A Latin grammar for schools and colleges : founded on comparative grammar

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LATIN GRAMMAR.

LATIN GRAMMAR

FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR

BY

JOSEPH H. ALLEN

AND

JAMES B. GREENOUGHL

BOSTON
PUBLISHED BY GINN BROTHERS

38 BEACON STREET

1875

60
AYa)
13°75

BERNARD MOSES

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by
J. H. ALLEN AND J. B. GREENOUGH,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

earee
o
e

ene

CAMBRIDGE:
PRESS OF JOHN WILSON AND SON.

PREFACE.

Our aim has been to prepare, within moderate com-
pass, a complete Latin grammar, to be used from the
beginning of the study of Latin until the end of a
college course. The whole has been composed from
our own point of view, and is, in all essentials, a new
and independent work. But we have used freely the
standard authorities, as well those of the older scho-
lastic as of the newer critical and scientific schools.
In several points, particularly the topical arrangement
of the Syntax, we have followed the outline sketched
a few years ago by Professor Allen, of the University
of Wisconsin.

We have endeavored to adapt the scientific (philo-
logical) method of inflection by stem and termination
to the system used by the Romans themselves and
handed down by general custom to our time. While
the five Declensions are retained, with the old distinc-
tions on which they are founded, at the same time the
true philological difference, that of stems, is fully
exhibited as the real basis of noun-forms. In the same
way the true distinctions of verb-stems are adapted
to the existing four Conjugations. We have preferred
this to the “ crude-form” system, partly because of
the practical difficulty that our lexicons do not give

887441

vi a ame EFACE.

stems, but words ;. shietiy, hower er, , fi om the inherent
difficulty of a- “@riide-forn,. “system ja, a: language so
decayed as the Latin.

In respect to the actual forms of the language, we
have not thought it necessary to go back of Neue’s
‘¢Formenlehre,”’ upon which we have relied, and which
teachers will find digested so far as seems to come
within the limits of a work like the present.

In the Syntax, our design has been to leave no
principle untouched which a student needs during his
school and college course. We have attempted to
show, as far as possible, the reason and origin of con-
structions, for which purpose notes have been inserted
where it seemed desirable. Many things in the treat-
ment of the Subjunctive, of the Protasis and Apodosis
(in which we have followed Professor Goodwin’s
analysis), of Temporal particles, of the Infinitive and
Participles, and much of the matter of the notes,
appear for the first time in a school-book, and are the
results of the authors’ own investigations in Compar-
ative Grammar. The Syntax is illustrated by upwards
of a thousand examples cited from classical authorities,
principally from Cicero; besides nearly as many brief
phrases in illustration of minor points, particularly
the use of prepositions and cases.

In Prosody and Versification we have taken a little
wider range than usual, so as to enable the student to
read metrically any poetry he will meet in his college
course.

In the typography and mechanical arrangement of
the page, we have sought to give every aid that can
be rendered in that way to the easy comprehension of
the subject. The sub-sections in larger type (num-

PREFACE. Vii

bered 1, 2, 8, &c.) contain of themselves a complete
outline, and we think will be found sufficient, with the
accompanying paradigms or examples, for a course
of elementary study. Details of form or structure, re-
quiring to be committed to memory only as they occur
in reading, are put in smaller type, marked a, d, c, &e.
And the points of philology, or special criticism, which
appear to throw valuable side-light upon the subject,
interesting chiefly to teachers or special students, are
contained in the form of Notes, not interfering at all
with the treatment in the text. By paying attention
to this subordination of topics, teachers will avoid the
serious error of crowding upon the student, prema-
turely, a mass of details, which might only perplex
and obscure his real understanding of the subject.

CaMBRIDGE, April, 1872.

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leak i.

NOTE.

For the convenience of those who may wish to follow out
special lines of study in general or comparative grammar, or to
consult original sources on the history and development of the
Latin, a list of works including the best and. most recent author-—
ities is here subjoined : —

Bopp: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc. [Indo-European lan-

guages]. 4 vols. 8d Ed. Berlin, 1868-70.

The original standard work on Comparative Forms. Later researches have
corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor), London: 1862.
The best form is a French translation, with Notes and Introductions by Michel
Bréal. Paris: 1866.

CorssEn : Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der Lateinischen Sprache.
2 vols. 2d Ed. Leipzig, 1868.
The greatest work on Latin-a/one, treating the language in reference to its

own individual development, particularly as to the sounds (Lawtlehre). In the
comparative portion, it needs the correction of other investigators.

over G.: Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologie. 8d Ed. Leipsic:
8

Treats of Latin only by comparison; but is one of the most valuable
works on the general subject.

Erléuterungen zu meiner Gtriechischen Schul-grammatik. 2d Ed.
Prag. 1870. English translation (“ Elucidations”), London: 1870.
Notes giving in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of

the doctrine of forms.

DetsricK: Das Conjunctiv und Optativ, im Sanskrit und Griechischen.
Halle: 1871.

_ Origin of the Moods treated scientifically; should be read in connection
with a notice in N. A. Review, Oct. 1871, and “ Analysis of the Latin Subjunc-
tive,” by J. B. Greenough, Cambridge, 1870.

Ablativ, Localis, Instrumentalis im indischen, etc. Berlin, 1867.
Origin of the various Ablative constructions.

FERRAR: Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Won-
don: 1869. Vol. I., including as far as Pronouns.
A convenient hand-book in English.

Fick : Vergleichendes Worterbuch der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen. Got-
tingen: 1870.

A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-
European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various

x NOTE.

languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book

however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and

vowel changes.

Horrmann: Die Construction der Lateinischen Zeitpartikeln. Vienna:
1860 (Pamphlet).

Kunn: See Zeitschrift.
LusBert: Die Syntax von Quom. Breslau: 1870.

Neve: Formenlehre der Lateinischen Sprache. 2d Ed. Stuttgart, 1866.
Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late text-

ual criticism. The standard work.

Prei1LeE: Latin and Greek Etymology. 24d Ed. Macmillan: London and
Cambridge, 1872.

- Rosy: A Grammar of the Latin Language, from Plautus to Suetonius.
Macmillan: London and New York, 1871. Vol. IL.

A thorough treatment of Latin Etymology on the principles of comparative
grammar. Some errors have been pointed out in the N. A. Review, Jan. 1872.

ScHLEICHER: Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-
Germanischen Sprachen. 2d Ed. Weimar, 1866.

ScHWEIZER-S1IpDLER: Elementar- und Formenlehre der Lateinischen
Sprache, fiir Schulen. Halle, 1869.

The best summary of the results of comparative grammar as applied to
Latin in short compass (137 pages).

Witttams: A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Lanquage. 8d Ed.

Oxford, 1864.

A very convenient Sanskrit grammar, without some knowledge of which
it is difficult to pursue the study of comparative grammar to advantage.
Zeitschrift fiir vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. Kunn.

Vols. I. to XX. Berlin, 1851-1871, and still continued.

The best essays on all disputed points of comparative Philology. Indispen-
sable to correct theories of individual investigators. Each volume has am
Index ; and there is also a general index to the first ten volumes.

CONTENTS.

PART I.— ETYMOLOGY.

SECTION
1. Alphabet. . . ‘ oi ei

1. can detadeaaa 2. asi Hocus: 3. Cinch: 4. Com-
binations ; 5. Syllables.

Mer PeOOISIOL, ok” oo tet ete kOe BS. i ear epee 8
DPI 50? CN gc con' icc y fa anc gener ety ue cat git oat
Me rs et lt hg} Loe a usa as ce, od pees ne aegis kite g
5. Inflection
1. Definition ; 2. Root ana ‘Stem: Inflected sarts of
speech; 4. Particles.
Gomer’ ono ee See SO ey Cae ee etn
1. Natural and Geiuris ont: 2. Rules; 3. Common
Gender; 4. Epicene.
(SEY Be CO ean Aire Al's eine a Peg ace anime sea
8. Declension . . Gere ce
1. Declensions ; 2. Rules: 8. ‘Gasomndiies

Nouns.

9. First Declension . . gmP ices
1. Gender; 2. Case Forms 8. Gieck icuisak
10. Second Declension

1. Nominative; 2. Sie in ro=; 3. Gender 4. Case
Forms; 5, 6. Nouns in er; 7. Greek Nouns.

11. Third Declension ..

I. Vowel Stems. —1. Stems: 2. Noritintive’ 3. Cand
Forms; 4. Greek Nouns.

If. Liquid Stems. . . F

Ill. Mute Stems. — 1. Labial ; 2. Lingual; 3. Palatal;
4. Peculiar Forms; 6. Greek Nouns

IV. Rules of Gender. —1. Nominative ee 2. Bichon:
%. Classified List .<. 2... Me Sit ah

ONO OH

xli CONTENTS.
SECT.
2 BYE LPOIGNSION ods pore ee eae xk yee Uw ele ae"

13.
14.

15.

16.

a ty &

18.

19.
20.
21.

22.

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

28.

29.
30.

31.
32.
33.

PtH SICCIONSION | coo etic a ses Uae! Hew d “6 foe hess

Irregular Nouns . . ee gs Cane Tak ee
1. Defective; 2. Wadlabie

Proper Names ys 2 6." a eh tee ee 6 wee:

ADJECTIVES.
Inflection . .

1. Of the 1st and od Pecleasian 9. Of 3d ocinasten:
3. Consonant Stems, Gas ara

Comparison .

1. Regular; 2. heciatey? 3. Defective: oy imdeaiha:
5. Signification.

Numerals”. oS 42 cline Seats exe aie ine

1. Cardinal and Ordinal ; 2. Distributives; 3. Numeral
Adverbs; 4. Multiplicatives.

PRONOUNS.
Personal and TOnSRIVe ce oe oe eee is nee. as oe
Demonstrative. . . pita? Fa
Relative, Interrogative, sa Indefinite Si yey
1. Case-Forms; 2. Compounds.
PRGP EVR 5 5g) ag & ROR Ne Pee ce oe

VERBS.
TEMES Ste Sig tg hg ug orgs Sule tie = Secon Tap tete
SMTA E Coa ie hia) we ket ee ee eee, pe
et PN ENS ag Maer oie eR Mea ohh ins Apel
Gerund and Supine
Tenses .. eee peng 5%

1. Classification ; 2. Aicariae' 8. Perfect and hae
fect; 4. Passive Tenses; 5. Stems.

Verb Forms ..

1. Personal Rings: 2. Chanecs of Rises: 3. Verb-
Endings.

Hase and its Compounds «...... 0 6:6. s) 2 os. aie
Conjugation

1. First Coriugatian 2. Sancti Pauhcgeee : 3. Third
Conjugation; 4. Fourth Conjugation; 5. Principal
Parts; 6. Special Forms; 7. Parallel Forms.

First Conjugation . GT At \caphay eacla Wt aires Bate 1a Gs 8 Pha

Second Conjugation .
Third Conjugation .
1. Regular; 2. Verbs in io; 3, Treats PoniueaGon ,

PAGE.

28
29
30

32

33

38

41

44
45
47

49

50
51
51
52
52

o4

57
60

66
68
70
72

CONTENTS.

SEOT.

34.

35.

36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.

42.

43.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

Wourth Compan vars a 6 eee eee
Deponent Verbs . .. .- fa Fa es are AR Bertola
1. Conjugation; 2. Semi- rie hansitte:

TRIPE V OFOO = ig | aie a is es a ee ee
RESOROIBE VOOR 6g Fr Pe 0 a 8K Se
Defective Verbs. esis el ye ee

RISO ADBAL VW CTOS Woe 8 Eee
Poripnraginc Forms: 660 ee es ee ee

PARTICLES.
BAVOr ee 6s ee pibhe © 6car wee we 5S so Pan tg
‘1. Derivation; 2. Classification : 3. Signification.
Prepositions ° ‘
1. With Cases; 2. Meaning id Hse: Measles: 8. Hi
Compounds.
Conjunctions. . . of ak eds eines
1. Classification; 2. Classified int 3. Special Meaning.
. Derivation of Words. . . . cee
1. Noun Forms; 2. Derivation of Waite’ 3. Sounsend
Words.
PART II.—SYNTAX.
Definitions . . . . Seo) wed wt etyteh! ote

1. Sentence; 2. Subject ae Prodicate’ 3. Modification ;
4. Phrase ; 5. Clause; 6. Connectives ; a Agree-
ment; 8. Government.

1. SuBJECT AND PREDICATE..

OF NOUNS v.00. « site lh tau a
1. Appositive; 2. Predicate: Nominative:
Of Adjectives . . : ane or ak
1. Number; 2. iden 3. ‘a ae 4. Use of Neu-
ter; 5. Possessives ; 6. As Adverbs; 7. Compari-
son; 8. Superlatives of Place; 9. ne
Of Relatives ... ;

1. Person of Verb; 2. Wahdee: 3. Niltecodont: ig As
Connective ; 5. Adverbs.

Verbs: Rules of Agreement . . . . ‘
1. Plural with Collectives, &c.; 2. Noutitative Subject.

2. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES.
Genitive .

1. Subjective, 114; 2. Partitive, 115: 8. Objective, 117;
4. After Verbs, 119.

82

101

103

105

109

112

113

xiv CONTENTS.

SECT.
51. Dative e e e . e . e e e ry .
1. With Teshittives: 121: 2. With Intransitives, 122;
3. Of Possession, 126 ; 4. Of Agency, 127; 5. Of
Service, 128; 6. Of Nearness, tb ee & Of Refer-
ence, 129; ; (Ethical Dative, 180).
52. Accusative). . . . ,
1. General Use ( Coane Apiusaties, 131): : 2. Two hat
cusatives; 3. Adverbial; 4. Special Uses.
a OCRLIVO So ee bw 4 fy ow 80
54. Ablative .

1. Of Beuerition; 135; 2. Of Binivee, 136; ‘8. Of Cine:
187; 4. Of Agent, 138; 5. Of Comparison, 188;
6. Of Means, 139; 7. Of Quality, 141; 8. Of Price,
141; 9. Of Specification, 142; 10. Locative: Abla-
tive Absolute, 142.

55. Time and Place .. . a
1. Time; 2. Space; 3. Place (Locative Form, 145) ; :
4. Way by which.
56. Use of Prepositions: 2° ls ee ee ee

8. SYNTAX OF THE VERB.
_57. Use of Moods. . . . co Sais al

1. Indicative; 2. Sulijunative Hodapandent or Depeul:
ent; 38. Hortatory; 4. Optative; 5. Concessive ;
6. Dubitative) ; 7. Imperative; 8. Infinitive (Com-
plementary, 154; With Subject-Accusative, 155 ;
Historical, 156). ;

58. Use of Tenses. . . ; erecta" ee? ase
1. Indicative; 2. ‘Present ( éonaive: 157 ; Historical,
158); 8. Imperfect; 4. Future; 5. Perfect ; 6. Plu-
perfect; 7. Future-Perfect ; 8. Epistolary Tenses ;
9. Of Subjunctive ; 10. Sequence of Tenses (Primary
and Secondary, 162) ; ; 11. Of Infinitive.
59. Conditional Sentences . . : ol eps it
1. Protasis and Apodosis; 2. Partiedlar Me General Con:

ditions; 3. Present and Past Conditions; 4. Future
Conditions; 5. General Conditions.

60. Implied Conditions
1. Condition Disguised ; 2. Condition Omitted.

61. Conditional Particles. . . . slp ee SPR EtG ig
1. Comparative ; 2. Concessive ; 8. Provisory ; 4. Mean-
ing and Use.

62. Relations of Time

1. Use as in Protasis; 2. xtaohitte tia Relative Time,
(Cum temporal, 178 ; causal, 180).

63. Cause or Reason . . ‘
1. With Indicative; 2. With Subjunelive:

PAGE.

121

131

134
134

157

166

181

CONTENTS. xV

SECT. PAGE.
64. Purpose (Final Clauses) , . . pew Bht ec eee
1. Relatives or Conjunctions ; 2. Forms.
65. Consequence or Result (Consecutive Clauses). . . . 183
1. Subjunctive with ut (ne); 2. Of Characteristic.
66. Intermediate Clauses . Series eae
1. Subjunctive of Citation ; 2. Dependent Clauses.
67. Indirect Discourse . 187
1. Indirect Narrative (Subject-Accusative, Relative Clau-
ses, Conditional Sentences, Questions), 188; 2. In-
direct Questions, 190; 3. Indirect Commands, 191.
Ge Ny nee Gn. Commanns 602 ois. eae hel pa. ee at ee
69. Relative Clauses (Classification of) . . . . . . . 193
TO.; BuDstATVIVe C nbgee oo ek eee ee oe tee kee
1. Classification; 2. Accusative and Infinitive, 194;
8. Clauses of Purpose, 195; 4. Clauses of Result,
197; 5. Indicative with quod, 199.
71. Questions . ge}
1: Interrogative Particles ; 2, Double Questions ; 3. Ques-
tion and Answer.
72. Participles . . 202
1. Distinctions of Tense ; 2. “Adjective use; 3. " Predi-
cate use; 4. Future eas ; 5. Gerundive.
73. Gerund and Gerundive . . 206
1. Gerund; 2. Gerundive; 3. Construction of Cases.
74. Supine... Oat aetna ene we asciele ait eee
75. General Rules of ie sence: Ove ayes a ERO oe ame
76. Arrangement . . . 212
1. Normal Order ; 2. fachasix: 3. Sivuctate (Periodic).
PART III.— PROSODY.

RR ge heels, al cone yee nS ety oe Aaa
78. Rules of Quantity. 215
1. General Rules; 2. Final Syllables ; : 3. Penultimate

Syllables (Increment of Nouns and Verbs).
Me Obs G8 6 SE RO pa apa gic eer ay eee
Be CAD a era pe lelioek Ser ea ve eee
CG ik ae Gh ig iat ge Wo a pe RP OE gta Tie Oe ee
as FOr OF NCPR ry ee erie sn oe he es ee eee
SPORE A TONDO eo ghee a 8 ee hehe et ee eee
ee Ue OF PUN 0 ore eae ah elit len Zon
Ree OMOTCN OF VAIUGS 6 ea. el a Sele oi eee 8) eee

Lets 2 aU each? ope rt Ma eat ac awe |

EIN ie AS adh hah gg hes Gg oc... ican.

ies
es,
Aen sn
bth al 4
-

LATIN GRAMMAKL.

PART FIRST.

FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY).

1. ALPHABET.

Tue Latin Alphabet is the same as the English,
wanting. W.

Norr.— The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latin
words, especially proper names.

1. Classification. — The letters of the alphabet are

classified as follows : —

a. VoweELS (litterae vocales, or voice-letters) : a, e, i, 0, u, y.
The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels): ae (@), au, eu,
oe (ce), ei, ui

b. Consonants (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-with the
vowels) : —

Mutss: Labial surd p sonant b spirant fv) nasal m
Lingual ,, t dex, oe a {th} uP n
Palatal ,, c(%),a 558 5 Dis fi Poy bite
Double Consonants, x (ces), z (ds).

Liquips: 1, m, n, r.— Sreiuants: surd s, sonant z.

The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable be-
fore a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are SEMI-VOWELS.

The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word.

Notre.—The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the
rule of palatals; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural
(kh), like the Greek x, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very
slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared.

Sometimes, as in aheneus (= aéneus), it seems to be used only to
separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody.

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2 EARLY, FORMS. — CHANGES. [1: 2, 3
Be we fe cose ; ee ;

2. Early Forms. —The alphabét in the time of Cicero
(N. D. ii. 87) consisted of “one and twenty letters.” These
were, —

abedefghikimnuinogpgans tu =

y and z were added, in words derived from Greek. _i and u,
when used as consonants (‘‘ semi-vowels”), having the sound of
y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis.

a. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from
g. After the distinction was made, C was still used, convention-
ally, as the initial of names (Gaius, Gnaeus) beginning ee
with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was
retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few
words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a.

b. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use,
preceded in the same ssllable by u or v. In many words, as in
volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u; while
ce was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (four quum),
ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for lo-
quuntur), and the like; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and
a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor
(for cur) are also found.

c. At the end of a few words,—as sed, apud, illud, —
t was anciently written instead of a. In words ending in -s,
final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est) ;
plenu’ fidei (Senect. 1).

3. Changes.— Letters are often changed, according to
general laws of inflection (vowel-increase), or to secure an
easier or smoother sound (euphonic change); or have been
altered or lost through long use (phonetic decay). Of such
changes are the following: —

a. Vowels are strengthened in inflection and derivation (vowel-
increase): as, ago, égi (cf. tell, told); disco, ddceo (cf. fall, fell ;
si, set); pendo, pondus; persdéno, persGna; perfidus, fidus,
foedus (cf. bind, band).

Norte. — The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as
in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the padlate,
we form in succession the sound of e (@) and i (ee), leading to the
semi-vowel j (y). By contracting the dips, we in like manner form
the sound of o and u (00), leading to the semi-vowel v (w). By
contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u,—
in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is
called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in ss
tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It . ns
may be represented thus :— See ies Te:

L:°3.] EUPHONIC CHANGES. 3

b. Vowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long
periods of time (phonetic decay). ‘Thus, on one side of the scale,
a becomes e, then i; or, on the other, becomes o, then u; while
u and i meet in the French u (y): as, agmen, agminis; fa&cio,
conficio, confectum; sdlio, exsulto; sepélio, sepultus; ebur,
eboéris; maxtimus, maximus (cf. master, misler, mistress).

c. Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single
sound: as, Obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (de-
hibeo), coetus (coitus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim).

d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contrac-
tion sometimes also taking place: as, Sbicit (Sbjicit), cdnicit
(conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (reversus), contio
(conventio), mo6tum (mévitum).

e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, 8 becomes r: as,
genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus),
carmen (casmen), dirimo (dis-imo), diribeo (dis-habeo),

f. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflec-
tion, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus : —

1. The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid,
—m, n, or (less frequently) r— before another liquid is changed to
that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n]|: as, collego (con-/leqo),
corrtgo (com-régo), illudo (in-ludo), illtco (in léco), intellégo (inter-/égo),
asellus (asin{u|lus). So d before 1: as in lapillus (dapidulus) ; and b
(rarely) before a liquid: as, summitto (submitto).

2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus:—a. A sonant before a
-—surd becomes surd: as, tego, teri (xcs), tectum ; nubo, nupsi, nuptum ;
coquo, coxt, coctum. — b. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in
segmentum (seco).—ce. A labial nasal before a dentai mute sometimes
becomes dental: contendo (com-tendo), jandudum ( jam dudum), quantus
(quamtus).—d. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial:
as, tmpono (in-pono).—e. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4) :
as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt).

3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated.
Thus :—a. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated :
as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo).—b. ¢ and g are
lost before t and s when I or r precedes: as, sartus (=-sarctus, sar-~
cio), mulsi (=mulgsi, mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). —c. ¢ and g
are sometimes lost before m and mn: as, exdmen (exugmen), luna (luc.
na), lumen (luc-men).

4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in English
wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt); in this case both are often
changed. Thus, after n and 1—rarely after other letters—t be-
comes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t): as,
mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=pattus,
patior), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus), fixus
( figo, but jfictus from jfingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor),
passus (pando).

Norr. — After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as,
sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. So hiemps for hiems.

4 ASSIMILATION. — VARIATIONS. fe See

g. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated
to the initial consonant of verbs.

Thus, ad is assimilated before ¢, g, p, t; less regularly before
1, r, s, and rarely before m; while before f, n, q,.the form ad is
to be preferred ; —ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a,
au, or abs;—in com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m; is
assimilated before 1, n, r; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q,
s, Vv; varies between m and n before p; is sometimes assimilated
(otherwise n) before r andl; and loses the final m in conecto, co.
niveo, conitor, conubium ;—in usually changes n to m before b, m,
p; before 1 the better orthography retains n ;—ob and sub are
assimilated before ec, f, g, p, and sometimes before m; sub also
before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes
becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a
consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated ; — circum loses m before
i (often); —s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso-
nant is lost or assimilated ;—the d of red and sed is generally lost
before a consonant.

Norre.—In most of these cases the later editions prefer the
unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good
authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as
assum for adsum), would better be avoided.

h. The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found inter-
changed in many words: as in nuntius or nuncius; contio or con-
cio; but in these cases only one.is correct: as, contio, dicio.

Notrrt.— The substitution of ¢ for t is an example of phonetic
decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z,
and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combi-
nations: as in nazione, nacion. The sound of s (assibilation) or of sh
traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regular
sound of c before e or i.

4. The aspirate h is occasionally ysed to indicate the hard
sound of c, asin pulcher for pulcer. Many words are written
sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arena
or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herus. The combina-
tions ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek.

k. The following words are variously spelt in different editions,
inferior or rejected forms being marked + : —

Adolescens, adulescens ; ancora, tanchora; annulus, anulus; arctus,
arius ; coecus, cecus ; celum, celum; ceruleus, ceruleus ; causa, caussa ;
ceespes, cespes ; ceteri, | ceteri ; cena, cena, cena ; condicio, t conditio ; con-
junx, tconjux ; contio, t concio; dicio, } ditio; dumtaxat, duntaxat ; epi-
stola, epistula ; eumdem, eundem ; exsisto, existo (and other compounds
of ex before s); femina, t femina; fenus, feenus, fenus ; heres, t heres ;
hedus, t hedus ; hiems(ps), + hyems ; tdcirco, + iccirco ; immo, imo ; inclutus,
t inclytus ; intellego, intelligo ; lacrima, + lacryma ; litera, littera; litus, ¢ lit-
tus ; lubet, libet ; meror, meror; milia, ¢ millia ; multa, mulcta ; } ne, ne;
nequidquam, nequiquam ; numquam, nunquam; + nuncio, nuntio; paullus,
paulus ; quicquid, quidquid ; religio, relligio ; retuli, rettuli; silva, t sylva;

a Bi] ALPHABET. — PRONUNCIATION. i)

solennis, solemnis ; solers, sollers; sulfur, {sulphur ; tamquam, tanquam;
thesaurus, thensaurus; thus, tus; tiro, } tyro; umquam, unquam ; ungo,
unguo; verto, vorto; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -wndus; and the
superlative -imus or -umus.

Nore. — Many of the above variations are due to the practice of
writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of
the classics were made, —a single reader often dictating to numerous
copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority.

4. Combinations. — Two words are often united in
writing, and sometimes in sound.

a. Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected: as in
etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem.

So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in
English nevertheless, notwithstanding.

b.. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word,
especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by
elision: as, homost, periculumst.

c. Similar contractions are found in vin’ (visne), scin’ (scis-
ne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, don’t, won’t.

5. Syllables. — In the division of syllables, a single con-
sonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter.

a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any
combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word: as,
ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit.

b. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est,
ob-latus.

Notes. — Custom allows many other departures from the rule.

c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called
pure ; when preceded by a consonant, impure. |

d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with
a vowel, is called open; otherwise, it is called close.

2. PRONUNCIATION.

1. Roman. — The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels
was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian; which, with little
variation, is that found in most of the continental languages
of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncer-
tain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient

6 PRONUNCIATION. — QUANTITY. ([2:2. 3:1.

use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as
follows : —

a as in father. a as in fast.
Og, Hem 6 5, me.
I ,, machine. i, piano.
Oo ,, Aoly. 6 ,, wholly.
i ,, rude (ooinboot), ut ,, full.

Nortrr.—It is probable that y (also u in maximus, &c.) was simi-
lar to the French u; it is usually, however, sounded like i.

a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly
as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo.

b. In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound: thus, ae
has nearly the sound of ay, au of ow, oe of oy, ui of we.

c. Of consonants, c and g are always hard, s always sharp;
j has the sound of y, v of w, and n before palatals of ng; the
combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f.

Nortr.— The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given,
has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the conso-
nants c, g, j, Vv, there is still considerable difference of usage.

2. Modern. — Modern custom has generally allowed
Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the
rules of its own language. What is known as the English
Method adopts the following : —

a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in
English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse,
by the usage called Elision) ; such words as dies, mare, audiere,
pauperiéi, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs.

6. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian
way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua,
some persons retain the English sound.

c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee; au like aw;
eu like ew; ei and ui like 7 in kite; es and (in plural words) os
at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose.

ad. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j)
before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu; ch is always hard, as in chasm.

3. QUANTITY.

1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a
syllable, — a long syllable being equal to two short ones.

Xe ee QUANTITY. — ACCENT. 7

Norr.—The distinction of Quantity was carefully observed
by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in
later times except in the composition of Latin verse.

2. Some of the most general rules of quantity are the fol-
lowing : — |

a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as in via, nihil.

b. A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus.

c. A syllable formed by contraction is long: as, mi (mihi) ;
nil (nihil); intrarat (intraverat); némo (né hdmo).

Norr. —In many text-books and old editions, contraction is de-
noted by a circumflex : as, mi, intrarat.

d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants,
or a double consonant, is long: as in réctus, duxit. Sometimes
the vowel itself is made long, as before ns in praeséns.

é. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with
1 or r is common, — that is, it may be long in verse: as, alacris.

REMARK. — Many final syllables, originally long, are always found
short in classic Latin: for example, the stem-vowel a of the first
declension.

Norte. — The sign (~) denotes that a vowel is long; (~) that it is
short; (*) that it is common.

For particular rules of Quantity, see § 78.

4, AccENT.

I. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final
syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding.

2. The following are general rules of accent : —

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first
syllable: as, €’rant, they were; diés, day.

b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the
Penult, if that is long: as, 4mi’cus, frivnd ; if it is short or com-
mon, then on the Antepenult: as, d6’minus, @’lacris.

Notr.— The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult,
the last but two.

c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on
the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as,
déa’que, Amaré’ve, tibi’ne, ita’que, and so, as distinguished
from i‘taque, therefore.

8 ACCENT. — INFLECTION. [5 1, 2

Norr. — The acute accent (*) is sometimes used to denote stress of
voice; the grave (), to mark an adverb or conjunction; the circumflex
(*), the ablative in a, the perfect in Gre, ora contracted syllable.

j

5, INFLECTION.

1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, to
show its grammatical relations. |

a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a
word, but oftener in its termination: as, VOX, a voice; vOcis, of
a voice; vdco, I call; vicat, he calls; vocavit, he has called.

b. Terminations of inflection had originally an independent
meaning, and ltl ii nearly to the use of prepositions or per-
sonal pronouns in inglish ; thus, in vdcat, the termination is
equivalent to he or she; and in vOcis, to the preposition of.

c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote
relations of time or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary

verbs in English: thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is

breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued
action; while in frégit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time
or Completed action.

2. The body of a word, to which the terminations are
attached, is called the STEM.

a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ;

but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to

express these. Thus the stem vGc- denotes voice ; with -s added
it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an
action; with -is it becomes vGcis, and signifies of a voice.

6. A still more primitive form, expressing the main idea less
definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or
other languages, is called a Root. For example, the root sta is
found in the Sanskrit tisthédmi, Greek icrnu, Latin sistere and
stare, German stehen, and English stand.

Again, the root of the stem vGc- is vic, which means not to
call, or I call, or calling, but merely call; and cannot be used to
mean any thing without terminations. With a it becomes vica-,
the stem of the present vécamus, we call; with avi- it is the
stem of the perfect vécavi, J called; with ato- it becomes the
stem of the participle vocatus, called; with ation- it becomes
the stem of vocationis, of a calling. With its vowel lengthened
it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call) ; with
alis added it means belonging to a voice; with tila, a little voice.

S535 ge Get.) INFLECTION. — GENDER. 9

Nort. — Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from
Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct
language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in
Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection,
become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the vari-
ous forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building.

c. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root: as in
dtic-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root,
either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in rég-is,
duc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in
tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in
fugis, fuga; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the
laws of development peculiar to the language.

d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by
combining with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading
to the yarious forms of Declension and Conjugation.

Notrt.— A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open
affix; one beginning with a consonant, a close affiz. When a close
affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic
change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But in most
cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem,
as in voca-mus, regi-mus.

3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have in-
flections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case;
and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, num-

ber, and person.

4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called
ParTICLEs: these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter-
jections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner.

Nore. — The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as
num, =ne, an (interrogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), &c.,
which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sen-
tence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of _
speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience,
a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunc-
tions (p. 95).

6. GENDER
i. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or gram-

matical.

a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object
denoted: as, puer, boy ; puelss girl; donum, gift.

10 GENDER. (6:4, 2%

6. Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form:
as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, vic-
trix, conqueror. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor,
miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine.

c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex
exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective
joined with it: as, lapis magnus (M.), @ great stone; manus
mea (F.), my hand.

_ a. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belong-

ing to a. class: as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes
or bodies of persons may be of either gender: as, exercitus (M.),
acies (r.), and agmen (N.), army; and the feminine operae,
workmen, copiae, troops.

Note. — What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the
product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the
course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a
living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine; a Month is a
guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine; and the fable of Atlas
shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains,
which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the
Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree
shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird hernest of eggs ; and,
to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun.

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and
splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine ;
while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting
warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and
days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and
extend these early workings of the fancy.

2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, Winds,
and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings,
Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds),
and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine.

Notre. — Most of the above may be recognized by their termina-
tions, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions.

a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a.

These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matréna, Mo-
sella; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable.

Norse. — Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine
noun mensis being understood.

6. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine;
also, many names of Plants and Gems in us.

c. Indeclinable nouns, Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and
‘words quoted merely for their forms, are neuter: as, nihil, nothing ;
gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowing ; triste vale, a sad fare-
well; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu; hoc totum diserte
dicere (De Or. ii. 10), this whole matter of eloquent speaking.

G2 4.'"7.] . GENDER. — CASE. 11

a
7

3. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine,
according. to the sex of the object. These are said to be of
Common GENDER: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow.

Notre. — When a noun signifying a thing without life is both mas-
culine and feminine, — as, dies, day ; finis, end, — it is sometimes said
to be of Doubtful Gender.

~ 4, A few names of animals are always connected with
adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine,
independent of sex. They are called Ericens.

Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, for, feminine.
To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula; or a jemale
hare, lepus femina.

7. CASE.

There are in Latin six Cases, which express the
relations of nouns to other words. They are usually
put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Gen-
itive; 3. Dative; 4. Accusative; 5. Vocative; 6. Ab-
lative.

1. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a propo-
sition: as,
pater meus adest, my father is here.

2. The Genitive (of) is used like the English posses-
sive ; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of
memory or feeling: as,
patris ejus amicus miserétur mei, his father’s friend pities me.

3. The Dative (¢o or for) is the case of the Indirect
Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is
concerned : as,

dedit mihi cultellum: magno mihi usui erat, he gave me a
pocket-knife : ut was of great service to me.

4. The AccusaTIvE (objective) is the case of the Direct
Object, and is used after most prepositions: as,

pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father
called me to him, and led me into the garden.

12 CASE. — DECLENSION. 7. 83

5. The VocartIvE is used in address: as,
huc véni, care mi filidle, come here, my dear litile son.

Notse.— As the Vocative is independent of the other words ina
sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case.

6. The AsiaTive (by, from, with) is used with many
verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or
instrument: as,

in horto ludebamus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in
the garden, and he hurt me with a knife.

Nortr. — All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the
ancient grammarians called “‘ Oblique Cases.”

7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces
of another case (the LocaTIveE), denoting the place where, —
generally the same in form as the dative (§ 55. 3. ¢.): as,

Romae vel AthGénis esse velim, J should like to be at Rome
or Athens. : F

8. DECLENSION.

1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns.
They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive
Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem.

Dect. 1. Gen. Sing. ae Characteristic 4 (anciently a)

eta’ ® a2 i (ius) Ge re)
=a ¥ i is m { or a Consonant
ae %. Us (uis) ,, ti
99 5. 99 6i 39 é

a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by
omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for
the case-ending the characteristic vowel.

Notr.— For the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the
Third Declension, see § 11.

6b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns
(except in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s.

Nore 1.— Many, however, end in 0, or in the liquids 1, n, r,—
the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost
through phonetic decay. In some (as in jfilius) the stem-vowel is
modified before the final s; and in some, as in ager, a yowel is
inserted in the stem.

8: 2, 3] . DECLENSION. : 13

Note 2.— The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old
demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit
personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she.

2. The following are general Rules of Declension : —
a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, ex-
cept in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension,

Norr.—In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in
the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in
address are of this form; and, in practice, few other words have a
vocative.

b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike,
and in the plural end in @.

c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends
in m, and the accusative plural i in 8.

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the
others) the dative singular ends in i.

e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

f. The genitive plural always ends in um.

3. Case-Endings. The original terminations of the
Cases, in Latin, were probably the following : —

Sing. M., F. N. Plur. M., F. N.
Nom. s(orlost) m, —- es a
Gen. os (is) um, rum(sum)
Dat. i ibus
Acc. mem m,- es a
Abl. ed tbus

Notr.— These became so worn by use, and so united with the
stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some
instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged
in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name
“stem” is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that
part of the word —as serve in servus — which precedes the case-ending.

DECL. I. II. III. IV. Vv.
Sing.
N. a é, as, es/US, UM 0S, on eus s - (See p. 23.) tis, G és
G. & (ai) es i(ius) o,w e y yos, 6s} Us (uis) 6i (e)
D. & (al) 3 (i) ei, €0 ui (a) éi (e)
A.am an,en jum on ea bie (im) in,yn & um, a em
v.a e |6(i) eu (as nom.) %, y¥ tis, a és
Aa é |6 €0 e(i), i yé u e
Plur.
N. Vv. & I & és, a, ia és} Us, ua és
G. drum (um) |6rum (um, 0m) én/um, ium uum érum
D. A. Is (a@bus) | is (Obus) ibus ibus(tibus)| é6bus
A. as os és (is), a, ia as| is, ua é3

N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics,

-

14 NOUNS. — FIRST DECLENSION. [9: -1,-2, 3.

NOUNS.

9, First DECLENSION.

The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends
in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem.

) SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. stella, a star. stellae, stars.
Gen. _ stellae, of a star. stellarum, of stars,
Dat. stellae, to a star. stellis, to stars.
Acc. stellam, a@ star. stellas, stars.
Voc. _ stell&, thou star! stellae, ye stars!”
Abl. stella with a star. stellis, with stars.

1. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their sig-
nification; as, nauta, sailor. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic.

2. Case Forms.—da. The genitive smgular anciently ended
in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors: as, aulai. The
same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.

_b. There is also an old genitive in 4s, found in the word familias
used in certain combinations, as, pater (mater, filius, filia) famil-
ias, father of a family, &c.

c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the
plural in is: as, Romae, Athénis.

d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead. of
arum, especially in compounds with -cdla and -géna, signifying
dwelling and descent: as, caelicdlum, of the heavenly ones.

é. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter,
liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older
form -abus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wills, &c.)
are mentioned together, the form in is is also used.

3. Greek Nouns.—Some Greek nouns (chiefly proper
names) end in 4s, 6s (M.), and 6 (F.) in the nominative, and an
or €n in the accusative; those in € have the genitive in 6s
(stem a or €): as,

comet (M.). laurel (¥.).
N. cométes (a) daphné 4mnéas Anchises
G@ cométee daphnés (9) Ziinése nchisse
D. cométe daphné (#) fiinése nchisse
Ac. cométen(am) daphnén f@néan (am) nchisén
Vv. comets — daphné ZEnéa (&) nchisé (&)
Ab. cométa (é) daphneé (4) A4anéa Anchisé (a)

10: 1, 2, 3-] SECOND DECLENSION. 15

Norr.— This form is found only in the singular; the plural is
regular: as, comete, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names)
about thirty-five words, several being names of plants; among others
the following, those marked ft having also regular forms in a:—
bule, council ; geometres, geometer ; t grammatice, grammar; harpe,
sickle; magice, magic; fmusice, music; tode, ode; pandectes,
repertory ; { patriarches, patriarch; + prophetes, prophet; sophistes,
sophist ; t tetrarches, tetrarch ; thymele, leader’s-stand ; { tiaras, tiara.

10. Srconp DEcLENsION.

The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends
in 0 (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-).

Norr.— This form is an original &-stem, to which the 4-stem of
the first declension is the corresponding feminine.

1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding 8
(in neuters m), the characteristic 6 being weakened to tt.

2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the § is not
added, but the 0 is lost, e being inserted before r.

Thus ager, field (stem agro=), is the same as the Greek daypés.
The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus.

SINGULAR.
Boy. Book. Slave. Gift.

Nom. puér . libér — serviis (5s) dasnum
Gen. ; puéri libri servi doni
Dat. puérd libro servo dons
Acc. puérum librtim servum (om) donum
Voc. puér liber servé donum
Abl. = puérd libro servG dond

PLURAL. ;
Nom. puéri libri servi dona
Gen. puér6rum _librdrum servorum dondrum
Dat. puéris libris servis donis
Acc. puérds librds - Servds dona
Voce. puéri libri servi dona
Abl. _ puéris libris servis donis

Notr:— The old form os, om (for us, um), is sometimes used
after u or V: as, servos, servom (§ 1. 2. 0.).

3. Gender.— Nouns ending in us (08), er, ir, are Mascu-

line (exe. on p. 16); those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But
which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.)

16 SECOND DECLENSION. [10: 4, 5, 6.

a. But names of towns in us (os) are Feminine: as, Corin-
thus. Also, arctus (os), the Polar Bear; alvus, belly 5 carba-
sus, linen (plural carbasa, sails, N.); cOlus, distaff; htimus,
ground; vannus, winnowing-shovel ; with many names of Plants
and Gems, -

b. The following are Neuter: pelagus, sea; virus, poison ;
vulgus (rarely M.), the crowd, ‘Their accusative, as of all neuters,
is the same as the nominative.

4&. Case Forms. a. The Locative form for the singular of
this declension ends in i: as, humi, un the ground ; Corinthi, ai
Corinth. For the plural, is: as, Philippis, a/ Philippi.

b. The genitive of nouns in ius or ium ends by earlier use
with a single i: as, fili, of a son; ingéni, of genius.

The same contraction occurs with the gen. sing. and the dat.
and abl. plur. of nouns in aius and @ius: as, Grais, Pompéi.

c. Proper names in ius lose e in the vocative: as, VergT li;
also, filius, son, genius, divine guardian ; and the possessive meus,
my: as, audi, mi fili, hear, my son.

d. Greek names in ius have the vocative ie; and adjectives
derived from proper names—as Lacedaemonius —also form
the vocative in ie.

e. In the genitive plural, um (or, after v, om) is often found
for Srum, especially in poets.

f. Deus, god, has vocative deus; plural, nominative and voc-
ative dei or di (dii); dative and ablative deis or dis (diis).

For the genitive plural deorum, divum or divom (from
divus) is often used.

%- The following stems in €ro, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain e throughout: puer, boy; gener, son-in-law; socer, father-
in-law ; vesper, evening; with compounds in -fer and -ger: as,
licifer, -féri, light-bringer ; armiger, -géri, armor-bearer.

a. Vir, man, has the genitive viri; the-adjective satur, sated,
has satiiri; vesrer has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi),

b. Liber, a name of Bacchus, also has Lib&ri; so, too, the
plir. liberi, children.

6. The following, which insert e, are declined like liber:
ager, field; aper, boar; arbiter, judge; auster, sowth-wind;
caper, goat; coluber, snake; conger, sea-eel; culter, knife;
faber, smith; fiber, beaver ; geometer, geometer ; magister, mas-
ter ; minister, servant; oleaster, wild-olive; onager (grus), wild-
ass; scomber (brus), mackerel.

po ay ‘THIRD DECLENSION. 17

7. Greek Nouns. a. Many Greek names in eus, as Or-
pheus (being of the third declension in Greek), have gen. ei
or eos, dat. ei; acc, ea; voc. eu; abl. eo.

b. Many in es, belonging to the third declension, have also a
gen. in i: as, Thucydidi.

c. Some Greek names in er have a form in us: as, Teucer,
Teucrus.

d. About twenty words have the Greek ending 5s (mM. or F.)
or 6n (N.): as, mythos, i, 0, on, e, 0; plural i, orum, is, os:
parélion, ii (i), io; plural ia, iorum, iis. "

Ath6s and Androgeds (/En. vi. 20.) have a gen. in o.

Argos (N. nom. and acc.) has the plural form Argi, orum, &c,

ll, Turrp DECLENSION.

Nouns of the Third Declension are most conveni-
ently classed according to their Stems, whether ending
in a vowel, a liquid, or a mute.

I. VoweEt-StTems.

I. Vowel-stems of this declension end ini, Thus that of
turris is turri-; and that of mare, mari-.

a. Nouns of this class are parisyllabic; that is, the oblique
cases of the singular have no more syllables than the nominative,
(For exceptions in al, ar, see 2, c.)

b. A few stems ending in u-, as of grus, sus, were treated as
consonant-stems. (See Ill. 4, @.)

2. The Nominative, except in neuters, is formed from the
stem by adding s.

a. About thirty nouns (as nubes) change I to @ in the nom-
inative (Compare Note, p. 22).

These are acindces, alces, cedes, cautes, clades, compdges, contdges,
crates, fames, feles, fides, labes, meles, moles, nubes, proles, propdges, sedes,
sepes, sordes, strages, sub0les, sudes, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehes, verres.

b. The nominative of a few stems in ri- does not add s, but loses
i, inserting e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.

c. The nominative of neuters is the same as the stem, with the
change of i to 6. But, when i is preceded by al or ar, the e is
lost (except in collare, mare, navale, tibiale).

Notre. — This latter class were originally neuters of adjectives in
alis, aris; and, when used as adjectives, retain the e. They are the
following : antmal, cervical, cubttal, putéal, toral, tribitnal ; calcar, cochlear,
exemplar, lactinar, laquear, lumtnar, palear, pulvinar, torciilar, vectigal.

18 THIRD DECLENSION. [11, 1.
SINGULAR.

Tower (¥.). Cloud (¥.). Sea (N.). Spur (N.).
Nom. turris nubés maré calcar
Gen. __ turris nubis maris calcaris
Dat. — turri nubi mari calcari
Acc. turrim(em) nubem maré calcar
Voc. turris nubés maré calcar
Abl. turri @) nubé mari calcari

PLURAL.
Nom. turrés nubés maria calcaria
Gen. turrium nubium marium calcarium
Dat. turribus nubibus maribus calcaribus
Ace. turris (6s) nubés maria calcaria
Voc. _ turrés nubés maria calcaria
Abl. _turribus nubibus maribus calcaribus

3. Case Forms. a. The regular form of the accusative
singular, M. and F., is im (as am, um, em of the other vowel-
declensions). . But, in most nouns, this was supplanted by the con-
sonant-form em; and it is only retained in the following : —

1. Exclusively (1) in Greek nouns and names of rivers; (2) in
buris, cuctimis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis; (8) in adverbs in tim (being acc.
of nouns in tis), with partim and amussim ;

2. Along with em in febris, restis, turris, sectiris, sementis, and (in
one or two passages) in many other words.

6b. The regular form of the ablative singular is I (as in the
other declensions 4, 6, G, 6, with loss of the original d). This
was also supplanted by &, and retained only —

1. Exclusively (1) in those above having accusative in im; also
securis, and the following adjectives used as nouns: «@qualis, annalis,
aqualis, consularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis ; (2) in neuters
‘ (as above): except baccar, jubar, and sometimes (in verse) mare, rete ;

2. Along with e in avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis (always aqud et
igni interdict), imber, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, sementis, strigtlis, turris ;
and the following adjectives used as nouns: affinis, bipennis, canalis,
Jamiliaris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, triremis, vocalis.

3. The ablative of fames, hunger, is always of the Fifth declen-
sion. The defective mane, morning, has sometimes abl. mani.

_ 4. Most names of towns in e—as Preneste, Care—and the
mountain Soracte, have the ablative in e

11, 11.] THIRD DECLENSION. — LIQUID STEMS. 19

c. The regular nominative plural would be is, but this is
rarely found. The regular accusative is is common, but not
exclusively used in any word.

d. The regular genitive plural ium is retained by all except
the following : —

(1) ambdges and volucris (always um) ; (2) vates (commonly um) ;
(3) apis, cudes, clades, subdles (rarely um) ; (4) canis, juvénis, mensis, had
not originally vowel-stems, and retain um ; but mensis has both.

4. Greek Nouns. — A few Greek nouns in is have the ace.

im or in, voc. {, abl. L f
Many in 6s have forms of the First or Second Declension: as,
Achilles, gen. ei or i, dat. i, acc. En, ea, voc. 6, abl. 1

Nore. — Nouns such as urbs, pars, having the genitive plural ium
and the accusative (occasionally) is, were originally vowel-stems.

i. Liquip STEMs.

In nouns whose stem ends in a liquid (1, n, r), the nom-
inative has no termination, but is the same as the stem, except
when modified as follows: —

a. Final n of the stem is dropped in masculines and feminines,
except some Greek nouns: as, ledn-is, leo; legidn-is, legio.

b. Stems ending in din-, gin- (mostly feminine) retain in the
nominative an original o: as, virgo. Those in in- preceded by
any other consonant retain an original €: as, carmén, inis, Nn. ;
cornicen, inis,M. (Exceptions Lv. 2, b.)

c. Nouns whose stem ends in tr retain in the nominative an
original e: as, pater (compare I. 2, b.).

d. In neuters whose stem ends in @r, Sr, tir, the r was originally
s, which is retained in the nominative, 6 of the stem being weak-
ened into ti: as, opiis, Eris: corpitis, Sris. A few masc. and
fem. stems also retain s. (Exceptions Iv. 2, 6.)

€. Stems in ll, rr, lose one of these liquids in the nominative.

f. The following have gen. plur. ium: glis, mas, ren, mus.

Sine. Consul. Pur. Sine. Name. Pwr.
Nom. consiil constilés nomén nomina
Gen. consilis constilum nominis nominum
Dat. consili constilibus nomini nominibus
Ace. consilem consiilés nomen nomina
Voe. consi consilés nomen nomina

Abl. consile constlibus nomine nominibus

20 THIRD DECLENSION. — MUTE STEMS. [ 11, 111,

Honor, M. Lion,M. Father,M. Tree, ¥. Maiden, ¥. Work,N.
Sing. :
N. v. honor leo pater arbor. virgo — opus
a. honoris lednis patris arbdoris virginis opéris
D. honori leoni patri arbori virgini operi
A. honorem lednem patrem arbGrem virginem Opus
A honore leone patre arbore virgine opere
Plur, f
N. A.V. honéres lednes patres arbdres virgines opéra
G. hondrum lednum patrum arbodrum virginum opérum
D. Ab. honoribus leonibus patridus arboribus virginibus operibus

IJ. Mure Srems.

Masculine or feminine nouns whose stem ends in a Mute
form the nominative by*adding s, Neuters have for nomina-
tive the simple stem.

Norse. —If the stem ends in two consonants, the genitive plural
generally has ium (seelI.4,N.). Some of these, originally i-stems,
have also an oid nominative in is: as, trabis, urbis.

1. Labial. If the mute is a labial (b, p), 8 is simply
added to the stem.

a. Stems in {ip- retain in the nominative an original e, the
vowel having been weakened in the other cases: as, princeps, ipis.

b. Most stems in cip- (M.) are compounds of the root cap (in
capio) take: as, auceps (avi-ceps), bird-catcher.

_ In these the stem sometimes has the form cups, as auciipis.

c.. The only noun whose stem ends in m is hiemps, winier.
(For the insertion of p, see note, foot of p. 3.)

SING. Cily, F. PLUR. SING. Chief. PLUR.
Nom. urbs _ urbes princeps . principes
Gen. _urbis urbium principis principum
Dat. urbi urbibus principi principibus
Acc. urbem urbes principem principes
Voc. urbs © urbes princeps principes
Abl. urbe urbibus principe principibus

‘2. Lingual. If the mute is a lingual (d, t), it is sup-
pressed before s.
a. Stems in it- (M. or F.) retain in the nominative an oricinal
€: as, hospés, itis. (In a few, as comes, the e is not original.)
> Nore.—The only nominative in t is caput, tis.
b. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending

in At- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual in the nominative: as,
cor, cordis;- poéma, Atis.

11, 111.] THIRD DECENSION.— MUTE STEMS. 21

SING. Guard. PLUR. sinc. Companion. PLUR.
Nom. custds custddes comés comites
Gen. custddis custodum coniitis comitum
Dat. custddi custddibus comiti comitibus
Ace. custodem custddes comitem comites
Voce. custds custodes comes comites
Abl. custdde custodibus comite comitibus
Sing. Age, ¥. Heart,N. Stone,M. Family, ¥. Head, N. Poem,N.
N.V. eetas. cor lapis gens caput poéma _
I. sweiatis cordis lapidis gentis capitis poeméatis
D. setati cordi lapidi genti capiti poemati
A. setatem cor lapidem gentem caput poeéma
7 . tate (1) corde apide gente capite poemate

ur.
N. A.V. states corda lapides gentes capita poemata
G.s eetatum (ium) lapidum gentium capitum poemaétum
D. Ab. eetatibus cordibus lapidibus gentibus capitibus ies
or 1pu8s

c. Case-forms. Some nouns of lingual stems have forms
of the vowel-declension.

1. Participles used as nouns, and a few others originally i-stems,
occasionally have the ablative in i: as, continenti, etati, parti, sorti.

2. Stems in tat (originally i-stems), nt= (participles used as nouns),
d or t preceded by a consonant, — also dis, lis, and pons,— regularly
have the genitive plural ium.

3. Names denoting birth or abode, with stems in ats, ite (originally
adjectives), with penates, optimates, regularly have the gen. plur. ium.

_ ad. Greek neuters (as poéma), with nom. sing. in a, frequently
end the dat. and abl. plur. in is, and rarely the gen. in Srum.

3. Palatal. If the mute is a palatal (¢, g), it unites
With gs in the nominative, forming x.

a. Stems in ic- (short i) have nom. in ex, and are chiefly mas-
culine ; those in ic- (long i) retain i, and are feminine.

_ 6. In nix, nivis, snow, the nom. retains a palatal lost in the
other cases (original stem snig-, compare ningit); supellex
(-ectilis) is partly a lingual, partly an i-stem.

sinc. Peak, M. PLuR. sinc. Raven, F. PLUR.
Nom. apex apices cornix cornices
Gen. apicis” apicum cornicis cornicum
Dat. — apici apicibus cornici cornicibus
Ace. apicem apices cornicem cornices
Voce. apex apices cornix cornices

Abl. —apice apicibus). cornice cornicibus

}

‘A

22 THIRD DECLENSION: MUTE STEMS. [11; 11

Sing. Peace, ¥. King, mM. Light, ¥. Fruit, ¥. . Citadel, ¥. Throat.
N.V. pax rex lux {frux] arx -—
G. pacis régis lucis frigis arcis —_—
D. paci regi luci frugi arci a
Ac. pacem rezem lucem frugem arcem —
Ab. pace rege luce fruge arce fauce
Piur.
‘N. A.V. paces reges luces fruges arces fauces
— regum gum arcium faucium

— u
D.Ab. pacibus regibus lucibus frugibus arcibus faucibus

c. Case-forms. A few monosyllables, as faux (def.), arx,
have gen. plur. ium; in lux, an abl. luci occurs rarely.

4. Peculiar Forms. In many nouns the stem is yari-
ously modified in the nominative.

a. The vowel-stems gru-, su-, simply add s, retaining the
original 7; grtis has also a nom. gritis; sus has in pl. subus.

6. In bov- (bou-), the diphthong ou becomes 6 (b6s, bivis);
in nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, is); in Jév-(—Zeic) the diph-
thong becomes @ in Ju-piter (pater), gen. Jévis, &.

c. In itér, itinéris (N.), jécur, jecindris (N.), the nom. has
been formed from a shorter stem; so that these words show a
combination of two distinct forms.

ad. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (pl. vasa,
Orum) retains its proper declension.

Notre. — Of apparent s-stems, as (assis) is an i-stem; of os, ossis,
the original stem is osti- (cf. do0reov and Sanskrit asthi); while the
others have either (1) passed into r-stems (changed from s) in most of
the cases, as honor, Gris, corpus, Gris (see liquid stems) ; or (2) have
broken down into i-stems, as moles (cf. molestus), mubes (Sanskrit
nabhas), sedes (cf. os), vis (vires), &c.

Sing. Oz, 0. Snow, F. Old Man,M. Flesh, ¥. Bone, N. Force, F.
N. V. bos nix sénex caro 6s vis
G. bodvis nivis sénis carnis ossis vis
D. boévi nivi séni carni Ossi a
A. bivem nivem sénem carnem os vim
> bdve nivé séné carne osse vi

ur.
N. A.V. bives __ nives sénes carnées ossa vires
G. boum —_— sénum — Ossium virium
D.A. boous nivibus sénibus carnibus ossibus viribus

%. The Locative form for nouns of the Third declension ends,
like the dative, in 1; sometimes, like the ablative, in @: as, ruri,
in the country; Karthagini, at Carthage; Tibitire (Hor.), at
Tibur ; — plural in Ybus: as, Trallibus, at Tralles.

6. Greek Nouns. Many nouns, originally Greek, —
mostly proper names, — retain Greek forms of inflection.

a. Stems in in- (i long) add s in the nominative, omitting n:
as, delphis (but also delphin), Salamis. So Phorcys.

11: Il, IV.] THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. 23

b. Most stems in id- (nom. is) often have also the forms of
i-stems: as, tigris, Idis (idos) or is; acc. idem (ida) or im; abl.
ide or i. But many, including most feminine proper names, have
acc. idem (ida), abl. ide,—not im andi. These follow the
forms in Greek, which depend on the place of the accent.

c. Stems in 6n- sometimes retain n: as, Agamemnon (or
Agamemno), 6nis, acc. Ona.

d. Stems in ont- form the nom. in Gn: as, horizon, Xend-
phon; but a few are occasionally latinized into Gn- (nom. 0): as,
Draco, Onis.

e. Stems in ant-, ent-, have nom. in 4s, is: as, adamas,
antis; Simois, entis. So a few in unt- (contr. from oent-) have
tis: as, Trapézus, untis. Occasionally the Latin form of nom-
inative is also found: as, Atlans, elephans.

f. Case-Forms.—Many Greek nouns (especially in the
poets) have gen. 6s, acc. 4; plur. nom. 6s, acc. as: as, aér,
aethér, cratér, héros (Gis), lampas (Adis or ados), lynx (cis
or c63), nais (idos), Orpheus (eos).

g» A few in ys have acc. yn, voc. y; abl. yé: as, chelys,
yn, y; Capys, yos, yn, y, ye.

h. Several feminine names in 6 have gen. sing. tis, all the
other cases ending in 6; they may also have regular forms: as,
Dido; gen. Diddnis or Didtis; dat. Diddni or Dido, Kc.

IV. Rutes or GENDER.

I. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns
of the third declension, classed according to the termination
of the nominative.

Notre.— Rules of gender are mostly only rules of memory, as
there is no necessary connection between the form and gender. In
fact, most nouns could originally be inflected in all genders.

a. Masculine endings are 0, or, os, er, es (idis, Itis).

b. Feminine endings are as (atis), es (is), is, ys, x, s (follow-
ing a consonant); also, do, go, io (abstract and collective), and
iis (iidis, itis).

c. Neuter endings are a, e, i, y; ¢, 1, t; men (minis); ar,
ur, us (Gris, Gris).

2. The following are general Rules of Gender of nouns
of the third declension, classed according to their stems.

Norte. — See the Note above. But the. preference of masc. and
fem. (especially fem.) for long vowels cannot be accidental (compare
long a of Ist declension). Some afiixes also prefer one or another
gender: as, tor (originally tar), masculine; ti, feminine ; men (origi-
nally man), neuter.

24 THIRD DECLENSION: RULES OF GENDER. ([Al1: Iv.

a. Vowel Stems. Stems in i, having s in the nominative,
are feminine, except those mentioned below (3, a). ‘hose having
nominative in @, or which drop the e, are neuler.

b. Liquid Stems. Stems in 1 are masculine, except sil,
fel, mel, and sometimes sal (N). Those in min are neuter, ex-
cept homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others in in are masculine,
except pollen, unguen (N.). ‘Those in €n are masculine. Those
in din, gin, ién (abstract and collective) are feminine. Others
in 6n, with cardo, margo, ordo, unio, senio, quaternio, are
masculine. Those in r preceded by a short vowel are neuter,
except nearly 30 given below. ‘Those in r preceded by a long
vowel are masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus, Fr.; crus,
jus, pus, rus, tus (in which the long vowel is due to contraction), N.

ce. Labial Stems (no neuters). Stems in b and m are
feminine, except chalybs. ‘Those in p are chiefly masculine
(exceptions below).

d. Lingual Stems. Stems in ad, éd, id, nd, tid, aud, are
Jeminine, except dromas, pes, quadrupes, obses, preeses,
lapis (M.). Those in at, tit, are feminine, except patrials (as
Arpinas), with penates and optimates. Those in 6d, &t, are
masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds. ‘Those
in &t, it, are masculine, except abies, merges, seges, teges (Fr.),
and those which are common trom signification. Those in at are
neuter ; those in nt various (see List) ; those in lt, rt, feminine.
(For a few isolated forms, see List.)

e. Palatal Stems. Stems in ec preceded by a consonant
or long vowel are feminine, except calx (stone or heel), decunx,
phoenix, storax, vervex, M. ‘Those in c preceded by a short
vowel are chiefly masculine (for exceptions, see List); those in g,
masculine, except frux, lex, phalanx, syrinx (also nix, nivis).

3. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns of
the Third Declension, classed according to their Stems.

a. Vowel-Stems.

és, is:— about 35 nouns (original s-stems, list p. 17), feminine,
except tudes, hammer ; vates, prophet; verres, pig (M.).
is, Is: — about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine.

Exc. — edilis, edile; amnis, river; anguis, snake; antes (pl.),
ranks; assis, a coin; axis, axle; callis (c.), by-path; canalis (c.),
canal; canis (c.), dog; caulis, stalk; civis (c.), citizen; clunis (c.),
haunch ; collis, hill; crinis (c.), hair; ensis, sword; fascis, fagot ;
finis (c.), end; follis, bellows; funis (c.), rope; fustis, club; hostis
(C.), enemy; ignis, fire; juvenis (c.), youth; lactes (pl.), entrails ;
lares, gods; manes, departed spirits; mensis, month; orbis, circle ;
panis, bread; piscis, fish; sentis (c.), brier; testis (c.), witness;
torris, brand; unguis, claw; vectis, bar; vepres (c., pl.), bram-
bles; vermis, worm (M.).

11: Iv., 3.] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. 25

8, is: — upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter.

Al, Alis; ar, aris: — 16, neuter (see list, page 17; and for those
in Ar, aris, see Liquid Stems).

ér, ris: —imber, shower; linter, boat; uter, bag; venter, stom-
ach, —all M. except linter, which is commonly F.

PrcurtarR:— grus, gruis, crane, F.; rhus, rhois (acc. rhum),

sumach, M.; sus, suis, hog, C.; heros, herdis, hero, M.; misy,

yos, truffle, ¥.; oxys, yos, sorrel, F.; cinnibari, vermilion ;

gummi, gum; sinapi, s#ustard (indecl.), N.; chelys, yn, y, F. lyre.

b. Liquid Stems.

1, lis: —9 nouns, masculine, except sil, ochre, and (sometimes)
sal, salt, Nn.

en, nis: — hymen, marriage ; ren, kidney ; splen (Enis), spleen, M.

én, inis:—10 nouns, M. except pollen, flour; unguen, oint-
ment, N.

mén, minis (verbal): — about 30 nouns, neuter; but flamen,
priest, M. ;

On, Snis (Greek): — canon, rule; damon, divinity; gnomon,
index, M.;—aé€don, nightingale; alcyon, kingfisher; ancon,
corner ; sindon, fine linen, ¥.

o, Snis:— nearly 60 nouns, all masculine.

io, idnis (material objects, &c.) : — about 30 nouns, masculine.

io, idnis (abstract and collective) :— upwards of 50, feminine.

o, inis:— homo, man ; turbo, whirlwind, M.; nemo, no one, Cc.

do, dinis:— nearly 50 nouns, feminine excepting cardo, hinge ;
ordo, rank, M.

go, ginis: — about 30 nouns, feminine.

ar, aris :— baccar, valerian; jubar, sunbeam; nectar, nectar, N.;

lar, household god ; salar, trout, M.

ér, ris:—accipiter, hawk; frater, brother; pater, father, M.;
mater, mother.

ér, Gris (Greek): — crater, cup; halter, dumb-bell ; prester, water-
spout, M. 3 ver, spring, N.

ér, ris: —acipenser, hawk ; aér, air; zther, ether; anser, goose ;
asser, stake; aster, star; cancer, crab; carcer, dungeon;
later, brick; passer, sparrow, M.;— mulier, woman, F. ;—
acer, maple ; cadaver, corpse; cicer, vetch ; papaver, poppy;
piper, pepper ; tiber, hump ; uber, udder; verber, lash, Nn.

is, €ris: — cinis, ashes; cuctimis, cucumber ; pulvis, dust; vomis,
ploughshare, M.

Or (6s), Gris: — nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the agent,
formed upon verb-stems), all masculine, except soror, sister ;
uxor, wife, 2

26 THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS OF INFLECTION. [11: Iv., 3.

dr, Sris: — castor, beaver; rhetor, rhetorician, M.;—arbor, tree,
F.; —ador, fine-wheal ; zquor, level ; marmor, marble, n.

5s, Sris :— flos, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew, M, ; — glos, sisler-
in-law, F.;— OS, mouth, N.

tir, Sris:—ebur, ivory; femur, thigh; jecur, liver; robur (or),
strength, N.

tir, tris: —9 masculine; with fulgur, thunderbolt; murmur, mur-
mur; sulphur, brimstone, N.

us, ris: — 13 neuter; also, Venus, F.

us, Sris:—14 nouns, neuter, except lepus, hare, M.

us, tris: — mus, mouse, M. ; — tellus, earth, F.;—crus, leg ; jus,
right; pus, fester ; rus, country; tus, incense, N.

PrecuriarR:—delphin, inis, dolphin; sanguis (en) Inis, blood ;

senex, senis, old man, M.; caro, carnis, flesh, F.; ws, zris, cop-

per; far, farris, corn; fel, fellis, gall; mel, mellis, honey; iter,

itineris, journey; jecur, jecindris (jec6ris), diver, N.; glis, -iris,

dormouse, M.

c. Labial.

bs, bis: —chalybs, steel, m.;—plebs, people; scrobs, ditch;
trabs, beam ; urbs, city, ¥. (original i-stems).

ms, mis:— hiemps, winter, F.

ps, pis: — 15 nouns, masculine, except forceps, pincers ; merops,
bee-eater ; ops, help; stips, gift; stirps, stock, ¥.

ad. Lingual.

as, Adis (Greek): —14 nouns, feminine, except dromas, drome-
dary ; vas, surety, M.

és, E€dis:—cupes, epicure; heres, heir; pres, surety, M.;—
merces, pay, F.

és, Edis: — pes, fool; quadrupes, quadruped, m.;—compes,
fetter, ¥.

€s, idis: — obses, hostage; przeses, chief, c.

is, Idis: — nearly 40 nouns, mostly Greek, feminine, except lapis,
stone, M.

Os, Gdis :— custos, guardian, Cc. [sacerdos, priest, C.

os, Otis: —nepos, grandson, M.; cos, whetstone; dos, dowry,F.;

us, tidis:—§incus, anvil; palus, marsh; subscus, dovetail; with
fraus, fraud ; laus, praise; pectis, tidis, sheep, F.

a, atis (Greek) : — nearly 20 nouns, neuter.

as, atis: —about 20 nouns (besides derivatives), feminine; also,
anas, Atis, duck.

és, etis:—celes, race-horse; lebes, kettle; magnes, magnet, M. ;
— qules, requies, rest; inquies, unrest, F.

11: Iv., 3.] THIRD DECLENSION: FORMS: OF INFLECTION. 27

es, &tis:— aries, ram; interpres, interpreter; paries, house-wall,
M.;—abies, fir; seges, crop; teges, mat, F.

és, itis: — about 20 nouns, masculine (or common from significa-
tion).

lis, itis: —juventus, youth; senectus, old age; servitus, slavery ;
virtus, virtue; salus, health, ¥.

ns, ndis:— frons, leaf; glans, acorn; juglans, walnut, F.

ns, ntis:— nearly 20 (besides many participial nouns), common,
except dens, tooth ; fons, fountain; mons, mountain; pons,
bridge, M.;—frons, brow; gens, nation; lens, lentile; mens,
mind, F.

rs, rtis (originally i-stems):— ars, art; cohors, cohort; fors,
chance; mors, death; sors, lot, F.

ys, ydis; s, ntis (Greek) : — chlamys, cloak, F.; Atlas, antis.

PECULIAR: — as, assis, penny, M.;— lis, litis, lawsuit; nox,

noctis, night; puls, pultis, pottage, ¥.;— caput, itis, head ; cor,

cordis, heart ; hepar, atis, liver; os, ossis, bone; vas, vasis, ves-

sel, N.; also, compounds of -piis, -pddis (m.), Gr. for pes, foot.

e. Palatal.

ax, Acis:— anthrax, coal ; corax, raven; frax (pl.), dregs 3; pan-
ax, panacea; scolopax, woodcock, M.;— fax, torch; styrax,
a gum, F.

ax, acis: — cnodax, pivot; cordax, a dance; thorax, breastplate,
M. ; — pax, peace, F.

ex, icis: — upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, except Carex,
sedge; forfex, shears; ilex, holm; imbrex, tile; nex (nécis),
violent death ; pellex, concubine, F.

ix, icis:— about 30, with filix, larix, salix, (icis), feminine;
besides many in trix, regular feminines of nouns in tor.

ox, Ocis: — celox, cutter, F.

ux, ticis : — dux, leader, c. ; — crux, cross; nux, nut, F.

ux, ticis :— balux, gold-dust ; lux, light, F.

x, cis : —arx, tower; calx, lime; falx, pruning-knife ; lynx, lynz;
merx (def.), ware, F.; — calyx, cup; Calx, heel, M.

x, gis: — conjux (nx), spouse; grex, herd; remex, rower; rex,
king, M. or C. ;— frux (def.), fruit; lex, law; phalanx, pha-
lanx, ¥., with a few rare names of animals.

Other nouns in & are nix, nivis, snow; nox, noctis, night; su-
pellex, ectilis, F.;— onyx, ychis, onyx, M.

Nore.— Nouns having gen. plural in ium are —1. All i-stems ;

2. Monosyllables with stem ending in two consonants ; 8 Most nouns

in ns or rs (nom.), with several in as (atis); 4. The following :—
dos, faux, fur, glis, lar, lis, mas, mus, nix, ren, strizx, vis.

1

_..

28 FOURTH DECLENSION. [12:.4; 2,°3.

12. FourtH DECLENSION.

The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends
in u. (Usually this is weakened to 7 before -bus).

1. Masculine and feminine nouns form the nominative by
adding 8; neuters have for nominative the simple stem, but
with @ (long).

