering to them, In making a channel im
the asphalte, the bottom must be first laid three-
fourths of an inch below the finished surface. When
cool, the bevelled irons can then be laid upon it up-
side down, and the floor proceeded with as usual.

Stir the bitumen occasionally while melting to pre-
vent it burning, or clinkering to the bottom of the
boiler; and see you prevent any great amount of rain
from getting in, or the contents may chance to boil
over. When the asphalte is about to be laid down,
see thatitis hot enough, and the cans and ladle well
heated before the fire. In emptying the cans, scrape
them out every time, or they will get crusted up, and
carry almost nothing.

In all. cases where there is to be much traffic, such
as at doors or door-steps, it is a good rule always
to lay the asphalte a little thicker than over the
rest of the floor—perhaps even to double-coat a square
yard or twe there, You will do well to paint all iron-
work and the edges of door-steps and other parts to
which you wish the asphalte to adhere firmly with
black varnish. When the varnish dries, the asphalte
will etick far more firmly to the stone or iron-work.

For kitehen floor, bakehouses, smithy-shops, and
other fioors where there is to be always much heat,
hard bitumen should be used, and made stiff with
gravel, and spread het. 70 ecwt. of bitumen will do
100 sqnare yards of good single, and 90 cwt. the same
extent of double asphalte. The blocks of bitumen
weigh about 2 cwt. each. A cubic yard of broken
metal should serve 14 to 15 square yards of single,
and 12 te 13 yards of double asphalte work.

Pitch oil is used to soften the bitumen when too
hard for the sort of work intended. It is added
slowly to the mixture in the boiler immediately after
the sand. In forming roads for cart traffic, a larger
addition of this pitch oil is absolutely requisite. The
metal should be dry and free from dirt, and spread
three to four inches thick with a slight rise from
side to centre. This is grouted full of hot balf-gray-
elled asphalte—the stones left appearing on the surface
so as to catch the horses’ feet. The surface should be
well sanded, and firmly rammed as it cools. Where
the cart traffic is great, a second coarse of this grouted
metal is often necessary.

$8 FASTENINGS FOR IRON ROOFING.

MUR. TYTLER ON FASTENINGS FOR IRON
ROOFING,

November _ 1838.
The Secretary, Planters’ Association. 5;

Sir,—When Columbus made the egg stand on end
on the table, how simple the matter appeared to his
audience. There 18 many an idea as simple, but of
far more utility. I had a store covered with corru-
gated iron in an exposed situation. If the sheets of
this iron were fastened down at both ends, the sim-
ple principle of expansion and contraction of the iron
by the alternating degrees of heat and cold very soon
loosened the nails or rivets and the sheets became
loose. The manager of the estate was annoyed be-
yond endurance by the blowing off by the wind of
his store roof, and in his desperation he screwed them
to the rafters. The result was, one blowy night, the
rafters and all were lifted off.

John Gordon, the pulper-maker, conceived the idea
of rivetting slips of iron, to one end of each sheet of
iron, into which he slipped the end of the over-
lapping sheet, nailing the other end to the rafter or
reaper, and the other end being loose slid up or down
within the slip according as the iron contracted or
expanded, and thus he kept his iron firm and secure.
Recently, on an emergency, I had to cover a store
with iron. I could find none of Gordon’s iron, but
only plain sheets. In my dilemma I mentioned the
difficulty to a gentleman in Kandy, who tore off the
cover of- a Price Current, and shewed me how by
pieces of stiff hoop iron bent in three to slip over
the end of the upper sheet, and under that of the
lower sheet, I might answer the purpose. So I pro-
cured. these from Walker & Co., and nailing the upper
ends of the sheets to the rafters, and holding the
lower end of the next overlapping sheets by means of
these slips, the roof is all I could desire. The corru.
gation of the iron admits of expansion across the
sheet, while the lateral expansion and contraction work
up and down the hoop-iron slips, and the nails are
not loosened, nor the roof impaired.

In gratitude to the friend who gave me the idea,
I communicate this intelligence to my fellow planters
through you, not doubting that there may be some
who will be as thankful as I am to know how to get
over a difficulty, serious in itself and in so very sim-
ple, inexpensive, and rational a manner,

Yours very truly,
R. B. Tyrer,
Chairman,

IRON ROOFING AND SAWN TIMBER. 89

CORRUGATED IRON ROOFING.
(From Ferguson's Ceylon Directory, 1872.)

The following piece of useful information from 4
practical planter has been lying by us for a consider-
able time. In working up papers connected with our
Handbook it comes before us again, and doubtless
the suggestion will still be useful to many planters.
Our correspondent writes :—‘‘In your Useful Memo-
randa (see page 79), under the heading of ‘‘ Corrugated
Iron Roofing,” you say the sheets should be double
rivetted ; now rivetting spoils the iron for after use,
é.e., some of the rivets generally refuse to come out
from rust, hence in removing the iron that part will
tear. Now, to prevent this, there is a better plan
which I think ought to be in your useful book; 1%
is this: instead of the rivet use a clip

> 3)
a a Hi :

something like the above. The space from B to A
going over, round, and under the reeper upon
which the iron is laid, the top of the first sheet of
iron goes under the part of the clip B C, and the
bottom of the second row of iron slips into the part
D E. On the lower side A the clip ought to have a
small nail into the reeper; for the first row of the
iron the clip ought to be merely, as it holds only

LS
the one by the above methods. By the simply remov-
ing of your ridging, you can take off your roofing
without injury to a single sheet; ? inch good hoop
iron is the best size for the clips=two clips for each
sheet :

Clip No. 1. No. 2:

{aes

HOW TO MEASURE SAWN TIMBER.
Rakwana, 27th July 1871.
The prevailing practice in this district in the mea-
suring of sawn timber is to measure the breadth only
of all planking under 2 inches thickness; over 2 inches,
the breadth and thickness ought to be measured. In
the case of reepers from 2 to 3 inches broad width,

4

90 AREA OF LAND AND COFFEE WEIGHTS.

measurement is the rule, but when a large number
of them are required, the better plan is to arrange
for them by the 100. Sawyers prefer the cutting of
reepers to anything else, and will take them at a
lower rate per 100 than breadth measurement, when
not mixed up with heavy scantling, such as ‘beams,
pillars, and joists, which use up a number of trees
for very little sawing. The rate at which sawyers are
paid here is 12/ per 100 feet, except for the entting
of Nie when 15/ has to be paid.

AREA OF LAND.
(From the Queenslander.)
To aid farmers in arriving at accuracy in estimat
ing the area of land in different fields under culti-

vation, the following table is given :—
5 yards wide by aes long contains one acre.
10

97 23 99 32 +2

20 oe) 23 242 re) 29 99
40 , 99 121 ,, 99 99
70 3 x9 693 +9 2). 23
30 99 99 ) 7 99 BES
60 feet wide by 726 feet long contains one acre.
410 23 od 396 9% +) Ee)
120 ,, oP) 363 ry) > ”?
(220 4, 29 198 99 9 ”
240 be) 99 1814 >) 2? a?
440 aa er) 99 33 99 a3

FOREIGN WEIGHTS AND MEASURES REFER: —

RING TO COFFEE, &c.

Brazil Sack=161'91b. or 13 ewt.
1,000,000 sacks—1, 450 ,000 'ewt.
500, 000 do.— 725, 100 do.
1,000 do= 1,450 do.
Brazil Arroba32: o8l7 lb. or about 2 2 of acwt.
[5 arrobas of 32 Ib. each say—1 bag=160 Ib. J
100 arrobas=nearly 29 ewt.
10,000 do. =28903 cwt.
Java Picul=183} lb, or (for purposes of rough estimation)
eaaly 1! of acwt.
1,000,000 piculs=1, 181,500 cwt. =
Dutch Pond is 21 lb. or 3, of a cwt.
French Kulogramme ig 24 lb. or 3, of a ews,

.

USEFUL

MEMORANDA AND HINTS.

91

F “om our Directory we take useful hints worthy of repetition here :—
From “MoLteswortnH’s Pocket—Book oF ENGINEERING ForRMULz.”’

[Extracted by permission of the Author]
SEEN

ASPHALTE FLOORING.
8 lb. of asphalte composition will cover
1 sup. foot, ? inch thick.
CORRUGATED IRON ROOFING.
nl

3 e

B. Wire a Weight per} &

Gauge. square. =

2 a
2 w
Feet. ewt. qrs. lb.

No. 16...16%2t08%3]}1 0 14) 800
18...\1642t08n%3|1 1 6 | 1000
20....6%2to8x3 /1 3 6 | 1250
22...16%2to7# 22! 1 2 7 \ 1550
24...1642t07*%23|1 0 24 | 1880
26....642to7*23|.1 0 6 | 2170

1-10th of the weight to be added for
lappage.

Sheets should overlap about 6 inches,
and be double rivetted at joints.

3 lbs. of rivets required per square of
roofing. :

Purlins should be 6 feet apart.

Curved roofs may be made up to 20
feet span without framing; tie-rods 12
feet apart.

SOUND.
Velocity of sound in air...= 1,142 ft. per
[second.
Ditto BS water — 4,900 _ ,,
Ditto a trom = —— VEO: as.
Ditto 4 copper—10,378 _,,
Ditto ap wood =12,000 ,,

to 16,000 ,,
Distance sounds may be heard on a
still day:

Human voice......... 150 yards.

Hille dnsseees eee -cs. 00”

Military band ...... OLN) he

Gannon... <c.ccssses509,000* 8
HEAT.

Conducting power of substances, slate
being 1000.

3) BUG coscceccucesacn Fire-brick ...... 620
Ailes oepelessieaeiese Cita iss caceostee nites
Flagstone Asphalte.........
Portland stone.. 750} Oak . = a6
Brick.....+00+..... 600 | Lath and plaster 255

to 730 | Cement ......... 200

GLUE TO RESIST MOISTURE.
1 Ib. of glue melted in 2 quarts of
skimmed milk,

When strong glue is required add
powdered chalk to common glue,

GLUE CEMENT TO RESIST MOIST-
URE.

le - :

1 pee rosin (mixed with the least pos-

1 red ochre sible quantity of water.
OR

4 of glue.

1 of boiled oil by weight.

1 oxide of iron.

ADMIRALTY KNOT=6080 FEET.

Marine paddle-engines generally work
up to 3 times nominal horse-power; screw
engines (direct action) to 4 times.

WATER POWER.
Theoretical horse-power of water:
Q—Quantity of water, in cube feet, per
minute.
h—Head of water from tail-race, in fect,
HP=—Theoretical horse power.
HP—.00189 Q h.

528 HP
Qa
h
Effective horse-power for different

motors:

Theoretical power being,..............—=1.00

Undershot water-wheels ...........— «35
Poncelet’s undershot water-wheels— .60
IBTEASG WICCLEER SS scatter nuevos sadcanicceeees “55
Eig A-Dreast He s.ns.sastoscescnes « ae
Overshot wheel aessbees=— -.68
PUT DINE Heer. Mio cspat sconces sete 70
Hydraulic ram rising water.........__ .60
Water-pressure engine.........00+...— .80

MEMORANDA CONNECTED WITH WATER.
1 cubic foot of water—62.4 lb.
1 eubic inch ......... =—=05001p:
LT gallon i...........0.==l0Ib.
OL .eeeee secsescerseeeee——0.16 cube feet.
1 cube foot of water —6.2355 gallons.
or, approximately —6+ és
1 ewt. of water......—1.8 cube ft.=11.2 gals.

1 ton of water.)..... =—=89.9 cube ft.—224 ,,
Pressure of water per sq.inch at different
heads:

P—Pressure in lb. per square inch.

H—Head of water, in feet.

P—H » .4833.

H—P 2.31.

Pressure per square foot—H 62.4.

Cubic feet of water x 0.557—ewt. approxi-
[mately.

x <2 4 0.028—tons 5

1 cube foot of sea water...—64.14 lb.

Weight of sea water—weight of fresh

water ® 1:028.

2 USEFUL MEMORANDA AND HINTS.

TO MEASURE HEIGHTS WITH THE SEXTANT.

jane ey Angie. Diyisor.| Angle.
fe)

1 45 0 1 45 0

2 63 26 2 26 34

3 71 34 3 18 26

4 75 58 4 14 2

5 78 41 5 11 19

6 80 32 6 9 28

8 82 52 Jt8 on8

10 84 17 10 5 43

Set the sextant to any angle in the table, and the height will equal the dis-
tance multiplied or divided, as the case may be by the number opposite to: it.

RAINFALM.
Inches of rain-fall } 2,323,200 — cube feet per square mile.
” ” »4 144 — millions of gals. per ditto.
99 ” 8630 = cube feet per acre.

\

HINTS ON THE| CONSTRUCTION OF CARRIAGE ROADS.

Ordinary turnpike roads, 30 feet wide, the centre 6 inches higher than the sides,
A feet from the centre 4+ inch below the centre,
9 feet from the centre 2 ,, do. do.
15 feet from the centre 6 ,, do. do.
Footpaths 6 feet wide, inclined 1 inch towards the road:
Side drains 3 feet below the surface of the road.
Roap MarEriaLt: bottom layer gravel, burnt clay, or chalk, 8inches deep. Top layer,
‘broken granite not larger than 1% inch cube, 6 inches deep.
FoorpatHs—fine gravel, or sifted quarry chippings, 3 ities thick:

WEIGHT OF EARTHS, ROCKS, &c.

Weight of Cube yard of Sand about 30 Cwt.; Gravel do. 30 do; Mud do. 25
do; Marl do. 26 do; Clay do. 31 do; Chalk do. 36do; Sandstone do. 89 do; Shale
do. 40 do; Quartz do. 41 do; Granite do. 42 do; Trap da. 42 do; Slate do 43 do.
Morrar—1 of lime to 3 or 33 of sharp river sand.

Or, 1 of lime to 2 of sandand1 of blacksmith’s ashes or coarsely ground coke,
CoarsE Mortar—l of lime to 4 of coarse gravelly sand.

CONCRETE—1 of lime to 4 of gravel and 2 of sand.

Hypravutic Mortar—l of the bluelias lime to 23 of burnt clay ground together.

Or, 1 of blue lias lime to 6 of sharp sand, 1 of puzzolana and 1 of. ealeined
ironstone,

BetTon—1 of hydraulic mortar to 13 of angular stones.

CEMENT—1 of sand io 1 of cement. If ereat tenacity is required the cement
Should be used without sand.

WaTERPROOF Mastic Cement—1 of red lead to 5 of ground lime and 5 of
sharp sand, mixed with boiled oil,

CULTIVATION OF POTATOES. 93

POTATO CULTURE IN NUWABRA ELIYA.
(Specially contributed.)

The season for planting begins in March, and ends
in September; very few people plant earlier or later
because of the frost. Forest-land is the best, as it
yields about twice as much as patana in general. The
soil ought to be turned up one or two months (and
longer if possible) before the potatoes are planted.
Guano and cattle manures are most in use. The first
yields the heaviest crop, the second is the cheapest,
and some people think it lasts the longest: it is used
by most farmers, especially by the natives. The land
intended for the crop is dug over two or three times,
and all roots and stones are removed; the drills are
then cut about two feet apart, and the manure is
then put in ready for planting. The potatoes from
the Neilgherries, India, are preferred, though some
plant seed they save from the first crop, from foreign
potatoes, and now and again you see a crop of Aus-
tralian and Bombay kinds. When everything is ready
the potatoes are cut in pieces (such pieces ought to
have two or more eyes) or planted whole, according
to fancy, and planted outin the drills about one foot
apart by Europeans, and about 8 inches apart by
natives. They are then covered over with earth about
2 inches deep. Nothing is done to them after, until
they begin to grow, when the black grubs generally
cut them off, so people go round catching the latter.
When the plants are about 4 inches high, they ought
to be moulded up, and again when they are about 6
inches. Some people mould three times, but it re-
quires care as the roots may be disturbed and so spoil
the crop. The enemies of the potato farmer are, Ist,
the black grub (mentioned above), which does the most
harm during the first month. :
2nd, the wind—it does the most harm during the
months of May, June, July, August, and September.

3rd, the elk—they eat off the tops and tread down
the ridges and are hurtful all the season.

th, the pigs—they root up the potatoes and eat

them; they do the most harm during the 3rd month.

5th, porcupines—do. do. do. do,

6th, rats— do. do. do. do.

wth, the frost—it does harm to the crops planted
early or late if they are near water.

8th, the disease—it shews itself before the pota<
toes flower, and is the worst of all, as you can neither -
catch, frighten, nor destroy it. The crops are ripe
at the end of the 3rd month,* when they are generally
dug out, and if an acre was planted and gave a fair

* Some leave the crop in the ground two weeks longer,

74 POTATO CULTURE AT NUWARA ELIYA.

crop, the yield would be from 40 to 50 cwt.* The
quantity generally planted on an acre is 8 cwt.t.

The following is about the cost of clearing and plant-
ing, &c. :—

Isr Crop.

Forest. £8. di

To clear, fence, and turn up fe Lo 2D Orie
10 cwt. manure if guano... = it LOBOS
8 cwt. seed at 45s. ... ie ca wi 8. Oa
Drillmg and planting ... a aan ih J 2N Meee
Moulding and grubbing Ape oS MOS
Taking out le bi St, 2) a0

4
Total...£53 10 0
Patana.
‘To fence and turn up Be Se ve 1500
12 ewt. manure guano ibe 203 bon Le
8 cwt. seed... Ae vee ab oie te pian U)
Drilling and planting ... ae sy cs Be O80
Moulding and grubbingt ... ss oo TD EG
Taking out co . io 500 2 0 0
Total ..£50 12 0
2ND CROP.
Porest or Patana.

‘Yo turn up the land... aes eee OO
10 cwt. manure guano aan Zab tO OMnO
8 cwt. seed vas ae He wel ido) i) ete Uy
Drilling and planting ... Ba see oa OS)
Moulding and grubbing ee Hn ot) LORS
Taking out ioe Bod oan oe Pan eae
Total...£35 10 0

If cattle manure is used, about £1 ought to be
taken off the foregoing estimates. That is in case the
ynanure is close to the garden and a native the owner.

The prices of potatoes range from 15s. ae Be ewt.

N.B.—The drills are cut about 8 inches deep and
about same width. Guano is generally put to the
potatoes when they come up and before a shower of
rain and the mould drawn to them at once.

* Sometimes the whole crop fails, and the produce
in cwts. is not equal to the quantity planted. And
again we hear of some people who get enormous crops
—I have only heard of two such, say of 60 or 65 ewts.

+ A~ European will not use so many cwts. to the
acre: about 7 cwts. would do unless the seed was
very large.

[The reason patana costs more than forest land for

grubbing is that there are more grubs in it.

LQ) E+ 0G Ra See
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CO <H R= 10 D210 Di AN Oo SH
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Coolies

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[30 cents.
100 30°00
50 15:00
335 10-00
25 7°50
20 6-00
162 5°00
143 4:29 .
123 3°75
11} 3°33
10 3°00 |
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34 1-00
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10 39:00 | 40:3
20 65 19°5 | 20-1
30 432 13:00 13°45
40 324 9-75 |° 10-0:
50 26 7°8 8-0!
60 212 6:50 6:7:
70 184 5-57 57
80 164 4-87 5-0:
90 144 4°33 44s
100 3 3°90 4:0:
200 63 1:95 2-0)
390 4 1:30 1°36)
400 4 0:97 1:0)
500 23 0-78 0:8)
600. yas 0°65 0-6)
650 2 0°60 0-65
| 7
Cet
10 150 45-00 | 46:°5(¢4
20 75 92°50 | 23-25 '
ee BO peer gerne le DFO. ot

Ez" We have had pla
useful-to his..brethren;—

4d,
Days. | 17:cts.
RC
4 0 08
1 017
2 0 38
3 0 50
4 0 67
5 0 53
6 100
7 117
8 133
9 1 50
10 1 67
11 1 83
12 2 00
13 217
14 2 33
15 2 50
16 2 67
17 2 83
18 3-00
19 317
20 8 33
2L 3 50
22 3 67
23 8 83
24 4 00
25 417
26 4 33
27 4 50
28 4 67
29 483
30 5 00
5

Go
te
DANN AOBAMAIH Ro PoC COIIDNIE HEE OOOO

PRADO COTO OR Bp iB oo oo oo C9 CORO
a oS
(o-)

Iaponrawss

1
0
9
8
Uf
i
6
5
i

31 17 46 | BE 10 98 _| 11 6:

Konccoancn
SaerociIps

COONNHAIIGGSAIAINTE AROS NINHHESCSSS
co
1

Dworws oor

TABLE OF COOLIES’

KANGANIES’

ONIqanrkw

5d. 6d. 7a.
21. cts, |25 ets. | 29 cts. | 31 cts
RC RU

010 12

0 21 25

0 42 50

0 62 75

0:83 00

1 04 25

1 25 50

146 75

1 67 00

1 87 25

2 08 50

25,29 75

2 50 00

29

Wor Sc

95

ced at our disposal the following tables compiled by a planter,” which, he thinks, will prove very

PAY,
8hd. 9d. Money EQuivaLents,
35 cts. | 87 cts,
Ro | Ro s Dee er c.

18 0

85 03
yet 07

OOOSMMMOIIIBDGAACNPE Poco LN NH HHOSOn
: 2
QQ

Ss
©
OOCWMOIIAA RWC P Pe cococonm nse
= oGie a S SERIE 25, S\SRa\eae

pre

soocsood
a

es ps

Be
SPSODIATR WI HOH SODIAMEwWMWHOOS

NEHER EES OSS OSS SSC OCOSSoOR

FPoscoososoococoeessocos

WAGES Af ld.

I cLMGnenltisat. | ool a aC Tr a
Days,| RC |Days.| RC |Days.) RC |Days.| RC | Days. Rd Tf the rating be by Cents multiply the number
1) -0°04 | -25 | 104 |} 49 | 2-04 | 78 | 8 04 97 404 | of days ty the Cents; and in the aEWGE dot off the
2 | .008 | 26 | 108 | 50 | 208 | 74 | 3 08 98 40} | two right-hand figures, which will show the correct
8 | 012} 27 | 112] 5L | 212 | 75 | 312 99 412 | answer in Rupees aNp CENTS,
a |.017 | 28 | 137 | 52 | 217 | 76 | 817 | 100 41
5 | MONEY| ol} Ty \ives |caial | 774) 8211) 1a 464 Henistae 1.
6 ) 085 | G0 | 125] 54 | 225 | 7B | 325 | lat 6 of What is the value of 375 days’ labor at R037
7 029 31 T 29 55 2°29 7 8 29 200 Bias per day,
8 |038 | 82 | 1398 | 56 | 233 | 80 | 353 | 256 | 1017 ‘Thus 375 days
9 | 0387 | 83 | 1387 | 57 | 287 | 81 | 3 87 272 1188 Multiplied by 37 cents
10 0 42 54 1 42 58 2 47 82 3 42 300 12 a0
11 | 0.45 | 85 | 146 | 59 | B46 | 88 | B45 | 365 | I5m ee 18,875. coats
12 | 050 | 86 | 150 | Go | 250 | sf | 350 | 400 | 1607 Equal to -R138:75
13 0 54 37 1 54 6L 2 54 ter) 3 54 500 2085
14 | 088 | 88 | 158 | 62 | 258 | 86 | 358°] G00 | 950) Hxantina,
15 | 0-62 | “89 | 162 | 63 | 963 | 87 | 3,62 | 700 | 9ou7 45 days’ labor at R125
16 | 0°67 | 40 | 167 | Gt | 267 | 88 | 867 | 800 | 3333 d5edays
T7 Ort ||) Bre} V7) 6} yar7i |) BB) | 13: 70 900 87 50 195/eents
18 0/75 42 176 66 2°75 at 5 75 1000, an i!
19 | 0:79 | 43 | 170 | 67 | 979\| 91 | 379 | 200 3h FRB tesats batt
20 | 083 | 44 | 188 | 68 | 283 | .92 | 883 | 3000 | 12510 ets wer R565 a
21 0 87 45 1 87 69 2 87 93 3 87 4000 16617
22, 0 92 46 1 92 70 2 92 94 3 92 5000 205 8
2 0.96 47 1 96 71 2 96 95 3 96 6000 250 0
24 1 00 48 2.00 72 3 00 96 4 00 7000. 291 17
Se a eee eee nee 8 SS SS SS

DISLANCES, &e.,

OF PLINTs.

Feet apart,

Pom cocotow toe

ee

XXKXEK ER X
Am Cn I Oo CORD RA

ic

Square feet
each,

1
2
4
6
9
12
16
20
204

No. per Acre,

Feet apart.

NOON oS

oe

[ana

DE ORES Bee O:g D.GIDS

Square feet
each.

Nor Acre. | Feet apart, | Square feet | No, per Acre,
eac
1,936 7H 8 56 778
1,742 8 x 8B 64 681
1,58 9 nw 9 81 638
1,452 10 »% 10 100 435
1,440 Wy. 2 144 302
1,320 1 y 16 225 193 |
1,210 7» W 289 1651
1,087 20 4 20 400 109
, 889 25 4 25 625 i)

ESTATE WORKING TABLES.

96 :
eee ee eee
—
No. of | Coolies Cost per AcrE oF 1,000 TREES :—1IN RUPEES AND CENTS. No. of | Coolies Cosr rer Acre oF 1,200 TREES:—1N Ruprrs AND CENTS.
Tr Pr Trees per r%
rees pi @ | @ @ @ @ @, @, @ @ @ @, ) @ @ @
¥ Cooly.| Acre. {30 cents. 31 cents.|32 cents.|33 cents.|34 cents./35 cents. 37 cents.|38 cents.|!? Cooly.| Acre. 30 cents.|31 cents, 33 cents./34 cents./35 cents. |36 cents: (87 (er 38 cents,
10 30-00 | 31: 2-00 | 33°00-| 3400 | 35°00 10 | 120 36-00 | 37-20 39:60 | 40:30 | 42:00 | 4320 | 44:40 | 45-60
zg ne Fe ie | ara0 76-00 16:50 -| 17°00 | 17°50 Hh 20 60 18:00 | 18-60 peo 20-40 | 21:00 | 21:60 aa
a ; 0-00 | 10:33 | 10-6 11:00 | 11°33 | 11:67 ; 30 40 12:00 | 12-40 20 | 18:60 | 14:00 | 14-40 5-20
* 338 a0 43 8-00 8:25 8:50 8:75 9°25, 40 30 9-00 9°30 9:90 | 10:20 | 10:50 | 10:80 11:40
4 25 75 A aoe aan 6-80 7-00 7:40 50 24 7-20 Tedd 7:92 8-16 8-40 8:64 9:12
50 20 6-00 0) Dest oY ee 5-83 617 60 20 6:00 6-20 6-60 6°80 7:00 7-20 760
60 163 5:00 57 533 5°50 5°67 ibe ae 70 tz na Ba a3 i : 20 ‘6
7 43 29 4:43 4:57 4:71 4:86 5:00 5°29 74 ol 1 66 5°83 0 6-17 a 6-51
0 es 4 3a 4-00 412 4-25 4:37 4°62 80 15 4°50 4°65 4-95 5°10 5:2: 5°40 5°55 5°70
: m4 Bi Pen 3:56 3-67 3-78 3°89 411 90 133 4:00 4:13 4-40 458 4:67 4°80 93 5-07
ane te aoe Se amp | 320 | 2830 | 340 | 3:50 3°70 100 12 3°60 | 3-72 3-96 | 4:08 | 420 | 4:32 44 | 456
a 5 1°50 155 1°60 1°65 1:70 1°75 1°85 200 6 1:80 1:86 1-98 2-04 2:10 2:16 22 2-98
300 3h 1-00 1:08 1:07 10 Lis La7 He 300 4 120 128 132 1-36 149 1 6 153
2] "15 0-77 0:80 82 “85 : 2 : i 9 ; F 4 : : 4
ao | 2 | ow | om | ee | oe | ost | ov oF amoebae poe oe | oe
{ 2 ‘6! “62 M H Bu 72 ale Y
Ean
Cost prep Acre or 1,300 Trees :—1n RuPEES AND CENTS. Cost PER Acre oF 1,400 TREES :—in RupEEs AnD CENTS.
10 | 130 39:00 | 40°30 6 42:90 | 44:20 5 48:10 : 10 | 140 4200 | 43-40 46°20 | 47:60 | 49:00 | 50-40 8 53°20
20 65 2015 | 20: 21:45 | 22-10 2°75 24-05 : 20 70 21:00 «| 21-70 D310 | 23:80 | 24:50 | 25:20 | 25-9 26°60
30 3h 3: 13143 38 14:30 | 14°73 ; 16:03 i 30 463 14:00 | 14-47 1540 | 15:87 | 16°35 16°80 : 1773
40 2. |: 10-07 : 72 | 11-05 3 12-03 23° 40 35 10°50 | 10°85 : 11°55 | 11°90 | 12:25 | 12-60 2°95 13°30
50 8 8:05 30 8:58 8°84 P 9°62 ; 50 28 8:40 8:68 ¢ 9:24 De : a0 36 10-64
60 212 3 6°72 3°95 715 7:37 ue 4 8:02 "28 60 23h 7:00 7:23 ¢ 7-70 “9. 3 “40 6: 8:87
70 P 5 576 56 6:13 6°31 5 6 6°87 06 70 20 6-00 6:20 : 6:60 6°80 ie 7:20 4 7:60
80 j 8 5:04 p 36 5°52 5°6 9°8e 6 ; 80 | 174% 525 5-42 : 577 5:95 612 6°30 : 6°65
90 d : 4-48 q ‘77 491 5:06 PP Bice 54 90 155 4:67 4:82 ; 5-13 5:29 5:44 5:60 B 591
100 g 4-03 16 29 4-42 4°55 6 4°§1 494 | 100 14 4:20 4:34 4 4:62 4-76 4:90 5:04 : 5°32
200 ; 95 201 2-0 214 2-21 2-27 23 2-40 247 | 200 7 2-10 217 By 2-31 2:38 2-45 252 “BS 2:66
300 "g 1:3 ‘s 43 147 1:52 3 1(0 | 165 | 300 43 1-40 1-45 . 154 1°59 1°63 1:68 : 177
400 4 9 1-01 “0! 07 1:10 114 e 1:40 1:23 | 400 3h 1:05 1:08 : 115 119 1:22 1:26 : 1:33
500 1 78 0-81 8: 86 0-88 0-91 Y Os 0:99 | 500 23 0:84 0:87 : oe 8 Oe us : Hae
600 65 0-67 6 72 0-74 0-76 ‘78 P 0:82 | G00 2h 0:70 0-72 ; 07 7 82 8 86 :
650 : 0:60 0°62 6 0°66 0:68 0:70 7 oy4 0-76 | 700 2. 0°60 0:62 A 0°66 0-68 0:70 0-72 : 0-76
i i { :
ee ee ee ee ee ees ee ee ee ee eee
£ oF 1,500 TreEs:—1n Rupres anp CENTS. Cost per Acre or 1,700 Trees :—1n Ruprrs AND CENTS.
10 | 150 | 45-00 ; 5 4950 | 5100 5250 | 54 550) 57:00 | 10 | 170 51-00 | 53°70 : 5610 | 57°80) 59:00 ; 6120 |) 6290 ) 6460
20 75 22:50 24: 2 25:50 | 26:25 | 27:00 , 2745 | 28°50 20 85 25:50 | 26:35. “2 28°05 || 28°90 | 29°75 30°60 | 31:45 | 32:30
30 50 15:00 | la-au » 16-60—|—16-50—} 47-00-1750 ; 18°50\ | 19-00] 30 56g 17°00 | 1757 zlib ISO | 1927" | 1983" | 2040 | 2097] 21-53
40 374 “5 11:62 | 1200 | 12:37 |. 12-75 | 13°12 3: 13°87 | 14:25 | 40 424 12°75) | 1317 : 1402 | 14:45 | 14:87 | 15:30 | 1572 | 16-15
60 30 00 | 9:30 | 9:60 9:90 iy wo ; 1110 | 11-40 | 50 34 10°20 | 10-54 ‘88 || ee ee 11:90 feet ee ae
j 25 50 7-7 8-00 25 50) 8 k 9:25 9°50 60 28h 8°50 8:78 H 9°35 6 9:92 2 " 7
70 21} 4 6 6°86 7:07 729 | 7:50 : 7/93 8-14 70 243 7-29 753 mT | 801 | 8-26 8:50 8:74 $-99 9-23
80 18} 5°62 “ 6-00 6°19 637) 6:56 15 6:94 712 ) 80 274 6:37 6°59 ‘ 7-01 7-22 7-44 7:65 7°86 S07
a0 168 5 5: 5°33 550 | 567 | 5:83 3° 617 | 6:33 90 | 183 5°67 5:86 i 6:23 6°42 6:61 6:80 | 6:99 | 718
Lee re “ 480 | 495 |. 510 | 5:25 | 5:40 | 5:55 | 5-70 | 100 | 17 B10 | 527 | 544 | 5:61 | 578 | 5:95 | 612 | 629 | 6-45
200 7h 9:9: 2-40 247 2:55 2:62 2°70 211 2°85 | 200 84 1:55 2:63 272 2:80 2°89 2:97 3:06 314 3-23
300 5 G 1:60 1:65 1:70 “TE 1:80 1:85 1:90 | 300 58 1:70 1°76 181 1°87 1:93 1:98 2-04 2-10 2-15
400 3f : 16 1:20 1:24 1:27 1 135 | 1:39 1:42 | 400 44 Te ee 32 1:36 1:40 1-44 1:49 1°53 157 1-61
500 3 ¢ 9: 0:96 0-99 1:02 | 1: 1:08 | 1 114 | 500 33 1:02 1:05 1:09 1:12 116 119 1:22 1:26 1:29
600 2h TE 077 0:80 0:82 085 | 04 0:90 | og 0-95 | 600 23 0°85 0:88 0-91 0:93 0:96 0:99 1:02 1:04 1:08
700 24 6 6 0:69 0-71 0:73 0° 0-77 0-7) 0:81 | 700 24 0-73 0-75 0‘78 0:80 0:83 0:85 0:87 0:90 0-92
750 2 . ‘2 064 | 0:66 | 0-68 | 0: 0-79 | OMMOIS bree} bone Sl st os | 06 | ofs | o70 | o72 | o7d | 07 | oro | O81
=e |e — 850 2, 0:60 0:62 6 i : “if ‘72 7 76
—_—__—_—KKRKRKKS————————
MAWURE TABLES,
Amount | Amount per Acre Amount} Amount per Acre Ampunt per Acre Amount| Amount per Acre Amount per Acre Amount /Amount per Acre
per of per of rch per rae of per of
Tree. 1,000 Trees. Tree. 1,200 Trees, 1300 Trees. Tree. 1,400 Trees. 1,500 Trees. Tree. 1,700 Trees.
Oz, | Cwts. qrs. Ib. Oz, | Cwts. qrs. 1b. Oz. | ws, qrs. 1b. Oz. | Cwts. qrs. 1b, Cwts. qrs. 1b. Oz. | Cwts. qrs. Ib.
= 1 0 2 Gel e 1 0 2 9] es 1 \ on | 1 0 3 31] & 1 @ 8 oi] Bl 1 0 3 24
a 2 1 0 Wile 2 1 ot 10-1 2 | i ol 2 tive alee 2 Pees rcs | 2 1 Be ares
rs 3 De 25 ep) 3 PO ics 3 £09 «6193] & 3 2 1 105) & 3 2 2 it] & 3 2 3 10%
ra 4 2 OBR Ses 4 2 §2 20 fi so 4 Best sai © 4 3 0c 14) % 4 36 8 Tea 19 4 3° 6a aan
x 5 Ds 23 4h| x 5 Bee Th x ij > > wt x 5 3 3 74) 5 5 4 0 203} * 5 4 2 27
s 6 len 6 ae TOT DTG aks 6 Roy 1g © 6 4 A828 corn ill ae 6 Beet0) S2adliee 6 5 2 214
ef) Ef eV) 8) gd Bla] a] be Be) ol gt lg
4 9 ® © 2a|) 9 6 0 3]8 9 6 | A 9 7 9 3a| @ 9 8 2: 4
Steere (|. 3) tie Be Ea ee ee
11 6 54 1 25 11 8 2 10 9 0 234 1
12 6 2 12 By =O a Bf. coat 12 ee te 10 0 5 124] al ete
13 fl b 13 8 2 23 9 4 20} 13 10 O 173 l63 (14a 13 12>, Jdigamor
14 VP) 8 7 14 Mil ie 0 6 74 14 i) BE OH Il 2 =| (244 ]4 13) eo
15 Bo ll age By wy 0 3 144 15 | i 2 248 i of 9 ae 15 | 14 0 25g
16 sD 16 10 2 24 Ny ae 16 12 2 0 eye is 16 1 0 2

SS ER EE REN: SELES Se TO Ee,

oF 1,200 TREES :—IN RUPEES AND CENTS.

cents.|34 cents.|35 cents.|386 cents./37 cents.'38 cents.

ee | ee, J es

13°20 13°60 14°00 14°40 14°80 15°20 ‘
9°90 10°20 10°50 10°89 11°10 11°40
7°92 8°16 8°40 8°64 8°88 92
6°60 6°80 7°00 7°20 7°40 7°60
5°66 9°83 6:00 6°17 6°34 6°51
4°95 5°10 5°25 5°40 5°05 5°70
4°40 4°53 4°67 4°80 4°93 5°07
3°96 4°08 4°20 4°32 4°44. 4°56
1:98 2°04 2°10 2°16 2°22 2°28
1°32 1°36 1°40 144 1-48 1°52
0:99 1:02 1°05 1:08 1-11 1°14
0°79 0°82 0°84 0°86 0°89 0-91
0°66 0°68 0:70 0-72 0:74 0°76

IF 1,400 TREES :—iIN RUPEES AND CENTS.

46°20 47°60 49°00 50°40 51:80 53°20
23°10 23°80 24°50 25°20 25°90 26°60
15°40 15°87 16°33 16°80 17°27 17 73
11°55 11°90 12°25 12°60 12°95 13°30
9°24 9°52 9:80 10°08 10°36 10°64
7°70 7°93 8°17 8°40 8°63 8°87
6°60 6°80 7:00 7°20 7°40 7°60
5°77 5°95 6°12 6°30 6°47 6°65

5°13 5°29 5:44 5°60 5°76 o'91
4°62 4°76 4°90 5°04 518 5°32
2°31 2°38 2°45 2°52 2°59 2°66
154 1°59 1°63 1°68 1°73 Tia
115 119 1°22 1:26 1:29 1°33
0°92 0°95 0°98 101 1-04 1:06
0-77 0°79 0°$2 0°84 086 | 0:89
0°66 0°68 0°70 0°72 0°74 0°76

9F 1,700 TREES :—IN RUPEES AND CENTS.

10 | 57807 59:50 ; 6120 ) 6290 | 64:60
| 98-90 | 9975 | 30-60 | 31-45 | S20 720)

THE COST OF COFFEE. - 97

COST OF COFFEE.
(From the Ceylon Observer, February, 1871.)

“ost oF CorFEE: Raw Aanp Roastep.—Amongst a
bundle of papers laid by for consideration, we find a
curious table published in the Produce Market Review,
giving an ‘‘ Estimate of.the cost of 1 Ib. of coffee
when roasted, calculated from a bonded price of 1és.
per cwt. ‘The duty is taken at 3d. per lb., the cost
of roasting at 33. per cwt., and the yield of roasted
coffee from 1 cwt. of raw at 92 lb.” It thus ap-
pears that the loss of weight in roasting coffee is no
less than 20 lb., while on tea there is no such loss.
This fact is, of course, taken into account by pvur-
chasers, and ought to be calculated in comparing the
value of tea and coffee for duty purposes. But, be-
sides the loss in weight to the extent of nearly one-
fifth, there is the cost of roasting to be deducted.
We may safely therefore estimate the deduction in
value at one-fifth, while tea is available just as it
stands. Good quality coffee, therefore, in a condition
ready for infusion, costs about the same as fair quali-
ty tea, and the infusion is not so easily made. These
are, doubtless, amongst the reasons why the consump-
tion of coffee does not increase in Britain. The effect
of low prices remains to be seen, if they are to go
down as we fear. Cheap coffee would be at any rate
a heavy blow and sore discouragement to chicory.
In the table before us, all the prices below 40s. are
scored out, for, when the paper reached our office at
the end of last year, the possibility of anything lower
than £2 per cwt. in bond in London was not con-
templated. Let us hope that they may not occur,
but to look at all eventualities let us commence at
30s. 6d. At this rate per cwt. in bond the cost of
1 lb. roasted coffee would be 8d.; it would be 83d,
at 34s.; 94d. at 40s.; 10d. at 45s. 6d.; 103d. at 49s.
6d.; lldd. at 55s.; 1s. at Gls; ls. 4d. at 65s.;° Is,
14d. at 72s. 6d. (the price of good ordinary Ceylon
on 29th August); and ce 2id. at 80s.; 1s. 3d. at 84s.;
Is. 4d. at 91s. 6d.; 5d. at 993. 6d. It appears
that the cost of a ‘bb. “of roasted coffee, best Ceylon
or Mocha, is as high as that of very fair black tea,
As prices go down, of course the disparity becomes
greatly in favour of coffee. But the fall in price has
not been confined to coffee: tea also has been affected
by excessive importations. So that the race remains
much as it was, as far as England is concerned. . Our
hope is in the advancing consumption in America
and on the continent of Europe,

98 MANURING.

MANURES AND THEIR APPLICATION TO
THE COFFEE PLANT. |

(To the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.) .
DEAR Sir,—Like many a better man, I take a great
interest in the planting correspondence of the Observer.
Most coffee planting topics find exponents there. If
the ideas expressed are not always convincing, they
are often instructive, and always suggestive. ‘‘P. M.”
and ‘‘An Old Shuck Coffee-tree” should favour us
with more of their views regarding cultivation; they
would be appreciated I think by all your readers. In
these matured utterances of experienced men, we find
a sort of ready-made wisdom, which to us individuals
would be slow of acquirement. And the more prac-
tical and valuable the suggestions are, the more readily
we follow them and adopt them as our own.
Most fruitful and many-sided of subjects is that of
Manuring. Have we not been hammering away per-
sistently for years at the idea that all that was wanted
to increase the crops and the profits was, manure..
And has not manure been spread liberally all over
Ceylon till even the coffee tree seems to enter a mild
protest against the reckless extravagance. Poonac !
Bones of all kinds, crushed, ground, steamed and dis-
solved ! what have you done? Sulphate of Ammonia,
and Nitrates of Potash, and Phosphates of all hues
and smells! where are your results? Already a low
but ominous sound is heard, ‘‘ Miserable comforters
are ye all,” and the export sheet will soon confirm
it. Excellent materials no doubt, all those I have
named, Use them in suitable places and in an intelli-
gent manner, and they must do good. Whether the
amount of good they accomplish is proportionate to
the expense incurred is another matter and one worth
inquiring into. Such, however, is not my purpose
now. Ina future letter I may advocate a system, and
prove some results, which would show that manuring,
compared with high cultivation without manure, was
but a very indifferent financial success. Meanwhile,
manures of all kinds are being largely used as food for
coftee trees, I wish to speak of the way in which
these ought to be applied, In olden times it was,
and is even now pretty generally, considered the cor-
rect thing to bury cattle dung and pulp in a hole
near each tree, each hole being 18 inches or 2 feet
deep and wide. Some planters preferred them larger,
but at any rate the thing insisted on was depth. Woe
betide the unfortunate sinna durai ofa dozen years
ago, who failed to exact the statute meusurement from
the coolies. Well, the hole was dug and the manure
buried out of sight, and a mound of the excavated

MANURING, 99

-earth raised over it. Ere twelve months had passed
away, the planter looked fondly at his trees, and
called his friend’s attention to the way in which the
cattle manure was “‘telling.” Marked improvement
was no doubt visible, as it was expected to be; for
cattle manure is one of those good things that will
not fail to improve coffee, however injudiciously it
may be applied. But, while the coffee was feeling the
benefit in one direction, let us see how matters stood
in a general way. The planter had dug a hole as
deep as the tap-root; and the greater part of the
manure put there had subsided to a distance which
rendered it impos ible for the surface roots to get
any food from it. The loose soil taken from the hole,
and used for covering the manure and heaping round
_the stem of the tree, begins to disperse with the first
heavy rains. Ere long, and the ‘‘ere long”? means not
many months, it finds its way to the nearest road or
ravine. The steeper the land manured happens to
be, so will this result be hastened, but, let the slope
be stiff or easy, one thing is certain, the soil you took
from the manure hole will be washed to the bottom
of the hill. In the majority of cases this soil was at
least as valuable as the manure you replaced it with,
if you only knew how to manipulate it. However,
you chose to give the streams and paddy-fields the
benefit of it, and pinned your faith to the paying
results of its more expensive substitute. What profits
you obtained are best known to yourselves, but I may
tell you that the next time you found it necessary to
have recourse to manure, these fields had become im-
poverished to an extent you were not aware of. And
as the operation is repeated the ruin goes on, till
after a few years the tree gets nearly all its sustenance
from the manure, and hardly anything from the soil
in which it was planted. Hence the notably shuck
condition of coffee, once well manured, but now left
to take care of itself. How can it be otherwise, when
you sent all its valuable soil to the sea, and left its
roots maimed and bare, to look down from above on
the surface they may not enter again. The result,
therefore, of your burying system is this, you lose
the benefit of a great part of the manure by stowing
it away beyond reach of the roots, and you lose not
a little of your soil at the same time.

