Library
of the
University of Toronto
*
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2018 with funding from
University of Toronto
https://archive.org/details/commonshellsofse00wood_0
Plate VIII
THE
COMMON SHELLS
OF THE
SEA-SHORE.
BY THE
REV. J. G. WOOD, M.A., F.L.S.
AUTHOR OF THE “ILLUSTRATED NATURAL HISTORY,”
COMMON OBJECTS OF THE SEA-SHORE,” “ MY FEATHERED FRIENDS,”
ETC., ETC.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY G. B. SOWERBY.
SECOND EDITION.
LONDON:
FREDERICK WARNE AND CO.
BEDFORD STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
1866.
-
PREFACE.
There are many amusements for the wanderer by the sea¬
shore, and one of the most popular recreations is the search
after Shells, whether their empty valves are picked up from
the shore, or whether they are sought in a living state, so that
the animal can be examined as well as the wondrous home in
which it lives.
None but those who have given a little time to shell-hunting,
can conceive the multitude of species which are discovered
when practice has sharpened the eyes. But although it is com¬
paratively easy to find shells, it is not so easy to identify them ;
and to gather together a quantity of shells which cannot be
named, and about which the collector knows nothing, is an un¬
profitable and uninteresting task. Therefore it often happens
that the once-zealous shell-hunter gradually flags in his labours,
and at last ceases from them altogether, for lack of a simple
and easily understood guide to the subject. This want I have
endeavoured to supply, remembering my own feelings when I
first began to wander about the sea-shore. Here is a little work
which may be carried in the pocket, ready for immediate refer¬
ence ; the crabbed scientific words have been replaced by them
corresponding English synonyms ; and the book is so copiously
illustrated, that it is impossible to find a shell which cannot be
identified by reference to the engravings.
All the shells which are commonly picked up on the beach,
or can be gathered at low- water, are figured ; and in case the
reader may be disposed — as I trust he may be — to pursue his
researches further by means of the dredge, the trawl, or the
drag, figures are given of all those shells which he is sure to
find, and of nearly all those which he is likely to find. In order
to assist the student still further, separate figures are given of
the distinguishing marks by which one group of shells is known
from another ; and wherever any remarkable but minute cha¬
racteristics exist, whether in the shell or the animal, they are
drawn on a magnified scale.
Another advantage is, that the student is taught where to
find the various species that are described. If he will look at
IV
PREFACE.
the twelve Plates, and compare with them the printed descrip¬
tion, he will see at a glance the scientific name of the shell,
together with the locality in which it is found.
Knowing that many persons have been discouraged at the
very outset, by reason of the crabbed and often barbarous
names by which the various species are known in the scientific
world, I have given their popular titles whenever they exist,
and when that is not the case I have supplied them, as has
been done by entomologists with the multitudinous moths and
butterflies of England. Whenever the name has been one
easily remembered, and one that already exists, such as Venus,
Astarte, Leda, and so forth, I have retained it ; but when we
come to such names as Scrobicularia, Chemnitzia, Terebratula,
Xylophaga, etc., I have substituted for them certain English
names which express some characteristic of the shell or its in¬
habitant, and in many cases have simply translated the Greek
and Latin words into our own language.
The reader perhaps may be surprised, on looking over the
list of Plates, to see that some of the shells are marked as
inhabitants of fresh water, and a few of the land. But, on
pern sing the work, he will see that a slight mention of such
shells is useful in order to preserve the necessary gradation
from one group to another. Indeed, there are many shells
that cannot be classed either as inhabitants of the fresh or salt
water, because they seem to thrive indifferently in either the
one or the other.
Let me strongly recommend the intending shell-hunter to
read through the work before he begins his task, and then to
set to work systematically. Let him give one day, for example,
to the sands, another to the rocks, another to the sea-weeds
which growT between high and low water, another to mud, and
so forth. Let him always, if possible, procure the living ani¬
mal with the shell, and keep it for a time in sea- water, so as to
watch its habits ; always taking care to make notes in ink , and
to sketch anything that may strike the eye. Four or five weeks
thus spent will impart a vast fund of knowledge ; and when
the shell-hunter returns home, he may go with profit and plea¬
sure to those elaborate scientific works which would only have
repelled him before. To such works this little book will act as
a guide ; and I cannot do better than recommend the four
beautiful volumes of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley, whose arrange¬
ment I have followed throughout, and in which will be found a
mass of information which is necessarily excluded from so small
a work as the present.
THE
COMMON SHELLS
OF
THE SEA- SHORE,
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION — SEMI-HOLLUKCS — THE TUNICATES — TVUT SO CALLED —
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE TUNICATES — ASCIDIAN3 — THEIR APPEAK-
AN CE AND LOCALITY — THE BOTRYLLUS, AND ITS STRUCTURE — WHERE IT
IS TO BE FOUND — THE PEROPHOBA, ITS GENERAL APPEARANCE — THE
ASCIDIADJJ, OR SKA-SQUIRTS: WHY SO CALLED — CURIOUS IDEAS OF THE
SAILORS — PRACTICAL JOKES — THE SIPHONS — ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
AN ASCIDIAN — HOW TO DISSECT TnB ANIMALS — EGGS AND BUDS— THE
CYNTHIA, ITS APPEARANCE AND LOCALITY — ASC1DIA MENTULA, THE
LARGEST KNOWN SPECIES; ITS SHAPE AND SIZE — THE PELONEA — ORIGIN
OF ITS NAME — HABITS OF THE PELONEA — MODIFICATION OF STRUCTURE —
ZOOLOGICAL VALUE OF THE PELONEA.
Although this work is entitled “ The Common Shells
of the Sea- Shore,” it necessarily embraces several
species of molluscs which do not secrete shells at all,
and which are clothed simply by their membrane, or
by a tough, leathery envelope. These animals must
be introduced, because a knowledge of their structure
is needed, in order that the shell-making molluscs may
be properly understood ; but they will only be men¬
tioned for that purpose, and any description of them
will be curtailed as far as possible. We will begin at
. the beofinnin".
o o
There is a large group of molluscs which are appropri¬
ately called Tunicata, because their bodies are wrapped
in a tunic, or envelope, instead of being protected by
a shell. This tunic has always an inlet and an outlet,
B
2
ASCIDIAN8.
sometimes at one end of the body, and sometimes one
at each end. They are not pretty, and they are not
conspicuous ; but they occur in great profusion, so
that everyone who has used a trawl or a dredge, or
has examined the shore at low-water, must have had
his attention drawn towards them. Many species in¬
habit our coasts, and one or two of the most plentiful
are figured in the illustration.
They have no head, and no limbs, and, as is often
the case with marine animals, they pass through a
kind of metamorphosis, so that their lowest form is
as unlike their perfect shape as the caterpillar is unlike
the butterfly. Sometimes they are separate animals,
and sometimes they are attached to each other ; while
there are instances, such as the Salpce, where they are
single and combined in alternate generations.
The first example on our list is a creature well
known to zoologists, and not unfamiliar to the sea¬
side wanderer, provided that the latter can make use
of his hands and eyes. Adhering to the heavy masses
of sea- weed, fixed to stones and empty shells, or spread
over the interior of rocky holes, may be seen certain
gelatinous masses that are called by various popular
names, such as sponges and sea-jellies. They are of
various sizes and various colours. Some project boldly
like sea-anemones, some are spread upon the sup¬
porting substance like jelly, and others are formed into
regular patterns, mostly of a star or leaf shape. Some
are olive green, some are orange, some yellow, and
some of a bluish hue.
These curious objects belong to the great group of
Tunicata, and are called Ascidians, from the Greek
word Ascos, which signifies a pouch made of skin.
They furthermore belong to that family of the group
which is called Botryllidce, or Grape-animals, because
they consist of a number of individuals connected
together like grapes upon a bunch.
Of these, one of the best known and most typical
SEA-GRAPES.
3
examples is that which is given in the illustration
(Plate I., fig. 1), and it is technically named Botrylhis
polycyclus. Both of these terms arc of Greek origin,
and are peculiarly appropriate ; the first signifying a
bunch of grapes, and the other being formed of two
words which signify “ many-circled.”
This species is easily recognisable by its form,
although it varies in colour, being sometimes blue
and sometimes purple. As may be seen by reference
to the illustration, the individuals are united by a
jelly-like substance, which forms a thin, semi-trans¬
parent crust upon the sea- weed or other object on
which it rests. These beautiful star-like objects are
common on nearly every part of our coast, and may
generally be found on the great tangle-weeds, over
the fronds of which they form masses of several inches
in diameter.
At fig. 3 of the same plate is drawn another species,
in order to show a different method of uniting the
individuals. In the previous species the individuals
are set upon a common gelatinous incrustation, but in
the Peropiiora they are at some distance from each
other, and united by a delicate thread, which is, in
fact, a modification of the “tunic” common to all the
individuals. Though a very small species, it is rather
pretty, the individuals being transparent as jelly, and
dotted with orange and brown, and the uniting thread
being pure lustrous white. Delicate as is this thread,
the blood circulates through it, so that the nourish¬
ment which is taken by any individual is equally bene¬
ficial to the whole community.
When taken, they should be at once placed in a
shallow vessel of sea- water, and left in perfect quietude
for some little time, in order that the systematic con¬
traction and extension of the central orifice may be
noted.
We now come to a more advanced and more inte¬
resting group of these semi-molluscs, called the Asci-
diada:. Their name is very appropriate, for they look
4
fishermen’s notions.
exactly like tlie skin-bottles which are so common in
.Eastern countries. They are very prevalent in the
mouths of rivers, especially if the ground be muddy,
and are sometimes so plentiful as to become a serious
annoyance to the professional fisherman. When
trawling in the Medway and Thames, I have often
known the net to be so filled with these curious crea¬
tures that it could not be lifted out of the water, and
the sailors were obliged to hang over the side of the
vessel and throw out the unwelcome guests, before they
•could bring the pocket of the trawl on board. They
•look wronderfully like white hothouse grapes, being
partly transparent and of a very similar colour to the
iruit. The fishermen have an odd notion that these
•animals are merely congealed sea-water, and assert
that the beams of the summer sun congeal the water,
while the cold voather of winter dissolves them again.
O
Thev exist m large masses, a vast number of indi-
viduals being grouped together; and v7hen handled,
they eject so violently the water with wrhich they are
filled, that they have well earned the name of Sea-
squirts. I have often seen a novice in such matters
drenched in a moment, by inadvertently taking up a
mass of these animals which had been purposely laid in
his way. In order that their structure may be known,
an illustration is given explanatory of their formation.
In Cut 1 are three figures, which will explain the
particular conformation of these remarkable creatures.
At fig. 3 are shown three perfect individuals, as they
STRUCTURE OF THE SEA-GRAPES. 5
appear when fastened to a stone or shell. They are
bag-like in form, and have two very distinct apertures-,
called “ siphons,” through the upper of which the
water continually passes into the interior, and through
the lower of which the same water is ejected, having
been deprived of its nutritious particles in its passage
through the animal.
Ordinarily, the flow of water is steady and moderate,
but when the animal is irritated, it contracts itself so
violently that the water is spirted out to a considerable
distance, as out of a syringe.
At fig. 1 is seen the mechanism by which this act
is performed. Surrounding the entire animal is a soft
and membranous skin, called the “ test,” which is in
many cases covered with the smaller algee and marine
animals. If this be cut open and turned back, a
second skin, or inner tunic, is seen. This is formed
chiefly of muscular fibres, laid in different directions,
but being more closely gathered, and therefore more
powerful, near the orifice. The best plan of separating-
these two skins is to place the animal for some little-
time in spirits, when the inner tunic contracts so vio¬
lently that it separates itself from the outer envelope,
and saves the trouble of careful dissection. Within
is a third and very delicate tunic, which belongs to-
the respiratory system.
We now come to the digestive organs. Though-
the water enters the animal at the aperture which has
already been mentioned, it does not reach the true-
mouth until it flows as far as the spot marked m,
when it passes into the stomach, thence into the intes¬
tines, and thence into the surrounding water through
the second orifice. If one of these animals be held to
the light, the shape of the digestive apparatus can be
easily traced by its dark opacity, contrasting with the
partial translucence of the rest of the animal ; and as
the two upper tunics can be stripped off just like a
grape-skin, it is easy to see the general outlines of the
structure.
6
THE ce TADPOLE** STATE.
On one occasion, while engaged in trawling, I had
quite an argument with the sailors, they asserting
that the sea-grape was only congealed water, and I
trying to persuade them of its real character. Finding
argument to be useless, I took up one of the grape¬
like animals, and began to dissect it, telling them
beforehand what they would see, and explaining the
structure as layer after layer was opened. The men
were utterly astounded, and could not get over their
surprise for the rest of the day, referring to the sub¬
ject continually, and having sustained a severe shock
in self-esteem.
As is the case with many marine animals, the young
are produced from eggs, but when hatched are as unlike
their parents as a caterpillar is unlike a butterfly. They
very much resemble the tadpole of the frog in shape,
and are therefore said to be in the tadpole form. One of
these “ tadpoles” is shown at fig. 2, as it appears when
magnified. When in the tadpole state of existence, it
swims freely through the water by means of its long
tail ; and in order to enable it to direct its course, it is
furnished with eyes, which, although minute, are suffi¬
cient for their purpose. When, however, it has com¬
pleted its larval existence, it fastens itself to the
se.W- tance on which it will ever afterwards rest, the long
tail is quickly absorbed, and in process of time it
assumes the perfect shape, as seen at fig. 3.
Besides this method of multiplying by means of
eggs, the Ascidians also multiply by means of buds,
which are pushed out from the parent being, and soon
assume similar form and dimensions. A number of
incipient buds are seen at the base of fig. 3.
The name of the species which has been figured is
Cynthia aggregata.
In Plate I., fig. 5, is a group of Ascidians belonging
to the typical genus. This species is called Ascidia
mentula, and is perhaps the most plentiful of the
British species. It is mostly found at a depth of
THE PEL0N2EA.
7
sixty or seventy feet, and sometimes grows to an
enormous size, the individuals being as large as jar¬
gonelle pears. The outer tunic is peculiarly stout,
and almost gristly in texture, and its colour is exceed¬
ingly variable, taking every intermediate shade from
green to brown, sometimes being quite dark, and
sometimes so pale that scarcely any colour is to be
seen. In this genus, the aperture at which the water
enters — and which is therefore called the inferent orifice
— is surrqpnded with eight little lobes ; while the other,
or efferent orifice, is six-lobed.
Immediately above this object is drawn a curious
species of the same group. Its name is Peloncea cor -
rugata, and it is remarkable as much for its habits as
its shape.
It is not fixed to any object, but is as motionless as
if it were attached to a rock, and seems to pass a
singularly unenjoy able existence. Yet it is doubt¬
lessly happy in its own way, though that way is a
very strange one. It lives imbedded in the mud, its
whole body being sunk, and only the ends of the two
apertures projecting into the water. In consequence
of this habit, the orifices are not placed at a distance
from each other, as in the species which we have already
examined, but are set closely together, and at the
very extremity of the body. The name Pelonoea is
of Greek origin, and is very appropriate, inasmuch as
it signifies a dweller in the mud.
There are several British species of Pelonsea, two
of which, at least, inhabit the British shores. The
present species is dark brown in colour, and has the
lengthened body covered with wrinkles ; whereas in
the other species, Peloncea glabra, the body is shorter
in proportion, the colour is greenish yellow, and the
surface is smooth and hairy. Zoologists set great
value on this rather unsightly animal, as it forms a
link of transition between the Tunicates and the more
perfect Molluscs.
s
CHAPTER II.
TEE MOLLUSCS PROPER — THE I'HOLAS FAMILY — THE PIDDOCK — USES OF
THE ANIMAL — GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE SHELL — ITS HOUGH SUR¬
FACE AND ITS APPARENT USE — PECULIAR “ GAPING” FORM OF 1EB
SHELL, AND ITS OBJECT — INTERIOR OF THE SHELL — THE M^K OF THE
MANTLE AND MUSCLES — THE “ACCESSORY' YALVES,” AND THEIR SHAPE
AND OBJECT — SIMILARITY OF STRUCTURE IN THE PHOLAS AND THE
ASCIDIANS — METHOD OF BORING — VARIETY IN SIZE AND AVERAGE
DIMENSIONS— COLOUR OF THE PIDDOCK SHELL — METHOD OF PROCURING
LIVING SPECIMENS — VARIOUS SPECIES OF BRITISH PIDDOCES, AND THEIR
DISTINGUISHING PECULIARITIES — THE PnOLADIDEA — 'WHY SEPARATED
FROM PHOLAS — ITS CURIOUS STRUCTURE ; THE CUP AND THE FRINGE -
PRESUMED OBJECT OF THE CUP — DELICACY AND FRAGILITY OF THE
SHELL— CONSEQUENT DIFFICULTY IN PROCl KING PERFECT SPECIMENS —
AVERAGE SIZE OF THE SHELL — TIIE SHIP-WORMS — SIMILARITY BETWEEN
THE PELONJEA AND THE SHIP-WORMS— THE SIPHONS AND THE PALLETS —
VALUE OF THE PALLETS IN DETERMINING SPECIES — RAVAGES OF THE
SHIP-WORM — ITS GENERAL STRUCTURE AND MODE OF BORING— ITS META¬
MORPHOSIS WHEN YOUNG — REMARKABLE SPECIMEN OF THE SHIP-WORM’S
TUNNEL — TEE WOOD-PIDDOCK.
We now pass to tlie Molluscs proper, and begin with
those which have some resemblance in structure to
the Ascidians.
The first group in our list is that which includes
the various species of Pholas, the boring-shells which
are so plentiful upon our rocky or chalky shores, and
which are popularly known among fishermen as Pid-
docks. As the shell is better known than the animal,
it will be first described.
At Plate I., fig. 12, is shown the common Piddock
(Pholas dactylics'), as it appears in the hole which it
has excavated. The shell is beautifully wThite, and
its whole surface is covered with deep grooves, sweep¬
ing in a bold hexagonal curve, and crossing each other
so as to make the outer surface into a shelly rasp.
The shells gape slightly above, and rather more below.
THE PIDDOCK.
9
the upper aperture affording a passage for the two
siphons, or tubes, and the lower being intended for the
muscular “ foot” which projects between the shells, and
by pressure against the wall of the burrow, forces the
shell to perform the peculiar movements which insinu¬
ate it into the substance into which it is imbedded.
In the accompanying illustration, fig. 1, is shown
the inner surface of the Piddock shell, in order to
show its general structure and the points which are
particularly worthy of notice. Towards the side of
the shell are the “scars” which represent the marks
of the muscles which draw the shell together; while
the waved line towards the base of the shell shows
the attachment of the mantle. This line will be here¬
after described. If the shell be procured in a perfect
state, some remarkable peculiarities of structure are
to be seen.
Towards the base, and on the back, is a thickened
portion of the shell, of a bridge-like form, and having
a chambered structure, as is seen at fig. 3. There
10
METHOD OE BOEING.
are about eleven or twelve of these chambers, so
that although light, the structure is very strong.
Upon this “ bridge ” are placed certain “ accessory
valves,” or plates of shell, to protect the base of the
shell ; and stretching along the back is a flat plate of
the same substance, which guards the opening at the
hinge. On the inside of the hinge is seen a curved
projecting piece of shell, the use of which seems to be
rather obscure. These accessory valves, and the flat
piece that protects its back, are seen at fig. 2.
The reader will at once see that there is considerable
similarity of structure between the animal of the Pid-
dock and that of the Pelonea, which has just been
described, the body being elongated, and the two
siphons placed side by side at the extremity. In
colour it is whitish, and the foot is nearly as trans¬
parent as if made of ice. Fishermen value this creature
extremely, as it forms excellent bait, attracting the
fish, and adhering firmly to the hook, which is passed
through the foot.
The method by which the Piddock bores is now
satisfactorily ascertained to be by a peculiar move¬
ment of the shell, not unlike that of a brad-awl when
a carpenter is boring a hole in wood. The myriad
tooth-like projections of the shell act like the teeth of
a file, and by constant attrition work the shell into
the rock. That they must become clogged by the
particles which they cut away from the rock, is evi¬
dent enough ; and in order to free itself from these
choking particles, the Piddock constantly deluges the
burrow with water, washing out the greater part of
the muddy sediment, and enabling the shell to per¬
form its office effectually.
The common Piddock varies greatly in size, the
largest being those which bore into soft substances,
and the smallest those which inhabit hard limestone.
The largest specimen that I have seen is in the pos¬
session of Mr. Gr. B. Sowerby, and is so large as to
deserve the name of gigantic. It is found in various
EXTEMPORISED AQUARIA.
11
substances, such as decayed wood, red sandstone, and
clialk, the last-mentioned substance seeming to be its
favourite. Although its natural hue is white, the
Pholas is. often stained with the colour of the sub¬
stance in which it is imbedded ; and when it lives in
the red sandstone, the stain is often so deep that it
might easily be taken for the natural colour of the
shell.
In common with the rest of its kin, the Piddock
has the power of evolving a phosphorescent light ;
and if the reader can manage to procure some living
specimens, he will be most gratified by watching them
in an aquarium. There is not the least use in pro¬
curing an elaborate glass aquarium for a visit to the
sea-side. 1 always buy a flat earthenware pan, which
answers every purpose, is very cheap, and can be left
behind if the observer does not care to pursue the
experiments in his own house.
To procure living specimens is not a very easy task,
common as the creatures are. The simplest plan is
to take a strong crowbar, prise up a large piece of
rock into which the animals have bored, carry it above
high-water mark, and then, with the aid of a mallet
and cold chisel, chip out the inhabitants.
There are several species of British Piddocks, at
least five being acknowledged. There is, for example,
the White Piddock ( Pholas Candida ), which has only
one accessory valve. This species is shown in fig. 5,
where the accessory valve is seen in its place. At
fig. 4 are drawn the two siphons, or tubes, of another
species, the Little Piddock ( Pliolas parva ), in order
to show the manner in which they project from the
gaping end of the shell ; and at fig. 4'*, the same
siphons are again seen, as they appear when viewed
from the front. The observer who keeps these crea¬
tures alive should be careful to mark the flow of the
water through the animal, entering at one siphon tube,
and being ejected at the other.
The Little Piddock is, as its name implies, of small
12
A SINGULAR APPENDAGE.
dimensions. It is mucli shorter in proportion than
t lie common species, seldom exceeding an inch and a
half or two inches in length. It is, however, very
stont in proportion. A very fine specimen now before
me exhibits beautifully the single accessory valve,
with its curious markings, as well as the interior
hinge-projections, and the bold tooth-like projections
of the shell, which are so close and so deeply waved
towards the base of the shell, that they give peculiar
richness of effect.
At Plate I., fig. 6, is represented a specimen of the
Little Piddock, imbedded in the red chalk of Brighton.
The White Piddock has also a single accessory valve,
which is broader and not so pointed as that of the
preceding species. It is another of the small Pid-
docks, being about the same size as the Little Piddock,
and is even more fragile than the generality of its
fragile kin. All these shells require the most careful
handling, for not only are the shells themselves deli¬
cate and brittle, but the accessory valves are so thin,
so easily broken, and so slightly attached, that a rude
grasp is sure to crush them, or at all events to break
them away from their attachments: This species is
comparatively active, readily taking alarm, and in¬
stantly retreating into the depths of its tunnel.
There is a genus of shells which are closely allied
to the Piddocks, and which, in the opinion of several
conchologists, really ought not to have been separated
from them. This genus is called Pholcididea, and a
figure of the shell and animal may be seen at Plate I.
fig. 10.
The reader will at once note the remarkable cup¬
like appendage at the feet of the siphons, which affords
the chief reason why the creature has been placed in
a separate genus. The cup does not seem to discharge
any particular office ; but Messrs. Forbes and Hanley
think that it is the germ of a supplementary tube,
which, if elongated, would cover and protect the
SHIP-WOEMS.
ID
o
siphons. The next point to be noticed is the ex¬
tremity of the siphons, which are surrounded with
a radiating appendage, something like the disc of a
daisy, dandelion, or other composite flower.
The shell is peculiarly fragile, and so delicate, in¬
deed, that it seems incapable of boring into the hard
substances through which it makes its way. A speci¬
men now before me is certainly not thicker than
writing-paper, and scarcely so thick as that which is
considered of the best quality. The cup still adheres
to the end of the shell, which is deeply imbedded in
hardened red clay. Removing the shell is a really
difficult task, even for a practised hand, so delicate is
its structure. It is a small species, rarely exceeding
an inch and a half in length.
It is rather a remarkable fact that the shape of the
shell alters considerably with age. When very young,
the peculiar cup is not visible, and other portions of
the shell are not fully formed. The reader will pro¬
bably have remarked that the two siphon tubes are
not separate, as is the case with the Piddocks, but
that they are fused together, as it were, into a single
tube, at the end of which the two orifices are situated.
To the same family as the Piddocks belong those
wonderful and destructive molluscs popularly called
Ship-worms. In spite, however, of their popular
name, they are not worms at all, but are true shell¬
bearing molluscs, the shell being so small that for a
long time it was mistaken for the jaws of the sup¬
posed worm.
At Plate I., fig. 13, is seen the typical species, Teredo
naval is, as it appears while lying in its burrow, which
is always made in wood. The shelly valves are seen
at the bottom, while at the top the two siphons pro¬
ject. If the reader will compare this figure with that
of the Piddock at fig. 12, he will at once see the
resemblance between them, and that although in the
Ship-worm the shell is very short and the body very
14 THE <( PALLETS
long, the creature is formed on precisely the same
principle as the Piddock.
At the upper extremity, and just at the spot where
the siphons begin to diverge from each other, are a
pair of remarkable projections, technically named
“ pallets,” which are of various shapes and sizes,
according to the species which forms them. In the
commonest British species, Teredo norvagica, they are
of shell, and simple in their form, as may be seen in
the accompanying illustration, fig 5. In others they
are of more elaborate structure, as, for example, in
Teredo bipennata, where they are horny in texture,
and shaped something like feathers, as may be seen
at fig. 1 , which represents a single valve of the shell
and the pallets lying behind it. Fig. 2 represents the
same portions of Teredo palmulcita, in which the pallets
HABITS OF THE SHIP-WORM.
15
are still horny and closely feathered, but are short
and rather variable in form. At fig. 3 are drawn the
valve and pallets of another species, Teredo malleolus ,
in which the pallets are of shell, and shaped some¬
thing like battledores. The general form of the shell
is ’well seen at fig. 4, which shows the interior of
the shell, so as to exhibit the curved process at the
hinge and the method by 'which the two valves are
united. This is the portion that was once mistaken
for the jaws.
The Teredo is not very particular as to the kind of
timber into which it bores, but always goes with the
grain, unless it meets with some obstacle, such as a
nail or a very hard knot ; and in such a case it turns
out of its track for a short distance, and then resumes
its former course. As it bores its way along, it lines
the tunnel with a coating of shelly matter, technically
named “ the tube,” 'which has no connection what¬
ever with the animal which makes it. When it is
allowed to work undisturbed, as is the case with sub¬
merged piles and floating timber, it makes terrible
ravages, gnawing away the wood, and rendering a
huge mass of previously sound timber a mere mass of
light shells, in which not an inch of uninjured wood
can be found.
The tube is white, and very thin, though stronger
than its thinness would seem to indicate. In the
Teredo norvagica the tube is remarkable for a singular
structure, which is shown at fig. 6. The tube is very
long, narrow, and runs a somewhat winding course.
The narrow end of it is divided into a number of com¬
partments, by ten or twelve thin partitions which tra¬
verse it, but which do not form absolutely separate
chambers, inasmuch as each partition has a tolerably
large oval hole in the middle.
As is the case with the Pholadidea, the Teredo passes
through several changes of form, and in its earlier
stages is wholly unrecognisable by anyone except a
practised naturalist. It is very minute, nearly sphe-
16
SINGULAR SPECIMEN.
rical, and covered with cilia or hair-like projections,
by means of which it swims rapidly through the water.
In thirty-six hours it assumes a new form, and speedily
changes it for another, after which it returns again to
its original form, so that in a very few hours the little
creature is first spherical, then oval, then triangular,
and then spherical again. In this stage of existence
it possesses a foot, which enables it to crawl, after the
manner of snails, and also has organs of hearing and
sight.
