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THE

COMPLETE WORKS

COUNT RUMFORD.

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS
AND SCIENCES.

VOLUME V.

London: —
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1876.

PREP AG Es

ie 1796 Count Rumford gave to the American Academy of

Arts and Sciences five thousand dollars three per cent
stock in the funds of the United States, “to the end that the
interest of the same may be... applied, and given once
every second year as a premium to the author of the most
important discovery or useful improvement which shall be
made and published by printing, or in any way made known
to the public, in any part of the continent of America, or in
any of the American islands, during the preceding two years,
on Heat or on Light.” ... For a long period of time succeed-
ing this gift, no discovery or useful improvement in Heat or
Light, which at once satisfied the terms of the trust, and
was deemed by the Fellows worthy of the premium, was
brought to the notice of the Academy ; and in 1831 the Rum-
ford Fund had already accumulated to twenty-three thousand
dollars. In this year the Academy brought a Bill in Equity
before the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, “praying
relief in the matter of the Rumford Fund ;” and thereupon a
decree was made, which, while it affirmed the object of the
gift and insured the execution of the trust by qualifying some
of the limitations by which the award of the Rumford pre-
mium was originally restricted, also authorized the Academy
“to appropriate from time to time, as the same can advan-
tageously be done, the residue of the income of said fund
hereafter to be received, and not so as aforesaid awarded in
premiums, to the purchase of such books and papers and
philosophical apparatus (to be the property of said Academy),
and in making such publications or procuring such lectures or

iv | Preface.

experiments or investigations as shall in their opinion best
facilitate and encourage the making of discoveries and im-
provements which may merit the premium, so as aforesaid to
be by them awarded.” r:

From an early period in its history, the supervision of the
Rumford trust has been assigned by the Academy to a
standing committee called the Rumford Committee, consisting
of seven Fellows elected annually by ballot. It is the duty of
this committee “to use all proper means to make the Rumford
Fund constantly active and useful so as to carry out the
donor’s intention in the manner defined by the decree of the
Supreme Court in 1832, not only by investigating all applica-
tions and claims to the Rumford medals, but also by such
other means as have been already indicated, and in general to
see to the due and proper execution of the trust.” Although
since 1831 the medal has been awarded eight times, and since
1862 regularly every two years, and although from time to time
liberal appropriations have been made from the income for
the various purposes indicated in the decree of the Supreme
Court above cited, yet, nevertheless, the fund has steadily
accumulated, and now amounts to over forty-two thousand
dollars. Meanwhile, the contributions of Count Rumford to
the knowledge of the world have also borne their legitimate
fruits, and his experiments are now seen to be the first of that
memorable series of investigations which has resulted in the
modern mechanical theory of heat and the doctrine of the
conservation of energy. Impressed by this fact, the Rumford
Committee have long felt that the Academy could in no way
more properly execute their trust, as defined by the decree
of the Supreme Court in 1832, than in doing honor to Count
Rumford by publishing a complete edition of his works. As
early as 1862, this step was recommended to the Academy by
one of their number, Dr. M. Wyman, and the recommenda-
tion was repeated by Professor J. LOVERING, in his reports as
chairman of the committee in subsequent years ; but it was not
until 1868 that the Academy authorized the undertaking, and
made an appropriation of money for carrying it into effect.

. Preface. Vv

In beginning the work, the first care of the committee was
to prepare a complete list of Count Rumford’s publications so
far as known to them, and to distribute this list to the various
learned societies with which the Academy was in correspond-
ence, accompanied by a request for aid in correcting and com-
pleting the catalogue. The labor of collecting and collating
the numerous publications of Count Rumford devolved chiefly
on Professor JosEPH WINLOCK, who succeeded Professor Lov-
ering as chairman of the committee ; and under his immediate
supervision the first catalogue was made, the general arrange-
ment of the work determined, and the first volume printed.
The catalogue, as subsequently amended, will be found at the
close of this volume ; and opposite to each title are given the
volume and page of the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, where the same paper, or the substance of the
paper, has been reprinted. The Rumford Committee have
spared no pains to make the edition complete in every detail,
hoping that it might be accepted by scholars as a worthy
memorial of the great services which Count Rumford rendered
to mankind both in science and in philanthropy. They have
sought, however, to avoid needless repetition ; and where, as
was the case in several instances, the same matter appeared
in different publications, and even under a changed title, they
have only reproduced those parts which seemed to be the
more mature or the more complete. The selection, however,
has not always been without difficulty, owing to the circum-
stance that Count Rumford published his papers in three
different languages, and those originally published in one
were generally subsequently translated into the other two,
not unfrequently with emendations and additions by the
Count himself. Hence it has sometimes been necessary in
carrying out the proposed plan to reproduce different portions
of the same paper from versions in different languages, but
in every case the sources have been indicated, and, other things
being equal, preference has always been given to the English
version ; for, although so long a resident both at Munich and
at Paris, Count Rumford always wrote in English with greater

vi : _ Preface.

clearness and skill than in either German or French. Several
of the Count’s papers which will be found in this edition
appear to have been never before published in English, and
of others the committee had access to only French or Ger-
man versions. Both for the sake of uniformity and also in
order to render the work more accessible to his own country-
men, the committee decided to print the whole in the Count’s
vernacular language. All the new* translations from the
French and German have been made by Professor W. R.
NicHots, of Boston, and not without difficulty ; for not only
was the foreign text in many cases obscure, so different from
the clear English style of the author, but, moreover, it was
often evident that the German or French version was itself
a translation from a draft written originally in English. Pro-
fessor Nichols has also prepared for the press the copy of the
last three volumes, and had charge of the revision of the proof ;
and on him the larger part of the labor of editing these volumes
has devolved, In order to make the edition as complete as
possible, Professor Nichols made during the last summer a
careful examination of the various editions and manuscripts
of Count Rumford’s writings in the libraries of London, Paris,
and Munich, and this search resulted in the discovery of two
inedited manuscript papers, which are for the first time pub-
lished in this volume, pages 692 and 790. It would appear,
from Cuvier’s Z/oge, that near the close of his life Count
Rumford prepared an essay on “The Nature and Effects of
Order,’ and also a paper on “Meteorites.” These papers
were never published, and the committee have been unable
to trace the manuscripts. With these exceptions, no writings
of Count Rumford not included in this edition of his works
have come to the knowledge of the Rumford Committee,
although they have been untiring in their search and in-
quiries. In editing these volumes, the committee have been
indebted for assistance to several gentlemen whose kindness

* The English copies, from which some of the papers have been re-
printed, were translations of French originals, and not always the most
elegant, although made under Rumford’s supervision.

Preface. Vil

they would here acknowledge, especially to the late Dr.
Bence Jones of London, to Professor J. Dumas of Paris, to
Professor JuLtes Marcou of Cambridge, and to Dr. GrorcE
E. Exuis of Boston; and the Life of Benjamin Thompson,
Count Rumford, prepared by Dr. Ellis at the request of the.
Academy, forms the fifth volume of this seriés.

In arranging the papers of Count Rumford in the several
volumes of this edition of his works, the Rumford Committee
have grouped together, as far as was practicable, the papers on
allied subjects: thus, the scientific papers will be found chiefly
in the first two volumes ; descriptions of improved methods
of warming and cooking occupy the third ; and the greater
part of the last is devoted to the philanthropic essays; but
this also contains the scientific papers on light. Owing,
however, to the accession of new material while the work
- was passing through the press, it has not been possible to
follow strictly the plan originally adopted, and for the same
reason the size of the last volume is proportionally large.
‘The work is stereotyped; and in conclusion the Rumford
Committee would request that any additional matter that
may be discovered, or any errors in the text of this edition,
may be reported to them, in order that the additions or cor-
rections may be made in future imprints from the plates.
Such communications should be addressed to the Rumrorp
CommMiTTEE, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Boston,
Massachusetts, U. S. A.

JOSIAH P. COOKE, Jr., Chairman.
JAMES B. FRANCIS.

WOLCOTT GIBBS.

E. C. PICKERING.

JOHN M. ORDWAY. :
STEPHEN P. RUGGLES.
MORRILL WYMAN.

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“Sa
ee

SION TE IN' ES:

EXPERIMENTS ON THE RELATIVE INTENSITIES OF THE LIGHT
EMITTED BY LUMINGUS BODIES... og et ee ee
[Read before the Royal Society, February 6, 1794. ]

AN ACCOUNT OF SOME EXPERIMENTS ON COLOURED SHADOWS
[Read before the Royal Society, February 20, 1794.]

CONJECTURES RESPECTING THE PRINCIPLES OF THE HARMONY
RR IE UME eo! 4) Sere tig Chops, ic UE ORE oe oe
: '
AN INQUIRY INTO THE CHEMICAL PROPERTIES -THAT HAVE
SpEN, ATImmenels TO LIGHT. s. ef oe See 8s
[Read before the Royal Society, June 14, 1798. ]

OF THE MANAGEMENT OF LIGHT IN ILLUMINATION .. .

[Essay XVI. Read before the National Institute of France,
June 24, 1811.]

AN INQUIRY CONCERNING THE SOURCE OF THE LIGHT
WHICH IS MANIFESTED IN THE COMBUSTION OF INFLAM-

REARIA e et ng 5 eg, egeoeteie sioenatee. on as

[Essay XVII. Read before the Royal Society, January 16,
1812. ]

AN ACCOUNT OF AN ESTABLISHMENT FOR THE POOR AT

VANES SCO er gS ae a Tat ig a I cg Se oe i ey wes

[Essay I.]

PAGE

207

x Contents.

OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES ON WHICH GENERAL
EsTABLISHMENTS FOR THE RELIEF OF THE POOR MAY

BE FORMED IN ALL COUNTRIES « «© « «© «© «© «© «© «© 327
[Essay II.]
Or Foop ; AND PARTICULARLY OF FEEDING THE POOR’. . 395

[Essay III.]

A SuHortT ACCOUNT OF SEVERAL PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS LATELY
FORMED IN BAVARIA; TOGETHER WITH THE APPENDIXES
TO THE LAST THREE PAPERS . «. « «© «© «© « + «© «+ 4QE
[Essay V.]

OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING THE SALUBRITY OF WARM Rooms
In Cotp. WEATHER 26.5 « siptineie 6 an 6 pal bs) eee
[Essay XII.]

OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING THE SALUBRITY OF WARM BaTH-
ING . . . * . . > . . ; . . * * ! . . . . . 583
[Essay XIII.]

Or THE EXCELLENT QUALITIES OF COFFEE AND THE ART
OF MAKING IT IN THE HIGHEST PERFECTION. . . . «. 615
[Essay XVIII.]

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE ADVANTAGE OF

EMPLOYING WHEELS WITH BROAD FELLOES FOR TRAVELLING
AND PLEASURE CARRIAGES » « 6 « «0 aca leo. 4s) «Mean

[Read before the National Institute of France, April 15, 1811.]

Miscellaneous Papers.
EXTRACT FROM STALKARTT’S NAVAL ARCHITECTURE (1781). 679
REPORT OF THE RESULTS OF THE REGULATIONS RECENTLY

INTRODUCED INTO THE ARMY OF THE ELECTORATE OF
BAVARIA AND THE PALATINATE (1792) - . + + + + « 692

Contents.
LEerrer TO PICTET (1797) - - + + 6 2 sw we ew

PROPOSALS FOR FORMING A PusLic INSTITUTION FOR
DIFFUSING THE KNOWLEDGE AND FACILITATING THE
INTRODUCTION OF USEFUL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS,

NE 2) aN ee ae A ORME aes 2D eh Ss Se ENC

PROSPECTUS OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN
(1800) . . . . . . . . . . . . ° ° . . . .

PETTERS Le. AIENOIE wie Se ee We lee mae te

NOTE ON THE USE OF STEAM AS A SOURCE OF HEAT. .
[Read before the National Institute of France, June 9, 1806.]

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEST MEANS OF HEATING THE HALL
CEL NSTI TU DE shell fe Tete eee ke ee: Sieh eee cue el
[Read before the National Institute of France, August 14, 1807.]

fast Or Coume Rumporp’s WORKS. «© << « o° « « «' %

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ELATIVE INTENSITIES OF THE LIGHT

_ EMITTED BY LUMINOUS BODIES.

a =" 4

va al eS >) eee i i ee ot lie lel bE i Mme

EXPERIMENTS

ON THE

RELATIVE INTENSITIES OF THE LIGHT EMITTED
BY LUMINOUS BODIES.

EING employed in making a number of experi-
ments to determine, if possible, the most eco-
nomical method of lighting up a very large workhouse,
or public manufactory, which had been erected in the
suburbs of Munich under my direction, a method
occurred to me for measuring the relative quantities
of light emitted by lamps of different constructions,
candles, etc., which is very simple, and which I have
reason to think perfectly accurate.

Let the two burning candles, lamps, or other lights
to be compared, A and B, be placed at equal heights
upon two light tables or movable stands, in a dark-
ened room; let a sheet of clean white paper be spread
out equally, and fastened upon the wainscot or side of
the room, at the same height from the floor with the
lights; and let the lights be placed over against this
sheet of paper, at the distance of 6 or 8 feet from it,
and 6 or 8 feet from each other, in such a manner
that a line drawn from the centre of the paper, perpen-
dicular to its surface, shall bisect the angle formed by
lines drawn from the lights to that centre; in which

4 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

case, considering the sheet of paper as a plane specu-
lum, the one light will be precisely in the line of reflec-
tion of the other.

This may be easily performed, by actually placing a
piece of a looking-glass, 6 or 8 inches square, flat upon
the paper, in the middle of it, and observing by means
of it the real lines of reflection of the lights from that
plane, removing it afterwards as soon as the lights are
properly arranged.

When this is done, a small cylinder of wood, about
4 of an inch in diameter and 6 inches long, must be
held in a vertical position about 2 or 3 inches before
the centre of the sheet of paper, and in such a manner
that the two shadows of the cylinder, corresponding to
the two lights, may be distinctly seen upon the paper.

If these shadows should be found to be of wxegual
densities, which will almost always be the case, then
that light whose corresponding shadow is the densest
must be removed farther off, or the other must be
brought nearer to the paper, till the densities of the
shadows appear to be evactly egual,—or, in other
words, till the densities of the rays from the two lights
are equal at the surface of the paper; when, the dis-
tances of the lights from the centre of the paper
being measured, the squares of those distances will be
to each other as the real intensities of the lights in
question at their sources.

If, for example, the weaker light being placed at the
distance of 4 feet from the centre of the paper, it should
be found necessary, in order that the shadows may be
of the same density, to remove the stronger light to
the distance of 8 feet from that centre, in that case the
real intensity of the stronger light will be to that of the

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 5

weaker as 8? to 4’, or as 64 to 16, or 4 to 1; and so
for any other distances. | is

It is well known that, if any quality do proceed from
a centre in straight lines in all directions, like the
light emitted by a luminous body, its intensity at any
given distance from that centre must necessarily be
as the square of that distance inversely; and hence it
is evident that the intensities of the lights in question,
at their sources, must be to each other as the squares
of their distances from that given point where ther
rays uniting are found to be of equal density. For
putting # = the intensity of the light A, and y = the
intensity of B: if P represent the point where the rays
from A and from B, meeting, are found to be of equal
density or strength, and if the distance of A from P
be = m, and the distance of B from the same point
P — 2, then, as the intensity of the light of A at P
is = +, and the intensity of the light of B at the
same place is = 4, and as it is4—4 by the sup-
position, it will be x: y:: mw: n’.

That the shadows being of equal density at any
given point, the intensities of the illuminating rays
must also of necesszty be equal at that point is evident
from hence; that the total absence of light being per-
fect blackness, and the shadow corresponding to one of
the lights in question being deeper or faznter, accord-
ing as it is more or less enlightened by the other, when
the shadows are equal the intensities of the illuminat-
ing rays must be equal likewise.

In removing the lights, in order to bring the shad-
ows to be of the same density, care must be taken to
recede from or advance towards the centre of the
paper in a straight line, so that the one light may

6 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

always be found exactly in the line of reflection of the
other; otherwise the rays from the different lights
falling upon the paper, and consequently upon the
shadows, at different angles, will render the experi-
ment fallacious.

When the intensity of one strong light is compared
with the intensities of several smaller lights taken —
together, the smaller lights should be placed in a line
perpendicular to a line drawn to the centre of the
paper, and as near to each other as possible ; and it is
likewise necessary to place them at a greater distance
from the paper than when only single lights are com-
pared.

In all cases, it is absolutely necessary to take the
greatest care that the lights compared be properly
trimmed, and that they burn clear and equally, other-
wise the results of the experiments will be extremely —
irregular and inconclusive. It is astonishing what a
difference there is in the quantities of light emitted
by the same candle, when it burns with its greatest
brilliancy, and when it has grown dim for want of
snuffing. But as this diminution of light is progres-
sive, and as the eye insensibly conforms to the quan-
tity of light actually present, it is not always taken
notice of by the spectators. It is nevertheless very
considerable in fact, as will be apparent to any one
who will take the trouble to make the experiment;
and so great is the fluctuation in the quantity of light
emitted by burning bodies, lamps or candles, in all
cases, even under the most favourable circumstances,
that this is the source of the greatest difficulties I have
met with in determining the relative intensities of
lights by the method here proposed.

i Oi, | ten ali

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. | 7

Since this method of measuring light first occurred
to me, I have made many improvements in the appa-
ratus employed in it; and I have now brought the prin-
cipal instrument to such a degree of perfection that,
if I might, without being suspected of affectation, I
should dignify it with a name, and call it a photometer.
I have likewise made a considerable number of ex-
periments, with a view to determining the relative
quantities of light produced by lamps and candles of
different kinds, and the relative expense of lighting
rooms in different ways; but, before I proceed to give
an account of them, it will be necessary to describe
very particularly the alterations I have found it expe-
dient to make in the instruments employed in making
them.

And, in the first place, the shadows, instead of being
thrown upon a paper spread out upon the wainscot or
side of the room, are now projected upon the inside
of the back part of a wooden box, 7} inches wide,
103 inches long, and 34 inches deep, in the clear, open
in front to receive the light, and painted black on the
inside, in every part except the back, upon which the
white paper is fastened which receives the shadows.
To the under part of the box is fitted a ball and
socket, by which it is attached to a stand which sup-
ports it; and the top or lid of it is fitted with hinges,
in order that the box may be laid quite open as often
as it is necessary to alter any part of the machinery it
contains. The front of the box is likewise furnished
with a falling lid or door, movable upon hinges, by
which the box is closed in front when it is not in
actual. use.

Finding it very inconvenient to compare two shad-

8 Experiments on the Relative Intensttees

ows projected by the same cylinder, as these were
either too far from each other to be compared with
certainty, or when they were nearer they were in part
hid from the eye by the cylinder, to remedy this incon-
venience I now make use of two cylinders, which
being fixed perpendicularly in the bottom of the box
just described, in a line parallel to the back part of it,
distant from this back 2;%; inches, and from each other
3 inches, measuring from the centres of the cylinders,—
when the two lights made use of in the experiment are
properly placed, these two cylinders project four shad-
ows upon the white paper upon the inside of the back
part of the box, which I shall henceforth call the jeld
of the instrument, two of which shadows are in contact
precisely in the middle of that field; and it is these
two alone that are to be attended to. To prevent
the attention being distracted by the presence of un-
necessary objects, the two outside shadows are made
to disappear, which is done by rendering the field of
the instrument so narrow that they fall without it,
upon a blackened surface, upon which they are not
visible.

If the cylinders be each #5 of an inch in diameter,
and 275 inches in height (as they are in the instru-
ment I have lately constructed), it will be quite suffi-
cient if the field be 275 inches wide; and, as an
unnecessary height of the field is not only useless, but
disadvantageous, as a large surface of white paper not
covered by the shadows produces too strong a glare of
light, the field ought not to be more than 35 of an inch
higher than the tops of the cylinders.

In order to be able to place the lights with facility
and precision, a fine black line is drawn through the

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 9

middle of the field, from the top to the bottom of it,

and another (horizontal) line at right angles to it, at
the height of the top of the cylinders. When the tops

of the shadows touch this last-mentioned line, the

lights are at a proper height; and when, further, the
two shadows are in contact with each other in the mid-
dle of the field, the lights are then in their proper di-
rections.

In my new-improved instrument (for I have already
caused four to be constructed), the white paper which
forms the field is not fastened immediately upon the
inside of the back of the box, but it is pasted upon a
small pane of very fine ground glass; and this glass,
thus covered, is let down into a groove made to re-
ceive it in the back of the box. This covered glass is
53 inches long, and as wide as the box is deep, viz.
34 inches, but the field of the instrument is reduced to
its proper size by a screen of black pasteboard inter-
posed before the anterior surface of this covered glass,
and resting immediately upon it. A hole in this paste-
board, in the form of an oblong square, 17 inches
wide and 2 inches high, determines the dimensions,
and forms. the boundaries of the field. This screen
should be large enough to cover the whole inside of
the back of the box; and it may be fixed in its place
by means of grooves in the sides of the box, into
which grooves it may be made to enter. The position
of the opening above mentioned is determined by the
height of the cylinders, the top of it being 75 of an
inch higher than the tops of the cylinders; and as the
height of it is only 2 inches, while the height of the
cylinders is 27 inches, it is evident that the shadows
of the lower parts of the cylinders do not enter the

10 Experiments on_the Relative Intensities

field. No inconvenience arises from that circum-
stance; on the contrary, several advantages are de-
rived from that arrangement.

Instead of the screen just described, I sometimes
make use of another, which differs from it only in this,
that tthe hole in it, which determines the form and
dimensions of the field, instead of being quadrangular,
is round, and 13%; inches in diameter. And, when this
screen is made use of, the shadows are increased in
width (by means which will hereafter be described) in
such a manner as completely to fill the field, appear-
ing under the form of two hemispheres, or rather half
disks, touching each other in a vertical line. The
object I had in view in reducing the field and the
shadows to a circular form was this: I imagined that
by diminishing the number of objects capable of act-
ing upon the mind, and particularly by removing all
straight lines and angles and all unnecessary varieties
of lights and shades, the attention might be concen-
trated and fixed in such a manner as to render the
sense of sight peculiarly acute in distinguishing any
difference in the simple objects presented to the eye.
But, however plausible this reasoning may appear, I
own the experiment did not answer my expectation.
It is true the apparent densities of two equal hemis-
pheres of shade, in contact with each other, may be
compared with great facility, and when no discernible
difference is to be perceived between them it is more
than probable that they are in fact very nearly equal;
but still I have found by experience that two equal
parallelograms of shade, in contact with each other,
may be compared with the same ease, and, I have
reason to think, with equal certainty, and ¢ha¢ even

¥ / <7

of the Light emztted by Luminous Bodies. ee

when these united shadows are bounded on three
sides by a perfectly white surface, illuminated by the
direct rays of two strong lights, — that is to say, when
the screen with the quadrangular opening or field is —
made use of.

In describing the cylinders by which the shadows
are projected, I said they were fixed in the bottom of
the box; but as the diameters of the shadows of the
cylinders vary in some small degree, in proportion as
the lights are broader or narrower, and as they are
brought nearer to or removed farther from the pho-
tometer, in order to be able in all cases to bring these
shadows to be of the same diameter, which I have
found by experience to be advantageous, in order to
judge with greater facility and certainty when the
shadows are of the same density, I have rendered the
cylinders movable about their axes, and have added
to each a vertical wing 3} of an inch wide, 75 of an
inch thick, and of equal height with the cylinder itself,
and firmly fixed to it from the top to the bottom.
This wing commonly lies in the middle of the shadow
of the cylinder, and as long as it remains in that situa-
tion it has no effect whatever; but, when it is neces-
sary that the diameter of one of the shadows should
be increased, the corresponding cylinder is moved
about its axis, till the wing just described, emerging
out of the shadow and intercepting a portion of light,
brings the shadow projected upon the field of the
instrument to be of the width or diameter required,
In this operation it is always necessary to turn the
cylinder outwards, or in such a manner that the aug-
mentation of the width of the shadow may take place
on that side of it which is opposite to the shadow cor-

12 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

responding to the other light. The necessity for that
precaution will appear evident to any one who has
a just idea of the instrument in question and of the
manner of making use of it.

It is by means of these wings attached to the cylin-
ders that the widths of the shadows are augmented,
so as to fill the whole field of the Ahotometer, when the
screen with the circular opening is made use of.

As the lower ends of the cylinders, which pass
through the holes made to receive them in the bottom
of the box, are about s5 of an inch less in diameter
than their upper parts, which cast the shadows; and as
they not only go quite through the bottom of the box
(which is an inch thick), but project near an inch
below its inferior surface ; and, lastly, as these cylinders
are not firmly fixed in these holes,— it is easy, by
taking hold of the ends of them which project below
the bottom of the box, to turn about the cylinders
upon their axes, even without opening the box. I
said above that the height of the vertical wing at-
tached to each of the cylinders was equal to the
height of the cylinder itself. This must be under-
stood to mean not the total length of the cylinder,
comprehending that part of it which passes into and
through the bottom of the box, but merely its height
above the bottom of the box, or that part of it which
projects above the bottom of the box.

As it is absolutely necessary that the cylinders
should constantly remain precisely perpendicular to
the bottom of the box or parallel to each other, it will
be best to construct them of brass, and instead of
fixing them immediately to the bottom of the box
(which being of wood may warp) to fix them toa

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 13

strong, thick piece of well-hammered plate brass, which
plate of brass may be afterwards fastened to the
bottom of the box by means of one strong screw. In

this manner two of my best instruments are con-

structed. And, in order to secure the cylinders still
more firmly in their vertical positions, they are fur-
nished with broad flat rings or projections, where they
rest upon the brass plate; which rings are 75 of an
inch thick, and equal in diameter to the projection of
the wing of the cylinder, to the bottom of which they
afford a firm support. (See Plate I., Fig. 1.) These
cylinders are likewise forcibly pushed, or rather pulled,
against the brass plate upon which they rest, by means
of compressed spiral springs placed between the under
side of that plate and the lower ends of the cylinders.

Of whatever material the cylinders be constructed,
and whatever be their forms or dimensions, it is abso-
lutely necessary that they, as well as every other part
of the photometer except the field, should be well
painted of a deep black, dead colour. That, and that
alone, will prevent the inconveniencies which would
otherwise arise from reflected light and from the pres-
ence of too great a number of visible objects.

In order to move the lights to and from the pho-
tometer with greater ease and precision, I provided two
long and narrow but very strong and steady tables, in
the middle of each of which there is a straight groove,
in which a sliding carriage, upon which the light is
placed, is drawn along by means of a cord which is
fastened to it before and behind, and which passing
over pulleys at each end of the table goes round a cyl-
inder, which cylinder is furnished with a winch, and
is so placed, near the end of the table adjoining the

14 Lixperiments on the Relative Intensities

photometer, that the observer can turn it about, without
taking his eye from the field of the instrument. (See
Plate III., Fig. 3, and Plate IV., Fig. 4.)

Many advantages are derived from this arrange-
ment: as, first, the observer can move the lights as he
finds necessary, without the help of an assistant, and
even without removing his eye from the shadows; sec-
ondly, each light is always precisely in the line of
direction in which it ought to be, in order that the
shadows may be in contact in the middle of the verti-
cal plane of the photometer; and, thirdly, the sliding
motion of the lights being perfectly soft and gentle,
that motion produces little or no effect upon the lights
themselves, either to increase or diminish their bril-
liancy.

These tables, which are 10 inches wide and 35 inches
high, and the one of them 12 feet and the other
20 feet long, are placed at an angle of 60° from each
other, and in such a situation with respect to the pho-
tometer that lines drawn through their middles in
the direction of their lengths meet in a point exactly
under the middle of the vertical plane or field of the
photometer, and from that point the distances of the
lights are measured; the sides of the tables being
divided into English inches, and a Vernier, showing
tenths of inches, being fixed’ to each of the sliding
carriages upon which the lights are placed. (See the
Plates III. and IV.)

These carriages are so contrived that they can be
raised or lowered at pleasure, which is absolutely nec-
essary, in order that the lights may be always of a
proper height; namely, that they may be in the same
horizontal plane with the tops of the cylinders of the
photometer.

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 15

The method of ascertaining when the lights are at
the proper height has already been described.
In order that the two long and narrow tables or

platforms just described, upon which the- lights move,

may remain immovable in their proper positions, they
are both firmly fixed to a very strong stand which
supports the photometer; and in order that the mo-
tion of the carriages which carry the lights may be as
soft and gentle as possible, they are made to slide
upon parallel brass wires, 9 inches asunder, about
7y of an inch in diameter, and well polished, which
are stretched out upon the tables from one end to the
other. (See Plate III.) ey

The pane of glass covered with white paper, which,
being fixed in a groove in the back of the box, consti-
tutes the vertical plane upon which the shadows are
projected, is 53 inches long and 34 inches wide, as has
already been observed, which is much larger than
the dimensions assigned above for the field; namely,
Iz@ inches wide and 2 inches high. I had two ob-
jects in view in this arrangement: first, to render it
easier to fix this plane in its proper position; and,
secondly, to be able to augment occasionally the di-
mensions of the field, by removing entirely the black
pasteboard screen from before this plane, or making
use of another with a larger aperture, which is some-
times advantageous.*

* Since writing the above, I have made a little alteration in the form of the
box which contains my photometer. The front of it, instead of being open, is
now closed ; and the light is admitted through two horizontal tubes, which are
placed so as to form an angle of 60°, their axes meeting at the centre of the
field of the instrument. (See Fig. 1, Plate I.) The field of the photometer is
viewed through an opening made for that purpose in the middle of the front of
the box, between the two tubes above mentioned. The Plates L., II., III., and
IV. will serve to give a clearer idea of the instrument, in its present most im-
proved state.

16 Experiments on the Relative I; ntensities

Having now, as I imagine, sufficiently described all
the essential parts of these instruments, it remains for
me to give some account of the precautions which,
from experience, I have found it necessary to employ
in making use of them.

And, first, with respect to the distance at which
lights whose intensities are to be compared should be
placed from the field of the photometer, I have found
that, when the weakest of the lights in question is about
as strong as a common wax candle, ¢hat ight may -
most advantageously be placed from 30 to 36 inches
from the centre of the field; and when it is weaker or
stronger, proportionally nearer or farther off. When
the lights are too near, the shadows will not be well
defined; and when they are too far off, they will be
too weak.

It will greatly facilitate the calculations necessary in
drawing conclusions from experiments of this kind, if
some steady light, of a proper degree of strength for
that purpose, be assumed as a standard by which all
others may be compared. I have chosen for that pur-
pose an Argand’s lamp, made in. London, and very
well finished; and though the quantity of light emitted
by this or any other kind of lamp is very various,
depending in a great measure upon the length to
which the wick is drawn out, yet I have found by
repeated trials that this lamp, once properly adjusted,
continues to emit light more equally for a considerable
time than any other lamp, and much more so than any
candle whatever.

At the beginning of each experiment I adjust this
standard light in the following manner: Having
placed the lamp upon its carriage, at the distance of

of the Light emrtted by Luminous Bodies. 17

100 inches from the centre of the field of the photo-

“meter, measuring from the centre of the circular flame
of the lamp, a cylindric wax candle, of known weight
and dimensions, and which is kept merely for that
purpose, being lighted and trimmed, and made to burn
with the greatest possible degree of brilliancy, is placed
over against it, at a certain given distance (33 inches),
and then the wick of the lamp is drawn out or short-
ened, as it is found necessary, till the shadows corre-
sponding to the lamp and to the candle are precisely
of the same density: this done, the proof candle is ex-
tinguished, and laid by for further use, and the pro-
jected experiment is immediately commenced.

Here the proof candle is, properly speaking, the
standard ; but the lamp is to be preferred to it, for the
experiments, on account of the superior constancy or
equality of its light.

The only danger of error in this mode of proceeding
arises from the difficulty of procuring proof candles
which shall always give precisely the same quantity of
light, or of making the same candle burn with exactly
the same brilliancy at different times. I flattered my-
self at one time that even this cause of error and
uncertainty, however insurmountable the difficulty ap-
pears, might be in a great measure removed. I con-
ceived that if the light from the standard lamp and
that of the proof candle, brought to be of the same
intensity at the surface of the vertical plane, were
really stronger at one time than at another, the equal
shadows of the cylinders would be_ proportionally
deeper, and that by comparing at different times the
density of those shadows with a painted scale of

shades, regularly graduated, any difference in the in-
VOL, IV. 2

18 Experiments on the Relative [Intensities

tensity of the standard light might be discovered and
compensated; but upon making the experiment I
found, what indeed a little patient reflection would
have enabled me to foresee, that the apparent density
of the two equal shadows corresponding to the lights
compared with a painted scale of shades, exposed tn the
same light, is ever the same, however the intensity of
the rays at the surface upon which those shadows are
projected may vary.

There is, however, another method by which I]
think it probable that the standard lamp might be
adjusted with the requisite degree of precision. It
appears, from a considerable number of experiments,
of which I shall hereafter give a more particular ac-
count, that the quantity of light emitted by a lamp on
any given construction, which burns with a clear flame
and without smoke, is in all cases as the quantity of oil
consumed. If therefore the standard lamp be so ad-
justed as always to consume a certain given quantity of
oil in a given time, there is much reason to suppose that
it may then be depended on as a just standard of light.

In order to abridge the calculations necessary in
these inquiries, it will always be advantageous to place
the standard lamp at the distance of 100 inches from
the photometer, and to assume the intensity of its light
at its source equal to unity. In this case (calling this
standard light A, the intensity of the light at its
source = x — 1, and the distance of the lamp from
the field of the photometer = m = 100) the intensity
of the illumination at the field of the photometer

= =") will be expressed by the fraction zt: = zob00;
and the relative intensity of any other light which is

* See Page 5.

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 19

compared with it, according to the directions before
_ given, may be found by the following proportion: Call-
ing this light B, and putting y = its intensity at its
source, and z = its distance from the field of the Pho-
tometer, expressed in English inches, as it i is Se (as
was before shown), or, instead of <, fatitings its ss ahere
ar oei es, it will be = = zybsa and consequently y is
to I as 2’ is to 10,000; or the intensity of the light B
at its source is to the intensity of the standard light A
at its source as the square of the distance of the light B
from the middle of the field of the instrument, expressed
in inches, is to 10,000; and hence it is y = zy%o9-

I have been the. more particular in this account
of the instruments employed in these inquiries, the
manner in which the experiments were conducted,
and the principles upon which the conclusions drawn
from them are founded, not only because, the subject
being new, the most particular information upon all
these points is absolutely necessary, to enable others to
judge with certainty of the matter submitted to their
examination, but also because I was very desirous
of affording every information and assistance in my
power to those who may be disposed to prosecute
these curious and entertaining researches.

Hoping that this apology may be thought sufficient
to excuse the prolixity of these descriptions, I shall
now proceed to give a short account of such experi-
ments as I have hitherto found leisure to make with
this apparatus.

My first attempts were to determine how far it
might be possible to ascertain, by direct experiments,
the certainty of the assumed law of the diminution of
the intensity of the light emitted by luminous bodies;

20 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

namely, that che zxtensity of the light is everywhere as
the squares of the distances from the luminous body in-
versely. These experiments appeared to me the more
necessary, as it is quite evident that this law can only
hold good when the light is propagated in perfectly
transparent or unresisting spaces, or where — suffering
no diminution whatever from the medium — its inten-
sity is diminished merely in consequence of the diver-
gency of the rays; and as it is more than probable that
air, even in its purest state, is far from being perfectly
transparent.

For greater perspicuity, I shall arrange all my ex-
periments and inquiries under general heads, and shall
begin by prefixing to those which relate to the subject
now under consideration the general title of

Experiments upon the Resistance of the Air to Light.
EXPERIMENT No. 1.

Two equal wax candles, well trimmed, and which
were found by a previous experiment to burn with
exactly the same degree of brightness, were placed
together on one side before the photometer, and their
united light was counterbalanced by the light of
an Argand’s lamp, well trimmed, and burning very
equally, placed on the other side over against them.
The lamp was placed at the distance of 100 inches
from the field of the photometer, and it was found that
the two burning candles (which were placed as near
together as possible, without their flames affecting
each other by the currents of air they produced) were
just able to counterbalance the light of the lamp at the

ee EES ee ee a

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. — 21

field of the photometer, when they were placed at
the distance of 60.8 inches from that field. One of
the candles being now taken away and extinguished,
the other was brought nearer to the field of the instru-
ment, till its light was found to be just able, singly, to
counterbalance the light of the lamp; and this was
found to happen when it had arrived at the distance.
of 43.4 inches.

In this experiment, as the candles burned with equal
brightness, it is evident that the intensities of their
united and single lights were as 2 to 1, and in that
proportion ought, according to the assumed theory,
the squares of the distances, 60.8 and 43.4, to be; and
in fact 60.8°=3696.64 is to 43.4°=1883.56 as 2 is
to 1 very nearly.

Again, in another experiment (No. 2), the distances

Werd:—

With two candles = 54 inches. Square = 2916.
With one candle = 38.6 = 1489.96

Upon another trial (Experiment No. 3):—
With two candles = 54.6 inches. Square = 2981.16
With one candle = 39.7 = 1576.09

And in the 4th experiment : —
With two candles = 58.4 inches. Square = 3410.56
With one candle = 42.2 = 1780.84

And taking the mean of the results of these four

experiments : —

Squares of the distances.
With two candles. With one candle.

In the Experiment No. 1, 3696.64. 1883.56
No. 2, 2916. 1489.96
No. 3, 2981.16 1576.09
No. 4, 3410.56 1780.84

4) 13004.36 4) 6730 45

Means 3251-09 and 1682.61
which again are very nearly as 2 to 1.

22 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

With regard to these experiments, it may be ob-
served that were the resistance of the air to light, or
the diminution of the light from the imperfect trans-
parency of air, sensible sithig the limits of the incon-
siderable distances at which the candles were placed
from the photometer, in that case the distance of the
two equal lights united ought to be to the distance
of one of them single in a ratio less than that of the
square root of 2 to the square root of 1. For if the
intensity of a light emitted by a luminous body, zz a
space void of all resistance, be diminished in the pro-
portion of the squares of the distances, it must of
necessity be diminished in a still higher ratio when
the light passes through a resisting medium, or one
which is not perfectly transparent; and from the dif-
ference of those ratios, —namely, that of the squares of
the distances, and that other Aigher ratio found by
the experiment, —the resistance of the medium might
be ascertained. This I have taken much pains to do
with respect to air, but have not as yet succeeded in
these endeavours, the transparency of air being so
great that the diminution which light suffers in pass-
ing through a few inches or even through several feet
of it is not sensible.

Having found upon repeated trials that the light of
a lamp, properly trimmed, is incomparably more equal
than that of a candle, whose wick continually growing
longer renders its light extremely fluctuating, I sub-
stituted lamps to candles in these experiments, and
made such other variations in the manner of conduct-
ing them as I thought bid fair to lead to a discovery
of the resistance of the air to light, were it possible to

FO Oe

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 23

render that resistance sensible within the confined
limits of my machinery. |

Having provided two lamps, the one an Argand’s
lamp, which I made to burn with the greatest possible
brilliancy; the other a small common lamp, with a
single, round, and very small wick, which, burning
with a very clear, steady flame, and without any visi-
ble smoke, emitted only about 3's part as much light as
the Argand’s lamp,—these lamps being placed over
against each other before the field of the photometer,
their lights were found to be in equilibrium when, the
smaller being placed at the distance of 20 inches from
the centre of that field, the greater was removed to the
distance of to1 inches. I now concluded that, if the
smaller light were to be removed to the distance of
40 inches, it would be necessary, in order to restore
the equilibrium of light or equality of the shadows in
the field of the photometer, to remove the greater light
to the distance of 202 inches; that is to say, if the
diminution of the light arising from the imperfect
transparency of the air should not be_ perceptible
within the limits of that distance. But if, on the con-
trary, it should be found upon repeated trials that the
equilibrium was restored when the greater light had
arrived at a distance short of 202 inches, I might
thence conclude that such effect might safely be at-
tributed to the imperfect transparency of the air; for
notwithstanding that the light of the smaller lamp
would of course be diminished as well as that of the
greater, yet as there is every reason to suppose that
the diminution, whatever it may be, must ever be
proportional to the distance through which the light
passes in the medium; as the augmentation of the

24 Experiments on the Relative Intensitzes

distance through which the light of the smaller lamp
passes is no more than 20 inches, while that of the
greater is made to pass through an additional dis-
tance, amounting to more than 100 inches, it is evi-
dent that the diminution of the light of the greater
lamp, arising from the imperféct transparency of the
medium, must be greater than the diminution of the
light of the smaller lamp, arising from the same cause;
and consequently that the effects of such diminution
would become apparent in the experiment, were they
in reality considerable.

The following table will show the results of the
experiments which were made with a view to deter-
mine that fact: —

Second dis-
tance of the
greater light, Difference
Compute between the
Experi- Distance of the smaller Distance of the greater | according to} result of the
ments. light. light. the assumed] experiment
law of the} and the the-
squares of | ory.
the distances.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
No First dist. 20 | First dist. tor
* 5+ |) Second dist. 40} Second dist. 203 202 +1
No. 6 First dist. 20 | First dist. 100.2
* “| Second dist. 40} Second dist. 198.3| 200.4 | —2.I
No First dist. 20| First dist. 100.8
7: | Second dist. 40 | Second dist. 202.1 201.6 | +0.5
No. 8 First dist. 20 | First dist. 101.5
* “| Second dist. 40] Second dist. 204 |. 203 +1
No First dist. 50| First dist. 100
* 9 | Second dist. 100 | Second dist. 198 200 —2
Ne.SaG First dist. 50 | First dist. 95-5
*““* |. Second dist. 100 | Second dist. 192.2} 191 + 1.2
MA’ xt First dist. 50 | First dist. g5-1
*“"" 1 Second dist. 100 | Second dist. 191.2} 190.2 | +1
We. 13 First dist. 50 | First dist.
*““ | Second dist. too | Second dist. 192.4] 192 + 0.4

In the four last experiments, instead of the small
lamp above described, a common Argand lamp was

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 25

made use of, the wick of which was ae drawn out
so far as to cause it to emit about ¢ part as much light
as the other Argand’s lamp, Least ee with its greatest
brilliancy, which was placed over against it.

In order that in judging of the equality of the shad-
ows, my mind might: be totally unbiassed by my ex-
pectations, or by any opinions I might previously have
formed with respect to the probable issue of the va-
rious experiments, keeping my eye constantly fixed
upon the field of the photometer, and causing the
light whose corresponding shadow was to be brought
to be of equal density with the standard to move back-
wards and forwards, by means of the winch which I
had constantly in my hand,—as soon as the shadows
appeared to me to be perfectly equal, I gave notice to
an assistant to observe, and silently to write down, the
distance of the lamp or candle, so that I did not even
know what that distance was till the experiment was
ended, and till it was too late to attempt to correct any
supposed errors of my eyes by my wishes or by my
expectations, had I been weak enough to have hada
wish in a matter of this kind. I do not know that
any predilection I might have had for any favourite
theory would have been able to have operated so
strongly upon my mind and upon my senses as to
have made d/ack and white appear to me otherwise
than as they really were; but this I know, that I was
very glad to find means to avoid being Zed zizo temp-
tation.

But to return to the foregoing experiments: the
results of them, so far from affording means for ascer-
taining the resistance of the air to light, do not even
indicate any resistance at all; on the contrary, it might

26 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

almost be inferred from some of them that the inten-
sity of the light emitted by a luminous body in air is
diminished in a ratio Zss than that of the squares of
the distances; but as such a conclusion would involve
an evident absurdity, namely, that light moving in air,
its absolute quantity, instead of being diminished, actu-
ally goes on to zucrease, that conclusion can by no
means be admitted.

Besides the experiments above mentioned, I made a
great number of others, similar to them, and with the
same view; but, as their results were all nearly the
same, I have not thought it worth while to lengthen
this paper by inserting a particular account of them.
In general, they all conspired to show that the resist-
ance of the air to light was too inconsiderable to be
perceptible, and that the assumed law of the diminu-
tion of the intensity of the light may with safety be
depended on.

That the transparency of air in its purest state is
very great is evident from the very considerable dis-
tances at which objects, and such even as are but
faintly illuminated, are visible; and I was by no means
surprised that its want of transparency could not be
rendered sensible in the small distance to which my
experiments were necessarily confined. But still I
think means may be found for rendering its resistance
to light apparent, and even of subjecting that resist-
ance to some tolerably accurate measure.

An accurate determination of the relative intensity
of the sun’s or moon’s light, when seen at different
heights above the horizon, or when seen from the top
and from the bottom of a very high mountain, in very

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 27

clear weather, would probably lead to a discovery of
the real amount of resistance of the air to light.*

Of the Loss of Light in tts Passage through Plates or
Panes of different Kinds of Glass.

In these experiments I proceeded in the following
manner. Having provided two equal Argand’s lamps,
A and B, well trimmed, and burning with very clear
bright flames, they were placed over against each
other before the photometer, each at the distance of
100 inches from the field of the instrument, and the
light of B was brought to be of the same intensity
as that of A, or the shadows were brought to be of
the same density, which was done by lengthening or
shortening the wick of the lamp B, as the occasion
required, This done, and the two lamps now burn-
ing with precisely the same degree of brilliancy, a
pane of fine, clear, transparent, well-polished glass,
such as is commonly made use of in the construction
of looking-glasses, six inches square, placed vertically
upon a stand, in a small frame, was interposed before
the lamp B at the distance of about four feet from it,
and in such a position that the light emitted by it
was obliged to go perpendicularly through the middle
of the pane, in order to arrive at the field of the pho-

* This method of ascertaining the diminution of light in passing through the
atmosphere was proposed, and put in practice, many years ago, by an ingenious
French philosopher, M. Bouguer, of the Royal Academy of Sciences. See
Traité d’Optique pour la Gradation de la Lumiére: Ouvrage posthume de M. Bou-
guer, de l’Académie Royale des Sciences, etc. Published at Paris by the Abbé
de la Caille, in the year 1760.

When this paper was written, I had not seen that most ingenious and learned
dissertation. It did not come into my hands till a few months ago (in Novem-
ber, 1801) when, being at Paris, my worthy and respectable friend the Senator
Laplace procured it for me.

28 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

tometer. The consequence of this was that, the light
of the lamp B being diminished and weakened in its
passage through the glass, the illuminations of the
shadows in the field of the photometer were no longer
equal, the shadow corresponding to the lamp A being
now less enlightened by the light of the lamp B than
the shadow corresponding to the lamp B was enlight-
ened by the undiminished light of the lamp A.

To determine precisely the exact amount of this
diminution of the light of the lamp B (which was the
main object of the experiment), nothing more was _nec-
essary than to bring this lamp nearer to the field of
the photometer, till its light passing through the glass
should be in equilibrium with the direct light of the
lamp A, or, in other words, till the equality of the
shadows should be restored; and this I found actually
happened when the lamp B from too inches was
brought to the distance of 90.2 inches from the field
of the photometer. |

Now, as it has already been shown that the intensi-
ties of the lights are as the squares of their distances
from the field of the photometer, the illuminations being
equal at that field, it is evident that the light of the
lamp B was diminished, in this experiment, in its
passage through the pane of glass, in the ratio of
100” to 90.2”, or as 1 to .8136; so that no more than
8136 parts of the light which impinged against the
glass found its way through it, the other .1864 parts
being dispersed and lost.

To assure myself that the lamps still continued to
emit the same relative quantities of light as at the
beginning of the experiment, I now removed the pane
of glass, and found that the equality of the shadows

Rid VP i. Ol i ies stall Lan

i Ss

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 29

was again restored, when the lamp B arrived at its
former station, 100 inches from the field of the pho-
tometer. .

This experiment I repeated no less than 10 times,
and found the loss of light in its passage through this
pane of glass, taking a mean of all the experiments, to
be .1973 parts of the whole quantity that impinged
against it; the variations in the results of the various
experiments being from .1720 to .2108.

In four experiments, with another pane of the same
kind of glass, the loss of light was .1836, .1732, .2056,
and .1853; mean, .1869.

When the two panes of this glass were placed before
the lamp B at the same time, but without touching

each other, and the light made to pass through them

both, the loss of light in four different experiments
was .3089, .3259, .3209, and .3180; mean, .3184.

With another pane of glass of the same kind, but
a little thinner, the mean loss of light in four experi-
ments was .1813.

With a very thin, clean pane of clear white or
colourless window-glass, not ground, the loss of light
in four experiments was .1324, .1218, .1213, and .1297;
mean, .1263. When the experiment was made with
this same pane of glass a very little dirty, the loss of
light was more than doubled.

Might not this apparatus be very usefully employed
by the optician, to determine the degree of transpar-
ency of the glass he employs, and direct his choice in
the provision of that important article in his trade?

In making these experiments, a great deal of the
trouble may well be spared, for there is no use what-
ever in bringing the two lamps A and B to burn with

30 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

the same degree of brilliancy; all that is necessary
being to bring the shadows to be of the same density
with the glass and without it, noting the distance of
the lamp B in each case (the lamp A remaining im-
movable in its place); for the relative quantity of light
lost will ever be accurately shown by the ratio of the
squares. of those distances, whatever be the relative
brilliancy with which the two lamps burn. The ex-
periment is more striking, and the consequences drawn
from it rather more obvious, when the lamps are made
to burn with equal flames; otherwise that equality is of
no real advantage.

Of the Loss of Light in its Reflection from the Surface
of a plane Glass Mirror.

In these experiments the method of proceeding was
much the same as in those just mentioned. The
lamps A and B burning with clear, bright, and steady
flames were placed before the field of the photometer,
and one of them was moved backwards and forwards
till the illuminations of the shadows in the field of the
instrument were found to be precisely equal. “The
distance of the lamp B being then noted, this lamp
was removed; and a mirror being put in its place, but
nearer the field of the photometer, the lamp was so
placed that its rays, striking the centre of the mirror,
were reflected against the field of the photometer,
where, by bringing the lamp nearer to or removing it
farther from the mirror, the illumination of the field by
those reflected rays was now brought to be in equilib-
rium with the illumination of the standard lamp, and
then the distance of the lamp from the centre of the

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 31

mirror, and the distance from thence to the centre of
the field, were carefully measured and noted. These.
two distances added together was the real distance
through which the rays passed in order to arrive at
the field of the photometer. ;

Now, as there is always a loss of light in reflection,
it is evident that the reflected rays must come to the
field of the photometer weakened, and that in order to
illuminate this field by these reflected rays as strongly
as it was illuminated by the direct rays of the same
lamp, the lamp must be brought nearer to the field.
It is likewise evident, from what has already been said,
that the ratio of the squares of those distances of the
lamp when its rays pass on directly, and when they
arrive after having been reflected are found to illu-
minate equally the field of the photometer, will be
an accurate measure of the loss of the light in re-
flection.

The following table will show the results of five
experiments with a small but most excellent glass
mirror made by Ramsden. This mirror, which makes
part of an optical instrument I caused to be con-
structed in London about twelve years ago, is 7 inches
long and 5% inches wide, and I suppose is as perfect as
ever glass mirror was of that size.

To facilitate the comparison of the results of the
experiments, the lamp B at the beginning of each
experiment (when the intensity of its direct rays was
compared with the intensity of the standard lamp) was
placed at the distance of 100 inches, the standard lamp ~
being occasionally moved, in order to produce an
equality of the shadows.

32 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

Distance of the} Distance of the| Real distance of Licht lost

tre of the field. ror. rays. ooo

Inches. Inches. Inches. Parts.

I 60° 40 40.8 80.8 3472

| 85° — 41. 81. 3439

3 45° = 41.5 81.5 +3358

+ 60° = 39-5 79:5 +3080

5 70 — 40.5 80.5 -3520

‘The mean of these five experiments gives for the
loss of light .3494; and from hence it appears that
more than } part of the light which falls upon the best
glass mirror that can be constructed is lost in reflec-
tion.

The loss with mirrors of indifferent quality is still
more considerable. With a very bad common looking-
glass the loss, in one experiment, appeared to be .4816
parts; and with another looking-glass it was .4548
parts in one experiment, and .4430 in another. I
should certainly have made an experiment to deter-
mine the loss of light in its reflection from the surface
of a plane metallic mirror, but I had no such mirror at
hand,

The difference of the angles of incidence at the
surface of the mirror, within the limits mentioned,
namely, from 45° to 85°, did not appear to affect in
any sensible degree the results of the experiments. I
also found upon trial that the effect produced by the
difference of the angles at which light impinges against
a sheet of transparent glass through which it passes is,
within the limits of 40° or 50° from the perpendicular,
but very trifling.

— Oe

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 33

Of the relative Quantities of Orl consumed and of
Light emitted by an Argands Lamp, and by a
Lamp on the common Construction, with a Riband

— Wick,

The brilliancy of the Argand’s lamp is not only
unrivalled, but the invention is, in the highest degree,
ingenious, and the instrument useful for many pur-
poses; but still, to judge of its real merits, as an illu-
minator, it was necessary to know whether it gives
more light than another lamp zz proportion to the owl
consumed. This point I determined in the following
manner. Fos ve

Having placed an Argand’s lamp, well trimmed, and
burning with its greatest brilliancy, before my pho-
tometer, and over against it a very excellent common
lamp with a riband wick, about an inch wide, and
which burned with a clear bright flame without the
least appearance of smoke, I found the intensities of
the light emitted by the two lamps to be to each other
as 17956 to 9063; the densities of the shadows being
equal when the Argand’s being placed at the distance
of 134 inches, the common lamp was placed at the
distance of 95.2 inches, from the field of the pho-
tometer.

Both lamps having been very exactly weighed when
they were lighted, they were now (without being re-
moved from their places before the photometer) caused
to burn with the same brilliancy just 30 minutes;
when they were extinguished, and weighed again, and
were found to have consumed of oil, the Argand’s
lamp ys, and the common lamp 384%, of a Bavarian
pound.

VOL. IV. 3

34 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

Now as the quantity of light produced by the
Argand’s lamp in this experiment is to the quantity
produced by the common lamp as 17956 to 9063, or
as 187 to 100, while the quantity of oil consumed by
the former is to that consumed by the latter only in
the ratio of 253 to 163, or as 155 to 100, it is evident
that the quantity of light produced by the combustion.
of a given quantity of oil in an Argand’s lamp is
greater than that produced by burning the same quan-
tity in a common lamp, in the ratio of 187 to 155, or
as 100 to 85.

The saving, therefore, of oil which arises. from
making use of an Argand’s lamp, instead of a common
lamp, in the production of light, is evident; and it
appears from this experiment that that saving cannot
amount to less than 15 per cent. How far the advan-
tage of this saving may, under certain circumstances, -
be counterbalanced by inconveniences that may attend
the making use of this improved lamp, I will not pre-
tend to determine.

Of the relative Quantities of Light emitted by an
Argand’s Lamp and by a common Wax Candle.

I have made a considerable number of experiments
to determine this point, and the general result of them
is that a common Argand’s lamp, burning with its
usual brightness, gives about as much light as xzne
good wax candles; but the sizes and qualities of can-
dles are so various, and the light produced by the
same candle so fluctuating, that it is very difficult to —
ascertain with any kind of precision what a common
wax candle is, or how much light it ought to give. I

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 35

once found that my Argand’s lamp, when it was burn-
ing with its greatest brilliancy, gave twelve times as
much light as a good wax candle ¢ of an inch in diam-
eter, but never more.

Of the Fluctuations of the Light emitted by Candles.

To determine to what the ordinary variations in the
- quantity of light emitted by a common wax candle
might amount, I took such a candle, and lighting it
placed it before the photometer, and over against it an
Argand’s lamp, which was burning with a very steady
flame; and measuring the intensity of the light emitted
by the candle from time to time, during an hour, the
candle being occasionally snuffed when it appeared to
stand in need of it, its light was found to vary from
100 to about 60. The light of a wax candle of an
inferior quality was still more unequal, but even this
was but trifling compared to the inequalities of the
light of a tallow candle.

An ordinary tallow candle, of rather an inferior
quality, having been just snuffed and burning with
its greatest brilliancy, its light was as 100; in eleven
minutes it was but 39; after eight minutes more had
elapsed, its light was reduced to 23; and in ten min-
utes more, or twenty-nine minutes after it had been
last snuffed, its light was reduced to 16. Upon being
again snuffed, it recovered its original brilliancy, 100.

Of the relative Quantities of Beeswax, Tallow, Olive
Owl, Rape Oil, and Linseed Oil, consumed in the
Production of Light.

In order to ascertain the relative quantities of bees-
wax and of olive oil consumed in the production of

36 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

light, I proceeded in the following manner. Having
provided an end of a wax candle of the best quality,
.68 of an inch in diameter, and about 4 inches in
length, and a lamp with five small wicks, which I had
found upon trial to give the same quantity of light as
the candle, I weighed very exactly the candle and the
lamp filled with oil, and then placing them at equal
distances (40 inches) before the field of the photom-
eter I lighted them both at the same time; and after
having caused them to burn with precisely the same
degree of brightness jus¢ one complete hour, | extin-
guished them both, and weighing them a second time
I found that 100 parts of wax and 129 parts of oil had
been consumed.

Hence it appears that the consumption of deeswax
is to the consumption of o/zve oz/ in the production of
the same given quantity of light as 100 is to 129.

In this experiment no circumstance was neglected —
that could tend to render the result of it conclusive.
Care was taken to snuff the candle very often with a
pair of sharp scissors, in order to make it burn con-
stantly with the same degree of brilliancy; and the
light of the lamp was, during the whole time, kept in
the most exact equilibrium with the light of the candle,
which was easily done by occasionally drawing out a
little more or less one or more of its five equal wicks.
These wicks, which were placed in a right line perpen-
dicular to a line drawn from the middle wick to the
middle of the field of the photometer, were about 75 of
an inch in diameter each, and } of an inch from each
other, and when they were lighted their flames united
into one broad, thin, and very clear white flame, with-
out the least appearance of smoke.

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 37

In order to ascertain the relative consumption of
olive oil and rape oil in the production of light, two
lamps like that just described were made use of; and,
the experiment being made with all possible care, the
consumption of olive ol appeared to be to that of rape
oz/, in the production of the same quantity of light, as
129 is to 125. .

The experiment being afterwards neuter with olve
oil and very pure /xsced oz/, the consumption of olive oil
appeared to be to that of the linseed oil as 129 to 120.

The experiment being twice made with ofzve oz/ and
with @ ¢allow candle, — once when the candle, by being
often snuffed, was made to burn constantly with the
greatest possible brilliancy, and once when it was suf-
fered to burn the whole time with a very dim light,
owing to the want of snuffing,—the results of these
experiments were very remarkable.

When the candle burned with a clear bright flame,
the consumption of the olive oil was to the consump-
tion of the tallow as 129 is to 101; but, when the
candle burned with a dim light, the consumption of the
olive oil was to the consumption of the tallow as 129 is
to 229. So that it appeared from this last experiment
that the tallow, instead of being nearly as productive of
light in its combustion as beeswax, as it appeared to
be when the candle was kept constantly well snuffed,
was now, when the candle was suffered to burn with a
dim light, by far less so than oil.

But this is not all: what is still more extraordinary
is that the very same candle, burning with a long wick
and a dim light, actually consumed more tallow than
when, being properly snuffed, it burned with a clear,
bright flame, and gave near ¢hree temes as much light !

38 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

To be enabled to judge of the relative quantities of
light actually produced by the candle in the two experi-
ments, it will suffice to know that, in order to counter-
balance this light at the field of the photometer, it
required in the former experiment the consumption of
-I41 parts, but in the latter only the consumption of 64
parts of olive oil. But in the former experiment 110
parts, and in the latter 114 parts of tallow, were actually
found to be consumed. These parts were 8192ths of
a Bavarian pound.

From the results of all the foregoing experiments
it appears that the relative expense of the under-men-
tioned inflammable substances, in the production of
any given quantity of light, is as follows : —

Equal
in weight
Beeswax. A good wax candle, kept well snuffed, and burn-
ing with a clear bright flame . . . 100
Tallow. A good tallow candle, kept well snuffed, ad fign
ing with a bright flame. . . IOI
The same tallow candle burning ear dim, tie
want of snufing 4 220. 50s a 8 we 8 os 229
Olive oil. Burned inan Argand’s lamp . .. . 110
The same burned in a common lamp, with a
clear bright flame, without smoke ... . 129
Rape oil. . Burned-inthesame manner . . . + +. . 125
Linseed oil. Likewise burned inthe same manner... . 120

I should have been very glad to have made the
experiment with whale oil, but there was none to be
had in the country I inhabited at that time (Bavaria).

With the foregoing table, and the prices current of
the therein-mentioned articles, the relative przces of
light produced by those different materials may very
readily be computed.

The light of a wax candle, for instance, costs just

— a

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 39

nine times more at Munich than the same quantity of
light produced by burning rape oil in an Argand’s
lamp.

Of the Transparency of Flame.

To ascertain the transparency of flame or the meas-
ure of the resistance it opposes to the passage of
foreign or extraneous light through it, I placed before
the photometer, over against the standard lamp, two
burning wax candles, well trimmed; and putting them
near together, sometimes by the sides of each other,
and sometimes in a straight line behind each other, I
found that, when their distances from the field of the
photometer were the same, the intensity of the illumi-
nation was to all appearance the. same, whether the
light of the one was made to pass through the flame of
the other or not. And the same held good, with very
little variation, when three and even when four candles
were made use of in the experiment, instead of two.

I even caused a lamp to be constructed with nine
round wicks, placed in a horizontal line, and just so
far asunder as to prevent their flames uniting, and no
farther. And I found, upon repeating the experiment
with this lamp, that the result was much the same as
with the candles; the intensity of the illumination at
the field of the photometer being very nearly the same,
whether these nine lights were placed so as to cover
and pass through each other, or not. |

But I afterwards found means to demonstrate the
very great transparency of flame by a still more simple
experiment. Suspecting that the only reason why
bodies are not visible through a sheet of vivid flame is

40 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

that the light of the flame affects the eye in such a
manner as to render it insensible to the weaker light
emitted by or reflected from the objects placed behind
it, I conceived that a very strong light would not only be
visible through a weak flame, but also (as all transpar-
ent bodies are invisible) that it might perhaps cause
the flame totally. to disappear. To determine that fact,
I took a lighted candle, at mid-day, the sun shining
moderately bright, and holding it up between my eye
and the sun I found the flame of the candle to disap-
pear entirely. It was not even necessary, in order to
cause the flame to become invisible, to bring it to be
directly between the eye and the body of the sun: it
was sufficient for that purpose to bring it into the
neighbourhood of the sun where the light was very
strong; even in a situation in which the light was not
so strong as to dazzle the eye so much as to prevent
its seeing very distinctly the body of the candle and
the wick, not the least appearance of flame was discern-
ible, though the candle actually burned the whole time
very vigorously.

PEATE SIG

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 41

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES,

Plate I., Fig. 1. This represents a plan, or rather
the outlines of a bird’s-eye view of the photometer,
upon its stand, together with the ends adjoining to
the stand of the long and narrow tables on which the
carriages run which support the lights: a, 4, ¢, d, ¢ f, 2,
‘h, 7, &, is the plan of the photometer properly so called,
which is a box of wood, painted black within and with-
out, with two projecting, horizontal, quadrangular tubes,
é, f, g, #, and 2, &, a, 6, through which the light is
admitted. The part of the figure which is bounded
by the three straight lines g, Z,— 4%, z2,—and z, &, and
the curved line 4, g, is merely a projection of the board
which forms the bottom of the box. It is of no real
use, serving only to give a more elegant form to the
instrument.

Dotted lines drawn through the axes of the two
horizontal tubes above-mentioned meet at the surface
of a vertical plane consisting of a piece of sheet glass
covered with white paper, which plane constitutes the
field of the instrument on which the shadows are
projected.

Two small circles through which those dotted lines
pass represent the ground plans of the two cylinders
of brass, painted black, by which the shadows are
thrown on the field of the photometer. On one side
of each of these cylinders there is a projecting wing,
a plan of which is represented in the figure.

Each of the small circles which represent the plans

42 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

or horizontal sections of the cylinders is surrounded

by another circle, about three times as large, which ©

represents a flat horizontal circular plate of brass,
about 3 of an inch thick, on which the cylinder
stands, and to which it is firmly fastened by solder.
These circular plates are placed on an oblong horizon-
tal plate of brass, through which the cylinders which
are continued below the circular plates pass in two holes
in the oblong plate which are made to receive them.

To the lower ends of each of the cylinders which,
passing through the bottom of the wooden box which
constitutes the body of the photometer, project down-
ward, about an inch below it is fixed a thumb-piece or
handle (visible in the Fig. 2, Plate I1.).

These thumb-pieces serve for turning the cylinders
about their axes, which is done occasionally in order
to bring the shadows of the two cylinders which are
thrown on the field of the instrument to be of the
same width. The manner in which this is effected
will be evident, if we consider that, as long as the
vertical wing which is annexed to each of the cylinders
remains in the shadow of its cylinder, it cannot add to
the width of the shadow cast on the vertical plane
which constitutes the field of the photometer; but, as
soon as by turning the cylinder about its axis that
wing is made to emerge from the shadow of the
cylinder on one side, the width of the shadow on the
field of the instrument will be increased. By these
means the widths of the two shadows which are com-
pared may at any time be made equal; and they
should be so, in order that their intensities may be
compared with greater facility and accuracy. As often
as the two lights, which are the subjects of an ex-

’
——

ee ee ee, ee ee

PLATE ET:

X—

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 4 3

periment, are placed at different distances from the
field of the photometer, the shadows of the two equal
cylinders, unassisted by their projecting wings, will of
course be of unequal widths. To bring their widths
to be equal was the sole object of the contrivance we
have been describing.

4, m, n (Fig. 1, Plate I.), are the three strong feet
which support the photometer, and also a round table
on which one end of each of the long narrow tables
rests that support the sliding carriages which carry the
lights. In each of these feet there is a screw (repre-
sented more distinctly in the Fig. 2, Plate II.) by
means of which the stand or pillar which supports the
photometer may be brought into a position exactly
vertical.

A ground plan of a part of one of the long and
narrow tables (that on the right hand) is represented
in this figure; and a part also of one of the carriages
which carry the lights is seen at 0, , g,7 The top of
the pulley is also seen, and the line which passing
over it draws the carriage on which the light stands.
The place occupied by one end (that next to the pho-
tometer) of the other long table is represented by the
dotted lines 4, w, w, x. The place of the strong pin
which, passing through a hole made to receive it, near
the end of the table, is represented (in a ground plan)
at s. These pins are shown very distinctly at s, s, in
the Fig. 2, Plate II.

I, 2, 3, Figs. 1 and 2, are three strong braces which
assist in supporting the pillar, on the top of which the
photometer is placed.

T in the Figs. 1 and 2 is a strong circular table
on which one end of each of the long narrow tables is

44 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

supported. This circular table, through the centre of
which the pillar of the photometer passes, is supported
on a strong flange or shoulder in the pillar which is
made for it to rest upon.

The box of the photometer is fixed to its stand or
pillar by means of a ball and socket. In the Fig. 2,
this box is represented shut up by three sliding wooden
doors, a, 6,and ¢. Through the door-way on the left
at a, and through that on the right at 4, light is ad-
mitted into the photometer; and that in the middle,
at ¢, is opened in order to observe the shadows cast on
the field of the instrument.

The places occupied by these three sliding-doors in
the ground plan of the photometer (see Fig. 1) are as
follows. The first (a) fills the opening from a to &;
the second (4) that from f to g,; and the third (c) that
from z to f,

Plate III., Fig. 3. This figure represents a plan, or
rather the outlines of a bird’s-eye view of the whole of
the apparatus, drawn to a small scale.

a is the box of the photometer, which is represented
as being closed above with its lid or wooden cover.

6 and ¢ are the two sliding carriages on which the
lights are placed, which are the subjects of the experi-
ments. There is a movable stage or platform belong-
ing to each of these carriages, which, by means which
will presently be described, can be placed higher or
lower. It is upon these platforms, and not on the
bottoms of the carriages, that the lights are placed;
and, as they are movable upwards and downwards, the
lights to be compared can easily be placed exactly at
the same height, which is always necessary. Each of
the pieces of board which form these platforms has

Lia

of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 45

three holes through it, in which three cylindrical pillars
pass, which stand on the bottom of the carriage, and
are firmly fixed in it. The platform is attached to
these three pillars at any height above the bottom of
the carriage, by means of small horizontal screws,
which can be made to press against the pillars. These
screws are fixed in large hollow knobs of wood which
are fixed to the platform, just over the holes, in such a
manner that each pillar passes through the axis of one
of these knobs.

One of these knobs, together with the end of the
screw by which it is fastened to the pillar, is repre-
sented in the bird’s-eye view of the carriage 4, and
another in that c, Fig. 3. The reason why the other
two knobs belonging to each of these carriages are
not seen is this: they are hid by a flat narrow piece
of wood (represented in the figure) which, passing
from the top of one of the two front pillars of the
carriage to the other, serves to make those pillars more
steady. A front view of the three knobs belonging to
each of the carriages may be seen in the next figure.

d and ¢ are the winches by means of which the slid-
ing carriages, 6 and ¢, are occasionally brought nearer
to and carried farther from the field of the photom- |
eter. The strong wires stretched along upon each
side of each of the long tables on which the carriages
slide are represented in this figure, as also the cord
stretched along the middle of each table, and passing
over pulleys at each end of it, and round the cylinder
of the winch, which serves for are the carriage
backwards and forwards.

The two ends of this cord are united under the table,
forming of the whole a kind of band, which is kept at

46 Experiments on the Relative Intensities

a proper degree of tension by a weight under the table

which is fixed to a pulley... This weight is seen in the
next figure (Plate IV.) suspended by the cord under
one of the tables. T is the circular table, which is rep-
resented on a much larger scale in the Figs. 1 and 2.

In this figure (3) and in the next, the brackets are
seen which support the ends of the long tables which
are farthest from the stand of the photometer. Each
of these brackets is furnished with two screws, dis-
tinctly represented in the figure, which serve for set-
ting the table on a true horizontal level.

Plate IV., Fig. 4. This figure is an elevation of the
whole of the machinery, seen in the direction of the
length of one of the long tables. The two tables are
supposed to be so placed as to form an angle of 60°, in
which situation they are also represented in the last
figure. As in this figure (4) one end of one of the
long tables is represented as standing immediately
before the stand of the photometer, the sliding car-
riage belonging to that table obstructs the view of the
upper part of the stand, and of the box of the photom-
eter, and renders the appearance of the machinery in
that part of the plate rather confused; but by a care-
- ful examination the different parts of it may be distin-
guished.

The platforms on which the lights are placed are
represented as being both fixed at the same horizontal
level; and all the six hollow knobs of wood are dis-
tinctly seen, by which they are fastened to the slender
pillars which support them. The lights themselves
are not represented in any of these figures. The
handles of the winches, by means of which the lights
are moved backwards or forwards, by an observer who

a oes

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of the Light emitted by Luminous Bodies. 47

is sitting before the photometer and looking at the
shadows, are both represented in this figure. ee

Care must always be taken, in making the experi-
ments, to place the two lights and the centre of the
field of the photometer in the same plane. 7

The frames of the long tables are constructed of
strong deal boards placed edgeways, and the two long
boards which form the two sides of each table are made
narrower at that end of them which is next to the stand
of the photometer, in the manner represented in the
Fig. 4.

This is done to give more room to the observer,
when he is sitting before the instrument to observe
the shadows. The winches are so placed that he can
conveniently keep one of them in each hand, and turn
them about while his eye remains fixed on the field of
the instrument.

In order that the weight w, by which the cord is
kept properly stretched, may be forced to remain in
its proper place, the cord is made to pass over two
additional pulleys at a and 4. The manner in which
these pulleys act will be evident from a bare inspection
of the figure. |

The upper edges of the two long boards which con-
stitute the insides of the frames of the two long tables
are divided in feet and inches, which greatly facilitates
the ascertaining of the distances of the lights from the
field of the photometer.

At the ends of the long tables the pins are seen by ©
means of which the wires are stretched on which the
carriages of the lights slide.

[This paper is printed from Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I.,
Pp: 270-318. ]

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AN ACCOUNT

Ret ss OF SOME i eas

ON COLOURED SHADOWS. . eae
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w

AN ACCOUNT OF SOME EXPERIMENTS
ON COLOURED SHADOWS.

HILE I was employed in the prosecution of my
experiments on the intensities of light, I was

struck with a very beautiful and what I then consid-
ered as a new appearance. Desirous of comparing the
intensity of the light of a clear sky, by day, with that
of a common wax candle, I darkened my room, and
letting the daylight from the north (coming through a
hole near the top of the window-shutter) fall at an angle
of about 70° upon a sheet of very fine white paper, I
placed a burning wax candle in such a position that
its rays fell upon the same paper, and, as nearly as I
could guess, in the line of reflection of the rays of day-
light from without; when, interposing a cylinder of
wood, about half an inch in diameter, before the centre
of the paper, and at the distance of about two inches
from its surface, I was much surprised to find that the
two shadows projected by the cylinder upon the paper,
instead of being merely shades, wz¢hout colour, as I
expected to find them, the one of them —that which,
corresponding with the beam of daylight, was illumi-
nated by the candle —was yellow; while the other,
corresponding to the light of the candle,—and conse-
quently illuminated by the light of the heavens, — was
of the most beautiful d/we that it is possible to imagine.

52 Account of some Experiments

This appearance, which was not only unexpected, but |

was really in itself in the highest degree striking and
beautiful, I found, upon repeated trials and after vary-
ing the experiment in every way I could think of, to be
so perfectly permanent that it is absolutely impossible
to produce ¢wo shadows at the same time from the
same body, the one answering to a beam of daylight
and the other to the light of a candle or lamp, without
these shadows being coloured, the one ye//ow and the
other due. :

The experiment may very easily be made at any
time by day, and almost in any place, and even by a
person not in the least degree versed in experimental
researches. Nothing more is necessary for that pur-
pose than to take a burning candle into a darkened
room in the daytime, and open one of the window-
shutters a little, about half or three quarters of an inch,
for instance; when, the candle being placed upon a
table or stand, or given to an assistant to hold, in such
a situation that the rays from the candle may meet
those of daylight from without at an angle of about
40°, at the surface of a sheet of white paper, held in
a proper position to receive them, any solid opaque
body, a cylinder, or even a finger held before the
paper at the distance of two or three inches, will pro-
ject two shadows upon the paper, the one blue and
the other yellow.

If the candle be brought nearer to the paper, the
blue shadow will become of a deeper hue, and the
yellow shadow will gradually grow fainter; but, if it be
removed farther off, the yellow shadow will become
of a deeper colour, and the blue shadow will become
fainter; and, the candle remaining stationary in the

——
a

¥
.
’
bad

on Coloured Shadows. 53

same place, the same varieties in the strength of the
tints of the coloured shadows may be produced merely
by opening the window-shutter a little more or less,
and rendering the illumination of the paper by the
light from without stronger or weaker. By either of
these means the coloured shadows may be made to
pass through all the gradations of shade, from the
deepest to the lightest, and wzce versa ; and it is not a
little amusing to see shadows thus glowing with all
the brilliancy of the purest and most intense prismatic
colours, then passing suddenly through all the varieties
of shade, — preserving in all the most perfect purity of
tint, — growing stronger and fainter, and vanishing
and returning at command.

With respect to the causes of the colours of these
shadows, there is no doubt but they arise from the
different qualities of the light by which they are illumi-
nated; but how they are produced does not appear
to me so evident.* That the shadow corresponding to

* T ought to inform the reader that when the above was written I had not
the smallest recollection of what, many years before, I had read concerning
coloured shadows, in Priestley’s History of Optics. It may perhaps be thought
(by others, as well as by myself) that it was a fortunate circumstance that I
had forgotten what I had read ; for it left my mind in perfect freedom to pur-
sue, in my own way, the investigation of the causes of the phenomena which
presented themselves to my observation, without my being biassed by the opin-
ions of others, who, before me, had attempted to explain them. Had I recol-
lected what others had done, I should not, most probably, have given myself
the trouble of engaging in the prosecution of these inquiries.

But although at the time when this paper was written I had really no remem-
brance whatever of what had been written and published before on this subject,
yet soon after the paper was finished, and some time before it was sent to
England to be laid before the Royal Society, I was, by an accidental circum-
stance, made to recollect what I had so entirely forgotten. Shall I confess
what the motives were which induced me to expose myself to the danger of
being thought zgxorant, or something worse, by suffering my paper to go out of
my hands without alteration? When the glow of the sudden blush which I
felt on discovering my danger had passed off, and I had taken time to reflect
coolly on all the circumstances of the case, I concluded that it might be useful

54 Account of some Experiments

the beam of daylight, which is illuminated by the
yellow light of a candle, should be of a yellowish hue,
is not surprising; but why is the shadow correspond-
ing to the light of the candle, and which is illuminated
by no other light than the apparently white light of the
heavens, due? I at first thought that it might arise
from the blueness of the sky; but finding that the
broad daylight, reflected from the roof of a neighbour-
ing house covered with the whitest new-fallen snow,
produced the same blue colour, and if possible of a still
more beautiful tint, I was obliged to abandon that
opinion. . ;

To ascertain with some degree of precision the veal
colour of the light emitted by a candle, I placed a
lighted wax candle, well trimmed, in the open air, at
mid-day, at a time when the ground was deeply cov-
ered with new-fallen snow, and the heavens were over-
spread with white clouds; when the flame of the
candle, far from being white, as it appears to be when
viewed by night, was evidently of a very decided yellow
colour, not even approaching to whiteness.

The flame of an Argand’s lamp, exposed at the same
time in the open air, appeared to be of the same yellow
hue. But the most striking manner of showing. the
yellow hue of the light emitted by lamps and candles
is by exposing them in the direct rays of a bright
meridian sun. In that situation, the flame of an
to permit my paper to go forth into the world in its original state. I conceived
that it would show, in a very striking manner, if not the advantages which
sometimes result from forgetting what we have read, at least the very great
importance of preserving the mind totally unbiassed by the speculative opinions
of others when we are in search of truth.

An ardent lover of science will not hesita e to expose himself to personal

danger, when he perceives that by so doing he has a chance of promoting useful
investigation,

on Coloured Shadows. 55

Argand’s lamp, burning with its greatest brilliancy,
appears in the form of a dead yellow semi-transparent _
smoke. How transcendently pure and inconceivably
bright the rays of the sun are, when compared to the
light of any of our artificial illuminators, may be
gathered from the result of this experiment!

It appearing to me very probable that the difference
wm the whiteness of the two kinds of light which were
the subjects of the foregoing experiments might, some-
how or other, be the occasion of the afferent colours of
the shadows, 1 attempted to produce the same effects
by employing two artificial lights of different colours ;
and in this I succeeded completely.

In a room previously darkened, the light Suet two
burning wax candles being made to fall upon the white
paper at a proper angle in order to form two distinct
shadows of the cylinder, these shadows were found not
to be in the least coloured; but upon interposing a
pane of yellow glass, approaching to a faint orange
colour, before one of the candles, one of the shadows
immediately became ye//ow and the other due.

When two Argand’s lamps were made use of instead
of the candles, the result was the same: the shadows
were constantly and very deeply coloured, the one
yellow approaching to orange, and the other blue
approaching to green. I imagined that the greenish
cast of this blue coloun was owing either to the want
of whiteness of the one light, or to the orange hue of
the other, which it acquired from the glass. .

When equal panes of the same yellow glass were
interposed before doth the lights, the white paper took
an orange hue, but the shadows were to all appearance
without the least tinge of colour; but two panes of the

56 Account of some Experiments

yellow glass being afterwards interposed before one of
the lights, while only ove pane remained before the
other, the colours of the shadows immediately re-
turned.

The results of these experiments having confirmed
my suspicions that the colours of the shadows arose
from the different degrees of whiteness of the two
lights, I now endeavoured, by bringing daylight to be
of the same yellow tinge with candlelight, by the
interposition of sheets of coloured glass, to prevent
the shadows being coloured when daylight and candle-
light were together the subjects of the experiment;
and in this I succeeded. I was even able to reverse
the colours of the shadows, by causing the daylight to
be of a deeper yellow than the candlelight.

In the course of these experiments, I observed that
different shades of yellow, given to the daylight, pro-
duced very different and often quite unexpected
effects: thus one sheet of the yellow glass, interposed
before the beam of daylight, changed the yellow
shadow to a lively violet colour, and the blue shadow
to a light green; two sheets of the same glass nearly
destroyed the colours of both the shadows; and three
sheets changed the shadow which was originally yel-
low to blue, and that which was blue to a purplish
yellow colour.

When the beam of daylight was made to pass
through a sheet of blue glass, the colours of the shad-
ows — the yellow-as well as the blue— were improved
and rendered in the highest degree clear and brilliant;
but, when the blue glass was placed before the candle,
the colours of the shadows were very much impaired.

In order to see what would be the consequence of

ee Ge Se ne 2

on Coloured Shadows. 57

rendering the candlelight of a still deeper yellow, I
interposed before it a sheet of yellow or rather orange-
coloured glass. when a very unexpected and most
beautiful appearance took place: the colour of the
_ yellow shadow was changed to orange,—the blue
shadow remained unchanged, — and the whole surface
of the paper not covered by the shadows appeared to be
tinged of a most beautiful violet colour, approaching to
a light crimson or pink, — almost exactly the same hue
as I have often observed the distant snowy mountains
and valleys of the Alps to take about sunset.

Is it not more than probable that this hue is, in both
cases, produced by nearly the same combinations of
coloured light? In the one case, it is the white snow
illuminated at the same time by the purest light of the
heavens and by the deep yellow rays from the west;
and in the other, it is the white paper illuminated
by broad daylight and by the rays from a burning
candle, rendered still more yellow by being transmitted
through the yellow glass.

The beautiful violet colour which spreads itself over
the surface of the paper will appear to the greatest
advantage, if the pane of orange-coloured glass be held
in such a manner before the candle that only a part
of the paper — half of it, for instance —be affected by
it, the other half of it remaining white.

To make these experiments with more convenience,
the paper, which may be about 8 or 10 inches square,
should be pasted or glued down upon a flat piece of
board, furnished with a ball and socket upon the
hinder side of it, and mounted upon a stand; and the
cylinder should be fastened to a small arm of wood or
of metal, projecting forward from the bottom of the

58 Account of some Experiments

board for that purpose. A small stand, capable of
being made higher or lower, as the occasion requires,
should likewise be provided for supporting the candle;
and, if the board with the paper fastened upon it be
surrounded with a broad black frame, the experiments
will be so much the more striking and beautiful. For
still greater convenience, I have added two other
stands, for holding the coloured glass through which
the light is occasionally made to pass, in its way to the
white surface upon which the shadows are projected.
It will be hardly necessary to add that, in order to the
experiments appearing to the greatest advantage, all
light which is not absolutely necessary to the experi-
ment must be carefully excluded.

Having fitted up a little apparatus according to the
above directions, merely for the purpose of prosecuting
these inquiries respecting the coloured shadows, I pro-
ceeded to make a great variety of experiments, — some
with pointed views, and others quite at random, and
merely in hopes of making some accidental discovery
that might lead to a knowledge of the causes of appear-
ances, which still seemed to me to be enveloped in
much obscurity and uncertainty.

Having found that the shadows corresponding to
two like wax candles were coloured, the one blue and
the other yellow, by interposing a sheet of yellow glass
before one of them, I now tried what the effect would
be when 4/we glass was made use of instead of yellow,
and I found it to be the same: the shadows were still
coloured, the one blue and the other yellow, with this
difference however, that the colours of the shadows
were reversed ; that which, with the yellow glass, was
before yellow, being now blue, and that which was blue
being yellow.

on Coloured Shadows. 59

I afterwards tried a glass of a bright amethyst
colour, and was surprised to find that the shadows
still continued to be coloured blue and yellow. The
yellow, it is true, had a dirty purple cast; but the blue,
though a little inclining to green, was nevertheless a
clean, bright, decided colour. .

Having no other coloured glass at hand to push
these particular inquiries farther, I now removed the
candles, and opening two holes in the upper parts of
the window-shutters of two neighbouring windows, I
let into the room, from above, two beams of light from
different parts of the heavens; and, placing the instru-
ment in such a manner that two distinct shadows were
projected by the cylinder upon the paper, I was enter-
tained by a succession of very amusing appearances.

The shadows were tinged with an infinite variety of
the most unexpected and often most beautiful colours,
which continually varying, sometimes slowly and
sometimes with inconceivable rapidity, absolutely fas-
cinated the eyes, and, commanding the most eager
attention, afforded an enjoyment as new as it was
bewitching. |

It was a windy day, with flying clouds, and it seemed
as if every cloud that passed brought with it another
complete succession of varying hues and most harmo-
nious tints. If any colour could be said to predominate,
it was purples; but all the varieties of browns, and
almost all the other colours I ever remembered to have
seen, appeared in their turns, and’ there were even
colours which seemed to me to be perfectly new.

Reflecting upon the great variety of colours ob-
served in these last experiments, many of which did
not appear to have the least relation to the apparent

60 Account of some Experiments

colours of the light by which they were produced, I
began to suspect that the colours of the shadows
might in many cases, notwithstanding their apparent
brilliancy, be merely an optical deception, owing to
contrast or to some effect of the other vea/ and neigh-
bouring colours upon the eye.

To determine this fact by a direct experiment, I
proceeded in the following manner. Having, by mak-
ing use of a flat ruler instead of the cylinder, contrived
to render the shadows much broader, I shut out of the
room every ray of daylight, and prepared to make the
experiment with two Argand’s lamps, well trimmed,
and which were both made to burn with the greatest
possible brilliancy; and having assured myself that the
light they emitted was precisely of the same colour, by
the shadows being pefectly colourless which were pro-
jected upon the white paper, I directed a tube of about
12 inches long and near an inch in diameter, lined
with black paper, against the centre of one of the
broad shadows; and looking through this tube with
one eye, while the other was closed, I kept my atten-
tion fixed upon the shadow, while an assistant repeat-
edly interposed a sheet of yellow glass before the lamp
whose light corresponded to the shadow I observed,
and as often removed it.

The result of the experiment was very striking, and
fully confirmed my suspicions with respect to the fal-
lacy of many of the appearances in the foregoing ex-
periments.

So far from being able to observe any change in the
shadow upon which my eye was fixed, I was not able
even to tell when the yellow glass was before the lamp
and when it was not; and, though the assistant often

ae: oe ee

on Coloured Shadows. 61

exclaimed at the striking brilliancy and beauty of the
blue colour of the very shadow I was observing, I
could not discover in it the least appearance of any
colour at all. But as soon as I removed my eye from
the tube, and contemplated the shadow with all its
neighbouring accompaniments, — the other shadow
rendered really yellow by the effect of the yellow glass
and the white paper, which had likewise from the
same cause acquired a yellowish hue,—the shadow
in question appeared to me, as it did to my assistant,
of a beautiful blue colour.

I afterwards repeated the same experiment with the
apparently blue shadow produced in the experiment
with daylight and candlelight, and with exactly the
same result.

How far these experiments may enable us to ac-
count for the apparent blue colour of the sky and the
great variety of colours which frequently adorn the
clouds, as also what other useful observations may be
drawn from them, I leave to philosophers, opticians,
and painters to determine. In the mean time I be-
lieve it is a new discovery —at least it is undoubtedly
a very extraordinary fact—that our eyes are not al-
ways to be believed, even with respect to the presence
or absence of colours.

I cannot finish this paper without mentioning one
circumstance, which struck me very forcibly in all
these experiments upon coloured shadows,— and that
is, the most perfect harmony which always appeared to
subsist between the colours — whatever they were — of
the two shadows; and this harmony seemed to me to
be full as perfect and pleasing when the shadows were
of different tints of brown as when one of them was
blue and the other yellow. In short, the harmony of

62 Experiments on Coloured Shadows.

these colours was in all cases not only very striking,
but the appearances altogether were quite enchanting;
and I never found anybody to whom I showed these
experiments whose eyes were not fascinated with them.
It is, however, more than probable that a great part of
the pleasure which these experiments afforded to the
spectators arose from the continual changes of colour,
tint, and shade with which the eye was amused and
the attention kept awake.

We are used to seeing colours fixed and unalterable,
—hard as the solid bodies from which they come,
and just as motionless,— consequently dead, uninter-
esting, and tiresome to the eye; but in these experi-
ments all is mo¢zon, life, and beauty.

It appears to me very probable that a further prose-
cution of these experiments upon coloured shadows
may not only lead to a knowledge of the veal nature of
the harmony of colours, or the peculiar circumstances
upon which that harmony depends, but that it may
also enable us to construct instruments for producing
that harmony for the entertainment of. the eyes, in a
manner similar to that in which the ears are enter-
tained by musical sounds. I know that attempts have
already been made for that purpose ; but, when I con-
sider the means employed, I am not surprised that they
did not succeed. Where the flowing tide, the vary-
ing swell, the crescendo is wanting, colours must ever
remain hard, cold, and inanimate masses.

I am very sorry that my more serious occupations
do not at present permit me to pursue these most
entertaining inquiries. Perhaps at some future period
I may find leisure to resume them. 3

[This paper is printed from Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. 1.,
pp. 318-332-]

i
j

CONJECTURES

RESPECTING THE

PRINCIPLES OF THE HARMONY OF COLOURS.

CONJECTURES RESPECTING THE PRINCIPLES
OF THE HARMONY OF COLOURS.

INCE the foregoing paper was written, I have at
different times repeated most of the experiments
therein described, and have made a variety of others,
with a view to the farther investigation of this curious
subject; and from the results of these inquiries I have
been enabled to form some conclusions and conjectures
which may perhaps be thought not altogether uninter-
esting.

Whenever a beam of coloured light of any species,
and a beam of whzte or colourless light of equal in-
tensity, arriving in different directions and at equal
angles of incidence at a plane white surface, illuminate
that surface together, if a solid opaque body of any
kind be placed in each of these beams of light, just
before the illuminated plane, in such a manner that
the two shadows cast on the plane by these opaque
bodies may be near each other, the intensities of these
shadows will be equal, and they will both appear to be
coloured, but of very different hues. That which is
illuminated by the coloured light will be of the colour
of that light,—which is what would naturally be ex-
pected to happen by a person who had never seen the
experiment,— but that which is illuminated by the
colourless light, and by that alone, instead of appearing

VOL. IV. 5

66 Conjectures ‘respecting the Principles

colourless, will appear to be as deeply coloured as the
other, but of a different hue.

The two colours exhibited by the two shadows
appear in all cases to harmonize in the most perfect
manner, or, in other words, to afford the most pleas-
ing contrast to the view.

These two colours are always such that, if they
could be intimately mixed together, the result of that
mixture would be perfect whiteness; and, as whiteness
results from the mixture of all the different colours in
certain proportions, the two shadows may be considered,
as containing all the colours in their just proportions,
and the colour of the one shadow may with propriety
be said to be the complement of the other.

Two neighbouring colours are then, and only then,
in perfect harmony when the intimate mixture of both
would produce perfect whiteness; and hence it appears
that, when two colours harmonize, one of them at least
must necessarily be a compound colour.

In the experiment of the coloured shadows, the
colour exhibited by one of the shadows only is real,
that of the other is emagznary, being an optical decep-
tion, occasioned in some way unknown to us by the
colour actually present and by the effects of the differ-
ent lights and shades. The zmaginary colour, which
may be said to be called up im the mind by the other
veal colour, does not, however, appear to be at all in-
ferior to the real colour either in lustre or in the
distinctness of its hue.

Any two harmonizing coloured shadows may be
produced indifferently, either with one of the given
colours, or with the other of them and white light:
pink and green, for instance, are harmonizing ‘colours ;

of the Harmony of Colours. 67

and two shadows of these two colours, equally bright,

may be produced either with a beam of pink-coloured ~
- light, or with a beam of green light, crossed by a beam
of white light, according to the method above de-
scribed. |

A beam of coloured light may readily be produced
for making these experiments by causing white light
to pass through coloured glass or any other coloured
transparent substance.

To every colour without exception, whatever may be
its hue or shade, or however it may be compounded,
there is another in perfect harmony to it, which is its
complement, and may be said to be its companion: It
may be called up and exhibited to view in the follow-
ing manner. Let white light be made to pass through
the coloured body, or, if it be opaque, let it be re-
flected from it: with this light so coloured, and with
pure white light, make the experiment of the two
shadows, and the colour in question will appear wth
ats companion by tts side.

By experiments of this kind, which might easily be
made, ladies may choose ribbons to their gowns; or
those who furnish rooms may arrange their colours
upon principles of the most perfect harmony and of
the purest taste.

The advantages that painters might derive from a
knowledge of these principles of the harmony of
colours are too obvious to require illustration.

Upon a careful examination of the works of the —
great masters of the art of colouring, it will appear
that they have frequently practised upon these princi-
ples, though it is not likely that they were acquainted
with the scientific foundation of their practice. They

68 Conjectures respectin e the Principles

have certainly produced appearances of colours or
tints, when their pictures are viewed in a proper light
and at a proper distance, which we search for in vain
upon the canvas. This may well be called the “smagze -
of colouring ;” for it is in fact calling up, as by en-
chantment, and presenting to the mind colours the
most pure and vivid, which have no real existence.
. As it might very naturally be suspected that the
colours called up by means of shadows owe their exist-
ence to something peculiar to shadows, and that similar
effects could not be produced without shadows, by
means of coloured pigments, to remove all doubts on
that subject, I made the following decisive experiment.
Having found that when a beam of deep red light and
a beam of white or colourless light, of equal intensity,
arrive in different directions at a plane white surface,
and illuminate it, that a blue shadow, nearly approach-
ing to green, is called up by the red shadow, I attempted
to imitate this experiment with a coloured pigment.
On the middle of the floor of a spacious room I
laid down a very large sheet of black paper, and on
the middle of this I placed a circular piece of crayon
paper, which, in order that it might supply the place
of the illuminated plane surface on which the shadows
were projected in my experiments, I covered or col-
oured it with such a mixture of red lead (sezzum) and
pure white lead, both finely powdered and well mixed
together as brought it to be of the same tint, as nearly
as possible, with the surface illuminated by the red and
by the white light. I then took two oblong slips of
crayon paper, half an inch wide and two inches long
each: then, colouring one of them as highly as possi-
ble with red lead, in a dry powder, and covering the

rey | Se oe eT

of the Harmony of Colours. 69

other with a powder composed of white lead and lamp-
black, in such proportions that the quantities of light
reflected from the two slips so prepared should be
equal, I placed these slips in contact with each other,
in the middle of the circular piece of paper on the
floor; when retiring backwards a few steps, and look-
ing through my hand with one eye, to exclude all
other objects, I had the pleasure to perceive that the
slip of paper which was covered with a gray powder
now appeared to be of a beautiful greenish blue colour,
while the other was of the most vivid red.

This experiment was first made at an inn at Flor-
ence, in the year 1793; and in order that I might
assure myself that my expectations had not deceived
me, by imposing upon my senses, I called two of my
friends who happened to lodge in the house (Lord and
Lady Palmerston) into the room, and without letting
them into the secret simply asked them, with a feigned
air of indifference, which of the two colours they saw
in the centre of the circular piece of paper on the floor
they thought the brightest.

After looking at them for some time, and going
round to view them from different sides, one of them
answered: “I don’t know which of them is the bright-
est. The red is very bright, and so is the blue. But
why do you ask us that question?”

When I told them there was no blue there, and that
what they took to be blue was merely a deception, they
did not believe me; but they were much surprised, and _
convinced that what I told them was true, when they

saw on my removing the red slip that its companion,

which was left behind, instantly faded and dost tts
colour.

70 Conjectures respecting the Principles

In attempts to call up colours in this way, many
precautions are necessary, to which the most scrupu-
lous attention must be paid, otherwise the experiments
will not succeed. Care must be taken to exclude all
coloured light in illuminating the slips of paper; and, in
preparing that slip which is designed for exhibiting the
tmaginary colour, the quantities of black and of white
powder that are mixed must be so adjusted to each
other that, when the surface of the slip is covered with
it, the guantity of light reflected from it to the spec-
tator’s eye must be precisely equal to that reflected
from the surface of the other coloured slip, for this
equality is essential to the purity and brilliancy of the
colour called up. But this equality can only be found
by actual trials with several slips of deeper and lighter
shades. That slip which takes the clearest and bright-
est colour is to be chosen.

When experiments of this kind are attempted to be
made with oil colours, other and still greater difficul-
ties will occur; for the oil used for fixing: the colours
diminishes in so great a degree both the brilliancy
and the purity of the light reflected from the surfaces
of coloured pigments that the light reflected from an
oil painting cannot be expected to produce the same
brilliant appearances which are exhibited by the mix-
tures and contrasts of the uncontaminated and brilliant
colours of pure light.

But although it may be impossible for painters, with
their imperfect colours, to produce effects that will bear
a close comparison with those magic appearances of
which we have been giving an account, yet there can
be no doubt but that the knowledge of those facts, and
of the theory by which they are explained, may be very
useful to them.

of the Harmony of Colours. 71

The impossibility of producing perfect whiteness by
any mixture of painters’ colours is a proof of the want
of purity of those colours, and of the difficulty of imitat-
ing by means of them any of those very striking
effects which are exhibited in experiments with the
pure prismatic colours. -

There is one most important advantage which paint-
ers may certainly derive from a knowledge of the prin-
ciples of the harmony of colours: it will enable them,
on sound philosophical principles, to contrast their
colours in such a manner as to give to their pictures, or
rather to what they choose to make the prominent parts
of them, a great degree of force and brilliancy. For, if
any and every simple and compound colour has such
a power on objects near it as to cause a neighbouring
colourlesss shadow to assume the appearance of a
colour, there can be no doubt but that if, instead of
the shadow a veal colour, nearly of the same tint and
shade as that so called up, be substituted in its place,
this colour will appear to great advantage, or will as-
sume an uncommon degree of strength and brightness.

The science of painting is a most curious and _inter-
esting subject of philosophical investigation; and until
it is more cultivated the art of colouring must continue
to be very obscure, uncertain, and imperfect. Genius
will be condemned to waste its energy in tedious me-
chanical experiments, instead of being employed, as it
ought to be, in tracing with a rapid pencil the beau-
tiful conception of a sublime imagination.

[This paper is printed from Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. L,
PP. 333-349-]

Ber Ai eee ayer) oe ee ae

AN INQUIRY

- CONCERNING THE
!

HEMICAL PROPERTIES THAT HAVE

: ATTRIBUTED TO LIGHT.

AN INQUIRY

CONCERNING THE

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES THAT HAVE BEEN
| ATTRIBUTED TO LIGHT.

[* the second part of my Seventh Essay (on the

Propagation of Heat in Fluids) I have mentioned
the reasons which had induced me to doubt of the
existence of those chemical properties in light that
have been attributed to it, and to conclude that all
those visible changes which are produced in bodies by
exposure to the action of the sun’s rays are effected,
not by any chemical combination of the matter of light
with such bodies, but merely by the heat which is gen-
erated or excited by the light that is absorbed by
them.

As the decision of this question is a matter of great
importance to the advancement of science, and par-
ticularly to chemistry, and as the subject is in many
respects curious and interesting, it has often employed
my thoughts in my leisure hours; and I have spent
much time in endeavouring to contrive experiments,
from the unequivocal results of which the truth might |
be made to appear. Though I have not been so suc-
cessful in these investigations as I could wish, yet I
cannot help flattering myself that an account of the
results of some of my late experiments will be thought

76 An Inquiry concerning the

sufficiently curious and interesting to merit the atten-
tion of those who take pleasure in the cultivation of
experimental philosophy.

Having found that gold or silver might be melted
by the heat (invisible to the sight) which exists in the
air, at the distance of more than an inch above the
point of the flame of a wax candle (see my Seventh
Essay, Part II.,- page 350*), I was curious to know
what effect this heat would produce on the oxides of
those metals.

Experiment No. 1.— Having evaporated to dryness
a solution of fine gold in nitro-muriatic acid, I dis-
solved the residuum in just as much distilled water as
was necessary in order that the solution (which was
of a beautiful yellow colour) might not be disposed to
crystallize; and wetting the middle of a piece of white
taffeta ribbon, 14 inch wide and about 8 inches long,

in this solution, I held the ribbon (with both my hands):

stretched horizontally over the clear, bright flame of a
wax candle; the under side of the ribbon being kept
at the distance of about 14 inch above the point of the
flame. The result of this experiment was very striking.
That part of the ribbon which was directly over the
point of the flame began almost immediately to emit
steam in dense clouds; and in about 10 seconds, a circu-
lar spot about 3 of an inch in diameter having become
nearly dry, a spot of a very fine purple colour, approach-
ing to crimson, suddenly made its appearance in the
middle of it, and spreading rapidly on all sides became,
in one or two seconds more, nearly an inch in diameter.

By moving the ribbon, so as to bring in their turns
all the parts of it which had been wetted with the solu-

* See Vol. I., page 370.

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 77

tion to be exposed to the action of the current of hot
vapour that arose from the burning candle, all those
parts which had been so wetted were tinged with the
same beautiful purple colour.

This colour, which was uncommonly brilliant, passed
quite through the ribbon; and I found the stain to be
perfectly indelible. I endeavoured to wash it out; but
nothing I applied to it appeared in the smallest degree
to diminish its lustre. The hue was not uniform, but
varied from a light crimson to a very deep purple,
approaching to a reddish brown.

I searched but in vain for traces of revived gold in
its reguline form and colour; but, though I could not
perceive that the ribbon was gilded, it had all the
appearance of being covered with a thin coating of the
most beautiful purple enamel, which in the sun had a
degree of brilliancy that was sometimes quite dazzling.

Experiment No, 2,.— A piece of the ribbon which
had been wetted with the aqueous solution of the oxide
was carefully dried in a dark closet, and was then
exposed dry over the flame of a burning wax candle.
The part of the ribbon which had been wetted with the
solution (and which on drying had acquired a faint
yellow colour) was tinged of the same bright purple
' colour as was produced in the last-mentioned experi-
ment, when the ribbon was exposed wet to the action
of the heat.*

Experiment No. 3.— A piece of the ribbon which
had been wetted with the solution, and dried in the
dark, was now wetted with distilled water and exposed
wet to the action of the ascending current of hot

* We shall hereafter find reason to conclude that the success of this experi-
ment, or the appearance of the purple tinge, was owing to the watery vapour
or steam which existed in the hot current of vapour that ascended from the
flame of the candle.

78 An Inquiry concerning the

vapour which arose from the burning candle: the
purple stain was produced as before, which extended as
far as the ribbon had been wetted with the solution,
but no farther.

I afterwards varied this experiment in several ways,
sometimes using paper, sometimes fine linen, and
sometimes fine cotton cloths, instead of the silk ribbon;
but nearly the same tinge was produced, whatever the
substance was that was made to imbibe the aqueous
solution of the metallic oxide.

Similar experiments and with similar results were
likewise made with pieces of ribbon, fine linen, cotton,
paper, etc., wetted in an aqueous solution of nitrate of
silver: with this difference, however, that the tinge
produced by this metallic oxide, instead of being of a
deep purple inclining to a crimson, was of a very dark
orange colour or rather of a yellowish brown.

In order to discover whether the purple tinge, in the
experiments with the oxide of gold, was occasioned by
the Aeat communicated by the ascending current of
hot vapour or by the 4gh¢ of the candle, | made the
following experiment, the result of which I conceive to
have been decisive: — |

Experiment No. 4.— A piece of ribbon was wetted
with the aqueous solution of the oxide of gold, and :
held vertically by the side of the clear flame of a burn-
ing wax candle, at the distance of less than half an
inch from the flame.

The ribbon was dried, but its colour was not in the
smallest degree changed.

When it was held a few seconds within about 4 of
an inch of the flame, a tinge of a most beautiful crim-
son colour, in the form of a narrow vertical stripe, was
produced.

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 79

The heat which existed at that distance from the
flame, oz the side of 7¢ where this coloured stripe was.
produced, was sufficiently intense, as I found by exper
iment, to melt very fine silver wire, flatted, such as is
used in making silver lace.

The objects I had in view in the following experi-
ments will be too evident to require any particular
explanation : —

Experiment No. 5.— Two like pieces of ribbon were
wetted at the same time in the solution, and suspended
while wet in two thin phials, A and B, of very trans-
parent and colourless glass, the mouths of the phials
being left open. Both these phials were placed in a
window which fronted the south; that distinguished
by the letter A being exposed naked to the direct rays
of a bright sun, while B was enclosed in a cylinder of
pasteboard, painted black within and without, and
closed with a fit cover, and consequently remained
in perfect darkness.

In a few minutes, the ribbon in the phial A began
sensibly to change its colour, and to take a purple hue;
and at the end of five hours it had acquired a deep
crimson tint throughout.

The phial B was exposed in the window, in its dark
cylindrical cover, three days; but there was not the
smallest appearance of any change of colour in the
silk.

Experiment No. 6.— Two small parcels of magnesza
alba, in an impalpable powder (about half as much in
each as could be made to lie on a shilling), were placed
in heaps in two china plates, A and B, and thoroughly
moistened with the before-mentioned aqueous solution
of the oxide of gold. Both plates were placed in the

80 An Ingiiiry concerning the

same window; the moistened earth in the plate A
being exposed naked to the sun’s rays, while that in
the plate B was exactly covered with a teacup, turned
upside down, which excluded all light.

The magnesia alba in the plate A, which was ex-
posed to the strong light of the sun, began almost
immediately to change colour, taking a faint violet
hue, which by degrees became more and more intense,
and in a few hours ended in a deep purple; while that
in the plate B, which was kept in the dark, retained the
yellowish cast it had acquired from the solution, with-
out the smallest appearance of change.

Experiment No. 7.— A small parcel of magnesia
alba placed on a china plate, having been moistened
with the aqueous solution of the oxide of gold, and
thoroughly dried in a dark closet, was now exposed,
in this dry state, to the action of the direct rays of a
very bright sun.

It had been exposed to this strong light above half
an hour, before its colour began to be senszbly changed ;
and at the end of three hours it had acquired only a
very faint violet hue. :

Being now thoroughly wetted with distilled water, it
changed colour very rapidly, and soon came to be of a
deep purple tint, approaching to crimson.

Experiment No. 8.— A piece of white taffeta ribbon,
which had been wetted with the solution, and thor-
oughly dried in the dark, was suspended in a clean dry
phial of very fine transparent glass; and the phial,
being well stopped with a dry cork, was exposed to
the strong light of a bright sun.

After the ribbon had been exposed in this manner
to the action of the sun’s direct rays about half an

Dpae ie

7 eS ae * eT

a a ee a A a i ee
- : i r aus . ¢ ,

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 81

hour, there were here and there some faint appear-
ances of a change of its colour; but it showed no dis- —
position to take that deep purple hue which the ribbon
had always acquired, when exposed to the light in the
preceding experiments. |
On taking the ribbon out of the phial, and wetting
it thoroughly with distilled water, and exposing it
again whzle thus wetted to the sun’s rays, it almost
instantaneously began to change colour, and soon be-
came of a deep purple tint; but, though I examined
the surface of the ribbon with the utmost care and
with a good lens, both during the experiment and
after it, I could not perceive the smallest particle of
revived gold, nor did I see any vestige remaining that
appeared to indicate that any had in fact been revived.
This experiment was repeated several times, and
always with results which led me to conclude (what
indeed was reasonable to expect) that light has little
effect in changing the colour of metallic oxides, as long
as they are in a state of crystallization.
The heat which is generated by the absorption of
the rays of light must necessarily, at the moment of
tts generation at least, exist in almost infinitely small
spaces; and consequently it is only in bodies that are
enconcervably small that it can produce durable effects
in any degree indicative of its extreme intensity.
Perhaps the particles of the oxide of gold dissolved
in water are of such dimensions; and it is very re-
markable that the colours produced in some of my
experiments on white ribbons, by means of an aqueous
solution of the oxide of gold, are precisely the same as
are produced from the oxide of that metal by enamel-

lers, in the intense heat of their furnaces.
VOL. IV. 6

82 An Inguiry concerning the

As the colouring substance is the same, and as the
colours produced are the same, why should we not
~conclude that the effects are produced in both these
cases by the same means,—that is to say, by the
agency of heat? or, in other words, and to be more ex-
plicit, by exposing the oxide in a certain temperature,
at which it becomes disposed to vitrify or to undergo a
change in regard to the quantity of oxygen with which
it is combined ?

But the results of the following experiments afford
still more satisfactory information respecting the in-
tensity of the heat generated in all cases where light is
absorbed, and the striking effects which under certain
circumstances it is capable of producing,

The facility with which most of the metallic oxides
are reduced, in the dry way, by means of charcoal,
shows that, at a certain (high) temperature, oxygen is
disposed to quit those metals, in order to form a chem-
ical union with the charcoal, or at least with some
‘one of its constituent principles, if it be a compound
substance; and hence I| concluded that gold might be
revived. zz the moist way, by means of charcoal, from
a solution of its oxide in water, were it possible under
such circumstances to communicate to the charcoal
and to the oxide at the same time a degree of heat
sufficient for that purpose.

To see if this might not be done by means of light,
I made, or rather repeated, the following very interest-
ing experiment : — .

Experiment No. 9.—Into a thin tube of very fine
colourless glass, ro inches long and 35 of an inch in
diameter, closed hermetically at its lower end, I put as
many pieces of charcoal, about the size of large peas,

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 83

as filled the tube to the height of two inches; and,
having poured on them as much of the aqueous solu-
tion of nitro-muriate of gold as nearly covered them,
exposed the tube, with its contents, to the action of
the direct rays of a very bright sun.

In less than half an hour, small specks of revived
gold, in all its metallic splendour, began to make their
appearance here and there on the surface of the char-
coal; and in six hours the solution, which at first was
of a bright yellow colour, became perfectly colourless,
AND AS CLEAR AND TRANSPARENT AS THE PUREST WATER.

The surface of the charcoal was in several places
nearly covered with small particles of revived gold;
and the inside of the glass tube, in that part where it
was in contact with the upper surface of the contained
liquid, was most beautifully gilded.

This gilding of the tube was very splendid, when
viewed by reflected light; but, when the tube was
placed between the light and the eye, it appeared like
a thin cloud, of a greenish blue colour, without the
smallest appearance of any metallic splendour.

From the colour and apparent density of this cloud,
I was induced to conclude that the gilding on the
glass was less than ove mzlhonth part of an inch in
thickness.

This interesting experiment was repeated six times,
and always with nearly the same result. The gold was
completely revived in each of them, and the solution
left perfectly colourless: in most of the experiments,
however, the sides of the glass were not gilded, all the
revived gold remaining attached to the surface of the
charcoal,

In two of these experiments, I made use of pieces

84 An Inquiry concerning the

of charcoal which had been previously boiled several
hours in a large quantity of distilled water, and which
were introduced we¢ and /o¢ into the tube, and imme-
diately covered by the solution, to prevent them from
imbibing any air; and in different experiments the.
solution was used of different degrees of strength.

I plainly perceived that the experiment succeeded
best —that is to say, that the gold’ was soonest revived
— in those cases in which the solution was most diluted:
one of the experiments, however, and which succeeded
perfectly, was made with the solution so much con-
densed that it was nearly at the point at which it
became disposed to crystallize.*

On examining with a good microscope the particles
of revived gold which remained attached to the surface
of the charcoal after it had been dried, I found them
to consist of an infinite number of small scales, sepa-
rated from each other, not very highly polished, but
possessing the true metallic splendour, and a very deep
and rich gold colour.

The gold which attached itself to the inside of the
glass tube was in the form of a ring, about 7/y of an
inch wide (badly defined, however, below), and adhered
to the glass with so much obstinacy as not to be re-
moved by rinsing out the tube a great number of
times with water. It had, as has already been observed,
a very high polish, when seen by reflected light.

Those who enter into the spirit of these investiga-
tions will easily imagine how impatient I must have

* This agrees perfectly with the results of similar experiments made by the
ingenious and lively Mrs. Fulhame. (See her Essay on Combustion, page 124.)

It was on reading her book that I was induced to engage in these investiga-
tions ; and it was by her experiments that most of the foregoing experiments
were suggested.

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 85

been, after seeing the results of these experiments, to
find out whether gold could be revived from this aque-
ous solution of its oxide by means of charcoal, wzthout
the assistance of light, and merely by such a degree of
equal heat as could be given to it in the dark. To
determine that important question, the following ex-
periment was made : — .

Experiment No. 10.—A cylindrical glass tube, 3 of
an inch in diameter and 1o inches long, closed her-
metically at its lower end, and containing a quantity
of a diluted aqueous solution of the oxide of gold
mixed with charcoal in broken pieces, about the size of
large peas, was put into a fit cylindrical tin case, which
was nicely closed with a fit cover; and the glass tube,
with its contents so shut up in the dark, was exposed
two hours in the temperature of 210° of Fahrenheit’s
scale.

On taking the glass tube out of its tin case, I found
the solution perfectly colourless, and the revived gold
adhering to the surface of the charcoal.

On repeating the experiment, and using the solution
nearly saturated with the oxide, the result was precisely’
the same; the solution being found perfectly colour-
less, and the revived gold adhering to the surface of
the charcoal.

I own fairly that the results of these last experi-
ments were quite contrary to my expectations, and
that I am not able to reconcile them with my hypothe-
sis respecting the causes of the reduction of the oxide,
in the foregoing experiments; but, whatever may be
the fate of this or of any other hypothesis of mine, I
hope and trust that I never shall be so weak as to feel
pain at the discovery of truth, however contrary it may

86 An Inquiry concerning the

be to my expectations; and still less to feel a secret
wish to suppress experiments, merely because their
results militate against my speculative opinions.

It is proper I should observe that the charcoal used
in this last-mentioned experiment had been boiled two
hours in distilled water, by which means its pores had
been so completely filled with that fluid that the pieces
of it that were used were specifically heavier than water,
and sunk in it to the bottom of the containing vessel,

Having been so successful in my attempts to reduce
the oxide of gold by means of charcoal, zz the moist
way, I lost no time in making similar experiments with
the oxide of silver.

Experiment No. 11.—A solution of fine silver in
nitrous acid was evaporated to dryness, and the re-
siduum dissolved in distilled water.

A portion of this solution (which was perfectly col-
ourless), diluted with twice as much distilled water, was
poured into a phial containing a number of small
pieces of charcoal; and the phial, being well closed
with a new cork stopple, was exposed. to the action of
the sun’s rays.

In less than an hour small specks of revived silver
began to make their appearance on the surface of the
charcoal; and at the end of two hours these specks
became very numerous, and had increased so much in
size that they were distinctly visible to the naked eye
at the distance of more than three feet. They were
very white, and possessed the metallic splendour of
silver in so high a degree that, when enlightened by
the sun’s beams, their lustre was nearly equal to that
of very small diamonds,

The phial, which was in the form of a pear, and

mec ae

r “THEN f w 4

RS ee ee ee a ee

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 87

about 13 inch in diameter at its bulb, was very thin,
and made of very fine colourless glass; the aqueous
solution was also perfectly transparent and colourless;
and, when the contents of the phial were illuminated by
the direct rays of a bright sun, the contrast of the
white colour of these little metallic spangles with the
black charcoal to which they were fixed, and their
extreme brilliancy afforded a very beautiful and inter-
esting sight.

As the air had been previously expelled from the
charcoal by boiling it in distilled water, it was specifi-
cally heavier than the aqueous solution of the metallic
oxide, and consequently remained at the bottom of the
bottle.

Experiment No. 12.— A phial as nearly as possible
like that used in the last experiment, and containing
the same quantity of diluted aqueous solution of nitrate
of silver and also of charcoal, was enclosed in a cylin-
drical tin box, and exposed one hour to the heat of
boiling water, in an apparatus used for boiling vegeta-
bles in steam for the table.

The result of this experiment was uncommonly
striking. The surface of the charcoal was covered
with a most beautiful metallic vegetation ; small fila-
ments of revived silver, resembling fine flatted silver
wire, pushing out from its surface in all directions!

.Some of these metallic filaments were above one
tenth of an inch in length. On agitating the contents
of the phial, they were easily detached from the surface
of the charcoal, to which they seemed to adhere but
very slightly.

These experiments were repeated several times, and
always with precisely the same results.

88 An Inguiry concerning the

When the oxide of gold was reduced in this way,
the revived metal appeared under the form of small
scales, adhering firmly to the surface of the charcoal,
as has already been observed.

The following experiments, which were first sug-
gested by an accident, were made with a view to inves-
tigate still farther the causes of those effects which —
have been attributed to the supposed chemical prop-
erties of light.

Having accidentally put away two small phials, each
containing a quantity of aqueous solution of the oxide
of gold and sulphuric ether, in each of which the ether
had extracted the gold completely from the solution, as
was evident by the yellow colour of the solution hav-
ing been transferred to the ether, and the solution
being left colourless, —in one of the phials which-hap-
pened to stand in a window, in which there was occa-
sionally a strong light (though the direct rays of the
sun never fell upon it), I found, in about three weeks, ;
the oxide of gold was almost entirely reduced; the
revived gold, appearing in all its metallic splendour in
the form of a thin pellicle, swimming on the surface of
the aqueous liquor in the phial, and the colour of the
ether which reposed on it having become quite faint;
while no visible change had been produced in the
contents of the other phial, which had stood in a dark
corner of the room. '

As these appearances induced me to suspect, or
rather strengthened the suspicions I had before con-
ceived, that the separation of gold from ether under its
metallic form, when a solution of its oxide is mixed
with that fluid, is always effected by a reduction of the
oxide by means of light, I made the following experi-

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 89

ment, with a view to the farther investigation of that
matter : — :

Experiment No. 13.— Into a small pear-like phial, of
very fine transparent glass, I put equal quantities of
an aqueous solution, a crystallized oxide of gold, and
of sulphuric ether; and the phial, which was about
half filled, being closed with a good cork, well secured
in its place, was exposed to the action of the direct
rays of a bright sun.

A pellicle of revived gold in all its metallic splen-
dour began almost immediately to be formed on the
surface of the aqueous liquid, and soon covered it
entirely ; and at the end of two hours the whole of the
oxide was completely reduced, as was evident from the
appearance of the ether, which became Zerfectly col-
ourless.

On shaking the phial, the metallic pellicle which
. covered the surface of the aqueous liquid was broken
into small pieces, which had exactly the appearance of
leaf gold, possessing the true colour and all the metal-
lic brilliancy of that metal.

On suffering the phial to stand quiet, the aqueous
liquor and. the ether separated, and most of the broken
pieces of the thin sheet of gold descended to the
bottom of the phial. The remainder of them floated on
the surface of the aqueous liquid, and the ether as well
as the aqueous liquid appeared to be perfectly trans-
parent and colourless.

By the length of time which was required for the |
ether and the aqueous liquid to separate, I thought I
could perceive that the ether had lost something of
its fluidity; but, as this was an event I expected, it
is the more likely, on that account, that I was deceived,

90 An Inquiry concerning the

when I imagined I saw proofs of its having taken
place. . '

On removing the cork, after the contents of the
bottle had been suffered to cool, there was no appear-
ance of any considerable quantity of air, or other per-
manently elastic fluid, having been either generated or
absorbed during the experiment.

Finding that the oxide of gold might be so com-
pletely and so expeditiously reduced by means of
ether, I conceived it might be possible to perform that
chemical process 2 ¢he moist way, by means of essen-
tial oils; and this conjecture proved to be well founded.

Experiment No. 14.— Upon a quantity of a diluted
aqueous solution of nitro-muriate of gold, in a small
pear-like phial, about 1} inch in diameter at its bulb,
was poured a small quantity of ethereal oil of turpentine,
just as much as was sufficient to cover the aqueous
solution to the height of 7% of an inch; and the phial
being closed with a good cork, well secured in its place,
it was exposed one hour to the heat of boiling water in
a steam-vessel.

The gold was revived, appearing in the form of a
splendid pellicle of a bright gold colour, which floated
on the surface of the aqueous liquid. The oil of tur-
pentine, which at the beginning of the experiment was
as pale and colourless as pure water, had taken a bright
yellow hue; and the aqueous fluid on which it reposed
had entirely lost its yellow colour.

On shaking the phial, its contents were intimately
mixed; but, on suffering it to stand quiet, the oil of
turpentine soon separated from the aqueous liquid,
retaining its bright yellow hue, and leaving the aque-
ous liquid colourless.

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. gt

On shaking the phial defore zt had been exposed to

the heat, and mixing its contents, and then suffering it

to stand quiet, the oil of turpentine, on taking its place
at the top of the aqueous solution, was not found to
have acquired any colour; nor was the bright gold
colour of the solution found to be at all impaired.
When sulphuric ether was used instead of the oil of
turpentine, the effect was in this respect very different.

To find out whether the oil of turpentine used in
this experiment, and which had acquired a deep yellow
colour, had lost that property by which it effected the
reduction of the metallic oxide, I now poured an ad-
ditional quantity of the aqueous solution of the oxide
into the phial, and shaking the phial exposed it, with
its contents, to the heat of boiling water.

After it had been exposed to this heat about two
hours, I examined it, and found that though a consid-
erable quantity of gold had been revived, yet the aque-
ous liquid still retained a faint yellow colour.

The oil of turpentine had acquired a deeper and
richer gold colour, approaching to orange.

To the contents of the phial I now added about
half as much distilled water, and mixing the whole by
shaking I exposed the phial again, during two hours,
to the heat of boiling water; when the remainder of
the oxide was reduced, and the aqueous liquid left
perfectly colourless.

On repeating this experiment with oil of turpentine,
and varying it by using a solution of the oxide of
silver (an aqueous solution of nitrate of silver) instead
of that of gold, the result was nearly the same. The
metal was revived, and the oil of turpentine acquired a
faint greenish yellow colour.

92 An Inquiry concerning the

I also revived the oxides of gold and of silver with
oil of olives by a similar process, with the heat of boil-
ing water. The oil of olives used in these experiments
lost its transparency, and became deeply coloured;
that used in the reduction of the oxide of silver taking
a very deep dirty brown colour approaching to black,
and that employed in reducing the oxide of gold being
changed to a yellowish brown with a purple hue.

In the experiment with the oxide of silver, the inside
of the phial in the region where the oil reposed’ on the
aqueous solution was beautifully silvered, the revived
metal forming a narrow metallic ring extending quite
round the phial; and in both experiments small de-
tached pellicles of revived metal were visible in the oil,
and adhered in several places to the inside of the phial,
forming bright spots, in which the colour of the metal
and its peculiar splendour were perfectly conspicuous,

Experiment No. 15.—As carbon is one of the con-
stituent principles of spirit of wine, as well as of essen-
tial oils and sulphuric ether, I thought it possible that
I might succeed in the reduction of the oxide of gold,
by mixing alcohol with an aqueous solution of nitro-
muriate of gold, and exposing the mixture, in a phial
well closed, to the heat of boiling water; but the exper-
iment did not succeed.

By pouring upon this mixture a small quantity of oil
of olives and exposing it again to the heat of boiling
water, the gold was revived.

Is it not probable that the reason why the oxide was
not reduced by alcohol is the mobility of those ele-
ments, which ought to act on each other, in order that
the effect in question may be produced? There is
reason to think the oxide would be reduced, could the

——— Ee

ae hee See

ike?”

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 93 |

alcohol be made to rest on the surface of the aqueous
solution, without mixing with it. |

I wished to have been able to collect and examine
the elastic fluids which probably were formed in most
of the preceding experiments; but my time was so
much taken up with other matters that I had not leis-
ure to pursue these investigations farther.

In order to see what effects would be produced by
the heat generated at the surface of an opaque body,
of a nature different from those hitherto used in the
reduction of the metallic oxides, and one that is little
disposed to form a chemical union with oxygen (mag-
nesta alba) when, being immersed in an aqueous solu-
tion of the oxide of gold, the rays of the sun were made
to impinge on it, I contrived the following experiment : —

Experiment No. 16.—I1 took four small thin phials,
A, B, C, and D, of very fine glass; and, putting into
each of them about five grains of dry magnesza alba, I
filled the phial A nearly full with a saturated aqueous
solution of the oxide of gold.

I filled the phial B in like manner with some of the
same solution, diluted with an equal quantity of dis-
tilled water; and the phials C and D were filled with
the solution still farther diluted.

These phials, open or without stoppers, were exposed
one whole day to the action of the direct rays of a
bright sun, their contents being often well mixed to-
gether during that time by shaking.

The contents of all these phials changed colour
more or less, but they acquired very different hues.
The contents of the phial A became of a very deep
rich gold colour approaching to orange, the earthy
sediment being throughout of the same tint.

94 ta.) ae Inquiry concerning the

The contents of the phial B, which were at first of a
light straw colour, first changed to a light green and
then to a greenish blue. The phial having been suf-
fered to stand quiet several days, in an uninhabited
room, in a retired part of the house, the solution be-
came nearly colourless, and the sediment was found
to be of a dirty olive colour.

The colour of the contents of the phials C and D
was changed nearly in the same manner; and having
been suffered to stand quiet two or three days to settle,
the solution was found to be quite colouriess, and the
sediment to be deeply coloured. There was, however, a
very remarkable difference in the hues of the contents
of the two phials; that of the phial C being of a light
greenish blue, while that in the phial D was indigo,
and of so deep a tint that it might easily have been
taken for black.

These appearances were certainly very striking, and
well calculated to excite curiosity. I wish that what I
have done may induce others to pursue these interest-
ing investigations.

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 95

SUPPLEMENT.

Since the foregoing paper was presented to the
Royal Society, I have had an opportunity of prosecut-
ing these inquiries a little farther; and the results of
two of my late experiments were so remarkable that I
have thought them deserving of being made known to
the public. |

Experiment No, 17.— Into a thin globe of fine col-
ourless glass, about 1$-inches in diameter, with.a short
cylindrical neck, I put equal parts of a weak solution of
gum arabic in water and of a diluted aqueous solution
of the oxide of gold; and filling the globe about two
thirds full with these liquids, which being well mixed
together by shaking, the globe was suspended to a nail,
by its neck, near a window in an unfrequented room
fronting the north, where by accident it happened to
remain undisturbed and unobserved.six weeks.

When the globe was examined, it exhibited a very
curious appearance. ‘The glass was beautifully tinged
in every part where it had been in contact with the
liquid, but the hues were very different in different
parts. The part of the globe in contact with the upper
surface of the liquid was of a very faint purple, but
this tinge gradually became of a deeper colour as it
descended by the sides of the globe, and ended below |
in a rich gilding, which had all the metallic splendour
of pure gold.

Experiment No. 18.—Having provided a thin slip of
ivory, about half an inch wide and 3 inches long, |

96 An Lnqutry concerning the

introduced it into a small phial with a wide mouth,
nearly filled with a diluted solution of nitrate of silver,
where it was suffered to remain in a dark closet till the
ivory had acquired a bright yellow colour. The slip
of ivory was then taken out of the phial, and immersed
in a tumbler of pure water, and immediately exposed
in the water to the direct rays of a bright sun.

The instant the sunbeams fell upon the ivory it
began to change colour, and in less than two minutes
from being of a very beautiful yellow it became quite
black.

The rapidity with which this change of colour takes
place is very striking, and renders the experiment
uncommonly interesting. On examining the ivory,
its surface was found to be covered with a fine coaly
substance, which was easily rubbed off with the hand.

On removing this coaly substance, after the ivory
had been suffered to remain two or three hours ex-
posed in water to the action of the sun’s light, the sur-
face of the ivory was found to be completely silvered
over, so.as perfectly to resemble a slip of metal.

Although this coating of revived metal which covers
the surface of the ivory is very thin, yet, if the ivory be
well soaked in the solution of nitrate of silver, the oxide
of that metal will penetrate the ivory to a considerable
depth; and as fast as the silvering wears off from the
surface of the ivory, the oxide below it being uncovered
and exposed to the light, a new coating of revived
metal will be formed to replace it, and the surface of
the ivory will not lose its metallic appearance.

I tried by a similar process to gild a slip of ivory
with gold, but in this attempt I did not succeed as well
as I could have wished. A slip of ivory which had

Chemical Properties attributed to Light. 97

been soaked in a diluted solution of oxi-muriate of
gold did not at first acquire a metallic appearance on
being exposed in water to the action of the sun’s rays;
but I found, on examining one of these slips after it
had been laid by for several months, that its surface
was slightly gilded.

I think it highly probable that means may be devised
for expediting this process, and gilding ivory and per-
haps some other substances in this way, which would
be a valuable acquisition to the arts.

This method of silvering ivory, which is not only
expeditious, but very economical, might no doubt be
employed with advantage in many cases for ornamen-
tal purposes. The process is certainly curious, when
considered merely as a philosophical experiment; and
I know of no experiment by which the visible and
permanent effects produced by light, without appar-
ent heat, can be so expeditiously and so distinctly
exhibited.

[This paper is printed from Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. L.,
PP. 341-365]

VOL. IV. 7

“

‘

NAGEMENT OF LIGHT

“MA

UMINATION.

OF THE MANAGEMENT OF LIGHT IN
ILLUMINATION. :

CHAPTER I.

An Investigation of the Principles of the Art of [llu-
mination.— Of the Circumstances which contri-
bute to render Vision distinct. — Of the Dispersion
of Light. — Of the bad Effects of Cross-Lights. —
Descriptions of several new Llluminators of differ-
ent Forms and Dimensions.

eae art of illumination, although it is undoubtedly
one of the most useful that has been invented
by man, and contributes perhaps more than any other
to his comfort and convenience in all countries and in
every class of society, has nevertheless been little cul-
- tivated: it has not even been considered as an art; for
the technical terms have not yet been invented which
are indispensably necessary in order to render it pos-
sible to treat of it in a clear and satisfactory manner.
My attention was first turned to this interesting sub-
ject in the year +789, when, being actively engaged in
the public service of the late Elector Palatine, reigning ~
Duke of Bavaria, I was employed by His Most Serene
Highness in establishing Houses of Industry for the
poor, in the cities of Manheim and Munich. In light-
ing up these spacious establishments, I first learned to

102 Management of Light in Illumination.

know how much room there was for improvement in
the art of illumination; and since that time the subject
has frequently been the object of my meditations, and
of a variety of experimental researches.

It was with a view to the prosecution of these in-
vestigations that I contrived the photometer for meas-
uring the relative intensities of the light emitted by
luminous bodies, which is described in the first volume
of my Philosophical Papers, page 270.* With the
assistance of that instrument I determined the relative
quantities of light that are emitted in the combustion
of the various inflammable substances most commonly
used in procuring light; viz., of beeswax, tallow, and
several of the fat oils. An account of the results of
these experiments was read before the Royal Society
the 6th February, 1794, and was afterwards published
in the Philosophical Transactions, and also in the first
volume of my Philosophical Papers.

Having found, from the results of these and of other
experiments, that the purest light and most beautiful
illumination may be obtained by means of lamps prop-
erly constructed for less than one eighth part of the
price that the same quantity of light would cost if it
were furnished by wax candles, and consequently for
about half the sum it would cost when furnished by
tallow candles, I saw that very great advantages could
not fail to result to the public from such improvements
in lamps as should render them neat and elegant, and
prevent their being any longer liable to those disgust-
ing accidents to which they have hitherto been ex-

posed.
Animated by a strong conviction of the importance

* See also page 7 of this volume.

Management of Light in Illumination. 103

of the subject to society, I took great pains to make
myself thoroughly acquainted with lamps, and with
the causes of their imperfections; and I made a great
many experiments with a view to improve them.
These researches employed my attention occasionally
during several years, and in the prosecution of them
I actually caused to be constructed more than one
hundred lamps (all differing from each other more or
less), as I found to my no small surprise on counting
them, as they were taken away from a store-room to be
carried into another house, on changing my lodgings.

I mention this circumstance merely to show that the
subject I have undertaken to treat in this Essay has
not been taken up hastily, but that it has long been
an object of my meditations, and that I have spared
neither pains nor expense in its investigation. If I
have not published the results of my numerous experi-
ments, it is because those results were not sufficiently
important to-merit the attention of the public. They
were useful to me, for they made me acquainted with
facts with which it was necessary that I should be
acquainted, in order to be duly qualified to propose —
improvements in the construction of lamps; but their
details could not fail to be tiresome to readers in gen-
eral.

By far the greater number of the lamps I caused to
be constructed in the course of my experiments were,
however, rather rude sketches than finished contri-
vances. They were designed for making particular —
experiments, and never could have been employed for
any other purpose.

The results of these experimental investigations en-
abled me to contrive two lamps, for different purposes,

-
104 Management of Light in Lllumination.

which came into very general use in Bavaria; but, as
both these are inferior in many respects to the lamps
I shall recommend in this Essay, I have not thought
that it would be useful to publish any description of
them.

As it is a duty incumbent on those who publicly
recommend new improvements, not only to show their
utility in the clearest manner, but also to explain the
principles on which they are grounded, —in treating of
illumination, I must first investigate the principles on
which that art must be established, and must then
point out the particular objects which must be had in
view in all attempts to improve the instruments em-
ployed in the practice of it.

As artificial light is employed to illuminate sur-
rounding objects to the end that they may be easily
and distinctly seen, it is necessary to inquire what cir-
cumstances are favourable to distinct vision, and also
what circumstances are unfavourable to it.

If the facility with which objects are distinguished
by the eye depended solely on the intensity of the
light by which they are illuminated, this particular
inquiry would be superfluous; but that is very far
indeed from being the case.

We can see objects, and even very distinctly, when
they are illuminated by light of very different degrees
of intensity.

It is a well-known fact that a book may be read at
night by the light of the full moon, when the air is
very clear; and everybody knows that it may be read
when illuminated by the direct rays of a bright merid-
ian sun. The differences of the intensities of the light
in these two cases is truly astonishing: the intensity of

Management of Light in [Mumination. 105

the light of the sun is to that of the full moon, at the
surface of the earth, as ¢hree hundred thousand to one.

But notwithstanding this astonishing power of ac-
commodation possessed by the organ of sight, yet,
when the eye passes suddenly from a strong light to
one much more feeble, and wee versa, nothing can
be distinctly seen for some moments. It is true that
the eye soon recovers from these momentary derange-
ments, and that habit has rendered them so familiar
to us that we seldom take any notice of them; but it
is nevertheless most certain that they not only injure
the eye very much, and weaken it in such a manner as
' to impair its faculties at a very early period of .life, but
that they also render it impossible to see surrounding
objects so distinctly as they might be perceived, evex
with much less light, were the illumination established
on better principles.

The facility with which we see objects distinctly
depends much on their shadows. When the lights
and shades are simple and distinct, they are necessarily
well defined, and we see distinctly ; but when the light
arrives in several directions at the same time, the lu-
minous points of the object and its shadows are so
blended and confused that distinct vision is impossible,
whatever may be the intensity of the light present.

A portrait painter never permits light to come into
his room but through one single window; and those
who are desirous of having their apartments illumi-
nated at night in the pleasantest manner possible
must contrive to have all the light come from one
source. If every sudden change in the intensity of the
light that strikes the eyes is injurious to them, the
direct rays which proceed from the flames of lamps and

106 Management of Light in Illumination.

candles must necessarily fatigue them very much, and
render it impossible to see distinctly any objects that
may happen to be near those dazzling sources of
brightness. A near view of the naked flame of an
Argand lamp is quite insupportable, as is well known;
but the advantages which would result from masking
those flames, and all others used in domestic illumina-
tion, have never been justly estimated. That subject
has never been properly investigated.

The only way in which the flames of lamps and can-
dles can be masked, without occasioning a great loss of ©
light, is to cover them by screens composed of such
substances as disperse the light without destroying it.
Ground glass, thin white silk stuffs, such as gauze and
crape, fine white paper, horn, and various other sub-
stances, may be used for that purpose, and have been
used very often.

This contrivance has been in use several years, in
most parts of Europe, for moderating the too powerful
brightness of Argand’s beautiful lamp; but so many
important advantages would be derived from the gen-
eral use of it in all cases, and it would give rise to so
many elegant improvements in the forms of illumina-
tors, that too much pains cannot be taken to recom-
mend it.

This system of illumination has been universally
practised by the Chinese for many ages; and so wise
and so economical a nation could not have continued
to practise it so long, had it not been found to be really
advantageous. But, without depending on this author-
ity, the utility of the system can be demonstrated by
direct and decisive experiments.

As there can be no difference of opinion respecting

Management of Light in Illumination. 107

the immediate advantage, for the preservation of the
eyes and for facilitating vision, which must necessarily —
be derived from the protection of the eyes from the too
powerful action of the direct rays which proceed from
the flames of lamps and candles, the only objection
that can be made to the proposal for masking those .
flames by screens must be founded on a supposition
that those screens must necessarily destroy a great
deal of the light. Now that this is not the case in fact
I learned more than twenty years ago, from the result
of the following experiment.

Two wax candles, of the same size, and burning with
the same degree of vivacity, were placed on two tables,
at the distance of about 8 feet from each other, in two
tall cylindrical glass jars, about 6 inches in diameter,
made of fine transparent glass; the polish of the sur-
face of one of them having been taken off by grinding
it with emery. At the distance of about 16 feet from
these lights, a sheet of white paper was presenteu to
them, in a vertical position; and a small cylinder of
wood, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, held in a
vertical position, was placed before the paper, at the
distance of about 2 inches.

This cylinder caused two shadows to be cast on the
paper; and as these shadows were reciprocally illumi-
nated by the two burning wax candles, if that placed
in the transparent glass jar had emitted considerably
more light than that placed in the jar of ground glass,
the two shadows could not have been of the same
density. They were, however, very nearly of the same
density; which, as it proved evidently that there was
little or no loss of light in its passage through ground
glass, as this was contrary to my expectation, it sur-

108 Management of Light in Illumination.

prised me not a little; but, after meditating more at-
tentively on the subject, I perceived that there was
nothing in this result that could not easily be ex-
plained.

Although ground glass appears to us to be opaque,
it cannot be so in fact.’ In the operation of grinding
it, its surface, which was smooth and _ even, is so
ploughed and broken up as to present an assemblage
of asperities which are invisible to the naked eye on
account of their extreme smallness, but which have all
their sides smooth and shining, as may be seen by
examining them with a microscope.

Now it is quite evident that a ray of light which
arrives at the smooth surface of one: of those little
asperities must enter the glass with the same facility
(at the same angle of incidence) as it would penetrate
the surface of the largest sheet of polished glass ; and
it is likewise evident that the ray, having passed
through the surface, must continue its course in the
glass, and pass out of it on the other side, in the same
manner in the one case as in the other.

If a collection of parallel rays of light, forming a
small cylindrical bundle, fall perpendicularly on the
polished surface of a large sheet of glass, they will pass
through the glass in straight lines, and will continue
their courses without suffering any change in their
direction; but, if these rays fall on a sheet of ground
glass, they will be dispersed, and having passed
through it they will diverge in all directions.

The final direction of each individual ray will de-
pend on the refractions it will have experienced in
passing into the glass and in passing out of it; and
these refractions will depend on the positions of the

ARE Cd ae

Management of Light in Illumination. 109

planes of those infinitely small portions of the broken
surface of the glass where the rays happen to pass.

If the flame of a burning candle be placed in the
centre of a large globe of very fine transparent glass,
its rays will pass through the glass without suffering
any sensible alteration, either in their direction or in
their intensity; and the form and dimensions of the
flame will be seen so distinctly through the glass that,
at a little distance, the globe might easily escape obser-
vation. But if, instead of placing the candle in a globe
of transparent glass, it be placed in the centre of a
globe of ground glass, the rays of light will be so dis-
persed in passing through it that from each visible
point of its external surface rays will be sent off in all
directions, which will render the surface of the globe
luminous. The flame of the candle will no longer be
seen through it, but surrounding bodies will not be
less illuminated on that account.

The globe will be the only luminous body which
will be visible ; and as the intensity of the light at its
surface may be diminished without any loss, merely
by increasing that surface by augmenting the diame-
ter of the globe, it is evident that by a judicious ar-
rangement of screens of ground glass, or of other fit
substances, the too vivid light of lamps may be so dis-
persed and softened without any considerable loss as
to protect the eyes from injury, and at the same time
render the illumination infinitely more mild, tranquil,
and agreeable.

But if screens can be found which do not sensibly
diminish the light employed to render them luminous,
and if their forms and dimensions can be varied with-
out inconvenience, there can be no longer any difficulty

110 Management of Light in Illumination.

in introducing an entirely new system of domestic illu-
mination, which must necessarily be far more beautiful,
and at the same time more pleasant and more econom-
ical, than any of the methods hitherto put in practice.

All that is ugly and disgusting in a lamp may be
concealed: the shadows projected by its solid parts
may be obliterated, and the luminous object presented
to the view may at the same time be of an elegant
form, and have a surface sufficiently large to dispense
a great deal of mild light, without being so brilliant as
to dazzle and injure the eyes.

One of my first attempts to put these principles in
practice was made in the year 1800, in lighting the
reading-rooms and lecture-room of the Royal Institu-
tion. Argand lamps, with several burners suspended
from the ceiling or elevated on stands, were so covered
by large screens of white gauze, in the form of a flat
dome or truncated cone, as to conceal the lamps
entirely from the view, and at the same time, by dis-
persing the light over the whole surface of the dome,
‘to moderate the too intense brilliancy of the flames.