Some planters had long ago recommended what they
called ‘‘ wash holes,” in the hope of preventing the
waste I have been describing. Wash holes I grieve
to see find advocates even now, A more mischievous
system of cultivation, or one less adapted to stop wash,
IT could not point out. Any reader of this will be
familiar with its results, if not on hig own estate, .at

100 MANURING.

least on those of neighbours. Promising enough these
holes look when freshly cut, and very hopeful seems
the future of the tree when encircled with the good-
looking soil dug out of them. But very soon comes
the end. The soil gets quickly washed back into the
holes again, then out of the holes and down the hill,
rutting and tearing away with it other soil which in
ordinary circumstances would have remained intact
for many years. And in a year or two you will see
the trees perched up on their individual cones of earth,
wiih their roots looking through the sides, and into
the yawning holes that have done the mischief. You
dug the holes to retain the surface wash: by and
bye you find they have not only failed in this, but
occasioned even a greater wash. Is it not so?

As the digging of large holes to bury cattle man-
ures and other manures in is open to these grave
objections, it is time that we left off such an expens-
ive, and, in its consequences, ruinous item of labour.
We must take to surface manuring. A host of critics,
sensible men and excellent planters too, will be ready
to attack this system at once: still if they give it a
fair trial it will not be disappointed. It is not a new
system though it is a good one. Nature has been
employing it for thousands of years! The dying leaves
and branches of her forests are being continually
shed over the surface of the ground, permanently en-
riching the soil and increasing the vigour of the vege-
tation. Why should not we, as cultivators of trees,
follow, as far as we may, her excellent plan? We
have all noticed the wonderful effects, after cutting a
road through coffee, of the loose soil thrown on the
surface among the trees below. Look at the coffee
near coolie lines or around cattle sheds, how lauxuri-
ant the trees are! Yet no holes were dug there, nor
laborious application attempted. ‘The ashes and other
fertilizing substances scattered on the surface Were
soon commingled with the soil they rested on, and
the appearance of the trees in foliage and in fruit
tell how well these did their work. ‘The practise of
surface manuring is simple, while it is inexpensive.
As a preliminary work it is necessary that the land
should be dramed. J.am speaking here of steep land.
On more level ground draining may be omitted alto-
gether, or but sparingly used. Drains of easy gradi-
ents, tay from 1 in 17 to 1 in 30, and from six to
ten trees distant from each other, should be cut across
the hillside and made to empty themselves into the
nearest natural ravines. In average soils it would cost
less to drain an acre, than to cut the number of big
manure holes required in that space. And once made,
- the drains remain, Any further expense they may

. MANURING. 101

oceasion, will be in occasionally clearing them out,
and that is but very trifling where they are placed.
so close together. Thus effectually protected from
wash you may apply your manure. If cattle dung,
or pulp, er bulky compest, pare down the surface of
the soil all round the tree to the distanee ef a foot
er more from the stem. To each tree apply a basket-
ful er less of the manure, spreading it equally over
this pared surface. Over the manure thus deposited,
put a thin layer of earth taken over the raised sur-
faces generally found in the middle of the rows, and
the job is done. If the coffee to be operated on has
its reots already exposed, as will be the case where
it has suffered formerly frem big manure holes or
wash holes, the roots require simply to be covered
with the manure, and this last with the thin layer
of earth to keep it compactly together and prevent
evaporation. After this treatment, keep your fields
free from weeds and watch the result. In much less
time than under the holing system you will find the
coffee improve, and the improvement will be progress-
ive, for you have preserved your manure and your soil
too. The manure has been placed in a position where
it i3 equally accessible to all the roots, and as it gradu-
ally percolates downwards, the surrounding soil gets
fertilized, rendering it able to sustain the increased
requirements of the tree.

All the practical evidences I have seen im favour
of this method have been most satisfactory, and I in-
deed hardly imagine a case where manure would be
of value at all, in which it would fail. Planters will
sometimes condemn it on such grounds as let—Waste
by evaporation. 2nd—Waste by wash and weeds.
3rd—It brings the roots above the surface. These
objections are only parts of a crudetheory. The first
two are got rid of by the treatment I recommend.
The last is not so formidable as it looks. If the ~
roots do appear to rise, recollect they are new roots
and eome no farther than the base of the manure,
while they are covered again by the next application
and able to derive sustenance from whatever is thrown
in their way. All the active feeding roots of the
coffee tree lie near the surface, then why not adminis-
ter their food in the way in which nature evidently
designed them to be fed.

In the past history of coffee-planting, can we not
recollect many instances where valuable raanures were
applied with little er no result? Even now we are
often puzzled with the seemingly capricious action of
the same manure in different places, doing good here,
and no good whatever there, while there seems no
adequate cause to explain the different results, De-

1

102 THE WET CYCLE AND SHORT CROPS.

pend upon it, the way in which manure is usually
applied bas a great deal to do with the failure. Any
sceptical planter may find this out for himself by
manuring two equally good or bad patches of coffee -
one patch by the old plan of big holes, the other
patch by the process I reeommend. If he does not
discover a marked superiority in the improvement of
the latter, his experience will differ from my own.
Yours sincerely,
ORvUM. -

——<—

THE WET CYCLE AND SHORT CROPS.
(Zo the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.)

DzaR S1r,--The unusual quantity of rain which has
fallen during the last few months would lead one to
suppose that our worthy friend Mr, Tytler is right
after all, and that we are fairly launched into the
wet cycle, which, if his theory be correct, will con-
tinue for years. -

Whether this be so or not, it is but too evident
that its effects this year have been most disastrous
upon high estates generally, and that unless the fine
weather we have experienced during the past few duys
continues and brings out another blossom (it is for-
ward in some districts) the crop of 1871-72 will turn
out the shortest of any we have had for many years
past. It behoves us therefore to consider how we
may best counteract and mitigate the effects of future
wet seasons, so far as it lies in our power. Chmate
we cannot alter, but we may to some extent modify
its influence upon our crop.

ist and foremost in my opinion deep draining should
be tried. I do not mean such drains as we generally
see cut, to carry off the surface water only, drains
18x18 inches, but at least 3 feet deep x18 inches
or 2 feet wide, the nearer the better, but, for our
purpose, probably every 12 or 15 yards would suffice.
i need scarcely tell experienced planters, that the earth
from their drains carefully spread over the surface
and roots of the trees below the drains would be as
good as a manuring, and should considerably reduce
the cost of weeding and manuring, enough to cover
the expense of draining the Ist year. 2nd, by water
holes, as they are usually called, cut transversely
across the slopes of the hills, size say 3 by 1d, or 2
feet broad by 18 inches deep, should be cut between
every other square of coffee tree, and the earth dis-
tributed over the roots. I say ‘‘every other,” be-
cause it reduces the cost one-half, and the operation
could: be made to extend over two years or more. «

THE WET CYCLE AND SHORT CROPS. 103

3rdly, early pruning: even at some sacrifice of crop,
1 would strongly recommend that this operation should.
be commenced if possible in the beginning of January.
{I am writing for estates situated at an elevation of
from 3,000 to 4,000 feet and upwards.) Lower estates
commence pruning earlier as arule. February, March,
and April, are the months we have to rely upon
most for blossom; early pruning would force this out
before the wet season set in, and should not extend
beyond March; if it could be finished by the end of
February, the results would be all the more satisfac-
tory. 4th, constant handling. Besides going over the
whole estate rapidly, at least three times a year, I
would employ a small force regularly during the in-
tervals between the different handlings to remove and
check the too rapid growth of young woed which we
all know is excessive in wet districts. The trees
should have all young weod taken off in a radius of
say 12 to 15 inches from the stem; the more the
midday sun can get to the stem and roots round the
stem the better. The more mature the bearing wood
at high elevations, the greater the chance of the
Dlossom setting.

5th, the early application ef manure im all cases if
practicable. I would apply bulky manures such as
cattle manures, pulp, rotten grass, and weeds, during
the months of January, February, ana March, and
all artificial manures during the months of April,
May, and June, commencing with the first rains.
Farm-yard manure containing so much mixture, 70
per cent of water when well rotted, can be applied
during the driest weather without disadvantage: the
manures for high estates should be stimulating ones,
especially when situated in cold as well as wet clim-
ates. They require different treatment to those situ-
ated in hot and dry localities. Long experience and
careful observation are the surest guides, but this
subject would require a treatise of itself. 6th, hand
weeding is essential. “Shuck Coffee Tree,” in a letter
recently published in the Qdserver, truthfully describes
the injurious effects of scraping, whether with mamo-
ties or scrapers. Where draining, and the cutting
of water-holes such as I have mentioned, are carried
eut, the surface in each acre to be actually weeded
is reduced fully one-fourth, Contractors where they
are employed (and a fatal day for coffee estates was
it when that system was introduced, although it has
doubtless enriched a few superintendents but not the
proprietors) would have then much less ground to go
over, the holes themselves would form ready and con-
venient receptacles for the weeds, and I apprehend
there would be little or no difficulty in entirely su-

194 THE WET CYCLE AND SHORT CROPS.

perseding the present ru'nous, destructive, and most
unsatisfactory system of mamoty and scraper weed-
ing. Many estates have been utterly ruined by it,
and hundreds: more are rapidly going to rain from the
same cause. On the one side you feed the tree by
applying manures; on the other, you destroy the feed-
ing roots, whieh are finding their way towards the
manure. May not this explam why manure does not
tell on some estates? But there is another reason,. and
the ‘*Shuek Coffee Tree” has again hit the rivht
nail on the head. Many expevienced as well as young,
planters. apply their manures teo deep: FE have seen
numerous instances of this amongst men who are looked
upon as good planters. Cut yeur holes as deep as
you like, 18 imches: or more, the sub-soil brought to:
the surface will be improved by expesure to the atmo-
sphere, but, before you apply your manure, fall in
one-half, two-thirds would be better, apply your man-
ure on that mixed with the earth you cover with,
aud if you have only two: or three inches of earth
above the mantre,. you have enough, just sufficient
to shade it. from the sun and prevent the eseape of
the ammonia or other nutritious gases evolved during
the decomposition of the manure. There is more
money wasted in ignorant and careless manuring than
proprietors or agents wot of; there is no work re-
quiring more eareful attention and supervision. Holes:
should never Be cut nearer than 18 inches or 2 feet
to the stem for bulky manures. The large roots are
torn and injured ; often the branches as well, by the
use of the mamoty too near the tree. If a knife was
always used. in paring the ends of the roots injured
in cutting manure holes, water holes, or drains, little
or no injury would follow: im fact, paring the roots:
of fruit trees to preduce fresh roots, and foree out:
fresh wood, is the usual practice at home. It sti-
mulates the trees, and if these roots to produce fresh
roots find manure at hand, crop must follow. I am:
inclined to think that a sharp knife or an adze would
perhaps answer the purpose better, passed in a semi-
circle 2 or 3 feet from the tree on the oppesite side:
of the tree to that on which manure has been applied.
Cutting all the surface roots to the depth of a few
inches now and then would improve the quality of
the sap by cutting off a portion of the supply of
moisture it is drawing from the soil, and forcing the
undivided roots on the manured side to assimilate a
larger proportion of the more nutritive constituents:
contained in the manure. It is well known that sap-
im excessive quantities is impoverished and diluted ;
reduce the quantity and improve the quality at the
game time, and you will find your blossoms not only

COFFEE IN HIGH DISTRICTS. 105

heavier, but set better. Where the soil is exhausted
and poor, the roots draw little else but moisture from
the soil, just to keep themselves alive: blossoms show
again, and again, but do not set; why? because the
sap is weak and poor in quality, its fructifying power
is wanting or weakened.

Trusting that my remarks may be of some use to my
brother planters, | remain, dear sir, yours faithfully,

‘R. J. CoRBET.

MR. CORBET ON THE CULTIVATION OF COFFEE
IN HIGH DISTRICTS.
(To the Editer ef the Ceylon Observer.)

Colombo, 2nd June 1871.

Sir,—Sinee writing my letter I have read one under
the signature ef “‘Orum.” Whilst agreeing with him
in many particulars, I differ from him on the sub-
ject of water holes, unless combined with an efficient
system of careful draining, and if the draiming should
be done first, the results he notes weuld follow.
Both holes and drains must receive equal attention,
and be kept open, otherwise they are apt to do more
harm than good. Surface manuring as he describes it
I have tried, and with good effect; the great objec-
tion to it is, that weeds spring up in the manure,
that weeding contraetors will not give themselves the
trouble to pull out these weeds with the hands, but
scrape away weeds, manure, and the slight covering
of earth together, and the roots which were spread-
ing into the manure are exposed, die, and the state
of that tree after a few months becomes worse than
before. Do away with weeding contractors if you
ean, weed with the hand, and then ky all means
apply manure on the surface, on level, or at all events
tolerably level ground and easy slopes. It will not
be found to answer se well on steep sides of hills.
fn my remarks upon pruning and handling, I should
have dwelt upon the importance of low topping on
high estates. 3 feet should be the maximum height ;
2% or even 2 feet will be found to answer best in
poor soils, on all ridges, and where exposed to wind ;
don’t wait until your trees are blown over, top as
soon after they have reached the required height as
Posie, but top in the brown, and not in the green
wood.

Hedge-rews of coffee planted close, 2 feet apart or
even closer every here and there on exposed features,
across the direction of the prevailing wind, will be
found useful; the coffee must be allowed to grow nat-

/

106 COFFEE IN HiGH DISTRICTS.

ive fashion, staked when young if necessary. It
forms an excellent hedge, and you have the advant-
age of losing no ground, as would be the case if you
planted any other description of tree for shelter.
Manure the hedge well, and it will afford ample pro-
tection to several rows of coffee. Has ‘*Orum”’ tried
‘‘liquid manure” for coffee. Of all the manures 1
have tried, and I commenced manuring 25 years ago,
liquid manure surpasses everything. It must be ap-
plied well diluted, by allowing a stream of water to
run into the tanks, and directing it im little chan-
nels or rills to catch coffee trees in turn, scraping
away the earth near the stem to form a hollow to
receive and retrin the liquid. One or two coolies can
go over a considerable quantity of ground in a day ;
it. must however be repeated three or four times a
year, but well repays the small outlay incurred. Cattle
sheds must, of course, be constructed with tanks to
receive the lquid manure in such situations as to
render this operation a simple one, the great desi-
deratum being water handy, and slopes of coffee be-
low the sheds conveniently situated for irrigation. I
have seen very shuck coffee indeed rapidly restored
under this method,—Yours faithfully,
R. J. Corser,

A CONVERSATION WITH A SHUCK COFFEE
TREE: THE COFFEE TREE ITS OWN ADVO-
CATE.

(From a Planter of over Thirty Years’ Experience.)

Master :—I should very much like to know what.
you have to say for yourself why you should not be
abandoned. You have not given sufficient fruit for
the last 6 or 7 years to pay for the looking after
you and keeping you clean, and I am every year
running more and more into debt, under the impres-
sion that you are going to give me something in
return, but you give searcely anything, and I shall
be obliged to give up taking care of you soon.

TREE :—I am very sorry for you, and would be very
glad to give you plenty of fruit, but you put it out
of my power to doso. Hvery month you send mamoties,
and scrapers, and you cut off the greater part of my
feeding roots, and I have been every month for the
last six or seven years trying to make new roots to
feed myself with, but before they are of much use
to me, your people come again and cut them off,
which has had the effect of keeping me in a state of
continual starvation.

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 107

Master :—Starvation, say you! how can that be?
have I not sent people and put food for you in a
hole so deep that neither mamoties nor scrapers can
take it from you? but still you don’t thrive, and J
am beginning to think you are ungrateful and alto-
gether unworthy of being taken care of.

TREE :—I am very sorry you have so bad an opi-
nion of me, but I tell you again, that my not thriv-
ing is all your own fault. It is true you have put
food in a hole for me, but in making the hole your
people cut a large quantity of my roots, and I could
not make use of the food until I had made new
roots, and by that time the food had gone too low
in the ground for me to get at it.

Master :—But have you none but surface roots ?

TREE :—None that will put fruit on my branches.
Lay food for me on the surface of the ground, so that
I can get at it without forcing my roots against their
nature to seek for food you put in a hole, and you
will soon see not only good vigorous wood on me,
but plenty of fruit too, and in place of your going
into debt, you will soon be out of your agent’s hands
if you will only take my advice.

Master :—But most people who have the care of
you are afraid to feed you in that way for fear the
sun would dry the good out of your food one part
of the year, and the rain would wash it away from
you the other part.

TREE :—Well! if people won’t understand my nature
I can’t help it, and I shall just go on as usual until
you change your system of feeding me, but after this
don’t blame me. I have told you what I want you
to do, and if you are afraid to do as I want you,
you must take the consequences and continue to go
into debt, deeper, and yet deeper still; but if I was
in your place, I think I could find some means of
preventing either sun or rain from injuring the food |
lnid on the surface. I could make drains in the first
place right across the hills and so close together that
there should be no very large accumulation of water.
Next I would dig holes betwe n every four trees in
the centre, between the four so as not to cut off the
feeding roots which are nearer the stems. Next I
would lay the fuod for the tree round the stem and
cover it with the earth taken out of the hole, and what
with the drains and the hole in thecentre, it would
be hard to wash away food laid for me near my stem.

Master :—Do you think this system would answer
on very steep land?

TREE :—Yes, all you have to do is to make your
drains a little closer together on steep land and don’t
send mamoties or scrapers there for the future.

i108 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

Master :—Mamoties and scrapers, it seems you have
a great hatred to those two implements.

Tree :—Yes, I have the greatest hatred possible to
them: they have been the death of a great number -
of my relations, and they will be tke death of me if
you don’t put a stop to them.

Master :—Are you not aware that if the weeds
were allowed to grow they would choke you alto-
gether, and that would be werse than now. You
have an existence, although you say it is a miserable
one, but if I was to stop the scrapers you would
soon be checked for the want of health.

TREE :—If you make the drains and holes I have
told you and feed me well, I think you might at
the same time stop the scrapers, as there would not
be so much surface to grow weeds on, Say the hole
you make is two feet square and ought to be two
feet deep, then the earth out of the hole covers a
large space under each tree: altogether I think you
might take the opportunity of taking the weeds out
by hand the same as formerly, aud I would thrive
better for it.

Master :—I am afraid the land about you would
not look so clean and tidy as it does when it is
scraped once a month, and some people are very par-
ticular about this, especially my visiting agent.

TREE :—I take it you would rather have me in good
health and able to work for you than to see me ina
sickly state the same as I have been for the last six
or seven years, and not able as you say to pay for
being taken care of, and if you do everything I have
told you to do, there will be very few weeds grow,
my branches will be so full of leaves that only the
rankest weed will grow under them, and if they are
pulled up and laid near my roots I shall feed on them
when they decay.

Master :—Then you think if your advice is taken
about the way your food is given to you and the
mamoties and scrapers done away with as far as weed-
ing is concerned, that those who look after you would
get a larger profit from you then they have hitherto
done.

TREE :—Of that I am quite positive, and you would
not hear so much about people spending all their own
money taking care of me and then going to borrow
money from others, only to keep them going for a
year or two until they can boriow no more money,
and then I am given over to the lender to pay bhim-
self out of me, but if my system of giving me my
food is not adopted, he will soon be as hard up as
the person he took me over from.

Masten :—I think your advice is good, but I can

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 109

remember, when you were younger than you are now,
that you used to give more fruit without any food
being given to you, than you do now, with ever so
much food given to you.

TREE :—You will keep saying ever so much food,
when I have told you already, that your present
sysem of putting my food in a hole prevents me from
getting more than a very small portion of it. The
reason I used.to bear more fruit when JI was young,

was because you cut down and burned all the large
trees which formerly stood here, and that left a con-
siderable quantity of the proper kind of food for me
on the surface, and I got at it easily, for at that
time there were no scrapers to cut my feeding roots
monthly, the same as now.

Master :—You say the proper kind of food for you.
I should very much lke to know what is the proper
kind of food for you; there are various opinions on
that subject.

TREE :- I can make use of many kinds of food, but
what I like best is that which has a good deal of
potash in it, witness my vigorous growth when I
was young, from the potash left on the ground after
the burning of the large trees.

Master :—How often do you require feeding. There
are various opinions about this: some say every year,
some say every two years, and there are those who
say that every third year is enough.

TREE :—All these various opinions only prove what
T told you at first, that my nature is not understood.
If you will take my advice you will give mea plenti-
ful dose the first time, when you make the draius
and holes I have advised you to make, and every
year after give me about half the quantity, laying
it always near my stem, and cover it up with any
deposit you may find in the equare hole, which is
always to be emptied once a year, and I will give
fruit every year, but those who only feed me every
second or third year will only get fruit from me
every second or third year.

Master :—If your advice is taken it will cause a
complete revolution in the way of taking care of
you.

TREE :—Yes, there will be a great revolution if my
advice is taken in every particular. The agents now
are the masters of the estates, but let my advice be
followed for four or five years, and the proprietors
will be the masters of their own properties again,
Look at your purse! how slender it is! DoasI ‘have
told you for five years, then come and shew it to me,
and I am confident it will have a larger corporation
than it has now.

110 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

MastTEeR :—There is another operation called prun-
ing: what have you to say about that?

‘’REE :—There is no use talking about pruning until
I see how you make use of the lesson I have just
given you. If that is made use of there will be some-
ihing to prune, and I may be inclined to hold another
conversation with you on that head by and bye, and
I hope I shall not then have to sign myself

A SHuck CoFFEE TREE,

A CONVERSATION WITH A COFFEE TREE
WHICH WAS NOT SHUCK.

Master (to A COFFEE TREE NEAR THE Lins) :—I
am very glad to see you in such good health. You
are not like one of your relations I had a conversa-
tion with a short time ago, and I should lke to
know how you keep in such a good state of health,
while others of your relations not far from here are
so very poorly. I have been feeding them every
now and then, but they don’t appear to derive much
benefit from the food I give them, and I don’t recol-
Jeet ever having given you the smallest particle of
food at any time, still you always appear to keep in
good health.

TREE :—You are perfectly right. You have never
given me food, but I get food in another way, and
in a way that suits me better than the way you give
food. If all food was given to my relations in the
same way that I get mine, you would see them thrive
better on what you do give them. I get my food
all on the surface of the ground, and there is a great
deal goes to waste; myself and my friends can’t con-
sume the whole of what is deposited here, and we
do wish sometimes that our poor relations could get
at what we don’t want.

Master :—Is there no possibility of the food you
have in excess being conveyed to your poor starving
relations ?

TREE :—Yes: if I should tell you how to doit, I
am afraid you will take all from me, and give to
those you think want it more than I do.

Master :—I can’t know what others may do, but
as long as I have anything to do with you I pro-
mise you shall get your fair share of food, and in the
way you want it, if you will only tell me how I
can get the food you have in excess.

TreE :—I think I may tell you without fear. Do
you see those lines? Examine them, and you will find
there is no W. ©. to them. The consequence is that
every person has to find a W. C. for himself, and

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 111!

he finds the most convenient one is under our branches,
and we thrive on what is left there, but even this
might be improved. We get our food before it has
been fermented, but if it was fermented one-twentieth
part of the food we get would be quite sufficient for us.

Masrer :—I don’t see how what you say is left
under your branches could be collected, and it can’t
ferment except there are considerable quantities col-
lected in one place.

TREE :—Can’t you just listen to me a little and I
will tell you how todo it. You make large cisterns
in the ground in a convenient place, two cisterns to
each line. Over the cisterns raise walls and a roof,
have a boarded floor over the cisterns, quite tight to
prevent unpleasant consequences as much as possible,
and have comfortable seats the same as you have for
yourself, and I bave no doubt you will be able to
get your people to use them. Empty them every 3
or 6 months; the contents of the cistern will then
be fermented and a very little will go a long way.

MASTER :—But the expense of these buildings will
be a good deal, and as far as I can see they will be
of no use except the cisterns are made water-tight.

TREE :—You are perfectly right about the cisterns,
they should be made water-tight, and the best way
to make them permanently water-tight is to line them
with a good thick eoat of asphalte, and be very par-
ticular that there are no cracks left in them and no
pure water should be allowed to enter them, or it
will stop the fermentation, and that is what we re-
quire. There are some people now who are making
an attempt to collect these leavings, but the seats in
their buildings are not half comfortable enough, and
they have a lot of dry earth which will not allow
of fermentation ; but you take my advice: have your
building as comfortable as possible, and I can assure
you, you will not have to spend so much money in
buying manure from the merchants, which some peo-
ple say is not worth the bags it is imported in,

Master :—Suppose I go to the expense of these
cisterns and buildings, how much of the fermented
material would be sufficient food for one of you for
12 months ?

TREE :—If you do everything the same as I have
told you, 4 oz. mixed with ashes or any rubbish would
be quite enough for 12 months, if it is supplied on
the surface of the ground, and suppose one person
only deposited 4 oz. in 24 hours, and 4 oz. being
quite enough of the fermented material for one tree
for 12 months, four depositors would be quite suffi-
_cient to manure one acre in a year, 400 would be
quite sufficient to keep a hundred acres in as good

112 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

health as you see me in now, but it must all be ap-
plied on the surface.
Master :— Would not the heavy rains wash it away,

and would it not be better to make a hole near your~

roots to put the mixture in to prevent it being washed
away from you?

TREE :—Make no holes. If you do, you cut our
feeding roots, which are all on the surface. Look at
those thread-like things you see covering the
whole of the surface near your feet; there are milli-
ons of them, and every one of them is a mouth, and
you destroy one of our mouths, in every one you
cut off in any wey. Besides that, if the mixture is
laid on the surface, our leaves get a share as well as
our roots.

Master :—Ah yes: I suppose your roots turn the
substance of the mixture into sap, and soit is carried
to your leaves.

TREE :—Not so, but every night after dark there
is an exhalation takes place, and our leaves have
mouths to take that in, and they delight in the effiu-
via from such mixtures as I have instructed you to
make.

Master :—This is something new, and I candidly
confess that I don’t -quite understand all you have
told me yet, but I will try to do so.

TREE :—You have learned men amongst you, one
in particular, who has taken a great deal of pains to
understand the nature of all insects which give us
trouble. Could you not get one like him to turn
his attention to the study of the coffee tree. There
are a few who have written a great deal about us,
but they do not act yet like people who understand
their business. I will tell you how to begin the study.
Take out your knife and stir the earth about here,
and you will find, as I told you before, millions_of
small thread-like roots, and tell me, you who are so
fond of making holes for my food, why all those
mouths are right on the surface, and not lower in the
ground ?

Master :—Really and truly I don’t pretend to un-
derstand why your roots are all on the surface, and
to tell you the truth, I know nothing of your nature,
except what you have told yourself; but there is a
learned man at this present advocating the cutting of
your roots with a sharp knife all round to make you
give more fruit, and he says that fruit trees are served
in this way in Europe, to make them give more fruit.

TREE :— 1 strongly suspect that whoever advocates
such a ruinous system has not sufficiently studied
our nature; it is true that trees in Hurope have their
tap-roots cut to make them bear fruit, but that has

(COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 113

nothing to do with us. We are constructed after
quite a different fashion to tke trees in Europe, and,
as I told you befere, get one ef your number, who
as learned in vegetable nature, to turn his attention
to the study of our particular nature, and I am
‘quite confident he will tell you before long neither
to cut holes for our food, nor cut our roots in any
way if you can help it.

Master :—Before £ go will you tell me, suppose
there is net ashes enough lying about at the time
I empty the cisterns to mix with the contents, what
would be the best thing to mix with ib, for it is cer-
tain, if it is net mixed with something, the coolies
won't carry it. :

TreE:—The soil from a bank, # one is handy ;
if not, make a hole ana take out the sub-soil and
mix that with the contents of the cisterns, in such
proportions that you will be sure that 4 oz. of the
pure contents ef the cisterns shall be in every por-
tion applied to eaeh tree.

MastTer :—Why do you say that sub-soil and not
surface soil which might be get easier is the best.

TREE :—Because the surface soil has had a greaf
‘deal of its strength taken out of it, and the sub-soil
das in itself all that is required for the growth of
any plant or tree, and only requires to be exposed
to the action of the sun and air to make it as good
as the surface soil was, when you fiftst cut down the
jungle, and by being mixed with the contents of the
cisterns and laid on the surface it will get the requis-
ite exposure, and after we have used up all it con-
tains from the cisterns, it will be in a fit state to
serve as food fer us itself. ,

Master :—I am very much afraid of the expense
of the buildings necessary to enable me to make use
of the information you have given me, but I am thank-
ful to ycu all the same,

TREE ;—You are very welcome to the information I
have given you, and I hope when you have made your
buildings and begin to reap the benefit from it, that you
will not be ungrateful for the information, by carrying
all the contents of your cisterns past me, and giving
it all to those who have done very little for you, thereby
obliging me at some future time to sign myself

A SHUCK “COFFEE TREE,

MR. W. SABONADIERE ON SURFACE
MANURING.
Delta, Pussellawa, June 9th, 1871.
Dear Srr,—As you have invited discussion on the

mubject of manuring coffee estates, permit me through
J

li4 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

the medium of your columns to make some remarks
upon two communications which have lately appeared
in your paper: viz., ‘‘ Conversation between a Shuck
Coffee Tree and its Master,” and a letter signed
‘““Orum.” You are correct in stating that the publi-
cation of such letters does much good, there is a good
deal in both these communications worthy the serious
consideration of planters; and I can only express my ~
hope that the valuable hints there given will be largely
availed of. At the sume time as planters like doc-
tors disagree, I will proceed to explain on what
points I do not entirely agree with ‘‘Orum,” and, as
a planter of 26 years’ experience, I trust I shall not
be considered presumptuous in stating my opinion.
Much ‘as ‘‘Shuck Coffee Tree” and ‘‘Orum” de-
precate the use of holes for the application of manure,
it cannot be denied that the process where proverly
carried out has hitherto been a success. I can myself
vouch for the effects of cattle manure lasting three
years when so applied, and wherever I have so buried
artificial manures, they have also yielded good results.
I quite agree with the writers in question, too deep
holes are not the correct proceeding, and that the
cutting of the large roots is very injurious ; but there
is ‘‘a happy medium” in ail things. I have always
thought that holes for cattle manure or pulp should
be cut one foot deep, and artificial manure holes six
inches deep, and ‘‘care must be taken not to injure
the large roots.” I contend that such holes are not
too deep for the generality of our estates, where the
land is more or less steep, as the manure when thus
applied does get to the feeding roots, Whilst I say
so much in defence of the past, I quite agree with
“‘Orum” and ‘‘Shuck Coffee Tree” in believing that
to apply the manure on the surface of the bared roots
would be even more effective and certainly quicker
in yielding results. Still even with drains to every
eight rows, I fear that most of our coffee lands are
too steep for sucha process. I would therefore adopt
the surface manure plan on flat and slightly sloping
fields, but would adhere to the old system of holes
am steep land: being careful not to make them deeper
than the level of the lowest fibrovs roots, and taking
special care by using quintanies in leu of mamoties,
to prevent the main roots being cut. All planters
know the awful thunderstorms we usually get in April
and October of each year, and what the weight of
rain and the wash then are, sweeping everything as it
were before them. I hardly think that on such occ:-
sions in steep fields, even in closely drained land,
manure applied to the surface and only slightly co-
vered over could be otherwise than washed away from

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 115

the stems into the drains. When ‘‘Orum” wrote
‘‘We-must take to surface manuring,” he should have
added, ‘‘where the lay of the land is not too steep.”
I cannot see the force of his reasoning why the earth
from the water holes ‘‘should be quickly washed
back into the holes again” (if the land is drained)
any more than the manure he tells us to ‘‘ put round
the stem of the trees,” covered only with a slight
layer of earth ‘‘to prevent evaporation.” Anoth+r
objection to surface manuring would undoubtedly be
weeds: the ‘‘Shuck Coffee Tee” tells its master, ‘““My
branches will be so full of leaves, that only the rank-
est weeds will grow under them, and if they are
pulled up and laid over my roots, I shall feed on
them when they decay.” Very true, as applied to
very fine thick old coffee, but what about ‘‘ Cootch,”
‘*Ammaley,” and other bad grasses, which would
become rampant in patches of old coffee? And it is
generally admitted that nothing is more impoverish-
ing to land than bad grasses. Still I agree it would
be better to have your estate a little weedy if it gave
good crops, than have it perfectly clean and not yield-
ing good profits. Another difficulty would be pre-
venting contract weeders from weeding out the man-
ure from under the trees, especially where the land
is not water-holed, which plan ‘‘Orum” objects to.
The best plan assuredly is that of our ‘‘ Shuck Coffee
Tree,” who insists on water-holing in old coffee, and
it might be made part of the contract weeders’ duty
to empty out water-holes, as well as weed, and dig
out bad grass. ‘‘Orum” is dead against the use of
scraper and mamoty, yet he contradicts himself when
he says, over the manure thus deposited (round the
stem) ‘‘put a thin layer of earth taken off the raised
surface generally found in the middle of the rows.”’
Now in old coffee that has been properly weeded, and
the loose soil and weeds drawn in round the stem,
no raised surface ought to be found. Therefore to
get sufficient earth to cover the manure, he must
scrape away the surface soil and expose the very feed-
ing roots which he tells us are damaged by hoes and
scrapers. Query? would it not be better—especially
in young and clean estates—to cut a small hole, lay-
ing the manure well amongst the roots, and cover it
over very carefully with the fresh soil obtained from
the hole; and leave the surface which may have always
been hand-weeded, and have never suffered seriously
from wash, undisturbed? Drains.—I agree altogether
with ‘‘Orum” and ‘Shuck Coffee Tree” about the
absolute necessity of drains, and do not think eight
trees apart too near. Experience shews me that 1 in
12 to 1 in 15 is the best gradient at which they

Tt COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING..

should be traced;. 1 in 17 to. 1 in 30 is decidedly
too level, as even at the gradient of 1 in 15 drains:

are very apt to choke. How we old coffee planters:

can have been so shortsighted as not to see long ago
the urgent necessity of draining land is puzzling, but
f suppose it is on. the same principle that spouting
and other improvements: were not deemed necessary
until later years. At all events, on this one point of
draining planters are all agreed; the steeper the es-
tate, the closer should the drains be eut, and ne:manure
should be applied till the field has been thoroughly
drained. I would recommend that all new elearings
should be drained as soon as planted and before the
trees begin to. cover the ground. I go entirely with
‘‘Shuck Coffee Tree” as regards the water-hole sys-
tem as applied to old estates. Draining alone should
be sufficient on young estates, where the roots are of
course well covered, and where mamoty weeding has.
never been practised. *‘Orum” points to the coffee
round the lines, and. the virgin forests as examples.
why we should adopt surface manuring. No doubt
he is right; still we cannot build lines all over our
estates; nor are our coffee fields protected from sum
and wash as are the forest lands. Water-holing is:
not the ‘‘ mischievous system of cultivation” ‘‘Orum ’”
would make us believe if properly carried out; it
might as well be said that pruning is mischievous,
because, if not followed by handling and proper care,
it would render ‘‘ confusion more confused.” Water-
holes must of course be combined with thorough drain-
ing, they should frequently be cleared out, and the
contents spread round the stems of the trees. Unfor-
tunately, in these days of short labour and economy,
there are seldom sufficient coolies on an estate to.
carry out that system of cultivation which is abso-
lutely necessary for the maintenance in good and pay-
ing order of old coffee. Then again about water-holing
‘*Orum” somewhat contradicts himself: he bids us
notice the ‘‘effects of the loose soil thrown on the
surface among the trees below,” and yet he depre-.
cates water-holes. Is not the principle the same?
and what other process is likeiy to yield sufficient
soil to cover over the roots of old trees which have
suffered from heavy wash and a bad system of mamoty
weeding? That is weeding owt from the tree, instead
of in towards the stem. But of course water-holes,
should be cleared out occasionally, and the contents.
spread over the roots. This seems to me the best
means of restoring loose soil and humus to our ex-
hausted fields, and allow room for the propagation
of those fibrous roots so necessary for the well-being
of a coffee tree. I have noticed that when water-

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANORING. 117

holing is performed for the first time in goed soil it
has the same effect as the application of cattle manure.

Before closing this long letter, I would express my
‘opinion that to prevent main roots being cut, to en-
sure the holes being the proper depth, to keep weed-
ing contractors from scraping the earth off the roots
of the trees, more supervision is wanted on the gen-
erality of estates. This subject I would commend to
the attention of Visiting Agents; I find that it pays
to have plenty of supervision as the work costs less,
and is undoubtedly better done.—I am, dear sir, yours
faithfully,

WILLIAM SAEONADIERE.

COFFEK CULTIVATION : MANURING AND
PRUNING IN HIGH DISTRICTS.

June 19th, 1871.

DEAR Sir,—lIf we take up a young coffee tree out
of its hele in the field, we find as many feeding root-
jets all the way down to the bottom ef the hole as
near the surface, if the hole has been filled with sur-
- face soil. If we take up a plant in a nursery we
find the same, sofar down as the soil has been dug.
If we take up an old coffee tree we find pretty much
the same thing, so far as the hele it was planted
in goes. If in cutting a road, or levelling, we cover
up the surface seil round the coffee trees below with
a foot or two of red sub-soil, we shall find, even many
years afterwards, very few feeding roots near the
surface of this sub-soil; but the old surface soil be-
low, with perhaps the surface soil first thrown down
from the cutting, will have plenty of them, though
buried to a goed depth by pure sub-seil. If we dig
up, in last year’s manuring, the cattle manure or pulp,
buried in holes eighteen inches deep, we find it a
_ mass of coffee rootlets at the full depth. When the
manure is exhausted these rootlets of course disappear,
being always formed where there is nourishhment,
and they die eff just as the leaves, If the deep cofiee
tap-roots be got dewn to, in a cutting, and any nourish-
ing material be laid at the foot and within their
reach, aS am accumulation ef earth ina drain at the
foot of the bank, the tap-roots will produce feeding
rootlets in this. All these things may be seen by
most planters any day; why then are the feeding
roots of coffee nearly all near the surface ?

In young coffee the first grown larger roots are the
dewnward growing or tap-roots, and there are at first
no very large horizontal roots. The horizontal. roots
near the surface acquire size afterwards, as the tree

118 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

grows older and fills the surface soil with its feed-
ing rootlets to a greater extent and distanee. Then
most of the growth of the tree is carried on through
these large horizontal roots, but the tree seems rather
to seek it farther down. The reason of all this is,
I think, because only on the surface is there nourish-
ment for the roots to find.* Many planters who have
made vegetable gardens, or even coffee nurseries,
must be well aware of the badness of our soil, gener-
ally, at the depth of a few inches. They must have
found that their deep digging, and mixing the soil,
spoiled their garden, and that in spite of heavy
manuring things would not grow for them at all to
compare with what their coolies grow in their gardens
without manure, and by simply scratching the ground
on the surface. Our sub-soils are not by any means
easily or soon improved, either, and the first inch
of the surface is the best.

Of course, putting manure on the surface i+ may
be expected to act sooner, and often will, as the
feeding roots are there ready to make use of it. But
much depends on the kind of manure, and much on
the nature of the soil. I have found coffee pulp put
on the surface, or even shallow holes and_ slightly
covered, have very little effect, whereas in the same
place when put in good holes and well covered no
_ manure surpasses it. Earthy rubbish from the cooly
lines I have found have the best effect when put on
the surface, but it is usually so full of seeds as to
make the weeding expensive on a clean estate. I
would not think of putting manure very deep into a
bad sub-soil in any case, nor of digging either manure
or water holes into a retentive sub-soil in which they
would retain stagnant pools of water.

I think water holes would be quite likely to cause
wash unless they are effective always in holding all
the water till it percolates away. A moderate quan-
tity of water will run pretty clean off an old exposed
surface which would run thick mud off freshly turned-
up soil.. Then water running out of water holes would
run out in considerable rills, instead of being evenly
spread. To cut a large hole at all, in steep ground,
necessitates a high bank on the upper side which the
trees will look perched on the top off. Drains should
be steeper, the more steep the ground is, as more
earth and stones are apt to get tumbled into them,
and small slips of the upper bank are apt to choke
them. A drain choked up in a heavy shower is most
mischievous. The water collected is all turned out at
one spot, and ruts up the ground down to the next

* Coffee roots seem also to like a loose-open soil.

—

CORFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 119

drain, which the quantity of stnff thus brought down
will most likely choke also. But on places known
to me, now nearly twenty years old, there are scarcely
any signs of wash, and there are no wash holes on
them and very few drains, except roadside drains.
‘Lhe reason of this is clean weeding (not scraping), anil
letting the prunings and fallen leaves lie on the sur-
face of the ground. Under any considerable accumu-
lation of these, the feeding rootlets grow out of the
ground and through amongst the rotting leaves.

With regard to the idea of forcing out the blossom
earlier by early pruning, I have never found it so.
IT long ago made experiments to try this, and I think
I have pruned in about all the months of the year.
This season I began a series of experiments in the
middle of December, when crop here was iittle more
than begun. Since thenI have pruned experimental
lots each month. In the first of these, the greater
part of the crop had to be pruned off, and a good
dealin February, and even in March. The first blos-
som on all of these too came on the same day as the
first blossom on all the surrounding coffee, and there
was not more of it on any of the pruned experiments.
The second blossom also came on the same day, on
both pruned and unpruned, and looked, when out,
if anything, less on the earlier pruned lots. A third
blossom has now been out, also about equal, and
on the same days all over. There are, no doubt, ad-
vantages in early pruning, however, in most coffee:
though I would not sacrifice scarcely any crop to be
a little earlier. Ido not mean to discuss the advant-
ages here. They are mostly in the year after with
me. But unripe berries late on a branch seem to
retard the blossoming of its own extremity, if there
ba fresh blossoming wood there.