It does not enjoy its locomotive powers for any long
time, but fixes itself to some suitable object, passes
through its last change, becomes a veritable ship-
worm, and begins its life-long task of boring. Opinions
have long been divided on one point, namely, whether
or not the ship-worm eats the material in which it
bores. Many arguments have been used on both sides
of the question ; but there is now little doubt that the
animal obtains the whole of its sustenance from the
water which is perpetually driven through its body,
and that it gains little or no nourishment from the
wood into which it happens to burrow.
At fig. 7 is shown a remarkable example of a ship-,
worm’s tube. In pushing forward its burrow, the
ship-worm has accidentally cut its way into a hole
whence a bolt has been extracted ; and instead of
merely filling up the aperture, it has extended its tube
into the bolt-hole, producing the singular modification
which is represented in the figure. This remarkable
specimen is in the collection of Mr. Cr. B. Sowerby.
At page 14, figs. 8 and 9, are shown two specimens
of an allied shell, called the Wood Piddock ( Xylophaga
dorsalis). Fig. 8 exhibits the closed shell, with the
pair of accessory valves over the hinge ; and fig. 9
depicts the living creature buried in wood, to show
the manner in which it bores across the grain.
CHAPTER III.
BOEING- SHELLS CONTINUED — THB G ASTROCHiENA, OH FLASK-SHELL — OBIGIW
OF ITS NAME — FORM OF THB SHELL, AND ITS VARIABLE SHAPE— HABITS OF
THE ANIMAL— ITS CURIOUS HOME — DOUBLE MOUTH OF THE FLASK — THE
BOUGH STONE* BO HER, OR SAXICAVA — ORIGIN OF ITS NAME — BURROWS OF"
THE STONE-BORER — CURIOUS ASPECT OF THE BOCK — A SUDDEN CHANGE —
COLOURS OF THE ANIMAL— THE NORTHERN STONE-BOKEE — DIFFICULTY OF
DISTINGUISHING THE SPECIES — THE PKTRICOLA, OS EOCK-SIIELL — DIFFI¬
CULTY OF PROCURING IT— FOREIGN AND BRITISH SPECIMENS— THE IRUS
SHELL, OE VENERUPIS — HABITAT OF THE ANIMAL — A CAUTION TO COL¬
LECTORS — THE GAPER-SHELLS, AND THEIR GENERAL FORM — THE COMMON
GAPER, OS OLD MAID — ITS STRUCTURE, HABITS, AND ENEMIES— THE
SIPHON-TUBE, AND ITS FORM — HOW TO DISCOVER AND PROCURE THE
GAPEll-SHELLS — REMARKABLE FORMATION OF THE HINGE — THE BLUNT
GAPER; FORM OF ITS SHELL — VALUE OF THE GAPER-SHELLS TO THE
STUDENT OF CONCHOLOGY — THE BASKET-SnELL, OR COEBULA — ITS GENE¬
RAL STRUCTURE, AND FORM OF THE HINGE — THE NEiERA SHELL; ITS RE¬
MARKABLE FORM— THE SIPHONS AND THEIR APPENDAGES.
We are still among the boring-shells, and begin with
the remarkable creatures that are called by the name-
of Gastrochsena, because their shell gapes widely at.
the portion which is technically termed its belly.
At Plate I., figs. 11 and 0, may be seen two draw¬
ings of our commonest species, the Flase-shele-
( Gastrochcena modiolina ), which, although it is ex¬
tremely plentiful in certain localities, is not easy oF
procural. It generally lives at a depth of from twenty-
to sixty feet, and must be procured by the dredge or
the drag, the former being preferable. The shell
without the animal is by no means imposing or at¬
tractive. It is brown in colour, and small, rarely ex¬
ceeding half an inch in length. A side view of ther
shell is seen at Plate I., fig. 9, and a back view at
fig. 3 of the accompanying illustration. This latter
figure is given in order to show the widely gaping-
form of the shell. The shape of the shell is by no
13
THE FLASK-SHELL.
means uniform, varying in almost every individual ;
and even the two valves are dissimilar to each other,
as is frequently the case with boring- shells.
We will now suppose that the reader has dredged
up a quantity of the bed of the sea, in which have
burrowed a number of the Gfastroclnena. On exami¬
nation of the mass, it will be found that the molluscs
have not merely bored a hole, but that they have
cemented together the sand, bits of shell, stone, and
other materials, and have formed from them a cu¬
riously shaped tube. A very perfect specimen of one
of these tubes is shown at fig. 2. It is flask-shaped,
and has a very long neck, which is curved and divided
into two portions, something like the proboscis of an
elephant. The double tubes, however, are not quite
distinct, but communicate with each other at their
junction.
It is on account of the flask-like shape of the tube
that the shell has derived its specific name of modiolina,
the Latin word modiolus signifying a little flask. So
perfect a specimen is, however, seldom found ; and
although the interior of the tube is always flask¬
shaped, its exterior is mostly irregular, so that its real
character would not be recognised except by a prac¬
tised eye. In a specimen now before me, for example,
the tube is of nearly the same thickness throughout
its entire length, and the extremity is, if anything,
larger than the base, on account of a serpula tube
which is attached to it.
STONE-BORERS,
19
An example of one of these irregular tubes is shown
in fig. 1, in wThich is represented a specimen in Mr.
Sowerby’s collection. The animal has in this instance
taken a fancy to a large piece of shelly and thus suc¬
ceeded in disguising itself very effectually. Some¬
times, when it settles down in a spot where oyster-
shells have been thrown, it will bore completely
through them, and attach itself to them in such a
manner that the oyster-shell forms a kind of collar
round the flask.
If the reader will now refer to Plate I., fig. 11, he
will see why the tube is double. It is made for the
reception of the double siphon, the two portions of
which are united throughout their length, and have
the extremities close to each other. They are not
permanently extended, but are capable of being with¬
drawn almost wholly into the shell, a movement which
generally takes place when the animal is alarmed. The
shell is extremely frail, so that to take it out of its
tube unharmed is not always easy. It is a very com¬
mon species in the Mediterranean, as well as in the
British localities which it chooses. It is, however, ex¬
tremely local, and chiefly affects the southern coasts,
especially those off Devonshire.
Close to the Flask-shell, and rather above it, is de¬
lineated another boring- shell, which is appropriately
called the Bough Stone-borer ( Saxicava rugosa), be¬
cause it excavates rocks, and the shell is covered with
wrinkles.
In this animal the siphons are comparatively short,
and the general shape of the shell is not unlike that
of the last-mentioned species. The Saxicava mostly
attacks limestone, though it does not bore to a very
great dejoth, its tunnel rarely exceeding six inches in
depth. It is so plentiful in some localities, that the
whole face of the rock is completely honeycombed by
its numerous burrows ; and considering the hardness
of the stone and the delicacy of the shell, the fact of
its ability to pierce so stubborn a substance is really
c 2
20
ROCKS AND STONE-BORERS.
wonderful. Yet, altliougli essentially a borer, and
possessed of such singular powers, it sometimes is
found perfectly free, and frequently is discovered
merely lying in rocky crevices.
When a piece of rock is thickly studded with the
Saxicava, it presents a curious and rather pretty ap¬
pearance. The whole surface of the rock is covered
with very small crimson projections, which, when
touched, instantly vanish into the stone, leaving only
the little holes through which they had protruded.
These are the ends of the siphons which the Saxi¬
cava protrudes into the water, and by means of which
it both procures nourishment and is enabled to
respire. The general colour of the animal is yellow,
which deepens into orange upon the siphons, becoming
quite red at their extremities.
At fig. 8 of Plate I. is shown a shell which is closely
allied to the preceding species, and which cannot be
distinguished except by very careful eyes. This is called
Saxicava arctica; and although in the figure it is easily
distinguishable from the species which is shown at
fig. 7, there are really few shells which are more diffi¬
cult to identify. If the shells retained the same form
throughout life, there would be no difficulty in sepa¬
rating them, inasmuch as the sharp spinous scales of
the present species afford a boldly distinguishing cha¬
racter ; but as both species change their shape in the
course of their lives, as the young specimen of Saxi¬
cava rugosa possesses the same spinous scales as the
adult arctica , and as both species lose these scales
when old, a skilful eye is needful for the detection of
any permanent characteristics. Such, however, may
be found in the leak of the shell, i. c., the part imme¬
diately above the hinge, and in the front edge of the
shell ; the former being sharp and leaning forward,
and the latter being rather sharp and pointed, instead
of being broad and rounded, as in the last species.
The colour of the animal is yellowish, and the sit
phons are of any shade of orange, rose, or brown. I-
ROCK-SHELL. 21
derives its name of arctica from the fact that it is more
common on the northern than on the southern coasts,
thus reversing the habits of the preceding species.
As, therefore, I have called the preceding species the
Rough Stone-borer, I will designate this animal the
Northern Stone-borer, both names being little more
than translations of their accepted scientific titles.
It is found at various depths, but hides itself so
cunningly that a casual observer would not notice it.
If the reader should be able to manage a dredge, he
will be nearly certain to find some specimens of Saxi-
cava arctica, provided that he knows where to look for
them. When the dredge hauls up a quantity of the
large sea-weeds, search should be made among the
roots, and in many cases the shell of the Northern
Stone-borer may be found deeply imbedded in them.
Sometimes it is hidden in masses of still living zoo¬
phytes, sometimes it is concealed among oyster-shells,
and in many cases it is sunk so deeply .into a tuft of
growing coralline, that its presence would not be sus¬
pected until the plant was torn asunder.
It is a small species, the average length of the shells
being half an inch.
We now pass to the second Plate, in which are
depicted a number of curious and interesting species.
In the upper left-hand corner is represented a shell
called Petricola litliophaga, wljich we may venture to
term the Rock-shell. Although this is not in itself
an especially rare shell, it is not plentiful in England,
is exceedingly scarce in cabinets, and anyone wrho
possesses a specimen in tolerable preservation may
think himself exceedingly fortunate. As its name
implies, it buries itself deeply in the rock, respiring
and obtaining nourishment by means of the siphons,
which are separate and rather radiating from each
other.
Foreign specimens of this shell are plentiful enough,
as it is common in the Mediterranean, and abundant
22
A CAUTION TO COLLECTORS.
on the coasts of France. But shells that have been ob¬
tained from the British shores are still extremely rare,
and when one is perchance discovered, the fortunate
collector is sure to notify his success in some scientific
publication. Of its habits little or nothing is known,
as is likely to be the case with a burrowing mollusc,
unless some enterprising naturalist chooses to devote
his energies to the study of some particular species.
At fig. 2 is seen a shell which is notable for the
numerous sharp ridges which traverse its surface, and
which are cut into teeth like those of a saw. This is
the Irus-shell (Venerupis irus ), a shell which, on
account of its remarkable shape and the ridges of its
surface, is very easily identified. It is seldom found
in deep water, preferring those parts of the shore
which are just below low-water mark, and being often
found in spots that are left day at very low tides.
The empty shells are not at all unfrequent, especially
on the southern coasts of England ; but a living speci¬
men is seldom to be found, unless especially sought
for. Limestone rocks are favourite localities with the
Irus-shell, and it is sometimes discovered in sponges
and sea-weeds, like the Bock-borer which has already
been described. As may be seen b}r a reference to
the illustration, the siphons are united for half their
length, and fringed at their tips. One of them is
remarkable for the fact that it has a kind of supple¬
mentary tube which extends beyond the fringes. In
the Mediterranean, the Irus is produced in vast quan¬
tities in some places, and the empty shells are flung
in heaps upon its shores.
Here I may mention a fact the knowledge of which
is useful to all collectors of shells. Generally, when a
shell is found on our shores, it is presumed to be a
genuine British species, and is classified as such ; on
the same principle that any plant, insect, reptile, bird,
or mammal is considered as indigenous if it be disco¬
vered in a living state within the four seas. But this
ought not to be the case with shells. A collector might
GAPER-SHELLS.
23
discover some spot on onr coast which was rich in
shells hitherto excluded from the British list, and yet
be entirely mistaken if he were to consider them as
true inhabitants of our shores. The fact is, that great
quantities of shells are often conveyed from one country
to another among the ballast, and when the sailors
throw away the ballast overboard, they also fling into
the sea various shells among the stones and sand.
These shells are subsequently washed up by the tides,
or dashed on the shore in a storm, so that they are
picked up by hand, or inclosed in the multifarious
contents of a dredge. Sometimes, too, a ship in bal¬
last is cast upon the shore and beaten to pieces by the
waves, when the ballast is necessarily thrown out, and
in a year or two becomes a part of the shore. In this
way many enterprising collectors have been deceived,
and their mistake has not been discovered until many
years afterwards.
We are now come to some shells that are popularly
and appropriately called Gapers, because their valves
are not wholly closed, but are permanently open at each
end. The reader will remember that a similar struc¬
ture is seen in the Flask-shells, as Avell as in others
which have already been described, so that they all
have a partial right to the name.
The species which is most generally known is the
Common Gaper-shell, or Old Maid (My a arenarid) ;
it is shown at Plate II., fig. 6. As it is rather a large
species, the figure is necessarily reduced in size. The
chief peculiarity of the Gaper-shells is seen at a glance,
namely, a membranous tube which projects from the
upper opening of the shells, and which contains the
siphons. This tube is very thin, and is, in fact, the
prolongation of a membrane which covers the entire
body and the greater part of the shell, and which is
technically named the “epidermis.” Towards the
hinder part of the shell the membrane is very thin,
and at last is almost imperceptible ; but in front it is
OLD MAIDS.
21
c
))
thicker, stronger, and slightly wrinkled, until it is
merged into the tube, which is strongly wrinkled
throughout the whole of its length. In the dried
specimen the membrane is less conspicuous than is
the case when the animal is living ; and as it becomes
■dry it is apt to become very brittle and flake off in
scales. It generally, however, retains its hold of the
shell at the base of the tube, and may be seen tucked
into the opening like a half- drawn- off glove.
The shell itself is white, and with age attains thick¬
ness, so that a full-grown specimen is very weighty in
■comparison with other species of the same size. The
■ordinary colour of the shell is pale brownish yellow ;
but, like many other boring species, it is liable to be
stained by the substance in wTiich it lies. Many speci¬
mens are quite black, having lain in the peculiarly
•offensive deposit which is found towards the mouth of
most tidal rivers. Sometimes it is red, exactly of the
colour of iron-rust ; and in every instance the edges
of the slight ridges which traverse its surface are
sufficiently abraded by the very slight movements of
the animal, to prevent their discoloration, and to show
the real tint of the unstained shell.
In some places the animal is used for food, and is
sold under the name of “ Old Maid.” Plentiful as it
is, comparatively few are taken, because they lie so
’well concealed that none but experienced eyes can
■discover them. Small holes in the sand or mud are
the only indications of their presence ; and as there
are innumerable marine animals wThich make little
holes in the mud, to distinguish the breathing aper¬
tures of the Gaper-shell is not a very easy task. The
•shell is seldom found less than a foot from the surface,
so that to procure a large number of specimens is
rather a laborious business. In the northern parts of
the world, however, there are several animals which
know where to find the Gaper-shells, and which are
able not only to detect them, but to dig them from
their muddy holes. The arctic fox is a terrible de-
VALUE OE THE GAPES-SHELLS.
25
vourer of Gaper-shells, and the walrus is also able to
obtain them. Even birds know the value of the
Gaper- shell, and many of the larger species can dis¬
inter the molluscs with their beak, as easily as the
foxes with their paws.
There i3 a curious structure in the hinge of this
species which is worthy of notice. At the upper part
of the accompanying illustration is seen part of a
26
THE CURIOUS HINGE.
valve of a Gaper-shell, and just below the “umbo,”
or boss of the hinge, is placed the peculiar structure
which has been mentioned. At fig. 2 is drawn the
hinge of the left valve, on which is a strong piece of
horny and very elastic substance, shaped something*
like one of the fans of a screw propeller. The hinge
of the right valve is seen at fig. 1, where is shown the
projecting portion which corresponds to the horny fan.
This projection is of considerable length, is very strong,,
and highly polished and smooth on the under side ;
the upper side being comparatively rough and slightly
wrinkled. When the two shells or valves are inha¬
bited by the animal, the shelly projection presses
against the horny fan, which acts as a spring, and
gives the shells a constant tendency to fly open, which
is only counteracted by the force of the powerful
muscles which close the valves, and which leave a
deep impression of their attachment upon the interior
of each valve. This curious apparatus holds the valves
apart, much as the spring of a pair of shears keeps
their blades open.
Just below the G aper- shell is drawn another species,
which we may term the Blunt Gaper {My a truncata) .
This species derives its name from the shape of the
shell, which looks as if it had been abruptly cut off or
squared at the end from which the siphons protrude.
In this figure the animal is shown as it appears when
in health and unalarmed, the siphons with their fringed
ends projecting from the end of the tube.
Those who really desire to study the marine shells
of England, ought to procure some living specimens of
the Gaper-shells. Both species can often be found in
the same locality, and dug out of their muddy homes
without much labour. The structure of the animal is
well worthy of examination, as the creature forms one
of the simplest examples of the molluscs, and becomes
a key to the more complicated anatomy of other
species. When the valves are opened, the reseru-
BASKET-SHELLS.
27
blance between tbe animal of the Gaper-sbell and
some of the Ascidians is evident at a glance ; and
indeed, as Messrs. Forbes and Hanley well remark,
the aspect of a living Gaper-sliell is almost exactly
that of an elongated Cynthia, against whose sides two
plates of shell have been pressed.
The shell of the Blunt Gaper is variable in form,
being so frequently deformed that a large and undis¬
torted specimen is not very often seen in the cabinets
of ordinary collectors.
At Plate II., fig. 5, is drawn a figure of the common
Basket-shell ( Gorbuia nucleus), which is so plentiful
on our coasts, but which is seldom picked up on the
shore. It affords an excellent type of the family to
which it belongs, the various distinguishing points
being very strongly marked. The two valves are
exceedingly unequal, the right being large, deep,
rounded, and completely overlapping the left valve,
which is flat and comparatively small. It is nearly
covered with a membrane like that of the Gaper-shell,
while the other valve is bare. The beaks are boldly
marked, as may be seen by reference to the illustra¬
tion, which shows the left valve as it appears when
partially overlapped by the other. At page 25, fig. 3,
is drawn the inside of the shells, showing the curved
tooth of the right valve, and the corresponding hollow
and cartilage in the left valve. This is a little shell,
seldom exceeding half an inch in length.
Another shell, belonging to the same family as the
Basket-shell, is drawn at Plate II., fig. 4. As may
be seen by reference to the illustration, it is of a very
remarkable shape, being prolonged at the hinder end
into a sort of tube, and the body of the shell swelling
out boldly, so as to make the contrast greater. The
valves are covered with a membrane, which is variable
in hue, but is generally of a pale fawn colour. The
shell itself is very delicate in appearance when the
28
THE NE2ERA.
membranous covering is removed, and is partially
transparent. One of the most curious points in con¬
nection with this species, is the singular termination
of the siphons, the ends of which are surrounded by
long tentacles, each having at the tip several finger¬
like projections. (See the Cut on page 25, fig. 4.)
This shell is called Necera cusjoiclata , the former name
being given to it in honour of the Roman lady cele¬
brated by Horace, and the latter being in allusion to
the pointed form of the shell. It has been found off
Northumberland, but is more frequent in Scotland.
CHAPTER IV
THE PANDORA SHELLS — PECULIAR ITT OF THEIR APPEARANCE — ORIGIN OF
THE NAME — STRUCTURE OF THE SHELL, HINGE, AND ANIMAL — THE
BASNET, OR THRACIA — LOCALITIES WHERE IT IS FOUND — THE BEAN-
BASKET — STRUCTURE OF THE SHELL AND THE SUPPLEMENTARY PLATE —
THE SPOON-BASKET, OR COCHLODESMA — DESCRIPTION 07 THE SHELL — •
REMARKABLE HINGE — REASON ^OR ITS NAME — THE RAZOR-SnELLS, AND
ORIGIN OF THEIR NAME — GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE SHELL AND
ANIMAL — THE SABRE RAZOR — HABITS AND LOCALITY OF THE SHELL -
DIFFERENT METHODS OF CATCHING IT - THE POD RAZOR-SHELL — Will SO
CALLED — THE GROOVED RAZOR-SHELL — nOW TO DISTINGUISH THE DIF¬
FERENT SPECIES — TEE PAPER RAZOR-SHELL; ITS FRAGILITY — STRUCTURE
OF THE ANIMAL AND HINGE — LOCALITIES WHERE IT IS FOUND — THE
SHORT RAZOR-SnELL — PECULIARLY FORMED SHELL AND HINGE — THE
TELLKN SHELLS — THE SUNSET SHELL — ORIGIN OF ITS NAME AND ITS
HABITAT — THE BLUNT TELLEN ; ITS FORM AND COLOUR — THE PORCELAIN
TELLEN — BEAUTY OF THE SHELL— THE ORANGE TELLEN; ITS SHELL AND
HINGE — THE CONVEX TELLEN; ITS SHAPE AND HUE — THE ABRA-SHELLS ;
THEIR FRAGILITY AND DEFENCE — THE CURIOUS SIPHONS — THE FURROW-
SHELL— ITS VARIABLE FORM AND COLOUR — ITS HABITATION — METHOD OF
OBTAINING PERFECT SPECIMENS — MUD, ITS ADVANTAGES AND DEMERITS —
A PROVERB VERIFIED — MUD-WADING, AND ITS DISCOMFORTS — SEARCHING
FOR SPECIMENS — A TEST OF ZEAL— A NARROW ESCAPE — DETERGENT PRO¬
PERTIES OF THE MUD.
The pretty little shell, which is represented of its
natural size on Plate II., fig. 3, is rightly severed
from the Basket-shells, on account not only of its
shape, but of the character of the shell. It is much
flatter than the Basket-shells, although, like them, it
has one valve longer and deeper than the other, and
overlapping it at the edges. A glance at the shell
will, however, detect one of the chief points of dif¬
ference. The surface is shining and polished, and has
a nacreous aspect, like that of the pearl oyster ; this
appearance being due to the manner in which the
particles of the shell are arranged. On account of
this peculiarity, the shells belonging to this genus are
30
LANTERN-SHELLS,
called by the name of “ Pandora,” because the pearly
box- like shell is fancifully thought to resemble the
magic box in which Pandora kept her fatal gifts. As
one end of this species forms a kind of beak, it is
called the Beaked Pandora ( Pandora rostrata).
The animal, too, is rather curious, as may be seen
by reference to the illustration. The siphons are
completely united to the end, but instead of the aper¬
tures opening in the same line, they diverge widely
from each other. At the Cut on page 25, fig. 7, is
seen the inside of the deep valve of this species, as
well as the hinge of the flat valve. This sketch was
taken in order to show the peculiar hinge, the shelly
teeth, and the narrow and nearly straight elastic car¬
tilage by which the valves are held open. Only two
species of this genus are acknowledged as British ; and
the present species, although plentiful in the Channel
Islands, is thought by some persons to have but a
weak claim to the title of British.
We now come to another family, named Anatinidge,
or Lantern-shells, which are also burrowers, and gene¬
rally live in the depths of sand or mud, although they
are sometimes found in the cavities of rocks. One of
the best-known British species is that which is shown
at page 25, figs. 5 and 6, and which is called Thracia
phaseolinci. Perhaps we may name it the Bean-basket,
the word phaseolina being formed from a Latin word
signifying a beau.
This is a veiy common species, and found on most
of our shores. Plentiful as it is, a really perfect spe¬
cimen is not very often seen ; for, in the first place,
the shell is so fragile that it is easily crushed, and in
the next place, it is a compound shell, having a sup¬
plementary piece which readily falls off, and is mostly
detached before the specimen is discovered. If the
reader will take a perfect shell and examine the hinge,
he will see that just beneath the beak there is a small
semilunar plate of shell, which partially overlaps the
RAZOR-SHELLS.
Ol
top of each valve. At fig. 6 this shelly plate or
“ ossicle ” is shown as it appears in its place, and a
magnified figure of it is also given. It is exceedingly
convex on one side and flattish on the other, bnt with
a deepish hole in it. It is a small species, the speci¬
men being represented of the natural size.
At fig. 9 of the same illustration is seen a shell
belonging to the same group, and which we may
call, for a reason which will presently be seen, the
Spoon-basket. Its scientific name is Cochlodesma
'prcetennue.
This is a delicate and fragile shell, small, being sel¬
dom an inch in length, at all events on English shores,
though off the Scottish coast it sometimes measures
an inch and a half in length. When recent, the shell
is covered with a very fine membrane ; but when dry,
the membrane shrinks closely to the shell, and finally
flakes off, leaving the china-white shell exposed.
The chief peculiarity of the shell lies in the hinge.
If the reader will again refer to the illustration, he
will see that from the hinge of the npper valve a
small shelly plate projects into the interior. This plate
is exactly like the bowl of a spoon, and affords the
reason for the name of Spoon-basket. Corresponding
to the “ spoon,” a stout piece of elastic cartilage is
attached to the other valve, serving, as has already
been mentioned, to hold them apart.
Our next group cf shells is that curious family
which are appropriately termed Razor-shells, because,
when perfect, the shell looks something like the handle
of a closed razor. To mistake a Razor-shell is impos¬
sible, as there is no other group that bears any resem¬
blance to these curious molluscs. Yet a short inspec¬
tion of the shell will show the connection that exists
between them and the species which have already
been described. If it were possible to soften a Basket
or a Lantern- shell, and draw it out lengthwise, as a
glass tube can be drawn out in a spirit-lamp, a very
SHELL-HUNTING.
Q9
O Zi
tolerable imitation of a Razor-shell would be formed.
The valves are closed along the sides, but gape at each
end, from the projection of the siphons at one extremity
and of the foot at the other. A figure of the shell of
the common species, the Sabre Razor ( Solen ensis ),
may be seen on Plate II., fig. 9, and immediately
below is an opened shell of another species, the Pod
Razor ( Solen siliqua), which is given in order to show
the manner in which the animal lies between the
shells.
The foot is of considerable size, and is used in
enabling the creature to traverse the perpendicular
hole which it makes in the sand or mud. When at
its ea,se, the Razor-shell usually ascends to the top of
its burrow, and I lie ends of its siphons are plainly
visible, looking much like a keyhole in the sand. At
the least alarm, however, such as a heavy step, the
animal squirts a small stream of water in the air, and
shoots to the bottom of its tunnel.
Should it be wanted for a specimen, it can easily
be obtained by getting a spade inserted by the side
of the hole, and dropping a little salt on the animal
below. It instantly rises to eject the salt, and by a
judicious use of the spade may be thrown out on the
ground and captured. The spade-stroke must be
made very quickly, or the Razor- shell will again dis¬
appear, and cannot be induced to re-appear even for a
pound of salt. There is another simple method of
capturing it, which is much in use when the creature
is only wanted for the table, or for bait, but which is
sure to damage both shell and inhabitant. A stout
iron wire is bent and sharpened at one end, so as to
form a barb, and is then plunged into the hole. The
point is sure to pass between the valves, which are
instantly closed, and so enable the fisher to draw the
Razor-shell out of the hole. Experienced fishers gene¬
rally give the wire a half turn before they withdraw
it, so as to fix it more tightly in the animal.
All the Razor-shells are edible, and if properly
RAZOR-SHELLS. 33
dressed, are among the best molluscs that are brought
to table.
The Sabre Razor can at once be distinguished by
the shape of the shell, which is curved like the sabre
still in use in some countries. These shells are very
narrow, their length being eight times their width.
The hinge is nearly at the extremity of the shell,
and has a single slightly-grooved tooth on the right
valve. This species is seldom taken in ground which
is above low-water mark.
The Pod Razor derives its name from its resem¬
blance to the pod of a bean. The shell is straight,
the hinge nearly at the end, having two stout teeth
in one valve, and a single axe-shaped tooth in the
other, so placed as to pass between the two teeth of
the opposite valve. The exterior of the shell is covered
with a rather strong yellowish membrane, and the
inside is beautifully white and polished, with a slight
pearliness when viewed sideways.
Another species, the Grooved Razor ( Solen mar -
ginatus), is straight, like the preceding species, but
can easily be distinguished by the peculiarity from
which it derives its name, i.e., a groove which runs
round the front end of the shell, and looking as if a
string had been tied round it when soft. It has one
tooth in each valve, fitting by the side of each other
when the valves are closed. At page 25, fig. 8, is seen
a figure of the end of the shell, showing the groove.
In order that the reader may know the place where
the teeth are situated, a sketch of the Pod Razor-shell
is given at fig. 10, page 25, in which the two teeth are
seen at the right-hand upper corner of the shell. The
remarkably-shaped depression caused by the muscles
which draw the valves together is also shown.