This experiment succeeded even beyond my expec-
tation; and the lighting of these rooms met with such
universal approbation that I was encouraged to pro-
ceed in my endeavours to improve the art of illumi-
nation.

My next attempt was to light a large dining-room in
my house at Paris, by a single luminous dome sus-
pended over the middle of the dining-table; and, in
order to prevent cross-lights, I ventured to place a clus-
ter of burners, on Argand’s principles, in the axis of
this dome, and so near together as to touch each other,
and to feed them with oil from a circular reservoir, in

ee a a a —

Management of Light in Illumination. 111

the form of a hollow flat ring, on which the dome was
supported. rei

By this contrivance I got rid of the inconveniences
that attend the use of inverted reservoirs; and I got
rid also of all shadows proceeding from the lamp, for
that of the flat circular reservoir was entirely effaced
at the distance of a few inches from the reservoir (as
I expected it would be) by the light emitted by the
luminous dome. The shadows of the burners were like-
wise so completely effaced that there was no appear-
ance of any shadow proceeding from them to be
perceived either immediately under the lamps or any-
where else. j ie

The circular reservoir was very convenient for sup-
porting the dome; but one disagreeable circumstance
attended this arrangement. As the tops of the burners
could not be raised above one inch higher than the
level of the bottom of this reservoir, without prevent-
ing the oil from flowing freely to the wicks, when the
reservoir was suspended at the height of six or seven
feet above the floor, the naked flames might be seen
under it. To remedy that imperfection, a hoop of
white gauze, 4 inches wide and just equal in diameter
to the external diameter of the circular reservoir, was
suspended from the bottom of the reservoir, or rather
from the lower part of a strong brass hoop on which it
was placed. This hoop of gauze effectually prevented
the naked flames from being seen under the reservoir
(except when pains were taken to see them), and when
this hoop was ornamented on the outside with festoons |
of cut glass it became a very elegant object. |

All the dishes and plates on the table were illumi-
nated by the direct rays from the burners, but the eyes

112 Management of Light an Lllumination.

of those who were seated round the table were de-
fended from those direct rays by the hoop of gauze
just described. The room was lighted quite suff-
ciently, and in a most agreeable manner, by the
luminous dome and the hoop of gauze below it. It
was on these principles that the illuminator was con-
structed which I presented to the first class of the
National Institute of France, on the 24th March, 1806,

A description of it was published in the Memoirs of
the Institute for the next year, and a short account of
it was also published by Mr. Nicholson in his Journal
of Natural Philosophy; but as its usefulness has now
been sufficiently established by the experience of sev-
eral years, and as it is getting fast into general use on
the Continent, I have thought it right not to postpone
any longer the publication of such a particular descrip-
tion of it as may make it better known in England,
where I am very desirous that it should be found
useful.

As lamps in general have hitherto been so filthy,
and liable to so many disagreeable accidents, that the
name can hardly be pronounced or heard without call-
ing up several disgusting ideas, on that account I am
desirous that my new illuminator may be called an
Llluminator.

As a description of it would be of little use, unless
it were sufficiently detailed and precise to enable an
intelligent workman to execute it, even without having
seen it, I must take the liberty to be very particular in
my account of it. The reader will pass over such of
the details as may appear to him to be tiresome.

As one of the objects principally had in view in con-
triving this illuminator was to light a room sufficiently

i a it EE

NE Le ee ee

Management of Light in L[lumination. 113

with one single luminous body (in order to avoid the
bad effects of cross-lights), it was necessary to con- |
struct illuminators of different sizes and also of differ-
ent forms.

There are three varieties of them in use which have
all been found to answer very well the different pur-
poses for which they were particularly designed.

1. The Balloon Illuminator, which is a luminous
globe of 18, 20, or 22 inches in diameter, suspended
from the ceiling at the height of 7 or 8 feet, designed
for lighting saloons, drawing-rooms, ball-rooms, etc.

2. The Dining-Room Llluminator, which serves like-
wise for lighting a billiard-room in great perfection.
This is likewise suspended from the ceiling; but its
screen, instead of being globular, is in the form of a
dome, with a hoop about four or five inches in width
suspended from the bottom of it.

3. The Zable Llluminator, which is covered by a
hemispherical screen or dome, is placed on a stand or
foot about twenty inches high, and is used for lighting
a dining-table or reading or working table; and it
lights the room at the same time quite sufficiently, if
the room be not large.

All these illuminators have circular horizontal reser-
voirs for the oil, which have all the same depth, —
viz., one eighth of an inch, — but which are of different
widths and diameters, according to the number of
burners which they are destined to supply.

These burners, whatever may be their number, are
all placed close together, in a cluster, in the centre of:
the reservoir, and so near as to touch each other.
They have hitherto been constructed on Argand’s

principles, and each of them is furnished with its sepa-
VOL. IV. 8

114 Management of Light in Illumination.

rate chimney; but from a discovery I have lately made
I think it very probable that an important improve-
ment will soon be made, by employing one burner
with several wicks, instead of several separate burners.

The most powerful balloon illuminators that have
yet been made have had six Argand burners; their
reservoirs are 22} inches in diameter externally, and
24 inches in width; and their light has been found to
be quite sufficient for illuminating very spacious sa-
loons in the most complete manner.

Those most generally used at Paris for lighting
drawing-rooms are such as have ¢hyree or four burners,
which have reservoirs of 17 and 19} inches in diam-
eter.

All the pendulous dining-room illuminators that
have yet been constructed have either three or four
burners; and those used for lighting billiard-rooms
have all had four.

All the table illuminators hitherto made have had
single burners, and their circular reservoirs have had
10 inches in diameter externally, and about 1 inch in
width ; but there is no reason why illuminators of this
kind should not be constructed with ¢wo and even with
three burners. When placed on stands of about 24 or
26 inches in height, they would be found very con-
venient for lighting large dining-tables in dining-rooms
which are not high enough to allow a pendulous illu-
minator to be properly suspended.

From what has been said a general idea may be
formed of the construction and use of these illumina-
tors. I shall now proceed to give particular descrip-
tions of their different parts, with full directions for the
management of them; together with such occasional

Management of Light in Illumination. 115

remarks as may be necessary, in order to illustrate the
principles on which they have been constructed.

When new inventions are recommended to the pub-
lic, calculated to produce a total change in habits long
established, no hope can reasonably be entertained of
their being adopted, unless pains be taken to show
their utility in the plainest and most convincing
manner.

I shall first give an account of the means that have
been used for suspending the pendulous illuminators ;
and, as there is nothing either new or complicated in
this machinery, it may be described in a few words.

A strong hoop of brass, of about 1 inch in width, is
suspended from the ceiling of the room in a position
perfectly horizontal, by means of six chains attached to
six arrows of brass, of about 0.4 of an inch in diameter
and 6.9 inches in length, which project horizontally
from the outside of the hoop, to which they are firmly
fixed. These chains, which are each about 30 inches
in length, are all fixed above to the bottom of an orna-
mented baldaquin, which is a hoop of brass in the form
of a crown, of about 9 inches in diameter; which hoop
is suspended in a horizontal position by means of a
double cord, which passes over two pulleys fixed in a
small block, which is attached by means of a hook to
a staple fixed in the ceiling. This cord descends and
is attached to a counterpoise of lead in the form of
a large tassel, ornamented by gilding. This tassel
being made hollow, the cord by which the illuminator
is suspended passing through it, is kept in its place.

The length of the cord is such that, when the illu-
minator is at a proper height, the heavy tassel, which
serves as a counterpoise to it, has descended so low as

116 Management of Light in Lllumination.

nearly to touch the top of the crown or ornamented
ring where the six chains unite; and the weight of the
counterpoise is such that the friction of the cord and
pulleys is sufficient to prevent the illuminator from
either ascending or descending, except when force is
employed to raise it or to lower it.

The crown (baldaquin) to which the chains are at-
tached above is of an elegant form, and it is commonly
ornamented more or less with cut glass. The chains
are likewise very richly ornamented, by fixing in each
of their oblong links of gilt brass an oblong diamond
of cut glass, of about 2 inches in length and 1 inch in
width in the middle, cut into facets. These are called
olives in France; and they cost at Paris six sous
apiece. To hide the cords, they are loosely wrapped
round with thin silk stuff, of the same kind and colour
with that used for the curtains of the windows. This
is placed loose about them, and in such a manner as
not to prevent the free action of the pulleys.

The large horizontal hoop and the arrows that pro-
ject from it, which together weigh about 5% lbs. avoir-
dupois, are sometimes gilt; and they are sometimes
painted white or of a dark bronze colour.

This hoop has a rim about half an inch wide, even
with the level of its under side, and projecting inwards,
which serves two important purposes: it strengthens
the hoop and prevents its shape from being altered;
and it forms a convenient support for the circular
reservoir of the illuminator, which reposes on it.

The diameter of the hoop should be about a quarter
of an inch greater than the diameter of the circular
reservoir which it is destined to receive, in order that
the reservoir may be removed and replaced without

Management of Light in Illumination. 117 |

difficulty. This reservoir is always removed and taken
away and carried into another room, when the illumi-
nator is cleaned and replenished with oil.

The reservoir is a hollow, flat, horizontal ring made
of tin (tinned iron), just 0.8 of an inch in thickness or
depth, and from 1.inch to 2} inches in breadth, accord-
ing to the number of burners it is destined to supply.
These burners are fixed in its centre in a cluster, as
has already been observed; and their openings above
are just 1 inch above the level of the bottom of the
reservoir. Each burner is supplied with oil from the
reservoir by a small tube, a quarter of an inch in diam-
eter, which, descending obliquely from the inside of the
reservoir, enters the burner on one side of it, and at
such a distance below its upper extremity as is just
sufficient to allow the glass chimney of the burner
to be fixed in its proper place.

Each of the burners is cylindrical; and it is fixed ~
in the axis of a cylindrical tube, 1.88 inch in diameter
and 5 inches in length. This vertical tube receives
the glass chimney into its opening above. The wick,
which is in the form of a tube, is moved either by a
rack or by a vertical endless screw, concealed in the
interior of the vertical tube just described, and attached
to the side of the burner. When this last contrivance
is used, the small horizontal wheel, by means of which
the screw is turned, should not be made flat, as they
are commonly made, but dzshzxg, in order that the oil,
which sometimes finds its way through the collars in
which this screw turns and runs down slowly on the |
axis of the wheel, may not be able to spread on the
wheel, so as to arrive at its periphery, where it is
touched by the finger in turning it, in moving the

118 Management of Light in Lltumination.

wick. The introduction of. this small improvement

has, I am persuaded, contributed very much to the

approbation universally bestowed on the table illumi-
nator and to its rapid introduction into general use.

In the table illuminator the small quantity of oil
which occasionally leaks out of the burner below
descends immediately into the column on which the
illuminator is placed, consequently it is never seen,
and may easily be removed as often as shall be found
necessary.

For receiving and at the same time concealing the
leakage of the burners of pendulous illuminators, a
shallow globular dish of tin, painted white and var-
nished, about 4 inches in diameter and 1 inch in depth,
is fixed, by means of a strong screw passing through
its centre, immediately under the lower extremities of
the burners. The bottom of this dish is ornamented
below by a large gilt knob in the form of an acorn,
which gives it the appearance of having been placed
there for the sole purpose of giving an elegant finish
to the balloon below or to cover the ends of the burn-
ers, and for presenting a convenient handle for taking
hold of the illuminator in moving it up or down.

There is a circular opening in the under part of the
balloon, of about 2 inches in diameter, through which
the brass knob projects downwards; and there is also a
circular opening, of about 4 or 5 inches in diameter, in
the middle of the hemispherical screen which forms
the upper half of the balloon or the dome, through
which opening the ends of the glass chimneys project,
which belong to the burners; but neither of these
openings is much noticed when the illuminator is in
its proper place, and that above is indeed never seen,

Management of Light in Lllumination. 119

so that the form of the illuminator when lighted is
always simple and elegant. —

The lower hemispherical screen of the balloon illu-
minator is attached to the brass hoop by means of a
hinge, and it is fastened to the opposite side of it by
a hook; but the-upper hemispherical screen of all the
illuminators is merely laid down on the top of the
reservoir, and may be taken away whenever it is nec-
essary.

These screens, notwithstanding that their openings
both above and below are circular, are not of a spheri-
cal form, though when seen at a little distance they
appear to be globular. They are composed of skele-
tons made of strong iron wire, wound round with nar-
row thin white silk ribbon, and covered with thick
white gauze or white crape. The wire is so disposed
as to form nine or twelve vertical ribs, according to the
size of the screen; and, where ornament is required,
these ribs are covered on the outside, and entirely con-
cealed from the view, by rows of brilliants of cut glass,
gradually diminishing in size from what may be called
the equator of the balloon towards its two poles.
These brilliants, being perforated with small holes at
each of their extremities, are easily attached to the ribs
by screwing.

By covering the whole of the surface of the balloon
in this manner with cut glass, a most beautiful and
splendid effect may be produced without sensibly
diminishing the light or disturbing the agreeable mild-_
ness and tranquillity of the illumination. One balloon
illuminator has already been ornamented in this man-
ner under the direction of M. Ravrio, and has been
much admired. It was made to occupy the middle of

120 Management of Light in Lllumination.

a very superb lustre. But I must return to more hum-
ble but not less important details.

Having by means of luminous screens, properly dis-
posed, contrived to conceal all that was disgusting
in the appearance of lamps,—to obliterate all their
shadows which rendered them so gloomy and melan-
choly, to disperse the too powerful brightness of their
flames without destroying their light, and to unite a
sufficient quantity of mild light in one place to illumi-
nate large rooms from one source,—a difficulty still
remained, which, if means had not been found to sur-
mount it, must for ever have prevented these improve-
ments from coming into general use. The spilling of
the oil in transporting lamps from one place to another
is an accident which is so very disagreeable, and yet
so common, that no person of taste or feeling can,
without considerable repugnance, permit a lamp to be
brought into an elegant apartment; and it is easy to
perceive that, when oil is put into large circular reser-
voirs, the danger of its being thrown out of them on
the least motion is so great that the accident could
not fail to happen very often if the most effectual
means were not used to prevent it.

I was so fortunate as to hit upon a very simple con-
trivance for preventing the oil from being spilled in the
management of my illuminators; and the means em-
ployed are so effectual that the accident is evidently all
but impossible. The person who has sold more than
200 of them in Paris assures me that this accident has
never once happened, to his knowledge, during the six
years he has been engaged in the fabrication and sale
of them; and he is so persuaded that it cannot happen
that he does not hesitate to place pendulous illumi-

atl:

Management of Light tn Illumination. 121

nators directly over the middle of the most elegant
billiard-tables, even where he has no reason to sup-
pose that the servants into whose hands they come
are particularly careful.

This contrivance, which is extremely simple, can
easily be described. The reservoir for the oil, which,
as has already been observed, is a flat, hollow ring, has
three openings above at equal distances from each
other. They are short, vertical brass tubes, of about
half an inch in height and three quarters of an inch in
diameter internally, which are soldered to the upper
part of the reservoir. Each of them is furnished with a
brass stopper, which closes it hermetically; and-each
of the stoppers is perforated in its axis, and receives a
screw of about a quarter of an inch in diameter and
three quarters of an inch in length, which by means of
a collar of leather closes this aperture completely when
the screw is screwed down fast in its place. But these
screws are not entire: about one third part of the sub-
stance of each of them is filed away, from the shoulder
which supports the collar of leather quite down to the
lower end of the screw. This neither prevents the
screw from moving regularly in the female screw, nor
from closing hermetically the opening in the brass
stopper when it is screwed down fast in its place; but,
when the screw is turned backwards one or two turns,
a passage is opened by which air can pass freely in or
out of the reservoir.

When the illuminator is lighted, a passage for the -
air to enter the reservoir must be opened by unscrew-
ing one of these screws, otherwise the oil cannot flow
to the burners; but at all other times all these screws
must be kept screwed fast down, which will most

122 Management of Light in Lllumination.

effectually prevent the oil from being spilled in trans-
porting the illuminator from place to place. It would
even be very difficult to make it run out at the open-
ings of the burners, for the pressure of the external air
would prevent it.

As the reservoirs of the table illuminators are small,
two openings above, opposite to each other, have been
found to be sufficient; but, when the reservoir is much
larger, three openings are useful, as they afford the
means of seeing when the reservoir is placed horizon-
tally, as also when it is completely filled with oil.
There never can be any use in opening more than one
of the passages for the admittance of air into the reser-
voir when the illuminator is lighted, and that is to be
opened which happens to be nearest at hand.

A very important advantage has been obtained by
making the reservoirs of those illuminators large and
shallow; for, as the level of the oil in the reservoir
varies so little, the burners are always well supplied,
without employing any of those complicated contri-
vances which have been used for preserving the level
of the oil in Argand’s lamp. As all these methods are
connected more or less with the elastic force exerted
by the air, and as that force varies with heat and cold,
these contrivances are liable to many inconveniences,
not to mention the awkward and complicated forms
they give to lamps, and the disagreeable nature of the
operation of filling their reservoirs with oil.

If a lamp with an inverted reservoir, after having
burned some time, be extinguished and suffered to
cool, it must be filled anew before it can be lighted
again: otherwise the air which has found its way into
the upper part of the inverted reservoir, on being

Management of Light in Illumination. 123

heated by the flame of the lamp, will press on ‘the oil
below it with an increased force, which will cause a_
part of it to descend and overflow the burner and run
out into the room; and these accidents frequently hap-
pen even without lighting the lamp a second time,
and sometimes without its having been lighted at all,
merely in consequence of the ordinary changes which
take place in the temperature of the air, especially in
rooms which front the south, where these occasional
variations of temperature are most considerable.

As people in general are not aware of the danger
to which they are exposed, when lamps with fountain
reservoirs, partly filled with oil, are left several. days
hung up in the rooms which they are destined to illu-
minate, it may be useful to explain this matter at some
length. :

When a lamp with an inverted reservoir has burned
for some time, the oil in the reservoir becomes warm,
and the air which now occupies the upper part of it is
warm likewise ; but, as soon as the lamp is extinguished
and begins to cool, the elasticity of the air in the reser-
voir begins to be diminished. And, as the pressure of
the atmosphere without remains the same, a part of
the oil in the burner and in the canal which leads to
it is forced back into the reservoir by the pressure of
the external air.

If the quantity of air in the reservoir is considerable,
and the cooling process continues, so much of the oil
in the burner and in the canal leading to it will be
forced to return into the reservoir that its level will at
length be so much lowered that the opening of the
inverted reservoir (which is at its lower extremity) will
cease to be submerged in this oil; and, as the cooling

124 Management of Light in Illumination.

goes on, a portion of atmospheric air will make its way
into the reservoir by this opening; and the more the
cold increases, the greater will be the quantity of air
which will thus find its way into the reservoir.

As long as the cold continues, this air will produce
no bad effects; but as soon as the lamp becomes
sensibly warmed, either in consequence of its being
lighted or of a change of temperature in the surround-
ing atmosphere, the elasticity of the air confined in the
upper part of the reservoir will be increased, and will
cause a part of the oil below it to be driven out of the
reservoir, which will overflow the burner and run out
of the lamp. Various attempts have been made to
remedy this capital defect of lamps with inverted reser-
voirs, but none of them have been completely success-
ful. None of them that I have been acquainted with
have rendered it possible to light one of these lamps
a second time (without emptying and filling it anew),
without danger of having some of the oil forced out of
the lamp by the expansion of the air in the reservoir,
on its being warmed.

This accident is always very disagreeable; and I
took special care to avoid it in my illuminators, by
avoiding the use of inverted reservoirs.

As every new contrivance, however simple it may be
in its construction, is in the greatest danger of being
put out of order and spoiled by the ignorance and
awkwardness of those into whose hands it comes, it is
indispensably necessary that the most particular prac-
tical directions should accompany every proposal for the
introduction of new improvements. On that ground
I hope to be excused for giving the following very par-
ticular directions for the management of my illuminators.

Management of Light in Illumination. 125

One of the six chains by which the pendulous illu-
minators are suspended must be attached to its corre-
sponding arrow by means of a hook, in order that it
may be unhooked below, and laid aside occasionally
in order to open a passage between the two neigh-
bouring chains for removing the reservoir or the upper
hemispherical screen. —

As six chains are employed in suspending the brass
hoop on which the reservoir reposes, this hoop re-
mains suspended, even when one of these chains is
unhooked and laid aside; and as these chains are not
attached immediately to the hoop, but at some dis-
tance (34 inches) from it, to arrows which project. hori-
zontally from the outside of it, the opening between
the two neighbouring chains which remain after the
movable chain has been unhooked and laid back on
one of them is so wide that the reservoir or the hemi-
spherical screen can pass between them, without touch-
ing either of them.

As these pendulous illuminators will burn well eight
or nine hours without being replenished, it will seldom
be necessary to refresh them with oil while they are in
actual use. If, however, that should be necessary, it
may easily be done, even without extinguishing them
and without danger. But, in general, the reservoir is
always to be taken away and carried out of the room
when it is to be filled, and the burners cleaned and
trimmed.

In removing the reservoir, the following precautions
are necessary: first, the burners having been extin-
guished, the illuminator must be lowered down to that
height which is most convenient for lifting the reser-
voir out of its place; or, in case the height of the room

126 Management of Light in Illumination.

be not sufficient to allow the counterpoise*to rise high
enough to permit this to be done, a light stand with
steps, such as are used in libraries, may be employed to
get up to a proper height to perform that operation,
without lowering the illuminator. When rooms are
so low as to render the use of steps necessary in this
operation, as there will be no longer any use for pul
leys, the illuminator may be suspended from the ceiling
by a simple cord, or by a thin rod of iron, having a
hook at each end of it.

The first thing to be done in preparing to remove
the reservoir is to unhook the movable chain and lay
it aside; the upper part of the balloon (the dome) is
then to be lifted up and taken away, care being taken
not to derange the chimneys of the burners; the screw
belonging to the opening by which air is admitted into
the reservoir is next to be screwed down fast, axd this
precaution must never be omitted.

As soon as this is done, the reservoir may be lifted
up and taken away, as there will be no longer any dan-
ger of the oil being thrown out of it in carrying.

If the illuminator be suspended by pulleys, a weight
must be at hand equal to the weight of the reservoir,
which must be hung to the brass hoop which supports
the reservoir. This is necessary, in order to prevent
the hoop from being suddenly drawn upwards by the
descent of the counterpoise on the removal of the
reservoir.

A temporary stand, about 6 or 8 inches in height,
must be provided in the room where the illuminator is
cleaned and arranged, on which the reservoir can be
placed in a situation perfectly horizontal. In this situa-
tion it remains placed on a table, while its burners are

eS Se ea at

Management of Light tn [lumination. 127

cleaned and trimmed, and till its reservoir has been
filled with oil. In filiing it, care must always be taken
to remove the three stoppers which close its three
openings above, in order that the air may escape out
of it with the greater facility, and that it may be seen
when it is properly filled with oil. .

As soon as the reservoir is full of oil, the openings
above must be closed by their stoppers, and all the
screws must be screwed fast, and no passage must be
opened for the air to enter the reservoir till after it
shall have been carried back and set down in its hori-
zontal brass hoop.

As table illuminators are liable to be removed fre-
quently from place to place when they are not lighted,
the screw which closes the passage for the admittance
of air into their reservoir should not be opened till the
moment when they are lighted; but as the reservoir of
this illuminator is not large, and as the tube is narrow
which conveys the oil from it to the burner, there is
very little danger of the oil being spilled in removing
it from place to place, either when it is lighted or when
it is not lighted, even though the passage for the air
should be left open. I never knew the accident to
happen, and it is evidently so unlikely to happen that
most people never give themselves the trouble to close
that passage on any occasion. By closing this passage
with a hollow, conical brass stopper, similar to that
used in my portable lamps which will be described
hereafter, the accident in question would be most —
effectually prevented. But to return to the pendulous
illuminators.

When one of these is to be lighted, the following
operations must be performed : —

128 Management of Light in Illumination.

The illuminator must first be pulled down to a con-
venient height, or, if it be not suspended by pulleys,
steps must be used for getting up to it. The mov-
able chain must then be unhooked and laid aside, and
the upper part of the balloon or the dome taken
away. When this has been done, one of the screws
which close the passages for admitting air into the
reservoir must be a little raised, if this should not have
been done before.

If it be a balloon illuminator, the under part of the
balloon is to be unhooked, in order that it may fall
down and hang suspended by the hinge by which it is
attached to the horizontal brass hoop which supports
the reservoir.

The burners are then to be lighted, one after the
other, and their glass chimneys fixed in their places.

As soon as all the wicks are well on fire, they are to
be shortened, by drawing them back into their cylin-
drical burners by means of their racks or endless
screws, till their flames are reduced so as to become
very short and almost on the point of being extin-
guished. This is absolutely necessary, in order to pre-
vent the upper half of the balloon or the dome from
being scorched and perhaps set on fire by the heat,
in being passed over the ends of the chimneys of the
burners, over which it must pass in order to its being
put down into its place.

As soon as this upper half of the balloon or the
dome is in its place, the movable chain may again
be hooked to the arrow to which it belongs; after
which the wicks may be raised, one after the other, till
the flames are brought to be of a proper height. When
this has been done, the under half of the balloon may

PLATE V.

an?

tle

~
~

Le ee a A eS

-
oF.

-
ve

—— + ~~

Management of Light in Illumination. 129

be again fixed in its place, and the illuminator may be
fitted up and fixed at its proper elevation. |

These directions may perhaps be thought tedious;
but I have been acquainted with so many accidents,
that such particular instructions would probably have
prevented, that I dare not venture to suppress them.
By following them strictly, I am quite certain that no
disagreeable accident whatever can happen in the man-
agement of these new illuminators.

It still remains for me to give a more particular
account of the table illuminator; and, as it appears to
me to be probable that this invention will soon come
into general use, I shall be very particular in describ-
ing it. The Fig. 1 (Plate V.), which represents a ver-
tical section of it, may serve to give an idea of its
general form and appearance; and it will no doubt be
very useful to workmen who may be employed to make
these illuminators.

In this figure the contour of the dome is indicated
by dotted lines, and also the form of its little gallery
made of japanned tin, which serves as a handle for
taking it on and off. The form of the reservoir is like-
wise distinctly seen by a vertical section of it.

It will be observed that a circular groove is made
on the top of the reservoir for receiving the dome and
keeping it in its proper place, and that the inside of
the reservoir is made sloping. It was made of this
form, in order that it might less obstruct the light, and
that its internal surface might serve as a reflector.

The oil is conveyed to the burner by one of the two |
branches seen in the figure, by which the reservoir is
fixed to the burner. These two branches are a little

curved, in order to give the illuminator a more elegant
VOL. IV. 9

130 Management of Light in Illumination.

appearance. These branches are three-cornered tubes,
having one of their flat sides uppermost.

The openings by which the air enters the burner are
distinctly seen just above the level of the projecting
rim of the column; and just above these openings the
projecting edge of the vertical wheel is seen, which is
turned round in lowering or raising the wick.

Just above this wheel is a moulding; but the illu-
minator would have a more simple and more elegant
appearance if, by lowering the moulding to the level of
the wheel, this might appear to make a part of the
moulding.

The openings for the admission of the oil and for
the passage of the air in and out of the reservoir are
not represented in this figure. The foot on which
the column is placed is 5.4 inches square and 1.5 inch
thick. It is usually painted and japanned so as to
resemble a piece of marble or granite.

On this square foot the plinth of the column is fixed,
which is 3.35 inches square and 0.4 of an inch thick;
and on the plinth the column is placed, which is orna-
mented with mouldings, and often gilded and japanned.
It is 1.88 inches in diameter above and 2.1 inches in
diameter below, and at its upper extremity it has a rim
which projects outwards 0.4 of an inch. This rim is
very useful in transporting the illuminator from_place
to place, as it affords a firm support for the hand.

The column is made of strong tin; and it is closed
below, that it may the more conveniently serve as a
reservoir for the oil which may occasionally leak out of
the burner. :

The burner, properly so called, is a cylinder of tin,
3.8 inches in length and 1.05 inch in diameter, con-

Management of Light in Illumination. 131

structed on Argand’s principles. It is fixed in a verti-
cal position in the axis of a larger cylinder, which is
1.88 inch in diameter and 5.8 in length, in the opening
of which above the glass chimney is fixed. The lower
part of this cylinder enters 1.5 inch within the column,
and is firmly attached to it by means of a projecting
metallic knob, situated on the inside of the column
near its upper extremity. A vertical slit or opening,
on one side of the cylinder, about a quarter of an inch
wide and an inch and a quarter long, permits the cylin-
der to enter the column, notwithstanding its projecting
knob; and when the cylinder has been forced down
into the column so low that this knob comes to strike
against the upper part of this vertical opening, on turn-
ing round the cylinder, the column being held fast,
the knob is forced into a horizontal opening, by which
means the cylinder and the column are locked to-
gether, in a manner similar to that employed for fixing
a bayonet to its musket. This horizontal opening in
the side of the cylinder, into which the knob passes
in fastening the cylinder to the column, may be about
one inch in length; and, instead of making it every-
where of the same width, it will be best to make it a
little narrower towards its extremity, in order that the
knob may fill it completely in that part, and on being
forced into it, like a wedge, may hold the faster.

As it will seldom be found necessary to separate the
. reservoir from its stand (once a month, perhaps, just
to pour out any small quantity of oil that may have —
leaked out of the burner and fallen down into the
column), it will be very desirable that the reservoir
should be fixed to the column in the most solid man-
ner, in order to prevent their being separated by any
accident, while the illuminator is in use.

132 Management of Light in Illumination.

The square foot on which the column is placed may
be made of tin, and it may be filled with sand in order
to give it sufficient weight. To prevent its scratching
the table on which it is placed, a very simple contri-
vance has been used. Two pieces of hammered sole
leather, each 1 inch square, being cut diagonally, they
form four triangular pieces; each of which being
riveted by three rivets to a triangular piece of strong
tin of the same form and size, care being taken to sink
the heads of the rivets below the surface of the leather,
on soldering these triangular pieces to the bottom of
the square foot of the column, one at each of its four
corners, these pieces of leather prevent the bottom of
the stand from touching the table. Horn or wood
might be made use of instead of leather for this pur-
pose.

A considerable expense might be saved by making
the column and its foot of one piece of castiron, As it
might be japanned and gilded as easily as tin or plate
iron, it might be as highly finished, and its form might
more easily be made correct and elegant.

I have a table illuminator in my house, which is
placed on a gilt Ionic column, which is furnished with
its capital and all its members, in just proportion; and
it is really a very beautiful object. But, as it is chiefly

made of gilt brass, it comes high; but it might be.

made nearly as beautiful of cast iron, and probably at
one quarter of the expense.

A little ornament, well chosen and well placed, often
produces a very fine effect. I had a striking proof
of this in the effect produced by covering the ribs of
the dome belonging to this illuminator with artificial
diamonds of fine cut glass, and placing a gallery or

i a a ae el le

” ?

Management of Light in Illumination. 133

circular balustrade of cut glass, about an inch in
height, round the opening (3 inches only in diameter)
at the top of this dome, through which the end of the
chimney of the burner passes.

As this gallery is illuminated by the direct rays of
the flame, it produces a beautiful effect, which is the
more striking on account of the mild light which is
diffused by the luminous dome on which it stands.

Some of these table illuminators have been con-
structed with hemispherical screens below as well as
above, which gives them the appearance of a luminous
balloon placed on a column and surrounded horizon-
tally by a narrow hoop (about half an inch wide,
japanned and gilded), the apparent external circumfer-
ence of their reservoirs.

When arranged in this manner, the illuminator is
very beautiful, especially when seen at a little distance;
but, for illuminating objects placed on a table, the
dome screen is preferable, on account of the shadows
of objects being more distinct and better defined when
the light is less diffused.

In examining minute objects, it is always advan-
tageous that they should be illuminated by the direct
rays which proceed from bodies that are intensely
luminous; but great care must be taken to prevent the
eyes being exposed to those rays. No artificial illumi-
nation can be so advantageous for nice observations
as that of daylight when the sun is high and shines
bright ; but nobody in those circumstances can look at
the sun with impunity.

But that kind of illumination which is most favour-
able to very distinct vision is not that which is most
agreeable; nor is it the most favourable to the beauty

134 Management of Light in Lllumination.

of objects in general, or to human beauty. Lines
strongly marked are always hard, and some uncertainty
is necessary in order that the imagination may have
room to play.

No decayed beauty ought ever to expose her face
to the direct rays of an Argand lamp; nor should she
ever look at herself in her glass with her spectacles on.

That mysterious light which comes from bodies
moderately illuminated is certainly most favourable to
female beauty, and ought on that account to be pre-
ferred by. all persons who are wise; but I must not
indulge in these pleasing speculations.

In all cases where rooms are lighted by illuraiiaile
all other lights must be excluded; for the admission
of either lamps or candles burning with naked flames
would greatly disturb that pleasing tranquillity which
reigns where the light is mild and uniformly distrib-
uted, and instead of being advantageous to distinct
vision would, by dazzling the eyes and introducing a
confusion of lights and shades, render it much more
difficult to see objects distinctly.

As the light of an Argand lamp is so exceedingly
vivid that when it is near at hand it may often be
found to be too powerful to be agreeable, even when
placed behind the screens, in that case I would recom-
mend a very simple contrivance which I often use, and
which effectually defends the eyes without darkening
the room or sensibly diminishing the beauty of the
illumination. A hoop, made of strong white writing
paper, of about 2} inches in width, is so fitted to the
outside of the dome of the table illuminator below as
to embrace it exactly, and in such a manner as to be
supported by it.

i ct i ch: tt ted

leet

Management of Light in [llumination. 135

The use of this additional paper screen is so far from
impairing the illumination of objects placed on the >
table that it improves it, and it never fails to render
vision much more distinct by preventing the eyes from
being fatigued and injured; and although objects in
distant parts of the room will, in some places, be some-
what less illuminated, yet even there they will be seen
distinctly, for the eye will be better prepared to perceive
them. |

Most of the table illuminators that have been made
and sold at Paris have, in addition to their domes of
white gauze, been furnished with conical screens or
reflectors, made of tin, painted white and varnished
on the inside, and painted on the outside of the same
colour as the column; but these painted reflectors
occasion so great a loss of light, and give so dismal a
tinge to the small quantity they reflect, that I never
make use of them, and certainly shall never recom-
mend them to others. Lamp-makers and dealers in
tin may wish to keep up their credit; but I must say
that I think them perfectly useless, and it is evident
that they are often embarrassing.

I cannot finish my account of this table illuminator
without recommending it in a very particular manner
to the studious, and to all those who are in the habit of
reading and writing by candlelight. As it gives a great
deal of mild light, about six times as much as a good
wax candle, it illuminates sufficiently without being
near; and, as its stand is considerably higher than a
common candlestick, it may be so placed as not to be
seen by those who are reading, writing, or working by
its light, which circumstance renders the illumination
uncommonly mild and agreeable, and tends much to
the preservation of the eyes.

136 Management of Light in Illumination.

I was long of opinion that no lamp would ever be
contrived that would be preferable to wax candles for
lighting the interior of a private apartment; but I am
now convinced that this illuminator gives a pleasanter
light than wax candles, and that it is much less liable
to disagreeable accidents, and many persons of good
taste, to whom I have recommended it, all concur with
me in this opinion. That it is more economical than
even tallow candles will be shown hereafter.

As the public have a right to expect that those who
propose new improvements should give some informa-
tion respecting the prices that may reasonably be asked
by manufacturers for the objects recommended, I feel
it to be my duty to mention the prices at which the
different kinds of illuminators here described have
been sold at Paris.

The table illuminators, elegantly painted and ja-
panned, with two domes, one of thick white gauze, the
other of thinner gauze, with a conical reflector of tin,
painted white and varnished within, and painted,
gilded, and japanned without, have been sold at
55 francs. Those placed on handsome Ionic columns,
furnished with their capitals, cost 60 francs. When
the columns, with or without capitals, are entirely
gilded, they cost no more than when they are painted
to imitate marble or granite, and japanned. With
each table illuminator sold at these prices are given
two glass chimneys and six circular wicks.

These illuminators, or rather imperfect imitations of
them, have been sold in some of the shops in Paris as
low as 36 francs; but I have so seldom found it to be
advantageous to make purchases in cheap shops that
I generally avoid them myself, and never recommend
them to others.

tials

ee ee ee eee

Management of Light in Illumination. 137

A dining-room illuminator of the simplest construc-
tion, suspended from the ceiling by a metallic rod, with
its six chains made of strong links of gilt wire, without
being enriched with cut glass, may cost from 200 to
250 francs.

Those most commonly sold at Paris for lighting
elegant dining-rooms have had their chains richly or-
namented with large artificial diamonds of an oblong
form, called olives, made of fine cut glass, and the
broad hoop of gauze suspended below the dome covered
on the outside with cut glass arranged in festoons.
When ornamented in this manner and suspended by
pulleys, they cost from 300 to 350 francs.

Balloon illuminators, with three or four burners, for
drawing-rooms, ornamented in the same manner, and
the ribs of their balloons covered with small diamonds
of cut glass, are sold at different prices according to
their sizes, and according to the richness and profusion
of their ornaments. Very elegant ones with four
burners may now be had for 300 francs, which two
years ago could not be had for less than 350 francs.
As their prices are lowering every day, as the number
of manufacturers employed in making and selling them
increases, I imagine they will be sold for 10/4 or 127
sterling in a year or two, and perhaps still lower.

By constructing the hoop by which the reservoir is
suspended of strong tin, or of sheet iron painted and
japanned, instead of making it of brass and gilding it
in the fire, and by making the arrows out of strong .
iron wire painted and japanned, instead of making them —
of gilt brass, the price of these pendulous illuminators
might be greatly reduced, without making them less
useful or much less ornamental.

138 Management of Light in Illumination.

Their reservoirs are always painted white and ja-
panned; and if the hoop which supports the reservoir
and its six projecting arrows were also painted white
and ornamented modestly, by gilding the two borders
of the hoop and the feathers of the arrows, the illumi-
nator would perhaps be quite as beautiful as it now is,
when this hoop and its arrows have the appearance of
burnished gold.

A considerable expense might be saved, without
occasioning any considerable inconvenience, by sus-
pending all pendulous illuminators by metallic rods,
instead of suspending them by means of cords passing
over pulleys.

Small pendulous balloon illuminators, with one single
burner, have lately been introduced at Paris; and they
light a boudoir or any other small room in so very
elegant a manner that they deserve to be just men-
tioned. Their circular reservoirs are 12? inches in
diameter on the outside, and about 1} inch in width;
and their balloons are ornamented with cut glass.
When the hoop, which supports the reservoir, and its
six arrows are made of strong tin, painted of a bronze
colour and varnished, this illuminator is. sold for
80 francs. . They are suspended at the height of about
6} feet above the floor; and, as the surface of the bal-
loon is very large in proportion to the quantity of light
by which it is rendered luminous, the light it diffuses
is very mild, and the balloon may be viewed without
.any injury to the eyes.

Several pendulous balloon illuminators with two
burners have also been constructed, which have been
sold as low as 120 francs.

Pe ee ees

i a See

Management of Light in Lllumination. 1 39

CHAPTER II.
Description of a Portable Lamp. |

S vegetable oils, purified by means of the sul-
phuric acid, burn without either smoke or smell
and,give a great abundance of pure white light in their
combustion, and as they cost considerably less than
tallow by the pound and give more light, great advan-
tages would be derived from the general use of them
for domestic illumination; but, to render this possible,
lamps must be made portable. As they have hitherto
been constructed, the danger of spilling the oil is so
great, and that accident is so very disagreeable, that
nobody who can avoid it will make use of them,
except in cases where they can be stationary. Where a
light is wanted that must be continually moved about
from place to place, candles are universally preferred,
though many inconveniences attend the use of them.

Perceiving that great advantages could not fail to be
derived from the introduction of a good portable lamp
for common use, to supply the place of tallow candles,
I have taken a good deal of pains to contrive such a
lamp, and after many experiments I have at length
succeeded in this undertaking.

This lamp, which is not inelegant in its appearance,
is liable to none of those disagreeable accidents to
which lamps in general are exposed. It is so perfectly
neat and cleanly that it never spills a drop of oil nor~
even lets it come into view; and, when properly ar-
ranged, it never smokes or diffuses any disagreeable
smell, not even when it is extinguished. Its flame,

140 Management of Light in Lllumination.

being covered and protected by its glass chimney,
burns so steadily that it is not in the least deranged
either by the wind or in being moved about from place
to place; and the flame of this lamp is so immovably
fixed in the axis of its chimney, by the ascending cur-
rent of air, that it does not quit it, even when the
chimney is considerably inclined, so that the flame
very seldom touches the glass.

This lamp has one quality which no other ever pos-
sessed before in the same perfection. It may be made
to furnish any quantity of light required, from that of
the smallest bed-chamber lamp or feeblest taper to
that furnished by three or four candles all burning
together; and these alternate variations in the quan-
tities of light emitted by it may be repeated at pleas-
ure, without any trouble, merely by turning a button
which moves a rack that is concealed in the body of
the lamp, or rather in the column on which it is
placed.

I shall first endeavour to give an idea of the genera
form of this lamp, and shall then proceed to describe
its various parts more particularly.

In: order to render these descriptions more satisfac-
tory, I have given a figure of the lamp (Plate VI., Fig. 2)
drawn to a scale of half its real size. a, Fig. 2, is a cir-
cular reservoir which surrounds the upper end of the
vertical tube 4, in the axis of which the burner is
placed.

The end of the burner appears above the circular
reservoir, and its flame is confined in the glass chim-
ney g, which, for want of room, is represented broken
off, just above the point of the flame.

The vertical tube ¢ is the stand which supports the

PiateE VI.

en eeewmnnen,

Fig. 2.

»yA

Management of Light in Illumination. 141

lamp. It has a circular foot @, and it ends above at the
moulding z, which belongs to it, and forms what may |
be considered as its brim. Into the opening of the
tube ¢, the lower extremity of the tube 6 enters at
about one inch; and it is firmly fixed in it by means of
a contrivance similar to that used for fixing a bayonet
to its musket. )

About one inch and a half above the lower extremity
of the tube 4, this tube is perforated by a circular row
of air-holes, which goes quite round it. These holes
are concealed by the hoop 4, which is fastened to the
tube 4 by means of three vertical projections, made of
pieces of wire soldered to the tube at equal distances
from each other. The hoop being afterwards soldered
to the ends of these wires, it is supported by them in
its place, and the air passing between the inside of the
hoop and the outside of the tube enters the air-holes.

The use of this hoop is to screen the air-holes, and
prevent the flame of the lamp from being disturbed by
sudden gusts of wind; and the mouldings z and & are
placed above and below this hoop for the same pur-
pose.

Zis a button which is used for moving a rack (con-
cealed in the inside of the tube 4), which serves for
elevating and lowering the wick. ¢ is the handle of the
lamp, which projects horizontally from the side of the
circular reservoir a. It is hollow, and about six inches
in length; and it serves at the same time as a handle
and as a secondary reservoir for containing the oil.
For want of room, it is represented in the figure as ©
being broken off.

fis the stopper which closes the opening by which
oil is poured into the lamp.

142 Management of Light in Lllumination.

Fig. 3, Plate VII., represents a vertical section, of
the full size, through the middle of the upper part of
the lamp, and in a line passing through the middle
of its handle.

The vertical tube 6 is 5 inches in length and
14 inches in diameter. The burner m, x, is fixed in
the axis of this tube by means of the short horizontal
tubes 0, , which are soldered to the burner, and like-
wise to the inside of the tube 4.

The rack which serves to move the Wicket is placed
within the tube 4, by the side of the burner; but it is
not represented in the figure.

The glass chimney is placed in the upper part of the
tube 6; and, in order that it may be firmly fixed in its
place, an elastic hoop, made of tin covered on both
sides with soft leather, is first pushed down into the
opening of the tube 4, and the lower extremity of the
glass chimney is forced down into this hoop. This
hoop is one inch wide; and, when it is in its place, it
rests on the tubes 0, . The hoop of tin is not sol-
dered together; and, in order to render it more elastic,
it has a number of vertical slits, which extend from the
upper side of the hoop to within one quarter of an inch
of the lower side of it.

This hoop, covered on both sides with soft leather
(such as is used for making ladies’ gloves), is about
one tenth of an inch in thickness, so that its diameter
within is one inch and three tenths, which is also the
diameter of the glass chimneys below, or of that por-
tion of them which enters the hoop.

The tube 4 is made larger than otherwise would be
necessary, in order to receive this elastic hoop, which
has been found to be very useful for fixing the glass
chimney firmly in its place.

PUATE” VEE;

Fig. 3.

men me tenemos -

Management of Light in. Illumination. 143

The circular reservoir is composed of two pieces: of
tin, a and g, formed under the hammer, which are —
soldered to each other and to the tube 6. That which
forms the upper part of the reservoir is convex: the
other, g, is in the form of the large end of a trumpet.

The oil passes from this reservoir into the burner
through a very small hole made in the side of the
tube 6, which opens into the interior of the short
tube A.

The greatest diameter of the circular reservoir is
two inches and a half; and its depth, measured from
the level of the highest part of its sloping bottom, is
0.8 of an inch. The vertical height of this sloping
bottom g is also 0.8 of an inch, which makes the
greatest depth of this reservoir 1.6 inch; but the
lower part of it being very narrow holds very little
oil.

The hoop 4, which serves as a screen to the air-
holes in the tube 4, is three fourths of an inch in width
and 1.7 inch in diameter.

Before this hoop was used, the flame of the lamp
was liable to be deranged, not only by sudden blasts
of wind blowing directly into these air-holes, but also
by sudden jerks accidentally given to the lamp in
carrying it; but the hoop has been found to be an
effectual security against both these accidents.

The rings & and 2, Fig. 2 (Plate VI.), which have the
appearance of being introduced for mere ornament,
serve two important purposes. They prevent the air
from being forced into the air-holes in such a manner
as. to derange the flame in moving the lamp very sud-
denly, or with a jerk, either upwards or downwards ;
and they also prevent the air within the tube 4 from

144 Management of Light an Llluminateon.

passing too freely out of it, by a retrograde motion, on
every puff of wind that may blow down into the top
of the glass chimney.

In order more effectually to defend this lamp against
those descending blasts, and also from being blown
out by the air forced into the opening of the chimney
above, on lifting up the lamp very suddenly, the top of
the chimney is covered by a small conical roof, made

of thin sheet iron, two inches in diameter below and

about one inch and a quarter in height. This roof is
fixed in its place by means of three narrow vertical
slips of sheet iron, a quarter of an inch in width and
an inch and a half in length, which are riveted above
to the inside of the conical roof. These slips, which
are elastic, on being forced together, enter the glass
chimney, and by pressing against its sides keep the
roof fixed in its place. |

It might have been apprehended that this roof
would have so checked the ascending current of air in
the chimney as to diminish the rapidity of the com-
bustion and impair the brilliancy of the light; but this
has not been found to be the case. The three slips of
sheet iron by which the roof is fixed in its place are
so arranged that the level of the lower part of the roof
is about one tenth of an inch higher than the extremity
of the glass chimney; and a greater height has not
been found to be necessary to give a free passage to
the air. |

These different contrivances defend the lamp so
effectually against both wind and rain, that the lamp
may without any risk be used in the open air instead
of a lantern, and even in stormy weather.

The use of the roof is not absolutely necessary

Management of Light in Illumination. 145

within doors, but when the lamp is exposed to the
wind in the open air it will stand in need of its protec-
tion; and it is also very useful when the lamp is car-
ried about from place to place, to prevent its sited
extinguished by sudden jerks.

I shall now endeavour to describe every essential
part of this lamp, and one which, more than any other,
distinguishes it from all other lamps: this is its sec-
ondary reservoir.

This is a rectangular flat tube, which projects hori-
zontally from one side of the circular reservoir already
described. It is 1.25 in width, 0.8 of an inch in depth,
and 6 inches in length, and it is closed at its farther
end. It serves at the same time as a secondary reser-
voir and as a handle for holding the lamp when it is
carried about from place to place. Instead of being
made of a prismatic form, it is frequently swelled out
at its sides and rounded off at its extremity (farthest
from the lamp); and it is always painted black and
japanned. This is done in order to give it the appear-
ance of being merely a handle.

As there was not room to introduce it entire in
either of the Figs. 2 and 3, it is in both shown
broken off at the distance of about an inch and a half
from the circular reservoir.

It is on the upper part of this secondary reservoir,
where it projects horizontally over the upper part of
the circular reservoir, that the opening is placed by
which this lamp is filled with oil; and this opening is
closed by a perforated brass stopper 4, on which a hol-
low cone is placed that serves to give a passage to the
air which enters the reservoir.

In the Fig. 3 (Plate VII.) a vertical section through

VOL, IV, 10

146 Management of Light in Illumination.

the middle of this stopper and its hollow cone is dis-
tinctly represented, the brass stopper being distin-
guished by diagonal lines. The short brass tube s
is likewise shown, which receives the stopper. This
tube, which is half an inch in diameter above inter-
nally, and somewhat smaller below, is 0.35 of an inch
in length, and descends a quarter of an inch into the
cavity of the reservoir.

The brass stopper, which is hollow, has a small hole
in its axis which opens a communication between the
circular reservoir and the conical chamber above the
stopper; and in the upper part of this conical chamber
a small hollow truncated cone is so fixed as to be sus-
pended in it. It is through this small cone that the air
passes in and out of the reservoir.

The smaller cone is fixed in the larger by soldering

them together before the larger cone is soldered to the .

brass stopper.

The secondary reservoir is separated from the cir-
cular reservoir by means of a vertical partition 7
which is situated immediately behind the short brass
tube s, which forms the opening by which the lamp is
filled ‘with oil.

Through this partition the extremities of two long
horizontal tubes pass, which are concealed in the
secondary reservoir and which form the communica-
tion between the two reservoirs. The one is situated
immediately on the flat bottom of the secondary reser-
voir, and extends from the partition ~ to within about
_a quarter of an inch of the extremity of that reservoir.
The other, which is of the same length, is fixed to the
upper part of the secondary reservoir.

These tubes may be constructed in the following

Wags enp een tai

Management of Light tn Illumination. 147

manner. Two slips of tin, each 0.6 of an inch in width
and about 5 inches long, may be formed into two square
gutters or spouts, 0.2 of an inch wide and o.2 of an
inch deep. One of them being turned upside down
and soldered on both its sides to the flat bottom or
floor of the secondary reservoir, in the direction of its
length, a square tube or trunk will thus be formed.
The other square spout is to be fixed in the same
manner to the upper part, or to what may be called
the ceiling of the long chamber, which serves as a
secondary reservoir.

One of the ends of each of these square tubes must
just pass through the vertical partition which separates
the two reservoirs, and must be soldered to it; and both
these tubes must be open from end to end.

In order to show in a clear and satisfactory manner
the various objects had in view in the contrivance of
this machinery (if any thing can be called machinery
which produces its effect without any motion of its
parts), we will suppose the lamp first to be filled with
oil, and then lighted.

The upper part of the lamp being united to its
stand, and the lamp placed on a table, on removing
the stopper f and pouring oil slowly into the lamp, the
oil will enter the circular reservoir; and, as soon as
this is filled to the level of the bottom of the secondary
reservoir, it will begin to flow into that also, passing
through the long square trunk which is fixed down on
its bottom. As the air can escape out of this second-
ary reservoir through the long square tube which is
fixed to its upper side, it is evident that nothing can
obstruct the passage of the oil into it, except it be the
difficulty that the air in it may find in passing out of

148 Management of Light in LMlumination.

it by a long narrow tube, which perhaps may be some-
times obstructed, more or less, by small parcels of oil
that may remain in it.

As this accident was found to happen sometimes,
another contrivance was used to facilitate the escape
of this air, which has been found to answer perfectly.

A small hole of about three twentieths of an inch in
diameter, which is represented in the figure, has been
made through the side of the vertical brass tube s, and
opening directly into the cavity of the secondary reser-
voir. As the air in this reservoir can escape freely
through this opening, there is no longer any difficulty
whatever in filling the lamp with oil; and when this
operation is ended, as the hole by which the air es-
capes out of the secondary reservoir is hermetically
closed by the brass stopper, as may be seen in the
figure, no inconvenience whatever has resulted from
the use of this contrivance.

We will now suppose that the lamp, after having
been filled, is lighted.

The oil, passing continually through the small open-
ing in the side of the cylinder 4, will flow through the
tube / into the burner.

As the oil in the circular reservoir passes freely into
the burner, so that in the secondary reservoir passes
freely into the circular reservoir, through the small
square trunk, open at both ends, which is fixed down
on the bottom of the secondary reservoir, so that the
lamp will continue to burn till the last drop of oil is
consumed.

It is very certain that the oil in the secondary reser-
voir would not flow freely out of it into the circular
reservoir if air could not at the same time enter it

Management of Light in Illumination. 149

freely to replace that oil; but the long square tube
fixed to the top of the secondary reservoir gives a free
passage to the air from one of the reservoirs to the
other; and as the stopper, which closes the opening
by which the oil is poured into the lamp, is perforated
at the point of its double cone with a hole sufficiently
large to establish the necessary communication be-
tween the air in the circular reservoir and that of the
surrounding atmosphere, there is nothing in any of
these contrivances that can prevent the lamp from
burning well, and consuming the whole of its oil.

Suppose now that the lamp, properly arranged and
burning well, be taken up by its handle and -carried
about from place to place in the open air. As it
cannot be supposed that those into whose hands this
lamp must fall, if it ever gets into. general use, will
have leisure to pay much attention to their manner of
holding it, in carrying it about in the course of their
business, if the lamp does not take care of itself it can
be of no real value; but a bare inspection of the fore-
going figure will be sufficient to show that it cannot
be liable to any of those accidents which have hitherto
prevented lamps from being portable.

The very small quantity of oil that can be contained
in the vertical burner cannot be thrown out of it by
any sudden jolts the lamp may receive in being -car-
ried in the hand, or on being suddenly set down; and
the concussions which the oil in the circular reservoir
may receive cannot sensibly affect that in the burner.
That accident has been effectually guarded against by
causing the oil to pass through a very small hole in its
way from the circular reservoir to the burner.

As this small hole is made in the side of a tube

150 . Management of Light in Illumination.

which is vertical, it is not liable to be stopped up by
bubbles of air nor by the sediment of the oil; and, if it
should ever happen to be stopped up by any accident,
it can easily be cleared out by means of a small wire
introduced-by the opening through which the lamp is
filled with oil. |

Notwithstanding the smallness of the opening by
which the oil passes into the burner, if from careless-
ness in carrying the lamp it were held for a consider-
able time in such a manner that the extremity of the
handle were considerably higher than the level of the
top of the burner, so much oil might at length have
been forced into the burner as to overflow; but this
accident is prevented by the vertical partition which
separates the cavities of the two reservoirs. As long
as the lamp stands on its foot or is carried in such a
manner that its burner is held in a vertical position,
the oil flows freely from one reservoir to the other, as
we have just seen; but, as soon as the lamp is leaned
forward in such a manner as to cause the end of its
handle farthest from the burner to be raised up higher
than the top of the burner, the oil in the cavity of
the handle is thrown forward against the vertical par-
tition, which partition will support this oil and prevent
its descending into the circular reservoir. The small
quantity of oil contained in the lower square trunk
belonging to the secondary reservoir will be emptied
into the circular reservoir; but no more of the oil in
this reservoir can follow it, for the farther end of that
tube, and also of the air-tube, will now be elevated
aboye the surface of that oil.

These contrivances effectually prevent the oil from
overflowing at the extremity of the burner; but others

Management of Light in Ilumination. 151

were necessary to prevent its being thrown out of the
lamp by the opening which it was necessary to leave
for the air to pass freely in and out of the reservoirs.
The most convenient situation for this opening is in
the middle of the stopper which closes the passage by
which the oil is poured into the lamp; and there I
have established it. This stopper is perforated at its
centre by a vertical hole of about one tenth of an inch
in diameter; and on the top of this stopper, which is
flat, there is soldered a thin, hollow, truncated cone,
made of tin, half an inch in diameter below, o.1 of an
inch in diameter above, and three fourths of an inch in
height, in the axis of which another smaller truncated
cone is placed, in such a manner as to remain" sus-
pended in it. This smaller cone is 0.15 of an inch in
diameter below, 0.5 of an inch in diameter above, and
half an inch in height; and it is entirely concealed in
the larger cone, except only about 0.1 of an inch in
length of its upper end, which comes through the
small opening of the larger cone to which it is sol-
dered.

This simple contrivance has proved to be an effect-
ual remedy for an accident which embarrassed me for
some time. When the lamp happens to receive any
violent jolt, the regurgitation of the oil in the circular
reservoir is sometimes such as to cause a small portion
of oil. to be thrown up through the small hole left for
the passage of the air in the centre of the brass stop-
per; and, although I had taken the precaution to cover
this opening by a vertical narrow tube, near an inch
long, the oil was, nevertheless, sometimes forced out of
the top of this tube by the air which escaped from the
secondary reservoir, on its being warmed by the hand;

152 Management of Light in Lllumination.

but, since I have substituted the double cone in lieu of
this vertical tube, this accident has never happened,
and a bare inspection of the figure is sufficient to show
that it never can happen.

Any small quantity of oil on being thrown up into

the conical chamber must necessarily spread over the,

bottom of it, from whence it will afterwards descend
slowly; and the air that may happen to follow it imme-
diately into the conical chamber will pass through it
and escape by the small interior cone, which is evi-

dently out of the reach of the oil, and therefore cannot.

be soiled by it.

As the brass tube which forms the opening by which
the oil is poured into the lamp descends about a quar-
ter of an inch below the level of the upper part of the
circular reservoirs, it is evident that this reservoir can-
not be completely filled with oil, for the air cannot all
escape out of it. It would have been easy, by piercing
this tube on the side of the circular reservoir in the
same manner as it is pierced on the opposite side (to
facilitate the escape of the air out of the secondary
reservoir), to have opened a passage for the escape of
all the air out of the circular reservoir; but I have not
done it, for I conceived that it might be advantageous
to leave some air in the circular reservoir, which on
inclining the lamp forward escapes, and makes room
for the oil which runs out of the trunk of the second-
ary reservoir, when the lamp is so inclined.

This precaution could never be of any use except

when the lamp, after having been entirely filled with .

oil, and before any sensible quantity of it should have
been consumed, should be so much and so long in-
clined as to endanger the overflowing of the oil in the

Management of Light in Illumination. 153

burner by the pressure of that in the trunk; and
although this accident could seldom have happened,
yet I was very glad to have found means to prevent it.
Its effects indeed could in no case have been very dis-
agreeable; for, as all the oil that could have possibly
overflowed at the extremity of the burner must neces-
sarily have run down on the outside of it, and fallen
into the reservoir in the foot of the lamp, it could
never have been seen, and much less have been spilled
in such a manner as to run out of the lamp. . That is
an accident which I conceive to be quite impossible to
happen with this lamp; and such is my security on
that head that I frequently take a portable lamp filled
with oil with me in my carriage when I travel, and
place it, and not always perfectly upright, in one of the
pockets, — not lighted, to be sure, — but ready to light
when I arrive at an inn where I mean to spend the
night. It is true that in these cases I always take care
to draw back the wick and to close the opening of the
burner with a fit stopper, but the opening by which the
air enters the reservoir is never closed.

The burners of these portable lamps have been
made of various forms, and wicks of different kinds
have been employed. As it will always be necessary
to use glass chimneys with these lamps, in order to
prevent their flames from being deranged by the wind,
such forms must be chosen for their burners as are
well adapted to these chimneys. For common use a
form must be chosen which will render the operation
of trimming the lamp as easy as possible. A flat wick
is the easiest trimmed ; but that form is not well adapted
to a cylindrical glass chimney, neither is it favourable
to the production of light.

154 Management of Light in Illumination.

A small cylindrical wick, similar to those used in
Argand’s lamp, gives a great deal of very pure white
light; but, as it requires a current of air in the axis of
it in order to its performing well, this renders the con-
struction of the burner too complicated, and the opera-
tion of changing the wick and trimming it too delicate
and difficult for common use. It is, however, most
certain that this wick produces a very striking and
beautiful effect, and many persons have preferred it to
all others.

The wick which has answered best for general use
is a flat ribbon wick, about one inch wide, prepared by
dipping it into very hot tallow, which, when cooled
and cut into proper lengths, is laid by for use. When
a new wick is wanted, one of these flat wicks is
moulded on a wooden cylinder of about 0.3 of an inch
in diameter, and made to take the form of a tube, open
on one side from end to end; and in that form it enters
the burner, which is so constructed as to receive it,
and also to preserve its form till it is quite consumed.

The form of the burner is such that a horizontal
section of it.is nearly in the shape of a horse-shoe, the
open part of it being turned towards the handle of the
lamp.

To move the wick, a contrivance has been used, which
is not a new invention, but which has been found to be
very useful. A strong cylindrical rod of stout wire, a
little more than one tenth of an inch in diameter, pass-
ing vertically through a collar, formed of several pieces
of leather, confined in a small cylindrical brass box
soldered to the burner, enters the burner at the bottom
of it; and being fixed at its lower extremity to the lower
end of a rack which is placed vertically by the side of

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SS SS eh _ eee

yer

Management of Light in Illumination. 155

the burner, and which is moved by means of a pinion,
connected with a button (seen at Fig. 1, Plate V.),
placed on the outside of the vertical tube, which con-
ceals both the burner and the rack, by turning this
button to the right or to the left the cylindrical rod is
moved either up or down in the burner, as the occasion
may require. | .

To the upper end of this cylindrical rod is fixed a
pair of small elastic nippers with sharp teeth, which
hold the lower end of the wick. As long as these nip-
pers are within the burner, they are so pressed together
by its two opposite sides that they hold the wick very
fast; but, when they are pushed up so high as to come
out of the burner, they separate from each other, in
consequence of their elasticity.

When they are in this situation, the remains of the
old wick may be removed without difficulty; and the
end of the new wick being put in their place, in caus-
ing the nippers to descend into the burners, they will
necessarily draw the new wick after them.

The changing of the wick of a lamp has hitherto
been a very disagreeable and filthy operation; but from
this description it is evident the wick of this lamp may
be changed in an instant, and that there is nothing
either difficult or disgusting in that momentary pro-
cess.

Care must be taken in trimming the new wick, first,
to make it descend as far as possible into the burner;
then to cut off with a pair of sharp scissors all that
projects above the level of the top of the burner; and,
when this has been done, the wick must be raised about
zo Of an inch, and again cut off level with the top of
the burner. If this precaution be neglected, the wick

156 Management of Light om Lllumenation.

will be too long to be extinguished suddenly, and with-
out smoke, after having been lighted for the first time.
If attention be paid to it, no disagreeable smell whatever
will be diffused on that occasion, nor on any other.

All the lamps with which I am acquainted diffuse a
very noxious, stinking vapour when they are made to
burn with a very small flame. Even an Argand lamp,
in which the combustion of the oil is usually so com-
plete, if it be so arranged by lowering its wick as to
give only about one sixth part of the light it usually
furnishes, it will diffuse a smell so very offensive that
it will become quite insupportable.

To see clearly into this matter, we have only to
consider what the changes are which take place when
an Argand lamp, burning with its usual vivacity, is
suddenly made to burn with a very feeble flame.

When this lamp burns well, the current of air which
passes upwards through its chimney is so strong that
the flame of the lamp is forced upwards towards the
upper end of the wick; and the burner, being at some
distance from the flame, is kept so cool by this strong
blast of cold air that it does not become sufficiently hot
to decompose the oil with which it is alway in contact;
but, as soon as the wick is considerably shortened, the
flame being much diminished, the current of air through
the chimney becomes very feeble, and the flame, being
no longer forced upwards by that current, descends by
degrees, till at last it establishes itself on the very brim
of the burner. This necessarily heats the top of the
burner very hot, however small the flame may be; and,
as all the oils which are used in lamps are decomposed
and evaporated at a lower temperature than that at
which they take fire and burn, the cause of the offen-

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ee ee ee Se ee a ll

—

Management of Light in Illumination. 157

sive vapour which is diffused by lamps with metallic
burners, when they are made to burn with very small
flames, is quite evident.

Conceiving that the evil might be remedied by pre-
venting the flame from coming into contact with the
burner, I attempted to do this by giving to the burner
a projecting brim, in the form of an inverted truncated
cone, and about one tenth of an inch in width; and
this contrivance has completely answered the purpose
for which it was designed. As the current of air which
keeps the flame alive passes upwards in the chimney,
it is thrown outwards by the projecting brim of the
burner, from whence it returns and falls into the flame
in an oblique direction, which prevents the flame from
descending so low as to come into contact with the
burner.

Since this improvement has been introduced in the
construction of the burners of the portable lamps, they
have ceased to diffuse a disagreeable smell on being
made to burn with a very small flame; and they are
now frequently employed as night-lamps (vez//euses) in
bed-rooms.

They are the better adapted for that use, as they are
not liable to be deranged by the wind, or by any other
accident, and can always be made to give a very bright
light in a moment, as often as such a light is wanted
during the night.

For those who have the bad habit of reading in bed,
they will be very convenient, and much less dangerous
than candles or common lamps. They will likewise be
found to be very useful in ante-rooms in great houses,
where several of them may be lighted and kept con-
stantly burning with reduced flames, for a very small

158 Management of Light in Illumination. |

expense; and at the moment when they are wanted
they may be made to furnish their usual quantity of
light, and when they are brought back into the ante-
room their flames may again be reduced. They would
cost much less than wax tapers or bougies, and would
be much more cleanly and agreeable.

As the light emitted by these lamps is exceedingly
vivid, and especially when they are made to burn with
their greatest brilliancy, their flames should always be
masked by screens, made of ground glass or of white
gauze or crape. The most simple and best form for
a screen for this lamp is that of a truncated cone, 6
inches in diameter at its base, 14 inch in diameter
above, and 3} in perpendicular height, with a gallery
above, of about half an inch in height, made of tin
japanned, to serve instead of a handle in placing it and
removing it. This screen may be fixed in its place by
means of aconical tube of tin, attached to the screen
on the inside of it, which may be made to receive the
cone which is fixed to the stopper which closes the
opening by which the lamp is filled with oil.

The handle of the lamp being six inches in length,
enough of it will project beyond the lower part of this
screen to give a sufficient hold of it in carrying the
lamp.

A small balloon screen, of about six inches in diame-
ter, is frequently used with this lamp, and has a very
fine effect. This balloon is made of white crape, fixed
to vertical ribs of covered wire, and has an opening
below of about 2.4 inches in diameter, that it may rest
on the widest part of the circular reservoir; and it has
also a circular opening above one inch and a half in
diameter, to give a passage to the upper end of the glass

Management of Light in Llumination. 159

chimney. This opening at the upper part of the bal-
loon should be surrounded bya gallery of tin, japanned,
similar to that on the top of the conical screen, and for
the same use.

This balloon screen must also have another opening
below, on one side, to make way for the projecting
handle of the lamp. The best way of fixing this screen
in its place is by means of a conical tube, fastened to
it on the inside of it, in the same manner as the conical
screen is fixed.

Both these screens are indicated in the Fig. 2 by faint
dotted lines.

When this lamp is used as a bed-chamber lamp, and
made to burn with a very small flame, its feeble light
may be almost entirely concealed by placing a conical
screen made of pasteboard over its conical screen of
gauze or crape.

Though the principal merit of this lamp is its being
portable, yet, as it is not liable to spilling its oil, and
gives a clear, bright light, without either smoke or
smell, it is perfectly well calculated to serve as a table
lamp, even in elegant apartments, and also for lighting
dining-tables; but, when it is intended to be used for
these purposes, it should be placed on a stand, suff-
ciently elevated to raise its flame to the height of 12 or
15 inches. This additional height does not prevent its
being portable; but, when it is lower, it appears to be
better adapted for being carried about in the hand. It
must, however, be made about nine inches in height,
otherwise there will not be room for the rack to de-
scend sufficiently low to allow of a wick being used of
a reasonable length.

Many attempts have been made to improve the light

160 Management of Light in Illumination.

of lamps by preparing their wicks, and prepared wicks
have been sold at high prices; but the secret of the
preparation has not to my knowledge been made
public.

Having, purchased some of these prepared wicks
several years ago at Munich, from an itinerant Italian
pedlar, I analyzed them. On exposing them to heat,
I separated from them a substance which had every
appearance of being pure tallow, but to which a strong
and not disagreeable scent had been given, probably
to conceal the secret of the preparation, which I then
considered as being a mere cheat, and paid no farther
attention to it. Some time after, on considering the
matter more attentively, I found reason to conclude
that either tallow or wax, heated very hot, might very
probably be used with advantage for preparing wicks

for lamps, and also for candles. I can explain my ideas ~

on that subject in a very few words.

In order that a lamp or candle may burn well, it is
necessary that the oil, tallow, or wax which supplies
the combustion, should flow freely over the surface of
those minute fibres of the cotton which compose the
wick.

Every extraneous body, whether solid or fluid, which
remains attached to the surface of those fibres, must
necessarily prevent the oil, tallow, etc., from flowing
freely over them.

Now it is most certain that a considerable quantity
of air, and also of water (moisture), remains attached to
the cotton wicks of lamps for a long time after they
have been immersed in oil, This may easily be made
to appear by exposing the oil with the wick in it under
the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, for the surface

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Management of Light in Lllumination, 161

of the cotton will be quite covered with small bubbles
of air in a few minutes; or if the wick of a lamp full of
oil, or of a candle full of tallow or of wax, be thrown
into melted tallow, so heated as to be almost ready to
boil, as this heat is considerably greater than that at
which water boils, not only the air, but the moisture
also, which remains attached to the cotton, will be sud-
denly driven out of it. This will occasion a violent
effervescence, accompanied by a loud hissing, which,
however, will cease entirely in a few moments; and the
cotton will sink down to the bottom of the hot melted
tallow, where it will remain perfectly quiet, and free
from air bubbles. Wines

These appearances afford a decisive proof that air or
moisture, or both, remain attached to the wicks of lamps
and candles; and it is most certain that they must
necessarily be injurious to the wick, by preventing the
oil, melted tallow, or melted wax from flowing freely
over the minute fibres of the cotton. But this experi-
ment shows us at the same time how this evil may
be effectually prevented.

By heating melted tallow till it is nearly boiling hot,
on throwing into this hot liquid a parcel of clean dry
wicks, the air and the moisture will be expelled in a few
moments with a hissing noise, and being replaced by
the tallow they will be permanently excluded. As soon
as the hissing has ceased, the wicks may be taken out
of the melted tallow to drip and cool, and when cold
they may be cut into proper lengths; and being wrapped
up in clean paper, to preserve them from the dust, they —
may be preserved for years without change.

The wicks of tallow candles and of wax candles
might be prepared by dipping them for ¢he first time

VOL. IV. I

162 Management of Light im Lllumination.

in melted tallow or melted wax, heated very hot, in
order more effectually to expel the air and moisture.

Wicks for lamps may be prepared by immersing
them in hot melted wax, instead of using melted tallow
for that purpose; and many persons who manage their
lamps themselves would, no doubt, prefer wax, on
account of its greater cleanliness; but, having tried
both these substances, I have not found that the wicks
which had been prepared with wax burned better than
those prepared with tallow.

As dust, and in general every species of soil, is very
injurious to a wick, it is necessary that those which are
to be prepared be well washed and dried before they
undergo this operation.

As oils that are purified by means of the sulphuric
acid always retain a certain portion of the acid, not-
withstanding all the pains that are taken to separate
and remove it, if that residue of the acid attacks the
wick and injures it, so as to spoil it entirely if left for
a considerable time in the oil, as is generally supposed;
as either the tallow or the wax used in preparing the
wick will effectually preserve the cotton from the acid
till it shall have been displaced by the oil, on being
melted in consequence of the lamp being lighted, —it is
evident that this mode of preparation must be useful
as a preservative against the attacks of the acid, espe-
cially when a lamp filled with oil remains some time
without being lighted.

The corrosive effects of this acid are so injurious to
the burner, especially at its extremity where the heat is
considerable, that the burner of an Argand lamp sel-
dom lasts more than two years. To remedy this evil
I have lately given directions for the upper end of the

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PLATE VIII.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

ON Ee a eae ee cr a

Management of Light in Illumination. 163

burner (about half an inch in length) to be made of
silver instead of tin or copper; and, as this alteration
does not occasion an additional expense of more than
eighteen pence or two shillings, it must in the end turn
out to be very economical. All lamps with vertical
burners should be constructed in this manner, espe-
cially when they are destined to be used with purified
oil.

As I am persuaded that this portable lamp will be
found useful, I am anxious that all its essential parts
may be so particularly described as to leave no doubt
or uncertainty respecting its construction; for unless
this be done all my labour will be to little purpose.

Fig. 4, Plate VIII., shows the manner in which the
upper part of the lamp is fixed to its stand. 6 is a
part of the vertical tube, which is surrounded at its
upper extremity by the circular reservoir; ¢ is the
upper part of the column which serves as a stand for
the lamp; 4 is the hoop which serves to mask the air-
holes (represented in Fig. 3 by dotted lines), through
which the air passes into the tube 4. This hoop is
attached to the, vertical tube 4 by means of three ver-
tical wires, which are soldered to the tube. Two of
them are represented in this figure. One of them,
v, descends lower than the under side of the hoop
which it supports; and its lower extremity is turned
inwards, and forms a hook; The two others descend
each about one tenth of an inch below the lower side
of the hoop, but they are not bent. z is the ring of
wire which forms the moulding at the upper extremity
of the stand of the lamp. This moulding is inter-
rupted in one part of it, as is clearly shown in the
figure. |

164 Management of Light in Illumination.

When the upper part of the lamp is to be fixed to
its stand, the lower part of the tube @ is introduced
into the opening of the stand ¢, and is turned round in
the tube ¢ till the hook v, coming to the part of the
ring z where it is interrupted, descends through that
opening. The tube 4, being then turned round its
axis to the left nearly one whole revolution, the hook v
receiving and embracing the ring z, it is at length
stopped by a part of this ring, which is turned down-
wards; and the upper part of the lamp is thus firmly
fixed to its stand.

After having tried several contrivances for fixing the
lamp to its stand, this appeared to answer best. The
hook v should be placed nearly under the handle of
the lamp, in order that when the lamp is fixed to its
stand the opening in the ring z may be less in view.

The projecting ends of the vertical wires, by means
of which the hoop 4 is fixed in its place, are useful in
fixing the lamp to its stand, as they rest on the top of
the ring z.

Before I finish my account of this portable lamp, I
must say a few words more respecting the different
forms that may be given to its wick.

As the internal diameter of the glass chimney of his

lamp at the level of the lower part of the flame must
not be more than eight tenths of an inch, it is neces-
sary that the flame should be placed as exactly as
possible in the middle of it, for otherwise there will be
some danger of its touching the glass. To avoid that
accident, wider chimneys have sometimes been used;
but, where this has been done, the beautiful white
colour of the flame has always been more or less in-
jured, and the quantity of light sensibly diminished, —

1 sede Semel

ee ee a ee ee ey |

Management of Light in [llumination. 165

in short, the combustion of the oil has been rendered
incomplete.

Those who have attended to the striking effect pro-
duced by blowing wood fire with a bellows, in whiten-
ing the flame and increasing the light, will easily
conceive how much the beauty of the flame of a lamp
must depend on the manner in which the air is intro-
duced, which supplies the combustion.

The glass chimney of Argand’s lamp is useful, no
doubt, in defending the flame and preventing its being
agitated by the wind; but it is its usefulness as a
blower which renders this contrivance so highly inter-
esting. et
I have lately made several experiments with braided
wicks in the form of round whip-cords, which have pro-
duced a great deal of very pure white light; and I am
almost inclined to think that these wicks will be prefer-
able to all others for portable lamps, and perhaps for
table lamps also, where not more light is wanted than
is emitted by three or four candles.

These cord-wicks should be about two tenths of an
inch in diameter; and, to stiffen them, they should be
braided round a very small cylinder of wood, of about
one twentieth of an inch in diameter, or round a small
slip of cane. This wood, which will be concealed in
the middle of the wick, will not only be useful to sup-
port that part of the wick which is on fire, but it will
also be very useful to prevent the ascent of the oil in
the centre of the wick, which will render it possible to’
use cord-wicks of larger diameter than could otherwise
be used without danger of causing the lamp to smoke.

When cord-wicks are employed, three of them must
always be used together; and they must be fastened

166 Management-of Light in Lllumination,

together at their lower extremities, by binding them
with a strong thread, to receive them. The burner
must of course be cylindrical, and its diameter must
be such as just to receive the three cord-wicks without
pressing them so as to change their form. This
burner must have a rim about one tenth of an inch in
width projecting outwards, and obliquely upwards at
its upper extremity; and care should be taken to clean
this rim every time:the lamp is trimmed. The wick
being drawn down into the burner by means of the
rack, the rim may be cleaned in a moment, with little
trouble; dut ¢hzs must never be neglected.

These cord-wicks must be previously prepared, by
dipping them into melted tallow or melted wax, heated
very hot; and it will be useful to draw them (in the
same manner as wire is drawn) through a round smooth
hole, made in a thick plate of iron or of brass, before
they become quite cold. This will reduce them to the
proper diameter, and will at the same time render them
smooth, solid, and stiff, and enable them the better to
preserve their cylindrical form when they are bound
together in bundles (of three) for use.

It appears to me to be very probable that a very
strong-twisted, hard hempen cord, of about one twen-
tieth of an inch in diameter, prepared in a solution of
alum, would answer perhaps quite as well as wood for
stiffening these cord-wicks, and preventing the oil from
rising too freely in the central parts of the cord. There
is great reason to suppose that wicks of this kind would
be very useful for tallow candles.

Fig. 5, Plate VIII. is a horizontal section of the
cylindrical burner of a lamp containing three cord-
wicks, each two tenths of an inch in diameter.

Management of Light in Illumination. 167

The small cylinder of wood (or cane) in the centre
of each cord is distinctly represented.

The projecting rim of the burner is indicated - a
dotted circle.

The diameter of the cylindrical burner is nine twen-
tieths of an inch. :

A wick of this form is easily trimmed ; its Aame is
uncommonly beautiful; it may be made to burn well
with a moderate light, or to give a great deal of light.
The flame occupies the axis of the glass chimney with
great steadiness; and the lamp may be made to burn
with a very small flame when necessary, witiont eliet
smoke or smell.

To all these advantages we may add one more, which
on some occasions may be very useful. When the burner
is cylindrical, it may easily be closed with a fit stopper
of cork; and the lamp, filled with oil, may be carried
about in a carriage with the greatest safety, and always
be ready to be lighted when wanted, either in the car-
riage or at inns on the road.

I have more than once carried one of these lamps in
one of the pockets of my post-chaise, in travelling, and
without ever having had reason to repent of the con-
fidence I placed in its cleanliness, as I have already
observed in another place.

It is hardly necessary that I should observe that by
means of a trifling alteration in the form of the second-
ary reservoir of this portable lamp, and the suppression
of its foot, it may be made to serve perfectly well on the
outside of carriages, instead of the lanterns now in use.

If it should be found to be necessary, a quantity of
baked horse-hair, of very fine brass wire,.may be put
into each of the reservoirs, in order to moderate the too

168 Management of | Light an Illumination.

violent concussion of the oil, in the sudden jolts of the
carriage; or the same end may be attained by dividing
these reservoirs into a number of small compartments,
by means of their vertical partitions of tin, having each
two small holes of about one tenth of an inch in diame-
ter, the one on a level with the bottom of the reservoir,
and the other on a level with the top of it. These
partitions will not prevent the reservoirs from being
filled with oil, and they will most effectually prevent
the oil from being thrown out of the lamp, in conse-
quence of the jolting and swinging motion of the car-
riage.

A hint is sufficient for English workmen; and their
ingenuity and address are such that they seldom fail to
succeed in what they undertake.

By increasing the size of the portable lamp in all
its dimensions, it may without any kind of difficulty
be made to contain oil enough to supply a burner on
Argand’s principles, of the full size; and by increasing
the size of its screen the handle of the lamp may be
entirely concealed.

When constructed in this manner, its form becomes
perfectly elegant, and such as will render it proper to be
used as a table lamp in the most elegant apartments.

The prices at which these portable lamps have been
sold at Paris have varied from ten to twenty francs,
according to their sizes, and the manner in which they
have been ornamented.

Management of Light in Illumination. 169

CHAPTER IIL

Description of an elegant Illuminator for ornamenting
the Sides of. a Looking-glass.— Additional Obser-
vations respecting the Use of Ground Glass. — Lt ts
very useful in some Situations for glazing Windows.
— Pendulous Llluminators may be made of various
Forms. — The Domes of Table Illuminators may be
made of Ground Glass, and beautified tn various

Ways.

oh decorating spacious apartments for balls and assem-

blies, it may sometimes be desirable to ornament
the looking-glasses by placing lights on each side of
them. Where this is to be done, I would recommend
an illuminator I lately had made for that particular
purpose, that produces a very fine effect; and which is
not liable to any of those accidents to which lamps
in general are exposed. Its construction is extremely
simple, and its form is elegant and pleasing, and it has
so little of the appearance of being a lamp that it is
not easy to discover where any considerable quantity of
oil can be concealed. Only one of them has yet been
made, and that is in my house at Auteuil, near Paris;
but all those who have seen it have thought it very
beautiful, and I have no doubt of its meeting with
general approbation; and, as it can be afforded at a_
lower price than any lamp hitherto constructed for the
same purpose, it can hardly fail to get soon into com-
mon use.

The following descriptions will give a general idea of

170 Management of Light in Illumination.

the external appearance of this wadl-c/luminator, and
of the effect it must produce when lighted.

When it is hung up against the wall,a bracket of an
elegant form appears to project horizontally about six
inches from the wainscot, and a flambeau to be attached
to its extremity, in such a manner as to remain sus-
pended in a vertical position. On the upper end of
this flambeau is placed a screen, in the form of a basket,
6 inches in height and 9 inches in width above, formed
of ten vertical ribs of wire, covered with white crape,
and ornamented with two handsome gilt handles, The
ribs of this basket are covered with small diamonds of
cut-glass.

As the bracket, which appears to be made of wood,
is painted of a dark bronze colour, and the flambeau is
so painted and japanned as to represent white porcelain
richly gilded, these two objects do not appear to have
any farther connection than that one of them is sup-
ported by the other. They are, however, very nearly
connected; for the bracket, which is made of tin and
hollow, is a reservoir from whence the lamp is supplied
with oil.

The opening by which the oil is introduced is on
the upper side of the bracket, and near its broad end,
which is near the wainscot or wall of the room; and
this opening is closed by a brass stopper, perforated at
its centre, and covered by a hollow truncated cone, 0.8
of an inch in diameter below, 0.3 of an inch in diameter
above, and 1 inch in height. This cone is closed
above by a screw, similar in all respects to those used
to close the passages for the air in the circular reservoirs
of the illuminators.

There is a small circular reservoir for the oil, which

—SS ae

Management of Light in Illumination. 171

appears to be the foot of the basket, and which imme-
diately surrounds the top of the burner; and the hollow
bracket forms a secondary reservoir. These two reser-
voirs are separated by a vertical partition; and the oil
passes from the secondary reservoir into the circular
reservoir by a long narrow trunk situated at the bottom
of the secondary reservoir, in precisely the same manner
as the oil is conveyed from the secondary reservoir of
the portable lamp into its circular reservoir.

To give a passage for the air to enter the circular
reservoir, and to pass out of it when the lamp is filled
with oil, a narrow horizontal tube, which is concealed
in the secondary reservoir, is fixed to the upper part
of it, and passing through the vertical partition which
separates the two reservoirs opens into the circular res-
ervoir. The other end of this tube is turned upwards
so as to form an elbow, and passing upwards through
the upper. part of the secondary reservoir (at the farther
end of it, where it is united to the vertical plate which
rests against the wall of the room, and by which it is
supported), it ends in the open air.

That part of this air-tube which projects vertically
above the secondary reservoir is about 14 inch in
length, and it is masked and concealed by means of
a hollow cone, similar in all respects to that which is
fixed to the stopper that closes the opening by which
the oil is poured into the lamp. By placing these two
equal cones by the sides of each other, their uses are
the less obvious, and the general appearance of the
lamp is rendered more simple. If it should be thought
more elegant, both these cones may be concealed, by
giving to the vertical plate to which the projecting
bracket is fixed the appearance of being constructed

172 Management of Light in [llumination.

of a piece of wood, of about one inch in thickness. As
brackets are usually constructed in that manner, there
will be nothing uncouth in that form,

What appears to be the foot of the basket is a portion
of a hoop of tin, painted and gilded like the flambeau,
which is attached to the opening of the basket below,
where it embraces the circular reservoir. This serves
for fixing the basket’ in its place, and also a handle for
removing it when the lamp is trimmed or lighted.

The basket serves for hiding the burner and its glass
chimney, and for dispersing and softening the vivid
light of the flame. For those purposes an ornamented
balloon may be used instead of the basket, if that form
should be preferred; but, in all cases where balloons
are used, care must be taken that they be sufficiently
large, otherwise their surfaces will be too intensely
luminous not to injure the eyes.

Globes of ground glass have been in use for some
time in France, and elsewhere, no doubt, for masking
the flame of Argand’s lamp; but their light has been
found to be too powerful to be agreeable. This is not
owing to any particular quality in ground glass which
renders its light dazzling and fatiguing to the eyes, but
it is merely owing to the too great intensity of the light
at the surface of the visible object, which is owing to
the smallness of that surface or to the smallness of the
balloon.

As the surfaces of globes are as the squares of their
diameters, the surface of a globe of eight inches in
diameter is to that of a globe of four inches in diame-
ter as 64 to 16, or as four to one.

Hence we see that the intensity of the light at the
surface of a globular screen of ground glass of four

Management of Light in Lllumination. 173

inches in diameter is four times greater than it would
be if the diameter of the globe were eight inches. Now,
as the quantity of light emitted will be the same in both
cases, surrounding bodies will be illuminated as much
in one case as in the other; but the illumination will
be most mild, equal, and agreeable when the larger
globe is used, and the eyes will be in much less danger
of being fatigued and injured.

As the system of illumination which I have recom-
mended is founded entirely on the supposition that
light may be dispersed without being destroyed, I feel
it to be necessary to establish that fundamental prin-
ciple in such a manner as to exclude all doubt. I shall
therefore go over the ground again, and shall endeavour
to elucidate the subject in the clearest manner.

The experiment which was made with two burning
wax candles placed in two glass jars, the one of ground
glass and the other of transparent glass, certainly
proved that very little light is lost in passing through
ground glass, or at least not much more than is lost
in passing through the same kind of glass when it is
transparent; but there are other experiments by which
it may be made quite evident that screens of ground
glass, and of other substances, may, under certain cir-
cumstances, be so arranged as even to augment the
intensity of the illumination of surrounding objects.

If on a dark night a burning candle, fixed in the
centre of a cylindrical screen of ground glass, 6 inches
in diameter and 6 inches in height, be placed on a
small stand in the open air, it will illuminate surround-
ing objects as much as the same candle would be able
to illuminate them if the screen were made of transpar-
ent glass.

174. Management of Light an Lllumination.

This is evident from the result of the experiment
just mentioned. |

If we examine the situation of this lighted candle
burning in the centre of the screen of ground glass, we
shall find that a considerable portion of its light escapes
through the open ends of this screen, and is entirely
lost; half of it passing upwards into the clouds, and
the other half passing downwards into the earth, so that
no part of it is usefully employed in illuminating the
surrounding objects.

If now the screen, which is only 6 inches in length,
be removed, and another screen of ground glass, of the
same diameter and 12 inches in length, be put in its
place, the whole of the surface of this taller glass cylin-
der will become luminous, and the intensity of the illu-
mination of the surrounding objects will of course be
increased. A considerable portion of the light which
escaped through the open ends of the short cylinder
will be arrested by the additional length of the taller
cylinder, and will be usefully employed in rendering its
surface luminous.

Hence we learn that the tall paper lanterns of the
Chinese, and those which are frequently to be met with
in the streets of London, in the wheelbarrows of
orange-women, may possibly be useful for other pur-
poses than merely for preventing the flame of the
candle from being disturbed by the wind.

I am persuaded that they often increase the bright-
ness of the illumination of surrounding objects; and
that they would also do so is most certain, if they were
properly constructed and arranged for obtaining that
end. They always render a service equally important,
or even more so; for they defend the eye from the

Management of Light nm Illumination. 175

direct rays of the flame, and by preventing its being
deranged by them greatly facilitate distinct vision. ©

In order to be able to form a just idea respecting
the manner in which light is dispersed in passing
through ground glass and other like substances, it may
be useful to examine the matter with some attention ;
and, as the laws which govern the rays of light in
their passage through diaphanous bodies are perfectly
known, there is no difficulty whatever in explaining
the phenomena in a manner which will be perfectly
satisfactory, even to those, I trust, who have not made
the science of optics a part of their studies.

Light always passes from luminous bodies in straight
lines, and continues to move on in the same direction,
without deviation, except when ‘it is reflected or when
it is refracted, or drawn out of its. straight course, in
passing out of one transparent substance into another.

When a ray of light, in passing out of the air into
glass, strikes the glass in a direction which happens to
be exactly perpendicular to that part of the surface of
the glass where it arrives, it enters the glass without
being at all drawn aside or deranged in respect to the
direction of its course, and it continues to move on in
the glass in the same straight line; and, farther, if the
ray in passing out of the glass happens to arrive at a
part of the surface of the glass which is perpendicular
to the direction of its course, it will pass directly
through it also, and continue its course in the air in
the same direction in which it moved before it arrived
at the glass.

But when a ray of light in entering glass (or any
other transparent substance) meets with a surface
which is not perpendicular to the direction in which

176 Management of Light in Illumination.

it moves, the ray will be refracted or its direction will
be changed. It will appear to be drawn towards the
glass before it arrives at its surface; and its motion in
the glass, after it has penetrated through its surface,
although it will still be in a straight line, will not be in
the same direction in which the ray moved before it
approached the glass; and the same change of direc-
tion will again take place, in passing out of the glass
into the air, if the surface of the glass where it makes
its exit should happen not to be perpendicular to the
direction in which the ray moves in the glass during its
passage through it.

Hence we learn that the direction of a ray of light
which has passed through a glass, or any other trans-
parent substance, will depend not only on its original
direction, but also on the refractions it has experienced
in entering it and in passing out of it; and, as these

refractions depend on the angles of inclination which .

the surface of the glass present to the ray, when the
surface of the glass is so broken up by grinding as to
present an infinite number of small broken surfaces
inclined in all directions, the. light which passes
through it must necessarily be dispersed.

Every visible point of the surface of the glass, from
which the light escapes, will appear to send off rays in
all directions, and this is what gives to the glass the ap-
pearance of being luminous; and it may indeed be said
to be Zuminous without any impropriety of language.

In the memoir which I presented to the French
National Institute, on the 24th March, 1806, on the
subject of lamps, I made an observation relative to the
usefulness of ground glass for windows, which I shall
take the liberty to repeat here.

Management of Light in Illuminatzon. 177

It frequently happens, especially in large towns, that
rooms are so situated as to receive no light but what
comes through windows which open into narrow
streets or very small courts, and are so commanded
by high buildings as to receive very little light from
above. In all such cases, rooms would be much more
lighted and much better lighted by windows of ground
glass than by windows glazed with the finest trans-
parent glass.

This I have found to be the case by experience, and
it may easily be explained.

The rays of daylight which descend from the
heavens come down in a direction so nearly perpen-
dicular to the horizon that they impinge against the
polished surface of the glass so obliquely that most of
the rays are reflected in consequence of the smallness
of the angle of incidence; and as those which enter
the glass and pass through it come into the room in
such a direction that they fall on the floor, where they
are mostly absorbed, they are of little use in lighting
the room; but when the window is glazed with ground
glass, the surface of the glass which is rough being on
the outside, the asperities which the glass presents to the
descending rays greatly facilitate their entry into the
glass, and as in passing through it they are dispersed
in all directions the room will be much more equally
and more intensely illuminated than when the win-
dows are glazed with polished glass.

The room in which the different classes of the
National Institute hold their ordinary weekly meetings —
is surrounded by very high buildings on every side;
and, its walls being covered with books quite up to the
ceiling, it was exceedingly dark and gloomy. All the

VOL. IV. 12

178 Management-of Light in Llumination.

windows have lately been furnished with double sashes;
and the new outside sashes, which are nearly even with
the outside of the wall, have been glazed with ground
glass, the rough side of the glass being on the outside.
Since this has been done, the room has become incom-
parably more light and cheerful, notwithstanding that
the light which comes into it from without must now
pass through two panes of glass instead of one.

There are many parlours and shops on ground floors
in narrow streets, that are so dark at mid-day as to be
scarcely habitable, which would be well lighted by the
adoption of this simple contrivance; and rooms are so
much more warm and comfortable with double win-
dows, and the noise of the street is so effectually ex-
cluded by them, that these advantages alone would be
sufficient to recommend them; but we see that they
may be made to furnish “gh¢ as well as warmth and
queet.

There are many other situations in which ground
glass might be used with great advantage instead of
transparent glass; but I must not enlarge on that sub-
ject in this place. Perhaps I may find some other occa-
sion of treating it more fully: in the mean time what
has been said may be useful as a hint to architects and
to those persons who are their own architects.

I have lately made several experiments, in order to
see if ground glass could not be used for constructing
the screens of large pendulous illuminators; and from
the results of these trials I am inclined to think it may
be done. But as the large domes of gauze are so beau-
tiful, especially when they are ornamented with cut
- glass, I shall be cautious how I propose any others till
I shall be perfectly sure they are preferable to them.

Management of Light in Illumination. 179

These pendulous illuminators might, no doubt, be
made in a variety of elegant forms, some of which
would probably be much less expensive than those I
have recommended. The upper hemispherical screen
of the balloon illuminator, for instance, might be en-
tirely suppressed, and that below might be made in the
form of a large vase, open above ; for, as the height at
which this illuminator is usually suspended would pre-
vent the flames of the burners being seen above the
brim of the vase, the eyes would be as effectually pro-
tected by the vase as by the balloon, and the upper
part of the walls of the room and the ceiling would be
rather more lighted by the former than by the latter;
but the circular reservoir would cast a shade on the
walls of the room, which would certainly diminish the
beauty of the illumination. |

That shadow might be removed from the walls of
the room to the ceiling, and indeed might be nearly
effaced, by fixing a hoop of gauze, about two or three
inches in width, on the top of the circular reservoir.
By ornamenting this hoop with taste, it might easily be
made to appear to be a part of the vase, and the vase
might be rendered more beautiful by this addition to
its height; and as the illuminator so arranged might,
without any inconvenience, be suspended by three
chains attached immediately to its circular reservoir,
its price might certainly be reduced to about one half
of what the balloon illuminators now cost.

But these alterations, and possibly others still more
elegant and economical, will no doubt occur to those
who may employ their taste and ingenuity in improv-
ing these inventions.

Nobody will more sincerely rejoice in their success
than I shall do.

180 Management of Light in Illumination.

There is a very obvious improvement that may
easily be made in the construction of the domes of
table illuminators, which must occur to everybody. As
these domes are not very large, they may be made of
blown glass, and after their surface shall have been
made rough by grinding they may be ornamented so
as to make them very beautiful, when lighted, by paint-
ing them on the inside in various ways with white
paint. This paint must be mixed up with oil of pop-
pies or with white copal varnish, in order that the
figures represented may at night appear through the
glass like shades, and without colour. By day they will
not be seen.

Glass domes and vases for illuminators might be
very elegantly ornamented by etchings made with the
fluoric acid; and it is very probable that the surface of
the glass might be made rough by means of that acid,
and perhaps at a less expense than when its polish is
taken off by grinding it with emery.

But I am afraid of being tiresome by dwelling so
long on these details.

CHAPTER?» IV.

Description of a very simple Contrivance for measur-
ing the Intensity of the Light emitted by Lamps
and Candles and other luminous Bodies. — Means
of estimating of the Light lost in passing through
Screens. — Experiments for ascertaining what Sub-
stances are most proper for constructing luminous

Screens for Lamps and Candles.

Management of Light tn Lllumination. 181

S the art of illumination cannot be cultivated in a
satisfactory manner unless means are used for
measuring the light which is emitted by luminous
bodies, a photometer is indispensably necessary in
every experimental inquiry which is undertaken with
a view to the improvement of that art and of the vari-
ous instruments used in the practice of it.

It is likewise necessary to adopt some fixed scale of
light to serve as a standard, which must be so arranged
as to indicate with certainty, by means of numbers, the
precise degree of illumination which takes place in any
given case, or the relative intensities of the lights which
are compared. | ie

This fixed scale of the photometer will be analogous
to the scale of the thermometer, but in one respect it
will be more perfect and more satisfactory: its inter-
vals, or degrees, may be made to measure very accu-
rately the different degrees of illumination they are
designed to indicate, whereas the degrees marked on
the scale of thermometers are arbitrary, and afford no
satisfactory information respecting the real difference
which exists in the various intensities of the heat
which they indicate.

In my paper on the relative intensities of light
emitted by luminous bodies, which was read before
the Royal Society the 6th of February,'1794, and
which is published in the Philosophical Transactions,
and also in the first volume of my Philosophical
Papers, an account is given of the photometer I used |
in those researches; but I have since found means
to simplify the construction of that instrument very
much, without injuring it in any respect, and have
added to it a graduated scale, which indicates the in-

182 Management of Light in Illumination.

tensities of the light IMD CSIANEAY without any calcu-
lation.

Fig. 6, Plate VIII., is a perspective view of this new
photometer. (See page 163.)

a is a quadrangular wooden box, turned upside down
and fastened by means of wood screws or nails to the
board 4,

This board is 10 inches in length, 8 inches in width,
and ? of an inch in thickness, and it rests on the lower
ends of three wooden screws, 1, 2, and 3s by means of
which the board may either be placed in a horizontal
position, or inclined a little to the plane of the horizon,
as the occasion may require. The screw 2 cannot be
seen, being hid by the inverted wooden box. ¢ is a
vertical board, which is fastened to the back side of the
box by means of screws, and which projects three inches
above the level of its inverted bottom.

This board, which forms the field of the photometer,
is covered in front by fine white paper, and on this
paper are drawn with a pen two fine black lines cross-
ing each other at right angles. One of these lines is
vertical, and divides the field into two equal parts; the
other, which is horizontal, is situated at the height of
two inches above the level of the upper surface of the
small table, which is formed by the bottom of the in-
verted box.

On this table are drawn (with the point of a pair of
compasses) two straight lines at right angles to each
other, and in such a manner as to divide the table into
four equal quadrangular parts.

This table is 7 inches in length and 5 inches in
width, and in the line which divides it in the direction
of its length are placed two vertical pillars or small

Management of Light in Illumination, 183

cylindrical columns, made of wood, each }$ an inch in
diameter and 2 inches in height. :

The centres of the holes made in the table for re-
ceiving these columns are at the distance one inch and
three quarters, the one on the right hand and the other
on the left, from the horizontal line which crosses the
table from the front to the back part of it. Con-
sequently the cylinders are at the distance of three
inches from each other, and the centre of each of them
is three inches from the vertical line which is drawn in
the middle of the field of the photometer.

The whole of this simple apparatus may be con-
structed of beech-wood; and it may be stained of a
fine deep black colour by washing it several times
with common writing ink. It must be made quite
black, and it will be better to stain it than to paint it
with oil colours.

The scale of this instrument is composed of long
rulers, each one inch wide and above a quarter of an
inch thick, with a circular hole of about half an inch in
diameter within about half an inch of one of its ends.
This hole is made to receive one of the cylindrical
columns of the photometer, by means of which it is
confined in its place when in use. These rulers serve
to measure the distances of the lights which are the
subject of an experiment, from the centre of the field of
. the photometer.

A few words will be sufficient to give such clear and
distinct ideas of the nature of these experiments, and of
the manner of performing the various operations they
require, as will enable any intelligent person not only
to construct the necessary apparatus, but also to use it
with the greatest facility and success.

184 Management of Light in Illumination.

These experiments must be performed at night, or,
if made by day, a room must be chosen from which day-
light can be effectually excluded.

Three tables will be necessary in making these ex-
periments: on one of them the photometer is to be
placed, and on each of the others one of the lights
that are to be compared. The heights of these tables
should be such that the two flames of the lamps or
candles that are to be compared and the centre of the
field of the photometer may be at the same horizontal

level, or nearly ‘so; and, in order that the. photometer

may be at a proper height for observing with conven-
ience the shadows projected on its field by its cylin-
drical columns, it may be placed on a small stand set
down on the table, or on the flat bottom of a square
wooden box of a proper height, turned upside down.
The height of the photometer should be such that
when the observer is seated in a chair before it his eye
may be on a level with the upper extremities of the two
columns by which the shadows are projected.

Suppose now that it were required to determine the
relative intensities of the light emitted by two candles,
the one made of wax, the other of tallow. The. three
tables are first to be placed at the distance of about
eight feet from each other in the middle of the room,
or as far as possible from its walls; the photometer,

elevated to a proper height, being placed on one of .

these tables, and one of the candles on each of the two
others.

The observer is now to seat himself before the table
on which the photometer is placed, and with his back
turned to the two other tables.

He will find two shadows in the field of the photom-

ad od

Management of Light in Illumination. 185

eter, and by taking the photometer in both his hands.
he must turn it round till one of these shadows (that, |
for instance, which belongs to the cylindrical column
on his left hand) comes into contact with the vertical
line which divides the field of the photometer into two
equal parts; the whole of the shadow being on that
_ side of .that line on which the column is placed, that is
to say, to the left of it, if it be the shadow of the left-
hand column, otherwise on the other side of it.

As soon as one of the shadows shall have been thus
brought into its proper place by moving the photome-
ter about its axis, the other light must be moved by
an assistant to the right or to the left, till the second
shadow be likewise brought into its proper situation, or
till it comes into contact with the other shadow in the
middle of the field of the photometer.

If the flames of the two candles happen to be at
the same horizontal level, the shadows which belong
to them will be at the same height in the field of the
photometer; and, if they happen to be at the same
elevation as the field of the photometer, these shadows
will just touch the horizontal line which is drawn
through the field of the photometer, at the level of the
upper extremities of the two columns.

As this is the most favourable situation for the
shadows, they should always be made to occupy it; and
this may easily be done even without altering the ele-
vation either of the candles or of the photometer, by
means of the three wooden screws on the lower ends |
of which the photometer rests.

By elevating or depressing more or less one or both
of the hindermost screws, 2 and 3, Fig. 6, the extremi-
ties of the cylinders, the flames of the two candles, and

186 Management of Light in Illumination.

the horizontal line drawn on the field of the photome-
ter may be brought to be all in the same plane, which

is all that is necessary in order to the shadows being

brought to occupy their proper places.

When this operation is finished (which may be per- :

formed in a moment), the shadows must be brought to
be of the same density. This may be done either by
removing the stronger light farther off, or by bringing
that which is the most feeble nearer to the photometer.

As the two shadows are reciprocally illuminated by
the two lights, it is perfectly evident that the shadow
which is least illuminated, or of the darkest shade,
must belong to the feeblest light, provided the light be
at the same distance from the field of the photometer;
but, as the intensity of the light emitted by luminous
bodies decreases as the distance from the source of
that light increases, on removing the stronger light to
a greater distance the intensity of its illumination at
the field of the photometer will be diminished, and
the two shadows may be brought to be of the same
density.

In that case it is quite certain that the intensity
of the light at the field of the photometer cannot be

greater on one side than on the other; and, in order to”

ascertain the relative intensities of the light emitted by
the flames of these candles, we have only to compare

the distances of those flames from the centre of that

field; for those intensities must necessarily be as the
squares of those distances, which is a fact too well
known to require any elucidation.

Instead of the rods divided into inches and tenths
of inches which I formerly used for measuring these
distances, I now employ flat rulers divided into degrees,

Management of Light in Illumination. 187

which indicate directly and without any computation,
the relative intensities of these lights.

__ These two flat rods, which serve as a graduated scale
to the photometer, are about one inch in width and
near one quarter of an inch in thickness: they may be
folded up by means of joints, like a joint rule, and the
length of each of them may be about 10 or 12 feet.
Their first division is marked 10°, and it is placed at
the distance of 10 inches from the middle of the field
of the photometer, when the apparatus is prepared for
making an experiment.

The other divisions of this scale of light are de-
termined in such a manner that the numbers which
they bear, which I call degrees, are everywhere as the
squares of their distances from the middle of the field
of the photometer, where the two shadows are in con-
tact whose densities are compared and equalized.

To fill the important office of a standard light with
which all others are compared, I have chosen a wax
candle of the first quality, just eight tentlis of an Eng-
lish inch in diameter, and which when burning with a
clear and steady flame has been found to consume very
uniformly 108 grains Troy of wax per hour.

To this standard light I have assigned the value of
100 degrees, and it is always placed exactly opposite to
that division of the scale of the photometer which is
marked soo’. This division is of course at the dis-
tance of 31.62 inches from the middle of the field of
the instrument, that marked 10° being at the distance.
of ten inches.

These two rods are supported in a horizontal posi-
tion by means of light stands.

As this apparatus is much more simple and much

188 Management of Light in Illumination.

less expensive than that I formerly recommended, I
have taken pains to describe it very particularly; and,
to save others the trouble which I have had in making
the calculations which were necessary in order to form
the graduated scale of the instrument, I shall here give
a table in which the measure of each of those divisions
will be expressed in feet and inches: —

ScALE OF THE PHOTOMETER.

Degrees. oe ere mir deve ye Degrees. wire Je Degrees. babe, «

Io | 10 220 | 46.91 430 | 65.57 660 | 81.24
20 | 14.14 230 | 47.95 440 | 66.33 680 | 82.46
30 | 17.32 240 | 48.98 450 | 67.07 700 | 83.67
40} 20 250 | 50 460 | 6782 720 | 84.85
50 | 22.36 260 | 50.99 470 | 68.50 740 | 86.02

70 | 26.45 280 52.91 490 | 70 760 | 87.18
80 | 28.28 290 | 53.85 500 | 70.71 780 | 88.32
go | 30 300 | 54-77 510} 714! 800 | 89.44

By the help of this table the scale may be graduated
without any difficulty, and the whole of the apparatus
constructed and completely finished by any cabinet-
maker or joiner of common talents.

As the improvement and simplification of the instru-
ments which are necessary in scientific investigations
have a powerful tendency to facilitate useful discov-
eries, too much pains cannot be taken in describing

Management of Light in Illumination. 189

such new inventions as may be useful in prosecuting
experimental inquiries.

If I have ventured to place 2//umznation among the
useful arts, if I have taken pains to investigate its
scientific principles, and to contrive instruments for
facilitating those inquiries which are still necessary in
order to carry it nearer to perfection, I am very far
indeed from supposing that it will be in my power
to finish that great and important work.

I shall have done much if I succeed in turning the
attention of ingenious men to this interesting subject;
and I sincerely hope that the improvements resulting
from their united efforts will soon cause all those I
have proposed to be forgotten.

As all improvements in illuminators must depend in
a great measure on the improvement of the methods
employed in the dispersion of light, and the choice of
the materials used for constructing luminous screens, it
may be of use to enlarge a little on that particular subject.

By constructing screens of different substances, but
of the same form and dimensions, and employing them
in pairs to mask the flames of lamps, which are made
to burn in such a manner as to emit equal quantities
of light, the relative quantities of light diffused by
those screens may easily be determined by means of
the photometer, and consequently the precise amount
of the loss of light which each of them occasions; and
by a series of experiments of this kind, made with
screens composed of various substances, every thing
can be discovered that is necessary to be known, in
order to contrive the most efficacious means of dispers-
ing the too powerful light of the flames of lamps and
candles in the most agreeable manner and with the
least loss.

190 Management of Light in Illumination.

In order to determine with the greatest precision the
quantity of light which is lost in passing through a
screen, two Argand lamps, placed at equal distances
before the photometer, and having been made to burn
with precisely the same degree of intensity, the shadows
projected in the field of the instrument will be of the
same density. If now a screen be interposed before
one of these lamps, the shadow belonging to it will
become a little less dark than the other shadow. On
moving the lamp, which is covered by a screen, a little
nearer to the photometer, the equality of density of the
shadows will be restored; and, when that has been done,
the divisions of the scale of the photometer will indi-
cate the intensities of the light, and the difference of
the intensities indicated will show the quantity of light
destroyed in passing through the screen.

As the object principally had in view in using a
screen is to disperse the dvect rays of a too powerful
flame, it is evident that the less the flame is seen
through the screen (the total quantity of light diffused
remaining the same), the better it performs its office;
but, as the flame is always seen more or less distinctly
through a screen, it is certain that a considerable
portion of the light diffused does not come from
the screen, but directly through it from the flame in
straight lines. Now as it is very certain that two
screens of the same form and dimensions, but com-
posed of different substances, may moderate the inten-
sity or brilliancy of the direct rays from a powerful
flame in the same degree, and yet the total quantities
of light sent off from the surfaces of these screens by
which surrounding objects are illuminated may be very
different, it is necessary to pay particular attention to

Management of Light in Illumination. 191

that important circumstance in the choice of the sub-
stances employed in constructing screens. |

In comparing two screens in order to discover which
of them is best calculated to answer the purposes for
which they are designed, they must be examined first
in respect to their powers of dispersing and softening
the direct rays of the flame of a lamp, and in the next
place in respect to the quantities of light which they
emit from their surfaces.

It is not difficult to ascertain the first point with a
considerable degree of precision by simple inspection ;
but, where greater precision is required, the ones
method may be employed: —

Having placed before the photometer, at equal dis-
tances, two like lamps, burning with precisely the same
degree of intensity, and having masked them with the
two screens made of different substances which are to
be compared, a sheet of thick pasteboard is to be inter-
posed before each of these screens, and at the distance
of about one inch from it. This sheet of pasteboard
must be sufficiently large to mask the screen entirely
from the photometer, and it must have a circular hole
in its centre of about one inch in diameter, which must
be so placed that the centre of this aperture, the centre
of the flame of the lamp, and the middle of the field of
the photometer may be in the same right line.

It is evident that in this situation of things little or
no light will arrive at the field of the photometer but
that which comes from the flames of the lamps directly,
in straight lines, through the screens; and by measur-
ing the relative intensities of those rays which arrive in
this manner through the two screens, by means of the
shadows and distances, it will be seen which of the

‘
192 Management of Light in Lllumination.

screens ought to be preferred, and how much more one
of them softens the direct rays from the flame than
the other. |

It will likewise be possible to determine in any given
case, by means of experiments which are by no means
difficult to perform, the relative quantities of the light
which proceeding in straight lines from the flame pass
directly through the sides of the screen into the room,
and of that which coming from the surface of the |
screen in all directions illuminates the surrounding
bodies.

These experiments, and many others of a similar
nature which it is not necessary for me to describe
particularly, will no doubt occur to those who may
engage in these interesting investigations; and it is
highly probable that many useful improvements will
be derived from these researches.

CPAP d bon ve

Of the relative Quantities of Light furnished by
Lamps of different Sizes, with the Combustion of
a given Quantity of Owl.— Of the relative Cost of
Light furnished by Lamps and Candles under dif-
ferent Circumstances.— The Light furnished by a
good Lamp does not cost half as much as that fur-
nished by a Tallow Candle.

SG inpoeen lately found, from the results of a course
of experiments on the light manifested in the
combustion of inflammable substances, of which an

Management of Light tn Illumination. 193

account was given in a paper read before the Royal
Society the 23d of January, 1812, that the quantity of
light thus produced is not in an invariable proportion
to the quantity of inflammable matter consumed, but
that it depends much on the form and dimensions of
the flame, and that when the volume of the flame is
given the quantity of light will be greatest when the
form of the flame is such that the red-hot particles of
which it is composed can retain their heat the longest
time, I was led by this discovery to conclude that the
great quantity of light which is emitted by an Ar-
gand lamp depends principally on the peculiar form
of its flame, which is that of a hollow cylinder, and
which is extremely well adapted for preserving its heat
against the cooling influence of the surrounding cold
bodies. | 3 |

I saw likewise that lamps of different sizes, con-
structed on the same principles, must necessarily con-
sume very different quantities of oil in producing equal
quantities of light; for their flames being of different
dimensions, and also of forms that are not exactly
similar, they must necessarily be cooled with different
degrees of celerity on being projected into a cold
atmosphere.

As soon as the particles of which flame is composed
have been so cooled as to be no longer red-hot, they
cease to be luminous, and consequently to be visible ;
and they disappear entirely.

These facts appeared to me to be much too impor- .
tant to be neglected in establishing the principles of
the art of illumination; and I contrived and executed
a set of experiments for the sole purpose of giving them

a thorough investigation.
VOL. IV. 13

194 Management of Light in Illumination.

I provided three lamps, all constructed on Argand’s
principles (with circular wicks), but which varied con-
siderably in size.

The first, which I shall call No. 1, is a portable lamp
with an Argand burner, which is so small that the cir-
cular wick of the lamp is only 0.28 of an inch in diam-
eter, measured internally.

No. 2 is likewise a portable lamp with an Argand
burner, but its burner is much larger. The diameter
of the circular wick of this lamp is just 0.5 of an inch
internally (half an inch).

No. 3 is an Argand lamp of the largest size com-
monly sold at Paris. The diameter of the wick of this
lamp is 0.65 of an inch, measured internally.

These lamps being all in perfect order, each of them
in their turns was exactly weighed, and was made to
burn before the photometer just one hour, and was so
managed as to be made to furnish constantly during
that time the same given quantity of light; and on
being removed from before the photometer was imme-
diately extinguished and again weighed, in order to
ascertain how much oil had been consumed in the
experiment.

The results of these important experiments were as
follows :—

When the lamps were made to furnish just 100° of
light, which is the quantity furnished by a good wax
candle, of such a size as to consume regularly 108 grains
Troy of wax per hour (which quantity, for greater con-
venience, I shall call 100 parts of wax), the quantities
of the best purified oil of colza consumed were found
to be as follows: —

Management of Light in Illumination. 195

By the lamp:No. 1.6 we KAR LHe ee). | 197 parte.
Magitiie lanin: No. 2 4: fac ae, Pacasn, ei! sic BOR, 4
By the lamp No.3... . Kage ae sas

Wax consumed by the sta ndAedl wax candle in
furnishing constantly the same quantity of
light during the same time . .. . . . 100 y
When these lamps were made to furnish 200° of
light during one hour, the quantities of oil consumed
by them were as follows : —

By thelamp Noy Pee ee es oe OO Panes
SF CUS BUI NOs Sn fg a) ai) 6, Se toe ee REO! gg
By the lamp No.3. . . ss se

Quantity of wax necessary in order to fomishk the
same quantity of light during the same time
by means of two wax candles . . . . . OO ye
When 300° of light were furnished by each of these
lamps during one hour, the quantities of oil consumed
were found to be as follows : —

By thelamp No.t . . . + «© + + « « +» 202 parts.
By the lamp NO. 2 5 ee ew we he 0 RO 5
By the lamp No.3. . . ae ie ce. thal

Quantity of wax necessary to proton the same
quantity of light during the same time by
means of three wax candles . . . . . + 300 ,,
From these results it is perfectly evident that, where
a small quantity of light is wanted, small lamps are
much more economical than large ones, when both are
constructed on the same principles. When Argand
burners are used, the cause of this difference may
easily be perceived and perfectly understood. A cir-
cular flame, which is at the same time low and wide, is
much more exposed to being rapidly cooled by the air
and by other surrounding cold bodies than a hollow
flame, which is narrower and higher.
As the lamp No. 1 could not be made to furnish
constantly for any considerable time much more than

196 Management of Light in Illumination.

300° of light, that lamp was now laid aside; and these
researches were continued with the two more powerful
lamps No. 2 and No. 3.

When these were made to furnish each 400° of light,
the quantities of oil consumed in one hour were as
follows :— |

By the lamip-No.2 see bee 2 ee ee,
By the lamp No.3. . . DLA ot Ss PGR tg
Wax required for producing she & same ¢ quantity of

eM ae ROASTS ios le le a 0 Se a a ee

Here again we find that the smaller light has still the
advantage over the larger.

When 500° of light were furnished, the quantities of
oil consumed were :—

By the lamp No.2 . «6» s) # «© + «+ 357 parts.
By the lamp No.3... . 4 fa eT eee oe
Quantity of wax necessary to ‘produce the same

qiantity of light. 6. on is 2 >) a ap lewgeaithy

The smaller lamp still continues to maintain its
superiority, but we shall soon find that the larger one
will get before it.

When both lamps were so regulated as to produce
each just 600° of light (equal to that of six wax can-
dles), the quantities of oil consumed per hour were
found to be as follows: —

By the lamp No.2 . . . 474parts = 512 grains Troy.
By the lamp No.3... . 441 » =476 , N
Quantity of, wax necessary
for producing the same
HOHE oon snp eR RL gt pt OND cata
As the smaller lamp could not be made to furnish
much more than 600° of light, it could no longer be
compared with the larger; but, in order to find out
how much farther the economy of oil could be carried

Management of Light in Illumination. 197

in the production of light, the experiments were con-
tinued with the larger lamp, and it was found that
more light was produced by this lamp in the combus-
tion of a given quantity of oil when the lamp was so
managed as to furnish goo° of light than when the
flame was either longer or shorter.

When the lamp was burning in such a manner
as to produce uniformly goo® of light, the oil
consumed in one hour was foundtobe. . . 56o0parts.

The wax consumed by nine wax candles in fur-
nishing the same quantity of light would
amount to . . jejere)

When this lamp fiepiehe: 800° if light the sil
consumed per hourwas.. . - 515

Wax required in producing the same quantity of
light by means of wax candles . . . . . 800

When the lamp was forced so as to make it give
1000° of light, its flame became very long, and it
emitted smoke at intervals, and more oil was employed
in producing a given quantity of light than when less
light was demanded.

When 1o000° of light were furnished, the expense
of oil per hourwas . . ‘8. OGQ Palts.
» Ten wax candles must have beh aiiployed to
produce this quantity of light, and alia would
have consumed of wax . . . or at tae OOO se

When this lamp furnished 800° of light, 100 parts of
the oil gave as much light as could be furnished by
155 parts of wax.

When thelamp furnished 900° of light, roo parts of
the oil then consumed furnished as much light as
could be produced in the combustion of 160 parts of
wax.

But when the lamp was made to give 1000? of light.
100 parts of the oil then burned or dissipated produced

198 Management of “Light wm Lllumination.

no more light than that which could be produced in
the combustion of 148 parts of wax.

Hence we may conclude that the maximum of effect
with this lamp was obtained when it was made to fur-
nish goo? of light.

The best effect produced with the lamp No. 1 was
when it gave 300° of light.

And the maximum of the effect of the lamp No. 2
was that which was produced when it was so managed
as to furnish 500° of light.

By comparing the quantities of oil which these
lamps consumed in furnishing these quantities of light
with the quantities of wax necessary for producing the
same quantities of light by means of wax candles, we
can ascertain how much cheaper any given quantity of
light can be produced by one of these lamps than by
the others, when they are all so managed as to produce
their best effect.

300° of light were furnished by the lamp No. 1 with
an expense of oil which amounted to 201 parts per hour.

To produce the same quantity of light, 300 parts of
wax must have been burned. Consequently, if 201 parts
of oil are equal in effect to 300 parts of wax, 100 parts of
oil so employed must be equal in effect to 149 parts
of wax,

Again, it was found that 500° of light were furnished
by the lamp No. 2 with a regular consumption of oil,
which amounted to 357 parts.

To have produced that quantity of light by means of
wax candles, 500 parts of wax must have been con-
sumed. Here 357 parts of oil were equal in effect to
500 parts of wax, consequently 100 parts of oil so
employed were equal.in effect to 140 parts of wax.

Management of Light in Lllumination. 199

When the greatest effect was produced by the lamp
No. 3, it was found that 100 parts of the oil consumed
gave as much light as could have been furnished by
160 parts of wax, as we have just seen.

On comparing these results, we find that the maxima
of the effects of these three lamps, in respect to the
economy of the oil, were as follows :—

‘Thatof the:lamp NGske os a es 149
Necaoiag ieyt- tid: dla th 140
Pee et nk KS ere 160

The quantity of light which the lamp No. 3 usually
furnished, when in good order, was seldom greater than
700°; and its ordinary consumption of oil, when furnish-
ing that quantity of light, was at the rate of 470 parts
per hour. This gives for the maximum of the effect
of the lamp, zz the ordinary course of its service,
100 parts of oil equal in effect to 149 parts of wax;
and hence we might conclude that the light furnished
by the smallest lamp did not cost more than that fur-
nished by the largest.

From the results of all these experiments, I think we
may safely conclude that 1 lb. of purified oil of colza
burned in a good Argand lamp, well trimmed and prop-
erly managed, gives as much light as 1} lb. of beeswax,
when good wax candles of the common size are used.

When tallow candles are used, the quantity of light
produced will depend much on the attention that is
paid to the management of them. If they are not
frequently snuffed, a great deal of the tallow will be
dissipated in vapour and lost, filling the air with a most
insupportable stench.

I have found by the results of many experiments
that a tallow candle which is suffered to burn with a

200 Management of Light in Lllumination.

long wick consumes more than twice as much tallow
in producing any given quantity of light as when the
same candle is kept well trimmed. I have even found
that a tallow candle consumes faster when it burns
dim and gives little light than when it burns well
and furnishes a great deal of very pure light. This
extraordinary fact was first announced in my paper on
the Relative Intensities of the Light emitted by Lumi-
nous Bodies, which was read before the Royal Society
the 6th February, 1794.

Many persons will no doubt be curious to know what
are the relative quantities of light usually furnished
in the combustion of tallow candles and wax candles.

After having made a considerable number of experi-
ments, with a view to determining that point with as
much precision as the nature of the subject will per-
mit, I have found reason to conclude that when both
the wax candles and the tallow candles are of the first
quality, and when no more than the usual attention is
paid to the latter in burning them, the quantity by
weight of the tallow consumed in producing a given
quantity of light is to the quantity of wax consumed in
producing the same quantity of light as 130 to 100,

When a tallow candle is of such a size as to produce
as much light as the wax candle, and when the great-
est possible care is taken to keep it constantly well
snuffed, equal quantities of light may be produced by
115 parts of tallow and 100 parts of wax; but when
tallow candles are small and of ordinary quality, and
when they are burned in the careless manner in which
they are commonly used, we must reckon 150 parts of
tallow to produce as much light as is usually produced
in burning 100 parts of wax.

Management of Light tn Illumination. 201

But where so much depends on the degree of atten-
tion that is paid to the subject, no estimate can be
made with any considerable degree of certainty.

A chemical analysis has shown us that. beeswax,
tallow, and the fat oils are composed of nearly the
same elements,.and consequently contain nearly the
same quantities of inflammable matter (cardonx and
hydrogen); and, as | have lately found that they fur-
nish nearly the same quantities of heat in their com-
bustion,* it might naturally have been supposed that
they must likewise furnish equal quantities of light.

I have no doubt but they would do so, could they be
managed in precisely the same manner; but their dif-
ference of form at the ordinary temperature of the
atmosphere, the difference of the temperature at which
they become fluid and at which they are reduced to
vapour, must necessarily produce a sensible difference
in the arrangements employed in burning them, which
cannot fail to occasion a sensible difference in the quan-
tities of light produced in their combustion.

The intensity of the heat which accompanies the
combustion of an inflammable substance is no doubt
always the same; but it does not follow that the quan-
tity of light is always the same. |

As the intensity of the light produced by lamps and
candles may be ascertained with great certainty by
means of the photometer, the cost of the light may
in all cases be exactly determined.

Taking wax candles, tallow candles, and purified oil
of colza at the prices these articles are now sold at

* An account of these experiments was given in a memoir on the Heat
Manifested in the Combustion of Inflammable Substances, which was read
before the First Class of the French National Institute, the 24th February, 1812.

202 Management of Light an Lluminateon,

Paris, we can estimate the cost of the light which is
produced by each of them. We will begin by deter-
mining the cost of 100° of light furnished during one
hour by a good wax candle.

A bundle of wax candles called a pound, but which
weigh only 450 grammes (= 6954 grains Troy, or
53 grains less than a pound avoirdupois), is now sold
at Paris for three francs, or two shillings and sixpence
sterling, if we take the exchange at what it was for-
merly in time of peace.

One of these candles furnishes just 100° of light,
and consumes just seven grammes of wax per hour.
The five candles will burn 64 hours, 17 minutes, and
8 seconds, or 64? hours; and, as the five candles cost
2s. 6d. = 120 farthings, the 100° of light furnished by
one of them costs -*° — 1.8666 of a farthing per hour.

Six tallow éanates of the best quality usually sold in
the shops of Paris, weighing together 476.4 grammes
(= 7358.8 grains Troy, or 165% ounces avoirdupois),
are now sold for sixteen sous, or eightpence ster-
ling. And I find that one of these candles consumes
10.35 grammes (= 166 grains Troy) of tallow per hour,
when the most scrupulous attention is paid in burning
this candle to keep it constantly well snuffed.

Now as six of these candles weighing 476.4 grammes
cost eightpence, or 32 farthings, the quantity of tallow
consumed in one hour = 10.35 grammes must cost

10.35X32 H
reg = 0.69521 of a farthing.

If this tallow candle had furnished the same quan-
tity of light as was furnished by the standard wax
candle, viz. 100°, the cost of its light would have been
to the cost of that furnished by the wax candle as

Management of Light in Illumination. 203

0.69521 to 1.86660; but the tallow candle furnishes
115° of light. |

When a proper allowance is made for the difference
between the quantities of light furnished by these two
candles, it will appear that the cost of the light fur-
nished by the tallow candle is to the cost of that
furnished by the wax candle as 0.60454 to 1.86660, or
as one to three nearly, when the quantities of light are
equal.

But in the careless manner in which tallow candles
are commonly used, the light they furnish is more
expensive. |

The candles usually burned in the workshops of
tradesmen at Paris, such as joiners, cabinet-makers,
etc., are such as are sold in bundles of eight to the
pound. These candles cost two sous (= four farthings
sterling) each; and they seldom burn longer than
five hours. This gives 0.8 of a farthing for the cost of
the light furnished by one of these small candles dur-
ing one hour; but the quantity of light so furnished is
far from being equal to that furnished by the standard
wax candle. Instead of giving 100° of light, they sel-
dom furnish 75° and frequently give less than 50°, that
is to say, whenever they burn with a long wick and
stand in need of being snuffed, which very often hap-
pens.

From the result of all my observations I have been
induced to conclude that the light actually furnished
by tallow candles amounts to little more than half what
they ought to furnish, if well managed; and that the
light they give costs nearly half as much as the light
furnished by wax candles, which, as is well known, sel-
dom stand in need of snuffing.

204 Management of Light in Lllumination.

I shall now endeavour to estimate the cost of light
which is produced in the-combustion of purified oil of
colza; and in doing this it will be indispensably neces-
sary to have regard to the intensity of the light which
is furnished, as also to the size of the lamp which is
used in producing it. But the first thing to be ascer-
tained is the price of the oil.

The best purified oil of colza is now selling at Paris
for 20 sous the kilogramme, which is at the rate of two
shillings and tenpence half penny sterling, the English
wine gallon.

By an experiment made with my smallest Argand_

lamp (No. 1) I found that when it was arranged and
managed in such a manner as to furnish constantly
just roo? of light during one hour, the lamp consumed
just 9.4 grammes of oil.

Now as 1000 grammes of this oil cost tenpence
sterling, or 40 farthings, these 9.4 grammes must cost
0.3759 of a farthing, which is less than half what the
same quantity of light costs when furnished by tallow
candles.

But this lamp being so constructed as to produce its
best effect when it furnishes 300° of light, the saving
which will result from the use of it will be still greater
when that quantity of light is produced.

In an experiment several times repeated, in which
this lamp was made to furnish constantly 300° of light
during one hour, it was found to consume, at a me-

dium, 14.4 grammes of oil during that time.
Farthings.
This quantity of oil, at the price it is now sold in

Paris, would cost. . . + «+ 0.57600
The same quantity of light faralebea in the best

tallow candles well managed would cost . . . 1.81362
Furnished by wax candles, it would cost . . . 5.59980

Management of Light in Illumination. 205

Hence it appears that where 300° of light are
wanted it may be furnished by purified oil of colza, at
less than oxe third part of the money it would cost
when produced by means of the best tallow candles,
and at a very little more than one tenth part of the sum
it would cost if furnished by wax candles.

These computations may serve to give some idea of
the immense importance to society of the subject I have
endeavoured to investigate in this Essay.

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s Essays,
Vol. IV., pp. 1-126.]

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AN INQUIRY

CONCERNING THE :

THE LIGHT WHICH IS MANIFESTED IN
COMBUSTION OF INFLAMMABLE BODIES.

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Or THE LIGHT: -MANIFESTED IN
COMBUSTION.

HEN an inflammable substance, in a state of
purity, such as wax, tallow, or purified oil,
burns with a clear, bright flame, without smoke or
smell and without leaving any residuum, the combus-
tion is considered as being complete; and its chemical
products, water in a state of vapour and carbonic acid
gas, are always pure, and in quantities which are always
in a constant ratio when the substance burned is the
same.

Those who consider light as @ substance emitted by
luminous bodies have been obliged to search for the
source of that which is manifested in the combustion
of inflammable bodies among those substances which
are known to concur in that process. Some have
supposed that it is the inflammable substance which
furnishes it; others, that it is derived from the air
(oxygen gas) employed in the combustion, which gas
is supposed to be decomposed; and of late the pre-
vailing opinion among chemists appears to be that it
is furnished in part by the inflammable substance and |
in part by the oxygen.

If the light manifested in the combustion of inflam-
mable bodies were in fact one of the chemical products

of that process, as has been supposed, it is most cer-
VOL, IV. 14

210 Of the Light manifested in Combustion.

tain that it ought to be found pre-existing in some of
the bodies that are decomposed in that operation; and
there is every reason to suppose, if that were really the
case, that the quantity of light disengaged in the com-
plete combustion of a given quantity of any given
inflammable substance would be limited, and just as
invariable as all the other chemical products of that
process.

But if light be not a sudbstance emitted by luminous
bodies, but a vibration and undulation in an ethereal
fluid, analogous to the vibration and undulation of
the air which is the immediate cause of sound (as
many distinguished philosophers have supposed), in that
case .we ought to search for the cause of the light
which is diffused by the flame of a burning body in
the very high temperature of the particles of matter
which compose that flame. These particles must be
considered as being luminous, in consequence of the
action of the same cause which renders a cannon
bullet luminous which has been heated red-hot in the
fire. And as all known bodies cease to shine in the
dark at a known given temperature (that of about
1000° of Fahrenheit’s scale), the hot particles which
compose a visible flame ought to disappear entirely
the moment they become cooled down to that tem-
perature.

If we adopt this hypothesis respecting light (which
I confess has ever appeared to me to be the most prob-
able), we must no longer expect to find the quantities
of light excited in the process of combustion to be in
any constant ratio to the quantities of inflammable
matter burned: so far from it, we should be obliged to
admit that the discovery of such an invariable relation

Of the Light manifested in Combustion, 211

ought to be considered as a demonstrative proof of the
fallacy of that hypothesis.

Both the size and the form of a flame must neces-
sarily have so much influence on the celerity of the
cooling of the particles of which it is composed that, if
it should be found that neither of these circumstances
has any sensible influence on the quantity of light
which it diffuses, this fact must be considered as a
proof that the light does not depend entirely on the
preservation of the heat of the flame, in the manner
above described.

But if, on the other hand, it should be found from
the results of decisive experiments that the light which
accompanies the complete combustion of any given
quantity of pure inflammable matter should be varz-
able, it will be impossible, I imagine, not to perceive
that that light cannot be one of the chemical products of
combustion ; and that the hypothesis which supposes
light to be a substance emitted by luminous bodies
must become more and more difficult to support.

If the question in dispute respecting the nature of
light were merely speculative, and could never have
any influence either on the progress of science or on
the improvement of the useful arts, I should be the
first to condemn this discussion, not only on account
of its being useless, but also, and more especially, on
account of the disagreeable consequences to society
which always must result from disputes of that kind.
But the subject under consideration is very far indeed
from being uninteresting. To see the importance of
it, we have only to consider for a moment the vast
advantage to society that could not fail to result from
the discovery of any fixed principle that could be

212 Of the Light manifested in Combustion.

employed with facility in improving the art of illumi-
nation and the instruments that are employed in it.

What vast sums are expended in dispelling the
obscurity of the night in every part of the world; and
yet in what a deplorable state is the science which
ought to elucidate all the details of that important
operation !

How is it possible to labour with any prospect of
success to improve the methods employed in illumi-
nating our dwellings, as long as we remain so perfectly
ignorant respecting the nature of light as not even to
know with any degree of certainty whence it proceeds
or how it exists.

After having meditated a long time on this interest-
ing subject, I have lately made a course of experiments
which I thought might lead to some useful discoveries.
But before I proceed to give an account of them it will
be necessary to mention a few alterations and improve-
ments which have been made in the apparatus (already
known) which I employ for measuring the intensity of
light.

Instead of the rods divided into inches and tenths
of inches, which I formerly employed for measuring
the distances of the lights which are compared from
the middle of the field of the photometer, I now em-
ploy rods divided into degrees, which indicate directly
and without any computation the relative intensities of
those lights.

These two rods, which are twelve feet in length, are
divided uniformly; and they serve as a graduated scale
to the photometer. Their first division, which is at the
extremity of the rod nearest the photometer, is marked
10°, and it is placed at the distance of ten inches from

OO do

7”

eS eee

Of the Light mantfested in Combustion. 213

the middle of the field of the instrument, when the
apparatus is prepared for making an experiment.

The other divisions of this scale of Light are de-
termined in such a manner that the numbers which
they bear, which I call degrees, are everywhere as ¢he
squares of their distances from the middle of the field
of the photometer, where the two shadows are in con-
tact whose densities are to be compared and equalized.

To fill the important station of a standard light, with
which all others are compared, I have chosen a wax
candle of the first quality, just eight tenths of an Eng-
lish inch in diameter, and which burning with a clear
and steady flame has been found to consume very reg-
ularly 108 grains Troy of wax per hour. Se,

To this standard light I have assigned the value of
100 degrees; and it is always placed exactly opposite
to that division of the scale of the photometer which is
marked 100°. This division is, of course, at the dis-
tance of 31.62 inches from the middle of the vertical
field of the instrument, that marked 10° being at the
distance of 10 inches.

In order to express in a commodious manner the
quantities of wax, tallow, oil, or other inflammable sub-
stance consumed in the experiments, I have supposed
the 108 grains Troy of wax consumed by the standard
light per hour to be divided into 100 equal parts
(= 1.08 grains) to serve as a standard weight in all
cases. The usefulness of this arrangement will be seen
hereafter.

I have now to request the attention and the indul-»
gence of the Royal Society while I use my best en-
deavours to give them a clear and distinct account of
my experiments and their results.

214 Of the Light manifested in Combustion.

The object I had particularly in view was to de-
termine whether the quantity of light disengaged
in the combustion of inflammable bodies is or is not
in a constant invariable proportion to the quantity of
inflammable matter which is burned; and as the flame
of an Argand lamp, well arranged, is exceedingly
bright, and. when purified oil is used gives neither
smoke nor smell, I endeavoured to find out whether
the quantities of light which that beautiful lamp dif-
fuses are always as the quantities of oil which are
consumed.

First Experiment.— An excellent Argand lamp,
which had been most carefully cleaned and trimmed,
was weighed and lighted and immediately placed
before the photometer, where during 30 minutes it
was so regulated as to furnish constantly just 100° of
light (the same quantity that the standard wax candle
furnished).

At the end of this experiment the lamp was extin-
guished; and on weighing it carefully it was found
that 8 grammes of oil had been consumed, = 114
parts. This gives 228 parts of oil per hour for 100° of
light, or for 100 parts of oil 48° of light, furnished
uniformly during one hour.

The standard light consumed 100 parts of wax per
hour, and furnished uniformly roo? of light.

Second Experiment.— The lamp having been most
carefully cleaned and trimmed was again weighed and
placed before the photometer, opposite to the division
of its scale marked 200°, when having been lighted
it was so managed during 30 minutes as to furnish
constantly just 200° of light, equal to that of two
wax candles.

Of the Light manifested in Combustion. 215

In this experiment 10.3 grammes of oil were
consumed. This is at the rate of 271 parts of oil
per hour for 200° of light, or for 100 parts of oil 74°
of light.

Third Experiment.— The lamp having been cleaned
and properly arranged was again placed before the
photometer. In this experiment it was made to fur-
nish 300° of light during 30 minutes, and 10.7 grammes
of oil were consumed. This is at the rate of 305 parts
of oil per hour for 300° of light, or for 100 parts of oil
98° of light.

Fourth Experiment. — In this experiment the lamp,
which had been arranged with the utmost care, fur-
nished during 30 minutes 400° of light, and consumed
12.7 grammes of oil. This is at the rate of 361 parts
of oil for 400° of light, or for 100 parts of oil 112° of
light.

This is the first experiment in which a given quan-
tity of oil was found to furnish more light than an
equal quantity of wax. But without stopping here to
make any particular remarks on that circumstance I
shall hasten to give an account of still more interesting
results.

In order to shorten my narrative as much as pos-
sible, I shall here place in a table the results of the
four experiments of which I have just given the details,
and shall add to them the results of five other simi-
lar experiments which complete this particular course.
These nine experiments were all made on the same
day, with the same lamp and the same standard light;
and | will venture to say that no pains were spared to
render them as complete and satisfactory as possible.
Their results are so very striking that they hardly stand

216 Of the Light manifested in Combustion.

in need of any particular remarks or observations to
recommend them to the attention of the Society.

Intensity of the light : . Light furnished per
Brperimens | furiahed by the lamp | ONES four | ROW ith theconasm
No. I. 100° 228 parts 48°
2 200° 271 74°
3 300° 305 8°
4 400° 361 112°
5 500° 405 121°
6 600° 441 138°
7 700° 470 149°
8 800° 515 155°
9 goo® 560 160°

On comparing the results of these nine experiments,
it appears that the quantities of light furnished were
very far from being in a constant ratio to the quan-
tities of oil consumed, as they would doubtless have
been, were light one of the chemical products of com-
bustion.

The intensity of the light answering to the consump-
tion of 100 parts of oil per hour was near four -times
greater in the ninth experiment than in the first,
though the flame was equally bright in these two
experiments as well as in all the others, and was not
accompanied either by smoke or smell.

Suspecting that a small flame of any given form
must in all cases furnish less light in proportion to the
oil consumed than a larger flame of the same form,
to determine that fact I made the following experi-
ments : —

I caused a lamp to be constructed with a wick com-
posed of four flat ribbon wicks, each a quarter of an

inch in diameter, sewed together on one of their sides, —

Of the Light manifested in Combustion. 217

and placed vertically in such a manner as to compose
a wick whose horizontal section forms a rectangular
cross. And in the first experiment made with this
new lamp its four united flat wicks were cut sloping
upwards from without, in such a manner that the
centre of the cross was about one tenth of an inch
higher than its extremities. This was done, in order
that it might be less difficult to cause the lamp to burn
steadily with a very small flame.

This lamp is furnished with a small glass chimney,
which serves as a blower, and renders the flame of the
lamp very bright, clear, and vivid, and iain: pre-
vents both smoke and smell.

Four experiments were made with this as and
their results were as follows: —

Intensity of the light : . Light furnished per
ae ne furnished by the lamp penne has gm hour with the consum
Periments.| during 30 minutes. P ak tion of 100 parts of oil.
No. Io. 25° 67 parts. 37°
II. 100° 143 70°
12. a5 211 112°
13. 255° 214 118°

By comparing the results of these experiments, it
appears that with the consumption of a given quantity
of oil nearly ¢hree ¢¢mes as much light was produced
in the thirteenth experiment as in the tenth, although
the combustion appeared to be quite as perfect in the
one as in the other.

Several other similar experiments were made with
lamps of different forms and dimensions, and with
similar results; but without stopping here to describe
them particularly I shall proceed immediately to give
an account of two or three subsequent experiments

218 Of the Light manifested en Combustion.

made with a more simple apparatus, whose results
were extremely interesting.

Fourteenth Experiment.— As bleached beeswax is

one of the purest of ‘the inflammable substances used
in producing artificial light, I was desirous of finding
out whether the light furnished by wax candles of
different sizes is always in proportion to the quanti-
ties of wax consumed. To ascertain this point, I
began by placing a small wax taper, four tenths of an
inch in diameter, before the photometer, where it con-
tinued to burn very steadily during 30 minutes.