Xe,

WHAT IS A WEED?

A planting correspondent writes :—‘‘I enclose an
article clipped from the Melbourne Leader of the 25th
March, on ‘What is a weed,’ which I think those
of our coffee cultivators who are constantly in the
habit of bagging their weeds (under pretence of eradic-
ating them) will do well to study.” .

WEEDS.

Sir,—Among your notices to correspondents in The
Leader of the 11th, I was a good deal surprised to
read that weeds did not impoverish soil. It staggered
my ideas a bit, for ever since I wasa boy, and used
to spud up docks and thistles, I have believed as I

120 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.,

was taught then, that weeds are bad everywhere,
whether in a crop or out of one, and that they rob
the soil I think there cannot be a doubt. in proof
of what I say, weeds always take possession of poor
land, and where they do, it is useless to try to grow
any crop, and the land gets poorer and poorer. Now
if the weeds did not impoverish it, what makes it
poor? Then, if I manure a piece of land and there
happen to be seeds of weeds in the manure, and if
these weeds grow up, am I to think that they do not
rob the land ef the manure I had put into it? I
can hardly think that you will say so, and yet I can-
not tell what to make of your notice to your corre-
spondent if it does not mean that. If I am wrong, I
trust you will tell me so in your notices to corre-
spondents. I am, sir, yours respectfully,
Wee
Sandhurst, 18th March.

WHAT IS a WEED.

We might lay before our readers a list of the names: —
(1) Of weeds, the seeds of which are found in samples
ef grain, and by their presence detract from its value
both for seed aud for milling purposes; (2) Of weeds
which infest fallow land, and which it should be the
object of the farmer to destroy when he subjects his
iand to the process of fallowing; (3) Weeds which
encumber the soil, but whose seeds being small do
not find their way into the sample of corn; (4) Those
called underlings, which are similar in many respects
to those in the third class ; (5) Weeds which infest
pasture lands. All this we might do as it has already
been done in works on agriculture. Nay, we might
give long lists under each of these five heads, classi-
fying the various so-called weeds as annuals, biennals,
and perennials, coupled with the common English and
the uncommon botanical name of each ; showing which
are troublesome on account of their roots, or rather
underground stems, and which are obnoxious on the
score of their seeds. But if all this had been done,
we should not have advanced one step towards an-
swering the question which forms the heading of this
article. This question we have been led to ask, and
shall endeavour to answer, from the perusal of a letter
on the subject which will be found in our correspond-
ence column signed ‘‘W. F.” The production of
weeds is part of the curse imposed on the soil in
consequence of man’s first transgression ; and curiously
enough, it is the retribution that follows the wrong
of exhaustion: ‘Thorns also and thistles shall it bring
forth to thee, and in the sweat of thy face salt thou eat
bread.” Thus the production and destruction of weeds

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 121

are both the result of wrong doing—outraging the
decrees of an all wise Creator. Weeds have been held
in great detestation by all true cultivators from the
days of Job, the patient, upright farmer of Uz, who,
on his farm, employed no fewer than 500 yoke of
oxen. In his solemn protestation of the integrity with
which he had fulfilled the several duties of life, and
making the proper cultivation of his land the culmin-
ating point in his declaration, he says :—‘‘lf my
land cry out against me, or the several furrows thereof
likewise complain, let thistles grow instead of wheat,
and noisome weeds instead of barley.”

. Having thus shown that a mere list of the names
of so-called weeds would not help us to a solution of
our question—that weeds are a consequence of the
transgression on the part of man of Nature’s laws,
and that conscientious and careful cultivators from the
days of Job down to those of W. F., have always
held them in the utmost abhorrence, we now come to
the question itself, ‘‘ What is a weed?” When this
question was put to an old farmer who was denounc-
ing weeds in general, he indignantly replied, ‘‘ A weed
is a useless plant that robs the soil.” But when 1
was pointed out to him that even the meanest plant
that grows was not created in vain, he attempted to
mend this definition, and doggedly asserted that a
‘‘weed is a weed, and everyone knows what that is.”
It would appear, however, that W. F. and one or
two more from whom we have received communica-
tions on the same subject, do not know. We may
therefore state, for their information, that the true
definition of a weed is ‘‘a plant out of place.” This
only is a weed. There are no weeds in Nature’s uni-
versal farm. The crop of this year may become the
weed of next. Anyone who had grown a crop of po-
tatoes and sown the ground with wheat will have had
an ocular proof of this statement. When a man is
hoeing mangels, everything that is not mangel is treat-
ed as a weed, and yet the hoer may be chopping down
plants that constitute the crop in the next paddock
or on some other portion of the farm. Weeds, then, —
bear no distinctive character as such, and plants only
become weeds by the mere accident of position. The
weed is treated as an enemy to the crop, but it is
by no means such as regards the soil. Weeds, as we
have before stated,—and it is to this that ‘“‘W. F.”
takes exception—do not impoverish the soil. Any
plant, as we have shown, may become a weed, but
no plant can impoverish the soil except by the aid of
man, Carry off the land on which it has grown any
crop produced, whether it be for the use of man or
only a ‘*noxious weed,” and the land becomes im-

122 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

poverished. Leave the so-called weeds to decay on
the ground where they were produced, and the land
is enriched by the decaying substances. Weeds do not
waste fertility, as far as the soil is concerned; they
are only detrimental and injurious as regards the crop
intended to be grown. Let it not, however, be sup-
posed for one moment that weeds should be allowed -
to grow because they do not rob the soil of its fer-
tility. It is enough that they rob the crop of the
benefit to be derived from the fertilizing matter in-
tended for its support. Next in importance to the
due and proper preparation of the land for any crop
is the sedulous destruction of all plants that may ap-
pear, except those sown or planted as the crop, and
all plants not sown or planted must be treated as
weeds—because a weed is a plant out of place. ‘The
thistle is a weed on pasture land used by man for
the depasturing of his flocks and herds, but in the
wild waste by its growth and decay it yearly adds to
the richness and fertility of the soil. Thus, all plants
have their uses, and land. after it has been improvi-
dently impoverished by man, is taken possession of
by inferior plaxts called weeds, which grow and ex-
ercise their utmost power to restore its lost fertility.
But no cultivator who carefully manures his land can
afford to grow a plant out of place, z.e., a weed.

THE COMMON BRACKEN (FERN) AS A
MANURE FOR COFFEE,
(Communicated to the Ceylon Observer.)

The following extract from Mr. Donaldson’s British
Agriculture refers to one of our most abundant ferns
of the interior, which scarcely differs as a variety
from the common bracken of Scotland, several times
alluded to in the Lady of the Lake. It is so abund-
ant on some of the patanas and other open ground
near some of the coffee estates in the interior, and
indeed in other places as a weed in the coffee, that
the hints here given for killing it, and converting it
into a good manure may prove of use to several of
our readers. When speaking to a gentleman in Dolos-
bage about the means of killing this fern, he informed
us that the villagers gravely told him the best way
to do so was by thrashing it with switches—just as
good a way as any other, because the plant ultim-
ately dies like any other, if its fronds are thrashed
to death, or cut off The creeping roots die in this
case for want of their lungs; but we believe the best
way atter all to get rid of it, if once it gets into a
coffee estate, is to dig up the creeping roots (rhizomes)

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 123

and expose them on the surface or have them removed.
A few cuttings of the young fronds close to the ground
would no doubt also soon kill this fern.

“Kern.” —Farn-kraut, German ;—fearn, Saxon ;—
jilix, Latin ;—is a plant of the cryptogamous class,
and though the kind is numerous, only one vegetable
comes under the notice of agriculture, the Pteris
aquilina of botany, or the common bracken. It grows
on soils of good quality, and is very generally dif-
fused over heaths and uncultivated grounds. The
roots spread horizontally and go deeply into the ground,
and are often difficult of extirpation—frequent mov-
ing of the young plants, and ploughing and dunging
have been recommended, and above all, the pouring
of urine upon them—sheep folded on fern ground will
banish them by means of the dung and urine. fern
has a salt, mucilaginous taste, and is used for thatch,
for heating ovens, and mixing with bread, and for
being brewed into ale. It is very astringent, and
used in preparing kid and chamois leather. The ashes
of ferns afford a large quantity of salt, about one-
ninth of their weight, chiefly the sulphate and sub-
carbonate of potash. One thousand parts of the plant
cut in August and thoroughly dried afforded 36°46
of ashes, which yielded by lixiviation 4°5 of salt.
1000 parts of fern gave 116 lb. of saline matter, and
100 parts gave 3°224 of earths, 400781 of ashes, and
0°6259 of potash: 10,000 parts contain 62 of potash.
Ferns are dried for being used as litter for cattle,
and must be laid in the bottoms of the yards, and
in very moist places, as they remain long unchanged.
The organization must be completely saturated. The
ashes are a good top dressing. The plants must be
cut while green, as the alkali escapes from the with-
ered plant by every shower that falls. Where
ferns abound, a good litter may be got from them,
and the dried plants may be cut into lengths by the
straw-cutting machines which will much facilitate the
reduction of the tough fibrous texture.”

THE PROPER MODE OF APPLYING MANURE
TO THE COFFEE TREE,
Delta, Pussellawa, June 30.
Dear Sir,—The following remarks addressed to me
by Mr. John Ward, a planter of 26 years’ experi-
ence, are well worthy of insertion in your journal.
I requested him to send me his views on the sub-
ject of ‘‘Surface Manuring,” and eent him the letters
lately published in the Observer for his information,

124 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

He seems of opinion that manure should be applied
in large and deep holes, but the fertilizing substances
must be well mixed with the soil. As planters’ opi-
nions seem so to differ on this most important sub-
ject, cannot you suggest some person whe would set
us right on these disputed points? Perhaps Mr.
Thwaites of the Royal Botanical Gardens might help
us, aS he must be better able than any one else in
Ceylon to explain scientifically the nature of the
coffee tree and its requirements,—Yours faithfully,
WILLIAM SABONADIERE.
Extract.

“As you have taken the trouble to send me the
letters which appeared in the Observer on manuring,
I beg to say Ido not at all agree with surface man-
uring, except only in the case where very light man-
ure in small quantities is used. In such cases the
stimulant should be very near the surface, or it is
lost. I quite agree with you, that, under existing
circumstances, the mean course that you speak of is
the best to follow. Now I beg to submit a few
remarks upon various parts of the letters in the Ob-
server. Weeding with tools of any kind is of course
bad, but what is to be done? The supply of labour
is so irregular, that that question rules the one of
weeding. Say what he will at other times, no man
will deliberately lose crop, while he can save it by
taking off his weeders; then the weeds get ahead,
and there is nothing for it but using tools of some
sort. As to deep holes for manure, you will be
surprised to find that, theoretically, I would advocate
two feet deep; and, strange as it may appear, and
much as it may seem to war against ‘‘A Shuck
Coffee Tree’s” proposal to put the manure on the
surface because Nature puts its there. I claim in
my scheme to be strictly following, what Nature points
out to be done. This is my reason. Nature provides
the coffee-tree with a tap-root of two feet length.
‘his tap-root is not merely to fix the tree in the
ground, for every inch of its length and surface may
be made by proper treatment to yield force and vi-
gour to the trees above, by becoming covered down
to the very tip with lateral roots. I should think
there could not be two opinions about the superiority
in every way of such a tree, over one possessing
only a single dise of rocts at the collar, which latter
is the effect of maauring on the eurface. You will
probably say, manure at two feet depth, ‘madness’ ;
but here is where I would show the mistake that
is invariably made in deep manuring, in itself the
most correct plan, but always spoilt by never being
eompletely carried out. I say then to give your coffee

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING, 125

tree the utmost advantage, put your manure in two
feet deep, but thoroughly mix with the soil every atom
of it outside the hole before putting it in, If this is
done, the only limit to the vigour of the tree and
crop on it, is the quantity of manure mixed and
applied. Hxcept in steep land, the mere size and
depth of the manure holes, if done according to my
theory, would cause the soil to be pervious and ab-
sorbent, that very little in the way of drains and
water-holes would suffice for protection against wash ;
you know wash is worst on hard land. It is quite
true that manure buried at one-and-a-half or two feet
deep does lhe quite useless, but if it was mixed with
the soil the whole of that depth, it would be bring-
ing out lateral roots all the way down the tap-root.
““Orum” has evidently not practised the correct sys-
tem of water holing, if he cannot stop wash by means.
of it. If only partially done it is no protection, but
thoroughly carried out, and in conjunction with drains,
it is quite safe. As to the effectiveness of surface
manure, instanced in the case of the strong cofiee
near lines or cattle sheds, ‘‘Orum” does not stop
to consider the enormous quantity of strong stuff that
goes out imperceptibly in such cases ; enough to man-
ure three or four times the extent if properly put
out. As to Nature designing trees to be fed on the
surface, Nature feeds in that manner trees only, such
as forest trees (for example) which are not required
to produce and part with crops. Forest and all wild
trees give little or no crop, but watch a fruit-bear-
ing tree, even wild, and remark the depth and wealth
of soil, and, no small point, the depth of roots, with
which Nature has endowed it. There cannot be a
doubt that cutting any large roots causes (accordiug
to the size of roots cut) the tree to dwarf and dry up.
Note by Mir. Sabonadiére.—Allusion to deep holes
yemind me of the field upon Mousakella estate, Hewa-
heta, planted by Mr. J. Emerson. The holes were.
three feet wide and deep, and were filled with man-
ure (whether mixed or not with the soil, I new fer-
get) before the plant was put in. This coffee was
most luxuriant, once or twice must have yielded over
a ton an acre, and gave consecutive crops of 15, 16,
or 17 ewts. an acre, and, though now some 18 or-19
years old, is still the finest coffee on the estate.

2

SUB-SOIL OR SURFACE MANURING.

We shall sum up the further discussion which took
place in the columns of the Observer during 1871 on
Manuring—especially on the question of Sub-soil or

K

126 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

Surface Manuring—by making the following extracts.
A superintendent gave his experience in favour of
Surface Manuring as follows :—

‘* For the last six years I have manured the lower
portion of the estate of which I have charge with
pulp. Its lay is a gentle slope backed with steep
face, the coffee being old more or less shuck, For
the first three years I put the pulp into holes from
one to two feet deep, with the usual fair résults.
But for the last three years I have applied the pulp
on the surface, covering it over with a little earth,
and with apparently very much better results in all
respects. A rapid general improvement, a rush of
young wood, a darkening in the colour of the leaf,
and an increase of crop. Of course I took the pre-
caution to drain the steep part, and I ought also to
have hand weeded. Still if karandies did scrape away
any of the pulp, yet what remained has done, as L
have said, more good than if it had been ali pre-
served in holes. I have this year applied one of our
best animal manures on the surface, and already I
see a far better effect than I did after burying the
same kind of stuff in the orthodox way last year.”

To him replied another experienced manager :—

“‘T am inclined, however, to think that a. good
plan would be, on estates manured, say once every
three years, to apply the manure in deep holes one
year, so as to induce feeding roots down the tap-
roots; and near the surface the third year to form
feeding roots there. An accurate account of this would
of course require to be kept. But this, on estates
where manuring journals are in use, would be very
simple, I can’t think it advisable to apply manure
actually on the surface, be the land drained ever so
well, as, no doubt, much is lost by wash and other
causes. I have seen pulp applied as described by
‘ Superintendent,’ and, though the land is carefully
drained, yet | saw much washed into the drains and
on to the roacs: and of what remained any that was
perfectly covered was dry and shrivelled, and this too
in a wet district not 25 miles from Kandy, where we
have not seen much sun lately. Let the manure be
even put in holes 6 in. deep, and it will, I consider,
be sufficiently near the surface, and can be covered
£0 as to save it from being dried up or washed away.
To apply manure as ‘Superintendent’ suggests, hand
weeding is absolutely necessary: and there is no doubt
that, though there are estates sufficiently clean to allow
of hand weeding, yet there are many many more on
which it is impossible to do away with karandies.’’

A etill older planter favoured us with an analogous
case to coffee manuring and some practical remarks :—

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING, 127

“‘T very much regret having mislaid Mr, Josiah
Mitchell’s letter on the orange groves of Paramatta,
as the distinctive mode of cultivation there described,
and only arrived at after 50 years’ practical experi-
ence, struck me forcibly as the one best adapted to
similar soils in Ceylon, cleared for the growth of
coffee. To the best of my recollection the latter stated
that the soil of the plantation in question, th» finest
orangery in New South Wales, was of the thinnest
and poorest description with a free and open aub-soil ;
the mode of cultivation was to fell, clear, drain, and
plant, as is dove for coffee in this country, taking
care to keep the ground free from weeds. When the
time for manuring arrived, the practice, which for
many years had been followed with the greatest suc-
cess, was to loosen the soil round the trees to the
depth of 2 or 3 inches, applying the manure to the
surface. Several kinds of artificial manures had been
tried from time to time with varying results. Super-
phosphate, I believe, was found to answer best, that
is, it gave the most profitable returns, and at the
same time maintained the trees in a vigorous s‘ate
of health. It must not for a moment be supposed
that because superphosphates acted so admirably on
the thin poor soil of Paramatta the same man-
ure will operate in a similar way on stiff land, or on
land with a free surface only, but it may be safely
inferred, I think, that land of a similar nature to
that described would reap a similar benefit from this
application of such manure. In fact the soil must
be studied before we can by the aid of manure arrive
at the desired result. I have little doubt at this
present moment in Ceylon there are thousands of
tons of the best fertilizers lying dormant in the soil,
in other words, so many tons of manure out of place,
Many are the varieties of manure I have applied in
my time, and I am free to confess that in many in-
stances experience has proved that the blame cast
upon the manure, where no satisfactory results fol-
lowed, ought strictly and properly speaking to have
been thrown on its misapplication ; but the possibility
of such a thing never entered our heads at the time,
consequently the manure was condemned, not as un-
suited to the soil, but as unfit for coffee In the
application of stimulants, the object is to add to the
soil that which it is in want of in the shape of a
stimulant. Inthe application of such bulky mauures
as cattle manure, pulp, &c., the action is different :
we not only add a stimulant, but we make a new
soil out of the bulky ingredients applied. As to the
mode of application of the different kinds of manure :
so long asthe land is protected by drains from wash,

128 COFFKE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

I am in favour of surface manuring to a depth of 2
or 3 inches for all stimulating or artificial manures
easily dissolved; for it stands to reason that, where
the land is protected from wash, manure thrown on
the surface, if it does not wash off the soil, must
wash into it. Bulky substances ought to be placed
deeper to facilitate decomposition, leaving it to the
power of the sun’s rays to bring their nutritous quali--
ties to the surface to be carried down into the soil
again by the first rays and taken up by the feeding roots.”

Another gentleman, of much experience in cultivation
generally, stated :—

‘‘Jt took fruit-growers, in other parts of the world,
much longer time than that to find out their great
mistake in deep manuring. It’s only within 10 or 15
years the fruit-growers in England have found out by
experience that surface and not sub-soil manuring is
what suits their interests best. The system which
they practice is to cover the ground around their
trees with cattle dung in autumn, thereby serving
the double purpose of protection from the winter’s frost
and enriching the surface soil. In spring the manure
is removed to be replaced by a fresh supply or dug
with a digging fork according as their trees require
it. And every precaution is used to prevent the trees
making tap or sub-soil roots (the handle of Mr. Ward’s
theory), and, before planting, the hole dug for the
tree is half filled with stones or concrete. In some
cases the bottom is laid with slate as close and regu-
lar as they are laid on the roof of a house, to pre-
vent the possibility of a single root getting beyond
the depth allowed. Mr. Ward appeals to Nature giv-
ing the tree a tap-root, as a reason why it should be
manured, Looking at the coffee trees on our estates,
can any one say that they are left in a state of na-
ture? Is it natural for coffee to have its top lopped
off when it reaches 3 ft. high, or to have its branches
pruned and handled two or three times every year.
Then, if we outrage Nature so much above ground,
why should we follow a-tap root 2 feet below ground
for no better reason than that Nature put it there?
Much better treat the roots at hand well than go
digging down encouraging the tap-root to send out
lateral roots into holes dug by its side which (in
higher wet districts with a retentive sub-soil especially)
are simply recipients for water where dryness is most
needed, and when a tap-root would be better dis-
pensed with altogether. If more were done to pre-
vent the roots going below half the depth proposed
for the manure to be put, and as carefully tended as
the branches are, there would be less need for man.
ure and fewer short crops. But if the deep manuring

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING, 129

system be carried on it will be the old story :—‘ Well,
it bore capitally when it was young so it did, but
the roots are now deep in the sub-soil,’ ”

It gives us much pleasure to add a memorandum
on Manuring by the Director of the Botanical Gar-
dens, Peradeniya, in answer to an application made
to him by a planter for his opinion on the vexed
‘question of shallow or deep manuring :—

“Tt is true, as you state, that the coffee tree has
a tendency to be a surface feeder to a very great ex-
tent: still, if the soil is suitable for it, a very large
number of roots are found at a considerable depth. It
is, of course, desirable to encourage the development
of these deeper roots, as well as of the more super-
ficial ones ; the plans has then more feeding space, and
is, moreover, less lieble to suffer from wash and draught,

‘*'The application of manure just immediately under
the surface of the soil would doubtless sueceed very
well under the following conditions :—

‘** Istly.—The soil light and porous enough to allow
the soluble portion of the manure to pass freely
through it for the nourishment of the deeper roots.

“‘2ndly.—The surface of the soil shaded by the
over-hanging branches of the coffee trees, or protected
by alittermg of mana grass or other vegetable matter.

“‘ 3rdly.—Excessive wash provided against by a
thoroughly good system of draining.

“Tf the above-named conditions are not present, [
‘should recommend the manure to be applied in holes
or trenches 13 to 2 feet deep, narrowing towards the
bottom. I would have the manure well mixed with
the greater portion of the soil taken out of the holes
or trenches, and this mixture after being thrown into
them, covered up by the remaining portion of the
dug out soil. :

** As it cannot be supposed that there can be a very
frequent application of manure to a coffee estate, it
would seem desirable that, in this wet climate, a
slowly soluble manure should be employed in prefer-
ence to a rapidly soluble one, since much of the latter
would probably find its way by filtration into the
streams, instead of remaining gradually available for
the nourishment of the coffee plants.”

Another planter gave some good reasons for object-
ing to mere Surface Manuring in the case of coffee :—

“TI object to put bulky organic manure on the sur-
face, and I pointed out that coffee roots could utilise
it even at a good depth. But I also object entirely
to be called a ‘sub-soil manurer.’ It would take the
juices of a lot of manure to make ordinary sub-soil
wholesome for feeding roots, and these juices will in
all cases do far more good absorbed by the better

130 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

soil of the surface. But to prevent the juices being
washed away; to prevent the manure and rootlets in
it from being dried up; to absorb the gases in hot
weather ; to allow the roots to grow over as well as
into the manure ; and for the proper rotting of the man-
ure, it should be well covered. The looser and deeper
the soil, the deeper may be the holes. In bad clay
soils the holes would need to be shallow, but then
the manure should be well covered by a heap of earth.
Few will dispute that phosphates and mineral manures
in general, when applied alone at least, should be put
as near the surface as possible, so as to be kept moist
and undisturbed. They can only do good to much
purp se in connection with the organic matter of the
surface soil, If mixed with plenty of organic manure
they may be put decper. The scientific fact that
plants absorb carbenic acid and nitrogen by their
leaves is of little account in cultivation or manuring.
As to fruit cultivation at home, gardeners take means
to prevent their finer fruit trees growing roots down
into a bed, or wet and cold sub-soil by paving at
two or three feet below the surface. No doubt they
find advantages in this; and one would suppose it
would be an advantage to have all the growth of root
kept within the good soil. We have plenty of coffee
growing over sheet rock, and lots of trees growing
over flat rocks and stones of all sizes, so that their
tap-roots cannot go deep unless they get beyond the
stone. I have not noticed anything very striking
about such trees, generally, except that they suffer
more in droughts. So far as feeding roots are con-
cerned, we have them all on the surface without any
trouble, though perhaps in dry weather they would
be none the worse of being deeper. With fruit trees
at home they are apt naturally to extend too deep,
the manure is dug into the surface, or forked in, to
bring them up. This is a very different thing in
many ways from laying manure on the surface on a
coffee estate; and digging over all the surface in our
coffee would destroy all the feeding roots at the time.
The covering of the soil round fruit trees at home is
to save the roots from drought and frost. The man-
ure so used is fresh; and though its juices enrich the
soil, that is not the object of its application. For
us to use manure in this way would, I think, be
bad economy; but we do something similar with
mana grass, &c. We have to economize our manure
so as not merely to produce fine fruit from afew trees.”

A ‘‘Superintendent-Proprietor” next replied very
forcibly to the criticisms against his ‘‘Surface,” and
in favour of ‘‘ Deep-hole,” Manuring :—

*¢ All that we contend for is this, that wherever

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 131

surface manuring is practicable, then that system will
pay better than the hole-cutting one. But if proper
precautions be taken, such places will not be very numer-
ous, and will generally be found as unsuited for hole cut-
ting. However, the existence of such unsuitable places
is no more an objection to the surface application of
manure, than is the fact that some districts are unsuited
for pruning, any objection to that work being carried
on where desirable. High cultivation without man-
ure ought to precede high cultivation with man-
ure, and, if we don’t want to waste money and time,
there is little wse talking either about ‘Orum’ or
its application, till we have first drained, dug, and
introduced hand weeding. Further, we have been
recommended, excepting in very exceptional circum-
stances, to apply our manure not on the surface, but
in deep holes, in order that the coffee tree may be
persuaded to strike its roots deep down into the soil.
Now as it is admitted that the coffee tree roots
naturally prefer to spread cut near the surface, this
theory of root deflection must be somewhat opposed
to their natural tendency. The reasons then given
to induce us thus to cross nature, ought to be very
strong indeed. What then are they? ‘The first rea-
son alleged is because the feeding ground will be ex-
tended. But cannot this object be obtained in some
other and more satisfactory way. Instead of leading
the roots down into an often cold, stagnant, airless
sub-soil, why not simply dig and bring up portions
of that sub-soil to the roots, and thus at the same
time subject it to the improving influence of the sun
and atmosphere. In its own humble sphere, do we
not expect the coffee tree to do something better than
search for food? The more we study its convenience,
the less trouble we give it in administering to its
grosser wants, the better will we find the grateful
tree repay us in its higher labour, the production of
crop. The second reason is because leading the roots
down in search of the artificially supplied manure
in the deep holes, keeps them out of harm’s way
being more or less protected against wash and drought,
We need not now discuss wash, because there need
be no wash. But as regards drought does deflection
help the roots, that is the tree, to withstand drought,
for of course to suppose that eighteen inches of hot
dry soil will perfectly shelter roots from our droughts
is out of the question. Or, take the converse. Jt is
a fact that roots near the surface suffer more from
heat and dryness than roots growing deeper down.
_Perhaps they may, if proper cultivation be not carried
on. But wherever the soil is clean, surface manured
and regularly forked, I believe they will not. Most

132 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING,

of us I fancy know how soon a thorough pulverizing
of the soil is followed by a perfect net-work of roots
spreading out just below the surface, and such roots
if any, then ought, if theory be correct, to suffer
most from drought. I have had no experience myself
of low-country coffee, but a trusty friend supplies me
with the following :—One season, when on a low-coun-
try estate, just before the hot dry weather set in,
my friend took and thoroughly dug up a field. His_
neighbours, of course, seeing something new, thought
him mad, predicting how the soil woula be dried,
and the trees burnt up. But the sun came and the
rains ceased, and the plainly perceptible result ways,
that all through the searching drought the dug coffee
looked far better than the undug, and the prophets
were nowhere. The explanation of this perhaps is not
far to seek. The occasional dews from heaven, the
very moisture in the air, were readily absorbed by
the friable earth, and the net-work of roots just
below, eagerly drank up the precious moisture long
ere the first gleam of sunshine could dissipate it.
Irrespective however of explanation, we have here a
fact, namely, that surface-growing root trees, under
certain cultivation, did suffer less from drought than
those whose roots grew considerably lower down.”

Another planter tersely gave his opinion :—

“* Manuring.—I don’t believe in surface manuring
as a rule (except the roots of the trees appear above
the ground from wash, &c.), nor in cutting deep
holes. In flat land scrape off the soil off the roots
all round the tree which is quite enough, the more
roots uncovered the better, if there be manure to
spread over them. In steep land a certain size of a
hole is necessary, but by no means cut the roots,
Artificial manure, if possible, ought to be applied on,
steep land, and in this case cut a long hole (but does
it deserve the name of hole) half round the tree
from 4 to 6 inches deep down to the roots, not a
small scratch, but let the manure be spread over as
many roots as possible. In steep land bulky manure
won't wash away if well drained, which it ought to
be: make the hole long, round the tree from 2 to3
feet and from 6 to 8 inches deep, and cover up the
manure from the atmosphere which is of great import-
ance. All manures should be covered up, as there is
a deal ot waste otherwise.”

While the ‘‘Shuck Coffee Tree” declared that
‘‘Surface Manuring”’ was indispensable on high, what-
ever it might be on low estates, the gentleman ex-
perienced in home cultivation returned to the charge
im favour of surface manuring for coffee as for fruit
trees at home :—

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING, 153

“‘T am well aware that covering for protection is
and must be extensively practised, but that is quite
a different thing from manuring, and the materials
used for that purpose are fresh enough in all con-
science, being seldom anything better than half wet
straw, and as often grass, leaves, branches, in fact
anything come-at-able that will answer the purpose,
and which serves exactly the same end as mana grass
spread amongst coffee, and I suppose every one knows
how much the juices of mana grass enrich the soil.
But the manure, which is spread on the surface as a
manure, is well-rotted cattle dung a year old at least
and allowed to lie on the surface till it has served
the purpose for which it was applied, when, if the
soil be such as become hard or caked, what remains
of the manure is mixed with the soil, more to keep
it open and to admit other influences than for any
good the tree can derive from the bleached manure.
I never heard it disputed, but that rocky land gener.
ally was best for coffee, and I have seen coffee grow-
ing on sheet. rock with not more than a foot of soil,
hsving less soft spongy wood and invariably a few
more berries than their neighbours who were rejoic-
ing in all the glory of tap and sub-soil roots. And
I have seen trees with not more than 6 in. of soil
giving more crop than trees twice the size differently
situated. I have examined old coffee, which for se-
veral years had given very little crop though manured,
and looking well, annually showing lots of blossom,
and found the roots to the depth of a few inches.
numerous and healthy, below that they were less
numerous and appeared unhealthy, entering the sub-
soil in every direction, more especially downwards.
I have looked into the 18-inch holes where two years
before a basket of good cattle dung had been put
and found at the bottom a thin layer of black stuff
with a few roots looking very rueful indeed at being
forced to seek their food in such unkindly quarters.”

Another planter very properly says that one great
secret in applying manure is to have it thoroughly
mixed with the soil. Some very suggestive remarks
sent by Mr. Thwaites, Director of the Botanic Gar-
den to Mr. Sabonadiére may be given here :—

‘It is a great pity you cannot devise some plan
for keeping your land pretty much as you get it
from the virgin forest, but in the first place by burn-
ing, you get rid of an immense amount of valuable
plant-nourishment on the trees and upon the ground,
and then you lose still more by the wash from the
surface during rain. Nature manages much better in
her plantations. By her the soil is protected from
being washed away by a pavement of fallen leaves,

134 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

when the previous ones have nearly disappeared,
adding at the same time valuable manuring matter to.
the soil, returning indeed the greater portion of what
the tree-growth has taken from the soil, in addition
to the carbon compounds the foliave has been deriv-
ing from the atmosphere. It is true that after burn-
ing and clearing you have a good deal of vegetable
matter in the shape of tree roots remaining in the
ground, but this disappears in a short time, and
you begin to run short of vegetable mould a manure
so desirable for such plants as the coffee, which I
suspect grows on the margins of forests, as so many
of the tribes do. It is saddening to contrast the large.
amount of invaluable soil washed from a coffee estate
into the drains and streams, an? the insignificant
quantity of soil which the rain dislodges from the
virgin forest. A great deal of this waste of precious
soil might be prevented, it seems to me by a proper
system of littering, combined with good drainage
arrangements.” In another letter Mr. Thwaites ob-
serves, in reference to a letter asking his epinion on
planting estates and letting the trees grow to their
natural height :—‘‘I fancy that the present planters’
system will hold its own at elevations above 3,000
feet, as regards distance apart of the trees and their
pruning, but the wash should be prevented, and at
the same time supplies of vegetables mould be fur-
nished to the soil, to prevent the wearing out of the
estates, which must be taking place under the present
system. Communications to the newspapers are some-
times read hastily and often misunderstood, and then
referred to as advocating something entirely different.
from what is stated. For example, any one reading
the letter of ‘Shuck Coffee Tree’ in the last Observer
would suppose that I had recommended manure to be
buried two feet deep, wheréas by my plan the larger
portion by far would be from near the surface, to
half the depth.”

‘* As regards littering, Ican myself,” says Mr. Sa-
bonadiére, ‘‘ testify to the benefits effected by thatch-
ing with mana grass, and no doubt it would pay
well to use the virgin soil from the forest for man-
uring purposes, lucky those, therefore, who have any
reserve forest to fall back upon. As regards draining,
it should be commenced at once an estate is planted,
and the trees should be encouraged to cover the ground.
This is partly the reason why shuck coffee near lines
is always so fine, and above all weeds should never
be allowed to get in, so that there would be no ne-
cessity for scraping the surface soil. Let our young
planters take a lesson from the experience of others,
otherwise it will be the case with Dimbula and Dik-

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 135

oya, as in other old districts I could name, but which
politeness bids me leave to be guessed at by my
readers. I believe that planting under shade would
answer very well at low elevations.”

A planter, of sixteen years’ standing, gave very
suitable suggestions tor young planters :—

‘‘Early last year, I had an old set of lines to
pull down on a spot where I wished to erect per-
manent ones. And not very far off, I had a very
seedy knoll of. coffee, quite an eye-sore in fact.
So I tried what I frequently did before in other dis-
tricts. Put all my women and children on: pulled
down the old lines; and spread the débris on the
surface of the ground where this aforesaid shuck
coffee was. The result is, I am now handling the
same coffee, and so luxuriant is that patch of shuck
coffee that my men cannot handle more than 80 to
85 trees a day: and I believe it will bear (without
suffering) over 10 cwts an acre. The patch I men-
tion is on steep land and not over well-drained. I
have tried the same in several districts; both high
and low and always with the same result. I need
scarcely add, I believe most thoroughly in ‘surface
manuring’ and drains (in preference to any) com-
bined with hand weeding: and I have tried manuring
im almost every shape.”

A planter of twenty-five years’ experience in favour
of holes two feet deep on steep land, shewed that
although two feet as regards the trees above, the
holes would be much less with reference to the trees
below. He also attacked most vigorously the system
of dibbling instead of holing before planting coffee,
and believes the former most unsafe. Another planter
favours us with the following extract referring to the
use of SALT AND Lime as manures :—

““Extract from Gardener's Assistant :—Common salt
has been long employed as a manure; and in moder-
ate quantity, and on certain soils and situations, its
use has been attended with very beneficial effects.
It is well known that salt, when used in large quanti-
ties, proves destructive to vegetation; accordingly
strong solutions of salt are frequently employed for
the purpose of destroying weeds. Land situated near
the sea, and which is exposed to sea breezes, always
contain a quantity of salt. In islands and countries
situated near the sea, salt is always of less value as
a fertilizer than elsewhere. Salt is generally used as
a top-dressing (5 to 10 bushels per acre) and sown
by hand in which way its more even distribution is
msured; it may also be advantageously mixed with
earth and lime, or with soot or other manures.”

‘‘Lime is very advantageously employed in form-

136 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

ing composts with ditch-souring, earths, weeds, &c.,
as it hastens the decomposition of the vegetable mat-
ters, liberates alkalies, destroys the vitality of seeds,
roots, &c., and kills vermin, besides itself contribut-
ing to the fertilizing effects of the mixture.” |

Mr. F. Pogson, of the Punjaub, writing to the
Madras Times, on the subject of manures for coffee,
made the following remarks :—

‘“What coffee requires is a compost which will
easily dissolve in water (after being applied as a top-
dressing to the soil), and so be carried down within
reach of the roots and rootlets of the growing plants.
It may perhaps not be generally known that the best
manure for a plant is a solution of itself; and as this
is not always forthcoming, the next best manure is
an imitation thereof or a something which contains
the elements or constituents of that plant; and as
these are chiefly mineral matters, which are present
in very small quantities in cowdung, it is unreason-
able to expect first-class coffee berries from leaf-form-
ing properties. We know from analysis that the best
‘ Java coffee’ is remarkably rich in magnesia, of which
cowdung does not contain even a trace; and as a
consequence the growing coffee plant suffers from the
deficiency. The common salt and sulphuric acid so
largely present in coffee cannot be provided by cow-
dung, nor yet can it supply the very large quantity
of potash needed by the leaves and berries of this plant.’

Mr. Pogson then professed to be able to show how
such a compost could be made readily and cheaply
in Ceylon, where the components are abundant—if
he were sufficiently rewarded. But his plan has not
as yet been made public. He added :—

‘“‘T give beneath an analysis of coffee from which
you will see that unless the mineral matters named
are present in the soi: and manure, good coffee can-
not be produced. The deterioration of coffee planta-
tions is due to the plant having exhausted the soil
from constant cropping without proper manuring :—

Analysis of best Java Coffee (Lehmann).
Potash op ‘a Ra GIy)

Lime se bate mine ears)
Magnesia ta ae 5a MOE
Peroxide of Iron Ke setae (02225)
Phosphoric Acid ses .. 10°02
Sulphuric Acid si aw. 401
Silicic Acid... a ek eis
Carbonic Acid ... — ... 20°00
Salt, Culinary ... <s vo LOS
Soda ba ais .. 0°00
‘Yharcoal and Sand e054 we «=6.: D499

\

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 137

A Ramboda planter gives some ‘‘interesting parti«
culars” on the subject of manuring :—

‘‘T disapprove of applying stimulating manures to
soils that only need feeding, and feeding manures
where only some minerals ave needed to throw loose
the nourishing ingredients native to the soil. ‘Orum”

- is again right in the matter of applying manure to the

surface. A great deal of manure has been lost by
being put deep im the ground, and how such a sensi-
ble man, as ‘Orum’ appears to be, should not agree
with me about wash-holes, I cannot understand. Why
should ‘Orum’ not apply his drains to the field
with wash-holes as he did to the manured one? And
let me give him a wrinkle in surface manuring: let
him apply his basket of manure or his pound of com-
post, well spread round the root of the tree, and
then send his holers to cut a shallow hole, say 2 feet
by 23 feet and 6 inches deep, between every altern-
ate tree, throwing the earth taken out of the hole
on the top of the manure round the roots of the two
nearest trees, covering the manure thoroughly with it,
and then see to good drains being cut, drains not 1
in 17 as ‘Orum’ prescribes, but say 1 in 12, and
it will be possible to keep them open. in the case
of drains with a gradient of 1 in 17 it is hardly so.

‘A drain bursting near the top of a field, (and
drains of the gradient intended by ‘Orum’ are apt
to do so,) will choke up all drains to the bottom
of the field, and then matters are worse than if thera
were no drains; but with your manure weil covered
round the roots of the trees, and your water-holes,
formed by cutting out the earth to make this cover,
ready to collect all weeds, leaves and prunings, with
drains 1 in 12 well cut, and cleaned out regularly
along with the weeding, your manure will be at peace.
No harm will result from roots, or rather rootlets,
being drawn to the surface: indeed I think little is
to be feared from this, for manure protected from
wash and evaporation, as all manures should be, will
soon sink deep enough, creating rootlets as it goes.
1 am sorry to disagree with ‘Orum’ about the
wask-holes, but I think them an essential part of a
well-cultivated field, not so much for the gake of
preventing wash of earth, which can be better done
by thorough draining, but to prevent waste of vegeta.-
ble matter such as weeds, leaves, prunings, and any
kind of vegetation that may be about, and these, when
husbanded in this way, with the little earth that will
always be washed in with them, make the very bess
of manure, in my oji ion.

‘* A wet season or rather a succession of wet sen-

sons must be injurious to soils like Dimbula and
L

£38 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

Dikoya, where the want of stones to create a natural
drainage and ,a stiff sub-soil prevent the water from
sinking dewn so fast as is required, and its accumu-
lation in the sub-soil sours it. Soil, occasionally wet
and occasionally dry, will improve in quality, turning
blacker and more friable, while soil kept continually
damp will turn into stiff clay. So the want of sub-
soil drainage must be injurious to the coffee tree.
At first sight Mr. Corbet’s plan of furrow draining
(for it is evidently furrow drains Mr. Corbet means)
seems the right thing to do. I have often thought
of furrow draining, and thought how good a thing
it would be to furrow-drain a stiff-bottomed field,
and have even tried it on a small seale, but, as I ex-
pected, could not afford to do it with coolies. Coolies
do most things necessary on a coffee estate cheaper
than European labour could accomplish the same task
in their own country, most kinds of works at 50 per
cent less than such works would cost in Hngland ;
but notin cutting deep drains, that is a kind of work
coolies will never be able to do at a reasonable rate.
Furrow draining is thoroughly understood in England
and Scotland, in Scotland more especially, and in
furrow draining some rules are thought absolutely
necessary to be followed—in all kinds of furrow drain-
ing--to insure their answering the purpose for which
ghey were intended, viz., the sub-soil. The first of
ghese rules is to place the drain up and down the
hills and not across it, as by placing the drain across
the hill it will leak as much by the under side as
it will drain from the upper. The second rule is that
the depth shall cerrespond with the distance apart,
4S feet is considered sufficient for drains 14 yards
ayart. The third is that the drains be properly filled
in, the bottom being provided with small stones, tiles,
timber, or whatever may be considered most expedi-
ent, that not being considered of so much consequence
as the careful covering of the under layer with broken
metal and over that a thatch of some kind to prevent
earth from getting into the drain; water only may
drain in below, but over this water must be pre-
vented from getting into the drain by the surface,
and to prevent this properly-worked clay must be
put over the thatch and properly beaten down, and
then the cutting filted up with earth rammed down,
and the remaining earth spread over the field, and
the furrow drain may be said to be finished. But
another rule is, that all furrow drains be emptied
into a leader properly built and not into any open ditch.