On Plate III., fig. 1, is shown an animal which was
formerly classed with the true Razor-shells, but is now
separated from them for several reasons. Its scientific
name is Ceratisolen legumen ; and on account of the
D
34
TELLENS.
delicacy of the shell, I propose to call it the Paper
Razor-shell.
A glance at the figure will show one important
peculiarity, namely, the length of the siphons and
their divergence from each other ; whereas, in the true
Razor-shells, these organs are short, and united to
the tips. The shell is very delicate, fragile, and semi-
translucent, something like the well known “ egg¬
shell” china. The hinge is remarkable for the curious
teeth, which look as if a pair of white horse-shoes had
been set edge to edge, and then fastened into the shell
so that the openings should project inwards. Into
these hollows the teeth of the other valve are fitted,
so that the shells are locked firmly together when the
muscles are contracted. Although not a common spe¬
cies in many parts of England, it can be obtained
abundantly at Bideford and other parts of the Devon¬
shire coast.
At fig. 2 of the same plate is seen another species,
which may be called the Short Razor-shell ( Sole -
curtus candid us ). At a hasty glance it would scarcely
be recognised as allied to the Razors, inasmuch as it
looks more like a much-worn Piddock.
Though scattered over many parts of the British
coast, this species is not very often found, because it
inhabits tolerably deep water, and can only be ob¬
tained when the dredge happens to tear up a large
lump of mud. The tubes of the siphons are rather
long, and project boldly from the shell, but they do not
diverge from each other like those of the preceding
species. In the hinge there are two teeth in each valve.
Several species of this genus are known to inhabit
the British seas ; and one of them, the Smooth Razor
( Solecurtus coarctatus), is shown at fig. 3 of the same
Plate.
We now come to another family, termed the Tel-
linidse, or Tellens. These are also burrowers, and are
SUNSET-SHELLS.
35
mostly found in spots where sand and mud are mixed
together. They are mostly remarkable for their
beautiful colours, presenting in this respeot a bold
contrast to the dull whites and browns of the pre¬
ceding shells. The animal always has very long and
slender siphons, and a tolerably powerful foot.
Our first example is seen at Plate III., fig. 6, and
is known by the popular term of Sunset-shell ( Psam -
mobia tellmella), because the diverging rays which
traverse the shell are fancifully thought to resemble
the beautiful beams of the setting sun as they are
thrown upon the evening clouds. These rays are
generally pink, and in a specimen now before me
they are bright red on a pale yellow ground, but are
much broken up and dissimilar on the opposite valves.
The figure represents the shell of its natural dimen¬
sions. It is widely spread, but is seldom if ever taken
without the help of the dredge, though the separate
valves are sometimes cast on the shore.
At fig. 9 is shown the shell of another species of
the same genus, which we may call the Striped Sun-
set-shell ( Psammobia Ferroensis') . It is a larger
and handsomer species than the last, being nearly two
inches in length when adult, and having the peculiar
markings very distinct. The remarkable diverging
teeth of this genus are seen at page 25, fig. 15.
We now come to the typical shells of this group,
which belong to the genus Tellina. This is a very
large genus, at least two hundred existing species
being known in different parts of the world, of which
some ten or eleven are acknowledged as British.
The Tellen shells are inhabitants of the sand and
mud, and sometimes bury themselves to a consider¬
able depth. One of the best British examples is
the Blunt Tellen ( Tellina crassa), a figure of which
may be seen at Plate III., fig. 8. This is a pretty
shell, and rather larger than the generality of its kind,
d 2
36
PORCELAIN AND ORANGE TELLENS.
measuring nearly two indies in length. The colour
is variable, but is usually whitish, and marked with
warm red rays something like those of the Sunset-
shells. In some specimens the inside is generally
orange, but is sometimes nearly white.
On the same plate, at fig. 5, is represented another
species, which maybe called the Porcelain Tellen (Tel-
Una tenuis ), on account of the polished surface of the
shell, which has a gloss exactly like that of the finest
porcelain. Unfortunately, the shell is extremely
fragile, and so may doubly deserve its name. The
figure has been drawn in order to show the chief
peculiarities of the animal, namely, the slender
siphons and the fringed edges of the mantle, which
just show themselves beyond the shell.
This is extremely plentiful on our shores, and although
it is a burrower, the empty shells are thrown on the
shore in vast abundance. It is extremely variable in
colour, but is always beautifully tinted. A specimen
now before me is of a lovely blush-rose colour, with
bands of carmine running round it as seen in the figure,
and changing gradually to orange at the hinge. A few
streaks of white are also strewn over the shell, and
present an elegant contrast to the pink and orange.
Another beautiful species is the Orange Tellen
(Tellina incarnata). It is a much larger shell than
the preceding, and is narrower in proportion. The
Blunt Tellen is almost as wide as it is long, while
the Orange Tellen is nearly half as long again
as its width. The colour of this shell is warm orange
on the outside, with streaks of pink and white ; and
on the inside is a still brighter orange. It is rather a
flat shell, translucent and fragile. It is usually found
on the southern coasts. At page 25, fig. 11, is seen
one of the valves of this species, showing the general
shape of the shell, as well as the minute teeth of the
hinge.
ABRA- SHELLS.
37
At fig. 4 of Plate III. is shown another example of
this large and important group of shells ; we will call
it the Convex Tei.len ( Tellina solidula). The species
which have just been mentioned are rather flat, much
polished, and fragile, whereas the present species is
opposed to them in each of these respects. It is a
short, sturdy kind of shell, rather dull on the exte- *
rior, and stout in substance. The valves are very
convex, so that a perfect specimen can he rolled along
the floor without difficulty.
The colouring is variable, but never attains the
brilliancy which adorns so many other species, seem¬
ing, indeed, as if half washed out. In the specimen
before me it is nearly white, over which are drawn a
few broad bands of very pale pink, deepest towards
the hinge, and becoming almost yellow at the edge.
Other specimens are nearly yellow, some are flesh-
colour, some a tolerably deep pink, while a very few
are creamy white. This shell is found in sand, some
five inches below the surface.
On Plate III., fig. 7, is drawn a shell which has the
elaborate name of Syndosmya alba. How, as the
simple and well-sounding name of Abra has been
given to the shells of this genus, although the longer
title has been accepted by Messrs. Forbes and Hanley,
I propose to call them the Abra-shells, and the pre¬
sent species the White Abra, being a translation of
the specific name.
This name, however, is not a very happy one, inas¬
much as all the British Abra-shells are more or less
white, and this particular species is not distinguished
in any way by its superior whiteness. This is a small
species, seldom much exceeding half an inch in length.
It is very fragile, but during life it is partly defended
by a thin but tolerably tough membrane, which ex¬
tends over the shell, and is generally of a yellowish
hue. The valves slightly gape at the extremities.
It is a plentiful shell in sand and mud, particularly
38
FURROW-SHELL.
where the two substances are mixed, and its empty
valves are often found upon the shore.
The animal is remarkable for the length and mobi¬
lity of its siphon tubes. These organs are slender,
unconnected except at their bases, elastic, and are
capable of being extended until they equal the length
of the shell. They can also be expanded at will, until
they are at least three times their usual size. Like
the corresponding organs in several other shells, they
are covered with a thin membranous tube. About
four species of Abra-shells are known to be British.
There is another curious shell which is clearly
related to the Abra-shells, and which is generally found
in the mud at the mouths of tidal rivers. This is the
species called scientifically Scrobicularia piperita, a
name which we may translate almost literally by
Furrow-shell. It derives its name from the nume¬
rous deep but narrow furrows which run round the
shell, and which prevent it from assuming any gloss.
Many of the previously-mentioned shells are very
variable in form and colour, but this species is of so
uncertain a form, that it has been separated into
various species by different conchologists. When
unstained by the mud in which they have rested, the
valves are yellowish white on the outside, sometimes
having a slight tinge of orange. The interior is white
and glossy, sometimes tinged with yellow, and the
hinge is formed on a similar plan to that which has
been so often mentioned. A drawing of the hinge
may be seen at page 25, fig. 14.
This is a very plentiful species, and as it has a love
for brackish water, it may be found at some distance
from the mouth of the river, so that it is exposed to
the alternation of salt, brackish, and nearly fresh
water. As it lives at a considerable depth in the
mud, it is seldom taken in a living state except by
those who search for such objects ; and, as a general
rule, the specimens which are seen in ordinary cabi-
MUD-WADING. 39
nets are merely empty valves thrown ashore by the
tide.
There is good reason why this and similar shells
should not more frequently be found. As anyone
must know who has been accustomed to the dredge
or trawl, the black mud in which these shells love to
dwell is peculiarly offensive both to the touch and the
olfactory nerves. It is sticky and slimy, and will not
come off the hand without much difficulty. If the
blade of an oar should happen to strike the mud, some
of the black, slimy substance is sure to adhere to it,
and even after an hour’s hard rowing, mud will still
be on the oar. “ Throw plenty of mud, and some of
it is sure to stick,” is a well-known proverb, whose
force is never thoroughly understood until the various
properties of such mud have been practically tested.
W ading in the mud is as disagreeable a process as
can wrell be imagined. Unless the wader be furnished
with regular mud-boots, he can wear no covering on
his feet ; there is not an ordinary boot in existence
that will remain on the leg when it is once plunged
deeply into the mud. If the wader should dispense
with shoes and stockings, he has another disadvan¬
tage to overcome, namely, the risk of treading on bits
of stick, broken stones, or empty shells, which latter
objects have a peculiar knack of lying with their sharp
edges uppermost.
No one can judge of the depth to which he may
plunge at the next step, and yet he must of necessity
keep on the move, or he would sink so deeply that
he would run a great risk of being permanently im¬
bedded. Nothing is easier, too, than to lose the
balance when mud- wading ; and if the wader should
happen to lose his perpendicular, down he must sub¬
side, the tenacious and treacherous mud preventing
him from making the step that would restore his
balance. All this time the pressure of the feet forces
up quantities of the offensive gases — sulphuretted
hydrogen, for example — that have been formed by
40
MUD AND TIDE.
the decomposition of sundry animal and vegetable
substances ; so that in no sense does the mud-wader
tread a path of roses, except, perhaps, as far as the
thorns are concerned.
Supposing that the enthusiastic naturalist has pro¬
cured a quantity of the mud, and is about to examine
it for the sake of discovering its various inmates, he has
still no savoury task before him. Armed with his sieve
and a bucket or two, he expends a vast amount of time
in breaking up the tenacious substance and washing it
through the sieve, until all the mud runs through the
meshes, and all its inhabitants are left in the sieve.
Should the locality be judiciously chosen, the ex¬
plorer is fully repaid for his trouble, inasmuch as the
mud is the favoured habitation of a vast number of
animals belonging to different classes, such as mol¬
luscs, Crustacea, and worms. He will thus obtain spe¬
cimens of shells such as cannot be procured in any
other manner, and will be able to secure the living
animal as well as the empty shell — the former being,
indeed, the more valuable to a true zoologist. But he
must previously make up his mind that he will have
to undergo such discomfort as none but a true and
earnest zoologist would voluntarily endure ; and if he
thinks to gain the treasures without working hard for
them, he will find himself grievously mistaken.
Perhaps the powers of mud are never so well deve¬
loped as is the case when the explorer has allowed his
enthusiasm to overpower his judgment, has forgotten
that the tide is ebbing, and has allowed his boat to be
“ hung up ” on a mudbank. From such a situation
there is no escape. Were the boat surrounded with
water, it would be possible to swim on shore ; but when
it is surrounded with mud of treacherously smooth
surface and unknown depth, there is no help for it
but to wait for the next tide. I have had several
narrow escapes from this mishap, and not long before
writing these words was nearly placed in a very awk¬
ward predicament.
A NARROW ESCAPE.
41
One of my friends, in whose yacht I often take a
cruise, had anchored his vessel in the Medway while
the tide was still flowing, and proposed a pull in the
dingy, for the purpose of investigating some of the
innumerable creeks of that river. We pulled through
several creeks, and at last rested on our oars in one,
for the purpose of watching a kingfisher that was
sitting on a stump and peering into the water for a
passing fish. Suddenly I was startled by a shout
from my friend, with an order to pull as hard as pos¬
sible. I did so, though not knowing why, but soon
learned the reason. There was a bar at each end of
the creek, and while we had been lying on our oars,
the tide had turned and was fast ebbing.
My companion had caught a glimpse of the bar at
one end, and so tried the other, in hopes that it might
be lower, and allow the boat to pass over. It was
lower, but the keel scraped a deep groove as we
crossed it, and in another five minutes it would have
been impassable. Had those few minutes been lost,
we should have been imprisoned in an open boat from
3.30 p.m. to 3 a.m., without a morsel of food or a
drop of water on board, without any clothes except
the usual sailor suit, and with a sharp N.E. breeze
that quite chilled the fingers when we ceased from
rowing.
Ever since that time we have been most careful of
the tide, and the owner of the boat vowed that she
should not leave the yacht for five minutes without
some potted meat, some biscuit, a jar of water, a box
of matches, and a couple of warm rugs.
In spite, however, of its adhesiveness, its colour,
and its odour, the mud has one advantage. It acts
as a kind of marine soap, and does really cleanse the
hands thoroughly, a property which is very useful
when one is out for a cruise, and the supply of fresh
water on board runs short.
42
CHAPTER V.
THE DONACID® OE WEDGE-SHELLS, AND THEIR GENERAL FORM — THE
COMMON WEDGE-SHELL — STRUCTURE OE THE ANIMAL— THE SIPHONS, AND
ANALOGY WITH THE ASCIDIANS — HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE SPECIES —
USUAL COLOUR — THE POLISHED WEDGE-SHELL AND ITS PRETTY COLOUR¬
ING — THE TROUGH-SHELLS — REASON FOR THE NAME— THE RiDIATED
TROUGH-SHELL — ITS BEAUTIFUL HINGE — THE ELLIPTICAL TROUGH-SHELL
— FORM OF THE ANIMAL — THE BLUNT TROUGH-SHELL — WHY SO CALLED—
THE OTTER-SHELLS — UNCERTAINTY OF THEIR POSITION — DIFFICULTY OF
CLASSING THEM — HABITS OF THE OTTER-SHELLS — THE OVAL OTTER-SHELL
— ITS DIMENSIONS AND GENERAL SHAPE — THE OBLONG OTTER-SHELL —
— WHERE FOUND — STRUCTURE OF THE HINGE — THE CARPET-SHELLS, AND
ORIGIN OF THEIR NAME — THE BANDED CARPET-SHELL — DIFFICULTY OF
OBTAINING IT — ITS BEAUTIFUL AND VARIABLE COLOURING - STRUCTURE
OF THE HINGE — ITS FAVOURITE LOCALITIES — THE GOLDEN CARPET-SHELL,
AND ITS COLOURS — THE GROOVED CARPET-SHELL — EXPLANATION OF A
SCIENTIFIC TERM— DEFORMED SHELLS — THE LITTLE CARPET-SHELL ; ITS
FORM, SCULPTURE, AND COLOUR — THE SMOOTH CYTHEREA — HOW RECOG¬
NISED, AND WHERE OBTAINED — THE BANDED VENUS-SHELL — ITS FORM
AND VARIABLE COLOURING — THE WART VENUS-SHELL— ORIGIN OF ITS
NAME — THE STRIPED VENUS — DELICATE SCULPTURE OF ITS SURFACE —
WAMPUM ; WHERE OBTAINED AND HOW MANUFACTURED.
The next group is that which is called Don acid a?,
or Wedge- shells, on account of their three-cornered,
wedge-like shape. They are all sand-burrowers, and
none of them are of any great size.
One of the most plentiful British species, the
Common Wedge-shell ( Donax anatinus ), is repre¬
sented at Plate III., fig. 13, in order to show the
remarkably stout and powerful foot, the frilled mantle,
and the long diverging siphons with their fringed
ends. The foot is usually of some tint of yellow, and the
siphons are pale orange. It is easy to distinguish the
offices of the two siphons, provided that the specimen
be fresh, for the fringe of the inferent siphon is formed
of eight projections, while the efferent orifice has only
six. The reader will remember that these terms
WEDGE-SHELLS.
43
have already been explained on page 7. It is rather
remarkable that the comparatively imperfect Ascidian
should have the two siphons distinguished in pre¬
cisely the same manner as those of the Wedge-shell.
This species may easily be distinguished from its
congeners by opening it and examining the inner
edge of the valves. If the finger be run along them
it will encounter a peculiar roughness, which pro¬
ceeds from a series of very short but very decided
grooves wdiich surround the inner edge, and look
something like the “ milling ” on the edge of a new
sovereign. The hinge is shown at page 25, fig. 13, in
order to exhibit the small and diverging teeth.
The colour is usually pale olive, streaked with more
or less of brown, and a number of very various white
lines are drawn from the hinge to the edge, so as to
present a radiated aspect. The exterior of the shell is
covered with a thin, smooth, and shining membrane,
to which much of the colour is owing ; and when this
membrane is removed, the shell itself is seen to be
whitish with a little lilac. The inside of the shell is
rather variable in colour.
This is a small species, a full-grown specimen being
usually rather more than an inch in length. It is
extremely common, and as it only resides at the depth
of two or three inches, is frequently found.
At fig. 11, Plate III., is depicted the shell of
another species, the Polished Wedge-shell (Donax
politus ) .
This is a remarkably pretty species, and may be at
once recognised by the broad white band which pro¬
ceeds from the hinge towards the hinder end of the
shell. This white band is found in all specimens of
this shell, although the colour may vary from yellow
to brown. This colour is partly caused by the mem¬
brane or epidermis, which has been already described.
A very pretty specimen now before me is mostly
yellowish brown, with four or five narrow whitish
44
TROUGH-SHELLS.
streaks drawn round the valves, following the line of
their edges. The broad white band which crosses the
shell is in this specimen made more conspicuous by a
patch of chesnut-brown through which it passes, and
which reaches to the edge of the shell.
The next group is called Mactridas, or Trough-
shells, from a fancied resemblance between the empty
valves and a baker’s kneading-trough. All these
shells inhabit sandy shores, and are found at the
depth of an inch or two from the surface. The foot
is very extensible, so that the animal can use it for
progression, and move about with some little activity.
The typical species, the Radiated Trough-shell
(Mactra stultorum ), is represented at Plate III.,
fig. 1 5, of the ordinary size. This is a very common
shell, often found on the shore, and consequently a
favourite with young collectors. In colouring, it is
one of the most variable of shells, being of every
shade from ashen olive to brown. But, however
variable may be the ground colour of the shell, it is
always notable for a number of white bands that
radiate from the hinge to the edge, and have given to
the shell its popular name.
The arrangements of the hinge are most elaborate
and beautiful, the shelly processes which support
the elastic cartilage, and which press against it, being
extended along the greater part of the back of the
shell. This structure is shown at page 25, fig. 12.
In order to show the form of the animal, another
species has been drawn at Plate III., fig. 12, which
may be called the Elliptical Trough-shell ( Mactra
ellijpticd). Its long, pointed foot may there be seen,
as well as the rather stout siphons. This species is
moderately convex and decidedly triangular in form,
and has its surface comparatively smooth. Another
species, shown at Plate III., fig. 14, is the Blunt
Trough-shell ( Mactra truncata ), so called from the
manner in which it is flattened at either side, so as to
OTTER-SHELLS. 45
present a heart-shaped mark at each side of the
hinge.
It is a very convex shell, and its surface is covered
with rather deep and very regular grooves, each
groove following the line of the edge. Indeed, the
whole outline of the shell is almost exactly that of a
very thick axe-head, much rounded towards the spot
where it is fitted to the handle. It is a tolerably
plentiful shell, especially on the northern coasts of
England, but is seldom taken except with the dredge
or trawl.
On Plate II., fig. 8, is drawn a shell which has
some very curious characteristics.
If compared with the two figures immediately
above, it will be seen that a very strong resem¬
blance exists between the three, so that they appear
to belong to the same group of shells. The general
shape of the shell is very similar ; the siphon tubes are
formed after a similar manner, and a membranous
tube envelopes them and extends over the shell itself.
On account of these points of resemblance, this shell
has by many writers been classed with the Gaper-
shells ; indeed, the resemblance between the animal of
the Gaper-shell, and that of the Otter-shell, as this
creature is popularly named, is so palpable, and their
habits are so similar, that we should be justified in
classing them together, if we only considered the
animal and not the shell.
But, unfortunately for those who think that it is
one of the Gapers, the shell has all the characteristics
of a Trough- shell, and therefore has a kind of right
to be ranked among that group. This knotty problem
is as yet undecided, and I have therefore followed the
arrangement of Messrs. Forbes and Hanley, and placed
it with the latter group.
As is implied by the scientific title, Lutraria, the
Otter-shells inhabit the mud, into which they burrow
deeply, exactly as do the Gapers, and this habit affords
one reason why they are not seen more frequently in
46
HINGE OP THE OTTER-SHELL.
the cabinets of ordinary collectors, although their
great size renders them so conspicuous. The com¬
monest species, Lutraria elliptic^ , or the Oval Otter-
shell, sometimes measures more than five inches in
length and three in width, so that it may fairly claim
the honour of being one of the largest British shells.
A specimen now before me is almost five inches in
length, and as the substance is thick and solid, its
weight is by no means inconsiderable.
The general aspect of the shell is very similar to
that of the Gaper, and the resemblance is increased
by the manner in which it gapes at both ends. From
one end protrude the siphons, which are united
throughout their length, and from the other emerges
the large and powerful foot, by which the animal is
enabled to traverse its muddy tunnel. The colour of
the siphon- tubes is white at the base, changing to
yellow at the extremity. The colour of the shell
itself is greyish white, but it is mostly covered with a
membrane of an olive-brown colour, and is often
stained so deeply with the mud that its original hue
is quite destroyed. The inside of the shell is white,
with a very slight tinge of bluish grey, like white china.
The hinge of the Otter-shell bears a very close re¬
semblance to that of the Trough-shells, as may be
seen by reference to the engraving on page 25. At
the upper part of the illustration is an outline of the
Oval Otter-shell, given for the purpose of showing
the hinge, as compared with the same part in the
Trough-shells. If, therefore, we rest our proofs on the
animal, the Otter-shells belong to the Gapers ; if on the
shell, they must be classed with the Trough-shells.
In this group there is a bold projection of shelly
substance, which is technically named the “ ful¬
crum, ’’ and somewhat resembles a spoon in shape.
Each valve possesses this fulcrum, but in the right
valve there is a strong, boldly projecting tooth, which
lodges in a corresponding pit or socket in the opposite
valve. In each fulcrum the hollow for the ligament
CARPET-SHELLS.
47
is rather deep, and adds much to the general spoon¬
like aspect. When the two valves are perfectly fitted
together, the working of the tooth in the socket can
easily be seen through the gaping end of the shell.
Those who wish to obtain specimens in good con¬
dition should examine the muddiest shores at low
water ; and if they will work at the task of disinter¬
ment, heedless of the various discomforts to which they
will be necessarily exposed, they may be tolerably
sure of success. The Oblong Otter-shell ( Lutraria
oblong a) is not so plentiful as its oval relative, but
may be found on our southern coasts, as well as on
the shores of Ireland. The latter species is remarkable
for the extremely deep mark left in the interior of the
shell by the muscle that holds the valves together.
It is a smaller species than the preceding, four inches
being the average length of a good specimen. It may
at once be distinguished by its curved or “ arcuated ”
outline.
We now come to a group which are called, from
their beauty, the Veneridse, or Venus-shells. Their
outer surfaces are more or less sculptured, and are
rendered very attractive by the colours with which
they are bedecked. They are strong, thick, solid, and
are of a porcelain-like look, something like many of
the univalves.
The first of the Venus-shells are those which are
called by a name which in the Latin signifies tapestry,
and which we may therefore term Carpet-shells.
They derive this name from the disposition of their
colours, which are arranged in patterns like the “ back¬
ground ” in tapestry.
At Plate IV., fig. 7, is represented the Banded
Carpet-shell ( Tapes Virginecina) , a species which is
seldom found by those who do not know how to look
for it, and is easily discovered by those who understand
its habits. Its colour is variable, but a pinkish hue
generally prevails. The surface of the shell is grooved
48
BANDED CARPET-SHELL.
with lines that follow the line of the edge, and is
marked by several deeper and wider grooves at about
a sixth of an inch apart. The beaks, however, are
quite smooth, and always much paler than the rest of
the shell. The interior of the shell is white, with
shades of pink or orange. In the specimen before me,
the colour is white at the edg:es, and becomes richlv
pink towards the hinge, the pure white teeth of which
afford a beautiful contrast of colour.
The teeth of the hinge, as well as the impression
made by the muscle on the shell, may be seen at fig. 3
of the accompanying illustration.
THE GROOVED CARPET-SHELL.
49
It is called the Banded Carpet-shell, because several
bars of a paler hue than the general colour of the
shell are drawn from the hinge to the edge, radiating
from each other as shown in the illustration.
In form, this shell is decidedly heart-shaped and
boldly convex. When opened, the structure of the
hinge is well worthy of notice, the boldly projecting
teeth fitting into each other just like the fingers of
the clasped hands, and effectually preventing the
valves from moving in a wrong direction.
This species is one of the mud-lovers, and prefers
deep water, seldom being found where the water is
less than forty feet in depth, and having been dredged
up from a depth of nearly nine hundred feet. The
best specimens are said to be taken at Guernsey.
At Plate IV., fig. 9, is shown another species of
this group, named the Golden Carpet-shell ( Tapes
aurea), from its yellow hue. In this species yellow is
always the prevailing hue, just as is pink with the
Banded Carpet-shell. The yellow, however, is of ex¬
tremely various tints, and in some specimens fades
into an almost pure white. In some examples it is
variegated with reddish brown, and in a specimen now
before me there are several vague bands of grey. The
inside of the shell is generally of the same hue as the
exterior, but is of a duller character.
A very conspicuous example of this group is given
at Plate IV., fig. 14, which we may term the Grooved
Carpet-shell (Tapes decussata ), on account of the
numerous grooves which traverse the shell in two
opposite directions, so as to divide its surface into a
number of very small compartments.
As the term “ decussata ” is one which is frequently
used in conchology, I will explain it as briefly as pos¬
sible. To say that a shell is decussated does not
convey very definite ideas to those who are not versed
in the language of science, any more than does the
well-known explanation of the word, “ network,” i.e.?
E
50
THE LITTLE CARPET-SHELL.
anything reticulated or decussated, with interstices
between the intersections. The word “ decussated” is
derived from the Latin word signifying the number 10,
and is used to express the effect produced by lines
crossing each other like the two crossing strokes of
the lettei X, which represents the number 10. The
direction of the strokes is of no consequence, provided
that they cross each other. Thus the surface of a file
may be said to be decussated, and the same term may
be applied to the “ cross-hatching” of line engravings,
and to the figure which idle schoolboys are fond
of drawing on their slates when they ought to be
employed on some more useful study.
If the reader will now refer to the illustration, he
will see that the term “ decussata” is very appropri¬
ately given to this shell, the surface being crossed by
narrow furrows running nearly at right angles to each
other. The colour is pale orange-brown, with more
or less red, according to the locality in which the shell
is found. The most highly-coloured specimens are
obtained from the shores of the Mediterranean, where
they are used for food. It is generally found in the
mud, at such a depth that the dredge can seldom
touch it, and it must therefore be dug out with a
spade. At page 48, fig. 1, is shown a distorted variety
of this shell, the deformity being caused by its pene¬
tration into some hard substance.
At fig. 12 of the Plate IV. is shown the Little
Carpet-shell ( Tapes 'pullastra). This shell appears
at first to be nearly smooth, but when examined
closely it is seen to be covered with grooves arranged
like those of the last-mentioned species, but so fine
and delicate that they look as if drawn by the point of
a needle. It is a small species, rarely exceeding an
inch and a half in length. The colour is dirty white
outside and polished white within, mostly diversified
with a large violet spot at the end. As is the case
with the Grooved Carpet-shell, this species is often
THE VENUS-SHELLS.
51
distorted in form by boring into hard substances, and
a figure of such a deformed shell is given at page 48,
fig. 2.