As its wick was much thicker in proportion to its
diameter than that of a common wax candle, it fur-
nished very uniformly 64° of light, notwithstanding its
diminutive size. During this time it consumed at the
rate of 77 parts of wax per hour, consequently for
100 parts of wax it gave only at the rate of 83° of light,
instead of 100° which the standard light constantly fur-
nished. The result of the following experiment was
much more striking : —

Fifteenth Experiment.— A small wax taper, with a
very thin wick (called a vezd/euse in France), six tenths
of an inch in diameter and two inches in height, after
having been carefully weighed, was placed upright and
afloat in a small cylindrical vessel filled with water,
where it was suffered to burn quietly during two hours
and forty minutes: it was then extinguished, and, being
taken out of the water and wiped till it was quite dry,
it was again weighed, when it was found that just
4 grammes of wax had been consumed in the experi-
ment. This is at the rate of 25 parts of wax per hour;
and if this taper had given as much light, in propor-
tion to the wax it consumed, as a wax candle of the

————————— ee | ae

a ee’

a a. ee

Of the Light manifested in Combustion. 219

common size furnishes, its light would have been that
of 25°. |

On measuring the intensity of the light of this taper
by means of the photometer, it was found to be only
1.52°, or a little more than one degree ard a half,
instead of 25°!

Though I had been led, by the results of my former
experiments and the conclusions I had drawn from
them, to expect that the light of this little taper would
be very feeble, yet I confess that the result of the
experiment surprised me very much. I repeated the
experiment several times. with the utmost care, and
though this taper sometimes gave a little more light
during a few moments, yet it more frequently gave
considerably less; and I am persuaded that in estimat-
ing its mean intensity at one degree and a half, that is
quite as much as can be allowed.

Here, then, is a flame, and even the flame of a wax
taper, which is 16 times more feeble than it ought to
have been, were light really a substance emitted by
inflammable bodies, and its quantity proportional to
the quantity of the inflammable matter consumed.

This result can easily be explained, if we admit the
hypothesis which supposes light to be analogous to
sound. The flame of the taper was so small that the
particles of which it was composed, though extremely
hot, no doubt, at the moment of their formation, were
nevertheless so rapidly cooled by the frigoric influence
of the surrounding cold bodies that they had hardly
time to shine an instant, before they became too cold
to be any longer visible.

The extreme feebleness of the light in this experi-
ment might easily have been mistaken for a proof that

220 Of the Light manifested em Combustion.

the combustion was likewise feeble, had we not known
positively, from the great quantity of wax that was con-
sumed, that this indication must necessarily have been
fallacious.

But if we suppose the combustion to have been as
vivid as it is commonly when wax candles are burned,
what became of the heat which ought to have made its
appearance in that process?

I sought for it, and had the extreme satisfaction to
find it, and even to find it entire. I found that the
little taper had never ceased a moment to furnish it, in
full measure, from the beginning to the end of the
experiment, notwithstanding the extreme feebleness
of its light.

Suspecting that the ascending current of air above
the taper was hotter than the diminutive size of the
flame indicated, I presented the palm of my hand
immediately over the flame, at the distance of two or
three inches. The result was a most convincing proof
that these suspicions were not unfounded.

My hand had not been in this situation two seconds
before I found the heat to be quite intolerable.

I really do believe that nobody ever experienced
more pleasure from a burn than I did on this occa-
sion. I lost no time in arranging an experiment
which I saw could not fail to clear up this mystery.

Sixteenth Experiment. — Very fortunately I had in
my laboratory a little apparatus, which had been used
in another research, which was perfectly well adapted
for the experiment I now wished to make. It con-
sists of a small conical tin boiler with a long cylin-
drical neck, fitted to receive one of my mercurial ther-
mometers with long cylindrical bulbs. The diameter

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‘

Se ee a eS ee

a ee

Of the Light manzfested in Combustion. 221

of this boiler below is 8.3 inches, its depth about
4% inches, and its diameter above, where its neck
commences, is 6 inches. This boiler being placed
on a table, on its small wooden stand with four
feet, of about fifteen inches in height, having a cir-
cular hole in its centre of about three. inches in
diameter, 2000 grammes in weight of cold water (about
four French pounds)’ were poured into it; and, its ther-
mometer being in its place, this apparatus was suffered
to remain 24 hours in a quiet room, fronting to the
north, to acquire the mean temperature of the place.

At the end of that time the temperature of the
water in the boiler, and also of the air in the room,
being that of 65° F., one of my small wax tapers,
which had been carefully weighed, was placed afloat
in its small cylindrical vessel, and being lighted was
placed immediately under the centre of the boiler, at
such a distance below its bottom that the point of its
little flame was just on a level with the under side of
the perforated board on which the boiler was placed.

The taper having burned very quietly under the
boiler 52 minutes and 15 seconds, the thermometer in-
dicating that the water had acquired 10° of heat, being
now at 75° F., the taper was blown out, and, after hav-
ing been carefully wiped till it was quite dry, it was
weighed a second time, when it appeared that just
1.52 grammes ( = 23.475 grains Troy) of wax had been
consumed in the experiment.

Seventeenth Experiment. — Having emptied the
boiler, it was filled a second time with 2000 grammes
of cold water; and, when the whole had acquired the
precise temperature of 65° F., a lighted wax candle
of the common size, and of a known weight, was placed

222 Of the Light manifested 7m Combustion.

under it in such a manner that the point of its flame
was on a level with the under side of the wooden per-
forated stand on which the boiler reposed.

This candle had burned very equally and very quietly
just 12 minutes and 30 seconds, when I observed by
the thermometer that the water had acquired the tem-
perature of 75° F. The candle was immediately extin-
guished, and on weighing it I fourid that 1.62 grammes
(== 25.02 grains Troy) of wax had been consumed in
this experiment.

The difference between the quantities of wax con-
sumed in these two experiments in communicating
the same quantity of heat to the same quantity of cold
water is very small, amounting to only about one grain
and a half Troy, and may easily be accounted for in
a satisfactory manner, without having recourse to the
very improbable supposition that the heat may per-
haps be variable that accompanies the combustion of
the same inflammable substances.

The “ght which accompanies that process is most
certainly variable, and that to a very surprising
extent.

The results of these experiments are very interesting,
and the more attentively we examine the new facts with
which they make us acquainted, the more clearly we
shall perceive their importance.

They will make us better acquainted with light, and
also with heat, and will assist us in distinguishing and
appreciating their effects.

As long as the doctrine which supposes light to be
a substance emitted by luminous bodies continues to
be believed and universally taught, a great deal of
time will no doubt continue to be employed in useless

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a i ee he fh ee an -™

—— ss

Of the Light manifested in Combustion. 223

researches concerning its supposed affinities and com-
binations. |

These investigations are connected with appearances
so brilliant and fascinating that it is no wonder that
they should often have engaged the attention of cu-
rious inquirers ; but experience has abundantly shown
how fruitless these researches have hitherto been.

If light were in fact a substance, as has been
supposed, it seems highly probable that means would
long since have been found to discover where and
how it exists; but if it be nothing more than a blow
given to the eye by the repercussion of an ethereal
fluid which touches that organ, and at the same -time
every other body in the universe, it is evident that all
attempts to discover it a state of combination must be
vain. |

Nobody, I imagine, ever thought of searching for
sound in a fulminating powder. Is it more reason-
able to search there for the light which accompanies
the combustion of those substances? But, whatever
may be the opinions of philosophers respecting the
nature of light, no doubts can be entertained respect-
ing the usefulness of discoveries which enable us to
produce it with economy and to manage it with
skill.

The methods and instruments hitherto employed
in procuring and distributing light are certainly capa-
ble of considerable improvement. The subject is of
very great importance to mankind, and on that ac-
count is highly deserving the attention of those who
take pleasure in contributing to the progress of useful
science. The investigation of this subject is likewise
very entertaining on account of the many. beautiful

224 Of the Light manifested in Combustion.

experiments that present themselves in the course of
that research. It engaged my attention many years

ago, and has for several months past employed nearly

the whole of my leisure time.

In two memoirs of considerable length, written in
the French language, the one published in the year
1807 in the Memoirs of the National Institute, the
other about a month ago in the Bibliothéque Brittan-
ique, I have proposed several improvements in lamps,
which have been found by experience to be useful ;
but I cannot help flattering myself that the knowledge
of the interesting fact discovered in my late experi-
ments will lead to much more important improve-
ments, and perhaps enable us to produce effects
which we should not have supposed to be possible.

Many attempts have been made to increase the
intensity of the light of lamps, in order to render
them more useful in lighthouses, on the sea-coast,
and for other purposes where a powerful light is
wanted. The size of Argand’s lamp has been in-
creased in the expectation that it might perhaps be
made to give more light, but none of these attempts
have succeeded.

In the year 1804, I contrived a method for illumi-
nating large rooms by means of a single luminous
balloon of gauze, of about eighteen inches in diame-
ter, suspended from the ceiling. In the centre of this
balloon there are placed, as close together as possible,
three, four, five, or six Argand lamps (according to the
size of the room), which are supplied with oil from
a large circular reservoir, which is concealed by the
balloon. This invention has been found to answer
very well, and many of the finest hotels in Paris are

|
1

Of the Light manifested in Combustion. 225

now lighted in this manner; but, if Iam not much mis-
taken, this z//umznxator will soon give place to another
much more simple in its construction, more econom-
ical, and which must produce a much finer effect.

Since I have become better acquainted with the
light which accompanies the combustion of inflam-
mable substances, I have found means by a very simple
contrivance to increase its intensity in a centre of illu-
mination, almost without limitation.

I lately caused a lamp to be constructed of a very
simple form, which, with four flat or ribbon wicks, each
one inch and six tenths English measure in width,
placed vertically, one by the side of the other, at: the
distance of about two tenths of an inch, and so sepa-
rated as to let the air come up between them, gives
more light than six Argand lamps burning with their
usual brilliancy.

I have often measured the intensity of its light, and
have never found it to be less than 3800°; and in sev-
eral experiments made in the presence of Professor
Pictet and M. Micheli of Geneva, and of M. Charles
and M. Gay-Lussac, members of the Institute, it was

_found to give 4000° of light, equal to that of 40 wax

candles of the best kind, all burning together with their
greatest brilliancy.

But in an experiment made at my country house at
Auteuil, on the first of November, 1811, in the pres-
ence of M. Russell, Chargé d’Affaires of the United
States (who takes this paper to England), the result
was still more extraordinary.

Some little alterations having been made in the
manner of trimming and arranging the lamp, it fur-
nished no less than 5250° of light, more than that of

VOL. IV. 15

226 Of the Light manifested em Combustion.

52 wax candles, and this without. the least appearance
of either smoke or smell.

On comparing the flame of an Argand lamp with
the united flames of this new lamp, it appeared just as
yellow and as dull as the flame of a common lamp ap-
pears when compared. with that of an Argand lamp.

It is indeed quite impossible to form: an adequate
idea of the beautiful whiteness and transcendent bright=
ness of this new illuminator without seeing it; and:
it never fails to: excite the surprise and admiration of
those who behold it for the: first. time.

The fundamental principle on which this lamp is
constructed is so easy to be understood that: it will be:
sufficient merely to mention it, in order to show clearly
what must be.done to put it in practice.

The object to be had in view in all cases is 4o pre-
serve the heat of the flame as long as posstble.

One of the most simple methods-of doing this.is, no
doubt, the placing of: several flat flames together, and.
as near as possible to each other without touching, im
order that they may mutually cover and: defend each
other against the powerful cooling influence of the sur-
rounding cold bodies.

It is evident: that this principle may be employed:
with great facility in all cases where oil is burned. to:
produce light; and that poly/lame lamps of the smallest
size, or of any given power of illumination, must nec-
essarily be superior in effect:and be. more economical,
than any of. the:lamps:now in use. :

As a clear flame is perfectly transparent; to: the: light)
of another flame. which passes through it, as I: have
shown in another place,* there is no danger of:any loss:

* See my paper on Light, published in the Philosophical Transactions in
the year 1794.

ee ee ee Se "

ie i i a eg 2 te ne

Of the Light manifested in. Combustion, 227

of light on account of these flames covering each
other. 3

I caused the light of one flame to pass, successively
through eight other like flames, without being: able. to.
perceive the smallest diminution of its intensity.

A considerable advantage attending these new. poly-
flame lamps is that they do not require a narrow glass
chimney as a blower to animate the combustion: it
will be sufficient to cover their flames at a distance by
a, wide cylindrica] glass tube placed upright on a, disk
of glass or metal having apertures in the middle of
it for the admission of the air, which must always
be. made. to. come up from below, between the flat tin
tubes which contain, the wicks.

This wide glass must be four or five inches higher
than the level of the tops of the flames, and no air
must be permitted to come up through it but that
which passes between the wicks, otherwise the draught
of air between the wicks will not be sufficiently strong.

The flat tin tubes which contain the wicks must be
all enclosed together in a larger tube (which may be
either square or cylindrical), in order that the air that
comes up between these flat tubes may be confined in
its passage and brought properly into the fire.

Care must be taken that the outside wicks, as well
as those placed between, receive air ox both their szdes,
and this air must be made to rise up perpendicularly
from below; but no other currents of air should ever
be permitted to come near them or to enter the glass
tube which covers and defends them.

It is highly probable that it will be found to be very
useful to be able to regulate the quantity of air ad-
mitted; but this may easily be done by a variety of
simple contrivances,

228 Of the Light manifested in Combustion.

If more air be permitted to mix with the flame than
is necessary to the complete combustion of oil, it must
necessarily cool the flame, and consequently must di-
minish the quantity of light.

The lamp which I have in my possession being the
only one of this kind that has yet been made, it is still
in a.rude and unfinished state; but, as it has answered
far beyond my most sanguine expectation, I lose no
time in giving an account of the principles on which it
is constructed, in hopes that others may be induced to
assist in improving it.

So far from being jealous of their success, I shall
rejoice in it, and shall ever be most ready to contribute
to it by all the means in my power.

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s Essays,
Vol. 1V., pp. 127-152. ]

AN ACCOUNT

__ ESTABLISHMENT FOR THE POOR AT MUNICH;

_ TOGETHER WITH |

A Detail of various Public Measures connected with that Institution,
which have been adopted and carried into Effect, for putting an
End to Mendicity, and introducing Order and useful Industry
among the more Indigent of the Inhabitants of BAVARIA.

»*

Bia
sy

TELE, ————S

PT Pas Se
‘

VIEW OF THE MILITARY WORKHOUSE AT MUNICH.

INTRODUCTION.

Situation of the Author in the Service of His Most
Serene Highness the ELector PALaTINE, Rezgn-
ing Duke of Bavaria. — Reasons which induced
him to undertake to form an Establishment for the
Relief of the Poor.

A MONG the vicissitudes of a life checkered by a
great variety of incidents, and in which I have
been called upon to act in many interesting scenes, I
have had an opportunity of employing my attention
upon a subject of great importance, —a subject inti-
mately and inseparably connected with the happiness
and well-being of all civil societies, and which from its
nature cannot fail to interest every benevolent mind:
it is the providing for the wants of the poor, and secur-
ing their happiness and comfort by the introduction of
order and industry among them.
The subject, though it is so highly interesting to
mankind, has not yet been investigated with that suc-
cess that could have been wished. This fact is appar-

232 Public Establishment for

ent, not only fiom the prevalence of indolence, misery,
and beggary in almost all the countries of Europe,
but also from the great variety of opinion among those
who have taken the matter into serious consideration,
and have proposed methods for remedying those evils
so generally and so justly complained of.

What I have to offer upon this subject being not
merely speculative opinion, but the genuine result of
actual experiments, — of experiments made upon a
very large scale, and under circumstances which render
them peculiarly interesting, — I cannot help flattering
myself that my readers will find both amusement and
useful information from the perusal of the following
sheets.

As it may perhaps appear extraordinary that a mili-
tary man should undertake a work so foreign to his
profession as that of forming and executing a plan for
providing for the poor, I have thought it not improper
to preface the narrative of my operations by a short
account of the motives which induced me to engage
in this undertaking. And, in order to throw still more
light upon the whole transaction, I shall begin with a
few words of myself, of my situation in the country in
which I reside, and of the different objects which were
had in view in the various public measures in which
Ihave been concerned. This information is necessary,
in order to form a clear idea of the circumstances
under which the operations in question were under-
taken, and of the connection which subsisted between
the different public measures which were adopted at
the same time.

Having in the year 1784, with His Majesty’s gracious
permission, engaged myself in the service of His Most

——i-

f
— Oo

the Poor in Bavaria. 534

Serene Highness the Elector Palatine, Reigning Duke
of Bavaria, I have since been employed by His Elec-
toral Highness in various public services, and particu-
larly in arranging his military affairs, and introducing
a new system of order, discipline, and economy among
his troops. |

In the execution of this commission, ever mindful
of that great and important truth, — that no political
arrangement can be really good except in so far as it
contributes to the general good of society,—I have
endeavoured in all my operations to unite the interest
of the soldier with the interest of civil society, and to
render the military force, even in time of peace, sub-
servient to the public good.

To facilitate and promote these important objects,
to establish a respectable standing military force, which
should do the least possible harm to the population,
morals, manufactures, and agriculture of the country, it
was necessary to make soldiers citizens, and citizens
soldiers. To this end the situation of the soldier was
made as easy, comfortable, and eligible as possible. His
pay was increased, he was comfortably and even ele-
gantly clothed, and he was allowed every kind of liberty
not inconsistent with good order and due subordina-
tion ; his military exercises were simplified, his instruc-
tion rendered short and easy, and all obsolete and use-
less customs and usages were banished from the service.
Great attention was paid to the neatness and cleanli-
ness of the soldiers’ barracks and quarters, and which
extended even to the external appearance of the build-
ings; and nothing was left undone that could tend to
make the men comfortable in their dwellings. Schools
were established in all the regiments for instructing

234 Public Establishment for

the soldiers in reading, writing, and arithmetic; and
into these schools not only the soldiers and their
children, but also the children of the neighbouring
citizens and peasants, were admitted grads, and even
school-books, paper,* pens, and ink were furnished for
them, at the expense of the sovereign.

Besides these schools of instruction, others, called
Schools of Industry, were established in the regiments,
where the soldiers and their children were taught vari-
ous kinds of work, and from whence they were supplied
with raw materials to work for their own emolument.

As nothing is so certainly fatal to morals, and
particularly to the morals of the lower class of man-
kind, as habitual idleness, every possible measure was
adopted that could be devised to introduce a spirit
of industry among the troops. Every encouragement
was given to the soldiers to employ their leisure time,
when they were off duty, in working for their own
emolument; and among other encouragements, the
most efficacious of all, that of allowing them full
liberty to dispose of the money acquired by their
labour in any way they should think proper, without
being obliged to give any account of it to anybody.
They were even furnished with working dresses (a
canvas frock and trousers) gra¢zs at their enlisting,
and were afterwards permitted to retain their old uni-
forms for the same purpose; and care was taken in all
cases where they were employed that they should be
well paid.

They commonly received from fifteen to eighteen
kreutzers t a day for their labour; and with this they

* This paper, as it could afterwards be made use of for making cartridges,
in fact cost nothing.
t A kreutzer is #4 of an English penny.

ee EEE

Se a PY) eo ee
:

}

the Poor in Bavaria. 235

had the advantage of being clothed and lodged, and in
many cases of receiving their full pay of five kreutzers,

and a pound and a half (1 lb. 134 0z. avoirdupois) of

bread per day from the sovereign. When they did
their duty in their regiments, by mounting guard
regularly according to their ¢owr (which commonly
was every fourth day), and only worked those days

they happened to be off guard, in that case they re-
ceived their full pay; but when they were excused

from regimental duty, and permitted to work every
day for their own emolument, their pay (at five kreut-
zers per day) was stopped, but they were still permitted
to receive their bread and to lodge in the barracks.

In all public works, such as making and repairing
highways, draining marshes, repairing the banks of
rivers, etc., soldiers were employed as labourers ; and in
all such cases the greatest care was taken to provide
for their comfortable subsistence, and even for their
amusement. Good lodgings were prepared for them,
and good and wholesome food, at a reasonable price;
and the greatest care was taken of them when they
happened to fall sick.

Frequently, when considerable numbers of them
were at work together, a band of music was ordered to
play to them while at work ; and on holidays they were
permitted, and even encouraged, to make merry with
dancing and other innocent sports and amusements.

To preserve good order and harmony among those
who were detached upon these working parties, a cer-
tain proportion of officers and non-commissioned off-
cers were always sent with them, and those commonly
served as overseers of the works, and as such were
paid.

236 Public Establishment for

Besides this permission to work for hire in the gar-
rison towns and upon detached working parties, which
was readily granted to all those who desired it, or at
least to as many as could possibly be spared from the
necessary service of the garrison, every facility and
encouragement was given to the soldier who was a
native of the country, and who had a family or friends
to go to, or private concerns to take care of, to go
home on furlough, and to remain absent from his regi-
ment from one annual exercise to the other; that is to
say, ten months and a half each year. This arrange-
ment was very advantageous to the agriculture and
manufactures, and even to the population of the coun-
try (for the soldiers were allowed to marry), and served
not a little to the establishment of harmony and a
friendly intercourse between the soldiers and the peas-
antry, and to facilitate recruiting.

Another measure which tended much to render the
situation of the soldier pleasant and agreeable, and to
facilitate the recruiting service, was the rendering the
garrisons of the regiments permanent. This measure
might not be advisable in a despotic or odious goy-
ernment, for where the authority of the sovereign
must be supported by the terror of arms all habits of
social intercourse and friendship between the soldiers
and the subjects must be dangerous; but in all well-
regulated governments such friendly intercourse is
attended with many advantages.

A peasant would more readily consent to his son’s
engaging himself to serve as a soldier in a regiment
permanently stationed in his neighbourhood than in
one at a great distance, or whose destination was un-
certain; and when the station of a regiment is per-

5
x 7

a ae ne ea a na an oat Ao Ed Be
‘

Ee TN

the Poor in Bavaria. 237

manent, and it receives its recruits from the district of
country immediately surrounding its headquarters, the
men who go home on furlough have but a short jour-
ney to make, and are easily assembled in case of any
emergency; and it was the more necessary to give
every facility to the soldiers to go home on furlough
in Bavaria, as labourers are so very scarce in that
country that the husbandman would not be able with-
out them to cultivate his ground.

The habits of industry and of order which the sol-
dier acquired when in garrison rendered him so much
the more useful as a labourer when on furlough; but,
not contented with merely furnishing labourers for the
assistance of the husbandman, I was desirous of mak-
ing use of the army as‘a means of introducing useful
improvements into the country.

Though agriculture is carried to the highest per-
fection in some parts of the Elector’s dominions, yet
in others, and particularly in Bavaria, it is still much
behind hand. Very few of the new improvements in
that art, such as the introduction of new and useful
plants, the cultivation of clover and of turnips, the
regular succession of crops, etc., have yet found their
way into general practice in that country; and even
the potato, that most useful of all the products of the
ground, is scarcely known there.

It was principally with a view to introduce the cul-
ture of potatoes in that country that the military gar-
dens were formed. These gardens (of which there
is one in every garrison belonging to the Elector’s
dominions, Dusseldorf and Amberg only excepted *)

* Particular local reasons, which it is not necessary here to explain, have

hitherto prevented the establishment of military gardens in these two garrison
towns.

238 Public Establishment for

are pieces of ground, in or adjoining to the. garrison,
towns, which are regularly laid out, and exclusively,
appropriated to the use of the non-commissioned off-
cers and private soldiers belonging to the regiments in
garrison. The ground is regularly divided into dis-
tricts of regiments, battalions, companies, and corporal-
ities (corporalschafts), of which last divisions there are
four. to each company; and the quantity of ground
allotted to each corporality is such that each man
belonging to it, whether non-commissioned officer or
private, has a bed 365 square feet in superficies.

This piece of ground remains his sole. property as
long-as he continues, to. serve in the regiment; and he
is at full liberty to. cultivate it in. any way, and to dis-
pose of the produce of it-in any manner he may think
proper. He must, however, cultivate it, and plant it,
and keep it neat: and free from weeds ;. otherwise, if he
should be idle, and, neglect it, it would be taken, from
him, and given to one of his more industrious com-
rades,

The divisions of these. military gardens. are marked
by broader and, smaller.alleys, covered with gravel, and
neatly kept; and, in order that every. one, who chooses
it, may be a spectator of this. interesting scene of. in-
dustry, all the principal alleys, which are made. large
for that purpose, are always. open as a public walk.
The effect which this establishment has. already pro-
duced.in the short. time (little. more, than. five years)
since it was. begun. is very striking, and much greater
and more important than I could: have expected.

The soldiers, from. being the most indolent of mor-
tals, and from having very little knowledge of garden-
ing or of the produce of a garden for use, are now

the Poor in Bavaria. 239

become industrious and skilful cultivators; and they are
grown so fond of vegetables, particularly of potatoes;
which they raise in great quantities, that these useful
and wholesome productions now constitute a very es-
sential part of their daily food. And these improve-
ments are also spreading very fast among the farmers
and peasants, throughout the whole country.. There is
hardly a soldier that goes on furlough, or that returns
home at the expiration of his time of service, that does
not carry with. him a few potatoes for planting, and a
little collection of garden-seeds; and I have no doubt
but in a very few years we shall: see potatoes as much
cultivated in Bavaria as in other countries, and that
the use of vegetables for food will be generally intro-
duced among the common people. I have ‘already
had the satisfaction to see little gardens here and
there making their appearance in different parts of
the country; and I hope that very soon no farmer’s
house will be found without one.

To assist the soldiers in the cultivation of their
gardens, they are furnished with garden utensils gratzs.
They are likewise furnished from time to time with a
certain quantity of manure, and with an assortment of
garden-seeds; but they do not rely solely upon these
supplies. Those who are industrious collect materials in
their barracks, and in the streets, for making manure,
and even sometimes purchase it ; and they raise in their
own gardens most of the garden-seeds they stand in
need of. To enable them to avail themselves of their
gardens as early in the spring as possible, in supplying
their tables with green vegetables, each company is
furnished with a hot-bed for raising early plants.

To attach the soldiers more strongly to these their

240 Public Establishment for

little possessions, by increasing their comfort and con-
venience in the cultivation. and enjoyment of them, a
number of little summer-houses, or rather huts, one to
each company, have been erected for the purpose of
shelter, where they can retire when it rains or when they
are fatigued.

All the officers of the regiments, from the highest to
the lowest, are ordered to give the men every assistance
in the cultivation of these their gardens; but they are
forbidden, upon pain of the severest punishment, to ap-
propriate to themselves any part of the produce of them,
or even to receive any part of it in presents.

—"

ale

the Poor in Bavaria. 241

CHAP LE Kt

Of the Prevalence of Mendicity in Bavaria at the Time
when the Measures for putting an End to tt were
adopted.

MONG the various measures that occurred to me

by which the military establishment of the coun-

try might be made subservient to the public good in

time of peace, none appeared to be of so much impor-

tance as that of employing the army in clearing the

country of beggars, thieves, and other vagabonds, and
in watching over the public tranquillity.

But, in order to clear the country of beggars (the
number of whom in Bavaria had become quite intol-
erable), it was necessary to adopt general and efficacious
measures for maintaining and supporting the poor.
Laws were not wanting to oblige each community in the
country to provide for its own poor; but these laws had
been so long neglected, and beggary had become so
general, that extraordinary measures and the most inde-
fatigable exertions were necessary to put a stop to this
evil. The number of itinerant beggars, of both sexes
and all ages, as well foreigners as natives, who strolled
about the country in all directions, levying contributions
from the industrious inhabitants, stealing and robbing
and leading a life of indolence and the most shameless
debauchery, was quite incredible ; and so numerous were
the swarms of beggars in all the great towns, and par-
ticularly in the capital, so great their impudence and so

VOL. Iv, 16

242 Public Establishment for

persevering their importunity, that it was almost impos- |
sible to cross the streets without being attacked, and
absolutely forced to satisfy their clamorous demands.
And these beggars were in general by no means such
as from age or bodily infirmities were unable by their
labour to earn their livelihood; but they were, for the
most part, stout, strong, healthy, sturdy beggars, who,
lost to every sense of shame, had embraced the profes-
sion from choice, not necessity, and who not unfrequently
added insolence and threats to their importunity, and
extorted that from fear which they could not procure by
their arts of dissimulation.

These beggars not only infested all the streets, public
walks, and public places, but they even made a practice
of going into private houses, where they never failed to.
steal whatever fell in their way, if they found the doors
open and nobody at home; and the churches were so
full of them that it was quite a nuisance, and a public
scandal during the performance of divine service. Peo-
ple at their devotions were continually interrupted by
them, and were frequently obliged to satisfy their de-
mands, in order to be permitted to finish their prayers
in peace and quiet.

In short, these detestable vermin swarmed everywhere, °
and not only their impudence and clamorous importu-
nity were without any bounds, but they had recourse to
the most diabolical arts and most horrid crimes, in the
prosecution of their infamous trade. Young children
were stolen from their parents by these wretches, and
their eyes put out or their tender limbs broken and dis-
torted, in order by exposing them thus maimed to excite
the pity and commiseration of the public; and every
species of artifice was made use of to agitate the sensi-

the Poor in Bavaria. 243

bility, and to extort the contributions of the humane
and charitable. ty

Some of these monsters were so void of all feeling as
to expose even their own children, naked and almost
starved, in the streets, in order that by their cries and
unaffected expressions of distress they might move
those who passed by to pity and relieve them; and,
in order to make them act their part more naturally,
they were unmercifully beaten when they came home,
by their inhuman parents, if they did not bring with
them a certain sum which they were ordered to collect.

I have frequently seen a poor child of five or six
years of age, late at night, in the most inclement season,
sitting down almost naked at the corner of a street, and
crying most bitterly. If he were asked what was the
matter with him, he would answer: “Iam cold and hun-
gry, and afraid to gohome. My mother told me to bring
home twelve kreutzers, and I have only been able to beg
five. My mother will certainly beat me if I don’t carry
home twelve kreutzers.” Who could refuse so small
a sum to relieve so much unaffected distress? But
what horrid arts are these, to work upon the feelings of
the public, and levy involuntary contributions for the
support of idleness and debauchery !

But the evils arising from the prevalence of men-
dicity did not stop here. The public, worn out and van-
quished by the numbers and persevering importunity
of the beggars, and frequently disappointed in their
hopes of being relieved from their depredations, by the
failure of the numberless schemes that were formed and
set on foot for that purpose, began at last to consider the
case as quite desperate, and to submit patiently to an evil
for which they saw no remedy. The consequences of

244 Public Establishment. for

this submission are easy to be conceived. The beggars,
encouraged by their success, were attached still more
strongly to their infamous profession ; and others, allured
by their indolent lives, encouraged by their successful
frauds, and emboldened by their impunity, joined them,
The habit of submission on the part of the public gave
them a sort of right to pursue their depredations,
their growing numbers and their success gave a kind of
éclat to their profession; and the habit of begging be-
came so general that it ceased to be considered as infa-
mous, and was, by degrees, in a manner interwoven with
the internal regulations of society. Herdsmen and
shepherds, who attended their flocks by the road-side,
were known to derive considerable advantage from the
contributions which their situation enabled them to levy
from passengers; and I have been assured that the
wages they received from their employers were often
regulated accordingly. The children in every country
village, and those even of the best farmers, made a con-
stant practice of begging from all strangers who passed ;
and one hardly ever met a person on foot upon the
road, particularly a woman, who did not hold out her
hand and ask for charity..

In the great towns, besides the children of the poorer
sort, who almost all made a custom of begging, the pro-
fessional beggars formed a distinct class or caste among
the inhabitants, and in general a very numerous one.
There was even a kind of political connection between
the members of this formidable body; and certain gen-
eral maxims were adopted and regulations observed in
the warfare they carried on against the public. Each
beggar had his particular beat or district, in the posses-
sion of which it was not thought lawful to disturb

ae eS ee ee ee oes oy
‘

De i ol Ml

ee a8

the Poor in Bavaria. 245

him; and certain rules were observed in disposing of
the districts, in case of vacancies by deaths or resigna-
tions, promotions or removals. A battle, it is true,
frequently decided the contest between the candidates ;
but when the possession was once obtained, whether by
force of arms or. by any other means, the right was ever
after considered as indisputable. Alliances by marriage
were by no means uncommon in this community; and,
strange as it may appear, means were found to procure
legal permission from the civil magistrates for the cele-
bration of these nuptials! The children were of course
trained up in the profession of their parents, and hav-
ing the advantage of an early education were commonly
great proficients in their trade.

As there is no very essential difference between de-
priving a person of his property by stealth and extorting
it from him against his will, by dint of clamorous im-
portunity or under false pretence of feigned distress and
misfortune, so the transition from begging to stealing
is not only easy, but perfectly natural. That total insensi-
bility to shame, and all those other qualifications which
are necessary in the profession of a beggar, are likewise
essential to form an accomplished thief; and both these
professions derive very considerable advantages from
their union. A beggar who goes about from house to
house to ask for alms has many opportunities to steal,
which another would not so easily find; and his profes-
sion as a beggar gives him a great facility in disposing
of what he steals, for he can always say it was given
him in charity. No wonder, then, that thieving and
robbing should be prevalent where beggars are nu-
merous.

That this was the case in Bavaria will not be doubted

246 Public Establishment. for

by those who are informed that in the four years imme-
diately succeeding the introduction of the measures
adopted for putting an end to mendicity, and clearing
the country of beggars, thieves, robbers, etc., above ¢ez
thousand of these vagabonds, foreigners, and natives
were actually arrested and delivered over to the civil
magistrates; and that in taking up the beggars in Mu-
nich, and providing for those who stood in need of
public assistance, no less than 2600 of the one descrip-
tion and the other were entered upon the lists in one
week, though the whole number of the inhabitants of
the city of Munich probably does not amount to more
than 60,000, even including the suburbs,

These facts are so very extraordinary that, were they
not notorious, I should hardly have ventured to mention
them, for fear of being suspected of exaggeration; but
they are perfectly known in the country by everybody,
having been published by authority in the newspapers
at the time, with all the various details and specifications,
for the information of the public.

What has been said will, I fancy, be thought quite
sufficient to show the necessity of applying a remedy
to the evils described, and of introducing order and a
spirit of industry among the lower classes of the people.
I shall therefore proceed, without any further preface, to
give an account of the measures which were adopted and
carried into execution for that purpose.

SOR a ae ee eae le ea ee
‘

ae Aw
ae

eee ae Se

the Poor wn Bavaria. 247

CHAPTER IL.

Various Preparations made for putting an End to
Mendicity in Bavaria.— Cantonment of the Cav-
alry in the Country Towns and Villages. — For-
mation of the Committee placed at the Head of the
Institution for the Poor at Munich. — The Funds
of that Institution.

S soon as it was determined to undertake this
great and difficult work, and the plan of opera-
tions was finally settled, various preparations were made
for its execution. |
The first preliminary step taken was to canton four
regiments of cavalry in Bavaria and the adjoining prov-
inces, in such a manner that not only every consider-
able town was furnished with a detachment, but most
of the large villages were occupied ; and, in every part
of the country, small parties of threes, fours, and fives,
were so stationed, at the distance of one, two, and
three leagues from each other, that they could easily
perform their daily patrols from one station to another
in the course of the day, without ever being obliged to
stop at a peasant’s house or even at an inn, or ever to
demand forage for their horses, or victuals for them-
selves, or lodgings, from any person whatever. This
arrangement of quarters prevented all disputes between
the military and the people of the country. The head-
quarters of: each regiment, where the commanding
officer of the regiment resided, was established in a
central situation with respect to the extent of country
occupied by the regiment. Each squadron had its com-

248 Public Establishment for

manding officer in the centre of its district; and the
subalterns and non-commissioned officers were so dis-
tributed in the different cantonments that the privates
were continually under the inspection of their supe-
riors, who had orders to keep a watchful eye over
them, to visit them in their quarters very often, and
to preserve the strictest order and discipline among
them.

To command these troops, a general officer was
named, who, after visiting every cantonment in the
whole country, took up his residence at Munich.

Printed instructions were given to the officer or
non-commissioned officer who commanded a detached
post or patrol. Regular monthly returns were ordered
to be made to the commanding officers of the regi-
ment, by the officers commanding squadrons; to the
commanding general, by the officers commanding regi-
ments ; and by the commanding general, to the council
of war and to the sovereign.

To prevent disputes between the military and the
civil authorities, and as far as possible to remove all
grounds of jealousy and ill-will between them, as
also to preserve peace and harmony between the sol-
diery and the inhabitants, these troops were strictly
ordered and enjoined to behave on all occasions to
magistrates and other persons in civil authority with
the utmost respect and deference; to conduct them-
selves towards the peasants and other inhabitants in
the most peaceable and friendly manner; to retire to
their quarters very early in the evening; and, above
all, cautiously to avoid disputes and quarrels with the
people of the country. They were also ordered to be
very diligent and alert in making their daily patrols

Ti WG & ae Te he

the Poor in Bavaria. 249

from one station to another; to apprehend all thieves
and other vagabonds that infested the country, and
deliver them over to the civil magistrates; to appre-
hend deserters, and conduct them from ‘station to
station to their regiments; to conduct all prisoners
from one part of the country to another; to assist the
civil magistrate in the execution of the laws, and in
preserving peace and order in the country, in all cases
where they should be legally called upon for that pur-
pose; to perform the duty of messengers in carrying
government despatches and orders, civil as well as mili-
tary, in cases of emergency; and to bring accounts to
the capital, by express, of every extraordinary event of
importance that happens in the country; to guard the
frontiers, and assist the officers of the revenue in
preventing smuggling ; to have a watchful eye over all
soldiers on furlough in the country, and, when guilty of
excesses, to apprehend them and transport them to
their regiments; to assist the inhabitants in case of
fire, and particularly to guard their effects, and prevent
their being lost or stolen in the confusion which com-
monly takes place on those occasions; to pursue and
apprehend all thieves, robbers, murderers, and other
malefactors ; and, in general, to lend their assistance on
all occasions where they could be useful in maintain-
ing peace, order, and tranquillity in the country.

As the sovereign had an undoubted right to quarter
his troops upon the inhabitants when they were em-
ployed for the police and defence of the country, they
were on this occasion called upon to provide quarters
for the men distributed in these cantonments; but, in
order to make this burden as light as possible to the
inhabitants, they were only called upon to provide

250 Public Establishment for

quarters for the on-commussioned officers and privates ;
and instead of being obliged to take ¢ese into their
houses, and to furnish them with victuals and lodgings,
as had formerly been the practice (and which was cer-
tainly a great hardship), a small house or barrack for
the men, with stabling adjoining to it for the horses,
was built, or proper lodgings were hired by the civil
magistrate in each of these military stations, and the
expense was levied upon the inhabitants at large. The
forage for the horses was provided by the regiments,
or by contractors employed for that purpose; and the
men, being furnished with a certain allowance of fire-
wood and the necessary articles of kitchen furniture,
were made to provide for their own subsistence, by
purchasing their provisions at the markets and cook-
ing their victuals in their own quarters.

The officers provided their own lodgings and stabling,
being allowed a certain sum for that purpose in addition
to their ordinary pay.

The whole of the additional expense to the military
chest, for the establishment and support of these can-
tonments, amounted to a mere trifle; and the burden
upon the people, which attended the furnishing of quar-
ters for the non-commissioned officers and privates, was
very inconsiderable, and bore no proportion to the ad-
vantages derived from the protection and security to
their persons and properties afforded by these troops.*

Not only this cantonment of the cavalry was carried
into execution as a preliminary measure to the taking
up of the beggars in the capital, but many other prepa-
ratives were also made for that undertaking.

* The whole amount of this burden was not more than 30,000 florins, or about
42727 sterling a year. !

the Poor in Bavaria. 251

As considerable sums were necessary for the support
of such of the poor as from age or other bodily infirm-
ities were unable by their industry to provide for their
own subsistence; and as there were no public funds
any way adequate to such an expense, which could be ap-
plied to this use,— the success of the measure depended
entirely upon the voluntary subscriptions of the inhabi-
tants ; and, in order to induce these to subscribe liberally,
it was necessary to secure their approbation of the plan,
and their confidence in those who were chosen to carry
it into execution. And as the number of beggars was
so great in Munich, and their importunity so very trou-
blesome, there could have been no doubt but.any sensi-
ble plan for remedying this evil would have been gladly
received by the public; but they had been so often
disappointed by fruitless attempts from time to time
made for that purpose, that they began to think the en-
terprise quite impossible, and to consider every proposal
for providing for the poor and preventing mendicity as
a mere job.

Aware of this, I took my measures accordingly. To
convince the public that the scheme was feasible, |
determined first, by a great exertion, to carry it into
complete execution, and ¢hez to ask them to support it.
And, to secure their confidence in those employed in
the management of it, persons of the highest rank and
most respectable character were chosen to superintend
and direct the affairs of the institution ; and every meas-
ure was taken that could be devised to prevent abuses.

Two principal objects were to be attended to, in
making these arrangements: the first was to furnish
suitable employment to such of the poor as were able to
work; and the second, to provide the necessary assist-

252 Public Establishment for

ance for those who, from age, sickness, or other bodily
infirmities, were unable by their industry to provide for
themselves. A general system of police was likewise
necessary among this class of miserable beings, as well
as measures for reclaiming them, and making them useful
subjects.

The police of the poor, as also the distribution of
alms, and all the economical details of the institution,
were put under the direction of a committee, composed
of the president of the council of war, the president
of the council of supreme regency, the president of
the ecclesiastical council, and the president of the
chamber of finances; and, to assist them in this work,
each of the above-mentioned presidents was accompa-
nied by one counsellor of his respective department, at
his own choice, who was present at all the meetings of
the committee, and who performed the more laborious
parts of the business. This committee, which was called
The Armen-Instituts-Deputation, had convenient apart-
ments fitted up for its meetings; a secretary, clerk, and
accountant were appointed to it; and the ordinary
guards of the police were put under its immediate
direction.

Neither the presidents nor the counsellors belonging
to this committee received any pay or emolument what-
ever for this service, but took upon themselves this
trouble merely from motives of humanity and a generous
desire to promote the public good; and even the secre-
tary and other inferior officers employed in this business
received their pay immediately from the treasury, or
from some other department, and not from the funds
destined for the relief of the poor. And, in order most
effectually to remove all suspicion with respect to the

the Poor in Bavaria. 253

management of this business, and the faithful applica-
tion of the money destined for the poor, instead of ap-
pointing a treasurer to the committee, a public banker
of the town, a most respectable citizen,* was named to
receive and pay all moneys belonging to the institution,
upon the written orders of the committee; and exact
and detailed accounts of all moneys received and ex-
pended were ordered to be printed every three months,
and distributed gratis among the inhabitants.

In order that every citizen might have it in his power
to assure himself that the accounts were exact, and that
the sums expended were dona fide given to the poor in
alms, the money was publicly distributed every. Satur-
day in the town-hall, in the presence of a number of
deputies chosen from among the citizens themselves ;
and an alphabetical list ah the poor who received
alms —in which was mentioned the weekly sum each
person received and the place of his or her abode —
was hung up in the hall for public inspection.

But this was not all. In order to fix the confidence
of the public upon the most firm and immovable basis,
and to engage their good-will and cheerful assistance
in support of the measures adopted, the citizens were
invited to take an active and honourable part in the
execution of the plan, and in the direction of its most
interesting details.

The town of Munich, which contains about 60,000
inhabitants, had been formerly divided into four quarters.
Each of these was now subdivided into four districts,
making in all sixteen districts; and all the dwelling-
houses, from the palace of the sovereign to the meanest
hovel, were regularly numbered, and inscribed in printed

* M. Dallarmi.

254 Public Establishment for

lists provided for that purpose. For the inspection
of the poor in each district, a respectable citizen was
chosen, who was called the commissary of the district
(abthetlungs commissatre) ; and for his assistants, a priest,
a physician, a surgeon, and an apothecary,—all of
whom, including the commissary, undertook this service
without fee or reward, from mere motives of human-
ity and true patriotism. The apothecary was simply
reimbursed the original cost of the medicines he
furnished. |

To give more weight and dignity to the office of
commissary of a district, one of these commissaries, in
rotation, was called to assist at the meetings of the
supreme committee; and all applications for alms were
submitted to the commissaries for their opinion, or,
more properly, all such applications went through
them to the committee. They were likewise partic-
ularly charged with the inspection and police of the
poor in their several districts.

When a person already upon the poor list, or any
other in distress, stood in need of assistance, he applied
to the commissary of his district, who, after visiting
him and inquiring into the circumstances of his case,
afforded him such immediate assistance as was abso-
lutely necessary; or otherwise, if the case was such as
to admit of the delay, he recommended him to the
attention of the committee, and waited for their orders.
If the poor person was sick or wounded, he was carried
to some hospital, or the physician or surgeon of the dis-
trict was sent for, and a nurse provided to take care of
him in his lodgings. If he grew worse, and appeared
to draw near his end, the priest was sent for to afford
him such spiritual assistance as he might require ; and,

ee a

the Poor in Bavaria, 255

if he died, he was decently buried. After his death,
the commissary assisted at the inventory which was
taken of his effects, a copy of which inventory was
delivered over to the committee. These effects were
afterwards sold; and after deducting the amount of the
different sums received in alms from the institution by
the deceased during his lifetime, and the amount of
the expenses of his illness and funeral, the remainder,
if any, was delivered over to his lawful heirs ; but when
these effects were insufficient for those purposes, or

_when no effects were to be found, the surplus in the

one case, and the whole of these expenses in the other,
was borne by the funds of the institution.

These funds were derived from the following sources,
v1z.: —

first, from stated monthly allowances, from the
sovereign out of his private purse, from the states,
and from the treasury or chamber of finances ;

Secondly, and principally, from the voluntary sub-
scription of the inhabitants;

Thirdly, from legacies left to the institution ; and

Fourthly, from several small revenues arising from
certain tolls, fines, etc. which were appropriated to
that use.*

Several other and some of them very considerable
public funds, originally designed by their founders for
the relief of the poor, might have been taken and
appropriated to this purpose; but, as some of these
foundations had been misapplied, and others nearly
ruined by bad management, it would have been a very
disagreeable task to wrest them out of the hands of

* The annual amount of these various receipts may be seen in the accounts
published in the Appendix, (See page 524.)

256 Public Establishment for

those who had the administration of them; and I
therefore judged it most prudent not to meddle with
them, avoiding by that means a great deal of opposi-
tion to the execution of my plan.

CHA PT ER:Hk

Preparations made for giving Employment to the
Poor. — Difficulties attending that Undertaking. —
The Measures adopted completely successful. — The
Poor reclaimed to Habits of useful Industry.—
Description of the House of Industry at Munich.

UT, before I proceed to give a more particular
account of the funds of this institution and of the
application of them, it will be necessary to mention the
preparations which were made for furnishing employ-
ment to the poor, and the means which were used for
reclaiming them from their vicious habits and render-
ing them industrious and useful subjects. And this
was certainly the most difficult as well as the most
curious and interesting part of the undertaking. To
trust raw materials in the hands of common beggars
certainly required great caution and management; but
to produce so total and radical a change in the morals,

manners, and customs of this debauched and abandoned -

race, as was necessary to render them orderly and use-
ful members of society, will naturally be considered as
an arduous, if not impossible, enterprise. In this I

—— ee ee

the Poor in Bavaria. 257

succeeded. For the proof of this fact, I appeal to the
flourishing state of the different manufactories in which
these poor people are now employed; to their orderly
and peaceable demeanor; to their cheerfulness; to
their industry ; to the desire to excel, which manifests
itself among them upon all occasions ; and to the very
air of their countenances. Strangers who go to see this
institution (and there are very few who pass through
Munich who do not take that trouble) cannot sufh-
ciently éxpress their surprise at the air of happiness
and contentment which reigns throughout every part
of this extensive establishment, and can hardly be per-
suaded that, among those they see so cheerfully
engaged in that interesting scene of industry, by far
the greater part were, five years ago, the most miser-
able and most worthless of beings, —common beggars
in the streets. |

An account of the means employed in bringing
about this change cannot fail to be interesting to
every benevolent mind; and this is what has encour-
aged me to lay these details before the public.

By far the greater number of the poor people to be
taken care of were not only common beggars, but had
been bred up from their very infancy in that profes-
sion, and were so attached to their indolent and dis-
solute way of living as to prefer it to all other situations.
They were not only unacquainted with all kinds of
work, but had the most insuperable aversion to honest
labour, and had been so long familiarized with every
crime that they had become perfectly callous to all
sense of shame and remorse.

With persons of this description, it is easy to be

conceived that precepts, admonitions, and punish-
VoL. IV. 17

258 Public Establishment for

ments would be of little or no avail. But, where
precepts fail, Zadz¢s may sometimes be successful.

To make vicious and abandoned people happy, it
has generally been supposed necessary, 7vs¢, to make
them virtuous. But why not reverse this order! Why
not make them first Zagpy, and then virtuous! If
happiness and virtue be zxzseparadde, the end will be as
certainly obtained by the one method as by the other ;
and it is most undoubtedly much easier to contribute
to the happiness and comfort of persons in a state of
poverty and misery than by admonitions and punish-
ments to reform their morals, |

Deeply struck with the importance of this truth,
all my measures were taken accordingly. Every thing
was done that could be devised to make the poor
people I had to deal with comfortable and happy in their
new situation ; and my hopes, that a habit of enjoying
the real comforts and conveniences which were pro-
vided for them would in time soften their hearts, open
their eyes, and render them grateful and docile, were
not disappointed.

The pleasure I have had in the success of this
experiment is much easier to be conceived than de-
scribed. Would to God that my success might
encourage others to follow my example! If it were
generally known how little trouble and how little
expense are required to do much good, the heart-felt
satisfaction which arises from relieving the wants and
promoting the happiness of our fellow-creatures is so
great, that I am persuaded acts of the most essential
charity would be much more frequent, and the mass of
misery among mankind would consequently be much
lessened.

the Poor in Bavaria, 259

Having taken my resolution of making the com/fort
of the poor people who were to be provided for the
primary object of my intention, I considered what cir-
cumstance in life, after the necessaries, food and raiment,
contributes most to comfort; and I found it to be
cleanliness. And so very extensive is the influence of
cleanliness that it reaches even to the brute creation.

With what care and attention do the feathered race
wash themselves and put their plumage in order; and
how perfectly neat, clean, and elegant do they ever ap-
pear! Among the beasts of the field, we find that those
which are the most cleanly are generally the most gay
and cheerful, or are distinguished by a certain -air of
tranquillity and contentment; and singing birds are al-
ways remarkable for the neatness of their plumage.
And so great is the effect of cleanliness upon man, that
it extends even to his moral character. Virtue never
dwelt long with filth and nastiness; nor do I believe there
ever was a person scrupulously attentive to cleanliness
who was a consummate villain.*

Order and disorder, peace and war, health and
sickness, cannot exist together; but comfort and con-
tentment, the inseparable companions of happiness and
virtue, can only arise from order, peace, and health.

Brute animals are evidently taught cleanliness by in-
stinct; and can there be a stronger proof of its being

* Almost all the great law-givers and founders of religions, from the remotest
antiquity, seem to have been aware of the influence of cleanliness upon the
moral character of man, and have strongly inculcated it. In many cases it has
been interwoven with the most solemn rites of public and private worship, and -
is so still in many countries. The idea that the soul is defiled and depraved
by every thing wsclean, or which defiles the body, has certainly prevailed in all
ages; and has been particularly attended to by those great benefactors of
mankind, who, by the introduction of feace and order in society, have laboured
successfully to promote the happiness of their fellow-creatures.

260 Public Establishment for

essentially necessary to their well-being and happiness?
But if cleanliness is necessary to the happiness of
brutes, how much more so must it be to the happiness
of the human race?

The good effects of cleanliness, or rather the bad ef-
fects of filth and nastiness, may, I think, be very satisfac-
torily accounted for. Our bodies are continually at war
with whatever offends them, and every thing offends
them that adheres to them and irritates them; and
though by long habit we may be so accustomed to sup-
port a physical ill as to become almost insensible to it,
yet it never leaves the mind perfectly at peace. There
always remains a certain uneasiness and discontent,—
an indecision and an aversion from all serious applica-
tion, which shows evidently that the mind is not at rest.

Those who from being afflicted with long and painful
disease suddenly acquire health are best able to judge
of the force of this reasoning. It is by the delightful
sensation they feel at being relieved from pain and un-
easiness that they learn to know the full extent of their
former misery; and the human heart is never so effect-
ually softened; and so well prepared and disposed to
receive virtuous impressions, as upon such occasions.

It was with a view to bring the minds of the poor
and unfortunate people I had to deal with to this state,
that I took so much pains to make them comfortable in
their new situation. The state in which they had been
used to live was certainly most wretched and deplorable ;
but they had been so long accustomed to it that they
were grown insensible to their own misery. It was
therefore necessary, in order to awaken their attention,
to make the contrast between their former situation and
that which was prepared for them as striking as pos-

Sy ea ae

the Poor in Bavaria. 261

sible. To this end every thing was done that could be
devised to make them really comfortable.

Most of them had been used to living in the most
miserable hovels, in the midst of vermin and every kind
of filthiness; or to sleep in the streets, and under the
hedges, half naked, and exposed to all the inclemencies
of the seasons. A large and commodious building,
fitted up in the neatest and most comfortable manner,
was now provided for their reception. In this agree-
able retreat, they found spacious and elegant apartments,
kept with the most scrupulous neatness, well warmed in
winter, and well lighted; a good warm dinner every
day, gratzs, cooked and served up with all possible at-
tention to order and cleanliness; materials and utensils
for those who were able to work; masters, evatis, for
those who required instruction; the most generous pay,
tu money, forall the labour performed; and the kindest
usage from every person, from the highest to the low-
est, belonging to the establishment. Here, in this
asylum for the indigent and unfortunate, no ill usage,
no harsh language, is permitted. During five years
that the establishment has existed, not a blow has been
given to any one, not even toa child by his instructor.

As the rules and regulations for the preservation of
order are few and easy to be observed, the instances of
their being transgressed are rare; and as all the labour
performed is paid by the piece, and not by the day, and
is well paid, and as those who gain the most by their
work in the course of the week receive proportional
rewards on the Saturday evening, these are most effect-
ual encouragements to industry.

But, before I proceed to give an account of the internal
economy of this establishment, it will be necessary to

262 Public Establishment for

describe the building which was appropriated to this
use, and the other local circumstances necessary to be
known, in order to have a clear idea of the subject.

This building, which is very extensive, is pleasantly
situated in the Aw, one of the suburbs of the city of
Munich. It had formerly been a manufactory, but for
many years had been deserted and falling to ruins. It
was now completely repaired, and in part rebuilt. A
large kitchen, with a large eating-room adjoining it, and
a commodious bake-house, were added to the buildings ;
and work-shops for carpenters, smiths, turners, and such
other mechanics as were constantly wanted in the man-
ufactory for making and repairing the machinery, were
established, and furnished with tools. Large halls were
fitted up for spinners of hemp, for spinners of flax, for
spinners of cotton, for spinners of wool, and for spinners
of worsted; and adjoining to each hall a small room
was fitted up for a clerk or inspector of the hall (spzz-
schreiber). This room, which was at the same time a
store-room and counting-house, had a large window open-
ing to the hall, from whence the spinners were supplied
with raw materials, where they delivered their yarn
when spun, and from whence they received an order
upon the cashier, signed by the clerk, for the amount
of their labour.

Halls were likewise fitted up for weavers of woollens,
for weavers of serges and shalloons, for linen-weavers,
for weavers of cotton goods, and for stocking-weavers ;
and work-shops were provided for clothiers, cloth-shear-
ers, dyers, saddlers, and rooms for wool-sorters, wool-
carders, wool-combers, knitters, sempstresses, etc. Mag-
azines were fitted up as well for finished manufactures
as for raw materials, and rooms for counting-houses,

the Poor in Bavaria. 263

store-rooms for the kitchen and bake-house, and dwell-
ing-rooms for the inspectors and other officers who were
lodged in the house. :

A very spacious hall, r1o feet long, 37 feet wide, and
22 feet high, with many windows on both sides, was
fitted as a drying-room; and in this hall tenters were
placed for stretching out and drying eight pieces of
cloth at once. This hall was so contrived as to serve
for the dyer and for the clothier at the same time.

A fulling-mill was established upon a stream of water
which runs by one side of the court, round which the
building is erected; and adjoining to the ye ae
are the dyer’s-shop and the wash-house.

This whole edifice, which is very extensive, was fitted
up, as has already been observed, in the neatest manner
possible. In doing this, even the external appearance
of the building was attended to, It was handsomely
painted without as well as within; and pains were taken
to give it an air of e/egance as well as of neatness and
cleanliness. A large court in the middle of the build-
ing was handsomely paved; and the ground before the
building was levelled and covered with gravel, and the
approach to it from every side was made easy and
commodious. Over the principal door or rather gate,
which fronts the street, is an inscription denoting the
use to which the building is appropriated; and in the
passage leading into the court there is written in large
letters of gold upon a black ground,“ No ALMs WILL
BE RECEIVED HERE.”

Upon coming into the court, you see inscriptions
over all the doors upon the ground floor leading to
the different parts of the building. These inscriptions,
which are all in letters of gold upon a black ground,

264 Public Establishment for

denote the particular uses to which the different apart-
ments are destined.

This building having been got ready, and a sufficient
number of spinning-wheels, looms, and other utensils
made use of in the most common manufactures being
provided, together with a sufficient stock of raw mate-
rials, I proceeded to carry my plan into execution
in the manner which will be related in the following
Chapter.

CHAPTER fy,

An Account of the taking up of the Beggars at
Munich.— The Inhabitants are called upon for
their Assistance.— General Subscription for the
Relief and Support of the Poor.— All other
public and private Collections for the Poor abol-
shed.

TRE oe aa cee having from time imme-
morial been considered in Bavaria as a day
peculiarly set apart for giving alms, and the beggars
never failing to be all out upon that occasion, I chose
that moment as being the most favourable for begin-
ning my operations. Early in the morning of the
ist of January, 1790, the officers and non-commis-
sioned officers of the three regiments of infantry in
garrison were stationed in the different streets, where
they were directed to wait for further orders.

Having, in the mean time, assembled at my lodg-

OE Oe

the Poor in Bavaria. 265

ings the field-officers, and all the chief magistrates of
the town, I made them acquainted with my intention
to proceed that very morning to the execution of a
plan I had formed for taking up the beggars and
providing for the poor, and asked their immediate
assistance.

To show the public that it was not my wish to carry
this measure into execution by military force alone
(which might have rendered the measure odious), but
that I was disposed to show all becoming deference to
the civil authority, I begged the magistrates to accom-
pany me and the field-officers of the garrison in the
execution of the first and most difficult part of the
undertaking, that of arresting the beggars. This they
most readily consented to; and we immediately sallied
out into the street, myself accompanied by the chief
magistrate of the town, and each of the field-officers by
an inferior magistrate.

We were hardly got into the street when we were
accosted by a beggar who asked us for alms. I went
up to him, and laying my hand gently upon his
shoulder told him that from thenceforwards begging
would not be permitted in Munich; that if he really
stood in need of assistance (which would immediately
be inquired into) the necessary assistance should cer-
tainly be given him, but that begging was forbidden ;
and, if he was detected fn it again, he would be severely
punished. I then delivered him over to an orderly
sergeant who was following me, with directions to con-
duct him to the town-hall, and deliver him into the
hands of those he should find there to receive him;
and then, turning to the officers and magistrates who
accompanied me, I begged they would take notice that

266 Public Establishment for

I had myself, wth my own hands, arrested the first
beggar we had met; and I requested them not only to
follow my example themselves, by arresting all the
beggars they should meet with, but that they would
also endeavour to persuade others, and particularly the
officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers of the
garrison, that it was by no means derogatory to their
character as soldiers, or in any wise disgraceful to them,
to assist in so useful and daudadble an undertaking.
These gentlemen, having cheerfully and unanimously
promised to do their utmost to second me in this busi-
ness, dispersed into the different parts of the town, and
with the assistance of the military, which they found
everywhere waiting for orders, the town was so thor-
oughly cleared of beggars zz less than an hour that
not one was to be found in the streets.

Those who were arrested were conducted to the
town-hall, where their names were inscribed in printed
lists provided for that purpose, and they were then dis-
missed to their own lodgings, with directions to repair
the next day to the newly erected Athtary Workhouse
in the Au, where they would find comfortable warm
rooms, a good warm dinner every day, and work for
all those who were in a condition to labour. They
were likewise told that a commission should imme-
diately be appointed to inquire into their circum-
stances, and to grant them® such regular weekly
allowances of money, in alms, as they should stand
in need of ; which was accordingly done.

Orders were then issued to all the military guards
in the different parts of the town to send out patrols
frequently into the streets in their neighbourhood, to
arrest all the beggars they should meet with; and a

i ee

the Poor in Bavaria. 267

reward was offered for each beggar they should arrest
and deliver over to the civil magistrate. The guard of
the police was likewise directed to be vigilant; and the
inhabitants at large, of all ranks and denominations,
were earnestly called upon to assist in completing a
work of so much public utility, and which had been so
happily begun.* In an address to the public, which
was printed and distributed gvatzs among the inhabi-
tants, the fatal consequences arising from the preva-
lency of mendicity were described in the most lively
and affecting colours, and the manner pointed out in
which they could most effectually assist in putting an
end to an evil equally disgraceful and prejudicial to
society.

As this address (which was written with great spirit,
by a man well known in the literary world, Professor
Babo) gives a very striking and a very just picture of
the character, manners, and customs of the hordes of
idle and dissolute vagabonds which infested Munich
at the time the measure in question was adopted, and
of the various artifices they made use of in carrying
on their depredations, I have thought it might not be
improper to annex it at full length in the Appendix
No. I.

This address, which was presented to all the heads

* Upon this occasion I must not forget to mention a curious circumstance
which contributed very much towards clearing the town effectually of beggars.
It being found that some of the most hardened of these vagabonds were at-
tempting to return to their old practices, and that they found means to escape
the patrols by keeping a sharp look-out and avoiding them, to hold them more
effectually in check, the patrols sent out upon this service were ordered to go
without arms. In consequence of this arrangement, the beggars, being no
longer able to distinguish who were in search of them and who were not, saw a
patrol in every soldier they met with in the streets (and of these there were
great numbers, Munich being a garrison town), and from thenceforward they
were kept in awe.

268 Public Establishment for

of families in the city, and to many by myself (having
gone round to the doors of most of the principal
citizens for that purpose), was accompanied by printed
lists, in which the inhabitants were requested to set
down their names, places of abode, and the sums they
chose to contribute monthly for the support of the
establishment. These lists (translations of which are
also inserted in the Appendix No. II.) were delivered
to the heads of families with duplicates, to the end
that one copy being sent into the committee, the other
might remain with the master of the family.

These subscriptions being perfectly voluntary might
be augmented or diminished at pleasure. When any
person chose to alter his subscription, he sent to the
public office for two blank subscription lists, and, fill-
ing them up anew with such alterations as he thought
proper to make, he took up his old list at the office,
and deposited the new one in its stead.

The subscription lists being all collected, they were
sorted and regularly entered according to the numbers
of the houses of the subscribers, in sixteen general
lists,* answering to the sixteen subdivisions or districts
of the city; and a copy of the general list of each dis-
trict was given to the commissary of the district.

These copies, which were properly authenticated,
served for the direction of the commissary in collect-
ing the subscriptions in his district, which was done
regularly the last Sunday morning of every month.

The amount of the collection was immediately
delivered by the commissary into the hands of the
banker of the institution, for which he received two

* Upon a new division of the town, when the suburbs were included, the
number of subdivisions (aé¢het/ungs) were augmented to /wenty-three.

the Poor in Bavaria. 269

receipts from the banker, one of which he kept for his
own justification, and the other he transmitted to the
committee with his report of the collection, which he was
directed to send in as soon as the collection was made.

As there were some persons who, from modesty or
other motives, did not choose to have it known publicly
how much they gave in alms to the poor, and on that
account were not willing to have put down to their
names upon the list of the subscribers the whole sum
they were desirous of appropriating to that purpose, —
to accommodate matters to the peculiar delicacy of
their feelings, the following arrangement was made
and carried into execution with great success..

Those who were desirous of contributing privately
to the relief of the poor were notified, by an advertise-
ment published in the newspapers, that they might
send to the banker of the institution any sums for that
purpose they might think proper, under any feigned
name, or under any motto or other device; and that
not only a receipt would be given to the bearer for
the amount without any questions being asked him,
but, for greater security, a public acknowledgment of
the receipt of the sum would be published by the
banker, with a mention of the feigned name or device
under which it came zz the next Munich Gazette.

To accommodate those who might be disposed to
give trifling sums occasionally for the relief of the poor,
and who did not choose to go or to send to the
banker, fixed poor-boxes were placed in all the churches,
and most of the inns, coffee-houses, and other places
of public resort; but nobody was ever called upon to
put any thing into these boxes, nor was any poor’s-box
carried round, or any private collection or alms-gather-

270 Public Establishment for

ing permitted to be made upon any occasion, or under
any pretence whatever.

When the inhabitants had subscribed liberally to the
support of the institution, it was but just to secure them
from all further importunity in behalf of the poor.
This was promised, and it was most effectually done,
though not without some difficulty, and a very consider-
able expense to the establishment.

The poor students in the Latin and German schools,
the sisters of the religious order of charity, the direc-
tors of the hospital of lepers, and some other public
establishments, had been so long in the habit of mak-
ing collections, by going round among the inhabitants
from house to house at stated periods, asking alms,
that they had acquired a sort of right to levy those
periodical contributions, of which it was not thought
prudent to dispossess them without giving them an
equivalent. And, in order that this equivalent might
not appear to be taken from the sums subscribed by
the inhabitants for the support of the poor, it was
paid out of the monthly allowance which the institu-
tion received from the chamber of finances, or public
treasury of the state. )

Besides these periodical collections, there were others,
still more troublesome to the inhabitants, from which
it was necessary to free them; and some of these last
were even sanctioned by legal authority. It is the
custom in Germany for apprentices in most of the me-
chanical trades, as soon as they have finished their
apprenticeships with their masters, to travel during
three or four years in the neighbouring countries and
provinces, to perfect themselves in their professions by
working as journeymen wherever they can find employ-

ee 5

the Poor tn Bavaria, 271

ment. When one of those itinerant journeymen-trades-
men comes into a town and cannot find employment
in it, he is considered as having a right to beg the as-
sistance of the inhabitants, and particularly of those of
the trade he professes, to enable him to go to the next
town; and this assistance it was not thought just to
refuse. This custom was not only very troublesome
to the inhabitants, but gave rise to innumerable abuses,
Great numbers of idle vagabonds were continually
strolling about the country under the name of travel-
ling journeymen-tradesmen; and though any person
who presented himself as such in any strange place was
obliged to produce (for his legitimation) a certificate
from his last master in whose service he had been em-
ployed, yet such certificates were so easily counterfeited,
or obtained by fraud, that little reliance could be placed
in them. |

To remedy all these evils, the following arrangement
was made: those travelling journeymen-tradesmen who
arrive at Munich, and do not find employment, are
obliged to quit the town immediately, or to repair to the
Military Workhouse, where they are either furnished
with work or a small sum is given them to enable them
to pursue their journey farther.

Another arrangement by which the inhabitants have
been relieved from much importunity, and by which a
stop has been put to many abuses, is the new regulation
respecting those who suffer by fire. Such sufferers com-
monly obtain from government special permission to
make collections of charitable donations among the in-
habitants in certain districts, during a limited time.
Instead of the permission to make collections in the
city of Munich, the sufferers now receive certain sums

272 Public Establishment for

from the funds of the institution for the poor. By this
arrangement, not only the inhabitants are relieved from
the importunity which always attends public collections
of alms, but the sufferers save a great deal of time, which
they formerly spent in going about from house to house ;
and the sale of these permissions to undertakers, and
many other abuses, but too frequent before this arrange-
ment took place, are now prevented.

The detailed account published in the Appendix No.
III. of the receipts and expenditures of the institution
during five years will show the amount of the expense
incurred in relieving the inhabitants from the various
periodical and other collections before mentioned.

But not to lose sight too long of the most interesting
object of this establishment, we must follow the people
who were arrested in the streets to the asylum which
was prepared for them, but which no doubt appeared to
them at first a most odious prison.

CHAP TERY,

The different Kinds of Employment given to the Beggars
upon their being assembled in the House of Industry.
— Their great Awkwardness at first.— Their Do-
cility, and their Progress in useful Industry.— The
Manner in whith they were treated— The Man-
ner in which they were fed.— The Precautions used
to prevent Abuses in the public Kitchen from which
they were fed.

ya ey by far the greater part of these poor creatures
were totally unacquainted with every kind of use-

2 lls

~~ ae

Se ley

the Poor wm Bavaria. 273"

ful labour, it was necessary to give them such work,
at first, as was very easy to be performed, and in which
the raw materials were of little value; and then by de-
grees, as they became more adroit, to employ them in
manufacturing more valuable articles.

As hemp is a very cheap commodity, and as the
spinning of hemp is easily learned, particularly when
it is designed for very coarse and ordinary manufac-
tures, 15,000 pounds of that article were purchased
in the Palatinate, and transported to Munich; and
several hundred spinning-wheels, proper for spinning
it, were provided; and several good spinners, as in-
structors, were engaged and in readiness when this
House of Industry was opened for the reception of the
poor.

Flax and wool were likewise provided, and some
few good spinners of those articles were engaged as
instructors; but by far the greater number of ‘the poor
began with spinning of hemp, and so great was their
awkwardness at first that they absolutely ruined almost
all the raw materials that were put into their hands.
By an exact calculation of profit and loss, it was found
that the manufactory actually lost more than 3,000
florins upon the articles of hemp and flax, during the
first three months; but we were not discouraged by
these unfavourable beginnings. They were indeed easy
to be foreseen, considering the sort of people we had
to deal with, and how necessary it was to pay them
at a very high rate for the little work they were able
to perform, in order to keep up their courage, and
induce them to persevere with cheerfulness in acquir-
ing more skill and address in their labour. If the

establishment was supported at some little expense in
VOL. IV. 18

274 Public Establishment for

the beginning, it afterwards richly repaid these advan-
tages, as will be seen in the sequel of this account.

As the clothing of the army was the market upon
which I principally depended in disposing of the
manufactures which should be made in the house, the
woollen manufactory was an object most necessary to
be attended to, and from which I expected to derive
most advantage to the establishment; but still it was
necessary to begin with the manufacture of hemp and
flax, not only because those articles are less valuable
than wool, and the loss arising from their being spoiled
by the awkwardness of beginners is of less conse-
quence, but also for another reason, which appears to
me to be of so much importance as to require a par-
ticular explanation.

It was hinted above that it was found necessary, in
order to encourage beginners in these industrious pur-
suits, to pay them at a very high rate for the little
work they were able to perform ; but everybody knows
that no manufacture can possibly subsist long where
exorbitant prices are paid for labour, and it is easy to
conceive what discontent and disgust would be occa-
sioned among the workmen upon lowering the prices
which had for a length of time been given for labour.
By employing the poor people in question at first in
the manufactures of hemp and flax,— manufactures
which were not intended to be carried on to any ex-
tent, — it was easy afterwards, when they had acquired
a certain degree of address in their work, to take them
from these manufactures, and put them to spinning of
wool, worsted, or cotton, care having been taken to fix
the price of labour in these last-mentioned manufac-
tures at a reasonable rate.

a a ee ae a

the Poor in Bavaria. 275

The dropping the manufacture of any particular
article altogether, or pursuing it less extensively, could
produce no bad effect upon the general establishment ;
but the lowering of the price of labour in any instance
could not fail to produce many.

It is necessary in an undertaking like this cautiously
to avoid every thing that could produce discourage-
ment and discontent among those upon whose indus-
try alone success must depend.

It is easy to conceive that so great a number of
unfortunate beings of all ages and sexes, taken as it
were out of their very element, and placed in a situa-
tion so perfectly new to them, could not fail to be pro-
ductive of very interesting situations. Would to God
I were able to do justice to this subject! But no lan-
guage can describe the affecting scenes to which I
was a witness upon this occasion.

The exquisite delight which a sensible mind must
feel upon seeing many hundreds of wretched beings
awaking from a state of misery and inactivity, as from
a dream, and applying themselves with cheerfulness to
the employments of useful industry, upon seeing the
first dawn of placid content break upon a countenance
covered with habitual gloom and furrowed and dis-
torted by misery, — this is easier to be conceived than
described.

During the first three or four days that these poor
people were assembled, it was not possible entirely to
prevent confusion. There was nothing like mutinous
resistance among them; but their situation was so new
to them, and they were so very awkward in it, that it
was difficult to bring them into any tolerable order.
At length, however, by distributing them in the differ-

276 Public Establishment for

ent halls, and assigning to each his particular place
(the places being all distinguished by numbers), they
were brought into such order as to enable the in-
spectors and instructors to begin their operations.

Those who understood any kind of work were
placed in the apartments where the work they under-
stood was carried on; and the others being classed
according to their sexes, and as much as possible
according to their ages, were placed under the imme-
diate care of the different instructors. By much the
larger number were put to spinning of hemp; others,
and particularly the young children from four to seven
years of age, were taught to knit and to sew; and the
most awkward among the men, and particularly the
old, the lame, and the infirm, were put to carding of
wool. Old women whose sight was too weak to spin,
or whose hands trembled with palsy, were made to
spool yarn for the weavers; and young children who
were too weak to labour were placed upon seats erected
for that purpose round the rooms where other children
worked.

As it was winter, fires were kept in every part of
the building from morning till night, and all the rooms
were lighted up till nine o’clock in the evening. Every
room and every staircase was neatly swept and cleaned
twice a day, once early in the morning before the
people were assembled, and once while they were at
dinner. Care was taken by placing ventilators, and
occasionally opening the windows, to keep the air of
the rooms perfectly sweet, and free from all disagree-
able smells ; and the rooms themselves were not only
neatly whitewashed and fitted up, and arranged in
every respect with elegance, but care was taken to

the Poor in Bavaria. 277

clean the windows very often, to clean the court-yard
every day, and even to clear away the rubbish from
the street in front of the building to a considerable
distance on every side.

Those who frequented this establishment were ex-
pected to arrive at the fixed hour in the morning,
which hour varied according to the season of the year:
if they came too late, they were gently reprimanded ;
and if they persisted in being tardy, without being able
to give a sufficient excuse for not coming sooner, they
were punished by being deprived of their dinner,
which otherwise they received every day gratzs.

At the hour of dinner a large bell was rung in the
court, when those at work in the different parts of the
building repaired to the dining-hall, where they found
a wholesome and nourishing repast; consisting of
about a pound and a quarter avoirdupois weight of a
very rich soup of peas and barley, mixed with cuttings
of fine white bread, and a piece of excellent rye bread,
weighing seven ounces, which last they commonly put
in their pockets, and carried home for their supper.
Children were allowed the same portion as grown per-
sons, and a mother who had one or more young chil-
dren was allowed a portion for each of them.

Those who from sickness or other bodily infirmi-
ties were not able to come to the workhouse, as also
those who on account of young children they had to
nurse, or sick persons to take care of, found it more
convenient to work at their own lodgings (and of
these there were many), were not on that account
deprived of their dinners. Upon representing their
cases to the committee, tickets were granted them,
upon which they were authorized to receive from the

278 Public Establishment for

public kitchen, daily, the number of portions specified
in the ticket; and these they might send for by a child,
or by any other person they thought proper to em-
ploy. It was necessary, however, that the ticket should
always be produced, otherwise the portions were not
delivered. This precaution was necessary, to prevent
abuses on the part of the poor.

Many other precautions were taken to prevent
frauds on the part of those employed in the kitchen,
and in the various other offices and departments con-
cerned in feeding the poor.

The bread-corn, peas, barley, etc., were purchased
in the public market in large quantities, and at times
when those articles were to be had at reasonable
prices, and were laid up in store-rooms provided for
that purpose, under the care of the store-keeper of the
Military Workhouse.

The baker received his flour by weight from the
store-keeper, and in return delivered a certain fixed
quantity of bread. Each loaf, when well baked, and
afterwards dried during four days in a bread-room
through which the air had a free passage, weighed
two pounds, ten ounces, avoirdupois. Such a loaf was
divided into six portions; and large baskets filled with
these pieces being placed in the passage leading to
the dining-hall, the portions were delivered out to the
poor as they passed to go into the hall, each person
who passed giving a medal of tin to the person who
gave him the bread, in return for each portion re-
ceived. These medals, which were given out to the
poor each day in the halls where they worked by the
steward or by the inspectors of the hall, served to pre-
vent frauds in the distribution of the bread, the person

the Poor in Bavaria. 279

who distributed it being obliged to produce them as
vouchers of the quantity given out each day.

Those who had received these portions of bread
held them up in their hands upon their coming into
the dining-hall, as a sign that they had a right to seat
themselves at. the tables; and as many. portions of
bread as they produced, so many portions of soup
they were entitled to receive, and those portions which
they did not eat they were allowed to carry away, so
that the delivery of bread was a check upon the de-
livery of soup, and vice versa.

The kitchen was fitted up with all possible atten-
tion as well to convenience as to the economy of fuel. »
This will readily be believed by those who are in-
formed that the whole work of the kitchen is per-
formed with great ease by three cook-maids, and that
the daily expense for firewood amounts to no more
than twelve kreutzers, or fourpence halfpenny sterling,
when dinner is provided for 1000 people. The num-
ber of persons who are fed daz/y from this kitchen is,
at a medium, in summer about oxze thousand (rather
more than less) and in winter about 1200. Frequently,
however, there have been more than 1500 at table.

Asa particular account of this kitchen, with drawings,

together with an account of a number of new and very
_ interesting experiments relative to the economy of fuel,
will be annexed to this work, I shall add nothing more
now upon the subject, except it be the certificate,
which may be seen in the Appendix No. IV., which I
have thought prudent to publish, in order to prevent
my being suspected of exaggeration in displaying the
advantages of my economical arrangements.

The assertion that a warm dinner may be cooked for

280 Public Establishment for

1000 persons, at the trifling expense of fourpence half-
penny for fuel; and that, too, where the cord, five feet
eight inches and nine tenths long, five feet eight inches
and nine-tenths high, and five feet three inches and
two tenths wide, English measure, of pine-wood, of the
most indifferent quality, costs above seven shillings;
and where the cord of hard wood, such as beech and
oak, of equal dimensions, costs more than twice that
sum,— may appear incredible; yet I will venture to assert,
and I hereby pledge myself with the public to prove
that in the kitchen of the Military Academy at Munich,
and especially in a kitchen lately built under my direc-
tion at Verona, in the Hospital of Za Paved, I have
carried the economy of fuel still further.

To prevent frauds in the kitchen of the institution
for the poor at Munich, the ingredients are delivered
each day by the store-keeper to the chief cook; anda
person of confidence, not belonging to the kitchen, at-
tends at the proper hour to see that they are actually
used. Some one of the inspectors, or other chief officer
of the establishment, also attends at the hour of dinner,
to see that the victuals furnished to the poor are good,
well dressed, and properly served up.

As the dining-hall is not large enough to accommo-

date all the poor at once, they dine in companies of
as many as can be seated together (about 150); those
who work in the house being served first, and then
those who come from the town.

Though most of those who work in their own lodg-
ings send for their dinners, yet there are many others,
and particularly such as from great age or other bodily
infirmities are not able to work, who come from the
town every day to the public hall to dine; and as these

—_—s ea

ee a ee ee a ee SS a eee
‘

the Poor in Bavaria. 281

are frequently obliged to wait some time at the door,
before they can be admitted into the dining-hall, —
that is to say, till all the poor who work in the house
had finished their dinners,—for their more comfort-
able accommodation, a large room, provided with a
stove for heating it in winter, has been constructed, ad-
joining to the building of the institution, but not within
the court, where these poor people assemble and are
sheltered from the inclemency of the weather while they
wait for admittance into the dining-hall.

To preserve order and decorum at these public din-
ners, and to prevent crowding and jostling at the door
of the dining-hall, the steward, or some other officer of
the house of some authority, is always present in the
hall during dinner ; and two privates of the police guards,
who know most of the poor personally, take post at the
door of the hall, one on each side of it; and between
them the poor are obliged to pass singly into the hall.

As soon as a company have taken their places at the
table (the soup being always served out and placed
upon the tables before they are admitted), upon a signal
given by the officer who presides at the dinner, they all
repeat together a short prayer. Perhaps I ought to ask
pardon for mentioning so old-fashioned a custom ; but
I own I am old-fashioned enough myself to like such
things.

As an account in detail will be given in another place,
of the expense of feeding these poor people, I shall
only observe here that this expense was considerably
lessened by the voluntary donations of bread and offal
meat, which were made by the bakers and butchers of
the town and suburbs. The beggars, not satisfied with
the money which they extorted from all ranks of people

282 Public Establishment for

by their unceasing importunity, had contrived to lay
certain classes of the inhabitants under regular period-
ical contributions of certain commodities, and especially
eatables, which they collected in kind. Of this nature
were the contributions which were levied by them
upon the bakers, butchers, keepers of eating-houses, ale-
house-keepers, brewers, etc., — all of whom were obliged
at stated periods, once a week at least, or oftener, to
deliver, to such of the beggars as presented themselves
at the hour appointed, very considerable quantities of
bread, meat, soup, and other eatables; and to such
a length were these shameful impositions carried, that
a considerable traffic was actually carried on with the
articles so collected between the beggars and a number
of petty shop-keepers or hucksters, who purchased them
of the beggars, and made a business of selling them by
retail to the indigent and industrious inhabitants. And
though these abuses were well known to the public, yet
this custom had so long existed, and so formidable were
the beggars become to the inhabitants, that it was by
no means safe or advisable to refuse their demands.
Upon the town being cleared of beggars, these im-
positions ceased, of course ; and the worthy citizens who
were relieved from this burthen felt so sensibly the
service that was rendered them, that, to show their grat-
itude and their desire to assist in supporting so useful
an establishment, they voluntarily offered, in addition
to their monthly subscriptions in money, to contribute
every day a certain quantity of bread, meat, soup, etc.,
towards feeding the poor in the Military Workhouse.
And these articles were collected every day by the
servants of the establishment, who went round the
town with small carts, neatly fitted up and elegantly

the Poor in Bavarea. 283

painted, and drawn by single small horses, neatly
harnessed. :

As in these as well as in all other collections of
public charity it was necessary to arrange matters so that
the public might safely place the most perfect confi-
dence in those who were charged with these details,
the collections were made in a manner in which jit was
evidently cmpossible for those employed in making them
to defraud the poor of any part of that which their
charitable and more opulent fellow-citizens designed
for their relief. And to this circumstance principally
it may, I believe, be attributed that these donations
have for such a length of time (more than. five years)
continued to be so considerable.

In the collection of the soup and of the offal meat
at the butchers’ shops, as those articles were not very
valuable and not easily concealed or disposed of, no
particular precautions were necessary, other than send-
ing round pudlicly and at a certain hour the carts des-
tined for those purposes. Upon that for collecting
the soup, which was upon four wheels, was a large
cask, neatly painted, with an inscription on each side
in large letters, “ Aor the Poor.” ‘That for the meat
held a large tub with a cover, painted with the same
colours, and marked on both sides with the same
inscription.

Beside this tub, other smaller tubs, painted in like
manner, and bearing the same inscription, “ for the
Poor,’ were provided and hung up in conspicuous
situations in all the butchers’ shops in the town. In
doing this, two objects were had in view: first, the con-
venience of the butchers, that in cutting up their meat
they might have a convenient place to lay by that which

284 Public Establishment for

they should destine for the poor till it should be called
for; and, secondly, to give an opportunity to those who
bought meat in their shops to throw in any.odd scraps
or bones they might receive, and which they might not
think worth the trouble of carrying home.

These odd pieces are more frequently to be met with
in the lots which are sold in the butchers’ shops in
Munich than in almost any other town; for, as the
price of meat is fixed by authority, the butchers have
a right to sell the whole carcass, the bad pieces with
the good, so that with each good lot there is what in
this country is called the zugewzcht,— that is to say, an
indifferent scrap of offal meat, or piece of bone, to
make up the weight; and these refuse pieces were very
often thrown into the poor’s tub, and after being prop-
erly cleaned and boiled served to make their soup much
more savoury and nourishing.

In the collection of the daily donations of bread, as
that article is more valuable, and more easily concealed
and disposed of, more precautions were used to prevent
frauds on the parts of the servants who were sent round
to make the collection.

The cart which was employed for this purpose was
furnished with a large wooden chest, firmly nailed down
upon it, and provided with a good lock and key; and this
chest, which was neatly painted, and embellished with
an inscription, was so contrived, by means of an open-
ing in the top of a large vertical wooden tube fixed in
its lid, and made in the form of a mouse-trap, that when
it was locked (as it always was when it was sent round
for the donations of bread) a loaf of bread, or any thing
of that size, could be put into it; but nothing could be
taken out of it by the same opening. Upon the return

F 7== 7

ee ae ea eae i ae ee
‘

the Poor in Bavaria. 285

of the cart, the bread-chest was opened by the steward,
who keeps the key of it; and its contents, after being
entered in a register kept for that purpose, were deliv-
ered over to the care of the store-keeper. |

The bread collected was commonly such as, not hav-
ing been sold.in time, had become too old, hard, and
stale for the market; but which, being cut fine, a hand-
ful of it put into a basin of good pease-soup was a
great addition to it.

The amount of these charitable donations in kind
may be seen in the translations of the original returns
which are annexed in the Appendix No. III.

The collections of soup were not long continued, it
being found to be in general of much too inferior a qual-
ity to be mixed with the soup made in the kitchen of
the poor-house; but the collections of bread and of
meat continue to this time, and are still very produc-
tive.

But the greatest resource in feeding the poor is one
which I am but just beginning to avail myself of,— the
use of potatoes.* Of this subject, however, I shall
treat more largely hereafter.

The above-mentioned precautions, used in making
collections in kind, may perhaps appear trifling and
superfluous: they were nevertheless very necessary. It
was also found necessary to change all the poor’s
boxes in the churches, to prevent their being robbed;
for though in those which were first put up the openings
were not only small, but ended in a curved tube, so that
it appeared almost impossible to get any of the money
out of the box by the same opening by which it was put
into it, yet means were found, by introducing into the

* This was written in the summer of the year 1795.

286 Public Establishment for

opening thin pieces of elastic wood, covered with bird-
lime, to rob the boxes. This was prevented in the
new boxes, by causing the money to descend through a
sort of bag, with a hole in the bottom of it, or rather a
flexible tube, made of chain-work, with iron wire, sus-
pended in the middle of the box.

CHAPTER * Viz

Apology for the Want of Method in treating the Sub-
ject under Consideration — Of the various Means
used for encouraging Industry among the Poor— Of
the internal Arrangement and Government of the

| House of Industry —Why called the Mikitary Work-
house.— Of the Manner in which the Business is
carried on there— Of the various Means used for
preventing Frauds in carrying on the Business in
the different Manufactures.— Of the flourishing
State of those Manufactures.

i ale ee all the different parts of a well-arranged
establishment go on together, and harmonize like
the parts of a piece of music in full score, yet in de-
scribing such an establishment it is impossible to write
like the musician zz score, and to make all the parts of
the narrative advance together. Various movements,
which exist together, and which have the most intimate
connection and dependence upon each other, must
nevertheless be described separately; and the greatest
care and attention, and frequently no small share of ad-

the Poor in Bavaria. 2&7

dress, are necessary in the management of such descrip-
tions, to render the details intelligible, and to give the
whole its full effect of order, dependence, connection,
and harmony. And in no case can these difficulties be
greater than in descriptions like those in which I am
now engaged, where the number of the objects and of
the details is so great that it is difficult to determine
which should be attended to first, and how far it may
safely be pursued, without danger of the others being
too far removed from their proper places, or excluded,
or forgotten.

The various measures adopted and precautions taken,
in arresting the beggars, in collecting and distributing
alms, in establishing order and police among them, in
feeding and clothing the poor, and in establishing vari-
ous manufactures for giving them employment, are all
subjects which deserve and require the most particular
explanation; yet those are not only operations which
were begun at the same time, and carried on together,
but they are so dependent upon each other that it is
almost impossible to have a complete idea of the one
without being acquainted with the others, or of treating
of the one without mentioning the others at the same
time. This, therefore, must be my excuse, if I am
taxed with want of method or of perspicuity in the de-
scriptions; and, this being premised, I shall proceed
to give an account of the various objects and operations
which yet remain to be described.

I have already observed how necessary it was to en-
courage, by every possible means, a spirit of industry
and emulation among those who, from leading a life of
indolence and debauchery, were to be made useful mem-
bers of society; and I have mentioned some of the

238 Public Establishment for

measures which were adopted for that purpose. It
remains for me to pursue this interesting subject, and
to treat it, in all its details, with that care and attention
which its importance so justly demands. .

Though a very generous price was paid for labour
in the different manufactures in which the poor were
employed, yet that alone was not enough to interest
them sufficiently in the occupations in which they were
engaged. To excite their activity, and inspire them
with a true spirit of persevering industry, it was neces-
sary to fire them with emulation, to awaken in them
a dormant passion whose influence they had never
felt, —the love of honest fame, an ardent desire to excel,
the love of glory, or by what other more humble or
pompous name this passion, the most noble and most
beneficent that warms the human heart, can be distin-
guished.

To excite emulation, praise, distinctions, rewards,
are necessary; and these were all employed. Those
who distinguished themselves by their application, by
their industry, by their address, were publicly praised
and encouraged, brought forward, and placed in the
most conspicuous situations, pointed out to strangers
who visited the establishment, and particularly named
and proposed as models for others to copy. <A particular
dress, a sort of uniform for the establishment, which,
though very economical, as may be seen by the details
which will be given of it in another place, was neverthe-
less elegant, was provided; and this dress, as it was given
out gratis, and only bestowed upon those who particu-
larly distinguished themselves, was soon looked upon
as an honourable mark of approved merit and served
very powerfully to excite emulation among the com-

the Poor in Bavaria. 289

petitors. I doubt whether vanity, in any instance, ever
surveyed itself with more self-gratification than did
some of these poor people when they first put on
their new dress.

How necessary is it to be acquainted with the se-
cret springs of action in the human heart, to direct
even the lowest and most unfeeling class of mankind!
The machine is intrinsically the same in all situations.
The great secret is, first to put zt cn tune, before an
attempt is made to play uponit. The jarring sounds
of former vibrations must first be stilled, otherwise
no harmony can be produced; but when the instru-
ment is in order the notes cannot fail to answer to
the touch of a skilful master.

Though every thing was done that could be devised
to impress the minds of all those, old and young, who
frequented this establishment, with such sentiments as
were necessary in order to their becoming good and
useful members of society (and in these attempts I was
certainly successful, much beyond my most sanguine
expectations), yet my hopes were chiefly placed on the
rising generation.

The children, therefore, of the poor, were objects
of my peculiar care and attention. To induce their
parents to send them to the establishment, even before
they were old enough to do any kind of work, when
they attended at the regular hours, they not only received
their dinner grazzs, but each of them was paid ¢hree
kreutzers a day for doing nothing but merely being
present where others worked. |

I have already mentioned that these children, who
were too young to work, were placed upon seats built

round the halls where other children worked. This was
VOL. IV. 19

290 Public Establishment for

done, in order to inspire them with a desire to do that
which other children, apparently more favoured, more
caressed, and more praised than themselves, were per-
mitted to do, and of which they were obliged to be idle
spectators; and this had the desired effect.

As nothing is so tedious to.a child as being obliged
to sit’still in the same place for a considerable time, and
as the work which the other more favoured children were
engaged in was light and easy, and appeared rather
amusing than otherwise, being the spinning of hemp
and flax, with small light wheels, turned with the foot,
these children, who were obliged to be spectators of this
busy and entertaining scene, became so uneasy in their
situations, and so jealous of those who were permitted
to be more active, that they frequently solicited with
the greatest importunity to be permitted to work, and
often cried most heartily if this favour was not instantly
granted them.

How sweet these tears were to me can easily be
imagined.

The joy they showed upon being permitted to de-
scend from their benches, and mix with the working
children below, was equal to the solicitude with which
they had demanded that favour.

They were at first merely furnished with a wheel, which
they turned for several days with the foot, without being
permitted to attempt any thing further. As soon as
they were become dexterous in this simple operation, and
habit had made it so easy and familiar to them that
the foot could continue its motion mechanically without
the assistance of the head, — till they could go on with
their work, even though their attention was employed
upon something else, — till they could answer questions

the Poor in Bavaria. 291

and converse freely with those about them upon indif-
ferent subjects, without interrupting or embarrassing
the regular motion of the wheel,—then, and not till
then, they were furnished with hemp or flax, and were
taught to spin.

When they had arrived at a certain degree of dex-
terity in spinning hemp and flax, they were put to the
spinning of wool; and this was always represented to
them, and considered by them, as an honourable pro-
motion. Upon this occasion they commonly received
some public reward, a new shirt, a pair of shoes, or per-
haps the uniform of the establishment, as an encourage-
ment to them to persevere in their industrious habits.

As constant application to any occupation for too
great a length of time is apt to produce disgust, and in
children might even be detrimental to health, beside
the hour of dinner, an hour of relaxation from work
(from eight o'clock till nine) in the forenoon, and
another hour (from three o’clock till four) in the after-
noon, were allowed them; and these two hours were
spent in a school, which, for want of room elsewhere in
the house, was kept in the dining-hall, where they were
taught reading, writing, and arithmetic, by a school-
master engaged and paid for that purpose.* Into this
school, other persons who worked in the house, of a

* As these children were not shut up and confined like prisoners in the
House of Industry, but all lodged in the town, with their parents or friends, they
had many opportunities to recreate themselves, and take exercise in the open
air ; not only on holidays, of which there are a very large number indeed kept in
Bavaria, but also on working-days, in coming and going to and from the House.
of Industry. Had not this been the case, a reasonable time would certainly
have been allowed them for play and recreation. The cadets belonging to the
Military Academy at Munich are allowed no less than ¢hree hours a day for
exercise and relaxation; viz., ome hour immediately after dinner, which is

devoted to music, and wo hours, later in the afternoon, for walking in the coun-
try, or playing in the open fields near the town.

292 Public Establishment for

more advanced age, were admitted, if they requested it;
but few grown persons seemed desirous of availing
themselves of this permission. As to the children, they
had no choice in the matter. Those who belonged to
the establishment were obliged to attend the school
regularly every day, morning and evening. The school-
books, paper, pens and ink, were furnished at the ex-
pense of the establishment.

To distinguish those among the grown persons that
worked in the house who showed the greatest dexterity
and industry in the different manufactures in which
they were employed, the best workmen were separated
from the others, and formed distinct classes, and were
even assigned separate rooms and apartments. This
separation was productive of many advantages; for,
beside the spirit of emulation which it excited and kept
alive in every part of the establishment, it afforded an
opportunity of carrying on the different manufactures
in a very advantageous manner. The most dexterous
among the wool-spinners, for instance, were naturally
employed upon the finest wool, such as was used in the
fabrication of the finest and most valuable goods; and it
was very necessary that these spinners should be sepa-
rated from the others who worked upon coarser mate-
rials; otherwise, in the manipulations of the wool, as
particles of it are unavoidably dispersed about in all
directions when it is spun, the coarser particles thus
mixing with the fine would greatly injure the manufac-
ture. It was likewise necessary, for a similar reason, to
separate the spinners who were employed in spinning
wool of different colours. But as these and many
other like precautions are well known to all manufact-
urers, it is not necessary that I should insist upon them,

the Poor in Bavaria. 293

any farther in this place; nor indeed is it necessary
that I should enter into all the details of any of the
manufactures carried on in the establishment I am de-
scribing. It will be quite sufficient, if I merely enume-
rate them, and give a brief account of the measures
adopted to prevent frauds on the parts of the workmen,
and others, who were employed in carrying them on.
In treating this subject, it will however be necessary
to go back a little, and to give a more particular account
of the internal government of this establishment; and,
first of all, I must observe that the government of the
Military Workhouse, as it is called, is quite distinct
from the government of the institution for the poor ; the
Workhouse being merely a manufactory, like any other
manufactory, supported upon its own private capital,
which capital has no connection whatever with any fund
destined for the poor. It is under the sole direction of
its own particular governors and overseers, and is carried
on at the sole risk of the owner. Zhe zustztutzon for the
poor, on the other hand, is merely an institution of char-
ity, joined to a general direction of the police, as far as
it relates to paupers. The committee, or deputation, as
it is called, which is at the head of this institution, has
the sole direction of all funds destined for the relief of
the poor in Munich, and the distribution of alms, This
deputation has likewise the direction of the kitchen
and bakehouse which are established in the Military
Workhouse, and of the details relative to the feeding of
the poor; for it is from the funds destined for the relief
of the poor that these expenses are defrayed. The dep-
utation is also in connection with the Military Work-
house. relative to the clothing of the poor, and the
distribution of rewards to those of them who particularly

294 Public Establishment for

distinguished themselves by their good behaviour and
their industry, but this is merely a mercantile corre-
spondence. The deputation has no right to interfere in
any way whatever in the internal management of this
establishment, considered as a manufactory. In this re-
spect it is, to all intents and purposes, a perfectly distinct
and independent establishment. But, notwithstanding
this, the two establishments are so dependent on each
other in many respects, that neither of them could well
subsist alone.

The Military Workhouse being principally designed
as a manufactory for clothing the army, its capital, which
at first consisted in about 150,000 florins, but which
has since increased to above 250,000 florins, was ad-—
vanced by the military chest; and hence it is that it
was called the Miltary Workhouse, and put under
the direction of the council of war.

For the internal management of the establishment,
a special commission was named, consisting of one
counsellor of war, of the department of military econ-
omy, or of the clothing of the army; one captain, which
last is inspector of the house, and has apartments in it,
where he lodges ; and the store-keeper of the magazine
of military clothing.

These commissioners, who have the magazine of
military clothing at the same time under their direction,
have, under my immediate superintendence, the sole
government and direction of this establishment, of all
the inferior officers, servants, manufacturers, and work-
men belonging to it, and of all mercantile operations,
contracts, purchases, sales, etc. And it is with these
commissioners that the regiments correspond, in order
to be furnished with clothing and other necessaries;

the Poor in Bavaria. 295

and into their hands they pay the amount of the aidier:
ent articles received.

The cash belonging to this establishment is placed in
a chest furnished with three separate locks, of one of
which each of the commissioners keeps the key; and
all these commissioners are jointly and severally answer-
able for the contents of the chest.

These commissioners hold their sessions regularly
. twice a week, or oftener if circumstances require it,
in a room in the Military Workhouse destined for that
purpose, where the correspondence and all accounts
and documents belonging to the establishment, and
other records, are kept, and where the secretary of the
commission constantly attends.

When very large contracts are made for the purchase
of raw materials, particularly when they are made with
foreigners, the conditions are first submitted by the
commissioners to the council of war for their approba-
tion; but in all concerns of less moment, and partic-
ularly in all the current business of the establishment,
in the ordinary purchases, sales, and other mercantile
transactions, the commissioners act by their own im-
mediate authority. But all the transactions of the com-
- missioners deze entered regularly in their journals, and
the most particular account of all sales, and purchases,
and other receipts and expenditures, being kept; and
inventories being taken, every year, of all raw materials,
manufactures upon hand, and other effects belonging
to the establishment, and an annual account of profit
and loss regularly made out, —all peculation and other
abuses are most effectually prevented.

The steward, or store-keeper of raw materials, as he
is called, has the care of all raw materials, and of all

296 Public Establishment for

finished manufactures destined for private sale. The
former are kept in magazines or store-rooms, of which
he alone has the keys; the latter are kept in rooms set
apart as astore or shop, where they are exposed for pub-
lic inspection and sale. To prevent abuses in the sale
of these manufactures, their prices, which are determin-
ed upon a calculation of what they cost, and a certain
per cent added for the profits of the house, are marked
upon the goods, and are never altered; and a regular
account is kept of all, even of the most inconsiderable
articles sold, in which not only the commodity, with its
quality, quantity, and price, is specified, but the name
of the purchaser, and the day of the month when the
purchase was made, are mentioned.

All articles of clothing destined for the army which
are made up in the house, as well as all goods in the
piece destined for military clothing, are lodged in
the Military Magazine, which is situated at some dis-
tance from the Military Workhouse, and is under the
care and inspection of the military store-keeper.

From this Military Magazine, which may be con-
sidered as an appendix to the Military Workhouse,
and is in fact under the same direction, the regiments
are supplied with every article of their clothing. But
in order that the army accounts may be more simple
and more easily checked, and that the total annual
expense of each regiment may be more readily ascer-
tained, the regiments pay, at certain fixed prices, for all
the articles they receive from the Military Magazine,
and charge such expenditures in the annual account
which they send in to the War Office.

The order observed with regard to the delivery of
the raw materials by the store-keeper or steward of the

the Poor in Bavaria. 297

Military Workhouse to those employed in manufactur-
ing them is as follows : —

In the manufactures of wool, for instance, he delivers
to the master-clothier a certain quantity, commonly 100
pounds, of wool, of a certain quality and description,
taken from a certain division, or bin, in the magazine,
bearing a certain number, in order to its being sorted.
And as a register is kept of the wool that is put into
these bins from time to time, and as the lots of wool are
always kept separate, it is perfectly easy at any time to
determine when and where and from whom the wool
delivered to the sorter was purchased, and what was
paid for it; and consequently to trace the wool from
the flock where it was grown to the cloth into which it
was formed, and even to the person who wore it. And
similar arrangements are adopted with regard to all other
raw materials used in the various manufactures.

The advantages arising from this arrangement are
too obvious to require being particularly mentioned. It
not only prevents numberless abuses on the part of
those employed in the various manufactures, but affords
a ready method of detecting any frauds on the part of
those from whom the raw materials are purchased.

The wool received by the master-clothier is by him
delivered to the wool-sorters to be sorted. To prevent
frauds on the part of the wool-sorters, not only all the
wool-sorters work in the same room, under the imme-
diate inspection of the master wool-sorter, but a certain
quantity of each lot of wool being sorted in the pres-
ence of some one of the public officers belonging to the
house, it is seen by the experiment how much fer cent
is lost by the separation of dirt and filth in sorting;
and the quantity of sorted wool of the different qualities,
which the sorter is obliged to deliver for each hundred

298 Public Establishment. for

pounds weight of wool received from the ice
is from hence determined. »

The great secret of the woollen manufactory is in the
sorting of the wool, and if this is not particularly at-
tended to; that is to say, if the different kinds of wool
of various qualities which each fleece naturally contains
are not carefully separated, and if each kind of wool is
not employed for that purpose, and for that alone, for
which it is best calculated, no woollen manufactory can
possibly subsist with advantage.

Each fleece is commonly separated into five or six
different parcels of wool, of different qualities, by the
sorters in the Military Workhouse; and of these par-
cels some are employed for warp, others for woof,
others for combing; and that which is very coarse
and indifferent for coarse mittens for the peasants,
for the lists of broadcloths, etc.

The wool, when sorted, is delivered back by the
master-clothier to the steward, who now places it in
the sorted-wool magazine, where it is kept in separate
bins, according to its different qualities and destina-
tions, till it is delivered out to be manufactured. As
these bins are all numbered, and as the quality and
destination of the wool which is lodged in each bin
is always the same, it is sufficient, in describing the wool
afterwards as it passes through the hands of the dif-
ferent manufactures, merely to mention z¢s number ;
that is to say, the number of the bin in the sorted-
wool magazine from whence it was taken.

As a more particular account of these various manip-
ulations, and the means used to prevent frauds, may
not only be interesting to all who are curious in these
matters, but may also be of real use to such as may

the Poor in Bavaria. 299

engage in similar undertakings, I shall take the pened
to enlarge a little upon this subject.

From the magazine of sorted wool, the master-clothier
receives this sorted wool again, in order to its being
wolfed, greased, carded, and spun under his inspection,
and then delivered into the store-room of woollen yarn.
As woollen yarn he receives it again, and delivers it to
the cloth-weaver. The cloth-weaver returns it in cloth
to the steward. The steward delivers it to the fuller,
the fuller to the cloth-shearer, the cloth-shearer to the
cloth-presser, and the cloth-presser to the steward; and
by this last it is delivered into the Military Magazine, if
destined for the army; if not, it is placed in the shop
for sale. The master-clothier is answerable for all the
sorted wool he receives, till he delivers it to the clerk
of the wool-spinners; and all his accounts are settled
with the steward once a week. The clerk of the spin-
ners is answerable for the carded and combed wool he
receives from the master-clothier, till it is delivered in
yarn in the store-room; and his accounts are likewise
settled with the master-clothier, and with the clerk of
the store-room (who is called the clerk of the control)
once a week. The spinners’ wages are paid by the clerk
of the control, upon the spin-ticket, signed by the clerk
of the spinners; in which ticket, the quantity and qual-
ity of the yarn spun being specified, together with the
name of the spinner, the weekly delivery of yarn by
the clerk of the spinners into the store-room must an-
swer to the spin-tickets received and paid by the clerk
of the control. More effectaully to prevent frauds, each
delivery of yarn to the clerk of the spinners is bound
up in a separate bundle, to which is attached an abstract
of the spin-ticket, in which abstract is specified the

300 Public Establishment for

name of the spinner, the date of the delivery, the num-
ber of the spin-ticket, and the quantity and quality of the
yarn. ‘This arrangement not only facilitates the settle-
ment of the weekly accounts between the clerk of the
spinners and the clerk of the control, when the former
makes his weekly delivery of yarn into the store-room,
but renders it easy also to detect any frauds committed
by the spinners.

The wages of the spinners are regulated by the fine-
ness of the yarn; that is, by the number of skeins,
or rather knots, which they spin from the pound of
wool. Each knot is composed of 100 threads, and
each thread, or turn of the reel, is two Bavarian yards
in length; and, to prevent frauds in reeling, clock-reels,
proved and sealed, are furnished by the establishment
to all the spinners. It is possible, however, notwith-
standing this precaution, for the spinners to commit
frauds, by binding up knots containing a smaller number
of threads than 100. It is true they have little tempta-
tion to do so; for as their wages are in fact paid by the
weight of the yarn delivered, and the number of knots
serving merely to determine the price dy the pound
which they have a right to receive, any advantages they
can derive from frauds committed in reeling are very
trifling indeed. But, trifling as they are, such frauds
would no doubt sometimes be committed, were it not
known that it is absolutely zmzfosszb/e for them to escape
detection.

Not only the clerk of the spinners examines the yarn
when he receives it, and counts the threads in any of ©
the knots which appear to be too small, but the name
of the spinner, with a note of the quantity of knots,
accompanies the yarn into the store-room, as was before

the Poor in Bavaria. 301

observed, and from thence to the spooler, by whom it is
wound off. Any frauds committed in reeling cannot
fail to be brought home to the spinner.

- The bundles of carded wool delivered to the spinners,
though they are called pounds, are not exact pounds.
They contain each as much more than a pound as is
necessary, allowing for wastage in spinning, in order
that the yarn when spun may weigh a pound. If the
yarn is found to be wanting in weight, a proportional
deduction is made from the wages of the spinner, which
deduction, to prevent frauds, amounts to a trifle more
than the value of the yarn which is wanting.

Frauds in weaving are prevented by delivering the
yarn to the weavers by weight, and receiving the cloth
by weight from the loom. In the other operations of
the manufactures, such as fulling, shearing, pressing,
etc., no frauds are to be apprehended.

Similar precautions are taken to prevent frauds in the
linen, cotton, and other manufactures carried on in the
house; and, so effectual are the means adopted that
during more than five years since the establishment was
instituted, no one fraud of the least consequence has
been discovered, the evident impossibility of escaping
detection in those practices having prevented the
attempt.

Though the above-mentioned details may be suff-
cient to give some idea of the general order which
reigns in every part of this extensive establishment, yet,
as success in an undertaking of this kind depends es-
sentially on carrying on the business in all its various
branches in the most methodical manner, and rendering
one operation a check upon the other, as well as in
making the persons employed absolutely responsible for

302 _ Public Establishment for

all frauds and neglects committed in their various de-
partments, I shall either add in the Appendix, or pub-
lish separately, a full account of the internal details of
the various trades and manufactures carried on in
the Military Workhouse, and copies of all the different
tickets, returns, tables, accounts, etc., made use of in
carrying on the business of this establishment.
Though these accounts will render this work more
voluminous than I could have wished, yet, as such
details can hardly fail to be very useful to those who,
either upon a larger or smaller scale, may engage in
similar undertakings, I have determined to publish them,
To show that ‘the regulations observed in carrying
on the various trades and manufactures in the Military
Workhouse are good, it will, I flatter myself, be quite
sufficient to refer to the flourishing state of the estab-
lishment, to its growing reputation, to its extensive
connections, which reach even to foreign countries, to
the punctuality with which all its engagements are ful-
filled, to its unimpeached credit, and to its growing
wealth. ;
Notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which it
laboured in its infant state, the net profits arising from
it during the six years it has existed amount to above
100,000 florins, after the expenses of every kind, salaries,
wages, repairs, etc., have been deducted; and the busi-
ness is so much increased of late, in consequence of the
augmentation of the demands of clothing for the troops,
that the amount of the orders received and executed
the last year did not fall much short of half a million
of florins.
It may be proper to observe that not the whole army
of the Elector, but only the fifteen Bavarian regiments,

a oe Se

the Poor in Bavaria. 303

are furnished with clothing from the Military Work-
house at Munich. The troops of the Palatinate, and
those of the Duchies of Juliers and Bergen, receive
their clothing from a similar establishment at Man-
heim.

The Military Workhouse at Manheim was indeed
erected several months before that at Munich; but as
it is not immediately connected with any institution for
the poor, as the poor are not fed in it, and as it was my
first attempt or cowp d’essat, it is, in many respects, in-
ferior in its internal arrangements to that at Munich.
I have therefore chosen this last for the subject of my
descriptions; and would propose it as a model for imi-
tation, in preference to the other.

As both these establishments owe their existence to
myself, and as they both remain under my immediate
superintendence, it may very naturally be asked why
that at Manheim has not been put upon the same foot-
ing with that at Munich. . My answer to this question
would be, that a variety of circumstances, too foreign to
my present subject to be explained here, prevented the
establishment of the Military Workhouse at Manheim
being carried to that perfection which I could have
wished.*

But it is time that I should return to the poor of Mu-
nich, for whose comfort and happiness I laboured with
so much pleasure, and whose history will ever remain
by far the most interesting part of this publication.

* Since the publication of the first edition of this Essay, the author has re-
ceived an account of the total destruction of the Military Workhouse at Man-

heim. It was set on fire, and burned to the ground, during the late siege of that
city by the Austrian troops.

304 Public Establishment for

CHAPTER VII

A farther Account of the Poor who were brought
together in the House of Industry— And of the
interesting Change whith was produced im their
Manners and Dispositions— Various Proofs that
the Means used for making them industrious, com-
Sortable, and happy, were successful.

HE awkwardness of these poor creatures, when

they were first taken from the streets as beggars,
and put. to work, may easily be conceived; but the
facility with which they acquired address in the various
manufactures in which they were employed was very
remarkable, and much exceeded my expectation. But
what was quite surprising, and at the same time interest-
ing in the highest degree, was the apparent and rapid
change which was produced in their manners, in their
general behaviour, and even in the very air of
their countenances, upon being a little accustomed to
their new situations. The kind usage they met with, and
the comforts they enjoyed, seemed to have softened their
hearts, and awakened in them sentiments as new and
surprising to themselves as they were interesting to
those about them.

The melancholy gloom of misery, and air of uneasi-
ness and embarrassment, disappeared by little and little
from their countenances, and were succeeded by a timid
dawn of cheerfulness, rendered most exquisitely inter-
esting by a certain mixture of silent gratitude, which
no language can describe.

In the infancy of this establishment, when these poor

Oe — a eS a ee.
,

the Poor in Bavaria. 305

creatures were first brought together, I used very fre-
quently to visit them, to speak kindly to them, and to
encourage them; and I seldom passed through the halls
where they were at work without being a witness to the
most moving scenes.

Objects formerly the most miserable and wretched,
whom I had seen for years as beggars in the streets ;
young women, perhaps the unhappy victims of seduc-
tion, who, having lost their reputation, and being turned
adrift in the world, without a friend and without a home,
were reduced to the necessity of begging, to sustain a
miserable existence,— now recognized me as their bene-
factor; and, with tears dropping fast from their cheeks,
continued their work in the most expressive silence.

If they were asked what was the matter with them,
their answer was (“ Nichts”), “ Nothing,” accompanied

by a look of affectionate regard and gratitude, so ex-

quisitely touching as frequently to draw tears from the
most insensible of the bystanders.

It was not possible to be mistaken with respect to the
real state of the minds of these poor people. Every thing
about them showed that they were deeply affected with _
the kindness shown them; and that their hearts were
really softened, appeared, not only from their unaffected
expressions of gratitude, but also from the effusions of
their affectionate regard for those who were dear to
them. In short, never did I witness such affecting
scenes as passed between some of these poor people
and their children.

It was mentioned above that the children were sepa-
rated from the grown persons. This was the case at
first; but as soon as order was thoroughly established
in every part of the house, and the poor people had

VOL, IV. 20

306 Public Establishment for

acquired a certain degree of address in their work, and
evidently took pleasure in it, as many of those who had
children expressed an eartiest desire to have them near
them, permission was granted for that purpose; and the
spinning-halls, by degrees, were filled with the most in-
teresting little groups of industrious families, who vied
with each other in diligence and address, and who dis-
played a scene at once the most busy and the most
cheerful that can be imagined.

An industrious family is ever a pleasing object; but
there was something peculiarly interesting and affecting

in the groups of these poor people. Whether it was, |

that those who saw them compared their present situ-
ation with the state of misery and wretchedness from
which they had been taken, or whether it was the joy
and exultation which were expressed in the counte-

nances of the poor parents in contemplating their children.

all busily employed about them, or the air of self-satis-
faction which these little urchins put on at the conscious-
ness of their own dexterity, while they pursued their
work with redoubled diligence upon being observed, that
rendered the scene so singularly interesting, I know not;
but certain it is that few strangers who visited the
establishment came out of these halls without being
much affected.

Many humane and well-disposed persons are often
withheld from giving alms, on account of the bad char-
acter of beggars in. general; but this circumstance,
though it ought undoubtedly to be taken into consider-
ation in determining the mode of administering our
charitable assistance, should certainly not prevent our
interesting ourselves in the fate of these unhappy
beings. On the contrary, it ought to be an additional

the Poor in Bavaria. 307

incitement to us to relieve them; for nothing is more
certain than that their crimes are very often the efzets,
not the causes, of their misery; and when this is the
case, by removing the cause, the effects will cease.

Nothing is more extraordinary and unaccountable
than the inconsistency of mankind in every-thing, even
in the practice of that divine virtue, benevolence; and
most of our mistakes arise more from indolence and from
inattention than from any thing else. The busy part
of mankind are too intent upon their own private pur-
suits; and those who have leisure are too averse from
giving themselves trouble to investigate a subject but
too generally considered as tiresome and uninteresting.
But if it be true that we are really happy only in
proportion as we ought to be so, — that is, in proportion
as we are instrumental in promoting the happiness of
others, —no study surely can be so interesting as that
which teaches us how most effectually to contribute to
the well-being of our fellow-creatures.

If ove be blind, sedf-/ove is certainly very short-sight-
ed; and, without the assistance of reason and reflection,
is but a bad guide in the pursuit of happiness.

Those who take pleasure in depreciating all the social
virtues have represented pity as a mere selfish passion ;
and there are some circumstances which appear to jus-
tify this opinion. It is certain that the misfortunes
of others affect us not in proportion to their greatness,
but in proportion to their nearness to ourselves, or to
the chances that they may reach us in our turns. A
rich man is infinitely more affected at the misfortune of
his neighbour, who, by the failure of a banker with
whom he had trusted the greater part of his fortune,
by an unlucky run at play, or by other losses, is reduced

308 Public Establishment for

from a state of affluence to the necessity of laying
down his carriage, leaving the town, and retiring into the
country upon a few hundreds a year, than by the total
ruin of the industrious tradesman over the way, who is
dragged to prison, and his numerous family of young
and helpless children left to starve.

But however selfish pity may be, denevolence certainly
springs from a more noble origin. It is a good-na-
tured, generous sentiment, which does not require being
put to the torture in order to be stimulated to action.
And it is this sentiment, not pity, or compassion,
which I would wish to excite.

Pity is always attended with pain; and, if our suffer-
ings at being witnesses of the distresses of others some-
times force us to relieve them, we can neither have
much merit nor any lasting satisfaction from such
involuntary acts of charity; but the enjoyments which
result from acts of genuine benevolence are as lasting
as they are exquisitely delightful; and the more they
are analyzed and contemplated, the more they contrib-
ute to that inward peace of mind and self-approbation,
which alone constitute real happiness. This is the
“soul’s calm sunshine and the heart-felt joy,” which is
virtue’s prize.

To induce mankind to engage in any enterprise, it is
necessary, first, to show that success will be attended
with real advantage; and, secondly, that it may be ob-
tained without much difficulty. The rewards attendant
upon acts of benevolence have so often been described
and celebrated, in every country and in every language,
that it would be presumption in me to suppose I could
add any thing new upon a subject already discussed by
the greatest masters of rhetoric, and embellished with all

the Poor in Bavaria. 309

the irresistible charms of eloquence; but, as examples of
success are sometimes more efficacious in stimulating
mankind to action than the most splendid reasonings
and admonitions, it is upon my szccess in the enterprise
of which I have undertaken to give an account that my
hopes of engaging others to follow such an example are
chiefly founded; and hence it is that I so often return
to that part of my subject, and insist with so much perse-
verance upon the pleasure which this success afforded
me. I amaware that I expose myself to being suspected
of ostentation, particularly by those who are not able
to enter fully into my situation and feelings ; but neither
this, nor any other consideration, shall prevent me from
treating the subject in such a manner as may appear
best adapted to render my labours of public utility.

Why should I not mention even the marks of affec-
tionate regard and respect which I receive from the
poor people for whose happiness I interested myself,
and the testimonies of the public esteem with which I
was honoured? Will it be reckoned vanity, if I men-
tion the concern which the poor of Munich expressed in
so affecting a manner when I was dangerously ill? that
they went publicly in a body in procession to the cathe-
dral church, where they had divine service performed,
and put up public prayers for my recovery? that four —
years afterwards, on hearing that I was again danger-
ously ill at Naples, they, of their own accord, set apart
an hour each evening, after they had finished their work
in the Military Workhouse, to pray for me?

Will it be thought improper to mention the affecting
reception I met with from them, at my first visit to the
Military Workhouse, upon my return to Munich last
summer, after an absence of fifteen months, —a scene

310 Public Establishment for

which drew tears from all who were present? and must
I refuse myself the satisfaction of describing the féte
I gave them in return, in the English Garden, at which
1800 poor people of all ages, and above 30,000 of the
inhabitants of Munich, assisted? and all this pleasure I
must forego merely that I may not be thought vain and
ostentatious? Be it so then; but I would just beg
leave to call the reader’s attention to my feelings upon
the occasion; and then let him ask himself, if any
earthiy reward can possibly be supposed greater, any
enjoyments more complete, than those I received. Let
him figure to himself, if he can, my situation,—sick in
bed, worn out by intense application, and dying, as
everybody thought, a martyr in the cause to which I
had devoted myself,— let him imagine, I say, my feelings,
upon hearing the confused noise of the prayers of a
multitude of people, who were passing by in the streets,
upon being told that it was the poor of Munich, many
hundreds in number, who were going in procession
to the church to put up public prayers for me,— public
prayers for me! for a private person! a stranger! a Prot-
estant! I believe it is the first instance of the kind that
ever happened; and I dare venture to affirm that no
proof could well be stronger than this that the measures
adopted for making these poor people happy were really
successful; and let it be remembered, that this fact ts
what [am most anxious to make appear, IN THE CLEAR-
EST AND MOST SATISFACTORY MANNER.

the Poor in Bavaria. 311

CHAP TER Wit

Of the Means used for the Relief of those poor Persons
who were not Beggars— Of the large Sums of
Money distributed to the Poor in Alms.— Of the
Means used for rendering those who received Alms
industrious — Of the general Utilty of the House
of Industry to the Poor and the Distressed of all
Denominations— Of Public Kitchens for feeding
the Poor, united with Establishments for giving
them Employment; and of the great Advantages
which would be derived from forming them in every
Parish.— Of the Manner in which the Poor of
Munich are lodged.

N giving an account of the poor of Munich, I have
hitherto confined myself chiefly to one class of them,
the beggars; but I shall now proceed to mention briefly
the measures which were adopted to relieve others who
never were beggars from those distresses and difficulties
in which poverty and the inability to provide the neces-
saries of life had involved them.

An establishment for the poor should not only pro-
vide for the relief and support of those who are most
forward and clamorous in calling out for assistance;
humanity and justice require that peculiar attention
should be paid to those who are bashful and silent, to
those who, in addition to all the distresses arising from
poverty and want, feel what is still more insupportable,
the shame and mortifying degradation attached to their
unfortunate and hopeless situation.

All those who stood in need of assistance were in-

312 Public Establishment for

vited and encouraged to make known their wants to the
committee placed at the head of the institution; and
in no case was the necessary assistance refused. That
this relief was generously bestowed, will not be doubted
by those who are informed that the sums distributed
in alms, 2% ready money, to the poor of Munich in five
years, exclusive of the expenses incurred in feeding and
clothing them, amounted to above ¢wo hundred thou-
sand florins.* ;

But the sums of money distributed among the poor
in alms was not the only, and perhaps not the most
important, assistance that was given them. They were
taught and encouraged to be industrious; and they
probably derived more essential advantages from the
fruits of their industry than from all the charitable
donations they received.

All who are able to earn any thing by their labour’
were furnished with work, and effectual measures taken
to excite them to be industrious. In fixing the amount
of the sums in money, which they receive weekly upon
stated days, care was always taken to find out how much
the person applying for relief was in a condition to earn ;
and only just so much was granted as, when added
to these earnings, would be sufficient to provide the
necessaries of life, or such of them as were not other-
wise furnished by the institution. But even this pre-
caution would not alone have been sufficient to have
obliged those who were disposed to be idle to become
industrious; for, with the assistance of the small allow-
ances which were granted, they might have found
means, by stealing or other fraudulent practices, to have
subsisted without working, and the sums allowed them

%* Above 18,000 pounds sterling.

the Poor in Bavaria. 313

would only have served as an encouragement to idle-
ness. This evil, which is always much to be appre-
hended in establishments for the poor, and which is
always most fatal in its consequences, is effectually pre-
vented at Munich by the following simple arrangement :
A long and narrow slip of paper, upon which is printed,
between parallel lines, in two or more columns, all the
weeks in the year, or rather the month, and the day of
the month when each week begins, is, in the beginning
of every year, given to each poor person entitled to
receive alms; and the name of the person, with the
number his name bears in the general list of the poor,
the weekly sum granted to him, and the sum he is able
to earn weekly by labour, are entered in writing at the
head of this list of the weeks. This paper, which must
always be produced by the poor person as often as he
applies for his weekly allowance of alms, serves to show
whether he has or has not fulfilled the conditions upon
which the allowance was granted him; that is to say,
whether he has been industrious, and has earned by his
labour, and received, the sum he ought to earn weekly.
This fact is ascertained in the following manner: when
the poor person frequents the House of Industry regu-
larly, or when he works at home, and delivers regularly
at the end of every week the produce of the labour he
is expected to perform, — when he has thus fulfilled the
conditions imposed on him, the column, or rather par-
allel, in his paper (which may be called his certificate of
industry), answering to the week in question, is marked
with a stamp, kept for that purpose at the Military Work-
house ; or, if he should be prevented by illness, or any
other accident, from fulfilling those conditions, in that
case, instead of the stamp, the week must be marked by

314 Public Establishment for

the signature of the commissary of the district to which
the poor person belongs. «But if the certificate be not
marked either by the stamp of the House of Industry,
or by the signature of the commissary of the district,
the allowance for the week in question is not issued.

It is easy to be imagined how effectually this arrange-
ment must operate as a check to idleness. But, not
satisfied with discouraging and punishing idleness, we
have endeavoured, by all the means in our power, and
more especially by rewards and honourable distinctions
of every kind, to encourage extraordinary exertions of
industry. Such of the poor who earn more in the week
than the sum imposed on them are rewarded by ex-
traordinary presents in money, or in some useful and
valuable article of clothing, or they are particularly
remembered at the next public distribution of money,
which is made twice a year to the poor, to assist them in
paying their house-rent; and so far is this from being
made a pretext for diminishing their weekly allowance
of alms, that it is rather considered as a reason for aug-
menting them. |

There are great numbers of persons, of various de-
scriptions, in all places, and particularly in great towns,
who, though they find means just to support life, and
have too much feeling ever to submit to the disgrace of
becoming a burthen upon the public, are yet very un-
happy, and consequently objects highly deserving of the
commiseration and friendly aid of the humane and
generous. It is hardly possible to imagine a situation
more truly deplorable than that of a person born to
better prospects, reduced by unmerited misfortunes to
poverty, and doomed to pass his whole life in one con-
tinued and hopeless struggle with want, shame, and
despair.

eee ——— ee

the Poor in Bavaria. 315

Any relief which it is possible to afford to distress
that appears. under this respectable and most interest-
ing form ought surely never to be withheld. But the
greatest care and precaution are necessary in giving
assistance to those who have been rendered irritable
and suspicious by misfortunes, and who have too much
honest pride not to feel themselves degraded by ac-
cepting an obligation they never can hope to repay.

The establishment of the House of Industry at Mu-
nich has been a means of affording very essential relief
to many distressed families, and single persons in indi-
gent circumstances, who otherwise, most probably, never
would have received any assistance. Many persons of
distinguished birth, and particularly widows and unmar-
ried ladies with very small fortunes, frequently send
privately to this house for raw materials, flax or wool,
which they spin and return in yarn, linen for soldiers’
shirts which they make up, etc., and receive in money
(commonly through the hands of a maid-servant, who
is employed as a messenger upon these occasions) the
amount of the wages at the ordinary price paid by the
manufactory for the labour performed.

Many a common soldier in the Elector’s service
Wears shirts made up privately by the delicate hands of
persons who were never seen publicly to be employed
in such coarse work; and many a comfortable meal has.
been made in the town of Munich, in private, by per-
sons accustomed to more sumptuous fare, upon the soup
destined for the poor, and furnished gvaézs from the
public kitchen of the House of Industry. Many others
who stand in need of assistance will in time, I hope, get
the better of their pride, and avail themselves of these
advantages.

316 Public Establishment for

To render this establishment for the poor at Munich
perfect, something is still wanting. The House of In-
dustry is too remote from the centre of the town, and
many of the poor live at such a distance from it, that
much time is lost in going and returning. It is situated,
it is true, nearly in the centre of the district in which
most of the poor inhabit; but still there are many who
do not derive all the advantages from it they otherwise
would do, were it adjacent to their dwelling. The only
way to remedy this imperfection would be to establish
several smaller public kitchens in different parts of the
town, with two or three rooms adjoining to each, where
the poor might work. They might then either fetch
the raw materials from the principal house of industry,
or be furnished with them by the persons who superin-
tend those subordinate kitchens, and who might serve at
the same time as stewards and inspectors of the working
rooms, under the direction and control of the officers
who are placed at the head of the general establishment.
This arrangement is in contemplation, and will be put
in execution as soon as convenient houses can be
procured and fitted up for the purpose.

In large cities, these public kitchens, and rooms ad-
joining to them for working, should be established in
every parish; and it is scarcely to be conceived how
much this arrangement would contribute to the comfort

and contentment of the poor, and to the improvement:

of their morals. These working rooms might be fitted
up with neatness, and even with elegance, and made
perfectly warm, clean, and comfortable, at a very small
expense; and if nothing were done to disgust the poor,
either by treating them harshly, or using force to oblige
them to frequent these establishments, they would soon

0 SE —E ee

a *

the Poor in Bavaria. 317

avail themselves of the advantages held out to them;
and the tranquillity they would enjoy in these peaceful
retreats would, by degrees, calm the agitation of their
minds, remove their suspicions, and render them happy,
grateful, and docile.

Though it might not be possible to provide any other
lodgings for them than the miserable barracks they now
occupy, yet, as they might spend the whole of the day,
from morning till late at night, in these public rooms,
and have no occasion to return to their homes till bed-
time, they would not experience much inconvenience
from the badness of the accommodation at their own
dwellings.

Should any be attacked with sickness, they might be
sent to some hospital, or rooms be provided for them,
as well as for the old and infirm, adjacent to the public
working-rooms. Certain hours might also be set apart
for instructing the children daily in reading and writ-
ing, in the dining-hall, or in some other room con-
venient for that purpose.

The expense of forming such an establishment in
every parish would not be great in the first outset, and
the advantages derived from it would very soon repay
that expense, with interest. The poor might be fed
from a public kitchen for Zess than half what it would
cost them to féed themselves; they would turn their
industry to better account by working in a public es-
tablishment and under proper direction than by work-
ing at home; a spirit of emulation would be excited
among them, and they would pass their time more
agreeably and cheerfully. They would be entirely re-
lieved from the heavy expense of fuel for cooking; and,
in a great measure, from that for heating their dwell.

318 Public “Establishment for

ings; and being seldom at home in the day-time would
want little more than a place to sleep in; so that the
expense of lodging might be greatly diminished. It is
evident, that all these savings together would operate
very powerfully to lessen the public expense for the
maintenance of the poor; and were proper measures
adopted, and pursued with care and perseverance, I am
persuaded the expense would at last be reduced to
little or nothing.

With regard to lodgings-for the poor, Iam clearly
of opinion that it is in general best, particularly in great
towns, that these should be left for themselves to pro-
vide. This they certainly would like better than’ being
crowded together, and confined like prisoners in poor-
houses and hospitals; and I really think the difference
in the expense would be inconsiderable; and though
they might be less comfortably accommodated, yet the
inconvenience would be amply compensated dy ¢he
charms which liberty dispenses.

In Munich, almost all the poor provide their own
lodgings; and twice a year have certain allowances in
money to assist them in paying their rent. Many
among them who are single have, indeed, no lodgings
they can call their own. They go to certain public-
houses to sleep, where they are furnished with what is
called a bed, ina garret, for one kreutzer (equal to about
one-third of a penny) a night; and for two kreutzers a
night they get a place in a tolerably good bed ina decent
room in a public-house of more repute.

There are, however, among the poor many who are
infirm, and not able to shift for themselves in the public-
houses, and have not families or near relations to take
care of them. For these a particular arrangement has

the Poor in Bavaria. 319

lately been made at Munich. Such of them as have
friends or acquaintances in town with whom they can.
lodge are permitted to do so; but if they cannot find
out lodgings themselves, they have their option either
to be placed in some private family to be taken care of,
or go to a house which has lately been purchased and
fitted up as an hospital for lodging them.* |

This house is situated in a fine, airy situation, on a
small eminence upon the banks of the Isar, and over-
looks the whole town, the plain in which it is situated,
and the river. It is neatly built, and has a spacious gar-
den belonging to it. There are seventeen good rooms
in the house, in which it is supposed about eighty per-
sons may be lodged. These will all- be fed from one
kitchen; and such of them who are very infirm will
have others less infirm placed in the same room with
them, to assist them and wait upon them. The culti-
vation of the garden will be their amusement, and the
produce of it their property. They will be furnished
with work suitable to their strength; and for all the la-
bour they perform will be paid in money, which will
be left at their own disposal. They will be furnished
with food, medicine, and clothing gratzs ; and to those
who are not able to earn any thing by labour, a small
sum of money will be given weekly, to enable them to
purchase tobacco, snuff, or any other article of humble
luxury to which they may have been accustomed.

I could have wished that this asylum had been nearer
to the House of Industry, It is, indeed, not very far

* The committee, at the head of the establishment, has been enabled to
make this purchase, by legacies made to the institution. These legacies have
been numerous, and are increasing every day; which clearly shows that the

measures adopted with regard to the poor have met with the approbation of the
public.

320 Public Establishment for

from it, perhaps not more than 400 yards; but still that
is too far. Had it been under the same roof, or adjoin-
ing to it, those who are lodged in it might have been
fed from the public kitchen of the general establishment,
and have been under the immediate inspection of the
principal officers of the House of Industry. It would
likewise have rendered the establishment very interest-
ing to those who visit it; which is an object of more
real importance than can well be imagined by those
who have not had occasion to know how much the
approbation and applause of the public facilitate diffi-
cult enterprises.

The means:of uniting the rational amusement of so-
ciety, with the furtherance of schemes calculated for the
promotion of public good, is a subject highly deserving
the attention of all who are engaged in public affairs.

CHAPTER. 1X.

Of the Means used for extending the Influence of the
Institution for the Poor at Munich to other Parts
of Bavaria— Of the Progress whith some of the
Improvements introduced at Munich are making tn
other Countries.

HOUGH the institution of which I have under-
taken to give an account was confined to the city

of Munich and its suburbs, yet measures were taken to
extend its influence to all parts of the country. The
attempt to put an end to mendicity in the capital, and
to give employment to the poor, having been com-

Ne ee ee

eS ae te ae

the Poor in Bavaria. 321

pletely successful, this event was formally announced
to the public in the newspapers; and other towns were >
called upon to follow the example. Not only a narrative
in detail was given of all the different measures pur-
sued in this important undertaking, but every kind of
information and assistance was afforded on the part of
the institution at Munich to all who might be disposed
to engage in forming similar establishments in other
parts of the country.

Copies of all the different lists, returns, certificates,
etc., used in the management of the poor, were given
gratis to all strangers as well as inhabitants of the
country who applied for them; and no information rel-
ative to the establishment, or to any of its details, was
ever refused.

The House of Industry was open every day from
morning till night to all visitors; and persons were ap-
pointed to accompany strangers in their tour through
the different apartments, and to give the fullest infor-
mation relative to the details, and even to all the secrets
of the various manufactures carried on; and printed
copies of the different tables, tickets, checks, etc., made
use of in carrying on the current business of the house,
were furnished to every one who asked for them ; to-
gether with an account of the manner in which these
were used, and of the other measures adopted to pre-
vent frauds and peculation in the various branches of
this extensive establishment.

As few manufactures in Bavaria are carried on to
any extent, the more indigent of the inhabitants are,
in general, so totally unacquainted with every kind of
work in which the poor could be most usefully employ-
ed, that that circumstance alone is a great obstacle to

VOL, IV. 21

322 Public: Establishment for

the general introduction throughout the country of the
measures adopted in Munich for employing the poor,
To remove this difficulty, the different towns and com-
munities who are desirous of forming establishments for
giving employment to the poor are invited to send
persons properly qualified to the house of industry at
Munich, where they may be taught, gradzs, spinning, in
its various branches, knitting, sewing, etc., in order to
qualify them to become instructors to the poor on their
return home. And even instructors already formed,
and possessing all the requisite qualifications for such
an office, are offered to be furnished by the House of
Industry in Munich to such communities as_ shall
apply for them.

Another difficulty, apparently not less weighty than
that just mentioned, but which is more easily and more
effectually removed, is the embarrassment many of the
smaller communities are likely to be under in procuring —
~ raw materials, and in selling to advantage the goods
manufactured, or (as iscommonly the case) 2x part only
manufactured, by the poor. The yarn, for instance,
which is spun by them in a country town or village, far
removed from any manufacture of cloth, may lie on
hand a long time before it can be sold to advantage.
To remedy this, the House of Industry at Munich
is ordered to furnish raw materials to such communities
as shall apply for’them, and receive in return the goods
manufactured, at the full prices paid for the same arti-
cles in Munich. Not only these measures, and many
others of a similar nature,.are taken to facilitate the in-
troduction of industry among the poor throughout the
country; but every encouragement is held out to induce
individuals to exert themselves in this laudable under-

the Poor in Bavaria. 323

taking. Those communities which are the first to
follow the example of the capital are honourably men-
tioned in the newspapers; and such individuals as
distinguish themselves by their zeal and activity upon
those occasions are praised and rewarded. —

A worthy curate (Mr. Lechner), preacher in one of
the churches in Munich, who, of his own accord, had
taken upon himself to defend the measures adopted
with regard to the poor, and to recommend them in
the most earnest manner from the pulpit, was sent
for by the Elector into his closet, and thanked for his
exertions. |

This transaction being immediately made known (an
account of it having been published in the newspapers),
tended not a little to engage the clergy in all parts of
the country to exert themselves in support of the in-
stitution.

It is not my intention to insinuate that the clergy in
Bavaria stood in need of any such motive to stimulate
them to action in a cause so important to the happiness
and well-being of mankind, and consequently so nearly
connected with the sacred duties of their office; on the
contrary, I should: be wanting in candour, as well as
gratitude, were I not to embrace this opportunity of ex-
pressing publicly the obligations I feel myself under to
them for their support and assistance. :

The number of excellent sermons which have been
preached, in order to recommend the measures adopted
by the government for making provision for the poor,
show how much this useful and respectable body of men
have had it at heart to contribute to the success of this
important measure; and their readiness to co-operate
with me (a Protestant) upon all occasions where their

“

324 Public Establishment for

assistance has been asked, not only does honour to the
liberality of their sentiments, but calls for my per-
sonal acknowledgments and particular thanks.

I shall conclude this essay with an account of the pro-
gress which some of the improvements introduced at
Munich are now making in other countries. During
my late journey in Italy for the recovery of my health,
I visited Verona; and becoming acquainted with the
principal directors of two large and noble hospitals, Za
Prieta, and la Misericorde, in that city, the former con-
taining about 350, and the latter near 500 poor, I had
frequent occasions to converse with them upon the
subject of those establishments, and to give them an
account of the arrangements that had been made at
Munich. I likewise took the liberty of proposing some
improvements, and particularly in regard to the arrange-
ments for feeding these poor, and in the management
of the fires employed for cooking. Firewood, the only
fuel used in that country, is extremely scarce and dear,
and made a very heavy article in the expenses of those
institutions.

Though this scarcity of fuel, which had prevailed for
ages in that part of Italy, had rendered it necessary to pay
attention to the economy of fuel, and had occasioned
some improvements to be made in the management of
heat; yet I found, upon examining the kitchens of these
two hospitals, and comparing the quantities of fuel con-
sumed with the quantities of victuals cooked, that seven-
eighths of the firewood they were then consuming might
be saved.* Having communicated the result of those
inquiries to the directors of these two hospitals, and

* J found upon examining the famous kitchen of the great hospital at Flor-
ence, that the waste of fuel there is still greater.

the Poor in Bavaria. 325

offered my service to alter the kitchens, and arrange
them upon the principles of that in the House of Indus-
try at Munich (which I described to them), they accepted
my offer, and the kitchens were rebuilt under my imme-
diate direction; and have both succeeded, even beyond
"my most sanguine expectations. That of the hospital
of da Pieta is the most complete kitchen I have ever
built; and I would recommend it as a model, in prefer-
ence to any I have ever seen. I shall give a more
particular description of it, with plans and estimates,
in my Essay on the Management of Heat.

During the time I was employed in building the new
kitchen in the hospital of da Pzeta, I had an oppor-
tunity of making myself acquainted with all the details
of the clothing of the poor belonging to that establish-
ment; and I found that very great savings might be
made in that article of expense. I made a proposal to
the directors of that hospital to furnish them with
clothing for their poor, ready made up,from the House
of Industry at Munich; and upon my return to Munich,
I sent them ¢we/ve complete suits of clothing of differ-
ent sizes as a sample, and accompanied them with an
estimate of the prices at which we could afford to deliver
them at Verona.

The success of this little adventure has been very
flattering, and has opened a very interesting channel for
commerce, and for the encouragement of industry in
Bavaria. This sample of clothing being approved, and,
with all the expenses of carriage added, being found to
be near ¢wenty per cent cheaper than that formerly used,
orders have been received from Italy by the House of
Industry at Munich to a considerable amount, for cloth-
ing the poor. In the beginning of September last, a

326 Public Establishment, ete.

few days before I left Munich to come to England, I
had the pleasure to assist in packing up and sending off,
over the Alps, by the Tyrol, stx HUNDRED articles of
clothing of different kinds for the poor of Verona;
and hope soon to see the poor of Bavaria growing rich
by manufacturing clothing for the poor of Italy.

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s Essays,
Vol. I., pp. 1-112.]

OF THE

“FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

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ON WHICH

THE POOR MAY BE FORMED IN ALL

COUNTRIES.

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OF THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

ON WHICH

GENERAL ESTABLISHMENTS FOR THE RELIEF OF THE
POOR MAY BE FORMED IN ALL COUNTRIES.