‘* These rules will have to be complied with to en-
sure success in draining. And what will be the cost?
An acre of coffee will require about 200 yards of

COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING. 139

drains, and a coely after some experienee (he need
be a 10d one) will cut about 14 yard a day; 133
days at 10d—£5 10s 10d. Filling in will cost collect-
ing stones or timber 13d, preparing avd putting in
isd, claying and filling in 14d=43d per yard filling
in, or per acre £3 15s, and then 24 yards of leader
drain will cost 1/6 per yard, £1 16s in all, £11 Is
10d per acre. You may say you can do it fer less
and can dispense with filling in, but unless the drain
is k-pt preperly clear it will net act, and if it be
possible to keep a furrow drain elear without cover-
ing it it will be at a eost which would soon cover
the expense of filling in high as it is. If draining
, could be done properly at a fourth of the money,
then ye men of Dimbula and Dikeya do it, but I de
mot suppose yor are prepared to spend from £13 to
£14 per acre on it. Cutting drains three feet deep,
aad le. ving them open, will be so much money thrown
away, except fer sirface. Instead, as transport from
Colombo gets cheaper, send fer qaicklime: lime mind
you, net chunim, which is little else but magnesia,
vood medicine some times, but indifferent manure,
and apply the lime immediately after it is slacked,
——see they do not do that for you in Colombo,—apply
it to the surface and to the tree. Liquid manure,
that’s the thing when cart roads are at reasonable
distances apart, and a small eart road will be suffi-
cient fer the purpose. It can be applied at half the
cost of cattle manure and with greater benefit. So

eut Cart. roads, build st eds, buy eattle, and plant
grass. Build a tank to held 5,0UU gastus~ ~-

Huy four 60-gallon casks, build four small carts to
carry them, taking down your 6 feet spouting, and
adda hook, and a few links of chain, and then con-
vert all your manure and all convenient animal and.
vesetable matter good for nothing else into liquid
with vitriol and water or anything e'se you can de
at with, and ther with one cooly te serape a small
hollow round the tree to held a gallon of water to
be sent down by measure from the cart, and another
+o shift the spouts to another line of ceifee as they
have done their duty, and other two coolies to attend
+40 the cart and bullocks. These four coolies will
manure half an acre per day. You will be able to
calculate the cost and see how small it is. Manure
applied in liquid will go much farther than when
applied in bulk, and by making all your cattle man-
are into liquid, keeping cattle will pay.”

Mr. W. Cross Buchanan has given his views on the
subject of manuring, and especially on the value of
artificial and other manures, in a letter to the Plant-
"ers Association, as follows:—‘' Within the last three

140 COFFEE CULTIVATION AND MANURING.

years I have had many opportunities of testing the
merits of diff-rent artificial manures, aud I find, from
personal experience ciiefly, that the use of artificial
manures alone is undoubtedly very prejudicial to the
coffee trees on old estates, I have seen isolated in-
stances where no bad effects have accrued as yet from
the use of bones and poouac, but they are so few in
number, that I have no hesitation in advocating great
caution in the use of such stimulants alone. At the
same time, when mixed m certain proportions with
any bulky vegetable matter decomposed with cattle
manures and pulp, they constitu'e in my opinion the
sum-total of economical manuring, giving to the tree
all that robust and vigorous appearan:e as if cattle
manure alone hal been applied, produce good steady
crops, while the tree does not suffer at the end of
the season, as 1s tbe result when urtificial manure
alone is used. If an estate be capable of manuring
say 30 aeres annually with cattle manure and pulp,
the quantity s>» used would, if mixed with a combina-
tion of artificial manure and any vegetable matter,
be sufficient to manure, In my opinion, 90 acres, at
ue increase in the relaive cost per acre, while the
compost would not be in any way inferior to the
cattle manure and pulp by theniselves.
‘«Superphosphates of lime, castor poonae, special
mixtures, sombreorum, and other manufactured man-
ures, all excellent and powerful fertilizers, ought, if
applied to old coffee, to be treated in the same man-

ner as bones and poonac.. To hope to renovate old
— wewoevuucr without bulky manures is both

against theory and practice, but by all means try and
reduce the quantity to a minimum. Not many years
ago I saw three to seven baskets of rich cattle dung
thrown into each manure hole, and this done by two
of the oldest and most experienced planters in the
island. The treatment of old and yvuung coffee ought.
to be very different as regards manuring. Take two
fields of coffee growing on the same slope and soil,—
one 26 years old, the other rising seven, we find the
young coffee with roots all entire taking strength from
all parts of the soil equally around, and the soil it-
self giving out a fair supply of nourishment. On the
other hand we see the old coffee with roots partly
bared by the weeding scraper, washed by the rain
portions entirely cut away by the mamoty, and the
soil impoverished by constant cropping. Admittine
those two fields as fair average of old and young coffee,
it seems to me that the action of the trees upon the
manure would be very different. The young tree would
not require to depend so much upon the manure to
ripen the crop as the old,—surrounded as the latter

THE FERTILITY OF SOILS. 141

is with worn-out soil, and partially covered roots
naturally requiring a more substantial manure than
what wovld suffice to ripen the young wood and
increase crop upon the young tree. From this I
infer that artificial manure mayin many instances be
used alone with impunity and with success on young
plantations for a few years, or as long as the soil it-
self is not exhausted.

“With regard to the method of application, the
kind of manure used, the general features of the
ground and appearance ef the trees will show at a
glance to-any practical planter the best course he should
pursue. The nearer the surface, so long as the man-
ure is sufficiently covered to prevent waste and the
effects of the sun’s heat, it will, I believe, show
quicker results; but I should strongly oppose anything
like surface manuring, as being impracticable and
unsound in theory. it is more than prvbable that,
after a little time, manuring in the centre of the
square will become very general on young estates,
especially as holing at the upper side of the tree has
the effect of making the roots tend to one side, whereas
holing in the centre of four trees prevents the cutting
of large roots and tends to the free and longest growth
ef the root.” ,

THE FERTILITY OF SOILS. FS

in a recent letter to the New York Farmers’ Club,
Professor 8. W. Johnson, of Yale College, says :—
‘The labours of chemists to discover positively all
the causes of the fertility of soils have not yet met
with conclusive suecess. The mechanical structure of
soil is of primary importance. Naked rock grows
lichen ; the same rock crushed into coarse grains grows
a much higher order ef vegetable; pulverized fine,
the cereals grow in it. Geology, chemistry, botany,
physiology, meteerology, mechanics, hydrodynamics,
heat, light, and electricity are all intimately com-
bined in the grand process of vegetation. There are
sandy soils in our KHastern States which, without
nanure, yield meagre crops of rye and buckwheat ;
but there are sandy seils in Ohio which, without
manure, yield on an average eighty bushels of Indian
cern an acre, and have yielded it for twenty to fifty
years in unbroken succession, the ingredients of these
soils being, by chemical analysis, the same. At pre-
sent no difference is known between them, except
the coarseness of the particles—the first being coarse,
while the Ohio sand is an exceedingly fine powder.
The power of soils to attract and imbibe moisture

142 MANURING.

and oxygen, was well shown by Schubler, of Hoffen,
forty years ago. Of thirteen different soils, quartz
sand absorbed in thirty days 1:1000 parts of oxygen
and n) moisture, while humus absorbed thirteen of
oxygen and 120 of moisture.

‘““ SURFACE water that flows off the iand instead of
passing through the soil, carries with it whatever fer-
tilizins matter it may contain,. and abstracts some
from the earth. If it pass down through the soil
into drains, this waste is arrested.

[The principles above enunciated exemplify the diffi-
culties of coffee planting. We cannot plough and
harrow the soil so as to pulverize it and expose it
to the action of the atmosphere, nor can we build
sunk drains to receive water filtered of its fertilizing
materials by the earth. But by means of manure and.
water holes, and forks to puncture the earth, we can
do a good deal to bring inert soils into aetion.—ED.
€, O.] i

NOTES ON MANURING.

Dr. Sortain, of Batticaloa, favoured the public with
the following valuable Notes during the discussion on
Manuring :—

1.—There are two classes of elements which are
necessary to every soil to ensure the growth and fructi-
Heation of vegetables—mineral and nitrogenous.

2.—The former exist in every soil, but not always
in an available state; the latter are supplied by the
atmosphere, bat seldom in quantities sufficient for
cultivated crops.

3o.—tLhe mineral elements or the alkalies make up
the bulk of all soils; even pure sea sand contains
every mineral necessary to the growth of plants.

4.—If a quantity of pure sand be placed in a bottle
of water saturated with carbonic acid, after a time
the water will be found to contain various alkales
in solution. .

5.—Virgin soils are fertile on account of their avail-
able alkalies, which have been brought out of the
latent state as 1t were by the prolonged action of the
carbonic acid supplied by the decomposing vegetable
matter.

6.—Soils differ in the facility with which they yield
to the action of the carbonie acid. Sea sand for in-
stance and voleanic matter are fertile accordingly.

7.—The soils of Ceylon are generally the débris of
hard rock—and their stores of available alkalies are
easily exhausted.

3.—The humus, or vegetable matter im the soil, will

MANURING., 143

also fail in due course, and with it the supply of
carbonic acid, and the alkalies will remain latent.

9.--One object of manuring should be to keep the
soil well stored with hunius, and that will ensure a
goo supply of available alkalies. '
- 10.—Where fruit is:the object of cultivation, nitro-
genous manures are necessary ; the mineral elements
alone, however abundant and available, will not en-
sure fruit. :

11.—Without a due supply of alkalies the tree will
not ficurish, and nitrogenous manur s alone will soon
render the best soil barren. : ek

12.—The method of applying these principles will
vary according to circumstances. Nature should be
imitated as much as possible; the whole bulk of the
soil should be supplied with the two kinds of man-
ures, so that the whole mass of the roots may per-
term their vital function. ‘

13.—The application of manure to land bearing av-
nual crops is easy; but if trees are cultivated, the
extent to which their roots may be prudently dis-
turbed must be considered. ;

14, —Humus absorbs and is highly retentive of moist-
ure, so that the more a soil contains the less is it
likely to be affected by drought. .

15.—The best season for the application of manure
is a very important question; if the roots of trees
are cut during dry weather, their supply of moisture
is curtailed; if nitrogenous manures are applied too
shortly before the heavy rains, their soluble matter
is liable to be carried away.

By. humus is meant the vegetable matter that has
decomposed and become part of the soil.

By alkalies—the parts of a plant not dissipated by
burning. y

i6.—With regard to practice upen the above prin-
riples,; my opinion, founded upon observation, is that
a supply of available alkalies should be kept up by
the regular application of vegetable matter; the soil
will then be always ready to receive and make the
most of the nitrogenous or fruit-forcing manures.

17:—Manuring is not the only method by which
the fertility of the soil may be kept up or restored,
good agriculture will take advantage of the elements
of fertility supplied by nature,

18.—Rain carries with it much carbonte and nitro-
genous matter, which it yields up to the soil to the
extent of their absorbing power.

i9.—The absorbing power of soils varies according
to their chemical compositions, their texture, and the
depth to which the rain can soak and pass freely
through.

144 MANURING.

' 20.—Soils absorb the gases brought to them by the
rain in a definite degree: when saturated they will
take up no more; it is evident, therefore, that the
deeper the bed of soil in which the roots seek their
food, and the more. perfectly it is permeable, the
greater the amount of fertilizing matter which will be
left behind by the rain.

21.—This bed of surface soil may be deepened by
draining, by which the line of stagnant moisture is low-
ered, and by encroaching upon the sub-soil, by methods
known to agriculture.

22.—If the 80 or 100 inches of rain in Ceylon
could be enticed to soak through the soil instead of
running off, no fruit-forcing manure would be neces-
sary. The intention of good agriculture should be to
accomplish this as far as possible.

23.—The power of water to fertilize depends upon
the presence of nitrogenous matter either in it or the
soil to which it is applied. Spring water, and river
water also, to the extent that it has filtered through
the soil, have parted with their nitrogenous matter.
Stored water also gradually loses its value, for it
rapidly yields up its nitrogenous matter to the ani-
mal and vegetable life that abound in it. River water
is but partially successful when applied to coffee land,
and old tank water renders paddy crops feathery.

24.—This relative value of rain and river and tink
water should not be lost sight of when discussing
irrigation schemes that involve great outlay.

SECOND SERIES OF NOTES.

1.—There is a scientific idea which, if popularized,
might be of service in the discussion of coffee manur-
ing, it is chemical absorption.

2.—When water is applied to perfectly dry earth a
certain definite portion is absorbed and becomes lat-
ent; beyond this point the moisture is sensibl>. Or-
dinary drying by sun and wind will drive away the
sensible moisture, but it requires a high degree of heat
to drive off the latent, or, as it is called, the water
of absorption.

3.—Gases, as well as fields, are subject to this law
of definite absorption.

4,—When the fcod of plants is brought to the soil
by rain, the upper layers absorb it up to saturation.
What is over is carried to the lower layers and there
absorbed, and so on, as far as the soil is permeable,
down to the stagnant moisture. If there is more thin
‘enough to saturate the whole, it passes off to waste,
as far as the soil on which it fell is concerned. |

5.—If, however, the rain cannot pass freely off as
in swampy lands, it stagnates; and when, as the

FERTILIZING SUBSTANCES. 145

season changes, the water is evaporated by sun and
wind, tue fertilizing matter is left behind in the soil
not chemically absorbed but in solution in the sensi-
ble moisture.

6.—This fertilizing matter, as the ground dries up,
is given up to the atmosphere and renders the coun-
try unhealthy. When land is drained it becomes
fertile and malaria disappears; the fertilizing matter
can now be chemicilly absorbed by the soil.

7.—When organic matter is left to decay on the
ground, rain takes what is soluble down into the soil,
where it is absorbed up to solution. This is the way
in which wild vegetation is supplied with fertilizing
matter, and, as the whole mass of roots derive the
benefit, it is the best way, provided the fertilizing
matter is not dissipated in the a’mosphere, or carried
away by floods.

8.—The- vital force of the rootlets is able to over-
come the chemical force of absorption, and due exer-
cise of the function increases the power of the tree
to take up its food, as muscular exercise increases
muscular power, and a good digestion is better than
a good supply of nutritive soups.

Jv.—As tne soluble products of decaying vegetable
matter are carried down into the soil by the rain, as
also the roots of the trees excrete eff-te matter, and
as the rootlets themselves are shed like the leaves,
the humus, though being constantly used up, is as
constantly supplied.

10.—Terracing, tile draining, surface manuring, and
thatching, appear to me the best methods of culti-
vating coffee, as far as the soil is concernea. The
first two are expensive certainly, but then the present
chena method cannot go on for ever.

11.—Terracing shuld be accompanied by draining,
for the water having soaked through the upper ter-
races will have lost all value, and should be let off
at the sides,

FERTILIZING SUBSTANCES FOR CEYLON
COFFEE LANDS.
(From the Ceylon Observer.)

Our best thanks are due for a copy of the Report
for 1870-71 of the Ceylon Planters’ Association.
Amongst information of a useful neture on subjects
which have been already discussed to a more or less
extent, we are surprised to find, for the first time
published, a lengthy and most important contribu-
tion to our knowledge of the chemistry of that branch

146 FERITILIZING SUBSTANCES. 3

of agriculture which constitutes the main material in-
terest of this colony. Proceedings of Committee Meéet-
ings of the Association were formerly held sacred from
publication, a rule more honored in the breach than
the observance. The result of the restrictive rule (no
longer in force), is that we only now are aware that,
at a Committee Meeting held so long ago as 20th
June 1870, ‘‘Mr. Harrison mentioned that, in accord-
ance with the request ot the Committee, he had se-
lected samples of soils, coffee, &c., from various estates
and forwarded them to England for purposes of ana-
lysis. He then read a paper descriptive of the vari-
ous samples sent.” The analysis of soils made by
Dr. Vcelcker a year ago (he does not seem to hav:
theught it necessary to report on the branches, leaves,
and fruit sent to him) are published, with the opini-
ons of that eminent agricultural chemist as to the
best substances for application to such soils and the
proportions of each. The soils were of all qualities,
taken from estates of varying ages and at different
elevations, and Dr. Voelcker prescribes for each typic-
al case. This contribution to the literature of coffee
culture is therefore of general and great importance,
fully justifying the space we devote to it. We in-
tended to have drawn attention in detail to the main
results established, but spxce to-day will not permit.
For thé present, therefore, we can only say that Dr.
Voelcker’s analyses confirm the results of previous
ones as to the wenderful similarity of the coffee soils
of Ceylin in all the main constituents: organic mat-
ter, oxides of iron, alumina and insoluble silicious
matter.

The great problem is to ascertain the proportions
in the soil of,—first, PHOSPHORIC ACID; and second,
poTasH. A few decimal parts of these essential ele-
ments deficient cr in excess make all the difference
between sterility and fertility; and on the propor-
tions ascertained depend the quantities which should.
be apphed to the ssil of jrst,—good MURIATE OF
POTASH (the imported potash of commerce, muriate
and chloride of potash meaning just the same thing),
containing 80 per cent of pure muriate ot potash ;
second,—jine BONE-bUST 3 third,—good SUPERPHOS-
PHATE OF LIME (bones treated with sulphuric acid
the best form), containing 25 per cent of soluble
phosphate ; fourth,—good SULPHATE OF AMMONIA.
In one case alone is nitrate ci soda (the form of
saltpetre most allied te common salt) recommended, -
and with Dr. Voelcker’s verdict, that it is evanescent
and liable to be washed away, while, being m demand,
unhappily, for the manufacture of gunpowder, it is far.
more expensive than muriate of potash, we may dis-

FERTILIZING SUBSTANCES. 147

miss it. Four-fiths at least of what the eminent
agricultural chemist considers the most efficacious
manure for coffee must consist of potash, bone-dust,
and bones in the shape of superphosphate; while the
sulphate of ammonia added should never exceed one-
fifth. In four out of six recipes indeed given by Dr.
Voelcker, the proportion. is only 15 per cent, The
proportions applied as Dr. Voelcker states of the f:r-
tilizing salts he recommends must depend on the
condition of the soil as revealed by analysis; but
even where analysis cannot be obtained, any planter
would be safe in applying a small dressing of the
substances named to good soil (say 3 cwt. per acre)
so as to keep it good; and a larger dressing (say 5
ewt. per acre) with about an equal quantity of poonac
to fertilize poor or restore exhausted soil. The appli-
cation, to secure the fullest results, ought, we learn
from a planter of experience, to be made annually ,
but once in two years would keep coffee fairly in
heart. A most important point to be remembered is
that every cwt. added to the normal produce of an
estate is almost clear profit. It follows that, if by
adding 3 cwt. per acre annually of manure the yield
is raised from 5 ewt. to 7, 8, 9, or 10 cwt., the
immediate profit will be large, while the land will
be kept permanently in good condition. The cost of
3 ewt. of Dr. Voelcker’s mixture ought not when
apphed to reach £3, while 2 cwt. additional of coffee
ought to realize £6 to £7 gross, of which, according
to our authority, a very large proportion would be
profit. Can any of our readers favour us with an
analysis of castor-oil cake, so that we may be able
to see why it is so nuch better than coconut poonac
which we know yields to analysis the elements of
coffee? Dr. Voelcker, the man of science, attaches
far less importance to organic matter than does the
merely practical planter Mr. Taylor. Organic matter
is of great importance, nevertheless; but as fallen
leaves, though they contain the minimum of fertiliz-
ing salts, are yet most eflicacious in securing the
action on soil which results from warmth and moist-
ure. In the soils examined by Dr. Voelcker, the
proportion of organic matter varied from a minimum
of 5:07 to a maximum of 13:13; oxides of iron from
2°64 to 12°84; alumina from 6°01 to 16°47; while
insoluble silicious matter proved to be never below
59°57 (alumina being in this case high in proportion),
rising to 82°23. Our soil consists of about 98 per cent
of the organic and mineral substances named, with
not much more than traces in each case of such salts
as sulphate and carbonate of lime, magnesia, phcs-l
phoric acid, potash, and soda. In the very best svil

148 FERTILIZING SUBSTANCES.

we get ‘30 of phosphoric acid and ‘27 of potash.
Such soil would grow anything; but what could be
expected from another soil shewing only -02 of phos-
phoric acid and ‘04 of potash? ‘This was a dark
patana soil, an¢, although it looked well, did not, of
course, grow coffee well. Even the richest manure
would probably be thrown away in this case, unless
the ground were first well stirred up and left for a
couple of years to be aeratel. ‘The great desiderata
seem to be simple tests for phosphoric acid and potash,
which any superintendent could apply. So long as
a soil is found to contain appreciable quantities of
each, it will grow coffee well and require but a mo-
derate expenditure for manuring. If phosphoric acid
is so low as ‘10, and potash down to ‘15 per cent,
then only heavy manuring with potash, bones, su-
perphosphate, and ammonia, with or without poonac,
pulp, &c., will enable the soil to yield good crops
of coffee.

THE NECESSITY FOR TRIALS OF DIFFERENT MANURES
AS THEY MAY SUIT SOILS is thus indicated by one
who has devoted his life to scientific agriculture :—
‘* Whenever,” says Mr. Mechi, ‘‘I use an artificial
manure, I leave a portion of the field unmanured with
it, and am thus enabled to judge by the crop if I
am remunerated for the outlay. So various are the
soils and conditions of each field that such a com-
parative test becomes absolutely necessary, for where
the whole field is manured and no portion left un-
dressed, no just conclusion can be arrived at. On
this farm I have frequently applied bone dust, super-
phospi ate, blood manure, and other artificial manures,
without the least increase of crop, while Peruvian
guano, and especially our shed monure are always
profitable. As I know that on many farms such man-
ures have been found very effective, there must be
causes that render them inoperative on this soil. No
doubt shed manure, resulting from animals fed with
corn, cake, roots, and hay, malt-combs, and bran,
eontain all the elements for every crop. Possibly it
may be that, having thus enough phosphates, the
addition of more is not required or availed of by the
plant. At all events my case proves the necessity
for comparative trials.”

THE COST OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES.

The following analyses and calculations of cost of
several descriptions of manure may be worth insert-
ing for the information of coffee planters. They have
been lying among our papers for some time, haying

COFFEE PLANTING AND FINANCING. 149

been furnished by an experienced farmer in the North
of Scotland, as referring to artificial manures which
he had used with satisfactory results on his land.
He, and his brethren, had proved after a good deal
of costly experience, that they could never depend on
the qualities of the artificial manures received from
the large manufactories. The increased demand was
soon found to lead to very extensive adulteration.
Some of them accordingly formed a company, erected
the necessary machinery at considerable cost, and, im-
porting the raw material direct from South America
and other places, proceeded to manufacture not only
for their own use but for that of the farmers in
the surrounding districts. Our visit to the manufact-
ory was a very interesting one, and it was then
(some three years ago) that the following figures were
furnished as the analysis and cost (delivered at the
manufactory close by a shipping port) ue some of
their principal artificial manures :—

Names. Analysis. Cost per
25°96 of Solub'e Phosphates ton cash.
No, I.—Bonzs. 4 14°34 ,, Insoluble do £7 10

2°51 ,, Ammonia

24°44 of Soluble Phosvhates

a eee 13°36 ,, ey (changed £6 10
eS: 1:12 ,, Ammonia

No. IlI.— Super- { 64 of Soluble Phosphates

Ne, I1.—Bones

PHOSPHATE— 8°64 ,, Insoluble do £6 10
Bone ASH. Nil Ammonia
Tox 26°32 of Soluble Phosphates
MINERAL OR Cop- 6°52 ,, Insolubie (Stationary) +}£4 15
ROLITES.
Nil ’ “Ammonia
This practice of farmers combining to procure raw
material from which to manufacture artificial manures

is rapidly spreading we understand in agricultural.

districts elsewhere both in England and Scotland.

COFFEE PLANTING AND COFFEE FINANCING
IN CHYLON.

We have received ‘‘ Young Ceylon,” a pamphlet
reprinted from the Madras Mail, with the name of
Mr. A. M. Anderson as the author. It is well when
a man has much leisure that he should not cease to
work. Our young friend has the pen of a ready and
graphic writer, and he uses it frequently and copi-
ously. His picture of the career of a youth coming
to Ceylon to engage in coffee planting may be painted
couleur de rose and not correctly in all its details,
but still it may be interesting to our readers, so we
quote as follows :—

What are the prospects of such young men, the

M

\

150 COFFEE PLANTING AND FINANCING.

reader may enquire? They are good, indeed one
might say brilliant, and, in all human probability,
if blessed with good health, they will have attained
independence by the time they reach middle age.
On his arrival in Ceylon, the youth takes up his
abode with an acquaintance of some years’ residence
in the island, with whom he learns the rudiments
of his trade, including the Tamil language, in order
to be able to converse with his coolies. In some ~
eases he is at once installed in the post of Assistant
Superintendert, for which he gets his londging and
board, or, if he prefers it, £8-6-8 per month. While
learning the arts of holing, lining, planting, handling,
&e., the beginner keeps a sharp look-out after the
sales of forest-land, which takes place at the Go-
vernment Agent’s Office in Kandy at frequent inter-
vals. He has made up his mind to settle in one of
the new districts, say Dimbula, Dikoya, or the Mas-
keliya Valley; the identical quarter he has chosen
has been applied for, surveyed, marked out, and the
auction is advertised in the Government Gazette. Our
planter rides into Kandy on the appointed day to
attend the sale, when there is a brisk competition
ending by Lot 4,863, bounded on the north by Lot
&c., and measuring 410a. 37. 2p., being knocked down
to him at £4 10s. an acre. The price varies accord-
ing to the run of popular taste for the moment, land
going in some districts for the upset price of £1 an
acre, while a block, perhaps inferior to it in coffee-
bearing qualities, fetched £5, beeause it happens te
lie in a locality where one or two lately opened es-
tates have enriched their owners. However, such
considerations are very far from troubling our friend,
who makes a night of it in the Queen’s Hotel along
with the other purchasers, and rides home to his bun-
galow next morning with a bad headache, but the
happy owner of a “wattie” im embryo. It is only
a speck in the ocean of forest, but im anticipation it
has already endowed its owner with the wealth of
the De Soyzas, the princess of Sinhalese coffee plant-
ers. Life would be a poor affair without its day-
dreams, and the planter is but one of the many who
start on their career, with a belief in their certainty
of success which greatly aids them in reaching the
goal. It would be better for a man to dig for dia-
monds in South Africa, or plant cotton in the Fiji
Islands, than to commence coffee planting, dispirited
and mistrustful of himself. The first sharp attack of
dysentery, or liver, will carry a man off as surely as
the buoyant heart of the other will enable him to
bear hunger, wet, and isolation without repining, as
well as to resist the insidious attacks of disease. _
Having secured his block of land, the next thing

COFFEE PLANTING AND FINANCING. 151

the planter must de is to engage a Sinhalese con-
tractor, who undertakes the felling and clearing of
say 100 acres as a_ beginning. When this has been
“lone, and a good “burn” has disposed of the dead
leaves and branches, the real work commences. If
the land is not too far removed froma neighbouring
estate, the new man can chum with its superintend-
ent and ride to and from his own place. Generally,
however there is no help for it, but to rough it in
a hut made of leaves of the talipot palm, In anew
istrict where Government has net had time to trace
roads, or build bridges, he may pass weeks without
seeing a white face. The follewing extract from the
detter of a Dikoya planter, under date the 27th ul-
tiwo, will serve to illustrate the difficulties attaching
to his new positien :—

“IT had a very narrow escape from being drowned
*“Jast week, but I had the pleasure of saving a man’s
** life G. S. whom you must remember on D. estate).
““ Four of us were crossing alarge and deep river in
**the Maskeliya, swimming with all eur clothes on.
“*T got over first, then B.; but S. stuck half way,
“‘and was drowning. J and B. jemped in and made
**for him. He had got entangled, and we could not
“* get him loose for a long time: B. then gave in,
“and I was left alone. S. was by this time nearly
<emmeensibis, i was quite exkausted when 2 Sinhalese
““man came to my help, and then i let go and drifted
“‘down. I fortunately struck against a dead stump
“*and eaught hold ef it, just as the native and S.’s
*“insensible body were sweeping past me. JI caught
““hold of them and held them till we were all landed
““ashore. S. was a leng time before he came round,
“*Tt gave us all an awful fright.”

The Maskeliya, where this occurred, is the most
xecently opened district in the island, and forms part
of an immense tract ef forest, lying under the shadow
of the saered mountain, and henee named the Wil-
derness of the Peak. Except once a year, when pil-
grims from the Sabaragamuwa country wend their
way through it by devious and uncertain paths up
to the ‘‘holy footprint,” these vast solitudes are never
trodden by man. The erack of the rifle has not as
yet driven the elephant from his lair, nor startled
the cheetah from his den in this awful wilderness.
The Ceylon Government is not remarkable for its
promptitude in giving reads to fresh districts. This
seems rather like a breach of good faith on its part:
for when land is put up for sale, it is understood
that Government will lose no time in giving it a grant-
in-aid road—that is to say a road, of which half the
expense is borne by Government, and the other moiety
sy the planters. Through this tardiness many a

152 COFFEE PLANTING AND FINANCING.

noble fellow succumbs or goes home invalided from
being deprived of timely medical aid and nourishing
supplies. That the fault is not Sir Hercules Robin-
son’s will be borne witness to by every up-country
resident ; rather it is owing to the circumstances that
the trail of the serpent has reached ‘‘ India’s utmost
isle.” The Parent Circumlocution Office sends out its.
offspring, who never completely get clean of their
leading strings, or forget their early training. Sir
Hercules has been emphatically the planters’ fri-nd,
and for the extension of the railway from Peradeniya
to Nawalapitiya alone, he deserves a statue erected
- on the highest mountain in the island.

We left the new landowner shivering im his tali-
pot hut, his servant having just stated that the wood
is too damp to admit of a fire being kindled to make
early coffee, adding sotto voce that there was no milk,
that the sugar was all melted, and the bread cooly
mot arrived. ‘* Heaven’s own consoler,” tobacco, alone
remains; so, lighting his pipe, the hungry youth pro-
eeeds to line his 100 aeres, and having marked with
pegs where the young plants ought to go, the coolies
dig the holes. All this is not very difficult work, and
when the necessary plants have been put. in, there
is little or nothing to do on the plantation until next
year’s clearing, and planting a fresh 100 acres. To
give some idea of how capital may be expended, the
following may be relied on as a fair estimate :—

Cost of Land 350 at £4 £1,400
First YEAR.
Nursery ty SIU
Felling, clearing 100 acres... 225
Holing and. planting w- 130

Weeding saa ee TOO
Lines for coolies ... te 50
Roads and bridges ... oe 50
Tools... fae ae se 15
Miscellaneous .. 20 ——

Total, first year......605
Suconp YEAR.

Nurseries : 2h GES
Holing and planting | Hi 10.
Weeding 4 He ao FOO
Roads and bridges sie eee 10
Tools... ae “0 5
Sundries A 10 ——
Total, “gecond year,.....140
745
Felling, clearing, planting, &e.,
another 100 acres as before ... 605 £1,350

Total expenditure... ohn gears

COFFEE PLANTING AND FINANCING, 153

To those who have further capital, the rest is plain.
sailing. They have only to fell the remaining 150
acres, and in the meantime erect a bungalow, store,
and pulping-house, as also to perfect the roads, and.
when all is in full bearing they are the lucky owners
of an estate worth from £12,000 to £14,000, giving
an income of £3,000 a year at least.

But such as have no more capital at their disposal
must set about financing. There is plenty of money
always seeking investment, and the planter can bor-
row on primary mortgage of his estate, at nine per
cent per annum. His property is now worth—

100 acres planted—2 years old, at £24...£2,400
100 do do —1 year pe reeOO
150 do forest now worth £6 sca), veOwe

Total... £4,100

on this he can raise £3,000 which will pay for the
buildings and opening the remaining land. One or two
crops will pay off the debt, and then the proprietor
is in as goed a position as his brother capitalists.
In the preceding estimate no charge has been made
for superintendence or interest of money. In the case
of a middle-aged man—or a retired Indian officer,
who has a family, and objects to roughing it in the
_ jungle, he would probably wish to purchase a plan-
tation in full bearing. His views will be met with-
out difficulty. One enterprising agent in Kandy ad-
vertices :—

‘* Coffee estates for sale in ail districts, ages, and
conditions, varying in size from 40 to 1,500 acres—and
in price from £20U to £24,000. N.B., 56 estates now
on the register—35 have been sold.”

Supposing an estate of 350 acres is selected and
the price fixed at £10,000 (there being 50 acres in
forest): the purchaser pays down all the money at
his disposal, say £3,000, and leaves the balance on a
primary mortgage at 9 per cent. There still remains
the difficulty of findimg money to work the estate,
to gather the crop, and despatch it, as well for his
household expenses. Here the local Exchange Bank
steps in and advances the needful at 8 per cent on
what is styled a Cash Credit. By their Charters the
banks are prohibited from advancing money as securi-
fy on land or block advances, which brought the
old Bank of “eylon to ruin, but no such restriction
applies to lending on crops.

Here it may be remarked that Ceylon is rather
ahead of India in the matter of banking, as from its
insular position it has been able to copy the Scotch
system. LHvery little town and village has got its
eranch bank, which keeps current accounts, and ne-

154 COFFEE PLANTING AND FINANCING.

gotiates drafts on Colombo, but priucipally cashes
notes, which are of ail denominations from R100
to R5, an’ are an immense convenience. It muat
not be imagined, however, that the cash credits above
alluded to bear the faintest resemblance, except in
name, to Scotch ones. In that country—when a per-
son requires funds he applies to the Bank, which
grants him the amount on the security of a bond,
executed by bim jointly with two or more individus
als of respectability and substance. Beyond a fair
rate of interest for its money, the bank derives no
advantage from the bond, and’ the parties who be-
come joint surety obtain actually no benefit at all,
having given their names out of pure friendship.
The Ceylon cash credit is quite another affair, and
shows considerable ingenuity in its construction. The
coming crop having been estimated by a competent
judge, the amount of advance is fixed considerably
within its probable value, and a bond is signed by
the planter and his Colombo agents, by which the
former undertakes to consign all the produce to the
latter to be cured and shipped. The agents in their
turn engage to hypotheeate to the bank the bills of
lading for the coffee when shipped, drawing against
the same on their London correspondents at the rate
of exchange of the day. The bank thus employs its
deposits without risk, and does a profitable exchange
business on. London; the Colombo agents make sure
of their commission for curing and shipping; and the
planter gets his money at 8 percent. Judging from
the immense improvement visible of late years m
Colombo, where the dingy hovels in which the local
millionaires amassed their fortunes have given place
to palatial edifices, all plate glass and stucco, (!) it
cannot be urged that the arrangement is unprofitable
to the agents at any rate. To the banker consider-
able discretion is left, as he cam fix the rate of ex:
change at pleasure; but taking the bank, drawing
rate at Calcutta for six months’ sight bills on Lon-
don, as the central pivot round which all his opera-
tions must revolve, it will be found that the planter
is fairly dealt with, and does not pay more than 2
or 3 per cent above that rate.

SHEWING HOW A COFFEE PLANTATION
CANNOT BE PROPERLY OPENED UNDER £25.
AN ACRE.

(To the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.)

DEAR Sir,—It is not often that matters connected
with coffee planting in Ceylon are noticed by ove

COFFEE PLANTING IN CEYLON. 155

friends in India; it was, therefore, with a certain
amount of pleasure that I perused the few extracts
you were pleased to give us in your issue of the
2nd from a pampblet entitled ‘“‘ Young “eylon.”

After indulging in a few pleasant lhttle anecdotes,
our worthy author proceeds to explain the process
of opening up land and supplement bis observations
by a row of figures, which he is pleased to term an
estimate of the cost of the various items of expen-
diture, and adds, moreover, that we may consider it
reliable.

Now, although Mr. Anderson may be, as you suggest,
a very clever young man, he has most certainly
stultified himself in the matter of this so-called estim-
ate, and his figures are unfortunately not quite so
reliable as his vocation would lead us to expect.

Not being gifted with the same fertile imagination
as our festive banker, we must be content to follow
the ideas he is pleased to give us, and imagine, if
we can, the ‘‘happy youth”—for so he designates
the young planter—commencing operations by lining
his 100 acres clearing, premising, however, that the
talipot hut he lives in is erected for nothing, and
that whatever personal supervision he may be disposed
to give to the various works is gratuitous, and forms
‘no part. whatever of the estate expenditure. The pre-
cess of lining he describes as being simple, so simple
in fact as to be costless (vide estimate), and, although
he indicates that pegs are necessary, he believes most
firmly that they are cut and collected by some ex-
ceptionally accommodating Hindu for nothing. Now-
a-days we are not so fortunate, and are generally
content to pay from 5s. to 6s. per acre for the pro-
per completion of this work. Our attention is next
invited to the “Holing and Planting” which, if one
may judge from the estimate, are done both together,
and without the intermediate and evidently superflu-
ous operation of refilling. But to return to the hol-
ing, which we will assume for the sake of argument
he has allowed £100 for. Now has Mr. Anderson or
any other Mr. Anderson ever known a elearing to be
properly holed at acost of £1 per acre? Iam aware
that some planters cut as many as 50 nominally
eighteen inch holes, but in reality what are they?
Let the intending investor satisfy himself by a visit
to the Eldorado of Ceylon. Holing to be properly
done represents £1 10s per acre at least, aad careful
refilling may be fairly estimated at 10s per acre.
With regard to planting we are not deigned much
information, but the purchase of plants, rather a for-
midable item in an out-of-the-way district, is a matter
$00 insignificant to receive his attention. The other

”

156 COFFEE PLANTING IN CEYLON.

items in his first year’s expenditure are ordinarily
correct. We now come to the second year, which ag
regards omissions, is a fitting continuation of the first.
Topping, staking, suckering, draining, &c., are in the
opinion of our economical banker works, if not alto-
gether unnecessary, at least too insignificant to render
an estimate of their -cost necessary; the wretched
talipot hut still exists, and the lines erected in the
first year are as waterproof as ever. So much then
for our ‘‘reliable” estimate! ! ! |

It is the incessant croak of these so-termed ready
writers, who do Ceylon so much harm. The not im-
probable result of Mr. Andersou’s effusion will be a
flood of small capitalists into the colony, who with
£1,000 in one pocket and ‘‘ Young Ceylon” in the
other will rush headlong into the first speculation
which offers, and of course come to grief. H Mr.
Anderson would eontent himself with his counter, and
leave the framing of estimates to men more competent
to the task, he would receive the thanks of taoose
who have a soul above ‘‘Cash Credits,” and who know
far better than he possibly can the advantages Ceylon
offers to the capitalist.

Practical men know but too well the cost of open-
ing up land as it skould be opened, and although
possibly the modern planter is backed up in his tight-
laced notions of economy by men of such standing
as Mr. Brown, still it requires but a glance at the
estates opened up by these £8 and £10 per acre men
to convince the most seeptical that economy can be
carried too far. You have difficulty in ascertaining
the direction of the lines, the holing is not worthy
of the name, the roads, if any exist, are dangerous
to walk upon, and the term slovenly is applicable
on all sides. Land, te be thoroughly opened up,
drained, roaded, with permanent buildings, &c., repre-
sents £25 per acre at the end of the third year. Ti
done at a lower figure, you may be pretty certain
that something has been neglected and the property
is not what it should be

Mr. Brown estimates nothing for ‘‘General Trans-
port,” ‘‘Miscellaneous,” ‘‘Draining,” and ‘‘Contingent
Expenditure.” Lining he thinks can be done for 2s
per acre, while the cutting of pegs is supposed to
cost half as much again; surely under this latter head
Mr. Brown must have included the cost of lime for
whitewashing them !

It would be well to ventilate this matter as much
as possible, and ascertain from men of experience in
the new districts the actual cost of opening up land
proverly.

The estimate Mr. Sabonadiére has been pleased to

COFFEE PLANTING IN CEYLON. 157

furnish us with is nearer the mark than many sup-
posed. It is, however, somewhat difficult to follow
his arguments in favour of building a £300 bungalow
for the superintendent the first year, assuming (as he
himself assumes) that the estate is managed and
brought into bearing by a neighbouring planter. What
right, however, have we poor d ls to be nice? It
is not every day we have the experience of so dis-
tinguished a manager to guide us, and although pos-
sibly we do not share with him the amusement of
dabbling in mud and mortar before it is necessary,
still it is satisfactory to know that there is no occa-
sion to do so.—Yours faithfully,

SCEPTIC.

[Barring the caustic tone of this writer’s references
to Messrs. Sabonadiére and Brown, we consider his
letter a valuable and sober statement of the truth.
With holes as large as they ought to be, and the
valuable potash, charcoal, and surface vegetable mat-
ter drawn into them thoroughly, £25 an acre, or
£2,500 expended on 100 acres at the end of the third
year, is not too large a sum to calculate on. Ex-
penditure restricted in the preliminary operations of
planting and holing must mean larger expenditure
or smaller returns in after years. Coffee land ought,
if possible, to be trenched and permeated by surk
drains. As such operations are (financially) impossi-
ble, the greater the necessity for large holes, and
plenty of paths, roads, surface drains (deep), and water
holes.—Epb. C. O.]

THE ‘‘COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL” AND
THE COST OF OPENING ESTATES,

The ‘ Planters’ Manual” with its various additions
was just leaving the printer’s hands when the letter
of ‘‘Sceptic” appeared, criticizing the estimates fram-
ed by Messrs. Sabonadiére and Brown of the cost of
opening a coffee estate. We were unwilling to send
the wo-k forth without some explanation of the mod =
rate estimates of the writer of the ‘‘ Manual,” in
reply to his critic, and accordingly have been pleased
to receive the following remarks which shew that
experience is not wanting to substantiate the calcu-
lutions made by Mr, Brown ;—

“*My object throughout the work was to shew on
how low a scale a coffee plantation can be opened by
a man of small means with great care and economy {
not to shew how much can be spent in doing the same
work. This has been sufficiently illustrated before,
and at the cost of many a proprietor, If I omitted

158 COFFEE PLANTERS’ MANUAL.

General Transport, I have been liberal in some mat-
ters that need not be entered upon till the estate
be in bearing, such as roads. Of course an estate
cannot be worked without roads, and he who has
plenty of money will do wll to open them early.
But I am all along supposing a man who has not
plenty, and who therefore will only do what is absol-
utely necessary at first, leaving complete and finished
work to be done when the means to do it with come
to hand. Now in this respect were I to-be very ex-
acting, I would for the first two years make £10
spent on roads do the work for which I have allowed
£50. Besides, the item which I am charged with
having omitted, General Transport, consists chiefly of
bringing the superintendent’s provisions and those
of his coolies to the estate. As I have supposed the
ease of the estate until bearing being managed by a
neighbouring superintendent, no allowance on that
score was necessary, while as regards rice to the coo-
lies, it is generally supplied at a rate that covers
its transport, unless in very out-of-the-way districts.
{ adhere therefore to my figures, and I will tell you
furtber that they are not framed upon new Dimbula
experience with soft soil and small holes, nor on the
plan of shirking work and stinting expenditure. My
calculations are based upon proper work and 18 inch
holes, and are the same as they were 20 years ago,
About that time, the young estate I referred to was
planted under my inspection by a very careful man-
ager of an adjoining estate, and brought into bearing
for £10 an acre. Of course it had the advantages of
the old estate adjoining supplying lines, bungalow,
tools, and other conveniences with which the new
estate in the same connection had not to be taxed.
The estate opened and brought into bearing for £8
an acre was not connected with any previous estate
in the district. The books which I saw proved my
figures correct. I do not say everybody can do this,
nor will all seasons of soils admit of it. But I in-
stance these to shew what can be done under favour-
ing circumstanees, while the average rate allowed by
me is fifty per cent higher. In that estimate too I
am borne out by such men as * and many others,
all practical planters, who would not spend a penny
anless absolutely necessary, nor stint a penny that
was actually required. I do not, however, wish to
be drawn into a discussion of estimates or anything
else at present. I shall let every one say his say,
and if there be anything of importance to answer
* Several of our most experienced planters are here
mentioned,—Ep. C. OQ. .

COST OF OPENING ESTATES. 153

shall take them all up together at the end and reply.
Sceptic rather takes a liberty in criticizing the work
done by the £8 and £10 per acre men; sering he
does not know one of the estates to which I referred.
They, however, would well repay inspection, but
that must be invited by their proprietors, not by me.
All I say is that in both the work was weil and
satisfactorily done: one has yielded handsomely pay-
ing crops for many years; the other (only 7 or 8
years old) hag done so since its 3rd year, when it
yielded 10 ecwts. an acre.”