Notre. — The u in neuters is lengthened, probably on account of
the loss of m.

sinc. Car(M.) PLUR. sinc. Knee(N.) PLUR.
Nom. curriis currus gént genua
Gen. __currtis (uis) curruum gent (Us) genuum
Dat. currui (i) curribus gent genibus
Ace. currum currts gent genua
Voc. —currtis currtis gent genua
Abl. currtl curribus gent genibus

Notr.— The Genitive singular is contracted from the old form in
uis. It is sometimes written with a circumflex: as, curris.

2. Gender.— ad. Most nouns in us are masculine. The
following are feminine : — cus, needle; Anus, old woman; cdlus,
distaff; ddémus, house; idus (pl.), the Ides; manus, hand;
nurus, daughter-in-law ; porticus, gallery; quinquatrus, feast
of Minerva; socrus, mother-in-law; tribus, tribe; with a few
names of plants and trees. Also, rarely, arcus, penus, specus.

6b. The only neuters are cornu, horn; genu, knee; pecu (def),
catile; veru, spit. (Some others are mentioned by grammarians,
and the form ossua, as from ossu, occurs in inscriptions.)

_ 8. Case-Forms.—a. An original genitive in os is some-
times found: as, senatuos; and an old (but not original) geni-
tive in i is used by some writers.

b. The nominative plural has rarely the form uus.
c. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into tim.

d@. The following retain the regular dative and ablative plural

in ubus: artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru; with dissyllables
in -cus, as lacus.

é. Domus, house, has also the following forms of the second
declension: domi (locative; less frequently domui), at home;
dative (rarely) dom; ablative domé (rarely domi); plural gen.
domorum (rarely domuum); accusative domGs (or domiis).

"18:1, 2.) FIFTH DECLENSION. 29
\

f- Most names of plants, with colus, distaff, have also forms
of the second declension.

4. Most nouns of the fourth declension are formed from verb-
stems, with the suflix -tus: as, cantus, song, from cano.

a. The Supines of verbs are the accusative and ablative (or
dative, perhaps both) of these nouns.

b. Many have only the genitive, or the genitive and ablative :
as, jussu (meo), by my command; so injussu (populi), without
the people’s order. Some only the dative, memoratui, divisui.

c. The remaining nouns of this declension are the following : —

zestus, heat; arcus, bow; artus, joint; coetus, meeting; fetus, pro-
duce; ficus, fig; gradus, step ; incestus, incest; lacus, /ake; laurus,
laurel ; myrtus, myrtle; penus (def.), provision; pinus, pine; portus,
port; rictus, gape; senatus, senate; sinus, fold, bay; situs, dust ;
specus, den; tonitrus, thunder; tumultus, tumult.

Nore. — Several of these are formed upon verb-stems not in use,
or obsolete.

13. Firtra DECLENSION.

The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends
in 6, which appears in all the cases.

1, The nominative is formed from the stem by adding s.

sInG. Thing (¥F.) PLUR. sinc. Day (M.) PLUR. Faith (®.)
Nom. rés rés diés diés fides
Gen. réi rérum diéi diérum fidéi
Dat. réi rébus diéi diébus fidéi
Ace. rem rés diém diés fidem
Voc. res rés diés diés ; fidés
Abl. ré rebus dié diébus fidé

Norte. — The e is shortened in the genitive and dative singular,
when not preceded by i; viz., in jides, plebes, spes, res.

2. Gender. All nouns of this declension are feminine,
except dies and meridies, m.

Nore. — Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in
phrases indicating a fixed time, or time in general: as, longa dies,
a long time ; constituta die, on the set day; also in the poets: pulcra
dies, a fair day.

30 IRREGULAR NOUNS. [13, 14:1.

3. Case-Forms. The genitive singular anciently ended in
és (cf. as of first declension); and ei was sometimes contracted
into i or e, asin the phrase plebi-scitum, people’s decree (Fr.
plebiscite). An old dative in i or e also occurs.

4M. Several nouns of the fifth declension have also forms of the
first, of which this is only a variety: as, materia, -ies, timber ;
saevitia, -ies, cruelty.

Norr.— Nouns in ies (except dies) are original a-stems. The
others are probably (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like moles,
moles-tus ; dies, diurnus ; spes, spero. Requies (étis) has also forms of
this declension: with others, as saties (for satietas), &c.

5. The Locative form of this declension is represented by -e,
as in hodie, to-day ; perendie, day-after-to-morrow ; die quarti,
the fourth day ; pridie, the day before.

6. Of about forty nouns of this declension, the only ones com-
plete in all their parts are dies and res. Most want the plural,
which is, however, found in the nominative, accusative, and voca-
tive, in the following: acies, effigies, eluvies, facies, glacies,
progenies, series, species, spes.

14, IrreGuLar Novons.

1. Defective. Many nouns are defective in their forms
of declension, either from signification or by accident of use.

a. Some are found only in the singular (singularia tantum),
chiefly abstract nouns: as, pietas, piety; names of materials and
things weighed or measured (not counted): as, aes, copper, far,
corn; and proper names, as Cicero.

Abstract nouns in the plural may denote repetitions or instances,
as paces:—names of things measured, &c., kinds or samples, as
vina, wines, aera, brazen utensils ; proper names, two or more of
the same, as Scipiones. So Galliae, the two Gauls, Castires,
Castor and Pollux, nives, snowflakes, soles, days, Joves, images
of Jupiter, palatia, the buildings on the hill.

_ 6. Some are found only in the Plural (pluralia tantum): these
include (1) many proper names, including those of Festivals and
Games; (2) names of classes: as, majores, ancestors; liberi,
children; penates, household gods; (3) the following from sig-
nification: arma, weapons ; artus, joints ; divitiae, riches ; excu-
biae, night-guard; insidiae, ambush ; manes, departed spirits ;
minae, threats ; moenia, fortifications, and a few others, which
are very rare.

14: 1, 2.] IRREGULAR NOUNS. 31

c. The following are defective in Case : —

ambage, § F.; astus (s. and p.), astu, M.; cassem, e, § M.; dapis, i, em, e,§
F.; dicam, as, F.; dicionis, i, em, e, § F.; fauce,§ F.; foras, is (pl.), F.;
fors, forte, F.; frugis, i, em, e,§ ¥.; glos, F.; gratic, as, is, F.; inpetus,
um, U, M.; imjitias, F.; jugera, um, ibus, N.; lues, em, e, F.; mane (nom.,
ace., and abl.), N.; nauci, N.; obice,§ c.; opis, em, e,§ F.; pondo (abl. or
indec.), N.; precem, e, § F.; sentis, em, es, ibus, M.; sordem, e, § F. ; spontis,
€, F.; suppetias, F.; venui, um, M. (0, N.); vicis, em, e, es, thus, F. The
_gen. plur. is also wanting in cor, cos, fax, fex, lux, nex, os (oris), pax, pres,
ros, sal, sol, tus, vas, ver; jura, rura, have only nom. and acc. plur.
§ Plural complete.

Many nouns of the fourth declension occur only in the dative, or
in the acc. and abl. (supines).

The following neuters are indeclinable: fas, nefas, instar, necesse,
nihil, opus, secus. |

Nouns found only in one case are called monoptotes ; in two cases,
diptotes ; in three cases, triptotes,

2. Variable. Many nouns vary in their form of declen-
sion, their gender, or their signification under different forms.

a. Some have two or more forms of Declension, and are called
heteroclites: as,

Balnea or @ ; carbasus (F.), pl.,a (N.); colus (1st and 4th), F.; femur,
Oris or tnis; jugerum, 7, or abl. e, pl. a, um, N.; margarita, @ (F.), or
um, t(N.); Mulciber, bri or beris ; munus, éris, pl. munia (mania), orum ;
pubes, eris ; em, e; penus, t, or Oris ; sevitia, @; -ies, tet ; -itudo, inis, F.;
sequester, tri, or tris ; with many found in the lst and 5th declensions,
and a few other rare forms. 4

b. Some nouns vary in Gender (heterogeneous) : as;

celum (N.), pl. cali (m.), sky; clipeus (m.), or clipeum (N.),
shield; frenum (N.), pl. freni (M.), rein.

_¢. Many nouns vary in meaning as they are found in the
singular or plural: as,

zdes, is (F.), temple; zdes, ium, house.

auxilium (N.), help; auxilia, auxiliaries.

carcer (M.), dungeon; carcéres, barriers (of a race-course).

castrum (N.), fort ; castra, camp.

copia (F.), plenty ; copiz, troops.

finis (m.), end; fines, bounds, territories.

forum, market-place ; fori, gang-ways.

gratia (F.), favor; gratia, thanks.

impedimentum (n.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage.

littéra (r.), letter (of alphabet) ; litterze, epistle.

locus (m.), place [pl. loca (N.)]; loci, passages in books. (In early
writers this is the regular plural.)

ludus, sport ; ludi, public games.

opera, task; operz, day-laborers (“ hands”’).

32 PROPER NAMES. 4, 15.

opis (F. gen.), help; opes, resources, wealth.

pliga (F.), region [plaga, blow]; plage, snares.
rostrum, beak of a ship; rostra, speaker’s platform.
sal (mM. or N.), salt; sales, witticisms.

tabella, tablet; tabellze, documents.

sestertius (m.) means the sum of 24 asses, = about 5 cents.
sestertium (N.) means the sum of 1000 sestertii, = about $50.
decies sestertium means the sum of 1000 sestertia, = $50,000.

d. Sometimes a noun in combination with an adjective takes a
special signification, both parts being regularly inflected: as, jus-
jurandum, jurisjurandi, oath; respublica, reipublicae, com-
monwealth.

15. Prorer NAMES.

1. A Roman had regularly three names. Thus, in the
name Marcus Tullius Cicero, we have —

Marcus, the prwnomen, or personal name;

Tullius, the nomen; i.e., name of the Gens, or house, whose
original head was Tullus; this name is properly an adjective ;

Cicero, the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin
a nickname, — in this case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.

2. A fourth or fifth name, called the agnomen, was
sometimes given. |

Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius
Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aimilianus; Africanus from his ex-
ploits in Africa; 4milianus as adopted from the milian gens.

3. Women had no personal names, but were known only
by that of their gens.

Thus the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia.
A younger sister would have been called Tullia seeunda or minor,
and so on.

4, The commonest prenomens are thus abbreviated : —

A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius). M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnzeus (Cneius), M’. Manius. Sex. Sextus.
D. Decimus. Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
K. Keso. N. Numerius. T. Titus.

App. Appius. P. Publius. Ti, Tiberius.

16: 1.] ADJECTIVES : INFLECTION. 33

ADJECTIVES.

16. INFLECTION oF ADJECTIVES.

ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed
and declined like Nouns, differing from nouns only in
. their use. In accordance with their use, they distin-
guish gender by different forms in the same word.
They are (1) of the first and second declensions, or
(2) of the third declension.

Note. — Latin adjectives and participles are either o-stems with
the corresponding feminine a-stems (originally & and 4), or i-stems.
Many, however, were originally stems in u or a consonant, which
passed over, in all or most of their cases, into the i-declension, for
which Latin had a special fondness. (Compare the endings és and
is of the Third declension with Greek es and ds; navis (nom.) with
the Greek vats; animus with exanimis; cornu with bicornis; lingua
with bilinguis ; cor, corde, corda, with discors, -di, -dia, -dium; sudvis
with 48vs; ferens, -entia, with dépev, -ovra.) A few, which in other
languages are nouns, retain the consonant-form: as, vetus = éros,
uber = ot0ap. Comparatives also retain the consonant form in most
of their cases.

I. Stems in 0 have the feminine 4 (originally 4). They
are declined like servus (m.), stella (r.), donum (N.): as,

M. F. Ne
Sing. Nom. cariis cara carum, Dear.
Gen. cari carae cari
Dat. caro carae caro
Ace. carum caram carum
Voce. caré cara carum
Abl. card cara caro
Pror. Nom. cari carae cara
Gen. carorum cararum car6rum
Dat. caris Caris caris
Ace. cards caras cara
Voce. cari carae cara
Abl. caris Caris caris

Notr.— The masc. gen. of adjectives in ius ends in ii, and the
vocative in ie; notin i as in nouns: the voc. masc. of meus is mi,
2*

34 ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. [16: 1.

a. In adjectives of stems ending in ro- preceded by 6 or a
consonant (also satur), the masculine nominative is formed like

puer or liber (§ 10;: as,

Sing. Miser, wretched. Ater, black.
N. miser miséra misérum ater atra atrum
G. miseri miserse miseri atri atree atri
D misero misers misero atro atree atro
Ac. miserum miseram miserum atrum atram atrum
Vv. miser _misera miserum ater atra atrum
Ab misero misera misero atro atra atro
LUT e 4
N. miseri misers misera atri atree atra
G. miserorum miserarum miserorum atrorum atrarum atrorum
D. miseris miseris miseris atris atris atris
Ac. miseros miseras misera atros atras atra
Vv. miseri misers misera atri atree atra
Ab. miseris miseris miseris atris atris atris

Stems in 6ro, with morigérus, propérus, postérus, have the
regular nominative i us.

Like miser are declined —asper, rough; gibber, hunched; lacer,
torn; liber, free; prosper (erus), favoring ; satur (ura, urum), sated ;
tener, tender ; with compounds of -fer and -ger; also, usually, dexter,
right. In these the e belongs to the stem; but in dexter it is often
syncopated.

Like ater are declined — eger, sick ; creber, close; faber, skilled ;
glaber, sleck ; integer, whole; ludicer, sportive; macer, lean; niger,
dark; noster, our; piger, sluggish ; ruber, red; sacer, sacred ; sinis-
ter, left; teter, foul; vafer, shrewd ; vester, your.

The following feminines lack a masculine singular nominative : —
cetéra, inféra, postéra, supéra. ‘They are rarely found in the singular
except in certain phrases: as, postero die. A feminine ablative in o
is found in a few Greek adjectives, as lecitcd octoph6ro ( Verr. vy. 11.).

b. The following (o-stems) with their compounds have the
genitive singular in Ius and the dative in i in all the genders: —
alius (N. aliud), other. nullus, none. ullus, any (with negatives).
alter, other (of two). solus, alone. nus, one.
neuter, -trius, neither. totus, whole. titer,-trius, which (of two).

Norr.— The. suffix ter, in alter, uter, neuter, is the same as the
Greek comparative suffix -repo(s). The stem of aliud appears in early

Latin and in derivatives as ali-, in the forms alis, alid (for aliud),
aliter, &c. Regular forms of gen. and dat. are found in early writers.

Of these the singular is thus declined : —

M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. solus sola solum uter © - utra utrum
G. solius solius_ solius utrius utrius utrius
D. soli soli soli utri utri utri
A. solum solam_ solum utrum utram utrum
A. solo sola solo utro utra utro
N. alius alia aliud alter altéra alterum
G. alius alius alius alterius alterius alterius
D.. alii alii alii alteri alteri alteri
A. alium aliam aliud alterum alteram alterum
A. alio alia alia altero altera altero

£6: 2] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION: 35

Note. — These words, in Greek and Sanskrit, are treated as pro-
nouns; which accords with the pronominal forms of the genitive in
ius, the dative in i, and the neuter d in aliud. ‘The i in the geni-
tive <ius, though long, may be made short in verse; and alterius is
generally accented on the antepenult. Instead of altus (gen.), alte-
rius is more commonly used. In compounds —as altertiter — some-
times both parts are declined, sometimes only the latter.

2. Stems in i—distinguished by being parisyllabic—
have properly no form for the feminine, and hence are called
adjectives of two terminations. In the neuter,1 is changed
to e. They are declined like turris (acc. em) and mare.

Sing. M.,F. Light. N. mM. Keen. F. N.
N.V. 1lévis _ Jéve acer acris acre

G. lévis lévis acris acris acris
D. lévi lévi acri acri ~acri
Ac. lévem léve acrem acrem_ acre
Bs ae Reale 9.6 VR a | acri acri acri
Plur.

N.V. lévés lévia acres acres acria
G. jévium lévium ~ acrium aacrium = acrium
D. lévibus lévibus acribus acribus acribus
Ac. lévés (is) lévia acres (is) acres (is) acria
Ab. lévibus lévibus acribus acribus acribus

a. Several stems in ri- form the masc. nom. in er (as acer,
compare § 11,1. 2, b.). These are the following :—

acer, keen. . pedester, on foot.
alacer, eager. puter, rotten.
campester, of the plain. saliiber, wholesome.
celeber, famous. silvester, wooded.
equester, of horsemen. terrester, of the land.
paluster, marshy. voliicer, winged.

Also celer, celéris, celére, swift; and, in certain phrases, the
names of months in -ber.

Note. — This formation is not original; and hence, in the poets,
and in early Latin, either the masculine or feminine form of these
adjectives was used for both genders. In others, as illustris, lugubris,
mediOcris, multebris, there is no separate masculine form.

6. Case-Forms. These adjectives, as true i-stems, retain
i in the abl. singular, the neut. plural ia, the gen. plur. ium, and
often in the acc. plur. is, but never im in the ace. sing. For metri-
cal reasons, an abl. in e€ sometimes occurs in poetry. When celer
is used as an adjective, it has the regular gen. plur. in ium; as a
noun, denoting a military rank, it is celérum: as a proper name,
it has the abl. in e. 7 ;

36 ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. [16: 3.

3. The remaining adjectives of the third declension have
the form of i-stems in the ablative singular 1, the plural
neuter ia, and genitive ium. In other cases they follow
the rule of consonant-stems.

a. In adjectives of consonant-stems (except comparatives) the
nominative singular is alike for all genders: hence they are called

adjectives of one termination. Except of stems in 1 and rf, it is
formed from the stem by adding 8: as,

Sing. M.F. Happy. N. M.F. Calling. N.

N.V. felix félix vocans vocans
Gen. felicis felicis vocantis vocantis
Dat. __ felici * felici vocanti vocanti
Ace. felicem felix vocantem vocans
Abl. felice: or. fell ~ vocante or vocanti
Plur.

N.V. _ felices felicia vocantes vocantia
Gen. _ felicium felicium vocantium vocantium
Dat. felicibus felicibus vocantibus vocantibus
Acc. _ felices (is) felicia vocantes (is) vocantia
Abl. felicibus felicibus vocantibus vocantibus

Other examples are the following : —

Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N. M. F. N.
N.V. iens, going par, equal preeceps, headlong
Gen. euntis paris preecipitis

Dat. eunti | pari preecipiti

Acc. euntem iens parem par precipitem preceps
Abl. eunte (i) pari preecipite (i)

Plur

N.A.V. euntes euntia pares paria precipites precipitia
Gen. euntium parium preecipitium

D. Ab. euntibus paribus preecipitibus

Sing. M. F. N. M. FB. N. M. F. N.
N.Y. dives, rich uber, fertile vetus, old

Gen. divitis ubéris vetéris

Dat. _ Giviti _ ubéri vetéri

Acc. divitem dives ubérem uber veterem vetus
Abl. divite (i) ubere (i) vetere (i)

Plur

N.A.V. divites (ditia) ubéres ubéra vetéres votéra
Gen divitum ubérum veterum

D. Ab. divitibus uberibus veteribus

Notr.— The regular feminine of these adjectives, by analogy of
cognate languages, would end in ia: this form is found in the abstracts
amentia, desidia, socordia, &c., and in proper names, as Forentia
(cf. Greek dépovea). The neuter would regularly have the simple
stem (as caput, cor, allec, Greek dépov); but in ail except liquid
stems, the masc. form in s has forced itselt’ not only upon the neuter
nominative, but upon the accusative also, where it is wholly abnormal.

16: 3.] ADJECTIVES: INFLECTION. 37

A few of these forms, used as nouns, have a feminine in a: as,
clienta, hospita, inhospita, with the appellation Juno Sospita.

b. The stem of Comparatives properly ended in 3s, which
became or in all cases except the neuter singular (N. A. v.), where
s is retained, and 6 is changed to % (compare honor, Oris; cor-
pus, dris). Thus they appear to have two terminations.

“Sing. M.F. Dearer. N. M.F. More. N. —
N.V. carior carius — plus
Gen. _cariOris cari6ris —— pliris
Dat. —_cari6ri cariori — pliri
Ace. —cari6rem carius -e plus
Abl. cariG6re’ or cariori — plire
Plur.

N.V. caridres cari6ra plires plira (ia)
Gen. cari6rum cari6rum plurium plurium
Dat. _—carioribus carioribus pluribus pluribus
Ace. CariOres cari6ra plures plura
Abl. carioribus _—_carioribus _ pluribus pluribus

Notre. — The neut. sing. plus is used only as a noun; the gen.
(rarely abl.) as an expression of value; the dative is not found in
classic use. Its derivative, complures, several, has sometimes neut.
plur. compluria. All other comparatives are declined like carior,

c. Case Forms. 1. The ablative singular of these adjec-
tives commonly ends in i; but, when used as nouns, — as super-
stes, survivor, —they have e. Participles in ns used as such, —
especially in the Ablative Absolute, — or as nouns, regularly have
e; but as adjectives, regularly ii (So adjectives in ns as in the
porase, me imprudente.)

In the following, e is the regular form :-—ccles, compos, deses, dives,
hospes, pauper, particeps, preceps, princeps, superstes, supplex; also in
patrials (see § 44), with stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as
nouns, and sometimes as adjectives.

2. The genitive plural ends commonly in ium, and the accusa-
tive often in Is, even in comparatives, which are less inclined to
the i-declension.

_ In the following, the gen. plur. ends in um:—always in dives,
compos, inops, preepes, supplex, and compounds of pes ; — sometimes, in
poetry, participles in ns. In vetus (&ris), pubes (Eris), uber (éris), which
did not become i-stems, the forms e, a, um, are regular; but uber and
vetus rarely have the abl. in i.

3. Several are declined in more than one form: as, gracilis (us),
hilaris (us), inermis (us). A few are indecl. or defective: as,

damnas (esto, sunto), frugi (dat. of advantage), exspes (only nom.), exlex
(nom. and ace.), mactus (nom. and voc.), nequam (indecl.), pernox (pers
noctu), potis, pote (indecl. or M. F. potis, N. pote), primoris, seminéci, &C

38 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 725,

d. Many adjectives, from their signification, are used only in
the masculine or feminine, and may be called adjectives of common
gender. Such are adolescens, youthful; deses, idis, sloth ful;
inops, Spis, poor; sospes, itis, safe. So senex and juvenis
may be called masculine adjectives.

e. Many nouns may be also used as adjectives (compare § 47,
3): as, pedes, a footman or on foot ; especially nouns in tor (M.)
and trix (r.), denoting the agent: as, victor exercitus, the con-
quering army; victrix causa, the winning cause.

f. Certain cases of adjectives are regularly used as Adverbs.
These are, the acc. and abl. of the neuter singular: as, multum,
multo, much;—the neuter of comparatives (regularly): as,
carius, more dearly ; lévius, more lighily ; — together with those
ending in 6 for o-stems, and ter for i-stems: as, caré, dearly ;
leviter, lightly ; acerrime, most eagerly.

17. CoMPARISON.

1. Regular Comparison. The Comparative is formed
by adding, for the nominative, ior (old stem 10s), neuter ius,
and the Superlative by adding iss{mus, a, um (old iss-
timus), to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final
vowel: as,

carus, dear; carior, dearer; carissimus, dearest.

lévis, light ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest.

félix, happy ; felicior, happier ; felicissimus, happiest.

hebes, dull ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.

Note. — The comparative suffix is the same as the Greek fwy, or
the Sanskrit iyans. That of the superlative (issimus) is a double
form, but what is the combination is not certain; perhaps it stands for

ios-timus (comp. and sup.), or possibly for ist-timus (two superla-
tives). Strictly, new stems are thus formed.

a. Adjectives in er form the superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative (comparative regular) : as,

miser, miserior, miserrimus ; acer, acrior, acerrimus.

So vetus, veterrimus (for comparative, vetustior) from the old
form veter; and, rarely, maturrimus (for maturissimus).

b. The following in lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its
vowel: facilis, easy; difficilis, hard; similis, like; dissimilis,
unlike; gracilis, slender ; humilis, low.

Nors. — The endings -limus and -yimus, the regular superlatives,
are formed by assimilation from -timus and -simus.

L7--2, 2.) ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. 39

c. Compounds in -dicus (saying), -ficus (doing), -vdlus
(willing), take the forms of corresponding participles in ns,
which were anciently used as adjectives: as, —

maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, maledicentissimus.
malevdlus, spiteful, malevélentior, malevolentissimus.

d. Adjectives in us preceded by a vowel (except u) rarely
have forms of comparison, but are compared by the adverbs
magis, more; Maxime, most: as,

idoneus, jit; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.

Most derivatives in -icus, -idus, -alis, -aris, -ilis, -tilus, -undus,
-timus, -inus, -Ivus, -Grus, with compounds, as degener, inops,
are also thus compared.

e. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared :
as, patientior, patientissimus; apertior, apertissimus.

Norre.— Many adjectives—as aureus, golden—are from their
meaning incapable of comparison; but each language has its own
usage in this respect. Thus niger, black, and candidus, white, are
compared; but not ater or albus, meaning absolute black or white.

2. Irregular Comparison. Several adjectives are
compared from different stems, or contain irregular forms: as,

| bdnus, mélior, optimus, good, better, best.

-\mélus, péjor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst.

magnus, major, maximus, great, greater, greatest.
-parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least.

-multum, pliis (N.), plurimum, much, more, most.
‘multi, plires, plurimi, many, more, most.
néquam (indecl.), nequior, nequissimus, worthless,
friigi (indecl.), frugalior, frugalissimus, useful, worthy.
dexter, dextérior, dextimus, on the right, handy.

3. Defective Comparison. The following are formed
from roots or stems not used as adjectives : —

‘eis, citra] citérior, citimus, hither, hithermost.
fin, intra] intérior, intimus, inner, inmost.
[prae, pro] prior, primus, former, first.

[prope] propior, proximus, nearer, next.
[ultra] ulterior, ultimus, farther, farthest.

a. Of the following the positive forms (originally comparative)
are rare, except when used as nouns, generally in the plural: — .

- [ext€rus] exterior, extrémus (extimus), outer, oulmost.
- [inférus] inferior, infimus (imus), lower, lowest.
postérus] posterior, postrémus, latter, last.
térus] posterior, p ae th
supérus] superior, supremus or summus, higher, highest.
Pp P g g
The plurals, exteri, foreigners ; posteri, posterity; superi, the
heavenly gods ; inferi, those below, are common

40 ADJECTIVES: COMPARISON. [A975 4,5.

b. From juvenis, youth, sénex, old man, are formed the com-
paratives junior, younger, senior, older. Instead of the superla-
tive, the phrase minimus or maximus natu is used (natu
being often understood): as,

maximus fratrum, the eldest of the brothers ; but,

senior fratrum, the elder of the [two] brothers.

c. In the following, one of the forms of comparison is want-
ing :—

1. The Positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimus, worse,
worst; ocior, ocissimus, swifler, swiftest; potior, potissimus,
more and most preferable (irom potis, able].

2. The Comparative is wanting iu bellus, pretty ; caesius, gray ;
falsus, false; inclitus (or inclitus), famous; invictus, wnsur-
passed ; invitus, reluctant; novus, new (novissimum agmen, rear
guard); pius, pious ; sacer, sacred; vetus, old; and most deriva-
tives in ilis and bilis.

3. The Superlative is not found in actuOsus, energetic; alacer,
eager; arcanus, secret ; diuturnus, long-contimued ; exilis, slender ;
ingens, huge; jejinus, sterile; longinquus, distant; opimus,
rich ; proclivis, inclined; satur, sated; segnis, sluggish; serus,
late; supinus, supine; taciturnus, silent; tempestivus, season-
able; vicinus, neighboring ; dives, rich, has generally ditissimus.

4, Adverbs. Adverbs formed from adjectives are com-
pared in like manner: as,

carus, dear: caré, carius, carissimé.

miser, wretched: miseré (iter), miserius, miserrimé.

lévis, light: leviter, levius, levissimé.

audax, bold: audacter, audacius, audacissimé.

bG6nus, good: béné, mélius, optimé.

mialus, bad: malé, péjus, pessimé.
Also, diu, long (in time), diutius diutissime ;—potius, rather,
potissimum, chief; — saepe, often, -ius, -issime ;—satis, enough,
satius, preferable ; — sécus, otherwise, sécius, worse ; — multum
(multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most.

5. Signification. Besides their regular signification, the
forms of comparison are used as follows : —

a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree
of a quality: as, brevior, rather short, audacior, too bold. It
is used instead of the superlative where only two are spoken of:
as, melior imperatorum, where English often has a superlative.

b. The Superlative (of eminence) denotes a very high degree of
a quality: as, maximus numerus, a very great number. With
quam, it indicates the highest degree: as, quam plurimi, as
many as possible; quam maxime potest (quam potest), as
much as can be.

27:5. ZB] NUMERALS. 41

c. With quisque, the superlative has a peculiar signification :
thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest ;
primus quisque, all the first (each in his order).

d. A high degree of a quality is denoted by such adverbs as
admodum, valde, very; or by per or prae in composition: as,
permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).

e. A low degree is indicated by sub in composition: as, sub-
rusticus, rather countrified; or by minus, not very; minime,
not at all; parum, not enough; non satis, not much.

18. NuMERALS.

1. Cardinal and Ordinal. Cardinal Numbers answer
to the interrogative quot, how many; Ordinal Numbers to
quotus, which in order, or one of how many.

CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS.
I. unus, una, unum, ove, primus, a, um, frst. I.
2. duo, duz, duo, fwo.. secundus (alter), second. 11.
3. tres, tria, three, &c. tertius, third, &c. III,
4. quattuor quartus IV.
5. quinque. uintus v.
6. sex sextus VI.
7. septem septimus VII.
8. octo octavus VIII,
9. novem nonus a,
Io. decem- — decimus x
Ir. undécim undecimus XI,
12. duodécim duodecimus XII,
13. tredécim tertius decimus XIII,
14. quattuordécim quartus decimus XIV,
15. quindécim - quintus decfmus_~. XV.
16. sedécim sextus decimus XVI,
17. septéndecim _ septimus decimus XVIL.
18. duodeviginti(octodécim) duodevicesimus XVIIL.
Ig. undeviginti (novendécim) undevicesimus REx:
20. viginti ‘ vicesimus (vigesimus) XX,
21. viginti unus ov unus et viginti vicesimus primus, &c. XXtI.
30. triginta eS ‘-.tricesimus =~ XSx.
40. quadraginta _ quadragesimus XL,
50. quinquaginta . quinquagesimus Te.OF L.
60. sexaginta sexagesimus LX,
70. septuaginta _ septuagesimus LXX.
80. octoginta . octogesimus LXXX.
go. nonaginta nonagesimus XC.

Ioo. centum centesimus fo

42 NUMERALS. [18: 1.

CARDINAL. ORDINAL. ROMAN NUMERALS.

200. ducenti, «, a ducentesimus CC;
300. trecenti trecentesimus ccc,
400. quadringenti quadringentesimus cccc,
500. quingenti quingentesimus ID, or D.
600. sexcenti sexcentesimus DC.
700. septingenti septingentesimus DCC.
800. octingenti octingentesimus DCCC.
goo. nongenti nongentesimus DCCCC.
1000. mille millesimus CID, or M.
5000. quinque millia (milia) quinquies millesimus 199.
10,000. decem millia (milia) decies millesimus CCID09.
100,000. centum millia (milia) centies millesimus CCCIO099.

Notr. — The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed
by means of the same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (com-
pare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten;
primus is a superlative of pro; the forms in -tus (quartus, quintus, sex-
tus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -tos
and tp@tos, superlative of wpd; nonus is contracted from novimus ;
while the others have the regular superlative ending -simus. Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of seguor ; and alter is a comparative
form (compare -tepos in Greek).

_@ Unus, una, unum, one, is declined like solus (§ 16, 1.),
gen. unius and dat. uni in all genders. It often has the mean-
ing of same, or only. It is used in the plural in this sense, as also
to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning: as, una cCastra,
one camp. So uni et alteri, one party and the other.

, 6. Duo, two (also ambo, both), is thus dectined : —

Nom. duo duae duo
Gen. duorum duarum duorum
Dat. duobus duabus duobus
Acc. duos (duo) duas duo
Abl. duobus duabus duobus

Notr.— This form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which
was lost in Latin, but is found in cognate languages.

c. Tres, tria, three, is an i-stem, and is regularly declined like
the plural of levis. The other cardinal numbers, up to centum
(100), are indeclinable. The multiples of ten are compounds of
the multiple, with a fragment of decem: as, viginti — dui-ginta.

Norr.— The forms octodecim (18), novendecim (19), are rare, unde-
viginti, duodeviginti, &c., being commonly employed.

d. ‘The hundreds, up to 1000, and all the ordinals, are o-stems,
and are regularly declined like adjectives of the first and second
declension. 7

18° 2, 3, 4.] NUMERALS. 43

€. Mille, a thousand, is not declined when used as an adjec-
tive. Often in the singular, and always in the plural (milia or
millia, thousands), it is used as a neuter noun, joined with a geni-
tive plural: as, cum mille hominibus (or, mille hominum),
with 1000 men; but, cum duobus milibus hominum (or, in
poetry, cum bis mille hominibus), with 2000 men.

_ 2. Distributives. Distributive Numerals answer to the
interrogative quoténi, how many of a sort.

. singuli, ove byone. 12. duodeni 200. duceni

2. bini, wo-and-two. 13. terni deni, &c. 300. treceni

3. terni, trini 20. viceni 400. quadringeni
4. quaterni 30. triceni 500. quingeni

5. quini 40. quadrageni 600. sesceni

- seni 50. quinquageni 700. septingeni
7. septeni 60. sexageni 800. octingeni
8. octoni 70. septuageni goo. nongeni

g- noveni 80. octogeni 1000. milleni
10. deni go. nonageni 2000. bis milleni
11. undeni 100. centeni 10,000. decies milleni

Distributives are used as follows :—
~ a. In the meaning of so many apiece or on each side: as
dat singula singulis, he gives them one apiece.

6. Instead of Cardinals, when the noun is plural in form but
singular in meaning: as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra
would mean two forts). ?

c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two; quater septe-
nis diebus, i.e., in four weeks.

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where
pairs or sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (each
person usually carrying two).

3. Numeral Adverbs. The numeral adverbs answer to
the interrogative quotiens (quoties), how often. Those of
the higher numbers, including five, have the termination iens
(ies) added to the stem of Cardinals. |
semel, once. Io. decies 60. sexagies

. bis, ¢wice. II. undecies 70. septuagies

. ter, thrice. » 12. duodecies 80. octogies

» quater 13. ter et decies, &c. go. nonagies

- quinquies (ens) 20. vicies 100. centies

+ sexies 21. semel et vicies 200. ducenties

. septies 30. tricies 300. ter centies

. octies 40. quadragies 1000. milies

. nonies 50. quinquagies 10,000. decies milies

4. The adjectives simplex (icis), single; duplex, double;
triplex, triple; quadriiplex, quintuplex, multiplex, &c., are
called mu/tiplicatives. ‘They are compounds of plico (as in Eng-
lish two fold) ; and are inflected as adjectives of one termination, ©

44. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. (A8 F 322,22.

PRONOUNS.

19. PERSONAL AND REFLEXIVE.

i. The Personal Pronouns of the first person are ego, J,
nos, we; of the second person, tu, thou, Vos, ye or you.

First PEerson. SECOND PERSON.
Nom. ego, I nos, we tu, thou vos, ye or you
Gen. mei, of me nostrum(tri), of us tui vestrum (tri)
Dat. mihi, fo me nobis, to us tibi vobis
Ace. me, me nos, ws te vos
Vo. — tu vos
Abl. me, by me _ nobis, by us te vobis

These pronouns are also used reflexively: as, ipse te nimium
laudas, you praise yourself too much.

2. The pronouns of the third person — he, she, tt, they —
are wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used.

3. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person (referring
to the subject of the sentence or clause, and hence used only
in the oblique cases) is the same in the singular and plural: as,

Gen. sui, of himself, herself, themselves.

Dat. sibi, fo m8 + as
Ace. se, Sese 9 ” 9
Abl. se, with ,, 99 2

Notre. — There is an old form of genitive in is: as, mis, tis, sis;
also an accusative and ablative med, ted, sed.

a. From these pronouns are formed the Possessive Adjectives
meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester (voster), declined as in § 16, I. -

b. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are the contracted geni-
tive plural of the possessives noster, vester.* (So in early and
late Latin we find una vestrarum.) They are used partitively.

c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are the geni-
tive singular of the neuter possessives, meum, &c., meaning my,
your, our interest or concern. ‘They are used objectively.

d. The reciprocal (each other) is expressed by inter se or
alter —alterum: as, inter se amant, they love each other.

e. The. preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the
ablative of the pronouns: as, tecum sedet, he sits with you.

20: 1, 2.] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 45

f. To the personal (and sometimes to the adjective) pronouns
enclitics are joined for emphasis: — met to all the pronouns; -te
to tu; -pte to the abl. sing. of the adjectives, and in early Latin
to the others: as, vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own
very selves; suopte pondere, by its own weight.

20. DEMONSTRATIVE.

1. The Demonstrative Pronouns are hic, this; is, ille,
iste, that ; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same.

Norse. — These are combinations of o and i-stems, which are not
clearly distinguishable. Hic is a compound of the stem ho- with
the demonstrative -ce, which appears in full in early Latin (hice),
and when followed by the enclitic -me (hicine). In most of the cases
it is shortened to c, and in many lost; but it is appended for empha-
sis to those that do not regularly retain it (hujusce). In early Latin
c alone is retained in some of these (horunc). Ile and iste are
sometimes found with the same enclitic (illic, istuc).

a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used
by the poets; a gen. sing. in i, ae, i, occurs in ille and iste.

6b. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste, &c.,
with the entire loss of the first syllable; and the i of ipse and
ille is very often found shortened.

c. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (for pte, from the same
root as potis), meaning self. The first part was originally de-
clined, as in reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus
occurs. Idem is the demonstrative is with the aflix -dem.,

2. These demonstratives are used either with nouns as
Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns; and, from their significa-

tion, cannot (except ipse) have a vocative.

This. That.
Sing. M. F. N. M. F. N.

‘ Nom. hic haec hoc is ea id
Gen. hujus hujus hujus ejus ejus ejus
Dat. huic huic huic ei ei 0's
Ace. hune hanc hoc eum eam id
Abl. hoc hac hoc eo ea eo
Plur. These. Those.

Nom. hi hae - haec ii (ei) eae ea
Gen. horum harum horum eorum earum eorum
Dat. his his his eis or iis (is)
Acé. hos has haec eos eas ea

Abl. his his his eis or iis (is)

—
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XN

That Self.
SING. M ¥. N. M. ¥. N.
N. ille illa illud ipse ipsa ipsum
G. illius illius illius ipsius ipsius ipsius
D. illi illi illi ipsi psi ipsi
‘A. illum illam illud ipsum ipsam ipsum
Jf a ipse ipsa ipsum
A. illo illa illo ipso ips ipso
PLUR Those Selves
N. illi illee illa ipsi ips ipsa
G illorum illarum illorum ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
D. illis illis s ipsis ipsis ipsis
A. illos illas illa ipsos ipsas ipsa
Vv. ipsi ipsee ipsa
A. illis illis illis ipsis ipsis Dpsis

f The Same.

SING. PLUR.
N. idem eidem idem iidem esedem eidem
G. ejusdem ejusdem ejusdem eorundem earundem eorundem
D. eidem eidem erdem eisdem or iisdem
A. eundem eandem idem eosdem easdem e&dem
A. eodem eadem eodem eisdem or iisdem

a. Hic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place,
thought, or on the written page) ; hence called the demonstrative
of the first person. It is sometimes used of the speaker himself;
sometimes for ‘* the latter” of two things mentioned.

b. Ile is used of what is remote (in time, &c.) ; hence called
the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to
mean ‘‘the former”; also (usually following its noun) of what is
JSamous or well-known ; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean
‘* the following.”

_ € Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness ;
often of the person addressed, — hence called the demonstrative of
the second person; especially of one’s opponent, frequently imply-
ing contempt. It is declined like ille.

d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others, not denoting
any special object, but referring to one just mentioned, or to be
explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a
personal pronoun; and is often merely a correlative to the relative
qui: as, eum quem, one whom; eum consulem qui non du-
bitet (Cic.), a consul who will not hesitate.

e. Ipse, may be used with a personal pronoun, as nos ipsi
(nosmetipsi), we ourselves; or independently (the verb contain-
ing the pronoun), as, ipsi adestis, you are yourselves present ; or
with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very fountains.

_ Notge.— In English, the pronouns himself, &c., are used both inten-
sively (as, he will come himself ), or reflexively (as, he will kill himself’):
in Latin the former would be translated ipse; the latter se, or sese.

21: 1, 2.] RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. 47

21, Revative, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE.

1. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite pronouns
are the same; viz., qui, quis (who, who? any), with their
compounds and derivatives.

Note. — The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-.. From the latter
are formed quis, quid, quem, quibus, qui (abl.), while guz, gue, are prob-
ably lengthened forms of qué, qué, made by the addition of the
demonstrative particle i.

Sing. M. F. N.

Nom. qui, quis? quae quéd, quid?
Gen. cljus (whose) citijus cujus

Dat. cui cui cui

Ace. quem (whom) quam quod, quid?
Abl. quo _ qua quo

Plur.

Nom. qui quae quae

Gen. quorum gquarum “quorum

Dat. quibus or quis

Ace. quos quas quae

Abl. quibus or quis

Case Forms. a. The Relative has always qui and quod
in the nom. sing. The Interrogative and Indefinite have quis,
quid substantive, and qui, quod adjective. But quis and qui are
sometimes used for each other. (For quis, indef., see 2, d.)

b. Old forms for the gen. and dat. are quoius, quoi. A loca-
tive cui occurs only in the form cuicuimédi, of whatever sort.

c. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all
genders; but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any
way), and in the combination quicum, as interrogative or in-
definite relative.

d. A nom. plur. qués (stem qui-) is found in early Latin.
The dat. and abl. quis (stem qu6-) is old, but not infrequent.

e. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the
ablative, as with the personal pronouns.
2. The stems quo and qui are variously compounded.

a. The suffix -cunque (-cumque) added to the relative makes
an Indefinite-relative, which is declined as the simple word: as,

quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever.

Notre.— This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with
any relative: as, qualiscunque, of whatever sort; quandocunque
(quandoque), whenever j ; ubicunque, wherever.

48 RELATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, AND INDEFINITE. [21: 2,

b. The interrogative form doubled also makes an indefinite-
relative: as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wher-
ever). Of quisquis both parts are declined, but the feminine is
wanting: as,

Nom. quisquis (quiqui) quidquid (quicquid)

Gen. cujuscujus

Dat. cuicui

Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid)
Abl. quoquo

Prur. Nom. quiqui Dat., Abl, quibusquibus

This compound is rare, except in the forms quisquis, quicquid,
and quoquo. ‘The case-form quamquam is used as a conjunc-
tion, although (lit. however). Quiqui is an early form.

c. Indefinite Compounds are the following: quispiam, any ;
quisquam, any-at-all; quivis, quilibet, any-you-please ; quidam,
a, acertain. Of these the first part is inflected like quis, qui,
with quid or quod in the neuter.

ad. In aliquis, any, siquis, if any, nequis, lest any, ecquis,
numquis, whether any, the-second part is declined like quis, but
having qua for quae, except in the nom. plur. feminine. Si quis,
ne quis, num quis, are better written separately. The simple
form quis is rare except in these combinations; and the com-
pounds quispiam, aliquis (si quis, if any one; si aliquis, if
some one), are often used in these, being rather more emphatic.

The compounds of quis (indef.) are thus declined: —

aliquis aliqua aliquid aliqui aliquse aliqua
alicujus (or-quod) aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum
alicul %. : aliquibus
aliquem aliquam aliquid aliquos aliquas aliqua
aliquo aliqua aliquo aliquibus
Norte. — Aliquis is compounded with ali-, old stem of alius, but
with weakened meaning. Ecquis is compounded with en.

e. The enclitic -que added to the indefinite gives a Universal:
as, quisque, every one; ubique, everywhere (so uterque, either of
two, or both). Of quisque the first part is declined. In the
compound unusquisque, both parts are declined, and sometimes
separated by other words.

f. The relative and interrogative have a possessive adjective
cujus (stem cujo-), whose; and a patrial cujas (stem cujat-),
of what country.

g- Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative
adjectives from the same stem, and are uséd as interrogative
or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis.
Quam, how, is an accusative of the same stem, corresponding to
the case-form tam, so.

h. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, any-
where, are chiefly used in negative, interrogative, or conditional
sentences, or after quam, than; sine, without ; vix, scarcely.

?

22.) a CORRELATIVES. 49

22. CORRELATIVES.

Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several
corresponding forms, as, demonstrative, relative, interrogative,
and indefinite. These are called CorreLatives. Their
forms are seen in the following Table: —

DEMONSTR. RELAT. INTERROG. INDEF. REL. INDEF.
is, that qui quis? quisquis aliquis
tantus, so great quantus quantus ? | aliquantus
talis, such qualis qualis ? ¥
ibi, there ubi ubi ? ubitibi alictibi
eo, thither quo - quo? quoquo —_aliquo
ea, that way qua qua? quaqua = aliqua
inde, thence unde unde? * alicunde
tum, then quum, cum quando? . aliquando
tot, so many quot quot? quotquot aliquot
toties, so often quoties quoties ? r aliquoties

* Compounds with -cumque.

a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti),
are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case: as,

per tot annos, tot prceliis, tot imperatores (Cic.), so many
commanders, for so many years, in so many battles.

b. The correlative of the second member is often to be ren-
dered simply as: thus,

tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper.

c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo
or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with
comparatives (rendered in English the . . the): as,

quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less
‘he learns.

d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correla-

tively: as, .

et... et, both... and.

ut .. . ita (sic), as (while). . . so (yet).

aut (vel) ... aut (vel), cither.. . or.

sive (seu) ... sive, whether... or.

tam ... quam, so (as)... as.

cum (tum)...tum, both... and; not only... but also.

idem ... qui, the same... as.

Notr.—For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax
(§ 47, 9). :

a0 VERBS: STRUCTURE. [23: 1, 263%

VERBS.

23. STRUCTURE.

a. The forms of a Latin verb are the following : —

a. Voices: Active and Passive.

b. Moops: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive.

C. PARTICIPLES: Active, Present and Future.

Passive, Perfect and Gerundive.
d. VrersaL Nouns: Gerund and Supine.
e. Trensres: Present, Imperfect, Future; Perfect, Pluperfect,
Future-Perfect.

- f. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each
of the three Persons, Singular and Plural (§ 28).

Nors. — The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not
strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but
having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They
were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Romans.

2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in
certain parts of the verb: —

a. In the Subjunctive mood, the future and future-perfect.

Norr.— These are wanting, because the original meaning and
most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future
participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used.

b. In the Passive voice, the perfect, pluperfect, and future-per-
fect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to be,
with the Perfect Participle.

c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, — present
and fulure. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future.

$3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the
corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the
passive are used with more exactness. Thus vocatur means,
he is [being | called, i.e., some one is now calling him; voca-
tus est, he zs called, i.e., the action is now over.

Nore. — The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, indui-
tur vestem, fe puts on his clothes ; and many verbs are active in mean-
ing though passive in form. (Sec § 35, “‘ Deponents.’’)

24, 25.] - MOODS — PARTICIPLES. 51

24. Moons.

1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interroga-
tion.

2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, condi-
tions, and dependent clauses.

Note. — The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars,
by the English potential forms, may, might, could, would, &c., to distin-
guish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive
in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we
use the indicative ; and we use the potential in many cases where the
Latin employs a separate verb. Thus J may write (except when it
follows ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scri-
bere ; / can write is possum scribere; J would write is scribam,
scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) ; J should write, if, &c., scri-
berem si ... or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few ex-
amples of the use of the subjunctive may be seen in the following : —

eamus, let us go. ne cunctemur, let us not linger.

quid morer, why should I delay ?

si tardior sim iratus sit, 7f J should be too late he would be angry.
adsum ut videam, J am here to see [that I may see].
imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write.

nescio quid scribam, J know not what to write.

licet eas, you may go; cave cadas, don’t fall.

vereor ne eat, J fear he will go (vereor ut, J fear he will not).
sunt qui putent, there are some who think.
si ita esset non manerem, #f it were so I would not stay.
quz cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this he went away.

3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command ;
but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive.

4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the
subject or object of another verb; but often takes the place
of one of the other moods.

Nore. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 57, e

25. PARTICIPLES.

1. The Present participle has the same meaning as the
English participle in -ing: as, vocans, calling; regentes,
those ruling. (For its inflection, see § 16, 3.)

2, The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses
of esse, to be (see § 40), or to express purpose: as, urbs
est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came
to hear.

o2 GERUND AND SUPINE — TENSES. [26, 27.

3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses
of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning:
as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called; tectus, sheltered ;
acceptus, acceptable ; ictus, having been struck.

Norse. — There is no perfect active or present passive participle in
Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally
used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases
some different construction is used: as, cum venisset, having come
(when he had come); equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cav-
alry (the cavalry having been sent forward); dum verberatur, while
being struck (= tTumrdpevos).

For the Syntax of these participles, see § 72.

4. The Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive
participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or
must (see § 40): as, audiendus est, he must be heard. But,
in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were
an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with: as,

ad petendam pacem, to seek peace (§ 78).

26. GERUND AND SoupPINE.

1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive.
It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial
noun in -ing: as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.

2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative)
of a verbal noun of the fourth declension (§ 12, 4, a). They
are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose :
as, venit spectatum, he came & see; mirabile dictu, wonder-
Sul to tell.

Norse. — The Supine in tum is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit.

27. TEensEs.

1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes: (1)
those denoting incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and
Future; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect,
Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect.

- Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are
also used to denote indefinite action.

S79 203, 4:6. TENSES. 53

2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect
have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in Eng-
lish, but are distinguished more accurately in their use: as,
diu aegroto, J have long been [and still am] sick.
cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] J will write.

3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote
past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact ; the latter,
a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect
is variously rendered in English: as,
dicébat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say; saepe dicébat,

he would often say ; dictitabat, he kept saying.
The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and
historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound)
and preterite (imperfect) : as, |
vocavit, he has called (definite), or he called (historical).

Note. —In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as
Italian and French), there are two past tenses, — the Perfect or Pret-
erite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place ; and the Im-
perfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was
an progress. In the Northern languages (Germanic or Gothic, includ-
ing English), the same tense serves for both: as,

longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade
to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground
(B. G. v. 9.).

4, The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Pas-
sive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete

action of esse to the Perfect Participle: as, occisus est, he
was slain, or, he has been slain.

5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif-
ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine
stems.

_ @ The tenses of incomplete action, both active and passive, are
formed upon the Present stem.

b. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed
upon the Perfect stem.

c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of

completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine
stem.

54. VERB FORMS. +) ZB: -By Be

28. Vers Forms.

1. Personal endings. Verbs have terminations for
each of the three persons, both singular and plural, active and
passive. ‘These terminations are fragments of old pronouns,
whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem.

ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL,
i ges mus r mur
2. 8 tis ris mini
ae nt tur ntur

a, The present and perfect indicative have lost the m, and end
in the modified stem-vowels o and i Except sum, J am, and
inquam, J say. (Here o stands for m with a preceding vowel.)

6. The second po of the perfect indicative has for the sin-
gular sti, and for the plural stis. The third person plural has an
ending of verbal origin, érunt.

c. The Imperative has special terminations :

ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. 2. [lost] Plur. 2. te, tote Sing. 2. re Plur. 2, mini
o.. to 3. nto 3. tor 3. ntor

Notr.— The Passive is a peculiar Latin middle (or reflexive)
form, made by adding se to the forms of the active voice, with some
abrasion of their endings (the original form of se, sva, was not
limited to the third person). Thus amor = amo-se, amaris = amasise,
amatur =amatise. ‘The above view seems the most probable, in spite
of some objections. The ending mini in the second person plural
of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek
-pEVvoS.

p All Latin words ending in t, except a few in ot, ut, with et, at,
sat, are third persons of verbs; all in nt are third persons plural.
In dumtaxat, however, licet, although, and the indefinite pronouns in

-libet, the meanings of the verbs are disguised.

2. Changes of Stem. These terminations appear in all
the tenses of the verb; but the Stem in many parts is variously
modified to receive them, sometimes by changes in its form,
and sometimes by additions at the end.

a. The Present indicative and subjunctive, the Imperative,
and sometimes the Future, add the personal endings directly to
the present stem, with or without change of vowel: as, do, das
dat (stem da-) ; vOcem (stem vica-).

28: 2, 3.] -VERB-FORMS. BS

b. The Perfect indicative also sometimes adds them directly ;
but to another form of the root called the perfect stem: as, dedi,
dedisti, dedit.

Norse. — The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long
(ei, i, e) except before mus, is of doubtful origin. It is treated tor
convenience as part of the stem, as it is in dedi, steti, where it takes
the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes vi (= fui) and si (= Skr.
asa), and in the pertects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but prob-
ably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The s before ti and tis is
also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es; but it
may be, like the others, of pronominal origin.

c. All other true verbal forms are compounded with a suffix —
originally a verb—which contains the personal endings: as,
vocav-eram, vocav-éro, voca-bo. ‘The first person of the
Perfect, thus compounded, produces another form of perfect stem:
as, voca-vi.

d. The Present Infinitive Active, Present Participle, and
Gerundive, add nominal (noun or adjective) suffixes to the present
slem: as, vocare, vocans (antis), vocandus.

e. The Perfect infinitive adds an infinitive (esse) already
formed to the perfect stem: as, vocavisse (= vocavi-esse).

f. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are
formed upon what is called a supine stem, which adds t- either to
the Present stem or to the Root: as, vocat-, tect- (root tég-).

Nore. — Strictly, these have no common stem, but are formed
with special suffixes (to-, turo-, tu-). As, however, the form to
which they are added is the same for each, and as the suffixes all
begin with t, it is convenient to give the name supine stem to the form
in t. The participle in to- corresponds to the Greek verbal -ros; that
in turo- is a development of the noun of agency ending in -tor (as
victor, victurus); that in tu- is an abstract noun of the fourth
declension (§ 12, 4, a).

gq. The Present Infinitive Passive is an anomalous form, made
by adding -ri or i to the present stem: as, voco, vocari; tego,
tégi. (When i is added, the final vowel of the stem disappears.)
It was anciently followed by -ér.

h. The Future Infinitive Passive is supplied by the supine in
tum with the infinitive passive of eo, to go, used Supereauidey' as,
vocatumi iri, to be about to be called.

Notr.— The construction of this infinitive is different from the
others, the form in tum being invariable, and the apparent subject
accusative being really the object of the supine taken actively. Few
verbs in fact have this form, for which fore ut with the subjunctive
is often found.

3. Verb-Endings. The scheme of Verb-Endings, as

they are formed by suffixes or personal endings, is as fol-
lows: —

56 VERB-FORMS. [28: 3.
: a. Verbal Forms.
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
PRESENT.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
[o] m (vowel-change) [or] r (vowel-change)
s s ris or re ris or re
t t tur tur
mus mus mur mur
tis tis mini mini
nt nt ntur ntur
IMPERFECT.
bam rem bar rer
bas res baris (re) réris(re)
bat ret batur rétur
bamus rémus bamur rémur
batis rétis bamini remini
bant rent bantur rentur
FUTURE.
bo, or am (vowel-change) bor, or ar (vowel-change)
bis es béris(re) eris(re)
bit et bitur étur
bimus emus bimur eémur
bitis étis bimini emini
bunt ent buntur entur
PERFECT.
i oe Sa A jo sim
isti éris tum) es sis
it érit est sit
imap ore ti (tae, fonts penieag
istis eritis estis sitis
érunt érint ta) sunt sint
or 6re
PLUPERFECT.
éram issem éram essem
éras isses rain jer
esses
érat isset 1) erat esset
eramus issémus . eramus essémus
eratis issétis | as rai essétis
érant issent ta) (erant essent

29: 1.)

éro
és
érit
erimus
eritis
érint

PRESENT.
PERFECT.

FuTuURE.

PRESENT.
PERFECT.

FUTURE.
‘SUPINE.

ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 57

Four. Prerrect.

tus (ta, big
eris
9m) erit
ti (tae, ane
eritis
| *) erunt
IMPERATIVE.
— | re
to tor
te, tote mini
nto ntor

b. Nominal. Forms.

INFINITIVE. :
re (Pres. stem) viori(oldrier,ier)
sse (Perf. stem) _ tus (a, um) esse
turus (a,um) esse tum iri

PaRTICIPLE.
ns, ntis

tus, a, um

turus (surus),a,um GERUNDIVE. ndus, a, um
tum, tu (Present stem)

Nort. — The origin and meaning of some of the above verb-end-
ings may be given as follows. The suffix bam is an imperfect of
BHU, which appears in fui, futurus, fio, the Greek iw, and English
be ;—rem (for sem) is an optative or subjunctive imperfect of Es,
which appears in sum, eipl, am, &c.;—bo is a future, and Vi a ~
perfect, of BHU ;—si is a perfect of Es, and is kindred with the
aorist-ending oa, though not of the same formation ;—erim is an
optative form of ES corresponding to sim ;—ero is the future of es

(for es=io).

29. Esse AND ITs COMPOUNDS.

The verb esse, ¢o be, is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.

Nore. — The present participle, which should be sens (compare
Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in abssens, pree-sens; and as
ens (compare @v) in pot-ens. The simple form ens is sometimes
found in late or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun,
in the forms ens, Being ; entia, thinas which are.

8*

58, ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS, [29: 1,

PrincipaL Parts: Present, sum, J am.
Infinitive, esse, to be.
Perfect, fui, I was or have been.
Future Participle, futtirus, about to be,

PRESENT.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sine. 1. sum, J am. sim, I am, may be, &c. (see
2. &s, thou art. sis [examples on p. 51).
3. est, he (she, it) is. sit
Prior. 1. stimus, we are. simus
2. estis, you are. sitis
3. sunt, they are. sint
IMPERFECT.
Sina. 1. Sram, J was. essem, was (would or férem
2. &ras, thou wast. esses, might be, §c.). fdres
3. Erat, he was. _ esset fdret
Priur. 1. eramus, we were. essémus |
2. eratis, you were. essétis
3. erant, they were. essent fSrent
3 FUTURE. :
Stina. 1. Gro, J shall be.
2. Gris, thou wilt be.
3. Grit, he will be.
Pur. 1. erimus, we shall be.
2. eritis, you will be.
3. Grunt, they will be.
| _ PERFECT.
Sine. 1. fui, J was (have been). fuérim, was (have been, may
2. fuisti, thou wast. fuéris [have been).
3. fuit, he was. fuérit
Prior. 1. fulmus, we were. fuerimus
2. fuistis, you were. fueritis
3. fuérunt, they were. fuérint

or fuére. .

29: 1.] ESSE AND ITS COMPOUNDS. 59

PLUPERFECT.

. fuéram, J had been. fuissem, had been (might or
. fuéras, thou hadst been. fuisses [would have been).
. fuérat, he had been. fuisset

1
2
3

Prior. 1. fueramus, we had been. fuiss@mus
2. fueratis, you had been. fuissétis
3. fuérant, they had been. fuissent

FuTurE PERFECT.

1. fuéro, J shall have been.

2. fuéris, thou wilt have been.
3. fuérit, he will have been.
1
2
3

. fuerimus, we shall have been.
. fueritis, you will have been.
. fuerint, they will have been.

IMPERATIVE.
PRESENT. 6s, be thou. este, be ye.

Furure. esto, thou shalt be. estote, ye shall be.
esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be.

INFINITIVE.

PRESENT. esse, fo be.

PerFEcT. fuisse, to have been.

Furure. fdre or futurus esse, to be about to be.
Future ParticipLe. futurus, a, um, about to be.

Rare Forms. Fut. Indic. escit, escunt (strictly inchoative pres.,
§ 39). Pres. Subj. siem, fuam.

Nore. — The root of the verb esse is es-, which in the imperfect
is changed to er- (§ 1, 3, e), and in many cases is shortened to s-.
Some of its modifications, as found in several languages more or less
distantly related to Latin, may be seen in the following Table ;— the
“Indo-European ” being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form
sy@m corresponding to the Latin siem, sim : —

Ind.- Eur. Sanskrit. Greek. Slavonic. Lithuanian.
as=mi as-mi sydm (opt.) ape t yes-mi es-mi
as=Si as-i syas éoo yes-si -- es-i

- aseti as-ti syat éori yes-ti es- ti
as=masi Ss-mas sydma éopév yes-mu ___es-me
as-tasi s-tha sydta éoré yes-te es-te
as-anti S-anti syus évri Tt s-unti es-ti

+ Old Form.

The Perfect and Supine stems, fui, futu-, are kindred with the Greek

(pv, was), and with the English be,

60 | CONJUGATION. [29, 30.

a. The verb esse is compounded, without any change of its
inflection, with many prepositions. In the compound prodesse,
to profit, pro retains its original d@ where followed by e: as,
prosum, prodes, prodest, prostimus, prodestis, prosunt.

b. Esse is also compounded with the adjective potis or pote,
able, in the verb posse. Its inflection, with that of prodesse, is
given in the following : —

PRESENT. |
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ.
possum, J can. possim prosum prosim
potes, thou canst. possis prodes prosis
potest, he can. possit prodest prosit
posstimus, we can. possimus prostimus prosimus
potestis, you can. possitis prodestis prositis
possunt, they can. possint prosunt prosint
IMPERFECT.
potéram possem prodéram prodessem
FUTURE.
potéro prodéro
PERFECT.
potui potuérim profui profuérim
PLUPERFECT.
potuéram potuissem profuéram profuissem
FuTURE PERFECT. 7
potuéro profuéro
IMPERATIVE.
oe prodes, prodesto, &c.
INFINITIVE.
Pr. posse Perr. potuisse Pr. prodesse Perr. profuisse
PaRTICIPLES.
[potens, powerful. ] profuturus, about to help.

30. ConsUGATION.

There are in Latin four principal forms of Present
Stems, ending respectively in a, 6, 6,1. With this dif-
ference of stem most of the other differences of conju-
gation coincide.

Verbs are accordingly classed in four regular
conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before re in
the Present Infinitive Active, which is the same in
each case as those given above.

30: I, 2.] CONJUGATION. 61

Nore. — This mode of classification was invented by the Roman |

grammarians, and has been generally adopted by the moderns. In

fact, however, the vowels a, e, i (/ong), found in the First, Second, |
and Fourth Conjugations, are different corruptions of the form aya, °

which in the original language was added to roots in one form of

present stems. All other forms of present stems, except a few

unmodified, had originally, or received in Latin, a suffix ending
in (or consisting of) a short, which was corrupted to e or i short.
These are collected in the Third Conjugation. A few roots -ending
in a vowel were drawn — perhaps by vowel-increase — into the analogy

;

of the other conjugations; and a few of the fourth conjugation had -

1¥A instead of aya.

1. First Conjugation. Most verbs of the first conju-
gation retain the stem-vowel (@) throughout, except in the
present indicative, which loses it before 0, and the present sub-
junctive, where it is changed to 6 (see § 28, 1, a).

Nore. — Dare, to give — stem originally da —retains a short, ex-

cept in da and das. The Subjunctive with changed vowel (e) corre-
sponds to the Greek and Sanskrit Optative, and is formed by the
addition of a tense of i, to go, a+-i becoming e.

a. In the Future, the ending -bo, &c., is added to the present
stem: as, vocabo.

~ 6. The Perfect stem adds vi to that of the present: as,

vocavi. But | |

1. A few verbs, either always or occasionally, add vi not to the
present stem, but to the root, v becoming u: as, sono, sonui
(see p. 67). :

2. Two verbs, do, sto, form their perfect stem by reduplication :
dédi, stéti.

ce. The Supine stem adds t to the present stem; but verbs that
add vi to the root add t in like manner, sometimes with a connect-
ing vowel: as, seco, sectus; domo, domitus.

2. Second Conjugation. Only a few verbs of the sec-
ond conjugation retain € throughout. |

a. The Present Indicative has e before o in the first person ;
in the Present. Subjunctive a (originally @) is inserted after e: as,
deleo, deleam. |

Note. — ‘The a in the present subjunctive is borrowed from the
third conjugation. (See next head, 3, ¢, n.)

6b. The Future (as in the first conjugation) adds -bo, &c., to
the present stem: as, delébo.

c. Ina few verbs, the Perfect stem adds vi to the present, as
deleo, delévi; but in most this termination is added to the
root, as moneo, monui (see p. 69).

62 CONJUGATION. [30: 3.

d. In a few, the root is reduplicated, and in several -si is
added to the root, or its vowel is strengthened: as, tondeo,
totondi; mAneo, mansi; lugeo, luxi; caveo, cavi.

e. For the Supine stem, those which add -vi to the stem add t
also to the stem; those which add vi to the root add t to the root,
with the connecting-vowel i; those which form the perfect other-
wise add t (or its weakened form s) to the root: as, delétus,
monitus, tonsus, mansus, cautus.

3. Third Conjugation. To the third conjugation be-
long those verbs which form the present stem in any other
way than by adding a long vowel to the root.

a. The Present Stem is formed in eight different ways, in all
of which € (original 4), or else a suffix containing it, is added to
the Root. Besides this addition, —

1. The vowel of the root is lengthened (vowel-increase) : as in
diico, fido, ntbo (compare diicis, perfidus, prontiba; also Gr.
Asizw, root Aim-).

2. The root is reduplicated: as in sisto, bibo, gigno, from the
root sta- (in status), pa- (in pdtus), gén- (in génus; compare
yiyvouat, root yev-).

3. The root is strengthened by the insertion of n (m) before its
final consonant: as in findo, frango, cumbo (compare think,
thought; pavéave, root pad-).

4. Final 1 or r of the root is doubled by assimilation of an
added consonant: as in fallo, pello (compare o7éAAw, root c7éA-),
verro.

5. The consonant n is added to the root: as in cerno, lino,
temno (compare téuvw, root teu-).

6. The root adds se or ise (originally and often still incep-
tive): as in disco (= dicsco, root dic), nascor (root gna),
nanciscor (root nac, compare $aoKw, etpioxw),

7 The root adds t: as in pecto, plecto, mitto (compare
KOnTW).

8 The root-adds i (originally y) in the following: capio,
ctipio, -ctitio, facio, fodio, fiigio, jacio, -licio, pario, quatio
(-ctitio), rapio, sapio, -spicio.

Norte. — Verbal stems in u add merely the vowel e, and are of
the third conjugation. The u may be radical, as in suo, pluo, fluo;
or developed from a palatal, as in loquor, stinguo (cf. oti); or
may belong to the noun in denominatives, as statuo (statu-s), acuo
(acu-s). Stems in o are lost, as po- (cf. potum); or have become
of the first conjugation, as boo, boare.

30: 3.] CONJUGATION. 63

b. The stem-vowel € is weakened to 1 in several forms of the
Present indicative and imperative ; is lengthened to € in the Imper-
fect ; and undergoes other changes exhibited in the paradigm.

c. The Future is formed (without the suffix bo) by vowel-
changes to a and e before the personal endings.

Notre. — The a (properly long) of the future is borrowed from
the present subjunctive ; the forms in e have the same origin as the
present subjunctive of the first conjugation, and are properly optative.

ad, The Perfect stem is formed in five different ways : —

1. The root is reduplicated: as in cado, cecidi; curro,
cticurri; disco, didici.

2- The root-vowel is increased, 4 becoming 6, and I, 6, ti being
simply lengthened: as in capio, cépi; fdio, fodi; ftigio, figi.

3. The same form appears in the perfect as in the present stem :
this is regular with verbs of this conjugation in uo (vo): as, acuo,
acui; solvo, solvi.

Nore. — It is probable that in the last two cases the root was
originally reduplicated ; but that the reduplication was retained only
where vowel-increase did not take place.

4. The suffix si is added to the root: as in carpo, carpsi;
-géro, gessi; stimo, sumpsi; dico, dixi; tégo, texi.

5. The suffix ui (vi) is added to the root: as in cdlo, colui;
frémo, fremui; gigno, genui; rapio, rapui. Before this suffix
a long vowel of various origin is often found: as in ctipio, cupi-
vi; peto, petivi; sperno, sprévi.

Note. — Both suffixes are combined in the following: necto,
nexui; plecto, plexui. A few verbs vary: as, pango, panxi (pegi
or pepigi); velio, velli or vuisi.

e. The Present Subjunctive changes € to a: as, vehére, vehas.

Norr. — This form with a corresponds to the Greek and Sanskrit
subjunctive with long vowel, and proceeds from the addition of
another a (short): compare &x¥qs, vahdsi.

f. The Supine stem is formed by adding to the root t-, which
in many cases takes euphonically the form s- (§ 1, 3, f. 4).

Notrr.—A few roots take a connecting vowel before this affix,
and some have both forms. When this is the case, the future parti-
ciple and derivative verb take the longer form: as, ortus, oriturus ;
actus (ago), agito.

g. Some verbs of the third conjugation form the other parts
upon the (modified) present stem as a root: as, fingo, finxi, fict-
(fig); jungo, junxi, junct- (jtig).

h. In verbs which addito the root in the present stem, this
vowel is lost where it would be followed by @ or i (except in the
future third person singular): as in capit, capéret, capiet.

64 CONJUGATION. [30: 4, 5.

4, Fourth Conjugation. Verbs of the fourth conju-
gation retain I throughout (short before another vowel).

_ @ Several forms of the present stem have in addition the final
vowels of the third conjugation. In the Imperfect the regular
form (retained in ibam, from eo) is often found m early Latin.

b. The Future does not take bo, but has ia and ie (from the
third conjugation) before the personal endings. In early Latin the
form in bo (retained in Ibo) sometimes occurs.

c. The Perfect stem adds vi to the present stem: as, finio,
finivi. A few verbs add it to the root, as aperio, aperui;
several add si, as sentio, sensi; and in a few the perfect is the
same as the present stem, with or without vowel-increase: as,
repério, repéri; vénio, véni.

d. The Supine stem adds t- to the present: as, finio, finitus.
’ A few add it to the root: as, salio, saltus; sepélio, sepultus.

5. Principal Parts. The principal parts of a verb,
which determine its conjugation throughout, are the follow-
ing: 1. Present Indicative (showing the present stem); 2.
Present Infinitive (the conjugation) ; 3. Perfect (the perfect
stem); 4. Supine (the swpine stem).

_ a. The regular forms of conjugation are seen in the follow-
ing: —

1. vdco, vocare, vocavi, vocatum, call.

2. déleo, delére, delévi, delétum, destroy.

3. carpo, Ccarpére, carpsi, carptum, gather.

4. audio, audire, audivi, auditum, /ear.

In the second conjugation, however, the characteristic € rarely
appears in the perfect and supine: thus the type of this conjuga-
tion is —
modneo, monére, monui, monitum, warn.
b- What is called the Synopsis of a verb consists of the first

person singular of each tense, with infinitive and participles, given
in regular order: as, of Amo, I love —

Present Stem. AcTIvE VOIcr. Perfect Stem.