CHAPPE RE

General View of the Subject.— Deplorable State of
those who are reduced to Poverty.— No Body of
Laws can be so framed as to provide effectually for
their Wants.— Only adequate Relief that can be
afforded them must be derived from the voluntary
Assistance of the Humane and Benevolent.— How
that Assistance ts to be secured.— Objections to the
Expense of taking Care of the Poor answered.—
Of the Means of introducing a Scheme for the Relief
of the Poor. |

HOUGH the fundamental principles on which the
establishment for the poor at Munich is founded

are such as I can venture to recommend; and not-
withstanding the fullest information relative to every
part of that establishment may, I believe, be collected
from the account of it which is given in the foregoing
Essay; yet as this information is so dispersed in differ-
ent parts of the work, and so blended with a variety of
other particulars, that the reader would find some diffi-
culty in bringing the whole into one view, and arrang- }

330 Fundamental Principles of

ing it systematically in a complete whole, I shall
endeavour briefly to resume the subject, and give the
result of all my inquiries relative to it in a more concise,
methodical, and useful form. And as from the expe-
rience I have had in providing for the wants of the
poor, and reclaiming the indolent and vicious to habits
of useful industry, I may venture to consider myself
authorized to speak with some degree of confidence
upon the subject ; instead of merely recapitulating what
has been said of the establishment for the poor at Mu-
nich (which would be at best but a tiresome repetition),
I shall now allow myself a greater range in these inves-
tigations, and shall give my opinions without restraint
which may come under consideration. And though
the system I shall propose is founded upon the suc-
cessful experiments made at Munich, as may be seen
by comparing it with the details of that establishment,
yet, as a difference in the local circumstances under
which an operation is performed must necessarily re-
quire certain modifications of the plan, I shall endeay-
our to take due notice of every modification which
may appear to me to be necessary.*

Before I enter upon those details, it may be proper
to take a more extensive survey of the subject, and in-
vestigate the general and fundamental principles on
which an establishment for the relief of the poor in
every country ought to be founded. At the same time,
I shall consider the difficulties which are generally un-

* The English reader is desired to bear in mind that the author of this Es-
say, though an Englishman, is resident in Germany; and that his connections
with that country render it necessary for him to pay particular attention to its
circumstances in treating a subject which he is desirous of rendering generally
useful. There is still another reason which renders it necessary for him to

* have continually in view, in this Treatise, the situation of the poor upon the

Continent, and that it is an engagement which he has laid himself under to write
upon that subject.

Establishments for the Poor. 331

derstood to be inseparable from such an undertaking,
and endeavour to show that they are by no means in-
surmountable.

That degree of poverty which involves in it the
inability to procure the necessaries of life without
the charitable assistance of the public is, doubtless,
the heaviest of all misfortunes, as it not only brings
along with it the greatest physical evils, pain and dis-
ease, but is attended by the most mortifying humiliation
and hopeless despondency. It is, moreover, an incura-
ble evil; and is rather irritated than alleviated by the
remedies commonly applied to remove it. The only
alleviation of which it is capable must be derived from
the kind and soothing attentions of the truly benev-
olent. This is the only balm that can soothe the an-
guish of a wounded heart, or allay the agitations of a
mind irritated by disappointment and rendered fero-
cious by despair.

And hence it evidently appears that no body of laws,
however wisely framed, can, in any country, effectually
provide for the relief of the poor without the voluntary
assistance of individuals ; for though taxes may be levied
by authority of the laws for the support of the poor,
yet those kind attentions which are so necessary in the
management of the poor, as well to reclaim the vicious
as to comfort and encourage the despondent, — those
demonstrations of concern which are always so great a
consolation to persons in distress,—cannot be com-
manded by force. On the contrary, every attempt to
use force in such cases seldom fails to produce conse-
quences directly contrary to those intended.*

* The only step which, in my opinion, it would be either necessary or pru-

dent for the legislature to take in any country where an establishment for the
poor is to be formed, is to recommend to the public a good plan for such an

332 Fundamental Principles of

But if the only effectual relief for the distresses of
the poor, and the sovereign remedy for the numerous
evils to society which arise from the prevalence of men-
dicity, indolence, poverty, and misery among the lower
classes of society, must be derived from the charitable
and voluntary exertions of individuals, — as the assist-
ance of the public cannot be expected unless the most
unlimited confidence can be placed, not only in the
wisdom of the measures proposed, but also, and more
especially, in the uprightness, zeal, and perfect disinter-
estedness of the persons appointed to carry them into
execution, —it is evident that the first object to be at-
tended to, in forming a plan of providing for the poor,
is to make such arrangements as will command the con-
fidence of the public, and fix it upon the most solid and
durable foundation.

This can most certainly and most effectually be
done: /rs¢, by engaging persons of high rank and the
most respectable character to place themselves at the
head of the establishment; secondly, by joining, in
the general administration of the affairs of the estab-
lishment, a certain number of persons chosen from the
middling class of society, — reputable tradesmen, in easy
circumstances, heads of families, and others of known
integrity and of humane dispositions ;* ¢hzrdly, by en-
gaging all those who are employed in the administration
of the affairs of the poor to serve without fee or re-
ward; fourthly, by publishing, at stated periods, such
particular and authentic accounts of all receipts and

establishment, and repeal or alter all such of the existing laws as might render
the introduction of it difficult or impossible.

* This is an object of the utmost importance, and the success of the under-
taking will depend in a great measure on the attention that is paid to it.

Establishments for the Poor. 333

expenditures, that no doubt can possibly be entertained
by the public respecting the proper application of the
moneys destined for the relief of the poor; /7/thly, by
publishing an alphabetical list of all who receive alms;
in which list should be inserted not only the name of
the person, his age, condition, and place of abode, but
also the amount of the weekly assistance granted to
him, in order that those who entertain any doubts re-
specting the manner in which the poor are provided for
may have an opportunity of visiting them at their habi-
tations, and making inquiry into their real situations ;
and, /astly, the confidence of the public and the con-
tinuance of their support will most effectually. be se-
cured by a prompt and successful execution of the plan
adopted.

There is scarcely a greater plague that can infest so-
ciety than swarms of beggars; and the inconveniencies
to individuals arising from them are so generally and
so severely felt, that relief from so great an evil cannot
fail to produce a powerful and lasting effect upon the
minds of the public, and to engage all ranks to unite in
the support of measures as conducive to the comfort of
individuals as they are essential to the national honour
and reputation. And even in countries where the
poor do not make a practice of begging, the knowledge
of their sufferings must be painful to every benevolent °
mind; and there is no person, I would hope, so callous
to the feelings of humanity as not to rejoice most sin-
cerely when effectual relief is afforded.

The greatest difficulty attending the introduction of
any measure founded upon the voluntary support of the
public for maintaining the poor, and putting an end to
mendicity, is an opinion generally entertained that a

334 Fundamental Principles of

very heavy expense would be indispensably necessary
to carry into execution such an undertaking. But this
difficulty may be speedily removed by showing (which
may easily be done) that the execution of a well-ar-
ranged plan for providing for the poor, and giving
useful employment to the idle and indolent, so far from
being expensive, must, in the end, be attended with a
very considerable saving, not only to the public collect-
ively, but also to individuals.

Those who now extort their subsistence by begging
and stealing are, in fact, already maintained by the
public. But this is not all; they are maintained ina
manner the most expensive and troublesome, to them-
selves and the public, that can be conceived; and this
may be said of all the poor in general.

A poor person, who lives in poverty and misery, and
merely from hand to mouth, has not the power of avail-
ing himself of any of those economical arrangements, in
procuring the necessaries of life, which others, in more
affluent circumstances, may employ, and which may be
employed with peculiar advantage in a public estab-
lishment. Added to this, the greater part of the poor,
as well those who make a profession of begging as
others who do not, might be usefully employed in vari-
ous kinds of labour; and supposing them, one with
’ another, to be capable of earning ody half as much as
is necessary to their subsistence, this would reduce the
present expense to the public for their maintenance at
least one half; and this half might be reduced still
much lower by a proper attention to order and economy
in providing for their subsistence.

Were the inhabitants of a large town, where men-
dicity is prevalent, to subscribe only half the sums

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Establishments for the Poor. 335

annually which are extorted from them by beggars, I
am confident it would be quite sufficient, with a proper
arrangement, for the comfortable support of the poor of
all denominations.

Not only those who were formerly common street-
beggars, but all others, without exception, who receive
alms, in the city of Munich and its suburbs, amounting
at this time to more than 1800 persons, are supported
almost entirely by voluntary subscriptions from the in-
habitants; and I have been assured by numbers of the
most opulent and respectable citizens that the sums

- annually extorted from them formerly by beggars alone,

exclusive of private charities, amounted to more than
three times the sums now given by them to the support
of the new institution.

I insist the more upon this point, as I know that the
great expense which has been supposed to be indispen-
sably necessary to carry into execution any scheme for
effectually providing for the poor and putting an end
to mendicity has deterred many well-disposed persons
from engaging in so useful an enterprise. I have only
to add my most earnest wishes that what I have said
and done may remove every doubt and reanimate the
zeal of the public in a cause in which the dearest in-
terests of humanity are so nearly concerned.

In almost every public undertaking, which is to be
carried into effect by the united voluntary exertions of
individuals, without the interference of government,
there is a degree of awkwardness in bringing forward
the business which it is difficult to avoid, and which is
frequently not a little embarrassing. This will doubt-
less be felt by those who engage in forming and exe-
cuting schemes for providing for the poor by private
subscription; they should not, however, suffer them-

336 Fundamental Principles of

selves to be discouraged by a difficulty which may so
easily be surmounted.

In the introduction of every scheme for forming an
establishment for the poor, whether it be proposed to
defray the expense by voluntary subscriptions or by
a tax levied for the purpose, it will be proper for the
authors or promoters of the measure to address the
public upon the subject; to inform them of the nature
of the measures proposed ; of their tendency to promote
the public welfare; and to point out the various ways in
which individuals may give their assistance to render
the scheme successful.

There are few cities in Europe, I believe, in which
the state of the poor would justify such an address as
that which was published at Munich upon taking up
the beggars in that town; but something of the kind,
with such alterations as local circumstances may require,
I am persuaded, would in most cases produce good
effects. With regard to the assistance that might be
given by individuals to carry into effect a scheme for
providing for the poor, though measures for that pur-
pose may and ought to be so taken that the public
would have little or no trouble in their execution, yet
there are many things which individuals must be in-
structed cautiously to avoid, otherwise the enterprise
will be extremely difficult, if not impracticable; and,
above all things, they must be warned against giving
alms to beggars.

Though nothing would be more unjust and tyrannical
than to prevent the generous and humane from con-
tributing to the relief of the poor and necessitous, yet,
as giving alms to beggars tends so directly and so
powerfully to encourage idleness and immorality, to dis-
courage the industrious poor, and perpetuate mendicity,

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Establishments for the Poor. 337

with all its attendant evils, too much pains cannot be
taken to guard the public against a practice so fatal in»
its consequences to society.

All who are desirous of contributing to the relief of
the poor should be invited to send their charitable do-
nations to be distributed by those who, being at the
head of a public institution established for taking care
of the poor, must be supposed best acquainted with
their wants; or if individuals should prefer distribut-
ing their own charities, they ought at least to take the
trouble to inquire after fit objects, and to apply their
donations in such a manner as not to counteract the
measures of a public and useful establishment.

But before I enter farther into these details, it will
be necessary to determine the proper extent and limits
of an establishment for the poor ; and show how a town
or city ought to be divided in districts, in order to facili-
tate the purposes of such an institution.

CELA Ps. dee

Of the Extent of an Establishment for the Poor.—
Of the Division of a Town or City into Districts.
— Of the Manner of carrying on the Business of a
Public Establishment for the Poor.— Of the Neces-
sity of numbering all the Houses in a Town where
an Establishment for the Poor ts formed.

OWEVER large a city may be, in which an es-
tablishment for the poor is to be formed, I am

clearly of opinion, that there should be but ome estad-
VOL. IV. 22

338 Fundamental Principles of

lishment, — with one committee for the general manage-
ment of all its affairs, — and owe treasurer. This unity
appears essentially necessary, not only because, when
all the parts tend to one common centre, and act in
union to the same end, under one direction, they are
less liable to be impeded in their operations or disor-
dered by collision, but also on account of ¢he very
unegual distribution of wealth, as well as of misery and
poverty, in the different districts of the same town.
Some parishes in great cities have comparatively few
poor, while others, perhaps less opulent, are over-
burdened with them; and there seems to be no good
reason why a house-keeper in any town should be called
upon to pay more or less for the support of the poor
because he happens to live on one side of a street or
the other. Added to this, there are certain districts in
most great towns where poverty and misery seem to
have fixed their head-quarters, and where it would be
impossible for the inhabitants to support the expense
of maintaining their poor. Where that is the case, as
measures for preventing mendicity in every town must
be general in order to their being successful, the enter-
prise, from that circumstance alone, would be rendered
impracticable were the assistance of the more opulent
districts to be refused.

There is a district, for instance, belonging to Munich
(the Au), a very large parish, which may be called the
St. Giles’s of that city, where the alms annually received
are twenty times as much as the whole district con-
tributes to the funds of the public institution for the
poor. The inhabitants of the other parishes, however,
have never considered it a hardship to them that the
poor of the Au should be admitted to share the public
bounty, in common with the poor of the other parishes.

1 Ap de

Establishments for the Poor. 339

Every town must be divided, according to its extent,
into a greater or less number of districts, or subdivi-
sions; and each of these must have a committee of
inspection, or rather a commissary, with assistants, who
must be entrusted with the superintendence and man-
agement of all affairs relative to the relief and support
of the poor within its limits.

In very large cities, as the details of a general estab-
lishment for the poor would be very numerous and
extensive, it would probably facilitate the management
of the affairs of the establishment if, beside the small-
est subdivisions or districts, there could be formed other
larger divisions, composed of a certain number-of dis-
tricts, and put under the direction of particular com-
mittees.

The most natural, and perhaps the most convenient
method of dividing a large city or town, for the pur-
pose of introducing a general establishment for the
poor, would be, to form of the parishes the primary
divisions; and to divide each parish into so many sub-
divisions, or districts, as that each district may consist
of from 3000 to 4000 inhabitants. Though the im-
mediate inspection and general superintendence of the
affairs of each parish were to be left to its own partic-
ular committee, yet the supreme committee at the
head of the general institution should not only exer-
cise a controlling power over the parochial committees,
but these last should not be empowered to levy money
upon the parishioners, by setting on foot voluntary sub-
scriptions, or otherwise; or to dispose of any sums
belonging to the general institution, except in cases
of urgent necessity; nor should they be permitted to
introduce any new arrangements with respect to the

340 Fundamintal Principles of

management of the poor without the approbation and
consent of the supreme committee, — the most perfect
uniformity in the mode of treating the poor, and trans-
acting all public business relative to the institution,
being indispensably necessary to secure success to the
undertaking, and fix the establishment upon a firm and
durable foundation.

For the same reasons, all moneys collected in the par-
ishes should not be received and disposed of by their
particular committees, but ought to be paid into the
public treasury of the institution, and carried to the gen-
eral account of receipts; and, in like manner, the sums
necessary for the support of the poor in each parish
should be furnished from the general treasury, on the
orders of the supreme committee.

With regard to the applications of individuals in
distress for assistance, all such applications ought to be
made through the commissary of the district to the
parochial committee; and where the necessity is not
urgent, and particularly where permanent assistance is
required, the demand should be referred by the parochial
committee to the supreme committee for their decision.
In cases of urgent necessity, the parochial committees,
and even the commissaries of districts, should be author-
ized to administer relief, ex officco, and without delay ;
for which purpose they should be furnished with certain
sums in advance, to be afterwards accounted for by
them.

That the supreme committee may be exactly informed
of the real state of those in distress who apply for re-
lief, every petition, forwarded by a parochial commit-
tee, or by a commissary of a district where there are no
parochial committees, should be accompanied with an

Establishments for the Poor. | 341

exact and detailed account of the circumstances of the
petitioner, signed by the commissary of the district to
which he belongs, together with the amount of the
weekly sum, or other relief, which such commissary may
deem necessary for the support of the petitioner.

To save the.commissaries of districts the trouble of
writing the descriptions of the poor who apply for assist-
ance, printed forms, similar to that which may be seen
in the Appendix, No. V., may be furnished to them;
and other printed forms, of a like nature, may be intro-
duced with great advantage in many other cases in the
management of the poor.

With regard to the manner in which the supreme
and parochial committees should be formed, — however
they may be composed, it will be indispensably requi-
site, for the preservation of order and harmony in all
the different parts of the establishment, that one mem-
ber at least of each parochial committee be present,
and have a seat and voice as a member of the supreme
committee; and that all the members of each paro-
chial committee may be equally well informed with
regard to the general affairs of the establishment, it
may perhaps be proper that those members attend the
meetings of the supreme committee in rotation.

For similar reasons it may be proper to invite the
commissaries of districts to be present in rotation at
the meetings of the committees of their respective par-
ishes, where there are parochial committees established,
or, otherwise, at the meetings of the supreme commit-
teés.* |

* This measure has been followed by the most salutary effects at Munich,
The commissaries of districts, flattered by this distinction, have exerted them-
selves with uncommon zeal and assiduity in the discharge of the important
duties of their office. And very important indeed is the office of a commissary
of a district in the establishment for the poor at Munich.

342 Fundamental Principles of

It is, however, only in very large cities that I would
recommend the forming parochial committees. In all
towns where the inhabitants do not amount to more
than 100,000 souls, I am clearly of opinion that it would
be best merely to divide the town into districts without
regard to the limits of parishes, and to direct all the
affairs of the institution by one simple committee.
This mode was adopted at Munich, and found to be
easy in practice, and successful ;.and it is not without
some degree of diffidence, I own, that I have ventured
to propose a deviation from a plan which has not yet
been justified by experience.

But, however a town may be divided into districts, it
will be absolutely necessary that a// the houses be regu-
larly numbered, and an accurate list made out of all
the persons who inhabit them. The propriety of this
measure is too apparent to require any particular expla-
nation. It is one of the very first steps that ought to
be taken in carrying into execution any plan for form-
ing an establishment for the poor, it being as neces-
sary to know the names and places of abode of those
who, by voluntary subscriptions or otherwise, assist in
relieving the poor, as to be acquainted with the dwell-
ings of the objects themselves ; and this measure is as
indispensably necessary when an institution for the poor
is formed in a small country town or village as when
it is formed in the largest capital.

In many cases, it is probable, the established laws of
the country in which an institution for the poor may
be formed, and certain usages, the influence of which
may perhaps be still more powerful than the laws, may
render many modifications necessary, which it is utterly
impossible for me to foresee ; still the great fundamental

Establishments for the Poor. 343

principles upon which every sensible plan for such an
establishment must be founded appear to me to be
certain and immutable; and, when rightly understood,
there can be no great difficulty in accommodating the
plan to all those particular circumstances under which
it may be carried into execution, without ne any
essential alteration.

Cope a eK...

General Direction of the Affatrs of an Institution for
the Poor attended with no great Trouble.— Of the
best Method of carrying on the current Business, and
of the great Use of printed Forms or Blanks. —
Of the necessary Qualifications of those who are
placed at the Head of an Establishment for the Re-
lief of the Poor.—- Great Lmportance of this Sub-
ject. — Cruelty and Impolicy of putting the Poor
into the Hands of Persons they cannot respect and
love.— The Persons pointed out who are more im-

- mediately called upon to come forward with Schemes
for the Relief of the Poor, and to give their active
Assistance in carrying them into Lffece.

HATEVER the number of districts into which

a city is divided may be, or the number of com-

mittees employed in the management of a public
establishment for the relief of the poor, it is indispen-

_ sably necessary that all individuals who are employed

in the undertaking be persons of known integrity ; for
courage is not more necessary.in the character of a
general than unshaken integrity in the character of a

344 Fundaviental Principles of

governor of a public charity. I insist the more upon
this point, as the whole scheme is founded upon the
voluntary assistance of individuals, and therefore to in-
sure its success the most unlimited confidence of the
public must be reposed in those who are to carry it into
execution; besides, I may add that the manner in
which the funds of the various public establishments
for the relief of the poor already instituted have com-
monly been administered in most countries does not
tend to render superfluous the precautions I propose for
securing the confidence of the public.

The preceding observations respecting the impor-
tance of employing none but persons of known integrity
at the head of an institution for the relief of the poor
relate chiefly to the necessity of encouraging people
in affluent circumstances, and the public at large, to
unite in the support of such an establishment. There
is also another reason, perhaps equally important, which
renders it expedient to employ persons of the most
respectable character in the details of an institution of
public charity,—the good effects such a choice must
have upon the minds and morals of the poor.

Persons who are reduced to indigent circumstances,
and become objects of public charity, come under the
direction of those who are appointed to take care of
them with minds weakened by adversity and soured by
disappointment; and finding themselves separated from
the rest of mankind, and cut off from all hope of see-
ing better days, they naturally grow peevish and discon-
tented, suspicious of those set over them and of one
another; and the kindest treatment, and most careful ©
attention to every circumstance that can render their
situation supportable, are therefore required, to prevent

Establishments for the Poor. 345

their being very unhappy. And nothing surely can
contribute more powerfully to soothe the minds of per-
sons in such unfortunate and hopeless circumstances
than to find themselves under the care and protec-
tion of persons of gentle manners, humane dispositions,
and known probity and integrity; such as even ¢hey,
with all their suspicions about them, may venture to
love and respect.

Whoever has taken the pains to investigate the
nature of the human mind, and examine attentively
those circumstances upon which human happiness de-
pends, must know how necessary it is to happiness that
the mind should have some object upon which to place
its more tender affections, — something to love, to cher-
ish, to esteem, to respect, and to venerate; and these
resources are never so necessary as in the hour of
adversity and discouragement, where no ray of hope
is left to cheer the prospect and stimulate to fresh
exertion.

The lot of the poor, particularly of those who, from
easy circumstances and a reputable station in society,
are reduced by misfortunes or oppression to become a
burden on the public, is truly deplorable, after all that
can be done for them; and, were we seriously to con-
sider their situation, I am sure we should think that
we could never do too much to alleviate their sufferings,
and soothe the anguish of wounds which can never be
healed.

For the common misfortunes of life, Zope is a sov-
ereign remedy. But what remedy can be applied to
evils which involve even the loss of hope itself? and
what can those have to hope who are separated and
cut off from society, and for ever excluded from all share

346 Fundamental Principles of

in the affairs of men? To them, honours, distinctions,
praise, and even property itself, —all those objects of
laudable ambition which so powerfully excite the activ-
ity of men in civil society, and contribute so essen-
tially to happiness, by filling the mind with pleasing
prospects of future enjoyments,— are but empty names;
or, rather, they are subjects of never-ceasing regret and
discontent.

That gloom must indeed be dreadful which over-
spreads the mind, when ope, that bright luminary of the
soul, which enlightens and cheers it, and excites and
calls forth into action all its best faculties, has dis-
appeared !

There are many, it is true, who, from their indolence
or extravagance, or other vicious habits, fall into poverty
and distress, and become a burden on the public, who
are so vile and degenerate as not to feel the wretched-
ness of their situation. But these are miserable objects,
which the truly benevolent will regard with an eye of
peculiar compassion. They must be very unhappy, for
they are very vicious; and nothing should be omitted
that can tend to reclaim them; but nothing will tend
so powerfully to reform them as kind usage from the
hands of persons they must learn to love and to respect
at the same time. ;

If I am too prolix upon this head, I am sorry for it.
It is a strong conviction of the great importance of the
subject which carries me away, and makes me perhaps
tiresome where I would wish most to avoid it. The
care of the poor, however, I must consider as a matter
of very serious importance. It appears to me to be one of
the most sacred duties imposed upon men in a state
of civil society, — one of those duties imposed immedi-

:
4

Establishments for the Poor. 347

ately by the hand of God himself, and of which the
neglect never goes unpunished.

What I have said respecting the necessary qualifi
cations of those employed in taking care of the poor, I
hope will not deter well-disposed persons, who are will-
ing to assist in so useful an undertaking, from coming
forward with propositions for the institution of public
establishments for that purpose, or from offering them-
selves candidates for employments in the management
of such establishments. The qualifications pointed
out — integrity and a gentle and humane disposition,
honesty and a good heart—are such as any one may
boldly lay claim to, without fear of being taxed with
vanity or ostentation. And if individuals in private
stations on any occasion are called upon to lay aside
their bashfulness and modest diffidence, and come
forward into public view, it must surely be when by
their exertions they can essentially contribute to pro-
mote measures which are calculated to increase the
happiness and prosperity of society.

It is a vulgar saying that what zs everybody's bust-
ness 1s nobody's business; and it is very certain that
many schemes evidently intended for the public good
have been neglected, merely because nobody could be
prevailed on to stand forward and be the first to adopt
them. This, doubtless, has been the case in regard to
many judicious and well-arranged proposals for provid-
ing for the poor, and will probably be so again. I shall
endeavour, however, to show that, though in under-
takings in which the general welfare of society is con-
cerned persons of all ranks and conditions are called
upon to give them their support, yet, in the zztroduction
of such measures as are here recommended, —a scheme

348 Fundamental Principles of

of providing for the poor, — there are many who by their
rank and peculiar situations are clearly pointed out as
the most proper to take up the business at its com-
mencement, and bring it forward to maturity, as well
as to take an active part in the direction and manage-
ment of such an institution after it has been estab-
lished; and it appears to me that the nature and the
end of the undertaking evidently point out the per-
sons who are more particularly called upon to set an
example on such an occasion.

If the care of the poor be an object of great national
importance; if it be inseparably connected with the
peace and tranquillity of society, and with the glory and
prosperity of the state ; if the advantages which individ-
uals share in the public welfare are in proportion to the
capital they have at stake in this great national fund, —
that is to say, in proportion to their rank, property, and
connections, or general influence, as it is just that every
one should contribute in proportion to the advantages
he receives, —it is evident who ought to be the first to
come forward upon such an occasion.

But it is not merely on account of the superior inter-
est they have in the public welfare that persons of high
rank and great property, and such as occupy places of
importance in the government, are bound to support
measures calculated to relieve the distresses of the poor:
there is still another circumstance which renders it in-
dispensably necessary that they should take an active
part in such measures; and that is, the influence which
their example must have upon others.

_ It is impossible to prevent the bulk of mankind from
being swayed by the example of those to whom they
are taught to look up as their superiors: it behooves,

Salat

———————

Establishments for the Poor. 349

therefore, all who enjoy such high privileges to employ
all the influence which their rank and fortune give them ©
to promote the public good. And this may justly be
considered as a duty of a peculiar kind,—a personal
service attached to the station they hold in society, and
which cannot be commuted.

But if the obligations which persons of rank and
property are under to support measures designed for
the relief of the poor are so binding, how much more
so must they be upon those who have taken upon them-
selves the sacred office of public teachers of virtue and
morality, — the ministers of a most holy religion, a reli-
gion whose first precepts inculcate charity and universal
benevolence, and whose great object is, unquestionably,
the peace, order, and happiness of society !

If there be any whose peculiar province it is to
seek for objects in distress and want, and administer to
them relief; if there be any who are bound by the
indispensable duties of their profession to encourage
by every means in their power, and more especially by
example, the general practice of charity, it is, doubtless,
the ministers of the gospel. And such is their in-
fluence in society, arising from the nature of their
office, that their example is a matter of very serious
emportance.

Little persuasion, I should hope, would be necessary
to induce the clergy in any country to give their cordial
and active assistance in relieving the distresses of the
poor, and providing for their comfort and happiness by
introducing order and useful industry among them.

Another class of men, who, from the station they
hold in society and their knowledge of the laws of the
country, may be highly useful in carrying into effect

350 Fundamental Principles of

such an undertaking, are the civil magistrates; and,
however a committee for the government and direction
of an establishment for the poor may in other respects
be composed, I am clearly of opinion that the chzef
magistrate of the town or city where such an establish-
ment is formed ought always to be one of its members.
The clergyman of the place who is highest in rank or
dignity ought likewise to be another; and, if he be a
bishop or archbishop, his assistance is the more indis-
pensable.

But as persons who hold offices of great trust and
importance in the church, as well as under the civil gov-
ernment, may be so much engaged in the duties of their
stations as not to have sufficient leisure to attend to
other matters, it may be necessary, when such distin-
guished persons lend their assistance in the manage-
ment of an establishment for the relief of the poor,
that each of them be permitted to bring with him
a person of his own choice into the committee, to
assist him in the business. The bishop, for instance,
may bring his chaplain ; the magistrate, his clerk; the
nobleman or private gentleman, his son or friend, ete.
But in small towns of two or three parishes, and par-
ticularly in country towns and villages, which do not
consist of more than one or two parishes, as the details
in the management of the affairs of the poor in such
communities cannot be extensive, the members of the
committee may manage the business without assist-
ants. And indeed in all cases, even in great cities,
when a general establishment for the poor is formed
upon a good plan, the details of the executive and more
laborious parts of the management of it will be so
divided among the commissaries of the districts that

————E—E————

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4
:

Establishments for the Poor. 351

the members of the supreme committee will have little
more to do than just to hold the reins and direct the
movement of the machine. Care must, however, be
taken to preserve the most perfect uniformity in the
motions of all its parts, otherwise confusion must
ensue; hence the necessity of directing the whole from
one centre. | :

As the inspection of the poor, the care of them
when they are sick, the distribution of the sums
granted in alms for their support, the furnishing them
with clothes, and the collection of the voluntary sub-
scriptions of the inhabitants, will be performed by the
commissaries of the districts and their assistants, and
as all the details relative to giving employment to the
poor and feeding them may be managed by particular
subordinate committees appointed for those purposes,
the current business of the supreme committee will
amount to little more than the exercise of a general
superintendence.

This committee, it is true, must determine upon all
demands from the poor who apply for assistance; but
as every such demand will be accompanied with the
most particular account of the circumstances of the
petitioner, and the nature and amount of the assistance
necessary to his relief, certified by the commissary of
the district in which the petitioner resides, and also
by the parochial committee, where such are established,
the matter will be so prepared and digested that the
members of the supreme committee will have very little
trouble to decide on the merits of the case and the
assistance to be granted.

This assistance will consist in a certain sum to be
given weekly in alms to the petitioner, by the commis-

352 Fundamental Principles of

sary of the district, out of the funds of the institution;
in an allowance of bread only; in a present of certain
articles of clothing, which will be specified; or, per-
haps, merely in an order for being furnished with food,
clothing, or fuel, from the public kitchens or maga-
zines of the establishment, a¢ the prime cost of those
articles, as an assistance to the petitioner, and to
prevent the wecesszty of his becoming a burden on the
public.

The manner last mentioned of assisting the poor —
that of furnishing them with the necessaries of life at
lower prices than those at which they are sold in the
public markets — is a matter of such importance that
I shall take occasion to treat of it more fully here-
after.

With respect to the petitions presented to the com-
mittee: whatever be the assistance demanded, the peti-
tion received ought to be accompanied by a duplicate,
to the end that, the decision of the committee being
entered upon the duplicate as well as upon the original,
and the duplicate sent back to the commissary of the
district, the business may be finished with the least
trouble possible, and even without the necessity of any
more formal order relative to the matter = given by
the committee.

I have already mentioned the great utility of Arznted
forms for petitions, returns, etc., in carrying on the
business of an establishment for the poor, and I would
again most earnestly recommend the general use of
them. Those who have not had experience in such

matters can have no idea how much they contribute to -

preserve order, and facilitate and expedite business.
To the general introduction of them in the manage-

a eT se

“ a Le
sd, a ey

Establishments for the Poor. 353

ment of the affairs of the institution for the poor at
Munich, I attribute, more than to any thing else, the
perfect order which has continued to reign through-
out every part of that extensive establishment, from its
first existence to the present moment.

In carrying on the business of that establishment,
printed forms or blanks are used, not only for peti-
tions, returns, lists of the poor, descriptions of the poor,
lists of the inhabitants, lists of subscribers to the sup-
port of the poor, orders upon the banker or treasurer
of the institution, but also for the reports of the
monthly collections made by the commissaries of dis-
tricts; the accounts sent in by the commissaries, of
the extraordinary expenses incurred in affording assist-
ance to those who stand in need of immediate relief;
the banker’s receipts; and even the books in which are
kept the accounts of the receipts and expenditures of
the establishment.

In regard to the proper forms for these blanks: as
they must depend in a great measure upon local cir-
cumstances, no general directions can be given other
than, in all cases, the shortest forms that can be drawn
up, consistent with perspicuity, are recommended; and
that the subject-matter of each particular or single
return may be so disposed as to be easily transferred to
such general tables or general accounts as the nature
of the return and other circumstances may require.
Care should likewise be taken to make them of such a
form, shape; and dimension, that they may be regularly
folded up and docketed, in order to their being pre:

served among the public records of the institution.

VOL. IV. 23

354 Fundamental Principles of

CHAPTER HIV.

Of the Necessity of effectual Measures for introducing

a Spirit of Industry among the Poor in forming an
Establishment for their Relief and Support.— Of
the Means which may be used for that Purpose,
and for setting on foot a Scheme for forming an
Establishment for feeding the Poor.

A’ object of the very first importance in forming
an establishment for the relief and support of the
poor is to take effectual measures for introducing a
spirit of industry among them; for it is most certain
that al/ sums of money or other assistance given to the
poor in alms, which do not tend to make them indus-
trious, never can fail to have a contrary tendency, and
to operate as an encouragement to idleness and immo-
raltty.

And as the merit of an action is to be determined
by the good it produces, the charity of a nation ought
not to be estimated by the millions which are paid in
poor’s taxes, but by ¢he pains which are taken to see
that the sums raised are properly applied.

As the providing useful employment for the poor,
and rendering them industrious, is, and ever has_been,
a great destderatum in political economy, it may be
proper to enlarge a little here upon that interesting
subject. |

The great mistake committed in most of the attempts
which have been made to introduce a spirit of industry
where habits of idleness have prevailed has been the
too frequent and improper use of coercive measures, by

Establishments for the Poor. 355

which the persons to be reclaimed have commonly been
offended and thoroughly disgusted at the very outset.
Force will not do it: address, not force, must be used
on those occasions.

The children in the House of Industry at Munich,
who, being placed upon elevated seats round the halls
where other children worked, were made to be idle
spectators of that amusing scene, cried most bitterly
when their request to be permitted to descend from
their places and mix in that busy crowd was refused ;
but they would, most probably, have cried still more,
had they been taken abruptly from their pay and
forced to work.

“Men are but children of a larger growth;” and
those who undertake to direct them ought ever to bear
in mind that important truth.

That impatience of control, and jealousy and obsti-
nate perseverance in maintaining the rights of personal
liberty and independence, which so strongly mark the
_ human character in all the stages of life, must be man-
aged with great caution and address by those who are
desirous of doing good, or indeed of doing any thing
effectually with mankind.

It has often been said that the poor are vicious and
profligate, and that ¢herefore nothing but force will
answer to make them obedient and keep them in order;
but I should say that, decause the poor are vicious and
profligate, it is so much the more necessary to avoid
the appearance of force in the management of them, to_
prevent their becoming rebellious and incorrigible.

Those who are employed to take up and tame the
wild horses belonging to the Elector Palatine, which
are bred in the forest near Dusseldorf, never use force

356 Fundamental Principles of

in reclaiming that noble animal, and making him docile
and obedient. They begin with making a great circuit,
in order to approach him, and rather decoy than force
him into the situation in which they wish to bring him,
and ever afterwards treat him with the greatest kind-
ness; it having been found by experience that ill-usage
seldom fails to make him “a man-hater,” untamable,
and incorrigibly vicious. It may, perhaps, be thought
fanciful and trifling, but the fact really is that an atten-
tion to the means used by these people to gain the
confidence of those animals, and teach them to like
their keepers, their stables, and their mangers, sug-
gested to me many ideas which I afterwards put in
execution with great success, in reclaiming those
abandoned and ferocious animals in human _ shape
which I undertook to tame and render gentle and
docile.

It is, however, necessary, in every attempt to intro-
duce a spirit of order and industry among the idle and
profligate, not merely to avoid all harsh and offensive
treatment, which, as has already been observed, could
only serve to irritate them and render them still more
vicious and obstinate; but it is also indispensably
necessary to do every thing that can be devised to
encourage and reward every symptom of reformation.

It will likewise be necessary sometimes to punish the
obstinate ; but recourse should never be had to punish-
ments till good usage has first been fairly tried and
found to be ineffectual. The delinquent must be

made to see that he has deserved the punishment, :

and when it is inflicted care should be taken to make
him feel it. But in order that the punishment may
have the effects intended, and not serve to irritate the

Establishments for the Poor. 357

person punished and excite personal hatred and re-
venge, instead of disposing the mind to serious reflec-.
tion, it must be administered in the most solemn
and most dispassionate manner; and it must be con-
tinued no longer than till the 7vs¢ daw of reformation
appears.

How much prudence and caution are necessary in
dispensing rewards and punishments; and yet how
little attention is in general paid to those important
transactions !

Rewards and punishments are the only means by
which mankind can be controlled and directed; and
yet how often do we.see them dispensed in the most
careless, most imprudent, and most improper manner!
How often are they confounded! how often misapplied!
and how often do we see them made the instruments of
gratifying the most sordid private passions !

To the improper use of them may be attributed all
the disorders of civil society. To the improper or care-
less use of them may, most unquestionably, be attrib-
uted the prevalence of poverty, misery, and mendicity
in most countries, and particularly in Great Britain,
where the healthfulness and mildness of the climate,
the fertility of the soil, the abundance of fuel, the
numerous and flourishing manufactures, the extensive
commerce, and the millions of acres of waste lands
which still remain to be cultivated, furnish the means
of giving useful employment to all its inhabitants, and
even to a much more numerous population.

But if, instead of encouraging the laudable exertions
of useful industry, and assisting and relieving the un-
fortunate and the infirm (the only real objects of char-
ity), the means designed for those purposes are so

358 Fundamental Principles of

misapplied as to operate as rewards to idleness and
immorality, the greater the sums are which are levied
on the rich for the relief of the poor, the more numer-
ous will that class become, and the greater will be their
profligacy, their insolence, and their shameless and
clamorous importunity.

There is, it cannot be denied, in man, a natural pro-
pensity to sloth and indolence; and though habits of
industry, like all habits, may render those exertions
easy and pleasant which at first are painful and irk-
some, yet no person, in any situation, ever chose labour
merely for its own sake. It is always the apprehension
of some greater evil, or the hope of some enjoyment,
by which mankind are compelled or allured when they
take to industrious pursuits.

In the rude state of savage nature the wants of men
are few, and these may all be easily supplied without
the commission of any crime; consequently industry,
under such circumstances, is not necessary, nor can
indolence be justly considered as a vice; but in a state
of civil society where population is great, and the
means of subsistence not to be had without labour, or
without defrauding others of the fruits of their indus-
try, idleness becomes a crime of the most fatal ten-
dency, and consequently of the most henious nature,
and every means should be used to discountenance,
punish, and prevent it.

And we see that Providence, ever attentive to pro-
vide remedies for the disorders which the progress of
society occasions in the world, has provided for idle-
ness — as soon as the condition of society renders it a
vice, but not before —a punishment every way suited
to its nature, and calculated to prevent its prevalency

Establishments for the Poor. 359

and pernicious consequences. This is wax¢; and a
most efficacious remedy it is for the evil when the
wisdom of man does not interfere to couhteract it, and |
prevent its salutary effects.

But reserving the farther investigation of this part of
my subject — that respecting the means to be used for
encouraging industry —to some future opportunity, I
shall now endeavour to show in a few words how,
under the most unfavourable circumstances, an arrange-
ment for putting an end to mendicity, and introducing
a spirit of industry among the poor, might be intro-
duced and carried into execution.

If Iam obliged to take a great circuit in order to
arrive at my object, it must be remembered that, where
a vast weight is to be raised by human means, a variety
of machinery must necessarily be provided, and that it

is only by bringing all the different powers employed
to act together to the same end that the purpose in
view can be attained. It will likewise be remembered
that as no mechanical power can be made to act with-
out a force be applied to it sufficient to overcome the
resistance not only of the wzs zzertzz, but also of fric-
tion, so no moral agent can be brought to act to any
given end without sufficient motives; that is to say,
without such motives as ¢he person who ts to act may
deem sufficient not only to decide his opinion, but also
to overcome his indolence.

The object proposed —the relief of the poor, and
the providing for their future comfort and happiness by
introducing among them a spirit of order and industry
— is such as cannot fail to meet with the approbation
of every well-disposed person. But I will suppose that
a bare conviction of the wdéz/zty of the measure is not

3€0 Fundamental Principles of

sufficient alone to overcome the indolence of the public,
and induce them to engage acézve/y in the undertaking ;
yet as people are at all times and in all situations ready
enough to do what they /ee/ to be their interest, if, in
bringing forward a scheme of public utility, the proper
means be used to render it so interesting as to awaken
the curzos¢ty and fix the attention of the public, no
doubts can be entertained of the possibility of carry-
ing it into effect.

In arranging such a plan, and laying it before the
public, no small degree of knowledge of mankind, and
particularly of the various means of acting on them
which are peculiarly adapted to the different stages of
civilization, or rather of the political refinement and
corruption of society, would in most cases be indispen-
sably necessary; but with that knowledge, and a good
share of zeal, address, prudence, and perseverance, there

are few schemes in which an honest man would wish to ~

be concerned that might not be carried into execution
in any country.

In sucha city as London, where there is great wealth,
public spirit, enterprise, and zeal for improvement, little
more, I flatter myself, would be necessary to engage all
ranks to unite in carrying into effect such a scheme
than to show its public utility ; and, above all, to prove
that there zs 70 jod at the bottom of it.

It would, however, be advisable, in submitting to the
public proposals for forming such an establishment, to
show that those who are invited to assist in carrying
it into execution would not only derive from it much
pleasure and satisfaction, but also many real advantages ;
for too much pains can never be taken to interest
the public, individually and directly, in the success of

Peer 7"

we es eh ee ee ee

Establishments for the Poor. 361

measures tending to promote the general good of
society.

The following proposals, which I will suppose to be
made by some person of known and respectable charac-
ter, who has courage enough to engage in so arduous an
undertaking, will show my ideas upon this subject in
the clearest manner. _Whether they are well founded,
must be left to the reader to determine. As to myself,
I am so much persuaded that the scheme here proposed
by way of example, and merely for illustration, might
be executed, that had I time for the undertaking (which
I have not), I should not hesitate to engage in it.

PROPOSALS

FOR FORMING, BY PRIVATE SUBSCRIPTION,
AN

ESTABLISHMENT

FoR FEEDING THE PooR, AND GIVING THEM USEFUL EMPLOYMENT ;

And also for furnishing Food at a cheap Rate to others who may stand in
need of such Assistance. Connected with an INSTITUTION for intro-
ducing, and bringing forward into general Use, new Inventions and
Improvements, particularly such as relate to the Management of Heat
and the Saving of Fze/,; and to various other mechanical Contrivances
by which Domestic Comfort and Economy may be promoted,

Submitted to the Public,
By A. B.

The author of these proposals declares solemnly, in
the face of the whole world, that he has no interested view
whatever in making these proposals, but is actuated
merely and simply by a desire to do good, and promote
the happiness and prosperity of society and the honour

362 Fundamental Principles of

and reputation of his country; that he never will de.
mand, accept, or receive any pay or other recompense
or reward of any kind whatever from any person or
persons, for his services or trouble in carrying into exe-
cution the proposed scheme, or any part thereof, or for
any thing he may do or perform in future relating to it,
or to any of its details or concerns.

And, moreover, that he never will avail himself of any
opportunities that may offer in the execution of the
plan proposed for deriving profit, emolument, or advan-
tage of any kind, either for himself, his friends, or con-
nections; but that, on the contrary, he will take upon
himself to be personally responsible to the public, and
more immediately to the subscribers to this undertaking,
that 2o person shall find means to make a job of the
proposed establishment, or of any of the details of its
execution or of its management, as long as the author
of these proposals remains charged with its direction.

With respect to the particular objects and extent of
the proposed establishment, these may be seen by the
account which is given of them at the head of these
proposals; and as to their utility there can be no
doubts. They certainly must tend very powerfully to
promote the comfort, happiness, and prosperity of soci-
ety, and will do honour to the nation as well as to those
individuals who may contribute to carry them into exe-
cution.

With regard to the possibility of carrying into effect
the proposed scheme, the facility with which this may
be done will be evident when the method of doing it,
which will now be pointed out, is duly considered.

As soon as a sum shall be subscribed sufficient for
the purposes intended, the author of these proposals

ee ee ee eee ee ee eee ee

ee ee ee eee

ten ee ee

— Oo ee?) h SLT ee, ee
‘

Establishments for the Poor. 363

will, by letters, request a meeting of the éwenty-five per-
sons who shall stand highest on the list of subscribers, ©
for the purpose of examining the subscription lists, and
of appointing by ballot a committee, composed of five
persons, skilled in the details of building and in ac-
counts, to collect the subscriptions and to superintend
the execution of the plan. This committee, which will
be chosen from among the subscribers at large, will be
authorized and directed to examine all the works that
will be necessary in forming the establishment, and see
that they are properly performed, and at reasonable
prices; to examine and approve of all contracts for
work or for materials; to examine and check all ac-
counts of expenditures of every kind in the execution
of the plan; and to give orders for all payments.

The general arrangement of the establishment and
of all its details will be left to the author of these pro-
posals, who will be responsible for their success. He
engages, however, in the prosecution of this business, to
adhere faithfully to the plan here proposed, and never
to depart from it on any pretence whatever.

With regard to the choice of a spot for erecting this
establishment, a place will be chosen within the limits
of the town, and in as convenient and central a situation
as possible, where ground enough for the purpose is to
be had at a reasonable price.* The agreement for the
purchase or hire of this ground, and of the buildings,
if there be any on it, will, like all other bargains and
contracts, be submitted to the committee for their
approbation and ratification.

The order in which it is proposed to carry into exe-
cution the different parts of the scheme is as follows:

* It will be best, if it be possible, to mention and describe the place in
the proposals.

364 Fundamental Principles of

First, to establish a public kitchen for furnishing food
to such poor persons as shall be recommended by the
subscribers for such assistance.

This food will be of four different sorts, namely : —

No. I. A nourishing soup composed of barley, pease,
potatoes, and bread, seasoned with salt, pepper, and fine
herbs. The portion of this soup, one pint and a quar-
ter, weighing about twenty ounces, will cost ome penny.

No. II. A rich pease-soup, well seasoned, with fried
bread; the portion (twenty ounces) at ¢wopence.

No. III. A rich and nourishing soup of barley,
pease, and potatoes, properly seasoned ; with fried bread,
and two ounces of boiled bacon, cut fine and put into
it. The portion (twenty ounces) at fourpence.

No. IV. A good soup, with boiled meat and pota-
toes or cabbages, or other vegetables; with } lb. of good
rye bread. The portion at szxpence.

Adjoining to the kitchen, four spacious eating-rooms
will be fitted up, in each of which one only of the four
different kinds of food prepared in the kitchen will be
served. )

Near the eating-rooms, other rooms will be neatly
fitted up, and kept constantly clean, and well warmed
and well lighted in the evening, in which the poor
who frequent the establishment will be permitted to
remain during the day, and till a certain hour at night.
They will be allowed and even excouraged to bring their
work with them to these rooms; and by degrees they
will be furnished with utensils and raw materials for
working for their own emolument, by the establishment.
Praises and rewards will be bestowed on those who
most distinguish themselves by their industry, and by
their peaceable and orderly behaviour.

ia i ida se te sae slant

Pe.

eS ee ee
‘

Establishments for the Poor. 365

In fitting up the kitchen, care will be taken to in-
troduce every useful invention and improvement by
which fuel may be saved, and the various processes of
cookery facilitated and rendered less expensive; and
the whole mechanical arrangement will be made as com-
plete and perfect as possible, in order that it may serve
as a model for imitation; and care will likewise be
taken, in fitting up the dining-halls and other rooms
belonging to the establishment, to introduce the most
approved fire-places, stoves, flues, and other mechan-
ical contrivances for heating rooms and passages, as
also, in lighting up the house, to make use of a variety
of the best, most economical, and most beautiful lamps ;
and, in short, to collect together such an assemblage of
useful and elegant inventions, in every part of the es-
tablishment, as to render it not only an object of public
curiosity, but also of the most essential and extensive
utility.

And although it will not be possible to make the
establishment sufficiently extensive to accommodate all
the poor of so large a city, yet it may easily be made
large enough to afford a comfortable asylum to a great
number of distressed objects, and the interesting and
affecting scene it will afford to spectators can hardly
fail to attract the curiosity of the public; and there is
great reason to hope that the success of the experiment,
and the evident tendency of the measures adopted to
promote the comfort, happiness, and prosperity of so-
ciety, will induce many to exert themselves in forming
similar establishments in other places. It is even prob-
able that the success which will attend this first essay
(for successful it must and will be, as care will be taken
to limit its extent to the means furnished for carrying

366 Fundamental Principles of

it into execution) will encourage others, who do not put
down their names upon the lists of the subscribers at
first, to follow with subscriptions for the purpose of

augmenting the establishment, and rendering it more.

extensively useful.

Should this be the case, it is possible that in a short

time subordinate public kitchens, with rooms adjoining
them for the accommodation of the industrious poor,
may be established in all the parishes ; and, when this is
done, only one short step more will be necessary in
order to complete the design, and introduce a perfect
system in the management of the poor. Poor-rates
may then be entirely abolished, and voluntary subscrip-
tions, which certainly need never amount to one half
what the poor-rates now are, may be substituted in the
room of them, and one general establishment may be
formed for the relief and support of the poor in this
capital,

It will, however, be remembered that it is by no
means the intention of the author of these proposals
that those who contribute to the object immediately
in view, the forming @ mode/ for an establishment for
feeding and giving employment to the poor, should be
troubled with any future solicitations on that score.
Very far from it: measures will be so taken, by limiting
the extent of the undertaking to the amount of the sums
subscribed, and by arranging matters so that the estab-
lishment, once formed, shall be able to support itself,
that no further assistance from the subscribers will be
necessary. If any of them should, of their accord, follow
up their subscriptions by other donations, these addi-
tional sums will be thankfully received, and faithfully
applied to the general or particular purposes for which

a Se ee

i i le ae

Establishments for the Poor. 367

they may be designed ; but the subscribers may depend
upon never being troubled with any future sol¢cetations
on any pretence whatever, on account of the present
undertaking.

A secondary object in forming this establishment,
and which will be attended to as soon as the measures
for feeding the poor and giving them employment are
carried into execution, is the forming of a grand re-
pository of all kinds of useful mechanical inventions,
and particularly of such as relate to the furnishing of
houses and are calculated to promote domestic com-
fort and economy.

Such a repository will not only be highly interest-
ing, considered as an object of public curiosity, but it
will be really useful, and will doubtless contribute very
powerfully to the introduction of many essential im-
provements.

To render this part of the establishment still more
complete, rooms will be set apart for receiving and
exposing to public view all such new and useful inven-
tions as shall, from time to time, be made in this or in
any other country, and sent to the institution; and a
written account, containing the name of the inventor,
the place where the article may be bought, and the
price of it, will be attached to each article, for the infor-
mation of those who may be desirous of knowing any
of these particulars.

If the amount of the subscriptions should be sufficient
to defray the additional expense which such an arrange-
ment would require, models will be prepared, upon a
reduced scale, for showing the improvements which
may be made in the construction of the coppers or
boilers used by brewers and distillers, as also of their

368 Fundamental Principles of

fire-places, with a view both to the economy of fuel and
to convenience.

Complete kitchens will likewise be constructed, of
the full size, with all their utensils, as models for private
families. And, that these kitchens may not be useless,
eating-rooms may be fitted up adjoining to them, and
cooks engaged to furnish to gentlemen, subscribers, or
others to whom subscribers may delegate that right,
good dinners, at the prime cost of the victuals and the
expenses of cooking, which, together, certainly would
not exceed one shilling a head.

The public kitchen from whence the poor will be
fed will be so constructed as to serve as a model for
hospitals, and for other great establishments of a similar
nature.

The expense of feeding the poor will be provided
for by selling the portions of food delivered from the
public kitchen at such a price that those expenses shall
be just covered, and no more; so that the establishment,
when once completed, will be made to support itself.

Tickets for food (which may be considered as
drafts upon the public kitchen, payable at sight) will
be furnished to all persons who apply for them, in as
far as it shall be possible to supply the demands; but
care will be taken to provide, first, for the poor who
frequent regularly the working-rooms belonging to the
establishment; and, secondly, to pay attention to the
recommendations of subscribers, by furnishing food
immediately, or with the least possible delay, to those
who come with subscribers’ tickets.

As soon as the establishment shall be completed,
every subscriber will be furnished gratis with tickets
for food, to the amount of ten per cent of his subscrip-

.
.
|
:
.

— ee

Establishments for the Poor. 369

tion; the value of the tickets being reckoned at what
the portions of food really cost, which will be delivered
to those who produce the tickets at the public kitchen.
At the end of six months, tickets to the amount of ¢ex
per cent more ; and so on, at the end of every six suc-
ceeding months, tickets to the amount of ¢ex per cent
of the sum subscribed will be delivered to each sub-
scriber till he shall actually have received in tickets for
food, or drafts upon the public kitchen, to the full
amount of oxe half of his original subscription. And
as the price at which this food will be charged will be,
at the most moderate computation, at least /fty per
cent cheaper than it would cost anywhere else, .the
subscribers will in fact receive in these tickets the full
value of the sums they will have subscribed; so that
in the end the whole advance will be repaid, and a most
interesting and most useful public institution will be
completely established wzthout any expense to anybody.
And the author of these proposals will think himself
most amply repaid for any trouble he may have had in
the execution of this scheme, by the heartfelt satisfac-
tion he will enjoy in the reflection of having been
instrumental in doing essential service to mankind.
It is hardly necessary to add, that although the sub-
scribers will receive in return for their subscriptions the
full value of them in tickets, or orders upon the public
kitchen for food, yet the property of the whole estab-
lishment, with all its appurtenances, will nevertheless
remain vested solely and entirely in the subscribers and
their lawful heirs; and that they will have power to dis-
pose of it in any way they may think proper, as also to
give orders and directions for its future management.
(Signed) ALB:

LonpoN, Ist January, 1796.
VOL, IV. 44

370 Fundamental Principles of

These proposals, which should be printed, and dis- J
tributed gra¢zs, in great abundance, should be accom- :
panied with sadscription lists, which should be printed |
on fine writing-paper, and, to save trouble to the sub-
scribers, might be of a peculiar form. Upon the top
of a half-sheet of folio writing-paper might be printed
the following head or title, and the remainder of that
side of the half-sheet below this head might be formed
into different columns, thus :—

—_—aTfr = eS

SUBSCRIPTIONS

For carrying into execution the scheme for forming an Establishment for
feeding the Poor from a Public KITCHEN, and giving them useful em-
ployment, etc., proposed by A. B., and particularly described in the .
printed paper, dated London, Ist January, 1796, which accompanies
this subscription list.

N. B. No part of the money subscribed will be called for, unless it be
found that the amount of the subscriptions will be quite sufficient to
carry the scheme proposed into complete execution without troubling
the subscribers a second time for further assistance.

ee ea ae eee

Subscribers’ Names. Places of Abode. Sums subscribed.

& eo

Establishments for the Poor. 371

That this list is authentic, and that the persons mentioned in it have
agreed to subscribe the sums placed against their names, is attested
by ok J.

The person who is so good as to take charge of this list ts requested
to authenticate tt by signing the above certificate, and then to seal it upand
send it according to the printed address on the back of tt.

The address upon the back of the subscription lists
(which may be that of the author of the proposals, or
of any other person he may appoint to receive these
lists) should be printed in such a manner that, when
the list is folded up in the form of a letter, the address
may be in its proper place. This will save trouble to
those who take charge of these lists; and too much
pains cannot be taken to give as little trouble as
possible to persons who are solicited to contribute
in money towards carrying into execution schemes of
public utility.

As a public establishment like that here proposed
would be highly interesting, even were it to be consid-
ered in no other light than merely as an object of
curiosity, there is no doubt but it would be much fre-
quented, and it is possible that this concourse of peo-
ple might be so great as to render it necessary to make
some regulations in regard to admittance; but, what-
ever measures might be adopted with respect to others,
subscribers ought certainly to have free admittance at
all times to every part of the establishment. They
should even have a right individually to examine all the
details of its administration, and to require from those
employed as overseers or managers any information or
explanation they might want. They ought likewise to —
be at liberty to take drawings, or to have them taken
by others (at their expense), for themselves or for their
friends, of the kitchen, stoves, grates, furniture, etc., and

ae Fundamental Principles of

in general of every part of the machinery belonging to
the establishment.

In forming the establishment and providing the
various machinery, care should be taken to employ
the most ingenious and most respectable tradesmen;
and if the name of the maker and the place of his
abode were to be engraved or written on each article,
this no doubt would tend to excite emulation among
the artisans, and induce them to furnish goods of the
best quality, and at as low a price as possible. It is
even possible that in a great and opulent city like Lon-
don, and where public spirit and zeal for improvement
pervade all ranks of society, many respectable tradesmen
in easy circumstances might be found, who would have
real pleasure in furnishing gva¢zs such of the articles
wanted as are in their line of business; and the advan-
tages which might with proper management be derived
from this source would most probably be very con-
siderable.

With regard to the management of the poor who
might be collected together for the purpose of being
fed and furnished with employment in a public estab-
lishment like that here recommended, I cannot do better
than refer my reader to the account already published
(in my first Essay) of the manner in which the poor
at Munich were treated in the House of Industry estab-
lished in that city, and of the means that were used
to render them comfortable, Zapfy, and industrious.

As soon as the scheme here recommended is carried
into execution, and measures are effectually taken for
feeding the poor at a cheap rate, and giving them useful
employment, no further difficulties will then remain, at
least none certainly that are insurmountable, to prevent

Establishments for the Poor. 373

the introduction of a general plan for providing for all

the poor, founded upon the principles explained and —

recommended in the preceding chapters of this Essay.

Crear bt BR OY,

Of the Means which may be used by Individuals in
affluent Circumstances for the Relief of the Poor in
their Neighbourhood. |

oh nothing tends more powerfully to encourage
idleness and immorality among the poor, and con-
sequently to perpetuate all the evils to society which
arise from the prevalence of poverty and mendicity,
than injudicious distributions of alms, individuals must
be very cautious in bestowing their private charities,
and in forming schemes for giving assistance to the
distressed, otherwise they will most certainly do more
harm than good. The evil tendency of giving alms in-
discriminately to beggars is universally acknowledged ;
but it is not, I believe, so generally known how much
harm is done by what are called the private charitzes of
individuals. Far be it from me to wish to discourage
private charities: I am only anxious that they should
be better applied.

Without taking up time in analyzing the different
motives by which persons of various character are in- —
duced to give alms to the poor, or of showing the con-
sequences of their injudicious or careless donations,
which would be an unprofitable as well as a disagreeable

374 | Fundamental Principles of

investigation, I shall briefly point out what appear to
me to be the most effectual means which individuals
in affluent circumstances can employ for the assistance
of the poor in their neighbourhood.

The most certain and efficacious relief that can be
given to the poor is that which would be afforded them
by forming a general establishment for giving them
useful employment, and furnishing them with the ne-
cessaries of life at a cheap rate; in short, forming a
public establishment similar in all respects to that al-
ready recommended, and making it as extensive as cir-
cumstances will permit.

An experiment might first be made in a single village,
or in a single parish: a small house, or two or three
rooms only, might be fitted up for the reception of the
poor, and particularly of the children of the poor; and,
to prevent the bad: impressions which are sometimes
made by names which have become odious, instead of
calling it a workhouse, it might be called “ A School
of Industry,” or perhaps asy/um would be a better
name for it. One of these rooms should be fitted up as
a kitchen for cooking for the poor; and a middle-aged
woman of respectable character, and above all of a
gentle and humane disposition, should be placed at
the head of this little establishment, and lodged in the
house. As she should serve at the same time as chief
cook and as steward of the institution, it would be
necessary that she should be able to write and keep ac-
counts; and, in cases where the business of superintend-
ing the various details of the establishment would be
too extensive to be performed by one person, one or
more assistants may be given her.

In large establishments it might, perhaps, be best to

be al

a 7 “

a a ee

et, tee ea a ae
‘

Per arr try gon,
. NFO ent

Establishments for the Poor. 375

_ place a married couple, rather advanced in life and

without children, at the head of the institution; but,
whoever are employed in that situation, care should
be taken that they should be persons of irreproachable
character, and such as the poor can have no reason to
suspect of partiality.

As nothing would tend more effectually to ruin an
establishment of this kind, and prevent the good in-
tended to be produced by it, than the personal dislikes
of the poor to those put over them, and more especially
such dislikes as are founded on their suspicions of their
partiality, the greatest caution in the choice of these per-
sons will always be necessary; and in general it: will
be best not to take them from among the poor, or at
least not from among those of the neighbourhood, nor
such as have relations, acquaintances, or other connec-
tions among them,

Another point to be attended to in the choice of a
person to be placed at the head of such an establish-
ment (and it is a point of more importance than can
well be imagined by those who have not considered the
matter with some attention) is the. looks or external ap-
pearance of the person destined for this employment.

All those who have studied human nature, or have
taken notice of what passes in themselves when they
approach for the first time a person who has any thing
very strongly marked in his countenance, will feel how
very important it is that a person placed at the head of
an asylum for the reception of the poor and the unfortu- _
nate should have an open, pleasing countenance, such as
inspires confidence and conciliates affection and esteem.

Those who are in distress are apt to be fearful and
apprehensive, and nothing would be so likely to intim-

376 Fundamental Principles of

idate and discourage them as the forbidding aspect of a
stern and austere countenance in the person they were
taught to look up to for assistance and protection.

The external appearance of those who are destined
to command others is always a matter of real im-
portance, but it is peculiarly so when those to be
commanded and directed are objects of pity and com-
miseration.

Where there are several gentlemen who live in the
neighbourhood of the same town or village where an
establishment or asylum (as I would wish it might
be ‘called) for the poor is to be formed, they should all
unite to form one establishment, instead of each form-
ing a separate one; and it will likewise be very useful
in all cases to invite all ranks of people resident within
the limits of the district in which an establishment is
formed, except those who are actually in need of assist-
ance themselves, to contribute to carry into execution
such a public undertaking; for though the sums the
more indigent and necessitous of the inhabitants may
be able to spare may be trifling, yet their being invited
to take part in so laudable an undertaking will be flat-
tering to them, and the sums they contribute, however
small they may be, will give them a sort of property
in the establishment, and will effectually engage their
good wishes at least (which are of more importance in
such cases than is generally imagined) for its success.

How far the relief which the poor would receive from
the execution of a scheme like that here proposed
ought to preclude them from a participation of other
public charities (in the distribution of the sums levied
upon the inhabitants in poor’s taxes, for instance, where
such exist) must be determined in each particular case

Establishments for the Poor. 377

according to the existing circumstances. It will, how-
ever, always be indispensably necessary where the same
poor person receives charitable assistance from two or
more separate institutions, or from two or more private
individuals at the same time, for each to know exactly
the amount of. what the others give, otherwise too
much or too little may be given, and both these ex-
tremes are equally dangerous: they both tend to dis-
courage INDUSTRY, ¢he only source of effectual reltef to
the distresses and misery of the poor. And hence may
again be seen the great importance of what I have so
often insisted on, the rendering of measures for the
relief of the poor as general as possible.

To illustrate in the clearest manner, and in as few
words as possible, the plan I would recommend for
forming an establishment for the poor on a small scale,
such as any individual even of moderate property
might easily execute, I will suppose that a gentleman,
resident in the country upon his own estate, has come
to a resolution to form such an establishment in a vil-

lage near his house, and will endeavour briefly to point

out the various steps he would probably find it neces-
sary to take in the execution of this benevolent and
most useful undertaking.

He would begin by calling together at his house
the clergyman of the parish, overseers of the poor,
and other parish officers, to acquaint them with his in-
tentions, and ask their assistance and friendly co-opera-
tion in the prosecution of the plan; the details of which
he would communicate to them as far as he should
think it prudent and necessary at the first outset to in-
trust them indiscriminately with that information. The
characters of the persons, and the private interest they

378 Fane TOO Principles of

might have to promote or oppose the measures intended
to be pursued, would decide upon the degree of con-
fidence which ought to be given them,

At this meeting, measures should be taken for form-
ing the most complete and most accurate lists of all the
poor resident within the limits proposed to be given
to the establishment, with a detailed account of every
circumstance relative to their situations and their wants.
Much time and trouble will be saved in making out
these lists, by using printed forms or blanks similar to
those made use of at Munich; and these printed forms
will likewise contribute very essentially to preserve
order and to facilitate business, in the management of a
private as well as of a public charity, as also to prevent
the effects of misrepresentation and partiality on the
part of those who must necessarily be employed in these
details.

Convenient forms or models for these blanks will be
given in the Appendix to this volume.*

At this meeting, measures may be taken for number-
ing all the houses in the village or district, and for
setting on foot private subscriptions among the inhab-
itants for carrying the proposed scheme into execution.

‘Those who are invited to subscribe should be made
acquainted, by a printed address accompanying the
subscription lists, with the nature, extent, and tendency
of the measures adopted; and should be assured that,
as soon as the undertaking shall be completed, the poor
will not only be relieved, and their situation made more
comfortable, but mendicity will be effectually prevented,
and at the same time the poor’s rates, or the expense to
the public for the support of the poor, very consider-

ably lessened.
* See page 523 and foll.

naieaadl!

Pe
7
E

Establishments for the Poor. 379

These assurances, which will be the strongest induce-
ments that can be used to prevail on the inhabitants of
all descriptions to enter warmly into the scheme, and
assist with alacrity in carrying it into execution, should
be expressed in the strongest terms; and all persons of
every denomination, young and old, and of both sexes
(paupers only excepted), should be invited to put down
their names in the subscription lists, and this even,
however small the sums may be which they are lable to
contribute. Although the sums which day-labourers,
servants, and others in indigent circumstances, may be
able to contribute, may be very trifling, yet there is one
important reason why they ought always to be engaged
to put down their names upon the lists as subscribers ;
and that is, the good effects which their taking an active
part in the undertaking will probably produce ox them-
selves. Nothing tends more to mend the heart, and
awaken in the mind a regard for character, than acts of
charity and benevolence; and any person who has once
felt that honest pride and satisfaction which result from
a consciousness of having been instrumental in doing
good by relieving the wants of the poor will be ren-
dered doubly careful to avoid the humiliation of becom-
ing himself an object of public charity.

It was a consideration of these salutary effects, which
may always be expected to be produced upon the minds
of those who take an active and voluntary part in the
measures adopted for the relief of the poor, that made
me prefer voluntary subscriptions to taxes, in raising
the sums necessary for the support of the poor; and all
the experience I have had in these matters has tended
to confirm me in the opinion I| have always had of their
superior utility. Not only day-labourers and domestic

320 Fundamental Principles of

servants, but their young children, and all the children
of the nobility and other inhabitants of -Munich, and
even the non-commissioned officers and private soldiers
of the regiments in garrison in that city, were invited to
contribute to the support of the institution for the poor;
and there are very few indeed of any age or condition
(paupers only excepted) whose names are not to be
found on the lists of subscribers.

The subscriptions at Munich are by families, as
has elsewhere been observed; and this method I would
recommend in the case under consideration, and in all
others. The head of the family takes the trouble to
collect all the sums subscribed upon his family list, and
to pay them into the hands of those who (on the part
of the institution) are sent round on the first Sunday
morning of every month to receive them; but the
names of all the individuals who compose the family are
entered on the list at full length, with the sum each
contributes.

Two lists of the same tenor must be made out for
each family, one of which must be kept by the head of
the family for his information and direction, and the
other sent in to those who have the general direction of
the establishment.

These subscription lists should be printed; and they
should be carried round and left with the heads of fam-
ilies, either by the person himself who undertakes to
form the establishment (which will always be best), or
at least by his steward, or some other person of some
consequence belonging to his household. Forms or
models for these lists may be seen in the Appendix.

When these lists are returned, the person who has
undertaken to form the establishment will see what

a MI | el i

Establishments for the Poor. 381

pecuniary assistance he is to expect; and he will either
arrange his plan, or determine the sum he may think
proper to contribute himself, according to that amount.
He will likewise consider how far it will be possible and
advisable to connect his scheme with any establish-
ment for the relief of the poor already existing, or to
act in concert with those in whose hands the manage-
ment of the poor is vested by the laws. These circum-
stances are all important; and the manner of proceeding
in carrying the proposed scheme into execution must,
in a great measure, be determined by them. Nothing,
however, can prevent the undertaking from being finally
successful, provided the means used for making it so are
adopted with caution, and pursued with perseverance.

However adverse those may be to the scheme, who,
were they well disposed, could most effectually con-
tribute to its success, yet no opposition which can be
given to it by zzterested persons, such as find means to
derive profit to themselves in the administration of the
affairs of the poor, — no opposition, I say, from such per-
sons (and none surely but these can ever be desirous of
opposing it) can prevent the success of a measure so evi-
dently calculated to increase the comforts and enjoy-
ments of the poor, and to promote the general good of
society.

If the overseers of the poor and other parish officers,
and a large majority of the principal inhabitants, could
be made to enter warmly into the scheme, it might, and
certainly would in many cases, be possible, even without
any new laws or acts of parliament being necessary
to authorize the undertaking, to substitute the arrange-
ments proposed in the place of the old method of provid-
ing for the poor; abolishing entirely, or in so far as it

382 Fundamental Principles of

should be found necessary, the old system, and carry-
ing the scheme proposed into execution as a general
Measure.

In all cases where this can be effected, it ought
certainly to be preferred to any private or less general
institution ; and individuals who by their exertions are
instrumental in bringing about so useful a change will
render a very essential service to society. But, even in
cases where it would not be possible to carry the scheme
proposed into execution in its fullest extent, much good
may be done by individuals in affluent circumstances to
the poor, by forming private establishments for feeding
them and giving them employment.

Much relief may likewise be afforded them by laying
in a large stock of fuel, purchased when it is cheap,
and retailing it out to them in small quantities, in times
of scarcity, at the prime cost.

It is hardly to be believed how much the poor of
Munich have been benefited by the establishment of
the wood-magazine, from whence they are furnished
in winter, during the severe frosts, with fire-wood at the
price it costs when purchased in summer in large quan-
tities, and at the cheapest rate. And this arrangement
may easily be adopted in all countries, and by private
individuals as well as by communities. Stores may
likewise be laid in of potatoes, pease, beans, and other
articles of food, to be distributed to the poor in like
manner, in small quantities and at low prices, which
will be a great relief to them in times of scarcity, It will
hardly be necessary for me to observe that, in administer-
ing this kind of relief to the poor, it will often be neces-
sary to take precautions to prevent abuses..

Another way in which private individuals may greatly

—

Establishments for the Poor. 383

assist the poor is by showing them how they may make
themselves more comfortable in their dwellings.

Nothing is more perfectly miserable and comfortless
than the domestic arrangement of poor families in gen-
eral: they seem to have no idea whatever of order or
economy in any thing; and every thing about them is
dreary, sad, and neglected, in the extreme. A little
attention to order and arrangement would contribute
greatly to their comfort and convenience, and also to
economy. They ought in particular to be shown how
to keep their habitations warm in winter, and to econ-
omize fuel, as well in heating their rooms as in cook-
ing, washing, etc.

It is not to be believed what the waste of fuel really
is, in the various processes in which it is employed in
the economy of human life; and in no case is this
waste greater than in the domestic management of
the poor. Their fire-places are in general constructed
upon the most wretched principles; and the fuel they
consume in them, instead of heating their rooms, not
unfrequently renders them really colder and more
uncomfortable, by causing strong currents of cold air
to flow in from all the doors and windows to the
chimney. This imperfection of their fire-places may
be effectually remedied, these currents of cold air pre-
vented, above half their fuel saved, and their dwellings
made infinitely more comfortable, merely by diminish-
ing their fire-places and the throats of their chimneys
just above the mantel-piece, which may be done ata
very trifling expense, with a few bricks or stones, and
a little mortar, by the most ordinary bricklayer. And
with regard to the expense of fuel for cooking, so sim-
ple a contrivance as an earthen pot, broad at top, for

384 Fundamental Principles of

receiving a stew-pan or kettle, and narrow at bottom,
with holes through its sides near the bottom, for letting
in air under a small circular iron grate, and other small
holes near the top for letting out the smoke, may be in-
troduced with great advantage. By making use of this
little portable furnace (which is equally well adapted to
burn wood or coals) one eighth part of the fuel will be
sufficient for cooking, which would be required were the
kettle to be boiled over an open fire. To strengthen
this portable furnace, it may be hooped with iron
hoops or bound round with strong iron wire; but I
forget that I am anticipating the subject of a future
Essay.

Much good may also be done to the poor by teach-
ing them how to prepare various kinds of cheap and
wholesome food, and to render them savoury and pala-
table. The art of cookery, notwithstanding its infinite
importance to mankind, has hitherto been little studied ;
and among the more indigent classes of society, where
it is most necessary to cultivate it, it seems to have
been most neglected. No present that could be made
to a poor family could be of more essential service to
them than a thin, light stew-pan, with its cover made of
wrought or cast iron, and fitted to a portable furnace
or close fire-place, constructed to save fuel, with two
or three approved receipts for making nourishing and
savoury soups and broths at a small expense.

Such a present might alone be sufficient to relieve
a poor family from all their distresses, and make them
permanently comfortable; for the expenses of a poor
family for food might, I am persuaded, in most cases
be diminished oze half, by a proper attention to cook-
ery and to the economy of fuel; and the change in
the circumstances of such a family, which would be

py Pe

~~ ed - ft

_—

Establishments for the Poor. 385

produced by reducing their expenses for food to one
half what it was before, is easier to be conceived
than described.

It would hardly fail to reanimate the courage of ©
the most desponding, to cheer their drooping spirits,
and stimulate them to fresh exertions in the pursuits
of useful industry.

As the only effectual means of putting an end to
the sufferings of the poor is the introduction of a
spirit of industry among them, individuals should never
lose sight of that great and important object in all
the measures they may adopt to relieve them. But,
in endeavouring to make the poor industrious, the
utmost caution will be necessary to prevent their being
disgusted. Their minds are commonly in a state of
great irritation, the natural consequence of their suffer-
ings, and of their hopeless situation; and their sus-
picions of everybody about them, and _ particularly
of those who are set over them, are so deeply rooted
that it is sometimes extremely difficult to soothe and
calm the agitation of their minds, and gain their con-
fidence. This can be soonest and most effectually
done by kind, gentle usage; and I am clearly of opin-
ion that no other means should ever be used, except it
be with such hardened and incorrigible wretches as are
not to be reclaimed by any means, but of these I be-
lieve there are very few indeed. I have never yet
found one, in all the course of my experience in taking
care of the poor.

We have sometimes been obliged to threaten the
most idle and profligate with the House of Correction ;
but these threats, added to the fear of being banished
from the House of Industry, which has always been

held up and considered as the greatest punishment,
VOL. IV. 25

386 Fundamental Principles of

have commonly been sufficient for keeping the unruly
in order.

If the force of amples is irresistible in debauching
men’s minds, and leading them into profligate and vi-
cious courses, it is not less so in reclaiming them, and ren-
dering them orderly, docile, and industrious ; and hence
the infinite importance of collecting the poor together
in public establishments, where every thing about them
is animated by unaffected cheerfulness, and by that pleas-
ing gayety and air of content and satisfaction which
always enliven the busy scenes of useful industry.

I do not believe it would be possible for any per-
son to be idle in the House of Industry at Munich.
I never saw any one idle, often as I have passed through
the working-rooms; nor did I ever see any one to whom
the employments of industry seemed to be painful .or
irksome. :

Those who are collected together in the public
rooms destined for the reception and accommodation
of the poor in the day-time will not need to be forced,
nor even urged, to work. If there are in the room sev-
eral persons who are busily employed in the cheerful
occupations of industry, and if implements and materials
for working are at hand, all the others present will not
fail to be soon drawn into the vortex, and, joining with
alacrity in the active scene, their dislike to labour will
be forgotten, and they will become by habit truly and
permanently industrious.

Such is the irresistible power of example! Those
who know how to manage this mighty engine, and
have opportunities of employing it with effect, may
produce the most miraculous changes in the manners,
disposition, and character even of whole nations.

Establishments for the Poor. 387

In. furnishing raw materials to the poor to work, it ©
will be necessary to use many precautions to prevent
frauds and abuses, not only on the part of the poor, who
are often but too much disposed to cheat and deceive
whenever they find opportunities, but also on the part
of those employed in the details of this business; but,
the fullest information having already been given in my
first Essay of all the various precautions it had been
found necessary to take for the purposes in question in
the House of Industry at Munich, it is not necessary
for me to enlarge upon the subject in this place, or to
repeat what has already been said upon it elsewhere.

With regard to the manner in which good and whole-

‘some food for feeding the poor may be prepared in a

public kitchen, at a cheap rate, I must refer my reader
to my Essay on Food, where he will find all the infor-
mation on that subject which he can require. In my
Essay on Clothing, he will see how good and comfort-
able clothing may be furnished to the poor at a very
moderate expense, and in that On the Management of
Heat he will find particular directions for the poor for
saving fuel.

I cannot finish this Essay without taking notice of a
difficulty which will frequently occur in giving employ-
ment to the poor, that of disposing to advantage of the
produce of their labour. This is in all cases a very im-
portant object, and too much attention cannot be paid
to it. A spirit of industry cannot be kept up but by
making it advantageous to individuals to be indus. |
trious; but, where the wages which the labourer has a
right to expect are refused, it will not be possible to pre-
vent his being discouraged and disgusted. He may
perhaps be forced for a certain time to work for small

388 Fundamental Principles of

wages to prevent starving, if he has not the resource of
throwing himself upon the parish, which he most prob-
ably would prefer doing, should it be in his option; but
he will infallibly conceive such a thorough dislike to
labour that he will become idle and vicious, and a per-
manent and heavy burden on the public.

If “a labourer is worthy of his hire,” he is peculiarly
so where the labourer is a poor person, who with all
his exertions can barely procure the first necessaries of
life, and whose hard lot renders him an object of pity
and compassion.

The deplorable situation of a poor family struggling
with poverty and want, deprived of all the comforts and

conveniencies of life, deprived even of hope, and suf- ~

fering at the same time from hunger, disease, and
mortifying and cruel disappointment, is seldom con-
sidered with that attention which it deserves by those
who have never felt these distresses, and who are not
in danger of being exposed to them. My reader must
pardon me if I frequently recall his attention to these
scenes of misery and wretchedness. He must be made
acquainted with the real situation of the poor, with the
extent and magnitude of their misfortunes and suffer-
ings, before it can be expected that he should enter
warmly into measures calculated for their relief.

In forming establishments, public or private, for giv-
ing employment to the poor, it will always be indispen-
sably necessary to make such arrangements as will
secure to ‘them a fair price for all the labour they per-
form. They should not be overpazd, for that would be
opening a door for abuse; but they ought to be gen-
erously paid for their work, and above all they ought
never to be allowed to be idle for the want of employ-

a as

Establishments for the Poor. 389

ment. The kind of employment it may be proper to
give them will depend much on local circumstances. —
It will depend on the habits of the poor, the kinds of
work they are acquainted with, and the facility with
which the articles they can manufacture may be dis-
posed of at a good price.

In very extensive establishments there will be little
difficulty in finding useful employment for the poor;
for, where the number of persons to be employed is very
great, a great variety of different manufactures may be
carried on with advantage, and all the articles man-_
ufactured, or prepared to be employed in manufactures,
may be turned to a good account.

In a small establishment circumscribed and essa
to the limits of a single village or parish, it might per-
haps be difficult to find a good market for the yarn
spun by the poor; but in a general establishment ex-
tending over a whole country or large city, as the
quantity of yarn spun by all the poor within the exten-
sive limits of the institution will be sufficient to employ
constantly a number of weavers of different kinds of
cloth and stuff, the market for all the various kinds
of yarn the poor may spin will always be certain. The
same reasoning will hold with regard to various other
articles used in great manufactories, upon which the
poor might be very usefully employed; and hence
the great advantage of making establishments for giving
employment to the poor as extensive as possible. It is
what I have often insisted on, and what I cannot too
strongly recommend to all those who engage in forming |
such establishments.

Although I certainly should not propose to dréng
together under one roof all the poor of a whole king-

390 Fundamental Principles of

dom, as, by the inscription over the entrance into a vast
hospital begun, but not finished, at Naples, it would

appear was once the intention of the government in ,

that country, yet I am clearly of opinion that an institu-
tion for gzving employment to the poor can hardly be
too extensive.

But to return to the subject to which this chapter was
more particularly appropriated, — the relief that may be
afforded by private individuals to the poor in their
neighbourhood, — in case it should not be possible to
get over all the difficulties that may be in the way
‘to prevent the forming of a general establishment for
the benefit of the poor, individuals must content them-
selves with making such private arrangements for that
purpose as they may be able, wzth such assistance as
they can command, to carry into execution.

The most simple and least expensive measure that
can be adopted for the assistance of the poor will be
that of furnishing them with raw materials for working, —
flax, hemp, or ab for instance, for spinning, — and
paying them in money, at the market price, for the yarn
spun. This yarn may afterwards be sent to weavers to be
manufactured into cloth, or may be sent to some good
market and sold. The details of these mercantile
transactions will be neither complicated nor trouble-
some, and might easily be managed by a steward or
housekeeper; particularly ‘if the printed tickets and
tables I have so often had occasion to recommend are
used.

The flax, hemp, or wool, as soon as it is purchased,
should be weighed out into bundles of one or two pounds
each, and lodged in a store-room; and, when one of
these bundles is delivered out to a poor person to be

Establishments for the Poor. 391

spun, it should be accompanied with a printed spin-ticket,
and entered in a table to be kept for that purpose, and,
when it is returned spun, an abstract of the spin-ticket
with the name of the spinner, or the spin-ticket itself,
should be bound up with the bundle of yarn, in order
that any frauds committed by the spinner, in reeling, or
in any other way, which may be discovered upon wind-
ing off the yarn, may be brought home to the person who
committed them. When it is known that such effectual
precautions to detect frauds are used, no farther at-
tempts will be made to defraud; and a most important
point indeed will be gained, and one which will most
powerfully tend to mend the morals of the poor, and
restore peace to their minds. When, by rendering it
evidently impossible for them to escape detection, they
are brought to give up all thoughts of cheating and de-
ceiving, they will then be capable of application and
enjoying real happiness, and with open and _ placid
countenances will look every one full in the face who
accosts them; but, as long as they are under the in-
fluence of temptation, as long as their minds are de-
graded by conscious guilt, and continually agitated by
schemes of prosecuting their fraudulent practices, they
are as incapable of enjoying peace or contentment as
they are of being useful members of society.

Hence the extreme cruelty of an ill-judged appear-
ance of confidence, or careless neglect of precautions in
regard to those employed in places of trust, who may
be exposed to temptations to defraud.

The prayer which cannot be enough admired, or too
often repeated, “LEAD US NOT INTO TEMPTATION,” was
certainly dictated by infinite wisdom and goodness ; and
it should ever be borne in mind by those who are placed

392 Fundamental Principles of

in stations of power and authority, and whose measures
must necessarily have much influence on the happiness
or misery of great numbers of people.

Honest men may be found in all countries, but I am
sorry to say that the result of all my experience and
observation has tended invariably to prove (what has
often been remarked) that it is extremely difficult to
keep those honest who are exposed to continual and
great temptations.

There is, however, one most effectual way, not only
of keeping those honest who are so already, but also of
making those honest who are not so,—and that is, by
taking such precautions as will render it evedently im-
possible for those who commit frauds to escape detec-
tion and punishment; and these precautions are never
impossible, and seldom difficult, and with a little address
they may always be so taken as to be in no wise offen-
sive to those who are the objects of them.

It is evident that the maxims and measures here
recommended are not applicable merely to the poor,
but also, and more especially, to those who may be
employed in the details of relieving them.

But to return once more to the subject more immedi-
ately under consideration. If individuals should extend
their liberality so far as to establish public kitchens for
feeding the poor (which is a measure I cannot too often or
too forcibly recommend), it would be a great pity not to go
one easy step further, and fit up a few rooms adjoining
to the kitchen, where the poor may be permitted to as-
semble to work for their own emoluments, and where
schools for instructing the children of the poor in work-
ing and in reading and writing may be established.
Neither the fitting up or warming and lighting of these

Establishments for the Poor. 393

rooms will be attended with any considectbe expense ;
while the advantages which will be derived from such -
an establishment for encouraging industry, and con-.
_ tributing to the comfort of the poor, will be most impor-
tant, and from their peculiar nature and tendency will
be most highly interesting to every benevolent mind.

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s Essays,
Vol. L., pp. 113-188.]

FOOD; AND PARTICULARLY

FEEDING THE POOR.

OF FOOD; AND PARTICULARLY OF
FEEDING THE POOR.

INTRODUCTION.

et is a common saying that Necessity is the mother
of Invention; and nothing is more strictly or more
generally true. It may even be shown that most of the
successive improvements in the affairs of men in a state
of civil society, of which we have any authentic records,
have been made under the pressure of necessity; and
it is no small consolation, in times of general alarm, to
reflect upon the probability that upon such occasions
useful discoveries will result from the united exertions
of those who, either from motives of fear or sentiments
of benevolence, labour to avert the impending evil.
The alarm in this country at the present period,* on
account of the high price of corn, and the danger of a
scarcity, has turned the attention of the public to a very
important subject, the zxvestigation of the science of
nutrition, —a subject so curious in itself, and so highly
interesting to mankind, that it seems truly astonishing
it should have been so long neglected; but ‘in the man-
ner in which it is now taken up, both by the House of
Commons and the Board of Agriculture, there is great

* November, 1795.

398 ~ Of Food.

reason to hope that it will receive a thorough scientific ,
examination. And, if this should be the case, I will ven-
ture to predict that the important discoveries and im- —
_ provements which must result from these inquiries will _
render the alarms which gave rise to them for Dee
famous in the annals of civil society.

Ay a ee ee ee ——— a ee

F Ad

Of Food. 399

CW AP 2 tie ome

Great Importance of the Subject under Consideration.
— Probability that Water acts a much more impor-
tant Partin Nutrition than has hitherto been gen-
erally imagined. — Surprisingly small Quantity of
solid Food necessary, when properly prepared, for all
the Purposes of Nutrition.— Great Importance of
the Art of Cookery. — Barley remarkably nutritive
when properly prepared.— The [mportance of cu-
linary Processes for preparing Food shown from the
known Utility of a Practece common in some Parts
of Germany of cooking for Cattle.— Difficulty of
introducing a Change of Cookery tnto common Use.
— Means that may be employed for that Purpose.

HERE is, perhaps, no operation of nature which
falls under the cognizance of our senses more
surprising or more curious than the nourishment and
growth of plants and animals; and there is certainly no
subject of investigation more interesting to mankind.
As providing subsistence is, and ever must be, an object
of the first concern in all countries, any discovery or im-
provement by which the procuring of good and whole-
some food can be facilitated must contribute very
powerfully to increase the comforts and promote the
happiness of society.

That our knowledge in regard to the science of |
nutrition is still very imperfect, is certain; but I think
there is reason to believe that we are upon the eve of
some very important discoveries relative to that mys-
terious operation.

400 - Of Food.

Since it has been known that water is not a simple
element, but a compound, and capable of being decom-
posed, much light has been thrown upon many opera-
tions of nature which formerly were wrapped up in
obscurity. In vegetation, for instance, it has been ren-
dered extremely probable that water acts a much more
important part than was formerly assigned to it by phil-
osophers; that it serves not merely as the vehzcle of
nourishment, but constitutes at least one part, and
probably an essential part, of the food of plants; that
it is decomposed by them, and contributes maderially to
their growth; and that manures serve rather to prepare
the water for decomposition than to form of themselves,
substantially and directly, the nourishment of the veg-
etables.

Now a very clear analogy may be traced between the
vegetation and growth of plants and the digestion and
nourishment of animals; and as water is indispensably
necessary in both processes, and as in one of them
(vegetation) it appears evidently to serve as food, why
should we not suppose it may serve as food in the
other? There is, in my opinion, abundant reason to sus-
pect that this is really the case ; and I shall now briefly
state the grounds upon which this opinion is founded.
Having been engaged for a considerable length of time
in providing food for the poor at Munich, I was natu-
rally led, as well by curiosity as motives of economy, to
make a great variety of experiments upon that subject ;
and I had not proceeded far in my operations before I
began to perceive that they were very important, even
much more so than I had imagined.

The difference in the apparent goodness, or the pala-
tableness and apparent nutritiousness, of the same kinds

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Of Food. 401

of food, when prepared or cooked in different ways,
struck me very forcibly; and I constantly found that
the richness or guwality of a soup depended more upon
a proper choice of the ingredients, and a proper man-
agement of the fire in the combination of those ingre-
dients, than upon the quantity of solid nutritious matter
employed, — much more upon the art and skill of the
cook than upon the amount of the sums laid out in
the market.

I found likewise that the nutritiousness of a soup, or
‘its power of satisfying hunger and affording nourish-
ment, appeared always to be in proportion to its appar-
ent richness or palatableness.

But what surprised me not a little was the discovery
of the very small quantity of sold food which, when
properly prepared, will suffice to satisfy hunger and
support life and health, and the very trifling expense
at which the stoutest and most laborious man may, in
any country, be fed.

After an experience of more than five years in feed-
ing the poor at Munich, — during which time every ex-
periment was made that could be devised, not only with
regard to the choice of the articles used as food, but
also in respect to their different combinations and pro-
portions, and to the various ways in which they could
be prepared or cooked, — it was found that the cheapest,
most savoury, and most zourishing food that could be
provided was a soup composed of pearl barley, pease,
potatoes, cuttings of fine wheaten bread, vinegar, salt,
and water, in certain proportions. :

The method of preparing this soup is as follows: The
water and the pearl barley are first put together into
the boiler and made to boil, the pease are then added,

VOL. IV. 26

402 a Of Food.

and the boiling is continued over a gentle fire about two
hours. The potatoes are then added (having been pre.
viously peeled with a knife, or having been boiled, in
order to their being more easily deprived of their skins),
and the boiling is continued for about one hour more,
during which time the contents of the boiler are fre-
quently stirred about with a large wooden spoon or
ladle, in order to destroy the texture of the potatoes,
and to reduce the soup to one uniform mass. When
this is done, the vinegar and the salt are added; and

last of all, at the moment it is to be served up, the’

cuttings of bread.

The soup should never be suffered to boil, or even
stand long before it is served up after the cuttings of
bread are put to it. It will, indeed, for reasons which
will hereafter be explained, be best never to put the
cuttings of bread into the boiler at all, but (as is always
done at Munich) to put them into the tubs in which
the soup is carried from the kitchen into the dining-
hall; pouring the soup hot from the boiler upon them,
and stirring the whole well together with the iron ladles
used for measuring out the soup to the poor in the hall.

It is of more importance than can well be imagined
that this bread which is mixed with the soup should not
be boiled. It is likewise of use that it should be cut as
fine or thin as possible; and, if it be dry and hard, it will
be so much the better.

The bread we use in Munich is what is called seemed
bread, being small loaves weighing from two to three
ounces; and, as we receive this bread in donations from
the bakers, it is commonly dry and hard, being that
which not being sold in time remains on hand, and be-
comes stale and unsalable. And we have found by expe-

a
~
.
Ly

Of Food. 403

rience that this hard and stale bread answers for our
purpose much better than any other; for it renders mas-
tication necessary, and mastication seems very power-
fully to assist in promoting digestion. It likewise
prolongs the duration of the enjoyment of eating, a
matter of very great importance indeed, and which
has not hitherto been sufficiently attended to.

The quantity of this soup furnished to each person
at each meal, or one portion of it (the cuttings of bread
included), is just owe Bavarian pound in weight; and, as
the Bavarian pound is to the pound avoirdupois as
1.123842 to 1, it is equal to about nineteen ounces and
nine tenths avoirdupois. Now to those who know
that a full pint of soup weighs no more than about six-
teen ounces avoirdupois, it will not perhaps, at the first
view, appear very extraordinary that a portion weighing
near twenty ounces, and consequently making near ove
pint and a quarter of this rich, strong, savoury soup,
should be found sufficient to satisfy the hunger of a
grown person; but when the matter is examined nar-
rowly and properly analyzed, and it is found that the
whole quantity of so/id food which enters into the com-
position of one of these portions of soup does not
amount to quite sz ounces, it will then appear to be
almost impossible that this allowance should be suf-
ficient.

That it is quite sufficient, however, to make a good
meal for a strong, healthy person, has been abundantly
proved by long experience. I have even found that a
soup composed of nearly the same ingredients, except
the potatoes, but in different proportions, was_ suf-
ficiently nutritive and very palatable, in which only
about four ounces and three quarters of solid food en-

404 ; Of Food.

tered into the composition of a portion weighing twenty
ounces. st

But this will not appear incredible to those who know
that one single spoonful of sa/op, weighing less than
one quarter of an ounce, put into a pint of boiling water,
forms the thickest and most nourishing soup that can
be taken; and that the quantity of solid matter which
enters into the composition of another very nutritive
food, hartshorn jelly, is not much more considerable.

The darley in my soup seems to act much the same
part as the sa/op in this famous restorative ; and no sub-
stitute that I could ever find for it, among all the variety
of corn and pulse of the growth of Europe, ever pro-
duced half the effect, — that is to say, half the nourish-
ment at the same expense. Barley may therefore be
considered as the rice of Great Britain. }

It requires, it is true, a great deal of boiling; but
when it is properly managed it thickens a vast quantity
of water, and, as I suppose, prepares it for decompo-
sition. It also gives the soup into which it enters as an
ingredient a degree of richness which nothing else can
give. It has little or no taste in itself, but when mixed
with other ingredients which are savoury it renders
them peculiarly grateful to the palate.*

It is a maxim as ancient I believe as the time of Hip-
pocrates, that “ whatever pleases the palate nourishes ;”
and I have often had reason to think it perfectly just.
Could it be clearly ascertained and demonstrated, it

* The preparation of water is, in many cases, an object of more importance
than is generally imagined, particularly when it is made use of as a vehicle for
conveying agreeable tastes. In making punch, for instance, if the water used be
previously boiled two or three hours with a handful of rice, the punch made of
it will be incomparably better — that is to say, more full and luscious upon the
palate —than when the water is not prepared.

a a a a

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ie
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pent as

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Of Food. 405

would tend to place cookery in a much more respectable
situation among the arts than it now holds.

That the manner in which food is prepared is a mat-
ter of real importance, and that the water used in that
process acts a much more important part than has
hitherto been generally imagined, is, I think, quite evi-
dent; for it seems to me to be impossible upon any
other supposition to account for the appearances. If
the very small quantity of solid food which enters into
the composition of a portion of some very nutritive soup
were to be prepared differently and taken under some
other form, — that of bread, for instance, —so far from
being sufficient to satisfy hunger and afford a comfort-
able and nutritive meal, a person would absolutely starve
upon such a slender allowance; and no great relief
would be derived from drinking crude water to fill up
the void in the stomach.

But it is not merely from an observation of the ap-
parent effects of cookery upon those articles which are
used as food for man that we are led to discover the
importance of these culinary processes. Their utility
is proved in a manner equally conclusive and satis-
factory, by the effects which have been produced by em-
ploying the same process in preparing food for brute
animals.

It is well known that boiling the potatoes with
which hogs are fed renders them much more nutritive ;
and since the introduction of the new system of feed-
ing horned cattle, that of keeping them confined in
the stables all the year round (a method which is now
coming fast into common use in many parts of Ger-
many), great improvements have been made in the art
of providing nourishment for those animals, and par-

406 + Of Food.

ticularly by preparing their food by operations similar
to those of cookery; and to these improvements it is
most probably owing that stall-feeding has, in that
country, been so universally successful.

It has long been a practice in Germany for those
who fatten bullocks for the butcher, or feed milch-
cows, to give them frequently what is called a drank
or drink, which is a kind of pottage, prepared differ-
ently in different parts of the country, and in the
different seasons, according to the greater facility with
which one or other of the articles occasionally em-
ployed in the composition of it may be procured, and
according to the particular fancies of individuals. Many
feeders make a great secret of the composition of their
drinks ; and some have, to my knowledge, carried their
refinement so far as actually to mix brandy in them in
small quantities, and pretend to have found their advan-
tage in adding this costly ingredient.

The articles most commonly used are bran, oatmeal,
brewers’ grains, mashed potatoes, mashed turnips, rye
meal, and barley meal, with a large proportion of water.
Sometimes two or three or more of these articles are
united in forming a drink ; and, of whatever ingredients
the drink is composed, a large proportion of salt is
always added to it.

There is, perhaps, nothing new in this method of
feeding cattle with liquid mixtures; but the manner in
which these drinks are now prepared in Germany is, I
believe, quite new, and shows what I wish to prove,
that cooking renders food really more nutritive.

These drinks were formerly given cold, but it was
afterwards discovered that they were more nourishing
when given warm; and of late their preparation is

Of Food. 407

in many places become a very regular culinary process.
Kitchens have been built, and large boilers provided and
fitted up, merely for cooking for the cattle in the stables ;
and I have been assured by many very intelligent
farmers who have adopted this new mode of feeding,
and have also found by my own experience, that it
is very advantageous indeed, that the drinks are evi-
dently rendered much more nourishing and wholesome
by being boiled, and that the expense of fuel and the
trouble attending this process are amply compensated
by the advantages derived from the improvement of
the food. We even find it advantageous to continue
the boiling a considerable time, —two or three hours,
for instance, —as the food goes on to be still farther
improved the longer the boiling is continued.*

These facts seem evidently to show that there is
some very important secret with regard to nutrition
which has not yet been properly investigated, and it
seems to me to be more than probable that the number
of inhabitants who may be supported in any country,
upon its internal produce, depends almost as much
upon the state of ¢he art of cookery as upon that of
agriculture. The Chinese perhaps understand both
these arts better than any other nation. Savages
understand neither of them.

But, if cookery be of so much importance, it certainly
deserves to be studied with the greatest care, and it

* I cannot dismiss this subject, the feeding of cattle, without just mention-
ing another practice common among our best farmers in Bavaria, which I think
deserves to be known, They chop the green clover with which they feed their ©
cattle, and mix with it a considerable quantity of chopped straw. They pre-
tend that this rich succulent grass is of so clammy a nature that, unless it be
mixed with chopped straw, hay, or some other dry fodder, cattle which are fed
with it do not ruminate sufficiently. The usual proportion of the clover to the
straw is as two to one.

408 ~ Of Food.

ought particularly to be attended to in times of general
alarm, on account of the scarcity of provisions; for the
relief which may in such cases be derived from it is
immediate and effectual, while all other resources are
distant and uncertain, _

I am aware of the difficulties which always attend
the introduction of measures calculated to produce any
remarkable change in the customs and habits of man-
kind; and there is perhaps no change more difficult
to effect than that which would be necessary in order
to make any considerable saving in the consumption
of those articles commonly used as food, but still I am
of opinion that such a change might with proper
management be brought about.

There was a time, no doubt, when an aversion to
potatoes was as general and as strong in Great Britain,
and even in Ireland, as it is now in some parts of
Bavaria; but this prejudice has been got over, and I
am persuaded that any national prejudice, however
deeply rooted, may be overcome, provided proper means
be used for that purpose, and time allowed for their
operation.

But notwithstanding the difficulty of introducing a
general use of soups throughout the country, or of any
other kind of food, however palatable, cheap, and nour-
ishing, to which people have not been accustomed, yet
these improvements might certainly be made with great
facility, in all public hospitals and workhouses, where
the poor are fed at the public expense; and the saving
of provisions (not to mention the diminution of ex-
pense) which might be derived from this improvement
would be very important at all times, and more especially
in times of general scarcity.

Of Food. 409

Another measure still more important, and which
might, I am persuaded, be easily carried into execution,
is the establishment of public kitchens in all towns
and large villages throughout the kingdom, whence
not only the poor might be fed gradzs, but also all
the industrious inhabitants of the neighbourhood might
be furnished with food at so cheap a rate as to bea
very great relief to them at all times; and in times
of general scarcity this arrangement would alone be
sufficient to prevent those public and private calam-
ities which never fail to accompany that most dreadful
of all visitations, a famine.

The saving of food that would result from. feeding
a large proportion of the inhabitants of any country
from public kitchens would be immense, and _ that
saving would tend, immediately and most powerfully,
to render provisions more plentiful and cheap, dim-
inish the general alarm on account of the danger of
a scarcity, and prevent the hoarding up of provisions
by individuals, which is often alone sufficient with-
out any thing else to bring on a famine, even where
there is no real scarcity; for it is not merely the fears
of individuals which operate in these cases, and in-
duce them to lay in a larger store of provisions than
they otherwise would do, and which naturally increases
the scarcity of provisions in the market, and raises
their prices, but there are persons who are so lost
to all the feelings of humanity as often to speculate
upon the distress of the public, and all ¢hezr opera-
tions effectually tend to increase the scarcity in the
markets, and augment the general alarm.

But without enlarging farther in this place upon
these public kitchens, and the numerous and impor-

410 Of Food.

tant advantages which may in all countries be derived
from them, I shall return to the interesting subjects
which I have undertaken to investigate, — the science
of nutrition, and the art of providing wholesome and
palatable food at a small expense.

Crea Pol he ie.

Of the Pleasures of Eating, and of the Means that may
be employed for increasing tt.

HAT has already been said upon this subject

will, I flatter myself, be thought sufficient to

show that, for all the purposes of nourishment, a much

smaller quantity of solid food will suffice than has

hitherto been thought necessary; but there is another

circumstance to be taken into the account, and that is

the pleasure of eating, an enjoyment of which no per-
son will consent to be deprived.

The pleasure enjoyed in eating depends first upon
the agreeableness of the taste of the food, and secondly
upon its power to affect the palate. Now there are
many substances extremely cheap, by which very agree-
able taste may be given to food, particularly when the
basis or nutritive substance of the food is tasteless ; and
the effect of any kind of palatable solid food (of meat,
for instance) upon the organs of taste may be increased
almost indefinitely, by reducing the size of the particles
of such food, and causing it to act upon the palate bya
larger surface. And if means be used to prevent its

being swallowed too soon, which may be easily done —

Of Food. Alt

by mixing with it some hard and tasteless substance,
such as crumbs of bread rendered hard by toasting, or
any thing else of that kind, by which a long mastication
is rendered necessary, the enjoyment of eating may be
greatly increased and prolonged.

The idea of occupying a person a great while, and
affording him much pleasure at the same time, in eat-
ing a small quantity of food, may perhaps appear ridic-
ulous to some; but those who consider the matter
attentively will perceive that it is very important. It
is perhaps as much so as any thing that can employ the
attention of the philosopher.

The enjoyments which fall to the lot of the bulk of
mankind are not so numerous as to render an attempt
to increase them superfluous. And, even in regard to
those who have it in their power to gratify their appe-
tites to the utmost extent of their wishes, it is surely
rendering them a very important service to show them
how they may increase their pleasures without destroy-
ing their health.

If a glutton can be made to gormandize two hours
upon two ounces of meat, it is certainly much better
for him than to give himself an indigestion by eating
two pounds in the same time.

I was led to meditate upon this subject by mere acci-
dent. I had long been at a loss to understand how
the Bavarian soldiers, who are uncommonly stout,
strong, and healthy men, and who, in common with all
other Germans, are remarkably fond of eating, could
contrive to live upon the very small sums they expend
for food; but a more careful examination of the econ-
omy of their tables cleared up the point, and let me
into a secret which awakened all my curiosity. These

412 - Of Food.

soldiers, instead of being starved upon their scanty al-
lowance, as might have been suspected, I found actually
living in a most comfortable and even luxurious man-
ner. I found that they had contrived not only to render
their food savoury and nourishing, but, what appeared
to me still more extraordinary, had found out the means
of increasing its action upon the organs of taste, so as
actually to augment and even prolong to a most sur-
prising degree the enjoyment of eating. :

This accidental discovery made a deep impression
upon my mind, and gave a new turn to all my ideas on
the subject of food. It opened to me a new and very
interesting field for investigation and experimental in-
quiry, of which I had never before had a distinct view;
and thenceforward my diligence in making experiments,
and in collecting information relative to the manner
in which food is prepared in different countries, was
redoubled.

In the following chapter may be seen the general re-
sults of all my experiments and inquiries relative to this
subject. A desire to render this account as concise
and short as possible has induced me to omit much
interesting speculation which the subject naturally sug-
gested; but the ingenuity of the reader will supply
this defect, and enable him to discover the objects
particularly aimed at in the experiments, even where
they are not mentioned, and to compare the results
of practice with the assumed theory.

Of Food. 413

CHAP TER tr.

Of the different Kinds of Food furnished to the Poor
im the House of Industry at Munich, with an
Account of the Cost of them.— Of the Expense of
providing the same Kinds of Food in Great Britain,
as well, at the present high Prices of Provisions as
at the ‘ordinary Prices of them.— Of the various
Liprovements of which these different Kinds of
cheap Food are capable.

EFORE the introduction of potatoes as food in

the House of Industry at Munich (which was

not done till last August), the poor were fed with a soup
composed in the following manner: —

Soup Vo. I

é Weight Cost in
Ingredients. avoirdupois. sterling money.

teeny ag eS
. 4 viertels * of pearl barley, equal to about 20} gal-

SOMO Rat EMEd ales 8 pe of 6 el we BALD 2) “Oat | 7h
4 viertels of peas. . . 6 ea Re See o 7 34
Cuttings of fine wheaten bread ote Ne eee OGTR STNG ee
Salt .... : crak (19-13 oie teh

24 maasse very weak hee. eines or eather

small beer turned sour, about 24 quarts. . . 46 13 o 1 54
Water, about 560 quarts . . a°8O77 0
Fuel, 88 lbs. of dry pine-wood, ie Bavarian Rafter

(weighing 3961 lbs. ye ata at 8s. Kis d, ster-

LOS Gat ae aa aaa ‘ : oo 2}
1485 Io I Ir 114

* A viertel is the twelfth part of a schaffel, and the Bavarian schiffel is equal
to 631, Winchester bushels.

+t The quantity of fuel here mentioned, though it certainly is almost incred-
ibly small, was nevertheless determined from the results of actual experiments.
A particular account of these experiments will be given in my Essay on the
Management of Heat and the Economy of Fuel.

414 2 Of Food.

48 @
Brought over. . . I 11 11}

Wages of three cook-maids, at ewehty lovin: (398. “yh. )
a year each, makes daily ... . poe) Laas

Daily expense for feeding the three conkenalile: at ten

kreutzers (3? pence sterling) each, according to an ae

ment made with them. ... . : o Ol!
Daily wages of two men servants, ccartnne’sl in otha to

market, collecting donations of bread, etc., helping in

the kitchen, and assisting in serving out the soup to

the poor... ss . o 1 7
Repairs of the kitchen and of the itches ‘italic: about
go florins (8/. 3s. 7a. sterling) a year, makes daily . . . oO St

Total daily expenses, when dinner is provided for 1200
POPSONS. «6. se ow ee eee Sen 8

This sum (12 15s. 2} @.) divided by 1200, the num-
ber of portions of soup furnished, gives for each por-
tion a pee trifle more than one third of a penny, or
exactly 7475 of a penny, the weight of each portion
being about 20 ounces.

But, moderate as these expenses are which have
attended the feeding of the poor of Munich, they
have lately been reduced still farther by introducing
the use of potatoes. These most valuable vegetables
were hardly known in Bavaria till very lately; and so
strong was the aversion of the public, and particularly
of the poor, against them, at the time when we began
to make use of them in the public kitchen of the
House of Industry in Munich, that we were absolutely
obliged, at first, to introduce them by stealth. A pri-
vate room in a retired corner was fitted up as a kitchen
for cooking them; and it was necessary to disguise
them by boiling them down entirely, and destroying
their form and texture, to prevent their being detected.
But the poor soon found that their soup was improved

Of Food. 415

in its qualities; and they testified their approbation
of the change that had been made in it so generally
and loudly that it was at last thought to be no
longer necessary to conceal from them the secret of
its composition, and they are now grown so fond of
potatoes that they ole not easily be satisfied without
them.

The employing of potatoes as an ingredient in the
soup has enabled us to make a considerable saving in
the other more costly materials, as may be seen by
comparing the following receipt with that already
given: —

Soup Vo. Il.

Weight Cost in
Ingredients. avoirdupois. sterling money.
Ibs. oz. , Oe |) ae
2 viertels of pearl barley .-. . . « + «© «+ F7O Q OO 5§ Obf
RAE es nee a ee! eg ee OR te o 3 7%
8 viertels of potatoes. . . » « © ¢ @ 8 s+ 230 4 0 1°0%
OEE T ig ee i 4 he ye OQ TO. y O10 a
SNR A ete UE ss kg gt ee ee he 2h EQ TG o I 2}
VADRSAE sre Se NS a egg Cea gt
Waters STG i ee 8 2 9 OBZ 5
Total weight . .. . ° 2 bad GOS LO
Expenses for fuel, servants, Pehalis, ie as before © 3 Siks
Total daily expense, when dinner is oomiden for
BIOG DETSOUR Ce eh ao (ee 9 Rk eee 1 7 6¢

This sum (14 7s. 63d.) divided by 1200, the number
of portions of soup, gives for each portion ove farthing
very nearly, or accurately 15 farthing.

The quantity of each of the ingredients contained
in one portion of soup is as follows : —

416 ” Of Food.

In avoirdupois weight.

Ingredients. Soup No. I. Soup No. II.
< OZ. oz.

Of pearl barleyiisits exh ces en pee 14358 =o} 448
PCOS 6s ca EP nS oe Tyees «4-H
potatoes: v4 wilsa Soe bere aye 31340
breads 2 ats a A eee othe ol4i4
Total Soligs +s. as. Gee he 4isgs Sito
Of 6n1t 7 Ee « + 07818. off,
weak’ vinegar... 9's We! eee bates Oates OsgtSs
WATER EY Was itrca sda chstee howe ek 143% 13a8%5
POG = Fete Pete rg a nS ete 19%ffs 19585

The expense of preparing these soups will vary with
the prices of the articles of which they are composed ;
but, as the quantities of the ingredients determined by
weight are here given, it will be easy to ascertain
exactly what they will cost in any case whatever.

Suppose, for instance, it were required to determine
how much 1200 portions of the soup No. I. would
cost in London at this present moment (the 12th of
November, 1795), when all kinds of provisions are
uncommonly dear. I see by a printed report of the
Board of Agriculture, of the day before yesterday
(November 10), that the prices of the articles necessary
for preparing these soups were as follows: —

Barley, per bushel weighing 46 lbs. at 5s. 6a., which
gives for each pound about 14¢.; but, prepared as pearl
barley, it will cost at least twopence per pound.*

Boiling peas, per bushel weighing 614 lbs. at 1os.,
which gives for each pound nearly 13d.

* One Bavarian schiffel (equal to 6,84, Winchester bushels) of barley, weigh-
ing at a medium 250 Bavarian pounds, upon being pearled, or rolled (as it is
called in Germany), is reduced to half a schaffel, which weighs 171 Bavarian
pounds. The 79 pounds which it loses in the operation is the perquisite of the
miller, and is all he receives for his trouble.

q ¥ at = — eo
, ; ayer eee
ee oe -

ee. ae ee oe eS eee ee

a= es a

Of Food. 417

Potatoes, per bushel weighing 584 lbs, at 2s. 6d., which
gives nearly one halfpenny for each pound. |

And I find that a quartern loaf of wheaten dread
weighing 4 lbs. 5 oz. costs now in London.ts. old.
This bread must therefore be reckoned at 112 farthings
per pound,

Salt costs ae: per pound ; and vinegar (which is
probably six times as strong as that stuff called vinegar
which is used in the kitchen of the House of Industry
at Munich) costs 1s. 8a. per gallon.

This being premised, the computations may be made
as follows: —

Expense of preparing in London, in the month of November, 1795,
1200 portions of the Soup No. |.

Ibs. oz. rea 8 Pina Moan /
141 2 pearl barley, at o 2 per lb. I 12 6
13I 4 peas,at. ..%.0 If Ns a ae o 16 4
69 10 wheaten bread, at o 1133, o 16 6
ip 13-salt,at . . 5.0 14 af o 2 54
Vinegar, one gallon, at .1 8 3 é + ae TeITS
Expenses for fuel, servants, kitchen furniture, ie, feckonton
three times as much as those articles of expense amount to
Bey at Mine ye Se ee 2 OO TO” 4h
Total. .... ‘ eer ee ree ea a |

Which sum (32. gs. gid. . divided os 1200, the number
of portions of soup, gives 27% farthings, or nearly
2 farthings for each portion.

For the soup No. II. it will be: —

Ibs. oz. aie as Te a
70 9 pearl barley, at o 2 perlb ... ov .6
65 Io peas,at . o It ee O08: 2
230 4 potatoes,at . o of ” °o 13 9
69 10 bread, at. DAIS os o 16 6
Ig 13. Salt, at o If a O° 25a
Vinegar, one gallon . . «© «es ee ee ee 05/9 98
Expenses for fuel, servants, etc. . . + « « » o 10 4}
TON SS ak 2. Oe ate a OAS ees 3 4 7%

VOL. IV. 27

418 ” Of Food.

This sum (34 4s. 7%@.) divided by 1200, the number
of portions, gives for each 2} farthings, very nearly.

This soup comes much higher here in London than,
it would do in. most other parts of Great Britain, on
account of the very high price of potatoes in this city;
but in most parts of the kingdom, and certainly in
every part of Ireland, it may be furnished, even at this
present moment, notwithstanding the uncommonly high
prices of provisions, at less than ome halfpenny the
portion of 20 ounces.

Though the object most attended to in composing
these soups was to render them wholesome and nour-
ishing, yet they are very far from being unpalatable.
The basis of the soups, which is water prepared and
thickened by barley, is well calculated to receive, and
to convey to the palate in an agreeable manner, every
thing that is savoury in the other ingredients; and the
dry bread rendering mastication necessary prolongs the
action of the food upon the organs of taste, and by that
means increases and prolongs the enjoyment of eating.

But though these soups are very good and nourish-
ing, yet they certainly are capable of a variety of
improvements. ‘The most obvious means of improv-
ing them is to mix with them a small quantity of
salted' meat, boiled and cut into very small pieces (the
smaller, the better), and to fry the bread that is put
into them in butter, or in the fat of salted pork or
bacon. '

The bread, by being fried; is not only rendered
much harder, but being impregnated with a fat or oily
substance it remains hard after it is put into the soup,
the water not being able to penetrate it and soften it.

All good cooks put fried bread, cut into small square

Of Food. 419

pieces, in pease-soup; but I much doubt whether they
are aware of the very great importance of that practice,
or that they have any just idea of the #anner in which
the bread improves the soup.

The best kind of meat for mixing with these soups
is salted pork or bacon or smoked beef.

Whatever meat is used, it ought to be boiled either
in clear water or in the soup; and after it is boiled it
ought to be cut into very small pieces, as small per-
haps as barley-corns. The bread may be cut in pieces
of the size of large peas, or in thin slices; and after it
is fried it may be mixed with the meat and put into
the soup-dishes, and the soup poured on them when it

_ 18 served out.

Another method of improving this soup is to mix
with it small dumplings or meat-balls, made of bread,
flour, and smoked beef, ham, or any other kind of
salted meat or of liver, cut into small pieces, or rather
minced, as itis called. These dumplings may be boiled
either in the soup or in clear water, and put into the
soup when it is served out.

As the meat in these compositions is designed rather
to please the palate than for any thing else, the soup
being sufficiently nourishing without it, it is of much
importance that it be reduced to very small pieces, in
order that it be brought into contact with the organs
of taste by a large surface; and that it be mixed with
some hard substance (fried bread, for instance, crumbs,
or hard dumplings), which will necessarily prolong the
time employed in mastication.

When this is done, and where the meat. employed
has much flavour, a very small quantity of it will be
found sufficient to answer the purpose required.

420 Of food.

One ounce of bacon or of smoked beef, and one ounce
of fried bread, added to ezghteen ounces of the soup
No. I., would afford an excellent meal, in which the
taste of animal food would decidedly predominate.

Dried salt fish or smoked fish, boiled and then
minced and made into dumplings with mashed potatoes,
bread, and flour, and boiled again, would be very good,
eaten with either of the soups No. I. or No. II.

These soups may likewise be improved by mixing
with them various kinds of cheap roots and green
vegetables, as turnips, carrots, parsnips, celery, cab-
bages, sour-crout, etc., as also by seasoning them with
fine herbs and black pepper. Onions and leeks may
likewise be used with great advantage, as they not
only serve to render the food in which they enter as
ingredients peculiarly savoury, but are really very
wholesome.

With regard to the barley made use of in preparing
these soups, though I always have used pearl barley,
or rolled barley (as it is called in Germany), yet I have
no doubt but common barley-meal would answer
nearly as well, particularly if care were taken to boil
it gently for a sufficient length of time over a slow fire
before the peas are added.*

Till the last year we used to cook the barley-soup

* Since the first edition of this Essay was published, the experiment with
barley-meal has been tried, and the meal has been found to answer quite as
well as pearl barley, if not better, for making these soups. Among others,
Thomas Bernard, Esq., treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, a gentleman of
most respectable character, and well known for his philanthropy and active zeal
in relieving the distresses of the poor, has given it a very complete and fair trial ;
and he found — what is very remarkable, though not difficult to be accounted for
—that the barley-meal, with al/ the bran in it, answered better (that is to say,
made the soup richer and thicker) than when the fine flour of barley, without
the bran, was used.

Of Food. 421

and the pease-soup separate, and not to mix them till
the moment when they were poured into the tubs upon
the cut bread, in order to be’ carried into the dining-
hall; but I do not know that any advantages were
derived from that practice, the soup being, to all
appearance, quite as good since the barley and the
peas have been cooked together as before.

As soon as the soup is done, and the boilers are
emptied, they are immediately refilled with water, and
the barley for the soup for the next day is put into it,’
and left to steep over night; and at six o'clock the
next morning the fires are lighted under the boilers.*

. The peas, however, are never suffered to remain in
the water over night, as we have found, by repeated
trials, that they never boil soft if the water in which
they are boiled is not boiling hot when they are put
into it. Whether this is peculiar to the peas which
grow in Bavaria, I know not.

When I began to feed the poor of Munich, there
was also a quantity of meat boiled in their soup; but as
the quantity was small, and the quality of it but very
indifferent, I never thought it contributed much to
rendering the victuals more nourishing. But, as soon
as means were found for rendering the soup palatable
without meat, the quantity of it used was gradually

* By some experiments lately made it has been found that the soup will be
much improved if a small fire is made under the boiler, just sufficient to make
its contents boil up once when the barley and water are put into it, and then
closing up immediately the ash-hole register and the damper in the chimney,
and throwing a thick blanket or a warm coverlid over the cover of the boiler,
the whole be kept hot till the next morning. This heat so long continued acts
very powerfully on the barley, and causes it to thicken the water in a very
surprising manner. Perhaps the oatmeal used for making water-gruel might
be improved in its effects by the same means. The experiment is certainly
worth trying.

422 S Of food.

diminished, and it was at length entirely omitted. I
never heard that the poor complained of the want of
it, and much doubt whether they took notice of it.

The management of the fire in cooking is, in all
cases, a matter of great importance; but in no case
is it so necessary to be attended to as in preparing
the cheap and nutritive soups here recommended. Not
only the palatableness, but even the strength or rich-
ness of the soup, seems to depend very much upon
the management of the heat employed in cooking it.

From the beginning of the process to the end of it,
the boiling should be as gentle as possible; and if it
were possible to keep the soup always just botling hot,
without actually boiling, it would be so much the |
better.

Causing any thing to boil violently in any culinary
process is very ill-judged; for it not only does not
expedite, even in the smallest degree, the process of
cooking, but it occasions a most enormous waste of
fuel, and by driving away with the steam many of the
more volatile and more savoury particles of the ingre-
dients renders the victuals less good and less palatable.
To those who are acquainted with the experimental
philosophy of heat, and who know that water once
brought to be dozing hot, however gently it may boil
in fact, cannot be made any hotter, however large and
intense the fire under it may be made; and who know
that it is by the Aeat¢—that is to say, the degree or
intensity of it, and the ¢zme of its being continued, and
not by the bubbling up or dozing (as it is called) of the
water — that culinary operations are performed, — this
will be evident; and those who know that more than
jive times as much heat is required to send off in steam

Of food. 423

any given quantity of water already boiling hot as
would be necessary to heat the same quantity of 2ce-
cold water ¢o the borling point will see the enormous
waste of heat, and consequently of fuel, which in all
cases must result from violent boiling in culinary
processes.

To prevent the soup from burning to the boiler, the
bottom of the boiler should be made dozd/e, the false
bottom (which may be very thin) being fixed on the
inside of the boiler, the two sheets of copper being
everywhere in contact with each other; but they
ought not to be attached to each other with solder,
except only at the edge of the false bottom where it is
joined to the sides of the boiler. The false bottom
should have a rim about an inch and a half wide, pro-
jecting upwards, by which it should be riveted to the
sides of the boiler; but only few rivets, or nails, should
be used for fixing the two bottoms together below,
and those used should be very small; otherwise, where
large nails are employed at the bottom of the boiler,
where the fire is most intense, the soup will be apt to
burn to, at least on the heads of those large nails.

The two sheets of metal may be made to touch each
other everywhere by hammering them together after
the false bottom is fixed in its place; and they may be
tacked together by a few small rivets placed here and
there at considerable distances from each other, and
after this is done the boiler may be tinned.

In tinning the boiler, if proper care be taken, the
edge of the false bottom may be soldered by the tin to
the sides of the boiler; and this will prevent the water,
or other liquids put into the boiler, from getting be-
tween the two bottoms.

424 - Of Food.

In this manner double bottoms may be made to
saucepans and kettles of all kinds used in cooking;
and this contrivance will, in all cases, most effectually
prevent what is called by the cooks durnzng to.*

The heat is so much obstructed in its passage
through the thin sheet of air, which, notwithstanding
all the care that is taken to bring the two bottoms
into actual contact, will still remain between them, the
second has time to give its heat as fast as it receives
it to the fluid in the boiler, and consequently never
acquires a degree of heat sufficient for burning any
thing that may be upon it.

Perhaps it would be best to double copper sauce-
pans and small kettles throughout; and, as this may.
and ought to be done with a very thin sheet of metal,
it could not cost much, even if this lining were to be
made of silver.

But I must not enlarge here upon a subject I shall

* This invention of double bottoms might be used with great success by dis-
tillers, to prevent their liquor, when it is thick, from burning to the bottoms of
their stills. But there is another hint which I have long wished to give distil-
lers, from which I am persuaded they might derive very essential advantages.
It is to recommend to them to make up warm clothing of thick blanketing for
covering up their still-heads and defending them from the cold air of the atmos-
phere, and for covering in the same manner all that part of the copper or
boiler which rises above the brick-work in which it is fixed. The great quantity
of heat which is constantly given off to the cold air of the atmosphere in contact
with it by this naked copper not only occasions a very great loss of heat and of
fuel, but tends likewise very much to emdarrass and to prolong the process of
distillation; for all the heat communicated by the naked still-head to the
atmosphere is taken from the spirituous vapour which rises from the liquor in
the still ; and, as this vapour cannot fail to be condensed into spirits whenever
and wherever it loses any fart of its heat, — as the spirits generated in the still-
head in consequence of this communication of heat to the atmosphere do not
find their way into the worm, but trickle down and mix again with the liquor in the
still, —the bad effects of leaving the still-head exposed naked to the cold air
is quite evident. The remedy for this evil is as cheap and as effectual as it is
simple and obvious, :

Oe A

La’

Sas.

|
’
5

eee ot ee
ity

i :
y

—— a

Of Food. 425

have occasion to treat more fully in another place.
To return, therefore, to the subject more immediately
under consideration, Food.

As Bh eal ah Os aa

Of the small Expense at which the Bavarian Soldiers
ave fed.— Details of their Housekeeping, founded
on actual Experiment.— An Account of the Fuel
expended by them in Cooking. sit

T has often been matter of surprise to many, and
even to those who are most conversant in military
affairs, that soldiers can find means to live upon the
very small allowances granted them for their subsist-

~ence; and I have often wondered that nobody has

undertaken to investigate that matter, and to explain
a mystery at the same time curious and interesting
in a high degree.

The pay of a private soldier is in all countries very
small, much less than the wages of a day-labourer;
and in some countries it is so mere a pittance that it
is quite astonishing how it can be made to support
life. ; ;

The pay of a private foot-soldier in the service of
His Most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine (and
it is the same for a private grenadier in the regiment
of guards) is five kreutzers a day, and no more. For-
merly the pay of a private foot-soldier was only four
kreutzers and a half a day, but lately, upon the intro-

426 - Of Food.

duction of the new military arrangements in the
country, his pay has been raised to five kreutzers;
and with this he receives one pound thirteen ounces
and a half, avoirdupois weight, of rye-bread, which,
at the medium price of grain in Bavaria and the
Palatinate, costs something less than three kreutzers,
or just about oe penny sterling.

The pay which the soldier receives in money
(five kreutzers a day), equal to one penny three far-
things sterling, added to his daily allowance of bread,
valued at one penny, makes ¢wopence three farthings
a day for the sum total of his allowance.

That it is possible in any country to procure food
sufficient to support life with so small a sum, will
doubtless appear extraordinary to an English reader;
but what would be his surprise upon seeing a whole
army, composed of the finest, stoutest, and strongest

men in the world, who are fed upon that allowance, ,

and whose countenances show the most evident marks
of ruddy health and perfect contentment ?

I have already observed how much I was struck
with the domestic economy of the Bavarian soldiers.
I think the subject much too interesting not to be
laid before the public, even in all its details; and, as
I think it will be more satisfactory to hear from their
own mouths an account of the manner in which these
soldiers live, I shall transcribe the reports of two sen-
sible non-commissioned officers, whom I employed to
give me the information I wanted.

These non-commissioned officers, who belong to two
different regiments of grenadiers in garrison at Munich,
were recommended to me by their colonels as being
very steady, careful men, are each at the head of a

Of Food. 427

mess consisting of twelve soldiers, themselves reckoned
in the number. The following accounts which they
gave me of their housekeeping, and of the expenses
of their tables, were all the genuine results of actual
experiments made at my particular desire, and at my
cost.

I do not believe that useful information’ was ever
purchased cheaper than upon this occasion; and I
fancy my reader will be of the same opinion, when he
has perused the following reports, which are literally
translated from the original German.

“In obedience to the orders of Lieutenant-General
Count Rumford, the following experiments were made
by Serjeant Wickenhof’s mess, in the first company
of the first (or Elector’s own) regiment of grenadiers,
at Munich, on the roth and 11th of June, 1795:—

June 10, 1795.
Bill of Fare: Boiled Beef with Soup and Bread Dumplings.

DETAILS OF THE EXPENSE, ETC.
For the Boiled Beef and the Soup.

Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.

Re ERR Ss So hy cl os les $248 be RD Bik SIDES

ie WMRORE ICTS <5 > ous ioe Fa, seo cel Oye we I

Or WIDDEE ix Se este eee a et ee ee of

Sess Grommets es pe, allies sGi ll, seth of

I 144 ammunition bread, cut fine. . . . . . 2h

9 20 water . °
Total 13 10 Cost . . « » 20}

“All these articles were put together into an
earthen pot, and boiled two hours and a quarter. ©
The meat was then taken out of the soup and weighed,

* The Bavarian pound (equal to 174%%5, or near one pound and a quarter

avoirdupois) is divided into 32 loths.

-
9
:

) 428 - Of Food.

and found to weigh 1 lb. 30 loths; which, divided into
twelve equal portions, gave five lochs for the weight of
each.

“The soup, with the bread, etc., weighed 9 lbs.
304 loths; which, divided into twelve equal portions,
gave for each 267% loths.

“ The cost of the meat and soup together, 20§ kreut-
zers, divided by 12, gives 1} kreutzers, very nearly, for
the cost of each portion.

For the Bread Dumplings.
Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.
t. 143: of fine semmel bread... 2 6s «ss Io
z ..0o BUG SOURS ses) see Gav er. Be 4}
oS BRE es oe aC a eS a ee of
Bi776 Water 6) ON UE Pe fe)
Total 5 19 CONE a Sav

“This mass was made into dumplings, and these
dumplings were boiled half an hour in clear water.
Upon taking them out of the water, they were found
to weigh 5 lbs. 24 loths, and, dividing them into twelve
equal portions, each portion weighed 15} loths; and
the cost of the whole (15 kreutzers) divided by 12 gives
14 kreutzers for the cost of each portion.

“The meat, soup, and dumplings were served all at
once in the same dish, and were all eaten together;
and with this meal (which was their dinner, and was
eaten at twelve o'clock) each person belonging to
the mess was furnished with a piece of rye-bread
weighing 10 loths, and which cost 7% of a kreutzer.
Each person was likewise furnished with a piece of
this bread, weighing 10 loths, for his breakfast; an-
other piece, of equal weight, in the afternoon at four
o'clock; and another in the evening.”

ae ee -

Pe ee ee ee ee
\

Of Food. 429
Analysis of this Day’s Fare.
Each person received in the course of Amount of cost in |
the day: —_ Bavarian money.
In solids. In fluids.
: Ibs. loths. Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.
Boiled beef. .0 5 Te es ae
f Rye-bread GO Sb is te. 5
Sweetherbs .0 Oy . . °
Salt O Og...
In the soup.4 Pepper 6 OU oe ee oF;
Water. . . . Oo 23}

Totalo 4%; 0 234)
[Wheaten bread o 33
Ditto flour . .0 2%

In dumplings.{ Salt . . . .0 Og . ~ «fh 1}
: Water. .. . 0 77%

L _Totalo 6hL0 7,5)
{For breakfast . 0 10

Atdinner . .0 I0

Dry bread.4 In the afternoon o Io teaser 2}
Atsupper . .0o I0 "eG

L Total1 8

General total . . . . 2 24$% o 314 whichcost 514

The ammunition bread is reckoned in this estimate
at two kreutzers the Bavarian pound, which is about
what it costs at a medium; and, as the daily allowance
of the soldiers is 1} Bavarian pounds of this bread,
this reckoned in money amounts to three kreutzers a
day ; and this added to his pay,.at five kreutzers a day,
makes eight kreutzers a day, which is the whole of his
allowance from the sovereign for his subsistence.

But it appears from the foregoing account that he
expends for food no more than 53§ kreutzers a day,
There is therefore a surplus amounting to 23% kreutzers
a day, or very near one third of his whole allowance,
which remains, and which he can dispose of just as
he thinks proper.

430 Of Food.

This surplus is commonly employed in purchasing
beer, brandy, tobacco, ete. Beer in Bavaria costs two
kreutzers a pint; brandy, or rather malt-spirits, from
fifteen to eighteen kreutzers; and tobacco is very
cheap.

To enable the English reader to form, without the
trouble of computation, a complete and satisfactory
idea of the manner in which these Bavarian soldiers
are fed, I have added the following analysis of their
fare, in which the quantity of each article is expressed
in avoirdupots weight, and its cost in Lxglish money.

Analysis.
Each person belonging to the mess received in the course Cost in
of the day, June 11, 1795: — English money.
Ibs. oz. & &
Dry ammunition bread... 6) woe ee wile T Bye 0 OFF
Ammunition bread cooked inthe soup . . . +. 0 2y%5 O Ofer
Fine wheaten (seme/) bread inthe dumplings. 0 2,%5 o off
Total bread . . . « 1.-13y%%%5
Fine flour in the dumplings . . . . «. «+ «+ + O Iq © Off
Boiled:beef, . 4). fe pyc Sgeiyer cel sergep je fue werle peehiOr rinse Oo Oe;
In seasoning, —fine herbs, salt, and pepper . . 0 Oop}, O Opty
Total solids . .. « « 2 25
. Inthesoup . . . 0 I4p (fs
d by cooking’
Water prepared by cooking ik the dumaplinge’s sce aoe
Total prepared water . . I 285
Total solids.and fluids .. . 3 52%

Total expense for each person 54$ kreutzers, equal
to ¢wopence sterling, very nearly.

But, as the Bavarian soldiers have not the same fare
every day, the expenses of their tables cannot be ascer-
tained from one single experiment. I shall therefore
return to Serjeant Wickenhof’s report.

— wt

Of Food. 431

June LI, 1795.
Bill of Fare: Bread Dumplings, and Soup.

DETAILS OF EXPENSES, ETC.

For the Dumplings. :
Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.
Protar wheaten bread". kg a te ays we ey ER
o 16 butter- . one Mees 9
RS a i Ne Sa a |
OE eee aty te ee a ae oe Re
ey CER ee Ge eS BAe OF
ReRCOR PEpPel svn bys 68 nee ot fence 2 OF
3 16 water.
7 304 Cost. . . . . 31} kreutzers.

“This made into dumplings; the dumplings, after
being boiled, were found to weigh 8 lbs. 8 loths, which,
divided among twelve persons, gave for each 22 loths;
and the cost of the whole (313 kreutzers) divided by
12 gives 23 kreutzers for each portion.

For the Soup.

Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.
I 144 ammunition bread ....... . . . . 2
COMETS ss ss ss ag OS Te OF
Oo 1 sweet herbs. I

12 oO. water.

———

13 2I1¢ Cost... . . . 4§ kreutzers,

“ This soup, when cooked, weighed 11 lbs. 26 loths;
which, divided among the twelve persons belonging
to the mess, gave for each 313 loths; and the cost
(4% kreutzers) divided by 12 gives nearly ¢hree ninths
of a kreutzer for each portion.

For Bread.

“ Four pieces. of ammunition bread, weighing each
10 loths, for each person,—namely, one piece for

432

Of Food.

breakfast, one at dinner, one in the afternoon, and
one at. supper, —in all, 40 loths, or one pound and a
quarter, — cost two kreutzers and a half.”

”?

”»

Details of Expenses, ete., for each Person.

Kreutzers.

Ibs. loths.
For 1~ 8 dry bread... 6 (8 bese ohne 24
o 22 bread dumplings. . .... . 2%
© 31} breadsoup. . » « + » » vj}, Of
2 304 of food. Cost . .. . 54 kreutzers.

The same details expressed in avoirdupois weight
and English money : —

For each person.
Ibs.

I
°
I

Pence.

8.78, dry ammunition bread . eit
1335 bread dumplings. . . . . . + ~ Offf
34 breadsoup. . . + + «© + + « «© Oggi

—— ———

Oss Of food. Cost. .

June 20, 1795.

Serjeant Kein’s mess, second regiment of grenadiers.

Bill of Fare: Boiled Beef, Bread Soup, and Liver Dumplings.

DETAILS OF EXPENSES, ETC.
For the Boiled Beef and Soup.

Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.

2. OBOE s- <5. 2s Megan ek. ee

OOP alas 3 a ee ee) ee

2 24 ammunition bread ....-+.. 3+

17. © water.

= Cs Cost . . . . 19} kreutzers.

“These ingredients were all boiled together two
hours and five minutes, after which the beef was taken

oe aie

ee th ee) _ a

Of Food. 433

out of the soup and weighed, and was found to weigh
1 lb. 22 loths. The soup weighed 15 lbs. and these
divided equally among the twelve persons belonging
to the mess gave for each portion 4% loths of beef
and 1 lb, 8 loths of soup; and the cost of the whole
(193 kreutzers) divided by 18 gives 13} kreutzers for
the cost of each portion.

For the Liver Dumplings.

Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.
2 28 of finesemmel bread ..... . 15
pe PE. Ce eee a 5
5 eR MOU Net ig ne! ene Gy at oe
AOL Rey. (eS i i ae eek ee of -
2 24 ~ water.
Total 7 12 Cost . . . + 23 kreutzers.

“These ingredients being made into dumplings, the
dumplings after being properly boiled were found to
weigh 8 lbs. This gave for each portion 213% loths;
and the amount of the cost (23 kreutzers) divided

by 12, the number of the portions, gives for each

144 kreutzers.

“The quantity of dry ammunition bread furnished
to each person was 1 lb. 8 loths; and this, at two
kreutzers a pound, amounts to 2} kreutzers.”

Recapitulation.
For each person.

Ibs. loths. Kreutzers.
o 44 of boiled beef, oct 13}
is bread soup "i aid:

o 21} liverdumplings . ....... 144
tm 8 drybread. 6 6 «6 Ge ew 0) Oh

3. 98 of food. Coste vi. «Gf

VOL. IV. 28

‘se Of Food.

In avoirdupois weight and English money, it is for.
each person : — f

Ibs. 02. Pence.

o 2348; of boiled beef, and 048 ta
1 8%), bread soup j 5 MN al . -
© 137% liverdumplings . . . . . . off6

1 Oy? dty bread ee eee

4 17445 of food. Cost oe 5 2} pence.

June 21, 1795.
Bill of Fare: Boiled Beef and Bread Soup, with Bread Dumplings.

DETAILS OF EXPENSES, ETC.; FOR THE Boiled Beef AND Bread Soup, THE
SAME AS YESTERDAY.

For the Dumplings.

Ibs. loths. Kreutzers,
Zz 30 semme)l-bread 5) 4.05 As aca ee

=> 4B Bape flo 53: ~ 9 ee! ober peeks Lae 3
OO Balt af te ok as a opr ss is of

3. «oO water.

6 22 Cost. . . . 19 kreutzers,

“ These dumplings being boiled were found to weigh ©
‘ 7 Ibs., which gave for each person 183 loths; and each
portion cost 17% kreutzers.

“Dry ammunition bread furnished to each person
1 lb. 8 loths, which cost 24 kreutzers.”

Recapitulation.
Each person belonging to the mess received this day: —

Ibs. loths. - Kreutzers.
o 44 of boiled beef, ay Jer icts ee Seat
1 8 bread soup
o 18% . bread dumplings. . . . . 6 Wqy
r 8 dry bread, siege) igen se. RR

3 7% of food. » Cost. . . « 59% kreutzers.

a i ee ke

Of Food. 435

In avoirdupois weight and English money, it is : —

Ibs. oie ¢ hosled heakiagd Pence.

oO '2 of boiled beef, an be 948

1 878; bread soup ae cae Pk

o 115 . bread dumplings. . .. . . ~. O§f¢
Seay Ory breads... deel 6 seem o}2

4.0. of food. Cost. os * 24} pence.

June 22, 1795.
Bill of Fare: Bread Soup and Meat Dumplings.

DETAILS OF EXPENSES, ETC.

Ibs. _loths. Kreutzers.
2 Wimmer 2 te 8 REIS 15

ZN ao cmenamel Dread 6 8) ane fee ats 154
“SNE Go a ee 3

° OE pe lo parka eral GE oa Fd gta I
arte meee e WS ai ie A ae I

° Bi > BWREE REINS! Wh. ke, aye Slee of
2 24 +ammunitionbread. . ... . 34
2 16 water to the dumplings.

ORE Os 4) 39} kreutzers,

“The meat being cut fine or minced was mixed
with the semmel or wheaten bread; and these with the
flour, and a due proportion of: salt, were made into
dumplings, and boiled in the soup. These dumplings
when boiled weighed 10 lbs.; which, divided into 12
equal portions, gave 203 loths for each.

“The soup weighed 15 lbs., which gave 1 lb. 8 loths
for each portion. Of dry ammunition bread, each per-
son received 1 lb. 8 loths, which cost 2+ kreutzers.”

Recapitulation.
Each person received this day: —
Ibs, _loths. Kreutzers.
o 20% of meat dumplings, ape t Pr pie A 3t8
I 8 bread soup
Rh. 8 ammunition bread. . . . «©. 9 2h

3 4% of food. Cost. . . . 5%, kreutzers.

436 i Of Food.

In avoirdupois weight and English money, it is: —

Ibs. oz. F Pence.

o 12,3; of meat dumplings, sey

1 8,48; bread soup oe

1 8,8; ammunition bread... . . of9

3. 14;4% of food. Cost. . « » | 2g pence,

The results of all these experiments (and of many
more which I could add) show that the Bavarian soldier
can live—and the fact is that he actually does live —
upon a little more than ¢wo thirds of his allowance.
Of the five kreutzers a day which he receives in money,
he seldom puts more than two kreutzers and a half,
and never more than ¢hree kreutzers, into the mess; so
that at least two fifths of his pay remains, after he has
defrayed all the expenses of his subsistence. And as
he is furnished with every article of his clothing by
the sovereign, and no stoppage is ever permitted to be
made of any part of his pay, on any pretence whatever,
there is no soldier in Europe whose situation ts more
comfortable.

Though the ammunition bread with which he is fur-
nished is rather coarse and brown, being made of rye-
meal, with only a small quantity of the coarser part of
the bran separated from it, yet it is not only wholesome,
but very nourishing; and for making soup it is even
more palatable than wheaten bread. Most of the sol-
diers, however, in the Elector’s service, and particularly
those belonging to the Bavarian regiments, make a
practice of selling a great part of their allowance of
ammunition bread, and with the money they get for it
buy the best wheaten bread that is to be had; and
many of them never taste brown bread but in their
soup.

Of Food. 437

The ammunition bread is delivered to the soldiers
every fourth day, in loaves, each loaf being equal to
two rations; and it is a rule generally established in
the messes for each soldier to furnish one loaf for the
use of the mess every twelfth day, so that he las five
sixths of his allowance of bread, which remains at his
disposal. Saas 8

The foregoing account of the manner in which
the Bavarian soldiers are fed will, I think, show most
clearly the great importance of making soldiers live
together in messes. It may likewise furnish some use-
ful hints to those who may be engaged in feeding the
poor, or in providing food for ships’ companies, or
other bodies of men who are fed in common.