COST OF OPENING COFFEE ESTATES.
(Yo the Editor of the Ceylon Observer.)
April 4th, 1872.
Srr,—Practical people will hold the same view which
your correspondent ‘‘Sceptic” takes of the subject
of the cost of bringing a coffee estate into bearing.
I have no bh sitation in denouncing as se/fish and wrong
in the extreme that advocacy which overwhelms
young men, the possessors perhaps of a wretched one
thousand p-unds or upwards, with an insatiable vani-
ty to become what is out here termed a proprietur,
and ther-by risk their ‘‘ali” to such an extent that
it might appropriately be called thr winz it away.
I remain, yours very truly,
‘Or tLUNGING BEWARE.”
[While leaning ourselve: rather to Sceptic’s e timate
of the cost of opening a cotfee est.te proper y, than
to the lower ones advane:d, and which are generally
based upon work done under exeeption lly favour-
-able circumstance’, yet we candidly confess that the
number of instarces in which such cheap, and yet
we suppose good, work has been done in beginning
to multiply. Here is the latest from a correspondent,
who s:ys:—‘‘I have just extracted from the books of
estates in Dimbula the cost of their opening :—

No 1.—67 aeres—Cost of felling ... ..& 132 0
Lining and planting ... a So. 08 4g 7
Plants... ae soe Bek fet 2D) OF O
Roads... Je £35 ads a 714 3
Weeding ... =e oe a PA ESD iO -Q
Superintendence a ah .. 160 0 0

Amount expended in 2 years and 8 months £565 8 10
No. 2.—86 acres planted July and August 1870
Expended to June 1871... ay ... £568 4 2
100 acres felled in 1871, no burn included 150 0 0
Expended to Apr:] 1872 including super-

intendence i. et oe ssa tee etdt oe

Over two years ...£1,091 11 5”

160 PLANTING IN NATAL.

‘COFFEE PLANTING IN NATAL.

Some time has elapsed now since we received from
the author, Mr. W. H. Middleton, of Snaresbrook
Estate, Natal, a copy of his ‘‘ Manual of Coffee Plant-
ing,” intended for the use-of planters in that Colony.
It is a pamphlet made up in the form of letters on
the cultivation of coffee, and as the author tells us
‘‘ professes to be only a relation of the practical ex-
perience and observations” of himself and a few friends
who had given him information. The author accom- —
panied the brochure with a private letter in which
he was good enough to ask our advice with reference
to a second edition, and especially on the value of
a novel idea which had occurred to him as worthy of
being recommended to Natal planters. The second
edition has since been published, and a copy of the
book has reached us which we will notice hereafter.
Meantime, this second book having appeared, and the
letter before us being dated 1866, there can be no
breach of confidence im laying Mr. Middleton’s theory
before our readers. It is as follows:—‘‘In Natal I
find that the coffee tree bears most abundantly and
with certainty for the first three or four years; but
afterwards the crop is very uncertain both in quality
(well-formed beans) and quantity, owing, I think, to
a deficiency of good bearing wood. Perhaps this to
a certain extent might be corrected by proper and
careful pruning, but it is most difficult to obtain the
skilled labour for this purpose either in number or
efficiency. Now, would it not be better to carry out
the following plan :—say, plant out the fields in rows
9 or 10 feet by 5 or 6 feet, and in four years plant
again between these rows. At the end of the 7th
year cut down the first trees planted, the second planted
will then be in bearing. After one year of fallow,
replant in the rows where the first planted trees were
placed. By this means there would always be a suc-
cession of vigorous young bearing trees, which would
require less labour (especially skilled) and return a
better and more certain crop than if depending upon
the old stock.” Coffee planting in Natal must offer
a great contrast to the same pursuit in Ceylon to
permit of Mr. Middleton suggesting even a mode of
cultivation so impracticable and expensive! It must
indeed be a poor look-out where the coffee shrub
begins to languish in its seventh year, an age when
it is usually in its prime, and whatever may have
been the cost and scarcity of skilled labour for prun-
ing, the Natal planters cannot fail to find the process
of replanting recommended by our author much more
-expensive and unsatisfactory. We handed the copy
of the first edition of the Manual itself at the time

COFFEE PLANTING IN NATAL. 161

of its receipt to a practical planter, who favoured us
with the following notice of its contents, which, with
the other papers referred to, has been overlooked too
long. Since the review was penned, the writer has
himself drawn up at our request ‘‘ The Manual for
Coffee Planters,” to the pages of which we may now
refer our Natal friends for information respecting the
modus operandi in Ceylon :—

A MANUAL oF CoFFEE PLANTING; BY W. H.
MIDDLETON, SNARESBROOK, NATAL.

Published by Adams § Co., Durban, Natal, 1866.

This little pamphlet contains in its fifty-two pages
a good deal of information important to an incipient
planter. In facta little respecting almost every opera-
tion of the plantation. The felling of the forest it
is true is not described, but perhaps they have no
forest in Natal. The land should be of the kind
says our author that will absorb and hold in suspen-
sion the most water. Some of the early settlers in
our Ambagamuwa district would take exception to
this doctrine, for their lands held the water so long
and so tenaciously that it washed away all their *u-
pees. Very probably however the land of Natal is
chiefly sandy, and planters are glad when they hit on
a piece that retains moisture, for we cannot suppose
that they wish it to hold water in its liquidity.

An eastern aspect is also recommended. We would
add that this is not always the most desirable in
Ceylon, especially under 2,000 feet elevation, for when
the soil is thin and porous, too strong a sun in the
early morning is not desirable. At elevations of from
3,000 to 4,000 feet, an Eastern is generally a safe ex-
posure,

The Java style of tree is thus described as from 5
to 6 feet high, which he thinks bears the greatest
quantity. Our experience in Ceylon, both for bearing
capability, facility of management, and early return,
is in favour of a low tree, 3 to 4 feet, unless in
very exposed places where they are sometimes cut
down as low as 14 foot.

Th: borer is described as a beetle which does very
little damage. This cannot be the insect which has
been committing such ravages in India, as it is de-
scribed as more resembling a caterpillar with a very
hard head. There are few insects destructive to the
coffee plants in Natal, but our author instances one
which he says leaves a brown shell on the leaf. This
must surely be the bug.

Berries found perfe t under the trees he thinks are
the work of rats. If there are monkeys in Natal,
they are more probably the depredators. But several

N

162 COFFEE PLANTING IN NATAL.

classes of animals pick the coffee so and leave the
parchment in heaps in this country, and what is
worst the rogues can never be apprehended.

Nursery plants cost £4 13s 8d per 1,000; formerl
they cost £7 10:. This is a frightful price, and iy
is quite time each estate in Natal had its own nurseryt
for at this rate an estate of 200 acres would cost,
about £1,000 for plants !

Holing.—40 to 60 per day of holes 3 feet in dia-
meter by 18 inches deep would gladden the heart of
a Ceylon planter. We are obliged to put up with
much less; very probably the Natal soil is softer
than ours.

Planting distance.—i7, 8, and 10 feet are all very wide.
But they grow cotton between, which must be a doubt-
ful benefit.

Jamaica picking is instanced as costing on an aver-
age ls per bushel. We cousider 6d high and certainly
could not afford 1s. At Rio pickers have to go and
bring in their day’s work in a bag probably 1 to 2
bushels. Natal picking is cheap-—chietly done by wo-
men, girls and boys at 6d per day. But we cannot
exactly reconcile this low rate of wages with the in-
timation that kafirs who are extolled as models of
tractability, are so uncertain that the planters are
obliged to import Indian labour which costs about
28s per month. Perhaps this is a work, however,
for which the kafir women and children have a pre-
dilection, and therefore turn out to it—only if they
do not, and if the 28s labour has to be had recourse
to, the above figure will not answer.

Calculations of an estate coming into bearing with
- maiden crop of 2 cwts. the third year, and afterwards
giving 7 cwts. per acre annually for a new and com-
paratively untried district lke Natal, out of the trop-
ics too, are evidently speculative as the author nowhere
says that such crops have been realized. But if he is
sure that they can be borne out, it shews _ coffee
planting in Natal to be a very paying investment.
Strange however as it may seem in the face of this
statement, several Ceylon planters who have gone
there to settle have not found their expectations
realized. On the waole while the pamphlet contains
nothing that is new, it contains a good deal that is
true and will prove a useful handbook to a beginner,

THE PREPARATION OF COFFEE.

The preparation of coffee is at present so interest-
ing a subject to the trade that we reproduce below
some remarks published by Baron Liebig a few years
ago on the subject ;—

THE PREPARATION OF COFFEE. 163

‘‘The chief operation is the roasting. On this de-
pends the good quality of the coffee. In reality the
berries should only be roasted until they have lost
their horny condition, so that they may be ground,
or, aS it is done in the Hast, pounded to a fine powder.

“‘ Coffee contains a crystalline substance named
caffeine or theine, because it is also a component part
of tea. This matter is volatile, and every care must
be taken to retain it in the coffee. For this purpose
the berries should be roasted till they are of a pale
brown colour; in those which are too dark, there is
-no caffeine; if they -are black, the essential parts of
the berries are entirely destroyed, and the beverage
prepared from these does not deserve the name of
coffee.

‘The berries of coffee once roasted lose every hour
somewhat of their aroma, in consequence of the in-
fluence of the oxygen of the air, which, owing to the
porosity of the roasted berries can easily penetrate.
This pernicious change may best be avoided by strew-
ing over the berries when the roasting is completed,
and while the vessel in which it has been done is
still hot, some powdered white or brown sugar (half-
an-ounce to one pound of coffee is sufficient). The
sugar melts immediately, and by well shaking or
turning the roaster quickly, it spreads over all the
berries, and gives each one a fine glaze, impervious
to the atmosphere. They have then a shining ap-
pearance, as though covered with a varnish, and they
im consequence lose their smell entirely, which, how-
ever, returns in a high degree as soon as they are
ground, After this operation, they are to be shaken
out rapidly from the roaster and spread on a cold
plate of iron, so that they may cool as soon as pos- -
sible. If the hot berries are allowed to remain heaped
together, they begin to sweat, and when the quantity
is large, the heating process, by the influence of air,
increases to such a degree that at last they take fire
spontaneously. The roasted and glazed berries should
be kept in a dry place, because the covering of sugar
attracts moisture.

‘‘Tf the raw berries are boiled in water, from 23
to 24 per cent of soluble matter is extacted. On
being roasted till they assume a pale chestnut colour,
they lose from 15 to 16 per cent, and the extract
obtained from these by means of boiling water is 20
to 21 per cent of the weight of the unroasted berries,
The loss in weight of the extract is much larger when
the roasting process is carried on till the colour of
the berries is dark brown or black. At the same
time that the berries lose in weight by roasting, they
gain in volume by swelling ; 100 volumes of green berries

164 THE PREPARATION OF COFFEE.

give, after roasting, a volume of 150 to 160; or, two
pint measures of unroasted berries give three pints
when roasted.

‘‘The usual methods of preparing coffee are: Ist,
by filtration; 2nd, by infusion; 3rd, by boiling.

‘« Filtration gives often, but not always, a cup of
coffee. When the pouring the boiling water over the
ground coffee is done slowly, the drops in passing
come in contact with too much air, whose oxygen
works a change in the aromatic particles, and often
destroys them entirely. The extraction, moreover, is
incomplete. Instead of 20 to 21 per cent, the water
dissolves only 11 to 15 per cent, and 7 to 10 per
cent is lost.
_ “Infusion is accomplished by making the water
boil, and then putting in the ground coffee, the ves-
sel being immediately taken off the fire, and allowed
to stand quietly for about ten minutes. The coffee is
ready for use when the powder swimming on the sur-
face falls to the bottom on slightly stirring it. This
method gives a very aromatic coffee, but one con-
taining little extract.

‘** Boiling, as is the custom in the Hast, yields ex-
cellent coffee. The powder is put on the fire in cold
water, which is allowed merely to boil up a few
seconds. The fine particles of coffee are drunk with
the beverage. If boiled long, the aromatic parts are
volatilized, and the coffee is then rich in extract, but
poor in aroma.

** As the best method, I adopt the following, which
is a union of the 2nd and 3rd :—The usual quantities
both of coffee and water are to be retained; a tin
measure containing half-an-ounce of green berries, when
filled with roasted ones, is generaily sufficient for two
small cups of coffee of moderate strength, or one, so-
called large breakfast cup (one pound of green berries,
equal to 16 ounces, yielding after roasting 24 tin mea-
sures [of 3-ounce] for 48 small cups of coffee). With
three-fourths of the coffee to be employed after being
ground, the water is made to boil 10 or 15 minutes.
The one quarter of the coffee which has been kept
back is then flung in, and the vessel immediately with-
drawn from the fire, covered over, and allowed to
stand for 5 or 6 minutes. In order that the powder
on the surface may fall to the bottom, it is stirred
round ; the deposit takes place, and the coffee poured
off is ready for use. In order to separate the dregs
more completely, the coffee may be passed through
a clear cloth, but generally this is not necessary, and
often prejudicial to the pure flavour of the beverage.
The first boiling gives the strength, the second addi-
tion to the flavour. The water does not dissolve of

COFFEE PRICES SINCE 1845. 165

the aromatic substance more than the fourth part con-
tained in the roasted coffee.

** The beverage, when ready, ought to be of a brown
black colour; untransparent it always is, somewhat
like chocolate thinned with water ; and this want of
clearness in coffee so prepared does not come from
the fine grounds, but from a peculiar fat resembling
butter, about 12 per cent of which the berries con-
tain, and which, if over roasted, is partly destroyed.
In the other methods of making coffee, more than
half the valuable pirt of the berries remains in the
‘grounds’ and is lost.

‘* To judge as favourably of my coffee as I do my-
self, its taste is not compared with that of the ordin-
ary beverage, but rather the good effects might be
taken into consideration which my coffee has on the
organism. Many persons, too, who connect the idea
of strength or concentration with a dark or black
colour, fancy my coffee to be thin and weak, but
these were at once inclined more fivourably, directly
I gave it a dark colour by means of burnt sugar, or
by adding some substitute. The real flavour of coffee
is so little known to most persons, that many who
drank my coffee for the first time doubted of its
goodness, because it tasted of the berries. A coffee,
however, which has not the flavour of the berry, is no
coffee but an artificial beverage, for which many other
things may be substituted at pleasure. Hence it comes
that if to the decoction made from roasted chicory,
carrots, or beetroot, the slightest quantity of coffee
be added, few persons detect the difference. This
accounts for the great diffusion of each such substi-
tute. A dark mixture, with an empyreumatical taste,
most people fancy to be coffee. For tea there are
ie substitutes, as everybody knows what real tea is
ike:”’

COFFEE PRICES SINCE 1845.

These are given in the tables which the Hconomiést
prints with its Commercial Review for 1871. For the
sake of uniformity, Jamaica fine ordinary to fine is
taken as the standard, as, in 1845, Ceylon coffee in-
stead of having established its character as the best
in the market was ranked amongst the worst. The
general result for the period embraced is that prices
have risen from an average of 45s to 54s per cwt.
in the years 1845-50, to 67s on Ist January 1872, an
advance of 18s over the average of the two extremes
of 1845-50, of 23s over the lowest price then, and
of 133 over the highest. The fluctuations in the in-

166 COFFEE PRICES SINCE 1845.

terval have been considerable, as the detailed figures
will shew :—

De hes ore ane)
1845-50—Av. 6 yrs. 44@B4 1870—1 January S5076
1851—1 January 53 581871—1 January 950
1853—1 July SO: 35 1 February 58 “
1857—1 July 68 80 1 March sytiande
1858—1 January 50 62 1 April 04 ,,
1861—1 January 63 70 1 May we pet. 5
1862—1 January 70 380 1. June Heri *
1863—1 January 72- 85 1 July 55°,
1864—1 January 70 79 1 August ts
1865—1 January 74 84 1 September 58° ,,
1866—1 January 70 85 1 October 61 ,,
1867—1 January 65 81 1 November 63 __,,
18681 January 58 80 1 December 66 _,,
1869—1 January 52 72'1872—1 January 76 ,,

We quote also the note :—

** Wholesale Prices of Commodities.— 1845-50, 1851-70,
and 1871.—We have followed in this table the arrange-
ment and method adopted by Mr. Tooke and Mr.
Newmarch in the History of Prices (V and VI), and
continued by the latter in the Séatistical Jowrnal for
1859-60 and 1861. The average prices of the six years
1845-50 were first given by the same gentleman in
the Statistical Journal for March, 1860, and were then
described as compiled from the weekly prices given
in the Hconomist. All the other prices in (A) are
obtained from the same source. The table, therefore,
possesses at least the advantage of being derived from
first to last from the same authority.”

dhe highest point, our readers will observe, was
attained on list January 1865, when prices ranged
from 74s to 84s. The lowest prices subsequently were
52s to 72s on Ist January 1869, and 50s to 73s on
Ist January 1871. While the higher rate remain
stationary since, it will be seen that the average of
Gls rose to 72s in the twelve months of 1871, and
we suspect that in twelve months more the figure is
likely, to be 80s.

Then comes table C, thus explained :—

‘¢ Wholesale Prices—Proportionate Results.—The con-
struction of this table is explained in the note which
is given at the foot of it. It is formed upon the
example first given by Mr. Newmarch in the Statis-
tical Journal of 1859, and since followed by Mr. Jevons

in his very able pamphlet on the Effects of the New
Gold.”

The note states :—
“<The construction is as follows :—The basis of 100
represents the average prices of the six years 1845-50,

COFFEE PRICES SINCE 1845. 167

and all the subsequent figures are calculated from that
Datum line. Thus as regards coffee (Col. 1), the price
of Ist July, 1857, was equal to 151, or 51 per cent
above the average prices of 1845-50. In order to
ascertain the percentage rise or fall between one date
and another—as for example Cojfee—comparing 1st
July, 1857, when the figure was 151, with lst Janu-
ary, 1866, when the figure was 179 or a difference
of 28, the rise per cent has to be measured with
the quantity 151, and gives of course a result of 19
per cent as the real advance. In the course of so long
a period of years as 1845-71, some variations have
inevitably arisen in the mode of quoting prices in
the usual Prices Current. In all such cages the near-
est approach possible has been made to an uniform
quotation throughout the Table. In Raw Cotton espe-
cially there have been considerable change of qualities
introduced by the large use of Indian, &c., kinds.
In Tea and Sugar also changes have occurred in the
kinds most usually quoted.”

In this case we include the columns for sugar and
tea as well as for coffee :—

2 1 2-3 6
faragee Coffee. Sugar.| Tea,

1845-50, Average 6 years. 100 100 100
ISa eh dam ose ed cn RAs (olo4g etag
Sasa bys. con eee OR a 110° | °70 \} 199 -
LSS et se eR LE eR bods) 1230 169
1859212 Jami) os3.c0 ae el Bee ds 114 | 83 | 140
US Giet aras, Mass it et eae 131 oh 151
IIIT ANG na gees elena 153} 70 | 196
USGS la Laas ee itty aie ee ae 160 | 65 | 196
S64, Piste. cbs ant aa Lens | 152 85 124
PSG Mere et cree pees | 161 65 108
LS6G =P se steaks Seb oe 179 Tz 141
ROG Seis, Bleck oe Reker ec baba | 149 66 108
NSS lucy obi ea fly ck Maal pe | 94.
ASA ond a erie es. AM es 127 72) * 105
TS TO ae Cle ES tue ik | 134 83 | 102
TOM Sig lh Set oe oie 195°) 83* 1760
ge a cps. a he deaaehhi ly. ote 133 78 100

|
bela. & ba Ae) ale 145 | 83 100

According to this table coffee reached its highest
point on Ist January, 1866, when an advance of 79

168 ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

per cent was established over the average of 1845-50,
the percentage of rise over Ist January, 1865, being
11, while the fall in 1867 as compared with 1866
was no less than 17 percent. On lst January, 1871,
prices had gone down 30 per cent from the level of
1866, and even on Ist January, 1872, they were 19
per cent below the highest point, but 45 per cent
above the low level of 1845-50. While there has been
such a rise in coffee prices, those of tea are now
exactly what they were a quarter of a century ago.
This comparative cheapness accounts largely no doubt
for the increase in the consumption of tea in Britain
while coffee went back.

ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

We copy from the second edition vf Mr. Middleton’s
‘** Coffee Tree in Natal” the following :—

In the meanwhile, I have thought it well to intro-
duce here a few simple directions for obtaining an
approximate analysis of the chief physical character-
istics of soils, taken from Johnstone’s Lectures on
Agricultural Chemistry and Analysis of Soils. The
appliances required are a fine pair of scales, a thin
metal saucer (it should be platinum) for burning the
soil (in a cleaned and smooth lead ladle would an-
swer the purpose), a glass tube graduated into inches
and 10ths, and a bottle of muriatic acid.

To dry the soil: take 100 grains of soil at atmo-
spheric dryness, spread it on white paper, and put it
in an oven or on a hot plate at such a heat that it
will only slightly tinge the paper (it should not ex-
ceed 250 to 300 degrees); then re-weigh; the differ-
ence 1s moisture.

To ascertain the quantity of organic matter: place it
in your saucer and bring it to a dull, red heat. It
will first burn black at the edges and go throughout,
When this is completed, it will become pale brick red ;
re-weigh, and the loss will be organic matter.

To estimate the quantity of lime: put this burnt soil
into a pint of pure water, and add half a wine-glass-
ful of muriatic acid; after being stirred two or three
times let it settle, and pour off the water ; add fresh
water to wash away the acid, and again rendering it
to a dull red heat, re-weigh; the loss will be some-
what less than the actual quantity of lime. _

To ascertain the physical characteristics: dry 1,000
grains as before described, put it into a glass tube
and shake it or knock it on the table till it settles
to its lowest level, mark it and shake it loose again,
and add water till it will absorb no more; note the

ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 169

difference; tlis will give its porosity or power of
absorption. Now add water till the tube is nearly
full, and shake the whole well up—the soil should
occupy about one-third of the tube, and place it in
a perpendicular position to settle. It will be then
observed that it hus arranged itself in the order of
the specific gravity of each component part of the
soil: the coarsest sand will be found at the bottom,
and the finest impalpable powder at the top—the lat-
ter is its most valuable constituent.

Care must be observed in selecting the soils for
these experiments—several samples of the same sort at
distances from each other must be taken an inch or
two under the actual surface; these should. be well
mixed together, and the quantity to be weighed taken
from it.

I think it would scarcely be within the limits of
this small treatise to go further into the matter of
density, proportions of clay ana sand, and the finer
analysis; the formule will be found in Johnstone’s
Analysis of Soils and his Lectures on Agricultural
Chemistry, to which I would refer my readers who
are interested on any further investigations.

_ ROUGH METHOD OF ESTIMATING BY QUANTI.
TATIVE ANALYSIS THE POTASH AND
PHOSPHORIC ACID CONTAINED IN SOILS.

This paper was drawn up by Dr. Koch, of the
Colonial Medical Department, at our request. In for-
warding it he wrote :—

“My own idea is that this kind of testing cannot
be done successfully, but by those who have studied
the subject carefully.

“The specimen of soil for examination must be
well pulverized and thoroughly dried in the sun.
Weigh 100 grains and digest it for an hour or two
in pure hydrochloric acid. The mixture is then to be
gently boiled for about half an hour, and filtered
through blotting paper; wash the residue with boiling
distilled water. The filtrate and washings will now
contain the alkalies and alkaline earths in the form
of chlorides, Add a few drops of nitric acid to the
clear solution, and gently warm the mixture. After
cooling add an excess of solution of ammonia and
sesquicarbonate of ammonia. This will cause the separa-
tion of all the iron, aluminum, and a portion of the
lime and magnesia in the soil. Filter again and add
to the clear liquid a solution of oxalate of ammonia.
This will remove all the lime in the form of a white

0

170 ANALYSIS OF SOILS.

precipitate of oxalate of ammonia, Filter, and add

to filtrate an excess of solution of ammonia and arseni-
ate of ammonia: this will cause the separation of
magnesia present. Filter—the clear liquid will now
contain the alkalies potash and soda, Heat it to dry-
ness and dissolve the residue in afew drops of water,
and add an excess of a solution of bichloride of pla-
tinum, then heat again to dryness, dissolve the resi-
due in distilled water and filter. What remains in
the filter is a double salt of potassium and platinum,
dry and weigh, 100 parts is equal 19°26 of potash.
fake 100 grains of the dried soil, digest and boil
in hydrochloric acid and add ammonia as in last ex-
periment, collect the precipitate on a filter and wash
it with boiling distilled water. Now dissolve the
precipitate in dilute nitric acid. Add to it an excess
of a solution of molybdate of ammonia, and apply a
gentle heat to the mixture for 24 hours, the preci-

pitate will contain all the phosphoric acid in the spe- —

cimen.
Epwin L. Kocu.
[We fear that the vast majority of the planters will
be unable to follow the processes, but under the belief
that a few here and there may find the recipe use-
ful for themselves and their neighbours we give it.]

ADDITIONS IN THE SECOND
EDITION.

mgs So far, we have reprinted the Manual
and the appended papers as they appeared in
the first edition of the book: we now add
several other papers and communications bearing
on a coffee planter’s work, ‘including summaries
of discussions \which have appeared in the
columns of the Ceylon Observer on Manuring
and Artificial Manures; Analyses of Soils; the
cause and effect of Grub at the roots of the Coffee
tree ; Estimating Crops, &c. &c.—CoMPILERS,

THE
COFFEE PLANTER’S MANUAL,
SECOND EDITION.

DIRECTIONS FOR TAKING SAMPLES OF
SOIL FOR ANALYSIS.
(From Hughes’ Report on ‘‘ Ceylon Coffee Soils and
Manures.’’)

Having selected a piece of ground where the soil
-appears uniform in composition, take a cubic foot of
the surface soil, or a large spadeful to the depth of
one foot, from at least six places from the selected
spot ; mix the six portions thoroughly together in some
central place, and send about 5 lbs. in a clean tin or
wooden box. Each sample of soil sheuld be numbered,
and the box marked with the name cf the estate in
black letters. Samples should not be taken from re-
cently manured ground, and where manure holes have
been made in past years, great care must be taken to |
-avoid such when drawing samples.

For comparison it will be very useful to send a
sample of good coffee soil, which should be specially
marked. Information is ‘requested in reply to the
following questions respecting the land from which the
samples are taken :—

The elevation and average rainfall,

Situation as régards sun, wind, &c.

General appearance and character of the sub-soll.

What kind of drainage.

Number of years in coffee.

What manure, and what quantity has been
used per acre; also the effect of same?

Is there any natural peculiarity about the soil?

What are the average crop returns per acre?

What is the natural tendency of the soil as
regards production of wood, leaf and crop?

State any general particulars respecting the
past history and present condition of the
soil, that may be considered desirable.

ANALYSES OF SOILS.

A careful analysis of a soil requires much more time
than is generally supposed. It frequently happens
that certain operations have to be performed two or
three times before the analytical results can be con-
sidered to satisfactorily represent the correct com-
position.

The determinations of phosporic acid, nitrogen : and
poeth require special care and delicacy of manipu-
ation.

COI ANRwWY=

a
S

CROP ESTIMATES,
(To the Editors ‘* Ceylon Observer.”’)

Drar Sirs,-—In former times managers used to estim-
ate their crops very accurately. Agents and owneis
relied on their estimates with confidence, and would
have been surprised and disappointed if a deficiency
of crop of so much as ten per cent had occurred.
Such shortfalls as have become frequent of late were
quite unknown. Estimates were generally revised
and settled about July, when the fruit showed up,—
but such a thing as a deficiency of 30 or 40 per
cent being first discovered after crop had commenced
was never heard of till quite recent times. Such
disappointments are now, however, unfortunately, but
too common. Is it that the present generation of
planters are less able, or more careless than their
predecessors? Certainly not! Even those old planters
who, in former days, used to be so accurate, have,
since 1870, been as far out in their reckonings as
their younger neighbours. I have in mind a recent
instance of a crop, originally estimated by a very
careful manager, of 12 years’ experience, subsequently
confirmed by an old stager, who knew the estate
intimately, and again by a visitor who prides him-
self ihat he is never deceived, yet this crop fell short
by 50 per cent of the estimates so made and con-
firmed, and the deficiency was not suspected till the
gathering began!

The simple fact is that of late years, Jeaf disease
and adverse seasons have so impaired the strength
of the trees that they cannot now mature
their fruit as they used to do. Original estim-
ates, I doubt not, are as accurate now as
they formerly were, but there is now a continuous
shedding of the young berries, which is often quite
unperceived and unsuspected until revealed by the
_ early gatherings. The berries in the cluster become
reduced in number as they increase in size. As the
first fruit swells, the failure of that which should
follow eludes observation, until gathering begins, when
the astonished manager discovers that there is little
or nothing left behind.

Such serious disappointments as have lately occurred
but too frequently are extremely embarrassing
to agents and financiers, especially when they are
revealed at so late a period of the year; and
they beget distrust as well as confusion, Hence the
paramount importance of adopting such means as we
possess for preventing them : and this may assuredly
be done by ascertaining the actual fall of the imma-
ture fruit.

176 CROP ESTIMATES.

The method I adopt, and confidently recommend,
is to select, in each field, two or three branches, on
different trees, fairly representing the average bear-
ing branches of the field ; and to count the berries
in each of these selected branches from time to
time, beginning a month after the blossom and con-
tinuing throughout the season to recount them every
fortnight. Each selected branch should be marked
and numbered, and a careful record should be kept
of the result, which will indicate infallibly the loss
by premature fall of fruit, and enable the manager
to foresee the proportion of the whole which he is
likely to harvest. The counting of the berries should
be continued till near the end of crop, and should
be done by the manager himself, or a very trust-
worthy assistant, who, as crop begins to ripen, should
always precede the pickers and gather from the
selected branches all the ripe berries, taking due ac-
count of the number gathered. Hach successive count-
ing will tell its tale, and any serious failure of the
fruit must become evident quite early in the season.

I think it probable that the method of counting
the berries on selected branches in each field might
serve as a very useful means of forming original estim-
ates of crop, but I have not tried it with that ob-
ject. The ordinary method of estimating has been
proved by long experience to be sufficiently accurate
unless disturbed by an abnormal fall of fruit. I
have therefore confined my attention to the method
for this latter purpose only, and have found it effec-
tual. How, indeed, could it be otherwise ?—Yours
obediently, OLp PuANTER, March 1880.

HOW TO BUY ARTIFICIAL MANURES :
VOELCKER’S RULES.

DEAR Strs,—It may perhaps be useful to proprietors
and superintendents to know the following rules (given
by Professor Voelcker) in order to guide them in the
purchase of artificial manures :

1, Raw or green bones, or bone dust, should be
purchased as ‘‘pure” raw bones guaranteed to con-
tain not less than 45 per cent of tribasic phosphate
of lime, and to yield not less than 4 per cent of
ammonia.

2. Boiled bones should be purchased as ‘‘ pure”
boiled bones guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per
cent of tribasic phosphate of lime, and to yield not
less than 1? per cent of ammonia.

3. Dissolved bones are made of various qualities,
and are sold at various prices per ton; therefore

ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 177

he quality should be guaranteed under the heads
of soluble phosphate of lime, and nitrogen or its
equivalent in ammonia.

The purchaser should also stipulated for an allowance
for each unit per cent; which the dissolved bones
should be found, on analysis, to contain less than the
guaranteed per-centages of the three substances already
mentioned.

_ 4. Mineral superphosphates should be guaranteed
to be delivered ina sufficiently dry and powdery con-
dition, and to contain a certain percentage of soluble
phosphate of lime, at a certain price per unit per
cent, no value to be attached toinsoluble phosphates.

5. Nitrate of soda should be guaranteed by the
vendor to contain from 94 to 95 per cent of pure
nitrate.

6. Compound artificial manures should be purchased
in the same manner and with the same guarantees
as dissolved bones.

7. Sulphate of ammonia should be guaranteed by
the vendor to contain not less than 23 per cent of
ammonia.

§. Peruvian guano should be sold under that name,
and guaranteed to be in a dry and friable condition
and to contain a certain percentage of ammonia.

N. B.—Artificial manures should be guaranteed to
be in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition to ad-
mit of distribution by the drill.* A sample for ana-
lysis should be taken, not later than three days after
delivery by emptying several bags, mixing the contents
together, and filling two tins holding about half a
pound each, in the presence of a witness. Both the
tins should be sealed, one kept by the purchaser for
reference in case of dispute, and the other forwarded
to a competent analytical chemist for examination. —

AGRICULTOR,

GENTLEMEN, —Referring to the useful rules to guide
purchasers of artificial manures in the letter of your cor:
respondent ‘‘ Agricultor,”? I would be disposed to sub-
scribe to them all, preserving a right of private judg-
ment in the case of No. 4, where it is stated that in
mineral superphosphates no value is to be allowed to

* Manures are generally mixed with a large proportion
of sifted burnt earth preparatory to distribution, and there
is Inside the manure box on the drill a roller with teeth
placed at intervals driven by a cog-wheel or axle of the
we of the drill to better insure the pulverisation ofthe
mixture.

178 ARTIFICIAL MAN URES.

insoluble phosphates. Scientific opinion on this point
is, at present, in a state of transition, as there is no
doubt this rule bears too hardly upon the manufac-
turer. Provided the insoluble phosphate is in a fine
state of division, a value should be allowed to it for
two reasons. First, it may consist of phosphate that
has not been dissolved, in which case its value, pro-
vided of course it be phosphate of lime not phosphate
of alumina, should be considered equal to phosphate
in ground coprolite. However, as undissolved mineral
phosphate is almost universally considered greatly in-
ferior to undissolved bone phosphate, the rule would
have a decidedly salutary effect in causing manufacturers
to turn all the phosphate into the soluble form ; but
it happens that what is condemned as insoluble mi-
neral phosphate commonly contains a proportion of
dissolved phosphate that has reverted to an insolu-
ble form which is little inferior and probably in the
potent climate of Ceylon is quite equal to the soluble
phosphate, so that it is a manifest injustice to the
manufacturer not to allow anything for it because it
is practically insoluble in water. Some eminent che-
mists hold that all the soluble phosphate reverts to
the form insoluble in water in the soil before it is
taken up by the plant and that the only advantage
which the initial solubility gives it, is a greater
diffusive power before it reverts. When alkaline sub-
stances such as ashes are mixed with soluble phos-
phates much of the latter reverts.

In Belgium, agricultural chemists are decidedly ahead
of us in their mode of valuing phosphates. Mr. K.
Walter, Chemical Engineer, Aurelais, Belgium, informs
us in the Chemical News, ‘‘that it was announced that
from the Ist January 1878 in all phosphates coming
under the control of the Belgian agricultural stations,
all phosphoric acid soluble in citrate of ammonia must
be counted assimilable and of the same value as
soluble in water.” The same authority informs us,
‘‘‘there are soils in which a given weight of a
natural phosphate of say 20 per cent of phosphoric
acid has the same effect as the same weight of
superphosphate of 12 to 14 per cent. of phosphoric
acid; but the price of the first would be £1 15s or less,
while the price of the latter is at least £4 per ton.”
And again, ‘‘ Some of the French mineral phosphates
when finely ground are excellent manure. For fresh
broken woodland, turfy ground and soils rich in humic
acids they are superior to superphosphates. ”

The careful experiments of Mr. Thomas Jamieson,
F.C. S., chemist to the Aberdeenshire Agricultural
Association, led him to the conclusion ‘‘that for the

ARTIFICIAL MANURES. 179

turnip crop the most economical phosphatic manure
was insoluble phosphate of lime from any source ground
down to an impalpable powder.” It is only natural
for us to expect that in Ceylon, with its command
of bone manure and forcing climate, economy will lie
in the direction of improved grinding, so as to get
the natural phosphates into a state of impalpable
powder rather than in the importation of super-
_ phosphates.

Referring again to Dr. Voelcker’s useful rules No. 6
shews that he quite agrees with the lae Professor
Anderson and all other eminent chemista, in disregard-
ing carbonate of lime in the commercial valuation of
compound manures, such being always expected to shew
their value from their nitrogen and phosphates. Mr.
Hughes seems to be of opinion that the potency of
a tropical climate, coupled with scarcity of lme in
the soil, justifies a more lberal treatment of this in-
gredient. Such recognition can affect the analyst at
least only favourably, so that it may be left an open
question between buyer and seller in the case of ©
poudrette. Were I a buyer, however (except in the
case of pure wood ashes which do not properly come
under the head of compound manure), i would stick
to the good old rule, as it keeps the manures pure
and so prevents the artificial manure trade from be-
- coming demoralised.

Potash so rarely occurs in ordinary artificial manures
in England in appreciable quantity that Dr. Voelcker
has not taken account of it in these rules; but when-
ever it occursin fair proportion a high value is assigned
to it. As nitrogen assists plants to assimilate potash
so potash assists plants to assimilate nitrogen.—

. MicuaL CocHRAN.

HINTS FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF COFFEE-
PLANTERS.
(From the Ceylon Observer, March 15th, 1880.)

An experienced and observant visiting agent hazar-
ded the opinion to us the other day that in many
parts of the younger districts coffee has been planted
too widely apart. He remarked on the smaller num-
ber of feeding rootlets found on trees which have
grown up in the leaf disease period than on those
which date back previous to the appearance of this
scourge, and intimated his belief that trees with a
poor display of rootlets planted widely apart were un-
able to absorb a due proportion of the moisture in
the soil. The consequence of this was that the soil

180 HINTS ON PLANTING.

turned sour and injured the trees. It will be at once
suggested that grub may account for the poor display
of rootlets in many localities; but very possibly repeated
attacks of leal disease are no less to blame, and
it would seem possible now, that, as a planting com-
munity, we ought to have paid more particular atten-
tion to our nursery seed since 1869, perhaps treating
it as South Australian farmers do their wheat for rust ~
before sowing. Rust, like leaf disease, is purely ex-
ternal in its action, but the spores are ubiquitous—on
the straw and seed (on the trees and _ beans),
and while the former is burnt, the latter is rubbed
in lime or ashes. Coffee seed so treated might possi-
bly escape early attacks of the disease in the nursery.
Still more important is the question raised by our
intelligent correspondent, Mr. Crickitt, who also bases
his argument on the parallel experience gained in the ©
case of pedigree wheat, and more lately with speci-
ally selectéd potatoes. There is certainly grave reason
why any further nurseries of coffee in Ceylon should ~
be sown with foreign seed, which, however, ought in
every case to be rubbed in ashes or dipped in a solu-
tion of sulphate of copper to get rid of external
spores, before planting. Experiments in this direction
are well worthy of attention.

It is sometimes remarked that careless planting,
turned-up roots, poor plants and small holes have a
good deal to do with weak coffee and short crops —
in the younger districts. The foolish boast of many
pioneers about the hundreds of acres they planted
each season has only to be recalled to remind us of
the practice of planters of the best type in the old
favourite districts, never to add more than fifty acres
to cultivation under one superintendent in one year.
This ensured proper supervision of the work and a
careful selection of plants. There can be no doubt
that the valuator or purchaser of a plantation now-a-
days ought to be particular in his enquiries as to the
planting and the reputation of the man under whose
care the work was done,

Our system of clean weeding is now challenged,
and reasons are adduced sufficient to warrant experi-
ments in another direction. Certain old Uva planters
hazard the opinion that coffee ftourished better in the
era when clean weeding was unknown! ‘Often, ”
says a well-known visiting agent, ‘‘have I called the
** attention of young Dikoya planters to Abboo Drahim’s
“estate in Ambagamuwa with its succession of heavy
“ crops and his system of no weeding during the crop
** season, thereby possibly helping to give his trees a
“* much-needed rest in growth.” Weeds, it is supposed,

COFFEE CULTIVATION. 181

would supply food for grub, prevent wash, save the
unshaded earth from being baked, and when dug into
the soil supply nutrition for the coffee. On the other
hand as was stated the other day, our prevailing
white weed is regarded as a serious rival to cofiee
in its demands on the soil. A possible further rea-
son for permitting weeds to grow is suggested to us
in the following extract from the London Atheneum
of January 24th :—

<* QoemicaL.—Jan. 15.—Mr. Warren De La Rue,
President, in the chair.—The following paper was read :
‘Qn the effects of the growth of plants on the amount
of matter removed from the soil by rain,’ by Dr.
J. H. Prevost. Soil three inches deep was placed in
two glazed earthenware pans, seventeen inches in dia-
meter; on July 2lst four grm. of white clover seed -
were sown in one, the other being blank. ‘The pans
were exposed till October 4th; the drainage water was
zollected and analyzed; that from the clover soil
contained 48'1 grains of solid matter per gallon, the
‘the other 220. The auther concludes that rain re-
moves much more matter from an wuncropped than
from a cropped soil.”

It is pointed out, however, that the conditions of
our soil znd rainfall are widely different, the latter
often mechanically washing off the surface soil,—rather
than percolating for any depth.

Whether the present very unusual thunderstorms
will have any effect on the prevalence of leaf disease
is a subject worthy of observation in different districts.
If we are to find an explanation of the wonderful
spread of henileis vastatriz since 1869, in an attempt
of nature to restore the balance to our atmosphere,
by reducing -a ceuperfluity oxygen, than we might
suppose electricity to come in as a great aid, and
even as superseding the need for active fungoid life.
But this is a mere matter of speculation, and many
years of scientific observa'ion would be required to
verify such an idea. For the present we must wait
to see if Dr. Trimen and Mr. Ward can throw fur-
ther light on the mystery surrounding the origin,
eause and conditions of hemileia vastatrix, and above all,
can tell us how to prevent or modify its attacks.

COFFEE TREES IN 1870 AND _ 1880.

- Commenting on our “‘Hints for the Consideration
of Planters,” a gentleman of experience in coffee writes
-as follows :—
“The coffee tree of 1880 is not the same robust
healthy plant that it was in the days prior to leaf
3 ;

182 COFFEE CULTIVATION.

disease, and this I submit is demonstrated more by
the absence of rootlets than anything else. Ten
years ago the ground was a perfect network of feed-
ing rootlets, and the moisture in the soil was as a
natural consequence absorbed more thoroughly. Now,
what have we? Trees with not half the number of
roots, water accumulates, sours the soil, the roots are
damaged, and grub accomplish the rest. But you will
say—‘ Stop a moment, how is it that the coffee tree
of 1880 is so weak and unhealthy? To this, of course,
I can only say what I believe to be the origin and
that is leaf disease. In my opinion the continued
attacks of this fungus have had a weakening effect
on the offspring, and as a proof of this I would ask you
to go with me over any one of the clearings opened
last year or even the year before. Select your own,
let it be either in the young or old districts. Shew
me one that can compare with the clearings of four
or five years ago. But perhaps the failure of these
clearings is due to bad plants or bad work. To this
1 reply that although a combination of these two evils
is sufficient to account for the failure of a few,
it is not likely that all the clearings last year
laboured under similar disadvantanges, and yet I
can honestly say I don’t know one that can hold
a candle to the fine luxuriant fields of young
coffee we were so proud of a few years ago. Then
again taken the nurseries. Four or five years ago,
nothing was easier than to raise successful coffee
nurseries ; now a good one is the exception not
the rule. “Tis true we have not been half careful
enough in the selection of seed, and I quite agree
with you that in future disinfecting should be always
resorted to, but how do you account for the fact that
the parchment is now so inferior to what it used to
be? All the brokers will tell youthat the samples
this year have been vilely bad.