The large and conspicuous figure at Plate IV.,
fig. 3, represents the Smooth Cytherea ( Cytherea
cl done ), the only British example of its genus. This
handsome shell can at once be recognised by its shape,
its smooth, chesnut surface, banded with a paler hue,
and the boldly-shaped muscular depression of the in¬
terior, with its deep pit at either end. This structure
is well shown at page 48, fig. 5. Sometimes this fine
shell measures more than three inches in length,
though two inches and a half is the usual average.
It is seldom picked up, on account of its love for deep
waters, but is obtained by means of the dredge, mostly
off the western and southern coasts of England.
The animal, which is also shown, is a good example
of the group to which it belongs, with its large, power¬
ful foot, and its slightly diverging siphons.
We now come to the true Venus-shells, several of
which are inhabitants of the British shores. The first
on our list is the Banded Venus ( Venus fasciata ),
which is represented on Plate IV., fig. 1, and which
may be known by the bold ridges which traverse its
surface, and the broad, pale bands that run from the
hinge to the edge, widening as they go. It is a small
species, being represented of its natural size, and is
thick, solid, and very heavy in proportion to its size.
Its colour is extremely variable, taking every tint
from orange to brown, and the size and number of the
pale bands differ in almost every individual. Inside,
it is white, and generally has an orange-brown mark
running from the hinge to the end of the shell. It is
a very common species.
A strong contrast to the Banded Venus is found in
the Wart Venus (Venus verrucosa ), Plate IV., fig.15.
e 2
52
WAMPUM.
This shell is still heavier and more solid than the pre¬
ceding, and is at once known by the very deep fur¬
rows that traverse its exterior, and are irregularly
broken so as to produce the appearance which is ex¬
pressed in its popular name. The colour is usually
pale-brown, with a little red here and there, and the
inside is generally white like white porcelain. At
page 48, tig. 8, is drawn the inside of this shell, for
the purpose of showing the great thickness of the
shell, the wart-like protuberances into which the deep
grooves are fashioned, and the form of the muscular
depression. This shell is usually found on our southern
shores.
At Plate IV., fig. 2, is seen the Striped Venus
( Venus striatula ), a small species, about an inch in
length, which has caused great discussions among
entomologists. This shell is deeply furrowed, but the
grooves are narrow, closely set, and look as if they
had been made by taking a needle, holding it diagon¬
ally, and “ scoring” the shell with its point. Its colour
is usually of a very pale grey-brown, diversified with
several broad pale bands, which are drawn over the
shell from the beak to the edges. It is a very com¬
mon shell, and is thrown up in large quantities by the
tide.
Before leaving these shells, I may mention that
the well-known “wampum” of the North American
Indians is made from one of these shells, Venus mer-
cenaria, which we may therefore call the Wampum
Venus. The empty shells are thrown on the shore,
and are bored and fashioned into necklaces, the rarity
of the shell giving a value to the ornament.
CHAPTER VI
THE BATED AKTEMIS — MYTHS AND SHELLS — STRENGTH OF THE ARTEMIS —
A CURIOUS SPECIMEN — THE SMOOTH ARTEMIS— ORIGIN OF ITS NAME — SUR¬
FACE OF THE SHELL — THE ORPHAN-SHELL: A ZOOLOGICAL ENIGMA —
LOCALITIES WHERE IT IS FOUND — DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SHELLS — THE
LITTLE CIRCE-SHELL — ITS VARIABLE FORM AND COLOUR — THE FURROWED
ASTARTE ; HOW DISTINGUISHED — LOCALITIES OF THE SPECIES — THE FLAT
ASTARTE-SHELL — THE HEART-SHELLS — THE ONLY BRITISH SPECIES — THE
HEART COCKLE ; ITS PECULIAR FORM — A NATURAL ANCHOR — THE TRUE
COCKLES; ORIGIN OF THEIR NAME — THE EDIBLE COCKLE, AND ITS CURI¬
OUSLY FRINGED TUBES — THE RED-NOSE COCKLE; ITS POWERS OF LEAP¬
ING — VALUE AS AN ARTICLE OF FOOD — METHOD OF PREPARING IT - THE
BANDED COCKLE AND PIGMY COCKLE — HOW TO DISTINGUISH THEM — THE
NORTHERN LUCINA — SHAPE AND USE OF THE FOOT - THE KELLY-SHELLS
— DIFFICULTY OF IDENTIFYING THEM — THEIR FOOT, AND MODE OF
PROGRESSION - THE LITTLE MULLET-SHELL — ORIGIN OF ITS NAME - ITS
DIMENSIONS AND LOCALITY - THE GLOBOSE KELLY-SHELL — ITS GENERAL
HABITS— LOCALITIES WHERE IT IS FOUND — ITS COLOUR — THE SHINING
KELLY-SHELL — HOW TO DISTINGUISH IT — THE SCALY COIN-SHELL — ITS
REMARKABLE FORM, COLOUR, AND SURFACE — FORM OF THE ANIMAL
— ITS FRINGED MANTLE - THE CONVEX COIN-SHELL — ITS WONDERFUL
COLOURING - THE WHITE WEASEL-SHELL — ITS CURIOUS HABITS — FORM
AND COLOUR OF THE SHELL AND ITS INHABITANT.
At Plate IV., fig. 13, is given a figure of the Rayed
Artemis (. Artemis exoleta). All the individuals of this
genus belong to the Venus-shells ; and the classical
reader will not fail to remark, that most of the shells
which belong to this large group are either called by
the name of Venus, or by one of the many local nameg
by which that deity was anciently known, or by the
name of some other mythical goddess. In all the
Artemis-shells the hinge is remarkably powerful, being
strengthened by three stout . diverging teeth in one
valve and four in the other.
The Rayed Artemis is necessarily drawn on a very
small scale, inasmuch as a full-grown specimen would
occupy half the plate if drawn of its full size. In
54
ARTEMIS-SHELLS.
substance it is thick and solid and weighty, and is
capable of enduring much rough usage without suffer¬
ing much damage. A proof of its strength may be
found in the fact that a specimen now before me has
lain in the sea for so long a time after the death of
the animal, that the inside as well as the outside is
covered with the tubes of the common triquetra ; yet
the shell is in thoroughly good condition, the hinge-
teeth, the muscular impression, the grooved surface,
and the alternate pink and cream coloured rays, being
as perfect as if the animal had only just been removed
from the shell.
It is a rather pretty shell, the exterior being always
of a pinky hue, sometimes fading to cream colour, and
being diversified with broad, widening bands of white,
as is seen in the illustration. It is very plentiful on
most of our coasts, and is found at various depths.
At page 48, fig. 6, is shown the inside of one of the
valves, with the strong hinge-teeth and the muscular
impression.
The only other British species of this genus, the
Smooth Artemis (. Artemis lincta), is shown at fig. 4,
together with the curiously-formed animal.
This is a smaller species than the last, from which
it may easily be distinguished by the greater smooth¬
ness of its surface, and the absence of the beautiful
radiating bands. It is by no means a striking shell
at first sight, though a close examination will show
that the exterior is covered with innumerable con¬
centric lines, drawn so delicately and closely together
that they are hardly perceptible except when viewed
with a magnifier. The colour is always dull, and in
the specimen from which the illustration was drawn
it is very pale creamy grey.
The shell which is represented at Plate IV., fig. 11,
has sadly puzzled the systematic conchologists, some
of whom thought it to be a Venus, others an Artemis,
EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 55
and others a Lncina. As, however, it disagrees in
some points with all of these shells, it is placed in a
genus by itself, and is called Lucinopsis, because it
looks like a Lucina. We will call it the Orphan-
shell ( Lucinopsis undata ).
Some persons say that this shell is inelegant in
shape, but I cannot agree with them, thinking that its
outline is as pleasing and its curves as graceful as
those of any other shell in the British seas. The
surface is a very pale fawn-colour, fading to white
on many parts, and is traversed by many concentric
lines, which are nearly as fine as those of the /Smooth
Artemis, but which are more conspicuous, on account
of the ridges which traverse the shell in the same
direction as the lines.
It is a fragile shell, and, although it is very plenti¬
ful, is seldom found in a perfect condition. Some¬
times it may be seen flung upon the shore after a
violent storm, and in that case the animal may be
taken alive. As may be seen by reference to the
illustration, the siphons are slight, and only protrude
to a short distance from the shell. At page 48, fig 4,
is drawn the inside of the valve, in order to show the
peculiar teeth and the muscular impression.
If the reader will look at the illustration on page 48,
and refer to figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, he will see that the line
of the impression is notable for a deep bay, or, in
scientific terms, the “ pallial impression is deeply
sinuated but if he will then examine the remaining
figures, he will see that the line of the impression is
simply curved, without any bay. As this fact proves
that the animals which form the shells must be of dif¬
ferent shapes, it has afforded to conchologists a reason
for making them into a separate family, in spite of
the resemblance of the shells.
• Here I may mention, that in illustrations the dis¬
tinctive marks, such as the scars, impressions, &c., are
much more clearly defined than in the actual speci-
56
THE CYPRINA-SHELLS.
men. For example, in the shell which we are now
examining ( Oy prince Islandica), one valve of which is
shown at page 48, fig. 7, a novice would fail to per¬
ceive the peculiar form of the impression, although to
an accustomed eye it is marked with more than ordi¬
nary decision. In order to follow this all-important
line, the shell must be held obliquely to the light, and
then turned about, so as to indicate the course of the
line by the different reflection which is cast from it.
The teeth, too, and the form of the beak, are neces¬
sarily more distinct in the illustration than in the
actual object, because the artist endeavours to mark
the peculiar characteristics as strongly as possible,
while in the real object the eye is often distracted by
the multitude of other points, such as colour, reflec¬
tions, and projections, and finds a difficulty in discri¬
minating between them.
The Cyprina-shells are common enough, for they
are tolerably plentiful in point of numbers, and lie in
places where they can easily be detected. The Ice¬
land Cyprina is a stoutly-made shell, attaining consi¬
derable size, sometimes being as much as five inches
in length and scarcely less in breadth. The surface
is covered with a strong membrane of a dark olive-
brown colour, which clings tightly to the shell, and
cannot easily be removed. When, however, it is flaked
off, the cream-white shell is seen beneath. The whole
surface is covered wdth fine concentric lines, and a
few spots of darker brown are scattered in irregular
bands. It is most plentiful on the northern coasts of
England, though it is found on all our shores, some¬
times being taken at very low tides by the hand in a
living state.
A figure of the perfect shell, together with the inha¬
bitant, is given in Plate V., fig. 3.
At Plate IV., fig. 5, is drawn of the natural size a
little shell which must be sought by the aid of the
dredge, and which, since the use of that instrument
TIIE ASTARTE-SHELLS. 57
has become so general, has losfc its character for
rarity.
The scientific name for this species is Circe minima ,
which we may translate as the Little Circe-shell.
To distinguish this shell by means of colour is impos¬
sible, as it is so variable that scarcely two specimens
are found exactly alike, their outer surfaces being
sometimes pure white, sometimes lilac, sometimes
brown, sometimes pale pink, and often covered with
spots and blotches of other hues. The specimen now
before me is almost entirely pale dun, enlivened by a
redder hue which marks many of the tiny ridges that
surround the outer surface of the valves. The best
mode of identifying this shell is by the teeth and
impressions, which are seen at page 48, fig. 11 ; the
right-hand figure being drawn of the natural size, in
order to show the form of the impressions, and the
left-hand figure being much enlarged, to show the
hinge and threefold teeth.
Another of the innumerable titles by which Venus
was known designates the little group of shells which
comes next on our list. At Plate IV., fig. 6, is a
portrait of the Furrowed Astarte-shell ( Astarte sul¬
cata), together with the animal which formed it. The
animal is small, not exceeding the valves in size, and
its siphon- tubes do not project beyond the edges of
the shell. The foot, however, is tolerably long, and
projects freely beyond the edge.
Although an extremely variable species, both in
form and colour, the Furrowed Astarte may be recog¬
nised by the alternate ridges and grooves which are
drawn over its entire surface, and by its general con¬
vexity. The ridges are remarkably bold, and very
much resemble the grooving upon a boy’s pegtop.
Another peculiarity is easily seen as soon as the side
of the shell is inspected. If the reader will refer to
page 48, fig. 9, he will see that a peculiar grooving or
“ erenation ” runs round the inside edge, being, in-
58
HEART COCKLE.
deed, so strongly marked, that it can be detected by
touch as easily as by sight.
This is a small shell, seldom exceeding an inch and
a half in length. It is found on all parts of our coast,
frequenting, as do most of its allies, the spots where
sand and mud are mixed. It must, however, be sought
with the dredge, as it is seldom found in less than
thirty or forty feet of water.
Another species, the Flat Astarte-shell ( Astarte
compressa) , is represented at Plate IV., fig. 8. It may
be known by the flatter form, the yellow-brown colour
of the membrane with which the shell is enveloned,
the smooth inner edges of the valves, and the sharp,
prominent beaks. Perhaps there is no shell which is
more variable than this species ; and even the most
accomplished concliologists are forced to rely for their
description on negative rather than positive charac¬
teristics. It is a very small species, seldom more
than half an inch in length. It is an useful species
for the beginner, as the scars and impressions are so
boldly marked rhat their shape is distinguishable at a
We now come to those remarkable bivalves which
are popularly called Heart-shells. The best known
species, the common PIeart Cockle ( Isocordia cor), is
shown at Plate IV., fig. 21, as it appears when in a
living state.
There is only one British species of this well-
marked group, and the peculiar formation of the shell
is so decided that it cannot possibly be mistaken.
The shell is thick, stout, solid, and weighty in pro¬
portion to its size, and is easily known by its rotund
shape and the manner in which the beaks are curved.
In order that the reader may be able to recognise this
portion of the shell, a figure of the boldly-curved
beaks is given in the accompanying illustration, fig. 8.
Immediately above this figure is drawn another, which
represents the inside of one of the valves, in order
USE OF THE FOOT. 59
to show the rounded shell and the muscular impres¬
sion.
The colour of the Heart Cockle is rather variable,
owing to the membranous covering or “epidermis”
in which it is enveloped, and which is of various
shades of yellow and brown. If this be removed, the
shell is seen to be white, traversed by complicated
patterns of reddish dun.
Although the two valves can be closed so tightly
that sufficient water is retained between for moist¬
ening the breathing apparatus when the creature is
removed from the water, and so keeping the animal
alive for several days, it can use its small but powerful
foot to great advantage. This portion of the animal
answers the purpose of an anchor, and by being buried
in the mud and sand, holds the shell so tightly in its
place, that even the storm-lashed waves cannot tear
it from its hold. Moreover, storms have little effect
in the depths where the Heart Cockle best loves to
dwell ; and accordingly, large and handsome speci¬
mens may be obtained by a judicious use of the
dredge.
By an easy transition, we now come to the true
60
THE COCKLES.
Cockle-shells. The Cockles form a very large group,
and it is worthy of notice that the heart-like shape
which characterises the generality of the family has
given rise to the scientific name of Cardiadee, or
Heart-shaped Shells, by which they are scientifically
known. At least two hundred species of Cockles are
known, and the researches of travellers are yearly
increasing the numbers of this important group.
The best-known species is the Edible Cockle ( Gar -
clium edule), which is so plentiful on our shores, and
is so familiar as an article of diet. A drawing of the
interior of the shell is given at page 59, fig. 3 ; and at
3* of the same illustration is seen the deeply-fringed
termination of the tubes.
A less-known species, the Red-nose Cockle (Gar-
dium rusticum) , is shown at Plate IV., fig. 19. Here
are seen the shell, the small siphon-tubes, and the
large foot -which answers so well as an anchor. This
part of the body is of a bright scarlet colour, and in
consequence of its hue and shape, has earned for its
owner the sarcastica'l title of Red-nose. It is a power¬
ful organ, enabling its owner to leap to a considerable
distance. In hue and polish it much resembles a
piece of common red sealing-wax. Like the Edible
Cockle, this species is much used for food, and when
properly cooked is very excellent for the table, as I
can testify from personal experience. Care, however,
must be taken in cleansing the animal thoroughly, by
long immersion and thorough washing in spring-
water, as an uncleansed cockle is gritty and very dis¬
agreeable to the teeth.
At fig*. 17 is shown a single valve of the Banded
Cockle ( Car dium fasciatum) , a very little species,
rarely exceeding half an inch in length, and having
very thin and fragile valves. It derives its name from
the wavy brown bands which are drawn upon the
white shell, as shown in the illustration.
Another small species, the Plgmy Cockle (Car dium
THE BYSSUS.
61
pygmceum), is shown at Plate IV., fig. 16. This shell
is rather smaller than the Banded Cockle, and may be
distinguished by the absence of the brown bands, the
nearly triangular form, and the solidly-made shell. It
is mostly found on our southern shores, just below the
line of low- water.
We now come to a large group of shells, called the
Lucina-shells. They are scattered over the greater
part of the world, but are found most plentifully in
the hot and temperate seas, residing upon sand mixed
with mud. None of them have projecting siphon-
tubes.
A good example of the typical genus, the Northern
Lucina (Lucina borealis) is given at Plate IV., fig. 18,
in order to show the exterior of the shell ; and the in¬
terior is seen at page 48, fig. 10. As will be immedi¬
ately noticed, the hinder muscular scar is large, and
very long in proportion to its width, and the impres¬
sion is without any bay. The foot of this species is
very long and slender, and probably answers as an
anchor whereby the animal can fix itself in the sand.
The colour of the outside is white, but as the valves
are covered with a yellow or grey membrane, the real
hue does not at first appear. Inside, the shell is
white, and there are two hinge-teeth in each valve.
The group of shells which now comes before us is
small, so variable in form and colour at different
periods of their lives, that identification is by no
means an easy matter, and mostly having very fragile
shells.
When the animal can be obtained with the shell, to
identify it is not so difficult, as the distinguishing
characteristics of the animals are better defined than
those of the shells. They are remarkable for having
but one siphonal opening, and they all possess a
grooved foot, from which proceeds the remarkable
silken cable which is technically named the “ byssus.’
62
THE MULLET-SHELLS.
A very good example of this byssus is to be found in
the common edible mussel. By means of the foot it
can proceed at a tolerable pace, not gliding smoothly
onwards like the snails and slugs, but pushing the
foot forwards, attaching it to some object, then draw¬
ing itself by the contraction of the foot, and repeating
this process until it has arrived at its destination.
This family is named Kelliadae, being a barbarised
form of the Irish name, 0 ’Kelly. I have so often ex¬
pressed my opinion upon this increasing system of
nomenclature, that I need not repeat it here.
One of these shells is represented at Plate IV.,
fig. 20. The scientific name is Turtonia minuta ; but
we will term it the Little Mullet-shell, because it
is commonly found in the stomachs of mullets. Here
I may remark, that the experienced zoologist always
opens the stomachs of fish which he has caught, in
order to see what they have been eating. In many
cases the examination not only proves the nature of
the diet, but is the cause of discovering specimens
which could scarcely be found in any other way.
This is a very tiny shell, so small, indeed, that the
drawing is necessarily magnified in order that the
form might be shown. Pew specimens exceed a
twelfth of an inch in length, and many fall short of
this measurement. In order to give a correct idea of
the true length of this shell, I may mention that the
capital letter O is about the size of an average speci¬
men. The shell is exceedingly thin, purple-brown in
hue, pale towards the cap, and dark at the beak, and
so delicate as to be semi-transparent. It may be found
by looking among the roots of corallines and other
algae.
The inside of a much-magnified valve is shown at
page 59, fig. 5, in order to show the peculiar form of
the impression of the two rounded scars.
The typical genus of these shells is Kellia, which
we must simply translate as Kelly-shells. One of
THE COIN-SHELLS.
63'
their peculiarities is, that they have one efferent aper¬
ture instead of the corresponding siphon-tube, and that
the place of the other tube is taken by a prolongation
and folding of the mantle, as may be seen in Plate IV.,
tig. 10, which represents the Globose Kelly-sheli,
(Kellia sub orbicularis) . The specimen is represented
as it appears when suspended by its byssus, which is
a very slight thread, so delicate, indeed, as to be
almost invisible in water,’ although it is perfectly
capable of bearing the weight of a creature so small.
It can crawl about at will, and can move in any direc¬
tion, the tongue-like flexible foot adapting itself to
the requirements of its owner.
This species may be found in various localities, but
almost invariably in some sheltered situation, such as
the crevice of a rock, a hole in a stone, among the
twisted roots of sea-weed, or even in the hollows of
bivalves and other shells whose rightful inhabitants
have perished. In colour this pretty little shell is
white and nearly transparent, and in size it is rather
more than the third of an inch in length. A figure of
the inside of a valve is given at page 59, fig 4, in
which may be seen the resemblance to fig. 5.
Another species of this genus, the Shining Kelly-
shell ( Kellia nitida ), is shown at the same page,
fig. 1 ; and just below is given a much enlarged view
of the hinge, in order to exhibit the long single slant¬
ing tooth. The shell is white, but when quite fresh is
oclirey yellow, owing to the membrane with which it
is covered. This, however, disappears after a time*
and then the shell appears not only white, but semi¬
transparent.
There is an allied genus of shells, which are called
by the name Lepton, which signifies a flat coin; we
will therefore term them Coin-shells.
The most remarkable of the British species is
shown at Plate V., fig. 4. This is the Scaly Coin¬
shell ( [Lepton squamosum) , so called from the minute
64
THE WEASEL-SHELLS.
tubercles with which the whole surface is covered.
This most remarkable shell is nearly as flat as a shil¬
ling, very delicate, very transparent, very brittle, and
very white. On the outside it is rough, and when
examined through a lens, the roughness is seen to
consist of a vast number of tubercles, very much re¬
sembling shagreen. The inside of the shell is seen at
page 59, fig. 2.
If the reader will refer to Plate V., fig. 4, he will
see that the mantle of this species is very large, and
edged with a deep fringe, which passes beyond the
edges of the shell in every direction. The long pro¬
jection on the left hand is not the foot, but merely
one of the filaments of the fringe, which appears,
according to Mr. Alder, to act as a feeler, and to indi¬
cate to the animal the course which it is pursuing.
The large foot may be seen below, acting much like
the corresponding organ in the snail.
At Plate V., fig. 4#*, is given a single valve of
another species, the Convex Coin-shell (Lejpton con -
vexuni), a creature which has gained its name from
the slight convexity of its shell, in which it differs
much from the preceding species. The shell itself is
white, but when the animal is living, the valves are
enveloped with a membrane which gives out radiant
hues as of the opal, the colours changing from red to
green, like shot silk.
There is one genus of the shells which is named
Montacuta , in honour of Montagu, the celebrated natu¬
ralist. The hinge of this genus is drawn at page 59,
fig. 7, in order to show the diverging teeth.
The last of this group are those curious shells
which were fancifully called by a name which signifies
Weasel-eye, and which we will therefore call Weasel-
hells.
At Plate V., fig. 1, may be seen a specimen of the
White Weasel-shell ( Galeomma Turtoni ), in the
remarkable position which it loves to assume. Most
A CURIOUS ATTITUDE.
65
bivalves prefer to remain with closed valves, or at all
events only open them a very little way ; but the
Weasel-shell lays them widely open, and being an¬
chored by its byssus, lies in the curious attitude which
is shown in the illustration. A separate valve is shown
at fig. 2 of the same Plate. Both the shell and animal
are pretty, the first being pearly white, and the second
remarkable for a double row of round, eye-like spots
upon the edges of the mantle. It can walk with some
speed.
This pretty shell may be found on the southern
coasts of England, adherent to the roots and fronds
of the large sea-weeds, or concealed in the crevices of
rocks. _ It is represented of its natural size.
I
t
v
p
66
CHAPTER VII.
GRADATION OF MOLLUSCS — SOME FRESH -WATER SHELLS — THE NUT ORB-
SHELL — ITS FORM, COLOUR, AND LOCALITY — THE GLOBOSE ORB-SHELL
AND THE LAKE ORB-SHELL — FORM OF THE ANIMAL — TnE CAPPED ORE-
SHELL — ORIGIN OF ITS NAME — THE PEAEL-SnELLS — WHY SO CALLED,
AND WHERE FOUND — THE RIVER PEARL-SHELL — ITS FORM AND COLOUR
— THE ASHEN PEARL-SHELL, AND ITS SLIGHT CAP — THE FRESH-WATER
MUSSELS AND THEIR AFFINITIES — THE PAINTER’S MUSSEL — USE OF THE
SHELLS— THE SWAN MUSSEL — ITS VARIABLE COLOUR — POSITION IN RIVERS
— NUMBER OF ITS YOUNG — THE CHAMBERED MUSSEL — DERIVATION OF
ITS NAME — ITS RAPID SPREAD THROUGH ENGLAND — ITS FERTILITY — THE
PEARL MUSSEL — VALUE OF ITS PRODUCTS — THE EDIBLE MUSSEL — ITS
FORM, COLOUR, AND GENERAL HABITS — VALUE OF THE MUSSEL TO THE
FISHER} £N — THE MUSSEL AS USED FOR FOOD — POISONOUS MUSSELS —
CURIOUf- SYMPTOMS — AN INSUFFICIENT THEORY— -THE HORSE-MUSSEL —
ITS COLOUR AND HABITS— THE TULIP HORSE-MUSSEL — ORIGIN OF ITS
NAME- THE BEARDED AND PHEASANT HORSE-MUSSEL — HOW TO DISTIN¬
GUISH THEM— THE CRENELLA-SHELLS— REASON FOR THEIR TITLE — THE
GREEN CRENELLA-SHELL — ITS SMALL SIZE — SINGULAR HABITATION — THE
MARBLED CRENELLA — A REMARKABLE HARIT — THE BLACK CKENELLA, AND
ITS HABITArf— THE GROOVED CRENELLA — ITS MINUTE DIMENSIONS AND
DELICATE LHELL. .
As was mentioned in the Preface, the gradation of
molluscs is so regular, that we must include a few of
the fresh-water species, in order to avoid breaking the
connection too abruptly. Not only, for example, do
* the shells of the present group resemble in many im¬
portant points those of several species which have
already been mentioned, but several of them live so
close to the mouths of rivers that it is hardly possible 1
to say whether they belong to the aquatic or marine
group of shells. This group is called Cycladse, a name
which may be literally translated as Orb-shells.
At Plate V., fig. 7, is seen the Nut Orb-shell ( Cyclas
rtvularia),& small shell, very seldom an inch in length,
and yet the largest of the British species. It is olive-
ORB-SHELLS.
67
brown in colour, the olive becoming plainer towards
the hinge. It lives buried in the mud, and prefers
slow streams and lakes to swift rivers. It is an active
species, walking and climbing with ease. The Thames
is a favoured locality with this shell.
Another species, the Globose Orb-shell ( Cyclas-
cornea ), which is represented at Plate V., fig. 8, is a
stouter, thicker, and more globose shell than the pre¬
ceding. In colour it is somewhat darker, and the*
deeper brown of its general hue is relieved by the-
very narrow yellow bands which traverse the shell at
wide intervals. The hinge of this species is shown at
page 59, fig. 10.
At Plate V., fig. 9, is shown the Lake Orb-siielr
( Cyclas lacustris ), which is notable for inhabiting still
water. Its surface is ashen or yellowish grey, with
some rather indistinct rays towards the edge.
In order to exhibit the form of the animal, a figure
of another species, the Capped Orb-siiell ( Cyclas
caliculata') , is given at fig. 5.
This little shell derives its name from the curious
appearance of the beaks, which look exactly as if a
little cap of shelly matter had been j V ced artificially
upon them. The specimen in the illustration is drawn
of the ordinary size, and exhibits the peculiar cap, the
foot, and the siphonal tubes. Its colour is rather
variable, but is usually either brownish or reddish,
and in the latter case the beaks are decidedly black.
It is found in lakes and ponds, and although it is
scattered over the greater part of England, is not
very common in cabinets, because it requires much
care in the shell-hunter.
If the reader will carefully search the ponds, lakes,
still rivers, and ditches, he will probably find among
their inhabitants some of the pretty little Pearl-shells,
called scientifically Pisidia. Indeed, there is no better'
or safer method of learning zoology than adhering to-
one spot, and exhausting its living contents, of what-
r 2
68
PEARL-SHELLS.
ever kind they may be. The number of species that
are to be found in a single meadow, copse, or garden,
is really astonishing ; and by the time that they have
been identified, no small knowledge of natural history
will have been gained — knowledge, too, of a practical
as well as theoretical character, and which therefore
takes a far stronger hold of the mind than that which
is merely gained from books.
At Plate V., fig. 4#, is a valve of the River Pearl-
shell ( Pisiclium amnicum), drawn of the natural size.