INDIC. amo, amabam, amabo. amavi, amaveram, amavero
SuBJ. amem, amarem. amaverim, amavissem.

Imp. ama, amato. INF. amare, amavisse, amaturus esse.
PasstvE Voice. Supine Stem.
INpDIC. amor, amabar, amabor. amatus sum, — eram, — ero.
Suns. amer, amarer.. amatus sim, — essem.
Imp. amare,amator. INr.amari, amatus esse, amatum iri.
PaRT. amans,amaturus; amatus, amandus.

30: 6, 7-] -. CONJUGATION. 65

c- In many verbs the principal parts take the form of two or
more different conjugations: as,

1,2. ddmo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.

2,3. augeo, augére, auxi, auctum, increase.

3, 4. péto, petére, petivi, petitum, seek.

4,3. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
In these the conjugation is said to be denoted by the first or
present stem.

d. The compounds of many verbs vary from the forms of the
primitive. This variation is seen especially (1) in the change of
the vowel of the root, 4 in open syllables becoming i and in close
syllables 6, while € becomes I: as, capio, captum, concipio,
conceptum; téneo, contineo; (2) in the loss of the reduplica-
tion: as, concido, concidi. (This is, however, retained in com-
pounds of disco, do, posco, sto, and in some of those of curro),

6. Special Forms. The following special forms are

found in the conjugation of many verbs : —

a. In tenses formed upon the Perfect stem, v between two
vowels is often suppressed, and the second vowel merged in the first

(unless a or e follows i or u): as, amasse —amavisse; flestis—= ~

flevistis ; audieram — audiveram ; nosse — novisse; noram— ,

noveram. This is especially frequent in verbs of the fourth conju- © —

gation, and is regular in the compounds of €o: as, abiit for abivit.

b. In many forms s with its vowel is suppressed in like manner
when it would be repeated: as, dixti for dixisti.

c Four verbs — dico, diico, facio, féro — with several of their
compounds, drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making
dic, diic, fac, fér (but effice, confice). The forms dice, duce,
face (never fere) occur in early Latin.

d. For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always
used in the singular, and scitote usually in the plural.

e- The following are ancient forms, rarely found except in
poetry :—

1. In the fourth conjugation -ibam, -ibo for -iebam, -iam (fut.) ;

2. In the present subjunctive -im: as in duim, perduim (7e-
tained also in religious formulas) ; [reconciliassere ;

3. In the perf. subj. and fut. perf. -so, -sim: as, faxo, faxim,

4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocari.

7. Parallel Forms. Many verbs have more than one
set of forms, of which only one is generaily found in classic
use: as,

lavo, lavadre or lavére, to wash.
scateo, scatére or scatére, fo gush.
ludifico, are or ludificor, ari, to mock.

66

FIRST CONJUGATION.

(31.

31, First CONJUGATION.

PRESENT INFINITIVE

PERFECT SUPINE

Principal Parts: amo, amare, amavi, amatum.

ACTIVE VOICE,
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE,.

Present, J love or am loving.

amo, J love. amem
amas, thou lovest. ames
amat, he loves. amet
amamus, we love. amémus
amatis, you love. amétis
amant, they love. ament

Imperfect, I loved (used to love).

amabam, J loved. amarem

amabas amares
amabat amaret
amabamus amarémus
amabatis amareétis
amabant amarent

Future, J shall love.
amabo, I shall love.
amabis
amabit
amabimus
amabitis
amabunt

Perfect, I loved (have loved).

|

PASSIVE VOICE.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
I am beloved.
amor amer
amaris (re) am6ris (re)
amatur amétur
amamur amémur
amamini amemini
amantur : amentur
I was loved.

amabar amarer
amabaris (re) amar6ris (re)
amabatur amarétur
amabamur amarémur
amabamini amaremini
amabantur amarentur

T shall be loved.
amabor
amabé€ris (re)
amabitur
amabimur
amabimini
amabuntur

I was (have been) loved.

amavi, / loved. amavérim - amatussum amatus sim
amavisti amavéris amatus es amatus sis
amavit amavérit amatus est amatus sit
amavimus amaverimus amatisumus amati simus
amavistis amaveritis amati estis amati sitis
amavérunt (6re) amavérint amati sunt amati sint
Pluperfect, J had loved. I had been loved.

amavéram, J had amavissem
amavéras [loved. amavisses

amavérat amavisset
amaveramus

amaveratis

amavérant amavissent

Future Perfect, J shall have loved.

amavéro, I shall have loved.
amavéris

amavérit

amaverimus

amaveritis

amavérint

amavissémus amati eramus
amavissétis amati eratis

amatus eram
amatus eras
amatus erat

amatus essem
amatus esses
amatus esset
amati essémus
amati essé@tis
amati essent
TI shall have been loved.
amatus ero

amatus eris

amatus erit

amati erimus

amati eritis

amati erunt

amati erant

eet, 21

ACTIVE.
Ama, love thou.
amate, love ye.

Pr.

For.
amatote, ye shall love.
amanto, they shall love.

FIRST CONJUGATION.
IMPERATIVE.

[ love.
amato, thou shalt (he shall)

67

PASSIVE.
amare, be thou loved.
amamiini, be ye loved.

amator, he shall be loved.

——

amantor, they shall be loved. |

Noun and Adjective Forms.

INFINITIVE.
amari, to be loved.
amatus esse, to have been loved.

amatum iri, amatus fore, fo be
about to be loved,

amare, fo love.
amavisse, to have loved.

amatirus esse, to be
about to love.

Pres.
PERF.
Fur.

PARTICIPLES.

PREs.
PERF.
Fort.

amans, loving.
amatus, beloved.

eee

amaturus, about to love.

amandus, a, um, to be loved (lovely).
amandum, -di, -do, loving.
amatum, amatu, fo love.

GERUNDIVE.
GERUND.
* SUPINES.

1. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation,
most of them formed directly upon a noun or adjective-stem,
to which they generally give the force and meaning of an
active verb: as, armo, to arm (arma); caeco, fo blind
(caecus) ; exsulo, to be in exile (exsul). Their conjugation is
usually regular, like amo; though of many only a few parts
are found in use.

2. Those which form their Perfect and Supine stems
differently are the following,— those marked f having also
regular forms; and those preceded by a hyphen being found
only in compounds : —

crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. plico,-plicui, -plicit-, fold.
cubo, cubui, cubit-, le down. poto, potavi, f pot-, drizk.
do, dare, dedi, dat-, ove. - geco, secui, sect-, cuz.
domo, domui, domit-, suédue. sono, sonui, sonit-, sound.
frico, fricui, ¢ frict-, rd. sto, steti, stat-, stand.

juvo, juvi, jut-, help. tono, tonui, tonit-, ¢hunder.
mico, micui, glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forded.
neco, f necui, f nect-, £77.

68 SECOND CONJUGATION. “4 [am

32. Sreconp CONJUGATION.
PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT SUPINE

Principal Parts: moneo, monére, monui, montium.

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE,
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, [ warn. L am warned.

modneo, / warn. moneam moneor monear
mones, you warn. moneas monéris (re) monearis (re)
monet, ie warns. moneat monetur moneatur
monémus moneamus monémur ' moneamur
monétis moneatis monemini moneamini
monent moneant monentur moneantur
Imperfect, J warned (was warning). I was warned.
monébam monérem monébar monérer
monébas monéres monebaris (re) moneré6ris (re)
monébat monéret monebatur monerétur
monebamus monerémus monebamur monerémur
monebatis monereétis monebaniini moneremini
monébant monérent monebantur monerentur
Future, J shall warn. I shall be warned.
monébo monébor 3
monébis monebéGris (re)
moneébit monebitur
monebimus monebimur
monebitis monebimini
monébunt monebuntur
Perfect, IZ warned (have warned). I was (have been) warned.
monui monuérim monitus sum monitus sim
monuisti _ monuéris monitus es monitus sis
monuit monuérit monitus est monitus sit
monuimus monuerimus monitisumus moniti simus
monuistis monueritis moniti estis moniti sitis
monu6érunt (re) monuerint moniti sunt moniti sint
Piuperfect, J had warned. . T had been warned.
monuéram monuissem monitus eram monitus essem
monueras monuisses monitus eras monitus esses
monuerat | monuisset monitus erat monitus esset
monueramus monuissémus moniti eramus monitiessemus
monueratis monuissétis moniti eratis moniti esgetis
monuerant monuissent moniti erant moniti essent
Fut. Perfect, I shall have warned. _I shall have been warned.
monuéro monitus ero
monuéris monitus eris
monu€rit ; -monitus erit
monuerimus moniti erimus
monueritis moniti eritis

monuérint | moniti erunt

32: 1, 2.] SECOND CONJUGATION. 69
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
Pr. mone, warn. monéte monére monemini
F. monéto monetote —
monéto monento monétor monentor
‘ INFINITIVE.

Pr. monére Pr. monuisse Pr. monéri Pr. monitus esse

I. monittrus esse I’. monitum iri (monitus tore)
PARTICIPLES.
monens moniturus monitus monendus

GER. monendum, di, &c. Sup. monitum monitu

1. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation,
most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a cor-
responding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive form in -sco: as, caleo, calor, calidus, calesco;

timeo, timor, timIdus.

2. Most verbs of the second conjugation form their per-

fect and supine like moneo.
éetum: deleo, destroy; fleo,
pounds of -pleo, fill.

algeo, alsi, de cold.

ardeo, arsi, ars-, burn.

audeo, ausus sum, dare.
augeo, auxi, auct-, 7zcrease.
caveo, cavi, caut-, care.
censeo, censui, cens-, value.
cieo, Civi, cit-, exczze.

doceo, docui, doct-, Zeach.
faveo, favi, faut-, favor.
ferveo, fervi (ferbui), e7ow.
foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish.
frigeo, frixi, de cold.

fulgeo, fulsi, sk7ne.

gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice.
hereo, hesi, hes-, cling.
indulgeo, indulsi, indult-, zz-
jubeo, jussi, juss-, order. |dulge.
langueo, langui. de faint.
liqueo, liqui (licui), med.
luceo, luxi, shine.

lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn.
maneo, mansi, mans-, wait.
misceo, cui, mixt- (mist-), mzx.
mordeo, momordi, mors-, d¢ze.

The following have @vi and
weep; neo, spin; and com-

The remainder are —

moveo, movi, mot-, move.

mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe.

mulgeo, si (xi), muls- (mulct-),
milk.

niveo, nivi (nixi), wzzk.

paveo, pavi. fear.

pendeo, pependi, hang. .

prandeo, prandi, prans-, dive.

rideo, risi, ris-, Jaugh.

sedeo, sedi, sess-, szZ.

soleo, solitus sum, de wont.

sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), suck.

spondeo, spopondi, spons-, fo

strideo, stridi, whzz. [ pledge.

suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.

teneo, tenul, tent-, 4old.

tergeo, tersi, ters-, wze.

tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear.

torqueo, torsi, tort-, Zw/7st.

torreo, torrui, tost-, voasé.

turgeo, tursi, swedd.

urgeo, ursi, urge.

video, vidi, vis-, see.

Vvoveo, vovi, vot-, vow.

70 THIRD CONJUGATION. [33.
33. TurrpD CONJUGATION.
4 PRESENT INFINITIVE PERFECT SUPINE
Principal Parts: rego, regére, rexi, rectum,
ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, J rule. I am ruled.
régo, J rule. regam regor regar
regis, thou rulest. regas regéris (re) regaris (re)
regit, he rules. regat regitur regatur
regimus, we rule. regamus regimur | regamur
regitis, you rule. regatis regimini regamini
regunt, they rule. regant reguntur regantur
Imper‘ect, J ruled (was ruling). I was ruled.
regébam, J ruled. reg6rem regébar regérer
regébas regéres regebaris (re) reger€ris (re)
regébat regéret regebatur regerétur
recebamus regerémus regebamur regerémur
regebatis regerétis regebamini regeremini
regébant regérent regebantur regerentur
Future, J shall rule. IT shall be ruled.
regam, I shall rule. regar
reges regéris (re)
reget regétur
regémus regemur
regétis regemini
regent regentur
- Perfect, 7 ruled (have ruled). I was (have been) ruled.
rexi, J ruled. rexérim rectus sum rectus sim
rexisti | rexéris rectus es rectus sis
rexit rexérit rectus est rectus sit
reximus rexerimus'recti sumus recti simus
rexistis rexeritis recti estis recti sitis
rexérunt (re) rexérint recti sunt recti sint
Pluperfect, J had ruled. I had been ruled.

rexéram, J had rexissem
rexéras [ruled. rexisses
rexérat rexisset
rexeramus rexissemus
rexeratis rexissetis
rexérant rexissent

Fut. Perfect, J shall have ruled.

rexéro, I shall have ruled.
rexéris

rexérit

rexerimus

rexeritis

rexérint

rectus eram
rectus eras
rectus erat
recti eramus
recti eratis
recti erant

rectus ero
rectus eris
rectus erit
recti erfmus
recti eritis
recti erunt

rectus essem
rectus esses
rectus esset
recti essemus
recti essetis
recti essent

TI shall have been ruled.

33.] THIRD CONJUGATION. 71
ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.
Sing. Plur. Sing. lur.
Pr..2. rege, rule. regite regére regimini
F, 2. regito regitote ——
3. regito regunto regitor reguntor
INFINITIVE.
Pr. regére Pr. rexisse Pr. regi Pr. rectus esso
F. recturus esse ' F. rectum iri (rectus fore)
PARTICIPLES.
regens recturus rectus regendus

Ger. regendum, di, &c.

Sup. rectum, rectu

Verbs in io (present stem) are inflected as follows: —

INDICATIVE. | SUBJUNCTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, J take. I am taken.
capio, J take. capiam capior capiar
capis, thou takest. capias cap€ris (re) capiaris (re)
capit, he takes. _capiat capitur capiatur
capimus, we take. capiamus capimur capiamur
capitis, you take. capiatis capimini capiamini
capiunt, they take. capiant capiuntur capiantur
Imperfect, I took (was taking). I was taken.
capiébam, I took, capérem capiébar capérer
capiébas _ capéres capiebaris (re) caperéris (re)
capiébat capéret capiebatur caperétur
capiebamus caperémus capiebamur caperémur
capiebatis caperétis capiebamini caperemini
capiébant capérent capiebantur caperentur
Future, J shall take. IT shall be taken.
capiam capiémus capiar capi€émur
capies capiétis capiéris (re) capiemini
capiet capient capiétur capientur
Perr. cepi ceperim captus sum captus sim
PLup. ceperam cepissem captus eram captus essem
F.P. cepero captus ero
IMPERATIVE.
cape capite capére capimini
capito capitote
capito capiunto capitor capiuntor
INFIN. capére _—__ cepisse capi captus esse
Part. capiens capturus captus capiendus

72 THIRD CONJUGATION. (SSicz, 2,5,

I. The following simple verbs of this conjugation form
the perfect and supine stems like rego, by adding s and t
to the root. ‘Those marked ¢ take s in the supine :—

ango, choke; carpo, pluck; cingo, bind; {claudo, shut;
clépo, sieal; cdmo, comb; cdquo, cook; démo, take away;
dico, say; diico, guide; {figo, fix; {flecto, bend; frigo, fry;
tlaedo, hurt; lingo, lick; {ltido, play; ntibo, marry; t pecto,
comb; tplaudo, applaud; plecto, twine; promo, bring out;
trado, scrape; régo, rule; répo, creep; {r6do, gnaw; sarpo,
prune ; scalpo, scrape; scribo, write; serpo, crawl ; stimo, take ;
tégo, shelter ; tingo, stain; traho, drag; } triido, thrust; { vado,
go; veho, draw; vivo, live.

Nore. — In these verbs, h and v are treated as palatals, becom-
ing x and ct; p takes the place of b, and is inserted euphonically

after m, before s and t; while d and t are omitted: as in scripsi,
sumpsi, flexi, plausi; demo, promo, sumo, are old compounds.

- Verbs in io of the third conjugation are ee as
sic —

capio, cepi, capt-, ¢ake. -licio, -lexi, -lect-, ex?rce.

cupio, cupivi, cupit-,.des’ve. —_ pario, peperi, part- (pariturus),
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, skake. bring forth.

facio, feci, fact-, make. quatio, —, quass-, shake.
fodio, fodi, foss-, dg. rapio, rapui, rapt-, sezze.

fugio, fugi, fugit-, fee. sapio, sapivi, or sapui, de wise.

jacio, jeci, jact-, throw (-icio). -spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view.

$’. Those otherwise conjugated are the following (see

§ 30, 3, a; b).

ago, egi, act-, drzve. cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge. [down.
alo, alui, alt- (alit-), Saas -cumbo [cus], cubui, cubit-, Ze
arcesso, ivi, arcessit-, semmon. curro, cucurri, curs-, run.

bibo, bibi, bibit-, drink. depso, depsui, depst-, Avead.
cado, cecidi, cas-, fall. disco [pic], didici(discit-), earn.
cdo, cecidi, ces-, cut. divido, divisi, divis-, d/vide.
cano, cecini, cant-, svg. -do, -didi, -dit- (as in abdo, &c.,
capesso, capessivi, wxdertake. with credo, vendo), Aut [DHA] -
cedo, cessi, cess-, y7eld. edo, edi, esum, ead (§ 37, 5).

-cello, -cellui(-culi), -cels-, Azsk. emo, emi, empt-, dzy.

-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, &ivdle. facesso, facessi, facessit-, execufe.
cerno, -crevi, -cret-, decree. fallo, fefelli, fals-, decezve.

colo, colui, cult-, dwell, z7dl. -fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward of.
compesco, compescui, restrain. fero, ferre, tuli, lat-, dear (§ 37,
consulo, lui, consult-, covsult. _findo [| F1p], fidi, fiss-, sAdct. [4)-
cresco, crevi, cret-, <zcrease. fido, fisus sum, frus?.

33, 3-]

fingo [FIG], finxi, fict-, faskion.
fluo, fluxi, flux-, ow. [dreak.
frango [FRAG], fregi, fract-, Zo
fremo, fremui, fremit-, roar.
frendo, -fresi, fress-, gvash.
fundo [FuD], fudi, fus-, Jour.
furo, furui, rage.
gemo, gemui, gemit-, groan.
gero, gessi, gest-, carry.
gigno [GEN], genui, genit-, dege?.
ico, ici, ict-, Azz.
incesso, incessivi, attack. [voke.
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, Dvo-
lambo, lambi, lambit-, /aZ.
lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wask
(reg. of Ist conj.).
lego, legi(intellexi), lect-, gather.
lino [x1], levi (livi), lit-, smear.
linquo [xtc], -liqui, -lict-, Zeave.
luo, lui, luit-, wash.
mando, mandi, mans-, chew.
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge.
meto, messui, mess-, reap.
mitto, misi, miss-, sezd.
molo, molui, molit-, grczd.
necto [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-,
weave.
nosco[ GNo], novi, not-(cognit-),
nuo, nui, nuit-, zod. [ know.
occulo, occului, occult-, 4zde.
pando, pandi, pans- (pass-),
open. —

pango [PAG], ftpegi (pepigi),

ft pact-, fasten.
parco, peperci, parcit-, sAare.
pasco, pavi, past-, feed.
pello, pepuli, puls-, drzve.
pendo, pependi, pens-, wezgh.
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on.
peto, petivi, petit-, seek.
pingo [Pic], pinxi, pict-, Aasnt.
pinso, pinsi, pins-(pinst-, pist-),
bruise.
pono [pos], posui, posit-, Azz.
posco, poposci (posciturus,) de-
mand.
prehendo, di, prehens-, sezze.

THIRD CONJUGATION.

tendo,

73

premo, pressi, press-, ress.

pungo [PuG}, pupugi, punct-,
prick.

quero, quesivi, queesit-, seek.

quiesco, quievi, quiet-, vesz.

rudo, rudivi, rudit-, dray.

rumpo[RUuP], rupi, rupt-, dursé.

ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-), fed/.

scabo, scabi, scratch.

scando, scansi, scans-, climb.

scindo [ScIp], scidi, sciss-, fear.

SCISCO, SCivi, sclIt-, decree.

sero, sevi, sat-, sow.

sero, serul, sert-, exfwine.

sido, sidi (sedi), sess-, seZ¢/e.

sino, sivi, sit-, Dermét.

sisto [STA], stiti, stat-, sop.

solvo, solvi, solut-, ay, loose.

spargo, sparsi, spars-, scatter.

sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorz.

sterno, stravi, strat-, strew.

sterto, stertui, szore.

strepo, strepui, strepit-, sound.

-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, guench.

stringo, strinxi, strict-, dzad.

struo, struxi, struct-, duz/d.

suesco, suevi, suet-, de wont.

surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rzse.

tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, ouch.

tetendi (-tendi), tens-
(tent-), stretch.

tergo, tersi, ters-, we.

tero, trivi, trit-, rub.

texo, texui, text-, weave.

tollo [ToL] (sustuli, sublat-),

tremo, tremui, ¢rvemble. [vrazse.

tundo [ Tup], tutudi, tuns-, dea.

uro, ussi, ust-, burn.

vello, velli (vulsi), vuls-, Aluck.

verro, verri, vers-, sweep.

verto, verti, vers-, urn.

vinco [vic], vici, vict-, conquer.

viso [VID], visi, vis-, vzszz.

Vivo, vixi, vict-, dive:

volvo, volvi, volut-, zurz.

vomo, vomui, vomit-, vomit.

Those reduplicated in the perfect are—cado, cedo, cano, curro,

disco, fallo, pango, parco, pello, pendo, posco, pungo, tendo, tundo.
The following have only the present stem: clango, claudo
(limp), fulgo, glisco, glubo, lingo, and inceptives in -sco, which
take the perfect of their primitives (cf. zosco). In all, there are
about 200 verbs of this conjugation.

74

34, Fourtu

PRESENT INFINITIVE

FOURTH CONJUGATION.

(34,

CONJUGATION.

F CRFECT SUPINE

Principal Parts: audio, audire, audivi, auditum.

ACTIVE VOICE.

_ INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present, J hear.

audio, J hear. audiam
audis, thou hearest.audias
audit, he hears. audiat
audimus, we hear. audiamus
auditis, you hear. audiatis
audiunt, they hear. audiant

Imperfect, J heard (was hearing).

audiébam audirem
audiébas audires
audiébat audiret
audiebamus audirémus
audiebatis audirétis
audiébant audirent

Future, J shall hear.
audiam, J shall hear.
audies
audiet _
audiémus
audiétis
audient

Perfect, I heard (have heard).

audivi, / heard. audivérim
audivisti audivéris
audivit audivérit
audivimus audiverimus
audivistis audiveritis
audivérunt (re) audivérint

Pluperfect, J had heard.

audivéram, J had audivissem
audivéras [ heard. audivisses

audivérat audivisset
audiveramus audivissémus
audiveratis audivissétis
audivérant audivissent

Fut. Perfect, J shall have heard.
audivéro, I shall have heard.
audivéris
audivérit
audiverimus
audiveritis
audivérint

PASSIVE VOICE.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
I am heard.
audior audiar
audiris (re) audiaris (re)
auditur audiatur
audimur audiamur
audimini audiamini
audiuntur audiantur
IT was heard.
audiébar audirer
audiebaris (re) audiréris (re)
audiebatur audirétur
audiebamur audirémur
audiebamini audiremini
audiebantur audirentur
I shall be heard.
audiar
audiéris (re)
audiétur
audiémur
audiemini
audientur

I was (have been) heard.
auditus sum auditus sim
auditus es auditus sis
auditus est auditus sit
auditisumus auditi simus
auditi estis auditi sitis
auditi sunt auditi sint

I had been heard.
auditus eram auditus essem
auditus eras auditus esses
auditus erat auditus esset
auditieramus auditi essemus
auditi eratis auditi essetis
auditi erant auditi essent

TI shall have been heard.
auditus ero
auditus eris
auditus erit
auditi erimus
auditi eritis
auditi erunt

34: 1,2; 35.] FOURTH CONJUGATION. 75

ACTIVE. IMPERATIVE. PASSIVE.

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
Pr. 2. audi, hear. audite audire audimini
F. 2. audito auditdte

3. audito audiunto auditor audiuntor

INFINITIVE.

Pr. audire Pr. audivisse Pr. audiri Pr. auditus esse
F. auditurus esse F. auditum iri (auditus fore)
PARTICIPLES.
audiens auditurus auditus audiendus

Ger. audiendum, di, &c. Sup. auditum, auditu

1. There are—besides a few deponents and regular
derivatives in -tirio — about 60 verbs of this conjugation, a
large proportion of them being descriptive verbs: viz.,
barrio, roar (as an elephant); crocio, croak; ctictirio, crow;
dentio, teethe; ebullio, bubble; effutio, drivel; frigutio, stutter ;
fritinnio, twitier; gannio, yelp; glutio, gulp; grunnio, grunt;
hinnio, neigh; hirrio, snarl ; ligtirio, lick; lipio, scream (as a
hawk); lippio, blink; mugio, bellow; muttio, mutter; pavio,
trample; scalptiirio, scratch; scattirio, gush; singultio, hiccup ;
tinnio, tinkle; tussio, cough; vagio, cry.

2. Those not conjugated regularly, like audio, are the
following (see § 30, 4, c) :—

amicio, amixi (amicui), amict-, reperio, reperi, repert-, fizd.
clothe. salio, salui, salt-, Zeap.

aperio, aperul, apert-, ofex. sancio, sanxi, sanct-, sanction.

comperio, peri, compert-, fd. sarcio, sarsi, sart-, Jatch.

farcio, farsi (farct-) (-tum), stuf. sentio, sensi, sens-, feel.

fulcio, fulsi, fult-, Drop. sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, dury,

haurio, hausi, haust-, drazz. —sepio, sepsi, sept-, hedge in.

operio, operui, opert-, cover. venio, veni, vent-, come.

raucio, rausi, raus-, be hoarse. vincio, vinxi, vinct-, dznd.

ferio, strike (only present stem).

35. DePONENT VERBS.

1. Deponent Verbs have the form of the Passive voice,
with an active or reflexive signification: as,

1. miror, mirari, miratus, admire.

2. véreor, veréri, veritus, fear.

3. séquor, sequi, seciitus, follow.

4, pdtior, potiri, potitus, possess.

76 DEPONENT VERBS. [35: 1.

The synopsis of these verbs is given as follows: —

INDICATIVE.
PRES. miror vereor sequor potior
IMP. mirabar verébar sequébar potiébar
Fur. mirabor verébor sequar potiar
PERF, mirdtus sum veritus sum secitussum potitus sum
PLUP. “A eram = eram ” eram » eram
Fut. P. nF ero es ero ” ero » ero
SUBJUNCTIVE.
PREs. mirer verear sequar potiar
IMP. mirarer _ verérer _ sequérer potirer
PERE. miratus sim veritussim secitussim potitus sim
PLUP. 5 essem ,, essem ” essem ,, essem
IMPERAT. mirare, ator verére, étor sequére, itor potire, itor
INFIN. PR. mirari vereri sequi potiri
Perr. miratus esse veritus esse sectitus esse potitus esse
Fur. -turus esse -turus esse -turus esse -turus esse
PART. PR. mirans verens sequens potiens
Fur. miraturus veriturus secuturus potiturus
PERF. miratus veritus secutus potitus
GrER. mirandus verendus sequendus potiendus

. These verbs have the participles of both voices: as, mirans,
eta miraturus, about to admire; miratus, having ad-
mired ; mirandus, to-be-admired (admirable).

b. The participle in dus (gerundive) has necessarily a passive
meaning, and hence is found only i in transitive verbs, or of neuter
verbs used impersonally (§ 39, c): as, potienda est tellus, the
land must be won; pugnandum est nobis, we must fight.

« Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in their meaning,
bbreihonoige to what in Greek is called the middle voice.

d. More than half of all deponents are of the jirst a a
es and all of these are regular.

- About twenty verbs of active signification are found in both
aoe and passive forms: as, mereo or mereor, deserve.

f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive significa-
tion: as, criminor, J accuse or I am accused.

_ g- The perfect participle of verbs otherwise deponent is often
passive: as, mercatus, bought; adeptus, obtained.

h. The following list contains all the trregular deponents : —

wo adipiscor, i adeptus, obtain. -miniscor, i, -mentus, ¢hink.
expergiscor, i, -perrectus, rouse. metior, iri, mensus, measure.
-experior, iri, expertus, ¢ry. ~ morior, i (iri), mortuus (mori-

ehkteor eri, fassus, confess. turus, moribundus), de.
‘. fruor, i, fructus, evJoy. . MNanciscor, i, nactus (nanctus),
fungor, i, functus, fwZfl. find.
gradior, i, gressus, sep. » Nascor, i, natus, de dorn.
irascor, i, iratus, de angry. _ nitor, i, nisus (nixus), s¢r7ve.
~labor, i, lapsus, fe/2. mh obliviscor, i i, oblitus, forget.

loquor, i, locutus, sdeak. opperior, iri, oppertus, awazt.

J

35: 2; 36.] DERIVATIVE VERBS. 77

ordior, iri, orsus, deg/n. [r7se. queror, i, questus, complain.
orior, 3d. (iri), ortus (oriturus), reor, reri, ratus, ¢hkink.
paciscor, i, pactus, dargain. — sequor, 1, secutus, follow.

- patior, i, passus, suffer. tueor, eri, tuitus (tutus), defend.

-plector, i, -plexus, clasp. ~ ulciscor, i, ultus, avenge.

. proficiscor, i, profectus, se¢-oufutor, i, usus, use, employ.

2. Semi-Deponents. A few verbs, having no perfect
stem, form the tenses of completed action like the passive:
these are called semi-deponents or neuter passives. They are

the following :—

audeo, audére, ausus, dare.

fido, fidére, fisus, trust.

gaudeo, gaudére, gavisus, rejoice.
soleo, solére, solitus, be wont.

a. From audeo there is an old subjunctive ausim. The
form sddes (for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the
dramatists.

b. The active forms vapulare, to be flogged, and venire, to
be sold (venum ire, go to sale), having a passive meaning, are
sometimes called neutral passives. ‘To these may be added fiéri
(fio), to be made, and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile).

36. DERIVATIVE VERBS.

Several classes of verbs have derivative meanings corre-
sponding to their form. (For their formation, see § 44.)

a. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES end in -sco, and denote the
beginning of an action: as, calesco, I grow warm (caleo);
vesperascit, if is gvtting late (vesper). They are of the third
conjugation, and have only the Present stem, though often com-
pleted by forms of simple verbs. |

b. INTENSIVES or ITERATIVES end in -to or -ito, and denote
a forcible or repeated action: as, jactat, he hurls (jacio); dic-
titabat, he kept saying (dico). They are of the first conjugation.

Nore. — Iteratives (or Frequentatives), though distinct in meaning
from Intensives, are not always distinguished from them in form.

ec. Another form of Intensives (sometimes called Mernprta- |
TIVES, or verbs of practice) ends in -sso, denoting a certain
energy or eagerness of action: as, facessit, he makes haste to
do. They are of the third conjugation, with perfect and supine of
the fourth: as, lacesso, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke. ©

d. Drrtnvutives end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty
action; as, cantillare, to chirp or warble (cano, sing).

78 IRREGULAR VERBS. [e7: 1.

e. DESIDERATIVES end in trio, expressing longing or wish,
and are of the fourth conjugation. Only these three are in com-
mon use, emptiirio (emo, buy), estirio (€do, eat), parturio
(pario, bring forth). Others occur for comic effect in the
dramatists.

37. IRREGULAR VERBS.
[For esse and its compounds, see § 29.]
Several verbs retain older forms in the tenses of the
present stem, or combine two roots in their inflection.
These are called Irregular Verbs.

The most common verbs of this class are —
1. Vdlo, velle, volui, to wish (the supine stem appears in
vultus, countenance).
2. Nolo (non volo), nolle, nolui, to be unwilling.
3. Malo (mage-volo), malle, malui, to prefer.
[For the inflection of volo, nolo, malo, see opposite page.]

4. Féro, ferre, tiili, latum, to bear.

Norre.— The perfect tuli is for tetuli (which sometimes occurs),
from TUL in tollo; the Supine latum for tlatum (cf. tAqT6¢).

ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC. SUBJ. INDIC. SUBJ.
Pres. féro feram feror ferar
fers feras ferris feraris (re)
fert ferat fertur feratur
ferimus feramus ferimur feramur
fertis feratis ferimini feramini
ferunt ferant feruntur ferantur
Imp. ferébam ferrem ferébar ferrer
Fut. feram ferar
Perr. tii tulerim latus sum i latus sim
Piup. tuleram tulissem latus eram latus essem
F. Perr. tulero latus ero
IMPERATIVE.
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur.
Pres. fer ferte ferre ferimini
For. ferto fertote
ferto ferunto fertor feruntor
INFINITIVE.
PRES. PERF. PRES. PERF.
ferre tulisse ferri latus esse
PARTICIPLES.
PRES. Fur. PERF. GER.
ferens laturus latus ferendus.

37.]
VOLO, will.
“ INDIC. SUBJ.
volo velim
vis velis
vult velit
vol’umus_ veli’mus
vultis velitis
volunt velint
volebam vellem
volebas velles
volebat vellet
volebamus vellemus
volebati® velletis
volebant vellent
volam
voles
volet
volemus
voletis
volent
volui — -erim
voluisti ~eris
voluit -erit
voluimus -erimus
voluistis ~eritis
voluerunt -erint
volueram -issem
volueras -isses
voluerat ~isset
volueramus -issemus
volueratis -issetis
voluerant -issent
voluero
volueris
voluerit
voluerimus
volueritis
voluerint
PR.
Fur,
Przs. velle
Perr. voluisse
PRESENT,
GERUND,

INFLECTION OF Volo AND 1Ts Compounpbs.

volens, willing.
_volendi, volendo

VOLO, NOLO, MALO. .

NOLO, will not.

INDIC. SUBJ.
PRESENT.
nolo — nolim .
nonvis nol
nonvult nolit
nol’’umus noli’mus
nonvultis nolitis
nolunt noiint
IMPERFECT.
nolebam nollem .
nolebas nolies
nolebat noliet
nolebamus nollemus
nolebatis nolietis
nolebant nollent
FUTURE.
nolam t
noles
nolet
nolemus
noletis
nolent
PERFECT.
nolui _ -erim
noluisti ~eris
noluit -erit
noluimus -erimus
noluistis -eritis
noluerunt -erint
PLUPERFECT.
nolueram -issem
nolueras -isses
noluerat -isset
nolueramus -issemus
nolueratis -issetis
noluerant -issent
FUTURE PERFECT.
noluero
nolueris
noluerit
noluerimus
nolueritis
noluerint
IMPERATIVE.
noli,~+ noli’te, do not.

79

MALO, prefer. _
INDIC, SUBJ.
malo malim
mavis mais
mavult malit
malumus mali’mus
mavultis malitis
malunt malint
malebam mallem
malebas malities
malebat mallet
malebamus mallemug
malebatis malietis
malebant malieut
malam t
males
malet
malemus
maletis
malent
malui -erim
maluisti. -eris
maluit ~erit
maluimus - -erimus
maluistis -eritis
maluerunt' -erint
malueram -issem
malueras -isses
maluerat -isset
malueramus -issemus
malueratis -issetis
maluerant = -issent
maluero
malueris
maluerit
maluerimus
malueritis
maluerint

noli'to, - nolito’te, thou shalt not, ye shail not.
noli’to, nolunto, he shall not, they shall not.

INFINITIVE.
nolle .-
noluisse

PARTICIPLE.

malle
maluisse

nolens, unwilling.
nolendi

+ Rare.

©

80 IRREGULAR VERBS. (37: 5, 6,7.

5. Edo, to eat (regular of third conjugation), has also some
forms directly from the root without a characteristic vowel: viz.,

Inv. Pres. 6s, est, estis; Susy. Pres. edim, Imperf. essem ;
ImMPrratT. 63, esto, este; INKIN. esse; Passive, estur, essétur;
and, in compounds, comes, comest, comestum, comésum,
exest, exesset, exesse.

6. Eo, ire, ivi, itum, to go (root I, cf. ew; the e stands for ei
produced by vowel-increase from i). The forms of eo are found
in veneo, to be sold, and in the passive, chiefly impersonal.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. S. e0, is, it (itur, etc.) eam, eas, eat
P. imus, itis, eunt eamus, eatis, eant

Imp. ibam, ibas, ibat irem, ires, ire’

ibamus, ibatis, ibant iremus, iretis, irent
Four. ibo, ibis, ibit

ibimus, ibitis, ibunt
Perr. _ ivi (ii) (itum est,etc.) iverim (ierim)
Piurp. iveram (ieram) _ ivissem (issem)

Fur. P. ivero

ImMPERAT. i, ite; itote, eunto

Inrin. Pr. ire Per. ivisse (isse)

Part. P. iens, euntis F.iturus G. eundum (-eundus)

7% Facio, facére, féci, factum, to make, — regular, with the
peenva forms fut. perf. faxo, perf. subj. faxim, imperat. fac. It
as for its passive

fio, fiéri, factus sum, fo be made, or become,

of which the tenses of the first stem are regular of the fourth con-
jugation, but with subj. imperf. fiérem.

INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. S. fio, fis, fit fiam, fias, fiat
P. fimus, fitis, fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant
Imp. fiebam fiérem
Fort. fiam, fies, &c.
PERF. factus sum , factus sim
Pup. factus eram factus essem

Fur. P. factus ero

ImpPerat. fi, fite; fito, fitote, fiunto

Inrin. Pres. fiéri P. factus esse
Parr. Perr. factus faciendus

33: 1, 2.] DEFECTIVE VERBS. 81

Most compounds of facio with prepositions change 4 to f or e,
ind form the passive and imperative regularly: as,

conficio, conficére, conféci, confectum, to finish.

Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive: as,
béné-facio (-fa’cis), -féci, -factum; pass. benefio, fo benefit.
A few isolated forms of -fio occur with prepositions (see § 38, h).

38. DEFECTIVE VERBS.

I. Some verbs have lost their Present stem, and use only
tenses of the Perfect (sometimes with the meaning of the
present), in which they are inflected regularly.

a. Coepi (root co-aP as in apiscor), J began. Infin. coep-

isse; Fut. Part. coepturus. <A passive participle coeptus is
used with the passive infinitive. For the Present, incipio is used.

b. Odi, I hate (root Sd- in odium) ; with the participles Ssus,
hating or hated (perésus, utterly hateful), osurus, likely to hate.

c. Memini, J remember (root MEN, as in mens, reminiscor),
with the imperative memento and mementote; part. meminens,

Nore. —Odi and memini, having a Perfect form with a present
meaning, are called preteritive verbs.

2. Many verbs have only the Present stem, and in many
the simple verb is incomplete, but the parts appear in the
compounds. Some occur very commonly, but only in a few
forms: as,

a. Aio (root AGH found in adagium and in nego, which has
passed into the first conjugation) :

Inv. Pres. Sing. aio, I say. Plur.
ais EA AS
ait aiunt

ImpPEerF. aiébam (aibam), aiebas, &c.
Susy. Pres. aias, aiat, aiant.
ImperaT. ai. — Part. aiens.

b. Inquam, say (used only in quotations, as the English quoth,
which is from the same root):

Inv. Pres. Sing. inquam Plur. inquimus
inquis inquitis (late)
inquit inqueunt

ImperF. inquibat.— Fur. inquiet. — Perr. inquisti.
IMPERAT. inque, inquito.

82 IMPERSONAL VERBS. [38: 2; 39.

c. Fari, to speak, forms the periphrastic tenses regularly: as,
fatus sum, eram, &c. It has also

Inv. Pres. fatur, fantur.— Fur. fabor, fabitur.

Imperat. fare. — Invin. fari.— Parr. fanti (with the com-
pound infans, as noun).

GERUND. fandus, to be spoken of (with the compounds infan-
dus, nefandus, abominable). — SuPINe, fatu.

The compounds affamur, affabimur, preefamini, &., occur.

d. Quaeso, I ask, beg (an original form of quaero), has
quaeso, quaesiimus, quaesere, quaesens.

e. Ovare, to triumph, has the following:
ovat, ovet, ovaret; ovans, ovandi, ovatus, ovaturus.

f. A few are found chiefly in the Imperative: as,
salve, salvete, hail! also salvére (from salvus).
Ave (or have), avéte, avéto, hail, or farewell.
cédo, cedite (cette), give, tell.
apage! begone! (properly a Greek word).
g- Queo, J can, nequeo, J cannot, are conjugated like eo.
They are rarely used except in the Present.
Inp. PrEs. queo, quis, quit, quimus, quitis, queunt.
Imp. quibam, quibat, quibant.— Fur. quibo, quibunt.
Perr. quivi, quivit, quiverunt.
Susy. Pres. queam, &c.— Imp. quirem, quiret, quirent.
Perr. quiverit. — PLup. quissent.
INFIN. quire, quivisse (quisse). — Part. quiens, queuntis.

Inp. Pres. nequeo (often non queo), nonquis, nequit, ne-
quimus, nequitis, nequeunt.
Imp. nequibam, -ibat, -ibant.— Fur. nequibunt.
PERF. nequivi, nequivisti, nequivit, nequiverunt.
Susy. Pres. nequeam, &c. —Imp. nequirem.
PERF. nequiverim. — PLuP. nequisset.
INFIN. nequire, nequivisse.— Part. nequiens.
_ he The following compounds of fio have only the forms confit,
at comes to pass; Gefit, it lacks; infit, he begins (to speak).

39. ImpPERSONAL VERBS.

Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the
third person singular, with the infinitive and gerund.
These are called Impersonal Verbs.

Nore.— With impersonal verbs the word 17 is used in English,
having usually no representative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are
often used nearly in the same way.

39, 40.] PERIPHRASTIC FORMS. 83

Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : —

a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature: as, pluit, it
ein ningit, it snows; grandinat, i hails; fulgurat, 2 lighiens.
In these, no subject is distinctly thought of; though sometimes —
the name of a deity is expressed ; and, in poetic use, of other
agents also: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the slings rain stones.

b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject
becomes the object, as if himself affected by the feeling expressed
in the verb. Such are, miseret, w grieves; poenitet, it repenis ;
piget, it disgusis; pudet, wt shames; taedet, it wearies: as,
miseret me, I pity (i distresses me).

Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor,
I pity (am moved by pity); and occasionally other parts: as,
miseritum est, poeniturus, poenitendus, pudendus.

c- By a similar construction, the passive of intransitive verbs
is very often used impersonally: as, pugnatur, there is fighting;
dicitur, i is said; parcitur mihi, J am spared.

Nore. — This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive ))
meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the’ /
French cela se fait).

d. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject: as,
libet, i pleases ; licet, it is permitted; certum est, it is resolved ;
constat, it is clear; placet, videtur, it seems good; decet, it is
becoming ; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, necesse est,
it is needful; praestat, it is better; interest, refert, it concerns ;
vacat, there is leisure; with verbs of happening and the like.
Libet, licet, have also the forms libitum (licitum) est, etc.

40, PERIPHRASTIC FORMS.

When the tenses of esse are used with a Participle, this
use is called periphrastic conjugation. It is most frequent —

a. With the participle in urus, to express intention, or simple
futurity ; this is sometimes necessary in the subjunctive: as, cum
venturus sit, since he is about to come. This form is sometimes
called the first periphrastic conjugation; and, when used with sim,
the future subjunctive.

b. With the gerundive to denote duty or propriety: as, vera
dicenda sunt, the truth must be told. ‘This form is sometimes
called the second periphrastic conjugation.

c- With the perfect participle, in the regular inflection of the
tenses of completed action in passives and deponents.

Norr. — The participle in tus frequently, and that in ns regularly,
is used with esse simply as an adjective: as, sapiens est, he is wise ;
acceptus est, he is welcome.

84 PARTICLES. [41: 1,

PARTICLES.

41, ADVERBS.

What are called ParticLes — that is, all Adverbs,
Prepositions, and Conjunctions — are real or extinct
case-forms, or else compounds and phrases.

In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished ; many
prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs.

1. Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are
formed from Adjectives.
[For the comparison of these adverbs, see § 17, 4.]

~ @ Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the
characteristic vowel of the stem into 6 (originally an ablative in
d): as, from carus, dear, caré, dearly. .

So abunde, szpe, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also
prod (pro), re= (red=), se=, (sed-).

b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter to the stem (most
being treated as i-stems): as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter,
watchfully. -

Note. — This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as
in the Greek -repos, and in alter, uter; and, if so, these are neuter
accusatives.

c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms: as,
dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So aliter from alius —
old stem ali-.)

d. The neuler accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often
used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see § 52, 1, d):
as, multum, much ; actutum, at once; facile, easily; non (—ne
unum), not; iterum (comparative of is), again.

e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used
adverbially: as, falso, falsely; cito, quickly; recta (via),
straight (straightway) ; contra, on the other hand; qua (parte),
where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise.

41: 1, 2.] PARTICLES. 85

f. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as,
quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro,
back (compar. of uls, cis, re); illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc),
thither.

g- Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there;
ubi, where, &c.; peregre, abroad; hic, here; interim, mean-
while; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrin-
secus, outside; perendie, day after to-morrow.

h. Several feminine accusalives are used as adverbs: as,
statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form
saltem, at least); palam, openly; perpéram, wholly otherwise
(i.e., changed for the worse); tam, quam, nam (which may be
neuters) ; olim (ollus), of old.

z. Several plural accusatives, neuter and feminine, are used
adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otherwise; foras, out of
doors.

k. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus
(usually preceded by i): as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom
(utterly) ; divinitus, providentially, — which are ablative in mean-
ing; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when; do-nec,
until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies,
diu, &c.).

ul. Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs: as,
antea, befure; postmddo, a litile after; Genuo (de ndvo),
again; prorsus, utterly; quotannis, every year; quamobrem,
wherefore; obviam, in the way; pridem, before the day (i.e., be-
Sore this time); forsan, a chance whether ; forsitan (fors sit an),
perhaps; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure.

(For Numeral Adverbs, see § 18, 3.)

2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly
formed from adjectives, are classified as follows: —

a. Adverbs of Place.

ubi, where. quo, whither. unde, whence. qua, by what way.

hic, here. huc, hither. hinc, hence. hac, by this way.
ibi, zhere. eo, thither. inde, thence. ea, by that way
istic *,, istuc ,, istinc ,, ista oy

hic 5; illuc ,, Hane 5 illa (illac) ,,
alicubi, somewhere ; aliquo alicunde aliqua.
ibidem, ¢z the same place; eodem indidem eadem.
alibi, elsewhere ; alio aliunde alia.
ubiubi, wherever ; quoquo undecunque quaqua.
ubivis, anywhere ; quovis undique quavis,
sicubi, 7f anywhere ; siquo sicunde siqua.
necubi, lest anywhere ; nequo necunde nequa.

86 ADVERBS. (41: 2,

nusquam, zowkere ; ultro, beyond (or freely); citro, to this side ;
intro, zxwardly; porro, further on.

quorsum (quo versuin), fo what end? horsum, ¢hkis way; pror-
sum, forward (prorsus, wtterly); introrsum, zzwardly;
retrorsum, dJackward; sursum, upward; deorsum, dowz-
ward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way.

b. Adverbs of Time.

quando? when? cum (quom, quum), when (relat.).

nunc, zow ; tunc (tum), ¢ken ; mox, presently; jam, already.

primum (primo), frst; deinde (postea), wext after; postremum,
(postremo), fizally.

umquam (unquam), ever; numquam, sever; semper, always.

aliquando, some time, at length; quandoque (quandocumque),
whenever. ,

quotiens (quoties), how often ; totiens, aliquotiens.

quotidie, every day; in dies, from day to day.

nondum, wot yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam
primum, as soon as possible.

c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause.

quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvis, however much.

cur, quare, why; quod, quia, decause ; eo, therefore.

ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however.
quamquam (quanquam), although ; etiam, quoque, even, also.

d. Interrogative Particles.

an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether.
nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all; (ecquid
intellegis ? have you any tdea ?
utrum (num), -ne, whether ;...an (annon, necne), or.
wes ” an, -ne ”

Nore.— The word whether is not now used in English, except in
Indirect Questions (See § 71).

e. Negative Particles.

non, not in simple denial; haud (hau, haut), or minime, not
in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition.

ne, lest; neque, nec, nor; ne... quidem, not even.

non modo...verum (sed) etiam, not only. . . but also.

non modo ...sed ne... quidem, not only NoT... but nol
even.

si minus, if not; quo minus, so as not.

quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.) why not? who (what) not?

ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, J know not; nego (ne-aio),
I say no (aio, I say yes); némo (ne hémo), no one; ne
quis, lest any one.

41: 2, 3.] ADVERBS. 87

RemarK.— Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as,
nemo non audiet, every one will hear.

This is especially frequent with compounds of non: as, nonnul-
lus (= aliquis), some; nonnihil (= aliquid), something; nonnemo
(= aliquot), sundry persons; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), some-
times; necnon, also.

On the other hand, nemo non, nulli non, every one; nihil non,
every thing; numquam non, always, &c. :

3. Signification. The following adverbs require special
explanation : —

a. Etiam, also, is stronger than qudéque, and usually pre-
cedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it: as,

terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rosc. Am. 40), us also he terrifies
and threatens.
hoc quoque maleficium (id.), #kzs crime too.

b. Nune, now, means definitely the present time; jam, already,
—or, with the future, presently ; with negatives, no longer, — has
reference to the past. Tune, then, is a strengthened form of tum,
which is correlative with cum, when: as,

nunc jam confiteris, zow at length you confess.

non est jam lenitati locus, there zs no longer room for mercy.

quod jam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice.

nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Lzl. 4), zow (tis true)
she [Greece] zs ruined, then she was in her glory.

tum cum regnabat, at the time he reigned.

c. Certd means certainly; certe (usually), at any rate: as,

certo scio, J know for a certainty.
aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (C. M. 1.), of
old age, which is already pressing or at least approaching.

d. Primum, first (first in order, or for the first time), is
usually followed by deinde, tum, ... denique; primo, at first,
by posted (post) or mox, afterwards. (The adjective form is pre-
ferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus,

primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de impera-
tore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of war, next
of its greatness, then of the choice of commander.

€. Quidem, indeed, is emphatic, and often has a concessive
meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above
nunc quidem, &c.). With ne... quidem, not even or not
either, the emphatic word must stand between: as,

senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), az old man has
NOT EVEN any thing to hope for. :

ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), NoR was Fugurtha
guiet EITHER. )

88 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 1, 2

42. PREPOSITIONS.

1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from
adverbs in form or meaning. ‘They are, however, distin-
guished in their use, requiring to be followed by some
special case of a noun or pronoun.

a. The following Prepositions require the accusative :—

ad, to. erga, towards. post, after.
adversus, or extra, outside. praeter, beyond.
adversum, towards. infra, below. prope, near.
ante, before. inter, among. propter, on account of.
apud, at, near. intra, inside. secundum, nezt to.
circa, or juxta, near. supra, above.
circum, around. 5b, on accownt of. _—_— trans, across.
circiter, about. penes, in the power. ultra, on the further
cis, citra, this side. per, through. side.
contra, against. pone, behind. versus, towards.

b. The following require the ablative : —

a, ab, abs, from, by. 6, ex, out of.

absque, but for, without. prae, in comparison with.

cOram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for.

cum, with. sine, without.

dé, from. tenus, up to, or as far as.

c- The following may take either case, but usually with a dif-
ference in meaning : —

in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above.

In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to,
when by the Ablative, rest in, a place.

(For the Syntax of Prepositions, see § 56.)

2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be
seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial
phrases : —

A, ab, away from (opposite of ad): ab eo loco, from that
place ; a nobis, from our house; prope ab urbe, wear (not far
from) ¢he city; secundus a rege, next the king; liberare ab, Zo
set free from; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an
enemy ; a fronte, zz front; ab hac parte, on this stde; a primo,
at first; ab re, afterwards; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart;
ab initio ordiri, Zo begin at the beginning; stat ab amicis, ke
stands by his friends ; ab hac contione, after this speech; ab re

42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 89

ejus, 20 his advantage ; servus a manu, az amanuensis; a pedi-
bus, a footman.

Notre.—ab signifies direction from the object, but towards the
speaker ; compare de and ex.

Absque, without:—absque argumento, w7thout argument;
absque paucis, except a few; absque me, but for me.

Ad, to, towards, at (place or time) :—eo ad patrem, J go to
my father ; ad pedes ejus, af his feet ; ad flumen, xear the river ;
ad ripas, ow the banks; ad meridiem, towards the south; ad
vesperum, wear evening ; ad tempus, at the (fit) time; adiit ad
rempublicam, ke went into public life; ad manus, fo blows; ad
petendam pacem, /o seek Jeace; ad communem salutem, for the
common safety; nihil ad Cesarem, nothing in comparison with
Cesar; ad hunc modum, 7x this way ; quem ad modum, how, as;
ad nuptias, for the wedding ; ad auxilium, for aid; ad hos ca-
sus, for these emergencies; ad centum, near a hundred; ad pri-
mum nuntium, at the first message ; ad hoc, besides ; ad speciem,
in respect to form; ad praesens, for the moment; ad verbum,
word for word; ad summum, 72 short, at most; ad ultimum,
wholly, finally; ad unum, fo a man.

Adversus («sum), oposite, towards, against : — adversus mon-
tem, over against the mountain; te adversum, fo your face; ad-
versus eum, 7” comparison with him; adversus ea, in reply to
this; adversus deos, towards the gods.

Ante, iu front, before (place or time) :—ante oculos, before
his eyes; ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante
diem quintum (A.D.v.). Kal , the fifth day before the Calends (third
day before the end of the month) ; ante quadriennium, four years
before or ago; ante alios carissimus, dearest of all; ante tem-
pus, Zoo soon; ante omnia, first of all; ante Ciceronem, before
Cicero's time.

Apud, az or dy (rarely of places) : —apud forum, 7x the forum;
apud populum, édefore the people; apud exercitum, with the
army; apud aliquem, az one’s house; apud se, at home, or in
his senses; apud Ciceronem, zz Cicero (in his works); apud
antiquos, amoug the ancients.

Circum (acc.), cirea (abl.), circiter (stem as in cireus, czrcle),
about, around:—circum axem vertitur, z¢ turns about the
axle; circum haec loca, hereabout; circa se habent, they have
with them; (of time or number, circa or circiter, not cir-
cum) :— circa eandem horam, about the same hour ; circiter pas-
sus mille, about a mile; circa bonas artes (late), zm reference to
good arts; loca haec circiter, khereabout.

Cis, citra (abl. of comparative, compare Greek ~-repos), his
side of (both motion towards and rest in; opposite to ultra) : —
cis Padum, ¢his side the Po; citra flumen, ¢his side the river;
citra rustici operam, within the labor of a Jarmer ; citra usum,
without regard to use; citra satietatem, not to fulness ; paucos
cis dies, within a few days.

90 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2.

Contra (abl. comp. of cum), offoszte, against: — contra Itali-
am, over against Italy ; contra hostem, against the enemy; contra
munera, as a set-of to the gifts; haec contra, this in reply;
contra autem, duz on the other hand, adv.; quod contra, whereas
on the other hand, adv.; non pro me sed contra me, wot for but
against me ; contra fas, contrary to right.

Coram, zz presence of (only of persons) :—coram judicibus,
before the judges ; Germanico coram (Tac.), usually an adverb.

Cum, wth (together in place or time) :—cum fratre, with his
brother ; abi cum donis, away with your gifts ; cum malo suo,
to his own hurt ; cum labore, with toil; cum dis volentibus, wztk
favor of the gods; cum decimo, tenfold; confligere cum hoste,
to fight with the enemy; cum armis, 7z arms; cum imperio, zz
power; cum pallio, 2 a cloak; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum
silentio, zz szlence.

De, on away, down from: — de domo, out of the house ; de
sella, down from his seat; unus de plebe, one of the people (the
whole, from which a part is taken); emi domum de Crasso, £
bought a house of Crassus (also ab); de tuo (de te), out of your
property; qua de re, concerning which thing ; qua de causa, for
which reason; de summo genere, of high birth; de improviso,
of a sudden; de industria, on EMees ; de integro, anew; de
nocte, at night; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at
the third watch); de mense Dec. navigare, Zo sazl in December ;
de amicorum sententia, zz accordance with the views of friends ;
triumphare de, Zo ¢riumph over ; de schola, of that sect.

Erga, zowards (usually of persons):—erga aedes, opposite
the house; benevolentia erga nos, kindness towards us; malus
erga me, spzteful towards me (but more generally used of a favor-
able inclination).

Ex, e, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of: —ex urbe,
Srom the city; ex hoc die, from this day forth; statua ex aere,
a statue of brass; ex fuga, during flight; ex consulatu. right
after his consulshif; ex aere alieno, by reason of debt; ex
ejus sententia, after his opinion; ex aequo, justly; ex impro-
viso, unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage ; ex voluntate
ejus, dy his good will; magnaex parte, 72 a great degree; ex
pede Herculem, ¢o know one by a slight token; felix ex misero,
bettering one’s condition; ex Metello consule, beginning with
Metellus’s consulship ; ex pedibus laborare, to be lame in the feet ;
ex equo pugnare, Zo fight on horseback ; ex usu, expedient.

Extra, outside of (opposed to intra):—extra provinciam,
beyond the province; extra causam, beside the case; extra te
unum, except you alone (not used of time).

In, zxto (acc. opp. to ex), zz (abl. of time or place) :—in
urbem ire, Zo 20 to town ; in mentem venit, z# comes to mind ; amor
in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for his father; in aram con-
fugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps or merely Zo); in diem,
to the set day; in dies, from day to day; vi. pedes in longitudi-
nem, six feet long; *. vi. partes fractus, broken in six parts;

42: 2.] PREPOSITIONS. 91

in hee verba jurare, to swear to these words; in alicujus verba
jurare, to take an oath of allegiance to one; in silvam deponere,
zo (carry and) Alace in the wood; hunc in modum, 7m this way ;
oratio in Catilinam, @ speech against Catiline; in universum
(in planum), om the whole; in totum, wholly; in reliquum, for
the rest; in perpetuum, for ever; in majus, too much; in pejus,
Jor the worse; in quantum, so far as; in magnam partem, zz
great part; in utramque partem, on etther side; nos in diem
vivimus (Tusc. v. 11), we live from hand to mouth ;—in urbe esse,
to be in the city ; in tempore, 7% season ; in scribendo, while writ-
ing ; est mihi in animo, J have it in mind; in collo, on the neck ;
in arbore, up the tree; in ancoris (Czs.), at anchor; in altera
parte, on the other side; in sapientibus, among the wise; in hoc
homine, ¢# the case of this man; in bonis artibus (Sall.), zz good
behavior.

Infra, delow : — infra caelum, under the sky; infra nos, beneath
us; infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra iii. pedes, less than
three feet.

Inter, detween, also among :— inter flumen et montem,
between the river and hill (so of time); inter noctem, zz the
course of the night; inter bibendum, while drinking; interest
inter, there is a difference between; inter se amant, they love each
other ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together ; inter nos, between
ourselves ; inter ceteram planitiem, zz a district elsewhere level.

Intra, w7zthin (surrounded on all sides):— intra parietes, zz-
side the house; (of time), intra v. dies, within five days; intra
legem, zuside the law.

Juxta, hard dy (superl. from jungo):—juxta murum, close
to the wall; juxta se, alike with himself; juxta deos, next the
gods; juxta vicinitatem (Liv.), dy reason of nearness; juxta
quam, zearly as; juxta ac si, about as if.

Ob, towards (in place) :—ob Romam (early), towards Rome ;
ob oculos, before the eyes; ob eam causam, for that reason; ob
rem, fo the purpose ; ob hoc, therefore ; quam ob rem, wherefore.

Penes, with, in possession of (same root as penitus) : — est
penes me, he ts with me (at my house); non est penes me, 7? is
not in my power.

Per, through (in any direction) :— per urbem ire, fo go through
the city; licet per me, you may for all me ; juro per leges, J swear
by the laws; per literas, by letter; per jocum, 7 jest; per lon-
gum tempus, for a long time ; per somnum, during sleep.

Pone, dehind (only in space) :—pone tergum, behind the back.

Post, after (space or time) :— post iii. dies, after three days;
post tergum, behind the back; post me, after me (in time).

Prae, <2 front: —prae se ferre, to carry before him (exhibit or
make known): prae gaudio conticuit, ke was silent for joy (used
only of an objection or hindrance); prae fratre egens est, he ¢s
poor compared to his brother.

92 PREPOSITIONS. [42: 2.

Praeter, dy, on the outside: —praeter spem, beyond hope;
praeter hoc, besides this; praeter oculos, before the eyes ; nil prae-
ter saxa, nothing but stones.

Pro, ‘x front (facing the same way) :— pro populo, zx pres-
ence of the people; pro lege, zn defence of the law; argentum
pro vino, money for wine ; pro hac vice, for this once; pro con-
sule, zz place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength.

Prope, zear : — prope (propius, proxime) urbem, or ab urbe,
near the city; prope lucem, towards daybreak.

Propter, zear:— propter te sedet, he sits next you; propter
quos vivit (Mil. 22), through whose means he lives ; propter me-
tum, ¢hrough fear; propter frigora (Ces.), dy reason of cold.

Secundum, just behind, following along (part. of sequor) :—
ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus, zear
the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream ; secundum ludos,
after the games ; secundum naturam, according to nature ; secun-
dum causam nostram, ¢o the advantage of our cause.

Sine, apart from: —urbs sine regibus, @ city without kings;
non sine lacrimis, wth tears; sine sanguine, bloodless.

Sub, wxder: — sub jugum mittere, Zo send under the yoke ; sub
montem succedere, Zo come close to the hill ; sub noctem, towards
night; sub lucem, zear daylight; sub hec dicta, at these words;
—sub terra, underground ; sub Jove, in the open air; sub monte,
at the foot of a hill; sub castris, near the camp; sub terra exi-
mere (Plaut.), to take from under ground ; sub profectione (Ces.),
during the march; sub eodem tempore, about that time; sub
oculis domini, wader the master’s eye; sub regno, under royal
power; sub lege, liable to the law.

Subter (rarely with abl.), dexeath : —subter fastigia tecti, under
the house-roof; subter precordia, close to the heart; subter mu-
rum, deneath the wall; subter se, below itself; subter testudine,
under the shed (of shields). .

Super, above, over: — super tumulum, oz the hillock; super
ipsum, above him (at table); super Indos, deyond the Hindoos ;
super cenain loqui, ¢o talk during supper; super morbum fames
etiam, destdes sickness famine also; super omnes, above all;
— super cervice (Hor.), over his head ; super arbore sidunt, hey
perch on a tree; nocte super media (Vir.), about midnight ; super
tali re, about such an affair; satis superque, more than enough.

Supra, on the top:—supra terram, above ground; supra
caput (Sall.), zmminent; supra Alexandriam, beyond Alexan-
dria; supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra
mille, above a thousand; supra morem, more than usual; supra
quod, Jdestdes.

Tenus, as far as: —capulo tenus, uf Zo the hilt; verbo (nom-
ine) tenus, 7” zame, xominally ; aurium tenus, as far as the ears
(only); labrorum tenus, along the lips.

Trans, beyond : — trans mare, over seq ; trans flumen, deyond
the river (rest or motion).

42: 3. 43: 1, 2.] CONJUNCTIONS. 93

Ultra, on the further side: — ultra eum, beyond him; portas
ultra, deyoud the gates; ultra pueritiam, dater than childhood ;
ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, zucred-
zble; ultra modum, zmmoderate.

Versus, /urned to (Eng. -ward):—TItaliam versus, towards
Ztaly (usually with another prep.); modo ad urbem modo in

Galliam versus (Sall.), zow towards the city, now towards
Gaul.

3. Prepositions are frequently compounded with verbs,
retuining their original meaning as Adverbs: as,

a, ab, away (aufero, dear of); ad, towards (affero, bring);
ante, defore; circum, around (urbem circumire = ire’ circum
urbem); con (cum), together; de, down; di or dis (insep.),
apart; ex, out, completely ; im, in, on, against; inter, between,
into, to pieces; ob, towards, in the way of; per, through, thor-
oughly ; ve, red (insep.), back, again ; se, sed (insep.), apart ;
sub, under, near; super, over, in place of. (For the assimila-
tion of the final consonant, see page 4.)

43. CoNJUNCTIONS.

1. Classification. Conjunctions are more numerous,
and their use is much more accurately distinguished, in Latin
than in English. They are divided into two classes, viz. : —

a. Co-ordinate:— these include Copulative (anp), Disjunc-
tive (or), Adversative (BuT), Causal (ror), Lllative (THERE-
FORE). |

b. Subordinate:— these are Conditional (1), — including
Comparative (As 1F), Concessive (THOUGH, EVEN IF), —Tem-
poral (WHEN), Causal (BECAUSE, SINCE), Consecutive (so

THAT), Final (IN ORDER THAT).

othe following list includes most of the conjunctions

and conjunctive phrases in common use.

Note. — Some of these have been included in the classification of
Adverbs, and a list of Interjections has been added. See also list
of Correlatives, page 49.

a. Copulative and Disjunctive.
et, -que, atque (ac), and.
etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quinetiam, itidem (item),
also.
cum...tum; tum...tum, doth...and; not only... but also.
qua... qua, oz one hand, on the other hand.
modo... modo, mow... now.
aut... aut; vel... vel (-ve), ezther...0”m
Sive (seu) .,, sive, whether... or.

94 CONJUNCTIONS. [43: 2.

et...et; et...-que (atque); -que...et; -que...-que (poet.),
both ...and.

nec (neque)... nec (neque); neque... nec; nec... neque (rare),
neither... nor.

et... neque, doth... and not.

nec (neque) ... -que, wetther... and.

b. Adversative.

sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, Juz.

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet, nevertheless.
nihilominus, zone the less.

at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth.

ceterum, on the other hand, but.

Ce Causal.

nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.

quia, quod, decause.

quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem,
utpote, séxce, inasmuch as.

d. Illative.
ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore.
propterea (... quod), for this reason (. .. that).
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore,
whence.
e. Comparative.

ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as zf.
quam, atque (ac), as, than.

f. Conditional.
si, 7f; sin, but zf; nisi (ni), wuless, if not; quod si, but éf.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, ¢f only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), Arovided only not.

g. Concessive.

etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although.
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much.
licet, ut, cum (quom), ¢hough.

Nortr. — A concessive is often followed by an adversative : as, tamen-
etsi ...tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less.

h. Temporal.

cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when.

prius ... quam, ante... quam, defore (non ante... quam, zot
sis. 5 S6MZEE ).

quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as.

dum, usque dum, donec, quoad, un/ii.

a Final.

ut (uti), quo, z” order that.
ne, ut ne, Jest (7x order that not); neve (neu), nor.
quin (after negatives), quominus, du¢ ¢hat (so as to prevent).

43: 2, 3.] CONJUNCTIONS. 95

k. Interjections.

O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).
io, evae, evoe (of Joy).

heu, eheu, vae, alas! (of sorrow).

heus, eho, ehodum, ho! (of calling).

eia, euge (of prazse).

proh (of attestation): as, proh pudor, shame!

3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most
of the conjunctions whose meaning or use requires special
notice : —

a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses; -que
(enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole; atque
(sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the
second member, and nol is expressed by neque or nec.

Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and
likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soun, aliter, otherwise.

6. Sed and vérum or vero (more forcible), but, are used to
contradict what precedes, — always after negatives; at, yel, intro-
troduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at
enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the
other side; autem is used in the same way, especially in tran-
sitions, but with less force.

c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (-ve) gives a choice ;
sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also
used with single words, — especially two names for the same thing.
(But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.)

d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason; nim,
an explanatory circumstance; etenim (for, you see; for, you
know), something self-evident, or needing no proof (neg. nec enim).

é. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically; itaque,
in proofs from the nature of things; igitur, then (a weak ergo),
in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely
to resume; idcirco, fur this reason, to call attention to a special
point.

f- Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact; quod, either a
fact or a statement or allegation; quoniam, since, has reference
to motives.

g- Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often
a correlative with tum; quando is also used as interrogative or
indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever).

he Et...et, means simply both...and; cum (less fre-
quently tum) .. . tum has also the meaning not only... but also,
emphasizing the second member.

96 DERIVATION OF worps. ([43: 3. 44: I.

i. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in
their clause; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of
tamen.

k. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or
to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding : as, at vero,
itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives,
which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined ;
as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not.

44, DeERIVATION OF Worpbs.

The Root is a primitive element of speech. All
roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel.
Stems are formed from roots, and are divided into
two main groups; viz., noun-stems (including adjec-
tives) and verb-stems.

i. Noun Forms. Derivative Nominal forms include
(1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions, (3) active and
passive adjectives.

Note. — Examples of roots are Es, be; 1,g0; STA, stand; cap, take;
puc, lead; rac, make; FER, bear; RAP, seize; SED, sit; TEN, stretch
(see also pp. 72, 78); Da (AO), give; Dita (OE), put.

a. Roots and Stems. Roots may be used as stems (1) without
change, as in diic-is, néc-is; (2) with vowel-increase, as in liic-is,
pac-is; (3) with reduplication, as in furfur, marmor; (4) com-
pounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), conjug-is (con-jugo). But
Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to
the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without
the above changes.

b. Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the vowels a
(in Latin 0, a), i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu; na, ni,
nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an.

Notre. — The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if
merely added to the root to fit it for inflection; but they are, in fact,
true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes.
The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a= and o=stems, as
ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG) ; —i is less common, and in Latin
has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs
(scobis, root SCAB) ;—u is disguised in most adjectives by an addi-
tional i, as in suavis (for suadvis, cf. 7dv¢), tenuis (root TEN in tendo),
and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus
(root aK, sharp, in acer, acies, @kv¢), pecu (root PAK, bind, in paciscor).

44: 1.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 97

The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows:—ta
(in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, tectum ;
sometimes active, as in potus, pransus ; and is found in a few not recog-
nized as participles, as putus, altus (alo);—ti forms abstracts, rarely
nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens ; — tu forms abstracts (in-
cluding supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus ;—
na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes
adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus
(= mactus, root MAG), plenus, regnum ; — ni, nouns of agency and adjec-
tives, as ignis, segnis ; —— nu, rare, as in manus, sinus ;— ma, Various, as
in animus, almus, firmus, forma ;—va (commonly wo), of active or
passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivos (vacuus) ;
—ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages),
usuaily passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que (= plenus = -plétus), sella
(for sed-/a, ef. dpa) ; — ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives
and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies;— ka, sometimes primary, as in’
pauci (cf. madpoc), locus (for stlocus, et. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle,
Eng. stall) ; — an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as aspergo,
meee (nis), gero (dnis).