With regard to the expense of fuel in these experi-
ments, as the victuals were cooked in earthen pots
over an open fire, the consumption of fire-wood was
very great.

On the roth of June, when 9g lbs. 30} loths of soup,
1 lb. 28 loths of meat, and 5 lbs. 24 loths of bread
dumplings, in all 17 lbs. 183 loths of food, were prepared,
and the process of cooking, from the time the fire was
lighted till the victuals were done, lasted two hours
and forty-five minutes, twenty-nine pounds, Bavarian
weight, of fire-wood were consumed.

On the 11th of June, when 11 lbs. 26 loths of bread
‘soup, and 8 lbs. 8 loths of bread dumplings, in all 20 Ibs,
2 loths of food, were prepared, the process of cooking
lasted one hour and thirty minutes; and seventeen
pounds of wood were consumed.

On the 2oth of June, in Serjeant Kein’s mess, 15 lbs.
of soup, 1 lb. 22 loths of meat, and 8 lbs. of liver
dumplings, in all 24 lbs. 22 loths of food, were prepared ;

438 - Of Food.

and, though the process of cooking lasted two hours
and forty-five minutes, only 273 lbs. of fire-wood were
comsumed,

On the 21st of June, the same quantity of soup and
meat, and 7 lbs. of bread dumplings, in all 23 lbs. 22 loths
of food, were prepared in two hours and thirty minutes,
with the consumption of 18} lbs. of wood.

On the 22d of June, 15 lbs. of soup, and 10 Ibs.
of meat dumplings, in all 25 lbs. of food, were cooked
in two hours and forty-five minutes; and the wood
consumed was 18 lbs. 10 loths.

The following table will show, in a striking and
satisfactory manner, the expense of fuel in these experi-
ments : —

Date of Time employed uantity of food uantity of wood | Quantity of wood
experiment. in poedieg: “ eaecicivshy Q Chenery. tox bof food.
June, 1795. hours. min. Ibs. _loths. Ibs.

oth, 2. 45 17 184 29
11th, Gr 30 20 2 17
2oth, 2) AG 24 22 17
21st, 2 30 23°22 18
22d, 2 45 25 2 %6 I
Sums. .| 12 15 Ill of 100}
Means . 2 23 22 of 2095 $2 1b.

The mean quantity of food prepared daily in five
days being 22 lbs. very nearly, and the mean quantity
of fire-wood consumed being 20s'y lbs., this gives 44 lb,
of wood for each pound of food.

But it has been found by actual experiment, made
with the utmost care in the new kitchen of the House
of Industry at Munich, and often repeated, that 600 lbs.
of food (of the soup No, I. given to the poor) may be

— ee eS —ES..” = ee. Pe
ne 9 eS
‘

es eee ee

Of food. 439

cooked with the consumption of only 44 lbs. of pine-

wood. And hence it appears how very great the waste

of fuel must be in all culinary processes, as they are
commonly performed ; for though the time taken up
in cooking the soup for the poor is, at a medium, more
than four hours and a half, while that employed by
the soldiers in their cooking is less than ¢wo hours and
a half, yet the quantity of fuel consumed by the latter
is near ¢hzrteen times greater than that employed in
the public kitchen of the House of Industry.

But I must not anticipate here a matter which is to
be the subject of a separate Essay, and which from its
great importance certainly deserves to be carefully and
thoroughly investigated. ah

Pita LER NY.

Of the great Importance of making Soldiers eat together
in regular Messes.— The Influence of such econome-
cal Arrangements extends even to the moral Char-
acter of those who are the Objects of them.— Of
the Expense of feeding Soldiers in Messes.— Of the
surprising Smallness of the Expense of feeding
the Poor at Munich. — Specific Proposals respecting
the Feeding of the Poor in Great Britain, with
Calculations of the Expense, at the present Prices
of Provisions.

LL those who have been conversant in military
affairs must have had frequent opportunities of
observing the striking difference there is, even in the

440 ‘ Of Food.

appearance of the men, between regiments in which
messes are established, and food is regularly provided
under the care and inspection of the officers, and
others in which the soldiers are left individually to
shift for themselves. And the difference which may
be observed between soldiers who live in messes, and
are regularly fed, and others who are not, is not con-
fined merely to their external appearance: the influence
of these causes extends much farther, and even the
moral character of the man is affected by them.

Peace of mind, which is as essential to contentment
and happiness as it is to virtue, depends much upon
order and regularity in the common affairs of life; and
in no case are order and method more necessary to
happiness (and consequently to virtue) than in that
where the preservation of health is connected with the
satisfying of hunger, an appetite whose cravings are
sometimes as inordinate as they are insatiable.

Peace of mind depends likewise much upon economy,
or the means used for preventing pecuniary embarrass-
ments; and the saving to soldiers in providing food,
which arise from housekeeping in messes of ten or
twelve persons who live together, is very great in-
deed.

But, great as these savings now are, I think they
might be made still more considerable; and I shall give
my reasons for this opinion.

Though the Bavarian soldiers live at a very small
expense, little more than ¢wopence sterling a day, yet
when I compare this sum, small as it is, with the ex-
pense of feeding the poor in the House of Industry
at Munich, which does not amount to more than ¢wo
farthings a day, even including the cost of the piece of

Of Food. 441

dry rye-bread, weighing seven ounces avoirdupois,*
which is given them in their hands at dinner, but which
they seldom eat at dinner, but commonly carry home
in their pockets for their suppers, — when I compare,
I say, this small sum with the daily expense of’ the sol-
diers for their subsistence, I find reason to conclude
either that the soldiers might be fed cheaper, or that
the poor must be absolutely starved upon their allow-
ance. That the latter is not the case, the healthy coun-
tenances of the poor, and the air of placid contentment
which always accompanies them, as well in the dining-
hall as in their working-rooms, affords at the same time
the most interesting and most satisfactory proof pos-
sible.

Were they to go home in the course of the day, it
might be suspected that they got something at home to
eat, in addition to what they receive from the public
kitchen of the establishment; but this they seldom
or never do; and they come to the house so early in the
morning, and leave it so late at night, that it does not
seem probable that they could find time to cook any
thing at their own lodgings.

Some of them, I know, make a constant practice
of giving themselves a treat of a pint of beer at night,
after they have finished their work; but I do not believe
they have any thing else for their suppers, except it be

* For each 100 lbs. Bavarian weight (equal to 123,84, Ibs. avoirdupois) of
rye-meal which the baker receives from the magazine, he is obliged to deliver
sixty-four loaves of bread, each loaf weighing 2 Ibs. 54 loths, equal to 2 Ibs.
10 oz. avoirdupois ; and, as each loaf is divided into six portions, this gives 7 oz.
avoirdupois for each portion. Hence it appears that roo lbs. of rye-meal give
149 Ibs. of bread ; for sixty-four loaves, at 2 lbs. 54 loths each, weigh 149 lbs.
When this bread is reckoned at two kreutzers a Bavarian pound (which is about

what it costs at a medium), one portion costs just 42 of a kreutzer, or 438 of a
penny sterling, which is something less than one farthing.

442 : Of Food.

_ the. bread which they carry home from the House of
Industry. .

I must confess however, very fairly, that it always
appeared to me quite surprising, and that it is still a
mystery which I do not clearly understand, how it is
possible for these poor people to be so comfortably fed
upon the small allowances which they receive. The
facts, however, are not only certain, but they are noto-
rious. Many persons of the most respectable character
in this country (Great Britain) as well as upon the
continent, who have visited the House of Industry at
Munich, can bear witness to their authenticity; and
they are surely not the less interesting for being ex-
traordinary.

It must, however, be remembered that what formerly
cost two farthings in Bavaria, at the mean price of
provisions in that country, costs ¢Aree farthings at this
present moment, and would probably cost szx in Lon-
don, and in most other parts of Great Britain; but still
it will doubtless appear almost incredible that a com-
fortable and nourishing meal, sufficient for satisfying
the hunger of a strong man, may be furnished in Lon-
don, and at this very moment, when provisions of all
kinds are so remarkably dear, at “ess than three far-
things. The fact, however, is most certain, and may
easily be demonstrated by making the experiment.

Supposing that it should be necessary, in feeding the
poor in this country, to furnish them with three meals
a day, even that might be done at a very small expense,
were the system of feeding them adopted which is here
proposed. The amount of that expense would be as
follows : —

a >

aS ee eS oe

——e——S ee |e

Of Food. 443

For breakfast, 20 ounces of the soup No. II., composed of
pearl barley, peas, potatoes, and fine wheaten bread or

pace 415)... - +.» : - 0 24
For dinner, 20 ounces of the same sede ape na ounces vor
rye-bread . . . . I Sea ica Salil a I 2
For supper, 20 ounces of the same bslonis IT hls: Afters Saas 24
In all 4 lbs. 3 oz. of food,* which would cost . . . . 2 3

Should it be thought necessary to give a little meat

at dinner, this may best be done by mixing it, cut fine

or minced, in bread dumplings ; or when bacon or any
kind of salted or smoked meat is given, to cut it fine
and mix it with the bread which is eaten in the soup.
If the bread be fried, the food will be much improved ;
but this will be attended with some additional expense.
Rye-bread is as good, if not better, for frying than
bread made of wheat-flour; and it is commonly not
half so dear. Perhaps rye-bread fried might be fur-
nished almost as cheap as wheaten bread not fried; and
if this could be done, it would certainly be a very great

improvement.

There is another way by which these cheap soups
may be made exceedingly palatable and savoury, which
is by mixing with them a very small quantity of red
herrings, minced very fine or pounded in a mortar.
There is no kind of cheap food, I believe, that has so
much taste as red herrings, or that communicates its
flavour with so much liberality to other eatables; and
to most palates it is remarkably agreeable.

Cheese may likewise be made use of for giving an
agreeable relish to these soups; and a very small quan- |

* This allowance is evidently much too large; but I was willing to show
what the expense of feeding the poor would be at the highest calculation. I have

estimated the 7 ounces of rye-bread mentioned above at what it ought to cost
when rye is 7s, 6d. the bushel, its present price in London.

444 - Of Food.

tity of it will be sufficient for that purpose, provided it
has a strong taste, and is properly applied. It should
be grated to a powder with a grater, and a small quan-
tity of this powder thrown over the soup after zt 2s
dished out. This is frequently done at the sumptuous
tables of the rich, and is thought a great delicacy; while
the poor, who have so few enjoyments, have not been
taught to avail themselves of this, which is so much»
within their reach.

Those whose avocations call them to visit distant
countries, and those whose fortune enables them to
travel for their amusement or improvement, have many
opportunities of acquiring useful information; and, in
consequence of this intercourse with strangers, many
improvements and more refinements have been intro-
duced into this country. But the most important advan-
tages that mzgh¢ be derived from an intimate knowledge
of the manners and customs of different nations — the
introduction of improvements tending to facilitate the
means of subsistence, and to increase the comforts and
conveniencies of the most necessitous and most numer-
ous classes of society — have been, alas! little attended
to. Our extensive commerce enables us to procure,
and we do actually import, most of the valuable com-
modities which are the produce either of the soil, of the
ocean, or of the industry of man, in all the various
regions of the habitable globe; du¢ the result of the
EXPERIENCE OF AGES respecting the use that can be made
of those commodities has seldom been thought worth im-
porting! I never see maccaroni in England, or polenta
in Germany, upon the tables of the rich, without lament-
ing that those cheap and wholesome luxuries should be
monopolized by those who stand least in need of them ;

Of Food. 445°

while the poor, who, one would think, ought to be con-
sidered as having almost an exclusive right to them
(as they were both invented by the poor of a neigh-
bouring nation), are kept in perfect ignorance of them.

But these two kinds of food are so palatable, whole-
some, and nourishing, and may be provided so easily
and at so very cheap a rate in all countries, and par-
ticularly in Great Britain, that I think I cannot do
better than to devote a few pages to the examination
of them; and I shall begin with polenta, or /uadzan
corn, as it is called in this country.

PORE PACE Ts Ree Va,

Of Indian Corn.— lt affords the cheapest and most
nourishing Food known.— Proofs that wt ts more
nourishing than Rice.— Different Ways of prepar-
ing or cooking tt.— Computation of the Expense
of feeding a Person with it, founded on Expert-
ment.— Approved Receipt for making an INDIAN
PUDDING.

CANNOT help increasing the length of this Essay

much beyond the bounds I originally assigned to
it, in order to have an opportunity of recommending a
kind of food which I believe to: be beyond comparison —
the most nourishing, cheapest, and most wholesome
that can be procured for feeding the poor. This is
Indian corn, a most valuable production, and which

446 : Of Food.

grows in almost all climates; and though it does not
succeed remarkably well in Great Britaih, and in some
parts of Germany, yet it may easily be had in great
abundance from other countries, and commonly at a
very low rate.

The common people in the northern parts of Italy
live almost entirely upon it; and throughout the whole
continent of America it makes a principal article
of food. In Italy it is called polenta, where it is
prepared or cooked in a variety of ways, and forms
the basis of a number of very nourishing dishes. The
most common way however of using it in that country
is to grind it into meal, and with water to make it
into a thick kind of pudding, like what in this country
is called a hasty pudding, which is eaten with various
kinds of sauce, and sometimes without any sauce.

In the northern parts of North America, the com-
mon household bread throughout the country is com-
posed of one part of Indian meal and one part of rye-
meal; and I much doubt whether a more wholesome
or more nourishing kind of bread can be made.

Rice is universally allowed to be very nourishing,
much more so even than wheat; but there is a circum-
stance well known to all those who are acquainted with
the details of feeding the negro slaves in the southern
states of North America, and in the West Indies, that
would seem to prove, in a very decisive and satisfactory
manner, that /zdzan corn ts even more nourishing than
vice. In those countries, where rice and Indian corn
are both produced in the greatest abundance, the
negroes have frequently had their option between
these two kinds of food, and have invariably preferred
the latter. The reasons they give for this preference

~—
=

a ce te

Of Food. 447 |

they express in strong, though not in very delicate
terms. They say that “vice turns to water in their
bellies, and runs off,” but “Indian corn stays with
them, and makes strong to work.” Sa

This account of the preference which negroes give
to Indian corn for food, and of their reasons for this
preference, was communicated to me by two gentlemen
of most respectable character, well known in England,
and now resident in London, who were formerly plant-
ers, one in Georgia, and the other in Jamaica.

The nutritive quality which Indian corn possesses
in a most eminent degree, when employed for fattening
hogs and poultry, and for giving strength to working
oxen, has long been universally known and acknowl-
edged in every part of North America; and nobody in
that country thinks of employing any other grain for
those purposes.

All these facts prove to a demonstration that Indian
corn possesses very extraordinary nutritive powers ; and
it is well known that there is no species of grain that
can be had so cheap or in so great abundance. It is
therefore well worthy the attention of those who are
engaged in providing cheap and wholesome food for
the poor, or in taking measures for warding off the
evils which commonly attend a general scarcity of pro-
visions, to consider in time how this useful article ‘of
food may be procured in large quantities, and how the
introduction of it into common use can most easily be
effected.

In regard to the manner of using Indian corn, there
are a vast variety of different ways in which it may be
prepared or cooked, in order to its being used as food.
One simple and obvious way of using it is to mix it

448 Of Food.

with wheat, rye, or barley meal, in making bread; but
when it is used for making bread, and particularly when
it is mixed with wheat-flour, it will greatly improve the
quality of the bread, if the Indian meal (the coarser
part of the bran being first separated from it by sift-
ing) be previously mixed with water, and boiled for a
considerable length of time —two or three hours, for
instance — over a slow fire, before the other meal or
flour is added toit. This boiling — which, if the proper
quantity of water is employed, will bring the mass to
the consistency of a thin pudding —wwill effectually
remove a certain disagreeable raw ¢as¢e in the Indian
corn, which simple baking will not entirely take away;
and the wheat-flour being mixed with this pudding
after it has been taken from the fire and cooled, and
the whole well kneaded together, may be made to rise,
and be formed into loaves and baked into bread, with
the same facility that bread is made of wheat-flour
alone, or of any mixtures of different kinds of meal.

When the Indian meal is previously prepared by
boiling in the manner here described, a most excellent
and very palatable kind of bread, not inferior to wheaten
bread, may be made of equal parts of this meal and of
common wheat-flour.

But the most simple, and I believe the best and
most economical, way of employing Indian corn as
food is to make it into puddings. There is, as I have
already observed, a certain rawness in the taste of it,
which nothing but long boiling can remove; but when
that disagreeable taste is removed it becomes extremely
palatable, and that it is remarkably wholesome has
been proved by so much experience that no doubts
can possibly be entertained of that fact.

=.
a

Of Food. 449

The culture of it requires more labour than most
other kinds of grain; but, on the other hand, the prod-
uce is very abundant, and it is always much cheaper
than either wheat or rye. The price of it in the Caro-
linas, and in Georgia, has often been as low as eigh-.
teen pence, and sometimes as one shilling sterling, per
bushel; but the Indian corn which is grown in those
southern states is much inferior, both in weight and
in its qualities, to that which is the produce of colder
climates. Indian corn of the growth of Canada and
the New England states, which is generally thought
to-be worth twenty fer cen¢ more per bushel than that
which is grown in the southern states, may commonly be
bought for two and sixpence or three shillings a bushel.

It is now three shillings and sixpence a bushel at
Boston; but the prices of provisions of all kinds have
been much raised of late in all parts of America, owing
to the uncommonly high prices which are paid for them
in the European markets since the commencement of
the present war.

Indian corn and rye are very nearly of the same
weight, but the former gives rather more flour, when
ground and sifted, than the latter. I find by a report
of the Board of Agriculture, of the roth of November,
1795, that three bushels of Indian corn weighed 1 cwt.
1 qr. 18 lbs. (or 53 lbs. each bushel), and gave 1 cwt. 20
Ibs. of flour and 26 lbs. of bran; while three bushels of
rye, weighing 1 cwt. 1 qr. 22 lbs. (or 54 lbs. the bushel),
gave only 1 cwt. 17 lbs. of flour and 28 Ibs. of bran.
But I much suspect that the Indian corn used in these
experiments was not of the best quality.*

* Farther inquiries which have since been made have proved that these

suspicions were not without foundation.
VOL. IV. 29

450 : Of Food,

I saw some of it, and it appeared to me to be of that
kind which is commonly grown in the southern states
of North America. Indian corn of the growth of
colder climates is, probably, at least as heavy as wheat
which weighs at a medium about 58 lbs. per bushel,
and I imagine it will give nearly as much flour.*

In regard to the most advantageous method of us-
ing Indian corn as food, I would strongly recommend,
particularly when it is employed for feeding the poor,
a dish made of it that is in the highest estimation
throughout America, and which is really very good
and very nourishing. This is called hasty pudding,
and it is made in the following manner: A quantity of
water, proportioned to the quantity of hasty pudding
intended to be made, is put over the fire in an open
iron pot or kettle; and, a proper quantity of salt for
seasoning the pudding being previously dissolved in
the water, Indian meal is stirred into it, by little and
little, with a wooden spoon with a long handle, while
the water goes on to be heated and made to boil; great
care being taken to put in the meal by very small quan-
tities, and by sifting it slowly through the fingers of
the left hand, and stirring the water about very briskly
at the same time with the wooden spoon with the
right hand, to mix the meal with the water in such a

* Since writing the above, I have had an opportunity of ascertaining, in the
most decisive and satisfactory manner, the facts relative to the weight of Indian
corn of the growth of the northern states of America. A friend of mine, an
American gentleman, resident in London (George Erving, Esq., of Great George
Street, Hanover Square), who, in common with the rest of his countrymen, still
retains a liking for Indian corn, and imports it regularly every year from America,
has just received a fresh supply of it by one of the last ships which has arrived
from Boston in New England; and at my desire he weighed a bushel of it, and
found it to weigh 61 lbs. It cost him at Boston three shillings and sixpence
sterling the bushel.

i el

i nt i —— =

;
wi
4
2
:
s

lim
7 ak

A oy

pe Se “que

Of Food. 451

manner as to prevent lumps being formed. The meal
should be added so slowly that, when the water is |
brought to boil, the mass should not be thicker than
water-gruel, and half an hour more, at least, should be
employed to add the additional quantity of meal neces-
sary for bringing the pudding to be of the proper con-
sistency, during which time it should be stirred about
continually, and kept constantly boiling. The method
of determining when the pudding has acquired the
proper consistency is this: The wooden spoon used for
stirring it being placed upright in the middle of the
kettle, if it falls down more meal must be added; but,
if the pudding is sufficiently thick and adhesive to sup-
port it in a vertical position, it is declared to be proof,
and no more meal is added. If the boiling, instead
of being continued only half an hour, be prolonged to
three quarters of an hour or an hour, the pudding will
be considerably improved by this prolongation.

This hasty pudding, when done, may be eaten in
various ways. It may be put, while hot, by spoonfuls
into a bowl of milk, and eaten with the milk with a
spoon in lieu of bread, and used in this way it is
remarkably palatable. It may likewise be eaten, while
hot, with a sauce composed of butter and brown sugar,
or butter and molasses, with or without a few drops
of vinegar; and, however people who have not been
accustomed to this American cookery may be preju-
diced against it, they will find upon trial that it makes
a most excellent dish, and one which never fails to be
much liked by those who are accustomed to it. The
universal fondness of Americans for it proves that it
must have some merit; for, in a country which pro-
duces all the delicacies of the table in the greatest

452 Be ried

abundance, it is not to be supposed that a whole
nation should have a taste so depraved as to give a
decided preference to any particular species of food
which has not something to recommend it.

The manner in which hasty pudding is eaten with
butter and sugar, or butter and molasses, in America,
is as follows: The hasty pudding being spread out
equally upon a plate while hot, an excavation is made
in the middle of it with a spoon, into which excavation
a piece of butter as large as a nutmeg is put, and upon
it a spoonful of brown sugar, or more commonly of
molasses. The butter being soon melted by the heat
of the pudding mixes with the sugar or molasses, and
forms a sauce, which, being confined in the excavation
made for it, occupies the middle of the plate. The
pudding is then eaten with a spoon, each spoonful of
it being dipped into the sauce before it is carried to the
mouth; care being had, in taking it up, to begin on the
outside or near the brim of the plate, and to approach
the centre by regular advances, in order not to demol-
ish too soon the excavation which forms the reservoir
for the sauce.

If I am prolix in these descriptions, my reader must
excuse me; for persuaded as I am that the action of
food upon the palate, and consequently the pleasure of
eating, depends very much indeed upon the manner in
which the food is applied to the organs of taste, I have
thought it necessary to mention, and even to illustrate
in the clearest manner, every circumstance which ap-
peared to me to have influence in producing those
important effects.

In the case in question, as it is the sauce alone which
gives taste and palatableness to the food, and conse-

Of Food. 453

quently is the cause of the pleasure enjoyed in eating
it, the importance of applying or using it in such a
manner as to produce the greatest and most durable
effect possible on the organs of taste is quite evident;
and, in the manner of eating this food which has here
been described and recommended the small quantity
of sauce used (and the quantity must be small, as it
is the expensive article) is certainly applied to the pal-
ate more immediately, by a greater surface, and in a
state of greater condensation, and consequently acts
upon it more powerfully, and continues to act upon it
for a greater length of time, than it could well be made
to do when used in any other way. Were it more inti-
mately mixed with the pudding for instance, instead of
being merely applied to its external surface, its action
would certainly be much less powerful; and were it
poured over the pudding, or was proper care not taken
to keep it confined in the little excavation or reservoir
made in the midst of the pudding to contain it, much
of it would attach itself and adhere to the surface of the
plate, and be lost.

Hasty pudding has this in particular to recommend
it, and which renders it singularly useful as food for
poor families, that, when more of it is made at once
than is immediately wanted, what remains may be pre-
served good for several days, and a number of very
palatable dishes may be made of it. It may be cut in
thin slices and toasted before the fire or on a gridiron,
and eaten instead of bread, either in milk or in any
kind of soup or pottage, or with any other kind of food
with which bread is commonly eaten; or it may be
eaten cold, without any preparation, with a warm sauce
made of butter, molasses or sugar, and a little vinegar.

A54 Of Food.

In this last-mentioned way of eating it, it is quite as
palatable, and I believe more wholesome, than when
eaten warm; that is to say, when it is first made. It
may likewise be put cold, without any preparation, into
hot milk; and this mixture is by no means unpalatable,
particularly if it be suffered to remain in the milk till it
is warmed throughout, or if it be boiled in the milk for
a few moments.

A favorite dish in America, and a very good one, is
made of cold boiled cabbage chopped fine, with a small
quantity of cold boiled beef, and slices of cold hasty
pudding, all fried together in butter or hog’s lard.

Though hasty puddings are commonly made of
Indian meal, yet it is by no means uncommon to make
them of equal parts of Indian and of rye meal; and
they are sometimes made of rye-meal alone, or of rye-
meal and wheat-flour mixed.

To give a satisfactory idea of the expense of prepar-
ing hasty puddings in this country (England), and of
feeding the poor with them, I made the following
experiment: About 2 pints of water, which weighed
just 2 lbs. avoirdupois, were put over the fire in a sauce-
pan of a proper size, and 58 grains in weight, or 735 of
a pound, of salt being added, the water was made to
boil. During the time that it was heating, small quan-
tities of Indian meal were stirred into it, and care was
taken, by moving the water briskly about with a wooden
spoon, to prevent the meal from being formed into
lumps, and as often as any lumps were observed they
were carefully broken with the spoon. The boiling was
then continued half an hour, and during this time the
pudding was continually stirred about with the wooden
spoon, and so much more meal was added as was found

oe Fo

a) eee Ue

Of Food. 455

necessary to bring the pudding to be of the proper
consistency.

This being done, it was taken from the fire and
weighed, and was found to weigh just 1 Ib. 113 02.
Upon weighing the meal which remained (the quan-
tity first provided having been exactly determined by
weight in the beginning of the experiment), it was found
that just Zalf a pound of meal had been used.

From the result of this experiment, it appears that
for each pound of Indian meal employed in making
hasty puddings we may reckon 3 lbs. 9 oz. of the pud-
ding. And the expense of providing this kind of food,
or the cost of it by the pound, at the present high price
of grain in this country, may be seen by the following
computation : —

Half a pound of Indian meal (the quantity used in the fore- michal
going experiment), at 2d. a pound or 7s. 6d. a bushel for
the corn (the price stated in the report of the Board of
Agriculture of the roth of November, 1795, so often referred
ECGREES i EEN a See tot my es «aa TS
58 grains or 74,5 of a pound of salt, at 2¢. per pound . . . © 0 Ofy
Total . . . . © O Igy

Now, as the quantity of pudding prepared with these
ingredients was 1 lb. 113 oz., and the cost of the ingre-
dients amounted to one penny and one sixtieth of a
penny, this gives for the cost of one pound of hasty
pudding 745 of a penny, or 2} farthings, very nearly.
It must, however, be remembered that the Indian corn
is here reckoned at a very exorbitant price indeed.*

But, before it can be determined what the expense ~

* The price of Indian meal as it is here estimated (2d. a pound) is at least
twice as much as it would cost in Great Britain in common years, if care was taken
to import it at the cheapest rate.

456 ; Of food.

will be of feeding the poor with this kind of food,
it will be necessary to ascertain how much of it will be
required to give a comfortable meal to one person, and
how much the expense will be of providing the sauce
for that quantity of pudding. To determine these two
points with some degree of precision, I made the fol-
lowing experiment: Having taken my breakfast, con-
sisting of two dishes of coffee with cream, and a dry
toast, at my usual hour of breakfasting (nine o'clock
in the morning), and having fasted from that time till
five o'clock in the afternoon, I then dined upon my
hasty pudding, with the American sauce already de-
scribed. And I found after my appetite for food was
perfectly satisfied, and I felt that I had made a com-
fortable dinner, that I had eaten just 1 lb. 1} oz. of the
pudding ; and the ingredients of which the sauce which
was eaten with it was composed were half an ounce of
butter, three quarters of an ounce of molasses, and 21
grains or g$y of a pint of vinegar.

The cost of this dinner may be seen by the follow-
ing computation : —

For the Pudding.
Farthings.
I lb. 14 oz. of hasty pudding, at 2} farthings a pound . . 2}
For the Sauce.

Half an ounce of butter, at rod. per pound. . . .. . 14
Three quarters of an ounce of molasses, at 6d. per pound. 1
sty Of a pint of vinegar, at 2s. 3¢. the gallon . . .. . O75

Total for the sauce . . . . 2,°, farthings.

Sum total of expenses for this ste for the pudding and
oe Cs ee eer ee ee aoe ee 412 farthings.
Or something less than one DENBY farthing.

I believe it would not be easy to provide a dinner in
London, at this time, when provisions of all kinds are

Of Food. 457

so dear, equally grateful to the palate and satisfying
to the cravings of hunger, at a smaller expense. And
that this meal was sufficient for all the purposes of
nourishment appears from hence, that, though I took
my usual exercise, and did not sup after it, I neither
felt any particular faintness, nor any unusual degree
of appetite for my breakfast next morning. !

I have been the more particular in my account of
this experiment, to show in what manner experiments
of this kind ought, in my opinion, to be conducted;
and also to induce others to engage in these most
useful investigations.

It will not escape the observation of the reader that,
small as the expense was of providing this dinner, yet
very near one half of that sum was laid out in purchas-
ing the ingredients for the sauce. But it is probable
that a considerable part of that expense might be saved.
In Italy, polenta, which is nothing more than hasty
pudding made with Indian meal and water, is very fre-
quently, and I believe commonly, eaten without any
sauce; and when, on holidays or other extraordinary
occasions, they indulge themselves by adding a sauce
to it, this sauce is far from expensive. It is commonly
nothing more than a very small quantity of butter
spread over the flat surface of the hot polenta, which is
spread out thin ina large platter, with a little Parmesan
or other strong cheese, reduced to a coarse powder by
grating it with a grater, strewed over it.

Perhaps this Italian sauce might be more agreeable
to an English palate than that commonly used in
America. It would certainly be less expensive, as
much less butter would be required, and as cheese in
this country is plenty and cheap. But, whatever may

458 ; Of Food.

be the sauce used with food prepared of Indian corn, I
cannot too strongly recommend the use of that grain.

While I was employed in making my experiment
upon hasty pudding, I learned from my servant (a Bava-
rian) who assisted me a fact which gave me great pleas-
ure, as it served to confirm me in the opinion I have
long entertained of the great merit of Indian corn. He
assured me that polenta is much esteemed by the peas-
antry in Bavaria, and that it makes a very considerable
article of their food; that it comes from Italy through
the Tyrol, and that it is commonly sold in Bavaria a¢
the same price as wheatflour/ Can there be stronger
proofs of its merit ?

The negroes in America prefer it to rice, and the
Bavarian peasants to wheat. Why, then, should not
the inhabitants of this island like it? It will not, I
hope, be pretended that it is in this favoured soil alone
that prejudices take such deep root that they are never
to be eradicated, or that there is any thing peculiar in
the construction of the palate of an Englishman.

The objection that may be made to Indian corn —
that it does not thrive well in this country —is of no
weight. The same objection might, with equal reason,
be made to rice, and twenty other articles of food now
in common use.

It has ever been considered, by those versed in the
. science of political economy, as an object of the first
importance to keep down the prices of provisions, par-
ticularly in manufacturing and commercial countries ;
and, if there be a country on earth where this ought to
be done, it is surely Great Britain, and there is cer-
tainly no country which has the means of doing it so
much 1 in its power,

3
on
>
=

4 a.

eve eet

Of Food. 459

But the progress of national improvements must
be very slow, however favourable other circumstances
may be, where those citizens who, by their rank and
situation in society, are destined to direct the public
opinion, affect to consider the national prejudices as
unconquerable.* But to return to the subject imme-
diately under consideration.

Though hasty pudding is, I believe, the cheapest
food that can be prepared with Indian corn, yet several
other very cheap dishes may be made of it, which
in general are considered as being more palatable,
and which, most probably, would be preferred in this
country ; and, among: these, what in America is called
a plain Indian pudding certainly holds the first place,
and can hardly fail to be much liked by those who
will be persuaded to try it. It is not only cheap and
wholesome, but a great delicacy; and it is principally
on account of these puddings that the Americans who
reside in this country import annually for their own
consumption Indian corn from the continent of America.

In order to be able to give the most particular and
satisfactory information respecting the manner of pre-
paring these Indian puddings, I caused one of them
to be made here (in London), under my immediate
direction, by a person born and brought up in North
America, and who understands perfectly the American
art of cookery in all its branches.t This pudding,

* Those who dislike trouble, and feel themselves called upon by duty and
honour to take an active part in undertakings for the public good, are extremely
apt to endeavour to excuse —to themselves as well as to the world —their.
inactivity and supineness, by representing the undertaking in question as
being so very difficult as to make all hope of success quite chimerical and
ridiculous.

t The housekeeper of my friend and countryman, Sir William Pepperel,
Bart., of Upper Seymour Street, Portman Square.

460 : Of Food,

which was allowed by competent judges who tasted it
to be as good as they had ever eaten, was composed
and prepared in the following manner: —

Approved Receipt for making a plain Indian Pudding.

Three pounds of Indian meal (from which the bran
had been separated by sifting itin a common hair sieve)
were put into a large bowl, and five pints of boiling
water were put to it, and the whole well stirred to-
gether. Zhree quarters of a pound of molasses and
one ounce of salt were then added to it, and these being
well mixed, by stirring them with the other ingredients,
the pudding was poured into a fit bag; and the bag
being tied up (an empty space being left in the bag in
tying it, equal to about one sixth of its contents, for
giving room for the pudding to swell), this pudding was
put into a kettle of dociing water, and was boiled six
hours without intermission, the loss of the water in
the kettle by evaporation during this time being fre-
quently replaced with dozing water from another
kettle.

The pudding, upon being taken out of the bag,
weighed ¢ex pounds and one ounce ; and it was found
to be perfectly done, not having the smallest remains
of that raw taste so disagreeable to all palates, and
particularly to those who are not used to it, which
always predominates in dishes prepared of Indian meal
when they are not sufficiently cooked.

. As this raw taste is the only well-founded objection
that can be made to this most useful grain, and is, I
am persuaded, the only cause which makes it disliked
by those who are not accustomed to it, I would advise
those who may attempt to introduce it into common

Saal —

Of Food. : 461

use, where it is not known, to begin with Indian (bag)
puddings, such as I have here been describing ; and
that this is a very cheap kind of food will be evident
from the following computation : —

Expense of preparing the Indian Pudding above mentioned.

Pence.

3 lbs. of Indian meal, at 1}% 7 wwe. 44
wiv OL MoMsseS, ap Gd. 6 gk a 6 44
I oz. of salt, at 2d. perpound. . ... . of

Total for the ingredients. . . . of

As this pudding weighed 1075 lbs., and the ingre-
dients cost xznepence and half a farthing, this gives
three farthings and a half for each pound of pudding.

It will be observed that in this computation I have
reckoned the Indian meal at no more than 14d. per
pound, whereas in the calculation which was given to
determine the expense of preparing hasty pudding it
was taken at ¢wopence a pound. I have here reckoned
it at 13d. a pound, because I am persuaded it might
be had here in London for that price, and even for
less. That which has lately been imported from
Boston has not cost so much; and were it not for
the present universal scarcity of provisions in Europe,
which has naturally raised the price of grain in North
America, I have no doubt but Indian meal might be
had in this country for less than one penny farthing
per pound.

In composing the Indian pudding above mentioned,
the molasses is charged at 6d. the pound, but that
price is very exorbitant. A gallon of molasses weigh-
ing about 10 lbs. commonly costs in the West Indies
from 7d. to 9d. sterling; and allowing sufficiently for
the expenses of freight, insurance, and a fair profit for

462 : - Of Food.

the merchant, it certainly ought not to cost in London
more than ts. 8d. the gallon,* and this would bring it
to 2d. per pound.

If we take the prices of Indian meal and molasses
as they are here ascertained, and compute the expense
of the ingredients for the pudding before mentioned,
it will be as follows:—

Pence

3 lbs. of Indian meal, atid. . 1. 1. 33
$ lb. of molasses, at2@ 6 «+ sw iw ; I}
1 oz. ‘salt, ‘at-2d,.per pound. . cn. 8 of

Total 53

Now, as the pudding weighed 1074 lbs., this gives
two farthings, very nearly, for each pound of pudding;
which is certainly very cheap indeed, particularly when
the excellent qualities of the food are considered.

This pudding, which ought to come out of the bag
sufficiently hard to retain its form, and even to be cut
into slices, is so rich and palatable that it may very
well be eaten without any sauce; but those who can
afford it commonly eat it with butter. A slice of the
pudding, about half an inch or three quarters of an
inch in thickness, being laid hot upon a plate, an
excavation is made in the middle of it with the point
of the knife, into which a small piece of butter, as large
perhaps as a nutmeg, is put, and where it soon melts.
To expedite the melting of the butter, the small piece
of pudding which is cut out of the middle of the slice
to form the excavation for receiving the butter is fre:
quently laid over the butter for a few moments, and is
taken away (and eaten) as soon as the butter is melted,

* Molasses imported from the French West India Islands into the American
states is commonly sold there from 12d. to 14d. the gallon,

ee A ee ee
.

eee

Of Food. 463

If the butter is not salt enough, a little salt is put into
it after it is melted. The pudding is to be eaten with
a knife and fork, beginning-at the circumference of
the slice, and approaching regularly towards the centre,
each piece of pudding being taken up with the fork, and
dipped into the butter, or dipped into it 2% part only, as
is commonly the case, before it is carried to the mouth.

To those who are accustomed to view objects upon
a great scale, and who are too much employed in

‘directing what ought to be done to descend to those

humble investigations which are necessary to show
how it is to be effected, these details will doubtless
appear trifling and ridiculous; but, as my mind is
strongly impressed with the importance of giving the
most minute and circumstantial information respect-
ing the manner of performing any operation, however
simple it may be, to which people have not been accus-
tomed, I must beg the indulgence of those who may
not feel themselves particularly interested in these
descriptions.

In regard to the amount of the expense for sauce
for a plain Indian (bag) pudding, | have found that,
when butter is used for that purpose (and no other
sauce ought ever to be used with it), Zalf anu ounce of
butter will suffice for ove pound of the pudding. It
is very possible to contrive matters so as to use much
more, perhaps twice or three times as much: but if
the directions relative to the manner of eating this
food, which have already been given, are strictly fol-
lowed, the allowance of butter here determined will be
quite sufficient for the purpose for which it is designed ;
that is to say, for giving an agreeable relish to the
pudding. Those who are particularly fond of butter

464 ; Of Food.

may use three quarters of an ounce of it with a pound
of the pudding; but I am certain that to use an ounce
would be to waste it to no purpose whatever.

If now we reckon Irish or other firkin butter (which,
as it is salted, is the best that can be used) at eight-
pence the pound, the sauce for one pound of pudding,
namely, half an ounce of butter, will cost just ove
farthing ; and this, added to the cost of the pudding,
two farthings the pound, gives three farthings for the
cost by the pound of this kind of food, wzth cts sauce ;
and as this food is not only very rich and nutritive,
but satisfying at the same time in a very remarkable
degree, it appears how well calculated it is for feeding
the poor.

It should be remembered that the molasses used as
an ingredient in these Indian puddings does not serve
merely to give taste to them. It acts a still more
important part: it gives what, in the language of the
kitchen, is called Zghtness. It is a substitute for eggs,
and nothing but eggs can serve as a substitute for
it, except it be treacle, which in fact is a kind of
molasses; or perhaps coarse brown sugar, which has
nearly the same properties. It prevents the pudding
from being heavy and clammy; and without commu-
nicating. to it any disagreeable sweet taste, or any thing
of that flavour peculiar to molasses, gives it a richness
uncommonly pleasing to the palate. And to this we
may add, that it is nutritive in a very extraordinary
degree. This is a fact well known in all countries
where sugar is made.

How far the laws and regulations of trade existing
in this country might render it difficult to procure
molasses from those places where it may be had at the

‘il
#
a
my
:

Of Food. 465.

cheapest rate, I know not; nor can I tell how far the
free importation of it might be detrimental to our
public finances. I cannot, however, help thinking that
it is so great an object to this country to keep down
the prices of provisions, or rather to check the alarm-
ing celerity with which they are rising, that means
ought to be found to facilitate the importation, and
introduction into common use, of an article of food of
such extensive utility. It might serve to correct, in
some measure, the baleful influence of another article
of foreign produce (tea), which is doing infinite harm
in this island.

A point of great importance in preparing an Indian
pudding is to boil it properly and sufficiently. The
water must be actually boiling when the pudding is
- put into it, and it never must be suffered to cease
boiling for a moment, till it is done; and, if the pud-
ding is not boiled full six hours, it will not be suffi-
ciently cooked. Its hardness, when done, will depend
on the space left in the bag for its expansion. The
consistency of the pudding ought to be such that it
can be taken out of the bag without falling to pieces;
but it is always better, on many accounts, to make it
too hard than too soft. The form of the pudding may
be that of a cylinder, or rather of a truncated cone,
the largest end being towards the mouth of the bag,
in order that it may be got out of the bag with greater
facility; or it may be made of a globular form, by ty-
ing it up in a napkin. But, whatever is the form of
the pudding, the bag or napkin in which it is to be
boiled must be wet in boiling water before the pudding
(which is quite liquid before it is boiled) is poured

into it; otherwise it will be apt to run through the cloth.
VOL. IV. 30

466 é Of Food.

Though this pudding is so good perfectly plain,
when made according to the directions here given, that
I do not think it capable of any real improvement,
yet there are various additions that may be made to it,
and that frequently are made to it, which may perhaps
be thought by some to render it more palatable, or
otherwise to improve it. Swe¢ may, for instance, be
added, and there is no suet pudding whatever superior
to it; and, as no sauce is necessary with a suet pud-
ding, the expense for the suet will be nearly balanced
by the saving of butter. To a pudding of the size of
that just described, in the composition of which three
pounds of Indian meal were used, one pound of suet
will be sufficient; and this, in general, will not cost
more than from fivepence to sixpence, even in London;
and the butter for sauce to a plain pudding of the same
size would cost nearly as much. The suet pudding
will indeed be rather the cheapest of the two, for the
pound of suet will add a pound in weight to the pud-
ding, whereas the butter will only add five ounces.

As the pudding made plain, weighing 107¢ |bs., cost
58 pence, the same pudding, with the addition of
one pound of suet, would weigh 117 lbs. and would
cost 113 pence, reckoning the suet at sixpence the
pound. Hence it appears that Indian suet pudding
may be made in London for about oe penny a pound,
Wheaten bread, which is by no means so palatable,
and certainly not half so nutritive, now costs something
more than threepence the pound; and to this may be
added, that dry bread can hardly be eaten alone, but
of suet pudding a very comfortable meal may be made
without any thing else.

A pudding in great repute in all parts of North

Of Food. 467

America, is what is called an apple pudding. This is
an Indian pudding, sometimes with and sometimes
without suet, with dried cuttings of sweet apples mixed
with it; and, when eaten with butter, it is most delicious
food. These apples, which are pared as soon as they
are gathered from the tree, and being cut into small
pieces are freed from their cores, and thoroughly dried
in the sun, may be kept good for several years. The
proportions of the ingredients used in making these
apple puddings are various; but, in general, about one
pound of dried apples is mixed with three pounds of
meal, three quarters of a pound of molasses, half an
ounce of salt, and five pints of boiling water.

In America, various kinds of berries, found wild in
the woods, such as huckle-berries, bil-berries, whortle-
berries, etc., are gathered and dried, and afterwards used
as ingredients in Indian puddings; and dried cherries
and plums may be made use of in the same manner.

All these Indian puddings have this advantage in
common, that they are very good warmed up. They
will all keep good several days ; and, when cut into thin
slices and toasted, are an excellent substitute for bread.

It will doubtless be remarked that, in computing the
expense of providing these different kinds of puddings,
I have taken no notice of the expense which will be
necessary for fuel to cook them. This is an article
which ought undoubtedly to be taken into the account.
The reason of my not doing it here is this. Having,
in the course of my experiments on heat, found means
to perform all the common operations of cookery with ©
a surprisingly small expense of fuel, I find that the
expense in question, when the proper arrangements
are made for saving fuel, will be very trifling. And

468 ~ Of Food.

farther, as I mean soon to publish my Treatise on the
Management of Heat, in which I shall give the most
ample directions relative to the mechanical arrange-
ments of kitchen fire-places, and the best forms for all
kinds of kitchen utensils, I was desirous not to antici-
pate a subject which will more naturally find its place
in another Essay. In the mean time I would observe,
for the satisfaction of those who may have doubts
respecting the smallness of the expense necessary for
fuel in cooking for the poor, that the result of many
experiments, of which I shall hereafter publish a par-
ticular account, has proved in the most satisfactory
manner that, when food is prepared in large quantities,
and cooked in kitchens properly arranged, the expense
for fuel ought never to amount to more than ¢wo per
cent of the cost of the food, even where victuals of the
cheapest kind are provided, such as is commonly used
in feeding the poor. In the public kitchen of the
House of Industry at Munich, the expense for fuel is
less than one per cent of the cost of the food, as may
be seen in the computation, page 413, Chapter III. of
this Essay; and it ought not to be greater in many
parts of Great Britain.
With regard to the price at which Indian corn can
be imported into this country from North America in
time of peace, the following information, which I pro-
cured through the medium of a friend from Captain
Scott, a most worthy man, who has been constantly
employed above thirty years as master of a ship in the
trade between London and Boston in the State of Mas-
sachusetts, will doubtless be considered as authentic.*

* This gentleman, who is as remarkable for his good fortune at sea as he is
respectable on account of his private character and professional knowledge, has

Of Food. 469

The following are the questions which were put to
him, with his answers to them: —

Q. What is the freight, per ton, of inerchandise
from Boston in North America to London in time of
peace ?— A. Forty shillings (sterling).

Q. What is the freight, per barrel, of Indian corn? —
A. Five shillings. | .

Q. How much fer cent is paid for zzsurance from
Boston to London in time of peace?— A. Two fer
cent.

Q. What is the medium price of Indian corn, per
bushel, in New Bngland?— A. Two shillings and six-
pence. |
~ Q. What is the price of it at this time ? — A. Three
shillings and sixpence.

Q. How many bushels of Indian corn are reckoned
to a barrel? — A. Four.

From this account it appears that Indian corn
might, in time of peace, be imported into this country
and sold here for less than four shillings the bushel,
and that it ought not to cost at this moment much —
more than five shillings a bushel.

If it be imported in casks (which is certainly the
best way of packing it), as the freight of a barrel con-
taining four bushels is five shillings, this gives 1s. 3d.
a bushel for freight; and if we add ove penny a bushel
for insurance, this will make the amount of freight and

crossed the Atlantic Ocean the almost incredible number of one hundred and ten
times, and without meeting with the smallest accident. He is now on the seas in ~
his way to North America ; and this voyage, which is his hundred and eleventh,
he intends should be his last. May he arrive safe, and may he long enjoy in
peace and quiet the well-earned fruits of his laborious life! Who can reflect on
the innumerable storms he must have experienced, and perils he has escaped,
without feeling much interested in his preservation and happiness?

470 Of Food. |

insurance 1s. 4d., which, added to the prime cost of the
corn in America (2s. 6d. per bushel in the time of
peace, and 3s. 6d, at this time), will bring it to 3s. 10d.
per bushel in time of peace, and 4s. 10d. at this present
moment. . |

A bushel of Indian corn of the growth of New Eng-
land was found to weigh 61 lbs.; but we will suppose
it to weigh at a medium only 60 lbs. per bushel, and
we will also suppose that to each bushel of corn when
ground there is 9 lbs. of bran, which is surely a very
large allowance, and 1 lb. of waste in grinding and
sifting: this will leave 50 lbs. of flour for each bushel
of the corn; and as it will cost, in time of peace, only
3s. 10a, or 46 pence, this gives for each pound of flour
$¢ of a penny, or 3} farthings very nearly.

If the price of the Indian corn per bushel be taken
at 4s. 10d, what it ought to cost at this time in Lon-
don, without any bounty on importation being brought
into the account, the price of the flour will be 4s. 10d,
equal to 58 pence for 50 lbs. in weight, or 1§ penny
the pound, which is less than one third of the pres-
ent price of wheat-flour, Rice, which is certainly not
more nourishing than Indian corn, costs 43 pence the
pound,

If +s of the value of Indian corn be added to defray
the expense of grinding it, the price of the flour will
not even then be greater in London than ome penny
the pound in time of peace, and about one penny far-
thing at the present high price of that grain in North
America. Hence it appears that, in stating the mean
price in London of the flour of Indian corn at one
penny farthing, 1 have rather rated it too high than
too low.

—-s) | —--

Of Food. 47V

With regard to the expense of importing it, there
may be, and doubtless there are frequently, other —
expenses besides those of fréight and insurance; but,
on the other hand, a very considerable part of the
expenses attending the importation of it may be reim-
bursed by the profits arising from the sale of the bar-
rels in which it is imported, as I have been informed
by a person who imports it every year, and always
avails himself of that advantage.

One circumstance much in favor of the introduction
of Indian corn into common use in this country is the
facility with which it may be had in any quantity. It
grows in all quarters of the globe, and almost. in every
climate; and in hot countries two or three crops of it
may be raised from the same ground in the course of
a year. It succeeds equally well in the cold regions
of Canada, in the temperate climes of the United
States of America, and in the burning heats of the
tropics; and it might be had from Africa and Asia as
well as from America. And were it even true — what
I never can be persuaded to believe — that it would be
impossible to introduce it as an article of food in this
country, it might at least be used as fodder for cattle,
whose aversion to it, I will venture to say, would not
be found to be wxconguerable.

Oats now cost near twopence the pound in this
country. Indian corn, which would cost but a little
more than half as much, would certainly be much more
nourishing, even for horses, as well as for horned cat-
tle; and as for hogs and poultry, they ought never to
be fed with any other grain. Those who have tasted
the perk and the poultry fatted on Indian corn will
readily give their assent to this opinion.

472 ; Of food.

CHAPTER “Vit.

Receipts for preparing various Kinds of cheap Food.
— Of Maccaroni.— Of Portators.— Approved
Receipts for boiling Potatoes.— Of Potato Pud-
dings. — Of Potato Dumplings. — Of boiled Po-
tatoes with a Sauce.— Of Potato Salad.— Of
BARLEY ; zs much more nutritious than Wheat.—
Barley Meal a good Substitute for Pearl Barley,
for making Soups.— General Directions for pre-
paring cheap Soups. — Receipt for the cheapest Soup
that can be made.— Of Samp — Method of pre-
paring tt.—— 1s an excellent Substitute for Bread. —
Of burnt Soup.— Of Rye BreEap.

RA ES I began writing the foregoing chapter of
this Essay, I had hopes of being able to pro-
cure satisfactory information respecting the manner in
which the maccaroni eaten by the poor in Italy, and
particularly in the kingdom of Naples, is prepared;
but, though I have taken much pains in making these
inquiries, my success in them has not been such as I
could have wished. The process, I have often been
told, is very simple; and from the very low price at
which maccaroni is sold, ready cooked, to the /azza-
vont in the streets of Naples, it cannot be expensive.
There is a better kind of maccaroni, which is prepared
and sold by the nuns in some of the convents in Italy,
which is much dearer; but this sort would in any
country be too expensive to be used as food for the
poor. It is, however, not dearer than many kinds of
food used by the poor in this country; and as it is very

Of Food. 473

palatable and wholesome, and may be used in a variety
of ways, a receipt for preparing it may perhaps not be’ —
unacceptable to many of my readers.

A Receipt for making that Kind of Maccaroni called
a” [taly TAGLIATI.

Take any number of fresh-laid eggs and break them
into a bowl or tray; beat them up with a spoon, but not
to afroth. Add of the finest wheat-flour as much as is
necessary to form a dough of the consistence of paste.
Work this paste well with a rolling-pin; roll it out
into very thin leaves; lay ten or twelve of these leaves
one upon the other, and with a sharp knife cut them
into very fine threads. These threads (which, if the
mass is of a proper consistency, will not adhere to each
other) are to be laid on a clean board, or on paper, and
dried in the air.

This maccaroni (or cut paste, as it is called in Ger-
many, where it is in great repute) may be eaten in
various ways; but the most common way of using it
is to eat it with milk instead of bread, and with chicken
broth, and other broths and soups, with which it is
boiled. With proper care, it may be kept good for
many months.

It is sometimes fried in butter, and, in this way of
cooking it, it forms a most excellent dish indeed, —
inferior, I believe, to no dish of flour that can be made.
It is not, however, a very cheap dish, as eggs and
butter are both expensive articles in most countries.

An inferior kind of cu¢ paste is sometimes prepared ©
by the poor in Germany, which is made simply of
water and wheat-flour, and this has more resemblance
to common maccaroni than that just described, and

474 Of Food.

might, in many cases, be used instead oi it. Ido not
think, however, that it can be kept long without spoil-
ing; whereas, maccaroni, as is well known, may be
kept good for a great length of time. Though I have
not been able to get any satisfactory information rela-
tive to the process of making maccaroni, yet I have
made some experiments to ascertain the expense of
cooking it, and of the cost of the cheese necessary for
giving it a relish,

Halfa pound of maccaroni, which was purchased at
an Italian shop in London, and which cost tenpence,*
was boiled till it was sufficiently done, — namely, about
one hour and a half,— when, being taken out of the
boiling water and weighed, it was found to weigh
thirty-one ounces and a half, or one pound fifteen
ounces and a half. The quantity of cheese employed
to give a relish to this dish of boiled maccaroni (and
which was grated over it after it was put into the dish)
was one ounce, and cost two farthings.

Maccaroni is considered as very cheap food in those
countries where it is prepared in the greatest perfection,
and where it is in common use among the lower classes
of society ; and as wheat, of which grain it is always
made, is a staple commodity in this country, it would
certainly be worth while to take some trouble to intro-
duce the manufacture of it, particularly as it is already
become an article of luxury upon the tables of the rich,

* This maccaroni would not probably have cost one quarter of that sum
at Naples. Common maccaroni is frequently sold there as low as fourteen
grains, equal to fivepence halfpenny sterling the rottolo, weighing twenty-
eight ounces and three quarters avoirdupois, which is threepence sterling
the pound avoirdupois. An inferior kind of maccaroni, such as is commonly
sold at Naples to the poor, costs not more than twopence sterling the pound
avoirdupois.

Of Food. 475

and as great quantities of it are annually imported and
sold here at a most exorbitant price.* But maccaroni
is by no means the cheapest food that can be provided
for feeding the poor in this island; nor do I believe
it is so in any country. Polenta, or [udian corn, of
which so much has already been said; and fotatoes,
of which too much cannot be said,—are both much
better adapted, in all respects, for that purpose. Mac-
caroni would, however, I am persuaded, could it be
prepared in this country, be much less expensive than
many kinds of food now commonly used by our poor,
and consequently might be of considerable use to
them. pare
With regard to fotazoes, they are now so generally
known, and their usefulness is so universally acknowl-
edged, that it would be a waste of time to attempt to
recommend them. I shall therefore content myself
with merely giving receipts for a few cheap dishes in
which they are employed as a principal ingredient.
Though there is no article used as food of which
a greater variety of well-tasted and wholesome dishes
may be prepared than of potatoes, yet it seems to be
the unanimous opinion of those who are most ac-
quainted with these useful vegetables that the best
way of cooking them is to boil them simply, and with
their skins on, in water. But the manner of boiling
them is by no means a matter of indifference. This
* If maccaroni could be made in this country as cheap as it is made in
Naples —that is to say, so as to be afforded for threepence sterling the pound
avoirdupois, for the best sort (and I do not see why it should not), —as half a.
pound of dry maccaroni weighs when boiled very nearly two pounds, each
pound of boiled maccaroni would cost only three farthings, and the cheese
necessary for giving it a relish one farthing more, making together one

penny, which is certainly a very moderate price for such good and whole-
some food.

476 ; Of Food.

process is better understood in Ireland, where by much
the greater part of the inhabitants live almost entirely
on this food, than anywhere else.

This is what might have been expected; but those
who have never considered with attention the extreme
slowness of the progress of national improvements,
where nobody takes pains to accelerate them, will doubt-
less be surprised when they are told that in most
parts of England, though the use of potatoes all over
the country has for so many years been general, yet
to this hour few, comparatively, who eat them, know
how to dress them properly. The inhabitants of
those countries which lie on the sea-coast opposite to
Ireland have adopted the Irish method of boiling pota-
toes; but it is more than probable that a century at
least would have been required for those improvements
to have made their way through the island, had not
the present alarms on account of a scarcity of grain
roused the public, and fixed their attention upon a sub-
ject too long neglected in this enlightened country.

The introduction of improvements tending to in-
crease the comforts and innocent enjoyments of that
numerous and useful class of mankind who earn their
bread by the sweat of their brow is an object not more
interesting to a benevolent mind than it is important
in the eyes of an enlightened statesman.

There are, without doubt, great men who will smile
at seeing these observations connected with a subject
so humble and obscure as the boiling of potatoes, but
good men will feel that the subject is not unworthy of
their attention.

The following directions for boiling potatoes, which
I have copied from a late report of the Board of

z
>
{

Of Food. 477

Agriculture, I can recommend from my own experi-
ence : —

On the Boiling of Potatoes, so as to be eaten as Bread.

“ There is nothing that would tend more to promote
the consumption of potatoes than to have the proper
mode of preparing them as food generally known. In
London, this is little attended to; whereas, in Lan-
cashire and Ireland, the boiling of potatoes is brought
to very great perfection indeed. When prepared in
the following manner, if the quality of the root is good,
they may be eaten as bread, —a practice not unusual in
Ireland. The potatoes should be, as much as possible,
of the same size, and the large and small ones boiled
separately. They must be washed clean, and, without
paring or scraping, put in a pot with cold water, not
sufficient to cover them, as they will produce them-
selves, before they boil, a considerable quantity of fluid.
They do not admit being put into a vessel of boiling
water like greens. If the potatoes are tolerably large,
it will be necessary, as soon as they begin to boil, to
throw in some cold water, and occasionally to repeat it,
till the potatoes are boiled to the heart (which will take
from half an hour to an hour and a quarter, according
to their size): they will otherwise crack, and burst to
pieces on the outside, whilst the inside will be nearly
in a crude state, and consequently very unpalatable and
unwholesome. During the boiling, throwing in a little
salt occasionally is found a great improvement; and
it is certain that the slower they are cooked, the better. .
When boiled, pour off the water, and evaporate the
moisture, by replacing the vessel in which the potatoes
were boiled once more over the fire. This makes

478 Of Food.

them remarkably dry and mealy. They should be
brought to the table with the skins on, and eaten witha
little salt, as bread. Nothing but experience can sat-
isfy any one how superior the potato is, thus prepared,
if the sort is good and mealy. Some prefer roasting
potatoes; but the mode above detailed, extracted partly
from the interesting paper of Samuel Hayes, Esq.,
of Avondale, in Ireland (Report on the Culture of
Potatoes, p. 103), and partly from the Lancashire re-
printed Report (p. 63), and other communications to
the Board, is at least equal, if not superior. Some
have tried boiling potatoes in steam, thinking by that
process that they must imbibe less water. But immer-
sion in water causes the discharge of a certain sub-
stance, which the steam alone is incapable of doing,
and by retaining which the flavour of the root is in-
jured, and they afterwards become dry by being put
over the fire a second time without water. With a little
butter, or milk, or fish, they make an excellent mess.”

These directions are so clear that it is hardly possi-
ble to mistake them; and those who follow them ex-
actly will find their potatoes surprisingly improved, and
will be convinced that the manner of boiling them is a
matter of much greater importance than has hitherto
been imagined.

Were this method of boiling potatoes generally
known in countries where these vegetables are only
beginning to make their way into common use,—as
in Bavaria, for instance,—I have no doubt but it
would contribute more than any thing else to their
speedy introduction.

The following account of an experiment, lately made

Of Food. 479

in one of the parishes of this metropolis (London), was
communicated to me by a friend, who has permitted
me to publish it. It will serve to show— what I am
most anxious to make appear—that the prejudices of
the poor in regard to their food ave not uncouguerable.

February 25th, 1796.
The parish Gthcers of Saint Olaves, Southwark,

desirous of contributing their aid towards lessening
the consumption of wheat, resolved on the following
succedaneum for their customary suet pudding, which
they give to their poor for dinner one day in the week,
which was ordered as follows : —

’ H . 8; 1h.
200 Ibs. potatoes, boiled and skinned and mashed o 8 oO
2 gallons of milk Oe Ree
12 lbs. of suet, at 44a. o 4 6
1 peck of flour o 4 0
Baking . Oo -f8
Expense. . . 2 Pb o@ 6

Their ordinary suet pudding had been made
thus : —

oar ae
WS HOMOIIEMAE 5 Sse a ae hte DERE FO
12 Ibs. suet : o 4 6
Baking . o 1 8
Expense... «... ‘ 18." if

Cost of the ingredients for the potato suet Sua
ER GE Ptah il fu ee a aa tr es a cca ag 6a.
Differences a. 6, O17 1S

This was the dinner provided for 200 persons, who
gave a decided preference to the cheapest of these prep- ©
arations, and wish it to be continued.

The following baked potato puddings were pre-
pared in the hotel where I lodge, and were tasted by a

480 4 Of Food.

number of persons, who found them in general very
palatable : — |
Baked Potato Puddings.

No. I. fia

12 ounces of potatoes, boiled, skinned, and mashed.
I ounce of suet.

- I ounce (or jy of a pint) of milk, and
1 ounce of Gloucester cheese.

Total, 15 ounces, mixed with as much boiling water as was necessary to
bring it to a due consistence, and then baked in an earthen pan.

No. II.

12 ounces of mashed potatoes as before.
1 ounce of milk, and
I ounce of suet with a sufficient quantity of salt. Mixed up with
boiling water, and baked in a pan.

No. III.

12 ounces of mashed potatoes.
I ounce of suet.
I ounce of red herrings pounded fine in a mortar. Mixed, baked,
etc., as before. ;

No. IV.

12 ounces of mashed potatoes.
1 ounce of suet, and
1 ounce of hung beef grated fine with a grater. Mixed and baked
as before. :

These puddings when baked weighed from 11 to
12 ounces each. They were all liked by those who
tasted them, but No. 1 and No. 3 seemed to meet with
the most general approbation.

Receipt for a very cheap Potato Dumpling.

Take any quantity of potatoes, half boiled; skin or
pare them, and grate them to a coarse powder with a
grater; mix them up with a very small quantity of flour,

Of Food. 481

7s, for instance, of the weight of the potatoes, or even
less; add a seasoning of salt, pepper, and sweet herbs;
mix up the whole with boiling water to a proper con-
sistency, and form the mass into dumplings of the size
of alarge apple. Roll the dumplings, when formed, in
flour, to prevent the water from penetrating them, and
put them into boiling water, and boil them till they rise
to the surface of the water and swim, when they will
be found to be sufficiently done.

These dumplings may be made very savoury by mix-
ing with them a small quantity of grated hung beef or
of pounded red herring.

Fried bread may likewise be mixed with them; and
this without any other addition, except a seasoning of
salt, forms an excellent dish.

Upon the same principles upon which these dump-
lings are prepared, large boiled bag-puddings may be
made; and for feeding the poor in a public establish-
ment, where great numbers are to be fed, puddings, as
there is less trouble in preparing them, are always to
be preferred to dumplings.

It would swell this Essay (which has already exceeded
the limits assigned to it) to the size of a large volume:
were I to give receipts for all the good dishes that may
be prepared with potatoes. There is, however, one
method of preparing potatoes much in use in many
parts of Germany, which appears to me to deserve be-
ing particularly mentioned and recommended. It is
as follows : —

A Receipt for preparing boiled Potatoes with a Sauce.

The potatoes, being properly boiled and skinned, are

cut into slices, and put into a dish; and a sauce, simi-
VOL. IV. 31

482 ; Of Food.

lar to that commonly used with a fricasseed chicken, is
poured over them.

This makes an excellent and a very wholesome dish,
but more calculated, it is true, for the tables of the
opulent than for the poor. Good sauces might, how-
ever, be composed for this dish which would not be
expensive. Common milk-porridge, made rather thicker
than usual with wheat-flour, and well salted, would not
be a bad sauce for it.

Potato Salad.

A dish in high repute in some parts of Germany, and
which deserves to be particularly recommended, is a
salad of potatoes. The potatoes being properly boiled
and skinned are cut into thin slices, and the same sauce
which is commonly used for salads of lettuce is poured
over them. Some mix anchovies with this sauce, which
gives it a very agreeable relish, and with pace it is
remarkably palatable.

Boiled potatoes cut in slices, and fried in butter or
in lard, and seasoned with salt and pepper, is likewise a
very palatable and wholesome dish.

Of Barley.

I have more than once mentioned the extraordinary
nutritive powers of this grain, and the use of it in feed-
ing the poor cannot be too strongly recommended.
It is now beginning to be much used in this country,
mixed with wheat-flour, for making bread ; but it is not,
I am persuaded, in bread, but in soups, that barley can
be employed to the greatest advantage. It is astonish-
ing how much water a small quantity of barley-meal
will thicken and change to the consistency of a jelly;

a a a eee ee: ee =
- i? * poe

a ee ee ee eS

Of Food, 483

and, if my suspicions with regard to the part which

water acts in nutrition are founded, this will enable

us to account not only for the nutritive quality of
barley, but also for the same quality in a still higher
degree which sago and salop are known to possess.
Sago and salop thicken and change to the consistency
of a jelly (and, as I suppose, prepare for decomposition)
a greater quantity of water than barley, and both sago

and salop are known to be nutritious in a very extraor-

dinary degree.

Barley will thicken and change to a jelly much more
water than any other grain with which we are acquainted,
rice even not excepted; and I have found reason to
conclude from the result of innumerable experiments,
which in the course of several years have been made
under my direction in the public kitchen of the House
of Industry at Munich, that for making soups barley
is by far the best grain that can be employed.

Were I called upon to give an opinion in regard to
the comparative nutritiousness of barley-meal and wheat-
flour when used tn soups, 1 should not hesitate to say
that I think the former at least three or four times as
nutritious as the latter.

Scotch broth is known to be one of the most nourish-
ing dishes in common use; and there is no doubt but
it owes its extraordinary nutritive quality to the Scotch
(or pearl) barley which is always used in preparing it. If
the barley be omitted, the broth will be found to be poor
and washy, and will afford little nourishment; but
any of the other ingredients may be retrenched, even
the meat, without impairing very sensibly the nutritive
quality of the food. Its flavour and palatableness may
be impaired by such retrenchments; but, if the water

484 Of Food.

be well thickened with the barley, the food will still be
very nourishing.

In preparing the soup used in feeding the poor in the
House of Industry at Munich, pearl barley has hitherto
been used; but I have found, by some experiments I
have lately made in London, that pearl barley is by no
means necessary, as common barley-meal will answer,
to all intents and purposes, just as well. In one re-
spect it answers better, for it does not require half so
much boiling.

In comparing cheap soups for feeding the poor, the
following short and plain directions will be found to be
useful : — |

General Directions for preparing cheap Soup.

First. Each portion of soup should consist of ove
pint and a quarter, which, if the soup be rich, will
afford a good meal to a grown person. Such a por-
tion will in general weigh about onze pound and a
quarter, or twenty ounces avoirdupois.

Secondly. The basis of each portion of soup should
consist of oe ounce and a quarter of barley-meal, boiled
with oxe pint and a quarter of water till the whole be
reduced to the uniform consistency of a thick jelly. All
other additions to the soup do little else than serve to

make it more palatable, or, by rendering a long mastica- -

tion necessary, to increase and prolong the pleasure of
eating. Both these objects are, however, of very great
importance, and too much attention cannot be paid to
them; but both of them may, with proper management,
be attained without much expense.

Were I asked to give a receipt for the cheapest food
which (in my opinion) it would be possible to provide
in this country, it would be the following: —

,
- ]
‘

h
id

ain TP ER 8

Of Food. 485

Receipt for a very cheap Soup.

Take of water eight gallons, and mixing with it 5 lbs.
of barley-meal boil it to the consistency of a thick
jelly. Season it with salt, pepper, vinegar, sweet herbs,
and four red herrings pounded in a mortar. Instead
of bread, add to it 5 lbs. of Indian corn made into samf,
and stirring it together with a ladle serve it up imme-
diately in portions cf 20 ounces.

Samp, which is here recommended, is a dish said to
have been invented by the savages of North America,
who have no corn-mills. It is Indian corn deprived of
its external coat by soaking it ten or twelve hours in a
lixivium of water and wood-ashes. This coat or husk,
being separated from the kernel, rises to the surface
of the water, while the grain, which is specifically
heavier than water, remains at the bottom of the vessel;
which grain, thus deprived of its hard coat of armour,
is boiled, or rather simmered, for a great length of time,—
two days, for instance, — in a kettle of water placed near
the fire. When sufficiently cooked, the kernels will be
found to be swelled to a great size and burst open; and
this food, which is uncommonly sweet and nourishing,
may be used in a great variety of ways, but the best
way of using it is to mix it with milk, and with soups
and broths, as a substitute for bread. It is even better
than bread for these purposes; for, besides being quite
as palatable as the very best bread, as it is less liable
than bread to grow too soft when mixed with these
liquids, without being disagreeably hard it requires
more mastication, and consequently tends more to
increase and prolong the pleasure of eating.

The soup which may be prepared with the quantities

486 Of Food.

of ingredients mentioned in the foregoing receipt will
be sufficient for 64 portions, and the cost of these
ingredients will be as follows :—

For 5 lbs. of barley-meal, at 1} pence, the barley
being reckoned at the present very high price

of it in this country, viz., 5s. 6a. per bushel. . 74

5 lbs. of Indian corn, at 14 pence the pound . . = 64
4:red herrings. Lea a 9 3
Vinegars see... oul nnn? eseshigi py cg ee ae eee I
SS es ter oe fee: a yk | ee nS I
Pepper and sweet herbs)... 2 1 2 ee ee 2

Total 209

This sum (203 pence) divided by 64, the number of
portions of soup, gives something less than ome third
of a penny for the cost of each portion. But at the
medium price of barley in Great Britain, and of Indian
corn as it may be afforded here, I am persuaded that
this soup may be provided at one farthing the portion
of 20 ounces.

There is another kind of soup in great repute among
the poor people, and indeed among the opulent farmers
in Germany, which would not come much higher. This
is what is called duxn¢ soup, or, as I should rather call
it, drown soup, and it is prepared in the following
manner : —

Receipt for making Brown Soup.

Take a small piece of butter and put it over the fire
in a clean frying-pan made of iron (not copper, for that
metal used for this purpose would be poisonous), put to
it a few spoonfuls of wheat or rye-meal; stir the whole
about briskly with a broad wooden spoon, or rather
knife, with a broad and thin edge, till the butter has dis-
appeared and the meal is uniformly of a deep brown

a a oe

Of Food. 487

colour, great care being taken, by stirring it contin-
ually, to prevent the meal from being burned to the
pan. | |

A very small quantity of this roasted meal (perhaps
half an ounce in weight would be sufficient), being put
into a saucepan and boiled with a pint and a quarter of
water, forms a portion of soup, which, when seasoned
with salt, pepper, and vinegar, and eaten with bread cut
fine and mixed with it at the moment when it is served

up, makes a kind of food by no means unpalatable, and

which is said to be very wholesome. 3

As this soup may be prepared in a very short time,
an instant being sufficient for boiling it; and as. the
ingredients for making it are very cheap, and may be
easily transported, this food is much used in Bavaria
by our wood-cutters, who go into the mountains far from
any habitations to fell wood. Their provisions for a
week (the time they commonly remain in the moun-
tains) consist of a large loaf of rye bread (which, as it
does not so soon grow dry and stale as wheaten bread,
is always preferred to it), a linen bag containing a small
quantity of roasted meal, another small bag of salt,
and a small wooden box containing some pounded
black pepper, with a small frying-pan of hammered
iron, about ten or eleven inches in diameter, which
serves them both as an utensil for cooking and as a dish
for containing the victuals when cooked. They some-
times, but not often, take with them a small bottle of
vinegar; but black pepper is an ingredient in brown
soup which is never omitted. Two table-spoonfuls of ©
roasted meal is quite enough to make a good portion
of soup for one person, and the quantity of butter
necessary to be used in roasting this quantity of meal

488 c Of Food.

is very small, and will cost very little. One ounce of
butter would be sufficient for roasting eight ounces of
meal; and, if half an ounce of roasted meal is sufficient
for making one portion of soup, the dz¢¢er will not
amount to more than 7g of an ounce, and, at eight-
pence the pound, will cost only sy of a penny, or } of
a farthing. The cost of the meal for a portion of this
soup is not much more considerable. If it be rye-meal

(which is said to be quite as good for roasting as the

finest wheat-flour), it will not cost in this country, even
now when grain is so dear, more than 13d. per pound:
4.an ounce, therefore, the quantity required for one
portion of the soup, would cost only gy of a farthing,
and the meal and butter together no more than ($+ 33)
= 4$, or something less than 4 of a farthing. If to this
sum we add the cost of the ingredients used to season
the soup, — namely, for sad¢, pepper, and vinegar, allow-
ing for them as much as the amount of the cost of the
butter and the meal, or $ of a farthing, — this will give
# of a farthing for the cost of the ingredients used in
preparing one portion of this soup; but, as the bread
which is eaten with it is an expensive article, this
food will not, upon the whole, be cheaper than the
soup just mentioned, and it is certainly neither so
nourishing nor so wholesome.

Brown soup might, however, on certain occasions,
be found to be useful. As it is so soon cooked, and as
the ingredients for making it are so easily prepared,
preserved, and transported from place to place, it might
be useful to travellers and to soldiers ona march. And
though it can hardly be supposed to be of itself very
nourishing, yet it is possible it may render the bread
eaten with it not only more nutritive, but also more

ee es

Of Food. 489

wholesome; and it certainly renders it more savoury
and palatable. It is the common breakfast of the
peasants in Bavaria; and it is infinitely preferable, in
all respects, to that most pernicious wash, ¢ea, with
which the lower classes of the inhabitants of this island
drench their stomachs, and ruin their constitutions.
When tea is mixed with a sufficient quantity of
sugar and good cream; when it is taken with a large
quantity of bread and butter, or with toast and boiled
eggs; and, above all, when zt zs not drunk too hot,
it is certainly less unwholesome; but a simple infusion
of this drug, drunk boiling hot, as the poor usually take
it, is certainly a poison which, though it is sometimes
slow in its operation, never fails to produce very fatal
effects, even in the strongest constitution, where the
free use of it is continued for a considerable length

of time.
Of Rye Bread.

The prejudice in this island against bread made of
rye is the more extraordinary, as in many parts of the
country no other kind of bread is used, and as the
general use of it in many parts of Europe, for ages, has
proved it to be perfectly wholesome. In those coun-
tries where it is in common use, many persons prefer
it to bread made of the best wheat-flour; and though
wheaten bread is commonly preferred to it, yet I am
persuaded that the general dislike of it, where it is not
much in use, is more owing to its being dadly prepared,
or not well baked, than to any thing else.

As an account of some experiments upon baking rye |
bread, which were made under my immediate care and
inspection in the bake-house of the House of Industry
at Munich, may perhaps be of use to those who wish

490 E Of Food.

to know how good rye bread may be prepared, and
also to such as are desirous of ascertaining, by similar
experiments, what in any given case the profits of a
baker really are, I shall publish an account in detail of
these experiments, in the Appendix.*

I cannot conclude this Essay, without once more
recommending, in the most earnest manner, to the
attention of the public, and more especially to the at-
tention of all those who are engaged in public affairs,
the subject which has here been attempted to be in-
vestigated. It is certainly of very great importance,
in whatever light it is considered, and it is particularly
so at the present moment. or however statesmen may
differ in opinion with respect to the danger or expedt-
ency of making any alteration in the constitution or
established forms of government, in times of popular
commotion, no doubts can be entertained with respect to
the policy of diminishing, as much as possible, at all
times, — and more especially in times like the present, —
the misery of the lower classes of the people.

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s Essays,
Vol. I., pp. 189-299.]

* See page 529.

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A SHORT ACCOUNT é
; OF <n .
‘SI ERAL PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS LATELY |
FORMED IN BAVARIA;
TOGETHER WITH THE fea
__APPENDIXES: TO THE LAST. biti PAPERS.

SHORT ACCOUNT OF SEVERAL PUBLIC INSTI-
TUTIONS LATELY. FORMED IN BAVARIA.

A short Account of the Miltary Academy at
Munich.

HOUGH it is certain that too much learning is
rather disadvantageous than otherwise to the
lower classes of the people, — that the introduction of
a spirit of philosophical investigation, literary amuse-
ment, and metaphysical speculation among those who
are destined by fortune to gain their livelihood by the
sweat of their brow, rather tends to make them dis-
contented and unhappy than to contribute any thing
to their real comfort and enjoyments, — yet there ap-
pears, now and then, a native genius in the most humble
stations, which it would be a pity not to be able to call
forth into activity. It was principally with a view to
bring forward such extraordinary talents, and to employ
them usefully in the public service, that the AZzitary
Academy at Munich was instituted.

This Academy, which consists of 180 éeves or pupils,
is divided into three classes. The first class, which is
designed for the education of orphans and other children
of the poorer class of military officers, and those em-
ployed in the civil departments of the state, consists

494 A short Account of the

of thirty pupils, who are received gratis, from the age
of eleven to thirteen years, and who remain in the
Academy four years. The second class, which is de-
signed to assist the poorer nobility and less opulent
among the merchants, citizens, and servants of govern-
ment, in giving their sons a good general education,
consists of sixty pupils, who are received from the age
of eleven to fifteen years, and who pay to the Academy
twelve florins a month, for which sum they are fed,
clothed, and instructed. The third class, consisting of
ninety pupils, from the age of fifteen to twenty years,
who are all admitted gradzs,'is designed principally to
bring forward such youths among the lower classes of
the people as show evident signs of wxcommon talents
and genius, joined to a sound constitution of body and
a good moral character. |

All commanding officers of regiments, and_ public
officers in civil departments, and all civil magistrates,
are authorized and zzvzted to recommend subjects for
this class of the Academy, and they are not confined in
their choice to any particular ranks of society, but they
are allowed to recommend persons of the lowest extrac-
tion and most obscure origin. Private soldiers, and the
children of soldiers, and even the children of the mean-
est mechanics and day-labourers are admissible, pro-
vided they possess the necessary requisites, — namely,
very extraordinary natural genius, a healthy constitu-
tion, and a good character; but, if the subject recom-
mended should be found wanting in any of these
requisite qualifications, he would not only be refused
admittance into the Academy, but the person who rec-
ommended him would be very severely reprimanded.

The greatest severity is necessary upon these oc-

Pye a ae eee

Military Academy at Munich. 495

casions, otherwise it would be impossible to prevent
abuses. An establishment designed for the encourage- —
ment of genius, and for calling forth into public utility
talents which would otherwise remain buried and lost
in obscurity, would soon become a job for providing
for relations and dependants.

One circumstance relative to the internal arrange-
ment of this Academy may, perhaps, be thought not
unworthy of being particularly mentioned; and that is
the very moderate expense at which this institution is
maintained. By a calculation founded upon the ex-
perience of four years, I find that the whole Academy,
consisting of 180 pupils, with professors and masters of
every kind, servants, clothing, board, lodging, fire-wood,
light, repairs, and every other article, house-rent alone
excepted, amounts to no more than 28,000 florins a
year, which is no more than 155 florins, or about four-
teen pounds sterling a year for each pupil; a small sum,
indeed, considering the manner in which they are kept,
and the education they receive.

Though this Academy is called a Mihtary Academy,
it is by no means confined to the education of those
who are destined for the army; but it is rather an

establishment of general education, where the youth

are instructed in every science, and taught every bodily
exercise and personal accomplishment which consti-
tute a liberal education, and which fits them equally
for the station of a private gentleman, for the study of
any of the learned professions, or for any employment
civil or military under the government. 7
As this institution is principally designed as a nursery
for genius, — as a gymnasium for the formation of men,
— for the formation of vea/ men, possessed of strength

496 On the Breed of Horses and

and character, as well as talents and accomplishments,
and capable of rendering essential service to the state,
at all public examinations of the pupils, the heads of all
the public departments are invited to be present, in
order to witness the progress of the pupils, and to mark
those who discover talents peculiarly useful in any par-
ticular department of public employment.

How far the influence of this establishment may ex-
tend, time must discover. It has existed only six years;
but even in that short period we have had several in-
stances of very uncommon talents having been called
forth into public view, from the most obscure situa-
tions. I only wish that the institution may be allowed
to subsist.

An Account of the Means used to improve the Breed
of Horses and Horned Cattle, in Bavaria and the
Palatinate.

OF aapenginid many parts of the Elector’s dominions

are well adapted for the breeding of fine horses,
and great numbers of horses are actually bred,* yet
no great attention had for many years been paid to the
-improvement of the breed; and most of the horses of
distinction, such as were used by the nobility as saddie-
horses and coach-horses, were imported from Holstein
and Mecklenburg.

Being engaged in the arrangement of a new military
system for the country, it occurred to me that, in pro-

* The number of horses in Bavaria alone amounts to above 160,000.

Horned Cattle in Bavaria. 497 |

viding horses for the use of the army, and particularly
for the train of artillery, such measures might be adopted
as would tend much to improve the breed of horses
throughout the country; and my proposals meeting
with the approbation of His Most Serene Electoral
Highness, the plan was carried into execution in the
following manner: —

A mafiber of fine mares were purchased with money
taken from the military chest, and being marked with

- an M (the initial of A/z/¢arza) ina cirele upon the left

hip, with a hot iron, they were given to such of the
peasants, owning or leasing farms proper for breeding
good horses, as applied for them. The conditions upon
which these brood mares were given away were as
follows : —

They were, in the first place, given away gratzs, and
the person who received one of these mares is allowed
to consider her as his own property, and use her in any
kind of work he thinks proper. He is, however, obliged
not only to keep her, and not to sell her or give her
away, but he is also under obligations to keep her as
a brood mare, and to have her regularly covered every
season by a stallion pointed out to him by the commis-
sioners, who are put at the head of this establishment.
If she dies, he must replace her with another dvood
mare, which must be approved by the commissioners,
and then marked. If one of these mares should be
found not to bring good colts, or to have any blemish
or essential fault or imperfection, she may be changed
for another. |

The stallions which are provided for these mares, and
which are under the care of the commissioners, are
provided grads; and the foals are the sole property

VOL. IV. 32

498 On the Breed of Horses and

of those who keep the mares, and they may sell them,
or dispose of them when and where and in any way
they may think proper, in the same manner as they
dispose of any other foal, brought by any other mare.

In case the army should be obliged to take the field,
and in no other case whatever, those who are in posses-
sion of these mares are obliged either to return them,
or to furnish for the use of the army another horse fit
for the service of the artillery.

The advantages of this arrangement to the army are -
obvious. In case of an emergency, horses are always
at hand; and these horses being bought in time of
peace cost much less than it would be necessary to pay
for them, were they to be purchased in a hurry upon
the breaking out of a war, upon which occasions they
are always dear, and sometimes not to be had for
money.

It may perhaps be objected that, the money being
laid out so long before the horses are wanted, the loss
of the interest of the purchase-money ought to be
taken into the account; but as large sums of money
must always be kept in readiness in the military chest,
to enable the army to take the field suddenly in case it
should be necessary, and as a part of this money must
be employed in the purchase of horses, it may as well
be laid out beforehand as to lie dead in the military
chest till the horses are actually wanted. Consequently
the objection is not founded. }

I wish I could say that this measure had been com-
pletely successful; but I am obliged to own that it has
not answered my expectations. Six hundred mares
only were at first ordered to be purchased and dis-
tributed; but I had hopes of seeing that number aug-

Florned Cattle in Bavaria. 499

mented soon to as many thousands, and I had even
flattered myself with an idea of the possibility of plac-
ing in this manner among the peasants, and con-
sequently having constantly in readiness, without any
expense, a sufficient number of horses for the whole
army, for the cavalry as well as for the artillery and
baggage; and I had formed a plan for collecting
together and exercising, every year, such of these horses
as were destined for the service of the cavalry, and for
permitting their riders to go on furlough with their
horses. In short, my views went to the forming of an
arrangement, very economical, and in many respects
similar to that of the ancient feudal military system ;
but the obstinacy of the peasantry prevented these
measures being carried into execution. Very few of
them could be prevailed upon to accept of these horses ;
and, in proportion as the terms upon which they were
offered to them were apparently advantageous, their
suspicions were increased, and they never would be
persuaded that there was not some trick at the bottom
of the scheme to overreach them.

It is possible that their suspicions were not a little
increased by the malicious insinuations of persons,
who, from motives too obvious to require any explana-
tion, took great pains at that time to render abortive
every public undertaking in which I was engaged.
But, be that as it may, the fact is I could never find
means to remove these suspicions entirely ; and I met
with so much difficulty in carrying the measure into
execution that I was induced at last to abandon it, or
rather to postpone its execution to a more favourable
moment. Some few mares (two or three hundred)
were placed in different parts of the country, and some

500 On the Breed of Horses and

very fine colts have been produced from them during
the six years that have elapsed since this institution
was formed; but these slow advances do not satisfy the
ardour of my zeal for improvement, and, if means are
not found to accelerate them, Bavaria, with all her
natural advantages for breeding fine horses, must be
obliged, for many years to come, to continue to import
horses from foreign countries.

My attempts to improve the breed of horned cattle,
though infinitely more confined, have been propor-
tionally much more successful. Upon forming the
public garden at Munich, as the extent of the grounds

is very considerable, the garden being above six Eng-

lish miles in circumference, and the soil being remark-
ably good, I had an opportunity of making within the
garden a very fine and a very valuable farm; and this
farm being stocked with about thirty of the finest cows
that could be procured from Switzerland, Flanders,
Tyrol, and other places upon the Continent famous
for a good breed of horned cattle, and this stock being
refreshed annually with new importations of cows as
well as bulls, all the cows which are produced are dis-
tributed in the country, being sold to any person of the
country who applies for them, and with promise to rear
them at the same low prices at which the most ordinary
calves of the common breed of the country are sold to
the butchers.

Though this establishment has existed only about
six years, it is quite surprising what a change it has
produced in the country. As there is a great resort
to Munich from all parts of the country, it being the
capital and the residence of the sovereign, the new
English Garden (as it is called) which begins upon the

:
4

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}
-

ar a

florned Cattle in Bavaria. 501

ramparts of the town, and extends near two English
miles in length, and is always kept open, is much fre-
quented; and there are few who go into the garden
without paying a visit to the cows, which are always at
home. Their stables, which are concealed in-a thick
wood behind a public coffee-house or tavern in the
middle of the garden, are elegantly fitted up and kept -
with great care; and the cows, which are not only
large and remarkably beautiful, but are always kept
perfectly clean and in the highest condition, are an

_ Object of public curiosity. Those who are not partic-

ularly interested in the improvement of cattle go to
see them as beautiful and extraordinary animals; but
farmers and connoisseurs go to examine them, to
compare them with each other, and with the com-
mon breed of the country, and to get information with
respect to the manner of feeding them, and the profits
derived from them; and so rapidly has the flame of
improvement spread throughout every part of Bavaria
from this small spark, that I have no doubt but in a
very few years the breed of horned cattle will be quite
changed.

Not satisfied with the scanty supply furnished from
the farm in the English garden, several of the nobility,
and some of the most wealthy and enterprising of the
farmers, are sending to Switzerland, and other distant
countries famous for fine cattle, for cows and bulls; and
the good effects of these exertions are already visible in
many parts of the country.

How very easy would it be by similar means to |
introduce a spirit of improvement in any country!
And where sovereigns do not make public gardens to
bring together a concourse of people, individuals might

502 On the Breed of Horses.

do it by private subscription, or at least they might
unite together and rent a large farm in the neighbour-

hood of the capital, for the purpose of making useful —

experiments. If such a farm were well managed, the
produce of it would be more than sufficient to pay all
the expenses attending it. And if the grounds and fields
were laid out with taste; if good roads for carriages
and for those who ride on horsback were made round
it, and between all the fields; if the stables were ele-
gantly fitted up, filled with beautiful cattle, kept per-

fectly clean and neat; and if a handsome inn were .

erected near the buildings of the farm, where those
who visited it might be furnished with refreshment, —
it would soon become a place of public resort; and
improvements in agriculture would become a fashzon-
able amusement. The ladies even would take pleasure
in viewing from their carriages the busy and most
interesting scenes of rural industry, and it would no
longer be thought vulgar to understand the mysteries
of Ceres,

Why should not parliament purchase or rent such a
farm in the neighbourhood of London, and put it under
the direction of the Board of Agriculture? The expense
would be but a mere trifle, if any thing; and the insti-
tution would not only be useful, but extremely interest-
ing, and it would be an inexhaustible source of rational
and innocent amusement, as well as of improvement to
vast numbers of the most respectable inhabitants of this
great metropolis. :

In former times, statesmen considered the amusement
of the public as an object of considerable importance ;
and pains were taken to render the public amusements
useful in forming the national character.

Measures for putting an End to Usury at Munich. 503

An Account of the Measures adopted for putting an
End to Usury at Munich.

— measure, more limited in its opera-

tions than those before mentioned, but which
notwithstanding was productive of much good, was —
adopted, in which a part of the treasure which was
lying dead in the military chest was usefully employed
for the relief of a considerable number of individuals,
employed in subordinate stations under the government,
who stood in great need of assistance.

A practice productive of much harm to the public
service as well as to individuals had prevailed for many
years in Bavaria, in almost all the public departments of
the state, — that of appointing a great number of super-
numerary clerks, secretaries, counsellors, etc., who, serv-
ing without pay, or with only small allowances, were
obliged, in order to subsist till such time as they should
come into the receipt of the regulated salaries annexed
to their offices, to contract debts to a considerable
amount; and, as many of them had no other security
to give for the sums borrowed than their promise to re-
pay them when it should be in their power, no money-
~ lender who contented himself with legal interest for
his money would trust them, and of course they were
obliged to have recourse to Jews and other usurers,
who did not afford them the temporary assistance they
required but upon the most exorbitant and ruinous
conditions. So that these unfortunate people, instead —
of finding themselves at their ease upon coming into
possession of the emoluments of their offices, were fre-
quently so embarrassed in their circumstances as to be

504 Measures adopted for putting an

obliged to mortgage their salaries for many months to
come, to raise money to satisfy their clamorous cred-
itors ; and from this circumstance, and from the general
prevalence of luxury and dissipation among all ranks
of society, the anticipation of salaries had become so
prevalent, and the conditions upon which money was
advanced upon such security was so exorbitant, that
this alarming evil called for the most serious attention
of the government.

The interest commonly paid for money advanced
upon receipts for salaries was 5 fer cent per month, or
three kreutzers for the florin ; and there were instances
of even much larger interest being given.

The severest laws had been made to prevent these
abuses, but means were constantly found to evade
them; and, instead of putting an end to the evil, they
frequently served rather to increase it.

It occurred to me that as any tradesman may be
ruined by another who can afford to undersell him,
so it might be possible to ruin the usurers by setting
up the business in opposition to them, and furnishing
money to borrowers upon more reasonable terms. In
order to make this experiment, a cazsse of advance
(Vorschuss Cassa) containing 30,000 florins was estab-
lished at the military pay-office, where any person in
the actual receipt of a salary or pension under govern-
ment in any department of the state, civil or military,
might receive in advance, upon his personal applica-
tion, his salary or pension for one or for two months
upon a deduction of interest at the rate of 5 per cent
per annum, or one twelfth part of the interest com-
monly extorted by the Jews and other usurers upon
those occasions.

q
he.

End to Usury at Munich. 505

The great number of persons who have availed them-
selves of the advantages held out to them by this estab-
lishment, and who still continue to avail themselves of
them, shows how effectual the establishment has been
to remedy the evil it was designed to eradicate.

_The number of persons who apply to this chest for
assistance each month is at a medium from 300 to
400, and the sums actually in advance amount in
general to above 20,000 florins.

As no money is advanced from this chest but upon
government securities, — that is to say, upon receipts for
salaries and pensions, — there is no risk attending the
operation ; and, as the interest arising from the money
advanced is more than sufficient to defray the expense
of carrying on the business, there is no loss whatever
attending it.

An Account of a Scheme for employing the Soldtery
in Bavaria in repairing the Highways and Public
Roads.

HAD formed a plan which, if it had been executed,
would have rendered the military posts or patrols

of cavalry established in all parts of the Elector’s domin-
ions much more interesting and more useful.* I wished
to have employed the soldiery exclusively in the repairs
of all the highways in the country, and to have united
this undertaking with the establishment of permanent
military stations on all the high roads for the preserva. .
tion of order and public tranquillity.

* A particular account of these military posts is given in the second Chap-
ter of the Essay on Public Establishments for the Poor. See page 293 and
following.

506 sats Account of a Scheme

It is a great hardship upon the inhabitants in any
country to be obliged to leave their own domestic
affairs, and turn out with their cattle and servants, when
called upon, to work upon the public roads; but this
was peculiarly grievous in Bavaria, where labourers
are so scarce that the farmers are frequently obliged
to leave a great part of their grounds uncultivated for
want of hands.

My plan was to measure all the public roads from the
capital cities in the Elector’s dominions to the frontiers,
and all cross country roads; placing mile-stones regu-
larly numbered upon each road, at regular distances of
one hour, or half a German mile from each other; to
divide each road into as many stations as it contained
mile-stones, each station extending from one mile-stone
to another; and to erect in the middle of each station,
by the roadside, a small house, with stabling for three
or four horses, and with a small garden. adjoining to it;
to place in each of these houses a small detachment of
cavalry of three orfour men; a soldier on furlough, em-
ployed to take care of the road and keep it in repair
within the limits of the station; an invalid soldier to
take care of the house, and to receive orders and mes-
sages in the absence of the others, to take care of the
garden, to provide provisions, and cook for the family.

If any of the soldiers should happen to be married,
his wife might have been allowed to lodge in the house,
upon condition of her assisting the invalid soldier in
this service ; or a pensioned soldier’s widow might have
been employed for the same purpose.

To preserve order and discipline in these establish-
ments, it was proposed to employ active and intelligent
non-commissioned officers as overseers of the highways,

tis mlipeensy Onis

petics. i og

for Employing the Soldvery. 507

. and to place these under the orders of superior officers
appointed to preside over more extensive districts. |

It was proposed likewise to plant rows of useful trees
by the roadside from one station to another throughout
the whole country, and it was calculated that after a cer-
tain number of years the produce of those trees would
have been nearly sufficient to defray all the expenses of
repairing the roads.

Such an arrangement, with the striking appearance
of order and regularity that would accompany it, could
not have failed to interest every person of feeling who
saw it; and I am persuaded that such a scheme might
be carried into execution with great advantage in most
countries where standing armies are kept up in time of
peace. The reasons why this plan was not executed in
Bavaria at the time it was proposed are too long, and
too foreign to my present purpose, to be here related.
Perhaps a time may come when they will cease to
exist.

APPENDIXES TO THE ESSAYS ON ESTABLISH-
MENTS FOR THE POOR AND ON FOOD.

APPENDIX No. I.

Address and Petition to all the Inhabitants and Citizens
of Munich, in the Name of the real Poor and Dis-
tressed.

(Translated from the German.)

OO long have the public honour and _ safety,

morality and religion, called aloud for the
_ extirpation of an evil, which, though habit has ren-
dered it familiar to us, always appears in all its horrid
and disgusting shapes, and whose dangerous effects
show themselves everywhere, and are increasing every
day.

Too long already have the virtuous citizens of this
metropolis seen with concern the growing numbers
of the beggars, their impudence, and their open and
shameless debaucheries; yet idleness and mendicity
(those pests of society) have been so feebly counter-
acted, that, instead of being checked and suppressed,
they have triumphed over those weak attempts to
restrain them, and acquiring fresh vigour and activity
from success have spread their baleful influence far
and wide.

What well-affected citizen can be indifferent to the
shame that devolves upon himself and upon his country,

Address and Petition, ete. 509

when whole swarms of dissolute rabble, covered with
filthy rags, parade the streets, and by tales of real or of
fictitious distress, by clamorous importunity, insolence,
and rudeness, extort involuntary contributions from
every traveller; when no retreat is to be found, no
retirement where. poverty, misery, and impudent hy-
pocrisy, in all their disgusting and hideous forms, do
not continually intrude; when no one is permitted to
enjoy a peaceful moment free from their importunity,
either in the churches or in public places, at the tombs
of the dead, or at the places of amusement? What
avail the marks of affluence and prosperity which ap-
pear in the dress and equipage of individuals, in the
elegance of their dwellings, and in the magnificence
and splendid ornaments of our churches, while the
voice of woe is heard in every corner, proceeding from
the lips of hoary age worn out with labour, from strong
and healthy men capable of labour, from young infants
and their shameless and abandoned parents? What
reputable citizen would not blush, if among the inmates
of his house should be found a miserable wretch who
by tales of real or fictitious distress should attempt to
- extort charitable donations from his friends and visitors?
What opinion would he expect would be formed of his
understanding, of his heart, of his circumstances ? What,
then, must the foreigner and traveller think, who, after
having seen no vestige of beggary in the neighbour-
ing countries, should, upon his arrival at Munich, find
himself suddenly surrounded by a swarm of groan-
ing winching wretches, besieging and following his
carriage ?

The public honcur calls aloud to have a stop put to
this disgraceful evil.

510 Address and Petition to the

The public safety also demands it. The dreadful
consequences are obvious which must ensue when
great numbers of healthy individuals, and whole fam-
ilies, live in idleness, without any settled abode, con-
cluding every day with schemes for defrauding the
public of their subsistence for the next; where the
' children belonging to this numerous society are made
use of to impose on the credulity of the benevolent,
and where they are regularly trained, from their earliest
infancy, in all those infamous practices which are car-
ried on systematically and to such an alarming extent
among us. ; a

Great numbers of these children grow up to die under
the hands of the executioner. The only instruction
they receive from their parents is how to cheat and
deceive, and daily practice in lying and stealing from
their very infancy renders them uncommonly expert
in their infamous trade. The records of the courts of
justice show, in innumerable instances, that early habits
of idleness and beggary are a preparation for the gal-
lows; and, among the numerous thefts that are daily
committed in this capital, there are very few that are
not committed by persons who get into the houses .
under the pretext of asking for charity.

What person is ignorant of these facts? and who
can demand further proofs of the necessity of a solid
and durable institution for the relief and support of the
poor?

The reader would be seized with horror, were we to
unveil all the secret abominations of these abandoned
wretches. They laugh alike at the laws of God and of
man. No crime is too horrible and shocking for them,
nothing in heaven or. on the earth too holy not to be

Inhabitants and Citizens of Munich. SIL

profaned by them without scruple, and employed with
consummate hypocrisy to their wicked purposes.*

Whence is it that this evil proceeds? Not from the
inability of this great capital to provide for its poor ;
for no city in the world, of equal extent and population,
has so many hospitals for the sick and infirm, and other
institutions of public charity. Neither is it owing to
the hardheartedness of the inhabitants; for a more feel-
ing and charitable people cannot be found. Even the
uncommonly great and increasing numbers of the beg-
gars show the kindness and liberality of the inhabitants ;
for these vagabonds naturally collect together in the
greatest numbers, where their trade can be carried on
to the greatest advantage.

The injudicious dispensation of eins is the real and
only source of this evil.

In every community there are certainly to be found
a greater or less number of poor and distressed persons
who have just claims on the public charity. This is also
the case at Munich, and nature dictates to us the duty
of administering relief to suffering humanity, and more
especially to our poor and distressed fellow-citizens ;
and our holy religion promises eternal rewards to him
who supports and relieves the poor and needy, and

* Suffice it to mention one among numberless facts which might be brought
to prove these assertions : —

The beggars of our capital carry on an increasing and very lucrative trade
with confessional and communion testimonials, which they sell to people who
daringly transgress the holy ecclesiastical laws by neglecting to confess and
receive the holy sacrament of the Lord’s Supper at Easter. Some of these im- .
pious wretches receive the sacrament at least twice a day, in order not to lose
their customers, if the demands for communion testimonials are great or come
late. Ye priests and preachers of the gospel, can you still forbear raising
your voices against beggars ?

512 Address and Petition to the

threatens everlasting damnation to him who sends
them away without relief.

The holy fathers teach that, when there are no other
means left for the relief and support of the poor, the
superfluous ornaments of the churches may be disposed
of, and even the sacred vessels melted down and sold
for that purpose.

But what shall we think when we see those very per-
sons who profess to live after the rules and precepts laid
down in the word of God act diametrically contrary to
them.

Such, doubtless, is the fatal conduct of those who
are induced by a mistaken compassion to lavish their
alms upon beggars, and obstruct the relief of the really
indigent. Alms that frustrate a good and useful insti-
tution cannot be meritorious or acceptable to God ; and
no maxim is less founded in truth than that the merit
of the giver is undiminished by the unworthiness of |
the object. The truly distressed are too bashful to mix
with the herd of common beggars. Necessity, it is true,
will sometimes conquer their timidity, and compel them
publicly to solicit charity; but their modest appeal is
unheard or unnoticed. Whilst a dissolute vagabond,
who exhibits an hypocritical picture of distress; a
drunken wretch, who pretends to have a numerous
family and to be persecuted by misfortune; or an im-
pudent, unfeeling woman, who excites pity by the tears
and cries of a poor child, whom she has hired perhaps
for the purpose, and tortured into suffering, — steps
daringly forward to intercept the alms of the charitable ;
and the well-intentioned gift which should relieve the
indigent is the prize of impudence and imposition, and
the support of vice and idleness. What, then, is left for

Inhabitants and Citizens of Munich. 513

the modest object of real distress but to retire dispirited
and hide himself in the obscurity of his cottage, there to.
languish in misery, whilst the bolder beggar consumes
the ill-bestowed gift in mirth and riot? And yet the
charitable donor flatters himself that he has performed
an exemplary duty!

We earnestly entreat every citizen and inhabitant of
this capital, each in his respective station, no longer to
countenance mendicity by such a misapplication of their
well-meant charity; contributing thus to augment the
fatal consequences of the evil itself, as well as to impede
the relief of the really necessitous.

We are firmly persuaded that, by pointing out to-our
fellow-citizens a method by which they may exercise
their benevolence towards the indigent and distressed
in a meritorious manner, we shall gratify their pious
zeal and humanity, and at the same time essentially
promote the honour and safety of the state, and the
interests of sound morality and religion.

And this is the sole object of the Mhtary Work.
house, which has been instituted by the command of
His Electoral Highness, where, from this time forward,
all who are able to work may find employment and
wages, and will be clothed and fed. TZzhere will the
really indigent find a secure asylum, and those un-
fortunate persons who are a prey to sickness and
infirmity, or are worn out with age, will be effectually
relieved.

We beg you not to listen to the false representations
which may, perhaps, be made to calumniate this insti-
tution, by putting it on a level with former imperfect
establishments. Why should not an institution pros-

per at Munich which has already been successful in
VOL, IV. 33

514 Address and Petition to the

other places, particularly at Manheim, where above 800
persons are daily employed in the Military Workhouse,
and heap benedictions on its benevolent founder?
Have the inhabitants of this town less good sense,
less humanity, or less zeal for the good of mankind?
No. It would be an insult on the patriotism of our
fellow-citizens, were we to doubt of their readiness to
concur in our undertaking. )

The only efficacious way of promoting an institution
so intimately connected with the safety, honour, and
welfare of the state, and with the interests of religion
and morality, is a general resolution of the inhabitants
to establish a voluntary monthly contribution, and
strictly prohibit the abominable and degrading prac-
tice of street-begging, the unlimited exercise of which,
notwithstanding its fatal and disgraceful consequences,
is perhaps more glaringly indulged in Munich than in
any other city in Germany.

In vain will the institution be opposed by the preju-
dices or the meanness and malice of persons who are
themselves used to mendicity, or to exercise an insolent
dominion over beggars.

It will subsist in spite of all their efforts ; and we have
_ the fullest confidence that the generous and well-dis-
posed inhabitants of this city will be sensible how in-
jurious the habits of encouraging public mendicity are,
when an opportunity is offered them of contributing
to an institution where the really indigent are sure to
find assistance, and where the benevolent Christian
is certain that his neighbours and fellow-citizens are
benefited by his charitable donations.

The simplest and most effectual way of ascertaining
the extent of such contribution is to form a list of all

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Inhabitants and Citizens of Munich. 515

the citizens and inhabitants of the town, with the name
of the street and number of the house they inhabit. |
This register may be called an alms-book. It will be
presented to each inhabitant, that he may put down
the sum which he means voluntarily to subscribe every
month towards the support of the poor. The smallest
donation will be gratefully received, and the objects who
are relieved by them will pray for them to the Almighty
Rewarder of all good actions.

As this charitable contribution is to be absolutely
voluntary, every one, whatever be his rank or property,
will subscribe as he pleases, a greater or a less sum, or
none at all.. The names of the benefactors and their
donations will be printed and published quarterly, that
every one may know and acknowledge the zealous
friends of humanity by whose assistance an evil of
such magnitude, so long and so universally complained
of, will be finally rooted out.

We request that the public will not oppose so sure
and effectual a mode of granting relief to the poor, but
rather give their generous support to an undertaking
which cannot but be productive of much good, and ac-
ceptable in the sight of Heaven.

To convince every one of the faithful application of
these contributions, an exact detail both of the receipt
and expenditure of the institution will be printed and
laid before the public every three months; and every
subscriber will be allowed to inspect and examine the
original accounts whenever he shall think proper.

It must be obvious to every one, even to persons of
the most suspicious dispositions, that this institution is
perfectly disinterested, and owes its origin entirely to
pure benevolence and an active zeal for the public

516 Address and Petition to the

good, when it is known that a committee appointed
by His Electoral Highness, under the direction of
the Presidents of the Council of War, the Supreme
Regency, and the Ecclesiastical Council, will have the
sole administration and direction of the affairs of the
institution, and that the monthly collections of alms
will be made by creditable persons properly authorized ;
and that no salary or emoluments of any kind will
be levied on the funds of the institution, either for
salaries for the collectors, or any other persons em-
ployed in the service of the institution, as will clearly
appear by the printed quarterly accounts. By such pre-
cautions, we trust we shall obviate all possible suspi-
cions, and inspire every unprejudiced person with a
firm confidence in this useful institution.

Henceforward, then, the infamous practice of begging
in the streets will be no longer tolerated in Munich, and
the public are from this moment exonerated from a
burden which is not less troublesome to individuals
than it is disgraceful to the country. Who can doubt
the co-operation of every individual for the accomplish-
ment of so laudable an undertaking? We trust that
no one will encourage idleness by an injudicious and
pernicious profusion of alms given to beggars, and
by promoting the most unbridled licentiousness make
himself a participator in the dangerous consequences
of mendicity, and share the guilt of all those crimes and
offences which endanger the welfare of the state, injure
the cause of religion, and insult the distresses of the
really indigent.

No longer will these vagabonds impose on good-
nature and benevolence by false pretences, by ill-founded
complaints of the inefficacy of the provision for the poor,

.
}

dre AL OF

Inhabitants and Citizens of Munich. 517

or by any other artifices; nor can they escape the strict

and constant vigilance with which they will in future |

be watched, when every person they meet will direct
them to the House of Industry, instead of giving them -
money. |

It is this regulation alone which can effectuate our
purpose, —a regulation enforced in the days of primi-
tive Christianity, and sanctioned by religion itself; the
charitable gifts of the wealthier Christians being in
those days all deposited in a common treasury, for the
benefit of their poorer and distressed brethren, and not
squandered away in the encouragement of dissolute
idleness. tien Si)

We therefore entreat and beseech the public in gen-
eral, in the name of suffering humanity, and of that
Almighty Being who cannot but regard so laudable
an enterprise with an eye of favour, to give every
possible support to our design. And we trust that
the clergy of every denomination, but especially the
public preachers, will exert their splendid abilities to
animate their congregations to co-operate with us in
this great and important undertaking.

518 Voluntary Subscriptions for the

APPENDIX No. Il.

Subscription Lists distributed among the Inhabitants
of Munich in the month of Fanuary, 1790, when
the Establishment for the Relief of the Poor in
that City was formed.

(Translated from the original German.)

VOLUNTARY SUBSCRIPTIONS

FOR THE

RELIEF AND SUPPORT OF THE INDUSTRIOUS, SICK,
AND HELPLESS POOR,

AND

FOR THE TOTAL EXTIRPATION OF VAGRANTS AND STREET-
BEGGARS IN THE CITY OF MUNICH.

REMARKS.

HESE voluntary subscriptions will be collected
monthly, — namely, on the last Sunday morning
of every month, under the direction of the committee
of governors of the institution for the poor, consist-
ing of the President of the Council of War, the Presi-
dent of the Council of the Regency, and the President
of the Ecclesiastical Council ; * and the amount of these
collections will always be regularly noted down in books
kept for that purpose, and at the end of every three
months a particular detailed account of the application
of these sums will be printed and given gradzs to the
subscribers and to the public.

* To these, the President of the Chamber of Finances has since been added.

Support of the Poor in Munich. 519

No part of these voluntary contributions will ever
be taken or appropriated to the payment of salaries, —
gratuities, or rewards to any of those persons who may
be employed in carrying on the business of the institu-
tion; but the whole amount of the sums collected will
be faithfully applied to the relief and support of the poor,
and to that charitable purpose alone, as the accounts of
the expenditures of the institution, which will be pub-
lished from time to. time, will clearly show and demon-
strate. All the persons necessary to be employed in
the affairs of this establishment will either be selected
from among such as already are in the receipt of salaries
sufficient for their comfortable maintenance from other
funds, or they will be such persons, in easy circum-
stances, as may offer themselves voluntarily for these
services, from motives of humanity and a disinterested
wish to be instrumental in doing good.

As the preparations which have been made and are
making for the support of the poor leave no doubt but
that adequate relief will be afforded to them in future,
they will no longer have any pretext for begging; and
all persons are most earnestly requested to abstain
henceforward from giving alms to beggars. Instead
of giving money to such persons as they may find
begging in the street, they are requested to direct
them to the House of Industry, where they will, with-
out fail, receive such assistance and support as they
may stand in need of and deserve.

Those persons whose names are already inserted
in other lists as subscribers to this institution are,
nevertheless, requested to enter their names upon these
family-sheets; for, though their names may stand on
several lists, their contributions will be called for

520 Voluntary Subscriptions for the

upon one of them only, and that one will be the
family-sheet.

Those persons, of either sex, who have no families,
but occupy houses or lodgings of their own, are, not-
withstanding their being without families, requested to
put down the amount of the monthly contributions they
are willing to give to this institution, upon a family-
sheet, and to insert their names in the list as.“ head of
the family.”

Under the columns destined for the names of “ vela-
tions and friends living in the house,’ may be included
strangers, lodgers, boarders, etc.

The column for “domestics” may, in like manner,
serve, particularly in the houses of the nobility and
other distinguished persons, for stewards, tutors, gov-
ernesses, etc.

Each head of the family will receive two of these
family-sheets: namely, one with these remarks, which
he will keep for his information; the other, printed
on a half-sheet of paper, and without remarks, which
he will please to return to the public office of the
institution.

In case of a change in the family, or if one or
other of the members of it should think proper to
increase or to lessen their contributions, this alteration
is to be marked upon the half-sheet which is kept by
the head of the family; and this sheet so altered is to
be sent to the public office of the institution, to the end
that these alterations may be made in the general lists
of the subscribers, or, new printed forms being procured
from the public office, and filled up, these new lists may
be exchanged against the old ones,

For the accommodation of those who may at any time

Support of the Poor in Munich. 521

wish to contribute privately to the support of the insti-
tution any sums in addition to their ordinary monthly
donations, the banker of the institution, Mr. Dallarmi,
will receive such sums destined for that purpose as
may be sent to him privately under any feigned name,
motto, or device;, and, for the security of the donors,
accounts of all the sums so received, with an account
of the feigned name, motto, or device, under which
each of them was sent to the banker, will be regu-
larly published in the “ Munich Gazette.”

The first collection will be made on the last Sunday
of the present month, and the following collections on
the last Monday of every succeeding month; and each
head of a family is respectfully requested to cause the
contributions of his family, and of the inhabitants of
his house, to be collected at the end of every month by
a domestic or a servant, and to keep the same in readi-
ness against the time of the collection.

All persons of both sexes, and of every age and con-
dition (paupers only excepted), are earnestly requested
to have their names inserted in these lists or family-
sheets; and they may rest assured that any sum, even
the most trifling, will be received with thankfulness,
and applied with care to the great object of the insti-
tution, — the relief and encouragement of the poor and
the distressed.

And, finally, as it cannot fail to contribute very much
to improve the human heart if young persons at an
early period of life are accustomed to acts of benevo-
lence, it is recommended to parents to cause all their
children to put down their names as subscribers to this
undertaking; and this even though the donations they
may be able to spare may be the most trifling, or even

contributions in order to on their ‘children
come subscribers. ;

EG> The foregoing remarks were Bape on the two first
sheet, 13 inches by 18 inches, of strong writing-paper.
subscription list was printed on the third page of the same sheet,
on a separate half-sheet of the same kind of paper. 3 .

(wep (ep andes J
be role tf mer.

as) ee

Support of the Poor in Munich. 523

=
‘

Voluntary Contributions for the Support of the Poor at Munich.

FAMILY-SHEET.
Number of the House, District, Street, Floor.
Head of the Family, Monthly Contributions,
His character, or Florins, Kreutzers.
Other Persons belonging to the Family. :

Children, Relati Domesti ;
Gertdtinuts, of bats cnet” Contributigns. || Menial pac ag shaper Contributions

lee Rad og — Famil oni ‘The both sexes, the Christian

Sur- and Surname of each Indi- ;

ie meet can Pe Person. FL Kr. vidual. ~ FL Kr.

At the lower corner of
this half-sheet was printed
in small type: “ Thzs half-
sheet is to be sent into the \
Public Office of the Insti-
tution.”

Details of Establishments

524

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Pita. 4 SatALiaNad x4

526 Details of Establishments

APPENDIX No. IV.

Certificate relative to the Expense of Fuel in the Public i of
the Military Workhouse at Munich.

WW: whose names are underwritten, certify that we have been present

frequently when experiments have been made to determine the ex-
pense of fuel in cooking for the poor in the Public Kitchen of the Military =
Workhouse at Munich ; and that, when the ordinary dinner has been pre- z
pared for one thousand persons, the expense for fuel has not amounted to
quite twelve kreutzers (less than 44d. sterling).

Baron DE TuiBovt, HEERDAN,
— Colonel. Counsellor of War.

MUNICH, Ist Sept., 1795.

APPENDIX No. V.
Printed Form for the Descriptions of the Poor.
Description of the poor person, No,

Name,
Described, Municu, the th of 179

Age, years. Stature, ‘feet inches,
Bodily structure Hair
Eye Complexion

Bodily defects

Other particular marks
State of health

Place of nativity

Lives here since

Came here from In what manner

Profession Religion

Quality Family

Supports himself at present, by

Lives at present Quarter, District, Street,
House, No. Floor,

Can be considered as a pauper ore to this city, and ought

" Qherefore to be

Jor the Poor in Munich,

Is capable of doing the following work : —
Could be trained to the following occupations : —

Could gain by this work per week . 2.1... a a

Wants for his weekly support . . . .

Receives at present per week from his own ‘iennd, ete by aay
of pension, alms, and ~ rape as eee ng cee

Wants, therefore, a weekly allowance of ates fe aes ery fae Sar

aonb of his: owns!) Via Wok
Earned by working . ... .
PRIME hwy a> eG gh hee eS a re
jPension . . 1...

Enjoyed heretofore per week Batis sha eck”
Alms. {From the city .

\Got by begging. . ....,

Total

OM HOUSE TERI ms G5 kk kk 8, fe ke eS

Has bed __ of his own, the value of which is about

Possesses other utensils necessary for housekeeping, worth
GDOUt soe ee 8 8 4, a east te

Is provided with the following working eae! oo

Can work at home
Could be employed in the Military Workhouse
Is provided with raiment, and wants

Articles of apparel
Life and conduct, according to the information received
Is given to and
Is known to have committed crimes
And has appeared before the magistrates
How long he lives in his present habitation
Year month weeks
Name and residence of his present landlord
Where he lived before, and how long

527

From private persons. |

. | kr.

528 Details of Establishments

Other Remarks.

Has been settled here : ! “—
Received a license to marry from
Possessed or received when married

Value about Oe
Was reduced to poverty by
Is poor and in want since
Could not extricate himself from his difficulties, because

N. B. This form is printed on a half-sheet of strong writing-paper
folded together so as to make two leaves in quarto, each leaf being 8 inches x
high and 64 inches wide. foe

APPENDIX No. VI.

Printed Form for Spin Tickets, such as are used at the Military
Workhouse at Munich.

Munich Military Workhouse,

179‘ the No.
received

, Ib. of
Delivered back _skeins _ knots

of weighing Ib. oz.
Is entitled to receive per krs.
TOTAL,
Attest, this 179

This printed form is filled up as follows : —

Munich Military Workhouse,

1795, the 1s¢ Sept. No. 134.
Mary Smith received

1 lb. of Flax, No. 3,
Delivered back 2 skeins 3 knots

of Thread, weighing 1 1b, oz.
Is entitled to receive per 0. krs. 10.
TOTAL, ten kreutzers.
Attest, this 47h Sept. 1795,

WILLIAM WILDMANN.

for the Poor in Munich. 529

An improved Form for a Spin-Ticket, with its Abstract; which Abstract
zs to be cut off from the Ticket, and fastened to the Bundle of Yarn
or Thread.

SPIN-TICKET. ABSTRACT OF SPIN-TICKET.

Munich House of Industry, ;
1795, the oth Sept. No. 230. Wen ere eee

Mary Smith received fhe aad :

1 Ib. of wool, No. 14. s Wkbine anes
Delivered back 2 skeins 4 knots OF endoliea a

of yarn, weighing 1]b. oz. cl ae tie
Wages per /é, for spinning 12 krs. S oe i Smith
Is entitled to receive ¢we/ve krs. net Oo Cr eee
Attest, this 14/2 of Sept. 1795,

J. Scumipt. Attest, J. SCHMIDT.

In order that the original entry of the Spin-Tickets in the general
tables kept by the clerks of the spinners may more readily be found, all
the tickets for the same material (flax, for instance) issued by the same
clerk, during the course of each month, must be regularly numbered,

APPENDIX No. VII.

An Account of Experiments made at the Bakehouse
of the Military Workhouse at Munich, November
the 4th and 5th, 1794, in Baking Rye-bread.

~ > The oven, which is of an oval form, is 12 feet deep, measured from
the mouth to the end; 11 feet 10 inches wide ; and 1 foot 11 inches high,
in the middle.

OVEMBER 4th, at 10 o'clock in the morning,
1736 lbs.* of rye-meal were taken out of the store-

room and sent to the bakehouse, where it was worked
* The Bavarian pound which was used in these experiments, and which is
divided into 32 /oths, is to the pound avoirdupois as 12,384 is to 10,000, or nearly

as 5 to 4.
VoL, IV. 34

530 Account of Experiments

and baked into bread, at six different times, in the fol-

lowing manner : — :
First Batcu.

At 45 minutes after 10 o'clock the meal was mixed
for the first time, for which purpose 16 quarts (Bavarian
measure) of lukewarm water, weighing 28 lbs. 28 loths,
were used.

At 3 o'clock in the afternoon, the /¢¢/e deaven (as it
is called) was made, for which purpose 24 quarts, or
43 lbs. 10 loths of water were used; and at half an hour
after 7 o'clock the great /eaven was made with 40 quarts,
or 72 lbs. 6 loths, of water. At 11 o'clock this mass was
prepared for kneading, by the addition of 40 quarts, or
72 lbs. 6 loths, more of water.

At 15 minutes after 10 o’clock at night, the kneading
of the dough was commenced ; 2% Ibs. of salt being first
mixed with the mass. The dough having been suffered
to rise till a quarter before 2 o'clock, it was kneaded a
second time, and then made, in half an hour's time,
into 191 loaves, each of them weighing 2 lbs. 16 loths.
These loaves having been suffered to rise half an hour,
they were put into the oven 10 minutes before 3 o'clock,
‘and in an hour after taken out again, when 25 loaves,
being immediately weighed, were found to weigh 55 lbs.
15 loths. Each loaf, therefore, when baked, weighed
2 lbs. 53 loths; and, as it weighed 2 lbs. 16 loths when
it was put into the oven, it lost 10} loths in being
baked,

The whole quantity of water used in this experi-
ment, in making the leaven and the dough, was
216 lbs. 18 loths. The quantity of meal used was
about 310 lbs.

First Heating of the Oven.— This was begun 35 min-

on Cooking for the Poor. 531

utes after 4 o'clock, with 220} Ibs. of pine-wood, which
was in full flame 15 minutes after 5 o'clock. At 8 ©
minutes after 8 o'clock, 51 lbs. more of wood were
added; 12 minutes after 11 o’clock, 32 lbs. more were
put into the oven; 51 lbs. at 1 o’clock,and 12 lbs. more
at 30 minutes after 2 o'clock: so that 366 Ibs. 16 loths
of wood were used for the first heating.

Sreconp BaTcH.

At 20 minutes after 11 o'clock, the proper quantity
of leaven was mixed with the meal, and 44 quarts, or
79 lbs. 25 loths, of water added to it. At 10 minutes
after 3 o'clock, the meal was prepared for kneading, by
adding to it 52 quarts, or 93 lbs. 27 loths, of water.

At 30 minutes after 5 o’clock, the kneading of the
dough was begun, 23 lbs. of salt having been previ-
ously added. At 15 minutes after 6 o'clock, the dough
was kneaded a second time, and formed into 186 loaves,
which were put into the oven at 15 minutes after
7 o'clock, and taken out again 9 minutes after 8 o’clock,
when 25 loaves being immediately weighed were found
to weigh 55 lbs. 4 loths. Water used in making the
second dough 173 lbs. 8 loths.

Second Heating of the Oven.— This was bbeun 20
minutes after 4 o'clock in the morning, with 54} lbs. of
wood; 20 lbs. were added to minutes after 5 o’clock,
and 60 lbs. more 6 minutes after 6 o'clock: so that the
second heating of the oven required 134 lbs. 16 loths of
wood.

Tuirp Batcu.

At 20 minutes after 3 o'clock, the proper quantity
of leaven was mixed with the meal, and 48 quarts, or
86 lbs. 20 loths, of water were put to it.

532 Account of Experiments

At 6 minutes after 8 o’clock this mass was prepared
for kneading, by adding to it 48 quarts, or 86 lbs.
20 loths, of water. At 30 minutes after 9 o'clock,
this dough was mixed with 2} lbs. of salt; and at
30 minutes after 10 o'clock it was made into 189
loaves, which, after having been suffered to rise for
half an hour, were put into the oven 10 minutes after
11 o'clock, and taken out again at 12 o’clock.

Fifty loaves of bread, which were weighed immedi-
ately upon their being taken out of the oven, were
found to weigh 110 lbs. 30 loths, which gives 2 lbs.
54 loths for the weight of each loaf. The water used
in making this batch of bread was 173 lbs. 8 loths.

Third Heating of the Oven.— This was begun 30 min-
utes after 8 o'clock, with 50 lbs. of wood; and, 50 lbs.
more being added 30 minutes after 9 o’clock, the whole
quantity used was 100 lbs.

Fourtu Batcu.

At a quarter before 8 o’clock, the proper quantity of
leaven was mixed with the meal, and 48 quarts, or 86 lbs.
20 loths, of water being added, at 30 minutes past
11 o'clock, this mass was prepared for kneading, by add-
ing to it 52 quarts, or 93 lbs. 27 loths, of water.

Four minutes after 1 o'clock, 24 Ibs. of salt were
added. The dough being kneaded at 15 minutes after
2 o'clock, 188 loaves of bread were made, which were
put into the oven 5 minutes before 3 o'clock, and taken
out again at the end of 1 hour, when 25 of them were
weighed, and found to weigh, one with the other, 2 lbs.
5% loths.

The water used in making this batch of bread was
180 lbs. 15 loths.

on Cooking for the Poor. 533

fourth Heating of the Oven.— This was begun
15 minutes after 12 o'clock, with 40 lbs. of wood; and,
50 lbs. more being added at 30 minutes after 1 penton,
the total quantity used was go lbs.

Firtu Batcu.

At a quarter before 12 o’clock, the proper quantity of
leaven was mixed with the meal, and 52 quarts, or 93 lbs.
27 loths, of water put into it. This mass was prepared
for kneading at 15 minutes after 4 o’clock, by the ad-
dition of 48 quarts, or 86 lbs. 20 loths, of water. The
kneading of the dough was begun at 5 o’clock; and at
30 minutes after 5 it was made into loaves, a lbs. of
salt having been previously added. 186 loaves being
made out of this dough, they were put into the oven at
10 minutes before 7 o’clock, and taken out again at the
end of 1 hour, when 25 loaves were weighed, and found
to weigh 55 lbs. 18 loths. The quantity of water used
in making the dough for this batch of bread was 180 lbs.
15 loths.

Fifth Heating of the Oven.— The oven was begun to
be heated the fifth time at 15 minutes after 4 o'clock,
with 40 lbs. of wood, and 4o lbs. more were added at
6 o'clock; so that in this heating no more than 8o lbs.
of wood were consumed.

Srxtu BATCH.

The meal was mixed with leaven at 30 minutes
after 3 o'clock, for which purpose 32 quarts, or 57 lbs.
24 loths, of water were used; at 15 minutes after 7 o'clock,
this mass was prepared for kneading, by the addition of
44 quarts, or 79 lbs. 13 loths, of water, and a propor-
tion of salt. At 19 minutes after 9 o’clock, the dough

534 Account of Experiments

was kneaded the first, and at a quarter before 10 the
second time; and in the course of half an hour
160 loaves were made out of it, which were put into
the oven at 10 minutes before 11 o'clock, and taken
out again at 8 minutes before 12 o’clock at midnight.

_ The water used in making the dough for this batch
of bread was 137 lbs. 5 loths.

Sixth Heating of the Oven.— At a quarter after
8 o'clock, the sixth and last fire was made with 40 lbs.
of wood, to which, at 15 minutes before 10 o'clock at
night, 343 lbs. more were added; so that in the last
heating 743 lbs. of wood only were consumed.

General Results of these Experiments.

The ingredients employed in pips ne the bread i in
these six experiments were as follows, viz.:

Ibs loths:
Of rye-ineal 5. 5 Me? ss 4 tae 1736 0
Water vi) Gee A. Boa es 1061 5
tS eae, eer ance, ae ee ee we #5;-\0
In all . . . 2812 5 in weight.

Of this mass 1102 loaves of bread were formed, each
of which before it was baked weighed 23 lbs. Conse-
quently, these 1102 loaves, before they were put into
the oven, weighed 2755 lbs., but the ingredients used in
making them weighed 2812 lbs. 5 loths. Hence it ap-
pears that the loss of weight in these six experiments
—in preparing the leaven, from evaporation before
the bread was put into the oven, from waste, etc., —
amounted to no less than 57 lbs. 5 loths.

In subsequent experiments, where less water. was
used, this loss appeared to be less by more than one
half.

on Cooking for the Poor. 535

In these experiments, 1061 Ibs. 5 loths of water were |
used to 1736 lbs. of meal, which gives 61 lbs. 4? loths —
of water to 100 lbs. of meal.’ But subsequent experi-
ments showed 56 lbs. of water to be quite sufficient for
100 lbs. of the meal. |

These 1102 loaves, when baked, weighed at a me-
dium 2 lbs. 54 loths each ; consequently, taken together,

they weighed 2393 lbs.13 loths. And, as they weighed
2755 lbs. when they were put into the oven, they must
have lost 361 lbs. 19 loths in being baked, which gives
103 loths, equal to 7), or nearly § of its original weight
before it was baked, for the diminution of the weight of
each loaf. 3

According to the standing regulations of the baking
business carried on in the bakehouse of the Military
Workhouse at Munich, for each 100 lbs. of rye-meal
which the baker receives from the storekeeper he is
obliged to deliver 139 lbs. of well-baked bread; namely,
64 loaves, each weighing 2 lbs. 53 loths. And as, in
the before-mentioned six experiments, 1736 lbs. of meal
were used, it is evident that 1111 loaves, instead of 1102
loaves, ought to have been produced; for 100 lbs. of
meal are to 64 loaves as 1736 lbs. to 1111 loaves.
Hence it appears that 9 loaves less were produced in
these experiments than ought to have been produced.

There were reasons to suspect that this was so con-

_trived by the baker, with a design to get the number
of loaves he was obliged to deliver for each 100 lbs.
of meal lessened; but in this attempt he did not
succeed.

536 Account of Experiments

Quantity of Fuel consumed in these Experiments.

Dry pine-wood.
Ibs. _ loths.
In heating the oven first time. . .. . 366 «16
a ae oe * pe BCCRNE ONE aes ta oe 134 16
eee os eg: tere Giese 100 °
REE vi cucnl, SOUS THRE | aes go °
4 a yh: elke: - SiGe Aimee aes s 80 °
Pg he Log wake Ce? ey 74 16
Total 5.40 ete ee
Employed in keeping up a small fire near
the mouth of the oven while the bread
was puttingintoit. . . « « «sa -> 34 16
Total consumption of wood in the six
OxPerimients os wwe oe he ee lee 880 00

The results of these experiments show, in a striking
manner, how important it is to the saving of fuel in
baking bread to keep the oven continually going,
without ever letting it cool; for in the first experi-
ment, when the oven was cold, when it was begun to
be heated the quantity of wood required to heat it was
3663 lbs.; but in the sixth experiment, after the oven
had been well warmed in the preceding experiments,
the quantity of fuel required was only 743 lbs.

As in these experiments 2393 lbs. 13 loths of bread
were baked with the heat generated in the combustion
of 880 lbs. of wood, this gives to each pound of bread
114 loths, or $§ of a pound of wood.

In the fifth experiment or batch, 186 loaves weigh- ;

ing (at 2 lbs. 53 loths each) 304 lbs. were baked, and
only 80 lbs. of wood consumed, which gives but a trifle
more than } of a pound of wood to each pound of bread,
or 1 lb. of wood to 4 lbs. of bread.

As each loaf weighed 2 lbs. 16 loths when it was put

on Cooking for the Poor. 537 |

into the oven, and only 2 Ibs. 5} loths when it came out
of it, the loss of weight each loaf sustained in being
baked was 103 loths, as has already been observed.
_ ___Now this loss of weight could only arise from the
evaporation of the superabundant water existing in the
dough; and as it is known how much heat, and con-
sequently how much fuel,is required to reduce any
given quantity of water, at any given temperature, to
steam, it is possible, from these data, to determine how
much fuel would be required to bake any given quantity
of bread, upon the supposition that xo part of the heat
generated in the combustion of the fuel was lost, either
in heating the apparatus, or in any other way; but that
the whole of it was employed in baking the bread, and
in that process alone. And though these computations
will not show how the heat which is lost might be saved,
yet, as they ascertain what the amount of this loss really
is in any given case, they enable us to determine, with
a considerable degree of precision, not only the relative
merit of different arrangements for economizing fuel in
the process of baking, but they show also at the same
time the precise distance of each from that point of
perfection where any farther improvements would be
impossible; and on that account these computations
are certainly interesting.

In computing how much heat is wecessary to bake
any given quantity of bread, it will tend much to sim-
plify the investigation, if we consider the loaf as being
first heated to the temperature of boiling water, and
then baked in consequence of its redundant water
being sent off from it in steam.

But as the dough is composed of two different sub-
stances, viz., rye-meal and water; and as these substances

538 Account of Experiments

have been found by experiment to contain different
quantities of absolute heat, or, in other words, to re-
quire different quantities of heat to heat equal quan-
tities or weights of them to any given temperature, or
any given number of degrees, — it will be necessary to
determine how much of each of these ingredients is
employed in forming any given quantity of dough.

Now, in the foregoing experiments, as 1102 loaves of
bread were formed of 1736 lbs. of rye-meal, it appears
that there must have been 13445 lb. of the meal in each
loaf; and, as these loaves weighed 23 lbs. each when
they were put into the oven, each of them must, in a
state of dough, have been composed of 17% lb. of rye-
meal and 17%, |b. of water.

Supposing these loaves to have been at the tempera-
ture of 55° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer when they
were put into the oven, the heat necessary to heat one
of them to the temperature of 212°, or the point of boil-
ing water, may be thus computed.

By an experiment, of which I intend hereafter to give
an account to the public, I found that 20 lbs. of ice-cold
water might be made to boil with the heat generated
in the combustion of 1 lb. of dry pine-wood, such as
was used in ‘baking the bread in the six experiments
before mentioned. Now, if 20 lbs. of water may be
heated 180 degrees (namely, from 32° to 212°) by the
heat generated in the combustion of 1 lb. of wood,
Izé0 lb. of water may be heated 157 degrees (from
55°, or temperate, to 212°) with 7¢$$% of a pound of
the wood.

Suppose now that the rye-meal contained the same
quantity of absolute heat as water, —as the quantity of
meal in each loaf was 17‘s5 lb., it appears that this quan-

on Cooking for the Poor. 539

tity would have required (upon the above supposition) to
heat it from the temperature of 55° to that of 212° a
quantity of heat equal to that which would be gene-
rated in the combustion of z§$é0 of a pound of the
wood in question.

But it appears, by the result of experiments published
by Dr. Crawford, that the quantities of heat required to
heat any number of degrees, the same given quantity
(in weight) of water and of wheat (and it is presumed
that the specific or absolute heat of rye cannot be very
different from that of wheat), are to each other as
275 to 1; water requiring more heat to heat it than the
grain in that proportion. Consequently, the quantity
of wood required to heat from 55° to 212° the 1y%5 |b.
of rye-meal which enters into the composition of each
loaf instead of being 7§ét30 of a pound, as above de-
termined, upon the false supposition that the specific
heat of water and of rye were the same, would, in fact,
amount to no more than 72$$8y; for 23% (the specific
heat of water) is to 1 (the specific heat of rye) as 7$$080
is to zaRees.

Hence it appears that the wood required as fuel to
heat (from the temperature of 55° to that of 212°) a loaf
of rye-bread (in the state of dough), weighing 23 lbs.
would be.as follows: namely, —

Of pine-wood.
To heat 1%, lb. of water, which enters into Ib.
the composition of the dough. . . . . ehhh,
To heat the rye-meal, 1,45 lb. in weight. . Ratio
Total... Geers ahs

To complete the computation of the quantity of fuel
necessary in the process of baking bread, it remains to
determine how much heat is required, to send off in

540 Account of Experiments

steam from one of the loaves in question (after it has
been heated to the temperature of 212°) the 10} loths,
equal to %} of a pound of water, which each loaf is
known to lose in being baked.

Now it appears, from the result of Mr. Watt's in-
genious experiments on the quantity of latent heat in
steam, that the quantity of heat necessary to change
any given quantity of water a/ready botling hot to steam
is about five times and a half greater than would be suffi-
cient to heat the same quantity of water from the tem-
perature of freezing to that of boiling water.

But we have just observed that 20 lbs. of ice-cold
water may be heated to the boiling point, with the heat
generated in the combustion of 1 Ib. of pine-wood. It
appears, therefore, that 20 lbs. of boiling water would
require 5} times as much, or 5} lbs. of wood to reduce
it to steam.

And if 20 lbs. of boiling water require 5% lbs. of
wood, 24 of a pound of water boiling hot will require
150¢é0 of a pound of wood to reduce it to steam.

Of pine-wood.
Ib.

If now to this quantity of fuel. . . . . « yR02ay

we add that necessary for heating the loaf

to the temperature of boiling water, as ‘

above determined .-....a/ shih Wars ahs
This gives the total quantity of fuel neces-

sary for baking one of these loaves of

Dreads a op ebay te ee a ee Pet

Now, as these loaves, when baked into bread, weighed
2 Ibs. 53 loths = 23} lbs. each, and required in being
baked the consumption of ?¢3¢5 of a pound of wood,
this gives for the expense of fuel in baking bread

on Cooking for the Poor. 541

robes of a pound of pine-wood to each pound of rye-
bread, which is about 13} Pe of bread to each pound ©

of wood.

But we have seen, from er results of the before-.
mentioned experiments, that when the bread was baked
under circumstances the most favourable to the economy
of fuel, no less than 80 lbs. of pine-wood were employed
in heating the oven to bake 304 lbs. of bread, which
gives less than 4 lbs. of bread to each pound of wood.
Consequently, ¢wo ¢hzrds at least of the heat generated
in the combustion of the fuel must, in that case, have
been lost; and in all the other experiments the loss of
heat appears to have been still much greater.

A considerable loss of heat in baking will always be
inevitable; but it seems probable that this loss might,
with proper attention to the construction of the oven,
and to the management of the fire, be reduced at least
to one half the quantity generated from the fuel in its
combustion. In the manner in which the baking busi-
ness is now generally carried on, much more than three
quarters of the heat generated, or which might be gen-
erated, from the fuel consumed, is lost.

APPENDIX No. VIII.

Sey E following account of the persons in the House

of Industry in Dublin, the 30th of April, 1796,
and of the details of the manner and expense of feeding
them, was given to the author, by order of the Gov-
ernors of that Institution.

542 Account of Experiments

Average of the Description of Poor for the week ending 30th of

April, 1796.

Employed .

Infirm and incurable .

Idiots . Pr Bb Pare tages
Bliod:)) - <6 BR eee

In the Infirmary.
Sick patients, servants, etc. . .
Lanaties . of)! Se he oe ee

Males. Females, Total.

74 352 426
172 585 757

16 13 29
5 10 15
267 960 1227
88 200
15 48 AAS

Total” . 22.

Employed at actuallabour ... .
” »» Menial offices . . . «

"FOtal ic tsi ete

322 persons.

104
42655

Amongst the 1570 persons above-mentioned, are 282 children and —

447 compelled persons.
Of the children, 205 are taught to spell, read,

and write.

Saturday, April 30, 1796.
1227 Persons fed at Breakfast.

120 servants in new house @ 8 oz. |!bs- | ths. Joaves. Ib. Vaiuad
bread . . ar io 68 , sds
186 is 41 If I 14 0
336 incurables, children, etc., @ 6 oz. aa. 4
DERRU S55 a te “1%. bw! 320

771 workers, etc., got divabdat.

1227 persons.
Weight of meal for stirabout, 4 cwt., costs
120 servants in new house get galls. pts. )
I quart butter-milk each . 30 0
1084 workers, incurables, _ etc.,
I pint butter-milk. . . . 135 4
23 sucklers get no butter-milk.
Allowed for waste .... 3 44

1227 persons.

Brought down .

Fuel to cook the stirabout, 3 bush., cost. . .
Salt for ditto, 1 qr.3 lbs.,cost . . . . -

The breakfast cost
Quantity of water, 5 barrels 6 gallons.

+167 gallons of butter-milk,

value £1.
4. hh ze
a eee
ray
pes fe |
fo) oh 5 2,13 0}
5 18 8}

2 ie:
ae ie

ee ee ee ee. eee

a Re Min

_—

che ati aay

— So a

on Cooking for the Poor. 543.

1227 Persons Sed at Dinner.— Bread and Meal Pottage.
Ibs. Ibs. . loaves. Ib, _ Value.

o servants @9goz.bread . . . . 68 ney: S 4% a.
' workers, incurables, etc., @ 8 oz. 5534 214 is 138 Of § 10 4

7 persons.

_ Weight of meal for the pottage, 1 cwt. 3 qt 2 6S ee ne

= Pepper for ditto, halfapound. ....,. . ec RY

Ginger for ditto, r pound vey eo) eg

Salt for ditto, 21 pounds... . 1... ee
Fuel for ditto, 3 bushels 2 pecks . o 2 7
Dinner cost 6 9 34

Supper.
ey so Ibs, Ibs. loaves, Ib. Value.
_ For 165 sickly women on 6 oz. bread . 62 & *
251 children, 30z. ditto .. . . 47
N.B. The expenses of food for the Hospital, in which there are
343 persons, is not included in the above account.

109 is 24 1 I 19 11

Sunday, May 1, 1796.

a 1220 Persons fed at Breakfast.
___—«*‘120 servants, @ 8 oz. bread.

_ 330 incurables, children, etc., 6 oz. ditto.

770 workers, etc., get stirabout.

1220 persons.

_ The same quantity of provisions delivered this day for breakfast as on
Saturday, and cost the same ; viz., 5/. 185. 84d.

1220 Persons fed at Dinner. — Bread, Beef and Broth.
Ibs Ibs. loaves. Ib. Cost.
120 servants,@goz.bread . .. . 613 is 137 14 + 9 é
1100 workers, incurables, etc., 8 ditto . 550

nel

1220 persons.