All the Pearl-shells are very small, as may be gathered
from the fact that the present species is by far the
largest of them which inhabits British waters. This
shape alters with age, for when young it is much
flatter than when it has arrived at full age. The
colour, too, is slightly variable, though more in ap¬
pearance than reality. When in perfect condition,
the shell is a delicate grey, with a slight tinge of
yellow, and, owing to the extreme thinness of its
structure, is decidedly translucent. In most instances,
however, a coating of darkly-coloured substances dis¬
figures the definite yellow-grey, and renders the shell
nearly opaque. Sometimes the ashen-grey and yellow
are in alternate bands, the former tint being always
nearest the be A. The surface is covered with deli¬
cate lines, drav n consecutively and rather irregularly.
This is by no means a rare shell, though it is not
very often found, owing to its habit of sinking itself
almost entirely under the mud. The hinge is shown
at page 50, fig. 9. The animal has a very large and
long foot, and one siphon-tube.
Another species of this genus, the Ashen Pearl-
shell (Pisidium cineremn) , is shown at Plate V., fig. 6.
It is flatter than the preceding species, and is of a
nearly uniform ashen hue, owing to the colour of the
epidermis or membrane with which the valves are
covered. In some specimens the beaks are slightly
capped, like those of the Orb-shell already described.
The figure is drawn of the natural size.
FRESH-WATER MUSSELS.
69
We now come to the Fresh- water Mussels, a group
which is noticeable as showing the intimate connection
that exists between marine and aquatic shells. The
first on our list is the Painter’s River Mussel (JJnio
jpictorum ), so called because the shells were formerly
much in use for containing the more delicate colours
of painters. Even at the present day, silver and gold
are preserved in these shells for the use of artists and
illuminators in water-colours.
A specimen of this shell is shown at Plate V., fig. 11,
where the shells are drawn as they often appear in
the living state, namely, slightly open, with the large
foot projecting between the separated valves. The
inside of one of the valves is shown in the accom¬
panying illustration, fig. 2, showing the characteristic
hinge and scars. The exterior of the shell is covered
with an epidermis of a greenish yellow, running in
bands ; and the interior is pearly white, with a slight
tinge of blue.
At Plate V., fig. 10, is shown one of the commonest
species of these shells, namely, the Swan Mussel of
our rivers, lakes, and ponds. Its scientific name is
70
THE CHAMBERED MUSSEL.
Anodon cygnceus. It may easily be distinguished from
the preceding shell by the hinge, which is without a
tooth, as may be seen at page 69, fig. 4.
To describe precisely the shape or colour of this
shell is an impossible task, as it is as variable a shell
as can well be imagined, differing according to age,
locality, or other causes. This shell is a great nui¬
sance to fresh-water bathers who cannot swim, as it
has a way of lying in the bed of the river, with its
shells partially open, and the sharp edges of the valves
upwards, so that the feet are cut as with a double-
bladed knife. The shell being of a nacreous cha¬
racter on the inside, and decorated on the exterior
with a richly-coloured epidermis, can be made into a
very beautiful object by means of careful polishing.'
In my younger days, I used to take great numbers of
this handsome shell, and polish them in various ways,
sometimes taking off all the epidermis, and sometimes
leaving it in stripes and patches.
It is a very prolific species, as may be seen by
opening a few specimens in the spring and summer.
Within the valves lie a vast number of young, all
minute, but with shells of the most delicate structure
and almost perfect transparency. The average size
of a fine shell is four or five inches in length, but in
favourable localities they hnve been known to reach
the extraordinary length of six inches, and to be three
inches in width.
One of the best examples of a mollusc which is
equally at home in fresh, salt, and brackish water, is
to be found in the Chambered Mussel ( [Dreissena
polymorpha) , which is shown at Plate V., fig. 14, as it
appears when hanging by its byssus.
This remarkable mollusc has taken England by
storm, and, like the rat, has spread so rapidly through
-.he country into which it was casually imported, that
it has become in many cases far more common than
the original inhabitants. Although a fresh-water
SPREAD OE THE SPECIES. 71
species, it can endure a large admixture of salt, and
certainly for a time even endure existence in the sea.
As far as is known, it came to this country by ad¬
herence to the bottoms of ships in dock, clinging to
them while they crossed the sea, being scraped off
when they reached English docks, and then taking up
their habitation in the waters into which they were
flung.
It gets into the most unexpected situations. I
well remember my astonishment at finding, some
twenty years ago, a quantity of the Chambered Mussel
clinging to a drooping branch of the weeping willow
that bent its graceful twigs into the Clierwell. I was
tolerably familiar with the ordinary river shells, but
these molluscs puzzled me exccedingl}”. The fact was,
they had travelled up the canal, perhaps adherent to
barges, and had been washed down into the little
drain- streams that supply the river with much of its
contents. Sometimes they get into the pipes of water-
companies, and make their appearance in cisterns, the
basins of fountains, and other unexpected places.
Wherever it does appear, it never fails of attracting
attention, so conspicuous is it, and so great are its
numbers. In many rivers that are adorned by wil¬
lows, the roots extend into the water in long tufts of
delicate filaments that are called water fox-tails by
the children, and that very much resemble their pro¬
totype. To these roots the Chambered Mussel is fond
of clinging, and in many places is so plentiful that it
may be taken out by the handful. I have often lifted
a group which would fill an ordinary hat, and in
more favourable spots even larger assemblages may
be found.
The name of Chambered Mussel is derived from the
curious structure of the shell. If the reader will refer
to page 69, fig. 1, he will see that towards the beak
of the shell a plate of nacreous substance stretches
across the shell, so as to form a kind of chamber.
This structure is seen in both valves. Perhaps the
72
THE EDIBLE MUSSEL.
reader may not be aware that some of the Fresh¬
water Mussels are capable of producing pearls, and
that one species, JJnio Margaritiferus, or the Pearl
Mussel, is so prolific in these curious productions,
that regular fisheries were at one time established.
They were not particularly productive, inasmuch as
only one per cent, of shells produced a pearl, and only
one per cent, of the pearls was worthy of preservation.
Although the above-mentioned species has the
honour of being considered the pearl-producer of
Britain par excellence, and is mythologically supposed
to have furnished pearls for the British crown, other
species possess the same power, though perhaps in a
more limited degree. Even the Chambered Mussel can
produce pearls on an emergency, and the specimen
which has been depicted by the artist has done its
best to produce a genuine pearl. The specimen from
which the drawing is taken is now before me, and
shows the inchoate pearl projecting from the interior
of the shell, dull in colour, irregular in form, totally
worthless in the market, and looking very much like
a molluscan wart. Still, imperfect though it may
be, and useless to the jeweller, it is valuable to the
conchologist, as affording a clue to the manner in
which true pearls are formed.
We now come to the true Mussels, the typical ex¬
ample of which is the well-known Edible Mussel
(My tikis edulis ), which is so familiar to us in the fish¬
mongers’ shops and the baskets of the costermongers.
A figure of this species is given in Plate V., fig. 12,
Avhere may be seen the large siphonal aperture above,
and the long narrow foot below, with the byssus-
threads projecting from it. Everyone who has visited
the rocks at the sea-side, must have seen these crea¬
tures hanging together in such masses that their
shells blacken the white rock, and render it quite in¬
visible at a little distance. The colour of the shell
is generally a very deep violet, which is partially
VALUE OP THE MUSSEL.
73
obscured by a thin olive-brown epidermis, but which
can be brought out in all its beauty by a little rub¬
bing with fine emery-powder.
This is one of the most important molluscs which
the sea produces, even the oyster being scarcely of
less value to the nation ; for it is largely used as food,
being palatable, mostly nourishing, and sold at a cheap
rate. Its chief use, however, is for bait, its attractive
properties being well known to all those who have
had practical experience of sea-fishing. No one need
be in want of a bait as long as he can find a Mussel ;
and even when the lug-worm is employed, the Mussel
is often added to tempt the fish more powerfully. The
cod-fishers depend almost entirely on this mollusc for
success in their labours, and for their service alone
the Mussel is bred by millions in preserves technically
named “ gardens.”
The details of this animal and its economy are
extremely interesting ; but as space is valuable, and a
slight sketch would occupy many pages of our fast-
waning space, only a very few particulars can be
added.
Generally, the Mussel is a wholesome and nutritious
article of diet. I have made many an extemporised
luncheon upon this mollusc, opening one shell by
means of another, just as one walnut is cracked with
another. It is equally good when stewed, fried, scal¬
loped, or otherwise cooked ; but it has one drawback :
at distant intervals a batch of Mussels turns out to
be deleterious, and produces most unpleasant symp¬
toms in the consumers. They are attacked with a
singular variety of symptoms : they have nettle-rash
breaking out all over the body with astonishing ra¬
pidity ; they become giddy, are seized with a kind of
fit, and then fall insensible. Sometimes they are partly
paralysed, and sometimes they are seized with asthma.
In many cases, the symptoms have become so aggra¬
vated that the sufferer has been unable to bear up
against them, and has died.
74
THE HORSE-MUSSEL.
And the most remarkable part of the business is,
that no one knows the cause of these symptoms, no
one knows how to detect the poison-bearing Mussels,
and no one precisely knows how to give relief from
the suffering which this mysterious poison inflicts.
The popular idea — and it is certainly a specious one —
is, that the deleterious Mussels are those which have
been scraped off the copper bottoms of ships, and
have been sold by the labourers in the docks. But
as there are many instances where this remarkable
disorder has proceeded from Mussels that were un¬
doubtedly taken from rocks or out of “gardens,” this
theory falls to the ground. At page 69, fig. 6, may
be seen a figure of the interior of the shell.
Closely allied to the true Mussels is a group of
shells which, from their strong scent and flavour, are
not used as food, and are popularly known as Horse-
mussels. Their scientific title is Modiola. Many zoolo¬
gists have thought, and in my opinion rightly, that
these shells ought not to have been separated from
the preceding genus. The byssus which they spin is
remarkably strong, and in some species is so large
that it acts as a kind of covering or protection to the
shell. The best-known British example is the Common
Horse-mussel (Modiola modiolus), a figure of which is
given at Plate V., fig. 17, and an inner view of one of
the valves at page 59, fig. 5.
This species is not handsome, the shell being covered
with a stout brown epidermis, covered with wrinkles,
and with a slight gloss. The byssus of this species is
enormously large, and the animal often contrives to
weave together such a mass of the byssus-threads,
sand, and small stones, that the shell is completely
concealed, and its presence would not be suspected
by an unpractised eye. It prefers gravel, sand, and
mud, and lives so close to the shore that it is easily
taken by hand.
Another species of the same genus, the Tulip Horse*
CEENELLA-SHELLS.
75
mussel ( Modiola tulijpa), is figured at Plate V., fig. 23,
and has derived its popular name from the beautiful
colour of the shell, which is decorated with radiating
streaks of crimson or violet, much like those on the
petal of a tulip. In this species the byssus is ex¬
tremely small, and in most examples seems to be
absent altogether.
There are two other species of British Horse-
mussels, which must be briefly noticed on account of
some peculiarities in the structure of the animal.
One is the Bearded Horse-mussel (. Modiola barbato ),
which has derived its name from the curiously fringed
byssus-threads of the epidermis ; and the other is the
Pheasant Horse-mussel (. Modiola phaseolina) ,in which
they are smooth on both edges. The former is repre¬
sented at page 69, fig. 8, and the latter at fig. 7.
We now come to a pretty little group of this large
family, called the Crenella-sliells, because they are
mostly “ crenulated ” on the hinge-margin. They are
all small shells, three-quarters of an inch being rather
an unusual length, and the average being about half
an inch.
The first on our list is the Green Crenella ( Crenella
discors). A figure of the interior of a valve is given
at page 69, fig. 3, in order to show the peculiarity
from which these shells derive their name. It is a
small species, a good specimen now before me mea¬
suring rather less than half an inch in length. The
valves are, however, rather deep. The colour is pale
green, and the surface is covered with delicate lines
radiating from the beak to the circumference, usually
in two well-marked “ sets,” the one set reaching the
other, and being cut short at the point of junction.
It is very plentiful on our coasts, and may be found
among the roots of various algte, its pretty shell being
hidden in the curious nest which it makes with its
byssus and little stones.
Another species, the Marbled Crenella ( Crenella
76
GROOVED CRENELLA.
marmorata) , it represented at Plate V., fig. 19. This
shell is scarcely less plentiful than the preceding, if
shell-hunters only knew where to look for it. Strange
to say, he who -wishes to find the Marbled Crenella
must dredge up a quantity of Ascidians, especially
Ascidia mentula, and look in their tough “ tests.” It
is a pretty species, mostly covered with reddish-brown
marblings upon a pale-green ground. The surface
is decorated with radiating lines, which run in three
sets, and not in two, as is the case with the Green
Crenella.
A very fine, but rarer species, called from its colour
the Black Crenella (Crenella nigra), is drawn at
Plate V., fig. 18. The colour, however, is scarcely
black, but rather blackish brown, generally with a
tinge of olive-green. It is more plentiful on the
northern than the southern coasts, and must generally
be procured with the dredge.
The tiny Grooved Crenella ( Crenella decussata ) is
drawn at Plate V., fig. 19, and is shown of its natural
size. Like the preceding, this is a northern species,
and is generally found on the Scottish coasts. The
shell is very delicate and fragile, and the colour is
pale olive, owing to the epidermis with which the
white valves are covered.
77
CHAPTER VII r.
TUB ARK-SHELLS — THEIR VARIETY IN' FORM! AND COLOUR — MODE OF DIS¬
TINGUISHING THEM — THE COMMON NUT-SHELL — WHERE FOUND — THE
SHINING NUT-SHELL — THE BEAKED LEDA-SHELL — ITS CURIOUS FORM
COLOUR OF THE EPIDERMIS — THE PIGMY LEDA-SHELL — ITS MINUTE
DIMENSIONS — LOCALITY WHERE FOUND — THE NOAH’S ARK— ITS SINGULAR
FORM — ITS SCULPTURED SURFACE — DIFFICULTY OF FINDING A PERFECT
SPECIMEN — DERIVATION OF ITS NAME — THE MILKY ARK-SHELL — THE
MOTTLED COMB-SHELLS — FORM OF THE HINGE, AND NUMBER OF THE
TEETH — THE WING-SHELLS, AND THEIR CURIOUS FORMATION — THE PINNA
- ITS DIMENSIONS AND GENERAL HABITS — MR. COUCH’S ACCOUNT OF
THE SHELL — A SINGULAR GUEST — THE BYSSU8 — THE OYSTER TRIBE — THE
FRAGILE FILE-SHELL — DERIVATION OF ITS NAME — THE GAPING FILE-
SHELL — ITS PECULIAR NEST — THE HEART FILE-SHELL — THE VARIABLE
SCALLOP— BEAUTY OF THE ANIMAL AND SHELL — THE HUNCHBACK SCAL¬
LOP — STRANGE FORMATION — THE MOTTLED SCALLOP — LOCALITIES WHERE
FOUND — THE TIGER SCALLOP AND RADIATED SCALLOP — THE COMMON
SCALLOP — THE SADDLE OYSTER — SINGULAR STRUCTURE OF THE SHELL —
UNEATABLE CHARACTER OF THE ANIMAL — THE PRICKLY SADDLE-SHELL —
ITS VARIABLE FORM — THE COMMON OYSTER.
We now come to a curious group, called the Auk-
shells. They are extremely variable in form and
colour, as may be seen by reference to the examples
which are given in the illustration ; but they may all
be recognised by a glance at the hinge. This part of
the shell is mostly straight, and is furnished through¬
out its whole length with a great number of little
comb-like teeth. When the valves are closed, these
teeth interlock with each other, and force the shell to
open only in one direction.
The first genus of this group is formed by the Nut¬
shells, so called from their peculiar form and general
appearance. The Common Nut-shell ( Nucula nucleus)
is a little shell, rather more than half an inch in
length. The true colour of the shell is white, but, in
common with all the members of its tribe, its shell is
78
LEDA-SHELLS.
covered with a thick epidermis, which in this species
is dark olive-brown. As the creature lives among
sand and mud, the epidermis is apt to become stained,
and so to give a false idea of the real colour.
This shell is extremely common in moderately deep
waters, and is brought up in quantities by the dredge,
or similar sea-scraping instruments. A figure of the
Common Nut-shell is given on Plate V., fig. 24. In
the accompanying illustration, fig. 5, is drawn the in¬
side of one valve, showing the comb-like teeth along
the hinge. The magnified teeth are seen at the side.
Another species, the Shining Nut-shell, is shown
at Plate V., fig. 22. This little shell very closely
resembles the former, except that the epidermis is
much polished, and that, if it be removed, the shell
itself is seen to be traversed with greyish rays.
Next in order come the Leda-sliells, which may be
distinguished from the preceding creatures by the
peculiar shape of the shells, which are always more
or less elongated. They may further be distinguished
by means of the bay in the pallial line. At Plate V.,
noah’s ark.
79
fig. 12, is seen the Beaked Leda-shell ( Leda caudata),
a species whose remarkable form renders it at once
recognisable. This remarkable shell is pale olive-
green in colour, on account of the epidermis which
covers the valves ; and the whole surface is covered
with little narrow ridges at nearly regular distances.
Like several of the last-mentioned species, the Beaked
Leda-shell loves the northern parts of the island, and
is mostly found on the Scottish shores.
At page 78, fig. 3, may be seen the inside of the
Leda-shell; and at fig. 4 is drawn the “sole,” if we
may use such a term, of its foot, as it appears when
flattered and spread for walking.
At Plate V., fig. 15, is drawn a very tiny shell, called
the Pigmy Leda-shell ( Leda joijgmcea). This little
shell is almost always less than a quarter of an inch
in length, and not half that measurement in breadth.
Its form is a mixture between the triangle and the
oval ; the shell is tolerably strong, and is covered with
a yellowish epidermis. It is not very common, but
may be found on mixed sand and mud, and taken
with the dredge. Perhaps its minute dimensions have
caused it to be overlooked where larger shells would
be at once seen.
We now come to the true Ark-shells, the typical
example of which is certainly that strange, quaint-
looking species which is called ameng collectors the
Noah’s Ark ( Area tetragona).
In general shape this odd shell very much resembles
a trunk-fish ; and instead of being rounded like most
of the bivalves, it is full of angles, and looks very
much as if it had been hastily formed by three pinches
of the thumb and finger, and then a sharp blow on a
table or other flat surface. The general form of this
shell can be seen by referring to one or two illustra¬
tions. On Plate V., fig. 16, there is a sketch of the
shell in its entire state. Originally, the whole shell
is covered with deep grooves and ridges ; but these
80
COMB-SHELL.
marks are easily rubbed away, and then the shell pre¬
sents the appearance which is so well marked in the
illustration. At the hinge, the shell is not only flat¬
tened, but even pushed inwards, as may be seen at
page 78, fig. 1, where this curious formation is shown,
as well as the bold ridges of the exterior.
Owing to the ease with which it is disfigured, a
perfect specimen is very seldom found. One now
before me presents an extraordinary appearance ; for
the shell is not only worn away in some places, but
its substance is much increased in others, by the
lepralia and similar creatures that have settled down
upon it. The name Tetragona signifies four-angled,
and is given to the species on account of its squared
form.
Although not among the commonest of the British
shells, the Noah’s Ark can be found by those who
search for it in the right places, namely, in the clefts
of submerged rocks, under large stones, and even in
the empty shells of other molluscs. Sometimes, when
it gets into a cavity through a narrow hole, it grows
too large to get out again, and then assumes the most
extraordinary shape by coming in contact with the
sides of its prison.
There are several British species of this genus, and
the inside of one species, the Milky Ark-shell ( Area
lacteaX is shown at page 78, fig. 2.
Another genus of Ark-shells is distinguished by the
title of Pectunculus, a name which signifies a little
comb, and which is given to it on account of the
comb-like teeth of the hinge. We may therefore term
this group the Comb-shells. At Plate V., fig. 20, is
a drawing of the Mottled Comb-shell (Pectunculus
glycimeris) . This handsome shell attains a tolerable
size, a specimen now before me being nearly two
inches in length, and almost as much in width. The
entire surface is covered with the most delicate lines,
radiating from the beak to the circumference, and
THE PINNA.
81
interrupted occasionally by slight concentric grooves.
The present specimen, which is that from which the
illustration was drawn, is nearly white as a back¬
ground, and is covered with marblings of rich rust-
red, arranged in the peculiar manner shown in the
illustration.
At page 78, fig. 8, is drawn the inside of a valvv
of this shell, for the purpose of showing the peculiar
shape of the impressions and scars, as also of the
teeth whence it derives its name. The teeth are in¬
creased in number by age ; but as those in the middle
generally fade away as the others are produced, the
number is but slightly altered. It can only be obtained
by the dredge.
Another family now comes before us, which is scien¬
tifically called Aviculacece, a name which we may trans¬
late almost literally as Wing-shells. They derive their
name from the wing-like processes from the hinge.
The family is celebrated for producing the well-known
pearl oyster; but as the greater number of the species
inhabit the hotter parts of the earth, only a few can
be found in English seas.
One of them is the Swallow Wi g-siiell (Avicula
pectinata ), an elegantly-formed mo' isc, which looks-
something like a scallop, with a Ion.;, straight, wing¬
like projection from the hinge. As may be supposed
from the usual habitat of these shells, the Swallow
Wing-shell is seldom found except on our southern
coasts, and even there is not a very common species.
A better known British example is the Common
Pinna (Pinna pectinata) , which is figured on Plate VI.,
fig. 4. This is the largest of the British shells, the
average length of a full-sized specimen being twelve
inches, and many attaining still greater dimensions.
The Pinna-shells are most plentiful on the southern
coasts, where they may be found very near the shore.
Mr. Couch remarks of these shells, that off Cornwall
“ they stud the bottom in multitudes, with only two
G
82
THE PEA-CRAB.
jr three inches of the pointed end inserted into the
soil. It is common for the line or hook to become
entangled among the shells, and a powerful effort is
required to drag them from their attachment, which
is only effected by breaking the byssus, or tearing
away the ground to which it is attached. In the latter
case, a rich harvest of shells is often afforded, but the
pointed end of the Pinna is usually broken off by the
violence.
“ It is perhaps owing to the different degree in
solidity of the ground, that the shells living in deeper
wrater are so much less buried than those of which
Montagu speaks ( i.e ., sunk within an inch of the sur¬
face) ; and one of the consequences may be a greater
degree of motion in the shell. Montagu observes,
that the exposed end cannot be closed by art, but the
animal is capable of effecting it, and observation has
taught me that this is its method of obtaining food.
In its ordinary position this opening is about two
inches wide, exposing the contained animal, which
occupies but a small portion of the cavity, and seems
to offer itself as a prey to the first creature that may
choose to devou?- it. Some fish is thus tempted to
enter, but the fi *st touch within is a signal for its
destruction. Tim shell closes not only at the side but
top, the latter action being effected by the separation
of the pointed ends ; and the captive is either crushed
to death, or soon perishes from confinement.”
It is a remarkable fact that a very little crustacean,
popularly called the Pea-crab ( Pinnotheres pismn), lives
permanently within the shells of the Pinna. The
same crab is sometimes found in the Horse-mussel,
and another species (Gaphyra pectenicola) inhabits the
scallop. The byssus is enormously strong ; and in
the British Museum may be seen a jnair of gloves,
apparently woven of brown silk, but which have been
made from the byssus of the Pinna. The flesh of the
Pinna is edible, but it requires very protracted stewing
to make it tender.
FILE-SHELLS.
83
The colour of the Pinna is very pale brown, and
the surface is extremely variable, sometimes being
nearly smooth, and sometimes covered with projecting
scales on the ribs. The inside of this shell is shown
in the accompanying illustration, fig. 6.
We now come to the Oyster tribe, one of the most
valuable groups that the sea affords, an .'■> which em¬
braces the scallops, the saddle oysters, and the edible
oysters.
The first on our list is a very curious little species,
the Fragile File-shell ( Lima Loscombii). See Plate
VI., fig. 5. The File -shells derive their name from the
maimer in which the outside of the valves is crossed
and re-crossed with delicate lines, very much resem¬
bling those of the file. In the present species the
shell is white, very fragile, closed on one side, and
gaping slightly at the other.
On the same Plate, and at fig. 3, is shown the shell
of our largest species, the Gaping File-shell ( Lima
hians) ; and at fig. 4 is seen the animal in its shell,
showing the peculiar gaping form, and its method of
surrounding itself with a kind of nest, made of sand
g 2
84
HUNCHBACK SCALLOP.
and stones held together with its byssus. A figure of
the inside of its shell is given at page 78, fig. 7. The
colour is snowy white.
Another species, the Heart File-shell ( Lima sub -
auriculata ), is shown at Plate VI., fig. 2. It is the
smallest of the known British species, and may be
easily recognised by its heart-like shape when viewed
sideways, and the comparative smoothness of the ex¬
terior. All these examples are drawn of their natural
size.
We now come to the Scallops, the general form of
which is too familiar to need description. Although
the greater bulk of these beautiful shells, including
the most brilliantly coloured species, are natives of
the tropical seas, we have several British species, all
of which are pretty, and some are really handsome.
Take, for example, the Variable Scallop ( Peden
varius ), which is represented in the central figure in
Plate VI. Ho shell is more variable than this, for
scarcely any two specimens are alike in colour. It can,
however, be dis inguished by its numerous bold ribs
and the spi le-hie projections of the exterior. Very
rarely a nearly white specimen is found, but it is
generally of some shade of red, brown, chocolate, or
yellow, and patched with white. The inside of the
shell may be seen at page 78, fig. 6.
The animal is very pretty, its edges being furnished
with short and long tentacles, between which is set
a series of round black objects technically named
! “ ocelli.” Like all its kin, this species can project
itself rapidly through the sea by alternately opening
and closing its valves.
At Plate VI., fig. 11, is a remarkable species, the
Hunchback Scallop (Pecten pusio), shown in its adult
state. When it is young, this species has the well-
known shape of its kin ; but as it increases in age it
mostly becomes distorted, and sometimes assumes the
remarkable shape which is shown in the illustration.
SADDLE OYSTER.
85
A specimen now before me has one valve nearly flat,
and the other exceedingly deep and round ; so that if
the two valves were shown separately, very few would
recognise them as belonging to the same specimen.
Its colour is white, mottled with brick-red.
At Plate VI., fig. 7, is a shell of the Mottled
Scallop ( Pecten striatulus) ; and at fig. 8 is shown the
animal in its shell, in order to exhibit the beautiful
tentacles and ocelli. The shell is brownish-red or
chocolate, with numerous white marks ; and its sub¬
stance is so thin that it is very fragile and nearly trans¬
parent. It is found on the northern coasts.
Coloured much like the preceding species, the Tiger
Scallop ( Pecten tigrinus) may be known by the fact
that one of the “ears,” or hinge projections, is almost
entirely absent. It is very variable in colour, and is
notable for being sometimes smooth and sometimes
distinctly ribbed.
Another variable and not very common British spe¬
cies is the Radiated Scallop ( Pecten Danicus ), so
called from the few bold radiating folds which tra¬
verse the shell. The colour is mostly red-brown,
speckled with white ; and anyone who is fortunate
enough to obtain a specimen will easily recognise it
from the figure.
Our last example is the Common Scallop of the
fishmongers’ shops ( Pecten opcrcularis) . This well-
known species can be recognised by the eighteen or
twenty radiating folds of the shell, the nearly ecpial
ears, and the numerous rows of closely-arranged scales
with which the surface is covered. Its colour is ex¬
ceedingly variable.
We now come to the remarkable Saddle Oyster
( Anomia ephijojpium) , which is so curious a being that
several illustrations of it are given. It is immediately
recognised by its flat lower valve, in which is a
large and nearly oval hole, just below the hinge. A
figure of this structure is given at Plate VI., fig. 13
86 COMMON OYSTEE.
Through the aperture proceeds a strong muscular
band, which is fixed to a curiously-shaped knob of
shelly matter, technically named the “ button,” and
which is capable of passing through the hole, so that
by its means the shell is hitched on the button. At
page 83, fig. 1, may be seen a side view of the Saddle
Oyster, showing the muscular band passing through
the aperture and fixed to the button. At fig. 3 is
represented the button itself, and at fig. 2 the shell
with the button in the aperture.
The shape of the shell alters greatly with age.