‘he above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the
original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations
in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other
primary suffixes, were used consciously,— generally as secondary
suffixes. ‘The old primary suffixes thus used are (along with ta and
tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is
the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the
nominative is given for convenience of reference.)

c. Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular
derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominative-
ending, are the following :—

1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), end-

ing in—

tor (lengthened from tar, M.), trix (tric- — tar -} ic, F.), added
to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which
for convenience may be called the supine-base), or to noun-
stems by analogy: as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier forma-
tions with tar are patér, matér.

es (-itis), descriptive nouns, as miles, comes.

2. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments,
results) : —
or (M.), es, is (F.), us, ur, (N.): as timor, sedes, decus, robur.
io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal
abstracts: as legio, actio, pictura, cultus (those in tus more
concrete).
ium (ya) forms neuter abstracts (from verb-stems), as gaudium ;
or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospilium,
servitium, collegium.

a

3

98 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 1.

men (man), mentum (man-+ta), monia, monium (man+
ya), denoting act, means, or result: as flumen, querimonia.

is, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, (F.) abstracts, rarely concrete: as
audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas, servitus, altitudo, lanugo.

brum, crum, trum, biilum, ctilum, bra: denoting means, usually
from verb-stems: as claustrum, vehiculum, turibulum.

3. Adjective Forms, passing often into Nouns.
a. Nominal

tilus (following a vowel, dlus; following s, n, r, ctilus), ellus,
illus, DimINUTIVE nouns or adjectives, with endings for
gender: as puerculus, puella ( puerula), puellula, asellus (asin-
ulus), misellus (miserulus). Rare forms, eculeus, homuncio.

ades (i. as), ides, ides (¥r. is, 6is), Gus, Parronymics, denot-
ing parentage, &c., as Aineddes, Priamides, Priaméis.

anus, 6nus, inus; as (-atis), ensis; ius Gius, icius idcus,
acius, denoting belonging to or coming from (often GENTILE).

aris, alis, Elis, ilis, lis (all from ra), with inus, and nus, denoting
various ideas of relation or possession: -ile (N. of ilis)
denotes place, as ovile; -ale, -are (Nx. of lis, aris) usually
losing e, become nouns ; -ina, F., from names of animals, often
means their flesh; nus and tinus, form adjectives of time,
as vernus.

ter (tris), timus, as campester, marilimus ; ternus, from adverbs
of time: as sempiternus, hesternus (from heri, old hesi).

atus, Itus, titus, denote provided with: as galeadtus, auritus, ver-
sutus.

eus, Inus, aceus, icius, (esp. from participles), also {cius, denote
material or relation, as aureus, novicius, cretaceus.

arius, SGrius (adj.), denote belonging to ; Arium, Grium (N.), place;
arius (M.) often of trades. —So too icus, as bellicus, nauticus.

étum denotes place, as quercetum.

Osus (from vant), Slens, Slentus (root 51) denote full of, or
prone to, as fluctuosus, vinolenitus ; bundus, cundus, parti-
cipial, but denoting continuance of quality: as tracundus.

b. Verbal.

ax, idus, tilus, vus (uus, ivus), denoting tendency (-ax often faulty
or aggressive, Ivus rather passive): as pugnaz, cupidus,
bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus.

flis, bilis, ius, generally passive: as fragilis, nobilis, eximius.

minus, mnus, mna, (Gr. zevoc), participles, but no longer signi-
ficant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina,
erumna, femina.

ndus, the gerund-ending, forming a few active (middle) adjectives :
as secundus, rotundus (cf. volvendis mensibus).

44: 2.] DERIVATION OF WORDS. 99

2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conju- »
gation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems d&, std, are
primitive. Most others are either causative or denominative

(formed from nouns).

Notrre.— The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in
forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneo,
monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens; ccedo, cecidi (not cecidi),
from root (cdd, as in cédo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems,
see §§ 28,30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is
original ya added either to the root, the present stem in a, or the
noun-stem. y

a. The following are the regular conjugational forms : —

1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be
formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second
declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic a.
A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare.

2 A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like
manner from noun-stems ; but most add the characteristic € to the
root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning.

3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third
conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo.

4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic i
to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i-stems, as
sitio, finio, polio (see § 34).

b. The following are regular derivative suffixes : —

sco or isco (§ 36,1) inchoative, denoting the beginning of an
action; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes
found only in the perfect and supine stems.

asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing; they are of the third
conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the per-
fect and supine.
Note. — These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in
as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots.

to, ito (first conjugation) denote frequent action, being added to
the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting
vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first con-
jugation.

illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble or trifling action like that of
some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed
diminutive noun.

tirio (fourth conjugation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire
to do the act expressed by some simple verb; but is formed
from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular
inherited desiderative of an earlier formation.

100 DERIVATION OF WORDS. [44: 3.

3. Compound Words. In compound words, either
(1) the second part is merely added to the first; (2) the first
part modifies the second as an adjective; (3) the first part is
governed by the second as a verb; or (4) a verb is modified
by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second
part receives inflection.

Nore. — The Indo-European family had great power of forming
compounds with mere stems. ‘This power the Latin for the most part
lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds
attempted by poets failed to become established in the language; but
there remain many traces of the old usage.

The most usual compounds may be classed as follows :—
a. Meanings added: as suovetaurilia, undecim,

b. Noun with modifying adjective: as latifundium, peninsula,
teryeminus.

c. Noun and Verbal: armiger, cornicen, manifestus, carnufex,
mantele.

ad. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the
compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property de-
noted, as alipes, magnanimus, concors, anceps (having a head at
both ends), obvius, multiformis, multiplex.

e. Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing
verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio,
calefacto. .

f. An Adverb or Noun and a Verb, which have grown together:
as benedico, satago, jurgo, ausculto.

g- Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original ad-
verbial sense: as, ab, away; ex, out. In those with circum,
praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retains
the force of the preposition (§ 42, 3).

hh. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no
longer appear as prepositions in Latin: amb (am, an), around ;
dis, di, asunder (in two); por, forward; red, re, back; sed, se,
apart.

PART SECOND.

USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX).

45, DeEFINITIONS.

1. Sentence. A SENTENCE is a form of words which
contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation,
or a Command.

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DEcLAR-
ATORY SENTENCE: as, puer vénit, the boy came.

b, A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTER-
ROGATIVE SENTENCE: as, venitne puer, did the boy come?

ce. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an
EXcLAMATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast
he came !

d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an IMpERA-
TIVE SENTENCE: as, véni, puer, ad me, come to me, boy.

2. Subject and Predicate. The Subject of a sentence
is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which
is stated of the Subject.

a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or
adjective with the Copula (esse, fiéri, &.), or a Transitive verb
with its Object.

b. The verb esse, fo be, when it connects an attribute with
its subject, is called the Copula; otherwise, it is called the Sub-
stantive Verb.

Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men,

sunt is a substantive verb; in viri sunt fortes, the men are /

brave, it is a copula.

c. The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted:
thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son,
pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat.

ad. One or more words, essential to the grammatical complete-
ness of a sentence, may be unexpressed : this is called ELuipsis,
and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence.

f

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102 C6 ot
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pbrinitions. < © [45: 3,4, 5.

€ S °

3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence
may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause.
The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way.

a. A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective,
an Adverb, an Appositive (§ 46), or the oblique case of a Noun.
Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome boy
came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer; in the
sentence celeriter venit, he came quickly, the adverb celeriter
modifies the predicate venit.

b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs: thus in the sentence video pueri patrem,
I see the boy’s father, the genitive pueri limits patrem.

4. Phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without sub4
ject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an
Adjective or Adverb.

Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a
boy of remarkable beauty, the words eximiae formae are used
for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called
an ADJECTIVE PHRASE; in the sentence magna celeritate
venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are
used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime), and are called an
ADVERBIAL PuHRASE.

5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part
of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own.

Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat,
the boy who came yesterday was handsome, the words qui heri
venit are a RELATIVE CLavUsE; in the sentence puer si cras
veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he would
be welcome, the words si cras veniat, are a CONDITIONAL
CLAUSE.

_ a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb,
it is called a Substantive Clause (see § 70).

6. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of
a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause. Subordinate
Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and
Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them (§ 43, 1, 6).

c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are inde-
pendent of one another, they are said to be Codérdinate.

d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative
Clause ; when used simply by way of explanation, and not other-
wise connected with the form of the sentence, it is called an
Intermediate Clause (§ 66).

45; 46.] SUBJECT AND PREDICATE: NOUNS. 103

e. A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a
Final Clause; one expressing its result is called a Consecutive
Clause (see §§ 64, 65).

Notrrt.—In English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the
phrase so that ; a Final clause by the phrase in order that.

f. A clause containing a condition, introduced by IF or some
equivalent (§ 59), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
modified by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.

Nore. — Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative
clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate ; and two
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other.

_ 6. Connectives. Sentences or codrdinate clauses are
regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but fre-
quently in Latin— very rarely in English — sentences are
connected by felatives.

In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by
a conjunction with a demonstrative: as, quo cum venisset, and
when he had come there; quae cum ita sint, but since these
things are so (§ 43, 3, k).
7%. Agreement. A word is said to AGREE with another
when it is required to be in the same gender, number, case, or
person.

When a word takes the gender or number of some other word
implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called
SYNESIS, or consiructio ad sensum.

8S. Government. A word is said to GOVERN another,
when it requires the latter to be in a particular case.

iS Subject and Predicate.
46. Or Nowns.

A noun used to describe another, and meaning the
same thing, agrees with it in Case: as,
Servius rex, Servius the king.
ad urbem Solos, fo the city Soli.
spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope.
homo nata fuerat, she had been born human.

104 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [46: 1, 2.

1. When the noun thus used is in the same part of the
sentence (subject or predicate) it is called an appositive, and
the use is called apposition.

2. When the noun is used to form a predicate with esse
or any other copulative verb, it is called a predicate-nom-
tnative (or accusative as the case may be).

externus timor, maximum concordiz vinculum, jungebat ani-
mos (Liv. ii. 39), fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of har-
mouy, united hearts. [Here both nouns belong to the sudject.]

quattuor hic, primum omen, equos vidi (/£n. iii. §37), Zsaw
here four horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the
predicate. |

Ancum Marcium regem populus creavit (Liv. i. 32), the people
made Ancus Marcius king. (Here regem is called the comfle-
mentary accusative. |

consules creantur Cesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), Cesar and
Servilius are made consuls. [Here consules is Aredicate-nom#-
native after creantur. |

litteras Grecas senex didici (Cat. M. 8), 7 learned Greek when
an old man. [Here senex is in apposition with the subject of
didici, expressing the ¢éme, condition, &c., of the act. ]

Gneus et Publius Scipiones, the Scifios, Cnetus and Publius.
[Here the appositive is Jlural, as referring to more than one
subject. ]

gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur (Tusc. i. 45). [Here
the appositive is introduced by way of comparison. |

a. The appositive will agree in gender when it can; sometimes
also in number: as,

Aristzus, olive inventor (N. D. iii. 18), Arésteus, discoverer of
the olive.

eae Minerva inventrix (G. i. 18), Minerva, iuventress of the
olive.

quia sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Leal. 19), because
they follow nature, the best guide.

omnium doctrinarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 4),
Athens, discoverer of all learning.

6. A common noun in apposition with a Jocative is put in the
Ablative, with or without the preposition in: as,

Antiochie, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 3), a¢ Antioch, once
a famous city.

Alb constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iy. 2), chey halted at
Alba, a fortified town.

472 3,:2:] ADJECTIVES. 105

c. The genitive is used in apposition with possessives, taking
the gender and number of the implied subject: as,
in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 34), amd the tears of us ail.

ex Anniana Milonis domo (Att. iv. 3), out of Annzus Milo’s
house.

Norr.— The proper appositive is sometimes put in the Genitive.
See § 50,1, # Personal Pronouns follow the rules of Nouns.

47. Or ADJECTIVES.

Adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number, and
case. This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and
participles.

vir fortis, a brave man.

cum ducentis militibus, with 200 men.
consularia munera, the duties of consul.
hac lege, by this law.

uno interfecto, one being slain.

Remark.— The adjective may be either attributive or predi-
cate. An attributive adjective simply qualifies the noun without
the intervention of a verb; a predicate adjective is connected
with its noun by esse, or a verb of similar meaning, expressed or
implied. :

An adjective may also be used in apposition like a noun: as,

Hortensium vivum amavi (Off. iii. 18), 7 loved Hortensius
when living.

i. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural (also,
rarely, when they are connected with cum): as,
Nisus et Euryalus primi (4E£n. v. 394), Wisus and Euryalus first.
Juba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Fuba and Labienus were
taken.
2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive
adjective agrees with the nearest: as,

multz opere ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.

vita moresque mei, my life and character.

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 7), ¢f any
thing, if any man, if any time, was fit.

a. A predicate adjective may follow the same rule if the sub-
jects form one connected idea: as,

factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 15), a zoise of
assent was made. 5*

106 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [47: 2, 3.

_ 6b. Generally, a predicate adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without
life: as,
uxor deinde ac liberi amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and
children embraced him.
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se naturali

sunt juncta (N.) (id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound
together by a certain natural alliance.

c. Abstract nouns of the same gender may have a neuter adjec-
tive: as,
stultitia et temeritas et injustitia...sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 11),
folly, rashness, and injustice must be shunned.
pax et concordia jactata sunt (Tac. Hist. ii. 20), peace and
harmony were talked of.
d. A masculine or feminine adjective may belong (by Synesis) to
a noun of different gender or number, when the existence of per-
sons is implied: as,
duo milia relicti (Liv. XXXvii. 39), two thousand were left.
pars certare parati (Ain. v. 108), @ part ready to contend.
magna pars rapte (Liv. i.9), @ large part [of the women]
were seized. :
colonize aliquot deducte, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), sev-
eral colonies were led out [of men] called Old Latins.
e. An adjective pronoun agrees in gender with a word in ap-
position or a predicate rather than with its antecedent: as,
rerum caput hoc erat, hic fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17), this was the
head of things, this the source.
€am sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est

consecutus [for id... quod] (Lal. 5), they explain that
[thing] to be wisdom which no man ever yet attained.

f. Occasionally, an adjective takes the gender of a partitive
genitive: as,
velocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin.), the dolphin is
the swiftest of creatures.
3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculine to
denote men, and the feminine women: as,
omnes, all men, or everybody; majores, ancestors; veteres, the
ancients ; barbari, barbarians; amicus, a friend.

instinctu purpuratorum (Curt. iii. 9), at the instigation of the
courtiers [those clad in purple].

iniquus noster (Planc. 2.), our foe.

didicit jam dives avarus laudare disertos (Juv. vii. 30), ¢ke rick
miser has now learned to flatter the eloquent.

47: 3, 4.] ADJECTIVES. 107

Notrre.— The singular of adjectives in this use is more rare; the
plural is very frequent, and may be used of any adjective or participle,
to denote those in general described by it.

a. This is especially frequent with possessives: as,

nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.

Sullani, the veterans of Sulla’s army.

suos continebat (B. C.i.15), ke held his men in check.

b. The demonstratives is, ille, &c., used in this way, have
nearly the force of personal pronouns. ‘They are often thus used
in apposition with a noun, or a clause: as,

vincula, eaque sempiterna (Cat. iv. 4), chains, and that for
ever.

exspectabam tuas litteras, idque cum multis (Fam. x. 14), JZ,
with many others, am expecting your letter.

c- On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used as an adjective,
and may be qualified by an adverb (compare § 16, 3, e): as,

victor exercitus, the victorious army.
servum pecus, @ servile troop.
admodum puer, guzte a boy.

magis vir, more of a man.

fautor inepte (Hor.), @ stupid admirer.

4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun —

a» In the singular, to denote either a single object or an
abstract quality: as,

rapto vivere, Zo live by plunder.
in arido, om dry ground.
honestum, az honorable act, or honor (as a quality).

b. In the plural, to signify objects in general having the quality
denoted, and hence the abstract idea: as,

honesta, hozorable deeds (in general), or honor (in the ab-

stract).

omnium ignarus, ¢gnorant of all.

justis solutis, the due rites being paid.

c- In apposition, or as predicate, to a noun of different gen-
der: as,

turpitudo pejus est quam dolor (Tusc. ii. 13), disgrace 7s worse
than pain.
labor bonum non est (Sen. Ep. 31), fo¢l ts no good thing.

d. In agreement with an infinitive or a substantive clause: as,

aliud est errare Cesarem nolle, aliud nolle misereri (Lig. 5),
tt ts one thing to be unwiliing that Cesar should err, another
to be unwilling that he should pity.

\

108 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (47: 655: 7.

Remark. — The neuter of an adjective is ordinarily used as a
noun only in the nominative and accusative: as,

omnia, all things (everything); but, omnium rerum, of ail
things (omnium is usually of all persons) ;—loquitur de
omnibus rebus, he talks about everything (de omnibus,
about everybody).

5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used
for the genitive: as,

Pompeiana acies, Pompey’s line.
video herilem filium (Ter.), / sAy master’s son.
zs alienum, azother’s money, 1.e. DEBT.

a. Possessives are thus regularly used for the genitive of the
personal pronouns: as,

domus mea, my house; nostra patria, our country.

b. A possessive in any case may have a genitive in apposition
(§ 46, c): as,

mea solius causa, for my sake only.
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.

s
#

c. An adjective is occasionally thus used for the objective geni-
tive (§ 50, 3, 5): as,

metus hostilis (Jug. 41), fear of the enemy.

feminca in poena (Virg.), 22 punishing a woman.

periculo invidie mez (Cat. il. 2), at the risk of odium against
me.

studiosus cedis ferine (Ov. M. vii. 675), eager to slaughter
game.

6. An adjective, with the subject or object, is often used
to qualify the act, having the force of an adverb: as,

primus venit, ke came first (was the first to come).

nullus dubito, 7 zo way doubt.

leti audiére, they were glad to hear.

patre invito discessit, ke departed against his father’s wishes.

erat Rome frequens (Rosc. Am. 6), ke was often at Rome.

serus in ceelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2), may’st thou return late
to heaven.

7. When two qualities of an object are compared, both
adjectives (or adverbs) are in the comparative: as,

longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer
than it was broad (or, rather long than broad).

47; 48.] ADJECTIVES: RELATIVES. 109

a. But not where magis is used: as,

clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honor-
able.

b. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may
be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use): as,

vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more zeal than good
heed. ,

claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of @ family more
Jamous than old.

8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often desig-

nate not what object, but what part of tt, is meant: as,

summus mons, ¢he top of the hill.
in ultima plata, at the end of the avenue. So,
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.

Also, medius, midst ; ceterus, other ; reliquus, remaining: as,

reliqui captivi, ¢hke rest of the prisoners.
in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill.
inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), 7” @ region elsewhere level.

Similarly, sera nocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us
(§ 50, 2).

9. The expressions alter... alter, alius...alius (as
also the adverbs derived from them), may be used recipro-
cally; or may imply a change of predicate as well as of
subject: as,

hi fratres alter alterum amant, ¢hese brothers love each other.

alius aliud petit, ove man seeks one thing, one another.

alius alid ex navi, out of different ships.

alius alia via civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the
State each in his own way. |

For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see § 16, 3, f.
For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see
§ 54, 6,6

48. Or RELATIVES.

A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and
number ; but its case depends on the construction of
the clause in which it stands: as,

puer qui vénit, the boy who came; liber quem legis, the book
you are reading ; via qua ambulat, the way he walks in.

110 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [48: 1, 2, 3.

Notrt.—A Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the
proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construc-
tion would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative
refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses:—1. As Nouns in their own
clause; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demon-
strative and conjunction combined (see § 69). The connective force is
not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite
meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally
co-ordinate.

1. A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person
of the expressed or implied antecedent: as,

adsum qui feci (Ain. ix. 427), here am Iwho did it.

2. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun
(appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent
of different gender: as,

mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the

sea, too, which you said was Neptune.

a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its ante-
cedent in case: as,

si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuésti (Fam. v. 14), 7 you do
something of what you are used to.

b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent : -as,

~quartum genus... qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), @ fourth class,
that are sinking.
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number
[of those] who were ready. |
conjuravére pauci. .. de qua [conjuratione] dicam (Sall. C. 18),
a few have conspired... of which [conspiracy] J will speak.

%. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses;
usually only in the one that precedes; sometimes it is wholly
omitted: thus —

a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause: as,

loci natura erat hec quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18),
the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.

bo. The noun may appear only in the relative clause: as,

quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus
(Arch. 11), ke has touched in verse the things which we did
in our consulship.

wrbem-quam statuo vestra est (4En. i. 573), yours is the city
which I found. .

48: 3, 4, 5-] RELATIVES. | 111

In such cases the demonstrative is or hic usually stands in the
antecedent clause: as,

que pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea

princeps poenas persolvit (B.G. i. 12), that part of the State

which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first
to pay the penalty.

Remark. —In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in
Latin usually stands first; but, in translating, the noun should be
transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the
example just quoted.

c. The antecedent noun may be omitted: as,

qui decime legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man]
who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), 4e sent men to reconnoitre.
d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing
with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause: as,
vasa ea que pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those
most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house.
e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod
alone) to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed:
[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique —

id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), az affront is offered shall I
say to Gabinius or Pompey? or—which ts truer — to both ?

4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or
° ° ° Ns
sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used : as, )”

quz cum ita sint, szuce these things are so.

quorum quod simile factum? (Cat. iv. 8), what deed of theirs
— déke thrs ? }

qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), suck was his love for you.

5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative
pronoun with a preposition: as,
quo (= ad quem), to whom; unde (=a quo), from whom, &e.: as,

apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whom he
resorted.

qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 26), ove
who should have slain his own father.

A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c: as,

eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the
baggage.

112 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. (49: 1.

49. VERBS.

A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in num-
ber and person: as,
ego statuo, J resolve; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken.

Remark. — The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees
in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in
apposition: as, .

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), mot every

error should be called folly.

Corinthus lumen Greciz exstinctum est, Corinth the light of

Greece ts put out.

delicize mez Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicear-

chus discoursed.

1, Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the
plural; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum:
(compare § 47, 1), as,

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are
dead.

dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), ke gen-
eral and several chiefs are taken.

a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be
in the first person rather than the second, and the second rather
than the third: as,

si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), 7f
you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.

6. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are con-
sidered as a single whole, the verb is singular: as,

neque fides neque jusjurandum neque illum misericordia repres-
sit (Ter. Ad.), zot faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked
him.

Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v.8), the Roman
Senate and people understand.

c. A collective noun—also such distributives as quisque,
every ; uterque, each— may take a plural verb: as,

pars predas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty.
suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Curc.), de¢ every
one keep his own.

This is most common in poetry.

49: 1,2. 50.] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 113

d. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separ-
ately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others : as,

intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2),
Antony and Casstus, tribunes of the people, interpose.

2. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative.

Dertn.—A Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the In-
finitive.

a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless
emphatic: thus, |

loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak.
b. An indejinite subject is often omitted: as,
dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), they say.
c. The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases: as,

quorsum hec [spectant]? what does this aim at ?
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.

The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted.
(For the Historicat INFINITIVE, see § 57, 8, h.)

II. Construction of Cases.

Norr. — The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other
words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which
Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all ex-
pressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental
cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others (p. 237).

The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greek origin.
The name genitive— Gr. yevexn, from yévos — refers, originally, to the
class to which anything belongs. The dative—Soriky —is the case
of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of airvariKxh, signi-
fying that which is effected or caused (airla).

50. GENITIVE.

A noun used to limit or define another, and not
meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive.

Norter. — This relation is most frequently expressed in English by
the preposition or. The genitive seems originally to have meant
that from which something springs ; hence, that to which it belongs. From
this signification most of its others may be deduced.

114 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. | [50: 1.

1. Subjective Genitive. The Genitive is used to denote
the Author, Owner, Source, and (with an adjective) Measure
or Quality : as,

libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero.
Cesaris horti, Cesar’s gardens.
culmen tecti, the roof of the house.

a. For the genitive of possession a possessive adjective is often
used, — regularly for that of the personal pronouns: as,

liber meus, my book.
aliena pericula, other men’s dangers.
Sullana tempora, ¢he times of Sulla.

b. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions: as,

Castoris [edes], tke [temple] of Castor.
Hectoris Andromache, Hector’s [wife] Andromache.

c. The genitive is often in the predicate, connected with its
noun by a verb, like a predicate appositive: as,

hec'domus est patris mei, ¢k7s house ts my father’s.

tutele nostre [eos] duximus (Liv.), we held them to be in our
protection.

Thrasybuli facta lucri fecit (Nep. viii. 1), ke made profit of the
deeds of Thrasybulus.

Tyros mare dicionis sue fecit (Curt. iv. 4), Zyre brought the
sea under her sway.

hominum non causarum toti erant (Liv. iii. 36), they belonged
wholly to the men, not to the cause.

d. A phrase or clause often stands for the limited-noun ; this is
most frequent with the genitive of adjectives or abstract nouns: as,

neque sui judici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), ¢# was not for

his judgment to decide.
_ timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 15), ¢¢ zs for the coward to

wish for death. __
Remark. — The genitive of an adjective (especially of the third
~\ declension) is thus used instead of the neuter nominative: as,

sapientis [zo¢ sapiens] est pauca loqui, ¢¢ ¢s wise [the part of a

wise man] Zo say dittle.

The neuter of possessives is used in the same way: as,

mentiri non est meum, ¢¢ 7s not for me to lie.

humanum [ for hominis] est errare, i 7s man’s to err.

e- A genitive may denote the substance of which a thing con-

sists (a modified form of the idea of source): as,

talentum auri, @ falent of gold.

flumina lactis, r7vers of milk.

navis auri (compare Part. Gen.), @ skipload of gold.

50%: 3;.2.] GENITIVE. 115

f. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in
apposition: as,
nomen insaniz, the word madness.
oppidum Antiochiz, the city of Antiock.
g- The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the
quality is modified by an adjective (usually an indefinite one): as, a

vir summe virtutis, a man of the highest courage.
magne est deliberationis, ¢¢ 7s an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris, ke ant, [a creature] of great toil.

So ejus modi, of that sort.
(Compare the Ablative of Quality, § 54, 7.)

h. The genitive. (of quality), with numerals, is used to define
measures of length, depth, &c.: as,

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [depth].

murus sedecim pedum, @ wall sixteen feet {high}.

minor nullaerat duim milium amphorim (Fam. xii. 15), zone

held less than 2000 jars. |

4. Certain adjectives of Quantity —as magni, pluris, and the
like—are used in the genitive to express indefinite value. (Also
the nouns nihili, flocci, nauci, pili, pensi, terunci, assis, see
Ablative of Price, § 54, 8.)

Remark.— The genitive is often used with the ablatives
causa, gratia, for the sake of; ergo, because of; and the inde-
clinable instar, like. .

R Casey

2. Partitive Genitive. Words denoting a part are fol-
lowed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words are the following : —

a- Nouns or Pronouns: as,

pars militum, part of the soldiers.

quis nostrum, which of us ? (but nos omnes, all of us).

nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.

vastatur agri [id] quod... (Liv. i. 14), so much of the land is
wasted as, &c.

6. Numerals, Comparatives, and Superlatives: as,
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes.

plurimum totius Galliz equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), ¢s strongest
in cavalry of all Gaul.

c- Neuter adjectives and pronouns used as nouns: as,

tantum spati, so much space.
aliquid nummorum, @ few pence.
id loci (er locorum), ¢hat spot of ground.

116 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 2.

id temporis, af that time.
plana urbis, the level farts of the town.
quid novi, what news ?

Remark. — Of adjectives of the third declension the genitive
is only rarely used in this way: thus,

nihil novi (gen.), nothing new ; but
nihil memorabile (nom.), zothing worth mention.

d. Adverbs, especially of Quantity and Place: as,

satis pecuniz, money enough.

parum oti, zot much ease.

ubinam gentium sumus, where in the world are we ?
inde loci, zext in order.

istuc equi bonique, ¢o that degree of equity and goodness.
tum temporis, at that point of time.

eo miseriarum (Sall.), 2o that pitch of misery. -

e. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case: as,

sequimur te sancte deorum (En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O
holy deity.

nigre lanarum (Plin. H.N. viii. 48), dlack wools.

electi juvenum (Liv. xxx. 9), the choice of the young men.

Remark. —1. Cardinal numbers, with quidam, a certain one,
\ more commonly, other words rarely, take the ablative with e (ex)
: or de, instead of the genitive: as,

unus ex tribunis, ove of the tribunes.
minumus ex illis (Jug. 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), ¢he midst of the three.

2 With nouns uterque generally agrees as an adjective; but
with pronouns it always takes a genitive: as,

uterque consul, doth the consuls.
uterque nostrum, doth of us.

3. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any-
thing — as omnes, all; quot, how many—take a case in agree-
ment, and not the partitive genitive: as,

=

nos omnes, all of us.

qui omnes, all of whom.

quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there?

cave inimicos qui multi sunt, Beware of your enemies, of whom

you have many.
So when no others are thought of, although such exist: as,

multi milites, many of the soldiers.
nemo Romanus, zot one Roman.

50: 3.] GENITIVE. 117

é

4. Rarely two genitives are used with one noun: as,

animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 13), the mind’s
traversing of many things.

5. The Partitive genitive of the Personal Pronouns is the form in
um (nostrum, vestrum); that in i (mei, nostri, &c.) is Objective.

_f 3. Objective Genitive. With many nouns and adjec-
ive implying action, the genitive is used to denote the object.

Notr.— This is an extension of the idea of belonging to; as in the
phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Cesar, the hate in a passive sense
belongs to Cesar, though in its active sense he is the object of it.

a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive
of the object: as,

desiderium oti, longing for rest.

vacatio militia, a respite of military service.

gratia benefici, grat:tude for a kindness.

fuga malorum, refuge from disaster.

laudator temporis acti, a pratser of the past.

injuria mulierum Sabinarum (Liv.), the wrong done to the
Sabine women.

memoria nostri tua (Fam. xiii. 17), your memory of us.

consensio divinarum humanarumque rerum (Lel. 6), @ har-
mony in divine and human things.

vim suorum pro suo periculo defendebant (B.C. iii. 110). zhey
parried the attack on their comrades as tf it were their own
peril.

Occasionally possessive adjectives are used in the same way (see
§ 47, 5, c).

6. Adjectives requiring an object of reference (relative adjec-
tives) govern the genitive.

These are—1. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory,
Julness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; 2. Verbals in
ax; 3. Participles in ns when used to denote a disposition and
not a particular act, so that they become adjectives: as,

avidus laudis, greedy of praise.

fastidiosus literarum, disdaining letters.

juris peritus, sklled in law.

habetis ducem memorem vestri oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 9), you
have a leader who thinks of you and forgets himself.

plena consiliorum inania verborum (De Or. i. 9), fudl of wis-
dom, void of words.

rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 16), devoid of reason and
speech.

virtutis compos (id.), Jossessed of virtue.

paternorum bonorum exheres (De Or. i. 38), ousted from his
SJather’s estate.

rei capitalis affinis (2 Verr. ii. 43), accessory to a capital crime.

justum ac tenacem propositi virum (Hor: Od. iii. 3), @ man_just
and steadfast to his purpose.

118 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 3.

si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. ix. 1), if you have
known any more fond of you.

multitudo insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), @ crowd unused to war.

sitiens sanguinis, ¢hirsting for blood. But,

Tiberius sitiens sanguinem (Tac.), Zberius [then] ¢hirsting
for blood.

¢. Some other adjectives of similar meaning occasionally take
the genitive; and the poets and late writers use almost any adjec-
tive with a genitive of specification: as,

callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 31), skélled tn soldtership.

pecuniz liberales (Sall. C. 7), Zavish of money.

virtutum sterile seculum (id. i. 3), @ century barren in virtue.

pauper aquarum (Hor.), scant of water. |

prodigus eris (id.), a spendthrift of wealth.

notus animi, of known bravery.

fessi rerum (Virg.), weary of toil.

lata laborum (id.), glad of work.

modicus voluptatis, moderate in pleasure.

integer vite scelerisque purus (Hor.), upright in life, and
clear of guilt.

docilis modorum (id.), zeachable in measures.

Remark. — Animi (strictly a locative, plural animis), is added
to adjectives of feeling: as,

4

zeger animi, sick at heart.
confusus animi, disturbed in spirit.

d. A few adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging — requir-
ing the dative as such—take the possessive genitive: these are,
aequalis, affinis, communis, finitimus, par, propinquus, pro-
prius (regularly), similis, vicinus (see p. 129).

Remark. — One noun limiting another is regularly used in the
genitive, and not with a preposition, — prepositions being origi-
nally adverbs, and requiring a verb. Sometimes, however, one
noun has another connected with it by a preposition. This hap-
pens with nouns of action, feeling, and motion; some relations of
place to or in which or from which (including origin); accompani-
ment, &c.: as,

odium in Czsarem (or odium Cesaris), hate of Cesar.
merita erga me (Cic.), services to me.

auxilium adversus inimicos (id.), Zelp against enemies.
reditus in celum (id.), return to heaven.

impetus in me (id.), attack on me.

excessus e vita (id.), departure from life.

e preelio nuntius, @ messenger y the battle.

castra ad Bagradam (Ces.), camp near the Bagrada.
invidia ob scelera (Sall.), odium for his crimes. So,
domum reditionis spes (B.G.i.5), hope of returning home.

50: 4.] GENITIVE. )! 119

~

) < |
4. Genitive after Verbs. The “genitive is used as the
object of several classes of Verbs. | :

a. Verbs of Remembering, Forgetting, and Reminding, take
the genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state
of mind, but the accusative when used of a single act: as,

pueritia memoriam recordari (Arch.i.), to recall the memory
of childhood. )
animus meminit preteritorum (Div. i. 30), the soul remembers
the past.
venit mihi in mentem illius diei, 7 dethought me of that day.
obliviscere cedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i.3), Zurn your mind
from slaughter and conflagrations.
bona przterita non meminerunt (Fin. ii. 20), they do not re-
member past blessings.
memineram Paullum (Cat. M. 2), 2 remembered Paulus.
memini etiam que nolo (Fin. ii. 33), 2 remember even what I
would not.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 60), ze forgot the whole case.
Remark. — The above distinction is unimportant as to verbs of
reminding, which take the genitive except of neuter pronouns: as,
hoc te admoneo, / warn you of this. The accusative is always
used of a person or thing remembered by an eye-witness. Recordor
is almost always construed with an accusative, or with a phrase or
clause. /

b. Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the
genitive of the charge or penalty: as,

arguit me furti, Ze accuses me of theft.

peculatis damnatus (pecunize publice damnatus) (Flac. 18),
condemned for embezzlement.

capitis damnatus, condemned to death.

Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —

capitis (damnare capitis, to sentence to death) ;

majestatis, treason (crime against the dignity of the State) ;

repetundarum, eztortion (lit. of an action for claiming back
money wrongfully taken) ;

voti (damnatus or reus voti, bound to the payment of one’s
vow, i.e. successful in one’s effort).

Remark.— The crime may be expressed by the ablative with
de; the punishment by the ablative alone: as,

de vi et majestatis damnati (Phil.i.), condemned of assault and
treason.

vitia autem hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vin-
culis, verberibus, exiliis, morte damnantur (De Or. i 43),
but the vices and crimes of men are punished with fines, dis-
honor, chains, scourging, exile, death.

But, inter sicarios accusare (defendere), to accuse of murder.

wo

120 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [50: 4.

c. Many verbs of Emotion take the genitive of the object which
excites the feeling (Gen. of source). These are—
1. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco: as,

miserescite regis (in. viii. 573), pity the king.
miserere animi non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), Déty a soul that
endures unworthy things.

But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative.

| 2 The impersonals miseret, piget, paenitet, pudet, taedet

{' (or pertaesum est), which take also the accusative of the person

&

affected (§ 39, 2): as,

hos homines infamiz suz neque pudet neque tedet (Verr. i.
12), these men are neither ashamed nor weary of their dis-
honor.

Remark. — An infinitive or clause may be used with these verbs
instead of the genitive of a noun: as,

me pznitet hec fecisse, J repent of having done this.
Sometimes they are used personally: as,
nonne te hec pudent (Ter. Ad.), do not these things shame
you ?
d. The impersonals interest and réfert, it concerns, take the
genitive of the person affected,-—the subject of the verb being a
\ neuter pronoun or a substantive clause: as,

‘ Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 21); it was the interest of

Clodius that Milo should die. Wh MA I Ser Fhe Yi

But instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the possessive is
used in the ablative singular feminine: as,
quid tua id refert?— magni (Ter. Ph.), how does that concern
you? much.
réfert is seldom used in any other way; but it takes, rarely, the
dativus commodi (Hor. Sat. i. 1, 49). The object of interest is
sometimes in the accusative with ad: as,
magni ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), 7 zs of
consequence to our honor.

Notre. — The word interest may be used (1) impersonally with the
genitive, as above; (2) personally with the dative: as, interest exer-
citui, he is present with the army; (8) with the accusative and pre-
positions: as, interest inter exercitum et castra, he is between —or,
there is a difference between — the army and camp.

e- Some verbs of plenty and want govern the genitive (rarely,
except egeo and indigeo, need, see § 54, I, e): as,

quid est quod defensionis indigeat? (Rosc. Am. 12), what ts
there that needs defence ?
_satagit rerum suarun, fe has his hands full with his own affairs.

§1: 1.] DATIVE. 121

Also, sometimes, potior, get possession of ; as always in the phrase
potiri rerum, fo be master of affairs. But these verbs more
commonly take the ablative.

Remark. — The genitive is also used after the adverbs pridie,
the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as: ergo,
on account of (properly an ablative).

51. DarTive.

The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected
by the action: this is usually denoted in English by
10 or FOR (Indirect Object).

Nore. — The dative seems to have the primary meaning of towards,
and to be closely akin to the Locative. But this meaning is lost in
Latin, except in some adverbial forms (eo, illo, &c.) and in the poets.
In most of its derived meanings, it denotes an object not merely (like
the Accusative) as passively affected by the action, or caused by it; but
as reciprocally sharing in the action, or receiving it actively. Thus, in
dedit mihi librum, fe gave me a book, or fecit mihi injuriam, he did
mean injury; it is 1 that receive the book or feel the wrong. Hence
persons, or objects personified, are most likely to be in the dative.
So in the Spanish, the dative is used whenever a Person is the object |
of an action: as, yo veo al hombre, J see the man.

As this difference between the accusative and dative (direct and |
indirect object) depends on the view taken by the writer, verbs of |
similar meaning in different languages, or even in the same, differ in |
the case of the object. In English, especially, owing to the loss of its |
cases, many verbs are construed as transitive, which in Latin require
the dative. Thus believe, which in English originally governed the
genitive, has become transitive; while the corresponding verb in
Latin, credo (a compound of cred and do (GE), to place confidence in)
takes the dative.

1. Dative with Transitives. Transitive verbs, whose
meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object, with
the accusative of the direct.

These are, especially, verbs of Giving, Telling, Sending, and
the like: as,

do tibi librum, 7 g?ve you a book.

valetudini tribuamus aliquid (Tusc. i. 118), let us allow some
thing to health.

illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7), ¢his J assure you.

Pompeio plurimum debebam (id. i. 9), J owed much to Pompey.

id omne tibi polliceor ac defero (Man. 24), adl this J Promise
you and bestow. 6

122 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1:° 1, 2.

commendo tibi ejus omnia negotia (Fam. i.1), J put all his
affairs tn your hands.

amico munusculum mittere (id. ix. 12), to send a slight tribute
to a friend. eee

illi inimico servum remisit (Deiot. ii.), to kim, his enemy, he
returned a slave. ; ss \ od.

dabis profecto misericordiz quod iracundie negavisti (id. 14),
you will surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.

Karthagini bellum denuntio (Cat. M. 6)§ Z aanounce war to
Carthage. A : ;

curis gaudia misces (Catull.— only poet.), thou minglest joy
with care.

a. In the passive, such verbs retain the dative of the indirect
object (see 2, f) : as,
hec nobis nuntiantur, these things are told us.

b. When the idea of motion is distinctly conveyed, a preposi-
tion is used (except by poetic use): as,
| has litteras ad te mitto, J send you this letter.

c. A few verbs of this class—under a different view of the
action— may take the accusative of a person, with an ablative of
means.

Such verbs are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo,
inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeo, intercludo.

Thus —

donat coronas suis, ke presents wreaths to his men; or,

donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths.

pomis se induit arbos (G. iv. 143), the tree decks ttself with

rutts. -

oe (dat.) armis exutis (B. G. iii. 6), the forces being stripped
of arms.

aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 36), fo sprinkle the altar
with blood.

2. Dative after Intransitives. Intransitive verbs take
the dative of the indirect object only: as,

_ cedant arma toge (Phil. i. 8), let arms give way to the gown.

quid homini potest turpius usuvenire (Quinct. 15), what
more shameful can befall a man ?

respondi maximis criminibus (Phil. i. 14), 7 have answered the

heaviest charges.

ut ita cuique eveniat (id. 46), that zt may so turn out to each.

manent ingenia senibus (Cat. M. 7), old men keep thetr powers
of mind.

vento et fluctibus loqui (Lucr. iv. 491), to talk to wind and
Wave.

51: 2.] DATIVE. 123

nec quereris patri (Juv. ii. 131), you complain not to a father.
non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17),
it ts not every man’s luck to go to Corinth.

a. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, serve, trust,
and their contraries, — also, to believe, persuade, command, obey,
envy, threaten, pardon, and spare,—take the Dative in Latin,
though transitive in English. ae

These include, among others, the following: adversor, credo,
faveo, fido, ignosco, impéro, invideo, irascor, noceo, parco,
pareo, placeo, servio, studeo, suaddeo (persuadeo): as,

cur mihi invides, why do you envy me ?

civitati serviebat, he served the state.

tibi favemus, we favor you.

mihi parcit atque ignoscit, ke spares and pardons me. .

sontibus opitulari poteram (Fam. iv. 13), 4 was able to help the

wlty.

bernie invident (Sall.), they envy the good.

Catoni resistimus (Fam. 1. 1), we withstand Cato.

non omnibus servio (id. xvi. 13), 7 am not a servant to every
man.

cum ‘ceteris tum mihi ipsi displiceo (id. iv. 13), Z déssatisfy
other people and myself too.

non parcam opere (id. xvi. 13), 7 will share no pains.

sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 21), so J have persuaded myself.

huic legioni Czsar confidebat maxime (B. G. i. 40), z# this
legion Cesar had special confidence.

ex quo efficitur hominem nature obedientem homini nocere
non posse (Off. iii. 5), whence tt appears that a man while
obeying Nature cannot harm a fellow-man.

Remark. —1. Some verbs of the same meanings take the ac-
cusative: as, juvo, adjtivo, help; laedo, injure; jubeo, order;
deficio, fail. Pe

2. Some take the dative or accusative indifferently: as, adiilor,
flatter; aemiilor, rival; comitor, atfend; despéro, despair;
praestolor, await; medeor, medicor, heal.

3. Some take the dative or accusative according to their mean-
ing: as, 2

parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 25), they consult for a party
of the citizens.

cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you.

metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. v. 1), azxtous for the boys.

nec metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. v. 2), they fear not even the gods

~ (so also ¢/meo.) |

ei cavere volo (Fam. iii. 1), 7 will have a care for him.

caveto omnia (id. xi. 21), beware of everything.

124 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [51: 2.

prospicite patriz (Cat. iv. 2), have regard for the state.

prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49), to provide a habita-
tion for old age [so also providere |.

nequeo mihi temperare (Plin. xviii. 6), Z cannot control myself.

rempublicam temperare (Tusc. i. 1), 20 govern the state [so
also moderor |.

See Lexicon, under convenio, cupio, fido (abl.), insisto,
maneo, praesto, praeverto, recipio, renuntio, solvo, succedo.

b. The dative is used after the Impersonals libet, licet; after
verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male; together with
the following: —gratificor, gratulor, haereo (rarely), jungo,
medeor, medicor, misceo (poetic), nubo, permitto, plaudo,
probo, studeo, supplico; and the phrases auctor esse, gratias
agere (habere), morem gerere (morigeror), supplex (dicto
audiens) esse: as,

quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 18), what most pleases me.

Di isti Segulio male faciant (id. xi. 21), may the gods send evil
upon that Segulius.

mihi ipsi nunquam satisfacio (id. 17), Z ever satisfy myself.

Pompeio se gratificari putant (id. i. 1), they suppose they are
doing Pompey a service.

sed tibi morem gessi (id. ii. 18), but J have deferred to you.

tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 1), J give you leave to
answer.

armatus adversario maledixi (Fam. vi. 7), 22 arms J cursed the

0e.

oA iat aurium morigerari (Or. 48), to kumor the lust of the
ears.

habeo senectuti maximam gratiam (Cat. M. 14), J owe old age
much thanks.

maximas tibi gratias ago, J return you the warmest thanks.

c. Many verbs of the above classes take an accusative of the
thing, with a dative of the person: as,

cui cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tusc. i. 43), when the king
threatened him with the cross.

invident nobis optimam magistram (id. iii. 2), they grudge us
our best of teachers [Nature].

frumento exercitui proviso (B. G. v. 44), when the army was
supplied with corn.

puerum [vocare] cui cenam imperaret (Ros. Am. 21), Zo calla
boy and order supper of him.

imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts ten talents of the
townspeople.

omnia sibi ignoscere (Vell. ii. 30), 2o Jardon one's self every-
thing.

a3) DATIVE. 125

d. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, prae, pro, sub, super — and some with circum — take the
dative of the object on account of their acquired meaning (many
take also the accusative, being originally transitive): as, ;

neque enim assentior iis (Lzl. 3), for / do not agree with them.

tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), zt 2s a point of skill to
yield to the weather. :

omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed prefuit (id. i. 6), he
not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.

pueritie adulescentia obrepit (Cat. M.), youth steals upon
childhood.

[Archie] antecellere omnibus contigit (Arch. 3), z¢ was his
good fortune to outvie all.

quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 30), so
far as man’s nature ts superior to brutes.

nos ei succedimus (Fam. vii. 31), we succeed him.

criminibus illis pro rege se supponit reum (Deiot. 15), ke takes
those charges upon himself in the king's behalf.

nec unquam succumbet inimicis (id. 13), he will never bend
before his foes.

illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 13), they put their
own name to those papers.

tibi obtempera (F. il. 7), restrazu yourself. .

hibernis Labienum preposuit (Ces.), ke set Labienus over
the winter-quarters.

cur mihi te offers, ac meis commodis officis et obstas (Ros.
Am. 38), why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and
withstand my advantage ?

So excello: as,
tu longe aliis excellis (De Or. ii. 54), you far excel others.

Remark. —1. Some of the above compounds acquire a transi-
tive meaning, and take the accusative: as, aggredior, approach ;
adire, goto; antecedo, anteeo, antegradior, precede (both cases) ;
convenio, meet; ineo, enter; obeo, encounter; offendo, hit;
oppugno, oppose; subeo, go under (take up): as,

nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), ke opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi, who would dare encounter
a man well-attended ?
munus obire (Leal. 2), 4o attend to a duty.

'
%

2 The adjective obvius —also the adverb obviam—with@ |
werb takes the dative: as, Y
si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 18), ¢f he was not intend-

ing to get in his way.
mihi obviam venisti (Fam. ii. 16), you came to meet me.

126 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1: 2, 3.

e. Many compounds of ab, de, ex, with adimo, take the dative
(especially of persons) instead of the ablative of separation, —
the action being more vividly represented as done to the object
affected by it (so rarely other verbs by analogy) : as,

vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 19), force deprives young
men of life. |

_.. nihil enim tibi detraxit senectus (id.1), for age has robbed you
of nothing.

nec mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (id. 23), zor do I wish
this error wrested from me.

cum extorta mihi veritas esset (Or. 48), when the truth had

been forced from me (compare furatur, Off. ii. 11).

Remark. — The distinct idea of place, — and, in general, names
of things, — require the ablative with a preposition; or both con-
structions may be used together: as,

illum ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), ke dragged him out of
danger.

victoriam eripi sibi e manibus, ¢hat victory should be wrested
Srom his hands.

f. Intransitive verbs governing the dative can be used in the
Passive only impersonally: as,

cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 12), who could be spared ?

non modo non invidetur illi etati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii.
13), that age [youth] ¢s xot only not envied, but ts even favored.

mihi quidem persuaderi nunquam potuit (C. M. 22), Z for my
part could never be persuaded.

resistendum senectuti est (id. 11), we must resist old age.

plaudi tibi non solere (Deiot. 12), that you are not wont to be
applauded.

tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the time.

g- The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would strictly require another case with a preposition: as,

differt sermoni (Hor.), differs from prose [a sermone].
tibi certet (Virg.). may vie with you [tecum].
lateri abdidit ensem (id.), burzed the sword in his side [in latere].
solstitium pecori defendite (Ecl. vii. 47), keep the noontide from
the flock [a pecore].
Ilere the poets regard the acting as done to the thing affected, for
greater vividness of expression.

_ 8. Dative of Possession. The dative is used with esse
and similar words to denote the Owner: as,

est mihi liber, J have a book.

51: 3, 4] DATIVE. 127

Remark. — The Genitive or a possessive with esse emphasizés
the possessor; the Dative the fact of possession: as, liber est
meus, the book is mine (and no one’s else); est mihi liber, J have
a book (among other things). This is the usual form to denote
simple possession ; habeo, J have, generally signifying hold, often
with some secondary meaning: as,

legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which
he had with him. , .
domitas habere libidines (De Or.), to keep the passions under.
a. Compounds of esse take the dative (excepting abesse and
posse; for other compounds, see above, 2, d).

_ 6. After nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is usu-
ally put in the dative by a kind of apposition with the person: as,

puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Liv. i. 34), ¢he doy
was called Egerius from his poverty.

cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose surname was
Africanus.

But the name may be in apposition with nomen; or in the genitive
‘(§ 50, 1,f) > as,
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 52), [a fount] called Arethusa.
nomen Mercuri est mihi (Plaut. Am.), my zame ts Mercury.
4. Dative of Agency. The dative is used, after some
passive forms, to denote the agent: viz.

a. Regularly with the Gerund or Gerundive, to denote the

person on whom the necessity rests: as,
hzc vobis provincia est defendenda (Man. 6), ¢his province is
Jor you to defend [to be defended by you}.
mihi est pugnandum, J have to fight [i.e., the need of fighting
is mine; compare mzhi est liber].

6. The dative is often used after perfect participles, especially

when used in an adjective sense, — rarely after other parts of the ;

verb: as,

mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Rull. i. 8), 7 Aave deliber-
ated and resolved.

oratori omnia quesita esse debent (De Or. iii. 14), ax orator
should search everything.

acceptus mihi, acceptable to me.

c. By the poets and later writers it is used in this way after
almost any passive verb: as, “s
neque cernitur ulli (/£n. i. 440), and is seen by none.

felix est dicta sorori (Fast. ili.), she was called happy by her
sister. | oe

Oy.

128 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [S1: 4, 5, 6.

Remarx.— The dative is regularly used after the passive of
video (usually to be rendered seem) : as,
videtur mihi, ¢¢ seems (or seems good) to me.

5. Dative of Service. The dative is used to denote
the purpose or end; often with another dative of the person
or thing affected: as,

reipublice cladi sunt (Jug. 85), ¢hey are ruin to the State.

rati sese dis immortalibus cure esse (id. 75), thinking them-
selves to be the special care of the gods.

magno usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), 2 was of great service
to our men.

tertiam aciem nostris subsidio misit (id.), he sent the third line
as a reltef to our men.

omnia deerant que ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. 29), a/Z
things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships.

Remark. — In this use the dative is nearly equivalent to a noun
in apposition with the subject or object of the verb. It is common
with the words cordi, a delight (lit. to the heart); dono, a gift;
emolumento, a gain; usui, an advantage; vitio, a fault. The
indeclinable adjective frugi is properly a dative of service.

6. Dative of Nearness, &c. The dative is used after
Adjectives and Adverbs, to denote that to which the given
quality is directed, or for which it exists.

Such are especially words of fitness, nearness, likeness, service,
inclination, and their opposites: as,

nihil est tam nature aptum (Lel. 5), xzothing is so fitted to
nature.

carus omnibus exspectatusque venies (F. xvi. 7), you will come
loved and longed for by all.

locum divine nature eternitatique contrarium (Cat. M. 21),
a point opposed to the divine nature and eternity.

pee difficile amanti puto (Or. 10), / ¢hink nothing hard toa
over.

ar quar pugne aptius (id. 13), fitter for a procession than
a battle.

consentaneum tempori et persone (id. 22), adapted to the time
and the party.

rebus ipsis par et zqualis oratio (id. 36), @ speech egual and
level with the subject.

Also, in poetic and colloquial use, idem, the same: as,
in eadem arma nobis (Cic.), zo the same arms with us.

a. Adjectives of Usefulness or Fitness take oftener the accusa-
tive with ad, but sometimes the dative: as,

51:6,7-] | DATIVE. 129

aptus ad rem militarem, 7 for a soldier's duty.

locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 20), a place fitter for lying-in-

ad amicitiam idoneus (Lel. 17), apt to friendship. | wade.

castris idoneum locum deligit (B. G. vi. 10), he selects a suit-
able camping-ground.

b. Adjectives and nouns of inclination may take the accusative
with in or erga: as,
comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), Aénd to his wife.

divina bonitas erga homines (N.D. ii. 23), ¢he divine goodness
towards men.

ec. The following may take also the possessive genitive: —
aequalis, affinis, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguin-
eus, dispar, familiaris, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris,
proprius, superstes (see p. 118).

Remark. — After similis, like, with early writers, the genitive

is more usual ; Cicero uses the genitive of persons, and the genitive
or dative of things.

d. The following take the accusative: —propior, proximus
(sometimes), propius, proxime (more commonly) —as if preposi-
tions, like prope.

é€. Verbal nouns take (rarely) the dative, like the verbs from
which they are derived: as, :

invidia consuli (Sall.), 2/-w7ll against the consul.
ministri sceleribus (Tac.), servants of crime.
obtemperatio legibus (Leg. i. 15), obedience to the laws.
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. ili. 54), az answer to himself.

7. Dative of Reference. The dative is often required
not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the
sentence (dativus commodi et incommodi).

Nore.—JIn these cases there may be only one word in the sen-
tence; but they are distinguished by the fact that the meaning of the
verb is complete without the dative, while in the preceding cases it is
required to complete the sense of some particular word.

tibi aras (Pl. Merc. i. 1), you plough for yourself.

non solum nobis divites esse volumus sed liberis (Off. iii. 15),
it is not for ourselves alone but for our children that we *
would be rich.

res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods.

laudavit mihi fratrem, se praised my brother [out of regard for
me; Jaudavit fratrem meum would imply no such motive].

6*

130 _ CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [Si: 7.

a. The dative of reference is often used instead of the posses-
Sive genitive to qualify the whole idea rather than a single word :

iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 20), Zo block
the march of the Carthaginians even with thetr bodies.

se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. vi. 33), he put himself in
sight of the sailors.

versatur mihi ante oculos (id. 47), z¢ comes before my eyes.

3 b. The dative of reference is used in relations of direction,
answering to the English as you go in (on the right, in the front,
&c.): as,

oppidum primum Thessaliz venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii.
80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus.

leva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxxvi. 26), on the left as
you sail up the gulf.

c. The dative of reference is used, rarely (by a Greek idiom),
with the participle of volo or nolo, and similar words: as,

ut quibusque bellum invitis aut volentibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59),
as they might receive the war reluctantly or gladly.

ut militibus labos volentibus esset (Jug. 100), thai the soldiers
might assume the task willingly.

d. Ethical Dative. The dative of the personal pronouns is
used to show a certain interest felt by the person referred to
(dativus ethicus: compare ‘‘Tll rhyme you so eight years to-
gether.”— As you Like it.): as,

quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), pray what ts Celsus doing ?

at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (F. ix. 2), dut, look you,
of a sudden comes to me Cominius.

hem tibi talentum argenti (Pl. Trin. v. 1), hark ye, a talent
of silver.

quid tibi vis? what would you have?

avaritia senilis quid sibi velit non intelligo (Cat. M. 18), Z do
not understand what an old man’s avarice means. 7

Remark.— To express FoR— meaning instead of, in defence
of, in behalf of —the ablative with pro must be used, not the
dative: as,

pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one’s country.

pro rege, lege, grege (prov.), for king, law, people.

ego ibo pro te (Pl. Most.), 2 will go instead of you.

non pro me sed contra me (De Or. iii. 20), zot for me but
against me.

S52: 1.] ACCUSATIVE. 131

‘ 52. ACOUSATIVE.

The Accusative denotes that which is immediately
affected by the action of a verb (Direct Object).

I. General Use. The Accusative is the case of the
direct object of a transitive verb: as,

legationem suscepit, he undertook the embassy.
Caesar vicit Pompeium, Cesar conquered Pompey.

Remark. — The Object of a transitive verb in the active voice
becomes its Subject in the Passive, and is put in the nomi-
native: as,

legatio suscipitur, he embassy ts undertaken.
Pompeius a Cesare victus est, Pompey was overcome by Cesar.

a. Many verbs which express Feeling, apparently intransitive,
may take an accusative in Latin: as,

fidem supplicis erubuit (Virg.), he respected [blushed at] the-
faith of a suppliant.

flebat mortuos vivosque, he weft the dead and living.

meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest.69), ¢hkey grieved [at]
my calamity and sorrow.

horreo conscientiam (Fin. i. 16), Z shudder at conscience.

Such verbs may accordingly be used in the passive: as,

ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor.), he zs laughed [at] by the
whole assembly.
b. Cognate Accusative. A neuter verb often takes an ac-
cusative of kindred meaning, almost always modified by an adjec-
tive, or in some other manner (Accusative of Effect): as,

vivere eam vitam (Cic.), fo live that kind of life.

ztatem tertiam vivebat, ke was living his third age.
Similarly, in such phrases as vincere judicium, to gain one’s
case at court, and in poetic use: as,

saltare Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. v. 1), to dance the Cyclops.
Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 2), ¢o deve in revels.

c- Verbs of taste, smell, &c., take an accusative of the qual-
ity: as,

vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling of wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes of grass.

132 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [52: 1, 2.

d. Verbs of motion, and a few others, compounded with prep-
ositions, especially compounds of circum and trans, frequently
become transitive, and take the accusative: as,

mortem obire, zo de. !

consulatum ineunt (Livy iii. 6), ‘hey assume the consulship.

neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), / met no one. i

tectum subire, fo exter [go under] @ place of shelter.

colloquium haud abnuit (Livy xxx. 29), he did not refuse the

interview. :

si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if ke should go to the island.

cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 8), the citizens who

throng about the senate.

e. Constructio Praegnans. The accusative is used in certain
phrases constructively, the real object of the verb being something
understood: as,

coire societatem, Zo [go together and] form an alliance. __

ferire foedus, ¢o strike a treaty [i.e. to sanction by striking

down the victim].

mare navigare, Zo sail the sea [i.e. to sail a ship upon the sea].

f. The accusative is used after the Impersonals decet, it be-
comes ; delectat, juvat, it delights; oportet, it behooves ; fallit,
it deceives ; fugit, praeterit, it escapes: as,

te non preteriit (Fam. i. 8), 7¢ has not escaped your notice.

(For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 50, 4, ¢.)
2. Two Accusatives. Several classes of verbs, besides
{ the direct object, take another accusative, either in apposition

‘or as a secondary object.

choosing, &c. (See § 46.)

i a. The accusative is used in apposition after verbs of naming,
b. A second accusative is sometimes used after transitive verbs

Fi compounded with prepositions: as,

Hiberum copias trajecit (Liv. xxi. 23), ke threw his forces
across the Ebro.

But with these verbs the preposition is oftener repeated.

c- Verbs of asking and teaching govern two accusatives, either
of which may be regarded as the direct object of the action: as,

hoc vos doceo (Cic.), Z teach you this.
hoc te vehementer rogo (id.), ¢his J urgently beg of you.

Remark. — The accusative of the Thing may remain with the
passive of verbs of teaching, also rogo. But generally with verbs
of asking, the Thing becomes subject-nom., while the Person
asked is put in the ablative with a preposition. The preposition is

52:.°3, 4.) | ACCUSATIVE. 133

always used, to denote the person after peto, postulo (ab),
quaero (ex or de): as,

pacem ab Romanis petere (Czs.), fo beg peace of the Romans.
d. The transitive celo, conceal, and the usually neuter lateo,
lie hid, take the accusative of the person: as,
hoc me celavit, ke hid this from me.
latet plerosque (Plin.), z¢ zs hid from most.
3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used ad-
verbially, or for specification. This is found —
a. With many verbs usually intransitive, which take a neuter
pronoun or adjective in the accusative: as,

quid moror, why do J delay ?

pauca milites hortatus (Sall.), having briefly exhorted the men.
duloe loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22), sweetly speaking.

acerba tuens (/En. ix. 793), looking cruelly.

torvum clamat (id. vii. 599), 4e cries harshly.

idem gloriari, Zo doast the same thing.

Nore. — Many of these are cognate accusatives.

6. In a few adverbial phrases, such as id temporis, at that
time; meam vicem, on my part; quod si, but (as to which) if.

c- In the so-called synecdochical or Greek accusative, used by
the poets to denote the part affected: as,

caput nectentur (Virg.), thetr head shall be bound [they shall

be bound about the head].

The part.is strictly in apposition with the whole, and remains (as
above) after the passive.

REmarRK. — The accusative after passive verbs used reflexively
is sometimes wrongly referred to this construction: as,

inutile ferrum cingitur (Virg.), ze girds on the useless steel.

4. Special Uses. Peculiar uses are the following : —

a. The accusative is used in Exclamations: as,

O fortunatam rempublicam (Cic.), O fortunate republic!
O me miserum! Ak wretched me!

6. The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative. ~
This is especially frequent after words of knowing, thinking, and
telling (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, 1. In its origin,
the accusative is strictly the Object of the leading verb).

c- Time how long, and Distance how far, are in the accusative.
(See § 55.)
For the Accusative with Prepositions, see § 56.

134 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [53; 54,

53. VoOcATIVE.

The Vocative is the form of direct Address: as,

Tiberine pater, te sancte precor (Liv. ii. 103), O futher Tiber!
thee, holy one, I pray.

Nore. — The Vocative can hardly be called a case, as it properly
has no case termination, and forms no part of the sentence.

a. Sometimes the nominative of a noun is used instead of the
vocative, in apposition with the subject of the Imperative: as,

audi tu, populus Albanus (id. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.

b. Sometimes the vocative of an adjective is used instead of the
nominative, where the verb is of the second person: as,

censorem trabeate salutas (Pers.), robed you salute the censor.

So in the phrase,

macte [= magne, root MAG] virtute esto (Hor.), de exlarged
in manliness | bravo, well done].

54, ABLATIVE.

The Ablative is used to denote the relations ex-
pressed in English by the prepositions from, in,
at, with, by.

Notr.— The Ablative form contains three distinct cases, —the
ablative proper, expressing the relation From; the locative, in; and
the instrumental, witH or By. This confusion has arisen partly

' from phonetic decay, by which the cases have become identical in
form, and partly from the development by which they have ap-
_ proached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the like
_ forms of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in e of the fifth
declension, and the loss of the original d in the ablative ; and, for the
second, the phrases a parte dextra, on the right; quam ob causam,
FROM which cause; ad famam, at (in consequence of) the report.

The relation of From includes separation, source, cause, agent, and
comparison; that of 1N or At, place, time, circumstance; that of WITH or
BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price. It is
probable that, originally, the idea of accompaniment had a separate case,
which became confounded with the ixstrumental before the Latin was
senarated from the kindred tongues.

4: b) ABLATIVE. 135

1. Ablative of Separation. Verbs meaning to remove,
set free, be absent, deprive, and want, are followed by the
ablative: as,

levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 19), we
are relieved from superstition, freed from fear of death.

oculis se privavit (id. v. 29), ke deprived himself of eyes.

consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cat. M. 6), zo de bereft of counsel
and authority.

legibus solutus, relieved from the obligation of laws. .

ea philosophia quz spoliat nos judicio, privat approbatione,
omnibus orbat sensibus (Acad. ii. 19), that philosophy which
despoils us of judgment, deprives of approval, bereaves of
every sense.

omni Gallia interdicit Romanos (B. G. i. 46), e [Ariovistus |
bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.

ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Vell. Pat. ii. 45), ke ts debarred
the use of fire and water.

[cives] calamitate prohibere (Manil. 7), to keep the citizens
Srom ruin.

carere febri (Fam. xvi. 16), to be free from fever.

voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 3), Zo lack enjoyments.

non egeo medicina (Lel. 3), £ want no physic.

magno me metu liberabis (Cat. i. 5), you will relieve me of
great fear.

Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur.

a. Compounds of a, ab, de, ex, take the ablative when used
figuratively ; but in their literal meaning, implying motion, they
usually follow the rules of place from which (see § 55, 3): as,

conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.

exsolvere se occupationibus (Fam. vii. 1), to get clear of occu-
pation.

prius quam ea cura decederet patribus (Liv. ix. 29), before that
anxiety left the fathers.

desine communibus locis (Ac. ii. 25), guzt commonplaces.

abire magistratu, Zo leave the office.

abscedere incepto, fo relinguish the undertaking.

abstinere injuria, fo refrain from wrong.

exire ere alieno, fo get out of debt.

b. More rarely, the ablative is used after verbs without a prep-
dsition to denote the place from which: as,

cessisset patria (Mil. 25), he would have left his country.
loco movere (Liv. i. 35), to move from tts place.

patria pellere, fo drive out of the country.

Gallia arcere (Phil. v. 13), to keep out of Gaul.

manu mittere, Zo emancipate [let go from the hand].

136 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 1, 2.

/\ @« Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the
‘ ™ ablative : as,

liber cura et angore (Fin. i. 15), free from care and anguish.
vacuos curis (ib. ii. 14), vod of care.

urbs nuda presidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.
immunis militia (Liv. i. 43), free of military service.

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 3), the Beople deprived of tribunes.

d. Opus and usus signifying need (with esse) are followed
by the ablative (often by the ablative of the perfect participle, with
or without a noun): as,

magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii.2), ¢here 7s need of magistrates.

curatore usus est (id. 4,— chiefly ante-classical), there is need
of a manager.

properato opus esset (Mil. 19), ¢here were need of haste.

ut opu’st facto (Ter. Heaut.), as there is need to do.

RemMarK. — The nominative is often used with opus in the
predicate: as,

os

multi opus sunt boves (Varro R.R.i.18), there 7s need of many
cattle.

dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6), we need a chief and
adviser.

e. Egeo and indigeo are often followed by the genitive: as,

ne quis auxili egeat (B.G. vi. 11), dest any require aid.

quz ad consolandum majoris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis
virtutis indigent (Fam. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for comfort
need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.

Remark. — With all words of separation and want, the poets
frequently, by a Greek idiom, use the genitive (see § 50, 4, e): as,

desine mollium tandem querelarum (Hor. Od. ii. 9), cease at
length from weak complaints.

abstineto irarum (id. iii. 27), abstain from wrath.

operum solutis (id. 17), free from toils.

2. Ablative of Source. The ablative is used to denote
the source from which anything is derived, or the material
of which it consists.

\ a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the
. ablative. Such participles are natus, satus, editus, genitus,
£ ortus: as,
Jove natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 22), son of Fupiter and Maza.
ortus equestri loco (Leg. Agr. i. 9), born of equestrian rank.

edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1), descendant of kings.
quo sanguine cretus (En. ii. 74), born of what blood.

54: 2, 3.] ABLATIVE. 137

Remark. — A spesiosizon (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed
with the name of the mother, and with that of distant ancestors.

b. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative: as,

desideravit C. Felginatem Placentié, A. Graninm Puteolis
(B. C. iii. 71), he lost C. F. of Placentia, A. G. of Puteoli.

ce. The ablative is used with constare and similar verbs, to
denote material (but with other verbs a preposition is generally
used, except by the poets): as,

animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 8), we consist of soul and
body.

Notre.— The ablative with consistere and contineri is lJocative
(see below, 10).

dad. The ablative of material is used with facere, fieri, and
similar words: as,

quid hoc homine facias (Verr. ii. 16), What are you going to
do with this man? | Or, de hoc homine.]

quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my
dear Tullia ?

quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 64), what will happen to you ?

3. Ablative of Cause. The ablative (with or without a
preposition) is used to express the cause.

~

Nore. — The cause, in the Ablative, is considered as source, as is
shown by the use of ab, de, ex; while with ad, ob, the idea of cause
arises from nearness. But occasionally it is difficult to distinguish be-
tween cause and means (which is instrumental) or circumstance (either
locative or instrumental).

_nimio gaudio pzne desipiebam (Fam. i. 13), 7 was almost a
fool with excess of joy.
negligentia plectimur (Lel. 22), we are chastised for negligence.
cecus avaritia (Liv. v. 51), dlind with avarice. ;
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), ¢ke
pilot's skill is praised as service not as skill.

a. The ablative is used with the adjectives dignus, indignus,
and with the verbs dignor, laboro (also with ex), exsilio,
exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo.

vir patre, avo, majoribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 10), @ maz
most worthy of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.

doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), J am sorry that you
suffer with other ills.

ex zre alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt.

exsultare letitid ac triumphare gaudio ccepit (Clu. 5), she
began to exult in gladness, and triumph in oy.

138 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 3, 4, 5.

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting
is expressed by the ablative alone ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob or propter with the accusative: as,

non ob predam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), sot for

booty or through lust of plunder.

c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used
with a genitive preceding, or with a possessive in agreement: as,

eA causA, on account of this; med causa, for my sake.

et ipsorum et reipublice causa (Manil. 2), for their own sake

and the republic’s.
sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.

With possessives the use of gratia in this sense is rare.

4. Ablative of Agent. The voluntary agent after a pas-
sive verb is put in the ablative with ab (see § 56, 4): as,
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. Sat. i. 2), he ts raised
by these, blamed by those.
ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc.i. 22), what-
ever ts done by your soul is done by yourself.
a. This construction is sometimes used after neuter verbs hav-
ing a passive sense: as, -
perire ab hoste, zo de slain by an enemy.

b. The agent, considered as instrument or means, is expressed
by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or posses-
Sive: as, |

per Antiochum (Liv.), dy means of Antiochus.
mea vpera (Cic.), dy my means.

So per vim, as well as vi (B. G. i. 14), by force.

5. Ablative of Comparison. The Comparative degree
is followed by the ablative (signifying THAN): as,

quis me beatior (Tusc. i. 4), who more blest than I?
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 2), what more burdened
than we tuo?

| Note.— Here the object of comparison is the starting-point from
| which we reckon, as itself possessing the quality in some degree. That
_ this is the true explanation is shown by the ablative in Sanskrit, and
the genitive in Greek.
a. Quam with the same case as the adjective may also be used,
and must regularly be used when the adjective is not either nomi-
native or accusative. But the puets sometimes use the ablative

even then: as,

“
S

x

%
}

;
SN
\

54: 5, 6.] ABLATIVE. 139

pane egeo jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. i. 10), Zwant
bread better than honey-cakes.