; cwt. qrs. Ibs.
Weight ofraw beef. . . 2. 1 2 2 ee e) 4 210
Allowedfor bone . . . +. . + + + «+ « t7 os
5 210 719 3
Mreaijorthe broth . . 6 5% 6 ew ew ee) 62 I 3 14
Waste bread forditto. . 1. . 9s. . + © - I 0 0 000
RM A ese gp ' Gp, on 8, be ae 0 024 oo 8
DUMERTOPMURO. is 6s 6 8k wl 8 0 o of ot
Fuel, 4 bushels 2 pecks . . . - «+ ss o 3 44

544 Actount of Experiments

Supper.
The same number of women and children as yesterday, and the supper
cost the same ; viz., I9s. I1d. .

Wednesday, May 4, 1796.
1216 Persons fed at Breakfast.

120 servants in new house, @ 8 oz. bread.
334 incurables, children, etc., @ 6 oz. ditto.
762 workers, etc., get stirabout.

1216 persons.

The same quantity of provisions, etc., delivered this day for breakfast
as for Saturday, and cost the same ; viz., 52. 185. 84d. .

1216 Persons fed at Dinner. — Calecannon and Beer.
Cost.

cewt. qrs. lbs. 4 & a

Weight of raw potatoes for calecannon .. I9 0 O 3 6 6
An allowance for waste . . 1... + +s $00
Weight used . . . . 18 0 O

Raw greens for calecannon. . ....+. 800 F .Giko

Butter ” 7s oe alge eg RS I oo 3 12.0

Pepper a cried aman aie ahe o 0 of dn a |

Ginger a * a a Oo .6© 1 0, "has

Onions o s SOR: 0, or nie, ea o 20

Salt By a tigi Me Sects oe Oo 0 24 oo 8

Fuel, 4 bushels 2 pecks 04° 4 6 0) wis °o 3 4

Time of boiling about four hours.

1393 persons get 1 pint of beer each, galls. pts. )
making. is «. oi \s' « «' « 149 f
23 on the breast get no beer. galls. barrs. galls.
eatel ah] ee Pe TARY ie
1216 persons.
Allowed for waste ..... I 7

Bread to incurables and children on the breast, 43 loaves Prpug

Total. os 0' « 0 IZ ieee

Supper.

The same number of women and children as on Saturday, and cost
the same ; viz., 195. 11d.

N. B. All these accounts are in avoirdupois weight and Irish money.

BR a ih tl

on Cooking for the Poor. 545

APPENDIX No, IX.

_ An Account of an Experiment made (under the direction of the
Author) in the Kitchen of the House of Industry at Dublin, in
Cooking for the Poor.

AY the 6th, 1466; a dinner was provided for 927
persons, of calecannon, a kind of food in great
repute in Ireland, composed of fotatoes, boiled and
mashed, mixed with about one-fifth of their weight of
boiled greens, cut fine with sharp shovels, and seasoned
with butter, onions, salt, pepper, and ginger. The in-
gredients were boiled in a very large iron boiler of a
circular or rather hemispherical form, capable of con-
taining near 400 gallons, and remarkably thick and
heavy. 273 gallons of pump water were put into this
boiler; and the following table will show in a satis-
factory manner the progress and the result of the
experiment : —

Time. Fuel = a . Contents of the Boiler.
eI
3
a
3 Quantity,
é £ 3 3 S Ingredients.
Z a 3 2 § Inmeas-}| In
= S & 2 = ures. | weights.
Ibs. Is. Ibs.
z 4 4 106 55° || Water to boil the greens and potatoes. oe.
15 I 2
40 I a
Bol slecatt — = 2
15 2 53 80°
30 I 26} go?
ites fag 2 53 110?
SO ct I 264 150°
BON isis ce | 6 90 212° || The greens were now putin. . .|....| 2954
2 eee + @e 180?
30 I 264 190°
Sa) ee} uae | sae a ey 212°
RR ae Wiad meee [le ee ba agin laa ta aparece
HG Uh eh cht Akos pa ae eaeke eeee
Ir 10 2 53 180° e _
20 I 264 200?
Sed, Per ae ese Paar eae, 212°
oes] 45 |l-e+] e+e |] «++ || Potatoesdone. .. . -. .. -

VOL. Iv. 35

546 Account of Experiments

General Results of the Experiment.

The fuel used was Whitehaven coal; the quantity,
17 pecks, weighing 450% Ibs.

The potatoes being mashed (without peeling them),
and the greens chopped fine with a sharp shovel, they
were mixed together, and 98 lbs. of butter, 14 lbs. of
onions boiled and chopped fine, 40 lbs. of salt, 1 Ib. of
black pepper in powder, and 3% lb. of ginger being
added, and the whole well mixed together, this food
was served out in portions of 1 quart, or about 2 lbs,
each, in wooden noggins, holding each 1 quart when
full.

Each of these portions of calecannon (as this food
is called in Ireland) served one person for dinner and
supper; and each portion cost about 27‘; pence, Irish
money, or it cost something less than ove penny sterling
per pound.

Twelve pence sterling make thirteen pence Irish.

The expense (reckoned in Irish money) of preparing
this food was as follows: viz.,—

i, eee
Potatoes, 19 cwt., at 3s. 6d. per cwt. 3 1658
(N. B. They weighed no more than 1615 lbs. when picked and washed. sh
Greens, 26 flaskets, at rod.each . . 1.» ss « % 6 bc te
Butter, 98 lbs., at 725. percwt.. . . . 1... Me ata ieee
Onions, 14 Ibs., at 2s..per stone < »..... ©, '« ne +) mb Oc Bere
Gingergs (Os) bes 3c acs o Soreem lo, eee ip eee ee Ottis
alt AG IBS er Yo. sce bie ie) ee Ne ty ee ara eso ee ee O.. See
Peppers t 30s) fe 6 Werte, ee rae a ok ‘ 0. toe
Total cost of the ingredients . . . 7 16 9
Expense for fuel, 17 pecks of coals, at 1/. 3s. 3¢. per ton . o 3.2
Total wis seg ner Go ge bgt lped Stee te og

With this kind of food there is no allowance of bread,
nor is any necessary. 5

— oe,

on Cooking for the Poor. 547

It would be hardly possible to invent a more nourish-
ing or more palatable kind of food than calecannon, as
it is made in Ireland; but the expense of it might be
considerably diminished by using less butter in pre-
paring it. |

Salted herrings (which do not in general cost much
more than a penny the pound) might be used with great
advantage to give it a relish, particularly when a small
proportion of butter is used.

In this experiment, 273 gallons of water, weighing
about 2224 lbs. avoirdupois, and being at the tempera-
ture of 55°, was made to boil (in 2 hours and 32 min-
utes) with the combustion of 3463 lbs. of coal; which
gives rather less than 63 lbs. of water to each pound of
coal consumed, the water being heated 157 degrees,
or from 55° to 212°. |

According to my experiments, 20 lbs. of water may
be heated 180 degrees (namely, from 32°, the freezing-
point, to 212°, the temperature of boiling water) with
the heat generated in the combustion of 1 Ib. of pine-
wood. Consequently, the same quantity of wood (1 Ib.)
would heat 23 lbs. of water 157 degrees, or from 55°
to 212°.

But M. Lavoisier has shown us by his experiments
that the quantity of heat generated in the combustion
of any given weight of coal is greater than that gen-
erated in the combustion of the same weight of dry
wood, in the proportion of 1089 to 600. Consequently,
1 lb. of coal ought to make 40% lbs. of water, at bg .
temperature of 55°, boil.

But, in the foregoing experiments, 1 lb. of coal was
consumed in making 63 lbs. of water boil. Consequently,
more than @ of the heat generated, or which might with

548 Account of Experiments

proper management have been generated, in the com-
bustion of the coal, was lost, owing to the bad construc-
tion of the boiler and of the fire-place.

Had the construction of the boiler and of the fire-
place been as perfect as they were in my experiments,
a quantity of fuel would have been sufficient, smaller
than that actually used, in the proportion of 6} to 403,
or, instead of 4504 lbs. of coal, 71? lbs. would have done
the business; and, instead of costing 3s. 24a. they would
have cost less than 6}d. Irish money, or 5#d. sterling:
which is only about $ per cent of the cost of the in-
gredients used in preparing the food, for the expense of
fuel for cooking it.

These computations may serve to show that I did
not exaggerate when I gave it as my opinion (in my
Essay on Food) that the expense for the fuel necessary
to be employed in cooking ought never to exceed, even
in this country, ¢wo per cent of the value of the in-
gredients of which the food is composed; that is to
say, when kitchen fire-places are well constructed.

Had the ingredients used in this experiinent — viz.,
2234 lbs. of water, 1615 lbs. of potatoes, 98 lbs. of but-
ter, 14 lbs. of onions, 40 lbs. of salt, 1 lb. of pepper, and
+ lb. of ginger, making in all 39923 lbs. — been made into
a soup, instead of being made into calecannon, this, at
1} lb. (equal to one pint and a quarter) the portion, would
have served to feed 3210 persons.

But if I can show, that in Ireland, where all the coals
they burn are imported from England, a good and suffi-
cient meal of victuals for 3210 persons may be provided
with the expense of only 5#a. for the fuel necessary to
cook it, I trust that the account I ventured to publish in
my first Essay, of the expense for fuel in the kitchen of the

on Cooking for the Poor. 549

Military Workhouse at Munich, namely, that it did not
amount to so much as 43d. a day, when 1000 persons
were fed, will no longer appear quite so incredible, —
as it certainly must appear to those who are not aware
of the enormous waste which is made of fuél in the
various processes in which it is employed.

I shall think myself very fortunate, if what I have
done in the prosecution of these my favourite studies
should induce ingenious men to turn their attention to
the investigation of a science hitherto much neglected,
and where every new improvement must tend directly
and powerfully to increase ‘the comforts and enjoyments
of mankind.

[The “ Account of Several Public Institutions,” and the Appendixes to
the Papers on Establishments for the Poor and on Food, are printed from
the English edition of Rumford’s works, Vol. I., pp. 389-464. |

ADDITIONAL APPENDIXES.

Tue German edition contains the following additional matter with
reference to the management of the poor. The “ Remarks” are
those of the German editor.

INSTRUCTIONS.

[RemMarK. —In order to make those who have voluntarily undertaken the
care of the poor thoroughly acquainted with their duties, and to inform the
public what service is expected from each one, the following instructions were
published, and up to the present time they have been followed without deviation.]

I. Lnstructions to those selected as Commissaries of Districts to assist
the Poor in this City and Suburbs.

The person who is designated as Commissary of a District is
requested : —

1st. With co-operation of the district secretary or of an assistant,
to collect from the subscribers in his district, on the appointed day,

550 Details of the Management

the monthly contributions, as indicated by the family-subscription
lists ; and immediately after the collection to deliver the money to —
the Brothers Nockher (the bankers appointed to take charge of the
funds for the poor), receiving two receipts therefor ; also to deliver
the subscription book with one of the receipts to the committee
(Armen-Instituts-Deputation).

2d. With the aid of the priest, to describe in the printed blanks
such poor persons as are brought to his notice or present themselves
to him, and, guided by his sense of duty, to give his conscientious
opinion whether the same need alms, and, if so, how much; but
meanwhile no aid is to be extended to any poor persons until the
investigation of the case has been undertaken. He is also from time
to time to inform himself as to the progress of the investigation and
as to the disposal of the alms received, and to make a written report
in case any delay occur in the matter,

3d. In cases where immediate aid is necessary and delay would
be dangerous, the required amount may be obtained for the person
in need from the distributing priest, on the recommendation of the
district commissary, without the previous ratification of the com-
mittee.

4th. The district commissary will report to the designated phy-
sicians, surgeons, and priests, such sick persons as there may
be in his district who are enrolled among the poor. Such sick
persons, however, as are entitled to be received iuto the court or city
hospitals are to be reported to the directors of the same. Notice,
however, of the subsequent recovery (or of the death) of the sick
person shall be given to the district commissary by the directors, in
order that there may be no danger of the continued enjoyment of
alms. This same thing is to be guarded against, if a poor person
for some other reason is granted alms or allowed a larger amount
for a certain time.

5th. Finally, the district commissary will render an essential
service to the public welfare by reporting any suspicious person
in his district, or any person not belonging here, or any offence
against the police regulations.

Il. Jnustructions for the Priests chosen to aid the Poor in this City and
Suburbs,

1st. The priest chosen for this service is recommended, either in
connection with or alternately with the district commissary, to in-
vestigate the cases of the poor in his district, and to report such

ey ee

ee a eS UCU ee

of the Poor in Munich. 551

persons as need help, but are not yet known; but to the priest
especially, and to him alone, with co-operation of the secretary of
the committee, is committed the monthly distribution of alms to the
poor of his district. This distribution is made according to the list
furnished to him, and takes place in the town hall at the appointed
time. /
2d. The sick among the poor of his district are most expressly
recommended to him ‘for comfort and consolation. Still, to lighten
this toilsome duty, the brethren of the religious orders have already
been assigned to the duty of rendering such assistance ; and these
latter are also requested to give notice to the district commissary or
to the priest of such poor persons needing assistance as may come
to their notice.

3d. In such cases as may occur where immediate assistance is
needed, there will be furnished to the poor person without delay,
from the sum advanced by the committee, such an amount as has
been previously recommended by the commissary of the district.
This amount cannot, however, exceed one florin. The priest shall
every quarter give a full account or exhibit of this money received in
advance, and of the expenses that have been met out of it.

4th. The priest is also instructed to keep close watch over such
poor persons as receive alms for a certain time only or for special
reasons, so that they may not continue to receive assistance after
the occasion therefor has passed, to the detriment of others who
are needy.

5th. Finally, the commendable watchfulness of the priest gives
reason to expect that he will (with the understanding that his name
shall not be divulged) report any offence against religion or good
morals which occurs in his district, either to the commissary of his
district or to the police, in order that proper information may at
once be given to the committee.

III. Justructions to the Physicians and Surgeons appointed to assist and
care for the Poor in each division of the City and Suburbs.

1st. The care of the sick without charge, on notice from the district
commissary or priest, is most expressly recommended to them: they
are also given full power to order the necessary medicines — being, —
however, as sparing as possible—from the apothecary chosen in
each division of the city, and to procure the same, giving account
therefor. For safety’s sake, however, they are to insert in their own
handwriting the name of the poor person in the prescription, and

552 Details of the Management

are to give to no sick person such an order for medicine who has
not already been indicated to them by the district commissary or
priest as already enrolled as a poor person. Still, in cases of neces-
sity, they may order medicines to be furnished without charge, on
being shown the ticket held by the poor person ; in which case, how-
ever, the number which stands on the ticket is to be inserted in the
prescription. | |

2d.. When the sickness is ended, either by recovery or by death,
the district commissary is to be notified at once of the result, in
order that the institution may suffer no harm or detriment by the too
long continued enjoyment of the assistance received.

3d. If in any case the physician or surgeon is prevented from
hastening to the poor person at once or is not in condition to visit
him, he is allowed to designate another experienced person in the
profession. In this last case, the prescription must on every occasion
be signed by the district commissary.

4th. In case a certificate be required of them with reference to
the condition of health of a poor person, it is expected they will be
all the more conscientious in filling out the same, as otherwise the
alms, which are intended only for truly needy poor, might be wasted
to no purpose on dissolute and undeserving persons who simply
hate to work and wish by this means to escape, and so the really
deserving might suffer want.

IV. Justructions to the Apothecaries chosen in each District of this
City and Suburbs to assist the Poor.

The apothecaries are to furnish medicines without cost to the sick
persons in their districts and to present a monthly account of the
same, accompanied by the prescriptions, to the committee, reckoning
the prices at cost according to their voluntary and philanthropic
offer ; but notice is hereby specially given to them that they are not
to receive any prescription on which the name of the sick person
who is enrolled among the poor does not appear, and which is not
signed by one of the physicians or surgeons who have been chosen
in their districts and who are now known publicly. If it is impos-
sible, however, to procure their signature, the prescription must then
bear the signature of the proper district commissary, as has already
been specified in the instructions given to the physicians, § 3.

of the Poor in Munich. 553

-Municu, 179

CERTIFICATE

For the Person enrolled on the Poor List as No.

Increase of Allowance. Reasons,
From :

[REMARK.— As it often happens
that a person already described and
enrolled in the poor list needs con-
siderable additional assistance, in
such a case the district commissary
writes his recommendation in the
matter on this blank, on which action
is then taken by the Armen-Instituts-
Deputation. A similar blank is used
if the poor person require clothing,
the words “clothing or bedding”
being substituted for “increase of
allowance.””] Commissary of the District.

ORDER FOR ASSISTANCE,

The Distributing Priest of the quarter, | district,
is requested to furnish the bearer, on account of pressing
necessity, with fl. kr., the same to be taken from the

advanced money in his hands.

MUNICH, 179

[REMARK. — Every distributing priest has placed in his hands by the Armen-
Institut a sum in advance, in order that he may be able to meet the demands of
those needing help at once. As, however, this can only be done at the order of
the district commissary, use is made of this blank form, which also facilitates
subsequently the mutual rendering of accounts.]

554 Detatts of the Management

LIST OF THE POOR.

. | e| #3 aie Thendoness
A ACHR
HSN yayt | Gal j
3 ele) ah uli = :
ald lel diate | st]ge] a0 alg

[REMARK. —In order to be able to ascertain quickly at the Poor Bureau —
(Armen-Kanzlei) the circumstances of every enrolled poor person, the
above list is kept in duplicate, once according to alphabetical arrangement
and once according to the numbers.]

er eel aaa

LIST of Residences of all the enrolled Poor of Munich, for the

[REMARK. —It is necessary that every district commissary should know
accurately how many persons he has in his district who are enrolled at the
Armen-Institut, and where they live. For this purpose, each one has a f
list of residences of the poor under his direction, prepared according to
the following blank; and the Bureau (Kanzlei) has a list of the whole.]

of the Poor in Munich, 355

RECOMMENDATIONS
For the Poor of the division of the ‘ quarter »
for the month of | 179

Description | Receives .
Already | "handed in | alms from |Needs new. BES Sema

Number of the
No. Name, :
4 described. | this month. theInstitut

poor ticket.

— = 2 be te on as

fl. | kr] fl. | kro] fl. | kr.

Clothing. Bedding. Other sdeaalbs

Name.

Breeches.
Corset.
Cravat.

| Apron.

| Hat.
Shirts.

| Shoes.
Stockings.
Straw bed.
Bolster.

| Sheet.
Workhouse food.

| Rent.
Wood.
Medicine
Bath.
Bandage

Vest.

| Coat.
| Coverlid.
| Work.

To
Mtarabee Remarks.

[ReMArK. — In order that every district commissary may know
exactly how many recommendations he has sent in to the
Armen-Institut each month, and whether each one of them
has been concurred in by the committee, he keeps an account
of his recommendations for each month on this form.]

Commissary of the District.

556 Detazis of the Management

LIST OF ARTICLES
Granted to the Poor Person enrolled as No.

Clothing. {| Bedding. || Other needss |

Breeches.
Cravat.
Apron.
Hat.
Shirts.
Shoes.
Stockings.
Straw bed.
Ister.
Sheet. —

[ReMARK. — As the description is the principal document for each —
enrolled person, there is wrapped about every description a list like this |
blank, in order to be able to see at a glance what each one has received |
by grant from the Armen-Institut and to judge therefrom with reference _
to further recommendations. ]

EXTRACT
From the Minutes of the Council, the 179

New!ly granted alms. . fl. kr.

Increase of alms granted. fl. | kr.
Further.

Refused. Me
Alms desired. Articles of clothing desired.

Increase of assistance. Compensation for injuries.

of the Poor in Munich. 557 |

Clothing granted.

Pair Breeches.
Ells.

Pair Shoes. |
Stockings.
Coat.

Vest.
Corset.
Shirts.
Apron.
Linen.

Hat.

Caps.

(Remark. — Action is taken monthly by the Armen-Institut on the recommendations of
the commissaries of the districts ; each one thereupon receives monthly a statement for his
information and instruction with reference to the poor under his care.

Changes of
weadance, No. of Deaths.
eh — sop lane Removed to. poor peat Residence.
Ey * | Names of the On ticket. Names.
poor.
: Ase So Street. wo Street.

OTHER REMARKS.

From the Electoral Committee (Armen-Instituts-Deputation),
To the District Commissary of the Quarter,
Herr

COLLECTION LIST
Of the voluntary Contributions for the Support of the Poor in Munich.

Quarter District
Commissary Priest
Physician Surgeon
‘House, No. Number of Name of {Character or Monthl Other
Street.| Then quarter | Floor.) .\U70°" © | the head of |profession of nal Le
and etice the family: | the family. | the same. amount. remarks.
fl kr.

[Remark. — Every district commissary has his collection list made out rise to the
accompanying blank, and collects monthly in each house the voluntarily subscribed contri-

butions as indicated in it.]

558 Details of “the Management

REPORT OF THE COLLECTION
Of voluntary Subscriptions for the Support of the Poor in Munich.

uarter
yb ack { ee =
Month of » 179
District Commissary
Total amount florins, kreutzers.

[REMARK. — To facilitate the inspection of each collection, the district
commissary makes use of this Report, and delivers to the bankers of the
Poor Fund the amount herein exhibited. ]

Head of the house, who | 4 .ount || Remaining|| Further

House, collects the subscriptions former|} contribu- ney __ Other
No. of the entire hodsshoid, (> month. || ye ci paid.|| tions, avhicg remarks,

Amount carried forw d.

ACCOUNTS OF THE POOR FUND IN MUNICH.
(Miinchner Armen-Fonds Manual.)

[REMARK. — As only the banker of the Poor Fund receives and pays out
the money belonging to the Institut, the following account is kept: the
duplicate is kept at the Poor Bureau, and is compared monthly with the
banker’s account, and the settlement is made from this statement.]

ACCOUNT OF THE POOR FUND.
Receipts. :

Date of }
recent: From whom. Whence or from what fund. Amount.

fl. kr S|

of the Poor in Munich. 559,

ACCOUNT OF THE POOR FUND.
Expenditures.

Date of At whose order. To whom. Amount.

payment.

This receipt, made in duplicate, certifies that we, Nockher Brothers,

bankers of the Poor Fund, have received from the
sum of florins, kreutzers, on account of the Poor Fund.
MuNICcH,
fl. kr.

[REMARK.—The banker of the Poor Fund gives receipts for all moneys
received according to this form, and always in duplicate. The person paying
the money keeps one receipt, and delivers the other at the office of the Insti-
tution.]

; Notice (No. ).
Notice (No. ). H
: Nockher Brotl k f Mu-
To Nockher Brothers, the ockher Brothers, bankers of the Mu

‘ nich P Fund, will pl t
bankers of the Munich Poor: Te ae sor yertl_at eat
the sum of fl. kr.

Fund, authorizing them to:
jae 8 : Municu, the

fl. kr.
pay . From the Electoral Committee (Armen-
Municu, the Instituts-Deputation).

fl. kr.

[Remark.—The banker pays out nothing except on instructions made out
on this blank, which must be signed by the President and Secretary of the
Institut. These instructions are Bound into a book and are filled out in dupli-
cate. The smaller one remains in the book: the pr who is to draw the
money receives the larger one, and gives it up to the banker, as a receipt for the
money paid out.]

560 Detazls of the Management

JOURNAL OF THE ARMEN-INSTITUTS-DEPUTATION.

: Date.
Received No. of the Contents of Name of person
179 document. the document. | presenting the Of Of
same.

presentation.| execution.

[ReMARK. —In this book are entered all reports, requests, communi-
cations, and memorials which reach the Armen-Instituts-Deputation.
When action has been taken, another entry is made, so that this book —
contains a synopsis of every completed undertaking.]

No.
Name
Age Years.
Bodily structure
Lives at present
Receives weekly in alms 42 kreutzers.
MUNICH, the

L. S.

[REMARK.— The payment of the alms takes place weekly at the town-hall
on presentation of a ticket of the above description, which is so arranged
the possessor cannot readily alter or sell it, since it would be easy to discover
the fact if it were presented by the wrong person.]

ACCOUNT OF THE WEEKLY DISTRIBUTION OF ALMS.

Weekly distribution of alias
tr , Date of
o. of| Name of} new or
poy precy BLN REIT ist. | 2d. | ad. | ath. | sth. | oth. | 7th.
ticket.| person. | alms re- Fol.
ceived.

fl. kere! fl. [Her.| fl. [ler.] fl. fers} f. fer. | fl. [Jer.! fl. [Jer] fl. fer

[REMARK.—In this book all the poor are entered according to the
number on the ticket ; and the proper payment is each week denoted by
a stroke of the pen, and indicated at once by the auditor in the check ac-
count according to this form. The computation of all alms paid outright _
is thus very easily made, and all errors are avoided.]

of the Poor in Munich. 561

CERTIFICATE OF INDUSTRY.

__ The person enrolled as No.
will be provided in the Military Workhouse
with work, for which he will receive

To certify the weekly accomplishment of
work, the following snail is rat a on.

It is permitted these persons to under-
take work in the city when they have op-

- portunity.

[REMARK. — On presentation of this certificate issued by the committee,
the poor persons receive work and tools to take to their homes from the
Military Workhouse, and the weekly delivery of the produce of the labor
they are expected to perform is marked with a stamp.]

Residence.
No. of | Name of the Date of | Magistrate in whose | Remarks
poor ticket. | deceased poor. death. jurisdiction. property.

Quarter.
District.
House, No.

[REMARK.— Since the poor at their death must make good from any
property which they may leave that which they have received as alms
during their life, a book is kept according to the above form. ]

VOL. Iv. 36

562 Details of the Management

[REMARK.— This account is presented to show how the accounts with the

public are balanced every quarter, and how the attempt is made to instruct them

from time to time in matters relating to the Institution. Such important points
as have been already touched upon, the printed appendix in most cases shows. ]

ACCOUNT OF ALL RECEIPTS

For the second quarter of the year 1796, namely, April, May, and June,
taken from the books of the Institution for the Poor.

April. May. June. Amount. |

From monthly voluntary contributions. || fl. | kr. || fl. | kr. |] fl. | kr. fl. kr.

From His Most Serene Highness the
Elector . roo}. «|| r0oo]+.!| rool]. . goo |
_ Her Serene Highness the reigning eh

lectress
From Her Serene “Highness the Elec-
tress Dowager . . :
From the States of Bavaria. | | 50|-. 50]. «
From the voluntary contributions of the
inhabitants of ae mas including the 3
Lechel . . . + «© «© « «© |[ 2,483 | 40 |]2,492 | 7 |] 2,524 | 46 7,500 | 33
en from Le Au ha E 21 | 21 21 | 10 20 | 58 63 | 29
rom the Electoral Lifeguards . . . 12 | 50 12 | 50 12 | 54 38 | 34

From Stated Allowances. fe
deed Bas: Electoral toy a stated cpap thes ca ie doin Attia:

: 4.200
Fra "the Electoral Cabine allowasine i house-rent for ‘the Goirgli 200
From the Electoral Cabin lowance. for ce ee 8 © 88 8 eS fe vs} 200

Miscellaneous Receipts.

From payment of a Piosasky bond with interest. . «© «+ 2 4 + + + + 520
From the Papal Nuncio Count von Genga, while here. . » s pile 221 | 30
From the Carmelite a se = or < the soup’ bie are 8 19 | 12
From interest . .. . Riera he woe 244
From other sources. Ge ae when aie ear aa 170 | 30
From legacies and Quartis Pauperum $e. 8! AD step a RB eet hie. ae 679 | 46
From anonymous donations. 2 6 5 s+ + sie s) 8 6 6 bm 0 a. tir] 59
TOC 85 BO Nie Noe eo arte Pi lae polthd beste 88 | 10

Total . 15037 | 43—
Nors.— If to this be added the balance remaining from the first quarter of
; this year, namely OP ere ew re 10 Te 8 a Be ona aoe ae ee 71446 Cr9

The whole sum to be accounted for during the second quarter amounts to. « ||’ 22,503 | 524

of the Poor in Munich, 563

ACCOUNT OF ALL EXPENDITURES

Bx For the second quarter of the year 1796, namely, April, May, and June,
it taken from the books of the Institution for the Poor...

In alms distributed weekly. fl. kr.
In the City. fl. kr. In the Au. fl. kr.
April 6. mets 762 3 Aprilr. + # « «fh a4 34
2 13+ : + |} 760 39 yy S+ 6 + eo |] 14 | 34
i FOr ew ele fs 760 II 99 (ES o ve) 6 veicie 114 13
“|S eerie ir 761 56 9 226 . 114 6
MARY) 45.4 5-6 763 55 4s 206 3 113 24
nar te. sins s 763 55 May 6. a eres 113 10°
Moses te 767 4 » 13 8 112 42
725° P . 761 38 eae Mh IIL 18
June ir. . at 759 49 » 275 ‘ 110 36
Ra 3 764 47 June 3. . oe 110 15
TT See kel peat 52 49 “206 isyAy 110 57
peat. eet 764 46 at et) CRG ER 110 57
9.29% 2 * 6 793 22 ie” Seas a bs Se 110 15
9,923 57 1,461 I 11,384 | 58
April. May: June.
In fixed Monthly Payments. fl. [kre }} fl. | kr. |] fl. -] kr.
Paid to the Directors of the Military
Workhouse, for the feeding and cloth-
ing of the poor, and travelling arg
urneymen tradesmen. . . 8s0 |. «|| 850]. «|| B50]. .« 2,550
Tot e poor scholars of the Latin and: ; “4
German schools . 80 |. 80 |.» 80}. « 240
To the sisters of the order of St. Elizabeth 8o0].. 80 }.% 80 ].. 240
To the English sisters... 6].. 6}... 6/.- 18
| To the schoolmaster Diembach at
Charles’s Gate . . Shere Oe § [ot 15
To the Hospital for Lepers at Schwabing 20°} a)-% 20}... 20 |. - 65
ToK..H. B and the auditer of the Insti-
tution . ots 16 | 40 16 | 40 16 | 40 50
To the servants of the Institution. . - 16 | 40 16.| 40 16 | 40 50
Miscellaneous E Sa died
te fitting ‘up the interior bas the Hospital on the Ganteig eerie err es 439 | 44
For medicines . . ° ait Molp iaatel 0 be 730 | 41
To the priest for attending those needing’ immediate assistance a es Lr 287
To persons who have suffered by fires « - + + + 6 + wee ew wee 45
For burial expenses _ . . Ta te eh ne Rees 116 | 36
To poor apprentices for indentures and releases. . sLighkhiabs. ot OTA 80
To money given to pay rents for the Georgius foundation ait Set ier ‘ 500
To the stone-mason Schweinberger, fora monumelit-. Sues ce eee 255
ORAWIDUNE eee. > hala ie 8 a ee) wie oe a 88 eee an grt} 50
For ppepe Saige . Eo tatie 28 6
To the clerks in the ‘office ‘for hastening business rae ie Wars ek ee, ee 72
For baths, bandages, and other assistance... 55 5
To the guards of the police for persons arrested, for travelling and other ex-
PCDBCR ns cce ni divipes Ai Moeeai's \elsiev Rae Te® fee) euhel tia. sorasrmedte “s 152] 35

LOA eR PRR Ne Me Me Te Ee Re ee ete wet AMATI, RE

]f now from the receipts . . - + 22,503 fl. 523 kr.
be taken the expenditures for this quarter 17,461
there remainsa balance of . . . . . 5,042 494

Details of the Management

564
SHOWING THE DISTRICTS INTO WHIC T
TOGETHER
NAMES AND RESIDENCES OF THE COMMISSARIES OF THE
APOTHECARIES, COURT AND CI
Municu. — Fo
vo
3 rail sa | SOE seems
Chief Com: 4 ies the same. ° . .
# H Distribut ¥
Sammy lE3le [| Dawes rst =| ee
le oO ‘
5 a Eg as Street. | No. Street. | No,
ore Ign. Streicher, |Kaufin Fr. Koni Schiifer
a . | St] *| $9 |Tavern Keeper Strasse. | 25 Canon Gasse. | '8 Dr.Schubanety)
+ : $f . . . st ect. Med.
bE [= [|Past | as |] SO
3 oh. Sebald, | beim Tas- Ign. Bucholz, | Augusti ;
: g ag 3d | 124 | 183 tenn gonad chenthurm]| "3° Carate-Priest Stock. Dr. Grill. :
a5 2 : ; ,
j y GEE |oo[ome]a0| Agata’ | Shane” || Gime | Sime" | 6]
fa) as - ; 7
| [SS Foal oleh Samak | Bete [is Bsa iw [ao]
ES= | | | —— |
= : rail ;
; me| | | camara | | wea | a fone mee
~~ | ccl.., | Fr Sali Hr. Prelinger, | Thal | © |
4 2 z ad 5 |Ging’rbr’d kr,| Peterthal.| 22 Curate-Priest Petri 31| Dr. Limmer.
ie) : .
8 || Bic Xav. v. Sauer,| Kaufi h. Deisenrider,| Platz Dr. Hol
s A ict 3d | 156 | 223 |" Merchant. Gataers 72 Nacalety see a Mariae. | ?79 ed. Couneilr.
i EEL 4th | 224 | 288 Pao ce! Platz. | 229 Jos. i pe Sendlin | 16] Dr. Oeggl.
Lot —
; Bs 3
Ea h Jos.Schmetter, Kostthor. :
oO 4 A ; 69 Miller. ae Father Au- B
P Le |
6th Jos. Sedimeir,| yechel. | 83| ~ and | Lechel. Dr. Grill.
ee) 7}, 354 Gardener. Father An- s 98
, tonius,
qth | 115 | 218 it Lechel. | 131 E

[ Peterspfarre].

Anger-Quarter.

Parish of St. Peter

Franz de Paula von Mittma’
Thal Mariae, No. 171.

(Remarx.— There is published yearly, according to the accompanying
form, a tabular statement of those persons who have voluntarily
undertaken the care of the poor. This table is hung up in the
churches, so that every inhabitant of the city may know to whom
to refer the poor, if they apply for assistance.]

of the Poor in Munich.

565

{E CITY AND SUBURBS ARE DIVIDED;

STRICTS, DISTRIBUTING PRIESTS, PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS,
SRETARIES OF THE QUARTERS,

*o&

E YEAR 1796.
Z : Es Names of the Streets,
Residences | Residences | 5 3 3 and ef the Conta Sah oes
of the same. pedis of the same. ze E District they aca ctcantedt!
Surgeons. cavies : BO
vo
Street. | No. Street. | No. gas Street. Commissary.
Cai. Braun. rt 32 2 > ||Altenhofgasschen. |von Sauer.
ey ASA |/Anger diesseits des
Melch. Schuss-|_ Sporer £.26|| Bachs. Bacher.
mann, Ct.Sgn.| Gasse. | 5° 20% Anger iibern Bach
; Tea . “Hull! ki. Seite. Weisbiumer
Nep. Geiger. Reg 55 ven by re 27 eis Bichelbrauergiiss-
Sel LS Ae || chen. von Sauer.
3 é a8 Burggasse. von Sauer.
Son Schiifer ahead Damenstiftsseite. |Oberhuber.
Freudensprung| Gasse. | %°7 Ee = Dienersgasse. Gerhauser.
3S Dultgisschen links. |Weisbaumer
Noes Lae os rechts. |Odermatt.
nears | ere caer re Einschiitt. Sallinger.
Ant. Pitze. i 74 3 ¥ ||Eisenmannsgiss-
: 5 E chen. Gerhauser.
Thal ° Eiermarkt. von Sauer.
Seb. Wassl. | Mariae. |'7°] wrath. | pieners|___[@ © e||Farbergraben. _|Sabadini.
; Zaubzer.| Gasse. | 719 Pep ™||Fingergisschen. | Seebald.
Ans. Martin. Dieners 205 aid Fischergasschen. |Mockh.
: 5S o**||Frauenfreithof. _| Streicher.
Mich, Konsom|Hofgraben| 29 Nn’ .% 2/||Fiirstenfeldergasse. | Sporer.
and Nefzger. | Schramg. | 263 = Eres Gasteigberg. Seehofer.
C—— Sa5 =||Germ. von Sauer.
< a: Ae Gruftgasschen. Sarti.
Sag 2 ak to oak Oberhuber.
: += || Hadergasschen. Lechner.
sensStiaa| tee |e] Qc |Fzuinee| |B E*[ittnmesnchen, [Gets
= N a Herzogspitalgasse. | Vogel.
2 Hofgraben. Sabadini.
<4 Hofstadt. Pratorius.
Holzland. Oberhuber.
Hundskugel. Priatorius.
“ig Isarthor. Stumpf.
Etc.

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OBSERVATIONS

CONCERNING THE

_ SALUBRITY OF WARM ROOMS IN COLD

WEATHER.

ee ". " = x > ee
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1.

CRD AL TOA Bh aE AC Nee a 4

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MET E ARE be

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OF THE SALUBRITY OF WARM ROOMS.

[‘ is a question often discussed in this country,
whether living in a warm room in winter be or
be not detrimental to health?

There is no doubt whatever of the necessity of pure
air for the support of life and health; but I really |
do believe that erroneous opinions are entertained by
many people in this island respecting the effects of
that equal and at the same time moderate heat which
can only be obtained in rooms where strong currents
of air up the chimney are not permitted. Those who
have been used to living in large apartments, in which
the large fires that are kept up, instead of making the
rooms equally warm, do little more than increase
the violence of those streams of cold air which come
whistling in through every crevice of the doors and
windows, —when such persons come into a room in
which an equal and genial warmth prevails in every
part, struck with the novelty of the sensation that this
general warmth produces, they are very apt to fancy
that the air is close, and consequently that it must be
unwholesome, and are uneasy until a door or a window
be opened in order that they may get what they call
Sresh air. ,

But they do not seem to make a proper distinction
between fresh air and pure air. When they call for
fresh air;they doubtless mean purer air. They cer-

570 Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.

tainly get colder air, but I much doubt whether they
often get air that is more wholesome to breathe; and it
is most certain that the chilling streams and eddies
that are occasioned in the room by the fresh air so
introduced are extremely dangerous, and often are the
cause of the most fatal disorders.

It is universally allowed to be very dangerous to be
exposed in a stream of cold air, especially when stand-
ing or sitting still; but how much must the danger
be increased if one side of the body be heated by
the powerful rays from.a large fire, while the other is
chilled by these cold blasts? And there is this sin-
gular circumstance attending these chills, that they
frequently produce their mischievous effects without
our being sensible of them: for, as the mind is inca-
pable of attending to more than one sensation at one
and the same time, if the zuz¢enszty of the sensation
produced by the heat on the one side of the body be
superior to that of the cold on the other, we shall
remain perfectly insensible of the cold, however severe
it may really be ; and if we are induced by the disagree-
ableness of what we do feel to turn about, or change
our position or situation, this movement will be occa-
sioned not by the cold, which we do not feel, but by
the heat, which being superior in its effect upon us
engages all our attention. And hence we may account
for those severe colds or catarrhs which are so fre-
quently gotten in hot rooms in this country by per-
sons who are not conscious at the time of being
exposed to any cold, but, on the contrary, suffer great
and continual inconvenience from the heat.

I have said that these colds are gotten in hot rooms,
but it would have been more accurate to have said zz

Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms. 571

‘rooms where there ts a great fire, or where there is a
great heat, occasioned by a great number of burning
candles, or by a great number of persons crowded
together; for it is very seldom indeed that a room is
much heated in this country, and their being cold .
is the principal cause which renders partial heats
that occasionally exist in them so very injurious to
health. ;

The air of the room that comes into contact with
the cold walls, and with the enormous windows which,
in open defiance of every principle of good taste, have
lately come into fashion, is suddenly cooled; and being
condensed, and made specifically heavier than it was
before, in consequence of this loss of heat it descends
and forms cold streams, that are so much the more
rapid and more dangerous as the partial heats in the
room are more intense. Consequently, they are the
more dangerous, as they are less liable to be observed
or felt.

If to these cold currents which are generated in the
room, we add those which come into it from without
to supply the enormous quantity of air that is continu-
ally going off by the chimney, when there is a great
quantity of coals burning in an open grate, we shall
not be surprised that those who venture to go in such
rooms without being well wrapped up in furs, or other
warm clothing, should be liable to take colds.

I never see a delicate young lady dressed in thin
muslins or gauzes, in the midst of winter, expose her-
self in such a perilous situation, without shuddering
for the consequences. But how many young persons
of both sexes do we find of delicate habits, and par-
ticularly among the higher ranks of society? And

572 Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.

what vast numbers are carried off annually by con-
sumptions ?

It is well known that this dreadful disorder is almost
always brought on by colds, and that the cold of
winter is commonly fatal to consumptive people; but
why should the inhabitants of this island be so pecu-
liarly subject to these colds? Is it not highly probable
that it is because they do not take proper care to pre-
vent them? For my part, I declare, in the most seri-
ous manner, that I have not the smallest doubt that
this is really the case.

Much has been said of the supposed danger of
keeping rooms warm in winter, on account of the
necessity most people are under of sometimes going
into the cold air. But how many proofs are there that
these sudden transitions from heat to cold, or from cold
to heat, are not attended with danger, if care be taken
to be properly clothed, and if the heats and colds are
not partial ?

How very hot do the Swedes and the Russians keep
their houses during the long and severe frosts that pre-
vail in winter in those countries! And yet no people
are more strong and healthy than they are, nor are
there any less liable to catarrhs and consumptions.

It is the very warm rooms in which this hardy race
of men spend much of their time in winter (which, by
promoting a free circulation of their blood, gives them
health and strength) that enables them to support
without injury exposure for short periods to the most
intense cold.

In Germany the rooms of people of rank and fashion
are commonly kept in winter at the temperature of
about 64° or 65° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer (the

4
5
;
:
§
4

Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms. 573.

dwellings of the peasants are kept much hotter); but
though the ladies in that country are from their infancy
brought up with the greatest care, and are as little
exposed to hardships as the women of condition in
this or in any other country, they find no inconven-
ience in going out of these warm rooms into the cold
air. They even frequent the plays and the operas,
and go on sleighing parties, during the severest frosts,
and spend one whole month in the depth of winter (in the
season of the carnival) in one continued round of balls
and masquerades. And, what may perhaps appear to
many still more incredible, they seldom fail, whatever
the severity of the weather may be, to spend half an
hour every morning in a cold church.

But if in Germany, where the winters are incompar-
ably more severe than they are in this country, persons
tenderly brought up, and of delicate habits, find no
inconvenience whatever in living in warm rooms, and
in going from them into the cold air, why should
warm rooms be unwholesome in this country?

There cannot surely be any thing injurious to health
in the genial warmth of 60° or 65°; and, if pure azr for
respiration is what is wanted, the great height of our
rooms in England secures us against all danger from
that quarter.

The prejudice in this country against living in warm
rooms in winter has arisen from a very natural cause;
and though the prejudice is general, and very deeply
rooted, as its cause is known to me, I really have hopes
that I shall be able to combat it with some success.
I am perfectly sure that justice will be done to the
purity of my intentions in engaging in this arduous
undertaking, and ¢4a¢ I look upon as a circumstance

574 Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.

of no small importance, especially when I consider
that it can hardly escape the observation of my reader
that few persons can be better qualified by their own
experience to give an opinion on any subject than I
happen to be to give mine on that under consid-
eration.

I went to Germany many years ago, with as strong
a prejudice against warm rooms as anybody can have;
but, after having spent twelve winters in that country, I
have learned to know that warm rooms are very com-
fortable in cold weather, and that they certainly tend
to the preservation of health.

Having occupied a very large house, in which there:
are several apartments that are furnished with open
chimney fire-places, I have had an excellent opportu-
nity of making experiments of the comparative advan-
tages and disadvantages of warming rooms with them
and with stoves; and my opinions on these subjects
have not been hastily formed, but have been the result
of much patient investigation. They have been the
result of conviction.

Were there any thing zew in what I recommend, I
might be suspected of being influenced by a desire
to enhance the merit of my own discoveries or inven-
tions; but, as there is not, this suspicion cannot exist,
and I may fairly expect to be heard with that impartial-
ity which the purity of my intentions gives me a right
to expect. ;

It may perhaps be asked by some, what right I
have to meddle at all in a business that does not con-
cern me personally? Why not let the people of this
country go on quietly in their own way, without tiring
them with proposals for introducing changes in their

Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms. 575

customs and manner of living, to which they evidently
have a decided aversion ? |

To such questions and observations as these I should
make no reply, but should still feel anxious to promote
by every means in my power all such improvements as
tend to increase the comforts and innocent enjoyments
of life, from whatever quarter they might come.

If it be wisdom to choose what is good, it must be
folly to refuse what is advantageous to us; and, if
liberality be an ornament to a respectable character,
it is weakness to be ashamed of adopting the useful
inventions of our neighbours.

I am not without hopes that at some future period’
houses in England will become as celebrated for
warmth and comfort as they are now for neatness, and
for the richness and elegance of their furniture.

However habit may have reconciled us to it, or ren-
dered us insensible to its effects, cold is undoubtedly a
very great physical evil. It may be, and no doubt is,
productive of good in some way or other, but that is
not a sufficient reason why we should not endeavour
to guard ourselves against its painful and disagreeable
effects. Their being painful is a proof of their being
hurtful, and it is moreover a kind intimation to us of
the presence of an enemy to be avoided.

We may no doubt by habit inure ourselves to cold
in such a manner as to render our bodies in some
degree insensible to it; but does it necessarily follow
that by these means its pernicious effects on us are
prevented, or even diminished? I see no reason for
supposing this to be the case. |

If inuring to cold were a sufficient preservative
against its bad effects, this method, which certainly

576 Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.

would be the most economical, would, we have reason
to think, have been adopted by Providence in respect
to brute animals; but beasts and birds, which pass the
winter in cold climates, are all furnished with warm
winter garments.

What provident Nature furnishes to brute animals,
man is left to provide for himself, or to supply the want
of it by his ingenuity.

If living in cold rooms really tended to give strength
and vigour to the constitution, and to enable men to
support without injury the piercing cold of winter, we
might expect that the dwellings of the inhabitants of
the polar regions would be kept at a very low tempera-
ture; but this is so far from being the case in fact that
we always find the hottest rooms in the coldest cli-
mates, ~

If the transition from a hot room to the cold air were
so dangerous as it is represented, how does it happen
that Swedes and Laplanders, who live in rooms that
are kept excessively hot, do not take cold when they ex-
pose themselves to the intense cold of their winters?

Swedes and Russians who pass the winter in Eng-
land never fail to complain of the uncomfortable cold-
ness of our houses, and seldom escape catarrhs and
other disorders occasioned by cold. And the sickness
and mortality which prevailed among the Russian sol-
diers and sailors, who wintered in this country in the
years 1798 and 1799, were generally, and no doubt
justly, ascribed to their being unable to support the
cold to which they were exposed in our barracks and
in our hospitals, —a degree of cold to which they never
had been accustomed wzthin doors, and which to them
appeared to be quite insupportable.

Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms. 577

These are strong facts, and the evidence they afford
in the case under consideration is pointed, and appears"
to me to be incontrovertible. There are many other
similar facts that might be adduced in support of the
position we are endeavouring to establish.

It has often been obideted to warm rooms, that the
air in them is always confined, and consequently un-
wholesome ; but no argument more perfectly ground-
less and nugatory was ever adduced in support of a
bad cause.

When in cold weather a room is kept warm, the air
in it, so far from being confined, is continually chang-
ing. Being specifically lighter, in consequence of its
being warm, than the air without, it is impossible to
open and shut a door without vast quantities of it being
forced out of the room by the colder air from without,
which rushes in; and if at any time it be required to
ventilate the room in so complete a manner that not a
particle of the air in it shall remain in it, this may be
done in less time than one minute, merely by letting
down the top of one of the windows, and at the same
time opening a door which will admit the external colder
and heavier air. And it must not be imagined that
the room will be much cooled in consequence of this
complete ventilation. So far from it, a person return-
ing into it, three or four minutes after it had been ven-
tilated and the air in it totally changed, would not find
its temperature sensibly altered.

The walls of the room would still be nearly as warm
as before, and the radiant heat from those walls, pass- ©
ing through the transparent air of the room without
any sensible diminution of their calorific powers, would

produce the same sensation .of warmth as they did
VOL. IV. 37

578 Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.

before. And even the cold air admitted into the room
would in a few minutes become really warm. And
as the specific gravity of air is so very small, com-
pared with that of the dense solid materials of which
the walls, floor, and ceiling of the room are constructed,
the warming of this air will not sensibly cool the
room. .

Hence we see how easy it is to ventilate warm rooms
in cold weather, and also how impossible it would be
to live in such a room without the air in it being per-
petually changed and replaced with fresh and pure air
from without.

It is those who inhabit cold rooms who are cxpanee
to the danger of breathing confined air, for it would
be in vain to open the doors and windows of such an
apartment: if the air in it is as cold, and consequently
just as heavy, as that without, there is no physical rea-
son why it should move out of its place. Part of it
may, indeed, be blown out by a wind, or without open-
ing the door and windows: a part of zt may be forced
up the chimney, if there be a fire burning in it; but
this kind of ventilation is not only dangerous in a very
high degree to the health of those who are in the room,
but it is also partial and very incomplete. As the cur-
rents of cold air which supply the draught of an open-
chimney fire are confined to the bottom of the room,
below the level of the mantel of the fire-place, the same
air may remain for weeks in the upper parts of the
room, and perhaps for a much longer time in some
remote corner, far from the fire.

I think enough has now been said to prove to the
satisfaction of every reasonable person, who is disposed
to listen and willing ta be convinced, that the air in

a SS. ee

Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms. 579

rooms properly and equally warmed in cold weather
cannot be confined and contaminated; and that inhab-.
iting warm rooms in winter, so far from rendering per-
sons weak and unable to bear the cold on going abroad,
is the best preservative against the bad effects of occa-
sional exposure to cold.

If there are any persons who like cold rooms and
partial chilling streams of cold air, and prefer them to
the genial warmth of a mild and equal temperature,
that choice must be considered as a matter of Zasée,
about which there is no disputing.

There is a simple experiment, easily made and no-
wise dangerous, which shows in a sensible and convinc-
ing manner that warmth prepares the body to bear
occasional cold without pain and without injury. Let
a person in health, rising from a warm bed after a good
night’s rest in cold weather, put on a dry, warm shirt,
and dressing himself merely in his drawers, stockings,
and slippers, let him go into a room in which there is
no fire, and walk leisurely about the room for half an
hour, or let him sit down and write or read during that
time, he will find himself able to support this trial
without the smallest inconvenience. The cold to which
he exposes himself will hardly be felt, and no bad con-
sequences to his health will result from the experiment.
Let him now repeat this experiment under different
circumstances. In the evening of a chilly day, and
when he is shivering with cold, let him undress himself
to his shirt, and see how long he will be able to sup- |
port exposure to the air in a cold room in that light
dress. |

There is another remarkable fact with which I was
made acquainted by an eminent physician of London

580 Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.

(Dr. Blane), which can hardly be accounted for but on
a supposition that heat prepares and enables the body
to support cold. Those persons who, after having
remained several years in the hot climates of India,
return to reside in this country, do not feel near so
much inconvenience from the cold of our climate -the
first year after their return as they do the second. If
they would be persuaded to live in warm rooms when
they are within doors, and make a free use of the warm
bath, they ever would feel any inconvenience from it,
and they might with safety take much more exercise in
the open air than they now do.

Occasional exposure to cold when the body is pre-
pared to support it, so far from being dangerous or
injurious to health, is salubrious in a high degree.

It is in order that people may be enabled to go
abroad frequently, and enjoy the fine, bracing cold of
winter, that I am so anxious that they should inhabit
warm, comfortable rooms when they are within doors.
But if, during the time when they are sitting still without
exercise, the circulation of the blood is gradually and
insensibly diminished by the cold which surrounds
them, and above all by the cold currents of air in which
they are exposed, it is not possible that they should be
able to support an additional degree of cold without
sinking under it.

They are like water which by long exposure to mod-
erate cold in a state of rest has been slowly cooled
down below the freezing-point: the smallest additional
cold or the small agitation changes it to ice in an in-
stant; but water at a higher temperature and full of
latent heat will support the same degree of severe frost
for a considerable time without appearing to be at all

Of the Salubrity of Warm Rooms. 581

affected by it. The more attentively this comparison
is considered, the more just will it be found, and the.
more conclusive will be the inferences that are derived
from it.

If man has been less kindly used than brute -ani-
mals, by being sent naked into the world without a
garment to cover and defend from the inclemency of
the seasons, the power which has been given him over
FIRE has made the most ample amends for that natural
deficiency ; and it would be wise in us to derive all
possible advantages from the exercise of the high pre-
rogative we enjoy. |

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s works,
Vol. III., pp. 401-417.]

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OBSERVATIONS

CONCERNING THE

\LUBRITY OF WARM BATHING

: E zc a rg. ‘ +i Deitt

aise

Sy ne eas ©

OF THE SALUBRITY OF WARM BATHING.

H* I any hopes of being able by any thing I
# could say to prevail on the inhabitants of this’
island to adopt more generally a practice which so
many nations have considered as a most rational
luxury, and which, no doubt, is as conducive to health
as it is essential to personal cleanliness, I should think
my time well employed, were I to write a volume in
recommendation of warm bathing; but I am sensible
that, after all that has already been said on that subject
by ancient and modern writers, — by historians and by
medical men,— what I could add would be of little
avail. The subject is, however, so intimately connected
with that treated in the preceding Essay, that I may,
perhaps, without any impropriety, take the liberty to
make a few observations concerning it.

If a perfectly free circulation of the blood, brought
on and kept up for a certain time without any violent
muscular exertion, and consequently without any ex-
pense of strength, be conducive to health, in that case
warm bathing must be wholesome; and, so far from
weakening the constitution, must tend very powerfully
to strengthen it.

Among those nations where warm bathing has been
most generally practised, and where the effects of it
have, of course, been best known, no doubts have ever

586 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

been entertained of its being very beneficial to health ;
and nobody can doubt of its being pleasant and agree-
able in a high degree.

Had warm bathing never prevailed but in certain
climates, doubts might be entertained of its general
usefulness ; but so many nations, remote from each
other, and inhabiting countries extremely different, not
only in respect to climate, but also in respect to situa-
tion and produce, and where manners and customs
have been extremely different in all other respects,
have practised it, that we may safely venture to ee
nounce warm bathing to be useful to man.

It was by accident I was led, about two years ago,
to consider this subject with that attention which it
appears to me to deserve; and I then made an experi-
ment on myself, the result of which I really think very
interesting, and of sufficient importance to deserve
being made known to the public.

The waters of Harrowgate, in Yorkshire, having
been recommended to me by my physician, I went
there in the month of July, 1800, and remained there
two months. I began with drinking the waters at the
well every morning, and with bathing in them, warmed
to about ninety-six degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermome-
ter, every third day at my lodgings.

At first I went into the bath at about ten o’clock in
the evening, and remained in it from ten to fifteen min-
utes, and immediately on coming out of it went to bed,
my bed having been well warmed, with a view to pre-
venting my Zaking cold. |

Having pursued this method some time, and finding
myself frequently feverish and restless after bathing,
I accidentally in conversation mentioned the circum-

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 587

stance to an intelligent gentleman who happened to
lodge in the house, and who had long been in a habit
of visiting Harrowgate every year. He advised me to
change my hour of bathing, and to stay longer in the
bath, and, above all, to avoid going into a warmed bed
on coming out of it. I followed his advice, and shall
have reason all my life to thank him for it.

I now went into the bath regularly every third day,
about two hours before dinner, and stayed in it half an
hour, and on coming out of it, instead of going into a
warmed bed, I merely had myself wiped perfectly dry
with warmed cloths in a warmed room adjoining to the
bath; and dressing myself in a bed-gown, which was
moderately warm, I retired to my room, where I re-
mained till dinner-time, amusing myself with walking
about the room, and with reading or writing, till it was
time to dress for dinner.

The good effects produced by this change of method
were too striking not to be remarked and remembered.
I was no longer troubled with any of those feverish
heats after bathing which I experienced before ; and so
far from feeling chzd/y, or being particularly sensible to
cold on coming out of the bath, I always found myself
less sensible to cold after bathing than before. I even
observed, repeatedly and invariably, that the glow of
health and pleasing flow of spirits, which resulted from
the full and free circulation of the blood which bathing
had brought on, continued for many hours, and never
was followed by any thing like that distressing languor
which always succeeds to an artificial increase of cir- —
culation and momentary flow of spirits which are pro-
duced by stimulating medicines.

I regularly found that I had a better appetite for my

588 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

dinner on those days when I bathed than on those
when I did not bathe,-and also that I had a better
digestion and better spirits, and was stronger to endure
fatigue, and less sensible to cold in the afternoon and
evening.

As these favourable results appeared to be quite reg-

ular and constant, I was induced to proceed to a more >

decisive experiment. I now began to bathe every
second day, and, finding that all the advantageous
effects which I had before experienced from warm
bathing still continued, I was encouraged to go one
step further, and I now began to bathe every day.

This experiment was thought to be very hazardous
by many persons at Harrowgate, and even by the
physician, who did not much approve of my proceed-
ings; but as no inconvenience of any kind appeared to
result from it, and as I found myself growing stronger
every day, and gaining fresh health, activity, and spirits,
I continued the practice, and actually bathed every day
at two o'clock in the afternoon for half an hour in a
bath at the temperature of 96° and 97° of Fahren-
heit’s scale, during ¢hzrty-five days.

The salutary effects of this experiment were per-
fectly evident to all those who were present and saw
the progress of it, and the advantages I received from
it have been permanent. The good state of health
which I have since enjoyed I ascribe to it entirely.
But it is not merely on account of the advantages
which I happened to derive from warm bathing which
renders me so warm an advocate for the practice.
Exclusive of the wholesomeness of the warm bath, the
luxury of bathing is so great, and the tranquil state of

mind and body which follows it is so exquisitely de- —

anal

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 589

lightful, that I think it quite impossible to recommend
it too strongly, if we consider it merely as a rational |
and elegant refinement. .

I am persuaded, however, that we are very far in this
country from understanding the best method of fitting
up warm baths, and of using them in the most com-
fortable and advantageous manner. It appears to me
to be quite evident that it is not the water, but the
warmth, to which most, if not all, the good effects
experienced from warm bathing ought to be as-
cribed.

Among those nations where warm bathing has been
most generally practised, water has seldom been em-
ployed, except occasionally, and merely for washing
and cleaning the skin; and though washing in warm
water is pleasant, and is, no doubt, very wholesome,
yet remaining with the whole body, except the head,
plunged and immersed in that liquid for so great a
length of time as is necessary, in order that a warm
bath may produce its proper salutary effects, is not
very agreeable, nor is it probably either necessary or
salutary.

The manner in which a warm bath operates in pro-
ducing the pleasant and salutary effects which are
found to be derived from it appears to me to be so evi-
dent as to admit of no doubt or difference of opinion
on that subject.

The genial warmth which is applied to the skin, in
the place of the cold air of the atmosphere by which
we are commonly surrounded, expands all those very
small vessels where the extremities of the arteries and
veins unite, and, by gently stimulating the whole frame,
produces a free and full circulation, which, if continued

590 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

for a certain time, removes all obstructions in the vas-
cular system, and puts all the organs into that state
of regular, free, and full motion which is essential to
health, and also to that delightful repose, accompanied
by a consciousness of the power of exertion, which con-
stitutes the highest animal enjoyment of which we are
capable.

If this statement be accurate, it cannot be difficult to
explain, in a manner perfectly satisfactory, why a warm
bath is often found to produce effects when first used,
and especially by those who stay in the bath for too
short a time, which are very different from those which
it ought to produce, and which it cannot fail to produce
when properly managed. We shall likewise be enabled
to account for the feverish symptoms which result from
going out of a warm bath into a warmed bed.

The beginning of that strong circulation which is
occasioned on first going into a warm bath is an effort
of Nature to remove obstructions; and if time be not
given to her to complete her work, and if she be
checked in the midst of it, the consequences must
necessarily be very different from those which would
result from a more scientific and prudent manage-
ment. Hence we see how necessary it is to remain
in a warm bath a sufficient time; and, above all, how
essential it is that the bath should be really warm, and
not tepid, or what has been called ¢emperate.

When we consider the rapidity with which water
carries off heat from any body hotter than it which is
immersed in it, we shall find reason for astonishment
that any person, even the strongest man in a state of
the highest health, is able to support the loss of heat
which must necessarily result from lying for half an

ak, hal

—_

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 591

hour quite motionless in a tub of water at the tempera-
ture of 55 or 60 degrees; and yet, if I am rightly |
informed, baths at that température have sometimes
been ordered by physicians, and even for persons of
delicate constitutions.

Because we are able to support that degree of cold
without injury zz azr, that is very far indeed from
being a good reason for concluding that water at
that temperature would not be hurtful; for water is
800 times more dense than air, and consequently when
it is cold must deprive our bodies of heat when we are
immersed in it, with infinitely greater rapidity than air
at the same temperature can do. |

Having reason to think that physicians in general
are not sufficiently aware of the very great difference
there is in the powers of these two fluids to carry of
heat when they are both at the same temperature,
and having myself been a witness more than once to
very alarming consequences which have resulted from
the use of what was called a ¢efzd bath, I cannot resist
the inclination I feel to avail myself of this opportunity
of calling the attention of medical men to a circum-
stance which is most undoubtedly of very serious
importance. |

When we go into a bath at the temperature of about
96 degrees (which is blood heat), though the water at
first may seem warm to us, and even hot, yet it is not
capable of communicating much heat to us: for our
bodies being at the same temperature, except it be
perhaps at the very surface of the skin (where the ©
nerves of feeling are most plentifully distributed), there
is no reason why heat should pass out of the water

‘into us; but if the water be only a few degrees below

592 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

the temperature of the blood, though it may feel warm
when we first go into the bath, yet that sensation will
soon be followed by one of a very different nature, and
the water will carry off heat very rapidly from the sur
face of the body.

A rapid cooling of the body, by carrying off by a
mechanical process the heat generated in the body
by the action of the vital powers, may or may not be
advisable in certain cases. That is a question of nice
discrimination, and one upon which I am perfectly
sensible that I am not qualified to decide; but I may
be allowed to point out physical consequences not very
obvious, and consequently not likely to be subjects of
meditation and investigation, which ought certainly to
be rightly understood.

There is one observation more respecting tepid and
temperate baths which appears to me to be deserving
of particular attention; and that is the state of zwaction
in which a person commonly remains in such a bath,
and the probable consequences of inaction under such
circumstances. Swimming is universally allowed to be
a wholesome exercise, and there are’ few instances, I
believe, of harm arising from it, even when the water
has been at a much lower temperature than that of the
blood; but I am far from being of opinion that remain-
ing in the water without any muscular exertion would
be found to be equally conducive to health.

Cold baths are perfectly different from hot baths
and tepid baths, and the intention of the physician
in ordering them is also different. I am not prepared
to explain the physical effects produced by a momen-
tary plunge into cold water, and much less to give an
opinion respecting the salubrity of the practice of cold

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 593

bathing, or of its usefulness as a remedy for certain
diseases,

But to return from these- speculations to more >
interesting details, — to the results of actual experi-
ments. During the thirty-five days that I continued
to make daily use of a warm bath, I made a number
of experiments on myself, in order fully to satisfy my
own mind on several important points respecting
which [I still had doubts remaining. Some of those
experiments were certainly too hazardous to be recon-
ciled to sober good sense, and to that prudent atten-
tion to the preservation of health which every wise
man would be ashamed of neglecting. But though I
may be blamable for my temerity, and may even ex-
pose myself to ridicule by making a discovery of my
rashness, yet I am so deeply impressed with the im-
portance of the results of some of my experiments that
I cannot refrain from laying them before the public,

Having long entertained an opinion that the most
effectual means that can be used to prepare the body
to support, without inconvenience and without injury,
those occasional exposures to cold to which every
person is liable who inhabits a cold country, is, by a
proper application of warmth and without the fatigue
of violent muscular exertion, to bring on, and keep
up for a certain time, at certain intervals, such a full,
strong, and free circulation and perspiration as shall
effectually remove from time to time all those gradual
contractions and obstructions which chilling cold nat-
urally produces, and give a new impulse to those ac-
tions in which life, health, and strength consist; I
imagined that, if this opinion was well founded, the use

of the warm bath, instead of rendering my habit more
VOL. IV. 38

594 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

delicate, and making me more liable to take cold on
exposing myself in the cold air, I should certainly find
myself strengthened by it, and my constitution ren-
dered more robust.

The first direct proofs I had that this advantaseou
change had actually taken place in me were accidental,
and it was probably that discovery which induced and
encouraged me to expose myself voluntarily to more
severe trials.

I had, from the time of my first arrival at Harrow-
gate, been in a habit of retiring to my room towards
evening every day, where I commonly spent an hour
or more in reading or writing; and, as I never had any
fire in my room, I frequently felt myself quite chilled
by the cold of the evening. At this time I bathed
only once in three days; but, after I had begun to go
into the bath before dinner, I soon found that I was
much less sensible to the cold of the evening on those
days when I bathed, than on those when I did not
bathe.

It was the discovery of this interesting fact which
contributed much, and perhaps more than any thing
else, to induce me to take the resolution (which was
considered as very violent and unadvised) of going
into the bath every second day, and afterwards every
day.

After I had continued to bathe every day for some
time, I no longer felt the smallest inconvenience from
the cold of the evening, though I frequently sat in my
room with the windows open when the weather was
very cold and chilly, till it was so dark that I could
neither see to read nor to write; and when I joined
the company below I felt myself in high spirits, and

y —_ easy

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 595

never wanted an excellent appetite to my supper. My
sleep was undisturbed and refreshing, and every thing
indicated the return of perfect health.

All these favourable appearances having continued
for some time, and finding my strength to increase
daily, I became more venturous, and frequently went
out after it was dark, when the evening was cold and
raw, and walked alone more than half an hour on the
bleak, dreary common which lies before the house
where I lodged (the Ganby Inn), to see if my consti-
tution was really so much changed as to enable me to
support that trial without taking cold.

I even returned on foot from the play-house, across
the common, several times in the evening, lightly
dressed, when a cold wind blew over the common, and
after I had suffered much from heat in the theatre;
but in none of these severe trials did I receive the
smallest injury. I never took cold, nor did I experi-
ence any feverish heats or restlessness on going to
bed after them. I call them severe trials, and as such
they will doubtless be considered, when it is recollected
that, when I arrived at Harrowgate, I was far from
being in a good state of health (having never re-
covered from the dangerous illness I had brought on
myself six or seven years before in Bavaria, by ex-
cessive application to public business), and when it is
remembered that at the time when I was exposing
myself in this manner to the danger of taking cold
I was using the warm bath every day.

But I am firmly persuaded that it was to the warm
bath that I was indebted for my escape; and it is that
persuasion which has induced me to publish this
account of my experiment.

596 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

I am very far, indeed, from wishing that my example
should be followed in all points. All the unadvised
and imprudent details of the experiment may, and
ought to be, omitted. It would, indeed, be more than
imprudent — it would be foolish — to repeat them. But
I do really believe that all those who will be persuaded
to adopt. the practice of warm bathing, in health and
in sickness, will find the greatest and most permanent
advantages from it.

Were the general and constant use of the warm bath
by persons in health a new thing, I should have many
scruples in recommending it to the public, whatever
my private opinion of its salubrity might be. But so ©
many nations have practised it for ages, and there are
so many who now practise it, and, what is very remark-
able, one (the Russian) which inhabits the coldest parts
of the globe, that there cannot possibly be the smallest
reason to doubt of its beneficial effects.

With regard to the pleasand effects that result from
the use of the warm bath, there never has been any
difference of opinion. But still Iam quite certain that
the true luxury of warm bathing is not understood in
this country; and, till the construction of our baths is
totally changed, and a different manner of using them
adopted, we never can enjoy a warm bath as it ought
to be enjoyed.

As we must allow that in most cases, and particularly
in a matter of this kind, it is much more wise and pru-
dent to adopt those arrangements and improvements
which have been the result of the experience of ages
than to sit down and attempt to invent any thing new,
I think we cannot do better than to rebuild some of
the baths which were left us by the Romans. They

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 597

most certainly understood warm bathing as well as any
nation ever did; and, if there be any thing in our cli-
mate which renders any deviations necessary from the
manner commonly practised in constructing baths in
warmer countries, there is no doubt but those luxurious
foreigners, who had possession of this island for so
many years, must have found them out. The plans
they have left us may therefore be adopted with safety
as models for our imitation.

I am far from wishing to see the baths of Diocletian
and Caracalla rise up in all their splendour in the
neighbourhood of London; for I am well aware that
the magnificent and ostentatious exhibitions of a nation
of conquerors and slaves would but ill accord with the
manners of a free, enlightened, and industrious people;
but still I cannot help wishing that the inhabitants of
this island, and all mankind, might enjoy all the in-
nocent luxuries and comforts that are within their
reach.

I am even jealous of the poor Russian peasant ; and
when I see him enjoying the highest degree of delight
and satisfaction in the rude cave which he calls a warm
bath, without wishing to diminish his pleasure, I
greatly lament that so useful and so delightful an
enjoyment should be totally unknown to so great a
portion of the human species.

Who knows but that the poor Russian, in the midst
of his snows, with his warm room and warm bath, may
not, on the whole, enjoy quite as much happiness as
the inhabitant of any other country? And, if this be
really the case, what an addition would it be to the
enjoyments of the inhabitants of other more favoured
countries to add the warm room and warm bath of the

598 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

Russian to all their local advantages! When I medi-

tate profoundly on these subjects, it is quite impossible
for me not to feel my bosom warmed with the most
enthusiastic zeal for the diffusion of that knowledge
which contributes to the comforts and enjoyments
of life.

‘There is nothing more interesting than the results
of the ingenuity of man in the infancy of society, be-
fore the light of science has extended his views and in-
creased the number of the objects of his pursuit. Ever
intent upon a few simple mechanical contrivances, the
usefulness of which he continually experiences, all his

thoughts remain concentrated on them, and all his in- .

genuity and address are employed in rendering them
perfect, and using them with agility and effect. When
we examine the implements which savage nations have
contrived to provide for themselves, almost without
tools, we shall see one of the most striking proofs to
be found of the effects of persevering industry and
long experience.

No person of any feeling can contemplate the
canoes, snow-shoes, and hunting and fishing tackle of
the North American savages, without experiencing
emotions which it would be very difficult to describe;
and the ingenuity displayed by the Russian peasant in
the construction and management of his warm bath is
not less striking.

Without any knowledge of the principles of pneu-
matics, hydrostatics, and chemistry, he has proceeded
in the same manner precisely as he would have done
had he understood all those sciences; and, without
money or the means of purchasing any thing of value,
he has contrived, with the rude materials of no value

— eee

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 599 |

which he finds lying about him, to construct an edifice
in which he enjoys, in the most complete manner possi-
ble, all the delightful sensations which result from one
of the most rational pleasures of the most refined and
luxurious nations. And if security in the possession
of an advantage adds value to it, how much greater is
the security of the Russian peasant in the enjoyment
of his luxuries than the rich and effeminate in the pos-
session of theirs! Nothing is more calculated to fill us
with wonder and admiration than to see how the dif-

ferent situations of man on this globe have been equal-

ized by compensations.

The warm baths of the Russian peasants have so
often been described, that I dare not take up the
reader’s time unnecessarily by giving a particular ac-
count of them. They are, as is well known, what are
called vapour baths; and, as those who build them are
much too poor to afford the expense either of boilers
or bathing-tubs, they are heated in a manner which is
equally ingenious and economical. A parcel of stones
are heated upon a wood fire made on the ground, and,
when these stones are hot, water or snow is thrown on
them, and the steam which is produced rises up and
occupies the inside of the arched roof of the cave which
constitutes the bath.

Those who enjoy the bath place themselves, extended
at full length, on a bed composed of the small twigs and
leaves of trees, on hurdles in the form of shelves, placed
round the cave under its vaulted roof, and above the ©
level of the top of the door-way.

From this short description, it is evident that the air
occupying the top of the cave, and which is heated by
the steam, being rendered specifically lighter than the

600 = Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

cold air without by the heat it has acquired, will remain
in its place, even though the entrance into the cave
should not be provided with a door. A few branches
of trees, placed against the door-way, would break the
force of the wind, if any were stirring; and the bath
would remain as warm as should be required for any
length of time, even in the most severe frost of a Rus-
sian winter, with the expense of a very small quantity
of fuel.

Were I asked to give a plan for a warm bath bya
friend who had full confidence in my abilities to exe-
cute such an undertaking with intelligence, I should
adopt, with little deviation, all the principles of the
Russian baths.

The bath-room should Be built of bricks, and should
be covered above bya Gothic or pointed dome ; and the
entrance into it should not be through the as walls,
but through the pavement, by a flight of steps from
below. The walls should be double, the inner wall
being made as thin as possible; and the room should
be lighted by three or four very small double windows,
of single panes of glass, situated just below the spring
of the dome, which might be at the height of seven or
eight feet above the pavement.

As the (double) walls of the building would be of
some considerable thickness, and as the windows ought
to be small and double, it would be very easy to con-
struct them in such a manner that a person from with-
out should not be able to see any person in the bath,
even though they were to get a ladder and attempt to
look in at the window. One of the windows should be
made to open, in order to ventilate the bath.

The inside of the walls and dome of the bath-room

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 601

should be plastered, and afterward well painted in oil,
or, what would have a neater and more elegant appear-
ance, they might be lined with Dutch tile.

The pavement might be made of any kind of flat
stones, or of bricks or tiles; or it might be constructed
of stucco, well painted in oil, and it might be covered
with matting.

If ornament were required, I would place a figure of
Vesta, holding an Argand’s lamp, on a pedestal, on one
side of the room. ‘This pedestal, which should be large
in proportion to the figure, should be made of sheet-
copper, and painted of a bronze colour on the outside.
The cavity within it should be accurately closed on
every side, in order that it might occasionally be filled
with steam from a boiler situated without, and used as
a stove for warming the room.

The important object had in view in making the
entrance into this bath from below (the preservation of
the warm air in the room) might be attained equally
well with the door placed on one side of the room, pro-
vided the door were made to open immediately into a
narrow, descending, vaulted gallery, furnished with a
good door at the lower end of it.

The top of the door at the lower end of this gallery
should be two or three feet below the level of the bot-
tom of the door at the top of it, which opens into the
bath. |

By setting both these doors open, and at the same
time opening one of the windows of the bath, all the
warm air in it, below the level of the window, will be
forced out in a very few moments, and the room will be
completely ventilated.

If the entrance be made through the side of the

602 Of the Salibrity of Warm Bathing.

room, in the manner just described, this will render the
form of the room more simple and more elegant than
if the passage into it were from below, through the
pavement.

If the pavement of the bath be on a level, or nearly
on a level, with the surface of the ground, the entrance
into it must, nevertheless, come from a lower place. If
the door leading into the bath be situated at one side
of the room, the vaulted gallery with which it commu-
nicates must descend below the level of the surface of
the ground, and a passage must be opened from with-
out, in order to arrive at the door which must close
this gallery at its lower extremity.

A steam-boiler should be placed under the bath, in
a vaulted room, and the smoke from the closed fire-
place of the boiler should be made to circulate in flues
under the pavement of the bath, near the walls of the
room, in which part the pavement should not be cov-
ered with matting.

A bathing-tub should stand on one side of the
room, and opposite to it should be placed a bamboo
or caned sofa, covered first with a soft, thick blanket,
and then with a clean sheet thrown over it.

The bathing-tub, which might be of the usual
dimensions, should be placed on a platform of wood,
covered with sheet-lead about seven or eight feet
square, and raised six or seven inches above the pave-
ment. This platform should be flat and nearly hori-
zontal, with a border all round it about two or three
inches high, and a leaden pipe at the lowest part of it
to carry off the water that happens to fall on it.

The lead should be covered by thin boards, or by a
loose piece of matting; and a caned chair or a stool

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 603

should be placed on the platform by the side of the
bathing-tub. A pipe should be prepared for admit- —
ting cold water into the bathing-tub from a reservoir
situated without the bath; and another, for bringing
steam into it to heat it from the steam-boiler. There.
should likewise be a waste-pipe for carrying off the
water when the bathing-tub is emptied. _

The bathing-tub should not be set down immedi-
ately upon the lead which covers the platform on which
the tub is placed, but should be raised eight or ten
inches above it, in order that the air may pass freely
under the bottom of the tub, and that there may be
room to come at the lead to wash it and clean. it in
every part.

A bath, constructed in the manner here described,
might be kept constantly warm. all the year round, at
a very small expense for fuel ; and in that case it would
always be ready for use.

It is equally well calculated to serve as a warm air-
bath, as a vapour-bath, or as a warm-water bath ; and,
when it is used as a water-bath, the air in the room
may be made either warm or temperate at pleasure.

This last circumstance I take to be a matter of the
greatest importance ; for nothing surely can be more
disagreeable than the sensations of a person on getting
out of a tub of warm water, and standing shivering with
cold till he is wiped dry and dressed; and I cannot
help suspecting that such a situation is as dangerous
as it is unpleasant.

I am much inclined to think that the warm az7-da¢h,
with occasional washing with warm water, will be
found to be not only the most pleasant, but also the
most wholesome, of any; and, if that should be the case,

604 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

no building could answer for that purpose in this
country (where the temperature of the atmosphere is
always so much below that which would be wanted),
unless it were constructed on principles similar to those
on which the plan above described is founded.

Flot aiy may at any time be procured in any climate ;
but a large mass of air moderately and eguad/y warm
cannot be preserved, in a cold country, by any other
means than by preventing its being cooled, and pre-
venting its being driven away by the denser surround-
ing medium.

The double walls and small double windows of the
bath which I have recommended will prevent the coo/-
zng of the air in it; and the form of the room renders
it absolutely impossible for the cold air of the atmos-
phere either to mix with that warm air or to force zt
out of ws place.

If it be required to mix steam with the air of the
room to render it moist, that may be done by laying a
steam tube, for that purpose, from the boiler into the
room; or it may be done in a manner still more re-
fined and luxurious, by having a small portable boiler
for that purpose, heated by a spirit lamp; or a common
tea-urn heated or rather kept boiling by an iron heater,
or a common tea-kettle heated by a spirit lamp, might
be made use of. The water might be brought in al-
ready boiling hot, and, if a quantity of cloves or other
spices were mixed with it, the room would be filled
with the most grateful and most salutary perfumes.
By burning sweet-scented woods or aromatic gums
and resins in the room, in a small chafing-dish filled
with live coals, the air in the room would be perfumed
with the most pleasant aromatic odours.

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 605

Those who are disposed to smile at this display of
Eastern luxury would do well to reflect on the sums |
they expend on what ¢hey consider as luxuries, and
then compare the real and armless enjoyments de-
rived from them with the rational and innocent pleas-
ures here recommended. I would ask them, if a
statesman or a soldier, going from the refreshing
enjoyment of a bath such as I have described to the
senate or to the field, would, in their opinion, be less
likely to do his duty than a person whose head is
filled, and whose faculties are deranged, by the fumes
of wine.

LEffeminacy is no doubt very despicable, especially in
a person who aspires to the character and virtues of a
man; but I see no cause for calling any thing efemz-
mate which has no tendency to diminish either the
strength of the body, the dignity of sentiment, or the
energy of the mind. I see no good reason for con-
sidering those grateful aromatic perfumes, which in all
ages have been held in such high estimation, as a less
elegant or less rational luxury than smoking tobacco
or stuffing the nose with snuff.

Having given a slight sketch of a bath on a scale
of magnificence and refinement which will not suit
every person’s circumstances, and may not accord with
every person’s taste, 1 will now give another on a less
expensive and more modest plan.

Let a small building be erected 14 feet 5 inches
long and 9 feet wide, measured within, and 7 feet high ;
and let it be divided into equal rooms of 9 feet long and
7 feet wide each, by a partition wall of brick 43 inches
wide, or equal in thickness to the width of a brick.
Let the outside walls of this little edifice be double, the

606 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

two walls being each the width of brick in thickness,
and the void space between them being likewise of the
same thickness; viz., about 4} inches. In order to
strengthen these double walls, they may be braced and
supported one against the other, by uniting them in
different parts by single bricks laid across, with their
two ends fixed in the two walls.

Instead of a floor of boards, these two little rooms
should .be paved with 12-inch tiles or flat stones, laid
in such a manner, on thin parallel walls (4} inches in
thickness), as to form horizontal flues under every
part of the pavement.

There should be no door of communication between
these rooms; but each should have its separate entrance
from without, by a door opening directly into a sepa-
rate narrow, descending, covered gallery. These two
doors should be placed on the same side of the build-
ing; and their two separate descending galleries may
be parallel to each other, and may indeed be covered
by the same roof.

They may together form one gallery, divided into
two narrow passages by a thin partition wall con-
structed with bricks.

A small porch at the bottom of the gallery should
be common to both passages; but each passage should ~
nevertheless have its separate door at its lower extrem-
ity, where it communicates with the porch.

The top of the door-way of this descending passage
at its lower extremity must be at least one foot below
the level of the pavement of the rooms.

This passage may be furnished with a flight of
steps, or its descent may be made so easy as to render
steps unnecessary.

TAY

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. €07

If there should be no natural elevation of ground at
hand on which this bath can conveniently be situated,
a mound of earth must be raised for that purpose;
otherwise, it will be necessary that the porch at the
end of the gallery should be situated 7 or 8 feet below
the surface of the ground, for it is indispensably neces-
sary that the entrance into the bath should be by an
ascent, and in a covered gallery*™

The building may be covered with a thick, thatched
roof, which will on some accounts be better than any
other; but any other kind of roof will answer very well,
provided it be tight, and that a quantity of straw or of
chaff or of dry leaves be laid over the ceiling of the
two small rooms, under the roof, to confine the heat.
The ceiling of the rooms should be lathed and plas-
tered, and the walls of the room should be plastered
and whitewashed.

At the end of one of the rooms, opposite to the door,
a bathing-tub should be placed; and in the other, a
caned sofa,

The bathing-tub should be placed on a platform
7 feet square, covered with sheet-lead, and raised about
nine inches above the level of the pavement. This
platform should have a rim all round it, and a pipe for
carrying off out of the room the water that accidentally
falls on it. |

The bathing-tub should be supplied with cold water
from a reservoir (a common cask will answer perfectly
well for that use), which should stand without the
house.

* If the entrance into the houses of poor cottagers were constructed on the
same principles, this simple contrivance would save them more than half their
expenses for fuel in cold weather.

608 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

The water should be admitted cold into the bathing-
tub, and should be warmed in it by means of steam,
which may come from a small steam-boiler, which
should be situated without the building and near to
the reservoir of cold water. A small open shed, made
against one side of the building, — that side of it which
is opposite to the entrance gallery, — may cover both
the boiler and the reservoir. The boiler, which need
not be made to contain more than six or eight gallons,
should be well set in brick-work, and well covered
over with bricks, to prevent the loss of heat which
would result from any part of the boiler being exposed
naked to the cold air of the atmosphere. |

This boiler should be so fitted up by means of a
ball-cork, as to feed itself regularly with water from
the neighbouring reservoir.

The boiler should be furnished with a safety-valve,
opening into the open air, and with a tube for convey-
ing steam into the bathing-tub. This tube, which may
be a common leaden pipe about half an inch in diam-
eter, should be wound round with the list of coarse
cloth, or with any warm covering of that sort, to con-
fine the heat.

This steam tube should rise up perpendicularly
from the boiler to the height of eight or ten inches
above the level of the ceiling of the bath-room, and
should then be bent towards the building, and made to
enter the roof of it,and then to descend perpendicu-
larly through the ceiling of the bath-room, and enter
the bathing-tub.

Its open end should reach to within an inch of
the bottom of the tub; and a little above the level of
the top of the tub there should be asteam-cock, by means

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. €09

of which the passage of the steam through the steam
tube, and into the water in the bathing-tub, may be |
regulated, or prevented entirely, as the occasion may
require.

There may be a short branch six or eight inches
long, inserted into the steam tube just described, which
branch will serve for admitting steam into the room
when it is designed to be used as a steam or vapour
bath. This short branch must of course be furnished
with its own separate steam-cock.

The smoke from the (closed) fire-place of the boiler
must be made to circulate under the pavement of the
two rooms of the bath, in the flues constructed for
that purpose, before it ‘is suffered to pass off into the
chimney.

The chimney should stand on the outside- of the
building, and be made to lean against and be sup-
ported by the wall of the building. There should be
a damper in this chimney.

Each of the small rooms should be furnished with a
small double window ; each window consisting of one
large pane of glass, and being made to open by means
of a hinge placed on one side of it.

These windows should be placed as near the ceiling
of the room as possible, in order to facilitate the per-
. fect and speedy ventilation of the bath. The inside
windows may be placed level with the inside of the
wall of the*house; and the outside windows, level or
flush with the outside wall. Either the inside win-
dows or the outside windows should be made of —
ground or of wavy glass, in order that a person in
the bath may not be exposed to being seen through

the windows.
VOL, IV. 39

610 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

The two small rooms may be distinguished by call-
ing one of them the dath-room and the other the
dressing-room. )

If it be required to heat the two rooms in a very
short time, the one with vapour, and the other with
dry air equally warmed and perfectly free from all
disagreeable smells, this may be done by the following
simple contrivance: Let a cylinder of very thin cop-
per, about eight inches in diameter and five feet in
length, be placed horizontally under the sofa in the
dressing-room, and let a steam-pipe from the boiler be
laid into it, with another pipe for carrying off the
water resulting from the condensation of the steam
in it. By admitting steam into this tube, the air in
the room will soon be warmed, without any watery
vapour: being mixed with it; and by admitting steam
into the bath-room, and, allowing it to mix with the air
of that room, a vapour-bath will be formed, and in a
very few minutes will be ready for use.

A small quantity of cold water may then be ad-
mitted into the bathing-tub, and, the steam being
turned into it, it will soon be made warm enough to be
used for washing, after the steam-bath has been used.

The passage from the bath-room into the dressing-
room will be attended with no danger from cold; and
it will be found very pleasant to dress and repose in a .
warm room, where the air is pure and not charged
with vapour, after coming out of the water or out of
a vapour-bath. j

If there should be any apprehension that either the
bath-room or the dressing-room might be too much
heated by the smoke from the boiler passing con-
tinually through the flues under the pavement, a canal,

“a >) eee

te ae ae ee ee ee ee ee)

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 611

furnished with a damper, leading from the closed fire-
place of the boiler immediately into the chimney, might
be made; and, whenever the pavement should become
too hot, by opening this canal the smoke would pass
off immediately into the chimney by the shortest road,
and the pavement would receive no more heat from it.
I think it would in all cases be advisable to take this
precaution, in constructing a bath on the principles
here recommended.

But I must hasten to finish this long dissertation ;
and I shall conclude it with a few passages from a
modern traveller (M. Savary), who may be considered
as being well qualified to give an opinion on the sub-
ject in question.

Speaking of the manner of using the warm bath in
Egypt, he says: “ The bathers here are not imprisoned,
as they are in Europe, in a kind of tub where one is
never at one’s ease. Extended on a cloth spread out,
with the head supported by a small cushion, they can
stretch themselves freely in every posture, whilst they
lie quite at their ease, enveloped in a cloud of odorifer-
ous vapours, which penetrates all their pores. In this
situation they repose for some time, till a gentle moist-
ure upon the skin appears, and by degrees diffuses
itself over the whole body. A servant then comes and
masses them (as it is called, from a word in the Arabic
language, which signifies 4o touch in a delicate man-
ner). He seems to knead the flesh, but without caus-
ing the smallest pain; and, when that operation is
ended, he puts on a glove made of woollen stuff, and
rubs the skin for a considerable time.

“ During the whole of this time the sweat continues
to be most profuse, and a considerable quantity of

612 Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing.

scaly matter and other impurities which obstructed the
pores of the skin are removed, and the skin becomes
quite soft, and as smooth as satin.

“ When this operation is ended, the bather is con-
ducted into a closet, in which there is a cistern sup-
plied with hot and with cold water, which comes into
it through two separate pipes, each furnished with a
brass cock. Here a lather of perfumed soap is poured
over him.

“ After being well washed and wiped, a warm sheet
is wrapped round him, and he follows the attendant,
through a long winding passage, into an external and
more spacious apartment. This transition from heat
to cold produces no disagreeable sensations nor any
bad consequences.

“In this airy apartment a bed of repose is found pre-
pared, and fresh and dry linen is brought. A hae is
also brought, and coffee is served.

“Coming out of a hot bath, where one was sur-
rounded by a cloud of warm vapours till the sweat
gushed from every pore, and being transported into
the free air of a spacious apartment, the breast dilates,
and one breathes with voluptuousness. The pores of
the body being perfectly cleaned and all obstructions
removed, one feels, as it were, regenerated, and one
experiences an universal comfort. The blood circu-
lates with freedom, and one feels as if disengaged from
an enormous weight, with a sense of suppleness and
lightness which is as new as it is delightful. A lively
sentiment of existence diffuses itself over the whole
frame, and the soul, sympathizing in these delicate sen-
sations, enjoys the most agreeable ideas. The imagina-
tion, wandering over the universe, which it embellishes,

Of the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. 613

sees on every side the most enchanting pictures. —
everywhere the image of happiness! rt
“If the succession of our ideas be the real measure
of life, the rapidity with which they then recur to the
memory, and the vigour with which the mind runs
over the extended chain of them, would induce a
belief that in the two hours of delicious calm that
succeeds the bath one has lived a number of years!”

[This paper is printed from the English edition of Rumford’s Essays,
Vol. III., pp. 419-453.]

LLENT QUALITIES OF COFFEE

OF THE EXCELLENT QUALITIES OF COFFEE.

‘HE use of science is so to explain the operations

which take place in the practice of the arts, and

to discover the means of improving them; and there is

no process, however simple it may appear to be, that

does not afford an ample field for curious and interest-
ing investigation.

As those domestic arts and elegant refinements
which the progress of industry and the increase of
wealth and knowledge introduce in society contribute
to the comfort and happiness of great numbers of
respectable individuals, their improvement must be
interesting to all those who take pleaure in contem-
plating the prosperity of mankind and in contributing
to their innocent enjoyments.

Among the numerous luxuries of the table unknown
to our forefathers, which have been imported into
Europe in modern times, coffee may be considered as
one of the most valuable.

Its taste is very agreeable, and its flavour uncom-
monly so; but its principal excellence depends on its
salubrity and on its exhilarating quality.

It excites cheerfulness without intoxication, and the
pleasing flow of spirits which it occasions lasts many
hours, and is never followed by sadness, languor, or

‘debility.

618 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

It diffuses over the whole -frame a glow of health,
and a sense of ease and well-being which is exceed-
ingly delightful. Existence is felt to be a positive
enjoyment, and the mental powers are awakened and
rendered uncommonly active.

It has been facetiously observed that there is more
wit in Europe since the use of coffee has become gen-
eral among us; and I do not hesitate to confess that I
am seriously of that opinion.

Some of the ablest, most brilliant, and most inde-
fatigable men I have been acquainted with have been
remarkable for their fondness for coffee; and I am so
persuaded of its powerful effects in clearing up the
mind and invigorating its faculties that on very inter-
esting occasions I have several times taken an addi-
tional dose of it for that very purpose.

That coffee has greatly contributed to our innocent
enjoyments, cannot be doubted; and experience has
abundantly proved that so far from being unwholesome
it is really very salubrious.

This delicious beverage has so often been celebrated,
both in prose and verse, that it does not stand in need
of my praises to recommend it. I shall therefore con-
fine myself to the humble office of showing how it can
be prepared in the greatest perfection.*

* If I have abstained from giving a botanical description of the evergreen
shrub which produces coffee, with an account of its culture and the various
attempts that have been made by chemists to analyze its grain, it is because
this information (which would necessarily take up a good deal of room, without
being particularly interesting to most readers) may be found in other books.

The same reasons have prevented my giving a history of the introduction of
the use of coffee in Europe, and of the introduction of the plant which produces
it, into the American Islands and from thence into the tropical regions of the
Continent of America.

It is well known that this precious plant was first found growing wild in
Arabia, and that it does not prosper except in very hot climates and in hilly
countries.

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 619

There is no culinary process that is liable to so
much uncertainty in its results as the making of cof- —
fee; and there is certainly none in which any small
variation in the mode of operation produces- more
sensible effects.

With the same materials, and even when used in
the same proportions, this liquor is one day good and
the next bad, and nobody perhaps can even guess at the
cause of this difference ; and what renders these varia-
tions of greater importance is this remarkable circum-
stance, that when coffee is bad, when it has lost its -
peculiar aromatic flavour which renders it so very
agreeable to the organs of taste and of smell, it has
lost its exhilarating qualities, and with them all that
was valuable in it.

Different methods have been employed in making
coffee, but the preparation of the grain is nearly the
same in all of them. It is first roasted in an iron pan,
or in a hollow cylinder made of sheet iron, over a brisk
fire; and when from the colour of the grain and the
peculiar fragrance which it acquires in this process it
is judged to be sufficiently roasted, it is taken from the
fire and suffered to cool. When cold, it is pounded in
a mortar, or ground in a handmill to a coarse powder,
and preserved for use.

Great care must be taken in roasting coffee not to
roast it too much. As soon as it has acquired a deep
cinnamon colour, it should be taken from the fire and
cooled; otherwise much of its aromatic flavour will be
dissipated, and its taste will become disagreeably bitter.

In some parts of Italy coffee is roasted in a thin
Florence flask, slightly closed by means of a loose
cork. This is held over a clear fire of burning coals,

620 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

and continually agitated. As no visible vapour ever
makes its appearance within the flask, the colour of
the coffee may be distinctly seen through the glass,
and the proper moment seized for removing the coffee
from the fire.

I have endeavoured to improve this Italian method
by using a thin globular glass vessel with a long
narrow cylindrical neck. This globular vessel is six
inches in diameter, and its cylindrical neck is one
inch in diameter and eighteen inches long. It is
laid down horizontally, and supported in such manner
on a wooden stand as to be easily turned round its
axis. The globular vessel projects beyond the stand,
and is placed, at a proper height, immediately over a
chafing-dish of live coals. When this globular vessel
is blown sufficiently thin, and when care is taken to
keep it constantly turning round when it is over the
fire, there is not the smallest danger of its being injured
by the heat, however near it may be to the burning
coals.

In order that coffee may be perfectly good and very
high-flavoured, not more than half a pound of the
grain should be roasted at once; for when the quantity
is greater it becomes impossible to regulate the heat in
such a manner as to be quite certain of a good result.

The end of the cylindrical neck of the globular ves-
sel should be closed by a fit cork having a small slit in
one side of it, to permit the escape of the vapour out
of the vessel. This cork should project about an inch
beyond the extremity of the neck of the vessel, in order
that it may be used as a handle in turning the vessel
round its axis, towards the end of the process when the
neck of the vessel becomes very hot. The progress of

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 621

the operation, and the moment most proper to put an
end to it, may be judged and determined with great
certainty, not only by the changes which take place —
in the colour of the grain, but also by the peculiar fra-
grance which will first begin to be diffused by it when
it is nearly roasted enough. |

This fragrance is certainly owing to the escape of a
volatile, aromatic substance, which did not originally
exist, as such, in the grain, but which is formed in the
process of roasting it.

By keeping the neck of the globular vessel cold by
means of wet cloths, I found means to condense this
aromatic substance, together with a large portion of
aqueous vapour with which it was mixed. |

The liquor which resulted from this condensation,
which had an acid taste, was very high-flavoured and
as colourless as the purest water; but it stained the
skin of a deep yellow colour, which could not be re-
moved by washing with soap and water; and this stain
retained a strong smell of coffee several days.

I have made several unsuccessful attempts to pre-
serve the fragrant aromatic matter which escapes from
coffee when it is roasting, by transferring it to other
substances. Perhaps others may be more fortunate.

But I must not suffer myself to be enticed away from
my subject by these interesting speculations.

If the coffee in powder is not well defended from the
air, it soon loses its flavour and becomes of little value;
and the liquor is never in so high perfection as when
the coffee is made immediately after the grain has —
been roasted.

This is a fact well known to those who are accus-
tomed to drinking coffee, in countries where the use of

€22 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

it is not controlled by the laws; and, if a government
is seriously disposed to encourage the general use of
coffee, individuals must be permitted to roast it in their
own houses.

As the roasting and grinding of coffee take up some
considerable time, and cannot always be done with-
out inconvenience at the moment when the coffee is
wanted, I contrived a box for keeping the ground
coffee, which I have found by several years experi-
-ence to preserve the coffee much better than any of
the vessels commonly used for that purpose. It is a
cylindrical box made of strong tin, four inches and a
quarter in diameter and five inches’in height, formed
as accurately as possible within, to which a piston is so
adapted as to close it very exactly, and when pressed
down into it to remain in the place where it is left,
without being in danger of being pushed upwards by
the elasticity of the ground coffee, which it is destined
to confine.

This piston is composed of a circular plate of very
stout tin, which is soldered to the lower part of an
elastic hoop of tin, about two inches wide, which is
made to fit into the cylindrical box as exactly as pos-
sible, and so as not to be moved up and down in it
without employing a considerable force. This hoop is
rendered elastic by means of a number of vertical slits
made in the sides of it.

On the upper side of the circular plate of tin which
closes this hoop below, and in the centre of it, there
is fixed a strong ring of about one inch in diameter,
which serves instead of a piston-rod or a handle for
the piston. The cylindrical box is closed above by a |
cover which is fitted to it with care, in order that the

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 623 |

air which is shut up within the box (between the
piston and the cover) might be well confined.

Before I proceed to describe the apparatus I shall.
recommend for making coffee, it will be useful to in-
quire what the causes are which render the prepara-
tion of that liquor so precarious; and, in order to
facilitate that investigation, we must see what the cir-
cumstances are on which the qualities depend which
are most esteemed in coffee.

Boiling hot water extracts from coffee which has
been properly roasted and ground an aromatic sub-
stance of an exquisite flavour, together with a consider-
able quantity of astringent matter, of a bitter but very
agreeable taste; but this aromatic substance, which is
supposed to be an oil, is extremely volatile, and is so
feebly united to the water that it sreaees from it into
the air with great facility.

If a cup of the very best coffee prepared in the
highest perfection, and boiling hot, be placed on a
table in the middle of a large room, and suffered to
cool, it will in cooling fill the room with its fragrance ;
but the coffee after having become cold will be found
to have lost a great deal of its flavour.

If it be again heated, its taste and flavour will be still
farther impaired; and after it has been heated and
cooled two or three times it will be found to be quite
vapid and disgusting.

The fragrance diffused through the air is a sure in-
dication that the coffee has lost some of its most vola-
tile parts; and as that liquor is found to have lost its”
peculiar flavour, and also z¢s exhilarating quality, there
can be no doubt but that both these depend on the
preservation of those volatile particles which escape
into the air with such facility.

624 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

If the liquid were perfectly at rest, the volatile par-
ticles disseminated in’ it could not escape, or at least
not with the same facility as when it is agitated.
Those at the surface of the liquid might fly off, but
those below the surface would be confined and pre-
served.

Now all liquids that are either heated or cooled
are necessarily disturbed and agitated, and the internal
motions into which their particles are thrown do not
cease till the heating or cooling process has ceased.

As the particles of fluids are much too small to be
visible, the motions which take place among them
cannot be seen; but means have, nevertheless, been
found to render these motions quite evident.

If a small quantity of any solid substance, in the
form of a coarse powder, and having the same spe-
cific gravity as any transparent liquid, be mixed with
it, and the liquid be either heated or cooled, the cur-
rents formed in the liquid in consequence of the
change of its temperature will carry along with them
the visible particles of the powder disseminated in
the liquid, and the directions and velocities of those
currents will become apparent.

The cause of these motions among the particles of
liquids that are heated or cooled is perfectly known.

When a hot liquid is cooled, those of its particles
which are the first exposed to the cooling influence,
on losing a part of their heat, become specifically
heavier than they were before; consequently they be-
come specifically heavier than the surrounding hotter
particles, which causes them to descend towards the
bottom of the containing vessel.

This descent of the particles which are cooled neces-

aa ee

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 625

sarily puts the whole mass of the liquid in motion.
The warmer and lighter particles are continually |
rising towards the surface of the liquid, while the
colder and heavier particles are descending ; and these
motions never can cease, till the whole of the liquid has
acquired the precise Legis auiesosg of the Baio Se
atmosphere.

When the liquid is heated, similar motions take
place, but in an opposite direction. The particles
first heated, being rendered specifically lighter by this
augmentation of temperature, rise upwards and give
place to the colder and heavier particles which de-
scend.

These motions may be rendered visible by a very
simple contrivance.

If one ounce of common salt be dissolved in eight
ounces of water, a brine will be formed, which will
have the same specific gravity as yellow amber; con-
sequently, if a small quantity of that solid substance
be pounded in a mortar, so as to be reduced to a coarse
powder (of about the size of mustard-seeds), this pow-
der on being put into the brine will remain suspended
in that liquid, and in all parts of it, without either sink-
ing or rising to its surface, and the particles of the
amber being visible in the brine will, by their motions,
indicate the motions and directions of the currents in
the liquid, which take place when the temperature of
the liquid is changed.*

If now two like glass tumblers be filled, the one
with the pure brine moderately heated, the other with
an equal quantity of the same brine at the same tem-

* In order that the brine may be rendered perfectly transparent, it should be

filtered or made to pass through filtering paper.
VOL. IV. 40

626 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

perature, containing a small quantity of the powdered
amber intimately mixed with it, on exposing these
two glass vessels with their contents to cool in the
air in a quiet room, no motion will be perceived among
the particles of the pure brine (which are invisible),
but the motions which will be seen to take place among
the particles of amber in the other tumbler will af-

ford a convincing proof that the apparent rest in the.

pure brine must necessarily be a deception, and that
the particles of both these masses of cooling liquid
are most undoubtedly in motion.

As soon as these liquids have acquired the tempera-
ture of the surrounding atmosphere, their internal mo-
tions will cease, but on every change of temperature
they will recommence.

We may conceive the particles of amber dissem-
inated in the brine to represent the particles of the
aromatic substance disseminated in new-made coffee:
as long as the coffee remains at rest,— that is to say,
as long as its temperature remains unchanged, — these
aromatic particles cannot escape, for they cannot come
to the surface of the liquid, but when the liquid is put
in motion their escape is greatly facilitated.

When the cause of any evil is perfectly known, it is
seldom very difficult to find means to prevent it.

In order that coffee may retain all those aromatic
particles which give to that beverage its excellent
qualities, nothing more is necessary than to prevent all
internal motions among the particles of that liquid, by
preventing its being exposed to any change of temper-
ature, either during the time employed in preparing it,
or afterwards till it is served up.

This may be done by pouring boiling water on the

———

yn —_ o bn ——— ee ee a

,—se a ——S a
i a ee eS ee ee
.

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 627

coffee in powder, and surrounding the machine in
which the coffee is made by boiling water or by the
steam of boiling water; for the temperature of boiling
water is zzvardable (while the pressure of the atmos-
phere remains the same), and the temperature ‘of steam
is the same as that of the boiling water from which it
escapes. | }

But the temperature of boiling water is preferable to
all others for making coffee, not only on account of its
constancy, but also on account of its being most favoura-
ble to the extraction of all that is valuable in the roasted
grain.

As it is well known that the heat of boiling water
is not that which is the most favourable for extracting
from malt those saccharine parts which it furnishes
in the process of making beer, I thought it possible,
though not at all probable, that somes lower temper-
ature than that of boiling water might also be most
advantageous in preparing coffee; but after having
made a great number of experiments, in order to ascer-
tain that important point, I found that coffee infused
with boiling water was always higher-flavoured and
better tasted than when the water used in that pro-
cess was at a lower temperature.

I have frequently taken coffee of the best quality,
newly burned, and with equal portions of it in powder
and equal quantities of water have made coffee in two
like coffee-pots, with this single difference, — that the
water poured into one of them has been boiling hot,
while that poured into the other has been at some
lower temperature; and I have constantly found that
the coffee made with the boiling water has been
preferred by all good judges, especially when they

628 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

have been presented with the two kinds of coffee at
the same time, without being told in what manner they
were prepared.

I have likewise made coffee with cold water and
afterwards heated it, but this I have always found to
be of a very inferior quality : it is very bitter, and not
unfrequently of a sour, disagreeable taste, especially
when the cold water is a long time in passing through
the coffee in powder, and when they are suffered to
remain together over night.

The fine aromatic substance is either not extracted
by cold water, or it escapes afterwards while the coffee
is heating. The fact is that very little of it can be
perceived in the coffee after it has been heated; nor
does coffee so prepared possess those exhilarating
qualities which render that beverage so delightful in
its effects when it is made in perfection, and taken
before it has had time to be spoiled by cooling. As
coffee is an expensive article, which must be imported
into Europe from hotter climates, the economy of it
deserves attention. Now it is quite certain that boil-
ing water extracts from the prepared grain more of
those particles which give the agreeable taste and
flavour to the coffee, or, in other words, that give it
strength, than an equal quantity of water less hot.
This fact has been ascertained by many experiments,
and is now generally acknowledged: it is indeed not
a little surprising that it should ever have been called
in question, for the agency of heat in facilitating solu-
tion of this kind has long been known.

As all kinds of agitation must be very detrimental ©

to coffee, not only when made, but also while it is
making, it is evident that the method formerly prac-

a _—

ditties bi

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 629

tised, that of putting the ground coffee into a coffee-
pot with water, and boiling them together, must be
very defective and must occasion a very great loss.

But that is not all; for the coffee which is prepared
in that manner can never be good, whatever may be
the quantity of ground coffee that is employed.

The liquor may, no doubt, be very bitter, and it
commonly is so; and it may possibly contain some-
thing that may irritate the nerves, but the exquisite
flavour and exhilarating qualities of good coffee will
be wanting.

A decoction of Jesuit’s bark is also very bitter,
and it is sometimes irritating ; but nobody ever found
it to be exhilarating. Custom might perhaps render
the taste of it agreeable, for even the taste of tobacco
becomes agreeable to those who are in the habit of
chewing it; but it would be difficult to persuade me
or any other unprejudiced person that coffee is good
which has nothing to recommend it but a strong, bit-
ter, austere taste.

Coffee may easily be too bitter, but it is impossible
that it should ever be too fragrant. The very smell of
it is reviving, and has often been found to be useful to
sick persons, and especially to those who are afflicted
with violent headaches. In short, every thing proves
that the volatile, aromatic matter, whatever it may be,
that gives flavour to coffee, is what is most valuable in it,
and should be preserved with the greatest care ; and that
in estimating the strength or richness of that beverage
its fragrance should be much more attended to than >
either its bitterness or its astringency.

Nobody, I fancy, can be fonder of coffee than I am.
I have regularly taken it twice a day for many years;

630 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

and I certainly take care to have the very best that can
be procured, and no expense is spared in making it
good.

The reader will no doubt be surprised when I assure
him that one pound avoirdupois of good Mocha coffee,
which, when properly roasted and ground, weighs only
fourteen ounces, serves for making fifty-six full cups of
the very best coffee (in my opinion) that can be made.

The quantity of ground coffee which I use for one
full cup is 108 grains Troy, which is rather less than
a quarter of an ounce. This coffee when made would
fill a coffee-cup of the common size quite full; but I
use a larger cup, into which the coffee being poured
boiling hot, on a sufficient quantity of sugar (half an
ounce), I pour into it about one-third of its volume of
good sweet cream, guzte cold. On stirring these liquids
together, the coffee is suddenly cooled, and in such a
manner as not to be exposed to the loss of any consid-
erable portion of its aromatic particles in that process.

In making coffee, several circumstances must be
carefully attended to. In the first place, the coffee
must be ground fine, otherwise the hot water will not
have time to penetrate to the centres of the particles: it
will merely soften them at their surfaces, and passing
rapidly between them will carry away but a small part
of those aromatic and astringent substances on which
the goodness of the liquor entirely depends.

In this case the grounds of the coffee are more valu-
able than the insipid wash which has been hurried
through them, and afterwards served up under the
name of coffee.

This secret has been but too well known to some ser-
vants abroad, where coffee is more generally used than

b.
i
;
‘j
,
)
:

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 631

in England, and where the preparation of it has not_
been controlled by the laws. When complaints are
made that the coffee is too weak, they are never at a
loss for a remedy for that evil; and when it has once
been established, as a rule in the family, that owe ounce
of ground coffee is zxdispensably necessary to make a
cup of good strong coffee, their point is gained.

But before we can determine with certainty how:
much ground coffee is necessary in order to make a
cup of good coffee, we must ascertain the contents
of a coffee-cup ; and as the sizes of coffee-cups are very
different in different countries, and even vary consider-
ably in the same country, we must begin by adopting
some certain size to serve as a standard.

The size most commonly to be met with in England
and in France is a cup which contains 8} cubic inches,
English measure, when filled quite full to the brim ;
when this cup is made perfectly cylindrical within, and
just as high as it is wide, it will be 27, English inches
in diameter, and consequently 2;% inches in height
internally.

One gill or one quarter of a wine pint of liquor will
fill this cup to within ¢hree tenths of an inch of the
level of its brim, and that quantity of coffee will weigh
1820 grains Troy, or something more than four ounces
avoirdupois, or more exactly 4% ounces.

As a gill is a measure well known in England, I
shall adopt it as a standard measure for a cup of coffee;
and, as it is inconvenient to fill coffee-cups quite full to
the brim, I shall propose coffee-cups to be made of the
form and dimensions they now commonly have, or of
a size proper for containing 83 cubic inches of liquor
when filled quite full to the brim.

632 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

As a gill is equal to 7.1875 cubic inches, about
seven eighths only of the capacity of the cup will, in
that case, be occupied by the coffee. Now I have
found, by the results of a great number of experiments,
that one guarter of an ounce avoirdupois of ground
coffee is quite sufficient to make a gill of most excel-
lent coffee, of the highest possible flavour and quite
strong enough to be agreeable.

This decision has been the result of fifteen years’
experience; and as coffee is to me by far the most
valuable luxury of the table with which I am ac-
quainted, and that in which I indulge with the great-
est pleasure and satisfaction, I have spared no pains in
my endeavours to find out how it can be prepared in
the highest perfection, and I can safely assert that
economy has not in the smallest degree influenced my
opinion on that subject.

I am happy when I find that improvement leads to
economy; but I have always thought that excellence
should never be sacrificed to paltry savings in any
thing, and least of all in those habitual enjoyments
which are at the same time the comforts and conso-
lations of life.

The fact is, with respect to coffee, that when it is
made very strong its taste becomes so very bitter and
austere that it is no longer possible to distinguish that

delicate aromatic fragrance which is so liberally diffused .

when the coffee is properly prepared.

Habit may render very bitter coffee agreeable to
some palates, and all persons may not perhaps be able
to savour in perfection that peculiar fragrance which
renders the smell of coffee so very agreeable; but I
am confident that those who will take the trouble to

LS a

Ce oe

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 633

make the experiment with due care will find, as I have
done, that coffee of the very best quality may be pre-
pared with the quantity of materials above-mentioned.

But this cannot be done unless the method which I
use be employed for making the coffee.

In order that the advantages which will result from
the adoption of that process may be perceived and
estimated, it will be useful to give a short description
of the method formerly pursued, and to explain the
disadvantages which resulted from it.

Formerly the ground coffee being put into a coffee-
pot with a sufficient quantity of water, the coffee-pot
was put over the fire, and after the water had been
made to boil a certain time the coffee-pot was removed
from the fire, and the grounds having had time to set-
tle, or having been fined down with isinglass, the clear
liquor was poured off and immediately served in cups.

From the results of several experiments which I
made with great care, in order to ascertain what pro-
portion of the aromatic and volatile particles in the
coffee escape and are left in this process, I found rea-
son to conclude that it amounts to considerably more
than half. This loss may easily be explained. It is
occasioned principally, no doubt, by the motions into
which the liquid is thrown in being heated, and after-
wards on being made to boil; but there are two other
unfavourable circumstances attending this process that
deserve attention.

The air that is attached to the small solid particles
of the ground coffee often remain attached to them;
and causing them to rise up to the surface of the
water, and to remain there, these particles contribute
very little to the strength or qualities of the liquor;

634 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

and even those particles which becoming thoroughly
soaked with the water are mixed with it, as they are.
surrounded not by pure water, but by a solution’ of
coffee more or less saturated, that circumstance is ~
unfavourable to their solution.

It is well known to chemists that any solid sub-
stance which is soluble in any liquid menstruum is
dissolved with greater difficulty or more slowly as the
liquid is more charged with that substance.

Now, when coffee is made in the most advantageous
manner, the ground coffee is pressed down in a cylin-
drical vessel which has its bottom pierced with many
small holes so as to form a strainer, and a proper
quantity of boiling hot water being poured cautiously
on this layer of coffee in powder the water penetrates
it by degrees, and after a certain time begins to filter
through it.

This gradual percolation brings continually a succes-
sion of fresh particles of pure water into contact with
the ground coffee, and when the last portion of the
water has passed through it every thing capable of
being dissolved by the water will be found to be so
completely washed out of it that what remains will be
of no kind of value.

It is however necessary to the complete success of
this operation that the coffee should be ground to a
powder sufficiently fine, as has already been observed.

This method of making coffee, by percolation, has
been practised many years, and its usefulness is now
universally acknowledged. I do not know who was
the first to propose it, but being thoroughly persuaded
of the merit of the contrivance I have been desirous
of recommending it; and I conceived that the most

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 635

effectual way of recommending it would be to explain
the mechanical and chemical principles on which its
superiority depends.

In order that the coffee may be perfectly good, the
stratum of ground coffee, on which the boiling water
is poured, must be of a certain thickness, and it must
be pressed together with a certain degree of force. If
it be too thin or not sufficiently pressed together, the
water will pass through it too rapidly ; and if the layer
of ground coffee be too thick, or if it be too much
pressed together, the water will be too long in passing
through it, and the taste of the coffee will be injured.

Another circumstance, to which little attention has
hitherto been paid, but which I have found to be of
considerable importance, is the levelling of the surface
of the ground coffee after it has been put into the
strainer, before any attempt is made to press it to-
gether.

When the ground coffee is poured into the strainer,
it always stands much higher in one part of this vessel
than elsewhere; and, if in that situation it be pressed
down on the perforated bottom of this vessel without
being previously levelled, it will be much more pressed
in some parts than in others; and, as the water will
not fail-to pass most rapidly where it meets with the
least resistance, a considerable portion of the ground
coffee will be so crowded together as to prevent the
water from passing through it, and consequently will
contribute little or nothing to the strength of the
beverage.

To remedy this inconvenience, I use the following
simple contrivance. The circular plate of tin, with a
rod fastened to its centre which serves as a rammer for

636 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

pressing down the ground coffee, has four small pro-
jecting square bars of about one tenth of an inch in
width fastened to the under side of it, and extending
from the circumference of the plate to within about
one quarter of an inch of its centre.

On turning this plate round its axis, by means of
the rod which serves as a handle to it (the rod being
made to occupy the axis of the cylindrical vessel), the
projecting bars are made to level the ground coffee;
and after this has been done, and not before, the coffee
is pressed together,

This circular plate is pierced by a great number of
small holes which permit the water to pass through
it, and it remains in the cylindrical vessel during the
whole of the time that the coffee is making. It re-
poses on the surface of the ground coffee, and pre-
vents its being thrown out of its place by the water
which is poured on it.

The rod which serves as a handle to this circular
plate is so short that it does not prevent the cover of
the cylindrical vessel from being put down into its
place.

After having made a great number of experiments
in order to determine what thickness is best for the
layer of ground coffee, I have found that two thirds of
an inch answers best for the coffee in powder before it
is pressed together, and that it ought to be so pressed
as to be reduced to the thickness of something less
than half an inch.

And as the quantity of ground coffee necessary for
making a cup of good coffee (a quarter of an ounce
avoirdupois) just fills a cylindrical measure which is
1.15 inches in diameter and in height, its volume

a ey

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 6 37

amounts to 1.1945 cubic inches; consequently a cylin-
drical vessel (which I shall call the strainer) proper for
making one cup of coffee must be of such diameter that
1.1945 cubic inches of ground coffee will fill it to the
height of two thirds of an inch.

On making the computation, it will be found that
one inch and a half is the most proper diameter for
the strainer to be employed in making one single cup
of good coffee. And as the thickness of the stratum
of ground coffee must always be the same, whatever
may be the number of cups that are made at the same
time, the diameter of strainers of different sizes will be
as follows, viz. : — .

Inches.
ROREICOD. 6. Sig en ae Sh su ols ew rents 1.5

2
3
4
5
MS He EN he ook N65 a ie Rae 3.6742
Ys
8
9
19

Ree re a er RI, 4.9749
RE ES is teers only eles vs 5.1962

For common use the following sizes will answer
very well; and, in order that workmen may not have
the trouble of computing the heights of the cylindrical
vessels which I have called strainers, which contain
the water that is poured on the ground coffee, I have
given these heights in the following table. They have
been determined on the supposition that the diameter
of the vessel is always just equal to the diameter of the
perforated bottom by which it is closed below, and that

638 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.
the quantity of water necessary for making one cup of
coffee is 84 cubic inches, |

A Table, showing the Diameters and Heights of the cylindrical Vessels (or
Strainers) to be used in making the following Quantities of Coffee: —

Quantity of coffee to Diameter of Height of the

be made at once. strainer. strainer.
I cup. 14 inches. 4 inches.
2cups. . 2 5
3 or 4 cups. “ a)
5 or 6 cups. 3 5
7 or 8 cups. 4 5
9 or Io cups. 44 5

It or 12 cups. 5 5

As there is so little difference in the heights of
these strainers, and as a small additional height will
be rather advantageous than otherwise, I would recom-
mend them to be made all of the same height; viz.,
54 inches in height.

As these strainers must be suspended in their reser-
voirs which are destined for receiving the coffee, and
at such a height that after all the coffee has passed
through the strainer the bottom of the strainer may
still be above the surface of the coffee in the reservoir,
it will be best to make the reservoir of a conical form,
and just large enough above to receive the strainer in
such a manner that it may be suspended in the reser-
voir by means of a narrow projecting brim.

The boiler in which the reservoir is suspended may
likewise be made conical, and of such diameter above
as to receive the reservoir in such a manner as to be
firmly united to it.

The reservoir and its boiler must be soldered to-
gether above at their brims, and the reservoir must be
suspended in its boiler in such a mannér that its bot-

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 6 39

tom may be about a quarter of an inch above the
bottom of the boiler.

The small quantity of water which it will be nec-
essary to put into the boiler, in order that the reservoir
for the coffee may be surrounded by steam, may be
introduced by means of a small opening on one side of
the boiler, situated above and near the upper part of its
handle.

The spout through which the coffee is poured out
passes through the side of the boiler, and is fixed to it
by soldering. The cover of the boiler serves at the
same time as a cover for the reservoir and for the cylin.
drical strainer; and it is made double, in order. more
effectually to confine the heat.

The boiler is fixed below to a hoop, made of sheet
brass, which is pierced with many holes. This hoop,
which is one inch in width, and which is firmly fixed to
the boiler, serves as a foot to it when it is set down on
a table; and it supports it in such a manner that the
bottom of the boiler is elevated to the height of half
an inch above the table.

When the boiler is heated over a spirit lamp, or over
a small portable furnace in which charcoal is burned, as
the vapour from the fire will pass off through the holes
made in the sides of the hoop, the bottom of the hoop
will always remain quite clean, and the table-cloth will
not be in danger of being soiled when this coffee-pot
is set down on the table. |

As the hoop is in contact with the boiler, in which
there will always be some water, it will be so cooled by
this water as never to become hot enough to burn the
table-cloth.

The bottom of the boiler may be cleaned occasion-

640 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

ally on the under side with a brush or a towel, but it
should not be made bright; for when it is bright it will
be more difficult to heat the water in it than when it is
tarnished and of a dark brown color.

But the sides of the boiler should be kept as bright
as possible ; for, when its external surface is kept clean
and bright, the boiler will be less cooled by the sur-
rounding cold bodies than when its metallic splendour
is impaired by neglecting to clean it.*

As the small quantity of water which is put into the
boiler serves merely for generating the steam which is
necessary in order to keep the reservoir and its contents
constantly boiling hot, if the reservoir be made of sil-
ver or even of common tin, the boiler may without the
smallest danger be made of copper, or of copper
plated with silver, which will give to the boiler an ele-
gant appearance, and at the same time render it easy
to keep it clean on the outside.

The boiler may likewise be made of tin, and neatly

* I have in my possession two porcelain tea-pots of the same form and
dimensions, one of which is gilt all over on the outside, and might easily be
mistaken for a gold tea-pot ; the other is of its natural white colour, both within
and without, being neither painted nor gilt. When they are both filled at the
same time with boiling water, and exposed to cool in the same room, that which
is gilt retains its heat half as long again as that which is not gilt. The times
employed in cooling them a given number of degrees are as three to two.

The result of this interesting experiment (which I first made about seven
years ago) affords a good and substantial reason for the preference which Eng-
lish ladies have always given to silver tea-pots. The details of this experiment
may be seen in a paper published in the Memoirs of the French National Insti-
tute for the year 1807.

I have likewise a set of tea-cups and another of coffee-cups, which are gilt
on the outside, and they preserve the heat of those liquids much longer than
China cups which are not so gilt.

Little advantage would be derived from gilding them on the inside, and none
at all if they were filled quite full with the hot liquid.

I have found that all metals are alike useful in preserving heat (or cold), pro-
vided their surfaces be quite clean and bright.

a. oe 1 ¢& 4 rit
mie Ae o Shae OSS a Se fae
Ba et lee: ea, oon a

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 64 I

japanned on the outside, provided the hoop to which it
is fixed below be made of copper; but this hoop must
never be japanned nor painted, and it must always be
made of sheet copper or silver, and the boiler must
always be heated over a small portable fire-place or
lamp, somewhat less in diameter above than the hoop
on which the boiler is placed.

In order that the flat bottom of the boiler may not
smother and put out the fire, the brim of the small
furnace or chafing-dish which is used must have six
projecting knobs at the upper part of it, each about one
quarter of an inch in height, on which the bottom of
the boiler may rest.

If these knobs (which may be the large heads of six
nails) be placed at equal distances from each other, the
boiler will be well supported; and, as the hot vapour
from the fire will pass off freely between them, the fire
will burn well. As a very small fire is all that can be
wanted, no inconvenience whatever will arise from the
heating of the boiler on the table, in a dining-room or
breakfast-room, especially if a spirit lamp be used; and
the quantity of heat wanted is so very small, when the
water is put boiling hot into the boiler, that the expense
for spirits of wine would not, in London, amount to
one penny a day when coffee is made twice a day for
four persons.

It is a curious fact, but it is nevertheless most certain,

that 2 some cases spirits of wine is cheaper, when em-

ployed as fuel, even than wood. With a spirit lamp
constructed on Argand’s principle, but with a chimney
made of thin sheet iron, which I caused to be made
about seven years ago (and which has since become

VOL. Iv. 41

642 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

very common in Paris *), I heated a sufficient quantity
of cold water to make coffee for the breakfast of two
persons, and kept the coffee boiling hot one hour after
it was made with as much spirits of wine as cost ¢wo-
sous, or one penny English money.

A fire could not have been made with wood at a less
expense to heat this water.

As the size of the flame of this lamp may be in-
creased or diminished at pleasure, by means of the rack
which raises and lowers its circular wick, all the fuel
which is consumed is usefully employed, and no heat
is wasted in forming steam, when nothing more is
wanted than the preservation of the temperature at
which water is disposed to boil.

In order to convey distinct ideas of the different
parts of the apparatus necessary in making coffee in
the manner I have recommended, I have added the
Fig. 1, Plate IX., which represents a vertical section
(drawn to half the full size) of a coffee-pot constructed
on what I conceive to be the very best principles.
Its size is such as is most proper for making four cups
of coffee at once.

ais the cylindrical strainer, into which the ground
coffee is put, in order that boiling-hot water may be
poured on it: when this strainer is filled with boiling
water (after an ounce of ground coffee has been prop-
erly pressed down on its bottom), the quantity of the
liquid is just sufficient for making four cups of coffee.

6 is the ground coffee in its place.

cis the handle of the rammer which is represented
in its place.

* I intend, if possible, to send one of these spirit lamps to England with this
Essay, in order that it may be put into the hands of some workman there, who
may be disposed to imitate it.

Pirate IX.

aisle 65

mm Hy

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s 1 ? = i
of esd = ia)
ee ere eee ee

i
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2 ‘4
r. ey
| uty
eva?
~ : »
a = aad tT :
— 1 ra
= &
- ry Pi 7 a
.
‘
.
’

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 643

d is the reservoir for receiving the coffee which
descends into it from the strainer; and

é is the spout through which the coffee is poured out.

/ is the boiler, into which a small quantity. of water
is put, for the sole purpose of generating steam for
keeping the reservoir hot.

g is the opening by which the water is poured into
the boiler or out of it: this opening has a flat cover,
which moves on a hinge that is represented in the
figure.

The boiler is of a conical form, and is enlarged a
little at its upper extremity, in order to receive the cover
which closes it above. We

The reservoir and the boiler are fixed together above
by soldering, so that the reservoir remains suspended
in the boiler. .

The cylindrical strainer is suspended on the upper
extremity of the reservoir by means of a flat projecting
brim, about two tenths of an inch broad.

his the hoop, made of sheet copper, and perforated
with a row of holes, on which the boiler reposes: a
part of the bottom of the boiler is seen through these
holes.

The reservoir is represented by dotted lines, in order
the better to distinguish it.

The opening in the side of the boiler, by which
the water enters it, is represented in the figure. This
opening is covered by a part of the handle of the
coffee-pot. :

The diameter of the hoop %, on which the coffee-pot
stands, should always be at least szx znches in diameter,
whatever may be the contents of the coffee-pot; and
the spirit lamps or portable furnaces used with these

644 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

coffee-pots should always be rather less than six inches
in diameter above, or at their openings, in order that
the bottom of the coffee-pot may, in all cases, be set
down properly on the six knobs belonging to the lamp
or the furnace, which are destined to support it.

The Fig. 2, Plate X., has been added, in order to
show how the same coffee-pot may be made to serve
for making any number of cups of coffee, within cer-
tain limits, that may be wanted, by being furnished
with strainers of different sizes.

This coffee-pot has three strainers, the largest of
which is cylindrical, and of a size proper for making
either five or sex cups of coffee.

The second in size is designed for making either
three or four cups. It is composed of two tubes or
cylinders, of different diameters, united together. The
lower cylinder, which is one inch in length and two
inches and three quarters in diameter, is closed below
by a perforated bottom, on which the ground coffee
is placed. The upper cylinder, which is united to it,
is about three inches in length, and just wide enough
to enter without difficulty into the larger cylindrical
strainer, on the top of which it reposes by means of a
projecting brim, when not in use.

The smaller strainer, which is of a size proper for
making two cups of coffee, enters that last described,
and reposes on it when not in use. This strainer is
also composed of two cylinders united together. That
which is lowest is two inches and one eighth in diam-
eter and one inch in height, closed below by a flat
bottom, perforated with small holes. The other cylin-
der, which is united to it above, is of such a diameter
as to enter the second strainer without difficulty, and

; ae fi j >
1 +

ee ie Seg >, ere
- a a af

PLATE X.

: K
/

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 64 5

of the height which is necessary in order that it a
contain two coffee-cups full of water.

Each of. these strainers has its separate rammer to
ram down the ground coffee placed in it, but one com-—
mon handle serves for them all. This handle is screwed
into the middle of a circular plate, which forms the
principal part of the rammer. .

The circular plate which belongs to each of these
strainers remains in it when the coffee-pot is not in
use, and the handle remains attached to the circular
plate belonging to the smaller strainer.

When only ¢wo cups of coffee are wanted, the two
largest strainers being taken away, the smaller strainer
is used alone.

If either three or four cups are wanted, the smallest
and the largest strainers are taken away, and the other
strainer is used.

When /ve or szx cups are wanted, the tarpest strainer
is used, and the other two are taken away.

If seven, eight, nine, or ten cups are wanted, szx cups
are first made with the largest strainer; when, that
strainer being removed, the remaining number of cups
are made with the strainer next in size.

By making use of the three strainers one after the
other, eleven or twelve cups of coffee may be made in
this coffee-pot ; and, as the heat always remains the same
during the whole of the time employed in these oper-
ations, the coffee is just as good as if the whole of it
were made at once.

By adding two additional strainers to the coffee-pot |
represented by the Fig. 1, one of them of a proper size
for making ove cup of coffee, and the other of a proper
size for making ¢wo cups, this coffee-pot may be used

. 646 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

for making either ove, two, three, four, five, or six cups
of coffee. |

All the coffee-pots that have been made of this size
have been furnished with these two additional strainers ;
but they were omitted in the figure, in order to render
it more simple and more easy to be understood.

Most of the coffee-pots of this size (Fig. 1) have had
their boilers made sufficiently capacious for heating the
water necessary for making the coffee, as well as that
which is required for generating the steam which is
employed for keeping the reservoir boiling hot.

This may be done in all cases; but when this method
is employed it will be necessary that the boiler should
be furnished with a brass cock, placed about one quar-
ter of an inch above the level of its bottom, in order
that the boiling water necessary for pouring on the
ground coffee in the strainer may be drawn off, with-
out removing the boiler from the fire. By placing this
brass cock immediately under the handle of the coffee-
pot, it may be so united to it as almost to escape obser-
vation. I havea coffee-pot of this kind, in which the
brass cock by which the boiling water is drawn off is
entirely concealed in the ornaments of the handle.

I have another in which the boiling water is poured
out by means of a second spout placed just opposite to
that by which the coffee is poured out; but in using this
coffee-pot it is indispensably necessary to pour out az
once all the boiling water that is wanted, and before
any water has been put into the strainer.

When coffee-pots are made with two spouts, one for
the water and the other for the coffee, the handle must
be placed between them and at equal distances from
each of them.

PLATE XI.

Of the Excellent Quahties of Coffee. 647

I have caused a very beautiful urn to be constructed,
with a concealed spirit lamp which serves for heating
water for making either tea or coffee, and for making
both tea and coffee at the same time. It is represented
by the Fig. 3, Plate XI., which is drawn to a scale of
one quarter of. the full size.

This urn is placed on what appears to be a block of
black marble, seven inches square and two inches and
a quarter in thickness. This is made of strong sheet
iron japanned black, which serves for concealing a
spirit lamp on Argand’s principles, which is employed
in keeping the water in the urn boiling hot. The foot
of the urn is hollow, and serves for concealing the
chimney of the lamp.

It is perforated by two rows of small round holes,
the one in the moulding at its lower extremity, which
serves for the admission of the air which is necessary
for keeping the lamp burning; the other near the upper
extremity of the foot where it is united to the body of
the urn, which serves as a passage for the escape of
the vapour which is generated in the combustion of the
ardent spirits.

There is a large circular hole in the top of the square
box (of sheet iron) on which the urn is placed, which hole
is covered and completely concealed by the foot of the
urn.

This hole, which is 54 inches in diameter, is the pas-
sage by which the lamp enters when it is placed in the
square box ; and by means of a rim, about a quarter of an
inch in width and 5} inches in diameter, which is fixed to
the lower part of the foot of the urn, and which enters
the circular hole in the top of the box, by turning
round the urn to the left one quarter of a whole revo-

648 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

lution, the rim attached to the foot of the urn being in
its place, the urn and the square box are locked to-
gether in a manner similar to that which is used in
fixing a bayonet to its musket, and in taking up the
urn by its two handles the square box is taken up
along with it, and remains firmly attached to it.

The size of the flame of the lamp is regulated, and
the lamp is extinguished when no longer wanted, by
means of a rack which moves the wick of the lamp up
or down; and this rack is moved by means of a hori-
zontal rod of strong wire, which lies in a small groove
made to receive it in the top of the square box. This
wire has a small knob at the end of it, which projects
just beyond the side of the box; and, as both this wire
and the knob at the end of it are painted black and
japanned, they are little observed, and consequently do
not produce any disagreeable effect.

Two brass cocks (which are not represented in the
figure) are placed at the distance of about 4 inches
from each other, at the level of the bottom of the reser-
voir which serves for containing the coffee when made:
one of these serves for drawing off the boiling water
contained in the boiler, and the other for drawing off
the coffee; and the words Water and Coffee are in-
scribed on their handles,

This urn has one large cover, 9 inches in diame-
ter, which closes the boiler without closing the opening
of the reservoir for the coffee, and which appears to
form the upper part of the urn; and another cover,
about 4} inches in diameter, which, being made to
fit into a circular hole in the top of the cover of the
boiler, closes the reservoir which contains the cylin-
drical strainer and the coffee.

ee a ae

LS Se

Of ‘the Excellent Qualities of Coffe. - 649

When the boiler is filled with boiling water, both
covers must be removed; but the small cover only is
removed when the ground coffee is put into the strainer,

and when boiling water (which may be drawn out of

the boiler) is poured on it.

The reservoir for the coffee is firmly fixed in its
place in the middle of the boiler, by means of three
short feet of strong tin (of about half an inch in height),
which are soldered to the reservoir and to the boiler.

The form of the reservoir is conical; and it is about
6 inches in diameter below, 4,1; inches in diameter
above, and 72 inches in height.

By using two or three strainers successively, sixteen
or ezghteen cups of coffee may be made in this urn;
and when the strainers are taken away, and the reservoir
is quite filled with coffee, it will hold more than éwenty
cups.

This urn has been found to be very useful for serv-
ing up coffee after dinner to large companies; and it
is the more so, as those who find their coffee too strong
can easily make it weaker by mixing with it a little
boiling water, which may be drawn from the boiler
which is always at hand.

The form of the boiler and that of its large cylin-
drical strainer are faintly represented in the figure
by dotted lines.

The boiler must always be filled with water already .
boiling hot ; for the lamp, though quite powerful enough
to keep this water boiling hot, and even to make it boil
with violence, does not furnish heat enough to heat
so great a quantity of cold water, and make it boil-
ing hot in any reasonable time.

As often as the smallest quantity of steam is seen to

650 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

issue from the boiler, the flame of the lamp should be
reduced, for no advantage whatever attends the actual |
’ boiling of water which is boiling hot; and it always
occasions a very great loss of heat, and fills the room
full of steam and of invisible vapour, which makes every
thing in it damp and uncomfortable.

A considerable number of these coffee urns have
been made and sold at Paris within these last five
or six years. Some of them have been made of silver,
richly sculptured and ornamented by gilding. Several
others have been made of copper, and ornamented with
copper plated with silver: these last, with their lamps,
and a set of three strainers made of tin, have cost about
six guineas. But the greater part of those which have
been sold have been made of tin; and they have in gen-
. eral been gilt so as to be entirely covered over on the
outside with leaf gold, and this leaf gold covered by
a coating of transparent varnish.

When so constructed and ornamented, they have —
cost four guineas with all their apparatus quite com-
plete.

I cannot help flattering myself that they will find
their way into England, and there meet with appro-
bation. I shall never cease to be particularly desirous
that my labours to improve the domestic arts may be
found useful in that country.

The Fig. 4, Plate XII., represents a small urn with
two short spouts and two handles, of a proper size
for making one single cup of coffee. It is drawn to
a scale of half the full size. Its boiler contains water
enough to furnish what is required for making the
coffee, as well as that which is necessary for generating
steam for keeping the coffee hot. The water descends

Pirate XII.

an r
er

ce :

mi
ri

i |

IUCN Il MM

JUDUOOUOT

| PRATS: XU:

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 651

below the foot of the urn into the flat plinth on which
ijt stands, and to which it is united.

The Fig. 5, Plate XIII., represents an urn with two
long spouts which serve at the same time as handles.
Its “aie is such as would be proper for making either
one or two cups of coffee. The strainer which is re-
presented by dotted lines is of a proper size for making
two cups.

Both these urns are destined to be heated over spirit
lamps or small portable furnaces.

It is hardly necessary that I should observe that, in
case the forms of either of these urns should be thought
inelegant, their sizes may without any difficulty be con-
siderably augmented; but when spouts are used with
large urns they occasion a good deal of inconvenience.

As coffee is very wholesome and may be afforded
at a very low price, especially in countries which have
colonies where the climate is proper for growing it,
many public advantages would be derived from the
general introduction of it among all classes of society.

One most important advantage, which on a superfi-
cial view of the subject is not very obvious, would most
probably be derived from it. As coffee possesses in
a high degree an exhilarating quality, it would in some
measure supply the place of spirituous liquors among
the lower classes of the people.

Those who work hard stand in need of something to
cheer and comfort them; and it is greatly to be lamented
that the strong liquors now used for that purpose are
not only very unwholesome and permanently debili-
tating both to the mind and the body, but that their
operation is accompanied by a peculiar species of mad-
ness which renders those who are under the influence

652 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

of it very mischievous, and so lost to all sense of de-
cency and propriety as to become objects of horror
and aversion.

The pleasing flow of spirits that is excited by coffee
has none of these baneful effects,

Instead of irritating the mind and exciting to acts of
violence, it calms every turbulent and malevolent pas-
sion, and is accompanied by a consciousness of ease,
contentment, and good-will to all men, which is very
different from that wild joy and unbridled licentious-
ness which accompanies intoxication.

Coffee is not only very wholesome, but when sweet-
ened-with sugar is very nourishing.

Sugar is supposed to be the most nourishing sub-
stance known. Its nourishing powers are even such
that the use of it has been recommended in fattening
cattle.

An ingenious young man, Doctor ,a physician
who resided in London, made a long course of experi-
ments on himself several years ago, with a view to
determine the relative nutritive powers of those sub-
stances which are most commonly used as food by
mankind; and he found that sugar was more nourish-
ing than any other substance he tried.

He took no other food for a considerable time than
sugar, and drank nothing but water; and he contrived
to subsist on a surprisingly small quantity of sugar.
If my memory does not fail me it was no more than
two ounces a day.

It is much to be lamented that this interesting young
man should have fallen a sacrifice to his zeal in pro-
moting useful science; but his health was so totally
deranged by these experiments, which he pursued with

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 653

too much ardor and perseverance, that he died soon
after they were finished. All the resources of the
medical art were employed, but nothing could save
him. | sae

As common brown sugar is quite as nourishing
as the best refined loaf sugar, and as a great many
persons prefer it for coffee, it appears to me to be
extremely probable that coffee may be found to be one
of the cheapest kinds of food that can be procured, and
more especially in Great Britain.

Half a pint of the best coffee or two full cups may
be made with half an ounce of ground coffee, which,
if one pound avoirdupois weight of raw coffee can be
bought in the shops for twelvepence sterling, will cost
only szx sevenths of a farthing; and, if a pound of
brown sugar can be bought for one shilling, one ounce
of sugar, which would be a large allowance for two cups
of coffee, would cost only three farthings ; consequently
the materials for making half a pint of coffee would
cost less than one penny.

As coffee has a great deal of taste, which it imparts
very liberally to the bread which is eaten with it, and -
as the taste of coffee is very agreeable to all palates,
and the use of bread greatly prolongs the duration of
the pleasure which this taste excites, a very delicious
repast may be made merely with coffee and_ bread,
without either butter or milk.

The taste of the coffee predominates in such a
manner that the butter would hardly be perceived,
and might be omitted without any sensible loss. But
I‘ acknowledge that in my opinion the addition of a
~ certain quantity of good cream or milk to coffee im-
proves it very much. Milk, however, is not a very

654 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

expensive article in Great Britain; and if the butter
be omitted, which is by no means necessary (and is
even unwholesome), a good breakfast of milk coffee
might be provided for a very small sum.

What a difference between such a breakfast and
that miserable and unwholesome wash which the poor
people in England drink under the name of ¢ea /

All the coffee that can be wanted may be had in the
British colonies, and paid for in British manufactures;
but tea must be purchased in China, and paid for in
hard money.

These are circumstances which ought, no doubt, to
have great weight, especially in such a country as Eng-
land, where all ranks of society are equally sensible
of the advantages of their distinguished situation, and
equally anxious to promote the public prosperity.

There are some difficulties, no doubt, in changing
the habits of a nation; but these difficulties have been
too much exaggerated, and they have too often been
an excuse for indolence.

If any thing really useful be proposed to the able
it can hardly fail to be adopted, if it be properly recom-
mended; but so many new things, unworthy of notice,
~ are every day proposed, that it is by no means surpris-
ing that little attention is paid to such recommen-
dations.

Many useful improvements have been proposed by
ingenious and enlightened men, which have failed,
merely because those who have brought them forward
have neglected to give directions sufficiently clear
respecting the details of their execution.

I have been so much persuaded of that important
fact that I have perhaps sometimes erred on the other

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 655

side, and taken up too much time in describing things
in all their most minute details, which many persons
would be able to comprehend at once, and almost with-
out any description; but I have done that which I
thought most likely to render my labors useful.

I never write, except it be to recommend to the pub-
lic something which I conceive to be of importance,
or to communicate the results of new experimental
researches, which appear to be sufficiently curious and
interesting to merit attention; and it must, I think,
be quite evident to those who read my writings that
I have never hesitated to sacrifice to perspicuity, not
only every ornament of style, but also every brilliant
idea which, by getting too strong hold of the imagina-
tion, might distract the attention.

The reader must condescend not only to go with me
frequently into the humblest walks of private life, but
also to examine the various objects that present them-
selves with the greatest care, and in all their most
minute details.