‘*Now a word or two about grub. I donot at all
agree with Mr, Dixon, but I do think that in the
case of Maskeliya and parts of Dimbula, other agen-
cies are at work, and it is the damaged condition of
the roots that first attracts them—once there, they
are not very particular and demolish good as well as
bad. An abnormal supply of moisture in the soil
has I believe more to do with our misfortunes than
anything else—it rots the roots and sours the soil,
Close planting is,in my opinion, the best remedy, for
I see no other way of getting sufficient roots to ab-
sorb it. Jaime and cultivation generally have been
tried on several places with little or no effect. Plant-
ers will say, the objection to close planting is that -

PEDIGREE COFFEE SHED. 183:

the trees spoil each other. To my mind there is un-
fortunately not much fear of this, and even if there
was, you could easily get rid of some of the prima-
ries. What we want is to tap the soil of superfluous
moisture, and this cannot, I submit, be accomplished
by any system of drainage, however complete, UNLESS
THERE ARE PLENTY OF FEEDING ROOTLETS. On two
closely planted estates at least within my knowledge
in the young districts, the return in crops has been
much above the average.”

AN ANSWER TO THE ABOVE.

A planter writing a few days ago preferred a general
challenge in reference to coffee clearings of the last
few seasons which we are glad to say has been ac-
cepted. His words were :—

‘‘In my opinion the continued attacks of the coffee
leaf fungus have had a weakening effect on the off-
spring, and as a proof of this I would ask you to go
with me over any one of the clearings opened last year
or even the year before. Select your own, let it be
either in the young or old districts, Shew me one that
can compare with the clearing of four or five years ago.”

Now in answer a visiting agent has been good enough
to refer us to a 50-acre clearing on Doongalla planta-
tion, Maturata district, belonging to Mr. G. B. Sparkes.
The coffee is two years old and as rieh, healthy, strong
and full of crop as any two year old clearing in the
old palmy days of coffee. The second instance is
even more striking, although in the far-famed Hapu-
tale district. It refers to a 20-acre coffee clearing on
patana land at an elevation of 4,500 feet above sea
level, planted in Nov.-Dec. 1877, and now therefore 23
years old. Already there has been picked from this
field crop equal to 2 cwts. per acre, and fully another
hundredweight remains on the trees. This shews what.
patana land in Uva, well selected and cared for, may
be expected to do.

PEDIGREE WHEAT AND DISEASE-PROOF POTATOES ;
AND WHY NoT FUNGUS-PROOF COFFEE.

To the Editor, Ceylon Observer.

London, 21st Jan. 1880.
Str,—The last time I wrote to you on the sub-
ject of the coffee leaf disease, I stated that Hallett’s
pedigree wheat was free from rust and disexse, as
a proof that lability to disease in plants was con-
stitutional. In your remarks on it, you said that if

that were so it would be a case for consideration.
Lately I have had the advantage of an interview
with Major Hallett, and he has not only confirmed

184 MANURING COFFEE.

my assertion, but he has furnished me with a still
stronger proof of the truth of my theory.

The potato, as no doubt you are practically aware,
has now long been subject to a disease of a fun-,
goid nature, first attacking the leaf, then descending
the stem to the root.

It struck Major Hallett that the same treatment
that he had so successfully applied to cereals was.
worth trying on the potato, and the result has been
that after « few generations he attained a race of
potatoes which are to all appearance and practically
free from disease. He tells me that this year he
had a crop from his pedigree potatoes entirely free
from disease, though grown close by the side of
another lot from ordinary seed that were very badly
diseased. The past year has been one of the worst,
seasons for disease among potatoes that we have had
since 1846.

Do not these facts give us hopes, that there is
yet another way of extirpating coffee leaf disease,
namely, by selecting and only propagating plants.
from selected seed of the healthiest plants that can
be found and continuing the selection for three or
four generations ? Of course in the case of the coffee
plant, this will take some years, and is therefore
a matter that the island should expect to be car-
ried out by the Government for the benefit of the
coffee interests, which so largely supplies the reve-
nue, and should not be left. to the planter who has.
to struggle with the disease amongst the existing race.
of plants, which should, I more than ever think, be
principally based on the principle of restoring health
of constitution to the plants by scientific manuring
and shade planting.

I send you various papers printed on Major Hallett’s:
pedigree wheat, barley, oats and potatoes for your.
perusal, and would mention that the same system has.
been tried with success on a vineyard that was.
attacked by disease.—Yours faithfully,

Rost. EH.) Crickrrr.

THe PEpIGREE SystrEm is tolerably sound in prin-
ciple yet I could give instances of its non-useful
effect. As for the coffee now under cultivation it is
of no avail, but for new plantations care should be
bestowed on the selection of seed from healthy trees,
as well as on disinfection before planting. This is only:
the survival of the fittest over again. I have seen
on several occasions the heads of pedigree wheat, but.
not growing. —Cor.

MANURING COFFEE. 185

ON MANURING COFFEE,

1. Ash of Coffee.—I think Mr. Cochran is mistaken
in stating the pereentage of ash at 47%. I got some
‘berries calcined in the Laboratory of King’s College
last year, and the result was 25°/..

2. Sources of Potash.—You have'fallen into a very
natural error in supposing that I recommended kainit
salts. The large percentage of common salt in them
renders them very liable to deliquesce, besides form-
‘ing a heavy percentage of freight. It is practically
better and cheaper to use a less quantity of the best
muriate of potash, an invoice of which lies before me
giving 88 % of muriate equal to ubout 47°/, pure potash
against 13 or 14°/, in kainit, the former costing £7 16s —
the latter £2 10s per ton—freight being the same.
Both come from Germany, and there is an intermedtae
sulphate of potash containing 27°/, pure potash to be
had for £4 15s per ton, which I intend trying.

3. Lime.—I have observed a disposition in some
of your correspondents to treat limeas a manure in-
stead of a fuel or solvent. The old farming proverb
is a very true one :—

“‘Time and lime without manure
Makes both soil and farmer poor.”
And I would suggest anotber as equally sound :—
*‘ Hirst manure and then lime,
Will surely give good crops in time.”
Can you not calcine your stores of oyster-shells at
the pearl banks, or coral or limestone nearer at hand, and
spread afew cwts per acre broadcast every three years?
in this way you would best digest into soluble food
the potash in your slowly decomposing felspar, as well
as the other necessary ingredients in both soils and
manures, as the Sussex farmers have done by lberally
liming their stiff Wealden clays.

4. Phosphates.—You may not be aware that an
abundant source of phosphate lies within easy reach
of Ceylon, in what is called the guano of the Laci-
pede islands off the coast of Western Australia. It
was & guano ages ago no doubt; innumerable mon-
seons have washed out the ammonia, and though it
still resembles guano in colour, it is in reality a
phosphate, or more correctly, a guano-phosphate, I
give you the analysis of a sample:—

IMOISHIBIE, ce. (ot ee D4 AS

Water of combination

and organic matter 7°92

Phosphoric acid ... 28°57=Tribasic phosphate

Dinter. Me rest ee Oe of lime 62°37

Oxide ofiron... ... 3°48

Insoluble matter ... 00°69

100°00

186 MANURING COFFEE.

What it cost at the islands I cannot tell you, but
it has beensold in London at £4 to £5 per ton, and
mixed with ammonia and potash it ought to be an
excellent manure for coffee. Here it is used for
superphosphate, but after all sulphuric acid only does
quickly what dame nature does for us slowly and
surely in her own way, and I am not sure that the
advantage of using superphosphate with coffee, is as
great as with annual crops of different kinds, when
it may be required for use, and not for the two
following,

5. A Perfect Manure.—Ammonia, phosphoric acid
and potash in some from or other and in due pro-
portions, are what we have to combine to from a
perfect manure, and the soil analysis is mainly
valuable in indicating any partial weakness, which
can be strengthened accordingly. Mr. Hughes is, I
believe, mistaken [as Mr. Cochran justly points out
in his letter of 20th June] in considering any of the
soils in Ceylon, the analysis of which you have pub-
lished, sufficiently rich in potash to dispense with
its liberal use in manure, and if the Indian goils I
quoted, with double the potash of your Dimbula
and Haputale soils, require 10 per cent of potash
in a proper manure, according to Dr. Voelecker and
Mr. Dyer, it appears to me folly to give less or
more to the Jatter. Doctors may differ, it is true,
but I think that in this case the more experienced
practitioners are the safest to follow. As men of
business, itis our province to ascertain how we can
best work out their prescriptions practically, and I
am confident that not only is there no necessity to
pay high prices for quack remedies, but that coffee
can be much better manured for R30 per acre that
it is now in many cases for double and trouble the
money. Good farming does not consist in squander-
ing money, but in getting the utmost benefit at
the least cost.

6. Leaf Disease.—After all that has been written
on this subject, I see no reason to believe otherwise
than that leaf disease is nothing but nature’s own
punishment for our neglect of her laws and our folly
in looking for miraculous growth of coffee when year
after year we have been eating up our soil capital
just as the southeners have eaten up Virginia and
others of their most fertile states. Sulphuring is an
old and very doubtful remedy for a similar disease
in hogs, and no doubt about as useful as it is in
certain forms of skin disease; it may palliate, but
if we want to effect a cure we must stick to constitu-
tional treatment, and nothing else will serve our pur-

MANURING COFFEE. 187

pose effectually, as the vine growers of France have
found.
H. Toupurt.
32, Great St. Helens, London, 3lst July 1879.
P.S.—Since writing the foregoing, I am able to fur-
nish you with a strong confirmation of my first remarks
on the importance of potash. Here are analysis of
three soils from another vart of India:

No. 1 No. 2 No. 3
Lime wink ‘410 393 263
Potash Bat "283 "244 418
Phosphoric acid °045 ‘050 "032

and you will observe the percentage of potash is higher
than in any yeu have published, particularly No. 3,
which is the highest I have seen anywhere. They are
from estates which have been starved and misman-
aged, and of the third an old superintendent remarks,
on hearing that it had borne a moderate crop last
season, ‘‘ You see all their bullying has n’t killed it!’
The report accompanying the analysis points out the
low percentage of phosphoric acid as the prominent
feature which calls for attention, and a liberal supply
of phosphatic manures. Liming is recommended, if
not too expensive, both as increasing the quantity
in the soil, and rendering the potash more availabl
as plant food, than it probably is in the condition in
- which it already exists in the land. the para. on this
subject concludes as follows :—‘‘I should not at the
same time advise you to dispense by any means with
artificial potash, merely because the percentage of pot-
ash is equal to a little above the average.” This is
sound advice which I intend to follw.—H. T.

Colombo, 15th Oct. 1879.

Mr. Tolputt, in referring to my letter of 17th June,
where the words occur: ‘‘ Allowing 4 per cent of
ash in the coffee bean,” &c., seems to have thought
I was speaking of the coffee berry, which he says,
no doubt truly enough, is 2$°/,. I have never he-
fore seen an estimation of the ash in the berry, by
which I understand the dried cherry.

I made the statement on the authority of the
great food analyst, Dr. Hassall, who gives the fol-
lowing figures :—

Percentage of Ash.

Mysore coffee ate 4°29
East Indian coffee ... 4:07
Jamaica 4°59

The following analysis of coffee. by Hassall may

188: MANURING COFFEE.

be interesting, although he does not state where it
was grown :—

Raw coffee. Roasted coffee.

Water ... oo ent BIG 0°36
Cane sugar old Le RSLS 1°84
Caffeine ap: Tp AO 1:06
Fat ab ae nigel bY bay: 8:30
Gluten ..: ni .. 10.68 12°03
*BHxtractive matter ... 14°03 26°28
Cellulose, &c. ... | 42°36 44°96
Ash at Ps Le was Og 517

100:00 100:00

* Caramel, gum, tannin, &c.
M. CocHran.

From Mr. J. B. LAwEs.

1 have recently seen an article in your paper of the
16th June headed ‘‘ Potash as the Dominant Element -
in the Crop, a Necessary Ingredient in Coffee Manures.”
A few remarks I venture to make may be of some
service to those who cultivate this valuable product.
The term ‘‘dominant” is somewhat misleading and
possibly I may not fully understand what it implies.
ft will, however, assume its meaning to be that land
under the ordinary circumstances of coffee cultivation
is more likely to be deficient in potash than in any
other element of plant food, consequently an applica-
tion of a salt of potash would produce a more bene-
ficial effect than any other separate ingredient. In
this sense a salt of ammonia may be considered the
dominant element in a manure for wheat. We have
applied ammonia for 36 years in succession to wheat,
and the produce is still higher than the produce ob-.
tained by the application of potash, soda, magnesia
and superphosphate of lime without ammonia. The
reason why ammonia or nitric acid is so superior
its effect upon this crop to all other manure ingre-
' dients has been explained by me elsewhere. As ex-
periments similar to my own have not been carried
out on coffee, we can only reason upon the probabili-
ties of one or other of the various elements of plant
food being dominant, and I should not be very much
surprised if further experiments proved that no special
ingredient had a predominant influence over the others. ~
My reason for this conclusion is founded upon the
fact that coffee grows up as a perennial shrub, and
is not ar annual plant like many of our ordinary cul-
tivated plants ; its roots therefore penetrate deeper
and have more complete possession of the soil. As-
suming that five cwts. of berries is a fair crop, the

MANURING COFFEE. 189%

amount of mineral matter taken from an acre of land
will be about 28 1b., of which 15 lb. will be potash.
Compared with most of our cultivated crops, this
amount of potash is but small, and I should he dis-
posed to think that a soil exhausted by coffee grow-
ing ora soil not sufficiently rich to grow coffee with-
out manure would not be much benefited by the
application of potash salts. Judging from the character
of the plant and from the large amount of wash-
ing which the soilit grows in is exposed to, I should
consider that the most suitable manures to use would
be those which contain organic nitrogen, rather than
such manures as nitrate of soda, or sulphate of ammo-
nia. Rape or poonac cake, dried flesh [? fish.—Ep.C.O.],
shoddy mixed with finely ground bone, would accord
with my ideas of a good coffee manure; some of
these would supply potash in sufficient quantities.

In bones and shoddy, where it is almost absent,
perhaps a little potash would be useful. Manures
made by feeding stock would be undoubtedly valuable,
but this sort of manure is by no means economical
unless the animal fed increases in value. To employ
animals merely to turn food into manures cannot be
recommended, and it is probable that, of the two,
artificial compounds would prove the cheapes. Judg-
ing from the analyses of coffee soils which I have
‘seen, potash appears to be present in considerable
quantities, and I should be disposed to rely upon the
soil to supply this substance together with the small
amount which the manures I have recommended the
use of would contain, and not to expend money in
the purchase of salts of potash,

_ (Signed) J. B. Lawes,
August 1879. Rothamsted,

=

ARTIFICIAL MANURES VERSUS
CATTLE MANURE:

KEEPING CATTLE FOR MANURING ALONE ABSOLUTELY
UNPROFITABLE.
THE POSITIVE NEED FOR AKTIFICIAL EXTRANEOUS
MANURES.
THE ELEMENTS TO BE SUPPLIED TO SOIL AND THE
BEST MIXTURES.

The great prophet of the new system of agriculture.’
which dispenses with the rotation system, with the
setting aside of from 50 to 70 per cent of a farm for
grazing purposes, and also with farm-yard manures,
if M. Georges Ville, a Frenchman, whose work, traus-

190 ~MANURING COFFEE.

lated by Crookes and published by Longmans, possesses.
all the interest of a sensational novel. When we say
that the new system dispenses with cattle manure we
do not mean that M. Ville undervalues this substance,.
especially when mixed with artificial manures, But.
what he insists on is that farmyard manure pays
only when the animals who produce it perform the
labour of the farm, and when it has to be carried.
only a short distance. And even under the most
favourable conditions, farming by only the manures
produced on a farm, taken, in fact, from its own sub-
stance, cannot pay. There is considerable loss when
animals fed on a farm are removed from it, but
when successive crops are removed, the very elements
on which the fertility of the soil depends gradually
disappear, and, unless fertilizers from abroad are in-
troduced, the land will inevitably become sterile. If
portions of a farm are left in pasture, the French pro-
fessor insists on the necessity of manuring this pasture-
land just as much as the arable portion of the farm.
From the fact that the lectures of which the book is
composed were delivered in France, much attention
is devoted to beet-root culture, aud what concerns
us more closely, the effect of certain manures on
sugar-cane culture, is adduced. We say that this
affects us more closely, because it is certain that, as
a general rule, the manures which are good for sugar-
cane and wheat are good for coffee. To the culture
of the latter plant there is no allusion in M, Ville’s
disquisitions, but, after reading his work, we feel
certain that on visiting a coffee estate and seeing a
certain proportion ofthe land set aside for the growth
of guinea-grass to feed cattle, he would at once ask
whether, with the addition of otl-cake, the cattle were
rapidly fattened fora good market, or whether the
animals were utilized for araught purposes of a paying
nature either on or beyond the plantatiom. If told
that it paid to keep cattle simply for their manure,
such cattle being wholly or mainly fed on grass grown
on a portion of the estate capable of growing coffee,
tea, cinchona or cacao, we suspect he would put some
very searching questions of the ‘‘ Will it pay ?” order.
He would be told that, althongh the price cf dead
meat is anomalously high, the market for fat cattle
is neither extensive nor very remunerative, and that.
what with cost of food (working bullocks requiring
Something more than grass) and the competition of
human labour (for short distances), it was questionable
whether the work done on the estate or the hire.
earned (or saved) beyond it paid for attendance and
keep. The qualifications would, however, be mentioned,

MANURING COFFEE, 19]

that cattle were valuable as relieving coolies of work
which they disliked, while the manure yielded even
by non-working cattle was valuable, with pulp and
‘* ravine stuff” to supplement artificial manures which
in many portionsof this country became excessively
costly, not merely by the freight charges from Europe,
India, Australia, &c., tothe port of import, Lut by
the fearful cost of land carriage when conducted for
long distances by cattle. It would have to be added that,
high as the cost was, the bullock bandy owners made
often a loss rather than a profit, from the expensive-
ness of cattle food, aud the effects of hard work
and exposure in this wet climate on the cattle them-
selves, He would soon see that our great want was
EXTENSION OF CHEAP FACILITIES OF CARRIAGE BY RAIL-
way. But, even as matter stand, we suspect he would
shake his head about keeping cattle merely for their
manure and recommend planters instead to use what
he calls his ‘‘ NORMAL MANURE” consisting of nitro-
gen, phosphoric acid, potash and lime. The other ten
ingredients of plants exist in all soils, or are yielded
by the air, and need not be supplied. Not only the
vegetation but the cattle fed on it are made up of
16 parts, 4 only of which have to be supplied in feed-
them! Leaving cattle aside, for the present let us
look at the composition of such a grain as wheat,
straw and grain. According to M. Ville 93°55 parts
are derived from the air :—
Carbon (not far short of one-half of

the plant)... 8 1.01 4U269
Hydrogen ... ro Jute SOO4
Oxygen ... 40°42

Then come 3:386 per cent of constituents with which
the soil is superabundantly provided and which it is
quite necessary to add to it, viz. :—

Soda... je 0°09
Magnesia as ae 0°20
Sulphuric acid ... die 0:31
Chlorine wile bias 0°03
Ferric oxide oe M3 0° 006
Silica ef a 2°75
Manganese ; ?

And now, most important of all to the practical agri-
culturist, we come to 3 per cent of constituents which
the soil possesses only toa limited extent, and the
deficiency of which must be supplied by artificial
manure, viz. :—

Nitrogen .. ab aus ... 1:60
Phosphoric acid... i we 0°45
Potash adh 0-66

Lime... ba nn 0-29

192 MANURING COFFEE.

The principles here exemplified holding good in all
cases, although of course certain soils are rich in the
main elements of fertility while others are deficient
(M. Ville analyses the soil by growing plants in patches
of it), the use of certain combinations of the four sub- -
stances last noticed are recommended, by means of
which a soil can be made to yield profitable crops
continuously while it positively improves in quality
instead of being exhausted. For a wheat crop of 33
bushels per acre, per annum, M. Ville would apply a
dressing consisting of

Per acre. Cost,
Caleic superphosphate ... 176 lb £0 7s 8d
Potassic chloride at 80° 88 ,, 0 6s 5d
Ammonia sulphate vi Wie 111s 2d
Calcic sulphate i Ga, 0 0. 8d

Total...528 Ib £2 5s lld

The ‘“calcic sulphate” of this receipt is just gypsum
or plaster of Paris, and there can be no doubt
that the above would form. an excellent application
“to coffee. The cost, however, we fear would have to
be quadrupled. M. Ville has the strongest possible
belief, which we share, that chemical science will
yet discover a mode of extracting from the atmosphere
all the nitrogen required in agriculture. As it is, cer-
tain plants, notably the legumes, absorb very large
quantities, and hence the value of vetches, lupins, &e.,
ploughed green into the soil. We do not know to
what extent the coffee tree, whicn is popularly re-
garded as yielding ‘‘ beans,” derives. nitrogen from the
atmosphere, but M. Ville classes sugar-cane with turnips,
seeds, Jerusalem artichokes, sorghum and maiz> as
meeting no nitrogen (ammonia) in the manure applied
to its culture. The mixture he recommends in this
case consists of lime in two forms and of potash thus :—

Per: dere "Cost,
Calcic superhosphate... 528 lb. £1 3s Od
Potassic nitrate ak Toye. 118s 4d
Calcic sulphate des 3o2 3, 0 2s 6d

Total..-1,056 Ib £3 4s Od
If we could afford to give our coffee trees about 9
cwts. per acre of such a mixture as the above, we have
no doubt the response in the shape of crop would be
large, but we suppose that in this case also we should
have to calculate on at least a quadruple cost, say
£12 per acre? That is the difficulty—the one of cost
—of the coffee planter in experimenting with a adopt--
ing system of manuring, however, strongly recom-
mended.

MANURING COFFEE. 193

The system which, by means of a copious. use of
‘artificial manures, M. Ville has inaugurated at Vincen-
‘mes, the naturally poor soils of which are made to yield.
large and profitable crops year by year, he calls ‘‘ Free
and continual rotation: stable manure mixed with
chemical manure.” The coloured square for this systen
is, like that devoted to the irrigation system, with-
‘out any subdivisions. We have instead the words :—-

“* Absolute freedom

Meadow or arable
The crops are double those grown on the other sys-
tems.”

By the words ‘‘ meadow or arable,” is of course meant,
that by the new system either the whole or part of a
farm can be devoted to meadow for the profitable feeding
of cattle, the meadow land being heavily manured with
suitable substances, and the cattle fattened with sub-
stances other than the grass or clover. But, although
in such cases the cattle manure may be utilized, its
effect being enormously increased by the addition of
chemical manures, the object is not to grow grass &c.,
to feed cattle for the sake of their manure. If convert-
ing the whole of the land into arable is deemed the
better and more profitab!e course, byre and stable manure
can be entirely dispensed with and maximum crops ob-
‘tained by the use of four substances applied according
to what is found to be the dominant principle of the
particular plant. The four substances required, some-
times the whole of them and sometimes only three or
even two, are, as We mentioned in our previous article :—

Nitrogen,

Phosphoric acid,

Potash,

Lite.
Now, judging by the composition of the ashes of the
bean, potash ought, we suppose, to be regarded as the
dominant principle in coffee, But before preparing a
manure for coffee, Mr. Ville would inform himself of
‘the composition of the soil to which the manure was to
be applied, and be would learn that on young estates,
such as those of Dimbula, Dikoya or Maskeliya generally,
‘there was a considerable store of potash derived from
the forest burnt on the ground, in the clay of the soil,
-and in the gradual'y decomposing felspar of the rocks.
M. Ville, who distinctly recognizes the value of clay
asa receptacle of potash, would, we suspect, join Mr.
Hughes in stating that, for soils like those we have
alluded to, the application of potash was not so much
needed as treatment, such as forking and liming, which
would render the etored-up potash available. We are

Q

"194 MANURING COFFEE.

bound; however, to add, that the French writer makes
light of the popular argument in favour of cattle manure
as improving the mechanical condition of the soil. He
contendz that much larger crops and more profitable

‘are obtained by means of artificial manures, the
‘mechanical condition of the soil being improved other-

wise—by careful culture of course. By the carbonaceous
matter contained in cattle manure, M. Ville would, and
probably with justice, set little store, seeing that plants —
derive the large proportion of carbon of which they

- are composed (nearly 48 per cent in the case of wheat)

from the atmosphere. Indeed, when we add together

‘the constituents which plants derive from air and water,

_ the remaining balance is very slight as a percentage.

But’ even fractions of certain substances hosphoric
? —

-acid, for example, are of enormous importance. We

can feel as we read this book that it is not so much

“ nitrogen and potash as phosphoric acid, lime and culture

which young coffee estates need, as Mr. Hughes pointed
out. In the case of old estates, or young ones after

‘they have borne several heavy crops, however, the

dominant principle in the crop removed must certainly

be supplied. If we are to judge by the ashes of the

z

- coffee beans, the dominant element (50 to even 55 per

cent) is potash. Now let us see what are the combina-
tions which M. Ville advises to be used in the case
of plants, the dominant principle of which is potash.
For potatoes and flax his normal manure is composed of

lb. per acre.

Calcic superphosphate... ..._ 352
Potassic nitrate ani oe!
Calcic sulphate SRN tule

880

That for vines and fruit trees would, no doubt, be
more suitable for voffee, viz :—

Calcic superphosphate ... ... 528
Potassic nitrate arin: | 22) 0)
Calcic sulphate io) Nike dad oor

1,320

This is nearly 11 cwt. per acre of substances which
{even the gypsum) would be costly on coffee estates: In
both the above cases the amount of nitrogen contained
in the potassic nitrate is considered sufficient in addition

- to what is derived from the air and rain. But for

vines and fruit trees there is a ‘‘ homologous manure,”
being of the same composition as the normal manure,

-only that the potassic nitrate is replaced by a mixture of

MANURING COFFEE. 195-.

potassic chloride and ammonic sulphate, thus :—
lb. per acre.

Calcic superphosphate ... ... 528
Potassic chloride at 80... ... 440
Ammonic sulphate Beet diet tr 3 fe)
Calcic sulphate By MU ees | A

1,320

Potassic chloride has the advantage of being cheaper
than the nitrate. It is composed of potassium 52°41 per
cent, and chlorine 47°59, the first-named constituent
being equal to 63°16 of potash. The price of this sub-
stance when M. Ville wrote was 7s 2d to 8s per cwt.,
against £1 4s for the nitrate. To Ceylon planters it will
be important to learn that ‘‘Since the discovery of the
Stassforth mines, the price of this salt cannot fluctuate
much, as the supply exceeds the demand.” We believe
there have been eome importations of this valuable
source of potash into Ceylon, by an estate agency house, .
but we have not heard the result of their experience.
Ammonic sulphate is mixed with this substance, no
doubt to supply nitrogen. Once again we have for vines
and fruit trees a normal homologous manure where
calcic superphosphate is replaced by precipitated calcic,
thus :—
lb. per acre.
Precipitated calcic phosphate ... 220

Potassic nitrate su .-. 440
Calcic sulphate He ... 220
880

The merits of precipitated phosphates are its greater
cheapness, its more certain action, superphosphate being
rather too soluble for newly-opened lands.

What puts fruit on vines, would, we should think,
put fruit on coffee trees, and by his manure M. Ville
obtained a heavy crop, which vines left unmanured
yielded absolutely nothing. This case is strikingly illus- -
trated by engravings of the contrasted plants. Butas
our new soils at least are fairly supplied with nitrogen
and potash, perhaps we had better look at the com-
position of the manures which M. Ville recommends
for plants in which the dominant ingredient is supplied
by calcic phosphate, such as maize, sugar cane, sorgho,
and Jerusalem artichoke. The normal manure in this
case is ec mposed of.

Ib. per acre.

Calcic superphosphate ... ... 528
Potassic nitrate oA ... 440
Calcic sulphate i ... 302

1,056

196 MANURING COFFEE.

And if a normal stimulating manure is required, 53 lb.
of ammonic sulphate is substituted for an equal quantity-
deducted from calcic sulphate. It will be interesting to
our readers to hear that M. Ville prefers to apply the
lime in his manures in the shape of gypsum. He states:.
“¢ Calcic sulphate is nothing more than unbirnt plaster
of Paris, and is composed of sulphuric acid and lime.
It is found in nature in large quantities in the form of
hydrate :—

per cent.
Sulphuric acid... Nee ce ... 4651
amie ie bik Wa lesa Le ers yA 9)
Water ... .. 20°93

Exposed to a temperature of 248° to 266° F., it loses
its water and passes into the state of anhydrous sulph-
ate, more commonly known as plaster of Pazis. In
using calcic sulphate I prefer it in this state. It is worth,
about $d per cwt. It can also be used in the form of
raw gypsum, only in this case the proportion must be.
increased one-fifth.” Of course gypsum is not likely to
be obtained in Ceylon for less than many times 83d
per cwt. But we suppose. ifsulphuric acid were avail-
able, the lime from burnt coral could easily be converted.
from a carbonate into a sulphate? So many things.
are waiting to be done, when sulphuric acid is locally
manufactured and cheaply as well as plentifully sup-
plied. We could then for ourselves convert bones into
calcic superphosphate, the most valuable ingredient
(though not the most costly) in all manures. M. Ville
expresses his intention to write a manual for the in-
struction of cultivators in this process. Meantime M.
Ville is of opinion that the price of calcic phosphates is
more likely to fall than to rise, looking at the fact
that they (bones apart) enter into the composition of
all eruptive rocks. He alludes to the large deposits in
Estremadura in Spain containing 70 to 80 per cent of
calcic phosphate. In Canada, Sweden and France.
there are also deposits. After noticing the process by
which calcic phosphates are converted into superphos-
phate, preferable generally on account of its superior
solubility, M. Ville proceeds to notice exceptions im
which bi- and tri-calcic phosphates are more beneficial,
viz., newly cleared land and damp meadows. Our
readers will notice that M. Ville does not apply nitrogen,
in the form of oil cakes, so largely used in Ceylon. He,
however, fully recognizes the value of such substances,
tf entirely deprived gf the oil, which has no manurial
value. lf cakes contain any oil he gives directions for
extracting it by means of chloroform, or by carbon
bisulphide, or the light petroleams or coal oils. He.
writes : ‘‘ These cakes are, in fact, very rich in nitrogen,

MANURING COFFEE. 107

phosphates and potash. Dissolved in water we can by
their aid prepare from them a sort of artificial urine,
which if thrown into the manure pit effects the dis-
integration of the haulm husks and more especially
the straw itself.” This may afford a useful hint with
reference to the maturing of composts. But we must
close this article by giving the very heart of M. Ville’s
system. ‘‘ The question then is,” he says, ‘‘Can we,
with chemical manures, cutivaie the same soil with uni-
_form success? Yes, we can, but always on two con-
ditions :—

*‘(1) Return to the soil by the aid of manure more
calcic phosphate, potash and lime than the crops have
‘taken out of it.

“‘(2) Restore to the soil about 50 per cent of the
mitrogen of thecrops. I say about 50 per cent, because
there are certain plants which require less, while others,
leguminous plants for instance, seem to be able to do

without any nitrogen being returned to the soi]. We

-have already stated that part of the nitrogen required
by plaats is derived from the air, while some planis
‘draw it more particularly from the soil.
_ ‘With respect to the calcic phosphate, potash and
ime, the quantity restored must be in excess of that
which is lost, because it is exclusively from the soil that
plants draw them, and we must not only give com-
‘pensation for the losses brought about by eich harvest
but also for those which are due to the solvent action
of rain.”
~The bearing of these principles on coffee and other
culture is obvious. We have to find out, in the case of
coffee, what constituents are removed in crop, (parch-
ment skin as well as clean beans) and no doubt we must
make allowance to some extent for prunings and
wandlings, and to a large extent we fear for foliage
dost by leaf disease.

190, Kollupitya Road, Dec. 6, 1879.

DesR Si1r,—The sanguine hope of M. Ville, that ad-
vanced agriculture will yet be able to draw all the
nitrogen required for plant food from the atmosphere,
jends a new interest toa subject touched upon in my
last, viz., may not the secretof the lessened import-
amce of the more active forms of nitrogen in our
ynanures, compared to what obtains in temperate coun-
tries, be explained on the supposition that our atmo-
spheric supply of available nitrogen is greater, either
absolutely or relatively, to the products we have to
cultivate? I am not awareif any tropical rains, dews,
~or atmosphere, have been made the subject of exact

198 MANURING COFFEE.

- analysis, so, in the absence of observed facts, it may
' be excusable to speculate a little on the subject.

There can be little doubt that the atmosphere is the
primary source of the nitrogen in plants. The atmo-
sphere is anterior to the soil in our cosmogony, is in fact
the great agent by which the soils have been produced,
and nitrogen not being a constituent of the primary
rocks must have been absorbed from the atmosphere in
the first instance ; ergo, all the nitrogen in plants comes
directly or indirectly from the atmosphere; so in this
- sense Ville’s expectation is present reality. When one
considers how important atmospheric combined nitrogen
is to plants, this element constituting, according to
- Johnstone and Cameron, 13 per cent of their weight,
it is matter for wonder that it should be present in such
emall proportion in the air, and one would be a priore
disposed to credit the conclusion which Ville early
arrived at from his experiments of 1849-1855 that plants
can assimilate free nitrogen ; but English chemists are
diametrically opposed to this view. It is so extremely
difficult to estimate accurately the combined nitrogen
in the air, that experimenters mostly confine themselves
to the estimation of that in rain water. Perhaps the
most reliable published results are those of Dr. Angus
Smith, who gives the following :—

Rain WATER IN PARTS PER MILLION.

Where Ammo- Albuminoid Nitric
collected. nia. ammonia, acid.
Ireland, Valencia... eS ‘0: 37
Scotland, five sea-coast
country places, West... °48 “ py
Scotland, eight sea. coast ait
country places, Hast... °99 ‘Il “AT
Seotland, twelve inland
country places joo, 5B) "04 “31
England, twelve inland
country places spall OY “ty 75

Calculating the averages we would get ammonia ‘78,
albuminoid ammonia ‘08, and nitric acid 49, or a
total of °835 of combined nitrogen in one million parts
of rain water. Now the weight of a cubic inch of
water is ‘0361 lb., and an acre contains 6,272,640
square inches. A rainfall of one inch therefore weighs
226,442 lb. per acre of which ‘189 lb. is nitrogen. A
rainfall of 80 inches per annum would only supply
567 lb. of nitrogen per acre, a rainfall of 100 inches,
like that of Ceylon, 18°9 lb. Suppose we take a crop

of potatoes at not less than 4 tons per acre, of which.

2:1 per cent is nitrogen; no less than 188 Ib. of
nitrogen per acre would be carried away in a single
crop of which the rainfall of the whole year could
only supply 5°67 Ib.

MANURING COFFEE. 199

Coffee contains rather more nitrogen that the potash,
_viz., 2°14 per cent., not reckoning, for want of data,
the parchment skin. A 5 ecwt. crop thus carries away
only 12lb. of nitrogen, while our rainfall of 100 inches
as per Smith’s analysis contains nearly 7 lb. in excess
of the demand for the crop. Mr. Horsfall assumes
that 200 leaves are dropped per tree per annum ; Mr.
Fraser of Damboolagalla assumes 2,000: we may assume
that while 2,000 are dropt 200 are irrecoverabiy lost by
wind and wash. This according to Mr. Hughee would
remove other 6°6 lb. of nitrogen per acre, still leaving
a balance of 41b. to the credit of rainfall. Jf we
knew what allowance to make for the parchment we
should not have this balance; but in any case the
result would be very different from a heavy crop
like the potato which carries away 182°3lb. in excess
of the calculated rain supply. It is found however,
that the greater the rainfall the smaller is the per-
centage of nitrogen, vide table—east of Scotland has a
smaller rainfall, but higher proportion of nitrogen, than
the west of Scotland, and dew has a much _ higher
proportion than ordinary rain.

But there is still another most important factor to
be taken into account. Boussingault found that when
the atmosphere was in a high electrical condition the
proportion of nitric acid in the rain was enormously
increased. In ordinary circumstances he found only
about ‘02 per 100,000 parts ; in a hail storm, however,
the atmosphere being highly electrical, the rain con-
tained not less than 55 and the melted hail 8:3 parts
of that acid (Hassal). Let us suppose the rain and
hail’ together contained no more than 7; an inch of
such rainfall (and thunderstorms of an inch of rainfall
are not uncommon in Ceylon) would contain 15°85 1b,
of nitric acid, or rather more than 4 1b. of nitrogen,
and an inch and a half of such rain would contain
more nitrogen than the whole annual rainfall of 30
inches calculated from Dr. Angus Smith’s analyses.

I have been informed by a Colombo gentleman who
has collected rain during thunderstorms in Colombo,
that he has been surprised at the strong smell that
was shortly developed in it. This odour could be of
no other than nitrogenous origin. I think, therefore,
there is every reason to believe that the atmospheric
supply of nitrogen to the plants, in the tropics, is
greater than in temperate countries, and when the
soil is prepared to receive this nitrogen, it so far
replaces the necessity for nitrogenous manure.

I meant to have said a word about the fertilizing
power of gyysum in the soil beirg less, if atall, due
to its power of fixing atmospheric ammonia than to

“200 MANURING COFFEE,

other properties, especially the liberation of potash,
but my letter has already extended to sufficient length,

M. CocHRan, M.A., Glasquensis.

The one great discovery now to be made is that of
‘producing ammonic sulphate from the nitrogen of the
atmosphere. So important does M. Ville deem this
question and go sanguine is he of a successful result,
that he offers his own subscription of £40 towards a
fund of £100,000 to reward the discoverer of s means
of fixing the free nitrogen of the atmosphere. What
seems the dream of this generation in this matter
will, we feel satistied, be realized. Another great
help would be means of irrigation to counteract the
effects of drought, provision which we fear will only
excite a grim smile in Hagland, after the series of
wet seasons which have ruined successive crops.

Premising that we do not think M. Ville recognizes
so correctly as Mr. Lawes does the lasting effects of
cattle manure, there is no resisting the conclusions to
be drawn from the experiment he adduces: one half
of a piece of ground was manured with 32 tons of
farm-yard manure per acre and the other with about
half a ton of chemical manure per acre. With the
farm manure about 14 bushels of wheat were obtained,
whereas with the chemical manure the land yielded
about 36 bushels, there being a loss of £19 in the
former case, and a gain of £17 in the latter. Similar
results were obtained over and over again. M. Ville’s
work is designed to answer the questions :—‘‘ Whence
are we to draw our supply of those agents which
according to our present ideas are destined to become
the principal lever of agriculture? What results can
‘be obtained in practice?” Our previous articles will
have shewn how far those questions have been answered.
A copious and steady supply of chemical manures is
of the first importance in all agriculture, if, as M.
Ville asserts, ‘‘ Increase in production depends less
on the worker, and on the quality of the tools which
he employs, than on the quantity of fertilizing materials
which he has at his disposal.” Humus in soil and
the black matter in farm-yard manure M. Ville regards
as of secondary importance, useful for rendering other
substances soluble, but by no means an absolute
necessity to agriculture. High farming by means of
farm-yard manure gives neither security nor \ profit
to the grower, unless carried on with industrial agri-
culture (he means the manufacture of sugar and alcohol
from beets, and so forth) which is not often the case.

Illustrations are given of experiments which showed
that normal manure produced, in addition to straw,

MANURING COFFEE. 201.

504 bushels of wheat per acre. Nitrogenous manure
without mineral matter, 18; without any manure, 12.
Experience of a similar nature was uniform. The
functions of clay, sand and humus as supports of
plants are defined, and much importance is attached
to clay as absorbing and giving out slowly nitrogenous
and mineral matters. It resists the action of rain.
Clay, therefore, if not excessive in quantity and stiff
in quality, is a most valuable constituent of soils.
The value of bumus consists in its power of absorb-
ing moisture, and fixing the ammonia of the soils, so
as to prevent it from being carried off by the rains.
It afterwards gives back this ammonia to vegetation.
It helps to form carbonic dioxide which exercises a
solvent power, espevially on calcic phosphate and
limestone. It was the result of his researches into
the action of humus which led M. Ville to substitute
calcic sulphate for the carbonate in the manufacture
of normal manure. Cultivators in Ceylon cannot go.
wrong, however, if they first treat clayey soils and
fallen leaves, &e., to a good dose of burnt coral, and
subsequently apply superohosphate potash and nitro-
genous matter. M. Ville dwells on the frequent
uselessness of soil analysis, because of the failure to
distinguish solvent from nonsolvent matter. His own
method of growing various plants in patches of soil,
remedies this defect. But as such a method is im-
practicable in the case of our culture, the analyst
should either visit and carefully inspect in situ the
soil he is to report on (by far the preferable plan),
or the fullest possible information must be furnished
when specimens of soils are sent for analysis. As a
matter of much interest, however, we give M. Villes
account of the process by which he uses plants as
analysers of the soil. ‘* Plants are divided into two
classes. With reference to the different forms under
which they assimilate nitrogen—some obtaining 1
from the air in the form of free nitrogen [leguminous
plants, for instance.—EKp.], while others derive it from
the soil in the form of ammonia and _ nitrates—you
can appreciate the result of the distinction. Those
plants which derive nitrogen from the air flourish
exceedingly well in a soil which is destitute of that
element, as long as they find in it the three mineral
constituents of the normal manure, potash, calcic
phosphate and lime. Plants which derive nitrogen
from the soil become, on the contrary, etiolated and
yield only a scanty crop. It follows from this that
by the aid of two experiments on a small scale, we
may always know if the land contains the necessary
nitrogenous and mineral matter.

202 MANURING COFFEE.

“ Tf we cultivate side by side peas and wheat, or
peas and beet-root, and the peas yield well whilst the
wheat turns out badly, we are able to conclude unhesit-
atingly that the land is provided with the mineral but.
lacks the nitrogenous matter; on the other hand, if the
wheat succeeds equally well, we may be certain that the
land contains both the mineral and nitrogenous matter.
Can you conceive a method which is more practical and
yet at the same time eimpler and more conclusive ? ”

We should think that maize would be the best
substitute for wheat in any similar experiments in
Ceylon. But we know already that the vast majority
of our soils are specially deficient in phosphoric acid
and lime. Tbese, therefore, we can never go wrong
in adding liberally, seeing to it, of course, that nitrogen
and potash are present or that they also are supplied.

More interesting, perhaps, to us as colonists is the ~
result of an experiment on the cultivation of sugar-
canes carried on at Guadeloupe by M. de Jabrun, an

old settler in that colony :— Tons. Cwt.
Normal manure hes ie 23 0
Manure without lime ... au 20 0
bse 3 potash... mA 14 0
a a phosphate . ... 6 0
Hs He nitrogen wee 22 &
With no manure i 1 4

M. Ville remarks, ‘‘If I add that the sugar cane
obtains its nitrogen from the air [why then are
ammoniacal guanos so largely used in the culture of
the cane?—EKp.]| you will conclude from these figures
that the soil is very defective in potash and calcic.
phosphate.” We should certainly conclude that the
soil was utterly worn eut. So much the more valuable
is the manure if obtainable at any reasonable eost.
The debilitating effects of leaf disease on the coffee
plants, and the consequent falling off in bearing power,
have given so much additional interest to the question
of the best and cheapest forms of fertilizers, that we
need make no apology for once again referring to
the work of M. Ville on artificial manures. This
writer insists that the value of farm-yard manure (dry)
consists in the nitrogen about 2 per cent, phosphoric
acid, about 1 per cent, lime from 3 to 5 per cent,
and potash from 24 to 4 per cent, contained in it.
Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, constitute from 60 to
65 per cent of this material, and silica and sand —
make up from 17 to 25 per cent more. The other |
materials are of slight importance. M. Ville’s own
analysis of stable dung (undried) shewed that 1,000
parts gave no less than 800 of water, 4°16 nitrogen, 1°76
phosphoric acid, 4°92 potash and 10°46 lime. Contrast.