ReMarK. — Quam is never used in this construction with rela-
tive pronouns having a definite antecedent.

b. Particularly the idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito,
dicto, aequo, credibili, and justo, are used instead of a clause: as,

celerius opinione (Fam. iv. 23), faster than one would think.
amnis solito citatior (Liv. xxii. 19), @ stream swifter than its
wont.

¢- Plus, minus, amplius, longius, are often used with words
of measure or number without affecting their case (being in a kind
of apposition) : as,

plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), move than 700 were taken.

plus tertia parte interfecta (Cxs.), more than a third part being

slain.

spatium non amplius sexcentorum pedum (id.), @ space of not

more than 600 feet.

Nore. — Alius is used by the poets with the ablative, perhaps in
imitation of the Greek ; but the construction is found also in Sanskrit,
and is probably original: as, alium sapienti bonoque (Hor. Ep. i. 16).
Under comparatives belong the adverbs antea, antidea, postilla,
postea, preeterea, earlier than this, &c. (see § 56, 3).

[For Ablative of Difference, see below, 6, e.]

6. Ablative of Means. The ablative is used to denote
accompaniment, means, or instrument: as,

vultu Milonis perterritus (Mil. 15), scared by the face of Milo.

animum appellat novo nomine (Tusc. i. 10), he calls the mind
by a new name.

probabilia conjectura sequens (id. 9), following probabilities
by conjecture.

excultus doctrina (id. 2), thoroughly trained in learning.

fidibus canere (id.), ¢o sing to the lyre.

Fauno immolare agna (Hor. Od. i. 4), Zo sacrifice to Faunus
with a ewe-lamb.

pol pudere quam pigere przstat totidem literis (Plaut. Trin.
345), dy Pollux better shame than blame, although the letters
count the same (lit. with as many letters].

a- The ablative of accompaniment regularly takes cum (except
sometimes in military phrases, and a few isolated expressions,
especially in the early writers): as,

cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgressi (B. G. ii.
19), having crossed the river with the slingers and archers.
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (ib.), Ze followed close with all

his forces. [out.
hoc presidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 34), wth this convoy he sit

140 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 6.

RemarK.— Misceo and jungo, with their compounds, may
take the ablative of accompaniment, without cum, or sometimes
the dative.

b. Words of contention require cum (but often take the dative
in poetry): as,
armis cum hoste certare (Cic.), to fight with the enemy tn arms.

est mihi tecum certamen (id.), 7 Aave a controversy with you.
solus tibicertat Amyntas (Ecl. v.8), Amyntas alone vies with you.

c- The ablative of means is used with words of filling, abound-
ing, and the like: as,

Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Univ. 3), God has filled
the world with all good things.

dialecticis imbutus (‘Tusc. i. 7), ¢énuctured with logic.

circumfusi caligine (id. 19), overspread with darkuess.

opimus preda (Verr. i. 50), rich with spoil.

vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sext. 10), @ life full and
crowded with delights.

Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. Sat. i. 5), Forum Appi

crammed with bargemen.

Remark. — These verbs and adjectives take the genitive in the
poets by a Greek idiom: as,

terra scatet ferarum (Lucr. v. 41), the land abounds in wild
creatures.

explere ultricis flammez (/En. ii. 586), fll with avenging flame.
Compleo, impleo, and plenus, often take the genitive in prose.

_ @. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with
sg of their compounds, govern the ablative: as,
cs utar vestra benignitate (Cic.), Z will avail myself of your
kindness.
Numide plerumque lacte et feriné carne vescebantur (Jug. 88),
the Numidians fed mostly on milk and game.

Potior also takes the genitive, as always in the phrase potiri
rerum, to get the power. In early Latin, the accusative is
sometimes found with these verbs.

e. The ablative is used with comparatives and words implying
comparison, to denote the degree of difference: as,

duobus milibus plures, more numerous by 2000.
quinque milibus passuum distat (Liv.), z¢ 7s five milse distant.

Remark, — This use is especially frequent with the ablatives
€o0...quo; quanto... tanto (see § 22, ¢): as,

quo minus cupiditatis eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), he
less greed the more weight.

54: 7, 8.] | ABLATIVE. 141

% Ablative of Quality. ‘The ablative is used, with an
adjective or limiting genitive, to denote manner and quality: as,

animo meliore, of better mind.

more hominum, after the manner of men.

non quero quanta memoria fuisse dicatur (Tusce. i. 24), Z do

not ask how great a memory he ts said to have had.

a. The ablative of description (with adjectives) is always used
to denote physical characteristics (other qualities may be in the
genitive, § 50, 1, g) : as,

vultu sereno, of calm face.

capillo sunt promisso (B.G., v. 14), they have long hanging locks.

b. The ablative of manner more commonly takes cum, unless it
has a modifying adjective: as,

minus cum cura (Plaut.), less carefully.

hoc onus feram studio et industria (Rosc. Am. 4), Z will bear

this burden with pains and diligence.
But words of manner, modo, ratione, via, &c.—with such ex-
pressions as silentio, in silence, injuria, wrongfully — hardly ever
have cum. Verbs of exchanging may take cum.

8. Ablative of Price. The price of a thing (or that
which is given in exchange) is put in the ablative: as,

agrum vendidit sestertiim sex milibus, he sold the field for

6000 sesterces.

exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q.C. iii. 8), he exchanged his

native land for exile.

a. Certain genitives of Quantity are used to denote indefinite
value. Such genitives are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris,
minoris: as,

est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 7), z¢ 7s worth my while.
mea magni interest, zt zs of great consequence to me.

Remark. — With verbs of buying and selling, the ablative of
price (magno, &c.) must be used, except the oeede genitives :
tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris.

6. The genitive of certain nouns is used in the same way: as,
non flocci faciunt (Pl. Trin.), they care not a straw.

The genitives so used are nihili, nothing ; assis, a farthing;
flocci, a lock of wool, and a few others (see § 50, 1, 7).

[For the Ablative of Penalty, see § 50, 4, b, Rem.]

142 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [54: 9, Io.

_| 9% Ablative of Specification. The ablative denotes
f that in respect to which anything is said to be or be done, or
C in accordance with which anything happens: as,

virtute precedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel tu courage.

incluta bello moenia (En. ii. 24), walls famous in war.

claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages.), lame of one foot.

lingua hesitantes, voce absoni (DeOr. i.), hesetating in speech,
harsh in voice.

tanta caritas patriz est, ut eam non sensu nostro sed salute
ipsius metiamur (Tusc. i. 37), such zs our love of country, that
we measure it not by our own feeling, but by her own welfare.

10. Locative Ablative. The ablative: of the place
where is retained in many idiomatic expressions: as,

jure peritus, skilled in law [compare Sanskrit usages].

pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 40), we are in suspense of mind.

socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), JZ wll be present
with you a companion in dangers.

premit altum corde dolorem (in. i. 209), ke keeps down the
pain deep in his heart.

conferté legione (B. G. iv. 33), as they were in close order.

pedibus preeliantur (id. 34), they fight on foot.

quibus rebus (id. 35), wader these circumstances.

a. The verbs acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior,
nitor, sto, maneo, fido (confido), consisto, contineor, — with
the verbals fretus, contentus, laetus,—are followed by the
ablative (for facio, fio, see 2, d): as,

spe niti (Att. iii. 9), Zo rely on hope.

prudentia fidens (Off. i. 33), ¢rusting in prudence.
letari bonis rebus (Lel. 13), Zo rejoice in good things.

Remark. — The above verbs also take the preposition in.

6. Ablative Absolute. A noun or pronoun, with a parti-
ciple, is put in the ablative, to define the time or circumstances of
an action (compare § 72). An adjective, or another noun, may
take the place of the participle.

vocatis ad se undique mercatoribus (B. G. iv. 20), Aaving called
to him the traders from all quarters.

exigua parte statis reliqua (id.), when but a small part of the
summer was left.

M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), zz the consulship
of Messala and Piso.

Nore. — In this use the noun is équivalent to the Subject, and the
participle to the Predicate, of a subordinate clause ; and so they should

54: 10; 55.] TIME AND PLACE. 143

generally be translated. But, as the copula esse has no participle in
Latin, a noun or adjective is often found alone as predicate, while the
participle is found, in this construction, in Sanskrit and Greek. The
noun originally denotes circumstance, considered as place or time (loca-
tive); then, being modified by a participle, it becomes fused with it
into a single idea, equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause
(compare ab urbe condita, lit. from the city built).

ec. Sometimes a participle or adjective (under the construction
of the ablative absolute) is put in agreement with a phrase or
clause, or is used adverbially : as,

incerto quid peterent, szuce ¢¢t was uncertain what they sought.

auspicato (Tac. H.i. 84), after taking the auspices | the auspices
having been taken].

consulto et cogitato (Off i. 8), on purpose and with reflection
[the matter having been deliberated and thought on].

sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), wader a clear sky.

d. The ablative is often used to denote the place where, or the
time when (see § 55, 1; 3, f).

[For the government of the Ablative by Prepositions, see § 56.]

55. Tre AND PLACE.

1. Time. Time when (or within which) is put in the
Ablative; time how long in the Accusative: as,

constituta die, on” the set day.

quota hora? at what o'clock ?

tribus proxumis annis (Jug. 11), wthinu the last three years.

dies continuos triginta, for a month together.

paucis post diebus (or paucos post dies), after a few days.
[Here diebus is the ablative of d7ference (§ 54, 6, e), and
post an adverb (§ 56, 2, dZ).]

Nore. — The ablative of time is locative ; the accusative is the same
as that of extent of spuce (see below, 3, d).

a. The use of a preposition gives greater precision and clear-
ness: as,

in diebus proximis decem (Sall.), within the next ten days.
ludi per decem dies (Cat. iii. 8), games lasting ten days.
b. The ablative is rarely used to express duration of time: as,

milites quinque horis preelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the
men had sustained the fight five hours. [This use is locative.]

ae
i

4S

&

{

144 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [55: 2, 3.

2. Space. Extent of space is put in the Accusative: as,

fossas quindecim pedes latas (B.G. vil. 72), trenches 15 feet
broad.

Norse. — This accusative is the object through or over which the
action takes place, and is kindred with the accusative of the end of
motion.

a. Measure is often expressed as a quality by the Genitive
(§ 50, 1, A): as, ,

vallo pedum duodecim (B.G. ii. 30), a @ rampart of 12 feel

[in height].

b. Distance is put in the Accusative (as extent of space), or
Ablative (as degree of difference): as,

quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), #¢ és distant five days’

march.

triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), ¢hirty

miles below that place.

tanto spatio secuti (B. G. iv. 35), Aaving followed over so much

ground.

3. Place. To express relations of Place, prepositions
are necessary, except with the names of Towns and small
‘Islands; except also with domus, rus, and a few other words

in special relations.

Nortr. — Originally these relations were expressed with all. words

_ by the cases alone, —the Accusative denoting the end of motion as in
a certain sense the object of the action; and the Ablative (in its proper

meaning of separation) denoting the place from which. For the place
where there was a special case, the Locative, the form of which was
partially retained and partially merged in the Ablative (see Note,

_p. 184). The Shel goat (originally Adverbs) were added to define
i

_ more exactly the

rection of the motion, and by long usage at length
became necessary, except in the cases given above.

) a. The name of the place from which is in the Ablative: as,

t Roma profectus, having set out from Rome.
rure reversus, having returned from the country.

} 6. The name of the place to which is in the Accusative: as,

ev Romam rediit, ke returned to Rome. :
rus ibo, J shall go into the country. :
Remark. — The old construction™is retained in the phrases
exsequias ire, to attend a funeral; infitias ire, to make denial ;
pessum ire, fo go to ruin; pessum dare, to undo; venum dare
(vendere), to set to sale; venum ire, fo be set to sale; foras, out
of doors; and the Supine in um (see § 74, 1).

55:3, 4.] TIME AND PLACE. 145

\ ¢€. The name of the place where takes the Locative form, which
in the first and second declensions singular is the same as the
genitive ; in the plural, and in the third declension, the same as the
dative: as, .

Romae, at Rome ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; Lanuvi, at Lanuvium ;

Karthagini, at Carthage; Athenis, at Athens; Curibus,
at Cures.

Remark. —In names of the third declension the ablative is
often found, especially where the metre requires it in poetry: as,

Tibure vel Gabiis (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), at Tibur or Gabi.

d. The words domi (rarely domui), at home ; belli, militiae

< (in contrast to domi), abroad in military service; humi, on the

ground ; ruri, in the country; foris, out-of-doors ; terra marique,

by land and sea, are used like names of towns, without a prep-
osition; also heri, vesperi, infelici arbori (Liv.).

e. A possessive, or alienus, may be used with domus in this
construction ; but when it is modified in any other way, a preposi-
tion is generally used: as,

domi sue (Mil. 7), a¢ his own house.
in M. Lecze domum (Cat. i. 4), to Leca’s house.

f. The ablative is used without a preposition to denote the’

place where, in many general words—as loco, parte — regu-
larly; frequently with nouns when qualified by adjectives (reg-
ularly where totus is used); and in poetry in any case: as,

quibus loco positis (De Or. iii. 38), when these are put tn their
places.

qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 11), on the side where they were
beaten.

se oppido tenet (id.), eeps himself within the town.

media urbe (Liv. i. 33), 2 the midst of the city.

tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 23), throughout Sicily.

litore curvo (En. iii. 16), on the bending shore.

Remark.— To denote the neighborhood of a place (to, from,
in the neighborhood), prepositions must be used.

4. The way by which is put in the Ablative (of instru-
ment): as,

vid breviore equites premisi (Fam. x. 9), J sent forward the
cavalry by a shorter road.
ZEgeo mari trajecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the
Eigean sea.
7

146 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. [56: 1.

56. Use or PREPOSITIONS.

1. Prepositions govern either the Accusative or Ablative.

a. The following govern the Accusative : —ad, adversus, ad-
versum, ante, apud, circa, or circum, circiter, cis, citra, con-
tra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per,
pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra,
trans, ultra, versus. ,

b. The following govern the Ablative: —a, ab, abs, absque,
coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus.

c. In and sub take the Accusative when they denote motion ;
when rest, the Ablative: as,

in contionem venit (Off. iii. 11), ke came into the meeting.
dixit in contione (ib.), he said in the meeting.

sub jugum mittere (Czs.), to send under the yoke.

sub monte consedit (id.), he halted below the hill.

Remark. — The verbs of placing, — such as pono and its com-
pounds (except impono), loco, statuo, &c., — though implying
motion, take in Latin the construction of the place in which: as,

* qui in sede ac domo collocavit (Parad. iii. 2), who put one
into his place and home.

d. When it means concerning, super takes the Ablative ; other-
wise the Accusative (unless in poetry): as,

hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing.
super culmina tecti (Virg.), above the house-top. |
e. After subter, the Accusative is used, except sometimes in
poetry: as,
subter togam (Liv.), uuzder his mantle.
subter litore (Catull.), delow the shore.
f. In Dates, the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal,
or the ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposi-
tion; and the phrase itself may be governed by a preposition: as,
is dies erat a.d. quintum kalendas Aprilis (B. G. i. 6), that day
was the 5th hetove the calends of April [March 28].

in a.d. v. kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 3), to the 5th day before the calends
of November (Oct. 28].

xv. kal. Sextilis, she 15th day before the calends of August
(July 18). [Full form, gucuto decimo die ante.}

g.- Tenus (which follows its noun) regularly takes the Abla-
tive: as,

Tauro tenus (Dej. 13), as far as Taurus.
capulo tenus (En. v. 55), up éo the hilt.

S63: 3, 2,34; 45] PREPOSITIONS. 147

Remark. —Tenus is found especially with the feminine of the
adjective pronouns, in an adverbial sense: as,

hactenus, dztherto ; quatenus, so far as, &c.

Sometimes it takes the Genitive: as,

Corcyre tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra.

2. Many words may be construed either as Prepositions
or as Adverbs: thus —

a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, usque
— also (less frequently) the adjectives propior and proximus —
may be followed by the Accusative: as, ‘

pridie Nonas Junias (Cic.), tke day before the Nones of Fune
(June 4).
postridie ludos (id.), #hke day after the games.

b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may take the Abla-
tive: as, 3
palam populo (Liv.), zz the presence of the people.
c. The adverb clam may take either case (dat. rare): as,
clam matrem suam (Plaut.), wxbeknown to the mother.
clam mihi (id.), zz secret from me.
clam vobis (Ces.), without your knowledge.

d. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Adverbs.
This is especially the case with ante and post, in relations of.
time; adversus, contra (on the other hand), circiter, prope, and,
in general, those ending in 4. Clam and versus are often ex-
cluded from the list of Prepositions.

[For the use of prepositions in Composition, see § 42, 3.]

3. Some prepositions or adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, —several words,
or even clauses, sometimes coming between: as, |

neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10),
nor did he let him go until he gave a pledge.

post diem tertium quam dixerat (Man. 16), the third day after
he said tt. [So octavo mense quam, Liv. xxi. 15.]

Such words are ante, prius, post, pridie, postridie.

4. The ablative, with a or ab, is regularly used after pas-
sive verbs to denote the Agent, if a person, or if spoken of as
a person (§ 54, 4): as,

jussus a patre, didden by his father.

148 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [ST +17, Be

Remark. — The ablative of the agent (which requires the prep-
osition) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of
instrument, which stands by itself: as,

occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but,
occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
5. The following prepositions sometimes follow their noun : —
ad, citra, circa, contra, inter, penes, propter, ultra, tenus;
e, de, juxta.

[For the so-called Dative of the Agent, with the Gerundive, see
$$ 51, 4,a. For prepositions connecting Nouns, see § 50, 3, R. ]

‘

III. Syntax of the Verb.

57. Use or Moops.
(See § 24.)

The Moons of a Latin Verb are the Indicative,
Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive.

Norre.— The Infinitive is not strictly a mood, being only the
oblique case of a noun; but it is most conveniently treated along with
the moods.

1. Indicative. The Indicative is the mood of direct
assertions or questions ; and is used when no special construc-
tion requires one of the others.

2. Subjunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con-
structions, both in dependent and independent clauses, viz. : —

a. Independent Clauses. 1. In independent clauses, the
subjunctive is used to denote an Exhortation or Command (hor-
tatory subjunctive); a Wish (optative subjunctive); a Concession
(concessive subjunctive); or a Doubtful Question (dubitative
subjunctive).

2. It is also used to denote the conclusion of a Conditional
sentence (apodosis), which is, grammatically, an independent
clause, though logically depending on a condition expressed or
implied (see §§ 59, 60).

6. Dependent Clauses. In dependent clauses, the subjunc-
tive is used to denote a Purpose (§ 64), or a Result (§ 65). It

r

SF: 2,3.) USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 149

is used, idiomatically, in Temporal Clauses (§ 62), in Indirect
Discourse (§ 67), in Indirect Questions (id.), and in Intermediate
Clauses (§ 66) ; also in Conditions future or contrary to fact.

[For Subjunctive after Particles of Comparison, see § 61.]
[For the so-called Subjunctive of Cause, see § 63.]

Notr.— The Present Subjunctive contains two distinct forms, —
the Subjunctive and Optative of the “ Indo-European” tongue. Both
these forms had originally a future meaning; and from these future
meanings all the uses of this mood in Latin are developed. The
subjunctive proper was originally a Present, denoting continued action,
which became Future in sense (compare conative present and present.
for future, § 58, 2, b); and afterwards, in many uses, Imperative (com-.
pare future for imperative). The optative contains, in composition, a
past tense of the root 1 (whence eo, eit, go); so that it had a futurum
an preterito meaning, which developed into a conditional future, and into
an expression of wish and command; and, in Latin, lost its connection |
with past time.

The other tenses of the Subjunctive are compounds formed (in
Latin alone) to remedy the confusion of optative and subjunctive.
The Subjunctive has, therefore, the uses of both the optative and
subjunctive of the cognate languages. :

3. Hortatory Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used
in the Present —less commonly in the Perfect — to express
a command or exhortation: as, |

hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these
robbers.

aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 41), let him quaff or quit.

caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundie (Off. i. 34),
let them shun excess and cherish modesty.

Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 7), let Epicurus look to this.

his quoque de rebus pauca dicantur (Off. i. 35), of this, too, let
a few words be said.

Note.— The Perfect represents an action as complete in the future ;
but in most cases it can hardly be distinguished from the Present.

a. The Second Person is used only of an indefinite subject,
except in prohibition, in early Latin, and in poetry: as,

injurias fortune, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas
(Tusc. v. 41), the wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear,
you will leave behind by flight.

nihil ignoveris (Mur. 31), Aatdon nothing.

amicus populo Romano sis (Liv. xxvi. 50), de a friend to the
Roman people. |

150 SYNTAX OF TIIE VERB. (57: 3,4

a b. In prohibitions, the Perfect is more common than the Pres-
ent: as, :

hoc facito: hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 61), thou shalt do this: thou
shalt not do that.

nec mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 7), do not say that to me.

ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), be not Lerrifed.

c. The hortatory subjunctive is used — sometimes with modo,
modo ne, tantum, tantum ne, or ne alone—to denote a pro-
viso (§ 61, 3): as,

valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), ¢/ only the health be good.

ne illi sanguinem nostrum largiantur (Sall. Cat. 52), provided
they be not lavish of our blood.

modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), Arovided only he
be not of brutish stock.

tantummodo Gneus noster ne Italiam relinquat (Q. F. iii. 9),
if only Pompey will not forsake /taly.

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria
(Cat. M.7), old men retain their mind if they only retain thetr
zeal and diligence.

ad. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunc-
tive denote an obligation in past time, —the latter more clearly
representing the time for the action as past: as,

moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post.), ke should have died you will
say.

ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1), you should not have asked.

potius diceret (Off. iii. 22), he should rather have said.

saltem aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 20), a¢ least he
should have taken something from the weight.

4. Optative Subjunctive. The subjunctive is used to
denote a Wish, —the Present, a wish conceived as possible ;
the Imperfect, an unaccomplished one in the present; the
Pluperfect, one unaccomplished in the pasé: as,

ita vivam (Att. v. 15), so may J live [as true as I live].

ne vivam si scio (id. iv.16), Zwsk J may not live if L know.

di te perduint (Deiot.), ¢he gods confound thee!

valeant, valeant, cives mei; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 34),
farewell (he says], my fellow-citizens; may they be secure
Srom harm.

a. The Perfect in this use is antiquated: as,

male di tibi faxint (Plaut. Curc. 131), may the gods do thee a
mischief.

57: 4, 5.] USE OF MOODS: SUBJUNCTIVE. 151

b. The particles uti (ut), utinam, O si, often precede the
Subjunctive of wish: as,

falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), Zwisk I may be a false
prophet.

ut pereat positum rubigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may the un-
used weapon perish with rust.

utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3), would you had seen
me dead.

Note. — In this use, the particle has no effect on the grammatical
construction, except that O si is probably a Protasis.

c. Velim with the present subjunctive, and vellem with the
imperfect or pluperfect — with their compounds — (strictly, con-
ditional sentences with the wish in a dependent clause) are often
used instead of a proper optative subjunctive: as,

de Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit
(Att. iv. 16), about Mendemus I wish it had been true; about
the queen I hope tt may be.

nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), 2 wish the time never
had come.

5. Concessive Subjunctive. ‘The subjunctive is used
to express a concession, either with or without ut, quamvis,
quamlibet, and similar words.

Remark. — In this use, the Present refers to future or indefinite
time; the Imperfect to present or past time, — the concession being
impliedly untrue; the Perfect to past time or completed future
time; the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (usually
untrue): as,

nemo is unquam fuit: ne fuerit (Or. 29), zhere never was such
a one you will say: granted.

quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 25), amzable
as he may have been in keeping his friendships.

sit Scipio clarus, ornetur Africanus, erit profecto aliquid loci
nostrz gloriz (Cat. iv. 10), be Scipio glorious, and Africanus
honored, yet surely there will be some room for our fame.

dixerit hoc idem Epicurus ... non pugnem cum homine (Fin.
v. 27), though Epicurus may have said the same, I would not
contend with the man.

ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 5),
granted that pain is not the greatest evil, at least tt ts
an evil.

fuerit aliis: tibi quando esse ccepit (Verr. i. 41), suppose he was
[so] to others, when did he begin to be to you ?

152 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 6, 7.

# 6. The Present, and rarely the Perfect Subjunctive, are
used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossi-
bility of the thing being done (dubitative subjunctive) : as,
_ sed quid faciamus (Att. viii. 23), but what can we do?

quid loquar plura (Pis. 32), why should I sav more ?

quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. il. 16), what are you to do with

this fellow ? 2
an ego exspectem dum tabelle diribeantur (Pis. 40), what,

shall I watt till the ballots are counted ?
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal

the flame ?
The Imperfect denotes the same idea in past time: as,

an ego non venirem (Phil. ti. 2), what, should I not have come ?
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say?

7% Imperative. The Imperative is used in Commands;
also, by early writers and poets, in Prohibitions: as,

consulite vobis, prospicite patriz, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 2),
have care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve your-

selves. [ much.
nimium ne crede colori (Ecl. ii. 17), ¢rust not complexion over-
ad me fac venias (Fam. xiv. 4), do come to me.

| @. Prohibitions are regularly (in classical Latin) expressed by
ne with the second person singular of the Perfect Subjunctive ; by
¢ noli with the Infinitive ; or by cave (colloquially fac ne) with the
Present or Perfect Subjunctive: as,
ne territus fueris (Tac. H. i. 16), de not frightened.
noli putare (Brut. 33), do not suppose.
cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), do not do it.
fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), pray attend to nothing
else.

b. In early Latin, in poetry, and in general prohibitions, the
Present Subjunctive is also used: as,

Albi ne doleas (Hor. Od. i. 33), grteve not, Albius.
| denique isto bono utare dum adsit: cum absit ne requiras (Cat.
"ig M. 10), 22 short, use this good while present ; when wanting,
do not regret it.

Remark. — The third person of the Imperative is antiquated
or poetic.

ollis salus populi suprema lex esto (id.), the safety of the people
shall be thetr first law.

justa imperia sunto, iisque cives modeste parento (Leg. iii. 3),
let the commands be just, and let the citizens strictly obey hem.

57: 7; 8:3 USE OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 153

c. The Future Imperative is used where there is a distinct
reference to the future time: viz.

1. In connection with a future or future-perfect ;

2. With adverbs or other expressions of time ;

3. In general directions, as Precepts, Statutes, Edicts, and
Wills: as,

cum valetudini consulueris, tum consulito navigationi (Fam.
xvi. 4), when you have attended to your health, then look to
your satling.

rei suze ergo ne quis legatus esto (Leg.), zo one shall be ambas-
sador in his own affair.

Remark. — The future form of the imperative is regularly used
of scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider): as,

filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), Zearnu that I am blessed with
a little boy.

sic habeto, mi Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4), so understand it, my good
Tiro.

de palla memento, amabo (PI. Asin.), pray, dear, remember

the gown.

d. The Future is sometimes used for the imperative ; and quin
(why not?) with the present indicative may have the force of an
imperative: as,

si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you well let

me know tf anything new happens.
quin accipis? (Ter. Heaut. iv. 7), here, take it.

S$. Infinitive. The Infinitive denotes the action of the
verb as an abstract noun, differing, however, from other
abstract nouns in the followmg points:— (1) It admits, in
many cases, of the distinction of tense; (2) It is modified by
adverbs and not by adjectives; (3) It governs the case of its
verb; (4) It is only used in special constructions.

Nore. — The Infinitive is properly the Dative case of an abstract
noun, denoting Purpose, which has developed in Latin, in many cases,

into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. I's
Subject is, strictly, the Object of some other verb, which has become

——*s eo

attached to it: as, jubeo te valere, lit., 7 command you for being well .
(i.e. that you may be well); just as, in Purpose-clauses, the purpose ©

becomes the object of command (compare Purpose Clauses, § 64).

a. Infinitive as Subject. The infinitive, with or without a
subject accusative, may be used as the Subject of a verb (or in
predicate apposition), and, rarely, as the Object: as,

71* ae

154 . SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8.

nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste
et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), 20 live well and happily, is noth-
ing else than to live honorably and rightly.

invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. ili. 10), exvy does not
belong to a wise man.

est humanitatis vestre...prohibere (Man. 7), ¢¢ zs for your

humanity to hold safe, &c. :

nam istuc ipsum zoz esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc.
i.6), for 1 think this very thing most wretched, not to be when
one has been. .

In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal
verbs, —rarely with others.

b. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and ex-
pressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note
below): as,

te abundare oportet przceptis (Off. i. 1), you must abound in
maxims.

id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen

_ first in poets.

reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59), he found what needed
to be said.

hec prescripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26),
one who observes these precepts may live nobly.

proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it
clear how base it is for me to be present. ,

c. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without: a
subject, is used with verbs which require another action of the

_same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting
to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin,

continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like: as,

hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this J can say.

mitto querere (Rosc. Am ), J omit to ask. [own presence.
vereor laudare presentem (N. D.i. 21), 7 fear to praise in one's
oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), pray make haste to come.

Notr. — The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these
infinitives is admissible or conceivable; though the same verbs, in
other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject.

d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also
take a subjunctive clause (§ 70): such are those signifying willing-
ness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and
the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when
it is the same as that of the principal verb: as,

quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom
they should protect.

Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), Z wish to imitate the Attics.

57: 8.] - USE. OF MOODS: INFINITIVE. 154

student excellere (Off. i. 32), chey aim to excel.

istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rosc. Am. 18), he had it
tn mind to deprive him of the inheritance.

cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2),
Lf desire to be merctful.

Some of these verbs —jubeo and veto regularly — may take the
infinitive with another subject: as,

signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), ke orders the standards to
be borne forward.

Nore. — This construction, though in many cases different from
the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of
the uses is the infinitive strietly Subject or Object; but its meaning
is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction
between the uses is not always clearly marked.

é. With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject |

accusative, is regularly used after words of knowing, thinking,
telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, 1):
as,

dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the

hill ts held by the enemy.
Note.— The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a
finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the eon
except number and person (see § 67).

Remark. —1. With verbs which govern the dative, the eee
of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with
others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative: as,

nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. 11), there was’

need for none to strive with him.
non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), Z have no desire
to bewail life. [ gent.
mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), Z must not be negli-
-non est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), ¢¢ zs not
necessary for all to speak standing.
expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), ¢¢ zs for your
tnterest to be good.

So with the dativus commodi: as,

quid est tam secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M.

19), what is so according to nature as for old men to die?
2 When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predi-
cate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the main subject:

si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. 1),
if there were faith in those in whom it ought to be greatest.

So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse: as,

vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. a), a good and
wise man says he is prepared, &c.

oe

156. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [57: 8.

sensit medios delapsus in hostes (En. ii. 377), he found himself
Sallen amongst the foe.

f. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of
() purpose: viz.

1. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages: as, |
tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i.5), so much I have to promise.

2. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds.
id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do.

3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective: as,

durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee. | verse.

cantari dignus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung.
Q

Remark. — Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote
result.

g- The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Ex-
clamations (compare § 52, 4): as,

mene incepto desistere victam (4£n.i.37), what! I desist beaten
Jrom my purpose ?

te in tantas z2rumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas!
that you should fall into such grief for me.

Norr.— This construction is elliptical: that is, the thought is
quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears,
or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que).

h. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the
tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the
nominative: as,

tum Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sall. Cat. 21), then Cati-
line promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers].

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), J Dressed him to
answer.

This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded
together in rapid narrative: as,

pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines servare;

‘ _ ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare;

arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil

consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51),

a part give way, others press on; they hold netther to stan-

dards nor ranks; where danger overtook, there each would

stand and fight ; weapons, missiles, horses, men, foe and friend,

were mixed; nothing went by counsel or command; chance
ruled all.

58: 152.] USE OF TENSES: INDICATIVE. 157

58. User or TENSEs.

. The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect, Future
(of incomplete action), and the Perfect, Pluperfect,
Future Perfect (of completed action).

1. Tenses of the Indicative. The tenses of the In-
dicative denote absolute time ; that is, present, past, or future,
in reference to the Speaker.

2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state, as
now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite without reference
to time: as,

agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), ¢he safety of our allies is
at stake.
Senatus hec intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i.1),
the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives.

nihil est victoria dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), zothing is sweeter than
victory.

tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange
a@ case, he arrays an army.

a. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes
an action begun in the past but continuing in the present: as,

patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these
many Years.

anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), zz zs now eight
years that this case has-been in hand.

6, Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an
action not completed at all, but only attempted: as,

Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), my brother
Quintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum.

(So the present Infinitive and Participle.)

c. The present, especially in colloquial ecaeges is sometimes
used for the future: as,

imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat ?

ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help?

in jus voco te. noneo. non is? (Pl. As. 480), Z summon you
to the court. Iwont go. You wont?

si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecu-
niam plurimum posse (Verr. i.2), 7f the prisoner ts convicted,
men will no longer say that money ts the chief power tn the
courts.

(See also under cum, antequam, dum § 62.)

158 . SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58:: 253.

d. Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is
often used for the historical perfect: as,

affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad pretorium ; Cleomenes,
quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet;
includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the news ts brought to Syra-
cuse; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes, though it was
night, does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at
home.

e. The present is regularly used with dum, while, though re-
ferring to past time: as,
hzc dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus per-
venerat (id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile
had come down to the coast at Elorum.
But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the
past tenses must be used: as,
nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat.
M. 22), for even when I was with you, you did not see my soul.
f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are
extant: as,
Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusce. ii. 7), du¢ Epicurus says such
things.
apud illum Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), zz him
[Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wound.

_ &. Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or con-
dition continued or repeated in past time: as,
hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before.
- Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates
thought so (habitually] and so he spoke [then].

C. Duilium redeuntem a cen4 senem szpe videbam (C.M. 13),
1 would often see Duilius, then old, coming home from dinner.

a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions: as,

erant: omnino itinera duo... mons altissimus impendebat
(B.G.i 6), there were in all two ways...a very high moun-
tain overhung.
b. The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect
and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a): as,
copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. 1. 13), the forces which
they had long been getting ready.
- C+ The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted,
but never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, b): as,

‘58: 3,4, 5-] ‘ USE OF TENSES. 159

in exsilium eiciebam quem jam ingressum esse in bellum vide-
bam (Cat. ii. 6), was 1 sending into exile one who I saw had
already gone into war ?
consules sedabant tumultus (Liv. iii. 15), the consuls busted
themselves to calm the tumult.
gi licitum esset veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), they were coming if it
had been allowed.

d. The imperfect is sometimes used to express a certain sur-
prise at the present discovery of a fact already existing: as,

O tu quoque hic aderas, Phormio (Ter. Ph. v. 6), O, you are
here too, Phormio.

ehem pater mi, tu hic eras? (Pl. id. v. 7), what, you here,
Sather ?

ah miser! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27), unhappy
boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never
knew it].

e. The imperfect is often used in narration by the comic poets,
where later writers would employ the perfect: as,
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (Trin.
956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted
his property.
presagibat animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (Aul.

222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that L went
in Vain.

f. The imperfect ind. in Apodosis, contrary to fact, regularly
refers to present time (see § 59, 3, @).

4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition
that will occur hereafter.
[For Future instead of the Imperative, see § 57, 7, d.]

5. Perfect. The Perfect definite denotes an action as
now completed; the Perfect Aistorical, as having taken place
indefinitely, in past time: as,

ut ego feci, qui Grecas litteras senex didici (C. M. 8), as J have
done, who have learned Greek in my old age.

tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit,
media zstate confecit (Man. 12), so great a war he made
ready for at the end of winter, undertook in early spring, and
jinished by midsummer.

[For the difference between the Perfect and Imperfect in nar-
ration, see Note, page 53. ] |

160 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 5, 6.>

a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that
something no longer exists: as,

fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i.1), there was
once such virtue tn this commonwealth.

fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (4E£n. ii. 325), we were Trojans, Ilium
did exist.

habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 36), he had, he has no longer.

b. The perfect is sometimes used of indefinite time in connec-
tion with a general present: as,

qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti
sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 31), they who have always
been in fetters of the body, even when released move more
slowly.

c. The perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, especially
with negations: as,

qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P.
412), ke who aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many
things.

non eris acervus et auri deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. i. 2),
the pile of brass and gold removes not the fever from the
Srame.

d. The perfect is often used in expressions containing or im-
plying a negation, where in affirmation the imperfect would be pre-
ferred: as,

dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 38), Hortenszus

spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in
the comparison: compare the use of quisquam, ullus, &c.
(foot of p. 48), and the French ne after comparatives and
superlatives. }

[For Perfect in apodosis of future conditions, see § 59, 4, e;
for Perfect after ubi, &., § 62, 2, a.]

Remark.— The Perfect and Pluperfect of a few verbs are
equivalent to the Present and Imperfect of kindred verbs: novi,
I know ; odi (osus), I hate; memini, I remember; cognoveram,
I knew ; venerat (= aderat), he was at hand (see § 36, 1): as,

qui dies zstus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which

| day generally makes the highest tides.

cujus splendor obsolevit (Quince. v. 18), whose splendor ts now
out of date.

6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an
action completed in time past; sometimes, also, repeated in
indefinite time: as,

58: 7-10.] USE OF ‘TENSES. 161

neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat.
ili. 7), for when he had given a thing in charge he did not
look on it as already done.

quz si quando adepta est id quod ei fuerat concupitum, tum
fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 15), ¢f7¢ [desire] ever has gained
what it had destred, then tt produces joy.

7%. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an
action as completed in the future: as,
ut sementem feceris ita metes (Or. ii. 65), as YOU sow, so shall

you reap.

Remark. — The Future Perfect is used (as above) with much
reater exactness in Latin than in English, and may even be used
instead of the Future, from the fondness of the Latins for repre-
senting an action as completed: as,
quid inventum sit paulo. post videro (Acad. ii. 24), what has
been found out I will see presently.
ego certe meum officium prestitero se G. iv. 25) I at least
shall have done my duty.

8. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect (his-
torical) or imperfect may be used for the present, and the plu-
perfect for past tenses, as if the letter were dated at the time

it is supposed to be received: as,

“neque tamen, cum hec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneri-
bus premerere (Fam. v. 12), zor while I write this am I
ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down.

ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10), Z
[have] azswered all your letters yesterday.

9. Tenses of the Subjunctive. The tenses of the Sub-

junctive denote Absolute time only in tmdependent clauses.

In these the Present always refers to future time ; the Imper-

fect to either past or present ; the Perfect to either future or —

past ; the Pluperfect always to past.

In dependent clauses, the tenses of the Subjunctive denote
Relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the
action of some other verb.

10. Sequence of Tenses. The forms which denote
absolute time may be used in any connection. But those
denoting relative time follow special rules for the Sequence
of Tenses. For this purpose, tenses are divided into two
classes: Viz.

¢

162 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. _ [58: to.

i 1. Primary, including the Present, both Futures, and Perfect
(definite) ;
ff 2. Secondary, including the Imperfect, Perfect (historical), ) <
and Pluperfect.
Ru.ie.—In compound sentences, a Primary tense in the
leading clause is followed by a Primary tense in the dependent
clause ; and a Secondary tense is followed by a Secondary : as,

scribit ut nos moneat, he writes to warn us.
scribet ut nos moneat, he will write to warn us.
scripsit ut nos moneat, he has written to warn us.

. scribe (scribito) ut nos moneas, write that you may warn us.
scripsit ut nos moneret, he wrote to warn us.

' geribit quasi oblitus sit, he writes as if he had forgotten.
scripsit quasi oblitus esset, he wrote as if he had forgotten.

Remark. — The Rule appears in the following Diagram : —

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
: ; Primary. Secondary.
1. Action not complete (time ert Pensuwe!’ peeeawee.

tively present or future).
2. Action complete (time relatively
' past).

In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, consider (1)
ehcihee the leading verb is primary or secondary ; (2) whether the
dependent verb is required to denote complete action (i.e. rela-
tively past), or incomplete (relatively present or future). By tak-
ing the corresponding tense, as given above, the correct usage
will generally be found.

Notice that the FururE Prrrect denotes relatively completed
action, and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Prr-
FECT or PLUPERFECT.

i PERFECT. | PLUPERFECT.

a. The perfect definite is properly a primary tense; but as its
action is (at least) commenced in past time, it is more commonly
followed by secondary tenses: as,

ut satis esset presidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 12), Arovision has
been made that there should be ample guard.

adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis
(Verr. i. 1), 2 have brought a man in whose person you can
make satisfaction to foreign nations.

b. The perfect subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past
action (either as Perfect definite or historical) depending on a verb
in a primary tense: as,

53° 10.) ! USE OF TENSES. 163

ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor
(Or. 4), zt may be understood from his letters how constant a
hearer he was of Plato.

ce. In clauses of Result, the perfect subjunctive is very often
(the present rarely) used after secondary tenses: as,

Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam
flagrantius studium viderim (Brut. 88), Hortenstus was so hot
with desire of speaking that I never saw a more burning
ardor tn any man. ?

Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea
restitui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 4),
for three years |Verres] so racked and ruined Sicily, that she.
can in no way be restored to her former state.

Remark. — This construction gives more emphasis to the fact
stated as a result; while the regular one gives more prominence
to the main clause. The perfect, thus used, can stand only for a
perfect indicative, not an imperfect ; and, in general, the perfect is
vften represented by the perfect subjunctive, contrary to the
general rule: as,

Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut illa plurima in sua pa-
triad et sacrificia et fana contemneret; ita non timidus ad
mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam interfectus (Fin. il.
20), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised |con-
temnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines tn his country, so
little timorous about death that he was killed (interfectus est]
in battle, in defence of the state.

Zeno nullo modo is erat qui nervos virtutis inciderit [compare
5, @]; sed contra qui omnia in una virtute poneret (Acad. i.
10), Zeno was noway one to cut the sinews of virtue ; but one,
on the contrary, who made everything depend on virtue alone.

dad. A general truth after a past tense follows the connection
of tenses in Latin (though not usually in English): as,

ex his que tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q.C.
iii. 9), from what she [Fortune] had bestowed on him, he re-
flected how tnconstant she ts. ;

ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet, apparu'‘t
(Liv. xxxiii. 37), here «tt appeared what power anger has to
goad the mind.

&. The historical present, or the present with dum, may be
followed by either primary or secondary tenses, but more com-
monly by secondary; as,

rogat ut euret quod dixisset (Quinct. 5), Ze asks him to attend to
the thing he had spoken of. area

castella communit quo facilius prohiberi possent (B. G. i. 8),
he strengthens the forts that they might be more easily kept
off:

164 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [58: 10, 11.

Ff. When the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are used in
protasis and apodosis, they may stand after any tense: as,

quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines, &c. (Fin. ii. 15),

because tt is such that even if men were ignorant.

g- The imperfect subjunctive, in protasis or apodosis, even
when it refers to present time, is regularly followed by secondary
tenses: as,

si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem

exciperes (Tusc. i. 5), ¢f you called only those wretched who
must die, you would except no one.
h. After the present, when a past tense appears to be in the
writer’s thought, secondary tenses sometimes follow by a kind of
Synesis: as, .
sed tamen ut scires hec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that
you may know, 1 write thus (as if Epistolary Imperfect].

cujus precepti tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed
Delphico deo tribueretur (Leg. i. 22), such zs the force of this
precept, that it was ascribed not to any man, but to the Del-
phic god {the precept was an old one}.

, Al. Infinitive. The tenses of the Infinitive are present,
\past, or future, relatively to the time of the verb on which
~{ they depend: as,
' nostros non esse inferiores intellexit (B. G. ii. 8), Ze ascertained
that our men were not inferior.
quam Juno fertur terris magis omnibus coluisse (En. i. 15),
which Funo, ’tis said, cherished above all lands.
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lal. 21), zhey hope
they shall receive the greatest advantage.
a. The present infinitive, after a verb in the past, must often
be rendered by the perfect infinitive in English: as,
scire potuit (Milo, 17), Ze might have' known.
qui videbatur omnino mori non debuisse (Arch. 8), who seemed
[one that] ought not to have died at all.
Remark. — This is most frequent with verbs of necessity, pro-
priety, and possibility (potui, debui, oportuit),
b. The perfect infinitive represents, in indirect discourse (§ 67,
1), any past tense of a finite mood. But the imperfect is some-
times represented by the present infinitive, — regularly after
memini where the memory recalls the action, but not where it
recalls the mere fact (compare G. 203, N. 1): as,
quis potest credere senatum putdsse (Mil. 5), who can believe
the Senate thought (dir. disc. putabat]?
memini Catonem mecum disserere (Lzl. 3), J remember Cato’s
discoursing with me (So dicere aiebat, De Or. ii. 3).
meministis me ita distribuisse causam (Rosc. Am. 42), you
remember that I so laid out the case.

58: 11.] : USE OF TENSES. 165

c. Except in Indirect Discourse the present infinitive only is
generally used, with no distinct reference to time: as,

est adulescentis majores natu vereri (Off. i. 34), ¢ zs the duty
of the young to reverence their elders.

de quibus dicere aggrediar (Off. ii. 1), of which I will under-
take to speak.

d. After verbs of wishing, necessity, and the like, the perfect
passive infinitive is often used instead of the present: as,

domestica cura te levatum [esse] volo (Q.F. iii. 9), 7 wish you
relieved of household care. yee ei

liberis consultum volumus propter ipsos (Fin. iii. 17), we wish
regard paid to children on their own account.

quod jampridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 2), which ought
to have been done long ago.

Remark. — In early Latin, and in poetry, the perfect active is
also used, and even after other verbs than those of wishing: as,

commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he zs cautious of doing.

edixerunt ne quis quid fuge caus& vendidisse neve emisse
vellet (Liv. xxxix. 17), they [the old laws] declared that none
should sell or buy to escape obligation.

haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (id. xxii. §9),

IL would not by crushing another exalt myself.

sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), zhere are those who
would not touch.

nollem dixisse (Verr. v. 20), Z would not say.

e. The perfect infinitive is used, especially by poets, to denote
a completed action after verbs of feeling; also with satis est
(habeo), melius est, contentus sum, and in a few other cases
where this distinction is important: as,

quiésse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), 2# w/ll be better to have kept
quitt- . Re On) a

non peenitebat intercapedinem scribendi fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21),
ZI was not sorry to have made a respite of writing.

pudet me... non prestitisse (id. xiv. 3), J am ashamed not to

have shown. , Bares

sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum collegisse juvat (Hor.
Od. i. 1), there are those who delight, &c. ;

majus dedecus est parta amittere quam omnino non paravisse
(Jug. 31), et 2s more discredit to have lost one’s gatus than
never to have gained at all. f

nil ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), ¢f 7 go
wrong, I cannot have done tt in ignorance.

f. The future infinitive is often expressed by fore or futu-
rum esse ut (§ 70, 4): as,

spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i.), 7 hope that will be
our happy lot. [But, sperat se Zosse (Mil. 12). ]

166 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (59: x.

59. CoNnpDITIONAL SENTENCES.

A Conditional Sentence (or Clause) is one beginning
with IF, or some equivalent.

1. Protasis and Apodosis. In a conditional sentence,
the clause containing the condition is called the Protasis; and
that containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis: as,

si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conivere possum [APoposIs]
(Cat. ii. 12), tf any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.

a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional
particles si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless. But a clause in-
troduced by an Indefinite Relative (as quisquis, whoever), a
Relative,or Concessive Conjunction (cum, since, quamvis, al-
though), a Participle, or an Imperative, is treated as a conditional
clause: as,

quzcunque causa vos huc attulisset, letarer (De Or. ii. 4),
I should be glad, whatever cause had brought you here [i.e. if
any other, as well as the one which did].

_ philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus etatis sine molestia
possit degere (Cat. M.1), Dhkilosophy, which iF any one obeys,
he will be able to spend his whole life without vexation.

virtutem qui adeptus erit ubicunque erit gentium a nobis dili-
getur (N. D. i. 44), 7f any one shall have attained virtue, &c.

[For Implied Conditions, see § 60.]

Nortr. — The Indefinite Relative, whoever, whatever, whenever, may be
regarded as a conditional expression, equivalent to if any one, if at any
time, &c., as is seen in the analogy of the Greek 6¢ ay, érav, and in the
structure of relative as compared with conditional clauses. In the
Statutes of Massachusetts, for instance, the phrase ‘‘ Whoever shall”
has been substituted for the old form “‘ Ir any person shall,” &e.

6. The Apodosis, being the main clause, depends in form on
the grammatical structure of the sentence, which may require a
Participle, Infinitive, or Phrase: as,

quod si przterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum solA decima

_ legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), dut tf no one else would follow,
he would go with the tenth legion alone.

si quos adversum prelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id.),
if the loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find.

sepulturé quoque prohibituri, ni rex humari jussisset (Q. C.
viii. 2), zatending also to deprive him of burial, unless the
king had ordered him to be interred.

$9: 2.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 167

2. Particular and General Conditions. The sup-
position contained in a Protasis may be either particular or
general, -

a. A Particular supposition refers to a definite act (or a definite
series of acts) occurring at some definite time: as,

si hzc condicio consulatis data est... feram libenter (Cat.
iv. 1), ¢f this condition has been imposed on the consulship,
I will bear it willingly.

b. A General supposition refers to any one of a class of acts,

which may occur (or may have occurred) at any time: as,

si vero habet aliquod tamquam pabulum studi atque doctrine,
nihil est otiosa senectute jucundius (Cat. M. 14), éudeed, if
tt have some sustenance (as it were) of study and learning,
' nothing ts more cheerful than an old age of leisure.

Nore. — These two classes of conditions are distinguished logically ;
and in most languages are also distinguished grammatically, — but only
as to Present and Past Conditions. In Latin, in particular conditions,
present or past tenses of the Indicative are regularly used in Prota-
sis, where no opinion is intimated of its truth or falsity; and the
Apodosis may take any form of the verb which can be used in an in-
dependent sentence. In general conditions, also, referring to Present or
Past time, the Indicative is for the most part used both in Protasis
and Apodosis. (Compare Goodwin’s Greek Grammar, § 220.) ,

c. Classification. The principal forms of Conditional Sen-
tences may be exhibited as follows : —
1. PrEsENT oR Past ConpiTrIons.
(a) ‘Simple statement

(nothing implied
as to fulfilment) :

it is well.

was [then] here, it was well.

_ ( si adesset bene esset, if he were [now]
(6) sca il ae here, it would be well.
pein faa fulfilled); ) 8! adfuisset bene fuisset, if he had

[then] been here, it would have sae well.

2. par 10 Gee nguassfods AK

(a) ie vivid (prob- { si aderit bene erit, if he is (sal be]
ble) : here, it will be well.

(b) fh vivid (improb- | si adsit bene sit, if he should fiiéreafter] |

be here, it would be well.
8. GENERAL SUPPOSITIONS.

si hoc dicas b this,
(a) Indefinite subject : } tis a | a pty if one says this

cs E si_ hoc. diceret bene erat (rare), if
(0) Repeated Action: ‘ [whenever] he said this, it was. well.

able) :

‘
ge

¥ ¢> 2 i wh, Ltt

si aderat (adfuit) bene erat, if he.

si adest bene est, if he is [now] ae Z

Vo

168 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. ‘ (59: 3.

3. Present and Past Conditions, <A present or past
condition may be simply stated, implying nothing as to its
fulfilment; or it may be stated so as to imply that it 2s not or
wus not fulfilled.

a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is NoT implied,
the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in Protasis ;
the apodosis expressing simply what is, was, or will be, the result
of the fulfilment (G. 221): as,

si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), ¢f you and the
army are well, tt is well.

si justitia vacat, in vitio est (Off. i. 19), ¢f justice be wanting,
zt [bravery] zs ¢z fault.

si placet... videamus (Cat. M. 5), zf you please, let us see.

fuerit hoc censoris, si judicabat (Div. i. 16), grant that ¢t was
the censor’s duty tf he judged, &c.

quicquid jurarunt ventus et unda rapit (Prop. ii. 28), whatever
they have sworn (i.e. if they have sworn anything], the winds
and waves sweep away.

b. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive are used,—the imperfect
referring to present time, the pluperfect to past (G. 222): as,

que si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus
(Cat. M. 11), #7 could not [now] follow this [an active life],
yet my couch would afford me pleasure.

nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem (id. 4), uzless you had
lost tt, I should not have recovered it.

si meum consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres,

- nos liberi essemus, respublica non tot duces et exercitus
‘amisisset (Phil. ii. 15), 2f my judgment and authority had
prevailed (as they did not], you would this day be a beggar,
we should be free, and the republic would not have lost so
many leaders and armies.

| Nore. — The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not in-

herent in the Subjunctive; but comes from the transfer of a future
_ condition to past time. ‘Thus the time for the happening of the condi-
tion has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the con-
dition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So forms
implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in
apodosis in this construction (see e, below).

c. In many cases the imperfect refers to past time, both in pro-
tasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action
is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist: as,

hic si mentis esset suze, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 21),

if he were of sane mind would he have dared to lead out the
army ?

59: 3.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 169

non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris
pateret (Verr. ii. 1), [the power of Carthage] would not
have fallen, unless that station had been open to our fleets.

d. The past tenses of the indicative in Apodosis (after a sub-
junctive in Protasis) may be used to express what ought to have
been done, or is intended, or is already begun (see § 60, 2, ¢): as,

si Rome privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus
(Manil. 17), 7 ke [Pompey] were at this time a private citizen
in Rome, yet he ought to be appointed.

quod esse caput debebat, si probari posset (Fin. iv. 9), what
ought to be the main point if it could be proved.

si licitum esset matres. veniebant (Verr. vi. 49), ¢he mothers
were coming tf it had been allowed.

in amplexus filiz ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Ann. xvi.
32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the
lictors had opposed. :

Remark. — In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in
time to the imperfect subjunctive, and the perfect or pluperfect
indicative to the pluperfect subjunctive (the tenses of the subjunc-
tive may, however, be used as well; see Note, above) : as,

satius erat (esset), 7¢ were better.

ée. This use is regular with all verbs and expressions denoting
the necessity, propriety, desirableness, duty, possibility, of an action
— including the two periphrastic conjugations (see page 83)—
where it is implied that what was necessary, &¢., has not been done.
It is sometimes carried still further in poetry: as,

nam nos decebat lugere (Tusc. i. 47), 7# would befit us to mourn.
si non alium jactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), ¢#
were a laurel, but for giving out a different odor.

Notre.— Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of
Futurity. Compare note. under 8.

f. So the participle in urus with fui is equivalent to a plu-
perfect subjunctive. Hence, when the Apodosis is itself a dependent
clause, requiring the subjunctive, a pluperfect subjunctive may be
represented by the Future Participle with the subjunctive of esse
(compare apodosis in Indirect Discourse, § 67, 1, ¢): as,

quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si... (Liv. ii. 1), what
would have happened, tf, &c.

neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si... (ib.), end
no doubt he would have done it, tf, &c. (dir. disc., fecrsset.]

ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui hec
sine doctrina credituri fuerint (Tusc. i. 21), hence 77 may be
understood how keen they are by nature, who, without tnstruc-
tion, would have believed th’s. {Were the condition is con-
tained in the words szxe doctrind. |

170 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. © [59: 4.

adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta
noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the
conspiracy, that they would have seized upon Otho, had they
not feared the hazards of the night [in the direct discourse,
rapuissent ni timuissent |.

4. Future Conditions. A Future condition may either
make a distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis
expressing what will be the result; or the supposition may be
less distinct and vivid, the apodosis expressing what would be
the result in the case supposed.

a. If the condition is stated vividly, so as to be conceived as
actually about to take place, the Future Indicative is used in both
protasis and apodosis (G. 223): as,

sanabimur si volemus (Tuse. iii. 6), we shall be healed if we

wish.

quod si legere aut audire voletis .... reperietis (Cat. M. 6),

if you will read or hear, you will find.

b. The Present subjunctive expresses a future condition less
vividly, or as less probable, than when the future indicative is
used (G. 224): as,

hee si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat.

i. 8), if thy country should thus speak with thee, ought she not
to prevail ?

quod si quis deus mihi largiatur... valde recusem (Cat. M. 23),

but if some god were to grant me this, I should earnestly
refuse.

Remark. — The present subjunctive sometimes stands in prota.
sis with the future in apodosis.

c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that
of the apodosis begins, the future perfect is substituted for the
future, and the perfect subjunctive for the present: as,

sin, cum potuero, non venero, tum erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2),
but if I do not come when I can, he will be unfriendly.
si non feceris, ignoscam (Fam. v.19), ¢/ you do not do it, I will
excuse you.
Remark. — This is a very common construction in Latin, owing
to the tendency of tthe language to represent an action as com-
pleted, rather than as in progress.

d. Any form denoting future time may stand in the apodosis
of a future condition (so the participles in dus and rus, and verbs
of necessity, possibility, and the like): as,

non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Verr. v. 41), J cannot
accuse him tif I should desire. r

59: 4, 5.] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 171

alius finis constituendus est si prius quid maxime reprehendere
Scipio solitus sit dixero (Lel. 16), axother limit must be set if
I shall first state what Scipio was most wont to blame.

e. Rarely the perfect is used (rhetorically) in apodosis with a
present or even future in protasis, representing the conclusion as
already accomplished: as,

si hoc. bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), ¢f this
is well fixed in your minds, you have conquered.

si eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), ¢f you shall
have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.

f. Frequently the present subjunctive of a future condition
becomes imperfect by the sequence of tenses or some other cause
(retaining the same force relatively to past time): as,

non poterat nisi vellet (B. C. iii. 44), was not able unless he
_ wished.

Cesar si peteret... non quicquam proficeret (Hor. Sat. i. 2),
if even Cesar were to ask he would gain nothing. (Here
the construction is not contrary to fact, but is simply sz
petat non proficiat, thrown into past time. }

tumulus apparuit...si luce palam iretur hostis preventurus
erat (Liv. xxil. 24), a@ hill appeared...if they should go
openly by light the enemy would prevent. |Independent of
apparuit, this would be, si eatur, freventurus est, for pre-

veniat. |
5. General Conditions. General conditions are distin- ,
_ guished in Latin in only two cases: viz.,

~ @- Indefinite Subject. The subjunctive is used in the second
person singular, to denote the act’of an indefinite subject (you =
any one). Here the present Indicative of a general truth may
stand in the apodosis (G. 225): as,

mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exer-
ceas, rubiginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very
like tron: tf you use it, tt wears away; if you don’t use it, it
gathers rust.

virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur
(Tuse. i. 38), glory necessarily follows virtue, even tf that ts
not one’s aim.

si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque
pudor est (Ann. iii. 54), 7f you once overstep the bounds with
impunity, there ts no fear nor shame any more.

si cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [ke was] easily appeased if
one yielded.

b. Repeated Action. In later writers (not in Cicero), the
imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in protasis, with the a

o

172 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [60: 1,

imperfect indicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary
action: as,
accusatores, si facultas incideret, poenis adficiebantur (Ann.
vi. 30), the accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were
visited with punishment.
quemcunque lictor prehendisset, tribunus mitti jubebat (Liv.
iii. 11), whomever the lictor had seized, the tribune ordered
to be let go.

c- In all other cases, General Suppositions — including those
introduced by Indefinite Relatives — take the indicative.

60. Impttep ConpITIONs.

In many sentences properly conditional, the sub-
ordinate member is not expressed as a conditional
clause ; but is stated in some other form of words, or
is implied in the nature of the thought.

1. Condition Disguised. The condition is often con-
tained in some other form of words than a regular Protasis,
in the same clause or sentence.

a- The condition may be contained in a relative, participial, or

other qualifying clause: as, :

facile me paterer— vel ipso querente, vel apud Cassianos judices
— pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rosc. Am. 30), 7 would readily
allow myself to speak for Roscius, 1F he, &c.

non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 42),
zt would not have come into my mind, unless [I had been]
admonished [= nisi admonitus essem].

nulla alia gens tanté mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii.
54), there ts no other people that would not have been crushed
by such a weight of disaster (i.e. IF it had been any other
people].

Soka eee sine magnA spe immortalitatis, se pro patria
offerret ad mortem (Tusce. i. 15), ”o one, without great hope
of immortality, would ever expose himself to death for his
country.

quid hunc paucorum annorum accessio juvare potuisset (Lal.
3), what good could the addition of a few years have done
him ? [if he had had them. ]

b. The condition may be contained in a wish, or expressed as
a command, by the imperative or hortatory subjunctive: as,

utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii.
3), f wish I had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling
us (i.e. if I had been].

f

60: 1, 2.] IMPLIED CONDITIONS. 173

roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 25), for ask Aristo, and
he would deny.

tolle hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusce. i. 13), remove
this notion, and you will have done away grief.

naturam expellas furcaé, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep i. 10),
drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return.

manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria
(Cat. M. 7), old men keep their mental powers, only let them
keep their zeal and diligence.

Notrr.— This usage is probably the origin of the use of the sub-

junctive in Protasis; the subjunctive being used first, as in § 57, 3, /

while the conditional particle is a form of an indefinite pronoun.
c. Rarely, the condition is stated in an independent clause: as,

rides: majore cachinno concutitur (Juv. iii. 100), you laugh:
he shakes with louder laughter.

de paupertate agitur: multi patientes pauperes commemor-
antur (Tusc. iii. 24), we speak of poverty: many patient poor
are mentioned.

2. Condition Omitted. The condition is often wholly
omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument.

Remark. — Under this head belong all the apparently inde-
pendent uses of the subjunctive not mentioned in § 57,2. In this
use the perfect subjunctive is especially common, in the same sense
as the present, referring to the immediate future; the imperfect to
past time (not to present, as in § 57, 3).

a. Potential Subjunctive. The present and perfect sub-
junctive (often with forsitan or the like) are used to denote an
action as possible; also, the second person singular of all the
tenses, denoting an indefinite subject: as,

hic querat quispiam (N. D. ii. 53), ere some one may ask.

ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Off. iii.6), as one may perhaps say.

forsitan hec illi mirentur (Verr. v. 56), they may perchance

marvel at these things.

tum in lecto quoque videres susurros (Hor. Sat. ii. 8), ¢hen on

each couch you might see whisperings.

6. The subjunctive is used m cautious, modest, or hypothetical
statement (conjunctivus modestie): as,

pace tua dixerim (Mil. 38), Z would say by your leave.

haud sciam an (De Or. i. 60), J should incline to think.

tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii.6), 7 would like you to think so.

vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phii. i. 7), 7 wish Anthony were

here (here vellem implies an impossible wish in present
time}.

hac erant fere que tibi nota esse vellem (Fam. xii. 5), this zs

about what I want you to know [here vellem is simply velim
transferred to past time on account of erat, by connection
of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish].

‘
™

Nactong.,

174 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (60:2. 6L

c. The Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and
the like, may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact: as,

longum est [sit] ea dicere, sed... (in Pison. 10), ¢# would be
tedious to tell, &c.

illud erat aptius, zquum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 1), 2# would
be more fitting to yield each one his rights.

ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 40), would it
have been a great matter to watt for himself ?

quanto melius fuerat (Off. ili. 25), ow much better it would
have been.

quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M.
whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt
him. . :

nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus
(Tusc. i. 48), for zt were fitting to mourn the house where a
man has been born [but we do not].

nunc est bibendum... nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvinar deorum
tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37), i.e. #¢ would be
time [if it were for us to do it, but it is a public act].

Remark. — Notice that, in this construction, the imperfect in-
dicative refers to present time; the pluperfect to simply past time,
like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but
is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.

d. The omission of the protasis often gives rise to mixed con-
structions: as,

peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. 1), may I
perish if it would not be better. [Here the protasis and
apodosis come under § 59, 3, d. Optimum erat is itself an
apodosis with the protasis omitted. }

quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphera
quidem eosdem motus Archimedes sine divino ingenio potu-
isset imitari (Tusc. i. 25). [Here the protasis of Jotudsset is
in sine divino ingenio. |

61, ConpDITIONAL PARTICLES.

Certain Particles implying a Condition are fol-
lowed by the Subjunctive, but upon several different
principles. — |

1. Comparative Particles. The particles of compari-
son—tamquam, quasi, guam si, acsi, utsi, velutsi,
veluti, and poetic ceu— introduce conditional clauses, of

61: 1, 2, 3.) CONDITIONAL PARTICLES. 175:

which the conclusion is omitted or implied; and take the
_ subjunctive.

Remark.—Contrary to the English idiom, the present and
perfect subjunctive are regularly used with these particles, except
where the connection of tenses requires secondary tenses: as,

tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia was closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. 2), just as if 1 were lame.
quasi vero non specie visa judicentur (Acad. ii. 18), as ¢f for-
sooth visible things were not judged by their appearance.
velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as ¢f he were there present.
similiter facis ac si me roges (N.S. iii. 3), you do exactly as if
you asked me.
* gque ac Si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), as much as tf it
were my own business.
ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (/En. il. 438), as if there were
no fighting elsewhere.
Magis quam si domi-esses (Att. vi. 4), more than tf you were
at home.
ac si ampullam perdidisset (Fin. iv. 12), as if he had lost the
bottle.

2. Concessive Particles. The particles of concession .
— although, granting that — sometimes take the subjunctive, (
but under various constructions: viz.,

Quamvis and ut (except in later writers) take the hortatory
subjunctive (§ 57, 3); licet is a verb, and is followed by an
object-clause (§ 70, 3); etsi has the same constructions as si
(§ 59); cum has a special construction ($ 62, 1); quanquam
takes the indicative (59, 3, a): as,

quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen... (Or. 23), however incaf-
able themselves of speaking, yet, &c.

ut neminem alium... rogasset (Mil. 17), even if he had asked
no other.

licet omnes in me terrores periculaque impendeant (Rosc. Am.
11), though all terrors and perils should menace me.

etsi abest maturitas (Fam. vi. 18), though ripeness of age ts
wanting.

etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 32), even if you had taken
away nothing else.

3. A Proviso, introduced by modo, dum, dummod6, - re-
quires the Subjunctive: as,

valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 16), provided the health ts good.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 30), provided [inplea-
sure] he be not one of the herd of cattle.

176 “SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [61: 4. 62.

oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 28), let them hate, tf only they fear.

dum de patris morte quereretur (Rosc. Am. 41), let the inquiry
only be of a father’s death.

dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 5), provided
only the city wall is between us.

Nore. — The Subjunctive with modo is a hortatory Subjunctive ;
with dum and dummodo, a development from the Subjunctive in
temporal clauses.

4. The use of some of the more common Conditional
Particles may be stated as follows:—

a- Si is used for affirmative, nisi and si non for negative con-
ditions. With nisi, the negative belongs rather to the Apodosis,
—i.e. the conclusion is true except in the case supposed; with
si non, the Protasis is negative, —i.e. the conclusion is limiled to
the case supposed. (The difference is often only one of emphasis.)
Wisi is never used if the clause has a concessive force. Ni is an
old form, reappearing in poets and later writers, and in a few con-
ventional phrases. Sometimes nisi si occurs.

6. Nisi vero and nisi forte — sometimes nisi alone — regu-
- larly introduce an objection, or exception, ironically, and take the
Indicative. :

c. Sive...sive (seu) introduce conditions in the form of an
alternative. They have no peculiar construction, but may be used
with any kind of condition, or with different kinds in the two
branches, often also without a verb.

d. Of the concessive particles, the compounds of si are used
in all the forms of protasis ; quanquam regularly introduces only
conceded facts, and hence takes the Indicative; quamvis, quan-
tum vis, quamlibet, ut, cum, and libet, take idiomatic construc-
tions corresponding to their original meaning. Later writers,
however, frequently use all these particles like the compounds of
si, connecting them with the Indicative or Subjunctive according
to the nature of the condition. Even Cicero occasionally uses
quanquam with the Subjunctive.

62. Retations or TIME.

Temporal clauses are introduced by particles which
are almost all of relative origin; and are construed
like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special constructions.

62: 1, 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 177

Temporal Particles are the following : —ubi, ut (ut primum,
ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone), cum
(quom), antequam, priusquam, postquam (postedquam),
dum, donec, quoad, quamdiu, quando.

I. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone
or compounded with -cunque, are used as indefinite rela-
tives, and have the constructions of Protasis (§ 59): as,

cum rosam viderat, tum incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 10),
whenever he had seen a rose, he thought Spring was begun
[general condition].

cum id malum esse negas (Tusc. ii. 12), whew you [the indi-
vidual disputant] dexy zt to be an evil.

cum videas eos... dolore non frangi (id. 27), when you see
[indefinite subject] ¢kaz those are not broken by pain, &c.

quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem
(Phil. v. 18), which I would surely not venture to do, as long
as no force compelled me [supposition contrary to fact].

id ubi dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32),
when he had satd this, he {used to] cast the spear into their
territories [repeated action].

Remark. —So est cum, fuit cum, &c., are used in general
expressions like est qui, sunt qui (§ 65, 2, a).

2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ;
those of relative time, the Subjunctive.

(For the definition of absolute and relative time, see § 58, I, 9.)

Note. — This distinction is not made in other languages, but it
may be made clear in the two following expressions: 1. When was
the great fire in London? Ans. When Charles II. was king (absolute
time). 2. When Charles II. was king (relutive time), a great fire broke
out in London. In the first case the reign of Charles is referred to as
an absolute fixed dute, known to the hearer; while in the second the
time is not so fixed, but is given as relative to the event narrated by the
main verb, which alone denotes absolute time. In this construction, the
Subjunctive describes the time by its characteristics (as in § 65, 2), and
thus is a branch of the Subjunctive of result. Hence this qualitative
character of the temporal clause often reappears and occasions the
Subjunctive, where the idea of relative time would not naturally be
expected: as, tum, cum HABERET hec respublica Luscinos, &c.... et tum,
cum ERANT Catones, &c. Here the former clause describes the char-
acter of the age by its men (at a time when there were such men); in
the latter, the individual men are present to the mind (at the time of
the Catos, &c. Leg. Agr., ii. 24).

a. The particles postquam (postedquam), ubi, ut (ut
primum, ut semel), simul atque (simul ac or simul alone),
introduce clauses of absolute time, and take the Indicative (usually d

the narrative tenses, the perfect and the historical present): as,
g*

178 ~ SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2.

milites postquam victoriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui victis
fecére (Sall. Cat. 11), when the armies had won the victory,
they left nothing to the vanquished.

Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C.
lll. 94), when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the army.

Remark.—1. Those particles may also take the imperfect,
denoting a continued state of things, and the pluperfect, denoting
the result of an action completed, in the Indicative: as,

postquam instructi utrimque stabant, duces in medium pro-
cedunt (Liv. i. 23), when they stood in array on both sides,
the generals advance into the midst.

P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in
Cc. 21), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of
having been| ¢wzce consul and censor.

postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perficiendi
dabatur, ad Pompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this
seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they
passed over to Pompey.

post diem quintum quam barbari iterum male pugnaverant
(= victi sunt), legati a Boccho veniunt (Jug. 110), the fifth
day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys
came from Bocchus.