When young, it is oyster- shaped, as may be seen at
fig. 5 ; but as it is apt to accommodate itself to the
form of any object to which it may cling, it is exceed¬
ingly variable in its shape. The flesh of this creature
is unwholesome, but its strong, pepper-like flavour
prevents it from being eaten by mistake for the edible
oyster.
At page 83, fig. 4, is drawn another species, the
Prickly Saddle-shell (Anomia aculeata ), as it appears
when adhering to the stem of a sea-weed. In process
of time it will accommodate itself to the rounded form
of its support, and consequently have a longitudinal
furrow upon the valve that would otherwise have been
flat.
At Plate VI., fig. 14, is shown the inside of the
Common Oyster (Ostrcea edulis ) ; but as space is valu¬
able, and both shell and animal are familiar to us, no
description will be needed.
87
CHAPTER IX.
TWO SINGULAR GROUrS OP MOLLUSCS — THE BRACHIOPODA — DERIVATION
AND REASON OP THEIR NAME — GENERAL HABITS OP THE ANIMAL — COM¬
PARATIVE RARITY OP THE BRITISH SPECIES — THE LAMP-SHELLS — WHY SO
CALLED — THE SNAKE-HEAD LAMP-SHELL — ITS SPIRAL ARMS — THE BEAKED
LAMP-SHELL — THE PTEROPODA, OR WING-FOOTED MOLLUSCS — MODE OP
PROGRESSION — WHERE FOUND ON OUR COASTS — THE TnREE-SPINED GLASS-
SHELL — ORIGIN OP ITS NAME — SUGGESTION AS TO ITS OCCURRENCE.
We now leave the ordinary bivalve shells, and come*
to two distinct divisions of Molluscs, the precise place
of which is still exceedingly doubtful. As, however,
this work follows the arrangement of Messrs. Forbes'
and Hanley, I have placed them in their present posi¬
tion. The creatures which form the first division are
scientifically named Brachiopoda, or Arm-footed Mol¬
luscs, because their apparent organs of motion are two
long, arm-like organs. These members, however, do
not aid the animal in progression, inasmuch as it is
always attached to some object by means of a pedicle,
or footstalk, passing through a hole in the shell just
by the hinge. A popular and appropriate name is
Lamp-shells, because the closed valves of these crea¬
tures have a singular resemblance to an ancient lamp,
the hole through which the wick of the lamp passes
being very similar in form and position to that through
which passes the footstalk of the mollusc.
In these creatures, the valves are locked together
by very long, projecting teeth, which fit into each
other with such exactness, that the valves cannot be
separated without the use of much force ; even the
largest known species cannot be opened more than the
eighth of an inch. Formerly, the Lamp-shells were
considered so rare, that a good British specimen was
88
LAMP-SHELLS.
a treasure of which, any museum might be proud ; but
in later days, since marine zoology has been so widely
and deeply studied, these remarkable shells have be¬
come comparatively common.
Our best-known species is perhaps the SNAKE-HEAD
Lamp-Shell ( Terebratula caput-serpentis), a figure of
which is shown at Plate VII., fig. 1. The interior of
the empty shell is shown in the accompanying illus¬
tration, fig. 2, and the animal within its shell at fig. 1.
iT~A
In the latter figure the reader will not fail to notice
the long, spiral, fringed arms, as they are coiled up
within the shell.
The colour of the shell is greyish white ; but in a
specimen before me, the part next the hinge is yellow¬
ish brown, a fact which is due to the death of the
enclosed animal, and the stains proceeding from its
decomposed body. The average length of a fine spe¬
cimen rather exceeds half an inch.
Another remarkable example of this division is the
Beaked Lamp-Shell ( Crania norvagica ), so called be¬
cause the spiral arms are supported by a sort of beak
GLASS-SHELL:
89
in the middle of the lower valve. This species is
found only on the northern coasts, and has been taken
abundantly by the dredge off the shores of Scotland.
A figure of the shell, as it appears of different ages, is
is given at Plate VII., fig. 2 ; and the interior of the
empty shell is shown at page 88, fig. 3, and the ani¬
mal within it at fig. 4.
O
The second of these divisions embraces that singu-
lar group of Molluscs which are called Pteropopa, or
Wing-footed, because they progress by means of flat¬
tened lobes which spring from the body, and which
are flapped to and fro like the wings of a bird. They
are all active beings, the peculiar flapping movements
being rapidly repeated. Some possess shells, while
others are destitute of those protections. Very few are
found in the British seas, and it is likely that even
those few speimens have been driven unwillingly into
our waters by means of a current, or through an un¬
expected storm.
At Plate VII., fig. 3, is shown one of these curious
animals, the Three-spined Glass-shell ( Hyalcea triden-
tata), so called on account of the extreme fragility and
transpai’ency of its shell. So delicate, indeed, is the
shell, that when placed in water,. the colourless foot
becomes totally invisible, just as is the case with a
piece of very thin glass. There is, however, a slight
tinge of ruddy brown near the lip of the shell.
Messrs. Forbes and Hanley judiciously remark, that
this creature is probably a more frequent visitor to
our shores than is generally imagined, its extreme
delicacy rendering it almost invisible.
90
CHAPTER X.
THE GASTEROPODA — THE NAME EXPLAINED —THE CHITONS, OR MAIL-SHELLS —
STRUCTURE OF THE SHELLS — THE MARBLED MAIL-SHELL; ITS FORM AND
COLOUR — SCULPTURE OF THE EXTERIOR — THE BRISTLY MAIL-SHELL, AND .
ITS CURIOUS APPENDAGES — THE RED MAIL-SHELL, THE ANIMAL, AND MAG- ;
NIFIED HEAD — THE GREY MAIL-SHELL ; LOCALITY WHERE FOUND — THE
GLOSSY MAIL-SHELL, AND ITS COLOUR — THE LIMPETS, AND THEIR KIN —
THE COMMON LIMPET, ITS SHELL, ANIMAL, AND TONGUE-RIBBON — THE
SMOOTH LIMPET, AND ITS VARIABLE FORM AND COLOUR — THREE REMARK¬
ABLE SPECIMENS — THE HORSE LIMPET, AND ITS USES — ITS BEAUTIFUL
SHELL— THE TORTOISESHELL LIMPET ; REASON FOR ITS NAME — THE ELE¬
PHANT’S TUSK-SHELL; ITS CURIOUS FORM— THE GROOVED TUSK-SHELL -
HOW TO DISTINGUISH THE SPECIES — THE HUNGARIAN CAr-SHELL, OR
TURK’S CAP — REMARKABLE FORM OF THE SHELL — THE CUP-AND- SAUCER
LIMPET — WHY SO CALLED — FORM OF THE YOUNG — THE TOOTH-RIBBON, AND
ITS SPOON — TnE NATURALIST’S DREDGE, AND ITS ADVANTAGES — THE
KEYHOLE LIMPET; PECULIARITY OF ITS FORM — THE PERFORATED LIMPET
— POSITION OF THE APERTURE— THE NOTCHED LIMPET — REASON FOR ITS
NAME — ITS BEAUTIFUL FORM AND SCULPTURING — THE ROSY NOTCHED
LIMPET — HOW DISTINGUISHED — THE ORMER, OR SEA-EAR — WHERE FOUND
• — ITS ELEGANT FORM AND BEAUTIFUL COLOURS — TnE REGULAR SERIES
OF APERTURES, FROM THE LIMPET TO THE ORMER.
The vast group of Gasteropoda, or Belly-footed Mol¬
luscs, demands a fresli cliapter. The shells, when
they exist, are formed only of one valve, the duty of
closing the aperture falling to a kind of stopper, called
the operculum.
The first of these are the Chitons, or Mail-shells,
whose shells are composed of several pieces jointed
together like a lobster’s tail or a piece of ancient
armour. Several species of Chitons are very plentiful
on our coasts, and may be caught on the stones and
rocks of the sea-shore, where they afford food to many
a bird, beast, fish, and crustacean. The structure of
this curious shell is thought to be explained by saying
that the hindermost plate, which is firmly attached to
MAIL- SHELLS.
91
the animal, is the real shell, and that the others are
supplementary plates. In the typical genus, of which
the Marbled Mail- shell ( Chiton marmoreus ) is a good
example, the shell is composed of eight pieces, and the
animal has a kind of head, whereby it is at once dis¬
tinguished from the headless bivalves. A figure of
this species is given at Plate VII., fig. 5 ; and at
page 88, fig. 9, is a side view of the head of another
species, the Red Mail-shell ( Chiton ruber). This is
the largest of our British species, as may be seen by
reference to the illustration, which is rather smaller
than an average-sized specimen now before me. The
colour is rich brown, marbled with yellow and ches-
nut ; but the chief beauty of the shell, namely, the
elegant sculpture of the surface, cannot be seen with¬
out the aid of a magnifying-glass. The form of the
animal as it appears in its shell is shown at page 88,
fig. 11, at which is represented the under side of the
Red Mail-shell.
On the same page, and at fig. 10, is shown a much-
magnified representation of part of the “ tooth-ribbon”
of the Bristly Mail-shell (Chiton fascicular is) , exhibit¬
ing the peculiar teeth from two points of view. These
tooth-ribbons are verv beautiful organs in the Gaste-
ropodous molluscs, and are valuable in distinguish¬
ing the species from each other. The shell itself is
drawn at Plate VII., fig. 4, in order to show the curious
bunches of bristle-like hairs that project from the
margin. There are eighteen of these tufts, and their
colour is very pale red. The general colour of the
shell is greenish brown, mottled with chesnut or brick-
red ; but it is a very variable species in point of
colour.
The commonest British species, the Grey Mail-
shell (Chiton cinereus), is shown at Plate VII., fig. 7,
and is drawn of the natural size. Although an ashen
grey is the principal colour, it is perhaps the most
variable of its kind, being mottled or streaked with
white, orange, chocolate, pink, lilac, and yellow. It
92
LIMPET.
may be found by hundreds on any of our sea-shores,
merely by searching among rocks, stones, piles, or
other submerged objects.
A pretty but not so plentiful species is the Glossy
Mail-shell (Chiton Icevis), which is shown at Plate
VII., fig. 6. The ridge along the back is rather
sharply elevated, and the surface has a decided gloss.
Ped is the chief colour in this shell, and in a speci¬
men now before me the ridge is rather light chesnut-
red ; the shelly plates at either end are dark brown,
and the rest are variously tinted with brown, in which
a dash of red is occasionally perceptible. It is seldom
found in company with others of its kin, but inhabits
similar localities.
We now come to the vast Limpet family, some of
which are so familiar to every wanderer on the sea¬
shore. This family has been subdivided into others,
and in my opinion needlessly so, as it might very pro¬
perly comprise at least three other recently-formed
families. However, as this work does not treat of
systematic zoology, we will proceed at once to the
typical species, the Common Limpet ( Patella vulgata),
which is found in such abundance on the rocks.
Viewed merely as a stationary object on a rock, it
has no great beauty, especially as its shell is often
encrusted with barnacles, polyzoa, zoophites, and sea¬
weeds ; but when the animal moves about, it at once
becomes interesting.
It is seen to best advantage when creeping up the
glass side of an aquarium. This view of the animal is
given at Plate VII., fig. 8, where are seen the well?
defined head, the tentacles or feelers, and the mouth.
In this mouth lies the tooth-ribbon, which, when un¬
coiled and placed under the microscope, affords a spec¬
tacle of wondrous beauty. A part of this ribbon, of
the natural size, is shown at page 88, fig. 7, and a
magnified portion at fig. 6. When extended, it is
fully as long as the shell, and contains nearly two
HORSE LIMPET.
93
thousand teeth. The inside of the shell is drawn at
fig. 5, in order to show the scars of the powerful mus¬
cular apparatus that holds it so firmly to the rock by
exhaustion of air under the foot-disc.
Its colour is grey-brown, occasionally varied by a
little mottling ; and its shape is usually of the well-
known cup-like form. Distorted specimens are, how¬
ever, very common, the deformity being caused by the
locality in which the creature has lived.
Two other species are shown on Plate VII. One
of them, the Smooth Limpet (Patella pellucid a), is re¬
markable for the extraordinary variation of the shell.
Three specimens now before me are so unlike each
other, that none but a practised conchologist would
imagine that they could belong to the same species.
One, which is the variety shown at page 88, fig. 8, is
tolerably stout in structure and grey-brown in colour,
with a few narrow, concentric lines of chocolate.
A second variety, which is shown rather inade¬
quately at Plate VII., fig. 10, is pale horn-colour, very
highly polished, and remarkable for a series of narrow
ultramarine lines, that radiate from the peak to the
edge. These lines are represented in the illustration
by the white radiating lines, which give the shell a
false appearance of being ribbed, whereas it is per¬
fectly smooth. The substance of the shell is delicate,
and as translucent as horn.
A third example is larger, narrower, flatter, quite as
smooth, and far more translucent, so that ordinary
type can be read through it. This particular speci¬
men is very pale yellow, with a red patch at the peak*
and a streak of the same hue along the top.
A very striking species is the Horse Limpet (Pa¬
tella athletica') , shown at Plate VII., fig. 9. Although
variable in colour, it may easily be recognised by the
bold, radiating ribs, which are covered with regular,
tooth-like projections.
This species is common on most parts of our shores,
but is only used occasionally as bait, and never even
94
CAP-SHELL.
for that purpose as long as the common species can
be obtained.
The little Tortoiseshell Limpet (Acmcea testucli •
nails') has been separated from the true Limpets on
account of a different structure in the animal ; as to
the shell, it is almost exactly like that of any other
Limpet. It may be easily recognised by the smooth
surface, beautiful mottlings of white and chesnut with
which the exterior is decorated, and the dark-brown
mark in the interior. It is a small species, an average -
sized specimen now before me measuring scarcely
more than half an inch in length. It is found on our
northern shores.
We now come to the Tusk-shells, which at first
sight seem to be totally unlike the Limpets, as may
be seen by reference to Plate VII., figs. 12 and 13.
But the reader has only to imagine a Limpet-shell
very much elongated at the expense of its width, and
he will then have a good idea of the general form
assumed by this group.
Pig. 12 represents the Elephant’s Tusk-shell (Den-
taliuin entalis), a common species on our northern
shores, and easily recognised by the uniform white of
the shell and the smooth surface. The other species,
the Grooved Tusk-shell (Dentalium tarentinum), is
distinguishable by its pinky hue towards the narrow
end, and the fine groovings which are drawn upon
the large end. In these shells both ends are open.
A remarkable species, the Hungarian Cap-shell
(Tileojpsis Ungaricus) , is shown at Plate VII., fig. 14,
where the animal is depicted in its shell, as it appears
when protruded for walking. This shell can easily
be recognised by the peculiar formation of the tip,
which is bent in a partially spiral curve, very much
like the conventional Cap of Liberty. Sometimes this
species receives a less agreeable name, and is called
the Pool’s Cap.
CUP-AND-SAUCER LIMPET. 95
It is variable both in shape and colour, but the
peculiar tip is so conspicuous that it can always be
recognised. A specimen now before me is about an
inch and a quarter in length, and its colour is whitish
in some parts and brown in others. The' interior of
the shell is shown in the accompanying illustration
fig. 9.
The variety of form to be found in shells is inex¬
haustible. At Plate VII., fig. 15, is shown the inside
of a curious shell, that is popularly and appropriately
called the Cup- and- Saucer Limpet ( Oalyptrcea sinensis).
It derives its name from a curious plate in the inte¬
rior, which in some examples is cup-shaped, and looks
something like a very little cup in a very large saucer.
Externally the shell resembles that of a common
Limpet, but a glance at the interior is sufficient to
decide the species to which it belongs. When the
creature is young, the shell looks very like that of a
tiny snail, as may be seen at page 95, fig. 5 ; and the
peculiar fringed neck of the young, its eyes and thick
tentacles, are shown at fig. 4. The tongue-ribbon of
the adult, with its curious spoon-like appendage, is
shown at fig. 3, and a magnified view of a few teeth
at fig. 6 : so we have in one creature the cup, the
saucer, and the spoon.
This is a southern shell, common in the Channel
Islands, and found on the southernmost shores of
England. It must be taken by the dredge.
As this implement is so often mentioned, I have
had a sketch made of a small and very convenient
96
THE DREDGE.
form of dredge, called the Naturalist’s Dredge, one
figure showing it at work, and the other as it appears
when folded. As may he seen by reference to the
illustration, it can be packed in a very small space for
convenience of transit ; and as it has a double lip, it
is sure to fall in the right position when it touches
the bottom of the sea. The common dredge has only
one lip, so that if it should turn over it does no work.
Small as is this instrument, it is wonderfully effica¬
cious, and will penetrate into channels where the full-
sized dredge could not pass.
We now come to a curious series of Limpets, which
are notable for the aperture in the shell. The reader
will remember that in the Tusk-shells there is an
aperture at the peak, and the same is the case with
the Keyhole Limpet ( Fissurellct reticulata), which is
seen at Plate VII., fig. 18. Resembling the common
ORMERj OR SEA-EAR.
97
Limpet in general form, it may at once be distin¬
guished by the hole at the top of the shell, through
which issues the water that has passed through the
system. This shell is to be found on many parts of
our coast, but is most plentiful on the southern
shores.
In another mollusc, the Perforated Limpet ( Puncti -
nella noachina) , which is shown at Plate VIII., fig. 3,
the perforation is not at the apex, but just in front of
it. The form and position of the aperture are shown
at page 95, fig. 7, and its appearance when viewed
from the interior is shown at fiof. 8. The colour is
slightly variable, but in my specimen it is dull grey-
brown, except at the edge, which is white.
In another species, the Notched Limpet (E 'marginula
reticulata ), which is drawn at Plate VII., fig. 16, the
aperture is removed still further from the apex, and
encroaches on the margin of the shell, so as to form a
long notch instead of a perforation, as may be seen by
the small outline immediately above the shell. It is
a beautiful little shell, pure white, with radiating ribs,
and the intervals between the ribs sculptured with
regular squared holes, so that it looks as if two sets of
ribs cut each other at right angles. Inside, round
the notch, there is a slight thickening, which extends
to the very apex of the shell. The small Pose
Notched Limpet ( Emarginula rosed) is drawn in the
same plate, fig. 17, and may be recognised by its tiny
form, not a quarter of an inch in length, and the
greatly curved apex, like that of the Fool’s-cap shell.
In some specimens the edges of the aperture are
bright rose-colour, whence its name ; but in the
majority of instances the entire shell is white.
Taking the Channel Islands as British — about
which, in a zoological point of view, there is some
controversy — the Ormer, or Sea-Ear ( lldliotis tuber-
culata), may rank as a British species. This lovely
shell is drawn at Plate VIII., fig. 2. It is very flat,
and, as may be seen by the illustration, has, not one
H
98
A CURIOUS SERIES.
aperture, but a series of holes arranged in a row near
the edge, and following the spiral curve of the shell.
The outside of the shell is variously coloured with red,
brown, or green, and is very rough to the touch. The
inside is of a beautiful pearly consistence ; and it is
from this shell and its exotic kin that the workers in
papier-mache obtain the plates of “ pearl” with which
their work is inlaid. Buttons and other articles are
also made of the shell.
This species is plentiful on the shores of the Chan¬
nel Islands, where it is much used for food ; but the
animal is very tough, and requires much beating and
careful cooking to make it tender.
The reader will not fail to notice the regular and
curious series which has just been described. In the
common Limpet, we have a shell without any hole at
all; in the Keyhole Limpet, a hole is seen at the
apex ; in the Perforated Limpet, the hole is shifted
below the apex ; in the Notched Limpet, it has
reached the edge ; and in the Ormer, a series of holes
is arranged round the edge. There is another shell,
called liimula, found in the Philippines, which makes
the series complete, and which has the hole half-way
between the apex and the edge.
99
CHAPTER XI.
THE TOP-SHELLS — THEIE SHAPE AND USES — THE COMMON TOP — HOW TO DIS¬
TINGUISH IT — -THE GREY TOP — LOCALITIES, AND DIFFICULTY OF OBTAIN¬
ING A PERFECT SPECIMEN — THE PAINTED TOP — WHY SO CALLED — THE
PHEASANT-SHELL — ITS BEAUTY AND VARIETY OF COLOUR — THE WHITE
BELT-SHELL — ITS SCULPTURED SURFACE - THE VIOLET SNAIL — HOW IT
REACHES OUR COUNTRY — REMARKABLE FORM OF THE ANIMAL — THE
“FLOAT,” AND EGG-SACS — COLOUR OF THE SHELL - THE RIVER NFRITINA
— ITS FORM AND COLOUR — THE COMMON WATER-SNAIL - MODE OF HATCHING
ITS YOUNG - THE GREEN WATER-SNAIL — MODE OF DISTINGUISHING IT — -
THE COMMON BITHINIA, AND ITS LOCALITIES — TEE VALVE-SHELL— TH E
COMMON PERIWINKLE — ITS TEETH, AND THEIR BEAUTIFUL STRUCTURE -
THE PALE CHINK-SHELL— ORIGIN OF ITS NAME — THE BAND ED CHINK-
SHELL — -THE DUN SENTINEL — REASON FOR ITS NAME — LOCALITIES WHERE
IT IS FOUND - THE SPIRE-SHELLS - THEIR SMALL SIZE, AND PRETTY
COLOURS — TUB TURRET-SHELL — DIFFICULTY OF FINDING A PERFECT SPECI¬
MEN — THE BLIND-SHELL, AND ITS RESEMBLANCE TO THE TUSK-SHELL -
THE PELICAN’S FOOT — ITS CURIOUS SHAPE — THE WENTLETRAP, AND ITS
BEAUTIFUL SHELL — PYRAMID-SHELLS — THE GLOSSY ACTIS — THE HUNGER-
SHELL - THE RUDDY AND CONICAL PYRAMID-SHELLS — DIFFICULTY OF DIS¬
TINGUISHING THEM — THE NECKLACE NATICA — ORIGIN OF ITS NAME - THE
SEMI-CONCEALED SHELL — THE SHINING NATICA — THE VELVET-SHELL - WHY
SO CALLED.
We now come to the beautiful Top-shells, some of
which are so plentiful upon our sea-coasts, especially
those of a sandy character. Their shapes may be at
once known by referring to figs. 1, 4, 5, in Plate VIII.,
and they are familiar to ladies, because some of the more
delicate exotic species are largely used as ornaments for
hair-nets, necklaces, trimmings of dresses, and similar
purposes. I have even seen them used with great
effect in an altar-cloth, the beautiful pearly shells con¬
trasting forcibly with the crimson velvet on which
they were arranged.
One of our best-known specimens is the Common
n 2
100
THE TOPS.
Top ( Trochus zizyphinm) , which is shown of its natu¬
ral size at Plate VIII., fig. 5. This handsome shell
has but little colour on the exterior, but there is gene¬
rally some red in it. A fine specimen now before me
is very pale yellow spotted spirally with pink. From
this specimen the illustration was drawn, the dark
spots representing these red patches. Although the
Top-shells are found plentifully on our shores, it is not
common to pick up a really perfect specimen ; for the
peak is generally rubbed away or even broken, so that
the colour is removed and the white pearly shell is
seen. The inside of the Top-shells is exactly like that
of the Ormer.
Another familiar species, the G-rey Top ( Trochus
cinereus ), is shown at fig. 1 of the same Plate, This
pretty shell is covered with zigzag grey-black mark¬
ings on a yellowish ground, arranged as seen in the
illustration. If the shell be turned up and viewed
from below, a small perforation will be seen in the
middle, through which an ordinary darning-needle can
be passed, and which reaches to the very end of the
shell. As it is not quite straight, a needle cannot
pass to its extremity, but a bristle or stiff vegetable
fibre will do so. In the accompanying illustration,
fig. 1, is seen a magnified view of the head of this
species, showing the eyes on their stalks, the tentacles,
the flat head-lobes, and the fringed lappets of the
neck. At fig. 2 is seen the spinal horny plate, or
“ operculum,” with which the entrance of the shell is
closed.
This hole is s jen very greatly enlarged in another
species, the Painted Top-shell ( Trochus magus'), which
is shown at Plate VIII., fig 4. In this species the
central hole is large enough to admit a crow-quill, and
would allow a still larger object to pass, were it not
partially closed at the anterior by the inner whorl of
the shell, which passes partly over it. The outside of
this shell is rather boldly ridged, and in some speci-
PHEASANT-SHELL. 10]
mens now before me it is decorated with reddish-
brown patches, arranged spirally.
This is one of the shells used for ornament, the
rough outer coat being removed, and the nacreous
shell exposed to view. It is common on most of our
coasts. The name of Painted Top is given to it on
account of the magnificent hues of the animal, which
is gorgeously painted with dark blue, purple, white,
scarlet, ultramarine blue, and primrose yellow.
It seems quite a pity that the lovely little Pheasant-
shell ( Phasianella jpullus ) is not one of our largest
instead of our smallest shells. Although not pearly
like the Tops, it is very delicate, translucent, and
coloured in the most brilliant manner. It is so
102
VIOLET SNAIL.
variable in this respect, that a description of all the
varieties would take up almost the whole volume.
Suffice it to say, that red is the predominant hue,
mingled with yellow and brown, the ground-colour
being white. No two specimens are precisely alike,
and three specimens now before me are so differently
coloured, that the uninitiated would imagine them to
belong to different species. This tiny shell very sel¬
dom reaches a quarter of an inch in length.
At page 101, fig. 3, is a much-magnified representa¬
tion of the head and neck of the Pheasant-shell, show¬
ing the long, fringed tentacles, the eyes at their bases,
and the fringed neck-flap. At fig. 4 is shown the
beautiful white operculum, which is flat at the edges,
and much smoother and rounded in the middle.
At Plate VIII., fig. 9, is shown a curious little shell,
which is chiefly found on our southern coasts. Its
scientific name is Adeorbis subcarinata, and we may
call it the White Belt-shell. It is a very small
species, it s average diameter being the tenth of an
inch, so that it often escapes observation owing to its
minute dimensions. The colour is pure white, and
the whole surface is covered with most beautiful sculp¬
ture, the general character of which is shown in the
illustration.
Although plentiful in the warmer seas, the Violet
Snail ( Janthina communis ), can only be reckoned by
courtesy as a British shell. Owing to its singular
formation, it is sometimes blown or drifted to our
shores. In the Atlantic and Mediterranean it occurs
by countless thousands, and may be swept up in
buckets-full. A figure of the shell and its inhabitant,
of the natural size, is given on Plate VIII., fig. 6.
The singular organ extending from the shell is called
the “float,” and is made of a series of air-vessels.
Attached to the float are a number of little baers,
which contain the eggs ; and the animal itself is seen
lying in its shell, with mouth upwards. This is the;
WATER-SNAILS.
103
natural attitude, except that the shell and animal hang
much lower than is represented, while the float re¬
mains horizontal on account of its buoyancy. The
colour of the shell is pale blue, and a broad white
belt usually occupies the upper part of the whorl.
It is very fragile, and partially translucent.
At page 101, fig. 8, a front view of the empty shell is
given. Several species of Violet Snail visit our coasts.
We now come to a shell which inhabits fresh water,
but which must be mentioned here as forming a link
in the chain. It is called the River Reritina ( Nert -
tina fluviatilis ), and is found in many of our rivers,
sometimes high up their course, and sometimes so
near the mouth that the water is alternately salt and
fresh twice in the twenty-four hours. It is a little
shell, measuring on an average some quarter of an
inch in length ; and its colour is exceedingly variable,
generally, however, spotted and mottled with yellow¬
ish white on a dark ground, as seen in the illustra¬
tion.
On Plate VIII., fig. 10, may be seen the shell and
animal of the Common Water-Snatl ( Faludina vivi-
para), a species which is extremely common in our
fresh waters, being found abundantly in ponds and
rivers, and in the latter preferring the sluggish parts,
such as bays or the mouths of ditches. This creature
hatches its eggs within its own shell ; and at page 101,
fig. 7, a sketch is given of the mouth of the shell and
a few of the young within it. Fig. 6 represents the
operculum.
There are two species of Water-Snail, so similar in
general appearance that they are mostly confused with
each other. A figure of the second species, the Green
Water-Snail (Paludinavivipara), is given atPlateVIII.,
fig. 11. It may be easily distinguished by turning it
up and looking at it from below, when the large hole
that pierces through the centre of the shell, and is
technically called the umbilicus, affords an unmistake-
104
PERIWINKLES.'
able mark of the species. The Common Water-Snail
has no umbilicus.