MANURING COFFEE. 203

‘with this superphosphate which contains, per 1,000
parts, water 160°00, phosphoric acid 160-00, hme 210-00;
and also Peruvian guano, water 140-00, nitrogen 125:00,
phosphoric acid 137-00, potash 16°00, and lime 120°0U.
We should like to quote further from the analyses
of plants and manures given, but we must refrain.
“Our readers can see that, whatever value cattle manure
possesses in bulk and solvent effects, that value must
be enormously increased by the addition to it of
nitrogenous and mineral matter, such as is contained
in M. Ville’s normal manure. If only cattle manure
can be produced cheaply we are stiil inclined
to the belief that a mixture of this substance and
artificial manures well distributed in the soil is
the perfection of manuring. But, if the question is
between farm-yard manure and chemical manures, the
ease for the latter in greater yield and larger profit
seems complete. Here the question of the cost of im-
ported substances is and will be a serious one uniil
railway facilities are extended. The evidence adduced
by M. Ville in favour of the liberal use of chemical
manures is simply overwhelming. We ought specially
to mention however, that he is a firm believer in divid-
ing the manures, instead of applying the whole at
one time. He would, no doubt, tell « coffee planter
that a moderate application once a year is better than
a large supply once in two or three years. In deal-
ing with the supply of ammonia M. Ville says large
quantities could be obtained if, instead of burning
coke in the open air, the operation were carried on
in closed furnaces. In gasworks we suppose what he
desiderates is done? M. Ville really goes the iength
of asserting that, no matter how poor a soil is, he
can work it profitably with the aid of his normal
manure of four constituents! To quote :—

‘*« Experience shews, therefore, that the four ingred-
dent:,—nitrogenous matter, phosphate, potash and
- lime are the only ones that need be admitted inte
manures. ;

** For myself I have never found any natural earths
in which, with the help of these four substances, it was
not possible to obtain a yield comparable to that ob-
tained in the most favoured soils.

** This result is possible because the poorest soils are
\provided with the seven mineral ingredients excluded
from normal manure, whilst it is not necessary to
furnish carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, as the plants
receive these elements from the atmosphere.”

If only, therefore, the proprietor of a piece of poor
land can, at a moderate cost, obtain and apply abund-
ance of the normal manure, he can soon place his pro-

204 MANURING COFFEE.

perty on the same level as that occupied by land
naturally the most fertile! M. Ville distinctly says
that by use of his manure crops were raised on the
worst chalky soils of Champagne and the sand of the
‘dunes of Holland, equal to the same level as those
grown in alluvial soils noted for their productiveness.

By means of plants with taproots M. Ville asserts
that he is able to ascertain the constitution of the
subsoil as well as the soil, and in both cases with
perfect accuracy. We cannot help quoting once
more :— ‘

“The quantity of soil covering the surface one acre
is represented by at least 1,600 tons, and with 176 lbs.
of ammonic sulphate and 354 lbs. of nitrogen—that is
to say, the one-hundred-thousandth part of the total
weight of the soil, the crop of wheat will be increased
from 134 to 163 bushels per acre, and the straw from
2,640 lbs to 3,520lbs. .

«‘ With potatoes, 176 lbs. of nitrates, of which 822 are
in the form of potassic nitrate, suffice to raise the
yield from 4 tons per acre to 7 tons 4 cwt.

‘If the manure contains 528Ibs. of calcic phos-
phate, we shall obtain 32 tons of canesstripped of
leaves: but with 352lbs. of the phosphate, the result
is lowered to 16 tons. What result, I ask, obtained
by purely scientific means, can be compared with this,
whether as regards the delicacy of the method, or the
atility of the information that 1t yields. The great
value of experimental fields, then, lies in our being
able to obtain such evidence as they latter by a series
of proofs.”

-

ARTIFICIAL MANURES FOR COFFEE.

In considering the best artificial manures for coffee
the constituents of sombreorum ought to help us
largely, for welearnt from Mr. Tytler that this manure
was based on the result of numerous analysis of every
part of the coffee tree. Its costliness is the great ob-
jection offered to sombreorum, and possibly M. Ville’s
normal manure is a better combination. The question
here, also, ist one of cost. Results, however, must be
held essentially to qualify this question of cost.
Experiments ought, therefore, we submit, to be tried
with M. Ville’s normal manure, in its complete form,
and dropping one of the substances in succession.
We have already said that for such districts as
Dimbula and Dikoya both nitrogen and potash could,
for a while, be dispensed with. Where, as is prob-
ably the case with coffee, calcic phosphate (?) 18 the
dominant constituent, ‘‘the economical part ef the

MANURING COFFEE. 205

‘question acquires increased importance, because the
superphosphate being the least expensive of the four
substances forming the normal manure, and its efficacy
being in certain cases very great, a slight increase
of expenditure suflices to obtain a large excess of
crop. With the normal manure, No. 6 (calcic super-
' phosphate 352 1bs. ; potassic nitrate 176lbs.; calcic
sulphate 352 lbs. ; M. de Jabrun of Guadeloupe) obtained
18 tons of sugarcane, stripped of leaves, per acre.
With an increase of 176 lbs. of calcic superphosphate
the result was raised to 38 tons, an excess of 14 tons
of cane, valued at £11 4s to £12 16s, the increase of
expenditure being about 12s 9d.” Thisis very tempt-
ing, but we need not tell our readers that in the
case of the coffee plant we might endanger the life
of the tree by forcing it into an over-yield of fruit.
Let us listen to M. Ville’s advice: ‘‘ First of all be
sure of the dominant constituents and the proportions
in which it is necessary to employ them in order to
obtain the maximum of their useful effects ; secondly
know the proportion of the subordinate constituents
which these same dominants require in order to bring
out their action; and lastly, only draw conclusions
from the test of experiment.” Some readers may be
surprised to learn that in a ton of 2,240 1b. of farm-
yard manure tbe proportions of the four fertilizing
substances are so low as

Nitrogen She flip,
Phosphoric acid __... a ae
Potash a ae Si.
Lime is mel is

: : Me)
This indicates a value, according to the ruling price
of chemicals, which M. Ville believes will go lower
instead of higher, of 10s 6d. The grand disadvantages
of farmyard manure, it vill be observed, are its
enormous bulk and weight, at any rate the weight
{8-10ths being contributed by water) in proportion
to the small amount of really fertilizing matter. In
wet climates especially is the water in this manure
worse than valueless. In comparison between it and
chemical manures, the results in repeated trials were
always in favour of the chemical manures, as to
produce, while the artificial manures were also found
to be morelasting. Thereis a most valuable appendix
to M. Ville’s work, No. 1 of which deals with ‘‘ The
chemical description of the ingredients which enter into
the composition of chemical manures.” We only
wish we had space to quote from this most interest-
ing paper. We can only mention that M. Ville,
besides being a believer in the ultimate discovery of
economical means of deriving nitrogen frcm the air,
R

206 SEYLON SOILS AND MANURES.

holds that volcanoes in their quiescent state, when
they forth nothing but vapour, ought to be utilized
as sources of ammonia as much as the liquor of gas _
works. ‘‘Of all the products,” he writes, ‘‘that
contain potash, potassic nitrate is most suitable for
agricultural purposes.” No.2 of the appendices con-
tains very valuable ‘‘ Practical instructions on the
preservation, preparation, and employment of chemical
manures.” Here also, however, for which we should
like to quote, we must refer to the book. No. 3 is
a ‘Collection of the formule: for the chemical manures
most used, whether alone or in combination with
farmyard manure.” Every fact and every figure here
given is suggestive, but we must content ourselves
with brief quotations. M. Ville thus indicates the

** Strength of the different ingr edients which enter into
the manufacture of chemical manures.’

Phosphoric acid

Sources of { percent. Symbol.
Phosphor- < Calcic superphosphate 15 PO,
ic Acid. Precipitated calcic Peas 32
Potash.
/ Potassic nitrate at 95 perct.. 44 KO
nee Gal Wenlonde dren Pe 50
“(do -sulphateat 80 ,, 43

Nitrogen.
4mmonic sulphate at

Sources of 95 per cent.. 20°30 N

Nitrogen } Sodic nitrate at 95 per cent. 15°72

( Potassicnitrate at95 =,,, =: 1300

| Lime.
Sources of | Calcic sulphate (burnt
Lime. gypsum) hy uf 39 CaO

Founded on this table, directions are given for the
ordering of manures, if, as is preferable, “noricultur ists
cannot mix for themselves. Appendix No. 3 gives
‘Practical instructions for the establishment of experi-
mentalfields and for the interpretation of their results.”

MR. HUGHES’ HANDBOOK OF CEYLON SOILS
AND MANURES.

Mr. Hughes’ remarks on iron in soils summarily
dispose of an idea propounded by Mr. W. P. Stephenson
at a recent meeting of the Planters’ Association of
Mysore that Hemileia vastatrix or ‘‘ red rust” was due
to an excess of iron in coffee soils, and that, moreover,
the iron is in a form deleterious to the coffee plant,
which having taken it into its system nolens volens,
makes use of the fungus to assist itin ridding itself of
the noxious element. No doubt iron in certain forms

SOILS AND MANURES. 207

s deleterious, and Mr. Hughes states the proposition
that generally the iron and alumina in a soil should
not, united, exceed 15 to 18 per cent ; but he makes an
exception in favour of peroxide of iron, the source of
the red colour of very fertile soils. This form of iron
combines with phosphoric acid,and is valuable as a fixer
of ammonia, and Mr. Hughes mentions the case of
a Ceylon soil of excellent quality, though ferruginous
to more than twice the extent deemed generally
desirable. We need scarcely remind our readers that
soils containinga good deal ofiron are specially fitted
for the growth of the tea plant. The value of peroxide
of iron in fixing ammonia is worthy of attention ; but Mr.
Hughes adheres to the conviction that, as a general rule,
the soils of the coffee districts, especially of the young
districts, do not so much need direct applications of
nitrogen or salts of potash, as their indirect applica-
tion in the shape of oil-cakes (especially white castor-
cake), and high class superphosphate and bones. Mr.
Hughes still insists, too, on the value of lime, forked
into the surface soil. He does not belong to the
school of ‘‘ Medico-Agri-Horticulturists” whose panacea
for all ills is the reversal of the positions of mellow
soil (down to 12 or 18 imehes from the surface), and
sour, inert sub-soil: sending the one down to feed the
taproots, and the other up to starve the feeding rootlets.

For the vast majority of the soils of Ceylon, Mr.
Hughes recommended and still recommends, not an
impossible and deleterious, if possible, bringing of
the subsoil to the surface, but the improvement of
the mechanical condition of the surface soil by fork-
ing lime into it to the depth of 12 or 15 inches, at
the rate of one-fourth to one-half ton per acre, foliow-
ing this up with cake containing nitrogen and potash
besides valuable mineral constituents, and with bones
and superphosphate, at rates varying with the condition
of the soil as indicated by analysis. While he recom-
mends the digging of the soil (not the subsoil) he re-
commends drainage and, where possible, terracing for
the retention of soil exposed to wash.

The following is of almost general application, only
that where nitrogen is abundant the cake may be
omitted :—

“lf cattle manure is available, the most economical
dressing will be a basket of dung and #4 |b. of slaked
lime per tree ; otherwise, a mixture of—

Per tree.
i lb. steamed bones (Leechman’s).
3 lb. rape or castor poonac (finely ground).
+ 1b. high-class superphosphate, 44 per cent of
soluble phosphate (Lawes’).

208 COFFEE ANALYSES.

Forking the surface and application of lime being carried
On as a separate operation.

‘‘As already frequently mentionedin my private re-
ports, it will be found more economical to apply small
dressings about every two years, than larger ones at
longer intervals.” ;

We regret that space will not permit the quotation
of what Mr. Hughes says about utilizing weeds by burn-
ing, or, better by converting them into comport, care
of course being taken that seeds do not germinate.
This is a subject of much importance for the considera-
tion of the planters. :

The section on the constituents of the fruit and leaves
of the coffee bush is most interesting and important,
shewing clearly how greatly the loss of leaves exhausts
a tree, but we must endeavour at a future time to deal
separately with this section, Suffice it now to say that
loss of leaves exhausts a tree even more than production
offruit. Withered leaves, therefore, should be collected,
and treated with lime asa compost. Incidentally Mr.
Hughes states :—

‘‘Hrom the analyses of the soils lately made, I should
consider it extremely probable that when the curing
operations are thoroughly mastered, Ceylon tea will be
distinguished for its fine flavour.”

With one more extract we, for the present, conclude
our notice of this valuable work :—

‘‘Asa suitablemanure to stimulate the tree suffering
from the Hemileia a mixture of white castor cake,
steamed bones, and superphosphate in equal parts and
about 2 lb. of the mixture per tree will be found gener-
ally an economical dressing, or 10 Ibs. of cattle dung
and i lb. of steamed bones. Fish manure of good
quality applied alone will also be a suitable restorative
application, as itcontains both nitrogen and phosphate
of lime in aform readily available as plant food. But
to apply any of these profitably, an improvement in
the price of coffee, as well as railway extension will be

necessary:

MR. HUGHES’ ANALYSES OF COFFEE, FRUIT
AND LEAVES, AND THE CONCLUSIONS
THEY LEAD TO AS REGARDS QUANTITY
AND QUALITY OF MANURE.

Even if not so utilized, not much ig lost, for Mr.
Hughes pronounces pulp to be far inferior to cattle
dng, which, as our readers are aware, consists’ of
a small proportion of valuable ingredients mixed with
80 per cent of -water. But the parchment skin goes

COFFEE ANALYSES AND MANURES. 209

to Colombo and is there used as a non-conducting sub-
stance for packing ice, but more generally as fuel for
the furnaces of the steam machinery in the ape
establishments. Unless in the shape of ashes adde
to composts this parchment skin never finds its way
back to the estate. Its importance in quantity may
_ be estimated from the fact, that, with all the drying
that can be given on estates, the proportion parch-
ment skin to clean coffee sent down by railway is,
in bulk, so large that it takes five bushels of parch-
ment coffee to give 1 cwt of clean bean. Better
resuits are occasionally obtained, 4? bushcls or even
44 yielding 1 cwt; but the average is as stated ; 60
bushels parchment coffee brought down by railway
are equivalent te 12 cwt. of clean beans. The parch-
ment skin, when divested of water, is a light sub-
stance when compared with coffee, and we have
not the exact figures for its weight as compared
with the bean it encircles, but our strong recollec-
tion is that 60 bushels of partially parchment coffee
go to a ton on the railway. If so the parchment
skin in every ton as it reaches the Colombo stores
is § cwt. to 12 cwt. of beans, or 2-5ths of the whole.
If, therefore, we were able (we wish we were) to
export 1,200,000 cwts of clean coffee, that would
mean the removal! from the estates of 2,000,000 cwts
of matter, in the shape of beans and parchment in-
cluding moisture. We wish Mr. Hughes had given
us the analysis of the parchment skin separately, as
he has done in the case of the pulp. Besides most
of the moisture being in the parchment skin it seems
obvious from its appearance (it is called ‘‘chaff” at
the curing mills) that it is largely siliceous in com-
position and does not, therefore, weight for weight,
deprive the soil of anything like the quantity of
valuable minera!-matter that the beans do. What
Mr. Hughes’ analysis enables us to institute is a
comparison between the constituents of 100 parts cf
parchment skin and bean combined (‘‘ parchment
coffee”) and those of 100 parts of clean beans. To
enable us to institute this comparison, let us first
quete the result of analysis of the ash of planta-
tion Ceylon coffee beans (not by Mr. Hughes). The
figures are :—

Potash = abet
Lime ; 4°}
Magnesia . 8°9
Oxide of iron 0°45
Sulphuric acid Bier
Phosphoric acid ... . 10°3
Chlorine Pe
Carbonic acid EES

210 COFFEE ANALYSES AND MANURES.

The ‘‘ Dominant element” indicated by the above is

certainly potash; carbonic acid (of no consequence,
however) coming second ; phosphoric acid third with
10°3 per cent against 55°1 of potash. Magnesia and
lime both show well, as does sulphuric acid; but
oxide of iron and chlorine are of little account. If
we went by this analysis alone we should use a
manure consisting of one-half at least of potash ; the
remaining half being made up wainly of calcic phos-
phate of magnesian lime in addition to nitrogen.
Turn we now to Mr. Hughes’ analysis of beaus and
parchment skin combined. Its history, as given by
the chemist himself, is as follows :—

‘*The following is an analysis of parchment coffee
which was obtained from some cherries sent me from
the district of Badulla. The amount of moisture pre-
sent is possibly high as compared with average estate
coffee received in Colombo, but on this point future
analyses must decide. The sample was very carefully
prepared, the beans being separated from the pulp,
allowed to remain in contact with water the necessary
time, well washed in fresh water, afterwards dried by
exposure to the sun, and the enclosed in a well-corked
bottle and shipped with the samples of soil. The
analysis is only a partial one as regards the proportions
of the different organic constituents. Sugar, albumen,
tannin, caffeine, cellulose, mucilage, &c., are included
under one heading. The separate determination of each
would be of interest in comparing different qualities
and varieties of coffee, but is not necessary for our
present purpose. The quantity of nitrogen contained
in the total organic portion has, however, been very
carefully determined, as well as the respective quantities
of the important mineral constituents. The analysis
has been made with a view of ascertaining to what
extent coffee exhausts the soil.

COMPOSITION OF PARCHMENT COFFEE FROM BADULLA,

Water wit sit ey op is. lara
Babine: ay oy ne ba ... L079
*Gum, Sugar, Tannin, Albumen, Caffeine,
Woody Fibre, &e. 4g At wee A242
+Mineral Matters (Ash) .. ae . 9°30
10,000
*Containing Nitrogen ae in 2) LAT
+Consisting of —
Potash ~.... ae va of .. 11349
Soda me ie is se .. ‘065
Lime it Ai ne By Reon) Hes):

Magnesia ... a Ae sh By ee be

|

COFFEE ANALYSES AND MANURES. 2I1

Phosphoric Acid... Ui 1 20) 26D
Sulpburic Acid ... o me i FON6
Carbonic Acid ... aes, asp Bi olooe
Chlorine ... ae see ie ee 028
Silica fT, Ae als uF Ae ODA
Oxide of Iron ... cS. as, wil OOS

3°300

‘- I will be noticed that there is nearly 11 per cent.
of fat and 15 per cent. of nitrogen present in every
100 parts by weight of this parchment coffee ; also that
in the ash constituents potash stands out very promi-
nently and that phosphoric acid exists in larger quantity
than either lime or magnesia.”

Mr. Hughes’ analysis gives the proportion of nitrogen
which is absent from the analysis of the ashes, already
quoted. The proportion of ashes in Mr. Hughes’
specimen was 3°30 out of 100 parts, of nearly 34 per
cent mineral matter. Of this mineral matter again, over
14 was potash, or more than one-half of the whole
instead of more than one-half in the analysis of clean
beans. Of the remainder, carbonic acid, phosphoric
acid magnesia, and lime, occupy much the same relative
position as in the old analysis of beans. The result
of the addition of the parchment skin seems to be
mainly to reduce the proportion of potash, but silicd
is not present in the quantity we should have expected
as a consequence. Then follows analysis of healthy
coffee leaves, regarding which Mr. Hughes writes :—

““Tt will be noticed that the nitrogen in these par-
tially-dried (sun-dried) coffee leaves amounts to 2°679
per cent. while the seed (commonly called bean) only
contains 1°470 per cent. Also that the leaves contain
2'078 potash and 352 phosphoric acid as against 1°342
potash and °260 phosphoric acid contained in the
parchment coffee. Hence if equal weights are taken
in each case, sun-dried leaves are more exhausting in
the important elements than ordinary parchment coffee,
Consequently it follows that exposure to wind tends to
exhaust the productive powers of an estate ina very
serious degree ; a fact which practical planters fully
recognise.”

Of course if exposure to wind exhausts an estate,
much more does leaf disease, and much more do the
two combined. We ought, therefore, to top low and
provide shelter on ‘“‘ blown” places, and use the lime
and sulphur remedy against leaf disease’ there and
everywhere. Mr Hughes gives figures for the weight
‘of healthy and diseased leaves, shewing that 10 dis-
eased leaves, in one case, weighed only 204 grains
against 275 for 10 healthy specimens. If a coffee tree

212 COFFEE ANALYSES AND MANURES.

loses 200 leaves per annum (2,000 have actually been
calculated), that would be, for an acre of 1,200 trees, -
a lb. Itis interesting to learn from Mr. Hughes
that :—

‘* Again in the analysis of coffee pulp wefound that
100 parts by weight of ripe cherries yielded 57°83
parts of beans (with mucilage attached) and 38°98 parts
of pulp, allowing 3:19 parts for water lost during
stripping.

‘** Further, I find by experiment that the above weight
of fresh damp beans, when properly washed and after-
wards sun-dried, gave 35°87 parts by weight of ordin-
ary parchment coffee as prepared on the estate.
Consequently 100 lb. of ripe cherries may be fairly
taken to represent in round numbers 36 lb. of parch-
ment, 39 lb. of pulp (natural state), and 25 Ib, of
water (with the saccharine mucilaginous coating origin- —
ally attached to the bean).”

Assuming the average yield of coffee per acre to be
a ove: (784 Ib.) of parchment, we should have 849 Ih.
of pulp.

With this estimate of a really good crop, according to
present circumstances we may proceed to ascertain,
with the aid of the analysis already furnished, what
are the proportions of the important elements removed
respectively by the seed. pulp, and leaf.

CONSTITUENTS REMOVED PER ACRE BY AN AVERAGE CROP
OF COFFEE, ASSUMING 7 CWT. OF PARCHMENT FROM
1,200 TREES.

Seed. | Pulp. ,Leaf.* (Lotal.

Par-

7 cwt. tially
Parch- eae dried. |W ght.
ment. |. “P |240000
leaves

lb. lb. lb. lb.

=784 |=849 |=247 |=1880

Wiater tai. 3 he ...,104°3 | 664°8} 24:0 | 793-1
Organic Matters ... ...,653°8 | 168°7| 204-2 | 1026-7
Mineral (Ash) Matters ...| 25°9 ) 15°5| 18°8 | 60:2
lb. 784:0 | 849-0) 247°0 | 1880-0

Containing Nitrogen...) 11°5 28} 66) 209

* Probably 200 leaves for each tree is much too low
an average, but the necessary connection can easily be
made for large trees having 1,000 to 2,000 leaves.

COFFEE ANALYSES AND MANURES. 213

Seed. | Pulp. | Leaf, | Total.

iPar-
7 ewt, tially
Parch- pie dried. Weht,
ment. uP 124000.
leaves
lb. lb. lb. lbs
—784 |—849 |—247

The Ash Consists of—

Potash jo: .: ac) LOG 75 lye, 23°
Soda ay, Sed “fy 3 t2 20
Lime id 1:5 4:2 Ge
_ Magnesia .. 7, son lak oes 4°3
Phosporic Acid . pal oF, y) 3°7
Sulphuric Acid . 6 5 6 Gy
Chlorine ... od 4 2 8
Oxides of Iron va 2, 2 Lek
Silica ne oy 6 1°6 2°9
Carbonic Acid aes 35 2°4 13:2
Ib. 25°97) 15:5. |_ 18'8 60:2

It will be seen that 60-2 lb of the ash of beans,
pulp and leaves, consisted of 23°3, or considerably
more than one-third of the whole of potash, with 3°7
only of phosphoric acid or 1 to 7 of potash; lime
ranging so high as 7°2 and magnesia at 4°3. Phos-
phoric acid is low in pulp and leaves, but lime is
high in both. Mr. Hughes states that the nitrogen
removed from an acre by a crop of 7 cwt. of coffee
would be 21 lb. which could be supplied by 300 Ib.
or + 1b. per tree of white castor cake. M. Ville would
differ from Mr. Hughes in saying that ‘“ practically,
therefore, at least the full amount of nitrogen removed
should be returned.” M, Ville considers one-half of
this substance sufficient, even in Europe, and, if the
principle is true, less than one-half ought to suffice
in this country of tropical rain. It is better, however,
fo err on the safe side.. White castor cake contains
most nitrogen in proportion to bulk and weight of
nitrogenous substances available, and so its use will
save carriage. Wereally come back to the old formula
of castor cake and bones, or better still castor cake,
and superphosphate, although probably a mixture of
steamed hones and superphosphate would be prefer-
able and more economical. Of course, if sufficient
cattle manure is available, the castor cake can be
dispensed with. In that case, the bones or superpios-

214. COFFEE ANALYSES AND MANURES.

phate or the bones and superphosphate can be added
to the cowdung. But what, all this time, about
potash, the dominant ingredient in all analyses of
coffee? Let us hear what the modern chemist says,
not only to correct our popular ideas, but also the
theory of the great Liebig :— ;

‘*Potash is by far the largestitem, there being 234
lbs. out of 60 Ibs of total ash, and if the mineral
theory of Liebig was to be followed, we should make
it the most important element in all coffee manures,
but I need not mention that this theory has been
found to be inconsistent with practical experience,
indeed its fallacy is now generally admitted, though
agriculturists must always feel grateful to the great
German chemist for having directed attention to the
composition of the ash of plants, and so opened up
a field for future scientific investigation into the general
composition of the organic as well as mineral con-
stituents of farm crops.

‘‘There are three important reasons why potash should
not be supplied in large quantities in coffee manures.

‘¢ Ist.—All potash salts, whether as nitrate, muriate,
carbonate or sulphate, are readily soluble in cold
water, and are therefore liable to be washed away
before they can be assimilated by the roots of the tree.

‘¢ 2nd.—Plants appear to possess the power of ab-
stracting potash from the soil itself to a much greater
extent than they do the other important mineral
elements.

‘‘ Thus an average crop of turnips, 17 tons per acre,
remove in the roots and leaf about 150 lbs, of potash,
74 Ibs of lime, 50 Ibs of sulphuric acid, and 53 lbs of
phosphoric acid, and yet the manures used do not
contain any appreciable quantity of potash, but consist
almost entirely of phosphate and sulphate of lime in
a condition readily soluable in water. I am referring
now to the artificial manufactured manures prepared
in thousands of tons every year, and which, under
the name of superphosphate and dissolved bones, are
the recognised fertilizers for turnips andswedes. In-
deed every district in England now has its own sulph-
uric acid and manure manufactory.

‘‘ $rd.—From my analysis of the ide silicates
(see Badulla and Haputale analysis) of good coffee
soils, there appears to be a practically inexhaustible
supply of potash, which will be rendered available for
plant food, as the soil becomes disintegrated or de-
composed by atmospheric influences.

‘“ For the above reasons, then, it will be dean
that potash salts when applied to coffee in Ceylon
should be employed in but small quantities, and should

COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION. 215

be always mixed with some more bulky manure. I
should consider 4 four per cent of potash the utmost
that a good coffee manure intended for Ceylon should
contain. On most estates itis not potash that is re-
quired by the soil, but a cheap source of bulky nitro-
genous manure (cattle dung, composts of pulp with
cake), and a moderate supply of phosphate and sulph-
ate of lime.”

We quite agree with Mr, Hughes in saying that
weeds ought to be utilized asmanure by being treated
with Jime. Plenty of lime being available, we hold
that one of the best modes of utilizing fallen leaves,
prunings and handlings, as well as weeds, would be the
system adopted for instance on Kandenewera planta-
tion, Elkaduwa, that of sweeping them round the roots
of the trees. The weeders, who at first objected to
this plan, now feel the advantages of it, and the bene-
fit to the trees, the roots of which never stand above
ground as is so generally the case on old estates, is
obvious. With fast-growing ‘‘ Kucalypti ” and other
trees available, we hold that Mr. Hughes took too
despondent a view of the possibility of combating
the effects of wind, while as regards wash its de-
structive effects can be largely obviated by a system
of deep drains, paths sloping inwards to the bank
with openings at proper intervals for the escape down-
wards of the accumulated rain water, and such terrac-
ing as is possible from the presence of suitable mate-
rials and at a reasonable expenditure. Much, too,-
might be done in the direction of ‘‘ hedges” say
of tea plants, along the underside of drains, and also
running across the faces of steep slopes, so as to inter-
cept and hold washed-down soil. On an estate in
which we are personally interested the drains have been
largely lined with tea plants, and when plenty of seed
is available, the scheme long contemplated, of closely
planted (one foot apart) hedges of the same plant, will
certainly be adopted. The soil caught by such hedges
can be subsequently placed round the coffee or other
trees cultivated. Already some of the benefits of the
hedge system are attained by the planting of tea and
cinchonas so closely as 3x3, while the now common
practice ofjplanting cinchonas amongst coffee will ultim-
ately do much to obviate wash. A letter by Colonel
Money (author of the Prize Essay on Tea Cultivation)
in the Indian Tea Gazette speaks with approval of a
mode of cultivation adopted on a tea estate in Java,
the property of a Mr. Hobhouse, and which is thus de-
scribed:— ;

‘*The plants are put in 4x 2,—four feet of course be-
tween the rows, and two feet between the plants. Each

216 COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION,

line is therefore a continuous tea hedge, In the extract
given above itis recommended to place the lines ‘‘dia-
gonally across the hill, so that the slope along the lines
shall be a roderate one,” but they do not follow out
this plan in Java. They run the lines there right a-
cross the slope of the hill, I believe the diagonal plan
isthe better, but the measures they take to prevent
the wash do away with the objection.

‘‘Between the lines, 4 feet apart from centre to centre,
holes are dug two feet long, one foot wide, and 15
inches deep. In the spaces or rows above and below,
the said holes are opposite the sound portions. Do
you understand ? Every third row has the holes op-
posite the first: those of the second and fourth like-
wise agree. Thus, whatever wash there is must be
caught by the holes, if not in the row where it ac-
cumulates, in the second, and necessarily no injury
from the wash can take place. The earth taken out
of the said holes is piled up, loose, between the
holes.

*¢ Asan extra precaution (because with heavy rain the
holes fill and overflow), catch-water drains are dug dia-
gonally across the hill, 30 or 40 yards apart.

‘¢ Pwice a year the holes are filled up, and new holes
are made in the in the intervenning spaces, so that virtu-
ally the whole of the soil between the tea hedges is
stirred and opened out twice a year. The same thing
is done, where the land is flat, or nearly so; only
there, as there can be no wash, the catch-water drains
are omitted.

‘‘ The advantages claimed for the plan are threefold.
First: no injury from wash can take place, inasmuch
as the soil is not washed down the hill and the roots
of the plants thereby laid bare. Secondly : the man-
ure supplied is kept on or near the spot where it is
laid, and sinking with the water into the holes, is
brought into connection withthe roots of the bushes,
Thirdly : the whole of the soil, to the unusual depth
of 18 inches, being twice a year, exposed to the action
of the sun and air isa most efficient mode of cultiva-
tion,— may be styled, indeed, ‘ air manuring,’ and tends
to heavy flushes.

‘“‘The plan, as described, is followed out exactly as de-
tailed by the largest, and on dit the best tea planter
in Java. He has, in his several gardens, about 1,000
-acres under tea; and if ‘‘ the tree is known by its
fruit,” the modus operandi, to be judged of by its
result, we must conclude his system is a good one.
From his 1,000 acres he manufactures and sends to
the London market, in round numbers, eighty thousand
pounds of tea: ten maunds tea per acre,—a result not
yet achieved in India?

COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION. 217

**TIn the above is fact, and I have no reason to doubt
it (for the information has been supplied to me by
a relative who has been staying with him the said
relative having tea of his own in India, and having
for his own sake looked closely into the matter), it
is certainly woth the while of Indian planters, at all
events, to test the plan on a small area, and judge for
themselves.

«<The system is however not a new one,—at least to
“me. I remember years ago, when I first went into
tea in Kumaon, precisely the same thing was done
on a plantation there, named, if [ remember right,
the ‘ Lohba Garden,’ owned by a Captain Cumber-
Jand, since dead. I had a sloping garden in those
days, and I did not adopt it. Perhaps I was wrong,
Any how, it would be interesting to know if the
practice has been continued at ‘Lohba’ (I believe
the garden exists: still,) and what are the results. It
is in this way, hearing what all have to say, we
may all learn. The produce per acre at Lohba I
forget, but the teas 1 remember were very good.

““T have never thought 10 maunds per acre as aitall
impossible. It has already, I know, been done on
parts of gardens in India, but on the whole of alarge
garden, never yet. I hope to accomplish in on the
gardens, I work, as they are in a favourable tea
locality, but they are young yet. This, merely to
show that to my mind there is nothing improbable
in ten maunds to the acre, off even one thousand
acres.

“*T hear the said Java planter manures liberally also;
but that he does not believe in chemical manures, for
he holds their effect is not lasting, but uses animal
manure and vegetable manure, weeds, &c, &c.,
alone. To manure, doubtless, he owes a part of his
success.”’

They have one advantage in Java we have not in
TIndia. They can, and do pick thereall the year round
and of course to this also, in a measure, is due the
large yield mentioned. They being able to do this is due
of course to the Java climate,—no cold weather to speak
of I suppose. Still, I had thought the tea plant re-
quired a period of rest, to hybernate ; is not that the
word? But I suppose I was wrong.

“*One or twomore words as to the Java system in
other respects.

“The weeds are all pulled up by the hand, and
thrown into the nearest holes, where they le and.
‘rot, and are eventually buried when the hole is
filled up.

“The tea plants are pruned and kept very low never

S$

218 COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION.

allowed to exceed two feet in height. This is as all
your readers know, considerably less in height than we
allow the bushes to attain in India.

‘* Every 40 days they pick what they call a ‘ Big
Flush,’ but even that they only take the bud and
the two leaves below it. Twenty days after each
big flush they take what they designate a ‘ Small
Flush ’ and at this time they only pick the top leaves
of any shoots which, from their small size, had escaped
when the big flush was taken.

“Thus, in the year,nine large and nine small flushes are
picked— 18 flushes in all.

‘** Like the Indian planter, his Java brother calculates
four pounds of green leaf make pound of tea.

“* This finishes my description, butI will add a few
words as to the peculiarities and merits of the systems
set out above.

** Why is the liquor of allJava teas undeniably weak?
Of course I cannot answer this query. It may be
due to faulty manufacture (though they certainly
excel wonderfully in ‘ make’); or, can it bedue to the
fact that the trees are picked all the year round—
get no resting period ? Ask for opinions on this head
from your readers, if perchance, any of them have Java
experience.

‘In India, in forcing tea climates, I have known 28
to 30 flushes per annum, against the Java 18. In In-
dia we generally take more than ‘the bud and two
leaves,’ and anyhow we take at least this every flush.
So much would argue a smaller produce per acre than
is usual in India, and the one fact which would argue
a larger, viz., that they pick the whole year, is neutral-
ised when we consider the total number of flushes,—
in their case 18 in 12 months; in ours, above 25 in
nine months ! :

“* To what then is their large produce due? I cannot
doubt,—I never did doubt,—that even on flat land
the whole cultivation system, as described, must be
very efficient, and tend to large produce. The ques-
tion is, how far labour for it would be available for —
us in India; and secondly, how far the increased
produce woold pay for the increased cost of labour ?
Anyhow, as I said before, it is a thing to be tried.
I shall try it on a small area of each of the gardens
I work next year; and I advise your readers to do
the same. If several do so, and all make known to you
our experience, we shall arrive at trustworthy conclu-
sions.

‘* But the Java facts puzzle me. If the large produce
is due to improved cultivation (whether heavy and
special manuring the hole system, or whatever may

COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION. 219

be comprised therein) how it is that the flushes are
not more frequent? In other words, how is it that
from 18 flushes they get nearly double as much tea
as we do, as a rule, in India from 25 and upwards ?
Can it be due to the hedge system of planting ad-
opted, and the consequently larger number of plants
in an acre? Fourxfour (perhaps the most general
mode in India) gives 2,722 plants, and four xtwo
(the Java system) would give just double, viz., 5,444
bushes. I have always looked with favour on the
hedge system, though never bold enough to adopt it.
There is much to be said for and against it (more
than I have room to say here, for it would be enough
for a whole letter: Iwill say it all ere long), but I
think, the ‘for’ preponderates.

As, supposing the facts correct, and that from 18
flusbes they get more than we do from say 25, not-
withstanding a lighter system pf picking, (to which
latter the Java tea bears evidence) itis plain that each
plant of their larger number, must, at each flush give
as much, if not more, leaf than the fewer plants we
have to pick. Now, the leaf producing area of plants
two feet apart in the lines, cannot be so large as that
of plants four feet apart. In other words, each bush
is smaller. The equal, if not larger produce, then,
from each individual plant must be due to its flinging
out a larger number of shoots on each square foot of
the leaf producing area, and this I hold can only be
caused by the stimulus the bush has received from
high cultivation of one kind or other.

_ Still, as I said, I am puzzled; for high cultiva-
tion produces frequent flushes, and this they lack
in Java. :

‘‘T maylearnmore later, and if I do you shall
have it. In the meantime I invite, and hope you
will, discuss.

“TI think it better while the subject, owing to my last
letter, is fresh in your readers’ minds, to discuss the
advisability ot ‘Tea Hedges,’—that is, of tea planted
two feet apart in the lines,—which system, as I ex-
plained and dilated on in my last communication, is
followed out in Java.

**In no work on tea that I have seen is this point
fully gone into. I give you here an extract, however
which refers more or less to it. I quite agree with
the opinions here expressed.:—

‘* ‘Four feet is, I think, the best distance between
the line.*

** ‘lt gives space fenough for air to cultivate, and

* | think 43 feet on flat land.—K. M.

.

220 COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION.

to pass along, even when the trees are full grown.

‘¢«Where manure is obtainable, and the soil can be-
kept up to a rich state by yearly applications a.
garden can scarcely be planted too close.

““*T see no objection to trees touching each other
in the lines, and advise therefore, 3 or 34 feet there,
——the former where the soil can be _ periodically
manured.

‘¢‘On considerable slopes, to prevent the wash of soil’
the plants should be placed as close as_ possible,—say
34 between, and 2 feet in, the lines.

‘*<A closely planted garden will grow less weeds.
than a widely planted one, and will consequently
be cheaper to work.

‘““Asthe expenditure on a garden is in direct pro-
portion to the area, and the yield in direct proportion
to the number of plants, (always supposing there is
power enough in the soil to support them), it follows
that a closely planted garden ‘‘ must” be very mueh,
more profitable than the reverse.’

“‘T have often in India discussed the subject of Hedge.
Planting’ (that is of plants placed so close together
in the line that they will form a continuous hedge,
like a quickest hedge) with other planters. All such.
discussions have been thoretical, for on no planta-
tion in India have I seen the plan carried out. I
have always been in favour of the system, though I
admit I have never been bold enough to reduee.
it to practice. Now, however, after the figures as to.
produce in Java given you in my last, I taink it
very necessary to say what Ican about it, and invite.
the opinion of others. :

“ The objection against the plan advanced by its op--
ponents are: 1.—The bushes so close together in the.
lines (say two feet apart) have not room to develop,
and consequently ‘ cannot’ giveas much leaf as plants.
further apart. 2.---That the tea shrub requires sun and’
air, and that, placed thus close to each other, they
‘only get this on ‘two’ sides. 3.—That the roots run
into each other, and occupy the same soil, and thus
each individual plant only receives a moiety of the.
nurishment is is entitled to. 4.—That the leaf pick-
ing area of each bush is diminished ; for joining each
other as they do only two sides and the top are.
available. I know of no objections, besides these,
which can be advanced against the system.

“‘ Werethe object to produce the largest quantity
of leaf per plant, the above objections would all be.
sound, and fatal to the system under discussion.
But it is not so. The result sought is the largest:
quantity of leaf obtainable if per any given area, say-

COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION. 223

per acre: so let us see, now, if what is set out above
us really a hindrance to this.

“Objection 1. Admitted that plants thus close cannot
sdevelop as well as they would if further apart. But
the smaller plants, on any given area, may, never-
“theless, give more leaf for that area.

“* Objections 2 and 3. Same may be said in reply to
these. The bushes will be smaller, but the leaf per
area may be more.

** Objection 4. I incline to the belief that, as the
plant is prevented sending out new shoots on two
sides, it will give birth on the other two sides and
top (available) to all the new shoots the constitution
of the bush inclines it to produce. In other words,
the shoots which would otherwise have been deve-
Joped on the four sides and the top, will in this
case be all produced on the top and two sides. Fur-
ther, in answer to the cbjection that the leaf pro-
ducing area is smaller, I admit of course it is so per
plant, but the continuous wall-like two sides, and the
continuous table-like top, produced by the Hedge
system, would give, I think, a really larger leaf-pro-
ducing surface per acre.

“‘ That each plant, owing to its proximity to others,
cannot be cultivated all round, that is, that the soil
“cannot be opened out and stirred all round, is another
argument against the plan of hedge planting. It is,
however, only partially true. Thougn the soil cannot
be dug between the plants in the lines, it can be
more or less stirred with weeding hand-forks, while
the absence of weeds between the plants in the lines, due
to the complete shade, makes cultivation less necessary.

** Talso believe that, in the hedge system, the larger
number of roots and rootlets would be thrown out by
each plant on the two free sides, and consequently
‘the nourishment would principally be drawn from the
soil. which could be thoroughly cultivated.

“ All the above pros and cons apply both to fiat and
sloping land, but in the latter the resistance the
bushes, thus closely planted, give to ‘‘the wash” ig
an extra advantage.”