But I must hasten to put an end to this Essay, which
has already exceeded the limits to which I had hopes
of being able to confine it. Being anxious that it
might be read by many persons (as I thought that it
would be very useful), I felt the necessity of making
it as short as possible. I shall conclude with a few
observations on the means that may be employed for
rendering the use of coffee more general among the
lower classes of society. }

In the first place, the method of making good coffee
must be known; and the utensils necessary in that
process must be so contrived as to be cheap and dura-
ble, and easy to be managed.

656 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

It will be in vain that the laws are repealed which
laid restrictions on the free use of coffee, as long as the
great mass of the people remain ignorant of its excel-
lent qualities; they will be little disposed to substitute
it in the place of another beverage, to which long habit
has given them an attachment.

As long as coffee shall continue to be made accord-
ing to the method generally practised in England, I
shall have no hope of its being preferred to tea; for its
qualities are so inferior when prepared in that way that
it is hardly possible that it should be much liked.

The utensils which I have recommended for making
coffee, though some of them are sufficiently simple to
be afforded at a low price, yet, as they are contrived
to be used with spirit lamps, or with portable furnaces
which must be heated with charcoal, they are not well
calculated for the use of those persons who inhabit the
rooms in which they cook their victuals; and of many
others who, though they may have separate kitchens,
may not find it convenient to use spirit lamps and
portable furnaces.

For the usé of such persons, the coffee-pots repre-
sented by the Figs. 1 and 2 may be made to answer
perfectly well, merely by taking away the perforated
hoops on which theystand. For, when these are taken
away, these coffee-pots may be heated over a common
chimney fire just as any common coffee-pot is now
heated.

For very poor persons who cannot afford to buy
a coffee-pot, I shall recommend a very simple contri-
vance, by means of which coffee may be made, and
even in the highest possible perfection. I have often
made use of this contrivance in making my own break-

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 657

fast, and I have not found the coffee to be in the least
inferior to that made in the most costly and compli-
cated machines.

_ This little utensil is distinctly represented in the
Fig. 6, Plate XIV., which is drawn to a scale of half
the full size. .

The whole of this apparatus consists of a coffee-cup,
which should hold about three quarters of a pint, and
a strainer made of tin, which is suspended in it by its
brim. |

This coffee-cup should be cylindrical, and when
employed in making one gill of good strong coffee
should be three inches in diameter within, and three
inches and a half deep. The lower part of the strainer
is one inch and a half in diameter, and one inch deep;
and the upper part of it two inches and nine tenths in
diameter, and about one inch and a half in depth.

The water which is poured on the ground coffee
should be boiling hot, the cup and the strainer having
both been previously heated by dipping them into boil-
ing water.

As the coffee will not be more than eight or ten
minutes in passing through the strainer, it is probable
that it will be quite as hot as it can be drunk after it
has descended into the lower part of the cup; but, if it
should be necessary to keep it hot a longer time, the
cup may be placed in a small quantity of boiling water,
contained in a small saucepan or other fit vessel placed
near the fire. .

When all the coffee has passed into the lower part
of the cup, the strainer may be taken away, and the cup
may be covered with the cover of the strainer.

I do not think it possible to contrive a more simple
VOL. IV. 42

658 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

apparatus than this for making coffee, nor one in which
coffee can be made in higher perfection.

That represented by Fig. 7, Plate XIV., which is of
a size proper for making two cups of coffee, is equally
simple ; and, as it may be made entirely of pottery, it
would cost a mere trifle, perhaps not more than a
shilling:

The cup, which serves in two capacities, first as a
reservoir in making the coffee, and then as a cup in
drinking it (and which in a family may be used for
other purposes), is three inches and a half in diameter
internally and four inches deep. |

As many persons may prefer coffee-pots made en-
tirely of Staffordshire ware, porcelain, or other pottery,
to those made of the metals, not only on account of the
low prices at which they may be afforded, but also on
account of their superior neatness and cleanliness, I
have added the Fig. 8, Plate XV., which, on a scale of
half the full size, represents a coffee-pot made of pottery
of asize proper for making five or six cups of coffee at
once, or three, four, five, six, seven, or eight cups, if two
strainers are used, one after the other.

When this coffee-pot is used, it will be necessary to
place it in boiling water to keep it hot; and it will
be useful to cover the whole with a cylindrical vessel
turned upside down, by which means both the strainer
and the coffee-pot will be surrounded by hot steam,
which will contribute very essentially to the goodness
of the coffee.

As soon as the coffee has passed into the coffee-pot,
the strainer may be taken away, and the coffee-pot
covered with the cover which is common to it and
to the strainer.

PLATE XV.

SSSR

YALA A LAK AK TO lk lly

LETS Soy ee. ee ee ee eee

Me nh

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a a ene eee
Pree PS Gs al’

aa*

Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee. 659

I shall conclude by a few observations on the means

that may be used for preserving ready-made coffee
good for a considerable time in bottles.
_ The bottles having been made very clean must be
put into clean cold water in a large kettle, and the
water must be heated gradually and made to boil, in:
order that the bottles may be heated boiling hot.

The coffee, fresh prepared and still boiling hot, must
be put into these heated bottles, which must be imme-
diately well closed with good sound corks.

The bottles must then be removed into a cool cellar,
where they must be kept well covered up in dry sand
in order to preserve them from the light. |

By this means ready-made coffee may be preserved
good for a long time, but great care must be taken not
to let if be exposed to the light, otherwise it will soon
be spoiled.

When wanted for use, the coffee must be heated in
the bottle and before the cork is drawn; otherwise a
great deal of the aromatic flavour of the coffee will be
lost in heating it. And, in order that it may be heated
in the bottle without danger, the bottle must be put
into cold water, and this water must be gradually
heated till the coffee has acquired the degree of heat
which is wanted. The cork may then be drawn, and
the coffee poured out and served up.

As good coffee is very far from being disagreeable
when taken cold, and as there is no doubt but it must
be quite as exhilarating when cold as when it is taken
hot, why should it not be made to supply the place of
those pernicious drams of spirituous liquors which do
so much harm?

Half a pint of good cold coffee properly sweetened,

660 Of the Excellent Qualities of Coffee.

which would not cost more than half a pint of porter,
would be a much more refreshing and exhilarating
draught, and would no doubt be incomparably more
nourishing.

How much, then, must it be preferable to a dram
of gin!

The advantages and disadvantages to agriculture
and commerce which would arise from the introduction
of a new beverage for supplying the place of malt
liquors and ardent spirits distilled from grain must be
estimated and balanced by those whose knowledge of
political economy fits them for determining these most
intricate and important questions.

[This paper is printed from the English edition of —" Essays,
Vol. IV., pp. 153-207.]

EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

ADVANTAGE OF EMPLOYING WHEELS WITH BROAD
FELLOES FOR TRAVELLING AND PLEASURE CAR-
RIAGES.

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EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

ADVANTAGE OF EMPLOYING WHEELS WITH BROAD
FELLOES FOR TRAVELLING AND PLEASURE CAR-
RIAGES.

HEN we consider the immense number of

coaches, diligences, cabs, and other vehicles,
for travelling or for pleasure, which are to-day in use
among the various nations, and the great number of
horses employed in drawing them, we shall see that
every improvement in the construction of these car-
riages, which without being too expensive renders
them either more agreeable or more durable or easier
to draw, would deserve to be considered an object of
very great importance to society, and consequently well
worthy the attention of those who love to contribute
to perfecting useful things.

As far as the preservation of the roads is concerned,
no one has ever doubted the advantages to be gained
by the adoption of the wheels with broad felloes which
have been prescribed for some years in France, for
large wagons and other vehicles intended to carry
heavy loads; but opinions have been divided on the
question, whether these new wheels did not make the
wagons heavier, and harder to draw. Experience has
rapidly scattered the fears of the wagoners in this

664 On the A doantage of Employing

respect; but the people at large, always slow in all
countries to interest themselves in novelties which
have only their utility to recommend them, are still
very far from suspecting the great advantages which
must result in the end from this change in the con-
struction of wheels, when it is generally adopted for all
sorts of vehicles, as it can hardly fail to be sooner or
later in all countries where roads are well finished.

As long as the roads were bad and the ruts deep, it
was impossible to use any wheels except those with
narrow felloes; but, now that there are good roads
almost everywhere, one cannot long avoid the con-
viction that wheels with broad felloes are preferable to
others, especially when they are intended for use on a
paved road.

If we watch carefully the wheel of a carriage which
is being drawn over a paved road, we shall see that it
is tossed about very much, slipping continually to the
right and left, falling into all the spaces between the
stones, and then striking roughly against the stone
immediately before it. These sharp blows, following
one another rapidly, give very disagreeable shocks to
the carriage, and strain the wheels so that they soon
wear out. They strain the carriage still more, and
affect the horses by giving them severe jerks, and
make the draught unequal and very toilsome. Nor
does the evil end here: the tires, although flat when
new, are soon rounded at their edges by this continual
slipping right and left, so that the wheels, if narrow,
become every day more inclined to slip; the stones of
the pavement itself, in the course of time, become worn
and rounded; the spaces between them become wider
and deeper; the wheels fall into these holes more

Wheels with Broad Felloes. 665

easily and with greater force, and soon the roads are
entirely worn out. | oe

The remedy for all these inconveniences is so simple
and so easily found that it is really astonishing that the
use of it has been for so long a time neglected.

Struck by the advantages which ought to result
from the adoption of wheels with broad felloes for
pleasure carriages, I persuaded a person of my ac-
quaintance in Paris, six years ago, to have a pair of
wheels for a fly made with felloes 4 inches broad.
These wheels were ,made, under my direction, by
M. Groux, a wheelwright living on the Rue de Sévres ;
but circumstances, which need not be mentioned here,
have always prevented an experiment being made with
them.

In the course of a journey to Bavaria, last autumn, I
had on the way an opportunity of speaking to several
wagoners, whom I met with large wagons carrying
heavy loads between Paris and Strasburg; and I learned
from them how well they are pleased now with the
change which the law has obliged them to make in the
construction of the wheels of their wagons. Several
of them assured me that, with the same number of
horses, they could now load their teams with a load a
quarter heavier than they carried formerly with narrow
wheels, and that the new wheels are much stronger and
more durable than the old ones.

This information strengthened me in the opinion
which I had for a long time entertained on the prefer-
ence which should be given to wheels with broad |
felloes for all sorts of carriages: and I made on the
spot a firm resolve to brave the ridicule which is always
encountered by those who dare to be the first to deviate

666 On the Advantage of Employing

from customs which are consecrated by fashion ; and,
on my return to Paris, I had made for my carriage
wheels with broad felloes. I have now for two months
used them daily, and I am so well pleased with them
that I feel it to be a duty to make known the results of
this experiment. The carriage, which is a two-seated
coach, has become incomparably more comfortable
and more agreeable than it ever was before ; and I have
just discovered, by comparative experiments of which I
will give an account, that it has become more easy to
draw, and that it is less tiresome for the horses.

Having kept the old wheels, which are not worn out,
and also by a happy chance a still older set, which are
yet narrower, I had my carriage arranged in such a
manner as to be able to measure exactly the force
employed by the horses in drawing it; and, using the
three kinds of wheels alternately, always going over
the same road at the same rate of speed, and with the
same amount of load, I have been able to determine,
in a perfectly decisive manner, not only which of the
wheels roll the easiest, but also in every case how
much \ess is the force exerted in drawing with one
set than with the others.

The method by which I estimated the force em-
ployed was as follows: A bar of beech-wood, 29 inches
long, 4 inches wide, and 1 inch thick, moving without
sensible friction in a groove, is placed flat upon the
forward axle of the carriage, in the direction in
which it is to travel. At the two ends of this bar
of wood are two iron hooks. To the hook in front
is fastened a splinter-bar, and to the ends of this bar
the whippletrees are attached. To the other hook is
fastened the end of a stout rope, the other end of which

sontindis

Wheels with Broad Felloes. 667

is fixed to a pulley, 3 inches in diameter. This pulley
is placed flat upon the forward axle of the carriage,
behind the bar of wood above mentioned; so that, when
the rope is stretched by the pulling of the horses, it
lies in the direction in which the carriage is going.

On the small wooden wheel, three quarters of an
inch in thickness, which forms this puiley, another
wheel, not quite so thick and 12 inches in diameter,
is fixed in such a way that the two wheels, attached the
one to the other, form but a single body, turning freely
on an iron pivot between two pieces of oak, which are
fastened by iron pins to the forward axle of the car-
riage. A rope, less stout than the first, is fastened at
one end to the larger wheel of this double pulley, and.
encircles it (in an opposite direction, however, to that
of the larger rope, which is around the small wheel);
and its other end being fastened to the hook of a steel-
yard or circular spring-balance, the elasticity of this
spring opposes the effort of the horses to draw the
carriage, and balances it continually, and the needle of
the balance indicates the amount of force employed.

Since the diameters of the two wheels, around which
the two ropes pass in opposite directions, are in the pro-
portion of 1 to 4, it is evident that the amount of force
indicated by the needle is only one quarter of that put
forth by the horses.

The balance which I use is made to weigh 150 pounds:
it is therefore evident that it ought to be able to resist
the force exerted by the horses in drawing, until this
force becomes equal to a weight of 600 pounds; but in
the experiments that I have made, up to the present
time, that force has never exceeded 300 or 400 pounds,
even in the jerks given to the carriage by the horses in

668 On the Advantage of Employing

shying (which all the care of the driver could not
always hinder), nor in the shocks caused by obstacles
met by the wheels.

Since the motion of a horse is never perfectly uni-
form, the force exerted by the horses in drawing a car-
riage must of necessity vary at every step. This causes
the needle, which indicates at any moment the force
actually employed at that moment, to oscillate contin-
ually, and sometimes with such rapidity that the eye
can scarcely follow it. However, notwithstanding this
continual oscillation, it is not difficult in ordinary cases
to determine with sufficient accuracy the mean force of
traction. We have only to take what seems to be the
_mean between all the oscillations; leaving out of account
those which are the result of the shying of the horses,
as well as those which are caused by foreign objects,
as bits of stones, etc., which the wheels sometimes en-
counter on all roads.

In order to make this paper more satisfactory and
more useful, I must give a detailed description of the
different kinds of wheels used in my experiments.

The wheels of my carriage which I had next before
the last were made in Munich. They are very light,
and very much worn. Their tires, which were origi-
nally an inch and three quarters broad, are so much
worn and rounded at their edges that it is difficult to
say how broad they really are now; and: this causes the
wheels to slip continually, especially on a worn pavement.
I have used them but little in my experiments, for
fear they would crush under the weight of the carriage.

My last wheels were made in Paris, by a very skilful
workman (M. Garnier, living on the Rue Neuve-des-
Mathurins). I have had them already more than two

Wheels with Broad Felloes. 669

years; and, although they have been used a great deal,
and have made long journeys, they are still in very good
condition. They are broader than ordinary carriage
wheels: the tires are two and a quarter inches in width ;
and the felloes are wide in proportion, and strong.

My new wheels (also made by M. Garnier) have tires
4 inches broad and 5 lines thick. The felloes are
4 inches wide, but they are not so thick as those of
my last wheels: and, since the spokes are also of less
thickness, although somewhat broader, the new wheels,
seen from one side, appear lighter and more elegant
than the last ones.

The three sets of wheels are of about equal heights,
Their several dimensions and weights are as follows : —

Next to
the last wheels. Last wheels. New wheels.

ft. in. lines. ft. in. lines. ft. in. lines.
Height of front wheels . . . . < te ge, argys3 Ae park
oe: on, RG WOES: eae, Ang 3 4 8 9 4 8 3
Breath OF tires ek se se gs (PES ie eg Se te 0 40
Ibs. Ibs. Ibs.
Weight of front wheels . .. . 124 174 240
opr op MEU OIS kt 226 258 360
» » thefourwheels .. . 350 432 600
Ibs.
The carriage on the new wheels weighs. . . . . 1721

In the experiments made with these wheels, it was loaded
with three men, — the owner, the coachman, and the foot-
man, weighing together... . 5 +.a 80 « #8 400

——

So that the total weight drawn by the horses was . . . 2121

When experiments were made with the old wheels,
care was taken to load the carriage with an additional
weight, equal to the difference between that of the new
wheels and that of the old wheels then employed. I
found however, in the end, that without this addition
to the load, made to equalize the weight, the force

670 On the A dvantage of Employing

necessary to draw the carriage was always less with the
broad wheels than with the narrow ones, in spite of the
fact that the latter were lighter.

This difference of weight was compensated in such
a degree by the greater breadth of the wheels, that I
think I can assert that the carriage, passing over the
paved road on the new wheels, and loaded with two
persons besides the coachman and the footman, draws
easier, and tires the horses less, than when, on wheels
of the breadth of ordinary carriage wheels, it is going
empty over the same road at the same speed. It may
be judged from this how much I must be impressed
with the importance of the subject on which I have
endeavoured to throw light.

For the satisfaction of those who desire to know
more in detail the results of my experiments, I will
give here a copy of the register that I kept when they
were made.

On the highway to Versailles, between the Pont de
Sévres and Passy, on the pavement: —

‘The force exerted.in drawing was in pounds.
Ata slow walk. Ata fast walk. Ataslowtrot, Ata fast trot.
With the new wheels . 40 to 44 48 to 56 74 to 84 120 to 130
With the last wheels . 44 to 48 56to60 84 to 96 130 to 140

With the wheels next
before the last. . . 48 to 60 60 to 72 96 to1z0 §=6140 to 150

On the same route, on the unpaved road by the side
of the pavement, the amount of force varied at each
moment, according as the road was more or less
sandy. When the road was very good and but little
sandy, it amounted to:—

Ata slow walk. Ata fast walk. Ataslowtrot. Ata fast trot.

With the new wheels. . 76 to 84 80 to 84 80 to 88 80 to 88
With the last wheels . . 80to92 80to096 82to 100 82 to Ioc

Wheels with Broad Felloes. 671

For a portion of the distance where the road was
rather sandy, at a walk the force amounted to from
92 to 100 pounds with the new wheels, and from 100 to
120 with the old ones; at a trot it amounted to from
100 to 110 pounds with the new wheels, and to from 120
to 130 with the old ones.

Over a part of this road which was still more sandy,
the force at a walk, as well as at a trot, was from 120 to
130 pounds with the new wheels, and from 125 to 135
with the old ones.

On a part of the road which was very sandy, the
force was from 160 to 180 pounds with the new wheels,
and from 180 to 200 with the old ones, at a walk and
also at a trot.

On the fine road to Saint Cloud (which is not paved),
between the Pont de Saint Cloud and the road to Ver-
sailles, the force of traction was, at a walk, from 72 to
80 pounds with the new wheels, and from 80 to 85 with
the old ones. Ata trot, the force of traction was with
the new wheels from 80 to 84 pounds, and with the old
ones from 82 to 88.

Over stones recently laid, and on which no carriage
had travelled, —on the new road which extends
across the fields from Passy to Auteuil —the force at
a slow walk, with the new wheels, was from 200 to 240
pounds, and with the old ones from 220 to 280.

In the deepest sand that I could find in the Bois de
Boulogne, the force at a slow walk was, with the new
wheels, 240 pounds, and, with the old ones, from 260 to
280.

When ascending slowly, by the paved road, the hill
which one meets in coming from the high-road to
Versailles, just before entering the village of Auteuil,

672 On the Advantage of Employing

the force was 140 pounds with the new wheels, and
150 with the old ones.

A very remarkable circumstance in the results of these
experiments, and one which seems to me sufficiently im-
portant to deserve to be generally recognized, is the
great effect which the nature of the road has upon the
relation which the required increase of force bears to
any increase of speed.

We have seen that, when the coach was going at a slow

was only about 40 pounds; but that, at a slow trot, it be-
came equal to 80 pounds, and at a rapid trot it equalled
120 pounds. On an unpaved road, however, as well as
in sand, the force was always the same, or very nearly
so, whatever the speed of the horses might be. This
difference no doubt arises from the severe shocks which
the carriage receives when it is drawn rapidly over a
pavement; for it is evident that, for each blow which
the carriage receives from the stones of the pavement,
there is a certain amount of force employed, and this
must always be supplied by the horses. From this fact
we may draw the important conclusion that, the easier
a carriage is to ride in, the less is the force necessary to
draw it, its weight and load remaining the same; and, as
no one can doubt that wheels with broad felloes must
roll over a pavement more easily than narrow wheels,
this fact alone is enough to show that they are prefer-
able to the old kind of wheels for all sorts of carriages.

A knowledge of the remarkable fact that the amount
of force required to draw a carriage over an unpaved
road is not sensibly increased by increasing the speed
might be put into practice with advantage on many
occasions in husbanding the strength of the horses. It

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Wheels with Broad Felloes. 673

might, in the first place, be the means of deciding the
question often agitated, whether, in performing a long’
journey with the same horses, we ought to follow the
example of the Italian vettwrinz, who, starting at day-
break, travel the whole day at a walk; or whether it
would not be less tiresome for the horses to travel more
rapidly four or five hours each day, and then rest longer
in the stable.

During a journey which I made in Italy, in 1793
and 1794, with my own horses, I made some experi-
ments to settle this question; and I found, in fact, that
my horses were in a much better condition after trav-
elling fifteen days, going eight or ten leagues a day at
a trot, than after travelling for the same length of time,
and going over the same distance, at a walk. I am
now able to give a satisfactory explanation of this
result.

Those who have travelled in Italy with post-horses
know that the Italian postilions always make their
horses gallop when they have to ascend a hill, and that
they do not stop galloping until they have reached the
top.

As, in this case, the force expended in drawing the
carriage is not sensibly greater when going fast than
when going slowly, the Italian postilions are perhaps
right in trying to pass rapidly over a disagreeable por-
tion of the road which they cannot avoid; and I am
so fully convinced of it that I shall not fail to adopt
their method in future, and especially in passing quickly
over all the small, very sandy portions of the road that
I encounter.

If, when travelling on a paved road, one wishes to

go very fast, it is better to leave the pavement, and
VOL, IV. 43 ;

674 On the Advantage of Employing

travel on the unpaved part of the road at the side, even
when this portion of the road is far from being good ;
but if travelling with a heavily loaded carriage, and
desiring to spare the horses, it is better to proceed at
a walk on the pavement.

I will conclude this paper with some remarks on the.
various objections which might be brought forward to
the adoption of wheels with broad felloes in pleasure
carriages. |

It may, perhaps, be said that these wheels must of
necessity be heavier than ordinary carriage-wheels.
This remark has already been made to me many
times, and this is the reply that I have always given:
It is not absolutely necessary that the wheels with
broad felloes should be heavier than ordinary wheels ;
for the hubs and spokes can, without any inconven-
ience, be of the same dimensions as have up to this
time been given to ordinary wheels; and as far as the
felloes and tires are concerned, if they are made broader,
they may be made thinner, and still, by their very con-
struction, the new wheels will be both stronger and more
durable than wheels of the ordinary form and propor-
tions, having the same weight and the same height.
Since, however, wheels with broad felloes are most
certainly easier to draw than the old-fashioned wheels,
I would always advise making them a little stouter, that
they may be a great deal more durable; and they may
have this additional strength, without its injuring at all
the elegance of shape of the wheel.

If the spokes are made broad, they need not be
made so thick; and this will give them the appearance
of being lighter, especially when the wheel is seen
from one side, and this is the only position of a wheel

ve eer :

Wa a

es SS a,

Ty AY

Wheels with Broad Felloes. 675

in which one can judge of the elegance of its form.
Besides, I am of the opinion that the shape of wheels
with broad felloes is more noble and beautiful than
that of ordinary wheels; and that a painter of good
taste would give it the preference, if he were about
to introduce a chariot or a modern carriage into a
large painting.

Some persons have supposed that wheels with broad
felloes must be harder to draw than ordinary wheels, on
unpaved roads, especially in mud, on account of their
greater adhesion to the road; but the resistance due to
the adhesion which one body experiences in rolling on
another is always so inconsiderable that, in the case in
question, the supposed difference would be altogether
insensible. The resistance arising from the friction of
two bodies sliding one over the other is an altogether
different affair; but I have already shown that the
broad wheels slide less on the road than the narrow
ones.

Others have supposed that broad wheels must take
up more mud than narrow ones: but this supposition
is scarcely better founded than the preceding one; for
the quantity of mud that a wheel can take up must be
in proportion to the amount of surface by which it
comes in contact with the mud. Now, the broader the
felloes of a wheel, the less it sinks into the mud: con-
sequently, a broad wheel ought not to come in contact
with the mud by a larger surface than a narrow wheel
does ; it is even very probable that the surface of con-
tact is smaller.

As to the advantage of wheels with large felloes on
the score of economy, they ought assuredly to be supe-
rior to the old style of wheels; for, although they may

676 On the Advantage of Employing

cost about a quarter more than the latter, as they will
last at least twice as long, and require much less re-
pairing, they will be less expensive in the long run.

The tires of the new wheels being twice as broad
as those of ordinary coach-wheels, they are much less
weakened by the holes pierced to receive the nails or
iron pins which fasten them to the felloes: they are,
consequently, much stronger and less liable to be
broken in use. .

As the tires are broad enough to prevent the wheels
getting into the spaces between the paving-stones, they
will be less worn, and worn more evenly, than the tires
of narrow wheels. They will also wear the pavement
much less, and do less damage to unpaved roads, and
indeed to any sort of road.

It is only necessary to take care that the axle of
these new wheels is straight, or nearly so, that these
wheels may roll flat upon the road; for, without this
precaution, the wheel will be impeded in its motion, and
the tire will be worn more on one side than on the
other.

Having had a new axle made for my carriage
(5 inches longer than the old one), I have given my new
wheels an inclination of only three lines, and that
seems to me to be enough.

If, in the case of a carriage provided with ordinary
wheels having a good deal of inclination, it is desired
to substitute for these wheels others with broad felloes,
without changing the axle, it can be done; but in this
case it will be indispensably necessary for the tires of
the new wheels to be slightly conical, instead of being
cylindrical as they ordinarily are made, and for the
felloes to be made of the proper shape to receive them.

Wheels with Broad Felloes. 677

I know very well that wheels with conical felloes or
tires have one disadvantage ; for 1 was present at the
ingenious experiments of Mr. Cummings, which made

the fact evident. (See Annales des Arts et Manufact-

ures, Vol. V., p. 88.) This disadvantage, however, —
that of grinding the road, — would be hardly sensible
in wheels 4 feet high, with felloes only 4 inches broad.

A carriage set on wheels with broad felloes, which
turn on a nearly straight axle, will be much less liable
to be overturned than ordinary carriages; and this is
assuredly a very important advantage, especially in a
travelling carriage. Nor, on the other hand, will the
carriage be more likely to get locked with another, on
account of this change; for the considerable inclina-
tion which is now given to the hind wheels causes these
wheels to be farther apart above than the new wheels
on a suitable axle would be.

As to the exact width which would be the most ad-
vantageous for wheels intended for pleasure carriages,
that experiment alone can determine. It will be
necessary to find it by trial, as I have sought to do. I
know fora certainty that wheels 4 inches broad are pref-
erable, in all respects, to those which are only 2} inches
in breadth; but it is quite possible that a carriage
mounted on wheels 3} inches in breadth would be as
easy, or almost as easy, as mine on my new wheels.

As long as the tires are broad enough to prevent
the wheels sliding from side to side, and tumbling -
into the spaces between the stones of the pavement,
the carriage will roll very easily.

I found that my carriage became perceptibly easier
with my last wheels, which were 2} inches wide, than
it had ever been with the preceding ones, which were

678 On the A dvantage of Employing, etc.

13 inches wide ; but with the new wheels it has become
easy to a degree truly remarkable. I could call to
witness several persons ‘who have tried it, and, among
others, certain members of the Institute, who are here
present.

The carriage, mounted on its new wheels, and having
in place the apparatus which I used to measure the
force of traction in my experiments, is at the present
moment in the court of the Palais de l'Institut: where
it will remain for some time after the close of the
session, that all who are curious to see it may exam-
ine it,

I should have much satisfaction in learning that my
labours on this interesting subject have met with the
approbation of this illustrious assembly, and that they
have judged it worthy the attention of those who have
the means of making it useful.

[This paper is translated from the French, as it appears in the “ Moni-
teur Universel” of April 25, 1811.]

——

MiscCELLANEOUS: PAPERS,

EXTRACT FROM STALKARTT’S NAVAL ARCHITECTURE.

[Naval Architecture, or the Rudiments and Rules of Ship Building. Exem-
plified in a Series of Draughts and Plans, with Observations extending to the
further Improvement of that important Art. Dedicated by permission to his
Majesty, by Marmaduke Stalkartt. London: Printed for the Author and sold
by J. Boydell, Cheapside, J. Dodsley, Pall Mall, and J. Sewell, Cornhill. 1781.
folio. pp. 231.]

BOOK VII. —INTRODUCTION.

Since the former part of the treatise has been in the
press, a gentleman, whose eminent talents have called
him into the service of government in one of its im-
portant offices, has communicated to me his studies
and ideas on that subject, in the construction of the
draught hereto annexed: they are so similar to my
own, and tend so much to corroborate the doctrine
which I have laid down, that I thankfully embrace the
liberty he has given me of inserting it, and consider
myself as fortunate in the acquisition, since to the
philosophical conclusions of Mr. Thompson there is
joined the practical experience of some of the most
distinguished artists in the kingdom. The warm ap-
probation which it has received from these gentlemen,
as well as from some of the oldest and best officers in
the navy, cannot fail of giving confidence to the student,
and of recommending the principle to the attention of
the state, by which, it is humbly hoped, it will be
reduced to the test of experiment.

680 Lxtract from Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture,

OF THE FRIGATE,

Copy of a Letter from Benjamin Tuompson, £5¢.,
F.R.S., 4o Mr. MARMADUKE STALKARTT.

Sir, — Agreeably to your request, I herewith send
you my draught of a frigate, upon a new construction,
which you will make any use of you may think proper.
Though I have little doubt with respect to the prin-
ciples upon which this drawing is made, yet I should
hardly have ventured to have proposed it to have been
carried into execution; nor should I now have con-
sented to its being made public, had it not been for
the very flattering approbation it has met with from
some of the best judges of Naval Architecture in this
kingdom.

That curious and most important art has long been
my favourite study ; and several sea-voyages, particularly
a three months’ cruise in the Channel fleet, under the
command of the late Sir Charles Hardy, in the year
1779, afforded me an opportunity of making many
remarks upon the qualities of ships, which in all prob-
ability would not otherwise have occurred to me. It
was during this cruise that I amused myself with mak-
ing the drawing which I now send you; and, when I
began it, I had little more than amusement in view.
But, after it was finished, it was so much approved
of by many able and experienced seamen to whom I
showed it, that I could not refuse the pressing solici-
tation that was made to me to offer it to the Surveyors
of the Navy, to have a ship built after it, by way of an
experiment; and several officers of rank in the Navy,
and high in the estimation of the profession, voluntarily

Extract from Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture. 681

engaged to do every thing in their power to get the
measure adopted.

I confess, I never had very sanguine hopes of our
being able to carry this point. Professional men are
seldom disposed to allow others to meddle in their
business ; but, thus recommended, I thought it rather
probable that we should succeed, but it turned out
otherwise.

Having failed in this attempt, I afterwards endeav-
oured to get the plan carried into execution by pri-
vate subscription, and several of my friends offered
to subscribe very generously for that purpose; but
so large a sum of money was wanted, and so great a
length of time was necessary in order to complete the
undertaking, that these circumstances, added to the
uncertainty of the continuance of the war, prevented
my being able to accomplish my design. By the copy
of my proposals, which accompanies the draught, you
will see the grounds upon which I proceeded in this
business; and, by the certificates annexed to those pro-
posals, you will see the manner in which I was sup-
ported. With such respectable testimonies in favour
of the: plan, I think I cannot risk much in allowing
it to be made public.

Should those who have the direction of our Marine,
upon a re-examination of the draught, or out of respect
to the opinions of those who have expressed their
approbation of it, think proper so far to adopt it as
to give it a trial, I cannot help flattering myself that
the experiments will turn out of much importance to
the public service; and should it answer, as I think
there is reason to expect, I shall be amply repaid for
my trouble by the satisfaction I shall have in seeing

682 Extract from Sialkartt’s Naval Architecture.

my endeavours to be of use to my country crowned
with success.

To describe fully the nrineiiles upon which this
draught was formed, would be to write a Treatise of
Naval Architecture, which is a work I have not leisure
at present to undertake ; but I would just observe that
my great object was to contrive a vessel, which, pos-
sessing all the qualities necessary for a ship of war,
should at the same time be able to carry a great quan-
tity of sail with little ballast.

The steffness of a ship depends upon her form, and
the quantity and stowage of her ballast: but that
vessel which is stiff from construction is much better
adapted for sailing fast than one which, in order to
carry the same quantity of canvas, is obliged to be
loaded with a much greater weight; for the resistance
is as the quantity of water to be removed, or nearly as
the area of a transverse section of the immersed part
of the body at the midship bend; and a body that is
broad and shallow is much stiffer than one of the same
capacity that is narrow and deep.

Another advantage attending ships that are stiff
from construction is they are much less liable to
roll than those which are obliged to carry a great
weight of ballast: they are also much better sea-
boats, and are less liable to be strained in bad weather.

Cutters, which are by far the stiffest vessels from
construction of any that have yet been built, are re-
markably easy in the sea at all times; and, I believe,
are safer than any other class of vessels of the same
capacity : they certainly sail faster and work better.

You will see by the draught that I have totally
avoided hollow water-lines, and also that the line of

ae tae ae, Pee

_—

Extract from Stalkartt's Naval Architecture. 68 3

extreme breadth is everywhere considerably above the
line of flotation. The reasons for this construction you
will immediately comprehend without my mentioning
them, as also many other particulars respecting the
draught, upon which I have not time at present to
enlarge. To the draught, therefore, I shall refer you,
without adding any thing more to this letter, only to
assure you that I really am, etc.

B. THompson.
PALL MALL, March 4, 1781.

Prorosats for Building, by Private Subscription, a
FRIGATE upon a new and improved Construction for
Satling, to be sheathed with Copper, and to carry
forty Guns and Two Hundred and Fifty Men.

The essential benefit to the national service which
is attained by every material discovery that directly
leads to naval excellence, and gives a decided superi-
ority at sea, cannot but be an object of the first con-
cern to those who feel for the reputation and safety of
their country, and are anxious for the success and glory
of his Majesty’s arms.

The annexed drawing has each the approbation
of some of the best judges of Naval Architecture, both
professional and practical men; who all concur in
opinion, that a ship upon this construction must
necessarily sail much faster than any vessel that has
yet been built; and that, from the manner of arming
her, she will be greatly superior in force to any frigate
in the service.

It is therefore presumed that Naval Architecture
will be brought much nearer perfection by the improve-

684 Lxtract from Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture,

ment in the form of this vessel, and a more advan-
tageous system of arming ships of war be introduced,
than is at present adopted by any maritime power.

As it may be proper to make some explanation to
such professional men as may have these proposals
under their eye, of the peculiar construction of this .
frigate, and of the manner in which it is proposed to
arm her, it will be necessary to observe that, to saz
fast being the great leading principle which governs
her whole construction, all the water-lines are perfectly
fair, and her body is formed in the most exact and
beautiful proportions. This extreme delicacy of form,
which is most conspicuous near the keel, will not, how-
ever, prevent her giving ample stowage for four months’
provisions, besides all her stores; and her great length
and breadth above the water will at the same time fur-
nish more commodious room for the men’s berths, and
better accommodation for the officers, than any frigate
in the Navy. Her great length, breadth upon the
beam, and good bearings, are qualities that will not
only enable her to carry a press of sail, but prevent her
rolling and pitching too violently in a rough sea.

It is proposed to give her the masts, yards, and sails
of a thirty-two gun frigate, and also the same cables
and anchors; and as it sometimes happens in calm
weather that very heavy-going ships make their escape
from the fastest sailers under favour of light airs, which
often extend but to a small distance, to prevent so
mortifying an event, and also to enable this frigate to
avail herself of any of those favourable opportunities
which sometimes occur for attacking ships of force as
they lie becalmed, she will be prepared for rowing with
thirty oars and one hundred and twenty men, each oar

Extract from Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture. 68 5

to be twenty-five feet in length, and to be worked by
four men. All the oars are to be worked between
decks, by running them out at the scuttles that serve
occasionally for airing the ship.

Her length upon the main deck being one hundred
and fifty feet, it is proposed to pierce her for thirty
guns on this deck, and she will carry ten guns upon
her quarter-deck, to which may be added two chase-
guns upon her forecastle. All the guns upon the main
deck are to be thirty-two pounders, upon a new con-
struction, weighing twenty-six hundreds each; and the
quarter-deck guns will be light twelve-pounders.

As thirty-two pounder carronades, which are not
half so heavy as the proposed thirty-two pounders, have
been proved with very large charges of powder, there
can be no doubt that these guns may be made to stand
fire with perfect safety; and that they will do sufficient
execution, and be manageable on shipboard, will appear
evident, when it is considered that many of the thirty-
two pounders now in use in the Navy weigh no more
than fifty-two hundreds, and that they may be fired
with two bullets at a time with the greatest possible
effect, and without rendering the recoil at all too. vio-
lent; for it is experimentally true that one bullet may
be fired from a gun weighing twenty-six hundreds, with
the same velocity, and consequently to the same dis- .
tance when the elevation is the same, as two fired at
once from a piece weighing fifty-two hundreds; and
the velocity of the recoil will be the same in both
cases.

But, when the velocity of the recoil is the same, the
strain upon the breechings will be as the weight of the
gun. The force of the recoil, therefore, of these new

686 Extract from Stalkartt's Naval Architecture,

pieces will be but half as great as that of the thirty-two
pounders now in use; and therefore there can be no
doubt but they may easily be managed.

The quarter-deck guns are formed upon the same
principle, and are just half the weight of the heaviest
twelve-pounders in the service.

In order to facilitate the working of the guns, it is
proposed to mount them all on sliding carriages, the
bed upon which the carriage runs to be movable upon
a hinge fastened to the sill of the port in such a man-
ner that the bed may be always kept in a horizontal
position, however the ship may lie along, by which
means the weather guns may be fought at all times,
and the lee guns till their muzzles come down to the
water; and that with as much ease and expedition as if
the ship was upright upon her keel.

Instead of small arms for the tops, and for the quar-
ter-deck and forecastle, it is proposed to make use of
musketoons, on such a construction as to mount on
swivel-stocks, and to be used occasionally, either on
shipboard or in a boat. These pieces, having a bore of
about three feet in length and one inch and a half in
diameter, will carry a grape of nine musket-bullets, or
eighteen or twenty-four pistol-bullets, as the object is at
a greater or less distance, or occasionally a single leaden
bullet of twelve ounces, if execution is meant to be done
at a very great distance.

“F8ooor ‘on ‘suo, ur uoyang
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PLaTE XVII.

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Extract from Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture. 687

A Comparative View of the Dimensions of the proposed FRIGATE

and of the “ Lark.” Frigate of Thirty-two Guns, which was buclt
after a Drawing of the iate Mr. BAaTELy.

Proposed Frigate. The “ Lark.”
Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches.
Lengthofthekeel . . . .. 128 fe) III °
Length on the gun-deck . . . 150 ° 132 °
Extreme breadth. . . ae 39 6 34 om
Forward. . 15 I 6
Draught of water, / Abaft . 15 : F 3 6
Area of a transverse section of
the immersed part of the body
at the midship frame. . . . 315 ° 378 °
Burthen in builder’s tonnage. . | 1,000 tons. 646 tons.
Real capacity of the immersed
part of the body to the ae
water-line ... 32,784 cubic ft. | 32,198.cubic ft.
eal burthen) 2°. 2. 2, « e] OFS tons. 8984 tons.

For the satisfaction of those who may be willing to
encourage this undertaking, the following certificates
are annexed : —

Copy of a LETTER from CapTalin (ow REAR-ADMIRAL)
KeMPENFELT, Admiral’s Captain in the Grand
fleet.

[Copy.]

Dear Sir, — I have viewed the plans for the con-
struction of your intended frigate, and think, as far as I
can judge, that she will answer what you expect. Her
great length favours the water-lines by diminishing their
inflections, and consequently rendering their angles at
the extremities more acute. This must greatly facilitate
her movement through the water. At the same time,
this length of keel, together with the great breadth, will
enable her to support much sail, so that from this and
the delicacy of her bottom it may be concluded she will
go very fast.

688 Lxtract from Stalkartt’s Naval A rchitecture,

The manner you propose to arm this frigate will
render her the most formidable, of forty guns, that has
yet appeared at sea.

To conclude, you have struck out something new,
both for the constructing and arming of a frigate, which
in both promises to be a great improvement upon this
useful class of vessels. And upon this principle, with-
out taking in other considerations, your proposals merit
all encouragement. |

I am, with much esteem, dear sir, etc.

Rp, KEMPENFELT.
Charles Street, Westminster, April 21, 1780.

B. THoMpson, Esq.

Copy of a LETTER from Sir CHARLES Dovuctas, Baro-
NET, Captain in the Royal Navy,and Commander of
his Majesty's Ship Dux, of ninety-crght guns.

CHARLES STREET, WESTMINSTER, April 23, 1780.

Sir, — I most sincerely acknowledge myself beyond
measure obliged to you for having regaled me with
the examination of your plan of the frigate of war you
propose building; and, having maturely considered the
same, I scruple not to give it as my humble opinion
that her intended water-lines are better formed for divid-
ing and leaving the fluid than any I have ever yet seen
laid down on paper. As also that her general form is
such as will insure a requisite degree of stiffness under
sail, with far less ballast than ships as they usually are
shaped of necessity. require, which striking circum-
stance cannot but be productive of great additional
velocity by keeping such part of her body above the
water as is the least proper for separating and leaving
it, and which must otherwise be immersed; likewise

Extract from Stalkartt's Naval Architecture. 689

of the desirable effect of carrying her guns higher.
Nor have I time sufficiently to expatiate upon these,
or to enumerate all the concomitant advantages which
I sincerely think the frigate in question will have
beyond all such as I have had any knowledge of
belonging to this or any other country. I.much ap-
prove, too, of your ballasting her with iron, with your
reprobating the use of shingle for that purpose, and
never departing from the general principle of ballasting
with the densest attainable matter, ever to be placed as
low as possible, that, with less weight thereof than with
materials less dense can be effected, the requisite stiff-_
ness under sail may be produced, to the great end that
the very important purposes mentioned and extensively
alluded to in the foregoing may be answered. Upon
the whole, then, I do not entertain a doubt of this your
proposed frigate sailing with such swiftness as will occa-
sion surprise, nor of her possessing every other eligible
quality a ship can have to a most eminent degree. Her
force, too, will evidently far exceed that of any ship car-
rying the same number of men and guns heretofore
sent to sea, at least that I have ever seen or heard of.
For the sake, then, of the public weal, so much depend-
ing upon improvement in our Naval Architecture, may
this your plan, so eminently tending thereto, meet with
all possible and immediate encouragement; and that
you may enjoy perfect health to see the same quickly
carried into execution and trial, as also long to enjoy
the deserved fruits thereof, is most sincerely and.
ardently wished by,

Sir, your most, etc.,

CHARLES DOUGLAS.
B. THompsoN, Esq.

VOL. IV. 44

690 Extract from Stalkartt's Naval Architecture.

The three first of the following ceRTIFICATES are
signed by some of the most eminent SHIP-BUILDERS in
this k1ncpom, and the last is signed by a gentleman
well known in the world as a mathematician.

{Copy.]

I, HAVING seen and examined a draught of a frigate
proposed by Mr. Thompson, to be built by private
subscription, am of opinion that the said frigate is
likely to sail faster than any ship on the present con-
struction in the Navy; and likewise that she promises
to be stiff under sail, carry her guns well, and be a
good sea-boat. And I think that many advantages
will probably be derived to the public from the ex-
periment.

W. WELLS,
Lonpon, April 14, 1780.
[Copy.]

I, HAVING seen and examined a draught of a frigate
proposed by Mr. Thompson, to be built by private sub-
scription, am of opinion that the said frigate is likely to
sail faster than any ship on the present construction in
the Navy; and likewise that she promises to be stiff
under sail, carry her guns well, and be a good sea-
boat. And I think that many advantages will probably
be derived to the public from the experiment.

Joun HAttetr.
Lonpon, April 14, 1780.

[Copy. ]

Havinc seen and examined the drawing of a frigate
upon a new construction, proposed by Mr. Thompson,

ae ee

Extract from Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture. 691

to be built by subscription, we are of opinion that the |
said frigate bids fair to sail faster than any vessel that
has yet been built; that she will be very stiff under the
sail that is proposed to give her, and will be a good sea-
boat ; that she will carry her guns well out of the water,
and, from her great length and breadth upon the gun-
deck, will fight them to great advantage. And as it is
very probable that many important improvements may
be derived to the art of ship-building from the pro-
posed experiment, we think it well worthy of a trial.

W. Barnarb.

Joun Dupman.
Lonpon, April 18, 1780.

[Copy.]

I HAVE examined Mr. Thompson’s calculations for
determining the capacity of the Zar frigate, and of a
frigate on a new construction, proposed by him to be
built by subscription; and I am of opinion that the
capacities of both those frigates are very exactly com-
puted.

CHARLES Hutton,
Professor of Mathematics,
Royal Military Academy.
Wootwicnu, April 29, 1780.

[The figures in Plates xvi. and xvii. have been much reduced in size
from the original plans. ]

692 _ Account of Regulations

COMPLETE REPORT AND ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS
OF THE REGULATIONS RECENTLY INTRODUCED INTO
THE ARMY OF THE ELECTORATE OF BAVARIA AND
THE PALATINATE.

Most SERENE Erector AND MosT Gracious Sov-
EREIGN, — Four entire years have now elapsed since
your Electoral Highness was pleased to receive fayour-
ably a proposition prepared by me for improving the
condition of your Highness’s army, and to intrust to
me the carrying out of the same. Your Highness will
now most graciously permit me to present a detailed
report of the progress which I have made in carrying
out this great and important undertaking which was
most graciously intrusted to me, and to give an account
of the results of the new regulations which have already
been actually introduced into your Highness’s army.

Since, however, in order to judge of the advantages
which the army has derived from the introduction of
the new system, it will be absolutely necessary to glance
backward at the condition of the army under the old
system, I will begin with this consideration, giving an
explicit account, —

ist, Of the special advantages which the troops them-
selves have derived from the new regulations;

2d, Of the advantages which have resulted to the
army, as far as its serviceableness is concerned; and

3d, Of the condition of the finances of the war depart-
ment.

As to the condition of the army under the old sys-
tem, I will respectfully remind your Electoral Highness
of that which I had the honour of bringing forward in

introduced into the Electoral Army. 693

relation to this subject in my “ Pro Memoria” of the
7th of February, 1788. I call to mind this presenta-
tion of the case all the more readily, since the por-
trayal then made of the crimes existing among the
military was investigated at the command and in the
presence of your Electoral Highness, by a special com-
mission; and it was found to be true.

The common soldier is the foundation of every army,
and every military regulation and calculation must be
made with reference to him. I will therefore begin
with him, and will describe in detail what was formerly
his condition in the army of your Electoral Highness.

The common soldier in the infantry was usually
enlisted for six years, and received from ten to eleven
florins down; and the one who brought him to the
regiment received five florins bounty.

Your Electoral Highness gave him, immediately on
his enrolment, one coat, one waistcoat, and one pair of
woollen breeches, and with these he was obliged to get
along for three whole years. He received at the same
time five florins in money, with which to obtain the rest
of the necessary equipment.

These articles, which composed the so-called small

equipment (4dezwe Montur), were :—
One hat, costing . o

Two shirts, at 1 fl. 30 kr.

Two pairs of shoes, at 1 fl. 32 kr. the air

One pair of black cloth gaiters .

One pair of linen gaiters .

One pair of linen breeches

Two pairs of stockings .

One black stock .

One buckle for the stock .

COR HO KR WW HR
aN

Amount carried forward. . . . . «IL 32

694 Account of Regulations

oe.

Amount brought forward . it “4a

One pair of shoe buckles . ous
One blouse = I 20
One cap (Holzmiitze) o 48
One pair of cloth gloves © 30
One knapsack . 2 (m4
Which amounts inallto. . . . . . 16 42

Or three times as much as he received to procure them
with. The remainder, amounting to 11 fl. 42 kr. he
was obliged to procure from his captain in advance, —
that is, on credit; and the poor recruit, as soon as he
joined his regiment, must assume his new position bur-
dened with this debt, which naturally would depress him
very much, and take away all satisfaction in serving. |

This, however, was not all. He was obliged each
year to incur new debts. Your Electoral Highness
gave him one new coat, one waistcoat, and one pair of
breeches once in three years only, and allowed him for
the small equipment three florins a year; but it was
impossible for him to make this suffice. For mending
and repairing his coat, it was often necessary, during
the three years, to spend almost as much as the coat
had cost when new. As far as the breeches are con-
cerned, it was impossible to make them last one year.
He was obliged himself to supply the deficiency. More-
over, for providing and keeping in good order the
various articles of the small equipment, he was obliged
to spend annually at least four times as much as he
received for this purpose from your Electoral High-
ness, as appears from the following very moderate
estimate.

A soldier in actual service needed annually, at
least : —

antroduced into the Electoral Arivzy. 695

One hat, costing 29.0. 2 wk

Two shirts, atr1fl.gokr. . . .

Two pairs of shoes, at 1 fl. 32 kr.

Two pairs of soles, at 3o kr. .

Two pairs of stockings, at 30 kr..

One pair of cloth breeches .

One pair of linen breeches .

One pair of drawers . a yey

One pair of cloth gaiters ay ete two years,
which amounts yearly to. . . °

One blouse every three years, which sadolints
yearlyto . . . °

One cap (Holemiitze) nite one ake - cloth edieved
every six years, which amounts yearly to o 12

One black stock every two years, which

ORF HH HWW RS
Ww
oo oooh OO O

& iS}
ive)

N
wm

amounts yearly to. . . “0 6

Two ribbons for the cue (Zapfbinde yealy. 2 ara

For cleaning the hat once. . . i ae

For repairs, yearly, atleast . . ...:. . 0 36

BRUM tes Aa ae ey canon: A Se
Deducting the yearly amount allowed

by your Electoral Highness . . 3. 0

UMM PETIAMY ie a ay ah bt he eT’ BR

Which the poor soldier was obliged annually to add to
the amount allowed, besides paying all other expenses,
such as for his linen, and for a host of other little things
which he needed in his housekeeping.

He could not spare any thing from his wages towards
meeting this considerable outlay, because his pay was
scarcely sufficient to furnish him with food. He re-
ceived only 2 fl. 15 kr. per month, which is equal to a
little less than four and a half kreutzers daily; and with
this, together with one portion of bread, he had to pro-
cure his daily food. He was obliged to discharge his
debts solely by means of paid sentry-duty; and this

696 Account of Regulations

trade in sentry-duty between those soldiers who were
furloughed, and those who, in their stead, assumed their
duties in the regiment, constituted the whole secret of
the former military system.

By this system, the man absent on leave was obliged
to pay in money, under superintendence of the captain,
the one who assumed in his stead the guard and sentry
duty which fell to him. Very many and very weighty
objections, however, can be made to this system : —

1st, Every military system should be practicable not
only in time of peace, but also, and more especially,
in time of war; but in the field all furloughs cease, and
consequently all trade in sentry-duty ceases also.

2d, Under this system, the officer had too much to
do with the pen: he was too much occupied in taking
care of his accounts to be able to take good care of his
men. Besides, it is almost impossible for a man to be
long employed“as a merchant without beginning to
think about making profit out of his transactions; and
as soon as an officer has begun to concern himself
about the profit, and especially about profit in the sale
of articles which he has to furnish to the poor soldier,
he is already lost to the military profession. He is
truly spoiled in heart, and entirely incapable of all
those noble feelings which animate and distinguish a
true soldier and deserving officer.

3d, It is not only unwise, but also in a certain sense
cruel, to put honest men in a position in which their
passions can be excited by opportunity and example.
The desire for gain on the part of an officer who con-
ducted the business matters of a company in the ser-
vice of your Electoral Highness, according to the old
system, was not only excited, he was compelled, so to
speak, to think about gain.

introduced into the Electoral Army. 697

He was obliged to supply every new recruit with the
small equipment, for the most part, on credit. This
advance commonly amounted, as has been shown above,
to more than eleven florins. For the payment of these
debts he could take nothing from the money given to
the recruit on his enlistment. This was expressly for-
bidden by a special order. If the recruit, however,
desired, of his own accord, to apply some of it to this
purpose, he was free so to do; but he could not be
compelled to do it. If now the recruit deserted, which
happened very often, since he found himself at the very
beginning so loaded with debts, the officer lost the
eleven florins almost entirely; for your Electoral High-
ness recompensed him, on account of this debt of a
deserter, to the extent of three florins only.

How could the officer, then, extricate himself without
loss from such a position, except by selling the articles
furnished to the other soldiers so much the dearer?
And, if the officer had once begun to exert himself for
gain, who could set bounds to this passion? He was
compelled to indemnify himself for the loss caused by
desertion, if he did not wish to sacrifice himself in the
service of his sovereign. Will he, however, always con-
tent himself with simple indemnification for this loss?
Experience has unfortunately taught, long since, that
this was not to be always expected.

4th, This trading between the officer and his subor-
dinates has always given occasion for dissatisfaction
among the latter. Any one who is obliged to pay for
a thing commonly thinks that he has the right to pro-
cure the article for himself; or, at least, to judge of the
necessity of procuring it, and to bargain as to the price
of the goods. But by this arrangement the man was

) 698 Account of Regulations

provided with every thing by his officer, and he must
take the things at the fixed price; and complaints of
mismanagement and overreaching in these transactions
were not uncommon, in spite of the fact that these
complaints, as may readily be seen, were attended with
very great danger to the subordinate officer or private
who made them. The officer was at once commandant,
trustee, and merchant in his company; and, if he often
used his authority as commandant to his own advantage
as merchant, it was no more than might have been
expected.

One chief source of dissatisfaction among the men
under this system was the continual disputes arising
‘between them and their officers with regard to the |
delivery of the sums due them. Those men who had
earned something for themselves thought that they had
the right to dispose of their earnings. The officer, how-
ever, was seldom in sympathy with this assumption.

5th, This system was subversive of all subordination
and discipline. Subordination must be based upon
respect. Who can, however, have respect for a person
with whom he trades, especially if he not seldom has
occasion to be discontented with this person? Respect
presupposes ability of character, disinterestedness, be-
nevolence, and all other noble qualities of the human
soul. Who can, however, ascribe nobility of character
and disinterestedness to one who has shown covetous-
ness, and that of the basest description? It was as good
as allowed to the officer to gain something in this
trade with his subordinates. It was even reckoned,
and publicly known, how muchsper month a captain
could make for himself by managing the business of
his company.

entroduced into the Electoral Army. 699

Nothing is more subversive of discipline than to have
individual outside dealings with one’s subordinates. The
officer, however, who managed the business of his com-
pany, especially the one who wished to carry on this trans-
action for his own advantage, was compelled to engage
in such dealings. The quartermaster-sergeant (Hourzer)
was commonly an important personage in this business;
and, in order to pay him for his trouble, it was necessary
to give him various small preferences and advantages.
And since no human passion is more easily excited and
more ungovernable than pride, especially among people
of little education, it is easy to see what sort of an in-
fluence this secret combination between the. captains
and the quartermaster-sergeants would exert upon the
latter, and how this would of necessity cause hatred, ill
feeling, and discontent among the other inferior officers
and the common soldiers.

How could any one expect love for and appreciation ©
of the profession of the soldier where the pen was more
honoured than the sword, and where the shortest and
surest means of being distinguished by one’s superiors
was, of necessity, felt to be to submit to being used as a
tool of a base self-interest? |

I would not, indeed, assert that all the captains of
the Electoral army had lost sight of their duties in
managing the business of the companies intrusted to
them: so far from this, I know very well that these
officers, taken as a whole, are most upright men, and
utterly incapable of any base transactions. Sad ex-
amples of the opposite have, however, been known, and
that not seldom; and in every great establishment too
much dependence ought not to be placed on the up-
rightness of men; but, on the contrary, the attempt

700 Account of Regulations

should always be made to remove them from danger
of temptation, and to set limits, as far as possible, to
their passions.

6th, This system is not only disadvantageous for the
soldier himself, entirely inapplicable in time of war, and
in time of peace connected with very great difficulties
and evil results which cannot be escaped, but it has
also been at the same time very expensive.

I know very well that many have looked upon this
arrangement as a masterpiece of military economy. I
have, however, in my memorial on the condition of
the army of your Electoral Highness, and on the means
which might be taken to put it on a better footing,
shown clearly that with the same sum which under the
old system was necessary annually in time of peace for
maintaining 20,000 infantry who carry arms, — that is,
for their pay, bread, and clothes, and also for fhe main-
tenance and support of the superior and inferior offi-
cers, —I have shown that with the same sum it is
calculated that, under their different military systems,
31,328 Austrian soldiers could be maintained in Hun-
gary, or 28,142 Austrian soldiers in Bohemia or in
Austria, and that as many as 23,919 Prussian infantry
soldiers could be maintained in time of peace.

Who could have supposed that the Electoral army
was more expensive than the Prussian, and a full third
more expensive than the Austrian? This surprising
truth was, however, recognized as fully established by
the commission of ministers, generals, and staff officers
under your own direction, which was constituted by
your Electoral Highness in the beginning of the year
1788, for the investigation of the memorial mentioned
above.

introduced into the Electoral Army. 701

The former military system of the Electorate of |
Bavaria and the Palatinate, was disadvantageous from
an economical standpoint, not only as far as the private
soldier himself was concerned, but also with reference
to your Highness’s treasury, and was coupled with many
imperfections; moreover, the division of the army was
in the highest degree defective.

Every one is aware how much within thirty years
the artillery has increased in importance in all. Euro-
pean armies; and it is well known that this has not
occurred without good reason, but because it has been
ascertained by experiment that in most battles the
artillery decides the day, and always must decide under
the system of tactics at present adopted.

In the Prussian army there are 82 men in the artillery
for every 1000 in the infantry; in the Saxon army 85
men in the artillery are reckoned to every 1000 in the
infantry; and in the Austrian and French armies the
artillery is still more numerous. In the Electoral army,
the infantry on a complete footing being reckoned at
18,591 men, there were only 491 men assigned to the
artillery, which gives to 1000 men infantry scarcely 26
men artillery. If, however, the artillery necessary for
garrisoning the fortresses be deducted, there will remain
for field service scarcely 100 men for the entire army.

This was not the only fault existing in the division
of the Electoral army. The cavalry was deficient, and
that in every respect. The cavalry was especially too ~:
weak as compared with the infantry. The number of
horses was extremely small, and the few that there
were had become stiff and worthless from lack of use,
so that the greater part of them had to be disposed of
at once. The cavalry men had been instructed and

702 Account of Regulations

exercised very little in riding, and not at all in patrol.
duty, in spite of the fact that skill in riding is a first
necessity, and that patrol-duty in time of war is a very
essential and entirely indispensable part of their service.

Besides this, there were in the whole army no light
troops, neither infantry nor cavalry; and the battalions
of infantry, after deducting the grenadiers, were only
400 men strong.

According to the old system, the five staff officers
who were assigned to each regiment of infantry (namely,
the Propriétazre of the regiment, the colonel comman-
dant, the lieutenant-colonel, the senior and junior
major) each had his own company. To the company
of the Propriétatre himself was assigned only one
staff captain (Staadbscapitain) to take command of the
same, but no first lieutenant. Further, to each of the
remaining staff companies there were only two officers,
namely, one staff captain, and either a first or second
lieutenant; while each of the other five companies had
three officers, namely, one captain, one first lieutenant,
and one second lieutenant. This inconvenient arrange-
ment could not be otherwise than very disadvantageous
to the service; because it is very evident that, if in one
company three officers are necessary, in another of the
same strength two could never be enough.

Another and a very important fault of the former
military system was the custom of condemning culprits
- to the military service as a punishment. This was not
only allowed, but was very common in Bavaria. Men
who had committed theft and other disgracing crimes,
and who deserved the House of Correction, were sent
into the army as a punishment; and even the relative
length of time between punishment in the house of

introduced into the Electoral Army. 703

correction and punishment in the military service was
established by law, and known publicly. |

This arrangement alone would have sufficed to bring
the whole army into disrepute; because it is never to
be expected that the sons of honourable citizens and
peasants, who must make up the foundation and true
strength of every well-constituted army, will enlist vol-
untarily in a service where they will have condemned
criminals for companions.

Further, among the more marked deficiencies of the
army, it is to be considered that no step had been taken
towards the establishment of a system of military trans-
portation; neither pontoons nor caissons, and only
very few wagons, were on hand, and most of the can-
nons and mortars that were on hand were entirely
unfit to use. | |

The stock of equipments in the magazines was ex-
tremely insignificant. There was a deficiency in field
equipments. New side-arms had to be procured for the
cavalry, and even the fire-arms of the infantry were
almost entirely useless. They were not only very old,
of different sorts, and used up, but they were at the
same time of various calibres, which last fault is one
which is followed by very evil consequences at the first
serious use made of them.

I will not assert that all these deficiencies and pre-
vailing faults which formerly existed in the Electoral
army have been remedied and done away with. I know
only too well that many of them still exist even to-day,
and that it will require much time and labour before
the military can be placed on a perfect footing. Only
I think that the first foundation for an improvement is
now laid, and that the troops themselves, as well as the

704 Account of Regulations

service in general, have already really experienced the
advantages of the military system recently introduced.
The true greatness and importance of the advantages
of this system cannot, however, be fully. visible until
the difficulties of introducing the same have been over-
come, all old prejudices rooted out, opposition brought
to silence, and the whole matter started in its regular
course,

As to the advantages which the troops themselves
have obtained as a result of the introduction of the new
military system, it is to be remarked that the whole
army — staff officers and officers of the line, as well as
the common soldiers — have experienced a marked im-
provement in their wages, pay, or subsistence.

The common soldier of the infantry now receives
five kreutzers a day instead of four and a half kreutzers,
together with a portion of bread; and instead of re-
ceiving a coat, vest, and pair of breeches every three
years, together with three florins a year for procuring
and keeping in repair his small equipment (£decze Mon-
tur), he now is sufficiently, and without expense to
him, provided with every article of clothing, and with
whatever is necessary for presenting a neat appearance.

It may be asserted that no soldier in all Europe is
better clothed than he who now serves in the army of
your Electoral Highness, and there is certainly no
military force where the service is more agreeable or
more advantageous to the common soldier.

The recruit receives immediately on his enlistment
one helmet, one pair epaulettes, one cap (Hlolemiizze),
one coat, one overcoat, one under-vest ( U7derlezbel), one
pair gray breeches with black gaiters, three shirts, two
pairs of shoes, one working blouse, one pair overalls,

introduced into the Electoral Army. 705

one pair of gloves, and one knapsack. And afterwards
he receives, as long as he remains with his regiment in
service, every two years one new coat; every four years
one new overcoat; every two years two new shirts;
every seven months one pair of new shoes of the best
quality, and with every pair of new shoes an extra pair
of soles, with threads and nails; every ten months one
pair of new gray cloth breeches with black gaiters, lined
throughout with linen; and every four years one new
under-vest (Uzderlezbel), one new cap, and one pair of
gloves: then a new helmet, epaulettes, and knapsack
are always provided for him in case of necessity.

There is also provided, entirely without expense to
him, every thing which is necessary for darning and
otherwise keeping his clothes in order, also hair-powder
and cooking utensils, kitchen aprons and towels; in
short, every thing which is necessary for his clothing,
for keeping himself neat, and for his housekeeping
arrangements, and this in such a manner that it is in
no case necessary for him to spend on such articles any
of the money which he receives as wages or earns
otherwise by his labour.

Besides this, all possible freedom is given to him.
Whenever he is not on guard-duty or at drill, he can
work for his own profit, for whom and in whatever way
he wishes; moreover, he can dispose as he pleases of
the money earned by his labour, without being held to
account by any one. He is never shut up like a prisoner
in the garrison; but he is allowed to walk freely and
without hindrance, between sunrise and sunset, a whole
quarter of an hour’s distance from each gate of the
city, on the public streets and promenades.. He never
runs the risk of being obliged to associate with con-

VOL. IV. 45

706 Account of Regulations

demned criminals, because all condemning of such
criminals to military service is now forbidden.

By the newly established Military School opportunity
is afforded him of receiving instruction in reading,
writing, and arithmetic, Also by this institution, and
by the Military School of Industry, provision is made
for the education and instruction of children of the
soldiers, and for usefully employing their wives.

Everywhere in the garrison towns, the soldiers, being
exempted from all military duty, are allowed to act as
private watchmen on their own account, and at the
same time to retain their allowance of bread and their
free quarters in the barracks. Moreover, they are
allowed when acting as private watchmen to wear
their old uniform when at work, and their new equip-
ments on Sundays and feast-days; only in the case of
these men the various articles of uniform are required
to last twice as long as in the case of men in actual
service, and calculation is made, in this proportion, for
all the time during which they are entered on the lists
as private watchmen.

The same conditions, with reference to the length
of time which the various articles of the uniform must
last, hold, with little difference, in the case of men
absent on furlough. The common soldier who is fur-
loughed receives, it is true, during his furlough neither
pay nor bread; he receives, however, some travelling
money, which, if he is absent from one parade-day to
another, is fixed at two florins. If, however, he receives
a furlough for a shorter time, he is allowed and paid
during his furlough ten kreutzers per month for travel-
ling expenses. Not only can he get along with this
amount, but he is very contented with it, as experience
has already sufficiently demonstrated.

introduced into the Electoral Army. 707

The non-commissioned officer receives during his
furlough, besides his clothing, two-thirds of his pay.
And the commissioned officer receives during his fur-
lough the full amount of pay which he formerly received
under the old system.

The non-commissioned officers have been encour-
aged, not only by increase of pay, and by their remark-
ably handsome uniforms, but especially by the many
positions of ensign, battalion adjutant, regimental ad-
jutant, regimental quartermaster, and even of second
lieutenant, to which, since the introduction of the new
system, deserving subordinate officers have been ap-
pointed. | se

All furnishing of supplies, commercial transactions,
and pecuniary accounts, between the commissioned and
non-commissioned officers and the privates, are now
entirely abolished, by which means the former are
relieved of a very great burden; and the source of
many abuses on one side, and much mistrust, ill feeling,
and discontent on the other has been removed.

Not only has the pay of the officers been increased,
but also their expenses have been diminished, since the
uniform recently introduced is cheaper than the former
one.

The increase of pay which the officers have received
by the new system may be seen from the following
table: —

MonTuty Pay, INCLUDING
RATIONS AND FORAGE,

RANK. mere: AT fog ary

Colonel Profriétaire of infantry. . . ie 20 157 o
artillery: 4 35 or F4n 8 157 0
Cavalry... a. Gua, 279" 20 199 O
. Colonel commandant of infantry . . 133 o Taso
artillery . . 140 © 143 0
Cavalry Sie Uae: 0 185 0

708 Account of Regulations

Lieutenant-colonel of infantry . . . 86 40 96 40
artillery ‘jrs tie (st Gan -40 96 40

Cavalty: . +) a. s) sERO- BO 120,

Major-of infantty. "sos es 6 as Oe ae go 48
artillery;) | 2a ee eS go 48
cavalty.)) eA ns i, ee oe FLO OH

Captain of infantry: i's sills. jeaamnia eh SOuO 60 o
BIUOIY 5 se ea ee ate 60 0

CAVEUY ce lee ah, ae tie melee | ee vy ae

Staff captain of infantry . ... . 32 «oO 35% a
First lieutenant of infantry. . . . . 26 0 28 0
artillery)... syed site S6ri ame 28 0

RONGILY, 's 4284 nyy0ts><'/ tates 37. 30

Second lieutenant of infantry. . . .. 24 o 26 o
MOUELY.«, wu cas See 26 Oo

cavalry)... s,.e3, oat ee 35. 30

Regimental quartermaster of infantry . 31 0 grieve
cavalry . 39 0 47 30

Judge-advocate (Auditor) of infantry . 29 oO .30 o
cavalry . 29 0 39 20

Adjutant of infantry. . . . .. . 23 30 28 oOo
Cavalty: i.) 02's) oP Me 8 ae 37: a0

Regimental surgeon of infantry . . . 21 o 28 oO
Cavalty:::<i ti a(t @iaco 28 0

This increase is indeed considerable. It amounts
yearly, for the entire army, to more than 54,000 florins.
It cannot, however, be looked upon in any way as un-
necessary, because formerly the pay of the officers of
the troops of your Serene Highness was altogether too
small compared with the other armies in Germany, and
was hardly sufficient to enable them to procure the
most essential necessaries. of life.

The staff and higher officers have been encouraged,
not only by an increase of pay, and by the very extraor-
dinary number of promotions which have occurred in
the army since the introduction of the new system, but
especially by the impartial justice and regard for sen-

introduced into the Electoral A rmy. 709

iority which have been exercised in each one of these
promotions.

Between the rst of May, 1788, and the 1st of May,
1792, there have been promoted in the Electoral
army : —

Major-generals to lieutenant-generals. . . .°. . 6
Colonels to major-generals . . . . . 2 « « « 22
Colonel commandants to Propriétaires . . . . . It
Vite-stadthalter to.stadthalter’ °°. , sk CO

Lieutenant-colonels to colonels . . . . 1. . . 33
Majors to lieutenant-colonels . . 2. 2. 2 1. 1. 45

Caprains tor Majors .05 oe ht ee J ophie Sree «erly OSE
Bian Captains 10: Captains: ofa.) 6 inn, ber. di ile 40 BF
First lieutenants to staff captains . . . . . . . 8
Second lieutenants to first lieutenants . . . Pa i i

Battalion adjutants and ensigns to second neutdaants 131
Quartermaster sergeants to regimental quartermasters 12
Legal practitioners to judge-advocates (Auditors). . 12
Battalion adjutants to regimental adjutants. . . . 15
Ensigns and subalterns to battalion adjutants . . . 61
Battalion surgeons to regimental surgeons . . . . 17

Field surgeon to battalion surgeon. . . TS ah

Subalterns, students in the military schools, ad rey
CAMS IOROSIONS: Yj: 6) tic) « Ae eae 48S
PUMEa Se PSE IEG OF ERT RY es Shige

And of these there have been advanced in the line,
that is, have been actually commissioned : —

Lieuténant-penerdis . 3... « 6 ee we ee tw CS
Mapr-cetierala ea aa ea ere
PROPTIOUITESE OPT Ri ere EA RE: ae as
Stadthalterjvvecvj> te, sj cum iy oo fel debe boew pi tad bed
Wolonela sn ashi ce! >. .0..21t) 9) efceebteeon to ee
TC UERSRCUCINNGIE sks a ke eae oy ea
RUQGrectec a Sees. eee 8) te BMY ee. et ay eee
Capninss! rae OP Re Er SO as
Stafb-captaing.s 5) 5107. tS RE eh let Ste leg
First, liewtomam Geis) iors ce jaw iorvnek SERED Ore | pores: |da 39
Become NOULCHARES be te eee i oe td a ERE

710 A ccount of Regulations

Regimental quartermasters . . . . +... . . I2
Justices (Agdtfors) os" a FS ee 6 Ae ole ee
Regimental adjutants .0. s «je.s 8 © 6 «© « OS
Battalion’ adjitfants: “fo. wakes oe ee us tee
Regimental surgeons i). 6 ee re ed OF
Battalion: surgeons .s-6--. «+» ss) Sau See
Ensigns oss sete: can, Syeicins yok) (8) 04 ee

Te Qhh ie ty be os ete at bee 1s

Such a promotion is certainly very extraordinary,
perhaps entirely unheard of.

Of the twenty-four senior majors and twenty junior
majors who were in the army at the beginning of Sep-
tember, 1788, and who had only captains’ commissions,
five are already colonels actually in command, with full
pay; and all the rest, with four exceptions only, are
already actually commissioned as lieutenant-colonels,
and of these four three will presently in their turn step
into lieutenant-colonels’ positions which are now stand-
ing vacant. In this promotion, however, as has been
remarked above, not the slightest wrong or injustice
has been done to a single officer. Every officer, from
second lieutenant to captain, and from major to general,
has been advanced in his turn according to seniority.

The officers in the Electoral army certainly have
reason to be satisfied with the new system, especially
on account of the extraordinary promotions which they
have had since its introduction, and, more especially
still, because these promotions have not been at all
caused by a remarkable degree of mortality, but are
rather to be ascribed to the nature of the new system
itself, and to the great number of officers advanced
in years and unfit for service who have been super-
annuated, or who have retired from the service.

In addition to this, both commissioned and non-
commissioned officers, and the common soldiers as

entroduced into the Electoral Army. 711

well, must recognize and gratefully acknowledge the
relief in learning the manual, which has been accom-
plished by abolishing many useless motions, by simpli-
fying the service, and by doing away with all unneces-
sary parades.

Formerly there were attached to every infantry regi-
ment ten fifers, who were absolutely of no use; instead
of these, there is now in every regiment a regular band
of music, provided with all the necessary instruments,
and furnished entirely at the expense of the treasury.
Also, in the cavalry regiments, the trumpeters are pro-
vided with hautboys, clarionets, and French horns, and
provision is made for their instruction in music. This
arrangement cannot be otherwise than agreeable to the
officer and to the common soldier. Formerly the off-
cers were obliged to contribute from their own pockets
to sustain music in the regiment.

With regard to the division of the army itself under
the new system, this may be most plainly seen from the
following table : —

{
Ona |Onapre-| Ona
peace paratory war
footing. | footing. | footing.
a 3 8 | The Companies and Squad-
ae rons each consisting of
= Sis
fl] ee! s
a 3 o 150men.| 168 men, |180 men.
INFANTRY.
4 Reg’ts Grenadiers -| 8 | 32|.. 4864 5440 5824
a gay cen of ar 2 5, Feldjager ..| 4] 16]..]. 2432 2720 2912
ry. 14 4, Fusiliers ..|} 28 |xrr2 |.. | 17,024 19,040 ; 20,384
Total Field Infantry} 40 |160 |. . | 24,320 27,200 | 29,120
r |Garrison Regiment. -]}. +++ e+e +eeees 2|.80].. 1216 1360 1456
1 |Regiment of Artillery.|....-s+e++e8- 21 8 1216 1360 1456
CAVALRY.
‘ 2 Reg’ts Cuirassiers. .|..]..] 8 1232 1376 1472
8 |Regimentsof Cavalry }|4 ,, Light Horse .|..[.. | 16 2464 2752 2944
Z- 5,» DYASOOUE “A slots De oh 8 1232 1376 1472
Total Cavalry...» -}..]..| 32 | 4928 5504 5888
30|]Regiments . .« « + Grand Total . .. .| 44 |176 | 32 | 31,680 35,424 | 37,920

712 Account of Regulations

Whether now this division of the army is more con-
venient than the former one, and better proportioned
to the size and population of the Electoral states, every
person acquainted with such matters will be able to
judge.

The 4th light-horse regiment has for special reasons
not yet been raised. The other regiments, however,
are already actually raised; and one of them, namely,
the rst light-horse regiment, is already more than full;
and another one, namely, the 1st body-guard dragoon
regiment, lacks only a few men of being full.

Every staff company has now assigned to it one
captain with actual rank of captain. Hereafter there
will be assigned to each company 3 commissioned
officers: namely, 1 captain, or staff captain with rank
of captain; 1 first lieutenant; and 1 second lieutenant.

Each company will also receive 8 non-commissioned
officers: namely, 1 orderly sergeant; 1. quartermaster
sergeant; 2 sergeants; 4 corporals; and 8 eXempts
(Gefrette). And these are already actually appointed
in almost all the regiments.

Every artillery company has 4 officers: — 1 captain;
1 first lieutenant; 2 second lieutenants: and 14 non-
commissioned officers: 1 orderly, or head-gunner ;
I quartermaster sergeant; 4 sergeants, or gunners;
8 corporals; and 16 exempts (Gefreztée).

On this plan the skeleton of the army is already
actually constructed, and provision has already been
made for its instruction. The new tactics have not only
been devised, but also, in most of the regiments, already
introduced. The new regulations for the infantry are
ready to be printed. The new ordinances of the council
of war are actually in print.

introduced into the Electoral Army. 713

A new infantry inspector has been appointed, who
will visit the regiments not every three years, but every
year, and who will remain in all the large garrisons at
least eight entire weeks, and in the smaller. ones four
weeks.

A special commission has been appointed, whose
duty it is to introduce order into the financial affairs,
to visit all the regiments, and to give them the neces-
sary explanation with reference to this matter. This
commission has already visited all the Bavarian infantry
regiments, and is now at Manheim engaged with the
garrison stationed there.

A new general staff has been constituted, and full
instructions given to the same, which will, without
doubt, contribute very much to introducing order and
discipline into the entire army.

Provision has been made not only for dividing, in-
structing, and inspecting the army, but also for its
maintenance. Very important advances have already
been made towards settling the financial difficulties,
and arrangements have been made which will assuredly
not only meet the military necessities, but will also, at
the same time, without fail, contribute much to the
general welfare of the State.

Military workhouses are established, and their estab-
lishment so connected with the care of the poor in
their vicinity, that most important advantages to the
State must certainly result therefrom. The stock of
equipments in the storehouses becomes daily more
considerable. The articles of every description which
are supplied to the army are universally of the very
first quality; and experience has shown conclusively
enough that, in spite of this, the military financial policy
can be carried out.

714 Account of Regulations

With regard to the filling up of the regiments, this
cannot be done with real advantage before the staff,
commissioned, and non-commissioned officers have be-
come fully acquainted with the new system, have been
thoroughly instructed in the new tactics, and, having
become skilful by practice, are in position to undertake
the care and instruction of the newly enlisted recruits.
Until this is accomplished, all increase of the regiments,
instead of being advantageous to the service, will tend
only to confusion and disorder, to increase of expendi-
ture, and to embarrassing the advance of the new mili-
tary system. On this account, up to the present time
no special endeavours have been made to increase the
army. In spite of this, however, the number of the
troops has not decreased since the actual introduction
of the new system into the regiments.

The last of December, 1787, the Electoral army con-
sisted of 19,964 men and 720 horses, as may be seen in
the monthly report of the regiments for that month.
The last of December, 1788, however, it consisted of
only 19,267 men and 629 horses. That this decrease
in the army during the year 1788 was in no wise due
to the new system, but is to be regarded as a continua-
tion of the yearly decrease which the army suffered for
several years in succession, is shown not only by this
previous falling off itself, but also by the remarkable
increase of the regiments as soon as the new system
became better known. The last of December, 1791,
the army numbered 19,696 men and 840 horses, show-
ing an increase compared with 1788 of 429 men and
275 horses.

Besides this, it is to be noted that all recruits enrolled
in the infantry since the year 1788 have enlisted for

introduced into the Electoral Army. 715

eight years. Formerly, however, their agreement was
for six years only; and in this comparison the differ-
ence in the time of service must be reckoned to the
advantage of the new system.

The increase during these last two years has occurred
only in the cavalry and artillery; that is, in those
branches of the service which are the most necessary
to the army, but at the same time the most expensive.

The last of December, 1788, there were seven cavalry
regiments consisting of 2840 men and 613 horses. The
last of December, 1791, there were 3663 men and 840
horses. Hence there was an increase during the last
three years of 823 men and 227 horses.

The artillery consisted the last of December, 1788,
of 458 men and 16 horses; the last of December,
1791, however, of 695 men and 64 horses. Hence
there was an increase during the three years of 237
men and 48 horses.

THE CANTONMENT OF TROOPS (CORDON) IN BAVARIA.

Formerly for preserving peace and order in the
country, and for clearing the same of thieves, robbers,
and other dangerous ragamuffins and vagabonds, bodies
of chasseurs (Hager) were established and maintained
in this country and in the Palatinate. The Bavarian
chasseurs, who had to perform this service in all Bava-
ria, in the duchies of Neuburg and Salzbach, and in all
the upper Palatinate, consisted of 304 men and 78
horses; namely, 1 major, 3 captains, 3 first lieutenants,
3 second lieutenants, 1 adjutant, 23 non-commissioned
officers, and 270 common soldiers: in all, 304 men.

These men were free to quarter themselves anywhere
in the country. They could go wherever they chose,

716 Account of Regulations

to the farmers, and remain over night; and the farmer
was not only obliged to furnish meals to the soldier,
and that, too, for six kreutzers, but he was also obliged
to furnish forage for his horse in return for a ticket
which assured to him a payment of fifteen kreutzers.

This arrangement gave occasion for countless abuses
and complaints from the subjects. The common chas-
seurs, who were enlisted for two years only, and who
consequently never could become accustomed to mili-
tary discipline and subordination, roved freely about
for the greater part of the time in the open country,
away from the oversight of their officers; and it is easy
to imagine what excesses were to be expected from
such men, who were mostly young.

The farmers were terrified if they saw such persons
coming to their houses, and not seldom were obliged to
buy off from them with money the right of free quarters ;
and, by means of this buying off with money the right
of free quarters, the chasseurs had finally put under
contribution the whole country, so to speak.

The complaints on the part of the subjects with
reference to these and other excesses of this chasseur
corps, which were laid before the Electoral council of
war, were innumerable; and no regulations were suff-
cient to hold in check these disorders. Besides this,
the number of men in this chasseur corps was altogether
too small for the extended service which they had to
perform. It was impossible to distribute them over the
country so as to assure peace and safety everywhere.

At the very beginning of the new military system,
this chasseur corps was entirely disbanded, and in its
stead the four cavalry regiments quartered in Bavaria,
in garrison, were distributed through the country to

. :
wntroduced into the Electoral Army. 717

preserve peace and safety. Instead of 11 commissioned
officers and 23 non-commissioned officers, there are now |
92 commissioned officers, 128 non-commissioned officers,
and 128 exempts (Gefrezte); and the men and horses of
four cavalry regiments are assigned to this service.

These troops, scattered over the whole country, are
quartered in separate patrol stations, and these stations
are so near to each other that a patrol can very easily
in a single day go from one to another and back again.
These patrols are never allowed to stop over night at a
peasant’s house, or to claim free quarters.

The regiments are obliged to procure their own
forage, and the peasant can never be compelled to fur-
nish forage either in return for a receipt or for money.
Instead of the former customary free quarters which
they were obliged to furnish to the troops detailed to
preserve peace in the country, the peasants now pay
the cost of quartering the cantonments according to
the number of farms, but not including quarters for the
officers. The entire cost is, however, never more than
thirty kreutzers yearly for a whole farm; that is, seven
and a half kreutzers for a quarter farm. In order to
meet this expense, the military authorities will always
be ready to pay the entire cost from the military chest,
as they have many times offered to do.

By this distribution of the cavalry through the coun-
try, very many and great advantages have been obtained,
not only for the military itself, but also, and more espe-
cially, for the country at large.

By the continual daily patrolling, a very proper and
useful occupation is provided for the cavalry, for both
men and horses. The troops are exercised in riding
and performing patrol-duty, and at the same time be-

718 7 Account of “Regulations

come intimately acquainted with the country; and by
this exercise in the open air both man and horse are
always in a fresh and healthy condition. On the occa-
sion of the mustering the cavalry in camp at Schwabing
the last year, it was observed how fresh and healthy the
horses appeared which were called in from the canton-
ments, and what hardships they were in condition to
bear.

By the continual movements of the patrols, who are
always going to and fro in every direction, a constant
oversight is kept over all the country. All nooks and
~ corners are often examined, and there is no possibility
that a band of thieves or robbers can remain long un-
discovered, or that a vagabond can wander about long
without being apprehended.

Every patrol is provided with printed and detailed
instructions, in which is clearly stated every thing re-
lating to the service which they have to perform in the
country; and, in order to avoid all collisions with the
civil authorities and magistrates, the instructions are
also communicated to them.

The troops are instructed, in the strictest terms, to
show, on all occasions, proper deference to the persons
in civil authority, to conduct themselves towards them
in the most friendly manner in every respect, and in all
cases of necessity to assist them as efficiently as pos-
sible. The troops are instructed to arrest all tramps,
beggars, and other native or foreign vagrants whom
they meet, and to deliver them up to the nearest civil
authorities; and they are further required, at the direc-
tion of the civil authorities, to transport the same over
the boundaries, or, if they are natives, to their homes.
They are also required to keep constantly a watchful

introduced into the Electoral Army. 719

eye on all smugglers and defrauders of the customs, to.
arrest them without further question on encountering
them, and to deliver them over to the civil authorities.

The very important service which the troops have
rendered in this way is shown by the great number of
arrested persons which they have, since their establish-
ment, handed over to the civil authorities. For the
three years and some odd months during which the
troops have been cantoned in the country, the number
of persons arrested amounts to nearly 10,000. The
very great relief which the land has thus experienced is
easier to imagine than to describe.

Among other advantages which have resulted from
this cantonment of the troops is this, —that by the
reports which the cavalry officers, from time to time,
and especially on occasion of any extraordinary occur-
rence, are required to make to the generals in command
of the troops, your Electoral Highness is always fur-
nished with detailed information of every thing that
takes place in the land. Moreover, these troops afford
means, which are always at hand, to convey the com-
mands of your Electoral Highness throughout the
entire country in the most rapid and safest manner,
and entirely without extra expense. The very large
sums which it was formerly necessary to pay to couriers,
especially when foreign troops were passing through
the country, and on such other occasions when numer-
ous orders had to be sent into the country as quickly
as possible, — these sums show of how great an advan-
tage in this respect is the cantonment of the troops, by
means of which these expenses are done away with.

Various other advantages have resulted from this
distribution of the cavalry throughout the country: as,

720 Account of Regulations

for example, the strict oversight which the officers can
easily have, and which they are most expressly required
to have, over the soldiers absent on furlough, both from
the infantry and from the cavalry; also the important
service which these officers can render during the pas-
sage of foreign troops, in providing the necessary forage,
in preserving peace and order, and in preventing all
intercourse between the men on furlough and the for-
eign troops, by which means the former might be led
to desert; also the many opportunities which are thus
afforded to the officers of the cavalry to render assist-'
ance to the civil authorities, to live in friendly inter-
course with them, and to arouse in them, as well as in
the citizens in general, a favourable opinion of the mili-
tary, which might contribute very much to elevate the
military service, and to abolish the hatred and unfriendly
feeling of the civil to. the military service, —a feeling
of long standing in Bavaria, and very disadvantageous
to the State. In short, under the present system the
cavalry can now be just as useful both to the military
and to the civil service as it was formerly useless and
injurious, when, in times of peace, it was shut up in
the towns without useful occupation; and I am so con-
vinced of the great advantages which have been derived
from these regulations, and of those that will be derived
therefrom hereafter when the old prejudices are rooted
out, and when the countless hindrances which stood in
the way of the introduction of this system have been
removed, that, if I had done nothing else in the last
four years except to bring about its introduction, I
should think that my time and trouble had been well
and usefully expended.

With regard to the condition of the finances of the

introduced into the Electoral Army. 721

war department, it is to be remarked that all great —
changes introduced into an army cause special and very
considerable expenses, which will necessarily affect the
financial condition for a certain time, and the advan-
tages of all new financial arrangements become evident
only after they have been fully perfected.

In spite, however, of the considerable expenses in-
curred by the introduction of the new military system,
the condition of the military chest and of the various
storehouses has not changed for the worse, as the fol-
lowing computations will show: —

The last of December, 1787, the entire amount of
money in the military chests in the various regiments,
including all money due, and deducting all debts, was
610,705 fl. 45 kr. 7 hl. The last of December, 1791,
the amount was 863,232 fl. 10 kr. 4 hl.; hence the con-
dition of the military chests with respect to money on
hand, and to outstanding available assets, after deduc-
‘tion of all debts, shows an increase during the years
1788, 1789, 1790, and 1791, of 252,526 fl. 24 kr. 5 hi.
To this is to be added the increase of raw materials
and army stores formerly on hand or recently procured,
which are indispensably necessary for the army.

ist, In equipments. The money value of all the
equipments in the storehouses and in all the regi-
ments, which were on hand the last of December, 1787,
amounted to only 99,184 fl. 58 kr. 3 hl. The money
value of the entire stock in the hands of the officers of
the workhouses and storehouses, and in the regiments, |
the last of December, 1791, amounted to 364,559 fl.
54 kr. 4 hl. Hence the supply during the four years
mentioned has increased by an amount of 265,374 fl.
56 kr. 1 hil.

VOL. IV. 46

722 Account of Regulations

2d, The money value of the provisions and forage
on hand the last of December, 1787, was 94,690 fl.
21 kr. 7 hl. The last of December, 1791, however, it
amounted to 125,486 fl. 37 kr. Hence it had increased
30,796 fl. 15 kr. 1 hl.
3d, On arsenal stores,—such as powder, saltpetre,
and metal, —and on new field equipments and cannon
which have been procured, there has been spent during
the four years 1788, 1789, 1790, and 1791, an amount
of 180,124 fl. 36 kr. 1 hl.
4th, The money value of the supply of garrison
equipage — namely, bed linen and ticking, also fire-
wood, lights, and bed straw—has increased during
these four years 1075 fl. 49 kr. 1 hi.
5th, During these four years there have been pro-
cured for the military stud, — that is, for the transpor-
tation department,— 107 horses, which are now on
hand, at a cost of 21,328 fl. 30 kr.
“~All this increase and addition, namely, —

fe. hr. Hl.

Tn: MONEY ie sorte ye ery eye Le we eet 6 | psa ylepnengate 252,526 24 5
ji hr. hl.
‘In equipments . . 265,374 56 1
In arsenal stores . 180,124 31 I

In In supply of provi-

material sions and forage . 30,796 15 1
In garrison equipage 1,075 49 I
(In horses *. .'. .' 21,328 "30° 0

En alli? sree inti ak 498,700 6 4

Make a grand totalof. . . . ¢ . « « $ « 951,226 3% f

And by this amount the financial condition of the war
department has most surely been improved.

This, however, is not all. To this increase must also
be added the amount of the special expenses, which

introduced into the Electoral Army. ¥25

have been met from the military chest since the intro- |
duction of the new system: namely, —

i. kr. hi.
rst, On account of the Military Academy . 44,495 32 0
2d, t » Weterinary School . 16,600 0 o

3d, In the establishment of all the Military

Gardens in all the provinces, together

with all the buildings and other appur-

tenances thereto, including also the

money paid for the necessary land . 145,869 34 o
4th, Expended on various extra buildings . 40,764 12 0o
5th, Expended in transporting both of the

body-guards from Munich to Man-

heim in 1788, and from Manheim to

Munichin178g9'_ . . . 23,503: I5 0
6th, Distributed to peasants in the Palatinate,

on account of damage by water . . 20,275 45 0

7th, Expended in extra horses . . ... - 37,005 47 0
8th, 7 55 new horse equipments ; e/ PM ERODG Guo
gth, Cost of encampment, 1791. . . . . 4,500 0 0
Tae ee Sa ee ey ee. RA ONS RE RG

If to this amount be added the increase
in money and material mentioned above, 751,226 31 1
The improvement made during the four
years is represented by an amount of .1,095,241 6 1

In addition to this might further be reckoned nearly
40,000 florins as extra expenses which have been in-
curred. These are, however, left out of the account,
since there always arise extraordinary exigencies which
occasion extra expenses. The actual amount of all
moneys belonging to the military department the last’
of December, 1787, and the last of December, 1791, |
the sum of all outstanding available assets, after deduct-
ing the amount of all debts, and also the actual money
value of all manufactured and raw material on hand,
may be seen from the following table: —

724 Account of Regulations

1787. 1791.

fl. kr, | hl. fl. kr. | hl.

Amount of cash on hand . .| 610,705 | 45 | 7 || 564,873 | 39 | 2
In money due after qeluctpe

all debts: s-. . meee ve: - +feel] 298,358 | 31 | 2
In horses) cs. SISO sae va} 21,328 | 30
In equipments’. . “ha 99,184 | 58 | 3 || 364,559 | 54 | 4
In provisions and forage ae 94,690 | 21 | 7 || 125,486 | 37
In arsenal stores . . . «. «| 369,337 | 261 4/]| 549.462 | 2] 5
In garrison equipage. . .« .« 32,582 | 36] 2 33,058 | 25 | 3

Inall .. 1,206,501 | 8
Subtracting the whole money
value oF supplies in Baa
TRO TraE AA AIOE as as hk nk cle kee || 1,206,501) 8 19
The remainder shows the im-
provement in the condition
of the finances of the war
department curing 4 OKO:
namely (os. TY OR aah ood. OW 751,226 | 3r | 7

1,957,727 | 40

With regard to this comparison, it is to be remarked
that the actual amount of cash on hand the last of
December, 1787, was 680,565 fl. 8 kr. 3 hl. Since,
however, at this time the various sums owed by the
military chest amounted to 69,859 fl. 22 kr. 4 hl. more
than all the available balances due, it was not possible
to reckon as actually on hand more than what remained
after deducting the amount of these debts (which had
to be paid immediately afterward); namely, 610,705 fl.
45 kr. 7 hl.

-On the other hand, the action amount of money on
hand the last of December, 1791, would have been
very much greater if the chests at Manheim and Dus-
seldorf had not been almost entirely exhausted by the
execution of Liége.

With regard to the extra expenses incurred since
1787, the following remarks may be offered : —

introduced into the Electoral Army. 725

ist, With regard to the 44,495 fl. 32 kr. expended
for the benefit of the Military Academy. Since this
institution must be in the future of very great advantage
to the military profession, and was almost indispensable
for the elevation of the same, no well-founded objec-
tions can be made to this expense. .

2d, The same condition of things holds with regard
to the 16,600 florins expended in the establishment of
the Veterinary School.

3d, With regard to the Military Gardens. Very much
has been said in this matter: there can, however, be
no doubt that by their establishment great advantages
will accrue to the military, but more especially to the
State. Every one knows how very dangerous idleness
is for the morals of all men, most especially for young
people, and all experienced persons know how very
necessary it is to furnish the soldiers with employment.
By the laying out of these military gardens there has
been furnished to the soldiers not only a very agreeable,
but also a very useful employment. It is universally
known how far behind-hand agriculture has remained
in Bavaria, and it is even more the case with horti-
culture. Potatoes are not even known anywhere in the
country; and many garden vegetables, which are as
necessary for the health of mankind as advantageous
in point of economy, are not cultivated at all.

The sons of the peasants who, during their stay with
their regiments, have acquired this important knowl-
edge of horticulture, will certainly, on their return
home, spread this knowledge gradually throughout the
land.

It is not enough that a soldier understands his tactics :
in time of war, he must often be employed about other

726 Account of Regulations

work, and especially in making entrenchments. By
cultivating his garden he becomes used to work, and
acquires skill in the use of the shovel; and if, after the
expiration of his term of service, he goes back to the ©
country, this knowledge cannot be otherwise than of
great service to him in his farmer’s work; because it is
perfectly certain that the peasant who has first served
as gardener will do his work in the fields more skil-
fully and neatly than another who does not possess
this advantage.

Besides all this, there is another matter to be con-
sidered, which the statesman will certainly not regard
as unimportant; and this is the considerable increase
in the necessaries of life (the first true wealth of all
States) which has been brought about by the military
gardens.

According to a calculation made by an expert and
very able man, the court gardener Skell, in the single
military garden at Manheim there were raised in the
year 1790 vegetables amounting to 10,000 florins in
value. Previously this piece of ground had never pro-
duced more than 500 florins annually.

This estimated difference of 9500 florins in the annual
produce of one piece of ground may be all the more
justly regarded as so much gained by the State, because
it is perfectly evident that, if the soldier had not culti-
vated his garden, he would have spent his time to no
good purpose, but would have wasted it in idleness in
the barracks, as was the case formerly. Those soldiers
who could obtain work among the citizens of the gar-
rison towns have certainly never given this up on
account of their gardens. This is so far from being the
case, that it is well known, especially here in Bavaria,

introduced into the Electoral Army. 727

that, since the soldiers by cultivating their gardens have
become more accustomed to work, they take much more
trouble to procure work from the citizens than formerly ;
and the latter are better satisfied with them, because
they are not only more skilful, but also more indus-
trious, in their work than before, when they were more
in the habit of spending their time in idleness.

The reproach which has been made against the mili-
tary gardens, that by this sort of work the soldiers are
converted into simple farmers, and are spoiled as sol-
diers, deserves really no serious answer; because the
one who could make such a groundless objection must
possess very little knowledge of men in general, and
still less of the military profession.

It is enough to remark that the Prussian soldier,
who is, moreover, the best disciplined and best drilled
in all Europe, passes eleven entire months away from
his regiment, in the country at farming; while a soldier
of the Electoral army who cultivates his garden is on
guard-duty all the year round, at least every four
days.

With regard to the amount of money which has been .
expended in establishing the military gardens, it is only
necessary to remark that the actual value of the same
is still there, so that in no case can there be any thing
lost. Moreover, we may safely estimate that a very
good return for all the sums expended in establishing
the various English and military gardens will in future
be recovered from the use of the meadows and woods
attached to the English garden, from the nurseries,
Swiss dairies, and other places of refreshment.

The enjoyment which has been furnished to the
public, without cost, by these establishments, cannot, it

728 .)\ Account of Regulations

is true, be reckoned in actual money: it is, however, a
matter which all noble-minded men will consider as not
insignificant. So far from its being insignificant, the
public enjoyment is something which very great states-
men in all ages have regarded as of the greatest im-
portance.

At the same time with the establishment of the mili-
tary gardens at Manheim and Munich, several other
useful arrangements have been made and connected
with them.

The supply of powder for the fortress of Manheim
has been removed from Heidelberg, and stored: in two
newly erected powder towers on the Miihlau. This large
amount of powder was not only very dangerous for the
city of Heidelberg, but it was also always exposed to
‘the danger, in case war should break out, of being cut
off by the enemy from Manheim, and of being carried
away. On the Mihlau, it is in every respect much
safer.

In order, however, to insure communication between
Manheim and its powder supply at all times, it was
necessary to construct a road from the powder towers
to the city, and that, too, higher than the highest point
reached by the water in the inundations of the Rhine
and Neckar. This road is now constructed on the dyke
which has been recently built around the Miihlau and
the Niedergrund; and this dyke serves to protect the
military garden, the entire Niedergrund, and the Miihlau
against all inundations, and at the same time as an
agreeable promenade for the inhabitants of the city of
Manheim.

nurseries have been established, where the soldiers are

—— en oe

————

entroduced into the Electoral Army. 729

instructed, without cost, in the cultivation of the trees
and plants which are useful to the farmer.

In the military garden at Munich, a complete fortress
is building, on a small scale, by the pupils in-the Mili-
tary Academy, in order to instruct them better in the
art of building fortifications; and several. pieces of
ground which are situated near the fortress are appro-
priated as points from which to besiege the fortress,
and to afford instruction to the engineers in making
entrenchments, in posting troops, and in other similar
matters.

In this garden there is also a Swiss dairy and eighteen
of the most beautiful cows, — some from Switzerand,
some from Ansprach and from the Tyrol; and two of
the finest bulls have also been procured. The chief
object of this establishment is to distribute in the
country, for the benefit of the inhabitants, an improved
breed of horned cattle; hence all calves are sold into
the country at a low price.

In connection with the Swiss dairy is a farm of con-
siderable size, which may be regarded at the same time
as a School of Agriculture, because the intention is to
have all sorts of experiments performed there which
tend to the introduction into Bavaria of a better system
of cultivation.

In connection with the Veterinary School, which is
also in this garden, there is a botanical garden estab-
lished for the instruction of the pupils of the school,
in which all such herbs as are useful in curing the
diseases of animals are cultivated.

All these are objects which every sensible and
enlightened statesman will certainly regard as im-
portant.

730 Account of Regulations

4th, In the list of extra expenses given above, which
were paid out of the military chest from the 1st of
December, 1788, to the last of December, 1791, there
are 40,764 fl. 42 kr. under the heading, “ on various extra
buildings.” Of this sum 10,000 florins were expended in
raising he Rhine-gate barracks at Manheim; 1 5,005 fl.
50 kr. for building the Military Workhouse at Munich;
5158 fl. 12 kr. for building the Military Workhouse at
Manheim; and for the purchase of the Aurachi House
to extend the same, 1711 florins; and 3000 florins for
the construction of the Neuhauser Thor in Munich are
also included.

5th, With regard to the transportation of both the
body-guards from Munich to Manheim in 1788, and
back again in 1789, for which 23,503 fl. 15 kr. are
entered among the extra expenses, there is nothing to
be said.

6th, The same is true, with regard to the item of
20,275 fl. 45 kr. distributed to the peasants of the
Palatinate on account of damages by water, and in-
troduced among the extra expenses.

7th, With regard to the extra expenses for horses for
remounting the cavalry, an item of 37,005 fl. 47 kr.,
which sum has been expended during the four years
1788, 1789, 1790, 1791, nothing is to be said, except
that this was indispensably necessary on account of the
very great number of old horses in the service which
were entirely useless.

8th, The extra expense for procuring new horse fur-
niture, amounting to 11,000 florins, was very necessary.

gth, The cost of the encampment of 1791 is set down
as 4500 florins,

introduced into the Electoral Army. 731

There is another very important point with reference
to the condition of the military finances which must
not be left out of consideration in rendering this
account, and that is the increase or decrease of the
expenses annually necessary for the payment of pen-
sions, for the salaries of the persons connected with the
council of war, the office of the commandant, and other

persons who belong to no regiment; because by far
_ the greater part of all disorders in the financial condi-
tion arise from gradual and unobserved increase of such
expenses.

That these outside expenses might easily have in-
creased during the last four years was probable, because
so many aged officers unfit for service were retired, and
had to be retired, in order to raise the standard of the
military. No army in Europe affords an example of so
considerable a promotion as that which has taken place
in the Electoral army since the introduction of the new
system.

In spite, however, of this very rapid promotion, which
was brought about by no means on account of an un-
usual mortality among the staff officers, but rather by
the retirement of many aged officers; and in spite of
the fact that, by the introduction of the new system,
many new offices have been created, such as those
in connection with the military workhouses and store-
houses, and in the engineering department, — in spite
of these things, the whole amount necessary for the
payment of the pensions, general’s salary, and the |
salaries of persons connected with the council of war
and the commandant’s office, and others not connected
with any regiment, has been diminished, between the
1st of January, 1788, and the last of December, 1791,

732 Acéount of Regulations

to the extent of 19,161 fl. 21 kr. annually; and since
the latter time, namely, since the beginning of this
year, the saving has increased still more, and now
actually amounts to more than 20,000 florins annually.
No one, however, has had his allowance shortened by
a single kreutzer; on the contrary, many, and among
them almost all those persons who are connected with
the council of war, have received a considerable increase

of salary. :

All these computations show that the newly intro-
duced military system, as far as it depends on the
financial condition, can be regarded as permanently es-
tablished. Only a single question can arise, — whether
the former system may not have been fully as advan-
tageous as far as economy is concerned; whether the
same saving might not have been made during the
last four years, if the former system had been con-
tinued.

In order to remove any doubt in this matter, and in
order to compare in point of economy the new military
system with the old in the most striking and decisive
manner, I have had prepared an abstract of the financial
condition of the Electoral army for the last four years
during which the army was under the direction of the
Lieutenant-General Baron von Belderbusch; namely,
for the years 1784, 1785, 1786, and 1787.

The following table shows the increase in both money
and materials, as well as the extra expenses incurred
during the four years. It also shows the comparison
of the same with the saving or increase which has
occurred during the last four years, since the introduc-
tion of the new system.

introduced into the Electoral Army. 733

M Under the o/d system ; || Under the zew system ;
Improvement of the financial condition. | during the years a during the years 1788,

1785, 1786, and 1737 1789, 1790, and 1791.

In money, in increase of coin, fl ker.,| hl. fi. : kb
and of balances due after de-
duction ofalldebts . . .| 211,306 | 34/1 252,526| 24 | 5
In increased store of materials | 232,152 | 38 |..|| 498,700} 6 | 4
In extra expenses defrayed. .| 117,801 | 14|.. 344,014 | 35
Inall. . 561,260 | 26 I || 1,095,241| 6| 1
If to this be added the amount
of minor extra expenses . . 16,741 | 50 | bis 36,167} 2
The increase for the 4 years —s —
amounts to ... . . «| 578,002 1,131,408; 8 | 1

This comparison is certainly striking, and the follow-
ing computation is not less decisive : —

If, now, from the saving in the years 1788, 1789,
1790, and 1791,— namely, 1,131,408 fl. 8 kr. 1 hl.,—
be taken that of the years 1784, 1785, 1786, and 1787,
—namely, 578,002 fl. 16 kr. 1 hl.,—the difference —
namely, 553,405 fl. 52 kr.— shows the increased saving
during the last four years, which amounts yearly to
138,351 fl. 28 kr.

According to a very exact calculation, one common
soldier who is on furlough from one muster time to
another costs annually, for pay, bread, and clothing,
only 11 fl. 49 kr. 2hl. If, now, this be reckoned as
12 florins, it is evident that, for the above amount of
138,351 fl. 28 kr. saved yearly, 11,529 men on furlough
could be kept and provided for, and that, in spite of
this increase in the army, the same yearly saving would
also be effected as was effected under the old system.

The last of December, 1791, the army consisted of
19,696 men. If now to this number be added the
number of furloughed men, as mentioned above, —
11,529 men, — the entire number will amount to 31,225

734 Account of Regulations

men. The entire army on a peace footing, according
to the new division, consists of only 31,680 men. Hence
it appears that, with the same amount which was for-
merly actually expended in maintaining the army on
an incomplete footing of about 20,000 men, it is, under
the new system most certainly possible to maintain the
whole army on a complete footing of 31,680 men (this
being, of course, in time of peace).

According to the old system, where the man who
was on furlough cost almost as much as the man on
duty, it would have been almost impossible to maintain
the army on the then complete footing of 22,430 men
with the entire sum which was allowed for the support
of the army. It was useless to think of any saving.

These comparisons and calculations, which are all
the more trustworthy because they rest on experience,
and on the experience of several years, show plainly,
not only that the newly introduced system is much
more advantageous in point of economy than the former
system, but also that the entire number of men in the
Electoral army, which number has been fixed on a
peace footing as 31,680, according to the principles and
system which have been adopted, is in just proportion
to the appropriation made for the army.

This complete report and account of the results of
the regulations newly introduced into the Electoral army
was respectfully submitted by its author to his Electoral
Highness on the 1st of June of the present year, and
was accompanied by the following petition: —

Most SERENE ELECTOR AND Most Gracious Sov-
EREIGN, —I have the honour of humbly submitting to

introduced into the Electoral Army. 735

your Electoral Highness the accompanying complete
report and account of the results of the regulations
recently introduced into the army of your Highness.
Since, however, this is a matter of very great impor-
tance, and since the calculations therein included cannot
have too strong corroboration, | humbly beseech your
Electoral Highness, as well for your own satisfaction as
for my vindication, to commit this report, together with
accompanying documents, to the council of war, with
instructions to investigate the same in the most thor-
ough manner, and to present a suitable report on the
same. Meanwhile I recommend myself most humbly
and obediently to your Highness’s grace and favour.

Your Electoral Highness’s

Most humble, true, and most obedient

Count RuMFORD.
Munich, June I, 1792.

736 Letter to Pictet.

LETTER TO PROFESSOR PICTET OF GENEVA.
MUNICH, Jan. 12, 1797.

Sir,—I ought to have acknowledged sooner the
receipt of your last friendly letter; but you will excuse
me, I am sure, when you learn that I have been exclu-
_ sively occupied in putting the last touches to my Essay
on the Management of Fire and the Economy of Fuel
which I have just sent to press. |

I thank you sincerely for your Essay on Fire, I
have read it with much pleasure, and it has interested
me peculiarly; and all the more because the route which
you have followed in your researches is the same which
I had adopted in treating this subject.

You know, I suppose, that Dr. Hutton has written a
paper to explain one of your experiments, — that in
which there was an apparent reflection of cold. I was
much struck with this result, which was not only un-
expected, but very extraordinary. Your explanation
of the phenomena is ingenious and clear; but I can-
not help desiring that a matter which is of so great
consequence, and which leads to such important con-
clusions with reference to the theory of heat, should be
examined from every point of view.

I have a thermometer of a peculiar construction,
which possesses an uncommon degree of sensibility.
Each variation of a degree of Reaumur’s scale causes an
index, three inches long, to make four entire revolutions
on a circular dial six inches in diameter. With this in-
strument I tried to vary your experiment by presenting
to the thermometer, as it hung in my room stationary
at about the 13th degree of Reaumur’s scale, a large
cake, or disk, of melting ice; but although I held it for

Letter to Pictet. 737

a long time at a distance of half an inch from the bulb
of the thermometer, to my great surprise the instru-
ment gave no indication of being sensible of the pres-
ence of the ice; while on presenting my hand to the
thermometer, at the same distance, the calorific rays
which escaped set the index in motion almost imme-
diately. The bulb of this thermometer is a spiral tube
of very thin glass, filled with alcohol, and placed in a
vertical position. Its diameter is about half an inch,
and the tube makes five revolutions about the centre
of the spiral. The diameter of the disk formed by this
spiral is about five inches. The piece of ice which I pre-
sented to it was circular: it was about six inches in
diameter and four inches thick. As the front of the disk
of the thermometer is vertical, and the flat surface of
the piece of ice was placed parallel to the disk, and
directly in front of it, the descending current of air,
which was cooled by contact with the ice, did not affect
the thermometer at all; when, however, the ice was
held immediately above the instrument, the index
moved backwards immediately, as might naturally have
been expected. I was surprised that it did not affect
it at all when placed side of it; and I should have been
surprised even if I had never heard of your experiment,
so strongly was I impressed with the idea of the effect
which proximity ought to produce. If you have made
any new researches on this curious subject, I shall be
obliged to you if you will kindly inform me of the
results, or will indicate to me other experiments which
have been made on the same subject.

As to the success of my efforts to perfect chimney
fire-places, you will be able to get an idea of the econ-

omy of fuel effected when I inform you that, under the
VOL IV. 47 :

738 Letter to Pictet.

most favourable circumstances, I have been able to bring
to boiling twenty pounds:of ice-cold water, by the heat
produced ,in the combustion of one pound of ordinary
fir-wood, moderately dry; and that, by the heat pro-
duced in the combustion of thirty-three pounds of the
same wood, I have been able to roast one hundred
pounds of meat in a roaster of my invention in the
Military Academy in Munich. This voas¢er has been
used daily for seven years; and all those who have
tasted the meat prepared in it agree that it is cooked
with an uncommon degree of perfection.

I send herewith a description, which has been recently
forwarded to me from England, of the working of a
kitchen established according to my principles in the
Foundling Hospital in London. Mr. Bernard, secretary
of the Hospital, writes to me that several other large
hospitals are about to adopt these inventions. You
can make such use of the paper as you think best, but
I beg that you will finally return it to me.

I send you also a trifle which you can keep. It is
the result of some reflections on a subject of great im-
portance, —a subject which, for the good of society,
we could wish had been meditated upon more often
than it has been, without passion, and with a philo-
sophic camlness.

The following results of my experiments and _ re-
searches on heat will perhaps interest you. They are
taken from my Essay on the Management of Fire and
Economy of Fuel, which will soon appear, and from
- another Essay on Kitchen Fire-places, which will fol-
low it.

Here follows an abstract of the essays mentioned.

[This letter is translated from the French, as it appears in the
“Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts),” iv., pages 7-11.]

Proposals for Forming a Public Institution. 739

PROPOSALS

FOR FORMING BY SUBSCRIPTION,

IN THE METROPOLIS OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE,
A PUBLIC INSTITUTION

FOR DIFFUSING THE KNOWLEDGE AND FACILITATING THE GEN-
ERAL INTRODUCTION OF USEFUL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS
AND IMPROVEMENTS, AND FOR TEACHING, BY COURSES OF
PHILOSOPHICAL LECTURES AND EXPERIMENTS, THE APPLI-
CATION OF SCIENCE TO THE COMMON PURPOSES OF LIFE.

(Presented)
to Dae

by the Manacers of the INSTITUTION.

INTRODUCTION.

HE slowness with which improvements of all kinds

make their way into common use, and especially
such improvements as are the most calculated to be of
general utility, is very remarkable, and forms a striking
contrast to the extreme avidity with which those un-
meaning changes are adopted which folly and caprice
are continually bringing forth and sending into the
world under the auspices of fashion. This evil has
often been lamented ; but few attempts have been made
to investigate its causes, or to remove them.

On the first view of the matter it appears very
extraordinary indeed that any person should ever, in
any instance, neglect to avail himself of an invention .
or contrivance within his power to obtain, that is evi-
dently calculated to increase his comforts, or to facili-
tate his labour, or to increase the profits of it; but
when we reflect on the subject with attention, and con-

740 Proposals for Forming

sider the power of habit, and then recollect how diffi-
cult it is fora person even to perceive the imperfections
of instruments with which he has been accustomed from
his early youth, our surprise that improvements do not
make a more rapid progress will be greatly lessened.

But there is a great variety of circumstances that are
unfavourable to the introduction of improvements. |
The very proposal of any thing new commonly carries
with it something that is offensive; something that
seems to imply a superiority; and even that kind of
superiority precisely to which mankind are least dis-
posed to submit.

There are few, very féw indeed, hp do not feel
ashamed and mortified at being obliged to learn any
thing new after they have for a long Gite been consid-
ered, and been accustomed to consider themselves, as
proficients in the business in which they are engaged ;
and their awkwardness in their new apprenticeship,
and especially when they are obliged to work with tools
with which they are not acquainted, tends much to
increase their dislike to their teacher and to his doc-
trines.

To these obstacles to the introduction of new improve-
ments, we may add the innumerable mistakes, voluntary
and involuntary, that are committed by workmen who
are employed in any business that is new to them, and
that perhaps they neither understand nor like ; and (what
is still more to be feared) those alterations which work-
men in general, and more especially such of them as pride
themselves on their ingenuity, have such an irresistible
propensity to introduce when they are employed in
executing any thing that is new. How many useful
inventions have been totally spoiled and brought into

a Public Institution. 741

disrepute by what has been pompously announced to |

the public as improvements of them! And hence we
may see of what infinite importance it would be to the
progress of real improvements, to have some general
collection of useful mechanical contrivances, constructed
on the most approved principles, and kept constantly in
actual use, to which application could be made as to a
standard, in order to determine whether experiments
which fail are owing to errors in principle, or to blun-
ders of the workmen employed in the construction, or
to those of the servants employed in the management
of the machinery. __

And how very useful would such a repository be
for furnishing models, and for giving instruction to
artificers who may be employed in imitating them!
Workmen must see the thing they are to imitate;
bare descriptions of it will not answer to give them
such precise ideas of what is to be done as to prevent
their being liable to mistakes in the execution of their
work. |

But this is also the case with mankind in general,
and even with the best-informed; for how great must
that effort of the imagination be that is necessary to
form any adequate idea of what we have not seen!
Descriptions, though they be illustrated by the best
drawings, can give but very imperfect ideas of things;
and the impressions they leave behind them are faint
and transitory, and seldom excite that degree of ardour

that ought to accompany the pursuit of interesting im--

provements.

Few indeed have an imagination so extremely vivid
and susceptible as to become enamoured of a descrip-
tion or of a picture. Something vzszbe and tangible

742 Proposals for Forming

is necessary to fix the attention and determine the
choice. .
But to return to the investigation of the causes that
impede the progress of useful improvement. Besides
those already mentioned, there are several others which,
though less obvious, tend nevertheless very powerfully
to obstruct and retard that progress.

Those who propose improvements are commonly
suspected of being influenced by zzterested motives ;
and this suspicion (which is often but too well founded)
occasions little attention to be paid to such proposals
by the public.

As the tacit recommendation of a respectable Public
Institution, where the things judged to be worthy of
the public notice would be merely exposed to view,
would not be liable to this suspicion, it would certainly
have more weight.

Not only suspicion, but zeaousy and exvy have often
their share in obstructing the progress of improvement,
and in preventing the adoption of plans calculated to
promote the public good.

The most meritorious exertions in promoting the
public prosperity are often viewed with suspicion, and
the fair fame that is derived from those exertions with
jealousy and envy; and many who have too much good
sense not to fercezve the merit of an undertaking evi-
dently useful, and too much regard for their reputation
not to appear to approve of zt, are often very far, never-
theless, from wishing it success.

This melancholy truth is, most unfortunately, known
to everybody, and does more, I am persuaded, to deter
sensible and well-disposed persons from coming forward
into the public view with plans for useful improvements

a Public Institution. 743

than all the trouble and difficulty that would attend the
execution of them.

The managers of a public institution would be less
exposed than an individual to the effects of these jeal-
ousies, and would no doubt have the courage to despise
them. |
In regard to those most important improvements
that might in many cases be derived from the sczentific
discoveries of experimental philosophers, there are, unfor-
tunately, many very powerful obstacles, which prevent
their being as useful to mankind as they might be
made, and as they would most certainly become, were
those obstacles removed. | ube

There are no two classes of men in society that are
more distinct, or that are separated from each other by
a more marked line, than philosophers and those who
are engaged in arts and manufactures.

The distance of their stations, the difference of
their education and of their habits, the marked dif-
ference of the objects of their pursuits in life, — all
tend to keep them at a distance from each other, and
to prevent all connection and intercourse between
them.

The philosopher, who devotes his time to the inves-
tigation of the laws of Nature, must necessarily be
independent in his circumstances, for he can expect no
profit or pecuniary advantage from his labours; conse-
quently he must be excited to engage in these pursuits
either by curiosity or by a desire of fame, or by both.
these motives; and the nature of his occupations, as
well as the intense meditation they require, naturally
tend to detach his mind from all the common affairs
and pursuits of life.

7A4 Proposals for Forming

Anxious only to make new discoveries, and to estab-
lish his reputation among philosophers, whom he con-
siders as the only competent judges of his merit, and
whose suffrages alone can bestow that fame which he
is ambitious to acquire, he has seldom either leisure or
inclination to interest himself in those busy scenes in
which the great mass of mankind are employed, and
which he is perhaps but too apt to consider as being —
unworthy of his attention.

On the other hand, those who are engaged in arts
and manufactures are seldom disposed to ask, or even
to receive, the advice of men of science, with whom
they have no connection, and of whose knowledge they
seldom entertain any very high respect. Intent only
on acquiring wealth, all their views are confined to that
single object; and as their success depends much on
their reputation for ingenuity in their different. lines
of business, — as all proposals for introducing improve-
ment presuppose some imperfection, such proposals
are commonly not only considered by them as offen-
sive, and rejected with disdain, but they frequently
maintain that no farther improvement in their. line of
business is possible, except it be perhaps something
they pretend to have found out, and of which, in order
to enhance the reputation of their goods, they make a
great mystery.

Ingenuity ought certainly to be rewarded. It is
what every liberal-minded person would wish; but it is
greatly to be lamented that the progress of real improve-
ments should ever be obstructed by the effects of pro-
fessional jealousies, or by any other of those selfish

passions that are but too apt to influence men engaged
in the busy scenes of life.

a Public Institution. 745

In making this observation, I would by no means be
understood to call in question the wisdom of granting
patents for securing certain privileges and advantages
to the authors of new and useful inventions. So far
from thinking this system of rewarding ingenuity
disadvantageous to society, I am convinced that the
present flourishing state of our manufactures, and con-
sequently of our commerce, has been in a great meas-
ure owing to its operation.

I am only desirous that sczezce and ar¢ should once
be brought cordially to embrace each other, and to
direct their united efforts to the improvement of agri-
culture, manufactures, and commerce, and to:the in-
crease of domestic comfort.

That the proposed Institution would facilitate and
consolidate that union is too obvious to require any
particular proof or illustration.

I shall mention only one circumstance more that
may be assigned as a cause for the slowness of the
progress of new and useful improvements; and that is
the erroneous opinion that is but too generally enter-
tained with regard to the real importance of what are
called zmprovements, or their tendency to promote the
happiness and prosperity of mankind. It is imagined
by some that though a new invention may have some
degree of utility, yet as our forefathers, who were not
acquainted with it, contrived to do very well without it,
so it cannot be a matter of any very great importance
to us or to our posterity whether it be brought forward |
into general use or not. But those who reason in this
manner should be requested to recollect that all the
successive improvements in the condition of man, from
a state of ignorance and barbarism to that of the high-

est cultivation and refinement, are brought about by
the use of machinery in procuring the necessaries, com-
forts, and elegancies of life, and that the pre-eminence
of any people is, and ought ever to be, estimated by
the state of ¢aste, industry, and mechanical improve-
ment among them.

Those among the inhabitants of this happy island
who have meditated profoundly on this interesting sub-
ject will be very far indeed from being zxdifferent to
the progress of improvement, and will certainly wish
well to the success of the plan that is now laid before
them ; for they well know how powerfully the vivifying
rays of Science, when properly directed, tend to excite
the activity, and increase the energy, of an enlightened
nation.

With regard to the relative importance of the differ-
ent objects of improvements that are held up to view
in these Proposals, nothing absolutely decisive can be
determined. They are all very important, and there
are, doubtless, many others perhaps equally so, that
are not enumerated, that will, of course, in their turns,
engage the attention of the Managers of the Institution.

It will not escape observation that I have placed the
management of fire among the very first subjects of
useful improvement; and it is possible that I may be
accused of partiality in placing the object of my favour-
ite pursuits in that conspicuous situation. But how
could I have done otherwise? I have always consid-
ered it as being a subject very interesting to mankind ;
and it was on that account principally that, at a very
early period of my life, I engaged in its investigation ;
and the more I have examined it and meditated upon
it, the more I have been impressed with its importance.

a Public Institution. 747

When we consider that arts and manufactures of.
every kind depend, directly or indirectly, on operations
in which fire is employed, and that almost every com-
fort and convenience which man by his ingenuity pro-
cures for himself, is obtained by its assistance, we cannot
doubt of its utility; and when we recollect that the
fuel consumed in these kingdoms costs annually more
than ex mzllions sterling, the great importance of every
improvement that can be made in the management of
fire must be quite evident.

To me, who am perfectly persuaded that much more
than half the fuel that is consumed might very easily
be saved, the subject must of necessity appear very
interesting ; and on that ground I hope to be excused
if I have dwelt upon it too long.

It may perhaps be not altogether uninteresting to
those to whom I now more particularly address my-
self, to be made acquainted with the history of these
Proposals, and of the causes which gave rise to
them.

Having long been in a habit of considering all useful ©
improvements as being purely mechanzca/, or as depend-
ing on the perfection of machinery, and address in the
management of it, and of considering profit (which
depends much on the perfection of machinery) as the
only incitement to zzdustry, | was naturally led to med-
itate on the means that might be employed with advan-
tage to diffuse the knowledge, and facilitate the general
introduction, of such improvements; and the plan which.
is now submitted to the public was the result of these
investigations.

In the beginning of the year 1796 I gave a faint
sketch of this plan in my second Essay; but, being

748 Proposals for Forming

under a necessity of returning soon to Germany, I had
not leisure to pursue it farther at that time; and I was
obliged to content myself with having merely thrown
out a loose idea, as it were by accident, which I thought
might possibly attract attention.

After my return to Munich, I opened myself more
fully on the subject in my correspondence with my
friends in this country, and ‘particularly in my letters to
Thomas Bernard, Esq.,* who, as is well known, is one
of the founders and most active members of the Society
for Bettering the Condition and: Increasing the Com-
forts of the Poor: é

* Extracts of letters written by Count Rumford to Thomas Bernard, Esq.,

from Germany :—
** Municn, 28th April, 1797.

“I feel myself very highly honoured by the distinguished mark of esteem
and regard which the Society for Bettering the Condition of the Poor has con-
ferred on me; and I beg leave, through you, to return the Society my respectful
and grateful acknowledgments.

“This flattering proof of the approbation of those most respectable persons
who compose the Society will tend very powerfully to encourage me to perse-
vere in those endeavours to promote the important objects they have in view by
which I first obtained their notice and esteem.

“T am very sanguine in my expectations of the good which will be done by
this Society: they will, however, be able to do much more by examples, by
models that can be seen and felt, than by any thing that can be said or written.”

“ Municn, 13th May, 1798.

“The rapid progress you are making in your most interesting and laudable
undertakings affords me a high degree of satisfaction. It proves that I was
not mistaken when I concluded that, notwithstanding the alarming progress of
luxury and corruption of taste and of morals in England, there is still good sense
and energy to be found, even in the highest classes of society, where the influx
of wealth has operated most powerfully. Go on, my dear sir, and be assured
that, when you shall have put doing good in fashion, you will have done all that
human wisdom can do to retard and prolong the decline of a great and power-
ful nation that has arrived at, or passed, the zenith of human glory.”

“Municn, 8th June, 1798,

“T have received your letter from Brighton of the 12th ult. You can hardly
imagine the high degree of pleasure and satisfaction which I feel at your success
in your most laudable undertakings. Go on, my dear sir, and be assured that
you will contribute more essentially to the revival of taste and morals, of energy,

4
ae

ee So eae nt ae a eee

a Public [nstitution. 749

This gentleman I found, on my return to England
in September last, not only agreeing with me in opin-
ion in regard to the utility and importance of the plan
I had proposed, but very solicitous that some-attempts
should be made to carry it into immediate execution in
this capital. ; |

After several consultations, that were held at Mr.
Bernard’s apartments in the Foundling Hospital, and
at the house of the Lord Bishop of Durham, at which
several gentlemen assisted, who are well known as
zealous promoters of useful improvement, it was agreed
that Mr. Bernard should report to the Committee of

industry, benevolence, and /rosferity in your favoured country than all the
speculators and reformers in the three kingdoms.

“When society is arrived at a certain degree of torpid indifference and
enervation of mind and body, which are the unavoidable effects of wealth,
luxury, and inordinate indulgence, mankind must either be a//ured or shamed
into action. Precepts and admonitions have no effect on them.

“As they are too indolent to. take the trouble either to investigate or to
choose, they must be led to acts of useful benevolence, as they are led in every
thing else, by fashion? when you shall have rendered it perfectly ridiculous
for a man of fashion and fortune ¢o have the appearance of being insensible to the
most noble and most delightful of human enjoyments, —that which results from
doing good, — you will have done more for the relief of the poor than all that
the Poor Laws.can ever effect. Deeply impressed with the necessity of render-
ing it fashionable to care for the poor and indigent, and contribute to their relief
and comfort, in order to diffuse in England that spirit of active benevolence you
are kindling, I am apt to insist, perhaps with too much prolixity, on that impor-
tant point.

“T am anxious to hear of the execution of your plan with regard to Bride-
well. A well-arranged House of Industry is much wanted in London. It is
indeed absolutely necessary to the success of your undertaking ; for there must
be something Zo see and 7o touch, if I may use the expression, otherwise people
in general will have but very faint, imperfect, and transitory idcas uf those
important and highly interesting objects with which you must make them
acquainted, in order to their becoming zealous converts to our new philosophy
and-useful members of our community. Pray read once more the ‘Proposals,’
published in my second Essay. I really think that a public establishment, like
that there described, might easily be formed in London, and that it would pro-.
duce infinite good. I will come to London to assist you in its execution when-
ever you will in good earnest undertake it.”

750 Proposals for Forming

the Society for Bettering the Condition of the Poor the
general result of these consultations, and the unani-
mous desire of the gentlemen who assisted at them
that means might be devised for making-an attempt to
carry the scheme proposed into execution.

The gentlemen of the committee agreed with me
entirely in the opinion I had taken the liberty to ex-
press, that the Institution which it was proposed to
form would be too conspicuous, and too interesting and
important, to be made az appendix to any other exist-
ing establishment, and consequently that it must stand
alone, and on its own proper basis; but, as these gen-
tlemen had no direct communication with any persons,
except with the members of their own Society, they
appointed a committee, consisting of eight persons,
from their own body, to confer with me on the subject
of my plan.*

I had the honour to meet this committee on this
business on the 31st of January, at the house of Richard
Sulivan, Esq., where a plan I had previously drawn up,
for forming the Institution in question, was read and
examined, and its principles unanimously approved;
but, as some of the gentlemen present were of opinion
that the plan entered too much into detail to be sub-
mitted to the public in the beginning of the business,
I undertook to revise it, and to endeavour to accommo-
date it to the wishes of the committee.

Having made such alterations in it as I thought
might satisfy the committee, I sent a corrected copy
of it to them, accompanied by the following letter: —

* The gentlemen chosen were the Earl of Winchelsea, Mr. Wilberforce,
The Rev. Dr. Glasse, Mr. Sullivan, Mr. Richard Sulivan, Mr. Colquhoun, Mr,
Parry, and Mr, Bernard.

’ _
it xs =

a Public Institution. 751

GENTLEMEN, — Enclosed I have the honour to send you a cor-.
rected copy of the Proposals I took the liberty of laying before you
on Thursday last, for forming in this capital, by private subscription,
a public institution for diffusing the knowledge and facilitating
the general and speedy introduction of new and useful mechanical
inventions and improvements; and also for teaching, by regular
courses of philosophical lectures and experiments, the application
of the new discoveries in science to the improvement of arts and
manufactures, and in facilitating the means of procuring the com-
forts and conveniences of life.

The tendency of the proposed Institution to excite a spirit of
inquiry and of improvement amongst all ranks of society, and to
afford the most effectual assistance to those who are engaged in the
various pursuits of useful industry, did not escape your observation ;
and it is, I am persuaded, from a conviction of the utility of the
plan, or its tendency to increase the comforts and enjoyments of
individuals, and at the same time to promote the public prosperity,
that you have been induced to take it into your serious considera-
tion. I shall be much flattered if it should meet with your appro-
bation and with your support.

Though I am perfectly ready to take any share in the business
of carrying the scheme into execution, in case it should be adopted,
that can be required, yet there is one preliminary request which I am
desirous may be granted me; and that is, that the government may
be previously made acquainted with the scheme before any steps
are taken towards carrying it into execution ; and also that His
Majesty’s ministers may be informed that it is in the contemplation
of the founders of the Institution to accept of my services in the
arrangement and management of it.

The peculiar situation in which I stand in this country, as a
subject of His Majesty, and being at the same time, by His Maj-
esty’s special permission, granted under his royal sign manual,
engaged in the service of a foreign prince, this circumstance ren-
ders it improper for me to engage myself in this important business,
notwithstanding that it might perhaps be considered merely as a
private concern, without the knowledge and the approbation of the
government.

I am quite certain that my engaging in this or in any other
business in which there is any prospect of my being of any public
use in this country will meet with the most cordial approbation of

752 Proposals Jor forming

His Most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine, it whose service I
am ; for I know his sentiments on that subject. And although I do
not imagine that His Majesty, or His Majesty’s ministers, would
disapprove of my giving my assistance in carrying this scheme into
execution, yet I feel it to be necessary that their approbation should
be asked and obtained ; and, if I might be allowed to express my
sentiments on another matter, which, no doubt, has already occurred
to every one of the gentlemen to whom I now address myself, I
should say that, in my opinion, it would not only be proper, but
even necessary, to inform Government of the nature of the scheme
that is proposed, and of every circumstance relative to it, and at
the same time to ask their countenance and support in carrying it
into execution ; for although it may be allowable, in this free coun-
try, for individuals to unite in forming and executing extensive
plans for diffusing useful knowledge and promoting the public
good, yet it appears to me that no such establishment should ever
be formed in any country without the knowledge and approbation
of the executive government.

Trusting that you will be so good as to excuse the liberty I
take in making this observation, and that you will consider my
doing it as being intended rather to justify myself, by explaining
my principles, than from any idea of its being necessary on any
other account, I have the honour to be, with much respect,

Gentlemen,
Your most obedient and
Most humble Servant,
(Signed) _ RUMFORD,
BRoMPTON Row,* 7th February, 1799.

(Addressed)

To the Gentlemen named by the Committee of the Society for Bet-
tering the Condition of the Poor to confer with Count Rumford
on his scheme for forming a new establishment in London for
diffusing the knowledge of useful mechanical improvements, etc.

The committee above-mentioned having, in the mean
time, made their report to the Society for Bettering the
Condition and Increasing the Comforts of the Poor,
that Society came to the following resolution : —

* (Thursday.)

Lg ee ee oe Oe ee
y

ae ee ee

eye eae ee

a Public Institution. 753

At a meeting of the Society for Bettering the Condition and
Increasing the Comforts of the Poor, on Friday, the 1st of Feb-
Tuary, 1799). .

PRESENT :

The BisHop or DurHAM, in the Chair, -
PATRICK CoLquHoun, Esq.,

Tuomas BERNARD, Esq,.,

WILLIAM MANNING, Esq,,

Joun Suttivan, Esq.,

THE Rev. Dr. Grasse,

Joun J. ANGERSTEIN, Esq.,

WILLIAM WILBERFORCE, Esq.,

RICHARD JOSEPH SULIVAN, Esq.,
MATTHEW MarrIN, Esq., Secretary,

the Committee appointed to confer with Count Rumford reported
that they had had a conference with the Count, and that they were
satisfied that the Institution proposed by him would be extremely
beneficial and interesting to the community ; that, in order to pro-
vide the pecuniary funds of the Society at its commencement, it was
proposed that subscribers of fifty guineas each should be the per-
petual proprietors of the Institution, and be entitled each to per-
petual transferable tickets for the lectures and for admission to
the apartments of the Institution; and that, as soon as thirty such
subscribers offered, it was proposed to call a meeting of those thirty
subscribers, in order to lay the plan before them and elect managers
for the Institution.
RESOLVED,

That the said Report be approved of, and that it be referred to.
the gentlemen of the select committee to communicate the outlines
of the plan to the members of the Committee of the Society, and
to such other persons as they shall think fit, desiring that those
who wish to have their names inserted among the original subscrib-
ers to the Institution would communicate their wish to the special
committee.

(Extracted from the minutes.) wpe epics ireeaea A.

In consequence of this resolution, a paper was printed
by the gentlemen of the select committee, containing
the outlines of the plan, and sent round privately among

VOL. IV. 48

754 Proposals for Forming

their friends, and others whom they thought likely to
countenance the scheme, accompanied by a printed copy
of the foregoing resolution, with a request that those
who were willing to allow their names to be put down
among the original subscribers and proprietors of the
Institution would be so good as to communicate their
intentions by a letter addressed to Thomas Bernard,
Esq., at the Foundling.

The proposals that were circulated in this manner
met with so much approbation that fifty-eight of the
most respectable names were sent in before measures
could be taken for holding a meeting; and these suc-
cessful beginnings encouraged those who were prin-
cipally concerned in forming and bringing forward
this plan to make some alterations in it, and particu-
larly in respect to the time and manner of choosing the
first set of managers, and in regard to an application for
a charter for the Institution, which it has been deter-
mined to make, in order to place the establishment on
a more solid and more respectable foundation, and to
give full security to the subscribers against all future
claims upon them.

_ IN THIS STAGE OF THE BUSINESS, and especially as a
meeting of the subscribers is to be held in a few days
for the purpose of determining what other steps shall
be taken for carrying the proposed plan into execution,
I have thought it to be my duty to lay all these partic-
ulars before the subscribers, and at the same time to
state to them at length the general outline of the plan
I have taken the liberty to propose, and in the execution
of which, if it should be adopted, I am ready to take
any part that the subscribers may wish me to take.

RUMFORD.
BRoMPTON Row, 4th March, 1799.

a Public Institution. 755
PROPOSALS, ETC.

THE two great objects of the Institution being the speedy and
general diffusion of the knowledge of all new and useful improve-
ments, in whatever quarter of the world they may originate, and
teaching the application of scientific discoveries to the improvement
of arts and manufactures in this country, and to the increase of
domestic comfort and convenience, these objects will constantly be
had in view, not only in the arrangement and execution of the plan,
but also in the future management, of the Institution.

As much care will be taken to confine the establishment within
its proper limits as to place it on a solid foundation, and to render
it an ornament to the capital and an honour to the British nation.

In the execution of the plan, it is proposed to proceed in the
following manner : — .

A place having been fixed on by the managers for forming the
Institution, spacious and airy rooms will be prepared for the recep-
tion and public exhibition of all such new and mechanical inventions
and improvements as shall be thought worthy of the public notice,
and more especially of all such contrivances as shall tend to in-
crease the conveniences and comforts of life, to promote domestic
economy, to improve taste, or to promote useful industry.

The most perfect models of the full size will be provided, and
exhibited in different parts of this public repository, of all such new
mechanical inventions and improvements as are applicable to the
common purposes of life. Under this head will be included: —

Cottage Fire-places, and Kitchen Utensils for Cottagers.

A complete Kitchen for a Farm-house, with all the necessary Utensils.

A complete Kitchen, with Kitchen Utensils, for the family of a gentle-
man of fortune.

A complete Laundry for a gentleman’s family, or for a public hospital,
including Boilers, Washing-room, Ironing-room, Drying-room, etc.

Several of the most approved German, Swedish, and Russian Stoves,
for heating rooms and passages.

In order that those who visit this establishment may be enabled
to acquire more just ideas of these various mechanical contrivances,

756 Proposals for Forming

and of the circumstances on which their peculiar merit principally
depends, the machinery exhibited will, as far as it shall be possible,
be shown in action, or in actual use ; and with regard to many of the
articles it is evident that this can be done without any difficulty, and
with very little additional expense.

Open Chimney Fire-places on the most approved principles will be
fitted up as models in the different rooms, and fires will be kept
constantly burning in them during the cold season.

Ornamental as well as economical Grates, for Open Chimney Fire-
places, will also be exhibited ; as also

Ornamental Stoves, in the form of elegant Chimney-pieces, for halls,
drawing-rooms, eating-rooms, etc.

It is likewise proposed to exhibit working models, on a reduced
scale, of that most curious and most useful machine, the steam-
engine.

Of Brewers’ Boilers, with improved Fire-places.

Of Distillers’ Coppers, with improved Fire-places and improved Con-
densers.

Of large Boilers for the kitchens of hospitals, and of Ships’ Coppers,
with improved Fire-places.

Farther, it is proposed to exhibit, in the repository of the Insti-

tution : —

Models of Ventilators for supplying rooms and ships with fresh air.

Models of Hot-houses, with such improvements as can be made in
their construction.

Models of Lime-kilns, on various constructions.

Models of Boilers, Steam-boilers, etc., for preparing food for cattle
that are stall-fed.

Models of Cottages on various constructions.

Spinning-wheels and Looms, on various constructions, for the use of
the poor, and adapted to their circumstances, together with such
other machinery as may be useful in giving them employment at
home.

Models of all such new-invented Machines and Implements as bid
fair to be of use in Husbandry.

Models of Bridges, on various constructions ; together with mode/s of
all such other machines and useful instruments as the managers
of the Institution shall deem worthy of the public notice, and
proper to be publicly exhibited in the repository of the Insti-
tution.

a Public Lnstitution, 757

It is proposed that each article exhibited should be accompanied
with a detailed account or description of it, properly illustrated by
correct drawings. The name of the maker and the place of his
abode will also be mentioned in this account, together with the
price at which he is willing to furnish the article to buyers.

In order to carry into effect the second object of the Institution,
namely, TEACHING THE APPLICATION OF SCIENCE to the USEFUL
PURPOSES OF LIFE, a lecture-room will be fitted up for philosophical
lectures and experiments ; and a complete LABORATORY AND PHIL-
OSOPHICAL APPARATUS, with the necessary instruments, will be pro-
vided for making chemical and other philosophical experiments.

_ In fitting up this lecture-room (which will never be used for any
other purpose than for giving lectures in Natural Philosophy and
Philosophical Chemistry), convenient places will be provided and re-
served for the subscribers ; and care will be taken to warm and light
the room properly, and provide for a sufficient supply of fresh air,
so as to render it comfortable and salubrious.

In engaging lecturers for the Institution, care will be taken by
the managers to invite none but men of the first eminence in sci-
ence to officiate in that most important and most distinguished
situation ; and no subjects will ever be permitted to be discussed
at these lectures but such as are strictly scientifical, and immediately
connected with that particular branch of science publicly announced
as the subject of the lecture. The managers to be responsible for
the strict observance of this regulation.

In case there should be places to spare in the lecture-room, per-
sons not subscribers will, on the recommendation of a subscriber,
and on paying a certain small sum to be determined by the mana-
gers, be permitted to attend the public lectures, or any one or more
of them.

Among the various branches of science that will occasionally be
made the subjects of these public lectures may be reckoned the
following, viz. These lectures will treat :—

Of Heat, and its application to the various purposes of life.

Of the Combustion of Inflammable Bodies, and the relative quantities
of Heat producible by the different substances used as fuel.

Of the Management of Fire and the Economy of Fuel.

Of the Principles of the Warmth of Clothing.

Of the Effects of Heat and of Cold, and of hot and of cold winds, on
the human body, in sicknessand in health.

758 Proposals for Forming

Of the Effects of breathing vitiated and confined air.

Of the Means that may be used to render Dwelling-houses comfort-
able and salubrious.

Of the Methods of procuring and preserving Ice in Summer; and of
the best principles for constructing Ice-houses.

Of the Means of preserving Food in different seasons and in different
climates.