At Plate VIII., fig. 12, is a slightly enlarged figure
of the Common Bitiiinia ( Bithinia tentaculata) , a pretty,
delicate shell, which is plentiful in ditches and slug¬
gish streams. The substance of the shell is exceed¬
ingly delicate and semi-transparent, and the animal is
notable for its long and slender tentacles.
On the same plate, at fig. 13, is a shell which looks
very much like a shortened Bithinia. This is the
Common Valve-shell (Valvata piscinalis) . The figure
represents the elongated variety of this shell, with a
small umbilicus ; but there is a flattened variety, in
which the umbilicus is exceedingly large. The colour
is greyish brown, with a litle red towards the tip, and
the surface is covered with small wrinkles. It is
mostly found in semi-stagnant waters.
We now come to the Litorinidse, a family which is
better known by the popular name of Periwinkles.
Most of them live in the sea, but some reside at the
mouths of rivers ; and some may be found at a consi¬
derable distance from the sea, so that the water in
which they live is only brackish.
The Common Periwinkle (Littorina littcea), is drawn
at Plate VIII., fig. 17, and is so familiar that it need
not be particularly described. Some details of its
structure are, however, given at page 101. Fig. 11
represents the tongue-ribbon of its natural size, and a
magnified portion is shown at fig. 12. In order to
show the curious form of the teeth themselves, a single
row is drawn at fig. 13, on a greatly magnified scale.
Another member of the same family, though not of
the same genus, is represented at Plate VIII., fig. 1*5.
Its scientific name is Lacuna pallidula, and we will
call it the Pale Chink-shell, a name which is a literal
translation of its scientific title. It derives its name
SPIRE-SHELLS.
105
froin the “ lacuna” or chink- like groove behind the
mouth, and which is well shown in the figure. Its
colour is pale yellow, and the inside of the chink is
white. It is very common on sea-weeds on every
shore. At page 101, fig. 9, is shown a magnified view
of the eggs laid by this species; and at fig. 10 is
shown the curious forms of animal and shell assumed
by the young.
Another species of this genus is the Banded Chink-
shell ( Lacuna mncta) . This is a larger species than
the preceding, and is banded with four reddish-brown
belts. It is found plentifully upon our coasts, and
can be taken by hand without even wetting the feet.
At Plate VIII., fig. 14, is seen a little ordinary¬
looking shell. This is the Dun Sentinel (Assiminia
Gray and), a species that derives its name from the
position of the eyes, which are set on moderately long
tentacles, like those of the sentinel crab. A figure of
the animal in its shell is given at page 101, fig. 5, in
order to exhibit this structure. The shell is a verv
%>
small one, rather under a quarter of an inch in length,
and its colour is dun, with a decided gloss. It inha¬
bits the mouths of tidal rivers, up which it passes for
a considerable distance, as may be seen from the fact
that it may be taken as high up the Thames as Wool¬
wich, or even Greenwich.
We now come to a very large family of very little
shells, all of which are graceful in form, and many
are also pretty in colour. The form is always that of
a much elongated spiral, and we will therefore call
them Spire-shells. Our first example is the Notched
Spire-shell ( Bissoa crenulata ), a shell that is found
in vast quantities on some of our shores. It is a beau¬
tiful little shell, cream-white in colour, and having
the surface covered with spiral ridges, and the mouth
regularly notched, the notches being caused by the
ends of the spiral ridges. This tiny shell, which is
106
TURRET-SHELL.
shown at Plate VIII., fig. 21, seldom exceeds the fifth
of an inch in length. The figure is nearly twice the
natural size.
At fig. 23 of the same Plate is drawn an enlarged
figure of another species, the Thick-lipped Spire-
shell ( Rissoa labiosa). It is a pretty little shell, and
is rather variable, sometimes being quite smooth,
and sometimes covered with well-marked folds. A
specimen of the smooth variety, now before me, looks
exactly as if it had been made of very thin horn, and
the shell is so delicate that it seems scarcely able to
endure the least touch. This species is found on the
shores, and can be taken in a living state upon the
sea-grass, or zostera, which sprang so suddenly into
fame a few years ago.
At the same Plate, fig. 22, is represented the Laver
Spire- shell ( Rissoa ulvoe ), so called because it is found
upon the laver, or ulva, and often follows this well-
known sea- weed for a considerable distance up large
rivers. Salt marshes abound in this shell, which forms
one of the many causes why gulls and other sea-birds
are so fond of such spots. This is a darker species
than either of the others, the colour being blackish
brown. Its length is barely a quarter of an inch.
At Plate VIII., fig. 19, is shown the common
Turret- shell ( TurriteUa communis) , one of the best
known of our shells, though it happens to be the only
British representative of its genus. Its regularly
twisted and gradually tapering form are quite enough
to enable the captor to identify it. Although it is so
plentiful, a perfect specimen is seldom picked up, be¬
cause the slender peak and thin edge of the lip are so
fragile, that one or both is mostly damaged.
At fig. 20 of the same Plate is drawn a magnified
representation of a tiny shell not more than the eighth
of an inch in length, and of a whitish colour. It much
resembles the Tooth-shells, but may be distinguished
PYRAMID -SHELLS.
107
from them by* the fact that the upper end of the shell
is not perforated. It is therefore called the Blind-
shell ( Caecum trachea).
On the same Plate, at fig. 18, is drawn a curious
species, called the Pelican’s Foot ( Aporrhais pes-
pelecani) , because the peculiar formation of the mouth
is fancifully thought to resemble the foot of a pelican.
The shell is a tolerably large one, being about two
inches in length, and its substance is very solid. Its
colour is whitish brown. An under view of the shell
is given at page 101, fig. 15 ; and some of the teeth
are drawn at fig. 14, on a greatly magnified scale.
We now come to a shell that might possibly be
mistaken for the Turret-shells, but which can easily
be distinguished by the numerous tubercles with which
the surface is covered. Some specimens are more or
less ribbed. This is the common Horn-shell ( Ceri -
thium reticulatum) , an elegant and rather variable shell,
which is common upon our coasts. This species is
drawn on a magnified scale at Plate IX., fig. 1.
A singularly beautiful shell, the common Wentle-
trap (Scalaria communis ), drawn at Plate IX., fig. 3,
is easily recognised by the bold ribs that issue from
the shell, and follow its spiral in a series of most
graceful curves. The head of another species is drawn
at fig. 2, in order to show the long tentacles in the
bases of which the eyes are sunk.
There is a group of molluscs called the Pyramid-
shells, which are distinguished from the Spire-sliells
on account of the structure of the animal rather than
of the shell. One of these creatures is the Glossy
Aclis ( Adis supra-nitida) , which is drawn on Plate IX.,
fig. 4. It is a very little shell, not much more than a
quarter of an inch in length, and is of a polished white
hue.
108
NECKLACE ' NATICA.
Another species is the Eulima polita, » name which
we may literally translate as the Polished Hunger-
shell. The colour of this shell is white, and its texture
is so transparent that the form of the animal can be
partly seen through it, as is represented at Plate IX.,
fig. 6, where the eyes and part of the tentacles are
visible through the shell.
Yet another species is seen at fig. 5 of the same
Plate. This is the Ruddy Pyramid-shell ( Ghemnitzia
rufescens), which may be recognised by its ribbed
exterior and its mouth without a tooth. The colour
is pale-red, banded spirally with a darker hue.
Our last example of these curious little shells is the
Conical Pyramid-shell ( Oclostomea conoidea). To dis¬
tinguish these shells is a very difficult task, and one
that requires much care and attention. Suffice it to
say, that this shell may be distinguished from the
others by the strong fold or tooth in the inner lip.
The figure is nearly twice the real size of the shell.
See Plate IX, fig. 7.
Viewed by itself alone, the shell of the Xecklace
VELVET-SHELL.
109
Xatica ( Nati'ca monilifera ) presents nothing of parti¬
cular interest, it being merely a large pale yellow
shell, very like that of a snail. See Plate IX., fig. 8.
But it becomes interesting when we see how curiously
it is overlapped by various portions of the animal, as
is seen at fig. 9 of the same Plate. It receives the
name of Necklace Xatica from the curious ribbon-like
form in which its eggs are laid, somewhat resembling
a broad necklace of pearls. This is shown in the
illustration at page 108, fig. 1. Another species, the
Shining Xatica ( Natica alderi), is shown at fig. 2.
About six species of Xatica are known.
The peculiar envelopment is completely carried out
in the Velvet-shell ( Velutma Icevigata), where the
shell is completely concealed by the animal. It de¬
rives its name from the velvet-like epidermis with
which it is covered. The shell is shown at Plate IX.,
fig. 10 ; the head is drawn at page 108, fig. 4, and the
teeth at fig. 3.
CHAPTER XII.
THE WHELKS, AND THEIR KIN— THE STING-WINKLE — REASON FOR ITS NAME
— THE DWARF WHELK — ITS CHANGE OF COLOUR — THE DOG PERIWINKLE,
AND ITS PURPLE DTE - THE DOG-WHELK — ITS EGGS, AND DEVELOPMENT
OF THE YOUNG - THE COMMON WHELK — ITS EGG-SACS AND YOUNG — THE
ICELAND SPINDLE — ITS HEAD AND TEETH — THE LATTICED NURSE-SHELL,
AND ITS BEAUTIFUL SURFACE — THE ROSY CONELET, AND OTHERS OF THE
SAME GENUS — THE EUROPEAN COWRY — ITS APPEARANCE WHEN LIVING —
THE EGG-SHELLS — WHY SO CALLED — THE MARGIN-SHELL THE BUBBLE-
SHELLS, AND THEIR STRUCTURE — THE CANOE-SHELL — WHY SO CALLED —
THE LOBE-SHELL— THE SEA HARE — FALSE IDEAS OF THE ANIMAL —
THE NUDIBRANCHS — THEIR APPEARANCE IN AND OUT OP THE WATER
- A FEW LAND AND FRESH-WATER SHELLS — THE SEPIA, OR COMMON
CUTTLE-FISH — ITS APPROACH TO THE VERTEBRATES - ITS SO-CALLED
“ BONE,” AND ITS STRUCTURE — THE EGGS AND YOUNG - THE SQUID— ITS
BONE, AND END OF AN ARM — THE CALAMARY AND ITS BONEi
We now come to the great family of the Whelks, our
first example of which is the Sting Winkle (Mur ex
erinaceus ), which is so called by fishermen because it
bores holes into other molluscs and devours them, in
accordance with the predacious character of the entire
group. See Plate IX., fig. 16. It is very plentiful at a
moderate depth, and may easily be recognised by re¬
ference to the illustration. The colour is whitish, with
a little yellow or chesnut.
At the same Plate, and at fig. 14, is the Dwarf
Whelk ( Lachesis minima ); a curious little shell, which
changes colour from dark reddish-brown when alive
to chesnut after death. It is found on the southern
coasts, rather below low-water mark.
The well-known Dog Periwinkle (Purpura lapillus ),
which is shown at the same Plate, fig. 11, is celebrated
as producing the much-prized purple dye of the an¬
cients. The dye is found in a sac behind the animal’s
head, and is yellow at first, but becomes blood-red by
SPINDLE-SHELLS.
Ill
exposure to the sunshine. The colour is variable, and
is often very pretty, consisting of alternate spiral
bands of white and orange or brown or chesnut.
Some specimens are nearly smooth, while others are
spirally ridged. It is extremely plentiful on all our
coasts.
At fig. 12 of the same Plate is the common Dofi
Whelk ( Nassa reticulata ), which is so plentiful on
our shores. The exterior of the shell is covered with
bold tuberculated ribs ; and the colour is brown on
the outside, and pinkish white within the shell. It
may be picked up alive at low- water, feeding on the
sea-weeds. The front view of the shell is well drawn
at page 108, fig. 7, and its remarkable egg-sacs are
shown at fig. 8 ; and figs. 9, 10, and 11 show the deve¬
lopment of the young, sketched by Mr. Sowerby from
the living specimens.
The common W helk (JBuccinum undatum ) is drawn
at Plate IX., fig. 15 ; and the animal and shell are so
familiar as to need no description. Some interesting
details of its structure are, however, given in the ac¬
companying illustration.
At fig. 1 is a strangely distorted specimen, in Mr.
Sowerby’s collection. At fig. 2 is a double operculum,
a deformity which is not very uncommon. The ordi¬
nary shape is seen at fig. 5. At fig. 3 is shown a
112
CONE-SHELLS.
magnified portion of the tooth-ribbon, and at fig. 4 is
shown a single row of teeth very much magnified.
Fig. 8 represents a group of the egg-sacs, as they are
so often found on the shore ; fig. 6 represents one of
the sacs as it appears after the little inmate has broken
its way through ; and fig. 7 shows the young shell as
it appears when it first leaves the egg-sac.
The Spindle-shells are well represented on our
shores. Our present example is the pretty Iceland
Spindle (Fusus Islandicus), which is represented on
Plate IX., fig. 13. This pretty shell is pure white,
but it is covered with a yellowish epidermis, which
easily rubs off when dry. The whole shell is tra¬
versed by delicate ridges, which follow the spiral form
of the whorls. The head of this species is. shown at
page 108, fig. 5, and its teeth, much magnified, at fig. 6.
The largest of the British species is that which is
popularly known as the Buckie or Roaring-shell, and
it reaches six inches in length. It is sometimes called
the Red Whelk, and its scientific name is Fusus anti-
quus.
Our last example of this group is that which is
shown at Plate X., fig. 1, and which is called Trcyphon
clathratus. A literal translation of this name is the
Latticed Xubse-shell. It rather changes its hue by
age, being reddish-brown when young, and grey- white
when adult. It is represented of the natural size, and
may be recognised by the longitudinal ribs. The
operculum of this species is shown on page 113, fig. 1,
and one row of its teeth at fig. 2.
Most of the Cone-shells in habit tropical countries,
but some are inhabitants of our shores.
Our first example is the Rosy Conelet ( Mangelia
turricula), one of a very large genus, including more
than twenty acknowledged British species : Plate X.,
fig. 2. The colour of this shell is white, with a rosy
tinge in most specimens ; and there is a bold, angular
COWRIES.
113
channel between the whorls. It is common at mode¬
rate, and even at great, depths. The head of this
species is shown in the accompanying illustration, at
fig. 4, and the teeth at fig. 3.
Another species, the Seven-ribbed Conelet ( Man -
gelici septangularis) , is shown at Plate X., fig. 3, and
may be known by the peculiarity from which it takes
its name, the whorls being marked with seven bold
longitudinal ribs. The substance of the shell is very
thick, and the colour is pinkish-yellow, sometimes
deepening to a livid hue.
A deeply-coloured but variable species, the Red
Conelet (. Mangelia rufa ), is either chocolate, orange,
purple, or chesnut ; but, whatever be the hue, red
always predominates. In form it is as variable as in
colour ; but the ordinary shape is that which is repre¬
sented at Plate X., fig. 4. The head and teeth of this
species are shown above, at figs. 6 and 5.
We now come to the Cowries, a very few of which
beautiful shells inhabit our coasts. The animals are
I
114
BUBBLE-SHELLS.
remarkable for their habit of concealing the greater
part or the whole of the shell with the soft parts of
the body. Three views of the European Cowry
( Cyprcea Eurojpoea) are given at Plate X., figs. 5, 6, 7,
the last drawing being made in order to show how
the shell is concealed, leaving only a small portion
visible along the back. It is very plentiful on all our
shores, and very variable. Its head is drawn at page
113, fig. 7, and the young shell at fig. 8, showing how
great is the change of form by age.
The well-known Egg-shells belong to this group,
and derive their name from their resemblance to
‘ poached” eggs. The Gaping Egg-shell ( Ovula
patula) is shown at Plate X., figs. 8 and 10, and may
be known by the peculiar shape, and the white or
slightly pinkish hue. It cannot be mistaken for any
other species.
An allied shell, the Margin-shell ( Marginella Icevis),
is shown at Plate X., fig. 9, as it appears when crawl¬
ing; and figs. 11 and 12 exhibit two different views
of the empty shell. It may be known by the shape,
the ivory-like surface, and the broad, thick outer lip.
It is found scattered on all our coasts. Its head is
drawn at page 113, fig. 9, and its teeth at fig. L0.
The Bullidse, or Bubble-shells, find a few repre¬
sentatives on the English coasts. At Plate X., fig.
31, is shown the Cylindrical Bubble-shell ( Gylichna
cylindrical. This species is plentiful around our coasts,
and can easily be distinguished by its blunt ends and
white colour. Fig. 14 shows the same shell inhabited
by the animal, as it appears in the act of crawling.
The curiously-formed teeth of this species are shown
at page 113, fig. 12. Several species of this genus are
found in England. One of them, the Blunt Bubble-
shell ( Gylichna obtusa), is shown at fig. 15, Plate X.
An allied, but apparently distinct form of shell, is
shown at Plate XI., fig. 1. This is the Action-shell
( Tornatella fasciata). It may easily be recognised,
SEA HARE.
115
not only by its form, but by the pretty white bands
upon the reddish-lilac shell. The animal pours out a
purplish fluid when disturbed. It is found on all our
coasts.
A curious species, the Soft Bubble-shell ( Akera
buLlata), is shown at the same Plate, fig. 16. This
shell may be distinguished by its semi-transparent,
horny look, and the elastic, almost flexible, character
of its structure. It is plentiful in some places, but
scarcely ever to be found in others. It is remarkable
for possessing certain triangular horny tentacles in
the gizzard, as may be seen at page 113, fig. 11.
We have only two examples of the typical genus in
England, one of which, the Thin Bubble-shell ( Bulla
lujdatis) , is shown of its natural size at Plate X., fig.
18. The shell itself is white, but it is covered with a
yellowish epidermis, which hides the true colour until
it is removed. The shell is extremely thin and paper¬
like in structure. It is a southern species, and is ob¬
tained by tearing up the great sea- weeds from their
attachments.
At Plate X., fig. 17, is a drawing of the Canqe-
shell (Scaphander lignarius), so called because, in the
first place, it is of a somewhat boat-like shape, and in
the second, the colour of its surface looks very like
the grain of wood. The usual colour is reddish-dun,
and it is covered with a shining epidermis. It is
mostly taken with the dredge, on sandy ground.
A still more curious species is shown at fig. 19 of
the same plate. This is the common Lobe-shell
(Philine aperta ), which might easily be found in the
living state and yet not recognised. This creature
wholly envelopes the shell within the soft part of its
body, as is seen at fig. 20, so that it presents a very
remarkable appearance. The shell is thin, delicate,
and of a pure white.
? *
Another of these shell-concealing molluscs is shown
at Plate XI., fig. 2. This is the Sea Hare ( Aplysia
i 2
116
NUDIBRANCHS.
hybrida), an odd-looking creature, which is perfectly
harmless, but of which the sailors and fishermen are
terribly afraid, accrediting it with all sorts of poison¬
ous qualities. The shell, or rather the shield of this
species, is small, flattish, and horny, and very much
resembles that of the common slug. A drawing of it
is given at fig. 3. The body is remarkably extensible.
Like the Actseon, it pours out a purplish fluid when
alarmed. It is common throughout our coasts.
We now come to that curious group of molluscs
called Nudibranchs, because their breathing apparatus
is external. They have no shell, and therefore will be
but casually mentioned. When removed from the
water, they are by no means sightly, looking like mere
lumps of jelly ; but when they are placed in their
proper element, they are among the most lovely in¬
habitants of ocean, nearly transparent, and glorious
with every imaginable hue.
Two forms of these remarkable creatures are given
in Plate XI., at figs. 5 and 6. Although when adult
they are shell-less, the young possess a very delicate
shell during the first part of their existence, as may
be seen in the accompanying illustration, fig. 2.
Fig. 1 represents one of the curious egg-ribbons pro¬
duced by the Doris. The British seas contain a vast
number of species, which exhibit the most weird-like
shapes it is possible to conceive.
In order not to break the series, a few Land Mol-
WATER- SNAILS.
117
luscs occupy tlie rest of tlie Plate. At fig. 7 is shown
one of the slugs called Testacella, to show the shield,
or shell, which is in this creature placed on the end of
the foot ; and in the Common Grey Slug, fig. 9, the
shell is seen towards the head and under the mantle.
To describe the rest of these land shells would
occupy too much space ; but their names can be found
by reference to the List of Illustrations, and their
species easily identified by the figures.
A few of the fresh-water species must, however,
have a brief notice. On Plate XII., fig. 13, is seen the
common Poucii- shell ( Physa Hypnorum), a pretty
little horn-like shell, plentiful in ponds and ditches ;
and in the accompanying illustration, fig. 3, is drawn
4
a living specimen of another species, Physa fontinalis,
in order to show the curiously-fringed mantle clasped
over the shell.
Figs. 14 to 18, and fig. 24, represent different spe¬
cies of the Flat Water-snails ; and figs. 20 and 21
show the pretty little Fresh -water Limpet, with its
semi-transparent shell. The Common Water-snail
( Limnceus stacjnalis ) is shown at fig. 22 ; and two other
species of the same genus are seen at figs. 23 and 25.
At the bottom of the Plate is seen a rather larce
figure, which represents one of our cuttle-fishes, the
Common Sepia ( Sepia officinalis ). In these curious
molluscs there is an evident approach to the verte¬
brates, the so-called “bone” which strengthens their
118
SEPIA.
bodies being an incipient back-bone. The bone of this
species is familiar to all who have walked by the sea¬
shore, and even those who have not enjoyed that
privilege may have seen it in the druggists’ shops,
where it is sold for tbe purpose of a dentifrice. The
chief mass of the “ bone ” is, in fact, the purest chalk,
arranged in a most beautiful manner, looking like
countless rows of snow-white pillars. Under the
microscope and with polarised light, it is a truly
wonderful object.
The singular projections from the head are popu¬
larly called arms, because with them the cuttle-fish
seizes and secures its prey. This it does, not by clasp¬
ing its arms round the unfortunate creature, but by
applying to it some of the circular discs with which
the arms are studded. These discs constitute, in fact,
a sucking apparatus of wonderful efficacy, each of the
discs being a miniature air-pump which can be worked
independently of any other. In the present species
there are many hundreds of these suckers, so that
their combined force is very great. How powerful is
their adhesion, may be realised by comparing with
them the well-known pneumatic pegs, which are so
largely used by photographers in taking up glass
plates which ought not to be touched by the hand,
and by shopkeepers in hanging goods in their win¬
dows, the peg being fixed to the pane by the pressure
of the air. Now, these ingenious pegs are nothing
more than artificial models of the Cuttle-fish’s suckers,
and are copied as exactly as art can imitate nature.
In the midst of the arms is the mouth, with its for¬
midable pair of jaws, looking like a parrot’s beak, so
that the creature is as formidable a creature as a mol¬
lusc can well be imagined to be. Some of the larger
species, indeed, which inhabit tropical seas, grow to so
large a size that they are even dreaded by man.
It is rather curious that, although the “bone” of
this species is often found, the animal is rarely seen.
A drawing of this “bone” is seen in the accom-
SQUID.
119
panying illustration, fig. 3. In the same engraving,
fig. 1, is a representation of two rows of teeth of the
tongue-ribbon ; and at fig. 2 are shown the formidable
pair of horny jaws which arm the mouth, and whose
potency is shown by their stout, hooked forms and the
strong attachments for the muscles. The grape-like
eggs of this species are very plentiful upon the shore
at the right time of year, and can be easily hatched.
I have often watched the little Sepia break away from
the soft egg-shell, and enter the world as much at its
ease as if it were quite an old inhabitant, and knew all
about the life upon which it had just entered. At
fig. 5 is seen the horny bone of the common Squid
( Sepiola atlantica), which is so plentiful on our shores;
and fig. 4 represents very accurately the termination
of one of its arms, with the sudden change in size of
the sucking discs.
This pretty little creature is barely two inches in
1 20
CALAMAEY.
total length, and is a most active animal, darting
through the water with exceeding velocity, and aiding
its progress by the large fin-like projections on its
sides. There are some tropical species which are
popularly called Flying Squids, because when they are
alarmed they dart out of the water, and pass over a
considerable distance before they fall into the sea.
Thousands are sometimes seen to project themselves
simultaneously into the air, to avoid the attack of the
coryphene and other predacious fishes ; and the active
little molluscs have been known to shoot fairly over
the hull of a ship.
The “bone” of the common Calamary ( Loligo vul¬
garis ) is shown at fig. 6. Several of these bones, or
“pens,” as they are sometimes called, are frequently
found in the body of a single specimen.
I N"D E X
PAGE , PAGE
Abra .
. 37
Bubble-shell, Cylindrical
114
Aclis .
. 107
Soft . .
115
04
Thin
Actseon-shell . . . .
. 114
Buccinum .
3 3
111
Adeorbis .
. 102
Buckie .
112
Akera .
. 115
Bulla .
115
Anatinidae .
. 30
Caecum .
107
Anodon .
. 70
Calyptraea .
95
Anornia .
85, 86
Canoe-shell .
115
Aplysia .
. 115
Cap-shell, Hungarian .
94
Aquaria, extemporised .
. 11
Caphvra .
82
Area .
79, 80
Capped Orb-shell . .
67
Ark-shell .
Cardium .
60
,61
- Milky . . .
. 80
Carpet-shell, Banded .
47
Arm-footed molluscs
. 87
- Golden .
49
Artemis .
53, 54
- Grooved .
40
A sp.i rli#}
a
50
Ascidians .
2
Ceratisolen .
33
Ascidia .
6
Cerithium .
107
Ashen Pearl-shell . .
. 68
Chambered Mussel . .
70
Assiminia .
. 105
Chemnitzia .
108
Astarte .
57, 58
Chink-shell, Banded
105
Avicula .
. 81
Chiton .
91, 92
Banded Carpet-shell
. 47
Circe .
57
- - Cockle . . .
. -60
Cochlodesma ....
31
- Venus . . . .
. 51
Cockle, Banded . . .
60
Basket, Bean . . . .
. 30
- Edible . . .
3)
— - - shell . . . .
. 27
- - Heart ....
58
- Spoon . . . .
. 30
Pigmy . . .
60
Beaked Lamp-shell . .
. 88
- Bed-nose . .
33
- Leda-shell . .
. 79
Coin-shell, Convex . .
64
. 30
63
JL clIlvIUi • • •
Bearded Horse-mussel .
. 75
Comb-shell .
80
Belt-shell, White . . .
. 102
Conelet, Red ....
113
Bithinia .
. 104
- Rosy ....
112
Black Crenella . . .
. 76
- Seven-ribbed .
113
Blind-shell .
. 107
Convex Coin-shell . .
64
Blunt Gaper . . . .
. 26
Corbula .
27
- Tellen . . . .
. 35
Cowry .
114
• - Trough-shell . .
. 44
Crania .
88
Botryllidae, or Grape-ani-
Crenella .
75, 76
male .
2
Cup-and-saucer Limpet
95
Brachiopoda . . . .
. 87
Cyolas .
66, 67
Bristly Mail-shell . .
. 91
! Cylichna .
111
122
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGE
Cynthia .
6
Horse Mussel . . .
. 74
Cyprsea .
114
Hunchback Scallop .
. 84
Cyprina .
56
Hungarian Cap-shell
. 94
Cytherea .
51
Hunger-shell . . .
. 108
Dentalium .
94
Hyalaea .
. 89
Dog Periwinkle . . .
110
Iceland Cyprina . .
. 56
- Whelk . . • . .
111
Irus-shell ....
. 22
Donax .
42, 43
Isocordia ....
. 58
Doris .
116
Janthina .
. 102
Dreissena .
70
Kellia .
. 62
Edible Cockle ....
60
Kelly-shell, Globose .
. 63
7°
Egg-shell .
114
Keyhole Limpet . .
. 96
Elephant’s Tusk-shell .
94
Lachesis .
. 110
Elliptical Trough-shell .
44
Lacuna .
104, 105
Emarginula ....
97
Lake Orb-shell . .
. 67
Eulima .
108
Lamp-shell, Beaked .
. 88
File-shell, Fragile . .
83
- Snake Head . ,,
- Gaping . .
5)
Lantern-shells . . .
. 30
- Heart . . .
84
Leda .
78, 70
Fissurella .
96
Lepton .
63, 64
Flask-shell .
17
Lima .
83, 84
Flat Astarte-shell . .
58
Limnseus ....
. 117
Fool’s-cap-shell . . .
94
Limpet, Common . .
. 92
Fragile File-shell . . .
83
- Cup-and-Saucer . 95
Furrowed Astarte-shell
57
- Fresh-water
. 117
Furrow-shell ....