2 Rarely these particles denote relativé time, and take the
Subjunctive: as,
posteaquam maximas edificAsset ornAssetque classes (Manil.
4), having built and equipped mighty fleets.

6. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, mtreduees—both=
} i j takes either mood, — the Indica-
* tive of the present and perfect, the Subjunctive of the imperfect
- and pluperfect: as,
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rosc. Am.
61), when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot.
nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit tum cum urbem condidit
(Div. i. 17), he traced with it the quarters (of the sky] at the
time he founded the city.
cum servili bello premeretur (Manil. 11), when she [Italy] was
. under the load of the Servile war.
inde cum se in Italiam recepisset (id. 12), when he had returned
thence to Italy. —
cum incendisses cupiditatem meam ... tum discedis a nobis
(Fam. xv. 21), while you had inflamed my eagerness, yet you
withdrew from us.

Note. — The Present takes the Indicative because present time is
generally, from its very nature, defined in the mind; and it is only
when the circumstances are described as causal or adversative (see
below, § 65, 2, e) that the Subjunctive is used. The Perfect takes
the Indicative as the tense of narrative, as with postquam, &c. The
Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, fitter to denote rela-
tive time.

62: 2.] RELATIONS OF TIME. 179

Remark.—1. But the imperfect and pluperfect may denote
absolute time, and then are in the Indicative: as,

res cum hec scribebam erat in extremum adducta discrimen
(Fam. xii. 6), at the time I write [epistolary] the affair was
brought into great hazard.

quem quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo
(Cat. iii. 7), when I was about forcing him |conative im-
perfect] from the city, I looked forward to this.

fulgentes gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum
irruebant (Tusc. ii. 24), the Decii saw the flashing swords of
the enemy when they rushed upon their line.

tum cum in Asia res magnas permulti amiserant (Manil. 7),
at that time, when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.

2. When the clauses are inverted, so that the real temporal
clause becomes the main clause, and vice versa, the Indicative
must be used: as,

dies nondur decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans

necatur (Clu. 9), tex days had not yet passed, when the other
infant son was killed. |

hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiz repente in

publicum procurrerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing
to do this by night, when the women suddenly ran out into the
streets.

3. With Future tenses, there is no distinction of absolute or
relative time; and hence the Indicative is used: as,

non dubitabo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode

facere potero (Fam. xiii. 1), 7 shall not hesitate to take pains
to see you, when I can do tt conveniently.

longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), zhat long time

when I shall be no more.

In the other tenses, the distinction is of late origin: hence in
Plautus quom always takes the Indicative except where the Sub-
junctive is used for other reasons.

¢. In narration antequam and priusquam — also, in late writ-
ers, dum and donec— have the same construction as cum: as,

antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter.

nec ante finis fuit quam concessére (Liv. viii. 13), there was no
end until they yielded [regular with non ante quam, &c.}.

antequam homines nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent,
in Macedoniam perrexi (Planc. 41), before those evil men
could learn of my coming, 1 arrived in Macedonia.

nec obstitit falsis donec tempore ac spatio vanescerent (Tac.
Ann. 1i.82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods till they died
out through lapse of time.

Remark. — In reference to future time, these particles take the
present and future perfect indicative; rarely the future indica-
tive and present subjunctive: as,

180 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [62: 2,

prius quam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitid pauca
dicam (Phil. ii. 1), before L reply to the rest, { will say a
little of friendship.

non defatigabor ante quam illorum ancipites vias percepero
(De Or. iui. 36), J shall not weary till I have traced out their
doubtful ways.

In a few cases the subjunctive of protasis seems to be used: as,

priusquam incipias consulto et ubi consulueris mature facto
opus est (Sall. Cat. 1), before beginning you need reflection,
and after reflecting, prompt action.

tempestas minatur antequam surgat (Sen. Ep. 103), the storm
threatens before tt rises. [Compare § 59, 5, a.]

d. Dum, donec, and quoad, implying purpose, take the sub-
¢ junctive (§ 64); otherwise, except in later writers, the indica-
tive. Dum and dummodo, provided, take the subjunctive: as,

|

dum hec geruntur (B.G. i. 46), whkéle this was going on.

donec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence
until he returned. “

dum res maneant, verba fingant (Fin. v. 29), so long as the facts
remain, let them fashion words.

hoc feci dum licuit, intermisi quoad non licuit (Phil. iii. 13),
I did this so long as tt was allowed, I discontinued so long as
zt was not.

dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum elegans (Brut. 82), dro-
vided it be polished, refined, elegant.

Remark. — With all temporal particles, the Subjunctive is often
found, depending on other principles of construction.

e- Cum CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE (since, while, though) takes
i the subjunctive (often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, prae-
sertim): as,

cum solitudo...insidiarum et metfis plena sit (Fin. i. 20),
since solitude is full of treachery and fear.

cum primi ordines...concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui
resistebant (B.G. vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen,

still the others resisted vigorously.

nec reprehendo: quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non
fugerim (Act. x. 3), 2 do not blame it: since I myself did not
escape that blame.

But frequently in the sense of quod, on the ground that, it takes
the Indicative: as,

gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. xi. 14),
1 congratulate you that you are so strong with Dolabella.

_ Notr.— This causal relation is merely a variation of the idea of
time, where the attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause.

63: 1, 2.] CAUSE OR REASON. 181

f- Cum... tum, signifying both ...and, usually take the
Indicative ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though,
it may have the Subjunctive: as,

cum multa non probo, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 6), whzle
there are many things I do not approve, there ts this in chief.

cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter, tum ne efficit quidem quod vult
(ib.), while the whole thing ts childishly got up, he does not
even make his point.

63. Cause or REASON.

Causal clauses may take the Indicative or Subjunc-
tive according to their construction ; the idea of Cause
being contained not in the mood itself, but in the form
of the argument, or the connecting particles.
al Particl

PUT Tit ts —

I. The Caus
rne.in-early:

es quod, quia, quoniam, quand

/y— take the Indicative: as,

<a
SY > ae
a .

quia postrema edificata est (Verr. iv. 53), because it was built
last.
utinam illum diem videam, cum tibi agam gratias quod me
vivere coégisti (Att. iii. 3), O that J may see the day when I
may thank you that you have forced me to live.
uoniam de utilitate jam diximus, de efficiendi ratione dicamus
(Or. Part. 26), stuce we have now spoken of [its] advantage,
let us speak of the method of effecting tt.
quando ita vis di bene vortant (Trin. 573), sézce you so wish,
may the gods bless the undertaking.
quom tua res distrahitur utinam te redisse salvam videam
(id. 617), sénce your property ts torn in pieces, oh, that I
may see you returned safely !

2. Clauses introduced by these particles, like any other
dependent clause, take the Subjunctive of Indirect Discourse

(see § 67, 1).

3. A relative clause of characteristic, with its verb, in the sub-
junctive, may have the force of a causal sentence (see § 65, 2).

4. The particle cum, when used in a causal sense, idiomatically
takes the Subjunctive (§ 62, 2, ¢).

182 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [64: 1.

64, Purpose.

A. Finat Causes, or those expressing purpose, take the
Subjunctive after relatives (qui = ut is), or the conjunction
ut (uti), ix order that (negatively ut ne or ne, lest): as,

ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii.
4), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough, that he might
be dictator.

scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 56), ke wrote
speeches for other men to deliver.

huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum reliquisti
(Quinct. 22), you have left him no ground even to make a
stand against you.

nihil habeo quod scribam, J have nothing to write.

habebam quo confugerem (Fam. iv. 6), Z had [a retreat]
whither I might flee.

ut ne sit impune (Mil. 12), ¢hat ct be not with impunity.

ne qua ejus adventis procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that
no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance.

Remark. — Sometimes the relative or conjunction has a correl-
ative in the main clause: as,

legum idcirco omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus
(Clu. 53), for this reason we are subject to the laws, that we
may be free.

eA causa...ne, for this reason, lest, &c.

Note. — As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut
is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is perhaps, in origin,
a hortatory subjunctive.

a- The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses, especially with comparatives: as, )

libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 3), se
availed himself of liberty, that he might bluster with more
impunity.

Compare quominus (= ut eo minus), after verbs of hinder-
ing (§ 65, I, a).

6. The Principal clause, upon which a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context: as,

ac ne longum sit... jussimus (Cat. iii. 5), and, not to be
tedious, we ordered, &c. (strictly, ‘‘ not to be tedious, I say.”’]

sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus, ... (Tusc. v.22), but to return
to Dionysius, &c.

satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 5), z# was
the act of one rash enough, not to say daring.

64:2. 65.] CONSEQUENCE OR RESULT. 183

Remark. — To this principle belongs nedum, still less, not to
mention that, with which the verb itself is often omitted: as,

nedum ... salvi esse possimus (Clu. 35), much less could we
be safe.

nedum isti... non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et
flagitii (Leg. Ag. ii. 35), far more will they hunt up at once
some sort of crime and scandal.

nedum in mari et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), stzll less is tt easy
at sea, and on a journey.

c- Final clauses easily become the object of verbs of wishing,
commanding, &c. (see § 70, 3).

2. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in
various ways; but never (except rarely in poetry) by the
simple Infinitive, as in English. The sentence, they came to
seek peace, may be rendered —

(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent... [final clause with ut];

(2) a qui pacem peterent [final clause with Relative];
: en ad petendum pacem (rare) [gerund with ad};
(4) 5, .._ ad petendam pacem [gerundive with ad];
(5) ‘ pacem petendi causa* [gerund with causa];
(6) ey pacis petendz causa [gerundive with causa];
(7) is pacem petituri [future participle (not in Cicero) ];
(8) ” pacem petitum [former supine].

* Or gratia.

65. CoNSEQUENCE OR RESULT.

1. Consecutive Causes, or those expressing result,
take the Subjunctive after relatives or the conjunction ut, so
that (negatively, ut non): as,

nemo est tam senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat.
M. 7), #o one ts so old as not to think he can live a year.

nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quz noceat nemini
(Tusce. iii. 8), for innocence is such a quality of mind as to do
harm to no one.

sunt aliz causz que plane efficiant (Top. 15), there are other
causes, such as to bring to pass.

Remark. —A negative result is expressed by ut non. Some-
times, when the result implies an effect intended (not a simple pur-
pose), ut ne or ne is used: as,

[librum] ita corrigas ne mihi noceat (Fam. vi. 7); correct the
buok so that it may not hurt me.

>.

184 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [65: 1, 2.

hoc est ita utile ut ne plane illudamur ab accusatoribus (Rose.
Am. 20), this ts so useful, that we are not utterly mocked by
the accusers [7.e., only on this condition}.
a The subjunctive with quaominus (— ut eo minus) may be
used, to express a result, after words of hindering : as, \
nec ztas impedit quominus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat.

M. 17), zor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in
tilling the ground.

6. A clause of result is introduced by quin after general
negatives, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, quod) non;
also after clauses denoting hindrance, resistance, doubt, and sus-
pension of effort (when these clauses are also negative): as,

non dubito quin, 7 do not doubt that [dubito an, / doubt whether).

zgre (vix) abstinui quin, / hardly refrained from, &c.

nihil impedit quin ..., there ts nothing to prevent, €c.

abesse non potest quin (Or. 70), 7¢ cannot be but that.

nihil est illorum quin [=quod non] ego illi dixerim (Plaut.

Bac. iil. 9), there ts nothing of this that I have not told him.

Remark. — The above clauses of resull easily pass into Substan-
tive Clauses, for which see § 70, 4, g.

2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, even where the idea of result
can be no longer perceived. ‘This is especially common
where the antecedent is otherwise undefined: as,

neque enim tu is es, qui qui sis nescias (Fam. v. 12), for you
are not such a one, as not to know who you are.

multa dicunt que vix intelligant (Fin. iv. 1), ¢hey say many
things suck as they hardly understand.

paci que nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est consulen-
dum (Off i. 11), we must always aim ata peace which shall
have no plots.

unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii.
15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could
be put together.

Norte. — These cases of result are to be distinguished from the In-
definite Relative in protasis (§ 59,1).

Such relative clauses of characteristie are used in several
idiomatic constructions: viz.,—

} a After general expressions of existence and non-existence,
including questions implying a negative: as,

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Ann. xvi. 29), ‘here were
some who pitted Helvidius.

65: 2. 66.] INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. 185

quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lel. 7), who 7s
there that does not extol tt with the highest praises ?

sunt aliz cause que plane efliciant (Top. 15), there are other
causes which clearly effect, &c.

* }. After unus and solus: as,

nil admirari prope res est una solaque que possit facere et
servare beatum (Hor. Ep.i.6), to wonder at nothing ts almost
the sole and only thing that can make and keep one happy.

» © After comparatives followed by quam: as,

majores arbores cedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv.
xxviii. 5), they cut larger trees than what a soldier could
carry.

Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem
(Brut. 18), ¢he statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent
nature.

d. In expressions of restriction or proviso, introduced by

Relatives: as,

quod sciam, so far as I know.

Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 17), she
speeches of Cato, at least such as 1 have discovered.

servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabili condicione sit servitutis
(Cat. iv. 8), there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable con-
dition of slavery.

~ @. When the quality indicated is connected with the action of
the main clause, either as Cause on account of which (since), or as
Hindrance in spite of which (although ; compare § 62, 2, e): as,

O virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 69), of, guzleless
man, who hides nothing from us! [so with ut, utpote, guipfe |.

egomet qui sero Grecas litteras attigissem tamen complures
Athenis dies sum commoratus (De Or. 18), Z myself, though
I began Greek literature late, yet, &c. (lit., a man who].

¥ f- Dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, take a clause of result
with a relative (rarely with ut); in the poets the Infinitive: as,

idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 19), fiz to obtain.
dignum notari (Hor. Sat. i. 3), worthy to be stigmatized.

66. INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES.

A Relative or other subordinate clause takes the
Subjunctive, when it expresses the thought of some
other person than the speaker or writer, or when. it is
an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equivalept
Infinitive.

186 _ §YNTAX OF THE VERB. | [66: 1, 2.

i. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to
express the thought of some other person —
a. In subordinate clauses in Indirect Discourse (see § 67, 1, b).

b. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish,
a command, or a question expressed indirectly, though not indirect
discourse proper: as,
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 6), az animal feels
what tt ts that ts fit.
hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet
ac pungat, ut evellatis postulat (Rosc. Am. 2), ke begs you to
pluck from his heart this doubt that goads and stings him day
and night. (Here the relative clause is not a part of the
Purpose expressed in evedllatzs, but is an assertion made by
the subject of Jostulat.]
c- When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb
of saying, or some modifier of it: as,
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer lis minatur (Verr. iii. 67),
he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues.
[Here the main clause, ‘‘ that he will inflict punishment,” is
contained in mzxatur.]
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni
(id. iv. 14), the forbidding to take away unless he came to
terms gave force to the bargain.
d. With a reason or an explanatory fact introduced by a rela-
tive or by quod (rarely quia): as,
Favonius mihi quod defendissem leviter succensuit (Att. iii. 1),
Favonius gently chided me for my defence.
Petus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit
(id.), Petus presented me all the books his father had left.
Remark. — Under this head, even what the speaker himself
thought under other circumstances may have the subjunctive. So
also with quod, even the verb of saying may take the subjunctive.
To this use also belong non quia, non quod, introducing a reason
expressly to deny it. Non quo, non quin, introduce a result clause,
but with nearly the same meaning as non quod: as,
pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia... (Tusc. ii.
23), doxers groan not with pain, but, &c.
non quia philosophia... percipi non posset (id. i. 1), zot that
philosophy cannot be found, &c. |
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Verr. ii. 9), wot that this is
necessary.
Nore. — This usage probably originates in apodosis, the condition
being the supposed truth of the speaker, the main subject.

2. A clause depending upon another subjunctive clause
(or equivalent Infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if it
is regarded as an integral part of that clause: as,

66:2. 67.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187

non pugnabo quominus utrum velis eligas (Div. C. 18), Z will
not oppose your taking which you will.

imperat, dum res adjudicetur, hominem ut asservent: cum
judicatum sit, ad se adducant (Verr. iv. 22), he orders them
while the affair is under judgment, to keep the man; when he
ts judged, to bring him to him.

etenim quis tam dissoluto animo est, qui hzc cum videat,
tacere ac neglegere possit (Rosc. Am. 11), for who is so reck-
less of spirit, that when he sees these things, he can keep silent
and pass them by ?

si tibi hoc Siculi dicerent, nonne id dicerent quod cuivis pro-
bare deberent (Div. C. 6), ¢f the Sicilians said this to
you, would they not say a thing which they must prove to
everybody ?

mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in preeliis
interfecti (Or. 44), zt zs the custom at Athens for those to be
publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle.

Nore. — The subjunctive in this use is either a Protasis or Apodosis,
and partakes of the nature of the clause on which it depends,—or |
at least of its original nature. In all cases except purpose and result,
this is clearly seen. In these, the case is undoubtedly the same; as
the Purpose has, of course, a future sense, and the Result is a branch
of apodosis. (See “ Essay on the Latin Subjunctive,” page 27.)

It is often difficult to distinguish between this construction and the
preceding. Thus, in imperat ut ea fiant que opus essent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse (under 1, 6); or
it may stand for erunt, and will then be Protasis (under 2).

67. InpirEcT Discourse. ..._/ —

A Direct Quotation is one which gives the exact
words of the original speaker or writer. An Indirect
Quotation is one which adapts the original words to
the construction of the sentence in which they are
quoted.

Remark. — The term Inptrect Discourses (oratio obliqua) |
is used to designate all clauses — even single clauses in a sentence A ,,
of different construction — which indirectly express the word or
thought of any person other than the speaker or writer, or even
his own under other circumstances. But it is more strictly used
to include those cases only in which the form of Indirect Quotation
is given to some complete proposition or citation, which may be
extended to a narrative or address of any length, — as found in the
Speeches of Cesar and Livy, —the form being dependent on some
word of saying, &c., with which it is introduced.

The term Direct Discoursk (oratio recta) includes all other
forms of expression, whether narration, question, exclamation, or
command,

188 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: I.

1. Indirect Narrative. Ina Declaratory Sentence in
indirect discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and
its subject in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take
the Subjunctive: as,

esse nonnullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B.G.i.17),
there are some, whose influence most prevails. (In direct dis-
course, sunt nonnulli... valet.)

nisi jurdsset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. i.
47), he thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take
the oath (direct, nist juravero. faciam). |

Stoici negant quidquam esse bonum, nisi quod honestum sit
(Fin. ii. 21), the Stotcs assert that nothing ts good but what
zs right. [The verb nego is used in preference to dico with
a negative. |

a. Subject-Accusative. The subject of the infinitive in
Indirect Discourse must regularly be expressed, even though it is
wanting in the Direct (See §70, 2, d): as,

orator sum, J am an orator ; [dicit] se esse oratorem, [he says]
he ts an orator (see § 70, 2, d).

But rarely, it is omitted, when it would be easily understood: as,

ignoscere imprudentiz dixit (B.G. iv. 27), he said he Jardoned
their rashness.

rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv.
12), £ asked whether they {the curtains] kad come to Agri-
gentum: he answered that they had,

Remark. — After a relative, or quam (than), where the verb
would be the same as that of the main clause, it is usually omitted,
and its subject is attracted into the accusative: as,

te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat.
M.1), J susfect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.

6. Relative Clauses. A subordinate clause merely erplana-
tory, and containing statements which are regarded as true inde-
pendently of the quotation, takes the Indicative. It often depends
merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he will use the in-
dicative or subjunctive: as,

quis neget hzec omnia quz videmus deorum potestate admin-
istrari (Cat. iii. 9), who can deny that all these things we see
are ruled by the power of the gods ?

cujus ingenio putabat ea que gesserat posse celebrari (Arch.g),
by whose gentus he thought that those deeds which he had done
could be celebrated. {Here the fact expressed by gue gesserat,
though not explanatory, is felt to be true without regard te
the quotation: gue gessisse¢ would mean, what Marius
thought he had done. |

67: 1.] INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 189

RemMirk.—Some clauses introduced by relatives are really
independent, and take the accusative and infinitive. Rarely, also,
subordinate clauses take this construction. The infinitive con-
struction is regularly continued after a comparative with quam: as,

Marcellus requisivisse dicitur Archimedem illum, quem cum
audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 58), Mar-
cellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he
heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed.

unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse par-
tem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 19),
the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the unt-
verse, from which thts naturally follows.

quemadmodum si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habi-
turum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii.
13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he will
consider the treaty as broken, so tf given up he will return
her unharmed to her friends.

addit se prius occisum iri ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii.
20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I
shall be injured.

The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam
(see § 70, 4, d).

c. Conditional Sentences. In a conditional sentence, the
Indicative in Apoposis is in any case represented by the corre-
sponding tense of the Infinitive. The Subjunctive is represented
by the Future Participle with fuisse for the pluperfect, and the
Future Infinitive for the other tenses (compare the use of the par-
ticiple in urus with fui for the pluperfect subj. p. 169). The
Prorasis, as a dependent clause, is in all cases Subjunctive: as,

se non defuturum [esse] pollicetur, si audacter dicere velint
(B. C.i. 1), he promtses not to fail, if they will speak their
minds boldly {non deéro si voletis].

Notre. — The future infinitive, representing the imperfect subjunc-
tive in Protasis, is for some reason very rare, and only four or five
examples occur in classic authors. On the contrary, the form with
fuisse is quite common.

d, Questions. A Question coming immediately after a verb
of asking or the like is treated as an Indirect Question (see
below, 2); but questions— generally rhetorical — coming in
course of a long indirect discourse are treated like Declaratory
Sentences: as,

num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam [se] deponere
posse (B. G. i. 14], could he lay aside the memory of recent
wrongs ? [num possum ?]

quem signum daturum fugientibus? quem ausurum Alexandro
succedere (Q.C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the re-
treat ? who will dare to succeed Alexander ?

190 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [67: 2.

Remark. —Generally real questions, expecting an answer
(chietly in the second person), take the subjunctive. Questions
asked by the dubitative subjunctive must retain the subjunctive
(see 2, b): as,

quid sibi vellent (B. G. i. 44), what did they want? [quid
vultis ?]
2. Indirect Questions. An Indirect Question takes its
verb in the Subjunctive: as,
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 6), Z will explain what I
think (direct, guid sentio}.
id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 7), ke consulted whether it could
be done (direct, fotestue}. ;
quam sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rosc. Am. 31),
all could understand how bold you are.
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 12), #7 ¢s of no
account whether I suffer or not.
incerti quidnam esset (Jug. 49), uncertain what it was.

Remark. — An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause,
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle),
depending immediately on a verb, or on any expression implying
uncertainty or doubt.

In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative, as in the third example given above.

a- The Future Indicative is represented in indirect questions
by the participle in urus with the subjunctive of esse, — rarely by
the simple subjunctive: as,

prospicio qui concursus futuri sint (Div. in Cec.), Z foresee
what throngs there will be [erunt]. ~

quid sit futurum cras, fuge querere (Hor. Od. i. 9), forbear to
ask what will be on the morrow ([erit, or futurum est].

6. The Dubitative Subjunctive referring to future time remains

unchanged except in tense: as,

[queritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, an Carthaginiensibus
reddatur (De Inv. i. 12), [the question is] shall Carthage be
destroyed, or restored to the Carthaginians.

nec quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat
(Liv. xxii. 7), or zs any one assured what he shall hope or
fear. (Here the participle with sit could not be used. ]

incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), sézce zt was
doubtful (abl. abs.] what they should seek or shun.

c. The Subject of an indirect question is often, in colloquial
usage and in poetry, attracted into the main clause as Object
(accusative of anticipation): as,

nésti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. vili. 10), you know
how slow Marcellus is.—In like manner,

67:2, 3) INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 191

potestne igitur earum rerum quare futurz sint ulla esse pre-
sensio (Div. ii. 5), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as
to those things, why they will occur ?

Remark. —In some cases the Object becomes Subject by a
change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and inter-
rogative construction is the result: as,

quidam szpe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves
(Lel. 17), ét ts often seen, in a trifling matter of money, how
unprincipled some people are.

quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt
(Leg. Ag. i. 2), t¢ has been shown by me in what way they
attacked Pompey.

d. In early Latin and poetry, questions which elsewhere would
have the Subjunctive as indirect often have the Indicative: as,

non reputat quid laboris est (Amph. 172), ke does not consider
what a task it ts.

vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R.R 6),
in what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.

Nore. — These cases are usually considered Direct questions ; but
they occur (as above) where the question cannot be translated as
direct without distortion of the meaning.

e. A few expressions properly interrogative are used idiomati-
cally as indefinites, and do not take a subjunctive: such are nescio
quis, &c., mirum (or nimirum) quam or quantum, immane
quantum, &c.: as,

qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusce.

ili. 6), who greatly extol that painlessness (whatever it ts).
mirum quantum profuit (Liv. il. 1), ¢¢ Aelped marvellously.

f. Occasionally, a virtual indirect question is introduced by si
in the sense of whether (like if in English) : as,

circumfunduntur hostes, si quem aditum reperire possent
(B. G. vi. 37), the enemy pour round [to see] tf they can find
entrance.

visam si domi est (Heaut. 118), J will go see tf he is at home.

3. Indirect Commands. All Imperative forms of syeech
take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse: as, ten

reminisceretur veteris incommodi populi Romani (B. G. 13),/ ¢
remember [said he] the ancient disaster, &c. [reminiscere }.
ne committeret ut (ib.), do not [said he] dring tt about [ne
commiseris ].
ers jars faciat (id. 20), le¢ him make an end of entreaty
ac].

192

SYNTAX OF THE VERB.

(6s.

The following example may serve to illustrate some of the fore-
going principles in a connected address : —

Indirect Discourse.

Si pacem populus Romanus
cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam
partem zturos atque ibi futuros
Helvetios, ubi eos Cesar con-
stitutsset atque esse voluisset:
sin bello persequi Jerseveraret,
reminisceretur et veteris incom-
modi populi Romani, et pris-
tine virtutis Helvetiorum. Quod
improviso unum pagum ador-
tus essef, cum ii qui flumen
transissent suis auxilium ferre
10n Jossent, ne ob eam rem aut
sue magno opere virtuti ¢r7bue-
ret, aut tAsos despiceret: se ita
a patribus majoribusque szds
didictsse, ut magis virtute quam
dolo coutenderent, aut insidiis
niterentur. Quare ne commit-
teret, ut zs locus ubi coustitissent
ex calamitate populi Romani et
internecione exercitfiis nomen
caperet, aut memoriam fro-
deret. — B.G. i. 13.

Direct Discourse.

Si pacem populus Romanus
cum Helvetiis faczet, in eam
partem zbunt atque ibi erunt
flelvetiz, ubi eos Cesar constit-
erit atque esse voluerit: sin
bello persequi jerseveradit,
remintiscere finquit) et veteris
incommodi populi Romani, et
pristine virtutis Helvetiorum.
Quod improviso unum pagum
adortus es, cum ii qui flumen
transterant suis auxilium ferre
non Jossent, ne ob eam rem
aut “uw magno opere virtuti
tribuerts, aut nos despexeris:
nos ita a patribus majoribusque
nostris didictmus, ut magis vir-
tute quam dolo contendamus,
aut insidiis wztamur. Quare,
ne commiser?s, ut hic locus ubi
constitimus ex calamitate populi
Romani et internecione exerci-
tis nomen cafzat, aut memo-

riam prodat.

68. WisHes AND COMMANDS.

WisHes are expressed by the Subjunctive, often
strengthened by the particles ut, utinam, 0 si (early Latin),
qui; the primary tenses being used in reference to future
time, the secondary to express a hopeless wish, — the imper-
fect in present time, the pluperfect in past (see § 57, 4).

Remark.—A periphrasis with velim, vellem, &c., is some-
times used (57, 4, c).

2. ComMaANDs are expressed by the Imperative or Sub-
junctive (§ 57, 3, 7); Pronreitions by the Subjunctive, or
by a periphrasis with noli or cave (§ 57, 7, a). The object
of the command is given in a purpose-clause (§ 70, 3) with
ut or ne, except after jubeo and veto (§ 70, 2).

Indirectly quoted, all these forms of speech take the
Subjunctive (see § 67, 3).

69. 70.] CLAUSES. 193

69. Revative CLAUSES.

1. A simple relative, merely introducing a descriptive fact,
takes the Indicative.

2. The Subjunctive appears more or less frequently in
many relative clauses (which have been already treated).
These relatives always either—(1) are general relatives of
Protasis ; or (2) express some logical connection between the
relative and antecedent, or (3) have no effect at all upon the
construction. These constructions are —

1. General or Future Conditions in Protasis ($$ 59, 60, 61).
2 ad Final Clauses (§ 64).
6. Consecutive Clauses (§ 65).
c- Relatives of Characteristic (§ 65, 2).
d. Relatives implying Cause or Hindrance (§ 65, 2, e).
é€.- Temporal Clauses of relative time (62, 2).
3. a. Intermediate Clauses (§ 66).
6. Clauses in Indirect Discourse (§ 67).

70. SwuBsTANTIVE CLAUSEs.

A Substantive Clause is one which, like a noun,
is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition
with a subject or object. |

Remark. — The Infinitive with the Accusative, though not
strictly a Clause, is equivalent to one, and may be treated as
such.

When a substantive clause is used as Subject, the verb to which
it is subject is called Impersonal (§ 39), and its sign, in English,
is IT; when it is used as Object, it generally follows some verb
of knowing, &c. (§ 67, 1) or of wishing or effecting, and its sign,
in English, is THAT, or TO (Infinitive).

1. Classification. Substantive Clauses are of four
kinds: —1. The Accusative with the Infinitive, denoting an
idea as thought or spoken (§ 67, 1); 2. Indirect Questions
(67, 2); 8. The Subjunctive with ut, ne, quo, quin, or

9

194 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 1, 2.

quominus, denoting purpose or result; 4. The Indicative
with quod, denoting a fact. But the Infinitive alone may
take the place of either 1 or 3,

2. Accusative and Infinitive. The Accusative with
» the Infinitive is used as the SussEer chiefly of esse or im-
personal verbs (§ 57, 8, b); and as the Ossectr—1, Of all
verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling (In-
direct Discourse, § 67,1); 2. Of jubeo and veto, and rarely
of other verbs of commanding, requesting, admonishing, and
the like; 3. Sometimes of verbs of wishing: as,

omnis homines summa ope niti decet (Sall. Cat. 1), ct is it-
ting that all men strive with utmost effort.

Labienum jugum montis adscendere jubet (id. 21), he orders
Labienus to ascend the ridge of the hill.

judicem esse me non doctorem volo (Or. 33), Z wish to be a
judge, not a teacher.

negat ullos patere portus (Liv. xxviii. 43), 4e says that no ports
are open.

a. After Passives. If the main verb is changed to the pas-
sive, either (1) the Subject of the infinitive (like other objects of
active verbs) becomes nominative, and the infinitive is retained ; or
(2) the passive is used impersonally, and the clause retained
as its subject. With verbs of saying, &c., the former construction
is more common, especially in the tenses of incomplete action;
with jubeo and veto it is always used: as,

primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 13), they first
are related to have joined words with a certain skill.

jussus es renuntiari consul (Phil. ii. 32), you were under orders
to be declared consul.

in lautumias Syracusanas deduci imperantur (Verr. v. 27),
they are ordered to be taken to the stone-pits of Syracuse.

hic accusare non est situs (Sest. 44), Ze was not allowed to
accuse.

ceterz Illyrici legiones secutura@ sperabantur (Tac. Hist. ii. 74),
the rest of the legions of Lllyricum were expected to follow.

voluntaria morte interisse creditus est (Tac. H. iv. 67), ke was
thought to have perished by voluntary death.

nuntiatur piratarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 24), zt és
told that the ships of the pirates are in port.

b. The poets extend the use of the passive to verbs which are
not properly verba sentiendi: as,

colligor domine placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), 7¢ zs gathered
[from this memorial] ¢hat / pleased my mistress.

70#27°3) SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. SG

c. Such indirect discourse may depend on any word implying
speech or thought, though not strictly a verb of saying, &c.: as,

eos redire jubet: se in tempore adfuturum esse (Liv. xxiv. 13),

he orders them to return | promising | that he will be at hand
in season.

orantes ut urbibus saltem —jam enim agros deploratos esse —

opem senatus ferret (id. xvi. 6), Jraying that the senate
would bring aid to the cities —for the fields [they said] were
already given up as lost.

d. Verbs of promising, expecting, threatening, swearing, and
the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom (§ 67, I, a); but sometimes a simple
complementary infinitive: as,

me spero liberatum [esse] metu (Tusce. ii. 27), Z ¢rust I have

been freed from fear.
minatur sese abire (Asin. iii. 3), ke threatens to go away.
[Direct, abeo, J am going away. |

ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lzl. 21),
Jrom which they hope to gain the utmost advantage.

quem inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur.
41), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of
enemies.

dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusce. v. 27), azn
threatens to wear down fortitude.
pollicentur obsides dare (B.G. iv. 21), they promise to give hos-
tages [compare Greek aorist infinitive atter similar verbs. ]
3. Clauses of Purpose. The clause with ut (nega-_~...
tive ne), developed from PpuRPOSE, is used as the Object of
all verbs denoting an action directed towards the future.
Such are —

a. Verbs of commanding, asking, admonishing, urging, and,
in general those denoting an influence upon some one (§ 64). > ~
These verbs rarely take the Infinitive (except jubeo and veto,
which take it regularly): as,

his uti conquirerent imperavit (B.G. i. 28), ke ordered them to

search. :
monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to

avoid all suspicton.

b. Verbs of wishing and the like. These take also the simple ~~
(nfinitive ; more commonly when the subject remains the same, less
commonly when it is different (see 2, above): as,

cupio ut impetret (Capt. i. 2), wish he may get it.

cum nostri perspici cuperent (B. G. iii. 21), when our men

wished it to be seen

196 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 3.

mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 6), 7 would rather you
Seared Cerberus.

quos non tam ulcisci studeo quam sanare (Cat. ii. 8), whom I
do not care so much to punish as to cure.

c. Verbs of permission, concession, and necessity. These take
also the Infinitive: as,

permisit ut partes faceret (De Or. ii. 90), permitted him to
make divisions.

vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow
wine to be imported.

nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), ke suffered him-
self to be tangled in no business.

sint enim oportet si miseri sunt (Tusc. i. 6), they must exist, tf
they are wretched. (Here the clause is subject of ofortet.].

RreMarRK.— The clause with licet (usually without ut) is
regularly used to express a concession in the sense of although.

d. Verbs of determining, resolving, bargaining, which also
take the Infinitive. Those of decreeing often take the participle
in dus, on the principle of indirect discourse: as,

edicto ne quis injussu pugnaret (Liv. v.19), having commanded
that none should fight without orders.

pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bar-
gained that the property should belong to the victor.

Regulus captivos reddendos non censuit (Off. i. 13), Regulus
voted that the captives should not be returned. [i.e. in giv-
ing his opinion, captivi non reddendi sunt. |

e. Verbs of caution and effort. Those denoting an effort to
hinder may also take quominus or ne: as,

cura et provide ut nequid ei desit (Att. ii. 3), zake care and see
that he lacks nothing.

non deterret sapientem mors quominus... (Tusc. i. 38), death
does not deter the wise man from, &c.

ne facerem impedivit (Fat. i. 1), Arevented me from doing.

f. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirmative
and ne non or ut negative: as,
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), ke feared he
. should offend the mind, &c.
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 9), 7 fear J cannot
grant you. ,
haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet

(Tusc. v. 40), there ts no danger of his not thinking death
desirable.

Remark. — The particle ut or ne is often omitted, — generally
after verbs of wishing, necessity, permission ; with cave, dic, fac;
and in indirect discourse, frequently after verbs of commanding
and the like.

70: 4.] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197

g- With any verbs of the above classes, the poets may use the
Infinitive: as,
hortamur fari (4En. ii. 74), we exhort [him] Zo speak.

4. Clauses of Result. The clause with ut (negative “a
ut non, &c.), developed from RESULT, is used as the Object
of verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: as,

commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), he made
it possible that supplies could be brought. (Lit., he effected
that, &c. ]

a. The substantive clause becomes the Subject of such verbs ~~
in the passive; and hence is further used as the subject of verbs
denoting it happens, it remains, it follows, and the like; and even
of the simple esse in the same sense, and other phrases: as,

sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 32), the next thing is to show, &c.

accidit ut esset plena luna (B. G. iv. 29), zt chanced to be full

moon.

accedit ut conturber (Deiot. 1), besides this I am troubled.

reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (id.), zt remains

that the fourth virtue ts thrift.
_ quando fuit ut quod licet, non liceret (Cel. 20), when was it
that what ts now allowed was not allowed ?

6. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows
quam, after a comparative: as,

_ perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusce. i. 22), he
endured all, rather than betray, dc.

ec. A result clause with ut is often used elliptically, in ex-
clamations, with or without -ne (compare § 57, 8, g): as,
quanquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 9), yet

why do Task? that anything should bend you?
egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 18), what, J interrupt you ?

Remark — The infinitive, in exclamations, usually refers to
something actually occurring; the subjunctive to something con-
templated.

d. The phrase tantum abest, if is so far [from being the
case], besides a subject-clause (substantive) with ut, regularly
takes another ut-clause (of result) depending on tantum: as,

tantum abest ut mostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac mor-
osi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Or.
29), so far from admiring our own matters, we are difficult
and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself
satisfies us. {Here the first ut-clause depends directly on
abest ; the second on ¢antum; and the third on usgue eo. |

198 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [70: 4.

e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, often form a
periphrasis for the simple verb (compare fore ut for the future
infinitive) : as,

invitus feci ut Flamininum e senatu eicerem (Cat. M. 12), z#
was with reluctance that I expelled, &c.

f. Rarely, a thought or idea is considered as a result, and
takes the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and infini-
tive (in this case a demonstrative usually precedes) : as,

altera est res, ut... (Off. i. 20), the second point its that, &c.

preclarum illud est, ut eos... amemus (Tusc. iii. 29), ¢hés zs
a noble thing, that we should love, &c.

que est igitur amentia, ut... what folly is there then in de-
manding, &c.

g- Verbs and other expressions which imply hindering and the
like, may take quin when the main verb is negative, formally or
virtually ($ 65, 1, 6): as,

facere non possum quin... (Att. xii. 27), 7 cannot avoid, &c.

nihil pretermisi quin scribam...(Q. F. iii. 3), Z have left
nothing undone to write.

ut nulla re impedirer quin (Att. iv. 2), that I might be hin-
dered by nothing from, &c.

non humana ulla neque divina obstant quin (Sall. Ep. Mith.
17), no human or divine laws prevent, but that, &c.

Remark. — This usage is found especially with the phrase non
dubito and similar expressions making a kind of indirect dis-
course: as,

non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2), ke did not doubt
that we believed him.

illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20), do of
doubt that I will do all.

quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 27), who ts ignorant that, &c. ?

neque ambigitur quin Brutus pessimo publico id facturus fue-
rit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Livy, ii. 1),
nor is there any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the
kingdom from any one of the former kings, would have done it
with the worst results to the state (direct discourse, fecésset].

h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying or as words of commanding, effecting and the like, and
may be construed accordingly: as,

sequitur illico esse causas immutabiles (Fat. 12), 7# follows
directly that there are unalterable causes. [The regular
construction with segzor used of a logical sequence. }

laudem sapientiz statuo esse maximam (Div. v. 13), J hold
that the glory of wisdom is the greatest.

BOS’ Goda. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 199

statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. xii. 21),
they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent.

res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8), the thing itself warned
that it was time [monere ut, warn to do something.

fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. 1. 27), suppose that Lam per-
suaded of that [facere ut, accomplish that).

hoc volunt persuadere non interire animos (B. G. vi. 13), they
wish to convince that souls do not perish.

huic persuadet uti ad hostes transeat (B. G. iii. 18), Jersuades
him to pass over to the enemy.

Nore. — The infinitive, with a subject, in this construction is in-
direct discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive
sometimes found with these verbs.

5. Indicative with quod. The clause in the Indicative
with quod is used (more commonly as Subject) when the
statement is regarded as a fact: as,

alterum est. vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium
conferunt (Off. i. 6), z¢ 7s another fault, that some bestow too
much zeal, &c. [Here ut with the subjunctive could be
used, meaning that they should, or the accusative and infin-
itive, meaning Zo more abstractly; quod makes it a fact that
men do, Xc. |

inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal.
agit aliquid (Ac. ii. 12), ¢here ts this chief difference, &c.,
that an animal has an aim.

quod rediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. 21), that he [Reg-
ulus|-veturned seems wonderful tous. [Redisse would mean
he should have returned. |

a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod appears as
an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English
WHEREAS: as,

- quod de domo scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of
the house.

quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis

preclaris operibus letari (Att. i. §), as to your congratulat-

ing me on our condition, no wonder you are pleased with your
own noble works.

b. Verbs of feeling and its expression take either quod (quia)
or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : as,
quod scribis... gaudeo(Q. F.iii.1). Zam glad that you write.
quz perfecta esse vehementer letor (Rosc. Am. 47), 7 greatly
rejoice that this ts finished.
facio libenter quod eam non possum preterire (Leg. i. 24). JZ
am glad that I cannot pass tt by.
Remark. — Rarely, an apparent substantive clause, with miror
and similar expressions, is introduced by si (really a Protasis) : as,
-miror si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lel. 15), J skould
wonder tf he could ever have a friend.

200 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. T7474, 2:

71. QUESTIONS.

Questions are introduced by Interrogative Pronouns,
Adverbs, or Particles, and are not distinguished by
the order of words, as in English.

The Interrogative Particles are, an, utrum, num, and the
enclitic -ne (see page 86). For other interrogative words, see
list, page 49.

i. Interrogative Particles. The enclitic -ne is used
in questions asked for information merely ; nonne, when the
answer yes, aud num when the answer no, is expected or im-
plied: as,

meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 3), do you remember

my saying tn the senate ?

nonne animadvertis quam multi salvi pervenerint (N. D. iii.

37), do you not observe how many have come through safe ?
num dubium est (Rosc. Am. 37), there zs no doubt, is there?

Remark. — The interrogative particle is sometimes omitted:
as,

patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that
your plans are manifest ?

a. In Indirect Questions, num loses its peculiar force: as,

quero num aliter evenirent (Fat. 3). I ask whether they
would turn out differently.

b. The form of Indirect questions is the same as that of Direct;
the difference being only in the verb, which regularly takes the
subjunctive (§ 67, 2).

Remark. —In English, indirect questions are introduced by
interrogatives, or by the particle whether.

c. The enclitic -ne is often added to interrogative words when
not required: as, utrumne, numne, anne.

d. The expressions nescio an, dubito an, and the like, incline
to the Affirmative, — I don’t know but.

2. Double Questions. In Double or Alternative Ques-
tions, utrum or -ne, whether, stands in the first member; an,
anne, or; annon, necne, or not, in the second: as,

-utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), don’t you
know ? or do you think nothing of it?

92:°3,° 3) QUESTIONS. 201

quero servosne an liberos (Rosc. Am. 27). JZ ask whether
slaves or free. (Here servos aut liberos would mean, were
there azy, either slaves or free. |

Remark.—In direct questions, annon is more frequently
found in the alternative; in indirect, necne.

a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber; when -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: as,

Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio (Manil. 19), shall J say to Ga-

bintus or to Pompey ?

sunt hxc tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 18), ave these your words

or not?

6. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied; and an
(anne) alone asks a question— usually with indignation or sur-
prise: as,

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 7), what! do you think those

men wretched ?

ce. The second member may be omitted, when utrum asks a
question to which there is no alternative: as,

utrum in clarissimis est civibus is quem.... (Flacc. 19), zs he

among the noblest citizens, whom, &c.
d. The following exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
utrum...an
Se ees an (anne)
-ne ve. @2
ee eee -ne

3. Question and Answer. As there is no word in
Latin meaning simply yes or no, in answering a question the
verb is generally repeated : as,

valetne, ¢s ke well ? valet, yes (he 7s well).

eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not).

a. An intensive or negative particle is sometimes used in
answer to a direct question: thus immo (nay but), vero (in
truth), or etiam (even so) may have the meaning of yes; and non
(not), or minime (least-of-all), of no.

6. In the answer to an alternative question, one member of
the alternative must be repeated: as,

tune an frater erat, was it you or your brother ?
ego [eram], ¢¢ was J.

Qx*

202 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 1.

72, PARTICIPLES.

The Participle expresses the action of the verb in
the form of an adjective; but has a partial distinction
of tense, and generally governs the case of its verb.

1. Distinctions of Tense. The Present participle de-
notes the action as not completed; the Perfect as completed ;
the Future as still to take place.

a. Present. The Present participle has several of the irregu-
lar uses of the present indicative (compare § 58, 2): as,

querenti mihi jamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem
(Fam. iv. 13), though 1 had long sought, no certain thing came
to my mind (cf. ib. @).

C. Flaminio restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 4), ke
resisted Flaminius while attempting to divide, &c. (ct. b).
iens in Pompeianum bene mane hec scripsi (Att. iv. 9), Z
write this when about going to my place at Pompei? (cf. c).

Hence it is used in late writers to denote purpose.

6. Perfect. The Perfect participle of a few deponent verbs
is used nearly in the sense of a Present. Such are, regularly,
ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, fisus, ausus, secutus, and
occasionally others, especially in later writers: as,

cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men,
he showed, &c.

iratus dixisti (Mur. 30), you spoke in a passion.

oblitus auspicia (Phil. i. 13), forgetting the auspices.

insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing ambuscade.

imperio potitus (Liv. xxi. 2), holding the command...

ad pugnam congressi (id. iv. 10), meeting in fight.

rem incredibilem rati (Sall. C. 48), thinking it incredible.

c. The present participle, wanting in the Passive, is usually
supplied by a clause with dum or cum; rarely by the participle
in dus: as,

Dic, hospes, Spartz, nos te hic vidisse jacentes,
Dum sanctis patrie legibus obsequimur.

Tell tt. stranger, at Sparta, that we lie here obedient to our
country’s sacred laws. [Here dum obseguimur is a transla-
tion of the Greek srecO6uevot. |

crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set
on fire [compare note under § 73}.

72: 2,3.) PARTICIPLES. 203

2. Adjective use. The present and perfect participles
are used sometimes as attributes, nearly like adjectives: as,

cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprobatam (Div. i. 5),
a view at once most ancient and approved.
signa nunquam fere ementientia (id. 9), sigus hardly ever

deceitful.
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. 15), ¢hey use forced auspices.

a. ‘Thus they are used, like adjectives, as nouns: as,

sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Leg. i. 13), the self-
indulgent, and slaves to the body.

recte facta paria esse debent (Par. iii. 1), right deeds ought to
be like in value.

male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 27), 27 got, ll spent.

consuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 44), the habit of a man in health.

b. So, also, they are connected with nouns by esse and simi-
lar verbs: as,

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et
moliens (Cat. M. 8), you see how busy old age ts, always
aiming and trying at something.

Gallia est omnis divisa (B. G. i. 1), all Gaul ts divided.

locus qui nunc septus est (Liv.i. 8), the place which ts now
enclosed.

¢. From this adjective use arise the compound tenses of the
passive, —the participle of completed action with the incomplete
tenses of esse developing the idea of past time: as,

interfectus est, ke was (or has been) killed, lit., he ts having-
been-killed (i.e., already slain].

d. In the best writers (as Cicero) this participle, when used
with the tenses of completed action, retains its proper force; but
in later writers the two sets of tenses (as, amatus sum or fui)
are often used indiscriminately: as,

[leges] cum que late sunt tum vero que promulgate fuerunt
(Sest. 25), the laws, both those which were proposed, and |
those which were published. [The proposal ot the laws was
a single act: hence /a¢@ sunt is a pure perfect. The Audlish-
ing, or posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by
promulgate, and fuerunt is the pure perfect. ]

arma que fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div.
i. 34), the arms which had been fastened on the walls were
found upon the ground. [Compare occupati sunt et fuerunt
(Off. i. 17): the difference between this and the preceding
is, that occupatus can be used only as an adjective. ]

3. Predicate use. The Present and Perfect participles
are often used as a predicate, where in English a clause

204 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [72: 3.

would be used to express time, cause, occasion, condition,
concession, characteristic, manner, circumstance: as,

vereor ne turpe sit dicere incipientem (Mil. 1), 7 fear tt may be
a dishonor |to me] when beginning to speak.

salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 7), you have restored
a safety which we did not hope.

nemo ei neganti non credidisset (Mil. 19), zo one would have
dishbelieved him when he denied.

Remark. — This use is especially frequent in the Ablative Ab-
solute (see § 54, 10, b and Note). A co-ordinate clause is some-
times compressed into a perfect participle; and a participle with
a negative expresses the same idea which in English is given by
without: as,

imprudentibus nostris (B. G. v.15), while our men were not

looking.

miserum est nihil proficientem angi (N. D. iii. 5), ¢¢ 2s wretched

to vex one’s self without effecting anything.

instructos ordines in locum zquum deducit (Sall. C. 59), se

draws up the lines, and leads them to level ground.

ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), that he might carry

them over and put them to death.

a. A noun and passive participle are often so united that the
participle and not the noun contains the main idea (compare the
participle in indirect discourse in Greek: G. 280): as,

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), defore the city
was built or building.

illi libertatem civium Romanorum imminutam non tulerunt;
vos vitam ereptam negligetis (Manil. 5), key did not endure
the infringement of the citizens’ liberty; will you disregard
the destruction of their life?

So with opus: as,

opus est viatico facto (Plaut. Trin.), there is need of laying in
provision.

maturato opus est (Livy viii. 13), there zs no need of haste.
[Here there is no noun, as the verb is used impersonally. ]

6. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs)

is almost the same in meaning as a perfect active: as,

fidem quem habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam (Div. C. 4),
my fidelity, which they have proved and long known.

(Hence the perfect with have in modern languages.)

ce. The perfect participle, with verbs of effecting, effort, or
the like (also with volo where esse may be understood, cf. § 70,
3, 6), expresses more forcibly the idea of the verb: as,

_preefectos suos multi missos fecerunt (Verr. iv. 58), many dis-
charged thetr officers.

72: 4, 5.] | PARTICIPLES, 2U5

hic transactum reddet omne (Capt. 345), ke will get it all done.

me excusatum volo (Verr. i. 40), Z wish to be excused.

d. The present participle is sometimes nearly equivalent to an
infinitive, but expresses the action more vividly (after facio, in-
duco, and the like, used of authors, and after verbs of sense): as,

Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 11), Xenophon
represents Socrates disputing.

4. Future Participle. The Future Participle (except
futurus and venturus) is rarely used in simple agreement
with a noun, except by later writers.

a. The future participle is chiefly used with esse in a peri-
phrastic conjugation (see § 40, a): as,

morere, Diagora, non enim in czelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i.
46), die, for you are not likely to go to heaven.

conclave illud ubi erat mansurus si... (Div. i. 15), chat cham-
ber where he would have staid tf, &c.

sperat adolescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 19), ke young man
hopes to live long (§ 67, 1).

neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 20),
and seemed unltkely ever to seek the consulship.

By later writers it is also used in simple agreement to express
likelihood or purpose, or even an apodosis: as,

cum leo regem invasurus incurreret (Q. C. viii. 1), when a
lion rushed on to attack the king.

rediit belli casum de integro tentaturus (Liv. xvii. 62), he re-
turned to try the chances of war anew.

ausus est rem plus fame habituram (Liv. ii. 10), ke dared a
thing which would have more repute.

[See also examples in § 59, 1, b.]

b. With past tenses of esse, the future participle is often
equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 59, 3, e).

5. Gerundive. The Gerundive, in its participial or ad-
jective use, denotes necessity or propriety.

a. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and per-
fect participles, in simple agreement with a noun: as,

fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 38), a drave man, and °

worthy to be preserved.

b. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with esse in a

second periphrastic conjugation (§ 40, b): as,

non agitanda res erit (Verr. vi. 70), will not the thing have to
be agitated ?

ry

206 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. [73: 1, 2.

Remark. — The gerundive in this construction is passive in
meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is
used impersonally, governing the accusative ; and it is regularly so
used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes
called the nominative of the gerund): as,

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), the way we

have to enter.

agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), Z have got to stand guard.

[Compare Greek verbal in -réoc, G, 281.]
c- It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying to
give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as,

redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii.
21), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column
[the regular construction with this class of verbs].

zedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), ke had the
temple of Castor to take care of.

naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56),
he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept.

For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see § 70, 3, d.

For the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE, see § 54, Io, b.

73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.

1. Gerund. The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the
government of the verb, and modified by adverbs, but in
grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns.

Remark. — The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, cor-
responds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (§ 57, 8, a), its
nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the
participle in dus: as,

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38),

the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and
false. (Here the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguish-
ing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the
infinitive dzsserere and dijudicare. |

juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), ¢¢ 7s for the

young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare § 51, 3, 4).

2. Gerundive, When the gerund would have an object
in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead,
agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund

would have had: as,

paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), reader to
undergo all dangers. (Here subeunda agrees with fericula,
which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the
gerund would be, ad subeundum, &c.; ad governing the
gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative Zericula.]

73: 2, 3.) GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 207

exercende memorize gratia (Off. i. 15), for the sake of training
the memory. |Here the gerund construction would be, exer-
cendi memoriam. |

Remark.— The verbs utor, fruor, &. (§ 54, 6, d), are
‘treated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early
Latin: as,

expetuntur divitiz ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches
are sought for che enjoyment of pleasure.

Nore. — The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in
secundus (trom sequor), rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), fluiamandi
(‘T'ac.), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that
of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis
delende would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in
process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be de-
stroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming
fused together as in ub urbe condita. The gerund is simply an imper-
sonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the
case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias ; quid opus est fucto?

3. Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs.
with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun
in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the construc-
tions of nouns, as follows: —

a. Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives
in the constructions of the objective genitive (§ 50, 3); more
rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality: as.

neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G.
iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for
taking arms [objective genitive after sfatio|.

ne conservandz quidem patriz causa (Off. i. 45), sot even in
order to save the country.

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), zt zs the best end of life.

non tam commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos
(id. ii. 1), destrous not so much of changing as of desiroying’
the state.

que res evertendz reipublice solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which
things generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth.

cognoscende antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times.
[Here gratia is, by a rare construction, omitted. |

The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun)
with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor
number: as,

ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec.), eager fo see her.
reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), tke ower of
challenging three jurors.
Remark. — In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and
gerundive are about equally common.

208 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. (73: 3.

b. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and
rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns (§ 51, 6) ;
also, in a few expressions after verbs: as,

przesse agro colendo (Rosc. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage.

esse solvendo, ¢o be able to pay.

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a

sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.

reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accom-

modata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap
and gather in the harvest.

diem prestituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), ke appointed a day

for doing the work.
It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after
nouns meaning Officers, offices, elections, &c.: as,

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nomin-

ating consuls.

triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), @ ¢riumvir for

leading out colonies.

c. Accusative. ‘The Accusative is used after the prepositions
ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante); most frequently after
ad, denoting purpose (compare § 72, 4): as,

vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam

(Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring.

inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving.

me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to write.

d. Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or in-
strument ; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equiv-
alent to the present participle) ; after comparatives ; and after the
prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as,

multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), ke fersuades by large

promises. —

his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), dy reading these very things.

nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off.

i. 15), 20 duty ts more important than gratitude.

in re gerenda versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs.

Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), egual to any man in

speaking Latin.

nullis virtutis praeceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without giving

any precepts of virtue.

obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv.

i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.

Remark. — The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with
a noun: as,

ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi.

3), for the most widely different things obeying and com-
manding.

Nore. — From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish
form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective.

74: 1, 2.] a SUPINE. 209

74, SupiIne.

The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction
of tense or person, and is limited to two uses.

Norr. — The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension.
The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. ‘The form
in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative.

1. Former Supine. The Supine in um is used after
verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it
governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs: as,

quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non
flagitatum (De Or. iii. 5), 4ow now, shall we be seated?
though we have come to remind not to entreat you.

nuptum collocasse (B. G. i. 18), fo establish in marriage.

venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), ¢key came to complain
of wrongs.

Remark. — The supine in um is used especially after eo; and
with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive
(see § 55, 3, b, Rem.): as,

fuére cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sall. C. 36), ¢here
were citizens who went about to ruin the republic.
~ non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (n. ii. 786), Z shall not go
in slavery to the Grecian dames.
si scisset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9) he. [Pompey] kad
known that he was going to be murdered.

2. Latter Supine. The Supine in w is used only after
a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to de-
note that in respect to which the quality is asserted: as,

O rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25),
a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of!

quezrunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what ts
best to do.

humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do
or undertake.

si hoc fas est dictu (Tuse. v. 13), ¢f this ts lawful to say.

So rarely with verbs: as,
pudet dictu (Agric. 32), zt 7s shame ¢o tell.

Remark.— The supine in u is found especially with such
adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and
those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis,
difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is
more common. ‘The Infinitive is often used in the same significa-
tion, by the poets, with all these adjectives.

“L-

210 GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. [75.

1.

oor AN fF WN

FE 9

R

~
@

bh
Or

16.

a7.

18.

19.

20.

21.
22.

23.

24.
25.

75. GENERAL RULES oF SYNTAX.

Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case: (§ 46).

. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47).
. Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any

case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5).

Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number ;
their case depending on the construction of their clause (48).

. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49).

Two or more singular subjects —also collective nouns, with
quisque and uterque—may take a plural verb (49, 1).

. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (49, 2).

A Noun used to limit or define another is in the Genit1ve (50).

. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and

(with adjectives) measure or quality (50, 1).

. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the

whole to which the part belongs (50, 2).

Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to
express indefinite Value (50, 1, 7).

Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance,
fulness and want, — also verbals and participles used as ad-
jectives, — govern the genitive (50, 3).

. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the gen-

itive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, 6).
The Dartrvr is the case of the Indirect Object (51).

. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are fol-

lowed by the dative (51, 5, 6).

Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their
contraries, — also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy,
threaten, pardon, and spare, — govern the dative (51, 2, a).

The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3).

Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, pre, pro, sub, super, govern the dative (51, 2, d).

Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like—and some-
times of comparing and taking away — govern the accu-
sative and dative (51, 1).

The dative is used to denote the purpose or end; often with
another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5).

The AccusaTIVE is the case of the Direct Object (52).

The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, 0).
Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative.
The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3).

Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two
accusatives (52, 2). :

75.] GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 211

26. The ABLATIVE is used of cause, manner, means, instrument,
quality, specification, and price (54).

27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative
with ab (54, 4).

28. Words denoting separation and plenty or want—also opus
and usus signifying need — govern the ablative (54, 1).

29. Participles denoting birth or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, a):

30. The adjectives dignus, indignus,— with many verbals, as

_contentus, fretus, letus, preeditus,— govern the abla-

tive (54, 3, @; 10, a).

31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and
their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d).

32. Comparatives may take the ablative instead of quam, than.

33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e).

34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, 1).

35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative
are used to define the time or circumstances of an action.

36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of
singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative ;
that whither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative.

So of domus, rus (also humi, belli, militia), and many names of Islands.

37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions
are used to denote where, whither, or whence.

38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or
Object, or to complete the action of a ver (57, 8, a).

39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after
words of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e).

40. Yistorical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for
tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, x).

41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in
agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun.

42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion; the Supine
in u after adjectives.

43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, com-
mand, or concession (57, 2), also in doubtful questions.

44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result, — also
of relative time or characteristic, — require the Subjunctive.

45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2).

46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future condi-
tions; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact.

47, Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive
construction, take the subjunctive.

48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by
primary, and secondary by secondary (58, Io).

212 3 ARRANGEMENT. [76: 1, 2.

76. ARRANGEMENT.

In Latin the words do not follow the order of con-
struction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This,
however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony,
and clearness.

1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands first,
followed by its modifiers ; the verb dast, preceded by the words
which depend upon it: as,

civis Romanus sum (zo¢ sum Romanus Civis).

voluptates blandissimz dominz majores partes animi a vir-
tute detorquent (Off. ii. 10).

a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the
predicate, is often placed after the copula: as,

qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24).
hec ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6).

b. The forms of esse meaning there is, &c., often come first
in the sentence: as,

sunt quedam officia que aliis magis quam aliis debeantur

(Off. i. 18).

c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the
phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly
follows: as,

omnes homines decet.

est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24).

omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentia (id. 29).

cum aliqua perturbatione (id. i. 38).

Lelius et sapiens et amicitie gloria excellens (Lzl. 1).

d. A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand
first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the
word they qualify.

2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives em-
phasis.
a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This
mikes either or both emphatic: as,
dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17).
b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence
comes first, and with the following last: as,

ac a as iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off.
i. 32).

716: 2531 ARRANGEMENT. 213

objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam
poétas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in 4Etoliam ut
scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2).
maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis; quibus et non tri-
buere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit equum,
contra officium est (Off. iii. 10).
c.- A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound
tenses becomes emphatic: as,
ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38).
d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often
placed between them. So in the gerundive construction: as,

de communi hominum memoria (Tuse. i. 24).
de uno imperatore contra predones constituendo (Manil. 17).

e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as
possible, so as to include less important words: as,

objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessarie (Off.

1. 38).

f. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the
same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which
is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account
of the cross arrangement. Thus,

rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. ili. 3, 31).

pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16).

leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos
(Fin. iii. 3).

non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta
est (Lzl. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is
chiastic, that of ideas is regular.]

g- Different forms of the same word are often placed together,

also words from the same root.

h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by
which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the
other. This is often joined with chiasmus: as,

et superjecto pavide natarunt equore dame (H. Od. i. 2, 11).
arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. I, 5).

3. Special Rules.

a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenus
and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and ad-
jective: as,

quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus

cum copiis; nulla in re.

214 ARRANGEMENT. (762 374.

b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause;
enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second,
sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never
first, but after the emphatic word: ne... quidem include the
emphatic word or words.

c. Inquam, inquit, &., credo, opinor, quaeso, used par-
enthetically, always follow one or more words.

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if
it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence.

4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to
each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern
languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favor-
able to that form of sentence which is called a Period. Ina
period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and
is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which
usually expresses the main action or motive.

An English sentence does not often admit this form of
structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and
beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose; but
its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the
following : —

‘“‘ High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,

Satan exalted sat.*’
Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5.

PART THIRD.

RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY).

77. Detieue

1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like
modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme; but was
measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel
sounds. ‘The measured flow of verse is called Rhythm.

2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short, —
in Quantity or length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak
of the long or short vowel-sounds in English) ; a long syllable
being reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3).

Remark. — The quantity of radical or stem-syllables—as of
short a in pater or of long a in mater — can be learned only
by observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules
of Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary
rules for the purposes of memory; the syllables being long or
short because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases
which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by
the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by
the authority of the Poets, —the principal means we have of learn-
ing it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distin-
guished in various ways, by marks over the letters, or by doubling.

Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very
largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous
Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part
of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accord-
ance with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where
these vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules
given below. .

78. RuLes oF QUANTITY.
1. General Rules.

a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as, via, traho.

Remark. — The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not
reckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See § 1, 1, Note).

216 PROSODY. [78: 1, 2.

Exceptions. —1. In the genitive form ius (§ 16, 1, 6), i is
long. It is, however, sometimes made short in verse.

2. In the fifth declension (genitive and dative singular), e is
long between two vowels: as, diéi; but is short after a consonant,
as in fidéi.

3. In fio (§ 37, 4), i is long except when followed by er: as,
fio, fiebam, fiam, fieri, fierem.

4. In the terminations ius and 6ius, a and e are long: as in
Caius, Pompéius; also in the verb @io, and genitives in ai.

5. In many Greek proper names, the vowel in Latin represents
a long vowel or diphthong, and is consequently long: as, Trdés,
Thalia, hérdas. But many Greek words are more or less Latin-
ized in this respect as Academia, choréa.

6. A Diphthong is long: as, foédus, cil, caélum, déinde.

ExcrpTion. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally
short before a vowel (as in preeustis, Ain. vii. 524).

c. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long: as i in nil
(for nihil); currtis (genitive for curriiis). But not where the
vowels are united by syneresis, as in pariétibus ( par-yetibus).

d. A syllable in which a short vowel comes before two con-
sonants or a double consonant — also before the letter j — is long:
as, magnus, réx, péjor, 6t véntis, gaza, (but Aadhuc). But
if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r, the syllable
is common, —that is, it may be either long or short in verse: as,
alacris, patribus, réfluo.

Remark. — Sometimes the y or v resulting from syneresis
has the effect of a consonant: as, fliividriim réx (G. i. 482).

é. In early Latin s at the end of words was not sounded, and
hence does not make position with another consonant. In many
other cases in the comic poets two consonants do not make posi-
tion, especially in pronouns and particles: as, fille, iste, némpe.

Remark. — A short syllable, made long under this rule, is said
to be long by Position: as, in docétne. In docésne, the same

syllable is long by the general rule (2, k, below). The rules of
Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels.

2. Final Syllables.

a. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long: as, mé,
tii, hi, né.

The attached particles -né, -qué, -vé, -cé, pté, and ré- (réd-)
are short; se- is long: as, s@cedit, exercitumqué réducit.

78: 2.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 217

b. Nouns of one syllable are long: as, 861, Ss (Gris), bos, vis.
Exceptions. —c6r, fl, mél, Ss (ossis), vir, vis (gen.).

c. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the
ablative singular of the first declension; in all other words it is
long: as, ea stellA (nominative), cum ea stella; frustra,
voca (imperative), posted, triginta; also, qua (plural).

EXCEPTIONS. — eid, ita, quia, puta (suppose); and, in late
use, triginta, &c.

d. Final e is short, except (1) in nouns of the fifth declen-
sion; (2) in adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and
second declension, with others of like form; (3) in the impera-
tive singular of the second conjugation: as, nubé, ducité, fidé,
famé (§ 11,i. 3.4*)quaré (qua ré), hddié (hoc die), moné,
monété, saepé, saepissime.

Exceptions. —bené, malé; feré, fermé; also (rarely), cavé,
habé, tacé, valé, vidé; inferné, superné.

ée. Final i is long: as in turri, fili, audi. But it is common in
mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi; and short in nisi, quasi, citi (when
making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives, as Alexi.

f- Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives; also,
usually, in verbs.

EXCEPTIONS. — citd, modé, ilicd, profectd, dummodd,
imm6, egd, dud, octd.

g- Final u is long; final y is short.

h. Final as, es, os, are Jong; final is, us, ys are short: as,
nefas, rupés, serv6s, honds; hostis, amiciis, Tethys.

ExcrpTions.—as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as
lampadas; and in anas.

es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) increasing
short: as milés (itis), obsés (idis),—-except abiés, ariés,
pariés, pés; in the present of esse (€s, ad&s); in the preposition
penés; and in the plural of Greek nouns.

os is short in compos, impos; in some Greek endings, as
barbitds; also o for later u in the second declension, as servds
(nominative).

is in plural cases is long, as in bonis, omnis (accusative
plural) ; in sis, vis, velis, malis, nolis; in gratis, foris (prop-
erly plurals) ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjuga-
tion, as audis (where it is the stem-vowel) ; and sometimes in
the forms in -eris (perfect subjunctive), where it was originally

long. 10

218 PROSODY. [78s 254.

us is long in the genitive singular and nominative and accusa-
tive plural of the fourth declension; and in nouns of the third
declension having @ long in the stem: as virtiis (itis), inciis
(fidis).

4. Of other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except
c, are short: as, ad, ac, istiic, amat, amatiir.

Exceptions. — donéc, fac, néc, sometimes hic; €n, n6n,
quin, sin; cras, pltis; clr, par.

3. Penultimate Syllables.

a. Increment. A Noun is said to increase, when in
any case it has more syllables than in the nominative
singular.

Thus stella is said to increase Jong in stellarum; and corpus
to increase short in corpGris.

Notre. — The rules of increment are purely arbitrary, as the
syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the
stem or the formative terminations. The quantity of noun stems
appears in the schedule of the third declension (§ II, iv. 3), and that
of terminations, under the various inflections where it is better to learn
them.

A Verb is said to increase, when in any part it has more
syllables than in the stem (inclusive of the final vowel).

Thus amo is said to increase long in amatis; and rego to
increase short in regitis.

The final syllable of an inflected word is called the termi-
nation ; that immediately preceding is called the tmerement.

' Thus, in the examples given above, the penultimate syllable is
called the increment. In itinéribus, amavéritis, the syllables
marked are called the first, second, and third increments of the
noun or verb.

b. Nouns. In the increment of Nouns and Adjectives, a
and o are generally long; e, i, u, y, generally short (see list,
pp. 25-27): as, aetatis, honGris, servGrum; opéris, carminis,
murmiiris, pectidis, chlamydis. Exceptions are :—

a:—baccar (aris), hepar (atis), jubar (aris), lar (laris), mas
(m4ris), nectar (Aris), par (paris), sal (sdlis), vas (vadis), daps
(dapis), fax, anthrax (acis).

6:—neuters of third declension (except 6s, ris) ; arbor (6ris),
scrobs (scroébis), ops (Opis).

78: 3.] RULES OF QUANTITY. 219

@:—Zincrements of fifth declension; heres (é€dis), lex (l€gis),
locuples (étis), merces (€dis), plebs (plebis), quies (€tis), rex
(régis), ver (véris).

i:— most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, félicis, radicis : except
filix, larix, salix (icis), nix (nivis), strix (strigis) ; also, dis
_(ditis), glis (gliris), lis (litis), vis (vires), Quirites, Samnites.

tii: —forms from nouns in tis: as, palidis, telliris, virtiitis ;
also lux (licis), frux (frigis).

c. Verbs. In the increment of Verbs (see Tables of Inflec-
tion, pp. 66-74), the characteristic vowels are as follows : —

Of the first conjugation 4: as, amare, amatur.

Of the second conjugation @: as, monére, monétur.

Of the third conjugation 6, I: as, regére, regitur.

Of the fourth conjugation i: as, audire, auditur.

Exc. —do and its compounds have &: as, dare, circumdabat.
In other increments —

a is always long: as, monearis, regamus.

é is long in tense-endings: as, regébam, audiébar. But it is
short before ram, rim, ro; in the future personal endings -béris,
bére; and sometimes in the perfect -érunt (as stétéruntque
comae, fin. ii. 774).

i is long in forms after the analogy of the fourth conjugation:
as, petivi, lacessitus (in others short: as, monitus); also in
the subjunctive present of esse and velle, and (rarely) in the
endings -rimus, -ritis; but short in the future forms amabitis, &c.

6 is found only in imperatives, and is always long.

ti is short in stimus, voliimus, quaesiimus; in the supine
and its derivatives it is long: as, solittrus.

d. Perfects and supines of two syllables lengthen the stem-
syllable: as, jiivo, jiivi, jitum; video, vidi, visum; fiigio,
fugi.