We have given these long extracts in full, because
the climates of Ceylon and Java areso much alike, that
what applies to the island of Indian Archipelago must
be largely true of our own Indian island. Our readers

are aware that the complaint regarding Ceylon teas,
equally with Java ones, is want of strength, and it
‘will be of interest and importance to know if absence
‘of a pronounced winter is, as Col. Money surmises,
the cause. Because, if so, measures may be possible
‘which will counteract the disadvantage, a disadvant-

9929 COFFEE AND TEA CULTIVATION.

age which, it is obvious, will less attach to estates
at a very high elevation than to those lower down.
The Java scheme of catchment and renovation holes
is, as Col. Money correctly points out, not new. A
diagram which the printers can easily manage to
represent will make the system clearer :—

EE fogs Glee Expl bagel ase elk 1)

eo eS ee

If the ubiquitous scribe, who finds ‘‘my scheme”’
in every possible form of ‘‘agri-horticulture” pro-
posed, claims this also, then we at once say, that
the gentleman in Java makes holes to deposit weeds
in and to catch soil. It has never occurred to him
to place the trees themselves in water holes, or to
encompass them with walls of circumvallation so as
to ensure wet feet. Besides which, the question of
cost and benefit in proportion to that cost are, as
stated by Col. Money, questions for consideration.
We know that many planters in Ceylon object to
weed holes on estates, that, in very heavy rain-storms,
the weeds and their seeds are washed out and spread
by the overflowing water. But, the holes aside, we
submit the hedge system as a good and in many cases
the only possible mode of terracing. A better plant
than tea might, perhaps, be adopted on coffee planta-
tions, but in the case of tea estates there is the
advantage of having one homogeneous product. Our
own idea is that, on very elevated estates, the plan
of planting 3x3, and having hedges of bushes only
one foot apart at intervals across the faces of steeps,
is preferable. But the Java scheme makes every cross-
row 4 hedge or terrace. On an estate in the Darjiling
district we saw tea planted, the rows 3 feet apart
with the bushes only 1 foot apart in the rows. Our
companion on the occasion, Mr. Gammie, objected
that the roots would crowd each other. On the other
hand, we may repeat that on the celebrated Datoorieh
estate, the property of Colonel Fyers and Dr. Brougham,
we were told the very largest return of tea for area
was obtained from trees which had been allowed to
grow up in a nursery. The bushes, packed closely
together, were pigmies, compared to old trees which

THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB, 223

had been planted 8x8; but, as we have said, the
returns of tea from the closely-planted bushes exceeded
that from any equal area on the property. We have,
therefore, reason for advocating close planting in the
case of tea, while in that of cinchonas, especially
0. officinalis, close planting provides for casualties at
all ages. With plenty of gum-trees, cinchonas and
tea bushes, coffee estates could be scored with rows
which would act both as terraces and breakwinds
combined. We are speaking now, of course, of high
and exposed estates, so numerous in Ceylon. Holes
and catchwater drains are, no doubt, useful expedi-
‘ents on steep sloping lands, but they are costly and
difficult of upkeep. Whether they are adopted or
not, we feel safe in recommending far closer planting
-of tea to a lesser extent of coffee, than on comparat-
ively level land, land which, by the way, is not the
‘most suitable for cinchonas. But it is not merely flat
land or very exposed land on which they fail. On
certain portions of a hill-side they will flourish: in
other parts large patches refuse to grow or gradually
die off. Wash, wind and soil are no doubt each re-
sponsible, but we seem to have yet a good deal to
learn regarding the fever-trees and their likes and
dislikes. That the Java tea planter should prefer
cattle dung and rotted weeds to artificial manures,
shews how unsettled opinions are, or rather how
largely they are influenced by local circumstances. As
regards the low topping of the Java trees, we suspect
this fact and the smallness of the beautifully curled
tea leaves which we have seen and admired, without
admiring the taste of the ‘‘liquor,” are explained by
the other fact that the “‘jat” cultivated in Java is
pure China. The digression regarding tea cultivation,
though perfectly germane to the subject of our arti-
ele, for most of the principles which apply to the one
cultivation apply also to the other, has so lengthened
our remarks that we must defer the discussion of
Mr. Hughes’ analyses of coffee fruit and leaves and
the results they point to, for another occasion.

THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB.
(From Ictters and ariicles in the ** Ceylon Observer.’’)

A local planter, who is the last man to look only at
one side of a picture, told me that ten years ago when
entering on the coffee enterprise he estimated a return
of 6 cwts. per acre at least, after making allowance for
all possible adverse contingencies! He could not fortell
the appearance and disastrous influence of white grubs

' 224 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB,

and the leaf fungus; but neither did he anticipate the
largely compensating increase of prices which has taken
place. But for this, where should we be? In my own
- case, having ‘‘ done my duty by the land ” in the shape
of forking, liming and manuring, my return for the
season now closing will be somewhat less than what I -
got three years ago from a bearing acreage less, prob-
ably, by one-fourth. I am comforted by being again
told to look out for the grand results of ‘‘ next year,”
the show of bearing wood being all that could be wished.
As my experience 1s only too general, it is interesting to
trace, if possible, the exact cause. My inclination is to
say ‘‘ Mainly the weakening influence of hemileia
- vastatrix.” 1tappeared on the plants in my first nursery
in 1872 and blackened off the ends of the primaries of
my finest plants in 1874 and 1875. Since then it has
only occasionally displayed itself obviously to the out-
ward senses, but it has been ‘‘all there” all the time
at its vampire-like work. Passing by a most destructive
visitation of rats, in which whole primaries and whole
plants were cut down as with a sharp knife, I may say
that grubs have only recently reached me, and I cannot
join some neighbours in violating chronology as well as
science by asserting that grub is the cause of leaf
disease! Tenterden steeple and Goodwin Sands are
surely more intimately connected. It would, in my
opinion, be as scientifically logical to say that the leaf
fungus had by a process of evolution generated grubs,—
the worthy progeny of the cursed (cursory remarks must
really be excused) cockchafers. Consulting ‘‘ experienced
and intelligent planters” has the same effect as going
out into the smoke which is drifting down from the
patanas. I heard the groans with which the Dimbula
planters greeted Mr. Cantlay’s plea for the grubs :—
** Did ever any gentleman see a grub with a coffee root
in its mouth ?”. The question was literally yelled down.
But lo ! here comes Friend Dixou laden with Science and
armed with an all-revealing microscope, and he pro-
nounces the cockchafer’s grub to be as much a friend to
the planters as he desires to be himself! His theory
was stated to me in the keen cold of this morning, and
Irepeated it subsequently in the blazing sunlight toa
planter who was guiding and encouraging some scores of
coolies in cutting a road through my best coffee and my .
finest seed-bearing tea bushes and cinchonas. He
took up a coffee-root from which a mamoty had scraped
off the bark, and he said, in answer to my question as
to the inability of coffee bushes to ripen their crop,
“The main cause,” he said, ‘‘ is certainly grub ; for I
have taken up trees which were destitute of feeding
rootlets and the large roots of which were bare like that,”

THE ENEMIES OF COFFRE :—WHITE GRUB, 225.

pointing to the scraped coffee root. ‘‘ Ah!’ was our:
response, ‘‘ your illustration would be accepted by Mr.
Dixon as a strong support to his theory, which is that
the real enemy of the planters is a fungus which destroys
the feeding rootlets, and also barks the woody roots,
while the grub comes as the planters’ friend to feed on
the fungus.” I told the tale of Mr. Dixon’s theory as
it was told tome, but (holding myself open to convic-
tion) with no more inclination fully to accept it than
. the opposite theory that grub is responsible not cnly for
the destruction of the feeding rootlets, but for the loss
‘of the leaves, on the cellular tissues (the very life-blood
of the coffee-plant) of which hemileia vastatrix feeds.
Does Mr. Dixon mean to affirm, that he has found a
destructive fungus on every uprooted tree which his
planter-friends supposed to have suffered simply from
grubs? and does he deny that the progeny of the cock-
chafer feeds on healthy living tissues? Going on my
own experience of the termites which build their nests
in cinnamon bushes in Colombo without ever injuring -
the living branches (devouring only dead or dying
matter), I could not understand the stress laid by Indian
tea-planters on the removal of all dead timber from their
land, lest the ‘‘ white-ants” migrate from the dead.
timber trees to feed on the living tea-bushes. What
my experience led me to doubt, 1 was compelled to
believe on the universal testimony of the tea-planters,
who affirm that white-ants wt// attack and destroy per- -
fectly healthy living tea-plants. There is also the case
of the phylloxera and the vine, and the worse one of
the grasshoppers in America, who, after eating the plants
of a tobacco field, arrange themselves on the fences and
squirt tobacco juice at the unfortunate farmer! Ido
not doubt the prevalence of and the mischief occasioned
by subterranean fungi, but surely the growth of such
vegetation is not copious enough to supply food to the
millions of grubs which are found in the soil round
‘*shuck”’ coffee trees? My inclination, as at present in-
formed, is to believe, that leaf disease takes priority of
grub both in time and power for mischief. There were
giubs before the era of leaf disease, no doubt, as there
were generals before Agamemnon. But the creatures
were few and far between and were mischievous only on
isolated spots. They did not in the days of old sweep .
over whole valleys as they have done from the mouth
of the Nanuoya in Dimbula to the topmost cultivation
in this district. If weare to say that the one pest pre-
disposes to the others, then I think we are rather
justified in saying that the debilitating influence of leaf
disease (added to abnormal seasons) has encouraged
attacks of grubs and root fungi, than in stating the

226 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB.

converse of the proposition by giving the bad eminence:
either to root fungus or root grubs. Is it not the fact
that trees are just as much ‘‘shuck” and crops as sadly
short in districts where hemileia vastatrix ALONE is de-.
structively and debilitatingly prevalent, asin districts,
where the triad of plagues,—leaf fungus, root fungus
aad white grub—is rampant or at least regnant? We
shall be all glad to hear what Mr. Dixon has to say as.
to the origin of the evil days on which the coffee bush
has fallen. As Dr. Parr said of the origin of abstract
evil in the universe, we may safely assume ‘‘ there:
was no good about it.” A still more important question
to be answered is, ‘‘ What is the remedy?” or ‘‘What
are the remedies?’ Almost everything has been tried
(in isolated experiments), from the mineral oils of Phil-.
adelphia to the sulphur of Sicily, from the lime of the
coral reef of the ocean to that of the dolomitic
mountain rocks. What are we to persevere with or in
what direction is the treatment to be changed? This
we know, that the prominent symptom of the patient
is debility, and that the prominent cause isan EXTERNAL.
affection. Tonics are good, but they alone are not
usually supposed to be sufficient to cure irritating skin
disease.

I asked planters at the Dimbula meeting if they
agreed with Mr. Grigson as to the injury inflicted
not only directly by the grubs but indirectly by the
frequent digging rendered necessary by the presence and
ravages of the insects, and they replied that they did so.
agree. Now if sourness of soil and the presence of
fungi had been the main sources of mischief, how came.
frequent digging to do harm instead of good? If alse.
the soil is permeated by fungi and has always been
so permeated, how came it that estates in Dimbula,
notably Maria, gave, grand crops while fungi, the ene-
mies alone, were present, but commenced a career of
decadence the moment the planter’s friends and the
enewnies of the fungi, viz., the grubs, made their ap-
pearance? If itis affirmed that the sourness and the
presence of destructive fungi did not originally exist,”
but have supervened on cultivation which included
drainage of the soil as well as manuring, then I can
only say that my commonsense is shocked and offended,
and that I refuse to believe the statement until proof
irrefragable is adduced. As to deep tillage, —tillage
indeed which can scarcely be called deep,—see what
so shrewd and experienced a planter as Mr. James
Taylor wrote to the editor of the Indian Tea Gazette. |
Mr. Taylor hoed some of his tea Indian fashion, only 15.
inches deep, with the result of killing a good propor-

‘THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB, 227

‘tion of the bushes: from the injury done to their
feeding rootlets, no doubt. If we have much to learn
so have our teachers. ‘To announce an infallible panacea
while condemning all that honest and intelligent men
have done in the past, is surely to give occasion for
the charge of empiricism. Mr. Dixon, we feel assured,
is not the man so to speak. That sourness of soil
and subterranean fungi are great enemies to coffee
culture, we do not require proof: we have long been
assured of the fact. But we can no more believe that
cockchafer grubs are friends and not enemies of the
coffee plant, finding their food (legions of them as
there are) in such fungi as can flourish underground,
than we can accept the other doctrine, held by some,
that grubs and root fungi are the originators of the
enormously more mischievous and deadly aerial fungus,
Aemileia vastatriz. Willing to accept all the light which
scientific research can yield, we can but say that, as
yet, while willing to believe that soil sournes:, and
underground fungi, are great evils, we hold that they
are, as enemies of the coffee tree, isolated and insigni-
ficant, when compared with the grubs which feed
on the roots and the external fungus which destroys
the leaves of the plant. And we take our stand on
the assertion that those two destructive enemies of
the coffee plant have increased and multiplied, not
because the planters of Ceylon ‘‘have hitherto fol-
lowed a barbarous system unaided by the lights of
scientific researches,” but because of laws, for some
mysterious but ultimataly wise purpose stamped on
nature by its CREATOR. Our wisdom is to unite in
fighting our common enemies, instead of indulging in
mutual recriminations, or hugging the belief that ‘‘ we
are the men and wisdom will die with us.”

THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST COCKCHAFERS
AND GRUBS.

Minutes of the meeting of the sub-committee of the
Maskeliya Planters’ Association appointed to enquire
into the best methods to adopt for the destruction of
the cockchafers and their larve; held at the Forres
bungalow, 7th January 1880. Present :—Messrs. R. A.
Crabbe, H. G. Mackenzie, J. R. Hood, W. J. New-
ington, and W. Jardine, After some preliminary dis-
cussion the following were suggested as likely to be
of use :—

I. Catching the beetles at night. It is pretty well
known that the cockchafers are active only during the
might ;— where they hide away in the day-time is a

“228 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB.

problem—-they come out at night, and, after sporting
about for an hour or so, settle down to feed; they are
partial to the leaves of jack, plantain, and many kinds of
_jungle trees, but jack is their especial favorite. Where-
ever trees other than coffee and cinchona are grow-
ing on an estate that has had a visitation of grub,
they should be examined (after 8 p.m.), and if the
beetles are found on them they should be shaken off
into a large cloth spread for that purpose; this plan
had been tried by one of the committee with success.
Tt was suggested that if the beetles feed on jungle
trees, as no doubt they do on some kinds, what would
be the benefit of catching those that feed on the trees
growing in estates, as a swarm from the jungle trees
‘would come down and deposit their eggs in the more
warm and congenial soil of the estates. This, how-
ever, is only a surmise, and should not prevent the
attempt to destroy those we can; and as every female
lays from 30 to 50 eggs, the gain would b2 immense
if the hundreds of thousands of beetles that are to
be found from February to April could be got rid of.
II. Water and a floating lght. One of the com-
mittee said that he had hung a lighted lantern on a
pole, for two nights, in the centre of a dam, and that
the only catch was ten rhinceros beetles; he had also
put a basin of water and a light over it, within a few
yards of a tree where the cackchafers were flying about
in hundreds, and and only caught five in three hours ;
this certainly was not encouraging and did n't pay for
“the candle. This plan might answer on open pataunas ;
but it was thought not lkely to succeed in the coffee.
The sense of the meeting was, however, in favour
of applyimg some substance or substances to the ground, .
that by its smell or poisonous properties would be
distasteful or destructive to insect life; and if of a
manurial nature so much the better. Amongst others,
‘lime and sulphur,” ‘‘ gas lime,” ‘‘ sulphate of copper,”
and, as suggested by Mr. Agar, ‘‘ corrosive sublimate,”’
were mentioned as worth a trial. The distance that
water would often have to be carried, and the large
quantity that would have to be used, might prevent
the ‘‘ sulphate of copper” and ‘‘ corrosive sublimate ”’
being much used; but in favourable localities they
should receive a fair trial. The Committee regret they
are unable to suggest any other or more effective means,
but would strongly urge upon all who can do so, the
trying of one or other of these proposed remedies, as
may best suit their circumstances. It was mooted by
some that grub never attacked the same portions of an
estate, or even the same estate two years in succession ;
how far this is true we know not, but if there is truth

THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE: -—WHITE GRUB. 229

in it, it has consolation for those already afflicted ; and
conveys & warning message to those yet more fortunate,
not to stand idly by, but to have their eyes open, lest
the enemy come upon thew unawares.

WILLIAM JARDINE,

Secretary of Committee.

———

GRUB AND THE COFFEE TREE.

Mr. Dixon does not hold that the white grub con-
fines itself to feeding on a fungus growing on the
roots of the coffee tree, or that it abstains from
attacking the rootlets themselves; but he does hold
that they only attack weakly diseased trees, roots, or
rootlets, which have already begun to suffer from other
causes such as fungoid growths, sour soil, or bad
tillage. Our correspondent ‘‘ Planter” and other writers
will be interested to learn that Mr. Dixon disposes
of the difficulty about the ‘‘mandibles” very readily
by pointing out as a scientific naturalist that the
mandibles have very little to do with the feeding
qualifications of the grub: they are fingers for hold-
ing, rather than teeth and jaws for grinding and masti:
cating. A provision for the latteris made quite inde-
pendently of the mandibles in the grub. We are, of
course, bound to listen with respect to the results
of Mr. Dixon’s observations so far as they extend,
chiefly in the Kotagaloya valley and along the sides
of Great Western in Dimbula, and to conclude that,
where he found grub in this quarter on or near to the
coffee, there existed evidence to his mind of the trees
suffering from other causes. We understand that he
found the same grub luxuriating in old decaying forest
trees and stump;, or in banks in which no coffee grow,
results which he will no doubt adduce in support of
his theory. But at the same time he has unquestion-
ably a great deal of experience and observation to
combat and overcome before he convinces the Ceylon
planting community that the white grub does no harm
to healthy well cultivated coffee trees. We have al-
ready quoted Mr. Nietner’s description and remarks,
and he was a planter of exceptional experience and
fairly good powers of observation as well as:an entomo-
logist. We may repeat the note which he added in
1872 to the second eddition of his pamphlet on “ The |
Enemies of Coffee Tree” to shew what he had to say
from personal observation :—

*‘Note in 1872—Since writing my first note, I have
seen a good deal of the ravages of the White Grub.
On an estate in my neighbourhood a gang of coolies

T

230 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB.

was employed to dig them out of the ground (for they
are always near the surface at the end of the feeding
rootlets) which they did at the rate of about a quarter of
a bushel per man per day ! Still that Coffee recovered..
However, in otner cases (on some estates in Dimbula) I
have seen the coffee killed wholesale, —and magnificent
old treestoo. Butthe most glaring instance of the de-
structiveness of these insects that was brought under my
notice was on an estate in Nillembe. The work had
been going on for years, the grubs making their way
from one end of the property towards the other devour-
ing everything before them, at the rate of about eight
or nine acres per annum! Young trees and old, manured
or unmanured, good soil or bad—all was the same to
them. Lime, salt, carbolic acid and other remedies were
tried, but without effect, [ believe, Fair Coffee being
worth about £40 per acre, this was rather aserious case.
—The large white grub has just completely destroyed a
Pine-apple bed of mine without touching a single one of
the surrounding Coffee-trees.”

We can only now wait for Mr. Dixon’s observations
ani report He will no doubt have some interesting
facts to bring before us. There are some very curious
circumstances which have long puzzled planters about
the attacks of grub. At one time it was thought proxi-
mity to patana rendered an estate liable to attacks, and
certainly this has proved to be the case in several in-
stances ; but in Maskeliya on the other hand, where
many plantations have severely suffered, there are no
patanas, while in the districts north of Kandy where
patanas abound—the Knuckles, Kelebokka, and Ran-
gala, for instance—white grub has scarcely ever been
heard of. In Nilambe and Ramboda grub was at one
time very bad, according to Nietner, but Wavendon,
which Mr. J. L. Gordon reported to have been greatly
affected, has survived the attacks and is one of the finest
old properties in theeountry, It seems to us therefore
that, before a couclusive report can be drawn up, the
experience of the majority of districts and planters
ought to be taken into account, but Mr. Dixon’s observa-
tions will be valuable as a contribution even if hereafter
sufficient reason to adduced for overturning his main
conclusion.

WHITE GRUB.
Mr. A. C. Drxon’s OBSERVATIONS.

There appears to have been some misunderstanding
respecting my opinions of the white grub. I suppose my
ideas have passed from one to another, and at length .
become greatly modified after the fashion of a certain

THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB. 231

game where a sentence is whispered and passed along
from one to another in quick succession.

The larva or grub is very different in structure and
mode of life from the perfect insect. As such it grows
to its full size without any notable change and without
developing wings, and then passes as a pupa into a rest-
ing state, anchoring itself firmly by means of its mandi-
bles during which stage the wings are developed and it
takes up the adult or imago form.

Now what I maintain respecting this grub is as follows,
and I can prove that it holds good in the district where
I made my observations. The chief food of the grub is
not the healthy rootlets of the coffee tree, but those
rootlets after having been rendered suitable and palat-
able by the ravages of a fungus, the mycelia of which in
many cases are visible to the eye and which permeate the
tissues of the root. This fungus I have observed on
making sections of the roots in various stages of its life.

Some have supposed that I said the grub lived on this
fungus alone and they might well ask the question where
could the grubs obtain sufficient food. After the root-
lets are diseased the grubs devour the dainty morsels
and. leave the roots bare and polished, I do not assert
that the fungus never appears without the doctor grub:
in fact the grub is no doctor at all; he is rather a
scavenger removing the diseased organic matter as
rapidly as he is able ; but when such fungi and diseased
tissues are in abundance there is every inducement held
out to the cockchafer to deposit its eggs, for then the
offspring when hatched will be well provided for.

In reply to another gentleman, the grub may be
noticed travelling downwards to the extreme rootlets,
for such being the most delieate will be liable to be
attacked first, the rest following in due course.

As to the cause of this fungus, I am convinced that
in the districts I visited, Ythanside and estates sur-
rounding, itis due to various circumstances, such as
decaying stumps on their journey back to the place from
whence they came—to sourness of soil—to stagnation
giving rise to growths of low vegetable types, none more
common than the liverwort, and what can be more indic-
ative of excessive moisture and acidity ?

When the grub is found around healthy trees, which
one planter suggested was against my theory, I observed
they were after rotting bulky manure deposited to holes
and other decaying matter.

As a rule I do not believe that the larve of the
coleoptera live on healthy tissues of plants but on those
already attacked by disease. That the beetles, the or-
- ganization of which is different, prey on healthy tissues
is well-known. One gentleman asks why such powerful

232 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB.

mandibles are present on these creatures. Mandibles
are often prehensile. Look, for instance, at the power-
ful ones of the crab and other crustaceans, and although
nature has admirably adapted the organs of all creatures
for their purposes, yet we have numerous organizations
that are as yet a riddle to us. For example, why do
many crustaceans feed on decaying food and are yet.
provided with hard chitinous bars in their alimentary
system to masticate food.

As for the grub being a friend of the planter, I said
it was so in a certain sense, and never thought for a.
moment that anybody would try to encourage it. Just
as a watch is a useful instrument to denote time, so the
grub is an index to point out to the planter that there
isa something radically wrong. Ifsuch soil be attended
to there will be no need to catch the cockchafers unless
indeed you do it by the million as suggested and then
dry them as a feeding material for stock kept here or
export them as is done from Germany for the same
purpose. It is well known that dried cockchafers form
an. excellent food material. Here is a comparison with
rape cake and coconut cake, estimated by Dr. Emil
Wolff of Hohenheim :—

Coconut Rape Dried
Cake. Cake. Cock-

chafers..
Water a ei Be us IAF | 15:0 13°5
Ash oH Lt Pa ip 74 67
Organic matter... ear aii Oi 7a)
Albumenoids ne Ls At Oe at 30°3 555
Crude Fibre vee ae WAG 13°8 13°9

Extractive matter ; free
from Nitrogen ... 34-4 23°8

Fat &e. eee a ln) fo) 95 10°9

ae Houmiens!\* Eo 24°2 38°0
Nouristns } Carbohydrates 303 183 9 —
Pere at le Sak, eatin
Comparative value : )

coconut cake being unity § ae a mae

That the beetles contain a considerable proportion of
phosphates there is no doubt, and we need not be sur-
prised when we know that they feed on leaves which
contain the life blood of the plant. If we could not
utilize the creatures caught on the large scale as food
material they might be turned to account as manure, or
the grubs would do very well to feed pigs, or perhaps the
beetles might be of use to extract a useful coloring
matter therefrom. For any such purposes it might be
well to declare war against them.

J never advocated the grub as a suitable companion.
for the coffee tree, but feel convinced, in spite of what

THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB. 233

has been written or said formerly, that if on estates I
observed either Colombo coral lime or dolomitic lime of
the country be applied and the soil well forked the
grub will assurely be diminished.

The worst of the so-called grubbed patches of coffee
which I observed were not by any means the places
where grub could be found in greatest abundance. I
found them in larger proportion on several non-grubbed
patches preying on rotting litter, decaying stumps and
logs.

‘hat the grub may be found with rootlets in its man-
dibles, [ admit : such is the case prior to its transforma-
tion; and with regard to grubs eating healthy coffee
roots. I do not doubt itif caged along withthem and
no other food to be had.

It is well known that one of the breeding grounds and
favourite resorts of the grub arethe ‘‘ patanas.” Now
I have not visited many of those interesting places, but
on those I have seen the coffee trees on the margin
seemed none the worse for their proximity. Nowii the
cockchafers thought that healthy rootlets were suitable
food for their offspring, we should have found them
there of course. I am aware that coffee adjacent to
patanas in some parts has suffered, but on examination
I am of opinion that there is an inducing cause.

Perhaps the soil may be very peculiar where I have
made my observations, and, should I ever visit other
districts, I may have occasion to modify some of my
opinions, but Dimbula is not the only district I have
visited and observed.

I cannot help thinking that if the rootlets of the coffee
tree—the caterers of food for the maintenance of the
plant—be afflicted with the fungi, that deterioration of
tissues entering into its build must follow more especially
in the leaves, where the food is elaborated which the
rootlets have gathered. I am glad to learn that another
gentleman who proposed some questions thinks that
commonsense and the eyes nature has given are all-sujfi-
cient ; why then ask questions? science can be no good
to such a one.

I should be sorry to retard planters in carrying out
any of their schemes for the suppression of grub. There
is nothing like experience even although it may be very
dearly bought. I quite understand its value, as I had
much to do with practical agriculture in England for
many years. I hope that before planters condemn or
favour my opinions they will give the matter their
thoughtful consideration, noting the presence of sur-
roundings of patches attacked by grubs with regard to
shelter, food, agricultural conditions, such as drainage,
nature of soil, nature of manures, state of weather &c.,

234 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB.

and not jump at conclusions hastily as has been and is
still the case with the theory of the ‘‘ incompatibles,”
sulphur and lime which ean do no great good save the
introduction of lime compounds to estates in a very
costly manner. With respect to black grub and other
noxious insects, I do not offer any opinion at present.

ALEX. C. DIXON.

THE GRUB QUESTION: A PLANTER WHO IS
NO SCIENTIST ARGUES FOR NO DELAYS
IN DESTROYING THE WHITE GRUB,
AS THE ENEMY OF COFFEE.

In Packard’s ‘‘ Study of Insects,” p. 454, I find this
note on the subject :—‘‘ Melolontha and its allies feed
exclusively on living plants.” From Louis Figuier’s
‘¢ Insect World,” pp. 438 to 450, I make the following
extracts ;—‘‘ For the first year the larve do not eat
much. They feed then principally on fragments of dung
and on vegetable detritus, and keep together in families.
Next spring the want of a greater abundance of food
forces them to disperse : they begin attacking the roots
wnich they find within their reach. The ravages they
occasion are incalculable : market gardens are sometimes
entirely devastated. Fields of lucerne have been seen
partially destroyed by them; meadows of great extent
jose their pasturage: oat fields die off before they come
to maturity.”

‘Jn proportion as they increase in age and strength,
especially in their last year, do they attack also ligneous
vegetation. When they have gnawed away the lateral
roots of a young tree, the new roots corresponding to
them dry up. ‘The larve then attack the principal root,
and thus bring about the death of the tree.”

With these facts before him, will Mr. Dixon any
longer ask us to give the matter our thoughtful con-
sideration, though sorry to retard the carrying out of
schemes for the suppression of grub ?

NO DELAY.

AN OLD PLANTER ON HIS CAMPAIGN
AGAINST COCKCHAFERS AND HIS
REMEDY POR GRUB.

Maskeliya, 23rd Feb. 1880.
Dear S1r,—Coming up from the store a few even-
ings ago at about 6 o'clock, Iwas quite surprised at the
number of beetles flying about in the coffee. 1 caught
a few and found them to be the cockchafer. Thinking

THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB, 235

that where they were so numerous they might possibly
feed on the coffee, I went out after dinner and examin-
ed the coffee bushes, but could not find a single beetle.
I then went up to a road lined with cinchona trees,
and on looking at these saw the enemy quietly enjoying
their tonic supper ; every tree had its share : some more
and some less. Cortinuing my walk I went down to
the site of an old set of lines where there are a few jack
trees; and these were simply swarming with beetles.
On holding up the lantern I carried they dropped down
in great numbers, but none were attracted to the light :
in fact fire does not draw them, for some large piles of
timber, that were being burnt for the ashes, were in
full blaze within 20 yards of this tree, and 50 yards of
two others, and the beetles did not seem to notice it ;
and the men watching the fires said that none had
flown about near them. This I think should prevent
any person trying floating lights ; for if a bonfire won’t
attract them it is not likely that a little twinkling
light will. Feeling convinced that there was no time
to waste in trying to catch and destroy the beetles,
I next day sent for 60 yards of cotton cloth: this I had
made into sheets 15 feet square ; but, in order to admit
of its having the tree in the centre when passed under
it, the centre seam is left open for half the way down,
the open ends are passed round the trunk of the tree
till brought up by the fork; they are then tied with
strings, already fixed, like those attached to a pillow-
case, thus making a complete surface of sheet equi-
distant all round the tree (if the spread of your trees
is more than 15 feet, your sheets must be large, in fact
to the full spread of the branches, as the beetles feed
on the outer edges of the trees). Your sheets being
spread, one cooly holds each of the four corners. A
coolie gets in close to the stem, which he can do
through the ties in the centre seam, and, if the tree is
small, shakes ‘it, or if too large he mounts into the
branches, and shakes each one separately; this will
cause all the beetles in the tree to fall into the sheet,
the corners of which if raised and shaken causes the
beetles to fall towards the centre, when they can be
taken up by the hand and put intoa bag. The sheet
is then untied and taken to the next tree, where the
same process is gone through; the whole process does
not take more than five or six minutes. My first
night’s catch with one sheet for about five hours was
10,400 beetles, and the following night, on aneighbour’s
estate where I went to illustrate the method, over 9,000
were caught in two hours, and more the following
night. This will give some idea of their numbers, IL
have tried to explain my way of catching them, and

236 THE ENEMIES OF COFFEE :—WHITE GRUB,

if any one can suggest a simpler I am ready to try it.
1 fully agree with a neighbour who has some 300 jack
trees, who proposes lopping the branches of two-thirds
of them, leaving only one-third with the leaves ; he
will thus concentrate the devouring armies, and be able
to have all the trees shaken each night. I cannot
follow those who wish to cut down all trees on the
estates, giving as a reason that if the beetles have
nothing to feed upon they must go somewhere else or
perish. Nofear of the latter, I fancy, as their tastes
seem very varied. This question, as also that of the
beetles feeding in the jungles and coming down to the
estates to lay their eggs, requires more observation,
and I won’t venture an opinion upon it; but, whether
‘they do or donot, I intend to kill allI can! and I
wish I could persuade others to do the same. You
perceive I do not enter into the question of the grubs
eating the rootlets of the coffee trees: I am fully con-
vinced that they do, both sound and unsound; at the
same time I am as fully persuaded that close draining
and thorough forking of the soil with, if possible,
unslaked lime applied after, is the best remedy for the
grub, besides all other advantages derived by the trees
from the improvement to the soil. ie
W. J.

NITRATE OF SODA A CURE FOR WHITE
GRUB) Save

A proprietor of plantations in Ceylon resident in the
old country favours us with the following bit of experi—
ence, which he thinks may be of service to planters,
troubled with grub :—

I had a kitchen garden two acres in extent, and I was
told that it was impossible to grow carrots in it, on
account of the ‘‘ wire-worm.” I tried to grow them in
different parts of it, but failed ; as soon as the carrots
formed roots, they were perforated and of course died.
I tried many remedies, such as quantities of salt, * hot ’
‘lime from the kiln, &c., but all in vain; at last I was
compelled to grow my house carrots in the field with
the other roots, such as mangolds, turnips, &e. Some
years afterwards I was told that nitrate of soda would
banish the wire-worm, I therefore tried on half an acre,
ploughing and harrowing the ground and sowing on it
by hand broad-cast three-quarters of a cwt. of the
nitrate of soda. Three weeks after, I sowed the carrots
in drill with manure and I had a splendid crop xoét one
of them touched by the wire-worm. Nitrate of soda is a
good manure and cost about 17s. per cwt. I believe it
may be got cheaper now.

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 237

Colombo, 8th March, 1880.

Srr,—In the ‘‘ Journal of the Chemical Society ” for
February, among the extracts from foreign journals,
there are a few that should interest an agricultural
community.

‘‘Experiments on the Manuring of Barley, by P.
Wagner and W. John (Bied. Centr. 1879). The soil in
which these experiments were carried out was a sand
containing 14 per cent of humus, the phosphate being
applied in the following experiments one day before, and
the nitrogen (in the form of Chili saltpetre) the day after
sowing. The following table shows the quantities of
manure applied per hectare and the yield obtained.” I
may mention that a hectare is equal to 2°47 acres and a
kilogramme to 2°2 lb.

Corn. Straw.

kilos. kilos.

(1) Unmanured... w- 4420 3770

(2) 20 kilos nitrogen »-- O200 4890
(3) 50 kilos soluble phosphoric

acid... ae ... 4570 4490
(4) 50 kilos soluble phosphoric

acid with 20 kilos nitrogen... 5320 4920

(5) 50 kilos phosphoric acid
in the form of freshly precipitated
phosphate of lime and 20 kilos
nitrogen... Me: ... 5600 5110
(6) 50 kilos soluble with 43
kilos insoluble phosphoric acid in
form of phosphorite with 20 kilos
nitrogen... ae pas SHAY, 5370
(7) 35 kilos soluble and 30 kilos
insoluble phosphoric acid as above,
with 20 kilos nitrogen ... 5660 5350
(8) 50 kilos soluble phosphoric
acid in form of phosphate of potash
with 20 kilos nitrogen... nOlTO 6500
Turning to Johnstone and Cameron, we find that barley,
_ the subject of the foregoing experiments, contains the
following ash constituents per 100 parts :—

Barley grain Barley Straw.
with husk.
Potash... oe 21°28 sss ae 19°32
Lime ... ay 2°40 oe my] 7°00
Phosphoric acid 33°17 Nice atid 4°83

Barley seed contains 14 per cent of nitrogen.

The abstracter goes on :—‘‘It is evident from the above
experiments that although the soluble phosphoric acid
yielded poor result, the use. of saltpetre proved very
advantageous. The reason of this may be looked for in
the fact that the soil was so very poor in lime, as not

238 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS.

to be able to arrest the phosphoric acid during its per-
colation through the soil after rains, thus only a small
quantity of itcame into actual contact with the roots of
the barley.” In Ceylon soils, oxide of iron would arrest
the phosphoric acid. ‘‘ This of oourse was different in
the cases of experiments (5) (6) and (7) where part
at least of the phosphoric acid was supplied in the
insoluble form, and larger yields were the result.
With regard to experiment (8) the authors do not ex-
plain whether the remarkable yield obtained was the
result of the way in which the phosphoric acid was com-
bined or of the presence of potash”: the latter I should
think.

‘‘ Manuring £xperiments with Oats. By C. Jenssen
(Bied. Centr. 1879). A field was marked off into eleven
plots of 975 square metres each ; of these, two were not
manured, the remaining nine being treated with quan-
tities of manures of various sorts equal in value com-
mercially. The table following shows the various
manures used and the resulting produce :—

‘Quantity applied per Hectare Grains. Straw. Chaff.

Kilos. Kilos. Kilos. Kilos.

Chili Saltpetre ... son BLD 201 268 29
Unmaxured ae eo 151 190 18.
Bone Meal a pe. WeZS 181 227 21
Bone Meal Superphosphate 25 173-216 21
Ammoniacal Superphosphate 22 Ae OD 20
Peru Guano if ot. SENG 181 209 17

Unmanured ae LB oes 168 194 16
Bone Guano Superphosphate 31 194 242 17
Animal, Manure ... Le TES 172 2s 18

Stable Dung hie ... 1100: 194 233 23
Mejellon Guano Superphos-
phate 29°5 170 =200 14

‘‘The above table shows that Chili saltpetre, and next
to it, stable dung and bone guano superphosphate, pro-
duced the best yields. Further researches are necessary
to establish any conclusions from the above.”

** Absorptive Power of Soil Constituents for Gases.
By G. Ammon (Bied. Centr. 1879). The substances used
in these experiments were sand, kaolin, carbonate of
lime, hydrated oxide of iron, gypsum, clay, and humus,
all powdered to various degrees of fineness. The author
tried the effect of aqueous vapor and ammonia on these
substances at various. temperatures; his experiments.
shewing that the most favourable temperature for absorp-
tion lay between 0° and 10° c.: and that the quantity
absorbed varied directly with the finenesss to which the:
substance had been powdered.

‘* The following are the numbers obtained, 100 cubic:
centimetres of each substance being used, and the water
being calculated by volume in state of gas.”

AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTS. 239

I only give the results of the experiments at the two
highest temperatures, as these come nearest to the Ceylon
temperatures.

‘“Cubie centimetres of water vapour condensed by
100 c.c. of

At Humus. Hydrated oxide ofiron. Quartz.

20°c (68°F) 26,789 98,990 277
-30°c (86°F) 16,497 54,753 99
Carbonate of Lime, Kaolin.
962 1,541
233 i eap.”

From these figures it is easy to see how valuable oxide
of iron and humus must be in our Ceylon soils to enable
them to resist drought.

“Of ammonia gas 0°c. the following quantities were
absorbed :—

By humus. By hydrated oxide of iron. By Quartz.

29,517 38, 992 938
By carbonate of lime. By Kaolin.
.002

having been made at the freezing temperature the ab-
sorptive powers of all are of course greatly higher than
at temperatures prevailing in Ceylon.

**To show the influence of oxide of iron on the ab-
sorption of nitrogen by the soil, the author made the
following determinations, in which ferruginous sand and
clay, and the same substances freed from iron are com-
pared in their absorptive power for nitrogen.

100 c.c. of sand containing iron absorbed 217 c.c. nitrogen.
do pure a 101 c.c.

. 100 c.c. of kaolin containing iron,, 1,687 c.c. a
do pure se 846 c.0. a

In the absorption of the oxygen, gypsum stands higher
than oxide of iron and next to it for the condensation
of nitrogen.

T trust the forgoing may be of interest to some of
your readers. M. G

SHINGLING.

Not one half the persons who lay shingles when
making a roof on a building have any correct ideas —
in regard to making a roof that will be absolutely rain-
tight during a driving storm of rain. We have fre-
quently seen men shingling, who, when they would
meet with a worthless shingle, say once in laying two
or three courses, would lay this poor shingle among the
good ones, saying, ‘‘Itis only one poor shingle, one
shingle cannot make a poor roof.” But one poor

240 SHINGLING.

shingle will make a leaky one. If first-rate shingles
are employed, and one poor one is worked in among
every 100, that roof might about as well have been
without any shingles. If any poor shingles are to be
used, let them all be laid together near the upper part
of the roof. The best of shingles will not make a tight
roof if they are not properly laid, while the same shing-
les would make an excellent roof if laid as shingles
should be laid. :

The correct rule for laying shingles of any length,
in order to form a roof leak-tight, is to lay the courses
less than one third the length of the shortest shingles.
For example, when shingles are 18 inches long, many
of them will not be more than 17 inches in length.
Therefore five inches is all that the course will bear
to be laid to the weather with surety of forming a
good roof. The shingles must be three thicknesses
over the entire roof. If they are not three thicknesses
—if now and then a shingles lack a quarter or half
an inch of baing long enough to make three thick-
nesses—there will in all probability be a leaky place
in the roof at such a point. Moreover, when the lower
courses lack half an inch of extending up far enough
to receive the rain from the outermost course, in
case the middle course were removed, it would be just
as well to lay them seven or eight inches to the
weather as to lay them only five, or five and a-half,
inches. Many shingles are only 16 inches long, and
many that are sold for 16 inches long will hardly
measure 15 inches. In this case—if the roof be rather
flat, say about one quarter pitch—four and a-half
inches is as far as they should be laid to the weather.
In case a roof were quite steep it might answer to lay
the courses four and three-quarter inches to the weather.

When buildings are erected by the job, proprietors
should give their personal attention to this subject.
and see that jobbers do not lay the courses a half
inch too far to the weather.

There is another important consideration which is
too frequently overlooked in shingling, which is break
ing joints. Careless workmen will often break joints
within half an inch of each other, when the joints
of the different courses come so close together, the
roof will most certainly leak. Why should it not?
There is nothing to prevent it during a heavy rain.
Unless a roof is steeper than a quarter pitch much
care should be taken to break joints not less than
one and a-quarter inches. Let all workmen and help-
ers be taught the vast importance of rejecting every
poor shingle, except when the upper courses are being

laid.—Canadian Mechanics’ Magaatne.

TREATMENT OF LIBERIAN COFFEE, 944

LAND SUITABLE FOR COFFEE.

Shortly, it may be stated that as a general rule
the best zone of latitude for coffee is 150 on each
side of the Equator ; of altitude from 3,000 to 4,500
feet. The deeper, freer and richer the soil is the better.
It should be specially tested for phosphoric acid and
potash. The latter will be in abundance if large
forest is felled and burnt grass land must be very
exceptionally good to grow coffee at all. An eastern
or south-eastern exposure is good, but not always
essential, Shelter from tearing wind, however, is of
the utmost importance, and in windy situations should
be secured either by leaving belts or planting fast
growing Australian trees. I have done both on my
high windy estate. A mean temperature between 65°
and 70° or 73°, is desirable from 70 to 150 (100 best)
inches of rain, well distributed,

RULES FOR THE TREATMENT, OF LIBERIAN
COFFEE.

Obtain good fresh seed.

Build a shed that will admit light and air, but exclude
sun and rain.

Prepare a compost, of equal proportions of loam, sand,
and well rotted cowshed manure, and lay it in beds four
inches deep in the shed, smooth the surface and lay the
seed down, two to three inches apart, and cover with
coir dust, or well rotted cinnamon scrapings, or, in the
absence of either, with fine sand, ia no case putting
more of the covering matter than is necessary to exclude
light from the seed.

4,

Put into a tub, holding from twenty to twenty-five
gallons of water, one quart of quicklime, and a wine-
glass of kerosine oil; stir the mixture, well and give the
beds, through a watering-pan with a fine rose, just as
much as will settle them, and repeat the operation as
often ag may be necessary to keep the suriace moist.
With this treatment of fresh and sound seed, the plants
will begin to appear about the twentyfifth day.

5

As goon as alithe plants in a bed have thrown off the
parchment husk, and fairly expanded the seed leaves,
they may be transplanted into bambu baskets, nine
inches deep, and six inches wide at the top (which I get

U

242 TREATMENT OF LIBERIAN COFFEE,

made for R10 per 1,000*). The baskets should be filled
with the same compost as the beds, with a little more
loam and a little less manure. They should be kept in
the shed and regularly watered for ten days, after which
they may exposed be to the morning sun, and taken in
as soon as the leaves show any symptoms of drooping,
but they may be left outsice entirely as soon as they can
stand the sun without drooping.
6

The plants may be put out in the field when they have
three pairs of leaves, but, of course, at the proper season,
during the first rains of the monsoon. Theadvantage of
the baskets are that they present little obstruction to
the spread of the roots, and will be rotten thoroughly
in a few months ; the plants never feel that they have
been removed, or have their growth stopped for a day,
saving thereby laborious shading, and a greater or less
“percentage of loss, according to the circumstances of the
season.

The size of the holes may be a matter of taste, but my
opinion is, that they can hardly be too big ; a good prac-
tical size, however, is two feet cubic, which, filled with
surface soil, gives the plant 13°$24 cubic inches of the
richest material the land afford, to forage in, before
forced into it is greater effort, for the purpose of pene-
trating the regions beyonds, whereas an eighteen inch
hole only gives 5°832 inches.

As we have not yet learned what the lateral expansion
of a full-grown tree may be, we cannot decide the proper
distance apart : ten feet ought to be enough, if allowed
to carry out their natural vertical developement, but if
topped at seven feet it appears to me that ten feet may
be ultimately found too close. It is clearly the nature
of the tree to throw out no branches till it reaches a
height of from two to three feet, and the tendency to
grow suckers from every part of the main stem is much
greater than in the case of the Arabian species, and,
what is more, I have found it very seriously resent
their removal. We will no doubt gather experience
as we proceed, but for the present we, of necessity,
work a good deal in the dark.

K. L. C. B.

* Up-country planters pay R15 per 1,000 for plant
baskets, —COMPILERS.

sober so

Tia