38
- Horse . .
. 93
Fusus .
112
- Keyhole . .
. 96
Galeomma .
64
- Notched . .
. 97
Gaper, Blunt ....
26
- Perforated .
Gaper-shell, Common .
23
- Smooth . .
. 93
Gaping File-shell . .
83
- Tortoiseshell
. 94
Gasteropoda ....
90
Lobe-shell ....
. 115
Gastrochaena ....
17
Little Carpet-shell .
. 50
Glass-shell, Three-spined
89
- Circe-shell . .
. 57
Globose Kelly-shell . .
63
- Mullet-shell .
. 62
- Orb-shell . .
67
- Piddock . .
. 11
Glossy Mail-shell . . .
92
Littorina ....
. 104
Golden Carpet-shell . .
49
Lucina, Northern
. 61
- Top-shell . . .
100
Lucinopsis ....
Grey Mail-shell . . .
91
Lutraria ...
46, 47
Green Crenella . . .
75
Mactra .
. 44
Grooved Carpet-shell .
49
Mail-shell, Bristly
. 91
- Crenella . .
76
- Glossy
. 92
33
. 91
ilaZOI -SlltJlI •
vjrcy . .
94
Haliotis .
97
- Red . .
Hare, Sea .
115
Mangelia ....
. 113
Heart Cockle ....
58
Marbled Crenella
. 75
Heart File-shell . . .
84
- Mail-shell .
. 91
Horn-shell .
107
Margin-shell . . .
. 114
Horse Limpet ....
93
M argin ella ....
INDEX.
12
o
O
Milky Ark-shell . . .
PAGE
80
Modiola .
/
4, 75
Montacuta .
64
Mottled Comb-sliell . .
80
- Scallop . . .
85
Mullet-shell, Little . .
62
Murex .
110
Mussel, Bearded Horse
75
- Chambei'ed . .
70
- Edible . . .
72
- Horse ....
74
- Painter’s River
69
- Pearl ....
72
- Pheasant Horse
75
- Swan ....
69
- Tulip Horse
75
Mya .
23, 26
Mytilus edulis ....
72
Nassa .
111
Natica .
109
N eaera .
28
Necklace Natica . . .
109
Nei’itina .
103
Noah’s Ark ....
79
Northern Lucina . . .
61
- Stone-borer .
21
Notched Limpet . . .
97
Nucula .
77
Nudibranchs ....
116
Nurse -shell .
112
Nut Orb-shell ....
66
Nut-shell, Common . .
77
- Shining . .
78
Oblong Otter-shell . .
47
Odostomea .
108
Old Maid .
23
Orange Tellen ....
36
Orb-shell, Capped . .
67
- - Globose . .
- Lake . . .
- Nut ...
66
Ormer .
97
Orphan-shell ....
55
Ostraea .
86
Otter-shell .
45
- Oblong . .
47
- Oval . . .
46
Oval Otter-shell . . .
Ovula .
114
Oyster, Common . . .
86
- - Saddle . . .
85
Painted Top-shell . .
100
PACK
Painter’s River Mussel . 09
Pale Chink-shell .... 104
Paludina . 103
Pandora, Beaked .... 30
Paper Razor-shell ... 34
Patella . 92, 93
Pea-crab . 82
Pearl Mussel . 72
Pearl-shell, Ashen ... 68
- River. ... ,,
el
Pearl-shells . . .
Pecten ....
Pectunculus . .
Pelonaea ....
Perforated Limpet
Periwinkle . . .
- - Dog .
Perophora . . .
Petricola ...
Phasianella . . .
Pheasant Horse Muss
Pheasant-shell
Pholadidea .
Pholas . .
Physa . . .
Piddock . .
- Little
- White
- Wood
Pigmy Cockle
Pigmy Leda-sliell
Pileopsis . .
Pinna . . .
Pinnotheres
Pisidium . .
Pod Razor .
Polished Wedge-shell
Porcelain Tellen .
Pouch-shell . . .
Prickly Saddle-shell
Psammobia .
Pteropoda .
Punctinella .
Purpura . .
Pyramid-shell
Radiated Scallop
- - Trough-shell
Razor, Grooved .
- Paper . .
- Pod . . .
- Sabre . .
- Shell, Short
8,
67
84, 85
80
7
97
104
110
Q
O
21
101
75
101
12
11, 12
117
8
11
11
16
60
79
94
81
82
68
32
43
36
117
86
35
89
97
110
108
85
44
33
34
32
34
124
INDEX.
Razor, Smooth . .
PAGE
34
Rayed Artemis . .
53
Red Mail-shell . .
99
- Nose Cockle . .
60
Rimula .
98
Rissoa .
105
River Pearl-shell . .
68
- Neritina . .
103
Roaring-shell . . .
112
Rock- shell ....
21
Rough Stone-borer .
19
Sabre Razor . . .
32
Saddle Oyster . . .
85
Saddle-shell, Prickly
86
Salpa .
2
Saxicava .
19, 20
Scallop, Common
85
- Hunchback .
84
- Mottled . .
85
- Radiated . .
)J
- Tiger . . .
55
- Variable . .
84
Scaphander ....
115
Scrobicularia . . .
38
Sea-Ear .
97
- Grapes ....
3
- Hare ....
115
- Jellies ....
2
- Squirts ....
4
Semi-molluscs . . .
1
Sentinel, Dun . . .
105
Sepia .
117
Sepiola .
120
Sliip-wonns . . .
13
Shining Kelly-shell .
63
— — — Nut-shell
78
Short Razor-shell
34
Slug, Grey ....
116
Snail, Common Water
103
- Violet . . .
102
Snake-head Lamp-shell
88
Solecurtus ....
31
Solen .
32, 33
Spindle, Iceland . .
111
Spire-shell, Notched
105
- Thick-lipped
106
Spoon-basket . . .
31
Squid .
119
Sting-winkle . . .
110
Stone-borer, Northern
21
- Rough
19
Striped Sunset-shell
35
PAGE
Striped Venus .... 52
Sunset-shell . 35
Swallow Wing-shell . . 81
Swan Mussel . 69
Syndosmya . 37
Tapes . 4/, 49, 50
Tellen, Blunt . 35
- Convex .... 37
- Orange .... 36
- Porcelain .... ,,
Tellina . 35, 36
Terehratula . 88
Teredo . 13, 14, 15
Testacella . 116
Thracia . 30
Three-spined Glass-shell . 89
Tiger Scallop . 85
Top-shells . 100
Tornatella . 114
Tortoiseshell Limpet , . 94
Trochus . 100
Trophon . 112
Trough -shells . 44
Tulip Horse-mussel ... 75
Tunicata . 2
Turret-shell . 106
Tunitella . .
Turtonia . 62
Tusk-shell . 94
Unio . 69, 72
Valvata . 104
Valve-shell, Common . . „
Variable Scallop .... 84
Velvet-shell . 109
Velutina . .
Venerupis . 22
Venus ...... 51, 52
Violet Snail . 102
Wampum Venus .... 52
Wart Venus . 51
Water-Snail . 117
Weasel-shells . 64
Wedge-shells . 41
Wentletrap . 107
Whelk, Common . . . . Ill
- Dog . „
- Dwarf . 110
- Red . 112
Wing-shell, Swallow . . 81
Wood Piddock .... 16
Woi-ms . 13
Xylophaga . 16
C;i CO to
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
I’L.V
1. Botryllus polycyclus. A com¬
pound Ascidian. Individuals
united in a circle. Mouths
of rivers.
2. Pelonsea corrugata. A free
Ascidian. Mud.
3. Perophora listei’i. Indi¬
viduals united by a thread¬
like stem. On stones.
4. Saxieava rugosa. Animal in
shell, showing the foot and
siphons. (See fig. 7-) In
chalk and limestone.
5. Ascidia mentula. Simple
Ascidian. On stones, &c.
G. Pholas parva. The shell, in
the red chalk of Brighton.
7. Saxieava rugosa. Empty
shell. See tig. 4.
8. Saxieava arctica. Shell.
Plat
1. Petricola rupicola. In stone,
clay, &c.
. Yenerupis irus. In rocks.
. Pandora obtusa. On sand.
. Neaera cuspidata. On sand.
. Corbula nucleus. On muddy
sand.
G. Mya arenaria. Showing the
Plat
1. Ceratisolen legumen. Sand
and mud.
2. Solecurtus candidus. Sand.
3. Solecurtus coarctatus. Sand.
4. Tellina solidula. In sand.
5. Tellina tenuis. In sand.
6. Psammobia tellinella. Shelly
gravel.
7. Syndosmya alba. Sand and
mud.
8. Tellina crassa. Sand and
gravel.
FE I.
9. Gastrochmua modiolina.
Shell. (See fig. 11.)
10. Pholadidea papyracea, show¬
ing united siphons and the
cup at the end of the shell.
In sandstone, clay, &c.
11. Gastrochsena modiolina.
Animal in shell, showing
the very small foot. Sandy
and stony ground.
12. Pholas dactylus. Shell and
animal, in white chalk.
13. Teredo navalis. Animal and
shell in wood. The siphon
tubes are seen above, and
the little shell below. The
small foot is seen protrud¬
ing between the valves of
the shell, and just below
the siphons are the two
shelly pallets .
: II.
membranous cover of the
tubes. Mud.
7. Mya truncata. Showing the
ends of the tubes project¬
ing from their cover. Mud.
8. Lutraria oblonga. Mud.
9. Solen ensis. Sand and mud,
10. Solen siliqua. Sand and mud.
III.
9. Psammobia ferroeusis. Sand.
10. Scrobicularia piperita. At
mouths of rivers, in mud.
11. Donax politus. Sand.
12. Mactra elliptica. Sand and
gravel.
13. Donax anatinus. In sand.
14. Mactra truncata. Sand and
gravel.
15. Mactra stultorum. Sand and
gravel.
126
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
1. Venus fasciata. Gravel.
2. Venus striatula. Sand.
3. Cytherea cliione. Sand.
4. Artemis lincta. Sand.
5. Circe minima. Sand.
6. Astarte sulcata. Muddy
sand.
7. Tapes Virginea. Sand.
8. Astarte compressa. Mud.
9. Tapes aurea. Muddy sand.
10. Kellia soborbicularis. Mud,
crevices of stones, and in
empty shells.
11. Lucinopsis undata. Sand.
Pla'j
1. Galeomma Turtoni. Under
stones.
2. Do. Empty shell.
3. Cyprina Islandica. Sandy
mud.
4. Lepton squamosum. Among
sea-weed.
4*. Pisidium amnicum. Divers.
4##. Lepton convexum. Sand.
5. Cyclas caliculata. Ponds and
canals.
6. Pisidium cinereum. Ponds
and canals.
7. Cyclas rivularia. Divers and
canals.
8. Cyclas cornea. Divers and
ponds.
9. Cyclas lacustris. Lakes and
ponds.
E IV.
12. Tapes pullastra. In muddy
gravel or sand.
13. Artemis exoleta. Sand.
14. Tapes decussata. In sand
and mud.
15. Venus verrucosa. Sand.
16. Cardium fasciatum. Sand.
17. Cardium pygmseum. Among
algae.
18. Lucina borealis. Sand.
19. Cardium rusticum. Sand.
20. Turtonia minuta. On coral¬
lines ; in rock crevices.
21. Isocordia cor. Mud.
! V.
10. Anodon cygnaeus. Divers
and lakes.
11. Ueio pictorum. Divers.
12. Mytilus edulis. Docks.
13. Crenella nigra. Oyster-beds.
14. Dreisseua polymorpha. Di¬
vers and canals.
15. Leda pygmaea. Mud.
16. Area tetragona. Crevices
of rocks ; in empty shells.
17. Modiola modiolus. In mud
and gravel.
18. Leda caudata. Sand.
19. Crenella decussata. Shelly
sand.
20. Pectunculus glycimeris.
Among zoophytes ; shelly
sand.
21. Crenella marmorata. Inside
ascidia.
Plate VI.
1. Pinna pectinata. Sand and
mud.
2. Lima subauriculata. Mud.
3. Lima hians. Shell. Gravel
and shelly sand.
4. Lima hians. Animal. Gravel
and shelly sand.
5. Lima Loscombii. Gravel.
6. Pecten tigrinus. Sandy mud
and gravel.
7. Pecten striatulus. Sand.
8. Pecten striatulus. Animal.
9. Pecten varius. Sand.
10. Pecten opercularis. Oyeter-
beds.
11. Pecten (Hinnites) pusio.
Pocky ground, roots of
corallines, and oar-weeds.
12. Pecten Danicus. Sand and
mud.
13. Anomia ephippium. In
coral.
14. Ostrsea edulis. Various. Mud
and sand.
<£ CC 05 CT £». Oi bO
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS
127
Plate VII.
1. Terebratula caput-serpentis.
Stones and shells.
2. Crania noi-vagica. Stones.
3. Hyalaea tridentata. Floating.
4. Chiton fascicularis. Rocks.
5. Chiton marmoreus. Rocks.
6. Chiton laevis. Rocks.
7. Chiton cinereus. Rocks.
8. Patella vulgata. Animal.
Rocks.
9. Patella athletica. Having
denticulated ribs. Rocks.
10. Patella pellucida. Rocks,
11. Acmaea testudinaria. Rocks
and stones.
Plate
1. Troclius cinereus. Sand.
2. Haliotis tuberculata. Sand.
3. Punctinellanoachina. Rocks.
4. Trochus magus. Sand.
5. Trochus zizyphinus. Sand.
6. Janthina communis. Float¬
ing-
7. Neritina fluviatilis. Rivers.
8. Phasianella pullus. Sand.
9. Adeorbis subcarinata. Sand.
10. Paludina vivipara. Rivers
and canals.
11. Paludina listen. Rivers and
canals.
12. Bithinia tentaculata. Rivers
and canals.
13. Valvata piscinalis. Ditches
and marshes.
12. Dentalium entale. Sandy
mud.
13. Dentalium tarentinum.
Sandy mud.
14. Pileopsis ungaricus. Rocks
and stones.
15. Calyptraea sinensis. Rocks.
16. Emarginula reticulata. With
outline showing notch.
Rocks.
17. Emarginula rosea. Rocks.
18. Fissurella reticulata, or Key¬
hole Limpet. Rocks.
VIII.
14. AssiminiaGrayana. Mouths
of rivers and salt marshes.
15. Lacuna paliidula. Sea¬
weeds.
16. Lacuna vincta. Sea-weeds.
17. Littorina littaea. Sea¬
weeds.
18. Aporrhaispes-pelecani. Gra¬
vel.
19. Turritella communis. Mud
and sea-weeds ; zostera.
20. Caecum trachea. Sand.
21. Rissoa crenulata. Rocks and
sand.
22. Rissoa ulvse. Rocks and
sand.
23. Rissoa labiosa. Rocks and
sand.
Plate IX.
1. Cerithium reticulatum. On
zostera.
. ScalariaTrevelyana. Head of.
. Scalaria communis. Sand.
. Aclis supra-nitida. Sand.
. Chemnitzia rufescens. Sand
and corallines.
. Eulima polita. Sand.
. Odostomea conoidea. Sand.
. Natica monilifera. In sand.
. Natica monilifera.
10. Velutiua laevigata. Shelly
sand.
11. Purpura lapillus. Sea-weeds.
12. Nassa reticulata. Sea-weeds,
zostera, &c.
13. Fusus Islandicus. Every¬
where.
14. Lachesis minima.
15. Buccinum undatum. Every¬
where.
16. Murex erinaceus. Gravel.
128
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS,
Plate X.
1. Trophon clathratus. Sand.
2. Mangelia (Bela) turricula.
Everywhere.
3. Mangelia septangularis.
Everywhere.
4. Mangelia rufa. Everywhere.
5. 6, 7. Oyprsea Europsea. Sand.
8, 10. Ovula patula. Sand, sea¬
weeds.
9, 11, 12. Marginella (or Erato)
Isevis. Sand and sea-weeds.
13, 14. Cylichna cylindrica.
Tentacles united in front,
the eyes showing through
the shell. Sand and sea¬
weeds.
15. Cylichna obtusa. Mouths
of rivers, sand and mud.
16. Akera bullata. Sea-weeds.
17. Scaphander lignaria. Sand.
18. Bulla hydatis. Sea-weed3.
19. 20. Philine aperta in fig. 20.
United tentacles in front.
Mantle lobes at sides. Part
of mantle covering shell at
back. Muddy sand.
Plai
1. Tornatella fasciata. Sand
and sea-weeds.
2, 3. Aplysia hybrida, com¬
monly called “ Sea Hare.”
Sea-weeds.
5. Scyllseapelagica. Sea-weeds.
6. Doris coccinea. Sea-weeds.
7. Testacella haliotoidea (place
of shell at end of fool). Gar¬
dens, South of England.
8. 9. Limax cinereus (place of
shell, under mantle near
the front). Gardens.
10, 11. Vitrina pellucida. Fields
and hedges.
12, 13. Zonites cellarius. Under
1. Puna secale. Limestone
soils.
2. Pupa antivertigo. Enlarged.
Marshes.
3,4. Clausilia biplicata. Trunks
of trees.
5. Clausilia laminata. Trunks
of trees.
6. Balea fragilis.
7. Zua lubrica. Under dead
leaves.
8. Azeca tridens. Moss in
woods.
9. 10. Achatina acicula. Boots
of trees.
11. Succinea putris. Marshes,
sides of lakes and rivers.
XI.
stones, in houses, fields,
and lawns.
14. Helix lapicida. Fields.
15. Helix cantiana. Fields.
16. Helix carthusiana. Fields.
17. Helix pomatia. Fields.
18. Helix aspersa. Fields.
19. Helix nemoralis. Fields.
20. Bulimus lachhamensis.
Woods South of England.
21. Bulimus obscurus. Old walls,
trunks of trees.
22. Bulimus acutus. Sea-cliffs.
23. Helix fulva. Moss in woods.
24. Helix virgata. Chalk and
limestone soils.
XII.
12. Succinea gracilis. Marsliesj
sides of lakes and rivers.
13. Physa hypnorum. Still, fresh
waters.
14. Planorbis vortex. Slow
streams, &c.
15. Physa fontinalis. Ponds and
ditches.
16. Planorbis vortex.
17, 18. Planorbis corneus. Ponds,
&c.
19. Planorbis marginatus. Ri¬
vers, &c.
20, 21. Ancylus fluviatilis, having
a limpet-like shell, although
of the same nature as Lim-
nseus. Rivers.
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
129
22. Limnseus stagnalis. Still,
fresh waters.
23. Limnaeus auricularis. Still,
fresh waters.
21. Planorbis lacustris, having
internal septiform divi¬
sions. Still, fresh waters.
25. Limnaeus pereger. Brackish
waters.
26. Carychium minimum. En¬
larged. V/et moss.
27. Conovulus denticulatus.
Brackish water.
28. Cyclostoma elegans. Boots
of brushwood.
29. Sepia officinalis. Any sea¬
shore.
Page 4.
1. Section of an ascidian. ( Asci -
dium monachus.)
2. Cynthia aggregata. Free, tad¬
pole form.
Ditto. Adult and fixed. The
bead-like projections at the
bottom are supposed to be
germs, or buds.
Page 9.
1. Pholas dactylus. Inside of
shell, showing the “scars”
or marks where the muscles
were attached ; also the
looped mark of the attach¬
ment of the mantle. Inside
the hinge, the “ process ” is
seen projectinginto the shell.
2. Ditto. The accessory valves
3. Ditto. The chambered bridge
on which the accessory
valves are placed.
4. Ditto. Siphon-tubes.
4*. Ditto. Siphon-tubes, show¬
ing the extremity.
5. Pholas Candida, showing the
single accessory valve in its
place ontlieback of the shell.
Pag'
1. Teredo bipennata. One valve
of the shell, and the pair of
long horny pallets.
2. Teredo palmulata. One valve,
and short horny pallets.
3. Teredo malleolus. One valve,
and short shelly pallets.
4. Teredo norvagica. Inside of
shell, showing the curved
process of the hinge, and
the valves of shell united.
5. Ditto. The pallets.
6. Ditto. End of siphon-tubes,
showing the double opening.
Pag!
1. Gasti’ochsena modiolina. Shell
in tube, the latter attached
to a piece of broken shell
and small stones. From a
specimen in Mr. Sowerby’s
collection.
2. Ditto. A well-made tube, de-
14.
A part of the shelly tube is
broken away to show the
chambered structure of the
interior.
7. Curious example of a tube
being continued into a hol¬
low.
8. Xylophaga dorsalis, or Wood-
borer. The valves closed.
Pair of accessory valves over
the hinge.
9. Ditto. A specimen buried in
wood, to show how it bur¬
rows across the grain.
18.
taclied, showing its forma¬
tion of sand, pebbles, &c.,
agglutinated ; showing also
its double but not quite sepa-
l-ated orifice.
3. Ditto. Shell out of tube, to
show hinge.
130
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
At the top of engraving, an out¬
line of a valve of Lutraria.
1,2. Mya arenaria. Showing the
hinge, the elastic substance,
and the spoon-shaped pro¬
cess which presses against it.
3. Corbula nucleus. Inside of
shell, showing curved tooth
of deep valve.
4. Neoera cuspidata. End of
siphon-tubes, to show the
tentacles with which they
are surrounded.
5. Thraciaphaseoliua. The shell.
6. Ditto. Outside of hinge,
showing the “ ossicle ” in
its place on the hinge. A
magnified representation is
given between figs. 5 and 6.
7. Pandora rostrata. Inside of
deep valve and hinge of flat
valve, showing the tooth
1. Tapes decussata. Oddly dis¬
figured.
2. Tapes pullastra. Boring or
hole- dwelling variety.
3. Tapes virgineana. Inside,
showing teeth, muscle-
marks, &c.
4. Lucinopsis. Inside.
25.
and small narrow elastic
cartilage.
8. Solen marginatus. End of
shell, showing the charac¬
teristic groove.
9. Cochlodesmaprsetenue. Both
valves of shell, showing the
spoon-shaped process into
which the elastic cartilage
is received.
10. Solen siliqua. Showing teeth
and muscular impressions.
11. Tellina incarnata. Inside of
valve.
12. Mactra stultorum. The
hinge.
13. Donax anatinus. The hinge.
14. Scrobicularia piperita. The
hinge.
15. Psammobia ferroensis. The
hinge, and two diverging
teeth.
48.
5. Cytheraea. Inside.
G. Artemis exoleta. Inside.
7. Cyprina Islandica. Inside.
8. Yenus verrucosa. Inside.
9. Astarte sulcata. Inside.
10. Lucina borealis.
11. Circe minima. Inside, and
magnified hinge.
Page 59.
1. Kellianitida. Shell and hinge.
2. Lepton squamosum. Inside.
3. Cardium edule. Inside of
shell and spinose-tubes.
4. Kellia suborbicularis. Inside.
5. Turtonia minuta.
6. Isocardia cor. Inside.
7. Montacutabidentata. Hinge.
8. Isocardia. Spiral umbones.
9. Pisidium amnicum. Inside.
10. Cyclas rivalis.
Page 69.
1. Dreissena polymorplia. In¬
side, showing septum near
the apex, and a kind of
pearly growth.
2. Unio pictorum. Inside.
3. Crenella discors. Inside.
4. Anodon. Inside.
5. Modiola tulipa.
6. Mytilus edulis. Inside.
7. Modiola phaseolina. Showing
fringe not serrated.
8. Modiola barbata. Fringe ser¬
rated.
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
131
Page 78.
1. Area tetragona. Hinge
area.
2. Area lactea. Inside.
3. Leda caudata.
4. Ditto. Base of foot.
5. Nucula nucleus. Inside, and
profile of teeth.
6. Pecten varius. Inside.
7. Lima hians. Inside.
8. Pectunculus glycimeris. Do.
Page 83.
1. Anomia ephippium. In shell.
2. Ditto. Attached valve, show¬
ing button coming through
the opening of shell.
3. Ditto. The button itself.
4. Anomia aculeatum. On stem
of Gorgonia.
5. Anomia ephippium. Young.
6. Pinna pectinata.
Page 88.
1. Terebi-atula caput-serpentis.
Animal in lower valve.
2. Ditto. Inside of upper valve.
3. Crania norvagica. Inside of
valve.
4. Ditto. Animal in valve.
5. Patella vulgata. Inside of
shell, showing muscular
scars.
6, 7. Lingual ribbon of same,
and teeth enlarged.
8. Patella pellucida. Thick va¬
riety, called patella cornea.
9. Chiton ruber. Side view of
head.
10. Lingual teeth of Chiton.
11. Chiton ruber.
Page 95.
1. Calyptraea sinensis.
2. Ditto. Head enlarged.
3. Ditto. Lingual teeth, and
spoon-shaped termination of
lingual ribbon.
4. Ditto. Head of the fry.
5. Ditto. Shell of fry.
6. The teeth much magnified.
7,8. Punctinella noachina.
Showing slit near the apex,
and interior vaulted lamina
over the slit.
9. Pileopsis ungaricus. To show
shell with muscular impres¬
sion.
Page 96.
The Naturalist’s Dredge. Folded, and at work.
Page 101.
1. Trochus cinereus. Head.
2. Ditto. Horny operculum
magnified.
3. Phasianella pullus.
4. Ditto. Shelly operculum
much magnified.
5. Assiminia Grayana. In shell.
6. Paludina vivipara. Opercu¬
lum.
7. Ditto. Shells in mouth of
shell, as developed before
quitting the body of parent.
8. Janthina communis. Show¬
ing notch in mouth and
sinus in lines of growth.
9. Lacuna pallidula. Spawn.
10. Ditto. Early development.
11. Littorina littorea. Lingual
ribbon and tongue.
12. Ditto. Ribbon enlarged.
13. Ditto. Teeth much enlarged.
14. Aporrhais. Teeth.
15. Ditto. Shell, showing form
of mouth. .
CO rjl l£5 O
132
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. Natica monilifera.
2. Natica alderi.
3. Velutina. Teetli.
4. Ditto. Head.
5. Fusus Islandicus.
6. Ditto. Teetli.
7. Nassa reticulata.
of shell.
Page
Egg-coil.
Head.
Front view
108.
8. Ditto. Eggs and egg-hags.
9, 10, 11. Ditto. Stages of de¬
velopment of animal and
shell, as observed by Mr.
Sowerby in the tank of Mr.
Lloyd.
Page
1. Fusus antiquus. Curious dis¬
tortion of, from Mr. Sower-
by’s collection.
Buccinum undatum. A cu¬
rious double operculum ; a |
deformity which has lately
occurred in a considerable
number of specimens, the
operculum being formed of
two, or even three, more or
111.
less separated portions, with
distinct nuclei.
3. Ditto. Tooth-ribbon much
magnified.
| 4. Ditto. Teeth enlarged.
5. Ditto. Operculum.
6. Ditto. Broken egg-capsules.
7- Ditto. Shell of fry.
8. Ditto. Group of egg-cap¬
sules.
Page
1. Trophon. Operculum.
2. Ditto. Teeth much magni¬
fied.
. Mangelia turricula. Teeth.
. Ditto. Head.
. Mangelia rufa. Teeth.
. Ditto. Head.
113.
7. Cypraea Europoea. Head. .
8. Ditto. Young shell.
9. Marginella loevis. ' Head.
10. Ditto. Teeth.
11. Akera bullata. Stomach-
bones.
12. Cyprsea obtusa. Teeth.
Page 116.
1. Doris rufa. Egg-ribbon. 2. Ditto. Young.
Page
1. Pupa secale. Mouth of shell.
2. Clausilia laminata. Shell pur¬
posely broken near mouth,
to show the spiral structure.
3. Pliysa fontinalis. Showing
digitated mantle over shell.
4. C.yciostoma elegans. Opercu¬
lum.
117.
5. Ditto. In shell, showing the
divided foot and method of
walking by putting forward
and expanding the lobes
alternately. The sucker-like
mouth is also used to aid its
progress.
Page 119.
1. Sepia officinalis. Teeth and
tongue.
2. Ditto. Horny mandibles.
3. Ditto. “ Bone,” i.e., incipient
chalky backbone.
4. Sepiola atlanticu. End of
arm.
5. Ditto. Bone.
6. Loligo media. Bone.
LONDON: PRINTED BY EDMUND EVANS, RAQUET COURT, FLEET STREET.
Plate 7.
Plate If.
Pi ATE III
Plate IY
Plate V
Plate V7
Plate VII
Plate ]X
Plate X
Plate XI
Plate XII
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11