Of the Means of cooling Liquors in hot weather, without the assist-
ance of ice.

Of Vegetation, and of the specific nature of those effects that are pro-
duced by Manures; and of the Art of composing Manures, and
adapting them to the different kinds of soil.

Of the Nature of those changes that are produced on substances ns
as food in the various processes of cookery.

Of the Nature of those changes which take place in the Digestion of
Food.

Of the Chemical Principles of the process of Tanning Leather; and
of the objects that must particularly be had in view in attempts to
improve that most useful art.

Of the Chemical Principles of the art of making Soap; of the art of
Bleaching; of the art of Dyeing; and in general of a// the Me-
chanical Arts, as they apply to the various branches of manu-
facture.

Of the Funds of the Institution.

It is proposed to raise the money necessary for defraying the
expense of forming this Institution, and also for the future expense
of keeping it up, in the following manner : —

st, By the sums subscribed by the original founders and sole
proprietors of the Institution, at fifty guineas each person, to be but
once paid ;

2dly, By the sums contributed by those who shall subscribe for
life at ten guineas each person, to be but once paid ;

3dly, By the sums contributed by the anual subscribers, at two
guineas fer annum for each person ;

4thly, By the particular donations and legacies that may be
expected to be made for the purpose of extending and improving so
interesting and so useful an Institution ; and,

Lastly, By the sums that shall be received at the door from
strangers who shall visit the repository of the Institution, or who
shall obtain leave to frequent the philosophical lectures.

a Public [nstitution. 759

Privileges of the Original Subscribers or Proprietors of the Institution.

imo. ‘These subscribers, who will mever be called upon for any
Jurther contributions after the sum subscribed (fifty guineas) shall
have been once paid, will be effectually secured against all future
legal claims and demands upon them, on account of any debts the
managers of the Institution may contract, as a charter for the Insti-
tution will be applied for and obtained, for the express purpose of
providing for that security, before any other step shall be taken for
carrying this plan into execution, and before any part of the money
subscribed will be demanded.

2do. Proprietors will not be deemed liable to serve, either as
managers or as visitors, against their consent; and none will be
considered as candidates for either of those offices, or will be
entered on the lists as candidates, or be proposed as such, except
it be those who shall have previously signified their willingness to
serve in one of those offices in case of their being elected.

3to. For the still greater security of the proprietors, as well as
to found the Institution on a more solid basis, one half of the sums
subscribed by the original subscribers and proprietors of the Insti-
tution will be permanently vested in the public funds, or in the
purchase of freehold property, and the annual produce thereof
employed in defraying the expense of keeping up the Institution.

4fo. Each original subscriber and proprietor of the Institution
to be an hereditary governor of the Institution; to have a per-
petual ¢ransferable share in all the property belonging to it; to
have a voice in the election of the managers of the Institution, as
also in the election of the committee of visitors; to have more-
over two /ransferable tickets of perpetual admission into the estab-
lishment, and into every part of it, and two ¢vansferadble tickets of
admission to all the public philosophical lectures and experiments.

540. Although the shares of proprietors and all the privileges
annexed to them are hereditary, and are also transferable by sale or
by donation, yet those to whom such shares are conveyed by sale or
by donation must, in order to their being rendered capable of hold-
ing them, have obtained the approbation and consent of the majority
of the managers for the time being. Those who shall become pos-
sessed of these shares by inheritance will not stand in need of the
consent of the managers to be qualified to hold them, and to enjoy
the rights and privileges annexed to them.

760 Proposals for Forming

6/0. Proprietors’ tickets will admit any persons who shall be the
bearers of them. ;

7mo. Proprietors will have the privilege of recommending 'per-
sons for admittance to the philosophical lectures and experiments ;
and the persons so recommended will be admitted in all .cases
where there shall be room for their accommodation, provided that the
persons so admitted conform to the rules and regulations which will
be established by the managers for the preservation of order and
decorum within the walls of the Institution.

8vo. No more than forty per cent. of the sum subscribed by each
proprietor will be wanted immediately, and the remainder may be
furnished in three equal payments at the expiration of the three
next succeeding half years ; but it will be in the option of proprie-
tors to pay the whole sum of fifty guineas at once, if they should
prefer doing it.

Privileges of the Subscribers for Life.

Each subscriber of this class will receive ove ticket for life, but
not transferable, of free admission into the Institution, and into
every part of it; together with ove other ticket for life, but not trans-
ferable, of free admission to all public philosophical lectures and
experiments.

Privileges of Annual Subscribers.

Each annual subscriber will receive ove ticket for one year, but
not transferable, of admission into the Institution, and into every
part of it; as also ove ticket for one year, but not transferable, of
admission to all the public philosophical lectures and experiments.
Subscribers of this class will, moreover, have a right of becoming
subscribers for life, on paying at any time within the year for which
they subscribe an additional sum of eight guineas.

Privileges that are common to Subscribers of all Denominations.

1mo. Subscribers for life and annual subscribers, as well as
the proprietors of the Institution, will be entitled to have copies
or drawings (made at their own expense, however) of any of the
models in the repository, and this even when such copies are de-
signed for the use of their friends, as well as when they are wanted
for their own private use; and, for their better and more speedy
accommodation, workshops will be prepared, and workmen provided

a Public [nstitution. 761

under the direction of the managers, for executing such work prop- |
erly and at reasonable prices. And, to prevent mistakes, all copies
or drawings that shall be made of the machines, models, and plans
lodged in the repository of the Institution, will be examined by per-
sons appointed for that purpose, and marked with the seal or stamp
of the Institution.

2do. Tradesmen and artificers employed in executing any work
after any of the models lodged in the repository will, on the recom-
mendation of a proprietor or of a subscriber for life or for one
year, be allowed free access to such model as often as shall be nec-
essary ; and any workman or artificer so recommended, who shall
be willing to furnish to buyers any article exhibited in the reposi-
tory that is in his line of business, will be allowed to place a speci-
men of such article of his manufacture in the repository, with his
name and place of abode attached to it, together with the price at
which he can furnish it, such specimen having been examined and
approved by the managers.

Of the Government and Management of the Institution.

tmo. All the affairs of the Institution will be directed and gov-
erned by ime managers, chosen by, and from among, the proprie-
tors of the Institution.

2do. For the greater convenience of the proprietors, and to spare
them the trouble of a general meeting, all the elections of mana-
gers, after the first, will be made by ballot, by means of sealed lists
of names sent in by the proprietors individually to the Institution,
which lists will be opened, and the result of the election ascertained
and published by the united committees of the managers and of
the visitors for the time being.

3ti0. The first set of managers will be chosen by the first fifty or
more original subscribers, at a general meeting of them to be held
for that purpose ; and of this first set of managers three will be
chosen to serve three years, three to serve ¢wo years, and three to
serve one year, reckoned from the 25th day of March, 1799.

4to. All managers, as well those of the first set as others, will be
capable of being ve-e/ected without limitation.

540. The elections of managers to be made annually on the
25th day of the month of March ;* and fourteen days previous to

* Tf any other season should be thought more convenient for these elections,
it will of course be chosen instead of that here proposed.

762 Proposals for Forming

each election the managers for the time being will send to each
proprietor individually a printed list containing the names of all
such of the proprietors as shall have offered or consented to be can-
didates for the places among the managers that are to be filled up.
On this printed list, which each proprietor will receive, he will indi-
cate the persons to whom he gives his suffrage, by making a mark
with a pen and ink, in the form of a small cross, just before the
names of those persons ; and, this being done, he will seal up the
list without signing it, and send it to the Institution, directed “To
the United Committees of the Managers and of the Visitors.” In
order that these lists may be recognized on their being returned to
the Institution, they will all be marked with the stamp of the Insti-
tution, previous to their being issued or sent to the proprietors.
And, for still further security, each proprietor will be requested to
send in his or her sealed list of names under an additional cover,
signed with his or her own name, which additional cover will be
taken off, and all the sealed lists mixed together in an urn, previous
to any of them being opened ; an arrangement that will effectually
prevent the vote of any individual subscriber being known.

6¢o. The managers are to serve in that office without any pay or
emolument, or pecuniary advantage whatever ; and by their accept-
ance of their office they shall be deemed solemnly to pledge them-
selves to the proprietors of the Institution and to the public for the
faithful discharge of their duty as managers, and also for their strict
adherence to the fundamental principles of the government of the
Institution as established at its formation.

7mo, The managers are to take care that the property of the
Institution, as far as it shall be practicable, be insured against acci-
dents by fire.

8vo. The managers will cause exact and detailed accounts to be
kept of all the property belonging to the Institution, as also of all
receipts and expenditures. They will also keep regular minutes of
all their proceedings, and will take care to preserve the most exact
order and the strictest economy in the management of all the affairs
and concerns of the Institution.

gmo. ‘The managers are never, on any pretext, or in any manner
whatever, to dispose of any money or property of any kind belong-
ing to the Institution in premiums, as the design or object of the
Institution is NoT TO GIVE REWARDS to the authors of ingenious
inventions, but to diffuse the knowledge of such improvements as bid

:
.

— a ee ee ee ee

a Public [nstitution. 763

Sair to be of general use, and to facilitate the general introduction
of them; and to excite and assist the ingenious and the enter-
prising by the diffusion of science, and by awakening a spirit of
inquiry. :

1omo. The ordinary meetings of the managers for the despatch
of the current business of the Institution will be held weekly, namely,
on every ' , at the hour of ; and: extraordinary
meetings will be held as often as shall be found necessary.

11mo. Any three or more of the managers being present at any
ordinary or at an extraordinary meeting, the others having been
duly summoned, to be a quorum,

12mo. The managers will be authorized to make all such stand-
ing orders and regulations as they shall deem necessary to the
preservation of order and decorum in the Institution, as also such
regulations respecting the manner of transacting the business of the
Institution as they shall think proper and convenient, or that may
be necessary in order to regulate the responsibility of the mana-
gers for their acts and deeds: all such standing orders and regula-
tions must, however, in order to their being valid, be approved by
six at least of the managers, and they must all be published and
made known to all the proprietors.

Of the Committee of Visitors.

1mo. The committee of visitors will be composed of we per-
sons, the first set to be elected three months after the opening of
the Institution.

2do. Three persons of the nine of which this committee will
consist will be chosen for /Arce years, three of them to serve /wo
years, and three of them to serve one year, reckoned from the 25th of
March, 1799.

3tio. Any three or more of the members of this committee being
present at any meeting of the committee, the others having been
duly summoned, to make a quorum.

4to. It will be the business of this committee formally to inspect
and examine the Institution, and every part and detail of it, once.
every year, namely, on the 25th day of the month of March, and to
give a printed account or report to the proprietors, and to the sub-
scribers of all denominations, of its state and condition, and of the
degree and manner in which it is found to answer the important
ends for which it was designed. This committee will also once

764 Proposals for Forming

every year, namely, on the 25th of the month of March, examine
and audit the accounts of the receipts and expenditures of the Insti-
tution, kept by the managers or by their orders ; and the report of
the committee of visitors on this audit will always make the first
article in their public annual reports.

5/0. A person actually serving as a visitor will not be eligible
as a manager, nor can his name be put on the list of candidates for
that office till one whole year shall have elapsed after he shall have
ceased to belong to the committee of visitors. Those, however,
who serve as visitors will be capable of being re-elected on that
committee without limitation.

Miscellaneous Articles.

1mo. The managers will take care to procure, and to exhibit in
the repository, as early as possible, models of all such new and use-
ful mechanical inventions and improvements as shall, from time to
time, be made in this or in any other country.

2do. All presents to the Institution, and all new purchases and
acquisitions of every kind, will be and remain the joint property of
the proprietors of the Institution, and of their heirs and assigns ;
and all the surplus of the income of the Institution, over and above
what shall be found necessary for maintaining it and keeping it
up, will be employed by the managers in making additions to the
local accommodations of the Institution, or in augmenting the col-
lection of models, or in making additions to the philosophical appa-
ratus, accordingly as the managers of the Institution for the time
being shall deem most useful.

3tto. In order that the proprietors of the Institution, and the
subscribers, may have the earliest notice of all new discoveries and
useful improvements that shall be made, from time to time, not only
in this country but also in all the different parts of the world the
managers will employ the proper means for obtaining as early as
possible, from every part of the British empire and from all foreign
countries, authentic accounts of all such new and interesting
discoveries in the various branches of science and in arts and
manufactures, and also of all such new and useful mechanical im-
provements as shall be made; and a room will be set apart in the
Institution where all such information will be lodged, and where it
will be kept for the sole and exclusive use and inspection of the
proprietors and subscribers, and where no stranger will ever be
admitted.

a Public Institution. 765

SUPPLEMENT.

Since the foregoing sheets were printed off and distributed among
the original subscribers, a meeting of the subscribers has been held,
when the following resolutions were unanimously taken : —

INSTITUTION ‘
Jor diffusing the Knowledge, and facilitating the general Introduction
of useful Mechanical Inventions and Improvements ; and for teach-
ing, by Courses of Philosophical Lectures and Experiments, the Ap-
plication of Science to the common Purposes of Life.

At a general meeting of the PROPRIETORS, held at the house
of the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., K.B., in Soho
Square, on the 7th day of March, 1799,

The Right Hon. Sir JosepH Banxs in the Chair,
the following list of the proprietors, and original subscribers of
fifty guineas each, was read: —

Str RosBertT AINSLIE, Bart. WILLIAM MANNING, Esq., M.P.

J. J. ANGERSTEIN, Esq. The EARL OF MANSFIELD.

RIGHT Hon. Sir JOSEPH BANKS, K.B. The EARL oF Morton, K.T.
THOMAS BERNARD, Esq. Lorp OssuULSTON.

ScHOPE BERNARD, Esq., M.P. THOMAS PALMER, Esq.

The EARL OF BESBOROUGH. The Lorp ViscouNT PALMERSTON, M.P.
ROWLAND BuRDON, Esq., M.P. EDWARD Parry, Esq.

James Burton, Esq. Ricut Hon. THOMAS PELHAM, M.P.
TIMOTHY BRENT, Esq. Joun PENN, Esq.

HENRY CAVENDISH, Esq. WiLtiAM Morton PTT, Esq., M.P.
Ricu. CLARK, Esq., Chamb. of London. Sir JAMES PULTENEY, Bart., M.P.
Sir Joun Corpoys, K.B. Sir JoHN BucHANAN RIDDELL, Bart.
JouHN CRAUFURD, Esq. CounT RUMFORD.

The DuKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G. S1rR JOHN SINCLAIR, Bart., M.P.
ANDREW DOuGLAS, Esq. LorD SOMERVILLE.

The Lorp BisHop OF DURHAM. Joun SPALDING, Esq., M.P.

The EARL OF EGREMONT. The EARL SPENCER, K.G,

GEoRGE ELtIs, Esq., M.P. Sir GEORGE STAUNTON, Bart.
JosErH GROTE, Esq. Joun SuLLIVAN, Esq.

Sir RopertT BATESON HARVEY, Bart. RICHARD JOSEPH SULIVAN, Esq.

Sir Joun Cox HIppEstey, Bart. LorD TEIGNMOUTH.

Henry Hoare, Esq. Joun THOMSON, Esq.

Lorp Hosarrt. SAMUEL THORNTON, Esq., M.P.
Lorp HOLLAND. HENRY THORNTON, Esq., M.P.
HENRY Hope, Esq. GEORGE VANSITTART, Esq., M.P.
Tuomas Hope, Esq. WILLIAM WILBERFORCE, Esq., M.P.
Lorp KeirTu, K.B. The EArt oF WINCHELSEA.
WILLIAM LusHINGTON, Esq., M.P. Hon. JAMES STUART WorTLEY, M.P.

Sir Joun MAcPHERSON, Bart., M.P. Str WILLIAM YouNG, Bart., M.P.

766 | Proposals Jor forming

The following resolutions were agreed to unanimously: —

I. That, before any measures are taken for carrying the plan
into execution, a petition be presented to His Majesty, praying that
he would be graciously pleased to grant a CHARTER to the INsTI
TUTION. | |

II. That an outline of the plan be laid before the Right Hon-
ourable Mr. Pirr and His Grace the DuKE or PorTLAND.

III. That, for these purposes, it is expedient to elect the com-
mittee of managers.

IV. That the following proprietors (who have agreed to serve
in case they shall be elected) be now elected as the jirst managers of
the Institution : —

For three years.
The Ear SPENCER.
CounT RuMForRD.
RICHARD CLARK, Esq.

For two years.
The Eart or EGREMONT.
Rr. Hon. Str Josepu BANKS.
Ricu. JOSEPH SULIVAN, Esq.

For one year.
The EARL oF Morton.
The Rr. Hon. THomas PELHAM.
THOMAS BERNARD, Esq.

V. That the said managers be desired to solicit a charter for
the Institution, upon principles conformable to the Proposals which
have been printed and distributed, and (as soon as the charter is
obtained) to publish the plan for the benefit of the public, in such
manner as they shall deem most expedient ; and also to take pre-
paratory measures for opening the INSTITUTION.

That these resolutions be inserted in the public papers.
Jos. Banks, Chairman.

Sir Joseph Banks having quitted the chair,

a Public Lnstitution. 767

RESOLVED,
That the thanks of the meeting be given to him for his conduct
in the chair.

N.B.— Count Rumford’s original Proposals for forming the
Institution may be had of Messrs. Cadell and Davies, in the
Strand.

Since this meeting of the PROPRIETORS, a meeting of the MANA-
GERS has been held, and the following resolutions taken : —

At the first meeting of the MaNaGERs of the INnstiTuTION, held
at the house of the Right Honourable Sir Joseph Banks, in Soho
Square, the gth of March, 1799: —

On a motion made by Count Rumrorp,

I. Resolved, That Sir JosepH Banks be requested to take the
chair ; and that he do continue to preside at all future meetings
of the managers, until a charter shall have been obtained from His
Majesty for the Institution.

II. Resolved, ‘That all acts and deeds of the managers, in car-
rying on the business of the Institution, be transacted and done in
the name of “Ze MANAGERS of “he INSTITUTION.”

III. Resolved, That, at each meeting of the managers, one of
the managers present be elected by a majority of those present, to
act as SECRETARY to the managers at that meeting.

IV. Resolved, That the minutes of the proceedings of each
meeting of the managers for the despatch of the business of the
Institution, as well as all orders, resolutions, and other acts and
deeds of the managers, be signed by the person who acts as presi-
dent, and also by the person who acts as secretary, at the meeting at
which such business is transacted.

V. Lesolved, That the persons present at this meeting do now
proceed to make choice of one of their number to act as secre-
tary at the present meeting.

VI. Resolved, That Tuomas BERNARD, Esq., is duly elected to
act as secretary at the present meeting.

VII. Resolved, ‘That the Proposals for forming the Institution,
as published by Counr Rumrorp, be approved and adopted by

768 Proposals for Forming

the managers, subject, however, to such partial modifications as
shall be by them found to be necessary or useful. _

VIII. Resolved, That the Eart of Morton, the EarL SPENCER,
Sir JosepH Banks, and Mr. PELHAM, or any one or more of
them, be requested to lay the Proposals for forming the Institu-
tion before HIS MAJESTY and the ROYAL FAMILY, and
before Hits Mayesty’s Ministers and the GREAT OFFICERS OF
STATE.

IX. Resolved, That the Proposals for forming the Institution
be laid before the MEMBERS of BOTH HouSES OF PARLIAMENT, and
also before the members of His Mayjesty’s Most HONOURABLE
Privy CounciL, and the TWELVE JUDGES.

Messrs. Cadell and Davies, booksellers in the Strand, having
generously offered to make a donation to the Institution of 500
copies of the original Proposals for forming the Institution, pub-
lished by Count Rumford, —

X. Resolved, That the thanks of the managers be given to
Messrs. Cadell and Davies for this donation ; that it be accepted ;
and that these 500 copies of the Proposals be distributed among
such persons as the managers may think most likely to give oe
assistance in forming the Institution.

Although the author of the foregoing Proposals is
anxious to avoid every appearance of taking a liberty
with his readers, which he is very sensible he has no
right to take, and which would be improper on many
accounts, — that of soliciting as a favour their counte-
nance and support in carrying into execution the plan
he has had the honour to lay before them, — yet as it
is possible that some of those who may read these Pro-
posals may be disposed to give that assistance in some
one or more of the various ways in which it can be
given and received, to save trouble to those who may

a Public Institution. _ 769

be so disposed, the two following leaves, which when |
taken out of this pamphlet will form an open letter,
are annexed to this publication; which paper being
divided into separate columns, distinguished according
to the different heads under which the subscriptions
can be regularly entered, those who are disposed to
contribute to the execution of the plan are requested
to put down their names and places of abode in the
column they may choose, and, after sealing up the
paper with a wafer, send it according to its address.

Those who are desirous of becoming proprietors of
the Institution are requested to consider themselves as
candidates for proprietors’ places until they shall have
been elected as such by a majority of the managers.

Those who put down their names in the lists as
subscribers for life, or as annual subscribers, will not
be called upon for the sums subscribed till after the
Institution shall have been opened.

Those who make doxatzons to the Institution are.
requested to fix the time or periods when the sums
proposed to be given may be called for by the man-
agers.

VOL Iv. , 49

770 Proposals for Forming a Public Institution.

To
The Right Honourable Sir Foseph Banks, Bart., KB. 4 5

Soho Square.

NAMES AND PLACES OF ABODE OF PERSONS WHO ARE WILLING TO CONTRIBUTE
TOWARDS FORMING AND MAINTAINING A PUBLIC INSTITUTION ror
DIFFUSING THE KNOWLEDGE AND FACILITATING THE GENERAL INTRODUC-
TION OF USEFUL MECHANICAL INVENTIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS, ETC.

Candidates for proprietors’ Subscribers for life at 10 | Annual subscribers at 2 guineas
shares at 50 guineas each. ; guineas each. each.

Those who are desirous of making DONATIONS to the Institution are
requested to put down their Names and Places of Abode, together-with the
sums they are willing to give, on the opposite side of this leaf.

PROSPECTUS OF THE ROYAL INSTITU-
TION .OF GREAT BRITAIN*

T is an undoubted truth that the successive im-
provements in the condition of man, from a state
of ignorance and barbarism to that of the highest
cultivation and refinement, are usually effected by the
aid of machinery in procuring the necessaries, the
comforts, and the elegancies of life; and that the pre-
eminence of any people in civilization is, and ought
ever to be, estimated by the state of industry and
mechanical improvement among them.

In proof of this great and striking truth, no other
argument requires to be offered than an immediate
reference to the experience of all ages and _ places.
The various nations of the earth, the provinces of
each nation, the towns, and even the villages of the
same province, differ from each other in their accom-
modations; and are in every respect more flourishing
and populous, the greater their activity in establishing
new channels of industry. Successful exertions give
courage to the spirit of invention; the sciences flour-

* After mature deliberation upon all the terms in the European languages,
which have been used to distinguish public bodies, such as schools, academies,
colleges, universities, societies, corporations, etc., it was found that every one
is either appropriated to well-known establishments, or less adapted to the views
of the present society than the word INSTITUTION, already well known for
near a century in the famous “ Zzstituto” of Bologna.

pe Prospectus of the Royal Institution,

ish; and, as the moral and physical powers of man
increase, new methods of improvement become prac-
ticable, which in an earlier state of society would have
appeared altogether visionary.

Who among the ancients would have listened to
the extraordinary scheme of writing books with such
rapidity that one man by this new art should perform
the work of twenty thousand amanuenses? What
philosopher would have given credit to the daring pro-
ject of navigating the widest oceans? or imagined
the astonishing effects of gunpowder? or even sus-
pected the useful and extended powers of the steam-
engine ? — discoveries which have changed the course
of human affairs, and of which the future effects can
scarcely yet be conjectured! The men of those early
ages, in the confidence of their own wisdom, might
have derided them as impossible or rejected them as
unnecessary; but, to those who enjoy the full effect
of these and numerous other instances of successful
invention, it surely becomes a duty to reason upon.
different principles, and to exert all means in their
power to give effect to the progress of improvement.
To point out the causes which impede this progress,
and to invite the public to join in effectually removing
them, is the purpose of the present address.

The slowness with which improvements of every
kind make their way into common use, and espe-
cially such improvements as: are most calculated to
be of general utility, is very remarkable, and forms a
striking contrast to the extreme avidity with which
those unmeaning changes are adopted, which folly
and caprice are continually bringing forth, and sending
into the world under the auspices of fashion. On the

Prospectus. of the Royal Lustitution. 773

first view of the subject, it appears very extraordinary
that any person should neglect or refuse to avail him-
self of a proposed invention or contrivance, which is
evidently calculated to facilitate his labour and increase
his comforts; but when we reflect on the power of
habit, and consider how difficult it is for a person even
to perceive the imperfections of instruments to which
he has been accustomed from his early youth, our sur-
prise will be very much diminished.

Many other circumstances are unfavourable to the
introduction of improvements. The very proposal of
any thing new carries with it something offensive, —
something that seems to imply superiority ; and even
that kind of superiority precisely to which mankind
are least disposed to submit. There are few who do
not feel ashamed and mortified at being obliged to
learn any thing new, after they have for a long time
been considered, and been accustomed to consider
themselves, as proficients in the business in which they
are engaged. Their awkwardness in their new appren-
ticeship, more especially when they are obliged to work
with tools with which they are not acquainted, tends
much to increase their dislike to the teacher and his
doctrine.

To these obstacles: torthe introduction of new im-
provements, we may add the innumerable mistakes,
voluntary and involuntary, committed by workmen
who are employed in any business which is new to
them, and which perhaps they neither understand nor
approve; and, what is still more to be feared, those
alterations which workmen in general, and more es-
pecially those who pride themselves on their ingenuity,
have an irresistible propensity to make when they are

774 Prospectus of the Royal Institution.

employed in executing any thing that is new. How
many useful inventions have been brought into dis-
repute by alterations intended and announced as im-
provements? It must be allowed, also, that some
cause for suspicion naturally arises, to manufacturers
and to the world at large, from frequent instances of
pretended inventions, destitute of all real value.

They who propose improvements are commonly sus-
pected of being influenced by interested motives; and
this suspicion, which is often but too well founded,
occasions little attention to be paid to such proposals
by the public.

Not only suspicion, but jealousy and envy, have too
often their share in obstructing the progress of im-
provement, and in preventing the adoption of plans
calculated to promote the public good.

The most meritorious exertions in favour of the public
prosperity are often viewed with suspicion, and the
fair fame that is derived from those exertions with
jealousy and envy; and many, who have too much
discernment not to perceive the merit of an undertak-
ing evidently useful, and too much regard for their
reputation not to appear to approve of it, are yet very
far from wishing it success.

This melancholy truth is but too well known, and
has more effect in deterring sensible and well-disposed
persons from offering to the public their plans for use-
ful improvements, than all the trouble and difficulty
that would attend the execution of them.

These are the chief causes which prevent the ad-
vancement and reception of valuable inventions already
made; and they operate also against the production
of such as might be made by ingenious men, if they

be re Ste ae? a

Prospectus of the Royal Institution. 775

were not discouraged by such impediments. But there |
is another serious obstacle, which is produced even by
the flourishing condition of society, resulting from
those very improvements. From the subdivision of
labour which naturally takes place where active indus-
try and the security of property are established, it
happens that almost every man becomes confined to
some appropriate occupation, seldom regarding, or even
knowing, what may be the processes or operations
to which the material of his trade may be subjected,
before or after it passes through his hands; still less
does he know what is performed in other branches of
trade and manufacture. The acquisition of wealth
almost totally engages the attention of individuals thus
employed. Hence those vain pretensions to superior
excellence; that scorn of improvement, because im-
provement supposes previous imperfection ; and those
earnest endeavours at secrecy and monopoly; in addi-
tion to which there is a natural fear of risk, which
deters men from entering upon new undertakings, of
which they are not qualified to form a judgment. It
cannot therefore be wondered that the generality of
manufacturers should possess neither the knowledge,
the inclination, nor the spirit to make improvements.
Among the various operators who take their stations
in the great laboratory of civil society, there are others
who cannot be classed either with manufacturers or
merchants, though they perform a great and very es-
sential part of the general work. These men are
philosophers, who have devoted themselves to the
labour of observing, comparing, analyzing, inventing.
The movements of the universe, the relations and
habitudes of men and of things, causes and effects,

776 Prospectus of the Royal Institution.

motives and consequences, are the powers on which
they meditate for the development of truth, by those
remote analogies which escape the vulgar mind. It is
the business of these philosophers to examine every
operation of nature or of art, and to establish general
theories for the direction and conducting of future
processes. Invention seems tobe peculiarly the prov-
ince of the man of science; his ardour in the pursuit
of truth is unremitted; discovery is his harvest; utility,
his reward. Yet it may be demanded whether his
moral and intellectual habits are precisely such as may
be calculated to produce useful practical improvements.
Detached, as he usually is, from the ordinary pursuits
of life; little, if at all, accustomed to contemplate the
scheme of profit and loss, — will he descend from the
sublime general theories of science, and enter into
the detail of weight, measure, price, quality, or the
individual properties of the materials, which must be
precisely known before a chance of success can be
gained? Does he know them? will he become an
operative artist? or can he make advances of this nat-
ure, if he do not? Are his motives and his powers
equal to this task? Surely they are not. The prac-
tical knowledge, the stimulus of interest, and the capi-
tal of the manufacturer, are here wanting; while the
manufacturer, on his part, is equally in want of the
general information and accurate reasoning of the man
of science.

There appear to be but three direct methods of
diminishing or removing these difficulties: 1. To give
premiums or prizes to the inventors; 2. To grant
temporary monopolies; and, 3. To direct the public
attention to the arts, by an institution for diffusing

ee eee
ie

Prospectus of the Royal Institution. 799,

the knowledge and facilitating the general introduction
of useful mechanical inventions and improvements.
The frst already constitutes the object of a most re-
spectable society;* the second is already provided for
by the law of the land; and the ¢hzrd is now offered
to the consideration of the public.

The two chief purposes of the Rovat InstITUTION
being the speedy and general diffusion of the knowl-
edge of all new and useful improvements, in whatever
quarter of the world they may originate ; and teaching
the application of scientific discoveries, to the improve-
ment of arts and manufactures in this country, and to
the increase of domestic comfort and convenience, —
these objects will constantly be had in view, not only
in the arrangement and execution of the plan, but also
in the future management of the Institution.

In the execution of the plan, the managers have pur-
chased, with the approbation of the proprietors, a very
spacious and commodious house in Albemarle Street,
where convenient and airy rooms will be prepared for
the reception and public exhibition of all such new
mechanical inventions and improvements as shall be
thought worthy of the public notice, and proper to be
publicly exhibited; and, more especially, of all such
contrivances as tend to increase the conveniences and
comforts of life, to promote domestic economy, to im-
prove taste, or to advance useful industry.

The completest working models or constructions of
the full size will be provided, and exhibited in different
parts of this public repository, of all such new mechan-
ical inventions as are applicable to the common pur-
poses of life.

* The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com-
merce, instituted 1753.

778 Prospectus of the Royal Lnstitution.

Every consideration unites in showing how highly
important it must be to the progress of real improve-
ments to have some general collection of useful me-
chanical contrivances, constructed on the most approved
principles, and kept constantly in actual use, to which
application can be made as to a standard, in order to
determine whether the failure of experiments be ow-
ing to errors in principle, or to the mistakes of work-
men employed in the construction, or to those of the
servants intrusted with the management of the ma-
chinery. :

How useful, also, would such a repository be for
furnishing models and for giving instruction to ar-
tificers who may be employed in imitating them!
Workmen must see what they are to imitate: bare
description will not suffice to give them ideas so pre-
cise as to prevent error in the execution of the work.

But this is also the case with mankind in general,
and even with the best informed; for how great is
that effort of the imagination which is necessary to
form an adequate idea of what-we have not seen!
Descriptions, though they be illustrated by the best
drawings, can give but very imperfect ideas of things;
and the impressions they leave are faint and transi-
tory, and seldom excite that degree of ardour which
ought to accompany the pursuit of interesting im-
provements. Something wzszd/e and tangible is nec-
essary to fix the attention and determine the choice.

This tacit recommendation from a respectable public
institution, where things judged worthy of public notice
will be exposed to view, must evidently tend to produce
the happiest effects. The manufacturer, as well as the
consumer, will become instructed as to the real value

Prospectus of the Royal Institution. 779

of new objects presented to view. The managers of ©
such an institution will be above all suspicion of in-
terested motives: their situation in life places them
out of the reach of the mean jealousy of interested
competition; and if, contrary to all expectation, the
effects of prejudice should, in some respect or other,
be directed against their laudable exertions, a firm
perseverance in their duties must at length remove
that ignorance which alone can give them birth.

An institution of this nature is peculiarly calculated
to produce that unity of pursuit between manufacturers
and men of science, which is absolutely necessary for
attaining perfection in the theory as well as in the
practice of all the arts of civilized life. The philoso-
pher will behold and contemplate the prodigious num-
ber of truly scientific experiments, which are hourly
performed in the workshops of ignorant men; and the
artist, by being taught to seize the general outline and
connection of the manual operations by which he ob-
tains his bread, may learn to simplify his often tedious
processes, and give increased value to the product of
his labours.

The .collection and exhibition of models and
machines will be rendered more effectual in their
consequences, by detailed accounts or descriptions,
illustrated by correct drawings. Arrangements will
be made and correspondences established for obtaining
the earliest and best information respecting every val-
uable improvement which may be made either at home .
or in foreign countries. Visitations of manufactories,
careful examinations of the processes of the arts, regu-
lar investigations, with accurate reports and registers of
those operations and proceedings which may constitute

780 Prospectus of the Royal Institution.

the objects of inquiry or information, will, no doubt,
afford very interesting results. To this growing mass
of instruction the managers will add a library of all the
best treatises on the subjects for which this institution
is established, as well as those publications of acade-
mies and journals of repute which exhibit the trans-
actions of ingenious men in every part of the world.

In order to carry into effect the second object of the
Institution, namely, that of teaching the application of —
sczence to the useful purposes of life, a \ecture-room will
be fitted up for philosophical lectures and experiments,
and a complete laboratory and philosophical apparatus,
with the necessary instruments for making chemical
and philosophical experiments; and men of the first
eminence in science will be engaged to officiate in this
essential department.

It may appear necessary to give some statement or
enumeration of the several views to which the attention
and the powers of this Institution will be directed.
Such an enumeration, if made with only a small de-
gree of the precision to which it is entitled, would
grasp at once the whole extent and disposition of na-
tional industry. That man must labour for his food,
and defend himself from the inclemencies of the sea-
sons, from the attacks of ferocious animals, and from
the still more pernicious operations and influence of
vice in his fellow-creatures, are inevitable decrees of
Providence! ‘He must be nourished, he must -be
clothed: houses, towns, fortresses, roads, canals, car-
riages, ships, instruments of manufacture, weapons of
offence and defence, the subdivision of labour, com-
mercial intercourse, and political regulation, — all these
must be established. This rapid association of words

Prospectus of the Royal Institution. 781

and ideas, every one of which includes a science for
the supply and regulation of things in the highest
degree important to man, may serve, in the present
short outline, to lead the mind to some of those objects
which of necessity must constitute the pursuits of an
institution established for purposes so great and truly
dignified.

But though the extent and importance of the various
departments from which the Institution may derive the
means of diffusing the knowledge of valuable improve-
ments, and teaching the application of science to the
advancement of manufactures, are too great to admit
of any comprehensive enumeration; and though, from
the intimate connection of all the several subjects of
art, it is at present impossible to give an outline of
that arrangement into which the communications of the
several lecturers must ultimately be disposed, —it seems
nevertheless expedient to state the leading topics, with
a view to assist the meditations of those who may be
disposed to enter more minutely into the plan of oper-
ations to be adopted by this institution.

The machines and models will afford a perpetual
source of instruction. The lectures will be more par-
ticularly useful to elucidate and apply those general
principles which are only in part observable in particu-
lar structures. The first principles of mechanics will be —
exhibited, and explained in the simple engines called
the mechanical. powers ; and to these will be. referred
the prodigious variety of tools, implements, and engines »
in common use, the curiosity and value of which, as
well as the improvements they are capable of receiv-
ing, are but too frequently overlooked. Under this
head will come the practical operations of various arts,

782 Prospectus of the Royal Institution.

and the mutual connection between the theory of
mechanics and the experimental knowledge of the
materials, — requisites which do not often accompany
each other, though of the utmost necessity. Under
the division of General Mechanics will be shown the
advantages we derive from those happy expedients
which abridge the labour of man in the culture of the
ground, the preparation of food and clothing by mills,
looms, and other engines; and the improvements still
possible in the wonderful arts of writing and printing,
the effects of which arts have already carried the intel-
lectual operations of society to a height they could by
no other means have attained without them.

The comprehensive science of modern chemistry
will be taught, and elucidated in the most simple and
perspicuous manner. ‘The processes of the laboratory
will be employed to disengage and exhibit those sub-
stances which, with regard to the present extent of our
knowledge, are considered as the elements of other
bodies. Their compounds will be shown; and the
history of their connection with the structure of the
earth, and their application to useful purposes, will be
explained. This elementary knowledge, so desirable,
and even indispensable, to the intelligent manufacturer,
will then be connected with the great operations of
the arts. The nature of soils, the effects of tillage, of
manures, and of the air and water of the atmosphere,
will also present themselves as subjects of research
and elucidation. From the first produce, or raw mate-
rials, we shall be led to the various processes they are
afterwards made to undergo. The making of bread,
the brewing of beer, the making of wine and other
fermented liquors; the distillation of ardent spirit;

Prospectus of the Royal Institution. 783

the preservation of animal and vegetable substances
used as food; the extraction of starch, farina, sugar,
and other valuable articles from vegetables; the mak-
ing of butter and cheese; and numerous other arts, —
afford proper subjects for investigation, and are no
doubt susceptible of very beneficial improvements.

Among the more elaborate arts may be classed those
of tanning, dyeing, calico-printing, bleaching, the fabri-
cation of pigments, crayons, inks, varnishes, and the
like, in many of which very rapid advances have been
lately made.

The mineral products afford materials for arts of the
highest importance to human society. How much do
our comforts, and how greatly does the extent of our
powers in mechanical operations and commercial in-
tercourse, depend upon the tenacity and hardness of
steel, and its singular property of magnetism! The
smelting of metallic ores, the casting and compounding
of metals, the preparation of acids and other useful
salts; the. indispensable articles of mortar, cements,
bricks, pottery, glass, and enamel, — will show to what
valuable purposes the crude minerals have been ap-
plied, and will bring to recollection no inconsiderable
number of beautiful inventions of our own time and
country.

From the vast field of individual operations, or sep-
arate manufactories, the inquirer will be led to other
works of more general consideration, which include
not only the objects of mechanics and chemistry,
strictly taken, but likewise those of commercial opera-
tion and political economy. Under this class of ob-
jects will be found the structure of roads and forms
of vehicles; the establishment of canals; the improve-

784 Prospectus of the Royal Institution.

ment of rivers, harbours, and coasts; the art of war,
its engines, materials, and edifices; and ‘in particular
that first object of the civil and military engineer, the
estimate of natural powers, or first movers, — namely,
animal strength, wind, water, steam, and. other elastic
and explosive substances. The methods of determin-
ing the magnitude of these forces will be shown, with
their application to mills and every other engine. The
exhibition of working models will particularly display
the powers of hydraulic machines, and that strikingly
useful apparatus the steam-engine.

But, above all, we shall find our contemplations urged
to the phenomena of Zgh/and heat, those great powers
which give life and energy to the universe, — powers
which, by the wonderful process of combustion, are
placed under the command of human beings, who,
without their assistance, would not only be incapable
of operating with effect on the materials around. them,
but could scarcely support their own existence, But
if it should be proved, as in fact it may, that in the
applications of fire, in the management of heat, and
in the production of light, we do not derive half the
advantage from combustion which might be obtained,
it will readily be admitted that these subjects must
constitute a very important part of the useful informa-
tion to be conveyed in the public lectures of the Royal
Institution.

But, in estimating the: probable usefulness of this
institution, we must not forget the public advantages
that will be derived from the general diffusion of a
spirit of experimental investigation and improvement
among the higher ranks of society.

When the rich shall take pleasure in contemplating

ip
-

Letter to Dr. Majendie. 785

and encouraging such mechanical improvements as
are really useful, good taste, with its inseparable com-
panion, good morals, will revive ; rational economy will
become fashionable; industry and ingenuity will be
honoured and rewarded; and the pursuits of all the
various classes of society will then tend to promote
the public prosperity.

LETTER TO THE REV. DR. MAJENDIE OF
WINDSOR.

BROMPTON Row, Dec. 5, 1799.

Rev. Sir, — Mr. Atkinson, who brought ‘yours to
me of yesterday’s date, will be the bearer of this letter.
He is a young man of good character and considerable
talents; and I believe you will find him intelligent and
well informed in the business in which. you are desirous
of employing him.

In answer to the questions you have done me the
honour to propose to me respecting the means that can
be used with the fairest prospect of success for relieving
the distresses to which the poor are exposed in con-
sequence of the present scarcity of provisions, I would
take the liberty to say that, in my opinion, the pro-
viding of food for them in public kitchens, and selling
it to them at such low price as they can afford to pay
for it, would be the best method that could be adopted
for that purpose; for, besides being an effectual relief
to the poor in the moment of difficulty and distress, if
in preparing this food care be taken to économize costly
and scarce ingredients (which, with due attention, may
be done to a surprising degree), the establishment of
these public kitchens would have a direct and very

VOL. Iv. 50

786 Letter to Dr. Majendie.

powerful tendency to diminish the consumption of those
articles of food the scarcity of which is most sensibly
felt by society at large.

To this we may add that the habit iis the poor
will acquire, in being fed from a public kitchen, of using
good and palatable and very cheap food, such as may
at any time be prepared by themselves in their own
dwellings at a much less expense than the victuals to
which they are accustomed can be provided, may lead
to a very important improvement in their system of
cookery. |

I verily believe that the inhabitants of Great Britain
might be well nourished, their hunger perfectly satisfied,
their health and strength preserved, and the pleasure
they enjoy in eating increased, with two thirds of the
food they now consume, were the art of cookery better
understood.

I would beg leave to observe that I would by no
means propose to furnish the victuals from the public
kitchens to all poor persons graézs. The aged and
infirm, and young children, cannot earn by their labour
enough to defray the expenses of their subsistence; but
those who are able to work should not be maintained
in idleness at the public expense, and most certainly
not in times of general distress. All that they can
reasonably expect is that they and their families be
enabled to subsist for as small a sum of money, or for
the same quantity of labour, in times of scarcity, as
their subsistence usually costs them in times of plenty.
To do more for them at any time would be unwise, and

in a time of general alarm would be productive of the.

most fatal evils. It would have a tendency to make
them careless, idle, and profligate ; and, instead of being

a a |

“
- -

aad
—

Letter to Dr. Mazjendte. 787

grateful for the assistance received, they would soon
learn to consider it as their right, and, if it were discon-
tinued, would demand it with clamorous importunity.
But if the assistance afforded to the poor be'so applied
as to be felt by them as an honourable reward for their
good conduct, and as an encouragement to persevere
in their industrious habits, in that case their morals
will rather be improved than injured by the benefits
received.

In all cases where it is possible, I think that a school
of industry for children should be connected with a
public kitchen; and it is certainly necessary that meas-
ures should be taken for giving constant employment to
the poor of all descriptions who are able to work. The
full amount of their earnings should always be given
to them. This is proper, not only to encourage their
industry, but also to keep alive in them a spirit of inde-
pendence, without which they soon become disheartened,
and extremely helpless and miserable. Where the poor
are paid for their labour, it is evidently just and proper
that they should defray, as far at least as it is in their
power, the expenses of their maintenance. It some-
times happens, though very rarely, that profitable em-
ployment cannot be found for the poor: they should,
nevertheless, be put to work; and even be kept to
labour constantly and diligently, under the direction
of those who, in such circumstances, must provide for
their subsistence. Were no profitable employment to
be found for them, and were there no other way of pre-
venting their being zd/e,some public work might be
undertaken for the sole purpose of employing them.

But in the neighbourhood of Windsor the poor can
hardly be in want of useful employment. His Majesty

788 Letter to Dr. Majendie.

has taken care to prevent that evil. It is much to be
wished that his opulent ‘subjects in Great Britain and
Ireland might be induced to follow his illustrious ex-
ample !

As industry and economy are the preventives and
the only cure for indigence, and as waz? is one of the
strongest inducements to labour, it is evident that much
caution is necessary in supplying the wants of the poor,
lest we destroy the effects of those incitements which
PROVIDENCE, in infinite wisdom; has contrived, to rouse
mankind from a state of indolence and torpid indiffer-
ence, and to stimulate them to that constant exertion
of their bodily strength and mental faculties which we
know to be necessary to the health of the body and of
the mind, and essential to happiness and virtue, It
seldom requires much ingenuity to make the assistance
that is given to the poor operate as an incitement to
industry; for rewards are as powerful motives as punish-
ments, and the truly benevolent will always prefer them.
But it should never be forgotten that all that which
is given to the poor, or done for them, that does not
encourage their industry, never can fail to have a con-
trary tendency, and consequently must do real harm to
them and to society. I must not, however, forget that
I am writing to a person well acquainted with human
nature, and who has meditated too long on this subject
to stand in need of such observations as these. Wishing
you all possible success in your laudable undertakings,
I am, with much respect,

Sir, your most obedient servant,
RUMFORD.
The Rev. H. Majenpir, D.D.

[This letter is printed from the Reports of the Society for Bettering
the Condition of the Poor, Vol. II. (1800).]

=r eee Oe ee

#
:
a

NOTE ON THE USE OF STEAM HEAT.

EVERAL individuals with whom I have not the

. honour of being personally acquainted have applied
to me within a short time for information with regard
to the history of the use of the vapour of boiling water
as a vehicle for conveying heat in the distillation of
brandies, —a process which I have recommended in
my Fifteenth Essay, published at. London in the month
of May, 1802, and deposited the same month in the
library of the Institute. Judging, from the extreme
eagerness which they have manifested to obtain this
information, and to have it in writing, that it is a ques-
tion of establishing certain facts which are held to be
important, I have thought it proper to give the Class
information in this matter.

It is not so much to claim the advantage of having
been the first to propose a useful process, and to teach
the means of assuring its success, as to avoid being
drawn into any sort of discussion in the matter, that I
have decided to address myself to the Class on this
occasion instead of furnishing the information in ques-
tion to an individual. Foreseeing, moreover, that the
Class might be called upon to give an opinion in this
matter, I take the liberty of submitting to it a transla-
tion of certain paragraphs from my Fifteenth Essay.

Here follow extracts from the Fifteenth Essay. See Vol. II., page
324, and following.

[This note is translated from the French original, which exists in
the Avocds verbal of the French Institute. ]

790 On the Use of Steam FTeat.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BEST MEANS OF HEATING
THE HALL IN WHICH THE ORDINARY MEETINGS
OF THE INSTITUTE ARE HELD.

WHEN the hall which it is desired to heat is very
| large, and has several large windows, it is indis-
pensably necessary to begin by making the windows
double; for without this precaution the continual cool-
ing which will take place through single windows will
be so great that, no matter how much wood is burned,
it will never be possible to warm the apartment uni-
formly throughout, and as soon as the fire ceases to
burn the room will quickly become cold.

There would be no use in employing the best stoves
to remedy these inconveniences, Close to the stoves
it will indeed be possible to feel the heat caused by
their calorific radiations; but nothing cam hinder the
currents of cold air, caused by the cooling which takes
place through the panes of glass, from spreading over
the entire extent of the room.

Those particles of air in the room which are in im-
mediate contact with the glass, finding themselves
specifically heavier on account of this change of tem-
perature, must necessarily descend and spread them-
selves over the pavement, forming currents which are
perceptibly cold, and no doubt very injurious to health.
But, when the windows are double, the layer of air
which is enclosed between the two windows being an
excellent non-conductor of heat, the inside window is
well protected from cold from without; and, the descend-
ing currents of cold air just mentioned no longer ex-
isting, it would be easy, with good stoves moderately

On the Use of Steam FTeat. 791

heated, to establish a pleasant and equable temperature,
and to make it permanent, at a small expense.

By doubling the windows of the hall of the Institute
which it is proposed to heat, it would be possible easily,
and without much expense, to obtain a very important
advantage besides that of which we have just spoken.

Since the hall is surrounded by very high buildings
which are close to it, there is a deficiency of light in
the hall which is very noticeable, especially in cloudy

‘ weather and towards the end of the day. By making

the windows double, and using panes of ground glass
for the outside windows, the amount of light in the
hall would be much increased, and the light will be
more equable, softer, and more agreeable.

As to the means of heating, it is certain, from the
results of several decisive experiments, that steam
stoves are preferable to every other sort, ra
for large apartments.

ist. The heat which these stoves distribute in a room
is singularly soft and agreeable, and never causes head-
ache, as iron stoves do which are heated directly by the
burning fuel.

2d. The temperature of a room warmed by steam
can be regulated at pleasure with the greatest ease by
means of a simple cock to close more or less the tube
which conducts the steam from the boiler into the
stove.

3d. As the boiler can without any inconvenience be
placed outside of the hall, and even at a considerable
distance, it may be put in an out-of-the-way place, where
there will be every security against accidents from fire,
and at the same time great ease in storing the wood
intended for the boiler, and in regulating its consump-

eo: On the Use of Steam Heat.

tion. It is necessary, however, to take care that the
boiler be placed lower than the stove, in order that
the water resulting from the condensation of steam in
the stove may return to the boiler.

4th. Since the boiler will be provided with safety-
valves, the stove will never be in danger either of being
burst by the elastic force of the steam, or of being
crushed by the pressure of the atmosphere; and on
this account it may be constructed without difficulty of

very thin sheets of copper, so that the expense of its

construction ought not to be very great.

5th. These stoves may be made of any desired form;
but the best shape is that of a cylindrical tube, or of
a column, for this is the form which gives them the
greatest strength to resist, without change of shape,
the expansive force of the steam within and the pres-
sure of the atmosphere on the outside.

6th. The steam should be introduced into the stove
at its upper extremity; and in the lowest part of the
stove there should be a tube to conduct into the boiler
the water which results from the condensation of steam
in the stove. In order that the tube which conducts
the steam into the stove may not be visible in the
apartment, it may be made to enter through the bottom
of the stove, and then ascend inside, to within 2 or 3
inches of the upper end, where there should be an
opening. As the vapour of boiling water is specifically
lighter than atmospheric air, by bringing the steam into
the upper part of the stove it presses upon the air in
the stove, and drives it out by one of the safety-valves
without mixing with it, so that this air is driven out
quietly, and without first being warmed at the expense
of the heat of the apparatus.. This air must descend

Ea ee ee

On the Use of Steam Fleat. 793

by the tube which serves to conduct the water from the
stove into the boiler; and the valve by which it escapes
into the atmosphere, being situated near the boiler, may
open into a canal or a tube communicating with the
chimney of the boiler fire-place. Then if, by the care-
lessness of the person having charge of the stove, there
is too much steam, since it will follow the same road, it
will escape by the chimney without diffusing itself into
the apartment.

7th. The tube which carries the water resulting from
the condensation of the steam in the stove back into
the boiler must pass through the walls or cover of the
boiler, and descend within it nearly to the bottom; and
the extremity, being always beneath the water in the
boiler, should be bent and turned upwards. All these
precautions are necessary to prevent the steam in the
boiler from ever finding its way into this tube.

8th. The steam-tube which communicates with the
highest part of the stove should start from the highest
part of the boiler, and this tube, as well as that which
carries the water back from the stove to the boiler,
should be well surrounded by suitable coverings, in
order to preserve their heat. The boiler should also
be well covered above and on every side, so as to pro-
tect it from the cold.

gth. Although the expenditure of water in this appa-
ratus is almost nothing when the fire is properly regu-
lated, so that when the boiler has been filled at the
beginning of the autumn there is no need of touching
it during the winter, or indeed for several years, — never-
theless, as it might easily happen that the fire should be
driven too much, owing to carelessness, from time to
time, so as to drive out part of the water in the form

794 On the Use of Steam Heat.

of steam by the safety-valve, it will be prudent to put a
small reservoir of water near the boiler, and connected
with it, so that one can readily examine it, and fill it as
often as it shall prove necessary.

10th. The stove should be made of thin sheets of
brass, and well soldered or brazed throughout in order
to prevent the steam from forcing its way into the
room; but great care must be taken not to leave the
stove its metallic lustre on the outside. On the con-
trary, it must be painted on the outside, in order that it
may diffuse more heat into the apartment. It is pos-
sible to give it the appearance of a marble or granite
column, or to paint it in any other way which corre-
sponds best on the outside with the furniture of the
room. For the hall of the Institute I should propose
to take away three of the wooden columns which are
now there, and which do not support any thing, and to
replace them by three copper columns of the same
shape and size, and painted on the outside of the same
colour. These three copper columns will be three steam
stoves connected with a single boiler, which may be
put in a little room on the ground floor, which happens
to have a chimney, and which is used at present as a
sort of lumber-room where articles of small value are
stored.

In this way the hall of the Institute will be neither
encumbered nor disfigured by the apparatus used for
heating it in winter; and, being provided with double
windows of ground glass, it will be lighter and more
cheerful, and at the same time more quiet, being shut
off from the cheerless and disagreeable objects which
surround it on every side.

I shall say nothing of the advantage which would be

4 on eae

iuaitts ——s ————— ee n

On the Use of Steam Feat. 795

gained by the public from the introduction of a method .
of heating which offers so many advantages on the
score both of elegance and of economy.

[This paper is translated from the French original, which exists in
preencrit among the records of the French Institute.]

LA St

COUNT RUMFORD’S WORKS.

1. Plans for the Construction of a Frigate. A chapter con-
tributed to Stalkartt’s Treatise on Naval Architecture. London,
1781.

This paper is printed in the edition of Rumford’s Works pub-
lished by the American Academy, Vol. IV, pages 679-691.

2. An Account of some Experiments upon Gunpowder, with
occasional Observations and practical Inferences; to which are
added an Account of a new Method of determining the Velocities
of all Kinds of military Projectiles, and the Description of a very
accurate Eprouvette for Gunpowder. Read before the Royal
Society, March 29, 1781.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXI, pages 229-338.

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers. London, 1802. Vol. I,
pages 1-114. (See No. 24 of this list.)

A French edition of this paper (translated by Rieffel, Professeur
aux écoles d’artillerie) was published in 1857. Paris. 8vo.
PPp- 154-

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 1-97.

3- New Experiments upon Heat. In a letter to Sir Joseph
Banks, President of the Royal Society. Presented to the Royal
Society, March 9, 1786. Afterwards incorporated in the Eighth
Essay. (See below, page 812.)

Philosophical Transactions, LXXVI, pages 273-304.

Critical Review, LXIII (1787), pages 320, 321. (Notice.)

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 797

4. Experiments on the Production of Air from Water, exposed
with various Substances to the Action of Light. In a letter to
Sir Joseph Banks. Presented to the Royal Society, February 15,
1787.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXVII, pages 84-124.

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 218-263.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 191-231.

5. An Account of some Experiments made to determine the
Quantities of Moisture absorbed from the Atmosphere by various
Substances. Read before the Royal Society, March 22, 1787.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXVII, pages 240-245.

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 264-269.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumiond's
Works, Vol. I, pages 232-238.

6. Experiments on Heat. In a letter to Sir Joseph Banks.
Presented to the Royal Society, January 19, 1792. Afterwards
incorporated in the Eighth Essay. (See below, page 812.)

Philosophical Transactions, LXXVII, pages 48-8o.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), [, pages 11-44.

Critical Review, N. A., VII, page 69. (Notice.)

Annual Register, XXXIV, pages 404-415.

47. Vollstandiger Bericht und Abrechnung iiber den Erfolg
der neu-eingefiihrten Einrichtungen bey dem churpfalzbaierischen
Militar. Verfasst Miinchen den 1 Juny, 1792. 4to. pp. 47.

This report is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 692-735.

8. Experiments on the relative Intensities of the Light emitted
by luminous Bodies. In two letters to Sir Joseph Banks. Read
before the Royal Society, February 6, 1794.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXIV, pages 67-106.

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 270-318.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), I, pages 339-372.

Gren’s Neues Journal der Physik, II, pages 15-57.

Remarks by J. H. Hassenfratz. Scherer’s Journal der Chemie,
I, page 454.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. [V, pages 1-47.

798 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

9. An Account of some Experiments upon coloured Shadows.
In a letter to Sir Joseph Banks. Read before the Royal Society,
February 20, 1794.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXIV, pages 107-118,

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 319-332.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, I, pages ror—108.

Gren’s Neues Journal der Physik, III, pages 271-277. -

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 49-62.

10. Essays, Political, Economical, and Philosophical.

The publication of these Essays, eighteen in number, was
begun in 1796. The eighteenth Essay was published in 1812.
They were translated wholly or in part into French, German, and
other languages. (See below, page 810.)

11. Letter to Sir Joseph Banks, announcing a donation to the
Royal Society for the purpose of founding a prize-medal. Dated
London, July 12, 1796.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXVII, pages 215-218.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), VI, page 302.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, I, pages 188-190.

Crell’s Chemische Annalen, 1798, pages 77-79.

Moniteur Universel, An X, page 334. (Notice.)

This letter is printed in Dr, Ellis’s Life of Rumford, published
by the American Academy, page 241.

12. Letter to the Hon. John Adams, announcing a similar
donation to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Dated London, July 12, 1796.

Moniteur Universel, An X, page 321 (21 Frimaire), with the
resolution of acceptance of the American Academy from the
New England Palladium.

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, VIII, page 690. (Notice.)

Memoirs American Academy, IV, pages xi-xiii.

Proceedings American Academy, VI, page 27.

This letter is printed in Dr. Ellis’s Life of Rumford, page 250.

13. Letter to Sir John Sinclair. Dated Munich, October 16,
1796.

Correspondence of Sir John Sinclair, Vol. II, pages 57-58.
(London, 1831.) |

This letter is printed in Dr. Ellis’s Life of Rumford, page 277.

ee ee

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List of Count Rumford’s Works. 799

14. Letter to A. Pictet, dated Munich, January 12, 1797, con-
taining extracts from Essays VI and X, and enclosing “ Détails —
sur la cuisine établie & Londres dans l’hépital des enfans trouvés
sous la direction de S. E. le Comte Rumford.”

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), IV, pages 7-18.

Reply to same by Pictet, ibid., pages 27-33.

(The Account of the Kitchen, etc., is in Dodsley’s Annual
Register, XL, pages 397-400. It is dated October 19, 1796, and
was not written by Rumford himself.)

The letter to Pictet is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rum-
ford’s Works, Vol. IV, pages 736-738.

15. Experiments to determine the Force of fired Gunpowder.
Read before the Royal Society, May 4, 1797.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXVII, pages 222-292. .

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 115-194.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), X, pages 304-331.
(Extract.)

Nicholson’s pistts Journal, I, pages 459-468, 515-518.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, IV, pages 257-281, 377-399.
(Extract.)

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, VI, page 563. (Notice.)

Voigt’s Magazin, I, pages 94-106.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 98-172.

16. An Inquiry concerning the Source of the Heat which
is excited by Friction. Read before the Royal Society, January
25, 1798.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXVIII, pages 80-102.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), VIII, pages 3-34.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, II, pages 106-118.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XII, pages 553-557. (Extract.)

Journal de Physique, XLVII, pages 24-39.

Annales de Chimie, XX VI, pages 115-117. (Notice.) .

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, I, pages 9-31, with remarks by
the editor, pages 31-37.

Critical Review, N. A., XXVI, pages 37-39. (Notice.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 469-492.

800 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

17. An Inquiry concerning the chemical Properties that have
been attributed to Light. Read before the Royal Society, June
14, 1708.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXVIII, pages 449-468.

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 341-365.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), X, page 93.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, II, pages 400-405, 453-457: Ob-
jections by R. Harrup, V, pages 245, 246. -

Annales de Chimie, XXIX, pages 330, 331; XXXII, pages
330, 331; XXXIII, pages 2838-294; XXXIV, pages 181-184.
(Notices and Extracts.)

Crell’s Chemische Annalen, 1799, pages 65-74, 120-137.

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, II, pages 3-20. Supplementary
remarks by Dr. Juch. III, pages 399-409.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 73-97.

18. An Inquiry concerning the Weight ascribed to Heat.
Read before the Royal Society, May 2, 1799.

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXIX, pages 179-194.

Rumford’s Philosophical Papers, Vol. I, pages 366-383.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XIII, pages 217-
238.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, ITI, pages 381-390.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, V, pages 206-215. (Extract.)

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, IV, page 546 (Notice); V,
pages 53-70.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 1-22.

19. Proposals for forming by Subscription in the Metropolis
of the British Empire a public Institution for diffusing the Knowl-
edge and facilitating the general Introduction of useful mechanical
Inventions and Improvements, etc. London, 1799. 8vo.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, III, pages 45-48. (Review.)

Critical Review, N. A., XXVI, page 118. (Notice.)

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, II, pages 563-566. (Remarks.)

Proceedings of Royal Institution, 1870, pages ix—xxxi.

These proposals are printed in the Academy’s edition of Rum-
ford’s Works, Vol. IV, pages 739-770.

| MN, te fe,
:

List of Count Rumford’s Works. f01

20. Prospectus of the Royal Institution of Great Britain |
(printed with the Charter, Ordinances, By-Laws, and List of
Members. London, 1800). .

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XIV, pages ro1—
123, from which it would seem that the Prospectus was written
by Count Rumford himself.

This Prospectus is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rum-
ford’s Works, Vol. IV, pages 771-785.

21. Letter to Dr. Majendie, at Windsor, dated December 5,
1799. Reports of the Society for bettering the Condition of the
Poor, Vol. II. London, 1800. (These reports were also pub-
lished at Paris in French.)

Moniteur Universel, An X, page 224 (27 Brumaire).

This letter is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumeaee
Works, Vol. IV, pages 785-788.

22. On the Use of Steam as a Vehicle for conveying Heat
from one Place to another. Afterwards published as the Fifteenth
Essay. (See below, page 814.)

Journal of Royal Institution, I, pages 34-45.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, V (1801), pages 159-160, 168-
173.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XIII, pages 385-394.

23. Observations relative to the Means of increasing the Quan-
tity of Heat obtained in the Combustion of Fuel.

Journal of Royal Institution, I, pages 28-33.

Bibliothé¢que Britannique (Science et Arts), XVIII, pages 333-
342:

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, V, pages 313-316. -

Annales de Chimie, XL, page 177. (Notice.)

Annual Register, XLIII, pages 467-470.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 345-351.

24.+ Philosophical Papers; being a Collection of Memoirs,
Dissertations, and Experimental Investigations relating to various"
Branches of Natural Philosophy and Mechanics, together with
Letters to several Persons on Subjects connected with Science
and useful Improvement, Vol. I. London, 1802 (a second edition,
1803). 8vo. (Vol. II, which was to contain the ‘‘ Letters,” was
never published.)

VOL. Iv. 51

802 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

CONTENTS. Pages
I. The same as No. 2 of thislist. . . 1. 6 2. 2. ss I-II4
II, ” ” » 5 ” » IT5-194

III. Supplementary Observations to ‘the doecedine! Papét - 194-197
IV. Account of some Experiments made with Cannon;
and also of some aa to improve Field

Artillery. 30°" Ce ue fe + 9 re

V. -The same as No. 4 of this list . ee ty Sel | Ween e en

Vi. ” ” Sp er Re OT ae Rea

VIL. $ as Sah) ty eG hd hn SN Ree

VIII. ” ” 9 » ” 4 eV SE 319-332
IX. Conjectures respecting the Principles of the Rosin

of Colours. .. ga) ie ale” ook ke ee

X. The same as No. 17 wy this list fad sea 4a com pote tay,
XI. Supplement to the preceding Paper . . . . . . « 363-365
XII. The same as No, 18 of this list . . . . . . « « 366-383
XIII. Supplement to the preceding Paper . . . . . . « 384-390

These ‘‘ Philosophical Papers” were published in French ; also
in German, as the second part of the fourth volume of Rumford’s
Kleine Schriften. (See below, page 816.)

No. IV is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s Works,
Vol. I, pages 173-190; No. IX in Vol. IV, pages 63-71. The
various supplements are printed with the papers to which they
severally belong.

25. An Account of a curious Phenomenon observed on the
Glaciers of Chamouny ; together with some occasional Observa-
tions concerning the Propagation of Heat in Fluids. Read before
the Royal Society, December 15, 1803.

Philosophical Transactions, XCIV, pages 23-29.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), XXVI, pages 3-
13. Remarks by Prevost, pages 13-28.

Nicholson’s Journal, IX, pages 207-212.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XVIII, pages 361-369.

Edinburgh Review, IV, pages 415-419. (Review.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 251-257.

26. An Inquiry concerning the Nature of Heat and the Mode
of its Communication. Read before the Royal Society, Feb-
ruary 2, 1804.

Philosophical Transactions, XCIV, pages 77-182.

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 803

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), XXV, pages 185-
221, 273-311. (Extracts.)

Nicholson’s Journal, IX, pages 58-63, 193-203. (Abstract.)

Edinburgh Review, IV, pages 399-415. (Review.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 23-130.

27. Description d’un nouvel Instrument de Physique. Read
the 28 Ventose, An 12 (March 19, 1804).

Mémoires de l'Institut National de France. Classe des Sci-
ences Mathématiques et Physiques, VI, pages 71-78.

Abstracts of this and the four following papers occur in Gil-
bert’s Annalen der Physik, XVII, pages 33-43, 213-230.—
Gehlen’s Neues Journal der Chemie, II, pages 657-663.

(The substance of this paper-is contained in No. 26.)

28. Recherches sur la Chaleur. Read the 5 Germinal, An 12
(March 26, 1804).

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc., VI, pages 79-87.

(The substance of this paper is contained-in No. 26.)

29. Notice d’une nouvelle Expérience sur la Chaleur. Read
the 19 Germinal, An 12 (April 9, 1804).

Mémoires de l’'Institut, etc., VI, pages 88-96.

Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 65-70 (with a letter from Count
Rumford dated Munich, August 29, 1805).

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 131-137.

30. Recherches sur la Chaleur. Read the 1o Floréal, An 12
(April 30, 1804),

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc., VI, pages 97-105.

Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 70-75.

This paper is printed in the Academy's edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 137-144.

31. Recherches sur la Chaleur. Read the 17 Floréal, An 12
(May 7, 1804). |

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc., VI, pages 106-122.

Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 154-164.

Abstracts of this and the four preceding papers occur in Gil-
bert’s Annalen der Physik, XVII, pages 33-43, 213-230. —
Gehlen’s Neues Journal der Chemie, II, pages 657-663.

804 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 144-158.

32. Mémoire sur la Chaleur. Read at a public session of the
National Institute the 6 Messidor, An 12 (June 26, 1804).

Moniteur Universel, 9 Messidor, An 12 (June 29, 1804). (See
also No. 33, below.)

Variedades de Ciencias. Madrid. I Afio. II, pages 328-340.
(Extract.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 166-187.

33: Mémoires sur la Chaleur. Paris. An 13 (1804). 8vo.

CONTENTS. Page

I. Historical Review of the various Experiments on Heat. . . I
II. The same as No. 26 of this list (translated by Pictet) . . . 69

EC +. ‘ A 9 6 oy 0 0 «Wh Phd eed ieee
| dea Pe ed se a5. gg » (translated by Pictet). . . 156

(Reviewed in the Moniteur Universel, 22 Fructidor, An 13,
page 1458. Also in Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XVIII, pages
369-371.)

These ‘* Mémoires” were published in German as the first part
of Vol. IV of Rumford’s Kleine Schriften. The ‘ Historical
Review,” No. I, is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 188-240.

34. Recherches sur la Chaleur excitée par les Rayons solaires.
Read the 11 Germinal, An 13 (April 2, 1805).

Mémoires de l'Institut, etc., VI, pages 123-133.

Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 164-171.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XX, 177-186.

Journal de Physique, LXI, pages 32-39.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 158-165.

35. Recherches sur la Température de Eau a son Maximum
de Densité. Read the 26 Messidor, An 13 (July 15, 1805).

Mémoires de l'Institut, ete., VII, pages 78-97.

Nicholson’s Journal, XI, pages 225-235 (with a letter from
Count Rumford dated Munich, June 25, 1805).

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XXVI, page 273. (Notice.)

List of Count Rumford's Works. 805

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XX, pages 369-383.

Observations by Pictet. Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et
Arts), XXXIV, pages 113-120.

Objections by Dalton. Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 28-30.
Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XXI, 458-461.

Objections by Hope Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 343 end
351-

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 258-273.

36. Observations sur la Dispersion de la Lumiére des Lampes
par le Moyen des Ecrans de Verre dépoli, Etoffes de Soie, etc.,
avec la Description d’une nouvelle Lampe. Read March 24,
1806.

Mémoires de l'Institut, etc., VIII, 1, pages 323-240 —— a
Supplement, pages 246-248).

Nicholson’s Journal, XIV, pages 22-38.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XXVII, page 278. (Notice.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 341-365. (Ab-
stract.)

The substance of this paper is contained in the Seventeenth
Essay. (See below, page 18.)

37. Nouvelles Expériences et Observations sur la Propagation
de la Chaleur dans les Liquides. Read June 9, 1806.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XXXII, pages 123-
141.

Nicholson’s Journal, XIV, pages 353-363.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, page 789.

38. Note on the Use of Steam as a Source of Heat in the Dis-
tillation of Brandy, containing extracts from the Fifteenth Essay.
Read at a meeting of the French Institute, June 9, 1806.

This note is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, page 789.

39. Expériences et Observations sur l’Adhésion des Molécules .
de l’Eau entre elles. Read June 16, 1806.

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc., VIII, 11, pages 97-108.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), XX XIII, pages 3-16.

Remarks by Tardy de la Brossy. Biblioth¢que Britannique,
XXXII, pages 332-344. |

806 List of Count Rumford's Works.

Nicholson’s Journal, XV, pages 52-56; 157-159; 173-175.
Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XXVI, page 274. (Notice.)
Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XXV, pages 121-132.

Moniteur Universel for July 17, 1806, page 914 (where the
paper is said to have been read July 7, 1806).

Amoretti. Nuova Scelta d’Opusculi sulle Scienze, I, v1, pages
393-399:

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 290-299.

40. Description of a new Boiler constructed with a View to the
Saving of Fuel.

Nicholson’s Journal, XVII, pages 5-10 (where this paper is
said to have been read at a meeting of the First Class of the
National Instituge, October 6, 1806).

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XXXV, pages
197-205.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, LIV, pages 151-158. (Abstract
of this and the following paper.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 352-357.

41. Notice of an Experiment on the Use of the Heat of
Steam, in Place of that of an open Fire, in the Making of Soap.

Nicholson’s Journal, XVII, pages 10-12 (where this paper is
said to have been read at a meeting of the First Class of the
National Institute, October 20, 1806).

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 359-361.

42. Continuation des Expériences et des Observations sur
YAdhésion des Molécules de |’Eau entre elles. Read March 9g,
1807.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XXXIV, pages
301-313; XXXV, pages 3-16.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 300-317.

43. Recherches sur le Progrés lent du Mélange spontané de
certains Liquides disposés & s’unir chimiquement les uns avec les
autres. Read March 29, 1807.

Mémoires de l’Institut, etc., VIII, 1, pages tog-115.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XXXIV, page 155. (Notice.)

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 807

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s |
Works, Vol. II, pages 318-323.

44. Expériences et Observations sur le Refroidissement des
Liquides dans des Vases de Porcelaine dorés et non dorés.
Read August 10, 1807.

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc., VIII, 1, pages 249-260.

Société Philomathique, Bulletin des Sciences, 1807, pages 23-
24. (Extract.)

Gehlen’s Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, IV, pages 189-191.
(Notice.)

Brugnatelli. Giornale di Fisica, etc., I (1808), pages 66-67.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 241-250.

45. Observations sur les Moyens propres*&A employer pour
chauffer la Salle des Séances ordinaires de l'Institut de France.
Read August 14, 1807.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 790-795.

46. Expériences et Observations sur |’Avantage d’employer
des Roues 4 larges Jantes pour les Voitures de Voyage et de
Luxe. Read at a meeting of the First Class of the National
Institute, April 15, 1811.

Moniteur Universel, April 25, 1811 (pages 444-446). Also
reprinted separately from the Moniteur, pp. 15.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XLVIII, pages
82-105.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XXXVIII, pages 331-335.
(Extract.) i=

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 661-678.

47. On the Management of Light in Illumination, with an
Account of a new portable Lamp. Read before the First Class of
the French Institute, June 24, 1811. Afterwards published as the
Sixteenth Essay. (See page 814, below.)

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), XLVIII, pages
3-36.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 365-385, with a
supplement by Prof. Liidicke, pages 386-390.

808 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

48. Account of some new Experiments on Wood and Char-
coal. Read before the First Class of the French Institute, Decem-
ber 30, 1811.

Nicholson’s Journal, XXXII, pages 100-105.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), LI, pages 209-
232.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 142-149.

Published separately with the title Recherches sur les Bois et le
Charbon, Paris, 4to, 8 sheets (125 copies), 1812, and 8vo, 8 sere,
(1000 copies), 1813.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 362-369.

49. An Inquiry concerning the Source of the Light which is
manifested in the Combustion of inflammable Bodies. Read before
the Royal Society, January 16, 1812. (Afterwards published as
the Seventeenth Essay. See page 814, below.)

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), LIV, pages 3-26,
where the date is given January 23.

Remarks by Prevost, ibid., pages 203-221.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XXXIX, page 73. (Notice.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLVI, pages 226-247. (Ab-
stract.)

50. Inquiries concerning the Heat developed in Combustion,
with a Description of a new Calorimeter. Read before the Fifth
Class of the French Institute, February 24, 1812.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), LI, pages 3-17 and
97-116.

Nicholson’s Journal, XXXII, pages ro5—125.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XLI, pages 285-297, 434-
439-

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 370-387.

51. Researches upon the Heat developed in Combustion, etc.
Read before the French Institute, November 30, 1812. Pub-
lished with No. 50 (and Nos. 52, 53?) with the title Recherches
sur la Chaleur développée dans la Combustion et dans la Conden-
sation des Vapeurs. 8vo, 7} sheets (1000 copies). Paris, 1313.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XLI, pages 439-444; XLII,

pages 296-307.

a a
:

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 809

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc., XIII. Histoire de la Classe, 1812;
Partie Physique, pages Ixxxj-lxxxvj. (Allusion to the experi- |
ments detailed in this and the preceding paper.)

Thompson’s Annals of Philosophy, I (1813), pages 386-389 ;
III (1814), page 10. (Notice.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rucford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 387-417.

52. On the Quantities of Heat developed in the Condetaaion
of the Vapour of Water and in that of Alcohol.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XLIII, pages 64-69 (where
this paper is said to have been read as a supplement to No. 51).

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 311-316. (Ab-
stract.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Biatiake
Works, Vol. II, pages 417-424.

53- Onthe Capacity for Heat or Calorific Power of various
Liquids.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XLIII, pages 212-218
(where this paper is said to have been read as a supplement
to No. 51).

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 317-320. (Ab-
stract.)

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 425-434.

54. Inquiries relative to the Structure of Wood, the Specific
Gravity of its solid Parts, and the Quantity of Liquids and Elastic
Fluids contained in it under various Circumstances ; the Quantity
of Charcoal to be obtained from it and the Quantity of Heat pro-
duced by its Combustion.

Nicholson’s Journal, XXXIV, pages 319-325 (supplement),
where the paper is said to have been read before the First Class
of the French Institute, September 28 and October 5, 1812, and
XXXV, pages 95-117.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), LI, pages 299-330;
LII, pages 35-53.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 1-41.

This paper is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 435-483.

810 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

RUMFORD’S ESSAYS.

Essay I.

Public Establishments for the Poor in Bavaria.
Bibliothéque Britannique (Littérature), II, pages 137-182.
Critical Review, XVI, pages 67-71. (Review.)
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 229-327.

Essay II.
Fundamental Principles of Establishments for the Poor.
Bibliothéque Britannique (Littérature), I, pages 499-528.
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 328-393.

Essay III.
Of Food.
Bibliotheque Britannipue (Science et Arts), I, pages 427-456,
523-545. (Extracts.)
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 395-490.

Essay IV.
Of Chimney Fire-places.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), IV, pages 213-271.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, IX, pages 61-84. (Extract.)

Décade Philosophique, An 6, XVI, page 238. (Notice.)

This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 484-558.

Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung (1796), Intelligenzblatt III, page
947. (Notice of Essays I-IV.)

Essay V.
Account of several Public Institutions, with nine Appendixes
to this and the preceding Essays.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Littérature), IV, pages 212-219.
(Extract.)

This Essay with the appendixes is printed in the Academy’s
edition of Rumford’s Works, Vol. IV, pages 491-550.

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 811

Essay VI.

Of the Management of Fire and Economy of Fuel. Pub-

_ lished separately, 1797.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), IV, pages 7-18
(see No. 14 of the preceding list); V, pages 201-241, 297-355.
(Extracts.)

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, III, pages 161-168.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, III, pages 309-356; IV, pages
85-111, 222-249, 330-358. (Extracts.)

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, VI, page 529. (Notice.)

Journal de Physique, XLIX, pages 65-68. (Notice.)

This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. III, pages 1-166.

Essay VII (in Two Parts).

On the Propagation of Heat in Fluids.

Part I. (Published separately, London, 1797.)

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), V, page go and
pages 97-200, with remarks by Pictet.

(Also published separately from the Bibliothéque Britannique.)

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, I, pages 289-296, 341-348, 563-
575- (Extracts.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, I, pages 214-241, 323-351, 436-
463.

Gren’s Neues Journal der Physik, IV, pages 418-450 (3 chap-
ters.)

Crell’s Chemische Annalen, 1797, pages 78-104, 149-170, 233-
246, 342-358, 446-464, 488-502.

Part II. (Published, with a second edition of Part I, London,
1798.)

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), VIII, pages 85-
121, 201-339.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, II, pages 160-167. (Extract.)

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, II, pages 353-364. (Extract.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, II, pages 249-286. (Extract.)

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, VI, page 528. (Notice.) «

Journal de Physique, XLVII, pages 228-243, 253-271. (Ex-
tracts.)

812 List of Count Rumford’s. Works.

Annales de Chimie, XXV, pages 174-175. (Notice.)
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 237-400.

Objections to and remarks on Rumford’s theory of Heat as
developed in the Seventh Essay may be found: —

Dalton. Nicholson’s Journal, IV, pages 56-58, 75-89. Gil-
bert’s Annalen der Physik, XIV, pages 184-198, 293-296.

De Luc. Crell’s Chemische Annalen, I, pages 288-298, 368—
383. Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, I, pages 464-473.

Murray. Nicholson’s Journal, I, pages 165-173, 241-251.
Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XIV, pages 158-183. _

Parrot. Géilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XVII, pages 257-316,
369-413; XXII, page 148-156.

Thompson. -Nicholson’s quarto Journal, IV, pages 529-545.

Nicholson’s Journal, I, pages 81-88. Gilbert’s Annalen der —

Physik, XIV, pages 129-145, 146-157.
Traill. Nicholson’s Journal, XII, pages 133-139.

Essay VIII.

Of the Propagation of Heat in various Substances. Mainly
the same as Nos. 3 and 6 of the preceding list. (Pub-
lished separately, London, 1798.)

Philosophical Transactions, LXXVI, pages 273-304; LXXVII,
pages 48-8o.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), I, pages 11-45.
(Extract.)

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, II, page 377. (Notice.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, V, pages 288-340. (Extract.)

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, VI, page 528. (Notice.)

Annual Register, XXXIV, pages 404-415; XXXIX, pages
423-429. (Review.)

Critical Review, LXIII, pages 320, 321; VII (N.A.), page 69.
(Notices.)

This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 401-468.

= — ;

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 813

Essay IX.

Of the Heat excited by Friction. The same as No. 16 of

‘ the preceding list. (Published separately, London, 1798.)

Philosophical Transactions, LXXXVIII, pages 80-102.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), VIII, pages 3-34.

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, II, pages 106-118 and page 577.
(Notice.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XII, pages 553-557. (Extract.)

Journal de Physique, XLVII, pages 24-39.

Annales de Chimie, XXVI, pages 115-117. (Notice.)

This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. I, pages 469-493.

Essay X-(in Three Parts).

Of Kitchen Fire-places.

Part I. Published separately, London, 1799.

Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), IV, pages 7-18;
XIII, pages 317-329. (Extracts.)

Nicholson’s quarto Journal, III, page 473. (Notice.)

Part II. Published separately, London, 180—? -

Journal de Physique, LV, pages 22-34. (Review.)

Moniteur Universel, 10 Thermidor, An V, page 1272. (Review.)

Part III. Published separately, London, 180—?

Décade Philosophique, XLIII, page 389. (Extract.)

This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. III, pages 167-488.

Essay XI (continuation of Essay IV).

Of Chimney Fire-places.
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 559-570.

Essay XII.

On the Salubrity of Warm Rooms.
Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), XX, pages II19-
134:
Annales de Chimie, XLIII, page 213. (Notice.)
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 567-581.

814 List of Count Rumford’s Works.

Essay XIII.

On the Salubrity of Warm Bathing. |
Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), XX, page 227-249.
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s

Works, Vol. IV, pages 583-613.

Essay XIV.

On the Management of Fire in closed Fire-places.
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. III, pages 489-504.

Essay XV.
On the Use of Steam as a Vehice for transporting Heat.
The same as No. 22 of the preceding list.
Journal of Royal Institution, I, pages 34-45.
Nicholson’s quarto Journal, V, pages 159-160, 168-173.
Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XIII, pages 385-394.
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. II, pages 324-444.

Essay XVI.
On the Management of Light, etc. The same as No. 47 of
the preceding list. (Published separately, London, 1812.)
Bibliotheque Britannique (Science et Arts), XLVIII, pages
3-36.
Gilbert's Annalen der Physik, XLV, pages 365-385, with a
supplement by Prof. Liidicke, pages 386-390.
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 99-205.

Essay XVII.

On the Source of Light in Combustion, The same as No. 49
of the preceding list. (Published separately, London,
1812.)

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), LIV, pages 3~26.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XXXIX, page 73. (Notice.)

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XLVI, pages 226-247. (Ab-
stract.)

This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 207-228.

List of Count Rumford’s Works. 815

Essay XVIII. :
Of the excellent Qualities of Coffee, and the Art of making
it in the highest Perfection. (Published separately, Lon-
don, 1812.) :
Nicholson’s Journal, XXXIV, pages 56-61. (Extract.)
Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, XLI, pages 108-121. (Ex-
tract.) .
This Essay is printed in the Academy’s edition of Rumford’s
Works, Vol. IV, pages 615-660.

Essays I-V form Vol. I of the English edition, and were pub-
lished separately in London, (1795? and) 1796. The preface is
dated July 1, 1796.

Reviewed in Critical Review, XXVIII, pages 319-325.

The Essays on the Management of the Poor (Essays I and II)
were reprinted, London, 1851, and again 1855. 12mo. The
Essay on Food (Essay III) was reprinted, Dublin, 1847. 12mo.

Essays VI-IX form Vol. II of the English edition of the
Essays. London, 1798.

Reviewed in Critical Review, XXX (1800), pages 143-153.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts), I, page 415.
(Notice.)

Essays X-XV form Vol. III of the English edition. London,
1802 (with the 5th edition of the preceding essays).

Essays XVI-XVIII form Vol. IV of the English edition.
London, 1812.

The first American edition of the Essays from the third Lon
don edition was published in Boston: Vol. I, 1798; Vol. II,
1799; Vol. III, 1802 (a new edition 1804).

The French edition of the Essays (translated by the Marquis
de Courtivron and Seignette) was published : —

Vol. I (Essays I-V), Geneva, 1799.

Vol. II (Essays VI-IX), Geneva, 1799. .

Vol. III (Essay X), Parts I and II, Paris, 1802; Part
III, Paris, 1804. (Essays XI-XV), Paris, 1806.

Essay IV was published separately, Geneva, 1801, 8vo.

Vol. Iand II. Reviewed in Journal de Physique, XLIX,
page 8o.

816 Biographical Sketches of Count Rumford.

The German edition (Rumford's Kleine Schriften) was pub- Mm
lished at Weimar : — ie 3

Vol. I (Essays I-V), 1797 (a 2d edition, 1802; a 4th edi-
tion, 1806).

Vol. II, Part I (Essay VI), 1799; Part II (Essays VII-IX),
1800.

Vol. III (Essay X), 1803. (Reviewed in Allgemeine
Literatur Zeitung, Erganzungblatter, 1806, page 263.)
Vol. IV, Part I. (The same as No. 33 of the preceding

list.) Part II. (The Philosophical Papers.) 1805.

An Italian edition of Essay I was published under the title
Relazione di uno Stabilmento per i Poveri eretto in Monaco, etc.
Venezia, 1798. 8vo.

A Dutch edition of Essays I-III was published under the
direction of the Algemeene Armen-commissie van het Depart-
ment Holland, Amsteldam, 1807.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF COUNT RUMFORD.

Bigelow, Jacob, M.D. Inaugural Address. 8vo. 1817. Memoirs
American Academy, IV, pages j—xxiij.

Cuvier. Eloge Historique. Read before the French Institute,
January 9, 1815. Recueil des Eloges Historiques. Cuvier.
Paris, 1861. 3 vols. Vol. II, pages 24-55. American Journal of
Science, XIX, page 28. Boston Daily Advertiser, October 18
and 19, 1815. Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, VIII
(1830), pages 209-228.

Ellis, Rev. George E.. Memoir.of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count
Rumford. Boston, 1871. Atlantic Monthly. Boston, 1871. (Re-
view.)

Johnson, J. American Journal of Science, XX XIII, pages 21-30.

Renwick, Prof. James. Sparks’s American Biography, New
Series, V, pages 1-216.

Young, Dr. Thos. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 7th ed., XXI, page * q
¢. 7?

hy)
£ *,

Biographical Sketches of Count Rumford. 817

245. Also in Young’s Miscellaneous Works, edited by Peacock.
London, 1855. Vol. II, pages 474-484.

Shorter Rinetichion or erga notices of Count Rumford, or
references to his experiments, may be found in: — .

Allen’s American Biographical Dictionary, page 789. _
Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung, 1802. Intelligenzblatt 7, page 49 ;

17, page 132; 194, page a: 234, page 1885, 1803; 151, page
1238.

Annual Register. London, 1780, page 247; 1784, page 114;

1798, page 397 ; 1800, pages 130-133 ; 1814, page 137.

Baldwin’s Literary Journal.

Berthold, Dr. Gerhard. Rumford und die mechanische Warme-
theorie. Versuch einer Vorgeschichte der mechanischen Theorie der
Warme. Heidelberg, 1874.

Bibliothéque Britannique (Science et Arts). Vols. XVII, pages
292 and 401; XIX, page 386; XX, page 192 ; XXI, pages 190 and
286 (in letters from Pictet to his fellow-editors). Also XXXIV,
page 114. [The letters of Pictet were published separately, Geneva
and Paris, 1802. ]

‘Biographie universelle et portative des Contemporains, IV, page
1187.

Biographie Universelle. Michaud. XXX’VII, page 83.
Blackwood’s Magazine, XIV, page 637.

Chalmer’s Biographical Dictionary, XXIX, page 298.
Chambers’s Cyclopzedia, VIII, page 366.

Décade Philosophique, XVIII, page 367; XXI, page 110;
XXXI, pages 311 and 440; XXXIII, page 81.

Duyckink’s Cyclopzedia of American Biography, I, page 371.

Edwards, Fred. Jr. On the extravagant Use of Fuel ; together

with a short account of Benjamin, Count of Rumford, etc. Lon-
don, 1869.

Encyclopedia Americana, XI, page 111.
Everett, Edward. Orations. Boston, 1850-59. 3 vols. Vol. I,

| pages 305 and 322.

VOL. Iv. 52

818 Biographical Sketches of Count Rumford.

Force’s American Archives. Fourth Series. Vol. II.

Gentleman’s Magazine, LXX (1800), part 1, page 382 ; LXXXIV,
1814, part 2, page 394.

Gibbon, Edward. Autobiography and Correspondence. London,
1869.

Gilbert’s Annalen der Physik, XV, pages 239-241.

Haughton, E. On the Remains of Ancient Roman Baths, etc.
1861. 8vo.

Huxley. Lecture on the Advisability of Improving Natural
Knowledge.

Journal and Letters of Samuel Curwen. Boston, 1864.

Knight’s Cyclopedia of Biography, Vol. III, page 195.

Lee. Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department of the
United States. Washington, 1827, page 397.

Literary Miscellany. Cambridge, I (1805), pages 352-361 ; II,
page 33-

London Atheneum, 1835, page 782.

London Reader, 1865, II, page 428.

Mailly. Essai sur les Institutions Scientifiques de la Grande
Bretagne et de l’Irlande. Bruxelles, 1867.

Mathias. Pursuits of Literature. Dialogue III. Notes 59 and 60,

Mass. Historical Society Collections. Third Series. VIII,
pages 278, 279.

Mémoires de I’Institut, etc. Histoire de la Classe. XII (1811),
pages Ixxxiij-lxxxv ; XIII (1812), pages Ixxxj—Ixxxvj.

Moniteur Universel. An IX, page 1117; An X, pages 157 and
415; An XI, page 26.

Monthly Magazine or British Register. September, 1814; May,
1815. ;

New American Cyclopedia, XIV, page 204.

New York Mercury. January 16, 1782; April 16, 1782.

North American Review, I, page 442.

Nouvelle Biographie Générale, XLII, page roz.

Onderdonk, Henry, Jr. Documents and Letters, etc. New York,
1846. Revolutionary Incidents, etc. New York, 1849.

Biographical Sketches of Count Rumford. 819

Penny Cyclopedia, X, page 221.

Poggendorf’s Biographisches Worterbuch, Il, page 718.

Prime, N. S. History of Long Island. New York, 1845.

Public Characters. Baltimore, 1803. :

Reports of the Society for Bettering the Condition of the Poor.
Vols. II and III. London, 1800, 1801. ;

Rivington’s New York Gazette. 1782. January 5, 9, 19; Feb-
ruary 18; March 1; April 13, 17 ; August 7.

Sabine’s American Loyalists. Boston, 1864. Vol. II, page 353.

Scherer’s Journal der Chemie, V, page 131.

Sewall’s History of Woburn, page 390.

Sprague’s Annals Presb. Vol. III, page 33.

Thompson, B. F. History of Long Island. 1843. Vol. I, pages
211, 478.

Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, V (1815), pages 241-250.

Tilloch’s Philosophical Magazine, IX, pages 315-318; XLIV,
pages 150 and 293, 294.

Upham. Essex Inst. Histor. Collections. Second Series. Vol.
I, part 2. 1869.

Watts. Biographia Britannica.

Weld’s History of Royal Society.

Willard. Memorials of Youth and Manhood. Cambridge, 1855.
Wood’s History of Long Island. Brooklyn, 1826, pages 85-90.

Youman’s Conservation and Correlation of Forces. New York,
1864. Introduction.

Young’s Miscellaneous Works. London, 1855. Vol. I, pages
83 and 168.

Notices of Rumford Soups, etc., may be found as follows : —
Etablissements fondés & Paris pour les Distributions gratuites des
Soupes 4 la Rumford. Décade Philosophique, XXVI, page 500.

Recueil de Rapports de Memoires et d’Experiences sur les Soupes
économiques et les Fourneax 4 la Count Rumford. Paris, 1801. 8vo.

820 Biographical Sketches of Count Rumford.

Iets voor de Armen: zesde stuk; met de afbeelding van Ber a ,

Rumfordsche Spaaroven. Aciaeiaahs 1801.

Rumfordische Suppen. Elberfelder Armen-Anstalt. Gungee
Annalen, XVI, pages 499-501.

Rapport sur les Soupes économiques de Rumford. Journal de
Physique, L, 200-203. Décade Philosophique, XXVII, page 197+

Ausfiihrliche Nachricht von dem Nutzen und von der Bereitung ;
der Rumfordische Suppe. Dr. C. A. Kortum. 1802. page 4o.
Noticed in Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung, 1803. II, page 23.

Menschenbekéstigung durch wohlfeile und gesunde Speisen,
u. s. w. Erfurt, 1804. Noticed in Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung,
1805. IV, page 189.

Hauss. Versuch iiber die Rumfordschen Suppen und deren
allgemeine Einfiihrung, u. s. w. Fea 1806.

deN Dik Xs

AppREss and petition to the inhabitants of Munich . iv, 508-517.
Adhesion of particles of liquids to each other . . .. ii, 300-317.
water to each other . ... ii, 290-319.

Advantage of employing wheels with broad felloes . iv, 661-678.
Air and hair, fur, etc., attraction between . . . . + » i, 462.
expansion of, proportional to increase of temperature ii, 157.
manner in which heat is transported by. . elii, 48.
moist, propagation of heat in . a. ik ox ol ee

a non-conductor)of heat... ics: :siiance sshicenion eal Sa Te
Priestley’s observations on. . . ~ « “dy, 210, {aa BBO.
produced from water by action of light. «city apts yi tQEee BE
quantities of, in trees and seerwoods . . . . « «Ii, 441.
rarefied, propagation of heat in . i, 430.
resistance of, to light -iv, 20.
Alcohol, capacity of, for heat . li, 434.
heat developed in condensation of aes o . li, 419.

heat produced in combustion of . li, 387.

Animal fluids, adhesion of particles of, to each other . li, 310.
Argand’s lamp, character of light of , iv, 134.
compared with other sources of light . svg Bat

theory of . Re lili, 33.
Armen-Instituts-Deputation in Munich . . . . .« iv, 252, 293.
Aurum fulminans, explosive force of ally area
Ba1#, phenomenon observed at hot baths of . . + i, 243.
Baking bread, etc., in metallic ovens . iii, 147.
Balloon illuminator . <siap. Lie ete yiv, 224:
Batley as food <6 ee ee .iv, 482.

822 Lndex.

Bathing, salubrity of warm . . de » «+ iv, 583-613.
Bath, description of warm, in Beat eee ME ee
Baths, construction of warm . . « « « « « «© « « «iV, 600,

of Russian peasants... 6s 4 8s 2 5 SIV, SOO:
Bavaria, cantonment of troopsin . . . 5. 6 “lv; 2g
condition of Electoral Army in 1788 meron
condition of finances of War Department . . .iv, 720.
management of poorin. . . - « . iv, 229-326.

means used to improve teed of horses and
hornet! cattle tt —<- a+a‘o<s a Ge 496.
mendicity in .5) 4h fe st eR Se
military conditionof ... .. . . . iv, 233, 692.
military gardens in . . . GO RO
regulations introduced into iui of . . « iv, 692-735.
scheme for employing the soldiery in. . . . «iv, 505.
short account of several public institutions in iv, 493-570.
Bavarian army, culprits condemned to serve in. . . . iV, 702.
expense of feeding soldiers of . . . iv, 425-439.
expense of maintaining ‘ais ae an eee Sy ee

pay of officersin . . . ON, ere

Beeswax, comparative quantity of, conmiitied 4 in i produiandel
of light ot gal a Me ea te aire riba Me!
Beggars in Bavaria, emplaginaiit given Bie tae hire: me
Begging abolished in Bavaria . . . OS LS aae

Bernard, Thomas, Esq., extracts from Lae to oo Viv pas
Bertholet, objections to Rumford’s theory of heat. . . . ii, 214.
Betancour’s experiments on elasticity of steam. . . i, 163, 169.
Biot’s experiments on propagation of heat in solids . . . ii, 239.
Blanks, utility of, in oe, on an establishment for
the poor. . . SS AAD ET SONYA Pee eee
Blowpipe, theory of sctcn he a Sig RE eee
Boiler, description of a new! 22 a eae
Boilers, best formfor . .. . oo Mae va ely pe
construction of, and desertion of various . . .iii, 61,

130-144, 194, oe 374 454) 479-

double covers for. . . . i o AO di ae
for -distillera:...a) sHAG 30S Pema ee a as Fors
for fielduse .. . BAC) Ue Se ae
for making coffee (with slates) . . « «iv, 639-651, 656.

for use in brewhouses. 27/4059) 60 0 a Ny Oe

Index. 823

Boilers, importance of coversfor . . . . . + . « «iii, 195.
miade of wood “oir... decanter ey 20,2, -
proper size-for oon Ga alton. va ele ion,

Boilers and fire-places, experiments on various. . . iii, 63-119.

stewpans, description of various . . . iii, 427-460.
materials for construction of . iii, 335-346.

Boiling, cooking of food by . . . . . . . . . iii, 175-180.
Bread, experiments on baking . . . . . . « . iv, 529-541.
perpetual oven for baking . . . . . . . iii, 145-147.

use of, insoups. . . . « « iv, 402, 418.
Brewhouse boiler, description of (with ilealt ber RG) 2, 160:

CALECANNON, experiments on feeding wathie 9325 ces . iv, 545.
Caloric, hypothesis of, i, slat ‘i, 42, 72, 119, 167, 168, 191, 198,
209, 222, 244, 247, 248.
Calorific power defined... 0. weiss se e «we diy gee.
of various liquids .. «6 6 60. 0. ii, qa.
Calorific rays emitted by all bodies. . . . . . . . «ili, 4x.
animal substances... . . . . ii, 67,
Calorimeter, description of anew . . . . . . . « « ii, 370.
Candle flame, gold melted by. . . . . . « «©» « . i, 370.
fluctuation of light emitted by . . . . . . « «iv, 35.
standard, for photometry . . . . . .iv, 17, 187, 213.
Cannon, experiments made with (plates). . . . . i, 173-190.
OW eRe eS CIA ie ee ae
Cantonment of troops in Bavaria... . . . « iv, 247,715.
Capacity for heat of various liquids. . . . . . « ii, 425-434.
Carbonic acid, capacity of, for heat diminished by elevation
of temperature... . 3) Swe eliy agg
Carriages, advantage of Gaaptoyiie whole with rena
fellGes for. Ao.) he a 2 ele lw ow) Seiv, 661-678.
Chamouny, curious phenomenon obderved on gla-
ciers at oss - A 280. idee reggie
Charcoal, Saatiaticad of at tow tesipishaiiiiog tt dee, GOR.
heat developed in combustion of . . . . . . ii, 403.
new experiments upon wood and . . . .« ii, 362-369.
quantities of, obtained from different kinds
of wood, ii, 461-468; by Gay-Lussac and
Thénard, ii, 465,473; by Proust . . . . . ii, 467.
reduction of gold and silver by. . . . . . «iv, 82.

aif

824 Lndex.

Chemical affinity, conjectures respecting . .

combination accompanied by heat.

. ii, 408.

. . . .

properties as influencing power of confining heat i, 452.

properties attributed to light . .
Chimney fire-places, Essay on (with plates) .

- iv, 75-97-
» « di, 484-558.

supplementary observations con-

cerning. 6 4 ht

Chimneys, smoking, causesof . . .. «

Cureo£ 2. ss) yitintliet is

Chinese cooking utensils . . . . « « -

lanterns, theoryof. . . . « « +
Cleanliness, importance of

substances used for. .
Coffee, art of making . . 6 1 se ete
effect OF ee ee te he
Essay on .. 2. 6 )wemleié bres
preservation of, when ground . .
when made .. .
roasting Of ©.. 6 .6 .es el eels
Coffee pots and urns (with plates)... .
Cold, noabsolute. . . . «+ wr
Colour, dependent on frequency of catloks
Coloured shadows explained . . . . + «
Colours, harmony of. . . + + « « +
Combined heat . 2. « © + 50 + ©)
Combustion of charcoal at low temperatures.
of iron in oxygen « . « + «
source of light in
Communication of heat, mode of . «+ +
Condensation of liquids on cooling. . . .
vapours, heat developed in
Conducting power of moist air . . . « -
rarefied air» + + +
Torricellian vacuum

ie . . *

ii, 485, 537°
- li, 486.
- iii, 418.

wiv, 1746
is 6 ss

- iii, 34-42, 192; 489-504.
Clothing, conducting power of substances used for .
warmth of, depends on polish of surface

i, 442-451.
ii, 97, 128.
3 . li, 201%,
iv, 623-651, 656.
eave Iv, 618, 651.)
. . « iv, 615-660.
. iv, 622.
.iv, 659.
-iv, 619.
iv, 639-651, 656.
. li, 104.

oye So! geet aly aa
ervey) > ivy aorOas
2 ie ioe ee dVy 63-9Ea
ii, 497 3 lil, 39+
. li, 365.
. i, 382.
i, 201 3 iv, 207-228.
ii, 22-130.
« Into.
ii, 417-424.
ol =\anhesnvst's i, 425.
Rey oe
i, 405-424; il, 193 5
iii, 50.

various substances, i, 434-468 ; li, 198-207 ;

iii, 43-55-

Index. 825

Conductors and non-conductors of heat . . . « ii, 275; iii, 44.
Confined air used to confine heat . . i, 401; iii, 15, 46 ; iv, 790.
Conjectures respecting harmony of colours. . . . « iv, 63-71.
Construction of kitchen fire-places and kitchen uten-
-sils, Essay on (with plates). . .1. . . « « « iii, 167-488.
Cookingatsea wilksilead by) evel te wen OO) Tale bly Rag,
for the poor, experiments on. . « . «+ .« iv, 529-549.
POMLCAI 5 gk ce oe. VS ge ae, iii; 360-373, 442-
Cooling bodies, experiments on. . . oi at A apg BSF e
of bodies covered with black paint » Le deere eae
black..varnish.. .. isuide saipeneme
SINS. 0,.d3b BOL &. SL AO se Tye SF,
gold, silverjetc. - . « ..-il, 58.
Jamp-blacleesie 3) ae oEly lo
linen. ). sie lb os cucte slevtiginiga
spirit varnish» oje)c« > sii, ddl gge
white paints 96) i eis Myorgne
of hot bodies in a cold fluid medium, law of . . ii, 32.
of liquids in vessels of porcelain, gilded and
PWN E A i sc ti a tl hw, eye a dy RAT OEROY
Pomtonnthesin: Davaria) wl.dliieoaow. . . 2 «+ 6 IV, B47 7I5.
Corn, Indian, asfood . . .. . shral tel By,4go0,466; 468:
Corrosion by contact of unlike faite 0 #8 Tenjpelovabedeol,. 350.
Cottage fire-places .. . AS ih se: ig TR BES
Covers for boilers should be double diyioltvnne te & aie hblgnct§)
Crawford’s experiments on heat developed in canine iv, 406.
— eapenen and wisdom of, as shown by his works i, 312-333,
429, 464.
Cruickshank’s analysis of ether. . . + « «© « + + + il, 397.
Crystallization of salt, instance of . «++ 6 + «+ + « «+ 1, 390
G@urrents iri the ocean .. -..- .+ vs seco tgeIEe ase + Ly 320%

DAMPERS, importance of . .. - ‘ sriimy + Wy aa, eae,
De Luc, experiments on ratio of couglaisaniicin of cooling
US 8 WG ty Se ee eee) em 0G

Dephlogisticated air. . . cig SON IUE eo +4) Ea
De Saussure’s analysis of eohok dh Fey qe Se eG 4 +e
ether (i. «ibe 3 . li, 396.

826 = Jated

Dispersionof.light ac. .. (60! ikweebbi ie a ee
by screens. 6 is isipieie wl dpa + civ, Rede

Double door for fire-places . . . « «+ « « « . © eili, 472.
windows, utilityof . . . +. + « + « iii, 46; iv, 790.
Douglas, Sir Charles, Bart., letter from . . . + . «iv, 688.
Dublin, cooking for the poor at House of Indust Pees on
Society, kitchen Of s6; +, (j6) ie) ieli(ay) alee of) 0) VM, eee

EARTHENWARE, glazing of . . . . « « + « « iii, 340,345.

Eating, pleasuresof . . . . . hice TedVe Wires
Economy of fuel . . . . . « ii, 345; Bite i, 1-165 174-190, 502.
of nature,snowin . . . ‘ ok, te ee

water ins 0% 4b 2655 313-333 ; ii, 308.

windsin. . . : os ae ae

Edinburgh, stove in Heriot’s Gosdadl: 6S eye) ea ee
Essential oils reduce gold and silver . . . 0 \e a1¥ Rog

Establishments for the poor, general principles of » iv, 327-393-
in Bavaria. . « «» « iv, 231-326.
various blanks and forms. .iv, 526,
553) 564.
proposals for forming . iv, 361-369.
Ether, ‘capacity.-of, for heat... «s/w. 0) 6, wuts ca 6) eh eee
heat developed in combustion of . . . . . « « ii, 393.
in condensation of vapour of . . . ii, 423.

Experiments on adhesion of particles of liquid to
each ‘other 6) 0!.5:\, « sicagijew st diy 290=gt%,
baking rye-bread . . . « . « « iV, 529-541.
breadth of felloes for carriage wheels . .iv, 666.

calorific and frigorific radiations from
various surfaces. . . . «. » « ii, 55~130.
cannon . . - i, 173-190.
capacity for heat of various liquids oye Ey: as
communication of heat . . . . + . li, 29, 35.

conducting power .of substances used for

Clothing. o3i'sis\- 0. +s: as 6d pre whee te
conducting power of various substances .. ii, 199.
conduction of heat in solids. . . . ii, 144-157.
cooling of bodies in air . . . . . ii, 137, 181.
In WateSiaiis: e404 ls, «dl, TBI
liquids in vessels of porcelain . ii, 241.

ea eee eee eS ee ae

Lndex.

Experiments on economy of fuel. «2s 5s
force of fired gunpowder. .

gunpowder 2. 0°) 6 es

heat developed in combustion of vari-

ous substances .

heat developed in Soaitbualiad of aeba

- il,

827

- iii, 8, 69-119.

98-172.
i, I-97.

380-407.
. li, 468.

heat developed in condensation of vapours ii, 417.

heat excited by friction .
heat, historical review of .
heat produced by solar light

laws of diminution of intensity of light
av;

light manifested in combustion
loss of light by reflection

in passing through alas
mode of propagation of heat in liquids

(with plate) BLP ae
non-conducting property of steam .
production of air from water

i,
ii,

ii,

475-488.
188-240.
. li, 158.
-iv, 19.
214-228.
« BV) 30y
“IV, 29.

278-284.
ep i ta 2
IgI—-231.

propagation of heat in fluids (with
plates) i, 250-262, 275-307, 341-358, 385-398,

425-435-
propagation of heat in a Torricellian
vacuum ... i, 407-424.
propagation of heat in various eet
substances. - i, 438-468.
quantities of moisture diisorbed iby
various substances . i, 232-236.
resistance of air to light . es \ Sa joe 1 #
specific heat of various substances . . . ii, 191.
spontaneous mixture of liquids ii, 318-323.
temperature of water at its maximum
density (with plate). ii, 258-273.
weight ascribed to heat . - ii, 1-22.
wood and charcoal. . . . . li, 362-369.
FEEDING the poor at Munich. . . «, -ANgleuy,
Essay on iv, 395-490.
Felloes, advantage of employing wheats with bioai: iv, 661-678.
Field artillery, attempts to improve. i, 173-190.
Fire, a good, in a bad grate <i Sake 347.

828 : Lndex.

Fire, management of. . . : GR wi We os iiueos
Essay on “Gwith cldtes) } el, » ili; tebe
necessity of being able to regulate. . . . . . «iii, 34.
Fire-balls -. +..4 Weise vind eis aad 6 Ml; Sayeaers
Fire-place doors .. . « eee (aa eee OS Ss
for kitchen oiler Mi ea fe Oo Hews . .heeee
Fire-places, chimney, Essay on — plais) - + + di, 484-570,
~ Chas@eh ye se. soe eB die oh 34, 193, 489-504.
cottage... Oteath y . + eill, 15%

kitchen, attempts to improve. clgeicil «Ml, 193, 8306
imperfections of . . . . . . iii, 192, 227.

Fire-places and boilers, experiments on various . . iii, 63-119.
Fixed air, use of, in blow-pipe ....... iii
Flame, attempt to shoot, instead of bullets . . « . . . i, 96.
a non-conductor of heat. '» «2 6 + . + « ili, 55.°
transparent.to light © 6.6) sie lw (si « iv, 39, 226.
Flannel, use of, for clothing. wi) s) 6, 36 wiimudemy . «5 4) Bae
Fluidity, nature Of) sijisf) le cell. ke pal eubertn
the life of inanimate nature ... 5.» . . « i, 363.

.
~
_
ay
on
\o
.

.
a

N
~
ah

Fluids, propagation of heatin .. . » «6 = h, BS9— 20m
Fluoric (Aydrofluoric) acid for etching gas <The © 4 a Voeeee
Food, Essayon .. . » + «+ « iv, 395-490.
for cattle, advantage of Soaathiee MPO is re mers ae
Force of fired gunpowder . . ... jivtteie + Ay eergae
Fordyce, experiments on weight sacha by water on
TOOTING 6a a ek ee : . «eat ae A

Friction, source of heat excited by (plates) i, gies 3 3 li, 210-221.
Frigate, proposed plan for (with plates) . . . . . iv, 680-691.
Frigorific power defined . . . . eM Spey) ow we Md RO
rays emitted from cold bodies Sle WOho! » oily 63230.

more emitted by ice than by metallic surfaces ii, 66.

réality,Of. sioad ai fedtoth dbeiow... 5 te ee

Fuel, economy. of... 2 » sips ils lee boul, 1-165, G02.

Wasteiol. <a 5-4 . J» » ol, 542; lil, 174-190, Sez.
estimated aici Of. so iksitntte ts oad act ees
Fulminating gold, explosive force of . . . . aie inl Cy ae

Fundamental principles of establishments for the es iv, 327-393.
Fur, warmth of . 5 9-9. » cet leruytehld gOS alia F2B sy Mi ee
Furnaces, portable . « 4 4s + + Sige) bt MedOR SIO, 655:

Index. 829

GALVANIC influence. ;.:.. silts in naldeitar nPheol sili 3go.
Gay-Lussac and Thénard, analysis of wood . . . . .« il, 465.
Glaciers of Chamouny, phenomenon observed on. . ii, 251-257.
= ground, not ‘Qpaqueto sinidks si eso on tee! GAVy 208,

usefulness for windows. . . . ~« « «: «iv, 176.
resmepance of, to light... “eid <: sine +: (30h Sy rae f 2

RSHGUMALOUS 7. 6. ees be Ue eve GOs
ee ARIE Uh ore AO OR yee eee eden 9S.
HERG ede sel ak eae ce Bins 382 ; iv, 80.

Grates, various . . . corso Hy a 3 lii,'35, 129, 462.
Ground glass, usefulness ie siedaued pheraerty s whey, 176,
Gunpowder, account of experiments upon . . . . ...i, I-97.

attempts to increase force of (with plates). . i, 92.
force of fired. . . i, 98-172 (with plates) ; ii, 189.

Lavoisier’s theory of . . . . . 1, 109.

Robins’s theory of... «+ i, 108, 109.
manner of inflammation . . . .-. . + » i, 376.
method of provingite s/s ult sio%) storia aster, 67.
source of heat in combustion of . . . . «ii, 189.
specific gravityof ... . iis sierieiile, 1, - OL
theories of mode of combustion of io eae, 436

BEARMONYiceyeeURS ww ke tw ww eo AV, 69-7
Plasty pudgimg, cost Of «0. - canieyis tien ait boat srpreliv, 454

Heat accompanies chemical change . . ....- + ~ li, 408.

acquired by guns upon being fired. . . . . « i, 31-39.
effect of, on force of powder. . . i, 28.

action of, in reducing gold. se se ee 6 ev, $876.
a mode of motion . i, 490; ii, 104, 114, 124, 170-184, 214.
combined ... . oneonnitey « MH, 4975 UL 30.
capacity of various liquids for oi cal coy Woe are broly qeig—43.4.
Gearca to okt. ws. chit aloes os 4c 3, 6 My ee
: sound ... .: il, 104, 114, 124, 179, 214, 222.
developed in combustion . . . . « « + + li, 370-417.
of alcohol .. «. +, «..« iisitlaney 4O7-

chatgoal | wis civ ooh ihe, 403.

830 ~ Index.

Heat developed incombustionofether . . . . . . « ii, 393.
naphtha. . .. . - li, 401.
ONS 1514) BSE 0 We aie - di) 383.

spirit of wine. . . . . ii, 387.
tallow 68 oo Se. ota
WaX-. 2 + + - li, 380. —
Wood. -» «i+ “i, 495, 468-481.
in condensation of vapours . . . . ii, 417-424.
vapour of alcohol. . . ii, 419.
ether...» «Hi, Aaa
water . . . li, 417.
excited by friction, source of . . . « i, 469-493; ii, 210.
experimental investigations concerning . . . ii, 131-165.
generated by absorption of light. . . . . . . «iv, 81.
greatest intensity of, produced by combustion . . . ii, 407.
by burning charcoal . . ii, 413.
hydrogen . . ii, 412.
historical review of experiments on. . . . . ii, 188-240.
intense, may exist unsuspected in a cold fluid . i, 367-383.
materiality of. (See also Caloric.) . . . « . ii, 103, 208.
means of increasing quantities of, obtained in com-
bustion of fuel. -. <6.ce 6 We Se ei. 6 Hh, gag
mode of manifestation . . . oS AA ee lo cea
nature of, and mode of its scmimasmbeatice (with plates) i, 488 ;
li, 22-130, 247, 497-
of steam, aa in ME its oe 6 « os di, 358-367.
passage of, through solid bodies . . . . . ii, 144-157.
a Torricellian vacuum i, 405-424 ; ii, 193 ;
iii, 50.
water impeded by certain
substances’... . » i, 253, 262.
preserved best by bright metallic surfaces . . . . ii, 126,
produced by solar light. . . . oy ah HFRS.
various combustibles, apeuiite of ae es
propagation of, in fluids . . . . . i, 237-400; ii, 253.
liquids. . . . . « «ii, 269, 274-289.
various substances. . . . i, 401-468.
quantity lost in carbonization of wood. . . . . . ii, 481.
Tadiant «+0 > on etd! ons « » « ii, 498; iii, 39.
radiated with equal facility ate ‘at metals. . . .. ii, 59.

L[hdex. Seat

Heat rays compared with rays of sound, ii, 104, 114, 124, 179, 214.
lightiie 2s) eGaRees 25.4 274.

from warm bodies of same character as from
the SIRE S55 eae ss ase a eeterey S95.
teflections Ofer SEN a aes wal RE t6Ge BF:
source of;:ihn-combustiony Sal she 2a eo oy gk.
specific, of various bodies . sibel WIS RED SAE:
steam as a vehicle of sake tite se OS Pia ey aeegay,
supported better by negroes than by whites. . ii, 77, 184.
vibratory hypotheses of nature of . . ii, 104, 114, 124, 170-
: 184, 214.
weigat ascribed tO: =. sf 6 is 8. eos « HM, Bea eee.
peernm, Strength of 25407 6 el inert a eg
Historical review of experiments on heat . . . . ii, 188-240.
Hot and cold are relative terms. . . . . . «© « « - ii, 103.
Hottentots, object in besmearing themselves . . . . . ii, 80.
House of Correction at Munich, kitchen of (with plate) . iii, 216.
House of Industry at Dublin, kitchen of. . . . . . «ili, 141.
Munich. . . Salta Te) en RARE Oke
kitchen af Joe aw bly Ba—25, 122.
Hotton, letiertrotii a eee s oe 6. Liv, 6or.

DUR eNROUTAGMOE Ss RC ST TE ae ete Th, BOT
formation of, at bottom of rivers . . . . . . «+ + i, 359.
Illumination, management of lightin. . . . . « iv, 99-205.
Illuminators (with plates). . . . . . « «© + « IV, 112, 113.
Gemealbtoonis . wk kt ee ee fe Wy FOG.
dining-rooms . . oh ULIE: Saar SS EER
Incombustible substances mixed writs fuel Jive paldiy: Saigeage:
Betta) COMMAS ss Ss se. ole. val cas be oe) ey Oe
Costiof... 4)... Vole dike =a wet, vp oes,
manner of cooking . . . . ~- + iV, 448.
pudding, receipts for .. . . . . + « + « «© «iV, 460.
Ingenhousz, experiments on air given off by vege-
fables 0° 5 (2%:.:) 60% SGN RiP 194, aoe eae.
experiments on conducting power of various
MAES SS Gp et. opi geil, shea
Inquiry concerning nature of heat (with lattes) - « «li, 23-130.
the source of heat excited by fric-
tion (with plates) . . . . ~ ii, 469-493.

832 Index,

Inquiry concerning weight ascribed toheat. ... . . ii, 1-22.
Institute of France, observations on heating the hall of iv, 79°-795-
Institution for the poor at Munich, varN and ex-
penditures .... : ‘ sv ok iv, §24, 562.
Instructions to those siidentdliing the care ack the poor . .iv, 549.
Intensities, relative, of the light emitted by luminous
bodies (with plates)... .- 6. # he I ea, Igy
Intensity of heat of combustion. . . . . . . . « «ii, 407.
Investigations concerning heat (with plate). . . ii, 131-165.
Iron, combustion of, in oxygen». . 2 ee ew ee i, 382.
for cannon 55. ce ie erg: ee a

KEMPENFELDT, Rd., letter from... . « 6 « es iv, 669.
Kindling-balls . . . . . ; e268 30 Woe ania,
Kitchen of House of indantiy Munich fviehiet SiS 0) hea aE sesRe
Military Academy, Munich . . . . « « ili, 25.

Royal Institution. . . Of ar Cu Riggs

boiler, description of nitinebait a -lii, 374.
fire-place for... .. 4. iH 2 2 eo SH, 3906
fire-places, attempts toimprove. . . . .~ iii, 193, 230.

Essay on construction of (with plates) iii, 167—

488.

imperfections of . . . . . . iii, 192, 227.

range, description and imperfections of . . . «iii, 230.

utensils for the poor. . . . . s «© «6 « iii, 432-449.
Kitchens, account of various, ii, 338 ; iii, 12-25, 121-129, 150, 203—
226 (with plates), 462-472.

proper arrangement of . . . . « «+ « ili, 198, 460.

public, establishment of .°. . «+ «+. » «iv, 409.

final cause of freshness of . .. 6 twice. eles 1, 331.
Lamp, Argand’s, compared with other sources of light . .iv, 33.
Lamps, various, description of, ii, 388, 389 ; iv, 110, 113-180 (with
plates), 216, 225.

Laundries, boilerfor .. . ods tle ioalt e° iil, T34eK4O,
Lavoisier’s experiments on heat devebipindis in com- .
bustion . . + euedens. (sty 9793 v, qeR.

theory of force of fired gunpowder. . . . ~ i, Log.

Index. 833

Law of diminution of intensity of light . . . . . « «iV, 19.
Laws ineffectual to provide for the poor. . . . « + «iV, 33%.

Leslie, question of priority with... . . ao teen 23m
Light, action of,in reducing gold .. . . «i, ‘ih, 382 ; iv, 76.
) on solutions of gold and silver . . . : .« iv, 79.
amount given by different lamps . . . . . iv, 192, 225.

lost in passing through screens. . . . «IV, 190.

glass. §. {bs TAP

analogous tosdund) 0) 8a ee ik GP ra
chemical properties attributed to . . . . . . iv, 75-97.

cost of, under different circumstances . . . . iV, 201.

dispersionof ... . : pl ets INy BOG
emitted by luminous bodies, vefative Stitisitas
ro. le vp Ree? Si 22 At eae

fluctuations an that emitted by. ee dil teepeices Jos ISR
loss of, by: reflection 0 Tiel oc cei eriaiok «IV, 305
management of, in illumination . . . . . iv, 99-205.
manifested in combustion, source of. i, 201; iv, 207-228.
method of measuring . 2. os ee eh ee Avy 3,784,
Were cw... 2 SRA, Zor 3: iv, 209, 211, 219, 222.

quantities of various substances consumed in
PrOcmeiniir 6992 Oates). al. mi EI 35h
WOICACHOMIENEE hs oy. US RUE Oh oe a PORN, TIS.
resistance of airto passageof. . . . . . + «iV, 20.
some effects of, should be ascribed to heat . . . i, 372.
Lime-kiln, perpetual . . . . . | « «iil, 153-156, 163-165.
Linen-hall, Dublin, boilerin. . . . . abd rah) ae
Liquids, adhesion of particles of, to each asker . « li, 300-317.
capacity for héatiof J a8 2.) 0s tools) aia th gay
condensation of, on cooling . . . Ae a Ege

cooling of, in vessels of porcelain, gildied iad
hot sided! Wie i tog Ret. eel aiy cease.
diffusion of . .. . SHC cles Crewe Se Te eae
mode of propagation of geaed in. . . «i, 269, 274-289.
motions in, when heated or cooled. . . . i, 244, 268.
non-conductors of heat ... . Jiitel.s 246.

(See Propagation of heat in fuids.)
spontaneous mixtureof .. . . . . . ii, 318-323.
List of Rumford’s Works .-...-.-...-.-.6ee « $0elv, 796.
Luna cornea, reduction of, by light. . . . . . . . « i, 372.
VOL. Iv. 53

834 L[hdex.

MACCARONI .. . 0 ESAT Re Safe et alge a

Majendie, Dr., letter to otal ROA re ala iy lve [andy eRe
Management of fire, etc., Essayon . . . . « . iii, 1-165.
in closed fire-places . . . . iii, 489-504.

light in illumination . . . iv, 99-205.
Means of increasing heat obtained in pounbuation of

fel. stents sete Oy owe tas So ee Eee

Measurement of light IB oy NORE IRE i

Mendicity in Bavaria, prevalence of Say rats: \F wed ted 2 gay
Mercury, evaporation Of. °%) whats) Ste ee bt gg
a non-conductorof heat . ... . . .° i, 343, 368.
propagation of heatin., . . 5 % -sdisisiienstky MMe

Mer de Glace, phenomenon observed on. . . . . « « li, 251.
Metallic vessels retain heat better than porcelain. . . . ii, 243.
Method of computing velocities of bullets . . . . . . i, 25.
determining velocities of bullets. . . . . «i, 6, 49.

proving gunpowder 5 2k sks i ey om

Military in Bavaria, condition of . . . . . . « « «iV, 233.

Military Academy at Munich . . é iv, 493-
kitchen of shi Hil a6, ace 220 (plate).

gardens in Bavaria. . . ie 0) 0 AM RSs Fae
hospital at Munich, kitchen oe . « » iii, 219 (plates).
workhouse at Munich. . .. . o peel bit tedVy BOS

Mirrors, effect of, on calorific and frigorific von a snddy S59 Ry TIBy
222.

Mixture of liquids, spontaneous. . . . ceicirye ver aie

Moisture, quantities of, absorbed by various sobstasibes « ifetdyeeaae

various species of wood ii, 455.

Motions among integrant particles of fluids, velocity of . . i, 360.

substances . . ii, 108, 180.

in liquids when heated or cooled . . . i, 244, 268, 393.
Munich, address and petition to inhabitants and citi-

zens of, in the name of the real poor, etc. iv, 508-517.

Armen-Instituts-Deputation . . « « « « iV, 252, 293.

English garden at . «)s 6 + 4 6 2 «)'« pelV¥y 500.

ditures ... J: chive MIM, (B24, SER
Institution for the Paar; various ‘Slanies and

forms 6 aces oth és, ae te AY, SROMROO Ea tue

Index. 835

Munich, kitchen of House of Correction (plate) . . . .iii, 216.
Military Academy (plate). . . . «ili, 220.

Military Hospital ies ER Se" eT ang.

Military Academy . .. . 2 SUG ARG 49 3-496.
Workhouse. . . care « (ive 293.

subscriptions for relief of die, etic ste sG2et 268, 518.

NaPHTHA, capacity of,forheat. . . . . . . » «ii, 433.
heat developed in combustion of. . . . « .« li, 4or.
Nature, explanation of interesting phenomena and
arrangements in. .. i, 262, 312-333, 429, 464; li, 129, 184, 251,
297, 310.
Nature of heat and mode of its communication . . ii, 22-130.
practical application of knowledge of . . ii, 126.
Naval architecture, Stalkartt’s, extract from . . . iv, 679-691.
Negroes bear heat better than whites. . . . ii, 77, 184.
Nitrogen, capacity of, for heat diminished by laws:
Mom-of temperatures... + Syeim a ete ee ce a Up RES, ATS
Nitrous air used in eudiometry . . . . . . « « « © I, 193-
Berconduttors of heat . eater ee) Te VA 14d

OCEAN currents. o's 606 2 es ae teak acs A YL
Oil, amount consumed by Argand’s aad ates Panes git; Ga
SP HON-COMGUCIETLOL HOAU GW )i) we ww we we SA, 342.
heat produced in combustion of . . . . . . « ~ ii, 382.
linseed, capacity for heat of . . . .. . 4 NL, 430;
quantity consumed in production of light . Nv; 38.

olive, bleached by exposure toair . . . . . « « i, 390.
capacity forheatof ... . Pe as oe

rape, quantity consumed in production of light Ge SY, See
Oils, essential, reduce gold and silver. . . . . « ~« iV, 90,91.
Oven, expense of fitting up asmall . . . . . + « ili, 244.
FOTN] POOF 4) H4te o'er RO ot 237-

perpetual... . . st wit ot aORERE oI ages
Ovens, description and ptesadent of iii, 145, 237, 240, ied Bas

PAPER, Strength of . .. . rere hr re
Passage of heat through air, manner r of ee ee

thermometer . . .-. + « « «+ «i, 334, 4393; li, 199.
Pellicle at surfaces of liquids, existence of . . . li, 292, 305, 314.

836 S Index.

Perpetual lime-kiln . . . « « « « +» iii, 153, 163 (plate).
OVEN « 5! onlin) cartels ie Pearls. ©) e | cnn ie Me
Phenomena of nature explained. . . . . . « «(See Mature.)
Phenomenon observed on glaciers of Chamouny . . ii, 251-257.
Photometer, description of (with plates) . . . . . « iv, 7-19.
simplified form of . . . . es jcits 95d L008, eee

Pictet’s experiment on conducting power of metals . * - lies
effect of mirrors on heat rays, ii, 59, 71, 119,

222.

mirrors, explanation of. . . . . ii, 115.

letter from: (extract) «05> cai y) 0 » Gece oe eee

$B 5s in oe. wi, #9. <9: SO) a

Pine-wood gives more heat than beech . .« « « « + «iii, 73.
Pleasures of eating: ...i9. fein cece betwee alone» «| N)
Polenta) 2ii:, 03. <. © paokbeonrsesayeakellio thes pane tela
Polyflame lamps . . . Peniter 6 acter ae al eases
Poor, aiding the, by pote charity 95 e:% jo elec AQ
asylum for, in Munich .... «. +... o4wimmpdnte) AVQRTOs
deplorable state of . . . « » + « «) iv, 331, 388, 392-
Essay on feeding the . . . . . «© « «+ « iV, 395-490.
establishment for the, in Bavaria . . . . . iv, 231-326,
establishments for the, general principles of .. . iv, 327-393.
general management of . . «iv, 343.

‘proper extentof ... o1V». 337%

proposals for forming . iv, i See

how to obtain assistance of public in aiding. . . «iv, 332.

laws ineffectual in providing forthe . .. . lV; 33%y
manner of relieving the, in times of general distess iv, 781.
persons, not beggars, relieved in Bavaria . . . «iv, 311.

the, should be encouraged to scien by) elim aN pe 36s
Portable boiler for field use ». » « » « © © © «© « elliiiy 132.
cooking stoves ..+ «© » » © » © #8 » « il, 416,
furnaces... . + .+ .0. sce peat ys po LO AOS Op aa

lamps « + + ippiSsee. 9 i eimesy, oe xu Ce eee aaa

Pot for cooking for the son elie apenitenie netheliaes wile
Potato-dumpling ois: -afviel 236 «he aa ge «epee eee
salads. o( wifsjpaces ea 0s opine bys 10nd eee el eee
Potatoes. . . 5. ey «tga Wishhaslke bitin Spots bo «ig Raia
cooking of rye er og Sa. 8 epi DL Mie idx ING, Aes
introduction ok into Baisia bisa ik to ce ete tis 8G AER

Index, 837

Powder of different degrees of strength, comparative value
MRE Fea eS TREE Ss fo MGS OIL. Pe ee a a ae
Priestley’s observations on air produced from water, i, 219, 221, 230.
Principles of the harmony of colours . . . . . . iv, 63-71.
Production of airfrom water. . . . . + + «© « “i, 191-231.
Propagation of heat in fluids. . . . . « « « « i, 237-400.
liquids ..-.:. . . ~ ii, 269, 274-289.
epedty ON Ree iets sais
MHGISH AIP. EOS oan we Rs
yavened dir-.-. -. ie eile age
various substances . . . . i, 401-468.
Proposals for building a frigate on a new construction . .iv, 683.
forming an establishment for the poor . iv, 361-369.
the Royal-Institution . . . . iv, 739-770.
Prospectus of the Royal Institution of Great Britain . iv, 771-785.

Providence, goodness and wisdom of, as shown by his

WOrkS’ 2. ww we et et ete I, 342-333, 429, 464-468.
Public institutions in Bavaria, short account of . . iv, 493-507.
kitchens, establishment Of 2) 0) 3 J) ea to vy 364%
Pudding, hasty .. . SU Sp TE EBS A, aay
Pyrometer, gree fdesliy?: SOO IGT DNR OY aS;

Rasriier heat SERB eee ee ote ee *e 4H, 498% iii, 39.

Radiation and conducting power, Sndection between . . ii, 59.

DOES <0 os - US é se eH gas

Radiations from different surfaces differ i in fritensity sry CRE Wc

Solid ‘bodies «6+. 00 °C SO A Sa 6s

law of calorific and frigorific. . . . . . «li, r10,

Reflections on: heat’... 6 6 fe be tee lt OP Oa 266—187.

Peetraction Of light. -. 6. a a te apes

Register-stove-. -. . oe Pein WY SDD TE a6 Rs
Report of regulations biroduced: into Electoral aren iv, 692-735.
Resistance of airtolight . .... +. . UTNE AV, MOOS
Roasters, account of... .. +... -. -. iii, 148, 2 52-266 283-314.
directions for setting . . . +... Ww Ti, 266.

management of . . 6 . « © ili, 273.
miscellaneous observations concerning. . . «iii, 278.
and ovens, best method of covering doors of . .iii, 289.

838 - Index.

Roasting ovens . . . wei ahhigell
Robins’s methods of determing ieiceitios ef bullets «3 ee
theory of combustion of gunpowder . . . . « i, 43.

force of fired gunpowder. . . . i, 108, 169.

Rooms, salubrity of warm. . . . . » «+ + « iv, 567-581.
steam-stove for warming . . . +. « + « « iii, 382.

Royal et lighting OF 0) 20°). sahisritien oe ae 2
proposals for forming. . . . « iv, 739-770.

Rumford’s works, list of _. 5 esi shies «6 5 6 0 iV, 9Q6.
Rye-bread . . . .. or alte, Sabla yee ee le Ge avy eee
experiments on balling 2 6 oe (el el iv, 529-54.

SAFETY-VALVES for steam-boilers . . . . . .« ii, 332; iii, 486.
Salt, crystallization of). .4/). «sy aad b tie ie eenbgeme
Salt-fish, cooking of . o.6:i6 4 )s) @heiwe is menos eles
Salubrity of warm bathing . Cite «0. 0. eliv, 583-694.
rooms in cold socitaaias 2 + «©» iv, 567-581.
Sap, theory of its not freezing in winter. . . . . . . i, 263.
and air in trees and seerwoods. . . . wih AR
Saucepans and stewpans, construction of . . iii, 348-3 59 369.
Scheele’s theory of light produced in combustion. . . . i, 201.
Sea, cooking at .. 2:66 edb gee Le el de ee Veto SHR eae
final cause of saltness Of « . 6 6 a eae» «6 i, 326.
Semen Lycopodii, conducting power of. . . . . « . « i, 454.
Senebier’s experiments on effects of light . . . . . . i, 369.
Shadows, experiments upon coloured . . . . . « . iv, 49-62.
influence of, on distinct vision. . . . . . «iv, 105.
Silver reduced, by. charcoal’. {2 i.) si stbhd Pade. a wisi, -8&
essential oilsres is Sec eataclecioanik wiv io
horn, reduced by light... 2.66 66 ee ees wildy BIB
Silvering of ivory... 5068 eee Lae ae we Le ee
Smoke, catiseof ascent.of 2. 6 6.8 6S ae se ne Coe eae
Smoke-jacks, observationson .-. . . 6 «© « « « «iii, 227.
Smoking chimneys, cause of . . . . « . . « « iii, 485, 537.
GNIE GE! aos Ce eat ae ORR
Snow in economy of nature . . . 2. . es ss es i, 464.
Soap, use of steam-heat in making. . . so hy gg
Society for Bettering the Condition of the Baad etc., com-
munications with... 6 6 ee 6 6 ew we wiv, 751

Index. 839

Solution, conjectures respecting. . . . . . . « 4, 346-354.
Soup establishments. . . ... . ; wleayteMly Sa
Soups, preparation of . . - « « lil, 329; iv, 401, 422, 484.
prepared in House of Siduntey; Munich)... 's ah 4¥; 443
FeMAarks about .6 6 ce vee ve es
why liked in Frances. ics etree (101 ol en er Pat ELL 3 3Si
Source of the heat excited by friction. . . . . . i, 469-493.
light manifested in combustion . . . iv, 207-228.
metic ptavity of punpowder f).) ai) es ie es says BO ere yes
solid parts of wood. . . « © «+ « ii, 437-
heat of various bodies . . . .. . . . « . ii, 19%.
Spheroidal state . . . Wriramicr ieee
Spirit of wine, capacity of, for ied état 5iten ae: Se) ne
heat produced in combustionof. . . . . ii, 387.
Spontaneous mixture of liquids . . . . . . . . « «ii, 318.
Spring-water deficient in oxygen ....... oly ats
Stalkartt’s Naval Architecture, extract from. . . . iv, % Crp hoe
Standard candle for photometry. . . . . . . iv, 17, 187, 213.
Steam as a vehicle for transporting heat... . . . ii, 324-344.
a non-conductorio£ heatireaijidi\)ey ce ice a) Sos vii) yp gas
RUNESDEAE S. a SOT. ie ee
usediin. cooking.) 3 as.2s 3 * i, nas ili, 360-373, 442.
GistillatiOnn. tives. 8s eee se Fi, 3433 iv, 78q.

dye-houses. . . . oh Tet i eirrtar lly 38a

heating»!. «215° ii, 3 73 3 iii, bea 479; iv, 790.

making glue .. . éhatiwe cy ave

Making soapi se.) 6 ayy s ide .«/ 359s

Steam stove .. . Bite Face: diltey Ps ahh, 382s :1vy For
tubes, advantage hi COVEN. woe So Sp aea
metallic, method of joining . . ea > UbpragSte

Stewpans. .. . aitipetai 1: CSRe Boilers and Saucepans.)

Stimulation, nature * physical ys). oe ec ee
movies) AaerMan Sis fees: cre er) oh we atten Veal de Serie 9 gos
BOTIaDIS LOOKING oa eo Glew a Scie eile wis
PAgISter! ce ie ho eee we! el Berne de MU g38Org9g¢

SEAM se 5 Sb Stare» is baile teed Se suivowem
Strength of various bodies Fide ele ho ENR Sao ean
Structure of wood, inquiries into . . . - . ii, 435-483.

Subscriptions for the poor in Munich ._ iv, 2 ies 268, 379, 518-523.
Supplementary observations on chimney fire-places . ii, 559-570.

840 Index,

Supplementary observations on closed fire-places. . iii, oe
Suspension of heavy bodies of small-size on the sur-
face’of water 66 (6: wits tee ese ee ne Leh STO TA GGG 303:

TABLE illuminator ohwhingl Gash 5 « oe sao Lav ae

Tallow, heat developed in pabibusiiohs of ots SO do Oa aoa

quantity consumed in production of light. . . viv, 37.

Tea-kettles, construction of . . . . ole we ili, 420-426.

Temperature of water at maximum lexis vie 2 ll 2gBeayge

uniform, at bottom of deep lakes. . . . . ii, 253.

Thénard and Gay-Lussac, analysis of wood. . . . « « ii, 465.

Thermometer, air, most reliable measure of.temperature . ii, 157.
indicates mean temperature of contiguous

particles: 480 ns lim Te WO 6 ae

not a measure of sensible heat of bodies . . i, 434.

eo various, description of, i, 247, 334 (plate), 373) 404.

(plate), 406, 410, 418, 438, 439; ii, 24, 193, 199,

226, 229; iv, 736, 738.

Torricellian. vacuum, conducting ._power of, i, 405-424 ; ii, 193;

iii, 50.

Transmission of heat, mode of . . . . + « «+ ii, 247-249.

-(See also Propagation of heat.)

Transparency of flame... . a ate AVES BBs

Transparent fluids (with reference to heat) defined bbe oaks OR

Trees, quantity of air and -sap in, at different seasons . . ii, 445.

Turpentine, spirits of, capacity for heat of . . . . . .« ii, 434.

iciif and silver reduced by. . «. iv, go

thera Srirus, desostpiaine of gun presented to . .. . i, 177.
Usury at Munich, measures for eS anendto..... «iv, 503.

VacuuM,. Torricellian, conducting. power of, .i, 405-424; ii, 193;

iii, 50.
Vapours, haat devalobeds in bendienahon of . « «© ii, 417-424.
wekacities of bullets, method of computing ....... . . i, 25.

detairatiiene i niece ebies So ane
relation of, to the charges of powder
employed .0. « 30S Matter eon

relation of, to their welhes oh he ele ygs

Index. 841

Velocities of integrant particles of fluids. . . . + + «+ i, 360.
Ventilation:of swarm TOOMS) 14 Aayoe ier weirs wire se oe dt, 488.
Verona, kitchens in hospitals at, iii, 125, 126, 213 (plate) ; iv, 324.
DOOETOE . ante oe gy «58! see te The3 Me Bloated. 328
Viscosity, effect of, on propagation of heat i in liquids ec lyf hth “B87.
Of water. fee oe tee ee ease 1 HBG, 208, 318.

Vision, circumstances favourable to distinct . .. . «iv, 104.
Vital principle, conjectures respecting the '. . . «. « « i, 363.
Voluntary subscriptions for the relief of the poor. . iv, 518-523.

Warn bathing, salubrity of . 2. 2.0. 2 6 « «iV, 583-613.
rooms, salubrity of . . » . « 6 + » « iv, 567-581.
Warmth of substances used for clothing. . . . i, 442; ii, 201.
depends on polish of surface ii, 97,128.

Measte OF Taek setae Sag. SM Saas 1G 174-190, 502.
Water, adhesion of particles of, to each other . . . ii, 290-317.
amount attracted from the air by various woods . . ii, 455.

contained in seerwoods . . . fog. eee
a non-conductor of heat. (See Propanetion of heat in fuids.)
apparent increase of weight on freezing. . . . Mis’ <a
expands on freezing . . . . sie a) te See ae 310.

heat developed in condensation of vapour of . . . ii, 417.

in economy of nature . . . . 1, 263, 313-333; ii, 308.

in food, part played by . . . «. « . le teeR Oos

lack of perfect fluidity of . . . . ii, 286, 298, 302, 315-

loss ofdtese when freezing ...0 60 0 «6 «o's HEE,
OUMRIIIEOGS. 0 ad. oe ceric Sao GSES Thy tom
progucton or airfrom . « «eee 6) e Ly FQIH231s
specific quantity of latent heatin. . . . . . . ili,’ 16.
temperature of, at its maximum density. . . ii, 258-273.

Wax and tallow candles compared ... . . » « «iV, 200.
heat developed in combustion of . . . . . « .« ii, 380.
Weight ascribed to heat . . . . . 6 6 «© «© « ii, I-22, 209,
Wheels, broad felloes for . « . . « + « «. « Iv, 661-678,
Wicks, bestifcnmiei. Ge. ww FOO) 2 OR ie eye
PRODATAUCD Ge Ge ce CE RE Bae
Windows, double, utility of . . . . . . « « iii, 46; iv, 790.
use of ground glassin «.. «©. 6 « © « ef, 196

Winds, conjectures respecting the proximate causesof . .« i, 394.
service of, in economy of nature. . . . - + «+ i, 464.

842 Index.
:
Wood, amount of air in’ 5004) s.r Rea
moisture attracted by various species of . ii, 455.
and charcoal, new experiments upon . . . ii, 362-369.
dry, amount of waterin. . ... . 6 TES ae
heat developed in combustion of . . . «ii, 405, 468-481.
lost in carbonization of -.. -. -.-. %. « « il, 48%
how converted into charcoal . . - ‘aa
quantity of charcoal obtained isu) different kinds ;
Of! os ce bye eed Ry ed grt Sr ee
specific gravity of solid parts of . . . « + « « li, 437-
Wool, explanation of warmthof . . . . + « i, 462; iii, 46.

Cambridge: Press of John Wilson & Son,
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| Q Rumford, (Sir) Benjamin
| 113 Thompson

| R89 Complete works

_ 1876

| ve5

P&A Sci,

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