Exceptions. — bibi, dédi (do), fidi (findo), scifdi (scindo),
stéti (sto), stiti (sisto), tiili (fero);— citum (cieo), datum (do),
itum (eo), litum (lino), quitum (queo), ratum (reor),
riitum (ruo), satum (sero), situm (sino), statum (sto or

sisto). In some compounds of sto, statum is found long, as
prostatum.

e. Reduplicated perfects shorten both syllables: as, c&cidi
(cado), didici (disco), cécini (cano); but cécidi from
caedo, pepédi from pédo.

220 PROSODY. [78. 79.

f. Forms from the same Stem retain the original quantity: as,
amo, Aamavisti, génus, géneris.
Exceptions. —1. b6s, lar, mas, par, pés, sal, vas —also

arbo6s (not arbdr) — have a long vowel in the nominative from
short stems.

2. Nouns in or, genitive Gris, have the vowel shortened before
the final r: as, hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late,
so that in Plautus and some inscriptions these nominatives are
oiten found long.)

3. Many verb-forms with original long vowel shorten it before
final t: as, amét, dicerét (compare amémus), audit, fit. (The
final syllable in t of the perfect seems to have been originally
long, but to have been shortened under this rule.)

g- Forms from the same Roor often vary in quantity from
vowel-increase (see §§ 1, 3, a; 5,2; 44, 1, a); as, dico (cf. mal-
edicus), diico (diicis), fido (perfidus), vGcis (vico), légio
(1égo).

h. Compounps retain the quantity of the words which com-
pose them: as, occido (c&jo), occido (caedo), iniquus
(aequus). Greek words compounded with zpo have o short, as
préph6éta, prdldgus. Some Latin compounds of pro have o
short, as prdficiscor, prdfiteor. Compounds with ne vary: as,
néfas, négo, néqueo, néquis, nequam. So dejéro and pejéro
from juro.

[For the quantity of Penultimate Syllables in regular Deriva-
tives, see § 44, pages 97-99.]

79. FEetT.

1. The most natural division of musical time is into inter-
vals, consisting of either two or three equal parts, making
what is called double or triple time; but the ancients also
distinguished five equal parts. These intervals are in music
called Measures; in prosody, they are called Feet.

2. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse con-
sist either of two or three syllables; and may be represented
by musical notation, as follows: —

79.] FEET. Nd 221

a. Or Two SYLuABLEs.

1? 2 | oy | Pyrrhic (~~): as, bbntis.
2. 3 | f ¥ | Trochee or Choree (" ~): as, cartis.
3. 3 | Ef | Iambus (~ ~): as, b6nGs.
4, 2 | if f | Spondee (" ~): as, car6s.
6. Or Turee SYLLABLES.
1. 2 1°99 | Dactyt(- ~~): as, astute
2. 2 | ¥ , 4 | Anapest (" ~ ~): as, d6min6s.
3. 4 | “ae C | Amphibrach (~ ~~): as, Amictis.
4, 3 | 696 | Tribrach (~~~): as, hdmints.
5. 3 | p if r | Molossus (— ~~): as, figértint (rare).

Of three syllables, but more than three units of time.
6. | if ¥ if | Amphimacer or Cretic (~~ ~): as, €gérant.
ts | f f if | Bacchius (~ ~~): as, régébant.

c. Or Four SyYLLABLEs.

1. Choriambus (trochee, iambus) : as, déttilérant.

2. Greater Ionic (spondee, pyrrhic): as, déjécérat.

8. Lesser Ionic (pyrrhic, spondee): as, rétiilissént.

4. The first, second, third, or fourth Epitritus has a short
syllable in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three long
syllables.

5. The first, second, third, or fourth Peon has a long syllable
in the first, second, third, or fourth place with three short syllables.

6. The Proceleusmatic consists of four short syllables, as Spér-
ibis.

Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation,
or chant; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or music, often
to be accompanied by measured movements or dance. But in read-

ing, it is not usual, though it is better, to keep the strict measure of
time ; and ofien accent is substituted for rhythm, as in English poetry.

222 PROSODY. [79: 2-5. 80: 1.

d. In general, feet of the same time can be substituted for
each other, and two short syllables may stand for a long one. In
the latter case, the long syllable is said to be resolved.

Thus the Spondee may take the place of the dactyl or anapest,
the Tribrach of the trochee or iambus; the Proceleusmatic, or a
Dactyl standing for an anapest, is the resolution of a spondee.

When a long syllable having the ictus is resolved, the ictus
properly belongs to both the short syllables; but the accent to
mdicate it is placed on the first: as,

Nunc experiar | s{tne aceto | tibi cor acre in | péctore.
i Baccu. 405.

3. Arsis and Thesis. The accented syllable of each

foot is called the Arsis; and the unaccented part the Thesis.

Note.— The name Arsis meant originally the raising of the foot
in beating time (‘‘upward beat”), and Thesis the putting down
(“downward beat”’); but these terms came, in later use, to signify
respectively the raising and depression of the voice. (See Mar. Vict.
Chap. ix.)

4. Ictus. Accent, in prosody, is called Ictus, — that is,

the beat of the foot, as in a dance or march.

5. Caesura. The end of a word interrupting a foot is
called Czesura; and when this coincides with a rhetorical
break in the sense, it is called the Ceesura of the verse.

Notrre.— The position of the principal Cesura is important, as
affecting the melody or rhythm. See description of verses below.

80. ScANNING.

1. Verse. <A single line in poetry, or a series of feet set
in metrical order, is called a Verse (i.e. a turning back).

To divide the verse, in reading, into its appropriate feet,
according to the rules of quantity and versification, is called
Scanning or Scansion (i.e. climbing, or- advance by steps).

A verse lacking a syllable at the beginning is called Acephalous
(headless) ; lacking a syllable at the end, it is called Catalectic
(stopped) ; complete, Acatalectic. Sometimes a verse appears to
have a superfluous syllable, and is then called Hypercatalectic.

The word Verse (versus, a turning) is opposed to Prose (pror-
sus or pro-versus, straight ahead).

80: 2-5. 81.] SCANNING: METRE. 223

2. Elision. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end
of a word (unless an interjection) — sometimes even at the
end of a verse —is dropped, when the next word begins with
a vowel or with h. ‘This is called Synaleepha (smearing), or
Elision (druising); or, at the end of a verse, Synapheia
(binding).

A final m, with the preceding vowel, is dropped in like manner:
this is called Ecthlipsis. (Hence a final syllable in m is said to
have no quantity of its own; its vowel, in any case, being either
elided, or else made long by position.) Thus in the verse : —

Monstrum horrendwm informe ingens-cui lumen ademptum.
“EN. iii. 658.

Note.— The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French
poetry, and is sometimes adopted in English, particularly in the older
poets: as, |

T’ inveigle and invite th’ unwary sense. — Comus, 538.

In early Latin poetry, a syllable ending in s was often elided, even
before a consonant: as,

Senio confectu’ quiescit. — Zxzzius (quoted in Cat. M. 5).

%. Hiatus. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word
ending in a vowel has a special emphasis, or is succeeded by
a pause. This is called Hiatus (gaping).

4. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes length-
ened before a pause: it is then said to be long by Cesura.
(This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears
being caused by the retention of an original long quantity.)

Nostrorwvm obruimir, oriturque miserrima czdes.—£%. ii. 411.

~ §. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long
or short (except in some forms of Anapzstic and Ionic verse).

81. MeETRE.

41. Metre is the regular combination of feet in verse, and
is named from its most frequent and ruling foot: as, Dactylic,
Iambic, Trochaic, Anapzstic, Choriambic.

224 PROSODY. [8l. 82: 1

Notrre.— The ruling foot, so called, always consists of a combina-
tion of long and short syllables, and is therefore never a pyrrhic or
spondee.

The shorter feet (Iambus, Trochee) are counted not by single feet,
but by pairs (dipodies), so that six lambi make a trimeter, &c.

2. A Verse consists of a given number of feet arranged
metrically. It is named from the number of feet (or pairs)
it contains, as Hexameter, Trimeter.

3. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order. It is often called from the
name of some poet, as Sapphic, Alcaic, Horatian.

82. Forms or VERSE.

1. Dactylic. The most common forms of dactylic verse
are the Hexameter and Pentameter.

a. Hexameter. The Hexameter, called also Heroic verse, is
used in narrative and pastoral poetry. It consists of six feet, of
which the last is always incomplete (a trochee or spondee), the
fifth generally a dactyle, and the rest indifferently dactyles or
spondees. The fifth foot is rarely a spondee, in which case the
verse is called spondaic. The principal Cesura falls after the
arsis (sometimes in the thesis) of the third foot or after the arsis
of the fourth. In the last case there should be another in the third.

The introductory verses of the Aineid, divided according to
the foregoing rules, will be as follows, the principal Cesura in
each verse being marked by double lines : —

arma vilriimque ca|n6 || Trd|jz qui | primiis 4b | Gris
Italijam fa|to prdfti|giis || La|vinziqué | vénit
litéra, | miiltz ille | ét tér|ris || jac|tatiis ét | alto

— vi stipé{riim sz|vze || mémd|rém Jii|ndnis Sb | iram;
milta qué|que ét bél{16 pas|siis || dim | cdndérét | irbem,
infér|rétqué dé|ds Latijo, |] géniis | indé Latinum,
Alba|niqué pa|trés, || at|que alte | moenid | Rome.

Another form of czesura is seen in the following : —

Dis géni|ti potiljére: || téjnént médij@ Omnia | silvae.
fin. VI. 181.

82: 1, 2.] FORMS OF VERSE. 225

The Hexameter verse has been illustrated in English thus: —

‘“* Strongly it | bears us allong, || in | swelling and | limitless | billows,
Nothing be|fore and | nothing be|hind, || but the | sky and the | ocean.”

b. Pentameter. The Pentameter consists of five feet, and is
used alternately with the hexameter to form the Elegiac stanza.
It must be scanned as two half-verses, of which the latter always
has two dactyls, and each ends in a long syllable or half-foot.
There is no czsura; but the first half-verse must always end with
a word: as,

ciim siibit | illijiis tris|tissima | noctis Ij{mago
qua mihi | sipréjmim || témpiis In | irbé fulit,
ciim répé|td ndcitém qua | tot mihi | cara ré|liqui,
labitir | éx dcii|lis || niinc quéqué | gutta mé|is.
jam propé | lax A4déjrat, qua | mé dis|cédéré | Caesar
finibis | éxtré|mz || jiissérat | Ausdni|z.
Ov. Trist. I. Ex. 3, 1-6.

The Elegiac Stanza has been illustrated thus : —

‘¢In the hex|ameter | rises the | fountain’s | silvery | column,
In the pent|ameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.”

c. Rarely, other dactylic verses, or half-verses, combined with
trochees or iambs, are used by the lyric poets: viz., —

Dactylic penthemim (five half-feet) :
arboéri|bisqué cd|mze. — Hor. Op. IV. 7.

Dactylic tetrameter :
cras in|géns {té|rabimiis | equér.— Op. I. 7.

Archilochian heptameter :
solvitur | acris hiJémps, gra|ta vicé | véris | ét Fa|voni.
Op. I. 4.

2. Iambic. The most common forms of Iambic verse
are the Trimeter (Senarius), and Tetrameter (Septenarius or
Octonartus).

a. Trimeter. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of
dramatic dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing
a double iambus. In the first half-measure (odd places), the
Spondee or its equivalents (anapmwst or dactyl) may be regularly

10*

226 PROSODY. [82: 2,

substituted. In the comic poets, these substitutions may be made
in any foot except the last: as,
O licis al|mé réctor |] ét | cdeli déciis!
qui altérna ciirjrii spatia || flam|miféro ambiens,
illistré 14é|tis || Exséris | térris caput.
Herc. Four. 592-94.
hdm6 swam: hiima|ni || nihil 4 me 4]ijénim pits.
vél mé monélre hoc || vél pércdn|tari pita.
HEAUT. 77, 78.
Remark. — The choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee
for the last Iambus: as,

séd non vidé|miis mantice | quéd in térgo ést.
CaATULL. XXII. 21.

6. Tetrameter. The Iambic Tetrameter catalectic (Septen-
arius) consists of seven iambic feet, with the same substitutions
as the above. It is used in more lively dialogue: as,
nam idcirco arcés|s6r, niptias | quod mz adparal|ri sénsit.
quibiis quidém quam faci|lé pdtiérat | quiésci si hic | quiésset!

ANDRIA, 690-91.

The iambic tetrameter acatalectic (Octonarius) consists of eight
full iambic feet with the same substitutions. It is also used in
lively dialogue: as,
hécinésthima|niim facts aiit in|cépta? hdcinést of|fictiim patris ?
quid illiid ést? pro | déim fidém, | quid ést, s7 hdc nén cén|-

tiiméliast ? ANDRIA, 236-7.

c. Dimeter. The Iambic Dimeter consists of either four
(acatalectic) or three and a half (catalectic) iambic feet. The
former is used in combination with a longer verse, and the latter
only in choruses: as,

béatiis ilj]é qui prdcil | négotiis,
iit prisca géns | mortaliim, ~

patérna rii|ra bibiis éx|ércét sitis,
sdlitiis 6m|ni fendré ;

néque éxcita|tir classicé | milés triici,
néque horrét ijratiim maré ;

foriimqué vi|tat, ét siipér ba civiim
poténtid|rim limind.

| Hor. Epon. II. 1-8.

OF: SE 5.5: FORMS OF VERSE. 227

quonam criién|ta Mznas,
preecéps amojré sevo,
rapitir quod im|poténti
faciniis parat | firoré ?
MEDEA, 850-53.

3. Trochaic. The most common form of Trochaic verse
is the Tetrameter catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of seven
complete feet with an additional syllable. Strictly, the spon-
dee and its resolutions can be substituted only in the even
places; but the comic poets allow the substitution in every
foot but the last: as,

Itidem habét péta|sw Ac véstitiim: | tam cons{mflist | atque €go.
sira, pés, sta tira, tonsiis, | dciili, nasiim, | vél labra,
male, méntiim, | barba, cdlliis: | tottis! quid vér|bis Spist ?
si térgiim ci|catricdsiim, | nzhil héc similist | similfts.
AMPHITR. 443-46.

4. Anapestic. Anapestic verses of various lengths are
found in dramatic poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleus-
matic may be substituted for the anapest: as,

| hic homést | 6mnizvs hoémi{|nim pre|ciptids
voliipta|tibtis gaii|dzisque an|tépdténs.
{ta cOm|méda que | ciipio é|véniint,
quod 4go | subit, ad séctié | s€quitir:
ita gaii|dzis gaii|ditim sup|péditat.
TRIN. 1115-19.
Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric
poets, in combination with other feet, either as whole lines or
parts of lines: as,
non ébiir né!que aiiréim [dimeter]
méa rénijdét in dém6 | laciinar.
Hor. Op. II. 18.

5. Bacchic. The Bacchius occurs in dramatic poets
either in verses of two feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetram-
eter). The long syllables may be resolved into short ones,
and the molossus substituted: as,

miltas rés | s{mitz in | méd cor dé vorsG,
miiltum in cd|gitando | délorem in|dipiscor,

228 PROSODY. | [82: 6, 7.

Eodméet mé | cdquo ét malcéro ét dé|fEtigs :
magistér | mihi éxér|citér ani|miis niinc ést,
TRIN. 223-26.
6. Cretic. Cretic feet (Amphimacer) occur in the same
manner as the Bacchius, with the same substitutions. The
last foot is usually incomplete: as,
Amor Ami|ciis mihi | né fiias | inquam.
his ég6 | de artibiis | gratiam | facio.
nil égo is|t6s m6ror | faeecéds | mGrés.
TRIN. 267, 293, 297.
7. Choriambic. Choriambic feet are regularly preceded
by a spondee or trochee, called a basis, and are followed by a
close, consisting of one or more syllables (see below).

a. The First or Lesser Asclepiadic verse consists of two
choriambs preceded by a trochee (in Horace a spondee), and fol-
lowed by an iambus (8, d).

b. The Second or Greater Asclepiadic has three choriambs
with the same basis and close (8, A): as,

néc fac|ta impia fal|lacum héminiim | caélicdlis | placént.
CATULL. XXX. 4.

c. The Glyconic consists of one choriambus, with the same
basis and close (8, e).

d. The Pherecratic consists of one choriambus, with the same
basis, and one long syllable for close (8, g).

e. The Greater Sapphic consists of two choriambs, preceded
by a trochaic dipody (epitritus secundus), and followed by a
bacchius (8, c): as,

Sepé trans filném jaciil6 | nobilis Ex pédito.
Hor. Op. I. 8.

f. The Lesser Sapphic consists of one choriambus, with the
same basis and close (8, 6): as,

intér auda|cés lipiis ér|rat Aagnds.
Hor. Op. III. 18, 13.

g- The Adonic consists of one choriambus, followed by a long
syllable (8, b).

82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. 229

hh. The Phalecian consists of a basis, a choriambus, an
iambus, and bacchius: as,
disér|tissimé R6|mili | népdtum
quot siint | quétqué fué|ré Mar|cé Tulli.
CaTuL. XLIX. 1, 2.

i. The lesser Ionic verse consists of pairs of the foot of the
same name.

k. Rarely other forms of choriamBic verse occur: as, for
example —
Aristophanic : |
témpérat 6|ra frénis.

Hor. Op. I. 8, 7.
Tetrameter :
obstipuit ; | péctdré nil | sistéré cdn|sili quit.
ADELPHI, 613.

8. Stanzas. The principal forms of lyric stanza, or

strophe, are the following :—

a. Atcaic STROPHE, consisting of four verses: the first two
(greater Alcaic) having each a spondee (or trochee), bacchius
and two dactyls; the third a spondee, bacchius, and two trochees,
and the fourth into two dactyls and two trochees: as,

justwa ac | ténacém | propdsi|ti virim
non cilvivw ardor | prava ju|béntitim,
non viljtis instan|tis ty|ranni,
ménté qua|tit sdlij|da né|que aistér.
Hor. Op. III. 3.

b&. LessER SAPPHIC, consisting of three Lesser Sapphic verses,

and one Adonic (see above, 7, f, g): as,
jam satis térjris nivis at;qué dirze
grandinis mi|sit patér ét | rubénté
déxtéra sa|cras jactla|tiis arcés
térrtiit tir|bem.
Id. Op. I. 2, 1-4.

c. GREATER SAPPHIC, consisting of a choriambic dimeter

(7, %), and a greater Sapphic (7, e): as,
Lydia dic | pér Omnés
té déds 6|r6 Sybarin | cir prdpéras | Amando.
Hor. Op. I. 8

230 PROSODY. [82: 8.

d. Lesser ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines (mono-
strophon), of lesser asclepiadics (7, a): as,

Mecé|nas atavis | édité ré|gibiis
O ét | presidium ét | dulcé déciis | méiim.
Id. I. 1.

e. SeconpD ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of one Glyconic (7, c),
and one lesser Asclepiadic: as,
Réme | principis ir|bitim
digna|tir sttbolés | intér 4ma|bilés
vatim | ponéré mé | chéros ;
ét jam | dénté minis | mordéor in| vido.
Id. Op. IV. 3, 13-16.
f. Turrp ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of three lesser Asclepia-
dics and one Glyconic: as, .
audis | quo strépfti | jantia qué | némiis
intér | pulchra satim | técta rémi|giat
véntis | ét pdsitas | at glaciét | nivés
puro | niminé Ju|pitér.
Id. Op. III. 10, 5-8.
g. Fourta ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of two lesser Asclepia-
dics, one Pherecratic (7, d), and one Glyconic: as,

hic bél'liim lacrim6|swm# hic mfséram | famém
péstém|que a popilo ét | principé Cz|sare in
_ Pérsas | Atqué Britan'nds
véstra | motiis 4gét | précé.
Id. Op. I. 21, 13-16.
h. GREATER ASCLEPIADEAN, consisting of single lines of
greater asclepiadics: as,
tii né | quesféris | sciré néfas | quém mihf quém | tibf.
Op. I. 11, 18; IV. 10.

4. The above forms include upwards of a hundred of the Odes
of Horace. In the eighteen not included in these, are ten
different kinds of stanzas, most of which are combinations of the
verses already given. They may be briefly indicated as fol-
lows : —

1. Hexameter, followed by the last four feet of an hexame-
ter. — Op. I. 7, 28; Epon. 12.

82: 8.] FORMS OF VERSE. | 231

. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Dimeter. — Epon. 14, 15.
. lambie Trimeter alone. — Epon. 17.
. Hexameter, followed by Iambic Trimeter. — Epon. 16.
. Verse of four Lesser lonics. — Op. III. 12.
. Hexameter with Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) :
diffti|géré nijvés rédé ; int jam | gramina | campis
arbori|biisqué c6|ma. — Op. IV. 7.

So Or hm Co bo

7. Tambic Trimeter; Dactylic Penthemim; Iambic Dimeter.—
Epop. 11.

8. Hlexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim. —Ep. 13.
9. Archilochian Heptameter ; Iambic Trimeter catalectic: as,
solvitir | acris hijéms gra|ta vicé | véris | ét Fa|voni

trahiint/qué sic|cas ma chine | carijnas. — Op. I. 4.
10. Trochaic Dimeter and Iambic Trimeter, each imperfect: as,
non | ébir | néque aujréum
méa | réni|dét in | démd | laciijnar.—Op. II. 18.
k. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above-
mentioned verses.
1. Four Glyconies with one Pherecratic: as,
Dia|nz siimiis in | fidé
pueljle ét ptiérz injtégri:
_ Diainam, piiérz in|tégri
puél|laqué cana|mus.—CaTutt. 34.
2. Sapphics, in series of single lines, closing with an
Adonic: as,
An magis diri tremuére Manes
Herculem? et visum canis inferorum
fugit abruptis trepidus catenis ?
fallimur: late venit, ecce, vultu,
quem tulit Poeas ; humerisque tela
gestat, et notas populis pharetras
Herculis heres.
Herc. CEr. 1600-6.
8. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number
(Herc. Fur. 830-874, 875-894).

232 PROSODY. | 83.

83. Earty Prosopy.

The prosody of the earlier Latin poets differs in several
respects from that of the later.

Nore. — Before the language was used in literature, it had become
very much changed by the loss of final consonants and shortening of
final syllables under the influence of accent, which was originally
free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and
ante-penult. ‘This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar
and by literature, but shows itself again in the Romance languages.
In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the
early poets.

a. At the end of words s was only feebly sounded, so that it
does not make positicn with a following consonant, and is some-
times cut off before a vowel. (This usage continues in all poets
till Cicero’s time: see §$ 1, 2, 6; 80, 2, note.)

6. The last syllable of any word of two syllables may be made
short if the first is short. (This effect remained in a few words
like puta, cavé, valé, vidé.) Thus: —

Abést (Cist. ii.1, 12); Apiid tést (Trin. 196); sdrdr dictast (Enn.
157); bénas (Stich. 99) ; d6mi dézque (Pseud. 37) ; démi (Mil. 194).

c. The same effect is produced when a short monosyllable pre-
cedes a long syllable: as,

id st profecto (Mere. 372), rit et tYb? Exoptatum (Mil. 1orr),
si quidem hércle (Asin. 414), quid €st sz hdc (Andria, 237).

d. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. Such
are, lle, iste, Inde, tinde, némpe, ésse (?). (Scholars are not
yet agreed upon the principle in this irregularity, or its extent.)

Thus : —
écquis his in edibust (Bacch. 581).

e- In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preced-

ing it in a word of more than three syllables: as in senéctiiti,
Syracusae.

f- At the beginning of a verse, many syllables long by position
stand for short ones: as,
{dné tu (Pseud. 442); Estne consimilis (Epid. v. 1. 18).

g. The original long quantity of many final syllables is re-
tained. Thus:—

83. 84.] RECKONING OF TIME. 233

1. Final a of the first declension is often long: as,
ne epistula quidez ulla sit in aédibus (Asin. 762).
Pol hédie alterd jam bis detdénsa certost.

2. Final a of the neuter plural is sometimes long (though there
seems no etymological reason for it): as,

Ntinc et amico prdsperabo et génid med multa bona faciam
(Pers. 263).

3. So also nouns in -or with long stem, either with original r
or original s: as,

mdéddo quom dicta in me fngerebas ddium non uxor eram
(Asin. 927).

{ta mz in pectore dtque corde facit amor incéndium (Mere. 590).

atque quanto nox fuisti léngidr hoc préxuma (Amph. 548).

4. So in nouns with vowel lengthened originally by loss of a
consonant: as, milés, superstités.

5. So all verb-endings in r and t, where the vowel is elsewhere
long in inflection: as,

régredior audisse mé (Capt. 1023); Atque ut qui fueris et qui
nunc (Capt. 248); me néminat hec (Epid. iv. 1, 8); faciat ut sem-
per (Poen. ii. 42); fnfuscabat, amabo (Cretics, Cist. i. 1, 21); quf
amét (Merc. 1021); ut fit in bello capitur alter filius (Capt. 25) ;
tibi sit ad me revisas (Truc. ii. 4, 79).

h. The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially at a pause in the
sense, or when there is a change of the speaker. (The extent of
this license is still a question among scholars, but in the present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.)

84. RecKonrne or Time.

I. Date of Year. The year was dated, in earlier times,
by the names of the Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned
from the building of the City (ab urbe conditd, or anno urbis
condite), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period
corresponding with B.c. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce
- Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the
city ts to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.v.c: 691 (the year
of Cicero’s consulship) = B.c. 638.

254 RECKONING OF TIME. [84.

2. The Roman Year. Before Cexsar’s reform of the
Calendar (B.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 days:
March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31
days, February having 28, and each of the remainder 29;
with an Intercalary month, on alternate years, inserted after
February 23, at the discretion of the Pontifices. The “Ju-
lian year,” by the reformed calendar, had 365 days, divided
as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi.
kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month:
hence the year was called Lissextilis. The month Quintilis
received the name Julius (July), in honor of Julius Cesar ;
and Sextilis of Augustus (August), in honor of his successor.

The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adop-
tion of the Gregorian Calendar (4.p. 1582), which omits leap-year
once in every century.

3. The Month. Dates, according to the Roman Calen-
dar, are reckoned as follows :—

a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends),
from calare, to call,—that being the day on which the pontiffs
publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, which
they did, originally, from actual observation.

6. Sixteen days before the Calends, — that is, on the fifteenth
day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the
other months, — were the Idus (Jdes), the day of Full Moon.

c. Eight days (the ninth by the Roman reckoning) before the
Ides, — that is, on the seventh day of March, May, July, and Octo-
ber, but the fifth of the other months, — were the Nonae (Nones,
or ninths). '

d. From the three points thus determined the days of the
month were reckoned backwards (the point of departure being,
by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning), giving the following
rule for determining the date: —

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days
in the month preceding, —if Nones or Ides, add one to that of
the day on which they fall,—and from the number thus ascer-
tained subtract the given date : — thus, viii. Kal. Feb. (83—8) =
Jan. 25;—iv. Non. Mar. (8—4)—Mar. 4;—iv. Id. Sept.
(144—4) =Sept. 10.

84. 85.] MEASURES OF VALUE. 235

e- The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as
thus ascertained, are given in the following Table : —

' Fanuary. February. March. A pril.

x. Kav. JAN. Kat. Fes. Kart. MARTL& Kav. APRILES
2. 1v. Non. Jan. iv. Non. Feb. vi. Non. Mart. 1v. Non. Apr.
3. Ml. 99 ” III. 95 ” Vv; ” ” III. 59 ”
4 prid. ,, ” rid. ,, ” IV. 59 ” rid ,, ”
s5- Non. JAN. on. FEB. III. yy Se ON. APRILES.
6. vit. Id. Jan. vin. Id. Feb. rid. ,, % vir. Id. Apr.
Pe WUT gg sy. a | meek Same ON. MARTLE Ws es
ey Soe Vie. gp oes vit Id. Mart. Wis aan ae

9. V- a) v- ”» Vile yy V- Pe)
IO. IV. 55 ” IV. ” ” VI. ” ” IV. ” 9
Ir. Ile 55 99 III. 53 99 Vv. ry) ” Tl. 53 9
12. prid. ”» »» rid. 55.» IV. ” 39 prid. ,, ”
13. Ipus JAN. pus FEs. ; Ul. 5. op Ipus APRILEs.
14. xIx. Kal. Feb. xvi. Kal. Martias prid. ,,__,, xvi. Kal. Maias
Bie MVE ee Ma ey a Ipus MARTI& 3) eee
96 EUs soy, 56 ae xvii. Kal. Aprilis xvi. oem, alge
17- XVI- 59 89 XIII. 35 29 XVI. rw XV. eS)
18. XV. 45 ” XII. 59 ” XV. a XIV. >
19- XIV- 53 ” xi. ” ” XIV. 53g XIII. ”»
OG SME ig Be a ‘ Be oS XII. 0 2 ae
21. XII. 99 ” IX. ” ” XII. ” xi. > »
SP MB ee. gg, VR 5 YA XI. ea Sita x. ae be
23- X- ” ” VII. 59 ” x. ”» 99 IX. » »
24 IX. ” ” vi. ” ” IX. ”» 9» VIIt. ”» 9
S85 WE oes + ag oe ~ “ fei) are ee Vil. wat ilies
26. VII. 4 ” Iv. ” ” Vil. r,t VI. 99 )
27- VI. ” 99 Ill. ” . VI. ” ” V- 9 9
28. v. ” 9 rid. ths ae Vv. 2 ” Iv. 99 ”
an Se eee prid. Kal. Mart. IV. Ee III. aa ances
30. III. 4, 4, in leap-year, the Ill. Robin a) eee
31. prid. ,, 4, vi- Kal. (24th) being prid. ,, 45 June, Sept., Nov.
(So Aug., Dec.) counted twice.] (So May, July, Oct.)

Nore. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (s.c. 45)
is to be found not by the above, but by taking the earlier reckoning
of the number of days in the month.

: 85. MEASURES OF VALUE.

1. The Money of the Romans was in early times wholly of
copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but
actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve
unciae. In the third century B.c. the As was reduced by degrees
to one-twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins
were introduced; the Denarius—=10 Asses, and the Sestertius or
sesterce (semis-tertius, or half-third, represented by IIS or HS =
duo et semis) = 2} Asses.

2. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it
was equal in value to the original as, came to be used as the unit
of value: hence nummus, coin, was used as equivalent to Sester-
tius. Afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four asses
became equal to a sesterce. Gold was introduced later, the
aureus being equal to 100 sesterces.

236 MEASURES OF VALUE. [85.

The value of these coins is seen in the following Table : —

24 asses =1 sestertius or nummus (HS), value about 5 cents.

IO asses or 4 sestertii=—1denarius... ,, ge tee
1000 sestertii—1 sestertium....... ¥: te 9» $50.00.

3. The Sestertium (probably the genitive plural of sestertius)
was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected regularly
as a neuter noun: thus, tria sestertia—$120.00. When com-
bined with a numeral adverb, hundreds of thousands (centena
milia) are to be understood: thus decies sestertium (decies HS) =
$50,000. In the statement of large sums the noun is often
omitted: thus sexagies (Rosc. Am. ii.) signifies, sexagies [centena
milia] sestertium (6,000,000 sesterces) = $300,000.

4. In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above
the number indicates thousands; lines at the sides also, hundred-
thousands. Thus us. pc. = 600 sestertii ; — Hs. Dc. = 600,000 ses-
tertii, or 600 sestertia;—us. |pc| = 60,000,000 sestertii.

5. MEASURES OF LENGTH.

12 unciz (zzches) =1 Roman Foot ( Zes, 11.65 English inches).
14 Feet =1 Cubit. —24 Feet =1 Degree or Step (,gradus).
5 Feet=1 Pace (passus).— 1000 Paces (mille fassuum) =1 Mile.

The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The Ju-
gerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet long and 120 broad; a little less than ? of an English acre.

6 MEASURES OF WEIGHT.

12 unciz (ounces) = one pound (dra, about § lb. avoirdupois).

For fractional parts of the pound, see Lexicon, art. as. The
Talent was a Greek weight = 60 libre.

7 MEASURES OF CAPACITY.

12 cyathi=1r1 sextarius (nearly a pint).

16 sextarii=1 modius (peck).

6 sextarii—=1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congii=1 amphora (6 gallons).

SUPPLEMENT.

—

OUTLINE OF SYNTAX.

I. Sussect AND PREDICATE.

46. Nouns. — A Noun used to describe another, and
meaning the same thing, agrees with it in Case (p. 103).

1. When in the same part of the sentence (subject or predi-
eate), it is called an appositive, and the use is called apposition.

2. When used to form a predicate, with a copulative verb, it
is called predicate nominative (or other case, as it may be).

a. Agreement in gender and number; 6. with /ocative; c. genitive
in agreement with possessives.

47, ADJECTIVES agree with their nouns in gender, number,
and case (p. 105).

1. With two or more nouns the adjective is plural.

2. When nouns are of different genders, an attributive adjec-
tive agrees with the nearest.

a. Of predicate adjectives; 6. masculine or neuter; c. abstracts
with neuter adjectives; d, agreement by synesis; €. with appositive
or predicate; 7. with partitive genitive.

3. Adjectives are often used as nouns, the masculines to de-
note men, and the feminine women (chiefly plural).
a. Possessives; 6. Demonstratives; c. Nouns as adjectives.

4. A neuter adjective may be used as a noun :—

a. Use in the singular ; 6. in the plural; ¢. as appositive or predi-
cate; d. in agreement with a clause or infinitive.

5. Adjectives denoting source or possession may be used for
the genitive.

a. For genitive of personal pronouns; 6. genitive in apposition ;
c. for objective genitive (rarely).

6. An adjective is often used to qualify an act, having the
force of an Adverb.

7. When two qualities are compared, both adjectives are in
the comparative, connected by quam.
a. Not with magiss 0. Positives with quam.

8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often designate
what part of an object is meant (so medius, ceterus, &c.).

9. Alius ...alius, &c., may be used reciprocally, or may
imply a change of predicate as well as of subject.

238 SUPPLEMENT.

48. Revatives.—A Relative agrees with its antecedent
in gender and number; but its case depends on the construc-
tion of the clause in which it stands (p. 109).

1. A verb takes the person of the antecedent.

2. A relative generally agrees in gender with the appositive.

a. Agreement in case by attraction; 6. with implied antecedent.

3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses ;
usually only in the former ; sometimes it is wholly omitted.

a. When repeated; 6. a relative clause (is or hic, antecedent;
R., order of clauses); c. antecedent omitted; d. predicate adjective
(superlatives); € id quod or quae res.

4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or
sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used.

5. An Adverb is often equivalent to the pronoun (relative or
demonstrative) with a preposition.

49, Verss.— A verb agrees with its subject-nominative
in number and person (p. 112).

1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural.

a. Rule for persons; 6. with disjunctives; ¢. collective nouns,
&c.; d. action belonging to the subjects separately.

2. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative.

a. Omission of personal pronoun; 0. of indefinite subject; ¢. of
verb in certain phrases (especially of the copula).

II. ConstTrucTIon oF CASES.

50. Genitive.— A noun used to limit or define another,
and not meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive (p. 113).

1. Subjective. The Genitive is used to denote the author,
owner, source, and (with an adjective) measure or quality.

a. Use of possessives; 6. omission of limited noun; ¢. genitive
in predicate ; d. with phrase or clause (instead of neuter nominative) ;
so neuter of possessives; @. of substance; 7. instead of appositive;

- of quality (with adjectives); #. of measure (with numerals) ;
@ of quantity, to express value; k. with causa, &c.

2. Partitive. Words denoting a part are followed by the
genitive of the whole to which the part belongs.

a. Nouns or pronouns; B, Numerals, &c.; ¢. Neuter adjectives;
ad. Adverbs; e. Poetic use. — Remark 1. Ablative with preposition ;
2. uterque; 3. Words meaning a whole; 4. Doubled genitive.

3. Objective. With many nouns and adjectives implying
action, the genitive is used to denote the object.

a. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling; 6. Adjectives requiring
an object of reference (1. desire, &c., 2. verbals, 8. participials) ;

OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 239

c. Adjectives with genitive of specification; d@. of likeness. Use of
prepositions in connecting nouns.

4. After Verbs. The genitive is used as the object of several
classes of Verbs: —

a. Of remembering, forgetting, and reminding; 0. of accusing, con-
demning, and acquitting ; (peculiar genitives; abl. with de); ¢. of emo-
tion (1. pity, &c., 2. impersonals; use of infinitive); @. refert and
interest; e. of plenty and want (potior) ; 2. Genitive with Adverbs.

51. Dative.— The Dative is used of the object indirectly
affected by the action of a verb (p. 121).

1. Of Indirect Object: with Transitives. Transitive verbs,
whose meaning permits it, take the dative of the indirect object,
with the accusative of the direct (as of giving, telling, sending).

a. With passive; 6. Motion with Prepositions; d. dono, &c.

2. after Intransitives. Intransitive verbs take the da-
tive of the indirect object only.

a. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their con-
traries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, threaten, resist,
pardon, and spare; (1. juvo, &c., with accus.; 2. dat. or ace. with
adulor, &c.; 38. dat. or acc. according to their meaning); 0. libet, &c.;
c. with accus. of remote; d. Compounds with ad, ante, cen, ke.
{transitive compounds; obvius); @€. Compounds with ab, de, ex;
jf. Impersonal use in the passive; g. Poetic use of dative.

3. Of Possession. The Dative is used with esse and similar
words to denote the Owner.

Rem. — Use of habeo; a@. Compounds of esse; 6. nomen est.

4. Of Agency. The Dative is used after some passive forms
to denote the Agent.

a. Gerund or gerundive; 0. perfect participle; ¢, poetic use.

5. Of Service. The Dative is used to denote the purpose or
end; often with another dative of the person or thing affected.

6. Of Nearness. The Dative is used after words of fitness,
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites.

a. Accusative with ad; }. Accusative with in or erga; Cc. pos-
sessive genitive; d@. propior, &c. with acc.; é€. dat. with verbals.

7. Of Reference. The Dative is often required not by any
particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence.

a. Instead of possessive genitive; 0. relations of direction; Cc. of
volens, nolens; d. Ethical Dative (ablative with pro).

52. Accusative. — The Accusative denotes that which is
immediately affected by the action of the verb.

1. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object.
a. With verbs of feeling; 6. Cognate Accusative; ¢. with verbs

of sensation; d. of motion (compounds); @. Constructio pragnans ;
F. Impersonals, decet, &c.

, 240 SUPPLEMENT.

2. Two Accusatives. Several verbs take a second accusa-
tive, either in apposition or as a secondary object.

a. Verbs of naming, choosing, &c.; 6. Compounds with preposi-
tions; c. Verbs of asking and teaching (passive use); d. celo, lateo.

3. Adverbial Accusative. The accusative is used adver-
bially, or for specification.

b. Accusative of neuter pronoun or adjective; 6, Adverbial
phrases; c. Greek accusative: passive used reflexively.

4. Special Uses :—

a. Exclamations; 6. as subject of Infinitive; c. Duration of
Time and extent of Space.

53. Vocative. — The Vocative is the form of direct
Address (p. 134).

a. Nominative with Imperative; 6. Vocative of adjective.

54, ABLATIVE. — The Ablative is used to denote the rela-
tions expressed in English by the prepositions from, 1n, at,
with, by (p. 134).

1. Separation. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent,
deprive, and want, are followed by the ablative.

a. Compounds, used figuratively; 0. ablative of place from;
c. adjectives of freedom and want; d. opus and usus; egeo and
indigeo with genitive (so other words of separation and want).

2. Source. The ablative is used to denote source or material.

a. Participles of birth and origin; Bb. place of birth; c. of mate-
rial, with constare ; d. with facere, &c.

3. Cause. The ablative is used to express cause.

a. dignus, indignus, and certain verbs; 0. motive expressed
with ob or propter; C. causa, gratia.

4. Agent. The voluntary agent after a passive verb is put in
the ablative with ab.

a. So with neuters; 6. agent as instrument with per or opera.

5. Comparison. The comparative degree is followed by the
ablative, signifying than.

a. Use of quam; b. idiomatic ablatives, opinione, &c.; ¢. con-
struction of plus, amplius, &c.

_ 6. Means. The ablative is used to denote accompaniment,
means, instrument.

_@. Accompaniment with cum (misceo, jungo); B. contention
with cum; c. with words of fulness; d. utor, &c.; e, abl. of degree of
difference (eo, quo, &c

_ 7. Quality. The ablative is used (with an adjective or limit
ing genitive) to denote manner and quality.
a. Physical characteristics; 0. manner with cum; modo, &c.

OUTLINE OF SYNTAX, 241

8. Price. The price of a thing is put in the ablative.
a. Certain genitives of quantity are used to denote indefinite value ;
b. so of certain nouns.

9. Specification. The ablative denotes that in respect to
which any thing is or is done, or in accordance with which any
thing happens.

10. Locative. The ablative of the place where is retained
in many idiomatic expressions.

a. Verbs and Verbals.

b. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE: A noun or pronoun, with a participle [form-
ing the subject and predicate of a subordinate clause] may be put in the
ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action; c. Ablative of
neuter adjective; d. Ablative of place where and time when.

55. TIME AND PLACE. —1. Time. Time when (or within
which) is put in the ablative; time how long in the accusative.

a. Use of preposition; 0. Ablative of duration.

2. Space. Extent of space is put in the accusative.

a. Genitive of measure; 8. Distance in accusative or ablative.

3. Place. To express relations of place, prepositions are
necessary, except with the names of towns and small islands.

a. The name of the place from which is in the ablative.

b. The name of the place to which is in the accusative (so certain
phrases ; aiso the former supine).

c. The name of the place where takes the locative form, which in
the Ist and 2d declensions singular is the same as the genitive ; in the
plural and in the 8d declension, the same as the dative (or ablative).

ad. domi, belli, militiz, humi, ruri, &c.; €. possessives with
domus; 7. special phrases.

4. Way. The way by which is put in the ablative.

56. Prepositions. —1. Prepositions govern the accusative
or ablative (p. 146).

a. Those governing accus.; 0. those governing abl.; c. in, sub
(pono, statuo, &c.); d. super; e. subter; 7. Dates; g. tenus.

2. Many words may be construed either as prepositions or as
adverbs.

a. pridie, propius, &c., with accus.; 6. palam, &c., with abl.;
c. clam; d. Prepos. as adverbs (ante, &c).

3. Prepositions or adverbs implying comparison are followed
by quam.

4. The ablative with a or ab is regularly used after passive
verbs to denote the agent (if a person).

5. Many prepositions sometimes follow their nouns.

242 SUPPLEMENT.

Til. Syntrax oF THE VERB.

57. Moops. — The Moods of a Latin verb are the Indica-
tive, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive (p. 148).

1. Indicative. ‘The Indicative is the mood of direct asser-
tions or questions.

2. Sunyunctive. The Subjunctive is used in special con-
structions, both in dependent and independent clauses.

a. INDEPENDENT: hortatory, optative, concessive, dubitative;
also in apodosis; 0. DEPENDENT: purpose or result, temporal
clauses, indirect discourse, intermediate clauses.

3. Hortatory. The Subjunctive is used (present or perfect)
to express a command or exhortation.

a. Second person of indefinite subj.; 6. perfect in prohibitions ;
Cc. proviso; d. past obligation.

4. Optative. The subj. is used to denote a wish: primary
tenses when conceived as possible; secondary, as unaccomplished.
a. Old use of perfect; 6. ut, utinam, O si; velim, vellem.

5. Concessive: the subjunctive is used to express a conces-
sion (with or without ut, quamvis, quamlibet, &c.).

6. Dubitative: the subjunctive is used in questions imply-
~ ing doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being
done.

7. IMPERATIVE. The Imperative is used in commands; also,
by early writers and poets, in prohibitions.

a. Prohibitions (perf. subj., noli, cave, fac ne); 0. use of pres.
subj.; ¢. future imperative; d. future for imperative.

8. InrinitrveE. The Infinitive denotes the action of the verb
as an abstract noun. :

a. As subject or object (esse and impersonals); 0. with imperso-
nals as subj. or complement; ¢. Complementary Infinitive; d. used
optionally ; @. with subj.-accus., after words of knowing, thinking, and
telling; f. Purpose; g. Exclamations; hf. Historical Infinitive.

58. Tenses.— The Tenses are the Present, Imperfect,
Future of incomplete action, and the Perfect, Pluperfect,
and Future Perfect of completed action (p. 157).

1. The tenses of the INDICATIVE denote absolute time.

2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state as now
existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite.

a. Action continuing; 6. Conative Present; ¢. Present for future ;
ad. Historical Present; e. with dum; f. of extant writers.

3. Imperfect. The imperfect denotes an action or condition
continued or repeated in past time.

a. Descriptions ; }. action continuing; ¢. conative; d. surprise;
é. in narrative (comic),

OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 243

4. Future. The Future denotes an action or condition that
will occur hereafter. .

5. Perfect. The perfect definite denotes an action as now
completed; the perfect historical, as having taken place indefi-
nitely in past time.

a. As no longer existing; 0. of indefinite time; c. of general
truth (gnomic), especially negations; d- in negations preferred to
imperfect.

6. Pluperfect. The Pluperfect is used to denote an action com-
pleted in time past; sometimes also repeated in indefinite time.

7. Future Perfect. The Future Perfect denotes an action
as completed in the future.

8. Epistolary Tenses. In Letters, the perfect or imperfect
may be used for the present, and the pluperfect for past tenses.

9. SussuncTivE. In Independent clauses, the Present Sub-
junctive always refers to future time, the Imperfect to either past
or present; the Perfect to either future or past; the Pluperfect
always to past.

In Dependent clauses, the tenses of the subjunctive denote
relative time, not with reference to the speaker, but to the action
of some other verb.

10. Sequence of Tenses. In compound sentences, a pri-
mary tense in the leading clause is followed by a primary tense
in the dependent clause ; and a secondary tense is followed by a
secondary (p. 162).

a. Perfect definite; 6. Perfect subjunctive; c. Perfect in clauses
of result (compared with imperf.); ad. general truths; e. historical
present; 7. Protasis and Apodosis; g. imperfect subjunctive in lead-
ing clauses; J. secondary tenses by synesis.

11. Inrinitrve. The tenses of the Infinitive are present,
past, or future relatively to the time of the verb on which
they depend.

a. Present, following verb in past tense; 0. Perfect (memini) ;
c. Present, without reference to time; @. Perf. with verbs of wishing,
&c.; é Perf. with verbs of feeling (poetic); 7. Future (fore ut).

59. ConpITIONAL SENTENCES. — A conditional sentence
(or clause) is one beginning with 1F or some equivalent.

1. Protasis and Apodosis. The clause containing the con-
dition (1F) is called the Protasis; that containing the conclusion
is called the Apodosis.

a. Protasis: 1F or indef. relative; 6. Apodosis the main clause.

2. Particular and General Conditions: —

a. A particular supposition refers to a definite act (or series of

acts) occurring at some definite time.

b. A general supposition refers to any one of a class of acts which
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.

c. Classification of conditional sentences (p. 167).

244 SUPPLEMENT.

3. Present and Past Conditions .—

a. In the statement of a condition whose falsity is not implied,
the tenses of the Indicative are used.

6. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the imper-
fect and pluperfect subjunctive are used.

c. Impert. subj. referring to past; d. Indic. in apodosis; @€. ex-
pressions of necessity, duty, &c.; fs Fut. part. with fui = plup. subj.

4. Future Conditions :—

a. Use of future indic.; &- of present subj.; c. of future perf.
d. Form of Apodosis; ¢- Perfect indic. in apodosis ; f- Amperf. (or
plupert.) subj. by sequence of tenses.

5. General Conditions : —

a. Indefinite subject (2d person singular); 6. repeated action (im-
perfect subj. and indic.); ¢ in other cases, indicative.

60. ImpLicp ConpiTions.—In many sentences, the con-
dition is stated in some other form than a conditional clause,
or is implied in the nature of the thought (p. 172).

1. Condition Disguised : —

a. In a relative or participial clause; 0. in a wish or command;
Cc. in an independent clause.

2. Condition Omitted : —

a. Potential Subjunctive; 6. Subjunctive of modesty; ¢. Indic-
ative of necessity, duty, &c.; ad. mixed constructions.

61. ConpDITIONAL Particies. Certain particles implying a
condition are followed by the subjunctive (p. 174).

1. Comparative: —tamquam, &c. (with pres. or perf. subj.).

2. Concessive: — quamvis, ut, licet, etsi.

3. Proviso: —modo, dum, dummodo.

4. Use of the Conditional Particles: —

a. si, nisi; b. nisi vero (objection); c. sive (alternative) ; d. con-
cessive particles.

62. ReLatTions oF Time. Temporal clauses are introduced
‘by particles which are almost all of relative origin; and are
usually construed like other relative clauses (p. 176).

1. Temporal particles are used as indefinite relatives.
2. Temporal clauses of absolute time take the Indicative ; those
of relative time, the Subjunctive.

a. postquam, ut, ubi; 0. cum temporal; c. antequam, priue
quam; d. dum, donec, quoad ; é. cum causal; 7. cum...tum.

63. CAUSE OR REAson. Causal Clauses may take the Indica-
tive or Subjunctive according to their construction (p. 181):—

1. Indicative in direct construction;
2. Subjunctive of indirect discourse.
a. Relative clause of characteristic; 0B. cum causal.

OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 245

64. PurrosE.—1. Final clauses take the Subjunctive after
relatives, or the conjunction ut, -ne (p. 182).

a. Use of quo; 6. Suppression of principal clause.

2. Purpose is expressed in various ways; but never (except

rarely in poetry) by the simple Infinitive (p. 183). ’
65. CoNnSEQUENCE or Resu.t. —1. Consecutive Clauses take

the Subjunctive after relatives or the conj. ut, ut non (p. 183).
a. quominus; 6. quin (substantive clause).

2. A relative clause of Result is often used to indicate a char-
acteristic of the antecedent.

a. General expressions of existence, &c.; 6. unus and solus;
c. Comparatives with quam; dd. restriction or proviso; € cause
or hinderance; f. dignus, aptus, idoneus.

66. INTERMEDIATE CLavses. A subordinate clause takes
the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other
person than the speaker or writer; or when it is an integral
part of a subjunctive clause or an equivalent infinitive (p. 185).

1. The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses to express
the thought of some other person.

a. Indirect discourse; 6. depending on implied wish, command,
&c.; C. main clause merged in a verb of saying; d. reason with
quod (non quod, non quin).

2. A clause depending on another subjunctive clause (or equiv-
alent infinitive) will also take the subjunctive if regarded as an
integral part of that clause.

67%. Inprrect Discoursre.—A Direct Quotation is one

which gives the exact words of the original speaker or writer.
An Indirect Quotation is one which adapts the original words
to the structure of the sentence in which they are quoted.

1. Indirect Narrative. In a declaratory sentence in indirect
discourse, the principal verb is in the Infinitive, and its subject
in the Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive.

a. Subject-accusative; 6. Relative clauses; ¢. Conditional Sen-
tences; ad. Questions: indirect or rhetorical.

2. Indirect Questions. An indirect question takes its verb
in the Subjunctive.

a. Future participle; 6. Dubitative Subjunctive; ¢. Accusative
of anticipation; d. Early use of indicative; e@. Indefinites (nescio
quis); f. clauses with si (whether).

3. Indirect Commands. All imperative forms of speech
take the Subjunctive in indirect discourse.

68. WisHes AND ComMANDs.—1. Wishes are expressed by
the Subjunctive : the primary tenses in reference to future time,
the secondary to express a hopeless wish (p. 192).

s

246 SUPPLEMENT.

2. Commands are expressed by the Imperative or Subjunc-
tive; Prohibitions by the subjunctive or a periphrasis with noli,
cave. The Object of a command is given in a purpose-clause.

3. Indirectly quoted, all these forms take the Subjunctive.

69. ReLtativeE CiLAusEs. —1. A simple relative, merely in-
troducing a descriptive fact, takes the Indicative.

2. In relative clauses with the Subjunctive, the relative is
either in protasis, or expresses some logical connection, or has
no effect on the construction (as in indirect discourse).

70. Susstantive CLauses.— A Substantive Clause is
one which is the subject or object of a verb, or in apposition
with a subject or object (p. 193).

1. Classification: 1. Infinitive Clauses; 2. Indirect Ques-
tions; 3. Clauses of purpose or result (ut); 4. Indicative of
fact (quod).

2. The Infinitive (with accusative) is used as the Subject chiefly
of esse and impersonal verbs; as the Object, 1. of verbs and
expressions of knowing, thinking, and telling; 2. jubeo, veto,
&e.; 3. of verbs of wishing.

a. After passives; 0. poetic extension; c. verb of saying im-
plied; d. verbs of promising, &c.

3. Clauses of Purpose are used as the object of all verbs de-
noting an action directed towards the future.

a. Verbs of commanding, &c.; 6. of wishing, &c.; Ce of permission,
&ec.; d. of determining, &c. (decreeing, with part. in dus); e. of cau-
tion and effort; f. of fearing (ne, ut); gy. poetic use of infinitive.

4. Clauses of Result are used as the object of verbs denoting
the accomplishment of an effort.

a. Verbs of happening, &c.; 6. following quam; c. in exclama-
tions (elliptically); @. tantum abest; e, facere ut; f. instead of
accus. and infin. ; gy. hindering (quin; non dubito) ; #2. Use optional.

5. The Indicative with quod is used (more commonly as sub-
ject) when the statement is regarded as a fact.

a. As accus. of specification; &. with verbs of feeling (miror si).

71, QuEsTIONS. — Questions are introduced by interroga-
tive pronouns, adverbs, or particles, and are not distinguished
by the order of words (p. 200). )

1. Interrogative Particles : —

a. num in indirect questions; 0. form of indirect questions;
c. enclitic «ne; d. nescio an, &e.

2. Double Questions (utrum ...an):—

a. Omission of former particle; 0. of first member; ¢. of sec-
ond member; d. forms of alternative.

3. Question and Answer. In answering a question, the
verb is generally repeated.

a

OUTLINE OF SYNTAX. 247

72, ParticiepLes.— The Participle expresses the action
of the verb in the form of an adjective (p. 202).

1. Distinctions of Tense:— —
a. Present; 0. Perfect (deponent) ; c. Pres. passive (dum, =dus).
2. Adjective Use, attributive :—

a. As nouns; 0. as predicate with esse; c. periphrastic perfect;
d. two forms of perfect passive.

3. Predicate Use. The present and perfect participles are
often used to express time, cause, occasion, condition, conces-
sion, characteristic, manner, circumstance (especially in the
Ablative Absolute).

a. Passive part. containing the main idea; B®. Perfect part. with
habeo; c. with volo; Present part. for infin. (with facio, &c.).

4. Future Participle :—

a. Periphrastic conjugation; 6. with fui, &c., for pluperf. subj.

5. Gerundive (denoting necessity and propriety): —

a. in simple agreement; 8. periphrastic conjugation (impersonal
use); € with verbs of undertuking, demanding, &c.

73. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.—1. The Gerund, in gram-
matical construction, follows the same rules as nouns (p. 206).

2. Gerundive. When the Gerund would have an object in
the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, agree-
ing with the noun, in the case which the gerund would have had.

3. Construction. The Gerund and Gerundive are used in
the oblique cases in the constructions of nouns :—

a. The Genitive is used as objective genitive after nouns or adjec-
tives, as a predicate with esse, or as a genitive of quality.

6. The Dative is used after the adjectives (rarely nouns) which
are followed by the dative of nouns ; sometimes also after verbs.

ec. The Accusative is used after several prepositions; most fre-
quently after ad denoting purpose.

ad. The Ablative is used to express means, instrument, or manner,
after comparatives, and after several prepositions.

e. The Gerund is occasionally found in apposition with a noun.

74. Supine.—1. The Former Supine is used after verbs of
motion, to express the purpose of the motion (p. 209).

2. The Latter Supine is used only after a few adjectives and
nouns, to denote that in respect to which the quality is asserted.

248 SUPPLEMENT.

SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS.
[The figures refer to pages.]

I. SuspsecT AND PREDICATE.

oe of abl. with loéative, 104.
1. Apposition of gen. with possessive, 105.
2. Predicate Agreement, 104.
with nearest noun, 105.
by synests, 106

Noun: agreement in case

re Agreement
ttributive ‘
: . masc. or fem., of persons, 106.
ADJECTIVE: Fe pee } 28 Noun peer as object, quality, ke., 107.

Ppe Possessive, as genitive (subj. or obj.), 108.
(as Adverb, qualiiying the act, 108.

with appositive, 110.

Agreement in case by. attraction, 110.

in either or both clauses, 110.
Antecedent noun omitted, 110.

RELATIVE:

II. ConsTrRuCTION OF CASES.

NoMINATIVE: as Subject of a Finite Verb, 112.

1. Subjective (source, possession, quality), 114.
2. Partitive (with numerals, superlatives, &c.), 115.
Ze ith nouns and adjectives 4 agency, eer
3. Objective ¢ _. of memory and feeling, 119 lo
ai “varte of charge and penalty, 119.

GENITIVE:

: 4 with transitives, 121.
- Of Indirect Object with intransitives, 122.
‘ with esse, 126.
- Of Possession with nomen est, 127.

with gerundive, 127.

- Of Agency with other passive forms, 127.
. Of Service (denoting purpose or end), 128.
Of Nearness, fitness, likeness, &c., 128.
. Of Reference (dativus commodi), 129.
. Of Direct Object (including cognate accusative), 131.
Of Apposition or Secondary object, 132
. Adverbial ( ati accusative of specification), 133.
. Of Exclamation, 133.
. As subject of Infinitive, 133.

VocaTIveE: of Direct Address.

, eis
~~

DATIVE: +

ACCUSATIVE:

TP OLE Horm co po

of separation and want, 135.
1. Original | of source, 136.
’ Ablative { of cause, 137.
(FROM) | of agent (with ad), 138.
of comparison (than), 138.

of means and accompaniment, 189.
ABLATIVE: { 2. Instrumental | of quality (with adjectives), 141.
(WITH) of price, 141.
of specification, 142.
Place where, 145.
3. Locative |} Time at or within which, 143.
(IN, AT) j; Idiomatic use, 142.
{ Circumstance (ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE), 142.

SYNOPSIS OF CONSTRUCTIONS. 249

Ill, Synrax or THE VERB.

INDICATIVE: Direct assertion or question; Absolute Time, 148.
{ Hortatory, opelre Concessive, Dubitative, 148.
f Purpose or Result, 181, 183. 177.
Chaiacteristic, 184; Relative Time,
SUBJUNCTIVE: { Dependent } Indirect Discourse egos 188,
Peo : ndir. Quest. 190.
Coadtiions Future, 170.
; Contrary to fact, 168.
IMPERATIVE: Commands, Prohibitions, 152. ;
as Subject or Object; Comp'ementary, 154.’
INFINITIVE: jet Indirect Discourse (subject-accusative), 188.
of Purpose; Exclamation; Historical, 156.

simple condition (indic.), 168.
contrary ie re (subj ), 168.
more vivid (fut. indic.), 170.
Expressed eieste less vivid (pres. subj.), 170.
Goneral j indef. subject (2d person), 171.
{ repeated action, 171.
by qualifying clause, 172.
Disguised by wish, command, &c., 172.
independent clause, 173.
Implied - povenser: subjunctive, 173. —

: subjunctive of modesty, 173.
Omitted (indic. of necessity, &c., 174.)
‘ mixed constructions, 174.
Principal clause: Accus. and Infin., 188.

Narrati Relative, 188.
arration \ Subordinate clauses, Subj.: 4 Conditional, 188.
INDIRECT Imperative, 191.
DiscouRsE: | . { Interrog. phrase, 190.
Question (Subjunctive) Accus. of anticipation, 190.
; nescio quis, mirum si, 191.
| Intermediate Clauses (Subjunctive), 186.
f Meena. and tnan. (°° Subject (esse and impers. ), 153.
(or Infin. alone) ) as Object pee yi if 195
SUBSTANTIVE | Purpnes (cunmaasd with, ar. 16
7 7 j 9 ’ ’ .
CuausEs: | Subjunctive with ur Result (happen, effect, hinder), 197.
Indicative with Quon: fact, specification, feeling, 199.
| Indirect Questions, 190.
p Simple predicate, 203.
Periphrastic perfect, 203.
Present and Perfect { Predicate of circumstance, 204.
; (Ablative Absolute), 204.
; Present, descriptive (indir. dise.), 205.
PARTICIPLES: Fut Periphrastic with esse, 205.
fp ee + With fui = pluperf. subj., 169.
as descriptive adjective, 205.
Gerundive { periphrastic with esse, 205.
of purpose, with certain verbs, 206.
: Genitive: as objective gen., 207.
Gerrunp? (like Infinitive) and | Dative: with adjectives, &c., 208.

GERUNDIVE (in agreement; Accusative: with prepositions, 208.
with noun): Ablative: § 0f, manner and instrum., 208.
* | with prepositions, 208.

s Former Supine: with verbs of motion, 209.
oe Latter Supine: with adjectives, nouns, verbs, 209.

Present or Past

CONDITIONS: ;

.

250

SUPPLEMENT.

PECULIAR AND EXCEPTIONAL Noun-FOorRMS.

First and Second Declensions.

Sing.
N. dea deus filius Gaius studium vir
G. des dei fili(ii) Gai studi (ii) viri
D. dese deo filio Gaio studio viro
A. deam deum filium Gaium & virum
Vv. dea deus fili Gai vir
A. dea deo filio Gaio viro
Plur.
N.V. dese dei(dii, di) filii Gai studia viri
G. dearum deorum c. Gaio &e. virorum
D Ab.deabus deis (diis, dis) Gais viris
Acc. deas deos Gaios viros
Third Declension (Greek).

Sing.
NW. aer (M.) heros(M.) lampas(r.) basis tigris

aéris (Os) herois lampa&dos baseos (is) tigris (idos)
D. = aeri heroi ampadi basi tigri [ida
Ac. aera heroa lampada basin (im) tigrin (im,
Ab. aere heroe lampade basi tigri (ide)
Plur. .
= V. herdés lampadés basés ' tigres

heroum lampadum basium tigrium
>. Ab. lampadibus basibus tigribus
Acc. heroa&s lampa basés (eis) tigris (id&s)
Fourth and Fifth Declensions.
Sing. Plur.
N. domus(F.) domus senatus plebes
G. domus domorum (uum) senatus (i, uos) plebei (i)
D. domui (0) domibus senatu plebei (i)
Ac. domum domos senatum plebem
Ab. domo (u) domibus senatu plebe
[Loc. domi.]
Proper Names-(Greek).

N Atrides Phcebe Athés(o) Delds Orpheus
G. Atridse Phoebes Atho (i) Deli Orphei (eos)
D. Atridee Phoebse Atho Delo Orpheo (ei)
A Atriden(em) Phceben Atho(on) Delon(um) Ft heum (ea)
Vv. Atrida Phoebe Orpheu
A. Atrida Phoebe Atho Delo Orpheo
N. Achilles Socrates Thales To (Ion) Juppiter
G Achillis (eos, Socratis (i) ° Thali (etis) Las (onts) Jovis
D. Achilli |ei, i) Socrati Thali(eti) lo (oni) ovi
A. Achil len (ea) Socraten (em) Thalen(eta) Io (ona) Jovem
V. Achi Socrate Thales Io Juppiter
A. chille Socrate Thale ‘ete) Io ove
N Atlas(ans} aocoon Simois Capy Argos (N.)
G. Atlantis Laocoontis Simoentis Capyos (is) Nom. +e Ace.
D Atlanti Laocoonti Simoenti Capyi Piur
A. Atlanta Laocoonta Simoenta Capyn(ym) Argi
V. Atlas (Atla) ILaocoon Simois Capys Argorum
A. Atlante Laocoonte Simoente Capye . Argis, &c.

Note. —The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.

APPENDIX. -

Latin was originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying
south of the Tiber, the first territory occupied and governed by the
Romans... This language, together with the Greek, Sanskrit, Zend
(old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic,
are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common
stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the in-
terior of Asia, whence the different branches, by successive gar
tions, peopled Europe and Southern Asia.

The name Indo-European (or Aryan) is given to the whole
group of languages, as well as to the original language from which
. the branches sprang. By an extended comparison of the cor-
responding roots, stems, and forms, as they appear in the different
branches, the original (“ Indo-European”) root, stem, or form can
in very many cases be determined; and this is used as a model,
or type, to which the variations may be referred. A few of these
forms are given in the grammar for comparison (see, especially,
p. 59). A few are here added for further illustration :

1. Case Forms (Stem VAK, voice).

Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin.
Sina. Nom. vaks vaks by vox
Gen. vakas vachas émés vocis
Dat. vakai vache él voci
Ace. vakam vacham ora vocem
Abl. vakat vachas (gen. or dat.) voce(d)
Loc. vaki vachi .) (dat.)
Instr. vaka vacha (dat.) (abl.)
Piur. Nom. vikas vachas drres voces
Gen. vakam . vacham or Ov yvocum |
Dat. vakbhyams vagbhyas yl vocibus
Ace. vakams vachas bras voces
Abl. vakbhyams (as dat.) (gen. or dat.) vocibus
Loc. vaksvas vaksu (dat.)
Instr. vakbhis vagbhis (dat (abl.)

(For Verb-Forms, see p. 59.)

252

APPENDIX,

2. Cardinal Numbers.

Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin, ~°
13 [eka] [els] oe
2 dva dva dvo uo
5 en Ov | tri Tpcts tres
4 kvatvar chatur [récoapes] _ quattuor
5 kvankva panchan WwEVTE quinque
6 ksvaks shash & sex
7 saptam saptan érrd septem
8 aktam ashtun OxT aw octo
9 navam navan évvéa novem
10 dakam dasan déxa decem
12 dvadakam dva-dasan dwdexa duodecim
13 tridakam trayo-dasan tpicxaldexa _—_ tredecim
20 dvidakanta vinsati elkoor viginti
30 tridakanta trinsati TpidKovTa triginta
100 kantam catam éxarév centum
3. Familiar and Household Words. bad
Indo-Eur. Sanskr. Greek. Latin.
Father. patar- pitri- warip pater
Mother. matar- matri- harp mater
Father-in-law. svakura- evacura- éxupds socer
Daughter-in-law, snusha- snusha- vuds nurus
Brother. bhratar- bhratri- ¢pdrnp* frater
Sister. svasar- (?) — svasar- [addekp7H] —ssoror
Master. pati- ti- mbots potis
House dama- ama- d5puos domus
Seat. sadas- sadas- &5os sedes
Year. vatas- vatsa- eros vetus (old)
Field. agra- ajra- aypés ager
Ox, Cow. u- go- Bois bos
Sheep (Ewe). avi- avi- dis ovis
Swine (Sow). si- sii- bs, ovs sus
Yoke. yuga- yuga- guyév jugum
Wagon. rata- rata- [duata] rota (wheel)
Middle, madhya- madhya- pésos medius
Sweet. svadu- svadu- 70s suavis

The immigrants who peopled the Italian peninsula also divided
into several branches, and the language of each branch had its own
development, until they were finally crowded out by the dominant
Latin. Fragments of some of these dialects have been preserved,
in monumental remains, or as cited by Roman antiquarians, though
no literature now exists in them; and other fragments were prob-
ably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect which formed
the basis of the modern Italian. The most important of these
ancient languages of Italy — not including Etruscan, which was

* Clansman.

APPENDIX. 253

of uncertain origin— were the Oscan of Campania, and the Um-
brian of the northern districts. Some of their forms as compared
with the Latin may be seen in the following:

Latin. Oscan. Umbrian, Latin. Oscan. Umbrian
accinere arkane neque nep
alteri (loc.) alttrei per perum
argento aragetud portet portaia
avibus — aveis quadrupedibus _ peturpursus
censor censtur quatuor petora petur
censebit censazet quingue pomtis
contra, F. contrud,N. qui, quis pis pis
cornicem curnaco quid pid
dextra destru quod pod pod
dicere deicum (cf. venum-do) | cui piei
dixerit dicust quom pone, pune
duodecim desenduf __| rectori regaturei
extra ehtrad | siquis svepis
facito factud stet stai*t(stai*et)
fecerit fefacust subvoco subocau
fertote fertuta sum sum
fratribus fratrus est i*st
ibi ip sit set
imperator embratur fuerit fust fust
inter anter anter fuerunt fufans
liceto licitud fuat fuid fuia
magistro mestru tertium tertim
medius mefa_ ubi puf
mugiatur mugatu uterque puturus pid
multare moltaum utrique puterei® putrespe

Fragments of early Latin are preserved in inscriptions dating
back to the third century before the Christian era; and some Laws
are attributed to a much earlier date, — to Romulus (8. oc. 750) and
Numa (8. c. 700); and especially to the Decemvirs (Twelve Tables,
B. 0. 450); but i their present form no authentic dates can be as-
signed to them. Some of these are usually given in a supplement
to the Lexicon. (See also Cic. de Legibus, especially ii. 8, iii. 3, 4.)

Latin did not exist as a literary language, in any compositions
known to us, until about B. c. 200. At that time it was already
strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the
chief objects of literary study and admiration. The most popular
plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from .
Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular dialect and the
slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners
they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. And the natural
growth of a genuine Roman literature seems to have been thus

254 APPENDIX.

very considerably checked or suppressed. rations, rhetorical
works, letters, and histories, — dealing with the practical affairs
and passions of politics, — seem to be nearly all that sprang direct
from the native soil. The Latin poéts of the Empire were mostly
court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious class; satires and
epistles alone keep the flavor of Roman manners, and exhibit the
familiar features of Italian life.

In its use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as
the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part
of Europe; as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philos-
ophers during the Middle Age, and in some countries to a much
later period; as the official language of the Church and Court of
Rome, down to the present day; as, until recently, the common
language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of com-
munication among many learned classes and societies; and as the
universal language of Science, especially of the descriptive sciences,
so that many hundreds of Latin terms, or derivative forms, must be
known familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of
the facts of the natural world, or be able to recount them intelli-
gibly to men of science. In some of these uses it may still be
regarded as a living language; while, conventionally, it retains its
place as the foundation of a liberal education. ,

During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not
only in its literary or urban form, but in several local dialects,
known by the collective name of lingua rustica, far simpler in the
forms of inflection than the classic Latin. This, it is probable, was
the basis of modern Italian, which has preserved many of the
ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection, as orto (hortus),
gente (gens). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans,
Latin — often in its ruder and more popular form — grew into the
language of the common people. Hence the modern languages
called “Romance” or “ Romanic”; viz., Italian, Spanish, Portu-
guese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern
Spain, the Provengal or Troubadour language of the South of
France, the “ Rouman” or Walachian of the lower Danube (Rou-
mania), and the “ Roumansch” of some districts of Switzerland.

A comparison of words in several of these tongues with Latin
will serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which
reference has been made in the body of this Grammar, as well as.

APPENDIX. 255
the degree in which the substance of the language has remained
unchanged. Thus, in the verb éo be the general tense-system has
been preserved from the: Latin in all these languages, together
with both of the stems on which it is built, and the personal
endings, somewhat abraded, which can be traced throughout. The
following exhibit the verb-forms with considerably less alteration

than is found in the other Romanic tongues: —

Latin. Italian. Spanish. Portuguese. French. Provencal.
sum sono soy sou suis son (sui)
es sei eres és es ses (est)
est es hé est es (ez)
sumus siamo somos somos sommes sem (em)
estis siete sois sdis étes etz (es)
sunt sono son sad sont _ sont (son)
eram era era era étais era

eras eri eras eras étais eras

erat era era era était era
eramus eravamo éramos éramos étions eram
eratis eravate erais. éreis _ étiez eratz
erant érano eran érad étaient eran

fui fui, fui fui fus fui
fuisti -fosti fuiste féste fus fust

fuit fi fue - foi fut fo (fon)
fuimus fummo fuimos fomes fiimes fom
fuistis foste fuisteis fdstos faites fotz
fuerunt furono fueron forad furent foren
sim sia sea seja, sois sia

sis sli seas sejas sois ™ sias

sit sia sea seja soit sia
simus siamo seamos sejdmos soyons siam
sitis siate seais sejais soyez siatz
sint siano sean scjad solent sian
fuissem fossi fuese fdsse fusse fos
fuisses fossi fueses fisses fusses fosses
fuisset fosse . fuese fdsse fat fossa (fos)
fuissemus fdssimo fuésemos fdssemos fussions fossem
fuissetis foste. fueseis fésseis fussiez fossetz
fuissent féssero fuesen fossem fussent fossen

es sii se sé sois sias

esto sia sea seja soit sia

este siate sed séde soyez siatz
sunto siano ' sean séjad soient sian

esse éssere ser ser étre esser
[sens] essendo _—_siendo séndo étant essent

256 ) APPENDIX.

PRINCIPAL ROMAN WRITERS.

B.C.

¥ T. Maccius Plautus, Comedies .. ° © « 254-184
Q. Ennius, Annals, Satires, &c. (Fragments) © « « ~ 239-169
M. Porcius Cato, Husbandry, Antiquities, dc. . + « 234-149
M. Pacuvius, Zvagedies (Fragments)... .. « 220-130
P. Terentius Afer (Terence), Cometthes. iss 656 14ih8 195-159
L. Attius, Zragedies (Fragments) . -« ... «0 « 170-75
C. Lucilius, Sa¢zres (Fragments) . ee 148-103
M. Terentius Varro, Husbandr Antiquities, hee 116-28

wM. Tullius Cicero, Oratious, Latters. Dialogues .. 106-43

C. Julius Cesar, Commentaries . . eve ICO-44

- T. Lucretius Carus, Poem ‘‘ De Rerum Natura” . . 95-52
- C. Valerius Catullus, M//scellaneous Poems . .. . 87-47
C. Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Histories . qit 86-34
vy Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Famous Commanders . .

Lv P. Vergilius Maro, Eclogues, Georgics, ineid R 7O-19
LQ. Horatius F laccus, Satires, Odes, Epistles . . . 65-8
Albius Tibullus, Blegtes . . ne he part tee ta 54-18
Sex. Aurelius Propertius, Elegies test ae os 51-15

T. Livius Patavinus (Livy), Roman History . SQ-A. D. 17

. P. Ovidius Naso (Ovid), ene are Fasti, ke. é ; » 43-A. D. 18
Phedrus, ables. 2. 3s. 2 .. ahhtitan ates

Valerius Maximus, Azecdotes, ‘Le. a je SG ee og 3 -31
C. Velleius Paterculus, Roman History . . . « « 19-31
Pomponius Mela, Husbandry & Geogreg e * Gee pak -50
A. Persius Flaccus, Satires . - A.D. 34-62
—L. Anneus Seneca, Philos. Letters, dc. . T ragedies : 6
~M. Anneus Lucanus, Historical Poem “ Pharsalia” . 39-65
Q. Curtius Rufus, History of Alexander. . . « . i
C. Plinius Secundus (Pliny), Mat. Hist.. dc. . . . 23-79
C. Valerius Flaccus, Herozc Poem, * Argonautica” . -88
P. Papinius Statius, Heroic Poems, ** bein. anole &c. » 61-96
C. Silius Italicus, Herote Poem, ‘“*Punica” . 6” i 25-100
VD. Junius Juvenalis (Juvenal), Satires . . . s . 40-120
L. Annezus Florus, Hist. Abridgment. . . . ; -120

M. Valerius Martialis (Martial), E~zgrams. . . . 43-104
VM. Fabius Quintilianus, Rhetoric . . ee at os 40-118
\“C. Cornelius Tacitus, Aunals, History, bc. ; 60-118

C. Plinius Cecilius Secundus (Pliny Junior) Letters 61-115

C. Suetonius Tranquillus, Biographies . . . : 70-

Apuleius, Philos. Writings, ‘‘ Metamorphoses ” &e. . 110-

A. Gellius, Miscellanies, ‘‘ Noctes Attice” . . + +» about ~-180
+ Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Afologis# . . 160-240
+ M. Minucius Felix, Afol. Dialogue . . . . + «about -250
t Firmianus Lactantius, Theology . . . « «© « + . 250-325
+D. Magnus Ausonius, Miscellaneous Poems . + + —400
Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman History. «+ « * —400
Claudius Claudianus, Poems, Panegyrics, &c. F -410
+ Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems. . 348-410
t Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions, Discourses, dc. . 3547430
Anicius Manlius Boéthius, P&:los. Dialogues . + . 470-520

t Christian writers.

INDEX.

Oe he
Se Rube

ee

a

rf
=

ae ha
a

oO lee

ae ra

i wr ay ee
seen lag ag
Le (Gach oes ¢
ee eatin. °
o 7 * ‘

ey Ts ee
x Pi Ete
: Somme

INDEX.

Notre.—The Figures refer to pages; the Letters a, b, c, to the upper, middle, or

lower part of the page.
A.

A or ab, preposition, 88; after peto
or postulo, 133 a; after participles
of origin, 187 a; with abl. of agent
after passives, 138 b, 147 c.

Abbreviations of Pranomens, 32.

ABLATIVE, 12 a; ending, 13 b; in
abus, 14c; ini, 18 b, 35 c, 37 ¢;
in is (3d decl.), 21 b; in ubus, 28c¢;
neuter as Adverb, 84c; eo, quo,

. &e., 49 c; after Prepositions, 88 ;
with ab or de for part. gen., 116 b;
of crime or penalty, 119 c; with
dono, &c., 122 b ; with pro for de-
fence, &c., 130 c.— Syntax, 134-
143; signification, 134 c; of Sep-
aration, 135 a; with compounds, b;
of place whence, c; after adjectives
of freedom and want, 1386 a; of
Source after natus, &c., c; of Ma-

_terial, 1387 b; of Cause (with ad-
jectives and verbs), c; of Agent,
138 b ; after Comparatives, c; after
plus, &c., 1389 a; of Means, b; of
Accompaniment, c; after utor,
&e., 140 c; of Quality, 141 a; of
Manner or Description, id.; of
Price, b; of Specification, 142 a;
Locative, 142 b, 148 b; Ablative
Absolute, 142 c; used adverbially,
143 a; of description, 204; of
Time when, 143 b; how long, c; of
Distance, 144 a; place whence,
144.c; for Locative, 145 a; place
where, ec; way by which, ce; with
Prepositions, 146 a; with ab for
Agent, 147 ¢; (distinguished from
abl. of instrument, 148 a); of Ge-
rundive, 208 ec.

Absolute and Relative Time, 177.

absque, 89 a.

Abstract nouns in plural, 80 c; with

neuter adjective, 106 a; expressed
by neuter adjective, 107 c.

ac, see atque; ac si, 174 c.

Acatalectic verse, 222 c.

Accent, Rules of, 7 c; marks of, 8 a.

Accompaniment, ablative of, with
cum, 139 c.

AccusATIVE, 11 ¢; endings, 13 a; in
im, 18 b, 85 c; in is, 19 a, 37 ¢;
neuter as Adverb, 84 c (fem.
85 a); after Prepositions, 88, 145 a.
with verbs of remembering, &c..,
119 a; with Impersonals, 120 a,
182 b; with juvo, medeor, &c.
123 c; with dative after verbs,
124 c; after compounds with ante
&e., 125 c; with ad for dative.
128 c; after propior, &c., 129 b.—
Syntax, 181-1383; as Direct Ob.
ject, 181 a; with verbs of Feeling
and Taste, b,c; Cognate, c; after
compounds of circum and trans
132 a; constructive use ( Constructic
Pregnans), b ; after Impersonals, b;
Two Accusatives, c (passive use,
Rem.) ; Adverbial, 183a; synecdo-
chical, b; of Exclamation, c; as
subject of Infinitive, c, 155 b,
194 a; distance and place whither
133 c, 144 a; of Subject in Indi.
rect Discourse, 188 a; of anticipa-.
tion (in indir. questions), 190 c:
in Substantive Clauses, 194 a; after
verbs of Promising, &c., 195 a; of
Gerundive, 208 b. |

Accusing and Acquitting, verbs of
119 b.

Acephalous verse, 222.

-aceus, adjective ending, 98 b.

Achilles, infl., 250.

Action, nouns of, 96 b, 97 ¢c; fol.
lowed by genitive, 117 a.

-ad, prepos. governing acc., 88 b.

260

-ades, patronymic, 98 b.

adimo, construction of, 126 a.

AvJectTives, 33-41; of lst and 2d
declensions, 38; of 3d declension,
35; of two or three terminations,
85; of one termination, 36; infl.
of comparatives, 37; of common

gender, 388 a; cases of, used as
Adverbs, 38 a, 84; derivation, 96 b,
98 a; compound, 100 b; as mod-
ifiers, 102.a; adjective phrase, b;
Rule of Agreement, 105; as appo-
sitive, b; rule of Gender, 106 a;
agreement by synesis, b; agreeing
with appositive or predicate, a;
partitive, b, c; used as nouns, c;
demonstratives as pronouns, 107 a;
neuter adj. as noun, b ; Possessive,
used as genitive, 108 a, 114 a;
qualifying act (primus venit),
108 c ; medius, reliquus, &c., 109;
pred. in relative clause, 111 b;
compar. or neuter as partitive,
115 c; relative adj. governing
genitive, 117 b; of feeling with
animi, b; of Likeness, &c.,
with gen. or dat., 118 c, 129 b; of
Fitness with dat. or ad and acc.,
128 c (propior with acc., 129 b) ;
of freedom and want with abl.,
136 a; dignus, &c., with abl.,
137 c; with rel. clause, 185 c.

admodum, 41 a.

Adonic verse, 228 c.

ADVERBS, 9 c, 84-87; comparison,
40 b; numeral, 43 c; correlative,
49; derivative, 84; classification,
85 c; signification, 87; in com-
pounds, 100 c, 124 b; as modifiers,
102 a (phrase, b); qualifving a
noun, 107 b; relative or demonstr.
= pronoun with prepos., 111 c; as
partitives, 116 a; hactenus, 147 a;
pridie, &c., with accus., b ; palam,
&ec., with abl., b; ante.. quam, c.

Advyerbial phrase, 102 b; id tempo-
ris, meam vicem, quod si, 133 b;
in abl. absolute, 148 a.

Adversative conjunctions, 94 a.

adversus, 89 b; as adverb, 147 b.

aer, infl., 250.

Affix, close and open, 9 b.

Agency, nouns of, 96 b, 97 c; gov-
erning genitive, 117 a.

Agent, abl. of with ab, 188 b, 147 c.

Agnomen, 82 b.

INDEX.

AGREEMENT, Rules of, 103-113; of

Nouns, c; appos. and predicate, —

104 a; of Adjectives, 105; of
omnes, quot, &c., instead of part.
genitive, 116 c.

aio, 81 c.

al, ar, neuters of 8d decl. (list), 17 ¢.

Alcaic Strophe, 229.

ali-, stem of alius, 48 b.

alienus as possessive, 145 b.

aliquis, inflected, 48 b.

-alis, -aris, adjective ending, 98 b.

———— ee rl ee

alius, inflected, 34 c; with abl. (po-

etic), 189 b; alius.. alius, 109 c.

Alphabet, classification, 1 b; earl
forms, changes, 2; assimilation, 4.

ambo, inflection of, 42 b.

amplius, construed without quam,
139 a.

an, anne, annon, interrogative par-
ticles, 200.

Anapestic verse, 227.

animi (locative), 118 b.

ante, 89 b; omitted in dates, 146 c;
as adverb, 147 b; followed by
quam, c, 179 c.

ante diem, 146 c.

Antecedent of relative, 110 a; im-
plied, b; in both clauses, or in
relative clause only, c; omitted,
lll a.

Antepenult, 7 c.

antequam, 179 c.

Aorist (historical perfect), 53 b.

apage, 82 b.

Apodosis, defined, 166 a; form of,
c; past tenses of indicative for
potential, 169 a, 174 a.

Apposition, 102 a, 104; rule of gen-
der, 104 a; locative and abl., c; of
possessive and gen., 105 a; of ad-
jectives, b; neuter in, 107 c ; agree-
ment of verb, 112 a; expressed by
gen., 115 a; with nomen est (in
dative), 127 a; after verbs of nam-
ing, &c. (accus.), 182 c.

apud, 89 c.

aptus, with ad and acc., 128 c; with
relative clause of result, 185 b.

Argos, inflected, 250.

Arsis and Thesis, 222 b.

As, unit of value, 235.

Asclepiadic verse, 228; forms of,
230.

Asking, verbs of (two accus.), 182 ¢;
passive construction id. (Rem.).

INDEX.

Aspirate, 1 c, 215.

Assibilation of c before e or i, 4 b.

Assimilation of consonants, 3 b; in
prepositions, 4 a.

at, 95 b; at vero, 96 a.

Athos, inflection of, 17 a, 250.

Atlas, infl., 250.

atque (or ac), with words of like-
ness, &c., 95 a.

Atrides, infli., 250.

Attraction of relative, 110.

Attributive adjective, gender, 105 c.

-atus, adjective ending, 98 b.

audeo, 77 a; ausim, b; ausus (as
present), 222 b.

aut, 95 b; in questions, 201 c.

autem, position, 96 a.

Authority in prosody, 215 c.

ave, 82 b.

-ax, adj. ending, 98 c ; adjectives in,
with gen., 117 c.

B..

Bacchic verse, 227 c.

Bargaining, verbs of, 196 b; with
part. in dus, 206 a.

basis, infl., 250.

belli (locative), 145 a.

-ber, names of months in, 35 ¢.

-bilis (passive verbal), 98 b.

Birth, place of, in ablative, 187 a.

bos, declined, 22 b.

C.

C=—G, 2a; for qu, b; interchanged
with t, 4b; pronunciation, 6 a.

Cesura, 222 b.

Calendar, 235.

Cardinal numbers, 41; declined, 42;
comparative forms, 252.

Capitis, with verbs of accusing and
condemning, 119 a.

caro, declined, 22.

Capys, infl., 250.

Cases, 11 b; endings, 18; forms (see
Declensions); meaning of their
names, 113 b; Construction of,
113-148; comparative forms, 251.

Catalectic verse, 222 c.

causa, with genitive, 115 b, 138 a.

Causal conjunctions, 94 b; clauses,
102 ¢; construction of do., 181 b.

261

Causative verbs, 99 a.

Cause, clauses of, 181; implied (sub-
junctive clause), 185 b.

Caution and Effort, verbs of, with
substantive clause, 196 b.

cave in prohibitions, 152 b, 196 c.

-ce, enclitic (hic, etc.), 45 b.

cedo (defective), 82 b.

celo, with 2 acc., 133 a.

certe, certo, 87 b.

ceu, 174 ¢.

ch, hard sound of, 6 c.

Characteristic, clause of, 184 b.

Chiasmus, 213 b.

Choliambic verse, 226 b.

Choriambic verse, 228 b.

ci or ti before a vowel, 4 b.

-cip (stem-ending), 20 b.

circa, circiter, circum, cis, 89 c.

circiter, as adverb, 147 b.

Cities, names of, gender, 10 ce.

citra, 89 c; following noun, 148 a.

clam, as preposition, 147 b.

Criauses, classification of, 102; used
as adverbs, 85 b; with a neuter in
appos., 107 c; limited by genitive
of abstract nouns, 114 b; with
peenitet, etc., 120 a; dependent,
in sequence of tenses, 162 a; Con-
ditional, 166-176; Temporal, 176-
181; Causal, 181; Final, 182; Con-
secutive, 183; Intermediate, 185;
Subordinate (in indir. discourse),
188; Relative (classified), 198 ;
Substantive, 193-199 (see these
titles).

clienta, 37 a.

Close syllables, 5 c; affixes, 9 b; in
compounds, 65 a.

coepi, 81 b.

Cognate Accusative, 131 b.

Cognomen, 32 b.

onnete noun with plural verb,
112 ¢.

Commands, imperative, 51 b, 152 b;
hort. subjunctive, 149 c, 192c; in
indirect discourse, 191 c.

Commanding, verbs of, with pur-
pose-clause, 195 c; with result-
clause, 198 c.

committere ut, 198 a.

Common gender, 11 a; of adjectives,
38 a.

Comparative conjunctions (as if),
94 b, 174 c; with appos., 104 b;
with primary tenses, 175 a.

262

Comparatives, declension, 87 a; use,
40 c; as partitives, 115 c¢.

Comparison of Adjectives, forms,

- 83 b; irregular, 39 b; defective, c;
of Adverbs, 40 b ; of qualities (two
comparatives), 108; by magis,
389 a, 109 a.

Complementary accusative, 104 b;
infinitive, 154 b.

Completed action, tenses of, 58 ¢,
159 c; idiomatic use, 170 ¢.

CompounpDs, prepositions in, 4 a; of
verbs, 65 a; of esse, 60; of facio
and fio, 81 a; of non, 87 a; of

- circum and trans, 132 a, c; of
ab, de, ex, 135 b; quantity of, 220.

Conative present, 157; imperfect, 158,

Concession, verbs of (with clause or
infin.), 196 a.

Concessive subjunctive, 151; parti-
cles, 94 c, 175 b.

Condemning, verbs of, 119 b.

Conditional conjunctions, 94 b, 176;
Sentences, 166-174; Clauses, 102 b,
103 a, 166; classified, 167.

ConpitTions, particular and general,
167; simple, 168 a; contrary to
fact, b; (how developed, Note ;)

' imperfect of continued state, c;
use of indicative, 169; (part. in
urus, c;) forms of future cond.,
170 (imperf. by sequence of tenses,
171); general cond. (indef. sub-
ject or repeated action), 171 c;
implied, 172 (in intermed. clause,
187 Note); omitted, 173; in indi-
rect discourse, 189.

confit, 82 b.

Conjugation, 9 b, 60; the four regu-
lar forms, 60-65; paradigms of,
66-75.

Conjunctions, 93-95 ; correlative, 49;
classification, 93; meaning, 95.

Connectives (relatives used as), 103 b.

Consecutive clause defined, 103 a;
syntax (subj. with ut), 183-185.

Consonants, classification, 1 b; con-
sonant stems, 12 c, 36 a.

constare (consist), 137.

Constructio pregnans, 132 b.

Constructions of Cases, 113-148 ;
Synopsis of, 248, 249.

contra, 90 a; as adverb, 147 b; fol-
lowing noun, 148 a.

Contraction, 3 a, 7b; shown by cir-
cumflex, 8 a. :

INDEX.

Contracting, &c., verbs of, with ge-
rundive, 206 a.

Co-ordinate clauses, 102 c.

Copula, 101 ¢c.

cordi, 128 b.

Correlatives, 49.

Countries, names of, gender, 10 c.

credo (parenthetic), 214 a.

Cretic verse, 228.

Crime or charge, gen. of, 119 b; ex-
pressed by abl., c.

cum (prep.), 90 a; as enclitic, with
pronoun and relative, 44 c, 47 ¢;
with abl. of accompaniment, 139 c;
contention, 140 c ; manner, 141 b.

cum (conj.), its orthography, 2 b;
meaning, 95 c; as indef. relative,
177 a; temporal (imperf. or plup.
subj.), 178 b; causal or concessive
(since, though), 180 c, 181 a, c; like
quod, with indic., 180 c; in clause,
for pres. participle, 202 c.

cum... tum, 49 c, 95 c, 181a.

-cundus, adj. ending, 98 b.

D.

D, final, changed to t, 2 b.

Dactylic verse, 224 b.

Dative, 11 c; endings, 18 b; in
-abus, 14 ¢; in is (8d decl.), 21 b;
-ubus, 28 c; in i (unus, &c.), 34 ¢.
— Syntax, 121-1380; of Indirect
Object, 121; after transitives, c; af-
ter verbs of motion (poetic), 122 b;
with ace. or abl. after dono, &c.,
id.; after intransitives, c, 123 (use
of acc., c, 124 c) ; after impersonals,
124 b; after compounds (ad, ante,
&e.), 125; (ab, de, ex,) 126 a;
poetic use, c; of Possession (with
esse), id.; after compounds of
esse, 127 a; as pred. with nomen
est, id.; of Agency, with gerund-
ive, b; after participles and pas-
sives, id.; of Service, 128 a; of
Nearness, Fitness, &c., b; after
nouns or adjectives, 129 b ; of Ref-
erence, c; for poss. gen., 180 a; for
direction, id.; of volens, &c., b;
Ethical, id.; with infin. (for acc.),
155 b; of gerundive, 208 a.

dea, 14 b, 250.

Declaratory Sentence, 101 a.

Declension, 12; general rules, 18 a;

INDEX.

of Nouns, i. 14, ii. 15, iii. 17-27, iv.
28, v. 29; of Adjectives, i. ii. 33,
ili. 35.
Defective nouns, 31; adjectives, 37 c;
- comparison, 39 ; tenses, 50 ; verbs,
81

Definitions of Syntax, 101-103; of
Prosody, 215, 221-228.

defit, 82 ec.

deinde, denique, 87 c.

Delos, infl., 250.

-dem, affix, 45 b.

Denominative verbs, 99 a,c; (com-
pare 67 b).

Deponent verbs, 75-77; reflexive
signif., 76 b; list of irregulars, c ;
semi-deponents, 77a.

Derivation of Words, 96-100.

Derivative verbs, 77 b, 99:

Desideratives (in urio), 78 a, 99 c.

deus, 16 b, 250.

dic (imperative), 65 c.

Dido, infl., 23 b.

dies, gender of, 29 c (form dii, 30 a).
difficilis, see facilis.

diznus, with abl., 137 c; with clause
of characteristic, 185 c.

Dimeter Iambic verse, 226.

Diminutives: nouns, 98 a; verbs,
i7c, 99 ¢.

Diphthongs, 1 b; sound of, 6 b;
quantity, 7 a, 216 b.

Diptotes, 31 a.

Direct Discourse, 187 ec.

pire a (ace.}, 183 ¢; (ace. or abl.),

a.

Distributive Numerals, 43 b.

divum (divom), for deorum, 16 b.

-do, -go, feminine endings, 23 c,
93 a.

domi (locative), 28 c, 145 a.

domus, inflection of, 250 b.

donee, 17) c¢; withsubj., 180 b.

dono (dat. of service), 128 b; (verb,
constr. of ), 122 b.

Doubtful gender, 11 a.

Dual forms, 42 b.

Dubitative Subjunctive, 152 a.

dubito an, 200 c; non... quin,
184 b, 198 b,

duc (imperative), 65 c.

dum, with present indic., 158 a; fol-
lowed by secondary tenses, 163 ¢ ;
with subj. (provided), 175 ¢; (untz/),
180 b; with clause for present
participle, 202 c.

263

dummodo, 175 c, 180 b.
duo, declined, 42 b.
dus, participle in; see Gerundive.

E,

E (preposition), see ex.

Ear.y Forms of alphabet, 2; Pros-
ody, 282.

Ecthlipsis, 223 a.~

edo, 80a. <.

egeo, with gen., 120 ¢, 136 b.

ejus modi, 115 a.

Elision, 223 a.

Ellipsis, 101 c.

Emphasis, as affected by Arrange-
ment, 212 ec.

Enclitics, 7 c (quantity, 216 ¢);
-cum, 44 c; -te, -pte, -met, -ce,
45 a.

English method of Pronunciation,
6

b.

enim, 95 b, 96a.

eo (irreg. verb), 80 b; eo..quo,
49 ec, 140 ec. ;

Epicene nouns, 11 a.

Epistolary tenses, 161 b.

-er (nom. ending), Nouns of 2d decl.,
16 c; 3d decl., 17 c; Adjectives,
34, 35.

ergo, 95 c; with gen., 115 b, 121 a.

escit, 59 c.

esse, and its compounds, 57-60;
comparative forms, 59; (in mod-
ern languages, 255;) as copula or
substantive verb, 101 ¢c; omitted
by ellipsis, 113 b ; compounds, with
dat., 127 a. — est, there is, 212 b.

et..et, 49 c, 95.

etenim, 95 b.

etiam, 87 a; in answers, 201 c.

etsi, 175 b.

-etum (noun-ending), 98 b.

Erymo.oey, 1-100.

Euphonic changes (vowels), 2 c;
(consonants), 3 b.

ex (prep.), 90 c; following its noun,
148 a; compounds of, with dat.,
126 a.

Exclamations, accus., 183 c; with
infin., 156 b.

Exclamatory sentences, 101 b; ace.
and infin., 156 b.

Expecting, hoping, &c., constr. with
reflexive and infin., 195 b.

264

F.

facilis, comparison, 38 c; construed
with ad and gerund, 2U9 c.

fac (imperative), 65 c.

facio, 80 c; compounds, 81 a, 100c;
facio ut, 198 a.

fames (abl.), 18 c.

fari (def. verb), 82 a,

fas, with supine, 209 c.

faxo, 80 ¢.

Fearing, verbs of (ne or ut), 196 c.

Feeling, nouns of, with gen., 117 a;
verbs of, with gen. of object, 120 a;
with acc. of cause, 181 b; with
quod clause, 199 c.

Feminine, general rule of gender,
10 c; adjectives, lacking masc.,
84 b; abl. in o, id.; adj. in a from
masc. of 3d decl., 37 a; abl. as ad-
verb, 85 a.

fer (imperative), 65 c.

Festivals, plur. names of, 80 c.

fero, 78 b; fido, 77 a.

filius, 16 b, 250.

es verbs of, with gen. or abl.,

Vb.

Final Clauses, 102 c, 108 a, 182; as
object-clauses, 183 a; 195-197.
Final vowels, quantity of, 217; not
affected by Position, 216 c.
‘Finite verb (subject-nom.), 113 a.

fio, 80; (defit, &c., 82 c).

First Conjugation, 66; verbs of, 67.

fisus (as pres. part.), 202 b.

Foot in Prosody, 220 c; (classif. of
feet, 221).

fore ut, 55 c, 165 c, 198 a.

foris (loc. form), 145 a.

forsitan (-fors sit an), 85 b, 173 c.

Fourth conjugation, 74, 76.

Frequentative verbs, 77 c, 99 c.

frugi, comparison of, 89 b; dat. of
service, 128 b.

fruor, fungor, with abl., 140 b.

fuam, 59 c.

fugit, as impers., 132 b.

Future tense, 53 a; endings, 54 ec,
61 b, c; periphrastic, 83 c¢ (see
fore ut); passive with iri, 55 c,
209 b; as imperative, 153 b; Syn-

_ tax, 159 b; has no relative time,
179 b; participle, 205 a.

Future Perfect, 53a; Syntax, 161 a;
for simple fut. id., repres. in indir.
disc., 162 b; in protasis, 170 c.

INDEX.

G.

G (in early use), same with c, 2 a.

Gaius, infl., 250.

Games, plur. names of, 30 c.

gaudeo, 77 a.

Gender, 9 c; grammatical, 10 a;
general rules of, c; in 8d declen-
sion, 23 C; of appositive, 104 c;
of adjective (nearest noun), 105 e.

General truth in secondary tenses
(by seq. of tenses), 1638 c.

GENiTive, 11 c; plural in um, 13 b;
of Ist decl. in ai and as, 14 b; in
ium, 19 a, c, 20 a, 21 b, 27 c; in
ius, 84 b; in appos. with Posses-
sive, 105 a, 108 b. —Synrax, 113-
121; Subjective, 114 a; in pre-
dicate, 8; limiting phrase, id.; of
adj. for neut. nom. (sapientis),
114 c; of substance, id.; for appos-
itive, 115 a; of quality and meas-
ure, id. ; with causa, id.; of value,
b, 141 c; Partitive (with noun or
adjective), 115 b; (with adverbs),
116 a; (sancte deorum, b) ;
doubled, 117 a; Objective, with
Nouns (of agency) and Adjectives
(of reference), 117; of specifica-
tion, 118 a; (animi, b), with words
of likeness, &c., c; (the usual
construc. with nouns, id.); with
Verbs of memory, 119 a; of ac-
cusing, &c.. b; of emotion, 120 a;
(impersonals, id.); of plenty and
want, c; 186 b, 140 b; with po-
tior, 121 a, 127 a, 140 c; of Price,
141 c; measure, 144; of Ge-
rundive, 207.

Gentile names, 98 b.

Gerund, 50 a, 52 b; Syntax, 206-208.

Gerundive, 52 a; stem, 55 b; peri-
phrastic use, 83 c; with dat of
agent, 127 c; after verbs of de-
creeing, &c., 196 b; predicate use,
205 ce; with verbs implying pur-
pose, 206 b; origin of this form,
207 a.

Glyconic verse, 228 b.

Government, 103 c.

gratia, with gen., 115 b, 188 a.

Greek nouns, i. 14 ¢, ii. 17 a, iii. 19 a,
22 c, 23; adjectives, 34 b; rules
of quantity, 215 ec, 216 a, 220 b;
forms compared, 1 ¢, 15 b, 383 b,
35 a, 386 c, 88 c, 42 a, 52 a, 54 b,

INDEX.

57 c, 59 c (esse), 63 c, 96 b, 97 a,
113 ec, 148 a, 149 a, 166 b, 167 b,
251, 252.

H.

H (aspirate), 1c; ch, 4c; omitted,
id.; not reckoned in position,
215 ¢.

habeo, imperat., 153 b; with infin.,
156 a; with perf. part., 204 c.

hactenus, 147 a.

Hadria, gender of, 14 b.

Heteroclite nouns, 31 b; adjectives,
37 ¢.

Heterogeneous nouns, 31 ¢c,

Hexameter verse, 224.

Hiatus, 223 b, 233-¢.

hic, 45, 46.

hiemps, 3 c, 20 b.

Hindrance, implied in relat. clause,

, 185 ¢; verbs of, with quominus,
196 c; negative with quin, 198 b.

Historical Infinitive, 156 c; Present,
158 a; sequence of tenses with,
163 ¢.

Hoping, verbs of (with acc. of pers.
or refl. pronoun), 195 b.

Horace, metres of, 230, 231.

hospita, 37 a.

humi (locative), 145 c.

Hortatory Subjuntive, 149.

I.

I, suppressed in obit, conicio, &c.,
3a; in abl. of 3d declension, 18 b;
adjectives and participles, 27 b;
in perfect, 55 a; added to root,
62¢; lost in forms of capio, &e.,
63 ¢; as root or suffix, 96 b, c; in
optative, 149 a.

TIambic verse, 225.

Ictus, 222.

id quod, 111 b.

idcirco, 95 c; as correlative, 182 b.

idem, 46 ; derivation, 45 b.

idoneus qui, 185 c.

id temporis, 133 b.

Ides, 23 b, 234.

-ier in infin. passive, 65 ec.

igitur, 95 c; position, 96 a.

-ilis, adjective ending, 98 c.

ille, 45, 46.

-illo, verb-ending, 77 c, 99 ¢.

265

-im, accus. in 3d declension, 18 b;
in present subjunctive, 65 c.

immane quam, 1¥1 b.

immo, 201 ¢.

Imperative, 51 b; personal endings,
54 b, 63 a; (dic, &., 65 b); of
scio, &c. (fut. form), id., 153 a;
(imperat. sentence, 101 a;) Syn-
tax, 152; as equivalent to condi-
tion, 172 c.

Imperfect tense, 53 a; compared with
Pertect, b ; lengthens vowel, 63 a;
of hortat. subjunctive, 150 b; of
opt. subj., ¢; of concess. subj.,
151 c. — Syntax, 158; in descrip-
tions, c; for plup., id.; conative,
id. ; of surprise, 159 a; for perf., b;
epistolary, 161 b; subj. in condi-
tions contrary to fact, 168 b; (in-
dicative, 169, 174;) of fut. condi-
tion transferred to past, 171 b; in
temporal clauses, 178 a, 179 a.

Impersonal verbs, 82, 83; passive of
intransitives, 83 b, 126b ; miseret,
&e., with ace. and gen., 120 a;
libet, licet, with dat., 124 b; de-
cet, &c., with accus., 132 b; with

infinitive as subject, 154 b; with
clause as subject (1T), 193 c.

Impure syllable, 5 c.

in, ate: of, 88 b, 146 b ; phrases,
90 ec.

Inceptive forms, 62 ¢; verbs (Incho-
ative), 77 b, 99 c.

Incomplete action, tenses of, 53 c.

Increment of nouns, 218; of verbs,
219.

Indeclinable nouns, 81 a; gender,
10 c; adjectives, 37 c.

Indefinite Pronouns, 47 ce, 48; con-
ditional expression, 166 a.

Indefinite subject omitted, 113 a; ex-
pressed by 2d person, 149 ¢, 171 ce.

InpIcATIVE Moop, 51 a; forms of,
61-63.—Syntax, 148; tenses, 157-
161; in cond. clauses, 167 b, 1684;
in apod. for subj., 169 a, 174 a;
future, in cond. clause, 170 a; of
absolute time, 157 a, 177 b; with
cum, 178 c; in inverted clauses,
179 b; with cum = quod, 180 c;
in causal clauses, 181 b; with
quod in subst. clause, 199.

indigeo, with genitive, 120 c, 136 b.

indignus, with abl., 1387 c; with
relative clause, 185 b.

266

InprrREcT Discourse, 187-192; de-
fined, 187 c; Indirect Narrative,
188 ; subject-accus., b (omitted,
155 c); use of quam, b, 189 a;
relative clause, 188 ¢; conditional
sentence in, 189 b; questions, c;
Indirect Questions, 19U; future, b ;
dubit. subj., c; accus. of anticipa-
tion, id. ; early use of indic., 191 b;
nescio quis, etc., id. ; si (whether),
c; Indirect Commands, id. ; exam-
ple of Indirect Discourse, 192.

induo, double constr. of, 122 b.

Inrinitive Moon, 651 b; endings,
55 b; of fut. passive, c; passive in
-ier, 65 e.—Synrax, 153-156;
form and meaning, 153 c; as Sub-
ject, ¢; of impersonals, 154 b;
complementary, id. ; for subjunct.
clause, c; with jubeo and veto,
155 a; with subject-acc., b; sub-
ject omitted, c; of purpose and
result, 156 a; in exclamations, b;
(cf. 197. ¢ ;) historical, 156; Tenses
of, 164; the present only com-
monly used, except in indir. disc.,
165 a, or passive, b, or in poetry, c;
with accus. in subst. clauses, 194 a;
after passives, b; after verbs of
Wishing, 195 c; of Permission,
196 a; of Determining, b; poetic
use, 197 a; future passive, iri

. with supine, 55 c, 209 b.

infit, 82 c.

Influence, verbs of with purpose-
clause, 195 ce.

Inflection defined, 8 a; of declension
and conjugation, 9 b; unusual
forms, 250.

inquam, 81 ¢; position, 214 a.

instar, with genitive, 115 b.

Intensive verbs, 77 ¢c, 99 c.

inter, reciprocal use of, 44 c, 91 b;
with words of accusing, &c., 119 c.

interest, constr. of, 120 b.

Interjections, 9 c, 95 a. |

Interlocked order of words, 213 c.

Intermediate Clauses, 102, c; Syntax
of, 185-187.

Interrogative Particles, 9 c, 86 b,
200; Sentences, 101 b.

injussu, 29 b.

Io, declined, 250.

-io, -ium, noun-endings, 97 c; verb-
ending of 8d conj., 62 c, 72 b.

iri in fut. infin. passive, 55 c, 209 b.

INDEX,

Tonic verse, 229.

ipse (ipsus), 45, 46 c.

Irregular nouns, 30 b; verbs, 78.

is, 45, 46 c; as correlative, 111 a.

Islands, names of, gender, 10 c; loca-
tive use, 144 b.

iste, 45, 46.

Ir as sign of impersonals, 82 c, 193 ce.

Italian dialects, 252.

itaque, 95; comp. with ergo, 96 a;
position, 214 a.

iter, declined, 22 b.

Iterative verbs, 77 c.

ium, gen. plur. of 3d decl. (vowel-
stems), 19 a; (mute-stems), 20 b,
21 b; (adjectives), 35, 36.

J.

Jam, 87 b.

jecur, declined, 226.

jubeo, constr. of, 123 c, 155 a, 194 a.
jucundus, with ad and ger., 209 ¢.
jungo, with abl., 140 a

Juppiter, declined, 22 b, 250.
jussu, 29 b.

juvo, with accus., 123 ¢.

juxta, 91 b; following noun, 148 a.

K.
K, supplanted by c, 2 a.
Kalends, 284.

L.

L, doubled (in fallo, &c.), 62 b.
Labial stems (3d decl.), 20 b, 24 b,
26 ‘

b.
Laocoon, decl., 250.
lateo, with accus., 133 a.
Latin Language, origin and compar.
forms, 251-253; earliest forms,
253

libet (impers.), 83 b; with dative,
124 b

-libet (indefinite), 48 a.

licet (impers.), 83 b; with dative,
124 b; with dat. pred., 155 b; with
subjunctive, 175 b, 176 ¢; meaning
although, 196 a.

Limit, 102 a.

— Liquid stems (8d decl.), 19 b, 24, 26.

INDEX.

Locative Ablative, 142 b, 145.

| Locative form, 12 b; decl.,i. 14 ¢, ii.

- 16 a, iii. 22 ¢, iv. 28 c, v. 80 b; as
adverb, 85 a; in appos. with abl.,
104 ¢; comp. with dative, 121 b;
of names of towns, &c., 145 a.

loco, without preposition, 145 c.

longius, constr. without quam,
130 a.

M.

M final, elision of, 223 a.

magis in comparisons, 39 a, 109 a.

magni, gen. of value, 115 b, 141 ¢c.

majestatis, with words of secusing,
119 ¢.

malo, infl. of, 79 c.

Masculine adjectives, 38 a.

Material, genitive of, 114 c; ablative,
137 b

maxime in comparisons, 39 a.

May (potential), how expressed,
51 b

Means, ablative of, 139 b.

Measure, genitive of, 115 a, 144 a.

Measures of Value, 235, 236.

medeor, medicor, with dat. or acc.,
123 ¢.

Meditative verbs (in -sso), 77 c, 99c.

medius (middle part of), 109 b.

memini, 81 b; imperat. form, 153 b;
with pres. infin., 164 c.

-met (enclitic), 45 a.

Metre, 223 c.

meus (voc. mi), 16 b, 33 c.

militicz (loc.), 145 a.

mille, decl. and constr., 48 a.

minime, 41 a; in answer (no), 201 c.

minoris (gen. of value), 141 c.

minus, 41 a; constr. without quam,
139 a.

miror si, 199 c.

mirum quam, 191 b.

misceo, with abl. or dat., 140 a

misereor, with gen., 120 a.

miseret, 83 a; with accus. and gen.,
120 a.

Modern pronunciation of Latin, 6 b;
languages, compared with do., 255.

Modification of subject or predicate,
102 a.

modo, dummodo (proviso), with

_ hortat. subjunctive, 150 a, 175 c.

Monoptotes, 31 a.

267

Months, gender of, 10 c; names in
-ber, 385 c; construction, 146 ¢;
divisions of, 284.

Moops, 50 a, 51;
156.

Motion expressed with prepositions,
122 b, 185 c, 144 b; indicated by
compounds, 132 a.

Motive, with ob or propter, 138 a.

Mountains, names of, gender, 10 c.

87 c.

Multiplication by Distributives, 43 b.

Multiplicatives, 43 ec.

Mute stems (8d decl.), 20 a.

Syntax of, 148-

N.

N final, in leon-, &c., 19 b; inserted
in 3d conj. (frango, &c.), 62 b.

nam, namque, 35 b, 95 b, 96 a.

Names of men and women, 382.

natus, &c., with abl., 136 c.

-ne (enclitic), in questions, 200; with
hic, &c., 45 b.

ne, with hortat. subjunct., 150 a; in
prohibitions, 152 b ; in final clauses,
182 a; in consec., 183 c; with verbs
of caution, 196 b; of fearing, Cc; 3
omitted, id.

nec enim, 95 b.

Necessity, verbs of, 196 a.

necne, 200 c.

nedum, 183 a.

nefas, with supine, 209 c.

Negative particles, 9 c, 86 c, 87 a
(non nemo, nemo non).

nego, preferred to dico..non, 188 a.

neque, 94 a, 95 a.

nequeo, 82 b.

e... quidem, 87 c, 214 a.

nescio an, 200 c; nescio quis,
191 b.

Neuter passives, 77 a.

Neuter Nouns, like cases in, 13 a; 3d
decl. in al and ar, 17 c; of adjec-
tive in s, 36 c, 37 a; accus. as ad-
verb, 84 c; of adj. with abstr.
nouns, 106 a, id. as noun, 107 b;
partitive use, 115 c.

Neuter Verbs, with agent (perire
ab), 138 b

Neutral passives, 77 b.

ni, nisi, 166 b, 176 b.

nimirum, 191 b.

ningit, 21 c, 83 a.

268

nix, root, 21 c; inflection, 22 c.

nolo, 79 b; noli, 1¥2 ec.

nomen, 32 b; nomen est, with dat.,
127 a.

Nominative, 11 b; formative from
stem, 12 c; in adjectives, 36 a. —
SynTax: predicate after esse, &c.,
104 a; as subject of verb, lld a;
used for voc., 184 a; with opus as
pred., 136 b.

non in answers, 201 ec.

non dubito quin, 198 c.

Nones, 234.

nonne, 200; non quod, —quia,
—quin, -—quo, 186 c.,

Nouns, inflection of, 14-82; used as
adjectives, 38 a, 107 b; verbal (ge-
rund and supine), 50a; irregular
and defective, 30-32; derivation
of, 96-98 ; compound, 100 b; agree
ment, 103; in relative clause, 110 c;
understood with gen. (Castoris),
114 a; (est sapientis), c; of
agency, with obj. gen., 117 b; ver-
bal, with dat., 129 c.

ns as adjective ending, 36.

num, 200 a; in indir. questions, b.

Number, rule of, with appositive,
104 ¢; adjective, 105 b; verb, 112.

Numerals, 41-48 ; cardinal and ordi-
nal, 41; distributive, 43 b; num.
adverbs, ¢; as partitives, 115 c;
with de or ex, instead of part.
gen., 116 b.

nunc, 87 b. |

0.

O for u, after u or v,2 b; as stem-
vowel of 2d decl., 15 b; in verb-
stems, 62 e.

O si, with subjunctive of wish, 151 a.

ob or propter, to denote object of
feeling, 1388 a; force of ob in com-
pounds, 93 a.

Object defined, 101 ¢; indirect, 121 b;
direct, 131 a.

Oblique cases, 12 a.

obvius, with dat., 125 c.

odi, 81 b.

omnes nos (instead of gen.), 116 c.

Open syllables, 5 c; pronunciation,
6 a; affix, 9 b; in compounds a
becomes I, 68 a.

opera, with gen. of agent, 188 b. |

opinione (celerius opin.), 139 a.

’

INDEX.

oportebat (virtual present), 174 b.
oportet, 83 b, 182 b. ;
Optative, derivation and compariso
with subjunctive, 149 b; sulj., 15
opus and usus, with abl., 136 a
(Opus as pred., b;) with perf
part., 204 ©; with supine, 209 c.
Oratio Obliqua, see Indirect Di
course.
Order of Words, 212-214.
Ordinal numbers, 41 b ; how forme
42b; declined, ec. !
Orpheus, declined, 250.
Orthography, various, 4 c.
os for us, in 2d decl., 15 ¢.
os, ossis, infl., 22 c; (ossua, 28 b).
Oscan forms, comp. with Latin,
-osus, adjective ending, 98 b.
ovat, &c., 82 a.

Pi
P, inserted euphonically, 3 c, 20
72b

pzenitet, 83 b, 120 a.
palam, 147 b.
Palatal, 1 b; stems of 3d decl., 21 ¢e
gender, 24 b; forms, 27 b; ver
62 ec.
Parallel verb-forms, 65 c.
Parisyllabic nouns, 17 b; adjectives,
35 a. |
parte (loc.), without prepos., 145 c.
Participial clause, as condition, 172 b,
Participies, 60 a, 51 ¢; (abl. ini
21 b, 37 b; compared, 39 a); fu
ture, of purpose, 51 c, 188 b, 205 b.
perfect, as adj., 52 a, 88 c; (with
habeo, 204 c;) periphrastic use.
83 c; formation, 55 b; present, o:
esse, 57 c; of deponents, 76 b.
202 b; in ns, with gen., 117 ¢; in
dus or tus, with dat. of agent.
127 c; of source (natus, &c.), wit)
abl., 186 c; in urus with fui=—
plup. subj., 169 c, 189 b, 205 ¢; i
dus or rus, in fut. apod., 170 ¢. —-
Syntax, 202-206; perf. in pre:
use, 202 b; adjective and predicat.
use, 203; in tenses of complete |
action, c; containing the mai.
idea, 204 b; with opus, habeo,
volo, c; with facio (in indi’.
disc.), 205 a; future, use of, 2051 ;

- (part. in dus, see Gerundive).

Partictes, 9 c; forms and classifi-
cation, 84-96; in compounds, 100;

_ negative, 86 c, 87 a; conditional,
174 ¢; interrogative, 200.

Partitives, with genitive, 115 b.

parum, 41 a.

Passive Voice, forms wanting in,
50 b; reflexive use, c, 83 b; (with
acc., 183 b); terminations, 54 b;
infin. in -ier, 65 c; participles of
deponents, 76 c; impersonal (of
intrans. verbs), 88 b; with dat.,
122 a; dat. of agent, 127 c; sub-
ject, 131 a; of verbs of feeling, b;
of asking, &c., with acc., 1382 c;
of verbs of saying, &c., with acc.
and infin., 194 b.

Patronymics (-ades, -ides, &c.), 98 b.

Peculiar forms of 3d decl., 22 a.
elagus (neut.), 16 a.
enes, 91 c; following noun, 148 a.
enult, 7c; quantity of, 218-220.
er, 91 c; in compos., 41 a; for
agent, 138 a.
erfect Tense, meaning, 53 b; end-
ings, 54 b, 55 a; formed in 3d
conj., 63 b; syncopated, 65 b; of
subjunct. in prohibition, 150 a,
152 b; (of optat. subj., antiquated,
159 c;) of concess. .subj., 151 c; of
dubit. subj., 152 a; Syntax, 159 c;
implies action ceased, 160 a; in
negations, b; for present in epist.
style, 161 b; followed by second-
ary tenses, 162 c; following pri-
mary tenses, id.; in result, 163 a;

_ with a fut. protasis, 171 a; (Infin.)
for present, 165 a; after verbs of

_ feeling, 165c; Participle in passive
tenses, 52 a; of deponents, id.,
202 b.
eriod, 214 b.
eriphrastic Conjugations, 83 c.
ermission, verbs of, 196 a.
ersonal endings, 54, 56.
ersons of Verbs, 54a; 112b; with
relatives, 110 b; 2d (in subj.) of
indefinite subject, 149 c, 171 ¢; 3d
of imperat., antiquated, 152 c.
ertzesum est, 120 a.
to with ab, 133 a.
halecian verse, 229.
herecratie verse, 228.
heebe, decl., 25 c.
honetic decay, 2 c, 3 a; phonetic
value of Roman alphabet, 6 a.

INDEX.

269

Phrases, neuter gender, 10 c; as ad-
verb, 85 b; moditying, 102 b;
limited by gen., 114 b.

piget, 88 b, 120 a.

Place, relations of (names of towns,
&e.), 144 b; abl. of, 142 b, 148 b;
whence, 144 c¢; whither, id. ;
where, 145; verbs of, how con-
structed, 146 b.

Plants, names of, gender, 10 c; in
8d and 4th decl., 2y a.

Plautus, use of quom with indic.,
179 b; prosodiai forms, 23 b.

plebes, infl., 250; plebi (gen.),

30 a.

-plex, numeral adjectives, 43 c.

pluit, 83 a (used also personally, id.).

Plupertect, 53 a; of hortat. subj.,
150 b; of opt. subj. (wishes), ec,
192 ¢; of concess. subj., 151 c; of
preteritive verbs, 160 c; general
use, id.; in epist. style, 161 b;
(subj.) in conditions, 168 b; (subj.)
expressed by -urus fui, 169 ¢,
189 b; in temporal clauses, 178 a,
179 a.

Plural accus. as adverb, 85 b; of
neuter adjectives, 107 c,

Pluralia tantum, 30 ¢; with distribu-
tive numerals, 43 b.

pluris, gen. of value, 115 b, 141 e.

plus, inflected, 37 b; without quam,
1389 a.

poenitet (see pzenitet), 83 b, 120 a.

pone, 91 c.

Position in prosody (does not affect
final vowel), 216 c.

Possessives in appos. with gen., 105a,
108 a; as nouns, 107 a; for gen.,
108 b, 114 a; neuter of. c; abl.
fem. with refert, &c., 188 a; with
domi (loc.), 145 b. ~

possum, 60 b; posse as fut. infin.,
165 ec.

post, 91 c; with quam, 147 ec.

postquam in temp. clause, 177 c.

postulo ab, 158 a.

postridie with gen., 121 a; with
ace., 147 b; with quam, c.

Potential Mood, how expressed in
Latin, 51 a; potential subjunctive,
1738 c.

potior, with gen., 121 a; with abl.,

~ 140 c.

pre, in compos., 41 a.
Prenomen, 32 b.

270

preesertim with cum, 180 c.

preter, 92 a.

Predicate, 101 ¢; nominative, 104 a;
adjective, 105 b; gender, 106 a;
in relative clause, 111 b; after
infin., 155 ¢.

Prepositions, assimilation of, 4 a;
classification and meaning (list),
88-3 ; in compounds, ¥3 a, 100 c;
do. with dat. (ad, ante, &c.), 125,
126; with ace. (ad, ante), 125 c;
(circum, trans), 132a; with verbs
ot asking (ab, de, ex), 133 a; after
words of origin (id.), 137 a; of
time, 143 c; of place, 142 c, 144 b;
for neighborhood (ad, apud),
145 c; Syntax, 146-148; as ad-
verbs, 147 b; followed by quam
(ante, post), 147 c; following the
noun, 148 a.

Present stem, 538 ¢; how formed from
root (8d conj.), 62; (see list, pp.
72, 73).

Present Tense, 53 a; endings, 54 c;
vowel changes, 61,62; of subjunc-
tive, 150-152; Syntax, 157; of
continuing action, 157 b ; conative,
c; for future, id. ; historical, 158 a;
with dum, id.; used of extant
writers, b ; followed by secondary
tenses, 163 c; infin. after verb in
past (potui), 164 b; (memini), c;
Participle, 202 a ; how supplied in
passive, 52 a, 202 c.

Preteritive verbs, 81 b; 160.

Price, abl. or gen. 141 c.

pridie, with gen., 121 a; with acc.,
147 b; with quam, c.

Primary Suffixes (a, i, u, ta, na, &c.),
96 c; Tenses, 162.

primo and primum, 87 c.

Principal parts of verb, 64 b, 65 a.

prius .. quam, 147 c, 179 c; in rela-
tive clauses, id.

pro, 92 a, 130 ¢.
rocul with abl., 147 b.
rohibitions (perf. subj. with ne),
149 c, 152 b, 192 ¢.

Promising, &¢., verbs of, 195 b.

Pronouns, 44-48; Personal, 44 a;
old forms, b; gen. in i or um, c;
(omitted as subject, 113 a;) Re-

_ flexive, 44 b, 46 c; Possessive, 44 b,
47 b, 105 a, 114 a; (cujus, 48 c;)
reciprocal with inter, 44c; Dem-
onstrative, 45, 46; used as nouns,

INDEX.

107 a; as antecedent, 111 a; in-
tensive (ipse), 46¢; Relative, 47;
Syntax, 109-111; agreement wit
appos., 110 b; as connective, 111
Interrog. and Indefinite, 47, 48.

Pronunciation, 5, 6.

prope, 92 a; with acc., 147b; asa
verb, id. .

Proper Names, 32; in plural, 30 c.

propter, 92; following noun, 148 a,

Prosopy, 215-231; early peculi
ties, 232.

prosum, 60 a.

Protasis, 166 a (see Conditions).

Proviso, 175 c, 180 b.

-pte, -pse (enclitic), 45 a.

pudet, 83 b, 120 a.

pugnatur, 83 b.

Punishment, abl. of, 119 c.

Pure syllable, 5c.

Purpose, infin. of, 156 a; clause o
182; ways of expressing, 183.

Q.

Que res (or id quod), 111 b.

queeso, 82 a.

Quality, genitive of, 115 a.

quam with superl., 40 c; in com-
parisons, 108 c, 109 a, 188 c; after
prepos., 147 c; followed by rel.
clause, 185 a; (in indir. dise.), by
infin., 188 b, 189 a; by result clause,
197 b.

quam si, 174 c.

quamlibet, quamquam, quamvis,
48 a, 151 b, 175 b, 176 «.

quando, interrog., 49a, 95 c; indef.
177 a; causal (since), 181 b.

quanti, gen. of value, 141 c.

Quantity, rules of, 215-220; (0!
Greek words, 215 c).

quantum vis, 176 c.

quasi, 174 c. |

-que (enclitic), forming universals.
48 c.

queo, 82 b.

ques (nom. plur.), 47 ¢.

Questions, 200, 201; Indirect, 190),
(indic. in, 191 b), 200 b; in Indi.
Disce., 189 ec.

qui (relative), inflected, 47; qui
(adverbial), 47 b.

quia, 95 c, 181 b, 186 b. |

- quidem, 87 c, 214 a. |

-INDEX.

quin, 184 a; non quin, 186 c;
non... quin, 1938 b.
quippe cum, 180 c; quippe qui,

os iam 47 a; quis (abl. plur.), c.

quisquam, 48 ec.

quisque, 43 c; with superl., 41 a;
with plur. verb, ll2c¢.

quisquis, 48 a.

quo, in final clauses, 182 b; non
quo, 186 ¢

quo..eo, 49 c.— quoad, 180 b.

quod with indic., 181 b; in inter-
med. clause, 186 b; in substantive
clause, 199 b; as accus. of specifi-
cation (whereas), id.; with verbs
ot feeling, c

quod si, 133 b.

quom, 2 b, 95 c, 178 b, 179 b (see
cum).

quominus, 182 c, 184; with verbs
of caution and hindrance, 196 b.

quoniam, 95 c, 181 b.

quoque, 27 a.

quot, 116 c. —quum, see cum.

R.

R, double in noun-stems, 19 c; in
verb-stems, 62 b.

Radical syllables, quantity of, 96 b,
215 b, 220 b.

ratus (as pres. part.), 202 b.

reapse, 45.

recordor, with acc., 119 b.

Reduplication, 61 b, 62 a, b, 63 b; in
perfects of 3d conj., 73 c; lost in
compounds, 65 a; of roots, 96 b;
rule of quantity, 219 c.

réfert, with gen. or poss., 120 b.

Reflexive Pronouns, 44 b; Verbs
(deponent), 76 b; use of passive,
50 c; with object-accusative, 133 b.

Relative Adverb=—Pronoun with pre-
pos., lll c; as connective, 96 a.

Relative Clause, 102 b; classified,
193; equiv. to condition, 166 c,
172 b; of purpose, 182, 195; of
result, 183 c, 197; of characteristic,
184 b.

Relative Pronouns, 47; as connec-
tives, 103 b, 111 c; rule of agree-
ment, 109 ¢ ; person of verb, 110 a;
agreement with appositive, 110 b.

Relative Time, 177.

repetundarum, 119 c.

271

Resolution of syllables in prosody,
‘222 a.

Resolving, eche of, 196 b.

respublica, 32 a.

Result, infin. of (use), 156 b; in perf.
or imperf. subj., 163 a; clauses of,
183 c; subst., clause of, ly¥7 a;
used elliptically, 197 b; following
quam, id.

Rhythm, 215.

Rivers, names of, gender, 10 c.

rogo, constr. of, 182 ¢.

Roman Writers, 256.

Romance (or Romanic) languages,
254; comparative forms, 205.

Roor, 8c, 9 b; of esse and fui, 59 c;
of verbs of 3d conj., 62 b (list, 72,
73) ; ni developed into Stem, 8 c,
9a, 9

ruri, ate 145 a.

rus, constr. of, 144 b.

S.

S elided, 2 b, 232 a; for t, 3 c; be-
comes r, 3 a, 19 b; as nomin. end-
ing, 12 c, 13 a; in perf. stem., 62 a,
63 b, 64 b; syncopated (dixti=
dixisti), 65 b.

salve, 82 b.

Sanskrit forms, 13 a, 22 b, 38 c, 59 ¢,
61 a, 63 c, 96 b, 97 a, 148 a.

Sapphic verse, 228 (strophe), 229.

satis, non satis, 41 a.

satis est, with perf. infin., 165 c.

sc added to verb-root, 62 c.

scin (scisne), 5 b.

scito, imperat. form, 65 c, 153 b.

-SCO (inceptive), 77 c, 99 c.

Second Conjugation, 61 c, 68; verbs
of, 69.

Secondary Tenses, 162; (by synesis,
164 b ;) following histor. present,
163 c.

secundum, 92 b.

secundus (participial), 98 c, 207 a.

oar gg (as pres. part.), 202 b.

sed, 95

ie ded 77 a.

Semi-vowels, 1c; j, v (i, u), 2 a.

senati, senatuos (gen.), 28 c.

senex, infl., 22 c; compared, 40 a.

Sentences, classif. of, 101 b.

Separation, with dat. (adimo, &c.),
126 a; abl. of, 135 a.

Sequence of Tenses, 161 c.

272

sera nocte, 109 b.

sestertium, sestertius, 32, 235, 236.

seu, see sive.

si, 166 b; (whether), 191 c; si non,
176 b; miror si, 199 c.

siem, 59 c.

Significant endings, 97 b.

Signs of Quantity, 7b; of Accent, 8c.

-sim, in perf. subjunctive, 65 c.

similis, with genitive, 118 c; with
dative, 129 b.

Simois, infl., 250.

simul, with ablative, 147 b.

simul atque (ac), 177 c.

sin, 166 b.

Singularia tantum, 30 ce.

sis (—si vis), 5 b.

sive, 95 b, 176 b.

-sO, in future perfect, 65 c.

sodes (si audes), 5 b, 77 b.

soleo, 77 a.

solitus (as present part.), 202 c.

solus, declined, 34 ¢; with qui, in
subjunctive clause, 185 a.

Space, accusative of, 183 c, 144 a.

Special verb-forms, 65 c.

Specification, accusative of, 183 a;
ablative of, 142 a.

Spelling, various, 4 c.

Stanza or Strophe, 229.

Srem defined, 8 b; formation of, 9 a,
96 b; (incorrect defin., 18 c;) of
Nouns (see Declensions), 12 ¢c (in
3d decl., 23-27, see list); of Ad-
jectives, 33 b ; of verb-tenses, 53 c,
64 b; changes in, 54 c, 62 b; stem-
vowel, 61, 64; present, of 3d conj.,
62; (u-stems, c;) perfect, 63 ; quan-
tity of, 220 a.

Stem-building, 9 a; (see 96-99).

sub, in compounds, 41 a; constr. of,
87 b, 146 a.

Subject, 101 b; of verb (nom.), 113 a;
indef. (omitted), 118 b; (2d per-
son), 149 c, 171 ¢; of passive, 131 a;
of infin. (ace.), 183 ¢, 155 b.

SusyuncTIvE Moop, tenses wanting
in, 50 b; how used, 51 a; present
(vowel-change), 61 a, c, 63 ¢.—
Syntax, 148-152; original form
and meaning, 149 a; Hortatory, b
(2d pers. indef., c), 171 ¢; in pro-
hibition, 150 a, 152 b; proviso (with
modo), 150 b; past tenses, id. ;
as condition, 172 ¢c; Optative,
150 c; Concessive, 151 b, 175 b;

INDEX.

Dubitative, 152 a; Tenses of, 161-
164; rule of Sequence, 162; in

Conditions, 164, 163; fut. cond., —

170; (past, by seq. of tenses,
171 b) ; 2d person for indef. sulj.,
171 c; of repeated action, id. ;
Potential, 173 b; of caution, ¢;
with cond. and compar. particles,
174 c; of Relative Time, 177 b;

after cum (temporal), 178; (cau-—

sal), 180; antequam, &c., 180 a;
dum, b; of Cause, 181 b, 185 c;
in Indirect Discourse (subord.
clause), 181 c, 186 a, 188 ¢; in

Final Clauses, 182; after nedum, —

188 a; of Result, c; after quin
and quominus, 184 a; of Charac-
teristic, b; with unus (solus)
qui, 185 a; quam, id.; of re-
striction and proviso, b; with

dignus, &c.. ¢; in Intermediate —
Clause, id., 186; in Indirect Dis- —

course, with relative, 188 ¢c; con-
ditional, 189 b; question, c; (In-
direct Question, 190, 200); com-
mands, 191 ¢; with ut, in Sub-
stantive Clauses of Purpose, 195;
of Result, 197 ; with verbs of com-
manding, &c., 195 c; of fearing,
196 c; happening, &c., 197 a;
after quam, b; in exclamations, c.

Subordinate clauses, 102 ¢; in indir.
dise., 186, 188-191.

SupstanTIVE Ciausss defined, 102;
Syntax, 198-199; acc. and infin.,
194 a; (passive constr., b;) of pur-
pose, 195; of result, 197 ; indic.
with quod, 199; (Indirect Ques-
tions, 196).

Suffixes, primary (a,i, u, ta, na, &c.),
96; significant, 97-99.

sum, 58 (see esse).

summus (fop of), 109 b.

sunt qui, 177 b, 184 ¢.

super, supra, 92 a.

Superlative endings, 88 a; of emi-
nence, 40 c; with quam, id. ; with
quisque, 41 a; of a part, 100 b;
with relative, 111 b; used as par-
titive, 115 c.

Supine, 29 a, 50 a, 52 b; stem, 53 ¢,
55 b; in 8d conj., 63 c; accus. of
direction, 144 a; Syntax, 209.

sus (subus), 22 b.

Syllables, 5 b; pure, open, &c., Cc.

Synalepha, 223 a.

INDEX,

Synesis, 103 b; of adjectives, 106 b;
of relative, 110 b; of verb, 112 c;
of secondary tenses, 166 a.

Synopsis of tenses, 64 c; of Con-
structions of Syntax, 248, 249.

Synrax, 101-214; Subject and Pre-
dicate, 103-113; Construction of
Cases, 113-148; Syntax of the
Verb, 148-209; General Rules,
210, 211; Outline of, 237-247.

es

T for d (set, aput), 2 b; inter-
changed with c, 4 b; as personal
ending, 54 c; in Supine stem, 61b,
62 a; in verb-stem, 62 c.

teedet, 83 b, 120 a.

tamen (position); 96 a.

tamquam, 174 c.

tanti, gen. of value, 141 ¢c.

_tantum, as correl., 49 b; with hor-
tat. subjunctive, 150 a.

tantum abest ut, 197 c.

-tas, -tia, noun endings, 98 a.

-te (enclitic), 45 a.

Teaching, verbs of (2 acc.), 183 c¢.

Temporal particles, 94 c; clauses,
102 c, 176-181.

-ter (in alter, &c.), 34 c; as adjec-
tive-ending, 35 b, 98 b.

Tenses, 50 a; of continued action
in passive, c; of incomplete or
completed action, 52 c, 203 ¢; use
of perf. and imperf., 53 b; classif.
of by stems, c; tense-endings, 54—
57 ; derivation of do., 57 ce. — Syn-
Tax, 157-165; of indiec., 157-161;
of subj., 161-164; of infin., 164;
Rule of Sequence, 162.

tenus, 92 c, 146 ¢c, 148 a.

terra marique, 145 a.

Tetrameter lambic, 226.

Thales, infl., 250.

Third Deciension (nouns), 17-27;
Conjugation (verbs), 62, 63, 70-73
(list, 72, 73).

tigris, infl., 23 a, 250.

-tio, -tura, -tus (-tutis), noun-end-
ings, 97 c.

Time, absolute and relative, 157,
161; how long (acc.), 133 c, 143 b;
when (abl.), id.

-tor, -trix, nouns of agency, 97 c;
(used as adjectives, 38 a).

273

totus, abl. used without prepos.,
145 ¢.

Towns, names of, gender, 10 ¢; in
us, fem., 16 a; in e, neut., 18 ¢c;
Construction of, 144.

trans, 92 ; comp. of, with acc., 132 a.

Trees, names of, gender, 10 c.

tres, 42 c.

‘Trimeter Iambic, 225.

Triptotes, 31 a.

Trochaic verse, 227 a.

-tudo, -tus, noun-endings, 98 a.

tuli (tetuli), 78 b.

tum, 87 b; with cum, 95c, 181 a.

U.

U, when semi-vowel becomes v, 2 a;
not allowed to follow u or v, id.

u stems of verbs, 62 c, 64 a, 96 ¢c.

ubi in temporal clauses, 177 a, c.

-ubus in 4th decl., 23 c.

ullus, infl., 34 ¢; use, 48 c.

ultra, 93 a, 148 a.

um for arum, 14 c; for orum, 16 b.

Umbrian forms compared with the
Latin, 253.

umquam (unquam), 48 c.

Undertaking, verbs of (with ge-
rundive), 206 a.

unus, infl., 34.c; in plural, 43 b.

unus qui, with subj., 185 a.

-urio (desiderative), 78 a, 99 c.

-urus, part. in, 51 ¢; with fui, 169 ¢,
189 b; use, 205.

usquam, 48 c.

usque, with acc., 147 b.

usus, with abl., 136 a; (usui, dat.
of service, 128 b).

ut, with concess. subj., 151 a, 175 b,
176 c; as indef. relat. 177 a; ut
cum, 180 c; in final clauses, 182;
consec. do., 183; subst. do., 195,
197; with verbs of Fearing, 196 c;
omitted, id.; ut non, 183 c, 197.

ut, utpote, quippe, with relative
and subjunctive, 180 c, 185 b.

uter, infl., 34 e.

uterque, 48 c ; with plur. verb, 112 ¢;
with nouns and pronouns, 116 ce.

uti, utinam, with subj. of wish,
151 a, 192 ¢.

utor, with abl., 140 c.

ut si, 174 ec.

utrum..an, 200.

274

We

V (for u), 2a,6 a,15¢; syncopated
in perfect stem, 65 b.

valde, 41 a.

Value, genitive of, 115 b, 141 ¢;
measures of, 235, 2386.

vapulo, 77 b.

Variable nouns, 31 b; adjectives,
87 c.

-ve, vel, 95 b.

velim, vellem, 151 a.

veluti, velutsi, 174 c.

veneo (venum ¢€0), 77 b, 80 a.

Verss, 50-83; forms, 54, 56; end-
ings, 55-57; special and parallel
forms, 65 b; Regular, 66-75; De-
ponent, 75-77; Irregular, 78-80;
Defective, 81; Impersonal, 82;
Derivation of, 99; compound,
100 b. — Syntrax, 112, 113, 148-
209; omitted, 118 b; of remem-
bering, &c., 119 a; of accusing,
&e., b; of emotion, 120 a; of
plenty, &c., c; of relating, &c.,
194; of commanding, promising,
asking, wishing, 195; of permit-
ting, resolving, caution, effort,
fear, 196 ; of happening, &c., 197.

Verba sentiendi et declarandi, 155 b.

Verbals in ax, 98 b; with gen., 117 ¢.

veritus (as present), 202 b.

vero, 96 c; in answers. 201 a.

Verse, 222 c; forms of, 224-231.

verum or vero, 95 b.

vescor, with abl., 140 b.

vesperi (loc.), 16 c, 145 b.

veto, constr. of, 155 a, 194 a, 195 ¢.

vetus, infl., 36 ¢ ; comparison, 38 ec.

-vi in perfect, 61 b, c, 68 b, 64 b, 65.

INDEX.

vicem (adverbial), 133 b.

videor, with dative, 128 a.

vin (visne), 5 b.

vis, infl., 22 e.

vitio (dat. of service), 128 b.

Vocative, 12 a, 18 a; of nouns in
ius, 16 b; Syntax, 184; (of adj.
for nom., b); Greek in i, 217 b.

Voices, 50 a.

volo, infl., 78, 79; with infin., 194 b,
195 ¢; with perf. part., 204 c.

voti (damnare), 119 c.

Vowels, 1 b; Italian sound, 5 Cc;
strengthened (see Vowel increase);.
weakened, 3 a, 63 a.

Vowel change in verbs, 56 a, 66 b;
in present subjunctive, 63 ¢; in
compounds, 66 a.

Vowel-increase, 2 c, 61 a, 62 b, 63 b.

Vowel scale,2c. +

Vowel stems, 12 c, 17 b, 19 a, 20a;
gender and forms, 24.

W.

W, the letter not found in Latin, 1 a.

Way by which (abl.), 145 e.

Wishes and Commands, 192.

Wishing, verbs of, constr., 151 ec,
173 c, 195 e.

Wonen, names of, 82 c.

‘ &

Y in words of Greek origin, 2 a;
noun-stems in, 23 b; in verb-stem,
62 ¢.

ya, primary suffix, 96 c, 97, 98 a.

Year, date of, 233; months, 234.

AUTHORS AND

Ceesar: Bell. Civ. de Fato.
Bell. Gall. de Finibus.
Bell. Afric. ro Flacco.

Cicero: Academica. zelius.
pro Archia. de Legibus.
ad Atticum, Leg. Agraria.
Brutus. pro Ligario.

in Catilinam. pro Manilio.

ro Cluentio. ro Murena.
ato Major. e Nat. Deorum.
De Inventione. de Officiis.
pro Deiotaro. Orator.
de Oratore. Paradoxa,.
de Divinatione. Philippics.
Div. in Cecil. pro Plancio.
ad Familiares. in Pisonem.

WORKS CITED.

ad Q. Fratrem. Plautus.
pro Rabirio. Amphitruo.
ro Rose. Amer. Asinaria.
ull (Leg. Agr.). Captivi.
ro Sestio. Trinummus.
opica. Pliny.
Tusc. Quest. Sallust: Catil.
in Verrem. Jugurtha.
Q. Curtius. Seneca: Epist.
Horace Tacitus: Agricola.
Juvenal Annales.
Livy. Historiz.
Lucretius. Terence: Heaut.
Nepos. Virgil: A®neid.
Ovid. Ecloge.
Persius Georgica.

aunouncements,

ALLEN & GREENOUGH’S LATIN SERIES.

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